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 INTRODUCTORY TEXT -BOOK 
 
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 tftr* Ht.-^ ♦'« 
 
 BASED ON GRAMMATICAL SYNTHESIS. 
 
 BV 
 
 WALTER SCOTT DAI.GLEISII, M.A. EDIN. 
 
 ? 
 
 LATK EXOIilSU MASTKfl IN TIIK LONDON IXTERNATIONAIi COIiLEGK, 
 AUTHOR OF "THK PROGHESSIVE ENGLISH ORAMMAU," " URAM.MATICAL ANALYSIS," ETC'. 
 
 PRE-SCRIBED BY THK roFNClT. OF PuBIJC iNSTRrCTION FOR USE IN THIS 
 
 Public Schools in Nova Scotia. 
 
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 A. k W. MACKINLAY. 
 
 1883, 
 
Entered according to Act of ParJiamcnt of Canada, in the yeat 1883, 
 
 By OijvER & Boyd, 
 In the OfHce of the Minister of Agricidture, Ottawa. 
 
 1406 
 
 I'lHNlEl) )jV nil; NOVA SCUTIA ruiK'JISH I U, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Tuifl Book is intended as a sequel to the ordinary Text-Books 
 on English Grammar and Analysis. It takes up the subject 
 where analysis leaves it; and as its method is synthetical 
 throughout, its processes form the natural and necessary com- 
 plement to those of analysis. 
 
 The process of grammatical Synthesis which forms the funda- 
 mental peculiarity of the work (vide § 55, et seq.), will he found 
 to difter widely from the so-called synthesis hitherto in use. 
 This latter process, which is little else than the conversion of a 
 series of similar simple sentences into one complex or compound 
 sentence, corresponds rather with what in the following pages 
 is termed Contraction (§ 31), — an exercise which, however useful 
 incidentally, neither requires great skill, nor conduces to much 
 niental exertion. This work, on tiie contrary, aims at making 
 the building up of sentences by Synthesis, as exact and useful 
 a discipline as the breaking down ot sentences by Analysis is 
 now admitted to be. Accordingly, in the following exercises, — 
 especially will this be noticed in those on complex and comj ouiid 
 sentences, — each element in the data has a specific function to 
 perform ; so that if the sentence, constructed according to the 
 
* PREl'ACE. 
 
 given formula, were to be again analyzed, the relations of its 
 fliiusos and parts would be the same as those in the formula. 
 It is in this sense that the Synthesis here proposed forms the 
 exact counterpart of grammatical Analysis. The process, it 
 may be added, is simjdy that cf nature reduced to a system ; 
 for there is no one wlio, in making a sentence, does not, how- 
 ever unconsciously, go through the same process of considering 
 and combiiiing the items of thought of which it is to be cora- 
 [)osed. It is hoped that, by this method, the teaching of 
 Knglish Composition,— hitherto the least systematic, and when 
 professing to be systematic the least profitable, of school subjects, 
 — may be rendered as valuable an instrument of mental training 
 as English Grammar has of late become. 
 
 A glance at the Table of Contents will show that this 
 synthetic character has been maintained throughout the entire 
 work. It requires Words to be built into Sentences ; sentences 
 into Paragraphs; and (in the "Advanced" volume) paragraphs 
 into Themes. While this general outline has been adhered 
 to, the usual details and applications of composition have not 
 been omitied, but have been systematically wrought into the 
 plan of the work. Thus the often meaningless and loose exercise 
 of filling up "elliptical sentences" has, under the head of ^w. 
 largement (§ 33), been employed as a test both of thought and 
 of grammatical knowledge. Transposition has been applied to 
 tlic change from the Direct to the Indirect form of speech, which 
 in classical schools may, in some measure, prepare the pupils for 
 uiKlerstfmding the diOiculties of the " oratio obUquar Punctuation 
 is treated of in connexion with each kind of sentence, separately. 
 
PllEFACE. 5 
 
 In the present Edition (the sixth), Part I., on the Sentence, 
 has been remodelled, and simplified in those particulars in which 
 it was found, from practical experience, to present unusual 
 difficulties. Part II., on the Paragraph, has been entirely re- 
 written. Here also the method of procedure has been very much 
 sinjplified, especially in the direction of aiding the pupil by 
 supplying outlines of the Exercises which he has to write under 
 each kind of composition. 
 
 In former editions of the work. Reflection w^s given after 
 Narration and Description, as the third kind of composition. 
 The author has seen cause to abandon this division of the sub- 
 J ject as inadequate, especially as it is difficult in practice to 
 
 I separate Reflection from the other two kinds of writing referred 
 
 to. He has therefore adopted from Professor Bain the term 
 Exposition as more accurately descriptive of that kind of com- 
 position which deals with abstract subjects. 
 
 The author has further transferred to the chapter on Exposition 
 the exercise known as Paraphrasing, believing that, in the case 
 of young pupils, the Expanded Paraphrase is the best and 
 simplest form in which the thought of a writer can be explained 
 and amplified. 
 
 The present volume closes with Summary, or Precis Writing, 
 an exercise which, as implying both analysis and synthesis, stands 
 appropriately between the Paragraph and the Theme. 
 
 The chapter on the Selection of Words has been postponed to 
 the " Advanced " volume, where it is incorporated with a new 
 part treating of Style in its higher aspects. Whatever it is 
 important for pupils to know on this subject at the initiatory 
 
stage 1ms been retained in the chapters on the " Pnncii)lc3 
 of Construction," applied both to the Sentence and to the 
 Paragrii})h. 
 
 'i'hough the Tlicmc or Essay is not systematically treated of 
 ill the present volume, the exercises in the later eha))ters, en the 
 raragvaph, are really short Essays, such as are usually prescribed 
 in Sciiouls, and are fully adequate to test the powers of originRl 
 coniposltion of pupils in all but the moet advanced clasaoa. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 rXTRODUCTrON', 
 
 PAIIT I.-STUUCTUUC OF Si:y^'^ENCES. 
 
 Cl'.APlXli I.— ri;r.MM!NA»V I)KriNlT10.\S AND rilOCEBPCS, . 
 
 1. F.xpaiision, ,,,,.•• 
 
 '*, (\intr;ietion, •«•••• 
 
 3. Ijilnrgc.niciit, , j . . . • 
 
 4. Substitution, 
 
 5. Transpusition of I'ro«;o, .... 
 
 „ of Verse, . • . • 
 
 „ of Direct and Indirect Speech, 
 
 6. rnnctimtion of tlic Simple Sentence, . 
 
 „ of tlic Complex Sentence, 
 
 „ of the Compound Scutenco, « 
 
 ^ II. — rmNCiri-Es OF Construction, . . • • 
 
 ,^ in. — SVNTIII:S1S OF SlMl'LK SENTENCES, . . • • 
 
 ^^ IV. — Synthesis of Complex Sentences, . . . 
 jj V. — Synthesis of Comi'ound Sentences, • • , 
 „ VI. — OiuGiNAL Sentences, ...••« 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 Ki 
 14 
 10 
 
 18 
 ^J 
 20 
 21 
 
 2:> 
 
 27 
 28 
 S3 
 
 sr, 
 
 41 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 PART II.— THE STRUCTURE OF PARAGRAniS. 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 
 fi.lB 
 
 ;b I. — PnixciPLES OF (IIokstruction, • • . • 
 
 47 
 
 11.— Nauration, 
 
 49 
 
 1. Incidental Narration, 
 
 5! 
 
 2. Letter- Writing • 
 
 54 
 
 3. Historical Narration, 
 
 57 
 
 4. Biographical Narration, , , • • 
 
 51) 
 
 III.— Descrii'tion, 
 
 63 
 
 1. Common Things, •*•••. 
 
 Gr> 
 
 2. Natural History, 
 
 66 
 
 3. Physical Appearances, . , . . , 
 
 G8 
 
 4. Remarkable Places, 
 
 70 
 
 IV,— Exposition, . . „ 
 
 72 
 
 1. Exposition of Propositions, or Paraphrase, , , 
 
 72 
 
 2. Exposition of Terms, ,..,., 
 
 76 
 
 T,— SUMMABT, OB Ps£OIS, •••••• < 
 
 . 79 
 
 ■ 
 
INTEODUCTOEY TEXT-BOOK 
 
 0» 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. The Art of Composition is regulated by the laws of Rhe- 
 toric, which, in its widest sense, is the science of tlie Expression 
 of Thought. It will readily be understood that Rhetoric can- 
 not supply us with thoughts : these the mind must originate for 
 
 itself, or gather from the various sources within its reach, 
 
 as observation, reading, reflection. When, however, any one 
 is possessed of information, or convinced of truths, which he 
 wishes to communicate to others, the science of Rhetoric points 
 out to him the best methods of arranging, dressing, and giving 
 out his material. 
 
 2. The most general division of the subject gives us two forms 
 of Composition — • 
 
 I. Composition in Prose. 
 II. Composition in Vekse. 
 
 3. A complete prose composition is in the following treatise 
 called a Theme. The divisions of a Theme, each of which is 
 devoted to a special part of the subject, arc called Paragraphs. 
 And every Paragraph is made up of Sentences. Hence there 
 are three distinct steps in the art, requiring separate treatment : 
 
 1. How to construct single Sentences^ so as to give the best 
 
 ex})ression to every single thought. 
 
 2. II ow to combine sentences into Paragraphs^ so as io 
 
 eive the best expression to a connected series of thouglits. 
 
 3. How to combine paragraphs into a Theme, so as to give 
 
 tlic best exposition of a whole subject. 
 
10 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 4. TIic first and second of these stops, — 
 
 I. The Stuuctuue of Skntences, 
 II. The Stuucture of PAUAGiiAriis, 
 are treated of in the presenf work. 
 
 The Structure of Themes, and Versification, are reserved for the Advanced 
 Tcxt-Uook, which forms a sequel to the present voiumo. 
 
 TART I.— THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 Chapter I.— Preliminary Definitions and Processes. 
 
 5. A Sentence is a complete thought expressed in words. 
 
 6. Tlie essential terms of a sentence,— that is, the parts with- 
 ont which no complete thought can be expressed,-— are the 
 Subject and the Predicate. 
 
 7. The Predicate is that part of the sentence which makes a 
 statement (verb) about something. 
 
 8. The Subject names (noun) the thing about which the 
 statement is made. 
 
 9. The essential terms of a sentence may be thus subdivided :— 
 
 Predicate. ^ 
 
 Verb. I Complement. ) Adverbial? 
 
 • 10. The Complement includes everything that completes the 
 sense of an Incomplete Verb.* 
 
 11. Tlic Complement of Transitive Verbs is called the Object^ 
 
 because it names the object or receiver of the action expressed 
 
 by the verb.-j- 
 
 {n) f^ome Transitive Verb.'? require a <=ecmianry complement, as well 
 as the direct object ; as, The people miule William (obj.) /urn; (coitip.). 
 
 12. These terms are of thre^^ degrees ; each of them may 
 be, \st, a AV^ord; 2c7, a Phrase; Sd, a Clause. 
 
 13. A Phrase^ or element of the second deorree, is a form of 
 words containing no subject or predicate; as, Spring reiunrinj. 
 
 Subject. 
 Attribute. I Noun. 
 
 * 8ee " Tip. Proqrcssive Piifillsh Grammar^' Pi 22. 
 f For a fuller ex'positiun ol" the (UviKlons of the Sentence, see tlio author's 
 " Grammaikul Analysis.'"' 
 
 i' 
 
T 
 
 STRUCTURE OP SExNTENCES. 
 
 11 
 
 14. Phrases are of three kinds, named according to the func- 
 tions they perform in sentences, viz. : — 
 
 Is^, Substantive Phrase = a noun. 
 ?.cl, Attributive Phrase = an adjective, 
 'ddj Adverbial Phrase = an adverb. 
 
 15. A Clause^ or clement of the third degree, is a member 
 of a^ sentence whicli contains a subject and predicate within 
 itself; as, When spiking returns. 
 
 16. A Principal chausc contains a leadlnj]^ and independent 
 statement ; that is, expresses by itself a complete thought. 
 
 (rt) In tabular aualj-sis, principal clauses are repveseuted by capital 
 letters, A, B, C, D, etc. 
 
 17. A Subordinate clause explains some part of a principal 
 clause. 
 
 (rt) Tt is represented by a small letter corresponding^ with tliat of 
 its principal clause, a, &, c, d, etc. The diflerent degrees of subordin- 
 ation are expressed by algebraic indices, a\ (fi, «», etc. ; their order 
 within the same degree by co-efficients, la}, 2a^ 3ttS etc. 
 
 18. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are of three kinds, named 
 according to the functions they perform in sentences, viz. ; — 
 
 Is/, Substantive Clause = a noun. 
 f ScZ, Attributive Clause = an adjective. 
 
 3<i, Adverbial Clause = an adverb. 
 
 19. Sentences are classified, according to the number, and 
 the relations of their predicates, into Simple^ Complex^ and 
 Compound. 
 
 20. A Simjile sentence has only one subject and predicate : 
 and is indicated by a single letter, A ; as, " At day-break, all 
 fears weri: dispellcd." 
 
 21. A Complex sentence has only one principal predicate, 
 with one or more subordinate clauses, A, a^ ; as, " As soon as 
 morning dawned^ all fears were dispelled." 
 
 22. A Compound sentence has more than one principal clause, 
 each of which may have any number of subordinate clauses, 
 A, a\ 15, h\ etc. ; as, "As soon as morning dawned^ all fears 
 WERE DISPELLED ; arid we saw the land, for which we had so 
 ea^jcrly watched^ within a few leagues of us." 
 
 i 
 
 1: 
 
\ 
 
 12 
 
 COMPOSITION II? PKOSn. 
 
 4. Causative, 
 
 23. In a componnd sentence, a principal clause, with its own 
 subordinates, forms a complex clause ; as A, a\ in the last 
 example. 
 
 24. Co-ordinate clauses are those which are independent of 
 each other, or have a common dependence on a superior clause. 
 
 25. Co-ordination is of four kinds : — 
 
 1. Copulative, , expressed hy and, signified by -j- 
 
 2. Alternative, . ... or, ... — 
 
 3. Antithetical, , ... but, ... X 
 
 f ... therefore, ... .•. 
 
 i ... Jr c^r, • • • . 
 
 28. Fundamental Law : — Every sentence must contain at 
 
 Itast one inclfpcndcnt Predicate. 
 
 A form of words may contain severnl snbjects and predicateg, and yet 
 not be a sentence ; as, " Tliat ho had frequently visited the city in which 
 lie was born," — which, though containinp^ two distinct predicates, is not 
 a sentence. The connective " tliat" implies the dependence of the clause 
 it introduces upon some other clause, as ** lie said," " I have heard," " It 
 is true." Hence the essential predicate must be independent. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 Complete such of the following expressions cts are not 
 
 sentences : — 
 
 1. A design which has never been completed. 2. The honour of hav- 
 ing been the first to welcome His Royal Highness. 3. The author 
 having suddenly died, and left liis work unfinished. 4. No sooner was 
 William seated on the throne, tlian seeming to hare lost all his former 
 popularity. 5. Jle is taller, stronger, wiser. 6. That the king was 
 Ignorant of the real ciicumstanccs; that he had not examined the war- 
 rant which ho had signed, and was therefm'e not responsible for tho 
 proceeding. 7. The Prince, wlien he saw the hopelessness of his cause, 
 turned and fled. 8. 'J'he artist biding of opinion that a national recog- 
 nition, through intelligible synilwls, of the great pnnciplcs by which 
 the patriot was actuated from first to last, is the only fitting way to do 
 honour to his memory. 9. For which reasons I shall endeavour to en- 
 liven morality with wit, and to temper wit with monility. 10. Tho 
 most illustricms benefactors of the race being men who, having risen to 
 great truths, have held them as a sacred trust for their kind, and havg 
 bmne witness to them amidst general darkness. 11. Seeing tliat Hia 
 varnish of jKuvcr brings forth at once the defects and the bcnntii'S of tljj 
 biiiMMn ptrtrait, 12. How nnich less in them tU(\t dwell in bouses of cJ -'y, 
 \\ iiobc foundation is iu the dust 
 
 I 
 
STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Expansion. 
 
 13 
 
 27. An clement of' a sentence is said to be expanded when 
 it is changed from a word to a phrase, or from a phrase to a 
 clause, without introducing any new idea ; as, 
 
 1. A prudent man is respected. Is/ degree^ word. 
 
 ^2. A man of prudence do. 2d piikase. 
 
 3. A msLii who is prudent do. 3c? clause. 
 
 The expansion of an element often necessitates a change in its attribute j 
 as, A very prudent man = A man of great prudence. 
 
 28. In expansion, each word to be expanded must be changed 
 into its corresponding phrase^ or clause; a noun into a Sub- 
 stantive phrase, or clause; an adjective, into an Attributive 
 plirase, or clause ; an adverb into an Adverbial phrase, or 
 clause. 
 
 29. The proper connecting particles to introduce phrases are 
 prepositions; e.g.^ 
 
 1. Substantive Phrase. — This is generally an Infinitive; as 
 
 To extend human happiness is the aim of the philan- 
 thropist, = the extension of human happiness. 
 
 2. Attributive Phrase. — He was a man of great learning^ = 
 
 a very learned man. 
 
 3. Adverbial Phrase. — He acted with judgment^ ^=i judiciously. 
 
 But many phrases have no connecting particles ; as His being ruined 
 (ruin) was the cause of his death ; Winter ajyproacldng (on the approach of 
 winter), he returned to town. 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 
 Expand the words printed in italics in the following sentences 
 into phrases : — 
 
 1. The girl sang siceethj. 2. Lying is one of the meanest of vices. 
 3. The grateful mind loves to consider the bounties of Providence. 4. 
 Walking is conducive to health. 5. Very brave soldiers fell at Bannock- 
 burn. G. The husbandman's treasures are renewed yearly. 7. Cromwell 
 acted sternly and decidedly when it was necessary to do so. 8. Error is 
 hiiman; forgiveness, divine. 9. Idleness prevents our true happiness. 
 10. Dehfif is always dangerous. 11. His indolence was the cause of hia 
 luin. 12. Lconidas fell gloriously at Thermopylae. 
 
14 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PIIOSE. 
 
 I. Substantive, 
 stating, 
 
 II. Attributive 
 describing, 
 
 30. The proper connectives to introduce clauses arc the sub- 
 ordinative conjunctions, and relative pronouns; e.g.^ 
 
 1. A Fact — that, what, "why, how. 
 
 2. An Alternative — wlietlicr, or. 
 
 3. A Contingency — if. 
 
 1. A Person — wlio, that. 
 
 2. A Thing— which, that. 
 
 3. A Place — where, wherein. 
 
 4. A Time — when, whereat. 
 
 I. Place. . Where, whither, whence. 
 II. Time. , When, while, whenever. 
 
 ( 1. Likeness — as, as if. 
 III. Manner. ■< 2. Comparison — as (much) as, than, 
 (3. Effect— (so) that. 
 
 1. Reason — because, since. 
 J 2. Purpose— (in order) that, lest (neg.). 
 
 3. Condition — if, unless (neg.). 
 
 4. Concession — though. 
 
 III. Ad 
 
 vcrbial of 
 
 IV. Cause. 
 
 Exercise 3. 
 
 Expand the words printed in italics in the following sentences 
 into clauses : — 
 
 1. Quarrelsome persons are despised. 2. Wc manure tlie fields to male 
 them fruilful. 3, The manner of his escape is a pi'ofound mystery. 4. 
 {Some persons believe ihe planets to be inhabited. 5. Truli/ wise philosophers 
 nre even rarer than verjj learned scholars. 6. He answered contemptuously, 
 he'ievinr/ himself to hare been insulted. 7. No one doubts ihe roundness of 
 ihe earth. 8. His gnilt or innocence is still uncortam. 9. With patience, 
 lie might have succeeded. 10. The people, seeing so many of their towns- 
 people fall, were exasperated beyond all sense of danger, il. The battle 
 hacivji been concluded, the general began to estimate his loBS. 12. The 
 barricade being forced, the crowd immediately rushed out. 
 
 2. Contraction. 
 
 31, This process is the converso of expansion, and may be 
 performed, — 
 
 1. By converting a principal into a subordinate clause ; g.^ 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 15 
 
 The sea spent its fury, and then became calm. (Con- 
 tracted) When the sea had spent its fury, it became cuhn. 
 
 2. By converting a subordinate clause into a phrase ; as, Tlie 
 
 sea, having spent its fury, became calm. 
 
 3. By converting a phrase into a single word; as, The 
 
 exhausted sea became calm. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 Contract the following; Compound into Complex sentences: — 
 
 1. He descended from his throne, ascended the scaffold, and said, '* Live, 
 incomparable pair." 2. I took them into the garden one summer morning, 
 and showed them two young apple-trees, and said, " My eliildren, I give 
 you these trees." 3. The light infantry joined the main body, and the 
 enemy retired precipitately into Lexington. 4. Just give me liberty to 
 speak (condition), and I will come to an explanation with you. 5. lie 
 was a worthless man (cause), and therefore could not be respected by his 
 subjects. G. He arrived at that ver}' moment (negative condition), or I 
 BhoLiId inevitably have perished. 7. Egypt is a fertile country, and is 
 watered by the nver Nile, and is annua lly inundated by it. 8. It thus 
 receives the fertilising mud which is brought by the stream in its course, 
 and derives a richness from the deposit which common culture could not 
 produce. 9. Thomas a Bccket completed his education abroad, and 
 returned to England; he eutcred the church, and rapidly rose to the 
 grade of Archdeacon, 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 
 Contract the following Complex into Simple sentences: — 
 
 1. As he walked towards the bridge, he met his old friend the captain. \\ 
 
 2. When he had spoken for two hours, the member resumed his seat. :?' 
 
 3. The ground is never frozen in Palestine, as the cold is not severe. {u 
 
 4. The choice of a spot which united all that could contribute either to 1] 
 health or to luxury, did not require the partiality of a native. 5. There j 
 are many injuries which almost every man feels, though he does not 
 complain. 6. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. 7. Croinwell ^ 
 followed little events before he ventured to govern great ones. 8. Wl^cn i 
 darkness broke away, and morning began to dawn, tlie town wore a strange 
 aspect indeed. 9. After he had suppressed this conspiracy, he led his 
 lr)«)p3 into Italy. 10. The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not 
 wings in proportion to its body. 
 
 f?3. Contraction may also be performed by omitting, in a 
 ooinpomul sentence, elements common to different clauses; as, 
 
 '% 
 
IG 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PPOSr. 
 
 Wellington was a grc.it general, and Mail borough also was a 
 great general : (Contracted) Wellington and Mailboiough were 
 great generals. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 Contract the following sentences^ ly omill'ing elements common 
 to different clauses : — 
 
 1. Plato was a great pliilosopher, and Aristotle also was a great 
 pln!()SO])hcr. 2. Death does not spare the rich, and as little does death 
 ftirget the poor. 3. In his family he was equally dignified and gentle, in 
 his oflice he was equally dignified and gentle, in puhiic life, also, he was 
 equally dignified and gentle. 4. The hyena is a fierce animal, the hyena 
 is a solitary animal, and the hyena is found chiefly in the desolate parts 
 of the torrid zone. 5. Haptism is a sacrament of the Christian Church, 
 and the J^ord's Supper is a sacrament of the Christian Church. 6. The 
 Gun shines on the good, and the sun shines equally on the bad. 7. Of all 
 vices, none is more criminal than lying; of all vices, none is more mean 
 than lying; .and of all vices, none is more ridiculous than lying. 8. Alfred 
 was wise, and Alfred was good ; Alfred was a great scholar (not only), and 
 Alfred was one of tlie greatest kings whom the world has ever seen. 
 
 3. Enlargement 
 
 33. An element of a sentence is said to be enlarged when 
 there is added to it a new word, phrase, or clause, expressing an 
 additional idea ; e.g., — 
 
 1. (Simple) A prudent man is respected. 
 
 2. (Enlarged) A prudent man is most respected by hk fellows 
 when he is also gerierous. 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 Enlarge the following sentences hy the addition of words or 
 phrases: — 
 
 1. Alexander was the son of Philip . 2. years have 
 
 pasFcd away (phrase of time). 3. Kobert Bruce , died in 1329 
 
 . 4. I Inve you ever considered the wonderful structure ? 5. The 
 
 p(MnM'nl resolved to give battle {dative coniplemerd), (time). 6. The 
 
 iiia~ter accused his clerk {(jenitive cowplement), and the juilge sentenced 
 
 him {iiijihitire conipUnicni). 7. He resides {phice) {time), and 
 
 goes (place) (time). S. '] he earth moves rouad the sun 
 

 STKUCTUIIE OF SENTENCES. 17 
 
 is concluded, we sliall know {altiriiative). 5. We believe , aiul 
 
 . 0. It has often been observed . 7. is liglit. 8. After 
 
 the accident, the children gathered round their father, and asked 
 
 {cnntiv(fcnt). 9. He complains uf our being late, but he did not tell us 
 
 jnent has offered a reward for the rebel {concesdon). 6. He will 
 
 succeed {condition). 7. He would have succeeded (condition). 
 
 8. He will have succeeded before next May, (condition). 9. He will 
 
 not succeed {'•ovdifion, neqativebj and affirmativehj). 10. He would 
 
 not have succeeded {condition, negatively and afjirmativehj). 11. The 
 
 evils of war arc greater (comparison). 12. The king fitted out an 
 
 expeditiou {concession) (purpose). 
 
 H 
 
 'I 
 
 ! 
 
 . 9. The ship sot sail (nhnohte pJirase). 10. Bonaparte was 1 
 
 im])risoned (pUtcn) {^tiuie, h<nc l(>»(f), wliere lie died (tivie ^' 
 
 vhc.n). 11. The enemy began tlicir attack ((dmohite phrani). 12. 
 
 Churches are erected {purpose)', and they are built {material) 1 
 
 that they may last . 
 
 Exercise 8. ; 
 
 Enlakge the following sentences b?j the addition of Swbstamtiyi 
 Clauses: — 
 
 1. The king could not understnnd . 2. I am more willing to give 
 
 than to ask . 3. doth appear in this. 4. When the trial 
 
 I 
 
 10. I have tried every means, but I cannot discover . 11. is a i| 
 
 traitor. 12. Though wo have sought him everywhere we cannot tell . 
 
 Exercise 9. i| 
 
 Enlarge the following sentences by the addition 0/ Attributive 
 
 Clauses: — 
 
 1. I should not like to be the man . 2. The house has been 
 
 burnt. 3. 1 have often wished to revisit the place . 4. The clergy- 
 man died yesterday at the very hour . 5, He could not have 
 
 anticipated the fate . 6. The motives are difficult to understand. 
 
 7. John Wycliff'e died in 1381. 8. We had not proceeded far when 
 
 a shower overtook us . 9. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was 
 
 concluded in 1748. 10. Ho need not hope for that success . 11. i 
 
 The statement does not agree with that . 12. They can- j 
 
 not look for the protection of the government . 
 
 Exercise 10, ' 
 
 Enlarge the following senttuccs by the addition o/" Adverbial 
 Clauses: — 
 
 1. He had just completed his work {time). 2 It was not known 
 
 (place) until (time). 3. We are often so beset by temptation . 
 
 (effect). 4. The righteous shall flourish (likeness). 5. Govern- ]| 
 
 i 
 
 t-,i 
 
 \ 
 
IS 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PKOSK. 
 
 4. Substitution. 
 
 34. Substitution is the process of wi'iting in tlic place of 
 one word or phrase, another of the same, or simihir, meaning ; 
 e.g.,— 
 
 1. The favourers of the ancient religion maintained that the 
 
 pretence of making tlic {)CO[)lu see with their own eges was 
 a mere cheat, and was itself a very gross artifice, etc. 
 
 2. The adherents of the old faith held that the pretext of 
 
 making the people see for themselves was a mere subter- 
 fuge, and was itself a very vulgar trick, etc. 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 Substitute for the words or phrases printed in italics others 
 equivalent to them in meaning : — 
 
 1. My uncle was bo charmed with the character of Captain Brown, 
 that he drank his health three times successiveli/ at dinner. 2. Conseious 
 of his own weiffht and importance, his conduct in parliament would bo 
 directed by nothing but the constitutional duty of a peer. 3. All tlio 
 eminent xcriters of the preceding period had inclined to the party that 
 was now overthrown. 4. The friends of the Reformation asserted that 
 nothing could be more absurd than to conceal in an unknown tongue the 
 word of God itself, and thus to counteract the will of heaven. 5. As they 
 proceeded, the indications of approacliing land seemed to be more certain, 
 and excited hope in proportion. 6. The power of fortune is confessed, only 
 by the miserable; for the happy impute all their success to prudence and 
 merit. 7. It is at least pious to ascribe all the ill that befalls us to our own 
 demerits J rather than to injustice in God. 8. Those who are attentive to 
 such propositions only as may fdl their pocTceis, will probably slight these 
 things as trifles below the care of the legislature. 9. The books which now 
 employed my time solely were those, as well ancient as modern, which 
 treat of true philosophy. 10. To abstract the mind from local emotion 
 would be impossible if it were endeavoured, and would be foolish if it were 
 
 Eossible. 11. The most extraordinary instance of his command of the 
 ouse is the manner in which he fixed indelibly on Mr Grenville the appel' 
 lation of "The Gentle Shepherd." 12. Tiie great advantage, therefore, of 
 the Revolution, as I would explicitly affirm, consists in that which was 
 reckoned its reproach by some, and its miafortum by more; tUat it hroke 
 the line of succession. 
 
 
 r' 
 
BTiiucTURE or si:NTi:NCi:g, 
 
 JO 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 5. TllANSI'OSITloX. 
 
 35. Trnmfpnsition is tlie })i'0('ess of cliaiiglng tlic onlor in wliicli 
 the parts oi ii stiiitencc aro aiTaiiL;ed, Avitlioiit c!hangiiig tlu; .slmi.sc ; 
 and alloAvs sucli alterations on the coii&tructioa as the new 
 urrangoincnt requires; eg,, — 
 
 1. The greatness of mind wliieh shows itself in dangers, if it 
 
 wants justice, is l)hun('a!>K\ 
 
 2, rrraiisi)osetl) If tlie greatness of mind which is shown in 
 
 dungcr wants justice, it is blanieablc. 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 T.'jANSPosE* tlie phrascii and clauses in the following sentences, 
 without altering the. sense: — 
 
 1. That iiioriMiip^ lie luul l.iid his hnoksj, as nsml, on the tahlo in his 
 stiuly. 2. 1 shall never consent to hiicIi ptoijosils while 1 live. '6. Many 
 changes fU'e now takinp; pl.'ioc in the vegetable world under onr immediate 
 notice, tho;i;jh we are not observant of tiiem. 4. I'y those accustomed to 
 the civilisation and the waiin sun of Italy, it must have been felt as a 
 calamity to Ixi compelled to live, not only in a cold, uncultivated country, 
 but also amonpf a barbarous people. ,o. Let us not conclude, while dangers 
 «re at a distance, and do not immediately npiu'oach us, that we are secure, 
 Tinless we use the necessary jirecautinns to prevent tluMu. G. You may 
 set my tields on fire, and give my children to the sword; yon may drive 
 myself f'lrth a houseless, childless beggar, or load me with the fetters of 
 claveiy; but you never can conquer the hatred I fi^el to your oppression. 
 7. Meanwhile (lloucester, taking advantage of the king's indolent ilisposi- 
 ti(m, resumed his plots and cabals. 8. In all speculations upon men and 
 liuman nllairs, it is of no small moment to distinguish things of accident 
 from permanent causes. 9. At liath, the remains of two temples, an;l of 
 a number of statues, have been dug up, in laying the foundations of new 
 ctreets and squares. 
 
 36. In transposing poetical passiTges from the Metrical to the 
 Prose Order — an exercise which must not be confounded with 
 parajiln'asiug (See§]03) — all ellipses should bo supplied, and tlie 
 terms of each sentence should in the lirst instance be arranged 
 in logical order, — viz., \st, The subject, with its attributes; 2J, 
 Tlie verb; 3f?, The complements; 4^//, Tlie adverbials. This 
 
 .■(I 
 
 s 
 
 rv 
 
 * As it is the purjiose of these pvvi^hninary exercises to explain processes 
 pifterwards made \\>ii of, the piijiil should be required to give an utai;y 
 vcr^'.ous of each s;j)iter.cc as pur^siulo. 
 
 L 
 
20 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 order maj nftorvvfirds bo moclifiorl, to make tlio sentence more 
 graceful and liarmonious; c.f/., — 
 
 Wondtn- not then, what God for you saw good, 
 
 If I refuse not, hut convert, as you, 
 
 To proper suhstiinco. — Milton, 
 
 Transposed: — Do not wonder, then, if I refuse not what Cod 
 saw to be good for you, but convert it, as you have done, to 
 proper subbtance. 
 
 Exercise 13. 
 Transpose the folloio'mg passages from the metrical to the prose 
 order^ without altering the sense : — 
 
 1. Blest he, though undistinguish'd from the crowd 
 By wealth or dignity, who dwells secure^ 
 \Vhero man, by nature fierce, has laiil aside 
 
 His fierceness," having learnt, thonch slow to learn, 
 The manners and the arts of civil life. — Cotvjjer, 
 
 2. From that hleak tenement 
 
 He, many an evening, to his distant homo 
 
 In solitude returning, saw the hills 
 
 Grow larger in the darkness, all alone 
 
 Beheld the stars come out ahove his head, 
 
 And travelled through the wood, with no one near 
 
 In whom lie might eonfess the things he sixw.— Wordsworln, 
 
 8. The pahi of death denounced 
 
 Deterred [youj not from achievuig what might lead 
 
 To happier life, — knowledge of good and evil ; 
 
 Of good, how just? of evil (if what is evil 
 
 Be real), why not known, since easier shunn'd? 
 
 God therefore cannot hurt ye, and he just; 
 
 Kot just, not God ; not fear'd then, nor ohey'd : 
 
 Your fear itself of death removes the fear. — Milton, 
 
 4. But, that thou shouldst my firnniess therefore doubt 
 To God or thee, because we have a foe 
 
 May tempt it, I expected not to hear. 
 
 His violence thou fearst not, being such 
 
 As wc (not cnpahle of death or pain) 
 
 Can either not receive, or can repel. — Milton. 
 
 5. They heard, and were ahash'd, and up they sprung 
 Upon the wing; as when men wont to watch 
 
 On duty sleeping found hy whom they dread, 
 
 Bouse and bestir themselves ere well awake. — Milton. 
 
 
 I 
 
BTRUCTUHE OF SrNTF,N(T,8. .ff^ 
 
 C Tliat you do lovo mo I nin notliinj? jealous; 
 VVlint you would work lue to I have some aim; 
 How I have thought of this, and of these times, 
 I shall reeount hereafter: f(ir this present 
 I would not, — go with love 1 might entreat you,— 
 Be any further moved. — ShakcsiHare. 
 
 « 
 
 37. Another variety of transposition is that of changing 
 ^ speeches from the Direct to the Indirect or Oblique form, and 
 
 vice versd. A Direct speech gives the words exactly as spoken, 
 the speaker employing the pronouns of the first person in refer- 
 ring to himself; an Indirect speech gives the words as reported 
 by another. E. g. : — 
 
 Direct. I have frequently said to myself, "I shall never 
 be happy till I have atoned for this offence." 
 
 Indirect. He had frequently said to himself that he would 
 never br aappy till he had atoned for that offence. 
 
 88. In transposing a speech from the direct to the indirect 
 form, the following rules must bo observed : — 
 
 1. The first and second persons must be changed to the 
 third ; e. g.^ — / assure you ; He assured them. 
 
 2. Each present tense must bo turned into its corresponding 
 past; e.g.^ — 
 
 I know well. He knew well. 
 
 I told you last year. lie had told them last year. 
 
 I have now explained, etc. He had now explained. 
 I shall endeavour, etc. He would endeavour, etc. 
 
 3. The nearer demonstrative this is changed into the more 
 remote <y^a^/ e.g., — 
 
 I shall never forget this day. 
 He would never forget that day. 
 
 Exercise 14. 
 
 Transpose tlie following passages from the direct to the indirect I 
 
 form: — ^ 
 
 1. The Chancellor of the Exchequer: — *' There is no commodity of more 
 universal use than paper. It is a great error to suppose, as iny right 
 honourable frioud hoH supjposcd, that paper is consumed exclusively by I 
 
 the rich-'* 
 
 I 
 
 ff-** 
 
 S- 
 
 k 
 
COMPOSITFON IN PROSR. 
 
 2. *»T1ie rich, no doubt, are tho largest consumers for writlnj* purposes; 
 but p;ipor is consumed to an enormous extent by the poor, who can scarcely 
 purchase a sinp^le article of daily consumption which is not wrapped in 
 paper that enhances its price." 
 
 3. " Ves, I repeat, that enhances its price, — not in the same dej^ree, I 
 admit, as the paper consumed by the rich, wlio use the better sorts of 
 writing paper, and finely printed books, that are taxed at the rate of 3, 4, 
 and 5 pr cent" 
 
 4. Mr Macaulay : — " I am so sensible. Sir, of the kindness with which 
 the House has listened to me, that 1 will not detain you longer. I will 
 only say this, that if the measure before us should pass, and should 
 produce one-tenth part of the evil which it is calculated to produce, and 
 which 1 fully expect it to produce, tiiere will soon be a remedy, though 
 of a very ()))jecti()nable kind." 
 
 5. Mr Pitt: — "The atrocious crime of being a young man, which tho 
 hniiourable gentleman has, with such spirit and decency, charged upon 
 me. 1 shall attempt neither to palliate nor to deny; but content myself 
 with wishing that I may be one of tliope ' ,'hose follies cease with their 
 youth, and not of that number who arc ig lorant in spite of experience. 
 U'hether youth can be imputed to any man as a reproach, I will not, 8ir, 
 assume the province of determining; but slurely age may become justly 
 contemptible, if the opportunities which it brings have passed away without 
 iniprovemeut, and vice appears to prevail A%eie the passions have sub- 
 sided." 
 
 •'). '* I trust myself," said Mr Brougham, " once more in your faithful 
 hands, I liing myself again on your protection; I call aloud to you to bear 
 your own cause in your hearts. 1 implore of you to come forward in your 
 own defence, — for the sake of this vast town and its people, — for the 
 salvation of the middle and lower orders, — for the whole industrious part 
 of the whole country. I entreat you by your love of peace, by your 
 liatred of oppression, by your weariness of burthensome and useless 
 taxation; by yet another appeal, to which lhose must lend an ear who 
 liave been deaf to all the rest, — I ask it for your families, for your infants, 
 il' you would avoid such a winter of horrors as the last. It is coming fast 
 upon you; already it is near at hand. Yet a few short weeks, and we 
 may be in the midst of those unspeakable miseries, the recollection of 
 which now reads your very souls." 
 
 Exercise 15. 
 
 TiJANsposE /ro?n th.e Indiukct to tlie Direct y^rm; — 
 
 1. Mr Canning said, that the end which he had always had in view as 
 tho legitimate object of pursuit to a British statesman, he could describe 
 in one word. The language of the philosopher was dKfusely benev(dent;. 
 It professed the amelioration of the lot of all mankind. He hoped that 
 his heart beat as high towards other nations of the earth as that of any 
 one who vaunted his pliilanthropy; but he was contented to confess tlut 
 the main object of hi.s coutcmplaciou wa.s the interest of England. 
 
STUUGTLKE OF SENTEN'CES. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 2. The temper and character, said Mr Burke, \vl)ich prevailed in our 
 colonies were, he was afraid, unalterable by any human art. They could 
 not, he feared, falsify the pedigree of that fierce people, and pei'suado 
 them that they were not sprung from a nation in whose veins the blood 
 of freedom circulated. The language in which they (the colonists) would 
 hear them (the House of Commons) tell them this tale would detect tho 
 imposition; their speech would betray them. An Englishman was the 
 most unfit person on earth to argue another Englishman into slavery. 
 
 3. In his speech at the trial of Warren Hastings, Mr Sheridan said, 
 that whilst he pointed out the prisoner at the bar as a proper object of 
 punishment, he begged leave to observe that he did not wish to turn the 
 sword of justice against that man, merely because an example ought to 
 be made. Such a wish was as far from his heart, as it was incompatible 
 wit!i equity and justice. If he called for justice upon Mr Hastings, it! 
 was because he thought him a great delinquent, and the greatest of all \ 
 those who, by their rapacity and oppression, had brought ruin on the 
 natives of India, and disgrac|) upon the inhabitants of Great Britain. 
 Whilst he called for justice ujlnn the prisoner, he wished also to do hiui 
 justice. 
 
 4. Sir Robert Peel, addressing the students of the University of Glasgow, 
 asked wlietlier he said that they could command success without difficulty ? 
 No ; difticulty was the conclltion of success. " Difiici^lty is a severe 
 instructor, set over us by tliir supreme ordinance of a parental guardian 
 and legislator, who knows us better than we know ourselves, as he loves 
 us better too. He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves, and 
 sharpens our skill. Our antagonist is our helper." Those were tho 
 memorable words of the first philosophic statesman, the illustrious 
 Edmund Burke. He (Sir Robert) urged them to enter into the amicable 
 conflict with difliculty. Whenever they encountered it, they were not 
 to turn aside ; they were not to say that there was a lion in the path ; 
 but to resolve upon mastering it: and evciy successive triumph would 
 inspire them with that confidence in themselves, that habit of victory, 
 which would make future conquests easy. 
 
 5. Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton said he now proceeded to impress on them 
 tho importance of classical studies. He would endeavour to avoid the set 
 phrases of declan atory panegyric which the subject too commonly provoked. 
 But if those studies appeared to them cold and tedious, the fault was in the 
 languor with which they wore approached. Did they think that the statue 
 of ancient art was but a lifeless marble? Let them animate it with their 
 own young breath, and instantly it lived and glowed. Greek literature, 
 if it served thtm with nothing else, should excite their curiosity as tho 
 picture of a wondrous state of civilisation, which, in its peculiar phases, 
 the world could never see again, and yet from which every succeeding state 
 of civilisation had borrowed its liveliest touches. 
 
 6. Addison wrote in the Spectator, that when lie looked upon the tombs 
 of the great, every emotion of envy died in him ; when he read the epitaphs 
 of the beautiful, Qvcry inordinate desire went outj when bo met with tlio 
 
 ]« 
 
 t. 
 
r 
 
 24 
 
 COMrOSlTKJN IN I'llOSK. 
 
 fricf of parents upon a tombstone, bis heart melted with compassion ; when 
 e saw the tomb of the parents themselves, he considered the vanity of 
 grieving for those whom we must quickly follow ; when he saw kings lying 
 by those who deposed them, when he considered rival wits laid side by side, 
 or the holy men that divided the world with their contests and disputes, ho 
 reflected with sorrow and astonishment on the little competitions, factions, 
 and debates of mankind. 
 
 6. Punctuation. 
 
 39. Punctuation is the art of indicating, by means of points, 
 
 what members of a sentence are to be conjoined, and what 
 
 members are to be separated, in meaning. 
 
 (a) It is a secondary use of Punctuation to indicate where the 
 chief pauses are to be made in reading aloud. These pauses are 
 naturally made where the meaning is divided; but there must often 
 be pauses where there are no points, as there are frequently points 
 where there need be no perceptible pauses. 
 
 40. The Points made use of for this purpoise are : — 
 
 Tlie Period, 
 
 The Comma, , 
 
 The Semicolon, ; 
 
 The Colon, : 
 
 The Dash, — 
 
 The occasional points — the use of which is sufficiently in- 
 dicated by their names, — are : — 
 
 The Mark of Interrogation, ? 
 
 The Mark of Exclamation, I 
 
 Quotation Marks, ". . . ." 
 
 Brackets, or Parentheses, (. . .) 
 
 41. I. The Simple Sentence : — 
 
 I. When the simple elements stand in their natural or xOgical 
 order (§ 36), the only punctuation required is a period at the 
 close* as, " I visited every chamber by turns." 
 
 II. An Adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is 
 generally followed by a comma ; as, " By night, an atheist half 
 believes a god." 
 
 III. Parenthetical Connectives and Vocatives are enclosed 
 between commas; as, "His master, however, has dismissed 
 him ;" " This, my friends, is our only chance of escape." 
 
 / 
 
STliUCTURB OP SENTENCES. 
 
 25 
 
 IV. Appositional phrases following their nonnu; aie generally 
 enclosed between commas ; as, " Thackeray, the author of 
 Vafiity Fair, died in 1863." 
 
 V. Co-ordinate words and phrases are separated from each 
 other by commas, unless they are in pairs connected by a con- 
 junction; as, "They came on the third day, by the direction 
 of the peasants, to the hermit's cell;" "He was reserved and 
 proud, haughty and ambitious." 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 
 Supply the proper Points : — 
 
 1. Our dear friencl tlie General in his last letter mortified me not a little. 
 2. On his (lepartiue I presented 'him with a piece of opium. 3. Man Sir 
 is a weed in those regions. 4. The nation, too was now for the first time 
 essentially divided in point of character and prmciple. 5. Goldsmith the 
 author of the Deserted Village wrote with perfect elegance and beauty in 
 'ji style of mellow tenderness and elaborate simplicity, 6. Much less did 
 it resemble any known herb weed or flower. 7. A premonitory moisten- 
 ing at the same time overflowed his nether lip. 8. Nevertheless strange 
 stories got about. 9. Mr Spenker I rise to move the second reading of 
 this Bill. 10. In a few days his Lordship's town-house was observed to 
 be on fire. 11. Our ancestors were nice in their method of sacrificing 
 their tender victims. 12. Give me Master Zimmerman a sympathetic 
 er.litude. 
 
 42. II. The Complex Sentence : — 
 
 I. The rules for simple sentences apply to individual clauses 
 in complex sentences. 
 
 II. Subordinate clauses arc separated from their principal 
 clauses, and from one another (unless when very closely con- 
 nected in meaning) by commas ; afe, " As my heart was entirely 
 
 subdued by the captivating strains I had heard, I fell down at 
 his feet." 
 
 III. When a clause is restrictive,* no comma is needed ; as, 
 
 " The soul that sinnoth, it shall die." 
 
 IV. A number of subordinate clauses bearing the same relation 
 to the principal clause, are separated from one another by semi- 
 colons^ and from the principal clause by a colon ; as, " If ho 
 
 * See Trogrcssive EiujU^h Grammar, g 4G, II. 
 
 !i 
 
2^ 
 
 COxMPOSITION IN FKOSE. 
 
 violates the most solemn engagements ; if lie oppresses, extorts, 
 robs ; if he imprisons, confiscates, banishes at his sole will and 
 pleasure: this is his defence, etc." 
 
 V. A formal quotation is enclosed in quotation marfcs^ and 
 preceded by a colon ; as, " His defence is : * To be robbed, 
 violated, oppressed, is their privilege.' " When the quotation 
 forms a part of the narrative, it may be preceded by a comma; 
 as, " To a tribune who insulted him, he replied, ' I am still 
 ^-^our Emperor.' " 
 
 Vr. A sudden break in a sentence is marked by a dash ; as, 
 " Only in a custom of such long standing, methinks, if their 
 Ilolincsses the Bishops had, in decency, been first sounded — but 
 I am wading out of my depths." 
 
 » 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 Supply the proper Points : — 
 
 1. As the Russian cavaby retired tlicir inftintrv fell back toward tlio 
 head of iho, valley leaving men in three of the redoubts they had taken and 
 abandoninc^ the fourth. 
 
 2. Had there been merely an opcnin,£^ in the coral rock it could not have 
 been detected from the sea exci^pting by the diminution of the foaming 
 surf just at that spot a circumstance that could scarcely be visible unless 
 the ol)server were ojjposite the aperture. 
 
 3. When Phi>cion the modest and gentle Phocion was led to execution 
 he turned to one of his fcllow-sufterers who was lamenting:; his own hard 
 fate Is it not glory enough for you says he that you die with Phocion. 
 
 4. If we cojisider our own country in its natural aspect without any of 
 the benefits and advantages of commerce what a barren uncomfortable 
 spot of earth falls to our share. 
 
 5. These unhappy people were proposing schemes for persuading mon- 
 archs to choose favourites: upon the score of their wisdom .capacity and 
 virtue of teaching ministers to consult the public good of rewarding merit 
 great abilities and eminent services^ of instructing princes to know their 
 true interest by placing it on the same foundation with that of their people 
 of choosing for employments persons qualified to exercise them with many 
 other wild impossible chimeras that never entered before into the heart of 
 man to conceive. 
 
 ' Ijk EmerG:ing thence again before the breath 
 
 Of full-exerted hcaveiuthey wing their course 
 
 And dart on distant coasts^jf some sharp rock* 
 
 Or shoal insidious break not their career^ . 
 
 And in loose fragments fling them flualing round. 
 
 
 k 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 27 
 
 > 
 
 43. III. The Compound Sentence i — 
 
 I. The rules for simple and complex sentences apply to simple 
 and complex clauses in compound sentences. 
 
 II. Co-ordinate clauses are generally separated by a semicolon; 
 as, "The genius making me no answer, I turned about to address 
 myself to him a second time ; but I found that he had left 
 
 me. 
 
 III. When two clauses are simple, and neither of them con- 
 tains a comma within itself", a comma may be used to separate 
 them ; as, "Every man desiretii to live long, but no man would 
 be old;' 
 
 IV. When an independent clause is appended to a sentence 
 ■witho. V a conjunction, it is ])receded by a colon; as, ''To reason 
 \. th hhn was vain: he was infatuated." 
 
 V. In contracted sentences, the omissions are indicated by 
 commas; as, "To err is human; to forgive, divine." 
 
 ' 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 Supply the proper Points : — 
 
 1. It may seem a little extraordinary that iiotwithstandlnG: his cruelty 
 his extortion, his violence, liis arbitrary administration, this prince not only 
 acquired tiie regard of his subjects'but never was the object of their hatred^, 
 he seems even in some degree to have possessed to the last their love and 
 affection. 
 
 2. The success of their enterprises was suitable to the diversity of their 
 characters, and was luuformiy iuliuenced by it. 
 
 3. Conversation enriches the understanding^'but solitude is the Fchool 
 of genius'aud tlie uniformity of a work denotes the hand cf a single 
 artist. 
 
 4. The mind of C'lovis v/as susceptible of transient fervourjhe was ex- 
 asperated by the pathetic tale of the ]iasf;ion and doth of Christ \and in- 
 stead of weighing the salutary ei^nscqaences of that my.stcrious Sacrifice o 
 he exclaimed with indiscreet furT^iad I Ix-en present at the head of my 
 valiant Franks I would have revcnced his ii.juri''S.'* 
 
 5. The Arians upliraided the CathoHcs witli the worsliip of three godsj 
 the Catholics dci'ended their cause by tl'.cohjgical distincti«M;s.,and the 
 usual argunientSdbjectionSj and re})liL's were reverbv-ratc! vitii obstiiiate 
 clanior.r'till the liin; 
 
 \ 
 
 llanior.r'till the King r(;vealcd his v^ecret npj>reh;;.t;i()us,by ;m abrr.])t, hut 
 Ucisive quc>ii'in,whi.'l! i:e a.ldi\'->-L;d to the oi'tiiodu.x l.ishi.i .f»lf you tni'iv 
 irofosr thj Chriati.m religion why do you nut restrain thiT king of the 
 
 *|J 
 
 'i.iuLij.'J'^ 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
23 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 6, Nor only through tlie lenient air this change 
 
 Deliciou.s hreathes the penetrative sun 
 His force deep-darting to the dark retreat 
 Of vegetation sets the steaming power 
 At large to wander o'er the verdant earth 
 In various hues hut ch icily thee gay green 
 1'hou smiling Nature's universal rohe 
 United light and shade where the sight dwells 
 With growing strength and ever-now delight. 
 
 Chapter II. — Principles of Construction. 
 
 44. Synthesis is the converse of Analysis. The latter is the 
 breaking down of a sentence into its parts ; the former is the 
 building up of parts into a whole. 
 
 45. In constructing a sentence, the first care must be to make 
 it complete. Every sentence must contain at least one indepen- 
 dent ])redieate (§ 2G) ; and every predicate must have its sub- 
 ject distinctly expressed or clearly implied. 
 
 46. In arranging the subordinate members of the sentence, 
 care must be taken to connect explanatory words and phrases 
 with the words which they explain. This is the quality of 
 clearness. It may be destroyed, — Isi, by dislocation^ or the 
 unnatural separation of members that are closely connected in 
 mejining ; or, 2(i, by amhiguitij^ or by placing a member in such 
 a position that it is doubtful which of two possible constructions 
 is intended. 
 
 1. Tiie following is an example o^ dislocation : — 
 
 *' The effect of this devotion of elegant minds to rural 
 occupations has been wonderful on the face of the country ^ 
 
 Her^ tlic ])hrnse, '• on the face of the country," is separated by the 
 greater \yM't of the sentence from the word "effect," to which it directly 
 rel'crs ; and tlic mind is perplexed by tlie long suspension of the current of 
 till", poiise. Tile sentence would l)e t'learer, as well as more elegant, thus: 
 "jriiis devotion of elegant minds to niial occupations has produced a 
 wonderfiil eifect on the face of tlie country." 
 
 2. Tlf" ■ '■ >wing is an cxam[)le o^ amhiguily : — 
 
 "Jv IV viicomore rnUnl over the prostrate nations hy the 
 liiHvcf f MpcrstitionJ" 
 
t 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 20 
 
 ( 
 
 Tins mny mcnn citlicrof two tliin.us,— (i.) tlint IJnmc liarl at fi former time 
 nilcd over the nations "by the power of Puperstitiou," and now resumed 
 tliat power; (2.) that Koine had fMrinerlv )uh;d over tlic nations hy soino 
 oth-r power,— that ofconciucst, or of ini;;eii.il influitnec,— and now did so by 
 a different power, that of s;ipcrstitio:i. Tiio sentence, as it stands, most 
 natnrally bears the former eonstniction. To convey the latter meaning 
 It should stand thus: " Kome, j,y the power of superstition, once more 
 ruled over the prostrate nations." 
 
 47. Ambiguity frequently ari.^cs from the careless use of the 
 pronouns, esi)ccially tlie relatives; e.g., — 
 
 **Kiiig John of France was led in triumph through the 
 streets of Loinlon by tlie IJhu'k Prince, the son of 
 KduarJ [II., who had defeated him, and taken him 
 prisoner, at the battle of IVietiers." 
 
 Any one nnacqu.iinted witli the historical facts would be doubtful, from 
 the (Construction of this sentence, whetlier it w;is tlie Hlack iVinco or his 
 father that had takon .lolin | risonor, Tli.- fnlldwinu' arrangement would 
 remove the and)iouity : '• Kin- John of Fiancf. wlio h;ul been defeated 
 and taken prisoner at Toietids by the Hlaek Prinec. t!u' son of lulward 
 III., was led in triumph through the streets of London by his conqueror." 
 
 ^ 48. Important modifications of a statement should be men- 
 tioned before the statement itself. This applies especially to 
 negatives, to absolute phrases, and to clauses of condition and 
 concession ; e.g.., — 
 
 " I have never been in Vienna." 
 
 " The king being dead, a dispute arose as to the succcssiou.'* 
 ^^ If the secreJanj realhj wrote that letter^ he is a traitor." 
 " Though he slag me, yet will I trust in him." 
 
 When the substantive notion is mentioned first, the mind is apt to 
 conclude that it is absolutely true. It is the object of the above 
 arrangement to prevent this error. For a similar reason, we prefix 
 the attribute to the substantive ; as, a ivhite rose, a black horse. 
 
 49. When a sentence contains a number of adverbs (words, 
 plirascs, or clauses), they should be distributed over the sen- 
 tence ; e.g., — 
 
 "The Earl of Lancaster was thrown (1) into prison^ 
 (2) shorihj after the execution of the Earl of Kent, (J)) at 
 the instigation of Mortimer, [A ) on pretence of his having 
 consented to a conspiracgfor the rcsluration if Edward II.* 
 
so 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Here wc liave four adverbial plirascs, all relating to the same r«rb, 
 •' was thrown;" and the elfect of ran^^Mng them (uie nl'l"cr another at the 
 end, is to make the sentence cumbrous to tlie sense, and unniusieal to the 
 ear. The sense will be clearer, the sound more melodious, and the whola 
 eficct more graceful, by grouping the adverbs round the prineinal membi'rS 
 of the sentence, thus: "■ SIkii-IUj nftcr tlie execution cf the Larl of Kent, 
 the I'jarl of Lancasti'r was, at the imtu/ntloii. of Mortimer, thrown info 
 priftiiH, on prclruee of liis hainn(j consei'tf^rf to acoitspirar^j for tJie restoration 
 of Eihrard Ily livery one of the phrases is thus brought nearer in 
 position to the words to which they all refer. 
 
 In tills arrauL^cincnt, it is most natural to place ilio adverb of 
 time at the beginning of the sentence, and the adverb of place 
 after the verb, and as near to it as possible. 
 
 50. Ill antithetical clauses, the contrasted members should 
 )ccupy corresponding phices; e.g.^ — 
 
 "To be CAKNALLv minded is death, but to be spjuitually 
 minded is life iXwA paaceJ^ 
 
 Sometimes, however, the order of the terms in the second clause 
 is the reverse of that in the first ; e.g., — 
 
 " Evil pursueth sinners, but to the righteous good shall bo 
 repaid." 
 
 51. Prominence is given to compared or contrasted members 
 by Ellipsis, i.e., by leaving out in tlie subsequent clauses words 
 which may be supplied from the first ; e.g., — 
 
 " Homer icas the greater genius ; Virgil the better 
 
 artist: in the one, lue most admire the man; in tho 
 other, the work." 
 
 52. According to the method of its construction, a sentence is 
 either periodic or loose, A sentence in which the clauses are 
 knit together by a close logical connexion, and in which the 
 complete sense is suspended until the close, is called a period. 
 AVIien there is any earlier point at which the thought naturally 
 terminates, and when the predicate is followed by phrases or 
 otiiiBCS which are not necessary to the completeness of the sense, 
 the sentence is said to be loose. It is not essential to the period 
 that it should close with the principal predicate ; for, as appears 
 in the following example, this may be extended by modifications, 
 which form an integral part of the proposition. The loose style 
 
 
 If 
 

 rPvlNCIPLES OF CONSTllUCTION. 
 
 3i 
 
 in admlnsIMc in simple narrative and ordinary descriptions. The 
 periodic style is adoi)ted in dignified or elevated compositions. 
 
 The following is an example of the period: — 
 *' Compelled by want to attendance and solicitation, and so 
 much versed in common life, (hat he has transmitted to 
 us the most pcriect delhication of the manners of his age, 
 Erasmus joined to his knowledge of the world such 
 application to books, that he will stand for ever in the 
 first rank of literary heroes. 
 
 The words on which the thread of the sentence is suspended arc printed 
 in ital.icfi. The introductory clauses, "Compelled .... age," arc obviouslv 
 attributive, and lead us to expect a subject to which they relate. "We find 
 that subject in "Erasmus." The latter part of the sentence is Ik Id to- 
 gether by the correhitivc particles " such" and " that." 
 
 The following illustrates the loose construction : — 
 " It is in vain to say that the portraits which exist of thi?, 
 remarkable woman are not like each other ; for, amidst 
 their discrepancy, each possesses general features wiiicir 
 the eye at once acknowledges as peculiar to the visiou, 
 ivhich our imagination has raised, while we read her 
 history for the first time, and which has been impressed 
 upon it by the numerous prints and pictures which we 
 have seen." 
 
 This sentence is not only loose, but viciously so. In the second member 
 of it, the main assertion ends with " features." To this word, two of the 
 remaininj^ clauses are clumsily attached by *' wuicu," and each of tliese 
 has another " luhich" clause attached to it, one of them being still further 
 prolonged by the clause beginning with " while." 
 
 53. A sentence, periodic or loosCj should not close abruptly, 
 or end with an insignificant word. 
 
 1. It should not end with a postponed preposition ; e.g., — 
 
 " It (custom) is indeed able to form the man anew, and to 
 give him inclinations and capacities altogether different 
 from those he wr.s born with." # 
 
 The last phrase should be, " from those with which he was bom." 
 
 2. It should as rarely as possible close with the pronoun " it;" 
 
82 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 " Let us first consider the ambitious, and those both in 
 their progress to greatness, and after the attaining of it.** 
 
 Sajr, "after its attainment," or " after attaining ?7;" for the construc- 
 tion 18 not so objectionable when the pronoun is iin mediately preceded by 
 a verb. 
 
 3. It should not clone with an unemphafic adverb ; e.g.j — 
 " Example appeals not to our understanding alone, but to 
 our passions bkewise.'* 
 
 Here the adverb usurps the place which, in order to bring out the con- 
 trast, properly belongs to " our passions." It is stronger and more elegant 
 to say, ♦' but likewise to our passions." 
 
 64. As regards expression, or the language of which a som- 
 tenee is eomposed, the following rules will suffice at this stage 
 of the subject : — 
 
 I. Prefer simple words to those that arc abstruse or unhitelli- 
 gible; e.g.,— 
 
 "The inoculation of the political virus embittered party 
 feeling in England." 
 
 Many ordinary readers would be puzzled by this sentence, who would 
 understand the writer's meaning at once if he were to say, " The introduc- 
 tion of the political poison." 
 
 II. Avoid circumlocution, or a round-about way of expressing 
 a simple idea; e.g., — 
 
 " Even at that period of time, the tilings I endured were not 
 allowed to come to a termination.*' 
 
 The sentence would be much stronger thus, " Even then my svferinos 
 were not allowr d to terminate." ^ v .i 
 
 III. Avoid redundancy, or the addition of words which the 
 sense does not require; e.g., — 
 
 ** They ascended to the top of the mountain, and then returned 
 home again.** 
 
 A more forcible expression would be, " After ascending the mountain, 
 they returned home." 
 
 IV. Avoid tautology, or the repetition of a word in a different 
 sense; e.g., — 
 
 ] 
 
 1 1 
 

 PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 33 
 
 , " Harrow from tlic accident opposition, Rugby of wealth, have 
 
 risen from the humble position of charity schools, etc." 
 
 The word " sit'ution " might have been used for '* position " in the first 
 instance. 
 
 The substance of these rules is contained in the general direc- 
 tion, — "Aim at conveying the maximum of thought in tlio 
 minimum of words." 
 
 Chapter III. — Synthesis of Simple Sentences. 
 
 65. A Simple Sentence, as already explained, is a sentence 
 that contains only one subject and predicate. This single 
 predicate must be independent, — it must not be preceded by any 
 word which implies its dependence upon another statement. The 
 sentence must contain only one Jinite verb. All other verbs which it 
 is necessary to retain must be turned into participles or infinitives. 
 
 66. In the following exercises in Synthesis, each element to 
 be included in the sentence is stated as a separate proposition ; 
 but only such words are to be introduced into the sentence as 
 are necessary fully and clearly to express all the thoughts. 
 
 57. In working the exercises, the following directions are to 
 be followed : — 
 
 I. Write down the Subject on a line by itself. 
 II. Write down the Verb on a Hue by itself. 
 
 III. If the Verb is incomplete, write down each complement or object 
 
 on a line by itsclC 
 
 IV. Write down the attributes beside the nouns to which they refer. 
 V. Write down each adverb or adverbial phrase on a line by itself. 
 
 VI. Arrange these parts according to the principles explained in the 
 preceding chapter. 
 
 Example. 
 
 60. 
 
 (1.) The Propositions. 
 
 The king gained a victory. 
 The king ruled over England (att to suhj.). 
 The victory was a decisive one {att. to obj.). 
 It was gained over the Scots (adv.). 
 Tlie battle was fought near Dunbar (adv.). 
 f. Dinibar is on the east coast of Scotland iatl. to eX 
 (J. This took place in 1294 {adv.). 
 
 a. 
 b. 
 c. 
 d. 
 e. 
 
 )£ ] 
 
34 
 
 coMrosiTiON IN ruosn. 
 
 (2.) 'HieEUmcMU. 
 
 ^yrjcct, . The king {ait.) of England 
 
 » <^rb, . gfiiiu.'d 
 
 (''ymphm*, a victory («//.) decisive 
 
 Adverbs, 1. over tlie Scots 
 
 q' i^^^.'ii^^^^ar {att.) on tlie cast const of Scotland 
 Ot in 12y4. 
 
 W^f/^T "';° t!"'co..i(lvc>rbials hero, it is a case to which S 49 aPDli'cs 
 We therefore begin with the adverb of time; and get, ^ ^^ 
 
 (3.) 2Vie Sentence. 
 
 " ^» ^2H the King of England gained a dcciKivo victory over the 
 tecots, near Dunbar, on the cast coast of ticutlaud." 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 Synthesis of Si?nple Sentences. 
 *** The Subject and Predicate are printed in Italics. 
 
 ^fnlcolm was king of Scotland. 
 
 lie was constrained to retire. 
 
 He had come too late to support his confederates {ado. phr. of cause). 
 
 I saw the Queen of France. 
 
 ^^UmT''' ^'''^'''''' ^'^ seventeen years since I saw her [adv. phr. of 
 
 She was then the Dauphincss {appnsitional phr.). 
 1 saw her at Versailles {adv. phr. of place). 
 
 Edgar AthcUng sought a retreat in Scotland. 
 
 He was the Saxon heir to the throne iapvos. phr.). 
 
 J ho msuiTection on his behalf had failed'^ (abs. phr ). 
 
 lie was accompanied by his followers {atl. phr! to siibj.). 
 
 He had taken refuge in Scotland on a previous occasion (an ach^h). 
 
 He fled from the pursuit of his enemies (a.^.^ 2,hr. of cause). 
 
 There was a conspiracy/. 
 
 It consisted of two parts (adjective). 
 
 1 ts object was to subvert the government {att. phr. to svoiA 
 
 i he conspn-acy was discovered. 
 
 '^tim ^)'^^^ ^^^'^^ shortly after the accession of James I. {adv. phr. of 
 
 The one plot was called the Main (ait. jyhr. to suhj ) 
 
 It was said to have been chiefly conducted by Sir Walter Kn.lolo-h 
 
 and Lord Cobham (att. phr. to subj.) ^ 
 
 It consisted of a plan to place Arabella Stuart on the thn-n,;. 
 
 f 
 
 1. a. 
 
 h. 
 c. 
 
 2. a. 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 d. 
 
 3. a. 
 h. 
 c. 
 d. 
 e. 
 f 
 
 4. a. 
 b. 
 c. 
 d. 
 e. 
 
 5. a. 
 
^^^^^^ 
 
 B. 
 
 10 
 
 d. 
 
 e. 
 
 6* a. 
 b. 
 
 c. 
 
 d. 
 
 c. 
 
 /. 
 
 7. a. 
 
 h. 
 c. 
 d, 
 e. 
 
 /. 
 
 8. a. 
 b. 
 c. 
 
 d. 
 e. 
 
 /. 
 9- 
 
 9. a. 
 b. 
 c. 
 d. 
 e. 
 
 f- 
 
 g- 
 h. 
 
 10. a. 
 
 h. 
 c, 
 d. 
 
 €. 
 / 
 
 11. a. 
 
 b. 
 
 8YNTIIi:siS OF SIMPLE .SENTENCES. 35 
 
 Rlie wng tilt kiii<^'.s cousin (nppos. nlir.). 
 
 This was to bo Jicconiplish^il witfi tho assistance of the Spanish 
 Govcnnnent {aUv.p/ir. of manner). 
 
 The other plot was cnlled tlio IJvb (aft. phr. to /ivhj.). 
 
 It is also known as tho Suki'Uise, or tho Suupkise Treason (att.phr. 
 
 to Slllj.), 
 
 Tliis {)lot was led by Broke and Sir Griffin Markham iait.phr. to 
 
 8uhj.). 
 
 Pr()ko was brother of Loid Cobham (appos. phr.). 
 This was a desicpi to surprise and imprison tlio king. 
 It was also intended to roinodol the governmont {adv. phr. of 
 purjwse). 
 
 Tournay surrendci-cd in 151 P. (adv. phr. of time). 
 It surrendered to J/enrj/ VIII. 
 The Hishop of Tournay was dead (ahs.phr.). 
 The King bestoiced the see upon Wolscy. 
 Wolsey was the king's favourite {appos. phr.). 
 He obtained the revenues of the see as well as its administration 
 {object). 
 
 Sir Edward Howard was an English admiral {appos. phr.). 
 
 There was a French war in 1513 {ado. phr. of time). 
 
 Howard was attempting to cut six French galleys out of a port 
 
 {adv. phr. of time or manner). 
 That port was Conquct {ait. p>hr. to "port"). 
 He had with him only two vessels {adv. phr. of manner to c). 
 He loas slain. 
 This happened at the commencement of the war {adv. phr. of time). 
 
 Henry VII. was the founder of a dynasty {appos, phr.). 
 
 That dynasty was the House of Tudor. 
 
 He died of a consumption. 
 
 His death took place at Richmond. 
 
 Richmond was his favourite palace {appos. phr.). 
 
 The event happened on the 25th April 1509. 
 
 He had reigned twenty-three years and eight months {adv. phr. of 
 
 time). 
 He was then in the fifty-second year of his age {adv. phr. of time). 
 
 The European nations were conquered by the Romans {adv. phr. 
 
 of manner to b.). 
 This c(mquest had first cemented them into a whole (a«. to "nations"). 
 They had a second bond of union {adj.). 
 It was a still firmer bond. 
 They derived it from Christianity. 
 This Christianity was common to them all {adj.% 
 
 Trflrre?/«e had entered Scotland. 
 He had collected an army {adv. phr. to a.). 
 
 ill 
 
 
36 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 1, 
 
 e. It consistetl of forty thousand men (aft. phr. to **in*my*7» 
 
 d. He had levied it in the north of England. 
 
 e. Ilia advance was unexpected {adv. to a.). 
 
 f. He was defeated oy Wallace. 
 
 a. The Enj:jlish ''.irny suffered severely {adv. phr. of manner), 
 h. The battle was fought at Cainbuskenneth. 
 
 i. Cambuskenneth is near Stirling. 
 
 12. a. Elizabeth was sister to Mary. 
 
 b. The latter was anxious to involve the former in*some appearance 
 
 of guilt {adv. phr. of purpose to c). 
 
 c. For this purpose sbe seized the opportunity of a rebellion, 
 
 d. This rebellion had been headed by Wyatt {poss. att.). 
 
 e. Mary ordered Elizabeth to be committed to the Towe*« 
 /. When there she was to be examined. 
 
 (J. Her examinaticm was to be strict {actv.), 
 h. It was to be conducted by the CounciL 
 
 Y 
 
 Chapter IV.— Synthesis of Complex Sentences. 
 
 59. A Complex Sentence is a sentence which, besides its prin- 
 cipal predicate, has one or more subordinate clauses. A simple 
 sentence may be made complex by expanding one of its members 
 into a clause. The simple and tlie complex sentence thus agree 
 in that both contain one, and only one, leading assertion ; they 
 differ in that the subordinate members in the former are either 
 words or phrases ; while in the latter one at least of them is a 
 clause. 
 
 60. The different kinds of subordinate clauses are distin- 
 guished by the connectives that introduce them. Care should 
 tlicrefore be taken in every case to employ the proper connective. 
 
 With this view constant reference should be made to the Table in g 30. 
 
 61. In the following exercises, the substance of each clause is 
 stated as an independent proposition. The pupil is required to 
 hupply the proper connectives, and to connect each subordinate 
 clause with that member of the principal clause to which it 
 reflates. 
 
 (rt) In the earlier exercises, the connectives are supplied, so that 
 the pupil has only to arrange the clauses in the best order for giving 
 clearness and force to the sentence. 
 
 I 
 
 ■\i 
 
u 
 
 SYNTHESIS OP COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 37 
 
 ad^^' J"__^'oil^Jng the exercises, the following plan may be 
 
 I. Write down each member of the principal clause (subject, verb, 
 object, etc.) m a line by itself. ^ •* ,' ' 
 
 II. Wnte each subordinate clause beside the member in its superior 
 clause to winch it relates, 
 
 III. Anmifre the chmses according to the principles explained in 
 Luaptcr 11. . » *r r 
 
 63. Ezample 1. 
 
 1. The Clause!^. 
 
 A. The more prudent of the crusaders provided themselves with those 
 
 -precious metals. 
 la\ Who were not sure (att. to sulj.). 
 
 a\ That they should be fed from heaven with a shower of quails or 
 manna {subs.). * 
 
 2a\ Which, in every country, are the representatives of every com- 
 modity {att. to " met lis"). ^ 
 
 2. The Elements. 
 
 A. Snlject: The more prudent of 
 the crusaders 
 
 Verb : provided 
 Ohject: themselves 
 Adverb: with tliose precious 
 metals 
 
 {\a^.) who were not sure | (a^.) that 
 they should be fed from heaven 
 with a shower of quails or manna 
 
 (2fl".) which, in every country, are 
 the reprusontatives of every com- 
 modity. 
 
 3. The Sentence. 
 
 " The more prudent of the crvsochrs, who were not sure that they 
 should be Jod from heaven with a shower of quails or manna, provi,/nl 
 themselves Kith tho^e preciovs meUds which, in every country, are the 
 representatives of every cou. mo iity." 
 
 64. In the followiiig eyjjnple, the clauses are thrown into the 
 form of separate proposiii(';>s, the nature of each, and its relation 
 to Its superior clause, beii.g indicated in the notes, 
 
 , ,_ _ Example 2. - ' 
 
 1. nie Propositions. 
 
 A. Tyranny would have ruled without control. 
 la\ Tyranny was breaking tlirougb. all baniers on every favourable 
 
 n.onient {ult to svbj.). ^ 
 
 1a\ The nobility had not' been frc.^ ,.nd briive {^mJv. of condition). 
 
 a', i he people were poor and di.^niiitcu <uov. of tmv). 
 
 ( I 
 
33 
 
 COMPOSITION IN rUOSB. 
 
 2. The Elements. 
 A. Subject: Tyranny, 
 
 Verb : would have ruled 
 
 Adverb : without control. 
 
 (la'.) toluch was bre^iking throu^^h 
 all barriers on every favourable 
 
 niOUKMlt, 
 
 (2ai.) //■ the nobility had not been 
 freo and bravo | {d^.) when the 
 people were poor and disunited. 
 
 3. The Sentence: In accordance with § 48, we should begin with the 
 clause o( condition. At the same time wo interweave wiih it the clause of 
 time, which modifies it; and the following is the result: — 
 
 " If, when the people were poor and disunited, the nobility had not 
 been free and brave, that tifrannij which was breaking through all 
 barriers on every side, would have ruled without control" 
 
 < 
 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 
 A. (With Connectives.) 
 
 1. A. History has frequently taught me. 
 That the head iris the very next (day) been fixed upon a pole {s^vha,'). 
 Which has one day grown giddy with the roar of the million 
 
 {att. to snhj.). 
 
 2. A. The variation of the needle filled the companions of Columbus 
 
 with terror. 
 a\ Whicli is now familiar {att. to sn''ij.). 
 a2. Though it still remains one of the mysteries of nature {adv. of 
 
 co)i'-ess}on). 
 Into the cause of which the sagacity of man hath rol; been able 
 
 to penetrate {att. to " mysteries "). 
 
 a\ 
 
 3. A. 
 
 2ai. 
 4. A. 
 
 5. A. 
 
 Alexander VJ, perceived the townsmen busy in the market-place, 
 
 pulling down a figure from a gil)!)et. 
 As he was entering a little town in the neighbourhood of Rome 
 
 {ado. of time). 
 Which had just been evacuated by the enemy {att. to "town"). 
 Which had been designed to represent himself {att. to *' figure"). 
 
 These ruling principles are in truth eveiything and all in all. 
 Which in the opinion of such men have no substantial existence 
 
 {att. subj.). 
 As I hav^o mentioned {att. to "men"). 
 
 It is impossible to doubt. 
 
 That private wars were perpetuated by so convenient a custom 
 {aubs., ohj. of "doubt ). 
 
 
 
SYNTHESIS OF C(J.MPLi:X SENTENCCS. 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1. 
 
 a2 
 
 
 a\ 
 
 
 A. 
 
 «> 
 
 a\ 
 
 a». Which indeed, owed its universal establishment to no other causo^ 
 
 {(tit. to "custom "). 
 
 2aK Tliough private wars did not origiuato in the feudal system (adv. 
 of concession), g 43. *' ^ 
 
 6. A. We may believe. 
 laK 'J'kit Samuel ventured on the solemn step of anointing David 
 kin j? (su6.s., ofty. to "believe"). o ^^iviu 
 
 lr?2. After Davuihad been driven away from Saul {adn. of time). 
 
 Lt'% 53 (3)'. ^"'" '"'"^^^'"^ ''^''"^^ ^"^'^ ^'''^"' '^ 
 
 2a\ If we are to anvuige events according to their probable connexion 
 {adv. oj condition). § 48. 
 
 B. (Without Connectives.) 
 
 The king broke off both treaties {subs. ohjX 
 The people learned this {culc. of time). 
 
 Ihe people celebrated their triumph by bonfires and public re- 
 joicmgs. f w *w 
 
 I have anindiffcrent opinion of the vulgar (suhs. oh} ). 
 Some men raises the shout of the vul-ar {alt. to "merit") 
 
 This llZn ^"^ '"'^'''* ^^''^ '"''"' ^'''^^- ^^ '•^'^''^* 
 
 Charles gave order;^. 
 
 Parliament was summoned in 1026 (adv. of time). 
 
 %Tohl"!^ '"'"' '"'' ""' '' ^' ''''' '' '^'^ E^^-1 of Bristol 
 
 ^In^l^m^"!? ^f ■'''}' ^]?^^^^«^^lor, had mortally offended Buck- 
 
 ingham, the kmg's favourite, in the affair of the SDanish 
 
 ^ T>i,amage (alt. to " Bristol "). s>panisli 
 
 '■i) .V ' was therefore obnoxious to Charles (att. to « Bristol "). 
 '^^^van^'" tl^ousands of living gazettes in all the village! of 
 
 f (.if "gazct^^i^f "'' ""''''''''' "'^'^ '''' "^"-«* <^^edom 
 Tl'cy uttered curses, not loud, but deep {att. to ^' gazettes") 
 Isa m eon had got possession of the press, of the ti^bune and 
 of the pul])it {adv. of concessi v) tuoune, and 
 
 ISobody could write an attnck on him {adn. of concession) 
 
 A. 
 
 A. 
 
 laK 
 2aK 
 
 la2. 
 
 2a2. 
 4. /. 
 
 2ai. 
 Sal. 
 
 Despotism is the genuine constitution of India (snhs. ohl) 
 
 ^ ^!'}':^:!:z' 'i^^'^r,^? ^y^ ^"'^^^^t o.- d pendent p; 
 
 "'l^^ ■' "-"^"'">t III iiij sui))('ct 01- (I nonv 
 
 I' '. necessary effect of this despoti-mi {sid>.^. nbj'.). 
 
 prmce ig 
 
 ' 11 
 
•ilH 
 
 4) co..?ro.riTioN in ntosr^ 
 
 Sa^. Jcnlousy nnd its (Consequences naturally arise on the fart of 
 tlie S(nei"ci<^n {suhs. (■}>]. '\. 
 ■ 4a^. I'lie govcrnnient is everytliinpr {finhs. obj.), 
 5(1^. The sul)j(.'ct is nothinpr {suhs. oh].: contr.). 
 
 6a^ The great landed men are in a mean and depraved state, and 
 su!)jcet to many evils {suhs. obj.). 
 A. All this he lays down as a rule. 
 
 6. la^ The paramount en<l of liberal study is che development of the 
 student's mind {subs. obj.). 
 a^. This development is aecomplished through some exercise of 
 
 the faculties {ntf. to " exercise "). 
 2a}. Knowledge is principally useful as a means of determining the 
 faeultitss to that exercise (subs. obj.}. 
 J. Thid 1 hold. 
 
 If:' 
 
 k- 
 
 Chapter V. — Synthesis of C(. '^'-^^id Sentences. 
 
 65. A Compound Sentence is a sentence >vhich contains more 
 than one principal Predicate, — each of which may have subor- 
 dinate Predicates attached to it. In a compound sentence, a 
 principal clause without subordinate clauses is called a simple 
 clause, and corresponds, in construction, to the simple sentence ; 
 a principal clause with subordinate clauses, is called a complex 
 clause, and corresponds to the complex sentence. The leading 
 divisions of the compound sentence, therefore, are dealt with ia 
 the same manner as simple and complex sentences. The only- 
 point of difference that remains is the manner of connecting 
 these principal members with one another. The relation between 
 them is that of co-ordination ; and the proper connectives are 
 mentioned in § 25. For convenience, the signs which represent 
 them may be repeated here : — 
 
 1. The sign -|- indicates copidative co-ordination, expressed by awdf. 
 
 2. ,) — „ alternative „ „ either ^ or. 
 8. ,« X »» antithetical „ „ hut. 
 
 causative ,. „ therefore. 
 
 for. 
 
 
 
 >» 
 
 »» 
 
 »» 
 
 »> 
 
 »> 
 
 »> 
 
 »» 
 
 >» 
 
 »» 
 
 »» 
 
 66. Tn working the following oxcrciscp, onch leading member 
 of the compound sentence is to be dexjit \\ltli ns if it were a 
 
SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 41 
 
 simple or a complex clause. The proper connectives are then to 
 com" Icte '''''' ^''^"'' ^""^ ^^'^ compound sentence will be 
 
 (fl) In the earlier Exercises (A), as in the case of the coinnlcx 
 sentence, the connectives are supplied. complex 
 
 67. Example 1. ( With Connectives.) 
 
 1. The Clauses: — 
 
 ^I. The sentinels were wed-ed amnnprst the crowd. 
 
 Jj. ^:j;''^Hn officer was compelled rapidly to retire 
 
 0. Who ordered the scnrinds to drive the people down with their 
 
 'JHvonets, not very prudently on sucli an ooeasion {att. to svhj.). 
 t. l^or the people w.Mdd not he debarred from gazin^r till the wii 
 
 moment, upon the hero, the darling hero of En-Und. 
 
 2. The Leadivg Members: — 
 
 A. The sentinels, who endeavoured to prevent the people from tres- 
 
 passnig on the parapet, were wedged amongst the crowd 
 dS. ^>/r; an officer, who ordered them to drive the people dowii with 
 
 their bayonets,— not very prudently, on such an occasion,— 
 
 was compelled rajudly to retire. 
 C. For the people would not he dehnrred from gazing, till the last 
 
 moment, upon the hero— the darling hero of England. 
 
 3. The Compound Sentence : — 
 
 " The sentinels, who endeavoured to prevent the people from tres- 
 passmg on tlie parapet, were wedged amongst the crowd : and an 
 otncer, who ordered them to drive the people down with the bayonet — 
 not very prudently, upon such an occasion,— was compelled rapidly 
 to retn-e; for the people would not be debarred from gazinff. till the 
 last moment, upon the hero,— the darling hero, of England." 
 
 68. Example 2. ( Without Connectives.) 
 
 I. The Clauses: — 
 
 a\ At times industry and the arts flourish {att. to " times"), 
 I n* mj '^^^ *""°^ "^•^" ^^'^ ^^V^ '» perpetual occupation. 
 ■*" i' i ®y ^"J^y *^^^ occupation itself as their reward. 
 
 c\ Some pleasures are the fruit of their labours {att. to ohj). 
 -C. Ihey also enjoy these pleasures as their reward {contr ) 
 
 +C- 
 
 2. TTie Leading Memhers : — 
 
 A, In times rnhen industry sM the arts flourish, men are kept in 
 perpetual occupation. *^ 
 
-Ill 
 
 42 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PUO'jE, 
 
 i 
 
 I! 
 
 'I' 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 '( 
 
 ': 
 
 ■ i' 
 
 'i ■ ii 
 
 B. And they enjoy as tlicir reward the occnpation itself. 
 C As well as those pleasures irhlch are tlic fruit of tlicir labours. 
 3. The Compound ^Sentence : — 
 
 " In times when industry and the arts flourish, men arc kept in 
 perpetual occupation; and enjoy as tiieir reward the occup.Uion itself, 
 as well as those pleasures which are the fruit of their labour." 
 
 Exercise 21. 
 
 A. (With Connectives.) 
 
 I may at least plead in excuse. 
 
 If I accomplish the present task but imperfectly (adti ofcovdifi'nn). 
 
 That the present task has not been previously attempted (subs.). 
 
 And I tlierefore request. 
 
 That you will view rather as the outline of a course of reasoning 
 
 than as anything pretending to finished argument (subs.). 
 What I have to state to you on this subject {subs. obj.). 
 
 This might servo to teach the great. 
 
 If the great could he taught any lesson {adn. of condition). 
 
 Their glory stands upon how won' i foundation (subs, olj.). 
 
 Which is built upon popular ap^i-use {att, to subj.). 
 
 For they as quickly condemn. 
 
 As snch praise (adv. of man). 
 
 What seems like merit (subs. obj.). 
 
 What has only the appearance of guilt (subs, obj.), 
 
 Johnson had seen so much of sharp misery. 
 
 And Johnson had felt so much of sharp misery. 
 
 That Johnson was not affected by paltry vexations {adv. ofvffect). 
 
 And Johnson seemed to think. 
 
 That every body ought to be hardened to these vexations as much. 
 
 As Johnson was hai'dened to these vexations {adv. of dtgrec). 
 
 Their joy literally becomes our joy. 
 
 W'isn we cordially congratulate our friends {adv. of time). 
 
 Wiiich, however, to the disgrace of human nature, wo do but 
 
 seldom (att. to a^). 
 We are as happy for the moment. 
 As they are happy (adv. of degree). 
 Our heart swells with real pleasure. 
 Our heart overflows with real pleasure. 
 Joy sparkles from our eyes. 
 Joy animates every feature of our countenance, and every gesture 
 
 of our body. 
 Complacency sparkles from our eyes. 
 Complacency animates every feature of our countenance and 
 
 every gesture of our body. 
 
 *4t* The clauses from C. to H. to be contracted (§ 32). 
 
 1. A. 
 
 lai. 
 2ai. 
 
 B. 
 
 l\ 
 
 i2. 
 
 2. A. 
 
 laK 
 
 2a\ 
 
 a\ 
 
 B. 
 
 62. 
 26'. 
 A. 
 B. 
 ab. 
 C. 
 
 c\ 
 
 4. A. 
 
 a\ 
 
 aK 
 
 3. 
 
 B. 
 
 l\ 
 
 a 
 v. 
 
 E. 
 F. 
 
 o. 
 II. 
 
SYNTIIKSIS OF COMrOUND SENTENCrS. 
 
 43 
 
 5. 
 
 n 
 
 1. 
 
 J. 
 
 R 
 
 a 
 
 ahc. 
 d\ 
 D. 
 K 
 F. 
 (}. 
 
 fu- 
 ll. 
 
 h. 
 
 A. 
 a\ 
 
 B. 
 
 h\ 
 
 2b'K 
 261. 
 
 362. 
 462. 
 
 Wg prepare to meet tlie l)l()w. 
 
 And wc think to wnrd ofT the blow. 
 
 Or we think to bre;ik the turco of the blow. 
 
 Wlien the blow is coininf^. 
 
 Whfit cann«)t be avoitled {svhs. oh}.). 
 
 \Ve arm ourselves with patience to endure. 
 
 We n,<,'itate otnselves with lil'ty needless alarms about it. 
 
 l?ut the p.in'j: is over. 
 
 And the sti-uirjJ^Ie is no lonjrer necfissary. 
 
 Wh.a the blow is struek {</(Iik of time). 
 
 And we eease to harass ourselves more about the blow. 
 
 Than we can help (adv. of com p.). 
 
 A war is just a,ii:i!nst tlic Avrong-doer. 
 
 When lepar.iiion for wrong cannot be otherwise obtained la-h. of 
 
 time). -^ 
 
 But a war is c(«nformable to all the principles of morality then 
 only. 
 
 When the war is not likely to expose the nation to the evils 
 
 {adr. of time). 
 I)y which it is levied {att. to " nation"). 
 Which it professes to avert (ntt. to "evils"). 
 And when the war does not inflict on the nation sufferinf^s 
 
 (ndi). of time). 
 Which has done the wronf^ (ott. to " nation"). 
 Which are altoj^ethcr dispropoitioned to the extent of the iniury 
 
 {att. to "sutferings"). "' ^ 
 
 B. 
 
 (Without Connectives.) 
 
 a' 
 
 A. 
 
 2. A. 
 62. 
 61. 
 
 +B. 
 
 3. A. 
 61. 
 
 XB. 
 
 c\ 
 -fC. 
 
 4. a\ 
 A. 
 
 We do not discern many stars with our naked eyes (att. to 
 
 "stars"). 
 We see many stars by the help of our glasses. 
 Our telescopes are the finer {adv. of degree). 
 Our discoveries in that proportion are the more. 
 
 We have great deference for public opinion. 
 Something is good (att. to " tliat"). 
 Nothing but that can be permanently popular {suls. olj.). 
 This we readily admit. 
 
 T at first kept my usual silence. 
 
 Was it more like himself than a Saracen? (suhs. alter.). 
 
 Upon the knight's conjuring me to tell him this, I composed my 
 
 countenance in the best manner I could. 
 Much might be said on both sides {subs. olj). 
 I repli< d. 
 
 Sir Roger is landlord to the whole congregation {adv. of reason). 
 He keeps the whole congregation in very good order. 
 
III! 
 
 14 COMPOSITION IN PUOSE. 
 
 b^. By clmnoe he Ins been surprised into a good nap at sermon 
 (adv. of rondUion). 
 '.'B. Upon recovcrinfT out of it ho stands up. 
 -\-C. llo looks .about liiin. 
 -f-/>. Ho wakes tlicni himself. 
 — E. He sends his servant to them. 
 
 de. He sees somebody else noiUling {ndv. of conditwrt). 
 
 6. la\ A person looked on the waters only for a munieut (alt. to " per- 
 son" ). 
 2a^. The waters were retiring (/tiihs. nhj.). 
 
 A. That person niiglit fancy this. 
 1&^ A person looked on the waters only for five minutes (att. to 
 
 " person" ). 
 2IA. The waters were nT^hing cnprieiously to and fro {subs. ohj.). 
 -\-B. That person might fancy tliis. 
 Ic'. A person keeps his eye on the waters for a quarter of an hour 
 {adv. of time). 
 -|-2c'. He sees one sea-mark disappear after another {adv. of time). 
 3c^ I'he ocean is moved in some general direction {att. to "direc- 
 tion" ). 
 XC. Then it is impossible for him to doubt of that general direction. 
 
 6. la^. Unavoidable difficulties might be expected from the nature of 
 Columbus's undertaking {att. to " difliculties"). 
 2a2. Other difficulties were likely to arise from the ignorance and 
 timidity of the i)eople under his command {att. to " such ''). 
 a}. Columbus had to be prepared to struggle not only with the former 
 
 difficulties, but also with such as the latter {unhs. romp.). 
 A. The early discovery of the spirit of his followers taught Columbus 
 
 this. 
 &3. He had discoveries in view {att. to " discoveries'*). 
 &2. Naval skill and undaunted courage would be requisite for ac- 
 complishing these discoveries {adv. of comparison). 
 The art of governing the minds of men would be no less requisite 
 
 ■ 
 
 61. 
 -j-i?. lie believed 
 
 {snhs. ohj.). 
 
 h 
 
 Chapter VI. — Original Sentences. 
 
 69, Tlie preceding exercises afford sufficient practice in tlie 
 mechanical construction of sentences, of which both the thought 
 nnd the language are supplied. The next step in the course of 
 instruction suggested in these lessons is the writing of Origliuil 
 Sentences, in which both the tliought and the language siiall bo 
 
 w 
 
ORIGINAL SKNTKNCES. 
 
 4« 
 
 
 tlic ptipil s own. This may best Le accomplished by prr ry.sin- 
 questions, the answer to each of which shall be in the form of a 
 complete sentence,---simple, complex, or compound, according 
 to the necessities of the case, the ability of the pupil or the 
 judgment of the teacher. ^ ^ ^ ' "'® 
 
 att!i?ded"to^^— ™''"^ *^''^ exercise, two things must be carefully 
 
 1. The sentence must in every case be a direct answer to the 
 
 question; not a vague statement about the subject of 
 inquiry. -^ 
 
 (a) This will conduce to accuracy of thinking, as well as to nrecision 
 of language. A loose answer should in every instance be r^^^S 
 
 2. Eveiy sentence must be grammatically complete. It must 
 
 make complete sense, apart from the question. In other 
 words, the subject of the question must be repeated in 
 the answer. I or example, if the question be : " How is 
 an eclipse of the sun caused ?" it is not a complete answer 
 to reply By the moon intercepting its rays." It must 
 be: An eclipse of the sun is caused by the moon 
 intercepting its rays." 
 
 ci l''^u^^^''".l,''" •'"complete sentence is presented to the teacher lie 
 
 The construction of every sentence should further be tested by 
 the prmciples explamed in Chapter II. ^ 
 
 m 
 
 Example. 
 
 What is a volcano ? 
 
 A volcano is a mountain which from time to time throws 
 up burning matter or lava, together with ashes nml 
 ston^es, through an opening in^its summij Slled The 
 
 71. 
 
 Question : . 
 Amwer : . 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 
 Write one sentence in answer to each question. 
 
 A. 
 
 1. What is coal ? 
 
 2. What is the diamond? 
 
 3. Which is the most precious metal? and why? 
 
 i 
 I I 
 
46 
 
 Ci"»MPOaiTIO\ IN PhOOB, 
 
 4. IT'->w is pip(»r miilc? 
 
 6. Wlwtt Is IcMthor? 
 
 6. Whenco is linen obtaincl ; and wliat are its usos? 
 
 7. What is an (!artlir|U!iko? 
 
 8. How is an oclipxu of tlxi moon cansod? 
 
 9. Is snow of any use to tlu; fanner? 
 
 10. What are thu motions of the earth; and what chansea depend 
 upon each. o r « 
 
 n. What is the cause of tlie tiik's? 
 
 12. What are gregarious animals? 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 6. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 What is tlie mariner's compass? 
 
 What is the microscope? 
 
 Wliat was the (Jnnpowder Plot? 
 
 ^Vilo were tlie Pilp^rim Fathers? 
 
 What were the Jacobite Kehcilions? 
 
 Who was Christopher Columbus? 
 
 For what is William Wallace famous? 
 
 Wiiat was the fate of Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 What led to the inventi(m of printing ?'' 
 
 What is trial by jur,y? 
 
 What is the difference between exogenous and endogenous plants ? 
 
 ;'t I 
 
 1^. What 18 the dilicrcnce between reason and instinct? 
 
47 
 
 PART II.-TIIE STRUCTURE OF PARAGRAPHS. 
 Chapter I — Principles of Construction. 
 
 72. A raragraph is a connected scries of sentences rclatin<r 
 to he same subjeet. As tl,e sentence is tl.e result of the 
 synthesis or bu, d.ng up, of clauses, so the paragra,,!, is the 
 result of the synthesis, or building up, of sentenies. Indeed, l,o 
 c cments of the sentence and of the paragraph are substant ally 
 the same. They d.lfer only in form. °In'the sentence they 
 appear as words phrases, or clauses ; in the paragraph thov 
 appear as complete sentences. A sentence may thus be ex- 
 
 ,Cnli''!!^r P;''"*'"7''' ^y «^-p'-essiMg each of its important 
 members m the form of a separate sentence. 
 
 73. There .are three nualities to be aimed at in the construction 
 of paragraphs,-! lluity; 2. Continuity; 3. Variety. 
 
 I'i. I. t^M'/.— J lis qiiility requires th,it all the sentences in 
 « paragraph should bear directly upon the main subject or 
 division of a subject to which it refers. It should no bo 
 overloaded with details which tend to destroy its elcan.e 3 
 and force; ne.ther should it be prolonged so 'as to cmb ael 
 elements which have not a manifest connexion with its lcadk° 
 
 75 II. Contmmty.—Aa all the sentences in a paragraph 
 should thus relate to the same subjeet, they should be arra, W 
 so as to carry the line of thought naturally and suggesti "ely 
 h-om the one to the other. For this purpose free use should bo 
 made of the eontnniative particles and phrases; as, "however" 
 "moreover," ''indeed," "thus," "consequently" "at thTl^o 
 time," 'j in like manner," etc., etc. 
 
 76. HI. Variety.— Iha successive sentences should difTer 
 from Une another, both in the manner of their construction an] 
 m their length It will be found to be of adva„"ag to m^ke 
 V .^.'' • ';r'' '^ '\ '''Sinning brief. The attention orthc 
 leader is thus arrested at the outset, without being subjected 
 
48 
 
 cosirosrnoN in phosi:. 
 
 . 
 
 t 
 
 M 
 
 
 any unncccf?sf\iy strain. A lonc^rr sentence limn nsnni, pitlin inj» 
 up the various threads of thouglit, has its appropriate place at 
 the close. 
 
 77. These qualities are illustrated in the following brief 
 paragraph from Macaulay :— 
 
 {\.) " It is by his essays that Bacon is best known to the 
 
 i2.) multitude. 'J'he iXiwuin Organum and the />e Aitg- 
 3.) menlis are much tnikcd of, but little read. They have 
 produced, indeed, a vast effect upon the opinions of 
 mankind; but they have ])roduced it through the 
 
 i4.) operation of intermediate a,i:^ents. . They have moved 
 5.) the intellects which have moved the world. It is in 
 the essays alone that the mind of Bacon is brought 
 into immediate contact with the minds of ordinary 
 readerr Tl;ere he opens an exoteric school, and talks 
 to plain men in language which everybody understands, 
 about things in which everybody is interested. Ilo 
 has thus enabled those who must otherwise have taken 
 his merits on trust, to judge for themselves; and tho 
 great body of readers have, during several generations, 
 acknowledged that the man who has treated with such 
 consummate ability questions with which they aro 
 familiar, may well be supposed to deserve all the 
 praise bestowed on him by those who have pat in tho 
 inner school." 
 
 (G.) 
 (7.) 
 
 Tlie unify ot' tl)is paragraph is complete. The subject to wliich it 
 reliitcs is announced in tho opening sentence. The fact thus stated i8 
 illustrated and enforced, chiefly by comparison and contrast, in tho suc- 
 ceeding sentences ; but no new topic is started throughout the paragraph, 
 and its oneness is thus unimpaired. 
 
 The continuity is also very evident. Sentences (1) and (2) are con- 
 nected by the relation of antithesis. Sentence (3) is an amplification of 
 (2), and is connected with it by the pronoun they, and the particle indeed. 
 Sentence (4) repeats the closing clause of (3) in another form, and is joined 
 to it, also, by the pronoun. Sentence (5) is the return from the antithesis, 
 and repeats the statement of (1), which in sentences (.')), (6), and (7), is still 
 further elaborated. (5) and (6) are linked together by there; (6) and (7), 
 by thus. 
 
 Tho variety in length is sufBciently indicated by tho spaces between the 
 
PRI.NCirLi:.^ OF CONSTHUCTION. 
 
 49 
 
 numberH of t])o Hoiitciices in thn margin. It will he m^ticod that (1), (2) 
 are both short Hcntciiccs ; (3), [5), (ti) are of medium length, hut their 
 equality is eaved from sinkinj^ into sameness hy the introduction of 
 another short sentouce, (1). The lonc^ sentcjicc (7) iit the close gives 
 dignity and impressivoness to the para^r.iph, like a prolonged note at tlie 
 conclusion of a melotly, 
 
 78. Tlieie are three kinds of composition, to any one of which 
 paragraph may belong : — 
 
 I. Nakkation: detailing a course o^ events. 
 II. Description: setting forth the nature of particular objects 
 III, Exposition : explaining scientific principles. 
 
 Wo shall deal with each kind of composition separately. 
 
 79. The clement of Reflection, which is rather an operation of 
 the mind than a distinct species of writing, enters more or less 
 into nil the kinds of composition specified above. It frequently 
 occupies no more than a single sentence in a narration or a 
 description. It niMy even be conveyed in a f^'.igle epithet, as 
 when we characterize a contrivance as " wonderful," or a course 
 
 'f action as "disastrous." Keflection may therefore be more 
 onvcnicntlv rcirarded as an element coiunion to all kinds of 
 writing, than as itself a distinct kind of (composition. The 
 particulars which it usually embraces are relations of cause and 
 effect, judgments of approval or disapproval, and feelin>js of 
 pleasure or pain. 
 
 Chapter II.— Narration. 
 
 80. Active scones and courses of events form the proper sub- 
 jects of Narration. 
 
 81. The single law of narration is, that the events he narrated 
 in the order of their occurrence. 
 
 82. A narrative paragraph may be constructed by expanding 
 and enlarging a narrative sentence, or a sentence in which certain 
 ©vents, or things done (res gestcB), are set forth. Indeed there 
 Ib a remarkable correspondence between the elements of the 
 pwagrapli and those of the sentence. The predicat/ts in th© 
 
 D 
 
60 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PKOSE. 
 
 latter represent the separate events in the former ; the subjects and 
 objects m the latter correspond witli the persons engaged hi theso 
 events; the attributes m the sentence become explanafoi'y sentences 
 in the paragraph ; the adverbials of time, place, manner, and cause 
 in the one, are expanded in the other into separate sentences^ 
 which contribute those details of circumstanc(^ tl>at give life and 
 energy to the composition. This suggests the best practical 
 method of dealing with the exercises. 
 
 83. In expanding a sentence into a paragraph, every fact 
 stated or implied in the former must first be written down as a 
 separate sentence. These sentences will form the skeleton or 
 outline of the paragraph. They must then be enlarged by the 
 addition of circumstances which, though out of place in the 
 sentence, are necessary to the completeness of the paragraph. 
 
 84. 
 
 si * 
 
 Example. 
 1, The Sentence. 
 
 " After quelling the disturbances excited in the west of England by 
 (jritha, King Harold's mother, and building a fortress to overawe the city 
 f Exeter, William returned to Winchester." 
 
 2. The Expansion. 
 The following facts are stated or implied in this sentence: — 
 
 1. A disturbance had arisen in the west of England. 
 
 2. It was excited by Githa. • 
 
 3. Githa was the mother of Harold, the late king. 
 
 1. William started from Winchester with an army for the scene of this 
 disturbance. 
 
 5. He succeeded in quelling it. 
 
 6. Thereafter he built a fortress to overawe the city of Exetor, the 
 
 centre of the disaffection. 
 
 7. William then returaed to W^inchester. 
 
 3. The Enlargements. 
 
 To make the paragraph complete, we must introduce such new facts 
 as will explain the historical connexion of this event. Referring to the 
 history of the period, we find : — 
 
 1 . That William, having spent a year in settling the affairs of his new 
 
 kingdom, believed that he might with safety visit his subjeats 
 in Normandy. 
 
 2. That the malcontents in England took advantage of his absence to 
 
 excite tumults. 
 
NARRATION. 
 
 51 
 
 8. That the disturbance referred to in the west of England arose in 
 
 this connoxion. 
 4. That on hearing of it, William hurried to England and succeeded in 
 
 quelli})g it. 
 
 Interweaving these new facts with those already aHcertaincf], wc obtain, 
 as the result of the combined processes of expansion and eniargeiuuut, — 
 
 4r TJie Parogrojyh. 
 
 "William the Conqueror, having spent a year in settling the affairs of his 
 new kingdom, had succeeded so completely in restoring outwani peace and 
 order, that he believed he might safely fulfil his promise of revisiting his 
 ancient subjects in Normandy. He had nsit been long absent, however, till 
 the malcontents in England, takincr advantage of his absence, began to excite 
 tumults in various parts of the I'muitry. The most serious of these dis- 
 turbances arose in the west of England, where a considerable party had 
 gathered round Githa, the mother of Harold the late king. On hearing 
 of the discontent, William hastened across the channel; and, arriving at 
 Winchester, placed himself at the head of a small army with which he 
 marched to the scene of the rebellion. Hy his personal presence, and his 
 vigorous measures, he speedily succeeded in quelling the revolt. Before 
 leaving the scene of the rebellion, he took the precaution of building a 
 fortress to overawe the city of Exeter, the centre of the disaffection in 
 that part of the country, llaving by these measures re-established his 
 authority in the west, he returned in triumph to Winchester, which was 
 then the seat of his government." 
 
 8t). The simplest form of Narration is, — 
 
 I. Incidental Narration, which deals with ordinary occur- 
 rences coming within the writer's experience, and includes, 
 therefore, Letters, incidents of Travel or Adventure, and 
 accounts of Mechanical Processes. 
 
 Its highest form is, — 
 
 II. Historical Narration, which deals with recorded events, 
 lying, for the most i)art, hoyond the writer's experience, 
 and includes, besides stories, — real or fictitious, — the 
 naiTative portions of History and Ijiography. 
 
 1. I^X'IDE^•TAL Nauuation. 
 
 B^. In Incidental N; rration, the simplest lan.L^uagc, and the 
 most direct foi'tn of sLatenu'iit should be «.niplt>y(jd. A sliif or 
 formal style of treatment is especially to be avoided. 
 
no 
 
 COMPOSITION IN I'UOSE. 
 
 87. 
 
 Example. 
 The Sentence. 
 
 " Last Wednesday niprlit, one of my liaros havinf^ escaped, some 
 of my people, acconipaiiicjd by many of the nciglibours, set off in 
 pursuit; and after an hour's chase, secured her in a tanpit full of 
 water, and brought her home in a sack at ten o'clock." 
 
 The particulars to be successively taken up in expanding this statement, 
 
 are, — 
 
 1. The time of the occurrence. 
 
 2. ^rhe alarm raised. 
 
 3. The chase, and its incidents. 
 
 4. The cai)ture. 
 6. The return. 
 
 The following pnni graph, — from one of Cowpcr's letters, — will show 
 how this may be done : — 
 
 2. TJie Paragraph. 
 
 " Last Wednesday night, while we were at supper, between the hours 
 of eight and nine, 1 heard an unusual noise in the back parlour, as if one 
 of the hares was entangled, and endeavouring to disengage herself. I was 
 just going to rise from table, when it ceased. In about five minutes, a 
 voice on the outside of the parlour-door inquired if one of my hares had 
 got away. I immediately rushed int.) the next room, and found that my 
 poor favourite Puss had made her escape. She had gnawed in sunder the 
 strings of a lattice work, with which 1 thought I had suiHciently secured 
 the window, and which I prefericd to Jiny other sort of Ijlind, because it 
 admitted ])lenty of air. From thence I hastened to the kitchen, where I 
 saw the redoubtable Thomas Freeman, who told me that having seen iier, 
 just after she had dropped into tlic street, he attempted to cover her with 
 In's hat, but she screamed out, and leajjcd directly over his head. 1 then 
 desired hiin to pursue as fast as possible, and added Kiehard Coleman to 
 the cha'^e, as being iiinibler, and carrying less weight than Thomas; not 
 expecting to s^ee iier again, but desirous to learn, if possible, Avhat became 
 of her. In something less than an hour, Kiehard returned, almost breath- 
 less, with the following account, 'i'hat soon after he began to run, he 
 left Tom Ix'hind him, and came in sight of a numerous hunt of men, 
 wonun, eliildren, and dogs; that he did his best to keep baelc the dogs, 
 and jiresently outstripprd the crowd, so tb.^i. liie race was at last disputid 
 between himself and Fuss — she ran right tlirough the town, and down 
 tlie lane that leads to Drojishort; a little before she came to tlie house, 
 he got the start and turned lier; she pushed for the town again, and soon 
 after she entered it, sought shelter in Mr WagstalF's tanyard, adjoining to 
 olil Mr Drake's. Sturges's harvest men v/ere at sui)i!cr, and saw her from 
 the opposite side of tin; way. Here she encountered the tanpits full of 
 
 tV- 
 
NARRATION. 
 
 63 
 
 watfiv; and wln'lo fho was strugglinn^ out of one pit, and plnngin^^ into 
 anotlmr, and almost drowned, one of the men drew lier out by t!ie cirs, 
 and secured licr. S^lie v.'is tlicn well waslied in a bnchot, tj ;rct the Umo 
 out of her coat, and brought homo in a back at ten o'clock." — Cuivjyer, 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 Expand each of the following sentences into an Incidental 
 
 1*AUAGEAPII : — 
 
 1. In the course of an excursion to the top of , which I mule 
 
 with two companions, in my hist liolidays, ve liad the misfortune to lose 
 our way in a thick mist, and narrowly escaped spending the night upon 
 tlie hill. 
 
 2. When fisliing in the yesterday, I succeeded in iioolving a large 
 
 trout; but after playing him up and down the river for twenty minutes, 
 I had tlie mortification to see him slip off the hook, just as 1 was 
 bringing him to land. 
 
 3. Castle was visited last Aveek by a largo party, which, after wan- 
 dering about the grounds, and examining the castle inside and outside, 
 took luncheon under a spreading oak-tree on the lawn. 
 
 4. When we were .at breakfast this morning, an alarm having been 
 raised that my pony had escaped, we set olF in pursuit ; and after an 
 exciting chase by all the men and dogs in the neighbourhood, we stscured 
 him at the turnpike gate, which the taxman had wisely closed when he 
 lieard the noise of our approach. 
 
 5. Last Saturday, we had a delightful walk across the fields and through 
 the woods, in the course of which we gathered many specimens of beau- 
 tiful wildtlowers, mosses, and ferns. 
 
 6. In the great fne in street, a fireman lost his life, in making a 
 
 brave attempt to save two children who had been left in an uj)pcr storey. 
 
 7. The games, consisting of contests in running, leaping, jjutiing 
 
 the ball, throwing the hammer, and other manly exercises, were held last 
 week with great success. 
 
 8. In the contest between the wind and the sun, to see which would 
 first compel a traveller to doft' his cloak, the sun succeeded by the force 
 of his genial influence, when the wind exerted his utmost vit)lcnce in vain. 
 
 9. A stag, which greatly admired his branching horns when he saw 
 them reflected in a clear pool in which he was drinking, found them very 
 inconvenient when ho was pursued by hounds through a thick wood. 
 
 10. An old man whose end was near, wishing to show his sons the 
 strength of union, took a bundle of sticks, and after vainly attempting 
 to break them so long as they were bound together, easily snapped them 
 one by one when they were separated. 
 
 11. A countryman finding a little snake half frozen, put it in his Iwsom 
 to warm it to life again ; but it had no sooner been revived by his kindness 
 than it stung its benefactor, so that he died. 
 
 M 
 
u 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 12, IIousc1io!(l pns is tho vaponr given ofTbycannel coal when enclosed 
 in an iron or ciay retort, heated to a vvliite heat; l)ut it must be freed of 
 tar. and bo puriliud by ijassiug through thin layers of lime, before it is fit 
 for use. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 J3. 
 
 14. 
 15. 
 IG. 
 17. 
 
 A Day in a Yacht. 
 A Visit to tlic iinss Knck. 
 A Sail down the 'i'lianies. 
 A Walk by the ISea-shoro. 
 A Snow-storm. 
 
 18. An Inundation. 
 
 10. A Military Review. 
 
 20. A Foot-ball Match. 
 
 21. An Alarm of Thieves. 
 
 22. An Eclipse of the iSim or Moon. 
 2;>. The t^hcidierd Boy and the Wolf. 
 24:. The Old Man and his Ass. 
 
 2. Letter- WRiTiNa. 
 
 C3. A Letter is not necessarily, or in all cares, a Narrative. 
 It may embrace both l)escri])tion and Exposition. Excepthig 
 peculiar cases hoAvever, Narration is the element which pre- 
 dominates in correspondence ; and it is in connexion with this 
 element that the iorms and specialties of Letter-writing may 
 be most conveniently explained. 
 
 89. The language of Letters shonld be plain and simple. Tho 
 construction of the sentences should be easy and natural. Stiff- 
 ness, formality, and the affectation of ])reciseness are, in this kind 
 of composition, particularly objectionable. Here, a colloquial or 
 conversational style is not only allowable, but is even desirable. 
 Letters are for the most part written to relatives or intimate 
 friends. Their purpose is to communicate facts which, in other 
 circumstances, would form the subject of familiar conversation. 
 We should therefore write to our friends in their absence very 
 much as we should speak to them if they were present. 
 
 90. The mechanical arrangement of a letter is important. A 
 slovenly or careless habit contracted in writing familiar letters 
 may lead to serious consequences in more important correspond- 
 ence. The following points are therefore to be attended to. 
 Every letter should contain : — 
 
 I. llie DatCf and tlic Place where it is written. 
 
 The day, month, and year, shonld be given in full. Never date a 
 letter merely by the day of the week, as, *' Tuesday Evening." 
 
NARRATION. 
 
 55 
 
 11. Thp, Form of Address; as " Sir," " Dear Sir," « My Dctir 
 Clj'irlos," *' lly Dearest Father ; " according to tlic terms 
 of intimacy between the writer and the person addressed. 
 
 III. The Narrative, or Letter proper. 
 
 IV. The ^Subscription; as " Yours truly," " Yours faithfully," 
 
 " Your affectionate brother," etc. (varying as in No. 11., 
 with the relations of the parties), and the Naine of tho 
 writer. 
 V. The Name of the Recipient. 
 
 Ill 
 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 
 Ezample. 
 
 IT. My Dear Charles, 
 
 24 Blank Street, London, 
 January 13tb, 1807. 
 
 safe 
 
 1 write this short note to let you know of iny safe r.rrivnl here 
 this morning, after a long and tedious journey. The train was un- 
 usually heavy, and the delay at several of the stations was very long 
 and tiresome. Had no accident happened, we should have been an 
 hour behind time; but to add to our misfortunes, when we were a 
 few miles on the other side of Darlington, the engine broke down, 
 and a messenger had to bo sent to that station for another engine. 
 We had to wait nearly two hours before it arrived, and two moro 
 dreary hours I have never spent. We put on extra speed to make 
 up for lost time, and we got considerably shaken during the latter 
 pnrt of the journey, to the great alarm of the ladies. In spite of 
 all our efforts, we found, on arriving at King's Cross, that we were 
 two hours and a half late. Mr Smith had waited for me all that 
 time. His anxiety (for the officials would give him no particulars) 
 had prevented him from tiring. I have not yet seen anytliing of 
 London ; but tho Smiths have a number of plans formed for my 
 amusement, so I expect to enjoy my visit very much. 
 
 Give my kind regards to all friends, and believe me, my dear 
 Charles, 
 
 Your afFect'.onate Brother, 
 
 To 
 
 Mr Charles Brown, 
 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 William F. Brown. 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 Subjects for Letters, 
 
 1. The Journey from Homo to School. 
 
 2. A Holiday Kamble. 
 
 3. The Daily Routine at School. 
 
66 
 
 COMrOSITION IN PIIOSE. 
 
 I 
 
 4. ITow Sutitlny is spent at School. 
 6. A Visit to a Picture Gall-irv. 
 
 6. Tho IwCHiiIts of an Examination. 
 
 7. An Answer to a Letter inquiring when tho Cliristmas ITollclays 
 
 begin and end. 
 
 8. An Answer to a Letter inviting you to spend a TToliday with a friend. 
 
 9. An Answer to a Letter asking wlierc you arc to spend your Holidays. 
 
 10. A Letter acknowledging rc;ceipt of a Present. 
 
 11. A Jjctter inviting a companion to spend his or Iicr Holidays with you. 
 
 12. A Letter to a Friend abroad, describing the changes that have taken 
 
 place during his absence. 
 
 91. Formal Notes [e.g.^ Cards of Invitation and the Replies 
 to the same) are generally written in the Third Person, in this 
 case the Form of address and the Subscription must be omitted; 
 and the Date is usually put at the end. 
 
 (rt) It is a common mistake, in replying to such notes, to use the future 
 tense instead of the present. Never say, " Miss .Itmi.-s loill linna niiudi 
 pleasure in accepting, etc." She has much pleasure in accei)tinij; she 
 toill have much pleasure in heing present. 
 
 92. 
 
 Example 1. 
 Invitation. 
 
 Mr and Mrs Fitzroy request the pleasure of Mr Butler's company at 
 dinner, on Friday, tlie"2Gth lust., at seven o'clock. 
 
 The Elms, 
 5th February 18G7. 
 
 Acceptance. 
 
 Mr Butler has much pleasure in accepting Mr and Mrs Fitzroy's invlta- 
 lion to dinner, for Friday the 26th iust., at seven o'clock. 
 
 The Oaks, 
 Cth February 1867. 
 
 Declinature. 
 
 Mr Butler, with compliments to Mr and ^frs Fiteror, regrets that he 
 cannot have the pleasure of accepting their invitation to dinner, for Friday 
 the 26th inst., in consequence of 8 prior engagement 
 The Oaks, 
 
 6th February 18G7. 
 
 93* Example 2. 
 
 Note. 
 
 Mr Bruce presents his compliments to Major Spence, and hogs to know 
 whether he can give him the present address of his fnend Mr Jameg 
 Thomson, who obtained a situation in a mercantile house in Livev^uol 
 
NARKATION. 
 
 57 
 
 tlirce 01 four vears ajro Mr Bruce's rcisoti for wisliiiiff to knovv Mr 
 Thomson's aaarcss is, that he has a book bcloiirri„a. to Mr T in m! 
 possession, which he wishes to return. «^^<^"o»>o to Air 1. m Lis 
 
 The Hall, Cheshire, 
 1st March 1807. 
 
 JRephj. 
 
 afKeninnr'trl"' compliments to Mr Urnce, bejr« to inform him that 
 Lon lorwhc.^ r Jf "■' '" L.verpool, Mr James Thomson removed to 
 x^omion, whcie he at pro>«.-iit resulcs. Major S. is not aware of Mr 
 
 appJ>n^ to iMr l.'s uncle in Conihill. In the event of Mr Bruce 
 8ueccedm^ ,n obta ninn. Mr Thomson's address, Alajor Lc icf wiU Tel 
 greatly obliged by Mr iiruce's oommuuicating it to him. ^ 
 Crook Street, Manchester, 
 2d March 18t>7. 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 1. Card of Invitation to an Eveniuf^ Tarty. 
 
 2. Card of Invitation to a Soiree 31usicale. 
 
 3. Acceptance of the same. 
 
 4. Declinature of the same. 
 
 ^* ^Land '' * ^'^'''"'^"' ^"^"esting the loan of » Hume's History of Eug- 
 
 6. reply to the Fame, forwarding the work. 
 
 7. J^otc to a tradesman, requesting Goods on sight. 
 
 8. Ifcply to the same. 
 
 9. Note t<) a neiglibour, complaining of annoyance from his dog. 
 lU. Jieply to the same. ** 
 
 11. Note to a Lady, inquiring as to the character of a servant 
 i^. Iteply to the same. 
 
 3. Historical Narration. 
 
 04. In Historical Narration, of which a complete example has 
 been given at § 84, the same plan is to be followed as in the 
 last excrc.se. In tliis kind of writing, a higher style of diction 
 IS allowable than ni incidental narration. It must be remem- 
 bered, however, that at this stage it is only a single para- 
 graph on each subject that is to be produced— not a complete 
 essajr. ' r ^ 
 
r,B 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 J 
 
 H 
 
 T). When liolf the Ganger was ru({uirm.l to do homage tor Neustna to 
 harles the Sim})le, he {luputed one of his soltliers to ptn-form the ceremony ; 
 ho, raising Charles's foot instead of lowering his own mouth, throw the 
 
 Exercise 28 
 
 Expand each of the following sentences into an ITistorical 
 Paragkaph : — 
 
 1. During his reverses, King Alfred was on one occasion soundly 
 scolded by a neatherd's wife for allowing some cakes to burn, which she 
 had told him to watch; and greatly ashamed she was when she discovered 
 who it was that she had been abusing. 
 
 2. William Tell, the Swiss patriot, having pierced with an aiTow tho 
 jipple placed for a mark ajjon his son's head by the Austrian tyrant, 
 (Iruj)pod a second arrow; and being asked its purj oao, replied that it 
 should have found the tyrant's heart if he had harmed his son. 
 
 3. Harold, when on a visit to Duke William in Normandy, was induced 
 to swear fealty to him; but was startled to find, on a covering being 
 removed, that ho had sworn on the relics of saints, and that his oath was 
 irrevocable. 
 
 4 On the eve of the liattle of Bannockbura, King Robert the Eruce in- 
 cautiously engaged hi single conibat with Sir Henry de Pxdmn, an English 
 knight, and clelt his skull, shivering the shaft of his battle-axe in the act. 
 When liolf the Ganger was re({uired to do homage for Neustria to 
 Charl - - ----- -- - 
 
 who, 
 
 monarch on his back. 
 
 6. After the Battle of Zutphen, as the wounded Sir Philip Sidney was 
 raising a cup of water to his parched lips, he handed it untnsted to a dying 
 soldier, Avho was being carried past, saying, "Thy necessity is greater than 
 mine." (1580). 
 
 7. The Surajah Dowlah, Viceroy of Bengal, having taken Calcutta, thrast 
 the English inhabitants, to the number of a hundred and forty-six, into a 
 small and loathhjome dungeon known as the Black-hole, where in one 
 ni<:ht the greater part of them were stifled; but Clive soon avenged this 
 barbarity in the great Battle of Plasf;y. 
 
 8. At the heights of Abraham, General Wolfe was carried to the rear 
 mortally wounded; but he lived to hear that the enemy was fleeing, when 
 he exclaimed, " Then, God be praised, I shall die happy," and inuncdiately 
 expired. 
 
 9. The Emperor Leopold 1. claimed the Spanish crown for his son 
 Charles on the ground that he was a lineal descendant of Philip III. ; but 
 Louis XIV. of France could also make the same claim for his son, since 
 both Louis and Leopold were grandsons of Philip 111. 
 
 10. After Howe's return to Portsmoath, the Jioijal Genrcie, of 103 guns, 
 when undergoing repairs, was capsized at Spithead by a squall, and, all 
 her ports being open, immediately sank, when a great i>art of the crew, as 
 well as Admiral KempcnfckU, wdio was writing in bis cabin, were drowned. 
 
 IL When the ships ladca with the taxed tea arrived at Boston 
 ^December IG, 1773), a body of men disguised as Mohawk Indians b-oarded 
 the sliip^*, and scattered their cargoes in the water, to the valu;.', it is coin- 
 r.uted, of £18,000. 
 
NARRATION. 
 
 59 
 
 12. The rcvnpition, by Louis XTV., of tlio Edict of Nnntcs, gmntcd by 
 Ilcnry IV. for tiie protection oi' his Protestant subjects when he himself 
 became a Iloman-caiholic, deprived Franco of upwards of half-a-million of 
 its most industrious subjects, wlio carried into other countries not only 
 vast sums of nicmcy, but also those arts and manufactures which had 
 chiefly tended to enrich that kingdora. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 13. The Offcrincr of Isaac. 
 
 14. The iicath of Absalom. 
 
 15. The Shipwreck of St Paul. 
 
 16. The Battle of Morgartcn. 
 
 17. The Crowning of Charlemagne. 
 
 18. The Boy Crusade. 
 
 li). Luther at the Diet of Worms. 
 
 20. The Battle of Ivry. 
 
 21. The Foreign Tour of Peter the 
 
 Great. 
 
 22. The Keign of TeiTor. 
 
 23. The Charge of the Light Bri- 
 
 gade. 
 
 24. The lielief of Lucknow. 
 
 4. Biographical Narration. 
 
 95. A Biographical paragraph contains a brief summary of tho 
 leading events in a man's life. It should open with a general 
 description of the position which its subject occupied. This is fol- 
 lowed by the narrative proper. It may conclude with reflections on 
 his character^ and the work which he accomplished in tlie woild. 
 
 (a) It is to be observed that the pupil is not expected to produce 
 more than a single comprehensive Paragraph on each subject. In a 
 Theme, a complete paragraph would be devoted to each item in tho 
 outline; in the paragraph a sentence to each item, on an average, 
 will be suflicient. 
 
 Examplo. — Lord Clive. 
 
 1. Ouilitie. 
 
 1. Descrij^>iion : The founder of the British Empire in India. 
 
 2. Narrative: Bom at Styche (Shropshire), 1725 — idle and mischievous 
 
 at school — goes to Madras — clerk \\\ the E. I. Company — disgusted 
 with the monotony of office life — welcomes the call to military 
 service — English influence in India very low — great success of 
 Clive's exploits — Arcot, 1751 — Plassy, 1757 — gi-eat reputation — 
 returns to England, 1760 — made an Irish peer — affairs go wrong in 
 his absence — sent out to put them right, 1764 — restores perfect order 
 in eighteen months — returns to England, 1767 — his conduct and 
 administration assailed, 1773 — acquitted — commits suicide, 1774. 
 8. Character: Great warrior, and able statesman — resolute and uneoni- 
 nromising — often unscrupiUous — always successful — the clibcts of 
 nis labours. 
 
CO 
 
 COMPOSITION IN rROSE. 
 
 M 
 
 \ 
 
 2. rarofjraph. 
 
 Rohcrt, Lord Clive, Bnron of Pln^sy, tlie fonnrli^r of tlio Hritish Empire 
 in India, was born at Styclic, in fc»hro))shirc, in 1725. At Rchool, he showed 
 greater aptitude for miselnef and acts of reclclessncs.s than for learniiif^; 
 and it was a relief to his parents to pet him safely shipped off to India in 
 1744. lie entered the civil service of the Company at Madras, at a timo 
 wlien its prosperity had sunk to a very low ebb; and tlie monotony of his 
 sedentary lil'e so dcju'essed him, tliat ho oftener than once atteniptcd to 
 coinmit suicide. AVhen French encronchment and intvifrue rendered it 
 necessary to take measures to save En;;lish influence from total extinction, 
 Clive gladly welcomed the call to active service. Jlis change of profession 
 marks an epocli in tbe history of India. From the day when he assumed 
 the sword, Knglisli interests began sensibly to revive. His first great 
 cx])loit Avas the capture and defence of Arcot, with only 500 men, 300 of 
 whom were natives. His crowning triumph was the victory of Plassy, 
 which laid Hcngal at the feet of the English, His own reputation was now 
 firmlv established, and his name became everywhere a tower of strength. 
 ()n his return to England in 17G0, he received the thanks of the Company, 
 and an Irish peerage from Government. But affairs went wrong in his 
 absence, and in 17G4, the Company sent liim out again to set them right. 
 'IMms, by his vigorous measures, he very soon succeeded in doing. In the 
 course of eighteen months, perfect order was restored; and on his final 
 return to England in 17G7, he was received with the distinction which his 
 great services deserved, lint his reforms had given offence to many of 
 those who had profited by the former laxity of affairs; and it is to bo 
 regretted that many of his acts were of so questionable a character as to 
 give his enemies a handle against him. In 1773. his administration was 
 made the subject of a parliamentary inquiry. The decision was in his 
 favour; but he was dissatisfied with the terms of the acquittal; and tho 
 mere fact of his having been put upon his trial affected him so deeply, that 
 he sought relief in suicide, November 22d, 1774. Clive was one of tho 
 greatest warrior-statesmen of whom England cnn boast. Bold, resolute, 
 and rapid as a soldier, he was equally calm, judicious, and comprehensive 
 as an administrator. It cannot be denied that he was often unscrupulous 
 in opposing cunning with cunning; but he Avas not cruel; he was not 
 selfish ; and his faults have been condoned by the success of Lis career, and 
 by tho splendid services he rendered to his country. 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 
 1. HoKATio Nelson. 
 
 1. Drscriptwn : The greatest naval hero of England. 
 
 2. Narrative: Born at liurnham Thorpe (Norfolk) in 1758 — a boy of 
 
 great spirit and courage — fondness for the sea — joi.isthe Rais^onnahle 
 as a mitlshipman, under his uncle, Captain ►^ucdcling — sails in Ci'ptain 
 Phipps's Arctic expedition, 1773 — assists In the reduction of Coisica, 
 
 iin 
 
IBRWBT!- 
 
 NAIiUATION. 
 
 61 
 
 wTicri he lopt liis ri.crlit oyn nt C;\lvi. 1791— witli Sir J, .Trrvis, defeats 
 tlieK|Mnl;ii{lso(rCM|>(' St ViiH-cnt, 17'.»7— losi-s his ripht iirm at Santa 
 Cruz, 171)8— gahis the hiittle of tho Nile, 179H — crcateil Haron Nelson 
 of tho Nile — attacks Copenhagen, 1 8« 1 1— created Viscount— defeats 
 the French and Spaniards at 'rrafal;X''U', IHOf), — death wound; dies in 
 three hours — great puhlic funeral in St Taul's. 
 3. Character: Great determination — strong sense of duty — " the greatest 
 sailor since the world hegan." 
 
 2. Ja.>iei Watt. 
 
 1. T)cf>rript'ion : Tho chief inventor of the steam-cngino. 
 
 2. Is'arruucc : r>orn at Gieenock, 173t)— delicate childhood, educated at 
 
 home — turn for practical mechanics — apprenticed to a mathematical 
 instrument maker in London, 17o5 — returns to Glasg.jw, 17jG — 
 patronized hy the University — hecomes mathemntical instrument 
 maker there — plans and executes the ilonkland and Crinan Canals — 
 surveys the Caledonian — hcgins to study the steam-engine, 17r»9 
 — repaiis the model engine of Glasgow College — patents his 
 . improved steam-engine, 1789 — sets up engine works, with lioulton, 
 at Soho, near J^iuningliam, 1775 — very i)n)sperous — discovers the 
 elements or' v-.-i.-.r. 178;i — introduces gas-lights, 1798 — retires from 
 business, 1800— dieoat lleathfield, near Birmingham, 1819. 
 
 3. Character: Acute, persistent, and lal)orious — effects of his invention on 
 
 the progress of the world — upright, generous, simple-minded. 
 
 3. Caudinal Wolsev. 
 
 1. jDc.9cr?p/j*on; The great minister of Henry VIII. 
 
 2. Narrative: Thomas Wolsey, born at Ipswich, 1471 — his father said 
 
 to have been a butcher there — goes to Oxford — called "the boy 
 bachelor" — connexion with the Dorset family — presented to tho 
 living of Lymington — becomes royal chaplain, 15U8 — service to 
 Henry VII. — king's almoner to Henry VI II. — acquires ascendancy 
 over the king — becomes lord treasurer, 1512 — bishop of Lincoln — 
 archbishop of York — cardinal and poj)e's legate, 1515 — lord chan- 
 cellor — inlluence s-upreme— contemplates the reform of the church 
 — supports the king's divorce from Catherine — the king alienated 
 by its lailure — opposition of the nobles — antipathy of Anne lioleyn 
 — deprived of his offices, 1529— retires to Esher — arrested at York 
 for high treason, 153U — dies at Leicester on his way to London. 
 
 3. Character: Ambitious, haughty, arrogant — but an impartial judge, 
 
 and an able administrator. 
 
 4. John Howard. 
 
 1. Description: "The Philanthropist." 
 
 2. Narrative: Born at Hackney, near London, 1723— is apprenticed to a 
 
 tradesman — inherits a eonsidcrahle fortune from his latlier^ 
 Purchases his* indentures and travels in Vrvice and Italy — se*? out 
 for Lisbon, to relieve the suilerers from the Earthquake, 175G— is 
 
G2 
 
 COMPOSITION IN rnosR. 
 
 ! 
 
 : 
 
 Cflptnrofl by a Fronch piivfitocr — ix thrown into prison — PuT.'rs frront 
 ll;^^ll^lli}>s — is rclciisud — 1)i:ci»mu'S iSliurill' of iH-iiluril, 177;{ — kccS 
 much of thu distress of i)iis«tiH.'rM--visits most tpf thu {j^.'tols of 
 Ku^laii'l — fxivcs evidiMict) b.d'orc Coininitteo of tho IIoiiso of C'om- 
 iiioiis — travels ov«m- Kiropu three titni!;-* visiting prisons and hos- 
 pitals, 177S, \7h:\, 1787 — publisJK'S tho rcsiilt.s — many of his 
 sn^i^ostions adopted — visits a lady sulU-rin^ from fever in th(! sontli 
 of Unssia — takes tluj fever and dies there, IV'JU— statue in St Paul's. 
 3. Character: Generous, self-sacrificing — good elfcots of his labours. 
 
 6. MuNoo Park. 
 
 1. De'^rription: Great African traveller. 
 
 2. Narrative: Porn at Kowlshiils, near Selkirk — destined for tin church 
 
 — studies medicine — ajjprentico in Selkirk — goes to I'Minhurgh — 
 apiiointed assistant-surgeon to tho Worcester^ East Indiaman, 1792 
 — oilers his services to tho African Association — Arrives at tho 
 Gambia, 1795 — penetrates fo Sego, and returns, 179G — kindness of 
 Karfa Taura — returns to London, 1797 — publishes his travels, 1799 
 — practises in Peebles, 1801 — returns to Africa, 1805 — roaches Bam- 
 bakoo, on the Niger — approaches Sego — murdered, or drowned. 
 8. Character: Courage and perseverance — self-sacrifico — endurance of 
 fatigue and hardships — results of his labours. 
 
 6. GEonGE Washixoton. 
 
 1. Description: The founder of the Picpublic of the United States. 
 
 2. Narrative: liorn at Pridge's Creek, in Virginia, 1732 — education, 
 
 simple and meagre — early military predilections — nearly enters the 
 British navy — becomes public surveyor to Lord Fairfax — appointed 
 adjutant-general of militia, 1751 — encroachments of tho French — 
 is appointed commissioner to remonstrate with them — serves in 
 the expedition to the Ohio, and in various campaigns against tho 
 French — marries and settles at Mount Vernon — outbreak of the War 
 of Independence — appointed commander-in-chief, 1775 — defeated at 
 Brandy wine, 1777 — capitulatifm of Lord (brnwallis at Yorktown, 
 1781 — enters New York, 1783 — resigns, and returns to private life 
 for six years — delegate from Virginia in the federal convention, 1787 
 —elected first President of the United States, 1789 — re-elected, 1793 
 —retires, 1796— dies, 1799. 
 8. Character: Simple, truthful, sincere, patriotic — patient, persevering, 
 conciliatory, disinterested — his influence on the infant republic. 
 
 Additional Sudjects. 
 
 7. Oliver Ci'omwcU. 
 
 8. Wellington. 
 
 9. Marlborough. 
 
 10. Napoleon. 
 
 11. Warren Hastings. 
 I'J. William Pitt. 
 
 13. Alfred the Great. 
 
 14. Peter the Great. 
 
 15. Alexander the Great. 
 IG. Charlemagne. 
 
 17. Julius Ciesar. 
 
 IS. W illiam of Oran go. 
 
DESCUU'TION. 
 
 G3 
 
 i 
 
 Chapter III.— Description. 
 
 96. It is tlio purpose of tlio Descriptive Paragraph to explain 
 what an object is, — to dcsfribc its nature, its structure or the 
 combination of its parts, its qualities, and the uses to which it is 
 applied. 
 
 97. Description may be cither general or particular. The 
 former corresponds witli logical delinition. It states the species 
 or class to which an object belongs, comparing and contrasting 
 it with other objects of the same genus. The latter embraces 
 an enumeration of all the particulars regarding the object wliich 
 are necessary to make our knowledge of it clear and complete. 
 A general description may b'^ contained in a single sentence. 
 A particular description extends over several sentences, or an 
 entire paragraph. A complete Descriptive Paragraph should 
 include both kinds of description, starting with the general 
 description, and passing from this to particulars. It admits 
 also of the introduction of occasional reflections on the qualities 
 of objects, and the purposes which they serve. 
 
 98. The general outline of a Descriptive Paragraph will there- 
 fore embrace these elements : — 
 
 1. A General Description : the class to which the object belongs, 
 
 and the points of agreement and difference between it and 
 other objects of the same class. 
 
 2. A Particular Description : its appearance, form, size, colour, 
 
 etc. — its locality or situation — its structure, with a 
 description of its parts — its characteristic features, or 
 points of special interest — its habits (if it be an animal) 
 — its kinds or varieties. 
 
 3. Reflections : its qualities — its uses. 
 
 a) It is not necessary to mention all these particulars in connexion 
 with every object. Neither is it necessary that tlie elements should 
 follow one another in the above order. In particular, rcflectionB 
 may be intrnduced at various points in the pnragraph, as the}' 
 are frequeniiy snjr^e«tcd by particular features m the description. 
 The mode in which the general sclu me is a]ipliod to special classes 
 of cbiectri will apijear in the outlines given under each of the fuUowing 
 cxLieibcs 
 
(?4 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PR^SR. 
 
 99, Examplo. 
 
 The Ei.Ei'HANT. 
 
 1. Outline. 
 
 1. General: Tluck-sklnnccl animals, — the largest terrestrial mammalia 
 
 furnished witli a proboscis. 
 
 2. Particular: Gigantic 8i/c — chuns.y appenranco— thick, piHar-likc legs 
 
 — the ])r(thoscis or trunk ; its tises— i^'iort neck — sharp sight — quick 
 ear— gregarious animals — swim well — the Indian elephant — tho 
 African ehipliant. 
 
 3. licjlcdion : Docile disposition — intelligence — revengeful when roused 
 
 — used as beasts of burden, in hunting and in war. 
 
 2. Parorp-aph. 
 
 Tlie elephant belongs to tl e order of Pachyderms, or thick-skinned 
 animals, which includes tho largest terrestrial mannnalia at present in 
 existence, it is called a probosc/ulian pachyderm, from being furnished 
 %vith a probo-^cis or trunk. The elephant is an animal of gigantic size, and 
 as its parts are not well proportioned, it has a clumsy appearance. Its legs 
 ai"e thick and ])illar-shaped, and are well adapted for supporting its massive 
 l)!)dy. Its head is large, and its neck very short in proportion to its size ; 
 but this is comptinsited by the lengtli and elasticity of its trunk. This trunk 
 is an elongation of the nostrils, consisting of a double tube, terminating in 
 a curious appendage resembling a fniger. l>y means of this wonderful 
 contrivance, the animal supplies itself with f(»od and water. With it, also, 
 it can lift great weiglit^^ uproot trees, untie knots, and even hold a. pen. 
 'J'he el.phant j (ssesses sharp sight, a quick ear, and a delicate sense of 
 Finell. They usually live together in herds, com])rising from fifty to a 
 Inindred individuals. The oldest marches at the head of the troop, the next 
 in age watching the rear. They swim well, and they run with remarkable 
 ^•peed. They often live to the age of nearly two hundred years. Two 
 F/eei 'S of elephants are known in existing nati're, the African elephant, 
 known by its round bead, convex forehead, and large flattened cars; and 
 the Indian elephant, which Ims an tddong liead, a concave forehead, and 
 cars ol' moderate size. The former is exceedingly fierce, and indeed cannot 
 1)0 tam^d. Thj latter is mild and docile. ^\■ hen taken young, they are 
 easily tamed, and are employed as beasts of bui'den, both in tiger-lnniting 
 nnd in war. Inoffensive ami peaceful, they rarely use their gig;inti(j 
 powers of injury; but wlnm irritated, they often exhibit a furious and re- 
 venij^elul ferocity. Conscious of their own massive strength, they feared 
 no enemy, till the agressions of man taught them his superiority. 
 
 100. Til the following exercises, the 6ultjt,'cts arc classified 
 \iM(l«'r fdur beads: — 1. Conniion Tiiiiig.s, iiicliuling ^lacbinery, 
 ii. Natiual History. 3. Pliy.sical Appearances. 4. Keinarkablo 
 
 Places. 
 
 1^ 
 
' 
 
 DESCKIPTION. 
 
 65 
 
 I. COMMON THINGS. 
 Exercise 28. 
 
 1. A Clock. 
 
 2. i^«rW.^r • The dial, ciiVi.led into hor.rs and minutes-smaller circle 
 oi w^.r;«" «^^"'"^f-J''\"'l-^-^vorks; wheels moved by nrin" .i- 
 or ^^elKllts-pe,Khllum, its use-fusee cylinder, its use-kin.ls 
 liousc clock, public Clock, watch, etc. ' ""'"' 
 
 y^cy.rc/.-o:,; Ke-ularity-exactness of indication-use in reculatiuLv our 
 occupatiuns-iniportance of punctuality. itguutnij, oui 
 
 3. 
 
 2. A Sun-. 
 A floatinp: house or castle— a water carriacre 
 
 1. Oereral, 
 
 "rsfr^ r'^'"'-'^'-''''"^ ^"/; "^^^^^^^^-vanous si/es-parts: hull- 
 q 7' -^^^••"'-^^"P-'"^''yJ>-'"t sl.ip-inan-of-war-yacht-scho„ncr e e 
 
 3, A Railway CAnRiAOE. 
 
 ^* ^^"curHa.^^s^''*"''^^^ """'^^ ^"^ '"" """ "'°" ""^^'^ -contrast with ordinary 
 
 2. rartuidar: Divided into conip«rt.nents ; several caninpes in one- 
 
 bcats d.vid.a-lamps for ni-ht travcllinp-iron wheels (four, six 
 
 sldp'S'lK M ^^'^'I'^'^^'i*' projecting flange, to catch \he nne.' 
 s de o (he ra,l-break-l,ufiers-guard's box-kinds : first, secoud 
 van etc ^^^^^^^^^^^oon carriage-post-office carriage-iuggr.ge 
 
 3. Eeflcctiun: Strengtb—safety— comfort 
 
 4. pAPEn. 
 
 1. General: The material of which books are made—compare with parch- 
 
 ment, leather, etc. * * 
 
 2. Particular : Made of linen rags— picked and sorted-reduced to nnln 
 
 —stranied— passed over wire-cloth— pressed b(;twcen rollers etc *— 
 ^ P./T f^"" ^!!'*'* °'7' M V*' ^'Jotli-various thicknesses and colours. 
 
 3. Eefiectwn: Qualities: flexible- smooth— stifF-easiiy toni-u«cd ibr 
 
 ^Ji'^'"&.-P2»t."'P:7rP«^^^>"g-l'«i- ni«king papier-mach6 goods- 
 effects in diffusing literature and intelligence. 
 
 * The process of paper-making need not bo minutely detaUed here; 
 that belongs rather to Narration. 
 
6G 
 
 CO'oIPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 5, Coal. 
 
 1. General: An inflammable fossil, in common uso. 
 
 2. Particular: Found in mines or pits in all parts of the world — the most 
 
 remarkable mines in England at Wiiitchaven — principal mines in 
 Scotland in Lanarkshire — often shows traces of its vegetable origin 
 — ^black colour — found in strata — brought forth in irregular masses 
 — Englisli coal — cannel coal — Scotch coal. 
 
 3. Reflection : Bums brightly, slowly, and throws out much heat — one of 
 
 the chief sources of British woaltli — used wherever it is necessary 
 to raise heat — for domestic pur[)oscs — in the arts and manufactures 
 —for the steam-engine — for making gas, tar, coke, etc. 
 
 6. luoN. 
 
 1. General: A hard, fusible metal — contrast with lead and gold. 
 
 2. Particular: Found in the earth, in combination with clay, lime, and 
 
 flint — in all countries — abundantly in Britain, France, Sweden, and 
 Russia — livid grey colour — no definite form — sometimes in crystals 
 — ^pig iron — wrought iron — malleable iron — steel — wire — plumbago 
 — ^loadstone, etc. 
 
 3. Reflection: The most useful of the metals — for domestic purposes^ 
 
 machinery and implements of all kinds — a great source of wealth to 
 a country — affords occupation to thousands of the inhabitants. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 7. Leather. 
 
 8. Porcelain. 
 
 9. Wine. 
 
 10. Silver. 
 
 11. Lime. 
 
 12. Lead. 
 
 13. Sugar. 
 
 14. Oil. 
 
 15. Wool. 
 
 16. A Barometer. 
 
 17. A Life- Boat. 
 
 18. A Telescope. 
 
 ♦^* Before writing on any of these subjects, the pupil should 
 prepare an outline upon it, similar to the above. 
 
 IL NATURAL HISTORY. 
 Exercise 29. 
 
 1. The Lion. 
 
 1. General: A carnivorous or flesh-eating animal; one of the cat tribe 
 
 compare with domestic cat, and with tiger. 
 
 2. Particular: Great size— graceful form— majestic air— tawny colour 
 
 now found chiefly in Africa— largo head— long and slender body- 
 shaggy mane— powerful neck— sharp teeth— cat-like claws— long 
 tail with tassel end— terrible roar — Ilalita, feeds on flesh — 
 lies in wait for its prey— treads softly— roams at night, rests by 
 
 a JBeflection: Prodigious strength— great sagacity— the king of beasta. 
 
DESCKIPTION. 
 
 67 
 
 2. The Horse. 
 
 1. Oeneral: IToofcd qnadrapecl : contrast with lion — non-ruminating: con- 
 
 trast with cow. 
 
 2. Particular : Found in a wild state in Tartary and America — long body 
 
 — long and slender legs, adapted for running — durable hoofs — silken 
 mane and tail — skin covered with short hair, smooth and glossy — 
 cutting teeth in front — grinders behind — space between those in 
 which the bit is placed— gregarious in a wild state — feeds on grass, 
 oats, etc. — drnught horse — riding horse — racer — hunter, etc. 
 
 3. liejlcdion : To man, the most useful of the animals, in peace or in 
 
 war — leather — hnrse-hair, etc. — qualities, easily domesticated, docilo 
 and affectionate, patierit, persevering, courageous. 
 
 3. The Owl. 
 
 1. General: A nocturnal bird of prey — contrast with caglo. 
 
 2. Particular: Lnrge head — short neck — projecting oyes, with border ot 
 
 featliers — weak wings — imperfect vision — pursue their prey in the 
 dark — fly without noise, and easily surprise their victims — hide in 
 holes in trees, or clefts of rocks by day — mournful hooting. 
 
 3. Pejl'ctinn: More useful than ijijurious— {lestroy great numbers of 
 
 vermin — used to be thought a bird of ill-omen, "the bird of night." 
 
 4. The Herrino, 
 
 1. Geveral: Soft- finned fish — with scaly body. 
 
 2. Particular: Iniiabit the Northern Seas— come south as far as 40* lat. 
 
 every year — bocrin to arrive on coasts of Europe, Asia, and America 
 in April and May — abundant in June and July — caught in the 
 meshes of nets — travel in vast shoals — smoked — dried — fresh. 
 
 3. Refection : A valuable article of food — great source of activity and of 
 
 wealth— occupies large fleets and great numbers of the population. 
 
 5. The Silkworm. 
 
 1. Oeneral: Scaly-winged insects — nocturnal, working by night. 
 
 2. Particular: A native of North China — now reared in Italy, Franco, 
 
 and the south of Europe — Tlirec stages ; caterpillar, chrysalis, but- 
 terfly — feeds on the mulberry-leaf — thirty-four days in caterpillar 
 Btate — three days in forming cocoon — twenty davs in chrysalis state 
 — to obtain the silk, the chrysalis must be killed before it leaves 
 the cocoon — the fibres are then wound off three or four filaments in 
 one thread — the part which cannot be reeled off is carded, and forms 
 floss-silk. 
 8. Reflection : Very valuable for its silk. 
 
 6. The Fm-TaEB. 
 
 1. Gevcrnl : Applied to various species of pine: evergreen. 
 
 2. Particular: Symmetrical ano c >nical shape — leave-*, nccrllc-phaped, 
 
 dark green, clustering round the branchlcts— cones, egg-shaped, 
 
C8 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 f 
 
 rcddisli-brown in coldiir, Fcn-cs coveviiij^ tlie roc^f! — tmrlc, tall nnd 
 Ktraight — ])ranc!ie^, horizoiitiil — bark, rough — kinds: bcotcli, spruce, 
 silver, larch, etc. 
 3. Rcjlcction: Uses: trunk fori ns deals for building, etc. — ships' masts — 
 fuel — yields tar, turpcntii.e, reyin, etc. 
 
 7. The Camel. 
 
 8. The ( )strich. 
 
 9. The bulmou. 
 
 Additional SLnjECTS. 
 
 10. The Whale. 
 
 1 1. Tlie Spider. 
 
 12. Tlie Cinat. 
 
 13. The Gorilla. 
 
 14. The M<.le. 
 lo. The Oak. 
 
 10. The Cedar. 
 
 17. Ihu .Apple. 
 
 18. Grass. 
 
 \l 
 
 III. PHYSICAL APPEARANCES. 
 Exercise SO. 
 
 1. An Eci.ipsk of tue Sun. 
 
 1. Genprnl: The f«cc of the sun obscured by the interposition of the moon 
 
 on the lino between the sun and the earth. 
 
 2. Partindar: At tl.e first contact, a dark stgnicnt appears to touch tlio 
 
 cdi^e of the sun's disc — cannot be looked at with the naked eye — 
 coloured or smoked glass — progress gradual — the light gradually 
 diminishes, first silvery, then grey, till a twilight cflcet is j.vochiccd 
 — birds go to roost, thiidving that night is coming on — but the dark 
 shadow passes off. Jvinds: total — partial — annular. 
 Jicjlcclion : Strangely beautiful ajipcarancc — filling the mind with 
 terror and awe in contemplatiL^' the forces of nature. 
 
 o 
 O. 
 
 2. A Volcano. 
 
 1. Gcvcrnl: A buniing mountain. 
 
 2. Particular: Crater, or cup, at top, through which the burning matter 
 
 is ejected — eruptions take i>lace at varying intervals; Vesuvius, 
 once in ten years ; Etna and Hecla, once in thirty or thirty-fivo 
 years — preceded by rumbling noises in the earth — masses of red-hot 
 rock, sand, and mud and water, thrown into the air — streams of 
 lava run down sides, destroying all life. 
 
 3. Pcfedion: Cause: connected with central heat — the water hplow the 
 
 earth's surface converted into steam — acts upon the burning mass 
 in the bowels of the earth — this set in motion, must find an outlet 
 — volcanoes are thus safety valves. Eflocts: destroy vegetation, 
 animal life, human dwellings — sometimes bmics cities; e.flf., 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
 
 3, GLAciEn.s. 
 
 1. Oencral: Fields of ice, — resembling frozen lakes or rivci'S— contrast 
 
 Avith avalanches, and icebergs. 
 
 2. Particular : Accumulations of snow in higher elevations, partially 
 
 melted by the sunnncr heat, then frozen — gradually slide down tho 
 
DK.^CniPTlON. 
 
 m 
 
 mnimfnins or valleys, in the pliapo of a viycous or pcmi-polid body— 
 become ladt'ii with (iol)ii:^. called mora! iirs— in wanner rc,f?ions/the 
 glncicr melts and deposits the 7uoraincs—theiHi are j-M-oofs that 
 glaciers once were where they do not now exist; e.g., in .Scotland— 
 traced also by tlie Fcratclies tliey leave on rocks — the most remark- 
 able glaciers, in the Alps and 'Himalayas, in northern latitudes, 
 they reach tlic sea without meltinp:— break off and Ibrm iceberfjs, 
 3. /iV/a-//67i; Gradual movement — use in carrying oil" the surplus suow 
 from high mountains. 
 
 4. The Falls of Niaoaiia. 
 
 1. General: The most gigantic known waterfalls in the world. 
 
 2. Varticnlar: Situated on the Kiver Niagara, cotmecting Lakes Erie and 
 
 Ontario, separating the United States from Canada— twentv-two 
 miles from l-^rie, fourteen from Ontario — strength of the rapid-s for 
 a mile above the falls — narrowing of the channel — great declivity, 
 sixty feet in the mile— divided by Goat Island (seventv-five acres) 
 into tlie Canadian or horse-shoe fiill (1800 feet broad, 15-1 feethi-jh) 
 and the American fall (OOU feet broad, ino feet high)— on CanadTaii 
 side, water thrown out to fifty feet from the hase of the clift', leaving 
 a passage— finest view of the whole cataract from Table llock on 
 Canadian side. 
 
 3. Rejlcction : Vastness — power — grandeur — sense of danger. 
 
 5. The Bass Kock. 
 
 1. General: A remarkable and picturesque isolated rock — compare with 
 
 Ailsa Craig. 
 
 2, Particular: In Firth of Forth, about two miles from tlic coast of 
 
 Haddingtonshire — comjjosed of flue, granular greenstone — a mile in 
 circumference — nearly nnuid — 120 feet high — accessible only on 
 south-west — precipices rise perpendicularly on other sides — covered 
 ■with solan geese — cavern perforating the island, aecossible at low 
 water — a spring on the island — a few sliced) — partially inhabited — 
 at one time fortified. 
 8. Rejlcciion: Great natural strength — picturesqueucss — historical asso- 
 ciations — at one time a state prison. 
 
 6. The ^Iammotii Cave. 
 
 1. General: The largest known cave in the world — compare with Caves 
 
 of Flora. 
 
 2. Particular : In Kentucky (IJ.S,), l.'JO miles from Leximxton — narrow 
 
 entranee — a series ol" chani!)ers, coiuieeted hy passages — has been 
 explored for ten nules underground — the giant's collin (a huge, 
 colliii-shaped rnek) — the hall-r.)om : of eiit'ular form — tin; bottnnd<ss 
 pit — the lover's leap — staiu'tites hanging from the liuutstoiie nujf — - 
 idtre ahundaut — a liver crossed by a boat — the lish in it, idind. 
 8. Ecfltctii.v : Vasnuiss— grandeur — intense darkness, inspiring terror — 
 i'(|uabli! teniperat'.ire and nitrous atnio>pIiere ; rccomniendi'd Ibr 
 cousumptivu patients. 
 
■! 
 
 i 
 
 70 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PliOSR. 
 
 7. Iceberprs. 
 
 8. Tliu U{iinb<nv. 
 
 9. Ivarthquakes. 
 10. Whirlpools. 
 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 Additional Suiuects. 
 
 Aurora IJorcalis. 15. The Giant's Causeway, 
 
 The Milky Way. 
 'J'encrirte. 
 Tho Trossachs. 
 
 16. Ailsa Craig. 
 
 17. Mont Hlanc. 
 
 18. Campagiia di Roma. 
 
 IV. REMARKAIiI.E TLACES. 
 
 Esercise 31. 
 
 1, LONDOV. 
 
 1. Geveral Description: The metropolis of the British Empire. 
 
 2. Puilicuhir Dcscriptinn: Vast population, equal to that of Scotland: 
 
 situation, on the Thames, which dividcis it into north and south : tho 
 city proper, the west end : has absorbed many towns which wore 
 at one time suburbs : area, 117 square miles : many miles of streets : 
 great activity and bustle : an important seaport : the seat of govern- 
 ment: the centre of literary and arlistic lite. 
 
 3. Pointa of Interest: The Tower: tho Mansion House: the Houses of 
 
 r'arliament : St Paul's: Westnnuster Abbey : Buckingham Palace: 
 8t James's Palace: the Parks: the British Museum: the National 
 Clallery: the Kensington Msiseum: the Monument: the Nelson 
 Column: the Welliugtnu Statue: the Strand: Pall Mall: Regent 
 Street, etc., etc. 
 
 4. Itcjlcttion : London, an epitome of the Empire: wonderful variety of its 
 
 inhabitants, men of all natioud, in ail statea and circumstances: 
 the solitude of a great city. 
 
 2. EniNnuROH. 
 
 1. Cfinrral Description : The capital of Scotland. 
 
 2. Particular Descri/ition: Picturesque situation on a cluster of hills: 
 
 near the l"\)rth : separated into the old and new towns by a valley, 
 once filled with water : tho Old Town rugged, and picturesque: tho 
 New, regular, substantial, and stately : glimpses of the sea and 
 country obtained from its busiest centres: intellectual, legal, and 
 educational, rather than commercial. 
 
 3. Points of Interest: The Castle: Ilolyrood: the University: the Scott 
 
 Monument : Fine Art Cialleri;!S : Calton II ill and Monumenta 
 thereon: Princes Street and its buildings: High Street: Bridges, 
 (wardens, and Parks. 
 
 4. Itejhrtion: Historical assoeiations: Inviuty and picturesqucncss, con- 
 
 trast between the Old Town and the New, 
 
 3. OXVOIM). 
 
 1. (rpnrrnl DoKcription: An ancient and famous sent of learning. 
 
 2. Purticuhir iJcscriiUioii : ^^ituat^^l «>n rjii; Isis. a irihuf:ii-\- oi' (!k; Thames, 
 
 bo miles from London: surrounded by fertile and wot)ded meadows: 
 
DESCRIPTION. 
 
 71 
 
 a city of colleges, of all vaiicties of arcliitcctnre : intcrspci'sod with 
 gardens, meadows, and fine trees : the town and tlfe nnivorsity two 
 distinct corporations : two distinct communities : four mnin streets 
 diverging irom a centre : fine groups of buildings, and beautiful 
 vistas at various points. 
 
 8. Points of Interest : Magdalene College : Christ Church : Trinity : New 
 
 . College : University College, etc. : l^odk-ian liihrary : IJadeliffe 
 
 Library: the Sheldonian Theatre: the Museum: Magdalene lUidge: 
 
 Christ Church Meadows: the River: the High Street and its 
 
 Colleges: the Mai-tyrs' Memorial. 
 
 4. Reflection: Great picturcsqueness of the tout eincmhle : beauty of 
 detail : venerable associations: c<mtrast in appearance with a great 
 manufacturing city, as Liverpool or Manchester, — chimney-stalks 
 and factories in the one case ; spires, towers, domes, and palaces in 
 the other. 
 
 4. Cn ESTER. 
 
 1. General Description : An ancient episcopal city : a river port : capital 
 
 of Cheshire. 
 
 2. Particular Description: Situated on the Dee, 16 miles S. E. of Liver- 
 
 pool : nearly enclosed by a rectangle of walls, about two miles in 
 circuit, seven or eight feet thick : promenade on top : two main 
 streets running at right angles; excavated by the Komans: lined 
 by covered promenade in second storey. 
 
 8. Points of Interest: The ''Rows" just described: the Cathedral: St 
 John's Church, built by Ethelred : Arch across the Dee, the largest 
 stone arch ever built, 200 feet span : fine Kailway Station. 
 
 4. EefiedioH: The most picturesque town in England. 
 
 5. I*a>irEii. 
 
 1. General Description, a city buried in the debris of volcanic eruptions. 
 
 2. Particular Description: In Campania, near the base of Vesuviua: 
 
 remained buried, and unknown, f(;r sixteen hundred years: whole 
 streets and houses now excavated : regular in plan, the streets cross- 
 ing at right angles, the houses two .storeys high: many skeletons 
 found in the city, some in cellars: some have left their impression 
 in clay and mineral moulds, from wliich casts have been taken: 200 
 skeletons found in the Temple of Juno: houses and shops hift entire 
 when freed of the surrounding rubbish. 
 8. Reflection : Preserves a wonderfully complete picture of domestic and 
 public life as it was in Italy ISOO years ago. 
 
 6. The British Museum. 
 
 1. General Description : A great national institution for preserving treasures 
 of literature, art, and science. 
 
 3. Particular Description: The building (completed 1847),in Qreat Russell 
 
 Street : a hollow square : frontage of 570 feet : architecture, (irecian 
 Ionic : immense galleries, of imposing appearance. 
 
78 
 
 COMPOSITION IN ITIOSE. 
 
 Points of Tiifprest : Tliii eiitivinec portico, — double ranpfc of colnmnSi 
 eight In o^cli, fivcieot in diainctiT, forty-'ivc iV-ct lii;^li : the libraries, 
 — The Kiupj^'s l.ibrary (Goorj^fc III. — presoited by George IV.), the 
 Gronville Librnry, etc.: collections of book. -. mnnuscripts (Scott's 
 Kc/n'lirorth); ii niortuagc-dccd, si<2,"nod by " Williani Shakespeare," 
 etc.): prints and drawings: anticpnties, Egyptian, Assyrian (]\iinrud| 
 Khorsabad) ; Groidc (tb(j Elgin Marbles, etc.); Konian : Zoological 
 department (the bird gallery): botanical department: geological 
 (Miflcction; mini:ralir;ical collection. 
 
 Itijlcction: Value of so vast and rich a collection to the nation,' and to 
 the progress of science. 
 
 7. Liverpool. 
 
 8. Glasgow. 
 
 9. Canil)ridge. 
 
 10. Dresden. 
 
 11. Jerusalem. 
 
 ADDITIOJfAL SUBJFXTS, 
 
 12. Rome. 17. 
 
 13. Gibraltar. 18. 
 
 14. Taris. 19. 
 
 15. Westminster Abbey. 20. The School you attend. 
 
 16. The Louvre. 21. The Church you attend. 
 
 The Crystal Palace. 
 Edinburgh Castle. 
 The Town you live in. 
 
 Chapter IV.— Exposition. 
 
 101. Exposition is a species of description. It is description 
 applied to scientific or abstract truths. We describe objects j 
 we expoiuid principles. The proper sphere of exposition, there- 
 fore, is the explanation of abstract thoughts and the laws of 
 science — both physical and moral. 
 
 102. The subjects for exposition may be presented in the form 
 either of propositions or of terms. We shall treat of these 
 separately. 
 
 1. Exposition op Propositions, or Paraphrase. 
 
 103 Tlie simplest method of expounding a propo.sition con- 
 sists in paraphrase. This exercise must not be confounded 
 either with tran.sposition (§ 35) or the variation of the order of 
 a sentence, or with substitution {§ 34) or the changing of par- 
 ticular words. It consists properly in expressing an author's 
 meaning in a different form. A sentence is " a complete thought 
 expressed in words :" a sentence paraphrased is the same ihoiight 
 expressed in different words. This process requires that the 
 meaning of the proposition to be explained should be correctly 
 
EXPOSITION. 
 
 78 
 
 understood. The pupil must grasp the thought, make it his 
 own, and then express it in original language. For example, 
 we may elucidate an abstract truth by expressing it in a con- 
 crete form, or vice versd. The general tinith that men's ill deeds 
 are remembered after their good deeds are forgotten, is expressed 
 by Shakespeare in contrasted metaphors when he says,— 
 
 " Men's evil manners live in brass ; 
 Their virtues we write in water." 
 
 And ho repeats the same truth under a diflferent image in the 
 
 lines,— 
 
 *' The evil that men do lives after them ; 
 The good is oft interred with their bones.'* 
 
 This is simple paraphrase in its briefest form. But Exposition 
 requires greater elaboration of the thought than this simple 
 transference of the thought from one form to another. To 
 explain the truth fully and enforce it, we must expand the 
 simple statement by the addition of comments, illustrations, and 
 reflections, until the paragraph bears the same relation to the 
 original proposition that a brief homily bears to its text. This 
 is Expanded Paraphrase^ or Exposition. 
 
 104. Example. 
 
 " 'Tis better to have loved and lost, 
 Than never to have loved at ail." — Tennyson. 
 
 "When we lose a very dear friend, we are apt to think that we might 
 have been spared tl ^ tnal and suffering of bereavement had we never known 
 him, and even to wish that it had been so. A little reflection, however, 
 will convince us that we have gained inestimable advantages both by the 
 friendship itself and by its loss. That man is not to be envied who has 
 never had a friend to lose. The best feelings of his nature lie dormant, 
 and his affections, having no external object to which to cling, hang loose 
 and useless, or entwine themselves around his own heart and choku its 
 growth. Nothing is more despicable than to see a man wrapt up con 
 tinually in his own heart, living for himself alone, seeking only what 
 ministers to his own pleasure, or gratifies his own vanity. There is a 
 joy, on the other hand, in the mere outflowing of affection, in the enkind- 
 ling of generous sentiments, in the performance of little acts of kindness, 
 which strengthens our nature, and makes us in every sense better men. 
 Even the bereaved mother, in lier deepest grief, has sources of joy which 
 the childless cannot understand. 
 
1i 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 *' Ho talks to me, that never bad a son,** 
 
 gays Constance of Pandulph, when ho was reproving her for her excessive 
 grief. It is in this sense that it is " better to have loved," even when the 
 object of that love is gone. But there is a great gain also in the discipline 
 of sorrow. Loss proves the reality and intensitj of our affection ; for lore 
 feeds on the recollection of itself. *' Grief," says Constance again,— 
 
 " Grief fills the room up of my absent child, 
 liies in his bed, walks up and down with me, 
 Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words, 
 Keniembers me of all his gracious parts, 
 fcftufFs out his vacant garments witn his form." • 
 
 But sorrow has higher uses to serve than this. It draws us to the only 
 enduring source of consolation, and leads us to acknowledge a Father's 
 loving hand in our severest trials. 80 true is it that — 
 
 " Men may rise on stepping-stones 
 Of their dead selves to higher things." 
 
 Of these lessons, so precious in themselves, and so abiding in their effects, 
 the man who has never loved is wholly deprived. These are the truths 
 which the poet means to convey when he says — 
 
 ** 'Tis better to have loved and lost 
 Than never to have loved at all." 
 
 .'I I 
 
 I i' 
 
 'I ' 
 t 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 
 Subjects for Expanded Paraphrase, or Exposition. 
 
 1. " HI blows the wind that profits nobody." — SJuiJcespeare, 
 
 2. " Men should not talk to please themselves, but those that hear 
 
 them." — Steele. 
 
 8. " Stone walls do not a prison make. 
 Nor iron bars a cage." — Lovelace. 
 
 4. " Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some feir 
 to be chewed and digested." — Bacon. 
 
 6. " The good of the people is the ultimate and true end of govern- 
 ment. " — Bolinghrohe. 
 
 6. " That loss is common would not make 
 
 My own less bitter, rather more : 
 Too common : never morning wore 
 To evening, but some heart did break." — Tennyson, 
 
 7. " Every man desireth to live long, but no man would be old." — SwifU 
 
 8. " For solitude sometimes is best society. 
 
 And short retirement urges sweet return." — Milton. 
 
 * King John, iii. 4. 
 
EXPOSITION* 
 
 \ -» 
 
 AL^; 
 
 *^*j' 
 
 
 9 " O, what a tangled web wo weave, 
 
 When first we practice to deceive.** — ScotU -^ \ \ 1 ' ' ) • 
 
 10. " He who tells a lie is sot sensible hnw great a tasV ho unrfortakei ; 
 
 for he must be forced to iQvent twenty more to maintain ou^" 
 -Pope. V > ^ . , .; 
 
 11. " Predominant habits of warfare-lire totally irreconcilable with thoso 
 
 of industry." — Uallam. ^ 
 
 12. " Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just; 
 
 And he but naked, though lock'd up in steel, 
 
 Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted." — Shakespeare. 
 
 2. Exposition op Terms. 
 
 105. When the subject for exposition is presented in the form 
 of a Term^ simple or complex, the mode of treatment resembles 
 that followed in Description. The first step is a general descrip- 
 tion or definitit)n of the subject, embracing both comparison and 
 antithesis, or contrast. This should be followed by a particular 
 desciiption, or an enumeration of its characteristic features. To 
 this wo may add illustrations, in the shape of concrete examples 
 of the application of the abstract principles. At various points 
 in the paragraph, reflections may be appropriately introduced. 
 In the case of some subjects, indeed, the paragraph must be 
 reflective throughout. 
 
 106. The elements of an Expository Paragraph are, therefore, 
 the following: — 
 
 1. General Exposition: Definition of the term; comparison and 
 
 contrast. 
 
 2. Particular Exposition: Characteristic features — illustrations. 
 
 3. Reflection: Causes and consequences — advantages and dis- 
 
 advantages — approval or disapproval — feelings of pleasure 
 or pain. 
 
 107. Example. 
 
 DEMOCRACr. 
 
 1. Oeneral : That fonn of government in which a preponderance of power 
 
 belongs to the people — contrast with Monarchy and Aristocracy. 
 
 2. Particular: The commanity governs itself — either liirectly or indirectly 
 
 — resembles a company of shareholders — republics of ancient Greece 
 — Switzerland — France — America. 
 
 3. Eeflection: Its apparent justice — its advantages — its disadvantages- 
 
 its dangers. 
 
70 
 
 COMPOSITION IN rnosE. 
 
 2. Paragraph. 
 
 Democracy (from the Greek demos, tho people) is tint form of govern- 
 ment in which tho sovereign power is in the hands of the people. Tho 
 forma of government to which Democracy is opposed are Monarchy, in 
 whicij tho supreme power is entrusted to a single hereditary ruler or 
 sovereign ; and Aristocracy, in which it is exercised by men of exalted 
 birth or influence, who aro not selected by the choice of tho people, Imt 
 assume their position by virtue of hereditary power or personal fitncs;^. 
 lJii'li!rthe democratic form of governnmnt, the community either directly or 
 indirectly governs itself. A direct democracy resembles a company or 
 coptirtnery in which every member has a vote. Laws aro made, taxes aro 
 imposed, war is declared or peace is concluded, by tho wliolo body of tho 
 peoplo in public assembly. An indirect democracy, on tho other hand, 
 resembles a company in which tho shareholders elect directors or managera 
 to act in their name. In tho republics of ancient Greece, as in the original 
 cantons of Switzerland, the government was exercised directly by tho 
 
 f>eople in full assembly. In the modern republics, as in France, Switzer- 
 iind, and the United States of America, tho representative form has been 
 preferred, chiefly because the direct form is unsuitable in a populous and 
 widely extended state. Tho democratic form of government is recom- 
 mended by its apparent justice. It seems only fair that those who con- 
 tribute the taxes should determine tho extent to which they are to ha 
 taxed, and the use to be made of tho revenues. It is further maintained 
 by philosophers that self-govorumont tends to develop in tho greatest degree 
 the highest qualities, mental and moral, of tho governed. On tho othev 
 hand, democracy is attended by great disadvantages, and exposes a state to 
 serious dangers. It does not secure in the governing body those high mental 
 qualifieaticms which the difficulty and rcsponsibilityof managing tho com- 
 plicated machinery of a state imperatively require ; and it gives to the lower 
 and less intelligent class, who form a numerical majority in every state, a, 
 pref)on(lerating intlnenco in its affairs, to tho exclusion of those who, by 
 position and education, are both better fitted and better entitled to rulo^ 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 
 Subjects for Expository PARAGRAPna. 
 
 1. Monarchy. 
 
 1. General: That form of government in which tho sovereign power ij 
 
 vested ir„ a single ruler — contrast with democracy and aristocracy. 
 
 2. Parttculdr: Elective monarchy, — the sovereign chosen by tho peoplo 
 
 or their representatives: hereditary monarchy, — descending from 
 fatlier to son ; more independent than tho former : absolute mon- 
 archy, — the sovereign derives his power from himself: limiteil 
 nioiinvchy, — the power of the soveveii^n checked by other clementfi, 
 as the people, or the arlsshiei ,\ey, or Imth : elective, — tho Old Gorman 
 Iviipire : hrn; lit nv, -- tin; I'.nL'lish Crown: absoluto, — IwUssiai 
 limiied, — the UriiisU (■(•ns'Jtu'.O!!. 
 
 lu 
 
EXrOslTION. 
 
 77 
 
 S. licJlcrUm: Its oripjin in pntcrnnl povcrunicnt : pivcs dlpnity to a stntti, 
 and compnctiUHS to Its goveniineiit : elective M. srcurca Ji succcs- 
 pioji of powerful rulers: liereditfiry M. sjives a state from iiitcDinl 
 (1 i. score! s : absolute M. Bceuren cclenty of action, hut tends to 
 despotism: liuiiicd M. combines tlie ndvnntugcs of diflertnt forma 
 of govenime::t, and ofTords the greatest happincbs and prosperity 
 to u state. 
 
 2. El>UCATION'. 
 
 1 
 
 Gcnrrnl: The training (literally " the drawing out") of the faculties of 
 the mind. 
 
 2. Particular: A prolonged and Inhorions process: compared to the culti- 
 
 vation of the soil, — the seed buried i'tir a time, tlie fruit ilistant iiiid 
 inieertain; the end aimed at, the developuient and elevation of the 
 ivhol(! man : distinguish between intelleetnid or gi;neral education, 
 atul j)n»fessioual or special education : the means employed, — 
 Inngnagtjs, science, tacts: dilTirent faculties to he operated upon, — 
 judgment, imagination, taste: numtal, moral, and physieal educa- 
 tion : contrast education with crudeness or the nhsinee of tr.iining, 
 on the one hand; and with instruction or the imparting of know- 
 ledge, on the other: insirortum to be used as a means of cdura- 
 iion : education in an<'ient I'crsia and (Jreece: in nuulern Prussiii, 
 France, liritain, and America. 
 
 3. liejiiction: Its value to all men: importance of rij^ht methods ])eing 
 
 adojited : ditHculty of the process: delicacy of cho machine to In.-. 
 operated upon. 
 
 3. riEVKXr.E. 
 
 1. General: The passion which proin])ts to repaying injury with injury. 
 
 2. Particular: belongs to the lower part of human nature: seen in the 
 
 hiwer animals as well as in man. — examph; of the elephant: m;in 
 tries to conceal it as a motive, even when acting under its inlluence : 
 contrast with generosity ; with the " golden rule," to do as we would 
 he done unto: with forbearance: the savage. 
 8« Hejiection: A des])icablc passion: reduces man to the level of the 
 brutes: a proof of our fallen nature: unchristian: the duty 
 of restraining it: the influence of education and of religion in 
 checking it. 
 
 4. Cohesion, 
 
 1. General: That species of attraction by which particles are held together 
 
 so as to form bodies. 
 
 2. Particular: Its strength is in proportion to tlie power of hodies to 
 
 resist separation of their particles; in gases it is nil; in liquids it 
 is small; in soliiis it is greatest: particles may be reunited by 
 cohesion, when they have been separated: it is reduced by heat, 
 which acting <»n solidt^ converts tlieui into liquids; and acting upon 
 liquids coiiveits them into ga.>5es: contrast with repulsion of par- 
 
i 
 
 !! 
 
 1 
 
 l! 
 
 COMPOSITION IN rnosB. 
 
 tides in aeriform brxlies : coiifrast witii pravitntion : difTicnlty of 
 separ.itinsf two smooth piocca of lead or glass: dust niado into tiles 
 \>y compression, and expulsion of the air. 
 3. licjli'rl'on: Power of cohesion in holding the universe tof»ctl>or: its 
 cifeefs in givinpj to matter such properties as elasticity, flexibility, 
 ductility, malleability, etc. 
 
 5. Division op Labour. 
 
 1. General: The princi[dc in economics by which diflferent departments 
 
 of labour are penbrnied hy ditferent hands. 
 
 2. Partlciildr : The process of producing a specific article is subdivided 
 
 into successive steps, and each step is assigned t<> a special work- 
 man: each w(n"knian limits himself to ids owu department: con- 
 trast with the rudimentary stages in society, in which each man 
 does all the parts of the same work; and with the most advanced, 
 in wlucb machinery does all the parts eiiually well: pin-making: 
 book-makiiig: trade^ education. 
 8. Uejii'dion : Each man acquires higher skill, and greater c derity, by 
 confining himself to a special department: saving (»f time — all 
 departments progressing at (i!ice: economy of labour: increase of 
 production : increase ()f emiiloyment: a greater number of num can 
 acquire sufficient skill to labour in one ilepartment than iu several: 
 extension of manufactures and connnerce. 
 
 6. The I^hnkfits op Commerce. 
 
 I. Ri'fl<'cti<)n: AlTords employment to large numbers: increases wealtli 
 and prosperity: calls forth energy, enterprise, activity: creates a 
 dei\iand for education: leads to moral and social elevation: con- 
 tril)utes to the strength and influence of a country: binds men 
 together by promoting eonnnon interests : binds nations togothev : 
 promotes peace. 
 
 2. Illustration: Constitutes the true greatness of "ritain : its influonco in 
 
 preserving peace amongst modern states,— e.//., Britain, America, 
 and France. 
 
 3. Antithesis: Contrast with states and periods in which commerce was 
 
 limited: the great eujpires based upon military power have been 
 evanescent, — e.g., the ancient Asiatic monarchies, the Uoman empirOj 
 the Qermano- Roman empire, the first Frcuuh empire, etc., eto. 
 
 Additioxal Subjects. 
 
 7. Aristocracy. 
 
 8. Toleration. 
 
 9. Honesty. 
 
 10. Elasticity. 
 
 11. Giavitation. 
 
 12. Obedience. 
 
 13. The Benefits of Travelling. 
 
 14. The Force of Habit. 
 
 15. The Advantages of Method. 
 
 16. The British Constitution. 
 
 17. The Pleasures of Imagination. 
 
 18. The lufluoncc^'of Art. 
 
SUMMARY, OR PUI^CIS WUltlXO. 
 
 10 
 
 Chapter V. — Summary, or Precis Writing. 
 
 108. SummarisJnff is the process of selecting, and expressing 
 \\\ a single paragrapli, the essential features of an extended ci»u»- 
 ]M>sition, or scries of papers, — e.g.^ a debate, a correspondence, an 
 historical narrative, an official letter or despatch. 
 
 {(i) The precedin;; exercises on the Paraj^niph liavc depended m.'iinly 
 on Kxpansion and iMilar^cinent. The present Cli;vj»tei' refiuu'es the 
 converse process, — that of Contraction and Abridgment. 
 
 109. The writing of a Summary (or Memorandum, as it U 
 oiricially called) recpiires that thf document or passage to be 
 sinninarised be in the first place ciiiefnlly read over, and that a 
 briet abstract or analysis be made of the most important parts; 
 and then that these parts be written out in the form of a short 
 narrative, which will l)(i the summary required. The followiiii,' 
 extract from the "lleport of H.M. Civil Service Commissioners " 
 fully exphiins the nature and requirements both of the abstract 
 and of tiie summarjj : — 
 
 ** 1. The object of the ahstract (schedule or docket) is to serve as nn 
 Index. It nliouhl contain the d;ite of each letter; tlie names of the persons 
 by whom and to whom it is written ; and, in ns/civ words as jwssildr, the 
 Piibject of it The merits of snch an abstract are, — (1) to p;ive the really 
 important point or points of each letter, oinittinpf evervthinpf else; (2; to 
 do this brielly ; (3) distinctly ; and (4) in snch a form as readily to catch 
 the eye. 
 
 " 2. 'i'hn object of tlic micmoh.vndum (or prf'cis), ichich should be, vat Irfter 
 ly Icttrr. hut in. thr foinri of a mirrativc, is that any one who had not timo 
 to read the oriiri^iai I Iters mip;ht, by leadinj^ the precis, be put in posses.tiou 
 of uU the leadu)'; fe;anres of what passed. The merits of sucli u procis 
 are, — (I) to A\yy briefly but clearly the state of allairs, and the positions 
 occupied by U. j principal i)ersons, at the time when the correspondence 
 opens ; (•?) to contain all that is important in the correspondeiice, and 
 nothing that is nnimportant; (J5) to present this in a consecntivi- and 
 reailable shape, expressed as distinctly as possible, and as briefly us is 
 compatible with completeness and distinctnes.s." 
 
 110. The best method of performing this exercise may bo 
 gathered from the following rules: — 
 
 I. Eead over the whole passas^e or correspondonce, and 
 underline with pencil, or otherwise mark, the iuiporlaut 
 parts. 
 
80 
 
 COMrOSITJON IN PKOSa. 
 
 II. Select these parts, and write them in the fewest possible 
 words, as au Abstract or Index, phicing in different 
 cohinins (1) the number of the letters; (2) the date; 
 (3) the correspondents; and (4) the subject-matter. 
 (See example, § 111. II.) 
 
 III. Extend the notes of the siihject-mnttcr in the form of 
 
 short sentences. This forms the Memorandum or 
 Summary. 
 
 IV. Number the letters or the parap^raphs (1,2, 3, etc.) in 
 
 the original, and place corresponding nnnd>ers belore 
 the notes or the heads in the Abstract, and opposite the 
 Bentences in the Summary. 
 
 111. Example. 
 
 [The esseutial passages in the following ('orrespondence are here printed 
 
 in italics.] 
 
 I. The Corresponuenck. 
 
 No. l.—TIic Secretary, Civil Service Commission, to the Secretary, Office 
 
 of Works. 
 
 gir, 31stMrtylS80. 
 
 With rcferonce to the exaniinations for the Civil Service of imlia nii I 
 for the Koyal Military Academy, to be held in June and July next at the 
 iJoyal Albert Hall, I am directed by the Civil Service CoinmissionerH to 
 ncfjuaint you, for the infonnat'on of the Firet Commissioner of Her 
 Majesty's Works, that complaints have been made that at recent examina- 
 tions held in that Hall the candidatrs actually at work were disturbed by 
 ilie noise made, in some cas:s by v)orkmcn engaged in the building, in others 
 hy persons walking about the upper gallery and making noises or signals 
 of different kinds to attract the attention of the candidates in the arcT^i. 
 
 It is of course most important that perfect quiet should be preserved in 
 8 room where an examinaticm is taking place, and the Commissioners 
 always make a point of securing this in the examination rooms undor 
 their charge, but at the Royal Albert Hall their authority is limited to 
 the arena itself, and tiny are unable directly to control the proceedings 
 of persons in any other part of the building. I am therefore directed to 
 r'^qucst that such rcpresentafiuns may be made to the managers of the 
 Jloyal Albert Hall a^s may prrient a ncurrcnce of prai'erdings calculntd 
 to distract the attention of the candidates and so to interfere icith the 
 proper conduct of the cxamina'i'^n. 
 
 1 have, &c., 
 
 O^igned) E. IIeadlau. 
 
 I 
 
gUMMAIfY, OR PRECIS WKlTlNa 
 
 81 
 
 No. 2. — The Sea'elary, Ojfcee oj JVnrks, to the Secretary, Civil Servico 
 
 Comniissioii. 
 
 Sir, 9th June IfiSO. 
 
 I am directed by the Firwt Commissioner of Her Majesty'^ Works, 
 &c., to acknowledge the receipt of Mr Ileadlam's letter of the SIst ultimo 
 relative to the disturbance of candidates at recent examinations held by 
 the Civil Scrvioe Connmssioners at the Royal Albert Hall. 
 
 In reply I am to acquaint you, tor the informaticm of the Commis- 
 fiioners, that tJic Board at once drew the attentiim of the inamiger of the 
 JIall to the subject, and requested that steps might bo taken to prevent 
 a recurrence of the disturbances on the occasion of any future use of 
 the building by the Commissicmera. The managrr has now informed 
 the Board, in reply to their communication, that the rtiatter shall hav€ 
 his best attention. 
 
 I am, &c., 
 
 The Secretary, (Signed) R. C. Calla»t>er. 
 
 Civil {Service Commission. 
 
 No. 3. — The Secretary ^ Civil Service Commission^ to the Secretary, OJfice 
 
 of Works. 
 Sir, 22nd June 1880. 
 
 With reference to my letter of the Slst May on the subject of tho 
 annoyance experienced by candidates examined under the directions of 
 this Board at the Hoyal Albert Hall and to your reply of the 9th instant : 
 
 I am directed by the Civil ^S^rvice Cominissinners to transmit for tho 
 information of the First Commissioner of Her Majesty's Works, &c., tho 
 evcfosrd copy of a I 'iter which has bmi received from the War OJice 
 dated the 2nd instant ami of the rrphi thereto. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 No. 4. — En'closure 1. 
 8ir, War OITicc, 2nd Juno 1880. 
 
 I am directed by the J^'ecretnry of State for War to request that yoa 
 will cjU the oUenlion of the Civil Service Comnm.sioiiers to reviarks innde 
 in the Ifinise of Commons, 2Stk nitinio, in rfjard /u tht alJKjnl vnsntls- 
 factory conditions nnder vhich '•'' prdiniinf. >j examinations" of candidates 
 for the army arc coiidiirti d. 
 
 The fulhlwinpr sratemmits have been 'nade to Mr Childers on this 
 flubject, wliich, tliouu;h doubtless somcwiiat exaggerated, have probably 
 ROiiKi foundafinii in i'lct, vi/. : 
 
 That at the «^\'^nlin.ttioll held at tho Albert Hall on 7th and Sth April 
 last the candidates greeted almost evi-ry remark of tlu; examintrs with 
 ironical cries of " hear, hear," and that stamping and clappirg were euu- 
 tinually going on j 
 

 I 
 
 8 COMPOSITION IN PUOSE. 
 
 Thftt the reading of the dictation was almost inaudible, mainly owing 
 to the large size of the room, but iu some instances the reading was 
 indistinct ; 
 
 That candidates who had finished their work went into the gallery and 
 amused themselves by whistling and shouting ; 
 
 That coi)ying and asking questions took place amongst the candidates 
 to a considerable extent ; 
 
 That although some attempts appear to have been made to preserve 
 order, they were quite inadequate for the pun)0se. 
 
 Complaints were also made that the paper supplied for geometrical 
 drawing was of very unsuitable quality for the purpo!«e required. 
 
 Mr Childcrs docs not doubt that the Commissioners will cause the suhjcct 
 to be inquired into, and provide a remedy for the com^laiftts nuidc should 
 they be found to have any truth in them. 
 
 I have, &c., 
 
 The Secretary, (Signed) Ralph THOMrsoH. 
 
 Civil iSevvice Commission. 
 
 No. 5. — Enclosube 2. . 
 
 Sir, Civil Service Commission, 18th Juno 1880. 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acknowledge the 
 receipt of your letter of the 2nd instant on the subject of the remarks 
 made in the House of Commcms on the 28th ultimo in regard to the 
 unsatisfactory conditions under which, it is alleged, the preliminary 
 examinations of candidates for admission to the Uoyal Military College, 
 Sandhurst, are conducted, and more particularly referring to the examina- 
 tion held at the Royal Albert Hall on the ith and 8th of April last. 
 
 In reply I am in the first place to request that you will convey to Rfr 
 Secretary Childers the thanks of the Commissioners for the communication 
 which he has caused to be made to them, and will assure him that the 
 Commissioners are at all times most ready to inquire into the tuUh of 
 any statements which may reach them respecting irregularities in the 
 conduct of their examinations, with the view of providing such remedies 
 as are within their power. 
 
 As regards the main subject of your letter, I am to state that the 
 circumstances referred to iu the House of Commons on the '28tli ultimo 
 having been brought to the notice of the Connnir^sionei-s .soon after the 
 examination, i.e., some weeks before the date at wliich notice was given 
 of Mr VVyndham's question, full inquiry teas mtaic vnio them, and in 
 consequence of that inquiry the Coniviisninncrs address'd to the Board of 
 JForks, on the 31s< ultimo, a letter, of tvhich a copy is enclosed, toycthcr 
 vufh a. copy of the reply thereto. 
 
 Krom the tenor of these letters it will be seen that the Commissioners 
 Inve tluiiiisflvcs only a very irnpeifict control over the buildings nliich 
 are from time to time provitlcd for them by the Ollico of Works for the 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITING. 
 
 8b 
 
 
 purpose of holding examinntions. It is to be added that the rooms thus 
 provideil, \mn^ intended for entirely dilfcrent purposes, arc vot in general 
 Well suitcil for examinations, and have never been capable of accora- 
 modatin)^ all the candidates, numbering sometimes 800, who liave pre- 
 sented tlietnselves at the cbiuf exaninaiiDUs for the army; and further, 
 that even these rooms, not beinj::^ completely at the command of the ( )nico 
 of Works, are liable to be, and have in many cases been, diverted t»> other 
 uses after having been formally assigned for the use of the Commissioners. 
 
 Feeling strongly the diflieulty of conducting tlieir examinations, and 
 especially the large examinations for the army, in a satisfactory manner 
 under these conditions, the Commissioners have repeatedly pressed vpon the 
 Office of Jforks the desirableness of making some permanent arrangement^ 
 whereby adequate and suitable jrrcmisrs should be at their disposal wheixever 
 required, 'i'heir representations, however, have hitherto been iciUiout 
 effect, not, as they gladly acknowledcre, owing to any indisposition on tho 
 part of the lioard to do what is in their power, but rather to the univill- 
 ingness of the Government to incur the necessary expense for an ohj-xt <f 
 which they have jierlMps hardly recognised the importance. The (N)mmis- 
 sioners believe that Air Chililers will agree with them in regarding it aa 
 one worthy of more consideration than it has yet received, and he may 
 perhaps bo of opinion that the large sum, exceeding £3,500, now annually 
 paid into tho Exchequer in tho shape of feus on military examinations 
 nflfords an additional reason why the eflieient and orderly conduct of theso 
 examinations should not be imperilled from motives of economy. 
 
 1 have, &c. 
 
 The Under Secretary of State, (Signed) E. IIeadlam. 
 
 War Oflice. 
 
 No. 6. — TIic Secretary, Office of Works, to the Secretary, Civil Service 
 
 Commission. 
 
 Sir, 24th Juno IRSO. 
 
 I am directed by the First Commissicmer of Tier Majesty's Works, 
 &C., to acknowledge the receipt of Mr Headlam's letter of tho 22nd 
 instant, forwarding copy of a letter from th ■ War Ollicc, and of tho 
 Civil Service Cunnnissioners' reply thereto, niative to the aimoyanco 
 experienced by candidates at recent examinations at the Koyal Albert 
 Hall, and I am to .acquaint you, for the inforniatiou of the (Commis- 
 sioners, that the Board have forward- d a copy of th' rorrespoiui(mcc tohich 
 1u-s taken place \ipoii the mceiter to the Lords Commiimioncrs of Ilcr 
 Majcstffs Treasury, 
 
 I am, &c. 
 
 (Signotl) R. C. Callander. 
 
/^ 
 
 <si 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PKOSE, 
 
 ' 
 
 
 W. The Adstract or Index. 
 
 No. of 
 
 LHtt«r, 
 
 «ito. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Date. 
 
 May 31,1880. 
 
 No. 2. June 9, 1880. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 COKRESPONDENTH. 
 
 June 22, 1880. 
 
 June 2, 1880. 
 
 No. 5. 1 June 18, 1830. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 Civil Service 
 
 Ofmmissioners 
 to ( jflico of 
 Works. 
 
 Juno 24, 1880. 
 
 Ofiice of Works 
 to Civil Service 
 Cotntnissiuncrs. 
 
 Civil Service 
 
 Commissioners 
 to Oflice of 
 Works. 
 
 War Oflice to 
 Civil Service 
 Commissioners. 
 
 Civil Service 
 
 Commissioners 
 to War Oilice. 
 
 Oflice of Works 
 to Civil Service 
 Commissioners. 
 
 Subject-matter. 
 
 Intinifiting complaints of dis- 
 turbance of Candidates during 
 Kxaininationsiii KoyalAlbert 
 Hull: requesting that repre- 
 sentations be made to Man- 
 agers of Hall. 
 
 Intimating that the Manager 
 of Hall has promised that the 
 matter slmll luive his best 
 attention. 
 
 Forwarding copy of Letter (No. 
 4) on same subject from War 
 OHicc, with reply thereto' 
 (l\o. 5). 
 
 Calling attention to remarks in 
 House of Commons in regard 
 to disturbance of Examina- 
 tions in Albert Hall. 
 
 Stating that the subject had 
 already been inquired into 
 by Commissioners, and en- 
 closing Letters No. 1 and No. 
 2 : representing that the rooms 
 provided were generally un- 
 suitable : stating that the 
 (Oflice of Works had repeated- 
 ly been pressed to provide per- 
 manent accommodation, and 
 giving reasons for the same. 
 
 Intimating that the whole cor- 
 respondence had been for- 
 warded to the Treasury. 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITIKG. 
 
 65 
 
 
 III. Tub Memoranpum or Summaet. 
 
 Accommodation for Examinations. 
 
 Ko. 1. (May 31,1880). The Civil Service Commissioners called the 
 
 attention of the First Commissioner of Ilcr 
 Majesty's Wor'vS to complaints that had been 
 made to them of the disturbance to which Can- 
 didates had been suhjected during examination 
 in tlie Koyal Albert Hall, both from workmen 
 and from jiersona in the upper gallery. Tiicy 
 asked the Ollice of Works to call tlie attention of 
 the Managers of the Hall to the stihject, with 
 a view to a remedy. The Ofrico of Works replied 
 that they had at once done so, and that the 
 Manager had promised to give tlie matter lu9 
 best attention. In the meantime the War OHice 
 called the attention of the Civil Service Commis- 
 sioners to statements on tlie same subject made 
 in the House of Commons, and requested them 
 to inquire into the matter, and to provide a 
 remedy. In reply, the Civil Service Commis- 
 sioners stated that they had already had the 
 matter uiidtu- their consideration, and had been 
 assured that the grievance would bo redressed. 
 The Commi.Hsioners, at the same time, stated 
 that they had repeatedly pressed on the Ofiico 
 of Works the necessity of permanent and suitable 
 accommodation being provided for holding large 
 examinations; and they requested the War OfKco 
 to support them in this api)eal. They forwarded 
 to the Ollnw of Works their correspondence with 
 the War OfTice; and finally, the Oflice of Works 
 pnbmitted the whole question to the Lords of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 No. 2. (June 9, 1880). 
 
 No. 4. (June 2, 1880). 
 
 No. 5. (June 18, 1880). 
 No. 1. (May 31, 1880). 
 
 No. 2. (June 0, 1880). 
 
 No. 3. (June 22, 1880). 
 No. 6. (June 24, 1880). 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 
 Make an Abstract or Index, and a Memorandum or 
 Summary, of each of the following series of letters : — 
 
 I, (No. 1.)— 2Vi(5 Secretary, Cioifonit, to the Secretary, Civil Seitice 
 
 CuiHinission. 
 Sir, 24th May 1«80. 
 
 In reply to your letter of the 7th instant, transmitting a certificate 
 of qualification for Mr A it , as man clerk of the Lower Divisiuii for 
 
8C 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 employment in tins Department, I am desired bv the Ponrd to observe 
 tluit. witii reference to the extract from Treasury letter of 23rd November 
 1877 subjoined to your letter, they will be gh\d to be favoured by tho 
 Civil Service Commissioners with any observations wliich they may 
 
 have to offer with reprard to the date on which Mr A. H should ho 
 
 allowed his next triennial increment, as he appears to have been uuem- 
 ployed fur a period anterior to his appointment to this Department. 
 
 I am, &c. 
 
 I 
 
 (No. 2.)^ The Secretary, Civil Service Commission, to the Secretary^ 
 
 Custoins. 
 
 Sir, 31st May 1880. 
 
 In reply to yonr letter of the 24th instant, I am directed by tho 
 Civil Service Commissioners to acquaint you, for the information of tho 
 Hoard of Customs, that the question therein put, as to the date from 
 which triennial increments of salary should be allowed to clerks of tho 
 Lower Division who have had service in more than one Department, 
 is not one which they have authority to determine for the servico 
 generally. 
 
 I am to state, however, that in dcalhig with such a case, if it were to 
 arise in their own Department, the Connnissioners would consider that 
 only actual service of three years in tho capacity of a Lower Division 
 clerk would entitle a person to receive a triennial increment under Clauso 
 13 of the Order in Council of 12th February 1876. 
 
 Moreover, in view of tho condition which, under Clause 14 of tho 
 Order, must bo satisfied before increments can be allowed in full, tho 
 Commissioners would consider themselves bound to ascertain in tho 
 case of any clerk who liad previously served in another Department 
 whether his couduot in that Department had been in all respects satis- 
 factory. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 IL (No. 1.) — The Principnl Lihranan, British Museum^ to the Secretary^ 
 
 Civil Service Commission. 
 
 Sir, 13th April 1880. ^ 
 
 I have been directed to inquire whether, in tho opinion of the Civil 
 Servico Commissicmers, it would be practicable to grant certificates of 
 qualification for employment in the Civil ^Service, either under Class L 
 or Class II., to candidates for situations in the Ifritish Museum who 
 pass a certain standard, but do not obtain an appointment at the 13ritii>h 
 Museum. 
 
 1 have, &c. 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRlSciS WRITING. 
 
 87 
 
 (No, 2.) — The Sccrciniij, Civil Service Commission^ to tlie Principal 
 Librarian, Britiah Museum. 
 
 Sir, 2l8t April 1880. 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acknovvledj^o 
 the receipt of your letter (►f the 13th instant, in which you inquire 
 whether it would be practicable to grant certificates of qualification for 
 employment in the Civil Service, under either Class I. or Class II., to 
 candidates for situations in the Hritish Museum wlio pass a certain 
 stanihird, but do not obtain an appointment at the British Museum. 
 
 In reply I am to acquaint you, for the information of the trustees of 
 the Hritish Museum, tlint as appointments to situations belonging to 
 Class I. or the Lower Division of the Civil Service can only bo made on 
 the results of open competitive examinations, the Commissioners <io not 
 see how unsuccessful candidates for situations in the British Museum 
 could bo certificated for either of those classes. 
 
 In these circumstances it may perhaps bo worth consideration by tho 
 trustees whether tlie apprehended dilliculty of obtaining an adequate 
 supply of competent candidates would not be obviated if the situations 
 in the British Museum were offered, together with others of similar 
 rank in other Departments, for competition under Uegulation I. (copy 
 enclosed herewith). 
 
 In the competitions held under these Regulations, owing probably to 
 the number of prizes ottered at (me time, there has never been any lack 
 of qualified candidates, notwithstanding that fees amounting to £6 aro 
 exacted. 
 
 It ia to be observed that under paragraph 5 of the " General Regula- 
 tions" candidates for the British Museum might bo required to pass in 
 any subject which might be deemed indispensable; and further, that, 
 under paragraph 5 (c) of tho '' Special Kegulations," tho trustees would 
 probably in many cases have it in their power to fill vacancies imme- 
 diately on their occurrence. 
 
 For appointments demanding special knowledge of a rare kind, it 
 woultl still bo fvissible, with the sanction of the Treasury, to hoUl 
 separate competitions, or they might, with the like sanction, be filled 
 under the provisions of Clause 7 of the Order in Council of 4th Juno 
 1870. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 III. (No. l.)—The Assistant Undn' Srcrrtary of State, Colonial OJ/ice, 
 to the Secretary, Civil Service Commission. 
 
 Sir, 25th October 1880. 
 
 With reference to your letter of the JJrd of August 1S78, respecting 
 a proposal made by the tluii (iovernor of Malta, that arrangements sboubl 
 if possible be made to enable candiilatcs, who are natives of Malta and 
 
88 
 
 COMPOSITION IN I'KtHt. 
 
 ( 
 
 resilient in tlic Colony, to bi* cxaniincd tliere hinniltnneously with tboao 
 t>ikiii{^ part in oonipeiilioiis in this (ronnti y lor appointnicntH in the urniy 
 and navy or the Civil Service of Kn<i[liintl and India, 1 am directed by the 
 Karl ol' Kiniberley to transniit to you, to be laid before the Civil Service 
 C'oininishionors, a copy of a despiteli from Major-tieneral the Ilonuurahlu 
 }*. Feildin<(, at present ailniinistering the (fovernnient of Malta, urging 
 further reasons in favour of Sir C. Van Stranbeii/ee'« proposal. 
 
 On the receipt of your letter referred to above, the Governor was 
 informed that this recjuest could not be acceded to. 
 
 Lord Kiniberley would, however, now strongly urge that this decision 
 should be recouKidered. lie attaches considerable ini}K.rtanco to tliirt 
 measure both as a means of facilitating the eiforts of the Colonial Govern- 
 ment to promote the study of the Knglish language in Malta, and of 
 attaching the Maltese to this country by enabling tlnnn to enter Her 
 Majesty's service. 
 
 The necessity of coming to this country for the purpose of being 
 examined operates as a practical bar to candidates from Malta offering 
 themselves. 
 
 1 am to add that Lord Kimbcrloy understands that certain examina- 
 tions are now conducted by the Civil Service Commission in Malta, and 
 he trusts that the Commissioners will be able to extend the bystem to 
 other exauiiuations in the numm^r proposed. 
 
 i am, &c. 
 
 (No. 2.) — Enci-gsdhe. 
 Major-General Feh.dino to the Earl of Kimderley. 
 
 My Lord, Palace, Valetta, IJOth September 1880, 
 
 I deim it to be my duty to state for your l^ordship's consideration 
 that, notwitlistiuuling the great cilurts which are being made by this 
 Government in ordir to encourage and promote the study of the English 
 language in these Isl.inds, a larg(! portion of thocomnmnity liave hitlierto 
 faileil to foru! an adefiuate annreciation of the multifarious advantages 
 which would most nndoubtetlly he derived from a more extensive know- 
 ledge of the English language, and I am porry to say that an impression 
 yet prevails that a thorough study of the English language would be ])roiit- 
 uble to only very few. considering the large amount of exptinse which a 
 Maltese youth must inevitably incur should he be permitted to compete 
 ill England for situations in the army and navy and the Civil Service of 
 Gre.it Biitain and India. 
 
 With a view, therefore, to remove one of the greatest (li-cournp-emcnts 
 thar locally exist for a more general mid profound study of the En^^ii^h 
 liiiguage in Malta, 1 would venture to reiieat the suggestion contained in 
 f>ir('. V'an Stijinben/ee's despatch of tin; 4th May 1878, and, to recjiust 
 that your Jjordsliip may be plcuscd to uwve th'j Civil fcicvvico Conmiis- 
 
i 
 
 I 
 
 SUMMARY, Olt ritlXIS WUITINQ. 
 
 CO 
 
 Kioncrs to ruconsider tluiir dcoi'-ion of the l)ri\ Awzwt lfi7R. in order that 
 a piivilcf^ii inMv Ih^ coiicodt'il to .M;i!tu;-;(! stmlfiits to undcrjro in tliis l.xlimd 
 any citinpctitive «!xniniiiation for sItn;vt"oiis in \\vy Maji;sty'.s stTvioi; in a 
 sinnlar manner, and on the same t'ootinjr. as pr.u'.tisi.'d in tin; case of 
 candidates I'nr conniiissions in tlie Koyal Malta Fcnc-iMc Artillery. 
 
 Slinnlii this coneessiMn Ixi made I caun<»t lint tliink tliat it would po far 
 to net .iMde an ot'i-nsed aijrii'iient in Malta l»y timse who are oi)})os<-d to 
 the educational rtd'ornis in (avi»ur of a nion; extended teaehinfj of t!io 
 ^Jl{::li^h lan'jfiiaf;e in thepc l^hinds as sn!r'-'esf<!d hy Mr Keenan and .^ir 
 I'cnrose .Julyan, viz., wh.at advajitajres will the enmnninity pain hy tho 
 change proposed; iu case of conii-ssinn the reply would be iiresistilllo. 
 
 I have, &e., 
 ^?ic:ned) IV FKii.inxa. M;ijor Ctenernl, 
 The Kight Hon. tlie Karl of Kimberle\', Admi.iisteiing the tiovernment. 
 &c., &o., &c. 
 
 P.S. — I he;xtoadd that peculiar facMitles exist in Malta wliieh prcchtdo 
 the possibility of any tinfair ilr;ilin<; v%itli the |i.iptrs, as the examinatioTis 
 t tke plae(^ in the Council Uonm of the I'alice, and are under the ininic- 
 diatu Hurvuilluncu of the Governor. 
 
 (No. 3.) — ZAc Secretary, Civil Service Cnmini^sion, to the Direct ur- 
 General of Military Kilueatiou. 
 
 Sir, lOth November 19R0. 
 
 T am (^'rccted by the. Civil Service Comnn'ssl(»ners to transmit, for the 
 information of His Royal Highness the I ield Marshal Connnanding-in- 
 Chief, the enclosed copy of a letter from the Colonial Ofiiee, dated tlie 
 25th October, with enclosure, recomniending that ar:angements shonhl 
 bo made for holding at Malta certain exnmination.s conducted by this 
 iJoard. and, among others, those for adnn'ssion to the arr.iv. 
 
 IJefore nsplying to this communication, the Commissioners would Iw 
 plad t(» be informed whether His Hoyal Highness would Pe(! any (dijection 
 to allowing cindidate.s to undergo the preliminary examination for 
 admission to Sandhurst at Malta. 
 
 I'ho question whether or not it would 1)C possible or desirable to hold 
 the further examination in that colony is one the consideration of which 
 the Cummissioners desire to pospone for the present. 
 
 1 have, &c. 
 
 (No. 4.) — The Dircctor-Ctenrrnl of Military EdnraLion, to the Secretary^ 
 
 Civil Service Commission. 
 
 Sir, 1st December 1880. 
 
 With reference to your letter of tho 10th ultimo, transmitting a copy 
 of a letter from the Colonial Ofliee. dated the 2.'jth Octidxr, with enclosure 
 recommending that arrangements shouhl be made for holding at Malta 
 
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 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 
 (716) 873-4503 
 
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90 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 certaia examinations conducted by the Civil Service Commissioners, I 
 have the honour, by direction of the Field Mfirshal Commanding-iu-Chicf, 
 to acquaint you that Hi<» Koyal Highness lias no objection to the pro- 
 posal that preliminary examinations for admission to Sandhurst may be 
 held at Malta. 
 
 I am, &c. 
 
 (No. 5.)— TAfi Secretary, Oivil Service Commission, to the Secretary, 
 
 Treasury. 
 
 Sir, 15th December 1880. 
 
 In transmitting for the information of the Lords Commissioners of 
 Her Majesty's Treasury the unclosed copy of a letter, witli enclosure, 
 which has been receivecf from the Colonial Office on the subject of the 
 desirability, in the interests of the colony, of holding Army and Civil 
 Service examinations at Malta ; 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acquaint you, 
 for their Lordships' information, that, in view of the stron!^ rcpresenta' 
 tions contained in the Earl of Kimberloy's letter and in Mnjor-CJencral 
 the Honourable P. Feilding's despatch, the Commissioners,are engaged in 
 considering whether they can hold in that island preliminary examina- 
 tions (and possibly from time to time a competitive examination) for 
 clerkships in the Lower Division. They have ascertained that His 
 Royal Highness the Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief sees no objec- 
 tion to preliminary examinations for Sandhurst being held at Malta. 
 
 .^. difficulty, however, arises as to the manner in which the prescribed 
 fees should be collected. By your letter, 26th September 1870, it was 
 laid down that all Civil Service examination fees should be levied by 
 means of stamps, but as in the present case it appears doubtful whether 
 arrangements could be made for the supply of these stamps in Malta, I 
 am to request that the Commissioners may be informed whether their 
 Ijordships would see any objection to the collection in these cases of the 
 fees in money. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 IV. (No. 1.) — The Chief Cleric, Exchequer aifid Audit Department^ to 
 the Secretary, Civil Service Commission. 
 
 6th October 1880. 
 I am directed by the Comptroller and Auditor General to request 
 that he may be favoured with the views of the Civil Service Commis- 
 sioners as to the following arrangement in relation to the terms of the 
 Order in Council of the 4th June 1870, viz. : — 
 
 The appointment in October 1879 of Mr A. K to be Vice-Consul 
 
 at Port au Prince, subject to his passing the required examination en the 
 first occasion of his visiting this country, and the payment of his salary 
 
 

 fiL'MMAIlY, OR PlticiS WriTING, 
 
 SI 
 
 from the dafe of tin's appointment, notivith standing that tho required 
 examinatiou had not takcu place nearly a year alter that date. 
 
 1 have, &c. 
 
 (No. 2.)— TAe Secretary, Civil Service Commission, to the Under Secretary 
 
 of tiiate, Foreign OJjice. 
 
 ®^*^» _ ,. , , 9th November 1880. 
 
 1 am dn-cctcrl by the Civil Service Commissioners to acquaint you, 
 for P:n!l (Jranvilie's iiilbrmntion, that they have received a letter froin' 
 the Comptroller and Auditor General, laising the question whether the 
 arrann^emcnt referred to in Mr Hammond's letter to this lioard of 2Uth 
 December 1855, according to which gentlemen appointed as Vice-Consuls 
 frequently do not obtain certificates of qualification until a considerable 
 tune after they have entered upon their duties, is consistent with the pro- 
 visions of the Order in ( ouricil of 4th Juno 1870. 
 
 Before replying to this letter, the Commissioners wot. 1 be glad to be 
 made acquainted with Larl Cranville's views on the subject. 
 
 'i'he Commissioners arc themselves aware of no reason for doubtin<T 
 that while Consuls are not bound by the Order, l^ing appointed directly 
 by the Crown, Vice-Consuls are subject to its provisions, which require, 
 as a general rule, that a certificate should be obtained before employment 
 is commenced. On the other hand they can rerdily understand that 
 grave inconvenience to the public service might be caused by insisting 
 on this rule in the case of persons selected for appointment while 
 resident in the country in which they are intended to serve. They direct 
 me, however, to observe that an exception might be made in these cases 
 if his l-ordship should think fit to deal with them in the manner indicated 
 by the Gazette notice of 13th January 1872, according to which tho 
 person selected might, under conditions there stated, bo employed with- 
 out certificate, until either the Commissioners were able to arrange for his 
 examination at the place in which he was serving or he could return to 
 England to be examined. 
 
 The Commissioners desire further to suggest that if, as they under- 
 stand to be the case, consular appointments are sometimes held by 
 foreigners, it might be desirable, with the view of avoiding future 
 question, that appointments so held should be formally exempted from 
 the operation of the Order by being added to "Schedule K" thereof in 
 the manner provided by the 8th Clause. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 (No. Z.)—The Under Secretary of State, Foreign Office, to the Secretary, 
 
 Civil Service Commission. 
 
 ^^'» „ , ^ .„ , , , 21st December 1880. 
 
 Larl Granville has duly considered vour letter of the 9th ultimo, 
 relative to the position of any uncommissioned Consular OiKcers not 
 
■ 
 
 92 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PKOSE. 
 
 allowed to trade, who may be servinp^ abroad wHliout yet having passed 
 an examination before the Civil {Service Cominissiont'rs; and 1 am directed 
 by his Lordship to acquaint you that he has no objection to offer to the 
 course you propose of considering- such officers as coining under tlie tei-nia 
 of the notice in the Gazette of the JGth of January 1872, provided that 
 arrangements are made for their examination as soon as possible atter 
 they enter on their duties. 
 
 Lord Granville, however, does not think it would bo advisable to tnke 
 any steps towards putting under Schedule B. foreigners, as such, who 
 may be in the Hvitish Consular Service, more especially as those who are 
 allowed to trade come already within the operation of that schedule, under 
 the head of trading Vice-Consuls. 
 
 1 am, &c. 
 
 (No. 4.) — The Secretary^ Civil Service Commimon, to the Under Secretary 
 
 of StatCy Foreign Office. 
 
 Sir, ^ ^ 5th Januarv 18S1. 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissionei-a to acknowledge 
 the receipt of your letter of tlie 21st DecembeP on the subject of tiio 
 employment before they are certificated of uncommissioned Consular 
 Officers not allowed to trade. 
 
 I am only further to observe, lest the point should have escaped Lord 
 Granville's notice, that the previous approval of the Lords of the Tieasury 
 will be necessary, under the terftis of the Gazette notice of 16th January 
 1872, on each occasion when it maybe proposed to employ a Consular 
 Officer without certificate from this Board, unless their Lordships should 
 be pleased to give a general approval under such terms and conditions as 
 might be settled between them and your department. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 I 
 
 (No. 5.) — The Secretary, Civil Service Commission, to the Comptroller 
 
 and Auditor General. 
 Sir, 6th Januarv 188L 
 
 Adverting to Mr Treherne's letter (1231) of the 6th Octobe'r last, on 
 the subject of the employment of Vice-Consuls previous to their obtaining 
 the certificate of this Hoard, 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to transmit the 
 enclosed copy of correspondence which has passed between this Board 
 and the Foreign Office, from which correspondence it will be seen that 
 it is proposed henceforth to bring such employment into conformity with 
 the Order in Council of the 4th June 1870, by applying to it the p o- 
 visions of the notice issued in tlie London Gazette of IGth January 1872. 
 
 1 have, &c. 
 
eUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITING, 93 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 
 Subjects for Summary. 
 
 1. The reign of William the Conquerer. 
 
 2. The reign of Henry VIII. ^ "^ ''^' 
 
 3. The reign of Louis XIV. 
 
 4. The Third Crusade. 
 
 fi ^1'^ ?f "i?!'^ ?,y?P*'^ '" *^® Peninsular War. 
 
 6. The Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 7. A Parliamentary Report. 
 
 8. A Parliamentary Speech. 
 
 9. The Evidence of a Witness. 
 
 10. The Book of Esther. 
 
 11. The First Canto of J/omio». * 
 ??• T?^ Prologue to the Canterbury Talcs. 
 
 IS. Tho Fmh Act of Hamlet. ^ ^^"^^ 
 U. The Fivst Act oUIacbeth. 
 
 15. The First Book of Faradise Lo$L 
 
 16. Tennyson's JS^/ai«e. 
 
11 
 
 II 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 ■*^ 
 
 m 
 
 ■m. 
 
 \( 
 
i*r*i. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 \:l 
 
 m 
 
 / 
 
 THE 
 
 ROYAL COPY BOOKS. 
 
 Prescribed by thj Council op Public Inthtruotion for use in the 
 
 Schools in Nova Scotia, i, 
 
 / / 
 
 and 
 
 / 
 
 ADOPrED BY THE PROVINCIAL NORMAL SCHOOL, 
 
 Truro. 
 
 /■ 
 
 The Attentiox of Teachers is specially called to these 
 Copy Books. The series is adniirahly graded, and the repeat of 
 the Head lines in the centre of each page, in the first four num- 
 bers, is particularly suited to beginners, as it enables the pupil 
 to have the copy immediately under his eye, thereby preventing 
 the learner from copying his own writing. The higher numbers 
 are suited to the more advanced pupils, and great care has been 
 taken to introduce the most modern style of writing. The 
 Book-keeping forms and rulings will be found to be of great 
 assistance in making the scholars familiar with that part of 
 education which now commands attention in our public schools. 
 
 A. & W. MACKINLAY, 
 
 JTULISHERS. 
 
 V