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Pans; Pn-M;U Manitoba UUtorirnl Sorutu- Conrsiwmlimj Mnuher Am,;icau Uistoriral .Issovinti,,,,, ,„„l of M„ntn;d Celtic Sociftt/ ; Author, " .Mimitoh,!, its Infaiidj. Oniiri/i, ami Vrrscnt Omilitimi " [\m-i) ; Article, " Manitoha " in " Jincijrlnpieilia Uvitannica ;" t ' ' Fife Forts of Win n ipeg ' ' ( Royal Society) ; " MoumI Uitililcrs," .\c. ■IJ SAMPSON LOW, MARSTOX, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET Coionto W. J. GAGE AND COMPANY 1S87 r lAU rights reserved] BY THE SAME AUTHOR. CroKH Swo, with IllustraHont and Mups, 7i>. Gil. MANITO BA : Its Infancy, Growth, and Becent Condition, London . SAMrs.ON LOW, MARSTOX, SEARLE, & RIVINGTOX, 188, FtEET Street, EX'. f .^ ; ■ 1— £ — 1— ,^ St I n rREFACE. Canadians desire to know more of the ofirly condition of their fathers, of the ek'ments from which the peoph' huvo sprung-, of the material, social, and religious forci's at work to make Canada what she is, of the picturesque or romantic in deed or sentiment, and of the growth of the great principles of liberty by which the nation is main- tained. The writer has departed from the usual custom in previous Canadian histories of giving whole chapters on the war of 1812 — 1815; the rise and fall of administra- tions, whose single aim seemed to be to grasp power; and on petty discussions which have left no mark upon the country. Instead of making his work a "drum and trumpet history," or a " mere record of faction fights,'^ the author aims at giving a true picture of the aboriginal inhabi- tants, the early explorers and fur-traders, and the scenes of the French regime; at tracing the events of the coming of the Loyalists, who were at once the " Pilgrim Fathers '' of Canada, and the " Jacobites " of America ; and at following in their struggles and improvement the bands of sturdy immigrants, as year a . year they sought homes in the wilderness, and by hundreds of thousands filled the land. While a sympathizer with movements for the wide extension of true freedom, and rejoicing that "through the shadow of the globe we sweep into the younger day,^' yet the author is a lover of the antique, and finds interest A 2 17 PREFACK. in tlio misncccs<at majoi'ity <>f cases the "original" sources have been con- sulted, and some of the more reliable authorities have Ix^en named in the "references" at the head of each chapter. In the Appendices, Chronological Annals, and Index, assistance for the reader in consulting the work will be found. 'Co make history picturesque must be the aim of the modern historian. The time has gone by when mere compilation of facts, however accurate, and collections of undigested material will be taken as history. History must bo a picture of the working out of human life under its conditions of infinite variety and complexity. The author aims at viewing Canada from a " Dominion" standpoint. IJeing a Canadian, born and bred, he wishes to portray the beginnings and growth of life, in the s(;verjil provinces, from Halifax to Victoria, with patriotic feeling. His extensive acquaintance with the various parts of Canada, and his connections with learned circles in Britain and the United States, have given him ex- ceptional opportunities, in consulting useful manuscripts and original documents. The author desires to return warmest thanks to Justin Winsor, Esq., Librarian of Harvard College, Cambridge ; Dr. Green, of Massachusetts Historical Society; M. Sylvain, of Ottawa Parliamentary Library ; Douglas Brymner, Esq., Archivist, Ottawa; and to Messrs. Bain and Houston, Librarians, of Toronto Public and Parlia- mentary Libraries. The services of these scholarly and obliging gentlemen Lave been invaluable to him. f?0( UohJi'filin >ti;i,inid I'Jll JJl'O- u w infiiiy (' gri'iit cMi con- OS hav(? of oucli Iiulox, will bo I of tlio n mere; tioiis of History an life 3xity. niuion ( wishes in the atriotic various [ circles lim ex- iscripts Justin bridge ; y; M. )ougla3 's. Bain Parlia- rly and CONTENTS. CJIAPTKR I. THE DOMINION OF (ANA DA. Section I. — Namo and Extent „ II. — Boundaries oi' ( 'iinada . „ III. — (Jeneral .Sketch of the i*roviuces . CIIArTER 11. rREIIISTOIUC AND EARLY AMKIUCA, flection I. — Geological Data .... II.— .Alyths in. — Traditions ..... IV. — Notable Voyages and Discoveries CHAPTER III. THE ANC'IKNT INHABITANTS OF CANADA. Section T. — The Mound Builders „ n. — The present Indian tribes .... „ III. — Domestic life of the Indians M IV.— Language, Manners, and Customs »i V. — Social, Political, and Religious Organization CHAPTER IV. THE OLD COLONIES ALONG THE ATLANTIC. Section T.— The French Colonies of Acadia and Canada „ II. — English CavaUer and Puritan Colonies ». III. — Colonies of various origins .... PACK 1 6 ?>'2 '37 55 85 88 01) TOO 118 128 II! > 16-2 J; VI Contents. VUAVTVAl V. THE FRENCH Uh(;i.MK IN CANADA AND ACADIA. PAOK Section T. — fJovornor and T'('oj)lo . . . . , .171 „ H. — 'I'lic Cliurcli ami MissioiiarioM .... 177 ,, III. — TIk^ inarvrllouH Opening of the AVost . . . 181 „ IV. — Indian iloHtiiitit'.s ...... 19^1 ,, V. — WavH and trncew en 202 . 221 248 262 274 281 288 291 298 310 CHAPTEIl X. THM MAKrVfJ OF (ANAHA. (1817—1835.) Section I.— 'I'ho threat Imini^'nitioii . . . , „ II. — The Fiitnily Compact utkI itH Oppououts . „ III.— Tbo Htruggle for Freedom . . . . CHAPTER XI. THE nEHKLLIONS AND TIIK NKW CONSTITUTION, Section I. — Sedition in Lower Canada .... „ II. — The Rebels in Upper Canada ,, HI. — The New C(juHtitutiou .... CHAPTER XII. PROGRESS IN PROVINCIAL LIFE. Section T. — Growth in Population ,, 1 1. — The Stormy Sea of Politics .... „ 111. — Keel, Lock, and Rail . „ IV.— Field, Forest, Mine, and Sea >> V. — Commercial, Flducational, and Social Progress VI. — The Federal Union accomplished CHAPTER XIIL TUE CANADIAN PEOPLE UNDER CONFEDERATION, Section I. — The Affairs of State . „ 11. — Acquisition of the Great North -West „ HI. — The National Highway „ IV. — Growth of a Military Sentiment » V. — Literature, Science, and Art „ VI. — Religion and Morals ,, VII. — The destiny of Canada PA OR 346 357 368 A PPENDIX A. — Provisions of British North America Act „ B, — Comparative Table of Governors of Canada . o Chronological Annals . .511 Index 521 445 454 460 466 474 483 490 495 ^■08 I 1 380 Vk 385 ^:i 392 »■'''«. n 1 1' 398 V'- 407 :i 420 ti 427 < 432 440 ■ » r 3 ' Map of the Dominion of Canada. i t: ^i ^ (Rof( <) vols. Utrech G vols., It was in hist the CO countr their I on Hi king a the lar genera Quebei —the: Fraser Scottis to can Montre "wilderi Edwan of ener t'A A SHOET HISTORY OF THE CANADIAN PEOPLE. CHAPTER I. THE DOMINION OF CANADA. ' * ' '■ iJ Section I. — The Name and Extent. (References : Charlevoix, " Histoire de la Nouvelle France," vols., Paris, 1744; Hennepin, "Nouvelle Decouverte," &c., Utrecht, 1698; Schoolcraft's "Indian Tribes of North America," 6 vols., Philadelphia, 1853.) : It was a Frenchman of Brittany who, first of Europeans in historic times, set foot upon Canadian soil and claimed the country for his kino;", and so for many of his fellow- countrymen who afterwards came to make New France their home. It was a company of English adventurers on Hudson Bay who for two centuries kept for their king and country the almost continuous sovereignty of the land bestowed upon them, and it was a young English general, dying in the hour of victory on the plains near Quebec, who engraved the name of England on Canada — the fairest jewel in the British crown. It was brave Fraser and Montgomery Highlanders, and restless Scottish pioneers, who came as early settlers, the former to carry with French voyageurs the fur trade from Montreal to distant Athabasca, the latter to reclaim the wilderness along the sea-shore of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, as well as elsewhere, who gave elements of energy and thrift to Canada. It was the sweetest B . 1 . • «.. ?' r ¥' 11- I ' '. ' A Short History of poet of Ireland who, gliding with the boatmen down the beautiful St. Lawrence, sang the best-known Canadian song in the land whither many of his countrymen have since come to find freedom and prosperity. Last, and perhaps most important, it was American loyalists who, sacrificing Avorldly goods, preserved their honour to be an inheritance to their children in New Brunswick and elsewhere along the sea, as well as to bo the leaders in laying the foundations of a new community upon the shores of the lakes Erie and Ontario. Ours is the duty of telling the story of this gathering of the races from the several sources named, and of the consolidation of them and their descendants into one people bearing the name Canadian, and who have, under the shelter of Britain, extended the rule of Canada to a region stretch- ing between the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans, including well-nigh half of North America. No name could have been more appropriate for this vast territory, for the name Canada goes back to within half a century of the discovery of the continent by Colombo. We find it first used in Cartier's account of his voyage given by Bamusio, 1556. It was used for a century and a half before we find any allusion to its meaning, and this no doubt accounts for the difference of opinion on the subject. It is in the writings of Father Hennepin in 1698, that we are told "that the Spaniards were the first who discovered Canada ; but at their first arriving, having found nothing considei'able in it, they abandoned the country and called it ' II Capo di Nada,^ i.e. a cape of nothing ; hence, by corruption, sprang the word Canada, which we use in all the maps.^^ About half a century later, Father Charlevoix, in 1744, states that the Bay of Chaleur was formerly called the " Bay of Spaniards," and an ancient tradition goes that the Castillians had entered there before Cartier, and that when they there perceived no appearance of mines, they pronounced two words, " Aca nada,^' nothing here, meaning no gold or silver j the savages afterwards re- peated these words to the French, who thus came to look upon Canada as the name of the country. was THE Canadian Pkopli-: m 1 m As regards tho voyaps-es of the Spaniards to which rrference is made, it has been usual to identify them with tliose of Velasquez to the coast of Canada. It has now l)een found that the reputed voyages of this Spaniyd are spurious, so that it is evident no reliance can bo ])liic'ed on this as tlie origin of t'le name Canada. Father Charlevoix states in a note that " some derive this name from the Iroquois word ' Kannata/ which is pronounced ' Cannada/ and signifies a collection of dwell- ings/' This derivntion is borne out by Schoolcraft, who states that the Mohawk word for town is '^Ka-na-ta/' the Cayuga "Ka-ne-tae/^ and the Oneida '^ Ku-na-diah,'' and these were three members of the Iroquois confederacy. The use of the word Kannata ibr village, in Jirant's translation of the Gospel by Mark into Mohawk, in the latest years of last century, confirms this derivation; while the detection of Iroquois intlnence by recent in- vestigators m the villages of Hochelaga and Stadacona, at tlie time when Cartier first visited them, renders this explanation reasonably certain. Canada continued sole name of the country discovered by the French on the banks of tho St. Lawrence until 1G09, in which year the Canadian explorer, Ghamplain, havinir o'iven at Fontainebleau before the French kin"", Henry IV., an account of the country, it received the name " La Nouvelle France.'' As the French explora- tions were continued up the St. Lawrence and along the shores of the great lakes, the name Canada or Nouvelle France became one of wider significance, until towards the end of the seventeenth century it meant all the territory claimed by the French southward to the English possessions, from which it might be said in general terras the Ohio River divided it, and west until the Mississippi was reached. \V\^st of the Mississippi lay Louisiana, seemingly claimed by the French by virtue of their explorations by way of the mouth of the Mississippi. Northward the territory from St. Anthony Falls, on the Father of Waters, was practically unknown till the third decade of the eighteenth century. The northern boundary of Canada 13 2 i U'-1 [A Si t. !■ «■■ ■ A Short History of was at the time of the Treaty of Utrecht ia 1713, regarded as being described by the lieight of laiid between the lakes and Hudson Bay. That treaty provided thaiy commissioners should be appointed to lay out this line, but this was never carried out. It was after the American Revolution, in what, so far as Canada is concerned, may be called the Cession ratfior than the Treaty oF Paris, that the vast territory south and west of the great lakes to the Ohio and Misis^sippi rivers was deliberately given up to the United States. This seems all the more surprising and unfortunate when it is remembered that the British Parliament had in 1774 extended, by its own legislation, the boundaries of the then Province of Quebec to the wider limits named. A few years after the Treaty of Paris, when Canada had been so shorn of her wide domain, a division was made of the territory remaining, by the Imperial Parliament, into Lower Canada, containing chiefly the French popula- tion, and Upper Canada, that portion bounded mainly by the Ottawa liiver, the Upper St. LaAvrence, and the lakes. It was only in 18G7-73 that the name of Canada was given to a wider region than ever before, under tha rule of a dominion or confederated government. The Canada, then, of the united Canadian people is the result of the natural ties and patriotic statesmanship of those attached to the British Crown upon the North American continent. It was on .Dominion Day, July 1st, 1867, that the Royal proclamation, dated on the 22nd May preceding at Windsor Castle, joined the four leading members of the Confederation, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, into a united Canada. This union not only gave relief from political difficulties then existing, but consolidated British power upon this con- tinent, and awoke to life in the Dominion a young national existence, afterwards bringing in the North- west, Prince Edward Island and British Columbia. True there are those who lament that among Canadians there is not a stronger sentiment of nationality. There does not seem much ground for this complaint when it is remembered that there were in 1881, out of 4,324,810 "ii THE Canadian People. 5 of a populiition in tlio Dominion, no less than 3,715,492 nativo-born Canadians, and when ifc can be stated that there i.s n far stronger feeling of nnity in the Dominion now after its short career of eighteen years, than there was in the United States in 1812, when the republic had been twice eighteen years a nation. It may be admitted that the Dominion lacked the fierce enthiisiasni with which the thirteen Britisli colonies, throwing oil" the control of the mother country, began their career in 17 70, with numbers in both cases not widely differing ; but it has been Canada^s advantage that under the tegis of Great Britain she has been com- pelled to explore no unknown sea of political uncertainty in prosecuting her way. The new capital at Ottawa, removed from the American frontier, and fairly central for the confederated provinces, had been Queen Victoria's choice, and the lofty and costly towers crowning the height of Parliament Hill are a centre of national life worthy of any people. Parliament, like its model in Westminster, is made up of the three estates, the Queen and the two Houses. By the quinquennial appointment of a British nobleman of unblemished character and high distinction as Governor- General tlie Queen represents herseU' worthily at Ottawa, and delivers the country from the civil revolution of a ballot-box election, which periodically convulses the United States. By the appointment, aut vitam aid cAilpam, of eiglity-one members by the Governor in Council, from among the men of wealth and political experience of the Dominion, the Senate, or Upper House, is created, without the evils that flow from a hereditary aristocracy, and serving as a protection to the weaker provinces. The 211 members of the Commons, or Lower House, are chosen by the people by ballot every five years at least, from constituencies adjusted every decade accord- ing to the variability of the population in the several provinces. The Dominion Government appoints the Judges of Chancery and Queen's Bench throughout the country, by which the evils of an elected justiciary are ;;l m ';^ A Short Htftorv of GFScnpetl, and a Supremo Court of Appeal has been con- stituted at Ottawa ; while, in order that no subject may bo denied justice, and tliat tlie l(\arning' and freedom from popular clamour of Jii-itish jud<4'es mny bo available, an appeal is allowed in certain cases to tho Privy Council in London. Tho military and naval equipment of Canada, which, with a trilling exception, is not of the nature of a standing array, is under tho direction of the Dominion entirely, thus escaping complications between the dill'erent pro- vinces; and tlie customs, trade, and currency are under the same authority. Each of the provinces existing before coiifedei-ation has control of its public lands, forests, and mines, though the fisheries of the whole country, along with the lands, forests, and mines of Manitoba and the north-western territoi'ies, are con- trolled by the Dominion. Matters relnting to social lif(3, morality, and education are under the jurisdiction of tho several provinces, though tho full control of the Indian population is under the Dominion. It is not to be supposed that in the heat of political feeling no con- flicts should have arisen between the Central Government at Ottawa and the several Provincial G* v^ernments, but a reference to the British Privy Council has secured an impartial settlement of these difficulties. Section II. — The Boundaries of Canada, (References : Treaty of Paris, 1783; "Treaties affecting Bonncl- aries, &c," Bamsay, 1885; "Boundaries formerly in Dispute," Sir Francis Hincks, 1885; "Boundaries of Uuiled States," &c. ; *' United States Government," 1885; "International Law," W. E. Hall, 1880.) It is of prime importance to consider the limits of this larger Canada, and to refer to the circumstances under •which these boundaries were settled. During the past 100 years the numerous treaties, conventions, and com- missions in which Britain and the United States have taken part have largely been occupied with the adjusting of the international boundary line. • The most noticeable thing about these negotiations is THE Canadian People. '■it tlio tact thai it was tlio former posaessioti of Caiiailu by France, and tlie lino of floava<^o thus clearly marked between Canada and the British Colonies, that led Canada to cling to Britain when her own colonies deserted her. Jt was the existence of boundary lines, more or less sharply defined, between the English and Treuch Colonies which supplied the data for deciding the boundary line of Canada. Hiiving succeeded in gaining independence, and this with the hearty approba- tion of a very important part of the British people them- seh^es, it was in the next year after the British surrender at Yorktown that the United States' commissioners suc- ceeded in obtaining a provisional agreement as to the leading principles on which the boundary should be decided. The Ministry then in power had as two of its leading members Lord 8helbourne and Charles James Fox, and the very existence of that Ministry was due to the I'act that the British people desired to have a harmo- nious settlement of these difterences with the rebellious colonies. A British merchant named Oswald, well acquainted with America, was the commissioner for Britain, and the negotiations were conducted in Paris. On behalf of the United States there were Franklin, Adams, and Jay, and it is not too much to say that the desire of the British people for peace with their own flesh and blood beyond the sea, as well as the remarkable ability of the American commissioners, gave Canada much less terri- tory than she should have had. The I'esult of the negotiations was the memorable Treaty of 1783, usually known as the Treaty of Paris. In this the agreement as to boundary was very vague in some parts. This was probably inevitable from the unexplored character of the vast territory under con- sideration, and many a subsequent dispute has grown out of this want of definite description. There was a dispute as to the line drawn from the north-west angle of Nova Scotia, which was defined as an angle formed by a straight line north from the source of St. Croix itiver to the Highlands. The line running 4 •'ill' 8 A Short History of tlicncc along tlic lioiglit of land to the north-west head of tho Connecticut Kiver, was almost impossible of interpretation. This part of the boundary was not Bettled for nearly sixty years afterwards. Running from the point reached on the Connecticut River, and down tho river to tho 45° N. lat., the line followed the forty- fifth parallel to the St. Lawrence. Tho middle of the St. Lawrence, and of the rivers and lakes from this point up to the entrance of Lake Superior, formed a most natural boundary. From the St. Mary's River the line of division ran through the middle of the lake, but to the north of Isle Royale, and then indeed the description became vague. A certain Long Lake is mentioned as an objective point, but no one has ever known of a Long Lake. From this supposed point the line was to have run along tlio watery way by which at last Lake of the Woods is reached, whose north-west corner was the point aimed at. A west-bearing line was then to be drawn until the Missis- sippi was reached, but the source of the Mississippi was found to be three or four degrees to the south of the north- west angle named. No further attempt to fix a boundary was needed west- ward, for to the west of the Mississippi to the south of 49° N., a line seemingly chosen as very nearly excluding the sources of the Missouri, lay Louisiana, claimed by the French; and to the territory west of the Rocky Mountains the United States at the time of the Treaty of Paris laid no claim. The indefiniteness of the boundary line described, and the subsequent purchase of Louisiana and the country on the Pacific coast by the United States, gave rise to dis- pute after dispute. The definition of the Maine boundary, the finding of the line from Lake Superior to Lake of the Woods, the line to the forty-ninth parallel, and the Oregon difficulty, including in it the San Juan affair, were the chief of these. In the Treaty of London, 1794, known as that of The Maine amity and commerce, the question arose which Boundary, was the true St. Croix River, whose source K I "I 17 in up hv the THE Canadian PForLE. ■% was namod as a startinfjf point. Coniinisslonors wcro appointed to examine tlio p^round. Tlioy decided in 179;^ in favour of the smaller Ijranch, inasmuch as it ran in the most nortlierly direction, and at the spot agreed upon they caused ii monument to bo erected. But next it must bo decided where tho highlands referred to in the treaty were. The Americans chiimed heiyfhts even overlooking the St. Lawrence. l^i'itaiu Tefused this. The treatv liad said the highlands between the streams running into tho St. Lawrence, and those into the Atlantic Ocean. 'J'ho headwatet's of tho St. John and Kestigouclie rivers were those relied on by tho Americans. " No/* said the British, ^' tho St. John empties into the Bay of Fundy, and the Rcstigouche into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, neither of them into tho Athintic Ocean." So raged the contest. The lino running nortli from the monument was claimed by the Americans for one hundred and forty miles ; the British would only allow them forty miles. In 1829 the knotty question was referred to the King of the Netherlands as arbitrator, The arbitrator made an honest effort to decide, but was compelled to return the matter to tho parties concerned as inexplicable and impracticable. He at the same time sug- gested a compromise solution. This was not acceptable. But the question must be settled. Land and forest were being sought for by settlers, and conflicts between American and Canadian citizens were constant. In 1833 President Jefferson made a proposition to Lord Palmer- ston, but this was not adopted, as it appeared somewhat ambiguous. A temporary joint occupation was next agreed upon, and in 1842 the contending governments appointed commissioners to consider the matter. The well-known Daniel Webster was the United States^ com- missioner, and the Hon. Alexander Baring, afterwards Lord Ashburton, was for the British. Many have been the criticisms on these national repre- sentatives. To have succeeded was in any case to have brought down adverse criticism. Webster was astute, and Baring, belonging to a banking-house, closely con- it, ti', ifJ ; r risj... .'Vt,? f. %: i-il 10 A SlIOR'I' IIlSTUK\' OF iiccti'd willi Ainrriciiii iiil( rusts, wjis ssiipj used lo Iwivu bcH'ii specially fitted lor tlio woi'k, aud seems to liiivc bi'en lii^h-iuiiidi'd mikI honest. Perha})s ho was not suffi- ciently alivo to eol<»iiial interests. 'J'lu! eoniniissioners ji^'reed to take tlio Uivor St. »)olm and its l^i-aneli, iho St. I'^rancis, as the nortliern boundary of Maine. Tiiis jj^avo soven-twelllhs of the disputed t(Mritory to tho United States, and five-tvvolt'ths to Canada. A curious incident of this boundary disputes was in con- nection with th(! part consistin' '' west alon^* the said dividing- line, as hereto- fore.; known and understood/-' Creat satisfaction was expressed by the British on the settlement of the Maine bounchiry dis[)Ute, and Mr. Barium- ^v{ls raised to tho peerage in consequence. The Americans were chagrined at tho decision, until an event transpired — one of tho most remarkable in the history of diplomacy. Tho American Congress while discussing the treaty sat with closed doors, and were disposed to reject it. At this juncture AV cluster laid before tho Senate a map which luui l)een discovered among the archives in Paris, just before the beginning of tho treaty, by an American litterateur named Sparks. Tho map had been in Web- ster's hands during the progress of tho whole treaty. The map in question was the copy of one made by Franklin, as giving the boundaries agreed on in the Treaty of 1783, on which was a strong red line, marking tho boun- dary exactly where the British claimed. The effect of tho map u})on the unwilling senators is said to have been magical. The treaty was at once ratified. Severe things have Ijeen said in connection with this affair. It has been said that the original map was sent by Franklin to the Count de Yergennes to mis- lead him at the time. This certainly reflects on Franklin. () in il) o ol % TiiK Canadian Pkoimk. II (^ Others say tlio maj) used bel'orc! the Seuate was an invention, to inihieo it to adopt the trejity. In favour of tliis view is tlu^ faet that sinee that date the oriirinal lias iu»ver been found in tho urehives at l*aris. Wliatevor explanation may be accepted, the affair is not credit abh) to American Ht{itesnianshi[), and has nt ^aife Su- of the line from Lal Superior to Lake of the perior to Woods. It was not, however, until the Ti'eatv La>*eotthe of Ghent in l.Sll. that the step was taken .if ^°°'^'- apj)ointing commissioners to continue the boundary to the Lake of the Woods north-westward. Tho commis- sioners met, but could not agree ou this matter. It then remained unsettled until it came up for decision at tlio time of the Ashburton Treaty. Britain claim(;d that her territory should extend from the western extremity of Lake Superior northward, '^riie Americans, while unable to point out the Long Lake referred to, fell back on the Treaty of 1783, saying by way of the ''water communi- cation '' to the Lake of the Woods. The Jidditional fact was in their favour that the lino must run north of Isle Koyale. It is undoubted, taking these points into consideration, that the Pigeon River route, and by way of the '' Grand Portage," was pointed to by the Treaty of 1783, and so it was decided by Mr. Baring. Wo have already noticed that though the British commissioner of 1842 cannot bo blamed for his decision, yet, taking into account the early explorations of Du Luth and the French explorers, and the occupation of territory south-west of Fond du Lac by the Ojibway or Canadian Indians, the original treaty should have preserved a far greater territory to Canada. It was by the commissioners appointed in 1794 that the further difficulty was recognized of settling j^^j^g ^f the line west of Lake of the Woods. By this the Woods time it had been discovered that the Mississippi to 49^ N. was many miles south of Lake of the Woods. In consequence of this the parties to that treaty agreed 4 Ik I: 12 A SnoRT History of tliuL (lio f|ucsti()u sIk-uUI 1)(! scttU'd hy " nniicMblo iir«^'()f ijition/' Tlie iniittcr wns (h^ti'rrrd until IHlJ., wiicn, no.'ir tlio closo of tlu3 war between liiit.iiii uud LInitod Stiites, ;i pciK'O WMH concluded at (ilient. It Hccins fortii- nutc that an iiiiderstandinjjf was tlien ri'aclied. Tlio l)jittl(? ot New Orleans, fought in IHIT), after tlu; treaty wjis made, no raised the hopes of tho American ])eoplc thiit an a;^n*eement then W(»nld have been dillieult to reach. The commissidners ajipointed at dhent succeeded in l^ilH, at what is called the Convention of London, in closine- the matter. Jt was a<^'rcod to draw a lino duo north and south from the north-west anylo of the Lake of the; Woods until it met tlu; forty-ninth parallel. An unex- pected and amusing result of this mode of settlement in that a small [x'ninsuhi juttin ".I t i. 14 A SriORi History ob' Britain was quite content to recognize tlie forty-ninth parallel from the mountains to the Columbia, but then claimed the river as the boundary until the mouth was reached between latitudes 46° and 47° N. In 1818 it was aj^j-reed between ]5ritain and the United States that this territory on the north-west territory of America sliould for ten years be opeu to both countries. The Monroe doctrine, that the American continent should not be free to the future colonization of any European power, was about this time being vigorcnisly asserted, and was used in connection with the Pacific coast. In 1824 an attempt was made, though ineffectually, to extend the boundary to the Pacihc Ocean. Again in 182(), ])r()pos;ils and counter-proposals between the in- terested parties were mnde, but to no purpose. Between Russia and Britain, towards the north, so early as 1825 a treaty had been made, by which the meridian of 140° + west longitude should be the boundary of Alaska, but that a strip of territory commencing at 00° N. along the Pacific coast, some fifty miles wide, and as far south as 54° 40' N., should be recognized as liussian territory on account of prior occupation. In- spired by the preposterous Monroe doctrine, the cry of the American people was that they should possess the whole coast up to Bussian territory. Their claim was put epigrammatically, " Fifty-four forty, or light.'' This came up with the other important matters of dispute before the commissioners of the Ashburton Treaty in 1842, but was left unsettled. For several years there was an active correspondence between the rival governments. At last, in 1846, a compromise was offered by the British Government, viz., that the line of 49° N. hQ taken to the sea, but that the whole of Vancouver Island, a part of which ran nearly a degree to the south, should be British. This proposition was accepted and the treaty ratified. The American authority quoted above has stated his difficulty in deciding which of the three grounds ad- vanced by the United States was the means of establishing the boundary. We would suggest that possibly none of THE Canadian Peoplk. 15 of these, but rather the unblushing assertion involved in the Monroe doctrine agitation was the chief factor. Happy had the two nations been had all dispute then ended. But it was not so to be. When the The San district of Yancouver Island caine to bo ex- Juan plorcul, it was sliown that between its southern Affair, cxtrouiity and the mainland there were three channels, ■ any one of which might be meant by the Treaty of 1846, viz., the Do Ilaro Cliannol, nearest Vancouver' Island, \]\() Rosario, near the niiiiiiland, and ;in intermediate channel, the Douglas. The British maintained their rifi-ht to the ^me throuffh the most eastern chaune). The ;; Americans claimed that through the De Haro Channel, .'M which would give them the island of San Juan. 'i'he discussion waxed hot in inverse ratio to the value of the disputed islands. An injudicious American com- mander, named Harvey, occupied San Juan with an armed force. British men-of-war were sent out, and a collision very nearly ensued. Negotiation, however, led to a joint occupation of the island by a force belonging to each party, and by the Treaty of Washington the matter was referred to the decision of the Emperor of Germany. The arbitrator decided in favour of the United States' claim. Admitting the terms of the de- cision of the Treaty of 1846 as to the forty-ninth parallel, there seems no ground for complaint on our side in the matter. Thus by many a severe dispute and after much na- tional ill-feeling, has our long boundary line been settled, with the exception of tlie boundary between Alaska and British Columbia, which still remains undecided. It is true, compared with the blood and treasure spent on European soil to adjust boundaries, we have abundant ground for thankfulness ; but Canadians are almost unanimous to-day in the opinion that, at any rate, up to the Treaty of 1871, Canadian interests were too often treated with little consideration. Too often it has been as in the case on the dispute on the Pacific coast, the British ambassadors have under- valued our possessions. Mr. Packenham, the British if. ; ■ni ■ ^v : *' ' ■ i6 A Short History of Ambassador at Washington, who was also a sportsman, without much regret surrendered the Columbia River, because the salmon in it were said to be so spiritless as not to rise to take the .ingler's fly. Srction III. — .1 general Sketch of the Provinces. Quebec. First in age of the seven provinces now happily united in the Canadian Dominion is Quebec. Its name is got from the ancient capital founded by Champlain in 1G08 ; and as truly as Paris is France, so Quebec, the capital, has been and continues to be Lower Canada. The religion, literature, and politics of French Canadian life all centre in the quaint old city, to equal which in unique resemblance to the time of Louis Quatorze, one searches even Normandy in vain. A titular noblesse, and the ptdois of the people, connect at once with the time of le grand monarqiie. French noblemen at that date undertook with alacrity enterprises for building up and extending " Nouvelle France,'^ French religious orders struggled to extend their faith among the new-world people, and the quiet French Canadian hahltants have long been accustomed to take their views of public and social life unquestioningly from their religious teachers. Suflering as New France did from maladministration under the rule of the French kings, it can have been little less than an exodus from bondage when in 1759-63 she acknowledged the British as her new rulers. On the immediate borders of the young republic, it could hardly have been expected that the mode of royal government introduced by the Quebec Act of 1774 could have succeeded, and it was within twenty years thereafter that the changing phases of new-world life and the influx of the loyalist population along the Upper St. Lawrence and the lakes, demanded not only a division of the province in 1791, into Upper and Lower Canada, but also the bestowal of a more liberal constitution on each portion. I' THE Canadian People. 17 «»i The intluciicc of the American Revoliitiou ia discernible on the; temper with which the Imperial Parliament dealt with the I3ill of 1 791. Tlie Parliament of Lower Canada was to consist of two Houses, viz., the Legislative Council of fifteen appointed members, and the Assembly of fifty mcmbGrs elected by the people. In ITTl it had been claimed that there were not more than ()5,000 of a p()|)ulation in Lower Canada, and though this was pro- bably l)elow the true number, yet it can be safely stated that its people in 1791 did not exceed 100,000. A French ])rovince with British rulers was an anomaly for the world to ponder over during such disturbing events as the American struggle for independence, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic wars. In 1812 Lower Canada was loyal to Britain, and was no doubt pre] la red by the disquieting events of the outbreak of lc!!o7-8 for uniting, as she did in 1811 under the Imperial sanction, with Upper Canada. Thus she remained for a quarter of a century, until in 1807 the province to which Britain had granted '^ses lois, sa langue, et ses institutions,^' entered, with twenty- four members in the Senate and sixty-five in the Commons, most heartily the new confederacy of the '' larger Canada,^' with the motto '' that when the last shot was fired on the American continent for British supremacy, it would be fired by a French Canadian.'" One hundred thousand pec pie in 1791 had become 1,300,000 in 1881. '* Wolfe and Montcalm ! two nobler names ne'er graced The page historic or the hostile plain ; ]SIo braver souls the storm of battle faced, None more heroic will e'er breathe again. They passed unto their rest without a stain Upon their kindred natures or true hearts. One graceful column to the noble twain Speaks of a nation's gratitude, and starts The tear that Valour claims and Feeling's self imparts." iSaiigster. Xe."it in order of the seven provinces comes Nova Scotia. The name is a memorial of the united Nova ( lown of England and Scotland under James I. Scotia. if ■ m ■- I8 A Short History of !• The "shambling inonarch/' as Macaulay calls liini, must needs exalt his Scottish kingrlom to the same plane as his new Kii<4'lish inheritance. If ia the New W ov\d thero bo a New Enf^land, so must there be a New Scf)tland ; and James, who was a thorouf^h believer in an aristocracy, created an order of baronets of Nova Scotin, as \vell. Bat Nov;i; Scotia was lonuf tlie battle-ffround of Eno'lish and French in the New World. The names of Louisbourg and Port lloyal are nlinost as suggestive of war as Gibraltar or Quebec. Acadia stands out before us as the poetic region of French rule in North America. It was because of the passionate attachment of the Acatbans for their land, and for French power, that ]5ritain took decided steps to compel the loyalty of Nova Scotia. Two measures were adopted, y'va., '^ to colonize with loyalists, and to deport the disloyal/' In 1749, Lord Cornwallis, with a well-equipped colony of trusty English people, founded on Chebucto Bay the city and arsenal of Halifax, so-called from Lord Halifax, J^resident of the Board of Trade and Plantations. The argument for loyalty presented by such an imposing immigration movement could not be withstood. In 1755, when, as now fairly shown by Parkman, the French population, by obstinate hostility, proved them- selves unworthy even of forbearance, thousands of Aca- dians were transported to regions where the strife was less critical than the border land of French and English in Nova Scotia. Bands of sturdy Scottish people were attracted to the newer Scotland. The close communica- tion between Halifax and the old city of Boston iu Massachusetts, which contained so many lo3^alists, led to the transfer of many such after the peace of 1783. Germans and other European immigrants have also settled in Nova Scotia, and given their names to various localities. But before Scot, Loyalist, or German had come, the first House of Assembly for Nova Scotia met under Imperial authority in 1758. So cut off by nature from Nova Scotia, Cape Breton desired separate government, and this was given it iu 1784. Cape Breton, however, could not stand alone, ■u n, must e as his d tliei'o otland ; tocracv, II nd of iimes of stive of b('for(3 .mci'ica. of till' 3r, tlint of Nova :olonize I colony Hiiy the Halifax, s. The iiposiug an, the 1 them- of Aca- ifo was :!jnglish tie were nunica- stou iu , led to If 1783. ve also various 111 had tia met Breton n it in . alone, Till': Canadian' People. 19 '^ ■ii and ill l'^2U nyaiii hceaiiie a part of Nova Scotia. I Staunchest of the British Colonies, as we should have expected from its origin Nova Scotia would be, its devotion to Britain daring the war of 1812 was most marked, and Nova Scotians have always been noted for industry, intelligence, and public spirit. Nova Scotia has :1 ever been the fruitful school of liberty, and looks to-day I with moi'e affection to the statesmen who have served ■? her than perhaps does any province of the Dominion. In ship-building, the fisheries, and commerce have her '^ sons struggled and gained a name, and Nova Scotia brings into the confedei'ation many of the most needful ? virtues for building up a strong and noble nation. She ' is now represented in the Dominion Senate by twelve members, nud in the Commons by twenty-one, and, like • every other province of the Dominion, has a Lieutenant- ' Governor of her own. With an uninterrupted provincial existence of a century and a quarter. Nova Scotia ranks as oldest in the Dominion. Judging from past increase, the population of 440,500 in 1881 will, during the present decade, reach half a million. " Two himdred miles to the south -south-east, On ' George's ' the billows foam like yeast, O'er shallow banks, where on every side Lies peril of billow, shoal, and tide. There, riding like sea-gulls with wings at rest, Cape Ann's swift schooners the sharp seas breast, With their straining cables reaching down Where the anchors clutch at the sea-sands brown. There gather when shorten the wintry days, The tish of a thousand shallow bays ; There men of a score of races reap Their dear-bought harvest, while billows sweep, And drear fogs gather, and temjiests blow O'er the fatal sands which shift below The ever •angry sea, which laves A thousand wrecks and a myriad graves. As the frigate steams in where her consort sank, So when maidens are weeping, and widows are pale, New vessels are manned for those lost in the gale. The orphan fears not the restless wave, Which gave him food, and his sire a grave : C 2 ''I ■ 'ill" . '-'■■5 •' I •.-■'"( . %! Ill 1. t 20 A Siioiir History of And the soulless Vetei'iiu soundly slL'e]is, ]locked l)y the rnni,di sea, which sullenly sweeps O'er the bones of comrade, brother, and son, Whose long, hard, perilous task is done." IlaU. The remarkable Inlet which divides portions of Nova New Scotia and New Brunswick — the Bay of Fiindy — Brunswick. -afforded the means for the early colonization of New Brunswick. Probably 17<)0 is the earliest date on which we can certainly fix for the arrival of the settlers in New Brunswick. At that lime New Brunswick was still a portion (d' Novn, Scotia, and the district of Sunbury was that first chosen for settlement. Perhaps not more than 800 white persons altogether were to be found within the limits of this province in 1783, the year of tlie treaty. The sudden influx after tlud- date was so great, how- ever, that New Brunswick, so named as a ])rotest against the revolt of the rebelHous States against the royal house of Britain J may be regarded as the creation of the loyft lists. The following year marked the organization into a 1784. province distinct from Nova Scotia, and the 1785. next year saw the selection of the^' little town of St. Ann, up the St. John lliver, as capital, but with its name changed to Fredericton. New Brunswick is a forest province. The l^eauty of its woods in autumn has brouglit forth praises from many visitors, while their vast extent aflords a chief means of support to the people. Reared amidst its forests, to be a New Brunswicker is to be one accustomed to the free life and industrious habits of the woodman. And yet, serving the purpose of a large and hardy fishing and ship-building population. New Brunswick has 410 miles of sea-coast, one-half on the Bay of Fundy, the other along the coast exposed to the searching breezes from the Atlantic. This latter coast is familiarly known as the North Shore. Dravfing most of her later population from Great Britain, this province has seen a large portion of its m irnni THE Canadian PEorLE. 21 how- man, sliing s 410 the eezcs nowii 1 irnmip^ratioii from tlio north and other parts of Ireland. The IJay of Fiindy has alVordcd the moans for a lar^e coastiui^ trade with the nortlioni Now England states, and the city of St. John, claiming to bo the commercial nictr()])ulis of the province, has far ontstripped the capitah The amazing tides, which on the opposite side of the bay in the Shubenacadie River rise to a height of seventy-five feet, come up to the docks of St. John, rising forty feet, and are a wonder to all spectators. New Brunswick retains her old provincial Parliament, with an Upper House of thirteen, and a Lower of forty members. The population had in 1881 become 321,200, and the representation accorded her in the Dominion Senate is twelve members, and in the Commons sixteen. Fourth of the original confederating provinces in age, though first in numbers and wealth, is the pro- - . vince formerly known as Upper Canada. Being an itiland province, only reached in the earliest times by a difficult river navigation, i.e. up tlie St. Lawrence, its growth was slow, though its fertile soil was known. Creeping up the portnges of the great river of Canada, or through the water-courses of New York State, bands of American refugees entered Lake Ontario, found a resting-place along its shores, or, more adventurous, crossed the Niagara peninsula, and settled along Lake Erie. It is believed that there were not more than 10,000 souls in the whole province from Detroit to the Ottawa, when it was in 1791 severed from Quebec to make a new province. Its first Lieutenant-Governor, Simcoe, sent forth his proclamation from Kingston, but called the first Parlia- ment, consisting of a Legislative Council of seven members and an Assembly of sixteen, to meet in Newark, at the mouth of the Niagara River, in 1792. Shortly after, on finding, in 1794, that the fort on the American side of the Niagara River must be surrendered to the United States, and this contrary to the general expecta- tion of Canada, the capital was removed to a position further from the frontier, and the second Parliament met at Little York, now Toronto, in 1797, '4 22 A Short History of i'l On tlio report of tlie great military engineer, Boucbette, showing that Toronto was easily accessible to an invading force i'l'oni the United States, (Jovernor Siincoe deter- mined to again move his ca])ital. Now he chos(3 London, in the inaccessible forests of the western peninsula, on the River do la Tranche, which he, as Governor, changed to Thames, and on it he founded Chatham as tlie naval port for his new metropolis. This choice was disap- proved by the Governor-General of Canada, Lord Dor- chester, and over since Toronto has been regarded as the chief phice of Upper Canada. As to Upper Canada at large, her early history was largely moulded by the loyalists; national spirit was developed by the war of ]^!l2j population increased from the United States, from Great Britain, and h'oland; and in the mettlesomeness of her growing youth the rebellion of l8'!57-8 took place, not against the young Queen Victoria, then ascending the throne, but against local misgovernment. The two Cauadas having been united together in 1841, their prosperity was very great. Between 1842-72 Upper and Lower Canada received 881,000 of a population from the British Isles alone, and of these Upper Canada much the larger number. The resources of Ontario are varied. Along the northern portion of her territory great forests yield a livelihood to the people, and a revenue to the Govern- ment. Deposits of petroleum, salt, iron, and copper are sources of wealth, but farm-life is that best known to the masses of the population. Perhaps no form of civilization can be imagined, bringing a larger amount of comfort to the largest number, than that of the farm system of Ontario. The great number of the farms are of the extent of a hundred acres. These are usually held in fee-simple by their occupants ; they yield a sufficient return for the maintenance of their owners without culti- vating extravagance, so that it is safe to say nowhere is to be found a more educated, happy, and enterprising popuiition than that of the yeomanry of Ontario. The peaceful sweetness of the Sabine farm of Horace, or YirgiFs pictures of the Georgics and Bucolics, are not ■■:!! w THE Canadian People. 23 cbette, vading doter- 011 don, ulii, on laug'cd B naval disap- d Dor- as the ry was L'it wa.s LTcascd I'olaiid; til tlio younc,' xgainst been ^ great. Dceived QC, and ig the yield a rovern- per arc own to 3rm of ount of e farm ms are ly held .fficieut it culti- here is moro delightful than thoso to bo found in our Ontario homesteads. I To niako farming consist in not the moro drudgery of training a living, but in the growth of flocks and herd.s of supei'ior value, in the scientific cultivation of grain ■" and fruit, in the utilization of every process for saving laboui', and in the development of a taste for farming and pastoral pursuits, is surely the path of patriotic service ibr the Canadian family. Ontario, on entering confederation, took the bold step of dispensing with an Upper House in her local l^arliainent, and has but one Legislative Chamber of eighty-nine representatives. Her population had grown to be 1, 92:3,01)0 in 1881, and in the Dominion Parliament twenty-l()ur senators and ninety-two commoners are her contingent. " T dreamed not then that, ere the rolling year Hud tilled its circle, I should wander here In musing awe; should tread this wondrous world, See all its store of inland waters imrled In one vast volume down Niagara's steep, Or calm, behold them in transparent sleep, Where the blue hills of old Toronto shed Their evening shadows o'er Ontario's bed ; Should trace the grand Cadaraqui, and glide Down the white rapids of his lordly tide. Through massy woods, mid islets flowering fair, And blooming glades, where the first sinful pair For consolation might have weeping trod, AVhen vanished from the garden of their God." Moore. Midway between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, so long ago as 1812, a band of Scottish colonists, w •* 1. with a small admixture of Irish immigrants, took up their abode on the banks of the Ked River of the 7iorth, a tributary of Lake Winnipeg. The colonists were brought thither by way of Hudson's Bay by the energy of a Scottish nobleman of great patriotism and benevolence — Lord Selkirk. Their first years were years of much hardship, not entirely on account of the inevitable difHculties of a new land, but because two rival companies, the Hudson's Bay 1' ■':»:■ fm 24 A Short History of |lv i li Company and tho Nortli-West Fur Conipigiy of Montreal, Hti'u^'^'k'd I'oi' supi'i'iimcy (»ij i]u) sanio ^^Tound, and so involved tlio colonists. A ])ortiou of tlio colonists nttacliod tlionisclves in thoir fortunes to each company. Tho adherents of the North- West Company in 1815 left the Red Uiver and found homes north ot Toronto, and in Ijondon district \u lJpp(n' Canada. Tho portion remaining was reinforced by new immigrants coming by way of Hudson Hay. The conflict bt^twi'cn tho two companies resulted in an unfortunate collision in 1 S] (), in which the Hudson's Jiay Company's (Joveruor ►Semple was killed. In 1817 Lord Selkirk hastened by way of the lakes to the rescue, being accompanied by a body of dischai'ged soldiers of the Cierman mercenai'ies remainint'' in Canada after the close of thi^ war with the United States in 181 2- J 5. In 1821 the warring companies united, a number of Swiss immigrants reached the country in the same year, and under the amalgamated fur companies the colonists who still chuig to tho country gradually grew into peaceful independence. In 18^5 the first Government was constituted at Fort Garry, under the title of the Council of Assiniboia, Sir George Simpson, tho Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, being its President. This ruled the country amidst considerable clamoiu* till the time wdieu Canada obtained possession of the North-\Vest by the payment of JiUO,OUO/. to the Hudson's Bay Company, ^riirough a failure of the Canadian Government to satisfy the 12,000 people of Assiniboia, live-sixths of whom had Indian blood in their veins, a rebellion arose in 1809, to quiet which Colonel Garnet, now Lord, Wolseley, was sent out with a joint expedition of British troops and Canadian volunteers by way of Lake Superior and the old Cana- dian route to Lake of the Woods and the Bed Biver. The Canadian Parliament next constituted, on the suppression of the rebellion, the new province of Mani- toba, and its first Parliament, consisting of a Legislative Council of seven members, and of twenty-four of an Assembly, met in Winnipeg, near Fort Garry, in 1871. 4 THE Canadian Peoi'le. 25 Since that dato tlio populntioii lias •'•roatly incrcaaod, mu\ it is rstiiiiatcil that in I HH.") tlui l:i,U<)() iiav(i jj^rowii to loo, 000 or l.->U,Ul)l). The c()iji|)I("tioii of tho (aiiiuliaii Piicilit; llailway in J 880, iVoiri (.^)ii{;l)('(; to the PaL-iTu; Ocean, thus connecting'' W'innipeuc by rail with tho Atlantic and l*aciii(3 Oceans, is iiu event of tho greatest iiiiportance to tho Dominion. iMiUiitoba is tlio lirst prairie ])r()vinc(», ami in it (.*ana- (liiin Hl'c is bcini;* modilicfl to suit tlie conditions ot a prairie home. The Canadian i'arni nl" |()() acres is Hpliiced by one nsiuilly <»t' I5lM) ncres' I'xtent. Fiehls i)t' ^^'oldeii <4raiu sixty or ei^^lity acres in size are common, and wouhl in July and Aui^aist satisfy a J^)mau ])oet TihuUus, or tho English sin«^-(n* of the hai'vest time. 'L'Ik' Manitoba iarm is conductinl on a much greater scale than that of Ontario. 'J'he shorter season, arising- from Manitoba lying iu ')0° N., and tin' scarcity of labour demand the use of every appliance of labour- saving machinery. 'J'he conilicting claims which arise between the country of wheat-fields on tho prairie, and the nianu- xhe North, facliiring interests of the eastern provinces of ^yest Ter- the Dominion, will call for eveiy resource of "'o"®^' the statesnuMi of Canada to maintain the union intact. The pi'ovinco of ^lanitoba has now dis])eused with its Legishitivc^ Council, and has a liCgislativo Assembly of thirty-live mend)ers, while \Vinni{H'g has become as a business centre one of the chief cities of tho Dominion. '1 t1 1 " These are the gardens of the desert, these The unshorn lields, boundless and bt-antiful, For which the speech of JMii^land has no name, — The ])rau-ies, I behold thtin fur tlie tirst, Aud my heart swells, while the dihitt.-d sight Takes in tlie encircling vastuess. Lo ! they stretch In airy undulations, faraway, As if the ocean, iu his gentlest swell, Stood still, with all his rouuded billows, fixed And motionless for ever. — Motionless ? No — they are all unchained again. The clouds Sweep over with their shadows, and, beneath, The suriace rolls aud fluctuates to the eye 4' V. ' ^ 26 A Short History of Dark boUows seem to glide aloncf and chado The Hunny ridges. . . . Fitting tloor For tills injignilicent teniph* ot tlicHky, With liowtTH wli(is(> glory and \vlio.s(! inultitud«» Rival the constellations! '' lii'ijunt. |V I I'. "I. ■ =«; I'.Si 11 Always nssocintod with iSTMiiitolja ;iro tlio vast Nortli- West territories, whicli, tliouo-li not provinces, yet an? entitlnd in tli'i Dominion I'iii'liiinient to five nietnhers, liiive a. Governor, iind ulonu;' with him a Conucil, ])artly elected nnd partly nominated. These va«t extents of ])raino reiieli to the vi'iy loot of tho Ifocky IMountaius, and north wjird even t(j the Arctic Ocean by way of tho j\Iackenzie Iliver, tho Mississippi of tho north. This vast region must yot become the homo of millions. Already miiy we descry tho dim outlines of the pro- vinces in the divisions that have been made for postal ])ur[)oseH of Assiniboia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Athabasca. 'J^he Governor of these wide territories resides at their capital, Hegina, a town upon tho Canadian Pacific Rail- way, 350 miles west of Winnipeg. Localities such as Edmonton, . ince Albert, Jiattleford, Calgary, and others are becoming known, and may bo called the nerve-centres of the futui'o life of tho North-AV^est. Scattered over these territories are many of the origi- nal inhabitants divided up into tribes, as Crees, Black- feet, Ojibways, and Assiniboines, all Indians under treaty with the Canadian Government, and the Chippewyans and Eskimo of the far north. Of tho Crees, Blackfeet, and allied tribes, there are 34,520. Of the Chippe- wyans or Tinue, and Eskimo, there arc 20,054, making foi' the North- West and Manitoba upwards of 60,000 ab(n*igines. There is an air of immensity connected with tho Canadian North- West. Vast plains, great rivers, and lofty mountains betoken future movements of the most important kind. As the prairies are occu- pied one after another shall these territories enter into the sisterhood of confederated provinces, to assist in making our Dominion great in deeds as well as in extent of territory, I !« THE Canadian Peoi'le. 27 Tho west side nf tlic llorlcy Mountains lins hitliorto boon an almost unktiown land to tluMiwellers on llie prairies. Il is true thai wi'll to thenortli, in colui^bia tlie i'('^''ion of tli(5 Peace Kiver, tlio nioiintain riiii^^e heeonies less I'levated, and this river runs throu^'h the tnoiinlains IVoni tho west to tho east, wliei'(» it empties into Jjake Atlial)ase<'i, Tlie currents of t I'ude, following'' the discovery of tho I'acilic Ocean by Sir Alexamh'r Mackenzie in liis overhind journey of l7l>o, passed for ninny years l>y way of Peace Uiver. 2suw Cah'donia, and p(»j'tions of Ahiska, as well as tho rcf^ions lying* aU)nL;' the Frasei* and Columbiji J^vei's, were thus visited by traders fi'om the east of the moun- tains. Other 2^'i^^<^'^^ such as Yellow Head, Kickin;^ Ilorse,I]ow River, tVc., further south, have been threaded, but frou) their dilliculty not extensively folhjwed. J)i'eon, while on tho Island of Vancouver is at once tho best coal- lield on tho Pacific coast, at Nanaimo, and the best harbour on the Pacific, that of Esquimalt. Not as a land of farmers, but of lumbermen, lierdsmen, shepherds, miners, fishermen, and traders will British Columbia bo known. Its climate, with roses ofteu blooming at Christmas, is one of the most agreeable. The tremendous gold fever of 1 857-8 ])roduced a time of wildest excitement, and the want of connection with Canada has since led to a want of enterprise, but the open- ing of the Canadian Pacific Railway, whose first through train from Montreal reached the Pacific Ocean on July 4th, 188G, will undoubtedly bring a largo population to the Pacific province. 'i '>Ji I ■' 28 A Short History of if ll 1 t;' ■;W The magni licence of the Rocky Mountains, now pierced hy the railway, can only b'3 appreciated by being seen. Vast glaciers, innumerable snow-peaks, lofty cataracts, and ])alisaded ranges of mountains characterize these Caiiadiiiu Al[)s, a.ii(l hll tli(5 imagination as greatly as does Jliglii or the Matterhorn. For jsevei'al years British Columbia iind Vancouver's Island had separate governments, but in 1800 they be- came one. The Legislature of twenty-live members in one liouse survives under confederation, into which the province entered in J 871 with three Dominion Senators, and six members of the Commons. The popula,tiou was in 188J, 4U,'j()0, of whom oo,483 are given as Indians. "The mikl, bright inoon lias upward risea, Out ol* tlie grey aii-l Ixnuidless plain, And all around the white snowrf glisten, Where frost and ice and silence reign — While ages roll away, and they unchanged remaiu. These mountains, piercing the blue sky With their eternal cones of ice ; The torrents dadiing I'roni on high. O'er rock and crag and preci])ice ; Change not, but still remain as ever, Uu wasting, deathless, and sublime, And will remain while lightnings quiver, Or stiirs the hoary summits climb, Or rolls the tluiniler-chariot of eternal Time." Pike. One of the first portions of Canada to be discovered Prince ^'7 Europeans was St. John^s Island in the Edward gulf. With its brick-red clay it strikes the Island. attention of the most unobservant. It is the seventh province of the Dominion. In 1764-6 it was surveyed by the British (lovernment and granted to about one hundred English and Scottish gentlemen as estates. Though they were required to pay a very small quit-rent to the Crown, and to place only one settler on every two hundred acres in ten years, yet even this most of them faded to do. The first settlers of St. John's Island were chiefly Scottish. In 1770 it was erected into a sepai'ate province, and in 1773 its first Legislative Assembly was held. ■liii mi THE Canadian Peoplt:. 29 111 IT-'^O Uio (idvcrnor of tho ishiiul, ;i iNfr. Pjittcrson, indiic'i'd the Li'<4'isl;itiir(^ t()])ass an Act c'lian<^-iuo' thcMiamo of the island to New Ireland, King George 111., how- ever, refused to sanetion the chajige of name. It wiis in the year 1708 that the Legislature passed a new Act call- in o- tho island after l^ldward, Duke of Kent, lather of Queen Victoria. The J3nke of Kent was the commander of the forces in British Xortli America at the time. In 1800 the name Prince Edward Island came into common use. In I8O0, Lord Selkirk, of whom we have already spoken nsthe philnnthropic colonizer of tho Hed River, brought 800 Highlanders to ]?ri]icG Ldward Island. 11(^ givca an interesting account of the colony in his work (jf 1805. It is in ({uilo recent years that relief is being obtained from the troubk\some system of land tenure cjirly in- troduced there. The excellent soil of Prince Ldward Island supports a hiii'dy agricultural population, while a portion of tho pe02)le is devoted to pastoral pursuits. The taking of iish and lobsters forms one of the best means of support on the island. Charlottetown is tho capital, at which meets the Provincial Parliament. Thirteen members make up the Legislative Council, and thirty the Assembly, and up to the present universal suffrage lias been the method adopted in elections. It was in 1873 tliat Prince Edward Island entered confede- ration with her three Dominion Senators and six mem- bers in the Commons. Her population, one of tho most thrifty and industrious in the whole Dominion, in 1881 numbered 108,200 souls. Though not a member of tho Canadian Confederation, our preliminary sketch would fail in its ])urpose did it give no account of Newfoundland. Per Newfound- land. haps the earliest portion of British America to be discovered, it has long been one of the best-known parts of the new continent. It was in 1583 that Sir Humphrey Gilbert undertook to colonize Newfoundland. He took out 260 men — masons and sriithsj mineralogists and rehuers, and even musicians. On August 4tli he took possession of St. John^s harbour, Newfoundland, and i " '[ 'I 30 A Short Historv of I*' !| If:: • ■''■■' ■I; I' ii'iii rill , «l ^1 erected a monument, on wliicli ho fastened the arms of En^'land, enijfraven in load. Ho promuli>-ated three laws : (1) To establish the; Church of Englnnd; (2) Queen P]liza- beth^s rifi'lit of possession; and (•]) Pennlty of loss of ears for disloynlt y. Tlie colony failed ; and the sad loss in mid-ocoan of Sir Humphrey himself is known to all. So early as l()cS() there were 2280 people upon the isliind. In 1728 Newfoundland became a British pro- vince, and courts wore then established. The whole island is now, as it ever hns been, redolent of fish. Shipping', fish, seals, oil, and the like are the every-day thought of the people. Its early fishermen were much beset by pirates, and now independent of Canada, as well as of the United States, though sometimes thinking of Britain, it is the embodiment of a confirmed insu- larity. Its population, now almost entirely native-born, is largely of Irish extraction, as after 1798 many refugees from Ireland found in it a peaceful haven. In 1832 its first Legislative Assembly was held, and several minor changes in its constitntion have since taken place. Its Legislative Council contains fifteen members, and the Assembly thirty-one. Lying far out toward Britain, its seaward capos serve for the landing of the Atlantic cable. It receives the service of the Allan line of steam- ships ; and its population had in 1881 reached 185,114. Its small debt and distinctly marked insular tendencies w^ill probably long prevent its entrance into the Dominion as one of the provinces. Seven provinces, and a vast extent of unoccupied but . fertile territory await the influx of the hardy jjJq^ " and industrious from European lands to become a still more important part of the Greater Britain. True patriotism seems best to find its expression when we find the English race abroad in the colonies. A happy and contented Canada regards the bond that binds her to Great Britain as a tie of love, without eveu a suspicion of servitude. " Witness, too, the silent cry, The prayer of many a race and creed to clime, — ,> m THE Canadian People. 31 Thunderless lightnings striking under aea From sunset and sunrise of all thy realm, And that true North, whereof we lately heard A strain to shame us, ' keep you to yourselves ; So loyal is too costly ! friends — your love Is but a burthen : loose the bond, and go.' Is this the tone of empire ? here the faith That made us nders ? this, indeed, her voice And meaning, whom the roar of Hougoumout fieft mightiest of all jDCoples under heaven ? What shock has fc>oled her since, that she should speak So feebly? wealthier — T'ealthier — hour by hour! The voice of Britain, or a sinking land, Some third-rate isle half lost among her seas ? " Tennyson. f "'■h v^'' ^^r fk\', ., I . i -•,yi ^ti' 32 A Short History of CilxVPTER 11. PREHISTORIC AND EARJ-Y AMERICA. !'ii>: ' '1.1'' k ';Ljl!;| I: is*. r Section T. — Geological Data. (References: " C'aiiinHan Gef)lo,u'y ;"' (lovernment Reports of Geoloirical Survey, lS():;-85; Dauu's "Geolo«?y;" Geikie's "Ice Age ;" iS'icholsou's " Palioontoloyy ; Publicatious of jMauitoba His- torical and Scientific Society ; Map of 188i of Geological Survey.) The condition of peoples is largely dependent on the soil, The Lau- cliniutOj and eliaracter of the country tliey in- rentide Labit. To attempt the study of the history of Island. ^[^Q Canadian people without examining the physical features of their country would be to ignore tlie very explanation of the movements of population within its borders. The geological features of the country give a clue to the causes or failures of settlement. We are tlius compelled to look back to a time entirely prehistoric — to a time long antecedent to Norseman, Indian, or voyageur — to iiiid out the reasons for the course which immigration has followed. At the time when any portion of this continent had reached the stage in its development which it now re- tains, was undoubtedly ages ago, at the period when there were yet only the Archtean or primitive rocks. Then only the north-eastern part of North America appeared as an island in the midst of the tepid ocean which surrounded it. The rugged land of Labrador, and the Laurentide hills, and the wilderness country between Hudson's Bay and Lakes Huron and Superior, extending far away to the mouth of Mackenzie Iliver, and north-eastward to the Tin: Canadian Pi:oi'li:. Arctic Ocenii was a rockv waste. Solid "'ueiss aud tlio variegated granites ; lava and obsidian ; syenite and serpentine and the like roeks after their kind — all were there. These have contained hidden in them from that primeval day till now the veins of gold and silver and copper and iron which men are discovering to-day, but at the early time referred to not even iNfammon, '^ the least-erected spirit that fell from heaven," had peered into their glittei'ing crevices. No trace of plant or animal appeared, unless the beds of transformed carbon or graphite represent the rem- nants of an early plant life. Mountain chasms and fall- ing streams were all ; there was no sound of bird or iieast ; no fish swam in the heated waters. And ever since, through colder and hf)tter as the changes have come, those primeval rocks have remained, except that glaciers have since that time ground down their rough- nesses, and cruslied rock matter has been carried out by the streams upon the ocean and lake beds. These vast fields of imyielding rocks have been the backbone on which the continent has been formed. At length along the south and west coast-line of this expanse of rocky island in the sea, plants and , animals began to appear, but all seemingly be- pgriod. longing to the sea. At first, no doubt, the wide cxpanseof rock, rising above the sea, was like the 'M)urn- ing marl " of Milton, but was slowly cooling down. Not highly developed animals, with acute nerves and tender bodies, but hard, thick-plated animals were the first to appear — all were suited to their rough environment. There were great colonies of corals, headless bivalve shell- fish, called Brachiopods, in great numbers, hardy cylin- drical mollusks with heads, called Orthoceratites, and these dwelt among the fucoids that grew a mass of leathery weeds along the shore. The remains of these and many other animals are found in rocks many thousands of feet thick, which must have taken many years to fall as great mud deposits along the coast. It is hard to con- ceive the time those plastic beds have taken to form the hard rock masses of to-day. D ■ i ■,! I' t ,'ij » »♦ •i»: ■M ■V ■n ,i; ■ -H 34 A Short IIisiorn' ok \^\ IK; This first period is called the Sihiriiiii, from the {'net that rucks of this time, such as wo find in Nova Scotin,, New ]^runswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, the North- West territories, and also British Cohnnbia, were found by the ^'eologists in Wales, tlie country of the ancient Silnros. The region covered by deposits during that first gush of life — for it was a time of much exuberance of the lower forms of life — either rose from the sea by an inner motion of the earth, or was built up by the detritus carried down from the land. Now with the cooling of the waters and the greater fitness for a higher animal life came in time a PerioT*^ new age, as under changed conditions the southern fringe of this now considerable area of new-made laud began to form. IMany corals and large mollusks still continued, but there were now changes of species, an armed lobster that swam the salty seas, strong armour-covered fish, and creatures that '^ tare each other in their slime" — the first animals to appear with brain. Vegetation of the sort of the spore-bearing ferns began, and the dry land was plainly becoming more fit for habitation. An abundant life swarmed in the seas of this time. This period was known to Hugh Miller, the Scottish geologist, as the Old Red Sanc^stone, but in Canada it, like the Silurian which preceded it, contains rocks of chiefly white, reddish, or black limestone or of shaly structure. It is more common to call them after the similar rocks appearing in the south of England — the Devonian beds. In the Upper Silurian and Devonian deposits, salt and petroleum are found in Western Ontario and the district of the Mackenzie River. At the close of the Silurian and Devonian periods the ancient Lauren tide Island had been extended by the addition of beds, chiefiy of Silurian and Devonian lime- stone and shale, on its south-east coast fifty miles, a hun- dred, and at points even of greater breadth, in Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. On its south-west side in the district of Manitoba, and the North- West territories, the Laurentide Island also ex- riiE Canadian Pkoplk. 5 of tended its borders, aud n baud of vSihirian and Dovouiau rocks, from eighty to one liinidred miles wide, was formed. A lar^'e portion of the fertile lands of Canada lies above these rocks of the early time, though they are covered by a soil or drift helougiug to a much later period. During I he succeeding time when the deep sea seems not to have completely surrounded the enlarged island, as in the regions now included in the south-eastern portion of Nova Scotia, as well as in tho American States of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan, a large extent of the country along the shore must have been a dense marsh and jungle, where, during this carboniferous period, great ferns and club mosses, and strangely-marked trees of large size formed the coal measures as they lived and died and were imbedded in the deposits. In Canada these coal measures proper seem to have been confined to Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. Iron is here, as elsewhere, found accompanying the coal. So far as eastern and maritime Canada are concerned, with these periods of formation the completion of the Lauren- tide Island was readied, until by a subsequent change the soil was deposited upon much of it. After a gap of time, the rising ocean bottom appears, in a mighty, shallow, north-western sea, to have extended from Lakes ]\Iaiiitoba and Winni- Period^°^' pegoosis, which mark the western limit of the JJovonian formation, for 1500 miles unbroken to the west of Vancouver Island, for no I'ocky moantain range had yet appeared to interrupt this vast expanse. Here, during this Cretaceous period, so called from its being of the same age as the chalk cliffs of the east of England, huge rep- tiles, whose remains are being unearthed on the banks of the Saskatchewan River to-day, lived and died, and were in part preserved. Ammonites and liaculites, the suc- cessors of the cephalopod moUusks of the earlier time, of great size and ghstening in their pearly shells, lived ill the salty waters of the period. The w^hole of this wide sea-bottom seems to have risen D 2 . . \' V '' ' - ■ ■ 3< A Snoki- IIisTOKV ok ;^raclnally, and in time to have become, in parts at least, a marsh, in which an exuberant vegetation lived, died, and accumulated, until coal formations, rivalling' in quality many of the earlier carboniferous deposits, were formed. These, spread over the country for hundreds of miles, con- stitute the lar^'est coal area now known in the world. Along with this coal are now found also extensive deposits of clay ironstone. Ou Vancouver's Island is I'eached the western limit of this great cretaceous coal- Held. The eastern limit of the deposits of this secondary age is marked by a range of hills south-west of Lakes Manitoba and Winuipegoosis, comprising Duck and Kiding mountains, the Manitoba sandhills, and the Pembina jMountain. The western and southern portion of this wide coal area seems to have been again submerged, Age.^*^^ and deposits of sandstone are found in which are traced remains of mammals, resembling those now living on the earth. There are also imbedded in the rocks well-preserved leaves and nut- fruits of many trees, such as sassafras, poplar, tulip- tree, oak, yew, and plane-tree, ft was during this third age that the Rocky Mountains appeared. This was probably caused by the collapse of the extended plain — 1500 miles wide — which, falling in, caused the elevation of the great core of ancient rocks which had been lying below. The fracture thus made must have been enormous, extending as it did from the north to the south of the western hemisphere, and may have led to a disturbance of the centre of gravity of the whole earth, by which the axis may have changed its direction, and the ice age been brought on on account of a new relation of the earth to the sun. Whatever the cause may have been, the fact remains that after this time an extension of the region Period^*^^^ of cold to a far more southward point than it had hitherto covered took place. This time, known as the glacial period, was, so far as the v;hole of the territory of the Dominion of Canada is concerned, one of Arctic winter, and of a short and intensely hot summer. ■d Tin: Canadian Pkopi.k. 37 1 hIso I nut- tulip- this This ended the had have to the to a earth, 1, and hitiou (ihiciers foi'iiiod and ^lid down over the rocks, crushing rlicni to powder, and the melting stroam distributed the di'tritus over the whole extent. It is to this period we owe our soil, hi every purt of Canada great striated markings from north-east or noi'th- \V(!st toward the south are found, indicating the progi'ess of this powerful crushing process. Bouklers of rocks from the north are mixed with the finer soil, and lie scattered in places over the surl'ace of the earth, as de- scribed by Oliver \Vendcll Tfolmes in his fanciful sketch of the *' Dorchester (Jiant.^' According to Archibald Geikie^s estimate, for 180,000 years this grinding process of the rocky world continued. At length, in common with other temperate regions of the earth, the territory of the Dominion assumed something like its present conformation. In all pro- Inibility by other great terrestrial changes the icy hand of the glacial epoch became relaxed, and the land of Keewaydin, or the North Wind, was driven back to its former limits. This was the land prepared after untold ages for its earliest Mongolian or Norseland visitors. Section II. Mi/ths. (References : " Timosus of Plato," translated hy f^ro'^essor Jowett; Seneca's " Medea ;'' " Fusang," by C. (i. Lelund ; " Uon- giTs (les Americanistes," 2 vols., Paris, 1875 ; "History oi" Wales," liy Dr. Powell; Hakluyt, "Navigations, Voyages, &c., of the Kiighsh Nation," 'A vols., London, ir»99.) The earliest accounts of a land lying west of the Straits of Gibraltar go back as far as the time of Plato, . . . the Greek philosopher. Writing less than four centuries before the Christian era, the Athenian philo- sopher, in his work known as the "Tima3ns,^' gives a part of the tradition to Socrates, viz., what the aged Critias had heard from Solon, one of the seven sages of Greece, who in turn had obtained the story from a body of priests in the Egyptian city of Sais on the Nile. Following Professor Jowett^s rendering we give the myth of the fabled continent in the Atlantic Ocean. .\ ,11 7., 'I '^'d. *,' . 3'^ A Snoiri" Hisiokv of ^ Said the Egyptian priests to Solon : — *' These histories tell of a riii|»hty power which wns ng- I'ressing wantonly against the vvhoU; of Fiiiropo anil Asia, and to your city (Athens) pnt an end. This poW(»r came I'orth out ol' the Atlantic Ocean, for in those days the Atlantic was navigable, and there was an island sitnated in front of the straits which you call the Columns of Hercules (Straits of (Jibi'altar) ; the island was lai'gei' than Libyn and Asia put together, and was the way to other islands, and from the islands you might pass thronyh tlu; whole of the opposite continent wliich sur- rounded the ti'uo ocean; for this s(ni which is within the Straits of Hercules is only a harbour, linving a narrow entrance, but that other is a real sea, and the surround- ing laud may be most truly called a continent. " Now, in this island of Atlantis there was a great and wonderful empire which had rule over the whole island and several others, as well as over part of the continent ; and besides these they subjected the parts of Libya within the Columns of Hercules as far as Egyjit, and of Europa as far as Tyrrhenia. The vast power thus gathered into one endeavoured to subdue, at one blow, our country and yours, and the whole of the laud which was within the straits; and then, Solon, your country showed forth in the excellence of her virtue and strength among all nuinkind, for she was the first in courage and military skill, and was the leader of tlie Hellenes. And when the rest fell off from her, beiug compelled to stand alone, after having undergone the very extremity of danger, she disputed and triumphed over the invaders, and preserved from slavery those who were not yet subjected, and freely liberated all the others who dwell within the limits of Heraclea. "But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods ; and in a single day and night of rains all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of xitlantis in like iiianncr disa'ppeared and was sunk beneath the sea. And that is the reason why the sea in these parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is such a quantity of shallow mud in the way, and this was caused by the subsidence of the island. ^^ ,< ^ I THK CANADIAN' I'KOl'LK. O^J Plutu gives ill tlio " Critias ''a full detailiMl account of the island of Atlantis — its people, government, rulers, religion, and pliysieal features. Thero aro several con- siderations of a geological Jind etlmologieal kind which seem to point to a submerged continent in the Atlantic ; but its existence, as well as its supposed connection with America, are all shrouded in mythical story. Among the Roman writers shoi-tly after the Christiim era was the i)hilosophic Seneca, lie was the _ 1 .'ii /• 1 in Seneca, teacher oi the young, atterwards cruel, hmperor Nero. Seneca is said to have been a Spaniard or Iberian, born in Cordova. It is jjerhaps reasonable to suppose that he, a native of Spain, the country which looks out on the Atlantic Ocean, should have had his atteutiou directed to the possibility of a continent existing in the tar west, but the forecast found in his " Medea '* is so exact that some have seen in it almost ])rophetic force. AV^e give Arclibishop Whately's rendering of it : — " There shall come a time in later ages when ocean sliJill relax his chains, and a vast continent shall appear, and a pilot shall lind now worlds, and Thulc shall bo no more earth's bound." Most of the early stories of America came from tlio west of Europe. The prosecution of travel in _ Eastern Asia and acquaintance with Mongolian traditions has in the last few years brought to light a story of the visit to some foreign land, far east of China^ by Buddhis*; monks, and which would seem to give an account of an expedition to Mexico about the same time as our Saxon forefathers were invading Britain. We are indebted to a German savant, Carl Neumann, for the translation of the Chinese record, and follow the English version given by the authorities quoted above. The following is the myth : — '^ The Kwydovi of Fasany (Mexico, Ed.). " During the reign of the dynasty Tsi in the first year of the period, naming ^Everlasting Origin' (a.d. 4'}0), came a Buddhist priest from this kingdom, who bore •I ' .11 T '/■. "• ,.■ ^■^^n. ji',,! 'i}*A >;-it:: 40 A SlIOK'l ITlSTOkV OK |i •.V Ji i} 4t the clni.stor nnino of Hoei-Hcliin, i.e. " Universal Compas- sion/' to tlio pi'C'sciit (listri(;t of Jluknang and tlioso sur- roundin<4" it, wlio narnitod that Kusjin^ is about 20,000 Chinese nulea in an eastern direction from Tahan, and east of th(5 ini(hlle kingdom. *' Many Fnsang trees grow tlierc, whoj^e leaves re- semble the Australian Drijamh'a ronlijnlin ; the sprouts, on the contrjiry, resemble those uf the hjiniboo-tree and are eaten l)y the inhabitants oF the land. The fruit is like a pear in Form, but is red. From the bark they pre- pare a sort of linen which they use for clothing, and also a sort of ornnnicntid stufi'. 'J'lie houses are built of wooden beams: foi'tified and walled places are there unknown. " Oj IFritliiy and Civil iLt'yulatiuvs in Fnmng. " They have written characters in tliis hind, and prepare paper from the bark of the Fusang tree. 'J'he people have no weapons, and make no w{»rs; but in the arrange- ments for the kingdom they have a northern and a southern prison, ^rriiiing offenders were lodged in the southern prison, but those confined for greater offences, in the northern. Those men and women wdio were im- prisoned for life were allowed to marry. " The boys from these man '^s were, at the age of eiglit years, sold as slaves ; the ' .jt until their ninth year. If a man of any note .jund guilty of crimes, an assembly was held ; it .st be in an excavated place. There they strewed ashes over him, and bade him fare- Avell. If the offender was one of a lower class he alone was punislied, but when of rank the degradation was extended to his children and grandchildren ; with those of the highest rank it attained to the seventh genera- tion. '* Tlir KiiKjdoni and the Nobles of Fu sang, " The name of the king is pronounced Ichi. The nobles of the first class are termed Tuilu ; of the second, Little Tuilu; and of the third, Na-to-scha. When the prince Til. of ll are veil. rill, Canadian Pkoi'm;. 41 ^•oes tbi'th he is nccoin))iniii'(l by lioniH and trum])cts. The c<»k)ur of his clothes t'him<;i'.s with tho clilVeruiit yoars ol'liis reign. In the two first of the ten-year cychis they are bhie ; in tho two next, red; in tht» two t'oUowini^, \('llo\v ; in the two next, rod; uud in tlio hist two, hhiek". i\ ' 11 ' -u *' Maniifi's (uiil Cnsfoma. " The horns ol' tli(5 oxen are so larye tliat tlioy hold ten hiishels. 'J'hey use tluMn to contiiin all ni!inn(»r of things. Horses, oxen, and stags arc harnossed to th(iir wagg(jns. Stno's aro used here; .ms cattlo are used in the middle kingdom, and from the milk of the hind they make butter. " The red pears of the Fusang tree keep good through- out the year. Moreover, they have apples and reeds. From the latter they })repa,re mats. No iron is found in this hind ; but co})per, gold, and silver are not prized, and do not serve as a medium of exchange in the market. ^Inrriage is determined upon in the following manner : The suitor builds himsell: a hut before the door of the house where the one longed for dwells, and waters and deans the ground every morning and evening. When a year has passed by, if the maiden is not inclind to marry liini, he departs ; should she be willing it is completed. W hen the parents die tliey fast seven days. " i'\)r the death of the paternal or maternal grandfather tlioy lament five days ; at the death of elder or younger sisters or brothers, uncles or aunts, three days. They sit from morning to night before an image of the Ghost, absorbed in prayer, but wear no mourning clothes. When the Icing dies the son who succeeds him does not busy himself for three years with state atfairs. ^' In earlier times these people lived not according to the laws of Buddha. But it happened that in the second year, named ** Great Light of Song'' (a.d. 458), five beggar monks from the kingdom of Kipin went to this land, extended over it the religion of Buddha, and with it his holy writings and images. They instructed the people in the principles of monastic life, and so changed their manners," fel- 42 A Short History ok .114 ii :^^ •J; ink ; !■ Thus ends the chronicle. A number of reseniblauces have been pointed out between the land of Fusaug hero described and Mexico. A tree, the American aloe {Aijava Americana), would seem to represent the tree called Fusang, which gives its name to the country described. From the leaves of this aloe in Mexico it is said paper is still made, from its sap an intoxicating drink, p d its boiled roots are used as food. No iron was found among the Mexicans on their discovery ; but it is said two kinds of copper were used, one hard, for tools, the other soft, for pots. Bundles of cacao, containing a certain number of seeds, were used as money. Prescott says the Peruvians found that their houses resisted the effects of earthquakes better by tying the beams of them with thongs of the ^' manquey." The resemblance between the word " Ichi" and " Inca " has also been pointed out. The following facts are cited as showing the possibility of crossing from Asia to America in small vessels, and this bears upon the originni settlement of America from Asia as well. In 1832 a Japanese vessel was wrecked on Oahu, one of the Sand- wich Islands. In 1833-4 a Japanese junk was washed on the north-west coast of America, near Queen Char- lotte's Islands, and all on board murdered but two per- sons. The Hudson^s Bay Company sent tlie two survivors in 1834 to England ; from England they were forwarded to Macao. So much for the mythical story of Fusang. About the time that Richard the Strongbow was going , forth to conquer Ireland, according to Dr. PoAvell the Welsh historian, a Welsh prince, named Madoc, sailed away to the West, and discovered what has been claimed to have been America. The following is the story : — "After the death of Owen Gwyneth, his sons fell into great disputes as to the succession. Madoc, one of Owen Gwyneth's [sons, left the land which was in contention between his brethren, and prepared certain ships, with men and munition, and sought adven- tures by seas, sailing west and leaving the coast of Ireland i -i i) il Dr. 1 THE Canadian People. 43 so far north that he came into a land unknown, where he saw many strange things. • • • • • • ^' Of tlie voyage and rt'turn of this Madoc there be many fables fniiied ; as tlie common people doe use in distance of place and length of time rather to augment than to diminish ; but sure it is there he was. And after he had returned home, and declared the pleasant and fruitful countreys that he had seci without inhabitants, and upon this contrary part, for what barren and wild ground his brethren and nephews did murther one another, he pre- pared a number of ships, and got with him such men and women as were desirous to live in quietnesse, and, taking leave of his friends, to his journey thitherward again. " Therefore it is to be supposed that he and his people inhabited part of those countreys ; for it appeareth by Francis Lopez de Gomara that in Acazamil and other ])lacos the people honoured the crosse, whereby it may be gathered that Christians had been there before the coming of the Spaniards. But because this people were not many, they followed the manners of the land which they came unto, and used the language they found there. " This ]\Iadoc arriving in that westerne country, into which he came in the year 1170, left most of his people there, and, returning backe for more of his owne nation, acquaintance, and friends to inhabit that faire and large countrey, Avent thither again with ten sailes, as I find noted by Gutyn Owen. I am of opinion that the land whereunto he came was some part of the West Indies.'" Meredith, son of Khesus, in 1477 wrote Welsh lines which translated are as follows : — " Madoc I am, the sonae of Owen Gwynedd, With stature large, and comely grace adorned ; No lands at home nor store of wealth me plese. My minde was whole to search the ocean seas," til ' 'v. ilii \i^ -Hi I ■■f| :> ■;;«' i!>j'- I The Indian authority, Catlin, has taken much pains to show by comparison of name, language, and customs, aud even by physical features, that the Mandans, or, I' ; ■ .■' ',.. 44 A SlIOJ Mill Hi .t,- 46 A Short ITisroRV of >', ■f^ w.t: 725 of these islands mentioiK^d, and tlie consequent story of American settlement. The records of the settlement of Iceland and Greenland, and the discovery of America by the Norsemen, have been obtained from old manu- scripts containinliristiiin scholar regards the discovery r>f America, as the unfolding of the grent pnr])oses of the Creator for the enlargement and benefit of the human race. There seems no difliculty in reconciling at least tho philosophic and ChristiMii explanations given. The Crusaders made Europe familiar with a world beyond the bounds of Christendom ; the treasures brought back as trophies by the ''soldiers of the cross '"' from eastern lands inflamed the imagination of the west of Europe; the accounts given ("f the dwellers in heathenesse were as astounding as they were contradictory. Cathay was to the West the embodiment of a land of diamonds and gold. Ci})ango was a veritable land of Ophir with peacocks, pearls, and silken fabrics. To tho adventurers of Venice, and Florence, and Genoa, cities on the highway from East to West, it was a new joy to hasten to the East in the search for the '' Golden Fleece," and bring back from the Orient tliose luxuries contrast- ing so strongly with the cDujustas rett of their own western domestic life. Either on the banks of the Nile, transported thither by great caravans over the deserts, or at Byzantium, brought by way of the rivers Indus and Oxus, and the . ■ ■ ; ' k ' : • ' ,' .^!v. ■•- :J;, ' '■:'■ 'H li.rh-^ .•'>}Vf-V V' ^.'f /• >..-v^vv^''i \^ > . ''■.<*." .. •:,:''.J / 56 A Short Htstorv of Caspian and Euxine seas, did these Argonauts receive their treasures from the Eastern merchants, and hasten back with their spices, jewels, precious fabrics, and articles of gold and silver, to sell them in European marts, in their shops marked by the three gold balls, the arms of their Longobardic ancestors. The printed book — the vehicle of knowledge — the in- vention of those centuries, became the means for giving more definite information to a larger number, and also for stimulating the imagination by marvellous recitals. The burning spirit of adventure led some to penetrate the very heart of Asia, and beyond. Sir John Mandeville, a restless Englishman, who died at Liege in lo72, according to his own account, 'Wiaged through Tartaric, Persie, Ermonie, the little and the great, through Li bye, Glial dee, and a great partie of Ethiop ; through Amazoyn, Ind the less and the more, a great partie ;" and he gives a glowing account of Cathay; while Marco Polo even before the time of Mandevillc gives an account of a visit to that wonderland. The opportune invention of the compass and the adaptation for use by two Portuguese physicians of the astrolabe, gave the intrepid sailors of the time the means of prosecuting their journeys across the pathless waste of waters. It is remarkable to how great an extent the free republics of Italy and the Italian cities took part in this feverish quest for glory and wealth. The home of religion and learning Italy had been for a thousand years. Even three centuries before that, in old lioman days, she had led the world in letters and in arms. Now she was to yield to the world such names as Colombo of Genoa, Marco Polo of Venice, Toscanelli of Florence, Caboto of Venice, Vespucci of Florence, and Verrazano, a third from the city of the Arno — kings of adventure and geographical knowledge. Tlie Discoverers. (References : " Delle Navigatioui et Viag^i," by G. Battista Ka- musio, 3 vols., Venetia, 1556 ; " Historia del Almirante " (Fernando '^: a THE Canadian People. 57 Colombo) ; " Jlaccolta completa ilegli scritti di Cristoforo Colombo " (Torre Lione, 1864) ; " Memorials of Columbus " (Spotorno, 1823); " Life and Voyages of Columbus " (Washington Irving, 1823) ; " Le Revclateur du Globe " (L. Bloy, 1884) ; " Navigations, Voy- ages, &c.," by Richard Hakluyt, Preachei', 3 vols., London, 159i) ; "Vespucci," by F, Martolozzi, Firenze, 1789; "Viaggi d' Ame- rigo Vespucci," by S. Carnovai, Firenze, 1817.) Quite rcceDtly a devout Frenchmjin lias given in a work of mucli interest, his grounds for desiring The Prince that the discoverer of the New World should be of Dis- raised to the dignity of a saint in the Roman coverers. calendar. The name of Cristoforo Colombo, whether canonized or not, will ever be a glorious one. The family Colombo, belonging to Genoa, had even before Cristoforo famous naval commanders included iu its members, but Fernando, son of the discoverer, who writes his father's life, says that he cannot trace a close connection between his father, who belons^ed to ... a poor woolcomber s family, and these dip'-'nguished Genoese. Further, F'ernando prefers it shoula be so, as thus his father Cristoforo founds on the firm basis of his own exploits a family with a loftier patent of nobility. It has been a common opinion of the many that the discovery of America by Colombo was a lucky stroke, for which there had been no previous preparation justify- ing such glory as has been attached to the name of the discoverer. A little acquaintance with the subject shows this to be an entire mistake. There had been mi Italian cities, and in Spanish and Portuguese seats of learning, much interest and research as to a new continent for the whole half-century preceding the New World discovery. In the beginning of the 15th century the geographical work of Ptolemy had been translated into Latin, the language of scholars of the time. Piiuce Henry of Portugal, imbued with a love of study, became a Mae- cenas indeed, in his gathering together of learned men, and his care for them. Preferring the allurements of study to even the honour of a crown, he retired to a spot in his dominions near Cape St. Vincent, and established an observatory at Sagres. His abode over- i ■I ^1 !' . !.]■ 58 A Short History of h --fi looked tlie sea, and here lie pondered over the task of navigating around the coast of Africa. In 1474 Toscanelli, the Florentine, had maintained before Portuguese savants that there ^^;ls an open sea to thf west of Europe, by which Eastern Asia could be reached. The Portuguese were at this tune engaged in an extensive trade to the coast of Guinea, and various islands along the Atlantic coast of Europe had been discovered. Venice and Portugal, especially, in Southern Europe were during the later part of the 15th century active in maritime aifairs. It was into snch a half-century of enterprise that Cristoforo was born, in Genoa, about the year 14o6. Early compelled by poor circumstances to leave the University of Pavia where he was studying, he went as a lad of fourteen to sea. In his time piracy on the Mediterranean was common, and desperate sea-tights were the ordinary experience of the young sailor. One of the first expeditions of the young mariner was that of the Duke of Calabria to rescue Naples from the hands of Kene, its king. A soldier of fortune, as Colombo now became, he served the King of Naples, and accomplished a daring exploit in cntting out a galley from the port of Tunis. He afterwards saw service in the Island of Scio, but to find scope for his ambition, entered the field of adventure in Portugal, the greatest maritime power of the time. He arrived at Lisbon in 1470, not entirely to supply charts and maps, which seems to have been his means of livelihood, but to fall in love with a young gentle- woman of his own country, Felipa, the daughter of De Palestrello, one of the most distinguished of Portuguese navigators. Married to Felipa, he was soon, by the death of Palestrello, compelled to reside, at least at in- tervals, at the newly-discovei*ed island of Porto Santo, where the family of Palestrello possessed an estate. The papers, charts, and journals of the deceased Portuguese captain were open to the ardent young Genoese, and he soon sailed as a naturalized Portuguese commander to Guinea. t ' j THE Canadian People. 59 It was in tlie year 1477 that he made an expedition, according to his own account, one hundred leagues beyond Thule (probably Iceland), which he states was 77° N. lat. He states that the English from Bristol at that time visited Thule. One can hardly conceive of the inquiring young navigator visiting Iceland, without hearing of the Vinland, and Markland, and Helluland of the Sagas. Naturally of a vivid imagination and enthusiatic in his projects, with the myths and floating tales of Europe to inflame him, such as those of Plato, St. Brandan, of the Insula Da3monorum, of the stories of Prester John, and of the Cathay of Marco Polo, the young sailor became thoroughly imbued with the enterprising spirit of Por- tugal. He had the compass and astrolabe to guide him in his course, and moreover that strong impulse to action — want, as he proposed to John II., King of Por- tugal, the fitting out of an expedition to find a new world. The junto of wise men, however, pronounced the scheme visionary, and the council of state, too, con- demned it. Notwithstanding this, the perfidious Portu- guese, after getting from Colombo his charts and plans, actually sent away in secret a vessel upon the track proposed by him. It took, however, more than the courage of deceivers to find a new world, and the caravel turned back. Maddened by the repulse of the king and council, and by this act of treachery, being also heavily in debt, with his son Diego, his only solace, for his wife Felipa was dead, he secretly fled from Portugal in 1484 to his native city of Genoa. He obtained no assistance in Genoa, and now came the long six years of his application to the Spanish court, following those twelve wearisome years which had already elapsed since his famous con- ference with Toscanelli. Though his chief enemy in Portugal had been a Churchman, the Bishop of Ceuta, yet it is pleasing to find that he found fast friends in Spain, in an Andalusian convent of the Franciscans, that of De Rabida, near the Wi >'-:}iA ■f - ; . " '' 1 ■ ^ 60 A Short Histokv of I w^ I I ■I ■ 1 port of Ptilos. At the end of the six years' struggle it was to this convent he returned to receive the parting benediction ere he began his great voyage. It was to Ferdinand and Isabella, joint sovereigns of Spain, en- gaged in their hard task of conquering the Spanish Moors, that application was made on Colombo's behalf. Through several channels of Churchmen and nobles was request made to the Spanish sovereigns. On several occasions, just as the thirsty and waiting applicant seemed about to have his thirst quenched by a successful answer, a new turn in the Moorish war dashed from him his cup of Tantalus. Sometimes, indeed, it seemed the obstinacy and unyielding character of Colombo which hindered his success ; but Colombo had a dis- tinct purpose, and it is more than likely that his plan was the only successful one. The termination of the Moorish war was an event on which the expedition seemed to hang. And now, when the Spanish flag floated in triumph over the Alhambra, Colombo was doomed to disappointment, by an absolute refusal of his conditions. From Santa Fe the discouraged applicant turned his steed away, and determined to make his way to Cordova, and thence to France to seek new patrons. It was a Churchman, St. Angel of Aragon, who saw the disheartened mariner depart, and in haste the cleric obtained an interview with Queen Isabella, and the elo- quence of the pleader at last drew forth the promise that she would pledge her jewels, to bring such glory as had been depicted to Spain and to the Church. A mes- senger overtook Colombo, two leagues from Granada, and he returned to take his last steps towards the discovery of the New World. On the 17th of April, 1492, the required documents were signed by Ferdinand and Isabella, and Colombo became for life, High Admiral, Viceroy, and Governor of all the lands he should discover, with one-tenth of tlie profits of trade in his admiralty. Unnumbered difficulties were next encountered in obtaining ships and men for so hazardous an undertaking, even with royal favour and means. ,-fll THE Canadian People. 6i Not till the 3rd of August, 1492, did the three ships, the Scuita Maria, commanded by the admiral; the Fiiita, under Piuzon, a partner in the enterprise; and the Nuia, commanded by a brother of Piuzon, tjiko thoir departure. One hundred and twenty souls, nil told, made up the throe ships' companies, as they sailed out of the harbour of Palos, the admiral, captains, and all on board havinj^ previously devoutly sought God's blessing on the under- taking. Delayed by the repairs needed on the Plnta, at the Canaries, it was not till the 9th of September that the admiral lost sight of the Old World to Hud the New. It were long to tell of the discouragements of the voyage. There was hopefulness inspired at first, but fear fell upon them as they saw the sedgy surface of the Sar- gasso Sea. The admiral found encouragement necessary for his crew now^ and at other times words of stern com- mand. A bank of cloud seeming to be the land awakened hope, but it was again dashed away as the cloud vanished. Singing-birds came in flocks upon the ship and there was joy, but fear soon followed, lest they should be sailing past the island from which perchance the birds came. All were alarmed by the gale blowing from the east lest they should never reach Spain again, and then there was the fear when the wind ceased that they should be becalmed on the dreaded fabled island of Atlantis. On one occasion high hopes were raised by finding reeds borne by the current, and a carved image of wood, a live crab, and a bird from the tropics which never sleeps at sea, as well as shoals of tunny fish ; but even all these were left behind. With captains and men on the verge of mutiny the admiral held on his undeviating way to the west, turning at last somewhat to the south-west. He was himself alarmed by the variation of the compass, and by the fact that his private chart had been overrun by the distance gone. He had kept a record open to his crew, differing from his own, but at last it was reserved for the heroic soul, Colombo, himself to see, thirty-two days out from land, a hght in the offing in the darkness. Next morning, the 12th of October, appeared an island of the New World. til ■ ■*• I 62 A Short History of m:5P Thougli overwhelmed witli excitement, yet as became Spaniards, they took possession of ihe island with dignitied formality. The admiral, in scarlet, entered his own boat, bearing the royal standard; in his train followed the other boats, each bearing a flag with the letters F and V, the initials of the names of their joint sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. The procession having reached the land, all disembarked, and, following the admiraFs example, threw themselves on their knees, kissed the soil in the sight of the astonished natives, who had fled to a place of safe observation. With royal banner unfurled and with drawn sword the admiral took possession for Isabella of Castile, and named the island San Salvador. We shall proceed with Colombo but little further. Going from one island to another, he met and traded with the natives, whom he called Indians, thinking he had discovered India. Exchanging trinkets with the natives for gold, of which he found far too little ; discovering Cuba, St. Domingo, and other islands ; and finding two important products, which he brought back — one a benefit, and the other a bane to the race — the potato and tobacco— the admiral continued his voyage around the West India Islands, until he returned to Europe to receive from his sovereigns and the people of Spain all the honours of a returning conqueror. Other expeditions and discoveries were made by him, but lawsuits, persecution, and debt were his chief reward. The great discoverer died on the 20th of May, 1506, at Valladolid, but his remains were taken to the New World, and his dust now lies in the Cathedral of Havanna, Cuba. His native city of Genoa has honoured him with a beautiful monument, which the tourist to Italy observes as he enters Genoa from the railway-station. This was erected in 1854. Colombo stands on a pedestal of his own. No suc- ceeding mariner can ever be called on to show the strength of faith or majesty of resolve which charac- terized him. He must remain solitary in his greatness. But once the feat accomplished — the egg once firmly poised ment naval ( of an i sible t( Lik( their c Spain, their w the su( prestig Sp.ain i voyage iin'd Fr.' ancestr half a c .shall se held, b^ Thoii in this means c ToE] the Cor lombo '. by islac the task born al citizen c and the the Levi belief th year 14' that tim There early V03 It is sa: tons, he Brezil, b ■'1 ;!^ '#1 THE Canadian People. 63 poised upon the table — Western Europe was all excite- ment to explore the Now World. A half-century of: naval enterprise new to the world was seen, and possessed of an interest and hope such as can never be again pos- sible to the woi'ld. Like little wnnton boys — ^'venturing at times beyond their di'pth, sailing upon })ladders /' Kngland, Portugal, Spain, and France pursuinl with unsurpassable selfishness tlieir wild career of rivalry and ambition. To Spain, by the success of Colombo, was })lainly duo the place of prestige. Yet Portugal had been more successful than Spain in its expeditions to the Guinea coast; and these voynges had strongly influenced Colombo. England iind France had both the imagination of a Norse viking ancestry to be kindled into life by naval adventure. For half a century the uncertain rivalry continued, till, as we shall see, the palm was claimed, and lias ever ^iince been held, by the sailors of our island of Great Britain. Though first in one great series of ^^oyages, England in this fifty years of naval enterprise stands by no means conspicuous. England. To England belongs the honour of being first to reach the Continent of America, whose islands Co- lombo had discovered. It was, however, not cai,oto8 by island-born, but by Italian navigators that the task was accomplished. John C^:4.boto was a Genoese, born about 1460, but in 1474 became a naturalized citizen of Venice. Given to the study of cosmography, and the practice of navigation, he had gone as a sailor to the Levant, but like Colombo, became possessed with a belief that a new world was to be discovered. About the year 1477 he took up his abode in Bristol, England, at that time a considerable seaport tow^n. There are grave doubts as to the reality of certain early voyages said to have been made by Caboto. It is said that in 1480, with a vessel of eighty voyage*r tons, he went in search of the fabled island of Brezil, but in two months returned unsuccessful. Again, ^1} ".1 64 A Short History of ill v! we are told that in 1 iOl he sailed west in the same quest and with the same result. It is, however, a voyage attributed to him in 1 1-9 )■ around which rages the war of controversy. In the Im- perial Library in Paris is a map dated 1544 made by {Sebastian Caboto, son of the older mariner, This map states that at live in the morning on the 24tli of June, ] 191', with his son Sebastian, John Caboto discovered the island of St. John on the coast of America, and a peninsula of the New World called in Spanish ^' First Land Seen." Numerous good authorities accept this map with its inscription as authentic, but the most careful historians regard the 11-94 as an error* for 1497. This seems the more likely since the maps with the date usually taken, 1497, have the 24th of Juno, the same month and day as the map in Paris. Believers in the earlier date state that applications before 1497 were made to Henry VII. by Caboto for lands already discovered. This claim does not seem to bo supported. It is a matter accepted by all, that on the 5th of March, First un- ^'^^^> Henry VII. granted letters patent to disputed Caboto, and that departing in May, 1497, with Voyage of a man-of-war, the Mdftlww of Bristol, and the a otos. ^|^^,pg merchant ships — an equipment worthy of the undertaking — John and Sebastian Caboto set sail for the New World, and having come upon Newfound- land, they next coasted Labrador and the American coast for three hundred leagues, and erected upon the coast in token of their early possession the flag of Eng- land, and the standard of St. Mark of Venice. Sebastian Caboto seems to have risen to greatness as Voyage of ^ navigator. Under new letters patent from Sebastian the king given February 3rd, 1498, he under- Caboto.' ^qq], j-^q^ Qj^iy |.() i^evisit the New World, but to plant a colony. He ^ook not less than three hundred persons, mostly victims of the Perkin Warbeck rebellion of the time, and with these he sailed, seemingly, far north on the coast of Labrador, where numbers of them died, but he was driven southward by the ice, and havirig ,.;w ' \\ Tin-: Canadian Pkopli;. «5 explored the coast fi-om about G0° N. lat. to 30°, retiirnoLl witli tlio remiiaut of Lis colonists. Such was the lui- liappy beginning of a vast colonization movement which has since brought " name and fame " to the English people. Sebastian Caboto remained in England one of tho loading soainen of the land till 1512, when he entered the service of Spain, but to return to England in 1510. It was under the young king Henry VIII., and sailing under the English flag, that in 1517 he again conducted, in company with Sir Tliomas Pert, an expedition to the Now World. The ships reached tlio North American coast in 07° 30' N. lat., but though the sea was open, according to one authority on account of timidity, or as one report goes, upon the mutiny of master and mariners, tbe party returned without any new laurels gained. bi 1518 Sebastian Caboto entered for a second time the service of Spain. While in the Spanish service his voyages included the discovery and exploration of the I.a Plp.ta River in South America. In 1548 Caboto returned to England, and received from Edward VI. a pension, and is regarded by some as the creator of our Ijritish navy, and one of the most adventurous captains of his time. Portugal. Irritated at the thought of having been ofifered the services of Colombo, and at having refused them, Portu- gal now put forth great exertions to regain her lost prestige. Bound by treaty and by papal decision to allow Spain the discovered portions of the New World in peace, she had at least the first place along the African coast. Following the eastward route, to Portugal is due after all, the honour of first reaching the Cathay after which Colombo panted. In the same year (1497) in which Caboto discovered the continent of America, the new King of Por- Vasco di tugal, who had succeeded King John — Emanuel, Gama. the Fortunate by name, determined to send an expedition which should double '' Capo d' buono Speranza '' of Bar- F » I' m^ 66 A Short History of 1498. tolonieo DijiH, jiiul thus reach the East. Unable to settle in his mind upon a suitable captain, there happened to pass throuf^h the liall in which the king was sitting, Yasco, tlie son of a i'ortuguose noble, Estevan di (Jama, himself a famous soa-caj)t}iin. The nuin for the task wjis before him, and Vasco di Gama undertook the enterprise. In the oath dral of Lisbon, amidst solemn ceremonies, the king ' 'tted to the hands of the iiavigat(n' the royal stand. .>. The tliree ships provided bore the names of the three arch- angels, Raphael, Gabriel, and Michael, and gave omen of a successful voyage. On the 2.")rd of March, 1497, Vasco di Gama set sail to discover Cathay. The Cape of Good Ho})e was reached in time, and again the ships failed to round it, and were driven back, so justifying the name it had formerly borne of Capo Tormentosa, or Htormy Cape. The Cape passed in November, in August of the following year Cathay was reached. A speedy return to tell the tale brought back the captain to Lisbon by the 18th of September, and the honour of Portugal ■was vindicated. But Cathay did not satisfy the desire of Portugal. Cabral. Within two years after Di Gama's return, on the 1500. 9th of March, Pedro Alvarez Cabral was sent out in command of a Portuguese expedition. In forty-two days afterwards the navigator was rewarded by the dis- covery of Brazil in South America. The name of Terra di Santa Cruz was soon given to this newly-found region. This designation was highly pleasing to the Church, and for a time was extended to the whole continent. But for its unwieldiness it would probably have remained till this day. Desirous of gaining further renown, Portugal fitted out an expedition and placed it under the command tereals. ' ^^ ^ representative of the high Portuguese family of Cortereal. There is a story, entirely impro- bable, given by Cordeyo, a Portuguese historian in 1717, that Joad vas Cortereal had in 1463 crossed the ocean, and discovered the coast of Labrador, which was already known to the Basques. He is said also to have dis- 1^1 >. THE Canadian Ploi'Li:. 67 covered the island of •Novvl'oiindluud, which ho natnod Bacalaos — a name referrni^ to the cod (ishory. A fatal obj(?ction to this claim is that tho geographer Behaim, whose fathor-in-lavv had lived at the Azores, in making liis celebnited globe of the earth in 1 101, takes no noto of this Cortoreal's voynge. It was one of the sons of the aforenamed Cortoroal, Gaspard by name, who now in 1500 mulertook . tlie New Worhl (^x|)edition on belialf of I'ortn- gah We are indebted to the Itjiliun Ranuisio, writing in 15o0, for the information that Gaspard Cortereal sailed to tho West with two caravels, seeking a shorter passage to the S})ico Islands than that by way of the route around Cape of Good Hope. He is said to have found about GO^ N. hit., a river closed with snow, to which he gave the name Rio Nevado. According to a letter published at Vicenza in 1507, and which has been the subject of much controversy, one of the ships returned the 8th of October, 1501, that is from the second voyage, and reported that the expedition had followed the coast near tho Rio Nevado some six or seven hundred miles, that they had carried home seven natives, and that the other caravel was coming with more. It was said that the natives brought a piece of a broken sword, which was gilt and had evidently come from Italy, and that a boy had in his ears two silver plates, which beyond question had been made in Venice. It has been supposed that these were remains of Caboto's visit, for Lord Bacon speaks in his history of Henry VII. of Caboto's expedition having been supplied with trinkets — '' gross and slight wares " — for trade with the bar- barous people. The facts thus far of the Cortereal voyage seem reliable. An impudent attempt was made in an " Itiuerarium Portugalensium,"' printed in Milan in 1508, to change the letter named, and connect it with the brothers Zeni, the Venetian navigators. The error thus, jegun has been copied into various histories and encyclopaedias. The unfortunate navigator never returned from his second voyage. His brother Miguel explored in 1502 with F 2 m 1 ■ ('.I M. i 68 A Si lour IIisTOKN of three vessels, ])iit in vain, the gulfs mid bays of the New World in search of him. It is supposed that the natives of the liiibrador coast revenged themselves on the kid- iiap})ers,us it is recorded that subsequent explorers found tlu^ Kskimo in yciirs after very h()stil(> to foreigners. The name Ijabrador was given, it> is said, by Cortereal to the coast discovered by him, meaning the hiiid of tli ■» hd)our(»r, — probably an ('([uivident expression to ''slave coast;'' not as nn American historian makes it/'a ploughed laud," such a luime being a contradiction of the natural features of the coast. On a Portuguese map of ir>0;3 (Harvard Coll. Collec. 128) the coast of America is marked ''Terra de Corte Healle," and in Freiss's Atlas of the World, 1525, Labra- dor is connected with the voyage of Gaspard Cortereal, though the name is given in a corrupted form. 'Jliere is no doubt, as shown by many old maps, the name " Terra Corterealis " long continued to belong to Labrador. The melancholy fate of Cortereal has joined his name to the somewhat long list of those wlio have i'ound in the New World an unknown grave. Sl'AIN. The age following Colombo was one most glorious for Spain, though disfigured by the cruel rapacity Vmpu^cI ^^ ^^^ New World commanders. Contempora- neous with Colombo was the geographer and explorer, Vespucci. Born in Florence on the 9th of March, 1451, the naval enterprise of Spain drew him to that country. In 1493 Vespucci went to Seville, and engaged in the work of equipping vessels for sea. He succeeded in inducing Ferdinand and Isabella to modify the monopoly given to Colombo as Admiral of New Spain, and on the 10th of April, 1495, permission was given to other Spaniards to explore the New World. In 1497, with a fleet of four vessels, this stirring geo- grapher went to the New World, and returned on the 15th of October of the following year, with a cargo of upwards of 200 slaves. Another voyage was undertaken ■i'*l i Tiii; Canadian PEoi'ir. 69 ill 1400, from which Vospiioci rotiiriicrl in tho nrxt; yoar. Thoso voyupfos wcm'c in tho intorrst of Spain. Tlie third voyupfo tnndo hy this navi^utor was un(h>r the auspices of Portugal, and it was ui'dertaken t'l'om Lisbon on tho l-ith of May, 1501, and h. return was on the 7th of September of tho following year. His last voyage was made in I50;i, and ho arrived in Lisbon oa the 1 81 h of J unc, 1 ;"*04. I n tho year 1 ^OH Vespucci retired from tho service of I'ortugal and re-entered that of Spain, being appointed chief pilot with a good remuneration. He did not live long to enjoy his position, for ho died at Seville on tho 22nd of Februiirv, 1512. Much has been said of tho ungrateful [)art taken by Vespucci in robbing Colombo of tho honour of having bis name attached to tho Now World. It is true Ves- pucci did labour against the monopoly enjoyed by Colombo, but no blame seems to attach to Vespurci in connection with the naming of tho continent. C iombo does not seem to have blamed Vespucci, for in 1504 the great discoverer gave the Venetian a most cordial letter to the perpetual gonfalonier of the Republic of Venice. Vespucci had made a map of Brazil, but does not appear to have inscribed his own name upon it. Without doubt all regard the name of Colombo as that which should have been placed upon tho New World, but the almost accidental circumstances resulting otherwise seem to have been as follows. In the cosmography of Itacombo, printed at Strasburg in 1509, the first name of Vespucci, viz. Amerigo, is g-iven to Brazil. A Swiss scholar in 1514 followed in tho same course. In Venice, in 1535, Brazil was called Amerigi or America. The real fault seems to have been with Spain. The Spaniards desired to call the New World " Fer-Isabel- lica.'' No doubt this was the means of displacing the name of Colombo, so that the adoption of America seems to have been a trifling national incident. Orte- lius in 1584 gives to that part of the continent the two names, Brazil and America. The name America once firmly fastened on Brazil, its extension to the whole continent was quite natiu'al. The geographer Ves- »• .. iY 70 A Short History of 1 - 4 . '»■ i Magal- haen!'. pucci, at any rate, seunis without blame In the matter. To Spain belongs not only Colombo^s unequalled ex- ploit, but also the expedition which first circum- navigated the globCj and yet the leader of it was a Portuguese. Born in Oporto in 1470, Fernan di Mngalhaens, or as his name is latinized, Magel- lan, undertook for the Spanish Government an enter- prise of the greatest moment. The necessity of reaching the Spice Islands by a shorter route was the promoting cause of more than one navigator^s zeal. Leaving Seville with five ships, four of them commanded by Spanish captains, and all these hostile to him, gave the Portuguese admiral no easy task. The expedition sailed for the Moluccas, 1519, leaving -g.g Cape Verd on the 10th of August. Brazil was reached and the harbour now known as Rio Janeiro entered on the 13th of December. It was May of the next year when the explorers found themselves at the southern extremity of this continent. The inhabitants here were gigantic in stature. It was here the hostility of his Spanish crews broke out into open mutiny. Magalhaens acted with decision, and a number of leading mutineers paid the penalty with their lives. On Monte Cristo, on the coast, the admiral planted a crosF, and wilh religious formalities took possession of the country for Spain. Passing through the straits which have since borne the name Magellan, it was on thu 28th of Noven^ber when the fleet—at least three of the vessels, for two had turned back — entered the Pacific Ocean. In due time the islands of Oceanica were in turu reached and passed, but on the 27th of April an irre- mediable disaster occui red in the murder of the admiral by the natives. At this stage of the voyage one of the ships was burned, and another was left behind as leaky and un- seaworthy. Upon Sebastian del Cano now devolved the command, and in charge of one ship, Le Vic- torkiy he arrived at Seville on the 8th of Sep- age Soto, Missis its flo( ueighb( ■i riiE Canadian Peoi'Li:. 71 foiuber, Jiud In token of its having been the good fortune of this navigator to be the first to go round the world, he was granted on his coat-of-arms by his sovereign, a globe, and upon it, " Primus circumdedisti me." It wculd be interesting did it come within the scope of our Canadian history to follow the Spanish explorations in Central and South America. We but mention them for the sake of connection. Ponce de Leon, who in old age sought a land of perpetual youth, on the 2nd of April, 1512, discovered and named Florida. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who was first — on the 2Gth of September, ]51o — to lo(jk upon the Pacific Ocean from the mountain tops on the isthmus, addressed his Spanish followers : '' Be as you have hitherto been, faithful and true to me, and, by the favour of Christ, you will become the richest Spaniards that have ever come to the Indies. '' Hernando Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, who burned his ships on the sea-coast, and on the 16th of August, 1519, penetrated the land of Montezuma. Francisco Pizarro, the cruel invader of Peru, in 153-3 entered Cusco, the city of the Incas ; and Ferdinand de Soto, the hero of a love-tale, and the discoverer of the Mississippi, died upon the banks of the Father of Waters, on the 5th of June, 1542, to be buried beneath its flood. FfiANCE. Francis I. of France could not be a - ilent spectator of the discoveries of his Spanish and Portufifuese neighbours on the south, or of his English j-azano " rivals to the west. Unable to obtain the means for carrying on his wars, he thought to obtain treasure for this purpose by sending an expedition to Cathay, or the much-lauded Moluccas. It \vas when the first quarter of the fifteenth century was nearirg its end that, following the example of his neighbours, who availed themselves of the power and naval skill of sailors trained in the school of Italian ad- venture, Francis obtained the services of a daring and reckless navigator, sometimes known by the Spaniards, . -1 ^i: ( , I/I 72 A SiioK'i' lIis'iOkN' OK I) A 1485. 1621. 1522. wlio li;i(l i'(!ii,S()ii 1() I'cincuihci' liiiii, -iiiiply :is Juiin IIh; l^'J()!-('jil;iri(', ov \>y LIk; J''i-(;ri(;li jis fJciin \ Liii-a/ano. 01" liis osirly lilo wo know notliiii;^, exec])!, ili;it- he seems to liav(! b(;eii Ijoni ill ji, siiimII town near J''lereiie(.'. I'^rjuieis seems lo lia,ve soii^lit an ea,sy way of gaining- (rtjasnro l>y allaekin^- Uic Spanish ships us Ihey retui'iied li(jinewa,i(J lr(>m ih(! New VVerhi. John IIk; I'hji'OMLiiK! was a liUiii^* a,^^'ejil foi- Ihc; kiii^' in iliis wy us oj" Vori'azaiio is a, h.'ttcM- written from J)ieppe to r'raneis 1.. J 1 i/i24 ^^^' ^^'''"^ letter we Jiav:j net tht,^ oi-i^'inal, but a eopy found in J(amusio (1050^. So late as J 852 a planisph(!i'e of Jlieronyrnus de Verra/a,no of 152'.>, was discovered in the College de Propaganda l'"i(l(;, in Jionn;. A letter written by one i^'ernandcj Carli, an Italian, I'roni liy(jns in France to his father in l'lorenc(^^ (jnt]ie4lh of August, 1 521', has been found conliniiing 1 Ik; epistle giv(ni in J[a,niusio. This hitter of Carli gives an acc(junt of Verra/ano's return, and of Jiis letter t(j King l^'i-ancis. It is referi'cd to as having been in the yea,r I 72H in tin; Sli-o/zi Jiibrary in l*'loi-enc(;, and wa,s published in I f^ 1 I . A determiiicd ellbrt lias been mad(; to disjjute the a,ulhenlicily of Voi- razano's lettei', but_, to the mind of the writer^ unsuccess- fully. l^rom tlioHo authorities wo lefirn tliat Verrazano, start- ing with four vessels to explore the New VVcjrld, was at first (iriven ])aek by a storm. With oik; ship, tin; Jj(.tnj)/ilin', sailing for the New \V(nld, he lelt '624 * ^''^^ island of jVladeira. I'assing well iKjrtli of tlio ]iermu(las, and luiving run 1200 leagues, about the Oth of March (old style) Veri-azano saw "a new land never seen by ancient or modern/' 'J'his seems to have been about Cape -May on the coast of IVew Jersey. Judging by the description of the land, he passed north- wai'd along (lie ctast of ISew Jersey, New YorK, and Long island " Lou Fro New])( tli(! na, iiarra,t lor the (jcjnsun covei'(!( nions ( wood, ilppCilK as lia,vi JIak ill pa,r( There L')2(> {]■ iuid tli( to tll(! ( }>y th(; olli(!r, f I lie Noi lurc.'d li tiiom in Jiia,ngia,( i rain was the liis retui of a Ne St. iVlah 'liat Joe; liavinga was j'iai lie h (A'ltherii clio'valioj MaJo, ai iMllu(;nc( l'liilipj)e I ill: Canadian Pi:oi'I,i:. n Lony IsI.'ijkI. All isliiml, ( ri;iii<^MiI;i,i- in foi'iM — like ilio isliuid of IMkxJcs — oiirric in viow, iind Uiis wus callod " liouisa'^ nJlcr tli(! inotlu^r of \\\\\\* l'V;i,n(;i,s. Fi'Otri tlio land ill 41;";^. lain — about; lh(5 locality of Newport — tlio iidiahitaiils of tlio coiiiiiry w(!ro soun by tJi(^ navi^a,t(ji' to l)(! ciotlKid in fcho skins of anitn.'ds. Tlio iiiiri"a,tiv() (^los(!S tlius : '' Sailin*^ hcitvvccri (;ast and noi'tli lor tli(! Hp!i,c(ioi' Olio linndi'cjd and (illy Icii^uos, and having consnnKid all our iiav.'d stores and victuaJs ; having dis- cov(jr(!(l liv(! liundrod and two k.'a^ncs, i.e. sovon hundred niorc! ol" n(!W land, supplyinj^' oui'scslvos with water and wood, we (hiterinined to rciturn to Franco." In tlio apjXMidix Vorrazano ^iv(!S liis dc![)ai't ure IVorn tho coast as li;i,vin<^ boon in lat. oO'. Ilakluyt speaks oi" so(!in<^- ^' ji, iniglite ia,r<^(^ old map '^ ill {);u*clinient, made, ;i-s it would seem, by V(;i-ra/aJius. Tli(!r(! a,ro evidences tliiit V(!rra/,.'i!io was still alive in lo2b from an a^'i'eonKsnt between tlie admiral of Franco ;iiid the navi^'ator. 'J\vo dill(;r(;nt, accounts aro extant as to the d(!atli of Vori'a/ano. One is that ho was caur(!ton fishermen, Cartier was the littino- inslrumont I'orF'rancis, who, after his return from i'avia, was still 1111(^1 with drc^ams J^JJ^^^ of a New World king-dom. IJoni in 1 l'.» I in St. Malo, of a, family trac(!abl(! bii(;k t'oi' some time in tli!i,t locality, the youno- ciiptfun, wil h tla; r(;putation of having'' acl day tin; Agoidiaiiua, or lord of the country, Donnaeonna by name, canu! vvilh twelve boats, (if wlii(;h two pulled up alongside the Freneh ships. With violent gesticuilations the Agonhanna dcdivercul the usuiil Indian address, 'i^he ret^urned savages oi" the first voyage then recited the good tr(»atment they had received in I'nmce. The cennnonies of introduction past, tlie ex- plorers coasted along the island, and at the upper end of it found the mouth of the little river to afford a safe harbour. This they named Ste. Croix. The Kecolhjts afterwards, in l(il7, called it St. Charles, the name it still bears. ^Fhe };old point on which Quebec nmv stands was the abode of Donnaeonna, and was called by the people themselves Stadacona. The point was then plen- tifully wooded with fruit and ornamental trees. On the island in front of Ste. Croix being explored it was named by the explorers, on account of the presence of the wild gra,pe of the country, ^' li'lle de Bacchus/' })ut the name of island of Orleans lias quite superseded this. After consultations many with Donnaeonna, and his poo])le, Cartier determined to go further up the river. To this the natives were very much opposed, and employed many devices to dissuade Cartier. Donnaeonna pre- sented some of his kindred to Cartier as a peace- offering, and thr(^e Indians were (ileverly dressed up to re})resent demons, covercid with dog-skins, and bearing horns. These came past the vessels of Cartier, and, without a word or look to the ships, passed out of view. Donnaeonna and his Indians then appeared and dissuaded Cartier from leaving his ships. ^J'he two guides now came from the woods, and with cries of "Jesus/' "Marie,'' and the like, appealed to Cartier. On being asked the meaning of this performance, they said their god, Cudouagny, had spoken from Hochelaga, and that the three demons had come to announce that on ■i'i 'I 78 A Short History of account of so much suow and ice, all the people of Hochcla^a luul died. In spite of threats and persuasions, the explorer on the 18th of September sailed up the riv(ir, thouf^h without the two Indian ^'•uides. M'ho voyageurs w(ire struck with the l)ea-uty and I'tn'tihty of tlie banks of the river, as well as with the a]>undance of game. Tiiey passcMl th!'OUf»"l) Jjake St. I'eter on the 28th of Septendjer. Taking the North Channel the; shabowness of the water prevented i'urther progress. Landing on the shore, tins voyageurs met the natives, and received assurances that they were on the proper course for llocheiaga. 'Jartier, now con- vinced that 7y'./7''/'/uy'?ifj could not na.igate the lake, h^ft her some forty-five leagues from llocheiaga, and with his most intimate friends, litted up the two smaller vessels, with which he arrived, on the 2nd of October, safely before Hochelaga. Cartier was received here as he had ]}een at Gaspe and at the ishmd of Orleans, with gifts of the products of the country and with great demonstra- tions of joy. lie bestowed freely upon the men, women, and children from his store of weapons, beads, and trinkets. From Cartier's description it is evident that the people of llocheiaga diif'ered from the ordinary Al- The Hoche- • t i- rin 1 1 • • lagans gonqum Indians, iliey were less wandering in their habits, and were regarded as superiors by the other tribes. The town uv village of Hochelaga was three-quarters of a mile distant from the mountain at Montreal. It consisted of a walled enclosure, witii barred gates. Around it nnd halfway to the river were the cultivated fields belonging to the village. The village contained some fifty houses ; each of these was upwards of fifty yards long, and from twelve to fifteen wide. The houses were wooden and were covered with the bark of trees. In the midst of each house was a great earthen chamber where the fire was ke[)t. In the houses were granaries, and from the^e stores of Indian corn and peas they obtained their food, pounding out the grain to make flour for bread, "^^l^hey used the same material for oups ; and they likewise had an TiiK Canadian Peoi'li:. 79 iibiindauco of melons nnd fniitM. Thoy had Inrf^'o vcssoIh, probably of pottory, in their liousos for keepinpf fish, of which thoy stored lar<^o (juaiitities fi)i' winter. In their houses wer(3 IxmIs made of bark, nn(i thoy used the skins (il jinimals for coverin«^'s and clothing*, 'i^lusy liad also a species of })ead or slicllwcn'k which they vaJned highly. This they calleil l^iSin-^ni and was pi'(jbal)ly the woU- kiiown wanif)nni. The explor(!rs were nuieh intei'ested in the llo(;h(;la^ana, ;ind i^'ave the nana; to tlieii' monntain of Mount Royal. Durinj^ this visit their chief was ill: Cartier read the (iospel of St. flohn and oifered pi'ayers f(jr him; and daring' all, the natives rej^ardcnl tlie explorei* with re- verence. In company with the leaxlers of the Indians, (>jirtier and his corn])anions ascended the mountain, and learned of the St. Louis and other rapids up the river, which they could see stretching westward, and were pointed in tli(! dii'ection of the other great river — the Ottawa. The Indians had seen the gold and silver in Cartier's coat-of- arriis, and they informed him that these metals were found up the river. ]?ed copper, they said, also was found. Hut there were warlike and dangerous tribes living toward the setting sun. After many leave-takings, the explorers departed on tlio 5th of October. At the mouth of a tributary of the St. Lawrence they erected a commanding cross, and dropping down the river, on October llth they arrived at Ste. Croix. On his return to Stadacona, Cartier became familiar with the Indians. He pointed out to them that their Cudouagny was an evil spirit, and that there was only one true God. Many of the Indians on hearing his fuller explanations became anxious to be baptized ; but ou the plea that he had no holy oil, he deferred the matter, promising on his next voyage to bring priests and all the accompaniments of religion. During the month of December the people of Stadacona wore attacked by a severe disease and some perished ; and though they were forbidden to approach the fort which had been erected on the shore opposite the vessels, yet the disease attacked those wintering in the fort. It was ■ I •1 'I » ! * ii\ .1 i '1 |i ' lii ■) ' 80 A SiKuri' lli>r(U;\ oi' evidently soiiio scorbutic discjisc, l>iit was unknown to the French. Carticr t'Uj^Ji<^'od in devout relio-ious ser- vices, lio|jin<:f to drive away tluj plaj^Mie. All but tliree men of tlio expedition W(M'e invalids. The winter proved severe and tryinj^' ; I wo I'eet ol" ice on the water, and four feet of snow on land, was a new experience. (Jartier was arnon;^; \\\v. well. Jle saw that Doma- f^aza, one of tlie j^uides, who ]ia,d been under the })la«^ao, had suddenly recov(!red, and ascertained from liini that extract of the s})ruee was a certain remedy for tlie disease. The i-esult of the ap])lication of this n^medy was remai'kable. Cartier, speaking- of its success, says: " If all the physicians of Louvain and Montpellier liad been there with all the drugs of Alexandria, they could not have done as much in a year as this wonderful tree did in eight hours;" and he thanks (lod for the marvellons cure. Canadians are well aware still of the curative power of the balsam of *' Kpinette blanche." On the J3rd of May, looO, the explorers erected a cross thirty-five feet high, and upon the shield fastened on it, inscribed in ancient letters, '' Franciscus primus, Dei Gratia Francornm rex, regnat." Having done this, Cartier, by a surprise, ki(lna])ped Donnaconna, with the intention of taking him to France. During the night a great number of the Indians came opposite the ships crying, *^ Agohanna ! agohanna ! " wishing to speak to liini. Cnrtier assured them lie would be absent only twelve or thirteen months, th.at he would see the great king, and would return with a great present again. Laden with gifts of fruits the explorers, on May IGth, left Ste. Croix, accompanied by many boat-loads of the subjects of Donnaconna. On being rewarded by Cartier with valuable presents, the Indians returned rejoicing to Stadacona. Passing lie aux Coudres on the 21st of May, and 8t. Pierre Islands on June 11th, where they were met by many French fishing-vessels, the expedition on July IGth reached St. Malo, having been twelve or thirteen months rbsent. Thus finishes Cartier's most notable voyage. After the return of Cartier, it was four years before ^ ri'l- Tin-: Canadian Pkopi-k. .Sr another cxpodition from Franco to tliu Now xhird World was uiidortaken. Dunnaconna and th(3 Voyage of (itlu'r captured savages had, oil roacliiiig France, C^'^'ior. during the cuiirso of these years become Christian, and had been baptized into the faith in lirittany. Unfor- timatoly all of them except a little gii'l of ton years of asre had died. Cartier seemed somewhat unwillin ,>> 'c'^ o>: 7 //A £<. iP \ :\ ^^ \ ;\ !| :l 1 in 82 A Short History of h II .#K and he was bringing- out somo two hundred colonists, women as well as men, to build up his possession. Suc- cessfully the expedition reached the harbour of St. John, Newfoundland, on June 8th. Here, to the surprise of the governor and his party, they met Cartier now returning from Canada. He spoke well of the country, showed diamonds and gold obtained in it, but said he had left it on account of the number and disposition of the savages. Ordered by De Koberval to return with the colony, Cartier stole out of St. John Harbour by night, and returned to France. De Roberval went on his way, arrived in Canada, and built a great fort, 'Tort France Roy," at Ste. Croix, four leagues west of Orleans. In September he sent back two of his ships to France, and with the colony remained to face the winter. During the winter the scurvy again appeared, and about fifty of the colony succumbed to it. The governor seems to have had no lack of occupation in the management of the colony. A number of men and women were whipped, and Michael Gaillon, one of the number, was hanged for theft. In June, leaving M. Royere as his lieutenant and thirty 1543 ^^ ^^® colonists, he sailed with seventy in search of gold, leaving the colony till his return from the Saguenay. It was the disturbed state of France that led to De Roberval being left without succour. There is a report given by Lescarbot that Cartier was 1543 despatched to Canada, and that Roberval and the whole surviving colony were brought back to France. Engaged in the French wars, De Roberval, the Governor of Canada, was not able till peace returned to seek his New World possession. It is stated that in j-^g company with his brother Achille, another brave soldier of the French king, he started on an expedition for the New World, but that the fleet and all on board were never heard of again. The supremacy of England on the sea is to us an English inheritance mainly of the days of Good Queen Voyages. Bess. The limits of our work but permit us to »■ y. m Till-: Canadian Pkoplk. «3 >v:.i^? iinnio tliosc great captains who made England famous, but whose career was not directly connected with Canada. There is the family of the Hawkinses belonging to Devonshire. William Hawkins in 1530 sailed to the Guinea coast, and obtained a cargo of ivory. His son, Sir John Hawkins, was a buccaneer and slave-trader, whose name was feared on the seas. One reads with a shudder of his carrying slaves in his ship, the Jcsvs, of Lubeck. Sir Richard, son of Sir John, was a brave commander in the destruction of the Armada. William, the fourth great Hawkins, was the son of Sir Richard, and traded to the East Indies. Another great captain, and from Devonshire also, was Sir Francis Drake. It was his great honour in 1577 to undertake the voyage in which he succeeded " in first turning up a furrow about the whole world.'^ It is interesting to Canadians to know that, running up the west coast of America, Drake reached latitude 48° N., and saw in the distance the peaks of our Columbian Rockies. Passing by in the meantime the names of Frobisher, Davis, Gilbert, and Raleigh, we reach Henry Hudson, whose name and fate have both become historic. He was connected with a family of position which had long been engaged in trading in the great Muscovy Company, but nothing is certainly known of Hudson's birth and parentage. Four voyages performed by him constitute his fame. Two of these were for the Muscovy Company to the north-east of Britain in Russian waters, -g^g His third voyage was made in the ship Half- Moon, provided by the Dutch. He had intended to have gone to the north-east, but changed his course and reached Newfoundland. Sailing south he touched Cape Cod, to which, supposing it an island, he gave the name New Holland. Passing Cape Charles, the navigator ran up a roadstead, and then ascended the river which bears his name, until the stream became too narrow for further progress. Return- ing to England, the Half-Moon was delayed jg^^ for ten months^ but then proceeded to Amster- G 2 ■' < ■:M.-., • . t ■ • i' . , ■ ' • i"v S4 A Short History of dam to give her report. In consequence of the in- formation received, the Dutch sent out agents who took possession of New Netherlands, which name the region bore till afterwards changed, upon its capture by tho English, to New York. In the year of Hudson's return from America, the English, unwilling to lose the services of the navigator, induced him to leave the Ilalf-Muon, and to undertake a for them. ]n this, crossing to the April,1610.- ^^^^'^^^ west, Hudson discovered the strait to the north- west of Baccalaos Island (Belle Isle). He determined to follow the opening further up the coast, laid down by AVeymouth (1602), which Davis had also marked, and called '' the furious overfall. '^ Through this strait Hudson passed. Entering the bay which, like the strait, now bears his own name, he wintered in latitude 52° N. The motion of the tides caused him to hope that a passage to the westward would be found, but the mutiny of his crew led to his being cast adrift with his son and a few sick companions, and it is a sailor's story that the spirit of the departed navigator, like an icy spectre, still hovers around the Hudson Bay. The perfidious crew were thrown into prison on their arrival in England, and though, by the direction of the Prince of Wales, three ships were sent out in the following year, in consequence of a hope that the navigator might still survive, the search proved a fruitless one. 1611. 1612. THE Canadian People. 85 CHAPTER in. THE ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF CANADA. (References: "On Mounds;'' Publications of Smithsonian Insti- tution and of Manitoba Historical Society ; Schoolcraft's " Indian Tribes" {vide ante); "North American Indians," by George Catlin, 2 vols., London, 1866 ; Articles in " Encyclopaedia Britan- nica" (9th edition), by A. H. Keane and Henry Gannett; the most valuable series of " Library of Aborijojinal American Litera- ture," 6 vols., by ]). G. Brinton, Philadelphia, 1882, &c. ; " Dic- tionary of Dakota Langnage," by Dr. Riggs, vSmithsonian Insti- tution, Washington ; "Dictionary of Cree Language," by Father Lacombe, Montreal, 1874 ; " Dictionary of Ojibway Language,'' by Bishop Baraga, Montreal, 1879; *' Mcmoire sur les Laugues de I'Amerique du Nord," by M. Ponceau, Paris, 18o8 ; Charlevoix, " llistoire de la Nouvelle France " {vide ante) ; Hennepin {vide ante). Section I. — Tlie Mound Builders. Almost the only remains of a prehistoric people in America are in the mounds of earth which are found along the rivers and lakes extending from Central America to Lake Winnipeg, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans. Many of these have disappeared without notice in the eastern part of the country, but the regions upon the Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, Souris, Red, Rainy, and other rivers in more western longitudes have been settled in comparatively recent times, and along these rivers the mounds have been observed. In Canada mounds, or bone-pits corresponding to them, have been found on the site of Hochelaga, in the region between Toronto and Lake Simcoe, near London, and no doubt elsewhere in the eastern provinces. In the Canadian North-West a well-defined mound area has been observed, and to some extent explored. The 't '•!•'■■.». Mil i" .1 , it''- 4m 86 A Short History of mounds in Canada have been chiefly found as circular, and were plainly mounds for burial, and also for the purposes of observation. They are generally placed at points of advantage along the rivers, on high cliSs, or where there is a good view of the river up and down to be obtained, or at the junction of rivers, or near rapids and ^^ saults." Mounds made in the outline of a serpent, bird, or animal, and seemingly used for defence, have been traced on the Ohio, but not to any extent in Canada. The Canadian mounds vary from six to fifty feet in height, and from thirty to 120 feet in diameter. They are chiefly found in good agricultural regions, whence it has been inferred their builders were tillers of the soil. The mounds are built of the earth in their neighbourhood, and sometimes contain layers of stone if beds of rock are found near. On the Rainy River in North- Western Ontario no less than twenty-one mounds have been ob- served along some forty miles of the course of that river, and on the Souris twenty in an area of four miles square. The mounds contain large quantities of human bones, and were evidently used as places of burial. In some cases groups of detached skulls and bundles of leg and arm bones in heaps are found, as if these had been carried from a distance and deposited there. Skulls are found showing their possessors to have been killed by the blows of heavy weapons, and in some cases with red ochre still remaining on the faces. In the large mounds it would seem as if all tlue boijes more than six or eight feet from the surface of the mounds had been reduced to reddish dust. The conception that the mounds were formed by a vast band of men working together like the builders of the Egyptian pyramids is probably a mistaken one, and if the mound grew from one generation to another by the accretion of the remains of the same family or sept, brought perhaps from great distances whither the family had spread, the supposition that a few hundred- weights or tons of earth carried by the mourning relatives in baskets from the neighbourhood to cover the remains deep enough to prevent wild beasts dis- THE Canadian Peofle. 87 tiirbing them, would suflBciontly account for what wo find. Among natural products found in the mounds besides human remains are bits of charred wood, ^ scorched birch-bark, lumps of red ochre, and pieces of iron pyrites, probably regarded as sacred objects. Manufactured articles are also found, such as stone scrapers and gouges, axes and malls, as well as stone tubes of the medicine -men. Horn spear-heads with barbs, used as fish- spears, and in the Rainy River mounds, native copper di'ills, cutting and scraping knives and chisels, shell ornaments, either from fresh-water clams cut into shape, or small sea-shells pierced and used as beads, are found. The most remarkable re- mains are those of pottery cups and vessels. In most cases these are broken, but perfect cups have been found occasionally. The pottery seems hand made, and has a considerable variety of markings. As to the age of the mounds, and the race to which the builders belonged, there has been much discussion : some seek great antiquity, others are satisfied with a few centuries. On many of the mounds trees from two to three feet in diameter are growing, several hundreds of years old, and these may be the successors of other trees. As to race, the mound-builders seem extinct, though cer- tain Indian tribes still show certain affinities to them. The supposition that seems most satisfactory on the whole is that they belong to the race of peaceful, agricul- tural, industrious, pottery-making builders, known as the Toltecs, who are known to have occupied Mexico from the seventh to the eleventh centuries, and seem to have spread up the Mississippi valley from its mouth to the sources of its furthest tributaries. They would seem to have occupied their northern settlements in Canada from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, and to have been swept away by fierce tribes such as the Iroquois and Sioux following in their wake, just as the Aztecs destroyed the parent Toltecan race in Mexico. Probably the Hochelagans of Montreal, who disappeared between the time of Cartier and Champlain, .•.;(•■;■■■■ • ■ M *,:'^'; I; , *'?■•' !<1 rm^ 88 A Short History of I ' and the Eries who perished just before the French occu- pation of Canada, may have been the last remnants of this race, who are now pretty generally spoken of by the learned as ^' The Alleghans/' The Ojibways of Canada speak of the builders of the mounds as having been of a different race from them, and call them the Ke-te-anish- i-na-be, or ^Wery ancient men," though a number of facts soom to connect the Mandans of the Missouri with the Mound Builders. Section 11. — The Present Indian Tribes of Canada. On the Continent of America lived, when Colombo, Caboto, and Cartier discovered it, a native race. In appearance and in language this race was so distinct from any people of either Europe, Africa, or Asia known to these commanders, that they were concluded to be the inhabitants of the unknown and sought-for Cathay, and hence Colombo called them Indians. This guess seems to have been a happy one, for all the latest investigations go to show that the American Indians are of Mongolian type, and came — though, from the wide divergence of their languages from even the Asiatic, it must have been at an ancient date — from the eastern coast of Asia. With abundant hair, black, coarse, and " glossy as a horse's mane," slight beard, small dark eyes, narrow arched eyebrows, and prominent cheek-bones and nose, the red man has become of so decided a type as to cause some, though not the majority, to regard him as indigenous to the soil to which so long ago he came a stranger. Without dealing at large with the several American tribes, in Canadian history we meet with some of the most celebrated of all the Indian peoples. The British or French colonists along the Atlantic first became familiar with various families of the great Algonquin nation. While following the general Indian type the Algonquin is a heavy-boned, somewhat coarse-featured, and far from best-looking Indian of the country. Accustomed to the rocky shore of the Atlantic, and spreading between the Atlantic Algonquins. THE Canadian People. 89 coast and the AUeglianies, he claimed as his Lome the rocky and wooded Acadia, as well aa the north shore of the 8t. Lawrence. Hut little addicted to agriculture, the sea and the forest yielded him his precarious living. Used to the chase, he was accustomed also to war, and turned his weapon readily westward against his hostile native neighbours, or, when wronged, with terrible ferocity against the white intruders. Known as the Powhattans in Virginia, though intro- duced to the whites by the mythic story of Pocahontas, these Algon quins soon took up the tomahawk against the colonists, and in the end suffered extinction. The Pequods of Massachusetts, as the Algonquins of that state were called, while kindly receiving the pilgrims, are represented on the coat-of -arras of that connnonwealtli by a sturdy Sagamore with bow and arrow, but above his head a soldier's arm with a drawn sword. The Natics of the same stock have left their only memorial in the dialect in the Bible translation of the apostolic Eliot. The Mohicans of Connecticut and New York, once noted in war, were crushed between the whites on the east and the Iroquois on the west, and the last of them have but lately passed away. The Leni- Lenapes, or Delawares, the '^ men of men '* of the Algonquin stirps, have even been regarded as so repre- sentative as to have had their name transferred by some to the whole family in place of Algonquin. A remnant of the Delawares still survives in the Indian territory. A wretched band of Algonquins known as the Micmaks still flit about the Nova Scotian waste places like re- turning ghosts of a departed people ; while Algonquin Abenakis yet wander over the land of their fathers upon the St. Lawrence and along the gulf in New BruuL wick. These and others have been unable to stand the shock of a meeting with the whites. Many tribes and families are only remembered by the names of the rivers, lakes, and headlands where once they dwelt. A more persistent type of Algonquins have been the famous Ojibway or Chippewa tribes, extending q... from the St. Lawrence along the north of all ■'■■ hi ■ ' ' ' J •■■'■-ill ^1 ■ ■\-.. 1%^/. t I f .1 . ♦ ■■ t.r-' . • ; ■ ■» .h- ■ ■*iA _ ., -trt ■ 90 A Short History of r the lakes. A hardy, persevering and determined people, they have steadily pushed their way north-westward, have proved an equal antagonist for tho Iroquois, and instead of quailing before the Sioux have actually pressed these " tigers of the plains '' to the west, and have established themselves south of Lake Superior, on the former territory of the Dakotas. Inhabiting as they did a most rocky and wooded country, they have been a scattered bub self-reliant people, dwelling in their round-topped birch-bark " tee- pees,^' at home on their lakes and rivers in their birch- bark canoes, and living on fish and game — a sturdy race. Closely related to them, if not a part of them, were the Ottawas, who lived at first on the river of that name, - but sallied forth westward to Manitoulin Island, and thence to the west side of Huron and Michigan lakes. The greatest offshoot of these Algonquin Ojibways Croes ^^^ been the Crees, known to the early French and English traders as Kristineaux or Klistinos. They seem in their migrations to have pushed their way up the Ottawa and Nipigon rivers, and to have occupied the great muskegs of the country towards Hudson Bay, in which wide region they are known as the Swamp Crees, or '^ Muskegons." So strongly do they seem entrenched in this region that there have been those who have held that here and not to the southward was the true Algonquin starting-point. As a western branch of the same Cree wave reached Lake of the Woods, Lake Winnipeg, and the Saskatchewan River, these sturdy Algonquins seem to have been modified by the different conditions of the country, and are known as Wood Crees ; while a still more adventurous offshoot had facility enough to adapt itself to the changed life of the prairies, where, exchanging their canoes and dogs for horses, and their birch-bark teepees for buffalo- skin and moose-skin tents, they are known as the " Plain Crees," 700 miles from the mouth of the Sas- katchewan, and even to the Kocky Mountains, When the French traders, early in the 18th century, Tin: Canadian People. 91 loft Sault Ste. Marie to coast along the shore of Tiake Superior, and even to pass by stream and portage to ^ake Winnipeg, they were accompanied by Ojibway canoemen, who liave formed an intrusive race even as far west as the Winnipeg, and Manitoba lakes, being known as the Saultoaux from their ancestral home at tlie emptying of Lake Superior. There are said to be 1(3,000 Crees on the Saskatchewan River alone. The affinities of the 7000 Blackfeet on the South Saskatchewan are doubtful, though some class them as Algonquin also. Undoubtedly the most distinguished of the Indian races met with on this continent has been the Iroquois, or as it was first known, '' Five Nation *"°1'*°"- Indians." In the territory of what is now the State of New York was the home of this people; and yet they kept up so close a connection with the Ohio River that the impression is becoming stronger that it was up this river they had come in prehistoric times. This race, how- ever, has been closely connected by residence and in- vasion with Canadian soil. The five nations, Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Senecas, and Cayugas, united in a league, were known as the " Ongwehonwe,'' or " Superior Men," And it was this league that gave the Iroquois so remarkable a power, not only in their conflicts with other savage tribes, but in their attacks on the infant colony of New France. Cultivating their fields of Indian corn, growing, in the cleared openings of the woods, pumpkins and melons, rich in their supply of wampum, gregarious in their mode of life, picturesque in their distinctive games, and cruel in their warlike customs and religious rites, the Iroquois fill up a large space in the early history of New France and New England alike. It was in 1712 that the Tuscaroras, one of their own tribes, speaking a dialect of the same language, having been forced at some time previous to find a home in North Carolina, rejoined the confederacy to make it the "Six Nations." The Iroquois were always attached to the English, though strangely enough about the time of the American i • ■■;'■ .,»r> V >■■■.:; i^ ' ■ ►''';•■ - ■ V"'>" il * );v t , .tr- 1 >l. iA\'> w . !.r-'.: ' ■ ■ . t ■ . J -,* ■ ■ '■"■ ■ ■ . i ■ i 92 A Short Historv of Rovoliition, French inlluonco was ''•iiinlncr i^round ainonu: tliem. Idoiitifiod with British nrins in tlio revolutionary war, a portion of the Inxjuois h>ft tlicir old homes in the State ol' New York, and found alter llu' Treaty of l*aris, as wo sludl see, new homes within our horch'rs, that have made tliein over sinee loyal Canadians. Straif^ht as arrows, tall and athletic, with clean lind)s, more eopper-eolonred and less swarthy than tho Algonquins, with finely cut faces, tlieir dashin<^ warr rs and comely women formed a great contrast to the ralner coarse-<^ rained AlgonfjuiiM. A few thousands in Ontario and Quebec — a few of tlieso pure Indians — arc memorials of a once powerfnl race, which on its flight to Canada also absorbed tho Nottoways and Tutelas, two Indian fragments of doubtful affinities. When in 1535 Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence, he found tho present sites of Quebec and Mont- or^Hurons. ^^^^ occupied by the two villages of Stadacoua on tho cliff, and Hochelaga, the village of tho rapids. The palisaded dwellings in which the natives lived were arranged together and were strong for defence against Indian weapons. Wo have seen that it was these villages J:hat gave the name to Cartier, by Avhich he called the whole country Canada. It was in the language of the people of these two places that it was so-called. The word, as wo have seen, was Iroquois, and the people of these villages were related to the great Five Nations and are known to us as the Wyandots or Huron-Iroquois. It has been lately surmised that the Cayugas, one of the Five Nations, lived at Hochelaga in company with these Hurons. The besom of destruction had swept them and their villages on the St. Lawrence all away before 1600, and Champlain found only a few Algonquins — no doubt the Algonquins were the destroyers — living upon the village sites. To the west, however, the French found the Wyandots occupying the fertile country to the north of Lakes Erie and Ontario. They especially abounded on the shores of Lake Huron, which bears one of their names, for the story goes that on account of their mode '' -M I. THK Canadian Pkoimj:. 93 of wear in <^ tlu-ir liuir doiio up in peaks iibovo their hoad.s, tlu) t'uily Ficncli voyafjfours oxclainiod on Hcein^ tliem, '' Quelles llures!'' — what top-knots! — henco their name. Their language, physical features, aud aocial life were akiu to those of the Irociuois. It was in eonsequence of an ancient feud, long before the advent of Europeans, that these Huron Iroquois hud SL'pJirated themselves from the Five Nations. Their tradition was to the effect that origiiiMlly they consisted of two villages, but that either by subdivision or alliance they grew to four. It is stated ])y Charh^voix on the authority of the early Jesuit missionaries that they associated with theniselves other tribes about them. It is in connection with the undoubted composite ch.racter of the Wyandota that a suggestion has ' en entertained by some that this union may have been between the remnant of the Mouud-J5uilders, and this tribe of the Iroquois on their career of conquest up the Ohio and on their appearance on the shores of the great hikes. This opinion gains much force from the fact tliat the Hoche- lagans were constructive in tendency, were agriculturists, wvvG less "svandcring in their habits than the other tribes, and made pottery. There are traces among the W'yandots of a composite language, for the earliest annalists state that there were some of the Wyandots who called themselves " the people who speak the best language.'* The estimate of 50,000 of a population as given by the early chroniclers as belonging to the Hurons must be received with caution, as there can be no doubt that the good missionaries were in the habit of exaggerating the numbers of all the tribes. The Hurons were seemingly more accessible to the first Jesuit missionaries than their Iroquois relatives, or perhaps the French fathers looked upon them as being more within their district, living, is they did, north of the lakes. And yet it was among the Hurons that the bale-fires of torture rose with such lurid flames in the cruel deaths of the Jesuit fathers, Brebceuf, Lalemant, and others, though at the hands of the Iroquois. The fierce wrath of the Iroquois was at last too great ' • » rl . i : '! It '■'■': m .#1 !■■' ■ , '^7 . it . .M. u.. 94 A Short Hi story ok The Eries. The Neu trals. for the Iliirons, unci they swept them away like the early snow before the sun. A few Hiirons at the "Ancient Lorette '* near Quebec are to us the sole Canadian repre- sentatives ot this once numerous people. With the Wyandots are usually associated as relatives the Eries, who in times before the arrival of the French dwelt on the south of the lake bearing their name. This nation were called by the French the " Cats/^ from the great quantity of lynx-skins which were obtained from the country they had formerly occupied. A nation called the " Attiwandoronk," or " Neutrals/^ the kindi-ed of the Hurons, livea cii the borders of the Iroquois country. These gained their name from a long refusal to enter into the wars of either the Iroquois or their enemies, but in the end an Iroquois invasion exterminated them. Hurons, Eries, and Neutrals thus melted away before the whirl- wind of savage fury of the Iroquois, which well-nigh destroyed New France as well. It was as the French penetrated the interior, and reached the greatest of the lakes, Superior, that they first met a travelling band of a new nation of Indians, of whom they had heard reports from the Ojibways, under the name of the " Nadouessi,^^ or " Enemies." It wf ^ a band of Sioux, into whose hands Hennepin fell w^ en ne discovered the Mississippi, and with whom he to^ led that river until they met Du Luth, the intrepid -ader pushing his way inland from the western extrei :y of Lake Superior. These new- found Indians bore to the Frenchmen the characters of the Iroquois, and they were known as "people of the lake," and were spoken of as the '' Iroquets," or " little Iroquois of the west." Employing the latter part of the name Nadouessi, the French gave it their own termination and it became " Sioux." Not only were there a personal appearanc"! and a war- like disposition in these Indians of the west resembling the Five Nations, but like them, they consisted, and still consist of a confederacy of united tribes. In was in allusion to this political feature that the Sioux nation ' V. THE Canadian People. 95 called themselves "Dakotas," or *' Allies/' Isauuties, Yantons, Teetons, and Sissetons united together in one powerful league, to make themselves as terrible on the prairies as the Iroquois had done in the eastern forests. Not only so, but linguistic resemblances appear between Iroquois and Dakotas, in addition to the lithe, erect figure, aquiline nose, and keen intellectual features, which all who know the two families observe in both. It is hard to resist the conclusion that Iroquois and Sioux are not different branches of one invading people, who as an American race of fiery Huns swept up the Mississippi valley — the one part ascending the Ohio to their northern home, the other up the Mississippi proper to be the scourge of the plains. We have already men- tioned the fierce conflict that subsisted between Ojibways and Sioux. The Ojibways succeeded in pushing their conquests to the shores of Red Lake, the reputed sourco of the Mississippi itself. The vicissitudes of war and disease have much lessened the great Dakota family, but their numbers are said still to reach to 30,000, and they now live toward the western limit of their former wide domain, many of them in the vicinity of the Missouri river. Stirred up to vengeance in 1862, against the encroach- ments of the whites, and by the bad faith of the American Government, the Sioux of Minnesota rebelled, and several exiled bands have in consequence taken up their homes on Canadian soil. Strangely like the history of the Iroquois also was that of the Sioux, that on its northern limit one of the tribes broke ofi*from the confederacy and lived as borderers on in- timate terms with theCrees. These were the Assiniboines, or as their name implies, '' Sioux on the Stony River." Their separation from the Dakota nation took place long before the advent of Europeans, and was caused accord- ing to the tradition by a quarrel between two families of the Yantons at Lake Traverse, the head-waters at the same time of the Red River and of one of the branches of the Mississippi. A Dakota traitoress led to the re- enactment of the story of Helen of Troy. A feud of ■ - 'if , ' / If... J' ■ ,.• u. • '■ Iffy. -i f • 96 A Short History of H i wide and serious extent ensued, and the Assiniboines became the inveterate enemies of the Sioux. Thrown into intimate rekitions witli the Crees, the two nations were largely intermarried, and dwelt together. Bands of Assiniboines are found scattered along the tributaries of the Saskatchewan River, many of whom are acquainted with the Cree language. The fur trader, Alexander Henry, Jun., in his unpublished manuscript gives a full account of the Assiniboines along the Sas- katchewan, and early in the century numbers them by thousands, popularly known as the " Stonies ■/' this band of Canadian Sioux live far west of their old haunts, having deserted the tributary of the Red River, which bears their name. To the north of the country of the Crees live tribes Chippe- with very wide connections, known as the wyans or " Tinne,^^ or -' People," the name, indeed, borne Tmne. j^^ their own language by many of the Indian tribes. They are also called Chippewyans — not Chippe- ways — a name they receive as referring to their own tra- dition that they sprang from a dog. This derivation seems likely as the Chippewyans have a great aversion to the flesh of the dog, and to the other savages who eat it. This tribe extends from the neighbourhood of Fort Churchill, on Hudson Bay, across the country on the north of the Missinipi, or English River, to Isle a la Crosse, and thence north to Lake Athabasca. ' On this " Lake of the Hills " is to be seen Fort Chip- pewyan, founded as long ago as 1 788, and the scene of many a fur-trading adventure. And yet west of this the widespread nation is found, for ascending the Peace River, and following its romantic course as it flows through the Rocky Mountains from the west, scattered Tinne families are still found. On the west side of the Rocky Mountains a race still speaking the Tinne tongue is met even to the Pacific Ocean, like a wedge between the Columbian Indians on the south and the Eskimo, who are driven back far to the north-west of Alaska. Returning again to the east of our Canadian Alps, on the head-waters of the Saskatchewan, a tribe of Chippe- wyun a The ex seen, v Mexico even in appear. vival, it pewyan und pei is, they excessi' Livin meagre pewyani the fish easily e wanderi unambit the Chi years thi and hav( been strj A perl examine This givi coast is races an peopled boat of shore bu copper I West, as With 1 amono" 1 O Indians t ears the haptans ( well kno^ trading j well to d( M THE Canadian People. 97 wyjiu affinities is found, known as the Sarccos. g-ygges The extended character of this people may be seen, when it is stated that in Oregon, Arizona, New Mexico, that fruitful nursery of nations, Colorado, and even in North Mexico itself bands of these Athabascans appear. From their extensive area and remarkable sur- vival, it might have already been inferred that the Chip- pewyans are a robust race. They are a medium-sized rind persevering race ; swarthy though their complexion is, they have neither the intensely black hair, nor the excessively piercing eye of the better-known Indians. Living as they do where scanty nature gives but a meagre supply in return for great exertion, the Chip- pewyans have not developed a high civilization, though the fish and game are so plentiful that life is sustained easily enough. Sober in habits, timid in disposition, wandering over vast areas, sluggish in temperament, and unambitious so long as their bodily wants are supplied, the Chippewyans have been for upwards of a hundred years the servile dependants of the various fur companies, and have enjoyed the sunshine of peace, even if they have been strangers to an exuberant plenty. A perfect chaos of race and language meets us as we examine the Indian tribes of British Columbia. British This gives colour to the theory that the Pacific Columbia coast is the side from which the Mongolian Indians. races and those from different Asiatic localities have peopled our continent. A Japanese junk and a drifted boat of natives from the Pacific Isles falling upon our shore but repeats the process of settlement by which the copper races subjugated unoccupied America from the West, as the whites have done from the East. With this in view it does not surprise us to learn that among the 36,000 and more of British Columbian Indians there are five distinct stocks. To our unfamiliar ears the names of Hydahs and Nutkas, Selisli and Sa- haptans convey no meaning, but the fifth, Chinooks, is well known, not from their original language, but from a trading jargon which has grown out of it, which it were well to describe more fully. Their habits and modes of H ■■• ,:r'i 'iH ■ ■ k . ■ - a^K » 1 t'-*l' ''ill ^ ■ u£ >. ,'iflii ' '" '.' :• m . 1 ■ .et ■•¥ ■ '"• 4 Ifi ■M , 1 V '• •, ■ , > ' < > .• •; '. 98 A Short History of Eskimo. life liavo made a marked difference between these o0,00r» or 40,000 Indians. While the tish-eating natives, those; who either dwell on the sea-coast or along the rivers, an; a dwarfed aud despised race, no doubt from their being as constantly iii their canoes as the ancient Parthian was on his horse, the inland Indian, accustomed to athletic pursuits and exciting s])orts, is physically and mentally a much better type of savage. It but remains to notice among our aborigines on Canadian soil, the hyperborean savages, who with the Tinne reach the number of 26,000 souls. Dressed in a manner like the Christmas Santa Claus of our boyhood days, the Eskimo as we have become acquainted with him, chiefly in absorbing ac- counts of Arctic adventure, is surrounded by a species of romance. Habited in his impervious seal-skin suit of clothing, dwelling in the hut built out of congealed snow, coming at times even to the frontier posts of the fur trader, his wolf-like dogs, so characteristic of the north as to have taken their name from his, as " Huskies,'' or '^ Eskies,'' bearing him full speed across glacier or snowy plain, the Eskimo of Labrador, of the Copper-Mine River, of the Arctic Coast, or of the Alaskan Peninsula, awakens the keenest interest. The seal and walrus on the coast and the reindeer on the land afford him his food, and the Ojibway meaning of his name, "the eater of raw flesh,'' shows his notions of cookery. Known among themselves as the " Innuit," or " People," the different tribes that make up the ho- mogeneous race, confined almost exclusively to the American continent, stretch along its northern coast for upwards of 3000 miles. It is a mistake to suppose the Eskimo a race of dwarfs. They range between five feet four inches and five feet ten inches. It is their oily stoutness and thick skiu clothing that give them a dwarfish appearance. The Eskimo is far from being the lowest of discovered men. Accustomed as he is rarely to pass beyond twenty-fivo miles from the sea-coast, it is largely for the sea and 3^i THE Canadian People. 99 from tbo sea he manufactures his implements. Tho walrus-tusk and whalebone are worked up by him in a most skilful manner into harpoons, spears, spoons, ladles, ornaments, and trinkets of every description. The *' kayak," or one-seated skin boat of the Eskimo sailor, and the "umiak,'^ or flat-bottomed boat, rowed by his wife and family, are well known to all readers of Arciio story. Though fierce onsets have been made by the Eskimo on their enemies, they are usually a peace- loving and tractable people. Our general survey of the Canadian aborigines thus comes to a close. Our 35,000 Algonquins, whether Ojibways, Crees, or Blackfeet ; our Iroquois with their different tribal divisions ; our Sioux, whether Teetons, Sissetons, or Assiniboines ; our wide-spread Athabascans ; our much-dreaded tribes of the Pacific slope, and Eskimo from the Arctic Circle, make up a motley assemblage, all of undoubted Asiatic origin, and with the exception of the last-mentioned, while widely differing in minor customs, yet all presenting physical, social, mental, and, so far, linguistic features, very much after the same type. We now undertake the description of the life and habits of our aborigines. ■■'■■.•>il ' ' '' 'ilnM *wmMtm ■4 ^ ■;!-■ ;'•, . ' -^ \ ■'' I •■.•-, -ilir * Section HI.— Domestic Life of the Indians. An old plate in theEamusio of 1556, in connection with Cartier's voyages, gives the first diagram we j. ,,. have of an elaborate Indian village. This was the plan of Hochelaga, a village belonging probably to the Alleghans, or, as we have seen, Huron Iroquois. This had disappeared in three-quarters of a century. It was when he had crossed Lake Ontario, in his hostile expedition against the Iroquois, that Champlain saw the same Indian villages and the " long house '^ in which dwelt in some sort of communistic harmony, the several related families of the tribes of the Five Nations. The Indian cornfields and the plots of cucumbers and melons surrounded the wooden erections^ and these forest clearings made the Iroquois tenacious residents of H 2 ^''' v'M^Y f ■-, 100 A Short History of the land in which thry dwelt. We have already men- tioned the birch-bark teepee of the Ojibway. Flattenorl slips of ash or hickory or some ehistic wood were fashioned in the forest, .and wore thrust with sharpened (;nd into the soil. Joined together at the top or bent over and again fastened in the ground, they formed a round-topped framework for the dwelling. Spread over the frame thus erected, the thick leathery bark of the birch-tree [Betula papijracra) made a covering to shed the rain and keep out the wind, and open enough at the top to allow the smoke from the fire of sticks, in tho centre of the tent, to escape freely. And yet to seek a new hunting-ground, or at the alarm of an advancing enemy, the few ashwood bents and tough birch-bark plates could be hastily folded into a small bulk and carried to another spot ; or, if indeed all must be left behind, their place could be easily supplied again by the use of the axe in the forest anew. Of the Ojibway the teepee was characteristic. When his art was at its best he could erect a central building, covered over with tho rough bark of other trees, to be his council-house, or to shelter him in his dances, but this is believed to have been a feature of later timcF and the idea to have been borrowed from the whites. When the transition is made to the western prairies by tho Algonquin emigrations to localities where the birch-tree is not found, and life is exceedingly nomadic, a firmer material must be sought for tent- making. The skin of the deer or buffalo then becomes the material for the wigwam. The art of tanning leather was possessed by the Indians, and the softness and suppleness of the tanned skin, produced by the skill of the Indian women, chal- lenges admiration. Carrying their tent-poles in bundles fastened over the backs of their Indian ponies, the free ends dragging on the ground form a frame when tied together, on which are straped the whole of the camp equipage. The rapidity with which an Indian tribe, in a large encampment of Plain Crees or Blackf eet strikes its tents, when the cry of the buffalo being near is passed about, ■ V. V' .' THE Canadian People. lOI might well excite the envy of a military quartermaster. Women and children do the work, and, mounted on her pony, the squaw of the prairie, with a papoose clinging to each side, if need be, hastens off at full speed with the ability of a Parthian rider. The tents made of bufi'alo-skin are much loftier than the bark teepees of t.e Ojibways, and are much less likely to ' ubject their occupants to the inevitable smoke of the wigwam, which among the Ojibways causes frequent affections of the eyes. On the skin tents of the plain tribes tbeir owners exercise their decorative art. The exploits of the warrior may be represented in pictorial detail. His totemic symbol or crest marks his tent as it does every other important article of his possessions, and the tent leather is sometimes covered with figures in red and yellow ochre, or made by staining with the juices of certain plants. The well-appointed tent of a plain Indian is an object of considerable value, and exhibits workmanship of a creditable kind. In order to guard the sleeping occu- pants of the tent at night from the arrows of an attack- ing foe, who would, according to Indian custom, approach the camp stealthily, and might dart arrows through the skin of the tent, wide strips two feet or more in width, of very hard and impenetrable leather, are stretched around the base of the tent; these were called by the early French voyageurs '' Pour Heches.'' In plain and forest wigwam alike, seated on the ground around the smoky fire, the Indian family passed summer and winter, except that in the summer, in hot and dry weather, the fire might be kindled outside the tent, and in winter the tent was sheltered from the icy winds by being placed in the lee of rock, or thicket, or forest. The efforts of civilization have been exerted towards inducing many of the Ojibways, Crees, and Sioux to surrender their movable and insufficient dwell- ings, and accept the shelter of log-houses erected by Government and tribal labour ; and if the picturesque birch-bark or leather wigwam is to be superseded, the Indian is for a generation likely to return in summer m '"■■■• \M ; I ..( ■) i^iv:: ■ ! ■■ I i , , - 1 ' i :it: ' \.\ ^T , 1 102 A Short History of :V1 to his tent pitched outside of his log dwelling till the hot weather is past. It has been said that the Indian from the limits of General Canada to the Gulf of Mexico is the same, and Character- that as when you scratch a Turk you catch a istics. Tartar, so a close examination of the Indian belonging to any of the tribes proves him an Asiatic. The same has been said of the Indian languages, of which wo speak at greater length elsewhere. It has been said that one root language forms the basis of all the Indian dialects. Of this also we speak again. It is too early in the course of Indian ethnology to admit either of these [positions, except in the most general way. Although the same instincts of reserve, cunning, and revenge may charac- terize them, yet every variety of character exists among the Indian peoples. The dark eye of the same colour as the gloomy forests through which the Indian roams, can detect a stranger's footprint on the ground, the track of the animal he is pursuing, or catch the first movement of enemy or prey at surprising distances. With unerring instinct he pursues the wary moose, or gains the first intimation of approaching game by the sound of moving leaves or crackling branches. With light foot he pursues the trail in the forest or on the prairie, which a white man can scarce discover ; and, well accustomed to the indistinct path, the Indian traveller, followed by faithful squaw with her intoed gait, and the young men anri maidens of his family, penetrates, for long distances, the forest or prairie in " Indian fashion." A sort of trot is the Indian's favourite manner of journeying, and at the present day the Indian guide will follow the dog-train hastening over the frozen crust of snow for sixty or seventy miles a day with a midday rest alone. His keen powers of eye and ear, and his skilful use of hand and foot, make the Indian an invaluable guide in penetrating the fur trader's land, in exploring the unknown regions of the country, in running the rapids, in piloting the '^ brigade " of canoes, or even the steamers of the interior. TiiK Canadian People. 103 Living as ho docs in a northern clime, the Canadian In- dian is compelled to protect himself by clothing. The skins of the animals he kills afford him this. If to the Eskimo the reindeer supplies everything needed for bodily use, so to the Indian in the liir West, the bufTalo, ere the coming of the white man, did the same; while the Algonquin must chiefly depend upon the un- certain supply of the moose or other deer and bear-skins of the chase. No doubt before the coming of the white man the Indian disported himself, except in the severest weather, destitute of clothing. Of his leather covering perhaps the most distinctive feature was the moccasin. Shaped exactly to the foot of the Indian it does not impede him on the march, while it protects his foot from the thorn or cutting rock. Made as the moccasin is of well-tanned leather, which is thoroughly soaked in oil, it will withstand much mois- ture, though dwellers in Indian countries are familiar with the careful Indian using his bare feet to bear him thi'ough the damp and mud, with, his ^^^^^ °^' moccasins tied together by the strings, carried dangling over his arm. The leggings of the Indian fringed by the leather being cut into thongs, were strong and comfortable, while the skin coat, ornamented with barbaric art, often sewn with coloured thread or decorated with porcupine quills, pleased the savage eye ; and the deer-skin supplied his mittens for the frosty weather. The Indian wears his head uncovered, unless decorated for battle or the dance, even in the coldest weather. At times his hair hangs in unkempt locks, at others it is braided into two long plaits, which are tied at the ends with brilliant-coloured thongs and fall from behind upon his breast. On great occasions the head-dress of the Indian is gaudy. Eagles^ or hawks' feathers are often used for decoration, and are combined into an imposing head- gear. All Indians are fond of ornament. On special occa- sions the face is smeared with ochre and grease, and sometimes presents a grotesque appearance. Skilful native artists are able to paint the nose and face so '■'h ffl ...I ^% • i ..I ■ i . ' 1; i '■4 ■, 104 A Short History of that ono viow presents the appearance of an eagle's beak, another the face of an owl, and from the other bide that of a dog. '^^Phe faces of the men are beard- less, the hairs of the face being plucked out most persistently. Tattooing has been quite common among some tribes, the figures of animals, as is quite natural, being the usual devices made. W^hile the warriors often wear ornaments, such as a necklace of bears' claws or a circlet of the scalps taken in battle, the dress of the women is at times highly ornamental. Necklaces of shells and brilliant stones are common ; the petticoats and leggings are covered with high-coloured designs, and the early traders found difficulty in supplying a sufficiency of bandanna handkerchiefs and bright ribbons to satisfy the fair. Bands of silver and copper are often worn upon the arms, bone and horn ornaments are suspended from other parts of the clothing, especially on the breast, and the ear and nose rings are regarded as special objects of beauty. Judged by their standard of development in the mechanical arts, the Indians rank low. Their 'wandering habits and the insecurity of life and property among them, have rendei'ed progress impossible. Art and skill can only flourish where peace prevails. Yet the Indian is not lacking in the ability to make imple- ments for his use. In the far past the Mound Builders seem to have possessed a greater knowledge of the arts than most of the present races of Indians. The faculty Potterv ^^ making pottery from a mixture of the coarse sand and clay found scattered everywhere was possessed by this lost race, as is well shown in their remains. While the Hochelagans of the time of Cartier and the Mandans of the Missouri of the present century have possessed this art, it is not known that any of the tribes now under review have possessed it. The women of all the Indian tribes are skilled in basket-making, and while their baskets, stained with the juice of certain plants, are coarse and far from elegant, yet they are strong and serviceable. It is not unlikely nr Canadian ProrLF. 10? '. "y-k that the Mound Builders used baskets in carrying together the earth of the mounds. The instruments of war, fishing, and the chase tire those most needed by the Indian, and his stone im- iiitrenuity first showed itself upon the materials piementt. lying near his hand. As in the older civilization of Kurope, the stone age was also the first among tho Indians. All of tho Indian tribes seem to have had the knowledge of tho manufacture of arrow-heads from tho cherty nodules found in tho primitive rocks. They have made flint scrapers from the same, formed hard stone chisels, polished and worked-down granite and crystalline limestone into axes and tomahawks, with a groove around the middle by which strong sinews were attached and handles fastened to them for use. Stone hammers formed in the same manner were formerly used, and among some of the western tribes are still considered as of value. Tho stone-cutters are also able to manufacture from the soft pipestone, sometimes grey, and in the western prairies bright red, pipes for smoking the several kinds of dried leaves and bark used for the purpose. Among the implements of the earlier inhabitants of the country are found hooks, chisels, knives, «-,«-,«_ and other articles made of copper. These, however, are usually of the native copper of the Lake Superior region, having, as shown by the microscope, the grains of silver found in that ore. As the copper in these implements was never melted, but had simply been beaten into shape, this manufacture comes rather under the stone age than under any succeeding. The only case known to the writer of an article of the nature of an alloy was found near the falls of Rainy River in the soil, in which a portion seemingly of a cup made with markings similar to those of the Mound Builders' pottery was unearthed. The advent of the white trader has largely put an end to the rude manufacture of stone implements. The scalping-knife and tomahawk, made of iron in any form to suit the Indian^s taste, was the first contribution made him by the white trader, and soon these weapons, which • M ;\\\ ■";; \ -^ If I06 A Short IIistokv ok have como to bo tho emblems of Indian cruelty, super soded the woodon war-el ub, stone hammer, and bow and arrows, where tlie redmun eonld puichase them. In time also tho trader entrusted, though at exorbi- tant {)riees, to the Indian tribes tho firearms whieh were so great a source of wonder at first to tho unsuspecting^ savage. It was the possession of firearms, obtained by the Ojibways from the French, which enabled that tribe to drive tho Sioux out of their original possessions on Lake Superioi", when the latter wore not able to obtain equal wf>apons. In later years the Indians of the plains have been able to furnish themselves with the deadly ]{emiugton rifles, with their eighteen repeating charges. No article of manufacture of the Indian indicates so much TK« n-««- skill as the construction of the birch-bark canoe. Tne Canoe. .,,, tt \ • m -i iti i he Indian himself so values it that he declares it to have been the gift of the Gitche Manitou, or Great Spirit. With the canoe the Indian can cross the deepest water, as tossed like a duck on the waves, his frail bark survives where heavier and more unwieldy craft would have been swamped. When the wind is favourable, fastening his blanket or skin robe between two poles, he erects them in the bow of his canoe, and is carried at a rapid rate before the wind. When he must ascend the river, and finds paddling against the current too difficult, attaching a long line of buffalo or deerskin to the bow of the canoe, with one in the canoe to steer it, he walks along the sho^e and " tracks ^' up the canoe in the shallow water. Indian women manage the canoe as skilfully as the men. The canoe requires practice to control it well, and is dangerous to those unaccustomed to its use. It is a most interesting sight to meet on the bosom of some inland lake the Indiau mother, with her half-dozen children, paddling with rapid speed, the youngest child of three or four years of age sitting statuesque, lest a careless lurch should overturn the uncertain craft. Its lightness is one of the chief merits of the birch-bark canoe when the passage is to be made from one river to another, or a dangerous rapid or fall is to be avoided. The canoe 11 is tl to tl thebi the f its loi VVl uiun i he pu genioi light the 81 Itsbi tually first ui stop p of the knew i Livi northei iis in t object plentifi and the dren p forest t capture such as of wint( It mi by any to his ( " gophe his rave and car the mus lately, t ties witi of the b gave pa lies, an( 'V TiiK Canadian People. 107 Food. is then unladon ; the cargo is carried by way of tbo portage to the smooth part again, while inverted on the head of tlie burden-bearing aquaw the birch-bark boat is borne by the forest path or trail to the spot where it again receives its load. When the winter seals up the river or lake, the red- man is driven to the use of his suow-shoe would „. , 1 rvi, 1 The Snow- he pursue his game, ino snow-shoe is as in- ^^^^ ('•enious a device as can well bo imayfined. So li<^ht as to add but little weight to the foot, the frame of the snow-shoe is joined by a network of leather thongs. Its breadth, while compelling an awkward gait, yet effec- tually supports the walker on the softest snow. On the lirst use for the winter of the snow-shoes, the awkward step produces after long exercise an .excessive soreness of the muscles of the leg, which the French fur traders knew as the " mal de raquette." Living as the tribes we are considering do in their northern home, where nature is not so bountiful 51 s in the tropics, the food supply is always an object of anxiety, in seasons when game and fish fire plentiful the Indian prospers ; but in the long winter and the scarce seasons the aged, and the wives and chil- dren perish from hunger. Among the Indians of the forest the moose and deer are much prized, but are only captured by the well-skilled hunter. The small game, such as rabbits, is snared by the squaws during the times of winter scarceness. It must be stated that the Indian does not feel bound by any of the strict requirements of the Jewish law as to his diet, and beavers, foxes, squirrels, and even the " gophers " of the plains are not excluded from appeasing his ravenous appetite. The buffalo on the western plains, and cariboo or reindeer of the Arctic regions, as well as the musk-ox of the same latitudes supply, or did until lately, the Indians and Eskimo who live in these locali- ties with sufficient food as well as clothing. The flesh of the buffalo when newly killed, and especially his tongue, gave palatable food to the plain-hunters and their fami- lies, and the ^^ dried meat ^^ and '^pemican" were pre- i. "Si . ''.1 ., '. I. '! i> A ■ t'(' i I vtfii'' io8 A Short History of pared for winter use. It is surprising how on the dry plains- of the west the flesh of the buffalo, exposed in strips in the open air without salt to preserve it, dries up without decaying, Pemican was tlie name given to the most common preparation from the tlesh of the buffalo. The flesh was cut in strips and pounded with sharp stones by the squaws. Dried for a short time iu the sun, it was next thrust into bags made of the buffalo's hide, into which, when it was nearly filled, was poured melted fat and marrow of the buffalo. This on cooling consolidated into a mass which will keep for years. The berries of the saskatoon tree (the Amelanchiar Canadensis) are mixed with the pounded flesh in some instances, and " berry pemican ^' . is thus formed. Unfortunately the advance of civilization has made in the last decade the buffalo an almost t^xtinct animal. Indians in the Rocky Mountains pursue and capture for food the mountain sheep and goat in addition to the deer which become their prey. The sea and river have always given of their treasure to the skilful Indian fisherman. The 'Hitimeg'^ or '^white- fish, and the '' ajidaumo " or sturgeon, with the pike or "jack-fish'' have ever in the American rivers and lakes supplied a plentiful food. In some r: vers of the Ameri- can continent the sturgeon swarm in such numbers that to catch them requires no skill, w^.id great numbers are slaughtered wantonly in the spring time. In the rivers of British Columbia the salmon are quite as plentiful, and afford food and means of merchandise to the natives. Among the Iroquois and Ilurons the food supplied by the game and fish was supplemented by the corn planted and cultivated by themselves. The beds of wild rice {Zizania aquatica) in many of the lakes and rivers supply food of a most wholesome kind. Where rice is found, the Indian settlements in its neighbourhood are deserted in the month of August, the rice-beds being penetrated by numberless harvesters, and the grain is beaten from the stalks with clabs into the canoes. of s .'Ml I K\ 1.1 , . ,Vi I TiiK Canadian Pt^oplt;. 109 The cookery of the Jndian is performed over open fires of sticks. Before the advent of Europeans, when clay pots were used, fire could be applied with ease to the well-constructed vessel ; flesh was also broiled over the coals and formed what the French voyageurs called a *' barbecue/' but the Assiniboine or Stoney Indians, as well as others, are said to have heated stones red- hoi and then cast them into holes dug in the earth into which the flesh to be cooked was placed in water. On the Pacific coast the Indians to this day plait strong grass, and from this cons^-uct vessels, into which, filled with water, hot stones are thrown, and thus flesh is cooked. After all, the Indian is largely a flesh eater, and living as he does by the chase the uncertainty of gaining his food has a most unsettling effect upon his habits. With him it is always either a '' fast or a feast," and the scene in a large Indian camp when a supply of buffalo flesh is brought in beggars description. Nothing could exceed the gluttony and over-feeding of these hungry savages. By some it has been thought that the constant use of animal food has given the Indians their craving for the ''ishketewabo," or fire-water of the white man, while others have attributed it to the want of a regular and satisfying diet. Whatever be the cause, the fact is undoubted that the Indian on the verge of civilization has almost invari- ably a taste for the deadly strong drink of the trader. Rival fur traders, and even nations fighting for supremacy in North America, have too often made use of strong drink to advance their projects with the Indians. So univer- sally is this practice condemned that for many years both in Canada and the United States it has been illegal to sell or give spirits to an Indian. Section IV. — Language, Manners, and Customs of the Indians. Little can be said of a satisfactory kind of the Indian languages. Sioux and Crees cannot understand each other speaking, though the general struc- '^^S^age. ture of their languages have points of resemblance. Cree '« »' 1. ' ; ;;-'i:»'' 1 10 A Short History of Authors. jind Ojibvvay^ however, can hold converse together. 'J'he Indian languages seem to have been derived from the Malayan, though since the branching off the Malayan has been greatly developed. This would indicate an ancient date for the peopling of this continent. And yet the Indian languages are not " isolating or monosyllabic like the Indo-Chinese group, agglutinating like the Ural-Altaic, nor inflexional like the Semitic and Aryan. '^ Strange as it may seem, according to Keane and Gannett the only language of a similar structure is that of the Basques of the Pyrenees, who speak the only '^ incorporating ■" language of the Old World, though the Indian languages far exceed that of the Basques in this peculiarity. The effect of the languages of the whites and Indians on each other has been marked. Immediately upon the arrival of the whites in America, intelligent men among them began to study, classify, and reduce to a written form the various Indian dialects. Eliot, the famous missionary, and Hecke welder, of Bethlehem, have preserved for us the dialects of the Indians on the Atlantic coast, who are now extinct. For the languages of the tribes of Canada, we consult the vocabularies in the works of Baron De Lahontan (1690), J. Long (1791), Mackenzie (1801), Jonathan Carver (1774), Daniel Harmon (1820), Keating (1824), and especially the magnificent works of Henry Schoolcraft (1834) ; recently the Ojibway Dictionary of Bishop Baraga (1879), the Cree Dictionary of Father Lacombe (1873), and the Dakota Dictionary of Dr. Riggs. One of the most remarkable linguistic phenomena in this connection is the Indian jargon among the tribes to the west of the Rocky Mountains- This is a combination of Chinook and Clatsop words with French and English introduced among them. It is used in barter all along the Pacific slope. It resembles in its use the linnua franca of the Mediterranean, or the " pigeon-English " of China. The jargon originated about the beginning of this century, and chiefly from the meeting of the North West and Hudson's Bay Companies with the Indians. Chinook. THE Caxadiax People. iir Some of tlie words in use tiro worthy of notice. " Pass- piiss " is the Chinook for cat ; '' King-Chautshman " is a King George raau or Englishman ; " Boston " desig- nates an American ; '* Potlatch '^ is a gift ; " Pasiooks " is a Frenchman ; " Piah-ship " is a steamer, a corruption of " fire-ship \' '' Cosho " is a pig, from the French " Cochon /' " Tahla '* is a dollar, and so on. The mode of representing his ideas in a pictorial manner is a marked peculiarity of the Indian. Numerous writers have given examples of this, ^ritint' The " totem '' of the Indian is an illustration of it. It is some object, generally an animal, used as a crest. On the "Roches Percees,^^ a group of remarkable rocks on the prairies, along the forty-ninth parallel, between the United States and the North-West Terri- tories, are figured moose, horse, sturgeon, buffalo-heads, and the like as the totems or '' symbols " of visitors, who have cut them on the rocks, as tourists to Niagara Falls and elsewhere do. Very ingenious uses are made of picture-writing by the India: j. The writer has in his possession a drawin by Mawintopaness, chief of the Eainy River Indians, representing himself as an Indian in the centre, with one eye turned to the right to the missionary to see the way he points out, and the other to the trader on his left to show the necessity of also having en eye towards busi- ness ; and the poor Indian is divided between the two opposing forces. The same chief keeps a perfectly accurate account of what the Government gives him from year to year on a sheet of foolscap in pictures. A barrel of pork is a picture of a barrel with a rude drawing of a pig upon it ; a box of tea is a square with steam puffing out of one corner of it; oxen and cattle, plough, harrow, saws, &c., are easily recognizable. In connection with Indian writing a most interesting system, called the syllabic character, was in- vented in 1840 by the Rev. James Evans, then ^a^*,f^^' a missionary on Hudson Bay. It consists in using triangles, circles, hooks, and other characters as '■, n 'r 1. - m t,''. ' " ' * * I ■>.-t'- M ;il^ ,lr. /v 112 A Short HiSTOin- oi^ symbols for syllables. It is now extensively used by the Crees of the Saskatchewan, who write letters with it on birch-bark to one another. It may be learned by an in- telligent Indian in an afternoon or two, being quite simple. The British and Foreign Bible Society, the Church of England, and the Roman Catholics use this character in printing Indian books. When Lord Duiferin was in North-Western Canada in 1878, he heard of this character for the first time, and remarked that distinguished men had been given a place in Westminster Abbey for doing less than the inventor of the syllabic characters had done. Among the Indians it has been the custom to record events by the use of wampum belts or by knots of par- ticular kinds. The Indians have a considerable skill in geography and astronomy, though, like all savage peoples, they regard celestial phenomena with awe. The divi- sions of time are carefully noted by the various tribes. Some of the nations, such as the Blackfeet, regar^l the sun as a " Manitou '' and worship him. A number of the constellations are known to the Indians. The mode of reckoning time is by '^ nights " rather than by days. The greater divisions of time are counted by " moons ^' or mouths. Among tho Crees the months are as follows : May, " Frog-moon ;" June, the moon for birds laying eggs ; July, the moulting month ; August, the moon when the young birds fly; September, the month when the moose casts his horns ; October, rut- ting moon; November, hoar-frost or ice- moon ; Decem- ber, whirlwind moon ; January, very cold month ; February, big moon or old moon ; March, eagle moon; April, ^' goose moon.'^ A people so devoted to a wandering life as the Indians, SDorts in^st become noted for excellence in violent and exciting games. It is true the restless tendencies of the Indian tribes found an outlet in the frequent wars carried on. When the young men of the tribe be- came wearied with '' inglorious ease '' at home, a war- party was organized, and frequently wars were undertaken with no other motive than that with which a Russian each one. ari THE Canadian People. 113 autocrat is said to incite a European war, viz. for the purpose of creating a public interest. But athletic sports of various kinds are earnestly followed in times of peace. Chief among them is the game of ball, which has been preserved in what may be called the Canadian national sport, that of '^ lacrosse." In this the ball is thrown by a " stick," some four feet long, made of tough wood, bent round at the top, and the hooped part of the instrument, which is ten or twelve inches wide, covered by a network of strong thongs of buffalo or other skin. Among some of the tribes the game is played by each player having a stick in each hand ; among others, by the player only carrying oue. Any number of chosen players can engage in the game. In the great camps of the western plains as many as 800 players take part in the game. The contestants are divided into two equal parties, and the object is to pass the ball through the opposing goals, which are made by two poles some ten or twelve feet high, with a bar extending across the top. The game is one of the most exciting that can be imagined. Violent encounters are constantly occurring, in which, amidst the dust and confusion, the ball is for the time entirely lost from sight. Tripping, pushing, and the roughest jostling all seem a part of the game. At times serious conflicts take place at which blood is drawn. The writer has seen a Caughnawaga Iroquois receive a blow with a stick on the face that split his nose completely open. At times the game of ball with the sticks described, or with instruments resembling those used in the British game of " shinty," is played upon the ice, and creates great interest, though skill is not so easily manifested in the management of the ball as in true lacrosse. Com- petitions with bow and arrows are common, and these weapons are handled with great skill in shooting at marks. Races on foot are frequent among the Algonquin and Iroquois young men, but on the western prairies, where horses are abundant in the Indian camps, horse- racing is one of the most absorbing sports, and feats of I * ". 'H \ • , ''' k * ' •'•1 t < ' ^^ -■■ y m \ . ■•/•:$ - • ,^ •■ . .'^i .1 1'., ■1 'Vj ■'■^^1^ . \ .-;!■ * 'V . * '. , :,■^' 'hi' '. .'-Jf.' .. »; :, ■\f ■.■M ...I . . .... t'i'-i tv ' 114 A Short History of ''•■i',:l 4 Ji' ' "I ■| ',.:t: ■Hi: 'ri, liorsemansliip perfectly astounding to the white onlookers are performed. High-spirited and excitable as the Indians are, almost all their games afford the opportunity for taking ^' "wagers" — a custom in which too often the white man in his sports has not succeeded in escaping the savagery of the redman, whom he follows. The ball-play, the foot-race, and the horse-race were formerly marked by the men, women, and children of the camp, and even whole tribes, wagering wam'pum belts, household utensils and possessions, tents, robes, and even horses, with one another. Wives were at times in the excitement of the game bar- tered off by their husband. Leaving the athletic sports of the Indians and coming to the amusements of the camp in quieter times, it may be stated that the Indians are inveterate gamblers. Some element of chance makes almost every game of absorbing interest to the redman. The game of " plum-stones " consists in painting one side of each stone of one par- ticular colour, and then gambling with the parti-coloured stones as dice are used. The game of seeds consists of taking some hundreds of pieces of seeds of the same size, separating them into groups, and selecting in order to obtain a certain lucky number. Another game among the Crees is that of hiding any small object in one of several moccasins, and then leaving the proper one to be guessed, as is done by the thimble-rigger or juggler in society called more civilized. By these and other like methods the Canadian redman gains mental excitement of as extravagant and wild a kind as do the gamesters of Baden-Baden and Monte Carlo in European society. Indian gamblers will con- tinue their play for forty-eight or sixty hours without rest or food, and in that time will often lose all the money, guns, and horses of which they are possessed. But probably the most remarkable thing about the social life of the Indians is the elaborate system of dances, many of which indeed lose their character of mere amusements, and are identified with the social and reli- gious ideas of the peoples. THE Caxaimax Pi-orij; 11^ The (lance seems to have boon, and to be an outlet for tlie several emotions that rise in the breast of the savagfe in connection with his life. To him, dances a wanderer, the procurement of food is one of his deepest objects of thought. Accordinj^ly the change of the seasons, the time for seeking the different varieties of game or food, and the abundance of anything ministering to his bodily wants are sufRcient reasons for an overflow of animal spirits. The exciting preparation, for war and the victorious ivturu gave rise to a special class of histrionic celebra- tions. Veneration for the departed, or great admiration of the living were also connected with a special exube- rance of feeling. It is to be noted that the wild pnssion of an Indian dance is heightened as the sport proceeds, until, like the reeling dervishes of the East, the dancers are brought to a pitch of absolute frenzy. In all the Indian dances there are common features recognizable. Music is an invariable accompaniment. In the earlier times bands of men or women sang, and thus supplied the weird sounds with something of rhythm in them. In later times a species of tambourine with rattles upon the sides is beaten by bone or stick. This rude instrument, known as the '* tom-tom,^' is usually beaten by the women, and secures a certain regularity of motion among the dancers. When the dancers have painted themselves and, fan- tastically dressed, await the beating of the ^* tom-tom,'' suddenly the dance, which is usually carried on by the men, is begun by any one to whom the impulse comes rising up and slowly beginning to circle round the o])ject which is the occasion of the dance. The motion of the dancer is that of a strange flexure of the body, as if the joints of the lumbar region were all relaxed. As the speed of the dancer increases he accompanies his motions with a strange sound, ''E — he — e — he — ye — ye — yeah," interrupted by an occasional imitation of the scream of some wild bird of prey. One of the commonest dances is the '^ beggar's dance," I 2 ^1 • m ..fi n . j>j ■ ■■-•'■^■•, v-^ ,'■'■*• ll. - u:'^^%s^ ' IS* ' ii6 A Short History of in which on receiving bags of flour or flitches of bacon from the settlor on the frontier, the redrnen indulge their joy for hours together in this wild sport to the delecta- tion of the settlor and his family. The fire-dance, pro- bably a relic of some ancient fire-worshipper's custom, consists in the usual dance, while one of the dancers carries in his wild career around the circle a burning coal of fire between his teeth. Among the Indians who follow agriculture, the ap- proach of harvest is the occasion for the dance of thank- fulness to the " Manitou " for his gift of the cornfield. A boiling pot of maize is placed in the centre of the circle of dancers, and each dancer, armed with a stalk of Indian corn, engages in the wild merriment. Among the tribes of the plains one of the greatest dances was that to the buffalo. This has now almost disap- peared from the scarcity of the buffalo. If the buffalo were becoming scarce the Indian council decreed a dance. Then the hunters came forth each with his mask, consisting of a buffalo head and horns, which he wore, while he carried the buffalo spear in his hand. Day after day, by fresh relays of dancers, the dance was kept up until the buffalo come, and the camp again rejoiced in plenty. As the winter approaches hunger begins to stare the savage in the face ; the snow presents obstacles for his pursuing the game with ease. On the fall of the first snow among the Ojibways a pair of snow-shoes is erected on lofty poles in the middle of the ring ; the dancers, dressed in leggings of fur, and their feet shod with snow- shoes, show their gratitude to the Manitou for the snow- shoes which enable them to overtake the game. Another series of these Indian orgies is connected with the paying of honour or respect. When a dis- tinguished visitor is received among the Dakotas, it is the custom for the chiefs and older men to dance in the presence of the honoured guest who is present, and it is said that this is one of the few cases in the prairie country where women are allowed to take part in the dance. The memory of the departed brave is also honoured by these modi bruv mccl hush wliih It w extra ^m riiL Canadian Pr.oPLE. 117 tliese savago nations in what is called the danco to tho medicine of the brave. The companions of the departed brave assemble around the lodge of the widow. Tho medicine-bag of her departed spouse is liung on a green bush before her door, and under this she sits and weeps while the dancers career in wild fury around the tent. It was, however, to have been expected that the chief extravagances of these savage sports should bo observed in connection with war. The *^ sun-dance " is the ordeal by which the young braves show endurance and receive their degrees of honour. A booth of branches is erected ; tho medicine- man directs proceedings ; from the centre of the booth and attached to a high post a strong rope or line is sus- pended ; on the end of this is a strong hook ; an in- cision is made under the muscles of the breast of the candidate for honour, and the hook is fastened in it ; then while the music prevails the young warrior throws himself back from the hook, and for a considerable time he is held up till the muscle has been drawn out some- times six or eight inches. If without flinching he endures the ordeal, he is declared worthy of the dignity of a brave, and fit to go upon the war-path. So high is the Indian ideal of endurance ! Among the most characteristic of these Indian symbolic rites is the discovery-dance, also connected with war. This is performed without music. It represents the various stages of an Indian attack : the skulking approach, the creeping up to the unexpecting enemy through the underwood and grass, the falling on the prey, the deadly tomahawking, the snatching otf the scalp, and the victorious return. It is indeed a pantomime of Indian warfare, and is often adopted to secure recruits for the warlike expedition by inflaming the imagination of the spectators. Of all the wild orgies we have described none is to be compared to the terrible scalp-dance. This is performed by the victorious war-party on its return. For fifteen summer nights it is continued, and while engaged the participants are more like demons than men. They ,•1 <. ■ ■■:! 4 Ii8 A Short History of leap, liowl, Mild cry lik(! wild beasts, brandisli (licif weapons, dangle the scalps which they liave lately taken from their enemies, and become so infuriated in many instances that like i'avin<^ wild beasts they creep on the ground and seem to be devouring tlicir enemies. And yet wlien meek-eyed peace returns, it also is celebrated by the pipe-dance. The medicine-man seats himself with the calumet or poace-pipe and commences to smoke it. As the music begins, the first dancer springs forth, and seizing another drags him into the ring. The two dancers now seize a third ; and so on the sport continues until all are gathered into the ring, and with the wildest enthusiasm the return of goodwill and the reign of brotherly love are shown forth. I'hus in common life, in honour, and in war, do the savage peoples of America show foi-th in an ingenious and emphatic manner the ruling emotions that rise within them. SectLO)b V. — Social, Political, and Rellgloti-s Organization. The organization of an Indian tribe is one of the things perplexing to the white man. It is a strange mix- ture of aristocratic precedence and democratic equality. Out of the ludian^s strong respect for age grows the precedence given the old men. The old men, no doubt, lament the waywardness of the young warriors, but the council is the tribunal that decides on war or peace, spares life or thrusts forth to execution, and is the ultimate source of appeal for everything in the life of the ti-ibe. The family is the basis of the tribal relation, and accordingly there is a hereditary position held by dis- tinguished f^iinilies, but this seems to be modified by the decisions of the council. Among the Indian races there is a strong sentiment as to the inferiority of woman. Woman is the mother of the family and the slave of the family. Woman must strike the tent and erect it, must do the great share of the burden-bearing on the march, must paddle the canoe on the voyage and portage the cargo about the rapids — she, in short, but atteiK spani< nuitro " iniiK into tl from a the vi> The throng euduni must daring which is a ni their w tribes the pa gives ings. Pers yielded war-chii is often and for disturbe many g; families their o\\ Amoi faculty : that ha limit am has indu cornfielc has shel game ai with ea earth oi far away World i THE Canadian People. IIQ utteuds tlio footsteps of her stalwart lord, like tlio spaniel, to fetch and carry. Wheu ago cree})s over tho matron, she is then regarded as a burden, and is but a " niindirnoie '* — a miserable old woman. To send a woman i!ito tho presence of a council to speak with ambassadors from another tribe is to cast thorough contempt upon the visitors. The young warriors are tho hope of the tribe, and through many severe ordeals tliey aro trained to c'uduranco ere thoy receive tho rank of warrior ; they must metaphorically win their spurs. In deeds of daring* or even of cruelty they must gain the renown which gives them standing. Fondness for her children is a mark of the Indian mother, and consideration for their wives and children is a feature of all the Indian tribes even in times of extremest peril. The mixture of the patriarchal and the democratic in Indian society gives rise to many misunderstandings and heartburn- ings. Personal prowess is the guerdon of honour, and is yielded willing recognition. The medicine-man or tho war-chief may be more powerful than the chief, and it is often the case that the chief is completely outnumbered and forestalled by the young men or by ambitious disturbers. Family feuds often break up tribes, and many great peoples are but the descendants of separate families who have broken off and set up an autonomy of their own. Among the Algonquin Ojibways there seems little faculty for political organization. The wandering habit that has distinguished them alike from their eastern limit among the Pequods to the furthest western Crees, has induced a disintegrating tendency among them. No cornfields have held them to one spot ; no '^ long house '* has sheltered them in one common village. Their food is game and fish ; their birch-bark teepees can be moved with ease; their canoes are always at hand; and if earth or river fail to supply their food they journey far away to other haunts. The Algonquins are the New World gipsies. A Pontiac or Tecumseh may have had i t i m ■ m i ■ "l l' I k- r :■■ >. '■ It t ' ^'. - ^ •' •..1.1'* 120 A Short History ok his dream of uniting lils AlgoiKjiiiii follow-countrymen into a grand league against the wliito man, but it was the wild, short vision of a leader sinking with his people into the abyss of extermination. It has been otherwise with the Iroquois and Sioux. In each of these nations there was a confederation. And yet this seems to have been but little more than a league of peace between the tribal subdivisions, and of co- operation for attacking the other nations, or defending themselves when attacked. The wampum belts must Bummon the gathering; the council fire must burn; and tho general decision be made before war or peace could bo determined, but all tho personal animosities and the tendencies toward disintegration which distinguished the Highland clans in former days are seen among the members of the confederacy. Tho Iroquois seem to have allowed one of their number, the Tuscaroras, to drift away from them, but again in 1712 took back tho wanderer, and in later times they became the Six Nations, while known to tho early New England sc 'er as the Five Nations. Feud and hatred, as we have seen, separated one of the Dakota nations, the Assiniboines, from their confederation. It is, however, conceded that the Iroquois and Sioux have had more political capacity than the Algonquins or most other North-American Indians. The deficiency of social or pohtical organization in tho best, however, may be seen in the absolute helplessness of the tribe in the presence of the avenger of blood. If by accident or malice life was taken, the manslayer had no protector. The friends of the slain became the avengers — blood alone could atone for blood. No law of restraint, no mode of compensation, in fact no social remedy could be found; and cases have been known where the obligation to take vengeance for some wrong done has been the only barrier from keeping individuals of Indian tribes from attaching themselves to the Christian Church and listening to the entreaties of its mis- sionaries. The Indian with his strong imagination peoples nature ' Ji Tiir Canadian Peopi.k. 121 with 8pi»'its ; but his conception of a (Ireat Spirit, or " Gitcho Manitou/' is probably a purer conceptiou of Deity than that of most aava^o nations. Like many of tho Asiatic peoples, tlio Indian has a conception of a " Matche Munitou " or Evil Spirit of d therein. Over the grave an erection, like the roof of a house, is built a foot or two high. This is sometimes entirely covered by pieces of wood ; at others, with white cotton cloth. At the head of tho grave food is placed, and often a picicc of tobacco, while weapons for the chase or for defence are buried with the body. On the western prairies different customs in part pre- vail. The Sioux mode of burial is to lay the corpse on platforms erected on posts, or constructed on the branches of trees, though the Sioux now bury in graves. Of primitive beliefs there are several which are very . . widespread among the Indians. One of these is Tradftions. *^^^^ ^^ ^^^ Deluge. The earth was, according to their story, dark for a time ; the medicine- man at last saw light in the north ; but soon the moun- tains of waters came rolling over them. All were destroyed except a few families, who built a raft and esc.'i vari; bcli mus prcs cms rock gnof The THE Canadian People. 123 psc'Mpod. Tho Iroquois, Dclawjires, and other tribes liuvo variiitions of this same tradition. All the Indian nations believe in a future state. They believe that the dead must journey fni* to the west ; that a river divides tho present from tho future; that a narrow and slippery crossinpf must be passed to reach tho other side: that rocks are hurled at all who cross ; that from these tho pfood escnpe and enter into the happy hunting-g-rounds. The bad wlio cross are struck by the flying rocks, and, driven from tlui crossing, fall into the river beneath, which is filled with dead animals and fishes, and all evil tilings. The lost, the}' believe, live in sight of the abode of the blessed, but cannot reach it. Among the Blackt'oet some strange religious rites pre- vail. On a lonely hill a stone with certain circles and other markings is placed. Hither women who have lost their children or husbands retire to worship. A sharp stone lies on the other stone. The worshipper cuts off one or more joints of the finger and offers this as a propitiation to the Deity. Among the most remarkable traditions of the Indian tribes is one exceeding the wonders of the Arthuriaa legend, or the Nibelungen Lied. It is evidently a pious and devout tradition. Hiawatha was a person of mira- culous birth, and bears this name among the Ojibways. Among other tribes he was called Michabou, Chiabo, Mauitboio, and Tarenyawagan. His mission was to clear their rivers and forests and fishing-grounds. He was to teach peace and its arts. The myth is plainly the pro- duct of the heart of man universal seeking after some higher power to help it, and the hereditary belief that a celestial visitant was to come to rescue white and red man alike. We are indebted to Longfellow for his making Hiawatha a household word, and we hail such a tradition as showing the common origin of white and red men, and of all the nations which dwell on the earth. But little value can be attached to the Indian tradi- tions about their own origin. The Algonquin story, where it departs from the general theory ^f oriffin that the Gitche Manitou created their nation in , ■Hfi- ■ ■ -a ||^.ritil:!Hli '' ''M'-' I 124 A Short History of their own rock-bound coast, is that their nation emerged from a great opening in the Rocky Mountains. 'J^his is probably a shrewder guess as to the direction of their long-lost home in Asia than most of the other tribes possess. The Sioux hold that they were created in their own land of the Dakotas by the Great Spirit, who is known to them as " Wahkan Tanka.'^ They have, they say, always occupied their present home. According to their tradition it was a Frenchman who first of white men visited them. He carried a gun which greatly in- terested them. On his showing its power upon a dog they fled, calling the new visitant " Thunder.'^ The Chippewyans believe that the world was all a wide ocean, and only one inhabitant was on it, that a huge bird with eyes of fire, which flashed like lightning, and the flapping of whose wings was thunder. At its mighty touch the ocean heaved up the land ; and by it were pro- duced all living creatures, except the Chippewyans them- selves, who sprang from the too much-valued ancestry of a dog. They regard themselves as intruders in their present country, having traversed a great lake to escape from a very wicked people in their old home. They suffered greatly on the voyage. Their ancestors lived to a great age, even till their feet were worn out with walking, and their throats had failed from eating. The Columbian Indians have a still stranger account of their origin. There was a time, they say, when only birds, beasts, and fishes existed on the earth. Whence the first Indian came they know not, but he was of short stature, and had heavy arms and legs. He killed himself — why, it is not stated; but as the worms were devouring the uncovered corpse a bird attacked the destroyers, and the slain man revived. The restored Indian then married the bird, and from the alliance sprang the present Indians. Such vague and trivial accounts give us no clue to the original home of tho Indians; but they are plainly guesses, and as such not so far behind the theories of those to col It m gininj light tribes .' .'•! THE Canadian People. 125 those who, without the aid of the Creator, make effort to construct the world of things inanimate and animate. It must be toward sources outside of the empty ima- ginings of crafty medicine-men we must look for any light as to the affinities and original home of the Indian tribes. * ■( . > , t:L. . i'. ■ tfl * / tft^fiie-i 4 ^'^■ i-^; « 126 A Short History of CHAl^TER ly. THE OLD COLONIES ALONG THE ATLANTIC. (References : *' CEuvres de Charaplain," 6 volumes, Quebec, 1871; Charlevoix, " Histoire de la Nouvelle France," 6 volumes; " Histoire de la Nouvelle France,'' Lescarbot, Paris, 1866 ; " His- toire de I'Acadie Fran<;aise," Paris, M. C. Moreau, 1873; "Acadia,' a Lost Chapter of American History," P. H. Smith, 1884 ; " His- tory of Acadia," James Hannay, 1879 ; " History of Canada," vol. i., F. X. Garneau, 1862; " Short History of the English Colonies in America,'' by H. C. Lodge, Harper, New York, 1881 ; " History of the United States," B. J. Lossiug, New York, 1857 ; " History of the American People," Arthur Gilman, Boston, 1883 ; " Concise History of the American People," J. H. Palton, New York, 1883; " History of the People of the United States," J. Bach M'Master, Appleton, New York, vol. i., 1885, vol. ii., 1886.) Those were red-letter days when the great English navigators were making the world ring with the account of their discoveries. The Italian Ramusio had done good service in the middle of the 16th century, in keeping a record of the half-century of naval glory im- mediately preceding his time ; and now a Puritan divine, Richard Hakluyt, preacher, laid all succeeding times under obligation by chronicling, in addition, the deeds of the navigators. At the beginning of the 17th cen- tury Western Europe was considering what might be secured from these discoveries. To Spain, with her in- satiable thirst for gold. Central America became the hunting-grounds for the most bloodthirsty and unprin- cipled band of marauders the world has ever seen. ^ The name " Acadia," in French Acadie or Cadie, is said by some to be derived from " Aquoddie," the Indian name for a fish found on its shores. ,M THE Canadian Peopli;:. 127 Spanish America, to this day in revolution and unrest, is paying the penalty of those fearful scenes. The French had a dream of an unbounded empire for church and king. The thought of France in her occupation of the New World was that in Nouvelle France extending to the Mississippi, and in Louisiana to the Gulf, her reputa- tion might be maintained. The Dutch, famed for their love of gain, looked on Now Amsterdam as simply a meeting-place with the natives for the exchange of furs, and for obtaining the excitement that comes to the shrewd in successful bargaining and trade. To the English, as they conned over the recitals of Hakluyt, dreams of a widely different kind appeared. The merry cavalier, it is true, looked upon the new land as a field for wild adventure. The killing of game and catching of fish in the New World, the masterful striving with the savages, the transplanting across the sea of English sports, and the founding of family names amidst the freshness of a New World life, opened up an enchant- ing vista to the young gentleman of birth and education. But there were sober-minded men who read another meaning in Hakluyt's story — men in whose lives the shadows were more frequent than the sunshine. It became evident to the deeper thinkers among these Puritans that the Stuart line was hostile to liberty, and so across the ocean they looked for a refuge on the rock- bound coast that might prove to them the citadel of God. Amid the chaos of religious thought in England there were others also who in their creed of separation and division desired to be free from all government, and who hoped to find in the New World such a radical Utopia. Further there were the followers of Fox, who in the intolerant spirit of the time were given but little rest in their attempts to bring society back to first principles, and secure an enforced simplicity. The Quakers looked to the New World for a peaceful haven. The Roman Catholics, too, finding England a land of 4\ •;■;■. I . »•■ 'i. . 1^4-., ■l':^!*P »S".'.?. - !■'■ \K ml W: %■':' 128 A Short History of possibilities to them, sought, under the distinguished leadership of Lord Baltimore, to found a free state on the American coast ; and last, in the untilled acres of the New World, philanthropists like Oglethorpe saw the opportunity not only for strengthening the power of England abroad, but also of giving comfortable homes and independence to many in the Old World, whose lot was one of degradation and penury. All of the movements named were not only entertained as plans, but all succeeded in gaining foothold on the Atlantic shore, and in forming colonies, and, in some cases, afterwards independent states. Acadia. 1699. Section I. — The French in America. Acadia is the land of poetry and legend. Its early days were days of fierce conflict, deceit, and blood. It was the border-land of English and French dispute, and even of Catholic and Calvinist bickering. The figure of Champlain appears upon this scene before we find him in Canada ; and well had it been had his wisdom and strong arm been retained to Acadia in her misfortunes. It was in the service of a rich merchant of St. Malo, named Du Pont, or better known as Pontgrave, that Captain Chauvin, of the French navy, first went forth. This was under a patent, subsequent to that of Marquis de la Roche, who in 1598 took up the title of Lieutenant- General and Viceroy of Canada, left vacant by the dis- aster of Roberval on his last voyage. The super- stitious sailors of Brittany thought the track of the lost Seigneur unlucky. Captain Chauvin having died. Chevalier de Chaste succeeded him. In the following year (1603) the expedition — a fruitless one — ascended the St. Lawrence to Hochelaga. On that voyage were the men destined to guide the afi'airs of the French in America. These were Pontgrave, Champlain, and the Sieur de Monts. De Monts, whose family name was Pierre du Gua, was De Monts. in high favour with King Henry IV. He was a 1547. 1602. •.»U ■! • ^ f\ TTTE CAXADTAN PFOrT.K. 129 Ilugncnot or C^alvinist nobleman, had seen hard service, and had achieved renown in the French wars. Preferring Acadia to Canada, on account of its supposed milder climate, he obtained, under the charter of the old company, for himself froTu the kinf^ an exclusive grant of the territory from 40° to 4()° N., and went forth dignified as liieutenant-General of Acadia. Inducing a number of his co-religionist merchants of Rochelle to join him, with four ships and a gay party ho went forth to the New World. Champlain commanded the fleet. Led by the novelty of the enterprise, many volunteers had joined De Monts. Of these one of the most distinguished was the Baron de Poutrincourt. His family name was Jean de Biencourt. Like De Monts he also had fought bravely in the wars of the king. lie had now resolved to make a new home for himself and family in the New World. The plan of the expedition was that one vessel should go up the St. Lawrence to trade for furs ; another under Pontgrave — the indefatigable explorer — was to scour the Gulf of St. Lawrence to drive off ponchers on the fishing-grounds; while the remaining two vessels, under De Monts himself, were to carry out the colonists, about 120 in number, consisting of artisans and agriculturists, clergy and gentlemen. The Huguenot leader in charge of so important a company had the honour of ffoinsf forth to establish the first per- inanent settlement in the territory now included jgQ^ ' in the Dominion of Canada. The expedition had a good voyage, for in one month the New World was reached, though De Monts lost his course, and arrived at Cape la Have, near the present Lunenburg in Nova Scotia. Finding the coast rocky and inhospitable the colony re-embarked, rounded Cape Sable, the south-west extremity of Acadia, entered what they called " La grande Baie Fran9oise," now the Bay of Fundy, the '' Fond de la Baie " of the old French maps. Running into the narrow passage known as St. Mary's Bay, the expedition advanced into a narrow channel between the hills, which opens out into a capacious har- K ■4V m Kip •■■■;•'•■. M' , '■ I . :;*a>K; ;,i*. ;;'"'^;'; >•;< 130 A Short HisToin' of l)Our, which C'liamplnin tloscribes with admiration, and to -svhicli, with the f'oresig'ht of u pioneer, ho gave the name of Port Royal. The J3aron do Poutrincourt was also captivated with the beauty of the now well-known Annapolis Basin, and obtained a grant of it for himself from De Monts, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the king. Under Champlain's leadership much of tlie neighbour- ing coast was explored and named, and the mouth of the large river running from the north into the Bay of Fundy, now the St. John of New Brunswick, was reached. The coast having been largely explored by Champlain, and the patience of De Monts and his colonists exhausted, the choice of a place for settlement was made up Pas- samaquoddy Bay, on an island of the Ste. Croix River. On their island home operations were at once begun by the colonists. On the north side was built a fort, outside of it a barrack; and other buildings, including residences and a chapel, were erected, while on the west side of the Ste. Croix a mill was built. The severity of a New World winter was a rude sur- prise to the unprepared colonists : wood and water failed them ; the Indians seemed hostile ; and. the scourge of Cartier's early settlement, the scurvy, cut down the colony to forty-four. The spring came to find De Monts sadly discouraged. The disheartened colony determined to seek another situation. Along with Champlain, De Monts explored the coast southward to Cape Cod, but no place excelling in their eyes their first-chosen spot, Port Royal, could be found. Deserting their buildings on the Ste. Croix, they crossed the Bay of Fundy, and found on the shores of the spacious Port Royal Bay a resting-place. Shortly after Pontgrave arrived from France with forty new settlers and supplies for the colony, and new heart was given to the discouraged colony. Port Royal now seemed to offer everything needed for a successful settle- ment, beauty and safety of position, plenty of timber, fisheries, nearness to the rich marsh- land, and a nil '1 Fin irks !lt pi 01 spo B witl par iiivo good i:'i Tin-: C.WADiw Pi:ni'i.i:. fli mild climate. J [ore tlion dwollings and storohousos wero built, and a fort an vvoll. The colony firmly established, Do Monts returned to France. The succeeding winter again proved very ii'ksomo to the new settlers, and on the return of spring*, !i,t the request of the colonists, Pontgrave again ex- plored the coast to the south, seeking a more favourable spot. But De Monts found his pathway in France surrounded with difficulties. The Rochelle merchants who were partners in the enterprise desired a return for their investments. The Baron de Poutrincourt, who was still possessed with the desire to make the New World his home, proved of assistance to De Monts. De Poutrin- court returned to Acadia and encouraged the colonists, who were on the verge of deserting ^gQg ' Port Royal. With De Poutrincourt emigrated at this time a Parisian advocate, named Marc Lescarbot, who was of great service to the colony. During the absence of De Pou- trincourt on an exploring expedition down the coast, Lescarbot drained and repaired the colonists' fort, and made a number of administrative changes, much improv- ing the condition of the settlers. The following winter was one of comfort, indeed of enjoyment, for Lescarbot says, " They lived as luxuriously as they could have done in the street Aux Ours in Paris, and at a much less cost.''^ In May, however, the sad news reached the colony that the company of the merchants on whom it depended had been broken up. Their dependence being gone, on the 30th of July most of the colonists left Acadia for France in vessels sent out for them. For two years the empty buildings of Port Royal stood, a melancholy sight, with not a white person in them, but under the safe pro- tection of Memberton, the Micmak chief, who proved a trusty friend to the French. The opposition to the company of Rochelle arose from various causes. In addition to its financial difficulties the fact of De Monts being a Protestant was seized on as K 2 ■* ^! 1^' ',* P^ ;:/ •■'■ ' ^^^'fgrV^ '■•'. i::m^': ^ 132 A Short History ov 1610. the reason wliy iK)tliin<( was l)oin<»' done in tlio colony to cliristianizo tlio Indians. A('Cordin<>'ly when I)e Monts, fired witli a new scheme for explorinj[^ the north-west passage, turned over tl»o management of Acadian affairs to De Poutrincourt, who was a sin- cere CathoHc, some of the difficulties disappeared. It was not, however, till two years later that arraniifements were made for a new Acadian expedition. Under the blessing of the Roman Pontiff the new enterprise began. With the reorganized movement was associated Jesse de Pleucher, a priest of Ijantage, Soon, dismantled Port Royal was revived again. Houses were occupied along the river by the artisans and labourers, and successful efforts were made to convert the Indians. Twenty-one Indians became Christians in the first sum- mer. Chief Memberton, his son, and his son's wife were among these, and were baptized with the names of Henri, Louis, and Marie, the names of the King, Dauphin, and the Queen. Baron de St. Just, eldest son of the Baron de Pou- trincourt, was despatched to France with the news of these conversions. Great joy was expressed at Court. Two Jesnit fathers were named to accompany the mes- senger on his return. An unexpected obstacle inter- vened. The merchants of Dieppe, who controlled the ship going to Acadia, were Huguenots, and they refused the Jesuits a passage. At this juncture, Madame de Guercbeville, a noble lady, purchased the interest of these traders in the ship, and the fathers were allowed to go. Arrived at the colony again, De St. Just took charge of it, and allowed liis father to return to France. At this time it contained but twenty-two persons. Its difficulties and trials were many. About this time, Madame de Guercheville sent another colony from Honfleur to seek a place on the coast of the New World. The Jesuit father who accompanied it had quarrelled with De St. Just, and it was deemed wise to seek another situation than Port Royal for it. It 1611. ;^li TiiK Canadian Pfopm:. 133 1613. CODsiated of f(ii'ty-ei<^'lit rolonisfca, nnd in iho ship coii- tnininn* tho cmi«i-iMnts vvcro pnwisioiis for a ycjir. Tlio spot clioson for suttlomcut was ^ft. Desert, an island, now a fasliionablo sninmor resort on the coast of Maine. Tho name given the new settlement was St. vSanvcnr. This attempt was, however, ill-starred. The situation cli(jseu was on territory claimed by the En^-lish, and iu consequence a Vir«^^inian captain, Samuel Argall, fell upon the colony, and showing- no mercy, carried fifteen of the colonists away in chains, and turned the remainder adrift on the ocean. The captain of the French at St. Sauveur had shown to Argall tho commission of the King of Franco to choose the situation he had done. In consequence of this, two ships irom Virginia sailed north, and cast down every vestige of French occupation found on Mount Desert. The expedition visited Ste. Croix, and crossing over to Port Royal attacked it and left it in ashes. In the same year the aged Baron de Poutrincourt .„.. arrived in the New World only to see the desolation of Port Royal ; he returned to France, to fall litifhting in the wars of his sovereign in the following year. His son, De St. Just, remained in Acadia, became a border ranger, and, with the remnant of the colony, lived among the Indians. The successful attack by Argall was a heavy blow to French interests in Acadia. It revived the claim of the English to the Acadian coast. The weak hold given by the almost forgotten voyages of Caboto was now insisted on. The Puritans of King James's reign had much interest in the New World. It was to Sir William Alexander of Menstry, afterwards Earl of Stirling, a favourite of King James, one claiming to possess royal blood, and also a writer of plays and poems, that the g -„„- territory of Acadia was given, under the name of Nova Scotia, and for which a nominal rent was to be paid. In the year following, the new Viceroy _» Alexander sent out a vessel with a Scotch colony, " :; 1. ;l. . i t 7 ^ ' "^ -! ' ■'■■■ '■; ^4»., 134 A Siioui" IlrsroKN' of wliicli wititorod '\n i\\o New World, and in I ho iiuxt Kpriiig" visitod tlio coiist of Acadiii, l)iit ivtnrnod to Scotliuid in »Iuly. Soiiio I'^roncli mcI tiers nt this timo still scorn to liiivo boon at l^orfc Koyal. 'IMio woidd-ho Mow World monarch, Kin*,'" dninos, continued to send ii. vessel iiJinuiilly to tlio coast of this donuiin, to trade with tho Indiiuis. Kinn;' Jsunes undertook thc^ foundation of an order of haronets of Nova Scotia, hut it was only in tho first 1626 .year of the rciufu of Chai'lcs T., his succcssoi-, that the oi'der was foundc(l. Pnt(nits to no less than 200 barons have been granted, of wliich about loO still exist. Up to lOlJo there wore in Nova Suotia Baronets fifteen of tliese baronets' estates, thirty-four in ofNova New iirunswiek, twenty-four in Capo Breton, Scotia. .,^,j| tliii-ty-foui. in Anticosti. Kach estate was to have been six miles by three in area, and only to be luOd on conditicm of its bein;^' settled. The renmants of tho French colony of Port lloyal never deserted Acadia. As ah'eady stated, i)e St. Just — perhaps better known by his family luinie, Biencourt — with a small band of followers, lived a semi-barbarous life on the Acadian shore. Amonu' the colonists at Port Royal had been a man of high 1609 birth — the Sieur de 1^ '"" ur. Allied to the noble house of Bo"'" this colonist was a Huguenot, who had lost 1 .i-ces in the civil war in France. His family name .6 Claude de St. Etienne, and, with his son Charles, he had only cast in his lot for four years with the Port Royal coluny, when disaster overtook it. The Virginian expedition which had destroyed Port Royal ruined the fort in the absence of its possessors, who returned to find their place of shelter in ashes. The De la Tours, father and son, had then established a fort at the mouth of the Penobscot River — Pentagoet — but being on territory claimed by the English, they had been driven from it by the Plymouth colonists. Charles de la Tour, who is almost a romantic figure in the history of Acadia^ had then taken to the wild life of Biencourt De la Tour. iiii; Canadian' I'ioi-ij:. 135 ill ilic iit'i<4'lilj()iirln>()«l of tJic (IcslroyiMl I'ort Koyal. Kiii- (liTil spirits, so grosit trioiids liiul tlicy l)ecniiio, when the forcHt rsmpjor Hioncourt (liinl, lio left liis ri^'lits ill Port IJoyiil to i\w younuf St. Eticmio, then but twenty-eight yoars of w^o. Th(! young h-iulor of tln^ hordors was a, man actlvo and Hiigacious — ono of thoso scslf-rcliant tnen dov('h)p(ul always on the bordor-laiid of civili/iSition. Two yoars after liicnt'ouj't's dealli, CharU\s St. r^tietino ninrricd .«„. ji ilngiienot hidy, al'tervvMrds tliu heroine of tlio shores of St. Jolm. About tliis time, St. Etieniio built a fort, St. Loais, near Capo Snblo, on the south-west of Acadia, and the adjoining harbour bears his njinie. La Tour. Claude St. Ktienne, the father, driven away as we have seen from his fort at the mouth of the i'enobseoi, now resort(!d to Fort St. Louis with his son, and under- took to carry a message from his son, the real commander of the fort, to the French king, asking for ships and men to preserve Acadia to France. It was at this juncture that another Huguenot, Sir David Kertk, in tlie service of the lOnghsh, made an attack on the Fi-ench settlements in America. Sieur do la Tour had been successful in his nusaion to France, and was coming out, bringing eighteen vessels laden with men, cannon, and amnmnition. Kertk captured the whole fleet and took the ships to England. Young St. Etienno gathered all the French and Indians he could influence in Acadia into his Fort St. Louis, and stood for its defence in case of attack. Jiut strange indeed are the vicissitudes of fortune. The elder La Tour taken prisoner, was carried to England. Being a nobleman and a Protestant, he was received at the English Court. Having become friendly with the Nova Scotian pseudo-monarch, Sir William Alexander, he had gone over to the English side, and had obtained for himself and son, baronetcies under the English Crown in Nova Scotia. The estate bestowed on father and son extended along the coast from the present towns of Lunenburg and Yarmouth, with a depth into the interior of fifteen miles, and comprised 4500 square miles. Two f ii ■ 'i -'"■—-'--■''•-- ^*-''-*—^-- -■ -■"'■ 136 A Short History of i i !. baronies were to be establislicd, St. Etionnc and La Tour, and a Scotch colony was to be formed. The new lord of La Tour had married while in Eng-land, jggQ an English lady of rank, and embarked with a number of colonists in two vessels for Nova Scotia. On his arrival before Fort St. Louis he ac- quainted his son with what he had done. His son, how- ever, utterly refused to have any cor jction with the English. The father used threatening and winning words alternately with his rebellious son, but all to no avail. He even sought to compel his son by arms, but failed in this as well. Chagrined and disappointed, La Tour was compelled to resume his voyage and conduct his colonists to Port Royal, where a son of Sir William Alexander had founded a Scotch colony in 1620. A few years later this Scotch colony, along with the remainder of Acadia, was surrendered to France. The elder La Tour, now on the invitation of his son, repaired to Fort St. Louis. In the same year in which La Tour arrived from England, a vessel was sent out from Franco with ammunition and supplies for Fort St. Louis ; while the young commander was highly honoured for his devotion to France. A new undertaking was next entered upon of building a fort at the mouth of St. John lliver, in what is now New Brunswick. To cap the strano'e events of March 29th,i.i • -i/m i t- ^ j^ -t 1 • i- 16ii2 this period, Charles i. m order to obtam iroai France the 400,000 crowns of his queen Henrietta Marians portion, basely gave up Acadia in the surrender of St. Germain-on-Laye. It was a part of the policy of the adroit Cardinal Ilichelieu to retain at all hazards Acadia and Canada as French possessions. He had five years before the Treaty of St. Germain- en-Lay e organized ^* the Company of New France." The com- pany must for fifteen years send out 200 colonists a year, and thus raise the colony to 4000 ; all the colonists must be French and Catholics, and they must be supplied with priests. The company received the gift of two men-of-war in addition to other importantf privileges. titt: Canadian Peopt^k. ^}>7 A reliitivc of the Great Cardinal, Captain de Kazilly, Avho bore ma'^ks of the king's favour, was chosen to colonize Acaciia, nud a vigorous pclicy was expected. The new coniniandor was furnished with documents to dispossess die vScotch settlers of Port Jloyal. Artisans and peasants were taken out to strengthen the settlement. Along with De Kazilly went two men, whose names are indelibly im])re.ssed on Acadian history — these D'Aulnay are De Charnissay, and the uistorian Denys. de Char- The former of these, D'Aulnay de Charnissay, '^^^^^y- AViis an officer of the French navy, who had served with distinction under De Razilly. He was in many ways a competent leader oi' men, and acted for De llazilly, who bad unbounded confidence in him. The other notable man of the party was Nicholas Denys, born in 1598 at Tours. Little is known of his early life. He wrote '^A Geographical and ^^^^* Historical Description of the Shores of North America, with the Natural History of the Country.'' De Razilly in founding his colony did not take hold of Port Royal, but chose La Have Bay, and with his forty families of colonists settled there on account of its better fisheries, and erected his fort. Denys established a fishiug-statio:i near it at Port Rossignol. New troubles now arose. The French had begun to claim the coast as far south as Cape Cod ; and De Charnissay took possession of the old French station of Peutagoet at the mouth .g _ of the Penobscot liiver. This annoyed the Plymouth Company. The other, and yet most prominent figure in Acadian affairs was La Tour. It was soon manifest that the old French element and the new could not agree. It was in" 1600 that the " Company of New France " granted to Charles de St. Etienne, Sieur de la Tour, the fort of St. John, and in that year he removed a portion of his goods from his Fort St. Louis, near Cape Sable. The greatest blow to the internal peace of Acadia at this ,««„ time was the death of De Razillv. On his death De Charnissay, or as he is perhaps more commonly called, D'Aulnay, as next in command, and * ,' ' . '•'' ' yF\ •:■ : ■■■11 • ■-rv-'l I c ■, '-.M '. '■ ■'. * -'-■ -•'-.I]-' :■■■■'■* 'i'^ I- ' I- I WJL LIg Sr- IVS A Short Histokn" ov also Ji rolaiivo ol' tlio deceased cominaiider, became fsuccessor in office. He removed the settlers to Port lloyal, but bein^* chiefly a fur trader, did not encourage immigration. JJ'Aulnay wns now virtually ruler at Port Royal, La Tour at St. John. La Tour lived like a baron. His fort was strong ; large numbers of Indians assembled there to trade ; fishing with nets was there successful, game of every kind abounded ; and Lady La Tour pre- sided with grace in her New World castle. La Tour in l6'S^ seems to have been a nominal Roman Catholic, though his wife always remained a Huguenot. Jealous of the distinction of La To'"-^-, D'Aulnay begau to poison the minds of the French Court against him. He represented that instead of being the son of the well-known officer, Claude St. Etienne, La Tour was an impostor, being an adventurer named Turgis, the son of a mason of St. Germain, who had gone out as a commou soldier to Port Uoyal ; and that he had obtained the goods of Biencourt, some 70,000 livres in value, including the Port Royal Fort, by fraud. La Tour knew nothinij;' of the secret plot to destroy him. In 1640 he had gone 1641 ^^ Quebec, and in the following year he was surprised by a peremptory summons to repair to France to answer the charges made against him. A vessel, the St. Francis, was sent to conduct him to France. Though innocent, La Tour refused to go, on the ground that misrepresentations had been made against hira, and he well knew that D'Aulnay had the ear of the French Court. Seeing no help likely from the French Court, La Tour adopted the bold expedient of calling upon the Puritans of Boaton to assist him. The Bostonians, though willing enough to trade with all and sundry, were not disposed to embroil themselves in war. Nevertheless hearty ne- gotiations were maintained between La Tour and the Puritan governor, Winthrop. D'Aulnay had proceeded to France to further his designs, and a strong expeditiou was being fitted out to punish La Tour. It would seem that religious hate lay at the bottom of the conflict, for now La Tour appealed, and not unsuccessfully, to tho V, I letl iou em for tlio riiK Canadian Peoplk KV) Protestant city of Rochelle for help. The Kocliello merchants fitted out a vessel, the Clement by name, and sent out munitions of war and supplies, alon^" with 140 Rochelle troops, to assist the Governor of St. John. The siege of La Tour's fort began early in the spring, when D'Aulnay with several ships and 500 men -«,„ appeared in front of the fort. A short time alter the Clement of Rochelle came up the bay behind the French fleet, but could accomplish nothing. But full of expedients, having left his fort as well defended as possible, the brave La Tour, accompanied by his heroic lady, escaped past the blockading fleet at night in a shallop, boarded the Clement, and set sail in her for Boston. The vigorous commander succeeded in hiring four New England ships, and in enlisting 100 soldiers, and with these he hastened back to attack the blockading French vessels. Surprised beyond measure at the turn in events, D'Aulnay saw the hopelessness of his case, and speedily withdrew, running across the Bay of Fundy into Port Royal, pursued by La Tour. The vessels grounded, and a party of the Rochelle and the English troops landing, defeated those of D'Aulnay. A craft laden with furs was also seized ai^d the cargo divided between the Huguenots and Puritans. But D'Aulnay thwarted was not defeated : he again repaired Port Royal, and went to France to organize another expedition. At the same 'ime Lady La Tour also crossed the ocean and sought to gain assistance lor her husband's cause in Rochelle. D'Aulnay, hearing of her presence there, obtained a warrant for her arrest, which, however, she avoided by flight to England. The unflinching heroine now took ship tor America, but was very nearly captured by the vessel being driven on the Acadian coast. By assuming a disguise she eluded the French in Acadia, and sailed with the vessel to Boston. Absent nearly a year. Lady La Tour, having escaped almost every variety of perils, arrived safely at St. John. D'Aulnay next concluded a treaty with the Bostouians, * - i ^^^B /M ^^^^^B!w7V 'tnl'' ^B'<"vfSir| ^^■T ' ' ' ^^' ^^^^K? '> v ^i. '. ■'i' *s I ■ . ■ " *•■ . >■ '•■ ^'^li.'- 140 A Short History of but it inoant iiotLing, as tlicy still traded with La Tour ; for this, however, D'Aulnay afterwards avenged himself upon them. Soon the last lurid scene of the drama came. D'Aulnay, hearing of La Tour being absent in Boston, 1646. ' attacked the fort at St. John. The lady de- fended it, herself from one of the bastions directing the cannonade on the vessels. For three days and three nights D'Aulnay's attacks were driven off with loss, till a traitorous Swiss betrayed the fort while the garrison was at prayers. D'Aulnay offered terms of surrender, which being accepted he basely broke, and hanged the garrison, compelling the lady to be present with a halter around her neck to witness the execution. Three weeks after the heroine died of a broken heart ; her distinguished courage throws a halo of honour around her times. The American poet Whittier has in stirring accents of immortal verse preserved her name. Her hus- band heard the sad story in Boston. His fort lost, La Tour sought assistance from Sir David Kertk, the Governor of Newfoundland, but in vain. Driven from Acadia, La Tour went to Quebec, where he was received with much distinction by the governor, 1646 Montmagny. In New France he took a lead- ing part for four years in exploration and border warfare. Acadia, now completely under D'Aulnay's control, grew ; mills were erected ; vessels built ; the marshes were dyked ; the people increased in resources. Three hundred men were kept as a small standing army to defend the settlements. The victorious D'Aulnay con- cluded a treaty with Massachusetts amid much demon- stration, and left the harbour under a salute from Boston, Charlestown, and Castle Island. Freed from La Tour, the jealous D'Aulnay must now rid himself of the enterprising Denys. This adventurer had been successful. He had built up two fishing-sta- tions on the Cape Breton coast, and another at Chaleurs Bay. Armed with a high commission, D'Aulnay seized Denys' property, broke up his establishment, and drove u TiTF Canadian Pfopt.f 141 Ill's fornirr friend into exilo to Qneboo. But justice, though long deferred, ovei'takes the violent; and D'Aulnay de Chnrnissay was drowned in Port Royal River. ^' Rapacity, tyranny, and cruelty " is the terrible ti'initv in which his life in Acadia has been summed On the death of his rival La Tour hastened to France, and succeeded in obtaining the appointment of Governoi* of Acadia, with many valuable privileges. There was a prospect of much trouble, arising from the claim of the widow of D'Aulnay to her husband's property, but at length the difficulty was overcome by marri^gv, as quaintly expressed in the marriage contract, for the " peace and tranquillity of the country, ana concord and union between the two families.'^ A. prospect of peace now seemed to rise before the long-disturbed view of Governor La Tour, but this was soon dissipated. A creditor of D'Aulnay, who claimed a debt of no less than 260,000 livres, now came to seize the whole of Acadia. This daring man, Emmanuel le Borgne, carry- ing not sword and hre, but writs and ejectments instead, was the cause of serious trouble, and was about to seize Port la Tour, at St. John, when an English squadron took possession of the whole of Acadia, in the name of the Lord Protector, Cromwell ; it was some -« years after, however, restored to the French. Under the English La Tour succeeded in regaining all the old grants made him by Charles I. as a baronet of Nova Scotia, which it will be remembered he at the time refused. In 1660 he still retained his possessions, and we know but little more of him till the time of his death. 1672. Canada. In the last year of the 16th century, two French master- mariners sailed forth to different parts of the . -.g New World. One of these was the short-lived Captain Chauvin, who, as we have seen, entered the St. Lawrence to Tadoussac ; the other was a native of the :iy\ « , . '.'■',' . ■' ;,. (. / ' . ■'• >■ ■■ '■;' ,<< ■ ■' >■ ' ■' ■. » '' ■ ', ^ ' ,;■■ -iiM li 742 A SrioKr ITtstorv of Biscayan coast, sprnn<( of a race of hardy fishermen. This young mariner had risen to bo ship's quartermaster in the French navy, and in this year ho found employ- ment in the Spanish service, through tlie recommendation of his uncle, who by the Spaniards was known in their navy as the " Provencal Captain/' The young quarter- master, who now undertook to go to the West Indies, was the son of Antoine de Champlain. The young man, of the age of twenty-two, bore the name of Samuel, a name then common among the Huguenot people of Jlocholle and its neighbourliood. It was on g^ his return from the West Indies that the am- bitious captain threw himself willingly into an expedition, already named by us, along with tlio merchant Du Pont to visit the river of Canada. The voyage from Honflcur to Tadoussac occupied from the 15th of March to the 24th of May, and the summer was spent in conference with the natives, in the exploration of the St. Lawrence, and in the examination of the minerals of the country. We have already noticed that Henry IV., the re- doubtable Henry of Navarre, gave a wide commission to a Huguenot favourite, the Sieur de Monts, to especially open up and govern Acadia. Bancroft has well pointed out the remarkable part taken in early colonization by the French Calvinists. It was in the spring of 160 i that the active Santongeois Champlain joined his for- tunes to those of De Monts; and during that year the energetic captain had explored a good part of the North American coast along the North Atlantic ; and in the next spring as far south as Cape Cod was reached. It was after passing through, his Acadian experience that Champlain accepted the suggestion of his patron to go to Canada, which, from its fewer ports, and from its wide extent of territory, De Monts regarded as better suited for the fur trade than Acadia. It was in the next year, as we learn from Champlain's own account, that on the 3rd of July he chose the point of Quebec, so-called by the natives, probably from the Algonquin word, '' quebio " — the nar- 1607. 1608. < , 'A I 1 • * . ■■; \i 'II ii: Canatman ?F,orT.K. M3 ^■f.'- .1 rows or straits — on wliicli to found what has now come to 1)C known as the "Ancient Capital." Here he chose ii lit place, than which he found none better situated for the habitation of his infant colony. Workmen were at once employed to (nit down the nut-bearing trees of the point of land made by the entrance of the St. Charles Kiver into the Ht. Lawrence. A portion were employed in sawing lit building material, and others in hollowing out cellars and trenches for the dwellings. A plot to destroy Champlain was discovered by him, hut the ringleader, Jean Duval, a Norman locksmith, who had intended flight to Spain, after accoraplisliing liis malicious purpose, paid the penalty with a ti'aitor's death. Champlain, with twenty-seven or twenty-eight for a company, i emained for the winter at his newly-begun capital. Of his choice of Quebec as capital, the Abbe Fei'Iand has well said : " It is the key of the valley of the great river, of which the course is nearly 800 leagues ; it is tbe advanced watchman of the immense French Em- pire of which Louis XIV. dreamt, and which was to have extended from the Strait of Belleisle to as far as the Gulf of Mexico." The winter was one of misery and sickness, and in the spring but eight of the colony sur- vived. In the next year Champlain, with a few Frenchmen, joined the Algonquins and Hurons in an expe- dition against the Iroquois on the borders of tbe lake thenceforward to be known by the name of the explorer. Victorious over tlie Iroquois, after his return to his capital, Champlain set sail for France. It was on the 7th of March of the year following that, .„.q with a number of artisans, the commander again embarked at HonHeur for Canada. His taste for blood once awakened in the Indian wars, he was, unfortunately for his colony, soon involved in another attack on the Iroquois. Successful iu his expedition, towards the close of the year he returned, on account of the death of Henry IV., to France, leaving a garrison at Quebec of only sixteen men. It was while at home in France on this occasion that 1 • ' „ \ ■ 'v ;>' 7'" •i ■ ■^; : .-'i * ■ '•i; ▼il ^^^:l, 144 A SifOKT IlrSTOKV OF 1613. Chninplnin mnrvied a youn<^ «^ir] of tbo tender .'ii>'0 of twelve, of a Huguenot family named Boulle. Leaving behind his youthful spouse, in the next yenr j_jj Champhiin, with Pontgrave, again by a long and dangerous voynge reached the New World. It was in this year that Chainplain repaired to the " Grand Sault '^ which Cartier hud visited, and the moun- tain near, which he called Mont Hoyal. It had been but seventy-six years before that Cartier had visited this island and found a race of natives living, as we haveseen, in a fortified camp, in wooden houses, agriculturists, pottery- makers, and much more civilized than their neighbours; but now not one of them remained to greet Champlaiii. They had been crushed out between the opposing waves of Algonquins from the east, and Iroquois f I'om the south. The next notable event in the career of the founder was the voyage by which the hope was awakened that has been the cynosure of many generations since, of finding a north-west passage. Led by the stoiy of a deceiver, De Vignau, Champlaiu went up the Ottawa, hoping to reach a point on the Northern Sea. Though the expedition never reached the sea, it opened up the country to the French, and bronght the Indian tribes of the Ottawa and Georgian Bay into kindly rela- tions with the French. It was now necessary for the daring explorer to return to France, for the aiiairs of the trading company for which he acted were not in a pros- perous condition. The merchants of three French seaports entered into treaty for the formation of a strong company. The Kochelle merchants not having consented to enter the company, those of Rouen and St. Malo divided the enterprise between them. A charter was obtained from the king, and tlie Prince of Conde took the title of Viceroy of New France. To forward his enterprise the colonizer now sought to obtain spiritual guides for his colonists. Negotiations were opened with Father dii Verger, the Provincial of the Recollets, a branch of the reformed Franciscans, which had taken strong root in France and Belgium. Thus in the spring the Franciscan of Ni Lake >. ■r^i .11 TiiH Canadian Peopi.i:. 145 iktiiers, Deuis,Dolbeiiii, Le Caron, and a brother^ --., Dn Plessis, came to tho barren religious soil of New France to scatter the seed of tiiitli. It was one of the marks of tho French occupation of Canada that priest and explorer wei'e constant com- pauioDS. On a spot near Champlain's garden, within a short time of the arrival of the RecoUets was erected a small church to keep alive the sacred flame. It was in thefyear of return from France that the ex- plorer ascended the Ottawa, and passed by way .„.^ of Nipissing and French liiver to tho waters of Lake Huron, the " Attigouantan " of the natives. Leav- ing its shores, he journeyed southward down the lake now known as Simcoe, and reached our Lake Ontario, known to the Indians as " Entonoron." Crossing this lake Champlain encountered the Iroquois, and though twice wounded in the fray, gained the victory. He spent the winter in the Huron country, north of Lake Ontario. In tho colony two fruitless years succeeded. Religious disputes between Catholics and Huguenots, represented by the fathers and the Kochelle merchauts respectively, retarded the advance- meut of the colony, although Champlain succeeded, by his frank, true, and fair management, in keeping himself free from all entanglements. In 1620 the founder brought out his wife and family, believing *' that New France was about to put on a new face." The Prince of Conde, embarrassed by po- Htical and private troubles, made over to his brother- iu-law, the Due de Montmorency, the viceroy alty, re- ceiving the solatium of 11,000 crowns ; and iu the following year the distractions of trade were removed by all interests being consolidated in one company. The need for such union was evident, for in this year the whole population of Quebec, old and young, was but fifty. It was in 1624 that the fort of Quebec was built of stone. It was a considerable structure, 108 feet long, with two wings of 60 feet, and tour small towers at the angles of the structure. In the L ■'1 ^ ■.::l ■ '•'ii ' ' .'■ ■ " " ', . ' '■' 'h ' ■' 1 ,■ .<"■ - 4':' I- 146 A Short History nv 1625. i« 1628. followinj^ year tlio Jesuit f'iithers, Lalcniiint and IJrL'beiit" — nniiies cel('1)riite(l in tlio jinniils of the missions of their society — witli two others Jirrivcd in (yfinada from France. Kecollets and Jesuits now intro- duced dissensions, annoying and needless, into the infant colony. On the arriviil at Quebec of Emeric do Caen, a Hugue- not, who WHS in charge of the company^s operations, Champlaiu, with his wife and fiimily, who for five years had been cut off from the attractions of Parisian society, and were a,nxious to Iciive the colony, crossed over to France. The contentions betwecm the old and new asso- ciates of the consolidated company so annoyed the Viceroy that he transferred his office to his nephew, Do Levis, the Due do Ventadour. In the same year Champlaiu returned bo Quebec, and finding the fort out ol" repair, rebuilt it. At length the distressing differences of the associates, one part of whom desired, to colonize, and tho other to prosecute the fur trade, along with the (,'ousiderable success of the Huguenots in retaining in- fluence in New France, decided Cardinal Richelieu iu favour of organizing a new company. His brilliant scheme, known as the '' Company of New France," re- quired that in the first year two or three hundred citizens should be added to the colony, and. that in fifteen years the population should be increased to 4000. Laud and seed were to be furnished the colonists, religion must be supported by the company, and, what was the highest object to the cardinal, no heretic muet set unhallowed foot on the soil, but all must be Catholic and French. The following were the main concessions to the com- pany : 1. The possession of New France and Florida; 2. The right to alienate the land, and confer titles with certain restrictions; o. The monopoly of trade, all pre- vious grants being revoked, except cod and whale fishing in the deep sea; 4. The right to purchase at a certain rate all furs taken by the trappers of the country ; 5. The gift of two men-of-war ; 6. That artisans should he at liberty to return in six years ; 7. Free trade for the cd eeii lud ust lest ida; ritli pr .'G- lluug tain TiiK Canadian Pkof'Li:. ^47 incrcliandisi' dF New Franro ; H. The distribution of a (■ertaiu number of titles upon persons recommended by the company. It was in the first year of the operations of the com- pany that a new danger beset it. This was none other th.nn an attack by the PJnglish. Three brothers, David, Louis, and Thomas Kertk, who liad left their native country of France in angi^r at the severe treatment of thoniselves and their Huguenot compatriots, undertook ho task of assisting England against Now France. The Dnko of Buckingham was making a demon- -ggg strut ion to relieve the beleaguered Protestant town of Rochelle, and Kertk's attack in the New World was a part of the same campaign against France. Admiral Kertk made a demand l)y letter upon Champlain to surrender Quebec from so safe a distance down the St. Lawrence as Tadoussac. Though the garrison was at the time on short allowance, Champlain sent an answer of defiance, and the English in that year withdrew from the conflict. Li the following year, however, when famine had done its work, the starving people of Quebec .q^q were peering anxiously from their rocky citadel down the St. Lawrence, past the island of Orleans, for ships with supplies from France, when in July three English ships of war appeared instead. Champlain had no resource but surrender, and on July 22ud the English ensign waved over the fort of Quebec. Louis Kertk, with 150 men, landed, and was iustalled governor, while Champlain was taken aboard the admiral's ship and conveyed to England. The supply ship expected by Champlaiu's garrison was encountered and, after a severe contest, captured by the English. The capture of Canada gave great satisfaction to the English people, and to their colonies along the Atlantic, and yet, as we learn from Father Charlevoix, the possession was of little value at the time, for the progress of French Canada had been painfully slow. He mourns thus : "The fort of Quebec, surrounded by several wretched houses, and a number of barracks, two or three huts on L 2 t^ 'T: ■HI ' . . '^ '■*{ V ■ ■'!■ >- • • ; I ./4'.'. M. • •• ;: .V.J . ^ 1 1 ;'• -t 148 A Short IIistokv or i« the island of jMoiitrojil, also perhaps at Tadousaac, and in somo otbor directions on tlio Uivoi* St. Lawrence for the convenience of fishinu^ and trade ; a comnKMicetnent of settlement at three rivers . . . b(;hold I in what con- sisted New France and all the fruit of the discoveries of Vurnvzano, of Jae(|ues Cartier, of M. do Jloberval, of Champlain, of the ^reat expenditure of Mai-quis de la Roche, and of M. de Monts, and of the industry of a great uuniber of the Fi'onch ! " Tiio popuhition of the capital of the colony at the time was not above lUO. The Treaty of St. Gerinain-en-Laye, as iu the case of -gg- Acadia, also gave back Canada to France, not only to the intense chagrin of Kertk, its captor, but also of the whole English ])eople and colonies. Champlain was for one year after the restoration dis- placed from his position as governor, in ord(»r that J)o Caen might enjoy the sweets of office, and bo recouped for losses. That year Champlain employed in publishing a new edition of all his voyages. In the next year he was appointed by Cardinal 1633 Richelieu as his lieutenant. In March of that year, with the three ships, St. Pierre, St. Jean, and Don de Dleii, with about 200 colonists, the veteran commander set sail for his beloved Quebec. Ou his arrival Champlain was received with loud acclama- tions. A treaty with the Algon quins to secure the fur trade, the building of a new post on the Richelieu River, and greater efforts to convert the Indians were the features of the new French occupation. In gratitude for the restoration of Quebec to his nation, and in fulfil- ment of a vow, the founder, on the site of the present cathedral of Quebec, erected a new chapel, called*' Notre Dame de Recouvrance.^^ On Christmas Day Champlain died. As says a pious 1636. father, Champlain " took a new birth to heaven Death of the same day as the birth of our Saviour on Champlain. ^^^ earth.'' Few men in our Canadian annals have had the enormous difficulties to meet that Champlain encountered. He founded a nationality on the banks of the St. Lawrence, now numbering a million and a half of l/'i i| THE Canadian PEori.K. 149 rouIh. He RGomH to bavo boon a slirowil, calm, and pationt master of mon. Ifo could work with doterminod Cnlvinist and subtle Jesuit alike : 1k5 inediatc^d botwcen opposing" religious orders, thouj^li his sympathies wei'(^ always with tlio I'Viiiieiscans, "who,'' ho said, " wero less ambitious" tliMU their rivals : ho liarmonized th(i coidlictiu'*' interests of fur traders and colonists to a surprisin*^ de«j;ree, and soothed tho asperities inevitable to the early life of a New World colony. Ha])py had it becui for New Franco had tho governors who succeeded him been of kindred spirit. Hero for n time wo must leave tho French colony on the St. Lawrence.' I • ■»" • -^^ .1 BUt kre ■; ■ Section IT. — Ihu/Ush Cavalier and Pnvitan Colonies, An account has been given already of the unsuccessful attempt of Raleigh to found colonies at Koa- jjjg cava- iioke Island. Tho real settlement of Virginia liers. was begun thus. An enterprising Eiiglishtuau, Virginia. Captain Gosnold, having built a fort on an ^602. island of what is now Massachusetts, led to the formation in England of two companies for colonization. To the London Company was given the coast from :i8^ N. to Delaware Bay in nearly 40° N. From ^®"^- Delaware Bay northward, along the coast to the mouth of the Ste. Croix, in lat. 45° N., was bestowed upon the Bristol Company. The dividing-line of the territories was not marked. Captain Gosnold, along with Wingfield and John Smith, were among the leaders of the Virginia. colony. On January 1st the company, con- sisting of '^ poor gentlemen, tradesmen, serving men, and libertines,^^ sailed for the New World. On May 13th they arrived at their new homes, and in honour ^ From the standpoint of the author it were impossible to under- stand early Canadian colonization, and especially the later Loyalist movoment, without a sketch of what became the independent American colonies. t- ■f- '■ \ ' T^O A SiroRT ITiSTORV oi' .t, ■ f '■ v 1610. of their English l :'fi pi wu town, where now stands Bunker Hill Monument ; but, dissatisfied with the situation, many of the colonists soon crossed over the arm of the sea to '' Tremontane/^ where Boston now stands. Thus besides the Plymouth pilgrims, the Puritan settlements on Massachusotts Bay were Salem, Charlestown, and Boston. These three contained the flower of the Puritans. The settlers had not yet severed their connection with the Church of England. Yet when in their isolated condition they determined to found religious institutions, the circumstances favoured the adoption of the Independent model belonging to their predecessors at Plymouth. These were men of great fervour, faith, and intelli- gence. It is said that no less that forty graduates of the English University of Cambridge were among their clergy a few years after its founding in the colony of Massa- chusetts Bay. Among them were such men of note as 1633 John Cotton and Thomas Hooker, driven out of England to the New World by the fierce threats of Laud. Four thousand people in sixteen towns at this time made up the colony. And now they sought to set up a state after the theocratic model. ^' 1 am the Lord thy God, which brought thee up out of the land of bondage/^ seemed to be the voice of their Ruler speaking to them from the clouds, and who had delivered them from persecution. The laws of the Puritans were severe, for the Puritans were men of thoroughness. They would regulate the Sabbath and the family discipline by statute law. They were not quietists. They were the people who ruled a commonwealth, and whose ideas now govern half a con- tinent. They were narrow for they were zealous; but they showed a remarkable faculty for organization and govern- ment. They chose their governor, elected selectmen, condemned eighty-two tenets of theology objectionable to them ; sent into banishment, after having cut off from the Church, men and women who were troublers, as they would have plucked out a right eye — these and other im- portant matters^ such as the payment of their preacher Ma a 1 Tin: Canadian Pkopi.i;. T57 and school Qiastor, us well as raising levies to fight the Indians, they did by the simple machinery of the '^ town- )> meetmg. They valued education highly ; indeed, standing on a granite pedestal on Cambridge Green, near Boston, is a noble bronze statue of the broad-brimmed Puritan, John Bridge, the first Cambridge schoolmaster employed in the first decade of the colony ; while in front of the magnificent halls of the oldest university in America, a few hundred yards from Bridge's statue, sits the figure in bronze of the devout young founder of Harvard College. Bent on dominion, it was not long till .«.„ Massachusetts extended her boundaries to the north, and included the territory now in the States of Maine and Vermont. The unyielding temper of these rulers of the coast may be seen in the severe dealing with the Quakers .gg^ and Baptists, whom they regarded as disturbers of the peace. The part of the colony settled by Endi- cott, about Salem, seems to have been overrun by a witch- burning epidemic, not in any way different from that which was at the time prevailing in England and Scot- land. To Massachusetts belonged the chief task of defending British interests on the North Atlantic coast of America. Massachusetts was indeed New England. Her sons valiantly defended her frontier from the Indians, and her coat-of-arms shows an Indian and a military arm and hand grasping a drawn sword above him. Tlie Massachusetts militia took part in the wars against the French in the New World, and a cross is still dis- played at Harvard College, captured from the fortress of Louisbourg. In such a school colonial troops were trained. The sturdy independence of New England is seen in her statesmen. There was a notable succession : Otis, Samuel Adams, Prescott, and Warren. They were of the same stock which made England great — of the same ilk as Hampden, Drake, and Hawkins. Stirred with a sense of injustice, the colonists showed in Boston Bay, Bunker Hill, and Lexington, that they were worthy of their lineage. t J IR 158 A Short IIistous oh !i rili; ;■'::: I,:,:,. n. It;:; 111'! Tlio history of the Stato lyiii^ in thu valley along the Conneeticut Kivor is that of a frontier settle- J.^^!t^^ ment between the Puritans and Dutch. From ticut. 1 /. • -1 1 • i 1 the nrst it was evident that it was to bo a bit of Puritan New England. Its iirst governor, John Wintlirop, junior, carne out under the patent of Lords Brook and Say and Si'le, and pulled down the Dutch arms in the territory. A difference of opinion in the colony of Massachusetts was the cause of the beginning of Connecticut. One of the best bands of settlers that ever came to the New World was that which jirrived to settle in Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, under 'Hiomas Hooker, known as the Braintree Company, which came with the ministers, John Cotton and Samuel Stone. In their sober Puritan humour they said, " they had all needs for life : they had Cotton for clothing, Hooker for their fishing, and Stone for their building.'^ But Hooker and his followers did not take kindly to the colony of Massachusetts : per- haps the ministers did not agree, or ])ossibly Governor Winthrop was too dictatorial, but the Hooker colony sold out their houses to a new company, and taking their journey through 100 miles of trackless forest^ driving their cattle before, and carrying their sick on litters, they founded Hartford, so-named after the birthplace of Mr. Stone. The new colony bore the brunt of a fierce Indian war with the Pequods. Another company of settlers of property and respecta- bility coming to Massachusetts also failed to regard with favour its usages and requirements, and sailed south to settle thirty miles west of the mouth of the Connecticut River. They lived for a year " under no rule but a compact to obey the Scriptures,'* and formed the most intensely rehgious of the Puritan settlements known as the New Haven Colony. This settlement chose a rich merchant, Theophilus Eaton, as their governor. Thus there were two independent religious democra- cies, Hartford and New Haven, founded within the same territory. The Governor Winthrop of the Hartford sec- 1635. 7 riii: Ca\.\[>i w Pf.om.i:. i.=;9 tioii succeeded l)y tact and ouergy in getting' ii curpora- tion established by Charles II. — '* The Governor -g-g and Company of Connecticut." New Haven re- sisted the encroachments of this vigorous company, but fit last, in order to avoid being swallowed up by the Dutch, took refuge under the charter. On the jggj visit of the royal commissioner, no course was left but to take the oath of allegiance to the king, and the duty, though disagreeable, was performed by these independent religionists. The colony suffered much from King IMiilip's Indian war, but ever bore itself bravely. The people of Connecticut from the first showed a con- siderable faculty for self-government, as well as for shrewd diplomacy. While Massachusetts J5ay settlements were too assertive to live at peace with the king, Connecticut succeeded, '' by bending before the breeze," in sailing within the limits of the king's favour, and in con- sequence retained, though not without difficulty, her free charter. Schools wei*e established and maintained, towns were improved, legislation was wise, debts were paid, and her magistrates were worthy of their office. Taken altogether, Connecticut lived the happiest, most prosperous, and most contented of all the Atlantic States. This arose largely from the respectable and upright character of her first settlers. Religiously the people seem to have been harmonious, and the foundation of Yale College at Newhaven was an event of national importance. While Massa- ,„qq chnsetts was the representative of an outspoken and somewhat quarrelsome uonconformity, Connecticut was the home of a more quiet and peaceable, though none the less determined type of Puritanism. So early as 1G03 the two small English craft, Sjjeed- 'i.'dl and Discoverer, under Captain Pring, who had traded with the natives along the coast, Hampshire, from Penobscot Bay southward, had discovered the islands along the coast, and found the river of Maine and New Hampshire. The redoubtable Captain Smith had entered, like Captain Priug, the Piscatqua, destined i M i6o A Short IIistokv ok fm^ Ml »'!:' "iiiii •■.(I! ill 1653. 1679. to bo tho river at whoso mouth stniids the only port of New Hampshire — Portsmouth. One of the most oncrgetic oi" the Plymouth Council, Sir Fordinand Gorges, associated with himself ono Mason, who had been governor of a Newfouiulland pi' utation, and to these two jidventurers was n the country between tho Atlantic, the Law- rence, tho Kennebbec, and tho M(U'rimac — a district in- cluding the present New Hampshire. Lawsuits on tho part of English claimants, and contests with the French, who looked npon this as a part of Acadia, followed in duo course. Li IGU tlio colonists united with Massa- chusetts. Fifty or sixty English Hampshire families represented the whole population, thirty years after the colony was begun ; but some time afterwards the settlement was deemed by Charles TL of sufficient importance to bo erected into a royal province. In later years New York and Massachusetts both asserted a claim to portions of the ill-defined terri- tory, until in the following century the boundaries of 1741 what is now known as the '^ Granite State " were fixed. To this Switzerland of America many a tourist finds his way. Excepting the Irinh and French Canadians of its manufacturing towns, the people of this State are purely the descendants of the original English and Scottish settlers. From the summer heat of these great religious move- ments, there follows not only a harvest-time of useful fruitage, but an after-growth of spurious seeding. As after the German Reformation came the extravagances of Miinster and his followers, so out of Puritanism, with its thorough earnestness and power, grew an abundant yield of Separatist fruit. The right of private judgment abused, and unmodified by a principle of charitable cohesion, leads to disintegration in. society. Just as in civil government the struggle for freedom in the case of the revolting colonies led to General Washington's complaint that after the fight of Bunker Hill every colonist soldier thought himself a Rhode Island. ■ r^ THi: Canadian Pfoplk. i6r captain j so in tlio strai^j^lo for the soul liborty it was not surprising that the tendency towards continued dis- integration sliould show itself. Especially might this linvo been expected among sucli masterful men as the English Puritans. Even women rose to bo loaders ol! sects. The consciousness of such danger undoubtedly led the I^uritan leaders to adopt strong measures. It is, however, rarely that the divisive tendency spoken of is found so strongly developed as it was in one of such marked private and domestic virtues as Roger Williams. Williiims was an English Puritan of great ability and logical power. To him the truth was everything. While the idea of a Puritan theocracy as held in Massachusetts and Connecticut, or on the other hand of an aristocratic Government and State Church, as in Virginia, have perished, among the English of the American con- tinent, Williams's principle of a severance of Church and State has become supreme. It will be noticed by careful observers that the grounds for the persecution to which Williams was subjected in Massachusetts, were the conclusions as to civil affairs reached by him as flowing from his religious doctrines. As in religious matters, Williams objected to a fort- nightly meeting of the Puritan ministers for the dis- cuission of religious questions lest this should lead to a superintendency or ecclesiastical control ; so it was a mark of the civil system established by him that for a time it " would have no magistrates." While the prin- ciple of Williams, in which he differs entirely from the Massachusetts Puritan, that " the civil magistrate may not intermeddle even to stop a church from apostasy and heresy " is undoubtedly correct, yet his antipathy to authority in civil matters led him very near to the position of the " levellers " or " root and branc' men.'" The colony of Rhode Island, while certainly a school for the development of rigid principles, was also distinguished for its turbulence. Driven forth by a tyrannical edict of Puritan Mas- sachusetts, in the cold of winter, it was by the kind suggestion of Governor Winthrop that Williams made a M 'm^ l63 A SirOKT HfSTORV Ol w 1743. new homo on tho unoccupied slioro of NTan-ji^ansott Bay, 1636 wlu^ro, witli piouH gratitude, ho naiuod his Hct- tU'incnt " I'rovidouco.'* His HettU;mont proved a city of refuge for religious exiles — and these were not fow — from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Now York. It was seven years later that the four towns already sprung up of i^rovidence, Newport, Portsmouth, and Warwick were united under one juris- diction, and given a charter by the English Parliament. To lloger Williatns's colony, by invitation of tho founder, gravitated with her adherents tho remarkable lady. Anno Hutchinson, the source of such serious trouble in Massachusetts, whose tendencies may bo judged by her habit of referring to the Puritan ministers as the " black coats " trained at tho " Ninneversity.'^ But even the mild restraints of lihode Island drove tlio Hutchinsons away from the separatist settlement into tho wilderness of New York. Rhode Island was the smallest of the original colonies, as indeed it is still tho smallest of tho American States. m Section TIT. — Colonies of Various Oru/ins. The days of tho early English Stuarts were sore upon Enelish ^^^ ^^^^° disagreed with the State religion. But Catholics while a Puritan like Baxter might be soundly in Mary- berated by a judge, and perhaps condemned ' to pay a fine, yet he was looked upon only as a member errant of the Church as by law established. But so strong was the feeling against the Papists, as they were derisively called, that they were considered as enemies of the State, and so were not eligible to hold civil office. Like hunted beasts, the Catholics hid them- selves in their homes if they were poor, or sought refuge from the intolerance of the age, if they were rich, in the Catholic countries of the Continent, for in the time of the first James or the two Charleses, insult and perhaps legal penalty were meted out to them. As in times of persecution there are some so con- stituted as to embrace a cause out of sympathy for the Tirr. Canapian Pf.oi'i.r. I '53 ,.♦1 ■* ' <■ I siiffiM'Inpfs of its adliorrnts, so Sir fioorofo Calvort, an Oxf(jnl ^radiinto, u Mofiil)er of Purliaf'^LMit, an officer of Htate, and a most activo pnblic man, ..jrrendored office on account of a chaii^o of opinion, and idtmtifiod hini- solf with tho proscribed CatholicH. Ilia high atandin«^ and personal qualities retained him some conwideration from James I. Like moat of the public men of the time, Calvert took an interest in New World settlements. Not only (lid ho belong to the famous Virginia Company, but he had secured a grant of the Peninsula of Avalon, on the barren coast of Newfoundland. Ho now sought to establish a New World homo for his co-rebgionists. The most noted feature of his colony was its toler-.nco of Jill forms of faith. A strong contrast has always been drawn between the tolerant colony of Maryland and the persecuting Puritan colonies. Yet the case is often misconceived. The Puritans fled not so much to obtain fret'dom to worship God, for they were gaining ground in England at tho time. They desired to rule and could not brook kingly authority. They were desirous of founding a theocratic state. They wore masterful men, and the spirit of domination which they showed in tho L'onnnonwealth they bore to the New World. It is a mistake to regard them as a covey of hunted partridges Hying for cover. They neither understood nor tried to understand the principles of toleration. They were narrow ; and b jwever wrong and little to be admired, yet they were not inconsistent with their other opinions when they sought by law to repress divergences of behef. With Calvert, or as he is better known, Lord Balti- more, and his Catholics, the case was different. They had mainly given up hope of regaining England. The severities following the Gunpowder Plot, as well as the previous execution of Mary Queen of Scots, had broken for half a century the expectations of the Roman Church. Lord Baltimore sought for peace. In order to obtain it, he adopted a like expedient, afterwards used by James II. when he became tolerant, threw open his colony to all in order that he and his Catholic colonists might M 2 1 ■ 1 164 A Siioiri' TIiSTOKV oi" >, V !t"'!' -.1,1 l[.l, •I '\ unmolested onjoy their own Initli. 'IMio law of tolerance, liowevcr, only included Christians, for an early law was passed in Maryland, that death should be the penalty for the denial of the doctrine of the "^Prinity. Lord Baltimore, finding Vir^^inia pnjper impossible as a residence for Catholics, turned his attention to the coast lying north of the Potomac. This region he named Maryland in honour of Charles I/s queen, Henrietta Maria. The territory was bestowed absolutely upon Lord Baltimore, with a feudal obligation to render two arrows and one-fifth of the precious m(;tals found to the king. The charter, however, gave large powers of self- government to the people. The royal gift was now found to conflict with a trading licence previously given to William Clayborn^;, a surveyor, through the agency of the founder of the Nova Scotia baronetcies, Sir William Alexander. This double grant afterwards pro- duced conflict. On the death of Calvert, his son Cecil became heir to the territory, and to Calvc^rt the younger was for- mally granted the charter. It wjis in two vessels, tli(^ ArJi and iliCi Dove, that on the 22nd of November Leonard, brother of Cecil Calvert, with about 200 Catholic gentlemen Jiiid their retinues, departed for their New World plantation. JJelayed at Barbadoes . _„ and elsewhere, it was not till the 24th of February that they reached Virginia, and not till March that they ascendt;d the Potomac, and planting the cross on an island, took possession of it in the name of King Charles. Kindly relations were at once established with the Indians, and the colony endured but few hardships. Within a year a popular Legislative Assembly had met, the only thorn in the side of the colony being the continued hostility of the claimant Clayborue, whose influence in ^ irginia and with the Indians was con- siderable. The disturbed state of England under the last years of Charles I., and the supremacy of the Puritans in the Commonwealth, gave considerable annoyance to the Maryland Cathol'cs^ who were royalists. The uncertainty 1634. tain M Butch, Man ha tbe l)u New N Soon from tlicy o) the In( their te ^vas sna fiettle^s. It w . ,1*^ riiK Canadian Veovia:. 165 as to the allegiance to hv. roqiiircd oF tlieni rosultcd in Jilmcst su]ireine antliority in their own territoiy being ^iveu to tlieir Legishitive Assembly^ the king still being- re ojirded as snzoi-ain. Within a iew years the -gg^ |)()pulation of the country was estimated at iihoiit from eight to twelve; thousand, these a mixture of K(jraan Catholics, English and Massachusetts Puritans, and Virginia Prelatists. No gi-eat ieligious or philanthropic purpose led to tlic; settlement of the New World possessions which had been discovered by Captain Hudson N^^^o^^*^- on belialF of the Dutch. It was in the year leio. Jil'tcr the navigator's return from his last voyage for the Dutch that a number of Amsterdam merchants sent out a ship to trade with tlie Indians on Manhattan Island. As a consequence of success in this venture, a small ti-ading village was built where the city of Now York now stands. It was probatily in the autumn oi' 1014 that a small I'ort was ])uilt to protect theii* trade by the Dutch. Christiannse, Blok, and May are the names of the three chief captains of their e;irly expedition of five ships. Capo May and Blok Island commemorate two of them to this day. In the next ye r Captain Hendricksen as- cended the Hudson River, and built Fort Orange where Albany now stands. In 1G21 Manhattan Island was bought from the Indians for twenty-four dollars. Cap- tain May took possession of New Jersey for the -g^o Butch, erecting Fort Nassau. The colony on Maidiattan Ishmd. was named New Amsterdam, and the Dutch settlements collectively v^ere known as the New Netherlands. Soon the claim of the Dutch to the coast extended from Cape Henlopen to Cape Cod. Of Delaware Bay they once took possession, but they were driven out by the Indians, and Lord Baltimore afterwards occupied their territory. On the north the coast of Connecticut was snatched from the Dutch, as we have seen, by English settler's. It was about this time that another European i f t ' Hi 66 A Short llrsTORV or 1639. ii '■;■(.>. I"i:.l'i,; • •ll* I,, ,'r I'" I'l;!;!;! I..;', i.i r,;; Lii::.i 'f :."i!,;|! !!•''::? nation ^'aincJ, for u. time, a footJiold on tlio Atlantic cojist. This was Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus had before liis death proposed such a seheino Delawar " *^ ^^^ conntrjnien. Two vessels, the Key and Oriffen, laden with Swedes and Finns, were taken to America, by ]*eter Minuet, the former Dutch fj'overno)- of New Amsterdam. By purchase from the natives the colony obtained the coast alon^ Delaware Bay, known as Poutaxat. Delaware Bay, it has been often said, was visited by Lord de la Warro in IGIO, but this report is not now regarded as authentic. An Indian war, brought on by a cruel massacre of an jg^g Algonquin camp by the Dutch, desolated New Netherlands. It was when u, treaty had been made with the Indians that Peter Stuyvesant, the ffimous J3utch governoi", arrived, finding a colony of some oOOO 1646 souls all told. A misunderstanding betwecu the Swedes and the J3utch on the coast 1(^1 to the old soldier Stuyvesant organizing an expedition which captured all the Swedish settlements, and New Sweden was blotted out. Stuyvesant ruled his enlarged colony with a somewhat strong hand, but tolerant prin- ciples prevailed. It became an asylum not only for tlio Dutch i^rotestants, but for Huguenot I'ugitives and exiles from Bohemia, the Maritime Alps, and Switzerland. A broad foundation was being laid for a commerce which is now one of the world's wonders at New York. But England could hardly have been expected to have allowed such colonies to cut her seaboard in twain. Ac- cordingly, the grant of the Dutch coast was given as apart of that conferred upon his brother James by easy-goinj,'' CUiarles 11. N(3W Netherlands was changed by antici- pation to New York, and an expedition of three ships arrived before New Amsterdam, and demanded their surrender to England. The old warrior, Stuyvesant, would have fought, but the people were without hope, 1664 ^"^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ *^^ September the commercial city of the Atlantic seaboard, and the territory of the Empire State, passed ovej" to Bi-itaiu. Similar to Delaware in the character of its early Penn giouf heiii! ligl, virtu( Wan M Jania stan( him, "'Aine final tic at havin; forsoc A del hy th Worh roligic new ilos 'I'lii'. Canadian Pi;oi'i,i:. 167 Swodisli and iJiitch sottJorK, who iiad coiiio New Jer- (!Vf3n before the Pilgrim fathers landed in Mas- sey. Kachusetts Bay to the coast between Long ^^^®' Isljind and Cajx; May, New Jersey has been an impor- tant State. It was ciidod. by Charles II. to his brother .lariies, who afterwards passed over the tcn'itory l)estowed i)\i him to Lord Jierkeley and Sir George Carteret, tlie latter being the governor of th(5 English Isle of Jersey, hence the name of the New World State. ^J'hc Dutch succeeded in dispossessing the English of it, .g^g but Sir William Penn and other Quakers sub- sequently purchased it. It was a hard battle-ground during the Revolutionary War. To their early history do all countries look })ack as to tlicir golden age. This is usually because, not only are the infant strifes forgotten, but the v^Jfa enforced simplicity of the earlier time is in strong contrast to the artificial and conventional state of the later period. In few cases has a golden age better deserved the name than that of the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania. The quietist followers of an P]nglish reli- gious enthusiast, George Fox, were democratic without being demagogues, and were believers in an " inner light '' without being mononumiacs. They practised the virtues of industry and domestic life, qualities too often wanting in enthusiasts in political and religious matters. William Penn, the son of the famous admiral who took Jamaica, and grandson of another naval officer, notwith- standing the obloquy and even imprisonment endured by him, forsook the warlike course of his fathers, and be- '"Amo an uncompromising opponent of war, even as the linid resort of nations which disagree. Of high scholas- tic attainments, of iirst-rate political ability, and one having avenues of honour waiting to receive him, he forsook all to "suffer affliction with the people of God.'' A debt owed his father by Charles II. was paid to Penn l)y the bestowal of a grant of territory in the New AVorld, By his persecuted and suffering co- -gg_ religionists, New Jersey, Delaware, and the new State, to be afterwards known by h!s name, were ^; .'I * 168 A Short History of ''mdfl' l?vi ■'-'tit II',, 4 f'Vl|},| Jill the centre towards whicli flight was made from lutolu- rant New England, and the unkind mother-land. On the northern edge of his famed Philadelphia, the expatriated gentleman and his friends met the Algon- 1683 quins of the region with the olive-branch, and showed the brotherly love inculcated alike by his creed and his noble nature. *' We are all one flesh and blood," said the white chief to the redman, and tlio chiefs of Penn\s forest swore friendship " as long as the moon and sun shall endure." Not only kings and princes of Europe admired this peaceful Arcadia, but so, too, did the poor and the persecuted from England and Scotland, from Ireland and Wales, from the Netherlands and the upper waters of the Rhine, and thus the foundations were laid of one of the most influential States of the American Union. Noted alike for its kindly Quakerism and for its sturdy Calvinism, the " keystone '' State has distributed swarms of " Pennsylvania Dutch " and Irish-American Protes- tants to every part of the continent. Two young sur- veyors, Charles Mason and Dixon, ran the line between Pennsylvania and Maryland, a famous boundary in later anti-slavery discussions. Philadelphia gradually became one of the most important places of the seaside colonies. It was here that the celebrated Congress of the Colonies „g met, when the thirteen colonies declared themselves independent of British rule, and Benjamin Franklin became chairman of the Committee of Safety. Not an Indian war, not a case of persecu- tion, nor since 1780 the disgrace of owning a slave, has disfigured the fair fame of this great State, which now contains upwards of 4,000,000 of inhabitants. Many as we have seen the motives leading to the . foundation of new colonies along the Atlantic seaboard to have been, none were nobler than those which led to the settlement of Ceorgia. The penal laws of England against debtors, which had not yet disappeared in their severity even so late as the time of Dickens, were far more severe a century ago. To bo a debtor and unable to pay subjected the unfortunate token it fi THE Canadian People. 169 man thus involved to treatment almost as ignominious as that of a Roman client from his patron. The common jail with all its horrors, and that of a quarter of a cen- tury before Howard's woi'k of amelioration, was the home till death came to their relief, of multitudes whose only crime was poverty. A noble-hearted and generous man was stirred to activity by witnessing the sufferings of the helpless debtors. This was James Oglethorpe, an English general, who had fought against the Turks, and along with Marlborough. The pot^t Rogers called him '' the finest figure of a man you ever saw.'' Edmund Burke said he was a more extraordinary person than any he had ever read of. Oglethorpe having had a friend sorely oppressed as a debtor, appealed to Parliament, and gained some modification of the law. But the opening of the prison doors to a large number of these unfortu- nate debtors but threw them helpless on the world. The extensive territory from the land of the Iroquois south to 34° N. lat. was surrendered by the • • 172ft Cherokee Indians to Britain. From this, three 1732' years later, the philanthropic general obtained, under Letters Patent, a territory organized for the pur- pose of conveying thither a number of the homeless debtors. This he named from the reigning sovereign, George II. In November, with 116 unfortunate emi- grants, the general took ship for his new plantation of Georgia, and a peaceful settlement alongside the Creek Indians was made where Savannah now stands. Religious persecution sent, in the next year, a hundred Bavarian refugees to the new colony. These were a part of the quiet and industrious Salzbergers, who were expatriated because they swore upon the " host and " consecrated salt " to be true to their faith, and to the number of some 20,000 in all were driven forth to be scattered hither and thither as rebels. The pious Bava- rians named their New World settlement " Ebenezer," in token of deliverance. In thf-ir southern homes they be- came successful producers of indigo and silk. Through !i grant from the English Parliament, and from private 1733. }) \ fill* 170 A Short History ok 'kill '"1 Hi l'.,iii,3|. \$ i subscriptions^ Ji?:]0,U0O of a Lund was raised for llic; colony. The colony was popular, and accordingly many of the weak and unsuccessful — not, it is true, the best settlers for a new country — found their way thither. Hardy Swiss and Scottish Highlanders of a more self- reliant kind were also induced to colonize lands in Georgia. General Oglethorpe's second expe- dition brought considerable numbers to the colony, and, with the others, the brothers John and Charles Wesley, while two years later the celebrated revivalist Whitfield visited the scattered settlements of the colony. Whitfield founded an orphanage called '^ Bethesda," at Savannah, and through his fervid appeals subsequently obtained sufficient for its maintenance. Troublous rela- tions with the Spaniards of Florida afterwards led to bloodshed. At the very beginning of the colony slavery obtained a foothold, though Oglethorpe had forbidden it ^as opposed to the teachings of the Gospel. A royal government and council were appointed by the British Government, and in the year of the 1752 . Revolution the colony had so prospered as to contain 70,000 souls. General Oglethorpe, the founder, died in a ripe old age, having lived to see Georgia a prosperous State of the American Union. 1730. 1785. ,;„!' m^ I 'mi; m m \m\ :i^ THE Canadian Peoi'LK. i7r )) CHAPTER V. THE FRENCH REGIME IN CANADA AND ACADIA. (References: "Notensurla Wpuvelle France," Paris, 1872, by H. Harrisse ; " Decouvertes et Etablissements de Cavalier do La Salle," Paris, 1870, by G. Gravier; •' Discovery of the JNortb-West by John Nicolet," Cincinnati, 1881, by C.W. Butterfield; '' Margry's Original Docnnients," 3rd and 4th volumes, Paris, 1879 ; " Histoire lies Canadiens Fran(;ai.s," Montreal, 1882, by B. Suite: "The Old Regime in Canada,'' Boston, 1884, by F. Parkman; "Premier Etablissement de la Foi dans la Nouvellc France," Paris, 1691, by Father 1 je Clercq, aad also Father Membre ; "Nouvelle Decouverte," 1697, by Father Hennepin ; " La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West," Boston, 1884, by F. Parkman; "Montcalm and'Wolfe," 2 vols., Boston, 1884, by F. Pnrkman; " L' Histoire du Canada," Quebec, 1852, by F. X. Garnrau ; " History of Canada, French Regime," Montreal, 1872, by H. H. Miles; " History of Modern Europe,'' vol. iii., 1864, by Thomas Henry Dyer ; " Manual of Mo- dern History," London, 1851, by W. C. Taylor; "Documentary History of New York," vols. x. xi. ; " Maple Leaves," Quebec, 1863, by J. M. Lemoine ; " The Conspiracy of Pontiac," 2 vols., Boston, 1884, by F. Parkman ; " Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. iv., Boston, 1886, by Justin Winsor.) Section I. — Governor and People. From the death of Champlain to the close of the French regime in Canada, was nearly 130 years. As regards the improvement of the colonists in comfort and the establishment of stable government, this period presents a melancholy picture. The heartless autocracy of Louis XIV., then flourishing in France, was also felt in Canada, with the difference that its agent, the French Governor, was in the New World playing the tyrant over a handful of miserably poor, nay, hungry colonists. "v ir* '.-'.'ik f 'j '■ ># i m 172 A SiiOR'i' History of Successive Governors arrived and departed vvitli but little change ; a struggle between the Governor and tho bishops and priests of the Church was the rule rather than the exception ; working at cross purposes, the Governor and the Royal Intendant often lived at open enmity; and at all this the poor people looked on, usually regarding the quarrels as none of theirs, and knowing that whichever party won, no benefit followed to them. The records of the time exhibit duplicity, petty spite, and selfishness — a condition of things almost unparalleled. The Colonial Governor always had enemies in the Court of the king plotting against him ; at the Governor's chateau at Quebec every explorer in the wilds, who had a fur-trading licence, was sure to be traduced by rivals ; in the exploring party in the forest mutinous spirits were ever plotting against the leader ; and religious orders usually appeared on the surface as having a hand in every dis- pute. It seemed as if loyalty and trust had deserted New France. It were useless to follow in detail the appointment and recall of Governors, many of whom left no mark on the country. Our readers will find their names in lists in the Appendix. We but single out some prominent names, and though there were some truly great men during this regime, their fewness shows the barrenness of the period in other respects. Midway in the period c lb -t stands the name of a most remarkable man, who, as Prime Minister, guided the destinies of France. This was Jean Baptiste Colbert. In the year 1651, at the age of thirty-two, Colbert became confi- dential agent of Cardinal Mazarin. In 1 661 the Cardinal's nominee became the head of the Government, and was some years after appointed Minister of Marine, of Com- merce, the Colonies, and the King's Palace. Colbert reduced French commerce from a state of chaos to order, and likewise built up a marine for his country. It is true his economic ideas were no better than those of his age, but his organizing ability was surprising. Colbert scouted diplomacy ; his methods were severe, even un- li il t' I ■■ ;!' iFFK Canadian I'Knpi.i:. 73 merciful — so much so, tliat ho was known as the " man of marble/' New France was under his special control. Having lu'oken up org-anized corruption in France, the reformer, ill 1()G."3, reraodcllcd colonial affairs. "A royal adminis- tration " was established in place of the *' old company '* rule, and the ^^ Sovereign Council of Quebec '* was con- stituted. On this Council were the Governor, the Bishop, "" imd Royal Intendant. At first there were also five councillors ; afterwards the number became twelve. These councillors were appointed by the Governor and F^ishop conjointly, and their election was annual. When the Council sat as a Court, the Governor presided ; on Lis right sat the Bishop, on his left the Intendant. According to the rules drawn up, the desire of the rulers was to make the Council " neither aristocratic, nor demo- cratic, but monarchic." The Council had no power of taxation. This the King retained, though for years it was not exercised. It was not even permitted to the people to impose a tax upon themselves. The King, of his bounty, at times gave over his revenues to tho people. The Constitution of 16G3 seemed to give some power of electing repre- sentatives to the people, but France was too strongly absolutist to allow this to remain. In 1667 the affairs of the colony were again under a monopoly, known as the " West India Company,'' and to this were given all the rights of Richelieu's former company of 100 associates. At this time the population of the colony did not exceed 2500, from the Sagueuny to Montreal. At Quebec there were but 800 inhabitants. Colbert had resolved to send out 300 colonists yearly. In 1663 some 300 persons embarked for New France at Rochelle, but little more than half of them reached France or Acadia. They were " clerks, students, or the classes who had never worked" — not very promising settlers ! Colbert chose capable men for carrying out his plans. One of these was M. Talon, the Intendant. He was sent to introduce the new system. He was not the head of ;^.?9fWc* ■ 174 A Short ITistorv ov III if" tlie colony ; ho was tlio workinjj^ head notwitlistanding. T)e CourcelleH, an si^rcoablo but indolent man, was Governor. A. still higher oflicial, Viceroy of French America, was appointed, having the French West Indies in his jurisdiction as well. This officer was the Marquis do Tracy, a lieutenant-general of* the royal army. The Viceroy, Governor, and lutendant all arrived in the colony in 1GG5. In this year came a largo number of immigrants from France ; cattle and horses were jdso brought — the latter for the first time. With the colonists there was also a body of men of the Carignan Regiment, brave troops who had fought with renown against the Turks. Some of these afterwards settled down in New France, and tho officers, who were chiefly noblesse, became seigniors. It was Talon's duty to report to Colbert on the state of the country. The Intendant was of the same enter- prising spirit as the great Prime Minister, He was a good friend of the explorers, and had enlarged views as to government. He encouraged the fisheries, especially seal-fishing, tho export of timber, and the cultivation of the soil. In 1 008 Talon obtained leave to return to France, but in the following year was again sent out as being indispensable to the colony. With him there returned 700 emigrants, nearly half of who were soldiers. In 1072 Talon returned to France. Tired of his Canadian life. He Courcelles was allowed, on his own re(piest, to retire from New France. In the year that Talon returned there went to Canada Frontena ^® man, after Champlain, most celebrated in its early history. This was Louis de Buade, Count de Frontenac et de la Paluau. De Buade was bora in 1020. He had served in the French wars in Italy, the Netherlands, and Germany, and had risen to be lieutenant-general. Frontenac was large-hearted, but his high birth and military career had made him haughty and severe. This was the more noticeable as he followed the indolent De Courcelles. He maintained a high ceremony and strictness in the affairs of State. With stern promptitude the Governor called to account lii JN' ■ I* Tin: Canadian I'koim.k. '75 Coinmandnnt Porrot, of Montroiil, for inaliidininistration, and tho wrong-doer was thrown into prison. His caso was, liowevcr, takon np by sonio of the Snlpicians of ^loiitroal, notably by tho Abb6 Fenolon, a rohitivo of tho {^^rcat French Ai'chbishop. Governor Frontetiac wa3 loudly denounced in Montreal. Tlui old soldier retorted; I'errot and LA'nelon were sent as prisoners to France. Disputes also arose between Froutenac and tho JJishop, and between Governor and Intendant. Tho French (jlovernnient couhl restore quiet only by recalling both (jovcrnor and Jntendant. 'i'he ljisli()p\s party rejoiced irroutly at this, but tho colony could ill spare Froutenao in its coming troubles. Failure and defeat marked tho course of Froutenac's successors. M. do la ]3;ii're, a distinguished niival ofHcer, soon arrived, but was glad to take his flight from the worry of Indian attacks, and the din of disputes with rho clergy, in 1(585. His successor was the Marquis do Denonville, an honourable and religious military ofHcer, hut misfortune seemed to follow his every step, Tho Iroquois sorely beset tho colony. An expedition was planned with much deliberation against their country, hut resulted in nothing of consequence. His recall was imperative, and under the pretence of asking his advice on military matters in France Denonville was relieved, and the veteran Frontenac returned to Canada. Bracing himself firmly to tho task_, tho Governor checked the British in tho border settlements, and held the Iroquois well in h 1. With clear eye and un- diminished vigour, thv. .Aged soldier held his difficult post till his death, November 28th, 1G98. Frontenac^s place was hard to fill. A gallant and cautious officer, the Commandant of Montreal, M. de Callieres, succeeded him. He held office only until 17U3, when he died, greatly regretted by the French Canadians. M. de Vaudreuil, who had succeeded De Callieres in Montreal, now became Governor-General, y j -i The new Governor was popular with the colonists. His wife was a French Canadian. It was his ■ Ml ; #. !MAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A 1.0 I.I 1.25 1^ 12.8 2.5 1^ Hill 2.2 2.0 s«." 1^ 1.8 U IIIIII.6 V] <^ /^ /: ^ # %^ JV '/ M u ;:^^^^/^^ ^^ I \?' 180 A Short IIistorv of x- r w^ \^% his lioart was ntill thore. Four years aftorwurds tbu probibition was relaxed, and the late bishop came to New France again. The French Government was convinced that a bishop Bt V ir ^^ ^ different order should be chosen, if peace were to roign in Now Franco. The choice now fell on a noble and pious priest, well known at Court as the Abbe St. Vallier. Jean Baptiste St. Vallier was born at Grenoble, November 14th, 1(353. He was educated in the college of his native town, and became a doctor in the Sorbonue at the early age of nineteen. After serving as almoner to the king, and refusing to bo made a French bishop, St. Vallier, after visiting New France, accepted the vacant position there. He was con- secrated bishop on January 25th, 1088, in the church of St. Sulpice at Paris. As Bishop Laval had inclined to education, so St. Vallier was drawn out toward charities. The new bishop founded the General Hospital of Quebec. Claim- ing certain rights in its administration, he engaged to pay the community of the Hotel-Dieu 1000/. a year. Si. Vallier bestowed upon this institution the houses and lands which he had obtained from the Jesuits. He seems to have lived on good terms with Governor Frontenac, now in his second term of office, and with succeeding governors. As bishop the Jesuits blamed St. Vallier for hostility to LavaVs seminary; but the death, in 1708, of the doughty old ex-bishop, who had returned to Canada, largely ended the contest. Bishop St. Vallier seems to liave been a kind and yet dignified prelate. His death, which took place December 26th, 1727, was greatly re- gretted. A strange dispute took place as to his inter- ment. In the funeral ceremonies a time had been fixed for his burial. According to appointment, the dignitaries assembled, when it was found that the interment had already taken place. It was next reported that there was doubt as to his having been dead. The tomb was opened, and his body was found supple, but he was dead. The affair found its way into the civil courts, and created much angry feeling. r THE Canadian Peoplk. I Si Up to tlio time of tho conquest there had been in all six bishops. During this time the support of the Church was by tax or tithe. During Bishop Laval's first years one-thirteenth of everything, " whether born of the labour of man, or what tho soil produces of itself," was demanded. Since, 1679, however, the rate has been one- twenty-sixth. Complaint has been made by Roman Catholic historians of the opportunities for education having been " miserably scanty " during this period. In the unsettled state of the country it would have been most difficult to have reached the scattered communities. At the same time it is true that the watchful and un- wearied efforts of its early bishops placed the Church on its present firm foundation in Lower Canada. Section IIT. — Tlie marvellous Opening of the West. There is nothing more glorious in the history of France than the zeal and success with which her mis- sionaries and explorers became the pathfinders to vast regions of New France and Louisiana. The successful explorer needs almost every good quality. He must have foresight to provide for such wants as cannot be supplied en route ; he must have strength and energy to overcome the hardships of the way ; he must have a mixture of suavity and firmness to meet with savage tribes, and must know the points of strength and of weakness of these wild peoples ; he must also have the faculty of ruling men and attaching his dependents to him. Wind and wave, hunger and thirst, fatigue and sickness, are by no means the most formidable enemies of the discoverer. Champlain was the first great explorer of the interior of New France. He ascended the Ottawa, „. . . passed Lake Nipissing, coasted Georgian Bay —the Mer Douce — threaded the inland lakes and rivers of Ontario, crossed the Lake Ontario, or Frontenac, as it was afterwards called, and also penetrated south to the lake that bears his own name. Champlain's west fell far short of that of one of his 'I I « (!' rii<«5 m 11 i* ■ . ■ M ■ m ^ r 1 • »' ' r ' I (» , p55fe.''.'' i I83 A Short History oi it Nicolet. h'''i:'T k I . own followoi'H — Jean Nicolet. This bravo man was born at Cherbourg in Normandy. In IG18 lio canio to Now Fninco, and was despatched to tlio interior. In Champlain's service ho became familiar with the customs of the Al^onquius and their langua^'o. After dwelling' some time among the Nipissings, ho visited the Far West ; seemingly between the years lGo4 and 1G40. In a birch -bark canoe, the brave Norman voyagonr crossed or coasted Lake Huron, entered the 8t. Mary's River and, first of white men, stood at the strait now called vSault Ste. Marie. He does not seem to have known of Lake Superior, but returned down the St. Mary's River, passed from Lake Huron through the western detour to Michilimackinac, and entered another fresh-water sea, Mitchiganon or Michigan, also afterwards known as the Lake of the Illinois, Lake St. Joseph, Lake Dauphin, or even Algonquin Lake. Here he visited the Meuomonee tribe of Indians, and after them the Winnibagoes. The last-named wei'o the first Indians of the Dakota stock met by the French, and marked the eastern limit of that great family. Nicolet returned to Canada and lived at Three Rivers, but was drowned near Sillery, on the St. Lawrence, by a squall in 1G42. It has been well pointed out by Parkman that the . second generation of Jesuit missionaries was Explorers, widely different from the first, whose martyrdom has become so celebrated. Whilst the names of Lalemant and Breboeuf, from their zeal and lofty piety, ought to be written on the skies, many of the missionaries of later time were of the earth, earthy. They were ex- plorers rather than missionaries. Father Marquette was the connecting link between the fervour of the old school and the worldly wisdom of the new. The fierce wrath of the Iroquois had driven numbers of the Hurons, Ottawas, and several minor Algonquin tribes westward. The Iroquois, like a wedge, had split the northern tribes into east and west. Sault Ste. Marie became a central point for the refugees. The l.o THE Canadian PKori-K. 183 flooino- Algonquina had oven prossod on and driven away the Sioux from tho southern shore of Lake Superior or Lac (le Tracy, as it was afterwards called. Another gatherin^-placo for tho fugitives had been found very near the south-west corner of this great lake. This was La Pointe, one of the Apostle Islands, near tho present town of Ashland in Wisconsin. The Jesuits took up these two points as mission centres. We learn of much of the period from 1071 even to 1079 from one of the ablest of the Jesuits, Father Claude Diiblon, in the ^^ Jesuit Relations." In 1G69 the Fathers Dablon and Marquette, with their men, had erected a palisaded fort, enclosing a chapel and house, at Sault Ste. Marie. In the same year Father Allouez had begun a mission at Green Bay. In 107U an intrepid explorer, St. Lusson, under orders from Intendant Talon, came west searching for copper-mines. lie was accompanied by the afterwards well-known Joliet. When this party arrived at Sault Ste. Marie, tho Indians were gathered together in great numbers, and with imposing ceremonies St. Lusson, in the name of his sovereign, Louis XIV., took possession of" Sainte Marie du Saut, as also of Lakes Huron and Superior, the island of Manetoulin, and all countries, rivers, lakes, and streams contiguous and adjacent thereunto. '' A cedar cross was then erected, and upon it the royal arms in lead were placed. The Jesuit father Allouez then harangued the Indians, magnifying the sovereign Louis XIV., and telling them " that the great king had 10,000 Onontios as great as the Governor of Quebec." The station at La Pointe was occupied by the Jesuit father Marquette, of whom we have more to learn. Shortly after this time the Sioux attacked the mission of L'Esprit at La Pointe, and the young priest and his Indians were driven back to Sault Ste. Marie. Marquette now undertook the new mission of St. Ignace at Michilimackinac, and Father Andre that of Manitoulin Island. It was undoubtedly the pressing desire of the Jesuit i\ '- . -.J ' £m .11. iM i^aJ «.#• •( [|i ir 184 A Short TTistorv of The Mis fliisippi. fathers to visit the country of tho Illinois nnd their ^rcat river that led to tho discovery of tho ^'Father of Waters/' Father AUouez in- deed had already ascended tho Fox TJiver from Lake Michigan, and seen the marshy lake which is the head of a tributary of tho Mississippi. At last on Juno 4tli, 1G72, tho French minister, Colbert, wrote to Talon: "As after the increase of the colony there is nothing more important for the colony than the discovery of a passage to the South Sea, his Majesty wishes you to give it your attention/' This message to the Intendant came as ho was leaving for France, and he recommended the scheme and the explorer he had in view for carrying it out to the notice of the Governor Frontenac, who had just arrived. Governor Froutenac approved and the explorer started. J .. The man chosen for the enterprise was Louis eToliet, who had already been at Sault Ste. Marie. He was of humblo birth, and was a native of New France. Ho had been educated at tho Jesuit College, Quebec, but had given up thought of entering the Church in order to prosecute the fur trade. The French Canadian explorer was acceptable to the mis- sionaries, and immediately journeyed west to meet Marquette, who was to accompany him. Joliet, it is true, in the end received but little — the usual reward of explorers in New France. He was refused a possession in the western land he had dis- covered, and given a trail on the barren island of Anticosti, where he built a fort. He died before 1737. M. Joliet met the priest Marquette at St. Ignace Mission, Michilimackinac. Jacques Marquette, of whom we have already heard, was born in 1637 at Laon, Champagne, in France. He sprang of an ancient and distinguished family. His mother was the pious Rose de Salle, a relative of De la Salle, the founder of the "Brothers of the Christian Schools."" In 1654 young Marquette entered the Jesuit Society, and in 1666 sailed for Canada. On arriving at Three Rivers he began at :tore Tin: Canadian rEoi-i.K. iSi onco to Htudy tho Algonquin l.'ingunjjfe. Wo luivo already seen him .it Sjiiilt Sto. Mario and La Pointo. At Mic'liilimackiiiac tlio chapel of "walls of logs and roof oi hark " liiid been ercctod, and n(;ar it tlio liiirons soon huilt a ])alisad((d fort. Ou May 17th, l()73, with deepest religious emotion, the trader and missionary launched forth on Lake Michigan their two canoes, containing seven Frenchmen in all, to make the greatest discovery of the time. They hastened to Green i^ay, followed the course of Father Allouez up the Fox Jliver, and reached tho tribe of the Mascoutins or Fire Nation on this river. These were new Indians to the explorers. They wore peaceful, and helped the voyagers on their way. With guides furnished tho two canoes were transported for 2700 paces, and the headwaters of the Wisconsin were reached. After an easy descent of thirty or forty leagues, on June 1 7th, 1073, the feat was accomplished, the Mis- sissippi was discovered by white men, and the canoes shot out upon its surface in latitude l-i'^. Hailing down the great river for a month, tho party reached the village of x\.kansea, ou the Arkansas River, in latitude 34°, and ou July 17tli began their return journey. It is but just to say that some of the Recollet fathers, between whom and the Jesuits, as we have seen, jealousy existed, have disputed the fact of Joliet and Marquette ever reaching this point. The evidence here seems entirely in favour of the explorers. On their return journey the party turned from the Mississippi into a tributary river in latitude 38°. This was the Illinois. Ascending this, the Indian town of Kaskaskia was reached, and here for a time Father Marquette remained. Joliet and his party passed on, reached the headwaters of the Illinois, crossed to the Miamis, and descending it reached Lake Michigan. The joyful explorers now hastened on to Michilimackinac, aud thence to Montreal, to proclaim their discovery, while Marquette having gained access to the Illinois hidians, returned near the end of September to Green l^ay. Joliet's party were successful on their journey •ii ni 1 86 A Short History ok ■ tW s;.* ''10 > ■' till tlio rapids of tlio St. Lawronco abovo Montreal wore reached, whero the papers {.'outaining the details of the voyago were lost, and the explorer could but make his report from memory. Father Marquette, now detained at Greon Bay by dangerous hemoi'rhago, was not able to visit the Illinois tribe till the winter of 1G74-5. On his way to his missionary work ho was overtaken by his disease and compelled to land, build a hut, and take repose for ii time. On April 8th, 1675, the bravo father reacli -l Kaskaskia, and *' was rece'ved there as an angel of light. ' Returning to Green Bay h ) was again too ill to proceed. He landed, was seized with his last illness, and died iu a bark cabin on the lonely shores of Lake Michigan, May 18th, 1075. His bones were removed to Michilimackinuc in 1077. High encomiums of Father Marquette fill — and de- servedly so — the " Jesuit Relations." We have his autograph map of the Mississippi. This great stream he desired to call " Conception River," but the name, like those of " Colbert " and ** Buade," which wero both bestowed upon it, have failed to take the place of the musical Indian name. One of the most daring of the early explorers was Daniel D 1 th Greysolon Duluth, or De THut. Charlevoix speaks of him as " one of the bravest officers the king has ever had in this colony." He was born at St. Germain-en-Laye, though Lahontan calls him a "gen- tleman of Lyons." He was a cousin of Tonty, the faithful friend of the explorer La Salle, and came to Canada in 1674, but went back to Europe and was pre- sent at the battle of Senef, where he met his after friend, Hennepin. In 1078 he returned to Canada, and soon went west to explore the country of the Sioux. Duluth^s enemy, the Intendant Duchesnau, charges him with having been at this time a freebooter, working in a secret compact with the governor. Duluth suddenly bursts upon our view in 1680 on the Mississippi, where he appears as the deliverer from cap- tivity of Hennepin and his two companions. The chief 'X ' ruF Canadian pForrr. 187 the at St. gea- , the ne to pre- iend, I soon lutVs with Rccuo of Dnlnih's nctivitios wmh in t]w region about Luko Superior, and tlu; eity of Uuluth, near the old Fond du liuc, well represents the centre of his work at the mouth of the little river St. ijouis, which eoinnieinoratc's his royal master. 'V\w el»ar<^e of the liitcndniit of being a 'Moa(l(!r of eourcurs des hois systotjiaticaliy breaking the royal ordinances as to the fur trade,'' would seern not to have been far astray ; for ho was on mysteriously inti- mate terms with Governor Frontenac. 'J'o Diduth belongs the great distinction of founding Fort Kaminis- tiqiiia on Thunder Hay, Lake Superior, and this would seem to have been before 1700. Though a terrible sufferer from the gout, Duluth was a doughty warrior against tlie Iroquois. In 1G95 he was placed in charge of Fort FVontenac. Governor Vaudreuil in 1710 an- nou!- :es the death of this famous explorer as havir • occurred during the previous winter. Among the brilliant cluster of explorers belonging to this period in New France, none are so - . . unique and amusing, not to say inventive in their narrations, as the Baron Lahontan. Ho was a young Gascon of good family, born about the year 1007. lu the year of his majority he came to Canada, and was an observer and critic of all that went on there. He was " caustic and sceptical.'' He had little respect for rehgion, and might almost be called the Voltaire of New France. He was merciless upon the Jesuits, scotfed and sneered at their work, and rather delighted in the vices and waywardness of the Indians. He was a favourite of Governor Frontenac, and was selected by him to bear the despatch to France announcing Phipps' defeat in 1690. The baron travelled in the Far West, — how far is the matter under dispute. He describes the " Riviere Longue," which he claims to have ascended, from the Mississippi, to the west, and of which he has left a map. It is generally believed that he may have got from Indian description some clue to the great Missouri. As to his having visited such a river, Parkman declares it a " sheer fabrication." Pa^.her Charlevoix, the Jesuit traveller. 'Ini m\ Ai '. »•* 1 88 A Short History of I ••ii'i'ii'Siiii '"■*.■ ft": never forgave Lahontan for tho attacks on his order, and says in his spicy manner : '' The episode of the voyage up the Long River is as fabulous as the Barataria of Sancho Panza/' Lahontan became in time Deputy- Governor of Placentia (Newfoundknd), but quarrelled with his superior, fled to France, and only avoided arrest by another flight. His first work was published in 1703; several editions appeared. It is interesting for its statements about the Indians, and for an Indian vocabulary. But no doubt the most remarkable and capable of all La Salle ^^^^ explorers of New France was Rene-Robert Cavalier de la Salle. His vast projects were not crowned wi ;:h success, but La Salle was unsurpassed in the courage with which he met misfortune, and the energy with which he traversed the continent. Indeed one is appalled at the dangers and hardships endured by him. He was born at Rouen in 1G43, and was educated among the Jesuits. He even entered the order, and sur- rendered his paternal fortune in doing so. He after- wards seems to have become bitterly hostile to the Jesuits, and much preferred the RecoUets, the " bare- foots of St. Francis/' as the Indians were used to call them. In 1G67 La Salle, with his brother Jean Cavalier, a priest, came to New ^ -ance. Obtaining from the semi- nary at Montreal i soigniory which he called " St. Sulpice," La Salh l>l . the village, either at this time or later, called Lachine s marking the explorer's dream that up the St. Law. nee was the path to China. In 1669, with the authority of Governor de Courcelles, Seigneur la Salle made a journey up Lake Ontario, and by way of Fond du I^ac, now Burlington Bay, crossed the country to the Grand River, reaching it probably near the present village of Caledonia, if not further north, intending to descend to Lake Erie, or Conti, as it was later called. Here the party met Joliet returning from his first expedition to Sault Ste. Marie. La Salle, under plea of illness, separated himself from Fathers Dollier and Galinee, of the Seminary of St. Sulpice, who accompa- THE Canadian PEorLE. 189 iiiLil lilm, and while tlioy tlioupfhfc him returning to Montreal they descended the Grand Eivor to Lake Erie. At this point comes in the mystery of La Salle. In a paper entitled " Histoire de M. de la Salle," purporting to be a conversation between fja Salle and an unknown writer, it is stated that La Salle turned eastward, went to the Iroquois country instead of Montreal, was con- ducted by the savages to the Ohio River, and descended it to 37° N. In support of this, Joliet's map of the Missis- sippi, afterwards made, states that La Salle descended the Ohio. Another part of this *' Histoire " claims that on this mysterious disappearance of La Salle he likewise by way of the River Illinois, reached the Mississippi and descended it to o5° N. This statement lacks confirma- tion. A great controversy has raged on this question. The truth of the matter would seem to be that La Salle's claim to have descended the Mississippi at this time is false, the report having probably taken its birth in the desire of the Recollets to rob Joliet and Marquette of their laurels. On the arrival of Frontenac as governor, La Salle and lie at once fraternized. They were of kindred spirit, they were both men of marked ability, their combination might be of material benefit to both, and in common they disliked the Jesuits. La Salle entered heartily into the governor's plan of having the fort at Cataraqui replaced by one of solid stone. In 1674 La Salle went to France and obtained a patent of nobility and a grant of the Seigniory of Frontenac. The fortunate seignior returned and made Fort Frontenac, as the new fort was nov/ to be called, his residence. In time the fortified stone fort was built, and was a consider- able establishment. It contained a fair complement of men ; nine cannon threatened the intruder from its battle- ments ; outside its precincts a band of settlers was placed ; near its walls was built a chapel, and beside this was the priest's house in which now Father Hennepin dwelt. La Salle visited France again' in 1677; on this occasion h ii i ;lj i'i\m IQO A Short Ilisroin- oi It'"".! * ■■P. -'ii ■ ( r , "II, Mr-' !'•:: :i to obtain authority to advance to the west. lie recoivoci a patent from the king in \IG78. The explorer Hkewise obtained large loans from relatives and others to carry out his enterprises. While in France he attached to himself a man who became the right hand of all his undertakings — one of the bravest and most faithful men in the service of France in the New World. This was Henri de Tonty. This man was the son of Laurent de Tonty, an Italian officer, who in the troubles of the time was confined in the Bastille for eight years. From this Italian officer, as its inventor, the Tontine system of life assurance receives its name. Young Tonty entered the French army as a cadet in 1668. In the siege of Messina by the Spaniards the young officer lost a hand by the bursting of a grenade. He obtained afterwards a false hand covered by a glove, and this in his conflicts in the west he used with much effect, and was in consequence named in New France " Main-de-fer.^' On the advice of the ]-*rince of Conti, La Salle took Tonty into his service. On the return of La vSalle to Quebec new combinations were made with powerful merchants, and the expedition was begun. Here joined him Father Hennepin, who had come down from Fort Frontenac to meet him. This father, if not one of the loftiest spirits of the time, was at least one of the most remarkable. Louis Hennepin was born at Roy, in Hainault, about the year 1640. He entered the order of the Eecollets. It has been mentioned that he was present at the battle of Senef. He was of an unsettled and adventurous disposition, and came to Canada in 1676. He sailed in company with Bishop Laval, and made a good impression on him. Engaged in various services in the wilds, for which he had a taste, he now, with the approval of his superior, found himself joined to La Salle's expedition. La Salle, Tonty, Hennepin, and the party of some thirty left Fort Frontenac for the mouth uf the Niagara River in two small vessels at different times, late in the autumn of 1678. A.t a chosen spot above the Falls of Hennepin. I whi Fort liimsi joiirr Oi after' fessec |)iu's a TiiK Canadian Pkopli:. 191 Niagara was built a vessel called the UriJJiiL, uanied, it is supposed, from Frontenac's crest. With this it was intended to navigate the upper lakes. In August La Salle arrived, and with him the Recollet brothers, one of whom, Le Membre, has left a memoir of the journey in the '' Etablissement du Foi.'* On August 7th La Salle and his followers embarked for the west, and their little vessel was an object of terror to the natives as she fired her small cannon. On the arrival of the Griffin at Michilimackinac, the journey was continued to Green Bay, and from this point the vessel, lad on with furs, was despatched to Niagara to satisfy La Saile's creditors, who, urged on by his enemies the Jesuits, had seized Fort Frontenac and all his property. The Griffin was never heard of again. With a portion of his party La Salle now hastened forward, and near the large Indian village in January, lf)80, began his fort. Father Hennepin and two com- panions were sent in February on an expedition down the Illinois River to reach the Mississippi, and then ascend it. Tonty was to remain in charge of the fort, which La Salle, on account of his misfortune, had called Fort Crevecceur, or Heartbreak ; while the commander himself would return by an enormous land and water journey of 1000 miles to Canada. Of the trip made by him, Hennepin the Recollet father afterwards in 1684 wrote an account. It must be con- fessed that a haze of uncertainty surrounds all Henne- pin's recitals. His first published story of his voyages is generally accepted as true ; the second, published at Utrecht in 1607, in which he claims to have descended the Mississippi to the Arkansas, is now rejected by most writers. With his two companions, Accan and Auguel of Picardy, the father reached the Mississippi. Here he was captured by the Sioux, and with them went north- ward to the grand falls, where the city of Minneapolis now stands, and these he named St. Anthony of Padua, m honour of the patron saint of his order, who is also the guardian of sailors. On the Mississippi, as already stated, the captives were rescued by Duluth. It is now r ii» I- r' '•ij: ■ * ■■• . ■M 192 A Short IIistorv of it 71 ■ ' 'i I' ' ' ': I 'It S«l I. •' " \ ,;' '■rn {^'L'lierally believed that tlie t'u vest- ranger had heard of the three Frenchmen in captivity, and had hastened to their rescue. Tonty had many difficulties at Crcvecocur. The Iroquois invaded the Illinois country, and many conflicts took place, in which the Italian captain proved himself shrewd and valiant. \a\ Salle, as we have seen, had returned to Canjida. He was marvellously successful in repairing his shnttered fortunes, but while at Fort Fron- tenac received the bad news that his men at Creveca}ur had mutinied and destroyed the fort. Some of the returning mutineers were ari'ested by him and iui- prisoned at Fort Frontenac. Knowing that the faithful Tonty must be in a sad plight, the commander fitted out an expedition to relieve him, which soon arrived at the Miamis River. Tonty on the loss of Crevecucur had betaken himself, after various wanderings, to a village of the Pottawattamies. Ija Salle sought long for his faith- ful Tonty, but at length the rejoiced friends met at Michilimackinac. The unfortunate explorers returned to Fort Frontenac. But the heart of steel of the commander was hard to break. In December, 1G81, the great expedition of which La Salle had long dreamt was planned — this, to find the mouth of the Mississippi. Hastening west by the usual route, the *' Father of Waters '' was reached on February 8th, 1682. The Arkansas Hiver, the furthest point hitherto gained, was left behind, so also the Nat- chez Indians, afterwards so celebrated, and sailing out by different mouths of the river upon the Gulf of Mexico, the dream became a reality. On the dry shore of the gulf beyond the mouth, a column was erected on April 9th, 1682, with the usual ceremonies, and the country was claimed for the King of France, and given the name Louisiana. La Salle returned up the Mississippi and took the route for Canada. On his arrival there he found that the Governor Frontenac had been recalled. The wearied explorer was greatly discouraged, having journeyed 5000 leagues, most of it on foot, lost 40,000 crowns, and THE Canadian People. 193 endured untold hardships and disappointments. Hia chief discouragements had been the treachery of his men, and the hatred, of his enemies. Returned to France, tlie explorer saw the star of hope rise asfain. It was now determined to colonize the country at the mouth of the Mississippi. In company with Com- mander Beaujeu, of the Royal Navy, La Salle departed on July 24th, 1684, in four ships with a large number of colonists. After many difficulties, and a severe illness of La Salle, the expedition reached Louisiana, but failed to find the mouth of the Mississippi. On the coast of T'ixas they built a fort — St. Louis. Beaujeu returned to France, and with him some of the colonists. La Salle, with a chosen band, made an overland expedition, but the mouth of the great river could not yet be found, and Lis party returned to Fort St. Louis. 'J^he disappointed leader now determined to make the great overland journey to Fort Cievecoeur. His faithful Tonty know- ing of the coming of the colony to the mouth of the Mississippi, had already descended the river, but meeting no one had returned to the Illinois country. AftPr journeying many weary days La Salle was way- laid by some of the baser members of his own band and basely shot. The mutineers, however, quarrelled over the booty, and the murderers were killed, for vengeance suffered them not to live. The survivors of the exploring band, including the priest Cavalier, La Salle's brother, arrived in a miserable plight at Crevecceur. The St. Louis colonists suffered death or slavery at the hands of the Spaniards. Tonty spent his life among the Illinois, and here disappears trom view. Hennepin quarrelled with all his old Iriends, and even deserting his own country, entered the service of William III. of England, to whom his second or improbable work of 1697 is dedicated. Thus passed away the trio — La Salle, Tonty, and Henne- pin, whose fortunes had been so closely bound together. Following in the train of the great explorers came De la Verandrye, a most successful discoverer. Like -. , Duluth, he found on Lake Superior the scene of his earlier operations. He discovered the rivers of the Canadian O it ' ii: •I v h IF (I! I :■ ii!,' V ^i' Ii i 1 r , if; 1 i'^ ' i i ■ V , - ' •'i^ . , A' 4 X \\\ iHi » h-a T94 A Short History of North- West, and his sons reached the Rocky Mountains. Pierre Giialtier de Varennes, Sieur de \ii Verandrye, was born at Throe Rivers in 1 085, and was tlie son of the French Governor of Three Rivers. Ho early went to Franco, and served as a cadet in the Marlborougli wars. He was severely wounded, rose to the rank of lieutenant, and came to Canada, to live in poverty. The fur trade attracted him as affording the only opening in Canada for a gentleman and a soldier. While trading on Lake Superior he heard at Nepigon in 1728, from an Indian Ochagach, about the Winnipeg country. A birch-bark map of the countiy was obtained from this intelligent savage, and forwarded to Governor Beauharnois at Quebec. The Governor was ambitious of equalling his predecessoi's in discovery, and willingly granted permission to Verandrye to explore, and issued a licence to trade. At Michilimackinac, a Father Gonor and Verandrye laid their plans, and in 1731 Verandrye's party proceeded to Lake Superior, left the lake by the Groselliers River, now called Pigeon River, and took the canoe route to the interior. Reaching in the first year of their journey Rainy Lake, they built Fort St. Pierre at the foot of it. The site of this fort is still pointed out. A descent of the Rainy River was made, and in 1732 Fort St. Charles was constructed on the south-east shore of Lake of the Woods. Across Lac des Bois, or Minitie, as this lake was called, and down the Winnipeg or Maurepas River, brought the explorers to Lake Winnipeg or Ounipique. Having built Fort Maurepas at the mouth of Wmui- pog River, the lake was crossed and the Red River was discovered. Ascending this, the Assiniboine, called by the party St. Charles, was reached, and Fort Houge built; about 1735 or 1736, where the city of Winnipeg now stands. Going west on the Assiniboine River, Fort de la Reine was erected at Portage la Prairie, as a good trading post, in 1738. Verandrye was accompanied by three sons, and his nephew Jemeraye. While one of his sons, with a priest and a number of the party were unfortunately killed on "M THE Canadian Pkopli:. 195 fin island in Lake of the Woods by the Sionx, another of \m sons with d band of voyaj^eurs ascended in 1742 tlie Souris, or St. Pierre River, made a portage to the Missouri, proceeded up this great rivei, and, on the 1st of January, 1743, saw the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains or " Montagnes de Pierre" — first of white- men north of Mexico. i\fter this the explorers visited Liikos Manitoba, Winnipegoosis, and Dauphin, and the Saskatchewan as far as the Poskoiac — " the Forks." The father and his sons gained much honour but little reward for their discoveries. They were overwhelmed with debt. The veteran explorer was on the point of visiting the Upper Saskatchewan when he died — 1749. His sons lost their licence, it having been given to Legar- (leiir (le St. Pierre, who ascended the Saskatchewan and ill 1753 built Fort la Jonquiere, near the site of the present town of Calgary at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. Section IV. — Indian Ilustilities,, Reference has been already made to Champlain's mis- take in involving himself with the Algonquin Indians against their enemies the Iroquois. The valiant founder left a sad heritage to his successors. M. Montmagny succeeded Champlain as Governor in 1636. The Hurons and Algonquins, the allies of Montmagny, called him "Ononthio" — "the Mountain.'' The greati effort of the Iroquois was to break up the alliance of the Hurons and Al<,n)nquins with the French. The building of Montreal in 1642 by M. Maisoneuve was regarded as a menace by the Iroquois. During the two years succeeding its founding it was in a constant state of siege. The fury of the Iroquois knew no bounds. To the west, near Lake Simcoe, the daring Jesuit fathers liad gone, and done much work among the Hurons. Like a forest fire the Iroquois swept down upon the Hurons and their missionaries. Jogues, while on an embassy to the Iroquois in 1646, was put to death ; Daniel was killed and his body burnt in 1648 ; and the two distinguished missionaries, Lalemant and Breboeuf, suffered terrible tor- O 2 19^ A SllOKT HiSTOKV OF tures. '^ Tearing off the scalp " of Laleniant, his butcher.s "thrice dashed upon his head boiling water in imitation of baptism. They clove open his chest, took out his heart and devoured it." From Tadoussac to Quebec, thence to Three Rivers, and all the way to Ville Marie, there was nothing but traces of blood and havoc. 'J'he liurons were swepc out of existence, or driven to the Far West. An incident of surpassing bravery in IGGO checked the fury of the Iroquois invasion, when it looked as if thev were about to exterminate the French. Sixteen Frenchmen, led by one Captain DoUard des Orineaux, with Hurons and Algonquins made up a war-party of sixty. At a spot north of Montreal, near the bank of the Ottawa, they secreted themselves ; 200 Iroquois warriors advanced to attack them and were repelled. Reinforced by 500 more the Iroquois again attacked. For ten days the brave defenders held out. All of Dollard^s party were killed except five Frenchmen and four Hurons, who were reserved for torture. The Hurons escaped to Quebec and told the tale. The Iroquois had already planned with 1200 men to sweep the banks of the St. Lawrence, but the heroism of DoUard's band seems to have led them to change their minds. The more pf^aceful disposition of the Iroquois, and the arrival from France, in response to the frantic cry of the settlers for help, of a company of soldiers in 16G2, gave rest to the colony. The Indian country was a source of constant anxiety. When M. de Tracy arrived, as we have seen, as Viceroy in 1665, he had instructions to conquer and exterminate the Iroquois. Four forts were built for protecting the country : St. Louis, at the mouth of the River Richelieu ; Fort Richelieu, near the rapids on that river; Ste. Therese, fuither up the river; and Ste. Anne, on an island in Lake Champlain. In January, 1666, M. Courcelles penetrated, though with discomfort to his troops, the very country of the Iroquois and brought them to terms. In the following year De Tracy headed a strong expedition, which entered the cantons of the Iroquois and humbled them. y ^'^ 1002, ivas a ived, ;tions i'orts at the ir the river ; THE Canadian Peotlf:. 197 In 1680 the brilliant old warrior Frontenac held a great inectitif^ with the Iroquois at Montreal. Appearing amnnnistH sowing seed in their fields. The colonists were being inured to their own defence. Itoused to desperation, the veteran Governor determined to put an end to these continual aggressions of the Iroquois. Ho assembled in 1G96, 2300 men, and with this considerable army went up the St. Lawrence. Tribe after tribe of the Six Nations were driven out, and their country ravaged. The Freueli prestige was completely restored in the west. A Sioux chief, representing twenty-two bands, pledged his service. The order of St. Louis was bestowed on Frontenac, and though he died in IG.')8, his power over the Indians had become so strong that, at a great gathering in 17Ul, 1300 Indians, representing all the Iroquois and Algon- quins, in the presence of Governor de Callieres established, amid salvos of artillery and discharge of small arms, the peace of North America. The French and English still strove vigorously for p . cotitrol over the various Indian tribes. VV'hile the English seemed more powerful with the Six Nations and other Indians to the south, the French re- tained their influence over the tribes of the upper lakes. This was well seen in the fact that the last blow against the English, sixty years after this great peace, was dealt by the Indian Fontiac and his confederates, whose story Parkman has so well told. Detroit had been founded by La Motte Cadillac in 1701. The settlement of which it was the centre had iu sixty years grown till it numbered 2500 souls. The fort in 1763 contained about 100 houses. The British had De I THE Canadian PEorrr. 20T rapfurcil it in tlio year uftcr tho fall of Qiiel)cc. It wna a military and fur-tnidirip- depot, and contaiiKMl about 120 soldiers, and forty or tilty tur-traders and cnrjntjt'H. Two KchooncM's, tho Bcnvrr anil tlio Glfidirifn, did its trade. It was to capture this and tlie associated tort of Micliiliinackinac that Pontiac laid his ])Ians. l^)ntiac. we arc told, was "king and lord of all the country." ]lt> was born about the year 1713, and belonged to the Ottawa tril)e, tliough his mother is said to have been Ojibway. Ho lived on a small island near the St. Clair, liis plan was to enter Detroit with the appearance of seek- ing peace ; but each of his followers had cut a portion of his gun- barrel off, and secreted the gun under his clothing. The policy to bo foUoweil was " to kill every Eiiirlishnian, but not to touch the scalp of a Frenchman." Unfortunately for his plans, tho attachment of an Indian girl to Commandant Gladwyn betrayed j_ .-g- tho secret, and saved tho fort. With sixty chiefs as his followers the crafty I^ontiac entered the fort, but armed men met him at every turn. He then assumed aa appearance of devoted friendship. The danger for this occasion was over, but shortly after the siege of Detroit began. It was conducted with great skill. Pon- tiac, though the leader of numerous bands, held them together for months by his personal power, issued paper- money, and showed consummate statesmanship. A part of the plan of war was the taking of Michili- niackmac. On the 4th of June, 17G3, this fort, under a Coinniauder Etherington, was attacked by the Ojibways diii'iug a " ball play,'' and many of the unsuspecting re!>idents massacred. The Ottawas rescued some ot the prisoners from burning. On the failure of the Indian confederacy Pontiac went, in company with the Indians of the upper lakes, to Oswego, where he met Sir William Johnston and concluded a peace. In 1769 the well- kuovvn chief was in the neighbourhood of St. Louis, at Cahokia. The Illinois Indians ffave him a feast. An J^ughsh trader, displeased at this, bribed a worthless Indian with a barrel of whisky to kill him. Thus fell Hontiao in 1769. <.' •rjl .:;i m 202 A Short History of Section V. — Wars and Truces ending in the Conciiied of 1759. Peace, as we hr.ve seen, restored Canada to France in PeacfiofSt ^^'^'^^' l^liis was the Treaty of St. Germain-eii- Geimain- Laye. Before a score of years another out- en-Laye. break between the powers had taken place; Treaty of ^nd now to end the war the Treaty of West- estp a la.pi^^^ji^^ ^^^^ signed at Mnnster in 1G48 — one of the waymarks in the history of modern Europe — the establishment of the idea involved in the '^ balance of power." The infant Louis XIV. had then been five years on the throne, and the policy of France was dictated by Mazarin, who followed the great Cardinal Richelieu iu his plans. Louis XIV., as he grew, was matured in this school of national aggrandizement. The age of Louis XIV. in France was in military glory, iu manners, and in liteiature one of wonderful brilliancy; in politics and economics it was the age of lead. Napo- leon long afterwards revived in a different form tho France of Louis XIV., so far as grasping at power was concerned. Thus grew the wars — and war in Europe meant war iu America — with gaily-decorated regiments, and stately men- of-war in Europe, with hungry atid bi^dly-equippeil troops, and worn-out or condemned old ships in New France. Louis XIV. was at his hei^rht ' hen the Grand Alliance was made against him in 1090. It consisted of Cermauy, Spain, Holland, and England. William III. of England, who was versed in the school of French diplomacy, was the leader of this league. With its European battles we have now nothing to do. Governor Frontenac had but returned on his second term to Canada. He was exas- perated with tho English of New York for inciting the Iroquois, and New France was in her last gasp. War being declared between the mother-countries gave him the opportunity of striking a blow at the English settlements. The first expsdition was started from Montreal under Le Moyne de Ste. Helene, one of the famous Longueil family, and with him another Le <( , 1690. ■~mm THE Canadian Peoplk. 203 Moyue, surnamed D'lberville, of whom more hereafter. The party of 200 was made up of coareiirs des 6oiv, with iKai'iy 100 '^Christian" Iroquois. In mid-winter they fell on the oiitpost of Corlaer, or Schenectady, in New York, and silently in Indian fashion a nit^-ht attack was iiuidc, and sixty men, women, and children were slain in cold blood. The second party, commanded by Francois Ilertel, left Three Rivers in the end of January, and on their attack of Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, thirty English settlers were killed or wounded. The third expedition, under M. de Portneuf, started from Quebec. It was twice the size jf the Three Rivers party. The town of Canso was sacked, and numbers like those in Salmon Falls were among the fallen. These were barbarous measures. No doubt they were looked on by the French as retributive, but the customs of border warfare on both sides were unmerciful. The colonists were awed by this mode of warfare, and no doubt it did much to restore the prestige of the French among the Indian tribes. The Puritan colonies were of too stern stuiT to endure quietly such outrageous attacks. They furbished their arms, which had been chiefly used in Indian warfare. Boston, as was usual, took the lead. Ships and money were with some difficulty gathered together. .^^^ And now for a Miles Stand ish or other leader "with a martial air." The most available officer to command was a rough backwoods captain from the Kennebec in Maine, William Phipps. He was now upwards of forty years of age. He had succeeded after two attempts, with the assistance of friends in England, in fishing up treasure from a sunken Spanish galleon in the West Indies, and thus secured for himself a small fortune and the honour of knighthood. There was much of the ruffian spirit about the vociterous coasting captain. Thirty- two vessels, large and small, were gathered for the expedition, and with pious Puritan services the enterprise was undertaken. It was decided to strike the first blow at Acadia. Acadia had grown but little. There were not in it at ■ '!''P^ 204 A Short History of Acadia. :^' ^' •■'I! this time 1000 people all told. Port Royal, the Acadian capital, was defended by only seventy-two soldiers, and its fortiKcations were in ruius. In May Sir William Phipps appeared with a forty-gnu frigate, and several smaller war- vessels, before Port Royal, and to him it at once surrendered. Other points on the Acadian coast submitted, and Boston, ever for- ward to seize territorv, considered Acadia as now an appanage of its own. With his fleet of thirty-five sail, and having on board 2000 militiamen, Commander Phipps set out for Quebec. Froutenac was at Montreal when he heard of the approaching fleet. Intelligence had already reached him that the overland expedition against Canada had failed, and thus free, he hastened down the St. Lawrence with 1200 men to defend the capital. On the 16th of October the fleet appeared before Quebec. Sir William sent a messenger demanding a surrender. Frontenac, confident of his strength, refused to submit to the " usurper William III.," and said " the muzzles of his cannon would bear the answer " to the English demands. Thirteen hundred men of the New England militia disembarked on the soft flats of Beauport, but could accomplish nothing. The cannonade from Quebec damaged the ships of the Bostonians, while the ships could damage the citadel but little. The siege was raised, the New Englanders returned crestfallen to Boston, and Massachusetts was compelled to issue paper- money to meet the heavy debt incurred. Frontenac sent word to his sovereign of the great deliverance, a medal was struck, the new church of Notre Dame de la Vic- toire was built in Quebec, and an annual day of rejoicing set apart in memory of the event. The great failure of the Boston fleet was aggravated still more by disaster from another quarter. This was from the well-directed attacks of an expedition under M. d'Iberville. Pierre le Movne d'lberville was one of the most brilliant commanders of his time. He was a native of Canada, his father, Charles le Moyne, first Seignior THE Canadian Peoi'LK. 205 vated IS was er M. f the native ignior of Lorigeuil and Chateau guay, having come from France in 1641. Pierre was the third son, and was born in Montreal in 1661. He was recommended ^o^' D'iberville a commission in the. French navy, and after- wards became captain of a frigate. After various brilliant naval attacks in previous years, in 1696 his victories over the seaboard forts of the British were most disastrous. The fortress of Pemaquid had been raised at the mouth of the Kennebec as a pro- tection from the French of Arcadia. D'Iberville took this, the strongest fort on the Atlantic coast, and demolished it. In this year, 1696, D'lberville sailed to Newfoundland, where the British still claimed certain possessions. Meeting here other ships from France, the combined ifleet fell upon St. John's. D'lberville landed, and, taking charge of the assaulting party, seized the fort after a stubborn fight. The winter was spent in subduing Newfoundland. The task was not quite accomplished, when five ships from France arrived with orders for D'lberville to take command, u,nd with this fleet to capture the British forts iti Hudson Bay. The dashing Frenchman knew the region of Hudson Bay very well. Years belbre, in lb85, D'lberville had been one of an overland party which captured the English forts around Hudson Bay, and had taken in one of them 50,000 crowns' worth of furs. The expe ition for Hudson Bay now set sail from Newfoundland in July. After having trouble ^ggg with the ice, the commander entered with his flag-ship Pelican, having been separated from the remain- der of his fleet. Here he was met face to face with three English men-of-war. There was no escape from the contlict. Though the Pelican carried but flfty guns she sank the English Hampshire of fifty-six guns, captured the ship Hudson's Bay of thirty-two guns, and only failed to overtake the Dehring of thirty-six guns. Fort Nelson was next attacked, and Governor Bailey capitu- lated to the dashing seaman on honourable terms. Thus France had captured the whole of Hudson Bay, to which, indeed, she had always laid claim. 206 A Short History of <■:, But the Canadian captain's work was not yet done; ho was now but thirty-five years of ago. The settlement of Louisiana, wliich had ended so sadly with La Salle's expedition, was to be a<*'ain attempted. With two ships D'ibervillo sailed for the Gulf of Mexico, found the mouths of the Mississippi, ascended the river, and returning built a fort at Biloxi, on the coast of Louisiana in 1()99. Having again reached France, the successful colonizer was made a Knight of St. Louis and Governor- General of Louisiana. A substantial bastioned fort was built at Mobile in 1 70L This remaikable French Cana- dian ended his life as Governor of Louisiana, and died of yellow fever in 1 700. The European nations had now tired of war, and the Treaty of Grand Alliance could not continue. In 1 096, R^swick, by the action of Italy, the compact was broken. 1697. Louis XI v. took the occasion to make over- tures of peace. Accordingly a meeting of plenipoten- tiaries took place on the 9th of May, 1097, at Ryswick, a village near the Hague in Belgium, and at William IIL's chateau of Neuburg Hansen there. The treaty gained the acknowledgment by France of William III. as King of England — a matter of much moment — and resulted in the restoration by England and France to each other of the conquests they had made during the war. To what little purp se had been the bloodshed in Acadia, Maine, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay ! The nations had but a short respite. In the last year of the life of William III. of England there was formed the " Second Grand Alliance," to check, as the first had done, the greed of Louis XIV. The death of William gave Louis increased hope. He sought to make terms with Holland, and thus break the league. In this Louis failed, and Queen Anne followed out the policy of William. Accordingly England, Ger- many, and Holland in 1702 declared war against France and Spain. This was the great Marlborough War, or, from one of its causes, called '' The War of the Spanish Succession." The victories gained by the English in Europe were marked and memorable. 1701. it BE VX' THE Canadian Peoplk. 207 In America there was comparatively little bloodshed. The sanguinary liertel led another expedition ngainst the border settlement of Deerfield in 1 70 1, and Haverhill on the Merrimac, and the peaceful inhabitants were killed and their dwellings burnt. In Acadia, in 170G, and iigain in 1 707, unsuccessful attacks were made by New Kiiglanders on Port Royal. In 1710, however, an expedition with 3500 ti'oops sailed against the Acadian capital from Boston. The defenders of Port Royal sur- rendered, and, as the captors thought, all Acadia with it. It was Port Royal no more, for its inhabitants to the number of 450 were sent in transports to Rochelle, and the name of the place changed to Annapolis in honour of the sovereign. The loss of Acadia was felt keenly in France, though by an expedition in 1708 France had gained the whole of Newfonndland, except the settlement of Carbonneau. In 1711 one of the most tremendous failures ever seen iu the New World overtook an expedition organ- ized by England to take Ca nada. It was a New ^°^*^^®'^ World Armada. The fleet under Sir Hoveden Walker contained eighty-eight sail, and was to carry 6500 troops, among whom were seven regiments of the flower of Marlborough's army. There was also colonial militia. To co-operate with this there was a land force of 4000 Massachusetts men and GOO Indians. The land army, under General Nicholson, moved to Lake Geoi^ge, there to await the attack on Quebec by the fleet. But the ele- ments fought against Admiral Walker. Eight ships were Avrecked, and corpses were thrown up on the gulf islands like those of Pharaoh's army on the Red St a coast. Sir liuveden called a council of war at Cape Breton. The attempt was given up ; the colonial vessels returned to Boston, and the British to England. The Massachusetts volunteers retired discouraged to their homes. England was the laughing-stock of Europe ! But now in 1713 the '' dogs of war " were leashed again. After mucli negotiation the great Treaty of Utrecht was signed at the'," Ferry StreSt°^ of the Rhine'' on the 11th of April, 1713. •1. 1 ■ 208 A Short Mistokv of :i|5=**!:- By this the Hanoverian line was recognized in England, the fortifications of Dunkirk, which had menaced the British coast, were to be destroyed, and to England was ceded Acadia, Newfoundland, and the country of Hudson Bay. To France alone remained in the New World, Canada, Louisiana, Cape Breton, St. John's (Prince Edward's) Island, and certain fishint^- rights on the Gulf. It was a day of glory for England ; it was a day of dolor for Louis le Grand, thouj)utL' uitli waniitli ho pursued a decidedly nggresslvo policy, lu order to strengthc^n Canada on tli(! side of Acadia, the French began a nioveinfnt for the etnigra- tioii of all the French in Acadia to the north side of the ]j:iy oFFiindy in the disputed territory. 'i'he second step was to connect LiHiisinna and Canada. These wei-e, so to sp( ak, the two bastions of the French power in America, The Governor would unite them by a line of tortilied posts up the Ohio ilivor and al-aig the lakes. IJaviiig gone on a great expedition to the west of ^oine 1200 leagues, Galissoniere understood the country, aiul saw its deplorable condition. A fort was determined ou among the Sioux, another was erect(>d at Green Bay, Detroit was garrisoned, Fort Rouille was built at Toronto, and a fort at Ogdensburg was erected called " La Presentation." It was in 171'9 that this energetic Governor was re- placed by the Marquis de la Jonquiere, also a naval officer of uote. No change of policy from that of Galissoniere was made. He would have built forts along Lake Erie, but the royal despatch of J 750 declared " Niagara and Detroit will secure for ever our communications with Louisiana.'" The attempt to remove the French from Acadia was succeeding. This was rendered more easy now that Britain had decided to occupy Acadia, lu 1/49 Governor Cornwallis with 3800 colonists had come to settle Halifax. His proclamation had been that the French in Acadia might remain, provided that the priests they retained were approved by the British Government, and that the Acadians would defend their homes, and take the oath of allegiance. Not less than 3000 Acadians betook themselves to the north of the Bay of Fundy, and the island of St. Jean. At the isthmus between Acadia and the mainland was the French settlement of Beaubassin. This the English attacked. On a liill near by, the French determined to erect a fort, and this they did, calling it Fort Beausejour. i'he Marquis Duquesne, a captain in the Royal Marines, arrived as the new Governor in 1752. A new New Route route to the Ohio was now discovered. This to the Was by leaving Lake Erie where Erie city now ^^*°' r 2 linll HHHf MBBmiij HB^II II H|f |>4'>v,f || 212 A Short History oi- 1763. stands. A roiid was cut tlironfrh the woods to Froiicli Creek, a tributary of tho Alloghnny, ono of tho branches of tho Ohio. Here was biiilr, Fort Loljocuf, nnd hiilier cnme ascommnndant, Lcgardeur do St. Pierre, whom wo have seen as a successor of Vcrnndrvo on tho Saskntchewan. To tlic officer in charge of this fort was -.I i riM • 1 1 i. Braddock. two liritisu repfiinents. lliis niuii was a bliister- incf, bravo, Hclt'-opinioimtod Hritish otlicor. Ho despised colonists and coloniid iiianiiers. With a forco of some 12U0 inon — regulars and nniitia — on the lUtli of June, 1755, h(! l)(»gau his march over the Alioghanios to attack Furt DiKjiu'sne. He preserved on the march all the features of a European campaign. Axemen opened up the road ; the wagons proceeded slowly and with military precision. At length so slow was the progress that he listened to the advice of Washington, one of his officers, to leave the train to follow and to hasten forward with the troops. After the mountains were passed, and some eight miles from Fort Duquesne, just after the Monon- galiela had been crossed, Braddock^s army was surrounded by French and Indians. The enemy was invisible. The martinet Braddock insisted on his troops fighting in line. His men v/ere cut down like the wheat-field before hail. The officers fought most bravely. After sixty-three o£ these out of eighty-six had fallen and Braddock himself been mortally wounded, the remnant retreated. It was an absolute and crushing defeat. The second point of attack was Acadia. On both sides of the Bay of Fundy a considerable French _ population lingered. Those who had emigrated to the north side were miserably poor. The attack on Acadia was made by a body of Massachusetts militia, under command of Moncton, the agent of Governor Lawrence of Nova Scotia. Colonel John Winslow com- mauded one regiment. On the 1st of June ^^g- the expedition landed at Beausejour. The garrison consisted of but 160 troops, and they, as well as the French colonists, were much discouraged. They were under the command of one De Vergor, but the leading spirit of the defence was a priest. La Loutre, to whose malice and determination most of the troubles of the Acadians at this time may be traced. Little fighting took place, for the garrison judged it wise to capitulate. La Luutre escaped, but was afterwards arrested, and im- prisoned in the isle of Jersey for eight years. if I ' < !• ii 4 M 214 A SiroRi" IlrsToin' ok V . ■ i; . Ji ■ ■ ■ II And now cuinos 0110 of tho most mournful cpisodos of Tram- liistory. (lovcrnor Sliirloy, of MiiSMicliusctts, portnion of had lor sotuo tirno fidvocatod exportation of Acadians. ^j,y A(.'Jidi:ins. Now it was to bo dono. It is a vexed subject of discussion, and tiie last word has not yet been said u|)oii it. Undoubtedly the Acadians rct'iiscd to take the oath (»!' ii'lo^naiieo. That in itself would I)ai(lly, liowever, hnve justilied their expulsion. Ihit it is cliarfjced a^^'ainst them that they incited tho Indians n|]fjiinst th(! hritish, that any hostile French expedirion fot 'id in them sympathizers, and that beiiiut the danger of attacking Niagara lay not only in the 1200 men, ninny of them Indians, defending it, but in tlie fiict that Fort Frontenac lay in the rear, and might cut tho party olf from its supplies entirely. And so, after braR'ly considering the matter, Shirley nnd his councillors allowed their discretion to rule, and making no demonstration against Niagara, returned quietly home. In addition to these border conflicts, the British war- vessels had captured some 300 French ships. It t\us happened that when, on the 17th of May, 175G, a formal declaration uf war was made, by which Britain and Frederick the Great's kingdom were combined againbt the remainder of Europe, the relations of France and England were but little changed. Fiance braced herself more firmly for war, and sent General Montcalm to command the forces in America. Louis Joseph, Marquis de Montcalm-Gozon de St.Veran, was born at Nismes,in the South of France, on the 29th of February, 1712. Privately educated, at the age of fifteen he entered the army as an ensign. Ho married the Lady Louise Talen, and had a family of ten children. Montcalm was a good father, a true soldier, and was devoted to his country. He fought in Italy and Germany, and had been severely wounded. With 1000 regulars and 400 recruits the general embarked for Canada, which he reached in May, 1756. Sixteen hundred soldiers had arrived from France in the year before, so that the forces under Montcalm at this time numbered about 4000 men. Two officers, afterwards well known, accompanied Montcalm, viz. the Chevalier de Levis-Verun, and M. de Bourgainville. Alter full conference it was decided to fortify Niagara ; and to make Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, and Ticonderoga (Carillon), on Lake Champlain, the two Montcalm. eran, I, on the ,tcd, at Q. Ho of ten ioldier, [ly and 1000 led for ndred |ove, HO ibered :nown, 'eran, icrara ; and two TiiK Canadian I'iioj'u:. 217 central camps of defence. Louisbour^ wjis defended by I iOO men and much needed streu^'thening in its defences, |)ut this was never accomplished. Great IJritain now throw herself, as never before, into the colonial war. (iovernor Shirley had planned another great expedition against Forts Frontenac and Niagara; but as 10,000 men Avere asked, the States voted nny. This bustling loiider was now superseded by the Earl of Loudon, who added little to the lustre of British arms in America. With Geiiei'al Loudon came also General Abercrombie. Oq the opening of the campaign Montcalm attacked and took without difficulty Fort Oswego, which, though not so disgraceful as Braddock's defeat on the Monon- galicla, was a greater strategic loss. In l?.")? the French determined to secure the positions about Lake Cham- plaiu. An attack was made by Montcalm on Fort William Henry. The English garrison was reduced to want, sniall-pox entered among the defenders, their cannon were disabled ; aud as Montcalm was soon to open on the fort with his artillery, the garrison surrendered. Thus to the very south of Lake George the French flag iioated triumphaLt. The French cause was now most hopeful, although a total failure of crops in Ctunada left the people in a state of famine. In 1758 the English made an attempt to regain the Lake Champlain forts. General Abercrombie, with 16,000 men, made an attack on Ticonderoga. Montcalm arrived in time, however, to take command of the 3500 troops in the besieged fort. Behind the defences of Carillon he awaited General Abercrombie's attack. After a most determined series of ouvsets by the British, they were compelled to retire without accomplishing anything, having lost 2000 men in killed and wounded, while the French had not suffered to the extent of one-fifth. The liritish, however, took and destroyed Fort Frontenac ; they also drove the French from Fort Duquesue aud off the Ohio, and compelled a retreat to Fjrt Erie. In the end of May, 1758, Admiral Boscawen, arriving at Hulitax, met General Amherst, who had been sent by Ueneral Abercrombie to take Louisbourg. In the pre- ^^ 5S .91 S -f ■ 1 . ' ) (;"■ ,„-| . 1 , V I ft ■ 1 9i 'iti ' '/ ■^!. ■;'l ,. t. ■Ml ■■J|'.. 2l8 A Short Htstorv of Wolfe appears ceding year Louisbourg had been threatened, but the attack was abandoned. Now, on the 2nd of June, Louis- bourg was reached. It was still a great fortress. The British, after a severe encounter, effected a binding. A siege and bombardment by the assailants resulted in a capitulation on the 27th of July, 1758, of the entire force of the 0000 soldiers and sailors in the garrison. Great joy was shown in England over this capture. At the taking of Louisbourg there leaped into promi- nence a young officer, who was the "life of the siege.'' This was Colonel James Wolfe, aged thirty-two years. At fifteen he had entered the army, fought in the battle of Culloden at the age of twenty-three, and at that age became a lieutenant-colonel. Though of a most delicate constitution, he was "all life." The remarkable statesman, William Pitt, who then guided thedestinies of England, had much confidence in the young soldier. He now appointed him to command the expedi- tion against Quebec, made him a major-general, allowed him to choose his own staff', and sent him a strong con- tingent of Scottish Highlanders, " les sauvages des Ecossais,'' a new class of British troops organized by Pitt's suggestion after 1745. The last of the fleet, with some 8000 or 9000 troops uu- To Quebec ^^'' ^'^l^^^l^'ft Louisbourg Harbour on the 6th of 1759 * '^^^^^ ^^® soldiers drinking to the toast, " British colours in every French fort, post, and garrison in America." The taking* of Quebec by Wolfe is now an oft- told tale. In Canada proper the French arms had been very successful. Now there were to meet in a desperate struggle the two armies — one flushed with success in the interior, the other fresh from capturing the French stronghold on the sea. There were two brilliant opposing commanders — Montcalm and Wolfe. It was a supreme ciisis. The French forces had been concentrated at Quebec. The whole city was now a fort, and for ten miles along the shore from Quebec to Mont- morenci Falls was an armed camp. The Kiver !St. Charles was obstructed by sunken hulks and a " boom of logs/' A hundred cannon and more defended the walls of the 3d by IS iiu- [6 th of Iritisli IrrisOQ now arms ;t in a with during two 'olt'e. been fort, iont- iiarles [ogs." )f tlie tht: Canadian Peopt.e. 19 fortress. The French fleet had retired up the river for safety — a mistake, as it afterwards appeared. Fourteen thousand regular French trocps, colonists, and Indians maiuiod the Benuport works, or defended the city. Montcalm bad full delegated authority from Governor Vaudreuil, who, however, was present also. On the 2Gth of June, 1759, the P]nglish fleet anchored off the island of Orleans, near Quebec. Wolfe soon landed, and took a reconnoissance from the west end of the island. It was a discouraging prospect for him. High in front of him lay the threatening fortress, and to the right the elevated coast was an extended camp. He was outnumbered by the defenders. The French soon attempted to burn his fleet by sending down the tide vessels filled with combustibles, but they wasted their fierce strength in vain. The British took possession of the south shore of the St. Lawrence at Levis, opposite the city, and from this point battered the lower town to pieces. Wolfe next landed below the Montmorenci Falls, and took a strong position. The young general was thus much divided, having Montmorenci, Orleans, and Levis in possession, and his fleet as an object of anxiety beside. Montcalm, however, obstinately refused to attack the English ; his plan Avas one of determined defence. Wulfe made a proclamation favourp^ble to the French Canadians, and thus weakened the defenders somewhat. On the 18tli of July Wolfe accomplished a feat which was to change the campaign. The vessel Sutherland, under a heavy fire, successfully passed the batteries of Quebec, and now lay above the city. Boats were taken hy portage by the British across Point Levis, and thus Montcalm was compelled to send troops to diflerent points up the river, and occupy exposed points. Thus far Montcalm seemed to have the best of it, and Wolfe was no doubt in much perplexity. An attack had been made by Wolfe near Montmorenci. The British seized the redoubt on the water's edge, but could not take the heights above. Failing to di'aw forth Montcalm, Wolfe now ravaged the country, and, with a doubtful morality, hurned houses and turned forth homeless families. n .1;!: 220 A Short History of 1;,.M. ViSi' I f f t ■• #.' Montcalm was immovable. Wolfe was continuing his movement of vessels above the city. De Bourgainville bad been detached by Montcalm with 1500 men to guard the shore above Quebec. By the end of August both sides were in despair, though to cheer the British somewhat Wolfe had recovered from a dangerous attack of illness, and to comfort the French news had arrived from the interior that the expedition against their forts had failed. Wolfe now adopted the hazardous, but in the end successful, plan of evacuating Montmorenci, and, with his twenty-two ships above the city, effected a lodgment on the north shore. On the night of the 12th of September, boats laden with ^ chosen men dropped down the stream. After victory meeting with challenge after challenge, and through the skill of one of Fraser^s High- landers, who knew French, evading them, the advance- guard of twenty-four volunteers scrambled up a path at Wolfe's Cove, a few miles west of Quebec, overpowered the sleepy guard, and by the morning Wolfe's army of between 3000 and 4000 men was on the high plateau — the Plains of Abraham. During the night Admiral Saunders had bombarded the Beau port shore, and Montcalm and the bulk of his troops had been drawn in that direction. In the morning Montcalm was surprised on cominof towards Quebec to see the redcoats and Highlanders on the heights, drawn up in line He calmly remarked, ^' This is a dangerous affair.'' With haste his attack was made. The steadiness of the British troops was marvellous. They stood silently under the fire of the approaching enemy, and at forty yards discharged two or three murderous volleys, and the work was done. Wolfe, thrice wounded, died, having been in- formed by his attendants of his victory ; and Montcalm, shot near the city, v^as led in, supported on his black charger — led in to die ! Rarely have two nobler spirits met in battle-array than Montcalm and Wolfe. The rout of the French was complete. Bourgainville, coming down the river shortly after with 2000 men, retired precipitately. The British troops proceeded to entrench themselves. Vaudreuil had sent for De Levis, f liis ville uard sides what , and erior Volfe , plan ships ore. . with After , and High- /ance- ath at )wered •my of u— the anders m and ction. oming ers on "This less of lilently yards work ben in- itcalm, black I spirits inville, men, led to 1 Levis, THE Canadian People. 22 T and liiid gone to moot him, the scattered, fleeing troops having concentrated at Jacques Cartier, thirty miles above Quebec. Jiamesay, the commandant, with a hundred or two of troops, still held the city. Ho was compelled, under threat of immediate attack, to capitulate. A body of British artillery occupied the city, and the British flag was unfurled at the top of Mountain Street. Vaudreuil withdrew to Montreal, and, to his disgrace, threw the blame of the defeat on the dead soldier, Mont- calm. B'igadier-General Murray now remained in com- mand of Quebec. In the following year De Levis attacked Quebec, coming from Montreal. The British forces left Quebec, and received the attack at Ste. Foy, near the city. The French were successful. The British fell back on the city. Apillar at Ste. Foy commemorates this victory of De Levis. The arrival of a British fleet made De Levis' eff'orts hopeless. This fleet destroyed the six French vessels above Quebec. It but remained to take Montreal. Generals Amherst and Murray, coming from Schenectady by way of Oswego and down the St. Lawrence, landed on Montreal Island, and invested the city on the 6th of September, 17G0. On the 8th of September Governor Vaudreuil yielded, and New France became a dependency of Britain, so that by 17t)l French rule had ceased in every part of Canada, having endured for a century and a half. Section VI.— The French Canadian People. At the time of the conquest the French Canadians were already children of the soil. It is estimated that not more than 8000 immigrants came from France to Canada, all told. As we have seen, the chief colonization period was in Colbert's time, and under his wise and energetic guidance. The papulation had now at the conquest grown to be 65,000. Three generations had passed away, so that not only had the people been fused into one, but their fathers' graves held them to the soil. Kor had the population of French Canada been of a very mixed kind. At one time during his autocracy, 222 A Short Histokn' of fim^^ Laval had objected that heretics from Rochello were being sent to the colony, and at once the French rulers turned to the rorth-vvestern provinces of France for the new settlers. From Normandy the (j^reater number came. As the traveller drops oil' tlie railway I'rom Dieppe to Paris, at the (nty of Rouen, he is in the midst <>t the fatherland of French Cansida. He sees there much that is the prototype of style and general outline of the French Canadian homes. The Government was renlly active in sending forth emigrants in Colbert's day. Many ruined gentlemen and half-pay officers went to Canada. As governors and officials men of high rank were sent — '' noble dukes, proud marquises, great sea-captains, and engineer officers '^ were all found in Canada. Baron Lahontau said he "preferred the forests of Canada to the Pyrenees of France,^' and Louis XIV. boasted that " Canada con- tained more of his old nobility than the rest of the French colonies put together." It was the avowed object of the king in 1G63 to ''infuse a more liberal spirit into the colony, to raise the quality and character of the settlers, and to give a higher tone to society. It was a part then of the plan to transplant feudal in- stitutions to Canada. De Tracy — the Viceroy — always appeared in public with a " Garde Royale" of twenty- four men. The Governor and Intendant each had a splendid equipage. Of the Carignan officers, as already said, many were noblesse. On the recommendation of Governor De €ourcelles, four families in Canada were ennobled, and five more on the recommendation of the Intendant. Seigniories were bestowed upon those con- sidered deserving of them, and the other colonists must receive their tenures from the seignior. The *" censitaire,'' or settler, must come to the seignior '* without sword or spurs, with bare head, and one knee on the ground," must repeat his lord's name three times, bring his " faith and honour," and pledge himself to pay "seignorial and feudal dues." If he sold out his right to another, the feudal lord was entitled to one-twelfth of what he received. Then the " censitaire " must grind nmM .>•- TiiK Canadian Peoplk. 223 lii.s flour at ilio scignior^s mill, bako his broad in the soifi^nior^s oveu, give ono fish in every eleven caught, and ■work for his lord one or more days in every year. A somewhat highly organized society was thus at once formed. But the Governmeut could induce but few families to emigrate. The louely settlers in their cabins longed for society. Colbert was equal to the emergency. In 1(305, 100 French maidens were sent out to the colony, and married at once. In 1GG7 eighty-four girls from Dieppe, and twenty-five from Rochelle, went out to Canada, and so in other years. These were jocularly called the " king's girls -" but, notwithstanding the sneers of the cynical Lahontan, they seem to have been generally honest peasant maidens. There were excep- tions, however. Mother Mary, who had charge of them, in an offhand way called them " mixed goods," and at last a rule was enforced that each should bring from her parish priest a certificate that sIkj had not been married before. As soon as the maidens were married, and that was usually very soon after arrival, to each new family was given by the Government an ox, cow, pair of swine, pair of fowls, two barrels of salted meat, and eleven crowns in money. Further, to encourage marriage in the colony, twenty livres were given to each young man married before twenty years of age, and to each girl married before sixteen. This was known as the " king's gift." This was independent of the dowry also bestowed. In addi- tion, there was a bounty given to the parents of every child. The practical plans of the Government resulted, as we have mentioned, in a rapidly increasing and moral community. It is rather remarkable that the custom of early marriages is a prominent feature of Lower Cana- dian society to this day. A good Jesuit father informed the writer that he lias seen a grandmother among the French Canadian peasantry at the age of twenty-eight. Undoubtedly, the system of a peasantry dependent on the noblesse has made the French Canadians a peaceable, industrious, and light-hearted people ; but it has likewise taken away the mainspring for actioU; the hope of rising . 1 224 A Short History of i m ill soclt'ty, and whilo tlioir life may bo compared to a " pastoral idyl," yet it would be all the bettor for some enlivening or even discordant strains. The same trustful spirit with which the peasant in Lower Canada looks on the higher classes is transferred to the priest or cure of the parish. The cure baptizes the children, and keeps a most careful register by a system which has resulted in the industrious Abbe Tau- guay being able to make a genealogy of upwards of a million of French Canadians. The cure marries, con- fesses, and advises all, and at last speaks the words, "Dust to dust" over their graves. This is the unevent- ful life of the French Canadian habitant. The language of the French Canadian peasantry is by no means the "patois" some would have us believe. One of their writers has said, " Our French Canadian peasantry talk better French than half the peasantry of France." The first settlers of* Canada left France when literature was at its zenith under Louis XIV. The French Canadians of to-day retain the " simple old Norman songs " in all the purity with which their fathers brought them ; and it is worthy of note that requests have come from France to have them collected, as not occurring now in any part of France. The French Canadians had few regrets for "la belle France," for they had all been born in Canada, and the French officials went to France after the conquest. As already said, the French Revolution rudely severed French Canada from the mother-land. It was in con- templating this fact in 1794 that Bishop Plessis of Quebec " thanked God the colony was English." "■ .Jt V < ■ f '{ i«»i •m,m,Mmm.t»immt0' TiiK Canadian People. 22 c CHAPTER YI. ''*i »^^ ;J' 3ll( 10 Ai of BRITAIN S COLONIAL POLICY AND LOSS OF SUPREMACY IN AMERICA. (References: " Cai)itulatioii of Governor Yandreuil," 17(><) ; Mannscript, Ottawa IjiLrary, "Treaty of J*ari-)," 170;?; Appendix, Miless's "History of Lower Canada;" "The Quebec Act, Statntes of Imperial House of Coninious," Ottawa Tiiln-ary ; " Debate on the Quebec Act," London, 18ol) ; "History (jf Lower Canada," vol. i., Quebec, 1848, by Robert Christie; "The Remembrancer," vol. i., Loudon, 1775; '"Prior Documents, 1701—1775," London, 1777; "Controversy between Great Britain and her Colonies reviewed," London, 170:i ; " Precis on the Wars in Canada," London, 180"2, by Major-General Carmichael Smyth [the author follows this hi<^'h nutliority closely for war 1775-7]; Manuscript, "Recitals of the U.E. Loyalists," 2 folio vols., Ottawa Library.) Section I. — Constitutions and Conventions. The task of establishing satisfactory g07cruiueiit was not free of difficulties in the older colonies constitution along the Atlantic. From the first the colony of Nova of Massachusetts had been ruled by the demo- S^^^^^*- cracy. In other cases a strongly royalist government had been established. The Nova Scotiau Government, begun in 1749, was the first in any of the provinces of the Dominion. In this case, with a military officer. Governor Cornwallis, at the head of it, it was strongly monarchical in type. In the proclamation made on behalf of his Majesty King George II. for settling the Province of Nova Scotia, it was stated that a civil government would be established with all the " privileges granted to other colonies in British North America." It required a Q 'i\ ;^.^- ^)^'> :li!?' 226 A Short History ok I'i Htruo-o-h; ill after years to obtain an Assembly under this ])r()niise, and a still pfreatcr aL^'itation to secure respon- sible <^"overnnient in Nova Scotia. The formation of FrtMich Canada into a British ])ro- Lower vinco in so slioi-fc a space of time was must Canadian remarkable. The terms <^n'anted to (lovernor Convention. y.^jjj|j.j,„il .^^ ^],(. c!ii)itnliiti<)n of Montreal, on tlio 8tli of Si>ptemljer, 17<*)0, and the provisions of the 'i^'eaty of i*aris, l7()o, were the basis of this Conventi(»n. In the Artieles of Cajiitnlation the French were t^-ranted the free exercise of their religion. Their priests wero continued in their functions as before the conquest. Quiet possession of property was guaranteed to the " new subjects," as the French were cidled, except in the case of the Jesuits' estates. These Articles did not preserve to tlio people the system of French law, known as the "Custom of Paris ;" but it was g-uarjinteed that "in- habitants and merchants wero to enjoy .'dl the privileges granted to subjects of his Britannic Majesty .'' The Treaty of I'aris, which was put in force in Canada King's Pro-^^y ^^^^ M.'ijesty's ])roelamation, dated St. clamation, James's, 7tli of October, 17('»-l!, says nothing ^^^^' about rebgious rights, olfers liberal grants to military officers and soldiei'S of Britain, directs the establishment of courts, " as near as may be agree- able to the laws of England," and provides for the caUing of "assemblies as used and directed in those colonies and provinces in America which are under our immediate government. '^ Though nt)t so stated in the proclamation, yet in the 4th Article of the Treaty of Paris, Pari8^n63 *^^*'''^» ^^^^ king promises "to give the most etl'ectual orders, that his new Roman Catholic subjects may profess the worship of their religion ac- cording to the rites of the Roman Church, as far as tlio laws of Great Britain permit." The first Governor of Canada under the British was General Murray. He selected, according to his instruc- tions, an Executive Council. They were all of British extraction, except one — a French Canadian. As there were 05,000 French, and they had expected to become _.SkR** „,,^ ^7W 111- aiiadii a St. thing ;TtllltS irects o-ree- I'llling s and diato ation, Paris, most tliolic n ac- s the 11 was Istruc- Iritish there jcome THE Canadian Pkopli:. 227 possessed of all the rio-lifs of Pi-itisli subjects, tho Frciidi complaiiiod of tliis, jintl spuko for years after with jiiiich severity nt' tlu* four years suoccedinLT 1 700, wliicli they called the ''rule of tlic soldiery." (ieneriil Murray was popular unioiio' tho Freucli Cauadiaiis. hi 17('>() JJrigadior- (leueral (Sir Guy) Carh'toii beciino Governor. Tho British system of jurisprudence was bein<,' introduced. Against this the French eoniplaiu(Ml. They also repre- sented that tho means of obtaiiiiug justice under the new method were not equal to those uuder tho old. When we take into account that the Caniidians were a conquei*ed pcujile it is marvellous that they so soon became n^conciled to their lot. Nine years passed away. There was com- plaint enough among the new subjects, but notliiug like rebellion or hostility to Britain. Ihit now Governor Carleton, who, as wo have seen, well understood tho Canadians, and was much trusted by tliem, in company with Chief Justice Hey, crossed the ocean, and with cx-Attornoy-Goneral Maseres, a distinguished EugHsh hiwyer, who for three years assisted Carleton, undertook to bring before the Houses of Par- liament a measure for the organization of the province, and tho settlement of certain disputed points. This Act became the celebrated "Quebec Act of 1774." It was a great experiment. Wo know now, that The Quebec taken altogether it was a successful venture, Act of and we are fortunate in having preserved for ^''"''^• us full accounts of the discussions connected with its becoming law. It was first introduced in tho House of Lords, and afterwards there received the opposition of Chatham. On coming to the House of Commons also it recoivcd strong opposition. Its provisions as to the boundary of the province, the use of French law, the granting of no Assembly, and the propositions for supporting the Roman Catholic faith were the chief subjects of discus- sion. Petitions were presented against the bill on behalf of the State of Pennsylvania, objecting to the encroachment on the Ohio country. A plea in favour of New York was also entered. The merchants of Loudon Q 2 'M ){ ■ .1 228 A Short IIistokv of potitioiioJ agfiitist it on \\\v ^Toiind that tlio use of tho Frcnc'li law would ])r(>jii(lico tho rights of capitalists who had ali'cady iuvostud money in tho province. 'J'hc Iloji. Thomas Townscnd, afterwards Lord Sydney, f<])oki' a^-ainst the olit'-archie prineipUi of an Executive Council witiiout an Assembly. Mdnnind Hurko opposed tho introduction of l"'rench law. 'rii(» answer to Burko •was, that tho French Canadians objcu'ted to tho principle (if trial by jury of tho Knylish law. '* They thoupfht it Htrfinrcl |)iillict IcUide rari'V- sliall 1)0 lm, as the Aet declares, that "it is at jiresent inex- peilient to call an Assembly. " (governor Carletoii returned to Canada ^'•roatly deli^'hted with tho Acfc passed, and tho French Canadians hailed his return with loud acclaim. As wo shall afterwards see, tho Conti- nental Connfross, meetinjLiC at Philadelphia tins year, eom- niiserated with tho Canadians on the tyranniejd character of the Aet. Tho Qncbcc Act had ])Con in force in Canada for seventeen years. DnriiiL^ that ])eriod chanu'f^s xhe Con- of p^reatest moment had taken ])la('e in ATneriea, stitutional Dritain had lost her old colonics; the Preueli ^^'°^^'^^' pooplo liad accepted IJritish rulo, and, so far ns they were concerned, there was no great incpiietudo in Canada. In 178-t the loyalist immigration to Canada took place. Petitions were in that year presented to the king and Parliament of Britain asking for a " representation of the people" in the government of tho province. Those petitions were largely from tho English-speaking resi- dents of Montreal and Quebec. Put there were two shades of English opinion in Canada — that of tho Loyalists, who tlesircd a separate province in tho west, and that of tho English of Montreal and Quebec, who feared that division would leave them in a helpless minority with the French. The Bill pro- posed in response to the king\s speech of 171)1 was in the direction of granting moro self-control to the Canadian people. There were many reasons at the time for this. The republic of tho United States was now side by side with Canada — a pure democracy. The U.E. Loyalists, though attached to the king, were yet accustomed to popular assemblies, and tho demand for the rights of the people, which had blazed forth like a devouring flame in the French Revolution, was in the same direction. It was wise to bestow a me-"^ • J x\ I 230 A Short History of libcrjil constitution on Canada^ tliongh it must bo said tLo French Canadians, uneducated in politics, were list- less about it. The chief opponent of the Bill was a merchant of Quebec, Adam Lymburner, Esq., who came as the chosen reprcseatative of the English party in Queljec. Mr. Lymburner was a native of Kilmarnock, Scotland, had come to Quebec as a merchant before 177G, and had now long" been a member of the Executive Council. He was especially desirous that the Quebec Act of 1774 should be repealed as a whole. Tliis Act continued the Custom of Paris as a system of law in Canada, and he would have it blotted out. He contended that this should be done ou account of the uncertainty of knowing what the " laws of Canada to the conquest " were. Lord Dorchester (Sir Guy Carleton), who had left Canada in his first term of office in 1778, and had been reappointed in 1786, had, in 1787, inquired into the working of these laws. Ho found some judges were following English procedure, others the French code, and still others administering justice according to no law. Mr. Lymburner was especially strong against a division of the province and the establishment of two legislatures. He prophesied many evils as likely to overtake both provinces, and caricatured the new western province with its small population of 10,000. Yet the aspirations of the Loyalists and the opinion ofLoi'd Dorchester were for a new English province. Mr. Lymburner, in pleading for free government, objected to the proposed hereditary Council, and also to the power given by the Bill to the Governor of fixing the bounds of electoral divisions. After full discussion the Constitutional Act passed, and was undoubtedly a blessing to Canada. Its main provisions are worthy of note. It divided Canada into two j^rovinces. Upper and Lower, on the line still existing between Ontario and Quebec. A Legislative Council was to be appointed in each province by the king, its members being for life. The king was authorized to confer titles, whose possession should entitle to membership of this Council. This provision for .f Otll with of for ing ary the LOUS. and idecl the A duce was Loukl 11 for f THE Canadian People. 2U a House of Lords was fortunately never carried out. Eacli province was to have an Assemhly, of meinbors chosen from districts set apart by the Governor — a pro- perty qualification being* required for electors. No clergyman could bo a member of the Assembly, though, as will afterwards be seen, this restriction did not apply to the Legislative Council. Power was given the Governor to convoke and prorogue or dissolve these Houses of the l?rovincial Parliament. The Assembly could not continue.' more than four years. Wo shall see how arbitrarily this power of the Governor was sometimes exercised. It was further decreed in the Act that an allotment of Crown hinds in each province for the " support and maintenance of a Protestant clergy '' be made, to be one- soventh of all the Ci'own lands o'ranted. The governors of the several provinces were also empowered to "erect parsonages and endow them, and to pi'esent incumbents of ministers of the Church of England/^ Here lay the germ of the greatest political question that ever agitated Canada. The land grants of tlie crown in Upper Canada, and in Lower Canada if desired, were in freehold. Tho British Parliament, in the Act, reserved the power of regulating duties on navigation and commerce, but left to each province " the exclusive appropriation of all monies so levied.^' The ^^ Quebec Act,^' except tho portion relating to an Executive Council, continued in force. Lord Dorchester obtained leave and went to Ensfland in August, 171)L Alured Clarke, Esq., Acting-Gover- nor, declared the '^Constitutional Act^^ in force, esta- blishing Upper and Lower Canada, Dec. 26th, 179L This day was celebrated with great rejoicing in Quebec. The city was illuminated. All were agreed that distinc- tions between '^ old '' and '^ new " subjects should be forgotten, and the 100 gentlemen who attended the public dinner in Quebec formed themselves into the " Constitutional Club.'^ The subdivision of the provinces into counties went on apace. Li 1702, as we shall see, the ucw^ Governor of Upper Canada, John Graves Simcoe, ■,\> V si •T-l 4 ■ii « II' ? 232 A Short History of arrived — a great day indeed for Upper Canada. In duo- course, in that year the elections were held, and tho Provincinl Legislatures met. A striking incident took place on the 27tli of June, 1792, as the election for Charlesbourg, near Quebec, was closing. Prince Edward, the Duke of Kent, and father of Queen Victoria^ was in Canada at this time, and was present at this gathering of the electors. High feeling prevailed and a riot seemed inevitable. The prince, seeing the danger, rushed to a prominent place, and called for silence. He then in pure Frencli called out, " Can there be any man among you that does not take the king to be the father of his people ? " A shout of " God save the king^' greeted the question. " J' there any man among yon/' then asked his Highness, " that does not look on the new Constitution as the best possible one, both for the sub- ject and the Government ? " Loyal shouts were again repeated. " Part then in peace. I urge you to unani- mity and concord. Let me," continued the speaker, "hear no more of the odious distinction English aud Frencli. Yon are all his Britannic Majesty's Canadian subjects." The effect of this speech was magical. Harmony was at once restored. Happy for Canada had the princely advice been always followed. \ 9 Section II. — Causes of tlw American IlcvoU (1775). The thirteen British colonies along the Atlantic were becoming strong. In the year preceding the Seven Years' War, they had at their own expense carried on ca series of border campaigns. Virginia and Massachusetts especially were populous and growing in wealth. The differences arising from origin were disappearing, and common enterprises and common dangers were bringing the separate colonies together. As a colony grows strong a feeling of independence is sure to manifest itself. The older land patronizes the new. It must be so. The father never can forget that Lis son is his junior, remembers him as an infant, knows THE Canadian People. 233 J5 \mg IS Ithe Ihat tlic pranks of his youth, never can regard his actions as those of an equal. The youug colony is conscious of strength. Its life, it is true, is raw and crude, but it is bred amidst difficulties, and these it has fought and, to some extent, overcome. It is a young giant, and is anxious to try its strength with those older and less vigorous than itself. The rise of the spirit of indepen- dence often is the evidence of a capacity for self-control. The colouy is frequently foolish ; far better remain a little longer a child. But who can eradicate the way- wardness of youth ? Besides their experience in border wars, the thirteen colonics now had a population of some four millions of souls. It must not be forgotten, moreover, that the colony of Massachusetts had been founded by a determined and assertive people. It was, so to speak, established in the face of the King of England. The desire of leadership among the colonics was ever a feature of Massachusetts. Her lust for power was seen in the energy with which the Puritan province carried on the war against Acadia ia 1745, the Phipps^ expedition against Quebec, and met the cost of these contests. Undoubtedly the ties binding the American colonies to the mother country would not have been severed so soon as they were had it not been for the exercise of arbitrary power on the part of Britain. A strong party in Eng- land at the time was opposed to these measures, and posteriiy is unanimous on the subject. In 17GI the British Ministry determined to enforce Customs regula- tions more strictly in the Atlantic colonies. A most lucrative trade had sprung up between the English and Spa,nisli colonies in America. An exchange of products and merchandise between our colonies and those of the French in the AVest Indies was also growing. British manufactures taken to our colonies were carried to the West Indies and the Spanish main, and England as well as the colonies was benefitted. By the Act of 1764 Spanish goods were excluded from the English colonies, and heavy duties placed on French West Indian products. This seemed to the Americans an unwise and tyrannical 'm M ' kS J fll 234 A Short History of 11 procedure. In the same year an Act was passed Iq the Imperial Parliament '' to restrain the currency of paper- money in the colonies/^ These were Llows at the very prosperity of the colonies. In the making of -such laws the colonies had no voice, though no doul)t they had an interest in the Seven Years' War for which the tax was being raised. But it was not in 1704 that the disposition to tax the colonies for war expenses was lirst manifested. There is indeed some evidence that the project originated with the official classes in the colonies themselves. In colo- nial life it is often seen that the greatest tyrant of the people is the colonial official. The British otlicial abroad is often an absolute bureaucrat. AVe find that so early as 1754, when Dr. Benjamin Franklin was in Boston, Governor Shirley of Massachusetts communicated to him as a profound secret, the *"' great design of taxing the colonies by Act of l^arliament.'^ Franklin's written answer was decided and statesman- like. " To tax the people in Parliament," said he, " where they have no representative, would give dissatisfaction; That while the people were willing to contribute for their own defence, they could better judge of the force neces- sary and tlie means for paying them, than the British Parliament at so great a distance ; That parliamentary taxes once laid on are often continued longer than neces> sary ; That colonists are always indirectly taxed by the mother countiy, which enables her to pay taxes; That the colonists have at personal risk extended the empire, increased her wealth, and should not be deprived of the native right of Bi 'tons." This is but a part of the document, but it shows the nature of the colonial contention. Some parts of the reasoning may be specious, rather than solid, but such were the opinions of the most intelligent of the colonists nine or ten years before the close of the Seven Years' War. At the close of this war the Governor of Massachusetts was Sir Francis Bernard. He was an astute, ingenious, and dignified Governor, but an absolutist in principle, ""'-1 " 'iMniiifc-tiitiiai'iiniirriiii / THE Canadian People. 235 he at ire, le the the lists )tts )US, Iple, niicl a constitutional tyrant. He had been transferred from the governorship of tbe loyal colony of New Jersey, to check the troublesome Puritans of Massachusetts Bay. After Bernard was the deluge ! It was from Governor Bernard that the project came, to the financier of the JJritish Ministry, '' driven out of his wits for ways and means/^ of which Shirley had spoken to Franklin ten years before. The "official junto'' in America wished taxes levied by Parliament, and the salaries of Governors, Judges of Admiralty, Judges of Common Pleas, and other high officials paid by the Imperial Government. It was also recommended that the colonies should be combined into fewer but larger provinces, under a now system of royal government. This In/^t proposition was in order that the too popular ccnsti; ^tions of some of the colonies might be remodelled. Governor Bernard strongly maintained the right of tho'Parliamcnt of Britain to tax without representation ; and in ninety-seven pro- positions laid down extreme reactionary principles, even recommending the establishment of a nobility in America. {'an it be wondered at, that great statesmen like Chat- ham, Burke, and others who defended America, were roused to patriotic denunciation, when they saw those who should have been the defenders of colonial rights, plotting for their destruction. There was another element in the case. In the war which had but closed and lor which taxes were asked, ther*" had been much feeling between the regular and colonial troops. The British officials and soldiers had despised the provincials. No provincial troops had taken part either in the successful attack on Louis bourg, or in Wolfe's victories at Quebec. No doubt it was showing jealousy and littleness of soul for the colonists to com- plain, when all had ended so well for them. But there is much human nature in the colonies ! It was in March, 1764, that in a thin House and with- out much discussion, the British House of Commons passed a bare resolution, *' that it was proper to charge certain stamp duties in the colonies and plantations."" No sooner had the news of this reached America, than ■\i\: ,1 ■■'< i *' W •r 'IW I' 'itt 'rtf! II* ■ » & 236 A Short History of the Assemblies of jMussaclmsetts and New York adopted strong remonstrances. On their receipt, the Privy Council advised the young king George HI. to lay them before Parliament. The request was not granted : the petitions were suppressed. In March, 17G5, the Stamp Act was passed in the face of opposition by the American agents in London. Speaking of the Americans, Mr. Grenville, who had charge of the Pill in Parliament, said, — ''"These children of our ])lanting, nourished by our indulgence until they are grown to a good degree of strength and opulence, and protected by our arms, will they grudge to contribute a mite to relieve us from the heavy load of national expense which we lie under ? " Colonel Barre, who had been in America, certainly replied with plainness of speech : — " * Children planted by our care ! ' Xo, your oppres- sion planted them in America ; they fled from your tyranny into a then uncultivated land. . . . " ' They nourished up by your indulgence ! ' They grew by your neglect of them ; as soon as you began to care about them, that care was exercised in sending persons to rule over them.^' (Then follows a denuncia- tion of these officials.) *' ' They protected by your arms ? ' They have notably taken up arms in your defence, have exerted their valour amidst their constant and laborious industry for the de- fence of the country. . . . The people in America are, I believe, as truly loyal as any subjects the king has ; but a people jealous of their liberties, and who will vin- dicate them if they should be violated.^' We quote these rather extreme words to show that the American case had a hearing in England. As soon as the passage of the Stamp Act was known in America the whole Atlantic seaboard was in a flame. Virginia, the great cavalier colony, passed dignified but decided resolutions, declaring the action of the British Parliament to be '^ illegal, unconstitutional, and unjust, and having a manifest tendency to destroy British as well as American freedom." kt^MI THE Canadian People. 237 lat isli .st, fell The text of the Act was printed and scattered tlirougli- out the streets of New York, headed, '^Tho folly of ]']nglaud, and the ruin of America/^ In Providence, Khode Island, the stamp-officer was compelled to refuse to servo. In a published gazette, protesting against the Act, was the motto, '* Vox yopuli, vchv Del,^' '' Where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liljerty/' The CoU' Aitutioncd Courant had an emblem of a snake cut in pieces, each piece having on it the initial letter of the name of a colony, and under this inscribed, '^ Join or die/^ In Boston the feeling was intense. Effigies of the three Stamp Commissioners were burned under a gallows. The stamped paper was by the law required for all con- tracts, bills, promissory notes, and other legal documents thereafter made in America. No one would take the ])aper from the shijos bringing it from England to Boston. The Assembly was asked to receive it but refused. At last the Governor took it in charge to the castle, with the understanding that it remain unopened. Assembly after Assembly throughout the colonies de- clared against the Act; and commissioners from nine ]irovinces met in a Congress at New York — the first Congress of the United States — on the 7th of October, 1705. While professing loyalty to the King of England, vet the Congress passed fourteen resolutions distinctly laying down their rights, and objecting to "taxation without representation." Riots and disturbances took place in all parts of the colonies. The agitation compelled the attention of the English Parliament. Mr. Pitt thundered forth in behalf of the colonists. The House out of mere fright repealed the Act on the 17th of March, 1706, but at the same time passed an Act which declared, " that the Parliament of Great Britain had a right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.'^ The expression of opinion in the House of Lords was especially strong for the preservation of the prerogative. The arrival of the news of the repeal of the Act was received with loud acclamations in America. In three '1'J :l 23^ A Short History of ii years, however, on tlie29tli of June, 17<)0, a new Reveuuo Act was passed, wliicli revived the old opposition. In the harbour of Boston, a colonial sloop, the Lihcrty, was seized hy the revenue officers for a breach of the law. This was done in an arbitrary manner. In addition, several men were pressed into the navy in Boston. Boston was all excitement. There was danq;er of riot. To bo ready for emergencies a body of regular troops was sent to Boston. It was against an Act of Parliament to quarter these in the city. The Governor, on his own authority, quartered them in tlie State House, and two field-pieces were placed in front of it. In 1707 the English Parliament asked that inquiry be made in Mas- sachusetts as to the treason existing there, and that offenders be sent to England. This irritated the people, and Faneuil Hall, Boston, wdiich has been called the " Cradle of Liberty,'^ again rang with angry denuncia- tions. Governor Bernard's recall at this time gave great satisfaction in Boston. Lord North, coming into power in 1770, repealed all the port duties except that on tea. In March of this year an unfortunate collision took place in Boston, between the military and the citizens. The soldiers opened fire, and several citizens were killed. The excitement rose to fever heat. A public funeral was given the dead, and a great crowd attended the funeral. In 1772 thejndges' salaries were paid out of amounts from the Revenue Tax by the British Government. Much anger was aroused in Britain in 1772 by an outrage in Rhode Island. A revenue cutter, the Gaspce, ordered the Proi'/- deuce packet to lower her colours. The packet refused. The Gaspee fired on her. The packet led the Gaspce into shallow water and escaped. The Guspee ran aground, as the tide went out. At night the Rhode Island fisher- men attacked the Gaspee, took Commander Doddington and crew ashore, and burnt the vessel. In 1773, Governor Hutchinson debated with his two Houses of Assembly as to the supreme legislative authority of Parliament. This was interesting, but not profitable. In 1773 the denouement came. In that year ships THE Canadian People. 239 \n\ lier- ••ton 73, of of hips 1774. laden with tea arrived in Boston ILirl)()ur, witli the duty unpaid. Ail the colonies ;had previously a^'rced not to admit tea at all. The people in l^oston insisted on tlu) ships returning to Britain with their cargoes. Governor Hutchinson reluscd to allow the ships to return. Then according to local tradition in Boston happened tho " tea-party.^' It is said a public meeting was in progress in tho Old South Meeting House, when some one cried out, "What kind of a mixture would salt water and tea make ? '^ Inimcdiately some say, a few days later others, fifty men, dressed as Mohawk Indians, boarded the vessels and emptied the boxes of tea into Boston liay. A specimen of the submerged tea may still bo seen in the rooms of tho jMassachusetts Historical Society. Tho British Parliament was now roused in turn. A Ihll was broui^fht in closing Boston Port, and removinir tho Custom House to Salem ; another Bill subverting tho constitution of Massachusetts, and next a Bill for bringing those guilty of sedition to England for trial. All these Bills passed. It was at this juncture the '^ Quebec Act '' became law. Hence, probal)ly, its illiberal features. Next, the colonists in Boston and elsewhere sought to retaliate. They agreed to stop all imports and exports to and from Great Britain, Ireland, and West Indies, until the obnoxious Bills were repealed. So greatly were all the colonies stirred, that a Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, under the presidency of Peyton Eandolph, of Virginia. That meeting of Congress was the beginning of the end. A resolution was passed approving of the conduct of the people of Massachusetts in resisting the encroachments of arbitrary power. A declaration of rights was adopted. Addresses were passed to the people of Great Britain, to the American people, to the king, and to tho Canadian people. The address to the French Canadians of Lower Canada overflowed with tenderness. It sympathized with them in the arbitrary character of the " Quebec Act,'' over which the French Canadians were in raptures. It was, indeed, rather amusing to see provinces which ^! I 240 A Short IIistorv of flW i I had been hostile to New France for 1 50 years hopiiif^ to iiKiko tlioiii friends by ^ circular letter. As there were no printing' facilities in Canada the letter never reached the French Canadians. An Act was passed in the ]3ritish Parliament now to restrain the trade of New Fn^'-land, and ])rohibiting her irom carrying on fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland. Most of the other provinces hurried to the support of New England. A second Act was passed in liritain, including all the other provinces in the same condemna- tion, except New York and North Carolina, There seemed now no alternative but war. Through- out the colonies arms were collected, companies formed, and preparations for the worst were made. Nor had they long to wait. The colonists seem to have shrewdly determined that on the royal party should lie the onus of beginning war. General Gage, on the 19th of April, 1775, sent out a detachment of 800 men, under Major Pitcairn, to destroy colonial stores being collected at Concord, eighteen miles from ]3oston. At five in the morning the troops encountered about 100 colonials assembled at a meeting-house. *' Disperse, d you, rebels, disperse,'^ cried the choleric major. Firing began, and eight men were killed and a number wounded. Having proceeded to Concord and destroyed the stores, the regulars were beset by the provincial militia. The old New England drums, which had beat in Acadia and on the borders, were now heard again. The fight was severe, and nearly 100 killed and 200 wounded marked the course of Pit cairn's detachment back to Boston. An early movement of the provincials on the 9th of May was that of Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, by which Ticonderoga and Crown Point were seized, and the shipping in Lake Champlain captured. In the second letter of the Continental Congress to the French Cana- dians reference is made to this unbrotherly act, and asking them not to keep in mind so trifling an occur- rence. With the progress of the war, the raising of the Bepublican army, the large reinforcements sent over ^tS THE Canadian People. ^41 ugh- mctl, liiid iwdly us of ^pril, ^ajor cd at a tlio puials you, iring ded. ores, The and fight uded k to th of I, ^y and Icond fana- and icur- the lover from Britain, and tho battles and varying fortunes of the campaign, wo have hero notliiiig to do. Tlie Congress of 177.') liad voted to ofpiip 20, 0(H) nu'ti. Bills of credit to tho extent of Ij, 000^(100 dollars nero issued on tho credit of tlie '' United (.^olonies,'' and General George Washington, of Monongahela fjiine, was appointed Commander-in-Chief. In July, 177-'), nmler the historic olm-treo in Cambridge, near JJoston, shortly after tho battle of Bunker's Hill, Ceneral Washington took command of tho Amei'iean army. In November, 1775, intelligcMiec^ i-eaehed the Congress that the second petition to the British l*arliament had been rejected. Independence began to be considered as the only remedy for their grievances. A brochure, entitled " Common Sense/' by a loose-principled llnglish immigrant, named Thomas Baine, had a wide circulation, and prepared the people for what was coming. On tho kh of July, 1770, after full consideration, tho Declara- tion of Independence was made by the Continental Congress, and a new and mighty nation was born. This Declaration, which has become a historic docu- ment, speaks for itself. Fault has been found with it, that it too distinctly lays the blame of the arbitrary course of Britain to her colonies on the head of Kinjj George III. The Declaration says : " In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.'^ These are strong words. Yet they are probably no stronofer than truth demands. Letters of the kinsr show that these words do not misrepresent him. Tho king afterwards stated to John Adams, the first Ambas- sador from the Uiiitod States to England, " that he was the last man in his dominions to consent to the recogni- tion of Lheir independence. '^ Sad to think of the havoc and bloodshed caused by our old King George III., who was in many other ways so worthy. Independence, however, must, in tlie nature of the case, have come sooner or later. R 'H • I I 1 . 1 242 A Short IIistorv of 1' ii! L :ii \ ' Wm \ 41 „., ;| '" 'Lkil ' ' i'i ! ' Scctiuii III. — The lie V oh d ion III' 1 1 War an it o^'ccicd Ciuuula. Ah Massaclnisotts wns tlio licad, Boston was ilio brain oE the rcvoliitioiiiiry movoiiuMit. 'I'lio f'ow Hritisli troops ill tlio oltl c<)l(^iiii's woro in Boston, for lioro (Jcnoral Gaco had Ix'cn SL'iit to enfoivo obedionco wlion Boston port was closed, and the charter of the State of j\Iassa- chnsotts annulled by tlio Britisli (Jovernnient. Colonial troo])s, such as these Shirley or I'eppcM'el had led against Acadia, or perhaps even less disciplined than they, sur- rounded Jioston,and sought to cut it off from influencing the surrounding country. On the 1 7th of July the British army strove to dis- lodge the colonial forces from liunker's Hill, a rising ground in CIiarlestown,asuburb of JJostoii. The ^'^ rustic^'' irregulars made so bold a stand, and did so well, that, though compelled to retire, they were encou- raged, by the trial of strength. General Gage awaited reinforcements. In this suspense it occurred to the colonial leaders that their greatest obstacle would bo removed were Canada subdued, and thus a safe base of ojierations taken from the British. The border wars had opened the roads by which Canada could be reached. One of these old routes at least was chosen. General Montgomery, with 3000 men, would go down jjake Champlain, and attack Montreal; while General Arnold, with 1200, was to seek the head- waters of Kennebec Biver, cross the height of land, and descend the Chaudiere to the very gates of Quebec. The brave General Carleton, who had been with AV^olfe at Quebec, was now in command of the forces of Canada — if 'jOO Britisli regulars and a few hundred militia might be so denominated. No doubt Governor Carleton with his small army undertook too much. He sought to defend the way to Montreal by holding Fort St. John, and that to Quebec by defending Chambly. Both these places fell before the Americans. General Montgomery pushed on down the River Kichelieu and occupied Sorel, throwing forces across the ■,;!il :n^ I ' Tin: Canadian Pkople. 2^3 St. Tiawroiico, nnd erected l)iittcries on both sides to pro- vent intorcinirse l)etweeii Montreal and^^iiehee. Montreal, \\n\v defencelosM, was eoniju'lled to Hurrcnder on the l-Jtli of November, and eleven Jiritish vessels wcni given up to the enemy. It was ri.'ally a dark Ikmip for Canada, (ieneral Carleton lias been severely ericieized for dividin.Lj' ills forces. Tho truth is, the attack was so unexpected, aiiid so soon after the outbreak of the rebellion, that no plans of delence for Canada had been laid. It was tho kiiowledgo of this fact that caused such })rompt action on the ])art of the Americans. General Carletou luin- stlf eseaped from JNTontreal, and, in a boat, ])assed tho Sorel batteries with mullled oars under cover of niyht. Tho general had but r(>:i.elied (j)uebec in time. The ex- l)odition of Arnolil had already gained the St. Lawrence t (large collection), Canadian Archives, Ottawa ; " Acconnts of the U.E.'y," 2 vols., ]\ranLiscript, Parliamentary Library, Ottawa.) Section I. — The Comuvj of the LoijaUsts. The refugees who thus lied from the now independent colonies were, many of them, of the highest intelligence and standing. As the traveller to-day passes through the vicinity of the city of Boston, Massachusetts, in <"he suburbs of Cambridge, Newton, Dorchester, and Charles- town, and other towns, fine old mansions attract the eye. As inqnir}'' is made as to the history of these square-built, rather antique-looking houses, the answer is given that one was the residence of a Tory in the Revolution, in whose house General Burgoyne, when a prisoner, was quartered ; in another Tory dwelling General Washington at one time held headquarters; and in this abode the poet Longfellow afterwards dwelt ; and that, said a guide, is where two Chief Justices of Massachusetts lived, and they were of the straitest Tory opinions. And so it was those of official position, % •* THE Canadian People. 249 ''Ml ill leaders in society and intelligence in the old colony days, ns was quite natural, who at last took sides with iiritain, and wlion Uritisli power fell in the thirteen states fell with it. As already stated, a nnmher of the best regiments in the American war lighting for Britain consisted of loyal colonists. Against these the feeling of the rebellious, hut now successful Americans was most intense. A British redcoat was an object of detestation, for ho was a foreign opponent ; but a colonial soldier of King George was despised as a trjntor to his country. It was inevit- able that these regiments of the king, officials holding positions under the royal government, as well as the large circle of non-combatants who held like opinions with these leaders on the loyalist side, and had expressed them, must seek some other home than the now indepen- dent commonwealths of A^irginia, New York, or Mas- sachusetts. Accordingly, as is well known, there flocked largely into New York city great numbers of the unfortunate outcasts fleeing from the fury of their several localities. The circumstances of their flight precluded their having any great amount of property. Their houses and lands bad been left behind ; a Avar of eight years had reduced the colonies to penury ; no more indigent class of depen- dants were probably ever left upon the hands of a government than these brave but unfortunate people. Yet they were possessed of an inflexible purpose : con- tempt for the republican government which had been established was commingled with the recollection of their own lost positions. They were the New World Jacobites. A sense of higher standing was added to the powerful sentiment gathering around the glory of their lost cause, and of their still being attached to the land of their ancestors and the land of unequalled prestige. Utilitarians have read them many a lecture on the folly of pursuing phantoms, and the wisdom of being practical, but the United Empire Loyalists, as they delighted to style themselves, never deigned to look at ;•> m ■■ I * ir 250 A Short History of ;;:i sucli consiilemtions, so strong were tlioir antl-rcpiibliean antipfithics. Nor were tlioso snfFcrcr.s for conscience' sake without active find influential sympathizers in Britain. Leading peers, wliose names wo now find commemorated in difFerent Canadian localities, spoke in terms of highest praise. Said Lord Storinont, '' Ih'itain is bound in justice and honour, gratitude and affection, and by every tie, to provide for and protect thom.^' Viscount Town- send declared, '^ To desert men who have constantly adhered to loyalty and attachment would be a circum- stance of such cruelty as had never before been heard of." While Lord Walsingham said " he could neither think nor speak of the dishonour of leaving these deserving people to their fate with patience." True, as we have seen, the anxiety of the British Government for peace had led to the sacrifice of the interests o£ these loyal su])jects, but all in Britain admitted the justice of giving them new homes under their own flag. The means were already prepared for the settlement of all v/ho chose to leave the land now so detested by them. In tlio " famous " proclamation of George III., 7th of October, 1 703, provision had been made for dispens- iug the king's bounty from the waste lands. To every person of field-officer's rank 5000 acres was promised ; to a captain, oOOO ; to subalterns, 2000 acres apiece ; to each non-commissioned officer, 200 acres; and to every private man, fifty acres. These terms were afterwards modified, remaining the same for non-commissioned officers, being 100 acres for privates; and the amounts for officers less than in the original proclamation. The refugees were now offered all the advantages mentioned, were taken by sea in British ships, or overland in parties, to a safe resting- place, and were supported by Government rations for a considerable time. Gathered in the seaports along the Atlantic coast, crowds of the helpless exiles awaited the ships for their relief. The country about the Bay of Fundy, wdiicli on both sides was at that time known as Nova Scotia, MNyMUbUiil* ^ '-i-nf ■ THE Canadian PEorij:. 251 affordod ample room for settlement. '^J'owni'ds the end of 178- the loyalists had beo-nn to see tVom tlio negotia- tions in progress that their departure would bo a hurried cue. The first instalment of refuLTt'os arrived on the l8tli of May, 1783, off the month of the Kiver tSt. Jolni, in what is now New Ih-unswiek, and before the end of that summer not less than 5000 liad found liomcs along* the river from the mouth, which, after the Governor of Nova Scotia, was called I'arr Town, up to St. Ann's, now Fredericton. In Nova Scotia proper extensive settlements wore made. In the south-west of the peninsula, in the old locality of La '^Pour and Dc Ha/illy, now the county of Slielbourne, in 178-') arrived oUO families of lovalists. On Slielbourne Harbour they erected with great energy a town which was to be the Carthago of the hjyalists. This increased in the course of a year so greatly that its popu- lation reached some 12,000. Now a deserted spot on the spacious bay marks the site of this transient town, which indeed within two or three years from its founding began to decay. The busy season of 1788 was said in September to have resulted in lo,000 loyalists having taken up their abode in Nova Scotia and St. John's, now Prince Edward's Island. In the following season a like activity prevailed. The township of Digby in the xVnnapolis region was settled, Aylesford and Kawdon both re- ceived large additions of settlers, the Douglas settle- ment was hlled by disbanded soldiers of the 84tli Regi- ment, while Clementfi County was largely taken up by disbanded Hessian soldiers and refugees. On the coast above Halifax, in the county of Sidney, iu Coventry Harbour, the refugees erected a town, to which they gave the name '^Stormont'' in honour of their British defender and friend. Guysborough, in that county, was similarly settled, as well as Preston in Hali- fax County. During the same period the importation of British dependants continued up the St. John Piver, in New Brunswick. The Sth, 98th, and 104tli Pegiments, and nil 1 1 * ; ' 1 i .1 i i i^i di ,ii m 25^ A Short History of f'^ ii Ef-I New Jersey Yoluutocrs of Coloniul ]\rilitin, all liaviiif^ boon (lisbiiiulod, wero jjfivoii luiids in this region, wliilu the " (^)uoon's Kangers/' the regiineiit second to none in distinction, was also qnartered on holdings here. There can be little diflicnlty in admitting that 20,000 of the U. E.'s from the seaboard found their new lionies in Nova Scotia, and numbers of these after- wards journeyed westward to Upjier Canada, yet the lai'ge number remaining, and their descendants. Lave taken an important part in the conduct of affairs in tlio provinces by the sea, as the names of Howe, Tuppcr, Wilmot, Chandler, Williams, and llobinsou abundantly testify. No sooner had the loyalists taken possession of tlio north shore of the Bay of Fundy and settled tlio River St. John, than they began to clamour for self-govern- ment. (Jovernor Parr was much opposed, to the division of the pi'ovinco, and removed a number of the loyalist agitators to the south side of the Bay of Fundy, but it was of no avail^ and in 1784 New Brunswick was set apart, as we have loeforo seen, as a separate province. The character of the loyalist settlers of St. John River may, as has been pointed out, be seen from the following of the twelve members of the first Council of New Bruns- wick. *^ Chief Justice Ludlow had been a judge of the Supreme Court of New York; James Putnam, one of the al)lest lawyers in America ; Rev. and Hon. Jonathan Odell, Provincial Secretary, had been chaplain in the royal army ; Judge Joshua Upham, a graduate of Har- vard, hatl been a colonel of dragoons ; Judge Israel Allen had lost an estate in Pennsylvania, and been a colonel of New Jersey Volunteers ; Judge Edward Win- slow was a colonel in the royal army ; Beverley Robin- son, who had lost great estates on the Hudson River, had raised the Loyal American Regiment ; Judge John Saunders, of a cavalier family in Virginia, had been cap- tain in the Queen^s Rangers, and afterwards studied law in the Temple, London ; David Bliss had been a commis- sary in the royal army.'' When the lovalists were flockino' to Nova Scotia and of tlio Rivci' ovorii- Lvi.siou oyalist but it ^as set lcc. Kiver owiiiL!' ruus- .f tlu' of tlio latliaii 11 the Har- Israel eeii a Win- obiii- iver, John cap- id hiw imis- |a aiii- 1 -33 TiiK Canadian People. Xew Brunswick, tho JU'itish Government for- _ -, , ,,,,,, ,,^r u 4.- - ,1 Cape Breton, bade tlu,' (»overnor or IS ova neotia to settle any Loyalists in Capo Breton ishmd, which was then a. part of his province. Tho Hon. Thomas Townsend, who in 1781 became Secretary of State, and was raised to the peera<^'e as Lord Sydney, separated Cape Breton from Nova Scotia 'at tho same time as New Brunswick was set apart. The first Governor of Cape Breton was Major Desbarres, a brave officer wlio had j^'one throu^'li the Seven Years' War, and had been for years on tho coast survey of Nova Scotia. Tho Governor g-avo up Lonisbourg', the former capital of the island, and founded Sydney, which possesses a safe liarbour, and which lio named after the Secrctarv of State. A band of the refugee hnalists now obtained leave through the kind offices of Abraham Cuyler, formerly Colonial Governor at Albany, to settle in Cape Breton. These to the number of 140 souls, calling themselves tho " Associated Loyalists/' sailed in three vessels under Colonel Peters, Captain Jones, and Mr. llobertson, wh(» had been officers of the Eoyal Bangers. Some of them settled at Baddeck, others at St. Peter's, and still others at Louisbourg. It is stated that 800 loyalists followed this band of pioneers to Capo Breton. The statement made by Governor Desbarres, that three or four thousand loyalists came to Cape Breton, is gxmerally discredited. Much hardship was endured by these first settlers. In the winter of 1785-6, the colonists would certainly have starved had it not been for a Quebec vessel, which remained ice-bound in Ariclia Harbour, and whose cargo of provisions was purchased for the perishing settlers. In the year 1788, Prince William Henry, afterwards William lY., to the great delight of tho loyalists, visited Sydney in his frigate, the Andromeda. The Governor-General of Canada at the time of the flight of the loyalists was General Haldimand. Their natural leader, Sir Guy Carleton, had been relieved of his command of the British troops on the appointment of General Burgoyne in 1777, having regarded that appointment as a personal slight to himself. He had I, 4 I I .. (11 I 254 A Short History of m 'HI ■ii!| resigucJ his rjovcrnorsliip of Cimada in 177-^, liad iv- turncd to !']n«^'l:iiul, but wjisiii 1 7H2 appointed to Kuccccd ♦Sir IltMiiy Clinton in connnand of tho British troo})s iu America. Jic arrived iu New York iu ^lay of tliat year, and Mas iu coniuuiud of New York at tlu' iinio of its evacuation. Ciiplaiu Siuicoe, tlio hite frii'inl of the loyalists, liad returned from America to JJritain. Governor lialdimand, a Swiss by birtli, much mali«^"ned l)y a troublesome wroug-doer, i)u ^'alvet, will yet have justice done him for his uoble as' 'cc to the Loyalists. Nova Scotia and New ]k'unswic. — ;d been hllod to rc- })letiou by the large inllux of loyalists iu so short a period. Tho loyalists remaining in the places yet held by the British, now turned thoir eyes to tho west. At the close of the war a proclamation had been made to the effect that those who had remained loyal to Britain should rendezvous at convenient stations along the Cauadian frontier. This had been intended mainly for those living inland, who might not be able to avail them- selves of the transport offered I'rom the seaports to Nova Scotia. Tho centres named "were Sackett's Harbour, Carleton Island or Oswego, Niagara on Lake Ontario, and Isle aux Noix on Lake Champlain. Even from the seaboard did the exiles now seek their way to these new homes which had been offered them. The yet undivided province of Quebec became their place of destination. An U.E. Loyalist, named Grass, son of Captain jMichael Grass, has left us an account of this turning of the emigration from Nova Scotia toward the Ui)per Province. From Bishop Bichardson we have bis words : ^^ My father had been a prisoner among the French at Froutenac (now Kingston), in the old French war (1 750-63), and at the commencement of the American Eevolutiou he resided in a farm on the borders of the North Biver, about thirty miles above New York. Beiug solicited by General Herkimer to take a captain's com- mission in the American service, he replied sternly and promptly that he had sworn allegiance to one king, meaning George HI., and could not violate his oath or serve auainst him. For this he was obli":ed to llee from THE Canadian PicorLi:. 255 tano, tlieii* ;liem. tlieir rniss, mt of J ward bavo Icr tlie :*encli jricaii )f tlio leiug coni- aud Iking, Itli or I'rom Ills home and tako refugo witliiii \uw York, uiidor Jiritish jn'otection. . . . '^ Ou the return of peace, the Americans having gained their independence, tliere was no longer any home tliero for thi' fugitive h3yalists, of wliich the city was full; and the iiritish (Jovernor was much at a loss for a ])]ace to settle them. . . . Their iiiiiuense numbers made it difticult to find a home for them all in Nova- Scotia. In the meantime the Governor, in his perplexity, having heai'd that my father had beefi a prisoner among tlio I'rench at Frontenac, sent for him and said, ' Mi'. Grass, T understand you have been at Frontenac in Canada. Pray tell me what kind of a country it is. Can people live there ? What think you ? ' My father re- plied, * Yes, your Excellency, I was there a prisoner of Avar, and from what I saw 1 thiidv it a fine country, and that people might live tliero very well.' ' Oh ! IMr. Grass/ exclaimed the Governoi*, 'how glad I am to hear that for the sake of these poor loyalists. . . . Will yon undertake to lead thither as many as may choose to accompany you ? If so I will furnish a conveyance by Quebec and rations for you all till such time as you may be able to provide for yourselves.' " The loyalist captain, having taken three days to con- sider the Governor's offer, accepted it, and notice was posted throughout the city with an offer to conduct as many as desired to go to the Upper Province of Quebec. Two shiploads of men, women, and children soon after started. These were the pilgrim fathers of Canada. They may ])e called the founders of Upper Canada. Their service was as conspicuous to Canada, their bravery was as great, and their devotion to their principles was as strong and beautiful as anything that can be seen in the heroic and much-lauded course of the Pilgrims of Plymouth Piock. It was shortly before the evacuation of Xew York by the British, which took place on the 25tli of November, 178o, that the two ships sailed up the shore of New England, entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and landed their precious cargo at Sorel, a town, as we have seen, some miles below Montreal on the St. Lawrence. > ■ m "■*: •J :a 1' 256 A Short History of j-»; * ,. r>' Tlio ships li;i(l boon coiivoyoil l)y tho Britisli briy, TTope ; Captain Grass loil tlu' one |>arty, and Caj)taiii Van Alstino the othor. At Sorol Infr-lmts wvvc built for tho winter, and tho colonists, al(»M^^ with othors who had come down tho IJichclioii, awaitotl tlio opcnino; of tho noxt season, sniTei'in;^' in tho nicantimo I'roni tho scourge of sniall-})o\. 'i'hc oponinn- sj)i'in^ saw those pioneers nndortako in ilat-bottunicd boats tho toilsomo journoy up tho rivor. They worked niaiilully, snftbrod many privations, and at times wore compelled to leave their unwieldy cial't and "track" them u]) tho bank, especially at tho " Cedar llapids " jind the Lonj^* Sault. Passing' throni'h tho Thousand Islands, the wanderers from Now York wore captivated by tlu; beauty of tho region, and settled just above them, on '^ Indian Point/' near Port Prontenac, wlioro the city of Kingston now stands. Tlio hrst survey of the new district to be settled Lad been begun in l78o. JJeputy- Surveyor Collins seems to have conducted it, but a new survey was needed in 1784 to correct this. It was not till July that the land was ready for distribution. But not only by way of the St. Lawrence, but through the waterways of the State of New York also did the loyalists reach Upper Canada. Not more were the Thames, the If umber, and tho Trent, tho arteries by which the Saxon ])eoples penetrated England, than were the several bnos of water communi- cation and portage between the Hudson liiver and Lake Ontario, the means by which the loyalist refugees reached their new homes. The best-known route was that up the Hudson Piver on its western branch to Port Stanwix, now the town of Rome — thence by a portage to Lake Oneida ; through this lake and down the Itiver Oswego to the town of tho same name where the river enters Lake Ontario. Prom Oswego any station on the borders of Lake Ontario could be reached by boat. A second route was that by which, leaving another branch of the Hudson, the Black River was gained by a short portage. At the mouth of this river was Sackett's Loyalist Eoutes. Tin: Caxapian* PFOPi.f:. ^57 nst, a ti'ibut iry of the Mlack liivur was jvacliod, by which again iackott^s Harbour could bo gamed. Bv a track a little more to the north, thronjrli tho Adirundacks, tlie Oswcg'otchio liivcr was found, which li'd down to Otjfdensbur^h — the old fort "La Presenta- tion '' — on the St. Lawrence, A fifth route throm^'h tlie interior was by tho military road, a relic of tho French wars, which ran alono' tho west shore of Lake Champlaiu. Prom this road tho traveller Tiiight proceed westward to Cornwall, or con- tinue his journey down tho liichelieu liiver to Sorel, tho rallying-point, as we have seen, for tho refugees coming up the St. Lawrence. It was the first of these routes — that leading to Oswego — which was most popular, although there were those who followed a still moro westerly way, as they catno from Pennsylvania, from tho headwaters of the Sus(|uehanna to Lake Erie aud Niagara. But as in England all roads lead to London, so all tho routes named converged on the new land of hope, where a united empire might still be maintained. At Sorel, we have said, several bodies of refugees gathered, as well as those who came up the St. Lawrence from New York. Many of these were disbanded soldiers, whose families had joined them. Sir John Johnstone was the officer in charge of one body. This officer was tho son of Sir William Johnstone, of fame in the Seven Years' War. Like his father he had been an ardent sup- porter of British claims. Johnstone had raised a force 800 strong of his own neighbours and dependants, from the Johnstone estates on the JNIohawk River. This regiment was known as tho "84th Boyal New York ''—or " Boyrl Greens.'' Tho war over, the 84tli had been stationed at Isle aux Noix ou Lake Champlaiu. The wives and children of tho . V. 'm •• #i« 258 A Siiorrr History of S' :ii i ii'i V, ' Jul; soldiers had come from the Mohawk Iviver overland^ through great liardships, to join them. Late iu 178-] the refugees passed down the Eichclieu and I'eached Sorel, the meanwhile rendezvous. In 1 78 t, in company with the other exiles, they ascended the St. Lawrence, and the first battalion took up its loca- tion in what is now the county of Dnndas, in the townships of Cornwall, Osnabruck, Williamshurgh, ;ind Matilda. The latter two townships afterwards received these names from King George III/s third aud fourth children. Almost all of the first battalion of the " Royal Grreens^' "were of German origin. Westward on the St. Lawrence, went to the adjoining townships the remaining part of the first battalion of the Johnstone regiment, known as '^ Jessup's Corps.'^ These were chiefly of British parentage in New York State. Their townships were afterwards called Edwardburgh, Augusta, and J'^lizabethtown, the names being given after the fifth, sixth, and seventh children of the king. It was on the 20th of June, ITSf, that the first of the dis- banded soldiers of the 84tli landed in the townships named. The second battalion continued its way up the St. Lawrence and arrived iu a few days after at Fort Frontenac. It was in July, 1784, that on '^ Indian Point " at Fort Frontenac, there met together the contingents of Cap- tains Grass and Van Alstine, Sir John Johnstone, and Colonels McDonell and Rogers, to receive their lands. The townships beginning at Fort Frontenac Avcre num- bered westward up to five. It has been suggested that the fifth, lying along the Bay of Quinte, gave its Latin equivalent, Qidutus, to the bay. This,, however, is a mis- take. In the old maps of 177G the mdian name of the river running into the bay is the '* Kentio/^ no doubt the original of Quinte. The leaders of the several companies having assembled, to Captain Grass, as the original suggester of the region, was given the first choice. He selected township one, to which in honour of the sovereign was given the name Kingston. Township two^ named Ernesttown, after the land, :] the 5 Orel, nieled loca- isliips ttiUla. 1 allies Idren. 'GUS }} 3ining oi: tlie Tluvso State. JUl'gll, 11 after ig. It le elis- ■usliips up the t Fort .t Fort It" Cap- aiid lands, uuin- d tliat Latin a niis- lof the ibt the Lbled, legion, )ne, to name :er the THE Canadian People. 259 king's cif^hth child, was given to Sir John Johnstone. Colonel liogors and Ins party took the next in order, which from the next in order of the royal family was called Fredericksburgh. The New York City party, under Major Van Alstino, obtained township four, which in its turn was named Adolphustown. The Van Alstino contingent was of the very best of the U.E. stock. It seems to have been composed of even a more intelli- gent and energetic class than that of the military settlors. Several distinguished Canadians, among others Judge Hagerman and Sheriff Ruttan, have sprung from it. * The fifth township, known as Marysburgh, from another child of the numerous family of fifteen belonging to the sovereign, lay along the Bay of Quinte. Lt was but partially settled by Colonel McDonell and his disbanded men of the 84th, and in the next year 17b^5, a body of Hessian mercenaries, who had remained in Lower Canada, took up the remainder of the township. They were a turbtilent and dissatisfied body of settlers. So soon as the townships along the river and lake were filled with loyalists, the sons of the U.E.'s, who were entitled, on coining of age to 200 acres of land apiece, settled in the second range of townships such as Winchester, Mountain, and others. For several years after the first coming of the refugees there continued fresh arrivals of the friends of the earlier settlers. These found suitable localities for settlement in Sophiasburgh and Ameliasburgh townships, still follow- ing the royal liamily in their names. Thus also were settled Sidney, Thurlow, and Richmond. To have been among the first exiles in their western Hegira was deemed a special honour, and to those who came in from year to year w^as given the name " Late Loyalists.'" The saying of the New York refugees as they left their country to go into exile to Canada was Lake Erie that they were going to '^a. country where there Settle- were nine months of winter and three months ^^^^^' of cold weather every year.'^ This remark but serves to show the unselfish devotion to principle which animated the U.E.'s. They w^ere, however^ on coming to W^estera S 2 I ■ •i«n 26o A Short IIlstokv ok CaiiJuLi, iigr(!e.'ibl^ disuiipoiiitod. Tlioy foiiiid a I'Ofyioii capal)lo of pi'odnciiif^ tlio inolori, tlio J^r.'ipo, Tiidijiii corn, and evon l.lio peach pl-'niifully. lint tlu) portion of country about }'\)vt FronttMuic, so ]ar<>'cly s(;ttlcd by tlic now iniJiiiL!;rants, was far froui being tlio best ])art oi' what is now the province (d' OiitMrio, So oai'ly as 1 7.")() nunil)('rs of disband(,Ml soldi(;rs fi'oni the J''i-onch artny, wlio knc^w tlio interior of \ew Franco "wolb had passed l)y ]*\jrt Frontenac and taken up their al)odo neai* l*'ort Deti'oit, whicli nearly fifty years beioi'o tliat — in 1701 — bad been founded by Cadillac, in the fine retrion Ix.'tweeii Ijakes Ilui'on and St. Clair. And so now thor(^ wei'e those among tlie more enterprising of tlie U.i']/s who came ohrough, as wo mentioned, from the lieadwaters of the Susquehanna to Lake Frio, and Ijy ofher routes, who crosscMl the lake and sought new homes on the west of tlie Fssex peninsula. Ilio (^ai'lier French settlers of Sandwich township had surveyed their hinds into nari'ow strips along the river bank, in French Canadian fashion, in oi'der tlnit they might build their houses more closely together; nor was this plan a bad one in a country infested by wild ])easts and treacherous redmcu. It was in 1784, the same year as Kingston was settled, that a band of U.I'j.'s took up the most south-westerly township of what was afterwards Upper Canada, viz. that of Maiden. That the nuinber of settlers was considerable may be seen from the fact thiit in the same year Colchester, Coslield, and Mersea, all contiguous townships bordering on Lake Erie, were to some extent occupied. It must, liowevor, be borne in mind that the population was very sparse, each settler choosing some spot attract- ing him, even if it were miles from his neighbour's abode. As w(5 shall see, the U.F.'s liad little feeling of com- munity with the earlier French Canadian settlers, anu so not oidy kept the former occupants at a. respectful distance, ])ut likewise called their own townships "the new sctthnncnt.'' The fact that Fort Niagara liad been named as a point had )0 iat 'mK Canadian Pkoi'll:. 26r of rendezvous in tlio ])r()cliiui;itioii ;it (lio cl(».s(; The of tlio wnr was tlio causo likowisu of a sottlc- Nia^^ara nicnt of r(.'fu'''0('s l)('in^ bc'nm in tlio Nian-ara, Settlers, peninsula. So early us I 7.S2 iiic towusliip of Caistor, in the centre of tlio Niagara i)eninsula, received its I'irst (settlers, ft was in that red-letter yeai" of ilio loyalists, 17S1<, that the t(nvnshi[)s uhKig tluj Uiver NiagitiM, frcjiii Jjuko I'lrie to Lake Ontario all r^'ceived their first settlers. These townships arc Jiertie, Wiilou^-hhy, Stamford, and Grantham. '^Fhey were (!hielly occupied hy the disbanded soldiers of Ihitler's J^ingers. It is not stran,L;'o that a, mimhei- of the U.K.'s should have sought to escape the hardships (A' a Loyalists long aiid wearisonu! journey inland l)y settling in Lower ]iear L.ake (yhamjjlain close to tlu; hoimdai-y ^'*"^''^- line. St. Armand is a disti'ict which was taken up by the loyalists in 1 7Ht. Hie greatest ninnljer of those settlerg consisted of those who had be(;n under arms on the king^s side; they were chiefly of (ieriiian origin, {uid were born on the Hudson River. Many of this (irst band of refngees became leaders of coloiiics, which afterwards occupied Ji group of 100 or moi-e townships lying near the forty-liftli parallel of latitinle, largely held now by Knglish-speiiking people, and known as the "^ I^iastem I'ownships.^' That this district was not more largely settled by the IJ.I'i.'swas no doubt owing to th(3 contiguity of tl)(- J^^'cnch Canadians, and the desire lying a,t the root of the loyalist; movement of having a new I'ritish province undei' [J.Yj, control; as well us the unwillingness of Governor llaldi- inand to have them on the frontier. Several of the families who had made Sorel, at the mouth oi' the liichclieu, th(,'ir rendezvous, remained there, and the town, at times called by the name William Henry, son of King (icorge third, long retained .i military tone. 1- f 262 A Short History of hieciioih II. — Tlui Frlru(h of Urn Loyalists. Soino lOjOOO rofiii^oo.s liml in 1 7iS 1-, and tljo few yoar.s followinf'', found liomos in Westorn (Jiinadn., just as it is estimated, as already mentioned, tlwit 2(),()()() liad settled in the provinces l)y Hie sea. Assnniin;^' full resjjonsiljility for tlie cnro and pi'csent snpport of lier d(;votcd adliensnts, fjlrent Hi'itain openf>d lier li;ind oliecrrully to assist tliein. TJio 'IVoiity of I 7 had made no provision for the indem- iiifi('a,tion of tlie losses of the loyal refn«j^ees. Yet tli(! Parliiiment at Westminster of 1 7M-} nnnniniously passed an Act .'ippointin^' commissioners to inqnire into tlio losses of tlnjse ^^ who hiid suffered . . . in conseqacnoc of tlieir loyalty to his Majesty and attachment to the British (lovei'nmcnt/^ The latest time for presentin;^ claims was at first tlio 25th of March, 17Hf, but this was again and again ex- tended until in 171)0 the matter received final disposition. The tedious and expensive process, however, discournged many. 'rh(!rc were )]22o a})plications presented, of wliich about nine-tenths were recognized, though not to the full amount of the claims. The sum paid by the firitish Government to the suffering refugees was a^out ^15, ()()(),()()() — an amount whose mention for ever re- dounds to tho honour and justice of JJritain. But the 80,()0() homeless refugees, who had no resource, were, perhaps, a greater charge to the Government. To pre- vent absolute starvation daily rations were issued to the loyalists, in some cases for three years after tlicir flight. i\)r the several settlements there were, it is said, pro- vided portable steel mills for grinding their flour. Im- plements for builvling their houses were su])plicd as required. A plough and a coww^ere bestowed upon each family ; spades and hoes were given out liberally, and axes, but the last were, unfortunately, provided with such shoi't handles, that they would have broken in a day the back of a Canadian woodman. And not only were the new settlers dependent for tlieir moans of subduing the forest and erecting dwellings, but the very 1 1 a^ .jut it tlic wore, o the tlie ir pro- Im- Icd as n oncli and witli ill a |l not of aiis Tin: Canadian I'Koru:. 2G3 very coarf-o n^armeiits and sliocs worn Ly tliein worn tlic gift of tlic Govcniiiiont. Tlio co-op(»ration of tlio many to liolj) tlio niio was a principle oarly introdiicod, and tho 'Mog^in^* boo ^'' was 0110 ol" tlio earliest customs of the now j)rovince. Tho " clearin<^- '^ of tlio first spot in tho forest afTordcd the " lo<4's ^' for the settlor's Ikmiso ; a few panes of ra,nt, or '^riiayendana'j^ea, lias always been bound up with their history and removal to Canada. In that very ])art of New York State wh(3nce we have seen caiiio a. lar<^''(! part of the early settlers of the Kin;^ston and JJay of Quinte regions, viz. th(! district afiout b'ort Stanwhv, and under the inllucnce of Sir Wilh'am and afterwards of Sir John flohnstone, lived many of the Six Nations. To th(3 iM(jhawks of this region Thavendana«!fea belono'ed. lie was, however, born in 1712 on the banks of the Ohio, but was carried back with the hunting* party on which liis parents were t(^ his ancestral homo at Canojoharie, in the iMohawk Valley. Soon after, his father tbed. The name of his foster-father is sail I to have been Xickuy Bi-ant, hence his well-known name — Jose])h iirant. ^.rhe troublous border wars involved those of tender years witliiu them, and at the (>arly age of thirteen Jjraiit A\as present with Sir William flohnstone's troops at tlio memorable battle of Lake; George in 17")0, at which, it will be remembered, the French were defeated, and their leader, J^aron JJieskau, moi'tally wounded. J^rant was also present at the Niagara, campaig'u four years after- ward, and greatly distinguished himself. But the time of trial came when the colonial rebellion approached, in 177o. The Oneidas, one of the Six Nations, incliTied toward the colonial side; so did other Indian tribes. In 1775 Brant visited J^]ngland. He was there received as a person of some distinction, and ap- peared on public occasions in full Indian costume. Ho 1 '" T ic'kiui {■iidcr IJiraiit lit tlio |cli, it their was Initer- iL'llion Six lotlier was |(1 ap- Tin: Canadian PEorij:. 2G5 was ndniittcd iiilo tiio prosonco of ''Tlio (jlrcat Kini^-/' as tlic Indians called Goorgo J 1 1, ilo retiiriKMl to America about tlio 1st of April. Jfo was now decided to *' tako u|) tlio liutchet"on tlio sido of tlio Crown, as (Jonerrdy (iiiy Carlciton find llaldinuuid liad dosii-ed Inin to do before his visit to I'hi^'laiid. ilo landed at New York, and secretly pursned his visit to Canada. Urant now took Jin active part inline war; but was, for an Jndian warrior, nniforiidy luunane. The poet; Caiiij)bell, in connection with the story of (jertrnde ol Wyoming", made a false as])ersion on liis name by calling liim the " IVIonster l>r;indt.'^ Drant Avas not present at Jhitler's terrible expedition to the Sascpuduunni, nor did liis '^'•eneral character justify such an appellation. Diirin;^ the war the strong* spirit (;f leadt!rship of Tliayendanagea exhibited itself both as a warrior and ' CWiiicillor. The war over, and the year of the cessation of iiostilities, 17(^2, having" come, the articles of peace ■W( re found not only to have neglectc.-d makiniif lull ])ro- vision for tliewdiite loyalists, but even the faithful Indian allies cf the Six Nations and others wei'o nit provided '.'f in the treaty ; and as their memorial stat(Ml, " the ancient counti'\' of th(; Six Nations, the re'sidence of their ancestors from the time far beyond their earliest tradi- tions, was included w'ithin the boundary granted to the Americans.^' l)Ut Ih'itish otlicers had made strtmg' jjledges to the Indian allies. Sir Guy Carleton had promised at the he<4'innin*j^ of the war to restcjro the ]\Iohawks to their native valley, in 177l> (Jenci'al Jlaldinuind had over his own signature and seal pledged himself to carry out Sir Ciuy's promise. At the close of the war the Mohawks were residing on the American side of the Niagara Jiiver, alongside their closest allies, the Senecas. The latter, indeed, urged them to remain beside them on tin; Genescjo l^ivor. The Mohawks, however, were inLensely Jiritish in ieeling — to use the words afterwards useil l>y Captain ih'ant, and which have become historic, they determined *'to sink or swim ^■' with the Englisii. Captain Brant journeyed to Quebec to claim the fulfd- III ' , 1 i w ■ a- ill ll ••■? 11 •1. ) • • # 1 266 A Short History of mont (if liis promise from Goiicrjil lluldimand. Tlio IMoliawks desired a tract of hind in tlio Jiay of (j)iiinte. ^riiis tlio GovcM'iior ])roinisod to grant. Onljrant's return to Niagara 1 lie jNIoliawks were induced to seek adwelliuo-. place nearer tlio 8cnecas. Heing sent ])ack l)y tlio council of liis own people, Unint again journeyed to Quebec. Now ho sought tlie district lying along tho Grand llivei', or Oiise, with which his name has over since been assoeiated. A purchase was made of this region from tho Chippe- was by the Government, and the Governor promised to tho Six Nations '' six miles on each side oi; tho river, from the moutli to its source.'^ lirant ])aid another visit to Quebec in 17cS4, b'"". ro General llaldimand had cpiit the country, and seci.-'cd a grant of tlie land desired; and as tin; document runs, *' which tho ]\loliawks and others of the Six Nations, who had either lost their possessio!is in the war, or wished to retire from them to tliu British, with their posterity, were to enjoy for ever/^ Tho Grand Itiver settlement was tlius of the same date as tliat of Kingston and tlio Bay of Quinte. The Six Nations did not all remove thither; but evi- dently the Mohawks may bo said to have comi)leteIy joined tho loyalist province, for they have to this day iii their possession tho silver connnunion service presented to their tribe in 1710 ])y Queen Anne, and which they only saved from falUug into the liands of tho Americans by burying for a time in the earth. We learn from tho account of a faithful witness who visited the Six Nations at their Grand ilivcr home in 1785, that there were 700 old and young in their setttlement. The Mohawk church was 'built in 178(3, and was the first cliurch erected in Upper Canada. Tho Indian lleserve on the Grand lliver now contains several thousands of fairly civilized Indians, tliough, as we shall afterwards see, the greater part of the broad territory assigned to tliem was opened up and transferi'ed to the whites. A portion of the Six Nations also lives at Tyendinaga, on the Bay of Quinte. Joseph. Brant continued to live near the western extremity of Lake Ontario, at Burlington, Tho iiiutu. otui'ii lliii.i;'- y tiio od to j^ tlio , over Ticaiis 111 the atioivs iro 700 ;lmrch :ed ill River idiaus, )art of ip aud linaga, live J) Ugton, Tiir: Canadian Peoplk. 267 till Ills death, on the 27th of November, lM07. lie was buried at tho Mohawk church, near Ib-antb rd, where liis tomb, since renewed, may still be seen. A Canadian county and township, as well as tho thriving'' city named, coiniiiemorate liis ])etter-known name of i^raiit, while tho township referred to preserves Jiis Indian name as that of one of Britain^s most faithful allies. A county and township also keep alivo the name of Governor Haldi- mand, who proved himself so firm a friend to tho Indian. If tho New World has provided a ^rave For many an explorer, soldier, and pioneer, it has also added gj^. q laurels to many of the adventurous and deserv- Carleton ing. Probably few have had such opportuni- (I'Ord Dor- tics for distinction, or by natural disposition and ^ ^^ "^* heroic deeds have gained such renown on American soil as Sir (ruy Carleton. lie seems to have had the geriius for commanding irregular troops in a difficult country, and also for ruling mixed peoples. He has been called "tho founder and saviour of Canada /^ nor does it seem easy to withhold this very high encomium from him. Though not Governor at the time of the loyalist movement, ho yet had much to do with its success. An Irishman, born at 8trabano in 1722, Carleton early entered the army, and served on the Continent. In Wolfe's great campaign of 1759, an expedition in which distinguished generalship was shown, Carleton shone out conspicuously. He had been given an important com- mand under Wolfe, though the king was unfavourable to liim. Wolfe was to Carleton ever a most intimate friend. Wounded himself at the taking of Quebec, Carleton saw Wolfe received his mortal wound. Carleton became, for his valour at Quebec, a brigadier-general. The war over, and Governor Murray, the first Gover- nor of Quebec, having continued but a short time. General Carleton was, in 17G0, appointed Governor. Governor Carleton dismissed worthless officials, and undertook the organization of the chaos resulting from the old French regime aud the war combined. After a few years' study of the province and its wants the Governor crossed over to England, and in 1774, in the , '■ »■■?.*' 268 A SiiOKT History of faco of such iiifhioiitijil men as Thurlow jind liiirko, siic- ceciled, as iiKMitioiUMl, in carryiiii^ the '* (^'^lubcc Act'* throunrli tlio IJritish Parliaitient. On liis rctiii'n in Oclobur, 1771', lit; was received with h)n(le.st ])Iau(lils hy the French Ciinadians. The skill with wliicli t iiis (lovernor eonductcd aH'airs in Canada durinpc the tryiiijL,'' limes of: the revohitionary war in the thirteen neiL:"lil)ourin«'* J»ritish ('(thiiiios, has always re- ceived much notice. With a people but lately subdued from France, his defence of the conntiy with but two re Carleton was raised to the peerage as Lord Dor- chester, and in the same year was asked to accept the positions of Governor-General of Canada and Commander- in-Chief of the F^orces in North America. His return was most opportune. The loyalists had so increased in number in the western part of the province that they desired to be set apart in a province of their own. Immediately on liis arrival as Governor he had made some attempt at organizing the western part of the province of Quebec, where the loyalists had settled. lie had directed the part afterwards formed into Upper Canada to be divided into four districts. With that tine sense of recognition even of national prejudices so characteristic of the man, he had, 'n compliment to tlie U.E.'s, so many of whom with 11, iiiul |( 'Stern ■t iu a %'il as lii/iiig iwlicro part Id into even Ian, lie Iwliom THE Canadian rKOi'i-i:. 269 were of rJi'rnifUi ori^-in, as wo Iimvo soon, called tho four divisions linnenl)in'^''lj, Mceklcnburii;]!, Nassau, and Llesse. Ho liad likewise in these; districts ostabHslied courts, and appointeMl a jndi^c; and shei'itr in ea(;h. With the same f^eniiis that had i'eeo(riii/(Ml the aspirations of the French Canadians at the titno of the ])assin^ oC the Quebec Act seventeen years before. Lord Dorchester saw the oppcn'tnnity uf fbniiding a stron^^ lOiighsh province. With the s.'ihk; conrii.,, t I li' » in I id IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET {MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■^1^ ill IIIIM 1.6 1.4 V] <^ /2 /: 9 £: ^^ \ :\ Q^^ \ % V I Mo & 270 A Short History of and he wfis brought up to look upon Canada as tho scene of his father^s career and death. Ending his education in Oxford, he entered the o')th liegiment of foot as ensign, and he was sent to win his first laurels in the Revolutionary War in America. He was present at tlie battles of Bunker Ilill and Urandy wine, and was wounded in the latter. Soon after, on his recovery, he was appointed in com- mand of the new provincial corps of " Queen's Rangers," a regiment which attained the highest distinction in tho war, and received, as we have seen, honourable recogni- tion, and grants of land on tho St. John River in IVew Brunswick. The war over, the battle-scarred colonel returned to England, and, in 1790, entered Parliament for a Cornwall constituency, and was an enthusiastic supporter of the Act for the division of the province. No more suitable person could have been found for organizing the new province, and so, on the 1st of May, 1792, Colonel Simcoe sailed for tho New World, as first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada. He called the first Provincial Parlia- ment together on the 17th of September, 1792, at Niagara. We are told by an early traveller that the capital, though first called Niagara, was next called Lenox, then Nassau, afterwards Newark, and at last again Niagara. The first session of Governor Simcoe^s Parliament was memorable. It extended for about a month. Its members have been described as " plain, homespun-clad farmers and merchaiits from the plough and the store." This session was remembered for the eight Acts it passed. These were : Act 1. Introducing English Law. 2. Establishing trial by jury. 3. Regulating millers^ tolls. 4. For recovery of small debts. 5. For erecting a gaol and court-house in each district, and for renaming tho districts. 6. For regulation of weights and measures. 7. For regulating the Court of Common Pleas. 8. To prevent accidents by fire. It was Governor Simcoe's good fortune to have much to do with the names adopted for the various subdivisions I scone ciition )ot as II the at the undcd 1 coin- igers," in the icop^ni- u is^ew ned to Dniwall of the uitablu ho new Simcoe ovoriior Parlia- 792, at at the called at last iiament Ih. Its lun-clad I store [passed Iw. IS' tolls. ,a gaol jug the lasures. 8. To much Ivisious }} ) THE Canadian People. 271 and localities of Upper Conada. The lake, county, and town bearing his name commemorate him, though given in some cases by others. He had married a Miss Gwillim, and his "wife's name survives in three townships, East, AVest, and North (Iwillirnbury. The Act of subdivision retained the four districts into which Lord Dorchester had divided the English-speaking^ section of the province, though it changed their names. Liinenburgh, extending from the River Ottawa to the Ganauoque River, was changed to Eastern, and was also known as Johnstown, District. Mecklenburgh, lying next to the west, and reaching the River Trent, became Midland District, also called Kingston. The third dis- trict, extending through a most important section of country from the limits of the i\[idland District as far as Long Point Peninsula, on Lake Erie, was made Home, or more familiarly, Niagara; while the remainder of the province was known as Western District, or sometimes '' Detroit." The names, as in the case of Stormont, Dundas, Glen- gary, Leeds, Addingtou, Lenox, Prince Edward, Has- tings, Northumberland, Durham, York, Lincoln, Norfolk, Sutiblk, Essex, Kent, and Grenville, given to seventeen counties, were in honour of distinguished fi-iends of Canada in the British Parliament or of localities in Britain, but it is questionable whether Lidian names would not have been more appropriate, such as was bestowed on but one of tlie two remaining of the nineteen, Frontenac and Ontario. Who can wonder that Niagara lias distanced its three Old World competitors in the race, that Toronto has superseded Little York, or that Ottawa has been adopted for Bytown ? Who would have re- gretted if Cataraqui had replaced Kingston, or if London had been known by some name like Pontiac or Brant, or the still more sonorous Thayandanagea ? Li the very year of his appointment Governor Simcoe issued a proclamation which resulted in a large increase to the population of Upper Ca lada. Erom his knowledge of the people in the old British colonies he concluded that a large number remained behind who shared the ■M 1 i t 1 1 I 1 .« li ' IS 272 A Short History of 1792. samo opinions as the loyalists who had takoii leave of the now independent States. Accordingly he at once issued a proclamation stating that he was prepared to grant free land to all who chose to come to the new province. The rule of settle- ment was that the new settler should satisfy the authorities of his or her ability to cultivate a specified portion of the soil, and take the oath : " I, A. B., do promise and declare that I will maintain and defend to the utmost of my power the authority of the king in his Parliament as the supreme legislature of this province. '^ The result showed that there were many willing to throw in their lot with the new province. It is estimated that 12^000 was the full number of those in the province in 1791, but that by the end of the four years of Governor Simcoe's term of office the population had risen to 30,000. Colonel Simcoe was an active and successful adminis- trator. Reference has been already made to the succes- sive changes in the capital of the province. The arrival of numerous settlers and their settlement, the passage of such practical legislation as we have mentioned, an Act for the abolition of slavery in 1793, and the general exploration and development of the province, entirely occupied the mind of this " people's " Governor. En- couraged by Governor Simcoe, various bodies of more or less notable settlers came to Upper Canada. One party of sixty- four families of German settlers from the State of New York came over in 1794 under the leadership of Mr. William Berczy, and settled in the township of Markham, near Toronto. These Germans had emigrated from Hamburg to settle on the Pulteney estates in New York, but had been induced to seek the new province. Their leader, Berczy, was a man of cultivation and energy ; he opened out a road to his settlement on Yonge Street as he had already done into the interior of New York. He became involved for the benefit of his colony in erecting the expensive " German mills " in Markham, and from the complications thus arising he was only extricated by his tlio settle been erczy, out a ready ecame the the y his lo* It- THE Canadian PEorLE. -^n death in New York in I8I0. ]\Iarkhani lias become ono of the most thriving portions of Upper Canada. Captain Samuel Kyerse beorau another loyalist settle- men in Norfolk County in 17l> L lie was led to Camida by the proclamation of his old friend and fellow-soldier, Governor Simcoe. Says his daughter in her grtiphic account of the coming of her family, *' On my luther's arrival at Niagara, at that time the seat of Government, he called on his Excellency (reneral Simcoe, wlio had just returned from a tour through the province of Canada West, then one vast wilderness. Ho asked General Simcoe's advice as to where he shoidd choose his resting- place. He recommended the county of Norfolk — better known for many years as Long Point — which had been recently surveyed.'^ Even from England Avere there those who responded to the invitation of the Governor. The relatives of the genial historian of Toronto, Dr. Scadding, old acquaint- ances of Governor Simcoe in Devonshire in England, represent an early English immigration to Upper Canada. These early settlers took up their abode in what is now the town of Whitby, which was at first known as Windsor. The Governor himself examined with greatest minute- ness the portions of wilderness in Upper Canada. A manuscript map is preserved of various expeditions made by him on foot and in canoe. He was accompanied on many of these journeys by one, as secretary, whom wo shall notice at a latter stage as identified with the progress of settlement in the province, L'eutenant, afterwards Colonel Talbot. Associated with Governor Simcoe verv intimately also was the Chief Justice, the first in Upper Canada. His name is commemorated in Osgoode Hall, the centre of law for the province of Ontario. One journey of Governor Simcoe '\^ memorable. Crossing the peninsula from Niagara, and coasting along the north shore of Lake Erie, the Governor and party disembarked at the nearest point to the Thames Kiver, lying to the north in the dense forest. The river reached, and standing on the spot where London now ^TJ r. ■ ,' ,^H 274 A Short Histor\- or M m m^ is, tlio Governor drew his sword and said, ^' This will bo the cliiof niilitiiry depot of the west, and the seat of a district. From this spot," pointiii*^ with his sword to the east, *' I will have a lino for a road run as straio'ht as the crow can lly to the head of the little lake," meaning: the station where the town of Dundas now stands. This ])lan was afterwards carried out, and the highway opened is still called the " Governor's lioad." Governor Simcoe indeed won distinction as a road-builder, and though the roads begun were far from being like the military highways of an Agricola or a A^espasian, yet tliev were important factors in the progress of the country. In 1 793 an Act was passed in the Legislature for "laying out, amending, and keeping in repair the public high- ways and roads." Yonge Street, named after the English Secretary of War and a Devonshire friend of the Governor, was built largely by the assistance of the Governor's regiment of Queen's Hangers, from Lake Ontario to Lake Simcoe, having bee.", surveyed by fc5urvevor Jones, the father of the afterwards well-known half-blood Canadian, the llev. Peter Jones. Governor Simcoe indeed planned a groat military road from one end of the province to the other, to which, though he never saw it completed, he gave the name Htill familiar to Canadians, *' Dundas Street." Ko doubt the luihituo of London society, or even the visitor froi?i the winding thoroughfares of Boston looked wdtli pity on these struggling Upper Canadian settlements and poverty-stricken homes of Upper Canada, in the closing years of last century, yet in these were laid the happiness and comfort of the present generation of Canadians. Social Life. Section III. — The Life of the Loyalists. A visitor who takes the trouble to examine one of the collections of historic articles in Pilgrim's Hall in Plymouth, Massachusetts, or in the old South Church, Boston, will have no difficulty in =^ •i:*'^:! THE Canadian PEorLE. 275 ■>t\ ill b(.' of a i-d to •aiglit lake," 1 uo^Y vliway vernoi' •, and ko the u, yet oi: the 'laying I high- er the lend of ) of the 1 Lake ed by i-kiiown nilitary ^vhich, name doubt lor froi?i Ith pity lits and closing Ippiness LS. ,oue of [1 grimes [the old mlty in ex]ilaiuinn' the social life and customs of the loyalists and their descendants in Canada. In those collections will ])0 found the originals of the household utensils, the chimney and the iirei)lace, the articles of furniture, the quaint needlework, and the fashion and shape of garments belonging to the first generation of loyalists in Canada and preserved by their descendants. The American of the Atlantic {States now delights in reproducing the life and customs of the " Old Colony tlays/^ and certainly the history and circumstances of the loyalists would incline them to cling more tenaciously to these than would be the case amono* those whoso opinions were a reversal of all those preceding. AVhero the difficulties of the journey had not prevented tho carrying abroad of the '' ancient timepiece," it was, so soon as suitable surroundings and a ojuvenient leisure allowed, again erected in the corner in " its case of massive oak," and became a reminder of the old home. Even to the present time as you draw near tho homestead of an old U.E., one of the first things to catch the eye is the high wooden beam or lever erected, having suspended from it '' the old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, the moss-covered bucket which hangs on the well." When time and means had come to re- place the iirst rude log-hut of the loyalist by a dwelling of greater pretensions, it was to his old homo in New York or Pennsylvania he looked for the model of his now erection. Around his homestead ho planted trees •just as they had grown before his childhood\s eye, and HI due time he had reproduced the vanished scene where " Stands the old-fashioned country seat," and where " Across its antique portico Tall poi^lar-trees their shadows throw." Near his dwelling had been planted apple and pear trees, and before the grey heads of the first generation of lovalist settlers had been lowered in the dust, the farmer had cut down the maple, the oak, and the ehn T 2 •■'ill .1 ,1 v I, in 'X , ■*■■"., '•i ■ ■ , i ■ ■ .. 276 A Short History of troos, lifid rodncecl to a state of subjugation tlio acres of his woodland farm, and needed no mure to long for *' The orchanl, tlio meadow, tlio deep tangled woodland, And every loved f>i)ot wliich his infancy knew." Steps wore taken, too, as soon as possible by those in- telligent pioneers for the education of their children. The first newspaper in Upper Cjinada was printed in Ning«ara in 170'J, and was the chief vehicle of olHcial news throughout the widespread settlements. Nor were the loyalists — white or Indian — loft en- tirely without the consolations of religion in their new homes and amidst their hardships. Though made up of those holding different creeds, probably the predominant element among the new settlers was Episcopalian. A noble clergyman, the Rev. John Stuart, who had been for- merly a missionary among the Mohawks on the Hudson, followed the refugees to Canada, and on the 2nd of June, 1784, the friend of the pioneers set out to visit the loyalist settlements along the St. Lawrence, near Kings- ton, and to the west of Lake Ontario. Already that season, as we have seen, bands of refugees — numbering not less than 3500 — had preceded him up the St. Lawrence from Montreal. He visited the Mohawks at. their village on the Grand River, where a church was being erected, and his reception by his old parishioners was most heartj^. In August, 1785, Mr. Stuart took up his abode at Kingston, and with his family became thoroughly identified with the loyalists. He has been called " the father of the Upper Canada Church." During this early period three other Episcopal minis- ters were associated with Mr. Stuart in the wide field of Upper Canada. The Rev. John Bethune, the Presbyterian chaplain of the 84th Regiment, and who had endured imprisonment and much suffering on account of his loyalist opinions, came in 1787 as the second legalized clergyman in Upper Canada. He had come from North Carolina and settled at Williamstown, so named from Sir William Johnstone, near Cornwall. By him the first acres or 1 so in- Idrcn. :('<1 ill jlHcial Et en- ir new up of niuant m. A en for- udscm, f June, dt the Kiugs- ucfees him d the lere a lis old , Mr. ,li his ^alists. anada minis- field of ^terian dured of His 'alized North from 3 first o, Tin: Canadian PEorLE. V7 Presbyterian Cluirch in Upper Canada was bnilt in 171H). In the «^'raveyard at tliis church arc monuments erected in 17H5. ]\Iany of the loyah'sts l)eino" GernT^ns and Lutherans it is not surjuMsiniif that they sliouhl liavo (Tccted tlio iirst chnrch east of Kingston so early as 1700, and that a clergyman was obtained by them in that year. The first rey-nlar minister of the Methodist Church was a loyalist named Losee, who in 1790 undertook a mission in the Bay of (^iiinte district. As we shall after- wards see, it was dilticult for the settlers to maintain educational and religious institutions among themselves, but their increasing jirosperity has enabled the Canadian people in the ])resent generation to support these im- portant objects with great generosity. Wo are fortunate in having several ])en pictures of early Canadian life t;iken for us by eye-witnesses. These are of nuich value to us. So early as 1705, one of these tells us that 'Hvingstou contains a fort and barracks, an English Epis- cop.alian church, and about 100 houses, the ^^1195 most of which last were built, and are now in- habited by persons wlio emigrated from the United ►States at the close of the American War. Some few of the houses are built of stone and brick, but by far the greater part of them are of wood. The fort is of stono and consists of a square with four bastions. From sixty to one hundred men are usually quartered iu the barracks. " Kingston is a place of very considerable trade, and it is consequently increasing most rapidly in size. All the goods brought up the St. Lawrence for the suppl}' of the upper country are here deposited in stores, pre- paratory to their being shipped on board vessels suitable to the navigatioi .f the lake : and the furs from the various posts at the nearer lakes are likewise collected together, in order to be laden on board bateaux, and sent down the St. Lawrence. The principal merchants resi- dent at Kingston are partners of old-established houses at Montreal and Quebec. A stranger, especially if a % '^^0^% ■ .11 H J,' n 1 2;S A Sllnur IIlSTCJKV OF «-i-S Hritisli subject, is snro to moot witli ji most liospitiiblo siiid friendly reception from thoui as ho passos throiigU the pliu'c. " On tlio borilors of tho bay at Kingston there is a king's dockyard, and another wliicliis ])rivato property, ^lost of the Ih'itisli vessels of burthen on Lake Ontario liavo Ijeen built at these yards. J belonging to his Majesty there were on Lake (Jntario, whcMi wo crossed it, three vessels ol^ about 200 to'^.s eacli, carrying from eight to twelve guns, besides several gun-boats ; the hist, how- ever, were not in commission, but laid up in Niagara River; and, in couscquenco of tho ratification of tho treaty of amity pud connnerce between the United States and his ])rita:inic ]\bijesty, orders were issued shortly after wo left Kingston for laying up the other vessels of war, ono alone excepted. " The r.ommodore of the king's ve:?sols on Lake Oiitario is a Frjnch Canadian, and so likewise are most of tho officers und(n* him. Their uniform is blue and white, with large yellow buttons stamped with the figure of a beaver, ov:er which is inscribed the word ' Canada.' '^ The town of .Niagara contains about seventy houses, a court-house, gaol, and a building intended for the accommodation oftheleo'islativo bodies. 'Iho houses, with a few exceptions, are built of wood ; those next the lake are rather poor, but at the upper end of the town there are several very excellent dwellings, inhabited by the principal officers of Government. Most of tho gentlemen in official stations in Upper Canada are Englishmen of education, a circumstance which must render the society of the capital agreeable, let it be fixed where it will. " Few places in North America can boast of a more rapid rise than the little town of Niagara, nearly every one of its houses having been built within the last five years. It is still advancing most rapidly in size, owing to the increase of the back-country trade along the shores of the upper lakes, which is carried on through the places, and also owing to the wonderful emigrations into the neighbourhood of people from the States. So Niagara in 1795. . f THE Canadian Plotle. 279 siuldcn and so j^vc:\t lias tlie iiiiliix of pooplo into tlio town of Xia^'ara uiul its vicinity hcoii, that town lots, horses, pro^'wioiis, juul every necessary <>f lil'o have risen, within die last throe years, nearly liily per cent, ill value/' (Weld). A well-known writer has said: "On Holland's cfreat manuscrij)t map of the province of (^)uebcc, inado in 17JH, jind ])reserved in the Crown i79i!!q°' Lands Department of Ontario, the indentation in front of tlio inonrli of the nioili>rn I lumber River is entitled 'Toronto l>ay;' the sheet of water between the peninsula .'uid the mainland is not named, but the peninsula itself is marked M*resfpi'isle, Toronto/ and aa extensive rectangular tract, bounded on the south by Toronto l^ay, and the waters within the peninsula, is inscribed ' Toronto/ '' In Mr. Chewett's Manuscript Journal wo have, nnder date of Quebec, 22nd of April, 17l>2, the following entry : " Keceived from Governor Simcoo a plan of points Henry and Frederick, to have a title-page put to them ; also a plan of the town and township of Toronto." In 1703 the site of the trading-post known as Toronto had been occupied by the troops drawn from Niagara and Queenston. At noon, on the 27th of August, in 171>'3, the first royal salute had been fired from the garrison there, and responded to by the shipping in the harbour, iu commemoration of the chanu'e of name from ^.foronto to York — a change intended to please the old King George III. through a compliment offered to his soldier son Frederick, Duke of York (Scadding). The year 170(3 was one of ill-omen for the people of Canada. In that year Lord Dorchester Avhose later term of office had but endeared him the more to the mixed community of French and English over whom ho was called to rule in Lower Canada, retired to Britain. And iu the same year the friend and compatriot of the loyalists — Governor Simcoe — was appointed to another position under the Crown in St. Domingo. No doubt there were greedy land-seekers who desired his removal, and the American Government regarded him as only too 4 } I 'i . 1« ^•;i?r ■ i ,'■'< ■{■' 280 A Short IIistokv of Hiiffossfiil nil advocftto of British iiitcrosts, but the people; ot" Upper Canada were devotedly nttnclied to liini. When he ciiino to th(^ ]>rovinco it wns ruditt imlhjoH- t(i(/ii(' muhsy when ho left it in four yejirs it hud nearly trehled its p(jpulation, had heen mapped out in sulj- divisions, it.s <,n'eat roads had been built or planned, its legislature had been organized and had ]mssed numbers of useful laws, sites of new towns had been laid out, and the forerunner of powerful Canadian newspapers of to- day liad already begun in the Upjtev Canada Garirttc, a small sheet, w"th a cireulation of from iifty to one hundred and fifty eopii . It is not to bo wondered at, that Governor Simcoo has been ealled "the father of constitutional, pure, aiul pro- gressive government in Up])er Canada/' With his departure we regard the U.l']. iioyalist period as closed, for though other loyalists did come in the few years im- mediately succeeding, they were but the aftermath of the noble harvest of patriots whose coming gave Canada her tendencies as a people for all future time. Hw, ■«.„*:< people ncarly 1 sub- 10(1, its inibcrs it, uiul of to- ::rffi', ;i uiidivd joo lias id pro- ith liis closed, fivs iiii- ii of tlio {ida bcr THE Canadian PEorLL. 281 CIIArTKll VI I r. TIIK KlN(i's COUNTRY — A LAND or DESIKE. (171)0— 1S17.) (Hd'eroncos : "Acts of tlic lie'^islaluro of lJ|ipor Canada;" "Travi'lM ol' Due Jo la Jtociiot'onciuilt liiaiiodurt," : vols., 17'.*!*; "Tlio Kastoru TowiisliipH," ])y ( . 'I'Ikhikis, iSijii ; " Tho Kasteni Towusliips," l.y (J. N. Day, l.S(;!i; •' Statistical Account of Upper Ciuuiila," by It. (Jourlay, :5 vols., 1822; "Life of Colonel Tal1)()t," ly K. Krmatincre.. iSoi* ; " History of (\.uiity of rictou," by J)r. Patterson, 1877; "Murdoch's History of Nova Scotia," 18G7 ; "Scot in Canada," vol. ii., 1)V A. Kattray, 1882; " T(jronto of (Jld," by Dr. Scaddin.i;, 187:! ; " History of Nova Scotia," by T. C. Iliilibnrton, 2 vols., l!^2l» ; " Hii^'lilaii.m '^: ■'ti 3 Mi ''I, if r^i colonists ()£ very high rank. Driven from France by the "excesses of the Revolution, these ijinicires, as they were styled, had lied to England. Accepting the bounty of the liriti^li Government they had come to U])per Canada, and were allotted holdings in the year \1\)6 in the '' Oak Ridges,'' a locality on Governor Simcoe's projected road ol: Yonge Street. Most noted among them was Comte de Puisaje, wliom Lamartine declared to be an ^' orator, diplomatist, and soldier,'^ and who, we may add, became an author of some note. With him were Comte de Chains, who had been a major-general in the royal army of France, another General de Farcy, and six others of rank. The romance of '' a lodge in some vast wilderness " soon passed away, and the locality chosen, thougli romantic, was nnsuited for agriculture. Most of the emigres scenes. in a short time departed But one of these families- St. George — is now known to for more concrenial -that of Quetton do be connected with Canadian life. During these years, the influx of immigrants from New York State took place largely across the Niagarci River to the regions between Lakes Erie and Ontario, and even into the London district- The Indian lands on the Grand River were leased to whites for 999 years, and the country for a hundred miles was settled by Ameri- cans. Such names as Sturgis, Ellis, AVestbrook, Fair- child, Xelles, Culver, Olmstead, and the like, are distinc- tive of this period. In Lower Canada, the region known as the Eastern Townships filled up largely during this period. General Haldimand had, in introducing the loyalists into Canada i'\ l"So-4, pursued a different policy from that we have seen followed by Governor Sinicoe. Haldimand was unwilling that the U.E. Loyalists should settle along the frontier of Lower Canada, lest strife should arise between them and their American neighbours. He had accordingl}^, as much as possible, taken the loyalists to Upper Canada, and left the Lower Canadian border townships unoccupied. Lower Canada. ■ ■'■ ■' auce by as tliey 5 bounty 3 Upper \7\)6 ill Mincoe's e, whom tist, find ntlior of ^vho liiid Frauce, k. Icrness " tllOUO'll ;t of tlio :oiig;eiiial letton do ted witli nts from Niagam Ontario, lands on earS; and y Amevi- ok, Fair- distinc- Eastern s period. ng tlie rsued a wed by Itliat the )f Lower nd their is much da, and ccnpied. THE Canadian Peopi 287 Now when the American influx began, these vacant lauds were taken up. The system of settlement followed in the Lower Cana- dian lands, during these years, was an offshoot of the modified feudal system, whoso outlines we have traced in a preceding chapter. The Government transferred a township to one responsible person, called " tlie leader," wliose duty it was to obtain settlers, perform certain conditions, and thus become a virtual seignior of the district. St. Armand, which had been partially occupied by the loyalists, was now filled up. Dunham was granted to a company of associates in 1790, many of them from New Jersey. Sutton was bestowed on individual settlers, and became an established township in 1802. Brome was given to an American ^^ leader '^ in 1797. Potton, settled by Vermonters, New Yorkers, and New Hampshire families, became a township in 1797; while in the same year Bolton was begun and settled by the same class of Americans. Thus the Eastern Townships were occupied by an industrious and intelligent class of Americans. Into the provinces along the sea came, along with the loyalists from the United States, numbers of negroes. There was, even before their arrival, ^^Q^i^Qg a considerable body of freed negroes in Nova Scotia. It was found, however, that the climate of Nova Scotia was not agreeable to these immigrants. Accord- ingl}^, in 1792, 1200 of them were taken to Sierra Leone. There were fifteen vessels cni2fao'ed in this work of deportation, and the British G-overnment paid some 14,000/. in connection with the removal of the blacks. It might have been supposed that no more negro im- migration would have been led to Nova Scotia, but in ] 7% a colony of Maroons, about 500 in number, arrived from Jamaica. These were negroes whose ancestors, in the seventeenth century, when the Spaniards took Jamaica, had fled to the mountains and lived a wih^, free life. Mis- understandings between them and the British Government had resulted in war ; the Maroons had been defeated, and were now brouG^ht to Nova Scotia. iii • ti ■ m ('■ ;i iil 1.1 •■•iiii. Hi! .It' .11' m. ; II! f 288 A Short History of They were emjiloyccl iu Halifax upon the fortifications. Earnest efforts for their Chi-istianization were put forth. These seemed, for a time, likely to be successful. Tho climate was, however, unsuitable, as in tho case of tho other negroes. Governor AVentworth, in tho year 1801), was compelled to send the INIaroons, iu the wake of thoir countrymen of a few years before, to Sierra Leone. Almost all of them accordiu,^dy emigrated thither. After the time of the loyalists there was but little tendency on the part of the Americrns to colonize tho Maritime Provinces. Indeed Governor Simcoe did not conceal his desire to draw as many as chose to come from the sea-coast provinces to his new land in the interior. A considerable re-emigration of the loyalists of New Brunswick did take place to Upper Canada, during the years succeeding Governor Simcoe's regime. The in- coming flood of Americans to Upper Canada and the Eastern Townships of Lower Canada may be estimated from the fact which we find stated by a competent authority that Upper Canada alone had, in 1811, increased to very near 77^000 in population. Section II. — From Old World to New, While Canaf"" 1 owed much during this period to the American eleuicnt which entered it, there came many colonists, especially to the Maritime Provinces, from Great Britain and L'eland. The disturbed state of Ireland contributed to produce a large emigration. England also sent many people to the United States, and a limited number to Canada. From Scotland, however, much the largest amount of emigration to Canada flowed. In 1745 the second Jacobite rebellion had. been suppressed. The British Government stationed soldiers in the Highlands and determined, to break up the clan system. A number of the more determined Jacobites fled abroad. Numbers of them emigrated, to the American cavalier colonies of Virginia and. the Carolinas. Some of them found theii^ way to Lower Canada. The return of peace in tho atioiis. ] forth. . The of tho rl800, :f their Leone. it littlo izo tho did not ne from orior. of New ing the The in- and the stimated nipetent ncreased 1 to the e many s, from tate of gration. States, I amount second British ids and iber of tumbers )nies of id theii^ in tho Tin: Canadian PEorLE. 289 Ili^'hlauds led to a surplus of population towards tlio end of last century. Tho conditions of li^e were hard. In Scotland, as in Ireland, there was commercial stagna- tion. The peasantry endured much sii tiering. The ne- cessity for emigration was admitted by all. The Scottish Loyjilists of the Johnstone settlement from tho ]Mohawk river — the (Jrants, McLeans, Murchis )ns, Koses, and McKays, had settled in ^^®°S*"y- A\'illiamstown, U})per Canada. Thither wero attracted in 17SC) and succeeding years the Hays and Macdonells as 'Mater Loyalists, '' as well as iMcGillises from ]\I(»rar, Scotland, and Clanranald Macdonalds, who having reached Quebec came by a toilsome foot journey of 2.")() miles along the St. Lawrence, towii g their families and baggage in fiat boats. The locality became a famous Scottish settlement. Families of the McPhcrson clan from Badroch also settled here, and Cameron High- landers in 1790 entered upon and named Lochiel. Among those ■who saw an opening for his countrymen in Canada was Alexander Macdonell, afterwards Roman Catholic Bishop of Upper Canada. Born in the Glen- garry Highlands in 1702, and educated in Spain, it was his lot to be in 1791 ministering as priest in Lochaber, Scotland. AVhilo here he had been tho means of re- movinof 000 evicted Hifyhlanders to obtain work amono'sfc the manufactories of Glasgow. The evictions still con- tinued. '^ It was not uncommon/' wrote the benevolent priest, " to see 200 families evicted to make one slieep-farm,^^ so that in the Celtic idiom, '^150 or 200 smokes went through one chimney." When occupation among the manufactories next failed his people, the priest advised the Highlanders, under their chief, Macdonell, to offer their services to tho Government as soldiers. This was done, a regiment formed, and in 1798 the Glengarry Fcncibles were sent to Ireland to quell the rebellion there. On their work being tinished the regiment was disbanded, and tho priest Macdonell, their chaplain, induced them, in 1804, to emigrate to Canada. After an Atlantic voyage, in three ships, of four stormy months, some 800 soldiers U \A\ :,fi ii 290 A Short History of 2': Nova Scotia. niul 'M)i) of their kinsfolk from Kintail, Knoidsirt M?id GU'iifiiirry arrived amoiio* their Scottisli frioinls in Upper Cnnadii, nnd calUnl tlio ron^ion Cjlcnn-arry. ^J'ho indefati- gable ])riest became afterwardH tlie bisliop of his people, for whom ho spent a most laborious and unsellish life. Ho took, as wo shall afterwards see, a prominent parr in pnblic affai''s. Tho llig'hland emi Gyration to Nova Scotia began at even an earlier dtito than that to Upper Canada. 80 "soon as 1 77o tho Ilf.rtor, an old JJiitch ship, in bad condition and poorly ef[uipped, took some 200 emigrants, chielly from lloss-shire, Scotland, and landed them under nn emigration company^s auspices, where tho town of Pictou now stands. Disease had carried awav some of their immber, but tho largo proportion of those, who had embarked, landed. This was tho iirst shipload of im- migrants to tho province during this portion of her his- tory. After the usual difficulties of early settlement the colony prospered. It has become one of tho most moral and prosperous communities of tho New World. In tho year ITrfo a immber of additional families arrived in Pictou from the old land, and a regiment of regulars, tho 82ud, commanded by one Colonel Robert- son, and lying at Halifax, at tho time of the peace in 178o was disbanded, and many of tho soldiers became settlers. In the early years of this century the same '' High- land clearances '' which led to the settlement of Glen- garry in Upper Canada, brought large numbers of Celts to Nova Scotia. During tho years from 1801 to 1805, two or three ships a year arrived laden with these settlers. In one year not less than 1300 souls were landed in the one county of Pictou. In 1801 two vessels, the Sarah and the JP-tr/tro?^, came, bearing 800 persons. Many of these were Eomau Catholics, and they sought out a separate settlement for themselves in Antigonisli. The privations of the shiploads of men, women, and children who thus ventured to the New World were often extreme. The vessels used in this service were old and unseaworthy, were ill-ventilated, and badly pro- 1 TiiE Canadian Peoi'Li:. 291 U])pei- idot'iiti- pc'0)ile, si I lite, nt parr at even la. So ), ill had igraiit;?, n under jown of some oi: ivlio had of im- her his- iient the st moral families iinciit of liobt'rt- in 178o settlers. " Ilio'h- ,f Gieii- ibers of 11801 to 1th these Is were II, came, Eomau bent for len, and Id were ?e were lly pro- visioned. Smallpox frequently carried its ravages among the poor sufl'erers ; and so many and so serious woro the grievances of the passengers, that this trafHc carried on between the OhI World and the New was long known as the "■ whito slave trade.'' Tlius was Nova Scotia like Upper Canada, largely peopled b}; a poor but honest people, who in ji generation became prosperous and contented. Capo Breton, as we have seen, still preser /'ed a separate government from Nova Scotia. In 17*.M two ships had reached Pictou with the first Roman Breton Catholic Highlanders who had come to Nova Scotia. They were induced to settle in Antigonish, Not satisfied with this locality, some of them crossed over to Cape Breton, and settled near Margarie. Others followed, and usually coming by Avay of Pictou, they took among other localities those of Judique and Mabou, on Capo Breton Island. In 1802 a ship arrived directly at the Bras d'Or Lakes, and landed her 209 passengers at Sydney, the capital of the island. Up to the year 1817 a steady flow of this immigration came to Cape Breton. The best lands had all been taken up by 1820, but even till 1828 there were new parties of immigrants arriving, and those settling in situations remote from the sea became known as the " Backlanders.'' It is said that not less than 25,000 Scottish settlers came to Cape Breton at this time. This population has much increased in comfort, and where they have done the least so, it is true as has Keen said by a late writer, '^Even tho log-hut in the depths of the forest is a palace compared with some of the turf cabins of Sutherland or the Hebrides." Section III. — Worh of Noted Colonizers. The Halifax settlement in Nova Scotia in 1749 was the earliest example of an organized system of ncNuttand colonization to that province. In the year the Phila- 1751, 958 Germans arrived at Halifax, and^elphia in the year following 1000 more. In 1753, °°^P*^y- 1500 of these removed to Lunenburgh, Nova Scotia. U 2 t. ■^{ ■^■m ''m ;1 2(J2 A Short History ok Since that date CaiiMilii lias owed inucli to individual coloiiizern and coni))ani('s tor having beL^nin and carried out sclienies of colonization. No doubt abuses have often characterized such movenieiits, but the organizers deserve credit notwithstantling. At the conclusion of the Seven Years' War manv persons of inlluenco took up the subject of scniding colonists to Nova Scotia. Six vessels arrived tVoiii lioston witli 200 settlers, and tour schooners from Rhode Island with lOO. New London and IMvniouth sent 280. An enthusiastic Irislnnan, Alex- ider iMcNutt, was largely instrumental in settling I'ruro, Onslow, and Londonderry, and brought in ^00 colonists from Ireland. In company, in 1705, with a number of ])rominent resi- dents of Phihidelphia, I^IcNutt r(>ceived a grant of 200,00(1 acres in Nova Scotia between Tatamagouche and Pictoii. No less than 1,000,000 acres were reserved for McNutt in other parts of Nova, Scotia. In 1 707 virtually the whole of Prince Ldward Island wiis granted to proprietors in a single day. Almost the whuli; of the Nova Scotiau counties of i^ictou and Colchester was given over to grantees about the same time. McNutt's grant in IMctou County was called the " Irish Grant/' and the township of Pictou was first known as 'M)oncgal." What has generally borne the name of the '' Phila- delphia (irant " in Pictou, became celebrated. While McNutt failed to settle the land obtained by him and was compelled to allow it to revert to the Crown, the Philadelphia Company succeeded in Ijringing in its ex- cellent colonists. Among them were families bearing such well-known Nova Scotian names as Archibald, Patterson, Troop, Rogers, and Harris. It was in 17G7 that the little brig the noj^e, since be- come historic in consequence, bore its precious freight, the seed of the noted Pictou Colony sent by the Phila- delphia Company. It sailed from Philadelphia in May and called at Halifax. On the 10th of June, Pictou Harbour was reached. Several young men from Truro passing the mountains, crossed through the woods and built fires Hvitliiiil currii'il !8 huvo ;unizors r iimny 'd from 1 KllOlll! til sent iitt, was )\v, ami lieliuul. rnt ivsi- •200,01)0 L Pictuu. McNutt ilandwns lio wlioli' )lcliestor time. '■' J risk now 11 as ^'Phila- Whilo urn und )Wii, the its ex- bear ill, 1^' cliibaUl, ince be- freight, Phila- [lay and [arbour )assing" [ilt tires TiiK Canadian Pkoplk. 293 on tlio slinro to attract tlio attention of the vessel. Fearing" Inditms the vessel stood oil" the shore; a ('h)ser inspection showed the ])arty on shore to befriends, Tliero wvi'o six faniili( s on board, among- them being" tlios(5 tif iJr. Harris, Scjuirc^ I'atterson, Ifogcrs. In l*ietoii gi'ave- yard stands tiie monnnuMit, ereeteil in 1S()0, of a son of Rogers, born tljo night befoi'o the landing', and marked " The lirst descendant of an Knylislimaii born in Picton." Alongf with Governor Simcoe in his visits thi-ongh the wihbrness of Upper CaiDuhi, nsually went a yonng Irishman, Thomas Talbot, lie was an jaibot olHcer of the 2'tth IJeginient, and was a^ en- thusiastic as wjis the Governor himself in the task of subdividing, naming, and settliiig the various ])arts r broke ont in the colony, bat a niedical man was in attendance, provided by tho Karl, {'revisions were for a time served ont bvan auj-ent. T]u)iiurli tlu'ir desl illation was readied so lato as August, l)y tlie middle of 8eptend)er all llio colonists had l»eon settled on their lots. Five thousand ])eoj)le in (Queen's County, I'l'ince Edward Island — the descendants ut' that bund of <*^()0 ])il<^rim fathers — an? to-day among the most prosperous of the inhabitants of the island. Having seen his colonists ])rovided tor on Princo Edward, ijord S(dkirk immediately visiteil Canada and tho United States. Ho seems pre- viously to have secured a block of land in Upper Canada, at a point lifteen miles north of tho mouth of the Thames, in the most westerly county of Upper Canada. This was named "Baldoon,^' from a portion of his lordship's estates in Scotland. In l!S()J3 some twenty families from Prince l^^dward Island settlement, numl)ering 1 It) souls, proceeded to Baldoon. Tho locality was swampy, and one-third of tho colonists perislicd in tho first season from malaria. During tho war of 1812 the settlement was laid waste by the Americans. In the townships of Dover and Chat- ham, near Baldoon, Lord Selkirk also purchased somo 70,UU0 acres of land. A further tract of laud, forming the township of Moul- tou, situated at the mouth of the Grand Iliver, and comprising 30,800 acres, was purchased by niygr^*^ Lord Selkirk for 3^50/. froe^ Mr. William Jarvis, who had obtained it from the Indians in 1803. In 1804 Lord Selkirk proposed to Governor Hunter at York to build a road from the Grand Kiver to his Baldoon settlement, or if the Government preferred, from York to Baldoon. It was estimated that the work would cost 40,000L, tu distance being nearly 300 miles. The Earl offered to accept in payment wild lauds on each m\ik ~ iii itr hiKm^ 296 A Short History of side of the road to be built. The project was not accept- able to the Government. For several years tlie troubled state of Europe pre- vented the colonizer following up his plans of Qjjyj^^^Qyj^emif^ration. In 1811 ho obtained a controlling- interest in the Pludson's Bay Company. Froin this Company he ynirchased a vast distiict lying on the l?ed J^ivcr, of 110,000 square miles. This he called Assiniboia, and in 1811, by way of Hudson liay, des- patched a party of Highlanders, with a few Irish colonists from Sligo. The pioneers did not reach their destination till 1812. During the following years other bands took up their abode beside them on IJed liiver. Tlie relation of the new settlers and their patroiito the Hudson^s Bay Company stirred up the opposition of the North-West Fur Company of Montreal, which occupied many posts throughout the region to the north-west of Lake Superior. A clever movement, by a Nor'- Wester officer named Cameron, succeeded in 1815 in inducing about loO souls, or about three-fourths of the Selkirk Colony, to desert the Red River, and come by the canoe-route to Lake Superior and thence along the shores of the lakes to Penetang- wishene in Upper Canada. The descendants of these fickle colonists are still living in Gwillimbury, north of Toronto, and in Aldboro' and adjoining townships in the London district. The settlers who refused to join Cameron were rein- forced by an addition to the Selkirk settlement, in 1815, nearly making up the number lost. In 1810 the ani- mosity of the North-West Company, which contained manv of the French half-breeds, who called themselves " the new nation,'^ became so great that an attack was made on Fort Douglas, the centre of the Selkirk Colony, and Governor Semple, the officer in charge, was killed. Lord Selkirk, who had been in Montreal durino' the winter of 1815-10, was hastening to reinforce his be- leagured colony, when he heard the sad news. He had taken 100 men of the disbanded German mercenaries , accept- )pe pre- plans of itrolliiiu* . From ■ on the e called ay, clos- w Irish ch their rs other ^iver. )ii to the n of the Dccupied -west of ' named 50 soulS;, ^sert the uperior netano^- : the.!>_ 298 A Short History of •*:. HOW and then to a sumptuous feast. "When the old warrior had reached the height of exhilaration, his enter- tainer succeeded again and again in obtaining his signa- ture to leases of one after another of choice lots of land. In 1803 Governor Hunter ordered an iuvestio-ation into the condition of the Indian lands, and again in 1804. In 180(5 Governor Gore ordered a statement of the moneys invested in English three per cents, for the Indians to be laid before the Legislature of Upper Canada, and it was but little above 5000/. The report given to the House, by Dr. Strachan and Mr. J. B. Kobinson, long after IJrant^s death, suggests that but j30or care had been taken of the interests of the Indians. Section IV. — Political and Social Life. During the period before us, the introduction to Canada of so mixed a population produced the inevitable result of conflict and heartburning. Kace jealousy, local dissatisfaction, and the lack of representative govern- ment gave rise to loud complaints. It does not seem to have been so much the want of skill on the part of the Governor and Council in each of the provinces, as fault with the system of government the produced the dis- content. There are evident signs in this period of an expanding political life, and a determination on the part of the people to gain self-government. The jjlan of the Imperial Government was to appoint a Governor- General, with jurisdiction over the six pro- vinces in existence at the time in British America. Under this chief officer was, in each province, a Lieutenant- Governor. In Lower Canada the office of Lieutenant- Governor was not always tilled, as the Governor-General lived in Montreal or Quebec, though from 1808 to 1822 the office of Lieutenant-Governor of Lower Canada was held as a sinecure by an absentee at a comfortable salary. In each province there was a Legislative Assembly elected by the people, and a Legislative Council appointed by the Crown. There was also an Executive Council appointed by the Crown, which was not responsible to THE Canadian PEorLE. F 1 the old his enter- lis signa- 1 of land, ation into LS04. In le moneys ndians to ia, and it en to the son, long had been [action to inevitable >u.sy, local 3 govern - t seem to •art of the ■;, as fault the dis- .'iod of an the part appoint six pro- America, eutenant- eutenant- r- General 8 to 1822 nada was nfortable Issemblv ppointed I Council isible to 299 '■''■U the Legislature. The struggle for power between the j)opular branch of the Legislature and the Legislative (.'(juncil, led br the Executive, took place in each pro- vince, though each provincial struggle had peculiarities of its own. In Lower Canada after the departure of Lord Dorches- ter, the idol of the people, in 179(3, the govern- ment was carried on very successfully by General cauSa Prescott, though he was at times compelled to check his Executive Council for selhshness. He was succeeded by Mr. Milnes, who occupied the position for live or six years. Governor Milnes was not strong enough to cope with the heady and self-seeking Execu- tive, which was stead ilj'' building up a structure of tyranny, n'liich in the end must be levelled by the people. After Milnes' departure in 1805 the President of the Council, Hon. Thomas Dunn, filled the vacancy in the Governor- ship till a successor was appointed. From the special features of Lower Canada it was to have been expected that the political struggle would be very severe. Lower Canada was largely French Canadian. Its population was considerable, and its people had a vigorous social and religious life. It was made up of a conquered people. It was impossible to tell what might at any time arise in the complications of Britain with the United States. The leadiuG: business men of the province were British merchants living in Montreal and Quebec. Many of these were associated together in the vast fur-trade to the interior. The British Governor most naturally chose his Executive Council from this class. To make matters more secure, the Governor and Council appointed a safe majority of the Legislative Council from among the British residents. The theory of this system, that the French Canadians ^Yere a conquered people and to be distrusted, was not quite accurate. The French of Lower Canada had found their attachment to France rudely severed by the events of the French Eevolution. Atheistic France could have few attractions for French Canada, still holding to its ancient church. Sentiment and interest continued to •il I «■■' 1 f ■ II 4 "^ ^nl ^Kdiiiir";- ^ ti ..■i i , _ , iilii iH t 1 ■M ■ m 300 A Short History of :; ..^ ^ ■4 M: make tbo French Canadians loyal to JlritJiin. Ilavinrf become Britisli, the French Canadians clamoured for tliu rights of self-government, and the Assembly was cliie.Hy French Canadian. The Executive and Legislative Councils were a strong- willed and united oligarchy, I'he cry of the French Canadians for self-government was interpreted by it as disloyalty to Britain. It is thus an oligarchy usually protects itself. The people thus charged next re- garded the steps taken by the Governor-General for the protection of the country as tyrannical. The Governor and his councils misunderstood the people, and the people, through the Legislative Assemby, misjudged tiie authorities. The Montreal Gazette, which had been established in 1778, was an organ of the Government. In April, 1805, it contained an account of a banquet given to the Repre- sentatives of Montreal in the Legislature, in honour of their opposition to the action of the Assembly in passing a certain Bill. At the meeting toasts had been proposed which were regarded as hostile to the French. The Assembly took notice of the matter. It voted the pro- ceedings at the banquet to be " a false, scandalous, and malicious libel . . . tending to lessen the affections of his Majesty^s subjects towards his Government in this province.^^ The Assembly in this action evidently made a mistake. Its order for the arrest of the giver of the toasts at the banquet and of the editor of the Gazette could not be justified, though the order was never enforced. The extreme action of the Assemblv drew forth a criticism from the Quebec Mercuri/, another Government news- paper. The Assembly again erred in ordering the editor of the Mercury to be taken into custody, though he was soon liberated. Such proceedings as these but widened the breach between the opponents. The French Canadians next undertook what was a f\ir more sensible mode of defence than the exercise of the prerogative of the Assembly. This was the establishment of a newspaper, Le CanacUen, to defend their views. The THE Canadian People. 301 new journal began its career in November, 180<) ; it was decidedly anti-Hritisli in tone, and regarded the British residents of Lower Canada as '' ctrantjers et intrus." Le Cunadien was conducted with ability, became popular, and gave nmbrage and uneasiness to the Government. Amidst the din of this race-conflict sounds of war were heard. As we shall afterwards see, the British doctrine of the "right of search " produced irritatiou. H.M.S. Lmpard in 1807 had boarded the Chesapeake, an Ameri- c;ui frigate, and killed a number of American citizens. The preparations for war for the time drowned the noise of provincial turmoil. President Dunn gave orders for drafting one-fifth of the militia for active service. French and English vied with each other in being ready for dtfence. Bishop Plessis issued his mandcmcnt to be read in all the Koman Catholic churches, supporting the Government action. It was at this juncture, in October, 1808, that Lieu- tenant-General Sir James Craig arrived in Canada as Governor-General. He was of good Scottish family, had seen the whole of the Revolutionary War, had served in the Cape of Good Hope and India, and had gone through the campaigns of the British forces on the Mediterranean ill the wars of Xapoleon. He was at the time of his arrival in Canada in poor health. By the year 1809 the war-cloud had partly blown over, and Governor Craig found himself in the midst of political instead of martial strife. The Assembly had returned to its querulous mood. The Governor was easily persuaded that the French l^opulation and later American immigrants were unsafe elements in the country. In order to carry out its ends the Assembly proposed to exclude the judges, who had been members of Assembly. In this the action of the Assembly is vindi- cated by the state of subsequent opinion. A less ex- -cusable act of the popular branch of the Legislature was the exclusion from their House of the member for Three Ivivers — a most worthy gentleman — on the ground of liis being a Jew. 1 il M *^^',WJ •4; ^: ■!■ Z i;?i: If li ^02 A Short History ok Tlic session had progressed five weeks with no bettor result than the men ^ures named, when Governor Craiu-, in Croniwellian humour, went to the House, and informed the members of his intention to dissolve Parhament. That tliey wasted in fruitless debates the time and talents to which the public had an exclusive title, was the reason given for their dismissal. Dismissed accordingly they were to their constituents. The elections were held and the French party returned stronger than before. Lc Caiiadicu, the exponent of Frencli opinion, waxed violent. The country was in an uproar. Rumours of secret meet- ings of a disloyal kind became current, though they seem to have been without foundation. On the 17th of aMarch, 1810, the press and material of of Le Canadien were seized by Government order, the printer was apprehended, and M. Bedard and two other members of the Assembly were arrested on a charge of treasonable practices. For a considerable time Bedard languished in prison, though strenuous efforts were made by the Assembly for his release. Governor Craig refused the application on the ground that the " security, as well as the dignity of the King's Government required '^ his imprisonment. On the prorogation of the Assembly the prison doors were opened to M. Bedard. Undoubtedly the action of Governor Craig and his advisers in this matter was tyrannical. During the year the Governor, at his own request, was recalled. He has always been regarded as having been an honest, frank, and philanthropic man. With the training of a soldier, he had high ideas of prerogative. It is useless, however, to condemn Governor Craig for this fierce struggle ; it was begun before his arrival, and both parties were to be blamed. The French having taken high-handed measures against the Gazette and Mercury found the same treatment applied to Lc Canadien and M. Bedard. " They that take the sword shall perish with the sword." The birth of political life in Upper Canada was no less troubled than in Lower Canada. On the de- Canada parture of Governor Simcoe, in 1 796, the govern- ment was administered during the vacancy, until THE Canadian PEorLE. 303 1700, by the Hon. Peter Russoll. Tlio spirit of rapacity wliicli liad opposed Simcoo tbiind its embodiment in the new President. He was, according to a very reliable historian, *' helhm ar/roruDi" — a " land-o*lutton." A list of lands patented by the Hon. Peter Pusseil, the Acting- Governor, to the Hon. Peter Russell, the private citizen, is extant, and is remarkable. In 1709 arrived the new Lieutenant-Governor, General Peter Hunter. He remained in office till his death in 1805. Ho administered the government with a firm hand. The influx of Americans during his term of office began to create a real anxiety among the loyalists. Not that the new immigrants committed overt acts, but nn- ccrtainty was everywhere prevalent. It was in 1804 that this suspicion became embodied in the well-known '' Sedition Act " of that year. This Act gave the power to arrest any person who had been less than six months in the province, who had seditious intent to disturb tho tranquillity of the province. The Act became a fitting instrument, in after years, for the destruction of personal liberty. Tho death of Governor Hunter was followed by tho appointment in 180(3 of Mr. Francis Gore, who continued, with the exception of three years in 1812-14, Lieu- tenant-Governor till 1818. Governor Gore seems to have been an estimable and well-meaning man, bnt he was quite unable to cope with the determined spirits who during his time laid the foundation of the fabric of Upper Canadian misrule. In English history freedom had often to be regained, which had been lost under weak and amiable kings. So this Governor's administration was not favourable to liberty. Governor Gore's period of government had many features in common with that of his contemporary in Lower Canada, General Craig. The weak Governor was, on his arrival, surrounded by the combination of office-holders, land speculators, and so-called persons of good society in the capital of Little York. He became their bond-slave. This knot of pro- fessional politicians and hereditary rulers, as they regarded themselves^ looked with contempt on the inhabitants of ^n*f ■rn r 1 £U ., •'->. > , ■ ''-'■'• 1 H '" ■ ■ i \ '^^1 ■ « ^^1 "^^H ■'<\ jll'l '• Mi>, , .''( 1*1 1 ■,,|| H: ij. :'«! ■1 1 1 ill •i; f iiv!' 304 A Short IUstorv of the rural districts, especially ou tlio later American itii- migrants. 'I'liey saw imminent clanger to the State in those ^vho failed to see their superior excellence. Their wrath was first visited on one of the circuit judges. This was Mr. Justice Thorpe. ]Ie tJ^^jII^ h'T-d recommended himself by his iust decisions Thorpe. y 111 1 througliuut the country. il)0 people had much confidence in the syuipathetic judge. As he went from court to court the grand juries laid their grievances before him, and he became tlie exponent of the rights of the peoj)lo. His popularity was so great that, contrary to the will of the government, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly. The Governor and his councils, as well as the Governtnent newspaper, the Upper Ciuiathi Gazette, bitterly opposed the judge. In 1807 a new journal, the Upper CamuVuin Guardian, was begun, to vindicate the people's cause. Unfortunately for the popular party, Judge Thorpe was, by tho iniluenco of Governor Gore, recalled by the British Government. An enterprising Irishman, Joseph Willcocks, Sherilt of tho Home District, was a strong though extreme supporter of Judge Thorpe. The Government was so incensed against him that he was removed from office. It was he who became the editor of the Guardian. His strong utterances brought upon him a prosecution for libel, but he was acquitted. Having been elected to the Assembly, he was, for the too free expression of opinion, committed to prison. In the year 1809 another act of arbitrary authority subjected the Governor and Executive Council to severe criticism. An English gentleman, John Mills Jackson, who possessed lands by inheritance in Lower Canadii, and by purchase in Upper Canada, visited the country. He was much displeased by what he saw. On his return to England he published a pamphlet on Canada, referring to the severe treatment of Judge Thorpe and Sherilf Willcocks, and to the corrupt state of political ati'airs in Upper Canada. He stated, moreover, that it had been declared publicly, on behalf of the Executive, that should any man sign :ii Tin: Canadian Pkopli:. 305 any petition or address -vvluitcver he sliould bo soiit to prison. His information in all cases, except the hist mentioned, was correct, and })()ssil)ly in tliis cns(^ constrnctively so. He closed his jianiphlet siiyin^*, "I have no private interest or jjussion to f^rntify: J call for investigation as a duty to my king and country.'* The Upper Canadian Assembly agreed to ]n'esent an address to the Lieutenant-Governor, expressive of its "abhorrence and detestation of an infamous and seditious libel signed ^ John Mills Jackson."* In the light of the i'reedoin now permitted to owner?! of newspapers and writers of ]iamphlets, it is surprising to us that what on the whole was a true, though earnest presentation of grievances, should liave been so strongly condemned, and certainly Mr. John ^lills Jackson was fortunate in being beyond the reach of the angry leofislators in his Eatybshman's home of libertv. The struggle of the Nova Scotian Legislature with the Executive was bkewise severe, thouofh the„ ,. i. 1. 1 J. \ 11 NovaScotia. questions at stake seem to have been less important than those in the Upper Provinces. The loyalist Governor^ Parr, of Nova Scotia, died in 1701, and was succeeded by Sir John Wentworth. Sir John was a native of New Hampshire, and had been Jb'itish Commissioner of Woods and Forests in America. Ho had likewise been Governor of his native province in the colonial days before the Eevolution. Sir Jolin was of the courtly class of old-time governors. There was not only a dignity, but also a knowledge of affairs, and a facility of administration, in those trained in the old school of Government officials, largely wanting in later times. Sir John lived for the people, and yet he considered them worthy of consideration simply as they were submissive. Englishmen, or those trained in the old colonial school, could alone make efficient governors, to his mind. He was distrustful of public gatherings, and regarded public discussion as closely bordering on sedition. He inveighed against " meetings convened in the country composed of uneducated tradesmen, X I 'i •' ' 3o6 A Short History of V:; liibonrcrs and fannors, who, from tlio niifuro of tlioir industry, cannot liiivo any real inturniMtion." Sir Jolm disliked the popnlnr loader in the Assondjly, Mr. Cottnani Toni^'o, and exhausted every device to countorwork his influence. This " tribune of the ]ieo]do,'' thou^'h char^eil with seditious intent, preserved his place even in the face of the ofHcial o])p()sition. The warlike rumours of the time, and possibly also tho irritation caused by Governor Wentworth's distrust of tho people, led to the appoiutment of General Sir George Prevost in his stead in ISOH. Sir John Wentworth, after some opposition in tlio Legislature, was voted a pension of 500/. Tho preparation for tho expected war occupied tho minds of the people and Legislature. Governor Provost, on tlio recall of Sir James Craig, was promoted to tho Governor-Generalship, and Sir John Coape Sherbrooke became Governor of Nova Scotia. On the death of Governor Provost in 18 IG, in Lower Canada, Governor Sherbrooke became his successor in office there. At tho end of this ])eriod the population of Nova Scotia had reached 82,000. The loyalist province of New Brunswick was under its first Governor, Col. Thomas Carleton, tho wick ^^°^"hrother of Lord Dorchester, from the time of its founding until 1802. Six governors in four years succeeded Carleton. After this succession of changes a military officer, General Hunter, held office. As in the other provinces, so in New Brunswick, a struggle took place between the Legislative and Execu- tive Councils and the Assembly. The subject of dispute was nothing greater than whether the members of Assembly should receive a pay- ment of 7,s\ Gd. per dav durinpf the sittinof of the House. The British Colonial Secretary declared this "derogatory to the dignity of members, as being wages.''' Froiu 1790 to 171)9 th.ere was a "dead-lock '^ between the two Houses; but in the end the popular branch gained its contention. During this period imprisonment for debt was still in vogue in Canada, but on the prisoner making ■ f f? TiiK Canadian PEorLE. 307 Social progress. ontli tliat ho wms not worth ">/. lio wns rutitloil to ho (lischiU't^L'd. Slavery was piMMiiittod in Lower Canada under hcoiico ; hut in Upper Canaihi iu 1 7l>:) further iui- ]iortatiou of skives was forhiddcn, uud gradual ahoUtion introduced. To the many visitors to the Bi-itisli provinces during this period colonial life seemed very unattrac- tive. I'iio Old World traveller cannot sympa- thize fully with the difUculties of new settlers. To him their crude life seems the result of improvidence, lie has never seen the unbroken forest, ami v/orked out in his experience the steps ref[uirod to bring it into tho form of the cultivated iield, or the pasture-land support- ing Hocks and herds. Ho can assume the role of critic, can ever act as the kind adviser, and regards the colo- nist who fails to respond to his suggestion as boorish and lacking in spirit. The colonist in turn, knowing the difficulties which have been encountered, and seeing the injustice of tho criticisms, has usually received with coldness, if not with resentment, books of travel written on the colonies. The British colonies during the period before us, except in the neighbourhood, perhaps, of Montreal, Quebec, or Halifax, were just emerging from their primi- tive condition. The loyalists and British settlers wero alike poor. From the circumstances of the case tho loyalists had most intelligence ; but, on the other hand, the British settler was more accustomed to labour. Tho beautiful dream of an Arcadia was found by half-pay officers, French emigres, and needy scions of nobility to bo a delusion. Would they obtain homes they must work with their own hands — " Ho who by the plough would thrive Himself must either hold or drive." Yet the pluck and self-denial exhibited by the early settlers of these provinces prove them to have been true men. AVhen there is no accumulated capital, or no rich friends iu England fi'om whom assistance may come, progress must be slow^ X 2 o8 A Short IIistorv of Lower Cannda was at tlii^ timo, from its oarllor settle* nient, in a position of ailvaiitjiyc, tlioun^li its French Canadinn iiilwil)itaiits liavo never been distin<^'uisliLHl for enterprise. It was an event marking n new era wlien, on the Ith of NovcmuIkm*, InOD, the steamer Accnuinufhi^ Hon arrived in (Quebec from Montreal, the ilrst steamship over seen on the St. lj:iwr(Mico. " No wind or tido eau stop her " was the admiring comment of the newspaper of the time. i\\ liower Canada five newspapers wore issued in iNli). These were the Gr in Canada, iho Mcrcurt/, and Lc Cdiiadii)}, nW in Quebec; and the Gazette and Cuurdut in Montreal. 'J'lio Gii::ette and GnartUaii were tho news])apers of Up|)er Canada, antl even during this period tho Co)ist(llationf tho Ueruld^ and others, wc are informed, had "exi)ired of starva- tion." Tho country advanced in business and manufactures. The chief exports were wheat, potash from tho ashes of the burnt ibi'ests, and furs, 'i'hero were two iron-works near Three llivors — tlie St. ^laurico Forges. In Itill tho manufacture of leather, hats, and paper had been introduced. There were no considerable factories for cloth-making, l)ut the farmers largely mjinufacturcd their own clothing, known as *^ homespun.'' Tobacco- smoking was common, and in 1810, 100,000 pounds of tobacco were imported, subject to duty, in Upper Canada. Before 1817 there was not a bank in British America, but in 1822 one had been established at Kings- ton, and two in Montreal. Many of the early settlers having been soldiers, and no light liquors being obtainable, the consumption of ardent spirits was large. The liquors used were largely manufjictui'ed in the country, and were very destructive. Duelling was not uncommon, and in some circles he was accounted a hero who had " killed his man." A strange custom, that of '' charivareeing " newly-married people, ■was common. This was a senseless beating of drums, blowing of horns, firing of guna, and drunken shouting about the dwelling of those who were the victims. The fe! TiiF. Canadian PEorLE. 309 4tli of .Tnii'^, Ix'iiiuf Kin,!:»' Gcorj^o III.'s Ijirtlulay, was obsorvi'd as u linliday, and tliis even during,'' the times of liis snccivssors. it was tlie eustoin to sunnnun the iiiilitiii for roll-eall nml inspection on that day. In Lower ('ioeuhi tlie mass of the people wei'O French ]^•man C'atlioHcs, and even nnnil)er.s ol' the Fraser and iMont<^omery lli^'hiandei's who had * int(.'rmarried with tin* French, adopted their ancient I'liitli. Chnrehes at thia period were well supplied to the ]ieoj)le. In Nova Scotia the first Bishop of the Chm-ch oF Eni^dand, ])r. Charles In<^'lis, ari'ived in 1787, and died uljout the end of this ]K'riod. In the year previous, the well-known I Jr. McGreu'or, the fathiM* of the J'resby- terian Church in Nova Scotia, Jirrived from Scotland. In Upper Canada there were at the end of the period from six to ten clernfvnien of the Church of Fno'laiid, and a like nund)er in Lower Canada. There were six J*res- l)yterian ministers, and })robabIy not less than thirty or forty itinerant ^lethodist preachers, with a number of Baptists and others in smaller numbers. These clergy wandered over the settled parts of the country, were very devoted, and were of much service in restraining wrong and laying the foundation of the present religious condition of Canada. In Lower Canada, education was from the first an ad- iinict of the Chnrcli, and hence was not in this „, •^ . ^ LL c T • ' Education, provnice so much a matter or discussion as in the other provices. In Nova Scotia, King\s College, at Windsor, had been established by Royal Charter so early as 1802. In 1811 an Act to aid Common Schools was passed, and another to establish ten county grammar-schools^ in addition to that already in exist- ence in Halifax. In Upper Canada, Governor Simcoe had planned a higher educational institution. Under his auspices^ tlie afterwards celebrated Bishop Strachan, was brought ont. His patron having gone, the Scottish dominie on arriv- ing in 1799 was disappointed. He, however, began the Kingston and afterwards the Cornwall Grammar School, 3IO A Short History of ./■V' ill which many of ihoso afterwards active iii public alTairs were educated. Ill I8O0 arrived in Nova Scotia, Dr. McCulloch, the educational Nestor of Nova Scotia. In 1807 an Act was passed granting 100/. a year to each of eight schools in the diiferent districts of Upper Canada. An Act was passed also in 181G establishing common schools throughout the country, and OOOOZ. a year was granted as assistance in supporting these schools. In 1818 there was established on the banks of the Red Eiver, by two Roman Catholic fathers, a school in which the " humanities " were taught, but there was not for several years after an English school. Thus were laid the foundations of the social, religious, and educa- tional fabric of to-day. f ■ Ji s Section V.—The War of Defenco (1812). A passionate dislike of the British still remained among the masses of the American people. The long War for Independence had burned the events of those eight years int? the people^s hearts The veterans of the Revolutiouarv War, some of them as cripples bearing ineffaceable marks of their valour, still lived throughout the States, and told the tales of a grandfather to the second generation of young Americans. Ten years only after the Peace of Paris (1783), warm sympathy had arisen in America for the struggling French Republic. France had sent La Fayette to help them, now they would return sympathy to her people in the throes of revolution. A corresponding hatred for Britain thus became stronger. Washington and the leading statesmen of the Republic had sought to allay the hostile feeling against Britain. They saw that the prosperity of their people depended on the existence of good feeling toward Britain. What to their minds was most to be feared in the United States was a reaction among the people, and the tracing of all business and social troubles to the severance of the colonies from the great mother-land. The excesses of the revolutionary h li THE Canadian PEorLE. 3fi party in France alionatcd much sympathy from tliom in puritan New England, and AVashington succeeded in making a commercial treaty witli Eugland. But the '^fatlier of his country '^ retired from pul)lic life in 171*0. Despite all efforts, the old cleavage-lino between North and Houtli was beginning to appear in the Republic. Nothino; but the liercc heat of revolution could have welded them together. It was marvellous that cavalier and puritan had cohered so long. The removal now of the common danger allowed the old jirovincial jealousies to break forth anew. In 1801, Jefferson, the distin- guished framer of the Declaration of Independence, was elected l^resident by the Democratic party, whose strength lay among the cavaliers. The feeling against Britain was purposely fanned into a flame. Britain was at this time engaged in a gigantic war. She felt her fleet — of 1000 shi]DS on all seas — to be her strongest resource. She saw her advantage over her foes in cutting off the supplies of war coming by sea, and in enforcing the law of lations that no neutral may assist with supplies either combatant in a war. Accord- ingly in 180G Britain declared the coast of France and Holland, from Brest to the Elbe, under a blockade, and sent Lord Keith with 100 ships to enforce it. In November, 1800, Napoleon retaliated in his so-called "Decrees,'* issued from Berlin, forbidding English goods to be brought upon the continent of Europe. In 1807 Britain retorted, and by the celebrated " Orders in Council '' put all countries, under the power of France, under blockade. In November, 1807, Napo- leon thundered forth his jNIilan Decrees, declaring the whole British Islands blockaded. Britain had declared any French possession blockaded, whether actually blockaded or not, on the theory that her fleet was in every sea. Napoleon's blockade of Britain was made, without his having one ship of the line to carry out his threat. Looking at this affair from the standpoint of international law, there can be no doubt that the '' con- structive blockade '* introduced by both parties was an absurdity. The check placed on commerce irritated the ■ •: "^ , I j "> '\ \ II I I 'i I %-\ 'I ;f^ i •4 ■i ■1 '1? I ■i I t. 5 *> 312 A Short History of 1807. Aniericnns, and tlionofli both Fiance mid Eno-laiid were c'f|iiidly bl.'unuble, France plainly was the favoured cuiiiitry in the United States. On 'the 22nd of June, 18G7, H.M.S. Lropurd, of seventy-lbur o-uns. cruisitio- off Viri'-iiiia, made formal requisition npuu the United States" frigate Chesai'n>a}:e to deliver up deserters known to be aboard her. The American commander denied having any deserters, wheu the Leopard opened fire, killed three men, wounded eighieeu, and having boarded the disabled ship, took oli' the culprits. Even according to British doctrine this was an outrage. The Leopard had no right to use force in her search. Britain disavowed the act, and offerel reparation. This conflict increased the national excite- ment. Giving way to hostile sentiment. President Jefferson refused to ratify a treaty of commerce, amity, and navi- gation concluded by the American Minister at London with the British ; and on the 27th of November the President in his message to Congress freely denounced England for her ^* Orders,^' but said nothing of Xapoleon^s "^^ Decrees."" Ctngress responded to the President's bad advice, and ]mssed an embargo not allowing American ships to leave their own ports, the plea Ijeing that it was necessary to gather together for emergencies all American ships. By this, great dis- tress was caused in New England portSj where the people depend on the sea. In 1809, after Jefferson had served as President for two terms, Madison was elected to that office. He was said to be less anti-British than his predecessor. The embargo w^as repealed, but a law of non-intercourse passed, providing that if England or France withdrew restrictions on commerce, the United States would also. The refusal of Britain to change her course was severely felt in New England, War seemed now to be more likely than before, and Britain began, to prepare by sending as governors to the British provinces, military officers. ■ In 1810 the sky grew darker still, though the strong THE Canadian PEorLE. 313 and were favoured opard, of le formal licr. The ters, wlieii wounded p, took oif clrine this D use force and offered )nal excite- it Jefferson yr, and navi- Miiiister at blie 27tli o£ ,0 Congress 3) J but said s responded [in embargo own ports, ler togetber Is, great dis- Ve the people [resident for \o. He was lessor. The -intercourse te withdrew would also. ^as severely to be more [prepare by ^es, military the strong sentiment in the New Enghind States was for peace. An unfortunate occurrence hastened the conflict. The rrc-iidtntfUn American frigate of forty-four guns, attacked a small British vessel, the Little ItiU, of eighteen guns. Tiie attack seems to have been unprovoked. Tiiirty-two men were killed or wounded, and the little sloop was battered to pieces. Negotiations continued during 1811. In the autumn of this year the Con<_>;ress of the United ♦States met, and determined to increase the army from ten to thirty-five thousand, and to borrow 11,000,000 dollars. Early in 1812 national fooling was roused by the dis- closures of one Captain John Henry, who in 1800 had gone as a spy to the United States for Governor Craig, hut who, on not receiving what he claimed from the British, agreed to sell his correspondence to the Presi- dent for 50,000 dollars. This is probably one of the ])oorest investments ever made by the United States. The information was of little value, but its supposed evidence of a plot was used to inflame the minds of the people. . On June 19, 1812, Congress declared war against Great Britain, though, strange to say, about the same time England repealed the obnoxious orders. The legis- latures of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey protested against the war, but New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore were ardently for it. This division of opinion paralyzed the American forces during the whole war, and it is significant that no attack was made on Canada east of Lake Champlain. Of the additional 25,000 troops authorized by Congress not more than one-fourth were enlisted, and great difficulty was ex- perienced in inducing the militia to move. The action of Canada w^as very different. She was on her defence, and all classes banded together to repel the invader. Lower Canada numbered some 220,000 people. Sir George Prevost was now Governor-General, having been promoted from Nova Scotia. Prevost was very popular. He conciliated the French Canadians, and restored to office certain persons removed by his pre- decessor. The Assembly, though much divided on ■■1 m M \ 't .1 ,', Hi •I I M I 314 A Short History of geneml politics, very heartily united in passing credits for 2.jO,()0()/. Prevost found that the French Canadians preferred being drafted for service, going very willingly if selected ; the English preferred to volunteer. Prevost raised four battalions of militia, and authorized a regiment of Canadian voltigeurs under the valorous French Canadian, Colonel J3e Salaberry. This brave man, one of our Canadian noblesse, had seen service in the British GOth Regiment as captain in different parts of the world. He now devoted himself to his native province. In Nova Scotia the loyalty of the people asserted itself. The Legislature for defence and militia voted 00,000/. In Upper Canada there was dismay at first, but the spirit of the U.E. Loyalists led to liberal supplies being granted. To defend 1700 miles of frontier there were only in Canada 4550 regulars. Of these about 1450 were in Upper Canada, and there were 1800 active militia. In Lower Canada there were some 2000 militia. In Upper Canada, Governor Gore had returned to England in 1811. The American plan of attack was along three lines. General Dearborn, the commander of the '' Army of the North," was to move from Albany and strike Lake On- tario on the River St. Lawrence. General Van Reusselaer commanded the " Army of the Centre " to operate against the Niagara frontier, while Brigadier-General William Hull, Governor of the Territory of Michigan, led the " Army of the West " against the Detroit border. The defence of Upper Canada was in the hands of Sir Brock Is^^c Brock, Acting-Governor. His was no easy task. This heroic man was born in 17G9, in tbe British island of Guernsey. He had served in the West Indies, in Holland in 1799, and in Lord Nelson^s attack on Copenhagen. He had been with his regiment in Canada since 1802, and had become essentially Canadian in feeling. His zeal, bravery, singleness of purpose, and beauty of character made him a favourite with his followers, something such as Wolfe had been. While Brock was engaged in July with the business of the province, General Hull with 2500 men appeared at -:>•; ;• credits finadiaiis ^villingly itliorized valorous avc man, ;e in tlio 'ts of tlio orovince. L ;ed itself. GO.OUU/. but the ies being lere were lOut 1400 )0 active militia. England '66 lines. py of the ake On- eusselaer operate General |igan, led order. s of Sir no easy 9, in the Ihe West ttack on Canada idian in se, and ith his While of the ired at THE Canadian People. 315 Sandwich in the West. He was kept in chock by Colonel Proctor with some SoO men and a band of Indians. An extra session of the Legislature at Yurk delayed Governor Brock. Suddenly like a brilliant rocket in the North-AVost lakes flashed out the Canadian victory at Michili- mackinac^ the key of the upper lakes. Captain Roberts, of the North-Wcst Company, and Agent Pothier, of Fort St. Joseph — French nnd English combined — with thirty- three regulars and 160 Canadian voyageurs, with fowling- pieces and old muskets, and two rusty three-pounders, surprised the iVmerican fort at Mackinaw, and captured seventy-live meoj and a large quantity of stores and valuable furs. The capture was most timely. It attached the Indians to the Canadians, and threatened Hull's army in the rear. It was a good beginning. At Detroit General Hull issued a proclamation, most impudent and insulting. It threatened and cajoled in turn. This commander imao-iued the Canadians were being oppressed by the British, and would flock to him as a liberator. Governor Brock issued a dignified and reassuring proclamation in reply. Parliament over, he hastened to Detroit. With a few regulars and 300 militia he urged his boats along Lake Erie and reached Amherstburg*. Here he met Tecumseh, chief of the Shawnees. This remarkable man was born about 17G8, in the Tecumseh valley of the Miami, Ohio. Of Shawnee parentage, his name signifying '' Shooting Star/' he divided with his brother, Elskwatawa, better known as '' the Prophet,'' enormous influence over his own and other tribes of Indians. In 1808 Tecumseh and his brother removed to the Tippe- canoe River. These Indian statesmen sought to band the Indians together in a great league, specially hostile to the Americans. Their power was broken in their defeat by General Harrison in the battle of Tippecanoe, November 7th, 1811. Tecumseh was of lofty and benevolent cha- racter, and now became a faithful ally of the English. Hull had suff*ered reverses even before Brock's coming. In boastful pride he had crossed over to the Hull. ■Ji^'*. ?1iitliri- ; I \^mr. ^^^AM 1 ■■1 ^^^H •.■ -^16 A Short History of Canadian side and encamped. Tecnmseli and his band had intcivepted liis supplies by capturing Van Homo's convoy. Hull had then retired to Detroit. In the captured train were Hull's despatches expressing misgivings as to his ex])e(lition. Hull had 2500 men, Brock 380 regulars nnd JOO militia, -while Tecumseh had some GOO Indians. Brock on August 1 5th, with his characteristic pluck, sunitnoned Hull to surrender. The American general refused. That night Tecumseh crossed the river with his warriors and cut off IIuH's southern connections. On the next day (August IGth) Brock crossed with his force, having the assistance of a small sloop of war, the ilnecn CJwrhdte. The Americans first abandoned an outpost, >;nid soon sent out a flag of truce offering to capitulate. Michigan Territory, Fort Detroit, a ship of war, thirty- three cannon, stores, &c., and 2500 troops were sur- I'endered to General Brock. It w\as an electric shock for Canada. The general who had threatened a war of extermination was led through Canada to Montreal with lamb-like gentleness. Brock was prevented from following up his victory by the armistice, arising from a conference between Britain and the United States. Negotiations, however, failed. Brock was placed at a disadvantage. The trusted leader was now at Fort George, in Niagara. The American army on the Niagara was GOOO strong. On October 13th, before daybreak, the Americans under Yau Rensselaer made an attack at Queenston. Two Britishregi- ments and 200 York Militia held the landing-place ; under cover of artillery some 1300 men effected a landing. A deadly fusillade now took place. Brock having heard the firing from Fort George rode hastily up. The force had been withdraw^n from the Queenston heights above to defend the landing. An American captain and a small force had clambered unseen up the river side of the height, and now commenced firing on the rear of the defenders. This force must be dislodged. The regulars charged up the height. Brock, who was much exposed, had just uttered the words, " Push on the brave York Yolunteers ! " when THE Canadian People. 317 )nn(l liad 5 convoy, red tvniu fis to liis roixulai's Indians, ic pluck, I general with his On the lis force, he Qjiecn outpost, apitulate. ir, thirty- were sur- ric shock 1 a war of itreal with i^Qfe. ira. Irling. red the when ! '^ ho fell, shot in the breast. Lieut. -Col. John Macdonoll, his aide, was shot from his horse by the American troops above him. The Americans now held the heights, be- hind them the precipice of 100 feet: the Canadians sullenly prevented their escape. General Sheaffe, from Fort George, by a flank move- ment gained the heights to the west about noon. With him was now a band of the Six Nations Indians. He had 800 men all told. Gradually the semicircle of Sheati'e's men narrowed in on the entrapped Americans, and 1100 officers and men surrendered. Four hundred had been shot, bayonetted, or driven over the precipice, to be impaled on the trees below. Qucenston Heights was a signal victory, but all its glory was bedimmed by the death of Sir Isaac Brock and his gallant Canadian aide, young Macdonell. No memorial represents a truer sympathy than Brock's monument on Queenston Heights, General Smyth, as great a braggart as Hull, now assumed command of the 4500 troops on the Niagara frontier. His theory was that the Canadians should immediately lay down their arms. They obstinately refused, and repulsed all his landing-parties, and when December came, the Americans retired into winter quarters. General Smyth, threatened with '' tar and feathers '^ by his own men, hurried to the south, and left the service. Thus ended the first campaign. Its advantages, says an American historian, rested altogether with the British, though the Constitution and Wasj), American vessels, made naval captures. Throughout the whole British Empire sympathy was aroused. A society for the relief of the distress caused by the war, known as " The Loyal and Patriotic Society of Upper Canada,'' was begun. For it were raised upwards of 14,000/., and a perusal of its minutes, now very rare, leads to the belief that it accomplished much good. The war-spirit had continued to strengthen in the United States. Many who had opposed the war now acquiesced, in order to avoid national If > 'w I. I ■'■ml 1813. rx I ♦ • ', 'I 3IS A Short Historv of disGfracc. Tho loss of Micln'n^an had especially arousod Ohio, Keutiicky, and the iioighhourinfr states. Early in January General Harrison threatened Colonel Proctor, who held Detroit. Proctor had now al)out 1000 troops, and 1200 Indians and militia. General Winchester had advanced from his supports toward Detroit, when i^roctor fell on him at Frenchtown, and captured, after a desperate struo-rrle, upwards of 500 men, while the enemy lost some 400 killed and wounded. Roundhead, tho Huron chief, captured tho American creneral. In the eastern campaign a gallant deed was done in the capture of Ogdensburg, as a reprisal for a nocturnal raid on Brockville. At Prescotfc thero lay a force of some 500 militiamen, and tho Glengarry Fen- Ogdensburg.^.^jg^^ the revival of Chief Macdonell's dis- banded regiment of the same name to which reference has been made already. It was their practice to drill upon the ice opposite Prescott. On the 22nd of February in two parties, with artillery, they made, by crossing on the ice, an unexpected dash on Ogdeusburg, and after a severe fight took it, the garrison having chiefly escaped. The military stores taken were of value, and four ships were burnt. Tho American fleet on Lake Ontario had been in- creased, and in 1813 controlled the lake. °^ ' General Sheaffe had succeeded Brock as Governor as well as commander of the forces. Some 600 troops were in York, the capital. York had about 1000 inhabitants, and was not regarded as of strategic importance. The Americans, however, set sail from Sackett's Harbour with sixteen sail and 2500 men to attack it. The enemy landed to the west of the town, and General Sheaffe evacuated the works, and retired down the Kingston Road. The Americans invested the town, and though skirmishing took place, had an easy victory. The land force was under General Pike, au officer well known as having, when a lieutenant, explored the sources of the Mississippi. Just as the Americans had well filled the fort, the powder-magazine exploded THE Canadian Teople. 319 with violence, killing and woundinpf about 2.')0. General Pike, struck in the breast by a flying" stone, died soon after. The Americans contrary to the articles of surrender, shamefully burnt tlie town, and retired from York on the 2nd of May, 1813. While the squadron was absent, Sackett^s ILirbour was attacked by a strong force. The garrison seemed to bo on tlio point of surrendering the fort, when Sir George Prevost, to the surprise of all, ordered a retreat. Little York taken, Commodore Chauncey then crossed the lake to Fort George at the mouth of the Niagara River. General Vincent commanded the ,iJewark)^^^ f )rt. Twenty-four of HulFs guns frowned from its bastions. Its defender had P340 men. The American army on the Niagara frontier numbered GOOO. Chauncey had eleven war- vessels and 900 seamen. On the 27th of May the expected day came. Vincent drew his men out about a mile from the fort and awaited the attack. He was overpowered and retired, having lost nearly 450 soldiers. The Canadian force retired to a strong position, "Beaver Dams," twelve miles from Niagara on the heights, having given up Fort Erie and Chippewa and blown up Fort George. Vincent had now 1600 men, and with these he retired to Burlington HeightSj near the present city of Hamilton. An American army of i^!500 men followed General Vincent to Stouey Creek. On the night of the 8tli of June, C(.)lonel Harvey of the British force, with upwards of 750 men, fell stealthily on the sleeping American army, scattered the troops, killed many, captured the American generals Chandler and AVinder, and about 100 men, along with guns and stores. The adventurers then retired to their camp. The scattered American soldiers reassembled in the morning and retired in a disorderly manner down the country to Fort George. Vincent now followed the retreating army occupied Beaver Dams. One of his outposts was held by Lieutenant Fitzgibbon and thirty men. Smarting wdtli defeat, the American Stoney Creek. and Beaver Dams. llj i *■ ■■I I" ■I: I ( m 'I • ill ■ k 320 A Short History of j^enornl Konc^lit to surprise this station ag a basis for future attacks, ilo secretly dcspntclietl Colonel lioerstler with nearly 700 men to capture it. A woundcnl militia- man, living within the lines at Queenstou, heard by chance of the expedition. The cripple could not acrpiaint the Canadian army of the danger, liis wife, Mrs. Mary Secord, volunteered to go. At three in the morning she left home, passed with difficulty the American lines, and for twenty miles hurried through the forest, afraid to follow a road. Her danger was now from the British sentry and the Indians. The Indian chief was very doubtful, but at last took her to Fitzgibbon. The alarm was given, and that night the men lay on their arms. Early next morning the American party came, but an ambuscade had been pre- pared for them, and after severe fighting, 5i2 men surrendered into the hands of some 2G0. General Dearborn soon after retired from the command of the American army, to be succeeded by General Boyd. British parties captured Fort Schlosser and Black Rock on the Niagara River at this time, though at the latter place with the loss of Colonel Bishopp, the idol of his men. Colonel Scott, in command of troops on board Commodore Chauncey's fleet, again scoured Lake Ontario. Landing at Burlington Heights on the 31st of July, they did nothing more than recon- noitre the works and depart. Afterwards the second attack on York was made and the barracks burnt. After this a trial of strength took place between Sir James Yeo's fleet, now sent forth from Kingston Harbour, and Chauncey's squadron. The Americans lost two vessels in a squall, and two were captured by the British, but the result between the two fleets was indecisive. During this summer of 1813 two most disastrous events befell the Canadians. The first of these was the . loss of the British fleet on Lake Erie. Hitherto Lake Erie, g^^^^^^j^ i^^^ controlled this lake. The Americans, however, continued to build vessels at Presqu'isle, now Erie City. Commodore Perry had ten ships in harbour, but they could not pass the bar with their guns aboard. The Fleet. i basis for IV-torstloi" (1 militia- l)y chance uaiufc the [rs. Mary issed with es hurried 'er daufjfcr ana. 'Hio ook her to night the rning the been pre- , 542 men i. General land of the 5oyd. and Black though at ishopp, the if troops on ured Lake Ights on the ,han recon- ,he second •ks burnt. itween Sir Harbour; lost two he British; Icisive. disastrous ise was the Hitherto mericaus, .'isle, now la harbour, ,ns aboard. TiiF Canadian PKorLE. 321 Captain Barclay, the British commander, know this, and liiv with his fl(»('t near by. A gali' having scattcM'oil tlio British fleet, l*erry escaped and loaded his ships with tlieir guns from liglitcrs outside the harbour. On tlio 1 Oth of September, l.Sl;], tlio squadrons mot at Tut-in-Bay, Harcluy with but six ships, and two-thirds the number of men of his opponent. At first Barclay had the ad- vantage, Perry's Hag-ship having struck her Hag. Tlio wind shifted and the fortune of battle changed. Barclay f'onij'lit with buU-doj; courage. In his lleet, "every citHcer, in fact, commanding vessels and their seconds, were either killed or wounded so severely as to be unable to keep the deck." The whole squadron was compeUed to surrender to Perry, and Barclay was court-martialed, but was acquitted witli honour. The disaster on Lake Erie left Proctor at Detroit defenceless. Winter was comiuo' on, and ho determined to retreat on Burlington Heights. Jecumseh He dismantled Maiden, Windsor, and Sandwich, removed his guns from Detroit, and left that scene of his former successes on the 2(Sth of September. The heavy baggage was sent up the Thames in boats, and with his 510 regulars and 21)0 militia, he retired in company with Tecumseh who led 500 Indians. General Harrison followed Proctor with 3500 men, 1500 of them the famous Kentucky mounted riflemen. Proctor's progress was slow, for the roads were unspeakably bad. Proctor halted at Moravian Town, and was here over- taken, 5th of October, by the stronger and more exultant American force. The British force was advantageously J^ituated. The Thames was on his left flank ; 300 yards to the right of the road was a dense cedar swamp. This Tecumseh's Indians occupied. But there was no spirit left in the troops ; they surrendered with the most trifling losses. The Indians alone proved valorous. Their brave chief Tecumseh fell, and no man knows his grave. That his body was mutilated by the Americans is not generally believed. A Canadian poet has lately •embalmed the name and deeds of Tecumseh in a drama of much merit. Proctor retired with his staff to Bur- Y H- i M!i 322 A Short Histurv of Chateau- guay. linpton, was court-martialed, coiulcmncMl, and susjicinlcd tho service. The third operation of tho American army was iho most t'()niiid!il)l(», but proved tho least success- ful. Tho army of tho north was divided inti) sections, ono to move on Montrejd by way ef Lake Cham])lain, tho other to pass hy way of Lake Ontario and the St. fjawrence to tho same point. Tho force on Lake Champiain numbered somo 7000, with ten fiehl-pieces. It was tho intention of Cleneral llam])ton, ■who commanded tho expedition, to advance by the mouth of tho Chateau(,'uay Kiver, and cross to Montreal Island above Lachinc. The bravo Do Salabcrry was hurried forward to attack the American camp on the Chateaufjfuay f^ivcr. 'J'his lie did, and checked the enemy. Colonel Do vSalalxuTy commanded about 1800 Canadians and 170 Indians, and took up a strong* position with his small force. On tho 2()th of October Hampton ad- vanced with "SoOO men to annihihito tho foe. Tho French Canadians, holding an advance-post, with their accustomed vivacity fired as tho bugles sounded. Their position was very pcnlexing to the Americans. De Salaberry alarmed tho enemy by his ruse dc (juerro of sounding the advance witli bugles at different points in tho abattis. Tho Americans su])posed a large tbrce of Canadians to be advancing. Hampton withdrew his forces, leaving oOO French Canadians masters of the field. This armv was thus checked in its advance on Montreal. Unlading glory covers the name of Chateau- guay for the French Canadians ; the British Prince Kegent presented a stand of colours to each regiment engaged. Tho army to descend the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario consisted of 8000 men under Wilkinson. For three months the operations were delayed at Sackett^s Harbour. On the 3rd of November a flotilla of 300 boats, escorted by gunboats, passed by Kingston, and descended the St. Lawrence. In order to clear the course for tlie expedition, a force of 1200 men was TiiK Canadian ri:orLi:. 3^3 iUB\ iC'llt Ir.l ^t HIKH'OSS- vidcd intn by way f f ^ of l^ii^t' loiut. 'Hi" 0, with ten I lliiinptoii, ^co by tlic to Montvc'ul fonvavA to io;ui\y Kiver. Colonel Do us and ^~]^ ^ -Nvitli bi^ ampton ad- foo. The , with their ided. Their icaiis. Dt^ (I,' (jnerro of nt points in rtro tbrce of ithdrew his sters of the advance on of Chateau- litish Vvince ch regiment from Lake 'inson. i'c'i-' [at Sackett's )tina of aoo bgston, and no clear the men was !• Chryslot'f} *•' Farm. lnnd(Ml to ncconipiiny tlio Ixnits along tlie north shore. The Mritisli inunediatcly sent a force of 800 from Kings- ton to hang upon the rear of the Aniericiin army and liiiniss it. Colonel ITarvoy, the hero of Stoney Creek, accompanied it. On tlu^ lOtli November the Americjin nrmy turned npon the I British :idvane(i at Chrysler's Parm, but was com- pletely vaii([uish(Hl. 'IMiis was considoreil tho most, scientifically fought battle of the war. Tho fleeing army overtook its advanced force at Cornwall, and there lieartl of Do Salaberry having cheeked (ieneral Hamp- ton. Tho iittack on Montreal was abandoned, and tho American army crossed tho St. Lawrence and went into winter cjuarters. Tho iNFaritimo Provinces wero freo from annoyance from land attacks, but wero frequently excited with news from tho sea. Halifax was tho station of tho British for tho North Atlantic. The Americans were, considering tho prestige of J5ritain on tho ocean, very successful in 1H13. The American frigates, Prcslth'tit, Con(/ress, and ^ssc.v, made many and valuable captures. The British brig Pelican, however, captured the Ameri- can ship vb\ry^/,'s^, on the 1 Ith of August, but tho great event which threw Halifax into transports of joy was tho result of tho duel between H.M.S. Shiiiiinn and tho U.S. frigate C/imapcaliC on the 18th of June. Captain Broke of tho Shannon challenged Lawrence of tho Clu'sapcake to leave Boston Harbour, and try conclu- sions on the open sea. The challenge was accepted. Tho Shannon was manned by a splendidly trained crew. Though the British " vessel seemed to bo getting tho worse of the cannonade, yet on coming to close quarters the British seamen boarded their American antagonist, and soon brought her a prize to Halifax, where tho cap- tain and lieutenant were buried. Though tho fortunes of war varied in 18L3, it was plain to both contestants that the United States were not able to capture Canada. A portion of tho western peninsula was in tho hands of the enemy, but the war of defence had been thus far remarkably successful. Y 2 sH 324 A Short History of \i "■'. Early this year the American force, on Lake Champ- Liin, made an advance, 5000 strong, on LacolK^ Mill, near tlic borders of Lower Canada. Canadian Militia, the Voltigeurs, and a few companies of reguhirs bravely defended the mill, and also assumed the defensive, at times even issuing against the foe in sorties. The American force was obliged to retire without accomplishing anything. In March, much to the delight of the British, an embassy of chiefs of the Ottawas, Ojibways, Shawnees, Delawares, Mohawks, .-.acs, Foxes, Kickapoos, and Winnebagoes, from the Upper Lakes, arrived in Montreal, pledged their faith to Britain, and urged that no peace be made with the " big knives " till the Indian lauds, taken by fraud by them, should have been restored. This was encouraging to Canada, and showed how in the Indian mind the for- tunes of war were going. The campaign opened briskly in Upper Canada. Sir Gordon Drummond and Sir James Yeo sallied forth with their fleet from Kingston, and early in May captured tLo fort of Oswego, carried away the stores, and dismantled, the fort, Tlie British fleet had now supremacy on Lake Ontario. The Americans made great efforts to take the Niagara frontier. Their object in this was to prevent the Am- herstburg region being occupied by the British. They likewise planned an attack on Michilimackinac, 'svhich, from the beginning of the war, had been held by the British. The Niagara frontier captured, and Michili- mackinac taken, they would then fall on Kingston. This threefold project was a very small season's work, com- pared with what they had proposed at the opening of the war. Michilimackinac had not been forgotten by the Cana- dians. Unable to pass Lake Erie, Colonel McDowall had in May conducted some ninety men and supplies from York to Lake Simcoe, thence to Georgian Bay, and by open boat across Lake Huron to Michilimackinac. In August 900 Americans attacked this fort, but were repulsed, and two schooners taken from them. ) Clianip- n LacolI(» Canada. ;ompanios assumed be foe ill to retire- much to ifs of tlio Mohawks, from the ir faith to the '' big by them, raging to 1 the for- aada. Sir forth with 3tured th^ ismantled on Lake Niagara the Am- |h. They LC, which, by the MichiU- ;on. This >rk, com- [ening of le Caua- tcDowall supphes Ian Bay, lackinac. lut were THE Canadian People. 325 On the Niagara River, Fort Erie soon fell into Ameri- can hands, though the British held Fort Niagara on the American side. On the 5th of July General Riall, the British commander, with 2000 men and a number of inius, attacked the large army of Americans near Chip- pewa, but was repulsed and fell back on the road toward Burlington Heiglits. Reinforced, he advanced a few miles, and threw 900 of his men to the high ground near Niagara Falls. This force was attacked by the Americans. He advanced to Queenston, and sent word to the detachment to fall back on him there. On the very day of these occurrences Sir Gordon Drummond, with reinforcements, had come across the lake from York. He arrived to meet the retreating force near Queenston. Countermanding the retreat, with 1800 men he advanced against the enemy, and the fight- ing was severe till nine o'clock. Riall's division now joined them, and with 3000 British troops, against 5000 Americans, the severest battle of the war was fought till eleven at night. The Americans retired with precipita- tion across the Chippewa, and the next day, throwing baggage, camp equipage, and pro- xane^* visions into the rapids, cut the bridge behind them and retired to Fort Erie. Upwards of 800 men were killed on each side. Few old men yet remain to tell their descendants of the hand-to-hand encounter they fought iu the dark at Lundy's Lane on the 26th of July, 1814. The British commander invested Fort Erie, but losing heavily in two severe encounters, fell back to Chippewa. On the 5th of November the Americans evacuated Fort Erie and crossed the Niagara River. On Lake Cham- plani the British squadron, on the 11th of September, attacked the American fleet, and a land force advanced against Plattsburg. Disaster overwhelmed the British ships, and the army was compelled to retire, to be dis- persed at Isle-aux-Noir, St, John's, Chambly, and Laprairie. This was a severe blow to our army. The Nova Scotians saw, during this year, the noble British squadron which made the Americans in their unjustifiable war on Canada feel the power of Britain. • 'SJJB 1 ! ^H ■. 1 t . . , , I^^^B . •', I^^H . ,! ^^B ; "'. ' ' 1 fl 1 . ^^H ';; !■■ (. s . •■ fl '^^Im 1 'SHB 1 1 pi ■ til ■ "1 I ' ^11 '■'.ml ■"L&l fill In III ■ I 'i 'I ■ 4 I .,! I 326 A Short History of " t. British ships battered to pieces the fortifications of the American seaboard. From Maine to Mexico was blockaded. Fort McHenry before Baltimore was bom- barded, aud New York, Boston, New London felt the sea-king's power, which also captured and burnt Wash- ington, the Federal capital. The British expedition against New Orleans was repulsed by General Jackson. On the 24th of December, 1814, the British and Ameri- can plenipotentiaries signed at Ghent the articles of peace, which provided for a ^' mutual restitution of con- quered territories or possessions." The war gave to the several provinces self-respect and a feeling of confidence in their future. It taught the Americans that it is hard to conquer a people, though few, in their own country, and also that Britain will defend all parts of her empire. After referring in his general order to the army, to its having fallen to the lot of the small Canadian army " to struggle through an arduous and unequal contest, remote from succour, and deprived of many advantages experienced in the more cultivated countries of Europe," Sir George Prevost says : " At Detroit and at the Eiver Raisin two entire armies, with their commanding gene- rals, were captured, and greatly superior armies were repulsed. The several battles of Queenston, Stoney Creek, Chateauguay, Chrystler's, La Colle, Lundy's Lane, near the Falls of Niagara, and the subsequent operations on that frontier will ever immortalize the heroes who were on those occasions afforded the oppor- tunity of distinguishing themselves. The capture of Michilimackinac, Ogdensburg, Oswego, and Fort Niagara, by assault, are trophies of the prowess of British arms." i|s'h[ m .-«* THE Canadian TEorLE. 327 CHAPTER IX. THE REMOTE KINGDOM OF THE FUR-TRADERS. (References : "Eeport of Committee of Imperial Parliament on Hudson's Bay Company," London, 1857; "Voyage from Mon- treal, with Acconnt of the Fnr-trade," by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Loudon, 1801 ; " Astoria," by AVashington Irving, London, 1870; "The Columljia Iliver," by Ross Cox, 2 vols., London, 1832; "Canadian Trials," by A, Amos, London, 1820; "Unpublished Letters of Nor'-West Traders among Canadian Archives, Ottawa ;" "Documents on Boundary Dispute," published by Ontario, 1879 ; " Hudson's Bay," by Arthur Dobbs, London, 1744 ; '' Six Years on Hudson's Bay," by Joseph Hobson, London, 1759 ; "Accounts of Journeys," published by Samuel Ilearne (1795), Captains Lewis and Clark, London (1815), Lieutenant Z. Pike (1811), Keating (Major Long), London (1825), Sir John Franklin, Loudon (1834), Sir George 13ack, London (1836), P. Dease and T. Simpson, London (1843), Sir John Kichardson, New York (1852), Dr. John Rae, London (1850), Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle, London (1865).) Section I. — The great Fur-tradinr/ Companies. Far away from the strife of contending political parties, and uuvisitedj except on Hudson Bay, with the din of border wars, sleeps under its coat of snow the vast king- dom of the fur-traders. Overhead is the dazzling bright- ness of a northern sky, which at night is covered to the 'ery zenith with dancing auroras. In summer for two, three, or more months, the streams are unbound, a luxu- riant vegetation bursts forth, and the summer green is as intense as the wintry whiteness had been. Here the fur- trader must remain king. Mink and beaver, marten and otter, wolves, foxes, and bears are his subjects, and, as in the case of all autocrats, the subjects exist for the profit of the ruler, " Pro pelle cutem " is the motto of the Hudson's Bay Company. . ■■'(. I ,: ■ \ ^^H ,x ^■■ •v^n 1 ■rf ■ 1. \ "1; it ■Ik ■4,1 K 328 A Short History of Perhaps one quarter of Nortli America will always remain the fur- traders' preserve. If a line be drawn from Moose Factory^ at the foot of Hudson Bay, to Norway House, at the northern end of Lake Winnipeg, thence to Fort Resolution on the Great Slave Lake, and westward to the Stikeen River on the Pacific Ocean, the boundary of a region will be marked to the north of which is found the fur-traders' kingdom. It is true this fur-traders' line has for two centuries been moving northward. Time was, as we have seen, when the region of the great lakes from Ontario tO' Superior and Michigan was the home of the trader. It was for the fur of this large area that the early governors of New France and New York plotted and foupfht. So more recently Rupert's Land was kept by the Hudson'* Bay Company closed under fur-trading conditions. By the opening up of this region by the Dominion of Canada, the fur-line was moved no^'th six to ten degrees. Perhaps from the physical condition of the country, as unsuited to agriculture and possessed of a severe climate, the region north of the line traced above may always remain undisturbed to the fur-trader. Of this, howevei*, no one can speak certainly, for the same declaration was made of New York, then of Canada, ard later still of Rupert's Land. More than two centuries ago, a colonial captain,, Zachariah Gillam, taking with him two French explorers, Groselliers and Radisson, who had journeye'^ through New France, departed, under the direction ot English merchants, to plant a post on Hudson Bay, which as we have seen had been discovered sixty years before by Captain Hudson. It was in 1GG8 that Captain Gillam sailed from Graves-- end in his ship, the Nonsuch. The New England cap- tain reached the southern extremity of Hudson Bay, and, where Rupert's factory afterwards stood, built a small stone erection, which he named Fort St. Charles, and returned to Britain in 1669. The merchants interested then obtained the assistance- of Prince Rupert, the king's cousin, of General Monk, THE Canadian People. 329 . always ,wn from Norway hence to vestward Doundary L is found centuries ave seen, ntario tO' -ader. It governors jo-lit. So Hudson's ous. »minion of Q degrees. ;ountry, a& e climate, ys remain r, no one was made Kupert's captain, [explorers, througb English, tich as we )efore by- Graves- [land cap- [Bay, and, a small [rles, and Lssistan ce- ll Monk, whom the kini^ had made Duke of Albemarle, and of the skilful Lord Ashley, in obtaining from Charles II. a charter, which they claimed on the ground of their having- erected Fort St. Charles ; and thus was begun the Com- pany of Merchant Adventurers trading into Hudson Bay. The great fur company was incorporated on Hudson's the 2nd of May, 1G70, under Prince Rupert as Bay Com- first governor. P^^^y- Fifteen years afterwards the Hudson's Bay Company- possessed five forts on Hudson Bay, viz. Albany, Hayes, Rupert, Nelson, and Severn. Their trade was conducted entirely on the shores of the bay, the Indians coming down the rivers from Lake Athabasca and the country of the Christinaux beyond Lake Winnipeg. We have sv'in how greatly the fur-trade was disturbed by the inroads of the bold D'Iberville during the last quarter of the seventeenth century. Though for a certain period all their forts were in the hands of the French, yet from time to time the " Merchant Adventurers " comforted themselves with a dividend of fifty per cent. In 1749 the successful trade carried on stirred up the envy of rival merchants, and in that year the English Parliament appointed a committee to investigate such charges as that the Hudson's Bay Company was failing* to develop trade as fully as might be done. Several works were at this time written on Hudson Bay, and the Blue-book of 1749 contains the report of the committee. While the Company was, in the main, exonerated, yet no doubt the investigation led to the exploration of the interior country a few years after. Perhaps the strongest influence leading the Hudson's Bay Company to penetrate the interior was the successful fur-trade of rival merchants. These xraders were the North -West traders of Montreal. So early as 1766 the Scottish merchants of Montreal, Curry and Findlay, followed the route of Yerandrye already described, and leaving Lake Superior, reached Lake Winnipeg, and points so far north as English Kiver and the Saskatchewan. The Hudson's Bay Company began to find their trade diminishing, just as the French trade m ■ i '•■ >!! 330 A Short History of with tho Iroquois had been cut off at its sources by Goveruor Doiiguu aud his English traders of New York. The fur merchants from Montreal, to prevent rivalry fimong themselves, for there were no less than six houses in Montreal engaged in this trade, agreed to unite, and thus JMessrs. Frobisher, McTavish, McGillivray, Gregory, McLeod, and others became, in the year 1787, the famous North-West Company, or, as they were familiarly called, the '^ Nor'- Westers/' With surprising ability and suc- cess this company carried its trade, and built forts along tho route from Montreal up the Ottawa River, on the upper lakes, through the Eainy River region, and to tho very Saskatchewan and Athabasca districts. In a few years after, the company pushed on across the Rocky Mountains as far as the Columbia River on the Pacific coast. The Nor'- Westers became at this time the chief influ- ence in trade, and in public affairs as well, in French Canada,. The Executive and Legislative Councils of Lower Canada were made up of Nor'-Westers or those under their influence. Even the judges on the bench must bow before this powerful combination. About the year 1 788 the company took permanent hold of trade in the Red River district. Jealousy, however, entered into the North- West Com- pany councils after a few years, so that in 1790 a section broke oS'from the old company, calling them- Com^aJy. ^^^"^^^ *^® ''New North-West Company," or better known as the " X Y Company." The leaders in this new association were the Messrs. Gregory, and such afterwards well-known traders as Sir Alexander Mackenzie and the Hon. Edward Ellice. With much energy the young company built trading-posts alongside of their two older rivals, especially beside the Nor'- Wester posts, carried on a vigorous trade, and, sad to say, during this period the use of spirituous liquors as a means of trading with the Indians became more common than ever before. After a few years the keen rivalry ceased, for in 1804 irces by of New t rivalry X houses aite, aud Gregory, famous ly called, aud suc- rts aloug r, on tbe id to the [u a few le Rocky le Pacific lief iuflu- Ln French uncils of or those le bench bout the trade in lest Com- |a section [cr them- inj," or .'' The [G-regory, lexander h much longside e Nor'- , sad to rs as a common Im 1804 THE Canadian PEorLE. 331 the old and new North- West Companies united. Their union was followed by the best results, for dispensing with rival posts at many points they were able to occupy localities hitherto unvisited, and to build more substan- tial forts. Early in this century the North-West Company, by way of Peace River, crossed to the Pacific slope, following the course of their noted partner. Sir Alexander Mac- kenzie. Simon Eraser, a pioneer trader, discovered the river, which bears his name, in 180G, and built on it the first trading-house in British Columbia, Fort Eraser. David Thompson, the astronomer and surveyor of the North-West Company, crossed by the same route, dis- covered the British Columbian river, named from him, and chose sites for forts on the Columbia River in 1811. It was at this time that John Jacob Astor, a leading merchant of New York, began the company which bears his name, but which was also company'^ known as the " Pacific Fur Company.^^ In 1810, led by the prosperity of the Montreal traders, Mr. Astor engaged a number of Scottish and French Canadian clerks and trappers in Montreal, and sent them by the ship Tonquin, by way of Cape Horn and up the west coast of America, to the mouth of the Columbia River to engage in the fur trade. Here tlieir fort '^ Astoria ^^ was built. They met many reverses ; their ship was seized bv the natives, and almost all on board were massacred. The North-West Company, regarding the Astor Com- pany as intruders, boldly opposed them, stirred up the Indians against them, occupied the headwaters of the various streams, and succeeded so well that in 1813 Mr. Astor was glad to sell out to these determined traders of Montreal. Washington Irving has given a vivid sketch of the sufferings of the Americans in his. " Astoria.'^ We have already hinted that it was self-preserva- tion which induced the Hudson's Bay Company to ascend the streams from Hudson Bay to the jy^^ jj g interior. In 1774 Fort Cumberland was built Company on the Saskatchewan by the Hudson's Bay awakened. 4 V'JI "4 ii 332 A Short History of „M'^ ' h i 1 1 \ Conflict of the Company. With true British perseverance, when once uudertakon, the movement inland was curried on with great success. Before the end of tlio century Fort Edmonton (1795) had been built almost in view of the Bocky Mountains, Carlton (1797) not far from the forks of the great Sas- katchewan, Brandon House (1794) at the junction of the Souris and Assiniboino, a fort on Lake Winnipeg (1795), another on the Assiniboine (1796), and it is asserted that even on the Red River a Hudson's Bay Company fort was built in 1799. In the year 1812 a new element entered into tho operations of the Hudson^s Bay Company. This was the colonization movement of the Earl Companies.of Selkirk. Lord Selkirk was tho controlling spirit of the Hndson's Bay Company, having bought much of their stock. His great aim was to build up a colony, but though the colony on the Red River was to be kept separate from the fur trade, yet in the eyes of their opponents they were one. Governor Miles Macdonell of the Colony, anxious for the support of his colonists, forbade the export of pemican from Red River by the Nor'-Westers, but promised to pay for what the colony required. The proclamation to this effect was issued in 1814. New misunderstandings constantly arose between the companies. Attacks, arrests, and reprisals were the commonest events in the Red River settlement. At length came, as we have seen in 1816, the skirmish of " Seven Oaks,^' near Fort Douglas, where the governor, MacdonelFs successor, was killed. Lord Selkirk, after visiting Red River in 1817, re- turned to Canada. Arrests were made on account of the disturbances which had taken place in the upper country. At the instance of Lord Selkirk a number of Nor'- Westers were tried at York, Upper Canada, and an action was brought against the Earl himself in Sand- wich, Upper Canada, m 1818, in which, by the influence of the Nor'-Westers, the verdict, with damages, was given against his lordship. THE Canadian PEorLE. 333 en onco on with n (1795) 3untains, reat Sas- on of the g (1795), asserted Company into the any. This the Earl ontroUing Y, having m was to L the Red trade, yet Governor e support from Red o pay for 11 to this standings Attacks, nts in the we have near Fort essor, was 1817, re- jccount of (the upper iiumber of t,nada, and in Sand- influence Lges, was The affairs of the two compnnics were l)ecoming des- perate. The wliolo Nortli- Western territories were in confusion, and trade was well-nigh ruined. Lord Sol- kirk died in hS2() in France; and largely through the efforts of tlie Hon. Fdward Ellice, a reconciliation between the hostile conijianies took place, and a union was formed on the 2(3th of March, 1(S2 1, under the name of the older or Hudson's Bay Company. The new company, combining the stability of its English and the energy of its Cana- dian parentage, was placed under the governorship of a man of great energy and mark, well known in later years as Sir George Simpson. Born in Ross- i shire, young Simpson had early gone to London, siiGeorg) and become a clerk in a City house. The task Simpson, was a difficult one, for which the young clerk was selected in being sent out to harmonize the com- panies, and his secret instructions were very flexible. A man of immense determination Simpson soon became the king of the far-traders. With the self-possession of an emperor he was l^orne through the wilderness. He is said to have made the canoe journey from Mon- treal to the Red River forty times ; and in 1842 cross- ing the continent, the experienced traveller visited the Sandwich Islands, the coast of Alaska, passed through Siberia, and made his way to London, having travelled round the world. On the introduction of a local government into the district of Assiniboia, or the Red Eiver settlement. Governor Simpson became the presi- dent of the council. For his distinguished management of the Hudson's Bay Company aflairs, nnd for his ser- vices to the trade of Canada, Governor Simpson was knighted, and he died in 1860, a man who would have been of mark anywhere, but developed greatly by his well-nigh forty years of responsible service. Section II. — The Life of the Traders, There is a strange fascination about the life of the fiir-trader. Placed in charge of an inland fort, sur- rounded and ministered to by an inferior race, and the ifl ' % .■'"I L 334 A Short History of t loader of a small band of cmployrs, liis decisions must bo final, and his word taken as law. As a monarcli of his solitnde ho has i^'-reat responsibility. His supply of goods must bo obtained. There arc places in tlio Yukon region where, a short time ago, nine years wore needed from the time goods left London until news of their receipt came back to London again. It required wisdom and foresight to manage a post so remote. Often also the merchandize is sold to the Indians on credit, and though the poor savages aro honest, yet such a system needs watchfulness. The Indians, too, aro fickle, jealous, and com])laining, and much shrewdness is required in dealing with them. The food supply is in many regions a subject of serious tliought. Thero are places in tho Hudson^s Bay territories where the trader and his men never see a pound of flour in tho year. On tho bay thousands of geese aro killed and salted for winter use, and form the almost exclusive food. On certain rivers a fish diet is tho chief means of sus- tenance. In Arctic regions tho reindeer or musk-ox is the mainstay, and bread and vegetables aro at some Hudson's Bay Company posts unknown. Yet it is a joyful sight to tho traveller in the distant wastes of the North-West to see the fur-trader^s fort, with the flag floating over it flaunting the well-known letters H.B.C. Though the forts of the fur-traders vary greatly, some being of wood, others of stone, there is a family resemblance in them all. A well-appointed post contains a considerable enclo- sure. It may be from fifty to a hundred yards along each side, and is a square or often an oblong. This space is contained by a stockade, consisting* of posts some twelve or fifteen feet high, driven into the earth closely, side by side, and fastened by an inside breastwork. Tho posts or pickets are of such wood as the locality may afford. Oak is preferred if it can be had. In the middle of one side of the enclosure is the gate, with over it very often a watch-tower or giierite as the French call it. The buildings within the stockade are arranged around the sides, having a free space in Tin: Canadian riiorLi: 335 tlio ml(l(ll(\ Tlioro is nro(l('tl n lurp^cr buildiiiL;* for tlio storo or shop. Noru' this, or perh!i])H on tlu^ siilc* oppo- site the ffJite, is socn tlic rcvsitlonco of tho chiof oflicor or boiirfipois ns tho Nor'- Westers cnllod liiin. Several houses, th(i miinhor (lepeufliui^- on tho im])ort- aneo of tlie tort, are needed for tlie men : those ,.lso fuco tho open scpiare. Ff of suflicient importance tho fort may havo a bhicksmith's forge, and in tronl)h)ns times the smith liavo cliurnfo of tho two or throe rusty four- pounders that frown from prominent positions upon all assailants. Kitchens, outhouses, and stables^ completo tho buildings arranged in order around the open space. In tho busy season scores of Indians, scpiaws, and children, may be soon in groups seated on the ground in tho midst of the fort, their encampment being a group of tents, bark or skin, outside tho stockade. On the site of the present city of Winnipeg thei-ohavc been fivo foi'ts, which may well illustrate the ]irogress, slow though it may have been, made in tho fur trade. About 17j3(), Yorandrye's post, Fort IJouge, was hurriedly built on a wooded point at tho junction of tho Kcd and Assiniboine Rivers, and on tho south side of tho latter. It was merely an erection of logs, and was soon deserted. In 18{)(), after tho union of the North-Wost and X Y Companies there was erected on tho north side of the Assiniboine River at its " forks ^' witli the Red River a considerable post, Fort Gibraltar. Its stockaded walls were about 2()0 yards in length on each side. While eight houses wore arranged around tho square, tho front of the chief trader's residence extended for sixty-four feet. This fort was levelled to the ground by Governor Semple in 181G. In the year 1812 had been begun, about a mile below Fort Gibraltar, facing on Red River, Fort Douglas, bear- ing Lord Selkirk's family name. Small at first, it grew to be a considerable fort. The material of Fort Gibral- tar, on its destruction, and of a fort at Pembina, was floated down the river, and used in tho enlargement of Fort Douglas. I I ';'1 ■:>.i' i< n i 33(^ A Short IIistokv oI" About tlio year 1822 wns hiiilt, near tlio former site of Fort Gibrnllui", tlio ori^iunl Fort Garry, ho called from a prominent diivctoi* of tlio Hudson's JJay C()ni])any. 'i^bc buildiiiLT of tliis fort was tlio result of tlio liappy union of tlio Nortb-VVest and Hudson's Hay Coinpauies. It was a strong*" fort, bad bcavy oak bastions, largo and well- constructed wooden buildings, but waa replaced in tbirteen or fourteen years. Tbe Hudson's J5ay Company found it necessary to relieve Lord Selkirk's boirs of tbe colony of obligations in wbicb tliey were involved, and in 1885, tbe year in wbicli a govTrnniont was establisbed at Red J?iver, tbe later Fort Garry was built, to tbo west of tbo older fort, on tbo rising ground. Surrounded by walls of solid masonry ten or twelve feet bigb, witb its four circular bastions, witb loop-boles for cannon and firearms, and presenting on its prairio side its gateway of castellated masonry, Fort Garry bad a formidable appearance. Tbe five forts of Winnipeg are now tbings of tbe past, but tbey are types of tbe advance made in exploration and trade. York Factory and Prince of Wales or Cburcbill Fort on Hudson Bay saw similar mutations. Lower Fort Garry, Cumberland House, Edmonton, Fort Ellice bave each tlieir tale to tell ; but, being tbe centres of accessible or fertile regions, tbeir glory as fur-trading posts lias passed away. Near tbe moutb of tbe Souris River tbe traveller up tbe Assiniboinc, into which the Souris flows, may tracu the outlines of three forts. These represent the three rival movements of which we have spoken as in existence at the beginning of this century. Brandon House, the first of these, was the fort of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany, and the site of every building of it may still be traced. Less distinct, but still quite visible, are the ruins of Assiniboino House and Fort a la Souris, the rival posts of the North-West and X Y Companies. On Hudson Bay the York Factory of 1812 was the successor of several forts which had been built in its neighbourhood. The fort of this date was an enclo- sure 400 feet long by 300 feet wide, and contained a I Tilt; Canadian Plopli:. 5^7 icr site of ,cd tVom u (uiy. 'l'l»»' y union ot s. It was juul well- jplacod in cessary to igations in ir in whicli , tlio later fort, on tlui ,d masonry r bastions, presenting" l1 masonry, of tlio past, exploration Wales or mutations. )nton, Fort the centres ur-tradinf,^ L-aveller up may trace the three a existence [House, tlio Bay Com- ly still be \e the ruins the rival was the luilt in its an enclo- Intained a con'^idorable ''])ikM>f buildings." The njastor^srrsidenco was, we are told, a h«tuso of two stories in height, biidly built, heated entirely l)y grates, having ** not an Anu'ri- rnn <>r Swedish stove*' to I'l.'sist tlu^ severity of the climate. Near the water's edge was a hiuneli-house or cfirioe-store, in danger of being eai-ried away by tli(» ice evi'ry year, tor thi^ site of tlu; tbrb is dcseribed as "marsliy." Th(»re was no garden at the tbrt, and the whole was enclosed by a stockade of cedar posts, some sixteen feet above the ground^ but of little use for defence. The most western of the fur-traders' posts was tiiat of F(»rt Victoria, erectinl so late as ISIO, at the time when \'ancouver's Islaiul was given over to the ILudson's Bay Company. It was a square enclosure of 100 yards length on each side, was i)rotect(>d by cellar pickets, twi'uty feet high, and had octagonal bastions, on each of which six-pounder iron guns were mounted on the north- west and south-west angles. The buildings of the fort were eight in number, and of considerable magnitude. Just as now the site of the fur-trader's post at Fort Orange, Albany ; or Cataracpii, Kingston ; or Bouille, Toronto is sought for l)y the curious, so Fort Garry, or Fort William, oi* Brandon House, or Fort Victoria is a memo- rial of the trade which has retreated from the more southern fur-trading districts to the banks of the Churchill, the jNIackenzie, or the Yukon rivers. And yet, that early fur-trade and its picturesque scenes should not be forgotten. Sonu'times it was carried on in the ponderous York boat, of which it was one season's work to leave Brandon House, and by way of Lake Winnipeg and the Nelson River reach York Factory, and return, laden on the way down with furs, and on the way up with bales of goods; at other times it was by "\vc.y of Lachine, up the Ottawa by canoes, through Lake Superior, and thence north-westward. But by whatever route conducted, it was a powerful agent in preparing for the opening up and colonization of north-western Canada. Washinofton Irving' has described in '^ Astoria," the z i i i 338 A Short IIistorv of ' i picturesque and somewhat hilarious life of the fur-trader in the Nor'wester capital of Montreal. Factors, traders, and voyageurs revelled in their liberty till the advance of the season compelled the voyage to be again under- taken. 'J'hey sang at Ste. Anne as they entered the Ottawa Eiver " their parting hymn/' prayers were said to the patron saint of the voyageurs, the priest's blessing was received, and they hied away to face the rapid, ih'clinrgc, or portage of their diflieult 7'oute. When Fort William, on Thunder Bay, Lake Superior, was reached, th(\v turned over their merchandize to new relays of men. A French-Canadian trader, Franchere, who went to the Pacific coast in the Astor Company and returned overland, has given a picture of the Fort William of the Nor'westers in 1814. This fort, named from the Hon. William McGillivray, was the rendezvous of hundreds of ti'aders. trappers, and Indians. AVhether judged by the great gathering from the wilds, the storehouses filled with valuable furs, the supplies stored away for distribu- tion to the far-away posts, or from its being the head- quarters where all the partners met once a year and decided on the plans and business of the company, the fort on the Kamiuistiquia should ever be remembered. The wild traders, who brought the furs to Fort William, and carried their bales of merchandize to the interior, looked with contem])t on the patient French-Canadians, who toiled up the lakes to Fort William, and sneeringly called them " pork- eaters," still a term of reproach in the north-west. The traders north and west of Fort AVilliam rejoiced in the name " runners in the woods,'^ and many of them had Indian blood in their veins. The French- Canadians and Indians blended well togethei' in producing a lithe, hardy, and wild-spirited race. This mixed people became faithful adherents of the enterprising merchants, the hot-blooded Celts of the Scottish element in Montreal. In the Hudson's Bay Company trade from Hudson Bay to the interior there was far less of the French or High- land dash, but there was the stead v, toilsome labour of a THE Canadian PEorLE. 339 faitbful race. For more than a century tlio Hudson's Bay Company has taken its eiiiployos from the Orkney Islands. Of Scandinavian orii^in the Orkney labourers of the fur company could endure any hai'dship, and are of most peaceable and tractable disposition. Like the French-Canadians, many of them have intermarried with the Indian -women. Their descendants are a quiet, ease- loving people. AYliile the French half-breed may be compared to a wild mustang, the Orkneynian or English- speaking half-breed is the patient roadster. Scattered throughout the whole fur-trader's territory will be found the half-l)reed of French- Canadian or Orkney origin. Some beautiful lake, or sheltered bend in the river, or the vicinity of a trader's post, has been selected by him as his home, and partly as an agri- culturist or gardener, but far more of a hunter or trapper, he rears his dusky race. Sometimes, when the engage had served his score or two of years for the com- pany, he retired with his Indian spouse and swarthy children to float down the streams to the older settle- ments, to ivhat has been called '' the paradise of Eed Eiver," and there, building his cabin on land allotted by the fur company, spend his remaining days. Whatever may be said of its influence on the white man, the fur-trade has been a chief means in cement- ing the alliance between the white and red man. The half-breeds are a connecting link between the superior and the inferior race. For many years it was the inflexible regulation of the Hudson's Bay Company to allow no half-breed to become an officer, but the rule could not be maintained, and on account of the Hudson's Bay Company having always assisted in the education and Christianization of the native people, many of them have risen to high places in the fu^"-^"rade, as well as in other spheres of life. i Section HI. — Famous Journeys through the Fur-traders* Land. To Yerandrye and his sons, as we have seen, belono-s z 2 ° .ft 340 A Short History of Verandrye, the honour of discovering the Cai"iadian norfch- 1731-1749. west. They explored, in the surprisingly short time of eighteen years, several thousands of miles of the " watery way," north-west of Lake Superior, named all the important lakes or rivers of the fertile prairie section, and built forts at the chief centres of trade. The first adventurer who successfully explored the la France, river and lake route between Lake Superior 1738-1742. and Hudson Bay was Joseph La France, ii, French- Canadian half-breed, born at Michilimackinac in 1704. He was an unlicensed trader or freebooter. Having been arrested by the French Govei-nor on Nipissing liiver, he escaped, fled by Verandrye's route to Lake Winnipeg, joined the Indians in the interior, became their captain, and with them, in birch-bark canoes, floated down the Nelson Eiver, reaching the English Hudson's Bay Company traders at York Factory^ June 29th, 1742. It was a notable day when the Hudson's Bay Company Hearne, determined to leave the sea-coast to which they 1769-1774. had clung for a hundred years, and penetrate the interior with exploring and trading parties. This was done under the leadership of Samuel Hearne, Avho has, on account of his successful journeys, been called the " Mungo Park of Canada." Leaving Prince of Wales Fort, at the mouth of Churchill River, after two previous unsuccessful attempts, in 1771 Hearne reached the Coppermine River, and having descended it to its mouth, arrived at the Arctic Sea, and may be called its discoverer. From defective knowledge of in- struments he placed the mouth of the Coppermine in 71° N. — three or four degrees of a mistake. It was Hearne, who, in 1774, conducted the expedition which built Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan. Led on by Hearne^s heroic journey for the Hudson's Mackenzie, Bay Company, Alexander Mackenzie, of the 1789. North-west Company, determined to seek the Arctic Sea. Pursuing the fur-trade at Fort Cliippe- wyan, on Lake Athabasca, in 1789, he fitted out four canoes, and manning them with French- Canadian iliau north- singly sbort of miles of rior, named •tile prairie trade. :plored tlio ie Superior France^ ji, ilimackinac freebooter, overnor on rye^s route le interior, bircli-bark aching the L'k Factory^ Tine Caxadux People. 'iver, aftei* 71 Hearne 3scended it d may be sdge of in- ermine in 3. It was ion wliich ) Hudson's ie^ of the ► seek the t Cliippe- I out four -Canadian fSr,;:'!,.I;f--. ' C°™PanF. The li}0 in 1804, leavino St L.?P'^"^^ ■^"'^i^ and^ Clark Missouri, crossed from ,> '' ''^'^''"ded the , ' Hocky Mountains to Cnion^roTtrr^r'- '""^ ^^'"■"'' on the Pacific Coast nS , *'l® Columbia, 1804-806. -^, reaching thelChoTheMl "^"-'Vthe san.e /he second exnprlif,-^ Missouri in 1806 -1.0, with a sSfpartvTn^' °f Lieutenant Pike -cended the Missis^f ,tn^sfr ''^'^^' ''^'^^^y'' .'™o, and explored LaL 1 '' ^°"'^. 'I fndmns call it, Otter-t.?l ^™^f «' or, as the ^'"e.isos. Wwaters of ' the Ee^"-, J'^e Jound it to be the '^« -orth-west CompJ'J, 2= it^ZTS .°! i'f' ' ■■'fi • 34^ A Short Histokv of t-:^ 1798. Substantially agreeing with Thompson, the ex- plorer thus fixed one source of the Mississippi. The third expedition was that of Major Long, in 1823. The exploring party left Philadelphia in April, passed overland to Prairie du Chien, on the Mississippi, ascended thjit river, descended the lied Hiver to Pem- bina, and there took an observation to ascertain the Long and 4<9th parallel. On August 8tli an oak post Keating, was erected on the boundary, on the north side 1823. qP which were the letters G.B., and on the south U.S. On this memorial the American flag was hoisted. The party not being able to follow the 49th parallel to Lake Superior, on account of swamps, descended the Red E-iver to the Selkirk settlement, and returned by way of Lake Winnipeg to Lake Superior. Coming down the lakes and crossing the country. Major Long reached Philadelphia in October, having accompUshed this re- markable journey in less than six months. The fame of Captain, afterwards Sir Jolin, Franklin Captain -^.^s largely gained by two overland journeys Franklin ^^^ ^^^^ fur- traders' country. The first of these 1819-1822. was in 1819. Accompanied by explorers, afterwards so well-known as Richardson and Back, Captain Franklin went by the ship belonging to the Hudson's Bay Company to York Factory, and proceeding by winter journey the party had all reached Fort Chippewyan by July, 1820. In October the expedition had erected a winter station, which they called Fort Enterprise, near the head-waters of the Coppermine River. By descending the Coppermine the Polar Sea was reached in July, 1821, and Hearne's mistake was corrected, the mouth of the Coppermine being settled as in nearly 67° 48'. The coast-line eastward along the sea was followed by more than six degrees to Cape Turnagain. After much suffering, the expedition once more reached Fort Enterprise, and found its way home to Britain in 1822. The second journey of this great explorer was, with the same leading companions, undertaken in 1825. Having again reached Fort Chippewyan, the journey 'HiE Caxadiax People. northward wnc- ^^ i- -. "t their 0,0 t 0, :; ,r^^'' Ti^ y^" -into,, .pent Bear Lake TI,;, . ^'"■' * '•inkli,!, 0,1 Gro-,t ^"■"Win-, F-nlcl- r,e,i , P;"7^, .-xt .livided: Cap;:,- ZZy theMack-e..ioto°t,; 1°' '^-J ^^''"='', 'l^^^'oi.doa "25 ijjr. of 1778, b„t failln,, D.%th 1 "'"'"" '^°°k"' % Cudo party, which vvoMt to Vhn ''"^"""/""'''"'•te'l the ot or coasted eastward to tL'tu'thof'tf 'r" -^^-"^'--io and lie ascended. 1^ Sont^ , , '° ^°PPe'''ni'io whici, ga,uod Port Fra.^din PXrc^'H"^""' P'"'''- ^- 0- sp«it-, I„ Soptembe,- ISo- „ '^^""'l -inter was >-eturn,„g,.eaclL,Lo,;;i„r'' *' '"'^='^^^^'"' ^i^eovcC ■oack was sent „, 1 "d» nacl come of him p ^ ■ hv ,i„ -f- overland to seek li,-,„ „ ii ' '^■■'Pta,n fill v,''"'''"8- the waters from 'T'. ^'^ ^™tie coast 18o3, the Indians and t,-aders trie . 1?^'''''^'^" "'July, ""^king- the attenipt. B 1 tef *° '^''^""'^^ l"'>n from Heliance, and wintei-ed tW T l^^P^vered, built Fort bears Ws name, and whi fefel'fp *''^ "-'• -'"^h J^ews reached him of t, "''^o called Gi-eat Fish Kivpv -l;aler, and he ,et rnod to V^T f ■ ^^'''-" ^oss by a One of the most fng-land in 18^5 ^ the wild Northland wnl'^hnf "r"'"T ^l" ^-^^Ploration of % Company itself u 1830 J"'"" ''^ *''° ^ndson's ™o Hudson's Bhtt fv ' conducted by Deaseand Thomaf Simp '^^ r)"® '^''^ ^^eter Dease and Mackenzie Rive,. , "lrnP-on. Desceudmg- the Simpson, Mowed thf A ct : ioasr"*' "" ^^P^^i'-n "^«^"*''- ■EeturnReef.-reXXt^ET''''"''' P'''?^'^ i^ranklin's a foot journey thence to pt «''"''' ^"-^ ^^^P^on made ^gam to the i^ionth of thf^r r™^- ^^''^ coming f oonded, and from ?t tt ^^^^ckenae, that river was head of Great Bea^ Lal-J T°^'^^?, ^^^ '"^do to Ihe buJt. -L^l^o, where Fort Coni3deuce was Having wintered here in tl,. f 1, ■ ' '" ^^^ following spring the UNI rliM± 344 A Short IIisturv of ptii'ty descondcd tlir Coppcrmiiio River, and coasting eastward along- tlio l*olar Sea came to Capo Tiirnagain iu August, ls;37. lletracing their stops, the expedition regained Fort Conlidence, and wintered there. In the next year, KS3H, bravely venturing to the sea-coast again, and resuming their eastward journey, the explorers readied now ground, passed Dease's Strait, and discovered Cape Britannia, Taking two years to return, Simpson arrived at Foi't Garry, and, disappointed at not receiving- further instructions, departed for Britain a few days afterwards. While oi route, he was killed, either by his half-breed companions or his own hand, in Minnesota, in 1840. He is buried at St. John's, Winnipeg. No events have so bound England to our northern land as the search for Sir John Franklin. Search for Jj^g ]r^gf; voyage, in 1845, was with two ships, 1848-1859 ^^^® Erehus and Terror, and loO men, to seek a north-west passage. With the many voyages by sea in search of the lost commander, we have hero nothing to do. His old companion. Dr. Richardson, hastened in 1848 by land journey to seek him. Reaching Fort Chippewyan, the route by Great Bear Lake and the Coppermine River was followed. With his com- panion, JJr. Rae, the coast of the Arctic Sea was searched by Dr. Richardson without finding any traces of the lost commander. It was in 1854 that Dr. Rae, leading an expedition along the coast of Hudson^s Bay, obtained on the west side of Melville peninsula, plate and the silver decorations of the lost captain, from the Eskimo. Dr. Rae received a portion of the reward offered by the British Government. The painful uncertainty was finally set at rest by an expedition under Captain McClintock, in 1859, finding, west of King William^s Land, a packet, stating that Sir John Franklin had died iu 1847, and leaving no doubt as to the fate of the party, not one of whom had survived. Not many years before the Hudson^s Bay territories Milton and p^'Ssed into the hands of Canada, Viscount Cheadle, Milton and Dr. Cheadle, descending the 1862, 1863. f{e(j River by canoes to Fort Garry, or- rf j:£S1!j1l* ^iIL; THE Canadian People. 545 i " (fl 1 * M li' £l 1 ^1 1 coasting lagiiiii iu ipeditioii In the st again, 3xplorers Lscovei'od Simpson receiving ["ew days er by bis lesota, in northern Franklin, wo ships, to seek a ' voyages have hero ichardson, lleachiug ake and his corn- searched f the lost gani/ed an overland expedition, going by Red River carts over the ])lains to Fort (.'arlton, and wintered at the post they had built near it, called " Ln J^elle Prairie." In spring they crossed \)y the Yellow Head pass through the Rocky Mountains to British Columbia, and after enduring the greatest hardships, reached the I'raser River, wliich they descended to New, Westminster, after which they soon arrived at Victoria, Vancouver's Island. By journeys such as those have British courage and self-denial been made plain to the world, and the features of the vast interior made known to us. » ' » I 1 "J :pedition the west Icoratious leceived a lernment. ;t by an finding, that Sir 10 doubt urvived. trritories Iscount r the l-ry, or- 346 A Short History tf CHAPTER X. THE MAKING OF CANADA. (1817— 183G.) (Kcfereiiccs : *• Imperial Papers on Eraigratiou," London, 1847-48 ; " Correspondence with British Quartermaster's Depart- ment, Archives, Ottawa ;*' '' British America," by Joseph Bouchette, 3 vols., London, 18o2; "Autobiography of John CJalt," 2 vols., London, 18r*)3 ; " Three Years in Canada," 2 vols., by J. IMcTaggart, London, 18:^9 ; " Hints to Emigrants." by William Bell. Edinburgh, 1824; " Early Settlement of reterborough," by Dr. L'oole, 18G7; " Gait and its Neighbourhood," by James Young, M.P.) Section I. — TJie Great Immigration. Napoleon was now a prisoner in St. Helena. The defence of Canada had been successful. Britain was afc peace. Social discontent is more heard in times of peace than amidst the din of war. Industries which supply the material of war are stopped, and hardships come to the unemployed. Disbanded soldiers in large numbers naturally appeal to the State for support, and are not disposed to be industrious, even should employment be found them. The Napoleonic wars had lasted for nearly twenty years, and while their continuance had blighted many a home, yet their cessation caused wide-spread suffering also. In 1815 the Imperial Government must devise a remedy, and emigration was that decided on. Lord Bathurst, Secretary of State, with much zeal undertook to work out the plan of relief. The Government was willing to give settlers a choice of land in either Upper Canada or Quebec. This was far from being a pauper ..fit THE Canadian People. 347 emif»'ratioii, liowovcr. All who wcro accoptod hj tlio Govi'rnmeut must bo of ^ood cluiractor, and each head of a family was required to deposit l(j/. with tho Governmout, besides two guineas on his wife's account. To clergymen Jind schoolmasters free grants of land were promised ; and in the case of considerable colonies, provision was made for tho support of a church and schooh To those who had complied with the conditions tho Government then gave a free passage in ships to Canada, assigned lands to each fjimily, provided tools for clearing and cultivating the soil, and dealt out rations until after the first harvest had been reaped, ^rhcso were certainly liberal conditions. The best known, and perhaps most prosperous of the different groups of colonists, was that called the '' ]\Iilitary Settlement. '^ This was formed settlement, in Upper Canada in 181G, in the townships of Bathurst, Drummond, Jieckwith, and Goull)nrn, these names being those of the British officials closely connected with the movement. By the close of the year, 230 men and 708 discharged soldiers had been placed on their holdings, and these, with women and children, made up a population of 1890 souls. Largely Scottish, the colonists were from I'erthshire, Lanark, and adjoining shires, and in consequence '' Perth Settlement " gradually became the name of the military colony. Many settlers from Paisley, Scotland, driven from home by the bad state of trade in the manufactories, joined the colony. In 1820 no less than 1100 p^ ^ns from Glasgow and Lanarkshire settled in the townships of Lanark and Dalhousie. A portion of the colonists were induced to settle at Grantham, Wickham, and AVendover, on the St. Francis, in the eastern townships of Lower Canada. In 1819 there were 292 houses erected in these townships. In the neighbouring settlement of Drum- mond ville there were, in the same year, 235 souls. The whole of these settlements were under military control, continuing in charge of the British Quarter- master's Department until 1822. si? !•■ 34« A Short Mistorv (^k McNab Colony, Anoilicr sc^ttlenient of tliis period was the IFi^'lilauil f'oloiiy iit tlie Lac (los C'liats, up the Ottjiwji, iiiuU'i' the cliief ^IfXiil). Jioro " tho McNuh '' s()u«^lit to muintiiiii the former i^-lorios of his chill. \\'\rr]\ on tlie l)()kl mid ahriipt wliore of tho lake stood tho chieftain's pictiirescpio resiihuice, Kinell Lodge. Ilo Ih'id vocoivcd tho grant of a wliolo township, and brought out Ills clansmen at a consi(U'i'al)lo expense to settle it. When on his visits to little York, tho capital of tho ' ^'ince, the chieftain wor(» his ''bonnet and feather. lU and sporran, and besides his bright scarlet vest wi«ii its silver buttons/^ The chief was always attended by his piper, .and was really a bright spot amid tho sombre hues of backwoods life. The efforts to main- tain a feudal establishment in McNab township ended in failure, though a visitor in 1828 speaks of the characteristic lios])itality of "the McNab." During this period Bytown was laid out, in 182G, in the township of Nepean. The township was called from the British official of that uame, and tho town from tho well-known Colonel By, the royal engineer who constructed the Rideau Canal. The town of Hull, on the opposite bank of the Chaudiere Falls, had been begun in 180G by Philemon Wright, Esq., from Boston, who brought thither plentiful means and a colony of his countrymen. Bytown early became a chief seat of the lumber industry. Its streets, Wellington and Rideau, were on the line parallel to the rivev. Above Bytown, on the river, was the large estate of Captain Le Breton, called Britannia. Through its situation, being remote from the frontier, Bytown was in later years chosen as capital of Canada, and its name changed to Ottawa. During this period a large and dependent Irish Irish element of the population found its way to immi gra Canada. A writer of the time attempts an ^^°^' explanation of the movement from Ireland thus : " The increase of the operative population in Great Britain and Ireland rapidly outstripped the demand for their labour ; and the application of new agents iu manufactories, and the more general use of machinery, (Jtti»w;i, s of liis tho lako 11 [jod^c. A\'\\), and :peuso to 10 capital iinot and lit scai'k't ,s always ^pot amid J to iiiain- I ended in I'acteristic THE Canadian Pi:orLi:. 349 p*^"'''^''y "^vriter : — "In iQzo, tatnous for speculations, schemes, and companies in the City of London ; when the bowels of tho Mexican moun- tains received stron**" ])ur^atives in order to i'vve them of ingots uf gold and silver; when the ])earl-oyster of th(! Orient seas yawned with surprise at the ap])earancc of diving-bells; and when golden sands, said to be brought irom tho shores of Africa, were spread in the courts and alleys of Lombard Street to allure the unreflecting — tlio wilderness of Canada was opened before the j)ublic, and, contrary to all e.\])ectation, received a considerable share of attention." In 182(> tho Canada Compjiny was incorporated under an Imperial Act, with a capital of 1,01HI,(MH)/. sterling. Tho antiquarian wandering along tho eastern part le patronay'c. A «4'('ntleman, not more distintjfuisliL'd for liis active ndministi'ation of the atfuirs of the company thnn for his litL'rary zeal, Ix'camo the Secretary ol" the company, in J"ne, 182«). Tliis was John Cialt, Escj., a native of / ,'rshire, Scotland. lie was a most prolific writer. His romances, 'Mjaurie Todd," the ''Ayrshire Lcj^atees/' ''The Kntail," and ''The Annals of the i'arish," are pi'ihaps the best of his abundant elforts. We Jiavo liis autobiography, a work of interest also in connection with the Canada Com])any. Mr. Gait was a man of too muck gL'uiuK to conduct very long the affairs of a large joint- stock land company. His decisions were often hastiy, his projects rather visionary, and his humour variable. Another ofHcer of the company was the eccentric Dr. J)unlop, who meets us as a character in Professor Wilson's " Noctes Ambrosiauie." Ho was aj)pointed ])y the company '' warden of the woods and forests." Dunlop siu'veyed a considerable portion of the company's tract. He Avas assisted in this by Ca]itain John Brant, son of old Thayendenagea, and two energetic lieutenants, Messrs. Sproat and Macdonald. The vast Huron tract was surveyed into twenty town- slii])s. These, such as Hullett, McKillop, Logan, EUice, Easthope (N. and S.), Downie, EuUarton, Tucker Smith, Biddulph, Usborne, Blanshard, liosanquet, AVilliams, McGrillivray, Stanley, Goderich, and Colborne, were named after the directors of the company or prominent officials of the Government. The town, now the City of Guclph, was founded by Gait himself, accompanied by a number of friends, amidst great hilarity, in the year 1827. It was the centre of the Halton Block of 42,000 acres. Its plan, which was somewhat nnique, was then made. Its name was given by Gait, in honour of the reigning house of England, and the epithet ^' Royal City," now attaches to Guelph. A considerable commotion arose over its naming. The British Board of Directors had decided to name their 'A ; ■' •■'■\ ' ; • " , > ■" ^11 ■i^ m , .:^M 1 ■ . 't . / 352 A Short History of new burgh after Lord Godericli. The news arrived in England that the new town had been eallcd Guelpli. Orders were immediately given to change the name. As deeds to purchasers had been issued, this could not well be done, and the secretary's naming remained. The chief river of the Huron tract is called by the Indians, Menesetung, but on account of its difficult pronunciation, Dr. Dunlop called it, from the governor's name, the Maitland. The eccentric warden, in 1827, laid out a new town at its mouth, calling it Godericli, and here took up his abode. The lands of the Canada Company, being generally of good quality, were sold to the immigrants who v^ere arriving from Britain by thousands. Their Huron tract, being the most remote and in a block, was last to be settled. In 1835, there were not more than 3000 souls upon the Huron tract. The possession of so great quantities of land by non-residents, gave rise to much complaint throughout Canada. It was said that capi- talists were able to hold as wild land what was being- made more valuable by the labour and self-denial of the actual settler. Political agitation has always set in, in the new world, as the result of the establishment of large land-holding companies, and a somewhat bitter senti- ment remains among the people in Western Canada against the Canada Company even to-day. Joseph Brant, as we have already seen, sold the largo The township of Dumfries to Philip Stedman. From Dickson the heirs of Stedman, the estate was purchased Settlement, in 1816, by Hon. William Dickson, a Scottish gentleman, and a member of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada, at a price of little more than one dollar an acre. The better to carry out his plans of settlement, Dickson chose as his agent a young American, named Absalom Shade. Desiring to see the purchased tract of land, Dickson, accompanied by his manager, came up the Governor's road from Dundas until the Grand River was reached at Paris. Turning northward into the forest, the travellers journeyed and were specially struck witii the beauty and •rived in Guelpli, me. Ah not well 3cl. The Indians, inciatioii, ame, tlio id out a iiere took aerally of vlio vera ron tract, last to be ;000 souls so great to mucli tliat capi- ^ras being" Liial of the set in, in t of large ter senti- Canada tlie largo m. From )urcliased Scottish )ouncil of )ne dollar jttlement, iu, named DicksoB; rovernor^s 'eaclied at travellers Icauty and THE Canadian People. 353 Witness for a new business centre of the spot where now stands the town of Gait. From the mill, which was soon erected, the place took the prosaic name of Shade's Mills, until after the visit of John Gait, Esq., in 1827 when, in recognition of that .gentleman's popularity, the place was named from liiai. Dickson now began to encourage im- mi.ofration to his estate. Namerous articles appeared in Scotland in Chamhers, Journal and the regular press. In 1820 one JohnTelfer, a retired Nor'wester trader, went to Scotland to induce immigration, and a large colony was obtained for the Galfc settlement from Roxburgh and Selkirk shires. In 1825 this movement was still in force, and even in 1831 and succeeding years the flow to Dumfries continued. In 1831 there was devised a plan of connecting Gait, which stands on the Grand River, with Lake Erie, by navigation. Flat-bottomed boats such as are still used in the shallow streams of the western prairies were constructed. These were known as " Arks," but their navigation was slow and difficult. In the year after the death of Joseph Brant (1807), a block of 29,000 acres of the land of the six nations of Indians, on the upper part of the Grand seufemen^. River, was sold to Colonel Thomas Clarke. Of this tract the township of Nichol formed a part. In the year 1833 a portion of the township was purchased by Messrs. Fergusson and Webster, and the village of Fergus, named from the former, was begun. Immigration to this region continued for years after, atd many farmers from Aberdeen and Mid-Lothian in Scotland, found homes here. This part of the country has become very celebrated for agriculture, so that it has been a^ times called the '' Lothians of Canada." Such townships as Garafraxa, Eramosa, and Erin were occupied in a similar manner. A township, lying to the south of this tract, that of Wilmot, was settled by Mennonist Germans from Munich in Bavaria, who were under a German leader, Naff- zinger. A most interesting colony was that of dis!j."r>ded X a 354 A Short History of Tho soldiers 1(mi by lliuii' rotired oiliccrs, who, in Adelaide 1 8')2, Hottlod a consi(lonil>lo region in tlio Military JjOiidon disti'ict in Upper Canada. Wliile llio Settlement. J ^j^yj^j^ljjpy were l^eing reached and roads opened out, a camp some 400 strong was formed. Officers iind men were chieily Irish of a highly intelligent class. Tho officers hjid commuted their half-pay before leaving Britain into a sum in hand, and. on arriving in Canada received a, grant of 400 acres each. Junioi- oflIc(!rs received 200 acres each, and tho men 100 acres apiece. Tho town- ships settled were those of Adelaide, Warwick, Carradoc, and Plympton, and. roads were cut Ijy tho pensioners throngh to Egremont. Officers ami men set to work with vigour. It is related of an old colonel that ho never could learn to chop, but his sons became famous woodmen. A unique *' logging-bee ^^ is described as having taken place in which one ai'tei'wards Chief Justice of Upper Canada, another in time a county judge, the colonel aforesaid, and a young man now an e[)iscopal rector, did their share with axe or handsyjikc, while the actual rector of the settlement drove the oxen. As might have been expected, men possessed of the courage and hardihood thus to how out for themselves homes in the forest, wero the first to spring to arms when the stand.'ird of rebellion was raised a few years afterwards, and have many of them risen to places of infhience in the country. In the year THi32 a committee was formed in Sussex, Petworth England, under the direction of the l^^arl of or Sussex I'lgremont, to conduct a band of English enii- Colony. grants to Canada. l]ru:\i colonist for the sum of r>/. was conveyed to his destination in Upper Canada. During that year three ships, the Lord Malv'dlc^ Evdinf, and the Eiivent was the breakini>- out of The Plague Asiatic cholera amonf]^ the immi<^rants seekini,'' a in 1832- liome in Canada in \H-]1 and lH;i3. On the 8th 1834. of. June the terrible news reached (^uel)ec that a ship, tlie (Jdirich, from Dublin, had arrived at Grosso Isle, the qujirantino station, Avith fifty-nine deaths from cholera, out of l:}^) passengers. Next day came the infection as if ])orne by the wind, and cases broke out in Quebec. On the lOth it had reached Montreal, and so on through the towns and villages of Upper Canada. The plague seized Canada with peculiar severity. In (Quebec city upwards of oOOO persons perished in this year, and in Montreal a proportionate number. An agita- tion grew out of this visitation and other causes to con- nect Montreal with Upper Canada, but the French Canadians opposed it. In 18-31 a second attack of the cholera took place of equal virulence with that of two years before, (Quebec and Montreal suffered greatly, as well as cities and towns in tlie Upper Province. During these two terribh; visitations ]iersons of. every age and in all portions of so(uety fell as victims of the plague. This period wo have called the ^' making of Canada." The ^^ have done so because it marks the era in making of which the various elements in the British Isles Canada. |;qq]^ possession of the vacant lands in Upper and Lower Canada, as they had done at an earlier period in Nova Scotia and l*rince I'jdward Island. It is true an enormous inunigration, of which we shall speak, took place afterwards, in the years ])receding iHoO; but these later immigrants were simply distributed among the ^iiuW 'II IK Canadian Pkople. 357 Rparso sottlcinonts already fonnod. Tlu^ U.E. Loyalists had ^ivou the force of their ideas to the rising provinces, but they were relatively few in number. In the period before us we have a fiHiii'^" up of the waste places, the ]"iso of orjjcanized society, the reaehinLT out after a fuller ])olitical life, and the foundation of a real provincial existence. ^Section If. — TJic. lumtihj C(»npact and Its Opponents. The Faniiiy Compact manifestly grew out of the prin- ciples of the U.Pi. Jjoyalists. It was the union of the leaders of the loyjilists with others of kindred spirit, to rule U})per Canada, heedhjss oi; the rights or wishes of its people. We have admired the patriotic, heroic, and sentimental side of U.I'j. loyalism ; but plaiidy, as related to civil government, its political doctrines and practices were tyrannical. Its prominent nKunbers belonged to the chiss which in the American coh)nics, in the ])ersous of (Jovernors Ber- nard {ind Hutchinson, and many others of high oiHce and standing, had plotted to destroy the liberties of the people, and had hastened tlie American revohition. No Jtoman patrician ever looked with more contempt upon the Konuin ])lebs as they retired to Mous Jjiniculum, than did the LT.E. Jjoyjilist upon the American democracy and the young republic. That famous representative of the jj^ovei-ning class. Sir John Wentworth, the al'oretime Colonial (jovernor, and as we have seen for years (lovernor of Nova Scotia, detested such a dictum as that '' Government must bo l)y the people, with tlu; p(M)ple, and for the people/^ as tliorouglily as he despised Thomas J^aine's tierce attacks oil the Christian religion ur the doctrine as to witchcraft held by the early J*uritans. Wentworth, too, was not a ])asaive opponent of such doctrines. lie would meet lire with fire ; he would adopt measures, as complete to dispense with the popular will, as those of that older Wentworth who, in the time of Charles I., formed the plan with the suggestive name of " Thorough.^ t ■■A\ " ' i * i\ )) I ■■'..1 358 A Short History of Inheriting such viovvs, having fought for their suc- cess, having made tlio groat sacrifice of leaving homo and gone into exile to maintain them, living in the iramediate neighbourhood of their republican opponents, and fearing lest they should bo outnuml)ered, or lest their children should imbibe the poison of republicanism, it is no wonder that the U.E. Jjoyalists desired and strongly endeavoured to maintain an oligarchy in Upper Canada. An oligarchy, such as the rule of the Family Compact, was the natural fruit of the U.I^j. Loyalist tree. Nor did the circumstances of the time leave the U.E. Loyalists without excuse. The great influx of Quakers, Mennonites, and other non-combatants, was a weakness in case of hostilities with the United States. The thou- sands of American settlers, who, with no pronounced views in favour of British connection, had come in to enjoy the fertile lands of Canada, might create a senti- ment in favour of the United States. Time and again, as in the case of Iluirs proclamation in 1812, the American Government counted on this sentiment in Canada as one favourable to them, though it is true they counted with- out their host. It had been the custom in Governor Simcoe's time to carefully examine into the principles of new settlers, and to send those of unpronounced views into the interior, and to settle the border with trusty men. About the year 1800 much alarm was created in the minds of the loyalists by this large immigration, and we have seen that in 1804 the ^' Alien " or " Sedition Act " was passed by the Legislature. It was dread of the popular senti- ment that led to the severe treatment of Judge Thorpe and Mr. Wilcocks in 1809. During the war of defence, especially in the end of 1813, when the American arms were victorious in the London district, it was found that while the people w^ere loyal in the main, yet there were traces among the later American immigrants of favour for the United States. On the other hand the war of 1812 — 1815 had brought the U.E. Loyalists and their immediate friends into LCir suc- [ig homo in tlio »pouents, , or lest licanism, ircd and in Uppor 3 Family Loyalist tlio U.K. Quakers, weakness Hlo thou- onounccd imo in to 3 a senti- [ again, as American [da as one ited witli- s time to tiers, and interior, bout the ds of the ave seen as passed lar senti- iO Thorpe ' defence, can arms und that ere were lof favour brought inds into 'iiii'; Canadian Picorr.F. 359 closer acquaintance with one another. Cornwall, Kings- ton, York, and Ningara had formed new attachments. Concerted action in war opened the way to combined action in pcjuco. Watchful leaders in the Church saw the opportuuity of using tho loyalist sentiment to their advantage. Thus by the years 1818 or 1820 a junto or cabal had bec.Mi formed definite in its aims, and firmly combined together, known as the Family Compact, nob to its best leadtsrs seeming an embodiment of selfishness, but rather set for patriotic defence, and hallowed with the name of religion. IJut while the l>ands of privilege were thus being drawn closely around the self-appointed rulers, there arose from the people those who remembered that they were 15ritons, and tho inheritors of " Magna Cliarta '* and " Habeas Corpus " rights, and who knew that in tho end the people must rule. These were of no special creed or race, even some of U.F. Loyalist parentage were amongst them, and they included men who for education and respectability might well compare with the best of the oligarchy, while they far surpassed them in political knowledge and soundness of judgment. It has been often the case that in great movements it falls to the lot of the extreme and the eccentric to hasten forward the crisis of events. It was thus in the Puritan conflict in England, in the American revolt, and in the I'rench revolution. It was in 1817 that a Scottish adventurer, Robert Gourlay, came to Canada. Born in Ceres, in Fifeshire, a gentleman, and possessed of con- siderable estates, he had met misfortune, having lost his property in 181"), Ho was a visionary, a plotter, and somewhat skilled in the ways of demagogism. Euined in Scotland, Gourlay had gone to Wiltshire in England, and undertaken the management of an estate. In this he had failed to satisfy the proprietor, and so determined to leave Britain, and followed in the wake of the military colonists, who Jit this time we have seen were coming to Canada. Gourlay was pleased with the country, and saw its suitability for settlement. He determined to establish himself as a land-agent, and no doubt in doing '. •) 360 A Short History of so, from his ardent find coiitrovorsifil rifitiirc, would bocorr.o a trouljlosoino and })0werful opponent of the Family Compact. In order, as lie declared, the bettor to prepare liirnHelf for tlio work of encournging iinniigi'ation, the* Fifeshiro- exile sent out to every townsliif) in Upper Canada a list of thirty-one queries asking for information. The last of these questions became celebrated in coimec- tion with Jifter events. It was, " What, in your o])inion, retards the improvement of your townshij) in particular, or the province.' in general, and what would most contri- bute to the same ? '' The Family Compact is not to l>o blamed for having endeavoured to counterwork the agitator in so far as they chose legal mcjthods. The questions certainly occasioned much excitement throughout the province. In the townships of the Home district the influence of the Government was sufficient to prevent meetings of tlie people being convened. iJut generally in the other districts meetings were held, and the replies to the (pieries showed much dissatisfaction. Gourlay advised the people to send commissioners liorae to Britain to represent their gritn'ances there, and a conventitm was held in York. 'i^he heather was now on fire, and the; Family Compact determined at any cost to drive Gourlay from the country. He was prosecuted for libel in 1818 in Kingston, but the jury acquitted him, and a similar arrest and acquittal took place in Jirockville. In that year an Act was passed by the Legislature forbidding the holding of conventions. But it occurred to the pursuers that the ^'Sedition Act" of 1804 was suited to their purpose of following Gourlay. The man had been in the province for two years, and yet a member of the Assembly named Swjiyze, at the insti- gation of the Hon. Messrs. IJickson and Claus, took oath that the Fifeshire exile was a seditious person, and camo within the provisions of the Act. The doomed agitator was accordingly arrested and thrown into prison, where he remained for more than seven months before trial. In August, 1819, at Niagara, before Chief Justice Powell, his most exciting trial was THE Canadian PKoi-i.r:. 361 ■witnessed. The prisoner was a pieture of misory ; ho was emaciated, liis mind was ])lainly ^ivin rccoinuHMidatioii of WiUiaiii Diirniiior rowcll, tho Chicjf dnsticc, made; Attoriicy- (icnond at tlio aj^o of twcnty-t^no. Jn lG. l^higaged as t(;achor of the parish school in Kettle, Fife- shire, lie received an offer to go to Canada from tho Hon. Kichard Cartwright, of Kingston, to found an academy, ^Sifterwai'ds to become a college under the patronage o^" the Goverjiment of the Province/' When young Stnichan arrived in Canada in 17././, (Governor Simcoe, the patron of education had gone, and the young Scottish teacher was disheartened. A school on a private basis was, however, soon after begun in Kingston, which was transferred* to Cornwall in tho Tin; Canadian Pkopm:. 3. <«> ^ .0, ^ < IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / O tj. 1.0 It:'^ I I.I 1.25 ■1° 1^ MS 140 U 2.5 2.2 1.4 IIM 1= 1.6 v] <^ ^. /] /: y^. V # • • * )fessed to (T vwK Canadian People. 371 have discovered that, in the absence of the Chief Justice, ^vllo had gone to Britain, the sitting of the court was illegal, and ho announced this to the assembled Bar, refusing at the same time to sit. The relations between the two lulii^s already mentioned, who both desired to be leaders of York society, had also become very unhappy. The (Jovernor and Council decided to remove Judge Willis. This was done, and Justice Hagerman was appointed his successor. The contention of J udgo Willis was shown afterwards to be wrong, and his temper and mien were far from commendable, but the opposition re- garded his as a case of persecution, and this also did nuicli to render the Family Compact unpopular in the country. Another unfortunate occurrence soon took place. A greedy innkeeper at Niagara Falls, named For- >^Yie syth, in order to prevent visitors to that in- Forsyth teresting locality fi-om seeing the Falls without ^ffs,ir, passing through his hostelry, built a high fence along the front of his property, thus shutting in the Govern- ment reserve of one chain in width along the river, and hiding the view of the Falls. Ordered by Sir Peregrine Maitland, as Commander of the Forces in 1828, to remove the barrier, he refused. A serjeant and a fatigue party soon after appeared, threw down the fence, demolished one of Forsyth's houses, which was built on his own property, and threw the materials over the bank into the river beneath. Though Forsyth was in the wrong, yet the employment of military, and the high- handed procedure aroused strong opposition to the Gover- nor, and very nearly led to a conflict between the British soldiers and the colonists such as had been seen in Boston. Complaint w-as made to the Legislature. The As- sembly summoned certain Government oflic^'Ms to give evidence, Avho, instructed by the Governor, eiused to attend before the Committee of the House. The officials were arrested by the Assembly and imprisoned for several days, when the Governor prorogued the House and liberated the prisoners. Sir Peregrine had been wrong both as to the destruction of Forsyth's property B b 2 1 q m '1^ I •; If ■:;^ lit 372 A Short History of « and tlio instructions ^ivcn to the officinl witnesses. Tlu» other char<;'es ngainst the (h'sj)otic governor were con- stantly urged. Tlio popuhir excitement was great, so that tlio storm raised chittly by tho unworthy innkee})er resulted in tho Governor's recall by tho British Govern- ment, and his being sent to Nova Scotia. It was assuredly no bed of roses whicli Governor Maitland left to his successor. A high officer, CcJbo°rne ^^^ John Colborne, known in liis later life as Lord Seaton, was sent to replace Maitland, and to quiet tlio disturbed province. John Colborno was born in 1777, in Hants county, England, llo had early entered tlie army, and liad gained great distinction in tho French wars, having risen to tho rank of major-general. Sir John arrived in York in 1828. His predecessor had left him a troublesome heritage in the Collins case. This w\as that of a Roman Catholic printer, Francis Collins, editor of a radical paper, the Canaduin Freeman, which, from 1825, pursued a constant course of vitupera- tion against the Family Compact. Its fierce attacks had, if possible, exceeded those of tho Colonial Advocate. Several libel suits were brought against Collins, when he in revenge raised a charge against Solicitor-General Boulton for having killed in a duel one Ridont. This ailair had happened many years before. The trial took place, but Boulton was acquitted. Collins now charged the Colonial Advocate rioters with their crime, which had not been tried. They were found guilty, and a slight fine imposed upon them by Judge Willis. The libel suits against Collins were allowed to drop. Collins now became more ferocious than ever in his The attacks. Beverley Robinson urged a charge Collins of personal libel of himself as Attorney- General ^ against Collins. The Family Compact judge, Sherwood, who was accused of being partial, charged severely against Collins, and the prisoner was found guilty. Heavy fines and imprisonment were visited on the libeler, and a sentiment among the people some- what similar to that in tho Gourlay case, followed the unfortunate man to prison, while contempt fell on the '• tl Tin: Canadian Pkoplic. Z7l Attornoy-Genoral. Ic was at tins juncturo tliat 8ir .Lilin Colboruo arrived at ^^>rk. Tho j)Coj)le, by public sub- scriptiou, had })aid Collins' fine, and li / petitioned tho (lovcrnor for his release. The requests uf tho people, and even Collins' respectful petition to the Governor for hiinself and his helpless fiunily, fell without eftect on a man who had beheld the bloody scenes of tho Peninsula and Waterloo. The Assembly, in 18:20, took up tho case, and made a strong' a])])eal to Sir elohu in Collins' behalf, but in vain. Thoui^'h the final ap])eal of tho Assembly was successful, the people never for^'avo the hard-hearted governor. lu 1829 the stru«»'i2:le continued between tho ''People's House " and the Family Compact Executive Council. Allan McNab, the son of a U.E. Loyalist, and Solicitor- General Boulton fell under the displeasure of tho Assembly, on account of their having refused to give evidence before a committee of the House as to a riot in Hamilton. Tho Assembly acted with decision. McNab was committed to prison, and became a favourite of tho Cabal ; the oc(;asion of Houlton's reprimand by Mr. Speaker Bidwell is said to have been one of the most impressive scenes in Canadian Parliamentary life. About this time began to appear a line of cleavage between Mackenzie and his radical followers and the more moderate men of the Bidwell and Baldwin type. In consequence, in the elections of 1830 the family Family Compact gained ground, indeed had a Reaction, majority in the Assembly. In 1831 the '^Ever- lasting Salary Bill," rendering the judges and Executive Council independent, as to salary, of the Assembly was passed. In this year Mackenzie, who had been elected in the new Parliament for York, notwithstanding the political slaughter of Baldwin, Kolph, and Matthews, became an object of special hatred to the majority. Thrice was the virulent editor of the Colonial Advocate expelled from tho Assembly, and as often was he re- elected. William Lyon Mackenzie became the People's Tribune, and on going to England the British authorities admitted the injustice of the action of the Assembly, as fS- » .' Ill 374 A Short Hisif):;v or . i% ■. ■ i ^/' ^>'$l ■ ♦ shown in n dospatcli of Lord (lodt'ricli in 18:1*^ TIiu Assembly St ill rt'fustMl to udiiiit t]i(> obnoxious niombcr. Aj^;iin was ho olcctud ; and followed by a great Ixnly of Ills constitiK nts, ho dunianded admission to tlu' llous(», bnt was still refused. Mackenzio became the most popular man in Canada, and in iHo (• was eliosen to bo Mayor of 'J oronto, Jis York, incorporated as a city, was now called. Ihit the bnrnincT rpiestion of all tJieso years was ono connected with relitable Dr. Strachan petitioned tho House of Lords, and forwarded an '' Ecclesiastical Chart,^' whose facts were indignantly denied by all tho other Canadian churches. At this time arose a mau who wielded a weighty pen, and as the leader of tho Methodist body took a leading part in this controversy. This was Egerton Kyersou. IJorn in LS()3, in tho county of Norfolk, the son of a U.l^]. Loyalist officer of tho New Jersey iwgiment, who had first gone to Now Brunswick, and came to the shore of Lake Erie in 1791>, young Eyerson, at the age of twenty-three, entered the ministry of the Methodist Church. It was in the year 1820 that Dr. Strachan preached a sermon, the third eifort in the same direction as his ecclesiastical chart. Young Ryerson, at the suggestion of his brethren, prepared for the press a review extending to the length of some thirty octavo pages, and signed it " A Methodist Preacher.'^ This at once made the " boy preacher " famous. In that year the Assembly passed resolutions declaring that the funds from the Clergy Reserves should be used for the support of the '^ Chris- tian religion generally .... of whatever denomination." :l \l I ■1 m t r. ^ 376 A Short History of In this year also the Home Government granted the con- tention of the Assembly, so far as the Church of Scotland was concerned, and provision was thereafter jrade for the payment annually of 7-")()/. to the Church of Scotland, and also to the Roman Catholic Church, from funds of the Canada Company. In 1827 the Assembly of Upper Canada asked that the Clergy Reserves be used for schools, a provincial seminary, and in aid of the erection of places of worship for all denominations of Christians. In each of the three years following, th*". popular agita- tion resulted in the Assembly making similar requests. For many years in Canada marriages could not be cele- brated by the Methodist clergy, as, in addition to the clergy of the establishments, only " Lutheran and Calviuist ^' ministers might marry, and then only those of their own foith. In 1829 Mr. Bidwell succeeded in carrying a Bill extending this privilege to all. The power to hold church property and burying-grounds was also besfowed on this numerous body. Year after year both sections of the opposition, the more radical led by Mackenzie, the more moderate by Bidwell, had coalesced on the Clergy Reserve question. Ryerson, who had become a political leader of influence, about the year 1834 became hostile to Mackenzie and had many followers. One chief cause of this was a letter of sympathy from Joseph Hume, the great English radical, to Mackenzie, on the occasion of his expulsion from the Assembly, in which the English politic'au iaid such proceedings must " terminate in in- depe: ... '• . and freedom from the baneful domination of the moth ' country." The whole letter was published in leadei. ype in the Colonial Advocate. This alarmed Ryerson and the more moderate opponents of the Family Compact, and the Chrldian Guardian, a newspaper begun by Ryerson in 1829, now fiercely denounced Mackenzie. This schism in the opposition gave the Family Compact an advantage, but notwithstanding, in the General Elec- tion of 1834, the Compact was de^'aated, and Mr. Bidwell ■^V/.' THE Canadian People. 377 was chosen Speaker by thirty-oue to twenty-seveu votes ill the Assembly, tbo iiiinority containing iivo or six Independents. The Assembly immediately appointed a '' S|:9cial Committee on Grievances," with Mackenzie as Chairman, and in April, 18o5, the "Seventh Report of the Grievance Committ'^e," was brought in, and this is the storehouse from which, along with Gourlay^s statistical account, the chief materials for the histoi-y of the period are drawn. This famous report called the attention of the Home Government to the lamentable state of the country, and led to Sir John Colborne's recall in 18-50, to be followed, as we shall see, by that paragon of eccentricity and blundering, Sir Francis Bond Head. Sir John Colborne's last act was one for which he was never forgiven by the Canadian people. Taking advantage of the provision in the Act of 1791, permitting the endowment of rectories out of Clergy lleserve lands, the departing Governor determined to erect fifty-seven rectories. But forty-four of the patents for these were signed, the reason, it is said, having been that a clerk, engaged in preparing the documents^, informed Mr. Bidwell, who at once made the matter known, and the enormous wrong* was not com- pleted. The time is drawing on apace when the crisis in provincial affairs must come. As shown in a previous chapter, the conflict for free government in Lower Canada was intensified ^ower by the fact that while the Assembly was chiefly Canadian French-Canadian, in the Legislative and Execu- Struggle, tive Councils there was a British majority. The Earl of Dalhousie, who had 1)een for some years Governor of Nova Scotia, arrived in Lower Canada in 1820. Belong- ing to the class of high disciplinarians, though he had shown himself a friend of education and social progress in Nova Scotia, he was yet, as has been said, a soldier rather than a statesman. The Lieutenant-Governor of Lower Canada^ Mr. Burton, was popular, but the French Canadians were never reconciled to the stern commander. Lord Dalhousie was much hampered by the vacillating Ml ■ w. ^i mi 378 A Short History of *■ ,?t^ policy of the British ministry, and as ho was a man with whom there was no fiuesso or intrigue, his position was often unenviable. Tlie Lower Canadian Assembly, year after year, passed resolutions declaring their grievances, the people sent " monster petitions ;" the French Canadian press, and an English newspaper published in Montreal, the Vindicator, constantly excited the populace to discontent. The idol of the French-Canadians at this time was Mr. Speaker Papineau, of whom we shall hear more anon. In the excited state of public feeling, Papineau had given expression to opinions about the Governor which, as proceeding from the Speaker of the Assembly, espe- cially from one who had served as speaker in six parlia- ments, were considered disrespectful to the Crown. On the summoning of the new House, in 1827, though it was known that Lord Dalhousie disapproved of him, Papineau was, by a large majority, chosen Speaker of the Assembly. The Governor refused to recognize the agitntor. The House persisted in its course, when the old soldier pro- rogued the Assembly. Lord Dalhousio also deprived a number of the militia officers of their commissions for insolence. In 1827 petitions, largely signed, were pre- sented to the King, asking for legislative control of Lower Canadian affairs. Delegates were sent to lay their re- quests at the foot of the throne. In the meantime (1828), Lord Dalhousie was trans- ferred to the command of the forces in India. In the same year the Imperial Parliament appointed a Committee to consider the petitions from Lower Canada, as well as those from Upper Canada. The report of this " Canada Committee " is a most able document, and re- commends concessions which, if they had been adopted, would probably have prevented the outbreaks in both provinces. Their recommendation that the " legislative assemblies and the executive government of Canada be put on a right footing,^' was the solution of the whole difficulty. But the remedy was too late in its application. For several years a chronic case of difficulty tried the Lower Canadian Legislature. Robert Christie, chairman THE Canadian PEorLE. 379 I f ;; of tlie Quebec Quarter Sessions, was, in 1821), tlio object of the French-Canadian liatred, for liavinL** advised the dismissal of certain French- Canadian mag-istrates, and wrongly inliuenced Lord Dalhousie. On liis subsequent election to the Assembly, as member for Gas}"^', he was again and again expelled, to be in each case re elect( d. The Assembly, in the year 1834, spent its time chiefly iu the consideration of the famous ^^ ninety-two ^^ resolu- tions, which may be spoken of as their '^ claim of right."" Another Committee of the Imperial Parliament, in 183 1-, examined Canadian grievances, but without any material profit. New fuel was added to the flame by a statement of Sir John Colborne to the Upper Canadian Legislature, in his last message, to the efl*ect that the Lower Canadian agitation had tilled his mind with deep '^regret, anxiety, and apprehension,^' and had done injury to the country. The Lower Canadian Assembly repudiated these state- ments, and in 1836, Speaker Papineau addressed to Mr. Bidwell, Speaker of the Upper Canadian Assembly, a lengthy letter, defending their agitation, and adding certain remarks which were regarded by some as seditious. It was unfortunate that Sir John Colborne, a natural despot, should have been at this juncture appointed to Lower Canada to command the forces. The evils of oligarchy were not nnknown in the Mari- time Provinces. Society there was, however, jfgva Scotia in a more settled condition on account of the and New older settlement. The agitations in the upper Brunswick, provinces began to be felt in the lands by the sea, but their struggles took place a few years later, when the rebellions in the upper provinces had done their trouble- some work. .« "> ■■ rn .) * r > -h' . 380 A Short History of CHAPTER XI. m A THE REBELLIONS AND THE NEW CONSTITUTION. (References : The " Rolpli Papers," Canadian Arcliives, Ottawa ; " Story of the Upper Ccinadian Rebellion," 2 vols., by J. 0. Dent, Toronto, 1885 ; " Story of my Life," by Egerton Ryerson, Toronto, 1883; "History of Lower Canada," by Robert Christie, vols. iii. and iv., Quebec, 1850 ; " Seventh Report of Grievance Committee," Toronto, 1835 ; " Act to Reunite the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, &c., British Statutes," London, 18-10.) Section I. — Sedition in Lower Canada. The agitation among the French-Canadians began to Lower assume a serious aspect. Loud appeals were Canadian made for an equality of rights with their British Rebellion, fellow-subiects. The Assembly, which was ■*'• chiefly French-Canadian, threw off all reserve, and by all classes sentiments hostile to Britain were freely uttered from the platform and upon the streets. The cry was that the Legislative Council should be elective, and that the Assembly ought to control the provincial exchequer. The control of the revenue had been, in 1832, given over to the Assembly by the Britisli Government to quiet the clamour. Now it was deter- mined by the Assembly to compel further concessions by refusing to pay the judges and other executive officers. A British Commission was appointed in 1835 to inquire into the state of Lower Canada, and the possibility that a report favourable to French-Canadian desires might be made, led the British people of Montreal, Quebec, and the English settlements in Lower Canada to organize them- selves into " Constitutional Associations." The main :r't^ THE Canadian People. 381 questions of liberty were now obscured. Tlio leaders of the Frencli-Canadians appealed to their following to support the cause of their down-trodden race. On constitutional questions_, such as the executive council being responsible to the Assembly, many of the English people of Lower Canada agreed with the French- Canadians, but it seemed as if the French leaders were making the matter one of British connection and British influence rather than of executive reform. In conse- quence, the appeals of the " Constitutional Associations " were much more moderate and statesmanlike than the wild denunciations of the authors of the '^ninety-two resolutions/' And yet the success of the British party, in their contention, meant the welding the fetters of an oligarchy upon the people. It was a perplexing case for British statesmen. On the report of the '' Commission '' coming before the Imperial Parliament, Lord John Russell, in 1837, moved four resolutions, reciting that the Lower Canadian Assembly had granted no supplies since 1832, that upwards of 142,000?. was due to the judges and civil ser- vants, that the request to have the Legislative Council made elective be not granted ; but that that branch of the Legislature be changed, that it might secure a greater degree of public confidence. The so-called "patriots" were infuriated, when the news of this action reached Canada. The Vindicator declared, " Henceh th, there must be no peace in the province — no quarter for the plunderers. Agitate ! Agitate ! Agitate ! Destroy the revenue ; denounce the oppressors. Everything is lawful when the funda- mental liberties are in danger. The guards die — they never surrender ! " These were certainly extravagant expressions. They were the outburst of feeling after five years of agitation. The leader of the movement was, as w^e have said. Speaker Papineau. Louis Joseph Papineau was born in Montreal, 1789, and was educated in the Seminary at Quebec, p . At the early age of twenty he was elected for the Assembly for Kent, now Chambly. In 1812 the ^'\ * I > ^^m^mm^ 382 A Short Historv of Wolfred Nelson. young pari imnontnrian conininnded a militia corps in tlio war of dofenco. In 1817 lie wj s elected Speaker of the Assembly, and with one short interval continued so until the rebellion. Papineau was a brilliant orator, an ener- getic and useful member of Assembly, a political student, though somewhat vain and aggressive, and on the whole lacking in balance of mind. At this juncture of the Russell resolutions Papineaa was prepared to go wildly into anything — even independ- ence or annexation to the United States. Associated with the rebellious Speaker in the agitation was a man of very different qualities — this was Dr. Wolfred Nelson. Wolfred Nelson, born in 1702, in Montreal, belonged to a respectable English family, and his mother was a U.E. Loyalist, lulucated in Montreal, he began the practice of medicine at St. Denis, St. Hyacinthe county, in 1811. Having served with the British army in the war of defence as a surgeon, he had acquired a knowledge of militi.ry tactics. Induced to enter public affairs, he was, in 1827, able to defeat Attor- ney-General Stuart for the division of William Henry (Sorel). Dr. Nelson had accumulated ;i considerable for- tune, and was the owner of a large property at St. Denis. He was a man of high scholastic attainments, of calm and ready judgment, was highly respected, and had a bound- less influence over the people in the southern counties of Lower Canada. Believing that the struggle in Lower Canada was one for liberty, and that the oligarchy in the lower pro- vince was as tyrannical and self-seeking as the Family Compact in Upper Canada, Nelson had allied himself with Papineau and the French-Canadians. At a great indignation meeting of 1200 peraons, held on the 7th of May, 1887, on the Richelieu River, near St. Denis, at which Dr. Nelson presided, strong resolutions were adopted against the course taken by Lord John Russell. The example of the Irish patriot, Daniel O'Con- nell, was held up for admiration, and it was agreed that all should rally around one man as their chief — and that man, Papineau. TiiK Canadian rEori.E. ;S3 was one Encominiiis wore passed on Papineau's force of mind, eloquence, Iiatred of oppression, and love oF country, iind it was determined, with nmcli enthusiasm, to ^ivo up the use of imported articles, in order that the revenue might be crippled. With much zeal the assemblage decided to raise a fund, to be known as the " Papinean tribute," for the support of tlieir idol. Similar meetings to that at St. Denis ■were beiujr held throughout the country, when Lord Gosf >rd, the Governor-General, becoming alarmed, issued a proclamation forbidding such gatherings, and sum- moning those loyal to the country to support his action. This but increased the agitation. " Anti-coercion meet- ings,^' as they were now called, were widely held. The young French- Canadians organized themselves into societies, known as the " Sons of Liberty," while the loyal inhabitants, by meeting and petition, threw back tho rebellious challenges. Tiie provincial parliament assembled in August. Numbers of the French members appeared in Quebec, dressed in homespun {''toffe dii luiys) according to their resolution. One, M. Rodier, was an object of great remark. He was dressed in a coat of granite-coloured home- spun ; trousers and waistcoat of the same material, striped blue and white, straw hat and beef shoes, with home-made socks completed his attire. This determined patriot wore no shirt, having been unable to smuggle or manufacture one. Other members also thus showed their desire to '' destroy the revenue.^' A most important meeting of the agitators took place at St. Charles, on the Richelieu, on the 23rd of October, including delegates from the '* six confederated counties." There were present at the meeting, it is estimated, ♦5000 persons. Dr. Nelson presided, and his outspoken declaration, the extravagant resolutions adopted, and the excited speeches delivered, left no longer any doubt as to the intentions of the agitators. A handsome column, surmounted with a " cap of liberty,^' was erected at this cime in honour of Papineau at St. Charles. The threatening clouds of sf;;?ition now grew so heavy that the Roman Catholic Bishop, Mgr. Lartigue, a rela- :i*- ; !-;. 8 T,' *'f \ . 384 A Short History of ?! L '■' tivo of j*apincaii, issued an oarnesfc pastoral, imploring' tlio people to avoid the horrors of a civil war. 'i'ho agitators continually <^rew bolder, and began to drill at different points throughout the country. In the mean- time severnl additional French-Canadians were placed upon the Legislative and Executive Councils, but the concession had come too late to abate the excitement. The " Sons of Liberty " and the " Constitutionahsts '* met in conflict in the streets of Montreal in November of this year, and the odds were slightly in favour of the former. Proclamations forbidding the drilling of the patriots were issued. Sir John Colborne had now made his head-quarters in Montreal, and in October all the British troops in Upper Canada had been brought to his aid, while the loyalists of Glengarry had tendered their services to the genoral. Soon the blow fell. News came that bands of insur- gents were collecting at St. Charles and St. Denis, and an expedition under Colonels Wetherall and Gore was sent against the rebels. At St. Denis, on the 2ord of November, Dr. Nelson had fortified a stone distillery, three stories high, belonging to himself, had cut down the bridges, and awaited the attack of the approaching troops, of whose movements he had learned from des- patches taken on Lieut. Weir, a captured officer. The attack on the improvised fort was made, but without success, Dr. Nelson showing himself a skilful tactician. After several hours' fruitless effort, the troops retired. By their success the insurgents were encouraged. At St. Charles was the more important centre of St Ch ries ^^"^^1^- ^ " General " Brown was the rebel ' leader. The insurgents are said to have had at this point 1500 men, two 24-pounders, and a well pro- visioned fort. The attack was made upon the rebel position by Colonel Wetherall, and after a severe struggle resulted in the taking of the fort, the defenders losing 150 killed and 300 wounded. Brown escaped to Vermont. The arrival at St. Denis of the news from St. Charles, St. Denis. Ill tiil: Can- ad I an Peopli:. 385 r. The drill at 10 mean- placed but the ;ment. onalists " November ar of tbo g of the low made }Y all the r\\t to lii» ired their of insur- Denis, and Gore was Charles, caused Nelson's followers to vanish like the mist, and tlie bravo St. Denis leader, seeing all lost, fled towards the American boundiiry, but was captured in the county of Shell'ord. Papineau, who vas at St. Denis, is saivl to have escaped to the United States while the light at the fortified distillery was still ^oing on. It is of interest to know that among Nelson's followers at St. Denis was young George Etienne Cartior — afterwards a prominent statesman of Canada. A most tragic occurrence took place at St. Denis. A dashing young officer, Lieut. Weir, carrying des- patches for Colonel Wetherall, had lost his way and fallen into the hands of the rebels at St. Denis. For safe keeping lie had been placed under the charge of three French-Canadian guards. His keepers were removing their prisoner to a distance from the scene of conflict, when the mettlesome young officer attempted to escape. Thinking themselves justified by "VVeir's in- subordination, the guards fell upon their prisoner, shot him with their pistols, and cut him to pieces with sabres. Tiiis cruel deed was enacted without the knowledge of the leader. Dr. Nelson, who deeply regretted the outrage. In revenge for the barbarities practised on Lieut. VVeir, the infuriated loyal soldiery burnt Dr. Nelson's extensive buildings at St. Denis. The insurgents made unsuccessful demonstrations at St. Eustache and St. Benoit, in the district north-west of Montreal, as well as along the international boundary- line. Though an attack, led by Eobert, the brother of Dr. Wolf red Nelson, was made at Odelltowu from across the boundary-line in the following year, which was easily suppressed by Sir John Colborne, yet the danger to Canada was over when St. Charles had been taken. Though troops were during the winter of 1837-8 sent through the wilderness from New Brunswick to Quebec, their services were but little required. Thus ended the appeal to arms — a mad attempt at the best ! Section 11. — The Rebels in Upper Canada. Great expectations were indulged by the opposition in c c *»i"i|^ 386 A Short IIistdkv of m- The Upper Upper CmikmLi, wIkmi in ])Iiico of tlio iliscrcilited Canadian (lovt'l'lior (.'(tlhoi'lio, it Was li'Mi'iR-il that a llioro "Sing. lil)(.'rjil-ii»iiulc'(l Licutciiant-CJovcrnor was ciii his way to York. 'IMieir supposed " crowniiin- morry " was Sir FrMiicis Bond Ilciid, a i-etirod jii-niy oflici'r, and lato ])oor-la\v ^niurdiiin. Tlio now appointco liJid a taste i'or l)ook-ni:ikin<,^, jind liad written certain, veiy readable; books ot" travel. His previous experience, Lowever, did not in any way justify his ap])ointment as ruler of a province on the vei\L;'e of rebellion. TIk^ reasons for his selection have always lieen a mystery, and the shortest ex})lanation of it is that it was a Downing Street bluiuU'r. Sir Francis l)oasted of havinf^ no political views, and of having" had no political ex])erience. He was a niMii whose shallow nature, ilippant letters and despatches, and speedy subserviency to the Family Conijiact rendered him in the end an object of detestation in Canadii. Denun- ciation too severe can scarcely be visited upon a man who deliberately proceeds to a^rgravato and irritate a disturbed comnuiuity. The new Governor was surprised, as ho himself tells us, to sec in lart^e letters on the walls of Toronto on his arrival, *' Sir Francis Head, a tried reformer,'^ and before four months had elapsed those who had made the placards were possessed with still greater surprise and vexation when they looked back at what they had done. The departing Governor, Sir John Colborne, received tokens of the favour of the adherents of the Family Compact, on his way down to Montreal from Toronto, especially in Kingston and Cornwall, the centres of oligarchic influence. A considerable followino- of the Glengarry people made up his train as lie entered Lower Canada, and a strong British escort came from Montreal to meet him and return with him to the city. Governor Head, shortly after his arrival, was called on to fill three vacancies in the Executive Council, one half of the offices being already held by adherents of the Family Compact. The Governor, passing over Mr. Bid- well, for whom he from the first took a strong dislike. Tin. CaXAIUAX I'KOPLM 1^7 ^crlHlitC(l t U IIUTO lis (111 lii^ crown in'j,- ■0(1 Jinny i\pp()inti'o 'U ci'i'tiiin. ;poricnc(.s point nicMit ion. 'J'Ik^ stcry, and , Downing /lews, anil ras a nv.m [\tclics, and ndevod liim I. Dennn- 1011 a man [ ivvitato a snvpviscd, n tlio walls id, a tried psed tlioso with still pked back |e, received [he Family Toronto, I centres of iBg of the bed Lower Montreal Is called ou \\, one half its of the Mr. Bid- icT dislike, i: called to tlio council Arcssrs. IJaldwin, Ilolpli, ;uul Dunn. Soon linding that Chief Justice Kobinson and Dr. Stra- chan, who were not in tho Executive Council at nil, wcro tlio virtual advisers of tho (Jovornor, tho now councillors resented tho intent renco and resigned in three weeks, time. The new governor was no niori; indcpemleiit than Sir John Colborne had been, and was less dignified. Sir Francis conclud(.'d, soon after his arrival, that tlio oppositionists were not a pnrty of gentlemen, and was in a short tinu^ engaged in discrediting them before tho country, utterly forgetful of his ])ositiou. The Assembly sought to protect itself, and adopted Ji formal deliverance, charging tho Governor with *^ deviations from truth and candour/* A general election was soon to follow, and the opposi- tion found to their cost that tho provincial electorate had much changed since the year 18-"U). Since that date tho population of Upper Canada had nearly d(jubled. Tho new inhabitants were largely from tho British isles, and were strongly monarchic in their views. AVliile a section of tho opposition desired a constitution which would bo ''an exact transcript" of that of Great Dritain, it was well-known that some of them favoured an approxi- mation to republican forms. Bidwell and perhaps Mac- kenzie were among the latter. Governor Head threw himself heartily into tho struggle in tho election of 188G, and no doubt honestly Qovemor believing there was a section of the lato Assem- Head a bly disloyal to Britain, stirred up the now politician. British electors, who had not a single principle in com- mon with tho Family Compact, to look upon Bidwell, Mackenzie, and their followers as untrue to British connectioD, pointing as ho did to the disloyal letter from Papineau, which had been read by Mr. Speaker Bidwell in the Upper Canada Assembly. But the Governor, though but "winning his spurs" as a political manipulator, showed evidence of talent in not trusting to appeals to sentiment alone. He used the stronger inducements of self-interest. It was given out that settlers, who voted wdth tho government, would c 2 .yUJ 1i Hi > i 1 ^''1 ' - 1 '' ' E g 1 . L 3^8 A Shout Historv of m rof'civo tlio patents for their hinds, for wliicli in some ciiscs ilicv liiid waited h)nd to grant the requests made. It was in carrying back Governor Her I's unfavourable answer that Dr. Rolph showed his duplicity. Though acting as the Governor's messenger, he took aside cei'tain of the rebel leaders and secretly encouraged them to attack Toronto. An advance was made to within a mile of the city, when a collision took place, and the rebels retired to Mongomery's. Mackenzie succeeded in a sally on the western mail in capturing certain important letters. The delay in attacking Toronto made Kolph's position very precarious, and so he hastened from Toronto, pro- fessedly to the western district, but really to seek shelter in the United States. 1 for Do- 3 country eral days, mo of the ;he 4th of Biit of iu- stroug. a loyalist, ■aped from lu named of Colonel lad rashly ! on Yonge his horse 900. Had have fallen )00 people, :izens took ely for de- the west. ating with dwell, who i^ a flag* of Governor Governor |n carrying that JL)r. ig as the t the rebel k Toronto, the city, (retired to Illy on the lit letters. 's position (-onto, pro- iek shelter THE Canadian People. 391 The time for .iction was allowed to slip by the afore- time courageous regulators. Colonel Allan ]\IcNab jiri'ived in Toronto from Hamilton, with his militin, and without delav attacked the rebels remainino- at Mont- gomery's. After a short but severe skirmish, tho militia were victors; the motley gathering of discontented farmers fled ; and Mackenzie, on whose head a reward of 1000/. had been set, after a toilsome and adventurous journey, escaped to the United States by way of tho Niaofara frontier. rp The Provisional Government was now organized on Navy Island, in the Niagara Eiver. The patriot flag, with t\ iu stars and the motto, '^ Liberty and Equality,^' was hoisted, and ])lanted in the face of Colonel JMcNab, who held the Canadian shore. A daring action was performed on December 29th by Captain Drew, R.N., one of McXab's command. The insurgents had made use of a vessel, the Caroline, in carrying supplies from the American shore to Navy Island. The vessel lay moored for the night under the very guns of Fort Schlosser, indeed the shadows of the fort enveloped the Caroline. With seven boats, carrying some sixty men in all, who were armed with pistols, cutlasses, and pikes, the captain boarded the ill-fated vessel, captured her, but not being able, on account of the current, to bring her to the Canadian side, sent her flaming over the Niagara Falls. The vessel proved to be an American bottom, and so Britain was compelled to disavow tho seizure, but nothing could blot out the bravery of the deed. The ardent leader, Dr. Duncombe, succeeded in gather- ing some oOO men on Burford Plains, intending to pass by way of Brantford, and seize Hamilton, and thus advance the rebel cause. Colonel McNab, however, with 500 men, hastened west, and reached the village of Scotland, but the insurgent band melted away on his approach. For some time afterward, an irritation con- tinued along the Niagara frontier, a number of character- less scoundrels seeking to keep up strife for the sake of plunder. The arch-rebel Mackenzie was at length is If ■ ^' ?l .tt 392 A Short History of seized by the law authorities of the State of New York, and tried at Albany, "for setting on foot a military enterprise against Upper Canada." He , was fountl guilty, and sentenced to one and a half years^ imprison- ment, but "was released in response to numerous petitions after some ten months had expired. * The utter want of tact, and even of fair dealing, shown by Sir Francis Bond Head, resulted in his recall. He was succeeded by Sir George Arthur, who had in Hobart Town been accustomed to rule the convict settlements. He was harshness itself. Lount and Matthews, two of the rebel leaders, were well regarded by all classes of the people, notwithstanding their false movement in the rebellion. Large petitions in their favour were presented to the Governor, and Lount's wife made before Sir George a most heart-rending appenl for her husband, but all was of no avail, and they were hurried to the gallows, April 12th, 1838. On Juno 28th, an amnesty was granted to all suspected persons, who had not been actively engaged in the rebellion. It was not till 1843 that Rolph, Duncombe, Morrison, Gibson, Gorham, and Montgomery were pardoned, though the general amnesty was not granted until 1 849. Thus-; in reality terminated this wretched affair, dishonouring alike to the enemies of liberty who forced it on, and re- flecting only disgrace on those who conceived and so badly executed it. Section HI. — The New Constitution. Few things so stir British statesmen as a colonial The need rebellion. The memory of Lexington and of Conces- Bunker's Hill at once revives. At certain sion. epas it seems to have been the only means of quickening the Downing Street conscience. One of the rising statesmen of Britain was at once despatched to Canada, with power as the benevolent young queen's High Commissioner, for Victoria had but lately ham.^""^' ascended the throne, June 20th, 1837. This was the Earl of Durham. ■i:i THE Canadian People. 393 John Gcoro'o Lambton, born in 1792, in the nortli of Enghinclj entered the House of Commons in iHlo. He was a pronounced Liberal in his views, a champion of popuhir rights, and one of the leaders in carrying the lieform Bill of 18:32. A political associate of Earl Grey, the tie was cemented with that great leader by the niarriapfe of Lord Durham with a daug-hter of that statesman. He had served as ambassador to St. Peters- burg, I'roTn 1835-07, and though of advanced political views was aesthetic in his tastes, and inclined to habits far from Spartan. With a large retinue the new Governor-General arrived at Quebec, May 29th, 1838, amid much splendour. The constitution of Lower Canada had been suspended by the Imperial parliament on account of the rebellion. Lord Durham's first difficulty was in dealing with the prisoners taken during the rebellion. Sixteen of the leaders had removed themselves from his jurisdiction by flight. The amnesty proclaimed only excluded eight leaders. It was in dealing with the exceptions that Lord Durham erred. Trusting to his powers as special commis- sioner, he broke the law by sending the eight prisoners retained, among whom was Dr. Wolfred Nelson, into exile to Bermuda. Lord Brougham and his other rivals in England denounced his action as illegal and unjustifiable. It was really unfair that Lord Durham, in the midst of such grave difficulties, should have been so severely taken to task. The contemptuous title, " Lord High Seditioner.'^ was hurled at him bv his enemies. The high-spirited earl was led into anothe? act of unwisdom by his annoyances, viz. of issuing a proclamation con- taining criticisms as to the action of the British ministry in disallowing the exile-ordinance which he had passed. And yet these blunders were but the spots on the sun of Lord Durham's glorious achievements for Canada. It is true Lord Durham was imperious, mettlesome, and at times obstinate; he was, moreover, sensitive and irritable, this, no doubt, arising from his delicate state of health, but no British delegate ever showed such capacity for dealing with the difficulties of colonial life^ -<, km, ;? 11 IV .Il» .;! 394 A Short History of or for sugoi'cstini^' remedies for improvement, as Lord iJiirliam. As liiis been pointed out, the period of liis rule was tlie nliortest ever swerved l)y a Governor-General, viz. six months, and yet no Governor ever did so much for Canada. The enormous mass of information to be found in tlio _, folio proceeding's of the House of Lords, em- Eeport. bodying Lord Durham's report and its elabo- rate appendices, is a wonderful monument of industry. Lord Durham did not hesitate to express his opinions openly. Ho declared, " that the same grievances to a large extent prevail in all the provinces ; while the present state of things is allowed to last, the actual in- habitants of these provinces have no security for person or jDroperty, no enjoyment of what they possess, no stimulus to industry." As to Lower Canada, the report speaks with remark- able clearness. Lord Durham admired the mild, well- mannered French-Canadians, but saw the political danger from their being ^'^an ntterly uneducated and singularly inert population.^' ^' They remain,'^ said he, "an old and stationary society in a new and progressive world.'' While clearly pointing out the wrong features of Lower Canadian oligarchy, he nevertheless declared, ''that in Lower Canada the real struggle was not one of prin- ciples, but of race." Great Britain, he maintained, was largely responsible for this, for to preserve Canada against the United States, Britain '^ had cultivated Lower Canadian nation- ality." The report declares that the natural state of government in ''all the colonies," those by the sea as well as those inland, " is that of collision between the executive and the representative bodies.'"' Such collisions show a deviation from sound constitutional principles. Lord Durham declared that " since 1G88 the stability of Britain had depended on the responsibility of the government to tlie majority of the legislature." We cannot pretend to give even a sketch of this re- markable report. It is, undoubtedly, one of the greatest THE Canadian People. 395 state docnm^nts in existence. Its grasp of principles is masterly, and not a feature of the social, religions, industrial, or political life of the people, in any of the British American provinces, escaped the keen-eyed statesman, and his able assistants, chief of Avhom was Mr. Charles Buller. The various remedies for the government of the country are discussed in the report. At first Lord Durham had favoured a federal constitution, but in the end ho recommended a legislative nnion. Far-seeing statesman that he was, he foreshadowed a nnion of all the provinces, though for the settlement of the pressing difficulties of Upper and .Lower Canada, he recom- mended their immediate anion, and the establishment in them of " responsible government.'^ -AH true Canadians must regret that the founder of their liberties, for sncli Lord Durham was, slionld have been received so nngraciously by the British Govern- ment on his return to England. True, he had in his vexation over the disallowance of his exile-ordinance, sailed for Britain without leave, but to have refused his lordship a salute on landing such as was customary to returning governors, was surely a high indignity. The British people, however, on the landing of his lordship, gave him a right royal welcome. Lord Durham's report was so important that a Bill was founded on its recommendations, and introduced into parliament in 1839, by Lord John Russell. Before the final passage of this Bill, it was deemed wise that it should be submitted to the Colonial governing bodies. To accomplish this end a shrewd diplomatic envoy,'. Mr. Charles Poulett Thompson, a relative of the famous Lord Ashburton, was sent to Canada, September loth, 1839. The Council of Lower Canada accepted the proposed constitution, though, had the Assembly, which had been suspended during the rebellion, been in existence, the result would have been different. Even the Upper Canadian legislature needed much skilful management by Mr. Thompson in order to induce it to accept the -ii % 96 A Short History of # mm Bill, for tlio Loyalists siiw that tlioy would bo greatly outnumbered in United Canada. A stron,^ appeal to their patriotism, however, at length gained their approval. The Imperial parliament thea again took up the matter, and the *' Act to reunite the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada " became law, July 2:h'd, 18 10. Under The New this new constitution, there was provision made Constitu- for a Legislative Council, whose members would ^^°°- be appointed for life by the Governor, while the Legislative Assembly was to consist of an equal number of members from Upper and Lower Canada. Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec were to elect two mem- bers each, the towns one member, and to the Governor was given the power of fixing the limits of the con- stituencies. The English language alone was permitted in the legislative records, but this provision was changed in after years. In order to make the constitution stable, it was provided that no change in the number of members of the Assembly could be made, unless by a two-thirds vote. By the new constitution a fixed civil list, amounting to 75,000/. annually, was made, over which the xVssembly had no control, but all other expenditure must be under its direction. Amounts due the clergy were not subject to the vote of the Assembly, and ecclesiastical rights were under the protection of the crown. Taxes on the people could only be levied for the benefit of the pro- vince, and witli the assent of the two Houses of parlia- ment. Provision was made for the full establishment of courts of law. To the Governor belonged the power of fixing the place of meeting of the Canadian legislature. The longing desire of the people was that the new constitution should provide for the Executive Council being made responsible to the Assembly, and so to the people. In the new Act this was not provided for in so many words, but it was provided that the Governor should only exercise power according to instructions from her Majesty. To supplement these important provisions, upon the Act coming into force by proclamation, on the THE Canadian People. 397 '^'^ r^ nth of Fi'l)rnary, IHll, a despatch was forwarded 1)\' Lord Joliii liiisscll to tlio Governor-General that " the Governor must only oppose the wislies of the Assembly when the liononr of the crown or tho interests of tho empire are deeply concerned." The moderate opponents of the Family Compact were in transports of delight over the new constitution; tho rebel party of Upper Cannda reirni-ded it as but a half- measure, their aforetime compatriots in Jjovver Canada were much dissatisfied, and sent a petition with 40,000 signatures against the new Act to ]3ritain, while tho Loyahsts looked suspiciously npon it, regarding it as the beginning of a Canadian Republic. The J^ritish Ministry, through Lord Durham's aid, had undoubtedly reached the hajipy mean ; Mr. Thompson was raised to the peerage as Lord Sydenham for his successful manage- ment, and under his wise guidance the new constitution was launched to go on its perilous way. .^mi (V It. I 398 A Short History of Si'JB'.: r ClIAl'TKR XII. i PROORKSS IN TKOVINCIAL Lli;E. (llcferencea : "Eon^hing it in the "Bush," by Mrs. S. Moodlo, London, iH-ji; " Tweutv-seveu Yeai's in Canada West" (Strick- land), London, 18.>1.; "The Staple Trade of Ciinada " (TimLcr), by a. H. Perry, Ottawa, 18(12; '"The Last Forty Years," by d. ('. Dent, 2 vols., Toronto, 1881 ; " History of Prince Edward Island," by Duncan Campbell, Charlotte Town, 1875; " lleininiscences of Sir Francis Ilincks," ^Montreal, 1881 ; " Life and Sjieeches of the Hon. Georu,e Brown," by the Hon. A. Mackenzie, Toronto, 1882 ; " Canada," by A. LilHe, Toronto, 1855 ; " Canadian Economics by Britisli Association," Montreal, 1885 ; " History of Nova Scotia," by Duncan Campljoll, ]\Ioutreal, 187o ; "Vancouver Island and British Columbia," by d. D. Pemberton, London, 1850 ; "Van- couver Island and British Columbia," by M. McFie, London, 18<)o ; "British Columbia," by 11. C. Mayne, London, 1862; *' Hudson's Bay Company Reports," London, 1857; "Confedera- tion of Canada," by d. H. Gray, Toronto, 1872.) Section I. — Growth of Population. Canada, as we have seen, was from the first Largely The Half- ^ military colony. Not only were the Cario'- Pay Oificers' nans, and the Fraser and Montgomery High- Legion, landers, an important element in Lower Canada, but disbanded Royalist soldiers, Hessians, Glengarry Fencibles, De Meurons, and the soldiers of many British regiments which were reduced from time to time, filled up large districts in all of the Canadian provinces. And while the rank and file thus colonized many portions of British America, there was a large element of the military officer class, which also threw in its lot with Canada. Tho traveller in the Canada of a generation ago con- Till-: Canadian Pkui'Li:. 399 . S. jMoodlo, st " (Stvick- " (Timl)cr), vs,"byJ.('. avcl Island," niaccnces of ochos of the roato, 1 , and tlio ^ovk, pos- ts got by host )) 111 I to tliom. 'idinf? ior red in tlio I ill. Thoy (>rs," were itriots, but d riflo, the as well as ildi'cn were lieii" homes .t that sueh and others them the d to be the •as not siir- Ishocked by lit of those lody of the American .id not con- okes," and [nt, too, ill iucomiug lorrowiug" Uil. Mrs. lictions in Isays Mr<. jcs, starch, article in llities, con- dtf ul plum or peach-treo, or exposed nielou-plot was siife from tlieir (k'piedatioiis. Valuable do^s were poisoned, eattlo maimed, and even horses shot by these wanton dis- turbers. Ni<^'lit was nuide liideous by tlieir " raccoon- hunts," and "husking bees/* and *^ eharivarees." The religious sugar-maker, who left his caldron of half-boiled maple-sugar in the forest during Sunday to ^^o toehureh, found it "sugared olV" and stolen, on Monilay morning, by these local outlaws. Yet these bad elements constituted but a small part of the population. As well declare that because an "artful doilger" should make a visitor to the east of linndon his victim that all ijondoners are thieves, or because a largo portion of the frequenters of the Salt Market in Glasgow are dissipated that the Scottish people are drunkards, as that the Canadians at the time of these passing travellers were the pestilential element they describe. The Bidwells, Burwells, Shades, and Duneombes rather, were the representatives of an American element which has been of the highest service to Canada. For the vicious and lawless class described, the advance of civi- lization became too strong. The church and school did their work among the young, rublic sentiment became too powerful for the evil-doers to persevere in their van- dalism, and this immoral American element has well-nigh disappeared from Canadian society. The Canada Company, as already stated, were gradually obtaining settlers tor their lauds in the Huron tract. The population in 1811 had become 5000, ^^.^q^ and. nine years later had grown to 20,93^. The company was fiercely attacked for the slow development of its lands. Its advocates, in the year 1850, in defend- ing themselves, declared that in twenty-three years the *' Huron tract '^ had made more progress than Lower Canada had done in 104 years up to 1721, Avhen its population did not reach 25,000. The argument, we must confess, is not very convincing. Among the first settlers in the Huron tract had been Colonel Von Egraont, the commander-in-chief, in 1837, of the rebels who followed Mackenzie. Von Egmont had D d lllv ■ ,,■; t! ; i 402 A Short IIistokv or m hcon u c'oloMol ill tlio TtnjxM'iiil army, and liiid led a Hi'l^iMii rcj^'imt'iit at VVaturloo. Soon aftor his sottlo- nicMit the ofHcors of tlio Cunada Conijiaiiy had boon invited to visit his prosperous I'arrn ; and Miidanio Von lOufinont, ill tlie presence of the oHieiul ^''(Mith.Mncui, cut with a sickle, and bound up herself the tirst sheaf in wliat is now the i^opulous and fertile Huron district. The outcry against theCiiuada Coinpany on the part of tli(» ])eople, in the years succeiulin^ the rebellion, jyj^'^®®"' induced the (loverntnent to open for settlement tlio region north and east of the Huron tract. This had been described as a great* swamp, and the Canada Company itself liad regarded it as valueless. Iloads wore opened through the new townships, and the means of access were found by way of (inelph and the Gurafraxa road. Two vast counties were laid out in the new district, Bruce, on the shoro of Lake Huron — a memorial of Lord Elgin's family name — and Waterloo, which extended from the township of Wilmot even to the shores of (Georgian Bay. ]n 1857 the new counties of Waterloo, Wellington, and Grey wi "o formed, the two former, with the township of Wellesley in the same region, reminding us of the Iron Duke. To the Queen's Bush, as this district was called, in the years 1855 to 18(55, the flow of population was continuous, both of British immigrants and of residents from the older counties. This formerly discredited portion of the country now contains an enormous popu- lation, the counties of Grey and Bruce alone, in the year 1881, having had upwards of 100,000 people. From the time of the union of the Canadas and before, even to the present day, there has been a steady Counties, settling-up of the " Back Counties." This has gone on in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and, to some extent, in Lower Canada. The policy of the Government has been at all times to encourage this. Counties in Upper Canada, back of Kingston, Peterboro', Toronto, and those in Lower Canada lying to the rear of Montreal and Ottawa, have thys been occupied. ■•5 Tin: Canadian rnoru:. 403 IimI a scttlo- 1 1)0011 no Vou on, cut hojit' ill ct. part of ibolUon, ,tloineut 111 tract, luid the aluolcss. ami tlio and the it in tlio Iiirou — a Vaterloo, on to tlio plUngton, township the Iron Vi9, called, tion was residents scredited us popu- the year id before, a steady This has Irunswick, Canada, all times ida, hack lin Lower Ottawa, For o\am])lo, tlio county of Simcoo was Het npnrt in THI-J}; St. Vincent townsliip was nt first known as Zoro ; tho townships of Flos, Tiny, and Tay wore so natnod from tho three lap-don^s of my lady of G )Vornniout ilonso. A road from IJradford northward, and anothor to tho west were opened in tho larj^'o county of Simcoo, and by tho year 1850 tlio population had ^""rown to 25,000. At the same date thoro were upwai'ds of a quarter of a million of acres of unoccupied crown land iu Simcoo, Wolling-ton, and Groy. Fven in tho closing* years of last century tho negro could boast that whon his foot touched Canadian soil tho shackles which had been fastened upon jje^^gntg^ * him by tho laws of tho United States fell h-om his limbs. In consequence, the 300 negroes who had come witli tho U.F. Loyalists to tho British ])rovincos were followed by numbers of their race. To Nova* Scotia, and to the neighbourhood of Chatham and Windsor, in tho western district of Upper Canadn, most of the immigrants ciunc. Li 1848 a tract of 18,000 acres in Ualeigh, near Lake Erie, was, through tho inthience of Lord Elgin, sot apart as a refugee settlement under tho Elgin Association. The Rev. William King, a Presbyterian clergyman, who had owned slaves in Louisiana, liberated thom and came to Canada to begin in this district the " Buxton Settlement," so named from Thomas Buxton, tho philan- thropist. Another colony of negroes was formed on the borders of Kent and Lambton counties, the founder being the Rev. Josialr Henson, the original of Mrs. Stowe's character of ^^ Uncle Tom.'^ In 1881 the negro popu- lation of Canada exceeded 21,000, of whom upwards of 7000 were in Nova Scotia, and above 12,000 in Ontario. The increasing flood of immigration from Britain reached 125,000 souls in the five years preceding r^^^ g^ the rebellion of 1837. In the two years of tho Lawrence rebellion the numbers fell to less than 3000 in immi- tlio first year, and to some 7000 in the second. S"^*^^^- The passage of tho Union Act, in 1840, and the prospect of peace thus given, immedintely restored tho conftdenoL^ D d 2 ,1 404 A Short History of y^m fiS ^'■'k in Caiifida as a settlers' home. In ilic ten years from 1840 to 1850, there landed at Quebec, from the Old World, no less than 350,000 souls, of whom from one- third to a half took advantage of the Canadian route to reach the Western States. In the year 1847, which succeeded the distress by the potato famine in Britain^ upwards of 98,000 iuimigrants landed at Quebec. In the period from 1850 to 18()7 the date of confedera- tion, there were upwards of 450,000 persons entered by the port of Quebec. It was by this vast multitude, an army of conquerors, coming up the St. Lawrence Valley to subjugate the forest and the soil, that Huron district, Bruce, Wellington, Grey, Simcoe, and other *'back counties " of Ontario were settled, as well as by the sons and daughters of the pioneers who in previous generations had endured hardships to make Upper Canada what she had become. The forests of New Brunswick sought their share of the Old World's overflow of population. 3 ®^g^ij.^ Between the years 1834 and 1840 the increase of population was above 30,000, and in the next eleven years it was 37,000. During the latter period, in 1844 and three succeeding years, there Ltnded no less than 34,000 persons in New Brunswick, but about half of this number sought the United States. In the last of these years ninety-nine vessels arrived direct from Ireland with immigrants. These settlers were in a most destitute condition, and were the victims of the ^' ship fever,^' which is still remembered by older colonists as but little less deadly than the cholera. In that year, of the 17,000 who shipped for New Brunswick from Britain, 2000 died of this plague, and in the same year upwards of 5000 died on shipboard, pro- ceeding up the St. Lawrence to Quebec. Of those sent from Ireland, many had not enough of clothing to cover their persons, and Lord Elgin's despatch states that the fever was brought on board the ships in most cases, and did not originate on the voyage. Canadian municipalities passed resolutions, protesting against this immigration, and the different provinces adopted severe quarantine ^^>mf{ii^^ It- ■•« THE Canadian People. 40s liiws, lu Now Brunswick the cliiof localities roceiviii.t^ the new population were liichibucto, Tabisliintac, 8oninouclie, New Baudou, and J3atliurst. A l)nrning land question was the chief feature of Princ(^ Kdward Island. As already mentioned, prince the whole island, except a small Government Edward reservation, was given out by ballot, in 1707, Island. to proprietors who had claims on the ground of military or other ])ublic services. As a condition of tenure the land must bo settled within ten years. In 1770 there were on the island but 150 families and five proprietors. The owners were required to pay quit-rents to the Government, and the proprietary system, so alien to the spirit of New World settlement, was fixed upon the unfortunate island. Efforts were made early to collect these rents, but the influence in England of the owners, and their ability to combine to resist the enforcement of the Government's demands, resulted in their dues being actually reduced, and in their firm con- solidation, not only as a privileged class, but in what is its most odious form — an aljsentee oligarchy. In 1802 the feelings of the people are said to have risen " in paroxysms of just indignation against the pro- prietors." Agitation followed agitation. In 1 860, in the legislature of the island, it was agreed to submit the questions between proprietors and tenants to a commis- sion of three persons, one to be named by the legislature, another by the proprietors, and a third by her Majesty. The Hon. Joseph Howe was chosen commissioner for the tenantry. During this same year the estates of the Earl of Selkirk, consisting of upwards of 62,000 acres, were purchased by the Prince Edward Island Government at a little above 2s. an acre. In 1 861 the Land Commissioners, after holding a Court, taking evidence, and examining the condition of the island, recommended a recognition of the claims of the proprietors, not being able to advise the escheatment of any of the original grants on the ground of nonperformance of conditions of settlement. To extinguish the proprietors' claim it was recommended that the Imperial parliament guarantee a loan of 100,000^. 4o6 A Short History of >?t^ for tlic purpose. Tlio Commissioners, on giving in tlieir suggestions, declared tlioir belief that if relief were obtained for the island, " Prince Edward Island would yet become the Barbadocs of the St. Lawrence/' At this date the population of the island was found to be i:^0,850. The Imperial parliament refused to per- mit the Act of the Prince Edward Island legislature, embodying the Commissioners' report, to become law. Negotiation with the proprietors wns now the only hope of a settlement. A delegation, in ISCy-j, went to Britain from Prince Edward Island. It is interesting to know that one of the chief proprietors was Sir Samuel Cuuard, of the celebrated steamship line. The matter was not settled until, by the entrance of Prince Edward Island, into Confederation in 1873, 800,000 dollars were set apart by the Dominion for the extinguishment of the owners' claims, and a Court was constituted in 1875 which estimated the amounts due, and thus this troublesome question was removed, after having been a subject of contention for a whole century. At Fort Garry, the centre of the Red River, or Selkirk Settlement, on the 12tli of February, 1835, a Se^ttlemeat ^""^"^ Government w^as erected and a Court es- * tablished. Assiniboia was the name of the uewdy- organized district, and Sir George Simpson became Presi- dent of the Council, which consisted of fifteen members selected from the leading men of the Selkirk settlers and English and French half-breeds making up the settle- ment. At this date the population had reached about 5000, in 1865 it was estimated at 6500, and, on the erec- tion of Manitoba as a province by the Dominion in 1870, the population was found to be about 2000 whites, 5000 English-speaking, and 5000 French half-breeds. Of the population, which arrived in the country between the years 1817 and 1821, several hundreds were Lord Sel- kirk's disbanded De Meuron soldiers, or Swiss immi- grants, who had come out by way of Hudson Bay. Almost all of these deserted the country about 1827. The agitation arising out of the Oregon question, and the loud boasting of the people of the United States, resulted in the force of 500 British regulars, chiefly of THE Canadian People. 407 the Gtli Royals, being sent to Fort Garry in 184G. Two years after, on the departure of the troops, a body of seventy pensioners was sent to the country, to whom were given small holdings in the neiglibourhood ot: Fort (jarrv. A serious outbreak took place at Forfc Garry in 1849, arising from the attempt of the Hudson's Bay Company to enforce their rights of monopoly in the fur-trade. Vancouver Island was in 18 19 granted to the Hudson's Bay Company, and Mr. liichard BlancLard British beinc^ sent out as: Governor remained for two Columbia ^ r,,, 11' 8.iid Van- years. J. here were not more than thu'ty settlers couver on the island, other than Hudson^s Bay Com- Island, pany employees, when Governor Blanchard, in a dispi- rited state of mind, left the island. The well-known officer of the fur company, afterwards 8ir James Douglas, succeeded to the governorship. The Hudson's Bay Company was expected to nndertake the colonization of the island, and provision was made for the establish- ment of a Legislative Council and Assembly, having power to levy taxes. The trading' licence on the Pacific mainland, wdiich had some years before been given to the Hudson^s Bay Com- pany, was in 1858 revoked, and the province of British Columbia. established. In the succeeding year the grant of Vancouver Island, which had been made ten years before to the fur-traders, was recalled, and the Pacific island became a crown colony, with Victoria as its capital, as New Westminster was the capital of the mainland colony of British Columbia. By Imperial Act, in 18GG, Vancouver Island and British Columbia were joined into one province, under the name of the latter, and remained a united crown colony until their entrance into Con- federation in the year 1871. i I;! I ;r \ '.r '■-'t Section II. — The Stormy Sea of Politics. Lord Sydenham was set to work-out the new constitu- tion which was the result of Lord Durham^s Respon- report. He was a man of delicate health, great sible Go- devotion to business, and lived in constant fear ^ernment. 408 A Short Hlstorv of i wp-:iJr-:i. i I BB i lest liis plans of government should fail. The first elec- tion after tlio union of the Canadas had resulted in a most heterogeneous parliament. There were only seven members of the whole eighty-four who had belonged to the now discredited Family Compact, but the Radicals among the Upper Canadians and the rebellious Lower Canadians wore uncertain quantities in the new House of Assembly. The Governor chose his Executive Council from those of different shades of opinion. Robert Baldwin became the leading figure in Upper Canadian politics. His moderation but made his tena- cious hold of the principle of responsible government the more admirable. Unwilling to enter the Executive Council with any of the former absolutists, he accepted office for a time, in order to satisfy the new Governor, along with Mr., afterwards Chief Justice, Draper, but soon resigned. On the opening of the House, Draper was severely pressed as to whether he was an adherent of the new constitution, and would insist on " respon- sible government. ^^ Of an acute mind, the leading executive councillor made fine distinctions, but was sup- })osed to have accepted the popular principle. The House, which had been summoned by Lord Sydenham to meet at Kingston on the 14th of June, 1841, adopted resolutions declaring for the new principles, but less explicit than Baldwin desired. The Governor became much enfeebled in health; his anxieties consumed him ; by a sad accident he was thrown from his horse while riding, and his reduced frame succumbed on the 19th of September, 1841. Lord Sydenham was a capable, fair- minded, and useful Governor. The next Governor- General was Sir Charles Bagot, who only survived a year, dying from a painful disease in the year 1843. Earl Stanley, the Colonial Minister, was regarded as hostile to the new constitution, and it was no surprise when, in the year of Governor Bagot's death, his successor was appointed from the reactionary school of politics. Lord Lord Stanley's protege was Charles Metcalfe. Metcalfe. Charles Theophilus Metcalfe was born on the :^ m il THE Canadian People. 409 SOtli of January, 1785, at Calcutta. He was the son of an army officer, who was in the East India Company's service. Educated at Eton ho had returned to India in his sixteenth year, had been employed in the East Indies in important Government offices, and had then come to Jamaica as Governor of that island. Having ruled over inferior races. Governor Metcalfe was despotic in his tendencies, and unsuited for Canada at this juncture. He jeered at '^ responsible government,^' and declared his position no better than "an Indian Governor, com- pelled to rule by means of a Mahommedan Ministry and a Mahommedan parliament." Indeed it was the usual rulo of the opponents of liberty to sneer at popular government. One of the Family Compact Avits described it as a "trap set by rogues to catch fools," and Sir Francis Bond Head, who had said about himself, " I was no more connected with human politics than the horses that were drawing me," gloried in the contrary principle, "that the Executive Council is not responsible to the people." Governor Metcalfe was defended in his assumptions by Egerton Ryerson, who seems to have developed into a more adroit politician than the great clerical statesman Strachan. The crisis soon came. Robert Baldwin maintained that the acts of the Governor must be in harmony with the advice of his Executive Council. The Governor took opposite ground, and on the 23rd of November, 1843, made an appointment to office without the advice of his Council. Popular indignation rose strongly against the valorous autocrat, who, notwithstanding his intense suffering from a cancer on his face, was willing to try conclusions with that hydra-headed opponent of tyrants — the people. At this studied insult the Ministers resigned, and it was with great difficulty that the Governor obtained a new Executive Council. Amidst much excitement parliament met in 1844 in Montreal. At the general elections the Canadian Ministry had been but barely sustained. The British Ministry looked with approval on the action Governor Metcalfe had taken, and rewarded the plucky absolutist by raising 1 1 4IO A Short History of ■I- P 1 liiiii to the poorago as Baron Metcalfe of Fern IlilL Finding that he had fallen in the estimation of the people, Lord ^^letcalfe resigned and retired to England, where lie died soon after. Of a kind and benevolent disposition, Lord Metcalfe was not witliont his Canadian admirers, bnt the attempt to interfere needlessly with a constitn- tion which had been obtained by the exile of a number of leading Canadians and the blood of others, stirred up the strong feeling of the best elements of Canadian society against this propounder of absolutist theories. The struggle lor responsible government in Ncav Bruns- NewBruns-^^^^^^ and Nova Scotia was virtually one with wick and that in Canada. In a despatch from Lord Nova Glenelg, the Colonial Secretary in 1838, to Scotia. ^i^. Q^ii^ Campbell, the Governor of Nova Scotia, it had been plainly set forth that no judge could hold office in the Colonial Parliament, and also that the power must be allowed each Assembl}^ to control the provincial revenue. The Governor chose to be members of Ills Executive and Legislative Councils only those belonging to the oligarchy, which in Nova Scotia as well as in Upper Canada was known by the name " Family Compact." The Assembly remonstrated with the Go- vernor, who stubbornly refused to be advised, and not- withstanding Lord Glenelg's instructions, pursued his own course. But the cause of liberty had able advocates in Nova Scotia. Such names as Uniacke — Young — and especially Howe, stand out among her defenders. Joseph Howe, born in Halifax, JDecember, 1804, was the sonofaU.E. Loyalist. Compelled to seek his own way in life, he, in 1817, became a printer^s apprentice, and had in ten years become the publisher of a vigorous newspaper — the Nova Scotian. In the year 1835 this journal made a fierce attack on the Halifax magistracy, charging that body with dishonest official conduct. An accusation of libel was brought against the outspoken printer. The case was so clearly against him that no lawyer would undertake his defence. Thrust into the breach, Howe defended his own cause ; his address to the jury occupied more than six hours, and Howe. , THE Canadian People. 411 was at once a model of forensic mid pojuilar cloquoiice. The jury brought m a verdict of ''Not Guilty.'' Ill 188<), Howe was elected to the Assembly. Iii the Maritime Provinces, it was not till after the ademption of Lord Durham's report that the battle for IVee iii-overnment was really fought. New Brunswick had always been strongly loyalist. Sir John Harvey, the Governor of New BrunsAvick, had, on the receipt of Lord John llusselPs despatchof the Ibtli of October, 1839, regarded it so highly as "a new and improved constitution," that he proceeded to introduce its principles into the goverr- ment of his province. Strange to say, the New Bruns- wick Assembly, by a small majority, refused to accept the principle, not valuing the freedom oi'fered it. In Nova Scotia, however, the old soldier named, who held the reins of power, on the other hand suppressed the despatch, and made no allusion to its having been received. In 184(\ in the Nova Scotian Assembly, Howe introduced four resolutions asserting the doctrine of responsible government, and declaring want of con- fidence in the existing Executive Council. The resolutions were adopted by a vote of thirty to twelve. Representations were thus made to Sir Colin, but he declared himself satisfied with his advisers. The ob- stinacy of the Governor drew forth an address by the Assembly, calling attention to Lord Russell's despatch. The Governor informed the Assembly that his interpre- tation of the despatch differed from theirs. The Assembly then reluctantly, but firmly, requested the recall of the Governor, which took place in 1840, and. Viscount Falk- land came in his stead. Fierce personal contests next took place between Howe and the new Governor ; but, through much heat and conflict, the battle of free govern- ment was won, and even in New Brunswick the popular cause became triumphant. The sad rebellions of Upper and Lower Canada left a heritage of discord in tlie losses which had Rebellion been occasioned by the outbreak. The under- Losses taking to meet, on the part of the Govern- ^^^• ment, the losses of loyalists had originated in this ■ i If f '*! II 412 A Short Hi story of party, wlioii it i^ ^ *; Tlio (Jovornor's Ministry liiiJ been defeated several tiiiK^H in the session of 1847, and at the general election in the following year suffered a crushitig defeat. The leadership of the French had been transferred fi'om the aforetime reb(4 Papineau, who was now in parliament, again to the Hon. L. 11. liafontaine. The Lafontaine-Baldwin ministry was formed, and tlio full development of ministerial responsibility was now the acknowledged principle. One of the earliest measures to be introduced was that providing for the payment of the rebellion losses in Lower Canada. The loyalist opposition now raised the cry again that the object of this bill was to compensate those who had actnally taken part in the rebellion. The Ministry denied having any such intention. The fury of the opposition knew no bounds : ^' No pay to rebels " became their watchword ; and indignation meetings stirred up the passions of the people. At this juncture occurred one of the most disgraceful episodes ever known in Canadian politics. The opposi- tionists, who had so rung the changes on the cry of loyalty, actually signed a manifesto declaring their readi- ness for annexation with the United States. It was the cry of loyalty that was debased to bring to death the purest one the world ever saw, but the annexation fiasco of 18 10 serves to show how meanino-less the continual harping on the string of loyalty may be. We pass over the names, some of them since prominent, without men- tion, of those who signed the disloyal document, for their act brings a blush to the face of every true Canadian. Notwithstanding the most determined opposition, the '' losses bill " passed by a considerable majonty. The loj'alist party in Toronto attacked the houses of pro- minent supporters of the measure. Lord Elgin proceeded to the house which is now St. Ann's Market, Montreal, and assented to the objectionable act. His carriage was beset by ruffians, though protected by cavalry. In the evening, amidst the wild excitement of the ^' canaille,'^ the parliament-house was sacked ; a rioter seated himself THE Canadian Pkopi.e. 415 in tlio spcsakor's chair atui crioil out, " I dissolvo this liouso;" and, to end all, tho huildinj^'.s woro set on firo and burnL'd to tlic ^Tound, Sii* Allan McNab, tho Speaker, with dilHculty saving tho maco, and a valuahlo picture ot' lier Majesty. Violence was shown also towards tho leading members of tlio Ministry, and a disgraceful attack was made u])on liis Excellency on his entering tho city on his ])ublic duties. There seemed a repetition of the excesses of a Jacobin mob in Paris, but one is grii^ved to state that the rioters were Bi'itish. Montreal was punished by tho immediate removal of the capital to Toronto for two years, and after that for four years to Quebec, and its claim to bo made tho capital of Canada was never again received with favour. The infamous act of Sir John Colborne, in 183.")^ in establishing the rectories was one of the most xhe Clergy irritating of the wrongs which incited the radi- Reserves cals of that time to rebellion, for it was entirely ^S*^^- out of harmony with a despatch of Lord Ripon, in 1832, which had promised that no action would be taken in the matter. Immediately after the rebellion the question of the Clergy Reserves rose again. Lord Sydenham was exceedingly desirous of having this difficulty settled before the union of the provinces in 1841. His reasons were convincing. The introduction of a large French element into the new parliament, which had no interest in the matter, was a sufficient ground for haste. Accordingly, in 1839, Lieutenant-Governor Arthur, of Upper Canada, was successful in having a bill passed re-vesting the Clergy Reserves in the crown, and trans- ferring the power of appropriating tlie funds from their sale ^* to the Imperial Parliament for religious purposes.'^ The Act was, however, disallowed by the Imperial authorities. But again, in 1840, tlie Governor- General sent a message to the Assembly of Upper Canada, proposing a new measure for settling this vexed question. This was to devote the proceeds of the clergy lauds, one- half to the churches of England and Scotland and tho other half among religious bodies desirous of sharing it. 'r^ 4i6 A Shout History of A3f * It was at this juiicturo tlint Kgcrton Rycrson fuiU'd to stand firm to tho principio of secularization lio had boforu advocated by acccf)tin^ tlii.s proposal. Ho tliiis iiicurrcd the wi'ath of tho leading popular advocates tliroughout tho country. This proposition of tho (Jovcnior-CiencM'al was accepted by tho Assembly, but on beinj^ submitted to the judges by tho House of Lords was declared illegal. The Upper Canada Assembly, accordin«^ to the judges, had ])ovver, by tlie Act, 1701, to vary tho mode of dis- posing only of lands yet unsold, not of those previously sold. But a new bill was passed through tho Lords by tho Bishop of Kxeter and Lord Scaton, the aforetime Sir John Colborno of " Rectories " fame, with the consent of Lord John ilussell, carrying out Lord Sydenham's proposal, at least so far as tho lands still remaining were concerned. Thus was what was regarded as an act of spoliation by nearly all the claimants for tho time being agreed upon. No doubt tho weak attitude of Ryerson and his friends was tlio cause of tho disaster. They had been hood- winked and disappointed. The revenue accruing from tho reserves proving trifling, Bishop Strachan, in 1813, began an agitati^^^ for the amendment of the Act of 1840. Ho was encouraged to do this by the fact that in that year the Church of Scotland had been weakened by the secession of the Free Church. Ryerson was opposed to the reopening of the r -^^on, knowing that secularization must result. In 1^ was proposed to divide up the lands among thf' ^. religious bodies. This caused a great ferment : aiada. The Bishop madly persisted in his efforts to obtain a readjustment, and as might have been foreseen, the Assembly, in 1850, passed an Act ask- ing the repeal of the Imperial Act of 1 840. Strachan proved himself far less astute than the other reverend champion. In 1853 the control of the clergy lands was again transferred by Imperial Act to the Legislature of Upper Canada. The Hincks-Lafontaine administration in power in Canada was thus compelled to meet the question anew. The French-Canadians were much averse to secularization, Renewed agitation. TIIK Canadi.un PEorLt:. 417 ftjaring a siiiillar turn of ovonts in connoction with tho .support of tho cler E e **lll ^m ^^r^m 41S A Short History of > the country of two aud a half milHoiis of dollars. Hence- forth the French-Canadian is as free in the possession of his homestead as the Anglo-Saxon. The inequalities of representation as arranged after the Eepresen- -^ct of 1840 were most unfair. The older con- tation by stituencies were in many cases small in popu- population. ij^tion, but equal in representation to those with teeming numbers. It was largely this inequality which led to the increase by a two-thirds vote of Legislative Council and Assembly, as required by the Union Act, from eighty-four members to 130 in the Assembly, sixty-five being from each province. The cry of the French- Canadians against the Union Act had been that while Upper Canada, had 170,000 fewer people she had equal representation, and now the " whirligig of time " brought round punishment to Upper Canada, for, in fifteen years after the Union, Upper Canada had an excess of population of 250,000. Now the complaint arose from the Upper Canadians. It was while the veteran Sir Allan McNab was in power that the demand for a change arose, in 1855 and succeeding years. The leader in the crusade was the Hon. George Brown. Born in Edinburgh in November, 1818, young Bro\fn Brown was the son of a cultivated and ardent politician, Peter Brown. His father came to New York in 1838 and commenced a newspaper there — the British Chronicle. Attracted to Canada in 1843, old Peter Brown began a Presbyterian newspaper — TIlg Banner. In the following year, in March, George Brown undertook the well-known newspaper the Toronto Glohe, which has ever since been, with varying excellence, a powerful advocate of popular rights. Like many others in Canada Mr. Brown gained notoriety by a libel suit which was brought against him in 1849. Defeated in Haldimand in 1851 by William Lyon Mackenzie, Mr. Brown became a strenuous opponent of the Hincks' administration. He defeated the Hon. Malcolm Cameron of that ministry in 1851 in Lambton, and took his seat in the House. Through a combination with Allan McNab, Hincks was THE Canadian People. 419 . Hencc- jsession of . after tlie dicier con- in popn- tliose witli Jity whicli Legislative Jnion Act, Assembly, cry of the been tliat le she had T of time " da, for, in ,d an excess ) arose from veteran Sir or a change )rge Brown. .818, yonng and ardent ler came to Iper there — U 1843, old paper— The prge Brown \ronto Globe, icellence, a jany others |a libel suit lefeated in :enzie, Mr- le Hincks' Im Cameron lok his seat Hincks was defeated by Mr. Brown and his small band of ultra, or as he claimed, true reformers. Mr, Brown was somewhat chagrined at the union of Sir Allan McNab with a number of Mr. Hincks' late followers, and turned the weapons of toiiguo and newspaper against the Coalition Ministry. The fierce cry of injustice was constantly a feature of Mr. Brown's advocacy. With a great power of mind, a fearless disposition, determined grasp of principles, and great ability as a public speaker, Mr. Brown was, until the time of his death in 1880 when he fell by the assassin's bullet, perhaps the most prominent figure in Upper Canadian politics. Though constitutionally an oppositionist, and but little acquainted with the rewards of office, perhaps no man has left so strong an impression on Upper Canadian institutions as he. There now came into prominence as a strenuous oppo- nent of Mr. Brown on the question of represen- tation one whose bronze statue stands on Sir George Parliament Hill, Ottawa — tho Canadian states- man, Cartier. George Etienne Cartier was born in Septem- ber, 1814, in Vercheres County, Lower Canada. He was of the family of the brave explorer of St. Malo, who dis- covered Canada. Educated in Montreal Seminary young Cartier studied law, and began its practice in Montreal in 1835. Becoming involved, as we have seen, in the rebellion of 1837 he fled to the United States, but soon returned, and did not enter political life till 1848. He became a member of Sir Allan McNab's coalition cabinet in 1855. Soon after he distinguished himself by the codification of the confused civil laws, and laws of procedure of Lower Canada, and took part in the Seignio- rial Tenure settlement. In 1858 he formed, in conjunc- tion with John A. Macdonald, a new cabinet. The Seigniorial Tenure settlement required a much larger sum for its completion than had been expected — amount- ing, as has been said, to several millions of dollars. As this was taken from the fund of United Canada, and was purely a Lower Canadian object, Mr. Brown and his followers denounced it as "robbery.'' This and like questions quickened the demand for representation by E e 2 , • 420 A Short History of population, and in 1861 the question was urged on the House. Cartier, who was a vivacious, astute, and determined politician, defended Lower Canada. On the charge by Mr. Brown that the one countv of Bruce with 80,000 people had not one representative, Cartier retorted that if heads were to oe counted, then, taking in the codfish in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Lower Canada had the majority. In 1802 representation by population was a burning question. Though Cartier was defeated on a Militia Bill, yet the fierce spectre of " rep. by pop.," conjured before the French people, made a stable Govern- ment by either party impossible. Upper Canada by a double majority demanded her rights. Lower Canada almost unanimously stood w.. the constitution. Cartier died in 1873, and though his own claim was that he was an ^' Englishman speaking French," yet his dogged perseverance and unflinching *' Here stand I,'^ did a hundred times more to cement the bonds of the Lower Canadians as an exclusive nationality in Canada than all the narrowness of Bedard, or the frenzied appeals of Papineau, for the many years which had pre- ceded. Representation by population received its recog- nition in confederation. Section III. — Keel, Loclc and Rail. Canadian SnirpiNG. Her ships make Canada Britain's truest child. On tlie ocean and on her inland waters Canada's ships were so numerous that after confederation. Great Britain, the United States^ and Norway were the only countries in the world exceeding her in tonnage. It was by steady industry, with but little capital, that Canada's marine was built up. In the bays and fiords of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, a few skilful workmen placed the stocks, and built such craft_, staunch and seaworthy, able to breast the wild waves of the gulf currents or of George's Reef. The fishing and sailing vessels were built not THE Canadian People. 421 usually in great ship-yards, but in the mouths of creeks and inlets, and thus the people of the whole coast, as ship-builders and sailors, looked upon the sea much as our Norse ancestors regarded it. On the Bay of Fundy and in the town of St. John there are great seafaring popu- lations. At Quebec wooden vessels were built in large num- bers in the mouth of the St. Charles. In the upper lakes, as well, good schooners were constructed to carry on the trade, and though oak was once brought from England by a stupid Admiralty order to build vessels on Lake Ontario, this was repaid by Canada sending home her timber to build British bottoms. The first steamer, as already stated, ran on the St. Lawrence in 1809. It was in the year 1819 that the Savannah, an American ship of 350 tons burthen, left port, the first steamer to cross the Atlantic ; she crossed in twenty-four days, but the trial was a commercial loss, and for twenty years the venture was not repeated. In 1838 two English steamers crossed the Atlantic, and in 1840 a Thames-built steamer, the President, left New York for Europe, but was lost. But to Nova Scotia, true to her British origin, belongs the honour of the most successful steamship line on the Atlantic — the Cunard line. Samuel Cunard was born in Halifax, in November, 1787, the son of a West India merchant. Having gained by persevering effort a know- gJ^J^amers. ledge of shipping, and accumulated a small capital, Cunard became possessed with the grand idea of founding a fleet of steamers. With the aid of Robert Napier, the Glasgow engineer; the Messrs. Burns, of Glasgow ; and Mclver, of Liverpool, the enterprise was begun in 1840, and the task undertaken by the Cunard Company of running a fortnightly line from Liverpool to Halifax and Boston. With the four vessels — Britannia^ Acadia, Caledonia, and Columbia, each of 1200 tons, the great undertaking commenced, and for 197,O0OZ. in all of an annual subsidy, the line was extended to New York. A magnificent fleet of fifty vessels now represents the Cunard line. The distinguished founder of it was 422 A Short History of made a baronet in 1857, and died eighteen years after. The Cunard line could hardly be called Canadian, however. Its founder was a Haligonian and its point of call was Halifax, but its commerce was chiefly that of the United States. To make a distinctively Canadian line was a far more difficult enterprise. Wiseacrts de- clared that the icebergs of the Newfoundland banks, the rocks of Belle Isle, Anticosti, and scores of dangerous reefs rendered it impossible. The man and the occasion, however, overcame the difficulty. Hugh Allan was the son of an Ayrshire captain. He ■ w crh ^^^ born in September, 1810. In 1840, in the AUan!^ firm of Miller & Co., Montreal, he was employed in shipbuilding. In 1851 he was engaged in building iron-screw steamships, and the first of the great Allan fleet, the Canadian, was built in 1853. The Allan line was begun three years after with that vessel and the Indian, North American, and Anglo-Saxon. Disaster threatened the failure of the line. Misfortune after misfortune occurred. Brave men like Sir George Simpson, who held stock in the line, began to waver. Hugh Allan without faltering bought out their stock. He stood like a lighthouse amidst the waves. The tide of fortune turned, and the Allan line, with its grand fleet of vessels, is the boast of every true Canadian. There are in all fin the registers of the Dominion up- wards of 7000 Canadian vessels. If the extent of sea- coast be the measure of a nation's commerce, Canada claims a high place, as her sea-coast, which requires fog whistles, bell-bucys, automatic and other buoys, and beacons, is 3200 miles, and her inland lake coast 2600 miles. Her light stations number upwards of 500. She employs upwards of 650 lighthouse-keepers, and has six- teen lightships. From Sable Island to British Columbia are scattered beneficierit provision of the most scientific kind for those who venture on the deep waters. Our Canals. The enormous water-stretches throughout the inland mn THE Canadian People. 423 ieeu years lg occasion, parts of Canada have led to tlie improvement of these channels by artificial means to a very great extent. While Lord Durham gave the great public works of the country as a chief element of diflBculty in conducting honest government through corrupt expenditure, Canada would to-day have been largely a wilderness but for her public works. The famous Lachine rapids stood an obstacle at the very gate of the St. Lawrence above Montreal. In 1821 was begun the Lachine Canal, nine ^^ ^^^' miles long with its six locks, under the chief direction of the great engineer Telford. It was completed in three years at a cost of 115,000Z. by a private company, but with the aid of the Provincial and Imperial (rovernments. The success of the Lachine Canal imtudiately sug- gested the extension of the sv^.tem further *■ . Thfi 'XXTpI inland. The mighty cataract oi Niagara — j^^^ *' thundering water " — had its name affixed to it by wondering savages long before La Salle beheld it. Its height of IGO feet but represented a portion of the fall between Lakes Erie and Ontario. It was a U.E. Loyalist who with amazing perseverance succeeded in overcoming this obstacle by projecting the Welland Canal. William Hamilton Merritt, born in 1793 in New York State, was the son of refugee loyalists who had at first fled to New Brunswick. Sent again to New Brunswick to be edu- cated young Merritt returned to Niagara in 1809, and beer me captain by the end of the "war of defence." He was a man of moderate opinions, and though he called the rebellion of 1837 a " monkey war," yet his sympathies were largely with the people. He began considering his project in 1818, but did not succeed in organizing an incorporated company till 1825, to undertake the great scheme. In 1829 two vessels passed through the canal, and by way of Welland River reached Buffalo from Lake Ontario. Several changes were made upon the course, such as connecting it with the Grand River, and also of making a direct line to Lake Erie. A half-million pounds were spent upon it up to the year 1841, at which date it was assumed by l\>, !i«1 «< m ^mi 424 A Short History of ■ * United Canada. The canal from lake to lake is now twenty-seven miles in length ; it has cost in all more than thrice the sum named; it was enlarged after the union and also since that time, and is one of the grandest triumphs of Canadian enterprise. The campaigns of the " war of defence " conducted up _. the St. Lawrence River, which in part forms the boundary of the United States, suggested to the Imperial Government the necessity of a safe communication between Montreal and Lake Ontario. It was found that to the foot of Chaudiere Falls on the Ottawa Hi ver and Kings- ton on Lake Ontario, a distance of 135 miles, streams ran in two directions from an upland sheet of water, twenty-eight miles in length called Ilideau Lake. The fall northward was 283 feet, southward 153. By a system of dykes, dams, and aqueducts Colonel John By, and his assistant, a young Scottish engineer, McTaggart, demonstrated to the British Government the feasibility of connecting the inland waters with the lower St. Lawrence. In 1827 work in earnest was begun by the Imperial Government. The cost of the enterprise was, as is usual in such cases, much under-estimated. When the canal had been mainly built in 1832, or finished in 1834, the cost had reached one and a half millions of pounds, nearly thrice the original estimate. As a part of this great project the Imperial Govern- Q ... ment also undertook works at the Grenville rapids on the Ottawa River. The upper canal, that of Carillon, is about one and a half miles long ; the middle. Chute au Blondeau, a mile ; and the lowest is that to avoid the Long Sault of the Ottawa, which is twelve miles below Carillon. Upper Canadians should ever bear in mind this generous expenditure on the part of the Imperial Government, a showing very different from that of the Manchester colonial school. Canadian commerce, however, found the Ottawa and Rideau route from Montreal to Upper Canada too round-about and tedious. Accordingly the Canadian Government undertook three canals nearly forty-four miles long on the St. Lawrence — the St. law rence. THE Canadian PEOrLE. 425 Williamsburg', between Prescott and Dickenson's Land- ings the Cornwall, to avoid the 'VLong Sault " of the 8t. Lawrence; and tlie lieauharnois, to overcome tho " Coteau,'' '' Cedars/' and " Cascades " rapids. Up to 1852 the cost of the St. Lawrence canals was set at one and a half millions of dollars. In computing the cost of all our canals, who shall say that the iifteen or twenty millions of dollars have not been well spent in enabling vessels of moderate size to pass from Britain by way of the St. Lawrence and lakes, and with the aid of the short canal of Sault Ste. Marie, completed by the Americans, thus to reach the western exti-emity of Lake Superior, 1400 miles above Montreal, in the very heart of the continent. u Kailways. For the vast distances in Canadian territory, and the opening up of new regions remote from the water-courses, another agent than the canal must be employed. What the Roman roads were to the Roman empire, as shown by their all being computed from the golden milestone near the Roman forum, railways are to America. It was* in 1832 in Canada that the first railway com- pany was incorporated — and that a railway along the Richelieu River, and from its termini called the St. Champlain and St. Lawrence railway. In the following year the Huron and Ontario line was formed, and in the next again the Great Western of Canada. But it was in 1840, after the repeal of the Corn Laws and the relaxation of the restrictions on navigation, that a great movement towards opening up Canada by rail- ways took place. It has been usual to trace much of this to the enlightened policy and suggestive mind of Lord Elgin. But credit is also due to one whom we have already met as a political leader — Mr. Hincks. Francis Hincks belonged to an English family which had been settled for a generation or two in ^jQgjjg Ireland. The son of a Unitarian minister in Cork, he was born in that city in 1807. His father 426 A Short History of t became master in the Royal Belfast Academy, and aftor completing his education there, Francis Hincks entered trade and went abroad ; and, after visiting Canada, re- turned with his young wife now to settle in the province in 1832. At the time of the rebellion Hincks was manager of " The Bank of the People ;'^ but in 1838 began a news- paper, the Toronto Examiner y which we find bore the motto of ''Responsible Government and the Voluntary Principle." In 1841 the young Irishman was elected member for Oxford in the first Union Parliament, and by the year 1842 had been appointed Inspector-General. As Hincks had begun the Toronto Examiner, so he afterwards founded the Montreal Pilot. It was in 1849 that Hincks had the distinction of introducing a measure to grant Govern- ment assistance to railways. In 1850 there was in operation only some forty miles of railway, and while the country cried out for development, private enterprise could not provide it. In 1851 the Northern railway, the first Upper Canadian line of rail, was begun, and the Countess of Elgin turned the first sod. It was in the same year that Mr. Hincks, with great energy, devoted himself to carry out a plan for '' a main trunk line of railways throughout the whole length of Canada.'' If the originator of a grand idea be a greater man than the hundred men who afterwards work it out, Francis Hincks deserves special recognition for his broad policy of railway expansion. He set aside waste lands for the construction of the Canadian trunk line. In ten years a marvellous transformation had taken place in Canada. The means for this great development was provided by the Municipal Loan Fund Bill introduced by Mr. Hincks, by which, though the Canadian municipalities plunged themselves into a burden of debt of 10,000,000 dollars, the country was opened for commerce. In ten years after the passage of the Railway Guarantee Bill of 1840 there had been added to Canada no less than 2100 additional miles of railway. The great promoter of railways, however, passed for a THE Canadian People. 427 time from the scene of Canadian politics, bciu^ made Governor of Barbadoes and the Windward Isles in 185f), and after an absence of thirteen years returned to public life in Canada, and died so lately as 1885 in the small- pox scourge in Montreal. Sir Francis Ilincks was the Coll)ert of later Canadian affairs. Two noble memorials of this era remain to Canada : the well-known suspension bridge by which the Great Western railway crosses the Niagara lliver. This was opened in 1855, and bridges in a single span the chasm 800 feet wide. The other great work is the mag- nificent Victoria bridge, opened in 18G0, crossing the St. Lawrence at Montreal, with its twenty- four piers extend- ing nearly two miles in length. Greater, these, than the ancient world's seven wonders ! ii r " a main Section IV. — The Field, the Forest, the Mine, and the Sea. God speed the plough ! is our oldest Canadian motto. In so widespread and diversified a country as Canada every variety of agriculture exists. Six leading areas, characterized by special climatic influences, may be found. The Anticosti shore; the gulf region, including most of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ; the Quebec region ; the lake sections, comprising chiefly Ontario ; the prairies ; and the Eocky Mountain and British Columbian valleys. In the whole Dominion upwards of 20,000,000 acres are under cultivation, while the improved pasture area is 7,000,000 acres. Mixed farming is probably the most common. The farm yielding its products by a steady rotation of grain, grass, and root crops, with a certain amount of stock raising, a moderate dairy product, and some attention to the growth of fruit and vegetables, is cer- tainly the Canadian ideal. That it is folly to have all the eggs in one basket is the housewife's dictum usually accepted by Canadian farmers. Yet different parts of the country are being found suitable for special productions. 428 A Short History of ..,iw * »■ Nov.i Scotia on its wost coast, and tlio western penin- sula of Ontario are celebrated for apple growing and the yield of small fruits; the sea meailows of the Bay of Fundy supply rich liay-fields ; the eastern townships of Quebec cultivate horse and cattle-breeding successfully ; careful husbandry of t\w idyllic type is the hcaii-ideal of Lower Canadian life; dairy ftxrms of a large size are springing up in Ontario and Quebec, and a great output of cheese and butter have resulted ; our western prairies are becoming the granaries not oidy of Canada but of America; the foothills of the Rocky Mountains — the Canadian Piedmout — and the western prairie section have in ten years become a wonderful "ranching'' coun- try; and no doubt the Western Saskatchewan plains will yet be vast sheep-runs, as well as the abode of herds of cattle and horses. The enviable pre-eminence of Canada in agriculture has not been attained without effort. In 1818 appeared in the Nova Scotian newspapers a most notable series of letters by '^ Agricola,'' which attracted the attention of the Governor, Lord Dalhousie, and of all leading Nova Scotians, and gave an impetus to agriculture. One of the most beautiful pictures of Canadian life is the return of the " Autumn Fairs," in which the products of the earth are brought together in the leading cities and towns. At these exhibitions prizes fire awarded, and a desire for excellence in farming is culti- vated. No feature so well brings out the prosperity and comfort of the Canadian farmer as a view of the thou- sands of burly farmers and their wives, the well-dressed lads and maidens who gather together in holiday attire, engaged in rendering homage to Ceres, the presiding divinity in hundreds of local centres from Nova Scotia to Manitoba. The lofty pine, that suggests to Virgil its pre-eminence in the forest, certainly deserves in the eyes of Canadians a prominent place, as the source of enormous wealth. Where the farmer cannot penetrate may still be the fruitful field of the lumberer. About the beginning of this century a settler from Massachusetts, Tiir: Canadian Pkoplk. 429 named PhikMuoii \Vri«^]it, boiiglit in ^lontroal a considor- ablo quantity of forest lands on tlie Ottawa Kivor, on the streng'tli of certain documents, afterwards found to have been for^j^ed. The Government of Ijower Canada, sympathizing with Mr. Wright 'in the severe loss ho had met, bestowed on the pioneer, on condition of his dc- velo])ing it, a largo tract on the Ottawa Kiver, north of the Chaudioro Fails. Thus bc^gan the lumber trade, which has grown to such great proportions on the Ottawa ; for it was in June, 1806, that the first raft of logs went down that river. Between the parallels of 43° and 47°. grows largely the white or Weymouth pine, the PiniiK t^trohus of tho botanists. Throughout Canada is found also the red or Norway pine much used in ship-building, and especially for masts, which with the oak and tamarack afford a great part of the lumber of the Canadian trade. Bands of men, hardy and rough, hasten in winter to the " woods '' in the lumber-man's " timber limits," build their ''shanties," live on "pork and beans," and engage in hewing down the forest monarchs, which give us our wealth. Each " gang" is divided into *' hewers," *' liners," " scorers," and horse and ox teamsters. Tho logs are drawn to the water-courses, and in spring-time " driven " (i.e. guided in the stream) singly to the mills, or joined together in " rafts '' when the larger streams are reached. These are then sawn into lumber or taken uncut to Quebec on the St. Lawrence, and sent to Britain, under the* direction of a public official — tho " supervisor of cullers " — being shipped and stowed away in the ocean vessels by men called " stevedores." The recognition of the lumber-trade 'Was first made by the Government under Lord Dalhousie placing an export tax upon it in 1823. In order to overcome the Chaudiere Falls, " slides,^' by which logs can be safely taken down stream, were built in 1829 by Mr. Ruggles Wright. Li succeeding years "timber licences" have been issued to lumberers by the Provincial Governments, by which a very considerable public revenue is obtained. . .:i''.. 430 A Short History of « On the Ottawa Rivor alono, no less than 25,000 men are oiigagcd in tlio luni])or trade. Iiar! Tiiic Canadian People. 439 M Isbistcr legacy of upwnrds of 80,000 dollars yields jiii unnujil amount of 4000 dollars, which is distrihuted in scholarships. Upwards of 100 candidates appeared ht'fore the university in 1^80. On the year after the entrance of British Columbia into confederation (1872) provision was made for pul)lic education by the passing of an Act columtia including all the people of the province. The scattered settlements necessitated somethin"" of the nature of boarding-schools at central points in the valleys. The building of school-houses, and the maintenance of schools could only be accomplished at enormous cost, and though few schools were opened, a grant of 40,000 dollars was made out of the liberal Dominion subsidy paid to the Pacific province. A high school has since been in operation in Victoria, and another in New Westminster. The municipal system found as a marked feature in most of the Canadian provinces, is the basis of social improvement. Montreal, with its popu- °"g^g ^^°" lation, half French and half ^higlish, of 150,000, is the largest Canadian city, while Quebec, the ancient capital, is Canada^s most hospitable city. Toronto, the centre of Upper Canadian life, enjoys its 120,000 of a population, and disputes with Montreal the palm in commerce, education, literature, and poli'Jcal influence, while numerous smaller cities and towns of Ontario are possessed of many social comforts. Halifax and 8t. John present the features of a cultivated city life along the sea; Winnipeg, a city of 22,000 people, and but ui' yesterday, is rapidly obtaining recognition, and possesses in its chief thoroughfare one of the most beautiful streets in the Dominion. Victoria keeps the gate of the Pacific, with its balmy climate, and old-fashioned society. In all of these centres of population the telegraph and telephone make communication easy ; gas and electricity make night as safe as day ; fire and water provision give every convenience. Block, McAdam, and stone pave- ments have obliterated the quagmires of early days; libraries for the people abound, literary societies and 440 A SlluKT lilSTURV OF scioiiHfi(^ associations floiirisli. Hospitals, asylums, and liotncs, suppoi'lcd by local, voluntary, and municipal aid, Jillovijitc human suff('i'in<4'. Were Loi'd Durham, with the memory of his former Canadian life, permitted to revisit Canada, it would be, as compared Avith his previous experience, like soaring away from the dull earth to the fabled island of Laputa. Section VI. — The Federal Union accomplished. The struggle for freedom in the old thirteen colonies along the sea had fused them into one in the pursuit of a common object, and thus their union into the American Kepublic resulted. The several British provinces had, as we have seen, l)een compelled to fight the battle of responsible government, but the British authorities had been more willing for liberal government than the domi- mmt parties in the colonies themselves. The remedies for colonial misgovernment had, in the case of Canada and the maritime provinces, been suggested by British statesmen, while in the case of the original thirteen colonies their constitution had been of their own devising. And yet it had been the voice of Howe in Nova Scotin, Wilmot in New lirunswick, Papineau in Lower Canada, and Baldwin in Upper Canada, which in each case sounded the key-note of freedom. The causes which now led to the drawing together of the provinces into one dominion were partly provincial and partly imperial. The remark- able progress of the United States stimulated a desire on the part of the several provinces to pursue a similar career. The presence of this mighty power alongside of the provinces became somewhat of a menace to the weak colonies, especially as the republic had an enormous army but lately engaged in internal strife, but now not unwilling to ngage in foreign war. The presence of a large military establishment in a country is a constant source of danger to weak neighbours. The Trent affair, at the beginning of the American civil strife, when war ' •I! . THE Canadian PEorLi:. 441 us, and pal aid, n, with ittod to )rovious h to the id. colonies suit of a merican s had, as lattlo of tics had ho donii- remedies : Canada f British thirteen eir own a Scotia, Canada, sounded led to oniinion remark- esire on simihir of the le weak bormous bow not ice of a constant \it affair, leii war seemed imminent hetvveen l^ritain andth(^ United States, forced the fact of their weakness very strongly on thi' British colonies. The desire for union of the provinces would seem to l\ii,ve first taken root in the maritime pi'ovinces. Lord Durliani, with his powerful and fornnitive mind, had indicated a union of all the provinces as a sequence of the union of the Canadas, and to his statesman's eye the huilding of a railway from the upper to the lower provinces was the bond of union. Time and again, as we shall see, between 1888 and 18()0, negotiations were in progress between the iidand provinces and those by the sea for the survey and construction of an intercolonial railway. Though nothing had as yet been accomplished, the project had not been forgotten. It was in the year 1804 that the Legislatures of Nova Scotia, New l^runswick, and Pi'ince Edward Island authorized their several Governments to hold a con- ference at CharlottetowUj Prince Edward Island, to consider a union of the maritime provinces. In Canada, as we have seen, the struggle for repre- sentation by population had brought on a serious crisis. The Union Act of 1840 had been of great service to the country : much progress had been made in all directions ; but a stable government was found impossible, and some constitutional change was inevitable. The leaders of the two Canadian parties by a noble act of patriotism agreed for the time to lay aside the weapons of political warfare and endeavour to secure a confederation of the British pro- vinces, as not only the remedy for the Canadian " dead- lock," but also as conducive to British interests on the American continent. The maritime provinces had ignored party divisions in the Charlottetovvn conference, and eight delegates from Canada sailed down the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and by permission of the maritime province representatives joined the conference. A full and free discussion of the various interests involved resulted in a determination to meet again in conference at Quebec, on a day to be named by the Governor-General. fillll ,1 ; 442 A Short History ok On tlio lOtli of October, IHiVt, tlio Quebec confercnco was b(»<^"iin. This was one of the greatest events of Csniadiaii In'stoiy. Here wer(» gathered t]u> desccndt'ints of the French ])ioneers who had for more than a century ching to British connection, though often teinpted from their uHegiance, and who laid shown remarkable apti- tuck^ in adopting Ih'itish representative government; here were those of U. 10. Loyalist stock from the four English provinces, but who had '<'opted responsible government, and done good serv . working it out ; here were those of lU'itish origin — i om England, Ireland, and Scotland, and representing all the faiths of those mother-lands ; and here were those of American descent, not behind their fellows in declaring their preference for the forms of Canadian liberty, over the peculiar features of the llepublic. They met for friendly conference on the historic ground of old Quebec, where French Catholic and French Huguenot, French and American, French and British, British and American, Canadian and American, had closed together in deadly conflict in the days of Kertk, Pliipps, Wolfe, and Montgomery. Now they sat under the smile of Britain, while ninety years before the other great formative convention, the Continental Congress of the English Colonies, had met under the British frown. On the 28th of October the conference closed its pro- ceedings. Many had been the knotty points discussed; on one or two occasions it seemed as if an agreement, especially on the financial arrangements, was hopeless; but there was a desire on the part of all the delegates to make one New Britain on this continent, and they suc- ceeded in adopting seventy-two resolutions on the sub- ject. Of how vastly more moment to the country these than the reckless ninety-eight resolutions formulated in the same city some thirty years before ! Much joy was manifested throughout the several provinces, and according to British custom convivial banquets were held in the various cities. As has been observed, the English people inaugurate great move- ments with eating and drinking, and imitate in this the Tin: Canadian People. 443 fincioiit GcM'inniis doscriln'tl by Tacitus, of ■whom, dis- eussiii<^ tlu'ir prujirts luidst ciiliiii^' iiiid di-inkiiiL'- wnd dcc'idiuy" on them Jiiiiidst o-ri'ut sdlciniiity, it was said: *' '.riiry di'lilxM'iitc' while llu'y caiuiut t'l'iy'ii j they (U'tur- miiio when thi'y cannot vvv." Having' rcsunu'd tlicir sitlin<^*s in Montreal, on the olst of October thi' convention closed, and the (^'on federation scheme was lannched tor discussion by the various ])ro- vinces. In Canada there was so o-^'at unanimity tiiat Tarliament adopti>d the project without g'oin**" back to the people'; in New Brunswick the Confederation scheme was on submission to the people defeated, but on another jippi'al in a year after was by a surprising chanp;o adopted ; in Nova Scotia tlu' measure was accepted by the Legislature without consulting their constituents, and the seeds sown of a most troublesome agitation subsequently ; while in Pi'ince Edward Island the proposal was for the time rejected, as also in New- foundland. The scheme of Confederation was the subjt'ct of most favourable discussion in the United States, and especially in Great Britain ; as pointed out in the conference — though federal, like tlu' constitution of the United States — the conception is widely different. In the case of the thirteen colonies Avhich had thrown oil' alk>giance to Britain, they came together as sovereign states, and each state is the repository of power in all cases where the constitution does not transfer this to the general or federal -government ; in the Canadian scheme the Dominion Government is the repository of power, except where this is transferred to the several provinces. The Canadian theory is that of a relatively more powerful central government than that of the United States. The British Government heartily approved of the Confederation, and Lord Cardwell wrote a despatch, which much assisted tlie project in its adoption by the several provincial legislatures. On the 4th of December, 1866, representatives of Canada, ^^'^ova Scotia, and New Brunswick met in London, and agreed to cc^rtain changes in the resolu,tions. On these provisions a Bill was now 444 A Short History ok foiiudi'tl and iiitroducctl into tlio Imperial Parliament, and on the 2\h\\ of March, 18()7, hocamc law. From tlH» linpci'ial standpoint the whole schcmo was received with niai'kcd favonr. As was said by a Jiritish journal of the time: "the Confederation scheme of Ca- nada solves, not for its(»lf alone, but for otluM* colonies, the pi'ol)lem of how to transmute a jealous tlepcMidenry into a cordial ally, which, thou^-h retaining mayhap the <^'olden link of the Ci'own, sliouhl in all respects c^vinco uii uid)ought and unforced loyalty, an alle<^'iance without consti'aint, cooperation without coercion, bonds without bondage — the only iitting guerdon that freemen should care to seek or be willing to yield." Undoubtedly the union of the four great provinces of British America bore a stately aspect. Compared with the petty struggles, in which all the provinces had been engagetl, there was a breadth and scope about Con- federation most imposing. The new constitution went into effect on the 1st of July, 1(S(]7, and was marki'd by demonstrations of great joy in the several provinces ; and this date is annually observed as " Dominion Day." The provisions of the '' British North America Act," as the new constitution is called, are embodied in the Appendix, as being too important to be treated in a mere sketch. Surely, as compared with the f<3rmer state of disintegration, every Canadian should say of the Dominion of Canada : ''£sto 'perpetua.'^ THE Canadian PEorLE. ^45 CHAPTER XIII. THE CANADIAN I'EOI'LK UNDER CONFKDRFiATION. (References: ''Canada since the Union of 1841," vol. ii., 1»y J. C. Dent, Toronto, IHHl ; "International f.aw," ])y W. K. llall (vide antr) ; '* Intoruational Ivaw," by Theodore I). WooLsey, Now York, 1879; "Select Committee on Hudson's IJay Company," London, 18^7 ; " Report of American Northern Boundary Com- mission," Washinj^ton, 1878 ; " Heminiscences of the North- Wcwt liel)enion," by jMajor Houlton, Toronto, 1880 ; "Tlie Intercolonial Railway," by Sandford Fleming; "Histories of the Various Churches"; "Reports of Progress of the Canadian Pacific Railway," ()ttawa,1877; "Re])orts of Geological Survey, 1871-84;" " Dominion Annual Register, 1880-4," by H. J. Morgan, Toronto; " The Indian Treaties," by Alexander JVIorris, Toronto, 1880 ; " Imperial Federation Journal," London, 1880.) Section I. — The Affairs of State. With the boomiug of cannon and the beating of drums tlie new Dominion was ushered in. Lord Mouck The was sworn in as Governor-General, and his Dominion advisers were selected from both parties through- o^&amzed. out the different provinces. The British North America Act j jined together in one the two parts of old Canada and the two leading maritime provinces. Titles of Com- mander of the Bath were bestowed by the Queen's direc- tion upon several members of the new privy council of thirteen, and the leader of the Government, John A. Macdonald, who had already for many years wacdonald played an important part in Canadian affairs, was knighted. John Alexander Macdonald was born in Sutherland- shire, Scotland, in January, 1815, and came with his 44^ Short IIistokv of f.'ither to Kint^.sion in 1820. Kdiicatod in tlio Royal (iraininar School, lu^ studied and Ijogaii tlio practice of law ill Kiii^.stou, and in LSoO (gained proininoat notice by liis dofoncc! of ono of the unf'oi'tunale '' liheratoi'S " who were distiii'l)in»^ tlie ])oi'ders of Uj)per Canada alter tlie r(!hellion. Yoiiiij^ Miicdonald was, in tlie year IHII, elected, hh inemlxn* of Assembly for Kin<^st(>n, a.t a most important juncture. I']ducated in the old Loyalist centre of Kingston, and now its cliosen i'epresentativ(^, Mac- donald wa,s, in 1H17, s(,'lected by Dra.per to join the weakeninf^ cabinet as Receiv(M*-rj!en{;ral. ^i^ie cha,ract(;i'istic of tlie young politician's mind was that of ii siuguhir fluidity, and a power to overcome religious, ra,ce, or (!ven ])ai'ty pi-ejudices, so that in his long cai'ccn* h(^ ha,s Ix'cn found co-op(U'ating with tln^so who luid been rebels or annex;»,tionists, radicals or ulti'a-protestants, secessionists or ulti'amontanes. One of his biographers has said of this nrinciple. JMacdomdd had advocatcMl this heartily, iinJ yet it wa,s the coalition ministry of which lie was a member which secularized the Clergy Reserves. In the a,bolition of the seigniorial tenure Macdonald's action was somewhat similar. The (pialities which characterize this practical politician are a sensitiveness to public opinion, great fertility of resource, a singular power of ignoi'ing old animosities, a strong love of Canada, and a sincere attachment for British connection. He is probably the best living example of Till': Canadian Pi:oplk. 447 I action wd)i Conservatism ns opposed to 'IVjryism. 'I'lio Dominion witli it,s c'onflictin«^ intcu'Cfsts, arising fVom (liHerc^nces oF com- mci'cial iuid indiistriiil sitn;i,ti(jn, of race, T'cligion, and prejndico, iilTcji'dcid unbounded iicld lor tlie special pt the confedei'iited pi'ovinces togcstlicr, or which pnrty has been truest to the Dominion, arc abso- hiti'ly profith'ss. Undoubted!';- the qu(\stion of provincial chu'nis and pi'ovinciid ri;^'hts as opposed to those ol" the iJominion jias been the grejitest dan^^er, and yet the advocates of prcjvincial dcsmamls have on appeal usuidly been proven in the right. From Nova Scotia have come fi^^^t"*^ from time to time; the greatest complaints. 1'he absence of a municipal system of the same sort in Nova Scotia as in the other provinces seems to hjivc miide the matter of adjusting the financial claims of the province most difficult. A rearrangement in favour of Nova Scotia was made in 18r questions of dispute should be settled by the demands of political exigency. British connection has for Canada its responsibilities as well as its advantages. During the American Civil War a strong party in England syin- tonXrJa^y pathized with the Southern Confederacy. The close commercial relations of Britain with the United States made it extremely difficult to pursue the straight line of International neutrality. Cruisers were fitted out in English ports which preyed on American merchant- ships. The most celebrated of these were the ship " No. 290,^' better known as the Alahama, built in Birkenhead in 18G2, the Florida, and the ShenandoaJi. Though warning was given to the Jb'itish Government, it could see no legal ground for the stoppage of the Alahama. The Confederate cruiser sailed to the Azores, where she was met by a bark from the Thames with guns and stores, and by another from the Mersey, with men and the future commander of the Alahama — Captam Sc^nmes. After capturing many American vessels, the Alabama was sunk in a naval duel off Cherbourg by the United States' ship Kcarsago, in 18G4. The Fenian movement, of which we shall speak more fully, created much anxi(;ty in Canada. The large l)ody of disbanded Irish soldiers at the close of the war were a real danger in cities of the United States. Paids by these Fenian desperadoes, from the border cities of the United States as a base, entailed loss of life and heavy militaiy oxpenditure on Canadians, and thus arose one grievances ugainst the United States. The strained relations of the two neighbouring coun- tries became more critical on account of the termination G g 450 A Short History of of llio Eccipvocity Treaty linviiip;' reopened the qnestlou of the rijxlits of vVirierican fisheriiieii in Canncliau waters, while tlie San -luini border dilliculty was a, cause ot" irritation. For differences of opinion of a, titlie of tlio importance of all these questions^ l^]uropoan nations liad delnjT^cd l^]uropc with blood. It was now to be tested wliether the two great Christian nations of the eartli would be able to obey the principles of the Gospel of peace. At Washington, on the 27th of February, 1871, mo! The High ^^'^ Joint High Commissioners, five on beli:ill Coramis- of the United States, men of higli legal stand- sion. ^j-,g^ f,j^(^| £|yQ Q^ ^i^f, p^^i^ Q^ Great Britain, in- cluding Sir John Macdonald, the special guardian (.[ Canadijin interests. In less than three months the Treaty of Washington w^as signed, and within a month after was approved by the American Congress and British Par- liament, while the Canadian parliameiit adopted tho Canadian sections. The Alabama case was referred to commissioners from Switzerland, Italy, and Brazil, who met in decisions^ Geneva. The decision was against Britain, and the award of $15,500,000 of damages was duly paid over to the United States. As to Canada\s Feninn claims against the United States, Britain withdrew the case, but agreed to guarantee a Canadian loan of a con- siderable amount for public works in the Dominion. The San Juan boundary was referred to the Emperor of Ger- nniny, who gave the award in favour of the United States. llelaxation of customs resin et ions by a ''bonding'^ system, the free use of the fisheries, and also of certain lakes and rivers were secured to each nation, and the compensation due to Canada for her fisheries was referred to a joint commission afterwards to sit. The snbstantial fairness of the Treaty may be seen from the fact that in the United States, Great Britain, and Canada, alike, loud complaints were made against some one or other of its decisions. The second gent^ral election for the Dominion took TiiK Canadian PeopM': 451 m qnostion iaii wattM's, 1 cause ol it lie of llio lations li;»,(i ) be tes1(M\ f the (>HVtll - (lospol of f, 1871, mo; ^0 on boli'.i'- legal staiKi- : Britain, iu- priiardinn 'l [is the Treaty ntb after was l^ritisb Pav- adopted tli" issi oners from >;vbo met in t Britain, aiKl Inges was duly lada's Fenian Avitbdrew the jan of a con- tminion. The jeror of Ger- tbe United " bonding '^ llso of certaiu Ition, and the was referred 16 substantial lict that in the alike, loud other of its lommion toolJ place in 1872. My it Sir Jolin i\racdonald's Ministry had been sustiiined. Ik-fore the gcandaf^'^ meeting of parliament a cliarter liad been given to a company to buikl the Canada Pacific IJailwny — that company being tlie aninl;>'amation of two rivnls, one led by 8ir Hugh Allan of Montreal^ the other by Senator Macpherson of Toronto. On the assembling of pari in men t, Tvfr. Ilinilin ,;don, a Quebec representative, rose in his place, and charg;' 1 the (-Government with having received money from Sir lingh .'Mian to corrupt the constituencies during the lal(^ elec- tions. The Government denied the cha,)'ge, and the vote of want of confidence against them, Avas defejded. The Government appointed a coniinitteo of investigation to act during the recess, but the Oaths Bill, giving powers to this committee, was disallowed by the Imperial Government. The Government then offered a lloyal Commission, but Mr. Huntingdon and other witnesses refused to accept it, as being an infringement on the rights of parliament. Now appeared in the public prints correspondence, in which charges were made that vVmerican money had Ijcen given to the Canada Pacific Bribery Fund. Parliament met on the 13th of August 187o, to receive the re- port of the committee of investigation. The report, on account of the disallowance of the Oaths Bill, was nf no value. The ministry sidvised tlie adjournment of the House, and the opposition clamorously opposed it. The cries of privilege ! privilege ! on the day of prorogation might have reminded one of the stormy scenes of the Parliament of Charles I. A lloyal Commission was now appointed, but Mr. Huntingdon refused to appear before it for the reasons already given. On October the 28rd parliament again assembled ; the report of the commission was ready ; the jVIinistry appealed pathetically to its followers ; the opposition moved ii vote of want of confidence; a tierce debate for a week ensued; but the current of feeling was so manifestly running counter to it that the Government resigned before the vote was taken. Thus passed away the first Dominion G g 2 452 A Short IIistorv of Ministry, niul ^fi*. Muckcnzio was ciilled upon to form ji (jiOV(M'lini(Mlt. Aloxiiiidcr ^rnckfiizio was l)orii in I'oi'thsliiro, Scot- „ , land, in Jiinuiiry, 1H22. On account of tho oiirly Mackenzie. ,,,,.,.,., ,*^ ' ^, \ • i 11 dcjitli ()1 Ins latlicr youni^ M.'icklmizio hocarno, Iik(3 the celobriitod Scottish j^-eolon-jst, Ilufjfh Miller, to wlioiii, indccfl, Mr. ^Vriickonzio liiis roseinbliiiiccs, ;i stonemason. Mr. Mjickon/io in IHOI cntoi'od tlio piiriiiimont ot'Cansidii, as mondjor for tho county of Ijambton, a county, boai-iuL;- the n;iino of tlie fjimily of tlio ^n'(;at Lord Durham, it Wiis htlini^" Mr. Miickenzio shouhl represent. In 1871 ^\v. Aliickenzie beciinio a, member of the 1jOc;i1 Ciibinet for Ontjirio, but soon resigned, to devote himscU' exclusively to Dominion politics. Mr. Miickenzio bears an untarnished cli;n'iictor in the eyes of nil Camidiaiis. For accuracy of informiition, clearness of stjitement, per- sistency of ])urpose, !ind unsellisii devotion to duty Mr. Mjickenzie is excelled by no Ciinadisui stutesman. On tlie fall (.»f the ^Tiicdonald (jovernnient, ^Ir. Mackenzie, on the 5th ol' November, 1H7'3, undertook the tiisk of forming* a n(nv Ministry. The current ran stronL5'ly in his favour, his Cabinet was soon completed, its mendxM's speedily re-elected, and on the Premier re- commending' a dissolution, on the j^round that the House of Commons luid not been freely elected, parliament went to the country, Mat^kenzio's party swept tho con- stituencies, and the new House stood nearly three to one in his favour. For live eventful years the Mackenzie Government retained power, and the Dominion became still further consolidated. Six years had ])assed away from the time of the ratifica- TheHalifax tion of the IVeaty of Washington, and the cotn- Fisheries pensatioji for the free use of the Canadian Award. fisheries had not been taken into considera- tion. In the year 1877 the Commission was at lengtli api)ointed. Such serious fault had ])een found by Ca^nada with the action of liritish Commissioners in treaties in- volving Canadian interests that Mr. Mackenzie insisted ihixt the British Commissioner should be a Canadian. Tho American arbitrator arrived at Halifax, the referee ^p it'll TiiK Canadian People. 453 Gait. \v!is tlio T{('l<;-iiin Minisfccr at Wasliinnrton, M. Delfossc, wliilo for Cjiniidji stood tho Hon. Mr. (lalt. Aloxiind(!r 'Pillocli (Jiiilt, boi'ii in Chelsea, London, in September, \Hl7, was tho son of tlio well-know!i Secretary of tho Ca.iada Company and author, Jolin (lalt, to whom we liave already referred. In lH:i5 young" Gait came to Sherbrooke, Ijower Canada, in tho eni])loyment of tho ]5ritisli America Land Company, a combination of capitalists operating in the I'/i stern- town- ships after the manner of tho Canada Com])any in lj[)per Canada.. Young Gait had become Chief Oonimis- sioner in Ir Gait lias always been noted for the modera- tion of his views, has Ixsen in several administrations lining' important positions, has been commissioner on sundry difficult cpu^stions, been knighted, and fillfnl tho position of Ca-na,dia,n resident in ljf)ndon. In lH77Galt wjis appointed Canadian delegate to tlu^ Halifax. Com- mission, and niucli wa,s expected from his aj)poiutment. The case for the Canadiatis was prepared with care, among others the well-known French-Canadian lawyer, Joseph Dontre, doing his share. The amount claimed from the United States was .*"^1•1<,(S00,()(H) for the twelve years from the date of tho treaty. I^hiborate arguments, and much oral and written t(!Htimony at length obtained an award for Canada, of iS5,5()(),()(K). Great rejoicing took plac(5 through Canada, the American newspapers made loud outcry, but in the end the amount was ])aid. The time covered by the award has now expired, and tho matter is being again considered by the two governments. Restrictions on trade are condemned by tho whole school of modern economists founded by Adam The Smith. The long struggle over the Corn Laws National lod to the J5ritish people of all political creeds ° ^*^^' becoming the advocates of Free Trade. " Jiuy at the cheapest market, and sell at the dearest,'^ irrespective of national boundary-lines, national prejudice, or physical harriers, is the dictum of the political economist. Of up- Avards of eighty works on political economy in the British _« — ■ 454 A Short IIistorv of Museum Tiibnuy, not moro iliun two, it is said, iuIvocitL' a r('.striciiv(! oi* ])rotcctioiiist policy. The Uiiit(!d States, however, h;is for n, number of yoiu-s mfiint.'iined a ]ii<^li ])r(jteetivo tai'ill'. 'J'his, it lias Ijecii ai'gui'd, is necessary to dev(;lo[) the I'csoui'ees of a, new counli'V. Ilowevei' ])IaJnly it may Ijo demonstrated that the a(lvanti(ss to increase the tariff, was called a " doctrinaire.'^ It is pointed out as long ago as the time of Sal lust, who described the conspiracy of Catiline, that commercial or industrial distress is the fitting time for revolution. Accoi'dingly, in the general election of 1878, certain administrative blunders of Mr. Mackenzie, the earnest advocacy of the new national policy, but chiefly the desire for change arising from business stagnation, resulted in the transference of a large manufacturing* and industrial vote to the support of Sir John Macdonald's " National Policy,'' l)y which Mr. Mackenzie was heavily defeated. Sir John returned to power, and his ministry was again in 1882 sustained by a large majority. Section II. — The ucrjuisltluii of tlie Great North-west. Canada had thrown longing eyes for many years upon the iertile portions of the fur-trader's land. The licence TiiK Canadian Pkoplk. ^n-antod to llio Hudsoirs Ufiy Compjuiy to trade in Indian toi'ritorics wiis to hiivo oxpircd in 1H50. TIhj pci'ial ])ai'lianicnt aj)point(Ml a soloct comniittoo to ituji into tlio allairs of tlio Hudson's 15fiy Company in \> 'Vho rosults of tlio work of that conimittco aro a F volume of TjOO pa^os, Tho Canadian (lovcrninont, appri of tho notion of tlio Jiritish I'arliamont l)y tho lmp( Secretary (d! State, appointed as their Connnissiouci Britain, Chief Just iei; Draper. William Jlenry Draper, tho son of n Church of Y land cler^-yniMii, wns born in London, l^hi^'land, in ]\Iiirch, LSOl. Arriviim* in Canada in his Draper 1 - - li the \ m- uiro S57. olio ized lil M'iid r to lug- twentieth yen r, ho became aschoolmnster, and afterwards, having studied law, was admitted to the bar in 182H. Sir Francis Hond Head selectcul the youn^; lawyer as one of his Executive Council in IH:J(), who also entered the Lepfislative y\ssemb]y. A kindly but decided follower of the Family Compact, Dniper's reiined and gentlemanly inainier made him far less objectionable to the people than many of his colleagues, but ho became Lord Metcalfe^s chief instrument, as premier, in the struggle against responsible g(jvei'nment. Accepting a judgeship in l^ \ ;v 40^ \\ ;\ ^ % V '^ ll 1 I I* ; 458 A Short History of I f 1 i' Twelve thousand people, all told, made up the popula- lation of the new province, to which was given an As- sembly of twenty-four members — half French and half English — and the travesty of an Upper House of seven members. In a few years, however, by the influx of now settlers, the proportion of members was changed, and the English-speaking representatives now constitute nearly five-sixths of the House. In a short time the Legislative Council was abolished. The first duty of the Dominion was plainly to open the country to settlers. Surveyors were sent in swarms throughout the prairies, and large areas were surveyed and mapped out. Companies of British and Enited States engineers, under Captain Cameron and Mr. Archibald Survey'^^ Campbell, representing the two nations, met on the Boundary-line in 1872, and in the two years succeeding not only fixed the boundary-line at Pembina, where Major Long had taken his observation, but surveyed the whole parallel, one of the largest measured arcs on the earth's surface, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains, some 850 miles. The North-west had no sooner been transferred to Canada than the flow of settlers to it began. Many of the volunteer troops, on their release, remained in the country. Parties of Ontario farmers travelled by rail through the United States to the railway terminus in Minnesota, and thence by prairie trail for three or four hundred miles drove their covered emigrant-wagons to Manitoba. The Dominion Government, which by the Manitoba Act retains the land, gave it freely to those settlers who would make homesteads upon it. Each settler on accepting the conditions, might receive IGO acres, which was called a " free grant,'' and as muck more for purchase at a low rate, which was known as a " pre-emption claim." Immigration from the old world has been freely invited. Though by far the largest proportion of settlers has been from the older provinces of the Dominion, and in these the Ontario counties of Bruce, Huron, and Lanark THE Canadian People. 459 take precedence, yet from Euro])e many different ele- ments have come, and this immigration is but in its infancy. A large body of Mennonites from Russia arrived in 1874, numbering some five or six thousand. They are Germans, who had formerly removed to Russia, in order to practise their peace principles, which are the same as those of the Q'lakers, while their religious system leads to a species of communism. They are well doing and useful settlers. In 1875 came to Manitoba a number of Icelanders. These are an industrious and peaceable people ; they are Lutherans in religion, and have in Winnipeg a respect- able newspaper printed in their own language. They number in the province several thousands of souls, and are constantly arriving from the old island of the Sagas. Of the many prominent persons who have visited the North-west and given forth its praises to the world, none are better known than the Earl of Dufferin. Dufferin, the Governor-General of Canada, who visited the North-west in 1877. This distinguished nobleman, an Irishman educated at Eton and Oxford, had been engaged in several Government capacities in Britain, and had been a special commissioner to Syria. He had also visited the lonely island of Iceland, and had written a most pleasant work entitled " Letters from High Latitudes." Coming at the age of fifty-one to Canada, he speedily won the hearts of the people, and threw himself heartily into the young life of the country. In nothing did he take a greater interest than the settlement and develop- ment of the North-west. On the occasion of his progress through Manitoba, with his amiable countess. Lord Duflferin visited Lake of the Woods, the Winnipeg River, Winnipeg Lake, and there his old friends the Icelanders, the Canadians and Mennonites on the prairies, and left most pleasant memories, which have led Mani- tobans to follow his course in Constantinople, St. Peters- burg, and India, as her Majesty's representative, with peculijar interest. This widening of knowledge of the North-west was 1; \ A 9 ■' *!'' '■ 1 . r t i' ->• .J M 46o / \ Short History of 1 . 1 ,■ ^'' followed by the arrival of a contiiipj'ciit of Jewish refugees from E*olaii(l in the year 1(S82. A iiuinber of crofters, assisted by benevolent friends in the western lligblands, have also found their way to the prairie-land, and are excelh'nt settlers. Hungarian, Swedish, and German colonies have also taken root. Efforts have been made to attract a portion of the large number of French-Canadians, who have gone to the manufactories of the eastern States in tens of tl.ousands, from Quebec to the vacant lands of Manitoba, and this repatriation movement has been rewarded by the settle- ment of several thousands of these. The immigration from Ontario, Nova Scotia, and England has been the largest in Manitoba thus far in her history. Not in- cluding Indians, we may state that the 12,000 people of 1871 have become tenfold more in Manitoba in 1880, and the few hundreds in the North-west territories at the former date have now reached upwards of 20,000. Section III. — TJie National Highway. The joining of the several British provinces in North The Inter- America by a common line of railway has always colonial been relied on as a means of promoting their Railway, substantial unity. Lord Durham boldly pro- claimed the plan in his Report of thus overcoming the barriers of division which nature had interposed. To the large-minded Nova Scotian, Joseph Howe, seems to be due the revival of a scheme of uniting the provinces by rail. Before 1850 the three provinces of Nova Scotia, Canada, and New Brunswick agreed to support the building of the Intercolonial Railway from Halifax to Quebec or Montreal, and to contribute each 20,0007. a year towards its maintenance should Britain build it. This plan failed and then it was proposed to raise money for its construction by imposing a duty on timber. A survey of the route was completed, and Howe visited England to obtain Imperial assistance for the line. Howe of Nova Scotia and Chandler of New Brunswick came to Toronto, having secured Lord Grey's promise of THE Canadian People. 461 support Avliilc in JJritain. They roprosonted the British Govoriinient as willing to guarantee a loan of 7,000_,000/. to build the railway from Halifax to Quebec, and also a line from St. John, New Brunswick, westward, to thi^ state of Maine, to connect with the American system of railways. The Government of Canada in 1851 agreed to engage in the enterprise. Suddenly a shadow fell upon the project. The British minister denied that he had promised to Howe that Britain would assist the line connecting with the Ameri- can railways, and stated that the Imperial guarantee could only be given " to objects of great importance to the British li^mpire as a whole/' This cloud led New- Brunswick at once to repudiate the whole, as it was the connection with the American system which was of greatest importance to her. Another difficulty also was that Nova Scotia desired the line through New Brunswick, running along the sea- coast and touching at the gulf ports, usually known as Major Robinson's line, to be adopted ; while New" Bruns- wick preferred the route by the valley of the St. John River northward. Britain favoured the sea-coast line as being more removed from the American frontier. Though many difficulties now threatened the scheme, Canada and New Brunswick having entered on it were not disposed to give it up. Nova Scotia, formerly the leader in the movement, grew unwilling to proceed further. Originally the plan had been for each of the three provinces to asume one- third of the cost, but now, on condition of the River St. John route being chosen. New Brunswick offered to bear five-twelfths of the expense and to allow Nova Scotia to pay only one-quarter of the whole. Canadian delegates visited Nova Scotia in connection with the scheme in 1852, but that province being unwill- ing, and a new Ministry having come into power in England, whose members were unfavourable to the scheme, the Canadian Prime Minister Hincks gave up the enterprise, but the circumstances in England being very propitious, succeeded in floating his great scheme of i M' .^:ir PIP 'Uf! 462 A Short History of 1. f 1 :^ •.«-• ■ a Grniid Trinik "Rnilwny, to run thi'ongli Upper and Lower Caiuidii from oiid to end. The Intercolonial scheme was revived in 1802, and new negotiations were opened between the provinces inte- rested and the mother conntry. Tlie difficnlty of moving troops inland in winter, as shown by the '* Trent '' a-ffaii*, created new interest. The delejjfates to EnLifland in con- neetion with the Confederation movement obtained the promise of an Impei'ial gnarantee for the building of the Intercolonial liailway, and the amount was fixed in 18(>/ as 3,000,000/., the military or sea-coast line being thai selected. In the first Dominion parliament (1807-8), an Act was passed providing for the construction of the line so lorig projected. The work was begun in due course, and run- ning down the banks of the St. Lawrence, crossing the wildei'ness of the (Jaspe peninsula, following the old military wagon-road aloiig the Metapedia, down the north shore of New Brunswick, and forking out to end in St. John, New Brunswick, on the Bay of Fundy, and in old Chebucto Bay at Halifax on the Atlantic as its ter- minus, the iron band uniting the provinces by the sea with those in the interior, was completed and opened for traflfic in 1870. The Intercolonial Railway is 840 miles long, its deep rock cuts are well protected by snow-sheds, and throughout its entire length it is a credit to the mechanical skill of Canadian engineering. Probably no people has ever entered upon so heavy a The Cana- responsibility in order to build up a nation as dian Pacific the Canadian people. The building of canals, Eailway. ,^£ local railwavs, and of an Intercolonial rail- way^ appealed in each case to the self-interest of the provinces concerned. It was to develop their trade in the face of the hostile policy of the United States ; but the project of a transcontinental railway, a part of it to pass over many hundreds of miles of rock and mountain, might well have deterred a more numerous and wealthy people than the Canadians. The acquisition of the Hudson's Bay Company terri- tories in 1870, and the desire to make complete the solid THE Canadian People. 463 Upper and >()2, and now ivinccs inte- [y of moving iHMit " affair, ^•land in con- tbtainc'd tlic \\dmg of tlie fixed in 18()7 } being thai , an Act was ; line so long rsc, and rnn- crossing Iho ^'ing the old own the nortli to end in St. undy, and in ic as its tev- >s by tlie sea. d opened for is 840 miles y snow-sbeds, iredit to the li so heavy a a nation as [g of canals, [•eolonial rail- [erest of the leir trade in States; but )art of it to id mountain, and wealthy )mpany terri- llete the soUd fabric of British- American union l)v the addition of l^ritish Cokimbia, led to a promise being made by tho Canadian Government to construct and complete in ten years the Inter-oceanic liigliway, thus linking together the several provinces. The subject was for years one of political difference. Tho advocates of the speedy construction of a Canadian Pacific Eaihvay have claimed that '^ patriots ^^ was tho designation by which they should bo known ; their oppo- nents constantly hurled at them tho epithet of " mad- men .^^ That the people of Canada believed in those who claimed to act from patriotic and broad political motives is seen by their willingness to take upon themselves tho burden of debt, so that now the Canadian Pacific Pailway is an accomplished fact. The explanation of this is that Confederation introduced a larger life ; the continued rivalry of the United States awakened in Canadians tho desire to " hold their own ;" the possession of wide territorial interests, the sense of their land bordering on three oceans, and realization of the fact that nearly half of the continent is their heritage, might well awaken dreams of national greatness in a people less emotional than Canadians. Undoubtedly the Mackenzie Government fell because it failed to realize the swelling tide of rising Canadian life, and to satisfy the people's desire for tho unification of the Dominion. PerhapsCanadamay have gone too fast ; perhaps the Canadian Pacific Pailway is a larger scheme than she should have undertaken ; perhaps she should, in her desire to unite the provinces, have paid more heed to the pessimistic cry, " so loyal is too costly,'^ but she was inflamed with the dream of empire, and would brook no delay in its successful accomplishment. Mention has been already made of the passage of the Pacific Railway Bill in the Dominion parliament in 1872, empowering the Government to bargain with a chartered company to construct the railway. The ^'Pacific Scandal " resulting, as we have seen, in the return of Mr. Mackenzie to power, led to a less vigorous prosecu- tion of the railway than had been expected. M I ^i!if"lW^ 464 A Short History of 1 < . *• The Govornmont songlit to escape the obligation of building tlio railway to the Pacific Ocean by the year 1881, at which time it had been promised. Mr. Mac- kenzie proposed to open up .1 mixed rail and water route from Lake Superior to the prairie region by using the " water stretches " over which the fur-traders had formerly journeyed, and likewise for immediate relief to the North-west to build a branch railway from the main line along the banks of Red River to connect with the American railway system. The Government undertook the construction of the railway as a national work instead of giving it out to a company, and intended to build it gradually in sections. The branch line above mentioned, known as the Pem- bina branch, was placed under contract in 1874, and, though it was graded, remained until the year 1878 unused on account of the American line through Minne- sota not having been completed to meet it. In the fol- lowing year the railway from Fort William on Lake Superior to the interior was begun, and the first locomo- tive engine was landed at the mouth of the Kaministiquia in 1877, not far from the site of Duluth's old fort, and in the same year further contracts were awarded between Lake Superior and the prairie country. The Mackenzie Government was defeated in 1878, and on December 3rd of that year the last spike was driven of the sixty miles of the Pembina branch, thus connecting the city of Winnipeg with the railway system of the American continent — the first benefit realized in the North-west from the Canadian Pacific Railway. The Macdonald Government in 1880 determined to return to their original policy of giving over the railway to a private company. A " syndicate '' of wealthy Scot- tish Canadians of Montreal undertook to build the rail- Way in its uncompleted parts from ocean to ocean. The new Canadian Pacific Railway was to receive all the railway and material belonging to the Government, along with $25,000,000 in money, 25,000,000 acres of land ; while the company guaranteed to complete the •■■J-: THE Canadian PEorLE. 465 work in ten years from date. Great opposition was manifested in parliament and also in the country to the Kcheme, doubts were thrown upon the ability and good intention of the company, but the Government was sustained. The two most i)rominent men of the Cana- dian Pacific Railway are Sir George Stephen and his cousin, Sir Donald Smith. The former of these was born in Dumfriesshire, Scot- land, came to Canada early and amassed wealth as a merchant in Montreal, '^rhe latter is a native of Moray- shire, entered the Hudson's lUy Company, and was for years a trader on the coast of Labrador. As an influen- tial company officer, Mr. Smith was sent to the North- west, a delegate of the Government during the rebellion of 18G9-70. He was for several sessions in the Dominion parliament, was chief commissioner of the Hudson's Bay- Company, and is noted for his generosity to all public objects. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has been managed, with surprising ability. In the choice of executive officers, in the rapid construction of the sup- posed impassable Lake Superior and Rocky Mountain sections, in the completion of the line five years before the contract required, in the management of a most com- fortable and expeditious railway through portions of the country hitherto unvisited by the white man, in the acquisition of branch lines as feeders, as well as in making combinations tending to bring trade to Canada, the Pacific Railway Directors have brought honour to the name Canadian. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has already captured the transport of cattle from the American ranches of Montana, has entered into competition for the trade of St. Paul, Minnesota, with the Pacific coast, and especially San Francisco, is carrying tea and silk consign- ments from the Pacific to the Atlantic seaboard, is transporting thousands of European and Canadian im- migrants to the unoccupied lands of Manitoba and the North-west territories, and is developing the coal-mines of the Saskatchewan and Bow rivers, by which a cheaper H h «',i. !'-« ■^^r?T- 466 A Short Historv oi" I'licl is supplied t]ir()u (Jol. A. Dunn, a gallant and most ])romising young officer from Toronto, was killed in Abyssinia. During the Indian Mutiny, wIumi those lu'art-rending scenes of cruelty were l)eing enacted, Canada, like every other British colony, felt called upon to offer assistance to the mother-land. In 18-58 there was raised in Canada, the lOOth or Prince of Wales' Royal Canadian Regiment, a British regiment of the line, which marched out of Canada 1200 strong. But notwithstiuiding these evidences of military spirit) there was but little in Canada as a whole, '^riie rising during Sir Francis Bond Head's term of office showed that the very rudiments of war had been forgotten by the Canadian people. A few British regiments remained in Canada, but the " old musket and pitclifork volunteers " of Mackenzie and Papineau were a laughing-stock. Tho war of defence had developed much military spirit in its time, but for well-nigh half a century after it no occa- sion for taking up arms, except the Rebellion episode, had occurred. In the year 18G1, in which the American Civil War had broken out, even Canadian air was surcharged with uncertainty and alarm. In that year two ambassadors, Messrs. Mason and Slidell, from the Confederate States, embarked at Havanna, Cuba, on board the British pas- senger steamer Trent, for St. Thomas, to proceed thence to England. While passing through the Bahama chan- nel, the vessel was boarded by the United States frigate San Jacinto, and the two southern gentlemen were taken from the vessel, after which she was allowed to proceed. The Confederate ambassadors, carried to Boston, were regarded as a great prize. The Americans for a time maintained them to be con- traband, and that, as such, a neutral vessel had no right to carry them. The British Government demanded their immediate release, and though it was clearthat even belli- gerents on board a neutral vessel as passengers must be H h 2 [A % !H I 468 A Short History of m w>- m protected by tlie sliip's iKMitrallty, yet American orators, and notably Mr. Secretary St'ward, wi-rc (juite forgetful of the American clamour as to the *' right of searcli '* early in the century, and put forth absurd pretensions. For a time war seemed imminent. The prospect of attack roused Canadian patriotism. Companies were? enrolled in every considenible village, tho towns em- bodied whole regiments, and cities si'veral battahons each. Militia acts had ])i'en passed in 1855, but they had been largely a dead letter. A remarkable change now came over the country. Formerly, on the Qu( i'.h birthday, May 2 kh, the militia at certain points gathered together, the rolls were r tiled by rustic *' trainband cap- tains," and the men were then dismissed for another year. In other years whole counties had been unable to find a man who could form a compmy in line, now thi-^ drill-sergeant, obtained from the regulars, was every- where te.'iching the warlike art. Additional British regiments were sent out ; tho wilderness journey between New Brunswick and Quebec was made by troops in sleighs. The volunteers orga- nized all over the country, and enlisted for three years, were termed the Active Militia, which distinguished them from the Sedentary Militia, consisting of all men under sixty, unless specially exempt. From this time forth Canada possessed a well-armed and uniformed citizen soldiery. The Trent excitement passed away, but the military spirit continued. The close of the American war in 1865 set free a largo body of discharged soldiers. Unwilling to Fenians, work, many of them, of Irish extraction, and filled with no good feeling to Britain, organized an anti-British and anti-Canadian movement, called the Fenian Brotherhood. Their plan was to capture Canada as a base of operations against Ireland. Open drilling in several cities in the United States took place, and the leaders regarded their prey as so sure that they divided up among themselves, in anticipation, some of the most desirable residences in Montreal. Canadian volunteers were under arms all day on the 17th of March, 1866, expecting a Fenian invasion, but it THE Canadian Prorr.E. 469 ill! orators, o t'orgottnl )f Ht'urch " 'tensions, prospect of jinic's were towns cm- i battalions ),'), but thov l))1o cliiiufyc tho Qut »'?* its gatlu I'l'd inband cap- for ail other ?n unable to ne, now the was every- it out; tho and Quebec nteers orga- three years, Listinguished of all men ni this time uniformed d away, but free a large fnwilling to 'action, and [n, organized it, called the Iture Canada jpen drillin |ace, and the they divided I of the most day on the Lsion, but it was not m:\do : in April an insiM-nifirnnt attack was ninde n ^inon N ew i^ I'uiiswiel About tHU) men, under Col. O'Neil, crossed I'l'oni huffalo to Fort Erie on the nijrht ofMny^Ist. Moving westward this l)ody aiini'(l iit do- sti'oying the Welliind Canal, when they wi're met by th(» (Queen's Own Vohmteer Jiegiment of 'J\)ronto, and the 13th battalion of Hamilton Militia, near the village of Kidgeway. Here, after a conflict of two hours, in which I'or a time the volunteers drovi' the enemy before them, the Canadian forces retired to liidgewiiy, nnd thence to Port Colborne, with a loss of nine killed and thirty wounded. Col. Peacock, in charge of a body of regulars, was marching to meet the volunteers, so that O'Neil was compelled to tlee to Fort Erie, and crossing to the United States with his men, was arrested, but afterwjinls liberated. The day after the skirmish the regulars uiul voltinteers encamped at Fort Erie, and the danger on the Niagara frontier was past. A Fenian expedition threatened Proscott, aiming at reaching the capital at Ottawa, and another band of marauders crossed the border from St. Albans, Vermont, but both were easily driven back. The Fenian troubles roused strong feeling in Canada against the American authorities, who sought to relieve themselves from the charge of assisting the Fenians by the paltry excuse that the Federal Government could not interfere in the indi- vidual states. A Fenian attack was led by Col. O'Neil on the Lower Canadian frontier, in 1870, but it was easily met, and the United States authorities were moved to arrest the re- pulsed fugitives. A foolish movement was again made in 1871 by the same leader, through Minnesota, against Manitoba. Through the prompt action of the friendly American commander at Fort Pembina, the United States troops followed the Fenians across the border, arrested their leader, and though he was liberated after a trial at St. Paul, Minnesota, the expedition ended as a miserable and laughable failure. These movements of the Fenian So- ciety, though trifling in effect, yet involved Canada in a considerable expense from the maintenance of bodies of \\ If in; i i\ ■ \ '.111 H 470 A Short History of tlie Active Militia at differciit points alon^jf the frontier. The training of a useful force of citizen soldiery however resulted. The transfer of the Hudson's Bay Company Territories The Ked ^^' Canada was greatly mismanaged. Before the River country had been handed over Canadian survey- Rebellion. |yg r^^^\ working parties had been sent into it to lay it out, and complete the *' Dawson Road" from Lake of the Woods to Red River. These parties had expressed contempt for the natives, who had Indian blood in their veins, and who were not being considered in the mattei- of the transfer. The French Metis especially were in a disturbed state, and were led by a rash and vainglorious young man, named Louis Riel. He was the son of a fiery French-Canadian miller, who lived on the small river, the Seine, which empties into Red River, below Fort Garry. Louis Riel, the younger, was a French half-breed, and had been partiall}^ educated for a priest in Montreal. On the arrival on the boundary-line at Pembina of William McDougall, who on account of his long agitation on behalf of the North-west was named as its first Governor, he found himself opposed by the Metis, who had risen in rebellion. Buried in the wilds of Minnesota, 400 miles north of St. Paul, w^arned against entering the new district for which he had laboured, McDougall issued his proclama- tion as Governor, ordering the rebels to lay down their arms. The procla ..a„.jn was a ^^brutum fulmen," for the Red River peoph . ^'^- heard of its being valueless, from the territory not 1 /ing been transferred. The few Canadians in the v mtry, and the English-speakiug* natives, were anxious to receive the mi-disant governor, but Riel, who had seized Fort Garry, and formed a pro- visional government, refused. " M. le President Riel,'' as the upstart desired to he called, arrested a band of Canadians, and imprisoned them at Fort Garry, treating themin a contemptuousandinhuman manner. He even went so far as to execute a young Canadian named Scott, who had been somewi^at unyield- ing and independent. The news of the shooting of Scott; Tin. Canadian PEorLE. 471 ■ 11 on its arrival in Canada, roused a >vild. feoHnfr, and the: r>' cry for vongoanco was loudly hoard. Thousands of voluntoors offered their services, of wliom some 700 were accepted as sufficient, and with them 500 reguhars made up the Red Kiver Expc^ditionary Force, which was com- manded Ly Colonel Wolseley. After a long and toilsome journey up Lake Superior, and by the old fur-trader's route, after passing 500 miles of rapid, and portage, and lake and stream, the little army reached Fort (xai-ry on August 24th, 1870, to find the rebel leader fled, and the rebellion at an end. The skill of the Canadian voyageur soldiers, witnessed at this time, led General Wolseley, in 1884, in the British Fxpedi- tion to Egypt, to send to Canada for an agile force to work his boats in the toilsome journey up the Nile. The Canadian Government had. sent by Bishop Tache, from Ottawa, the pi'omise of an amnesty, but the murder of Scott having taken place before the delegate could reach the country to promulgate the pardon, the authorities maintained that circumstances had changed, and refused to recognize Kiel as entitled to the amnesty. Accordingly the besotted leader was induced to leave the country, and passed five years of exile in the United States. His " Adjutant-general," Lepine, was afterwards tried, found guilty, and for a time imprisoned. The Red River rebellion grew out of a series of blunders. The Canadian Government should have taken steps to conciliate the people of Red River, before taking possession of the country. The Hudson's Bay Company officials in Fort Garry were singularly inert, the pseudo- proclamation of Governor McDougall was a great mistake, and the crowning blunder of Riel, in advocating the case of his compatriots, was the murder of Scott. The military enthusiasm awakened, however, throughout Canada was notable, and numbers of the volunteers of the expedi- tion remained in Manitoba to be among its truest citizens. The enormous influx of settlers to the North-west had The Sas- ^^^ Canada to believe that the French half- katchewan breed population was powerless. Many of the Bebellion. Metis had, after the suppression of the Red ,r: II ■, ■ § 472 A Short History of 1*1% l''»:^ lliver rc'boUioii, f^ono west to st'ttlo on tlio Saskatchewan. In tlio remote scttlonionts, no doubtj due attention was not given to the difficulties siiid grievances of these scattered settlers hy the Canadian Government. The settlers on the Saskatchewnn Riven*, in the neighljourhood of Prince Albert and l^atoche, were ill at ease. The Indian popu- lation, too, on account of the destruction of the bufFiilo, and the encroachment of the whites, were in a dissatisfied state of mind. The malcontents invited the aforetime exile, Kiel, from Montana, whither he had gone, to return and lead their movement. Riel accepted the call of his countrymen, and posed as the liberator of his race, and even promul- gated a new religion. Little danger was apprehended from the wild harangues of the adventurer. Suddenly Canada was convulsed by the news telegraphed from within a few miles of the scene, that an attack had been made on the Mounted Police and Prince Albert Volun- teers at Duck Lake, on the 26th of March, 1885, and that the troops had been defeated with loss of life. The excitement through all Canada was intense. The insurgents were entrenched at a point 200 miles from the Canadian Pacific Railway, and there were unmistakable signs of restlessness among all the Indian tribes, for messengers to them had been sent in all directions by Riel, who had formed another provisional government. The 90th battalion, from Winnipeg, and a volunteer field battery were despatched to the scene of action, and from different parts of Canada in a few days some five or six thousand of the volunteer militia were on their way to the scene of the rebellion. The first skirmish took place at Fish Creek on the Saskatchewan, where the French half-brc^eds held a strong position among the ravines with their skilfully- arranged rifle-pits. After loss of life they were com- pelled to retire. In another portion of the country further up the Saskatchewan, the Queen^s Own, of Toronto, attacked an entrenched camp of Cree Indians under Chief Poundmaker, and inflicted severe loss. The defeated half-breeds, with a number of Sioux Indians as allies, /f'S", 1 THE Canadian People. 473 askatcliewan. iition was not lese scattered e settlers on )ocl of Prince Indian popu- f the buffalo, L a dissatisfied ile, Kiel, from ,nd lead their 1 countrymen, even promul- apprehended er. Suddenly graphed from tack had been A.lbert Volun- ch, 1885, and of life. intense. The miles from the unmistakable in tribes, for directions by government. rolunteer field ion, and from some five or on their way >eek on the reeds held a leir skilfuUy- [y were com- )untry further of Toronto, ts under Chief 'he defeated ms as allies, after the fight of Fish Creek, fell back to their strong- hold at Batoche; but here, after several days\skirmishing, and further loss of life, the position was taken on the 12th of May, 1885, after which the rebel chief was cap- tured a few miles from the field. Taken to Regina, tried by civil process, and found guilty, on the lOth of November, 1885, Louis Kiel, on the scaffold, expiated the crime of leading two rebellions, and the country is again at peace. The military expedition to the Saskatchewan is the most considerable that has been undertaken by the Cana- dian Militia, and the troops came out of their' three jnonths' campaign with all the steadiness of regulars. It is hoped that it may be long before the sound of w^ar is again heard in the land, but should it come Canada has at her disposal 1000 enlisted regulars, 1000 mounted police, which are virtually a military force, an active militia of 40,000 men, and a reserve of sedentary militia of 700,000. Canada now possesses in different parts of her domain memorials of the military spirit of her people, Canadian in the monuments raised to her fallen sons, who Military died fighting for her. On the plains of Abra- Monuments, ham, Quebec, on the spot where Wolfe fell in 1759, an older monument stood; but in 1849 a suitable column was erected, a Eoman sword and helmet lying on the capital, wdiile on the tablet is inscribed, " Here died Wolfe victorious." [In the city of Brantford, on the banks of the Grand Eiver, in Upper Canada, was unveiled, on 13th October, 1886, a fitting monument to the U.E. lioyalists, more especially to the brave warrior, Joseph Brant. Thirteen bronze cannon, given by the Imperial Government, were cast into this colossal statue of the Mohawk chief. This monument is a worthy memorial of Indian devotion and U.E. Loyalist courage.] On the top of Queenston Heights, from which the brave leader Sir Isaac Brock, on that sad morning in October, 1812, received his death-wound, but which in the after- noon became the scene of a Canadian victory, was erected iu 1824 a monument to Brock and his faithful aide-de- camp Macdonell. For sixteen years the column stood, I i ^■ IS " \K V: . 474 A Short History of till blown up by one of tho so-called " patriots/' after tlie rebellion of 1887. A beautiful monument was completed in 1850 upon tho same site, consisting of a noble column, surmounted by a commanding statue of General Brock, rising in all 185 feet, in memory of the soldier-govcrnoT, '^revered and lamented by the people whom he governed, and deplored by tho sovereign to whose service his life had been devoted." The promising youths of the Queen's Own, who met so untimely a death in the Fenian attack at Ridgeway in 180G, are commemorated by a suitable brown stone monu- ment in the Queen's Park, Toronto, which was set apart with appropriate ceremonies. The latest of the achievements of the Canadian Militia is not without its memorial. The Saskatchewan rebellion, in the fights of Fish Creek and Batoche, bore most heavily on the plucky 90th battalion of Winnipeg. On the City Hall Square, Winnipeg, on the ^8th of September, 1880, was unveiled with suitable procet dings a stately memorial, with column supporting a Canadian volunteer, leaning on his rifle, the whole made from the beautiful limestone of Eed River Valley, and presented to the city by the free gifts of her citizens. Section V. — Literature, Science, and Art. Canada has yet no great, distinctive, national literature, She is still in the midst of a colonial life ; her population is sparse and much divided ; wealth is but beginning to accumulate ; the struggle for comfortable existence is so common that few persons of leisure are found either to cultivate a purely Canadian literature, to engage in its production, or to afford a field for the support of authors and publishers. But the blossom must come before the fruit. The unity of the Dominion is being felt as year by year passes. Nova Scotians now know something of Ontario's woods and fields, and Upper Canadians wander down by the sea to visit the ruins of Louisbourg, or to gaze with interest at Grand Pre. In Canada there is no lack of the material for poetry, , .-r ', '^'^ THE Canadian PEorLE. 475 romance, or pictorial roproseiitation. Canada's Indians afford i^cope for treatmont in their mounds, their customs, and their legcMids, for it is from our distinctively northern Indians that Longfellow has found the subject of his North American epic of Hiawatha. The early loyalist and settler life affords material for works as interesting as those of Holmes, and Irving, and Longfellow. The fur-trader^s life is ;i perfect mine of wealth, entirely unworked, in which dashing adventure and most absorbing social and military incidents abound : the two centuries of the Hudson^s Bay Company rule afford wide field for historic as well as imaginative treat- ment, and to us belongs the history of Arctic adventure. We have seen in late years encroaching on our pre- serve the American historian Parkman, and though we rejoice in it as showhig the breadth of the republic of letters, yet it may teach us that what we want is not the field and material for the highest literary work, but th(5 eye to see, and the imagination to picture, and the heart to love our own Canada. Can the poet desire nobler subjects of song than our Canadian scenery ? On our grand St. Lawrence the nfiture-lover may lie and bask in the summer beauty of :'ts changing hues. Our Saguenay, and Chaudiere, and Montmorenci, and Niagara may stir the sense of wonder. Our autumn-tinted forests, golden wheat-fields, and alternation of rockland and meadow present a picture distinctively Canadian. The vast prairies suggest the immensity of the sea, and if the rugged mountains and bosky dells of Scotland rouse poetic sentiment within the bosoms of all who look upon them, surely the colossal grandeur, ever-changing beauty, and delightful valleys of the Rocky Mountains — the Canadian Alps — beside which Scottish mountains are dwarfed, may kindle in Canadian hearts the poetic fire. And were the field of Canadian subject far more limited than it is, yet in the social life and domestic incidents of our people in Montreal, the queen of the St. Law- rence, Toronto, the blooming mother of a hopeful people, Quebec, the ancient dame in her quaint environment^ lir- ir? I '.I '•■ 'u II 476 A Siiora' History of «ind Wiiinipt'^, the vigorous child of the now prairio life, tlioro is jimyiUi opportiniity for the pen of tho novolisti iind bi'usli of tho doscriptivo writor. Tho race of poots in any land is small : poets are like diamonds, too brilliant to be common. No gi'eat poet certainly has sprung from Canadian soil. Perhaps first of those breathing the native air is Charh^s Sangster, tlu; sweet poet of our Canadian forests. McLachlan has written some true poems, though they have the aroma of a foreign hind. It may be that the truest Canadiiiii poem is one but lately written, and of which we cannot yet quite make up our minds — Mr. Charles Mair^s " Tecumseh.'' Its thoroughly Canadian subject, suc- cessful rhythm, and well-drawn Canadian pictures, even though combined with the somewhat too philosophicnl utterances of an Indian maiden, lead us to hope that Mr. Mair's drama may be the harbinger of a distinctive Canadian poetry. To us it seems that the best of our literary men is one now foi* many years passed away — the late Chief TT 1-u 4.^ Justice Haliburton of Nova Scotia. Thomas HallbUrtOn. , ^^^ ^ , -iKr- I TIT Chandler Haliburton was born at Wnidsor, J^ov^'l Scotia, in December, 1790. lie was a U.E. Loyalist of Scottish descent, was educated for law, and in his pro- fession became noted for his " polished and efFef ive speaking,^' and " sparkling oratory.''^ He entered the Nova Scotian parliament, became Chief Justice of Common Pleas in his native province, and in 1856 re- signed from the bench, and went to Britain. Differing from a distinguished Nova Scotian politician — Samuel G. W. Archibald, who said on being urged to come over to Britain and enter the Imperial Parliament : " Your lordship, I am head of one House of Commons, and will never become the tail of another " — Judge Haliburton entered the British House of Commons in 1859 as M.P. for Launceston. It was in 1829 that Haliburton wrote his history of Nova Scotia, for which he received the public thanks of the Assembly. In 1835 appeared in the Nova Scotian his series of papers, afterwards published under the name of V r prairio lifo, tho novelist )ets are Hkc^ ■) L^i'(>at poi»t Pi'i'haps first Siiiijjfster, thu Laclilau has tho aroma of ?st Canadian ch we cannot arles Mair's subject, suc- Dictures, even philosophicn! Kope that Mr. a distinctive erary men is he late Chief tia. Thomas Vindsor, Nova Loyalist of d in his y)ro- and efFef ive entered the Justice of in 1856 re- n. DifFerini]j ian — Samuel to come over ent : '' Your ons, and will le Haliburton 859 as M.P. lis history of plic thanks of m Scotian his the name of e THE Canadian People. 477 " Sam Slick/' " The Clockrauker." The gist of Hali- burton's writings has been well expressed as follows : " Industry and perseverance are eflectively inculcated in comic story and racy narrative. '^ Haliburton wrote a st»mi-political critique, '' 'l^he Bubbh\s of Canada/' chiefly dealing with the French question in Lower Canada, but it is written from a narrow and unsympathetic standpoint. The field of Canadian history has been but poorly treated. The history of ^. X. (ilarneau, written from a Jjower Canadian standpoint, though atrociously mangled in its translation from the French, is for high aim and accurate statemenc undoubtedly the most successful literary treatment, apart from Parkman's works, which our history has received. So-called histories abound, but they are too often only compilations of previous works, containing the mistakes and unsystematic treatment of their predecessors. So far as industry, a desire to consult the original authorities, and truer conception of the literary and philosophic work of the historian is concerned, Mr. J. C. Dent, the author of " Canada since the Union of 1841/' two vols., and tho " Story of the Canadian Rebellion/' in iwo vols., repre- sents a true school of historic work, though there is in this author's work a too great readiness to accept what favours his theories, and a'want of deliberate and sober judgment. The danger threatening the rise of a true school of Canadian historical criticism is the tendency of writers to make history one of the Brodwissenschaften of the Germans — a mere means of gaining a livelihood without rendering value to unsuspecting book-buyers, and it must he said that some Canadian publishers have not shown themselves above being parties to this nefarious tendency. Some partisan purpose to serve, the " cacoethes scrihendij' or the unworthy motive of receiving government patron- age, have induced a somewhat prolific crop of political biographies, local " histories " — mere uninteresting and unsympathetic collections of facts, dry and raw manuals known as '^ school histories," all dishonouring to the name historian, and producing on the public a nauseating 1 ■: ►• 478 A Short IIistorv of U ofFoct on tho mention of tlio name of liistory. Tf tlio historian bo not free and courageous enough to givo his opinion, history is valueless. To Lower Canada belongs tho most distinctive school of Canadian literature — Canadian in subject — and thouffh French in language, yet distinguished from the modern French literature of Paris Ijy its more measured flow, and as taking its spirit more from the literature of Louis XlV/s time — purer in tone than recent French literature. Such names as Frechette, Verreau, Lemoinc, and Suite stand out m this truly native school of literature. From time to time ventures in the form of literary magazines have been made. It would be unnecessary cruelty even to mention the names of these untimely and unproductive enterprises. Literature must be spon- taneous to be real. Until there be a literature in tho country^ the literary magazine must die of starvation. There are indications now that not far in the future there may rise a true and natural magazine literature, one of these being the appearance in numerous British and American magazines of meritorious Canadian productions. Even the Spectator, Tatler, and Guardian of the bril- liant Augustan age of English literature faded and passed away as the untimely fruit, to be followed by the magnificent yield of the British magazine literature of the present day. It is yet to be seen whether enough of Canadian magazine ventures have paid the penalty of un- timeliness to secure a successful Canadian literary journal. Of the seething, surging vortex of Canadian newspaper literature it can but be said, that while a multitude of newspapers provide a sufficient reading material to the four or five millions of Canadians, yet in but few cases is much attention paid to giving a literary form or cultivated tone to what is so plentifully supplied. In science Canada has done far greater things than iu g . general literature. The necessity of opening up the resources of our new country has attracted to the government service and universities men of dis- THE Canadian People. 479 ri orv. If tlio tingnishcd abilities from the mother comitry, and yet it is wortli}' of notice tliat the most distin*^uishi>d names in onr scientific hononr-roll nvi^ those of native-born Canadians, wliile a school of Canadian scientists has grown up, whoso worlc in botany, mineralogy, geology, engineering, and surveying compares favourably with that of any other country, and has received recognition at the hands of British and American science. The father of Canadian science may be said to have been Sir William Logan. Born in Montreal in 1798, tq„»j. William Ednmnd Loo'aii returnedwith his father to S :;otlandto an estate purchased near Stirling. Trained in Edinburgh and London young Logan visited Canada in 18-9, and returned to Wales to become manager of a copper-smelting establishment in South Wales. Dr. Buckland said of him, '^ He is the most skilful <»-eoloffical surveyor of a coal-field I have ever known.^' In 1841 ho became head of the Canadian Geological Survey, and threw himself into field-work at once. Of his life he writes, " Living the life of a savage, sleeping on the beach in a blanket-sack with my feet to the fire, seldom taking my clothes off, eating salt pork and ship's biscuit, occasionally tormented with mosquitos.^' Logan never married, and was knighted in 185G. His great principle of scientific work was " Facts, then theories." Sir William Logan did great service by his thorough investi- gation of our primitive rocks, to which the name given by him, " Laurentian,'' replacing the old term ^^ Funda- mental gneiss," has now been affixed by all geologists. After a most active and useful life our greatest scientific Canadian died in Wales on the 22nd of June, 1875. The mantle of this noted man of science fell worthily on a Nova Scotian, now known as Sir William jj Dawson. Young Dawson was born in Pictou in October, 1820. Educated under the able Dr. McCuUoch, Dawson went to Edinburgh University, and on his return to his native province became, in 1842, the companion of Sir Charles Lyell in the geological exploration of Nova Scotian coal-fields. In 1850 he was made Superintendent of Education of Nova Scotia, and in 1855 became i!: liil- \ . \\> 1!' \ t;'ii 48o A Short History of Wilson. Principal and Professor of McGill University, Mon- treal. Dr. Dawson U a practical investigator, and lias written numerous important works, umon^'' wliicli '* Acadian Geology," " Origin of tlio Earbli," and " Fossil Men " arc most noted. His namo is also associated with the dis- covery of Eozoon Canadense, the supposed earliest fossil animal, in 188() Sir William Dawson was chosen to the high dignity of President of the British Association for the advancement of science. Another earnest labourer in the field of Canadian science is Dr. Wilson, President of University College, Toronto. Daniel Wilson was born in Edinburgh in 181(3, and early devoted his life to literary pursuits. Besides certain works of importance written in his native country, he has, since joining the pro- fessoriate of University College, enriched Canadian, archteology and ethnology by his interesting work '' Prehistoric Man," while dallying in the lighter field of literature in such works as "Chatterton" (18(39), and " Caliban, the Missing Link " (1873). Dr. Wilson has been a warm friend of education, and is remembered for his sturdy defence of Toronto University, when its enemies sought to dismember it. Most prominent among practical scientists in Canada stands Sandford Fleming, C.E. Young Fleming arrived in Canada from Britain in 1845, but eighteen years of age. In time he followed the profes- sion of engineering, and became the chief explorer of the Canadian Pacific Eailway. Mr. Fleming is the Chan- cellor of Queen's University, Kingston, but has attained his greatest distinction b}'' pressing upon the several Governments of Europe and America the importance of the adoption of a prime meridian of longitude for all nations, and of a system of universal time. His recom- mendations have been received with great favour, and have been in some cases adopted. Canadian science, especially geology, has gained a pre- eminence on the American continent. The wider culture, more accurate work^ and greater reliability of our Cana- >i c, THE Canadian PEori.E. 481 sity, M on- lias written " Acadian I Men " avo nth the dis- arlicst fosHil liosen to the sociation for f Canadian [ University was born in Po to literary anco written or the pro- d Canadian, esting work rhter fiekl of ' (1800), and 1. Wilson has einbered for when its [s in Canada ung Fleming |in 1845, but the profes- explorer of is the Chan- Ihas attained the several [iportance of itude for all His recom- favour, and [ained a pre- lider culture, our Cana- dian scientific men, Imvo given their invrstigntions into tlio origin and condition of our continent a decidediy favourable recognition, far beyond what iniglit have been expected from so new a country. In virtue of the (Jeo- logical Survey and Mnsenni having h('ii(h|uurters at Ottawa, thut has become an important scientitit* centre j and, while Montreal holds some of its old pre-eminence, the extent and Completeness of tlu^ School of Science, now a part of Toronto University, affords opportnnities for training probably unsurpassed on the continent. In the depai'tnient of sanitnry seience the ])r()vinco ot" Ontario has reached an advanced position. A thoroughly organized Board of Health, with large powers as to waterworks, sewage, cemeteries, and the sujjpression of epidemics, takes active supervision throughout the province. Towards the close of his term of office the Marquis of Lome, the Governor-General, signalized his residence in Canada by the gathering together ^orn^g^^' ^ of a number of Canada's leading men in litera- ture and science at Ottawa, and constituting them a society. The Marquis of Lome, who with his royal wife, the Princess Louise, came to fill the highest position in the government of Canada, was born at London in 1845. Eldest son of the Duke of Argyll, the Marquis of Lome is of a race distinguished as popular leaders for centuries in learning, religion, and public affairs. Lord Lome was educated at Eton, St. Andrews, and Cam- bridge, and has always shown an inclination to literature. Married to her Majesty's daughter in 1871, his selection as Governor-General of Canada was regarded as a mark of special favour for Canada. His arrival in Canada was in 1878. The experiment of the Marquis of Lome in establishing a learned society under Government patronage was a perilous one. It was declared that such a society is contrary to the genius of our unaristocratic institutions ; that the special countenance of the State makes litera- ture less spontaneous, and hinders its development. The I i rH 482 A Short History of propliotH declared tlint tlio fiocioty must fail. The French Acudeniy, with its " forty iininortals," it was sfiid, niiji^ht suit a p(.'opl(» like the J-'reuch, hr.b Aiififlo-Siixoiis would brook no such nrhitrary selection, or such embodiment of cxclusiveness as that ])r()posed. However, on th(» 2.jth of May, 1882. the "Royal Society of Canadsi " met and was organized. It was formed so as to include four sections of twenty members each; the sections bi'ing French literiituro, FiUglish lite- rature, physical and chemicid science, and geological and l)iological science. Though at first nominated by the (jlovernor-(Jeneral, the society itself elects new members to till its vacancies. Four sinnual meetings have been held s.ijce the first, and tlu^ ])roc'eedings of the society, lor the publication of which Parliament provides means, form a portly quarto volume annuully. Two yenrs before the formation of the Royal vSociety the Mar([uis hiid made his first experiment in the establishment of culture-guilds in the organization of the '^ lioyal Canadian Academy of Arts.'' The Princess Louise is a devotee of Art, and it seemed most fitting that such a ste]i should be taken by the Governor and the Princess. Unlike literature, art seems to thrive under official patronage, as shown by the Louvre and Luxembourg collections in Paris, the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, and the National Art Gallery in London. The purposes of the Canadian Academy are most praise- worthy, being the establishment of a National Gallery in Ottawa, the holding of art exhilntions in the cities of the Dominion, and the formation of schools of art and design throughout the country. Forty Academicians make up the roll of the society, but " Associates" are chosen. A few names, such as O'Brien, Forbes, and Schrieber, stand out among those of our Canadian artists, and we shall all rejoice if Art, the slowest growing of all the trees in the intellectual garden, be so cultivated as to awaken the dormant genius of our people, and diffuse among all classes a taste high enough to distinguish, as Ruskin has said, whether the animal in the foreground of the picture is a pony or a pig. It is gratifying to Canadians to see Till' Caxadiax People. 483 lil ho Fi'oncli nid, mi^ht 011s would odimt-'iifc of d. It was ,y moinbors \\crV\s\i lite- )lo]i()uld be heard in such afiiiirs of State. But it follows also that should Canada claim a sliiiro in treaty-making, should sho insist on absolute self- control, and in having- a voice in Britain's foreign policy, then she nnist .also assume some of the responsibilities, must be prepared to contribute h(»r shun' of the expenses of l^ritain's wars, of the maintenance of tho army and navy, and of the eonsular and diploniutic service. If then continuance of tho present system of dependence be impossi})le, what are the possibilities ? The first of these is Independ(>nce. Canada has as large a population as had the United States when they fought for and gained their inde- gj^g^^^ pendence. Should Canada now declare for Independence, she must be prepared to take her place among the nations, must immediately face the building and equipment of a navy to protect her coast-line and fisheries, must establish a standing army at least as large as that of the United States, must follow her veiy con- siderable commerce to every part of the world with a consular and diplomatic service, must enormously in- crease her foreign department of government, and, severed from British connection, pilot her own way through the treacherous shoals and dajigerous whirlpools of international complication. With international relations with the United States so varied and complicated, Independence would probably be but the prelude to annexation, a contingency which the interest, sentiment, and patriotic attitude of the great mass of Canadians forbids even to be discussed. While all Canadians of any character or standing oppose the suggestion made, probably the French Canadians are the most deter^Jned in opposition to Independence and its probable result. They are lead by an astute and able politician, Sir Hector Langevin. Hector Louis Langevin was born in Quebec in August, 1826,. received his education at the Seminary in hiis native city, and entered the profession of law. lii r !!■ I 13 tail ^ i! V iSI a * 4^H'' ■ if l!l f •; J f 492 A Short History of He lias puMislu'd a iiumLcT of troatisos on l(\i>'al niiil other 8ul)jects. Hi' ciitiTod l^irliainciit in 1857, since which tinic he has, witli a slight interval, held his seat and filled impm-tant trusts in the (lovernment. He is a man of detei'inination and capacity, is a good speaker, and is the greatest leader of his eountrynien since the deatli of Sir (Jeorge Cartier, who indeed may be said to bo Mr. liiingevin's })olitical beau-ideal. Political defeats give rise at times to hasty and ill- judged expressions on the part of disappointed partisans as to the future of Canada. There is indeed a school of pessimistic writers who belittle the future of Canada, and conjure up difHculties ; but when these prophets of evil are dead, Canadian autonomy will no doubt be living still. The eyes of Canada, as well as of the British p]mpire, are turned to what is called " Imperial Federa- tion." In N(jvember, 1884, a league was Imperial Federation. Blake. founded in England aiming at the permanent unity of the Jiritish Empire. The principle of the scheme is that no rights of local parliaments as regards local affairs shall be affected ; and that it shall " cond)ine on an equitable basis the resources of the Empire for the main- tenance of common interests, and adequately provide for an organized defence of common rights.'^ One of the first to advocate this scheme is a statesman no doubt destined to wield an important in- Huence in Canadian affairs, Hon. Edward lilake. Dominic Edward Blake, the son of Chancellor Blake of Upper Canada, was born in the township of Adelaide, Upper Canada, in October, 1833. Educated in Toronto, at Upper Canada College and Toronto University, he was called to the Bar of Upper Canada in 185G. A man of prodigious working power, most tenacious memory, and great eloquence, he speedily rose to the top of his profession, and to secure the services of Edward Blake was believed by many to be equivalent to winning the case. In 1867 Mr. Blake entered the local legislature of Ontario, and in 1371 became Premier of his native pro- THE Canadian People. 493 vinco. For a timo nftor 1878 n Tnoml)(M' of tho Mackonzio ^linistry, Mi*. JMjiko is mrv tho k'a(l(;r of lior Majosty's k)yal Opposition in tko Dominion Honse of Commons, ;nul is a moat important factor in tko public affairs of Canada. That some form of Imperial Federation will yet como is tko belief of many tkougktful Canadians. Tko sckemo of a united and politically organized Empire cannot but rouse patriotic feeling in every Britisk kenrt. Tho thought that a fifth part of the habitable globe is included in the Hritisk Fmpire skould give lovers of tkcir country inspiration to work for its greater unity and consolidation. Tke Britisk Empire is tkree times larger tkan America, is composed of sixty-five territories and islands, and comprises one-sixtk of tke population of tke globe. " Witkin tko area of tke Britisk Empire, ^mder tke favoured climatic conditions, are produced all tkat is needed for tke sustenance of life, for clothing, for the refined enjoyment of the most profligate luxury — every- thing used by the world of to-day in peace and war, in commerce and art, in science and manufacture.''^ No fact has so awakened Britain to the sense of the greatness of ker colonies as tke gatkering — somewkat after tke model of tkat great Exkibition of 1851, for wkick tke Prince Consort did so muck — tke " Colonial and Indian Exkibition,^^ in London, of tke year 188G. Here are gatkered togetker tke products of every clime. A late writer kas remarked : " As a book like ' Hak- luyt^s Voyages ' is said to kave widened tke process of Englisk tkougkt at tke time of its publication (1599), so a spectacle like tkat wkick tke Colonies and India kave given to us cannot fail to supply to us fresk knowledge of the world, and of tke place wkick tke Britisk occupy in it. 8kall not tke Empire, built up by tke enterprise and energy of tke Anglo-Saxon race, wkick is tke envy oi every otker nation, and tke pride of our own, be in its integrity secured ! I I I' t i I a; Mil ■I f'^r' ' 494 A Shout IIlstorv of tiik Caxadiax Vkovlk <( u Shall not wi.' ilirou^li l,'(k»(1 .'unl ill Cleavo to oii(> another .still ? Britain's myriad voices call. ' Sons, 1.0 wcldcil. each and all, Into one Imperial whole, One with Hritain. heart and soid ! One life, quo flag, one lloet, one Throne ! ' " Tkxnysox. . >i APPENDIX A. ^^«^^W^^Wvy^> ^^^S^\^^ THE co:n\stitution of Canada. PROVISIONS OF THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT. Imperial Act, 30 & 31 Vict. An Act J'ur flic Union of Canada, Nova Scoiia, and Nrv) Brans- ni.'icl; a)ul the Government tkereof ; andjhr^na'j^tosca connected thei'evnth. WiiEKKAs tho Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and Now Brunswick have exi)ressed tlioir desire to be federally united into one Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of (Ireat Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom : And whereas, such a Union would conduce to the welfare of the Provinces and promote the interests of the British Empire : And whereas, on the establishment of the Union by authority of Parliament, it is expedient, not only that the constitution of the legislative authority in the Dominion be provided for, but also that the nature of the Executive Government therein bo declared : And whereas, it is expedient that provision be made for the eventual admission into the Union of other parts of British North America : Be it therefore enacted, &c. Sects. I. and II. I. PllELIMINAEy. II. Union. Sects. III. and IV. Power given to proclaim the Provinces named, "One Dominion under the name of Canada." Sects. V. VI. and VII. Constituting four Provinces : Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Sect. VIII. Provides that in the census in 1871 and every tenth li ! 496 AlTENDIX A. 11 year thereafter the populatiou of the several rroviucea shall be dlHtiuguiuhc'l. III. HxEcuTivE Tower. Sect. IX. " Tlie Executive flovornmont ami aiitliority (»f and over Canada in hereby declared to coutiiiue and be vewted iu the tjueen. Sect. X. rJovcrnor-General to be " on behalf and in the name of the Qnocii." Sect. XI. There shall bo a Council, "to aid and advis-e in the ^'overnment of (,'unada " — "the Q^ieen's J'rivy Council;" Oover- nor-(irrjeral has [)ower to choose and Hunimon Huch, to Bwear them in, and from time to time to remove them. Sect. XII. All i)ower8, authorities, and functi(m,s given, shall '• be vested in and exerciseable by the Governor-General, with the advice, or with the ajvice and consent of, or iu conjunction wi'h, the Quecm'.s Privy Council for Canada" . . . subject never- theless to be abolished or altered l)y the Parliament of Canada. Sect. XIII. Defines meaninjj; of *' Governor-(j!cneral iu Council." Sect. XIV. i'ower to her Majesty to authorize Governor-General to appoint deputies. Sect. XV. " The command in chief of the land and naval militia and of all naval and military forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue and be rested in the C^ueen." Sect. XVI. " Until the Queen otherwise directs, die seat of Government of Canada shall be Ottawa." IV. LljIslative Power. Sect. XVII. " There shall be one Parliament for Canada, con- sisting of the Queen, and Upper House styled the Senate, and the House of Commons." Sect. XVIII. Privileges, &c., of the Houses. Sect. XIX. First session of Parliament provided for. Sect. XX. " There shall be a session of the Parliament of Canada once at least in every year," &c. The Senate* Sect. XXI. The Senate to consist of seventy-two members, " who shall be styled Senators." Sect. XXII. Senate is to consist of three divisions — each with twenty-four members, viz. (1) Ontario, (2) Quebec (one from each of twenty-four specified divisions to preserve the English repre- sentation), (3) Maritime Provinces (Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick — twelve each). Sect. XXIII. The qualifications of a Senator are to be — (1) Age of thirty years ; (2) a subject of her Majesty ; (3 and •*) Quali- Afm'f.xdix a. 497 1CC3 Hhall be ority of and vested in the in the name U(\vi>«' nx the incnir Clover- ich, to Bwoar iH given, shall General, with u conjunction subject nevcr- ofCauada. ml in Council." vernor-General md and naval d in Cauada, is aeen." ts, che seat ot ^v Canada, con- ic Senate, and Ifor. lent of Canada Itwo mem"bers, Us — eacli with lone from each [Englisb repre- id Kew Bruns- |to be— (1) Age and •*) Qnali* fication, froolinld of S 1000, real and personal property 1? 1<">00 ; (,')) llrsidi! ill the I'roviari! whifli he ropresonts ; (♦]) lu C^uebec real property in diHtri(.'t ho ropresi'UtH. Sect. XXLV. *' The (Joveruor-General shall, from time to tinuv in the (.^ueen'.H nauu', by iiiHtrunicnt under tlw Great Seal of Canada, Humnion r- General in session when proposed. Sect. LV. Governor- General, in the Queen's name, may assent or -withhold assent, or reserve for the signitication of her Majesty's pleasure. Sect. LVI. Queen in Council may within two years of the assent of the Governor-General to any bill disallow the Act. Sect. LVII. A bill reserved for the signification of the Queen's pleasure shall have no force unless within two years the Governor- General announces the Queen's assent to it. .,-■«■ M V. PrvOYINCIAL CONSTITUTIO>;S. w X*\.>- ■'?■ ■■Hi-jA.Y Sect. LYIII. " For each Province there shall be an officer, styled the Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor- General in Council by instrument under the Great Seal of Canada." Sect. LIX. Lieutenant-Governor to hold office for five years, but for cause assigned he may be removed by the Governor- General. Sect. LX. Salaries of Lieutenant-Governors are to be fixed and provided by the Parliament of Canada. Sect. LXI. Lieutenant-Governors must subscribe oaths of alle- giance and office similar to those taken by the Governor-General. Sect. LXII. Provisions relating to Lieutenant-Governors apply to administrators of provincial affairs. Sect. LXIIL Authorizes the appointment of Executive officers for Quebec and Ontario. Sect. LXIY. Constitution of the Executive authority in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remains as before Confederation until changed by them. Sect. LXV. Lieutenant-Governors of Ontario and Quebec are Appendix A. 499 leval) aud no cuniiil ceusns e-adjusted as st census, aember. provided the to exercise the powers ]jelonginpf to them, cither with advice of Executive Councils or alone, at the time of Union. Sect. LXVI. Lieutenant-Governor in Council in each Province means Lieutenant-Governor acting by and with the advice of the Executive Council thereof. Sect. LXVII. Administrator may in absence, illness, or other inability of Lieutenant-Governor be appointed by the Governor- General in Coancil. Sect. LXYIII. Until changed by the Executive Government of the Province, the seats of government for the Province are to be : Ontario, Toronto ; Quebec, the city of Quebec ; Nova Scotia, Halifax ; New Brunswick, Frederictou. •iginate in the the Hou-;e of 1 session when ne, may assent ,f her Majesty's years of the the Act. of the Queens i-s the Governor- be an oiBcer, the Goveruor- leal of Canada. ' for five years, the Governor- to be fixed and De oaths of alle- 3rnor-General. governors apply :ecutive officers [hority in Nova [ederation until id Quebec are Legislative Power. 1. Ontario. Sect. LXIX. Legislature of Ontario consists of Lieutenant- Governor and of one House, styled the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. Sect. LXX. Legislative Assembly of Ontario composed of eighty- two members, representing the eighty-two electoral districts named in the Appendix of the Act. 2. Quebec. Sect. LXXI. Legislature of Quebec consists of Lieutenant- Governor and of the Houses, styled Legislative Council of Quebec, and the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. Sect. LXXII. Lieutenant-Governor in Queen's name is to ap- point twenty-four members of Legislative Council of Quebec, one to represent each of the twenty-four divisions named by this Act. Sect. LXXIII. Qualification of Legislative Councillors are the same as those of the Senators for Quebec. Sect. LXXIV. Place of Legislative Councillor of Quebec shall become vacant for similar purposes as for Senator. Sect. LXXV. Lieutenant-Governor in the Queen's name shall fill up vacancies. Sect. LXXYL Legislative Council shall hear and determine any question as to qualification of Councillor, or a vacancy which may arise. Sect. LXXVII. Lieutenant-Governor may from time to time appoint and remove a Legislative Councillor. Sect. LXXYIII. Ten members are a quorum of ^the Legislative Council. Sect. LXXIX. All members of the Legislative Council may vote, and an equality of votes decides for the negative. Sect. LXXX. Legislative Assembly of Quebec consists of sixty- five members ; the constituencies may be redistrbuted, except that in any change afiecting them, on the second and third readings of K k 2 500 Appendix A. .■:i; tlie bill, a majority must vote for it, from the English constituen- cies of Pontiac, Ottawa, Ai'gontouil, Huutiagdon, Missisquoi, Brome, Shefford, 8tausted, Compton, Wolfe and Richmond, Ma- gantic and the town of Sherbrooke. Sect. LXXXI. Provides for first meeting of Ontario and Quebec Legislatures. »Sect. LXXXII. Lieutenant-Governors of Ontario and Quebec are to summon tlie Legislatures. Sect. LXXXIII. No person being a salaried official of Ontario or Quebec can be a member of the Legislature. Sect. LXXXIV. The election laws of Ontario and Quebec are for the meantime continued. Sect. LXXXV. The Legislative Assemblies in Ontario and Quebec may not continue for more than four years. Sect. LXXXVI. There miist be a yearly session of the Legis- lature in each of these two Provinces. Sect. LXXXVII. Provisions fas to the Speaker, vacancies, the quorum, and mode of voting of the House of Commons are extended to the Legislative Assemblies of these two Provinces. 4. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Sect. LXXXVIII. The constitutions of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, except as modified by this Act, continue, as also the House of Assembly in the latter. 5. Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia. Sect. LXXXTX. Provision is made for the first elections in each of these tlu'ee Provinces. "4P' 6. The Four Provinces. Sect. XC. Provisions of this Act relating to appropriation and tax bills, the recommendation of money votes, the assent to bills, the disallowance of Acts, and the signification of pleasure on bills reserved, shall apply to the Provinces, except that the Lieutenant- Governor be substituted for Governor-General, Governor- General for the Queen, and as to time of reservation, of one year for two. !* YI. Distribution of Legislative Powers. Powers of the Farliament. Sect. XCI. The Parliament of Canada may make laws for the peace, order, and good government of Canada, on all matters, not •<5oming within the classes of subjects assigned exclusively to the Provincial Legislatures and for greater certainty, but not to restrict the generality of the foregoing, in the following subjects : — ii I Appendix A. 501 ections in each "(1.) The public debt and property. (2.) The regulation of trade and commerce. (:>.) The raising of money by any mode or system of taxation. (k) The borrowing of money on the public credit. (5.) Postal service. (6.) The census and statistics. (7.) The militia, military, and naval service, and defence. (8.) The fixiug of and providing for the salaries and allow- ances of civil and other officers of the Government of Canada. (0.) Beacons, buoys, lighthouses, and Sable Island. (10.) Navigation and shipping. (11.) Quarantine, and the establishment and maintenance of marine hospitals. (12 ) Sea-coast and inland fisheri^?s. (lo.) Ferries between a Province and any British or foreign country, or between two Provinces. (14.) Currency and coinage. (15.) Banking, the incorporation of banks, and the issue of paper money. (16.) Savings'-banks. (17.) Weights and measures. (18.) Bills of exchange and promissory notes. (19.) Interest. (20.) Legal tender. (21.) Bankruptcy and insolvency. (22.) Patents of invention and discovery. (23.) Copyrights. (24.) Indians, and lands reserved for the Indians. (25.) Naturalization and aliens. (26 ) Marriage and divorce. (27.) The criminal law, except the constitution of courts of criminal jurisdiction, but inchiding the procedure in criminal matters. (28.) The establishment, maintenance, and management of penitentiaries. (29.) Such classes of subjects as are excepted in the enume- ration of the classes of subjects by this Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces ; " And any matter coming within any of the classes of subjects enumerated in this section shall not be deemed to come within the class of matters of a local or private nature comprised in the enumeration of the classes of subjects by this Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces." Exclusive Powers of Provincial LEGisL.vxur'vEs. Sect. XCII. " In each Province the Legislature may exclusively make laws in rfhition to matters coming within the classes of subjects next hereinafter enumerated : — 502 AlTEXDIX A. i; ^ m^' M, i:li- m: (1.) The amendment from timo to time, notwithstanding any- thing in this Act, of the constitution of the Province, except as regards the office of Lieutenant-Governor; (2.) Direct taxation within the Province in order to the raising of a revenue for provincial purposes ; (3.) The borrowing of money ou the sole credit of the Pro- vince ; (1.) The estabhshmcnt and tenure of provincial offices, and the a])pointment and payment of provincial officers ; (5.) The management and sale of the public lands belonging to the Province, and of the timber and wood thereon ; (G.) The establishment, maintenance, and management of public reformatory jorisons in and for the Province ; (7.) The establishment, maintenance, and managemeiit of hospitals, asylums, charities, and eleemosynary in- stitutions in and for the Province, other than marine hosi^itals ; (8.) Municipal institutions in the Province ; (9.) Shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer, and other licences in order to the raising of a revenue for provincial, local, or municipal purposes ; (10.) Local works and undertakings other than such as are of the following classes : — (a.) Lines of steam or otlitr ships, railways, canals; tele- graphs, and other works and undertakings con- necting the Province with any other or others of the Provinces, or extending beyond the limits of the Province ; (h.) Lines of steamships between the Province and any British or foreign country ; (c.) Such works as, although wholly situate within the Province, are before or after their execution declared by the Parliament of Canada to be for the general advantage of Canada, or for the advantage of two or more of the Provinces ; (11.) The incorporation of companies with jorovincial objects ; (12.) The solemnization of marriage in the Province; (13.) Property and civil rights in the Province; (14-.) The administration of justice in the Province, including the constitution, maintenance, and organization of i:)rovincial courts, both of civil and of criminal juris- diction, and including procedure in civil matters in those courts ; (15.) The imposition of punishment by fine, penalty, or im- prisonment, for enforcing any law of the Province made in relation to any matter coming within any of the classes of subjects enumerated in this section ; (16.) Generally, all matters of a merely local or private nature in the Province." istaiuling any- t' the Province, mt-Governor; r to the raising lit of the Pro- offices, and the il officers ; xnds belonging wood thereon ; lanagemeut of bhe Province ; lanagement of lemosynary in- 3r than marine ler licences in I'ovincialj local, L such as are of ys, can.al«; tele- lercakings con- [er or others of i the limits of vince and any ate within the ution declared or the general vantage of two ncial objects ; ^ince ; ince, including rganization of criminal juris- vil matters in enalty, or im- the Province within any of is section ; orivate nature Appendix A. Education. 503 Sect. XCIIL '' In and for each Province the Lpglslaturo may ex- clusively malce laws in relation to education, suljject and according to the following provisions : — (l.) Nothing in any such law shall pveju licially nffect any right or privilege with re.s2:>ect t) denominational schools which any class of persons have by law in the Province at the Union ; (2.) All the powers, privileges, and duties at the Union by law Conferred and imposed in Ujiper Canada on the sepa- rate schools and school trustees of the (Queen's Roman Catholic sulijccts shall ho, and the same are hereby extended to the dissentient schools of the Queen's Protestant and Roman Catholic sul)jects in Quebec ; (o.) Where in any Province a system of separate or dissentient schools exists by law at the Union, or is thereafter established by the Legislature of the Province, an appeal shall lie to the Governor-General in Council from any act or decision of any provincial authority affi3cting any right or privilege of the Protestant or Roman Catholic minority of the (Queen's subjects in relation to education ; (I.) In case any such provincial law, as from time to time seems to the Governor-General in Council requisite for the due execution of the provisions of this section, is not made, or in case any decision of the Governor- General in Council in any appeal under this section is not duly executed by the proper provincial authority in that behalf, then and in every such case, and as far only as the circumstances of each case require, the Parliament of Canada may make remedial laws for the due execution of the provisions of this section, and of any decision of the Governor-General in Council under this section." Sect. XCIV. The Parliament of Canada may make provision for the uniformity of the laws relative to property and civil rights in Ontario,. Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Sect. XCV. The Parliament of Canada, and Legislatures of each Province may make concurrent legislation respecting agriculture and immigration. VII. JUDICATUKE. Sect. XCVI. Governor-General appoints the judges of the superior, district, and county courts in each Province, except those of the courts of probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Sect. XOVII. Until laws in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick are made uniform, judges in each Province shall be selected from the bar of that Province. 'K-\ . ?i ;:■ :■] 504 Appendix A. Sect. XCVIII. Judges in Quebec shall be selected from the bar of that Province. Sect. XCTX. Judges of the superior courts shall hold office during good behaviour, but shall bo removable by the Govcrnor- General on address of the Senate and House of Commons. Sect. C. Salaries, allowances, and pensions of judges (except of probate courts) are fixed and provided by the Parliament of Canada. Sect. CI. Parliament of Canada is empowered, to establish a General Court of Appeal for Canada (Supreme Court). VIII. Revenues, Debts, Assets, Taxation. Sect. CII, All revenues, not provincial, form one Consolidated Revenue Fund for the public service of Canada. Sect. cm. Tlie consolidated revenue bears all charges for its collection and management. Sect. CIV. Annual interest of the debts of the Provinces at the Union form a second charge on the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Sect. C V. The salary of the Governor-General is 10,OOOA sterling, payable out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Sect. CVI. The remainder of the Consolidated Revenue Fund shall be appropriated by the Canadian Parliament to the i.)ublic service. Sect. CVII. All stocks, cash, bankers' balances, and securities for money belonging to Provinces shall be taken by Canada in reduction of the provincial debts. Sect. CVIII. Canada now possesses all public works of the former Provinces, as canals, public harbours, lighthouses, and piers, and Sable Island, steamboats, dredges, and public vessels ; rivers and lakes improvements, railways and railway stocks, mort- gages, and other debts due by railway companies, military roads, custom-houses, post-offices, and public bnildings (except for Pro- vincial Legislatures and Governments), ordnance property (trans- ferred by Imperial Government), armouries, drill-sheds, military clothing, and munitions of war, and lands set apart for public purposCiJ. Sect. CIX. All provincial lands, mines, minerals, and royalties, remain so. Sect. ex. All assets connected with a provincial debt belong to the Province. Sect. CXI. Canada is liable for all provincial debts and liabilities at the time of union . Sect. CXII. Ontario and Quebec are liable to Dominion for any amount of debt above 62,500,000 dollars, subject to five per cent, interest. Sect. CXIII. The assets of Ontario and Quebec conjointly are : — Upper Canada Building Fund, Lunatic Asylums, Normal! ■\ .1 ArrENDix A. 505 CoDsolidate^l arges for its id securities School, Court Houses in Aylmer, Montreal, and Kamouraska ; Law Society, Upper Canada ; Montreal Turnpike Trust, Univer- sity Permanent Fund, Royal Institution, Upjier Canada Con- solidated Municipal Loan Fund, ditto Lower Canada, Upper Canada Agricultural Society, Lower Canada Legislative Grant, Quebec Fire Loan, Temiscouata Advance Account, Quebec Turn- pike Trust, Education — East, Building and Jury Fund of Lower Canada, Municipalities Fund, Lower Canada Superior Education Income Fund. Sect. CXIV. Nova Scotia is liable to Canada for amount above 7,000,000 dollars, at five per cent, interest. Sect. CXV. New Brunswick, ditto, ditto, ditto. Sect. CXVI. In case the public debts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick do not reach 7,000,000 dollars each, they are entitled to interest at five per cent, on the amount short of that sura. Sect. CXVI[. All public property not disposed of in this Act remains provincial. Sect. CXVIII, The Provinces are annually to receive from the Dominion as follows: — Ontario 80,000 dollars, Quebec 70,000 dollars. Nova Scotia 60,000 dollars, New Brunswick 50,000 dollars — total 260,000 dollars, and an annual grant of eighty cents per head of population by census of 1861 (and in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick by each siibsequent decennial census until 400,000 of a population is reached in each), and interest owed the Dominion is subtracted from these annual subsidies. Sect. CXIX. New Brunswick for ten years after Union is to- receive 63,000 dollars annually. Sect. CXX. The Parliament of Canada is to decide how liabilities of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, assumed by the Dominion, are to be met. Sect. CXXI. There shall be no Customs lines between Pro- vinces. Sect. CXXII. Customs and Excise duties of each Province remain as before the Union, until changed by the Parliament of Canada. Sect. CXXITI. Ee-adjusts interprovincial importations levied on articles in country at time of Union. Sect. CXXIV. Lumber dues of New Brunswick continue as before the Union. Sect. CXXV. " No lands or property belonging to Canada, or any Province, shall be liable to taxation." Sect. CXXVI. The portions of the duties and revenues, reserved to each Province, form a consolidated revenue fund for each Province. IX. Miscellaneous Provisions. Sect. CXXVII. As to Legislative Councillors of Provinces becoming Senators. r 5o6 Appendix A. MJl- I'- ./ T . I . ■'. ' '/: 1 -^ :P'. I *. ., ^, .|- : .;, V ,' ^pP^;-/ 8ect. CXXVIII. Members of Dominion Parliament or Pro- vincial Counciln and Atssemblies must take the oath of aU(\i;iance: — " ], A. B., do swear that I will Ijc faithful and bear true allegiance to her Majesty (^^lecn Victoria." Sect. CXXIX. All existing laws, courts, and offices shall remain in force until repealed by the conii:>etent Dominion or ijrovincial authority. Sect. CXXX. All officers in departments transferred to the Dominion shall continue in office. Sect. CXXXI. Until Canailiau Parliament otherwise provides, power to appoint necessary officers belongs to the Governor- (J eneral in Council. Sect. CXXXII. The Parliament and Government of Canada shall have power to perform any treaty obligations of any of the I'rovinces toward foreign countries. Sect. CXXXi 11. The English and French languages may be used in the Canadian Parliament; both languages shall be used in records and journals of l)otli Houses, and either language may be used in any court of Canada estal^lished under this Act, or in any court in Quebec. The Acts of the Parliament of Canada and of the Legislature of Quebec must be published in Ijotli languages. Sect. CXXXIV. Until otherwise provided by Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec, the Lieutenant-Governors of each may appoint such officers as may be necessary to carry on the Provincial Govern- ments, and five Executive officers for Ontario and six for Quebec, and their subordinates. Sect. CXXXV. The Lieutenant-Governor may appoint officers to carry out duties belonging to Old Canada, now transferred to Ontario and Quebec. Sect. CXXXVI. Great Seals of Ontario and Quebec are the same as those of Upper and Lower Canada respectively before their union. Sect. CXXXVII. Temporary Acts of Canada are extended to the first sessions of the Legislatures of Ontario and Quebec. Sect. CXXXVllI. In legal documents Upper Canada is equiva- lent to Ontario, and Lower Canada to Quebec. Sect. CXXXIX. Proclamations to be made under the Great Seal of Old Canada not invalidated by the Union. Sect. CXL. Lieutenant-Governors of Ontario and Quebec may make such proclamations. Sect. CXLL " The penitentiary of the Province of Canada shall, until the Parliament of Canada otherwise provides, be and continue the penitentiary of Ontario and Quebec." Sect. CXLII. Three arbitrators, one chosen by Ontario, another by Quebec, and a third by the Dominion, shall divide the debts, properties, and assets of Old Canada between these two Provinces. Sect. CXLIII. Governor-General in Council has power to give such books and records of Old Canada as he may see fit to each of the two Provinces. Appendix A. mont or Pro- .ill('L,Manco: — rue iillogiauce 3 shall remain I or provincial ferred to the vise provides, irnor- General it of Canada of any of the s may he used 1 be used in fuage may be Lct, or in any mada and of languages, gislatures of may appoint icial Clovern- X for Quebec, point officers I'ansferred to 3bec are the tively before extended to ;uebec. ia is equiva- e Great Seal Quebec may anada shall, md continue trio, another ie the debts, Provinces. )wer to give it to each of 507 Sect. OXLIV. Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec may constitnfp new townships in that Province. c^^'J^^ may constitute X. Intercoloxial Eailway. V^f^y^(SnI\\iutn^''"l,'' omi,ower,.J, ou the advice of her Parifament ami .„ n,r ' =""r»» "^PS preseatecl by the Caua.lia„ of th'e 'Sm'!^.^n^^^• "^5f '\^r'' ^? ^*-^i"«tment of the number of members enter the UnSn!^^"^^^ IVewfoundland and Prince Edward Ishmd If APPENDIX B.-cOxXTEMPoiiAi; hi 'A The Governor-General. Governors of Nova Scotin. 1 Governors of Princo ' Edward l»land. 1 Kings of France. Gen. Nicholson . . .1714 Gen. Phillips . . . 1717 Col. Laurence Arm- strong . . . .1724 Capt. Paul Mascarene 17M) Lord (!()rnwallis . . 1749 Peregrine Thomas Hopson 1752 Major Lawrence . . 1753 1 1 Francis T. ( Father of I. otters). . l.iis Henry 11. . . 1,117 Frimcis II. . i,-),'-,!) Chiirles IX. . 15611 BOUHBON.S. Henry IV. (The Grent) l.'.in Louis XIII. (The Jnst) . l«io Louis XIV. (Le Grand : also Dieu doniu') . , hWi Louis XV, . {\l\\- Fbom Conquest, 1759. Governors of Upper Canada, John Graves SimcDC . . 1792 Peter Russel (Adm.) . . 179C Gen. Peter Hunter , . 1799 Francis Gore 180B Gen. Brock (Ad.) . . . 1812 Gen. Shcaffe (Ad.) . . . 1812 Gen. Murray (Ad.). . . Gen. Robin- son (Ad.) . Francis Gore l^ilo Sir Peregrine Maitland . 181S SirJohn Col- borne . . . 1828 Sir Francis Bond Head 1836 Sir George Arthur . . 1838 Gen. Murray . . . .1763 Gen. Sir Guv Carleton 1766 Gen. Fred. Haklimand 1778 Lord Dorchester . .1780 Gen. Prescott . . . 1780 Gen. Sir James H. Craig 1808 Gen. Sir G. Prevost . 1811 Sir Gordon Drum- mond (Administr.) . 1815 Sir John Coape Sher- brooke 1816 Dnke of Richmond .1818 Earl of Dalhousie . . 1820 Sir Jas. Kempt (Adm.) 1828 Lord Aylmer .... 1S30 Earl of Gosford . . . 1835 Earl of Durham . . . 1638 Sir John Colborne (Adm.) 1838 Lord Sydenham . . 1839 Sir Charles Bagot . . 1843 Lord Metcalfe . . . 1843 Earl of Elgin .... 1847 Sir Edmund Head . . 1855 LordMonck .... 1801 Jonathan Belcher. .1700 Col. Wilmot . . . .1703 Lord William Camp- bell 1700 Cnpt, Walter Pat- terson .... 1770 *,, f Calbeck ■) 1775- ^^- I De Brisay S 80 Capt. Patterson . 1780 Geo. E. Fanning. 1780 Col. J. F. W. De Brisay . . .(1805) C. D. Smith . . 1813 (Brother of Sid- ney Smith.) Col. Readv . . . 1824 Col. A. W." Young 1831 Col. Sir J. Harvey 1836 Sir C. A. FitzRoy 1837 Sir 11. V. Huntley 1841 Sir Don. tiampbell 1847 Sir A. Banner- man 1851 Dominick Daly . 1854 George Dundas . 1859 W. C. F. Robin- son . . . . 1870-74 Francis Lcggo. . .1773 John Parr . . . .1782 John Wentworth . . 1 792 Sir George Prevost . 1808 Sir John Coape Shcr- brooke (Adm.) . . 1811 Earl of Dalhouiaie . .1816 Gen. Sir Jiinies Kempt 1820 Sir Peregrine Mait- land (Adm.) . . .1828 Sir Colin Campbell . 1834 Viscount Falkland . 18i0 SirJohn Harvey (Ad.) 18«5 SirJ. G. LoMarchant 1852 Earl of Mulgrave (Adm.) 1858 Sir R. G. Macdonnell 1804 Sir Fen wick Williams 1805 Fbom Confeder.^tion, 1867. Governors of Ontario. Lord Lisgar .... 1808 Earl of Dufferin. . .1872 Marquis of Lome . . 1878 Marquis of Lansdowne 1883 Gen. Williams (Adi Col. Williams . Gen. Doyle . . . Joseph Howe . A. G. Archibald Do. M. H. Richey . 13.) 1867 . . 1808 . 1868 . 1873 . . 1873 . 1878 . . 1883 Sir R. Hodgson . 1874 T. H. Haviland . 1879 A. A. Macdonald . 1884 Gen. S listed (Ad.) . . . 1867 W. P. Howland 1868 John Crawford 1873 D.A. Macdonald 1876 J. B. Robinson 1880 )NTEMPORAin CAXADIAX GOVKKXOIIS, ,^c. Kings of Frunre. Francis ( Father IiCttcrH). Honry II. , FniiiciH li, Chiirles IX I. of ir.i5| IS 17 15611 1 15611 1 BOUBBONS. Honry IV. (The GrciU) ir)if) Luuia Xlll. (The JoHt) . LouiH Xl\'. (Le Grinid : also Uieu donni') . . 1010 lili:) Louis XV. . {JIl 1715-1 Governors ol Up per Uan adit. French Govomors SoviMeijjiirt ol of Canada. EoKlHud. Honry VI r. . . IH7 Henry VIII. . . l.")iH» Kdward VI.; Mary IGiVJ Elizabeth . . . 1668 Cliainplain . . . lOOS .lainoH I. . . . lOiK} ()(' Montinak'ny . 1«W7 Charlos 1. . . . 102.-. l)'.\illol)ouHt . . nu7 Cromwell . . . 1011) Do LaiiHf)!! . . . 16BI D'ArKcnson . . um D'Avttugour . . 1000 Charles II. . . . 1000 ROTAt, GOVKRNMKNT. Du Mesy . . . 1H03 Do Courcollos. . 100 1 Do Kroutenac . . 1072 I»c la Harro . . 1082 Dc Denouvillo . 1086 .Tames 11. . . . 1085 I).; i'^rontenac . . H69 William and Mary 1089 De CallioreH , . 1(J!)9 Do Vaudrcuil . . 1703 Anne 1702 Do Hcauhariiois . 1720 Geor^^o I. . . . 17U Do (ialisHoniero . 1740 Geor^^e II. . . . 1727 De la Jonmiiero . 1718 Miin|. du Qiiesne 1752 Uo Vttudreuil . . 1765 Georjfo HI. . . . 1700 Govomors of (iovernors ot Lower Canada. New Brnnawic k. bi l37 ]tl U7 Ul loi l59 hi. 1792 17% 17!Wi| 18(Jti j ISI2! 1 1812 1 Sir R. S. Milnes . 1799 .Vbsentco Govor- uor . . 1808-1822 John Graves SimcDO rcter Rnssel (Adm.) . . Gen. Tetcr Hunter . . Francis Goro Gen. Erock (Ad.). . . Gen. Shcaffo (Ad.). . . Gen. Murray (Ad.). .. . Gen. Robm- eon (Ad.) . Francis Goro ISIm J ^j^ -p jj. Burton . 1824 Sir Peregrine Maitland . Sir John Col- borne . . . Sir Francis Bond Head Sir George Arthur . . 181s 1828 18:3(iil 183SI Governors of Ontario. Gen. Stisted (Ad.) . . • 1867 W. P. Howland 18bs John Crawford 1873 D.A.Macdonaldl875 J, B. Robinson 1880 Governors of Quebec. ^ir N. F. Belleau 1807 i. E. Caron . . 1873 1 Lctellier de St. Just .... 1870 I Dr. T. Robitaille . 1879 Col. Thomas ('.ar- leton . . 17H1- Gen. W. Huntley (Ad.) .... Gen. G. S. Smyth (Ad.) ... 181 Gen. Sir Howard Douglas (Ad.) . Gen. Sir Arch. Campbell (Ad.) Gen. Sir John Harvey . . . Sir Willi, im Cole- brook .... Sir E. VV. Head . J. H. Sutton . . A. Gordon . . . Gen. Doyle . . . 1803 1809 7-23 I 1821 I I 1832 1837 1841 1848 18r)4 1862 1800 Governors of New Brunswick. Gen. Doyle (Ad ) 18G7 L. A. Wilmot . . ISOS S. L. Tilley . .1873 E. B. Chandler . 1878 R. D. Wilmot . .1880 Sir S. L. Tilley . 1885 Governors of Manitoba (Rod River Settlement). Gov«. of liritiHh Columbia ( Vnocouver lelapd). Governors of Red River Settlement. Capt. Miles Macdonell Alex. Macdonell (" Grasshopper Go- vernor") . . . . Capt. A. Bulger . . Robert Pelly . . . Donald McKenzie . . Alexander Christie . Duncan Finlayson Alexander Christie . Col. Crofton . . Major Griffiths . Major Caldwell . Judge Johnston William McTavish 1812 1815 1822 1823 1825 1833 1839 1814 1840 1847 1818 1855 58-09 A. G. Archibald . .1870 Alex. Morris .... ls72 Jos. E. Cauchon . . 1877 J. C. Aikina .... 1882 BnHsh Columbia. Jas. Douglas . . 1859 Vnncoueer Island. R. Blanshard . . 1849 James Douglas (jgj^^ Capt. Kennedy . 1801 British Columbia and I'ancouver Inland. Seymour . . . 1860 J. W. Trutch . . 1871 A. N. Richards . 1870 C. F. Cornwall . 1881 (i-^ •l' 1>. / ■■',) *■■■' _ ■ i ■ i it1' ^~ il :|;iw CHEONOLOGTCAL ANNALS or CANADIAN HISTORY. B.C. . im. 4'2d. A.I). .3—65 449. 725. 725. 825. 861. 874. 877. 885. 930. 970. 985. 1002. 1005. 1007. 1170. EAKLY DATES. Solon, who tol.l of Atlantis. Lorn, liatu, wlio presorvcs Solon'n ntoiy, Lorn. ^"t^S Sh^:;^^' '''' ^-^'^^--^ ^-- -any Norwegians Grim CamLan cstaLlishetl at Faroe Isles is a' Vo?^^ ""^''' -^^'"^^ ^' the Orteys. ;t i^JSlattl^ ^^«^^^- Ic-olf founds lieykiavik. Cm-enhuul aiscovcTed Ly Gurn-Ljorn. IcS7Hr;,^"^ Scandinavia to Iceland. Iceland is all occu])ied. Ships nnder Erik leave Iceland for Greenland Chnstiamty introduced into Iceland Ihorwald visits Vinland. iaToi%h3"''V'']^'? "^ Greenland, jaga ot 1 horfinn Karlsefne. Madoc, Prince of Wales, sails to the west. AMERICA DISCOVERED. I" im. lojeanelh, the Floreutine. »aintaij t^i^ien sea to Ea»t 0- ■• .::? jU. . ?■ ■ 512 A.D. 1477. 1480. 1484. 1492. 1492. 1492. 1492. 1494. 1494. 1497. 1497. 1497. 1498. 1499. 1500. 1500. 1502. 1506. 1512. 1512. 1512. 1513. 1510. 1517. 1518. 1519. 1519. 1522. 1524. 1530. 1533. 1534. 1535. 1541. 1542. 1542. 1548. 1549. 1556. 1562. 1577. 1578. Chronological Annals of sign documents for mainland of of American Colombo visits Thule (prol)al)ly Iceland). Caboto said to have sought iirezil. Colombo riees from Portugal to Genoa. (April 17th) Ferdinand and Isabella Colombo. (August ord) Colombo's ships leave Palos. (September 9th) Colombo loses sight of Old "WorlJ. (October 12th) New World sighted, lleputed voyage of Caboto. Jacques Cartier born at Su. Malo. Amerigo Vespucci sailed for the New World. Yasco di Gama sailed for Cathay. Caboto (on first undisputed voyage) disc -> vers America. (Canada thus being first ^^art mainland reached.) Sebastian Caboto takes first colony to America. Yesj^ucci's second vo}age. Cabral discovers Brazil. Gaspard Cortereal finds Labrador. Miguel Cortereal seeks his lost brother. Colombo dies at Yalladolid. Sebastian Caboto enters the service of Spain. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida. Amerigo Yespucci dies at Seville. Balboa ascends Cordilleras, and discovers Pacific Ocean. Sebastian Caboto returns to England. Sebastian Caboto makes an expedition to the New World. Sebastian Caboto enters, second time, the service of Sixain. Cortez invades Mexico. Magalhaens sails to circumnavigate the globe. Circumnavigating expedition returns. Yerrazano visits America. William Hawkins goes to Guinea. Pizarro conquers Peru. Jacques Cartier on first expedition explores the Gulf. Jacques Cartier on second expedition discovers inland Canada. Jacques Cartier makes third voyage. Ferdinand de Soto discovers the Mississippi. De Eoberval goes to Canada. Sebastian Caboto returns to England. De Roberval lost. Eamusio, an Italian, writes a valuable account of voyages. Bibault founds French Huguenot colony near Cape Fear, but all massacred by the Spaniard Menendez. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates the globe. De Gourgues attacks St. Augustin, and revenges Ribault's colony. Canadian History. 513 uments for •Id. □riainland of >i American fie Ocean. ew "World. service of Gulf. _ Ivers inland ^f voyages. Cape Fear, js Ribault's A.D. 1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert undertakes to colouizc New- foundland. 1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert lost at sea. COLONIES BEGUN. 1599. Cajitain Chauvin sails to St. Lawrence. 160-. Captain Gosnold builds a fort. 1603. EnglisVi vessels visit the Penobscot. 1603. French expedition up the St. Lawrence. 1604. l)e Monts establishes first settlement in the Dominiou. 1606. De Poutrincourt returns to Acadia. 1606. London Company given its possessions. 1607. Colony to found Jamestown sails, led by Gosnold. 1608. Quebec founded by Champlain. 1609. Champlain before Henry IV. at Fontalnbleau. 1609. Chamjilain proceeds against the Iroquois. 1610. Henry Hndson discovers Hudson River. 1610. Champlain leaves France for Canada. 1610. Lord Delaware goes to Virginia as Governor. 1611. De St. Just becomes Governor of Acadia. 1611. Hudson perishes in Hndson Bay. 1613. Champlain ascends the Ottawa. 1613. St. Sauveur founded. 1611-. St. Croix and Port Royal attacked by Puritans. 1614. Small Dutch fort at New Amsterdam. 1615. Four Recollets reach Canada. 1615. Champlain reaches Georgian Bay and comes to Lake Ontario. 1620. (November '21) Mayjluioer sails. Plymouth Fathers laud at Plymouth. 1620. New Jersey occuin'ed. 1621. Acadia, as Nova Scotia, given to Sir AVilliam Alexander l.iy James I. 1621. Manhattan Island bought from the Indians. 1622. Gorges and Mason receive a grant on the Atlantic Coast. 1622. Alexander sends Scottish colony to Nova Scotia. 1623. Fort Nassau erected. 1624. Biencourt (St. Just) leaves Acadian possessions to Charles St. Etienne (De La Tour). 1624. Stone fort built at Quebec. 1625. Baronets of Nova Scotia created. 1625. Charles St. Etienne marries. 1625. Jesuit Fathers arrive in New France. 1628. Richelieu forms Company of New France (100 Associates). 1628. Salem, Mass., founded by Dorchester Company. 1629. Kertk takes Quebec. 1630. Claude St. Etienne joins English, but his son Charles refuses. L 1 I 4 H i I I SH Chronological Annals of A.l). 1030. Charter of Company of Massacliusetts Bay trausferrc 1 to New World. 1632. Treaty of St. Germain-cn-Laye. 1032. Charles I. basely transfers Acadia to the French. 1633. Champlain on behalf of the new company sails with the colonists for Quebec, 1633. English Puritans continue to reach Massachusetts. 1634. Maryland settled by Calvert, heir of Lord Baltimore. 1635. D'Aulnay (Do Charnissay) occupies Pentagoit for De Kazilly. 1635. Champlain dies on Christmas Day. 1030. De Eazilly dies. 1636. Koger Williams founds Providence in Rhode Island. 1637. Hotel-Dieu erected in Quebec. 1639. Swedish colony settles in Delaware. 1640. Charles St. Etienne (La Tour) goes to Quebec. 1640. Nicolet before this date discovers Sault Ste. Marie. 1641. La Tour summoned to France. 1642. Montreal built by Maisoneuve. 1643. Siege of La Tour's fort (St. John) by D'iiuJnay. 1643. Ehode Island given a charter. 1645. (April 17th) La Tour's fort taken. 1645. Indian wars disturb New Netherlands. 1646. La Tour received with distinction at Quebec. 1646. Stuyvesant captures Swedish settlements. 1646. Father Jogues put to death by Iroquois. 1648. Father Daniel burnt. f«l«-' (i: '. )^ . It 'T|t|' ' , , COLONIAL PROGRESS. 1648. Treaty of Westphalia. 1651. Colbert becomes agent of Mazarin. 1652. Massachusetts claims territory, now Maine and Hampshire. 1653. First "Virginia settlers occupy North Carolina. 1653. First English colonists reach New Hampshire. 1658. Laval consecrated Bishop of Petrasa. 1659. Bishop Laval reaches Canada. 1660. Puritans of New England persecute Quakers. 1660. Des Ormeaux's deathless deed of valour. 1661. Colbert becomes Prime Minister of France. 1662. Hartford settlement incorporated. 1663. Charles II. bestows North Carolina on his favourites. 1663. Royal government begins in Canada. 1663. Emigrants leave Rochelle for Canada. 1664. New Netherland taken by British and called New York. 1665. Emigration of French girls to Canada. 1665. New Haven and Hartford united. 1666. Father Marquette sails for Canada. ausf erred to ils with tlio A.D. 1066. 1667. 1668. 1669. 1069. 1670. 1670. 1670. 1672. 1672. 1673. 1673. 1674. 1674. 1675. 1678. 1678. 1678. 1679. 1679. 1680. 1680. 1680. 1680. 1682. 1682. 1683. 1684. Canadian History. 1688. 1688. 1689. 1689. 1690. 1690. 1690. 1695. 1696. 1697. 1698. 1699. 1700. 1701. 1701. CanSi"«7j:^^'rtt Vis? ^i? --try. Begmnn.g of Charleston """^ ^''t^"'"- Ht&B:;Vot'.:;t '^t ''- «-- I^a Tour dies ^^i^^"^^ formed. Marqnotte dies, I;a Salle builds a fortTilie Til- • ■De Frontenac hnl.l^r ? ^^^V^^nois. La Salle discovers the mo^th ^f "sylvania. f enn makes a treaty wTtheli'' Mississippi. La Salle sails for On f „f i/°"?"'°«- mterior. ^^-'^ °f Mexico, and is tilled in the ?.^?PLayal retires. ^ *'"' I^e Frontenac compf. ^* l^achine. ^rand Eur'operi Ce"""' ^^^'^ *^ ^^^ada. Cprlaer attacked. ''• D'Iberville canW.; S 'f ^^'^^tenac. iJe Frontenac dies. fefltt'utd:r^*«"-'.Louisiana. Jxreat Indian Treaty * Detroit founded. 515 1706. D'lbervm:!?-^^^" ^^^^^^^'^ 1710 -^^^^-^^^«' 'ins. Duluth dies. L ] 2 SiG Chronological ANxVAls of Wr 1^ i' =1. <• If f ' Sis, , t A.D. 1710. 1710. 1710. 1712. 17U3. 1718. 1720. 1720. 1727. 1728. 1729. 1731. 1731. 1732. 1733. 1735. 1736. 1741. 1742. 1744. 1745. 1745. 1746. 1747. 1748. 1749. 1749. 1749. 1750. 1751. 1752. 1753. 1755. 1755. 1755. 1755. 1756. 1756. 1758. 17.58. 1759. 1760. 1761. 1762. 1763. 1763. Acadia taken by New Englanclers. Sir Hovcdeu Walker's colossal failure. Queen Anne presents silver service to Iroriuois of the Mohawk River. Tuscaroras rejoin the Iroquois. Treaty of Utrecht. New Orleans founded by Bienville. France heroins to fortify Louisbourg. Mississippi scheme collapses. Bishop St. Vallier dies. Newfoundland becomes a British Province. Cherokees surrender territory to Britain. Veraudrye starts to discover the Winnipeg country. North Carolina Company sells ont. General Oglethorpe is granted Georgia. Bavarian colony comes to Georgia. Ycrandrye discovers site of present city of Winnipeg. General Oglethorpe with colonists and the Wesleys visits Georgia. Boundaries of New Hampshire fixed. Verandrye's party cross to the Missouri and see the Rockies. Father Charlevoix visits Canada. Battle of Fontenoy. Battle of Culloden. French fail in attempting to recapture Louisbourg. Intendant Bigot an'ives in Canada. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Halifax is founded by Lord Cornwallis. Verandrye dies. Inquiry into Hudson's Bay Company affairs. French soldiers settle at Detroit. Lunenburg Germans arrive in Nova Scotia. Royal Government formed in Georgia. Fort La Jonquiere built by direction of Legardeur de St. Pierre. Transportation of Acadians. Braddock's ignominious failure. Acadia attacked by the British. Battle of Lake George. Seven Years' War begins. Montcalm arrives in Canada. First Legislative Assembly in Nova Scotia. Louisbourg captured by the British. Quebec taken by General Wolfe. Monti-eal taken by General Amherst. French cease to rule Canada. Louisiana secretly ceded by France to Spain. Pontiac's conspiracy. Treaty of Paris. Canadian IIistorv. 517 is of tlie tvy. upeg. . cslcys visits the Rocliics. urg. lardeur de St. A.D. 170;]. 17(M. inn. 17G1. 1765. 17 OB. 1766. 1766. 1760. 176!t. 1770. 1773. 177.".. 177i;. 1771. 1774. 1774. 1775. 1775. 1775. 1775. 1776. 1777. 1778. 1778. 1780. 1782. 1783. 1783. 1783. 1784. 1784. 1784. 1784. 1785. 1785. 1785. 1786. 1786. 1787. 1787. 1787. 1787. 1788. CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. Proclamation of George 111. olTers lauds in Canada. Prince Edward Island surveyed. British Ministry determines to enforce duties in America. First Canadian newspaper — Quebec Gazette — published. Congress of Colonies meets in New York. First settlers reach New Brunswick. Stamp Act repealed. General Carleton appointed Governor of Canada. Pontiac killed. Revenue Act passed for British Colonies. Prince Edward Island is made a separate Colony. Prince Edward Island, first Legislative Asseml>ly. Tea thrown overboard iu ]3oston Harbour. Emigrant ship Hector arrives in Pictou, N.S. Quebec Act passed. Bills closing Boston port passed. Cumberland House built, Joseph Brant visits England. Lexington and Bunker Hill collisiong. Americans attack Canada. Montgomery and Arnold fail to take Quebec. (July 4th) Declaration of Independence by United States. Burgoyne's disaster at Saratoga. Captain Cook visits west coast of America. Montreal Gazette established. Prince Edward Island called New Ireland, but the King refuses to call it so. Sir Guy Carleton in command of New York. Treaty of Paris. (November 25th) Evacuation of New York by the British. Loyalists colorize New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Cape Breton is given a separate government. New Brunswick is given a separate government. Loyalists receive lands in Upper Canada. Kingston settled. Fredericton chosen as capital of New Brunswick. General Oglethorpe dies. Hessians settle in Upper Canada. Mohawk church built at Brantford. Dr. McGregor arrives in Nova Scotia. The North- West Company formed. Failure of crops in Upper Canada. The " Scarce year " in Upper Canada. First Bishop of the Episcopal Church arrives in Nova Scotia. Fort Chippewyan founded. ■ i #l^'lf • ■ ' 518 Chronological Annals of A.D. 1788. Prince William visits American seaboard in Andromeda. 1789. U.E. List made out. 1789. Alexander Maclceu/ie discovers the Mackenzie River. 179L (iovernor Parr of Nova Scotia dies. 179L Constitutional Act passed, and 1791. Upper Canada becomes a separate Province. 1791. Vermont admitted as a State. 1792. Vancouver visits the Pacitic coast. 1792. Governor Simcoe arrives in Upper Canada. 1792. Ilrst parliament of Upper Canada at Newark. 1792. Negroes taken to Sierra Leone. 179Ji. Alexander Mackenzie crosses tlie "Rockies to the Pacific. 1793. Act passed for buildinr^ roads in Upper Canada. 1793. Slavery abolished in Upper Canada. 1793. First newspajoer in Upper Canada. 1794. Treaty of Amity and Commerce (London). 1794. Markham is settled under ]3erczy. 179G. Lord Dorchester (Guy Carleton) and Simcoe leave Canada. 1790. ]\Iaroons in Nova Scotia from Jamaica. 1796. Wa 'lington retires from public life. 1796. X Y Company formed. 1797. Second parliament of Upper Canada meets at York. 1798. Decision as to the source of the St. Croix (Bouchette). 1798. Prince Edward's name given to Prince Edwara Island. 1798. Great colonization of Newfoundland from Ireland. 1799. John Strachan arrives in Canada. '.: >■;■■ niil% f '- ^l\ GEOWTII OF CANADA. 1800. Maroons sent by Wentworth to Sierra Leone. 1800. Louisiana ceded by Spain to France. 1801-5. Many Scottish immigrants arrive in Nova Scotia. 1802. Ships with settlers arrive directly at Sidney, Cape Breton. 1802. King's College, Windsor, N.S., established. 1803. Lord Selkirk's colony reaches P.E. Island, and 1803. A portion settle Baldoon, U.C. 1803. Dr. McCulloch arrives in Nova Scotia. 1804. Macdonell's Highlanders arrive in Glengarry. 1804-6. Captains Lewis and Clark cross Kocky Mountains to Pacific. 1805. Lord Selkirk writes on Emigration. 1806. Britain blockades coast of France. 1806. Napoleon's Berlin Decrees. 1806. Simon Eraser builds first fort in British Columbia. 1807. Chesapeake boa: ^ed by H.M.S. Leopard. 1807. TJpper Canadian Guardian begins. 1807. Aid granted to eight schools in Upper Canada. 1807. Britain makes the celebrated " Orders in Council." Caxadiax Historv, 519 wiecla. JQV. Pacific. ve Canada. rork. jhette). Island. ad. iotia. tipe Breton. llonntains to ibia. bil." 1815. 1815. 1816. 181(3. 1817. 1818. 1818. A.T). 1807. Napoleon's Milan Decroci^. 1809. U[)per ('auadian Assenil^ly denounces John Mills Jackb^u. 1809. First steamer on the St. Lawrence. 1810. Talbot settlement l)ojTins to increase. 1810. Bedard and other rrench (Canadian members imprisoned. 1810. Astor Fur Company formed. 1811. Astoria established on tho Columbia River. IHll. Lord Selkirk's first Red liiver settlers leave Scotland. 1811. Common School Act in Nova Scotia. 181 L Rattle of Tippecanoe. 1812. J^'irst Selkirk settlers arrive at Red River by way of Hud- son Bay. 1812-15. Canadian War of Defence. Battle of New Orleans. Departure of a portion of Selkirk colony to Canada. Governor Semple killed at Red River. Act passed cstablishimr common schools in Upper Canada. Disputed territory in Maine occupied by Britain and United States conjointly. Letters of Agricola in Nova Scotia. Roman Catholic school at Red River. 1820. Cape Breton becomes a part oE Nova Scotia. 1820. ]\Taine admitted as a State. 1821. ^rhe Fur Companies unite in Rupert's Land. 1821. Swiss immigrants come to Red River. 1824-6. Ineffectual efforts to settle boundary on Pacific slope. The great Miramichi fire. The Canada Company formed. Maine boundary referred to King of Netherlands, but undecided. Rust-eaten armour of Norseman said to have been found on Atlantic coast (Longfellow). 1832. First Legislative Assembly in Newfoundland. 1832. Japanese vessel wrecked on Sandwich Islands. 1832, Cholera in Canada. 1833-4. Japanese junk wrecked on coast of British Columbia. 1835. Government of Assiniboia established at Red River. 1837-8. Lord Durham reaches Canada. 1840. The Union Act passed. 1841. The Union of the Canadas. 1842. Ashburton Treaty. 1846. Settlement of Pacific boundary offered by Britain to United States, but refused. 1847. Lord Elgin comes to Canada. 1857-8. Gold fever in British Columbia. 1858. C ne-hundredth Regiment raised in Canada. 1861. The Trent affair. _ 1861. Canada Presbyterian Church formed by Union. 1862. Sioux massacre in Minnesota. 182.J. 1826. 1829. 1831. >• h,:'^!lli.'.:Vi 520 CiiKONOLOciiCAL Annals of Canadian History. A.D. 1864. Charlottctown Confcdoration Conforence. 1SG4. (Octoher lOtli) Quebec Conforence. 1806. British Columbia and Vancouver Island united. 1866. Fenian invasion of (^^anada. 1866. (June 2nd) Rid^cway skirmish. 1867. (July 1st) Dominicm Day. 1867. Confederation accomplished. 1869. Decision to give North- West to Canada. 1869. Red River Rebellion. 1870. Manitoba Act passed. 1870. Red River Rebellion quelled by Colonel Wolseley. 1871. First meeting of Manitoba Legislature. 1871. British Columbia enters the Dominion. 1871. Washington Treaty. 1872. Boundary 49° surveyed and marked, 1872. First Canada Pacific Railway Bill. 1872. Pacific Scandal. 1874. Mennonites settle in Manitoba. 1875. Icelanders come to Manitoba. 1876. Presbyterians of the Dominion of Canada unite. 1877. The Halifax Fisheries Award. 1877. Seventh Indian Treaty of North-West completed. 1878. Lord Dufferin visits Canadian North-West. 1878. " National Policy " carried. 1880. Royal Canadian Society of Arts formed. 1881. Census of the Dominion taken. 1882. Royal Society of Canada holds first meeting. 1884. Methodists of the Dominion unite. 1884. Imperial Federation League formed. 1885. Saskatchewan rebellion. 1885. Louis Riel executed. 1886. (July 4th) First through train on C.P.R. reaches the Pacific Ocean. ■r -.3fc i -St:, INDEX. s the Pacific Ahenakis, 80. Aberorombio, General, 217. Abraham, phains of, 220. Acadia, 128, 204, Acadians transported, 214. Adelaide, settlement of, ;J54. Afrricola, letters of, 428. Alabama, the privateer, 449, 4.50. Alexander, Sir William, 133,105. Algonquins, the, 88. Allan, Sir Hugh, 422. Alleghans, the, 88. Alliance, Grand, 202. America, discovery of, 61. American Revolt, causes, 232. — — Revolution begins, — 4(7. Amerigo, Vespucci, 68. Anti-British policy of Jefferson, 312, Argall, Captain, 133. Armour, skeleton in, 54. Arnold besieges Quebec, 243. Art in Canada, 482. Ashburton, Lord (Baring), 9 Assiniboia, 24. Assiniboines, the, 95. Astor Fur Company, 13, 331. Atlantis, myth of, 37. Back, Sir George, 343. Balboa, 7. Baldoon settlement, 295. Baldwin, Eobert, 366. Baltimore, Lord, 163. Banking system of Canada, 433- Barre, Colonel, on Colonization, 236. Barre, M. de la, 197. Batoche, capture of, 473. Beauharnois, Marquis de, 176. Beausejour, fort of, 213. Beaver Dams, fight of, 319. Berczy's German settlers, 272. Berlin decrees, 30. Bernard, Governor, 231. Bidwells, the, 365. Bieucourt, Joan de, 129. Bigot, Intendant, 176. Bjarni Herjulfson, 48. Blake, Edward, 492. Bloy, L., on Colombo, 57. : Border massacre, 207. Borgne, Emmanuel le, 141. Boscawen, Admiral, 217. Boston founded, L56. Boulton, Henry J., 364. Boundaries of Canada, 6. Bourgainville, He, 220. Braddock's expedition, 213. Brant, Joseph, 264, 473. British Columbia, 27, 407, 430. ~~-- gold fever, 27. ~~~; , complaint of, 448. — North America Act (app.), 495. Brock, Sir Isaac, 314. Brown, George, 418. Burgoyne, General, expedition of, 245. Bytown founded, 348. 522 Index. \mk:}' Cahoto, John, 6.1. , Scbiistiim, G !■. Cabral, voyiiLfo of, G6. (^aen, Do, 1 10. Canada, Diimo of, 2; (li.scovery of, 70 ; Ijoundavies of, G. (>oni])any, •\-'>0. Pacilic llailway, 4G2, 466. Canadian nationality, o, 490. Canals, Cauiidian, 428. (!arif^an Et'^rinient, 174. Carloton, Sir (!ny (Dorchester), 2G7, 274. Carolina, North, fonndcd, 151 ; South, founded, 15o. Caroline, the, destroyed, 301. Oartier, Jacques, 7'), Cathay and ( 'ipant^o, 55. Cavaliers of Virginia, 149. Champlain, Samuel de, 142, 181 ; death of, 1 18. C;harlotteto\vu, Confederation Conference, 441. Charnissay, D'Aulnay de, 137. Cliateauguay, battle of, 322. Chesapeake, 312, 323. Chippewyans, the, 96. Cholera, plague of, 356. Chrysler's Farm, battle of, 323. Churches, Baptist, 487 ; Congre- gationalist, 487 ; of England, 484; Methodist, 486; Pres- byterian, 485 ; Eoman Catho- lic, 487. Clergy reserves, 231, 374, 415. Coal Period, 35. Colbert, 172. Colborne, Sir John (Seaton), 372. Collins libel, the, 372. Colombo Cristoforo, 67. Colonial Advocate, the, 369. Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 493. Columbia Eiver, 13. Commons, Canadian House of, 5. Company of New France (100 AsHOciates), 146; privileges of, 158. Connecticut founded, 158. Constitution, the new, of 1810, :!96. Consfitution and Waup, \\V7. Constitutional Act, 22!», 230. Associations, 380. ^ Club, 231. Contingent, reckless American, 399,' Cook, Captain, 27. Cortereals, the, ^jQ. Cortez, 71. Counties, the back, 402. Crees, the, 90. ^ Cretaceous Period, the, 35. Creveccuur Fort, 191. Crown Point expedition, 214. Crozat, De, 12. Cumberland House built, 331. Cunard, Sir Samuel, 421. steamers, 421. Dakotas, the, 95. Dalhousie, Earl of, 377. D'Argenson, Governor, 178. Dease and Simpson, "^Mo. De Courcelles, Governor, 174. Delaware founded , 166. Dela wares, the, 89. De Monts, 128. Denouville, Marquis de, 175, 197. Dent, J. C, 477. Denys, Nicholas, 137. De Salaberry, 322, 466. • Devonian Period, 34. D'Iberville, 202, 206. Dickson Settlement, the, 352. Dieskau, Baron, 215. Dighton Rock inscription, 54. Discoverers, great Italian, 56. Discovery of New World, 62. Dollier and Galinee, Fathers, 188.^ Dominion, Tennyson on, 31. Dominion organized, the, 445. • M Index. 523 privilogos 15H. V, of 18 10, .7), :U7. •i!>, '2:50. Ltions, 380. :u. American, 02. le, 35. [on, 21 i.. luilt, 331. 421. 77. •, 178. 13. nor, 174. de, 175, >6. the, 352. >tion, 54. lian, 56. )rld, 62. Fathers, on, 31. the, 445. • Donpran, (Governor, 107. Doniiaconna, 77. Drako, 83. Drajior, Chief Jiistico, 455. J>nfl('rin, Lord, 459. Diduth, J 86. J)uncomLc, Dr., expedition of, 391. Durham, Lord, 393. Ebenezf.r settlement, 169, Education, early in Canada, 309 ; in Maritime Proviiu'es, 434 ; in Qnel)ec, 435 ; in On- tario, 436 ; in Manitoba, 138 ; in iJritish Columbia, 139. Elgin, Lord, 413. Erie, Lake, fleet on, 320. Eries, th(s 94. Erik the Red, 47. Eskimo, the, 98. Family Compact, ori'^in of, 357. — — ■ reaction, 373. Federal Union , the, 440. Fenians, the, 469. Ferguson settlement, the, 35:5. " Filty-i'our forty, or light," Ik Fisheries Award, Halifax, 452. Five Nations, the, 91. Fleming Sandford, 480. Forest, the, 428. Forsyth affair, the, 371. Forty-ninth parallel, 8, 13. France, La Nouvelle, 3. Franklin, Benjamin, on Taxa- tion, 234. Franklin, Sir John, 342, 344. Fredericton, 20. French Canadian people, 221 ; guarantees of, 226. repatriation, 460. French Eoyalists in Upper Canada, 286. Frontenac, Count de, 174, 199. , Fort, 189. Fur-traders' forts described, .1.1 1 Fur-trading (.'ompanios, the, 3.27. ■ unite, ;'.;!3. Fusang, mytli of, 39. Galissonikue's vigorous policy, 210. Gait, John, :'.51. , town of, )^53. , Alex. T., irul (Jama, Vasco di, 65. George, Fort, taken, 310. , King, and the Kevolu- tion, 241 . ', Lake, battle of, 215. Georgia founded, 168. Ghent, Peace of, 326. Gilbert, Sir Huniphrey, 29. Glacial Period, 36. Glengarry settlement, 289. Gore, Governor, 303, Gosnold, Captain, 149. Gonrlay, llobort, 3)57, 360. Governors, Canadian, list of, 508. Grand River, the, 295. (Jiass, Caijtain, the U.E., 254. Cray, Captain, 13. Greenland, discovery of, 47. Griffin, the, 191. Cnielph founded, 351. IIakluyt, 73, 126. Ilaldimand, General, 265. Half pay Officers' Legion, 398. Haliburton, Judge, 476. Havanna Cathedral, 62. Hawkins family, the, 83. Hendricks, Chief, 215. Hennepin, Louis, 190. Henry, Prince of Portugal, 57. , Captain John, a spy, 313. High Commissioner, the, 450. 524 INDKX. fii V". ^4 1 >a V ITinnks, Sir Francis, 425. Hoithelatfii, 7>>. IIotcl-Dicu, 17:). How*', Joscpli, 410, UmlHon, lloiiry, 8:?. Hay J'.'. inquiry (17 M>). :!•"> <-'«<*'• 4^- (1S57), OkU Hundredth Roj;jiment, tho, 4^7. Huron tract, tho, :»5i2, lOl. and Ontario lakes dis- covered, 1 15. Hnrons, tho, !>2. Hutchinion, Anne, 102. IcELAM), discovery of, 1(3. Iramif^'ration, the ^n'eat, 15 10. Imperial Federation. 4*.)2. Independence, Canadian, 401. Indians, dwelling's of, 90 : dress of, 10;{; handicraft of, 101.; pottery of, 104; stone imple- ments of, 105 ; copper im- plements of, 105 ; the canoe of, 100 ; tho snowshoc of, 107; food of, 107; langua^^e of, 107 ; authors on language of, 110 ; picture-writing of, 11 1 ; syllabic character of, 11 1; sports of, 112; gambling of, 114; dances of, 115; social, political, and religious organi- zation of, 118; religion of, 121; traditions of origin of, 12.'^. of British Columbia, 97. question, 489, Innuit, the, 98. Intercolonial railway, 460. Irish immigration, 348. Iroquois, the, 91. Jackson, John Mills, 305. Japanese junk, 97» .Icssiip's ('orps, 2.*»S. .fosuit explorers, 1H2. .lolmstone, Sir William, 214. .{((Imstone's l{,t)yal Cireens, 257. Juliet, 181'. Ki:i{TK, 1.^5; Canada invaded i)V, 147. "King's Ciils." 22:!. Kingston in 17'*5, 277. Kondiarouk, r.'8. TiAHHAMOK, name of. 08. / Ijachine massacre, l!»'.>. La (.'olio Mill, battle of, 324. La France, journey of, 3iO. Lahontan,l87. Tiuke Long, 8. of the Woods, 11. Lalenumt and lireb(i3uf, 105. Langevin, Sir Hector, 191. Tjansdowne, Marquis of, 483. La Salle, 188. La Tour, the Lady, 130. Lauventide Islaiid, 32. Laval, Bishop, 177. Leif Frikson, 50. Lescarbot, Marc, 131. Levis, Chevalier dc, 210, Lewis and Clark, 13, 341. "Locke Constitution," 1.50, 151. Logan, Sir William, 479. Long, Major, and Keating, 342. Lorne, Marquis of, 481. Louisbourg captured by New Englanders, 209. again, 218. Louise, the Princess, 482. Louisiana, 208. purchase, 12. Lount, execution of, 392. Loyalists, coming of, 248 ; as- sistance to, 250; in Nova Scotia, 251 ; in New Bruns- wick, 252; Associated, the, 253 ; Pilgrim Fathers, 255 j Index. 525 m, 214.^ L'cns, 257. I iuvaileil r.8. / of, ;V24. )f, 340. I. oaf, 105. r, un. of, 483. :;o. 1\Ck 341. ," 150, 151. 479. atiug, 342. n. d by New ap:aiii, 218. 482. 2. 392. , 248 ; as- in Nova ew Brans- iated , the, liers, 255 J routes of, 25<» ; scttlomontM of Jjako Krli*. 2.V.) ; HcttlcnuMits of NiuKfi''"' -**' ' scttltnioiits in Lower ("anatlii, 2<>1 ; de- Bcriptlon of, 2<>3 ; scarce year of, 2(13; social life of, 271; clcrpfy of, 270; re-iiiimij^ratiou of, 288. Lumhoriiii,', 429. Luinly's Jjanc, battle of, 325. Lynibuvuer, Adam, 'S>\0. MACDOx.vr.i), Sir John, 41-5. Macaonell, Hisliop, 289, 3t] 1. McDongall, Williiim, 457. McKcn/ie, William Lyon, :)()7. , Sir Alexander, 310. Mackenzie, lion. Alexander, 452. McNab ( ^)lony, :5 48. , Sir iVilan, 412. McNutt and Philadelphia Com- pany, 29] . Madoc, myth of, 42. Mn^'alliatuH (^fagellan), 70. Maine boundary, 10. Maitland, Sir I'eregrine, 369. Manitoba, 23 ; birth of, 290. — — — — claims, 449. Maroons in Nova Scotia, 287. Marquette, Father, S4. Maryland founded, 162. Maseres, Attorney-General, 227. Massachusetts, founding of, 155. Matthews case, the, 370. ManJlowor, the, 155. Mennonites, the, 459. Mesy, M. de, 178. Metcalfe, Lord, 408. Michilimackinac taken, 315. Micmaks, the, 89. Milan decrees, 311. Milton and Cheadle, 344. Mine, the, 430. Minnesota Sioux massacre, 95. Miramichi fire, the, 355. Mississippi, the discovery of the, 184 ; the mouth of the, 193. ^^onroe doctrine, 14. Montcalm, 210. i\lont},foincry and Arnold's ex- pedition, 2 l'2. Montmorenci, 2l'.>. Mont Hoyul nann'd, 1 14. Montreal, capitulatio \ of, 22'''. fur-traders to N.VV., 32! >. Moodie, Colonel, death of. :'.90. ^foravian Town, battle of, 321. Mowat, lion. Oliver, 148. Nan'aimo, 27. National Policy, 1'5;». Negro settlements, 403. Nelson, Wolfre.l, 382. Netherlands, New, lOt^. , King of, 9. New Brunswick, :iO0, 404, 410. Newfoundland, 2!>. New Hampshire founded, 159. New Jersey founded, 107. New Orleans, battle of, 320. New York founded, 105. , Congress of, 237. Neutrals, the, 9 1. Niagara expedition, 210. in 1795, 278. Norsemen, traditions of, ^t. North- West 'J'erritories, 25. Nor'west (.ompany formed, 330. Nova Scotia, baronets of, 134. ■ , constitution of. 225. of, 290. 410, 430. -, early settlements -, social life of, 305, OcHAGACir, map of, 194. Ogdensburg, 318. Oglethorpe, General, 169. Ohio, new route to, 211. Ojibways, 89. Ontario rights, 448. ♦' Orders in Council," 311. 526 Index. i .,-. ■^ ■,.■■ v-f: Oregon question, To. Ormeaux, C.^aptaiu Dollard des, 196. Ottawa, 90. "Pacific Scantlal," 451. Packenhani, Mr., ambassador, Paine, Thomas, 241. Papincau, 1581. Paris, Treaty of, 7. Passes of tlio llocky Mountains, 27. Pennsylvania foundec^, 167. Pequods, 89. l»erry, Peter, 866.1 Perth settlement, the, 817. Peterborough settled, 81-9. Petworth settlement, the, 854. Philadelphia, Congress of, 289. Phipps, Sir AVilliam, 208. Pictou settled, 290, 292. Pigeon River route, 11. Pike, Zebulon, 841. Pilgrim Fathers, the, 155. Pizarro, 71. Pocahontas, 150. Poetry, field for Canadian, 475. Pontiac, 200. Population, Indian, 26, 99. Quebec, 17. Nova Scotia, 19. New Brunswick, 21. — ■■ Ontario, 23. Manitoba, 25. British Columbia, Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, 29. Poutrincourt, Baron de, 129. Prevost compliments Canadians, 326. Prince Edward Island, 28, 294, 405. Progress, early social, 307. Provincial rights, 447. 28. 80. Provisional government, 1887, 391. Puritans of New England, 15 1. , education among, 157. Quaker settlement, 285. (Quebec founded, 118; surren- dered by Chami)lain, 1 17 ; taken by Wolfe, 220. _ _ Act, 227 ; opposition to, 228; provisions of, 228. Conicderation Confer- ence, 474. Quinte, Bay of, 258. Railways, Canadian, 425. Ramusio, 56, 126. Ray, Dr. John, 844. Razilly, Captain De, 187. Reljellion Losses Bill, 411. Reciprocity Treaty, the, 482. Recollets, the, 147. Red River settlement, 406. rebellion, 470. Regina, town of, 26. Religion and morals, 483. Religious condition of early Canada, 309. Representation by population, 418. Resjionsible government, 407. Restigouche River, 98. Rhode Island founded, 160. Ribault settlement massacre, 158. Richardson, Sir John, 343. Rideau Canal, 424. Riel, Louis, 470, 472. Roberval, De, 81. Robinson, Sir J. Beverley, 361. Rochelle merchants, 189. Rocky Mountains, Northern, discovered, 195. Rolph, Dr., 367. Rouge, Fort, 124. Royal Canadian Society of Arts, 482. Royal Society of Canada, 482. Ryerson, Egerton, 375. Index. 527 Sagas, Icelandic, 45. , conclusions from, 53. St. Charles, 381. St. Croix, 7. St. Denis, 381. St. Etiennc, ClanJe Jc, 131. St. Jnst, Baron de, 132. St. Lawrence immiffrants, the. 403, St. Lonis Fort, 136. St. Pierre, Leo-ardour, lf)5, 2 12. St. Vallier, Bisliop, 180. San Juan affair, 15. Saratoga, capitulation of, 245. Sarcces, the, 07. Saskatchewan rebellion, 472. Science, Canadian, 478. Scott Act, 488. Sea, the, and fisheries, 431. Sea-fights of war of 1812-15 323. Seigniorial tenure agitation, 417. Selkirk, Earl of, 294, 332. Semple, Governor, killed, 332. Seneca's prophecy, 39, Shipi^ing, Canadian, 420. Shirley, Governor, 217. Silurian Period, 33. Simcoe, John Graves, 269, 280. , work of organization of, 273. 282. -, immigration policy of, -, plan of roads of, 274. Simpson, Sir George, 333. Sioux, the, 94. Six Nations, the, 91, 264. Skraelings, the, 52. Smith, Captain John, 149. , Sir Donald, 465. Sons of Liberty, 384. Soto, De, 71. Spanish Succession, war of. 206. Stamp Act agitation, 237. Stephen, Sir George, 465. Stoney Creek, battle of, 319. Strachan, Bishop, 362. Talbot, Colonel Thomas, 293. Talon, Inteudant, 174. " Tea party " at Boston, 239. Tecumseh, 315, ,'J21. Temperance Act of Canada, 488. lertiary Age, 36. Thorfinn, 53. Thorpe, Judge, 30 1.. Thorwald visits Finland, 52 Tinne, the, 96. Touty, Henri de, 190. Toronto in 17!>I, 27!'. Toscanelli of Florence, 58. Tonr, Sieur do la, l.'M.. Tracy, Marquis de, 196, Treaty of Amity and (^mmercc (of Jay ; of London), 8. or Convention of London, ni 12, compromise as to Vancouver, 14, of Ghent, 14, secret (Franco and Spain), 12 • between Russia and Bri tain, 14, of St. aermain-cn- Laye, 148. Westphalia, 202. Ryswick, 226. Utrecht, 207. Aix-la-Chapelle, 210. Paris, 226, Trent affair, the, 461. ' Tupper, Sir Charles, 447. Tuscaroras, the, 264. Upper Canada, first parhament of, 270; first counties of, 271 ; political and social life of, 303. Valentine . : Collins, 10. Vancouver, Captain, 27. Island, 407. Verandrye, Sieur de la, 193, . '1 1 .1 ■■•■ u ■ ■ . - t ml I't,. t, 528 Index. ; '■■J Verrazano, 71. Vigilance, Committee of, 388. Vignau, De, Hi. Vinland, .52. Virginia founded, 149. ■■ statesmen, 151. "Walker, Sir Hoveden, failure of, 207. War of Defence, 1812-15, 310. 1812-15 declared, 313. Washington Treaty, 449. Webster, Daniel, 9. Weir, Lieut., tragic death of, 385 Welland Canal, 423. Wentworth, Sir John, 305. Wesleys visit Georgia, the, 170. Whitfield visits America, 170. Willcocks, Joseph, 304. William Henry, Prince, 253. AVilliams, Roger, IGl. Willis, Judge, 370. Wilson, Daniel, 480. Winnipeg, Lake and River, dis • covered, 194. , 90th battalion, nionn- ment of, 474. Winthrop, Governor, 155. Wolfe, General, 218. , monument of, 473. Wolseley, Colonel, expedition of, 471. Wyandots the, 92. X Y Company formed, 330. York taken, 318. Y.M.C.A. in Canada, 488. Zeni, 67. THE END. s:E5.xe..^a?.^. Piiffe 5, line 34 " 23, " 13 " ipf, " 26 " 488, " 7 " 486, " 2) " 5^> " -81 i 2U to 215. Eighty-nine to ninety. S. E. to S. W. Four to five. 1876 to 1875. >ogcr, 161. re, 370. liol, 480. iake aud Eiver, dis - 94. *th battalion, nionn- 74. rovernor, 155. ral, 218. ument of, 473. /olonel, expedition he, 92. ly formed, 830. 318. Canada, 488. ''^"^^-i, ^ f .m.^ Q. 10 ^ ^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 1980