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 1 
 
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 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
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 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
1 
 
 i 
 
 CKNTRIFUGAL FORCE AND GRAVITATIOiN 
 
 BY 
 
 (K UK LOS) 
 
 jojj\ imiiiis. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 The Lbcturk ... 1. The Attractive Forco ami Tangential Motion. 
 
 *Supi)leu)eiit A. 2. The Planetary Axis of Rotation, and Plane of the 
 
 Eclijitic. 
 Do. 15. 3. Tli'^ NeiLriihourinji' Stelhir System, and Aberration 
 
 ni' Liulit. 
 
 Do. U. 4. The Coinetary Orbit of Hevolution. 
 
 r Parts r. & II. The Undulatory and other Theories 
 n l> " J "^ Liji;ht. 
 
 m. "• '^-i Part in. Liiiht, and other Manifestations of 
 
 [ Force. 
 
 • And llu- Appciidix lo Siuiplcniciit A. 
 
 Witli numerous plntes and diagrams 
 
 THE OlEOLE AND STRAIGHT LINE. 
 
 1. The Ueonietrical Uelationship Demonstrated. 
 
 2. Tlie Cnnstruiition (if the Circle. 
 :{. Ciincliisidn. 
 
 4. Sujiplement. 
 
I 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 OF 
 
 MACAULAY'S TEACHING 
 
 ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF 
 
 THEOLOGY. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 .y7 
 
 K 
 
 ^if^i^ 
 
-^^■■■^-^ 
 
A REVIEW 
 
 OF 
 
 MACAULAY'S TEACHING 
 
 ON THE BELATIOMSHIP OF 
 
 THEOLOGY 
 
 TO THE 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 ( 
 
 « 
 
 Br } 
 
 K U K L O S. 
 
 (JOHN HARRIS.) 
 
 September, 1874. 
 
 r 
 
LI 
 
 Entered according to the Act of Parliament of the Dominion of 
 Canada, in tlie year one tliouHand eip;ht hundred and seventy-fonr, 
 by John Haukis, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture and 
 StatisticB at Ottawa. 
 
ox THK HELATIONSHIP OF 
 
 THEOLOGY, 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT 
 
 PART I. 
 
 MACAULAY'S REVIEW OF GLADSTONE ON 
 CHDECH AND STATE.* 
 
 in tLTr'"r'"^'""; T'"" "'■ *"'' ^"^ " '» ''•'-'■"Wo, 
 in the fi.rt place, to dolinc tl.e mvture mid object of the 
 
 remarks w „ch we wi.h to place before the reaJcr 
 
 The reader is, therefore, requested to take note that it 
 
 not the E^ay by Gladstone on Church and State, bu 
 
 the cnfcal Review of that Essay, by Macaulay, which 
 
 we purpose to bring under particular consideration. 
 
 from the F?''™ ^'T'°y ""'""'^ '=<'*'" ^'^'™™'« 
 torn the Essay, winch statements he considers to com- 
 
 fir„fT, T"''°' °''""°"' ofO'"**"™ on the connec- 
 t on of theology with the science of government, tliese 
 
 statementsarecnticallyexamineda„d,i„agreatmasure! 
 objected to as unsound. I„ those objectkms, togethc 
 with certain positive opinions of his own b^scd'upl 
 
 htatlf of: '°"' " '°\ '""' "" '"^'"'"^ of Macaulay 
 nimselt on the same subject. 
 
 Longmans, Green & Co., London, 187*4. 
 
4 SCIENCE OF aOVEBNMENT. 
 
 As to the merits cr demerits of the Essay, as a whole, 
 independently of the parts subjected to critical examina- 
 tion by Macaulay, we do not purpose to enquire. Our 
 remarks are to be confined to the quotations in the 
 Review from tlie Essay, and to the Keview itself.* 
 
 The author of the Essay, who, at the time of its publi- 
 cation, was described by Macaulay as " a young man of 
 distinguished parliamentary talents" and '^ tlie rising 
 hope of the Tory party," has since occupied a most pro- 
 mint'nt place as a practical politician, and for a consider- 
 able time has held the leadership in the administration 
 of tlu) public affairs of the empire. 
 
 The subject of the Essay is nationally of primary im- 
 portance : of an importance in degree secondary to no 
 other sul)ject. 
 
 The reviewer may be considered the most influential 
 national teacher of modem times ; one whose opinions 
 and judgments are looked upon by a very large section 
 of the educated English public as almost a decisive settle- 
 ment of those questions to which his attention was espe- 
 cially directed, and upon which he has vouchsafed to in- 
 struct his readers. 
 
 Tlie case, therefore, as now presented to us may be thus 
 stated : — A subject in a nationid sense of tiie greatest 
 importance is brought before the public by a young man 
 whose reputation and abihties are sufficient to attract 
 particular attention to his statements ; his work is sub- 
 jected to critical examination, and, unless we are mm;h 
 mistaken as to the verdict of the educated public, the 
 result is tliat his statements have been refuted, his doc- 
 trines controverted, and a judgment on the general (jues- 
 tion, antagonistic to his, triumphantly established as 
 
 • We should say that out of a thousand persons who read the Review not 
 more tlma one will have read the Essay. In expressing this opinion we do 
 not iutenil any disparagement to the merits of the Essay but to justify 
 ourselves in confining our remarks to the Review and the quotations con- 
 tained in it. 
 
SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. J) 
 
 indisputable. Assuming that wo arc correct as to tluj 
 conclusion come to by the public on the case, we are of 
 opinion that such conclusion is false, and tluit it is parti- 
 cularly miscliievous because looked upon as a conclusion, 
 that is, as a judgment come to in a manner to be consi- 
 dered a final decision of the question. The reader of the 
 Review is made to feel tliat he has had botli sides of tlie 
 question brought under the consideration of his reason | 
 tliat the general question, together with its divisions and 
 subdivisions, has been made plain and intelligible, and 
 that, finally, he has had the guidance of a mind of the 
 greatest sagacity and ability to assist his own in summing 
 up the evidence and arranging the judgment. 
 
 It cannot be disputed that a false judgment is often- 
 times a source of danger to him that holds or entertains 
 it, and that the danger is proportioned to the importance 
 of the question upon which such false judgment is held. 
 
 Here then, if, as we opine, the judgment be false, we 
 have the case of a false national judgment * on a ques- 
 tion of the gravest national importance ; hence, national 
 danger ; ending eventually, it may be, in national disas- 
 ter. 
 
 A characteristic of Macaulay's writings is a cleamess 
 of statement, an apparent desire to make himself perfect- 
 ly intelligible, and a reliance upon what may be termed 
 common-sense-reason to convince his reader. The form 
 or manner of his method is essentially scientific (mathe- 
 matical) ; if, therefore, his conclusion on any subject be 
 disputed^ the objector should be prepared to show, 
 eitJicr that his connected ttrguments are not fundamen- 
 tally based on fact, that they have not the requisite 
 co-relation and connection, or that the arguments are 
 in themselves faulty and not reliable as links in a com- 
 plete chain of reasoning. 
 
 • A national judgment is the judgment oT a considerable majority of 
 the educated public belonging to the nation, expressed through the intel- 
 lectual representatives of the nation. 
 
C SCIENCE OF GOVETIOTIENT. 
 
 We pm-posG now to examine analytically the Rovicvv, 
 in ordor to substantiate tlie opinion we liavo alrt-ady ex- 
 prosst'tl that the conclusion come to therein, is essentially 
 ftilse. 
 
 TiiK Review. — (1) " Mr. Gladstone seems to us to be, 
 in many respects, exceedingly well (pialified for philoso- 
 phical investigation. His mind is of large grasp ; nor 
 is he deficient in dialectical skill. But he does not give 
 his intellect fair play. There is no want of light, but a 
 grc^'it want of what Bacon would have called dry light. 
 Whatever Jlr. Gladstone sees is refracted and distorted 
 by a false medium of passions and prejudices. His style 
 bears a remarkable analogy to his mode of tliinkiiig, and 
 indeed exercises great influence on his mode of flunking. 
 His rhetoric, though often good of its kind, darkens and 
 perplexes the logic which it shoidd illustrate. Half his 
 acufeness and diligence, with a barren imagination and a 
 scanty vocabulary, would have saved him from almost 
 idi his mistakes. He has one gift most dangerous to a 
 speculator, a vast command of a kind of language, grave 
 and majestic, but of vague and imcertain import ; of a 
 kind of language which affects us much in the same way 
 in which the lofty diction of the Chorus of Clouds affect- 
 ed the simple hearted Athenian. 
 
 0) yi/ Tov (pOeyfiUTog, tjf lepbv, Koi aeftvbVf Kal Teparudeg. 
 
 When prdpositions have been established, and nothing 
 remains but to amplify and decorate them, this dim mag- 
 nificence may be in place. But if it is admitted into a 
 demonstration, it is very much worse than absolute non- 
 sense ; just as that transparent haze, through which 
 the sailor sees capes and mountains of false sizes and in 
 false bearings, is more dangerous than utter darkness. 
 Now, Mr. Gladstone is fond of employing the phraseo- 
 logy of which we speak in those parts of his works which 
 require the utmost perspicuity and precision of which 
 human language is capable ; and, in this way, he deludes 
 
BCIINCK OP GOVEUNMENT. 7 
 
 first himself, and then his readers. Tlio fonndationa of 
 his tlieory wliich ought to bo buttresses of adamant, are 
 made out of tlio flimsy materials wliitOi are fit only for 
 perorations. Tliis fault is one which no subsequent care 
 or industry can correct. The more strictly I\Ir. Glad- 
 stone reasons on Ids premises, the more absurd are the 
 conclusions whicli he brings out ; and, wlien at last his 
 good sense and good nature recoil from the horrible prac- 
 tical inferences to which this tlieory leads, he is reducijd 
 "sometimes to take refuge in arguments inconsistent with 
 his fundamental doctrines, and sometimes to escape from 
 the legitimate conse(|uences of his false principles under 
 cover of equally false history." 
 
 In these introductory remarks of the reviewer we note 
 (1) a charge of passion and prejudice on the part of Mr. 
 Gladstone, (2) a somewhat severe animadversion upon 
 a want of distinctness in his statements ; and (-3) the ex- 
 pression of a positive judgment that the foundations of his 
 theory are made out of flimsy material, that his argu- 
 ments arc inconsistent witli his fundamental doctrines, 
 and that his principles are false. 
 
 (1) A charge of passion and prejudice, unless support- 
 ed by evidence, is no part of reasonable argument ; it 
 may have an effect in influencing the judgment of the 
 audience m the first instance, but, if unsubstantiated, its 
 legitimate effect is an inference that the party makinrr 
 such accusation has been himself influenced by passion 
 and prejudice 
 
 (2.) We have no inclination whatever to defend the 
 use of language of a vague and uncertain import when 
 the object is to doraonstrate the truth and soundness of 
 propositions of great importance, but, on the contrary, we 
 quite concur with Macaulay that the greater tlie impor- 
 tance of the subject the more necessary it boconies to 
 require "the utmost perspicuity and precision of which 
 human language is capable." Whether the reviewer's 
 complaints on this head are justly applicable to the case 
 
8 dOIBNOB OP GOVEENMENT. 
 
 of this particular Essay we do not offer an opinion, but 
 we will remark that this charge appears to be, at least 
 in a measure, contradicted by the observations which 
 succeed it : thus, " The more strictly Mr. Gladstone rea- 
 sons on his premises, the more absurd are the conclusions 
 whicli he brings out, " the logical inference from which is t| 
 
 that Mr. Gladstone does, sometimes at least, reason strictly J 
 
 on his premises. 
 
 (3.) We come to the last charge, that the premises 
 or fundamental principles are themselves false ; in respect 
 to which we may, in the first place, observe that if this 
 be indeed so, it is not only majestic language of a grave 
 and uncertain import winch will be useless for the 
 purpose of deducing a sound conclusion, but that 
 language of the utmost perspicuity and precision, even 
 if assisted by aptness of illustration, readiness of ex- 
 pression and wittiness in statement, will not avail to 
 bring out a sound, true and reliable conclusion from pre- 
 mises or fundamental principles which are in themselves 
 unsound and false. 
 
 The Revieav :—{2.) " Mr. Gladstone's whole theory 
 rests on this great fundamental proposition, that the pro- 
 pagation of religious truth is one of the principal ends of 
 government, as government. If Mr. Gladstone has not 
 proved this proposition, his system vanishes at once." 
 
 We cannot admit that Macaulay's own reasonino- on 
 the case under consideration is, as a whole, by any means 
 so perspicuous as he seems to suppose, but we are clear 
 that his reasoning includes, more or less distinctly set 
 forth, three assumptions in regard to the proposition just 
 stated : — 
 
 1st. That if Mr. Gladstone's fundamental proposition 
 be not wholly true it must be necessarily wholly untrue. 
 
 2nd. That if the proposition be untrue, its negative or 
 opposite must be true. 
 
 3rd. That if the fundamental or primary proposition 
 be untrue, the secondary propositiona connected with it 
 
BCIENCE OF aOVERNMEirr. 
 
 are therefore also untrue ; in other words, " if Mr. Glad- 
 stone hiis not jiroved his fundamentid proposition, liis 
 system vanishes at once," and all the statements, prin- 
 ciples, and arguments which he has introduced into his 
 system may be considered false and unfoimded. 
 
 Kow to these three assumptions severally and collec- 
 tively we oljject ; we decline to accept them as mani- 
 festly true, and we do not find that they are substantiated 
 or supported by argument. 
 
 Upon tlie negative of llr. Gladstone's proposition, 
 which he assumes to be sound because tliat proposition 
 is unsound, IMacaiday proceeds to base and construct liis 
 own positive doctrine, which is, in a measure, an inversion 
 of that to wliich it is opposed. The careful examination 
 ofMacaulay's own doctrine is the particular subject to 
 which our remarks are to have especial reference, but, be- 
 cause we find reason to object to liis fundamental proposi- 
 tion and doctrines, we do not feel therefore called upon to 
 endorse Mr. Gladstone's as wholly true ; on the contrary, 
 we shall hold ourselves quite at liberty to accept a part 
 and to reject a part thereof; and, moreover, we shall not, 
 because we find his ('Macaulay's) fundamental principles 
 erroneous and unsound, pronounce his statements and 
 arguments to be therefore all untrue. 
 
 Macaulay commences his refutation of Gladstone's 
 fundamental proposition by some remarks and state- 
 ments which profess to be prefatory, or preliminary, 
 and \\;]iicli he seems to suppose will be accepted at once 
 as self-evident ; but it very soon appears that he has com- 
 menced with a foregone conclusion, has from the very 
 outset condemned Mr, Gladstone's proposition as abso- 
 lutely wrong, and has assumed his own to be indisputur 
 bly right. 
 
 Since Macaulay's own fundamental proposition is gra- 
 dually evolved from a number of negative statements, 
 rather than directly stated as a positive concrete propo- 
 sition, it may facilitate a clear comprehension of the 
 
i 
 
 I : 
 
 i ; 
 
 10 SCIENCE OP aOVERNMENT. 
 
 actual relations of the argument if we put at once before 
 the reader a definite statement in a positive fonn of that 
 fundamental proposition. But, in order to do this the 
 more satisfactorily, it is desirable to give at the same 
 time a fuUer and clearer definition of the fundamental 
 proposition to which Macaulay's is opposed. 
 
 The statement "that the propagation of religious 
 truth is one of the principal ends of government," is not 
 fundamental. Evidently behind this there must be a 
 conviction or belief that religious truth has, in fact, a par- 
 ticular definite relationship to human government ; so 
 that, in consequence of such relationship, it becomes one 
 of the principal ends of government to propagate 
 religious truth. The proposition affirming the close rela- 
 tionship of religious truth to government must be there- 
 fore primary to the other which is dependent upon it ; 
 moreover, it is evident that the primary proposition must 
 contain such definition of the expression < religious 
 truth' that the secondary proposition may become defi- 
 nite and intelligible. The religious truth here referred 
 to must not only ho,ve a distinctly recognized and definite 
 meaning, but, since it is constantly related to government 
 which has a general and universal character, so must the 
 religious truth be that which also has a general and uni- 
 versal character. 
 
 Wliether the affirmative proposition, as we shall now 
 state it, does, or does not, precisely hannonize with Mr. 
 Gladstone's Essay, independently of the Review, is not, 
 as we have already explained, of any particular conse- 
 quence in regard to our present argument. 
 
 (a) Primary affirmative proposition (Gladstone's). 
 That the temporal government of man by man is based 
 
 upon and subject to the government of man by God 
 
 The human government is controlled and regulated indi- 
 rectly by the continual operation of Divine laws ; it is 
 also controlled and regulated directly and immediately 
 by the occasional (very frequent) interference of spiritual 
 
SCIENCB OP GOVERNMNNT. 
 
 11 
 
 agency.. ..Hence, practical theology belongs necessarily 
 and indispensably to good government. 
 
 (h) Primary negative proposition (Macanlay's). 
 
 Tliat the temporal govermnent of man by man is quite 
 independent of the Spiiitual Government of man by God 
 
 Assuming that there is or may be a God, or Gods, it 
 
 is certain that He does not interfere vdth the general and 
 universal law^s under which human beings exist, and, that 
 there is no spiritual control whatever exercised at any 
 time over tlie temporal affairs of human beings during 
 
 their terrestrial existence Hence, good government has 
 
 no business to concern itself about practical theology, 
 with which it has no necessary or desirable connection. 
 
 For ourselves, we affirm the first (a) and, consequent- 
 ly, reject tlie second (b) of these propositions. 
 
 Tlie introductory argument of Macaulay, which in our 
 opinion, as already stated, commences by begging (pre- 
 judging) tlie question in controversy, reads thus : — (3) 
 " We are desirous, before we enter on the discussion of 
 this important question, to point out clearly a dis- 
 tinction w^hich, though veiy obvious, seems to be over- 
 looked by many excellent people. In their opinion, to 
 say that the ends of govenmient are temporal and not 
 spiritual is tantamount to saying that the temporal wel- 
 fare of man is of more importance than his spiritual 
 welfare. But tliis is an entire mistake. The question 
 is not whether spiritual interests be or be not superior 
 in importance to temporal interests, but whetlier the 
 macliintny wliich happens at any moment to be employed 
 for tlie purpose of protecting certain temporal interests 
 of a society be necessarily such a machinery as is iitted 
 to promote tlie spiritual interests of that society. With- 
 out a division of labor the world could not go on. It is 
 of very much more importance tliat men should have 
 food tiiaii that they should have pianofortes. Yet it by 
 no means follows that every pianoforte maker ought to 
 add the business of a baker to his own ; for, if ho did 
 
lis SOIENOE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 SO, we should have both much worse iTi'isic and much 
 worse bread. It is of much more impoitance that the 
 knowledge of reHgious truth should be widely diffused 
 than that the art of sculpture should flourish amongst us. 
 Yet it by no means follows that the Royal Academy 
 ought to unite with its present functions those of the 
 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, to distribute 
 theological tracts, to send forth missionaries, to turn out 
 Nollekens for being a Catholic, Bacon for being a Me- 
 thodist, and Flaxman for being a Swedenborgian. For 
 the effect of such folly would be that we should have the 
 worst possible Academy of Arts, and the worst possible 
 Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. Thfe 
 community, it is plain, would be thrown into universal 
 confusion, if it were supposed to be the duty of every 
 association which is fonned for one good object to pro- 
 mote every other good object." 
 
 In tlie first part of these remarks it is taken for granted 
 that the only connection which it is possible to suppose 
 between theology and government is a coimection simi- 
 lar to that between the business of a pianoforte maker 
 and that of a baker, which is equivalent to saying, in 
 other words, that it is impossible to reasonably suppose 
 any actual, immediate and necessary connection between 
 them. The preliminary remarks seem to us sufficient to 
 show at once that Macaulay has here entered upon a 
 very gi'ave subject of discussion without an adequate 
 endeavour to understand the fundamental relations of the 
 subject upon which he proposes to instruct the public. 
 If, liowever, it should be eventually considered that we 
 are in the right in this opinion, there would be excuse 
 for the occasional carelessness and eri'ors of judgment to 
 which writers of even the greatest ability are subject, 
 but in respect to what follows, he has, as it seems to us, 
 rendered himself obnoxious to a charge of inexcusable 
 disingenuousiK'ss, or, to use his own expression, to a 
 charge of passion and prejudice. . . . and this on a subject 
 
 
' 
 
 SCIENCE OP GOVERNMENT, 13 
 
 just previously introduced with protestations of a desire 
 to sift the evidence and to searcli out the truth of the 
 matter faii-ly and dispassionately. We say that, taking 
 the quotations given by him from Mr. Gladstone's Essay, 
 Maca-ulay cannot have supposed that by the expression 
 religious truth merely sectarian differences of opinion 
 about spiritual subjects was intended ; but, not only does 
 he pretend to understand the expression in this sense, it is 
 made to apply also to opinions, which he evidently con- 
 siders to be of an exaggerated and fanatical character, 
 held only by a very limited number of individuals. If it 
 IS suggested that there may be something in the Essay 
 Itself to give color to such an extravagant interpretation 
 (perversion) ofthe meaning of the expression, then we 
 say there is nothing such before the reader of the Review, 
 and MacauJay bases his remarks expressly upon the quo- 
 tations from the Essay which he puts before the reader 
 The Review :-(4.) " As to some ofthe ends of civil 
 government, aU people are agreed. That it is desiirned 
 to protect our persons and our property; that H is 
 designed to compel us to satisfy our wants, not by 
 rapine, but by industry; that it is designed to compel 
 us to decide our differences, not by the strong hand, but 
 by arbitration; that it is designed to direct our whole 
 force as that of one man, against any other society 
 which may offer us injury ; these are propositions which 
 will hardly be disputed." 
 
 For ourselves, we quite agree that these are some of 
 the ends of civil government. 
 
 The Review :-(5.) "Now there are matters in which 
 man without any reference to any higher being, or to 
 any future state, is very deeply interested. Every hu- 
 man being, be he idolater, Mahometan, Jew, Papist, 
 Socmian, Deist or Atheist, naturally loves life, shrinks 
 from pain, desires comforts which can be enjoyed only 
 m communities where property is secure. To be mur- 
 dered, to be tortured, to be robbed, to be sold into 
 
14 
 
 SCIENCE OP aOVERNMENT. 
 
 slaverj', these are evidently evils from which men of 
 every reUgion, and men of no religion, wish to be pro- 
 tected ; and therefore it wiU hardly be disputed that 
 men of every religion, and of no religion, have thus far 
 a common interest in being well governed."* 
 
 Herein we have a portion of that negative fundamental 
 proposition, which we have already put before the reader 
 as Macaulay's, directly stated by himself. The plain 
 meaning may be thus rendered : — So long as men are 
 agreed as to what it is desirable for them to possess and 
 what to be protected from, government can be perfectly 
 well carried on without any reference to any higher 
 being ; the Christian and Atheist, the Israelite and the 
 Heathen, are all in the same case ; each individual is 
 equally eligible as a good governor, each community 
 has an equal chance of being perfectly well governed, 
 whether the individual or the community believes in a 
 Creator — in a spiritual Governor — in a God, or whether 
 they have no such belief. What is necessary, and alone 
 necessary is — that they shall be intelligent enough to 
 understand that men are in their own right the inheritors 
 and possessors of the earth, and sensible enough to agree 
 as to what things it is especially desirable to have, and 
 to combine together in using the best means to obtain 
 those good things. 
 
 The Review thus continues : — (G) " But the hopes and 
 fears of men are not limited to this short life and to this 
 visible world. He finds himself surrounded by the signs 
 
 * We may here again note the disingenuousneas of Macaulay, of which 
 we have already complained, in the treatment of so grave and important a 
 subject. Surely, the intelligent reader -will agree with us that it is no 
 reasonable inference because communities of men have a common interest 
 in certain specified things, that there/ore there cannot bo something else of 
 a more comprehensive character which has also a common interest for 
 them all, and which, moreover, imperatively requires a distinct recognition 
 on the part of them all that it has such an interest; yet, such api)ear3 to 
 be the inference which Macaulay wishes and intends the reader to draw 
 from the mode in which this section of the case is presented by him. 
 

 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 15 
 
 of a power and wisdom higher than his own ; and, in 
 all ages and nations, men of all orders of intellect, from 
 Bacon and Newton, down to the rudest tribes of canni- 
 bals, liave believed in the existence of some superior mind* 
 Thus flir the voice of mankind is almost unanimous 
 But wliother there be one God, or many, wliat may be 
 God's natural and what His moral attributes, in what 
 relation His creatures stand to Him, whether lie has ever 
 disclosed Himself to us by any other revelation than that 
 which is written in all the parts of the glorious and well 
 ordered world which He has made, whether His revela- 
 tion be contained in any permanent record, how that re- 
 cord should be interpreted, and whether it have pleased 
 Him to appoint any unerring interpreter on eartli, these 
 are questions rc^specting wliich there exists thi; widest 
 diversity of opinion, and respecting some of whicli a large 
 part of our race has, ever since the dawn of regular liis- 
 tory, been deplorably in error." 
 
 Here IMacaulay commences with a deliberate statement 
 of what lie himself considers to be an established fact, and . 
 which, if assumed to be so, alone suffices to involve in. 
 the gravest doubt his fundamental proposition, and con- 
 sequently aU those arguments which are based upon it. 
 " Man finds himself suiTounded by the signs of a power 
 and wisdom higher than his own ; and, in all nges and 
 nations, men of all orders of intellect, from Bacon and 
 Newton, down to the rudest tribes of cannibals, have be- 
 lieved in the existence of some superior mind." It also 
 appears that this belief distinctly recognizes a particular 
 relationship of the superior mind to men, and to the 
 world they inhabit; for we read such expressions as " in 
 what relation His creatures stand to Hun " and " the 
 parts of the glorious and well ordered world which He 
 has made." So that He is believed by almost all men, in- 
 cluding the most intellectual and highly educated, to 
 have been the Creator, and to be still existent. But, 
 then, supposing that the Being, who has created men and 
 
IG 
 
 BClENCE OP GOVERNMENT. 
 
 made tlw; well ordered world in which they live, should 
 still continue to take an interest in their welfare, even 
 whilst they remain in the well ordered world which He 
 
 has made for them to live in supposing tliat He 
 
 chooses to exercise the power, which lie must certainly 
 possess, in overruling, regulating, and more or less con- 
 trolling the temporal affairs of men upon earth, does it 
 seem likely that this would be done in such wise that 
 men would be constantly aware of such spiritual control? 
 But supposing further that He, notwithstanding the vast 
 superiority, should take pleasure in the recognition by 
 
 men of His gifts that He should not be pleased to 
 
 be forgotten by them, and to become unknown to them 
 
 that He should not choose to have human 
 
 governments carried on without reference to Him, 
 
 and, if we may go so far as to suppose that He 
 
 has made known to men certain strict rules and regula- 
 tions for the advantageous conduct of their affairs, and 
 has expressly enjoined attention to those rules as com- 
 mandments from Himself, it is surely not unreasonable to 
 suppose it likely that He may be displeased at a disre- 
 gard and neglect of His rules, and that He may punish 
 deliberate disobedience to His commandments. Wo say 
 that, leaving aside the immense amount of positive evi- 
 dence as to the actual fact, and taking only the statement 
 of Macaulay himself, it is quite reasonable to suppose that 
 the Supreme Being referred to by him does retain in his 
 own hands the supreme control over the temporal affairs 
 of men and over human governments ; equally so whether 
 His Sovereignty be desired and recognized or whether it 
 be not. And that this absolute temporal sovenngnty 
 may be held conjointly vnth, and independently of, that 
 spiritual Sovereignty or Headsliip which belongs to the 
 present terrestrial condition of men as spiritual beings 
 undergoing preparation for a higher state of existence, 
 and which Headship it is left to the free wUl of men, 
 when they have been instructed and enlightened as to the 
 
SCIENCE OF OOVEnNMENT. l>j 
 
 conditiona and consequences of ti.eir choice, to„cco,,t or 
 Wo might now turn Macauky's mode of deah,,.. witli 
 
 men?::: r t "™"''- "- "■"-" '- »-- > 
 
 mcnt, the suppositions we have just put before tlio 
 reader be in any degree probable, or eve, , if th y be ii'^ 
 
 Macaulay has not proved his fundamental proposition" 
 consequently "hi. system vanishes at once,» 3 is 
 arguments and inferences arc rendered worthless 
 
 The Review.- (7) " Now here are two great obiccts • 
 one IS the protection of tiie persons and estates rfctV 
 
 ZJZ,'"'! V'" f-'-' '^ *"« r^Pagationl: : 
 gio IS tru h. No two objects more entirely distinct can 
 well be imagined. The former belongs .^,ol y t„ the 
 visible and tongible world i„ which we°livc, he at 
 belongs to that higher world which is beyond the each 
 of our senses The former belongs to this life , , e Se 
 to that which IS to come. Men who are perfe tly a^eed 
 as to the importance of the former obiect and LtTtt 
 way of obtaining it, differ as widelytfplMe "e clt! 
 
 we admit that the persons, be they who they may who 
 are intrusted with power for the promotion of tSrmer 
 
 oSeVatro^r- '° "'^ '^" ^°-^' ^- '"^ p™-«» 
 
 o7in 2>^ f»Sether acquitted of misrepresenting, and 
 of, in some degree, wilfully misrepresenting, the Sean- 
 ng of the expression 'religious truth' for So plose of 
 weakening the case to which he has opposed llmself 
 
 .1 Mocaulay's own mmd such an expression as reliWous 
 
 og72icL r/°^' "',";"t'''P''"-»P'>y, spiritual theo- 
 tbn' P"™"!! .<^*»'"P»':* superstition, spiritual supersti- 
 toon, these thmgs quite distinct from each other, and 
 
18 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 i i' 
 
 I' 
 
 some of which are directly antagonistic to eacli other, 
 are all confounded together by him under the one expres- 
 sion ' religion ' or ' religious truth.' 
 
 Tli;> fundamental proposition which Macaulay has under- 
 takt.'ii to disprove, held as an active and positive belief 
 by great numbers of most highly educated men of the 
 higlicst order of intellect, is here entirely ignored by him 
 and wiped out as though quite unworthy of considera- 
 tion. Admitting, which he has done, the existence of a 
 Supreme Being, who has created men and made the world 
 for them to live in, the very question in controversy is 
 primarily — does that Supreme Being permit human gov- 
 ernments to be carried on without recognition of His 
 sovereignty and power — without His interference and 
 control — without any dependance upon or reference to 
 Him us Supreme Governor, Arbitrator, and Source of 
 Government ? 
 
 Did it never occur to Macaulay, the historian and 
 the student of history, that the best laid human plans 
 miglit be thwarted, that the v/isest human counsels might 
 be confounded ; that unforseen adverse circumstances 
 might interpose and impede or prevent the carrying out 
 of some highly important national undertaking ; that 
 most unreasonable dissension and disaffection might break 
 out amongst the governed ; that a mutinous spirit and 
 impatience of control might exhibit itself just at a time 
 when it was supremely desirable for the government to 
 go on smoothly and easily ; that, whether in the affairs of 
 an individual, of a commercial company, of a government, 
 or of a nation, failure and disaster might, and in ftict do 
 sometimes, present themselves as the result of jilans 
 formed with prudence and wisdom, notvnthstanding that 
 the endeavour to carry them into effect be made with 
 energy, industry and ability. 
 
 Now if good government be in any degree dependant 
 upon the distinct recognition of a Supreme Almighty 
 Governor whose presence, or the presence 'of whose spi- 
 
BCIENOB OP GOVERNMENT. 
 
 19" 
 
 ritual agents, amongst men is not made known to them 
 by their bodily eyes, does it not seem desirable, and even 
 imperative, that tliose who are in the position of Gov- 
 ernors who, being instructed and enliglitened, 
 
 recognize such dependence .... should make known to 
 those whom they govern, and for whom they are in a 
 greater or lesser degree responsible, the necessity of such 
 distinct and active recognition on their part also ? And 
 would not this be the propagation of religious trutli in 
 the sense of Grladstone's fundamental projiosition ? Ilow 
 then can Macaulay be justified in taking for granted that 
 good human government and the propagation of religious 
 truth cannot have any reasonable connection witli cuich 
 other f Yet we have here his words : — '' No two objects 
 more entirely distinct can well be imagined." It is evi- 
 dent that this is an illogical conclusion resulting iu some 
 measure from the veiy indistinct and confused meaning 
 attachtul by Macaulay to the expression ^religious truth.' 
 This confused sense becomes still more ajjparent from 
 
 what immediately follows Mr. Gladstone writes in 
 
 his Essay : ^^ I do not scruple to affirm that if a Mahome- 
 tan conscientiously helieves his religion to come from God 
 and to teach divine truth, he must hdievc that truth to be 
 heneficial hey ond all ether things to the soid of man ; and 
 he must therefore, and ought to, desire its extension, and to 
 use for its extension all proper and legitimate means ^ and 
 that, if such Mahometan he a prince, he ought to count 
 among those means the application of whatever influence or 
 funds he may laufully have at his disposal for such piir- 
 2wsesy 
 
 Upon which tlie reviewer remarks : (8) "Surely this is 
 a hard saying. Before we admit that the Emperor Julian, 
 in employing the influence and the funds at his disposal 
 for the extinction of Christianity, was doing no more than 
 his duty, before we admit that the Arian Theodoric 
 woidd liave committed a crime if he had suiFered a single 
 believer in the divinity of Chris;t to held my civil <'nr.)l;)y- 
 
80 
 
 BOIKNOK OF OOYIRNMENT. 
 
 i 
 
 meiit in Italy, before we admit that tlie Dutch Govern- 
 ment is bound to exclude from oJHce all members of the 
 Churcli of England, the King of Bavaria to exclude from 
 office all Protestants, the Great Turk to exclude from 
 office all Christians, the King of Ava to exclude from 
 office idl who hold the unity of God, we tliink ourselvvis 
 entitled to demand very fuU and accurate demonstration. 
 When the consequejices of a doctrine are so startling, wo 
 may well require that its fouudutious shall be very so- 
 lid." 
 
 There need not surely be much hesitation in admit- 
 ting that, if tlie Emperor Julian fuUy and sincerely believed 
 it to be his duty to employ the funds and influence at 
 his disposal for the extinction of Christianity, he was doing 
 his duty in so employing them ; that, if the Arian Theo- 
 doric fully and t^incerely believed it a criminal off*ence to 
 allow a believer in Christ's divinity to hold any civil 
 employment in Italy, he would have committed 
 a crime if he, having the power to prevent had 
 allowed it, and so on ; but what we do not admit 
 is that such belief on the part of the Emperor 
 Julian, or of Theodoric, can be correctly termed reli- 
 gious truth. If the Emperor Julian acted in the sincere 
 belief that his duty towards God necessitated ins so acting, 
 doubtless the feeling whicli prompted his acting was a 
 religious feeling, but we deny that it was truly religiousj 
 it contained a certain small amount of truth mingled with 
 much superstition and ignorance. The result was that 
 in ail absolute sense ho acted very wrongly, altliough he 
 may have done so in the belief that he was acting rightly. 
 If he had possessed the knowledge of religious truth 
 which we now possess, he would have known that the 
 acting as he did in respect to the Christians would liave 
 the very opposite effect to that of pleasing God. For 
 any one possessed of religious truth to act under a feeling 
 of duty towards God, or, in other words, to perform liis 
 duty to God, is to do that wliich is actually approved 
 
POIENCK OF OnVERNMENT. 
 
 21 
 
 by, Jind which is iihRolutcly j>l«>asing to God. This is 
 niiinif(,'st, lor othcrwiso * Trutli ' woiiM b(! soiiicfliiiig 
 opposed to God's uaturo instead of being a purt of God's 
 nature. 
 
 For any human being to possess religious truth in an 
 absolute sense, evidently it must bo necessary for that 
 person to be perfectly instructed. Now, the knowledge 
 of human bikings is in all cases imperfect ; from the very 
 wisest and most higlily educated down to tlic must simple 
 and barbarous tliere can bo but ditferent degrees of igno- 
 rance, as considered from the stand[)oint of absolute 
 knowledge. Since, then, religious beliefs and opinions 
 are in all axaes contaminated by ignorance, the true belief 
 being mingled with superstitious beliefs and unsoundopi- 
 mons, it is the duty of those who occupy positions of 
 authority and responsibility • to inculcate and propagate 
 that part of their religious belief and that part only, of 
 which they can be sure that it is true. 
 
 The Revie;w : — (9) "The following paragraph is a spe- 
 cimen of the arguments by which Mr. Gladstone has, as 
 he conceives, established his great fundamental j)roposi- 
 tion : — " We may state the same projiosition in a more 
 general form, in tvhich it surely must commani^ ntiivcrsal 
 assent. Wherever there is power in the universe^ thatp)Oicer is 
 the xwopcrfy of Gocl^ the Tcing of that universe— His property 
 of right, however for a time withholclen or ahuscil. Noiv 
 this property, tvhich is, as it tverc, realized, is used accord- 
 ing to the ivill of the owner, when it is used for the purposes 
 He has ordained, and in the temper of mercy, justice, truth, 
 and faith tvhich He has taught tis. But those principles 
 never can he truly, never can he permanently entertained in 
 the human breast, except hy a continual rejerence to their 
 source, and the supply of the Divine Grace. The ptowcrs, 
 therefore, that dwell in individuals acting for themselves, 
 
 • All persons who are in anj degree educated occupy positions of Jiuthor- 
 ity ftnd responsibility. 
 
ill :'! 
 
 2Z 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 'V |. 
 
 I'M: 
 I i 
 
 can only he secund for rigid uses hy applying to thmi a 
 religion." Here are propositions of vast and indefinite 
 extent conveyed in language which has a certain obscure 
 dignity and sanctity, attractive, we doubt not, to many 
 minds. But the moment that we examine these i)ropo- 
 sitions closely, the m*. ment that we bring them to the test 
 by running over but a very few of tlie particulars which 
 arc included in them, we find them to be false and extra- 
 vagant. The doctrine which ' must surely connnand 
 universal assent ' is tliis, that every association of human 
 beings which exercises any power whatever, tliat is to 
 say, every association of human beings, is bound, assuch 
 association, to profess a religion. Imagine the effect 
 which would follow if this principle were really in force 
 during four and twenty hours. Take one instance out of 
 a million. A stage-coach company has power over its 
 horses. This power is the property of God. It is used 
 according to the will of God when it is used with mercy. 
 But the principle of mercy can never be truly or perma- 
 nently entertained in the human breast without continual 
 reference to God. The powers, therefore, that dwell in 
 individuals, acting as a stage-coach company, can only be 
 secured for right uses by applying to them a religion. 
 Every stage-coach company ought, therefore, in its col- 
 lective capacity, to profess some one faith, to have its 
 articles, and its public worship, and its tests. Thnt this 
 conclusion, and an infinite number of other conclusions 
 equally strange, follow of necessity from Mr. Gladstone'a 
 principle, is as certain as it is that two and two make 
 four. And, if the legitimate conclusions be so absurd^ 
 there must be something unsound in the principle." 
 
 The proposition of Mr. Gladstone is here presented bjr 
 him in a form which he states to be general in its appli- 
 cation to individuals acting as a government and to indi- 
 viduals acting for themselves ; that is, as we understand 
 it, of general application to all governments and to all 
 individuals. But Macaulay at once assumes that, if the 
 
SCIENCE OP OOVERNAIENT. £3 
 
 proposition be sound and be applicable to governments 
 and to nidividuals, it must necessarily be applicable to 
 commercial companies ; i.e., to associations of individuals 
 orgamzed and conducted for the exclusive purpose of 
 promoting some one object. We cannot allow that such a 
 smiilarity obtains between the conditions of the commer- 
 cial company and those of the individuals or of the 
 govermnent as to justify Macaulay in such assumption: 
 they are not, so to speak, in the same case, whereas the 
 mdividual and the government are in the same case. So 
 IS, also, a nation or a community, each of which has 
 an individuality of its own, in essentially the same case 
 as the individual human being ; there is the same com- 
 plexity of conditions, of responsibihties, of hopes and 
 fears, of good and evil desires, of jealousies and vengeful 
 teehngs, of gratitude and resentment, in the nation, the 
 community, or the government, compounded of indivi- 
 dual human beings, which obtains in the one individual 
 But this does not equally apply to the commercial com- 
 pany ; the case of such an association may be considered 
 as more nearly equivalent to one phase only of those 
 conditions of hmnan life to which an individual human 
 being IS subject. An individual, all of whose life time 
 was devoted exclusfvely to one occupation, or one kind 
 of occupation, would, to a great extent, typify the com- 
 mercial company ; whereas for an individual type of a 
 nation or a government, an ideal individual engaged in 
 every variety and diverse description of liuman occu- 
 pation would be necessary. We submit, therefore, be- 
 cause of this essential difference, whicli is entirely over- 
 looked and left out of consideration by Macaulay, that 
 the supposed analogy is false, and that the argument 
 based on this false analogy, would, even if sound and 
 good in Itself, be unreliable. But, waiving this objection, 
 let us, for the moment, accept, under protest, the analogy' 
 and examine the wortli of the argument. 
 
 The immediate object of the mode of argument, here 
 

 I 
 
 (; 
 
 
 24 SCIENCE OF aOVERNMENT. 
 
 adopted, is to show that a particular practical application 
 of the general proposition stated hy Gladstone, has, for 
 its consequent, a result which is manifestly absurd ; let 
 us consider attentively in what manner the adoption of a 
 religion on the one hand, or the entire rejection of all reli- 
 gion, on the other, by such a company, might be expected 
 to express itself. The one company would recognize a 
 duty on its part, not only towards its horses, but also, 
 towards its servants, towards its customers, towards ot lier 
 companies competing with it or allied to it. It would 
 feel an obligation to act with mercy, truth and j ustice, 
 towards each and all of them. Certainly, the particular 
 object it would keep in view would be to obtain an 
 increase in its wealth, and a remuneration for its labour, 
 and to do this by providing the public with stage-coach 
 accommodation ; but it would not exercise cruelty upon 
 its horses, not behave tyranically towards its servants, 
 not greedily or dishonorably or vexatiously towards 
 tradesmen or towards other companies, for the purpose of 
 increasing its gains to the utmost, The other company 
 j' 1: is to be supposed to be strictly atheistical ; its policy must 
 
 be purely selfish, it would not trouble itselt about what 
 injurious effect its conduct might have upon its succes- 
 sors or upon its contemporaries j it wouM not spare its 
 servants or its horses, and it would bo unscrupulous in 
 its dealings. We do not believe that, in fact, an associa- 
 tion of a number of individuals, as a commercial com- 
 pany, could be anywhere found utterly selfish and un- 
 principled ; but this, because we do not believe such an 
 association could be found of which the majority of 
 members, in a strict absolute sense, were atheistical. It 
 may be said tliat commercial associations utterly unprin- 
 cipled and selfish could not hold together, and could not, 
 for long, even exist; neither do we assert that thev 
 could, but we do assert that a company which professes 
 to be, and is, principled in any degree ; which prolesses 
 to recognize, and does recognize duties in any degree ; 
 
 ' 
 
 ''■''-"'■''' 
 
SCIENCE OF aOVERNMENT. 
 
 25 
 
 no, we might 
 
 which, in its collective capacity, says " 
 make money by doing so and so, but it would not be 
 legitimate business, it would be dishonorable, we can't 
 do that '' — that such a company professes and has adopt- 
 ed a religion, and that it has its faith, its articles and its 
 tests. We do not say that such a profession is, in a rea- 
 sonable sense, a sufficiently positive and distinct recog- 
 nition of the Supreme Being, as the source of mercy, 
 justice and truth, and of His temporal government upon 
 earth ; we do not even opine that this is the degree of 
 distinctive religious profession which Mr. Gladstone had 
 in mind, but Macaulay's argument is here the immediate 
 subject of consideration, and that argument does not 
 apply to any particular quantity or particular kind of 
 religious profession but to any degree of any kind of 
 religion whatever. The vague and uncertain meaning 
 attached in his mind, to the expression " religious truth," 
 has evidently hero again led Macaulay to an illogical 
 conclusion which cannot bear strict examination. 
 
 The Review : — (9) " We will quote another passage 
 of the same sort:— 
 
 " Why, then, we notv come to ask, should the governing 
 hody in a state profess a religion f First, because it is com- 
 posed of individual men; and they being appointed to act 
 in a definite moral capacity, must sanctify their acts done 
 in that capacity by the offices of religion ; inasmuch as the 
 acts cannot otherivise be acceptable to God, or anything but 
 sinful and punishable in themselves. And whenever we 
 turn our face aivayjrom God in our conduct, ive are living 
 
 atheist ically Lijulfihnent, then, of his obligations as 
 
 an individual, the statesman must be a tvorshipping man. 
 But his acts are pid)lic — the poivers aud instrtmcnts ivith 
 which he works are public — acting under and by the author- 
 ity of the law, he moves at his tvord ten thonsand subject 
 arms , and because such energies are thus essentially pub- 
 lic, and wholly out of the range of mere individual agency, 
 they must be sanctified, not only by the private personal 
 
r 
 
 26 
 
 SCIENCE OP GOVERNMENT. 
 
 i 'SI; 
 
 
 i I': 
 
 f 'i 
 
 U If: 
 
 prayers and piety of those wlw fill public situations^ hut 
 also hy x>Mic acts of the men composing the public body. 
 They must offer prayer and praise in their public and 
 collective character — in that character wlierein titcy con- 
 stitute the organ oftJie nation, and wield its collective force 
 Wherever there is a reasoning agency tliere is a moral duty 
 and rcsjyonsibility involved in it. The governors are reason- 
 ing agents for the nation, in their conjoint acts as such. 
 And therefore there must he attached to this agency, as that 
 without which none of our responsibilities can be met, a 
 religion. And this religion must he that of the governor, or 
 none." 
 
 " Here again we find propositions of vast sweep, 
 and of sound so orthodox and solemn that many good 
 people we doubt not, have been greatly edified by it. 
 But lot us examine the words closely ; and it will imme- 
 diately become plain that, if these principles be once ad- 
 mitted, there is an end of all society. No combination 
 can be formed for any purpose of mutual help, for trade, 
 for public works, for the relief of the sick or of the poor, 
 for the promotion of art or of science, unless the mem- 
 bers of the combination agree in their theological opi- 
 nions. Take any such combination at random, the Lon- 
 don and Birmingham Railway Company for example, 
 and observe to what consequences Mr. Gladstone's argu- 
 ments inevitably lead. " Why should the Directors of 
 the Railway Company, in their collective capacity, pro- 
 ffess a religion ? First, because the direction is composed 
 of individual men appointed to act in a definite moral 
 capacity, bound to look carefully to the property, the 
 limbs, and the lives of their fellow-creatures, bound to 
 act diligently for their constituents, bound to govern 
 their servants vsdth humanity and justice, bound to fulfil 
 with fidelity many important contracts. They must, 
 therefore, sanctify their acts by the offices of religion, 
 or these acts will be sinful and punishable in themselves. 
 In fulfihnent. then, of his obligations as an individual, 
 
 
SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 27 
 
 the Director of the London and Binningham Eailway 
 must be a worshipping man. But his acts are public. 
 He acts for a body. He moves at his word ten thousand 
 subject arms. And because these energies are out of the 
 range of his mere individual agency, they must be sanc- 
 tified by pubhc acts of devotion. The Railway Direc- 
 tors must offer prayer and praise in their pubhc and col- 
 lective character, in that character wherewith they con- 
 stitute the organ of the Company, and wield its collected 
 powor. Wherever there is reasoning agency, there is 
 morul responsibility. The Directors are reasoning agents 
 for the Company. And therefore there must be attached 
 to this agency, as that wdthout which none of our respon- 
 sibilities can be met, a religion. And this religion must 
 be tliat of the conscience of the Director himself, or none. 
 There must be public worship and a test. No Jew, no 
 Socinian, no Presbyterian, no Catholic, no Quaker, must 
 be permitted to be the organ of the Company, and to 
 wield its collective force ? Would Mr. Gladstone really 
 defend this proposition ? We arc sure that he would not j 
 but we are sure that to this proposition, and to innu- 
 merable similar propositions, his reasoning inevitably 
 leads." 
 
 In a great measure, both the foregoing quotations from 
 the Essay, and the reviewer's remarks upon it, merely 
 amplify and repeat those which have preceded them. 
 Mr. Gladstone referring expressly to a Govermnent, as 
 the representative of the nation, embodying the wills^ 
 desires, hopes, fears, (passions) . . and the intellects, by 
 which these are directed and controlled, of tho indivi- 
 duals composing the nation, requires that this collective 
 personality. . this representative of the public, shall give 
 expression to its recognition of God, as the Supreme 
 Governor and Controller of the temporal affairs of men, 
 by acts of public prayer and praise. Macaulay, substi- 
 tuting a railway company for the stage-coach company, 
 and having in his mind the prejudice that ' religion ' must 
 
28 
 
 SCIENCK OP aOVERNMENT. 
 
 ■t t, 
 
 'I! W' 
 
 ; 
 
 ■I 
 
 necessarily mean a dogmatic set of religious opinions, 
 a system of some one exclusive sectarian character or 
 other, enlarges upon the absurdity of the collective re- 
 presentative of a number of individuals, holding various 
 opinions and beliefs, giving expression, as the mouth- 
 piece of those individuals collectively, to dogmatic opi- 
 nions of his own which might probably not be wholly con- 
 curred in by a single one of those individuals. Underly- 
 ing this, there is, as we understand the matter, a ques- 
 tion of a very serious character. closely related to that 
 
 main question, involved in the two fundamental propo- 
 sitions, which is the general subject of the present argu- 
 ment. It is, if we mistake not, because Macaulay has 
 prejiidged for himself in a very decided manner this ques- 
 tion, that a sort of impatience and sense of absurdity 
 attaches itself to his discussion of this subject, and be- 
 cause many of his readers have likewise prejudged the 
 question for themselves, his observations are the more 
 likely to find acceptance and approval on their part. Ma- 
 caulay appears to have thought it undesirable or unneces- 
 sary- to distinctly state this question for consideration on 
 
 its own merits We will do so. It is, whether upon 
 
 evidence and experience there be, or be not, reasonable 
 ground for supposing that a positive and distinct profes- 
 sion of religious belief as a guiding and controlling prin- 
 ciple in general business, does in fact influence the result ; 
 whether the probability of business success be, or be not, 
 in any degree increased thereby. A great number of 
 educated persons have apparently concluded for them- 
 selvos, us we understand Macaulay to have done, that it 
 is not reasonable to suppose any such difference to result 
 , that business success is solely and entirely depen- 
 dent upon the sagacity, energy, industry, and application 
 of the individual, as possessing in himself a certain greater 
 or lesser degree of ability and capacity, quite indepen- 
 dently of any reference to the Supreme Being. There is, 
 also, we feel sure, a very considerable number of educat- 
 
SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 29 
 
 ed persons who have come, more or less decidedly, to the 
 opposite concluBion, and who hold that the practical and 
 distinct profession of religious belief, whicli belongs of 
 right to the good conduct of business, may be reasonably 
 expected to have a directly potent influence on the 
 successful issue of that business. But of these persons, 
 however numerous they may be, there are, we suppose, 
 but a very few who consider tliat such conclusion can 
 be safely based upon practical experience, that is to 
 say, upon evidence furnished by the results of ordinary 
 business enterprise. We think, the greater number 
 
 woidd at once say to such a proposition ' No, 
 
 the evidence of that kind is at least quite conflicting; 
 indeed, we are inclined to think it would of itself 
 
 be adverse to the proposition We firmly believe 
 
 in God on evidence of quite a diflerent character We 
 
 are sure Jle possesses the power to overrule and directly 
 control the temporal affairs of men if He pleases, and, 
 therefore, we hold it not unreasonable to suppose that 
 occasionally, in some special cases, He does directly 
 interfere in what are called matters of ordinary busi- 
 ness.' 
 
 Now it seems to us that this last conclusion is not 
 altogether satisfactory ; it can scarcely be considered 
 positive, it shelves the particular question rather than 
 deals with it, and may be almost considered as belonging 
 to one of two fundamental opinions about religion be- 
 tween which, as we think, Macaulay was continually 
 halting. Here is the objection to the insufficiency of that 
 doctrine as we have stated it. * God, as a rule, does not 
 actively and directly interfere. In rare and exceptional 
 cases, perhaps He does because He can, but there is no 
 distinct and unquestionable evidence that He does ; the 
 positive here, therefore, admits or includes the negative — 
 perhaps He does not, even in rare and exceptional cases ; 
 then, perliaps He never does in any case. But, if He 
 never does in any case, it seems probable that He cannot. 
 
I I 
 
 80 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVEENMENT. 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 
 :! i! 
 
 :ii^ 
 
 I 
 
 si': 
 
 I!! 
 
 Ah, supposing the universo, as we know it, to be entirely 
 regulated by the operation of unchangeable laws with 
 which no Being does or can interfere. Yes, that seema 
 to be the most reasonable view of the case ; there may 
 have been in the first instance a Creator, indeed, there 
 must have been, in some sense, a First Cause ; and there 
 may be now, as Macaulay says, " a Superior Mind " in 
 some form or sense ; but what we have to do with, and 
 are immediately concerned about, are tlio unchangeable, 
 never failing, eternal laws of universal nature.' 
 
 The conclusion... that the direct exercise of a control- 
 ling and regulating power by the Supreme Being over the 
 temporal affairs of men is, if indeed tliere be any such ex- 
 ercise at any time, of only occasional and rare occurence... 
 appears to us, as we have stated, unsatisfactor3\ But, it 
 may be said. . " The question is as to fact ; and if you 
 admit that the observation of all men, or of nearly all 
 men, has led them to such conclusion — is it not equiva- 
 lent to admitting that the conclusion is, in fact, sound?" 
 To this w^e reply . . No ; because the soundness of the 
 conclusion is not, in the first place, dependent upon the 
 number of the persons who examine the question, but 
 upon the correctness of the process of examination by 
 whicli the conclusion is arrived at. One chemist might 
 perfonn a complex analysis in Organic Chemistiy, and, 
 if he understood, and was attentive to, all the conditions 
 of tlie case, i.e., if he performed tlie analysis correctly, 
 he would obtain the correct result. A thousand or a 
 hundred thousand persons might successively endeavour 
 to perform the same analysis, and, if they all neglected 
 some one or more of the conditions of the case, none of 
 them could obtain the correct result. It is true that 
 when a process is faulty and imperfect, a great number 
 of persons successively engaging in an examination of the 
 same subject are likely to improve the process, and thus 
 eventually arrive at the correct conclusion, each one cor- 
 recting the mistakes and oversights of his predecessors, 
 
 I : 
 
 jj! 
 
 li', I 
 ii; 
 
 I; 
 
80IEN0E OF QOVEBMMKMT. 
 
 31 
 
 and thus eliminating the error. But, this only applies 
 to cases m which the imperfections of the process and 
 the unrehable character of the conclusion is recognized ; 
 because, if it be supposed that the process does not admit 
 of improvement or rariation — and the conclusion remains 
 unchallenged, each one who re-examines the case only 
 repeats his predecessor's mistakes. 
 
 We will now explain the reasons why, as it seems to 
 us, the conclusion so generally arrived at on this momen- 
 tous question is quite unreliable ; and we will endeavour 
 briefly to indicate the most important of those special 
 conditions and interfering causes which it is imperatively 
 necessary to take into consideration in order that the 
 evidence may be correctly estimated and a sound judgment 
 established as to the facts. To commence the examina- 
 tion of the question, we have for a basis the fundamen- 
 tal proposition (a) * by which it is affirmed that God is 
 the Supreme Sovereign over all nations. . . .the Supreme 
 Governor and Arbitrator over the temporal affairs of men 
 as human beings in their present state of existence upon 
 the earth ; and that He, the same Being, is conjointly and 
 independently the Spiritual Head or Father of those men 
 who, as spiritual beings, accept His spiritual rule with 
 the conditions thereof. 
 
 AtRnning as we do, this proposition, it immediately 
 follows (keeping in view tlie particular subject and cha- 
 racter of the enquiry) that any examination of the ques- 
 tion, in which this two-fold relationship of the Supreme 
 (Being to men is not clearly recognized... and in which 
 the complex conditions which must result as consequents 
 are left out of consideration . . cannot lead to a reliable 
 conclusion. For example : — a person, who, not having 
 cognized the primary conditions of the case, examines 
 some of the evidence, reports thus.. 'I can find no 
 uniformity of result to indicate the exercise of a divine 
 
 • Which we have called Gladstone's —(See page 10.)— and which is here 
 aomewbat amplified. 
 
il 
 
 I; 
 
 r 
 
 82 SCIVNCE OF aoYXRMMINT. 
 
 regulating power. If God who is perfectly good, exercise 
 direct and active control over the temporal affairs of men, 
 one might reasonably expect all good men engaged in busi- 
 ness to succeed; and all bad men to fail ; and so, also, 
 some decided difference in favour of comparatively good 
 and just nations, should be apparent.' 
 
 Here, keeping in mind the fundamental proposition, 
 we have, in the first place, to examine the value of the 
 expressions * good ' and ' bad ' respectively in relation to 
 the particular conditions. As the terms good and bad 
 are comparative, let us, for the purpose of the examina- 
 tion, define 'a good man ' compared with ' a bad' or 'a 
 worse man' as, . . he who is most active and thorough in 
 his obedience to the rules and laws of God.* The question 
 here relates to the conditions of man's terrestrial exis- 
 tence. . . .the good man engaged in business who, as a 
 consequence of his good conduct, is expected to be more 
 successful than his comparatively bad neighbour is, as a 
 man in business on earth, related to God as his Supreme 
 1 temporal Governor. What then, in this relation, are the 
 
 rules and laws of God, by active and thorough obedience to 
 
 which his good conduct is to be estimated. Taking for 
 
 granted the laws of the Decalogue as primary, let us enu- 
 
 I merate some of the most important of the secondary rules 
 
 i or laws of God, to which the obedience of the man engaged 
 
 i in business is imperatively required : 
 
 i DlLIQKXCB, SeLF-DbNIAL AND TeMPBRANOB, 
 
 !i pbuaevekkncb, l1bbhality and tolebancb, 
 
 '; Mental Activity, Oockte8y and Charity, 
 
 ;| • Punctuality, Regularity and Method, 
 
 1' Stkiotness in the thokodqh Promotion of Public or 
 |i\l fulfillment of commbr- national works of 
 
 I'l'll CIAL KNaAGBMBNTS. UTILITY. 
 
 Now we say, without doubt or hesitation, that these 
 just enumerated are some of the most important of the 
 forms by strict attention to which a man's active obe- 
 dience, as a man engaged in business, to the rules and 
 commandments of the Supreme temporal Ruler of the 
 
 ♦That is strictly speaking in his endeavour to obey the known rulet 
 
 and laws of God. 
 
 I 
 
 jiUf;' 
 
SCIENCE OE aOVERNMENT. 
 
 33 
 
 Earth must express itself. A man who excels in the 
 thoroughness of his obedience to these rules, or even to 
 most of them, may be correctly considered a compara- 
 tively 'good man' in the terrestrial or material sense 
 merely ; and, on supposition of a direct and active 
 Divine regulation of the temporal affairs of men, the pro- 
 bability, at least, is suggested that he would be con- 
 sidered deserving, and would receive a portion of tliose 
 substantial rewards which belong especially to the ter- 
 restrial life of human beings as men. But it by no 
 means follows that the same man would be, even com- 
 paratively, 'a good man' in a spiritual sense, in 
 that sense from disregard to the expressed wishes of 
 his Maker that he should prefer the higher interests of 
 his spiritual nature to the earthly desires of his bodily 
 nature, and non-compliance with His injunction to 
 prepare himself for a higher state of existence, he miglit 
 be quite undeserving. On the other hand, we may sup- 
 pose a man who had recognized the superior importance 
 of his spiritual interests — had persevered in constant 
 endeavours to fulfill the higher duties of his nature — 
 to overcome his spiritual faults, and to make the re- 
 quired preparation for a higher state of existence, but 
 who, at the same time, had been very inattentive, on 
 merely terrestrial (material) subjects, to the rules and 
 laws of the Supreme temporal Ruler of the earth. In 
 that relationship in which the man, last supposed, had 
 neglected the commandments and requirements of the 
 Judge of all the earth, he could not reasonably expect 
 to be held deserving of those terrestrial rewards which 
 belong especially to that relationship. 
 
 But the visible complexity in the conditions surround- 
 ing the terrestrial existence of the human being, whicli 
 thns becomes apparent, is yet greatly increased when 
 we come to the consideration of the case in which a 
 man, having been attentive and actively obedient in 
 respect to the temporal rules and requirements of his 
 
34 
 
 BCIENCB OF aOVERNMENT. 
 
 r 
 
 i I: 
 
 m 
 
 : i 
 
 'jernstrial existence, becomes awaro that ho has been 
 ueglcclfiil of the higher duties belonging to his roni- 
 pouud nature, and becomes sincerely and earnestly 
 desirous to be instructed and assisted in understanding 
 and liillilling the conditions and requirements attaching 
 to tlie welfare of his spiritual existence. The man, having 
 accepted the primary conditions, earnestly requests ([)rays 
 to) the Spiritual Head, to whom he is told to apply for 
 special instruction and assistance, to guide ami direct 
 him, and to so modify the conditions and circumstances by 
 vvhicli he is surrounded as to facilitate his becoming 
 able to comprehend and fulfil his spiritual duties. Wluit 
 ought the man to reasonably expect, or to be j)repared 
 for, if his earnest request be complied with ? Let us 
 suppose the man to have already learnt that one of the 
 primary conditions is that, whenever there be a conflict 
 of interests, he shall give heed to the welfare of his soul 
 and to the interests of his spiritual existence, in })refer- 
 ence to those interests, and to the indulgence of those 
 desiies, belonging only to his temporal existence. Let 
 us further suppose that to do this practically and effect- 
 ually, although he understands theoretically that it is to 
 be done and wishes to do it, constitutes a preliminary 
 difficulty to him of a very serious (almost insunnountable) 
 character. We will suppose, moreover, that amongst the 
 man'soutlying faults as a spiritual being is a certain amount 
 of personal vanity and of habitual bodily (sensual) indul- 
 gence, and that these faults, although not, perhap>^, com- 
 paratively speaking, by any means great in degree, may be 
 sufficient to bar the way of, or to greatly impede liis pro- 
 gress in spiritual improvement, in the first instance 
 
 These being some of the circumstances of the case, and 
 the man having made his earnest request for especial 
 instruction and assistance, as we have supposed, what 
 should he reasonably expect ? His business affairs go 
 wrong — his favorite schemes miscarry — untoward cir- 
 cumstances of an accidental character whicli he could 
 
 ' !| 
 
SCIENCE OP aoVERNMENT. 
 
 86 
 
 not foresee, occur at the most luifortiinato moment — he 
 sufforx very heavy pecuniary loss — perhaps his business, 
 whieli not long since was apparently sound and flourish- 
 ing, after a succession of disasters comes to an end in 
 bankruptcy. Or, let us suppose — that the man's health, 
 which has been previously almost always good, fails — he 
 becomes sickly — is unable to enjoy his usual bodily 
 comforts and almost unable to attend to business — has 
 a severe illness and only partially recovers with his per- 
 sonal appearance much disfigured. 
 
 Does the man njcognise and accept this as a reason- 
 able answer to his prayer ? If lie has been sincere and 
 fully in earnest, if he has persistence and patience, if he 
 has a dispositfon to trust his Spiritual Guide, and to 
 distrust his own independent judgment, it is most 
 prol)al>le that ho will eventually come to the conclusiou 
 that this was the best and most reasonable answer to 
 his pniyer — that his request had thus been granted in 
 the manner most favorable and advantageous to him. 
 It is, however, very doubtful wliether he would at first 
 thus accept the circumstance ; it is quite probable that he 
 would for some time continue to misunderstand it ; and, 
 not impossible that, dimly understanding it, instead of 
 gratitude, he might feel resentment and discontent — 
 instead of a more earnest desire to go forward, he miglit 
 regret the temerity which had brought him into sucli an 
 unpleasant situation J and, perchance, instead of renewed 
 request for further instruction and guidance, miglit end 
 by prayer to be allowed to return to (the flesh-pots) 1 lie 
 pleasant place he had been acciistoined to, and tlitTt,' to 
 be left to himself. Putting aside, however, the man's 
 own estimate of his own case — his own interpretation of 
 
 the events which had befallen him. what would l)e 
 
 the opinion which the majority of his neighbours woidd 
 be likely to entertain and express about them ? Mr. So 
 and So, has got into all sorts of trouble lately — seems to 
 meet with nothing but misfortunes now — some pcdide 
 
36 
 
 SCIENCE OP aOVERN3IENT, 
 
 think he's getting wrong in the head ; to talk witli him 
 th(iro don't seem to be anything particular the matter, 
 but they say he's got very religious of iate — very serious 
 views about a spiritual existence — just what comes of 
 that sort of superstitious nonsense — used to be a sensible 
 man — pity he could-n't be satisfied with the world as it 
 is, and continue to enjoy himself — anyway those sort of 
 speculations had best be left to the parsons — their busi- 
 ness ; what can people expect who will torment them- 
 sehes with all sorts of visionary fancies instead of beinjr 
 satisfied with their own business ; and — so on. 
 
 This will be sufficient for the present to distinctly 
 indicate the character of the secondary conditions (so to 
 speak) which greatly interfere with and complicate the 
 reasonable result, and which, consequently, render ex- 
 tremely difficult and abstruse an examination which, at 
 first sight, appears to be of a comparatively simple 
 character, not requiring any particular experience and 
 knowledge of the rules of analysis to conduct. 
 
 The Review (10) "Again, 
 
 " National ivill and agency arc indisputably one, binding 
 either a dissentient minority or the subject body, in a manner 
 that nothing but the recognition of the doctrine of national 
 personality can justify. National honour and faith are 
 words in every one's mouth. Hoio do they less imply a 
 personality in nations than the duty towards God, for which 
 we note contend f They are strictly and essentially distinct 
 from the honour and good faith of the individuals cnni' 
 posing the nation. France is a person to us, and ive to 
 her. A ivilful injury done to her is a moral act, and a 
 moral act quite distinct from the acts of all the individuals 
 composing the nation. Upon broad facts like these we 
 may rest, without resorting to the more technical proof 
 which the laws afford in their manner of dealing with 
 corporations. If, then, a nation have unity of to ill, have 
 pervading sympathies, have capability of retvard and suffer- 
 ing contingent upon its acts, shall tve deny its responsibility; 
 
SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT, 
 
 37 
 
 Us need of a religion to meet that responsibility f A 
 
 nation then having a personality, lies under the obligation, 
 Me the individuals comjjosing its governing body, of sanc- 
 tifying the acts of that 2iersonality by the offices of religion, 
 and thus toe have a neiv and imperative ground for the 
 existence of a state religion." 
 
 A new ground we have here, certainly, but whether 
 very imperative may be doubted. Is it not perfectly 
 clear, that this argiuuent applies witli as much force to 
 every combination of human beings for a common pur- 
 pose, as to governments ? Is there any such combina. 
 tion in the world, whether technically a coqioration or 
 not, which has not this collective personality, from 
 which Mr. Gladstone deduces such extraordinary conse- 
 quences? Look at banks, insurance offices, dock 
 companies, canal companies, gas companies, hospitals, 
 dispensaries, associations for the relief of the poor, 
 associations for apprehending malefactors, associations 
 of medical pupils for procuring subjects, associations of 
 country gentlemen for keeping fox-liounds, book socie- 
 ties, benefit socities, clubs of all ranks, from those which 
 have lined Pall MaU and St. James' street with their 
 palaces, down to the Free-and-easy which meets in the 
 shabby parlour of a village inn. Is there a single one of 
 these combinations to which Mr. Gladstone's argument 
 will not ai^ply as well as to the State ? In all these 
 combinations, in the Bank of England, for example, or 
 m the Athena3um club, the will and agency of the society 
 are one, and bind the dissentient minority. The Lank 
 and the Athericeum have a good faith and a justice 
 different from the good faith and justice of the hidivi- 
 dual members. The Bank is a person to those who 
 deposit bullion with it. The Athenct^um is a person to 
 tlie butclier and wine-merchant. If the Atheuceum 
 keeps money at the Bank, the two societies are as much 
 persons to each other as England and France. Either 
 society may pay its debts honestly ; either may try to 
 
38 
 
 SCrENCE OP aOTERNJrENT: 
 
 - 1' 
 
 defrfVTid its creditors ; either may increase in prosperitj^f 
 either may fall into difficulties. If, then, they have tliis 
 unity of will : if tiny are capable of doing and sulfering 
 good and e\-il, can we, to use "Mr. Gladstone's words, 
 '^ deny their responsibility, or their need of a reli;.rion to 
 meet that responsibdity ?" Joint-stock baid<.s, therefore, 
 and clubs, " having a personaliTv lie under the necessity 
 of snnctifying that persoiudity by the offices of re]ij;ion 5'' 
 and thus we have ^'a new and imperative groiuur' for 
 requiring all the directors aud clerks of joint-stock 
 banks, and all tlie mendjers of clubs, to qiudify by taking 
 the sacrament." 
 
 To tlie question at the commencement of Macaulay's 
 
 critical remarks on the foregoing quotation.. '* Is it 
 
 not perfectly clear that this argument appli(,'s with 
 exactly as much force to every combination of hmnan 
 
 beings for a common pui-pose as to governments ? " . 
 
 we have no hesitation in replying, It is not ptnfoctly 
 clear that it so applies, but, on the contrary, it is per- 
 fectly clear that it does not apply with nearly so much 
 force to any of the combinations mentioned by Macaulay ; 
 and to many kinds of combinations or associations it 
 does not apply at all ; for example, a cricket did), a 
 
 chess club, a skating chd), or a dancing club It is 
 
 somewhat strange that Macaiilay's own instance of the 
 " Free-and-easy which meets in the shabby parlour of 
 a village inn," did not suggest to him a suspicion of the 
 mistake he was committing. 
 
 The nature of the mistake we have already pointed 
 out and dwelt upon : — namely, that a combination, 
 association, or club of indi\'iduals, liaving for its object 
 the jiromoting or carrying into effect some one special 
 object, is not analogous to an individual ; it may be con- 
 sidered as having a special personality related to tiiat 
 one object ; but has not a general personality rcdated to 
 all objects, analogous to the general personality of the 
 individuak Now a government has such a general 
 
 .! > 
 
 
 \l 
 
 ! I, 
 
SCIENCE OP GOVERNMNNT. 
 
 39 
 
 personality quite analogous to that of the individual. 
 For illustration, let us take a musical club of associated 
 musicians, individuals each of whom has a fondness for 
 and knowledge of music ; evidently the club will have a 
 persouality in relation to music, it will interest itself in 
 subjects bcdonging to nnisic, it may express opinions 
 and judgments on such subjects which, because of the 
 collective knowledge of the club, will be recogniso<l l)y 
 individual nuisicians and by other musical clul)s as 
 entitled to attention and respect.* No doubt the club 
 as a unit or pei'sonality has a responsibility, but it is a 
 responsibility of a very limited and one-sided character. 
 To entertain the supposition that the responsibililit^s of 
 such a club, or of its president, are exactly analogous to 
 those of a nation, or of the prime minister at the head of a 
 nation, is manifestly unreasonable. To opine tliat a 
 club, the especial object of which is amusement or exer- 
 cise, should employ itself, as such club, in prayer, would 
 be A^ery much equivalent to thinking that an individual 
 man whenever he engages in amusement or physical 
 exercise should be employed in prayer ; which, again, 
 is equivalent to saying that a man ought never to engage 
 in amusement or physical exercise. But, because such 
 a doctrine would be. unreasonable, or as Macaulay ex- 
 presses it absurd, does it therefore follow that it is not 
 reasonable or right for a man to employ any part of his 
 time in prayer and praise ? 
 
 • Macaulay'a rather dangerous method of using the ' nrgumentiim ad 
 ftbsurdum' may be hero applied, b}- supposing the society of as^iociated 
 musicians to give its opinion, aa a musical society, on some difficult case 
 in surgery ; or, ns to which of the two favourite theories of the glacial 
 epoch in Geology is to bo pTcforred. But there would be no absurdity in 
 the same individual, who was a member of the musical society, belonging 
 also to the society of surgeons and to a geological society. And, so like- 
 wise, the government, through its educational duties, is equally related to 
 all such societies; because it is a most important duty of government to 
 supervise and to take care that sound instruction is provided on all sub- 
 jects, in each division of knowledge. 
 
: 
 
 40 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVEENMENT. 
 
 Ill:; 
 
 H 
 
 The Review : — (11) 
 
 " The truth is, that Mr. Gladstone has fallen mto an 
 eiTor very common among men of less talents than his 
 own. It is not unusual for a person who is eager to 
 prove a particular proposition to assume a major of huge 
 extent, which includes that particular proposition, witli- 
 out ever reflecting that it includes a great deal more. 
 The fatal facility with which Mr. Gladstone multiplies 
 expressions stately and sonorous, but of indetennuiate 
 meaning, eminently qualifies him to practise this sleight 
 on himself and on his readers. He lays down broad 
 general doctrines about power, when the only power of 
 vvhicli he is thinking is the power of governments, and 
 about conjoint action, when the only conjoint action of 
 which he is thinking is the conjoint action of citizens in 
 a state. He first resolves on his conclusion. He then 
 makes a tnajor of most comprehensive dimensions, and 
 having satisfied himself that it contains his conclusion, 
 never troubles himself about what else it may contain : 
 and as soon as we examine it we find that it contains an 
 infinite number of conclusions, every one of which is a 
 monstrous absurdity." 
 
 Taking the quotations from the Essay, furnished by 
 Macaulay, to v/hich his remarks are addressed, we opine 
 that his strictures on the method, as well as on the 
 matter, of Mr. Gladstone's argument are quite unfounded ; 
 the conclusions " each of which is a monstrous absur- 
 dity" live not, it is evident, contained in Mr. Gladstone's 
 ■major, nor do they belong at all to those parts of the 
 Essay which Macaulay puts before the reader. 
 
 The Review:— (12) 
 
 ''It is perfectly true that it would be a very good 
 tiling if all the members of all the associations in the 
 world were men of sound religious views. We have no 
 doubt that a good christian wiU be under the guidance 
 of christian principles, in his conduct as director of a 
 canal company or steward of a charity dinner. If ho 
 
 :.ii 
 
SCIENCE OF OOVEKNMENT. 41 
 
 were to recur to a case which we have before put, a 
 member of a stage-coach company, he would, in that 
 capacity, remember that ' a righteous man regardeth 
 the hfe of his beast.' " 
 
 This statement is very noteworthy in connection with 
 the remarks of Macaulay wliich immediately pi'ccede it. 
 It appears to be quite opposed to his argument, and 
 includes logically, as we understand it, an admission 
 that he is wrong in fact. Let us consider it a little 
 attentively. ..." It is perfectly true that". . . .So, then, 
 here is a very positive expression of Macaulay's experi- 
 ence ; — of Macaulay's, whose experience, from special 
 study of the evidence recorded in history, was greater 
 than that of the generality of men. But, if so certainly 
 a very good thing tliat men should hold sound religious 
 views — how can it be absurd for them to profess or to 
 give expression to those views f The contradiction 
 appears to have struck Macaulay himself for the moment, 
 and an explanation is offered in the words : — " But it 
 does not follow that every association of men must, 
 therefore, as such association, profess a religion." Now 
 Mr. Gladstone has not said either directly or inferentially 
 
 that every association of men must;. what he has 
 
 said is that each nation is required to do so, and ought 
 to do so, through its exponent the government. If the 
 object of an association were professedly of a rehgious 
 character, it would be proper for that association to 
 prof(?ss religion; this much Macaulay woiild readily 
 admit. But, therefore, it is neither absurd nor unreason- 
 able for some associations to profess religion. It is right 
 for an individual to profess rehgion, and, at certain 
 times, to give expression to his religious belief by prayer 
 and praise. . . .granted. Then, it is right for a number 
 
 of individuals to do so Then, it is right for a great 
 
 mmiber of individuals, combined or associated as a 
 nation, to do so, and, at certain times, to give expression 
 to the national religious belief by prayer and praise. 
 
42 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 througli tJie responsiblt; exponent and executive of the 
 national personality, which is the government of the 
 nation. 
 
 The technical subject of argument is whether it be 
 riglit for the govornmont of a nation to propngate reli- 
 gious truth. Macaulay has just admitted, or stated in 
 the most decided manner, that it would be a very good 
 thing if all men were of sound religious views. But, 
 then, if some men are of sound religious views, and some 
 men are not, surely it must be right for those who are, 
 knowing it would be better for the others to be so also, 
 to endeavour to persuade and instruct the i>thers. It is 
 quite certain, moreover, that men who are of what 
 Macaulay considers to be, sound religious views, have a 
 decidfid conviction that it is their imperative duty so to 
 act. If, therefore, it be right and an imperative duty 
 for a number of them so to act as individuals — is it not 
 also right and imperative for those men associated 
 together as a nation, or as tlie government of a nation, 
 to act nationally in the same manner ? 
 
 The Review:— (13) 
 
 " It is evident tliat many great and useful objects can 
 be attained in this world only by co-operation. It is 
 equally evident that there cannot be efficient co-opera- 
 tion, if men proceed on the principle that they must not 
 co-operate for one object unless they agree about other 
 objects. Nothing seems to us more beautiful or admir- 
 able in our social system than the facility with which 
 thousands of people, who pei'hnps agree oidy on a single 
 point, can combine their energies for the purpose of 
 carrying that single point. We see daily instances of 
 this. Two men, one of them obstinately prejudiced 
 against missions, the other president of a missionary 
 society, sit together at the board of a hospital, and 
 heartily concur in measures for the health and comfort 
 of the, patients. Two men, one of whom is a zealous 
 upporter and the other a zealous opponent of the sys- 
 
SCTENCE OP GOVERNMENT. 
 
 43 
 
 tern pursused in Lancaster's schools, meet at the mendi- 
 city society, and act together with tlie utmost cordiality. 
 The general rule we take to be undoubtedly this, that 
 it is lawful and expedient for men to unite in an asso- 
 ciation for the pi'oraotiou of a good object, tliough they 
 may dilFor with respect to other objects of still higher 
 importance." 
 
 Tliis section of Macaulay's argument, again, with the 
 examples by which it is supported, appears to us to be 
 quite opposed to his conclusion as to the impractica- 
 bility of men, associtated for the express promotion of 
 some useful object, professing and practising religious 
 truth in common. The agreement on the part of the 
 individuals to combine and to recognise the necessity of 
 charity and self-restraint notwithstanding the diversity 
 of their opinions on many questions, implies a recog- 
 nition also that the knowledge of each individual and the 
 collective knowledge of the society on many questions 
 is limited, uncertain and disorderly ; that nevertheless 
 there is perfect knowledge, certainty and order above 
 and around them ; that it is the duty of each to assist 
 his fellows in those things which both can feel sure are 
 useful and true ; that the useful is in fact distinct from 
 the useless, the riglit from the wrong ; that the God of 
 the useful and right is the Supreme Governor to whom 
 their service is duo ; — that the Governor of till the earth 
 requires and claims their ser\-ices in that which they 
 know to be useful and right. . . .all these belong to reli- 
 gious truth. 
 
 It may perhaps be said — as it luis been said before — 
 ^ it would be much better not to have all these prej u- 
 dices, uncertainties and differences of opinion; if there 
 be a Supreme Governor who has created and now regu- 
 lates the world, and who knows with certainty what is 
 right and true, wliy is it not so arranged that men can 
 clearly luiderstand what is right, and work harmoniously 
 together on all subjects?' This may appear for the 
 
44 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 moment, perhaps, plausible and not unreasonable, but 
 it will be fouiitl, as soon as examined, not really to 
 belong to any argument. If a Creator is not believed in 
 — if the existence of a Supreme Governor is denied, it 
 is evident that such a question will be superfluous and 
 out of place. On the other hand, if the fundamental 
 basis of the argument be a belief in God as the allwise 
 and almighty Creator, or as the Supreme Being whose 
 wisdom and intelligence immensely exceeds that of man ; 
 then, again, such a question, as an argument, is quite 
 out of place and inadmissible. Evidently, the only 
 reasonable conclusion in that case is that the arrangements 
 have been made such as they are for good and sufficient 
 
 reasons Whether men, if left entirely to tliemselves, 
 
 ever could obtain any certain knowledge as to these 
 reasons, may be considered as, at least, very doubtful, 
 because, if human beings are intended for a future and 
 more complete or perfect state of existence, the strong 
 probability that many of the arrangements and conditions 
 to wliich they are now subjected, have reference to that 
 future state, at once suggests itself as containing, at least 
 in some measure, the explanation. In other words, 
 granting a future state of existence, the consideration 
 which immediately suggests itself is whether the present 
 life is not, in its most important aspect, an educational 
 process, a scholastic training and practical prejiaration 
 for that which is to follow. The advantages, immense 
 advantages, conferred by the existing arrangements as 
 the conditions of such an educational process, are not, as 
 it seems to us, by any means difficult to understand in 
 a general sense, nore ven to appreciate, in some degree, 
 
 as to their special adaptation The individual man 
 
 finds that to effect any useful purpose he must not 
 isolate himself, must not exclusively indulge his own 
 ■desires and act according to his own opinions only — ^he 
 must combine and associate with his fellows. He soon 
 finds that all his opinions are not equally certain — that 
 
SCIENCE OP GOVERNMENT. 45 
 
 many of them require to be modified, some of them to 
 be changed — that only a few of the opinions lie at first 
 held wore such that he could bo reasonably certain as 
 to their truth and soundness. lie observes that this is 
 the case not only of himself but equally so of others. 
 Hence, he learns the necessity of tolerance and tem- 
 perance in order that men may act together and assist 
 each other in association. He finds, after a time, that 
 whilst he has become more distrustful of his individual 
 judgment on majiy questions, on some few he has 
 become more assured and certain. He finds that those 
 few of his opinions, wlienever attacked, have been 
 supported by his reason and instead of being weakened 
 have become stronger and more firmly held. He expe- 
 riences a particular satisfaction in having retained these 
 opinions, and feels that if he had agreed to give up or 
 modify them he would have done wrong j he observes, 
 therefore, that reasonable tolerance, temperance, and 
 conciliation, do not necessitate or justify the giving up, 
 on the part of the individual, those opinions, which he, 
 after very careful comparison with the opinions of 
 otlKTs, still believes to be right. Hence, he learns the 
 difficulty of acquiring sound knowledge ; and learns, 
 also, that with persistent care and diligence progress in 
 such acquisition is assured. He finds, as he grows older, 
 the number of questions upon which his mind feels the 
 assurance of certainty are continually, although it may 
 be very slowly, increasing, and that the firmness with 
 which he holds such convictions is becoming continually 
 greater. He observes that this is also true in the case 
 of other individuals ; that it holds true in respect to 
 communities of associated individuals ; that it is not 
 confined to the terrestrial life of separate individuals but 
 applies also to nations ; that the traditional and recorded 
 experience of nations is in agreement with his own 
 practical experience of individual life ; that History is 
 essentially a record of the same educational process — the 
 
4G 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 advantages of asso(;iati()ii — tli<! s(!ir!shness and dogmatism 
 of ignorance — tlie ne 'essity of submission to discipline and 
 orderly government — -tiio increasing prefenincc^ fur rea- 
 sonable argument, and reliance on reasonable judgment 
 in place of violence, as a means of deciding diiferences, — 
 the evils of conflict arising from self-assertion and aggres- 
 sion gradually recogniz(Ml — international agreement and 
 peaceful settlement of many disputes, arising from such 
 agreement. And, also, .... the evil conserpiences of sub- 
 mitting to recognized wrong — the necessity of npholding 
 the freedom of reasonable judgment and of resisting to 
 the utmost the tyranny of human interference with the 
 reasonable freedom of tbo mind. 
 
 The Review:— (14) " It will hardly be denied that 
 the security of the persons and property of men is a 
 good object, and tlaat the best way, indeed the only 
 way, of promoting that object is to combine men 
 together in certain great corporations which are called 
 states. These corporations are very variously, and, for 
 the most part, veiy imperfectly organized. Jlany of 
 them abound with frightful abuses. But it seems rea- 
 sonable to believe that the W(n-st that ever existed was, 
 on the whole, preferable to complete anarchy." 
 
 "Now, reasoning from analogy, we should say that those 
 great corporations would, like all other associations, be 
 likely to attain their end most perfectly if that end were 
 kept singly in view ; and that to refuse the services of 
 those who are admirably qualified to promote that end, 
 because they are not also qualified to promote some other 
 end, however excellent, seems at first sight as unreason- 
 able as it would be to provide that nobody who was not a 
 fellow of the Society of Antiquaries should be a governor 
 of the Eye Infirmary ; or that nobody who was not a 
 member of the Society for promoting Christianity among 
 the Jews should be a trustee of the literary fund." 
 
 Some amongst the most important duties of a govern- 
 ment are not included amongst those enumerated by 
 
 il 
 
 
 1 h 
 
SCIENCE OF aoVERNMENT. 47 
 
 Macaulay a few pages back. ; thus, the provision of sound 
 education (a duty second to none other in iniportanct;) is 
 not mentioned. . . .tlie duty of the government, us a per- 
 sonaUty, to afford an example * to tlio governed is not spe- 
 cified. Nevertheless, of " some of the duties of a govern- 
 ment" four are specified, and of those four " the security 
 of persons and property" is but one. How is it tliat, in 
 in tlu! I'oregoing remarks, Macaulay assumes that the duties 
 of government consist wholly and solely in providing for 
 the security of persons and property ? " It will hardly be 
 denied that the security of the persons and property of 
 men is a good object, and that the best way, indeed tho 
 only way, of promoting that object, is to combine men 
 togetlier in certain great corporations called states." 
 Such associations of men merely for the protection of life 
 and property are not unknown in some countries, they 
 are called, however, not states, but coimnittees of safety, 
 or by some such title. 
 
 ]\Iacaulay proceeds to express a decided opinion upon 
 the subject of argument : '' ^^^(J should say that those great 
 corporations would, like ail other associations, be likely 
 to attain tlieir end most perfectly if that end were kept 
 singly in view." Which, taken in conjunction with what 
 follows it, must be understood to mean that those '^reat 
 coq)oration8 called states ouglit to have nothing to do 
 with religion, and that persons might be well qualified to 
 take part in the government albeit tliey had no I'eligious 
 beliel' wliatever, nor professed to have any. 
 
 To this opinion Vv'e, for ourselves, oppose a decidedly 
 opposite opinion : — We say that it is essentially the bu- 
 siness of states to have to do with religion, and that the 
 persons alluded to would not be reasonably qualified to 
 take part in the government of the country. We should 
 
 * An example of respect to tTie law,....of ftttention to religioug duties,. ..of 
 
 firmness and strict regard to honour of tolerance and tenn/erance of 
 
 charity, .and of honesty in the strictest sense. 
 
Ill 
 
 48 
 
 SCIENCE OP OOVERNMENT. 
 
 liavn 110 coiifKlenco whatever in the loyalty of such per- 
 sons citlu^r to the liead of tlie government or to the nation ; 
 we think, moreover, they would inevitably briiii,' the 
 State into trouble. Tlie quotations from the Essay, which 
 Macaulay has put before tlie reader, make it appear tluit 
 Mr, (iladstone's opinion was much the same as we have 
 exiircssed for ourselves. We do not suppose that tlie 
 repeated statement or reiteration of these opinions, merely 
 as opinions, can reasonably help the argument much, 
 but if repeatedly expressed on the one side, it is 
 as well that they should be similarly opposed on the 
 other. 
 
 The Review : — (15) " It is impossible to name any 
 collection of human beings to which Mr. Gladstone's rea- 
 sonings would apply more strongly than to an army. 
 Where shall we find more complete unity of action than 
 in an army ? Where else do so many human beings im- 
 plicitly obey one ruling mind ? What other mass is there 
 which moves so much like one man ? Where is such tre- 
 mendous power intrusted to those who command ? 
 Where is so awful a responsibility laid upon them ? If 
 Mr. Gladstone has made, as he conceives, an imperative 
 necessity for a State Religion, much more has he made it 
 out to be imperatively necessary that every army should, 
 in its collective capacity, profess a religion. Is he pre- 
 pared to adopt this consequence t 
 
 " On the morning of the tliirteenth of August, in the 
 year 1704, two great captains, equal in authority, united 
 by close private ana public ties, but of different creeds, 
 prepared for a Dattle, on the event of which were staked 
 the liberties of Europe, Marlborough had passed a part 
 of the night in prayer, and before daybreak received the 
 sacrament according to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
 land. He then hastened to join Eugene who had proba- 
 bly just confessed himself to a popisli priest. Tlie gene- 
 rals consulted together, formed their plans in concert, 
 and repaired each to his own post. Marlborough gave 
 
 i' 
 
KCIENCE 01' GOVKRNMENT. 
 
 49 
 
 orders for public prayers. The English clijiphiins j-cad 
 the service at the head of the English regiments. 'J'he 
 Calvinistic oliaplains of the Dutch army, with htuids on 
 which hand of Bishop liad never been laid, poured forth 
 their supplications in front of their countrymen. In 
 the meantime, the Danes might listen to tlieir lutiieran 
 ministers ; and Capucliins might encourage the Austrian 
 squadrons, and pray to tlie Virgin for a blessing on the 
 amis of tiie Holy Roman Empire. The battle commences. 
 These men of various religions all act like members of 
 one body. The Catholic and tlie Protestant generals exert 
 themselves to assist and to surpass each other. Bi'fore 
 sunset the Emnire is savc^d : France has lost in a day the 
 fruits of eighty years of intrigue and of victory : and the 
 allies, after conquering together, return thanks to God 
 separately, each after his own form of worship. Now 
 is this practical atheism ? Would any man in his senses 
 say, that, because the allied army had unity of action 
 and a conwnon interest, and because a heavy responsi- 
 bility lay on its chiefs, it was, therefore, imperatively 
 necessary that the army should, as an army, have one 
 established religion, that Eugene should be deprived of 
 his command for being a Catholic, that all the Dutch and 
 Austrian Colonels should be broken for not subscril)ing 
 the thirty-nine Articles ? Certainly not. The most igno- 
 rant grenadier on the field of buttle would have seen the 
 absurdity of such a proposition. * 1 know,' he would 
 have said, ' that the prince of Savoy goes to mass, and 
 that our Corporal John cannot abide it ; but what has 
 the mass to do with the taking of the village of Blenheim? 
 The prince wants to beat the French, and so does Cor- 
 poral John. If we stand by each other we shall most 
 likely beat them. If we send all the papists and Dutch 
 away, Tallard will have every man of us.' 
 
 Mr. Gladstone himself, we imagine, would admit 
 that our honest grenadier would have the best of the 
 argument ; and if so, what follows ? Even this ; that all 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVEBNMENT. 
 
 lilt 
 
 Mr. Gladstone's general principles about power, and 
 responsibility, and personality, and conjoint action, must 
 be given up, and that if his theory is to stand at all it 
 must stand on some other foundation." 
 
 An example and illustration more distinctly adverse 
 and more potently damaging to his own case, than 
 that which is here put before the reader by Macau- 
 lay, could scarcely be desired by an opponent desirous to 
 make the fallacy of that case clearly apparent. In refer- 
 ence to the first paragraph, we do not think that a more 
 imperative necessity for ;i religious profession by an army 
 than by a Government lias bebn made out. We do not 
 think the statements of Mr. Indstone, quoted from the 
 Essay, include such an assertion. We should, indeed, 
 consider the army as the servant or instrument of the 
 Executive Government, and the commanding officers of 
 the army as a part of the Government. If therefore, it 
 be established that it necessarily belongs to a good 
 Government to have and profess religious truth, it fol- 
 lows that an army should luive and profess religious 
 truth ; that it should have confidence in the justice of the 
 cause it is to fight for, and it should recognize its depen- 
 dance upon the the Source of life, the Giver of victory, 
 the Supreme Arbiter, for strength, valour and success; 
 and that it should give expression to such recognition by 
 ofienng prayer and praise. 
 
 The astonishing characteristic of the example which 
 follows the pai'agra[)h, as an example chosen by ]\Iucaulay, 
 is that the advantage or nt^cessity of ' the profession by 
 an army of a religion ' is thi.'rein most fully recognized 
 and clearly exemplified. The generals, of the two 
 arnii( s, respectively pass the night previous to the battle 
 in 2)iayer, and at daybreak perform the most solemn 
 religi(Mis rite ; each according to the ceremonial provided 
 by his church. Services are then read at the head of the 
 regiments ; prayers are offered on the field, in which aU 
 the soldiers in each of the united armies take part, accord- 
 
SCIENCE or GOVEBNMENT. 
 
 51 
 
 ing to the respective formulas and ceremonials of their 
 churcli. Then the battle takes place. "These men" 
 who have their differences of opinion and belong to dif- 
 ferent religious systems, but who agree in professing 
 religion and in expressing tlieir religion in prayer "all 
 'act like memb(;rs of one body." The Catholic and Pro- 
 testant generals " exert themselves to assist and surpass 
 each otht?r." What is the result? A great victory. 
 Having gained the victory, was that an end of their 
 religiitus ^^rofession ? Had it been merely a superstitious 
 fomiul ctM-emony, or did the men (including the grenadier) 
 who were, like other men, able to think for themselves^ 
 think that their prayers had been answered ? Is therc 
 any evidence whether or not they thought it absurd to 
 connect the fact of having gained the victory ^vith the 
 prayers they had offered ? Macaulay himself answers 
 this question ; " the allies, aftei conquering togetlier, 
 return thanks to God etich separately after his own form 
 of worship." After thus answering the question with 
 the utmost distinctness, Macaulay, without any contra- 
 dicting evidence wliatever to support the assumption, 
 assumes that the men, who had prayed before the battle 
 and returned thanks to God after the victory, really con- 
 sidered it absurd to suppose that their prayers and the 
 victor}'^ had any reasonable cormection. The grenadier 
 who is supposed to see the absurdity of the supposition 
 asks accordingly : " What has the mass to do with the 
 taking of Blenheim ?" To complete the singular inversion 
 of reasoning exhibited in this seetiou of the argumeut, 
 Macaulay imagines that Mr. Gl.idstoue himself will ap- 
 prove the opinion of the grenadier. We believe it would 
 be, on the whole, very diflicult to niiitch the elaborate 
 inconsequence of this part of Macaulay's essay written, 
 as it is, with all the advantages of that literary nrt of 
 which the distinguished liistorian was so great a master. 
 In the paragraph immediately succeeding this, ]\[acaulay 
 seems to be at cross purposes with Mr. Gladstone. Tiie 
 
il 
 
 62 
 
 SCIENCE OP aoVEBNMENT. 
 
 latter has said, as we understand it, that in order to de- 
 termine theoretically what the duties of a Government 
 are, it is necessary to sujipose a Govemment wliich has 
 been made as nearly per.fect as hmnan knowledge will 
 enable men to make it ; in considering the application 
 of the propositions, such an abstract Government, and 
 not an existing actual Government, should be chosen. 
 This Macaulay misunderstands, unless we are mistaken, 
 as an assertion, on the part of Mr. Gladstone, that 
 good Governments are perfect, and a demand that bad 
 Governments shall be made good. 
 
 The Review continues: — (IG) "We do not, however, 
 admit that, if a Government were, for all its temporal 
 ends, as perfect as human frailty allows, such a Govern- 
 ment would, therefore, be necessarily qualified to propa- 
 gate true religion. For we see that the fitness of 
 Governments to propagate true religion is by no means 
 proportioned to their fitness for the temporal end of 
 their institution. Looking at individuals, we see that 
 the princes under whose rule nations have been most 
 ably protected from foreign and domestic disturbance, 
 and have made the most rapid advance's in civilization, 
 have been by no means good teachers of divinity. Take, 
 for example, the best French sovereign, Henry the 
 Fourth, a king who restored order, terminated a terrible 
 civil wai*) brought the finances into an excellent condi- 
 tion, made his country respected throughout Europe, 
 and endeared himself to the great body of tlie people 
 whom he ruled. Yet this man was twice a Huguenot, 
 and twice a Papist. He was, as Davila hints, stnnigly 
 suspected of having no religion at all, in theory, and 
 was certainly not \nnch under religious restraint, in his 
 practice. Take the Czar Peter, the Empress Catherine, 
 Frede«rick the Great. It will surely not be disputed 
 that these sovereigns, with all their faults, were, if we 
 consider them with reference merely to the temporal 
 ends of Govemment, above the average of merit. Con- 
 
 
SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 53 
 
 sidered as theological guides, Mr. Gladstone would 
 probably put them below tlie most abject drivellers of 
 the Spanish branch of the house of Bourbon." 
 
 Here we find again the confusion of the religious system 
 
 of a sect with true theology or religious truth ; and the 
 
 confusion of pohtical or temporal theology with spiritual 
 
 theology. Macaulay's own estimate of the potentates 
 
 ho mentions is that, with all their faults, they were, if 
 
 v/e consider them with reference merely to tlie temporal 
 
 ends of Government, above the average of merit. But 
 
 in so far as they vi^ere above the average of merit so 
 
 were they more perfectly fulfdling their duty to the 
 
 Supreme temporal Governor of the earth, and were, by 
 
 their lives and conduct, practically exemplifying and 
 
 teaching His rules. As teachers of spiritual theology it 
 
 is very likely that they were none of them ([ualihed, 
 
 either by the necessary knowledge or by the desire to 
 
 obtain that knowledge ; although in the case of Henry 
 
 the Fourth, it seems by no means a safe but a very rash 
 
 inference that because, under the circumstances which 
 
 then obtained, he twice changed his membership from 
 
 the religious system of the Huguenots to the Papal 
 
 system, and "vice versa," he was therefore a bad 
 
 teacher of theology. Evidently, however, Macaulay 
 
 nere loses sight of the question in controversy which is... 
 
 whether a very good (abstract) government ouglit, as 
 
 one of its duties and functions, to profess and practice 
 
 reFigion ; Mr. Gladstone's Essay does not state that all 
 
 monarchs or all Governments have so done, but argues 
 
 and teaches that they should do so. 
 
 Macaulay brings under observation the recorded origins 
 of various Governments which, according to history, con- 
 solidated their power and became more or less penuiuient. 
 The Review. (17) " A nation of barbarians ]>ours 
 down on a rich and unwarlike empire, enslaves the 
 people, portions out the land, and blends the institutions 
 which it finds in the cities with those which it has 
 brought from the woods. " 
 
h 
 
 54 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOTERNMENr. 
 
 :f If 
 
 " A handful of daring adventurer.s from a civilized nation 
 wanders to some savage country, and reduces the abori- 
 ginal race to bondage. A successful general turns his 
 arms against the state which he serves. A society, made 
 brutal by oppression, rises madly on its masters, sweeps 
 away all old laws and iisages, and when its first parox- 
 ysm of rage is over, sinks down passively under any 
 form of polity, which nuiy spring out of the chaos. A 
 chief of a party, as at Florence, becomes imperceptibly 
 a sovereign, and the founder of a dynasty. A captain of 
 mercenaries, as at Milan, seizes on a city, and by the 
 sword makes himself its ruler. An elective senate, as at 
 Venice, usurps permanent and hereditary power." 
 
 So that if we consider the terrestrial existence of 
 human beings as an educational process, we have here 
 evidence that the conditions surrounding that existence 
 have in respect to the form of government been greatly 
 varied, and that occasionally the form of a government 
 has been changed by violence. Thus furnishing occa- 
 sion for a fresh set of experiences. Macaulay proceeds 
 to discuss the subject of persecution in, what he considers 
 to be, its relation to tlie general subject of argument, but 
 here again he has, it seems to us, confounded the unjus- 
 tifiable and tyrannical enforcement, by persecution, of the 
 opinions and prejudices of a set of human beings upon 
 their fellow men, with the wholesome and necessary 
 restraint, by punishment, from neglect of tlioso rules and 
 laws upon which the safety and well-being of states is 
 dependent, which last is part of the especial duty of a 
 government. 
 
 The Review : — (18) " If the relation in which govern- 
 ment ought to stand to the people b6, as Mr. Gladstone 
 teUs us, a paternal relation, we are irresistibly led to the 
 conclusion that persecution is justifiable. For the right of 
 propagating opinions by punishment is one wliich belongs 
 to parents as clearly as the right to give instruction. A 
 boy is compelled to attend family worship : he is forbid- 
 
SCIENCE OP GOVERNMENT. 
 
 55 
 
 den to read irreligious books : if he will not learn his 
 catechism, he is sent to bed without his supper : if he 
 plays truant at church time, a ttisk is set him. If he 
 should display the precocity of his talents by expressing 
 impious opinions before his brothers and sisters, we 
 should not blame his father for cutting short the contro- 
 versy with a horse-whip." 
 
 We have no doubt, that the relation of the good govern- 
 ment to the subjects of tliat government is patenml ; (*) 
 and that the illustration furnished by Macaulay of the 
 father correcting his son by the infliction of bodily sulFer- 
 ing does apj)ly to the judicial and necessary correction of 
 the subject by the government, (t) If one is riglit, as 
 Macaulay admits it to be, why not the other ?. .. Where 
 is the essential difference between them ? A boy is pre- 
 vented, by means of punishment on the part of liis father, 
 from injuring his brothers andsistersby the expression of 
 impious opinions. This is right. Why, then, is it not 
 right for a man to be prevented, by punishment on the 
 part of a government, from injuring his fellow subjects in 
 a similar manner ? 
 
 A boy is forbidden to read irreligious books, and is 
 compelled to attend family worship. Granting that this 
 is right and proper on the part of the father towards the 
 boy, wherefore is a similar course of conduct on the part 
 of the government towards the man (the governed) under 
 its guardianship and care, wrong ? If a boy will not 
 learn his catechis'a he is sent to bed without supper. . 
 This compulsory education is quite approved in respect 
 
 (*) The relation of a ^ood government as a personality, to the governed 
 as a per3onality, includes the relation of the more highly developed 
 intelligence to the less highly developed, of the better educated to tlie less 
 educated, of wisdom acquired by the training of study and experience tc 
 the comparative simplicity and ignorance of the untrained ; a relationship 
 essentially similar to that of the man to the boy. 
 
 (t) It is quite true that a government is not justified in exercising tyran- 
 nical restraint and punishment on the governed ; but, what Macaulay fails 
 to observe is that, the parent is also not justified in the exercise of unneces- 
 sary restraint and punishment on his boy. 
 
56 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 :,i 
 
 ' 15: 
 
 to the boy, but is considered to have no reasonable appli- 
 cation to the case of the man. 
 
 The Eeview :^(19) All the reasons which lead us to 
 think that parents are peculiarly fitted to conduct the 
 education of tlieir children, and that the education is the 
 principal end of a parental relation, lead us also to tliink 
 that parents ought to be allowed to use punislnneut if 
 necessary, for the purpose of forcing children, who are 
 incapable of judging for themselves, to receive reliuious 
 instruction and to attend religious service. Why, then, 
 is this prerogative of punishment, so eminently paternal, 
 to be withlield from a paternal government ? " 
 
 To which the only reasonable answer appears to be... 
 Wliy ? The inconsequential conclusion, which Macaulay 
 again arrives at, is here occasioned, as before, by con- 
 founding mere conjectures, undemonstrated opinions, and 
 uncertain judgments, which may be sound or unsound, 
 with tliat certain and assured knowledge which is estab- 
 lished as true. 
 
 The Reviewer enquires. . . (20) " What reason can be 
 given for lianging a murderer, and suffering a heresiarch 
 to escape without even a pecuniary mulct ? Is the here- 
 siarcli a less pernicious member of society than the mur- 
 derer ? Is not the loss of one soul a greater evil than the 
 loss of many lives ? And the number of murders com- 
 mitted by the most profligate bravo that ever let out his 
 poniard to hire in Italy, or by the most savage buccaneer 
 that ever prowled on the windward station, is small 
 indeed, when compared with the number of souls which 
 have been caught in the meshes of the dexterous here- 
 siarch. If, then, the heresiarch causes infinitely greater 
 evils than the murderer, why is he not as proper an 
 object of penal legislation as the murderer ? We can 
 give a reason, a reason short, simple, decisive and consis- 
 tent. We do not extenuate tlie evil which the heresiarch 
 produces : but we say that it is not evil of that sort 
 against which it is the end of government to guard. 
 
 I I 
 
 I: 
 
RCIENCE OF OOVERNMENT. 57 
 
 But how Mr. Gladstone, who considers the evil which 
 the heresiarch produces as evil of tlie sort against which 
 it is the end of government to guard, can escape from the 
 obvious consequences of liis doctrine, we do not under- 
 stand." 
 
 But what if the teaching of the heresiarcli be sucli that 
 it will, by its effects, jeopardize the lives and property of 
 his fellow subjects ! To guard the lives and property of 
 the governed, is expressely stated by Macaulay in one 
 place to be one of the ends of civil government, and in 
 anotlier place to be the sole end of government... and 
 yet, liere is a man openly putting in jeopardy those lives 
 and property, and the govermuent is to look on with 
 folded hands and not venture to interfere. What is a 
 heresiarch! A man who teaches heresy. Yes, but what 
 is heresy? Macaulay fails to observe that, m this question 
 is contained the difficulty. No reason, in our judgment, 
 has been given, nor do we suppose that any can be given, 
 why a just; and good government is not to consider itself 
 bound to restrain by punishment and other suitable means 
 of prevention an actual heresiarch ; but there are very 
 grave reasons indeed why a human government should not 
 constitute itself, in the first place, the judge of unsettled 
 controversial questions of great difhculty and then pro- 
 ceed, on its ow^n judgment, to pronounce some particu- 
 lar teacher a heresiarch, and to subject him thereupon to 
 persecution. In so doing the government would contra- 
 vene tliat Divine Law, which forbids any human being to 
 impose by force or fraud his unapproved judgment upon 
 his fellow-man. In acting in such a manner the govern- 
 ment might be, not improbably, restraining the so-called 
 heresiarch from teaching the truth and be thus impeding, 
 instead of assisting, the progress of sound theology. This 
 is very clearly stated by Mr. Gladstone as quoted by 
 the Reviewer. — (21.) 
 
 " Wc, as fallible creatures, says Mr. Gladstone, have no 
 right, from any hare speculations of our oion, to administer 
 
58 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 2iains and pmalt'ws to our fellow creatures, ivJicthcr on social 
 or rclifjious (/rounds. We have the right to enforce the laws 
 of t/te land hy such pains and penalties, because it is 
 expressly given hy Him who has declared that the civil 
 rulers are to hear the sword for the punishment of evil- 
 doers, and for the encouragement of them that do well. 
 And so, in things spiritual, had it pleased God to give to 
 the Church or the State this poiver, to be permanently exer- 
 cised over their members, or mankind at large, we should 
 have the right to use it; but it does not appear to have been 
 so received, and, consequently, it should not be exercised." 
 
 Beciiuse the civil rulers are to bear the sword for the 
 punislunent of evil-doers, and for the encouragement of 
 them that do ivell ; therefore the laws of the land, if 
 they be just laws, are based upon and are applications 
 of tliat knowledge which is established as approved and 
 sound. When this is understood it becomes apparent 
 that the just civil laws are, if not primarily then second- 
 arily, belonging to religious truth.* The question then 
 becomes, how much of established religious truth in any 
 given country is included in and with the civil laws ? 
 "Whether all the religious truth is included which can 
 be and which, being established, ought to be included. 
 
 Macaulay proceeds to charge Mr. Gladstone with 
 teaching in his Essay that it is the duty of the British 
 Government to exclude Protestant dissenters and those 
 ot his fellow subjects professing the Roman Catliolic 
 system from any share in the government of the Jiation. 
 In the quotations before us from the Essay we find 
 nothing to sustain or support such a charge ; seeing 
 how frequently and entirely Macaulay has mistaken the 
 meaning conveyed in those portions of the Essay wliich 
 he has quoted, it is not too much to suppose tliat this 
 
 • It may bo said that much civil law is of human arrangement; but, if 
 thelawa becertainly just and true, this is merely saying that tlioy are divine 
 in a secondary degree ; because, if just and true, they must be derived from 
 Him upon whose justice and truth they are baaed. 
 
THIOLOQY AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 69 
 
 charge may be founded more or less upon similar misun- 
 derstanding. For ourselves, we have not the Essay 
 itself before us, neither are we desirous in this connection 
 to consult it, or to refer directly to it. The [larticular 
 question for consideration (namely the charg*!), here 
 brouglit forward, is upon an actual case having locality 
 and vitality, belonging to an existing nation and sur- 
 rounded therefore with particular national condUions; 
 here, therefore, is an elcMuent, belonging certainly to 
 reason but not to abstract reasoning, whicli may 
 interfere witii and determine the reasonable decision. 
 We say that, in the reasonable decision of any such 
 national question, National Expediency must be allowed 
 its due weiglit, that is, allowed to exercise its appointed 
 and salutary influence. A decided opinion on the par- 
 ticular abstract case, here innnediately involved, is 
 included in the positive opinions on the more gcMieral 
 abstract case which we have already put before tlie 
 reader, and can be readily given. The differences of 
 opinion between the Anglican Evangelical Church, 
 Protestant dissenters or Non-conformists, and Roman 
 Catholics are not of such a kind that those belonging to 
 the one religious system have any abstract right, founded 
 upon Divine Law or reason, to exclude those belonging to 
 either of the other systems from taking an active part in 
 the government. Not having primarily such abstract 
 right they cannot become possessed of an exclusive right 
 as inherent in themselves, in their doctrines or system ; 
 but expediency may determine the nation to confer such 
 right upon them to hold and to exercise for the nation, 
 and such right may be secured to them by the nation, 
 in the interests and for the welfare and security of the 
 nation. 
 
 Those who read on to the end of the Review will find 
 that the determining influence of national expediency in 
 d aiding a question of this kind is recognized by Ma- 
 
 ulay to the fulleat extent. With his final judgment on 
 
 ! 13 
 
60 
 
 THEGI/OaT AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I 
 
 1 'i 
 
 Hi' 
 
 i! I 
 
 I 
 
 1 ' 
 
 this particular case, decided as it is by considerations of 
 nutioiiiil expediency, we in a great measure concur. The 
 statement of liis decision, liowever, is preceded by Ma- 
 caulay's own estimate of the merits and demerits of the 
 Anglican Evangelical Church, and, as that estimate belongs 
 to the linal decision, we will put before the reader the 
 whole of his conclusion on this particular case in his 
 own words, accompanied with observations of our own 
 in answer to certain passages of the estimate from which 
 we strongly dissent. 
 
 The Rkvikw: — (22) " On these principles we conceive 
 that a statesman, who might be far indeed from regarding 
 the Church of England with the reverence which Mr. Glad- 
 stone feels for her, might yet firmly oppose all attempts to 
 destroy her. Such a statesman may be too well acquaint- 
 ed with her origin to look upon her with superstitious awe. 
 He may know that she sprang from a compromise hud- 
 dled up between the eager zeal of reformers and the sel- 
 selfislmess of greedy, ambitious and time-serving poli- 
 ticians." 
 
 Now this is untrue ; and it is difficult to help con- 
 demning it as untrue in the worst sense: it is very diffi- 
 cult to assume that when Macaulay wrote this he did 
 not know wliat he was writing to be untrue. . . Leav- 
 ing the strictly religious nature of the suljject for the 
 moment aside, the statement is not creditable to Macau- 
 lay as a man of letters, as a man of ability and industry, 
 as a historian. It is not true in fact that she sprang from 
 <a compromise huddled up ; on the contrary, her foun- 
 diitions were laid with calm deliberation, with patient 
 study, with earnest devotion to the great work entrusted 
 them, by men of learning and of great ability, by men 
 eager and zealous no doubt, but wlio understood how to 
 combine eagerness witli patience and to temper zeal with 
 moderation. It is probable there are many highly educated 
 men, well qualified to judge, who consider the church 
 of England the grandest institution of modern times. 
 
 if 
 
TnEOLOOT AND 00VERN5IENT. 
 
 61 
 
 There can be but few disposed to deny that she h, at 
 least, one of the greatest of modem institutions. And 
 are the men wlio assisted to lay the foundations of this 
 noble edifice;. . . who helped to plant and nourish the 
 young tree which has since spread its branches far and 
 wide, and borne so much goodly fruit. . . are Clarendon, 
 Chillingworth, Hooker, Stillingfleet, Gudwoith, Taylor, 
 and tlieir worthy coadjutors and fellow labourers, to bo 
 consigued to oblivion as men wliose eager zeal was con- 
 tent to huddle up a compromise with greedy time-serving 
 politicians? , . as men who deserve no remembrance 
 and gratitude, no praise and reverence from those wlio 
 now enjoy in security and peace the full benefits of the 
 work which they accomplished amidst anxiety, danger 
 and excitement ? 
 
 The Review : — " He may find in every page of her 
 annals ample cause for censure." 
 
 But where are the annals in eveiy page ofwliich he 
 may not find cause for censure yet more ample ? What 
 was that human institution, if so be its existence was a 
 living, active, developing existence, of which the true 
 annals, if scrutinized with a severely censorious eye, will 
 not alFord in every page ample cause for censure I Does 
 not every portion of every single human life furnish cause 
 for censure ! . . . How then can a living institution, the 
 life of which is compounded of the lives of individuals, be 
 free from cause of censure I 
 
 The Review : — " He may feel that he could not, with 
 ease to his conscience, subscribe all her articles." 
 
 Great numbers of good men and true have subscribed 
 her articles ; surely it is very hard to suppose that the 
 consciences of tliose men who bave, were less strict on an 
 average than the consciences of tliose who have not so 
 subscribed. We are not disposed to allow that the men 
 who have subscribed were, man for man, less honest, less 
 loyal, sincere and true, than the men who have not. But 
 which church or what individual has succeeded in fram- 
 
62 
 
 THEOLOOY AND OOVEHNMENT. 
 
 V 
 
 Ml 
 
 r 
 
 ing articlos of faith which ovory out! ('fin siil)srribe with 
 an easy conscience? Is any one al)le to draw ii[> arti(!le8 
 on a subject other than that of religion, on [lolitical 
 economy, for instance, on legal adniinistratidu, or on 
 national finance,. . .articles setting forth positive ()i)ini()ns 
 or absolute beliefs, on a nuinbtn* of dirticult ((ucvstions 
 relating to either of those general subjects, sin'h that, 
 of a great number of persons, each can honestly sub- 
 scribe them all as true and precise statements of his 
 own individual convictions on each and all of those ques- 
 tions ? 
 
 Thk Review. — " He may regret that all the attempts 
 which liave been made to open her gates to large classes 
 of non-ronformists should have failed." 
 
 He ni.iy rejoice that her frontiers extend far and wide, 
 and that she can accommodate so great a multitude of 
 honest and zealous men, with their differences of opi- 
 nion on mutters of minor importance, witliin her terri- 
 tory. He may rejoice that there is room within for all 
 who wish to enter; that her gates are wide; and that 
 those within are ready to welcome those without. 
 
 The Review : — " Her episcopal policy he may consi- 
 der as of purely human institution. He camiot defend 
 her on the ground that she possesses the apostolical suc- 
 cession : for he does not know whether that succession may 
 not be altogether a fable." 
 
 He may examine her prayer book, and finding therein 
 reliable evidence of direct inspiration, he may conclude 
 that tlie continuity of apostolical succession prior to the 
 time of tlie prayer book is not a matter of any particular 
 importance. He would, we say, reasonably conclude 
 that tlie distinct approval or re-institution of a church by 
 the Supreme Head at any particidar time suffices to re- 
 move all uneasiness as t(j irregularities which might have 
 taken place prior to that time. 
 
 The Review : — " He cannot defend her on the crround 
 of her unity ; for ho knows that her frontier sects are 
 
THEOLOQT AND OOVERNMENT. 
 
 68 
 
 much moro romoto from eiicli other, thiiti one IVoiiticr \» 
 from tlic Cliiirch of Rome, or tlio other from tho Church 
 of Oenova. But ho may think tliiit sho teuohos more 
 truth with h'ss alloy of error than would be taui^lit by 
 those who, if she were swept away, would occu[>y tlio 
 vacant space. Ho may think that the effect pnxhiced 
 by htT l)eaiitiful services and by hen* pidpits on tiif imtionid 
 mind, is, on the wliole, highly heneficial. He nniy iliink 
 that her civilizing influence is usefully felt in remote! dis- 
 tricts. He may think that, if sho were destroyed, a 
 largo portion of those who now compose her congregations 
 would neglect all religious duties, and that a still Lirg(!r 
 portion would fall under the influence of spiritual moun- 
 tebanks, hungry ior gain, or drunk with fanaticism. 
 While he would with pleasure admit that alltliecpialities 
 of Christian pastors are to be found in large mtiasure 
 within the existing body of dissenting ministers, ho woidd 
 perhaps be inclined to think that the standard of intel- 
 lectual and moral character among that exemjilary class 
 of men may have been raised to its present high point and 
 maintained there by the indirect influence of the estab- 
 lishment. And he may be by no means satisfied that, if 
 the Cliurch were at once swept away, the place of our 
 Sumners and Whateleys would be supplied by Doddridges 
 and Halls. He may thmk that the advantages we have 
 described are obtained, or might, it the existing system 
 were slightly modified, be obtained, without any sacrifice 
 of the paramount objects which all governments ought 
 to have chiefly in view Nay, he may be of opmion that 
 an institution, so deeply fixed in the hearts and minds of 
 mUlions, could not be subverted without loosening and 
 shaking all the foundations of civil society." 
 
 To continue the analytical examination of this Review 
 further than we have now done would not, we think, 
 answer any useful purpose ; it would belike playing aa 
 argument with variations, merely to examine proposi- 
 tions substantially the same as those already disposed of, 
 
 ^ 
 
I, 
 
 64 REASONABLE THEOLOGY. 
 
 and to repeat over again the objections already before the 
 reader. 
 
 A question, which, as the reader will probably have 
 perceived, lies at the very foundation of the funda- 
 mental propositions which form the basis of our argu- 
 ment, is whether there be, or be not, demonstrable 
 evidence of the frequent or constant interposition of 
 spiritual interference in the temporal affairs of men 
 It seems to us that, in passages of several of IVIacaulay's 
 Essays but more especially throughout that review of 
 which we have been now engaged in the examination, 
 there are indications of mental dissatisfaction on that 
 question. 
 
 If we are right in such supposition, the signs by 
 which it may be recognized are unreasonablen(?ss, impa- 
 tience, want of clearness in apprehension of sequence, 
 and of definition in statement. This would be the psy_ 
 chological condition of a man in relation to a question 
 upon which his mind had hastily accepted a conclusion 
 which he afterwards felt that his reason disapproved, 
 but which, having once accepted, he refused to give 
 up. 
 
 A general examination of such a question to be satis- 
 factory would evidently require much space, but, we 
 think, seeing its close connection to the propositions we 
 have been now considering, that a brief examination of 
 this question may serve a useful purpose by bringing the 
 whole subject more completely under the consideration 
 of the reader. 
 
 We shall not be particular about putting this colla- 
 teral argument in a strictly formal shape. As a gene- 
 ral basis we will assume the truth and the superna- 
 tural character of the miracles recorded in the Bible ; and, 
 wliicli is inseparable from such assumption, the evidence 
 of supernatural interposition furnished in the Bible itself 
 {i.e. in the existence of the Bible and the peculiar cha- 
 racteristics of that Book, taken together with the condi- 
 
REASONABLE THEOLOGY. 65 
 
 tions and circumstances attaching to it). We are strongly 
 of opinion that this basis will be found acceptable to a 
 great number, probably to a great majority, of those per- 
 sons, even, who have not a distinct spiritual belief in the 
 Bible, and have not a distinct or a reasonable belief in a real 
 actual spiritual universe. Such persons wouldassertagene- 
 ral belief in the Bible and of the miracles tlierein recorded 
 as manifestations of supernatural power which actually 
 took place, instances therefore of spiritual interference 
 with the physical laws of nature j but here those persons 
 would stop. Their belief, sucli as it is, of the circum- 
 stances just mentioned includes a belief that those cir- 
 cumstances were exceptional, and they are content, for the 
 most part, to put them mentally by themselves as not 
 admitting of reasonable explanation. As for any spiri- 
 tual ..manifestations independent of those recorded in the 
 Bible, or as having happened since the time of the 
 apostles, they do not believe in them at all. . . . No. 
 
 The laws of Nature are constant, definite, certain, and 
 unvarying. . . the accumulated observations of trained 
 and careful observers have quite decided that they are 
 so. Supposed exceptions cannot bear the close investi- 
 gations of modem science . , . people are superstitious 
 and easily deceived, but the great moral and physical 
 laws of universal Nature are immutable and eternal. Men 
 exist as men under the conditions determined and secured 
 by the constant operation of these unvarying laws. For 
 the rest, they are dependent upon themselves ; as indivi- 
 duals, indeed, they are in some measure dependent upon 
 chance or fortune, but as communities or associations 
 they are dependent upon themselves ; for their prosperity, 
 for their comfort, security, civilization and general well- 
 being they are dependent upon themselves and upon each 
 other. 
 
 This is substantially the belief, some parts of it 
 directly and some parts of it indirectly or negatively, but 
 on the whole, quite distinctly stated, of Macaulay. It is, 
 
 E 
 
66 
 
 REASONABLE THEOLOGY. 
 
 I 
 
 III 
 
 is 
 
 *E 
 
 I 
 
 we think, also, substantially the belief of a gi'eat number 
 of educated persons, at the present time. In adopting 
 this as a fundamental belief, most persona would readily 
 allow that it is not absolutely fundamental in a strict 
 sense ; but, they would say, it goes as far back as we can 
 get with any certainty. Every thing that we can get at, 
 examine and investigate, harmonizes with, strengthens, 
 confirms and establishes this belief. It is an assumption 
 certainly ; its truth is not absolutely established because 
 all the evidence cannot be got at, but it is probable in 
 such a degree and with such a force of probability that 
 it may be considered equivalent to demonstrated truth. 
 For ourselves, we opme that on the ground of reason- 
 able probability such a fundamental belief cannot stand, 
 and we think that the mental dissatisfaction, which to us 
 IS apparent in some of Macaulay's writings, is attributable 
 to his wilfully retaining a belief which he felt to be 
 unsound. 
 
 3) 
 
 A preliminary general examination of the belief in 
 
 NATURE, as a FUNDAMENTAL BELIEF. 
 
 In the fir; t place, the putting tlie Bible by itself as a 
 collection of mysterious facts, is not satisfactory in a 
 reasonable sense ; it is so far from satisftictory that, when 
 steadily considered, it necessitates a misgiving as to the 
 foundation of the collective belief The Bible must be 
 essentially true or must be untrue *, if it be certainly true, 
 then, the narrative part of the Bible which relates in 
 plain and unmistakeable language that certain occur- 
 rences took place, at times and places also distinctly and 
 circumstantially stated, must be true ; it must be true 
 that, in fact, the events recorded in the Bible-narrative 
 actually occurred. But if this be admitted, a number of 
 instances of spiritual interference with the laws of nature 
 and with the temporal affairs of men is incontrovertibly 
 established. As a consequent it must be admitted that, 
 such interferences having taken place, they may take 
 
 fi I 
 
REASONABLE TUEOLOGY. 
 
 67 
 
 place again. It is quite true that a longtime has elapsed 
 since the occurrences narrated in the Bible actually took, 
 place, and this circumstance, takeix by itself, would give 
 support to a supposition that such interferences were 
 very unfrequent and (piite exceptional. But exceptionjil 
 interferences are neither included or allowed in the belief 
 we are considering ; and then, there are the other parts 
 of the Bible, which are so connected with the narrative 
 that the one part cannot be accepted alone, and the other 
 part rejected as untrue. Of those other parts of the Bible 
 the precise meaning is not nearly so plain and imme- 
 diately evident as that of the narrative part, yet it is 
 quite certain they contain repeated assertions, of the )nost 
 decidi'd character, that not only such spiritual inter- 
 ferences have frequently taken place in times past and 
 will again take place in the future, but also that they are 
 frequently and indeed constantly taking place. Hence 
 a reasonable necessity becomes apparent for doing one of 
 two things, either the Bible must be rejected or else the 
 fundamental belief in Nature must be greatly modilied 
 and altered. The regulation and coutrohjf men's temporal 
 alTairs nmst be held to be subject to spiritual regulation 
 and control, and even physical and mental laws of nature 
 must be admitted to be subject to constant spiritual in- 
 terfen.'uce and control, or, otherwise, the Bible as to its 
 divine origin and as containing un([uestionable truth must 
 be rejected. Now there area great munber of persons 
 who do not like either of these alternatives; they do 
 not like to altogether nject the J')ible nor do they like 
 to give nj) the self-existent laws of nature as tlie fuiid- 
 aniental basis of tlieir l)elief. 
 
 Then? is a prevalent doctrine on the subj(H't of 
 belief, of the taking or holding a ])elief as a ])sych(>lo- 
 gical operation or action of the mind, which re([ii'res 
 particular notice. According to this doctrine, whi<'li, 
 although clearly the reverse of reasonable, appears 
 to be now held idmost universally, a person's acceptance 
 
ti . 
 
 !■ 
 
 68 
 
 REASONABLE TUEOLOGY. 
 
 il 
 
 :1M 
 
 if ' 
 
 or rejection of a belief is to be determined by his 
 wilful choice ; he likes it, perhaps, because it is a 
 comprehensive and liberal belief and he accepts it as 
 his belief; or, he dislikes it because it is, in his opinion, 
 a bigoted and superstitious belief, and therefore he rejects 
 it. According to tliis doctrine, moreover, a person is 
 praise wortliy and meritorious ))ecause he has taken and 
 holds a good belief, or he is deserving of censure and 
 punishment because he has taken and holds a bad belief. 
 This means that a man may either accept or reject a set 
 of opinions as a belief because he chooses to do so. This 
 doctrine is false and plausible ; and, being false and 
 plausible, it is delusive and dangerous. 
 
 A man may not wilfidly accept or reject a set of opi- 
 nions as a belief; if he do so, he disobeys a primary and 
 most imperative command of the Creator. Strictly speak- 
 ing lie cannot in such a manner obtain a sound belief; 
 he may obtain a judgment or conclusion, taking that 
 place in his mind which ought to be occupied by the 
 belief, but it is never a sound and perfectly assured con- 
 viction. 
 
 A cons(;quent of a person entertaining the doctrine 
 that lie may believe or disbelieve what he chooses, is 
 the application of that doctrine also to the part oin, set of 
 opinions. When a person wlie holde the doctrine that 
 belief or disbelief is a matter on wliich he may exercise 
 his personal choice, is required by his reason to give up 
 the Bible if it be untrue, or to accept the Bible of it be 
 true and to give up the self-existent laws of nature, he 
 is very likely to conclude the matter, as he considers, by 
 a sort of compromise ; giving up neither of those beliefs; 
 not distinctly admitting to himself that they are irrecon- 
 cilable and incapable of combining, but retaining the l]i- 
 ble as an extraordinary, and the self-existent laws as an or- 
 dinary belief. A mind which thus acts may be said to 
 adopt for the object of its worship the God of unreason ; 
 the consequence is a loss of peace, of internal satisfaction, 
 
NATIONAL THEOLOGY, 
 
 69 
 
 of mental security ; a feeling that he has ultimately no 
 absolute, self-sufficient, perfect reality to rest upon ; a 
 feeling therefore of uncertainty and distrust. 
 
 What we propose now to do, is briefly to examine some 
 of the historical evidence as to spiritual interference with 
 the temporal affairs of men. We wish to make the exami- 
 nation in company with Macaulay, and to look at tlie sub- 
 ject, as nearly as possible, from his stand-point. But, if we 
 tell him, in the first instance, decisively, that his fundamen- 
 tal belief is unreasonable and such as we cannot receive, 
 he will at once conclude that we are possessed of passion 
 and prejudice, and thereby incapacited from seeing the 
 merits of the subject as they present themselves to the dis- 
 passionate mind. Let us therefore take his theoretical 
 belief along with us, together with our own, and see, wlien 
 both are placed in the light of historical evidence, which 
 of them, standing prominently forth, will become shining 
 and visible, and which, liiding itself in the obscurity of 
 darkness, will disappear and be no more seen. 
 
 Macaulay himself, in his Review of Ranke's History 
 of the Popes, narrates the story of the long-continued 
 struggle between two great intellectual nations . . . . , 
 between the Protestant and Papal systems of Christianityc 
 
 NATIONAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 Fr&tn Macaulay^s revieiv of " RanMs History of 
 the Pojjes." 
 
 " We will attempt to lay before our reader, in a short 
 compass, what appears to us to be the real history of the 
 contest which began with the preaching of Lutlier agahist 
 the Indulgences, and which may, in one sense, be said 
 to have been terminated, a hundred and thirty years later, 
 by tlie treaty of Westphalia." 
 
 Tims commences the narrative. But that narrative, as 
 will appear, is by no means confined to the record or histoiy 
 of the events and transactions belonging to that interesting 
 period. Unfortunately Macaulay has tliought it desira- 
 

 <t. 
 
 ' i! 
 
 70 NATIONAL THEOLOGT. 
 
 ble to intermingle with it conjectures, theories, opinions 
 and explanations of his owni. Theefiect of this is that, from 
 the very commencement, tlie reader lias dust thrown in his 
 eyes at the same time that the recorded facts are: {)resent- 
 ed to his mental vision ; the ultimate consequence is, that, 
 although the great lesson taught iiy the history of the 
 long-contiimed struggle does not become in Macaulay's 
 picture quite invisible, it does not stand out from his 
 canvas with that distinctness and vividness whicli, from 
 its educational importance and interest, it is most desirable 
 that it should do. 
 
 " In the northern parts of Europe the victory of Pro- 
 testantism was rapid and decisive." 
 
 This is doubtless in accordance with the evidence of 
 history. 
 
 ''The dominion of the papacy was felt by the nations 
 of Teutonic blood as the dominion of Italians, of for- 
 eigners, of men who were aliens in language, maimers, 
 and intellectual constitution. 
 
 " The large jurisdiction exercised by the spiritual tri- 
 bunals of Rome, seemed to be a degrading badge of ser- 
 vitude. The sums which, under a thousand pretexts 
 were exacted by a distant court, were regarded botli as 
 a humiliating and as a ruinous tribute. The character of 
 that court excited the scorn and disgust of a grave, earn- 
 est, sincere and devont people." 
 if |i: That a few Germans here and there may have enter- 
 
 tained sentiments of dislike to the ecclesiastical supre- 
 macy of Rome because causing a feeling on their part of 
 inferiority and servitude to a foreign power, is not im- 
 probable . . . that a considerable number, not only of 
 devout and thoughtful people, but, also, of persons who 
 were merely intelligent enough to appreciate in a very 
 ordinary degree the advantages of morality and sincerity, 
 looked upon tfie vicious and degraded character, which 
 at that time belonged to the papal court, with scorn and 
 disgust, is quite probable. Nevertheless, having regard 
 to the relation in which they are put forwa'-d... namely, 
 
 1 
 
NATIONAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 11 
 
 as related to the great change which took place imme- 
 diately afterward, as antecedent and consefjuent ; and as 
 affording a comprehensive explanation of that sudden 
 awakening from death-like torpor to active and energetic 
 moral life of vast multitudes of minds. . the conjectures 
 vvliich IMucaulay has here proffered may be pronounced 
 quite insufficient and to he unsupported by the recorded 
 facts. 
 
 What are, briefly stated, those recorded facts ? That 
 one man, not a man influential by position and wealth 
 but a humble ecclesiastic quite destitute of wealth and 
 known only to a few persons, makes a stand, denounces 
 the unrighteous proceedings of his superiors, and refuses to 
 be made a party to those proceedings; . .he appetds in the 
 first place to '■ reason,' and, then, directed and authorized 
 by reason... appeals to the supreme temporal Governor 
 of tlie Earth for support and assistance. What 
 follows ? Threatenings and danger opposed by finnness 
 
 and reliance The most refined sophistry of the 
 
 trained and practised casuists overcome by the plain 
 reasoning of the ahnost inexperienced monk . . The prac- 
 tical sagacity of statesmen and iJoUticians turned to fool- 
 ishness. Treachery and violence defeated and prevented . . 
 Each attempt to alarm and weaken him and to destroy 
 his influence made the means of encouraging and strength- 
 ening him and of increasing his influence. . . . and, mean- 
 time, the light of reason breaks through the surrounding 
 darkness, men begin to see, at first, very dimly; then, 
 more clearly. Trust in God, truth, reason, morality, hon- 
 esty, sincerity, are, it is soon perceived, all on the side of 
 the humble and despised monk. The first great victory 
 is won. Then— " The new theology spread with a 
 rapidity never known before. All ranks, all varieties of 
 character, joined the ranks of the innovators." 
 
 " Within fifty years from the day in which Luther 
 publicly renounced coimnunion with the papacy, and 
 burned the bull of Leo before the gates of Wittenberg," 
 
p 
 
 i 
 
 I' 
 
 ■ 
 
 n 
 
 72 NATIONAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 "Protestantism attained its liigliest ascendancy, an ascend- 
 ancy which it soon lost, and which it has never regained. 
 Hnudrcds, who could wtill remember Brother Martin a 
 devout Catholic, liv( d to see the revolution of which he 
 was the chief author, victorious in half the States of 
 Europe. In England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, 
 Livonia, Prussia, Saxony, Hesse, Wurtemberg, the 
 Palutiuate, in several cantons in Switzerland, in the 
 Northern Netherlands, tlie Reformation had completely 
 triumphed; and in all other coimtries on this side of the 
 Alps and the Pyrenees, it seemed on the point of triumjih- 
 injr." 
 
 ]\[acaulay puts before the reader a number of con- 
 jectures and arguments to account for the protestant 
 system not having subverted and taken the place of the 
 papal, in Italy and Spain, as it had done in the more 
 northern countries. As explanations these conjectures 
 are, like those preceding them, fanciful. To us, it 
 seems evident that the considerations, which, according 
 to JIacaulay, prevented Italy and Spain from breaking 
 the chain which bound them to Rome could only have 
 influenced a comparatively very few persons in either 
 of those countries. Supposing there had been the same 
 readiness of response to tly voice of reason, the same 
 earnest longing for reasonable liberty, and tliat the same 
 intellectual awakening of the minds of the educated 
 population of those countries had taken place as in the 
 north, those considerations which he speaks of as so 
 inHuential would have gone for nothing. Tliese con- 
 jectures of his are, however, shown to be fanciful and to 
 have no actual support, by the circumstance of the 
 reformation which, at that same time, actually took place 
 in those countries and throughout the papal system, and 
 of which the outward manifestations are described by 
 Macaulay himself, as follows : — 
 
 ** It is not, therefore, strange that the effect of the 
 great outbreak of protestantism in one part of Christen-" 
 
 I 
 
NATIONAL THEOLOGT. 73 
 
 " doiii should have been to produce an equally violent 
 outbreak of Catholic zeal in another. Two vefomiations 
 were pushed on at once u'itli equal energy and effect, a 
 reformation of doctrine in the north, a reformation of 
 maniun-s and discipline in the south. In the course of a 
 single generation, the whole spirit of the Church of 
 Rome underwent a change. From the liulls of tlie 
 Vatican to the most secluded hermitage of the Apen- 
 nines, the great revival was everywhere felt and seen. 
 All tlie institutions anciently devised for the propagation 
 and (hjfence of the faith were furbished up and made 
 efficient. 
 
 Fresh engines of still more formidable power were con- 
 structed. Everywhere old religious comumnities were 
 remodelled and new religious comnuuuties called into 
 existence. Within a year after the death of Leo, the 
 order of Camaldoli was purified ; the Capuchins n^stored 
 the old Franciscan discipline — the midnight prayer and 
 the life of silence ; the Barnabites and the society of 
 Somasca devoted themselves to the relief and education 
 of tlie poor. To the Theatine order a still higher inte- 
 rest belongs. Its great object was the same with that of 
 our early Methodists, namely to supply the deficiencies of 
 the parochial clergy. The Church of Rome, wiser than 
 the Church of England, gave every countenance to the 
 good work. The members of the new brotherhood 
 preached to great multitudes in the streets and in the 
 fields, prayed by the beds of the sick, and administered 
 the last sacraments to the dying. Foremost amongst 
 them in zeal and devotion was Gian Pietro Carafi'a, after- 
 wards Pope Paul the Fourth. In the convent of the Thea- 
 tines at Venice, under the eye of Carafia, a Spanish 
 gentleman took up his abode, tended tlie poor in the hos- 
 pitals, went about in rags, stained himself almost to death, 
 and often sallied into the streets, mounted on stones, 
 and, waving his hat to invite the passers by, began 
 to preach in a strange jargon of Castiliaii and Tuscan." 
 
74 
 
 NATIONAL TIIEOLOOY. 
 
 " The Theatines were among the most zealous a'.id rig^d 
 of men j but, to this enthusiastic neophyte ^^hcir dis- 
 cipline seemed lax, and their movements sluggish ; for 
 his own mind, naturally passionate and imaginative, had 
 passed through a training which had given to all its pecu- 
 liarities a morbid intensity and energy. In his early 
 life he had been the very j^rototype of the hero of 
 Cervantes. Tlie single study of the yoiuig Hidalgo had 
 been chivalrous romance ; and his existence had been 
 one gorgeous day-dream of princesses rescued and in- 
 fidels subdued . He had chosen a Dulcinea ' no coun- 
 tess', ' no duchess' — these are his own words — 'but one of 
 far higlier station ; ' and he flattei'ed himself with the 
 hope of laying at her feet the keys of Moorish castles 
 and the jewelled turbans of Asiatic kings. In the midst 
 of these visions of martial glory and prosperous love, a 
 severe wound stretched him on a bed of sickness. His 
 constitution was shattered and he was doomed to be a 
 cripj)le for life. The palm of strength, grace, and skill 
 in knightly exercises, was no longer for him. He could 
 no longer hope to strike down gigantic soldans, or to find 
 fiivour in the sight of beautiful women. A new vision then 
 arose in his mind, and mingled itself wich his old delu- 
 sions in a manner which, to most Englishmen, must seem 
 singular, but which those who know how close was the 
 union between religion and chivalry in Spain will be at 
 no loss to understand. He would still be a soldier ; he 
 would still be a knight-errant; but the soldier and 
 knight-errant of the spouse of Christ. He woidd smite 
 the great Red Dragon. He would be the champion of 
 the woman clothed with the Sun. He would break the 
 charm under wliich false prophets held the souls of men 
 in bondage. His restless spirit led him to the Syrian 
 deserts, and to the chapel of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 Thence he wandered bnck to the farthest west, and as- 
 tonished the convents of Spain and the schools of France 
 by his Dcnance and vigils. The same lively imagination** 
 
THEOLOaY AND CHIVALRY. (5 
 
 ''which had been emph)ye(l in picturing the tuimilt uf 
 unroiil battle, and the channs of unreal queens, now peo- 
 pled his solitude with saints and angels. The Holy Virgin 
 descended to commune with liim. Tie saw the Haviour 
 face to face with the eye of flesh. Even those my stearics 
 of religion which are the hardest trial of ftiith were in 
 his case palpable to sight. It is difHcult to relate without 
 a pitying smile that, in the sacrifice of the mass, lie saw 
 transubstantiation take place, and that, as he stood [)niy- 
 ing on the steps of the Church of St. Dominic, he saw 
 the Trinity in Unity, and wept aloud with joy and 
 wonder. Such was the celebrated Ignatius Loyohi, who, 
 in the great Catholic reaction, bore the same part which 
 Luther bt)re in the great Protestant movement." 
 
 Chivalry meets with, on the part of Macaulay, a dis- I 
 
 dainful cold approval, as of a semi-barbarous institution i 
 
 which had served a useful purpose in the semi-barbarous '; 
 
 age to which it belonged ; — the semi-barbarousinstitutiou ! 
 
 of a semi-barbarous age which the civilization of liis own " -i 
 
 hadleftfar, far behind. i| 
 
 And yet, Macaulay himself belonged to the order of I 
 
 chivalry. To him, . . a knight, belonging to the order | 
 
 of chivalrv, was a man in armour on a horse ; a man ! 
 
 whose good intentions and ignorance, whose romantic j 
 
 ideas and reliance on brute force, suggested to the cul- 
 tivated mind of the sage of the nineteenth century, an in- 
 dividual associated more or less closely with the grotes- 
 que and the ludicrous. 
 
 And yet !>Iacaiday was himself a knight. It was as a 
 knight that he merited and won the applause, admiration 
 and gratitude, of his fellow country-men, and of the edu- 
 cated pulilic of Christendom — gratitule and homage nni- 
 dered to him because he was a knight, and because he was 
 recognized by them to be so. But there were degrees 
 in chivalry, and amongst the knights may be expressly 
 distinsruished three classes : the first, the second and 
 the highest. Of the first was the knight or knight-errant, 
 
<b THEOLOGY AND CIIIVALUY. 
 
 wlio tnist<Ml iiiiiiiily III Ills own individiuil prowess find 
 tlie skilful iis<> of liis wmipoiis to ovfroomo lii.s adver- 
 saries. It is true ho was sworn to defend virtue, jiurity 
 and faitli, to piotect the weak and 02)pres8ed, and to do 
 battle with vice, treachery and crime, and he would endea- 
 vour to faithfully fulfil the conditions of his oath as he 
 understood theru, but his trust was mainly in his'sinews 
 and muscle, in liis own courage and practised eye ; hia 
 adversary was likely to be any one who opposed him ; 
 and his favourite exploits were such as he could himsell 
 accomplish unaided ; combats in which the victory and 
 renown belonged to himself alone. Such were of the 
 first class, and such very many of that class remained all 
 their liv'^s ; some, however, uuderstood even as young 
 men, and as they gained in experience, got to understand 
 more clearly that brute force in a man should be con- 
 trolled and directed by the mind — that the strength of 
 one individual alone could accomplish but very little — 
 that to distinguish between vice and virtue, morality and 
 immorality, and right and wrong, knowledge and mental 
 training were requisite, therefore education and industry 
 became necessary — casuistry must be met by honest argu- 
 ment lalse teaching by true ; and that the combined 
 strength of the vicious and false, of the deceivers and 
 oppressors, could only be successfully opposed and over- 
 come by the combined strength of those who were pledged 
 and determined to resist them to the utmost — To the 
 second class, and undoubtedly to high rank in the second 
 class, belonged Macaulay But there were some few who 
 learned to understand more than this , who learned the 
 inner and fullei* meaning of chivalry ; — who got to know 
 that the combat with evil in all 4ts forms must be com* 
 menced and accomplished by the individual within himself, 
 — who learned the great lesson — to reahze that the serious 
 contest was spiritual , that he was himself capable of 
 becoming spiritual and fighting as a spirit ; that the arms 
 
TIIEOLOOY AND CrilVALllY. 
 
 of till" flosli were but the arms of children with wiiich to 
 practise, iii order to educate and prepare himself for the 
 vvarfiire iiiid work of the intellectual man; who h'arned 
 to vuiderstand that very many of the vrsible obstacles, 
 difficulties and apparent evils of his bodily existence were 
 there in onler that by opposinir, surmounting and over- 
 conuiig them he miglit become fitted to contend with 
 and triumpli over those more real and potent evils which 
 as a spiritual being, he would have to encounter in mor- 
 tal combat ; who got to understand the meaning of sacri 
 fice Hiid of self siicnfice, that selfishness and sensuality 
 belonged to the :ower nature, and that the lower naturj 
 mast be despised and sacrificed whenever its interests 
 were opposed to those of the liigher, that the inclinations, 
 desires and passions of the individual must be controlled 
 and brought into subjection, and that, to accomplish this^ 
 the passions and desires of the lower nature must be; first 
 sombated with and subdued ; . . who at last com- 
 prehended and learned to fully understand that the high- 
 est of nil knightly duties was perfect submission to the 
 Will of the Supreme Head of the order. Of that highest 
 class one of the most distinguished was that Ignatius 
 whom Macaulay is now describing — that Ignatius in 
 whom the kniglithood of chivalrous Spain, once the 
 champion of Christendom, culminated — Ignatius Loyola 
 the Great. 
 
 " Dissatisfied with the system of the Theatines, the en- 
 thusiastic Spaniard turned his face towards Home, poor, 
 obscure, without a patron, without recommendations, he 
 entered the city where now two princely temples, rich 
 with painting and many-coloured marble, commemorate 
 his great services to the Church , where his form stands 
 sculptured in massive silver 5 where his bones, enshrined 
 amidst jawels, are placed beneath the altar of God 
 His activity and zeal bore down all opposition , and 
 under his rule the order of Jesuits began, and grew 
 rapidly to the full measure of his gigantic powers. With" 
 
78 
 
 NATIONAL TIIEaLOGY. 
 
 a 
 
 whtit volieinence, with what poHoy, with what exact 
 clisciiiliue, with what daiiiitless courage, with wliat self- 
 denial, with what forgetfiilness ot the dearest private ties, 
 with wliat intense and stubborn devotion to a single end, 
 with what unscrupulous laxity and versality m the 
 choice of means, the Jesuits fought tlie battle of their 
 church, h written in every page ot the annals of Europe 
 during several generations. In the order of Jesus was 
 concentrated the quintessence of the catholic s[»u-it , and 
 the history of the order of Jesus is the history of tho 
 great catholic reaction. " "It cannot be doubted 
 
 that, since the sixteenth century, the protestant 
 nations have made decidedly greater progress tlian 
 their neighbours. Tlie progress made by tliose 
 nations in which Protestantism, though not finally suc- 
 cessful, yet maintained a long struggle, and left permanent" 
 traces, has generally been, considerable. But when wa 
 come to the catholic, and, to the part of Europe in winch 
 the first s[)arls. of reformation was trodden out as soon as it 
 appeared, and from which proceeded tlie hnpulse which 
 drove Protestantism back, we find, at best, a very slow 
 progress, and, on the whole, a retrogression. Compare 
 Denmark and Portugal. When Luther began to preach, 
 the superiority of tlie Portuguese was unquestionable , 
 at present the superiority of the Danes is no less so. 
 Compare Edinburgh and Florence Eduiburgh has 
 owed less to chmate, soil, and to the fostering care of 
 rulers than any capital, Protestant or Catliolic — in all 
 these respects I'lorence has been singularly iuip})y , yet 
 whoever knows \ t Florence and Edinbursili wtu'e in 
 the generation preceding the Reformation, and what 
 they are now, will acknowledge that some great cause 
 has, during the last three centuries, operated to raise one 
 part of tlie European family, and to depress tln^ other. 
 Compare the history of England and that of Spain dur- 
 ing the last century. In arms, arts, sciences, letters, 
 commerce, agriculture, the contrast is striking. The'' 
 
NATIONAL THEOLOGT. 
 
 79 
 
 I 
 
 " distinction is not confined to this side of the Atlantic. 
 The colonies planted by England in America have im- 
 measurably outgrown in power those planted l)y Spain ; 
 yet we have no reason to believe that, ft the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, the Castilian w .? n\ any respect 
 inferior to the Englishman. Our firm belief i^ tliat the 
 North owes its great civihzation and prosperity cln» l!y to 
 the moral effect of the Protestant Reformation, and tliat 
 the decay of the southern countr-ies of Europe is to be 
 mainly asceribed to the great Catholic revival " 
 
 The supposition here last expiessed certainly calls 
 for explanation. The Catholic revival, as it is here termed, 
 has been described as a great reformation ; to vice, law- 
 lessness and hypocrisy, succeeded, as a result of tins great 
 reform, virtue, sincerity and obedience totiie law. Surely 
 Macanlay cannot mean that such a change had for its 
 const^quent the decay of the nations which un(l«,'rvv'ent 
 that change. It is doubtless historically true tli.it the 
 reformation spoken of by Macaulay took place in respect 
 to the Papal Court and, to some extent, throughout the 
 Papal ecclesiastical administration and that, besides an 
 immediate reformation in morals and conduct, it had as 
 its result a lasting increase in the general zeal and atten- 
 tion to duty of the priesthood. But the supposition of 
 a great and permanent national reformation^ throughout 
 the nations which remained under the influence of the 
 pi.pal system, appears to l)e a somewhat hasty assumption 
 of Macaulay's, not supported by the evidence of history. 
 
 We are engaged, first in the contemplation of the 
 struggle for supremacy between two great religious sys- 
 tems, and, afterwards, in comparing the moral and j)oliti- 
 cal results of their respective influence on the several 
 comnninities of men which became subject to the one or 
 to the other. It is therefore desirable to consider with 
 attention and to define with care the characteristic of 
 the essential difference between them. That charac- 
 teristic is . o . A distinct recognition, on the part of the 
 
80 
 
 NATIONAL TriEOLOQY. 
 
 Protestant, of a personal .Spiritual Governor, to Whoni 
 he is directly responsible , by Wliom he ia directly in- 
 fluenced, governed and controlled ; to Whom personally 
 he may and can apply for counsel, assistance, guidance 
 and forgiveness ; and, Whom he is required to address 
 personally in reasonable prayer. . . . and An indistinct 
 recognition, on the part of tlie Roman-Catholic, of a Su- 
 preme IVIystical Being, Whom he is to propitiate by offer- 
 ings of material sacrifice, and by the performance of cer- 
 tain visible rites and ceremonies ; by Whom he is indi- 
 rectly governed through the medium of certain human- 
 beings, empowered and authorized to administer govern- 
 ment, reward, and punishment on earth, as his vicege- 
 rents, agents or representatives. A Mystical and Dread- 
 ful Being, whom he, as an individual, must not venture 
 to address personally and directly, but must do so through 
 the mediation of certain human intercessors and media- 
 tors appointed or privileged to act in such capacity ; and 
 whatever his spiritual needs may be, whether it be par- 
 don, grace, spiritual or material help, which he may de- 
 sire, it is througli these agents, the human mtercessors 
 and mediators, that the Supreme Mystical Spint must be 
 approached, appeased, and addressed This we believe 
 to be a substantially correct definition of the characte- 
 ristic difference between the Protestant and Roman- 
 Catholic systems of Christianity. 
 
 In mailing this statement we are quite aware that 
 there are diverse sub-systems of doctrine and many sliades 
 of individual belief included respectively in each system. 
 We think tliat many Protestants who suppose tliat their 
 educated fellow -christians of the Roman-Catholic Faith 
 make use of pictures and images as oljjects of worsliip 
 are under a mistake, a mistake which is neither credit- 
 able nor justifiable. We do not doubt that many Roman- 
 Catholics use these tilings as useful accessories to wor- 
 ship, * and that many Protestants also make such use 
 
 • Essentially in the same wny that muaic is made use of iu many Protes- 
 tant ns well as Catholic churches. 
 
NATIONAL THEOLOGY. 81 
 
 of them. We know that many Protestants doctrinoly 
 professedly) believe in a, human mediator. We think 
 that many Protestants hold and practice a belief in a ;i| 
 
 human mediator, and in the human nature of a Being 
 whom it is lawful to worship ; and that many do in fact 
 (practically) pray to and worship a human-being, 
 or a supposed human-being. Assuming such to be 
 the case, we opine that, whether it be the mother 
 of a human-being, or the human-being himself, or a 
 human-being disguised under any pretence or suppo- 
 sition whatever, it is equally a violation of the express 
 primary commandment of God, which connnandmcut is 
 plain and distinct, a;hnitting of no modification in uuy 
 kind or degree. 
 
 We state thus distinctly that, in respect to certain doc- 
 trines and shades of individual belief, included respective- 
 ly in the t wo systems, we believe there is an approximation 
 and practically an agreement between them, in order for 
 it to be distinctly understood that, notwithstanding such 
 partial agreement, we uphold iliat opposing, contrasting, 
 and comparing the two systems, each as a wiiole, the 
 one to the other, the defi)ntion we have given does cor- 
 rectly indicate tlie difference essentially cliaracteristic 
 between them, as distinct and opposed systems. 
 
 In order to appreciate the lesson taught by that chap- 
 ter of the historical record wliich Macaulay lias here 
 brought forward for the instruction of tlie reader, atten- 
 tion sliould be given to an important division and dis- 
 tinction which may be consider<!d to exist in that sec- 
 tion of professing Christians known as tlie papal system. 
 To denote this distinction by nomenclature we would 
 restrict the term Roman-Catholics to that large part of 
 the papal Christians which does not approve the temporal 
 sovereignty of the Pope, and whicii does not acknowledge 
 the possession of infallible judgment by the Pope, but 
 which approves and acknowledges the Pope as the head 
 of an episcopacy, over which he is considered by them 
 
 F 
 
82 
 
 NATIONAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 % ' " 
 
 to oxcrcise an authorized spiritual jurisdit'tiou as head- 
 bislioj). Tlie otlier large part of the papal section of 
 Christians which approves the temporal sovereignty of 
 the Pope and acknowledges him to possess infallil)ihty 
 of judgment we propose to term Papists.* 
 
 To iinderstandcorrectly thepractical lesson taught })y the 
 events of those years, it is, moreover, necessary to consider 
 the riipid development and potent inllnence of that 
 monastic societj' which was instituted and inaugurated 
 by Ignatius Loyola. From the time of the institution of 
 that society only a little more than a century elapsed 
 before the publication of the Provincial Letters by the 
 distil I irui shed theoloiifian and mathematician of Port 
 Royal ; letters which, although Pasc.-al fell a victim to 
 the vengeance of those whose hostility he had incurred, 
 did nnicli to immediately weaken, and afterwards to ruin 
 and nearly destroy that inllueuce and power which had 
 overshadowed almost the whole of Europe. 
 
 It can scarcely be disputed, whatever differences of 
 opinion there may be as to the ndative quantities of good 
 and evil fruit produced by that institution, that tiiose 
 objects, to the attainment of which its power and inlln- 
 ence were applied, were, in a great measure, essentially 
 diHeicnt from those of its founder. Loyola, himself a 
 Rom;ni Catholic, convinced of the reality of the s[)iritual 
 universe and that the terrestrial existence of man should 
 be mil inly employed as a training school by whi(;h to 
 educaie and pr«'pare hims(*lf for the spiritual warfare and 
 work of the intcdlectual spiritual man ; Loyola who he- 
 lieved in the discipline of the intellectual faculties, in the 
 subjection of the bodily indiiiations, and in the acquisi- 
 tion of strict habits of obedience and submission to the 
 Laws and the Will of the Spiritual Head, founded an insti- 
 tution the express object of which was to give effect to 
 
 • The expression having boon long in use, is convenient, is without 
 otfcnco, and serves well to marls the important distinction. 
 
 
NATIONAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 83 
 
 that conviction, by a pnictical and systematic subordina- 
 tion of'thd t(!niporal allairs, the most important as well 
 as the most ordinary belonging to the terrestrial exis- 
 tence, to the express purpose of preparation for the 
 spiritual existence. 
 
 But liis successors, not having the same beli(!f in the 
 spiritual existence as a reality, and not sluiring his con- 
 victions as to the objects of tlie terrestrial existence, 
 perverted his institution and system to the promoting of 
 objects and the accomplitshment of purposes which were 
 altogether terrestrial and temporal in their aim and char- 
 acter. 
 
 TJiere may be those who wonder, looking to the sur- 
 prising (h'velupment ot Loyohi's system, tliat Ood, as- 
 suming His active and direct control over the terrestrial 
 affairs of men as Supreme temporal Kuler, should have 
 favourcid or allowed Ibr a time the development of an 
 institution which, so tiir from devoting itself exclusively 
 to the furtherance of religious instruction and the estab- 
 lishment of His spiritual kingdom upon earth, employed 
 itself m.iinly in promoting secular objects, and made Tise of 
 means for the attainment of those objects which, accord- 
 ing even to the ordinary standard of morality, were un- 
 hallowed and iniquitous. 
 
 If there be any sudi persons, we commend to their 
 consideration Macaulay's praise of tlie system as a means 
 of concentrating the faculties and lahour of a great 
 uund)er of men, as a disciplined Ibrce acting in combi- 
 nation, for the attainment of whatever might be consi- 
 dered by their chief as most advantageous to the interests 
 of the society ; and his praise of the ability, energy, per- 
 severance, courage and devotion, with which the means 
 were applied. And also we would remind them in 
 this connection, of the educational purpose of the terres- 
 trial existence of men. 
 
 For any one to complain that the conditions of 
 man's terrestrial existence are such as we experience 
 
$i NATIONAL THEOLOGT. 
 
 them to be ; or, to suppose that some other conditions 
 or arrangement would be better ; is no part of a reason- 
 able argument, and therefore quite inadmissible : for, if 
 the reasoner has assumed the actual existence of an all- wise 
 Creator, and a future life of the human-being, it would 
 be requisite for the human-being to have knowledge 
 of the entire plan of human existence past, present, and 
 future, to be able even to make the attempt to form any 
 reasonable judgment at all about the matter. The most 
 useful purpose, therefore, of the historical record is to 
 furnish the means of ascertaining and understanding 
 the nature of the educational-process and the manner 
 in which the educational training is applied. If a 
 man, assuming to himself the oifice of teacher, was at 
 the present time, to put before the educated public 
 a proposition . . . that it is inexpedient, impolitic, 
 unjust, and contrary to the law of God, to do evil that 
 good may result, the reply would be . . no doubt 
 your proposition is sound and true, but we know that 
 already quite well, and therefore don't require to be 
 taught it. Yes, . . . but how long since did educated 
 men know this to be certainly true and to be a law of 
 God ? Did they know it a century since ? Or two cen- 
 turies since ? Or throe centuries since ? And, at that 
 time when they did not yet know, how were they to get 
 certain knowledge about it ? Would merely telling them 
 have been sufficient ? Could they have learnt it in any 
 other way than by the hard practical logic of actual life? 
 When men find by experience that their personal suffer- 
 ing is a consequence of other men acting on the principle 
 of doing OAril that good may come, and when this lesson 
 has been repeated a sufficient number of times in various 
 ways, they then miderstand that it is unjust so to act. 
 This is our position now hi the nineteenth century' with 
 regard to this question ; we now know it well to be unjust 
 and contrary to the law of God so to act. The lesson waa 
 a hard one to learn ; many there were to be taugiit, and 
 
 
THK QKOWXH OV ISLAM. 85 
 
 many times and oft the lesson had to be repeated ; but 
 perhaps, never before on so grand a scale as at that time' 
 when the followers of Loyola, having perverted the purpose 
 of his institution, put in practice and worked out this 
 principle in the face of all Europe. . , . and were con- 
 demned by the unanimous voice of the civilized world. 
 
 Let us now take an earlier page of the historical re- 
 cord J let us seek another instance where nation con- 
 tended With nation for supremacy, and consider whether 
 the lesson therein taught coincides with that inculcated 
 by the long continued struggle between the Protestant 
 and Papal cystems of Christianity, and by the various 
 episodes of that struggle. 
 
 Mohammed. 
 
 In tho yearA,D, 611, at a time when Boniface iv. 
 was Pope of Rome, and the Greek Empire was being 
 ravaged by Persians and Avars . . at a time when the 
 Anglo-Saxons and other tribes of northern Germany were 
 becoming converts to Christianity ; and, at about the 
 time, when, in the town of London, a Christian church 
 was being founded, which church was afterwards called 
 Westminster Abbey. . . a respectable man, about 40 years 
 of age, living in the town of Mecca in Arabia, declared 
 that ho had received a mission from heaven. The man's 
 name was Mohammed. He told his wife Kedijah that 
 the angel Gabriel had brought him a message . . he told 
 her the words of the message, and she believed at once, 
 and accepted him as the prophet of the nation.* 
 
 In person Mohammed was of middle stature, with dark 
 eyes, and a ruddy complexion. He wore a thick beard. 
 His mode of living was very plain ; dates and water were 
 often his only food, and his house was sometimes without 
 fire for a month together. His manners, as well as his 
 
 * See Encyclopedia Britonnica 
 
 . 
 
86 THE OaOWTH OF IBLAM. 
 
 appearance, were pleasing, and he was fond of setting oflf 
 the comeliness of his person to the best advantage. 
 
 He was born at Mecca in A.D. 570 . . . was the son of 
 Abdailah and Amina, and grandson of Abdelmottalib. 
 He belonged to the noble family of Hashera, of the tribe 
 of the Koreish, confessedlv the first and most honourablft 
 tribe in Arabia. An his father died shortly before tho 
 birth, his grandfather Abdelmottalib took charge of and 
 named him Mohammed (the glorified) He was nursed 
 by a woman named Hehma, and then by u black slave 
 named Oumm Agmau ; towards both, and especially 
 towards the latter, he always displayed much gratitude 
 and attachment. 
 
 Tradition says that when the infant (Mohammed) was 
 born, the palace of the King of Persia was shaken by an 
 earthquake, and tlie satred fire cf the Magi extin- 
 guislied. 
 
 Moliaramed claimed to be descended fromlshraael ; in 
 conse(|uence of his insistance on this point, as well as his 
 partial recognition of Jesus, negotiations between liiin 
 and tlie Jews were broken off. 
 
 TracUtion narrates, of Mohammed's coffin, that it is sus- 
 pended between heaven and earth.* 
 
 A '\w j^ears alter his assuming the character of a 
 pro[)het, some of those who strongly disapproved his 
 claims made him ofTers of wealth and leadership if he 
 would give up his supposed mission ; but he replied by 
 reciting the legend which describes the destruction 
 of the city and tribe of Ad for idolatry (known to Eng- 
 lish readers by Southey's Thalaba.) 
 
 After this he proclaimed " his famous night journey to 
 heaven, known as Isra, when the angel Gabriel took him 
 
 * For tlie benefit of tho=io -who are not a«cu8tomed to read tho figurative 
 langnageof tradition, we observe that tho obvioua meaning is., that the 
 systeui"of religion taught by Mohammed was partly of heavea and partly 
 of earili, or, in other words partly ideal and spiritual, and partly gross iind 
 carnal 
 
THE GROWTH OF ISLAM. 87 
 
 on the animal Borac to enjoy an interview with jiatri- 
 archs, prophets, and the Ahuighty iiimself. Tliis brought 
 on him a storm of ridicule, and some of his disoipKis ab- 
 jured his teaching Abu Beker (a man of note) sto{>ped 
 otliers from departure by professing liis own entire hulief 
 in ]\Iohammed's narrative." • {Encydopcdui Britanutca.) 
 In A. B. G28, the si,xth year of the Ilegira, iu; besrii to 
 send letters to sovereign princes, not only in Ara};i,i but 
 beyond its limits. They were sealed with a silver sig- 
 net containing in three lines the words 
 
 Mohammed.. Apostle., of God. 
 
 Persia, Abyssinia, and Egypt were the first recipients, 
 Tlie Kovan, {Encyclopedia Britannica) "Its I'jad- 
 
 ing featu-es are The assertion of the unity of God 
 
 Thp apostlesliip of Mohammed Its denunciation of 
 
 idolatry, and recital of legends illustrative of the divine 
 wratli against that great sin — Its recognition of previous 
 propliots, m Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jems : 
 — Its account of angols-Gabriel and Michael,- -Azniel the 
 angel of death, and— Israfel who is to sound the trumpet 
 at the last day ; of tlie fallen angels, and their prince i'^blia 
 (Satan) ; of heaven, heU, and the partition between them 
 called Al Araf; and of final judgment to come. 
 
 Respecting Jesus-Christ . . Mohammed teaches tliat 
 though only a man, he was miraculously born, and tliut he 
 wrought numberless miracles; and, apparently froiri a 
 belief that it was unworthy of Christ's dignity to be put 
 to death, he denies the reality of his crucilixion, as.,iTt- 
 ing with the Gnostics that another was put to death for 
 him. Denying the doctrine of tlie Holy Trinity, tlie iiu-ar 
 
 * In reference to this., we may remark that the story of this iilloged 
 vision, SI) far as we are aw.are, has not been carefully examined us tu in al- 
 legorical meaning. The probability is at once suggested that the appearance 
 of exiravagance and absurdity may arise from misunderstanding th;; figu- 
 r.ativ( l;ni;r'iago ofallegorvas iatondrd in a merely literal sense. Evi^'.outly 
 neitli.T .Mohammed Limaelf, nor Abu Beker considered the story absiurd and 
 incredible 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
OS THE OROwrn of islam. 
 
 natiop, and the atonement, he yet calls Christ the 
 
 Word of God. . .. the Spirit from God, announces His 
 second advent, and triumph over Anti-Christ, and teaches 
 the doctrine of the millennium." 
 
 Mohammed '^laimed that the advent of such a teacher 
 as lie felt himself to be must have been foretold. His 
 followers have applied to him certain texts ; of which, 
 Deuteronomy xxxiii. 2 — where Mount Sinai, Seir, and 
 Paran, are claimed to be predictions of Judaism, Chris- 
 tianity, and Mohammedanism ; and, St. John xvi. 7, — ap- 
 parently alluded to in the Gist chap, of the Koran,the pro- 
 mised Paraclete being interpreted to mean Mohammed. (*) 
 Without for the present offering any positive opinion as 
 a judgment or conclusion on the question of the credibi- 
 lity of some part of Mohammed's claims as a prophet — 
 we would suggest that very much of the argument made 
 use of against those claims is inaonclusive because based 
 on insufficient evidence, and also, appears to be much 
 vitiated by prejudice, (dogmatism). For instance, it is 
 taken for grunted, that the Koran is, in a great measure, 
 manufactured out of material taken from the Bible. 
 Direct evidence does no more than establish a possibility 
 or probability that Mohammed did possess and read a 
 copy of the Old and New Testaments, because it is not 
 impossible or improbable that he may have done so. 
 Now, if we go on the internal evidence only, and argue 
 because certain circumstantial statements, names, and 
 occurrences, which are mentioned in the Bible are men- 
 tioned also in the Koran, therefore the Koran is, at 
 
 !ii| 
 
 * The writer in the Encyc. Britann. observes "(Juat as the followers 
 
 of Manes had referred it to bim)...a blasphemous view, though not inten- 
 tionally such. Mohammed, confounding and identifying the Holy Spirit 
 with the angel Gabriel, utterly mistook the drift of this prophecy..." To 
 which we will append the suggestion that it were better to leave Mo- 
 hammed's doctrines for consideration and judgment on their merits (as a 
 system having a distinct individuality of its own?) The positive judgment 
 of the writer in the Encyca., being unsupported by argument, must be con- 
 sidered as possibly a prejudice. 
 
THE QROWTH OP ISLAM. 
 
 least, in part, copied from the Bible, such nrgument is 
 begging the question as to whether or no JMohunnned 
 was inspired ; for, if he was inspired, evidently he may 
 have stated the facts without having copied from or 
 having seen the Bible. Again, if we assume that the 
 61st chapter of the Koran does refer to St. John xvi. 7, 
 and purports to be an interpretation of the meaning — 
 the value of the interpretation will depend very much 
 upon the true answer to the question whether or no 
 Mohanmied was inspired, because, if inspired at all, it 
 must be held to be most probable that he was inspired 
 in a very high degree; probably in a miich liigher 
 degree than any other man since the time of the 
 Christian Apostles. Wherefore we suggest that, if he 
 assigns a particular meaning to a difficult passage of 
 Scripture, it should not be dogmatically contradicted 
 and thrown aside as worthless, but should be very care- 
 fully noted and examined. On this head, it may be 
 
 observed that, if a man, almost uneducated, hav- n 
 
 ing no cultivated taste for music, and no knowledge 
 of literary art, be supposed to write a book with 
 
 such a purpose as that of the Koran — then supposing j, 
 
 him to compose a part of the book under express inspi- 
 ration, and, with respect to the remainder, to be left, in a 
 great measure, to his own imagination and knowledge, 
 the result might reasonably be expected to be just 
 such a book as the Koran actually is. 
 
 Mohammedanism becomes a great nation. — History. 
 
 The whole of Arabia has been converted by persuasion 
 and force to the faith of Islam. And Mohammed has 
 died. 
 
 AbuBeker, his successor, in the 12th year of the Hegira, 
 prepares for the invasion of Syria . . . Sends a sunnnons 
 to the Chiefs of the Arab tribes to join the standard of 
 Mohammed, and soon finds himself at the head of a largo 
 and enthusiastic army. 
 
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 ,, , 90 THE GROWTH OF ISLAM. 
 
 l! 
 
 Bosra is the first to fall before the strategy and impe- 
 tuous valor of the Moslems. Then Damascus is besieged 
 under the able leadership of the fierce Khaled . . and, 
 after a resistance of 70 days, is also taken. 
 
 Mohammed's successor, the Caliph Abu Beker, dies 
 and is succeeded by Omar. The progress of the vic- 
 torious army continues The strong city Baalbec, 
 
 with its fivmous temple of Baal is besi(\ged and taken. . 
 
 I Emessa is captured. The great battle of Yernouk is 
 
 fought.- and the fate of Syria decided. Jerusalem is 
 besieged and taken., then Tripoli and Tyre. And the 
 conquest of Syria is completed. 
 
 Egypt is next invaded the ancient cities of Jlem- 
 
 phis and Alexandria successively yield to the standard of 
 i|i Mohammed... and before long the whole of Egypt is 
 
 II i subjected to the power of the Cahph. In the meantime 
 
 i ; ■ Persia lias been invaded. The decisive battle of Kadesea 
 
 'I ' 
 
 |j is won by the invaders. . and Madayn, the vt'ealthy and 
 
 luxurious Capital, deserted by her King, is left, unde- 
 fended, a prey to the conquerors. 
 
 The Caliph Omar receives his death wounds from the 
 assassin's dagger, and leaves the scene. But the victor- 
 ious progress of the Moslem arms continues with the same 
 rapidity. .. Persia is completely overrun; the King 
 slain ; and the proud Kingdom reduced to a tributary 
 province. 
 
 Where is the tide of conquest to be sta^'^ed ? 
 
 Under the general Musa Ihn Nassy, Africa — that is, the 
 then known part of Africa, — is conquered. 
 
 Europe is marked out for spoil. The treachery of 
 Count Julian affords an advantageous opportunity to 
 gain an entrance. Under the generals Taric and Musa, 
 Spain is invaded .... the great battle of Gaudalete is 
 fought . . the unfortunate King Roderick is slain or dis- 
 appears . . and, after some further resistance, Spain is 
 subdued. The conquest is consolidated and then. . . . 
 France. . . 
 
 .: l! 
 
 :; I 
 
-» fir 
 
 THE aaOWTH OF ISLAM. 91 
 
 But the conquest of Europe by the Mohammedans 
 was not ordained. He who had said to the waves, ' so 
 
 far and no further shalt tliou go' Who had said of 
 
 Ishmael, ' I will make of him a great nation'. . . . liad 
 also said, Hlie son of the bond woman must not bo 
 heir with the son of the free woman.' The child born to 
 Abraham in Western Europe, at about the time, wlien 
 Mohammed commenced his ministration, has now 
 grown, not indeed to the full strength of manhood, but to 
 an age when the strength of early youth enables him to 
 take his allotted part in the great drama of the world's 
 history. The Saracen army which had invaded France 
 is met by the Christian array under Charles Martel near 
 Poictiers and defeated with great slaughter. Another 
 Saracen army advances into France and soon meets the 
 same fate. Europe is, humanly speaking, saved from sub- 
 jugation. The sons of Ishmael retire into Spain and 
 attempt the invasion of France no more. 
 
 THE STRUGGLE CONTINUED. i 
 
 " Upwards of eight hundred years were passed and 
 gone since the Arabian invaders sealed the perdition of 
 Spain by the defeat of Don Roderick."* In the year 
 1481, the capitulation for the surrender of Granada to the 
 Christians was signed. Then came the mournful farewell 
 
 and bitter leave taking as King Boabdil and his compan ''l 
 
 ions, 'gazed in an agony of tenderness and grief on the '; 
 
 beloved city from which they were departing for ever ; f, 
 
 " when the heart of the king softened by misfortunes and i 
 
 overcharged with grief could no longer contain itsolf , 
 * Allah acliliar ! • God is great ! ' said he, but, the words 
 of resignation died upon his lips and he burst into a 
 flood of tears." C) 
 
 • Washington Irving (Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada.) 
 
 a 
 
 'i k^ 
 
93 
 
 THB GROWTH OF ISLAM. 
 
 1 f 
 
 il 
 i 
 
 'We have now to consider these historical events as 
 evidences and illustrations sustaining our fundamental 
 proposition and disproving that of Macaulay. Not only 
 a government professing a religious system but a nation- 
 al government directly based upon and constantly refer- 
 ring itself to the primary fact of theology here presents 
 itself to the mental vision. The connection was not pro- 
 ductive of absurdity as Macaulay supposes it necessarily 
 must be. It is needless to put into fresh words that 
 which has been not long since admirably expressed by 
 an eminent man of science, (*) a teacher who, although 
 no longer with us in the body, continues still to teach j 
 one, '' who being dead, yet speaketh." 
 
 The Islamite Principle. From Maurice's BeUgions of 
 the World, " But these sweeping conquests of Mahomet 
 are susceptible of yet another interpretation which has 
 sometimes been applied to the whole history of their 
 dominion ; they may be regarded as the righteous judg- 
 ments of God upon guilty nations, whether these were 
 the idolators of India, the fireworshippers of Persia, the 
 corrupted Greek, or the Visigoth. It is difficult, I should 
 think, for any person really taking the Bible as his guide, 
 nay, for any person recognizing a Divine Providence at 
 all, not to look upon every great earthquake which has 
 shaken kingdoms as a Divine visitation; not to see a 
 Divine hand regulating outward circumstances, and the 
 wills of men. Nor can we go so far without going fur- 
 ther, and asking what the state of those nations was on 
 which the scourge descended ? If we pursue the enquiry 
 fairly in this case, we shall be led, it seems to me, to the 
 discovery of the real ground of the Mahometan might, 
 and perhaps to regard the continuance of that might 
 througli so many ages not wholly as a calamity. In the 
 Christian Nations which were permitted to fall under the 
 armies of Islam, almost as much as in those which were 
 
 (•) The Rev. Frederick D. Maurice, late Prof, of Theology. 
 
THE GROWTH OF ISLAM. 
 
 ds 
 
 avowedly Pagan, the sense of a Divine Almighty Will, 
 to which all human wills were to be lowered, had eva- 
 porated amidst the worship of images, amidst moral cor- 
 ruptions, philosophical theories, religious controversies. 
 Notions about God more or less occupied them ; but 
 God Himself was not in all their thoughts. The .awe of 
 an Absolute Eternal Being, to be obeyed as well as to be 
 confessed, was passing away in some — had scarcely been 
 awakened in others. The soldiers of Mahomet said, by 
 their words and acts, ' God verily is, and man is his 
 minister, to accomplish his will upon earth.' This we 
 shall find was the inspiring thought in the warriors of 
 the Crescent — this gave them valour, subordination, dis- 
 cipline. This, where it encountered no like or equal 
 feeling in the minds of those among whom they came, 
 made them invincible. We must not be content with 
 talking of their armies ; here was the life of their armies. 
 We must not speak of men's readiness to receive an 
 imposture ; in yielding to this assertion they were yield- 
 ing to a truth. This was no verbal copy from ancient 
 records ; it may have been the oldest of all verities, but 
 it was fresh and new for every one who acted upon it. 
 It was no mere phrase out of a book — no homage to a 
 mortal hero, no mere denial of other men's faith. Let 
 us go yet further and say. It was a mercy of God that 
 such a witness, however bare of other supporting prin- 
 ciples, however surrounded by confusions, should have 
 been borne to His Name, when His creatures were ready 
 practically to forget it. The first Mahometan conquest, 
 the continued Mahometan dominion, prove the assertion 
 * God is ' to be no dry proposition, (*) but one which is 
 capable of exercising a mastery over the rudest tribes, of 
 giving them an order, of making them victorious over 
 all the civilization and all the religion which had not this 
 principle for its basis." 
 
 (') But wo understand the MriiHraDiedan assortioa to hayo the nwaning 
 God is Supreme ; or, more fullly, Qo& is the Supreme Ruler of the Eartbi 
 
WL THE GROWTH of islam, 
 
 " I think that most persons studying the history of 
 Malionietanism without prejudice, will feel that this is 
 the principle which confronts them at every turn, and to 
 which everything else is subordinate. And if so, the 
 consideration is surely a very important one for our pur- 
 pose. We are told that the mere theological part of 
 religious systems is only a loose, flimsy drapery for cer- 
 tain maxims of morality, or certain ideas about the na- 
 ture and spiritual destinies of man. Precisely the oppo- 
 site assertion is true. All mere maxims, all mere ideas 
 about the nature of man, have proved weak and helpless 
 before this proclamation of a living and Eternal God. 
 The theological transcendent principle is just the one 
 which has stood its ground, which has re-appeared age 
 after age, which the most ignorant warriors felt was true 
 and mighty for them, for which no cultivation has pro- 
 vided any substitute. We are told, again, that the cha- 
 racter of particular localities and races determines what 
 shall be the character of a theology ; that that only is 
 universal which concerns the laws of outward nature or 
 the life of man. How does the history of Mahometan- 
 ism bear out this opinion I Let it be granted that the 
 soil of Arabia was one on which it was fitting tluit such 
 doctrine as that of Mahomet should be first preached ; 
 let it be allowed that the Semitic race has been especial- 
 ly distinguished from every other by an interest in what 
 is purely divine, by a comparative indifference to what 
 is human. But here is an assertion which tribes the 
 most remote from this are compelled to recognize ; which 
 establislies itself in India, in Syria, in Egypt, in Greece. 
 And it is remarkable that, while numerous sects and 
 parties have been called into existence by questions re- 
 specting the proper successors of Mahomet, or the inter- 
 pretation of the Koran, the Divine principle among 
 them has been the uniting one. It is said again, that the 
 great doctrines which have been embodied in religious 
 systems are the creations of the religious principle in " 
 
 
THE GROWTH OP ISLAM. 95 
 
 " man ; — that his faith moulds the ohject which it wor- 
 shii>s: ill other words, that what is called theological 
 truth is but some outward expression of our teeliniis or 
 habits of mind. Look again at the history of JMalioniet- 
 anisui ; consider the fticts steadily : tliere are none to 
 which the supporters of tliis theory should more gladly 
 appeal. They can find no instance of a race of which 
 faitii in an unseen object has been more characteristic. 
 * Faithful ' is the very name by which the Islamite war- 
 riors proclaim themselves to the world . . But what was 
 the nature of this fact. It meant nothing, it was nothino-. 
 except so tar as it asserted a Jjeing not dependent on it- 
 self; the ground of man's being; one of whom lie was 
 the minister, not the creator. The Mahometan believed 
 that the God whom he worshipped must have revealed 
 himself— that man could not have discovered Him. He 
 (the Mahometan) went forth to beat into powder all the 
 Gods which he supposed man had invented. Take away 
 these characteristics from his faitli and it vanishes, with 
 aU the doings which were the fruits of it." 
 
 " When I spoke to you of the great power by which 
 the Mahometan soldier was carried alon": in his enter- 
 
 prizes, of the principle which gave him strength and en- |J 
 
 durance, you may have wondered that I did not dwell 
 more upon the rewards which were promised to him 
 after death, upon tlie Paradise of sensual felicity for 
 which the brave man was encouraged to hope. I did 
 not allude to this motive, because I do not believe that it 
 was the one by which the Mahometan hosts were' really 
 inspired. The mighty conviction that they were then, at 
 that very moment, called by God to a work — that they 
 were His witnesses and were the ministers of His ven- 
 geance, was 1 believe, immeasurably more effective than 
 any dreams, were they ever so gross and palpable, of 
 
 what might be given to them hereafter. When they had {if 
 
 already cast themselves away to live or die, they had 
 a sense of immortality which no such visions could 
 impart, and which alone made them invincible." 
 
 : 
 
 VA 
 
96 
 
 THB GROWTH 07 ISLAM. 
 
 " But when the Mahometan was at peace, the belief 
 of a mighty Sovereign to whom he was doing homage, 
 no longer sufficed him ; he began to ask himself what 
 he was living for? To the multitude these sensual 
 pleasures were a tolerable answer. These were the 
 things to be desired ; for these, by whatsoever means the 
 Koran or its interpreters prescribed, if they were in 
 earnest, they were to labor. Some, with higher appre- 
 hensions, would feel that such rewards were not satisfy- 
 ing : they would explain away the language of Mahomet, 
 and pursue the practices, to which the others submitted 
 in hope of earthly gratifications, that they might attain 
 the knowledge or vision ot God- The former would fall 
 into gross moral corruptions, the latter would indulge 
 in philosophical speculations — would found sects — would 
 substitute theories and notions for that Being in whose 
 name their fathers had fought. This has actually been 
 the case, and hence it has been proved that Mahomet- 
 anism can only thrive while it is aiming at conquest. 
 Why? Because it is the proclamation of a mere 
 Sovereign who employs men to declare the fact that he 
 is a Sovereign and to enforce it upon the world. It is 
 not the proclamation of a great moral Being who 
 designs to raise His creatures out of their sensual and 
 natural degradation ; who reveals to them not merely 
 that He is, but what He is — why He has created them — 
 what they have to do with Himo Unless this mighty 
 chasm in the Mahometan doctrine can be filled up, it 
 must wither day by day — wither for all the purposes of 
 utility to mankind ; it can leave nothing behind but a 
 wretched carcase, filling the air with the infection of its 
 rottenness." 
 
 Having taken this extract from the work of the late 
 Prof. Maurice, we have determined to let it stand as the 
 teaching on the subject of a very eminent, enlightened 
 and well-known theologian; although, on close exami- 
 natiou; we find that it does not, in some respects, very 
 
RELIGIONS. 97 
 
 clearly set forth the characteristics of the Mohammedan, 
 as distinguished from the Christian faith, which we are 
 desirous to put before the reader. 
 
 The latter part of the preceding remarks are appli- 
 cable to a corrupt and degraded condition of Islamism 
 rather than to pure ]\lohanimedani8m as a distinctive 
 religious system. "We certainly fear there is too much 
 cause to apprehend that the objections, hero brought 
 by Prof Maurice againt Mohamuiedanism in a state of 
 peace, apply also with much force to the Christianity of 
 countries, even, which are considered highly civilized. 
 Let us take again the very words in which that condem- 
 nation is conveyed. '^ Some with higher apprehension 
 would feel that such rewards (i.e. the sensual promises 
 of the Koran) were not satisfying ; they would explain 
 away the language of Mahomet, and pursue the practices, 
 to which tlie others submitted in hope of earthly 
 gratifications, that they might attain the knowledge or 
 vision of God. The former would fall into gross moral 
 corruptions, the latter would indulge in philosophical 
 speculations — would found sects — would substitute the- 
 ories and notions for that Being in whose name their 
 fathers had fought." 
 
 But are there not Christians who are under the suppo- 
 sition that they are promised, if they profess a certain 
 belief and perfonn perseveringly certain religious rites 
 and unpleasant duties during the present life, an after 
 existence of sensual (bodily) enjoyments in Bome place 
 called heaven ? And are there not Christians, who, feel- 
 ing that such an explanation is not satisfying, explain 
 away the language of the promise and avoid the gross 
 conceptions only to fall into philosophical speculations 
 and to substitute theories and notions for that Being in 
 whose name their fatliers fouglit, or perhaps suffered 
 martyrdom f 
 
 On the other hand we think that any one reading 
 dispassionately what is known of the latter part of Mo- 
 
98 RELIGIONS. 
 
 hammed's life will most probably conclude that, besides 
 having a very distinct recognition of the Supreme Beings 
 as a living Person, his conception of the after existence 
 was by no means altogether gross and sensual. And, 
 moreover, for ourselves, we will express our belief that 
 amongst the more educated Mohammedans of later times 
 there are very many whose conception, both of the Su- 
 preme Beinj and of the after Existence, is essentially spi- 
 ritual and not sensual, or grossly sensual ; and that, at the 
 same time, their faith in God is a sincere, distinct and 
 vital, although not a highly enlightened faith. 
 
 But are we then to be understood as meaning there 
 is no great difference, as a true theological system be- 
 tween Mohammedanism and Chistianitv ? No, on the con- 
 trary we believe there is a very great difference. 
 
 That difference, as we understand it, is essentially 
 that the one (Christianity) is a complete system of theo- 
 logy including both temporal and spiritual theology ; 
 whilst the other (Mohammedanism) is mainly a system 
 of temporal theology only. We do not mean that Mo- 
 hammedanism has no reference to the spiritual existence ; 
 we have previously stated that we believe it to have such 
 a reference when correctly understood, and that there 
 are very many Mohammedans who do, in fact, so under- 
 stand its meaning. But the spiritual existence of the 
 I ; Mohammedan theology is a future state of existence alto- 
 
 gether distinct and separate from the present, excepting 
 that it is promised as a reward to those who acknow- 
 ledge God as the Supreme temporal Ruler, and who 
 serve Him with loyalty and devotion during the life on 
 earth. It is a religion of submission and reliance, based 
 on belief in the almighty Power and Truthfulness of God. 
 Submission to the will of God, because, as Creator and 
 absolute Sovereign, He has aright to absolute submission ; 
 and reliance upon His promise, because He is Almigh- 
 ty and Truthful. But Christianity contains all this, for 
 the Old Testament and the Mosaic Theology belong to 
 
RSLiaiONS. 
 
 99 
 
 Christianity as well as the spiritual theology based on 
 the manifestation of Christ upon the eart;h. Now the 
 great difference is that the Love of God is in the Chris- 
 tian spiritual theology taught and demonstrated to be 
 the true basis of the spiritual existence, and, moreover, 
 that the spiritual existence, not being dependent on th0 
 mere life of the body, belongs to the present condition 
 of the human being as much as to the future, and will 
 commence as soon as the individual accepts the condi- 
 tions and makes the requisite preparation ; which con- 
 ditions, as well as the nature of the preparation required, 
 is fully explained and taught. This, then, is the impor- 
 tant difference. The one system of theology (the Mo- 
 hammedan) is the direct acknowledgment and active 
 recognition of God as Almighty and absolute Ruler of th3 
 Earth, and reliance on His Truthfulness to fulfill His 
 promise. The other system, (the Christian), also recog- 
 nizes God in tlie same manner with reference to the 
 temporal existence of human-beings as men, only; but, 
 also, recognizes God as the spiritual Father of all men 
 who earnestly desire and claim such relationship, and 
 who then become bound together by the ties of brother- 
 hood and of common son-ship to God as the Father of 
 them all. Contrasted with each other, the one may be 
 termed the theology of submission and reliance, and the 
 other the theology of love. But it does not follow, 
 because the last is far more advantageous, elevating the 
 man, at once, to a higher state of existence and bestow- 
 ing the privilege of son-ship to God, together with im- 
 mortality,. that the first is not a sound and sufficient 
 
 theology. It includes the recognition of God and the 
 educational training of submission to His will as the pur- 
 pose of the terrestrial life of man. And this we opine 
 is the essential basis of sound theology. 
 
 In order to put the teaching of the late Prof. Maurice, 
 on the immediate subject, somewhat more fully before the 
 reader, we will give two more short extracts from the 
 same work already quoted. 
 
 ! 
 
100 
 
 ISLAMISBI. 
 
 The Eeligions of the World. — " Yoii have found a set of 
 men brought up in circumstanceB altogether difterent 
 from yours, holding your faith in abhorrence, who say in 
 language the most solemn and decisive, ' Whatever else 
 we part with, this is needful to us and to all human 
 beings — the belief that God is— the recognition of Him 
 as a living personal Being.' You have seen this faith 
 growing weak for a time, and everything else growing 
 weak with it ; you have seen it reappear, finding a new 
 set of champions to assert it, compelling nations to bow 
 down before it. Be sure that here is something which 
 the heart and reason within you have need of — whicli 
 they must grasp. Be quite sure that, if you give tliem 
 in place of it, any fine notions or theories ; if you feed 
 them with phrases about the beautiful or the godlike, 
 when they want the source of beauty, the living God ; if 
 you entertain tliem with any images or symbols of art or 
 nature when they want that which is symbolized ; if you 
 talk about physical laws when you want the law given, 
 of mechanical properties when you want him who set 
 them in motion, of secret powers when you want him 
 who acts by them and upon you, you are cheating your- 
 selves — cheating mankind. Remember further, that the 
 acknowledgment of the Being may imply much more 
 than the Mahometan perceived, but that it does imply 
 that which he perceived. If such an One is, His will 
 must be the law of the universe. Every creature in the 
 universe must be in a right or wrong position, must be 
 doing his work well or failing in it, as he yields himself 
 to this will, or as he resists it. And let us not fancy that 
 the early Mahometan was entirely mistaken as to the 
 way in which this will ought to be obeyed. He may not 
 have understood what enemies he had to fight with, what 
 weapons he had to wield, but he did discover that the life 
 of man is to be a continual battle, that we are only men 
 when we are engaging in a battle. He was right that 
 there is something in the world which we are not to tol- 
 
 K.L. 
 
ISLAMISM. 101 
 
 erate, which we are sent to exterminate. First of all, 
 let us seek that we may be freed from it ourselves ; but 
 let us be taught by the Mussulman that we shall not 
 compass this end unless we believe, and act upon this 
 belief, that every man and every nation exists for the pur- 
 pose of chasing falsehoodand evil out of God's universe," 
 " I have talked of the victories of the Crescent in dif- 
 ferent quarters of the Globe, and it is not easy to 
 exaggerate the greatness of these victories. Yet we all 
 know they were not complete ; they did not exterminate 
 that which they were meant to exterminate. I do not 
 speak now of the resistance which this great power 
 encountered from the hammer of the Mayor of Paris, or 
 from the heroes in the Asturian mountains. I do not 
 speak of anything which is directly connected with 
 Christianity. I mean that the most remarkable of the 
 polytheistic faiths, though crushed, were not cast out ; 
 that some of the countries which yielded to Mahometans 
 are not Mahometan. It behoves us to inquire into the 
 meaning of this fact — to ask ourselves, what there was in 
 their doctrines, compounded of all strange elements, 
 sanctioning so many fearful crimes, for which the simple 
 and purer Mahometan faith could provide no satisfaction. 
 We may find that convictions which the Mahometan 
 trampled down, do as much require recognition as those 
 which he enforced ; that man has demands for himself 
 which will not be satisfied by being told that he is the 
 servant of an absolute Will — demands which must, some- 
 how or other, find their explanation, must in some way 
 or other be reconciled with that great truth." 
 
 Very much of the adverse argument of the writer in 
 the Encyc. Brit, appears to be negatived by his own quo- 
 tations from ' Mohler,' e. g., " That many millions of 
 men feed and foster from the Koran an estimable moral 
 and religious life ; and one cannot think that they are 
 drawing from an empty spring, from the composition of 
 a mere deceiver." 
 
102 
 
 CROMWELL'S ARMY. 
 
 In taking leave for the present of this division of the 
 subject, we will remark two facts : 1. 'In the second chap- 
 ter of the Koran. . Jews, Christians, and Sabians are aU 
 placed upon a level and assured of salvation if obedient 
 to the law of their respective creeds.' 2. There are no con- 
 versions from Mohammedanism to Christianit}\ 
 
 Let us take one more example from the Record 
 
 Let us now briefly direct our attention to the History of 
 England at about the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 The civil war is over King Charles has suffered 
 
 the consequences of misgovernment. The ruler who 
 
 had "placed England at the head of the Protestant inte- 
 rest and in the first rank of Christian powers •' and " who 
 had taught every nation to value her friendship and 
 dread her enmity " is also about to leave the scene. Ma- 
 caulay thus describes the great general and his puritan 
 soldiers : " Cromwell never looked on war till he was 
 more than forty years old. He had first to fonn himself 
 and then to form his troops. Out of raw levies he creat- 
 ed an army, the bravest and the best disciplined, the most 
 orderly in peace, and the most terrible in war, that Europe 
 had seen. .He called this body into existence. He led it to 
 conquest. He never fought a battle without gaining it. He 
 never gained a battle without annihilating the force oppos- 
 ed to him. Yet his victories were not the highest glory of 
 his military system. The respect which his troops paid 
 to property, their attachment to the laws and religion of 
 their country, their submission to the civil power, their 
 temperance, their intelligence, their industry, are with- 
 out parallel. It was after the Restoration that the spirit 
 which their great leader had infused into them was signal- 
 ly displayed. At the command of the established govern- 
 ment, an established government which had no means of 
 enforcing obedience, fifty thousand soldiers whose backs 
 no enemy had ever seen, either in domestic or in conti- 
 nental war, laid down their arms, and retired into the 
 
THE RECORD. 
 
 103 
 
 mass of the people, thenceforward to be distinguished 
 only by superior diligence, sobriety, and regularity in the 
 pursuits of peace, from the other members of the com- 
 munity which they had saved." 
 
 In bringing forward this example, it is not with the 
 intention of commending these men as exemplary Chris- 
 tians in an educated sense ; but they were men who pro- 
 fessed, confessed, and acknowledged with a sincere and ac- 
 tive recognition the supreme temporal King ; and believ- 
 ed in His personal government. Their theology was per- 
 haps more nearly akin to Mohammedanism than to pure 
 Christianity. That they were self-righteous, and that 
 their language was oftentimes blasphemous, is but too 
 true ; but they had strong faith that God could and 
 would give them victory, and in that faith they con- 
 quered. 
 
 The past history of the human race is before the 
 student, the educational process to which man has been 
 subjected through the ages past and gone, is therein 
 unfolded — his ignorance at the commencement — his 
 strong desire for knowledge — his perversity in refusing 
 to learn — the occasions on which he gladly listened, and 
 the occasions on which he stubbornly refused to listen, 
 to the voice of the Great Teacher— and the consequences 
 which resulted, are therein recorded, .. .That record 
 has been written for our learning. 
 
 We have stated at the commencement that the 
 immediate purpose of this Essay is to caution the stu- 
 dent, especially the English student, against the guidance 
 of one who is thought by very many to be both trusty 
 and safe — to be clear of vision, and to know the road. 
 To prevent misunderstanding we now disclaim any 
 intention or desire whatever to judge Macaulay as an 
 individual or to detract from his great reputation in so 
 far as that reputation is justly merited. We have no 
 doubt, and we do not wish to lead others to doubt, that 
 
104 
 
 MACAULAT ON CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 he was a Christian. There are passages in Macaulay's 
 writings in which the truth and blessedness of Christian- 
 ity is set forth with that clearness and felicity of diction 
 in which he so much excelled ; as, for example in the 
 following from his review of Southey's ' Colloquies on 
 Society.' 
 
 " We will not be deterred by any fear of misrepresenta- 
 tion from expressing our hearty approbation of the mild, 
 wise, and eminently Christian manner in which the 
 Church and the Government have lately acted with 
 respect to blasphemous publications. We praise them 
 for not having thought it necessary to encircle a religion 
 pure, merciful, and philosophical, a religion to the evi- 
 dence of which the highest intellects have yielded, with 
 the defences of a false and bloody superstition. The 
 ark of God was never taken till it was surrounded by 
 the arms of earthly defenders. In captivity, its sanctity 
 was sufficient to vindicate it from insult, and to lay the 
 hostile fiend prostrate on the threshold of his own temple. 
 The real security of Christianity is to be found in its 
 benevolent morality, in its exquisite adaptation to the 
 human heart, in the facility with which its scheme 
 accommodates itself to the capacity of every human 
 intellect, in the consolation which it bears to the house 
 of mourning, in the light with which it brightens the 
 great mystery of the grave. To such a system it can 
 bring no addition of dignity or strength, that it is part 
 and parcel of the common law. It is not now for the 
 first time left to rely on the forces of its own evidence 
 and the attractions of its own beauty. Its sublime 
 philosophy confounded the Grecian schools in the fair • 
 conflict of reason with reason. The bravest and wisest 
 of the Caesars found their arms and their policy unavail- 
 ing when opposed to the weapons that were not carnal 
 and the kingdom that was not of this world. The vic- 
 tory which Porphyry and Diocletian failed to gain is 
 not, to all appearance, reserved for any of those who. 
 
CONCLUSION. 105 
 
 have in this age directed their attacks against the last 
 restraint of the powerful and the last hope of the 
 wretched." 
 
 But neither may we be deterred from distinctly stating 
 that the good effect of such passages is at least neutralized 
 by others which lead, or leave, the reader to infer that 
 whether he adopt one or other religious system as the 
 expression ofhis belief in his Maker, is of no particular 
 moment, and that, even if he does not think it necessary 
 to come to any distinct belief on the subject of religion, 
 he may still be a worthy, useful and beneficent mem- 
 ber of society. * As a christian teacher judgment 
 has been already pronounced against Macaulay. The 
 church of which he was so distinguished a member ; 
 in which the preacher has almost forgotten for Whom he 
 is to be expressly a witness, in which much debate has 
 taken the place ofprayer, and in which, on the most impor- 
 tant subject of all, illegitimate philosophy has well- 
 mgh ousted truth from the pulpit; is the church of the 
 Laodiceans, that church to which are addressed the words : 
 
 ' I know thy works that thou art neither cold nor hot : 
 I would ihou wert cold or hot.' 
 
 • For instance, ' The Essay on the Civil Disabilities of the Jews.' 
 "The points of difference between Christianity andjudaism have very 
 much to do with a man's fitness to be a bishop or a rabbi. But they have 
 no more to do with his fitness to be a magistrate, a legislator, or a minis- 
 ter of finance than with his fitness to be a cobbler, etc." 
 
 '.Mi 
 
 4 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 :i* 
 
THE APPENDIX. 
 
 THE LEGEND OP THE ENCHANTED TOWER. 
 
 From Washington Irving' s Conquest of Spain.. 
 
 (The marvellous circumstance is said to have taken place shortly 
 before the invasion of Spain by the Moors under Taric.) 
 
 " Heaven, at this time, say the old Spanish chronicles, 
 pennitted a marvellous intimation of the wrath with which 
 it intended to visit the monarch and his people in punish- 
 ment of their sins, nor are we, say the same orthodox 
 writers, to startle and withhold our faith, when we 
 meet in the page of discreet and sober history with those 
 signs and portents which transcend the probabilities of 
 ordinary life ; for the revolutions of Empires and the 
 downfall of mighty Kingdoms are awful events, that 
 shake the physical as well as the moral world, and are 
 often announced by forerunning marvels and prodigi- 
 ous omens. 
 
 Now, so it happened, according to the legend, that 
 about this time, as King Roderick was seated one day on 
 his throne, surrounded by his nobles, in the ancient city 
 of Toledo, two men of venerable appearance entered the 
 hall of audience. Their snowy beards descended to their 
 breasts and their grey hairs were bound with ivy. They 
 were arrayed in white garments of foreign or antiquated 
 fashion, which swept the . ground, and were cinctured 
 with girdles wrought with the signs of the Zodiac, from 
 which were suspended enormous bunches of keys of every 
 variety of form. 
 
 Having approached the throne and made obeisance: 
 "Know,0 'King," said one of the old men, 'that in the days 
 of yore, when Hercules of Lybia, surnamed the Strong, 
 
THE LEGEND OF THE ENCHANTED TOWER. 
 
 107 
 
 tad sot up his pillars at the ocean strait, he erected a 
 tower near to this ancient city of Toledo. He built it of 
 prodigious strength, and finished it with magic art, shut- 
 ting up within it a fearful secret, never to be penetrated 
 without peril and disaster. To protect this terrible Loys- 
 tery he closed the entrance to the edifice with a ponde- 
 rous door of iron, secured by a great lock of steel, and he 
 left a command that every King who should succeed him, 
 should add another lock to the portal, denouncing woe 
 and destruction on him who should eventually unfold 
 the secret of the tower.' 
 
 * The guardianship of the portal was given to our an- 
 cestors, and has continued in our family from generation 
 to generation, since the days of Hercules. Several kings, 
 from time to time, have caused the gate to be thrown 
 open, and have attempted to enter, but have paid dearly 
 for their temerity. Some have perished within the thres- 
 hold, others have been overwhelmed with horror at tre- 
 mendous sounds, which shook the foundations of the 
 earth, and have hastened to reclose the door, and secm-e 
 it with its thousand locks. Thus since the days of Her- 
 cules, the inmost recesses of the pile have never been 
 penetrated by mortal man, and a profound mystery conti- 
 nues to prevail over this great enchantment. This, 
 O'King, is all we have to relate, and our errand is to 
 entreat thee to repair to the tower and affix thy lock to 
 the portal, as has been done by all thy predecessors," 
 Having thus said, the ancient men made a profound reve- 
 rence and departed from the presence chamber.* 
 
 Don Roderick remained for some time lost in thought 
 after the departure of the men ; he then dismissed all his 
 court, excepting the venerable Urbino, at that time 
 archbishop of Toledo. The long white beard of this 
 
 .'*■"! 
 
 :f ' 
 
 Perdita de Egpana por Abulcaeim Tarif Abentarique, lib. 1, cap. 6— 
 Cronicadel Rev. Don Rodrigo por el moro Rasis, lib. 1, cap. l.-Bleda, 
 Cron. cap. VII. 
 
108 
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE ENCHANTED TOWER. 
 
 prelate bespoke his advanced age, and his overhanging 
 eyebrows showed him a man full of wary counsel. 
 
 <■ Father,' said the King, < I have an earnest desire to 
 penetrate the mystery of this tower. The worthy pre- 
 late shook his hoary head : < Beware, my son,' said he j 
 '■ there are secrets hidden from man for his good. Your 
 predecessors for many generations have respected this 
 mystery, and have increased in might and empire. A 
 knowledge of it, therefore, is not material to the welfare 
 of your Kingdom. Seek not, then, to indulge a rash and 
 unprofitable curiosity, which is interdicted under such 
 awful menaces.' 
 
 ' Of what importance,' cried the King, < are the men- 
 aces of Hercules, the Lybian ? Was he not a pagan ? 
 and can his enchantments have aught avail against a 
 believer in our holy faith ? Doubtless in this tower are 
 locked up treasures of gold and jewels, amassed in days 
 of old, the spoils of mighty kings, the riches of tlie 
 pagan world. My coffers are exhausted, I have need of 
 supply ; and surely it would be an acceptable act in the 
 eyes of Heaven to draw forth this wealth which lies 
 buried under profane and necromantic spells, and conse- 
 crate it to religious purposes.' 
 
 The Venerable Archbishop still continued to remon- 
 strate ; but Don Roderick heeded not his counsel, for he 
 was led on by his malignant star. ' Father,' said he, ' it 
 is in vain you attempt to dissuade me ; my resolution is 
 fixed. To-morrow I will explore the hidden mystery, or 
 rather the hidden treasures, of this tower.' 
 
 The morning sun shone brightly upon the cliff-built 
 towers of Toledo, when King Roderick issued out of the 
 gate of the City at the head of a numerous train of cour- 
 tiers and cavaliers, and crossed the bridge that bestrides 
 the deep rocky bed of the Tagus. The shining cavalcade 
 wound up the road that leads among the mountains, 
 and soon came in sight of the necromantic tower. 
 
 liiu-. 
 
THE LEOENIJ OP THE ENCHANTED TOWER. 109 
 
 Of this renowned edifice marvels are related by the 
 ancient Arabian and Spanish chroniclers ; < and I doubt 
 much,' adds the venerable Agapida, 'whether many 
 readers will not consider the whole as a cunningly de- 
 vised fable, sprung from an oriental imagination "but it 
 IS not for me to reject a fact which is recordt^d by all 
 those writers who are the fathers of our national histoiy ; a 
 fact, too, which is as well attested as most of the i^- 
 markable events in the story of Don Roderick. None 
 but light and inconsiderate minds,' continues the good 
 friar, ' do hastily reject the marvellous. To the thinkino- 
 nnnd the whole world is enveloped in mystery, and 
 everything is full of type and portent. To such a mind 
 the necromantic tower of Toledo will appear as one of 
 those wondrous monuments of the olden time ; one of 
 those Egyptian and Chaldaic piles, storied with hidden 
 wisdom and mystic prophecy which have been devised 
 in past ages, when man yet enjoyed an intercourse with 
 high and spiritual natures, and when human foresicrht 
 partook of divination.' ° 
 
 This singular tower was round, and of great height 
 and grandeur; erected upon a lofty rock and surround- 
 ed by crags and precipices. The foundation was sup- 
 ported by four brazen lions, each taUer than a cavalier on 
 horseback ; the walls were built of small pieces of jasper 
 and variously coloured marble, not larger than a man's 
 hand, so subtilely joined together, however, that, but 
 for their diflerent hues, they miglit be taken for one en- 
 tire stone. They were arranged with marvellous cunnin^ 
 so as to represent battles and warlike deeds of times and 
 heroes long since passed away, and the whole sur- 
 face was so admirably polished that the stones were as lus- 
 trous as glass, and reflected the rays of the sun with 
 such resplendent brightness as to dazzle all beholders. * 
 
 * 'From the minute account of the good friar, drawn from the ancient 
 chronicles it would appear that the wall3 of the tower were pictured in mo- 
 saic work.' (Washing. Irving.) u •" mu- 
 
 1! ' 
 
^ 
 
 110 THE LEGEND OF THE ENCHANTED TOWER. 
 
 King Roderick and his courtiers arrived wondering 
 and amazed at the foot of the rock. Here there was a 
 narrow arched way cut through the living stone ; the 
 only entrance to the tower. It was closed by a massive 
 iron gate, covered with rusty locks of divers workman- 
 ship, and in the fashion of different centuries, which had 
 been affixed by the predecssors of Don Roderick. On 
 either side of the portal stood the two ancient guar- 
 dians of the tower, laden with the keys appertaining to 
 the locks. 
 
 The King alighted, and, approaching the portals, 
 ordered the guardians to unlock the gate. The hoary- 
 headed men drew back with terror. ' Alas ! ' cried they, 
 ' what is it your majesty requires of us ? Would you 
 have the mischiefs of this tower unbound and let loose, 
 to shake the earth to its foundations ? ' 
 
 The Venerable Archbishop Urbino likewise implored 
 him not to disturb a mystery which had been held sacred 
 from generation to generation, within the memory of 
 man ; and which even Caesar himself, when Sovereign 
 of Spain, had not ventured to invade. The youthful 
 cavaliers, however, were eager to pursue the adventure, 
 and encouraged him in his rash curiosity. 
 
 * Come what may,' exclaimed Don Roderick, ' I am 
 resolved to penetrate the mystery of this tower.' So 
 saying, he again commanded the guardians to unlock the 
 portals. 
 
 The ancient men obeyed with fear and trembling, 
 but their hands shook with age, and when they applied 
 the keys, the locks were so rusted by time, or of such 
 strange workmanship, that they resisted their feeble 
 efforts 5 whereupon the young cavaliers pressed forward 
 and lent their aid. Still the losks were so numerous 
 and difficult, that with aU their eagerness and strength, a 
 great part of the day was exhausted before the whole of 
 them could be mastered. 
 
THE LEGEND OF THE ENCHANTED TOWIR. 
 
 Ill 
 
 When the last bolt had yielded to the key, the guar- 
 dians and the reverend Archbishop again entreated the 
 King to pause and reflect. ' Whatever is within this 
 tower,' said they, ' is as yet harmless, and lies bound 
 under a mighty spell : venture not then to open a door 
 which may let forth a flood of evil upon the land.' But 
 the anger of the King was roused, and he ordered that 
 the portal should be instantly thrown open. In vain, 
 however, did one after another exert his strength j and 
 equally in vain did the cavaliers unite their forces, and 
 apply their shoulders to the gate ; though there was 
 neither bar nor bolt remaining, it was perfectly immove- 
 able. 
 
 The patience of the King was now exhausted, and he 
 advanced to apply his hand; scarcely, however, did he 
 touch the iron gate, when it swung slowly open, utter- 
 ing, as it were, a dismal groan as it turned reluctantly 
 upon its hinges. 
 
 A cold damp wind issued forth accompanied by a 
 tempestuous sound. The hearts of the ancient guardians 
 quaked within them, and their knees smote together; 
 bnt several of the youthful cavaliers rushed in, eager to 
 gratify their curiosity, or to signalize themselves in the 
 redoubtable enterprise. They had scarcely advanced a 
 few paces, however, when they recoiled, overcome by 
 the baleful air, or by some fearful vision.* 
 
 Upon this, the King ordered that fires should be kin- 
 dled to dispel the darkness, and to correct the noxious 
 and long imprisoned air ; he then led the way into the 
 interior ; but though stout of heart, he advanced with 
 awe and hesitation. 
 
 After proceeding a short distance, he entered a hall, 
 or antechamber, on the opposite side of which was a . 
 door ; and before it, on a pedestal, stood a gigantic 
 figure, of the colour of bronze, and of a terrible aspect. 
 
 ^■t ! 
 
 Jr ' 
 
 * Bleda, Cronica, Cap. 7. 
 
112 THE LEGEND OF THE ENCHANTED TOWER. 
 
 It held a large mace, which it wliirled incessantly, giving 
 such cruel and resounding blows upon the earth as to 
 prevent all further entrance. 
 
 The King paused at sight of this appalling figure : for 
 whether it were a living being, or a statue of magic arti- 
 fice, he could not tell. On its breast was a scroll, 
 whereon was inscribed in large letters ' I do my duty.'* 
 
 After a little while Roderick plucked up heart, and 
 addressed it with great solemnity ; ' Whatever thou be,' 
 said he, ' know that I come not to violate this sanctuary, 
 but to inquire into the mystery it contains ; I conjure 
 thee, therefore, to let me pass in safety.' 
 
 Upon this, the figure paused with uphfted mace, and 
 the King and his train passed unmolested through the 
 door. They now entered a vast chamber, of a rare and 
 sumptuous architecture, difficult to be described. The 
 walls were incrusted with the most precious gems, so 
 joined together as to form one smooth and perfect surface. 
 The lofty dome appeared to be self-supported, and was 
 studded with gems, lustrous as the stars of the firmament. 
 There was neither wood nor any other common or base 
 material to be seen throughout the edifice. There were 
 no windows or other openings to admit the day, yet a 
 radiant light was spread througliout the palace, which 
 seemed to shine from the wvalls, and to render every 
 object distinctly visible. In the centre of this hall stood 
 a table of alabaster of the rarest w^orkmansliip, on 
 which was inscribed in Greek characters that Hercules 
 Alcides, the Theban Greek, had founded this tower in the 
 year of the world three thousand and six. 
 
 Upon the table stood a golden casket, richly set round 
 with precious stones, and closed wuth a lock of mother- 
 of-pearl ; and on the lid were inscribed the following 
 words : — 
 
 ^ In this coifer is contained the mystery of the tower. 
 
 * Bleda, Chronica, Cap. 7. 
 
TUB LEGEND OP TUB ENCHANTED TOWER. 
 
 113 
 
 The hand of none but a King can open it ; but let him 
 beware ! for marvellous events will be revealed to him, 
 which are to take place before his death.' 
 
 King Roderick boldly seized upon the casket. The 
 Venerable Archbishop laid his hand upon his ann, and 
 made a last remonstrance. ' Forbear, my son !' said he ; 
 ' desist while there is yet time. Look not into the mys- 
 terious decrees of Providence. God has hidden them in 
 mercy from our sight, and it is impious to rend the veil 
 by which they are concealed.' 
 
 ' What have I to dread from a knowledge of the fu- 
 ture I ' replied Roderick, with an air of haughty 
 presumption. ' If good be destined me, I shall enjoy it 
 by anticipation : if evil, I shall arm myself to meet it.' 
 So saying, he rashly broke the lock. 
 
 Within the coffer he found nothing but a linen cloth, 
 folded between two tablets of copper. On unfolding it, 
 he beheld printed on it figures of men on horseback, of 
 fierce demeanor, clad in turbans and robes of various 
 colours, after the fashion of the Arabs, with scimitars 
 hanging from their necks, and cross-bows at their saddle- 
 backs, and they carried banners and pennons with divers 
 devices. Above them was inscribed in Greek characters, 
 * Rash monarch! behold the men who are to hurl thee 
 from thy throne, and subdue thy .kingdom ! 
 
 At sight of these things the King was troubled in 
 spirit, and dismay fell upon his attendants. While they 
 were yet regarding the paintings, it seemed as if the 
 figures began to move, and a faint sound of warlike 
 tumult arose from the cloth, with the clash of cymbal 
 and bray of trumpet, the neigh of steed and shout of 
 army ; but all was heard indistinctly, as if afar off, or in 
 a reverie or dream. The more they gazed, the plainer 
 became the motion, and the louder the noise ; and the 
 linen]cloth rolled forth and amplified, and spread out, as 
 it were, a mighty banner, and filled the ball, and mingled 
 
 iili 
 
 if- .' 
 
 ! I 
 
 
114 
 
 THE LEGEND OP THE ENCnANTED TOWER. 
 
 with the air, until its texture was no longer visible, or 
 appeared as a transparent cloud : and the shadowy 
 figures became all in motion, and tiic din and uproar 
 became fiercer and fiercer ; and whether the whole 
 were an animated picture, or a vision, or an array of 
 embodied spirits, conjured up by supernatural power, 
 no one present could tell. They beheld before them a 
 great field of battle, where Christians and Moslems were 
 engaged in deadly conflict. Tliey heard the rush and 
 tramp of steeds, the blast of trump and clarion, the clash 
 of cymbal, and the stormy din of a thousand drums. 
 There was the clash of swords, and maces, and battle- 
 axes, with the whistling of arrows, and the hurhng of 
 darts and lances. The Christians quailed before the foe ; 
 the infidels pressed upon them and put them to utter 
 rout ; the standard of the Cross was cast down, the 
 banner of Spain was trodden under foot, the air resound- 
 ed with shouts of triumph, with yells of fury, and with 
 the groans of dying men. Amidst the flying squadrons, 
 King Roderick beheld a crowned warrior, whose back 
 was turned towards him, but whose armour and devices 
 were his own, and who was mounted on a white steed 
 that resembled his own war-horse Orelia. In the con- 
 fusion of the flight, the warrior was dismounted, and 
 was no longer to be seen, and Orelia galloped wildly 
 through the field of battle without a rider. 
 
 Roderick stayed to see no more, but rushed from the 
 fatal hall, followed by his terrified attendants. They 
 fled through the anti-chamber, where the gigantic figure 
 with the whirling mace had disappeared from his pedes- 
 tal ; and on issuing into the open air, they found the 
 two ancient guardians of the tower lying dead at the 
 portal, as though they had been crushed by some mighty 
 blow. All nature, which had been clear and serene, was 
 now in wild uproar. The heavens were darkened by 
 heavy clouds ; loud bursts of thunder rent the air, and 
 the earth was deluged with rain and rattling hail. 
 
THE LEOBND OP THE ENCHANTED TOWEB. 
 
 115 
 
 The King ordorodthut the iron porta! should be closed ; 
 but the door was immoveable, and the cavaliers were 
 dismayed by the tremendous turmoil and the mingled 
 shouts and groans that continued to prevail within. The 
 King and his train hastened back to Toledo, pursued and 
 pelted y)y the tempest. The mountains shook and echoed 
 with the thunder, trees were uprooted and blown down, 
 and the Tagus raged and roared and flowed above its 
 banks. It seemed to the affrighted courtiers as if the 
 phantom legions of the tower had issued forth and 
 mingled with the storm ; for amidst the claps of thimder 
 and the howling of the wind, they fancied they heard 
 the sound of the drums and trumpets, the shouts of 
 armies and the rush of steeds. Thus beaten by tempest 
 and overwhelmed with horror, the King and his courtiers 
 arrived at Toledo, clattering across the bridge of the 
 Tagus, and entering the gate in headlong confusion, as 
 though they had been pursued by an enemy. 
 
 In the morning the heavens were again serene, and 
 all nature was restored to tranquility. The King, there- 
 fore, issued forth with his cavaliers, and took the road to 
 the tower, followed by a great multitude, for Le waa 
 anxious once more to close the iron door, and shut up 
 those evils that threatened to overwhelm the land. B'.t 
 lo ! on coming in sight of the tower, a new wonder met 
 their eyes. An eagle app red high in the air, seeming 
 to descend from heaven. He bore in his beak a burning 
 brand, and lighting on the summit of the tower, fanned 
 the fire with his wings. In a little while the edifice 
 burst forth into a blaze, as though it had been built of 
 rosin, and the flames mounted into the air with a brilliancy 
 more dazzling than the sun ; nor did they cease until 
 every stone was consumed, and the whole was reduced 
 to a heap of ashes. Then there came a vast flight of 
 birds, small of size, and sable of hue, darkening the sky 
 like a cloud ; and they descended and wheeled in circles 
 round the ashes, causing so great a wind with their 
 
 !' ': 
 
 I 
 
^-^Q THE CHAKACTER OF MAHOMET. 
 
 wings that the whole was borne up into the air and 
 scattered throughout all Spain, and wherever a particle 
 of these ashes fell it was as a stain of blood. It is 
 furthermore recorded b^ ancient men and writers of 
 former days, that aU those on whom this dust feU were 
 afterwards slain in battle, when the country was con- 
 quered by the Arabs, and that the destruction of this 
 necromantic tower was a sign and token of the ap- 
 proaching perdition of Spain. , . ,, . 
 
 <' Let aU those," concludes the cautious fnar, who 
 question the verity of this most marvellous occurrence, 
 consult those most admirable sources of our history, the 
 chronicle of the Moor Rasis, and the work entitled, 
 < The Fall of Spain,' written by the Moor Abulcasim 
 Tarif Abentarique. Let them consult, moreover, the 
 venerable historian Bleda, and the cloud of other 
 CathoUc Spanish writers, who have treated of this 
 event, and they will find I have related nothing 
 that has not been printed and published under the in- 
 spection and sanction of our holy Mother Church. Crod 
 alone knoweth the truth of these things ; I speak 
 nothing but what has been handed down to me from 
 times of old." 
 
 THE CHARACTER OF MAHOMET. 
 
 (From Washington Irving's Life of Mahomet.) 
 
 « It is perfect abnegation of self, connected with this 
 apparently heartfelt piety, running through the various 
 phases of his fortune, which perplex one in forming a 
 just estimate of Mahomet's character. 
 
 However he betrayed the alloy of earth after he had 
 worldly power at his command. The early aspirations 
 of his spirit continually returned and bore him above aU 
 earthly ^things. Prayer, that vital duty of Islamism, and 
 that infallible purifier of the soul, was his constant prac- 
 tice. 'Trust in God' was his comfort and support m 
 
LOYOLISM AND SOCiAL CHRISTIANITr. 
 
 117 
 
 times of trial and despondency. On the clemency of 
 God, we are told, he reposed aU his hopes of supernal 
 happiness. Ayesha relates that on one occasion she 
 inquired of him, 'Oh, prophet, do none enter paradise 
 but through God's mercy?' ' None—none— none ! ' 
 replied he, with earnest and emphatic repetition. ' But 
 you, oh prophet, wiU not you enter excepting through 
 His compassion ? ' Then Mahomet put his hand upon 
 his head, and replied three times with great solemnity, 
 ^Neither shaU I enter paradise unless God cover me with 
 His mercy ! ' " 
 
 ''His military triumphs awakened no pride nor vain 
 glory as they would have done had they been effected 
 lor selfish purposes. In the time of his greatest power 
 he maintained the same simplicity of manners and ap- 
 pearance as in the days of his adversity. So far from 
 affecting regal state, he was displeased if, on enterincr a 
 room, any unusual testimonial of respect were shown 
 him. If he aimed at universal dominion, it was the 
 dominion of the faith ; as to the temporal rule which 
 grew up in his hands, as he used without ostentation, 
 so he took no step to perpetuate it in his family. 
 
 The riches which poured in upon him from tribute 
 and the spoils of war were expended in promoting the 
 victones of the faith, and in relieving the poor among its 
 votaries ; insomuch that his treasury was often drained 
 01 its last coin." 
 
 LOYOLISM AND SOCIAL CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 "But while there are these marked and ineradicable 
 distinctions between the hohest life in the worid and the 
 creation whicli finds its proper home in a Religious Com- 
 munity, ,t is not to be supposed that the roots out of" 
 
118 LOY0LI8M AND SOCIAL CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 " which the two growths spring are different ; that there 
 are not underlying both, manifestations of the Spirit 
 similar principles, though assuming diverse shapes and 
 features in many essential respects, and forming the occa- 
 sion of distinct laws and rules of perfection. 
 
 Of all the principles thus connecting the two spheres 
 of spiritual life, none is more characteri tic or more 
 vitally influential, than that which forms the subject- 
 matter of this Treatise. For the surrender of self, not in 
 outward act only, but also in inward conformity of will, 
 is the groundwork of obedience, of patience under trial, 
 of the sweetness of pure conversation, of gentleness and 
 love under provocation, equally in the world and the 
 home, as in a Rehgious Community. It is one of the 
 special blessings of this latter form of life, that it sub- 
 jects its votaries to a discipline of self unknown in other 
 vocations, which, by its interior rules and constant calls 
 to subordination, reaches even to the inward spirit, to the 
 intellect and the senses ; for Religious Rule presses not 
 only on all the out-goings of life, but also on its internal 
 workings, the searching process of its training tending to 
 bring every thought and desire into captivity as matters 
 of distinct conscientious obligation, even in respect of 
 tendencies and choices which are necessarily left perfect- 
 ly free in other forms of life. It is indeed this principle 
 in constant practical operation that gives to the Religious 
 Life its distinctive characteristic of obedience, as a fruit- 
 ful means of spiritual perfection. 
 
 But it is not therefore to be supposed that any true 
 follower of Christ, aiming at a perfect conformity of will, 
 may not in any sphere of life lay upon himself, as a vo- 
 luntary discipline, a rule of self-abnegation, of the cap- 
 tive spirit of interior subjection, or poverty of will, to be 
 kept as earnestly, though it be not sealed by a visible 
 consecration. And to practise a perfect life in the sanc- 
 tities of home and amid worldly occupations, depends " 
 
LOYOLISM AND SOCIAL CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 119 
 
 ^' on the same secret law wliich makes the true Religious, 
 who attains the fulness of his union with his Lord in pro- 
 portion as self is immolated and laid low at the foot of the 
 Cross, after the example of His perfect sacrifice. 
 
 Such a disposition, therefore, is of primary importance 
 in testing a desire for a Religious Life, and forms one of 
 the surest guarantees of a true vocation. The important 
 truth may serve to encourage those who, called, as they 
 believe, to such a life, are restrained from seeking admis- 
 sion into it by unavoidable hindrances pressing, it may 
 be, for an indefinite time. To such persons it is often a 
 sore trial to suppose that the time of waiting is lost ; that 
 all preparation for the life so greatly desired must neces- 
 sarily be delayed till they can enter on a specific training. 
 In many details that constitute the Religious State this 
 doubtless is true. But to suppose that the soul's progress 
 towards the longed for end may not be most surely fur- 
 thered by a faithful submission of the will to the yoke 
 laid upon it, and to the many calls for self-sacrifice which 
 accompany it, till the time of waiting is past, would be 
 to mistake the very principle of the discipline of the 
 soul. 
 
 That there are courses of religious instruction and spe- 
 cific habits of life, which properly belong only to the 
 sphere of Religious Communities, is but to repeat the 
 fact already assumed, of distinctive vocations in the king- 
 dom of grace. 
 
 But if self-sacrifice for the love of Jesus be the under- 
 lying groundwork of all true preparations of the heart, 
 then surely the trials of home and the exactions of the 
 woi'ld may be used so as to further this end. There is a 
 ceaseless call for self-surrender in the common round and 
 the daily routine to one set on attaining this high state, 
 in a sweet compliance with ordinary difficulties, in loving, 
 patient, persevering yielding to the continual demands for 
 forbearance or sympathy, such as every-day life in every" 
 
120 
 
 LOYOLISM AND CnRISTIANITY. 
 
 " station ensures, which, accepted in faith and self forget- 
 fulness, will be found to have produced, by the Grace of 
 God, not only present peace but an ever-deepening spi- 
 rituality, and to have secured in a grace most difficult of 
 attainment a preparedness of heart for the Religious 
 Life. 
 
 There are cases, perhaps the saddest one ever meets 
 with among the phenomena of the spiritual life, of per- 
 sons, ardent and enthusiastic, feeding on visions of hea- 
 venly things, which a diseased fancy ever luxuriantly 
 suggests, sustaining themselves on self-exalting dreams of 
 spiritual superiority to all around them, restless and dis- 
 satisfied with aU at home and in the world around, think- 
 ing that they have only to escape from the irksome tram- 
 mels of their enforced compliance with such a state, to 
 make sure of uncloying happiness and easy self improve- 
 ment under Religious rule ; who have to learn that the 
 cause of their home [difficulty and murmurings of heart 
 was really nothing else than an undiscipHned and selfish 
 nature, which only the [more strikingly reveals itself 
 when brought into contact with the profound practical 
 truths and unsparing demands by which, in a religious 
 obedience, every impulse must be met, and each fond 
 dream tested. 
 
 And here, again, we may learn the answer to be given, 
 and the cases to which it applies are not uncommon to 
 those, who, earnest and trtie in their appointed course of 
 life, yet fear continually less they are faUing short of the 
 glory shed around a lot wholly devoted to Rehgion ; 
 because their time and zeal are consumed in such trifling 
 details and common incidents, with such scant, irregular, 
 and interrupted opportunities of devotion, and with the 
 prospect of the same apparently trivial aims filling up tlie 
 whole earthly future of their lives. It would be beyond 
 our present object to enter into explanations necessary to 
 detei-mine the relative value of different vocations in the" 
 
LOTOLISM AND SOCIAL CHRISTIANITT. 
 
 121 
 
 " kingdom of God ; but it will surely help such persons to 
 realize the truth that it is not so much the subject-matter 
 as the spirit and inner law of life that constitutes its per- 
 fection. 
 
 There is an intended rivalry in a holy family life and 
 that of a Religious Community. It is of God's ordering, 
 in the dispensation of this present world, that Christ is 
 to be served in both states of Hfe, and that a perfect 
 following of His example is open to His true disciples 
 according as He leads them to follow Him in one or the 
 other manifestations of His will." 
 
 " To every one whom He calls the highest aim is open, 
 though the way of perfection is more direct and free as 
 the vocation is more or less openly dedicated to His ser- 
 service ; but in every case, however seemingly adverse 
 or uncongenial to the soul's secret aspirations, the love of 
 God and the steadfast confonnity with His Will is the one 
 law of all true perfection ; and the emptying of self, the 
 completeness of self renunciation, the one necessary 
 condition of all true advances in divine love and tlie imi- 
 tation of Jesus, so none need fear lest he should fliil or 
 fall short in the race which is set before us if he can say 
 of a truth, * I no longer live unto myself, but unto Him 
 who died for me and rose again.' " 
 
 The preceding remarks introductory, as already stated, 
 to the translation of a work by a very able Jesuit, exhi- 
 bit the true intention and spirit of Loyola's scheme 
 for modifying the ordinary conditions of the educational 
 training belonging to man's terrestrial existence, so as to 
 render that process more distinctly subjective with refer- 
 ence to the all-important purpose of preparation for the 
 more perfect spiritual existence. Those remarks, however, 
 will alse serve in conjunction with all that has gone before 
 to assist the reader in clearly defining and appreciating the 
 meaning of the expressions ' Religion,' ' Rehgious truth,' 
 ' Religious life,' &c. . . Religion may be said to be that 
 
122 THEpLOaY AND SCIENCE. 
 
 which teaches and belongs to an enlightened and strictly 
 reasonable use of the will and of the intellectual facul- 
 ties by the human-being. But no human-being can lead 
 a perfectly religious life ; it is indeed not consistent with 
 the conditions of the terrestrial human existence that any 
 man should be able to do so : it is what he is here ex- 
 pressly for the purpose of learning to do. But what he 
 can do, and has to do, is to try. The distinct recog- 
 nition of the object and the constant persistent endeavour 
 to work towards it, ... , to learn and to improve more 
 and more, is what the most enlightened and most reason- 
 able human being can do ; and it is that which if he be 
 truly enlightened and reasonable he will certainly do. 
 
 The object of this Essay is in some measure to point 
 out that, in a general sense, all true sound human 
 knowledge belongs to religious truth ; and that all really 
 useful work performed by a human-being belongs to a 
 religious life... the work is performed in the service of 
 the Creator. A man by acting reasonably and by work- 
 ing with industry and devotion may not only facilitate 
 his own education, but, by assisting in the education of 
 his fellow-men, may, even, facilitate the government ol' 
 the Earth. 
 
 A clear apprehension of the religious character of all 
 useful work and of the necessarily imperfect life of the 
 most religious, will prevent a restriction of the meaning 
 of the expression ' religious' in sucli a way as may be 
 ofteu-times very harmful, for example: a man who with 
 much self-denial, great industry and devotion, is work- 
 ing, in what is called the service of science, with the 
 object of extending and increasing scientific knowledge. 
 To tell such a man that he is leading an altogether irre- 
 ligious life, is to teU him w'hat he feels sure must be in 
 some degree unreasonable and wrong ; he feels sure that 
 the work he is doing is itself of a good character, and that 
 his purpose is not selfish ; that he is working with a 
 desire to benefit his fellow-men, and to do that which he 
 
THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE. 123 
 
 conceives to be his duty. In fact, he is not irreligious but 
 idolatrous ; he is engaged in the service of an idol, whe- 
 ther he caU it by the name of science, philosophy^ or by any 
 other name, does not signify ; he may consider that he 
 is doing what (is riglit in his own eyes) appears to liim to 
 be right, and therefore doing his duty ; but that is to 
 make his own judgment his idol. 
 
 We think that many of those who tlius expend their la- 
 bour and their lives, would, on an assumption that they 
 were acting unreasonably and wrongly, argue that they 
 were justified because they were doing what they supposed 
 to be right ; that they would believe in the Creator and iu 
 the Bible, if it were made clear to them that they should 
 believe, and would then act differently. Now this is a 
 point which we purpose to examine, briefly, with atten- 
 tion. It is a justification on a plea of ignorance. . .But 
 of what character is the ignorance ? Is it wilful ignor- 
 ance ? Because if a man wishes or intends to act in a 
 particular manner, and is told there is a law against his 
 so acting, and is told also, where he may find the law, 
 and the man, nevertheless, neglects to inform himself as 
 to the law and acts unlawfully in ignorance of the 
 law, it is in that case wilful ignorance; he cannot 
 plead the innocency of ignorance, for he has wilfully 
 neglected to make himself acquainted with the law. 
 
 The question comes up again. . .Why is it not all made 
 plain ? If it be of such great importance for men to 
 believe (what you call) the focts of Spiritual Theology. . 
 why are they not stated and explained so distinctly that 
 there would be no difficulty about it I Because a man is 
 an intellectual being, and it is requisite for him to learn 
 the use. . .the proper and legitimate use. .of his wiUand 
 Ins mtellectual faculties. How is the use of his inteUec- 
 tual faculties to be learnt unless they be exercised ? And 
 how is a man to be taught knowledge of a complicated 
 and difficult character if he have not acquired knowledge 
 
124 TIIEOLOGT AND SCIENCE. 
 
 of a simple and elementary description ? Can an unedti- 
 cated child be at once taught to understand such a 
 complex fact as the binomial theorem or tlie atomic- 
 theory or the statement of any complex ideal fact unless 
 he be first taught knowledge of a more simple kind ? 
 But in learning, the child, if he leara according to any 
 sound system of education, learns to learn. He learns to 
 submit himself to discipline, to study orderly and methodi- 
 cally ; he finds that if he does not properly learn his 
 lesson, it has been time lost and he must learn it again ; 
 he finds, also, that if he learns what is wrong it gives him 
 trouble, and instead of advancing his knowledge, makes 
 it more difficult for him to learn what is right. And 
 again, can a man accomplish anything useful without 
 exertion and endeavour? Can he learn a mechanical 
 trade without labouriously learning the use of the tools 
 belonging to that trade ? or can a man engage success- 
 fully in business unless he submits himself to the rules of 
 business? But the man of science does not, surely, 
 require such examples as these, for where can he find a 
 better illustration than in the study of science itself? 
 Which of us would appreciate the inductive method if 
 we did not know by and from experience that in no other 
 way can science be built up ? ... if we did not know 
 that whenever the attempt has been made in any other 
 way the result has been that no progress could be made 
 . . . .that as soon as a small part of the edifice had, 
 apparently, been built up it immediately fell down again. 
 And what man, who knows anything about scientific 
 investigation, expects to add to the common stock of 
 knowledge without strict attention to the rules of inves- 
 tigation, and without industry and perseverance ? What 
 is now the most valuable part of scientific knowledge ? 
 Is it not the knowledge of the sound method by whicl) 
 knowledge can be increased 1 The man who has 
 gone through a special training for scientific inves- 
 tigation knows well that strict mental discipline is 
 
THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE. 125 
 
 the particular and essential characteristic of that 
 training. The student must have, or if he have 
 not must acquire, patience, perseverance, zeal, mental 
 activity, watchfulness, strict attention to the rules 
 of investigation; he must learn to place his reliance 
 firmly upon fact and reason, and to distrust mere appear- 
 ance and plausibility, to divest his mind of prejudice, to 
 reject no evidence which may belong to the result,' to 
 accept no (apparent) result as a conclusion unless it be 
 strictly reasonable, and, lastly, he must learn to appreciate 
 the great value of persistence., to have the conviction 
 that if his investigation be orderly and legitimate, and he 
 persists, his success eventually is sure. . to fully trust the 
 assurance, given long ago, that, though the night may 
 be long and the wrestling severe, if he persist and con- 
 tinue to exert his strength, the morning light will at 
 length appear and the angel of Truth declare his name. 
 
 Now the difference between investigations in Na- 
 tural or General Science and investigations in Theology, 
 is that the former consist in enquiring of God concern- 
 ing His works through and by means of His laws ; the 
 latter consist in enquiring dkectly of God Himself 'con- 
 cerning His personal relationship to men, and concerning 
 the conditions of human existence. 
 
 Is it reasonable to suppose that rules which are found 
 imperative and indispensable in the former, are quite 
 urmecessary in the latter I Is it not more reasonable to 
 assume that, from the higher, the extremely important 
 and sacred character of these last inquiries, attentive and 
 careful compliance^with the rules will be yet more strict- 
 ly required ? 
 
 To those who, having the advantages of education at 
 the present day... having the evidence of the facts of 
 science, of every department of science... and, havinc^ 
 the instructions of well ^qualified teachers, not only o°f 
 living teachers>ut of thejworks which have been writ- 
 ten expressly for that purpose to guide them in the 
 
126 
 
 TUEOLOGY AND 8CIEN0K. 
 
 application of that evidence, ... to those who, having 
 these advantages and pretending to have made the inves- 
 tigation for themselves, do not beheve in the Bible as 
 containing a revelation from God, a revelation of His 
 
 relationship to man, and a declaration of His laws 
 
 we have for the present nothing to say. But to those 
 who have a distinct belief, in a general sense, that the 
 Bible does contain such true divine revelation, we wish, 
 before taking leave of the reader, to point out that they 
 are thereby reasonably debarred from holding or enter- 
 taining any theory, doctrine, or judgment which is in any 
 degree inconsistent with such fundamental belief in the 
 Bible and in the God of the Bible. To entertain, to 
 countenance a discussion of any such doctrine, or to be 
 a party to any controversy into which such doctrine is 
 introduced — unless it be to oppose it in the most uncom- 
 promising spirit,— is to treat the Revelation of God with 
 contempt... it is to exhibit practical distrust in His 
 wisdom and power, . . to pervert His most precious gift 
 of reason, and to rebel against His most imperative com- 
 mandment.