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1 2 3
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6
22X
CHI
W
A DICTIONARY
OF
CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES.
BEINQ
A C»NTL\UAT10\ OF 'THE DICTIONARY OK THE BIBLE,'
EDITED BY
WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L, LL.D.,
AND
SAMUEL CHEETHAM, M.A.,
ARCHDEACOK OP SOUTHWARK, AND
J-BOTESSCH OF rA.yroRAI, THEOI/X)V IN KINO'B OOILKOE, iONOO*.
IN TWO VOLUMES.-V0L. II.
ILLUSTRATED By ENGR AVISOS ON i^OOIk
TORONTO:
WILLING & WILLIAMSON
E
INITIAl
A.H.
S.
A.
M
F.
/
H.
T.
F.
A.
W
. T
C. B.
G. P.
H. B
C.J.
J. B-
A. B.
S.A.
LIST OF WRITERS
IN THE DICTIONARIES OP CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES
AND BIOGRAPHY.
INITIAL.
A.H.D.A
S.
A.
M.
F.A.
/
H.
T. A.
F.
A.
W
T. A.
C. B.
G. P. B.
H. B-Y.
C. J. B.
J. B— Y.
A. B.
8. A. B.
NAMES.
Arthur Herbert Dyke Acland, M.A.,
Of Christ Church, Oxford.
Sheldon Amos, M.A.,
Late Professor of Jurisprudence in University College,
London.
Rev. Maksham Fkedeuick Argles, M.A.,
Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, and Principal of
St. Stephen's House.
Rev. Henry Thomas Ammfield, M.A., F.S.A.,
Rector of Colnt'-Engaine, Essex ; late Vice-Principal of
the Theological College, Salisbury.
Rev. Fkederick Arnold, B.A., of Christ Church, Oxford.
WiLiJAM Thomas Arnold, M.A.,
University College, Oxford. *
Rev. Churchill Babington, D.D., F.L.S.,
Disney Professor of Avchaeology in the University of
Cambridge; Hector of Cockfield, Suffolk; formerly
Fellow of tit. John's College, Cambridge.
Rev. George Percy Badger, D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
Rev. Henry Bailey, D.D.,
Rector of West Tarring and Honorary Canon of Canter-
bury Cathedral ; late W arden of St. Augustine's
College, (Canterbury, and formerly Fellow of St. John's
College, Cambridge.
Rev. Charles James Ball, M.A.,
Master in Merchant Taylors' School.
Rev. James Barmby, B.D.,
Vicar of Pittington, Durham ; formerly Fellow of Mag-
dalen College, Oxford, and Principal of Bishop
Hatfield's Hall, Durham.
Rev. Alfred Barry, D.D.,
Principal of King's College, London, and Canon of
Worcester.
S. A. Bennett, B.A.,
Of Ijincoln's Inn.
iv
LIST OF WItlTERS.
IIHTIALS.
E. W. B.
NAMES.
Eight Roy. Edward White Benwn, D.D.,
Bishop of Ti-uro.
Rov. Thomas S. Bkiiry, B.A.,
Trinity College, Dublin.
Waltek Bksant, M.A.,
tioci etaiy of the Pulestiiie Exploration Fund; late Scholar
of Chnst's College, Cambridge.
Kev. EmvARii BicKEi;.STEr/[ Hiuk.s, M.A.,
Fellow of 'I'rinity College, Cambricjgo.
Rev. Chaui.es William Boase, M.A.,
Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford,
H. B. Henisy Buadshaw, M.A.,
(lu Diet. Biog.) Fellow of King's College, Cambridge ; Librarian of the
Lni versify of Cambridge,
Rev. William Bkioht, D.D.,
Canon of Christ Church, Oxford; Regiu.s Professor of
Jiicelesiastieal History m the University of Oxford.
The late Rev. Henry Buowne, M.A'.,
Vicar of I'evensey, and I'rebendary of Chichester Cathedral,
T. S. B.
W. B.
(ill Diet. Ant.)
E. B. B.
C. W. B.
W. B.
H. B.
(in Diet. Ant.)
I. B.
J. B.
T, E. B.
D. B.
J, M. C.
J. G. C.
c.
0. G. C.
E. B. C.
M. B. C,
F. D.
IsAMBARli BruNEL, D.C.L.,
Of Lincoln s Inn ; Chancellor of the Diocese of Ely.
James Hkyce, D C.L.,
Of Lincoln's Inn; Regius Professor of Civil Law in the
University of Oxford,
Thomas Ryburn Bi chanan, M.A.,
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.
Rev. Daniel Builer, M.A.,
Rector of Thwing, Yorkshire,
Rev, JoAn Mooue Capes, M.A.,
Of Balliol College, Oxford,'
Rev, John Gibson Cazenove, D D F R S E
Canon and Chiuicellor of St. Mmy's Ca'thwlral. Edinburgh •
formerly Provost of Cumbrae College, N.B. ^ '
Venerable Samuel CiiEEriiAM, M A
Archdeacon of Southwark ; Professor of Pastoral Theology
ni Kings College London, and Chaplain of Dulwich
SmSge.'"'""'^- ^'^""-.^^ ^'"-*'« C^"«g'
Rev. Charles Granville Clarke, MA
Late Fellow of Worcester College, Oxford.
ED\VARr) BvLEs Co well, M.A
^'tpTw'^f p"'^"*^^" *^« ^^'"versity of Cambridge,
lellow of Corpus Christi College. ^
Rev, Maurice Byles Cowell, M.A.,
Vicar of Aish-Bocking,
F. H. Blackburne Daniel, Esq.. M.A
Of Lincoln's Inn. *!•> ^--a..
LIST OF WItlTERS.
late Scholar
rian of the
Vofi'SNor of
Dxf'orcl.
Cathedral.
Ely.
iaw in the
INITIALS,
T. W. D
L. D.
J. LI, D.
CD.
W. P. D.
A. B. C. D,
S. J. E.
A. E.
J. E.
C. J. E.
E. S. Ef.
formerly Fellow of
■ A. P. F.
W. H. F.
inburgh ;
Theology
Diilwich
College,
J. M. F.
1 C.D.G.
mbridge,
m .CG.
I W. P. G.
■ li. S. G.
NAMES.
Kev T. ^v. Davids.
Upton.
Rev Lion Ki, Davidson, M. A
Curate of St. James'B, Piccadilly.
Bov. John L,.e«elyn Daviks. M A
SijlgS^^^'^^'^'^'V^I-'^^^bone
Annity Lollcgo, Cainbiidgo.
Rev. Cecil Deiodes, MA
St. Mary Mugdalcno! O^f^fa' °'^"''''' "'"* ^icar of
Re.% W,U.UM PCKDIE DiCKSON, DD
i roii'Ksor of Divinitv in fi, . i" "•'
Miss A. B. C. DuM,AH. """'*^ "' ^''^^S^--
Rev.^ Samuki, John Eaj.es, M A
«ev. A. liDEHSIIKlM, D D Ph D ^s^ox.
Vicar of j.odeis,Bridport'. "'
Rov. JoiiN Ei.i.euton, M a
R-^ctor of Barnes, tiuirey.
Rov. C. J. Ellioti'. M.A
Vicar of Winkfiold. Windsor, tt
Church. Oxford; fontri; ?''"' ^"""^ "^ Christ
Scholar in the t^niver t? Jf ^^"«f .,«»"<1 Tyrwhitt
and Tutor of S Slellt^-fSf '' = '"""^^'^ ^^"o-
^^Bit 'i^i^/™- ''--- Fo.BE.. D.O.L.,
""^ W^SrX;^;^-S--n.K. M.A., •
Archbishop of^i?eS^^«"^' ""\ ^'^'^I'^-- *« the
. Soul. College, Oxford. ^' """"''-^ ^'^""^ of All
Rev JoiinMekFullei;, MA
cLiibrfdge.^^'^ '"""'^^'^ ^^'^«- o'' St. John. College.
Rev Jaa,esGammack,M.A.,
*^-^idt'^^'--Mem.S.A.Scot.
lithie, Fordoun, N.B
Rev^Cniusi-YN D. GiNSBUna". LL.D
Elmlea, Wokingham. '
Rev Charlks Gohe,M.A.,
Follow of Trinity College. Oxford.
The Parsonage, Drum-
'uerlylWorofSt. John
's I
•lewen.
LIST OF WRITERS.
INITUW. NAMM.
A. W. n, Tho lato Rev. Autiiur West Haddav, B.D.,
Hector of i'-iiton-.m-thc-Hoiith; Flon. cjanon of Worcoster •
Bomotinio Follow of Trinity Colloyo, Oxford.
Rev. CirAiti.Es Edwakd Hammond, M.A.,
Looturor (lato Fellow and Tutor) of Exoter College, Oxford.
Rev. Edwin Hatch, M.A.,
Vice-I'rincipul of St. Mary Hall, Oxford.
Rev. Edwards Comkuford Hawkins, M.A.,
Head Master of St. John's Foundation School, Leatherhead.
Rev. Lewis Hensley, M.A.,
Vicar of Hitcliin. Herts; formerly Fellow of Trinity
UolJego, Cambridge. ^
Rov. Ckarlks Hole, B.A.,
Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History at King's College
London ; formerly Rector of Loxbear. '
Rev, Henhy Scott Holland, M.A.,
Senior Student and Tutor of Christchurch, Oxford.
Rev. Fenton John Antiiony Hort D D
Hulsean j;rofe8«or of Divinity, Cambridge; Chaplain
to tho Jhshop of V\ inchoster.
Rov. Henry John Hotiiam, M.A.,
Vice-Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
John Hullah, LL.D.,
Honorary Fellow of King's College, London.
Rev. William Inge, D.D.,
Canon of Christ Church, Oxford; Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Oxford.
Rev. William Jackson, M.A., F.S.A. F R A S
Formerly Fellow of Worcester College,' Oxford; Bampton
Lecturer for 1875. ^
Rev. George Andrew Jacob, D.D.,
Formerly Head Master of Christ's Hospital, London.
Rev. David Rice Jones.
Rev. William James Josling, M.A
Rector of Moulton Suffolk ; formerly Fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge.
C. F. Keary,
Of the British Museum.
Rev. Stanley Leathes, D.D.,
Professor of Hebrew in King's College, London • Pre-
bendary of St. Paul's ; Rector of Cliffe-at-HoorKe^r
Right Rev. Joseph Barber Liohtfoot D.D *
Bishop of Durham. ' ''
Richard Adelbert Lipsius, D.D.,
Professor of Divinity in the University of Jena.
John Malcolm Ludlow,
Of Lincoln's Tnii .
C. E. H.
E.H.
E. C. H.
L. H.
C.H.
H. S. H.
H.
H. J. H.
J. H.
W, L
W. J.
G. A. J.
D. R. J.
W. J. J.
C. F. K.
S. L.
L.
R. A. L.
J. M. L.
LIST OP WRITERS.
INITIAU,
J. R. L.
J. H. L.
G. P. M.
F. W. M.
S. M.
W. B. M.
A. J. M.
G.M.
F. M.
W. M.
G. H. M.
T. D.C.M
H.C.G.M.
J. B. M.
J. B. M.
A.N.
P.O.
P.P.
vii
NAMES.
Bev. JoHV HoBKRT Lvm, BD
Rev. Joseph IIirst Lupiom, M A
SurmuBtor of St. Paul's Sch;;ol ; formerly Fellow of St
John'M College, Caml.ridge. ^ 'euow ot St.
Bov Georoe Fkedkrick Maclear, D D
Head MuHter of King's Coilogo Sch;:ol, London
FKEnERic W. MAnDEN, M.B.A S
Brighton College. ''
The late Bov. Spencer Mansel, M A
The lata Rkv. Whabtok B. Maiiriott, M A
Bev. Arthur James Mason, M A
^'"arn°t?th!?R^ College. Cambridge; Examining Chap-
Bev. George Mead, M.A.,
Chaplain to the Forces, Plymouth.
Bev. Frederick Meyrick, M.A.
Kev. William Milligan, D D
Bev George Herbert Moberly, MA
Bev. Thomas Daniel Cox Morsr.
Vicar of Christ Church, F(.r ., Hill
Bev^ Handley Carr Glyn Mol i.l,' M.a!,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
John Bickakds Mozley, M A
FomerJy Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
J. Bass Mullinger, M.A.,
St. John's College, Cambridge.
Alexander Nksbitt, P.S A
Oldlands, Uckfield. ' " ''
Bev. Phipps Onslow, B A
Sector of Upper Sapey. Herefordshire.
Bev. Francis Paget, M.A.,
Senior Student and Tutor of Christ Chr^roh n f^
Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of % ' '
viU
LIST OF WIIITERS.
imUAM. NAMKJ).
G. W. P. Rev. Oreooky Walton PxNNF.TiJonNE, M.A.,
Vicnr of Foi riiiK, SuBm-x. and R.uhI ''Bmn ; formerlv
or n 1. T, .V Vice-1 rmo.pal of tl.o TI>..oI..gic«l Collogc. ChioJioHtor
W.G.F.P. WAr/run O. F. fim.MMonK. D.C.L..
Of (ho Alid.Uo 'rcniplo; Clmnotllur of fho DiocoHo of
Lincoln ; formerly Follow of All Sonls Colkgo, Oxfoid.
Kev. IIknry Wrkhit I'kii.loit, M.A.,
Keotor of Sfcmnton-on-W.yo ; I'raeloctor of Horoford
tathcdnil; formerly Student of Chrint Church and
Mastor m CharterhoiiHo School.
ROV. Al.FHKD Pf-UMMKIt, M.A.,
MdHtor of University College, Durham.
Rev. EowAni) ITayivs Pi.umptrk, D.I).,
Professor of Now Tcstamor.t Exegesis in King's College
London ; Probondary of St. I'ftul's Cathodral ; Vicar of
Hiokloy; formerly Fellow of Biasono.se Collogo, Oxford
De Pbessens^. Rev. E. Du Pre.sskn8e.
Of I'aris.
H. W. P.
A. P.
E. H. P.
(or P.)
J.B.
W.B.
H. B. B.
G.S.
P. S.
F. H. A. S
W. E. S.
J. S.
b.s.
W. M. S.
R.S.
Rev. Jamks Waine, M.A.,
^'*T)urh^ ^"'^ ' ^'^'■'"^'■'•>' ^®^^°^ ^^ *^« Univeraity of
Very Ifev, William Rkevks, D.D.,
Dean of Armagh.
Rev. Hi NRY Robeht Reynolds, D.D.,
Principal of C'hoshnnt College.
Rev. Georoe Salmo.v, D.D.,
Regiu.. Professor of Divinity, IVinity Collogo, Dublin.
Rev. PlULlI- SCHAKF, D.D.,
Bible House, New York.
. Rev. Fkedirick Hknky Ambrose Scrivene[!, MA DC L
Prebendary of Exeter and Vicar of Hendon, Middlesex.
Rev. William ErnvAno Scudamohe, M.A
Rejtor of Ditchingham ; formerly JYllow of St. John's
tolltgo, Cambridge.
Rev. John Smarpe, M.A.,
Rect.r of Gi^sing, Norfolk ; formerly Fellow of Christ's
tolJege, Caanbridge.
The late Benjamin Shaw, M.A.,
^^CamSe^''"' ^"™^'''y' ^^"""^ ^^ '^'''^it.v College,
Rev. William Macdonald Sinclair, M.A.,
Domestic Chaplain to the Bishop of London.
Rev. Robert Sinkeh, M.A.,
Librarian of Trinity College, G.mbridge.
Rev. Isaac Gregory Smith, M.A.,
Vicar of Great Malvern ; Pre'bendary of Hereford Cathe-
dral ; formerly Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford-
Bamptoii Lecturer for 1873. ^^iio'u.
n. p. ti.
n. T. s.
J. do S.
J. W. S.
LIST OP Wltl'lKRH.
IfAMKt.
V.c«rof«t.«,utholon.;wV Dublin.
Ifov. John m Sovuics, H.A.
lolWof«t.Jola.HC„,,„,'itnl.
«0V. VVlM.UM HrKWART, I) J)
Rov. O. T. Htokks, M.A
Viear of All «a.nts.iM,vckrock, Dublin.
John Stuaiit, LL D
Of tl.« General iJ'ogiBter Honso. Edinburgh.
Koy. WiLMA.M Srunns, M A
'^"n" hi tfni:S; S'iS.:r«- «^ ^^^'^- Hi^to^
Foll.nv .,f Ch,.is,.« , '0110.;: (Srldt"'"' ' '"""''^^
^°^,"'''""^'5auclavSwktk,B.D
tL"^f^::i-;i.t;r^^;;-^ Divinit, W
Rev E..wA,u, S,.aAKr T..oor. M A ^' ^"""'''^«-
Warden of Koblo College, Oxford.
Rev C,t,„,,Es Taylou, M.A.,
K.«..J.l.r.ov W„oSt. John Tvnw.MTr, M A
Fo....l,^,t„ae.nt and i.beton'e t'.der of C^i.tehnrch.
Rev. Edmund Vicnabi.esMA
Rev IlENUY Wage, M.A.,
J^Irs. HuMPUKKY Ward
Oxford.
Rov FiiEDEUiCK Edward Warrfn R n
«. VV. W. Ven Hen.v w.lmam Watkins M a
W. 8.
t'
O. T. S.
J. S— T.
&
C. A. 8.
H. B, S.
E. 8. T.
O.T.
E. V.
H. \V.
M. A. W.
F. E. W.
LIST OF WRITEHS.
INITIAM.
B. F. W.
or W.
G. W.
Chr. W.
NAMM.
Eev. BiiOOKE Foss Wicstcott, D.D.,
Canon of Poterhorongh ; Begins Professor of Divinity in
the University of Cambridge; formerly Fellow of
Trinity College.
The late Rev. Gkorgk Wilmams, B.D.,
Vicar of Hingwood ; I J on. Canon of Winchester; formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
Rev. Chiustoi'hkr Wokpswobth, M.A.,
Eectcr of Glaston, formerly Fellow of Peterhouse, and
Schohir of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Eev. John Wordsworth, M.A,,
Prebendary of Lincoln; Examining Chaplain to the
Bishop of Lincoln; Tutor, and formerly Fellow of
• Brasenoso College, Oxford. *
W. A. W. WiLMAM Aldis Wright, M.A.,
Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. Edward Mallkt /ouno, M.'A.;
Head Master of Sherborne School; Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge. '
Eev. Henry Wiluam Yhi.k, R.C.L., M.A.,
Eeotor of Shiptonon-Cherwell and Vicar of Hampton Gay.
J.W.
E. M. Y.
H.W.T.
A
DICTIONAEY
OF
CHEISTIAN ANTIQUITIES.
u
' MACARIUS
I ^ACALLEUS, bishop in Cr.mchnd.a in
Ireland, ,.th centnry ; coinmomor.ittcl Ai.ril 25
(Boll. Acta SS. Ap. iii. 866). m h.]
Fo^i^r"^/?^^ <i> ^--'y'! commemorated
J'eL. 2S (J/icron. Mart.).
/■J-*^ f^ommemorated at Alexandria April 8
(tiieron. Mart.). '
(3) or MACHARIA, commemorated at An-
Uoch April 7 (//.iron. Mart.-hed. M;rt.
•'■ rc H 1
MACARIUS or MACHARIUS (1) Alex-
ANDHiNus or Uruanus, abbat ; commemorated
Jan. 2- (//wron. Afart. { Usuard. Mart.; Vet.
Urn. Mart; Bed. Mart. Auct. ; Boll. Acta SS.
ul' 10 /l , ^"'""'"""''"ted by the Greeks
Jan. 19 (Cat. Byzant. ; Acta SS 1. c. ; BasiJ.
Menol. designating him Romanus.)
(2) Aeovptius, presbyter and abbat in
bcitliis; commemorated Jan. 15 (Vet. Horn
i^ar<.; Usuard Mart. ; Bed. Mart. AxKt. ; Boll.
Mass Jan i. 1007). Commemorated by the
Greeks Jan. 19. (Basil. Mcnol.; Cat. ByLT;
luhS) '^- '^- ^^' ^°"- ^^'^ ^^- •'''»•
Tnn'lf?/!^''' commemorated, not said where,
Jan. ii (Ihcron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Aud.).
MaH.)^"*'^"' ™"""«"'<"»ted Jan. 26 (Ilieron.
(uSrJxrr"'*'' "'"' '''"'°"' ^^''- '*
1069
MACARIUS
(6) Bishop of Jorus,.Iem, confessor, 4th cen-
tu^ry.^commemoratod Mar. 10 (lioll.'^o'a "&
(7) Bishop of Bordeaux 4th m. c»u '^
commeinoratedMay4(B„irA"L*^^.r;,"^:
(^£n.'l'.';y'"""'"''"™'*'» ''t Lyon, June 2
(9) Martyr with Meeotia of Mil.,„ .
~.Ued^J.^16(^-^,^t,lZ;
4°i9(S:.'^;;?.r°"'^"" "' "''''"'"^•
>r..i"28(Sn.'C7.r'"""''='' "" '"*''""»'
ror reierences to him in some codices of th^
Wameutary.see Greg. Mag. U!,.C::^:^
(13) Martyr with Julianus in Syria- com
memoraedAug. V2 (Ilkron. Mart, f Vet /Z
Mart.; Usuard. Jfar«.; Boll. Acta SS.Lgl:
s4"i(c:r".':iir"-''''^"— ted
(17) Martyr ; cominHniorat>sl it l'.,i i- r\ ^
2} (.ffieron. i/uk). "'""''' ^'-
.070
MACCABEES
(18) Miirtvr ; commemorated in Africa, Nov. 9
{nur'.n. Mart.). [C. H.]
(19) One of Libyan birth ; commemorated at
Aiexnn.liia Dec. 8 {Vet. liom. Mart.),
(20) Patriarch of Alexandria; commemo-
rated Dee. 27 (Cat. Aethinp.). [0. H.]
MACCAIiEKS, seven brothers martyred at
Antioch with their mother under Antiochus;
conimeniorated Aug. 1 (Ilieron. Mart. ; Vet.
Horn. Marl. ; Bed. Mart. ; Basil, Menn/.). As-
signed to .luly 30 in Cal. Armcn. ; mentioned in
some codices of the Gregoriiin sacramentary
(lib. Sacrain. 409, Migne), [0. H.]'
MACCARTHENNUS, bishop of Clochora in
Ireland, confessor A.D. flOti ; commemorated Aug.
lb (Boll. Acta SS. Aug. iii, 2(l'j). [C. H.]
MACEDONIUS (1) Critiioiiiaous, Syrian
anchoret ; commemorated .Ian. '24 (Cal. Buzant. ;
Boll. Acta SS. .Ian. ii. 593).
(2) Commemorated in Asia Mar. 12 ( /heron.
MaH.). ^
(3) Presbyter at Kicomedia, martyred with
his wife Patricia and daughter Jlodesta; com-
niemorafed March 13 (/^ivon. Mart.; Bed.
Mart.; Vet. lioin. Mart. ; Usuard. Mart.; Boll.
Ada SS. Mar. ii. 2iJ0).
(4) Bishop of Constantinople, 6th century ;
commemorated April 2.'> (Boll. Acta SS. Ap
iii. 309). '^
(6) Martyred with two youths in Greece;
commemorated June 28 (Boll. Acta SS. .June
V. S.'iS).
(e)^Martyred with 'lUenO his and Tatianus
in Phrygia; commemorated sopt. 12 (Boll. Acta
SS. Sept. iv. 20).
(7) Martyr; commemorated at Caesarea,
Kov. 1 (fferon. Mart.).
(8) Jlartyr; commemorated in the city of
Austis Nov. 21 (Hieron. Mart). [C. H.]
MACELLINUS, martyr, his depositio at
Rome June 2 (Ilieron. Mart.). [0. H.]
MACHAD0RU8«, Martyr with others at
Antioch ; commemorated July 19 (Boll. Acta
SS. July, iv. 587). [c. H.]
MACH A LDU8, bishop in the Island of Mona,
5th century; commemorated Ap. 25. (Boll. Acta
SS. Ap. iii. 3G(J). [•(;_ jj -i
MACHAONIA. martyr in Africa; comme-
morated Dec. 15 {Hieron. Mart.). [0. H.]
MACHABIA. [Macua.]
MACHARIUS. [Macaeius.]
MACHARUS (1) Commemorated April 12
(Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Commemorated July 10 at Alexandria
and at Antioch (Hieron. Mart). [o. H.]
MACHROSA, martyr in Africa ; commemo-
rated Dec. 15 (Hieron. Mart). [0. H.]
mAcon, councils op
MACHUTUS, bishop; his depositio comme-
morated at Antioch, Nov. 15 (Hieron. Mart.).
[C. H.]
MACIDALE8, martyr; commemorated at
Rome, June 12 (Hieron. Mart.). [Maodalks.]
[C H.]
MACNISCIUS, bishop of Coneria, or Con-
nereth, in Ireland, 6th century ; commemorated
Sept. 3 (Boll. Acta S>: Sept. I 604). [(.;. H.]
• Mnchadorm Is the heartlnir of Jcta .'?f • but In ihn
text Mucedo, while Huron. Mart, (which la the authority
quoted) Ims Macliarlim, In MIgnc. Potthast also glv^
MACOX, COUNCILS OF (.IMisconcmia
Conri/ui). Three councils of M:icon arc recorded •
the two first being held by command of king
(iuntram. *
1. A.n. 581, when 21 bishops subscribed to 19
canons: Prisons of Lyons first, and Kvantius of
\ lenne next. In their preface they decliire they
are not going to mnku new canons ^o much as
san-tion the old. Yet tlieir 6th canon is novel.
as well in sjieaking of archbishops at all as in
ordering fliat they shall not say mass without
the-.r palls. So is the 7th, which threatens civil
judges with excommunication if tliev proceed
against any clerk, except ,oii criminal cliarees
So IS the 9th. which orders Mondays, Wednes-
days, and Fridays from Nov. 11 to 'Dec. 25 to
be kept as fasts. Others relating to n,arried
jiriests anil Dishops, and to the .lews in feneral
are remarkable for their severity. Nine more
canons are cited by Bnivh.ird "and others as
having been passed at this council. (M msi ix
931-940.) [K. S. Kf.]'
2. A.D. 585, when 43 fHscit and 20 absent
bishops, through (heir d><pjties, subscribed to 20
canons. In their preface Prisons, bishop of
Lyons, IS styled patriarch. The first canon is
a sliort homily for the better observance of
Sunday. By the second, no work may be done
for SIX days at Ea.ster. In the sixth, the 4l.^t
African canon is quoted with aj.proval, which
orders that the Eucharist shall be celebrated on -
all days of the year but one fasting; and
further provision is made for what remains afte-
celebration, by directing that it shall be con'-
sumed by persons of unblemished char.icter
brought to church for that purpose, and enjoined'
to come lasting, on Wednesdays and Fridays
having been first sprinkled with wine. By the'
seventh, slaves that have been set fr-^e bv the
church are not to be molested before the niagis.
trafe. By the eighth, none that have taken
sanctuary may be touched till the priest has
been consulted. By the ninth and tenth, the
civil power may not proceed against any bishop
except through his metropolitan; nor against
any priest, deacon, or sub-deacon. except through
their bishop. By the sixteenth, no relict ot'a
sub-deacon, exorcist, or acolyth may marry
again. By the nineteenth, clerks m.iy not fn^-
quent courts whe.-, capital causes are fried.
The twentieth orders the holding of councils
every three years, and charges the bishop of
Lyons with assembling them, subject to the as-
sent of the king, who is to fix where they shall
meet. King Guntram, in a dignified ordinan.e.
published ai the close of this council, intimates
that tnc civil authority will not hesitate to
step in, if the canons are not enforced with due
rigour. (Alansi, ix. 947-64.)
3. A.n. 024. or four or five years earlier, ac
cording to Mansi, when the rule of St. Colum
MACORUS
bun which a monk named Agrostinus had nt
^_ w- vindicated by E^tasi"^.t t ^
LUieuil, his successor. r£ g y^-^
.■aJd^^,?^lV^;,r''""'y'"J° Aft''^«i eommemo.
latca A])i, 17 {llteron. Mart.), r(;^ y -i
A D^irf ;V/^ \'i''^'°' '"'''•'.V''t Kheims, about
^ (2) Virgin, maityr, in Mauritania Cnesari-
ensis ; commemorated Jan, ^ (Vet Horn MurJ\
'Ihe name occurs as Martiana in Ado [cf'^j^"
MACRIANA. COUNCIL nv /u ■
ConcUlu.n), held at Macrfana in ^^72 Zs
acconl.ng to some, the only evidenc n.'r it beint'
two canons ,„ the collection of Korrandus Vn 1 1
^nd 2.i), each attributed to a counc 1 nt' A
n;^(Ai-sUv.4a.,andse;i^K;:|,;Co^;;!
MACRINA (1) Grandmother of St. Basi/ at
Neocaesarea ,n Pontus ; con.memorated Jan U
(boll. Acta SS. Jan. i 95'^)
^^(3) Commemorated at Kome July 20 (^llieron.
' [<-"• H.]
MAfJRINUS, martyr with Valerianus and
Gordianus ; commemorated at Kivedunum or
^yon,^Se,t.l7(Usuard. ./a,.,,. triCl
7 1^^,^'"'"'.^''' ' «"ni'»«morated at Damascus
Ju ly 'JO (Usuard. Mart.; Bed. Mart 21^^'-
called Magrr.bius in Hierolx. Mart. '' '
.J*\P' t!"Pi'adoeia, martyr with Gordianus
and other.s un-ler Ucinius ; commemorated Sept
13 (Basil, J/..„o/.; Boll. Acta SS. Sept. iv. 55)
r,Hn'l!T,^"^'"l'"''5"'' commemorated at Pe-
rsia m Ltruria, Ap. 29 (Ilicron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MAGI
1071
(Boll. Acta i'S. Sept. iii. 103). [C H.]
MADELGISILUS, hermit at Centulum rst
MADIELLIllS martvr.
Sept. 19 (//.croTMart);'^' ' '^'""'"'^I"^'"';^^
MADILAMA, virgin mart.,
rated Sept. 17 {ck S^T ^ ' '"FhT
,.„^..^PNESS, TREATMENT OP. fDEMo-
L^. H.J
MAFORS (orMavor,; sometimes J/./o,<, .
f?"^''''""" «■• Ma,^„V,o.) was a short veil ZTZi
a cloak rte^r^'^st" Uh"*'*^.'^ "' '''^'"'"*= '"-- =
the ,.,,0,.,^:';^ ^ ^^~ --ti-s th^
>n his time to be nreser;^ f in ,? ' ^"''"''''^
Blachernal ,t < . ° 'he palace 6f the
,'-'"'^' at Constant nope TA Si X
Cal'"as''^S ""^' .'^'''-^^ '-U.d''b: t
eairi't''di:t:ctT;r:.:irvT '"-'""'': i^"'"''"
0^ma, and «»id^.s^zl;i^l:.er! '';"7
on^•mc;us with W.„,-„,«, a band for Ihe'L:!. '"
c.,e' o, b T ^^■"^•■''f ••'PPlied to a large c arse
cape or hood, worn by monks in the Fastern
church: the monkish scaWa/ (j'^"!,
" Pn.t k '""""'^- '• c. /) describes t thus •
lost haec angusto pallio tarn amictus 1 umi:
the habit of a monk of peculiar sMn.iitv. . 1 1
rhr:;:iL'u'^^f^"^"™''^^--^'^'^om'
lorne calls it "pejdum seu velum rjuo sepulcra
a '7"'^»«/'"'.^t»';"m "bvolvebantur." 'xiat
Sssiie!""*^' " '''' ''P'""--' "-•"'-g of tt
vestmenr' "''V^"' T^""" '""/<"•''•» a-nong the
vestments used m the services of the church
... as a cop. or amice. " JIafortem fa , oseri-
eTo.otT '"";""''""'""'"! "'^■" ■nafonene
teeoporphyro tramosericum opus marinum "
{U^rta Cornutiana, quoted by Ducang )
MAGDALENE, MARY. [MAn,A(16)]
(t^oll.^cta SS. Jun. n. 507; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
MAGDALVEU8, bishop of Verd.m ' ci
re. H.]
rnfif *^J' '"!''™'r of; commemorated Dec 25
(Basil, j/,„,/.j. Compare Magi in Art
. MAGI (rN Art) (1) bkfore HERnn t
«'iiiy ait. One is from a rude fio-r- i »•
1072
MAGI
the original Herod's face lias a look of anger and
suspii'iiin, but this may jiossibly have been in-
serted or enhanced by some ingenious copyist or
MAGI
The Mivi I. r,.r(i IIiTO.!, frim li ]iault ,1^ Hi.uty ■ Los
Kvaiigilia.' VI ivl. Ccmettry uf St. Aguia.
other workman, nothing being easier than sinister
expression, especially in the large-headed and
large-eyed drawings of the Roman decadence.
The second ejcanijile is from the mosaics of Sta.
Maria Maggiore at Rome, and is one of the ori-
ginal mosaics of the 5th century. Herod bears
the nimbus, a rather singular instance of its
occurrence so early. Hebrew elders are with him
unfolding their roils of prophecy, and >r izing upon
him in a manner which appears to dis(|uiet him,
a.s though the te.it of St. Matt. ii. 3 was in the
mind of the artist, and could not have been
more graphically expressed by Ratfaelle himself.
Of the three kings, or magi, two wear the I'hry-
gian bonnet or helmet, the third, who is of very
youthful aiijiearance, having long curkd hair.
They all wear long close-fitting hose, apparently
much ornamented down the front of the leg,
with short tunics, altogether presenting a rather
mediaeval apjiearance. Martigny refers to the
painting in St. Agnes (see woodcut), and savs
that Herod is supposed in it to be protesting
with hand on heart his good intentions towards
the Holy Child. See also Perret, vol. ii. pi
xlvui He mentions a sarcojihagus at Ancona'
»or which he refers to Bartoli, bhpm un" area
iiuirmorai, etc., Torino, 17ti8, which contains
the same subject, with many figures. It will be
found among Mr. Parker's Photographs, No
2077, vol. xviii. Another at Aries bears the first
scene of the history, the magi iu the act of ob-
serving the star, two pointing it out to the
third, figured in Rohault de Kleury, Vjivaniile,
vol. 1. p. t)2. •" J f
(2) Adoration op. A special interest is at-
tached to the subject of the VVIm; Men in the
primitive ages. It seems to have retained its
hold more strongly on the Chri.sti^in imagination
than many other.s, and has always been a fa-
vourite of graphic artists.
The number of magi is almost always three.
Two or four sometimes occur, and Martigny
attributes snch changes of treatment to artistic
motives. But a very dilierent account is given
by Mr. Hemans (Jlisturkal and Monumental
Hume, p. tlOl) of the appearance of two instead
of three in the celebrated ."ith century mosaics
of Sta. Maria Maggiore. "The Divine Child,"
he says, "is here seated on an ample throne,
while another personage is seated on a lower
chair beside Him. In the original composition
that personage was an eldcriy male figure, no
doubt intended for one of the inagi, only two of
whom are seen in the mosaic now before us
whereas in another of the groups (the three
before Herod) we see three magi. A most un-
justifiable alteration of this group was ordered
when the church was restored by Benedict AlV
Instead of the male figure seated beside the
Child was substituted that of Mary with a
nimbus-crowned head and purple vestments.
Among other innovations then made, one of the
magi was omitted, and the mother's figure, ori-
ginally standing behind the throne of the Child
was changed into that of an angel, adding a
third to the group of celestial ministers in the
background." The mosaic in its present state is
figured in Rohault de Fleury, J.'Evanqite, i. p. 6,
XXI. See also Angels and Auciiangels, SS 3*
15, I. 8+. ' " '
A>,„„.,lon ,T u,. Sl,..pL„„l» au 1 M,M,i. Ita^nllef, Ute,a„, „„ S,»,rc»»e. I;„baul. do Heury, • 1« E>a„gil»,' vul. 1. pi. .1,
There can be little doubt that this subject be-
longed to tho earlier cycle of the catacomb fres-
coos. It is found in the cemeteries of St. N'ereo
with four Magi, ia that of SS. Marcellinus and
Peter with two. They appear for the most
part to have been more or less rudelv restored
at various times. Their actual appparan''p m iv
be understood from Parker's Photograph, No.
1IU3; St. Nereo (A.D. 523?), and No. 2116
(St. Marcellinus, a.D. 772). It is figured by
Artnghi (vol. i. p. 5S7), from the walls of the
tallixtine Catacomb: the Magi wearing the
Phrygian cap and tunic, with modein boots, and
rowelled spurs with spur-leathers ; an addition
in itself sufficient to cast a suspicion of restoration
or reconstruction, even as early as Bosio's time,
over all the paintings in the catacomb. At
p. 615, on a Callixtine sarcophagus, they appear
leadirio- their horses, or perhajis camels. They
are b^iaring their offerings, and guided ly the
star to the Holy Infant, who is wr/ipped in
swad.Uing-clothes, and outstretched on a cradle
under the shed with the ox and the ass. The
Blessed Virgin sits apart, and Joseph stands by
'erret, vol. ii. pi.
hagiis at Ancona,
i, b'upra un' area
I, which contains
gurus. If,_will bo
l'hot(igrn|ihs, No.
rles lioai-s the first
in the act of ob-
g it out, to thi)
luury, VEvatujile,
'ial interest is nt-
VVisi! Jlun in the
have ri!taine(l its
btian inuigjnation
ways been a fa-
ist always three,
r, and Martigny
itment to artistic
account is given
and Munumcntat
.'e of two instead
century mosaics
le Divine Child,"
n ample throne,
ated on a lower
:inal composition
male figure, no
lagl, (inly two of
now before us,
oups (the three
gi. A most un-
oup was ordered
y Benedict XIV.
ated liesi<le the
f Mary with a
rplo vestments,
nade, one of the
ler'i) figure, ori-
ne of the Child,
^ngcl, adding a
ninisters in the
present state is
Evamjile, i. p. 6,
MIAJJGELS, §§ 3,
vol. i. pi, 111.
lern boots, and
) ; an addition
1 of restoration
s Biisio's time,
•atacdinb. At
IS, they appear
:amo!s. They
guided 1 y the
s wrapped in
id on a cradle
the uss. The
eph stands by
MAGI
^J x,^^' „!''S""'',''P''ii '■"•"m the catacomb of
bb. Maicelhnus and I'eter "inter duas lauros "
at vol. li. p. 117: with clavi or stripes on the
MAGI
1073
tunics and on the robe of the Vir<»in n,.,.^
; «ain, with horses at ii. It^^^T^"^
aom unknown sarcophagi; ten times in all '
Tl,e Magi and Virgin. Tomb a. &ar..h Isaac Ravenna. 6th
Two highly interesting Gth-century examples
from Kavenua are given by Uo Fleury (vol i
plates xxi .an I xxii.). One from the tomb' of
the exarch Isaac is here reproduced in wood-
cut ; the other is the well-known mosaic of
Nint ApoUinare nella Citti. The latter is perhaps
the ea.-liest type of the Byzantine Madonna of
the earlier middle ages, found at Torcello and
Murano still retained in the unchanging art of
the modern Greek church, and re,,roduced mo.t
signally, perhaps, in the celebrated IJoreo Alle^ri
picture of Cimabue, now in Sta. M.ria Novcdla
in Horence. Ihe attendant angels are thorou.^l.ly
By.antine, and may stand as examples for the
severer ecclesiasticism of Justinian's day. The
magi wear the traditional hose, with somewhat
mediaeval crowns, cloaks, and tunics. Their aces
are car .fully distinguished, and thei; appear , ice
cirously Gothic. Their names, SS Gas mr
Melch,or,and Baltha.ar, are given in the 3c'
perhaps for the first time, 'fhe Infant rl.es
His hand in benediction, and the Blessed Virgin
also. The group forms the end of the celebrated
Procession of Female Saints. '-'-"'"ratea
An Adoration occupies the left-hand side of the
abov''"''"'' °"^ 0'" Ancona, 4th century. See
oenlnry. Bolmull d« I Uury. •!.<„ E^ai^Bik,,' vol'l. pi. xT
A cunou., bas-relief from the French crypt of
St Maximm is gnen by De Fleurvfv. i. ,7x v )
vvh ich he assigns with possible truth to he 'ini'
century, and which we reproduce.
Perhaps the most interesting example of this
suject which IS left us is a carving n'.ade on the
bo, e of a whale now in the British Muse. ,„
t IS among Prof. Westwood's fi,:tile copies nd
.s figured ,n his Ca<./o^„, "/ ^' -"'. Cie^^.
pp. 470 sqq ; and in Mr. Maskell's Imrcs \n.
cunt a,ui Mediaeval, p. 54. It was des • bid by
01,l K„(jli3ii , K».>,i, ,uai,„ of il,„ \M,m ui a wli„l«. H.„ v
"■»wii,,ii). Bin, Mm., tr.iiuln.u,i„ii »■!,,, ,^,,
• 'UU3., Iium fll,u,l
Society" of' I".?!' ^.'"' ^"■j"' "<" P-Te" of the I the cover with a
fm..„, : •'^it'qi'ines, vo . iii n MOO u ur i J 7 >^"ri..us carving, which Dr
cnrions carving, which Dr.
1074
MAGIC
MAGIC
thinks it is a beheading of St. John. The three
miigl have loun.l iiiii.s.sive fells of hair, which
miglit almost |)as8 for a reineinbrance of the
F'h vginn cips, except that other figures on the
chest have tlie .same. Their hoots and bracoae
are unniistakeable ; they are ofi'ering their trea-
sures in covers and jiatirae apparently, and are
Attended by aa oriianieutnl duck "or swan.
This bird is repeated to (ill up space. The
star is very large, and of many rays ; there is a
broad Kunic border, and an inscription " Magi "
in runes above the carving. The quasi-symbolic
figures of the Virgin Mother and Child are ex-
traordinary, the former ends at the waist in
waving flourishes, perhnps typical of drajiery,
but ornamented with dots like an Irish initial
letter; the Child consists entirely of a larger
face or medallion held as nsuai before His
Mother; the writer feels little doubt of its
having been copied or adapted from some MS. of
Durrow or loua; and, as Mr. M^bkell observes,
following Mr. Stejihens, it is one of the costliest
treasures of English art ; and, as a specimen of
Nortliiimbrian art and Northumbrian folk-speech,
it is doubly precious.
The distinctively Persian dress of the magi,
as represented on all the monuments, certainlv
deserves attention, as it indicates the connexion,
in the Chiistian imagination, between the reli-
gion of Zoroaster and the coming of the Lord,
which Zoroaster was supposed to have foretold.
See Hyde, de Jlclu/ione rctenim PiTsantm,c. 31,
p. 384, ed. Oxon. 1700), and M(fil in DiCT ok
THE Bini.E, ii. 190. F. Nork (J/'vMm rftr alten
Perser ah Quetlcn Christlicher 'GlaubeiiMircn,
p. 82) considers that many representations of the
Adoration of the Magi bear a decidedly Mithraic
character. [R. st. J. T.]
^ M.'VGIC {Ars Magka, from maijm, Persian
V<, mugh). « Among the Persians," says
Porphyry, "they who are wise respecting the
Deity and are His servants are called Magi "
(& Mst Anw^. iv. 16, p. 1(15, cited, by Hose
(m Parkhurst), who also refers to Justin, i.
IX. 7, xii. 13; Curtius, v. 1; and others).
Xenophon distinctly ascribes to them the otlice
of priests: "Then were the magi first ap-
pointed to sing hymns in honour of the go'ls
at the dawn of every day, and to sacrifice
daily to those gods to whom they, the magi
should declare sacrifice due " (Cz/con p 279-
ed. Hutch.). The name (,xiya,) is not used
as a reproach in the Septuagint. See Dan
n '",' "■';.'",: 'J' ''■■ ' Tf-o p->h"t
Daniel was the head of the "M.igi" in Babv-
on (Dan. V. 11). h is also the title given
to those who were led by the star to Bethlehem
(Matt. 11. 1, 7, 16). Nevertheless it had already
acquired a bad sense among the Jews. Thus
bimon (Acts viii. 9) is said fiaydtiv and to use
liay,,a (11); while Hvmas, a Jew, is expressly
called a ^iyos (xiii. 6, 8). This was the popular
u.sage and at length it prevailed entirely
Custom and common speech," says St. Jerome,
have aken magi forma/«/a_who are regarded
Jn a diflerent light in their own nation ; f„>. (hev
are the philusuidiers of. the Chaldeans" (Cwnm
m Dan. Ii.) It is probable, however, that
Magism had long greatly altered for the worse
evw m the practice of its best professors in its
original homo; for Origen, speaking of th«
magi of I'ersia, says, " from them the magical
art of their nation takes its name, and has tra-
velled mto other nations to the corrui)tiui' and
destruction of those who use it " (c. Ceh vi 80)
Philostratus is also speaking of these " Pei-sian
adepts when he makes the strange statement,
that they invoke God when they are working
unseen; but subvert the public belief in the
Duity, because they do not wish to appear to
receive their power from Him. {de Vit. Sophist.
m Piota,j. 498.)
The "curious arts" (tA irtpffp-ya) renounced
by the converts at Ephesus (Acts xix. 19) were
according to the common meaning of the
term employed, the several branches of magic.
What the.se were in the opinion of the early
Christians we learn from many authors. Ma-
gicians it was believed, could raise phantoms
resembling persons deceased, could extract oracles
trom children, whom tiiey entranced ; nay, from
goafs and tables (TertuU. A,.ol. 2:!). In a book
written a little before the end of the 2nd century,
Simon Magus is rejiresented boastin-^:— "I can
m.ake myself invisible to those who desire to
seize me, and again visible when I wish to be
seen. If 1 desire to flee, 1 can jiierce mountains
and pass through rocks, as if they were mud. If
were to cast myself down from a high mountain,
1 should be borne uninjured to the ground If I
were bound, 1 could release myself and bind
those who had chained me. If imprisoned, I
con d make the bars open of themselves. I
could make statues live, so that they were
thought to be men by those who .saw them. I
could cause new trees to spring up suddenly, and
produce boughs at once. If 1 flung myself into
the fire, I should not burn. I change 'my face,
so as not to be known ; nay, I can shew men
that I possess two faces. I can become an ewe
or a she-goat. I can give a beard to little boys
1 can shew gold in abundance. I can make and
unmake kings " (A'ccoi)nit. Clement, ii. 9. Comp
Pseudo-Clem. I/orn. ii. 32 ; Gesta Petri, § 33).
The supposed narrator is made to say that he
saw a rod with which Simon was beaten "pass
through his body as through smoke" (Hecog.ii.
11 ; Ps.-Cl. H,m. ii. 24), and that a woman, his
confederate, was seen, by a vast multitude sur-
rounding a tower in which she was, to look out
of every window on each side at the same moment
(/r'ecng. U.S. § 12) ; that he caused another to look
like himself {Gesta Petri, 136), and " spectres and
figures to be seen daily in the market place,
statues to move as he walked out, and many
shadows, which he alfirmed to be the souls of
persons departed, to go before him " {//om. iv. 4 •
Gesta Petri, 45). Simon's fatal attempt to fly is
related or alluded to by several early writers ; as
by the author of the Ajiostolical Constitutions (vi.
9), Arnobius (adv. Gent. ii. prupe init.), Epipha-
nius (Ilirref. xii. 5), St. Ambrose or Hege.sippus
(de Excid. I/ieros. iii. 2), Sulpicius Severiis
(.V'cr. //,st. ii. 41), Maximus (Se,m. 39), Pseudo-
Augustine (contra Fuhjent. Dun. 23), etc. Many
of the Onostics, as Mcnander(lren. Haer. i. 23 S 5)
Basilides (24, § ,5), and Carpocrates(25, § 3), with
then- disciples, were accused ef "using magic
and (mystic) images, and incantations, and all
other curious arts (perierga)." See also Euscb.
Ilist. Ecctes. iv. 7. St. Irenaeus relates two
stories of Marcus (about 160), which shew how
*
.*
^ MAG 10
K.r"v"''H "" ■'*"' '•^"I'?'" i°to the service of
uMTh't. "''""'"'. '"""* ""'•'d ^ith water
«hioh h.. con.so,.rated in the Eucharist, to a,M,na;
at, rial 1,1, o,|); ami agum hamJing a small cm)
ot wm,: an, water to a woman, he or,l..re,l h-r
cons.crat.Mt ; which done, he filled from it
overHow,„K a .nuch larger cup (ibid. i. l.i S 2'
or another, professed to heal by various means
nd'L7r'"^"' *° ^he sick.' "If you would
send for that praecantator, you would be well at
once; ,f you were willing to hang such written
charms (characters) on you, you could s^n
recover health. . . Send to that d^v ner . orwa 3
him your girdle or stomacher. Let it be measured
and let him look at it; and he wil te Uou Zt
fuch an one is good at fumigating : every one to
whom he has done it, has hecfme better ^[^.n™' *°
Come secretly to such a place, and I will rai e
up a person, who will tell you who stole yo
ke o.^""!,' T"^ ' ''"' '^ y"" "'■»'' '« kn" V
the spot w""'' yourself when you come
10 the s|,ot. Women are wont to ner.iiiile
Uascinum) to their sick children" fCiesarius
see t/iat astrology, storm-raising, sortileirv etc
all come under the same general head o,' J a, '"
1 .The behef that there was something real
a.o..ien.'ofth;^JtrS:i^S:^;{
spirits m league with the wonder-worker "Bv
isions ,n dreams," says Justin Martvr.L 140^
and by mag.c tricks do they lay hold of all
niagioal incantations" (iLog. Clem Iv 26^
Ihe truth of this is assu'med both by CeNus and
^"r°'.^-\-'^ («• Ceh. vi. 39; vii^ 60-.)4)
aL'^ V, f .''™"''-'^ '^'"^ Tertu:iian Jd,;
Aii,ma ,G). Lactantius, a.d. 303, says, " ^st™
gy, the arts of the aruspex aid lugu; and
"hat are called oracles themselves, and necio-
.mncy am the magic art are their nventions'
(A.. 6,st,t. i. 16). Minutius Feli.x, a o ^"o •
whatevei'^of M ""' ""^l"""' ">« J^ons, but
viii. 1,.). He distmguishes between "miracles
of demon ""' r«'«/"-'^ jointly (that is a .s
''of t^deron'Th ''"■"'?«'' '"'"y' --""J '^"•-'-
that there were ce'rta^'n'ih^ii^gs wt f S
the r^?'" ^'"T" '" ^^" ^P*"ts according
their several natures, as animal, are pleased bv
the foo, proper t. their kinds. As spirit, thev
took de hght in certain properties " in^th 'ar ou'I
MAGIC
1075
l>y what comZ, 5 » " '"t ''««■»» to be invited.
'>y what comp'ell d " (7) "V"' "'!"•' "^V^'^^'
human souls serve.l Vk ^' ®" ""^ «"'rmn,l that
inv"ke,l who have lie." "'"'^"' "" I '"^''"•y »^«
-feath.-on the eroum tK ."". """""-''^ "'' ^■'"'«'>'
those so,.l will be^ . K ' ■'"""■' I"'"'"''''" that
(^Vco,y. ii. l;^ /H n ''".^'''"'''g''-l'rMctices
«xvii.). Justin Mai tvr sneaks of '.L ''•
.10; so hus. of Maxentius, viii 14 r,y /.' ' "
b.y the demons who really came to bis ralir/r
■■'• 49). St. Chrysostom: '"This . ^ r"^-
among magicians are calL/^i.^eltv s tl
pFh:?'ar^--S^E^^^
off pared^ a„d-dV:^i^H^:^^^fe"^|'^t!
!Mm. tuseb. Hst. Eccl \v 71 t . ,," ' ' » * ;
In the Vatican Ins of fLpr , o ''""' """""ctlo "
umclil„atiLs"p" "tuu^ ZlnT;'"" ""?"""'• "' o""^"
«lve errantlum'^.xWaMr ,""'•'''*' *''*«««""»
ar^.u.,,239). [BioTuI^rws I aTT^r, """•"/''^^■
7or this Interpretatr^oVGen'v^^T'?™ :'"y
Em 8.. A D 341 CjPi^^-, E,- . ^' s™ Euaeb.
St. Au'«usune^a'"^„f^^.;" '.''"'^t ??• "■ ''»>'
(;--.nOen.v..^,3,Th^r(ir:7C
69
1076
MAGIC
I
its loss at the deliign, engravej the .secrets of his
art '• iin [liates of various metals, such as couM
not bo .-.iioilt by the flood of waters, and on very
hard stnnes" (Cassian. Cu/lut. viii. '.'1). it is
elsewhert allirmed that Ham practiced and tauj;ht
niai;ie (AVco.;, Olem. iv. ^7 ; I/oui. ix. ;i-7) | Imt
not by writers of credit. The story of the
enirriivi'd pl.ites is evidently imitated from a
tradition in .Icsephus (Antit/. i. 2, § .)) that the
children of Seth engraved an account of their
ir.ore lawl'ul discoveries on " two pillars, one of
brick iiii 1 the other (d' stone." Another opinion
was held iiy Justin Martyr (Apol. ii. 5) and Ter-
tuUian (iJ lilul, <J). These authors, supposins;
that "the sons cd' God " in (ien. vi. 2 were angels,
make tliem the instructors of man in the art of
magic.
IV. For more than three centuries after Christ
there was no tanii)ering with mai;ic on the part
of Christians. Though believing in the reality
of the art, they ridiculeil it as delusive and
worse than useless. Thus TertuUian; "What
then shall we say that magic is ? That which
nearlv all call it, deception. Hut the nature of
the deception is known to us Christians only "
{lie Aninti, :i7). Jlinutius Felix (Octuv. viii.),
copied by St. Cypriiin (lie fdnl. Vnn. p. 14; ed.
lt)9u): " These spirits lie concealed under con-
secrated statues and images. They inspire the
breasts of the soothsayers by breathing on them ;
they quicken the fibres of entrails, they govern
thellighls of birds, they rule lots, they give out
oracles ; they are always confounding fal.se things
with true; for they are deceived and they also
deceive " (Cypr.). St. Cyprian adds that they
send diseases and obtain credit for a cure by
simpiv ceasing to afflict {ibid.; so Lactantius,
Die. fns it. ii. 1.')). " They fill all things with
snares, cheats, wiles, errors" (Lact. u. s. 14).
'• bkill iu the art of magic is good for nothing
but to cheat the eyes " {id. «. s. iv. l.'i).
V. The early Christians further believed that
the demons, who were the real agents in the
wonders of magic, could be controlled by the
strong faith of any true Christian acting and
speaking in his Master's name. Even of astro-
logy, it was said, "until baptism that which is
decreed holds ; after it astrologers no longer
speak the truth " (Clem. Alex. Fragm. § 78).
The failure of the powers of evil began when
Christ came. TertuUian : " We know the con-
nexion between magic and astrology. . , The.
latter science was permitted until the gospel,
that when Christ was born no one should thence-
forth cast a person's nativity from the sky. . .
So also the other kind of magic which works by
miracles. . . , spun out the patience of God
even to the gospel. . . . After the gospel, thou
wilt nowhere find either wise men (sophistas)
or Chaldeans, or enchanters or interpreters
of dreams, or magicians, except such as are
notoriously ])unished " {dn Idol. 9). Origcn
held that "magicians having intercourse with
dcnums, and invoking them as they have learnt
and for their needs, can only succeed until
something more divine and powerful than the
demons and the charm (^iri^S^i) which calls
them, appe.irs or is uttered " (c. Ccls. i. 60).
He suggests that the magi of St. Mattliew ii. 1,
finding that the spirits who served them had
" become weak and strengthles.s, that their tricks
were exposed and their power brought to
MAOIO
nmight," and remembering the prophecy of
I'lalaiim, were led to thinic thai. He to whom
the star guided them, "must be stronger than
■ill demons, even those wlio were wont to
appear to them and inspire them " (ihil.). Henc«
I it was sail that magic had been c|ii>troyel by
the star of Bethlehem. So St. Ignatius A.D.
liil, idfv {\\itTO TtUaa Ma7tla (K/int. ud Kplten.
lit). Compare St. I'eter Chrysidcpgus, A.D. 43:!
(.Sc/m. U'lli). St. Hasil, 1^70 {de Jfitin. Christi
(leiicv. i. oiU) ; St. Ambrose {IJ.i pos. Kv. .<?. Luc.
ii. 48), etc. Of astrology especially, Clemens
Al. ; "For this reason a strange and new star
arose that put an end to the ancient astndogy "
(A(TTpoe«n-(ai') (/■>«;/"» § 74); Sim. Grog. Naz.
{Oinn. lie Prnvid. .4 cm. v. 1.64). All this was
bv some understood in the command that tlie
m:igi should depart into their own country
another way (St. Matt. ii. IJ). Thus TertuUian
(u. s.) : "They were not to walk in the wars of
their former sect." St. Augustine more gene-
rally, but therefore inclusively, " Via mutatJi,
vita" mutata" {Serin. 202, § 4); Sim. Chrysid.
{Serin. l,')tt); St. Ambr. (/,.iy). Kv. S. J.uc. i.
4tj); St. Leo {Senn. 3-', § 4); Greg. M. (in
Evtiiig. Horn. x. sub tin.).
VI. When after the conversion of Constantine
such practices were found among jirofessed
Christians, the most strenuous etlbrts were made
to suiijjress them by the teachers of the church,
and by legislators, both civil and ecclesiastical.
They were denounced as remnants of idolatry,
and a practical return to it. Thus Gregory
Naziauzen, 370: "For this did the star lead,
and the wise men fall down and offer gifts, — that
idolatry might be destroyed " {Unit. i. tom. i. p.
12, compare with last paragraph), "liranches
of idolstry," says Gaudentius of Brescia, A.D.
387, "are witchcrafts (venelicia), precantations,
ligatures, phylacteries (vanitates), auguries, lots,
the observing of omens, parental obseciuies "
{Tract, iv. ;>; Pasch. 'id Neoph.). St. Augu.>tine:
" It is a superstitious thing whatever hath been
ordained of men towards the making and wor-
shipping of idols, whether it pertain to the
worship of a creature or any part of a creature as
(lod, or to consultations and certain covenants
by means of signs settled and agreed on with
demons, such as are the e.ssavs of the magic
art " {do Doctr. Christ, ii. 20, §'30).
The canons and laws which we shall now ci^e
will shew that the church and the state pro-
hibited every kind of magic on the grounds
above mentioned. They will at the same time
give an opportunity of e.-plaining some details,
which would be hardly worthy of a separate
notice.
(1.) Ecdesiastic'il legislation. — The first con-
ciliar decree against any branch of magic was that
of Ancyra in Galatia, A.D. 315, which condemns
to five years' penance "those who profess sooth-
saying {KaTaiiavrtvAixfi/oi) and follow the
customs of the Gentiles, or bring certain men
into their houses to discover remedies or perform
lustrations" (can. 24). The version of this
decree in the old Roman Code expands the first
clause thus: "Qui auguria, auspiciaque, sive
somni.a, vel divinationos qu.aslibet secundum mo-
rem Gentilium observant " {in App. 0pp. Leonis,
p. 18). Here augurium and auspicium may be
understood generally of the observation of omens :
originally and strictly they wero modes of di-
i; the prnpliory of
i Ihac, liu l<> whom
1st bi' strongiT than
who wi!r(! wont to
them " (ihil.). Hence
I bc'on dit'troyiil by
>o St. lgniitiii« A.D.
da (Ei'ist. tid Ephcs,
'hrysolosiis, A.D. 43:1
70 ((/(' Jliiin. C/iristi
(/i.'i/)os, L'v. .S. luc.
esiiechilly, Cli'inuns
niniin aU'l u>'W star
ancient nstrolimy "
k); Sim. Oreg. Naz.
1. «+). All this was
command that tlie
their own country
2). Thus Tertnllian
walk in the wars of
ugustine nioro jjene-
vi'ly, " Vin iHutatji,
§ +); Sim. Clirysol.
„r/). /ill. ."''. J.iic. i,
§ 4); Greg. M. (in
ir.sion of Constantine
d among prcdesseU
ins efTorts were made
L'hors of the church,
il and ecclesiasticail,
^mnants of idcdatry,
I it. Thus Gregory
did the star lead,
and offer gifts, — that
" {Unit. i. torn. i. p.
graph). " Hranches
in.s of Brescia, A.D.
'ticia), precantations,
tales), augurir-s, lots,
parental obsefiuies "
oh.). St. Augustine:
whatever hath been
le milking and wor-
• it pertain to the
part of a creature as
nd certain covenants
and agreed on with
assays of the magic
1, §';«).
:h we shall now cite
1 and the state pro-
Sic on the grounds
il at the same time
laining some details,
■orthy of a separate
I'on. — The first con-
ach of magic was that
tl5, which condemns
se who profess sooth-
I and follow the
■ bring certain men
remedies or jierfurm
"he version of this
de expands the first
ill, nuspiciaque, sive
isiibct secundum nio-
(m App. 0pp. Leonis,
id auspicium may be
ibscrvntion of omens :
t wero moJes of di-
MAOIC
vination from the cry, lli.hf, and manners of
t""lM.got M.'ds. Later on, when the evil ha,
ii;nMM,.| theenuncl nf l-aodicM, prnbably abuut
J'.... wi.h more details, forbad, under pain of
eA,:omniuni,'ati„n, •• i.riests and clerks |„ |„. ,„„,,i.
oan. or eu.liautcrs {i^aoiiu<.,), or mathematici
or astrolojr,rs, „r to make what are called ,,hv-
aetenes, which are bonds for their own suuls "
(can. ,.o). The inathematici wero a.strol,.L',.rs
acv.rding to the usage of that age; but a dis.
t.n.lu.u appears to be made here, of which no
sal i-.lactory account has been given. The fuurth
couuci of Carthage, ,11.8 ; " H„ who is enthralled
to auguries and incantations is to be driven from
the assembly of the Church" (can. H-l). I„
00!), Martm, bishop of Braga, n Gre.k by birth
seat to a council held at iugo, a collection of
ca„„ns drawn cbieriy from Greek sources. In
thi.s beside the tan.,ns of Ancyra and Laodicea
we hud ODe (72 . I .,|,|,p v dm i- ' ' r""""^'-''
fn » K '-''""""'> ^' yi'U lorbidding men
to "observ-e or worship ,he elements, ., ,l,e
course ol the moon o, stars, or the vaik decei
omens (signoruui), fur buibling a house or
planing crops or trees, or con.'racting ma -
iMge, (,hc reading of Gratian, P. ,i.%. j,
qu- \. .1). In the same series (c. 74) rites and
.uc.jntations are forbidden at \he gath r g "
. licmal herbs. Only the Creed or the L.'d'
1 I.i3er might be said, oi simolv, ■'Let God the
cr^aor of all things and their Ll.aeW^.J^^
VVoi len are told „, use no charms ,n working
«"ol ; but only to " invoke G„d as their heloer^
«•..> has given them skill i„ weaving "(^^V
Ills may be lUustrate.l from St. KligiTis, \iui\
i.e no woman piosume to hang amber bead
Micmos on her neck, or when weaving ,r,t I
g, or .at any work whatever, name Miuerva-.r
otiier il -omeneil persons, but desire that the
grace ol Christ may be present at every work
and to trust with their whole heart i,te\^,:e'
Ihe Council ot Au.xerre, ,-,78, forbids, amone
ote,.,,,et,eesof, he kind, resort t^^ cu^l^i
(<.in. 4). lh,s word occurs again in can. 14
Con,. Narbon. A.D. ,',89. It is^ised by Eligi,,.!
.. §0 M, by Bede, 701 (J. 7, w/ /4
1 L oo-.Ti'f .T '^'° "•^"' ''y ^''"'-"•"■» "'■
MAO 10
1077
he word cara,rus (Serm. 65, § 4 ; 78 §§ 1, :, '^
t IS also tound n an Anjou Penitential, /ui, ,, i
by Morinns </e /),-.c,>/. Po.nit. Ap ,.^ 5«i )
where lor "cararios coriocos " ri,- d wit
Diicange "can^ios curiosos." Pirminlus, ^ n
Iv ; '79. "t?'"-'W"« (*'"•"/». m Mabill.'.l„„:
•,..••■ .,^'"' "■«■■'' i» ilerived from " cha-
>. cter m the sense of a talisman or amulet
. which mystic characters were written
graved. The fourth council of Toledo, 6,3^,
jeposed and condemned to perpetual penance in
a monastery any of the clergy frum a bisl,,
downwards, who should bc^foun" to •'
consulted magi, aruspice», aii,di, an. urs
ornlegi, or those who professed tiie Tn „",'.
magic or practi.sed such things (can "9)
Toe council ,n Trullo, a.d. m, subjects to
"■■ years of penance all who ^ give them
selves over to soof|isi,vers or It th ■
' ''/". ''•7.« '-."■•'■■'I'^^'l to them" (can. 01 )
tentunon-m the sense of a " leading man "
"as a title conventionally given, like "wise I
I "■ " "' "«-u»rd." to the professor, of su, h
, "ts he; HirAroNTAKoilAi:. The same punish-
I "ent was awarded to those who .'led abourshe-
bears „r other like animals to the delusion and
i'J'"y ot the re simple, and who t.ilked of
"' ""'•■*"• that kind and to those who
' re called cloud-chasers (.„^„J/„,t«,), to " n-
ehanters makers of phyla.illeries, and soolh-
•^•'} CIS ; whose practices the council declares to
be l.erniciousan.l heathen" ('EAA„m<{). Ac
eordiug to Balsaiuon and Zonaras, it w.is 1 e
custom to give hairs plucked from, „,h,'., '
(ecwaTa) that had been hung about, bears and
otier animals as charms agaiitt disea'se and the
IKRILS. These dyes are j.robal.lv the same as
the succi (herbas et su.cose), which C.esiri^^
(■^'n,u 60, s 5) forbid, Christi^is to " han^
toM tlMt these were supposed to derive virtue
cloud chasers were those who drew omens front
the forms and grouping of the clouds, especially
at sunset. He adds that the canon condemns in
intention those who wore a child's caul or
employed secret things, as e.g. the gospels,
ioi ligaturae or practised the sortes DavidicaJ
I see Soivril KOY), or divined with barley. The
last method he ascribes to women who 'used to
spend their time in the churches, and by the
^oly icons, and declared that they learned the
uture from them." In Clemens Al. (P,^rl^n
11), we read of " flour-prophets and barley
prophets." Ecclesiastical prohibition occurs n
701 nTs^M''^ "'■ ''1 r^'"" "'■ ''"-• ■^■^■
-I. la 789 the canon of Laodicea was inserted
he word ?J ''"""«■' «'«tract which heads it
So C.n^f, i"^"' r "I'^^^^n"^'! V "coclearii."
So Cyjit. Keg. franc, i. 21; v. 69. "Code
anus ,s a corruption of "Cauculator," which
.s from ,av,os a cup used by diviiers ( ee
Oen. .xhv. 5), or by makers of philtres Kau'I
LATo«KH,p.2o,5.] And anoth'erchaperS of
the same c™,itulary: "We command thi t none
become either cauculatores (sec again Caju
, est ,H?^' 7^:'"'"'"N "If storm-raisers (temi
conutmued. Storm-raisers are also comlemned
y a law of 805 (Capit. ii. 25) de fncantatZt
r,-.njx^an,s. The «ord is written " tempe"!
t. anus "in a decree of Herard, a.d. 856 (^a^
f). Agobard, archbishop of Lyons, who^hvl
been an adviser of Charlemagne, wrot^ a treatise
of some length against this offence. See 'JVm
mTARius. In 8i;i the Council of Tours umU
at prince, directed priests to warn the peo, e
h. 'magic arts and incantations are altoie!
her unavailing to the cure of any 1 „ ^n
diseases, and to the healing of sick lu e or
(can 42).*^ '" '"'^' "'"''"' ""°g "le useless "
SeIZiiiT?n"tert''«f "^".v " P^'"'*'"^ amendment.
--)no.itevob. .:[r:^;r"^~.^:-
4 A 2
1078
MACilC
l'.'.) fm/kTiiil li'<iialaliim. — Tho firnt uilict cjf
Cuikvaiitini' tliat has iiiiy beariiij; on oiii- suhji^ot
a|p|ii'iiii!i| at tlic cud (ifDctdbiT Itl'J, niuu iiiiuitlis
befuri' tlie dulcat of Maseutius. ll waa iliiurtcd
ii);aiiist thu ai'U»|ii('e!t, ami an it ouly iiieuti(pn!i
till! exui'ci.se ot' tliiiir art in hoiiNes its |>i'oliablL'
oliji'ct was to check iuoiiiry by divinatiou
into the du.-tinius ol' thu ein|iii'e aud It.H ruluiti.
The ai'usjiex was to be burnt alive, nnil his eni-
jiloyeis banished (C(*/. ix. IH, ]. ,i; ilo Aritsj,.).
llis next ((/<• J/i./iV<), iu :1J1, went further, but
was far from being tlioroujjh. It declared
generally the most severe punishment to bo
due to those who were "found, armed with
ina^iu arts, to have made attempts against the
health of men, or to have turned chaste minds
aside 10 lust," but it adds that " remedies
sought for the bodies of men or helps innocently
used in country places," against unseasonable
weather were not to be treated as oH'cnces {i'l. 4).
C'onstantine and Julian in ii")7 : " Let no one
consult an nruspex or a mathematicus ....
><o one a hariolus. Let the wicked profession of
the augurs and diviners bo silenced. Let not
the Chaldeans and the magi, aud the rest, whom
the people call malepoi for the greatness of their
crimes, make even a partial attempt. Let
curiosity of divination for ever cease with all "
(i'6. ;>). The penalty was death by the sword.
Another law not a year later threatened death
by fire to those who, " using magic arts, dared
to disturb tho elements, uu lermine the life of
the innocent, and calling u|i the dead by wicked
practices to kill their enemies " (ib. ti). In July
3.')8, the same princes published an edict con-
demning every kind of divination, avowedly on
the ground that it was employed in a sjiirit
hostile to themselves {ih. 7). The penalty was
death with torture, and no rank was to jilead
exemption. The crime had been common under
heathen emperors, and it is probable that most
of the olfenders under Constantius were heathen.
Long before Tertullian had spoken of those who
publicly honoured Caesar, but privately " con-
sulted astrologers and aruspices and augurs, and
magi respecting his lile" {Apot. 3.), where in
notes to the translation in the Library of the
Fathers Dr. I'usey refers to Tacitus, Ann. jii.
52 ; xvi. 30, and Spartianus apud Gothofred,
J'rol. ad Lib. ad A'at. p. 11). Kirmicus Ma-
ternus, in his treatise on astrology written
between 335 and 360, cautions his disciples
thus: "Take care never to answer one who
questions you respecting the state of the
republic or the life of the Roman emperor;
for it is neither right nor lawful that we
should by a wicked curiosity say anything
of the state of the republic. . . . But no mathe-
maticus has been able to define anything true
respecting the fate of the emjieror " (.l/u.'/.cst'os,
ii. 33). The necessity of this caution appears
fiom several stories in Ammianus (ffist. xix.
12), and others. In the reign of V'alens, for
example, a.d. 373, Theodorus was supposed to
be indicated as his successor by a tripod of
laurel wood duly prepared, which by some means
spolt out his name to the fourth letter (SfoS).
The death of Theodorus and his partisans did
not appease the emperor, who caused many inno-
cent persons to be murdered because their names
began with the same letters, or on grounds
equally frivolous (Sozora. Jlist. vi. 35). Julian
Ila
but
nge-
MAGIC
hiin^i If professed to believe in Much arts,
acknowledged that the oracles had failed;
alleged that Zeus, " lest men should be al
ther deprived of intercourse with the gods, gave
tluiii a means of observation through the sacred
arts, from which they might di^rive »<illicieut
h( Ip in their need " (in Cyriii. Al. c. Jul. vi. p.
ll>« ; ed. Spanb.). In 3ii+ Valeutinian condemned
•• magicos apparatus" In connexion with hea-
then rites performed by night {Cudex Thrmlva.
ix. xvi. 7), aud iu 370 (probably) madi! the art of
the mathematicus, exercised 'by night or day,
punishable by death (*. 8); but in 371 he de-
clared that the aruspex was not guilty id' witch-
craft, "We do not blame the art of the aruspex,
but forbid it to be exercised injuriously " (ih. ii).
He regariled it as a necessary part of the hea-
then worship then tolerated ; but its secret ex-
ercise was still prohibited under the law of
Constantino. In 389 Valentinian, Theodosius,
and Arcadius decreed that every male/iats should
bo^ denounced as an "enemy of the public
safety ;" but chariot-drivers in the public races
were forbidden to inform under pain of death
(A. 11). They were excepted, because many of
them lay under suspicion of using magic to give
s|ioed to their own or to injure their rival's
horses. See on this among Christian writers,
.\rnob. adv. Gent. i. cir. med. ; Jerome, Vitii
l/iiariun'S, c. 15; St. Chrysost. J/um. xii. in Kp.
i, ad Cor. (iv. 11, 12); Greg. Naz. ad Seleuc.
Iamb, iii, ; Cnssiodorus, Variar. iii. 51, It
should be mentioned in conclusion that the ex-
ception of Constantino iu favour of charms
against bad weather was repealed by Leo VI,
who became emperor in 886 {Cunatit. 65, de In-
cantdtumm Poena).
Under some of the following words : Amulkt,
AsritOI.OQKKS, DiVI.VATION, GlONKTIIMACI,
illiCAro.NTAKCIIAE, LlOATURAE, llALEKICfB,
MATilKMATICL'S, NeCKOMANCV, PaOANI8.M, ,Sub-
VIVAI, OF [p, 1539], PllILTIlES, I'll YI,ACTERY,
I'lanetarius, I'vthon, SOMNIAUH'S, Sorti-
l.EGY, Ti:sii'E.starils, may be found some
further inl'ormation on several practices which
coi.ie under the general head of magic.
On this subject the reader may refer to Bern.
Basin, de Artihus Mugicis, Par. 1483, Fiancof.
1588; to Symphor. Cham])erius, Dial, in iUuji-
caruin Artium Destructionein, Lugd, 15iit5; to
Casj), Peucer, de Diviiuitionuin Generi'ius, de
Oraciilis, de Thcomanltia, de Magica, de Incan-
tationibus, de Divlnationibus Fxtipicnm, de
Auyuriis et Arus/.iciiut, de Sortibus, de Dirina-
tiune ex Sijiniiii.^, Francof. 1593; J.J, Boissard,
de Divinattonc ct Maijicis I'raestiipis, Oppenh,
about 1605, reprinted 1611, 161.3; Martin
Delrio, Disintisitionum Maiicarum Libn Sex,
Jlogimt, 1617 ; J. C. Bulenger, de Tuta liatione
Divimttinnis ad'-. Genethliacos, de Oramlis ei
Vatibus, de fiortibus, de Aiujuriis et Aruspiciia,
de Licita et Vetita Mugia, and ar/rcrsiw Mm/os ;
in Ojmsc. tom, i. Lugd, 1621; J, Wierus, de
Praestii/iis Dacmonum et rncantationihus ac Vcne-
Jieiis Lihii Sex, Li'ier Apidogcticm et do I'scudo-
Mimarchia Dannonum, and de Lamiis, Amstel,
1660; Ant, Van Dale, cfe Origine ac Progressu
Idololatrkte et Snperstitionum (p. ii. especially),
Amstel, 1696; and L, F. Alfred Maury, Lot
Magie ct I'Astrologie dans CAntijuite et au Moyen-
Age, Paris, 1860. [W. E. S,]
such (irt«. Ha
nil fuiloil : but
miM 111' altdjji'.
tin; K'"l*. H'^ye
MUfli till' siirii'd
iTiv« wiiliiiitnt
I. c. Jul. vi. p.
linn cuiiilitmouj
ion with liwi-
Cmit'X Thi'tjiios,
tiaili! the nrt of
ui^'ht or (lay,
in .171 hi; ilo-
uilty of wituh-
iil" thu Hrns|iox,
ioiislv " (ih, SI),
rt ot the hi!,i-
its »euri;t I'x-
■r tlio Inw of
II, Thi'oiliisiiis,
lalepcus .shoiikl
!if the |)iiblic
le public I'liceii
pain of ileath
■ause many of
; magic to jjive
tlii.ir rival's
stian wiitei'H,
Jerome, I'l'^j
jm. xii. in Lp,
iz. ad Scleuc.
ill. 51. It
that tho ex-
ir of charin.s
(1 by l.uo VI.
itit. 65, de fi,-
(Is : Ami'lkt,
jknktiiliaoi,
Maluficus,
danism, sur-
I'llYLACrEUV,
UICS, SOUTI-
fuunil some
actices which
igic.
•efer to Bern.
is;!, Krancnf.
Hal. in Haiji-
gil. 15iUi;'to
Oeneri'ius, tie
II, de Inctvi-
xtipimim, de
s, de Dirlna-
. .1. Boissaril,
ijlis, Oppenh.
)1.'); jlartin
I I.lbri SfX,
Tola liatione
Oraeulis ei
H A)-uspii;iii,
enw Miiijos ;
. Wierus, de
nllius ac Vcnc-
ct do /'scudo-
mis, Amstel,
ac Prntjrcssu
i. espeoi.illy),
Maury, La
• ei au Moyen-
[W. E. S.]
M.VlilOXUS
MAOrnvr.^^, martyr, with N-aboranlFni.s
hnns. acn.nii,,. ,„ the li..llan.|,s,V ,• n'?'
//"■',.. .l/.„l., where .Mig„„ ,,„,,, V,, i- '
MA(;i\US, called by others MAXIMIN
.ni.norateil Au«. 25 (Iloll. Acta ^W. Aug. v.
fJ'i'!,f '?''''•, ('^ ^^■:!-ter disciXm
1^. n of ,hV«'.-:l""' ^"""^ "'' '" •'^l'''i" towards
,Hi " ,' h 'i'Vi '''"""'•*■• """ ■'■■'rents should
I'liiate their children, while vet verv voiinir to
ht b i I ' "'"' '"""."«'" "I' '" 'he house ilf
h l|,ho,,, by s„m„ "discreet and grave" ores-
^ ' He'r''r^'''^'''«'-'-l''-<lLt
•■■"), held under Ainnlric, one of the (Joth
e, . 1 : ™" eoclesme sub episcoiiali prao-
• iv th '7'V'" ■^''''.;''^''^''"" "''.liri " .Sim -
A : f:'''^'''/'"-' '■' l*-'^'"" ^■'"'« hallean .••
th, h I . '"""f "^'"-'^ ho who had charge of
1 m ."'::; .^^^'-.^mn-nly educa.t in
brifhrf ■■■''"''■■'■ '■■>'•"""•''«■'. the chief" of 't^,.
W Majister novif!o-um, the officer in »
r:';sxi:„''::, *"«•"'"-*-
an elder monk, who has his station for thaU m I
l^'Hy the Ihile of St. Uened c ^c V,i\ , "
iitua s ate. It seems from this that .S» K „
J:;;z~ri~ ■"""'•''"'•'' •'■""■'-•
..KS't-'^S;;';,';?';;'!,"";'"'™-
«H4../S3''L".:.;?,rTL»stf«';'
MA(;nih
1079
' chu'ile "", ,""■ """'""''••'■.V "'• St. Snbas under the
■'--Ji^ii'n;;.'''"'^ «- AltesJrrno'^c:^
MA(ilSTliATE8. [.Jmt.sn.cr.o. , U«o^
hvAiig,,,,! ;;,„A^';- .',"i''™"' ('• ^7, quoted
which s bt ve" tm''w,'^''''« 'he inferior orders
''•his distinct" „ e ' r """"''■'• ['^I'^-"*n:u.J
Hsewher Ma it 7w „ ;: ^■",'''"M'"n.l with that
(uve,yv.:.:i^:;i-:i;:7---;u*.^-.
ci>V^A'l'^-v"'^'''^-'^^-^'-'-°''-abishopof,,',
oth^^^f^S:;^^^^'^^""""'--'-^*
MAGNIFICAT. [Canhclk.]
ca;i^^S5e;i!ri^i.rr;;;rar
(&f ':^!f.'.i;'""'"«'""'-"""' " «««« Aug. 23
Ocfn'SEoJ^J,")""'"-'*' -"""-orated
■•^laW.!^]/!,';.,?"''"'''''' -mmemorated Oct.
//.'..on. Mart; lieS. S. if/"'"'''- ^^'"•'- '■
AS2's:;r£!;r'-'-' —-tea
(6) Martyr with eight others nt f,. ■
commemorated April ^nBa.LXnoI) '"'"'
(lEroniZ r '"■"'■''' '^""""''■""'■ated May 26
v^iS-^:^i^s^ts^r°"'^^
20?^i%/,.''4f "°*'" -'"n>emorated Julv
wi i xSl"""" ""bdencons beheaded at Rome
PMP*
MANG>'t'8
Hi) Miirtyr; rDniinmnionited »t Aloxnnilriii
kvg. I" (lliiTiin. Mitrt.).
(15) Olhuiwi»« ANDItKAS, nrnrtyr with
2.')»7 'm|)iiiiii)n.H ; CDtiiiniiiiiiM i'>'l Aug. 11)
(ffiiurd. ,1/ (/■<.; llcl. Mtit.i II., 'I. i»/.4;f.).
A Buhop aal iii.iitjT of tills numa in i'uly, niul
M^' -hoii of Avi({tii)ii, cnnl'iiiisni, wi'ie
«wM ' on tiiiit Jtty (Uoll. Acta SS.
Aujj. 111. /(,.,, ; ,■'),
(14) MM-tvr; i-ommeinoratsd at Cnfiuu Aug.
27 (llmrun. itnrt.).
(15) iMiirtyr; cdinmomornteil st Romp "ml
Snncliin I'Vlicitatein," Si^pt. 4 (//inrun. Mart. ;
Jti'ij. Mart. Aiict.). Aniitficr of this niiimi wm
<t>iiinK'iii(>rut)'il on thu Haiiiii day, apiuirontly nt
Aiicviii ui Qaliitia {lluiion. Mart. ; Usuiinl.
Mirl.).
(16) Miirtvr; commomoratod at Ciipua Sc|)t.
'o (//„'riin. Start.).
(17) Abbi>t of Kucass ; cnmmemorated Sept. 6
(Ilnll. Acta SS. Sq.t. il. 7;jr)).
(18) Maityr in Sicily; commemornted Sopt.
10 (l/icron. Mart.).
(10) Mnityr ; commomornted at Ronio Sejit.
la (llmrun. Mart.).
(20) Hisho|> of Opiti'fijitim (Oilorzo), aftcr-
wnnls of lleraclea, conl'osMii' ; ('(ininii'uionitod
Oi:t. a (Boll. Acta SS. Oct. ili. 410).
(81) .Martyr; ciinmemoratfil nt Cae«area in
Catijiailiiiia, Oct. 2:) {//iero;,. Mart.).
(82) Martyr ; commemurateil Nov. 1 ; nnl on
thu siinie dav another at Tcrracina (l/ieruu.
Mart.).
(23) Martyr; commemorated Nov. 8 nt Nico-
niu.lia (/licnm. Mart.).
(84) Martvr; oommomnrnteil nt Bononia in
Ci ml (liuulnguc), Nov. 27 (//wr. Mart.). [C. H.]
MACiOlUANUS, of Trent, confessor in the
5th (cnturv; commemorated March 15 (Uoll.
Acta 5.9. M.irch, ii. 40,')). [C. H.]
MAOKINUS, martyr at Nevedunum (Nyon) ;
commemorated Sept. 17 {I/ieron. Mart.).
[C. H.]
MAGR0BIU8, martyr. [MACUonics, .luly
20.] [C. H.]
MAIri'CUS or MEVKNNUS, ahbat in
Biittanv, in the 6th century, commemornted
June 21 (boll. .Acta SS. June, iv. 101). [C. H.]
MAJKSTAS. An ancient rubric given by
Martene (da Hit. Ant. I. v. 2, Ordo 3tj) runs
ns follows: "Hie libri mnjestntem deosouletur."
Here the mijeslwi which the jiriest is to kiss is
the ropre.sentation of the Holy Trinity preKxed
to the altar-book or tnblet. [C]
MAJOLUS. [Majulus.]
un,
MALEDIClIoy
MA.Kif A, martyr; ('ommemoratiid at Thi'«.
snliiiif) tii.is I (//(iron. Mart.). [('. ||.l
MAJUr.rNlH (1) Martvr nt Tarrni;
conirneriiornlH.l .Ian. Jl {//uniii. .Mart.).
(2) Martyr, nt Militana in Armenia; coiiime-
m Hied Ap, li) (Hicrm. Mart.).
l.*i Martyr; comniemornt* I Nov. 1(1 Clfav>,n.
(-**" ' [(.'. H.]
MA.IlU.l'H (1) Martyr; commemornted in
Afiica ,lan IH (Ilierini. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; comniemorated in Africa Jan.
I'J (//( run. Mart.).
(3) Martyr; commemorated in Africn Feb. 19
(Ilierun. .Mart.).
(4) Martyr; commemorated nt liome in the
••..iiietcry of I'rnetextntua May 111 (llhron
Mart.).
(6) Martyr; commemorated in Africn .May
11 {llieran. Mart. ; li„||. Acta SS. May, ii. lij,,),
(6) Martyr; rommemorntrd at Uomh' .Inly
1 1 (J/ierun. Mart.). [o, n i
MAJHRirs, martyr; commemorated at
Ihessnluuiia Julie 1 (llierun. Mart.). [C. H,]
MALACIII the I'ldphet; commemorated by
the (ireeks Jan. .1 (Cat. lli/ianf.! C.i/. Acthn,, ■
I);
MAJOR (i"i Joldier, martyr at Gaza under
I)io.letian; t leoiorated Feb. 15 (Basil.
Mem/.; Boll Ac. '.' le'i ii. 001).
(2) Confess!,.-; i,. i. .i„ ated .' lome in tho
cemetery of J';-;, t-. ■ '« V-.v 10 {Ilieron.
Ma-t.). [C. H.l
MA.IORICA. nii'i; • rommemornteu a
Ati'-iiris Ap. 'o-j{"u:rvn..s...ri.) [C. Il.J
IMAJORICUS martyr; voinmemorated at
M.laa May l^lluron. Mart.). [C. H.J
iniel, Cnl. /.itlir./. iv. 2:i(l ; Basil. Mi'llul.) ;' tiy
the Latins on Jan. 14 (Boll. A.ta 6W. .Ian i
9"). [c. H.i
MALAUOUS or MALKHARDrS, bishop
of Cnruot cin. A.D. litju; commemorated .Ian. I!)
(Boll. ^1< /,i SS. Jan. ii. 2;jo). [c. h.]
M.\LCHUH (1) Martyr; commemornted at
Caesaiea in I'niestino March 2S (let Motn
Mart. ; Bed. J/.i/(. y|«c/.).
(2) .Martyr ; commemorated nt Rome in the
cemetery of I'Mctextatus May 10 (Ila'rm. Mart.).
(3) Commemorated at Tliessnlonica June 1
(Iliiron. Mart.).
(4) (;ommemornfed nt F.jihesus with M.ui-
mianiis and Martiauus and four others July 27
(Usuard. Mart.).
(6) Monk and confessor nt Maronia, near An-
tioch, 4th century; commemorated Oct. 'Jl
(Boll. Acta SS. Gct.'ix. 59). [(j. H.]
MALKDICTION (MilctUctw). M ledictions
[comparu Anathk.ma] were used in v u m ns
occa.sioDs, as (tor iustauce) in Kxco.Mmu;iii;a i lo.s
[I. Gtij, nud in the DwiUADATuN m !v;ik
[1.542]. An early example of (1 ' '[i .■ •■ ij:
curse of Silverius on his rival Vijjiiius (.binius,
Concilia, iv. 14J): " Habeto ergo cum hi.H qui
tibi cousentiunt paenae damnationis senteutiam,
sublatuiniiuo tibi noinen ct mumis ministerii
sacerdotalis ngnosce, S. Siiiritus jmlii'io et
apostolica a nobis auctoritato ("lainiiatus."
Another is that mentioned by Gregorv of Tours
(/Hit. Franc, v. I'J), where, in tile case of
I'raetextatus, bishop of Uouen, king Chilperio
demanded that either his tunic [AlhJ slioul I be
rent, or the loHth [109th A.V.] psalm, wbiih
contains the curses on Iscariot (qui inaleilictioiies
Scarioticas continet), uhould hii snj,! ,>\fr his
head, or at any rate judgment of peijietual ex-
communication recorded against him [Makan'-
atha].
lU'iiiorntiiil nt Thi'i*
-<•). [C. ll.j
fvr nt Tiirrmjiiua,
•(III, M.irt,).
Ariiicnlii ; ('<iiiiine>
■t.).
t\ Nuv. 1(1 (//irn,n.
I
(Ificr.
]
commemornied Jo
L'd in Afrlcrt Jan.
d in Africa Feb. I'j
il «t limiii' in tho
May 1(1 (//.,, oil.
od in Afiicn Muy
I .%'. Miiy, ii. ii'.':i).
pd at ItiiiiiH .liilr
[C. H.]
iimnicmoriitwl nt
W./W.). [C. II.]
<M)ninii'ni(ii-nti'(| liy
nt.; Ci/. Ael/w,;.;
liasil. J/i;(,y/.);'hy
. AUa A'.V. .Inn. i.
[C. H.]
TARDUS, l)isli„p
lu'niorati'd .Inn. 1!)
[C. H.]
comnipninnitod at
h 28 (lei. Jiom.
nt Rnrne in tho
(lla'niH. iliii-t.).
ssnionica June 1
csus with Ma.Ti.
IT othei-ii July 1.7
^laionln, ncnr An-
nonitod Oct. 'Jl
[C. 11.]
to). M iledictinns
U.SC' (Ml V nil MS
!(CO.M.VlUNU?A Jlli.S
).vtmN m 'u. ^
tl. ' -v. •■■ iI:
Viyiliu;. (i.iniu.s,
rgi) cum his ((ui
iimis .si'iiti'utiani,
iiunus iiiini.sH'iii
itus juilicio L't
ato dainuatiis."
Jicgory of Tciurs
in the case of
, Ifing Chilporic
[AliiJ .slioul I he
.] lisalin, wliich
;iii nialeilirtliiiu'b
'»* sfii'i tM t*i- hi.s
of perjictual ex-
t liiiii [Mahan-
mam:ficu8
A i«|if(inii'n iif a cuno ili>n(>inh'i>d iiRiinit
thu„. who took |io..«.'»,iou of thi' liiiiLs I, I' a
inoua^ti'iy Is i{|ii'» l,y Marli'ili' (//,■ I, it. A,,!,,
111. III. (Ir.lo :i); '-.Miiv th.'lr purl Ion and Ih.ii'
lulioritauiu ht the tonniiutH of i!vcrl;ir.tiiij; (iiv,
with Kniah, Kathan. and Ahirani, wlio h,.,,!
down i|ii'.l< into lo'll, with .ludiiH and I'ilafi',
with Annas nn<l l'aiM|ilia», with Simon Miiijn^i
nnd.Sriii; witli whom may tlicy hf toiiiimii'd i
in I'Vi'ihistiinjInrniiMit » Itliont ond, so as lo imv,, ,
111) fi'lli.H>hi|j with ( hrisf or Ills saints In the i
rest of lieavi^n, loit h.ive fellowshl|i with the
devil and hi ioiii|uiuion>, \nin\i a|i|ioinled to tio'
torments of hill, ai. I jm rish evorlastinKly. .So
b« it 1 .So U) It !•' ' [c.j
MA JIM HA
1081
MA IiEKK US, till' name popularly };iven t"
one «iippoM,l a.le III hewlti'h a |ieison or hl^ pro-
Ji'i-ty. "guiwveiv Maleliios rnl.ius appi-llat,"
.'v.H Laetanlius (IHr. InUit. Ii. Hi), and simi-
larly Constiintins (/„,/,■<, 4, n ilo Main. In <\«l,:r
Tlu-wt.s. n. Hi), ,ind SI. AuKiistine (,!,■ Cir. Dfi.
X. »). The crime was itself called Maletii liiiiii
as if |ire.eminently a deed of wickedness. A law
of ('on-,tantiin. a.m. ,'1.S7, after reference to
niuspices and others, proceeds to con.lenin " the
Challeaas and Mil'I, and the rest whom tho
oomnion people call .Malelici, from the greatness
of their misdoiim" (I. 4, ij. ..). Thev were
believed to obtain Iheir jiower lo injure (ither.1
from evil spirits, either dem<in,s proijerly so
called, ,„• the soul, of the dead. Thu.s Laetan-
tiiis (u. ,«.), spcakins; of the demons, snys that
the Jlaleliei, '• wh-n tliey exeridso their execrable
arts, call them up by their true names " (not hv
those of the ancient heroes, etc., which theV
assumed to deceive). These spirits were invoked
with blooily sniTilices and other pagan rites.
St. Jerome, distiniculshiuK between Malelid and
other profe.s.sors of occult arts, says that the
f.rnier "use blood and victims, and'ipffen touch
the bodies of the dead " (Cvunu. in Dan. ii,). They
corresponded to the yi'qTat of the d'reeks, who
were so called fmm the jieculiar howl in which
they intoned their incantations: " lllidtis artibus
deditos . . . (|uos ,.t Malelicos viilgus appellat
. . . ad goetiiim perlinere dicuiit " (August.
U.S.). roriTfia, as Zonaras exphins, "is the
doing aught to the injury of others by means of
incantation.s and iiivocati.m of demon's" {Cwniii.
in St. Has. iL/iist. .t,l Ampfiit. ad can ()5: sim.
Balsamon, i4i(/.). .See Magic. [W. E. S.l
MAMVl'S, martyr; commemnralcd at Alex-
n: .la with 17(i others, Ap. 2S (Ukron. Mart. ;
lied. Mint. Auct.). r(j_ jj -i
MALLU8TUS, martyr; commemorated at
Cologne with :;.10 others, Oct. lo {Ilienm.
Mart.). Called also Malusus (Bed. Mart
Auct.). (-^.^ H.] '
MAMA, virgin ; commemorated June "
(Cal. Ann.). [q j, j"
MAMAS (1) Martyr; commemorated in the
Oieek church, July 12 (Boll, Acta W& Juh
lii. ;)0;t). - '
(2) Martyr; ommemorated with Basiliscus in
the Greek church, July 30 (UoU. Aula SS. July
vii. 149). ■"
(3) MAMES, or MAMMES, martvr at
Cae.-aiea m Caj.padocia under Aurelian ;" com-
memonited Aug. 17 (Mcron. .,/„,,... t;,„„^.
;';','•■ '"'•.'■'"['■ J/'M lied. Marl. Am't,
;\';K. 7 tohim. Th« (iieek church ,„|.„ie,,io.
rated hm on .S,p,, a (i)a»ii. j/,,„„/ . ^.^,
'''/"int.). Another ^f uimes is menH,.r.ed under
■J'lK- 17. commemoi.led at Alexandria, bvr
//.. n,,,. Mart.) <ieorge Codinus .tale- fliat thei'«
n'ri.'l ;"'"!'""'""l'l'' « temple of M. ^ U.S.
'lilt by the sister of empress Mauricluv.v e ,h..
ntenvd the bodies of Maiincius and h.s childivn
''■ A,it,,. r„mt. til). Which St. Mama, (if
there were two) he does not say. ^
(4) Commemorated in Greek churd, Sept. '.-a
(ti«. Aniien.). '
MAMMcHTAorMAMKI.TA. I tvr in
Persia, probal-ly in the .-.th ceii.u.v; .ouim.
'"",'•""■'"-■'. 17 (11-11. /l.Y„ ,V,S. , Jet. viii, 5:i.
8.ssigne,I to Oct. 5 in Basil. Mewl. [(•. 1|.] '
,iim^^''^V''a''''^'^''''' 'L""'>'^ "i"' «""'"">n.
>'."Nk, at Aiixerre, in the .-.th century; comme.
'""'•ated April Jo (Uoll. Acta S.S. Apl ii 7.-.W)
[C. 11.]
MAMKRTUS, bishop of Vienno and con-
essor alter a.d. iV> ; commemorated .May 1 1
(llwrun Mart. ; Usuanl. Mart. ; Tloru, up.
lied. Mart. ; Boll. Acta to'. May, ii. uj;,). '
[C. II.]
MAMKRUS, mnrty:'j commenior.nte.j April
Ii (llicru)i. Mart.). n' jj -,
MAMKUU.«, martyr; commemorated in
Atriea ilarch 14 (llierun. Mart.). \c. 11.]
MAMILIANU8 (1) or MAXI.MII.I \NU8
nTV\ '," Jo"""" ' '^'""""^"""•'ted Alarch 12
(Boll. Acta SS. ii. 104).
(2) Bishop of Panormus, probaldv in .".th cen-
tury; commemorated Sept. 13 (lioH I,/,, .w
Sej.t. V. 45). • "j^,,_ J, j •
MAMMARIA, martyr; commemorated in
Mauritania Uec. 2 {JJicrun. Mart.). [C. H.]
MAMMARIUS, presbyter, martvr, \ i. TH ■
commemorated June 10 (Boll. Acta .S'.v, June'
11. .b8). |-^, j^^ >
MAMMARUSd) Martyr in I'hrygia ; com-
memorated Nov. (Uierun.Mart.).
(2) M.irtyr in Africa; commemorated Dec 1
(f/icrvn. Mart.). r,, ,. -,
MAMMAS (1) Martyr; commemorated at
Tarragona Jan. 21 (J/ivron. Mart.).
(2) Kemale martyr; commemorated Julv 17
{II,eron. Mart.; Boll. Acta SS. July, iv. 2/o).
MAMMERUS (1) Martyr; commem^orated
in Istiia June 5 (JJicrun. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Nov. 24
(Hieron. Mart). r^ ,.Z'
MAMMKS (1), Martyr at Caesarea ; comme-
morated July 10 (y/,,.cm. Mart. ; Bed. Mart.
(2) Martyr; commemorated Au" '" [Ma
"^''J ' C.H.]'
MAMMITA and her companion,,, ,„ . ,vrs at
Al. vaudria; commemorated Aug. 17 (I/ieron
^'"■'•■>- [C. H.]
1082
MAMON
I I ti
M AMOV. martyr ; cdiiiineinorated at Alex-
nnilria Aug. 9 (Iliorony Mart.). [C. H.]
MANAEN, or MANAHEN, Herod's fo.ster-
brotlu'r; (Mim.nemorateil at Antioch Mnv 24
(L'sunnl. .\fiirt. ; UeJ. Mart. Auct. ; Jio]\.'Ai)ti
SS. May, v. 273). [C. H.]
MANASOHIERT, COUXCIL OF (Mana-
schiertvus:' Cuii ilium), held ai Manaschert in Ar-
menia A.D. H87, according to Mausi, by command
ot' Omar the Saiacen leader, under the Armenian
patriarch John. Its decrees on doctrine seem
I'rameil in ofijiositiou to the sixth council, where
Jlonothelism was condemned ; while several of
its decrees on discipline seem condemned pro-
t'e.ssedly by the 32nd and Stith of the Trullan
canons (Mansi, xi. 1099. Conip. ConstantinoI'Li;,
Councils of (34), p. 444). [K. S. Ff.]
MAXDRA. A favourite appellation for mo-
nastic establishments in the East was nuttutra,
ndvSpa, a fulJ, used both alone, iv lioi^aarr^plois
iirdpX''''^*' flTow fiivSpai^ (Epiphan. Iliercs.
80), or with distinctive epithets 07^0, 8((a, ifpd,
wvevnartK^ fidvSpa. The sacred precinct, or
cloistered atrium in front of the church of
St. Simeon Stylites, surrounding the pillar on
which he stood, was popularly known as Mandnx,
takiiijc the name of the enclosed plot in the midst
of whiidi the column was erected (Evagr. //. E.
13, U). [AUOllIMANDKITE.] [E. V.]
MAVDUTIUSi commemorated Aug. Ii3
(CW. llij-ant.). [C. H.]
MAXDYAS (^avSi'or, /ioySuTj, navhiov).
This name is now given in the Greek church to
the outer garment worn by monks, which is
al.-^o used on some occasions by bishops, who are,
as a rule, drawn from the monastic orders. In
shape it is, on the whole, similar to a cope, being
a long cloak, reaching almost to the feet, ami
fastened at the throat.
It seems originally to have been borrowed
from the 1 t-rsians, and is defined by Hesychius
as eiS, J inartov tlc^irwi', itoKfiiiKhv i/uaTiof, In
the West we tind it frei|nently spoken of as a
dress wcprn by em|ierors and kings. The earliest
instance of the u-^e of the word in its ecclesias-
tical sense is app.irently in Germanus, patriarch
of Constantinople (Hist. Kccles. et Mystica
Thcorii; I'litrol. Or. xcviii. 396). For later
instances reference may be made to Ducange,
G ossariuiu Graccuin, s.v.,aud Gear's Ktuj/ioloi/ion,
pp. 113, 495. [R. S.]
MAXECHILDIS, or MENEHOUD, virgin
in Gaul ; connnemoi-ated Oct. 14 (Boll. Acta
SS. Oct. VI. 521)). [C. H.]
MAXETIIO, virgin at Scythopolis, martyr;
commemorated Nov. 13 (Basil. McnoL).
[C. H.]
MANGEB. (Praesepe). In the crypt be-
neath the altar of the Sixtine chapel which
lorms part of the Liberian basilica (S. Maria
Maggiore) at Home is preserved the sacred
cullii, which forms the object of a solemn cere-
mony and procession on Christmas Eve. The
cullii is suppo.seit to consist of five boards of the
mauler in which the infant Saviour was laid at
the Mativity [Magi; Nativity]. This manger
was visited by Jerome and his disciple Paula
MANIPLE
(Hicnn. E/iint. 108, ad Eu.ft.cMum, § 11). The
boards were brought to Koine from Bethlehem,
together with some fragments of rock from the
cave which is the trailitioual .scene of the
Nativity, when the remains of St. Jerome were
translated In the middle of the seventh century
by pope Theodore 1. [Not A.n. 352, as is main-
tained by Benedict XIV., (/c Cmumi'.. Saiwt. 1.
iv. pt. 2.] They are now enolDseii in an urn of
silver and o'ystal, with a gilt figure of the
Holy Child on the top. (Wetzer and Welte,
Kircheiilcxicon, xii. 698, s. v. Krijipc ; JIurrav,
Jlituibook of Home, p. 128, 9th id.) The modern
practice of setting up in churches representa-
tions of the manger or cradle is said to have
originated with St. Francis of Assisi. [C]
MANILIS, martyr; commemorated Mav 11
(Uieiun. Mart.). [(J. H.]
MANILIU8, martyr ; commemorated in
Africa April 28 {Hieron. Mart.; Boll. A<-ta SS.
April, iii. 671). [c. H.]
MANILUS (1) Martyr; commemorated in
Africa March 7 (Hieron. Mar!.).
(2) Martyr ; commemorated in Afiica JIarch 8
(Hieron. Mart.).
(3) Martyr; commemorated in Cappadocia
March 15 (Hieron. Mart.).
(4) Martyr; commemorated April 12 (Hie-
ron. Mart.).
(6) Martyr ; commemorated at Perusia April
29 (Hieron. Mart.).
(6) Martyr; commemorated in Africa May 11
(Hieron. Mint.). [c. il.]
MANIPLE (PaUium T.inostimitm [?], Map-
'pula, Manipulns [to be referreil, like the other
uses of the word, to the primarv notion of A(?n<^
fiU; see Ducange, s.v.], Maiiip'ila, SnJarium,
Phanon, Fanon [cf. German Fnhnc and Latin
pannus, which are doubtlessly allied : see Grimm,
DiiUsc/ws Worterbmh, v. p. ;'the English pennon
also is apparently derived from jjanniis], Mantile,
Manutcr.jium : e'^x'^P""')'
This vestment in its primary form appears to
have been merely a hauilkerchiet' or najikin held
in the hand, but in later timi's it became an
ornamental vestment pendent tVcin the left wrist.
It l)erliaps furnishes us witli :;iiother illustration
of what we have alreaily spwiien of in the case
of the dalmatic (see the artich-). "f the gradual
extension of wliat was in it.-- origin a peculiar
use ipf the local Honian church throughout the
whole of the West; au extendi.. 11 at lirst je.iKiusly
resisted by the Komau clergy. The Eastern
church has nothing answering to the maniple,
but apparently the iyxfipiof spoken of by <ier-
manus. to which we shall retcr belmv, was' in its
time a real, though acciiiental, parallel.
Possibly the earliest trace of tiie original use
of the maniple is to be found in the'order of
Silvester 1. (ob. A.t). 335) that deacons shi.uhl
wear dalmatics in church, and that their left
hand should be covered witii a cloth of linen
wnri> (palliuiii linostiinuin : see Walafrid Strabo,
lie Jiehus Eccles. c. 24; Patri,',. cxiv. 952; Ana-
stasius Bihliothecarius, de Vitis /win. I out..
Patrol, cxxvii. V.iVd). Marriott, who is liisposed
to connect this with the later maLiiple, suggests
(Vestiarium Christianuin, p. Iu8 u.) that the
r;/i/'(m, § 10). Th«
! (Vuni licthlehom,
s lit' rouk froni the
ual scene of the
if St. .loroiiie were
Hi seventh century
n. .'152, as is niiiin-
Caitoni:. Sind. 1.
h>soil in an iii-n of
gilt tigiii-e (if the
Vetzer au'l Welte,
Krijipo ; Murray,
I c-'l.) Tlie moileru
urclies roiiresoiitii-
e is said to liave
Assisi. [C]
lemorated Slav 11
[C. H.]
ommomornted in
■t. ; Boll. A<-ta 6W.
[C. H.]
commemorated in
)■
in Afi'ica JIarch 8
d in Caiipadocia
1 April 12 (me-
at Pcrusia April
in Africa Mav 11
[0. H.]
^tiiiwm [?], Miip-
<\. like the other
y notion of haml-
ilp'ila, SiiJdritim,
Fithnc and Latin
Hied : see Grimm,
e Kuglish pennon
panniis], Mnntile,
form ap]iears to
't' or uajikiu held
es it became an
om the left wrist,
otlier illustration
1 of in the case
), of the ijriidual
origin a jicculiar
throughout the
at lirst jealously
The I'.astevu
to the maniple,
'oken ot' by (ier-
Iji'low, was in its
lanillid.
the original use
in the order of
deacons shmild
that their left
I cloth of linen
A'alafrid Strabo,
■xiv. y,")2 ; Ana-
'iis horn. I ont,,
, who is disposed
auiple, suggests
'« u.) tliat the
MANIPLE
h.i Idling of the eucharistic vessels. Tlie same
order as to the use of this cloth was made bv
Zosunus (Ob A.„ 418) (Anastasius, op. c■.'^ 6'J ;
Others have argued that this pallium Imusii-
>nu,n IS rather to be associated with the stole
("es esp. .Macer, Uicrok- ricon, s. v. Ihwdwui).
In the tiu>e of Gregory the Great, we meet
with the mippu/u as a jealpuslv guarded vest-
men or ornament of the Roman clejgv, which
h-i.) been m u=e among them for some time. The
clergy ot the church of Kavenua having ventured
to mue use of tills vestment, the Roman clergy
ou, ly maintained that it was a peculiar right
01 their own. and j.rotested against the clergv of
vavenua wearing the niipim.a either there or at
Kome. Gregory, writing to John, bishop of Ra-
V una, sett ed the matter by giving permission
^estr ,) to wear the mappuU when in attendance
lute y elused vehementissime prohibemus) for
other imes and to other persons (A>/,s<. lib. iii I
50; vol. „,. 0,18). Bishop John, in his ans ver '
remarks that in the time of Gregorv's red .' j
cessors, whenever a bishop of Ravenna" had been
con.,ecrated at Rome, the'attendant pries a
deac..ns had openly used mappul.c without a, v
1. ult being tound, and that this had been the
case when he was himself consecrated bishon
he above instance has generally been suiiposed
^ vf";:""''";''.,'-^^"--'''eia;.ll-writerS:
Hefel >«;/•• ' ''';•- ^'^^ "I'l-^' iollowed ify
lo.J>c. u,ul U0„y!k, li. 180), 1 .; J \'i,; "ifr
here rather to be understood of a Mi 1 of move ble
c nopy (.ec Duraudus, Hat. Di,. Of. i" 6 1
and 1 iicange, .v.r.) ; and it may fairly b > .idmitted
that the terms in wlmdi both the couttimltTe
conce..s,on are described are on the whole ,1
applicable to this latter view It i V, .
to^uid here, in ti.ce of th]s^::::nH!:t'; ' S;::f
that, so tar as apjiears, there is no trace of a
ma«V-m the famous mosaic in the X^yJ^ ^
S . \ ita IS a Ravenna, which is assigned o the
end ot the iJth century n"i,nii-,„l ..1
I'ALMATic, from Gal ? KniVlf - V!*;""' f: ']
ArcUecturc of Ital,, plate x) ^'"'""'^'^^^ I
It IS not till the Sth or 9th century th.t ,..-
meet with .li.tinct allusions to t ic. i, f ,7.
W.th;:tr"'- ''?'""" ""''-^ '"''-'-
■ t.iuiat i,.,| to a monastery in the year a u 781
wl'u I, wi.li numeron:, otlier diirr'o n':
-.ne.uioiie,,,.:;;r;^;;L:^Vy;LS^^
^c/^.;r^..tr;ir;;^T'edr'til:f,^Sf
"»,■•'■"■"■'" ■'•i-al in the monaste y of' S n.„ "
I'littuig on of the m-ini„l„ . ..' ^ '"■ '■'"-
MANIPLE
1083
copy ul the Ambrualon Liturgy made by
/ J i 71 /" T ^•■•""""" ^'^'"■•"^ (* Clcr.
in the c. 1 ' 1*"''- '■'"• "'^' "■'"'. «''"i >g -arlv
;_. he h century, speaks of the maniple as ."e
altaris" Ab„nt .i >"' ^Klotes et ministr
i-i.:r(,^t^ Sir"24''T,//'"■'V""-
eomlllentingont^::;;n^;,;^;: - ;;^)
itrrfir'rr':! '-«>'■'•'''' the "r
the t V?H 7 ,, :"''" ''"^ " '■'-'l''-'''e"''e to \\ in
"-, liLeve;, a^'id'-tlil H^%r,^,^
j;«i.^. that the nil, i:-5;«;;;;^:i'L:i';;;;:q
uhed fe„g amice, alb, stole, Lplaile^M
^ luid the same command rei.Jated in '
I Sw ^r • '15'"''^^'"^' '■'■''"'-'• ^^--
I Jo add one more iliustrathm, the order is „,,de
I sous, that each churcli shouM possess at lest
y^Miuta, t. 7; latrol. cx.v.xi. 17)
J" Rabanus xMaurus and the other lif„r>rin
loKists cited above, the maniple is ,k o,' t
I carried in the hand, the left beinJ someti in
pcially mentioned; but, in course' of ,"m
If .M \,ctore, iSerm. U ; ratrol. cUWn 4 ?"
-iuo , i atrol. clxxii. 6n0) '
it onght to be added here that the maniple
oes not appear to have been ,,«.',„■«"
Wo)ed as a s.icred vestment in the 'Jth century
1-andullus, which is assigned to that period none
of the priests wear maniples (see Ma/riott'pb u.
.; ;' r *-"°':«"ely also, it may be reii ark',!
^ye find, and that at quite a later neri ! '
, 0. the maniple beinglo.:, by' t;! T .' '■^:^
\e.,j. Lantranc of Canterbury, soe'tkin^ w h
cvample of this in th: .s .'"ihe t.^io,':"""
;".')' cite the will of iJiculfus bil ,1 1 tden?
^-^■1^;--^:,,!:;;:;; Hst'of'vS!;,^
Ihe Eastern church, as wo l.ave .said, d^e^not
th:rir^^;::r.^^-— "ortbeiitue,.u..„
10S4
MANIRRA
K -f
Usi' till? m.ini).Io, l)ii( prdbiihly tlic fy\(!i<iov,
ini'iitiipiii..! I.y (icrmiiiiiis, is (iriU'tically a pMiallcl.
It is spciKi'ii lit' liy him a-i wiirn liv iIimiciiiis
attaclii'il 111 the jjinllii, luni as syiiihuiihiii!; thn
towi'l iiii whii.li (iiii- l.iir.l iliiiiil liis hamUliftiT
washinj; His .iisoijili's' feet (/A-<. AWlna. ct
Jl/i/ylirti iliciiriii ; I'titnil. Gr. xcvjii. ;t!H). Thi'
ejiiinaiiikioii, liowiivcr (^Tri/uai'/icioi', navixwv,
v-KOfxaidKiiw), wliile |jrcsoiitiiiir an a))|micnt simi-
larity til the iiianiph', is uttni'ly ililii'i-cnt fmiii it
in tact. The wiu.i (a barbai'nus comiMiuinl of
Latin ami (irei.'lc) ilenntes a cull', as lieini; wiu-n
ujinn the .'■/(■(•ifs dl' Imtli ai-nis, ami is now one of
tlie actual "iiiaments of bishops (to whom it was
lonft restiicle.l) ami priests (ami latterly also of
deacons. Neale, t.c.) in the (ircek church (Hoar,
J-.u-hiilwiiun, )). Ill; Neale, Eastern Church,
lutro.l. p. ;)ii7).
••'iiially, we may give a passing remark as to
one or two other ecclesiastical uses of some of
the Latin iiames of the maniple. Thus/,(Ho» is
also useil for the name of the cloth in which is
wrappi'J up the breail for use in the Kucharist: —
so in an (.Irdu lUmiamis " fanonibus puris obla-
tiones temnit" (Amalarius, A'c/o./'i de Officio
Jl/isxiw, c. l;); in Wenanl's (Irci/. Sijcr, htH)
anil also lor the cloth which enwraps the chalice
(i/*/. c. '.'(I). It is useil again for a kimi of veil
worn on the head of the jiojie beneath the mitre
(Ordo Ji'omivius, xiv. 4:1 ; of), rit. 270 ; cf. also
281. .'i.-i;, ,">.i7 [even in death, ih. ,'>L'7] ; it ia also
styleii simply m,i/i/i(i). The woril mitpjmla is
iise.l in the /.rfpi/ii Munurhonim of Isidore (c. 1'2,
J'litrol. Ivxxili. 8H'.') for a garment worn over
the shoulders by a monk who has not a pallium,
in the Juyila Friictuosi (c. i ; Patrol. Ixxxvii.
lloi). mi(/i/iulii is used apparently in the sense
of a towel or napkin, as a jiartof the equiiJiiient
of a monlc's cell. See also Jieij. S. Hcnedirti,
c- ■''•''• [U. S.]
MANIHRA, martyr; commemorated Feb. 28
(//„r,«i. Mart.). [0. H.]
MANIUS, bisliop of 'Verona, perhaps in Uh
century; commemorated Sept. 3 (Uoll. Acta
SS. Sept, i. tJt!l). rc. H.]
MANNA (IN AiiT). Two examples from
Bosio's plates (sim' Bottavi, tav. clxiv. and tab.
Ivii.) are supposed by Aringhi to represent
Jliises pointing' to four or seven baskets of the
manna of the wilderness. Hottari expresses
some doubt in both oases, thinking that, at all
events in the example which contains seven
ba-kets, the lisure must be infemled for Our
Lord. This may be the case, but the contents
of the baskets m.ay still be intended for manna,
in reference to St.'.luhn vi. 41. Millin ( Voi/ajA
rf<(H< fc J/idi dr France, etc. xxxviii. 8, lix. ;f),
gives two sarcophagi, in which a personage who
may pass for Moses stands iminting to three
jars or "omers," probably meant for manna,
the more so .is two figures bearing a bunch of
grapes are near them (Num. xiii. 24). Compare
LoAVKS. II. Ii);i8.
There is be^ides a newly discovered fresco, of
which Marligny gives a woodcut, which clearlv
represents the gathering of the mantm ; but, if
it be correctly cojiied, the draperv of the figures
has a :;niiiewhaf medir.eval-llalian appe.irance.
It represents the failing manna, with four
figures spreading their garments to catch it.
MANSE
(See woodcut.) It was discovered in 1883
in the catacomb of St. Cyriai-a. It occupies
the whole side of a crypt, a'ud the manna is re-
presented like snow or hail. Our Lord's men-
tion of the manna, and open ajipeal to it as
the symbol of His body best suited, before His
death, to the understanding .f His .lewisli
hearers, may very probably invest these j)ic-
tures of the bread of the wildernusa with eucha-
ristie meaning. They may be supposed to be
Maun*. (Prom MarUgn;.)
pictorial repetitions of the text " I am that
Bread of Life." And this is yet more probable,
where, as in Bottari Ivii., Moses is represented in
the act of striking the rock, as an accomjianying
sculpture.
As was observed before, it may be our Lord
rather than Moses, who is represented with the
seven baskets, though it was the miracle of the
Five Loaves which preceded His discourse at
Capernaum, and twelve baskets would therefore
be more correct. Nevertheles.s, His words con-
nect the manua of the Mosaic dispensation both
with His miracle, and with the institution of the
Holy Communion, and the pictures seem clearly
meant for the same purpose. [li. St. J. T.J
MANNEA, wife of the tribune Marcellinns,
and martyreil with him; commemorated Aug. 27
(Usuard. Mart.). [o. IL]
MANNICA, martyr; commemorated at Cresa-
rea, in Cappadocia, Nov. 13 (Ilieron. Mart.).
[C. H.]
MANSE, (^fansis, mnnsa, nirmsum, man.tus ;
also, especially in Italy, masa, Hi,(,*o//i(Hj (wlience
vicfsua./c), masata, massa, ma^sii.i. &c. Kr. mas.
Norm. mols. Burgund. meir. The most common
form is mfiiisns.) Strictly, the mansus seems to
have been a piece of arable land of twelve .'icres
(jUiTcra, liunnaria), which suggests mnisus as the
original form ; but it was not restricted to pieces
of that precise extent. When it is not so used,
the quantity is mentioned (see Ducange in v.).
Mansus dominicatus or indominicatus was the
homestead attached to the residence of the lord
and occupied by him (Kar. Calv. Kract. A<rr-
vKiimis Cim.itit. A.n. 877, (^71/^ AV,/. Fr. ii. 2.^7,
2.'i8. Sim. Formulae Marculfi (Linilenbr.). c. 7!>,
iVi/i/. 534, etc.). Charlemagne, 8 l:i (Capit. ii.),
speaks of the "mansum regale" in his forests,
i.e. the clearing, or Jicld, on which the coloni
»c(iV(M'P(I in 1883
iiii'ii. It n(;cu|iio»
I till' iiiiinn.'i is re-
Cur I.iir.l's Mien-
'n !iii|i('iil to it na
siiiltd, l.uforo His
ig "f Hi-; ,l(nvi.sh
invest tficse jiic-
criiuss with oiKilin-
Je suppiised to be
MANSIOXAItir
fit " I nm thut
et iiiore probable,
s is ri'pre.'-ented in
an aci:oini>auying
liny be our Lord
munti'it with the
he niiraclo of the
Hill ili,scniir«e at
s would thi'ret'ore
s, His Words 0011-
dispeusatioii both
institution uf the
urus sei'iii clearly
[fi. St. J. T.]
lune Jfarcelllnns,
emorated Aiij;. 'J7
[C. 11.]
'tnnrateil at Caisa-
ieron. Murt.).
[C. H.]
nnnsnm, twin.sun ;
iii.iiiiiinni (wIr'IK'c
'I.I. Sic, Kr. iitits,
he most coinnion
iiiiinsiis si'i'ins to
of twelve acres
<ts imiiius as the
strii'ti'd to jtit'ces
it is not so used,
Dncanj^'o in v.).
niiatus was the
lenee of the lord
ilv. h'.vact. AiiT'
Iti'tf. Ft: ii. 2.')7,
l.indenbr.). c. 7'.>,
Kill (Cpit. ii.),
" in his forests,
'hich the culoni
dwelt (c.p. Ifl). Byalike„saKe,api..oeof|a„d
h) » lu.h a church was wh.dly or partially en-
dowed (= the "^rhd,,. ") was called I he '• inLus
uclesiae. A law ol l.ouis the (iodly, Hlli (" 1),.
M.Mis.s uuMi.scujn.s(iue K,:clesiae "),■ decrees that U.
ev,.ry churc-i be allotted one whole inansus free
01 s.Mvice and that the priests .settled in then
Mioiiil do no service on account of the afore-
wntten mansus, except that dne to the ehnrch"
(<.,iint. A;u;s,ir. V): al.so in CpU. /to/. /•>•«,„•
1. ><.>, v. i.'I4). CharlenwKue seems' to havj
desM-ed a larger provision, for in lefjislatinL' for
the biixons, ne says. "All of the lesser chapters
have agree.1 that the counlrv people who l'o to a
church give to every church a court (curtem)
and two ninnsi of land" (cap. 15). The I.om-
bardie 1..WS (Mi. i 40), 82+ (l.ndov. P.), provide
t lat II a church hajijien to be built in any
l.lace which was wanted, and yet had no endow-
"lent, 'one inansus consisting of twelve bun-
nana of arable land be given there, an,l
two serfs by he freemen who are to hear otlice
n the said church, th.'^.t there niav be priests
there, and that divine worship may be held ; but
that it the peojde will not do this it be iiulle.l
down (v. hspen, ii. jv. iv. L'.)). Hincmar of
Kheims u. 8W asked of each |,arish priest in his
■.."cese "whether he had a mansus of twelve
mam.'uia, beside a cenn'tery and a court (cortem)
." wliich the church and his house stood, or i f
he had jour sens" (I.abbe, Cone. viii. ,^7;t)
witTi!Mrrr^''7'",'''*-'r"'''!'^'-^ *" l"'"-''''-' 'horn
cl ss „ , (^"'"'' /"■■'/• ■f>- "• ■')• .-""l an ancient
gloss on the canon law says, "Mansus appellatur
midt percpitur frunientiim et vinum 'd' K L
nstiain con.sccrandatn " (from CAnm. 11 W
ajuid Ludewig. ii. /.,/,-,. .V,W._,)uea,;,4.
0/ Vic frcnck Km,js (iv. 28). compiled in 827
courts of .justice are to be held » ne,,ue in e cle;^
b ''Ch^rlf 'tV^';:- ■ •^^'"•" ""^ '"''^ ■■qmblislu
by Charles the liald in 85,'! (tit. x. o 7) and
K.mallave placita in exitibuset atrii, eccle»i:
ai urn et presbyterorum ninusionibus . lenere
p.e.s„mant. in 870 (tit. xlv. 12) he worded the
prohibition thu.s, " Mallus ne,,ue in eccle-ia ne, e
in porticibiLs ant atrio ecclesiae Deque in mnn-
sione preshyten juxt.l ecclesiam habeatiir " We
inter progress in the settlement of the clerL'v
and that near their chnrohe.s, through thepro:
vi.o., of a Curtis [see Mans.^] „„ which a h.lu™
might be built; but it does not appear that
"mansio" was used in a conventional and .sped
ense to denote the residence (or " man.se"
tie priest meant a dwelling-hou.sc of „,,y
kind, and ,., the original form of the common
word maison. j-yy_ j^ y' "
nn s,] Ofhcers discharging certain duties in
co„„e.xion with the fabric and .services of the
church. Ducange (67o..,.) makes the word
.synonymmis with "aedituus" „„d " n.ntr
cnlarius," and e.xplains it as deriving its "",".
mg from the fact that a residence (^' man io ")
near the church was attached to^ th office^
M.,r,.,.^nar,us a,s a rendering of the word
Trni:u.:;7\r '••""'""?-'">• "•« coi.
who are ltk.f\''T."'''^ "'" "^'^f''^'"' "'«'•"«
WHO aie sUictly forbidden to obtain their situ-
MANSO^ACUM, COrNCri, OK 1085
■■■tion. by bribery. (See Firnns. C .nnnr,. i. '<,; )
I'Migham, h„w,.ver (K,,t. Ant. iii. ]:t K ,,
to':!;": '':i''''"!u''''^-"-'''«''' ""''"''''■>• -'-h'-.^
"Prme that the wp,„,.a^d,,,o, were In realitv
the stewards or „dmi„istrat;os of the prop . >
of the church. That the " m.msi„nari " were
clergy IS evident from the wor.ls of Anast-,si„i
tlMi ibrarian, who i„ his lives of .1 , 4,h
«n^nii"^"'^«''rT'' ''•'•="'''
ariis .. Ii 1-^? ;," • ■ '''■"-•""i'"i« 't loan.iuu-
a MS olidos mille." (^eg„ry the (Jieat (M.-
si'it and "uiansionarius" indiscriroin.i,.!,. f
^oA, ,„„, Their special" !c:;;:;;:r;!,e
to h.ive been connected with the liirhlin, -,, 1
general care of the lamps of the chur.V wh
ak" T*''"'- . ^"'^"'^ 'he Great (I'i.a..,. , )
». ".aks of a certain Const.antius who was " man-
^ f '• ^^> "'o samedut es are ,ill,,tle,l in
one Theo osius,who is called "cL s'' ,',h:
text and " mansionarius " in the headin.- i
al.soJohn the Deacon (Vita rr,, Om
the Ordo ICnanus, i. ^4) the m,/ns I in ' 'of ^
t'tular .hurch in Kome is to go forth, with a
ivht^' "' ""•■'"'"« " "'""'le I meet I "
Uain (^ U) he carries the tai.er s„|e,,,ulv
kuid led on Manndy Tluir.sd.ay. Mal.illon ( ^
J'oovms, p. xivii) notes that during the r?t
nine centuries in the "patriarchal" lur
Xi:;:;:;::!'''"^"'' ''"r"""^' ''-"•'""»
ma^^.' n " "'■""■"'"^ fnuuidaudas alaiouc
!> aestanda quae nece.ssaria erant." Excei.t he
above-mentioned passage in tht Co, , il f
Chalcedon, there is no trace of the e^i tenc of
the ollice in the Kastern church. ''■""''■'"-'-' ">
2. Hincmar, of Kheims r r,„\-f „,t i.
I'eoni, c. 21, o.p. ed. vZ. /l^ "'o^l nn'mbT:!
a".ong the oflicials of the roVarhiis 1 '
hat'^r""'';"'-" ^^''' ''"'>■ '' ^■•■'« '.> re
which the KOS.S0K commonly hd T h ■ 1 T
MANSLAUGHTER. [lloMtcn,,,]
MANSOLACUM, COUNCII OF Mr ,
121.)
[K. S. Ff.j
1086
MANSUETUS
MANSCKTUS (1) Bishop of Milnn ; cnmmo-
niuiMtiMi I'rli. ly (boll. Acta SS. Fob. ili. llio).
(2) Martyr; ouiiii'ieinorated Feb. J8 (Ilitjron.
il.irt.).
(3) Hi>hi)|) and cdnfessor nt Toul ; commumo-
rated Sujpt. ;i (Uoll. Acta SS. Sept. i. 6l.'>).
(4) liishcip ; I'dinmemorated in Africa Nov.
28 ( Vd. Rum. Mirt.).
(6) Martvr with ten others; comniomorated
at Ale.\au.lria Dec. JO (Usuard. Mart. ; bed.
Mart. Aw:t.). [C. H.]
MAN'l'IUS, martyr in Lu.sitanin 5th century ;
coninu'nior.ited May 21 (Boll. Ada S.i. Jlay,
V. 31). [C. H.]
MANUAKUS, bishop of Bayenx, circ. a.d.
480; commemorated May 28 (Florus, np. Bed.
Mart.; Boll. Acta CS. May, vi. 767). [C. H.]
MANUAL LABOUR. It appears to have
been contemplated by the earlier councils that the
clergy should, in part at least, maintain them-
selves by the work of their hands. The Apn-
stolica! Cunstttiitioiis (II. 6i!) e.\hQrt the younger
clergy to provi le for their own necessities by the
work of their own hands, while not neglecting the
work of the ministry. Some of u.s, it is added,
are (ishermen, some tentinakers, some husband-
men, for no worshi|iper of God should be idle.
The t'ourth council of Carthage {Sta/ut. £cc!o?.
Anti.u,!. cc. bl. .52) enjoins that all clergy, how-
ever leariieil, should iirovide themselves with food
and clothing by some hamiicraft (artificiolo) or
agricultur.il labour, yet so as not to neglect their
)iro|ier <lnties; and (c. b'.i) that all clergy who
were sullioiently strong in body should be in-
.struoted both in some handicraft and in letters.
These canons are evidently referred to by the
second Council of Tours, A.D. ,iH7 (c. 10), where
it is laid down, with .somewhat curious reasoning,
that there could be no justification for any of
the clergy who employed a woman not belonging
to the house (e.\traneam niulierem) for the
alleged purpose of making his clothes, since
there was a general order that they should
procure both food and clothing by their own
industry, and as the work of their own hands.
Thomassin ( Vet. ct Nok. Heel. Discip. ill. H ; c. 8,
§§ 2-.'i) thinks that the • anons were permissive
rathei th.m obligatory, and only applied to the
interior clergy, noting the fact that St. Paul is
the only one of the apostles who is said to have
worked with his own hands. Thus the first
council of Orleans, A.I). ,ill (c. .^)), provides that
certain lands an.l revenues which Clovis had
MAPHIUAN
qucidam virtutis) to support themselves by the
work <d' their own hands ; and (/Aicis. 70, n. 2)
speaks <if a certain sect named Audiani, in whose
fellowship bishops, presbyters, and all elergv
lived by their own toil. "The very mention o'f
such a fact .seemingly proved that "this was out
of the common course. Chrysostom \I/uih. 4;'),
on Acts) speaks of four ditl'erent grades of e.xcel-
lence set before the clergy, the .second of which
consists ia labouring for their own fooil, the
third is also labouring to as>ist the poor.
Augustine (rfe Op. Muwirh. c. 29) asserts that
the professional labours of the bishops and clergy
are sulKciently onerous to e.\empt thetn from the
obligation of toiling with their hands. Many
instances, however, are to be found in which the
most zealous attention to spiritual duties was
combined with hard and habitiuil work at a
trade or on a farm. Socrates (//. E. i. 1:^) savs
that S))iridon, bishop of Cyprus, was originally' a
shepherd, and through his great humility con-
tinued to feed his flock even after being made a
bishop. Sozomen (//. £. vii. 28) speaks of one
Zeno, bishop of Maiuma, who jprovided for his
own wants, and for the poor of his flock, bv
weaving linen. Gennadius of Marseilles (./«
Scriptor. Keel. c. 09) says that Hilary of Aries
toiled with his own hands, not only for his own
support, but that he might be able to help the
jioor. Fi'om Gi-egory the Great {Dialog, iii. 1)
we learn that I'aulinus of Nola was an excellent
gardener, iiud (/Ma/o,/. iii. 12) that one Severus,
a priest of great sanctity, was occupied on a cer-
tain occasion in pruning his vines. Gregory of
Tours, in his Life of Kicetius (e. 8), says that
when a bishop he continued to live among his
servants, and work on his farm. It would be
easy to multiply examples of this kind, they all
point the same way ; the very tact of their being
recorded seems to shew that they must be con-
sidered as instances of exceptional excellence,
which was held in honour and esteem, but not
illustrative of the general [practice, or of con-
duct which was reckoned obligatory upon either
bishops or clergy. Hincmar of Kheims indeed,
A.D. 8-1,5, appears to have endeavoured to make
some measure of manual labour compulsory in his
diocese, since {Capit. ad I'rcshi/teros, c. 9,"opp. i.
p. 712) he orders all his clergy to go out fastin^r
to work on their farms; but the general sen. ,■ of
the church in this matter appears to be repre-
sented by the words of tpiphanius, alreailv
iiuoted, that those who serve the altar have a
right to live by the altar. [P. 0.]
MANUEL (1) Martvr under the Bulga..
gi'-eu to the church should be employed in re- at Debeltus, A.D. 812; commemorated l.in.
pairing churches in the redemption of captives,
and in paying the stipends (alimoniis) of the
priests an I poor, while the clergy (derici) or, as
another reading is, the clergy of lower degren
(junioris oMicii) (.see Bruns, Caumies, ii. 102)
should be compelled to help in the labour of the
church (ad adjutorium ec<desiastici operis con-
stringantur), probably on the lands so given.
Among ecclesiastical writers manual labour is
evidently considered honoujable and meritorious
for the clergy, ami in .some cases habitually
resorted to, but never enjoined as a positive
obligation. Kpiphanius (//lent. 8U ; nn. .5, 6)
savs that many clergy, while they might live by
(''«(/. Ihizaut.; Basil. Mcnol. ; Boll. Acta 5.\
Jan. ii. 441).
(2) Martyr with Theodosius ; commemorated
March 27 (Basil. J/cnoi.;.
^ (3) A Persian martyr with two brothers at
Constantinople, a.d. ;)(J2 ; I'ojumemorated ,lune
17 (Cat. /Iijtant. : Boll, Acta .sX .June, iii. 290;
Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 261 ; Basil. i/tvi.V.).
[C. H.]
MANUMISSION. [Slaveky.]
MAN US MOKTUA. [Moutmain.]
MAPHUIAN ("Fruit-hearing"). In the
the altar, prefer from excels of zeal (abundantii j tith century Jacobus Zanzalus, bishop of Edei
thi>m.«i>Ives by the
Ml (//'((••i.t. 71), n. :;)
.'J Auiliani, in whose
M's, iiOil all I'Iftrgy
he vciy mention of
1 that this was out
rysustiini -{I/uin. 45,
ent grailos "f uxcel-
he .siHMiniJ lit' which
leir own tuod, the
) assist the piK^r.
c. i'J) asserts that
e bishops anJ clergy
nnpt them from the
heir hands. JIany
tniind in which the
piritual duties was
abitual work at a
!s (//. E. i. I'.;) says
us, was originally a
:reat humility cou-
it'ter being made a
'J8) sjieaks of one
10 provided tor his
or of his Hock, by
of Marseilles (./'e
lat Hilary of Aries
t only for his owu
iie able to help the
eat (Diiilo:). iii. 1)
la was an excellent
that one Severus,
occupied on a cer-
viucs. Gregory of
s (c. 8), says that
to live among his
irni. It would be
this kinil, they all
tact of their being
(hey must be cou-
pttonal excellence,
ad esteem, but not
ractice, or of con-
[;atory upon either
of Rheims imleed,
leavonred to make
•conipulsnry in his
i/tcros, c. 1', opp. i.
i to go out fasting
he general sen.-.- of
uiars to be re)irc-
liphanius, alreailv
the altar have a
[I'. 0.]
:cr the Bulgarians
lemorated Jan. J^
Boll. Acta &\;
1 ; commemorated
two brothers at
iimeniorated June
^VV. June, iii. 'J!IU;
Sasil. Mend.).
[C. H.]
Euy.]
)UTMAIN.]
ring"). In the
bishop of Edessa,
SIAI'l'A
th:t'"trs.h:iir:;'r;^t''i;;:r:'^'''''7
Eir^if;:m--K^S^^^^^^
MarM.!;tai[St.Matt;::iV:ltri^.,f
|...^m. tV,«rcA Introd. 152, Germann, S
MAPPA Under the Roman empire a
yv". or hani kerchief, carried in t^hand
hgTran; ■'tI T '''''"" "' 'li^tincHvo" of
high rank. The drop|,mg of his mn,m by the
^H,>'.>l tor the commencement of the games of
h amph.theatre (Tertuilian. de 4-*!. W."
of the K.. ^'"""S !he msignia of the emperors
ot the Kast, especially from the time that thev
became perpetual consuls. An object resemblin^
^>nappa ,s sometimes found on Christian „mb|"
B, Z-'iTyT/' '•'e;^-- which denote.! rtk
quintan, . 73). In those, diptychs in which on
the.r passmg into the service of the church 'the
r:" Znr^fT"' '^ '^""'"" -"difi^ati'
inco a saint or dignitary of the rhornK .K„
ZT t f V™-'-'-'' offieiar'sUetlt' I'p!
Ker \h»' ''": '° """' '^■■""'^ doubtfil
whethei the supposed ,n„ppa is not rather a
Usua I ' f,,' ^"'^- if"-- V/^''- AW. Mart. ;
SS. Apr. ii. 480). ^^'"''- '^'^*- ' »»"• ^ct'a
(//'Sl;/)"'"'-"'"°™'^^ at Rome Apr. 18
'' [C. H.J
MAR (Syriae, J^). a title of dignity
among the Syrian Christians, signifving lord
^Xl^^ '■''''- ecclesiaftical^S
L 'J
Be!^'Si^^'^;;^^?--Cirrhaat
morated by the Greeks Feb 28 nt" ' ^i^"'"?'-
by the UtLAug,3(Bol[lf„'ff^;-J",^y
MARAXATIIA (XHN ,.0. "ThfSd
LoiJ. In ecclesiastic.. ■"''" """'"-^ "^ ">«
found as paTt '; th' ? """'^' - " ''""'"'"'«■•'
the most .X reme aud solT '^/^''^'^'l '^'' '«-'»-
nieation. that 'M ntM tl 7 "''"■' "'^ "«">•> "'"-
Jna Spanish ^^l^Ov^-^rTH "^'Ik
A n fitTi fi,« ■ ^ "' Jolct. c. 75
";icontt"St;:;;.a^'':f';;'^.""^'-p-'''=
^.mpserit, anathema m. .math, 'k'""""'" P'^^"
- a'lventu Domini .^Tt' ?'''■;; "'^r'' '""■'''''"
i-'teiu haheant et ipsi et soci •^' p'"'"""
ri:/^:-'^4''-««^^ndth^s:^
MAIICELLINUS 1087
St';h::i:,,:'':,r'';her7^i"'-'-
the otien.l'r; ,"''"'"' ""■'"' '" ''"• t""xW,.do
J>"IS".ont of the r'l %"''""■'" ^'"' f'"' the
ever (,fc a.«™nX ii p.';,^' o^'^'it '"r^"
such a sentence is in all ., 7^' '""'•''' that
-ntinued impeVi e„ce i X 1"''""'"1"" "■"
7«S"xv.%i^- 1^6 'iT "" '. ^^'■''«'"™. -4'".--
'^^^»n xli! 761 \ ' '•""-''■ "'"' ^^'«'"'. A^'-A".-
A"*i-?ffi8(/C:;!'^^^^^^^^
c.7.^.i,?cS;i?*^St^^^ "F (•^"~ cl
mnticbirps ''m 1^7„';r.'>''■"S'''•t<■nschis-
l Severus, bilfhop o Z lei . ™' 'T- I'T" *'"^"
demnatiou of the thvil ih '. ''"'^'-"' '''" ^■"»-
MARCELLA (1) Roman widow oh ah
410; commemorated Jan ii /nn a. '*•"•
Jan. ii. notj). '*' (•*""• ^<^''J 'S'5'.
^^(2)^Marty..j commemorated Feb. 17 (///^o„.
A*'"lv!;.V""""^'"°™*«'' - Africa May 7
(4) Martyr; commemorated at Rom„ . .•.
cemetery„fPraetextatus,May1o?//^rZ;A'
A''S');-~'«J at Rome June i'
(6) Martyr; commemorated Jhob oq „, ,,
anclna(i;s„ard, ^a., ,. k,,. 1„',:"^;;^ J A'«-
MARCBLLIA>fUS en ni 1, l. ^'- "0
and translatio c^emir.t! ?'.''''' ''"P"^'''°
13(^,<;ro«. ,J/u,.^.) '"""'•"'^'1 at Auxerre May
n>^nl5'^R:i;^!;':,^™[|>- Marcus; com.
(//.■«ro«. if„^< . ,?""'''*^''AHeatinaJune 18
Usuard. M,'rt). thVir nT'l "C'' ' '*"''• ^^■"•'- ;
/« in the San:l'„e'nt ; '',^;,i-;-' ."» J"-'
l:^:^^^*:tri;^?^""-"-^et;^-
on|ep!;;.;^~-^^.8atno.,
ySnSi:fu.:';eii;^^:L«-"d'-- and
Aug. 9 (Usuard. Mart!). ' <;»mmon.orated
MARCRLIJKA m M »
at Nicomedia Feb. 24 (S,^'^j;,;7;""='""'ated
June I'te.So!"-'"'"'^'' "* T''o-alonica
(/Sof j'/^^iy""""'^-"'^''"*^ at Home June 3
eommemcated |,n. rcufuard."'!^,;;; 7"^
1088
MARCELLINUS
£om. Mart. ; Hud. Mart, Au<;t.), but on Jan. 3
iu Illeriin. Mtirt.
(2) MmiIvi- iit Nicometlia; commeraoriited Feb.
22 {Hicroii.' Mart.).
(3) Maityi'; commemorafed Mar. 30 (//Vtron.
Mart.).
(4) Martvr; cnmmemorated Ap. 2 (Ilieron,
Mart. ; Bu.i". Mitrt. Auct.).
(6) l!ish(pp and cont'csaor; his depositio com-
meiiiiiratetl at Rome Ap. 20 {Hienm. Mart.).
(6) Po|it'and martyr; commemorated at Rome
Ap. -i) (LIsuard. Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart.).
(7) Martyr; commemorated at Milan May 6
(Ilii'ruii. Mart.).
(8) Two martyrs of this name commemorated
at Milan May 7 {Hierun. Mart.); one at Nico-
media on the same day (Bed. Mart. Aurt.),
(9) Presbyter, with Peter the K.toroist ; com-
memorated at liome on June 2 {Hieron. Mart. ;
Usuard. Mart. ; I'ft. Horn. Mart. ; Bed. Mart.).
His natalis with that of Peter is commemn-
ratel on this day in Gregory's Sacramentary,
their nnnics being mentioned in the collect
(Gleg. Mag. Lib. Sarr. 104). A basilica was
said to have been erected in their honour by
Constantine on the Via Laircan.a, and his mother,
Helena, was said to have been buried there
(Ciami.ini, Jo Sac. Aedif. 122, 12;i).
(10) Jlartyr ; commemorated at Rome June
27 (Ilieron. Mart.).
(11) Martyr ; commemorated nt Cologne
Aug. (Ilieron. Mart. ; Floras ap. Bed. Mart.).
(12) Tribune, martyr with Mannea or Mannis
his wife; commemorated at Tomi Aug. 27
{Ilicrun. M trt. ; Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Iloin.
Mcrt.).
(13) Martyr; commemorated at Capua Oct.
7 {Hicron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(14) Martyr ; commemorated Oct. 20
{Ilieron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(15) Martyr ; commemorated in Africa Nov.
26 (Ilieron. Mirt.). [0. H.]
MARCELLINUS, presbyter and confessor
at Deventer oirc. A.D. 8uO; commemorated July
14 (^Acta HiS. Jul. iii. 702). [C. H.j
MARCELLOSA, martyr ; commemorated in
Africa May 20 (^Ilieron. Mart.; Bed. Mart.
Auct.) [C. H.]
BLVRCELTXS (1) Youthful martyr; com-
meniorati'd with his brothers Argeus and Mar-
oollinus Jan. 2, at Tomi (Usuard. Mart.); but
Ilieron. Mirl. calls him Narcissus, and assigns
Jan. :i to the three brothers.
(2) Bishop of Rome and confessor; his de-
positio at Kome in the cemetery of Priscilla, on
tlie Via Salaria, comniemorated Jan. 16 {Ilieron.
Mart.); the s.mie liay given to his natalis by
Usuard and Bede. The sacramontary of Grei;orv
celebr.ites his uatalis on this day, and mentions
his name in tiie special collect (Greg. Mag. Lib.
Sacr. 18). His natalis is also observed in the
Antiphonary (Greg. Mag. Lib. Sac. 662). The
]\'t. lioin. Mart, assigns Jan. 17 to him. on
which day also Ilieron. Mart, gives ..is depositio
comniomorated at Langres.
(3) Martyr; comniemoratsd at Nicomedia
Feb. 16 {Ilieron. Mart.).
MARCLVNA
'4) Martyr; cuminemorated iu Africa Feb. 18
{Ilieron. Mart.).
(6) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Feb. 19
{Ilieron. Mart. ; Bud. Mart. Auct.).
(8) Martyr, comnieniorated in Africa Ap. 2
{Ilieron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(7) Martyr; commcmoiatcd in Africa Ap. 10
{Ilieron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Awt.).
(8) Bishop of Knibrun, confessor; commemo-
rated Ap. 20 (Usuard. Mart).
(9) Bishop of Rome ; dHpositio commemorated
Ap. 2G (Florus, ap. Bed. Mart.). Usuard and
Vet. It'oin. Mart, name him Marcellinus.
(10) Martyr; depositio commemorated at
Epiii'sus May 2.") {Hieron. Mart.).
'11) Martyr; commemorated at Rome June
iQ{H.eron. Mart.).
(12) Martyr; commemorated at Rome June
27 {Ilieron. Mart.).
(13) Martyr; commemorated at Lyon June
28. On the .same day this or another Marcellus
was commemorated at Alcvandria (Hieron.
Mart.). ^
(14) Martyr, with Anastasius, " apud castrum
Argentomacum ;" commemorated June 29
(Usuard. Mart.).
(16) Martyr; commemorated at Milan July
17 (Ilieron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(16) Martyr ; commemorated at Chiilons-sur-
Saone, Sept. 4 {Ilieron. Mart. ; Usuard. Mart. ;
Florus, ap. Bed. Mart.). Ilieron. Mart, mentions
another of the same name under this day comme-
morated at Ancyra,
(17) Bishop, martyr; commemorated Oct. 4
{Hieron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(18) Martyr ; commemorated at Capua Oct. 6
{Hieron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. Attct. ; Usuard.
Mart).
(19) Martyr, with Apuleus, at Rome, under
Aurelian ; commemorated Oct. 7 (Usuard. Mart.;
Vet. Rom. Mart. ; Ilieron. Mart.).
(20) Martyr ; commemorated nt Rome Oct. 9
{Hieron. Mart.).
(21) Martyr; commemorated nt Acernum in
Sicily, Oct. 11 (Ilieron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. A'(ct.).
(22) Martyr; commemorated at Chalcedonia,
Oct. l.i {Hieron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. A"ct.).
(23) Centurion, martvr at Tingitana; comme-
morated Oct. HO (Usuard. Mart.; Vet. Horn.
Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(24) Martvr; commemorated Nov. 16 '{Hieron.
Mart.; hml.Mart. Auct.).
(26) Martyr at Nicomedia; commemorated
Nov. 26 (Hieron. Mart.).
(28) Archimandrite of the monastery of the
Acoemetae; commemorated Dec. 29 (Basil. M,.
not. ; .^imeon Metaph. Vit. Sanct. Dec. 29 ; Cat.
Jiyzant.).
(27) Deacon, martyr; suffered Dec. 7 ; his
burial commemorated at Spoletum Dec. 30 ( Vet.
Ivm. Mart.) In Bed. Mart. Auct. his passio is on
Dec. 30. ic. H.]
MARCIA. [Martia.]
MARCIALIS. [M*uTiAU3.J
MARCIANA. [Martiana.]
tud ill Africa Fob. 18
0(1 in Africn Feb. 19
Aitrt.).
0(1 in Africa Ap. 2
Auct.). ■
tod in Africa Ap. 10
Awt.).
)nfossor ; comincmo-
)■
'sitio commcniornted
lart.). Usuard and
Harcolliiius.
commonioratod at
irt.).
ited at Rome June
ited at Rome June
ited at Lyon June
r another llarcellus
loxandria {J/icrun,
lus, " apud castrum
lorated June 29
ited at Milan July
•t. Auot.).
ed at Cliiilons-sur-
!. ; Usuard. Mart. ;
'on. Mttrt. montiiins
ler this day comme-
imemorated Oct. 4
\uct.).
ed at Capua Oct. 6
t. A\u;t. ; Usuard.
s, at Rome, under
.7 (Usuard. j)/(r<.;
trt).
;ed at Rome Oct. 9
ed nt Acornum in
UeA. M irt. A'ict.).
ed at Chalcedonia,
Mart. A'lct.).
^ingitana ; comme-
''lart. ; 1 et. Hum.
d Nov. 16 '{Hieron.
i; commemorated
monastery of the
eo. 29 (Basil. M-
ict. Dec. 29 ; aU.
"ered Dec. 7 ; his
turn Dec. 30 ( I vt.
'■ct. his passi'o is on
[0. H.]
MARCIANE
MARCIANE, (jueen ; commemorated Jan 28
(G(/. Uijiaiit.). £(j_ J J J
MARCJANUS. [Martianus.]
MAHCILU8, martyr ; commemorated at
Rome, on Via Nomentana, May 28 (Ilienyn
Mart.). [-e.H.]"
MARCISUS, martyr in Africa: commemo-
rated Oct. i {//ieron. Mart). [C. H.]
M VRC0UU8, martyr in Africa; commemo-
rated Feb. IS (Hieran. Mart.) [c. H.]
MAI{COPUS, martyr; commemorated at
>icom.!dia tub. 10 (Hieron. Mart). [0. H.]
MARCTTLFUS, abbat of Nantes, circ. a.d.
5^'H ; commemorated May 1 (Boll. Acta SS.
May, 1. 70). j-^,_ jj J
MARCUS (1), the Evangelist, was verv
gen,.rallv commemorated, and his name occurs
>n tho Grook, Latin, and Coptic fasti, but not
always on the s.me day. Sept. 2:i is assigned
but , "m^' •'" .•^''-■-''""'''■i'' in 'f'eron. Mart,
\r ; ^''*''"'- eommemorates Mark "the
him vi;h'":>;'""- "' ","'' "-^Bollandists identify
him with the evangelist, who is called in the
anostle" '?'■: "H'''^!', ^P- 25. "evangelist and
apostle, and m Basil. Mono!., under the same
dny, apostle and evangelist." April 2,5 is tTe
^ari!.. Bod. Mart ; Vet Horn. Jfurt. ,^ Daniel
Corf. Ltturfj. IV. 2,')8: Boll AHn va * • ■ '
qi/1% Tk.^ (s ■"'•''' ™' -Apr. iii.
344). The Sacramentary of Gregory observes
his n..tu IS on April 25. mentioning hta , the
CO lee (or the day (Greg. Mag. fib. Zr\i)
O^l^nn '-n"" "''■^"•^•'=.'' 'n the Antiphonar ;
(Jbul. U) The reason of his not being men-
IS believed to be, as in the case of St. Luke, that
«ie tact 0. his martyrdom is uncertain (K azer
ctunft r'"'; ^f"'<'; '*">■ ■'■''"•e was a j
chuich at Constantinop e dedicated fn l,;~ '
ere.=ted by Theodosius the Grelrnet the' u:
trict or ward n,.med Taurus, at which his festival
was observed (Oiorg. Codinus, de Anti.,. Con
I I '■ "^"- '^''"' '^'^' "t ^"P-). There w^s
a church at Home dedicated to St. Mark by pone
Mannis, An. M;!7, restored and adorned by Ha'
t. 1 . 119), and there was a chapel in the Basilica
patriarch of A,iuileia (Cmmpini, de Sac. Aedif.
(ff!ron'''ZV)!°'""''''°''''^ "' ^'"'°°'» J»-'- ^
(it^o™'"^;.').""""^'"'"-''*'"^ '» Af"-' J«->. 5
MARCUS
1089
N^caea March 13 (Usua.l. Mart; Huron. Mart),
"nW':^eu,=;^Sc^-'-.^bi^ho^
^-^;A^,,.1A..). The name i^MarUai;;-];
.£,^^^Sv'r;^^S:'^i^-r
reill of l"i "'' "*' "■" ^"-"fhusians, martyr in the
2..6).^JheJW(.,,of BasM assigns Marcii 30
Ap^wri27/W'!,"r; '"'"^ commemorated oa
wi^Ki::';:.^es"b';.tt:n'V'"8'?'"'"""'^'--''>T
April 28 (bI.II. i^:,VlV Iii. r48)'"""""'^'
J"ne'l\SC;i:;,7">°™»«'l «' Thessalonica
Mc-S.^nn^'"" "■'*\J"';"'. at Dorostorum in
Uolj. yl,7a i._s. Jung^ ji j,.^ ""•>
(19) Bishop of Luceria in Apulia, circ. a n
328; commemorated June 14 Boll /rf< SW
Jun. ii. 800). *' *•"' '^'^'
vfaM-dlTtln """^ M""''"i"»» «t Rome on the
June 18 ' Tir^"- 2**^' commemorated
ActaS^ Jun. >n. 568). Their natalis is observed
on this day ,n the Sacramentary of Gre-ory and
it'Xrior'""'**'" '''-'"-' COreg^^S
Julv^'1 m'^^>' .T"\ Mocianus; commemorated
J^-ly 3 (Basil. Mcnol.} Boll. ^.<« ^.5. j„y^ ,^
Jrirt.).^'""^'"'' """""'■""'•"'ed Jan. 8 (ffierw.
A"!2.').'^°"'"'^""'"''«'* '- ^f™« Feb- 16
M.Sf(Ba':ir^j;"ci/:, '""'"'' •'""""^-'^^
(9) Martyr with others; commemorated at
^cKTut'u.'gor'"'''"'''"^''''' •'""y* (Soil
(23) Martyr with two companions ; comme
^-Ss4:rS;r3^?-^(^-^''^^^
(24) Martyr with Alphaeus, Alexander and
28rBa",°t' ^r-^'-^'"'"'; commemorated Sept
(26) Martyr with his brother Marcianus and
many others, i„ Egypt; commemo.lt ,1 014
^A r\rf"J-' ^'*""'-^'- ^'"•'•; Bed Mart
Au^t; Vet. Som. Mart; Boll. Acta ^i'o^ if:
O.t'^ fi^^''''°P '■ i'P"^'"" commemorated at Rom«
Oct. fa {H^ron. Mart; Bed. J/,,.*. Auct).
(27) Bishop of Rome and confessor; his dero-
sitio at Rome on Via A,,pia c„mmei„(^ra d 1? t
7(I/>cron. Mart; Usuard. Mart.); his nati i^
on this day (Be.1. Mart.) ; r, t Roil JA , < me
ons hina without distinguishing th. f' , "
ll.s n.,tal,s on this day c„mmem„rated n Vhe
.Sacramentary of Gregory, mentioning lis name
■n the collect (Greg. Mag. Lib &u- vl■^^ T
also Boll. Acta SS. Oct. ii? 880. ^ ^^ ^'■■'
cirf^D^^no^'"*"' I'i'hop of Jerusalem, martvr
circ. A.a l,;u ; commemorated at Adrianoplo Oct.
1090
MAKCUS
MAIilA
Vet. Jiuin. Marl : Boll, Acta
w
2 J (UsiiarJ. JAirA
Si. Oct. i.\. 477).
(29) Oni. of fliiir "soldiers of Chn.,t " nwr-
tyicM at licme un.lcr the frnpcror Clauilius niM
limici in the Via Salaria; (.(.inmemorateil Oct
2j (L'suard. Mart.; liu.l. Mart.).
(30) Martyr with Soterithus and Valentina ;
c..innuTiinrat„-d Oc:t. 26 (Basil. Mem!.).
(31) Martyr ; oommemorated at Nicomedia
Oct. ;;u (Hiaron. Mart.).
(32) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Nov.
I'i (llicrun. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Auct.). Another
of the same name ou same day at Antioch (Micron.
Mart,).
(33) Martyr; commemorated in Spain Nov.
2(1 (JIUroii. M.irt.).
(34) JIartyr with Stephanus. both belonging
to Aiiticcli in Pisidia, under Diocletian, buried
in I'isi.lia ; commemorated Nov. 22 (Basil.
MciujI.).
(38) ST., bishop, martyr ; commemorated
Nov. 2;i {Hieron. Mart.).
(36) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Dec. 5
Jficroii. Mar!.).
(37) Slartyr; commemorated Dec. 10 (Hieron.
Mart.).
(38) Martyr: commemorated in Africa Dec.
lo (llicruti. Mart.). [(;_ H/i
MARUl'SIU.S (1) Martvr: commemorated
in .Miica Jan. 19 (Hieron. Mart).
(3) M.irtyr ; commemorated at Tarragona Jan.
21 (Hitrun. Marl.). [o. h.]
MARDARIUS, martyr, with four others
under Diocletian ; commemorated Dec. 13 (Ba.sil,
Menvl. ; D/iuiel, Cod. Litunj. iv. 277). [0. H.] '
JIARDIANUS, martvr; commemorated at
Nicomedia Oct. 2») {Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.l
MARDONIUS, martyr with others ; com-
mein.)nited at Xeocaesaua in Mauritania Jan "4
(L'suard. Mart.; lUl Acta 55'. Jan. ii. 590);
written Maidunus in Hieron. Mart. [C. H.l
MAREAiS, with Bicor, bishops, martyrs in
Persia ; commemorated Apr. 22 (L'suard. Mart )
[c. H.i ■
MARES, com. Jan. 25 (CaA lit/zant.). [C. H.]
IMARGARITA or MARINA, virgin, mar-
tyr at Antioch in Pisidia; commemorated Julv
20 (Bed. Mart. A^tct. ; Boll. Acta .W.July,;.
24 I ; cnmniemorated at Marina, iifya\o/xapTvp in
the Kastern church, July 17 (Cat. /i,/zaut. ; Han
Cod. lituri/.iY. ■2<ii; Basil. Menol.)'. [C. H.]
MARGIARITA (Mop7ap/T;,s, the Pearl) is
a term for the particle of the bre.id which is
broken oil' and placed in the cup as a symbol of
the union of the Bodv and Blood of Christ
[FltAcriox, I. ti87]. According to Daniel, how-
ever (Cmlox I.itnr,/. iv. 20H, 41ii), it is e(iiiallv
a|pplied to all the particles which are pla<-,l in
the enp for the purpose of administration to the
fiithl'ul, according to the Eastern rite, bv means
of a 8rc>0N. ' r^-y'
MARIA [See Marvtiif, Viugis, Ff.stivai^
of] (1) Makv sister of Lazarus, martvr: com-
meiiiorateil Jan, 19 at Jen salem ' (llltron
Mart.; Bed. Mart. Auct.); Keb. 8 (Basil
Meiiol. ; Boll. Acta SS. Feb. ii 1 J7) ; June G
at C. nstanfinople (Boll. Acta SS. Jun. i. 621).
[Maiitiia (8).] ■^
(2) who called herself Marinas, and p.assed
nerself lor a man ; commemorated Feb. 1" (Basil
Meiwl.) and other .lays. [Marina ( 1 1 ).]
(8) Martyr; commemorated at Nicomedia Feb.
^4 (Hieron. Mart.).
(4) Martvr; commemorated at Nicomedia
Siarch 12 (Hieron. Mart.).
(6) Martyr ; commemorated at Nicaea Mar. 13
(Hieron. Mart.).
(6) Martyr : commemorated in Africa Mar. 14
(Hieron. Mart.).
(7) Martyr ; commemorated at Nicomedia
March 17 (/Heron. Mart.).
(8) Martyr with Aprilis and Servulus ; com-
memorated at Nicomedia Mar. 18 (HU'ron. Mart.;
Boll. Acta iSW. Mar. ii. 619).
(9) Aeoyitiaca ; commemorated in Pales-
tme Apiil 2 (U ^umd. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Ap. 1. ill). She is commemorated on April 1 as
"Our mother Mary of Kgypt " in Cat. Ihjzant.,
(al. Aethiop., Daniel's Cod. I.itnr i. iv. 256
Bede s Awtaria gives her natalis on April 9. and
her depositio April 8.
* ^^?l P?, *■'"'' "'" ^'I^T'ia ; commemorated
April 9 (Boll. Acta SS. Ap. i. 811).
(11) Martyr ; commemorated at Rome, in the
cemetery of Praetextatus, Ma;- 10 (Hie,-on.
Mart.).
(18) ad Martyres; her natalis on May 13
(Usuard. Mart.). Her natalis on this day is
kept in the Sacramentary of Gregory, but" her
name is not in the collect (Greg. Mag.' Lib. Sacr.
88). Her dedication on this day (huA. Mart )
appointed by pope Boniface ( lei. Horn. Mart.\. '
(13) Martyr; commemorated at Thessalonica
June 1 (Hieron. Mart.).
(14) Two martyrs of this name commemo-
rated at Rome June 2 (Hieron. Mart.).
,J}^) *'■■"'>■'' - commemorated at Aquileia June
17 (Hieron. Mart.).
(16) The Magdalen; commemorated July 22
(I et. Jiom. Mart. ; Basil. Menol. ; li.dl. Acta SS
July, V. 187). "The Ointment Bearer and equal
of the Apostles " (Cat. By.ant.). Her house at
Jerusalem said to have been turned into a temple
A.D. 34 (Ciampini, Vet. Mon. i. 155). '
(17) M.atron of Jerusalem, the mother of John
surnamed Mark ; commemorated June 29 (Boll
Acta SS. June, v. 475).
(18) or MIRIAM, prophetess, sister of Moses;
commemorated July 1 (Boll. Acta SS. July, i.
(19) Virgin, surnamed ConsolatrLx, in the 8th
century ; commemorated Aug. 1 (Boll. Acta SS
Aug. i. 81).
(20) Patricia, martyr with Julianus and
others under I.eo Iconomachus; commemorated
Aug. 9 (Basil. Menol.).
(21) Martyr ; commemorated at Ravenna Nov
12 (Hieron. Mart.).
(22) Martyr ; commemorated at Antioch Nov.
10 (Hieron. Mart.).
(23) Martyr; commemorBted in Africa Dec. 5
(Hieron. Mart.).
(24) Martyr ; commemorated at Antioch Dec.
9 (Hei-on. Mart.),
'1 SS. Jun. i. 021).
im'nm, ami passed
iittd Kob. I'-'(Ua.sil.
RI.NA (11).]
1 at Nioomeclia Feb.
ed at Nicoinedia
1 atNicaea Mur. 13
I in Africa Mar. 14
ed at Nicomedia
d Servulus ; com-
18 (Ilierun.Murt.;
lorated in Pales-
; Boll. Acta SS.
ited on April 1 as
" ill Cdl. Jlyzant.,
lituri. iv. aatj.
is on April 9, and
; commemorated
Hi).
d at Rome, in the
In;- 10 {Ilieron.
Inlis on May 13
on this day is
5rei;ory, but her
;. Jin jr. Lib. Sacr.
ay (Bed. Mart.),
t. Horn. Mart.X
at Thessalonica
lame cotnmetno-
Mart.).
at Aquileia June
lorated July 22
; lioll. Aeta SS.
Sparer and equal
Her house at
il into a temple,
3r.).
mother of John
June 29 (Boll.
sister of Moses ;
:(!a SS. July, i.
trix, in the 8th
[Boll. Acta SS.
Julianus and
commemorated
t Ravenna Nov
t Antfoch Nor,
:i Africa Dec. 5
t Antioch Dec.
MARIA
^(88) Martyr; commemorated Dec. 11 (//,•,,„„.
[C. H.]
' L^. H.J
MARirs
1091
(/Awl '''Iv;;;').""""""""™"^ •» "^"-"e .'uly 1
{&^M'h.l '='""'"«n""«t«d in Africa July 10
«'i"nday:.'-l;iu,^':';;;jf"'"">erc„m,nem,^
,(12], Commemorated with Febronia Sept. 24
[C. H.]
^^(2)^Martyri cnnnemorated Nov. 16 (ffi^ron.
(i'lI'S;:,."""'™"'"' " "™ «"■ • »«"E'tR.„r» ' j ;-—««' ..
Jiss, r;,s .riLts .srv Afar "-"•■" ■■■ «*■ "•». ^
i (.lilellnmlli '="'"'"*'"''""«'' "' «"«« Oct. 27
(13) Deacon, martvr u-ifK n: i
I ---~ted'i[]^1^^7^^Q-
(14) PlAMERTINUS.] r^, „ ..
22?y/i'^l;, ^^^'"'''•^'^d ^' Nicomedia Feb.
538). ""• ^"^'' '• Boll- ^cia 5>. Ap. (.
(/W J/!f;4.'=°'"'"^'»°'-'''«J •■■'Africa May 6
'■«<. Mom.
(ll^'-on.Mart.r Usuard. Jfor^"
^"^<.; Boll. Joia^6>. Mar. r224)
A^^iS"Sif30('^-z:!rr°-ed ..„
I op>e If "/sj,rzT;''''^' "' ^"-'-'-■
IV<. Horn. Mart) ^^^^^^'""''^■^"'•t-;
J"i"l8'S:„' S;'""-'*'' «t Dorostorum
tuSt^crn7mS::;t:;5T' p"''?^ '•- - "> --
^"^;Bol..ir^l4:'-Au,.8(Basn.
22 (XoS; ;/;'"'"<'«°"-^'«'' «t Antioch Aug.
^^a^reommemorated at Rome ^^^^B^^^^^
(6) Martvr • . ^734). '"''- '"• P"- 1. P- 482, ed. Venet.
.T,/„ /o r]."^' ' .commemorated at \'i ..-. <^n^ s
anf20.'''c^'u'HSl.^*'=°"'"«'»«^''t«'' Jul/ 17
Aio!L£tn:'ir('j^:r;'i°rT:"'«'' ''^
CHRIST. ANT.— VOL. 11.
734).
whosu.eredat1i!^r.i'-:t':hr;5
70
1092
MARIU8
MARRrAOB
of Cliiii lius; cummeinorntoil .Ian. 20 (TTicnm.
Mivt.; (Jsuiird. Mart.; Vet. Horn. Mtrt.; \W'\.
Mari); .'iin. lU (llnll. Auta SS. Jnn. ii. 'JU).
(2) Abliiit (if Bi)(lumim (Buuvou.h) in tlie 0th
century ; cdmmeniur.-itefl .liiu. J? (UnuiirJ. Mart. ;
Boll. Act.i SS'. Jan. il. 772).
(3) Miirtvr; commemorated at Rome March 4
{lliemn. M„rt.).
(4) MMrtvr; commemoriited nt Nicomedin
March IJ (//icron. .Mart.).
(6) Martyr J cnmmumoriited at Antioch Apr.
2ii ( llii-run. Mart.).
(6) Martyr; commemoriUed at Miliin Miiy 25
(^/Jicruii. M'lrt.).
(7) .'^nlitary, "f Mauriiicum in Auvergne ;
coninioniDrated June 8 (Boll. Acta SS. June, ii.
114).
(8) MiUtyr; commemor.'ited at Alexandria
July 14 (Ilkron. Mart.).
(9) .Martyr; cnmmoinorated at Nicnmedia
Nov. H {llieron. Mart.); Nov. 7 (Bed. .Mart.
Auo!. ; Hiorun. Mart.). [C. H.]
MAUK. [Marcus.]
MA UK, ST. See EvANOELnis, SrstnoLs of ;
also .Sr. I.UKE.
St. .Mark is represented in human form with
the other three evunifelists in Borgia, de Cruce
Velitcit.w, p. l;i3. Also Bottari, tav. cxxxi., on
a sepulchral urn, No. ;i6 in the museum at
Aries; .see also Ferret, Catacornbex, vol. ii. pi.
ixvi. ; and Ciampini, Vet. Mon. i. tab. l.^ixii. I'or
the baptistery mosaic at Ravenna, in both which
pictures the four evangelists are represented,
[R. St. J. T.]
MAIiNANUS, Scottish bishop; c.immemo-
rated March 1 (Boll. Acta SS. ; Mar. i. 6.S).
[C. H.]
MAPiO (1) Anchoret near Cyrus in Svria;
commeuiorated Keb. U (Boll. Acta SS. Feb. ii.
7tl(i).
(2) Martyr in Italy in the reign of Nerra ;
comnieinorated April 15 (Usuard. Mart. ; Yet.
Mom. Mart. ; Boll. ActaSS. Ap. ii. 373). [C. H.]
MAROLUS (1) Martyr ; commemorated in
Africa M.uch i7 (Bed. Mart. Auct.) ; in JJieron.
Mart. Marobus.
(2) Bishop of Milan in 5th century; comme-
morated April 23 (Boll. Acta SS. Ap. iii. 17.1).
[C. H.]
MARPl'S, martyr ; commemorated in Africa
Feb. It) (Hxrun. Mart). [C. H.]
MARRIAGE. The subject will be dealt
with in the jiresent article under the three
headings of I. Marriage Laws ; II. Marriage
Cerkmoniks ; III. Divorce.
I. Marriage Laws. The aflirmative law of
marriage, which has come down from the creation,
and is written in the hearts of all mankind, is
simply that an unmarried adult man may marrv
an unmarried adult woman, provided that both
parties are in their sound mind, both of them
are willing to enter into the contract, and both
cf them cap.-ibir^ nf carrying out the primary end
for which marriage is instituted. This affi'rma-
tive law, however, is at once and everywhere
limited by a crowd of pndiibitive regulatinnj,
dilbring in dilleient countries and at dillerent
times, but having as their geniTal ohjeit~l, the
prevention of incest ; 2, the prevenljon of evili
which might accrue {■>) to the slate, (h) to reli-
({ii'ii, (c) to the indiviiluals i:oneerned.
The first .Jewish converts to C'liwlstianity,
bound beloro their conversion bv the prohi-
bitions of the Mosaic law, continued to bo
e'lually bound by them when thcv had 1 ecome
Christians, except .so far as any o'f the Mosaic
regulations ha' been abrogated' or modilied by
the authority of ^risf and His apostles, or had
become nece-ssarilv obscdete owing to a change of
Circumstances. The modifications made by our
Lord in the Hebrew law of marriage and divorc*',
as It existed in his time, were two. He restored
the rule of monogamy, and he disallowed (,f
divorce, except upon the »ingle ground of the
wifes a.lultery. Apostolic authority added the
regulation that Christians should tiiarrv rone
but Christians. The Mosaic rules that 'becanu
<d.solete were of slight importance, being of par-
ticular rather than of general application; 3u.:h
as the laws comm.uiding levirale marriages, pro-
hibiting the marriages of heiresses out of their
tribe, and making regulations as to the marriage
of the high priest. While these special laws fell
into abeyance, the general prohibitions continued
to be still binding upon the Jewish convert, to-
gether with the jiiohibition of polygamy, divorce
(for any reason except one), and' heathen mar-
riage.
VVhen the Gentile convert embraced Chris-
tianity he, in like manner, way already bound
by the prohibitions which In Roman law had
introduced with respect to m-\rriage. After his
conversion he was still bound by them, as being
the law of the land, and not contrary to his
Christian conscience. In addition, he was bound
by the Mosaic prohibitions (with the same modi-
fications and additions as the Jewish convert),
the Jewish convert being analogously bound by
the prohibitions of the Roman law, as being the
law of the civilised worlil.
The first object of both laws, as in almost
every other nation, was, as we have said, to jire-
vent incest, which shocks the common instincts
of humanity ; and for this purpose marriage was
prohibited between persons related or con"nected
with each other within certain degrees. These
jirohibitions, and the enlargement's or curtail-
ments of them which were made in the early
church, will be discussed under the heading of
Proiiiuitkd Degrees. Here we shall only treat
ofthose other impediments which were introduced
for the good of the state, or of the church, or of
the contracting parties.
In the 13th century the schoolmen codified
the imjiediments to marriage which then existed
in the church ; and their code has been accepted
ami acted upon by the greater part of Western
Christendom down to the jjiesent day. It is con-
tained in the five following lines, which are given
in the Tluvhujia Moralis of Saint Alfonso de'
Liguori (lib. vi. § 1008), as embodying the niles
which regulate present practice : —
i. Error, ii. Conditio, iii. Votum, iv Cogna-
tio, V. Crimen,
vi. Cultfts Disparitas, vii. Vis, viii. Ordo,
i.\. Ligameu, x. Ilonestas.
ii'"liiliitive regulations,
alrii's iinJ at dilleri'iit
U'cncral ol.jcct— I, the
h..' |irovenlji)ii of «vili
) the state, (b) to reli-
s conci'i'Ded.
I'l'ts to C'1i»istmnily,
I'l-sion liy the |ir(jhi-
law, ((intiniicit to tio
.Ilea thi'v hail 1 (M'cune
as any of tho Mosaic
'gatcil 111- ninililii'il hy
I'l His ninistle-*, or had
I' owini; to a change of
tications iiiaile liy our
Iniarnigeand ilivor<'0,
iTe two. He lestoiej
anil he ilisalloweil of
niiiKle (;i'""iiil of the
c authority ailileil the
> shonid inHrry v«ue
lie rules that Lecann
"irtance, beinj; oi' iiar-
■ral a|i|)licatiiin; 3U.:h
virati.' marriages, [.ro-
heiresses out ot' their
ms as to the marriage
these special laws fell
prohibitions continued
J Jewish convert, to-
. of polygamy, divorce
-•), and heathen mar-
ert embraced Chris-
, was already bound
111 Koman law h,u)
In-^rriage. After his
a<l by them, as being
not contrary to his
Idition, he was bound
with the same modi-
the Jewish convert),
nalogously hound by
lan law, as being the
laws, as in almost
we have said, to pre-
he common instincts
urpose marriaije was
related or connected
tain degrees. These
gemouts or curtail-
1 made in the early
nder the heading of
; we shall only treat
hich were introduced
of the church, or of
schoolmen codified
which then existed
le has been accepted
er part of Western
sent day. It is con-
nes, which are given
f Saint Alfonso de'
mibodying the rules
ice : —
Votum, iv, Cogna-
i. Vis, Tiii. Ordo,
stas.
MARRIAOR
»l. Aetas, xil. A.nnis, xiii. SI clandestinus,
xiv. et Impos, '
XV. Kaptave s.t niuller nee parll roddlta tutao
llaec sonanda vetant connubia, facta re'
tractant.
From the l.llh century onwards these imoe li-
ni;nts have u.ore or less been regarded as „„lli.
.Vingmarnage it will be seen that the tirst,
1. seventh, the lourteenth, and the fifteenth
ari contrary lo what we have termed the pri-
m:iry law ot marriage, which postulates on both
« mgness. and n.,,acity. The second, which
' '• "•■■"■'■'^'K« b'-'ween persons di.lering in
CMil.t.on, was int, uced by the state, ami for
s puiposes The third, the sixth, and t
eighth ongmate in tne supposed good of the
1 ir i,i.c '^h'"""'' ""' ''■'' '-'''"> have fl;
t lui object the prevention of incest. The r-
n.a inder are intended as safeguards to on of I'e
It o^h","b ■"" '■'■*'°^; '""^"'"^■'' "^ ^hey "o.oen with slaves,
til, *■ ' ""-'^ """" •■"' '^-'■"•alised in early "nd we /ind Hippol ■
/•"r'itfesuLlisI!;!" 'T'Tr'T""' "'^"'""^ ""^n""-^
nces
in
MAIUUAGE
10!)3
law of the oni.ly ,.l,,.,.„L TU ,-
•"■'"""^ A.,r,l„",K,d ?h'';;'";"-'h<^""nciiof
themselves unde (b , . '''"'"" «*"' l'"t
with a view t',!' ''''.'''', "'■ *'"' '-■''" •-»>
'•"storedtoThio ,''""'""'' ^'■'■" "•" •^«
""«ht be, a I I ,!';"■ "'"^•[■'•S «-^ 'h« case
"^'.i-ate.' li ,, ;' i l'^'""';" that they would
"■'■' >■>"» .• o'n i 1h*"'""'r'' '" ">« I'"""'"
nngeif,h;.vt,,g^ ;;;;'? ;'''"''^
(-■ 'V.ti,m.-ii.p.r44, '„/'•""••;'''■••""'■■'•
•-hiilons, / r> Mil ,„ n ,'"''"'"' '^'"""■'1 "f
t»l'e nullilied 1 '.^n I'll.Mvnt masters wen- „ot
('--":'';^!viri:!^;T;;;;r'''''^"''-"'""'
«n'>lTSi:r:::^;;Mween..eeme„
^lave, atteillp,." ' i„ "hi ^""7" '"•"" "
3 -Sri-^'F-'" "—,.;:
--- -^'-"ftui.ic lilt;
marriage of slaves with slaves ,|o „„f ,
the marriaire of a fw.„,«. Il' , ' ' V-'mut
"imgc OI a iieeman with a -'avn n ir
believer has a slave concubine let him .^^ ''
VP> and lawfully marry a wife f ht'h ''"
(reewoman for a concubfne? kt him tak^. he^f "
mentioned under the next headiug
many a woman of free birth " ti r-
the expression "oueht to" n , .^ ''«,'"™ «f
. -, ...^ uiiiiusL lie cou (I attain to u-
i-t;:g'^:::;,.;:^''v;!"::n%^'"^"^''^"''^-
l^tweeftheHZnan!l;h:^r;i:St
P- 210).= Amon^ tb» ' '"""""' ''•'''• "'■
dore AD R«i^ ^ . f °"'"'' '^^'■">"ns of Theo-
cgnistsM";. li-;, ,•""> '»•". -e of which r-
freemanandaslaeVinff Tr'T ^'^'"""^ a
, dismiss hb wi i ;-tr '^'"■''"'f '^' ^"^band to
I ha., been origi a,,' g tnT U ' "n '"'' '^""•'^
nitcntial, lib. ii. ea,,.^,^i i | M lu!;""''';«" (^^-
■^'ill sees such a g .If fii. h '' "?'' "">"
"^the^ave_u.a.^Ka::i'!;;S
"f tlie two Mss. Horn » 1 ■ h ,h.„ ""'' '" »"'y one
« -ihe only trustw'.r^'co^i'ror.nrT''''- ,
iial are those of WaVrsri. LV! ' , "^""-^ « ^'""Ven-
of Haddan and Stubbs ^111^1 i ' l""' '"=')• "'"»
edition of ,he CouncZ' , L l,,'"-"',"' ""'' ""•"'"e
re^a-n. <o .r«.. .At r^i/^id (O^^ ^^^r"
4 B a
1004
MAnillAfiE
wh.. lmv.> nnin...l th.ir f, |„in to (Ii,,nilM thcli
cjiiiHort,, It' tho l«tt.)r laiiiiMt he nMiviiiu,! lV„rii
MAUaiACiK
mi
!■ i
'!■
1 ■ , - "" "-'t»^^' tin.ti iioin
/ w"'7'. "!, '" """■'■y '''•■■"'"'I'l |»'is..us in.st.'ii,!
(I'l"/. § 4, irn.Man au^l Stiiljl,,,' r<,»Hc,V., of (h;„t
Jlntiwi, v(.|. III. p. ■l(ij). A tlilr.1 rntinn nil,.«
that it n iiinn lum roHuiiMl hiin-ilt' to nlnvBry liv
<rime. his wife iimy «t th« rii'l nf ,i y,.|,r innriy
iiimthnr iniin if Hhe hiw hursclf biMin hith.Ttii
|itily onro miirrir'il (i',i,/, f^y, x||. jj «_ |, ,j„,,j
Ih.- (c'clin^f aKaiiiHt niarriag.- with '^lav..« (natii-^
rally HtmnKiT m rfHijrct t„ thu iimniaKo of
/icrhmn wmiifii with iiialu nI.iv.,'» than of tViu'-
nii'ii with fi'nwU- «hv,'H) foim,! its most Imii-
(nivil an^l rt'ckliMS «x|,n.„j„„ in miiho of the
llarhalian Coiles. Uy the laws of th« Visi-
K;'th« (hh. lii. tit. li. c. '.'. in Caiuiani, /..■./«
/Hi,A<,-on<,;», vol. iv. ,,. 91) ju,l,{,.s weio oom-
limii,I.Ml iniin,.(liatily to st'ijaiatc a fn.L.wimian
troin hi'i- slavu or fr Irnaii nhorii she ha.l niar-
riiil, as guilty of au atrocious and shoukiiiK crime,
Jor whii.h she and her iianmiour were to h,!
hurnt ; and it was further cnaetecl that if she
married the slave of another she and her hus-
band wore to receive a hundred stripes, which
were to he thrice repeated (c. A). The Honian
law was not so severe ns this. It is true that
n scimtus connulfuin of the year ',2 had enacted
that It a freewoinan formed a permanent mar-
iiase relation or <untuhc,ni)wi (she could not
contract a lei;al marriage) with a slave, without
j.crmission from the latter's master, she should
herself hec.mie the property of thu master (Ta<it.
Am^il. XII. .'■>;i); and a freedman who aspired to
marry his p„tru,ui was liahle to he sent to tho
mines or the public works (Paul. Sent. ii. t. 29) •
nnd by a law of C"onstantino a c/ecuri,, who
manied another man's slave was ordered to bo
banished, while the woman was to be sent to
the miii(is(tW. /V.cxf. lib. xU. tit. i leg. t!). But
even these penaltiea do not equal those of the
iiarbanan Coile in severity, and they were more
or less such as mi^ht be evaded. Nor does there
seem to have been any desire to enforce them
harshly. So early as the time of Hadrian the
children ot a (reewoman and a slave woreallowe.l
to be re,i,'arded and treated as iVee ((Jaius, i. 8t).
When the (ith century is reached, we find Jus-
tinian apiioiutiuj;, in case a master gave his slave
in marriage to a freeman as being a freewoinan. ncd
that the marriage should he regarded as mill ami
void (which would imdoubtedlv have been the
earlier ruling), but that the slave should thereby
be constituted free, and the marriage should hold
good (AH'h. Collat. iv. lit. i., A'„,c/l. xi., Corp.
Juns Cn-i/is. torn. ii. pt. 2, p. li'.",). iw the
Carolingian era the repugnance entertained to
these m.^rriages had greatly abated. The coun-
cils of \ ermerie (can. xiii.) and of Cnnpi^gne
(can v.), A.D. 75:l and 7.W, admit and enforce
the legality of m.irriages deliberately entered into
between the free and the slave, whether the
man or the woman were the slave. But if a
man married a. slave under the apprehension that
she was tree, the error was considered to alTect
the substance of the contract, and the marria.re
was thereby invali.lated, by the legislation bo^h
of .lustinian (.\orell. xxii. c. 10, Corp. Juris
torn. ,1 pars 2, p. 125) and of the CaroHngians
(Con,;,!, lermcrwnse, can. vi. ; Cwicil. Comjvn-
diensc, can. v., Hard. Cona!. torn. iv. pp iQoo
•MK,). [ConSKNIToMabHIAOE; CONIIUCTOF
Mabriaoe.]
The third set of case, to which thin Impo Ij.
""■"' "I'l I was that (d' marriages between
persons ,it dis,ii„i|„r rank and position. The
.'ulian and l',.pian law h.id forbidden the mar.
riage ol senators, their son, and daughters, ami
the descelhlants of th,.ir sons, with freedwoll|,.n,
or with women of low degree, and these niMf^
';""-"T "■"'■" : '•"■'•'' """ '""I v.d.l under Maicu.,
Auiellus and ( omm.„|„,. The slave-born bishop
"' '"""■. <"lli-lus,w d seem, from a cbar^r,,
iMMde against |,i,„ by Hippolytus, to have as
tempted to run .ounter to tfiir, legislation by
giving an ecdesiastical sanction to them By
very slow degre.'s, it Is probable, ,lu,t piiMic
"inuion within the Christian bo.ly veered '■
until It became favourable to thein | but the i.ioJ
hibition continued to be maintained on grounds
"1 stale poli.^y by the Christian emperors, ,,s well
as ,y tliPir pred ssors. Constantino declares
that .any attempt to treat the issue of such mar-
riages as legitimate subjects the tather, if he be
a senator or high .illicial, to the penalties of
inlainy and outlawry (C,,/. ,/„,/,•„. |,|, ,. ,j,
xxy. leg. 1). Valentiuian and Marcian, A.i).'4,W
ol lowing in the steps of Con,tantine. delnie the'
orbidden marriages to be those with a .lave or
he daughter of a slave, with a freedwoman or
he daughter of a freedwoman, with an actress or
tlie daughter of an actress, with a tavern-keepi.r
or the daughter of a tavern-keeper, or with the
daughter ot a procurer, or .,f a gladiator, or of
a huckster (O./. ,/,„/,>,. Ii,, V. tit V. leg. 7 Corp
Jnr,s,U,m. ii. p. 42.",). If a senator or the son of
n senator married within these ,,ro(,ibite,l d.isse.s,
his children, being regarded .v;,«nV, followed the
position ol their mother, and in the eve of the
aw he was not married at .all. Nav,'moie, by
the I apian law, ,t a man with .a freedwoman for
his wite was created a sen.itor, his marriage
> as thereby dissolved. .lustinian Md'tened the
harshness of this legislation, which be.ame
.nore and more insupport.able as the dignitv
"t the senate was more and more h.wered ( Cil.
Vas7m lib. V. tit iv. legg. 2;i .se,,.); and bv de-
grees the impediment came to be reganled a.i
less and less imperative, though a perverte.l
apidication of it continues to have a baneful
operati.m throughout the greater part of Kur.ipo
111 "I ';,'"■"■''"!*.'';'.>■• ^"^ ""^ '/'A''"%'« Morallsot
^t. .-Vltonso de' I.iguori, iv. 644.
ii\. Votnm. We may distinguish six classes
religious women, bound, in different degrees
Of strictness, by a vow or understanding which
caused an impediment to marriage,— the widows
the 7rpfcr0iT,S(s, the virgins, the devotae, the
nuns, the deaconesses. The special duties of
each of these classes will be found designated in
the several articles devoted t.) theni It is
enough here to say that the np„TB,',r,S.s pro-
bably formed the elder division of the willows
(see Heteles note on the eleventh canon of the
Council of Laodicea, mt. of Councils, vol. ii.
p. dOfi Lng. tr 1870); that the virgins did
not diller essentially from the wido;Ys except
in re.pect to the life that they h.ad led before
entering the order; that the deaconesses were
gener.illy, but not necessarily, .selected from the
widows or the virgins; that the devota w.as a
woman living in her father's household, or with
some r^'spectublc woman (Council of Hippo, A.D.
■i9. can. xxxi.), but given uj, more or less for-
mally to the service of God ; while the nun
t" whii h thla frniicll-
k mill |iiiMii„n. T|„.
Ill luihiiMi.ii thi' iimi-
at m<\ ilaii({litiT«, aiiil
"Hs, with IVcMwi.iii.ii,
I'Krri', aii'l ihi'si. niiir.
Mill V(,|,l nil, I,. I- M,u,M.1
Till' uliive-lidiii lii>h"|>
"I'i'iii, I'rnin a ili.ni;,)
I'piilvtii!., to have nl.
I" thb h'^UIaliou l,y
iliiti.iii til them. Ity
I'l-nhahlc, ihi.t |illl,|i'o
111 hdily viMM-M,| 1 11,1,
til thi'in ; liiit thi' |irii.
iiaiiitaiiicil 1,11 ^rniiii.ls
liau eiiiinTors, ;is ivi>l|
• 'iinstanliiuj dci laiiu
ho iHsiit. Ill' such inai-.
« tho father, if hu (,«
t<) tho |M.naltios of
/. Instill, hli. V. tit,
iiil Mariian, a.d. 4,')4,
itistaiitiiio, iloliii,. tho
liiiso with (I i.lavo or
ith a I'rii'ilwdinan tir
111, with an actiiss m-
with a taviTn-kei'iMT
|-I<1M!|ICT, (ir witii tho
of II glnliatiir, or of
V. tit V. log. 7, C0/7).
soiiatiir 01- tho sou of
so|irotuhiteil classes,
.v;"<Wi, CoMiiwoil the
111 in tho oye oC the
all. Nay, iiiino, Ijy
;h a fn-ciiwonian t'nV
lalor, his nianingo
itinian .sol'tpiii..i| the
on, whi<'li liccanie
tile na the ilii;nity
more Imvoroil (0<(?.
I soq.); anil hy ile-
to be roganlc,! ns
loiigh a perveitod
to have n hnnct'iil
ater jiart of Knro|i6
Theulvijia Muralis of
14.
ingnish six olasscs
n cliti'oront degrocs
ulorstamling which
iage,— the willows,
I, the dovotao, the
special duties of
ciunil dosigiiatod in
to thorn. It is
• irpcT^i'iTtSes pro-
ion of the widows
vonth canon of the
Cuuncils, vol. ii.
it the virgins did
le wi,|ows cxc'ejit
loy h.ad led before
! deaconesses were
select ed from the
tho devota was a
lousohold, or with
icil of Hippo, A.D,
I more or loss for-
1 J while the nun
MVIlRfAGE
n.nd., one „f „ ,,.,i^i,„„ ^,„„ „|,^.
k.' thor i,i„i..r luio. rheio CM I,.. i,,,i r V
; ;;:/^-'7"'-': -^ h of ";.!:, r:.;:^
■ ' 'ho lM.;,„„|„g bound to colihftc, bv h,!
lea ha, ' "''''«"""" was based ,„,„„ ,h,
Aihenair /,.„,/ ' ' ''• '"''•'. 1"*-';
^■■■imcil, nor i, h I'.K *"■"• "^ th« -',,10
■'•■Anc;.a.l ■,,; '■ '■^"':"'"'^<h"(".ii.n,.il
'^--ni Id- "i :r ;'''^ir r:;'' •'■'^ •'-'
tho,e who, after the/K ■' ^' "'^"^^'' condemns
t-'itooanhl m5^::^;;:^"^,rV;^""■''
the voar ;f7u /.r^ ' i'.""' J"''" »''"'.■ about
i^uiiu). it^ii-ir m:;l^:;i:;^•''-•^^''•
'" reiiullian (,/,. iv" 1 / ^ '"-■ "-'"I'^to,!,
■'•''-nturyit^wJguo,;•l;Tc";•^^
MAltUIAOB
1008
111 „, .■ ■■/. K'-iioraijy iici
UAod. Migie-st'e, 'Z'^'' ''''"• "i-l''
^-•7", "/-. ton i , 'w ■.''"■^'Tl^'"'"""' ^V.,.«/.
p-^;iii/.;-t;;e'';;S,r y:\-j ;' -
^:Ktbr^^^
alultorLso „n,| a [.S^^'" ''" '-■"-I -
"f- ti^l-£H^^=^;..i:
member of tbo-o cl' s^s V\ ''"''''' '''■" "")■
•^il-^«J .0 ha-e boon lltf ;""""' ^v^s con-
scaudal (I Tim v ^f k / "f " "" "»'' "f a
•^t.itoment that vinrins who ,1^ '• <^>l"-ia"'-i
""t. I'^i-overe hid buT ?, "^' ■""•"■■ W""!'!
'■^«^)- i^l?''&:?■r^h^•'•■H•*^-'^•
^rH•ltual marriage with C I'ri , 1 .". " "''' "'^ "'«
-m of tho mindV th ehu "h '^\? ,'—
'•'•"go was reg.irded as n,? J, ' ''"''"''•^ '"■"
-Hmcil of i-uej- f Tr, ,T'''''^K'' "' '^l'' The
-J^'votao who mirr; idiouldh'^ !'"■'' "'■■" •■"')'
anco for a .Voar Vani,''.'^'',t'''''' '»./'--
t alenco, A.I) 374 fl,„#,i ,' ""- ^ounci of
friw.ico;„„„;„£','f^;r;'-uld be suspended
Af>. ii^ says that the old iien, , .'of ' ^''"^'
M.spensioawas too light ad L '""'■'■""■ ^
auuunea to coinmuniou while
•holihiisb,,,,, ,,. 'J ['"""' -I'-'iated f..,„.,
tho daughter, 01 ; b ' ^ "'"' •"" i'theyare
'hoirpai.:,„„',u„;,' 't"- l"-'-». or deacon,
('■an. xix.). A (ounn "• r"'I"" "'"' ""■"
(<iin. i) A .. I""inee ot iiiaiiv v,Mr,
''-"'■«h the iat.v''.„::- ]';:;■;;;"'''""''■"''' them.
"hewn to iheu, bv th 1, K „"""■'■>' '" ''«
*•■>. ■»!•.', onlesfh,, „,.'■■ '"l"-<''olaslus,
n'atod vii'gii ',,'':'• r'""""o' a .on.,:
(^>'v<. v.cap "x II r ;•!"""■'"•'' '■"'■ 'i'«
'^■i>«svmn./chus;'An^^';:;:;^;''";--i'-'HM,.
and orders that ,|> ..'"'' "^'' "'aniago,
H ro.,.„a,..t«,l bt- the' eounoi ,1" r"""""'".'""
7th century (cm , ii 11 ^ >*;:«'"";«« "f tho
i','^^:.),anA ,;;;;er;;c' :H^'"'t,.:'""•'''•
^r^zrf^^!,n:--,-4:''ii,:;;:l
4th century we find th '''"'""■^''od. in the
'ho veil fix^o>r„ twentr '"r'^i"^ 'akiug
>niovis(can.xxvi Hard r ' 'V'^' ^"""'" "^
The council of Ag.le a '" 5,7'' V"?' '• ''• '---')•
veiled before theV^e e ib, vV m ■ "''"' '" '"^
novella of Leo aiid M.l ," ^ ^ "' "'"•>; '>"■' »
<'nh,,,sewhoh:M,een':3^^^^^^^
virginitv before that n^eVv , 'al'" vows of
^- ^-, tou, ;!;;•. "IS C'^-;^;--
The case was the sami Xh ■^
^V'-men. There wm m.l K "'"" "" ""'^^
analogous positio,rr .b ? T^" ""'"i''^'' »"
•lovotae. Whoever h' /^"" '■'■'' t" t'le
""ttakeawilWion, ; "''"^ "'^" »"-■ »i"
;n chastity lM;;rc;:„ r;;^rc:;ib'T'"''""«
breaks' it tus't't„ii:,':T!: °f "'>«-ty ani
'he council of An'y ^^, ^r" VT"'°'■^'*«>■■^
Puhlic penance, «ays'st Leo l^o";'!', ";';'."':«''
communicated, but mav^l ^' '""'" ''« «"
hi^hop's humanity avs?he ''"t''"^ ^i' ">«
A.D. 451 (can, xJr m..V'T'-''"'<^''''''^«don,
W7),. muL b; seiaraW,: ^T"' *"'"• "• p'
j-'ge, who must : ^omtn.'^'; Y"'^ ''^ '^'o
not do it. says he •,.- n"'^'""' '^ ^e will
must^nderg^^he nenal 1 '""> "'■ P- 3«^0i
10!-6
MARRIAGE
i \
nothing else than fornication, says John Damas-
cejie (ill Sai'.r. P,„., Op. torn. ii. ]i. 701, ej
I-equien). An increasing rigour of sentiment is
exhil-iteJ in tlie West, until we reach the .seen.!
Lateran council under Innocent 11„ ad 11(9
when, acconlini; to liasil Pontius' statement '(do
Mat,: vii. 17), which Van Hs,,en declares to be
non siiw jwidMiciito, the monlc's and nun's mar-
riage wa.s for the first time, pronounced abso-
lately null. The words of the council are •—
'•lo enlarge the law of continence and God-
Jdeasing cleanness of life in ecclesiastical persons
and sacred orders, we appoint that bi.shops
lu-iests, deacons, subdeacons, regular canons, and
im.nks and professed religious, who have broken
their holy purpose and government in order to
couple wives to themselves, be separated. For
such coupling as this, which is known to be con-
tracted against ecclesiastical rule, we do not I
Count to be marriage. And when they have
been separated from one another, they are to do
J'roper penance for such great excesses. And
we decree that the same rule is to be observed
about nuns (sanctimoniales foeminae) if thev
have attempted to marry, which God forbid that
any should do " (cans. vii. viii.. Hard. Concil. torn
vu. p. 1209). [Contract of JlABttiAOE.]
IV. Cuijmtio. [Prohiuited Degrees T
V. CnW«. The two otiencs indicated by
this heading are the murder of a husband or
wife, committed with a view to a second mar-
riage, and adultery accompanied with a promise
ol future marriage. Ihis impediment no doubt
existed at all times, but it is not specilically
named in early times, perhaps because, accord-
ing to the early discipline, murder and adultery
disqualihed a penitent from marriage alto,ntlJr
diinng the whole time of his or her penance, and,
therefore, a /c'ton, disqualified fiom a mai
riage to which the way had been smoothed by
such crimes. The council of Friuli, a d 791
decreed that no woman put away for adultery
was to be again married to any one whatever,
even after her husband's death (can. x.. Hard
to,,c./._tom iv p. 860). The council of V^rm^rie,'
A.D. 7oJ, declares that "if a man's wife has
entered into a conspiracy against his life, and
he has killed one of the conspirators in self-
defence, he may put her away." Later copies of
the acts of the council add that "after the death
ot his wile he may marry again, and that the
wile IS to be subjected to penance, and never
allowed to remarry" (c,n. v., Hard. Concil.
tom.,„._p 199U). The first council of Tribur,
A.D. 89j, lays down the general rule prohibiting
marriage between a man and a married woman
with whom he has committed adultery, on ac
count of a scandal that had lately occurred a
man having persuaded a woman to sin on the
promise, conhrmed by oath, that he would marry
her It her hu.sband died, a thing described as r/s
execrabUis et catholicis omnVius Uetestandu (can.
XI., Hard. Concil. torn. vi. p. 452).
vi. Cultils disparitas. The mkrriage of He-
brews with any but Hebrews was forbidden by
patriarchal rule and by Levitical law (Gen. xxiv
J; Lx. xxxiv. 10; Deut. vii. 3; 1 Kings xi. 2 ;'
ht. IX. 2) the object of the prohibition being to
preserve both the race and the religion uncon-
ammu.ed. In Chn.fianity there is no favoured
race to be (.reserved, but the religious groun.l of
the regulation remains untouched. Accordingly
MARRIAGE
St. Paul adapted the existing Jewish law to
changed circumstances by ruling that marriage
should only be "in the Lord" (1 for vii A
that IS that Christians .should marry none but
Christians. St. Paul's command is regarded as
imperative by the early Fathers, as 'ii-tull ,:a
{'oitt. .Uarc. lib. v.. Up. p. 4691. Cvurv,n
(/^^-Wlil.iiic.02,4,.^3,;^Vi;is' 2i;
//"»/,., 0^ torn. IV. p. 742, I'aris, 17.G)- St
Ambrose (,fc A',raJlan^o, lib. i. c. Ix., 0>.'Z:
cclv al Vu"'"^' ,'^*':^.>' St. Augustine, /.>/.<.
Pari'- V-nt' /''"''''•'"'''' ^^' ^'™- "• !'•««-■.
\lWn^'- ^^;./''"''"'». "« that of EKira
A.D. .1,3 (t„„,, Khb. cans. xv. xvi.. Hard. Convi
I 7"^ ('^?."«- -•■'•''<":■ '• can. xi., ibid. p. 2ii5)- thit
p. 783) that of Ag.le, A.D. 5od (Cuno. A.iath
\ can. Lvvii., .W torn. ii. p. 1005); \ne secoi/d of
Orlean-S A.D o33 (Co,c. Aurel. ii can. xiv., ibid
p. 1170); the fourth of Toledo, A.D. 633 ((Wc"
^olH. IV. can. Ixiii., fl.J. tom.'iii. p. 59): and
■age wi h Jews as a capital crime (Cod Tkcod
l.b..i..tit.7, leg.2;lib.xvi.tit.8,leg.6 St.
Ambrose and the ..u.ncils of Elvira, AgTle, Liodi-
cea and ,n Trullo (can. Ixxii.), enlaig! th t^o-
«cll as to the unbapti.ed. On the other h.nd.
Council of Chacedou, A.D. 451 (can. xiv.) seem,
b specifying, to confine the prohibition of such
.ages to the sons and daughters of bishops"
piiest.s, nad inlerior clergy. The general law
was as might be expected, very frequently set
.»t nought. St. Jerome bursts out with a fiery
invective against the women of his day, of whon.
he says with a rhetorical exaggeration that "the
greater part (jderaeque), despising the apostle's
command, marry heathens " (a,/, "jo,,-,,.',- g^
ftJeet Oper.bus (cap. xix., Op. tom. vi. p. 220
ed. Migue), .says likewise that in his time mar-
riage with unbelievers had cea.sed to be reaarded
as a sin; and he himself holds that it "ought
not to preclude Horn admission to baptism St
Augustine s mother Monica, Clothilda wife of
v'"'/,"r''.* ""« °^ Kthelberf, and Ethelburg-.
wife of tdwin, are conspicuous instances of the
-,i„ u • ' — picuoii.s luaiauccs or tne
rule being transgressed to the advantage of
Christianity. °
vii. lis This impediment, like error, ipso
facto invalidates marriage, the essence of ^hich
consists of Its being a free contract m.ade and
cair ed to such an extent as to interfere with
the freedom ot action, exercised on either party
to the contract, destroys that liberty of the will
\vhich IS a condition of the contract being valid.
Where there was violence there could be no free
consent; where no free consent, no contrai't ■
where no contract, no marriage. A well-known
instance in point isthe marriageof Jane of Xavarre
with the duke of Cleves, which, after the eleven
yeaj ' old maiden had been carried to church l,v
her uncle, the Constable of Moutmorencv. and
compelled to go through the wedding, was broken
otr on the ground that the bride ha<i not cou-
sented.
It was, however, a question whether it wis
the consent of the woman, or of the woman's
{lAGE
existing Jewish law to
<y ruliijg that marriage
I.orJ " (I Cor. vii. :i9),
.hould marry none but
ommand is reganle.l as
' Fathers, as Tertullian
'/>■ V- 4e0;; Cyi.rian
^p. I).;!2.i, Paris, I7.'(J);
/ Aijeruchiam, dc Mouu.
^■2, Paris, 17' G); St.
lilj. i. c. ix.. Op. torn.
St. Augustine, L'jjist.
'«, Op. torn. ii. p. 8SJ,
ils, as that of Klvira,
■ XV. xvi., Hani. Cu.wit.
council of Aries, a.d.
xi-, ibal. p. 2(i,5); that
>ic. LctOil. can. x.. i ;j.
■ I). SOti (Cunc. A(/at/i.
1005); the second of
fft'l. ii can. .\i.\., ibul.
"oledo, A.D. O.'i.i ((wjc.
torn. iii. p. 59^; imj
hich forbids iutei-niar-
al crime (Cud. TAcud.
vi. tit. 8, leg. 6). St.
>f i:ivira, Agde, L-iodi-
li.), eularge th« pro-
apply to heretics as
Ou the other hand,
9;_i (can. xii.) and the
■iol (can. xiv.) seem,
e prohibition of such
laughters of bishops,
.'. The general law-
very frequently set
rsts out with a fiery
1 of his day, of whom
iggeration that "the
i^pising the ajuistle's
" (ad . Jovin. i., Op.
stiue, in his work de
Op. torn. vi. p. 220,
at in his time mar-
eased to be regarded
lolds that it ought
on to baptism. St.
I Clothilda wife of
ert, ami Ethelhurgi
ous instances of the
the advantage of
it, like error, ipso
le essence of which
contract made and
or moral violence,
s to interfere with
ed on either party
liberty of the will
ntract being valid,
re could be no free
icnt, no contract ;
!e. A well-known
;of Jane of Navarre
h, after the eleven
ried to church by
Montmorency, anil 'i
idding, was broken
iride had not con-
1 whether it was
r of the woman'a
MARRIAOE
MARIHAGE
1007
relations, that was necessary. .Amon<: the He- - to whom l,o
u-cws the father was reganled as havin, the ' W yw T if ^'l""" ■''r'"= "^^ "''""^'^Y
light ot g.v.ug hi. daughter in marriage (Gen Lcrno of J "*• '''"■ '"«• '>• "'"' "'•" no
XX.V. 01). Toe earlv Iion,an law look.^1 \,,„„ ' fulj c" c 'h s'^'::,::! T*^"' '"T' '""^ " '-
.|nncM-n„ f„ .1... I ..■..■'._. .'".""* '^""'■•ol during the time of his
«ile and children as goods, belonging to the
husband and tather. Consequently there was
room tor vi, deuce to ha employed towanls one of
the contracting (larties with a vieiv to force her
consent, which the l:,w would not have recog-
nised as violence. Tlie claim of the woman to
^no.ed. " Ihe girl." says St. Ambrose of Re-
becca, whom he holds up herein as an example.
■ awai h"'"'"i ■'' "'""" '■" «'^l'""«als, for 'she
p. -ii-, laiis 1080), and he quotes with appro-
bation Luripides' liue, :-_ "I"! appro
The second canonical letter from Basil to 4m-
philochius ((9p. torn. iii. „ ogti^ „.,,„ " "^''.•^™-
entered into without a f hei's san tion f!"'".^.''
harsh name of fornication (Cm ITllJ-' T
that even after .•ecnnciliatit'withWr^pii.rn ?
three years penance is to be done by the da Lhter
(c.an.xxxv,ii.). The fourth council of Orfet,'
AD. 041, says that they shonhl be regarded in
the light of captivity or bondage rat'he, than
mrnage (can xxii., Hard. Con'cU. ^om i .•"*;
UdJ). An Irish council in the time of St. Patrick
about ,the year 4,50. lay,, it down that the will
tha t'l,^' 1 •" ^^ !"'l"''-'"^ "'' 'he father, In"
th,atthe girl is to ,lo what her father choose,
.nasmucd. as nuin is the head of the woLn (cat'
xxMi., Hard. Coiicd. torn. i. p. 1796). See also
fet. Augustine (/Spiff, cclv. .al o-,^ o„ TL. -
P, .0>i9, ed. lli/ne). Th; im.^'L tjrwere
a so very strict, as those of the heathen empems
had been. Constantius and Constans marelan-
t^'^ZP'T-"':^' "^'"'■'^ " -Pi'Hl o'^once
(i^oa. j/ifod. lib. IX. tif. XX V. ecrs i •>•> r„„„
widows under the a.e of 05 werffi, .hidL bv a
law of Valentinian and Gratlan to marry with!
out their parents' cnn..ent (&d. lib. iii tit "ii
eg. 1); and St. Ambrose desires voung w dows
to leave the choice of their .second hu°bam Is To
their parents (,Je Al,r.,/„„n. lib. i. cap" u Ov
IT 589'- ''V-7'' *'■''•'' ™"-ii';"ToieI;
A.D. 589 enacts that wi.lows are to be aUowed
free choice of their husbands, and that . rls
are not to be compelled to accent h r,b!lj I
^nstthewill,,ftLirparen,:^:i:'thSvS'
i^.v„<.n<„/ of Theodore of Canterburv. a.d 688
oi-da.ns that a father may give his dmfgh er in
leen, altei which she must not be married with
out her own consent (lib. ii. cap. xii. §36 ^
Nevertheless the in.lependent right of each of
.J.iii.i.i„u., (.■,„. 1,1, III - _ - ■
rs:^th?;.:''S:Hr^'-'"^^«--
t e persons i^Xt^t min- ^i^t;?;.,^";;:
others iXSt.^- --.-;';- taken
others, that thev should not be in n u ' ^^
, unfaithful to their wife rwhe.h , ' '''''''*
second, or a third wilfbv t " '"'"'• "'' *
according ,0 a :;.:ln::^,lr{;n?t-:";;;:ii"^'
laxity of life ; by others, that t h' J^: sh , h n'.' t 'be
h. fh M ''* '"Ui' interpretations is supported
«ndofTh.„doret(«,..':^v'n,5::i:t^';^::^
n,.^t 7' rf'"' ^^^^^- '^'''« authorities and rguJ
Ten" K ' «"■ ''?'"^ interpretation mav be -euf .at
ength in Suicer's I'h-saurus, s. v. A,W.'a The
hough underlying St. Chrysostom-s^hmM;,reta
e C „;d"'"'":.,r"y^''''"y -- ••"I--' bv
xampreVf HeT'1 ^"" /'"'"^"^^J. «« «hewn bv the
of Jufc^^T*^! «n<i Pi-oved by the testimony
of fb! .}' " ""^^^ •'ave been the purpose
of the apostle to allow a converted Je v Z
epndi..?i';^^/h""''''-*°-"^"^ ''^ ' '••'■^•"'■•"> -i ' "t
a man n sl.h ""'.'"^ "'"'''' *>"' ""» to allow
a man in such a position to be a presbvter "for
he Jews," says St. Chrysostom, "might .u'oceei
nn,l Tu A V ^"^ exposition of Theodore
S Pan? wM b r, ^'T^-^ "'"h the woris „ f
nt. faul, which literally translated mean «a
sTgnihV.tio^Th""'"''" '"t '"'' ^'^'"- "" '■"'her
sgnihcation than one who w.is faithful to the
manage tie, and "kept himself only f,, his w'fe
vice; It IS also in better harmonv with St
own h "''^"i;"" (""■'« 'hat ruleth we I hh
-le his pn'iu!: Li: r;, tir ^z [",
' ^heduirch of God?"), than that which tees in
1 Daillnger'8 argument to the contrary(ff,y,n„?v(„, aiid
»r„f im,?' f'""'-y to the law of the K„„,a„
41S1 „,„i .k- •, ■ ' '-"'/'• ■""•", torn. . p.
4 8), and this liberty was testified to in the
mlrHaS.™""'""'"""''""""^^''''-"-'^
.„f', a l'™tection against violence, it was also
.nacted that no guardian might mar;y an orphan
countrymen had entered jntu Hr- 1 1-' «,» „ 1 "?'
Wholdl.""'""'' """ 'he internal oeconomy of the,?
10LI8
MAimiAGB
the text oulv a prohibition of ii second marriaije.
Theoiluret says that he deliberately adopts the
view of tliose who held " that the holy apostle
declares the man who lives contentedly with
one wife is worthy of ordination, and that he
IS nul forbidding second marriages, which he
has ol'teu recommended " (m 1 Tim. iii. 2). The
general understaudiug, however, of the words,
whicii was accepted in the early church, was
that yt. I'aul intended to esclude Digamists
Irom the ministry ; and his instruction to
Timothy, thus understood, became converted
into a rule of church discipline. See the Apo-
stolical Canons (can. xvii.) ; the Apostolical Con-
stitutions (vi. 17); Origen (//om. xvii, in Lua.,
Op. torn. iii. 1.. 953, Paris, 1740, who says plainly,
'■Neither bishop, priest, deacon, nor widow must
be twice married "); St. Ambrose [de Of. 1. 50,
§257, Op. torn. ii.p. 6rt, Paris, lti9'J); St. Augus-'
tine {(le Bono Cunjug. c. xvii;.. Up. torn. vi.
p. 387, ed. Migne) ; St. Epiphanius (_f/acr. lix. 4,
Op. toui. i. p. 49ij, Pans, 162li); and the coun-
cils of Angicrs, a.d. 455 (can. xi.. Hard. Coiicil.
tom. li. p. 480); Agde, A.D. 506 (can. i. ibiJ. p.
990; Aries, iv. A.D. 524 (can. iii. iOid. p. 1070).
St. Paul's injunction, thus interpreted, has been
continuously the rule of the Oriental church
both positively and negatively, except so far as
It has been violated on the positive side by the
Council in TruUo, a.d. 692, forbidding the mar-
riage of bishops, which St. Paul appears not only
to have i)erniitted, but to have recommended, if
not enjoined, in order that the bishop's power of
ruling iiiit;ht have been tested in a smaller
sphere bel'ure he was promoted to a large one
(Cijncil. ill Truth, can. xlviii,, Hard. Concil. tom.
IV. p. 1679).
For some time before the Christian era a
change of sentiment as to the relative excellence
ot the married and single life had been growing
up among a section of Jews. The national
teelmg was strongly in favour of marriage, and
a man who was unmarried or without cliildren
was looked upon as disgrace.I (see the legend of
Joach.in and Anna in the Protemmjelion). But
the sjiint of asceticism, cherished by the Essenes,
Jed to an admiration of celibacy, of which no
traces are to be found in the Old Testament ; so
that, instead of a shame, it became an honour to
be umnarried and childless. In the early church
this spirit, at first exhibiting itself only to be
condemned in the Encratites (Euseb. Hist. Ecct.
IV. 29 ; St. Aug. de Ilaeros. xxv.), the Apostolici
(Sit. Aug. do Jfaeres. xl.), the Manichees (ibid.
xlvi.), the Hieracians (/',«. xlvii.), the Eusta-
thians (Socrates, J/i,t. £ccl. 1143; Couucil of
^angra, cans i. ix. x. xiv.), struggled with a
healthier feeling, till at length it stifled the
latter.
Another cause was working in the same di-
rection. The days of chivalry were not yet •
and we cauiu.t but notice, even in the greatest of
the Christian lathers, a lamentably low estimate
01 woman, and consequently of the marriage re-
latiouslup. Even St. Augustine can see no justi-
lica ion tor marri/ige, except in a grave desire
deliberately adopted of having children (&m. ix
li., Op turn. v. pp. 88, 345, ed. Migne); and, in
accordance with this view, all married inter-
couiv.o, nx.npt for this single purpose, is harshly
condemned If marriage is sought after for the
sake of children, it is justifiable | if euterad into
MARRIAGE
as a rcmcdium to avoid worse evils, it is pardon-
able; the idea of "the mutual societv, heli) and
comfort, that the one ought to have o'f the other
both in prosperity and adversity," hardly ex-
isted and could hardly yet exist. Jn the decline
of ttie Koman empire, woman was not a help-
meet for man, and few traces are to b-.r.Hind of
those graceful conceptions which Western ima-
gination has grouped round Weu.'.-d love and
home afiections. The result was that the cr )ss
coarse, material, carnal side of marria.'e beiug
alone apprehended, those who sought to lend a
spiritual lite, that is. above all, the clergv, in-
stead of "adorning and beautifying that "holy
estate, and lifting it up with themselves into a
higher sphere and a purer atmosphere, recarded
It rather as a necessary evil to be shunned by
those who aimed at a holier life than that of the
majority.
Four questions .arose :—l. Whether a rlerey-
man might marry after ordination ; 2. Whether
after ordination he must cease to cohabit with
his wife whom he had married before ordination;
3 Wheher a man already married might be
mthTb ' t-.W^""-'"- « t«'ice married man
might bo ordained.
On the first question the East and West
agreed in returning a negative answer, so far as
fi'i^t"h',lTlfP.'r''^/'." '''■"■*-' ™"'^^'-°«'l- 1° the
I il i,*^^ ^'''' ""'"'■>" pope C'allistus is
charged by Hippolytus with introducing the in-
novation of allowing clergvmen to marry after
they were m orders. Dullingor supposes him to
have sanctioned no more than the marriage of
acolyths, hypodiaconi (the title still borne by sub-
deacons), and, perhaps, deacons, but this is
uuluely, or Hippolytus would not have made it
so serious a charge against him. Callistus pro-
bably allowed his ,,resbyters and deacons to
marry, and the practice continued after his death
among h,s special followers .md disciples-his
school as Hippolytus calls them (oS ha^^iyu rh
but It did not prevail against the o,>posite
custom The Council of Ancyra, a.u! 314
allows deacons only to marry, and that if at
the time of their ordination they had given
notice of their intention to do so (can.^ x.).
I he Apostolical Canons restrict the liberty of
marriage after ordination to readers and singers
(can. XXV.) Presbyters are ordered by the
council 01 Neocaesarea, a.d. 314. to remain un-
niarried if they are unmarrie.l at the time of
their ordination (can. i.). bishops, priests, and
deacons are ordered to remain unmarried by
a Koman council under Innocent I., a.d. 402
(can. III.). The only authoritative sanction for
niarriage after ordination i, fouud in a decree
archbishop of Nisibi.s, towards the end of the
5th century.
On the second question, whether clergy mar-
ried at the time of their ordination were to cease
cohabita ion there graduallv ,leveloped itself
one of the disciplinary .lirtereuces which after-
wj.rds declared themse|-es botween the East and
West. 1 he Eastern church has never forbidden
marriage before ordination to its presbyter.s, and
has never laid upon them the burden of .4=ti-
iience from thei.' wives; and there is no doubt
that the Eastern discipline in this respect was
the discipline of the whole of the early church.
• The
**i/am ve
seu sit I'l
nionlo cl
fliforum I)
Uiat " uti'
otherwise
buntur"(
' Aecort
depo8«-H fr
In wi'dlcck
that the wi
hibit wlittt
niutlcallyii
iwiioii ol tl
lower down
» The car
Sirtdui, A.i
.VOB
I'ne evils, it is piirilon-
tiial society, help, and
t to have of the other,
Iveivity," hiinlly ex-
e.xist. In the decline
man was uot a help-
ces are to b",fiiiinil of
which Wes'tern inla-
nd weii.l'J love and
It was that the grws,
ie ut' marriage being
■ho sought to lend a
e all, the clergy, in-
eautit'ying that "holy
til themselves into a
itmosphere, rogardej
il to be shunned by
lil'e than that of the
Whether a clergy-
nation; 2. Whether
ase to cohabit with
;d before ordination ;
■ married might be
twice married man
he East and West
ive answer, so far as
concerned. In the
ry pope Callistus is
introducing the in-
nien to marry after
5'-T supposes him to
an the marriage of
le still borne by sub-
oons. but this is
d not have made it
ini. Callistus pro-
rs and deacons to
lued after his death
and disciples— his
hem (o5 Sia/x4vti ri
Kal T^i/ iropoSocriv),
liiist the op])osite
Vncyra, a.d. 314,
y, and that if at
I they had given
do so (can. x.).
•ii-t the liberty of
eaders and .singers
ordered by the
1-i, to remain un-
■d at the time of
shops, priests, and
in unmarried by
•ont I., A.D. 402
itive sanction for
"mind in a decree
under Bnrsumas,
s the end of the
Bther clergy mar-
tion were to cease
developed itself
ces which after-
■een the East and
never forbidden
s pre.«bytcrs, and
burden of ahsti»
liere is no doubt
this respect was
he early church.
MARRIAGE
;l
t
ThomassiD, Natalis Alexander, the Bollandist
fcUlting, and Zaccaria assert that married as •
t c>,„, prevailed from the beginning bv aposto-
lical precept but they have no ground ior'th ir
a-ssertion. Til lemont acknowledges that for thi
on r J""' r\ "";,'' ""J''*-"! y^"" i' w-is not re-
quired and De Marca argues that it grew up
insensibly as a voluntary practice, and was ii,"
4th c,ntury.^ ' ^"''" '*'"""' "* ""-' '"^ "^ "'«
mentM^'A.""*'',""'^ ? ^^' 1"««"'°° ^^ Cle-
wacke of ?h '"l' "■['"' '" «""''»»ti"g the
pratt.te of the church with that of tim
heretics of his day, speaks plainly of m-ie
deacon, and layman as " d«,r,\ii.r, c i ' '
XP<i^^^.o," {StLuxt. lib. ii, 12 VTIn ^^,^!f
"at; b'f 'hT^i'te:"' ;r:t *'"^^'°'^ ": ''-
would be futile if he did not fn\ '"'^'""T
bishop, not only as ma J„i w '' ."''"° ""^
i^n i,a(A a JOj)a canon which is rtcarded as ti.M
buii: ;:)i:1i::;^;'^''^;'-P'-^^^I!:-
.o <.rce L dS^; „^"i^-3 - -ae
St;^'^L;^---£^--as^u:
hat dictated the attempt walno holve '"''^
e'-enrtL;M^"eo'utiroT'S:ng?a' tld'fb "?
Hard. cL/l'""r49/ff'" '" """•^'''"■^
_^6' *•"• '^°^-' A council held
MARRIAGE
1099
that "ut'ns" an Z ™nlv f • f i" ''■^''""' """ »*J'"8
•otherwise the re d ,« w™ d ^'^""^ '"-'"'fining iba!
depottr tr'^ixrai'ri ~''''™^'™ ""^ ™'-
in w,.di«., „ith the : X;" ,f .y/"" "■f"«' '« "ve
timt tie wonling is oo.,fZ." ^'.'' 8'^^"«''''"y »up,K,8ed
hil.lt .hat ., se.!Lis to^^ ,^'^- ,7f, ">"' " '"'ei,„s .o pro-
matieally It would lx»,nlr !,'[«,;;:;' T"""'"' "'"'■
t«">-'i 01 the council „, ™ ""'^'"^'"•■l'--'' ''" ""^ louiil,
lower down in The,. !Itt *"* °'"""""*' " "■''' '""«
hadintroj;^:r';::Lt^^^;;i';:;';;/«pei.ouwho
pusing clergy who live 1 u I !i ■ "^^ "' a«-
speakl of that cus , M ■""' "■'"''"' "'"' he
Thessalonica nd inTt '".'-''"""'g <■> his day in
he declares i't on,r° r J t^ he"''''tr"'' "^""^ ' '"'*
custom of the Eastern I L""^'"' """'^'■^■'1
and priests we relift "t t"'f' .'•'^'" ^'"^"l^'
pleased in this resnect'r^' *" ''"^ "' 'hey
had children by the ' laWu,"''"^' "^ !^^""' ''-'^
time that thev l^^Z^'U J^Tp'T'"^ ""=
0/>. p. 242, Oion. 1844) '^Tho '"'■ ''■ -'^'
rrom the incont;ovenible ^^^^ t [f 7"-'"' "''"""
^i^opHnd^s™- r <f ^i:^;:::
g-rajy el"d"d b "s n inTi^^t " hZr''^' '"
Snrtir^r^ri^rEP
;^th:rr^;^-;Si:j7/^n"a.fte;
-lix.) ; and Synesius ,, ,v!Vn"''''''''","«'' (^>'»'-
-rned, in 'the St nd fc ..;fe"'\-7™ <-•'">-
regard to presbyters. In heir case th-'"'^'"^
of the two halves of rb.-f^f , ^ '-'''''^'l'''ne
and more divereent 7^'"^.'°^"'" t"-'''"'"" ""'-re
right of therdr';. bein. fll^l ""' V'-"""' "^«
married before crSSati ^.^ The^^ullci Hn'r ",/'
will no longer coh.biwith'^h"''""' *''''" '*"■/
orders are to be h*'-'"*-"''''-^'' "*" "" '" ''"'y
not to be refused MTh!; '^.''•'■•^h.vter, he is
with his wife !vo, ^, h ground of cohabiting
anyone to be r™ ir^j'to m"'r "' .?"■""'"" ''
abstain from intercourse" ..^hK-! ,""" '"' ""1
lest we thus do d honour t ' ''l^ft'l wife ,
was instituted by God and bl ""V^'^ ''^''^
sence, the Kosnel ,i , ."""'^ ''y His pre.
hath joined*" Stht ll't'^n^'''''""'' ' '''^'^' ''-1
and thi. apostlefeic ;.I''l Crrt'? ^ '""""'"•'
"' -"•'rrmge is honourable
--;^.w.a.spu:rxrx:t=
1100
MARRIAGE
H !;
in all, and th(! be.l umlefiled,' ani 'Art thon
bound to a wifi'. soi'k net tn bo Idoscd.' ... It'
then, anyone in .|i!s|,ite of the apostolical canons,'
be induced to fm-ljid priests, deacons, and sub-
deacoD.s to cohabit and hohl intercourse with
their lawful ^viv(^s, lot him bo deposed. And,
likewise, if any priest or deacon cljsmisses his
wife on the pretext of piety, let him be excom-
municated, and if he be obstinate, let him be
deposed " (ran. xiii.. Hard. Cmeil. tom. iv. p.
ItitiU). Meantime the West was grov.ing stilfer
and stil'er, .Sjiain still leading the way. The
first and the ninth councils of Toledo (c^inons i.
X., Hard. 'o)i,i7. torn. i. p. 990, tom. iii. p. 97,5)
forbid cohabitation with increasing risjour, a.d.
400 and (i."i,5. The French councils of^Arles 11.,'
A.D. 4,i2(can. xliv.. Hard. Cowil. tom. iv. p. 774),
and of M;icou, A.D. ,i84 (can. xi.), denounce the
punishment of deposition ; and Innocent f. in
his letters to Victricius and to Kxuperius (Hard
Ciiic.l. torn. i. pp. UiOl, 100;3),and Leo 1. (_/:pist.
ad liusticuni, Kesp. iii,, Op. p. 4u7) spg-ik f^,
Rome in the same sense. Such a discipline so
Eeverely enforced could only end ia the prohibi-
tion of marriage altogether.
The third (luestion, whether the married .state
and the clerical state were altogether incom-
patible, could not arise while St Paul's teaching
was still ringing in the cars of Christians, for St.
Pau! had commanded the .selection of married men
for priests and deacons (1 Tim. iii. 2, 12 ; Tit. i. (i),
the reason of which command was explained by
Clement of Alexandria to be that "they have
le.'ir.-t from their own households how to govern
tne cl'uri'h " {Strom, iii. 12); but it necessarily
arose, ^nj was necessarily answered in the affir-
niativ •, as soon as the cohabitation of the clergy
with .leir wives had been authoritatively for-
bidden. When jjublic opinion came to require
tliat „ married m.m should abstain from living
With his wife, it was only a question of time
how soon it would require him to have no wife
At all; and to many the latter course would
appear less revolting than the former. A one-
sided development of the scriptural precepts
contaived in Matt. xix. 12, and in 1 Cor. vii. 1-7,
nece.ssarily led to the high estimate of celibacy
for its own sake that is found in some early
writers (see Ignatius, £>jis<. ad Pol'/carp. c. v.;
Athenagoras, Ltyat. c. xxxiii. ; Justin. Apol. x.
XV.), and more naturally found its issue in the
imposition of celibacy tha'n of married asceticism.
The arguments used from the time of Siricius" '
onwards against cohabitation wer- of equal force
ag,.in.st marriage. If it were true that holiness
and abstinence from marriage intercourse were
synonymous, and if it were true that the clergy
Were bound to be in a peculiar manner dedicated
to holiness, the conclusion necessarily drawn was
that the clergy should be unmarried. Siricius
was the spiritual father of Damiani and Hilde-
brand. It is true that there was a long struggle,
sometimes based by the opponents of celibacy on
low and carnal motives; sometimes fought on the
higher principle which brought into prominence
those other scriptural injunctions which ought
to limit the apjilication commonly made of tho.se
precepts on whi>h the idea of celibacy had
grounded itself; sometimes, too, appealing to the
practice, of the earlier church, still perpetuated
iu the East. JSut the battle could not bo a suc-
cessful one unless the principles laid down by
MARRIAGE
Sincius were rejiudiated, and the honour of
married life and married intercourse vindicated
In yiU we rind that "a great disturbance took
place m South Wales (as elsewhere) " because
the priests were enjoined not to marry without
the leave ot the pope; so that it was considered
best to allow matrimony to the. priests"
{'"■ut. y lyw„so,/. p. 28, Haddan and Stubbs.
CouncUs of Great Britain, i. 28»i). But in
10..9 the West was ripe for the decree of the
iioi.ian council under Nicholas 11., "Whatever
priest, deacon, or subdeacon shall, after the con-
stitution of our predecessor of blessed memory,
the most holy pope I.eo on clerical chastity
openly marry a concubine (wife), or w,t leav^
one that he has inarricd, iu the name of Almighty
God and by the authority of the blessed apostles
1 eter and Paul, we enjoin and utterly forbid to
sing mass or read the gospel or epistle," &c.
(can. 111., Hard. Concil. tom. vi. ]). lD,-,2) In
the tir.st Lateran Council under Callistus 11., a d
ll--.i, the word "wife" is introduced, together
with that of "concubine." " We utterly forbid
priests, deacons, and subdeacons to live with con-
cubines and wives; and any other woman to be
in the same house with them, except those whom
the Council ot Nice allowed on the ground of
relationship, namely, mother, sister, aunt, and
so on, about whom no suspicion can fairlv arise"
(can. iii., Hard. Concil. tom. vii. p. 1111) The
Lateran Council appeals to the authority of tho
I fTr!, ^l"" "' *''""Sh forbidding that which
[ It deliberately refused to forbid.
The fourth question, whether a twice- married
man might be ordained, was answered in the
negative, being contrary to an ecclesiastical rule
which, as we have stated above, was founded
on a probably mistaken apjirehension of the
meaning of St. Paul's injunction to Timothy and
Titus (1 Tim. Hi. 2, 12 ; Tit. i. 6). Accordingly,
although about the year 220 pope Callistus
admitted twice or thrice married men to the
hpiscopate, the Presbyterate, and the Diaconate,
such ordinations were forbi.lden bv the Apostolical
17?°^^ ('^an- *""•) and Constitutions (ii, 2, vi.
17), by St. Basil's canons (can. xii.), and by all
the synods that dealt with the subject, except
those held among the Nestorians. Here too
however a difference of the discipline of the
tast and the West exhibited itself. The East,
which, whenever it could be, was more human
and less rigorist than the West, refused to count
marriiiges which had taken place before baptism
as disqualihcations. Provided that a man had
been but once married since his baptism he was
eligible in the East to the priesthood, notwith-
standing any marriage that he might have con-
tracted as a heathen or as a ciitechumen (see
Council m T.-ullo, can. iii.). Not so in the West
M. Ambrose and St. Augustine, popes Siricius and
Innocent, the councils of Valence and Aede
agree in pronouncing that no such distinction
can be lecogi-ised. Two marriages, whether
before or after baptism, exclude from the
ministry. The only voices raised in the West
again.st this ruling are those of St. Jerome, who
in defending the regularity of bisho|, Carterius's
consecration, declares that the worl was full of
such ordinations (Kpist. Ixix.. Op. tom, i, p «54
Piiris, 1846), and of Gennadi us of Marseilles (dl
hccles. Dogm c. Ixxii. p. 38, ed. Elmenhorst).
Ihe rule, whether in iU Lastern or Western
[AGE
1, and thft honour of
I intercourse vindicated,
great disturlwni.-e took
IS elsewhere) " hccause
: not to marry without
that it was considered
'ny to the. priests "
I, Haddan and Slubbs,
tin, i. 281)). liut in
for the decree of the
cholas II., "Whatever
>n shall, after the coii-
or of blessed memory,
' on clerical chastity,
p (wife), or nnt leave
the name of Almighty
of the blessed apostles
and utterly forbid to
ospel or epistle," &c.
)m. vi. p. lo;,2). In
nder Callistus il., a.d.
introduced, together
" We utterly forbid
cons to live with con-
y other woman to be
m, except those whom
?d on the ground of
ler, sister, aunt, aud
cion can fairlv arise"
n. vii. p. mi). The
the authority of the
orbidding that which
rbid.
ther a twice- married
ifas answered in the
an ecclesiastical rule
above, was founded
ipprehension of the
;tion to Timothy and
i. 6). Accordingly,
2120 pope Callistus
married men to the
, and the Diaconate,
enby the Apostolical
istitutions (ii. 2, vi.
an. xii.), and by all
the subject, except
torians. Here too,
le discipline of the
I itself The East,
e, was more human
St, refused to count
ilace before baptism
d that a man had
liis bapti.sm he was
riestliood, notwith-
he might have con-
a ciitechumen (see
Not SO in the West.
, popes Siricius and
'alonce aud Agde,
such distinction
larriagcs, whether
exclude from the
aised in the West
f St. Jerome, who,
bishop C'arterius's
! worl ' was full of
(//). torn, i, p. 654,
i of Marseilles (da
, ed. Elmenhorst).
stern or Western
MARHIAGE
fi-i-n-,, I.eintr positive rather than moral wi,
constant^. br,d<en. (In proof „f this. ^ C
tul lan. U, EHortathne C.tt.Uis, c. vii r J ,
0-. I>ar,s 167,-.; and Hippolytus, PlUloLp,,: i^^
1- l.,r early tm.es: a series of councils tt^^t Hes
to b s,am„ fact at a later period.) Somet m
a o al costom to the contrary would arise, which
lit; / t 'k "^^°'"''-^' ''■'''«''<"■« °f J'opsuestfa
lehsed to be bound by a rule which, while c
? Si th''"^ ''"'■'"•'^"^■'' '" ^'- ''""'Word
do-n /7 • ''."'■'""^•'' "'■ "'« Apostle. Theo-
n 1 ;,i ■'"""^ '"■' '™'^' J'^'^'^'^a that he care"l
wf Lrupoi;™:"ri' '"""•"• ■'^'^"^™'' "-'-h
I'-l-s c^mmrd; nd wl,""'th'"''""'r", "' ^'•
had been made bi'hop of Tv e 'T' k'""*""'*
married, and thereunon L ^ .' "^''^ *"'''*
ing his consecration on t),a " '"""^ J"stity-
consecrators had but ?„li P?"'''' '^'" '''■■'
those who had g, e Tth""-' ''""'"^ °''
instance of Alexn^nder of A^tioch""' Tf^ '>'
of ISeroea, who had ord, imsd ? "'"' "V"""'
twice m,.ried, and that'o^'pSiro/'r^'
salem, who had ordained Domn^n u- l ^'""'^
Caesarea, under like o!rcl, trer'He '"^ ^^ ^^
Epht. ex. Op. tom. iU p' 970 p''-^""? <■'«
/^^:;u:^?t^«--«^--.ip^!:^
~'w:;S'^S'r^^";'''-.-«divorced
milage, sp^fe^f :;;^£r«;s
to the clerevman's ivifo „= ,„„ii =«PPiicaoie
MAKRIAfiE
1101
agafn\r; he';'^s£nVs7ea;?'k^''lb""''^">'
council of Tolelo, held a d 4no ^ '.^* ""*
('^lesaraugustanum irr wlrAi'j' ^'"'^''•
[CKHDACV, DiOAMY] "''• '^^ P" ^^S^).
-onogamy (C^tjuZM^Vlf, 'TT' (
were sutHc ent to nreronf „ ^- ''K- 2)
raised of the la vfuC /">' V^'"" ^^"'g
riages. An exist ngtrH.lr'''*''"^''"-^ ^''
in.l>ediment to con^.^l^l "",'°'"f"='-'''''«
Here and there cxc3, TT' '""''"''g''-
f"«ad, not in the earl e tf '"'" "'"
the ground of conj ," ft ""' "'^l-'^^ "P"°
-beW),aad„fe!.adT::;^^:;S
*i"n. By fhe civil law a sol li,.,-' •,■
permitte,! to marrv -Ziu ,f V ","'' "■'"'
had been absent Iw ^s'^w '% "^'""i''
"■■■ tit. xvii. leg 7, ^ h,/Vk ;.'"'■ "''•
.band wbo has be i^! "pe, j'ro''?l'i'"-^' I" l'"-^"
>nto another land the h 1 n ^ "' •"" '"'•'
if he sees no hope^f reS n^.'"''"" '"'r' "*'"''"
at the same time to h„ S ■"">'«. Mibmitijng
b«.y,A.n.68«,'^ro;oiLs' ;;i^:',^;-^
woman after one year if he,? •'"■"■'■^. """•''^''•
redeeming her, heT o w„ t T " " '■""■"'-• "*"
wife in th'e an;iog„us portion irt^"V'\r"' *"«
before remarrying He add^ thif f 'u'^^"''''''
fi,„ -r ,"'"•'' ."°t dismiss his secon.l wife • ,.„ i
the wife likewse (Penitentinl lih .'"'"'..'"»»
Of) o.)\ . i , ^-^ ■r'i'«?»cia(, lib. 11. ^.fl], V i ss
-0-^2); but a subsequent clause rev, ,.'. V;,-*
ru .ng,and orders that the wife on h .,■ T ^'^
not to be taken back by her h s^"n ' C'^^
she may marry another man, if she h? .
only once married (ibid. 8 ' 04) Tl^ , ."
-les^^ion ?nd;:er.?r" '''' ^^"''^^^ a'W
carried captive \' \l ^•''^'L« «i'« has been
genuine in 'tLrf^rm^'nwhR.h^i::"";: "™ ""'
down to us. In Firb„w'! r ^ '^^"■'^ "'me
called, it is dedde'fh't the'm:f %'■" ""■>• "'«
carried away may mairy g ,"' ,e" ':":"" '^
and similarly with respect o 7b! 7 ^■'""■'•
case of the wife's v„hr» . *■ '''''^"= '" the
may many aga n aftei fi -e'^' ''''"''^ ""^ """^
the bishopV consent but 17 r'?" ^'''''' "'^^
three yeL (.^r^xxu' .^^ '^^^T '^
torn. Hi. p. 1972). i,,,^ ,u F '•"''■ ^""ci/.
Egbert's: they probaMvH ^-""'l"-^ '''' ■"'*
century, .erS^Ct ^„,\^'-| Jo 'he ninth
as these are for them„ ♦ f'"'^" concessions
late date but' I„ 1 i'^: P:';^-, -' -ly of a
ticular cases as they aro" ' '"' V^rrr;*,'-""
terburv h msnlf n„«„ »"u-o(ioro of Can-
canonic'a.';'Th'!;g"r"aZv:d^''C"tT'"V-^r-
namely, that tw^ mar e7 persons n i ,ht "''^■■''
thrs^rrr^i''^"^V'^""~-"
he allows them, in such a ^ ^' ^""
in case of incauacitv c.„™ • , ""' '^''I'arate, or
TheruIeofSSl5;w«:^r^nf'§'->-
X. Jfonestas. Betmtbt.M'P.'""'- C""'-^>'V.]
x^//on..<a,. Betrothal to Vvom 1. ^
posed to cause an impediment to m ^ • ' "['P"
nearest relatives, so tLt Tf a n^^n b h 't'r^f'T
to one Sister and marries another ,''"'"'
I -ster. ^ntiqSy'r. ;'rZ: irfv '■'■^*
spurious decree of noi>., i. .."^'"S ot this, «
h>st«u,horit:f„" u'Tso VauP""*!'' »» *^'
Jti. ^*is. The age before wh I „ '-' ■
1102
MARRIAGE
lib. xxiii. tit ii. leg. 4; Instd. lib. i. tit. x.xii. ;
Jlartein;, Ue Antiquia KccUs. Jiitims, cap. ii
art. i. a.) ^
xu. Alfinis. [I'ltoiiiniTED Dkoreks.]
xiii. Vlittalcstinus. The i)iiblicity ui the mar-
riage contract was always regarded as an essen-
tial part uf it. Dillcrcnt means were taken in
dillerent countries for ensuring publicity, but
that it should exist was recognised by every
civilised stiite as the foundation of its socia'l
system. Among the Jews and Koraans a certain
number of witnesses w.is required;'' Tertullian
declares that the church demands publicity [d,i
J'tulicUii, cap. iv,, Op. p. 557); and the pre-
sence of witnesses is pronounced '.^y a law of
Theodosius Jim., quoted below, to be one of the
few things which could not be dispensed with
in a niarri ige ceremony. The testimony of the
church ollicer before whom the contract was
made naturally came to be accepted as the best
testimony that could be had, but it was not
until the council of Trenf that all marriages
\vere declared null, on the ground of their being
clandesline, unless they were celebrated in the
presence of the incumbent of the parish in
which one of the contracting parties lived. The
council of Verneuil orders that all marriages
shall be maile in public, whatever rank the
parties mljjlit be (Cunc. Vernens. can. xv
Hard. Couci/. torn. iii. p. 1997). The council o|-
Jriuli, A.I). 791, gives the .same order with a
view to the prevention of marriages of consan-
guinity (jr ailinity (tow. Forojuliense, can. viii.,
t6. torn. iv. p. 859).
xiv. /mpus. Impotency is an impediment
winch m;ikes a marriage not void, but voidable
alter a period of three years. In Christian
legishitiou It was first recognised by Justinian,
A.D. i)-2S. as, in adequate cause for a divorce (Cod
J'istin. lib. V. tit. xvii. leg. 10; Auth. Collat. iv.
tit. 1, ^ovcll. xxii. tj, Corp. Juris, torn. ii. pp.
?..' }-'^^- ^'"' ''''^'' I'hotius, Aonwcamn, tit.
xin. § 4. Theodore's J'eniteidial declares it a
su/hcient cause for a woman to take another
husband (lib. ii cap. xii. § 92), or if arising
troni sickness, for a separation (ibiJ. & 12) Jn
the eighth century Gregory II., replying 'to a
question of Boniface of Germany, goes si far as to
lay It down that iu case of impotency on the
part of the woman, arising from an attack of
Illness "it would be well that her husband
should remain as he is, and give him.self up to
selt-restraint; but whereas none but great souls
can attain to this, let a man who cannot contain
marry rather, but he is not to withdraw ali-
mony trom her who is only prevented by in-
firimty, not excluded by loathsome guilt " (cap
11., Hard. Co.icil. torn. iii. p. 1858). At the end
of the .same century, tgbert, of York, rules,
though with great reluctance, in a similar case
that the one of the two that is in good health
may marry again with the permission of the
MARRIAGE
•■ Atbanaeus wys that one ebject of the nuptial ban-
quet w,u, to serve as a witness- "Mc eiiim innribus et
legibus wi.um eet.ut innuptiisepulum flat, turn utnup-
tlales Deos veneremur, turn ut pro testinioni., id sit " j
(Dnpnosoph. lib. v. c. I., Op. p. igj, Lugd. 1«57>
Another «•.■»>• ,n whi.-h p„l,iieity was ctioctea w«, nj
msertion of the m„rrlage8 in the Acta, which appearal I
daily, like m.Hiern newspapers, but there were no public I
marriage registers. •-"""v.
one that is si,k, provided that the latter
promises perjietual continence and is never
allowed to marry during the other's life, under
any chr.ni;e of circumstances (/^,a/o,/,tt.«;- J-.'O^rt
Kesp xiii., Had.ian and Stubbsi Cuun.iis <,}
Orcat Br.Uun, y^\. iii. ,,. 40-,). The law.s of
Howel Dda A.a 928, allow a woman to separate
(n.i.i her husband, with.uit losing her dower,
on the grounds of im|,otency, leprosy or bad
breath Cv/,-.,Mi,« L'yu>cl IH,, bk. iii c. xxix^
§ -0, H.addan and Stubbs, Councils of Great
Bntam vol. i. p 247). St. Thomas Aquinas
and later moral theologians go furthe. still;
they allow that an excessive disgust for a
wile justilies a mau in reganling himself im-
potent in resi,eet to her (see Liguori, 'f/wol. Mo:
u. 0. d, „). iiiese are concisions, which, how-
ever they may have been acted on in more than
one conspicuous instance, cannot be reconciled
with the rules of ordinary morality. In the
fath century the .second council of Orleans ruled
in a contrary sense (can. xi.. Hard. Concil. ton,.
"• p. U7.)). Impotency existing at the time of
maiiiage being incomjmtible with the primary
end the contract, makes the contract void or
voidable without the intervention of any statute
or canon law.
xv. J,-uptus. This impedi- nt is sometimes
classed under that o{ vis. means not ex-
act y the same as our wor,l ravishment, but the
violent removal of a woman to a place where
her actions are uo longer free, for the sake of
inducing or compelling her to marry. The act
of Bothwell iu carrying away Alary Stuart,
.vould ha^e been precisely a case of r.aptus had
there been no collusion between them. By some
ruptus IS distinguished into the two classes
UM y*"' seductionia and raptus nokntiae.
Whether ravishment iu the strictseu.se of the
word IS an impediment to a future marriage is
a question which has been answered in contrary
ways Those who regarded it as a shameful
act that a m.-m should gain his object by com-
mitfing a great crime, decided that it was an
insuperable impediment for ever. Those who
considered that the injury done to the woman
could only be htoned for and nullified by mar-
riage took the opposite view, and required the
ravisher to marry her. The Roman law made
It a perpetual impediment. Laws of Constan-
tine and Constant ius indict capital punishment
on ravishers (Cod. Theod. lib. ix. tit. xxiv.
legg. ], 2); and Justinian, after having pro-
nounced the penalty of death for the crime
continues, '< Nor is the ravished woman to be
allowed to ask for and obtain her ravisher
as her husband : her parents are to marry her
to whom they will, except the ravisher, in lawful
wedlock, but our serenity will never in any way
consent to the act of those who try to wed in
our state like enemies. For every one who
wishes for a wife, whether free or freed, is to
ask her of her parents or other guardians in ac-
cordance with the tenor of our laws, that by
their consent a legitimate marriage may take
place {Cod. Justin, lib. ix. tit. xiii. leg. 1, Con,
./uns tom ii. p. 832). The law of the ViJigoths
went so far as to punish ravisher and y,cti,„
with dcatn It they should juesunie to marry
On the other hani tl, Ostrogothic law required
the man to marry and to endow the woiLan"
«
'*
lAGE
viJuJ that the latter
tiuuncu and is never
; the other's liCe, uuder
ees (Vialui/ueijf ICiUrt,
1 Stuljbs, CuaniUs i,f
>■ 4ut»). The laws of
|\v a v.(jniaii to sej.arate
out loniug her dower,
teney, lejaMjsy or had
?/ liJ'i, bk. ii. c. x.\ix.
)b.s, CuUHcits of Great
St. Tlionias Aquinas
iaa.s go lurthei .sliU;
ee.ssive disgust for a
regarding himself ini-
■ee Liguori, Tliml. Mo :
nuessiuiis, which, how-
ucted on iu more than
cannot be reconciled
ry morality. In the
4ncil of Orleans ruled
xi., Hard. Coticil. torn.
Jiisting at the time of
ble with the primary
s the contract void or
."ention of any statute
idiment is sotnetimes
s. .; means not ex-
i ravishment, but the
lan to a idace where
free, for the sake of
r to marry. The act
away Alary Stuart,
I case of raptus had
.veen them, hy some
ito tlie two classes
d raptus violentiiie.
e strict sense of the
» future marriage is
answered in contrary
id it as a shameful
his object by com-
ided that it was an
• ever. Those who
done to the woman
d nullified by mar-
w, and required the
e Roman law made
Laws of Constan-
capital punishment
lib. ix. tit. xxiv.
after having pro-
ath for the crime,
ibhed woman to be
)btaia her ravisher
i are to mairy her
e ravisher, in lawful
II never in any way
who try to wed in
or every one who
free or freed, is to
ler guardians m ae-
our laws, that by
narriage may take
t. xiii. leg. I, Cur/A
iw of the V^isignths
ivisher and vietim
Mcsunie to marry
iaui, vol. iv. p. 93).
othic law required
ndow the won.an.
MARRIAGE
tikcanotherwif. bufl. I u 'l" '"".v' not
foan. Ixviii ) Th k V .• u"''*"!"' ""'"«'> »"'"■■
597, orJe fh.t th K ''•"'« ^""■""-''•'. a.d.
f" the vn r of he ty? T i" ''">' " •^''""»«
him: but if h ^ ."""^ ""'" ^"^y her of
Haddan and Stul ! " i ^ •""™"' ''""•' '"""i-
that tl^marr 'g 7s7 • :■'• P-f»> «'• «^'-' -'•r^
the woman's ftknd. A- ^•TJi''"''°"'''« '^i" "f
:i'ho ravisher, a '• o i ';To .hrT' "' ^"°k "^">
is to do penince tl\ '"""' ""thority.
The coun'cir ° ctl, r' ^'"''' ""'• ™"- ^•^•^)'
-'"noil in Trulo de ftl,' .^■''' *^.'. ""J the
he deposed if a pu""' " **"" « "visher is to
'.\vman (cans. x.Wi f T H 'r'^'""""'^'! '^ «
P' t^M ; torn. iii. ,, ■],^1'^' "!"''*•/"«<••'/• tom. ii.
OHeans,A.D..5n,ord ,lL/'''^'t ^'"""-'i' "f
with the woman o a ch > ,1" " '■''^■'^''"'- ^ho Hies
with power of redemn/: V.l*° ^' '"l"'^ « ^''.ve
MARRIAGE 1103
■;;es all r.vishers (can x ^T ^/^ ".-.anathema,
i he Ctpitula of Herard of T T\ '"• P- ' 866).
the early church ^ '7 H? V' ""''"^ '»
^vannth,Ld.like?he:i1baevTtt T'"" '<""«
answered somewhat diflerea t7„ t m" '^^'- ""^
«nd m different places rVvf ?"""!' """-'«
""thing in Holy ScrJ „;« to ?, 'hi / *'"^''' '^
: '"a'-nages (at least so far as the \L '"""'"''^'■'^
. cerned ; the question of Vk , "^ "''« '^on-
' the clergy has been ^^'""""^ manUgo of
Paul distf/ctly taterthaHft "''^l "'^-•'^)' St.
: P'-'-'ty to the^on 4ct h« '.K '''''**'^»^°"«
again, provided tha the second t". '"7" "'«''7
be . Christian (R„m vU '2'= "f^^^-^'-a."'! "i' wif^
he desires that under sich nl V"" ^^^ ' and
^vidowsshouldrema rni'coT^^^^^ J'-^g
„ The teaching of thl ] ' J""' '"'■ ^■^X
f'-amed on that' of" St. ^L.^^fe ^'""'^h was
ception of the view, nf It ' ' ^"""^ miscon-
owing 'otheird^Va inTt;i;l? "»-'-«.
d'vorce and marria<.o after h!*!,?''''"'^' ''*^'«'-
name of second m-,rrinl» t^ ^^ ">« «ame
Alexandria, in ?he ThiidT ^ i"'.' ^'''""«'" "f
'v-hich is devoted to hit"'^ *'''-'''•<»'"'<'••«,
^Peaks With tpr'baio.rf''::' "' ""'•"■•'=-
hut a eareful elimZ\- °',^'^«on'' marriage:
«» the conclu ion thit ,':?, °^ '^!' '"''"''' '«ad
«arri..ge while the firs h'l''^-^ of a second
"I've (0. xii.); for in the ""^ r '""^^ '^ »"»
same book, he'p hain v dtl ""' "''"'"'"• of the
permissible, adding h^„!!f'''™\^«o«d "larriage
ries a second i"f; ''r^nri''' ""** ''« ^^o maT-
evan,.elical pe " jo' ' tT"^ "^e highest
canon of the c^ounTofNeo^hether the third
demns " those that have ttn "'''''' '"'^'"^ ^on-
"ages," refers to successit T ''''"'^ "'ar-
--■■ages, has been r^loVT trTl'TT
•^nat it ,s aimed at soma e „ ' " ''^e y
"carriage after divorce not™/'^ P^'^g'"''/ or
d^ath (see Brouwer, J^ jll^i """Z''^' """•
his words"!),, ",i . P'"*' anJ almost adonts
-"-it,mirizSi-"^'p'-
Domiiium" (lib ii ;,,'"'"' honoreiii apud
/i!f;-^^o,/i,'toJ'T'pl?f f"4-^l
1 '-'•♦, where see note) rL'k ' ■'^ni'^teidam,
t"tions (c. ii.) p'iit ^r'"''^'"' ''o"-^ti-
P.-vo third .narr'^^IgT andTrK'?"?'"^'^''' '■«"
r-age. " Kor you ought to tn'l""''"' "'ar-
'Harrying accoj^din^tfthe law "^ "■•■^v"'"' o"^-"
h«.ing according to the will '7 '^'■'ghte„us, as
■narrii.gesaftefthcn, "f God ; but second
-■^•'<;-'" not ';„' tlZZtl m"""""""^ »-
but because of the falsehood 'Iv'T''^" "''"'•
a.e.r.dicationsof incon fnen "y V. ""T''"'""
™ges as are beyond the thir .""''' """-
fornication and unguestinnthi ,"'" '"anifest
God gave one wom m „ '''"''"°""^''' '•'"'
tion; for they Two 111 h-"' """ '" ""' "<^'-
the younger women ,e'»e''°'i"''-'''' ^"' ">
allowed after the death of Th i"""''""^' ^
lest they fall ;„»„ .hf - ' ^''*' husband,
and many sn^-t: and fn rTf '"" "'' '^^ devi
•""■'ful t'o sou" ana S,-"' "'"' "''
punishment rath;r thar pe„ee " ^h"'"" '^""^
(Jrigen eoes so fi.,. „ * peace (iib. ,„ ^ ..^
an/fou.rma„L:: Ll2/f "' ''^;;'""^' "'"^.
;f heaven, but he%ro«ed/to i;:;,,''''' '^'^•"»
the kingdom of heaven h! P'"'" ""at by
"which hath neither soot „ ■*'"" '^"''^
such thing," th ,t i T ?"'■ ""■'■''''<' nor any
feet Chrisf,'ans''"H':;, ; '°-f '« '""'>• of per^
'•,'«d are in a state of Jl ^'" "j" '"''•■o -nar-
'hey will not recete a cmrn r''^"' '''" *'■■"
hands (//^;„.^^,i.«o' own at their Master's
and elsewhere he savs th;;* ^^ *•""• "'• P- 953),
Hes twice will no^ f' V' * r"""' ^^ho ma,.:
enjoy less beat tSde (ffl '''^■'''''!"'' ^ut will
P- 267). Tertullian i.u "'^^ '" ''"■<'"'■, '*.
he was, yet allows that erndt '""""g""--'' ««
an obstacle to saintlinesfn * "''■'■^'^ '^ "nly
(«'' t'^»r. lib.?ca" 7\ M°,'"*'''^"o'awful
work on the Faith deol^vo ''"'sentius, in his
marriage permis ble (rfi^L"''^"'"', '">'' 'bird
48+, Ants. 1J74N Hii .' "• ^"'•> ^''P- P.
f'- Paul in t aeinS[ °^ ^f '"'^ ^"L,^
lawful (7>.^^. ,■„ pit 1""""'^ ;:•••"•'■'■''?« '^
Paris, 169,>J). Cyril ^fr '''V ' '^^^^ P' l^-^-'
second marriage a th «»• tn 7 "' T P'""ouncc8
(falsely) attributed to Am,,!, i k-^*"^ *^''''"oii
permissible in case th»l P^''"'''""-' holds it
first marriage (o'a?l r '""''"'''•^'' ''^ 'he
Pv32, Paris, foAnopeGr-'"'? f '"'""'• ^P-
missible in laymen .l,P ^a^'us declares it per-
clergy (Ep/st'TL''':^ nTf^"''' '"'•>«
P' aiJS). Epiphanf'^ r^ ; ^ '^- '^""^^ tom. ii.
f 7. TheodlTK^rrCor-'''^-'"'"- '• p-
Ambrose (<fe Viduis,'. "i ^0?, ■ '"'• ^^>' «'•
St. Augustine (</« ion^ F« T '?'">,"• P- ^03,
P- «5), St. JePome (Xfi^ix;^'- z'^f; ''^'"- ^•
Op. torn. ii. pars 2, p filr.Ln ' *' •'^""''^^//•"n,
ner in favour of thp Y' P™nounce in like mani
P'-opriety of a s cond m' '^ """^ "S^'n^t the
general ^sentiment of t" eaT ?'\"''' ">«
severer x ;„w wa.f ban! 1. ^ / '^ ehurch. The
''«■•« of the church S h '"" ''''^''^ ">'' "o^-
mark of Montanists and W " '^'^""^^'^^
* ^°"*/«".. ', passim Thf 1 ' ■?• ''"•' »"<!
(-■viil.)delibLte,yJdtreS-^/^^^;-a
110-t
MAItlUAGE
li
iii
view by iv,|i,iii,m' that none >,houIJ n,.f,ise to
""''} ' tii'iniiMi witii Digamists.
Svua.i niiiiiiagt.s wiTe (iisn.iintfnanceil l,v
the ini|M.Mti,.ri ,.{ n jwDanoe, but how s , thj;
pnictic,. ai'i.M. is iiia'.sti,.ned. Some think that
Ihoy (,u.| ,t euj.iiu«i in the canons of the oooncil
of Uo.lKTit, A.i). :)<)(i,the first of tthich rules
that "in aceonlance with the eeclesiastical
cani.n, those who luive been married a second
time in a free and lawful way, and have not
tal,.-u tlieir wive. i„ a clandestine manner, arc to
be allowed communion (« tenia dari coni-
nm„.„„;n) after a little time has passed, and
they have h,ol a period for prayer and fakins
{onitiuni'jiis tt jfjuniis vacaverint)." The last ex-
presMon has been not unfrequenfly understood,
and It >s understood by llefele (Hist, of Councils,
t>k. vi), to refer to an ecclesiastical penance that
the married coujile had to undergo for their
olfence m marrying a second time: but it
niay only mean that a space was to intervene
Mler marnaj^'e, which was to be devoted by
them to prayer and fasting before thev
ollerej thi'inselves at the Lord's table. The
eccle.Masti.al canon " referred to in the Laodicean
canon is not one that restrains second mar-
riages, but, no doubt, the eighth canon of
the council of Mcaea, which is in favour of
them; and the jiractice of setting apart a
time for prayer and fasting before commu-
nicafm,!; after marriage, whether regarded as
a penitential dis,ii)line or not, was looked upon
as a proper act of reverence, whether the niarriaze '
was the first or the second. (See Herard's
Capitula, tap. Ix.x.xix., Hard. Concil. torn. v. p
400 Comjiare also the so-called fourth council
et Carthage, can. xiii., Hefele, bk. viii.; and
Iheodore s I'enitenti.il, lib. ii. cap. xn. S8 1 2 1
By the end of the 7th centur/this period o{
prayer and lasting was distinctly regarded as a
time of penance, but it was a penance imposed
upon those who contracted a tirst marriage, as
much as upon those who entered on a second
marriage, the only ditlerence being that a longer
period was ass^igned in the latter case than in
the former. Theodore of Canterbury orders
that in a first marriage the husband and wife
are to relrain from church for thirty days, and
then to do penance for fortv days, and give
themselves to prayer, before communicating,
while a man who makes a second marriage is to
do penance tor a year on Wednesdavs and
Fridays, and to abstain from flesh meat fb'r three
J.ents. J his IS a plain instance of penance beinc'
required tor >eco.id marriage, but it is equally
plain that the ol fence for which penance has
to be done is rather that of marrying than of
rearryiui; a second time (Penitential, lib. i.
c. :xl^.^§ 1, •!). Xo doubt, however, from verv
early times a difference was made not only in
respect to the honour paid to first and second
marriages, but also in the ceremonies with which
they were performed. The Council of Neo-
cacsarea, A.D. ;iU, forbids presbyters to be pre-
sent at the fes.inties of a second marriage, and
the ceremonies of crowning the bride and bride-
groom and givingthe benediction were commonly
though not universally, omitted. 'O tiyauo, ll
CT.,pavovTa, became a familiar Greek saying.
St Ba.s,l r.ppak-s ot a penalty due to digamy as
already a well-known custom in the year 375,
The early Roman discipline is probably ei-
MAnnr.AGE
hil.lted to us in the commentary attributed to
M.Vm, rose, supposed to have been written by
Hilary the Deacon. " First marriages are ,.„dlv
second marnages are permitted, first inairlag^.s'
are solemn y ..debrated under the bene licio.fof
".';,' ';;■""/ '•'"'•'■'".'?r-^ «■•'■ M ,cit/m,l /..nuur,
< « „t t/ie tone oj cckhratwn, but- they are
allowed on account of incoatinencv " icin in
Cor. vii. 40, r/;,.,om. li. p. Uiii). Se al o
•urandus, R,tJonale Dir. o/c. i. i/ l,-,, ,";,,"' ,°
.'8, \en,..e ,,77 j and theotlice for the mar ia,ie
< Digamists in Goar's K,u:Mo<)iu,n, p. 4ol
arch of Constantinople, in the year 8U, (Ixcs
two years .js the period for suspension tvi „
communion for a second marriage (Hard. CW
torn. IV. p. 1U52), ^oiitit.
St IJasil-s canons forbid third marriages, but
did not require the separation of the parties
married. Theo.lore of Cai'iterbury, A.„. (!87 i m-
po.se., a penance of seven years, on Wednesdays
and hr,day.s, with abstinenc4 from Hesh m^.t f"
more than three marriages, but pronounces the
marriages ui id (/V.rtc,.<,„/, lib. i. c. xiy. § n
iMcephorusot Constantinople, a.d. 814, suspends
trigamists fi,r five years (Hard. Concil. to „ iv
p. liMJ). Herard of Tours, a.d. 858, .leclarei
any greater number of wives than two to be
unLawful (cap. cvi.. .'W. torn. v. p. 457). Leo
he Wise, emperor of Constantinople, was allowed
to marry hree wives without public remon-
strance, but was suspended from commu i by
the patriarch ^Icholas when he married a lou, th
Ihis led to a council being held at Constanti-
nople a.d. 920 which finally settled the (i •" k
d scipline on the subject of third and fourth
marriages. It ruled that the penalty for a
fourth marriage was to be excommunication and
exclusion from the church ; for a third marriage
It a man were forty years old, suspension for live
year.s, and admission to communion thereafter
only on tas-ter day. If he were thirty years old
suspension for four years, and admission to com-
munion hereafter only three times a year.
A widow might not marry again till the
expira ion of the old Romulean ten-month year
from the time of her husband's death. Hy
Iheodosius this term was extended to twelve
months (C«/. T/wai. lib. iii. tit. viii. leg. 1)
II. MARFtiAQE Ckrkmo.nies. The mariia-e
rite was divide.l into two parts, the betrothal
and the nuptials, each of which had i>s own
peculiar ceremonies attached to it. The betrothal
was a legal contract, entered into between a mac
and a woman, binding them to marry within a
given time, which time came to be fixed at twc
years, the nuptials were a further contract,
whereby each gave to the other certain rights
over himself or herself, and received in turn the
gift ot certain rights over the other. Betrothal
could be omitted without absolutely and in all
cases invalidating the marriage, but when formal
betrothal had taken place, nuptials could not be
declined by either party without incurring both
Ignominy and punishment. The council of Elvira
condemned parents who break their promise given
at espousals to excommunication for three years
fotT T 7"- '7;^ '• ^^^ *•"""'» ^^'^^^ her
ti oth, Theodore of Canterbury's PenitentU./ con-
demns her to restore the money which the
man had given for her, and to add to it one-
4
r.\GE
iincntary atlrilnitod to
liavc liecti writtiMi liy
-t inarriiijfcs iirc >,'"(ll_v,
litled . tint iimiriaj;['s
ii'Icr the lii'iii" li(Mi(.ii of
■I' /e/t icit/iuut /wiiuiir,
liratiun, but- thi'y nie
ci.ntiuencv " (Cm. in
li. p. l.iS). Sto nlso
'iffio. i. ix. 1,"), Op. p.
otlke fur the ii],iiriiii;e
Kitcholuijvim, J). 401,
it Nicejihorus, |mtri.
1 the year 814, fixes
for suspensicjii |Vii„j
aiiiage (Hard. Cvncil.
third marriages, hut
ration of the |.arties
erhury, a.!>. (i87, iiii-
(■ears, on Wednesdays
e from Hesh meat li.r
or any who eontraet
p but pronminces the
i/, lib. i. c. xiv. § ,i).
e, A.D. 814, suspeuds
flard. Cimcil. ti.ni. iv.
s, A.D. tjj8, declares
ves than two to be
'in. V. p. 457). Leo
Uinople, was all. .wed
lout public renion-
frum t'oniniunion by
he married a fourth,
held at Constanti-
ly settled the (ireek
f third and fourth
the penalty for a
:commuuication and
or a third marriage,
, suspension fcjr (ive
imunion thereafter
re thirty years old,
I admission to corn-
times a year,
•ly again till the
an ten-month year
land's death. By
itended to twelve
it. viii. leg. I).
S. The marriage
irts, the betrothal
hich had iis own
)it. The betrothal
Qto between a man
10 marry withiu a
be fixed at twc
further contract,
her certain rights
ceived in turn the
other. Betrothal
iolutely and in all
, but when formal
tials could not he
lit incurring b.dh
e council of Elvira
leir promise given
n for three years
r'oman breaks her
s Penitential can-
oney which the
■0 add to it one-
MAIJRLVGE
third ; if the man refuses, he is to lose the moncv
that he had |Mid. A betrothed wom.an luav tro
into a mouasioiy instead of marryiug, but' her
paienis may u„t give hov ',o another man unless
6lie M,ws an utter repusnance to the jn-oposed
matcii (lih. II. c xii. §§ ;)a, 34). '^
A. lictruthut ceremuniea. We are fortunate in
fiaving hoth a definition of betrothal and a
description of the ce, .monies which accompany
It giv.u us hy pope Nichola.^! in his Keplies to
the bulgar.ans who had asked his counsel, A.D.
81.U. • Betrothal," he snyn, " is the promise of
future naptials made by the consent of the
c^m.ractiug parties and of their guardians;" and
h exp anis that the bet:othed proceed to' thei
has''b',- H 7T """"'''= "™« "a'-tertheman
h» bet, of hod the woman to himself with arrhae
and "h ;,'"*'' I ■' I'^'^r, "'"■ « »»g <"' fidelity.
' hfs covtn nt l"".' '" " *""'" '■"''" «"«taining
sides'' r.''" '"'r''''°* '"^""'1 "" l-""'
Bides 1 MS passage embodies an account of the
t aditional piactice which had existed for cen u-
ries previous to the date of Nicholas for h.
t^'^T' \'''"^\" relating to the Bui!
^:::rhar';e:;;x::^'i^'7v?:'l^/--
.ur t ini;;;:ia;^-,t-:ti'!^:,-
1, «";<<. ; 2, a ring ; y, a dowry ; 4, witnesses
*• 1. 1 he most essential of these ceremonies was
supposed by some to have been originallv eiven
the tiir: " ""=''7-b'"-''l purchlse-m-on'ey of
^033 ^^hv""'"'"''"? '" 'he Jewish rite termed
«1D33 ( by money "), recalling in a sort both
the Koman co..„i/,/.b, and the barbaric practice
of purchasing wives. But it is probablf that
Tofr ""'"■" ",:'•" " ■•''=''6'' «"^'' a» was given
n other cases where bargains were struck S
could n. . be immediately carried out. It served
to assure he woman that she should herc^after
Bhare her husband's worldly goods, o{ M hi
coin given at espousals Was an earnest and it
was evidence which might be exhibited 1,; th
ot^m^ 'r^%;" ""'' of a breach of prL.se
we,^ V T' ?u *f '■*'"' 'hat Andarchius
went to law with the daughter of Ursus
a leging as proof of his espous.al with her tht'
Tour;^Hf'r'" ''?k'"' '"■'■^"- (See Gregory of
according to the custom of the Frank5'
MAnniAOE
110,';
coin befon ,,13 act t,.,l • ,
ring was blessed by „ .,„,.i.,l ""' "'«
f'-ne dowry is next mentioned. Amon? thp
.y ine uiatue^ of the woman (s-e l>lauti.«
J rinummus, act v)- with tl,„ ti 1. ■ """Us,
the Germans-see Tacittt I ",t''7'^'''' "''^
norum, c. xviii.) the d^w "\ * p(ri''n-t he '"'""•
(Gen. xxxiv 1 9 • 1 « ^ w, s paid in the man
Bionali;thrfathe'ri;aveTd,:^rvrV: '^ T"'
(Ju.lgJs i. XV ) The H^K ^ '" '"' '■''"ghter
?H.T3; l^:'!! S'^rS^i'^''•^^'^'"^^'•
a.good' wife loots uion' he tw;r; 71 ''"'"
would ..ive such ind "V "'"'''"' ""at he
to the"origina d."wrv Th;""' T ""^"''•''"'°
woman bi/ught ^L a ■ iS J^'f ">«
and such a sum. . . We have J»ni 1 !u- " """"^
1106
MAimiAGE
I "i
■,'l
m
niiUfl" (ScMen, i'x.;r Khnihn, ii. m Op
t"iii. iv. p. |J1!(). In the Christian t„hul,w v'.i-
tnmuni ,/,•«, th.) end (br whidi nian-im'c was
lriMitiit..,i was al.v) insurt,',! : "nam id Tnhnlae
iu.li(,aut ul>j sci-ibitnr, 'Mhrniriini prncivanddnini
caiisii'" says St. Aiij;iiHtine(.V,vw. ii., Dp, Um. v.
p. »H, 0.1. Mi^ne); and a^jain, '• licoifantiir ti,hiil«H,
et ri'iitiiiitiir in cdnsi.octu omnium attestantiiim,
et recitatiir, • Lihi'ioniin jiioeruan.h)rum eaii-.i"'
(.Vv/n. Ii., :t,IJ. ,,. ;i4,5) ; si.p also hi., Enarr. in I's.
Ix.v.vi. ((If), toni. IV. p. 1II4J).
4. Witnesses weio rcinired to be present
befi.ro whiim, a.s we have seen, the marriiKe
settloniont.s were t„ be read apd hnn.led ov.m-
Jhi-y were to he frien Is of both parties, and
thou- presenoe wa.s required not only to prevent
Irand in the matter of the dowry, but also to give
n piihlio character to the transaetion, that there
niiijht ho a proof heforo the world of the consent
ot both jMrties to the contract. One of them
acted a.s best man to the bridegroom (amicus
iiiten..r, conscius sccreti cubieulari.s, St. Aue
.?<-'•«. ocxciii, (ij,. torn. V. p. 1331>) and one as
briilosmaid, and, in case of the mother's death
as teniponiry guardian to the bride. It would'
appear pr.d,able from .-. pa.ssage in St. Ambro.se
('<(• l,i/,su I (;-,/iHis, c. v., (If. torn. ii. p. 310)
that the re.iui.site number of witnesses was ten
(CI. liiith iv. L', where the number of witnesses
called by Boaz is ten).
.\ Some minor ceremonies, which were leas
esseuti.-il to the rite, have al.so been handeil down
One ot these was ., /.i-s, which might or might not
lie .i^ivon, but which, if given, was considered to
bind the betrothed more clo,sely to each other, s"
that, in ca.se of the man's death, half of his
betrothal gifts were delivered to his betrothed ;
whereas it there h.id been no kiss, they were all
returned to his relations (Cod. Theo'd. lib iii
tlt.o, leg. .'■>; Coil. Justin, lib. v. tit. 3, leg. l(i).
0. .Another ceremony of similar nature wa.s
that i,fj„inin;i /t,inds, which is mentioned toirethcr
with that of the kiss by Tortullian : "Corp'ore et
spiritu musculo mixta sunt per osculum et dex-
teras, jier quae primum resignarunt pudorem
spiritus ' ((/,; Vir,/. Veland. c. xi.. Op. p. 179).
7. In the time of Tortullian, the veil was
assumed by the woman at the betrothal and
worn thenceforward, but the custom was not
universal (Kebeccam quidim adhuc velant) and
in later times, like the oHering of the ring was
transterred to the nuptials (Tertull. i'>id.).
8. .Siricius in the 4th century sjicaks, in an
ppi-stle which (rightly or wrongly) is regarded
as genuine, of a benediction of "the priest at
betrothal, of so solemn a nature as to make it
sacrilege in the betrothed woman to marry nn-
other man (Siric. Epist. ad Ilimcr. § 4, Hard
Cone,/, torn. i. p. 848). The betrothal benediction,
however (it it existed), must not be confounded
with that which was given at the nuptials.
H. Suptiid ceremonies. Pope Nicholas iiro-
ceeds, in the Reply above quoted, to enumerate
the nupti.d ceremonies which were in use in his
day with the same minuteness with which he
described the betrothal ceremonies. He writes:
"First of all they are placed in the church with
oblations, which they have to make to God by the
hands of the priest, and so at last thev rcveive
the bene liction and the heavenly veil. ' "Hp v! I3 :
"After this, when they have 'gone out of the
church they we:\r crowns on their heads, a supply
MAIIRIAGB
of which it Is usual to keep always in the church "
(,\ie. /.'rsjwns. uhi supri).
The first thing that forces Itself upon our
noti.e on reading the above passage Is that in
pope .NRhohLs time, and for such pivvious limes
as the ceremonies .lescrib,.,! by |,i,„ |,ad .'xlstod
marriage was regarded as a loligiou, rile; beine
( Dperturmed in a churcii, ('J) accompanied by
ollerngs and oblations made to God by the
married persons through a priest, (.1) fbllowo.l by
the solemn beueliction „f the church, to.rother
with (4) other ceremonies of an closiasticel
character: and this was the aspect in which
marriage was viewed from the tiimis of Ter-
tull lan, as is proved by the following i.assage:
How shall I state the blessedness of a tiiarriage
which the church brings about, ^in.l the .ddation
conhrms, and the benediction seals, angels attest
and the Father rati/ies " («</ [fxor. lib. ii.c.8.'
''' . ! K , . """'''■" T-'Hiillian, as is pointed
«.. by Gothofred (ChI. T.eal. lib. iii. tit. 7, leg
3, tom. 1 p 280), contrasts the marriage cere-
nrionies of the Chri.sti .a church, A.r>. L'oo, with
the ceremonies used by heathens on the same
"ocasion. Among heathens, marriages were
brought about by .ersons called amrl/intores.
In the case of Christian.s, the place of the con-
ahatores is taken by the church, that is, by the
Officers of the church, namely, the bishops,
priests deacons, and widows (see the passage of
lertullian referred to just below), the heathens'
offering o{ .irrhae is rej.laced by the oblation of
prayers and alms offered through the priest ••
tor the sealing of the marriage settlements is
substituted the seal of the church's bene.liction •
the testimony of angels stands in the place of
the testimony of human witnesses ; and ratifi-
catKm by a heavenly Father takes the place of
the expressed consent of parents. Tertullian'*
rhetorical description does not of course imply
that the old ceremonies were abolished, but it
does imply that an ecclesiastical character was
given to them, and that they were carried out
under the control, and by the hands, of ministers
of the church, tlsewhere Tertullian states that
Christian marriages had to be announced to the
church, and were allowed, or disallowed, by
bishojis, priests, deacons, and widow.? (de PudU
citiii, c. IV. ; de Monocjam. c. xi., Op. p. 531)
One object of this regulation may have been to
prevent ignorant members of the flock from ;rans-
gre.»sing various laws of the state with which they
might be unacquainted; but this was not its only
purpose; the church, that is, the bishops,
priest.s, deacons, and widows, would thus become
the co/ici/ia<ores of a Christian's marriage, accord-
ing to ;'ie idea employed in the previously
quoted passage. St. Ignatius, in like manner,
says that people who marry ought to be united
with the cognizance and approval of the bishop-
^»Ta yfd>nris toC 'EmarKiirou (St. Ignat. Epist.
ad Polycarp. c. v.). St. Ambrose says that mar-
It IS surprising to find Dr. DUIllnger apparently
translating A'ccfcj.: conciliat. amfirmai ablatio by "The
marriage was concluded by tlie bisliop, or presbyter
uniting the betrothed, and confirmed by offering of the
Holy Siicriflce " (Hippolytiu and CallMut, c. iii. p. 1B8,
fciig. tr.). It Is impossible to believe that this is the
mnuiing of cminrmat ohlatin (n this pa.sf!ago ; nor does
eccleiia conciliat seem to refer to the actual marriage.
servKo, but rather to the first steps taken in the matter
Defore the church offlcen.
AGE
Blwnyi lo the charch "
orcei Itself upon oiir
ivo |i;i.ss,it;o i.s tliiit in
ir siicli prcvidiis times
il l)V liim Imil I'x.'ited,
I rcliijiiMis rill'; hoing
ii ('i) iKuonrjiiinicd by
indu 1(1 (iiiil ny the
|>l'iH>t, (.1) tollr.W.Ml hy
the clitii'Lh, tiijrether
of «n iM( lesi.'istlciil
the iispect in which
ri the times of Ter-
e f(p|Iowini; jmsHiiRp:
wliiess (if a iiiiiiTiago
"lit, nnd the (ihliitioQ
n seals, anijels attest,
Ml (Ixi>r. jil,. ii. e, 8^
rtiilllan, as is f.iiintcd
"/. Iil>. iii. tit. 7, leg.
the marriage eere-
irch, A.D. '_>0(l, with
ithens (in the same
IS, maniages were
called eanri/iiitures.
le iilaeo (if the con-
irch, that is, hv the
niely, the bishops,
(see the passage of
Ldow), the heatliens'
by the oblation of
rough the priest;'
iagp settlements is
urch's benediotion J
nds in the jdaee of
nesses ; and ratifi-
takes the place of
•ents. Tertullian'e
lot of fiourse imply
5 abolished, but it
ical charaeter was
' were carried out
hands, of ministers
tullian states that
I announced to the
or disallowed, by
widow.? ((fc Pudi'
xi., Op. p. 531).
may have been to
e flock from .rans-
e with which they
is was not its only
is, the bishops,
■ould thus become
marriage, accord-
1 the previously
in like manner,
ught to be united
■al of the bishop:
(St. Ignat. Hpist.
se says that ninr-
iilllngfr apparently
nat oblalio by " The
Ishop, or presbyter
d by offering of tlie
IMiu, c. iii. p. 168,
ve that this Is the
passage ; niir .-toes
he actual marriage-
taken in the matter
MARRUOE
riasfe ha, t., be sanclilied by benediction (Knhf
J'*;,^;^,, ;■"'•,"; I'- "-^^^M'-'egory s.LL';,
«ntes th t at the marriai;,, „f ..,he ,,..lden
<'l.vrnp,„s- there was a number of bisi '/;
in llo.ly, w/ls iM-eserif, n u,i 1 t,.l,i„ 1 • .,
MARHIAOB
1107
ft h„,|., w,is present in will, taking part in lh(
^-*nay, an .joining the young ..mVle's ,,n
) \] ' '■;. ''/'•, torn. I. p. hi:., col. Kil.d), The
-•cal,.d,onrthc.,un,il of Carthage (can,, i
" thi' <.th century speaks plainly of priestly
"■n«d,ct,(,n being received l.y the bride and
^'"H" Olmd. C..c.,y. torn i. 1. f! i sv
ne„us ,„es the cpression, "Tiie holv t „d ,f
iheophdns gave me my wife ■•(/.^„,„.'-„„' '
whii^'c^H"," ■■"■■'""""'''« ''""'" Hmt the place in
"t',';^::;n'':, "??"''*''"''■■'!>• '"'•'•'•'«''--'
^^Mhe;;;;:;;:erin'.!;;:;;;;:;t.':l''""'""''''>'
F-es. and that the way , whi h";".'"" ■""'"
could in,! '"."',, '•'1.""'y true that marri,ii;es
i-oiiid, anil, especial V n thr K.w* „c. ii . ,
e«»once of „,arri«ge. The 1 ' ''-;""">!. .'^e
condeumed as adultery (i)" Zi'fr-'^ '".'"'«
^-r,,f,,giy, a ,,.,, „/Tit::,,^i:f, t^„:;■ :; •
?rn.:--c-:n:tii:t;S^
ri.s Here ofeijual station (see above -.ndei- tK„
h-.| ."g Con,mo), (■>) the/ hroko no .;p c , ,
heh w^r^
th^ ea,lj c.l,^^rchj^tJsM^p..esent with our-
-■"trI"'e,fr?.^^Siy' ^r^''-^^^^^^^^^^^^,^:^^
vi. 4). ■^ '^ "" """"^ ('" ■•"i'O".. et Mat,:
"A contract of eternal bond of love
The essence of the marriage was^^"/'*"' "■ '•
was necessary (strictly »pefklnr/™T ""^ "" """
priest was bis testimony to their. ^' """^ "' ""^
fully made and decla"d "^'^ '"'*'"K '«"■"
" Apulelns Introduces Venus dervln^ ii f r.
Cnpws wife, on the ground th!t"Jl '^^■>''"' '"
praeterea In villi ..«« (SL efn„, ^"' ""P''"'- "«
l"Kitlm„e non possunt Xl" r,l'Z"'^ ^"ns.ntiaUe
p. 104.) "• ("* ^>*no aureo, lib. vi.
■JilBlST. ANT—VOUn.
''"'"■XiMTb::;"tt:;r"''^''''^"-'-'K<'j
"""•'■iage wLre „ ' ", 'h '"""■"•■''"^ ^"'l- «
1,1.. , • "r "ing theinse ves of the ,1 i-
tdiN.iiuj „„ ,) ,j I rn( (burcln
<i''Nlly »nd only as^ ;. "'" '"'"' "'"'»-
«i-^ than by th. l!r"r'^' ""'l'''"?" """-'■-
'< 'i""ninfhe Ves' h'".''' "": ''""•^■'^
fhcd'reat All sdii I I ' • "I <'liiirlcs
' '•'" i'Mi'i:^
("••'•"■■» enacted !bat al '„^vlJ '"" """"
'-■■'"■npt snch as were p. rk,' ./'''' "':''" '"^''''J
""■re is nosign or '"'>■•■' '"?'■"*•
'■"K"ded „s a JZZtT,^ '."■"■'''■'^"' '""'"S
that word, in ,.„/!,",;'" "','; ^."•"•''•'- sense of
the time of .St A mr ' ' "" '•'■.«'"'l'"l iH
i« a mistake „ri;f,"';' ^f"' '•'"• '"'^ 'his
A..g..stine make o'th ".,''':. "'" "'''''> «'■
"•hich he uses fiv.i, e ,tlv il "'"■'■■":"•"•">"."
'-'/"Vnge, but now r n h."r"l "" "'"'
'" t'>« word sacrament. Cah '^ T""\^T-'
was not regarded ■.» ,. "■"""> "'i^'s that it
titne(,fG4 ' V^^^^^^^^
not say hatl^ t "„ 'T ""' •^^' >' '"" '"' ''"'^
■■■hop^io(Ywh:v^"S:",':,''"-r»;-'''-i.
t:^-n,,t,;uiwithi,:t'twt!r(:;';:;r /•'''''
assign.,.dt..thisdicti„narv liin. • • '""*
t» father it "Jion TMiulii's';"" ^ ■"''■'"'"'
St.arysostom,'an.i;i ere IvwHt;:'""'""'
manifest y futile ,is »„ . • ^ wi iters, are so
' "^'>-" "ami ersti's hail ti. S ■> n
The constituent parts of the ,r , i ^ " ^ ^' •
II """"-■'' by pope Nich,das in h „ h" ^"'T\
above, are I Th., .11 .■ ^ Pa^^''^' 'inotei
ti-n/a Th^ J, ;'''4 7h; ."•'■''• ''™«^'-
1 Thi'iiu.f ■' .■ '""'Clowning.
whi;.h: tST.r":'^""' ""•.'"'>• ■" i'"yers,
""'"oy The olfeW J^ a,^';"nipa„ied by a gift of
''"'■tory por ion fhe " ^""''"'^ ""' '»"•'>•
■•<"me sort , th t ™™'""">-' answering in
which in 0, (1, ' f-''"'"L'''''','''''"'^-.-"in«s
".atrimony;!:c:nnj';;cip;'""^^rr."f
P.;;^..eed by the odiciatin^'';^ ;;:nSf
t-the'^^vf^'"^:;;--^™ not ""^nown
necessarily by a priest b 1? . T .u , ''^"'''''' no*
or relative presen*^^ The f 1^' *"-' ''''"^^^* '"''•^'xl
created all thines for TK„ <™J. » l>o hast
Thou, Lord 0*^,; Ood t^h ^ '"' ^'•^^^^'^'' f"
The barren shaire^c'o^Vcry'V''- '"'■''' '
she gathers her children with • V , "^ ^"^ "'
bo«m,. Blessed art Thou who'Tiln^V'" '"
«jo,ce in her children I Make hi 7 *"
rejoice with joy nccor<^in^ 7 .1 .''""'''" '"
which thou gayest to fhe^ ," ''n; J"r"»«nes.,
the garden o^]^ „ „ f^o.d "'' V"Y ''■"'^''' '"
who makest the bride and 1 > '"^ "' ^'"'«
.ioicel Blessed art Th„.? k ''i.^''^'"™'" »" re,
the bridegroom nd bride ? '"'■^'7-^'«J for
exultation; singine cheew i"' ^ """^ gladness,
brotherly U^Z:^:^ZL^I\ ^^
judae"atd"^?n^Lt^etSr ^'^''^^^^^^^^^^^^
of mirth and iVn^t h"' ti^ ^h^Vr
groom and bride the voinl Tl^ , *'"' """'de-
-^^Hde.n.ut:;/'s^»:^:,^^^^-n.s
71
1108
MARRIAOB
:1t
li'T. ;iii.| Ihn y(iun({ inunV tnstive aniiK f D1»iii<i><1
ait Thi.ii who iiiiikiirt the; (d-iilcgr n to r.Mi.i.i.'
with the Ijii.lo" (Sul.li.n, Uxor Hi,r,u,;t ii.' l>.
Op. toiii. iv. |,, OJ,')). Th.) particulsr f.pim nf ihJ
Christ i;iii hcnwlictlon, which liJlHirn fniin the
Jewi-ch liy hi'iuK ii l)li'.ii(ln({ uti the iu'wly iniirnc.l
jMiir instiMiil (if II thiiiik.s^lviii({ u, <),„"|, ^^.„< „t
i I !''»' pii'l'iilily left t(i thii (illiciHtinjj niinistm-, but
it wiiiiM si.dn Imvc becoino Ht«r«(itv|i«.| in Ihu
rituiiis (if tho «cvoral <hiirchen. Thu folhiwiiin
\* n fdim .111 which it will be Heun that the (inal
bcnccjlrtidii In the .sdliiinniiatidii of miitriiiKinv
in the KiiKlish .•hurch is fnitned ;—'• t) (i,„i,
who l,y Thy Mii>rhty ,,„w,.i- hiust made all things
nl nothin;,'. who, aftur olhi^r thini{» set in ordiT,
ili'lst a|i|inint that out of rnan (creat.>il after
Thine own iinaife and Bimilitude) woman should
take her bl•^'ill^in^{, teachmK that it nhould
ba never lawful to put a.sun.|er those whom
Thou hii>t |il(fa.ed should be created out of (,nu ;
Ood, who hast consecrated the state of matri-
mony to sueh an excellent mystery that in it
Thou (lid>t typify the Sacrament of Christ and
the Church ; i) (iod by whom woman is Join(.'d to
man, ; nd so Idessed a union was instituted at
the liet;iiiiiin){ as not to be destroyed eveu by the
judi;iiient of the Hood ; look mercifully upon
this Thy servant now to be joined in wedlock,
who seeks to be defended by Thy iiroteetiun.
May there be on her the yoke of love and
pence! Jlay she be a faithful and chaste wife
in Christ, and may she continue a follower
ot holy women! May she be loveable to her
husband as Uaohel, wise as Kebecea, loDK-lived
and faithful as Sarah I May the author of
wickedness gain no advantage against her from
her nets ! May she continue in the faith and
commandments, constant to one husband ! Slav
she avoid all unlawful deeds. May she strengthen
her weakness by the help of discipline! jMny
she be modest, grave, bashful, and instructed in
God by learning 1 May she be fruitful in child-
bearing! May she be approved and innocent,
and may she attain to the rest of the blessed,
and to the heavenly kingdom! And may she
see her s(jns' sons to the third and fourth gene-
ration, and may she reach the rest of the blessed
and the kingdom of heaven, through," etc.
(Marteue, de Antuiuis Ecclesiae ritib's I. ix. .i,
Orih in. ex MS. I'ontificuli Afomateri! Li/retisis).
3. The practice of t^iVmy is mentioned by
Tertulliau (do i'eland. Viryin. c. xi.) aud by
St. Aiulirose (Kpist. xix. 7, Op. torn. ii. p. 8+4)'-
the former of whom speaks of it as a praise-
worthy heathen custom commonly used in the
ceremony of betrothal, after which (in Tertul-
liiin's djiys) the cU'sponsata wore the veil habitu-
ally. The heathen veil, called Jlamntcuiit, was of
a yellow colour. The colour adopted by Chris-
tians was purple and white, though the name
fiiimmeim was still sometimes u.sed (St. Ambr
de Vin/m. c. xv. ; de tiist. Virg. c. xvii.). It
i» probalile, as St. Ambross has observed Ok
Abmh. 1. ix. 93), that the word nuptials is
derived from the word obnubcre, which means
to veil. In the earliest times the veil was part
of the married or espoused woman's dress akin
in form and purpose to the Eastern //asAmat.
Hut after the Krst few centuries it ceased to be
worn by them, and the veiiiau cjimr t.~. ):,^
symbolical act, making part of the niarriage
ceremony, and gymbolising the woman's for-
MAUUIAOB
' «akinK all others an.l keeping her ch:irm« for h»r
husiwnd aloun, and also her being submissive to
hiiii. •• Ideo vidaiitiir iit iioverliit se semper viri«
I »uis subditas esse "(Diirand., /,'((<. /(,V. f/jf. ||b. i.
c. ix. II). In the \V,-it the word rrl.iti,, eiime to
signily the wh(de iiinrri.ii;e ceremony, and it
beciime customary to lay tlie veil „„ |,;,th bride
, and bridegroom at the time of the henodiction
(.Martcne, do Ant. /-.'nl. J, i,.).
4. necnmmni was nl riginally a heathen
custom (Kuripides, fph;,,;,.., in Aii/i./r, 1. (ti,,--,),
and was therefore at Hr<t disallowed by Chris-
tians (see .lustin, yl;«,/. c i,, ; TertiiU. ".lp„/„,/.
I. 4.), but was soon permitted m the Kast
(■•(.■e Clement of Alexanlria, /'.ird t,/,, i. ii 8
tor ft discussion on the lawfulness ,if the use'
ol crowns). The same custom prevailed
aniong the Jews. The crowns were made of
g<dd, silver, olive, myrtle, or (lowers; their
use in the city of .(erusalem was forbidden
iluring the lioman siege, ns being too great
a sign of joy for such sad times. This shew,
that they were regarde.l as a symbol of re-
.louing by the .lews; nnd as such probablr
they were adopt,,.,] by the Christian Church.
th(,ugh th.!y came to be lo.,k.!d upon rather at
rewards tor victory over j.nssion and t(.kens of
virgin purity, in conse.|iien(e of which tbpy were
not given at second marriages. In the Greek
chi'ich they came to pl.y „ much more
important irnrt than in tlie Latin. In the
West as we li^arn from pop,. .Ni.diolas's reply to
the Hulgarinns, they were n., more than a testive
orna.iient worn by the married pair on leaving
the church. In the East the crowning, which
was once only a part of a lady's wodding attire
(^■ce St. Amator s Life, Acta .W. May, toui. i. ,52)
became so substantial a part of the mnitials that
th,. whole marriage was called the Crowning, as
in the West it was called the Veiling. TheiT.rwnu
were placed on the heads of the briile and bride-
groom immediately after the benediction, appro-
priate prayers being said at ti.e same time,
the lollowmg IS an extract liom a i rm given by
(joar:-^' After the amen (to the bone.iictory
player) the priest takes th- crowns and first
crowns the bridegroom saying • The .servant of
the Lord IS crowned, for the sake of the hand-
mai.i ol the Lord, in th. name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of - „■ Holy Oho.st.' The
woman is crowned in t> ,• same manner. Then
he loins the right han.i .f the woman with the
right hand of the man. Then is sung, 'With
tlory and honour hast thou crowned them, thou
nast placed crowns of precious .stones upon their
head;.. Ihen the deacon savs, 'Let us pray'
and the priest ,)ffers the following prayer"-
Crown them with Thy grace, unite them in
temperance and dignity, bless them with n good
<dd age and with unshaken faith. (Jrant them
length of days; grant to them all things expe-
dient for them, fear of Thee nnd thought of
I hee ; give them the fruit of the womb, comfort
them with the sight of sons and daughters; let
them rejoue in Thee and respect the words of
the ApostI,., 'Marriage is honourable and the
b.'d imdeliled.' Hear us, Lord our God who
w.ist present at Cana in Galilee and blessed the
inarriag^. ther.' by Thy presence, miraculouslv
ciaagiss the w,.L,:, into wine. Lord of all',
bless the marriage of this Thv servant and this
Ihy handmai.l as Thou didst bless Abraham and
IVOR
uinii licrilniTti* fnrhrt
li'T iH'iliK miliMiitiive to
ii'ivi'iliit IP si>in|i(-i' virii
nl., /i''i<. /hv. o/. lib. I.
I! wonl ruliitio ninic to
•Mil! I'lTcmiinv, anil It
tllM Veil ,111 |,;,t|, |,rj,|,
nil' »t' tlu' henuiljftion
ix,).
" "liulnnily (I h.'nthcD
'ii'i in Aii/ii/,; I. tt(i.l),
; ilisalJMWi'.l by Vhfh.
Ix. ; Tiitiill. ' Apnlo'/,
i-rinltti'il in thn Kii«t
liiit, fai'ilii/oi. 11. H,
awfiiln.'SB /)f the iis«
' (■"'''"111 prcvHiled
iiiwnH wuri) iiiiKle of
', nr (liiwem ; their
Milem win foibliidi'n
ns Iwiun *"o great
I timus. This shcwi
an » symbol of re-
I (W siuh lirobably
e Chilstmn Church,
Hiked upon rnther ai
inssion iinil tokens of
•e of which thpy were
a>;es. In the Oi-celt
Ifiy II much more
the I.dtin. In the
e Nicholas's reply to
II more than a festive
lieil pair on leaving
he crowning, which
lily's wflil liu^ attire
.S.s'. May, torn. i. .'ii;),
of the niiptidls that
ed the Crowning, as
Veiling. The crowns
the briile and bride-
benediction, appro-
at tlie same time,
■om a I irm given by
to the benedictory
e crowns and first
ig • The servant of
sake of the hand-
ime of the Father,
Holy (Jhost.' The
me manner. Then
(le woman with the
len is sung, 'With
rowned them, thou
s stones upon (heir
ys, ' Let us pray.'
following prayer :
-•e, unite them in
them with n good
iiith. Grant then,
m nil things e.xpe-
e and thought of
the womb, comfort
nd daughters; let
;pect the words of
inourable and the
^ord our God who
ee and blessed the
■nee, miraculous^
I. O Lord of all',
f servant and this
less Abraham and
MARRTAOE
the,,, ,u .„,„!, „„.| ,i,,,,h,|, "■'
■-.;i|h«„d Asen.th, a» Moses „nd Si, „h'
u led to them that which iH spok,.;, |,^, ,h„
.. h.t, savin,- . hy wife as ,he'fr„i,f„f v „,.
o the wall, ol thy house, thy children lil^^.
"H.- blanche, round about thy table- l,..l, ii
tor.i (/■.ii</„.',„,„„„_ p .j(,,jj
.U the end of eiirht dnv. (!,« .
a.. I . .,1 ' «^inni iia\s tno crowns were
^;n^dTr;;i.,;-;--i,^ ,;
'^:rt:t&S-t:r'r
.'• thev h«ve,.,„r„u . '^;'V'"""°""'"' '"-■■
Unw that thev laviKi.l.. A ""^'"' ""'"".
"-.■■ 'hJzritt::^:::^;'^''''"
iriie tlianks to 'I'l.v .„ . u "'y'""ig thev mav
"nd in. s, i Lw IV'-' ""•"-• ^'"""''■' '^"".
-1. Amen. ' .-:;.:: r i;'"",-...:;"'' ^f""'
t" the Lord. () loil , . ' >■"'"' '"""'^
firn,in,th .nt ictoffhr' f""!^ ''''"•''■ ■■""-
th^ office of the „ .r>,, "^''-^ T'""' ""'' 'i"i"hing
t«kin>:o,fiLt "''•^';,;:;^;7:'';''^j''''<'."n^
end. amen ((Jo„r, /.VAo/.,,,/w,«?p ^w' "'""""
tk..u,.i, '.,■,",. i,r°iiv; "",''' ■'""■ *" '•
riie songs and dances, used b.ith in H,e „
and at liome having coL\;o:tStr
irom ancient iritii..n i.. ■• "v iiuuiciuii
ci.ai-ac,e . Ill th JS '"''■'"' ".' »■" ''""""'•'■^'
Greece i,„ 1 Kou.t (s^X ZcH ntf n'''""'"':''
«-^:"'-eofsLson;:^^S;Z|'-^,,^
MAItRIAOK
1109
.xix., (I
'/'■ torn.
"'=""'"B"'ea»t. Ai/tif
c„.in,i| „t Laodi'-ea. canons l„ |iv Hn,.,l
Co/iril. torn . :, 7Q0V fh„„„k ■ ' "' '■
itself was not nl ■•„,., •; ,'^*' •'"•' •'"'tivitv
"'" "f UlMce amnn, 1 ^ • , ' K''"*'''"''"! «as
.'■"•'■'-■'I V h th^rin rh"""' """'*^*' '" ^''"' he
,.i„.. '^'^ '''"" ""» 'fetching home of the
'--'-tX':r:r^[^^''?'''-cha
'■'C /< «c/,v of bridecro,™ , n I u f" "'»\.^"""-"</
have seen Greg rv Srj '""''■' '" ^^''-^ ^«
>v" )• Hs heing^lonl bv hTm e'r, ""^""'f f^/"H
;-"■ ti.at is, 'bishop ■:r''r:rit';;';rtt-''^' 'r
9% Carls. TtI^.) ts ctl" "^''""i:'' ('"'• '''■ p'
-.-".. deto^:;-;--^S^^^.,^ar-
were ,I..|ivered to her rs. l^ 'f^ 'h" househnl |
•HXrrh;';;i,,;!;.;!;:\.:,,,!-;r|v.-^hr,st,,,n
M-;na:'>h;:;i;:!:i-'-"'H-v-"
""rtwho\vas of, ,;^;, "-''■""" '•"'•Ms con.
-'''•''y'hecn,,c,,„,,l7j^'i;;;;;'-^^
had galnci h,r ,.„„,..„t .„ ,, ,k J" * '"«'• "'" •
-r Knardian. he am, , i.,, hf'" '" '"■'" '""•"■"«
""*'"•»'"■ his, hurch a ir.h '""■.'"'"' '" '*•«
"hstacle arising fi „„ ^ , :^"^ '"""""' '"" •">
-f"yofhetrol;i:,.:'i'^:ro; -.ivilla.v,
P"i"ted the panios me, in (h? h ■• T
'"'"re bride's Vathe■^ in the, .rsl,;'," "'""'
••"< ten witnesses, the b,i,|, ,. in? T "'""y
(Clem. Alex, /'..^^ i I 2| th"''' '" "'"'•
hH, ,n.^,,,, among ;,,ioi'i;r;;:'"'rJ
daced upon the thhd (inecr of h '' '',''
left hand. These h ivin,. l ^ Woman's
The betrothnf was ul "',"''"''"" '"■'■«'•■"'•
s;^neraiiyci.rn7/::z:rki"V't""
he betrothed and a j.dning • hi^.i^'-^^^:' ^^'^-^
hable that an infor.nal pmver^ r" „" ''''"■
"l>"n the couple complete I V t'lessmg
•'■e earliest til.es a^ | I'f r'';""">'' "»'' "^
'-y the woman. The bet • tVll ' "'!'" ""''""""^
♦-'■■"ed to his home an k ■"■■• "'" '"^"> «-
living under h..rfTh'"." '^e woman continuci
«.,i. .. "' " contract of mariiatr» „,
, 1""'* ^^''hi- 'he next forty I ly ,'f; ^l
the two SHcceedine years I,„.ki,i
<=»!.). lilt after th ,* »• I ' '«'"></. hra.
-cmonlaL The ceremon^'L°U'; ^'r":^:
the%H s^i„™bT:iro.;h''h'^.r"'-^ ""- ■•" "'
bride! an ottering 'i'/ 1 ti' ^^Trth'"'' '''
"me made by then. After thifth. f" """«
sent of each to the contracrml . l\ ^''"^ '•'"''-
Haodonti^i/'ClS^.^'tS^rl^lIri^:
the celebration of „,;;':« Iu'a^ 'emt",h T"'""""
Precding the Feast of John the BVm; i''? "'f<<' ""'"I'l
from Septuagesima ,„ the octave o?K '■,""",'" '"- ^"'>^
°Cul enim manum imponu i^LsCr' ' r''"^'""''
benedlcet? (Clem. Alex. «r„'„ Ub'^rc vl" T'^™
4ca "^■'''
mo
MARRIAGE
f'irm of honcdiction, conveying to them the
Mf.ssing of the church upon the union which
h:\ I boon o;Tected h_v the contract miide and de-
( hired between them. Immelintelv after the
benediction in the Greek church, at the conclusion
of th(! whole service in the Latin, crowns of gold
and silver, it the bride and bridegroom were
rich, of leaves or flowers if thev were poor,
brought from the treasury of the 'church, were
placed upon their heads, and arraved in these,
they returned to the house of the bride's father,
from whence, as the evening approached, the
wife was carried by her husband to his home in
a joyous j)rocession, attended by a concourse of
fi lends uttering acclamations and wishing joy to
the newly-married pair. On arriving at ris
home, the husband led in his wife, and she untied
her hair as a symbol of his authority over her,
and he delivered over to her a bunch of keys as
a symbol pf her authority over the household.
1 iie evening was spent in festivity, which oon-
sistc<l of feasting, dancing, and singing. At the
end of seven days the crowns were restored to
the church in a solemn manner.
If, however, there wore any who desired that
a r.digious character should not be given fo the
ceremony, they were permitted to dispense with
It ; and their marriage was regarded as valid
provided only that they made a contract one
with another without frau.l or compulsion, ami
declared it before an adequate number of wit-
nesses, and did not otherwise transgress the
imperial laws.
III. IhvoRCK Our Lord's rule laid down in
respect to divorce is plain and simple. He dis-
allows It on any other ground than that of for-
nication or adultery on the [,art of the woman.P
This continued to be the rule of Christian con-
duct down to the time of Constantino. There is
n consensus amongst the doctors of the early
church that no other cause is adequate for the
dissolution of marriage. Thus, Clement of
Alosan.lria (Stmrn. lib. ii. c. xxiii., Op. p. 506),
lertullian (ado. Marc., lib. iv. c. xxxiv.. Op. p.
449), and somewhat later, St. Chrysostom (Horn.
.tvii. m Matt., Op. torn, vii, p. i>27). St. Basil
(jpist. Canon II., can. xxi.), and St. Jerome
(l:pi.st. ad Amand., Op. torn. iv. p. 16'2). In the
cMse of the clergy divorce was made imperative '
on the discovery cf the wife's adultery by the
councils of Neocaesarea and Elvira (canons
yiii. and Ixv.): laymen were left to their own
JU'lgment in the matter; but a canon of Theo-
ilore of Canterbury re(iuires anyone who keeps
his wife under such circumstances to do jieuai.ce
f"r two years on two davs of the week and fast
days, or to abstain from living with her as long
as her penance for adultery lasts (Penitential,
111'. 1. cap. xiv. § 4). Hut, as was to be expected,
a diflerence of ojdnion gr w up as to the force of
the word fornication. The Allcgorists, according
to their manner, insisted on understanding the
word spiritually as well as literally, and thus
2;>l). It Is not certain that It is of the marriage bene-
diction that Clement 's spo^ikinR.
'■ Tlmi in Milt. v. 42, n<.p«ia is used In the sense of
fiayca, or ratlier that ilie gen.ric term is ..nipl„v,d
when tUeap«:lllc word nii(cht liave been iis.d. wns i,„i
qiMi..neii iti the rarly cluircli, nor is ihere any siitH.ierit
ca.iB.fonuostlonini? it, much m liiis l,o..n wi itten upon
n. (See Selden, Uxor euraica, 111. 23, 27.)
MARRIAGE
they made it bear the meaning of idolatry, infi-
de ity. and covetousness, as well as carnal forni-
cation. So Hermae Pastor (« Is qui simulacrum
facit moechatur," lib. ii. mand. iv., amtd
/aires Apostol., ed. Coteler, torn. i. p. 89) "This
view was adopted by St. Augustine (de Serm.
Pom ,n Monte, cap. xvi., Op. tom. iii. p. 1251,
ed. Migne), but m his Retractations he expressed
some doubt as to its correctness : -'QunteLs in-
telligenda atque limitanda sit haec fornicatio et
ntrum efiam propterhanc liceatdimittereuxorem,
latebrosissima quaestioest " (lib. i. c. xix 6 Ov
tom. I. p. (50). • J f
Such dilTerences of opinion as existed between
theologians arose from their interpreting the
word fornication with greater or less latitude:
fbl .T"."""' " •■'"''«'»nti»l agreement nmon<^
have fh' n-""* "'.'"?«' however heinous, could
foTl ' f k"* U-* dissolving the contract once
ioimed, with the one exception of the wife's
fornication. Not so the civil law.i Con.stantine
be/'Zn \l r' '^'''^'"^ '" "'»^« « compromise
between the lax practice whi<:h had come down
from heathen times and the strict rule which
thnni^ [ , *"'" acknowledged l,y Christians,
though not always acted upon. Accordinglv he
ttiie If her husband should be a murderer a
poisoner, or a robber of graves; but specifi-
•a y disallowing it on the ground of his biing a
drui^kard or a gambler, or given to won^en
(mulieicularius). By the same law divorce was
ollowed to the man if his wife wore an adulteress,
or a poisoner, or a procurer (Cod. Thcod. lib. iii.
tit. XVI. leg. ,., torn. i. p. ;ilO). Honoriu.s, A.n.
idl ""Tn^ " '""' "^ " ''"•"■"• character with
that of Constantine, which allowed other causes
- morum vitia et mediocres culpae"~as ade-
quate besides the three named by the first Chris-
tian Emperor (Corf. Theod. lib. iii. tit. xvi. leg "
>M p. 31.!). Honorius's law did not remain lon<^
n force; but it, or Constantino's, was the law o'f
the empire during the time of some of the chief
church writers of the fourth and fifth centuries.
It w-as abrogated, together with the law of
Constantine, A.D. 4,<?9, by Theodosius Junior,
who restored the laxity allowed by the civi
aw before the time of Constantino-" durum est
egum veterummoderamenexcedere." Ten years
later, however, Theodosius found it necessary to
draw the reign tighter, and he published a law
A.D 449 enumerating the causes which were now
held to be adequate to justify a divorce. To the
three crimes named by Constantine he added those
ot treason, sacrilege, manstealing, and similar of-
fences (Cod. Justin, lib. v. tit. xvii. leer. 8, Corn
Juris, tom. ii. p. 457). And this was followed
Qnamdiu vlvlt vir, licet adulter sit, licet sodomlla.
liu.t fiugir.is mnnihiis roopertus et «b u.xore propter Iniec
scelera dor. llcius, maritus cjui. reputatur, oil alieruiu
lo'.8nj,cit.) "MulLrl non licet virum Uimittere licet sit
fornicator, nisi forte pro inonaslerlo. n.isllliis hoc J.idi-
cavlt. ( riie.«lore. / enitential. lib II. 14, xll. fl 6 ) .See
also the twelfth council ol Toledo, a.d. 6«1, can vili
which excommunicates a man fur di-sertlng his wife th'r
any other cause than fornication (Hard. Co>,c. toni iii
p. 172,1), and the council of Soissons, a.o. 744, cm Ix 'ah
p. "'■"^, The council of Ai,|.. .,.„. soB. forbids ,.,.!:
Imnds to dismiss their wives until they have proved their
adultery before the bishops of the province, on pain of
excommunlcwtion, can. xxv. (ibid. turn. 11. p. looi)
[RIAGE
meaning of iilolatry, infi-
», as well ns carnal forni-
stor (" Is qui simulacrum
'• ii. mand. iv., aptid
eler, torn. i. p. 89). This
St. Augustine (de Serrn.
vi., Op. torn. iii. p. 1251,
letractiitions he exiiresscd
•reetness: "Quiitenus in-
v\a sit haec fornicatio, et
cliceatdimittereuxorem,
est " (lib. i. c. xix. 6, Op,
linion as existed between
their interpreting the
greater or less latitude ;
intial agreement among
however heinous, could
Iving the contract once
exception of the wifo's
civil law.l Constantine
to make n compromise
! which had come down
I the strict rule which
owledged by Christians,
upon. Accordingly he
allowing divorce to a
ould be a murderer, a
if graves; but specifi-
e ground of his beim^ a
■, or given to women
e same law divorce was
wife ware an adulteress,
•er (Cod. Thcod. lib. iii.
•ilO). Honoriu.s, A.n.
iimilar character with
;h allowed other causes
icres culpae"— as ade-
imed by the first Chris-
. lib. iii. tit. xvi. leg. 2,
aw did not remain long
intine's, was the law of
le of some of the chief
ith and fifth centuries,
her with the law of
ly Theodosius .luuior,
allowed by the civil
stnntine — "durum est
1 excedere." Ten years
i found it necessarv to
i he published a I'liw,
rauses which were now
ify a divorce. To the
itantine he added tbo.ie
ealing, and similar of-
tit. xvii. leg. 8, Corp.
nd this was followed
ilulter sit, licet sodomlla,
et ob u.xiirc propter liaec
reputatur, cul alierum
proine, hpitt.ad Amavd.,
tvirum (llmittero licet ^it
terlo. B,i»lliii9 hoc Jiidi-
. lib II. 14, xll. } 6.) .See
edo, A.D. 8HI, can. viii.,
fur di'scrting Ills wife (br
in (Hard. Couc. toni. ill.
in», A.D. 744, can. Ix. (rt.
', >.i>. 508, furbids lius-
I they have proved their
he province, on pain of
\i. turn. II. p. 1001).
MARRIAGE
Ly a law of V.,lentinian 111. forbi.bling dissnlu- ( the
I .on of „,arr,age by the luere consent of the
§ '"'''.'"' «':"™"'«--J. Again reaction followed re-
* rr^io, "■''•, •' '"";. *■■"' I"«'«"' ''.v Anastasius,
b. .'l // ', T^'l^ ''"'"'•"« ^i' •""'"■'' "'"■^en
r " I S :t '"=■ ^^- ^'"^'' Justinian, a.d. 5J8,
Oh If ;, '"•'""'^ '■■'"' "'■ ''■'•^'"'-i"^ ■'""i-'r
ever to fl ^''"' \''- '"">' "'''''"?• how-
h^.i',,., . ""''' ^}"''^ '''"^^'^''^ impotencv
i e rX ;f • "'"•,'2' " '^''''' *'»^ 'he monastic
lite (Aovell cxvu. 18), and a lengthy captivitv
(-\o.c«. XX i. 7). Justinian's nephlv, JtV in e^
stored the liberty of divorce by^onl nt Vor //
l^hotms (^o,mcanon, tit. xiii. c. iv., Oo u "UO
^'^V" 'f' 'T ""' ""'1 i-i«eJ to tt^
eitl'tced it onTh f" .""-' '.'hil«-pher once more
j^;i'i:^:^^^"--i:::!'t:r!,-:r
oi^:,:r;:^ai:^^:-,-t7'''^"
those of the em ,i e r • " '^,''''™'='«'' '"
into their ::,d:TiVAnV«ri^'''^^'.-'i
Iheodoric, isius- of the fXun/.^fk • . ?" ■'•
publish^ and Lnfir^:i*;::Kt;LSf^T
^00, the law ot Constantine, allowing three
d.:t'e al,£;Lrc t "hi^r^?;".';'" ^"""^
specilied by;Constantine, butTot o t Vom^r
Atnong the Franks and the Alemanni divo. Je tv
At th'^'uri:"' "" '"'■"""^'' '" "■« 7th ; r'-
At the Carlovmgian era the l;,w was generallv
made stncter, though Charles the Great himseff
divorced his wife Bertha and married Hilde^m
holdmsr himse t t,. 1,<. i„ u . .. " 'uegaru.
MARRIAGE
nil
fir'<t hiisbauil bv In... ; . v
^^^sir/^ -/t^/f A;;^r.,£-:
i" a case whrh :,'; i;,';:,'-"'''' '^>':'^"'"« 'he law
"■■■'•ly Christians nir T" ■"''f''" ""'""-^ "'«
Jowntheruleth^tam • I"' ,'"-''■ ^"^ '^'vs
between two heather ■"•? "'f ''"'^ '^'^en i-lale
one of th wot:,inr. r-K '■"J""^'''' '^''' *->•
Hage .still holds go "d',n^''t;'j''" ='•'«'"-■■
Christianity m-iv n„r . convert to
con,sorto„{l"'laofh?'";?,^'""' '"'^ °' h^"'
non-Christi n p^rL to Th" 'l'*-^' ^"' "' "'«
desert the oue'^ ,nv^rted t?"r k''' '^"'"''' '"
latter is free frotnTh' Christianity, the
.i"gaiobiSiir;^ti!-~sri:'Vi''"-
"Ot justify divorce butoniv .. '^ . ' '""' '''"'■■'
, the Christian cont^rrisS 'e ^'ri '''"' '" "'^''■'^
".e early church the' i;S'ctn:cir;7; J"
permission was recognised • r .,''';''"''' ."f this
has becotne changed Ttofn'n- ''""': "'"e« it
partoftheconvTt tobeex'cS'tfh' "v ""
tion of the bishop or r.Xr it •' I /'"T"-
positive duty whiih n.usTbe pe fo ,fr v'b "
e«ept a dispensation be obt.S i'^^om ^^'^
shop (Ltguori, neohgu, Moralis, v 957V .,ni
themeanngof "inlidelitv " ;. j/' . ■ ^ ' '""*
include "heresy" Si ii ',?*"?;, "^^ •^'' ^',» to
IjUm law of d.^.or.S*;^hich- a'n ws L't™
Theolo(j>a Moralis, vi. 9,'i7-97n^ h "^ ('-'gnvn,
mentioned here in order to I'^Thatit"^ '" '"
known to the early church " ""•
-fo;7n 0/ Z)iforc«.— The Jew, },„^
monial of divorce as winas^rmanL: 'T
foUowiUi' are «V,-,„..1„. -.•_ "laiii.ige. J I,
L 11. ,. ,. *""•""« "larriea Hildemird
the wise in what miii,n„,. »„ . .'°" "i.aygo to what m.in ., :ii .,„
Home "to consult the- wb-riu';^:^,:^^
u prove the laws of Wales," and after the laws
■ X?," 'P^ygo to what man vou will Tk-
IS a bill of divorce between me .nd ih , ^'"'
of quittance, and instrumenTof Sfsmi 'V' ^'''"
may marry whom you pTea"! "/ '''•^'"'"=''' ™ .V"
year I such l*^'^' "^ '"'^'' " '"'">"'. «f such a
Jlk'.' 1',"-'^ "" .'"'.«' »°n of such an one, fro,,,
the en
on the
woman
", ...v-. oc.uu years, on sharinir
h.^witeun,a3;::j,^;::i:i:-£erts
to depart entirety from he !.." ''r"""'^
thmg belonging!. leTis ' '""^'""'^ «^«'-y-
.p'-outoftL'ho;'::,'aU"ti;:;itto""'
u 1 ' °"" "I such a
„„i „;•■ ■ .1 """ ■'"" 'aw ot countiies il ' , " """^i son ot
and cit.es ,n the receipt of faith and baptism " ""^ " ^^^'''' ""•^ ^y whatev
N verUie ess the laws on divorce arc ren^ k U ,y ' ^"™*""t '' Z '"r P«''e- ^ or
Jax. A husband and wife may separate before 1,7°.''^' "^ "^ "^^ ^^iH ai
.1 of seven years from their marriage-day ! th„ .'^'""P"''"-". dismiss,
le husbands paying her dower to the Ik' '""'l '""""'' ''""ghter of si
n , alter seven years, on sharing their ' * '''T' "'"' ^y whatever
between them, the hnslmn.) .,.,./?. : "' ! surname thou, or thv „„,„„* .
quit, iei)udi.ite
such an one, frcu)
..-. b.d *„„ .», 17,' " '. ; "" r h""" ""•
1112
MARRIAGE
! I
iMi
my wif,,. Am,I n,.w I ,li.„,iss, ,,„i,, „„,! roi„,
•in.tc ll„;e that th„u be IH,., ,.„,1 h,,ve 'tl,«
1...W01- ,.| j{,„„g „,v„v „„,) ,„,,r,ji„g „„y „„,„,
;."""• .^-I ""."■"^^ "" •■'"■". .» to hin.lur theo
lom this ,lay l,.,tt„r,l for ovor. An,l n„w, I,,-
h..l,l, thmi «it, ,,on..itt«,l to l„. th,. wife. ,,f „„v
man. An,l thi» U t„ ho thy bill „r divorc the
iiLstrument ..f thy dismissal, u„,l the Inter „t
thy .inittaiRe accunliug to the law oCMoaes aud
tnc israiMite.s.
The above bills had t.. bo signed by two wit-
Iroc'io ,'" '"'^ ^ J«liveml to the wife or her
shoiler: it was „u|y „eees.sary to say, rvya,
-r a„T„r irpdrr^-U <T,avrov Kpdrr,~«n,l the
(.leek inarnago was broken oH; The Hon.an
inamage was a more seiioos thing than that
;; •■'"y o the (ireeks exeept the S,.utan" To
H.ak oil a marriage eHeeted by con/arrcatio
there was a form ealled JiJ/anr.Uio, nJa „,„ !
nage by cormpt.o was ,lis.solved by a form called
fyynat,.t,o. For a length of\imo divor e»
f not heard of among the Romans; but
inder he en,,„re they became common. Some-
times ,„. nuptial tablets were broken and the
k. of the house taken from the woman, but
1 ost .sigmticant part of the proceeding^ was
t e u.se ol the form of the words :—" Tuiis res
til>; Imbeto "(I'laiitus, AmpMryou, art i i Iv. 7)
" • I uas res agito." Kspousals were broken of
Ad the /.,,v ./„/,„ ,lc adHlUriis required the pro-
;r. " •-;;•;'', «|tnes,ses to make a'divorce v, lid
1 '-•'•arly Christians followed for the most par
"'-"•an practice; but a.s the n.arriage w s
"'■"-■•-I '" .th« face of the church, so X
lu .1 uorce might not be ellected with..nt the
■ i.vh s cognisance We have already seen tla
h council of Agdo, A..,. ,W,i, cxcommunica
ten an who presumed to dismiss his wife unt
h h,.s proved her guilt bef.,re the bishop of the
luonnce m which he lived fcan xxv H,,r)
(W,c//. torn. ii. p. 1001) ^ "•' ""''•
/,cm„rn-,y,. ayfer *ror,v._The distinction he-
t».'cn separation ,i me,i.n et thoro and divor™
" n.c,^o (the last .d' which alone quali k^ ;r
;;;;';'amagc) WHS not formulated in' t :. y
Mvh and this IS perhap.s one rea,son why the
',M"''ml laws passvd .so readily, „,, by the LZr
;< a pendulum, from .severity to laxity and
' '■"i»'il> J'canng upon the question of re
(lb ,. ',"-. ""^ , ^/"^'^'''W ConH.tutu,m
•""""I "• f.iithage, A.n. ;{i)8 (can. hix ) ,|,
^■l.Mgy are loH,i,lde„ to be married to a dVv^r
w.'.nan, which in.plics that under somecircu.
|-t«uccs a least a divorced woman might bo
'"■"•'■"^'l. lu the A,n>,tolical G.no,^, indc^.l there
«.« to nmrry again, and forbidding mar
iiage to a d.vone.l woman on pain of excom
inunrcation ican. xlviii^- hot th! '""""•
J "-lv"".ler«tood ;\Vfron|. omr\"
'"[■i illegally put away their ^i'Sort' —
,>,oha Illegally separated irom their h X
(^eo Halsamon s exposition, /„ a<«o«. .-I.;.," ,
^■aJ14,>tw«« enacted that young men he
MARUTAOE
ha.! put away their wives for adnlterv ,houM
;• ".Ivised n,.t to marry again as long JZw
brst wile was living, but „o voke of cm.m, si n
K;:;.::'lf :r\L- <;:"d:i d!t:ri '
:=-e-^
^h "l „',', l'" "''""^"7' ""^ >""' ■"'"•'■i-' ' «■ in
i, h, , '■'■","■"'' •" '•"■""■union until he;
St husband was dead; and that a woman who
" ■■■•"■;.- a n>an that had separated in h
lici with sulhcicnt cau.se miirht in.r.v . ■
ToHnllian dissuades remarria? n ai .^^^C
'" Ins treatise addre.s.se.l to his wi 1 , n
>.Y;tMawn,u.er.iea,h„r;ii;:;:;, , 'r
■'• I). In his treat ae oa Monoi-iniv h,. ,i , i
■■■an-iage at^er divorce unla:,^(.':'1r
tantius holds remarriage permissil, e i ih„ h
^- who ^.sd.smis4i 'his wiil'i;,;:' !,[:;;;
imnli,..,. ^^" *"■■■"■■■■■««<■ in the man is bV
A.I). +b.> (can. 11., Hard. Conril. torn, ii „ 7.17;
>"g.>n (in oj.position to the opinion f' ome of
his contemporaries) and St. j'erome led "e
in)lt ';"";''";"^««"i»^' it in 1,0th parti,.s(see
l« Jl'ltt. \]x. <l, (1,1 (,,.,, :,. y,. ' V ^'-
di-iiowsitaitogttile ;;,^7^;,;^';""«?™^
}. '''-"'"'",' "t II council of C'arthaire (,f the
helJ .n the year O.'.H (,■«„. xii., Hard O,,, ■
H tb,r,0.nuerarchbish,,pTheo,l,,re.A.,.. 7M
.•,'^' .'."'•"""■'"■ I'- 1"17). by the capit,.
^n? r ;^' '•'" ""'"''''"'' ^''•"''i- *•'• 7'1
V<an. X., ibnl. tom. iv. n. H.'iii^ Th,, .,-.u 1 •.
rule is cnlorced by 'h"™ e ,"1 b'":;
■naii'l. .V, tom. i. p. 87, «d, Coteler ,St b.-
,, " (''^'"•■''^'. J""/- Ixxiii. 1, On 't,m i '
p. 4 14, Paris. In,.7). St, Augustin , aks wi ^
he,s ation (/V /.V,fc at Oprr. I xi,x., O ,. ! , 'f
;• "1). Kiuphanius declares that the Word , ,
.."does not con.lemn a man who marries ,gaU
He. h, v,ng separate,! from a wife prove.l guVl v
''"''"' :"T.''"'">;;''ti.m, or any such h,. ..^g f
i, T ."■ *^- """"'"'•"''< '•^nite,Uial allot ,
husband « remarriage if the womaa wa.s h i .t
■ The injunotloii of the Council of llT.rtf.,r,) 1. , .>
uiuli. or bo recunciW .0 bU wife" ^' '"' '"'" "" ^''•
I
lAOE
™ fur ndiiltorv slmnM
"Riiin iiH IdiiK ns thfiir
"» ydke oC c.niimlsiun
II. X.), The I'oiiiii'il (if
ilati'. iliicrml tliat n
fwl liDiii her hiihlmn.l
iirncil nKiiin siioiiM l,e
1 ; anil ilmt ,1 wumaii
her hiisbiirici nti fhn
nii hiul innrrieil iifjain,
••"inmunidii until hci-
ii'l thiit, n wnin.'iii who
lail s,i|,i„Ht(.,l lidin his
1 lj«_[li ever rxn,u\-
■ ). Tlie lust (iC t>i(.wo
111 whi) Ki'iiiiiatus (Vi.iii
might miinv iigain.
"■iagc in all ca,....,. hut
In hi,s wife he alldws
1 or .livinv (,■!,/ r.n.r.
H"ii"Kaniy he ileclaivs
l"wtnl (,., xi.) I.,ic.
eniii«il,i,. i„ the hiis-
lis wile f„i- a.liilteiT
e in the inaii is b'v
he (uiineil <if Vnnnev,
'I'lV. tniii. ii. |i. 7i)7)_
e iipinion (if sumo (if
I. JenniK- declare it
iiian (Orijr, (■„,„_ ,„
• •'+7; liienm. /■nint.
1 '!•-'). Klsewheie St.
ill lioth parties (see
1>. M7). Athenagm-ns
I', c. xxxiii.). |>,,,n,
^^xiiperiiis nindeini'is
I'll, tnlll. i. p. llMir,).
lilevis, A.t). 410. it
"■-'N (can. xvli,, ihid.
Ill' Carthage of the
1' prcihiliitidD was
le African church
I The jirnhiliitidn
"f Nantes, df ,„)-
some t(i have been
xii., Hard, Cmri/.
iini il of Heruilfcird
"heodore. a.d. t!7:i,s
0. liy the capltii-
xliii., iliiil. toni. iv.
if Kriiili, A.ti 7!il
'i'he |irohiliit(iry
! I'a.stdr ||ib ii.
-'oteler), St. Chi v-
1. torn. vii. p. JJV),
ii- 1. 0/1. tdin. il."
i.-itino spi'iiks with
xix., (iji, (din, vi.
that the VVurd cif
'ho marries aj;ain
k-ife proved gniltv
' ■'"'■Ii liase Riiil't
■litoUiitl allows a
nan was his tirst
Ilertfcrd h ruther a
Mileii: "Ij't iui„,„.
|iei tiwhes. for n,,.
IS ill.Mnfsseil hlRwifo
^nlitirk.l,! 1,1,1, uvi
tian, as hi^ oiiuht ici
but let blm to re-
MARniAOR
wife, and permits the wife
MAimiAOB
1113
remnrriatje, on her church ♦„ ti,
repeiita.c,. after live years (lib. ii, ca,' xii. § r,). „ ,h. " ^, T'Tu i*""^- '" "•- ^'"'*- <'"■'•«-
KUewbere he erders that a man who divorce- hi, ,, f Vl, .. '.'""•'""' 'l"''»tion of tlo
wile and niarncs a,.,in shall do seven vears' v, , e 'u "'",'•'"*■"' "^ ^^" '"""■-.■■it
""r'-.'-' I"'"'""' ■ "••-'" y..uV light penance *"'" ''""" '"""''■'■''
III'. I. cap. XIV. ^ H). If w.. are to reconcile th(«e
two niling., we m.i..t snpp,is« that in the latter
t'llMU 1^ tti,.....* I I
wis^ IS meant a man win, has divorced his wife
•or some le.ss dllcnce than fornication. If a wile
leaves her husband, .md he thereupon remarries,
he istd ,1,1 .inc j.,.ar-s penance; if she returns to
the husband whom she had left, having liv(,d in-
nocently meantime, she is «ls„ to do (,no year',
Jieiiance, if she d.ics „(,t ret.irn. she ia to do
three vears' penance (iJ,i,l. & |,!), ],• a wife
ai..htiyr.,lusestd,.i.c„n(|,,.,,:it,;'h:.:!l!
bme,, liter (,vo years he may marrv again with
the bishop's bmve (lib, il, ca,,, xi,. g'ly)
Ihe (ivil law |,eiinit t,,,| remarriage. A law of
I onoriii, enacts that if a woman .Tut awa her
husband bir grave reasd„s, she iniKht marry a("cr
iv« years; ,.„d that ^
ni.airy as s(H,n as be tboiiifn' prdocr- if 7h.
reasons fcr the divdrc(, w( re n „' J ^ \,Z
-haracter, the man m„s, wait C Z fC
he n i^rht not many airain, but the injured woman
might remarry afl.r the lapse of « v«, r //" ?
^wiib.iii,i,.,..,,,.K..)';:i;.''z^x:^
JmtinumHs, lib. v. lit. xvii. le?r R ., i'k. i
* of Ktheldcrt, (established in ;r. fAu' tT
for England, A.I.. ,V.I7, en.ict Augustine
thatim adulterer i; "u,: ■ '. tS " 7
with his own nionev " fdr Lii,- inii,,.. 1 k ' 1 "' ."
"andl^inghertdhim:- i;,„r'x:i.tS
and Stiibbs, r^mmv/., of Ur.at lirUaln, ill, p 45)
Ihe general conclusidn that we ariivu at from
n review ol the ddcuments and authorities of the
ear Iv church is th.it while the remarrinse of the
guil y pai tv was sfrnly and uncimpnlmisinl
■"U,lem,ie,|, there was no .•onsensus dn the (nics-
ti.in ot the lawiuliiess .ir unlawfulness of the re-
niarnage d the iniidcent party. After « time
an ever-welcning divcrgen,.,, ,,vhibite,| itself ^
his pcint as „„ dtburs, in the practice and
achmg (,f the eastern and w.,stern divisions of
th hurch. Kastcin the.ddgy „t length framed
fni, .a, '■ f •" ■^'r">- •'•'!"— > in the Ibllow-
■ ng canons found m th^. synouical decisions of
Alexius, v,ho was patriarch .( Constantinople in
the bej;inning id the 11th century ■._ '
.rivin. ^h '''^'■*''\'.""" '•' '" be condemned for
g ng the lH.n,.|oh„n at the marriaRe of a
Inoiced woman, when the man', conduct wiw
the cause ol the divdice.
l.«ria.en^th""" '"""■"'u ^^ """' '^'"•"'' ''"■"''"•■»
lain if ,V'""'k '" ""' '""'"•"« "™ ■""»»''«
bene, i in \\ '''•"'"" "'"' «'''« them the
aduli'irv 1 "'"'i ",""■''''' " "'""""' '"''«'™J for
h 1 .u- i ."l","'"""'^'''' "''^•"'^''' '■« •'"« himself
he a,l, 1 ■ " '"""'.""J ''emust undergo
me aiiuiterer s pdiance.
tCL.t^J"""^ '''"' K'"™ ♦''" h-^^nediction nt
con::;;':ti;;:;;'-;:*^r:^^-ii-'!v?"-"'y ■"-'•"«■
shall be
i'6»'(iici(
Th
legality
party after
in (K, I .■ . ■ ,■ '" •''" '"'i' Illative
^ ■• ■ , "1 he J,atin church it has been detei-
'"'"'" "'■• n(;Katlv(,, except when a p ,, ;
■nsa Idn has intervened, 'which, acc'r, i ,' n,
(aid ir'' /''■"'''«■ •■'''^-'''' 'l'i"gM-'
' » "«•« lie. In Kn^Hand the bnv d,-'tbe
; '"/"' "•"« tl-e remarriage of both ,1, rties
i<^i-gyorthefhlfiru:™:rth ;!^'
mamage of the guilty ,,„,, ,,.„ , „•;•',«
..rably a wrong act, it d„es^,d, ,e,,„ire t'L
11 ec, Pans l(i07. Cnnciani, Jlarl.t,:.n„a /,!.
Ani,iu,,e, Venetils, 178!). Hard s aZ
0,Kn/,„r,m Pans 171,5, Hefele, C /w,,-
/i^." •l*'".^'';!- )'"'.":.!!"*■'■ '"■'■" ''■■inslated
and
Ma.
s;liwhtc.
and pud,,she,l,„ English, 1 87J and lH7n T
1. (lark, Minbnrgh). I.aiinoiu.s, l.;;,ia in ma-
t'immmm ,«,fc,<„,„ Op. t,„„, j. ''., ' ,^''
f'u<;«, ,/c SpcmsiiUlms ct M„fri,n„mn, o,, um
,T: ,».'">n"n"l™, mrnrnnnn ,1, (■„„.
•Selden, l/j-or Ehniica, 0,,. torn iv , w,
/Zh'^M', ,'?■•'"'""' *'^'-''^-' '''"-»:
/-i'"i tlwi, Delph s, 1714 M„v,.,. ,/,. / /
Af„.:„„„ i>...; .-.._ .1'. .. ™'^ '<• '^"fivmcut du
ffivuye Vnn., 1725. Waleh, do />,s,™, L^
m ,.r„ in his MiscMmca sL,/ A^^
1744. Mar ene, do Anti./ui, Ecrlr.ino nY,/!,< '
■^^ ' '!■'*=";'/ I""' »»'livorced by mutual
T'/r'''^!'''''^''''''^^"''>''''«lKw»)
. III. .tJ, (ij,. tdm, ,v, p. 8.V.).
the mac';';;';;'"' 'i'"/"""'-"' '- ""'•^'' <•»""»» "nd
tnc puK, ice toundel up„n jt ^as continued to Le
the teaching and the practice of the Oriental
1744,
li'i. i. par _,
Thoinassinus Vhtm ot mm, Ju-rl.si,u- IHs-
Irobst, -S«*r-,mc»<« und Snhrum'nMini in den
mr'u M ''""f -'" ■'t'"""''^'-'"' ''■'•''"fit
tiim Doctrine uf lH,vri„ne, New Voik \Hl>
Wattori(.h, Die k, Mr LLpr^ZillLlZ]
uasle 1K76. Von Schultc, JMr cw,/w/,,„v,J
M„rna,,e after Divorce, bv I)| }'nL J
«ttaciedtoti,eoxf(.ratr;.„si,;,i,,„',;f.,'. iii,;;;
Treatise Ad I'xorem, Librarv of ,h.. !■' , "
vol. X. pp. 420 44;., Oxford, 1 8.^,4, ifZ'^
lay ordeal, with the question'of the m a r a^
1H52 V ■ ' '■'"'• "'''• ^- I'- '♦l'^ l-ondoD
I8o2, Various treatises hy Perrone and others
1114
MARRIAGE
m.
containing the moilorn teaching of the Roman
church on niatjimony are published in Migne's
T/ieoluykie Ciirsiis comj.letu3 ineutioucJ above.
[K. M.]
MAnUIAOE
MARRIAGE (ix Art). The form of treat-
ment, or tiiu amount of notice, which the
Christian rile of marriage received from tli«
arti»t.s of the primirive churcli varied with
the view talicn of tl .ioleniu union of man
and wMiniaii by her .thorities. The ascetic
principle, wliich had aimost entirely prevailed in
the Kastcrn vorhl, began to inlliieuce Italy and
Kuropc ainii.st as powerfully alter the sack of
Home by Alaric. It need not be connected in
our minds with misanthropy, the de.sire for
jiower, or any ecjuivocal motive; it was related
more closely to terror at the wickedness, dis-
tress, ami degradation of the present world, with
the desire of escape from some of its dangers,
and especially, as a consequence of these sutler-
ings, with the hope of th ' speedy couiing of
Christ to judgment, and th, end of the world.
That this had a direct cflect on art is ]> -oved by
the number of mosaic pictures, in particular,
which direct the thoughts of the worshipper to
the scenery of the Apocaly|.se, the symbolic or
trance-seen manifestations of the coming of the
Son of M.in ; or image forth His glory in
Heaven, contrasted in the .same pii^ture with His
])resence a.s the Lamb of Sacriiicd among men on
this side of Jordan, and in the wildeiness of the
world. It might be expected accordingly that
No. I, Murrlagti. Krjm Marllgnj'i ' DIat. Ant Chi^t.'
No. S. JUrriage. From Uarllsmy, aflor Qmrraod.
such works of art as either represent or com-
memorate the marriage of Christian persons
would chiefly or entirely be confined to the first
four or five centuries, at least in Italy. The
monuments or relies connected with n'larriage
seem to be of two kinds ; either cup.., gl.isse.s,
signets, or other menu)rials of the union id' the
parties, or sepulchral edigies commemorative of
the marriage bond as perfected and completed,
by their death in wedlock, The earliest of
the.se latter which we possess is the tomb of
I'robus and Proba, early in the latte'r half of
the 4th century. The fragments of cups and
platters have principally been found in cata-
combs or tombs of early date; and as it seems
agreed that the catacombs were never usi.i| for
I fresh burials after the taking of Home by Alaric,
t and with less frei|uency for .some time bciforo
that event, the.se relics cannot be later than the
4th century. (|See Glas-s, CiluisriAM, note ',
p. 7.U.] That lew or none of them are earlier
or later than the 4th century (unless certain
Oreek forms be excepted) seems highly probable,
laking those memorial gl.is.ses first, there arc-
two given l,y Martiguy (J>i,:t. p. ;'S«) f.-.,m Oar-
rucci s I etri, &c. troraii > 'li ciinitcri Jei primitivi
tristumi, tav. xxvi. 11,1-.;, (see woodcut. No. 1),
which jeeni to indicate the ritual of Christian
marriage in the earliest times. The imrties
stand side by side with joined li.inds; or rather
the husband takes the right hand <.f the wife in
hi.s, as if in the act of plighting troth. Mar-
tigny refers to Tobit vii. l:i on this point, but
that pa.ssage describes the action of a father in
giving his daughter away to her husband. There
IS exact resemblance between the action of the
two figures, and that of Hercules taking the
hand of Minerva, on a heathen glass given in
lluonarotti, VHri, tav. xxvii.; (JMrrucci, tav.
ixxv.' Above the figures is the monogram of
onrI,or<l to indicate wedlock in Him. The crown
of marriage sometimes takes the place of the
monogram, as in Hg. U, pi. xxvi. (see Tertullian,
tie Curoiui, xiii. "coronant nuptiae sp<jn,sos ; "
and mother cases the .symbolism is completed by
a figure of Christ placing the crown on their
heads (woodcut. No. 2). Inscriptions are fre-
quent on these gla.s.ses, arrange.l round the
figures (see tlntl.) giving their names, with " Vi-
vatis in Deo," or some other words of blessing.
A rolled paper or volume is sometimes placed
near the bride, and is thought to refer to the
dower. See Garrucci, tav. x'^xvii. 1 ; Tertullian,
«(/ Uxor. ii. ;i, " tabulae nuptiales." The bride
stands on her husband's right invariably. She
is not veiled, and is richly dressed and orna-
mented, perhaps in remembrance of I'.s. xlv. 10,
14, 1,5. A.J to the veil, see MAIiltiAUi;, p. i\{.)t<\
and Vkii,. He further mentions an interesting
relic figured in P. Wozzoni's Tavoc Cniwlo.jie/ic
dciUt stijria dctla Chics,t, Venice, 185ii-li;i, 'saec.
IV. p. 47. It is a small chest belunging to .i
lady's wardiobe, with heathen figures carved on
it, accompanied nevertheless by the upright
monogram, combined thus, A.^ai with the A
and ID, and the motto skcvndk kt 1'uo.iixta
ViVATis IN cilR. It may have been a wedding
present. A g.dd medal at sec. v., p. 5.5 (*
volume of this work is assigned to each century)
' At p. 208 III tlie sttuie book an eiiKruveU stone Ik
flgureil, which belcmgid lo Uie abbe Aiidrriiil, anj repre-
B Ills a married pulr, wUU the luscripiiuu V 1' FA. fUltre
KelU).
A.OE
; least in Itnly. The
lected with inarria(;e
; cither cu|>., gltsscs,
s of the union of the
ien oonnneniorative of
'feoted tuiil completed,
cit. The eiii-liest of
sses8 is thii, tonih of
in the hittei- half (jf
iigments of oups and
been I'oiuid in cnta-
iate ; and as it soeins
were never used lor
iigof iJonic! l,y Alarie,
or some tiling hcd'oro
not be later than the
, CiiiiiBriAj;, note ',
! of them are earlier
itury (unless curtain
iunis highly probable,
lasses tirst, there art-
:t. p. ;'88) (■••oTn Gar-
ciinitcri del jiriinitivi
(see woodcut. No. 1),
! ritual of Christian
times. The jiarties
cd hands ; or rather
hand of the wife in
;hting troth. Mar-
i on this point, but
action of a father in
her husband. There
Q the action of the
lercules taking the
then glass given in
ii.;- (-iarrucci, tav.
is the monogram of
in Him. The crown
!s the place of the
x-vi.(see Tertullian,
nuptiae sponsos ; "
i.sm is compli!ted by
the crown on their
iscriptions are frc-
rangeil round the
■ names, with " Vi-
words of blessing,
s .sometimes placed
ht to refer to the
(Vii. 1 ; Tertullian,
tiales." The bride
t invariably. She
dressed aiid ornn-
ince of I's. xlv. 10,
lAKlilAoi;, p. llOf,
ions an inteiesting
Tdvui' < 'nmi/loi/ii/ie
ce, 18,")ii-ii;t, 'saec.
St belonging to a
1 figures carved on
by the ujiright
i^ai with the A
<i)i: Kr I'luuiicTA
•e been a wedding
sec. v., p, 5.5 (a
1 to each century).
MABIilAGE
is said to have beca Ht-u.'lt at the marriage
ot Jlaroanui) and Fulcheria. They are repre-
sented with nimbi, the figure of the Lord above
with the cruciform nimbus, and the legend
FELiciTim Nuinus surrounds the device.
II. As memorials of the family, a number of
gil.Ied glass vessels and devices are in existence,
which apj.ear to rej-resent deceased heads of
tamilies; often with their children (lluonarotti,
tav xxiu. xxvi. &c. ; Garrucci, xxx.) or crowne.l
by the Lord (xxix. 1). These were jn'obably used
at ngapae, and indicate a connexion or relation
between the Christian and the ethnic funeral
least Lngraved stones and rings are common :
one from 1'. Luoi (.V«;cru« Afart,/n, Knitaph. p.
04. 1) lepresents two H,shes embracing an anchor,
wli.ch may or may not symbolise a Christian pair
But our chief examples are found on sarco-
phagi Ihat IVobus and IVoba has been men-
tioned, and will be found in liottari, tav. xvi
iair with ' '■ ^' f ^: " '■«l"««^"tsthe wedde.l
pair with an aspect of deep distress, as in the
act of parting.
The sarcophagus of Valeria Latobia (p. 291)
has two figures bearing the .same aspect; at
least, il hosK.s draughtsmen are f.j be trusted
Aaleria is taking her husband's hand by the'
wrist (reversing the or.linary action) as if bid-
ding him fiuewell They are separ.ated by an
oyect, which may be taken for three lart-e rolls
of paper or parchment bound together, and the
husband carries the usual volumen also. Arinehi
thinks they rej>resent the scriptures. Martienv
thmks the smaller roll is the consular niappa
Ihe dblphins on the tomb of Valeria are pro-
bnbly symbolic of aflection, and the turtle-dives
or other birds in the spandrels of th. .small
aiches on that of Probus and Proba may have
he same meaning. See St. Ambro*c (do Mra-
/«.<«, 1. c. «, 5;i), with reference to Ltike ii. 22
6qi|. duos pullos cdumbarum quod in columba
spiritalis gratia sit, in turture incorrupta. eene-
ratiouis natura, vel immaculata corpor;s casti-
mouia. '^
Maitigny mentions a marble snrcoph...gu3,
caived ajiparently on the same principle of com
OS, i„n as the la.st-mentioned,' of diViding the
flout by pillars into arched rece.sses, where the
^paoes .aie tilled by figures of the diVerent age
a. soldier, and of his courtship and marriage.
It was discovered at Aries in 1844. (See lul-
ktmdo IVrntitut d- Corresp. Archm.\r> 1844
p. iL' sqq.) It is in gooj classical style, and
n !f cl '.'d'^h'^'] '"• ' '"''''""' """'"'"-'. 'f "h
Ii eJ • ri. ■ 'T"' ""■'" ""' .seulptured on the
6 les. Ihis may be a Christian add tion made to
au also 1 , ind on the ornamental carvings,
and In '''■"'' '""'^''»"'««tio scenes on the glass
an, go d cups, see Garrucci, Vetri, tav. xxixS.^
IX.V11. 11 ^ 3, j;jj., 4 L^.^^^_j learning is iroinir
on ■» xxix 4; and in xxxii. 1 a mother oilers hef
breast to her child. j-r. gt J T J
MABTIA
1115
-'"S!?;„=f'i„rr"TH.]"
l«3''^?^".i"I'"'*/''' commemorated at Thessa-
Jonica April 2 {Hieron. Mart), [C. hT
MAIISUS, presbyter and. confe."..inr at Aiuei re ■
cjanmemorated (Jet. 4 (I/ieron. JUart UM
Acta SS. Oct. ii. 387). m. h V'
Jn^A^llt' "'"L'^A '"""n^morated at Rome
June J {Ji,eron. Mart.). [CHI
me .. ted at K,„„ , j^^. ,„„«t„y'„f Calistns .„
MartAj!^''"'- lM//-.«. ^u,..,. Led"
[iuL7sw:2^''"'''' ''""""""""•"t^J Jan. 20.
24%*!r!l/';;:;:""""'"-"'«J "t^icomedia l.eb.
(6) Widow, mother of Simeon Stylltes iunior.
comnKMiiorated Way 5 (Hoi,. .Ic./'st j" '",;
w.ki!^ ^"""''- ^"'"'•' ^""'"'' '■«'• ^'^"'y.
(6) Or Mati.ana, mother of Sfmenn Stvlit...
senior; commemorated Sej>t. 1 (lloll Ac'asl'
Sept. i. 20.)). V""ii. ^i..u i6,
(7) Martyr with Sa.il.a, virgins, at the oif v „f
Cohmia ; commemorated Oct. 20(i;.,uarl J/,„< )
(8) Sister of Lazarus. Her translatio is .'iven
with t^iat of I.a.an,s, on Dec. 17 by ulu ,^ „'[
H^si-itiS^xiut-thrt-b::.-'^
MAItTHEBUS, martyr; commemorated at
Rome June 18 i/Iieron. Mart.). [C. 1l]
MARTIA o.- MARCIA (1) Martyr- com
memorated at Nicomedia Jan. LV/.i^; i! Ma7;
JSiHrT',7,'r '"'T' """■"' '="'"■"'"'»-
raceu Maicti ,i {Iluirun. Mart.; Boll Acta Vsf
Mar. .. 22«); Marcia (bed. Mart. Au^t ) "
\^^A ,^':'">''V, '=°'»'"'-'">"rated, not said where
Ap'il 14; anothercommemoratedonsamed. V at
the ..emetery of Praetextatus on the Via ll'
at home {Ilmron. Mart.). " *
(//'L*.''2;,')."'"'""°"''' " ^'"'^''^p- 20
(//SoS',')."'"'"™""'"''* "' Ji"-"" J"- 2
(8) Martyr with Cyria and Valeria all
native., of Caesarea in Palestine ; c.nmcnm
rated June 6 (Basil. M^ml.). '■■^"""emo.
8 (Krfe)?'"'"^"'''"'"'' "' ^"-•'- J"-"
(10) Martyr; commemorated in A(--;;a. Jun.
16 {Hwron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(11) Martyr in Africa with Aemilius and Kellx •
commemorated June 18 (//.V,-o„. ^„ •" Boll'
^c<j 6'.S'. Jun. ill, 668). "■ '• , »oii,
(12J Martvr with Rufinus ; commemorated
at Syracuse Juno 21 {Hier^n. Mart ■ vT
Mart.; (/suard. Mari). Mr.r.::%ll' Ji^^
(13) Martyr, with others at Rom« ; oon.ma
moiated July 2 (Usuard. Mart.). '
,,/">. Martyr; commemorated at Cordova Oct
13 aiwron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(16) Martyr; commemorated in Camnania
I Nov. 5 (Ilieron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. ^t^<!)
'' t
1110
MAiniA
It
(16) Miirtyr; (■iiiniiu'niDnaw'J in Afrlc^i Dcr.
l.'p(,/A.(M/i. Si, lit.). [(J. H.]
IM Aim A MS (1) Miirtyrj lonimemornfeil in
Al'riia ,ljii. .1 (l/icniii. Murt. ; Itdjl. Acta SS.
J;iii. I. I .ID).
(2) M.irlvr; {'(iininiMiuiiali'il in AfVicii Jan !)
(//,<■/■.-/.. .W.'irl.).
(3) Mailyi-; inninuMiinratL'il at liiiino Jan. 'Jl
{lliinn. Mint.).
(4) Maityi- ; (iiiiiniiMiKirati.'il at Vaiontia in
Sjiain .(an. 'i'l (Hicnm. M,irt.).
(6) Mailvr; coinnioinniMtod at Uoinu Fi'li, 2
(l/ii'rm. .lAl;•^).
^ (6) .Martyr; (■(Hiiincniciratcil nt Nicumpilia
Ki'li. Ill; aiKillicr I'liniiiicniuiatocl in AlVloa, anil
a lliird at aiilaiu iinknnwn. the ,<aniiMlav(//«7wi,
Miirt.).
(7) Martyr; cnniiTicnioiiitiMl Kcb. 18 (Ificnm.
Milrt.). lieil. y||/,^ ^rjvi.^ tho llL'lHwitic) of II
bisliiiji Martiali.-c nu tlii.s .lay.
(8) Mipivr; iMiMiintrniiirafed at Nicomcilia
Sl.ircli 1.) (//in-on Ahrt.).
(9) Martyr ; (•lannii'iiKiiatoiI April 10 at Sani-
gossa (('.Mianl. Mart.) ; in I'.uitns (Ilkron. Murt.);
at liniiu' (lldll. Act,i .SX A]!, ii. 4iir>).
(10) Martvr; (•(ininii'mnnitoil Ht Nicoineilia
.^I'lil Jit ( //«r.i;i. Miut. ; lioii. Murt. Aw:t.).
(11) Martyr; coinimMiKiratcil in Africa May
4 {llii-nm. Murt.).
(12) Two martyrs of tlii,^ name ; coinmomo-
ratcil in Africa May 7 (llkivn. Mart.).
(13) Martyr; conimoinoiatiMl at Tomi May
27 (. ■run. Murt.) ; in Alrica (l!e<l. Murt. Auit.).
(14) Martyr; commenuiratml at Tlietisnlouica
June 1 (Jlicnm. Murt.).
(18) Martyi-; comniemoratiiii at Rome Juno
2 (f/i,n>n. M,irt.).
(16) Ui.-ilKip of .S|iii|pto; commemorated Jnne
3 (lioll. A,t(i .v.V. Jiin. i. .'i!t.".).
(17) Martyr ; commcmnrated at Rome June
5 (i/i,Ton. Murt.).
(18) Bi..<lioj) ; \m di'iKwitio cor memorated at
l.iiii"i;' ■< .'uno :l(> (///,.,•.„.. Muit. ; L'suard. Mart. ;
Bi'il. .l/.i;7. ; H..i||. Actu SS. Jun. v. 5;t5).
(19) Ouu.of .seven l)rother.s, martvr.s ; comme-
nt. raiid at Home Julv 10 Uiieron. Mart.;
L.-iiard. JAi,!'. ; Bed. Mart.).
(20) Martyr ; commemorated at Svrmia July
Ui (//u-nm. Murt.). Mar(iali.s (Bed, Mart. Aiict.').
(21) Or M,\lici.\i.i,s, one of tiie Mnrtyre.i Scii-
I'tani ; comnic niorated July 17 (Mait.']iv<h\e).
(,22) Martyr, witli otii.rs in Tortus Romani].; •
coiiiiiu.iuorate.i Anj;. '2-' (Ificron. Murt. ; IJsuard'
Murt.: 1V(. /urn. Murt.; Bed. Murt. Aiui.; Boll.
Actu .V,'?. Aug. iv. .■)7;!).
(23) Martyr ; commemorated at Acinileia
Aiij,'. J;! (.//«.,v«. Murt.; 1'loru.s in Bed. Murt.).
(24) Martyr; commemorated Sept.24(//ii^.o,j
Murt. ). ^
(25) Martyr; commemorated Sept. "8 (Vet
Sum. Murt. ; Bed. Mart. Aud. ; UoU. Acta .W
!>ept. vii. till.;).
(26) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Oil. G
{HicruH. Murt.). Marcialis (Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(27) Martyr; commemorated at Antioch Oct
8 ^JJieron. Mart. ; Bed. Murt. Auct.).
MAKTIANUa
I (28) Martyr; conimeiiionited at Acernum in
I Sicily Oct. 1 1 (;/„■,■„,,. Mart. ; Bed. Murt. Aurt.).
(89) Martyr, with Januarius and KaiistuH-
eonimeinoratod nt Cordova Oct. 1,1 (ll.suard'
Murt.).
(80) Martvr J commemorated In Africa Oct.
18 {//uriin. Murt.).
(81) (Mauciams) Martyr; co-nmeinoruted at
Nlc.,ni,.(ha Oct. IJU (I/wron. Mart. ; Bed. Murt.
Aiict.).
(32) Martyr; commemorated in Spain iNov. 9
(llicrun. Mart. ; Bed. Murt. Aiu:t.).
(33) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Nov,
l.> (llicnn. Mart.; Bed. Murt. Auct.).
(34) Two martyrK of tlii.s nam ; commemo-
rated Nov. l(i (J/ieron. Mart.).
(38) Martyr ; commemorated Nov. 2,1 (//iVrciM
Murt.). ^Y'.H.]
MAUTIANA (1) Virfiin, martyr; comme-
morateil m Mauritania ('Hesariensis ,)an. il (U»u-
ard. Murt. ; Ado, Murt. ; Boll. Acta .V.s'. .Ian. i.
.>b9); the nai'io is Macra in Vet. limn. Murt.
(2) Virun, martyr under Diocletian in
Mauritania OaeaarieuNis; commemorated ,lan
(Usuard. Mart. ; Boll. Ada .SVV, Jan, ill. ,1(i8)
(8) Martyr, with Nicanor and Apollonius;
commemorated in Kjrypt April ,■-. (Ilwrun. Mart. ;
Uauard, Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Murt.).
(4) Martyr ; commemorated in Africa April 26
(llicrun. Murt.).
(6) Martyr; commemorated at Rome Jnno 2
(Jlwruii. Murt.).
(6) Virgin, martyr ; commemorated at tho
city Amecia Aug. 18 (l/wr,.„. Murt.). Marciana
(Bed. Mart. Auct.). See also Makuiani:.
r/i IT "1
MAUTIANU8 (1) One of several " pra"cla-
ris.simi martyrs ; commemorated in Africa Jan.
4 (U,suard. Mart.; Hieron. Mart.).
(3) I're.sbyter oeconomu.s of Ihe j;reat church
ot tonstantinople ; commemorated Jan. 10 (Basil
f!rT'\i ,F"i- ""'""'■ •' ■^'""''■1. <^^- 1-itunj. \v.
•^.-iO ; Boll. Acta SK Jan. i. (ill).
(8) Commemorated Jan. 18 {Cal. liy.ant.).
(4) Bishop in Sicily; commemorated wit
J hilagrius and Pancratius Feb. 9 (Basil. Mmul.).
(8) Martyr at Rome on the Via Flaminia-
commemorated Feb. 14 ; one of the same nam,'
commemorated in Tuscany on this day iUierm.
Murt.). ^
(6) Martyr ; commemorated March 3 (I/leron
Mart.).
(7) Bi-shop and martyr at Dertona in Liguri,i
cir. A.D. 120; commemorated March ti (Boll
Acta 5^'. Mar. i. 421).
(8) Martyr; commemorated at Cnrthn™ Mar.
11 (Hicron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. Awt.)~ Bed
Awt. gives .Uso for this day Marcianus at Alex^
imdria.
(9) Bishop ; commemorated at Heraclea Mar,
20 (/licron. Murt.).
(10) ".ivo martyrs of tlii., name; onmitiemiu
rated atl aesnrea iuSiiain Ap. \b(Hier„n. Mart.).
(11) Martyr; commemorated in I'ontus, an-
other elsewhere April 10 {Hieri^n. Mart.; Boll.
Acta iid. Ap. li. 405).
Km
m
IAN US
MKiiHtcil at. Acnrnum io
*i'<. ; ItwI. .!/„;•<. .ill,;,).
'iinmiriiH iiml Kiiiistns;
lovii Oct. l.'i (IJsimnl.
riioratod iti AlVica Oct,
rtyr ; <'ii-iiiiii'iniiiatml at
rmi. Atitrt. ; lieil. M„rt.
ninati'il ill Spain Nov. 9
irt. Aiu:t.),
riorali'.l in Africa Nov.
Miirt. Auct.).
this nitm ; coirinii^ino-
iirt.).
loratud Nov. 2ri {Ilierrm.
■ [C, H.]
Ii'gin, martyr; conime-
<esari('iisi,s ,)aii. !t (Umi-
lloll. Actit »SW. .Ian. i.
In Vtit. Item. Miiit.
unilcr Diiiijctian in
ooniiminorutcd .Ian. 9
ia .'vS'. Jan. iii. ,^(iH).
anor and A|iidl"niiiH;
^)ril .') {IlietoH. Mart.;
:. Mart.).
atcd in Africa April 26
rated at Koino ,hmo 2
•"inini-moratdd at fho
run. Miirt.). Marciana
ilso Mauoiani:.
[0. H.]
s of soveral " pra"cla-
inoratcd in Africa Jan.
Murt.).
» of tlio ^r.'at church
nnniteil ,lan. 10(HBsil.
nnii'l, CW. J.ituiy, iv.
. Oil).
18 (C<,1. lin'.ant.).
comniemoratud wil.
Feb. i)(Hasi|. Minol.).
n the Via Flaininia;
no of the same name
on this day (Hierun.
ied March 3 {//ieron.
at Oertona in Lignria
ited March ti (lM\.
ited at Carthage Mar.
Mart. Awt.)." IWI.
y Marcianus at Alex-
ted at Heracica Mar.
lis name; oommemn.
p. \b{Hicron, Mart.).
•Hted in I'lmtiis, au-
Jiierun. Mart.; JJoll.
MAHTIANrs
(12) Martyr; cmmemor.ited at Antloch April
17 (llurm. Mart.; ll.,d. Mart. Aiu:t.).
(13) .Martyr; cmmeinorated in Africa Aiirii
.') ( llifri n. Mart.). '
(14) Martyr; cmimemorated in K^ypt April
*7 {llwrmi. Mart.; Bed. Mart. A,u;t.).
(16) .Mirlyr; conimcmonited at IVrusia April
... Mn.i one oi the «ani« name at Alexan.iria
(llirriin. .Mart.).
<|8) ^'"rlyr I eommemoratod at Constanti-
nople .May K {J/uron. Mart.).
(17) Martyr; ..•om memo n; ted at Rome In the
ce,,,,.,,,ry „i l'r,,«te,tatu8 May 10 (y/iro„.
(18) Martyr; commemorated In Kgypt May
("«iiard. Mart.
''''■''• Jan. i. II).
MAKTINjrs
yet. Jium. Mart.
1117
It( II. Acta
lioll. Aria ,SS. Kei)
lioriie
; Ited
on Via
Artrt.
) .Martvr; c
17(//.,v..M. Mart.).
(19) Mishop of Kavenna, cir. a.d. 127- com-
memorated May 22 (lioll. Arta SS. May. vl I2T).
(30) Martyr; com>„en,orated at Rome on the
\ i.i .No.neiitana May 2S (.'/ier„n. Mart )
(/W !^:,!.l'): '^"■""'""'"■•""•■" "t «.-- June 2
of IvJ,,;^!'"''^'' '''"' Nicander and other,, native.
ni'nm m,t.; Usuard. Mart.; 1!„|| a,..,, ^J
(25) liLshop of Benevcntum in tht Sth ten
JuZii.".?«).™"''""-"^ •'"'"■' ^* C"""- ^^'^'"Sl
(26) Ui.shop of Pampeluna cIr. a.d. 700 • com-
memorated June 30(lioll. Acta SK Jun. y.'^Z^.
M^rt ioi i '"^.^'^''r''^' "' ■''"•"' (^'■^'•<"••
.atari. , Boll. Actt .S',S. July, iii. :i2).
(28) Martyr; commemorated July n ;„ Mau-
r ta„,a, aj.) „„„ ,„■ th„ «„,„« name at Syrmia
(U<eron. Mart.). Boll. Acta SS. Jul. iiris',
gn-es a Marc,anu.s for this day at Iconium ' , --. - v-
iAhoIi"'^'";'' f.^'f'?"^'- '^nn""«morated July ^"''■>'
i* (Hon. Acta S.\ Jul. iii. 654). ' (7) Two
iMuiel, tW. /„YMr,/. iv 2',i
11. 6iJ7).
(8) Martyr; com„,.,,„„r,,„,, ,
K.^n^Kti:r:-^;'7"-n rated at
J/om. Mart. //Iro,; W '7' " .'""""^"« ( ''''•
<« M.,1,, ,|,h s.„„|„„ „„„ ',
j1\'? I','".''""";."' '" *'■"■■" '*'■ "> iitn
■acta .b.S. Oct. vu. 2, p. S.'i.t) V'oii.
'c..^^Lra::d^:tX.S-,4^gTr
(noii.^;,,,s!/Kll',^;;;;"''''' '"''"'''•'' •'•'^''•1'
-iJ.'? ■^'-'^'"^'"'S'S. archhiHhop of lira™, died A D
^Vjr'r"rp''2^"^f (^^"^i'l ^^
^.^..?-S;Mrr"k8'6)'*'^'''''^'"'''-'^^''*!"''"-
n.i2ri^t^A„»::l;^!^-' ^."«i'io com-
Uishop (lied. Mart. Auct7 A \ T"' ^f"''--*-
27,
Mart.)
"r&"f;l^ "'""-— orated
(30) Ma^yr; c„n,mem;..ted at Ephesus July «'VL»aIorr,1 ^trZ^
,.^«,th Ma.x,m,anu. and Malchui (Usuard' ^(8) Martyr; commemorated June i,
^^(31) Martyr with his brother Marcus. [Mar-
broflfer.^'""'^'' *'"" ^''"""'»"' """l 'heir two
Motlier^; commemorated in Africa Oct
(U.suard. .»•,„•<.; Bed. if„r«.Xci;) '
16
Mart.). '■' """■"'"»«'i June U) {Uwron.
(9) Bishop of Toncres Hr a n o-i-
uu
ii
nnusin the prayer Co,«M«»i6',mfe, between Hi
30 (Hieron. Mart.)
^I'i^NS^Krr^r"'^™'"
M^^l.^T^"^' •'•""■"emTated Nov. 2.5 (llieron
ila,t); Mnrcmnus (Bed. Jfu,,. vlr/cn ^
(37) and MARTYBiriH nnt»..;
Menol. ; Cat. liyxant.).
MARTfVA,
(Ba
[C. H.J
'.™.r; Sirs .r£ :-;.77 1 's '"""; ~'"'"'"' ""■ ' '''™-
■ I (14) Pope; dedication of his basilica in the
il •
u
1118
MARTINU8
MAUTYR
m
It- if' :j
u
niMiiuilcry of Curlicin cniiimcinorntcil Si'pt. 2
(//ii'inii. M'lrt); hi! wiis <ciiiiiiii'iiiiinili'.l Si'|it, ITi
(lia«il. -IAh../.); Apr. 1 ;((',</. /li/ mil.): Apr. 14
(liiiiiii'l, ('(/, l.it'ini. iv. 'J'>7)j ills imtiilis .Nciv.
Ill (llMmr.l. .)/,((•/, ;' IWil. Mmt. 4 (Y. ; Vet. Ixvm.
M.irl.); Nnv. IJ(llr,l. M,vt.Anrt.).
(16) Alili;it 111' Vi'itavmn in Ariiioiini, i>li. i:ir.
A.n. illMi; niniiiii'iiKirnlml Oct. 'J4 (UMianl. Mart.;
liiill. .l,/.i ,w, (ti!t. X. He:;).
(16) Ciilli'il iiIm) Martins, licniilt mid abliat in
Campania; rninnii'miirutucl Oct. 2t (lioU. Actn
ss. Oct. X. w:\).
(17) "Onr Kallu'r," Ijj.sliiip iif Kriiucio ; coin-
nifiinuratiMl Nov. 1:; (llu.sil. Muul.).
(18) .Martvr; iMininidniimteil in Africa Dec. 3
(lIu-ruH. Mirl.; 11,.,!. M,iH. Alt,/.).
(19) Aliliat ; ciimnii'morutod at Sauctona.s Dec.
7 (U.-uar.l. M„it.). [C. H.]
JIAU'I'IONII.LA, commemoratvJ Jnnnnry 9
(I(Y. A„m. M.irt.). [C. H.J
MAIiTlfS iir MAncmS (1) Martyr; com-
niiiiiciralid I'rii. 17 (H,imn. M,irt.).
(2) Martvr; ciinnnunioratod nt Antioch Mar.
5 (llifiim. jt,irl.).
(3) .Vblial in Aiivi'rgni!, rith contiirv; cnmnic-
niuralod Apr. l;i (iJidl. Act,i .b'*'. Ap. ii. I.IJ).
[C.H.]
MAUTUS (1) Martyr; conimemoratud at
Anti.xli .Mar. .". (/A,r. ». Mirf.).
(2) Martyr ; I'linitni'niorali'd at Aloxnnilria
Mar. I,s (Hin-uii. Mart.).
(3) Martyr; comineinoratcd Apr. 12(nirron
Mart.). [C. ll.j
MAliTYU. Tlii> Oroi'k word Htiprut signifii-s
ouu who h.i.s ,siii-h ininu'diati! kniiwjt'dije of pa.st
evi'nt.s ii.s i.-i dcrivi'd frnni actual pnrtiiipatjnu in
thi'm, and itoos not keep this knowlwlgi; to hiin-
solf, hut makes deposition of it freidy as a frcninan,
and makes il his naprvpla or evidence, the know-
ledi;i' bi'iu>; siuli as to constitute a naprvpwv, or
ti'stinuuiy, as utTectin); a iiucstion not only of
facts hut of merits.
I. i. The history of the Christian modification
of the term is ns follows : {it) The olficc of public,
oral, ocular testimony was insulliciently dis-
chari;ed till the testimony was recorded, as the
lientence against Christ had been pa.ssed, in a
court of law. The word i.s used specially for
such ollicial testimony, of Stephen (Act.s xxii.
2ii), of I'anl at Konie (Acts x.\iii. II, 1 Tim.
ii. 0), of .lames (Ilnj^es. ap. Ens. ii. 23), of Peter
and I'anl (Clem. Horn. 6), of John (I'olycrates
ap. I'.us. //. E. V. 24).
('>) The idea of martyrdom at first was not of
inaltreatnfnt, but of a perilous dicnity. The
witnesses won their title of honour by ci)iirai;e
without sull'erini;. The title was co-ordinate
with bishop and teacher (I'olycr. up. Kus. If. E.
V. 24), and projihet (t.us. 7/. E. v vviii, 7).
The typical instances are tlie gr , isons of
Judo, who were accused before Pomitian and
released unscathed, and took the lead ever
after in the churches as martyrs (Heuesiiu). au.
Eus. //. K. iii. 20, :vi). ' y t, il r
(c) The martyrs would have been mere con-
fesscus, not witnesses, but that- they ''endured
as seeing Him who is invisible." Thus they
not only " confessed," but " witnessed the gooil
confession." The confessors were "the cum-
patilons of the martyrs " (/litllittini, 180 1, p. 2.'i).
"Confession," says Clement of Alexandria. '• is
possibb. for all; the ^;race id' testilMni; by
"} <■'' i« only jrivcn to dome" (.SVnwi. Iv. !t).
Sleadlaslnexs under torture was the tesiiuiony
to which the advocates of Christiiinity appealed.
It. was nee.lful tliat the hi rs an. L authority
of martyrdom should not be won t .'imIv.
Hence, not merely peril, but actual sulbrirl^
became indispensable to constitu' narivnl,,m.
Those, for instance, who had been comlemued
to the i|uarries were honoured as martyrs
(I'/iilv.sop/iiinu-nn, ix. 12; Tert. (/c I'luliat. 22);
((/) llloodsheddinK (Clem. Alex. !<lri,i,i. iv,
4), instead of speech, became the mode of the
testimony. "The custom of the brotherhood,"
says Oritjen (in Jo; ii. .iS, t. iv. p. HM. cf.
Cypr. Epp. X. 2. xxviii. l,xxxvi. 2), "calls those
alone projierly martyrs who have testilied to the
mystery of -odliness by the shedding of their
own blood." This public testimony, expressed
not in words, but in blood, was far more thau
testimony ; it was martyrdom.
(c) Many Christian Virginias and I.ucrelias
committed suicide to esca|)e the brutal lusts of
their persecutors. They are extolled as martvrs
by Kusebius and Chrysostom (Eus. //. E. viii.
1'^, 14; Chrys. 7'. 1, 77i»(i. 40). Augustine
pronounces the mactice unlawful, unless insti-
gated by a special revelation {Do Civitato Ihi, I.
xvi.-xxv. ;!0-;iU).
(./') Martyrs were made by popular riots and
lynch law, without any judicial proceedings
(Eus. If. B. vi. 41). '"
(.'/) it was once a complaint " Marfyrio meo
privor.dum morte praevenior " (Cvpr. i/c Murti-
litaffl,]t. Iti7, ed. Oxon.), and this applied even to
deaths in prison before the case was heard.
There seem to have been ca.se8 of suicide in gaol
to avoid torture (Tertullian, (fa ./rjiinio, c. 12).
lint the names of those who died in prison were
recorded in a.d. 177 (Eus. 77. E. v. 4), and in
Africa, in A.D. 202 (Acta Pcrpctuae, c. 14), ,ind
they are expressly reckoned as martyrs by Cy-
prian (A>. 12 (:t7)).
(A) Flight from persecution, though repro-
bated by Tertullian {tie Ei^jii), was enjoineil by
<.'hrist (Matt. x. 2:1), and the ApoUolic Cwmti-
tutiims (v. ;t, cf. viii. 4,'>) recommend the fugi-
tives as deserving the same care as the martyrs
in gaol. Tho.se who perish 1 in the hanlshipsof
their flight were recognised by Cypri.iii as
martyrs, whose martyrdom wiu witnessed by
Christ (A/>. Iviii. (Ivi.), c. 4).
(0 The death of the Innocents murdered by
Herod was regarded as an active martyrdom,
"testimonium (.'hristi sanguine litavere "" (Tert.
inWileittin. c. 2), "mnr'yria l'ecerunt"(Cypr. Ep.
viii. ii). The recognition of it as such was closely
connected with the sanction of infant baptism
(Cypr. Ep. Ixiv. (lix.)).
(*) Athanasius recognises as martyrs those
who fell at the hands of the Ariuus. (Ath. aj
Mun. p. 277.)
(/) In A.I). .'i08 .some Christians, put to death
for calling an ollicer of Valeutiniaa's to Justice,
were celebrated as martyrs. The testimony of
Ammianus Marccllinus (xxvii. 7) to this fact is
mo.st exj.licit an.d cirrunistautial, though ab-
surdly derided by (iibbon. So Augustine (m
I'sntm. 140, c. 2G) calls John Baptist a martyr
to truth aud justico.
rvR
Itiill.ttin!, IRRI.p. 2:.).
'lit (iC AlcxMinlrlii, '• is
iii« 111" tc»tiCuin; I))-
mum'" {SIroii'i. Iv. !•).
ri! WHS I he tosl iinmiy
<'lnistiMtiily iiiiiii'iil,.,!.
iiiiiniirs aii.i, milliniity
t lie wcin ti>c) ca^ilv.
but llltlllll Slltl'rllll>»
•ipiistitii' niirlynlinii.
hiul lircn ('i>iii|>>iiiiii'(l
iiiiiipuriMl ii.H niiiviyrii
Vrt. (/(■ I'xutioit. •<•!}.
111. Ali'X. Strom, iv.
unit' the iiKiilc 111' tliu
1)1' till) Ijiotlu.ih,,,,,!,"
. •■'.«, t, iv. )). HM. of.
n-ixvi. 2), "i.iilN iliiisu
1) huvo ti'slilicil ti> llie
III! sluvliliuf; (if lliijr
testiiiidiiy, i'.X|iri'>fi'(l
I, wiia fur iiii)r« tliau
loin.
ri;iniiiR nnd I.iicii.tins
K till' l>riital liislH iif
■1! uxtoljeil aa nmrfyin
Dm (Kus. //. E. viii.
'om. 40). Au^iustiiiu
jlitwfiil, nnli'SH iiisti-
u (Do Civitato Jici, I.
by popniiir riiiLs and
judicial prociiediutjs
aint " Martyrii) nipo
(ir"(('y|ir. i/c M..rta-
I this a|)|ilii)d I'von to
liu i'a.si) was lioiril.
sea of aiiiciile in i,mii|
n, (Iti Jrjnnio, k. I 'j ),
[) died iu prison wltb
U. E. V. 4), ami in
'erpctiuw, c. 14), and
1 us luai'tyru by C'y-
tion, thoujjh ri'pi'o-
■/«), was I'lijoiin'd by
tlic A/niiitolic Coiititi-
ecomniend llie I'ujji-
cai'u a.s the martyrs
I iu the hard.sliips of
<ed by Cyprliui us
I wiu wituessed by
».
loccnts murdi'n'd by
active niartyrdciiii,
line litavi're " {Trrt.
i'eceriint"(t'ypr. J;)'.
t assuiih was tlosi'ly
II of iufaut baptism
1 as martyr.s those
e Ariaus. (Ath. cij
istians, put to death
ntiniau's to justice,
The testininiiv of
ii. 7) to thi.s faet in
;a!itiill, t!iuiij;h ab-
Si) Augustine (m
Q liaptist a martyr
MARTYR
(ill) Aiiicnstine »ny« one becnmen n martvr on
« Ml k lii'd by ri'fusinif to be enrud by mai-ie
(Svv,.. JHU, e, '.'8; ef .SVn,., :!IH). ^ **
(-1) Augustine .sayH a,i{ain, Vnu will rd heme
ninartvr if yni have overeiiine all theteinpta-
tious ofthed,.vi| (.?,.™,. 4, c. 4),
{") Keadiiii'ss f„r marlvrdom in regnrded as
Itseli ni.irtyidi.ni (Chrys. ii. (iO|, ,„1. Miijne).
11. We have traeed the change "f the meininif
ot the nnpl hem witness to martvr. As a title of
honour ainoni; the Christians,' the term was
n'l"|.ti.| into Latin nlon(f with Christianity. In
the luiK'uniies of Oriental Christenilom it is repre-
fient,.,| by Mane native e,|uivalent that has under-
Rone a like chnnKe of meaning. The testiinonv of
iii'.eenee and enduranie was trauslixured into
^;e I'eaee.andgr , nnd nlory " „f n,„,iyrdom.
«Usof ,1. martyrs of Vienno and Lyons (Kus.
in ■ )' '." u- '"'T"'""' Miirtyrdom eonid
1 «.,. *^r''""'y''i;pi-ehe I |,y I^,„,.,i,„,
.|;.rseenLdmai.t^.'m:nU;;i;^''-;:'f,::;
themselves declined the title. "They re
n ready martyrs whom Christ the Veiita ,
Martyr has taken to Himself: we are conf so
mean and low iy." The line was not imm ^ , v
and i.mvers, ly drawn where they I ew it^
They themsel-..,, though declining the title
oxeivised the prerogatives of l.firtv s. „'
Cy|, nana time the lapsed went round to the
martyr, everywhere, and corrupted the c „
f ssi.r, too (Cypr. ffj,p. 20), 'ami there foro
con ■ ' ^'^' ^ T'^^'' •'"• '"»"»«* '>'-" «
con essor was one who had shed his blood and
coul. grant absolution. But in Home the t
iZ "h '.'7 '""%""'•'«-' t" 'he dead. (Cypr^
I^'/n«ni;s,4e■\cf''£;?'"o/«"7'''l^•;';f '■'",: '"
the ,l,w.. „A- 1 I' *■ ' '''• '")' 'hough at
th , ose 01 his days he wrote to the martyrs in
the m.nes (A>. 70). "What martyr," „sk"
Tertullian " is „ denizen of the world, al ppl an
for a shilling, at the mercy of the usurer' or ?hc
physician ? " (Tert. do Pwlic. c. 22.)
Ihe Hrst great interruption of the peace of
''*" I the title to the departed, namelv, Maxi-
vZiimri^;-^.!"'^"'"^'*^-"'-'^-'"-"^
limli'itlon of^'h"7 "'■ *'" *"> '"'"*»'y ""-■
; — L'r'^:!;;'/'!..::^^';''''^!'-'- t'-ougi. it
MARTYR
1119
";"n't;tl^::;::^;;;;;;;;;/';;;.:r.iiir)
;:::v;,::ri;e:'::::;;;7"-;i':' '-''-•'"
ill /.imU.Uiim., „/ t/w till,:.
(I) ""'relics were eiiliiil.,. I iir 1
first of anv sect tm n , j .^ '"; J'" -"'''"'t
Kpii.hanius, yA;,<.'//;,.';^'''^':;^3'''-. '•:
iv- 4), saying that the m irtvrs ,li d L S '"'"■
"f Cyrene. Kut the March,, ,.,?(.• ' "^ l^",""?
re [Sr^T":~-t "-'""""
Ajj0.1t. V. \). ■'■ *""ni''"-« (-onat.
' (2) Schismatics were cxiduded. Cypriin W«
CVp '"/.'" '.n"^ ■•^^'h»K".nanc,,nfeJ,
( ypi. /./). .10). Augustine says, (>utsi,|o the
■ ""-cli you will be punisheil 'eve Is n^lV
though you have been burnt alive for t le 3
"' Christ (A>. 17:t (204), c. 'j). ""
(H) Self-sought iiiartvrdom was not allowe.I
"•■' Mich. Such a would-be martvr l,L ,T
time of ,.„,ycarpV martyrdoi':,"( 'j,;. .' w 0" 4V
CUmena A exandrinus speaks'of self-suTendtr
C.eator (.S<m„. iv. 4). There were instai es „
is ill t . 1! , - 1 ■••'•'- ■-"•"""isiieu, inoug I it
vh T %^" ''""•'' ^^'"'""^'' '» writing '.A
«h, I ,.h„,r of „„.t ,, K A
(K"i,fh, M/,iimae, ,v. p. 5). Death, the con-
,„l:„i, ..'■ "• ^'- 'nere were instances i
"rcarth,^e(A„g;i;.;;:';,At«,":v-'m''x;;r
;<|i5J.rS?X£-^;:^"X?h!i,.f^^^
>N.i~pi,...,t.:vr;, 1 ;;;,:;:;;:;';;■'
Mu,r,,i ,.' C „ , ■ :' ire,;:;",;. "•••I'.
with f,y,.,.:i.i.. .1... . "."/''"e's, and demanding
uncortain
1120
MARTYR
V. Tlw lafcr (h,>vk» adopt a claPitinc'ition of
niHrt_vi> into vaiious cl.use.i.
}JiiTniiiiirti/,\i (111! the martyrs of the clergy.
I/'i..ii)i,i(tri i/r.i i\te iniirtyrcir niooks.
Hi:i„l,j,n,irljrf ,,i« tlie niiirtyra of the sol-
dlcry.
J'lirthenomiiHijrn are virgin martyrs.
A,i,ir:,;iH, th,f title of the twin physicians
CosmiLs ai I lianiian, is extended to Sergius and
Baodiiis, and t.. ,l„)i„ and Cyrus, twoslinilar |)«irH.
""■ (ind the term megalomartvr in Theo-
Jihylact Simocatta (v. K). Some trace of such
classidcation ajipearit in J'olycrates ai). tus. //. A'.
V, 24.
II. Laws under which the Christians suffered.—
(1) Oeu'i-al. 1,1 ancient civilisation idolatry
was ahnnst inse|janible from daily life. Eiluca-
tion (Turtulliau, de fjululatria, c. 10), eom-
merc (ft. ,. II), puldic amusements (i6. c. IH)
marriages, funerals, social inteicourte (c. ItJ)'
domestic service (c. 17), state aHairs (c. 18)'
military duty (c. lil), all involved idolatry.
Ihe .lews, ludeed, had dealings with the Gen-
tiles everywhere and kep/ clear of idolatry.
Hence, while the only intolerance shewn to
other religions was an occasional attempt to
keep the wor.sliip of Isi, outside the walls
of K,une (Dio, liv. 6, Val. Max. I. iii.), Judaism
was detested, ami all the charges rebutted by
Tertullian from the Christians, secret enor-
f,"!f^x ^'"i"''', ''''"'• '^-'■'^' '"'I''""' "theism Ci4.
lU-.H), disall.'ction to the empire (lA. 29-3,5)
enmity to mankin.l (ft. ;iti-4I), laziness (iV,!
4i,-4b), i.riotciaft (ft. 4«-i9), are brought
also as calumnies against the Jews (Tac
{''f, •/.' •';•'"'■■ *''• I'V. 9ti (».). Besides
disbelief in the gods led easily to sacrilege
(Acts xix. ,i7; Horn. ii. 32), a charge not
brought against the Christians. (Tert. Aiiol
41.) Vet the Jews were tolerated, were pro-
tected in the observance of their code, exempted
from civil action on the Sabbath, excused from
adoring the image of the cmiieror, and even
permitted to make proselytes. Enactments in
their favour are collected by Josephus (Ant
Jud. xvr. vi.). ' ^
Stringent as were the Roman laws against
treason, a crime into which words as well as
acts might be inierjireted— especially any dis-
respect to the emjieror's images— and which
rendered all ranks alike liable to torture (Paul
^■nt. V. x.vix. ; .Siieton. Octav. 27 ; Amm. Marcell
MAHTYR
xxix. 12; Anil'
the only acts ot the Christians which could be
coastrued as treasonable were such as were
freely permitted to the Jews. The example of
Joseph might encourage either Christian or
Jew to sw, ar by the life of Caesar. (Tert. Apol.
d..) lliey could j.lea I that to call him a god
before his deatli would be ill-omened (ft 34)
Again, meetings for worship might be con-
strued as treasonable (see Digest. XLVii. xxii 2
XLViii. iv. 1), and were at any rate strictly
Illegal, even in fulfilment of a vow, and even for
veterans, unless express imperial or senatorial
sanction for them were producible (.Sueton
JfUius, 42; Orta^. 32; Difjesi, in. iv -xLvn'
XI. 3, ixii.), and the old laws against even nri-'
vate worship of g.,ds ..mrecognis^! hv the ^tstc
(Cic. d<' Uy. ii. 8) were not (juite extinct (Tac
The fonnafion of g„|M, „„,| „i„h, „,«» strictly
torbidlen by rnijan (I'lin. /:).. x 42 41 '17)
Alteiwaids it was more and more IVp(,n',.ntlv
permitted to the lower classes f„,- one ', ,.1^
piirp-'se, the burial of the de^.d. These iiiilds
iKid a common chest like little common,
wealths, and an agent, called an nctoi' or synd ,■
who apiH-ared tor them in any le.-al disVutes
(/'',7. I.I. iv. 1). All the flinctions of' the
church were pernntted to them, as the chunh
.leside. Everyone bungs a little sum on a
certain day u, the month, or when he pleases
ai'donlyi, he phases, and ^ if he can. From
his stock pnynoiits are made, not for Casts
'"' l"r support and burial of the i.oor and of
,des|M. e o,ph„„« „„,, (.edridden old peopi,. and
ipw.ecked sai ors an.l convicts in tl'e iiliu.. o
I nn, Is or jails "( IVrt. AM 39). This was only
Mega because senatorial sanction was reoiiisite
in each r-ise. '
lV,fc/,,,„/< was a capital crime by Jewish
«vy. Uoiuan procedure varied, for people of
that sort were always being forbidden and
always being retained (Tac. Nist. i. 22). " lUiin
him alive i.s the outcry of the rabble in Lucian's
rw%"- '•■*',';"'.""' ''"^Siven by Pai.lus
wX vt '?'"■ '^'-^-^''i"? this .leath for the
Hizaidsand crucifixion or the beasts for their
nccomphces may be later. Death or banishment
s the penalty that we find historically in the
1st century (lac. Ann. ii. 32, xii. ,VJ ; I)io. Ivii
15; Juv. .v„<. vi. 6(i0 tr.). Supposed po^-ession
ot magical powers was enough to make a humble
individual tormi.lable and culpable for treason
I Any departure from the ordinary reverence for
[ he gods might easily be linked with an attempt
to turn the gods into slaves. Two main branches
of supernatural art, astrology and exorcism.
were largely in Jewish hands, an.l Moses was
rejiuted to have been a mighty wizard.
Any new superstition was looked upon ns a
school of magic -" Magi estis quia novum nescio
qiiodgenussupersfitionisinducitis"(^cl!a.l,/,„<,v
& 7, I u,. .rt). Otherwise works of beneficence
would rather lead the rabble to regard the
wonder-worker as a god than as a wizard.
Busy .,l„n,ler might produce a revolution of
feeling, but to all supernatural pretensions,
magisterial scepticism had a ready answer, the
doom ot death. '
(2) Special. Thus far we have reviewed the
iv. 24- Diaest Trvi.. i,,\' a \' '^/'"■'«'- ^ni's '«r we have reviewed the
that could be turned against them by " iin ust
disputations of the juris-consults." These charges
ot impiety, foreign superstitions, treason, un-
iawlul assemblage, magic, appear to M. Le blant
sufficient to explain all the persecutions. Hut
Lactantius {fnstit. /Hv. v. 1 1) tells us that Ulpian
also collected in the first book of his last w'ok
J>e OJfi 10 Proeonsulis, another set of laws, which
the very nature of the case and the whole tenor
ot the acts of the martyrs and of the writings of
the apologists prove to have existed, the "sacri-
legious constitutions " and " nefarious rescripts "
of the emjierors directly censuring it.
It was indeed necessary in order to brintr the
principles which are specified above intoplay
A.n. xiii."32); but' j;wrsh ;;;s\i;:"rblic 7; I i'KVr' ^^'J^'T^' '^at there should M
private, had sanction. "'"'^snip, public or authoritative definitions, distinguishing Chris-
I tianity from the lawful religion of Judaism, and
TYR
In iiml (*liibn wn« stiirtly
lin. A),. X. 42, 41, H7),
P mil tiKiru frpi|ir.ntly
(■lii»>f« for one nji.'ciii'l
■^iv il<N.il. Thi'M' i;uiM!i
liki' litfltf coinini.ii.
illc I :iii iictiir (ir syiiilic,
ill .my lejjiil (li.,'|,uli"S
• h'' Ciiiurtidiis iif the
In them, lis till) ihuich
in. "Apiirove.l eMeis
^^ a littl« sun, nil ,1
h, (ir when he |]|oiises,
'I "iiK if ho cin. Kri.m
niMile, mit (ur i\,nsU,
i.il "!' the pi](ir ntiil of
'ilriiMen oM iMMi|ile arij
onvicts in tin. mines or
'ol.:if>). This was (.nly
snnctiou was ri'i|ulsite
it.nl Clime by Jewish
vniieil, f(ir jieople of
heinj; forhiddeii aii.l
;. Jiist. i. 2->). •• Huin
t'the niMile in I.iieiiu.'s
law given hy I'.mlus
ing this death fur the
r the hen.sts (or their
Death or banishment
nd historically in the
;«, xii. .V2; I)io, Ivii.
Siippnsed po'M'ssion
igh to make a humble
nilpable for treason,
n-dinary reverence for
ike.l with an attenijit
. Two main branches
oloijy and exorcism,
mds, and Moses was
hty wizard.
as looked npon ns a
is (|iiia novum nescio
Ileitis "(^(,'<(i/lcA,<<iV,
ivorks of beneficence
bble to regard the
than a.s a wizard,
ice a revolution of
lafural pretensions,
a ready answer, the
I have reviewed the
;ainst the Christians,
ing legal principles
>t them by " unjust
ilts." These charges
itions, treason, iin-
pear to M. Le blant
persecutions. Hut
tells us that Ulpian
k of his last work,
r set of laws, which
md the whole tenor
1 of the writings of
.'xisted, the " sacri-
icfarious rescripts "
iring it.
order to brinjr the
d above into play
there should be
:inguishing Chris-
ju of Judaism, and
P
MARTYR
rcfu.inft it ««nctlou for Its rlteior conoMslon« to
Its scruple,. It was needful that the various
•uspmiotis of guilt which could n.it be urged
tgain.t the same act under ditlerent laws, with-
out transgressing a principle of jurisprudence
(VV',<X.,ym. il. U), should all be brought
under one head, and summed up into a sinirle
crime. "
(■') It we inquire when Christianity was first
made criminal, the answer of «nti(iuity is un-
animous In A.r.. tf4, hi, mistress, Poppae...
being a .lewish proselyte (.lo,. Ant. .hul. iiviii.
11 i c lac. Ann. xiii. 4.i, xv. 6), Nero had
n^^ade ,.m« a very .So,l„m, when . fierv doom
a OSS the fiber, so, as cu prits were waited in
order to „.move the suspicion from Nero himself
the conlagiation wa« charged on members o
tfte new sect, who cr.nfes.sed and betraved the
names ot others. Then a decree of the e i , eror
probably also of theobse,,»ious and not re It ,t
senate, made the profession of Christ iy'^
crime, suppose.! to imply enmitv to the human
race and sentenced to be visiteif with ,leath by
beasts, crosses (lames, or novel horrors invet^ted
on purpose.. Their deaths were turned to s,",«
and .Nero gave l,is own gardens for the Ihow
(Tac Ann. xv. 44; Sulpicius, mi. i|. 41 • IW
Ap„l. . ). W e have no hint of any oppor'tunity
01 panlon on recantation, for those once arreste/
The persecution was extended to the province,
Ui. 1 Itt. M. 12- 1«), and even a civls Rmimmu
Z;T",'1',;. '■"" '^"^ """-"""^ (TertuTira"
The Neronian persecution has only left u, two
certain iianies of martyrs, J'eter and Paul, of each
of whom the r disciple, Clement, says emphrti-
calj, i^,aprvpr,a,^ (c. 5), while of the other
u IbrV','" h'7i'"' \^ ^^'"■" '■* ""'y '»y' ">at they
as the Christians were," says Tacitus (I. c)
"pity or them arose." Yet on Nero's death
when all his other constitutions were cancelled
we are told that this decree against the Chrt'
tians alone remained ("permansit erasis omnibus
hoc solum institutum Neronianum," Tertull
ad .\.,t,.,u.-s i. 7). So we learn frot^ Dio that
Vespasian in a^d. 70, after Jerusalem wa,
of those who had been con.lemned for what were
called impietie, hy Nero and those who had ruled
putting an end to accusations on such charges "
M.UtTYU
1121
bn. i!!l """:•'"'''" of 'h^ P«<««ge In Tacitus i< obsnire
bu becom.* Clearer If we sup,.,« hira to be tranS"'
« Ith a clMiiK^. of tense the actual term, „f tti^ ^" ^ '/
a dog a„a thrown in ,„ ,he rlVer.S iZt crudaxl,
BO as to make them include the novel 3! nf ^1 , '
«atn up a, beasts, and «.uin„ do™ atTl T "*
(fa/«./.i-.7 Hi«. i„ ' "' nanimand . atque ubi
tunica molesta. or plaauv .hlrt, ^^ "" f; ^^'
to the chaiue oi «r«nn 'ri,. i ., ,"■"- — ""'• "s ongin
J^^Udlator to plaX pa^oV tZT^T^;:,--^
IS'nrt"rh'";.^''; "*• '^^" """-'"'-consultutn
again t the Christians remained appaivntlv ui .
::k';V£ ■,r';;:''fi.,r '"•'"''-■"■' ■'^■•
many persecutions. The grandsons of ,( „ | . Zll
as pr soners to iMniitian "l-y lnvo,.at, s ' :h ,^
the house of David, were di..misse I cont," i,
tuously as harmless ,,easants. and I), i i „
stoHied Ulis persecution (Hegesipp. ,>. Kus.'/aI"
In A.D. 9."., in the exaction of tribute from the
Jews, profession of faith was mad,, impe t ve
for every one, and the Christians w.re 'a, .^
of atheism. S,m,e were put to deaMi other,
were strlpt of their prope,,'v. Am'g h .hi f
sullerers were Clemens and l>onu„ll„.^coi,sins ,o
the emperor, and pnrents of his heirs. Clemen,
hough consul of the yar, was beheaded-
'onutiUa was only bnaishe.l to the isle Pan:
;lataria. Clabrio, who had been consul with
Trajan m a.d. 91, and had bee,, comiielled «
h.ht with a lion in the very vear of' his .i,^!
sulate, was now put to death, on the same charees
«« lie rest, and also on the ground of his easy
victory over the lion. Compare Suetoniu
W„, c. 12: -deferebantur qui vel imp o!
es.,1 udaice v.verent." Dio Cas,ius, Ixvii. 14
'm r 'i" '\^'- V'- "'• '«•""•' "i''™"v".. ij
.'<> [-'-] and Lus. Chron. (tbjmp. 218. iMmitilla
^\u Ti """'' "'»"ipti""» i<lentifying the
.0 as her property, and a shrine adorned with
witL7l";7f''^'-1'"' ''?'"''"«"' 'ndcspecbii;
l^.n^^'Sff;-iri>;'rii!S
Tert Apol. c. 5 ; La.-tant. de MortHnu>, c. .i) '
sec^tor T" '^ "'":■'■■'"">■ '•'"'"g»i»'-"l as a per-
W 1 7" 1 V *-' '^'I'-onology of his r,.ign is somewhat
had to determine According to"theColbertiBe
Acts of Ignatius, the triumph over the Dacit^ns
was followed by a persecution of the Chri tians
Cnnstianity being regarde,! by tf sobft
o^er the Dacians was in a.d. KVJ. u ^^^^^ ' "
have been somewhat later in his rei'n th ?
Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem, sutlered (Hegl.sippuT
U^07). ^- '"• ''• ''■ ^"'°' ^"'^- ^I>^'^1
wr!,'Je\'?" V^' """"•'""« t" M,.mmsen, Trajan
wrote his famous rescript to Pliny (I'lin. Ep.
I. 97, 98) making Christianity still a caidtal
crime, but forbidding search for the oftenders or
anonymous accusations, and decreeing pardon'for
sZ'f "b'urK^: .^"'*" '^'^ law^ifwispos
ible for bold Christian, to present apologie., f,^r
the faith without being them.selves' arraigned
sente7;o"l5"? "^ ^"'^"''•'' »°^' Q"H''™tus%:
rr=^^!:-;^-"r-'^'"/tC';Xi;t
by «sp;;^bi;;;cui:^i;!.:S t."^"^
Nothing certain is known about the persecution
of the Chnstians by Hadrian. The n'^m/r acts
1122
MAIJTYU
II' I
wnilfiieil ti) hiK reign d.i nut Inspire confiilonrn,
Th<! tirnt lii«tiiriiiii whi> rcitkniis hlin us n yvrmt-
ciitur Ik SiiljiiiiiH .S^veitiit, mil he iMmni-i ts h\»
jHrM'ciiti.iri with th(! foiindatiipii nf Ai'liii Ciipidi.
linn mi thi' litH nf JoriKiiii'in. This m'^ijis |irii|i-
nblt! «iimi){h, lor wi' niiint ri'iiiMmlicr that till
then till' lli'lirnw ihinoh «iirvivcil, Ihiit th«
fmiri.l itioii of A' lia wan nn innolcnt roiirim "•
the nl'iiiiiin.ition of de.ioliitjon on tho sii. n-.l silen,
that !' ihes.ifnt' limi" i:irriimci»ion was ioil.iilili>n,
inil imit till ivontK synchionizo,! with the
deitii'iitioii ol' ihr? vile Antinom (Clinton. A.n.
l.lit-I.tJ). IJarcoi'hhiiH, the liwli'i' of thi! ' wi^h
jwoll, innrtisiid nil mnnniT of fnicltii's ii|inn
the Chfistiiins (.liistin. A/iol. I. ;)1), nnJ the
mothiT churih of Jerusalom connoil to \>f, nnd
wiiH siioi! Ii'il liy n (lentileeongreg.itionat Aidia
(Kiis. //. K. iv. ij). The only martyr of this
riti>;n i.f whuni we have ee,tain knowled^r,., jh
thi' lilshop of liomc, 'IVIi'sphoruii, whoiio exfcu-
lloB may bo as.,ik;neil to a.d. I.'tiior 1 :;7.
There is »nini> uncertainty as to tin- identity
and date of Arrius Antoninus, nn iir^tent |ier-
seriitor in Asia, who, when all the Clirintinn.s
of the town |iiesi'nted thein-elvos before him in
ft b.ind, oideri'.l some to be led olVto execution,
anil said to the rest, "Wretches, if you want to
die, there are |ireui|iices, and you hiive halters,"
(Tertull. (/(/ S,;ij,. c, ,5.)
The chief daii({er of tht Christians, however,
was from po|iiilar outcries, and the most promi-
nent meiiibers of the church bore the brunt of
the assault, nnd (|Ufiiched the fury of their
adversaries by tW'ir death (cf, ()ri>;en in Jnaitn.
vi, .'it;; f, iv, p, l,i;i). A notable instance is
I'olycarp. bishop of Smyrna, who was burnt on
Saturday the L'lird of February, A,n. 15.5
OVa.Minijton, IVc <lu Hheteur Aristide, M/in. tie
I'Atdil iJcs fuscrijit (ins, Mm, t, xxvi. pp, L'O.t ft'.,
'J.!l' tK). The sull'eriugs of the martvrs were
the oci'nsion and the staple of the iipologies.
Thus the niioloi;y id' .lustin complained of the
niartyrclom of l't<jleiny by Urbicius, i.e. between
A.I), l.'ii; and li!0. This seems to have elicited
the extant resc rijit of Pius (cos. iv, trib, pot,
Jip. x\i. i.e. At). I. ")8— given as of Marcus in
A.I), lijl, by Kusebiiis,i> U. E. iv. l.'l), addressed
to the council of Asia, demanding ]iroof, not
merely of Cliristiantty but of treason, and in
default of Mich proof, threatening the nccu.sor
with c(.iidign punishment. The genuineness of
this rescript has been doubted, because of its
frank recognition of the piety of the Christians,
an.l of their .superiority to the sycophants who
accused thitni. This seems tons quite in keeping
with the character of I'ius,
((/) Marcu.s,the noblest of the emperors, appears
as a per-eciitnr. His sincere piety in troublous
times probably decreed universal religious obser-
vances with which the Christians could not
comply, lioth the jicts of Justin (a.d, liiti), the
earliest that appear really to be taken down by
a notary at the time, and the ajudogy of Jlelito
(Kus, J/. E. iv, L'li), written upon occasi<in of the
martyrdom of Sagaris of Laodicea, A,l). 107
(Aube, p. ;!6::), speak of edicts ordaining that
all who were caught should be eom|)eUed to
sacrifice. Jf there were no reversal of the
MAUTVB
■i the rescript is given at the close of the so called llrst
•pology of Jislin, AVe agree wlili I>,ipebn«he in legarU-
lug the two apologies us one, though not in the Uutc,
deiliion of Trajan, and no hunt after the Chrin-
tians were .lecreed, there were at any rate pleiityr
ol "coiiciission,." The Christians were Jriveli
to build their spleiidiil tombs undergiound, as in
the case o| .laiiiianus ( //i,//,.</,„,_ ih,;;, ., 5,7)
I he emperor's justice replied to the ap.do'gie, oj
Melito nnd ol A|Kdlinnris (Kin. HE \v 27
V r,)l,y« lavv which condemned the a.cmerof
(hristinns to death whether his charge wei' U
Htantiated or not (Tert. A,H,t. .'.), 'I'his wai
sub,e,,uent to the deliverance of the ariiiv by an
unexpected tall of rain in A. I.. 17+, The resnipt
ol the emperor ascribing this to the prayers ot a
Christian legion is an undoubted forger'y and is
not that to whic h Tertullian allu.les (/ ,■ ,.f
ml fi;ip. 4), It is however possible that Marcus
liiay have coinmenled the piety of the I ckfio
nilminata, nnd that Apoll|„aris may have
pointed out that in that legion the Cliiistians
were niimerons.
Hut though .onvlnced that the Christians w«ro
not atheists, and stern in repressing the attacks
made upon them by private sycnji, ,„ts, Marcus
was not ubi,|uitous and was not uipreju liced.
Christian martyrs appeared to him to die in a
spirit ol irrntioiinl eumlation, rpayiiSwi Kari,
<l'i\iiy napdraiiy (.U,;l. xi. ;)),,and lo.n. .. he was
disposed to regard Christianity as ,1 friirhtful
fanaticism. His hatred of priestcraft made him
decree that whoever scared men's mju.ls with
superstition should be Imnnhed to «,, island
(/>.;/. XLVIII, xix. 30.) Meanwhile he was him-
sell somewhat Jiriestridden by his phil.,sophers •
the senators were fur the most part utterly
opposed to the new religion, and m.t likely to be
imimrtinl judge.s, and popular uproar d'hl not
always present itself as the voice of a rabble
but sometimes, as at Vienne and Lyons in a D
177, as the act of a municipality. The governor
on that occasion, foun.l Christian prisoners
awaiting him accused by the whole town of
Lyons, BUil himself proceeded vo commit an
advocate who appeared for them nnd avowed his
Christianity, to torture the heathen doii„.stics
ot the Christians nnd to extract supposed evidence
of cannibal bamjuets ami incstuous or>'ies to
permit the murder by the rabble before 'the
tnlmnal of bishop I'othinus, who was supposed
to be the Christ worshipped by the Christians,
and finally to consult the emperor ab..ut those
w_ho were Koman citizens without permitting
them to go and plead their own cause before
him, Marcus write back that those who re-
canted should be released ; those who iiersisted
.should be drummed off, i',e, cudgelled to death
A similar decree appears in the nets of Oaecilia
which are referred by De Kossi to this date It
seems to have called forth the apology of Athen-
agoras. The Gallic governor assume.l a certain
iberty in interpreting it. He gave up to the
beasts all who were not Komau citizens, and one
who was. Other tortures were applied to them
in the amphitheatre for the amusement of the
people, e.g. a chair of red-hot iron, in which the
prisoner was fastened. This is noteworthy as
indicating the clfect of per.secution of the
Ctiristians in whetting an appetite for horrors
-Tertullian (,id Mm-tyres, b) tells of some who
voi^unteercd to ri;r, :; ...,ui.,„ ;„ 3 fi.miing .,hirt _
nndal.soin undermining the old fabric of char-
tered liberties, and reducing tho world under the
tyranny of the einpcior and his erais.saries. The
TVB
10 hunt (ifter the Chriii-
wiTH i\t liny riitc pli-iity
ClirUtiiiiis wi'iw JriviTi
■iiiIh iiiiliTKiiMinl, lis In
Hu//rtlilli, I Mil,',, |i. 1)7).
[)lil"l tn thf n|.,il„;ti,., „|
•iH (KiH, If.- K iv. 27,
nil.'iiuii',! thi' II, , iiMT i.f
icr hU ilmrKe witm »nt).
• ^/"'l. .')). Thit wm
•nnoi' (if the iirniv liy nn
All. 174. Thi' r.'-ni|it
this t(i the |iriiycrs «( «
iiliiii 1)1(1,1 f.'ijj.'iy, and iit
illiiin iilliil,., (/. ,. , cf.
•cr |i(iN»il.l,! thiit Miircim
the liiety (.(' the l.,'j;i,)
\[>"lliimriH nriy hiwo
t U'guiu the Cli'rihtiana
thnf thvChristiiinn w((ro
rejirifsflintc the nttncks
ite «y(m|.hii,ts, Miirciii!
wn« iK.t iiprcjii liceil.
riid '0 liiin to ill,, in n
atidli, TfiaycuSw^ (tori
i. •'I).,'iiiil licii^ ■• h,\ WHS
tiftiiity US II iriuhtful
( |irii'.slcnifl iiiaiic him
rc'l iniiii's niiiiils ujth
inrii-.hi'i| ti) an islniid
lennwhilo he \v,i« him-
n by his |)hiliis(i|phcrs ;
ie must [111 It utterly
n, nncj nut lil<,.ly to ho
|iiilar iiprcnr diil not
he Vdiie iif a nilililp,
ine and Lyons in A.D,
imlity. 'I'hc jidvuinor,
t'hi'istian |.ris(ini'i-8
' the whiiU^ town of
eedi'd io conunit iin
them nnd avowed his
he lieathen domestics
I'aet su|>]iosud evidenre
incestncpus oivies, to
le ri'ldjle I)efoi-(i tlie
IS, who was sii|i|iosed
ed liy th(.' Christians,
cmponir about IIkkc
without perniittinj;
iir own caus(! before
that those who re-
1 those who porsisteil
. cudgelled to death.
the acts of Caecilia,
iossi to this date. It
he apology of At hcn-
i)r assumed a certain
He gave up to the
nun citizens, and one
rere applied to them
e amusement of the
it iron, in which the
lis i.s noteworthy as
jiersecution of the
ippetite for horrors,
i) tells of some who
in a Haniing .shirt, —
old fabric ofchar-
the world under the
his emissaries. Ths
M.XRTYR
rescript of Mar.us I, Important an drfinlfelv
"""''""""'-' •! jloyment (,f torture to induce
i-'Mant»io,n. Tho^e who per.isted ,n cnufession
wore liable totoitiire.and it came to be u-(..,| not
only t.i e|i,:,t confevsi,uis of imii){innrv fMt, hut
I" (ompel denial of the faith (Tert. A,nl li)
I be (act is th.,t those who p, laimed, I am a
< hristian and amoni; us no evil is done, not oiilv
aded to x.ppiv Bvidence aj: inst the Christians,
niristo..nity was loft by Marcus In „ m.,st
anomalous posi ,,,„ u „„, „ , ,j„, ,,,.,
of be,, ",,• hf'^' »». or to «c,.,is« ther
"' bein. so. Ihns the acuser of the «enat(U'
to'd;irr'l"''"'T'«^''''''''"""'"i- -!'!
to death bv havini' hs |.,,s I,,,, I.,,,, i , , ,
"iush„i,s.;i,;a,>e;picadi„ih;st :' ,;r'h;;
senate, was beheaded (Kus. //. /;. v •' The
]•>■'"■'■" \MiK- of the governors varl,.d. o,,.. su^"
K"Ht"l an answer that woiiM enable hinfo
n.(|"if, another boun.l thecuh.rits „v ,„ i •
<h.^rtow„s,oik.athirdiett,!, :,uthi' ;::
-rtur,. a fourth beheaded them, at ,h 1
f Hem ,, live (IVrtull. a,l S',,,,,. 4). Th "re wi
convicts in the mines in Sai'lini,: on telCd
tl,eir ,a,th, whose release was ob,aim7
Commodus by his Christian con, ubiii..,";:,'
A 1st ol them was lurnisheil her bv bishon
\ietor,andthe name of Callistus was-omit ,
"-.use hi, ,,a| lieen guilty of brea,), tthj
-uv ,n , hsturbing the Jews in th..ir svnago^u
''>"/'/>"«-■"■'• ."'• »-')• Ther,. were-bclil.,^.
|iv. ;i'') '" "■' f"'"''* ('■■'■'''• •-■• J^'""--
ItiiMV'''" '"'"'"■ "f ""' '"'""^•'' ■"" "^"""l" f fh-'is.
lot' T i'u,'N"IT'''''''''r' "'""K ^'"' '••« 'Ivnastv
Jmv . ' ^ .',""'. '''■ . ''■ '■ ^" I'hi istians fo|.
i'i ' « '^ r"'"'-''^ "1 'he usurpers Albinus.
|^i.i?ei, and Cassian (Tert. «</ ,s,-„n. -j) i,J
iSeverus, the military ,iespot, who ,r„v, v'
fe;:;;,^l7■r''''•'^''''''''"■-'•''•'-*■h,m;hc
taiik ('7,4]. '"" *"" '■"""'' "" ^-''''i^"""
Yet .Severus was c,mi|)elle,l (a.d. 202) to for
M,.,nvcrs,ons to Christianity (Spartian.^,,.';;^,
I J' I '""' '"•' ■""•"''^■"tion whi.h ensne,l, the
J St at ,ua,le martyrs in Africa (Tertuilian!
fh (.;''' ""." "" ""'■™ "'■'' "'" <'bristians
lt^.n«lu the ,.nd of the «,. rid must be drawl";
the''chmcbT '""^' '"''""'"• "''' ^"'l'-''"' '""•''"J
6on.| made'';r"'' " "'" "^^"''^ recognition.
To ,;,,;! "^ l'"-"'-^"'"" "f f-nerar guilds
10 i„os,, „, sit,„|^.,. ,„ provided they met oulv
on « a „,„„H,, universal through K, m^ ]/" h"
I CHKIST. AtJr— VOL. U. ^^ """* « '^^ '"'ty,
MART VII
1123
;-;-■'.. ,.n,uing';h:;;S;;:,r;';:;:.:;''f;
".■ the t"::!!; :;;;;:'::;—-■;;-■;• H.e,,cr,,e.
«"'! Htual as mu..has |,'s,bli to h„.h ''"■"''."/
was bviou, pr..ca,,,,,„ .','''''''•'' '"'"''^^''*
l""ked,n such .■.n,ri J; '" I "^"' """
19-22). ' """'''•">' »«««, l'|.. M-Il,
(/) The extension of the Ii,„„„n r, ,. 1 ■ ,
<'"r^"^.ll'"o all then su I, , ,0 ' '^
maile the torture of r'l,.i .• "',• eiupira
.|-.rturec :i;:"ti!;:r'''(;^/::;r~<
ili'ect san i ,n ol ( ...stianityor repca , .:
Ihws «g-, „st it, l,)i .ho days of'A,, „,"
I 'uc 01 (an I. . s ..acmsor, M.uimin (a i.. 2.1,-,-
IS. J,. A. 1. JH), whl.h .seems not to bavn
," " '"■'"""■"''■al .,nly bcause his rule w ,s ,t
I'V,., vwhere (irmly establishcl. It ate' ..,| ' V
«"'! AH,a(Kirniilian ,./, (Vpr />, 7 ' ^>«-'''
rnsporiei to .Sanlmia, nnd there , i,,,l 1 r.J
•^''llecting and t re suWr » ' i'" '''''K"'"" in
"-,yrs^o;r;s:«,;",t.:::t:;;uf'"?
"'■Bbt not to be referrd I,, Mi ' ''^
™t<- than ,0 that .l^ Spivl: s " /^^l^'' '"
lelusniui expressly mentions Ma imi, ,k'
have been himself a ^h!:;!:;'" ^'"''1"s »,.,d to
^u.heurr'h;.'^;:^',^:::!""'^^''"''
P.-l...lar onslaught, wl;ic;^ t ' A ..'.'h'./S
fer.<Sra^::t tir-'h"?- '^^
M-nU'^r^it^e;;'', !::'•";: ^t"" •" •"«-
Xa't;^rrrFE;-^^-<?
,<"mng recantation like t host fM'"""'""*-" "^
Severus. and it brok, th, T "''"■'"' ""d
an,l wa mrecte,! mimiV„l','*^^ " f'""'"' '"' I""«^«
^i^.S:":f"ii-ij;;*":i^-r'''r">eans::;!^^
, him, that he recalUii the '^ict 7' ""''^""^ *°
! »o.newhat conIirmed\tthMlti:r:rSi!
72
1124
MARTYR
il
1 1
■fc
iffii
cut.on before the close of his reiifn. Cypi-mn
.-.turned and a new pope was elected fn"^ h"
ear J- part of 251 (Lipsius, C/,ron. Son,, l^n.
p. i«J.
Persecution was renewed under Gallus, occa-
sioned by the plague (a.d. 252, 2o3). '
lu A.a 254 commences a formal registration
of the bishops in the state archives ^'- ''"'""
seems to have hoped thus to keep control
T.L^" '';"''''' /''"■""' the nece.ssit;
maUng martyrs. I„ 257 he had the bisLp
MARTYR
i..^ro,ateda^dbani.hed(n..c;r-;ri?;:
(C > /■ 77' "?!.'-"™g"""i«-^ were published
the ii "°r '""" '" '"''"'^ "='"■'"='' 'h^ I'i-^hops
ilev. . ■ •""''■"'• ^' '«"^' Dionysius of
Ale-xandna IS commemorated as such, though he
, "■»" 58 V^'^""""'"" ""'' '""-l - — • Bu^
« ,n'i \ • ''■''■'I'" ''"■''"' ''"'f a" the clergv
degiaded and stnpt of thdr property, and oulv
pu to death if they still persisted, ladies Thou d
be banished, «(hcers of the household led off n
connct gan,r.s to po ,1 labour (Cvpr. /.>. 82)
Oall.enus (A.r, 20u; stopt the persecution and
g.ne legal sanction to the churcn body, and
Aurulian had intended (Eus. //. E. vi 301 or
even decreed (Lact. <^. i/.,,,,,,, ,) , ^.^.^^Z
bv his rTT "^ ""^ '^"•"'S" w»' frustrated
bv h,s death (A.D. 275). The peace of the
c'iry.' "'■^■' '"' "'^ °P^"'-« »f 'he 4th
4u;ili';n'''n ^'■?' "f""" '° "Statesmanship,
Au ehan Diocletian also appeared as a pri-
tector of the church so long as he was ocZ
^.ar (A.r>. .00) beiore his tinal triumphs, when
h. was anxiously awaiting news from th Kast
Jn A D. d03 he w,-.s induced by Galerius reluc-
tantly to re-enact the edicts of Valerian wUh
some exceptions and ad.iitions. His de 7e'e was
pacarded at Nicomedia on February 23 Vo
t "be ^^od" )V)t' '"* ^"?!:''' '-•''"-hes we,:
burnt (T,i' ru .' '""'"^ ^ooks were to be
«>u nt, ( ) the Christians were to be disfranchise,
and outlawed, (rf) liU.-ti and aMcH(^u^2^.
W«.v) persis ing in Christianity were to be
Mot U). Two conflagrations in the palace
caused the torture and execution of theaSL
domestics, and a second decree incarcerati ig h"
entire clergy ([.act. Jc Mort. U, 15- Eus // i'
t'he dol;!,^; <?' ^"'"hration of the Vicennalia at
the close of the same year, which was the occa-
sion ot the release of all other prisoners vl
signaksed by the employment of to'rture to'for
the Christians to saerilice (Ua. lb in Th!
^^;:':''T^1' ^^^ «-'""™% i traved
in the Acts ot Theodotns- " .' »u„ i.- .• ?- ,
brethren were kept fa^ !„ ■ rison ^u'' ""^
were ransackedf the untdieTe'rs'' lunS
of^a.tyeven,^r;tl;ho dl^^S
TJrr'''^"". ">"■'"■ '"'"^•■'^' ■■"' that man- ^av,
themselves up to be tn'i.i. " au • »" '
in the law co'urts hat "n m- mt^ u,;::r" ''''""''
without first sacrificing (* & ',",:'''"?
whole Christian town with its nh hi ?' ^
burnt in I'hrygia (Eus. )/ i;'%',", "■^fj''^^'-
. tortures were invented. Thevicti;-*; "^
Valerian stretched on a rack (e„,,nU„ -^ u " ""™
were remanded to ;. 1 „ ■^: '""'** ^bo
pain,
as
• There is
iS2,v.£'=i:Ss£r&a-
sudden di.sruption of peaceablV <n . » ^' "
sudden withdrawal of illSiftCllf-'"'^'^
sanctioned the a^:nft;^o;::::L^r;rS
cf .1. ta I'heoJoJ . 1 ) "^ 'Even ,ht'"l'' .'' ^ '
«>tisfy the enemies 'of- the churh i '!'"
of lS^.t£::^';;^:^T^'' '"e sei.u,.i
th.^U,e penalty ^;^:t t ' t^ C^; t
pr,;-!, ,' """'" "* !-"ni«hineut\-ari.4 Ir",
cat.a by huuging thsir head downward, om .
ARTYR
■hunger, so thnt man ■ gave
;a.;eii," Altars WML" i.laoed
t non.. might ,,le,vl a cause
'ug {<le Murtihu^, 15). X
1 with its inhabitants w.-s
IS. //. E. VIII, xi.). j;e,y
ited Tiie victims were
s<|U"leus) or hung up with
1- teet, then beaten in that
, rods or scourges ; tlien
(ungulae, [leotines); then
'"legar; then burnt bit by
their (eet ujjwards with
c's, water beiuifmeanwiiile
■0 keep life in them (Eus.
J-act. ie Murt. 'ji), or
ough ground to restore
^- VUI. X.). Those who
were put in the stocks
""-■r, and high up so that
■ •'a<:ks. All those things
persecution had properly
, in Italy, Africa, Spain,
Britain, ex(wpt as far as
by his subordinate Con-
Christian books, atten-
"igs, and concealment of
already reckoned capital
station was put on the
cletian by his colleague
Diocletian, pp. 4g^ n^.j
Kast it WHS still illegal'
dilate a Christian (Kus.
uderstand the horror of
be boine in mind that
vocation of the Edict of
sion of legal security, a
aceable society, nav, a
fijrlal favour. "
raged most (ierccly, for
•cnie in the west, and
I condition to control
the beginning of the
ded the obligation of
e of ..very town, and
;he consecrated virgins
!■ consignment to 'the
3 ; Acta Irene, c. 5 •
)• Kven this did not
' church. In April a
irtene, T/ies. iii. iG4<))
IS decreed the seizure
"und," and recognised
be death (Mason, p.
305, Dioclctiun and
iicatea. Constantius,
tessors and dismissed
officers of his own
• '• xvi.), did not, of
1 further in the west
'instate.l in her legal
»ar was a nominee of
under Galerius and
aged with redoubled
lulgated condemning
'W fire (/A- Jfortihu,
duneut --MriH (j.,,,,,
^appadocia their legs
nia they were sutio-
J downwards overs
MARTYR
'r :L H ' 1 '^""'"■^ ^'"'y •""■ '»>«'' ■"'i'^ torn
:. nli^ti; "''"™'' too horrible to relate; a?
I nig |,r,„„ht together by force and then Ye?
s^ Vie -t ,■■? T"'^"'- M-''°while the j.itying
t 'm orr"'.K ^"'^^ ""''" '» -^""itt^'o. or dra^
a -ta I an I 7 '^f ""' '"* '''«"' «">-« ^he
Jla.xentius, son of Herculios n i ,."'^'"''<-''".
i" Ji»n.e. Severus who "-' "P"' ""^ ''"''l'''^
"as defeated and ^u^ t ""tr^H^^'Y' ""'""'
Slimed the nurnle „)Ll .l ,. ^^''''u'h's re-
alllH the „s' " 1 wi h L7t » -^ '""-'n'""' 'hey
was doubtless a-co^ntion^ri-Xrc; Jil'l"'*'""
bishop of Knme was elected nl\' " '"''"
church her ritht of iW • '" ^'""^ 'he
states must hT be L TnM Jl-^l fT'S "" "'""
Brawls ensued the ?1 "'"''-"'''''' '» Herculius.
«-, .md "helme ft tore'^ir'" ""^ '"'"'' '"
two successive no.es Koh' '""1 ""''"■^"'' ""
In the .ith veartC'rh , Z^"" ?'' •^'^"•'^'^"us.
maimed and iheir ^s^T^Tinf I'll '""'
I>"t t" death (Kus.^ !l/,n. ; '"^t'=;'J " being
autumn there was •! ,.»,„ i .' ■ "'■ '" 'he
on man. woma::;;^,"^^";^"^"'""' «-cnfice
311, the dving Galerius with r\ '" '^'"■"'
I'i'inius, put out n , ?i f .• ^"'"^'■'"'t'ne and
supiire^sed by Maximin. who , nit L, t !' T"*
governors, biddinp- th,.„, »'"<' "niy wr<jte to his
-nade himse,f^m'atter'':f ' , t °'p;^"t^h'''^''^'
duced the inhabitants of the towns to '" '""
petitions to him entre..tin„ V T '" '""''*'""
work (Eus. // E ,J if ^ *"" '"^ntinuethe
".M decreeing f,^',^:i'„;,i'';r'- ""l'^"'''- •■^«>'
-:S-C-4!;or[::?^;f-S?;^7
-"^f'::c^!;z:^:;^"^j^;^tr:.^rf.'^
by JIaxeiitius to Melchi., I. • i , ''a'enus,
<"/ a™. p,«, CO Txii T •'" •'"'>'' ^" (^^"g-
/-.■fenW„i.). ',t: '■ a .' L ";• P- ''**- ' ^■''- ^"'■
at Rome in presence."' )i„ f r ' " """•'>•'•''"">«
of the i-eiKH <d- ZvJ V ""*" "''""t the close
saints ai I^Setst r ,':;'^' 'V^" '■"»'• """'ned
tins and Wax n ' '""' ""*' ■'*'"*'-'n-
cletian vas'ac u"l J/'"'"- '^^'^'^ ■''"■' Wo-
tu.-nedpe"cut.n-;,rn! fh "'■■ .''"*""''''■' ''«d
tine was none th less „\w " k7 "' ^'""^tan-
tians. Before the cl sc^ ' Z^'l '"^ ""-' ^"hris-
«t, Milan and lu t ,rth th f ' ""^^"'''^""'"'
toleration (Eus // /• ' .""^/'""ous edict of
Jlfort. 4-,, 4«; Mason" A^" "Y^' ""^ ^' ' '""'^^t. A-
p. :y-a). Th s "s • tr'"'"" ''^ ^''^''''■''■"".
Maximin and sto, h\ l """"""'"^^ated to
though (as bef,!r h^sub^Sutef '"'■"'■'"'""•
his own (Eus. //. i "I ■ V , * ' " '■'•"'■'•'Pt of
close of the winter he i ''. " '"'''"■'-' the
victorious, to cxt' „ii I '"'■' '■""■"'"■ **■
-•-'.y of I-icini^ifca ed' o„t i^'"'-' ^"'V'- The
T^«-versaUoleS:.^^,-^';£edict
MARTYR
iii:
-«'e:;r;:^''hr::;."""7'^'- ^he church
'luestion necess„ih-^r'-'"'-'\l''-''l'<^'-t>-. and the
-mbers of ^h^'clip :;;:„""'^„«^ 'he tn,e
^&t':^:e^;i!;!ii::r:''"''r'^--:^^:^n'':
'nthemte^s^';:;^:!;;^-;;i:;-;-^.nen,ber,hip
Jbrm Ibr accusers^ " h^ ^".rV!;.'•''S"'"
le»sus est se M,-,eviam' le^e Juli. ^ ',"•; '"■"■
ream deferre, quod die t "^ adulteriis
eivitate ilia d ,n ] H ,„™"' '•'"" <-' «^'io in
teriumcommisisse"^^n n Tr""^"'^'"-
decided whether to c/m, lit ,, "''■I'-consul
l-rison or to a soldier, oi o ,lu t th P';"'' '"
or to leave them at large (I " n''7, '" ■,''•
had confessed their u-iiilt ,.■ ''■. '"o-"-' *^''o
sentence was pas! d '( 6 ii" " 'Z '" f^'^-^ ^il
"ft- sent u^ prisoners wt'h a b^'-eT 7".;'^
evidence against them- the h," k "^ 'ho
•orbidden'to condenln wi houf "r:!!^ "-"^
Of- "■,«). Jailors were often br I 1 ,^7''""^
the prisoners unchained, or to afford "'"-*
fet^'ih:;^"^,z^:ff'"-r^"t:!i,.
-gii«ence^;i::t;uerbr;i£a':vi:;r'i''"'^^
fi*. Hi. 12). To Ifill ^^""''nea with dcMlh
Roman citizen o, f„ .i . ."T''^''' "'■ torture a
to ifonie o p'le d h^'^ """ V'"™'" ^oceeding
guiltyof .a°ault on L'"'!,'*''^'''^' ^"^ 'o b^
9). NobocVm 'h be conP|"-' /'^''^^ ('i. vi. 8,
without a hLrhrgO^x^i'''"'"'!'^ "' his absence'
not be strint of his , nJ. " ■'' ^.,l;'"'»oner might
demned (.v. xx 2) P-rt """■" "" h« "ere c^n-
appeal, even f;,rslav '.''"' ^reat libertv of
their o'wn "e halV f thdr'mastf "PP™' ""
sioner of his did n,.t -.om^I r !u '"' ■'' <•■"""";-
'5). On behalf of Liln^n-onr-'t '''''^' ''
who was shocked at th cru I v of Tl'^ "''P"-' ''
('*• (i). The ap,,eal was dr, -^ he senten, e
stating who aiiealed „n P '° ^'''f"'^'-
■"■ght simply say, I Appeal \f !,' """,^1 ^ "">-
ceedings n court i^..,., . i ^ , "'• '"e pro-
shorthand writers and " f^ h>- ""'^ial
(Amm. Marc. xxi^^^?L^'f''■^ ?■•-■'■■" '
chrluiir^ij^e'Si^v^^"-*-"--
(martvres desiiaf T ,, '",''",%'<"• of death, "
naturallyobiec? of ., f 'Vartyre.) were
graphic Vc C :/ fl :."'"''"■ '^he most
P.'7ned{^hr;:;U's:|';^^»'?-^,f-t.-iin-
-'nd century woul I u-ewt ,;■ '"''' ^'j "» <''<>
e. 12. After rehitinc' how tii.t { '"' "H ' >">'■%
Christian in Palestine he ,„ i ^"'^ *'"•"''''
'"^t he was nriest")' n r'''T''- '"''h'-'" at
into prison: P ot "''"^ '■''I'-'S" •'"■d put
*h"t -ry circu,:^: L;" i^lt- „ ^"' he -
s ock of credit to stand hiif iu g„„d 1., 7 .■^"■'"'
the next stage of his life ullf , '''"' ''""'"n,'
ofmakinga^cnsati;'^!:, :,";'"'■'■•-' g->>e
put in prLson the Christ !.„• .en he was
»nd left' no stone u ,, " ,""? " *" heart,
"gain. Then, when tin^, '; '"*'" hi") out
other kind office „.c S n h'"''"'""'^'^' ■""''
h'-'artedly, but in business Ike f "V,; ""' h"''"
good earnest, and ri..ht fr,,, „' i '"" "'"' '"
"light see at the gm dl oh ^ '"'"■"'""^ •>'""
"t'ont, certain wi.b.^ , S li I'Tn "■^"""S
-- "'^ha.. But t£ i^af-'tir:::;::
4 D a
1126
MARTYR
ii ; i ■ ►
even slept inside the gaol along with him, bribing
tile (gaolers. Thendiniiui'sof vai'lmis viamls wiM'e
eanii'il in, und tlicir sacred treat isps were read,
and tlie worthy IVregrinns (for lie still went l>y
tliat name) was called by these people a new
Socrates. Nay, there are certain cities even in
the province cd' Asia, iVom whicli some of tiic
('liri>tians came, deputed by tlieir community, to
help the man and support liim in court and
comfort him. They display incre.lihh; alacrity,
when anything of this kind hapjieiis of public
concern. And as an instance in point, much
wealth accrued to I'eregrinus from them then, hv
reason of his incarceration, and he made no small
revenue out of it. . . He was released hy the
man who was then governor of .Syria. . . He
went forth a second time oi his w.imlerings,
with the Christians for a bank to draw upon
lor travellimr expenses. As their soldier and
servant he revelled ir ;;!' abundance. And for
some time he hattened so; then he comiiiitted
some transgression against their law also, was
seen, I tancy, eating of their forbidden meats,
and they came to him no more."
This hostile account is folly confirmed by
Christian evidence. The Jailors came to count
on gains when they hail Christian priso.iers
(A'ta I'ionii, c. 12); and when the ollicials for-
baile the access of visitors lor fear of attempts
at a re.scue hy magical arts (.hYa "ci-j)c'u le,
c. Ill), the prisoners seem sonuitimes to lia\.!
been in danger of starving (Adu Mu..t «/, c. 0).
Directions were given by Cyprian that the con-
fessor Celerinus, though but a reailer, shouhl
have the salary of a presbyter (Cypr. /,'/». .'«!).
The Apijstulic Condituti'tns (viii. '2:i) liiihiil con-
fessors to arrogate to themselves episcopal t'unc-
tions; an.l the 2.")th canon of Iliilicris. which
enjoins that if any hriag letters of commeii lation
as confessors, these shall be taken awav and
simple letters of communicni given them, hecause
all under the vaunt of that n.iiiK' evervwhcre
make game of the simple {cou utiniit sioiplices,
the word used for violent t'lreats, from the
military), (.'ompare also Apollonius (Ku-.. //. A'.
V. 19), whosijeaksof Montanist martvrs exacting
ci>in from orphans and widows. An I tlnmgh
Callistus had obtained recognition as a m.irtvr,
contrary to the wishes of Victor, that hislicjp
tliouglit it necessary to pension him ( J /li/vsu-
I'lwmena, i\. 12).
V. I'mroijatwcs of Jfirfi/rfi bo/'i-e Den'/i. —
The honours which martyrs receive! from
their brethren in this lile were fm- more than
the material emoluments. "Martii^," in the
old sense, signed as martyrs to the doi'iees of
cuncils (Kus. V. xix.). the hlood>he Iding id'
martyrdom was a sac:rament, a baptism that
replaced or renewed the baptism of water (Tert.
dli'ipt. (■„ !•!); one ofthe sevi-n ways of obtaining
remission (Orig. m J.ei; Hum. ii. 2[ t. ii. p. 190);
the wanderer's last ret'uge (Tiirt. ,SV.;,'^. (i), in
which not only scdis were washe I <]|1'. but stains
bl.iached white (.'6. 12), in which angels were
the baptizers (Cypr. ad Furtun. j'lvf. 4). Uapii m
IV .s a time (or prayer (Tert do llapt. 20, I'er-
)iritua 2), and so was martyrdian. It did not
.sullice for a martyr to have purge I his own sin,
(iiivt.de J-'adic. 22): they hegan to be in siu'h
dignity that they might ask what they ivnnld
(IVrjietiia, :>. 7): "martyrs gave grace to those
that were n«t darters," and received the peui-
MARTYR
tent apostates into communion (Eus. ff. E. v. i.
40, ii. 7, 8): they had a right to be heard in
claiming abs,)lntion for their brethren, as thnv
did actually atone for their brethren's faults";
they wearied out by their patience tjie fury of
the adver.-aries and broke down the power of
evil (Orig. t. iv. p. I3;i; Kus. //. E. vu. xli. 1»5);
moreover, their peace was so divine, that to be
at peace with them could not but be to be at
liea.e with God (cf. Cypr. Ep. x.xiii.). Hence
martyrs excelled confessors by their power of
receiving ba<^k the lapsed (Cypr. £■/)/). 2U [17],
10 [«]:. Soon as a martyr was thrown into
jail, seekers of grace gathered round (Tert. do
J'lulf. 22). " What martyr," asks Cvprian, " i.s
greater than Ood or more merciful' than the
divine bounty, that he should fancy that we are
to be kept by his own aid ?" Cypr. de Lap. siv,
c. 20. [Lnii:i,i,i ] ^
VI. AJodvs 0/ Deit/i.— The xixth title of the
-xlviiith book of the /'i/Cit treats of puuish-
ments. 'I'hese were very various. Burning
alive was supposed the most frightful death,
and was reserved lor deserters oV slaves whd
murdered their master.'. Crucifixion came next,
the loi; of brigands. Those condemned to be
thrown to beasts lo.st their franchise and free-
dom forthwith, and might bo kept to be tortured
for fuither evidence betbre their sentence took
elfect (*. 29). Hut praefects were forbichleii to
throw criminals to the beasts just to plea.se a
popular outcry (j5. ;il). Cruninals might of
course die under torture, but were not to be put
to ileath by torture, unless the above ways be so
reckoned. Homan citizens were simply beheaded
with the sword. Men might be condemned, not
to be thrown to the beasts, but to tight with
them. Then there was slavery in tlfe mines
with heavier or lighter chains; 'the lime-works
and sulphur works were considored the worst,
anil the mines furnished occupation to women as
well as to the miners. Then there was trans-
portation to an island, which involved loss of
citizenship, though not of freedom (i'6. xxii.
'i, I-")). Then there were various modes of flog-
ging, a cudgelling was thought more honouraljTe
than a scourging: there was labour in public
works, banishment to an island, perpetual or
tempiM'.iry banishment. In almost every case
the piiiii-hmeut vari.d according to the station
ofthe oliender. This is exemplified in tie chief
instance tli.it we have of a persecution of the
■lews. The crimes of some would-be .lewish
missionaries in .\.i). 19 brought the whole com-
munity into trouble. Kour thousand of the
humbler sort were shipped oH' to Sardinia to he
employed against the brigands—" if they died,
small loss"— the rest were to recant by a given
<lay or leave Italy (Tac. il,m. ii. 8,^ ; Joi. Ant
Jnil. xviii. ,')).
VII. r>Y,iti/wnf of the Bodies of the Dead.—
The bodies (d' criminals, and even the ashes of
such as had been burnt alive, except sometimes ia
cases id treason, were given up for burial to aiiv
who might ask for them {Dijei-t., XLVir. xxiv.).
At Hrst ■such leave was only granted to private
individuals; for funeral guilds were not yet al.
loweil, and most ofthe early cemeterios hoar the
u.ime of some wealthy owner, but the graves
were recogniseil as possessing a religious Kiuctity
'• Heligiosum locum," says Marcianus, "unus.iuii.
que sua voluntate facit, dum uiurtuuiu iufert
MAKTYK
, in Incimi sui>m" {I);,,cst, i. viii. 6; rf. GmIuc,
, -- Jnstit. 11. 6). In mw, at the beglnniui/ of thj
jwr.reiition, Diocletian found it neccvsaiv to li;iv"
tiR' bmiics of the inai-tyr.s dog up and thio-ni
into the sea (Kus. //. £. viii. .i). Thenceforth
he refused them burial. Instances of the
nieasuies taken to rob the Christians of the
relies will be lound in the acts of Claudius and
Astenus, of \ ictor of Marseilles, Theo lotus of
Aueyra, Vincent of Valencia, lienaeus of
S,miu,u, &o. &e. They were generallv thrown
into the sea m sacks. At Cuesarea, on oue occa-
sion, they lay guarded, and the dogs threw
the,,, all about the city (Kus. Mart J'ul. Z.
bodies, he greater the eagerness to reouite
then, w,th due honour. There is a legend',
hon,an lady sending her ,,ara,„our to^h s
o'ri^ir:^. '""T^'"' ■•''«'"*<• '"'^-'Kh-
, , , ^ ""' ■'""'' '^^ -'^"t""V stronjjiv
I'.o.ested against the tgv|,ti„n iractice^of
koe,„ng the mummies of the martvr in i va
"■uses, whereas -even the body of "the I ord w .s
boned ou.^sight"(Athanas^■,,„'!l;;;::;,;^:r
one of the Arabic constitutions which clai
to ^be of the council of Nice (Lalbe, &,«!""
■ Chyi'sl!;/'^"'',T^ < ^'^"'•'y^s— The subject of
Bu 11 r'^-i'...'"'' '" g'^"e''il is treated under
JjLKIAL, CArAL'OMIiS, OuSKtjUIKS
Oi d,llerences in the manner of sepulture of
■nartyrs, .which should enaWe future u est
gators to distinguish then, after tic" iu,d b n"
■ tXtr' *^ "'"■«. '■«■■>• little evidence T,
tie «'„s sometimes inscribed on the t.anb either
a the t,me of the interment or not long , ft
(l)e iJoss,, Horn. Sou. ii. 60, Gl). In the livel
of th,. popes, by Anastasius, Eut ehiim said to
have decreed that martyrs should not be b r'ed
, su^,osed to L^^2 bil't^:i;r^:co^s
I rs:? '"' ''- '''^' "'■ ^'^ "«"!-"-
^ I-eibnitz tested n red sediment on a fra,T
n>ent of ancient Christian glass with s.l am'
n-oniacs and Hnding the folven Lc " '
Su' Xi'^' ,rf "T'^ ■"-' "^'^^
(.loiiieui p. 187). p,,i,„ branches, once suo-
C ,1 istian epitaj.hs ot the 4th century (,',. „ 271)
1 hese were the signs by which the Iio,n, n t, „ ' d
to pretend to distinguish the bodies of ° ,,;,!,'
Wabillon, under the pseudonvm of eSJ
at first above ground Th '""""""-■'>*« were
the Just was to be sP.^ "1"""'!"-'"' °' •'"""-■■^
MAllTYU
1127
Would
t::r:;n;;L^:;-!;"-'"» ^y i>ioc.eti i,..
-tich-igrt^lbirc^tT-S;--!-;''^^
them (Arhi P , '' ''"' •'*<"»<^times gave
■-"erii (jictii I'criietuuc, .'11 Th_ ,..,i,-
u. ,,(,/,. 1,) but increased their devotion. Tj „
heathen attempted to make th,. resurree ion ,t
lie martyrs impossible (Eus. 11. E. ^^^-l
by iorbidding the interment. ilar y'rs o.t. ■
sullered a«ay from their own eh ichC '
'K"atius, and the possession of the b di'es oi
"lai'tyrs gave lustre to the churches ana s e inc^
t.;anslations„.reiieeessarr^n-;!,ii,, ti"^:
ted cAcej.t by stealth or bv iuioeriil ,,„,
--;m. itwasprobablybyim,^,.;: " is ;
Mer^p''';''"^^'''-^'*'-'''»-)''-''"^i^'te, :
ch,u.r'"''"'"''''"''>-'"-^"« -tup outside his
L)e Kossi t,. .K I ' ^1"' ""'' "* it^terred bv
auew reiiri„r tl' u the departed, was not
in«thrSr;^":i^:f^./^r-;--"y^«e,i-
^W;,:;::!!li^..-'„-f;:';- be repaired
l-'obably of a Jew, „ whieh V T;"'"''*'
granted to the freedmeu i^^^ly^"^':, "
Jescendauts. provided tl, 'v '. , """'
'■eligi.m"(.«. ^802 80 tL ?f '" '">'
He tea. ,nitus of the departed in general
'^^-^ MARTYR
f: ?■;
m^
MARTYR
But If n.liciilmis »n,\ ,lis<;„stin„ ;„
O ristian b.lief U that the ^.pa.t^TL' he ^rHnt*^ "■''"'"" ''''' '^"^V'^^s (I'tZ:
salivation of survivors, that thev witL,/ 78, 81), th, "nv worship cniil,! vet in.tilV it if
si,ouMnothe,„,.,,o,pe:.iwt(f;:;:\i:';rVn! ^^''^''^rt^r^/e-^^^-'"''^
Priv if« o. : ,. ^ .
■■jlinuM not he ina.le perfect (Heb." .xi. 4(1). U„
.1, Uog^^ect of their corpse. «.,s thus inj.
'I" IS to the (lead, n« it was perilun-i to th»
;;•.%' (Cypr. A>. 8). Their soul'; w.rrnJt". j!
■"s.',| to h..ver about, their bodies, but their
.".■inory was the stronse.st incentive to th' t
rievotum on the part of survivors which th v
Eucharist " '" P"" '^"'' '*'' ^^'^bration of the
When the competition between henthen nn..
Uins„an worship had once b,.gu„, the heathenish
ohristii„sinthe4ihZt';;:';:;:iX:f'thn'
hn-l ti. . ri.ht of community of creed a,^! 1, "
n..m in worship with the ancient .han !ns f h:
coniiiDnlaith Karl. <r,....,t „:. , '''|"l""n" "I the
*tt:^';nLi-:'-^--'-^et;at&
...Jerjhe pretext of prayer they commit sh! ^rj,';,.':^'' ''''"='"- '"'• "tual and devotilal
When Ccnstantine restored the property of gained "bv'Vif "''''"^ 'V[T' "^ ^^e support
et.on of memoria, edL„.. I ii^L^elic^^om ;r<^i^ r^l/Jir^lf^^K^
noiiiiljii- c,.*;..!,: . .. ""iniii-e Hitn the
fl... .k C L ."luiHu ine property
the church, the re-erection of memorial ediHces
and celebration of festival anniversarie w
oommenced under prosperous auspices. feve;^
hi t r ^''"'\ "^"''y' "''"''»' every c>
ha a native guardian saint. In the west^
Piudentius enumerates the martvrs in whom
C . dova, Acisclus and Zoelhi.s and another trlu-'
1.1 rngona tructuosusand his deacons; GironT,'
Ssi ^t""' ^••^'id'"""^; Barce'lon Cu
■- ifas; Narbonne, ml; Aries, Genesius- Con
;lutum, Justus anu Pastor; MeriSa Eulaih-
Ijingier, C.issian ; Fez, the Ma sylitans • ValencH
'l.ere in heaps, and the' number\aly not the
So throughout the ith cent u.-y, the rival cult.
siilierioiitv and hi ♦!,„ • i ', " '" '""•■'*«
ot^hech'^i'rofClirisr'"''''''''''''^"'^''''^^-™
poiiular fetishism, ami "from' tl.»
, testimony o:" devih w"om Chris wouT'iT'"'
.c;agge,I at once, is that allordc.d 'bv Z • '*
r-ace 'wh"e. " thef^eit' f^u'd'Z ^'\ '"«
SS. Nabor and ■FelirDp P ' ' '''"''"''' "^
l>.'obably that"the;'w' « eiUlymaTttrs^f^'"-^
was an ancient C'h -. ' '"^ """''.^ '"• w it
and Vd'r;..nii ied^Imrole JW""""'"''
■:?
Backclot;
apostles,
of the sa
A'. /«
dolus we
kind (]f J
earth to I
their iVi,
the jjiesi
i-'riictuosi
by sayiii^^
church sp
c. 5). Or
that theii
assists at
Jii'iost: it
the sins (
have no m
tile .lews '
main in us
The belief
('•like XAii
of the ma
into the jir
'.'"iifinneil '/
selves (Act:
■Allium, c. .'i;
nientioneil a
day (1 Tim.
given them
2, § .'t? ; .1,.,:
wgar.led as
judgment (C
-C'V's/s, 17).
To these <r,
Periiiiar iloc?i
by faul's j.hr
- 'i'iin. iv. 6),
in taking the
tatiiin. to Mar
pei'haps some
blood of the
('■■ ;«) he su>'s
lyould love his
tor them more
he averred th;
inferceiiel with
Distcred forgive
'^^K p. 29;}). J
"■lio had gone
those who\vere
their adversarie
(''' Jem Xare, .
I'ot to be writte
souls of g.,od and
"iSels (,„ /,.„„,
"'^'■'ns to speak
attaining eternal
^e..J^to.g|„,3,, h
These beliefs
the forms of Chri,
the martyrs, in th
it was not said " \
" ive oHi,r on theii
e'ire(CW< jip
''.'■'yer the faithfu
theni, but rememi
!"'' "'"" Il'ore wer
^"* not in the sen
as were m.-ide for ,
«■ 7;. 'fne A'estoi'
fl (lisijiisfing in
lie ilisijiist of
IS ( Vit'i Anlcui,
Kt jusfily itself
Ml (Kiis. f.dcp.
o-worshi]) in a
martyrs I.oiiig
ii|i|iing ill the
liruci.nis. The
'111.'* parties iif
which of them
'il and cniiiniu-
iimpinnsdfthe
1 its own teme-
Ji'riisalem see
mil 84. From
s the Catholic
' 4th century,
gras])..>il wit'h
eie regained,
then worship
X. A.n. ,i41-
on of it l,y
the renewed
' "th (t<oc.
■-i'Tifice by
'. de 7'cmp/is,
the church
i devotional
KIAHTYR
1
i
op.istles.andt;;, r,„"t-^ '^f. n-H.vrs „nd
donis were f 2,{ ; f^'-'y.'-VVhile n,,,rtyr-
earth to I,,.,',..,,,,. iXv > "" *'"' ^•'""•-* ""
t'">i'- friends in min I I ir''"^'"*'"'' '" l^-'ar
church spread from e- t t ' '" '"""' ""■ wli.de
<=• ^)- oVigeu ,vs n tu '""' ^^'"' ' '''■"<-■'"*■'
th.t their°so„ls-;;s t ;" 't'r'-^T^ -'"''n ^^'-'i'-s ■
•■•-'■^'.^ at the alfai,e.f,; „'','; ■■'';■■"■ = '>« "''" ^
l>'-iest: it is the otiiVe „■ •" '^'"'<'''"" of a
i''« -n^ of the ; ,e".' I' r'\ '° I'l--! /or
have no more martV i't , '": }"'* ■'^i"™ «-e
«''«-: ''^'-.-vho have- no e ;;,:'• V-'" «"''
(l-kex.iii.';^:'^;-*'- -.d. o/ch,;;^
"' 'he niartvrs and tlieir^' ,*''"' ">« '^""'M
«">«hn«ed '.y the dreams of 1 •'"■'""•^''- ^^'•■'^
^""'"■', c. 55). Jloreov^i the ' ' 'f'""- ''^
menfi.med as laid ,,,. V V ^'""''' ^*''''''h I'aiil
d".v(I Tim. iv 8 '^;/"'-„„^"" "S^'in-s. the last
-^.:Ii:;"th'i[:-!;f^»-);a^^4t;;-
J-lgment (Cypr. :S ^'TT -^^ ''''''' '"
. y i"-i,;s ,,hras: " t!"L":;^„'i';.";'i ? -pi-t^d
- Jim. IV. 6), thatChW t'.' •^" ^"''- '""■ ^'t,
..I taking tl/eVsins of :Ct:-'T'."*^'' >"•'"
J'ei'haps .some will (,; bou.hV ,' '"F"'^'' "'at
b'-md of the martyr/ f',""^ ">« l"'^"'""''
(■••. H8) he su.geste rth;t !ft *, '"'"'^ "'"""S
-^d love hifel-l^,:^''^«;--;h the fithef
'"'-■<'-I.M with the W '\° "'■■"■'•'? ""' ""'^
'"^"■'■-l forgiveness o those J '"'"■'"'^■'-'■^ '^'^""-
"■'"• hnd gone left' ott"*/",'^'"' "'^'^ "-o,,:
lose who were follow,-nf „tt ''^ '" ^"'"y' '"'•
lioir adversaries a an « "li J' """^ ^'"''"^ "P
('" ./c>^* .V,,.,, ,,i 5)"" ?? ''yk» up the gra.ss
""V" ''•-' ^vritten dotn fhe^d': "" "" '"■'■■^'-"T
so„lsofg,,odandbad men be< '""' """ ">«
•■"igels (/„ y,.,„,. (("]"«" become good and evil
"-:<«: :a%r^.'ft tills i;^
S-^^5£i--Sh^.n^ ^Pressioj in
" 've offer on their behalf" ^" '^"'" *'"='"'" bu
P'-".vu- the f,i,r,n, J;,e-„^' ""f,!» t^e bidding
:'-.n. but i-ememii,,. :;:^""(.V';'^^« '« Pf^y fo^
"i Ihem there were in ♦(, ^ ' ^''.^- ^ '"Vers
„^"t not in the Lit'o t;:r f'"""'' -■^'-
as wo.-e made f„r others ott !°*r'"«^' ''"■'h
MARTYR
112!)
--m£rtST':,,^;s;-<^«p"y-in.
-fy- "light hj't;i;^r,ii''Vr'f''>e
Ood, receive fi„m n, l... r, ' " '-oi-il "iir
ofthanksgivim: the ,v • "'•I',-''''''™ "'is sacriHci,
'''-■.he^nem^;'^'~We<^-nitofo,.rli,:^
'"■>• prophets, blesed a/ .1 """ "' "'''- '"'
","'' "fl sons 'of hI i-r h """■'>-'^ &c.,
1 bee, that of Thy g,e "fit",™'' "'^ be before'
P'"-'b'i' of all siL^ h'lt T"'''"* K''^-« 'beni
"•'"•Id in a mortal b.th .,|-' ''■■'" •'""" '« this
n-^ tliere is no man « I,? ^ '." " """"ble soul
t" ■yu.h prayers a.s a' rn'oft '^i':'''''"" "'^ ^'Pl"--al^
; b;.; the church aUl ",e /i'V"^''' ''''^'''nce
i !'''''^'<''^''i"tandtheWd ii?)^''^ z^^''"""" 'bo
'i"t Augusti-ie savs vC 7 '''''' ''• ■^'^'•- 75, S 7)
'•■"• 'b-n have f, H,,: fl' '"'';{ '"'' •"-''^'i
' -njin hath greater. M^. a I '"'' "''" «bicl/no'
(-i"K. m ./o„„„, tract xTit"'-"' ''"^' ""' «
c^.a'^5^^;---A;^..-:'L^;i
pb'sf;!::t:L,tors ^^^^ '^"--' ^r
h- tbe teaching of Or 1, ■";'=• V'"'' influencel
♦'■"b'ing had bee re"lhed i ' '"'r, '•''"""■'<-■■■''
P.mepric. Their ser „ „ ' ^1^"'^' "'" ''"S'"'
-';'tti:^'t-5''tr'r^-'^'^«
•iniwiug myriad.s as "n a^ . / ,"'; '\''' ''"""'.
'be martyr to proce d „ / e 1 . "" ^"''"'' "^
«':';«e,bnt not to diiVminttr' '''■"•'■■'"' '^
0* ills audience, who h ' " *■' '''""-''''"'in.s
<:"mium,hesays " e.nln k ■"" '" '"'"'• »» on-
who have eniovwJ „ ™,'""be>- t/ie martvr (l) ., .
"11 who ha^r ighted'^n t^i' '■;■" '" •'^^'""i '
bim for a helpefin .-o' '^'^ '''"™ ''"''' bi've had
b« has helped at work uV •■"'''/•') "" *^bom
W all whom he h" IS 'b Ih/T'"''''"^ ^^ "^'""^
'■;""g. (o) all whom h'ts :'"%'■'■"'" '^'*■^■-
«>«knos,, all to whom he has re i""', "',' ^'"'»
"'■eady dead, all whose life hi "'^ "l"^'^''"
l^nngall the facts tocher >v?,'?™'"''S'3d.
encomium bv common °. J "^"'''^ bim up an
to each othe,\ JJad? Z ''''""'"?• '^'■^"ibti e
to the ignorant," 7 85 T"^' '?''« knowledge
sermon i/n C,/„,;\t ^^ ^^azianzen in his
goes wofu yT .'av r" '"^''^ ^^ ''"= ^vav he
personal ide'ntit; " ;Ids ^m ""= i""" '"'ber'
b'« good offices fo them ^1 "'''P'>' ^^' '■■''« of
»'o''ing in his honour, Hik':; "i f'"'" •'^^"
future, (7) his overthi'o vof Hb ''""'"'''''^'= "f the
<f"^t, with faith, can do ,11th •'"'"■"'' >'f'"'"n's
bono:f:,^>s.'s:!;dS'''''r'''"^-
the carved wood, the nolish„r . "^ ""' '^'""'•'-■b,
walls, the mosaic ave^mS th^l' '^P'^'^'^^^i
treasured swee,,ings bids th' .. cherished and
«» a Batellite (4V 1 of r r'' ''''' "'"'
accepts their giVsjuttThen He i"' ""' """
has gone away 'he f,,,. IVju-. * "^booses. « He
leaving us th'e lient oV m"' '""^ '» «od
teaching-hall, =ratherin/ ^'■'' ''""t""' as =
■ng a cl nrci,;dr X^r^'^f"''''"''-^- '■n^trnct-
down graceful angel ^ee^Z r"""°'' ^''"Sing
the things profitSb e C us^^' "' ^'•"'" «"J
Plac. a medicine-hall ?brt'.ri"''^r'"'« 'hi.
•>-- for those tost .ura.^:r;,:iret'.:
1130
MARTYR
of nltunlnnro for the ]>oor, -i boacnn of rcfujjc
fur wiiv furors, a coasch'ss festival of such .ts
keep liiily (luys. Ihe throng never ceases. '•dTiiifii;
mill 1,'oiug like ants. He it is who in the.ie
lute years has stilleJ the tempest raised liy tlie
savage Scytliians, opposing to tlieir inroail no
cuniiniin weapons, but the cross of Christ, which
is ainiiglity." The .saint is involteil nr.il asked to
have his heavenly duties of song. "We dread
calamities and look for dangers; the grievous
Siiythians threaten war and are not far olf:
tight tiiou for us as a soldier; as a martvr
(Mnjiloy in aid of thy follow-.servanta, thy own
IVi'cdoni id's]iepch. Thou hast i>assed awav from
lliis life, but still Icnowest the passions and
wants (d' men. i'ray for pe.aoe. To thee wo
nscrilie the benefit of our preservation hitherto,
auil to thee wo pray f.ir future safety. Or if
need be of more ijiKrerous entreaty, gather the
chcir (d' thy hrotli' r martyrs; remind I'eter;
wake I'anl." (Gr ;;, Is'yss. iii. r,'78 'X ) ',:•, hraini
iSvriis entreats the .nothor of the ibv'y .nartvrs
to intercede for him with them (h^:''i, Syr. U.
Basil, in his sermon on these forty maftyr.?, i
cries, " Von often laboiir to lind one to ]n:ir for j
yon, here are forty. Where two or thre' j; i '
met in the Lord's name, God is there, bat wii* v.,
there are forty, who can doubt His pr'.-M'i.'e?
These are they who guard our countr\ lice a
line of fort.s. They do not sluil theniielvC'S uj)
in one place, but they are sojonrntrs already in
many sjiots, and adorn Miany homes, and the
Ki.angu thing is, that they are not divided !i:.un-
de» on their visits to their ei ;crtainers, but are
mingled up one with another, and make choral
jirugri- i unitedly. Divide them into a humlred,
aiidth(v ill not exceed their proper number;
MARTYR
ear and not imptite (o ns all our olTi'ncefl. If
duly we
solemn da
we vencr.ite wi
bring theiii 'ogether in one and they arc forty
still, like lir.' " (Basil, ii. IS.-i).
So in the uevt century Theodoret. "Their
noble .■•ouls ro:,M, r)uud the heavens damping
Milh the unembodii. I ohin'rs. But as for their
holies, it is not a single tomb apiece that covers
them, but cities and villages share them, and call
them saviours of souls and healers of bodies, and
honour them as jiatrous and guardians. The
least little relic has the same jiower as the un-
dividcl martyr, iuid all this does not persuade
you to hymn their God, but you laugh and
mock."
Basil, the Gregories, and Ephraim, did much
else besides bulling the martyrs. But in (he
west the title of I'ru.lentius to fame lies mainly
in the "passionate splendours " of the verse in
which he hymns them, and the solitary devotion
of the poet is more contagious than the fervour
of the orators. "I shall be jnirged by the
radiance of thy projiitious face, if thou till my
heart: nothing is unchaste, that thou, jiioii's
Agnes, deigned to visit and to touch with thy
footstej) of blessing (^Perist'ph. xiv. I;i0-l,i:!).
Jie present now and receive the beseeching voices I nil night in honour of Cvprian (Aug S,Tm ■ill
of thv suppliants, thou eincacioiis orator for our I t. v. col. 141,5). Some brought fond to tbr'
■ •! IS of the martyrs to be blessed and f tllipd.
' ' hen took it to eat elsewhere or i. gr.'.
(Aug. de Civ. Dei, viii. '.'7, t. vii. 2.",- " A\.
x.ie.,; feasts wine was sold in the cl:iri''.'S.
th voice and heart thy
iiy, it we Jie low as n pavement beneath
the joy of thine approaching footsteps, jrllde in
hither awhile, bringing down with thee the
favour dt.'hiist, that our burdened senses may
feel the relief of thine indulgence " (16. v. ,')4.'i-
5ti«). S,^ when they tried to ajiproach Clirist
through l)ie martyrs instead of seel.iiig the
martyrs iii Christ, the martyrs began l,> usurp
Christ's )d ice.
The existence of a notion (hat it wai n nsong
to a martyr to leave him nnceK.!,: ited, as though
he had looked foi honour I'ium (..^teritv rather
than from tlu i . ,d, is abundi.niv evidenced not
only in the potms of Pruilentius, but in the
labours of the factious and peoijious ■•;elat.'
Damasus (A.I). ;i(;(;-VS4), who wa. main'tay of
till' iruo faith, a siickler for the suprein icy of
ti ■■ Koman see, and a great ch.Tmjiion of 'v;r-
gioity, but who is recommended to po«ieritv
m;naly by his devotion to the shrines 01 the
martyrs. I?e endeavoured to clothe the naked
) oiiiirifss of t'o new rag-and-bono worship, not
i only with lb.' clamour of rhetoric and imetrv,
j bo! with the adornments of decorative art.
j [<'ATA''';nHlS.]
i It remained for the leaders of the church to
coi-rec! or justify the heathenised character of
Christian worship. In one respect, in the west
at least, they set about correcting it. Th(>
Christians were accused by the heathens and
Manichees of turning the ancient sacrificial feasts
into agapae. In the east these were forbidden
in the churches by the 28th canon of the council
of I.aodicea, and so were celebrated at the out-
door shrines (Chrys. 'fom. xlvii.). ,So Cln-yso-
stom urges his hearers. » If you want recrea-
tion, go to tl- narks, to the river side, and the
lakes; cons;,' the tlower-beds ; listen to the
song of the cicalas; haunt the shrines of the
martyrs, where there is health for Ihe body
and good for the soul, and no damage nor rejient-
ance after the pleasure" (in M'<tt/i. Horn. ;i7, t.
vii. 477). So Tlicodoiet boasted that instead of
the Pandia and Dionysia there were iniblic ban-
quets in honour of I'eter and Paul, and Thomas
and Sergios, and Jlarcellus and I.eontius, and
f'anteleemon, and Antoninus and Maurice, and
the other martyrs, and instead of the old foul
deeds and words they were sober feasts without
drunkenness and revel and laughter, but divine
hymns and sacred discourses and tearful praver
(Theod. Gr,it-r. ajfect. Cur. viii. wl Jm.). But' in
the west Ambrose forbade these agaiiae at Milan
(Aug. Conf. vi. 2), Augustine moved Aureliiis
to abolish them at Carthage (Aug. ad Aircl.
A)). 22), then himself abrogated them at Hippo
(ad Alyji. i'/i. 20, a.I). .'iO.-i), and finallv procured
their pndiibition by the^rd council of Carthaije,
in A.i). .'Jy? (can. ;K)). In Africa the feast w^is
called, not a;/'/ f, but Inditin. There were dances
guilt before the Father's throne. By that
prison we pray thee, the iucrea.se of thy honour ;
by the chains, the tiaines, the prongs, by the
stocks in the gaol ; by the litter of broken sherds,
whence thy glory sprang and grew ; by that iron
bed, wliicii we men of after days kiss "trembling,
thy bed of fire ; have jiity on our prayers, that
Christ may be appeased auu beud a prosperous
Paulinos of Kola was unal.de to set the c i!.»
done away, and tried to improve it by thei.il
du.;tiou of sacred pictures (Paulin. A'ut. Fi
ix.).
m
m- olTi'iicofl. If
mill hciirt thy
vcniont l)pneiith
itsfcps, gliile in
with thee fha
iumI Konsus niJiy
■e " (i*. V. r)+,"i-
|i|)niiuh Chri.-.t
n( sr'd, In^ the
began I,) usui'ii
it vin<-. a n ) ong
iteil, as IliDiigh
■;<terity rather
cviiliMiewl not
in, hilt in the
oijious ;.'. ehito
■■ :. main-itay ni
! su|.rfii;. icy i.f"
impion f.C v;r.
i t(i pi^stei-ily
shriiios 111 the
the tlio n.iki.'il
1! worship, not
ic ami poetry,
lecorative Brt.
the iihuich to
i character ot"
■t, in the we'if
ting it. Thn
lieathens and
icrilicial feasts
.'ere I'orliiiMen
of the council
il at tlie out-
So Chrysn-
want recrea-
si'le, and the
listen to tlie
brines of tlie
for the hody
;e nor repent-
i. J/om. ;i7, t.
hat instead of
e public ban-
, and Thomas
.eontius, and
Maurice, and
the old foul
;asts without
'r, but divine
'arl'ul ))rayer
''«.). IJut' in
|iae at Milan
•ed Aureliiis
g. cul Ami.
em at Hippo
illy jirocured
of Carthaire,
be feast was
' were dances
;. Si'nn. ;)ll,
food to thf
id K tlHed.
or 1. . i',:
ii. 2.-,.,.° At
e chi rch'.'s,
the c a-t^ •:■
ly the •ill .
A'at, f( ' ti.
m
''fa
Dot persoi.'
(.-. /I,. ,;
hays, " Th ■
MARTYR
Augustine rarely says anything to increase
tu- |«)i.ular devotion to the martvrs. In one
V' '/'r '-■''' ''■"■•'' " 'n »-''"t Chris'tian's mouth
(loe, no t'.e 'I'me of the martyrs make n daily
hah, ation. »S„uld that it dwelt so in ou •
hearts th.i ••.',■ .lisht imitate their passh,„s, ai"l
them with our drinking cups"
■' '• 2, t. iii. ]|)7il). Again he
I •. -ci ''''■"" ''"'" )■•""' 'liiiiking bouts
i" ,,:' ' uV, ""• *"''f''il;i»-'J they hate that much
n oie. Who says, 1 o,ler to thee, IVter. t'hrist
chose ra.lier to be, than to ,.h,im, a sacrifi "
W-<.),t.v.lL'5(.) Again he complains that
the martyrs are more honoured than the Aiiostles
e ue.it he virtues ot our betters is no small
/esui ; ';•" ^■""- -""'•''• '-^'•')- '""' '""■'■
'« suggest.., ".i we are not ,|uite worthy to re-
^ri4(lj)."' "'" *'''""'^' ^'*''"- ^•^-'
In the 8th chapter of 2'.'nd book ,/c Cintate Dei
AngUstMie enumerates the ascertained miracles
t eu,a,.,yrs,a,id in the mh chapter hepois
n i .. ''"';™;™'^'-'t»eeu these and the admitted
1 i.cl s of the pagan heroes. The demons
wo ke, wonders ni pride to prove thomselves
gods, the luartyrs, or God fur them, tor th
gn.wth of faith in the one God. TIadr men ,.
Tii'"""". '• {*"••'■'' '^ no ,,riest of the martyr
m;u-.;rra!r " ^^ ^"''^ "' '''"•'^'' ^^'"^•> ^"■
thft*'''';!"".. ''''■""'"■',*'"' ^^'oni'^l'-^e, who urges
that tlie theoretical monotheism and practical
polytheism of the Christians were alike bo .«"
.■"". liaganisui, so that they were nut a new cn.ej
but a mere set of schismatics-" desciscente
cum iluulsistis, ut omnia credatis ex Deo, sacri-
fice vero eorum vertistis in agaiies, idohi in
.nartyros, c,uos votis similihus colitis'; In
toruui uuihras vino placatisetdapibus "1-AuI' is
tine answers that the martyrs are celebriited h,
excte our imitation that we mav 1« associated
«i 1. heir merits and helped by their pnver
an hatby,,,c„,,„n,„itioi;oft;epl«crt™^^
love i*" i"' """';""" "'"y '•"•'■^'= '« warm our
liim In whose hel,, we are able. So we worshi,,
he martyrs with that worship of love and rs
to this soc ety with which holv men of God are
«-"rsh.|iped in this life, but the more devout v
(It M, ,, we worship only one God. lint he
ays, what «;e teach is one thing, what w hav
trt.'^;irSu:3«r-^^"«-^-^^---
llieodoiet says boldly that the Lord has
1 used he martyrs to the place of the lieathen
gods ( i heo 1. Uraec. aff. Cur. viii. ,„/ ,,„.)
self r.i iT" ""'"u '^'" '"'"•<'"-s.-Amlirose him-
self laid his bones beside Protasins and Oervasins
Ambr. (>,,pn. uio). Damasus would f.iii h ve
been buried in the crypt of Xvstns, but tlat he
feared to vex the ashes of the pious. "Uu
ancestors," says Maxim.is of Turin, .'ha,e u
Vded hat we should associate our bodies\
lilt; bill M's ot H'c M'l II* ■ 1.1.*! ■[ !•• ■ 1 ""II
;. ^'/''*- ^-t'lfi^. Willie Cnnst Miiiw.s on
Si x' 'lui';;"" f""'- darkness is dispell"
(W.U. 1, ur. Hum. Ixxxi. . IJut this wa.s a i.ri-
v.lege that many desired and few obtained' as
we road m au iDsaiptiou, ..d. 301, give" by d:
MARTYR
1181
Rossi (rnscn,,ti„nes C/inM.mo, i. M?). •,„„,„.
^:::::t ^"^ ^"':" -"'"■"*"■"''') -'s;v,i-:;;:n „
mis»ei o a ,|uestion put to him hv I'aulinus
' shop olN,,la, whether burial in such pioZ:
to the saints were of benefit to the dec if
II , "' "niem. III iiic ilcceased
bad tha whatever is done for them aficr leath
■^ super luoiis or useless, but many whose me at
.:„"'> ""'''^''"« "'■■'>■ l-e ''cnetited bv the
actions of survivors; that seiiultuie iu itself ,l„cs
n goo tothesoul,buttha^aie,oriti...|u:i!
We, and the grave reminds iieople to nr iv for
e iWeased. The martyrs {heliisehes' ,
;" , '7 ''">• T'-' ^''i-'- M-i have vision
the dead as they have visions of the livi,,/
'l;e-uls of the de.-id are not concerned wi'h"
, «li..t IS done here, yet the dead mav know what
■; passing on earth, for the marfvrs 1 ,
I their su,,pl,ant: The martvrs are" perpetuv
'^ayi,ig,andGoil hears thei; prayer, '"i'^
.e suppliant, who seek their inter.esioi what
le i.mselt perceives that thev want T '
sacrifices of the altar, of (.ravei-s, ,nd i f alms
1 c oie- .;,n . -'• "" ''"'"'''' "'■ -^^'''"'''^ "'e
thieshold of the church of .St. Lawrence !
gjven by De liossi iJiumt.ni, 18dn, n " See
a«o l.e Want, /us.:ri,,tion, arc^LJ'jcZ
^""7V:l;i'''««,471. t.ii.p. 21'.. '"
A 1. y,mlu;ati^n of ^utrtj/n.-Tlu. m„,v false
t a.ii,,s to martyrdom made a kind of cano ui!
1 efoie Uiocletiau's persecution one l.ucilla at
Girthage was said to taste (i.e. kiss) the n u h
of some martyr, if martvr it were beto ho
»ian ual meat and drink.'and when're, ,,1
Ueci lan, then deacon, for preferring thn nth
"la dead man, and if a martyr, not however as
yet vindicated to the cup of ialvation, le veu
oil in auger (Optatus, i. Iti).
The clergy were the wardens of the ceme-
I !;r' ""J Y V' ''"S'-^'^^ "f .naitvli 1 1
te, occurred, and we have also seen -the rules
aid down for the qualifications of martvr Join
Doubts seem only to have arisen in Afiic.- wheie
there were numerous false claims of the Uon a
■^ts, and in Gaul which had been o Ve,. l • , "
persecution, and so unsettled bv barb li'in i "
vasions that it had many uuanthor c. s In '
The 2nd canon of^ the Council of Car,lu,g, ' J
me ot poi-e Jn lus decrees, " Jlartvrinu , gn!
tatem nemo protanus infamet, nerie ad ,rj"l
corpora, quae sepnlturae tantun, pLpt • i^J i*
cordiam ecclesiasticam comiuendlui' n, ,1" t,
est, redigat, ut aut insania praecipitatos
pe.a.ui .Uionedisjunctosni^rtyrlim „„,,;; '^^
l-ellet. At si ijuis ad injuriam martvrum cliiifiti
oruiii ailjungat infi.miaui, placet ^,s si la c i
a poenitentiam redigi, si autem sint c',' c p "
|>inaii (I-ahbe, Cwic. li. 714). And the latl,
canon ot-therith council of (^N,r,h.rge ',1 ;^la
tne of Augustne, decreed that 110 ■,„,„, t
of he martyrs should be accepted e.vcep ■ ,c «
a body or relics or the origin of a iv, t .,.'
habitation was faithfulh- hanib.",W , "''•*/
tiori (,6,J. 1217). In" Gaul st Vi t ''"
tn.ulded at the^.eve;in^'"!;,^';„' :'t;i,;-
which no certain account coul I be given | h'
had a vision of the occupant as a hh L ,
So he dissuaded the peo^leUo^-^iil-'S
' fl
1132
MAHTYUAUnrS
LUJ;
(.•vctinii to it (Siilpinn.s, Vila .U.,rt!m, 11)
lli.^ ('i.iih.il of Ai.\ in A.I). 787 M-iv,hI iJmt tl„.
alters will, h arc M't ii|. ov,.rjwh..rt' tliront;!! tl„.
lii'l.l-. ail. I way.s as iiinnuimMit.s of ni;irtvr.s, in
wliuli an lM..ly oi- i-flir.s of m;ii'tyi-s are 'iiviv, li
to 1,1. I)iiri,.,l, liu r..ni,.v,!,l l.y tliu l>ish"|,.s of tlio
I)la>-,M> |io.s>iblL.. " IC |i„|,iilai- tnnui.'t!, ,1,, not
MUl.T lliis. yel lot thi. |ii.o|,le W a,linoni.-,li.<l not
to li,.,,i.oiit t)i„.se pl.ioM,'' Then thi. ACri.'aa
raii,iii i,s re|„.:ite,l, .sieiies of |,ii«i„n.s bi'liiR i.j-
loH,..l M.s uell as biitlipj.'i.x's or lioni,.s, aii,l tliev
l,i-„,ve.l t,, eoii.ieniii tru.st in .Ireains. " Tlie all.irs
wiii.li are .set up by inane nnobilion.s are alto-
getlier to be reprobate,! " (l.ablie, Cunc. vii. SI7i))
Anan in,,rtyr.s, ,s,„.l, a,s Georije, aoqulr,.,! .su.li'
c,.l,:biity in tbe Ka.s. tliat it was impossible to
e.veliiile tliein from Home, but tlieir iiet.s wi'ie
forbi.blen to be iea,l by a council uu.ler Gelasiu.s.
A.K. 4'M (l-abbe, C;ic. iv. ll'ti,!). [K. u. Jj.] '
MAHTYUAKlrs. or Cu^tos fScrlcsiae, a
k,'e|i,.i nl a MAuryitii-M. or church of n
martyr. The l:)th canon of the ,s,.con,l council
ot (Jrieans mentions them as a well-lfn„\vn
class: "Abbnti's niartyrarii, redusi, vel pres-
bytcri apo.stoiia dare n,.n piaesumant." These
relics- were often preserved in little shrines
or chapels (.M.ftt,), divi,led from the main
bnliing, a practiie familiar to cla.s.sic times
ar,l ,.( which there are notices in Cicero an.l other
lieath,:n writers: and in the larger churche.s, at
ail ov,.nts at Home, a separate guardian or imv.
tjp-anus was nernianently attached to each of
thes... who cime to be called capclhnus. i.e
cha|,lnin, and was usuallr a priest. The fiber
Jotitijicwi.'i states of I'ojie Silvester, "Hie con-
stitiiit ut qui desiderarct in ecclesiS militare
nut iiroricere, ut esset prius ostiariii.s, deinde
lo.'tor et posfei e.xoici.sta per tempora quae
episc,.pu.s con.stituerit, deinde acolvthus alinis
quiiiqu,-, sub.liaconus annis quin,'|ue, custos
MARTYROLOOY
within our ran^'o, of the inartvrdom of St Ste-
lih. n. [,S,.e fill cin.\, p. .Ml il:] (^li. st_ j_ .J. J
MAUTYIUA, martyr: commemorated at
loiiii .lone -M (//imm. Hart.). u;. H.l
MAKTYIilUM (uapT,'p,oy). Orii;ii,ally thfl
S|."t tt^her,. a martyr ,.ii,|„red martyr.l,,,,,, and
wb,.i-e his n.mains wer,. biiri,.,!. When ,.hap,.is and
ciuirhes .aiiiu to be built over th.'sc cousecraleJ
jdaces, they .issumed the .same nan .., and w.ro
known as "martyries." A martyrv is ,le(ined
by Isidore as ' locus marty.uni. i;ra,., a .leriva-
t ,uic e,. quod in iiM.nioriam martvris sit con-
s ructum. ve ,,iio,l .scpulchni .sanctorum ibi sint "
(Isi.l. ht!,mal. |,b. XV. c. !.). The term i;ra,lually
named a more e.Uen.IcI ajiplication, '■po..tc.a
"»•>"» Kcdesia titulo cujusvLs sancti -oca a est
Tt i^r; J^r^W"' [■-^O^-rartly justiti J
by he tact that no church could be cui,;,.ciale.l
we r ^'""'""""K "'« '••••"'^^ "''i' niartvr. Thu«
«e in, the terms f.aprip^o,' or ^«„A„<r/a Used
Mthout any ,l,.stinctiou, and often applie.l to
the same buiMiiig. Thus the church built by
Umstantiue on Calvary is called bv Alhaiiasius
l.^r^"" MapTi^pio;/ (Ap,.l. ii. torn. i. p. «oi),
■in. by Soiomen rh m.^u i^aprip^ouill. K. ii. -(i)
aud Jerome .says "cujus iu,lustria Ilierosolymae
n,.rtvru,m exstructu.n est" (Ilieron. (;/„„,, -^
(' n h Ti^"'"'- ''^'- •*"' Theophanes, anu. 32
eonst.) 1 he same name is given to th,. church
fh' 7t •■' ^■^"'^ ('^"'■'•' ^^' ^- i^' '«). and
r 'fW"^^ "»-' "'■ the Apostl..s at Con-
stnntino,de (lallad. pp. tl;!, ,,■../), and to the
basilica ot fet. Peter at Rome (Athanas. Euia. ad
Con ."■•.*""'■,'• •;• ^■">' '""J t» the church at
Con.sfantinople where the relics of the M) mar-
tvrs were discovered (Soz. //, E ix. L') The
c^iurch ot St. Kuphemia at Ch.lce,l„n, which
l,°n ^ 1/ ''f "'■ "'«; ting of the oecumeni,:al
•-ouncil, called iKK\-n^ia in the exordium of .IcYa
^......,..., .s,,„,.,..co. us annis quin,|ue, custos y"""".- ™"e" ^tfAtjala in the exordium of .liYa
n artyrum annis quinque." etc. The authority l' ""'i, "•- '« styled ^apHp^ov in Acta iii. (I.abbe
of this work however, .s not high for the early l^'- •*'!)• The Council of the Oak wa.s aUh Id
popes bimilarly. /ozimus, bishop of Syracuse, i? ••' " ■"«■•»>•'•>• " "'"-''-e the body of :.i„s,.ori,,s of
IS said to h.iye been ,n his earlier life "cu.st08 "e™opolis, one of "the Tall Brethren " was
pictiosi locull S. V ririnis I t„.i.„ " -...,„ sub.se,iiii.nHv ,„*„ \ ,a ,r », . ._ ' .''*
pictios. locull S. Vnginis I.uciae." apparently
a shrine, and atterwaids " ostiaiius et templ'i
C«.StOS. pc I ..',
MAKTYRDDM, REPRnsKXTATioxs of. The
subse.)ueutly interred (Socr. U.K. vi. 17), and it
va.s in "the murtyry '• of Basili.scus. in the
,;'"''>; "' ^"•"l""'' ""*' Cliry.sostom ,lied (I'allad.
J J). 1 hough they are olleu regarded as synony-
mous, that ^apTipwv was not i.lentical with
earliest representations of martyrdom with ?l'lx ^opTi/pio^ was not i,lentical with
which the writer is acquainted occur in the K?, ' ?■ t'''"'"''' '^''"'" *'"= ^""'I'h'i'.t of the
''■-'-■ " ■'-- '• " "^'"■-'^■"' '"■" '•'!'« at the council of Ephcsus to the
See L'Art dans Ics Hon
Jlenologium of the Vatican librarv 'wl,i,"h I , ■ ■.■•"^.. u. ,v,,oesus lo me
I)'Aginc„urt places in the 0th o 10th :.en u v tTT '"" "^^'"'^ ""^ ">« ^'^■^''-"•" 1»-"1"'"
fi.„ /..,....,.... , ., """-'• h.'d clo.sed against them "both church,.- and
I niartyries, Til i^.'ai iKK\r]Gias «oi ri £-y,a
turies
The introduction of martyrdoms of saints not
mentioned in Holy Sc.iptures probably synchro-
nises with that of the Last Judgment, with its
IK-H, in the nth century. For the subject of
tlie Holy Innocents, see 1.nnoci.:.nts, p. 841. The
writer knows of no representation of the latter
ejiHier than the Chartres eyangeliarv, .sai.l bv
Rnhauit , e Fleury {E,an,,ile, i. •JS'.', and plate)
to be of the 9th century, but j.robaolv still later
^or can he call to niiud an
mJ^'^.^m/'"'? ^^^ '^'"■•'y'-! ^'"niemorated
mIi) ^ ^'"''■^' "' """"^ (^^""-""^
(2) Martyr with Marcianus. notaries; comme.
morated Oct 25 (Basil. JJenol. ; Daniel, Cod.
L>t:-r;/. w. 272). (-^^ „ -j "
MARTYROLOCxY (Mart,,roh,;u,n, ^aprupo-
.\rf-,-,o.) This wo,-d denotes a li»t of martyr.s,
especially one arraoged according to the succes-
sion of their anniversaries. In the Kast such a
any representation, I H. ..:^---:^ callJiJ^^^l^^^^!
MARTYRor.OGY
[Mknoi/kiv.1 I „„„./„..
'» '1"^' '.•"■•lu.st n,|,|i;,.il,l,. ..XMini,!,. nf ,u ,
/-•',). w„ n.ay nnt,. a f.w ■„:•;', '^'.'"'' '"
t wa.s Inoal 'It th,. ,' >^ '"■ 'I'l'''"!'-
rM v,.t th. "•■"■tynnni lit, <■ |h,.
(-) V' the iiniiiviM-siirv w is i,,.. i r ^i
J"i"H with hi,„ aiMn,,:,;"^' '■''■'-■ "■•'•'•'
hn;v.'n.M| to ...iiiri,!,. V I,' i. ^^''">^''»)-. whith
h-Ul„.„ festival; ',„ s i:'";'' ""'' >"'"i"""liv
(.'hri.st.an martyr, t " L';"!" ■'"'"""■'■'' '^^
w.is a h..li,|ay siuprt • f-,^ „ '' ''™"« """'.vr.s
ei...no. ,„ thL,!,,,:^},!;:^^",;-;; -.;;.'"t a,i„.
sanos 111 A.i) 2-,() tk, " ' '"'"'"-''i iinmvor-
l-ait.'....,! tint ^„ 'X-s' '""•■' "•''^■" '""■^■
eise, (or example wi h <■ """ '*'"'' 'he
S,iU.stiaii (AW. yWJv^^ '.>'"' '•"'Ji''" ami
tuosu. and Agnes, 't";,'jf'; ^'^^ ' «'"' Krue-
n.«nt in the article on Ca, .'. '''''."'*^^ " •■"'"''-
some ini.sc„nee,.ti.m ^^'''^«'''»" i» liable to
chiv,.s ,.(• each ch, ,v.h P-'e^-'ivcM in the a/,
by the .X.a,^" 1];™';«^' /"--venience
l".Tsecuton,-.wir linni. ^"^'""-' "'^ ^"'^'"n
(^y|..-. Vo9^or1uror'Ce""""7"'"-"
J'»l"' f"r « month nnJ ten ,1.. /v"' *''" ^^''^
-'•'•A to Jan. 3, A.„ .:)t ) "„''• f ('^°^'- 2-^. A.n.
JIaximin, we are to! i tluit ,",„ ''" '"''■«'';^''<i"n "f
ont the acts of the ma r vr '^''".''-^"-^''"Kht
and laid them tip in tie 1^ I'T *^' ""'""•'-'■^
he wa.s male ? mar vr"''-''h ''"' ^^■''''■■'> ""»?
I'ienu.s) Jlaximns" rY)o |{ fe prefect (Pu!
'81)- The mnu.,,,' " ''"■""' ^"""- Svtt. ii
would bo .Lr a:^"!„r r^i-^h the acts
Jeath, but those of the si ^"'^ "'"■^'' "'" the
IH'lytu,, buried on C 1 Ir,"""'; ?.'' «'!'-
«). Fabian is said, in'^iheli^ATth "''''"' <'*•
have oppointed seven sul 1. ' K"^'^' '"
notaries to collect the „""'"''':'.'<''"* and seven
their entirety Cyprian n " 't """'^'-^ '"
■•>"■■ 'eacons to no e tbe ' ^'' P>««byte.-.
n.a.,yrs depart thiflife an Ih ? "■'''^'' 'he
a brother who tin s 'e f i' ' that Tortullus.
.m.utyr,s, had written;,";/:,"'"' '""•'"' "'«
""" the davs on which the .Vk' *" "''""i' '"
JIartyrologies are of various kinds-
MARTYROI.0GY n,T3
'narlvro|„.v tli.t 1 ''"'■'''"' "'''nt
'•■"ll-l alter -Ml,,, „,';'"'• ^".•''>*. -melimes
!'""■-"■•- lie ,'s'';;/l'r ''''■■' l-'l..'. some-
'■■•''-I it in hi,s c ,,;,;',',' '''^J!--^''-"! and pub-
"'■■■*. pp. .'.;u-'.t) ; ;"' ^,""'*''"'". Antwerp.,
'voci (!.:.e'M„at b ii T .'^'""V/'<V. »«./,«.
™-'"'iarc,,nta,n;ii,,,| •,,.';;'''■'«' .'''••'0. '''he
»hat can be c.alled ('hr ,; i'"'"' '"/h-arliest
'^■tters and a " • | ! L':> T*-'" "^. "^" ""'"''nal,
" """•'"^'■nlyhea he V, , T"""« ^•"■-''-•'•. ''Ut
the l.i.■thda^V; the ,t '''■'• ''''"■" ''"l'"W(J)
-n-'ls to AU ;!04%;~' (''^ 'he .series^;
(■*)" table of the ,1,.; ' ^l'^'^ Co/Mni; .
'"," f'--'n. A.O. .■U2 t A ., 4, . "f-'.^-f"-''' would
"' 'h« city fr„m A /■//;: "^"'^ '"■^'^"•"•'»
;'o«//o ^-/^.-^cvy.on,,,, tl,; Is,,?' ;■ Y' ^''> ^-
"the popes for the' .sai^ecttlrv." rr/;" ''''"
f-"- -'•'+, and wis a lanJ d nit k'''^V'"''''''"^*^
hnt in orderofthecu ?n,f . ' '''"•onologically
--■'luent entries beiu'Vun^d!: .''•';■ ^i!*"' '''^' -^"l--
""^eited in their places ','' "' 'he clo.se. not
i' i« manilesth the "ll ,"■*'' '" ""^ "'''"J'"--
helongs really to tl c rX^of' r "'i '^'-"""■'"s
«'7 '"erely cuntinu d upTo l^""' """''"^ '»"J
"Dd also that when the „lm '" '^•'^- ^^-i;
'ho epoch at which bo h he ii';'" '"" "'«'^"'"'
"ot at the distance of an Iv cttnt"""'"-'"^' *■"
t>e Hossi Ui^n^ o I/;. ^•'•.•.'-' eentiiiy.
two lists «n.7;.;b Mv •/'■■"'•V"'"'' "'•■" th«
source, thearchi-es I'fo r°i '■" ""^ """'«
"t^'te. Co,„p,,re T ■■• ci. A^" '^■''''^ ''"t of the
(:'2)i trom which pa.vsaL i ,■! .i ^'•''>'^ ^>- •^•'5
r'v.l power took coLis^l !• '"""■'""" 'he
^ivilpowertooi: 0^; •::;«:: :;,."i;i--'ha^ the
the clergy. *= ""-" "' 'he succes.sion of
'»'';;:;■ o;:::l:^j-'2^ -n. the -•- <«
not among the po,,es I, , ^ "''"'"'''•' '''"uJ
J;!''-;i'^;i"ontiai^A'"T.c'; "'"';''''-'-'
"" of them martyr po5' K / *^'''"''"^ <'et. 14;
;;^"'"ed by the copyisL'"^ Z^'" -•n.lentally
l"le.phorus (Iren.V Kus /J '^r"'"" '-"ntain
'■' probably conclude t it M tf ' ''' ''>' ^^'^
' ■ 'J iu the Z^6*os,<,„V '"^ l"'l"'» >"en-
-' wo must ur^u p^^f;XtT'''■1'''''•'-•'^'
were martyre.l ' *^ "' °" «'"'l'ef l'"l.e.i
.pi;fS"^S«-:,^''^-e'eryisinoach..ase
0' entomb,„e;:L:''%'r'E"'r'/''''^^''''-^''-'
second citalogue whei^consnh, ""■''* '" 'h*
'he oo,i,inem.rrati.n are 01 . ^T"'" "'' '"'''"1.
;t.tl^ years (DeLC^,^'-;^-|-^«-tod
h-ame catalogue include, two fcL^ittuli-
*«%
11.14
MAHTYROUx.Y
licit c'litninlMiiiMils lit jiH, till. Niitivity, r)cc. 1,-
aiiH 111.' C'h.iii- .,r l'..|,.r, I'VI,. '.':', a,„| ;,„,. iV,i.|"„f
Alniaii iiiiuiyis, IVi|„.tiiM nn.l K.liiitns, ,M;ii-,|,
•<, ill VVllilll CUM', II. I l<>MI.'l.'l V is ll:irili.||, Imf i,
»lu' iMM' .if III. ly ,,tli,.|- rinii-l!. .111.111 mill I
</|'l'iiill. th.' li.it.' is ii.l.l.'.l, " Jlum.ie ,rl,'.r. ■ ,r „i
Cdlifli." Till' M'i'.iliil I'lltilliijjil.' ili.i N lint Si. Ill t„
ilirjii.ii' liny Miiirtyi'sciirlii'i-lliiii llie.'lr.l iviifmy,
mill is (•.'I'ljiiilv not II ri.iii|.li'lt' ii-t of I; iiiiiiii
IimilyiH iV.iiii tliiit liiiic fniwMiil. It is ,.nly the
J'l-n.i/,; //.■rl„/,,,i;,i,n, or |U| c,|' ..liiiit' f..i.-'ts of
111.' l;nni;in rhiiivli. T.I ).i,.|,'ii,I with li,,.lw,'ll
tli;it It >;i\.'s nil the I-.itin iimrtvr,,, not mily .,f
l:.ily lull of olIi.T |iiovineun, is' «xtruv«i;antly
nhMir.l. '
''' t« Mliilii>;ni's, whirl- tc>},'i'tln'r fi.nii the
eiirlii>l inai-lyii.l,ii;y. an' ri'|.nnt.'.| (V.mi Hu.h.-
riii> (|i. 'JliT). hy l.iiiimrt (.1 t<i s;i„rni, p. lilij,
riiii.s, lti-i!i), iiii.l fi',11,1 M,,i,iiii.((.n (|i. (l;tl) l,v
Ijc Siiii'.jt (liiti;.,l,t,i;u h,;i,,;iUH,\,. :,\>). ThV
''■'/'■"'I'll- of I'liiliicaliis Is i.ri'.,.,| hy .\lii;n.' (I'alr.
xiii. li-'l) sill.' hy ni.lc' «ilh ;hi.i1|i(t that iiHoi-.I.s
nn inli'ivstiiij; n.iii|.ahM.n, iil'i'i' for tlii' I'limi-
1' Hi. Ill of thii hcalli.'ii :linii for tho iiitroiluciion
ol a('hristi,.n .'l.'iii.'nl , , iiii'lv, the oali'iijar of
I'"l.'nii'ii-Silviiis(A.I>. ■ I.I), tiii.sl.ittur, thini>;h
It c. Mlainn .-I'Vi.n of the ohii'i rhristian holi.lavs
(l.AViiKXin.s), is ill no ,>fii.-,i' u iiiartyrolni,'v. A
Ii'oiiMn cal.'ii.lar of iiiiiih lati'V .hit.' ('MIi;ii,.
(•.\.\.\viii. llMi)) will allorj fuithi'i- JuloiMiiiiJ
toiiipiirihon.
II. li.tts ofnimivcrniir/i-i /onwumlhy ll,r churrii
M'lth s/rc'dl .«.ri'|-, ,'.<.— That tlit'iT wi'ic siu-h, ami
thai th.'V (lillcml in I'ach ililli'ivnt hcilltv, wo
kn„w from S.izoim.n (//. //. v. ;t), who t.'ils us
that I'onstantia nn.l Cn/.a. though onlv i ooiijil,.
til'niilos apart ami f.r . .vil piirpiLses foriiiiair ..no
I'ity, ha.l each its own f.n.-t .lays of its own'inar-
t.vis anil coiniiii'iiioralions of' ils own hishnp.-..
Wi' can hanlly say Ihal w havo anv sii, h e.\tanl
that (late from hclore the t!lh ccniury. It is
nlniost .■eriain that ihe i'cclesia>lical marlvrolo^'y
of the; lionian chinch in the timi' of Lilicrliis was
fiillor th.in the li,,|s preserved in Ihe work of
rliiliicaliis. These lists, hi wever, pr.ivc one iiii-
[lonaiit jMiint. While Ihe civil year h.'iian on
.Ian. I, the eccl.'siastical year at 'llome li,.gan a
weeli earlier, on Christmas Day.
The friiKiiieiil of an dslrognthif caleii.lar, dis-
oovereJ hy .Mai, and refei re 1 hy him to the cIum.
ol the 4th cent iiry, contains only local saints (for
hishop I)oriillieii.s, Nov. li. ami I'he .mperor ll.m-
Ptantine. Noy. .1, were specially (J.ilhic saints)
nnd apo.^lles, I'hiliji, Nov. l,',; Andrew, Nov. ;iU.
[C'AI.KMlAli.]
Information re.;:i;dinj,' the anniversaries of the
church is chielly lo he drawn from the sacra-
mentaries or from the soimons of the fathers.
Basil only preaches in honour of Cappadocian,
Chrysosii in at .Antioch of Anliochem: saints. liut
AiiKUstine at Hippo .vl.'livated nm only local .ir
even African martyrs, hut the iSjiaiiidi hi.-hoji
Friicluosus and the lioinan virgin Ai;ne^ (.Ian.
21), the Spanish .l-.o.on Vincent '.laii.^L'.'), j'ro-
♦ asiiis nnd (ierva.ius of Milan (.hine ID) the
lioinan I.awrci.ce (Aug. Iti), the Mi.cc'ihees
(Aug. 1), Stephen (Dec. •.'(!), the Nativity of the
Baptist nn.l his Dec.dlation. perhap, the conver-
sion of Paul (dpcni, V. IL'IT if.).
The sacraiiienlan,.^ of I...,, (A.n. 4dn-4in) an.|
Gclasins (A.i). 40'.Ml)ii) iiro genuine and authen-
tic monumeutb of their resjiective epooh.s, wh h
MAKTYlIOLoaY
I the Hreitorian siicriiiiienl.iry In not. (D,. I{,..i,|
I /.o»(. .V..«. I, lo,j., 'I'hi, ,.•„,.,.„,„„„, , ^,„^^.J
fir, .in ..Illy iKIlidcunt in ihnr loMitmn. lo
I ll|e.-.,lwi,Jai'; ll .iroMli^sii.MsonK sliert that the
"iMh. ., I' n.il comjios,. or (ind special prayers
I"! : ic o,,,iit,„l feasts that seemed with I'le-
serving. The Hairaiiientarv of I.eo In ihc niim
months exinnt, retains seyen nnd .niiiu elev.-n
oMheanniveianesof I'hih.i diis. ,„|,|« m, aniii-
;;'■'■'""■'"•» "< " " iiMilyis at Home, one of a
Koman away from Umiie. , „■ two of nou-
homaii imirlyrs, ,,ml four of Scriptural neiM,,,-
!'«•■" (•'"'"' »"Pli-l, An ,e '.l,,,, „;„, ,,ie
Innocent.s). (l.„r -; ,a, ..,„ ,„, Mnralori,
'■ili<r,iii l.om ,,i„ I etua mny he eonHulted )*
Ihe calend.ir of r,i|eiiieu, illuslrales Ihe s.ime
l';iideiicy to greater iiiiiy.r.,alily that wa» hegiii-
.."ig " alect marlyiol.igies. While retiiimig
only Iwi. Koman anniversaries from the twenlv-
Iwo ol 1 hilocaliis, he aiMs a new f.ireign iiiarlvr
(» incent) and ''our colel.rati.ins of .s.-riplm^il
lads (K|iipliany, I'a.ssion, wilh ihe mission of Ihe
Apostles _(.\|nr. '.'.-i), Slephen, the Maccahees).
nieC.irth.tgiiiian calendar or iiiarlvr.doirv
V^yn in Jlig,,.. ^J■.,tr I. Ut. xiii. PJlo/i, pru".
Iialil^ later llmu a.D. ."hi.'). '
III. flftier.ii Marli/ruliM/iet.
A. m S,,n:,.- J/i<v,-o%v.-"Thn names
ol our lords the iiiarlyis and yi.tors, with their
days on which they wci crowns "
Thisislhetill.'and 'lesiripth.n of an ancient
■Syrian m.,rtyrol, _.v dlscuvered l,v Dr. W. Wright
in the " wcll-knimn Mtiian M.S. A I.I 1 ' I Vl "
written A.I.. 41- "e.vten.li,ig f,i„„ fol. ' -,T ver'..
to lol. ii,^.4 reel.," aiol p„l,|i.he| l,v him in th«
■/'>;ni„l .,1 SacfJ I.H,r,it,i,,; y.,|, viii., N.,S . | „„.
'l-'n, 18(iH pp. 4.5-5ti, with an Kngli.sh version,
|ip. 4'.'.)-4:ij. '
It avowedly computes the months ijfter the
.reek. ,.e. our present reckoning, hut iriven
Ihem Syriac -nmes, [MoNTII.] The latter
Mnun, Shehiit Adar, Nisiin, Uxr, Ila.ii.in,
1 nmlz. Ah, llul, ihe former Teshri the latter
leshrl, the former Kanii This last, which is
ei|Uivaleni to Decemher ..^ins Ihe v. ar. The
ii't.vrol.c „pen.s. nm h the Nativity, hut
"h the apostles Stephen, Dec. L'l). and .l,.hn an.l
.lames, Dec. •-'7, at .lei u.salein, and I'aiil and I'eler
at Homo, Dec. -H. Tlienceforwaid, with onlv Imo
exceptiims (I'erpetua, March 7, and KxitiiW/,'
A li. hli^hop of K,,,,,,. \,|g 1) ,,„. ,„,.,
heion..' to the eastern p,. viaces of the empire
Ihirty anniversaries are assi-ned |. .Siconie.lii
twenty-one to Antioch, sixteen N Ale.'inndrii;, -A
to Caesirea in Cnppft.locia, : to A"ryra, otheis
to another A Icvanil ia, to Amasea, Aphrodisia,
.Vm..i,..Ii,s, non.ini, Khnetia, Hvzantium, Cae-
•sarea in I'alesti.! .Ice.l Corinth, l.des.a.
Kuuienea Hndria, Hel ulis, Herai lea i„
Ihiace Ilierapo'iv .„lic, , vstra, Meliteiie,
•Nicopolis, Ni.sihi.s, iviganiu.s, IViinlhiis. .Sahm e
Sirmuim, The.ssaloniea, TomI; a, so to l!illiy,i,.i
(..ilalia nnd l.snnrin ; while twent v-four are naiii,.,|
wilhontspecilication of place Wiih IVterof Mev-
i.ndria^, Nov. •J4, "Here end the nmrtvrs of the
"est. Ihen lollow "The names of ..ur loi.ls
the martyrs who were slain in the Ea.st : " " Ahi
• The Cajiilulare piil,li,lie.l liy Ffnle an.l In- Miirti.np
( IhtSiiunt I wus c.'iiip.wd lit the end ol the 7lh cenliiiT.
iM'liire 6-2, uiiil retouclad tjttween a.u. 7U and Hi (tie
Uossi, Hum. Sott. Via.) '
MAKTYIlOLoav
lilinibi .,/'tli.. nnrieiits" „tl,i.r '"'
MAIiTVnoi.OOY
11. 'J5
uy7)
- title
.lid
0"" v„h„„.,, with th« i.,MM,.„ 1^, ;':'■"' '"
» til. .1.; .T,,,t,„„ giv„„ |,y ,i,„^., „„. 3
::;;::: ••^l'!:;: -/'•-''" -'""-^
Iff,! f,„n, f" " '•> '"''7 ''l'l'".irs t» have dif.
■!i".i ^-^X^.2:zriaTT'''-
■"•H,os..i„;:',^:'b;."':,Vtt;;:i?^"'t;"'"""^
'■Mv-,i''i:'). .\t..,Kiu ti,. , „i,i,.o „,.,,;,'• /■"'•
iiswl in l,i> Ki:ii,i7i|,- " th . I""l'"''s t.. liMvo
(/,W/v/ ■;. m ^l(,.<. ,\ •,. j .%, "J" iu», |iu,|„
^i.e«ks„rHL„„,c,./„,;,.;;r'i„,,takn;";
''"'"•''•'■''""'^"'^ll'r«tiu.dintn?UM.7//
-i-hair„Mhe;u;'™.,t:;^'tr.:vi^
..;.,.. ,,i -;---.-,,-;;;■ ;^
ilifiptUius, thu most Ch.i. l*"- 'iyi*) wncn
n:.;no/;dvo.;r;.;;,;::.:::«;^^'',;;-«^^the
n-,,a,„oust4L;r,':;,-t.;:;v^7 •'-•'>«
hi- < liunh, t|,„ |,i,|,„,, ,„
r- 'rds wi M 1^, ;'''!:''■;''''''■",><'', ho ,,nl,|,c
'"■"■'yr 1^. 1 «. r ." ' '''"y ""•' ,J'-'"V"-- what
'"y un.ln vv it ,'' ' '" '"'•'' l""^i'"" -r
li- tio,„„tio;'\^:,,;'''T' •'''•!''' •^'^'^'■''
"'"M"(iiu,.,i th, "''*""^'"'' itiuici, hi.-t(„v,
•^■■< "1 I ,,','" "-I "™>ly all tl., ,„„■,:
Mn«l,, ,lays," .;„„„„ ,,„.., .11" U,,, . '"i
''•■'"""I'vii w^ :;;'";,;;"''''•'''■;'■'>' -
''■"•'-■ l'iiWlvau,Uo' ' •""'. "^i.t ,)a„. 1, I
III"- 'wh, "j;„,^,;7?""""'''»y-i'w,.h
. ' "y '.^^11. an i;a>y chant.'.. •• u .i
•|'";,"K I'f thu hook w« hav,. «; M. n ,h ■ ''*
in v,.„|y Ji,',^.".." *''""" '■"«-l'K..i>y NUhlinu,.
•.-u«ht'"„^;r:iV'M''"''^'''''^^^^^^^^^
l-y I'loix'i.tini hiinsrlc ' ■'""''•' '-■*«n
''""^tant,n« wh,.„ h w. , hi u '^7'",' "•'""
I '>ii-Mi; Jr,:. :t;r'''r'"?'''^^; '■'"<
wi'»..?.'un;;^ty!.t;u';;7.. ;;-•'■- tin...
■-'"•^-..JXri'rKth :^.cr-,r
1"" '-'-t' iis::/''' Th '''"'• ^'''■"•-«
""•« 1'i.lycai'. I'o . ,' '^•"-'^'I'/'V «">»l'ilni' u
I'e in, 1«,|,. I 1 ; ''''-; "'''"'" '^"'■'< ■•*'^«i"s to
>f I'al. „.;;.''''"'-■ ».'•">! w,.h tl,e n.artvr..
e..,L'of"th:H!;i:,r'""'' ''°'" "■•• -'-"
riitTU'^.;:":'' :^t "'« -■^^''^tv;::
attrihulMl eith,, , ^ '"•-*■ l"»»i''iiitv he
'"un,l in aoiM..o"!l*':::^^..^'"'' »"•-'»'>«
sinKi'.' martyroloirv as °i ,1;,. .• ■"' '""'^'' «
1- "» niauy auciunt caleu,lais, ijttej
i'^:
Si-.1l
11.30
MAltTYHOLtKJY
F'lil
lii>;i tlii'i' wi'll or ill. Till' miiiii! mnrlvri nri'l
({riiu|i' 111' iiiiiityr»iit'ti'u ri-ciir Iwn iii'ilncc tltni's
t)ic Miiiu ilajK, (il'ti'ii fill- Ciiiir I live i|;iy»
riliiiiiiii;. IMari'a Luidiiia |>i<(>|iIl' ; im I |iirn|>||i i|Vi>
tuiiicl itilii (pliiii's. Vi'l, liciwi'viT llicj ni.irtyr-
(ilip^v lia.'. Im'1'11 swulli'ii liy liii|icrtini'iit nr< ri'timiH
mill iiMiH' ri'|ii'liti.pui, tin; iniiic iu|Mfiiis ihi- Icjt
U III'' lii'ltiT. Wlii'ii it liiiH been hiilijfcli',1 til ,1
reviTM! iH'MiTMs 111' nMi>lrlc'linii iiii.l ij^'iinraiit «li-
inlnaliiiii, tin; cniirii'-liiii Ih'cimih's Iiujh'Ii'.hs,
Till' M irtyriiliij;y n.ii.sist.s <liii.(|y „r iiamm .if
Jilaiu> ill III.' Iiniiliv.' lasi' iind fit" |iitmiiih in till'
(.'I'll ill 11', iMUx'.'il 1111 k'l' till- M'vi'i'al ilayt iVmii
t'hiisliii.n til I'll ri>ttiia«, tlunisli ii iV'W further
lii'laiN ai'ii iiitrniliii'i'il.
Till- nil il)riJi.'i'i| MSS. nre (.\), a .MS, niailo at
Ciirliu' iiiiiliT "lu. .Ni'vi'lmii' in tin' IJIIi icntiiiv,
iiiiil prliiti'l, Willi arbitrary tiMin,|iip,iii,iii., in|,|
Hil.'llt C"!!.!.'.'!!!!-.!! SU|l|lli'llU'lltatioll^ liy l)'.\cln.iy
iu lli^ .S'//l'.l'/.'7/l(H( (ii. 1 fiiliii; iv. i;i7, 4t.l I'll.),
niiij rt'|iriiitiM by Mii,'in' (lllcnm. i.\. 117). Tlii.s
MS. isiinw iu the I'aiis library (Caul. I.at IJ, tin).
(11) .Ni'Vi'liiin''s autngra|ih 'onpy, in tho ^allnl
liliriiry (Kmnl. Cnrbii' ."i), iliscovi'ri'.l by I).' ItusM.
(C) .\ lUh-.Tnlury .MS. r'.iiM.I at l.ncra by Kin-
reuliui, iniiioil iVmii oni' maile at K.niliin'll,.
UuiliM-WaUilii, aiiil »iit iiiti'r|Milati'il ainco Wan In'.s
death iu A.n. 7.">7. (D) ('.idex lihinianus. Aii-
Othi'r cdjiy .if the sain.' K. ntcui'lle M.S. nia.l.i at
Wi'isi'ubiiri; iu a.d. 77(I, ami snlis.'un.'iitly intiT-
liiilal.'il with iu.'n'rtioiis liL'luiijjiin; to ilini tinvii.
(K) A .M.S. that belnni;.'.! In th.; '.•hiir.h ..f Srns,
iniw iu th.' yn.M'u nl' Sw.'.l.'ii's ciilli'itiiin iu thu
Vaticau (C.i'l. Ml). Tli.'s.. live, thiiiifjh nf v.'i-y
ilill'tTi'iit ilati;. are of n.'arly eijiial value. (K)
('i)ilex .^iitw.'riiieii.sis, .n- K|it'i'niai.'n.sis, a MS. in
Auylo-Saxiin letters, .if the Xth .■eiitnry, mail.'
by .me .if the nn.nk.s.if St. Willjbr.iril, tliea|iust|e
of Krieslauil, in K|iterua.'h in. mastery, fmiiicl by
K.issweyil at I'l-eves, ii.iw iu the I'iiris library
(C.hI. I.at. V'.>* '")• A page of faesiinile is giveii
in the Actit SS. fir A)iril (t. ii. p. in.).
Of the alioye (f) is e.litul with a collation of
(.\) and (K) .lay by day, of (K) iu fiaj;nients, au.l
of (D) entire at the .l.ise, by Kinreutini (Wtiis-
taia Ixcksiae Occidi nt ilis Martyrohjiwii, Lneae
l'iii7). '
The Epternach MS., though the earliest, is by
coininnn e.mseut iirnnnnnceil the least authentic.
It l•e)lre^ellt.s a liritish firm nf the .Martvnilogy,"
and seems to bear a close relation to tiie Mar^
tyrol.ii;y .if Done.,'al - partly |inblish.'d by Todd
mid Heeves (iMiblin, IHrni), but buried for the
must part iu St. Isidore'.s, Rome— in which the
t.ip.igraphical notes are 'imitted.
^{C<) I)e liiissi has discovered in Berne library
(Cod. L'8it) a Oth-ceutnry copy behiusjim; to the
chur.h of .Me'z, which retains the topojriaphical
notices ill larger characters, dividing the martyrs
of ea.h day into .listinct loi'al groujis.
All these MSS. have iu .■oininon sundry arbi-
trary interp.datioiis and corrections relat'ing to
early saints, which De Rossi traces to the niis-
miderstandiug of a 7th-ceutury list of papal
interments. He considers therefore that the
extant .M.SS. did n.it diverge from their common
stock till it hid been subject to interpolation iu
the 7th cent' v.
i'iiey all laitain a number of notices relatino-
to Gaul. These are partly shared in comin.in
between them; partly peculiar to the several
groups. Those which are common to them all
MAUTVUOLOOY
'•" ""' "'lend bey I the end of the (!th centurr
and refer c e. iailv t,. Auxerre. M.ir.'.iver th.'r
all "|iell ,',l,_n iiioiilb with the notice, "I,|t,,„i«i
liidi.vii'l.is, au.ltli.'pr.iclaiiiati.iuof lil.ini.'s.inthe .
.^aleinls, whatever .'nuuexioii it may have with
• '• 'Hill', was i-.'rtaliily an .irdiiiaiic.'of ,\iiii,,iiiH,
Aniiai'harlus bisimp of Aux.rre, I'irc. A,ii, ilnO
(J..<,i .S'.V, t. vii, Si'pt. p. li|.|).
Aiiolh.'r iiriu.ipK' is appli,„l by Pe Rossi to
conlirin III,' .i.ncluM.m to whi, h th-e fots p.iint
riu' .'rdiiiatiim of a bishop w.is ordinarih only
' 'ui"iii..rate 1 in hi,, |ir,.|i '|'lie milv ordi-
natinu, oll.isliop.s iiol,',| In lb niaifvi.Il.igies,
be^i.le, that of the gre.it St, M;irtiu, an"' tho.se of
Amiarius_(.riily ,11), „,„| „f i,,, ,,„„„,„.„„,,„,
.M.elas ol Lyons (.Ian, 10). The death oi Anna-
nus Is nut noted I in some ..■opi„s he is stvled
l>"llllllUs.
ll.'U.'O Pe Fi.wsl coii.lu.I.'S that, iu the time of
Aiin.inus, "out of two or iii.ire tattered conies "
.d au ".irlier work that pass.'d nn.ler the name of
.ler.ime, "a clerk of,\u\erri', ignorant of topo-
gi-aphy jin.l hish.ry, put togclher the chaotie,
iiiell.'y Ir.im winch .nir present copi.'s are de-
nv.'d (lie Ro,s I, /^o,M.,^o« II. ,,,,.,_,,,, ,,
■II-IH,) lnst..,id ot keeping the texts of the frag-
iiients iM'lore him ilistinct, as parallel repro.luo-
tion.s of the .saiHc, he has tran.s.rilied ii.'arlv the
wh'ile of ea.h and run them into one. He .;eeiii..i
als.i t.i have tried to piece two fragments tog,'.
Hier Ilk,' a child's puzzle, and sometimes to have
pi.'.i'il thi'in wrong.
The ti'xt, h.iwever, no ill restore,! by the monk
ol Anxi'vie, who, it may be observcl, is supposi'l
.■onleiiip.irary with ari'gory th,' Great, was its.'lf
ol the natnr,' ,if a .'ent.), a.-cording to the jiidg-
m.nt of modem .rities. The same principle that
"oalilel De Ros.i t,i refer the bungling n'.ension
to the time ol Aiinarins induces him to a.ssii'u
.•ertaiu .if the .Inciiments u.sed iu the ..■ompilation
to thepope.loinsof li,mifu'ul.(A.n, 4lH-4'J'.>)aiid
Miltiail,'. (A, 11, :ni-:;U). Uu the L'ltth of De-
oeniber Hie niartyrology has '• nonil'acii cpis,.,i,ii
lb' or,lination,',"an'l this is certainly the rioht
.Hiiniver.sary of th,' onliuation of li.mific,'" I.
but not of his dcilh, which is left uncel, lirati',1
the burial of Miltiadi;s is |iro]ierly not.'d on
•Ian. 10 ; but again, ami this time without men-
tion of a ci'iio'tery, on July L', the day of his
or.liuation, (de Rossi, J^uin. S.tt. i. lt.'-114).
riiese ilocunients, he cmcludes, were far too ran;
anil jirecious to have fallen into the hands of ,in
obscure Gallii'an mouk. The Martvrology also
.■outains numerous accurate notes ,'if thi'' fre-h
f.'stiv.ils institute in Rome in the ,Mh ceuturv
es|,.'cially bypopeSixtus HI,, an.l thi'i-e is evil
deuce that the Auxerre compiler h.id bel'ore him
two copies, both enriched with these insertions
(I'l. ii. ;iij).
We may observe that the pope.Iom of Boniface
coincbles with the last ,iays of .lerome, within
a decaile of Wright's Syrian VS., au.l within
tbuty years of the council of .Milan, and again,
that the popedom of Miltiades coiiu'i.les witii the
restoration of the church uii.ler d iistantine,
and the first compilation of the ciilend. f I'liilu-'
ealus.
Now a!! th." n..fi,-P'; in the calcnd.ir of Philo-
calus are containe.l, and .sometimes in an earlier
form, in the llierouymian Jlartyrology. The
same is true of almost all the notices in Wright'i
Syrian Martyrology, exceiit some commemora-
MAUTVUOHXIY
tion. of b|,hn,,. of Antiooh. Th. m.ronyml„n
M,irljr.„lH<y co.ilam, i,iur.,.v»r M, .„• «|„„„t „||.
thtiiiiUl)!-, .,1 l'Hl.,tiue,wh„»B„(it« iiin n.r,.rli..|
an. d„l,..| by K»,...m,. wh.rea. .,«|y P,u„,,l„l»,,
«M(I ,.,.r m|., a l„w oth«r^ ,,1,. ,u„.ri,.,| '„ ,\u'
le.t val, c..f«br..t„,t l.y C|,ry..„„„„ ,|.», t c
SyHm. m„,u. Ol ACrlran n.;.rly,-, it .„nt.ia.
neiuly ull t iH u„me.H tlwit an. t» b,. I„„u,l i„ th^
extm.t ( aitliaKiaiun Calu.Ma,', m„| „ g,,„t ,„,.|.
. u,le n,.,ro. ,m.n it ,,.,,,1-. us witl. ,),;
l'i"|"i iiitiiio* ol iiiartyM wlu.iii that nib'u,! .r
grnui... Ingi'tli^r un.liT «.>iiiu b,™! ,l..,,i«imtj..i.
n,m,au Marty,. b,i;y«»u ,.,„„ ,,„|; |,„,, ,.,.,
ol.hunb ral,..u,b..s, a.cr.lin,- t» I., IJu.k , h
J.v.MH».n.|,«ht,„ay.,f,u,,b,.,bH,,„i,slcu,.«
in. .synae A ar.y.„b,gy i, ,,n,„„u,;,i| u- t „
an,.. .s.bub,r to b. th., kuy to the hithurt./ins,
l"l'l.. ..n,Kn,a„„l the H.^ronynnan text (il,) VV.,
n.KhtMytbat th,.l„.««ri,,rk.va.H!;u,V^^^^^
the ni-uat.,'r. I h.. ...in.i. .,.....: .• .1 : .'
U..ounK.nt wh.ob wa, u„Ji.c„v.ro,| wh.a I ,
W,»n,tu,lea,s ,H to „«k whether th« tra.li-
t....al ae.„,u.t ol the origin „,• the lfie„„u,„ .„
JIa t.v,„b,«y bo uot woHhy of n.o.e att Sa
tlian It has leceive.l ol late.
Tliere i., abun.lant evbleuce of the existence of
« ten,ieu,.y, at the close of the 41 h .enturv to-
waiMs c o,e,. .ntcn:„inn,union an.l greater uni-
b.rmity between , iilereut churches. Kormat I, ,
«Hiturt;,es, translation of relics, nerlurn.a ' '
{M «rM„a«e.s, all were leading u,, to the aenmn,
ir ri'^ ^■'':;'"«-' that .sboubi he u.ore "
K.1I. i,e .nllueuccs were alrea.iy at work tha
cuhnmate,! ,n the .ie,lic.,ti„n „f the I'antbeun
Ihe wo«reattlunilies,,fW,.sternlitu.Sr:
ye the K,„„au, „r« .ai.l to owe their origin to
11.1 1 J a third the Mo^arabic, owes soniethinL'
Uti.'H ot the Martyrolojry i, ,„|,| to have been
Spanish. Jerome himself assisted Da n su/ u
onler.u. he .brines of Koine; but w lie tl e
« innes ot the inartyr.s were .n.,st m rt t
bore, the r,.a,i ug of their acts was mo e c
.boseass..:.dbytbe:i\;::rt^-;;-[^
n:r:;irizrri--it:ts t
ine t ISk ni i>nl)a^.f i»» .... I ...
MAnTYROI.OflY 1:37
'>»-i«n thn Maityr.d.i.'y to tbo .l.r. . ■
"v'-;';'::byt;;;iet;^^^- '•''''"-'••■'•>«
,,,,»?„ .V ■ " •■'•"n.^"'i»" Mar.vrobKv, It.
iuinm.rr.iiir' "'■'■'•""" '^" ■■'^ ''•
.{.'">:n.i:';i:ri!;rs'!,/'.r:,i;:'.--:
;i;''^'';f'y;-ay..,rt;;":::,:::f ..^-'•i-'-
«v.'n ,„ some Italian .hoivhes lu 't",'"'
^:',:;/'''''''''" '"-'If'" 'he, i.„e ,?!■<;,!; '
in. Meat (...rru|,t as it is, it ,« „ne of th.- mi ,
c,,aUo ,,r,U.stoliKhtu»totbedil.te 'f
ally l,.,tnals m VHri.,i,s |mrts of the woH.l
II a Iresh and an.ient .,m,..v ...i , . ," """' •
41
a. ciisideratiou .,f this valuable h V, hand ani ',""""". ''",''" "'' "••■ «"''■'
■« ' was undi*covero,l when 1... ,he r't ? K K 1 """■ >'"'"Ky l^« .lis.:..vere.|.
•a. s iw (.. ...L. ...I. .1 .1 . ""■ ""•' with whii 1 ii ....... I.I 1 . .»
;:;;"lr2s:ri;t;;;;c:..; ,"
i.iiitaius nianv nof..-..- ..f .„ ■ ? ' """■ ''
whbh w„„ i^.K L '""■""" "laityr.loms
wnuh would ..therwise have been whollv l.,st tn
"- l-^ '""re.,verjt is the extatU Z^^^^^
n::.::;i:'.ri:i;^:i:;;»:?r;ifT,'''' '"'''"'"'"'
which b,n,.tti;ti::;.!:itaw::r;h;:i.;:';r'
of't'be m"'!' 'V'" '•"»••'■'■•'«"• 'hat the cmpiler
o the Alartyrob.Ky .ho.iKht only of honouring
-:':::::i^./::il':;.!::;i:;"^^i;;^:t^
;^:f;trf!:i^^et:^"^-;r„:;t^
archbishop of A,,„ileia, trans-.rib.d 1, 1,, " *3
pre ixed to his own MartyroluKv, .. he te s u«
■a the prelace. oniitte.l us MiperliJoi.s by- c , ,ts
-UKhfuvain by scholars, at last foun I 1 t'i
he Ma tjiulogy mentb.ncl by Greeory th«
Oreat, thr.,wn into the sha.le by the di^^.,v J.
•f the Hieronyminn. supposed by Kiorent ni a
, „^ - „,,„„, ... V, ..„„.,,„ ,,, ,.;uo mainta nei to ha
prerixedt.TA.Inl,. MiJ . ' "".Maity.ology ,3
tradit on that in pres.rv J i . '«'"""'• The
dillerent, and a l3 w ^^^^ ''' ^""' '"'^'i^'^''
„.■.! 1" . atlor.ls some exidauatim.
01 « coinbination of Uoman and Kastern fe! u es
tile iNustonan onnf.i.m'-....- t,. .- ^»« use oi
liie iNustonan coatrovci-sy.
,. ■' 'i' '-".iw»i»»/», I Ills iVl
prehxed to Ado in .\Iigne, t. cxxiii.
. 'he whole tissue of this Martvroloffv acconl
•ng to I)e Ho.ssi, is that of a nrh-ate hi ,^"
e-y. not 0,-a public traditionill'::u,Ur'"r^
• ay= .|.ssif,.ncd to li,„ festivals in the.dd calendars
a e often exchanged for new .lates, b un, ,", „ '
h.stone. that were in cre.lit when the "mnih-
t.on WU..I made, and most of the chief cha a , r,
ofbcripture have their set , lavs of whi.h ,1
IS uo trace in the a„..i„n, ^ll.r'!'"-^ """'■«
'i
i.h.e.r;^i.r{;r,:'r-:[Si:-'£ii
1138
MAUTYROLOGY
MARTYROLOGY
'
whatsoi>vor. The author has used Rufinin's ver-
sion of Kusobiiis, ami worked up the acts of the
martyrs. Tlie chncges he hiis introdiiced in
noting the festivals often coincide with the
changes introduced into the pontifical book in the
8th ci'utury. The work seems to have been com-
piled ir Home, and notes some festivals there in-
stitiiti I at the end of the Vth and beginning of
the 8th century. This does not prove it to have
been publicly taken into use at the time. It is
almost contemporary with Bede and with the
last recension of Jerome. Its method of compo-
sition is similar to that claimed for Jerome,
except that the Acts on which it is based are
mostly religious fictions. See T>e Kossi, Horn.
Siift. i. 12."i; ii. 3[xvii-.iixjti, or De Sniedt, Int.
O'cni-nilis, pi>. ll!l— 137.
IV. Mirti/mloijk'S ihut add some ilct lils of the
m'lrti/rtJijms. — The dillerence between the riiero-
nymian .Martyrologies and the series headed by
lieli^ may be thus expressed: the one are replete
witli fossil frai;iuents of genuine antiquity, from
which tlie skilled archaeoloijist can reconstruct
and reclothu skeletons of ancient facts; the other
present us with such minicture outlines oi' mar-
tyrs as were had in veneration by the church of
the ago of Charlemagne.
Be le, at the end of the 7th and beginning of
the 8th century, was coutemporary with the
last recension of the Hier(mymian JIaryrology.
He was acvpiaintod probably with that torm of
it; but hi., work is chiefly dniwn from the pon-
tifical books and the Acts of the martyrs. It is
the outcome of the same dissatisfaction with the
chaos of the current Ijooks, as was felt by hisanony-
mous contemporary who framed the Rumnum
ptinnin; but he struck more at the root of the
evil. Instead of recasting the calendar to bring
it into conformity with the supposed know-
ledge of tile times, he has been content to coni'ess
igiioiance. He was content to leave many ilays
vacant ralhor than adorn them with a string of
names without meaning. Describing his own
work in the catalogue of his writings at the close
of his Church History, he claims to have given
all those m irtyrs of whom anything was known
in the worM in which he lived. Thus he heads
the long series of martyrologies in which short
histories were added to their names. People soim
made up their minds that they knew something
about some more. Bede'.s work was enlarged
again and again. We only possess it in the en-
larged edition.
Tliese three Martyrologies, the Hieronymian,
the lioman, Bede's, are the three original sources
of almost all Western martvrologies and calen-
dars. We must Just distinguish the chief mar-
tyrologies of the 9th century, because it is only
through Ado and Usuard that the lesser Roman
work has become known.
Klorus, sulide.icon of Lyons, A.n. 8.'!0, first en-
larged the wiu'k of Bede. The Bollall^list.s,
Henscheu an i I'apebroch, published in the first
volume of the Acta S<, for March a not very
trustworthy, nor indeed feasible, attempt to
purgi' the origin.il Martyrologv from the subse-
quent alditions; but they ret iin indistinguish-
able, and w.i cannot even he ...,r.-> th:it we have
the work as it was left by Klorus. This eilition,
M irnjr(il(, li m llcJitc in 8 an/i'/ui.s MSS. iwcejititm
OU.'ft Antiirio I'liiri ex 3 mJd. col/itiiric dis'incto,
u> repiiuted by Migne, I'utr. xciv. 71)9.
Rabanus, archbishop of Maintz, further eii»
larged the Martyrology of Klorus, and worked it
uj) with the Hieronymian. His work is jiriuted
by Migne, Piitr, ex. ir.il.
Ado, archbishop of Vienne, was acquainted
with Bede's vork as enlarged by Klorus, but not
with Kabanus. His work was undertaken as an
expansion of that of Klorus, but was really mo-
delled on the les.ser Roman, and became rather a
ccllection o.' brief liv^s of the saints thau a mar-
lyrology. It answers more nearly to the meno-
logies of the Oseeks, cxcejit that it is not put
forth authoritatively for ecclesiastical reading,
but merely as a private manual. Yet the iufiu-
ence of his work through Usuard transformed
ecclesiastical usage and recast the calemlar.
Usuard, a mouk of Paris, about A.D. S"/), has
faithfully epitomised Ado's work, which (accord-
ing to Solliur) was kuawn to him as 'The Com-
mentary of Klorus.' He does not seem to have
been acquainted with the work of Rabanus.
"Jerome," he says, "has studied brevity too
much, Bede has left many days untouched." He
endeavours to supply their deficiencies, and also
to reconcile the discrepancies of various comme-
morations. He was the first really to pojiularise
the worksof Adoand the anonymous Roman, but
his own book has assumed almost as many forms
as those of Bede or Jerome, and has become the
source of most existing W.'stern calendars. The
interpolations and variations are fully treated in
the edition by Sollier, which forms the tith volume
for June of the Actn Sanctorum, and is rejiriuted
in Migne, /'. L. exxiii.
Notker was a monk of St. Gall, who died in
A.D. yi'2. He combined Ado and Kabanus. His
work will be found in Migne, cxxxi. lOJO.
Thus Bede was enlarged by Klorus and Raba-
nus, from the /irst enlargement ami the les»er
Roman grew Ado's work, t'rom the second and
Ado's worl; grew Notker's, but Usuard's that
grew out of Ado's alone became the most cele-
brated.
V. yfetiicdt Murtirototjios. — As the enlarged
martyrologies that we have just been considering
seem to lie an imitation of the Greek menologies,
so metrical martyrologies may have taken their
rise from the Greek practice of reciting ilaily in
the service iambic distichs, sometin^os of much
beauty, describing the triumph of each of the
martyrs celebrated, followed, in the case of the
chief ol' them alone, by an hexameter line fixing
the day cf the passion. A collection of such
hexameter lines, which are always sad doggerel,
would form a metrical martyrology. One such
has been extracteil from the Menaiea by Godo-
fr„dus Sihcrus (Kcclcsidn Crmecae Mn iiirohiiwm
Metriciim, Leipzig, 1727), who has added the
half rhythmical menology of Christopher of
Mitylene.
The little poem ascribed to Bede (/'m^ro/. f.at.
xciv. 0(i3)is hardly worth calling a martyrology,
but .seems to be genuine (I)e .Smedt, p. 1.18;
Binterim, v. I. .'18). Wandnliiert, a monk of the
d:Ocese of Treves, at the age of thirty-five, in or
bout A.u. 84_', wrote a martyrology in he^a-
. lete-s, independent of Bede ana the lesser
Rom.. If contains many things not to bo found
Lisewnere, which he elai:fis to have taken f'rom
auihcntic old books by the help of Klorus of
Lyons who possessed them, but critics are suspi-
cious (/'((<co/. cxxi. 57^).
The KEii.in
called a metr
only to add t
exists in three
and one in th
demy. There
library of the
other of the 1
pendent autho:
Brussels. It 1
laght Martyrol
bruain, publisi
(Dublin, 18.')7),
posed the earlie
of Irish marty
notices concerni
&ottish Calcnik
Liteniture. —
De' Ko'isi (Khm.
:i".'-Il.'8; t. ii.
Haronius to the
tations and note:
v!ni)ium, apud ^
Migne, Patrol, c
tins Uccidentulis
l'Jt)7)are to he c
ijcner'dis ad J/ist
tiindam, pp. Ij;
translates De' Re
ology (p. l;iO tl;),
Roman marty i-ol
fic.il and martyi
pendix. He had
extant calendars
the task too ardu
Jacobite calendai
BiblioViecae Vatia
and three orthodt
114, l.'jl), one o
calco's./(r«.v(i/t'»i.
Two more of the
Jla: (Scriptures I .
Kour Coptic cale
Mai (ibid. pp. 14
Si/nedriis). 'I'he ;
by Ludolt; and col
Kthiopic calendar
(t'oimiwntarais ao
■.m-i.Ui). Ko an
calendars are kno
treatise, /i.g Ci/cn.
Bibliuthe jiie dcs e'ur
t. lii. ji. .■!8:t.
For Western Mi
Binterim (1'enltiiii
lf*-'S', t. v. pt. i. p,
"Stic martvrologie:
llartene (Colledio
Migne — namely, 1
Ix.id. (i07 ; one' by
tilo, Ixxx. 411; an
•1 calendar of Moi
^■x.vxv:ii. 1257; of
lembro.sa, 1279; of
Hede, 1-J9;l; of Kit
l-ifge, 1194; of W
I't .Auxerre, 1209.
An ancient Hi;;p:
''.V Mi^.ie at the ei
(i'n&ol. t. Ixxxv.).
The Gothic calen
( yet. Script. Coll. y.
CfiaiST. ANT.— VO
MARTYROLOGY
,„?f ^"^"f' ■= f Aengu, the CulHoe mav be
ca l«l a m..triciil martyrologv. We have Lvp
only to ad,l to thearticleonthat hea, that
ITI" "'T.^-^'.'r MSS- tw,. in the Bod an
an,l one m the library of the Roval Irish I™-
<iemy. here is a recent paper copy in he
& the'',7';f''"''^ of 6aU,,d,4.^an?i „!
othei of the 17th century made iVom an inde-
pendent authority in the Kur^„„dla„ libr.rv "t
Brussels. It .litters from the Tamlaght or 'fa
aght Martyrol,>gy of the same Aengus and M .1
','•""'"- published by the Rev. M. Kellv ID
(Dublm 1857), which has been generfc ^J
pased the earlier work, in giving oily a Jfecti, m
o( Insh martyrs and including ma-„v val, ■ "
notices concermng those of various lands (F b
,'xottish Caletulars, pp. xiv-xvii) (.^ trots,
Liter„tu,-e-Om- article is mainlv drawn from
--1.8; t.n. pp. ,,,-xxxii). The preface bv
B.ron,us o the Roman Martyrology, Ihe dTsseV
tat.ons and notes of Sollier ( f/.u«^l/ „L!vaZ
ot.,,„u,n a,Md Acta SS. BolUnd. Jun v Tn
J ,g„e, Patrol c,,nl), and of V^orent^ni I^.f,, .
lo(>7)are to he consulted. DeSmedt(A„ rX /o
tica and martyrology „f Philocalus in h 4-
pendix. He had intended to give a list >V d
extant calendars and martyrol^gits'but ^u
the task too arduous. De Slne.lt sta es that tbur
Jacob.te calendars are edited by th. As.emanN
BMwt,ecae Vaticm.,e MSS. t. ii. codd 'l? aTfiw'
and th,.e orthodox Syrian calenda:;s (W.' 'p.' \l'
114, 1.>I), one of which is taken Vom "m ';!
«o more of the orthodo.. SyriaL are g ,'. ov
Ma. (Scnptores \..W^,, t. ii. pt. ii. p„ f^j .K'O
our Copfc calendar. a:e ,„b|i, „, \';f J ;
l^yLudoijandconXrw;;..^';!:;'-,.:;,;!:;;:^;;^^
fch.op.c calendar of about the K'th ce turv
,i89-4,>b). No ancient and authentic Armen m
t lii p 'm ""'**'" <'^'«y*/''«'(/c7ei(«s,
v.-Y\\v:ii 19^7. *• 11 p^'-«-l; ot Mantua,
B-l^, 1^9.< ; of' ^.u,r"i «5 • ;.";! "-;ibed to
Liw U<»4' „*• vv X' ' "' ^tnvelo, near
o.a:'x'/;^,2;;9. ''""""■' "^^ ^'■•'''i''"«- '•-'"^;
;;.i';'.^:;,';.Y'''^°ftheMozarabiclit'u:.;;
MARY
1139
p. .'H another marble tablet with a comnlete
calendar 0. .he 9th century discovered .at nJ L
&:f5'Th^^5^rS^:^Si
":..^rrr^^--rr't^-5
vZVr f ''^'••«^ ""■<"-■ in M%ne-sThe h..,V„I
An:ZV) ^''"™'-— '^'l '■> Africa Dec. 18
MARULLUS, martyr; commemorated at
lonh'lian^iyf //"""■'^'■j commemorated at Api,!-
lonia Jan. 27 (Huron. Mart.). n^ h I
MARY. [Maria.] ^ "^
I Th V '"'.''''"'P "f "'«'n>eotokos, Aug. 1.5 h
4. I he Nafv.ty of the Th.otokos, sVpt 8th 5
Ihe Presentation of the Theotokos, n;,v Vlst"
Among the Middle festivals is reckone.rin .
us.s,an Church, the IVotection of theThe ,ok.^
^h 1 : J tr'n" ''f. '='"^""'- "''ConstanttopTe'
nent o the t?TL"'? 'V^' honourable Vest!
nu.t ot the Iheotokos in Blachernae, .July 2nd •
the Depos.fng of the honourable Gird lc,f the
-t)tn. In the Russian calendar there are also
ihrri./zr^'""^^"-^"'""-"'"-"-^
Th::i.:!;;;i^[!:;:"'^^.S'^- 'ji- occur: 1.
on the Sunday following Alig'' 16 h .rTlieT
von , on of the Girdle, -Tbont^ng a'lst'. \''\t
'l1t.';/'',t'1' '""V'- '';^« P--tatioo'N?v
'i^t, b. Ihe Conception, Dec. nth
fesUval of''''st"'M" '"'"'"'Y "^ere" is . monthly
n^tivit^ff s' &;r '•\"« ir^ «- i-o>-d^
archs •■ and t h. . ii '■ "^ "^ ^^° *'"'™ 1"''"-
Th^ DeatI of S m"^ T'^' festivals:-
I'..ri!;:„to 'k '2nd "I- n;/.""" -• I'he
n,n., Ma.4 25th ;r The X,^f^i:5-^f
•>. Ihe Punhcation of Anna, July 14th, G Th.'
73
\A
1140
MAKY
?S i
MARY
I
t :; ''
|Si:^9lhf8:^i'^"f;^[!^i;-JJ?^!"P-|ho„ou.^ ,„e R„„.„ eh..,.ch i„ observing the
Intlie Homanealendartherearosomefestivalsof
.>t i\I,uy which are oUcrve.l uuiversally throuirh-
out iicinan Christendom, some that are observed
<iuly loo:,lly ; but these local lestivalshave fortheir
;::st£':,r;-E?^=;;= -^"Ss
,1, ,,. . ; -•■■"■"/ "'""•- noman see, an
the olhces to be used on them are published in the
B,.v,aiy The festivals of univLal obligation
aie:-l. The I'unhcation, Keb. 2nd: •£! The
Annunciation, March 25th; 3. The Festival of
KriH r'-'°/'Ti;°"'f;.".'' *'"' ^'''^^y preceding Good
Juday; 4. Ihe Visitation, Julv 2nd; 5. The
I;east otht. Mary of Mount Carmel, July Itith ;
b. The teast of the Dedication of St. Marv at
Snows, Aug. 5th ; 7. The Assumption, Aug. l,5(h ;
Mcs H(dy Nameof Ma,y, Se,,i. 15th; K). The Fes-
tival ot the Seven Sorrows (a second time), the
hird Sunday in Sej.ten.ber ; 11. The Festival of
15les.sed Mary de Mercede, Seiit. 24th ; 12 The
^e.ist of the Jlost Holy Kosary of the 15 1 esse I
Virgin Mary, the first Sunday in October; 1,J
■ :: r:;:;:""'^..^"^^^^' ,' '*• The concepi
«t M . c. ^ ;:" "^•""■v "li'iount uarni
t-t. Mary at Snows, the Most Holv Name the I'ro
ec,,.,n, hles..ed Mary de Mercede, he ,t,n."-
uie Heart, the Maternity, the Purity, the Holv
louse 01 I oretto, the Kxpected Delive;v be d s
^^::h:trLsr-- --
rSnreSeSZ^rL^^r^t
sometimes written 'r.a.r^, ;'eldrd l^lZt
b} Occursus" or " Obviatio," meaning the
meeting" of our Lord with Simeon an f Anna
'I the lemple (Luke ii. 27-ii«). ]„ ,he Wes? i?
came to bo called the Feast of' the Purification
.'He^cept in the Ambrosian church, to be r":
g-^nUA as one of the Festivals of St Majv
t on, Dec. «th. Every Saturda, in the yea, an of X P r """""» *""'' l''"'
the whole of the month of May are aU ded" Rs V.' '? '"° ","^*- ^''"■^'•
oatel to her honour. The local.^h„f vl. ° ,r.l„' J^', '"^('("t'on—lt is not altogether certain
whether It was instituted by .histin, emperor of
Constantinope, in the year 'of our Lo d'" or
"5 nis son .Inyfm on ;.. il.. _ ... *•")"'
catel to her honour. The local,' but yerairtlTo"
nsed, festivals relating to her are:— 1. The Fs-
pou,sals of the Bles..ed Virgin Mary, Jan. 23rd;
-.The Feast of the Bles.sed Viruiu Mary, the Aid
H a o he Blessed Virgin Mary, the ne^t
Sunday but one after the Assumption, that is
about the end of Augu.st, 4. The Mat^-nity of'
the Bleoi.d \ irgin Mary, the second Sundav in
m"""'!V ''v."!" '""'''y "'' ^he Ble.ssed Vi'rgin
Mary, the third Sunday in October ; 6 The J'ro-
tec^tion of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the fourth
hunday in October or a Sunday in .November;
V ,tl„ M ' ?■ ] ,' '■■''l"^''""i')n of the Bles.se,l
\ iigm Mary s delivery of a child, Dec. 18th.
The Feas of the Dedication of St. Mary a
a™ •;!''' "i'^' /'"■' ^'' ^"^'^ ''""««J t° drop
ironi tlie calendar. '^
Jho Anglican calendar contains two cksses of
fos iva s. Among the red-letter or first-class
Fer-'nd-"'^ ',„-Koned :-l. The Purificatioa,
rtb. -nd ; 2 The Annunciation, March 25th
ocT' ' " ^'V'"' "'• -'•""''-•'-» f-tivlt
occui:— 1. The \ isitation, July 2nd- 2 The
^at.vity, Sept. 28th,3. The Jonc";t'ion;De'!
v,l" ''flu' n""/™'" *•>« ■''h"ve that the Festi-
>als ot the Purification, the Annunciation, the
Visitation, the Nativity, the Conception are
it'lnve ' " -'■^''"g -l-<iars of all chu'rch
that lave calendars; that the Greek and latin
and the Presei.t.'.tion ■ that the Byzantine and
t1 rof'lhn'"',"''^,:'^" '" "•'^'-■""'S 'heF -
th.il of the Girdle; that the Byzantine church
stands a one in observing the Festival of the
Ystmen ; the Russian in observing the Festiva
fiom that of the Latin church which bears a
.miliar name) and the fcsts of some i^oi ^ he
tion:be^iae;ain^.;;:;:-„;;~.^-:;;p;
1„. k; - r-> ■" •"= .rear oi our Lord
t-} his son Ju.stinian, in the year 541 or 642
<-"Jrenus, an historian of thl- ilth centurv
-="gns Its institution to Justin (LlrlZJn
I ^"'"P''>d""'h p. 366, Paris, 1047); the Xr
feur^!rrv'°''i'f'''''''^(-«^-^'hor:i
'-aiiistus, Jlist. hccles. lib, .wii c 2« • Ti,-, ,
phages C/.o„o,,.«y^, ,, igg, ^„^; ^^ / ^u ;
.:; i."8''Mil n'- ^^m *'"™">--.
.heiatt'his^..S;vt';^;:L^^^?:..t:
t^.^'i "«' .'■°'-« "» t» conclude hiTh
esival had no existence before the time of I,,
t'u.an, but only that it was made by h „. of
oecumenical observance, or of obligation in Co
stantinople, ^„r of obligation oif the 2nd
February.. According^;T;;:i^,i:(i^:;, -:,„;;
a«.c./i Jntrod. vol. ii, p. 771, Lond. ^50) su "
Feb 1 7'" T-'k^ transferred by Justinian o
obstved rb t '■'"'' '^' ''"y ''" «hich it is
tint NbvtT ^™';«;''"«- l''"t it is probable
h. t Nicephorus and Theophanes meant to state
WW LrtTu- (^'"•'""■^■"'- in """■ ^42, apud
"101. iatr., De la Bigne, torn, vu n nss l'„,.;
U.H9) Calvisius (Opts Cl,r„n.t.,. ^^'l' '^^
home, l,.8t.. Basnage (Ann.lcs, torn. iii. n. 75"
oii'i -'"J: '""f • '•"'^"■T {Hist. EcZ:^:.
xxxiii. , ].an., 1732), and the great m.joritv of
au horities consider Justinian to be it, ''aJhm
anJ there is ittle doubt that they ar rig ,'
though the Idea of establishing it may h^i vj
«i'>"ng up in the la»t year of fhe reTg/ot i
Nlcephoru»'8woitlB.re: Tarr.. ii «„; „c j,^^„,
c. 2H), rtioRe of Theophanes are : «al r^ avJ,o6,u.
|.. l^H). _U.d,e„„s says of the fa„ y.ar of Ju»,l„'. ..Z'-
If
predece
fow.irds
aliortiv(
itsinsfit
porary(
coiijectu
c lebrat;
was ins
thirty yi
of the 1
no grout
et Anna,
/'■ Mai-U
Tyre, a.d
tlii't the
Jirobably
nople in
attributed
to Aniphil
A.D. 370, i
cursum B
A.D, 325, a
attributed
more serm.
the day b
'■does not
Latin fatht
on the day
Its dtte I
riwry is net
cause that
which, since
a century ar
had become
of Christ in
would con,se
'"it Marv, ha
made the otic
+) 'or her (,
The Armenia
••'cb, 14th, be
d.iy of the \
once counted
'I'he occiisiij
hi." the occun
(amine, menti,
as having tal
stantinople in
it has been ,
tounders was t
halia, Lupercal
'ioman festivit
the loss of whi
ran(iu.f, Untion
<■ 7, Venice, i;
,"/'''■<•• c. 81, ad
li.'roniu,s. Mart
<"m. xxvi, p. 1.)
more probable
which it was in
"i'"'ate an event
«:is believed to c,
■^I'terits establis
iicss to regard it
unholy orgv, a 0,
I'l'ice of a Pag;i„
in tiic early part <
habaau... Mnuius,
t> '■'■i, apud Magn,
Similarlv the .
<iisti-ihutiag cauul.
in observing the
y of Mount Ciinnel,
oly Name, the I'lo-
i-ceile, the Jiosary,"
I'istians, tlie iMo>t
J f urity, tlie Holy
I Delivery, besides
he whole of the
the chronological
:uted.
awavTii, "tiravT-l],
0, Festnm SS. Si-
indelani, Cuiui/o-
fus not a Festival
J so it has aiwavs
ch. Its oriE;iiial
, was 'TvairafT-r,
liered into Latin
meaning the
Simeon aii.f Anna
In the West it
the Purification,
hurch, to be re-
Is of St. Wary,
i on the occasion
together certain
stin, emperor of
iiir Lord 520, or
;ar 541 or 542.
11 th century,
n (JI!st(jri(ii-um
+7); the other
(seeNicephorus
• c. 28; Tliec).
ris, 1(}55; JJi.i.
1 Muratoriuiii,
' happens that
e of expres.siuns
elude that the
e time of Jus-
iilo by him of
gation in Con-
1 the 2nd of
I (l/(jly Eastern
iii. WiM) su])-
' Justinian to
m which it is
it is probable
neant to state
■instituted the
ann. 542, spud
^- l;J88, J'aris,
»», inann.54I,
>liMjiuin, Feb. 2,
1.1. iii. p. 752,
. Eccles, liv.
it majority of
le its author;
ey are right,
it may have
i reign of his
MARY
predecessor, and some sten« mn,. k i
tmvards realisini; U wh'; h ^ ^ " "'"'" *"'"'" '
•■""'i-tive. TheCen ' i V 7T '•"' ""e tin,e
it^institu,i:n;.^:;^5:i':;f,'';f •"-'■« assign
conjectures that "a w,J ,. '' "'"'"mus
e lebration in the W J" " ?''""^''^ '"'^•"''^ if«
was ins.itut d the,^ %;- n" "/'I f'"-^'^"^'>- '' '
♦hirty vers before .n . " '^"'"' *^'-''"'''"'' "'"'"t
no ground of e "|L„ee 'H T-"'''""''' ''''' "^
"'^■t the festivaTvt' iff ?"'"'' 7'"''' ""l''v
l"'"l'ably written bv a Mp'.k r^' ""' ^' ^""'' ^«»
•Hfibuted to Cvril of i»'^' , "'"''"' "'"""n"
"■Amphiloehius 10.370 and ,?r '•"• '?"' ''"'''
^•a :i7U, are spurious To Ire^T'^' ''.■"^'^'''
cursu,nVo,nM, attribute.! to St 71^ '" ^'•
A.n. .(20, and a Scrmn d,, p ' ■'^'niui'-ius,
attributed to tZt^^JT'^: ''■ f'"'''^
more sermons alb (red fn 1, ■ ■*' ""'' "'i'ly
^!i day by .iSr:arY;\s/''";r"' ••'"
-the day of thfoe ':„:'.?? j^V^'V,"''^'"-
ruaiT IS necessarilv fb,. ,1 , ^ ', '^"^ "' ''eb
'■■•"'- that is r^^ri h';'* •'!" f-'ival. be-
■•' '^""turv and a ii. If be V,re,^ ?""'''""' '^at is
haJ become acce il TtL T '" "' ^^ "»''«<"■>
<>'• Chn-st in the E.s , . n''"^' "' '''<= ^'•'ativity
would consequentiv h' ; f "W" '^' ^''''- ^^
"•a'le the ortbring an l^-d '';!'''• ""'""^'^ ''">■«
J he Arn.enian church nh '.^ P>'nt>cati„u.
^•^•''. 14th, because it L„r"'T" "l '"■^"^'"' '">
'la.v of thi .Nativ,U ™"t^ •'■",'• ^'^ <o be the
onee counted it ^' ^"^ '''"''<^ "'^ 'he East
b^'ti:r:t:n:n?s:-x'^r^-^-
"'b^^^.i^^tis^pfr^n^^' Siai:^
.stantinop-^ , e ,^ ^ "V)'^''' *"""'• ■■"") Con-
founders was to sunnlv tl; > ^J"'''"'"' "'' its
balia, Lupercalia "t"'it,Vof c "' ''*' f "^'"-
Homan (cstivitie.s whi,.h h> 1 1 ''"';*', ""^ "ther
the loss of which wa sfeT; 1 :i" '■•^'^"^bed, ar.d
<■• 7, Venice 1577. u , Tt "./"'•'"'•'(m, lib. vii
'"ore probable that the whL. V ''''''^
"■'"'•b it was instituted w'k ;•''■'' "'""
uioratean event in ^^„ iT ;^""l''} to comnie-
»-l.elieved,oLMf';':°V''''' '•'■'■'' ^hich
■^ft^'i- its establish", nt th'e 1 ll '""'"""'"rat ion.
ness f„ reganl it as Ti;..! ■ " "" ""willing.
i",^;:rid';L"?^"r^'-^S
C.i*. «l'n.i J CbitfrHun "?•-'•'""." lib- ii.
, •^itnilarlv thf ere non '' """• '■ ^ «"2 )
^'-■'^-«« candies, -d^j:, --■;;::--
MARY
1141
P'-"Phe,sy, as^-s read f ,), ^r'"'"', «'•"". 'on d.d
, ('-•Iv.trange, .4/,W , /^ /, '''"'''•■'' "'at dav "
ver.se of Luke.,, "a ti,. V l"!'"''' ""= ^-'"'
''i'f-" ""taftera it hJit ■" ""''"■"■
welcomed that it h „1 "'''' "''"* ''""lilv
v;«w of assin i ,„„^'^,t"'f'''*.'-:!'"™'' wi.h tj/e
tho heathen fea.st ,1 e|,^ •"■'•";'", '■^■^•"■•■'' '"
Ilenedict XIV retrn I ^' ""''•■"''' tbatj.ope
"e-tieal. iWo-l^ t.,b;;i;sTh"' T /"""'^
of thep,.„cession to Sta M ', i ? M^' '"t.-oduction
«'"« I., «ho lived in th -♦. '^'•■'SS'"'-'-' to So,--
believes that the use ot 1 '■'•m""'>' '^"» be
bfore that time, a' h " ar""-'-^ "''^'"^^'^^^
W.g.us (Hom. ii.,V;p. ' ,] ," J '"ent.oued bv
l*"vii. p. 597) who I?! , ^'"-'' ''"''■o'' toni.
b-bop 0/ Chartres a the b , '•''' • ""'• ^'""'bort
^.''"tury, explain the sv,^,f;°°"'8°'' ""= Hth
'■■"<! -t waJ believed -^'l "b^ f''^ *:>• "'^'^
v'l-gm wax of which Vh! ,, '""'"' '" the
(*'v«o, apud Magn Bibl P.?'"'' ^"'^ ""^''^
•^"^)- -i'he fifth coumil /i,'?"' '"■"• iii p.
enlarges on the manif,?,'' <'^ *'''«»- A..,. vA
eandlts(Hard Sf ti"'''*''^o''™''"''' «i' 'b
<^es.si-.u came to be 1 Tj 'a''' '''^- ''''"' I'"'-
*alk of St. Marv and In ,«V''f"''-^'^'"i'>g the
the day of the Pu^i^Vat/oT'"' *" ""^ '^-'Pl' on
»«n;«;5 '^''■^"''■'^'^■""^ (Eiayy,^,a^Ss, An-
Jts institution Th ,.„ .-
of the institution If t ,is .r. t''''^"' ''"'"""
the I'uHHcation. It i, til 't"^:" ' »» 'be.e i.. „f
'^^■"tury, but the oc as on" f it" .'7,'" ""-■ ''b
not known. An attemn* '^■'tablishmenf is
very high aniXn^'X^llT """'^ '" '■''""> a
Acl,l,-es,ses, delivered on he ^ ?''"f "« '" 'bree
a-igned by Vo.ssiu,s to ^e.::.v n' "'"'' " ^^ "
and may yet be fonn.i , "^,SO'y Ihaumaturgu,
gennin/writing "n tmr^iv "'"' ""• '■"' •^'
(*'-,.. /,^^^'^--;;^t,ons of his, vorks
"P- «reg. Thaum. p 9 rti ,i '^"""'1'"^
»P"rious^ness is nnd ubL (s ;' in'^- ^'''^'■''
^cnpt. Ecdes., On f„m ■> i^ellarniine, ,/<.
'•^ V ; ;ryier, ' ZJ^;,/X 'V'^ ^'"'- -^g'ip
-A. tond. I85n Th.. ^ "i""- appendix
Ad<ire.ss attrilied t At'hL': '" '"•' '^ "^ '"'
f-'-oo, and l-rinted w h sf'l':^^^"''';''''^^'■'-
(f;'/'• tom. ii. ,,. 39.) ed i ^','"'";"^»"* woiks
which was not w,-i en ill T''- ^'''''^ '""«)
lite ^•ont,-ove,.sv "e", . L""^'- ^be Monothe-
Athanasi,s). And the' '''"■"' ^"'^'•'"•^ s. v
!"«ny mo,.o\ennon '^HetT'tr';-^' ''^, -'' "^
i'veied on the occa.sioi, If f , . '"" '"''-■» 'le-
an ! earlv writes Th! '"""""' bv fathers
'•eter Ch,.ys.,,og^; / ^ |:;';"';-» attributed to
i'-olxg. ton,, liirp'5^5 it • ^■V'"'' *"«"«• ^'''-
■•<ibly have been c,?m,: ^J l'" ''.f', V*',"^' "">' P"-
of his suc,.esso,.s in ,i ::^;, • :.';,''"'"'i' ••■«'iv- one
"lore probably b- ' „ „ """"*-'^- 708. „r
'" 'hi llfh\.,.u,,;7'";tr,' '■''''''• '^""'i''"'
5'H;. Two homilies /«j.7 ■ *'• '■"^''. 'ans,
^'«nV... attributed ,0 An s "T""r"'"' ^^""'^
■'^^, would «ppeartolo .t ',"*^^^''"»'' ^'t'-
Ana^^tasius aZ., ^^X^ iT^^^^r "' """^
'-'.- trustworthy .vid:i^ft::^rr^
4xa
1142
MAEY
the festival is found in the first chapter of the Acts
°'^'he tenth ecunuil of Toledo, which was held a.d.
6")i>. The council declares that, whereas the
Feast of the Holy Virgin was kept at dillerent
times in dilferent places in Spain, and could not
be ijept in Lent without transgressing traditional
rule, it should be observed on the octave bel'ore
Chri, tmas day. The rule to which reference is
htre made is the 51st canon of the council of
Liodicea, held in the 4th century, which forbids
the observance of the Nativities of Martyrs (a
jihrase which at that time waa equivalent to
Holy days) in Lent."- The second reference to
the festival is found in the acts of the council
in Trullo, held a.d. Hn, which permitted the
observance of this holy d.iy in Lent, while it
continued the Laodicean prohibition nf all others.'
The date of the institution of the festival may
therefore be fixed ns being at the end of the Uth
or the beginning of the 7th century. The
council of Metz makes no mention of it among
the festivals ordered by it to be observed in the
year of our Lord 8)3 (can. xx.xvi.) ; nor does it
ajipear in company with the Purification in the
list of festivals given in the Capitularies of
Charles the Great or Ludvig {Capit. ab Anscniso
c li.cta, lib. i. § 158; ii. § .i.S).
T/ic date in the calendar is March 25th, as
being nine months before the nativity of Christ.
St. -Augustine speaks of March ^'5th as being the
day on which it was believed that the conception
of our Lord took place, inasmuch as Dec. '.'Sth
w.is regarded as the day of his birth {/le Trin.
111'. IV. c. v., Op. torn. viij. p. 894, ed. Migne).
I'iie Armenian church, which observes .Jan. Uth
as the Nativity as well as the Kpiphanv of Christ,
has not the Festival of the Annunciation in its
calendar.
Like the Feast of the Purification, this festival
was instituted in honour of our Lord, and in
commemoration of his conception ; but it pro-
bably passed more readily ami quicklv than the
sister festival from the list of the U.minican to
that of the Marian Festivals, as the original
idea is not preserved in its title (as it is in the
Hv|)apfinte), except in the Klhiopian calendar,
where it is not called the Annunciation but the
Conception of Christ.
The purpose, therefore, of the festival is to
commemorate (1) the announce ■ ent made bv
the angel Gabriel to St. Mary that she should
conceive and bring forth the promiserl .Mes-iah,
and (2) the conceidion id" our Lonl which fol-
lowed that announcement (I uke i. 2ti-:!«), The
place where this aunipmic-nient was made was
the house iu Nazareth in which St. Mary lived.
The legend of Loretto has transferred tfiis house
to Italy; the exact spot where it took place
i» nevertheless pointed out both bv Greeks and
Latins, a different spot by each, as 'still existiuir
IU Palestine.
3. Thk AssUMfliOV (Koi',u„ff(.„ MfTdirraiTis,
Hormilio, Patisatio, Traiisitus, Bipositiu, MiqratiJ
Asmmptio).
Its insttuthn. — This festival was instituted,
according to the statement of Nicejihorus Cal-
MABY
listus (irtst. Fcc/es. lib. xvii. c. 28), by the
emperor .Maurice, who lived at the close of the
bth an.l the beginning of the 7th centurv. In
the time of Ch .ries the Great, two ceiituriea
Uter, Its observance was not yet universal in the
West (Cipit. ab Aimegiso collectt, lib. i 8 158
apud Migne, Patrohg. torn, xcvii. p. 6;i3, Paris,'
18jI).<" Hut It appears to have beep, received
after deliberation by Charles, and it is recognised
by his son Ludvig in the year 818 or 819 {ibid
lib. 11. 0. 35, p. 547). An octavo was added to
ttie festival by pope Leo IV., a.d. 847.
/ts date m the calendar is August 15th
The purpose of the festival is to commemorate
tlie assumption of St. Marv into heaven in hodv
and soul. The origin of the belief that she was
so assumed, and the steps by which it grew are
as f(dlows: —
In the .Jrd or 4th century there was composed
a book, embodying the Gnostic and Collvridlan
traditions as to the death of St. ALirv, called Ve
Jransitu I7.;,/,>i,s Ma.iae Liber. The' book exists
still, and may be found in the liibliot'wca Patrnm
Maxim; (tom. ii. pt. ii. p. 212). The legend
contained in it relates how St. Marv, alter" her
Son s death, went and lived at Bethlehem for
twenty-one years, after which time an an<Tel
ap|)eared to her, and told her that her soul
should he taken from her body. So she was
w.afted ,m a cloud to Jerusalem, and the apostles,
who liad been miraculously gathered together
carried her to Gethsemnne, and there her soul
was taken up into Paradise bv Gabriel. Then the
apostles bore her body to the Valley of Jehosha-
phat. and laid it in a new tomb ; and su.ldenly
i.v the side of the tomb appeared her son Christ
who raised up her body lest it should see cor-
ruption, and reuniting it with her soul, which
Michael brought back from Paradise, had her
conveyed by angels to heaven.
It will be seen that the LilKr de Transitu
Man.ie contains aheadv the whole of the storv
of the Assumiition. But down to the end o'f
t he .-.fl) century this story was regarded bv the
church as a Gnostic or Collyriilian fable, and the
Liber de Transitu was condemned as heretical
by the Decrctiini de l.ihris Canunicis Kcrl,-sias-
ticis et Ap,cr,jphis, attrihiite.l to pope Gelasiiis
A.D 494. How then did it pass across the'
bor.iers and establish itself within the church
so as to have a festival appointed to commemo-
rate It ? In the following manner;
In the sixth centurv a great change passed
over the sentiments and the theology of the
church in reference to the tffoT(i«os— an unin-
tended but very noticeable result of the Nes-
torian controversies, which in maintaining the
true doctrine of the Incarnation iuci.i.ntallv
gave a strong impulse to what became the Wor-
ship (d St. Mary. In consequence .d' this cham'e
of sentiment, during the 0th and 7th centuries
(or later), (1) the Lihe,- de Transitu, though
classed by Gelasius with the known production
" The words of the canon are : Oi, St'i iv rfi rtaatfrn-
ttaarji ttap-nipuw y.weAiov inri\u„ (Hard. CMeil
tom i. nIKO, I'ariB, 1715).
J Tilc n-jme are . II„f,„T05 «ali$arm «.u xvpLai,^^ ,ai
Tij? o'yiav TOT «uoyyeAi<r|i,oC ij/n«>tn (.Hard. Cmcil. lom.
lii. |i. 16»)).
Cl.arle«ihc(irfur'« Opiiulare, after recouiitiim tlie
festivals, r«jh: " | „. Assun.pt.one iwinUe Maria,, inter.
rciKaniloni reliii(|nimus.- The treotiM Oc An.tmM.me
H. I!. Ii.tfcnij.uttritmi.d to St, Augustin.. iin.t bouii.l up
with his works (torn, vi, p. Ii42, ,d. .Mig„e) ha- Ix-ri
UloUBllt I., have li i.n « iciay bv !;:!■ of Ch.;?:. ;.■- 1 ■-!
U) Ills liicmir.v .in ihc sublet, as it he^lns, •• Ad intmol
Kotade Virpiniset .>la.rfsf).,niinl rfsolutione tein|H,rull
et nusuinptlone piremii quid intclllgam itspoiwurua."
MAltY
Paris, 1698) (0)™; '':''''; .^''•*' ■*"^. <"'• l^-n.
tl'o V,rg,n was taken up iuto heaVe „ '""'"
"•i-ote that they had h/d it™ i , ' "' ""'"-'
Thus the authoWtv of ft, *'"'"' •" "»'">■"
«'■!" . of AtV"iLiii;trFuTo;iu''/f"-'''"
tine, of Jerome, was obtiinH,! f IL"' ,"', '^"■«"''-
scries of forgei-ies'^elrcl^':''"''' ''>■.■•'
(iceordrtuce with thn ..on.;, "'",<"' "eciuse in
the Onosti,,. 'end ;.rat H. "/ Z'"' ''"J"' ""'^
-•iters who did no''„: t''^i^*<'»"''«J-
was not all, for there i" the ^i . " , ">''
( 1) that no one within ^h chu c a^ilh. Ti''"":''
centuries, and ' ■■■> tl,.,f »i l '""K"' "tforsi.v
it within the ohm h hn"' '",''" ■"'' '^'•■•'' '^"'^h
the book condemned b>T''':^ ' ''"■«'-'"j- fr-""
who held and t,^,^ht'ir" '"'-'"" ""^ ^•'""•^l'
of Jerusalem Vif ah > """ •'"^""'''' b'shoj,
"••-".-.sceneminiur.^ '' "r"'"""' '» J''^,'
Kuthvmiac hist, ,v' ro„ T"*"""" '■™'" " ""•■
1748 be for lh7 ult""'' V' ^*^^' ^''='"'>''-
who (aocordinrto,rsL""'^"''^r'^ genuine)
and I'uleheria's s ,di„' ,^'''*''.'"""0 <"> Marcian
a^ to St. JIanVs uifh ""/"■■ '■>'"™»tiou
nnrratincT a shoHe. . 1 ' '"^'J'"^ '" ^^'^'^^ ^y
legend as" "a m ' ;!T» "f "'« D<^ Transitu
The.,r„n,/perronti h n tt T V"'" *'-'"li'i"n."
(<.r the ,,,4 if ,Z 1 '■*'"'■"'' "■''» '"light it
l-amaseei;] :„•,''; r"'[ """''"'-"I to John
•^e spurious, as u'lI^tHi^/IVf'^r"'
gory of Tours ad IQi^ ' ^ ''".n') ■ "*) was Ore-
-'/<'V«,«(|ib iA i) !,1::^'! I.",,'^'^ "^' «'-'•«
Blessed Marv ha I inish 'j I "'^ '"""ws : " W|,en
-i was now , 'tt' ^.T'/r "'""^ '"■"'
'he apostles were ga hemM ?l ""^ '""■'''• »»
f'<™ all parts of he *rf "'""' '"'' ''"»««
heard fha't X was to T'^' ,"'"' "■'"-'" 'hev
-"■h-) with her": d Ib'tid .1;''e T^Y t""^-^
came with his ancels in,! Vl-' l ^""^ •^«'"'*
'• *" Michael tiif V.hlef^^^'''" ■•'""'• g''^-''
In the .norning the ;,,,"h'^^''/1;^ "'""^ "^vay.
-i*h the bed, and ,, ac n'?"^ "'' '"-"' ''"''>
"■">''<i'i it, waiting foith ? ".'""■".""'-■nt, and
nnd commanded her to b. f„b "fPea red,
i" a cloud to Par. Ji^e 'J^^''' "'' ^"■■' '^"'■"••■d
■^"■ned her soul ^h ' *"■"'" "'"^' '>'>*'i"K -e-
TheAbWMigneZint; .r'"^ ''"'' ^'' ^'''^'t-"
f''"gory here^rel^^ r„V "hV'i" .t'"/^--"' " ^^ha'
Virifin and its attendLt "*"" "' "'* l''''^»«J
'l-'htedly drew o'w rf'i'?''r-^'"'''^«^ »'« -n-
fseu,lo-jielito-r /.C i^';'" -^^'rO '■'■""> fhe
::^fh Js classed- itn^ a^r:!"/;,.^"^.
-fh ;^n;:;:ms,^:e:'ti:i:;rS'p'^
•vere soon afVpr ;„♦,. i ,'•"*" ») Oregorv.
MAHY
1143
Ue,..e.ltradi,!^;:-;,l^:^';?^"'^"''-'~an,u.
i the subieet are An ^ i^" "'''" "'■'''"•■' "n
"f Toledo. A.n «5; : t" t'!:- '^■'i',' "il'I'Thons s
lived abJut An ,'o ";:"'','' "^ '^-"^'-"s who
' ""y of them r ^euLine h''"^- '""■''^"'-' <o
f"l- l'o|.e Benedict Viv' '*' •" ''""•-' ''""»"-
'""St ancient Kuh ;) „; ."j-y^, -J^'vely that ",(,e
«'■« silent as to thTh.r ''""""e Churei,
Blesse,! Virgin but the ^fh'"""?""" "*■ ""■'
and latest L bo h r!- '^t* '"'", "'^ 'he middle
"I'ud .Migne, y/,,,/. C ". Coi, / *'"''''''•
'+•*, Paris, 1842) It v^" 7''' '""'■ -""•'■ I'-
the names of Oregon ,?;^ T ■'" "'V^''^"'""' '<"
"tathers of the iS . '""'■'^ a"d of these
"■"1 l-atin," that he^! T ^T1 "S"'' ^''''^^^
•■'-cep.ed as a c^thol c f. ^r'^'f" ''^«''"'' '«'^""'«
thiltSi"^;.;t£:' H "■* ^'^"^^ "••'■'■'>
".s follows:- tvasist; '", ™"">'-"'orate is
4thcenturya par . h.?"'^ •'", "'^ '''•'' '"•
Mary's death ad if "'^ ''""■^t'c logend of St
-akos,! 'indGdWri,?'^'^';',' '■>■''- ^hun.h
endoftheSthcentu iv t" ''i''''' """" '" "'e
^■hurch in the et'" h'" J r/h "'":'^''.' '"•" '"'^
!>.v a series of sucees ful f ,.? """"•"-- Partlv
adoptionoftheG::^ ™M--tlyby,he
accredited teachers, writers -M^d , ' '""'' ""
" festival in conimemon :,■'.' ,;;''*^'-^'^' ^"'l
come to be believed J "'e event, thus
at the beginaingo ih -h'"'''';'.'*^'' '" ">^' ^-">t
''eginnii,/of,l^^^t;,;;;:;"'heWesta. the
A«<}r,S. ""'''"" ^'"'^^^'"•' ^^^ ""T.f^o.,
''* institution Thio C i I .
been estaldisheJ'by.,i w' '", ''^'^ '" ''''«
tiH.5, on the rep-esen ■" ,n ^^ '" '■','" """ >-''"f
V'"i/"«) that he ha f. . ° V ..'''l '"'""' ^'•'■''•■"■''*'"
heard the angels ''"'' >''''"'^ 'ollowinr
8. and that ,'' tl^Tf "" /^' "'ght of Se,"'
■■e.'..s"nforw lieh hev ■n"''"''"',."' '"'" ">^" "'e
•"-•en born on ,h ., ^.it' ,",« ^^^'J "'••''«'• -"ary had
'■^'"J"». «^t«hhshed tl e ;,i, Jr: '"n '^'T l'""
and the angels mi.rh ' '" "''''''■ 'hat we
the same M i e fe'''S'""r^ '''"^ ^^■^■"' «*
IJelethus confirms Du-^nH-^. ''^' ''"■ "'■ '■•'«>•
^'"■m. 0#c. c. M9 l" "■''■''^*''"'""' ^Explli
•■' s"i!gesti„n, , s lie h. "r'"'\'l!''^ thrown out
datetf the' "Ave Si ,.H"^^'!^'■'"'■"■•'' '" ""=
'"c:i instituted soon urther V"'^''* ''"''
" because from that ti„l ,i """J^''' "* ^^Phesus,
Blessed Virgi^gitlnTinl?'"?"'''''''' ♦'■•''"''■'■'
pery day t^n-oS/h:; " J •" "h^ ?' ""'^
however presume to savtllt . ' '''"'■'' '"''
then, but, on the contravl lu " T/ "^^^^hlished
«'as unknown irtreS'cI r'''"K«'^'''"' ""
of Charles the g" at td r ,"'"^ l" ""^ '""^
by its absence f:';^-/th,-r,;sr''^1 T ""^ -"^^
(«'/>-■/. .M„«.i;,>ocote , ' f. '^^ ^''^-^''^
Jn a calendar of M,ll„ l'..'^''; 1 '■ "^ '• -'• ^ •^■*>
(torn. ii. pt. ii. D 1()"1 vin"" ,'7':,.^"^ Muraforj
<lat.e A.n. 100,Ahe i;^ '.""■ '''^> '» ^e "fthe
■specially obser od at ft ^ " ""'"' "« ''ei,.g
not yet. gen r;i ev;,i„ t^r- ''V''""^'' '' *««
buted to^St. AuIustL "^ ^ ''«'■'»"" attri-
-■^ugubtine, and quoted by the
■f -''■«
uk(a
11 u
MARY
lii'in-iary as ilulivcml on the Feast of tli>. Nati-
vitv (if St. Mar-v, is, of course, spiiriciis (^Sorm.
I'.vcjr. alms Do Suiictis, Jiviii, torn. v. p. L'1(J4 ed
Jliiriii'). '
Th,> jmrposc of the festival is to commemorat,.
the bu-thnt St. Mary as it is rwomite,! in the
apocryiihal gos|,els, the Protevaiii,reli„„, ,,„,! tiie
<.os,„,l „f the iiirth of Mary. N,.thimr whatever
IS known ot St. Mary-s birth. We .io not jtn-nv
the names of her parents, or anvthine at all
about her early life. When we have .tate.l that
she was o the tribe of Judah and descended
from Day.d, that she had a sister named, like
hersell. Marv, and that she was connected by
n.arnage «,lh Klizabeth, we have said all that
can be known with respect to her previous to
her betrothal to J„se|d>. But as e.arly as the
-'ud or M-if century th
d' ■ ■ '
MARY
the house or Israel loved her. She i, said to
have r,.n,a:,.ed at the Temple till she ws twelve
or fourteen years old, food being brought 'i^ r
nti "v'";^'n '''" '^'s-'. I'k--' tiuu In e -
natiMty and her assumption, crept into the
"■ T,i "'n.C'*' '''' ' "•' '■'"'' «"' -"''''--•'
the th 'T'"'' •^""'"icnorated by it, in
been hrst observed in the flth Venturv N
rf..,« .a,.W„.„fthe Byzantine ch-ui-ch 1
lavL u„ , . T^""'. " '° ^""""emorate the
ayi g up or depositing in the church .{
Blachernae m Constantinople of (1) ,he „, , J
clothes of St.. M,,,.„ /--A j'j^ VV i»e gi 'V^-
h
M.'iy. The legend, as contained in'those apo-
cryphal gos,,els, narrates that Joachim and Anna
ot ihe race of David, lived piously together as
hus ,an,l and wile tor twentv vears at Nazareth ■
e -- yi— » '"v/i/jy ■jiiiu CO nave be^n stolen
ir of''u„ '^^."'''^-'"^ *""' t'andidus"iu"u;
tunc of Leo Magnus, successor to Marciau
<<'^^'»"f"^ for .luly 2, Constantinople, 184:i)
iTj'^y'''''' ^^^ l>i:'osm.No Of' THE
th tat the end of this lime jo-achim was roughlV Hove, 4In r?,?''^ ^'"' "'■•'■o«''-'^0 Of- T„b
.-.buked by the hLrh priest, and Anna bitterly r^,'";"'V^'^''''^ °^7"^^^
jeered at by her maid, because they had no I Tbi f r'^T ,^""'T'!' ^*"'*'""'>'
. .d; that Joachim went into the wild™ LlJ^j;^^';^!''':^ '*!:'.««'''■'-'-*'' have been
• 1,111. tU I. 1 L. ' ■"•'-""'"' 'oey nau no
„ ,' ''f /'"achim went into the wilderness
an,l lasted for forty days, and Anna went into
h.-r garden and [.rayo,! that she might have a
ohiM as .>,arai had ; and two angels appeared to
Anna, and promised her a chiM ; and Joachim
« s calle,! Mary (GHes, Ox/ex Aj,ovn,phus yori
estanwnt,, pp. 3:3, 47, Lond. 18+7). These
i'gends ot M. Mary's birth were repudiated by
i;:s-i;-Ej 5. S?5?a' ::;,=;!!:
«■> a body e.vternal and hastile to"'it*seif Likc^the
legends of her death, they crept into the church
m the < t h, 7th and 8th centuries. Pope Bc^ne" li '
-\1\. allows that "there is nothing about her
na.u-,tyin Holy Scripture, and all ^that is said
about It IS drawn from turbid fountains," which
h.,> exp ains to mean the frotevangelion and the
o or legends (A, Fe.t. Aativ. B. Vinjini^l'll
Migue, r/wot. Curs. Compkt. p. OH) ' '^
0. Tl.K I'RKSKNTATIO.V (TA .'mS,^ TVS
finji"""' ^'''""'""'"'^ ^<^''<"« Curiae Vir.
/h in.tit>,t!on.-rhe Festival „f the Presenta-
' "' ^^'' •^'■"•y at the Temple is supposed by
Zlt'r^'^^^^r'"-'^'^' «t Cons{i„tinl,,d-
-mtA.i). ,.io. There is certain evidence of it«
•.xistence there m a.d. lloO. But it did not
rxss.nto the West till a.d. l;i7,5. (See I aunoiu"
Pt. 1. c. 10, p. 77. Paris, 1G77.) It was with-
;lmwn from the Roman calendar by Ku^ V
Turner' '' ""'"^ ""• "" *''« P-^- "^
tion oi'^l'^T '■' '" ^''""nemorate the pr6.senta-
V c 7 as narrated in the Gnostic legend
G
t
1'
to tlie Lord
step
b^ It, but there is no evidence of its observance
before the 0th century. Its d .te in tho cX2^
t.ust rT" ""' ^'■""■°'"" ^'"-^'- -
-lugust .il. Its purpose is to commemorate (1)
the discovery of the supposed girdle of St. Ma,y
thTui^ • r *':.'".^'''""" to Constantinople ia
the time of Justunan, and (;i) a miraculous cure
wife of le. IT III'? '"'u"-*" ^'y '' "" ^''o "'e
Witt of .e the Philosopher, a.d. mi. (Nice-
phorus C^illistus, I/!st. Ecclrs. lib. xiy. 2 ,"■
14, 24. Du Kresne, Notae in Anww Comnewie
Hitoiae Par,s 11)70; Mcnae,M for Angus
p. 189, Constantinople, 184H.) '
8. Tin; Sy.NAxis of the Tiieotokos and
'OP JosKPi, „ER SrousE.-This festival was
probably instituted, at Constantinople, at abou
the same Jute ^,. the two previous y named
festivals though, like them, it claims a n ich
earlier date appeal being made to a spu us
sermon of Epiphanius, supposed to have be n
delivered on the day. The date in the calenZ
and the purpose of its institution are clo.selv ,„n.
nected. t is observed on Dec. 2.3, as l,e'in^ i
continuation of the Christmas festival, the mind
being turned on the first day to the S.m, an n
he second day to the mother. The word
Synaxis, derived from avpdy,,^, me-us in the
first p ace an assembly of worshiiipers, and
.o'n"f: i'" I^K PiT"!: '^""'"'^■''i^'Oa co'iimei'n '".
tion festival held by those so a.ssembltd.
9. The Protectiox op tub Most Hor.v
which is. „bo;neTi;t;rp;;te":-::-.:;;f-;! i Mcm.EH>. go^i^s ^^ti^wr^.S
fi'«liol of the Birth of Mary. Th^'egcmd state ,„ ,1 ^''f ""'"g f the 10th century. The day
th.t when St. Mary was three yea? if h^ fiT''*-'"'"': °C*''« '^"^'^i''" ^'''"rch on wh h
parents brought her to the Temple to, du « he '"''"'' '' ^^'- '• "» P^n'O-e is to c,,,,.
to the Lord ; and that she walled up th H teen fr'K i'k' i^'"" *^''' ^'- ^'"'
drew, surname,!
aid that he h„d
ah
l^h priest placed her on the thirfs ep'of the Ivb!'h t'"'^ "'" ^'"^hernae, Constantinople
liar: and ahe .) ,n,.„.t „,;.!. >,.._ ,. "'"P "'. '"e which he suniwse,! bim«„l«' .„ i '
iir ; and she •iinced with her
IVet; and all j Mary, with' proph
suppose,! himself to h
ave seen St.
proj.hets, aiiootles, and angels, pray.!
MARY
ing fur the worM nml snrnnilincr I,„. • _. /
Rn.-sian church .iLcounts for the f^stu.,! 1 ,
t-ng found in .he Hyzantine calen 1 ^ 'v ?he
g.e„t troubles whieh in the 10th en ur'-w ■ 'e
/.,«,«./.,„._,.,. J relates ^hat this
^•s n-al was institute,! a.D. 1067 hy al In
Helsmus who ha,l been sent bvWilliL of
Knslan,! to Denn.ark, and being ca X in a
„ u.jrx 1 ,=''•' '"'W'Wi f torn pll'v
St. Anseln, hi.n'iel ™ the S oeT/ hT"'' ""'"
I'on. Paris, 1 iOO) This t.s T'th ''• '"'' '^'
1 un w. tj "^ .. ^'^'^ 'D the year A n
rfiafed itasheterodoT < >i ^^'f '^- I^*') '""Pu-
"have kept th v't „ t"hT''r '"-" '*'^''"'"''^'
"That ihe ,„;.„,, .'!'','! i;'"'/"" '■■'h^'.vear l;t_'8.
•he .nother .t^ our I onl '^'•^''■^'"' ^ "?"' »'ary,
-'.•esoie.nniy.v;:b,S;i^'^^tr;i'rr':K''
ni-n; tLt by this Zals ,K ' ''•'"'"" "'' ""
of our salvaiio^;;:^r;:^: :Sai'r -t
venerable Id '^ss! Z'T '^'^''^^ "^ ""'•
nM that of her eone tin , "'""«''' **' '"
sai.l he solemn] eeleirr,/ I ^u"""'"'"" "*''"'«-
H.eehur^e;;:ht!',u":^i'^r^,,^'-^'a'i
Liir.i lit fj„. ,(....,;„• J ._ V- "'"'•"■. Hook.
p. -JflS, Lond.'l8.i!^) '^' "■^ ^-^^'iU-rbury, vol. iii.'
,....1 ..n.„u„.. .r ^.Kb,£,";,;t™
MARY
1145
'^■•"■•.v, the mothe, of ChL\ in '■:'"•"" "'■ •'*'•
KcitivaloftheAnnunoi.f, ' L !""'"""n '"' the
th--once,,ti„„'„';r;'4'r'tt''::'sr,T''™'^-?
of the eoneepti n o • St M '"•"^'■"■^""■^'l 'haivicter
tl.e doetrin? ;?h^ kL^''"-T' ""'' ^" 'o lead on to
this reason he irT"" ^'""'■P'ion. For
I-yons for ha:ing"a' ni elT' % T""? *""
vinichsafed," he writes ' f 1 * '"''" '"^•■''
sons of mei to be boin h ? ".''"'•^ "•'*^' "^ ">«
conceived holIK- that th„ ^' '"* *" """" *" 1^"
conception might t e t'"K"^" "'i " ''"'-^
should s:,netify all an.l in L ,"•' ""'^ ^^''o
being h.n.self^th om! One 'U "" "^ "''■^'"^•
sin. It is the lord i ^^"^^^'^ co„,es without
conc.;ve,l by the HolvoL??' ^1°''' "'■''• vvas
I holy before Hsconoent.^n I '■ ^^' "'""« "'^''^
I humble and t ue conl ," ^^"■'''"":^ """' ""-'
w-shapenininiqut;a^"„'s,::,,.:^' -■"-''
cunce ve me,' aoi.lip^ L ' "'-^ mother
Cilclren. The^wl .t c^^ ?.' '■'^'' "'"^''■'"''^
festival of he con it/ "p'h '"'-""^''=' '"' "^
tion be -aid to be hnir k u -^ '■'"> " concei,-
spiMt, not toi';, Seh r'of'iir; '"' f'^ ""'V
't be regarded as a nmtter for Tl °'" *"'^^ ^■""
is not holy? The Hori,n "'*"■'*•'' ^^'^''n i*
cnongh t^ go w thiut an T"''''" "■'" ^'-' '•'•^"'-
cither to honour in or to \r":' '"^''^ '^^'"'^
^vhich did not exist -YaU/ ","'.'^'''« « holiness
«bich St.Kerna'r,i oipCd w^'Ihl'^'^^cT'
conception of St. Mary. 'I^ede,.i?h- " ''"'•^
late conception had not a is „ Tn ht " ''""'^,^":-
was first proposed ■,-... ''".'"""' time, i'ms
-Scotus at L Cd t th :uh : 'fh '\ '•- ^""^
^t the 14th century, and si.:''e::;^tt'o"„^
if they desire salvation ^"f"'-" *" '"^'«^«
of her who was the moth ^^^""^ "^ ""= '"«
since AD ISiT ,1, """ber of our Lord, but
cop ion; th' U is tr""^^"'^*'-"'- of her'con'
sin, ha,; tl ega"ed1h7'hi"f''''r "''^'''^'
momorated bv it "h; . ^ '^"^ '"''J'^ct com-
, «>'ew whidiiuminaterin'Th'-, "''■'-'" ""-' ''""''^
■■"•e brief^v as follows • kv ^ , festival
the end o'f the ',th ■■",■". ■'"P"''""'^ "mes to
believed fha St iLr'^," ^^'^^ '-'gbt and
'hHt she was liable t ,^ ., °™ "^ 7'g[n '' sin,
fell into sins of infirmit; We m;; take'"'' 'f''^
ncsses for the 2nd century, Tr^uli-n/rf?'"/"'
^"^■%^'^hr;^'r'^^^"--^?^
r-H^^ -- «' p- ^'i^a ■:• SoV^
t>t. Hilary (in />, „,:, ' '^""s, ly.'i^ a„j
1693); fo'r \he Ith "nt'ui^-sr Chr' '':"'^'
V'P- torn. vii. p. 467 Pa" f:,^'' ^brysostom
ccntu;y h' ^^\^'l^'\^ »" tbe I'./h
Mary ^as born in ofilaT ,in ,"?'' *'"" S^-
fom falling into IZ^^t.. '\ '^ -^ --^
t">T't was taught and believed thush '""
~vedin.in,andsosubjectc:i't:t;gi^:;
DIG
MABV
tlill^
■:i'
[If-
but, like .I(.hn the Baptist, sanctified before her
birth. Krom the 14th to the l«th century
teaching and belief in tlie Latin church wavered
lietweeii a maculate ami an immaculate concep-
tion according iis the Dominicans or Francis-
cans were most powerful at Rome, la the I'Hh
century it was formally declared bv pope
I'lus IX. that St. Jlary, having been conceived
iiiiniaculately, was absolutely exempt from
original and from actual sin. This belief of the
1-atin church is regarded i>y the Greek church
(>ee Coiijcrcncc between the Abp. of Syros utul the
Jlp. o; 11 mdicster, Load. 1871), an.l by the Angli-
can church (see lip. Wilberforce, Hoiiw, her
tieiv Dojmi and our Duties, Oxf. 18J5), not only
ns untrue in fact, but as heretical in its ten-
dencies.
The Jay in the calendar fixed for this festival
IS Dec. 8, as being nine months before Sept 8
whicli was regarded in the 12th century as the
Nativity of St. Mary. The Eastern churches
observe it on Dec. 9.
11. Sr. ilAKV AT Snows (Festum Dedicationia
6, J/aria" ad Mves).
Its iniitituti,n.—Th\3 festival wa« instituted
ns a local anniversary, and observed in the
basilica ofSta. Maria JIaggiore as early, it would
H'cin, as the lijth century. Its observance was
extended throughout Home in the Uth century,
and made obligatory on all Koman Christendom
by I'lus Y in the Itith century.
iU purpose is to celebrate the legendary foun-
dation of the church of Sta. Maria Maggiore in
Koine. The legend says that in the 4th century
one John and his wife, having no children, were
anxious to devote their substance to St. Mary,
but did not know how to do so acce)itably to
her, until they each had a dream telling them
that they would iind snow on the ground mark-
ing luit the spot whereon they were to build a
cathedral. They went to Liberius, the poiie of
liome, and found that he had had the same
dream ; and behold, the snow was Iviug (on the
■ith ot August) on the Esquiline in the shape of
a cathedral. So they built Sta. Maria Maggiore
Ihe ISieviary (Aug. 6) contains the legend. It
jirobably ai,.se from an attempt to explain the
name .( / Mvea. which may itself bo the corrup-
tion of .some lost word— possibly of ad Lv:. or
ad Liciae — aa the church was built juita macel-
Iniii liciae; or of Liber., as it was known by the
title l.iberiana : or ..f in ^s,/., as it was 'built
cu the Ksmiiline Hill. The story re.sts on the
authority of manuscripts belonging to the cathe-
dral body, which might ea.sily have become difli-
(ult to decipher in the liijise of centuries, and of
leter de Natalibu.-, a collector of worthless
legends, who lived in the Kith century. The
miracle is first mentioned by Nicholas IV in
the year A.D. 1287, that is, 927 years after it
was said to have taken place. Gregory XI
A.D. l:(71, and Pius 11., a.d. 1453, have' given
the sanction of their authoriiy to it. The ori-
ginal legend stated that the earth opened of its
own accord for the foundations, on Liberius
beginning to dig them. But this part of the
miracle was expunged from the Breviary by
I'lus V„ while he left the part relating to the
snow. Tlw date m the calendar is Aue. 6
MARY
-i-^ter fr^t-val, caiicd ar. MaUY
AT Martyus, held on May 13, to commemorate
the dedication of thti Pantheon, or Rotunda, to
St. Mary and the Holy Martyrs, by Boniface IV.
at the beginning <d' the 7th century. This
festival has been allowed to become obsol..,e,
perhaps because there was not so powerful a
bjHly as the chapter of Sta. Maria Maggiore
whose interest it was to maintain it
r.S.5."' ^''*"'*'""'' ^ ''■"''"''■" ^'■'"'^ ^"'•'i"'
Jts inatitution.-m» festival was instituted
by Urban VI. during the .chism in the papacy
and primiulgftted by a constitution of his Vu,!
cessor Bomtace IX., A.D. 138il (li<,lla Ho,ut.xi
ix. apud Bollandi Acta Sar^.tLn, Zy o^)
About half a century later, a.d. 1441, i't wa.
again established by the council of Basle, n..
reference being made to its previous institution
krerh m'T' ""'^''''y ^^''^ "»' ""know,
ledged by all the members of the council. The
TrW "'//"r" ^^ '» °«<-'"pi"'l with the matter
1 woof'"- "'""^ ii^^rduia, Condi, torn. viu.
The purpose of the festival is to commemorate
h! Tl^"f .''r ^''.^^"'y '" '^'i^"''""' I'e'brc
may be, Hebron. Joachim Hildebrand savs
th.it It was instituted at the council of IJa'.lJ
to supplicate Mary to trample down the Turks
h* enemies ot the Christians, as she trod upon
the mountains ot Judaea on her way to her
ous.n (Ve Priscae et Primitivae £celrsi.,e
sacrts puljUus templis ac diebus festis, Hclu,-
stadt, lb.,2). As it is R scriptural fact com-
memorated by It, the festival is retained in the
Anglican calendar in spite of its late date. The
date m the calendar is July 2.
1^- TilK l':si'OusALs (Vespmsatio Beatae Vir-
gmis Manae cum S. Josepho).
Jts institution and purpos,:-K canon of the
cathedral 01 Chartres, in the Uth century
charged the chapter in his will to institute "a
commemoration of St. Joseph, with the view ,f
pleasing Mary. Gerson, chancellor of the uni-
versity ot Pans, proposed to the chapter to
carry out this object by u.ing an (/*«««.
Desponsatwm. Beatae Vir.,ims cum S. Josrnho
laul HI desired an olhce to be i,repared for the
day, and he gave his approbation to it after it
had been drawn up. The observance of the
testival wa., extended by Benedict XllL, ad
, ;'• , '■" "* obligation in Spain, Italy, Kng-
land, and in all congregations of the .'Jesuits
The ring used at the espousals is said by Bene-
(lictAlV.to be still preserved at Perugia (fn
^cst. Dcsponsationia apud Jligne, Theol. Curs
Co».p/. t„m. xxvi. p. 631, Paris, 1842). The
date irt the calen-lar is Jan 23
Coc'S)!" °' *•"" ^^^"''""' ''■ '^'-'"'^
This festival was instituted in Spiin at the
beginning ot the Dith century. It was removed
fiom the calendar by Pius V., and restored by
Sixtus \ on the prayer of cardinal Deza. It
was made of univer.sal oblig.ition by Innocent XI
*•"■, ^•',^^.' "» gratitude for the'defeat of the
lurks betore Vienna. lU purpose is to encou-
rage putting confidence in the name of Mary
Us <^te m tlie c(Ue,ui,tr is the Sundav foUnwin.^
the Feast of the Nativitv.thi.t i^ .i.„^ii,.j^ , -:'
15. Thk .seven Souhows Fo^n'smtem
Dolorum Beatae Mariae Vir,,ii,.^. >.
This festival is conjectured by Benedict XIV.
-o have
Cologne,
make up
sacred ir
has no |
Haller, d
Kicbach 1
instituted
I'astoral (
(See Hrusi
1>. fi">8, S
versal obi
by a decri
The jiui
St. Mary j
This is
endar whii
the year.
late institi
ceding Go(
September,
hi TiiK
Mariae I'ir
This fest
."!ion of th
Oct. 7, 15
Pius V. or
-Mary of \
Gregory XI
Rosary of i
the most Ho
sion and say
on the day i
oervance (ibi
Innocent XI
Leojiold to n
he died bef.
complied wit
gation by CI
defeat of'the
i'ts date in
October.
Its p<irp/igt
the Rosary oi
sists of the re
with 15 Pat
Jiosed, but wi
been instltnti
is stated by
Jiroveil its el
" When St. Do
in France, an .
publicly ridic
was possessed
Tiie saint (dd
whether the I
most Holy I{„
rqilied : ''Liste
of ours has sa
Rosary is true.
had no power
that many by i
saved i:oufrary
saying, ' We ar
lost who perse\
that of the mos
for those who a
they die.' .St.
1.....;*.. »L T*
. .,.„ ^^jj5^
Hail Mary, evil
sessed man und,
tfaat when the 1
MAHY
')' Hoiiifiice IV.
mtuiy. Thin
Loiiic obsiili'te,
so powerl'iil ii
iiritt Maggioie
it.
lictitae Markto
if«9 instituted
in tlic papHLy
>n of his »uc-
i'llla liunif.'isi
tin, July '-')
1+41, it was
of linsle, n.>
us iostitutiiiu,
not ackninv-
council. Tiu;
th tlie inattiM
it. torn, vii.,
;omnicmorate
;a belli le/'ore
Juttah or, it
L'liraiid savs,
ni:il of IJa;iL-
■n tlie Turlis,
lie trod upon
way to her
ae Eccisiiie
'estis, Heliu-
il fact coin-
ained in the
J date. T/ie
Beatae Vir-
•nnon of the
th century,
institute 11
the view .f
of the uni-
chapler to
in O^hciii/ii
S. Joscp/io
th century
ired for the
o It after it
lice of the
XI 11., A.D.
Italy, Kng-
he .Jesuits.
id by licne-
erugia (/«
/leiil. Curs.
342). The
JS. ^'ominis
■lin at the
IS removed
estored bv
Dpza. It
locent XI.,
lat of tbu
i to enc(.u-
of Marv.
fi)U«win,'
MARY 1147
!orie» 0/ Mary, Load. 1852).
.o have been , •«.,«((<<.,/ bv Theo-lorir hi !,„., e .■ .
I'o .gne, at a (Hovineial VV^,d a ' U^? ^^ If'''^- f"'""- 1
,S:;u^."r7,;;TS.t:it,'r,*^ ,. -
]>aston.l ..haige in the year of ,u L r , "i^'' ^j}'r''"'^""^ h He.
V. ,. , '■■• "I'lry to ftimon St(,ek, an
;»'ts;:; :rs;:;!;;r :„"'5;-V';
«f the 18th century ' "' *'"■' K'muing
ThiTiVth^"" "^"T" f ^""''"- ^^"'-"T
the vear The second l:,::i,^i~,:;!'
late „,s Utu,i„„ ns ,iat,, „, ,^^ ° '' ^«^ >
-Mary of Vi 'y' h ^VrTeM""''"" "''''
H::s;^>?lll;trru^'£^-'^"^-
the most H,dv RoWvh^iH," ' ''''^ '^"">!"'».o.s of
Jon.n..eobn«a.,,rythrou;S4;r'L:'r.::
StvSie^f-?"-----
Oct?br''''''"-'"'^-'^'he^H.rt.*undi;in'
theRo^:r^,t;;;;7rv'''^'^r"-«^
sistsof th; r citation of no l'''1i.°' ■^'"•='' """
with 1.^ P.-/«-'\wl TV '^y'*':'.^ '"gather
i"-'.''-«"',.:urt;^.iS;;-j-p-
Ix-en ,n>t,tnted by St. Ooniinic A T, I'o o T
--'-e^i by St.-A.,b„so de'1.ig^uo.;-t!;\:!::
whether'^h^'X":,,:;:;:' .^--'^ t<; Oecl^ire
most Holy R„s„v ,.. 7 ""' "''""' the
>vplied:'-r.i ;";-,„^^f "■"■^i, ""^^'ins- they
1> ours has said of A,,,,,- « d o, 'h ^^ ::»?'
had nVp w^: .,it ^:"'"'-'^"'''^'-«J''-l that the
that nia'v by inv, ki,''"l;f"'"°'^ «'' »''"T, and
saved contrary t„rhfdt,ts""Th" '"'"', V'™
siving, ' We are fo,.p ' i 7 , ; ^'"^i' '■'"'"eluded,
that of th^n^t H , .V --for^f "'^ \""' ■"
f«i' those who are sinL,.?^ ' '^'■"'>' "'""'"s
,.....:.. .1.. ;. • "oniiuic then nrnde the ,,„,
sesi
tinatt
K"klislM„an,t,e,e,S,fthf'r"" 1"^'
l-''''l. St Aif„n.> .1- "" '-armehtes, A.D.
"f the Ko;fJ'::^;% •'«"»';; the latest Doctor
the Seneral a '";;uVrtr%h '' ''' '^''^^ *-"'^'«
■neiitcs, savini, P '"' "'" "^ the Car-
'',»he appeared to p^ .. o ^X\ll"„:f ".T""''?
him to ,„„ke know^i to ,,11 that on the Vl 'I''"'
hy the same pontid in a b n\i, J '"'"""'
I u.s\., Gregory Xlll., and Paul V.-^.Ua^"^:
J^^:Jc,te in i',c calendar is My U.
tht^e:ttr^;''^'" '•'"'""''''" -'^
to Veu^tia iT.r - "''■^^,"'>»^'> «"» extended
'talr,by'i;;ntdtxiu:,Tr;,.f-i'''"-f
Its ;,„,yx,se is indicated by its name
the province of'lV^t .'Irle"!;''"!:;' 'T
nions. '" ''-*'> ""** ">« Spanish domi-
facftirrK' to commemorate the alleged
lact tnat the house n which St At..,-., i f-
Nazareth, in which the Ann .nc^ tion i '!?' '"
was carried through the Mir a n loo? ^ '''"™'
Dalmatia and tb^ ^\C.'£^' ^:^ |«
lf!,l.se Cat.oU,ue, vol. xi.. p ,32l, ptris 'hSh
All tha can be said tor or aga nst it i ^ ^'
!>.-«s,_ed into an article by the f y K S .Y u
in the Christ:,^ i. ■' , "''*^- '■• °- l^toulkes
Lond) ^'^"^'"I'runcer (April, 1«6 ,^
20' T,'.?'",/^* ^■''''"^'- " December 10.
-^1'. The PiioTKCTio.v op St JIadv d ,
the^si^Jtii^^l'iiS.r""^*'"^''-"'
-^^;l;^,i679Si^-S-bXedi:;Sr
at the beginn.ug of the 18th century
ts^n^rpowistoencouraeenrav tn ■ »
ancUonfidence in her protectio*!! ^ ' ^^"""y
be observed in Spain on a SnnL • "^ '''^ *°
'"^'^Kr,!'^f"'''^-"^'^oct.:be;:^-'
1148
MAItY
This festival wns institiiteil In the ITIhrentni'v
fii->t iHi- the (irler ,|e Meivede, th'ii (or Simi'n'
HU.I then tor Kniiice. Its (ihservurue wns ex-
temled to all Koiiiaa Christendom by Innocent
Al It
lU pitrjK).w is to (■omMiiMiiornte an alleged an-
pe.iiMjice (jC .St. M.iry, which is said to have
tanked the institution of the order de Mereede
i'hi' nienilier- of the order, besiijes taking the
vows of chastity, poverty, an<l obedience, bound
themselves to redeem caj. lives by deliverinij
themselves into slavery.
T/ie J,ite in the calendar Is Sept. 24.
The reniaininu festivals, the flKl.p OK Ouris-
TiANs. the Most Puhk Hkakt, the Maikiiniiv,
the I'CKITV, have special masses, sanctioned bv
jiepes, ,and appointed to be said in KnKlan.l and
in the .lesMit con);re^'atlons, but they have hardly
yet bucipiiie recoi;nised festivals.
Tlie .Siiturday began to be ajiprnpriated to .St.
JInrys honour by an appointment of Urban II.,
A.n. loiui. This was made of universal obli>'a-
tion bv Tins V., A.n. l^H. " I
It tvill be seen from the above that the two
festivals of the I'uriHcation and the Annnncia-
tiiin wei'e instituted as early as the (Jtli century,
nud that tliey were orieinally festivals of oiir
Lord rather tii.inof.St. Mary.' The Assumption,
the ^i■,tlVlty, and the Presentation, which illu.s-
trate the early (inostic legends ofSt. Mary's birth
and death, belong to the 7th and the becinni', •
of the «th century. The Vestment, the'lii- ;
and the .Synaxis belong to the 9th century ; ■,<•.
(liussian) Protection to the 10th; the t'oif >•>.„
tinn and the Kediration of St. Mary at ,Si.,.v..-. *..
the li'th ; the \'isitation, the Kspousai,. , „i <u-..
Name of .Mary to tlie Uth ; the .Seven Soi-:v.t ..
the liosaiT, Mount Carmel, the Delivery, to tl- ■
lijth: the House of Loretto, the (I.atm) Pro-
tection, the de Mereede, to the 17th- the Aid
ot (-'hnstians, the Most Pure Heart, the .Maturitv,
the Punty. and the Immaculate Concei.tion, to
the IHth and the 19th centuries.
Books that m,iy be consulted, in addition to
those name.l under the dirierent headinirs, are:—
Mo.ila,-t!iroh,i:nm, ajiud Migne. I'ntnljwi, torn,
coni. Paris, 18,V.>; Usuardus, MaHi/rolo,;iwn,
1 J'-V t, ' ^''"•'.V"%'". il'id. tom. xciv. Paris,
18.)2; Horentinius, yctitstins Vccldi-ntalis Eede-
sxae MaH,jroh,j\um, Lucca, 1668; Durandus,
Uitiimde IJivmonm Officioi-um, Venice, I,J77-
Beletluis. E.c;,licat!o Divinorm cffichnim, Venice,
1 -o,. ' '"""""'^' ''^l'i't;i>-oh,j!u,n Hummum, Rome,
l._.«b; Hospinianus, Festn Christianontm, Tiiruri
IblJ; lienedictus Papa XIV., De Festis lunA
Migne, Iholoume Curs. Compl. tom. .xxvi. Paris,
lS+2; /accaria, Di scrtazioni varie Itatia„e
Komae 17hO; Neale, Ihty Ea.'ern Church,
OrencrU fntrod ction, I.ond. ISod; Bim'ham
AnUjnities i,f the Chridian Church, blc. xx o viii'
Lond. 172(5; Tillemont, Jfemoires pour senir
al/ustmre • cclesiastipie rfra six premiers Siecles
B.;uxelles, 170« ; Tyler, Worship of the Blessed
Ur,„u J/«ry Lond. 1851 ; Migne, Smnm, Aurea
Oc Laud,hs Urgmis, Paris, 18ijJ; Trombelli, de
tiUluimhIu-o abecdesm B. Mariw e.rhihito, Paris
IHbJ ; Smith, Dictionary of t„e Bible, s. v. Mary
the Virgin, Lond. 186 ). ^y ^ 7
MAltY
MARY, ST., THE VIRGIN (in Aht). The
history of the Virgin Mary in Art^orresponJs to
that of our Blessed Lord in the complete absence,
m (he early nge.s of the church, of any repre-
sentations ot her p-rson having the Mua lest
.■lain, to authenticity The words .^fs,. Augu It ne
it '"'('■• '"'•;•"'■'•, ■'^"^•"■M"-'-'-" thlH
whilewh,.hes,,y,,of fheditlerentidc H^^^k
hy dillercn persons of her lineaments, ,11 p o-
ahly widely at variance with the trull:, i ,||.
cates notonlv the absence of any recognised ty e
"f portrait, but also that pictures of her wl 'o
of.v;tn.me rarity if indeed they existed at all
When found the Virgin Mary appears in all
he earliest lepresentathms .as a min.bcrof a„
istoncal group deputing a scriptural subject,
Mich as the Annunciation, the Visitation the
^^' .v.ty, the A,loratiou of the Magi, ,he P U n-
""" .n the Temple, an 1 Christ' loi he
tion of the Magi, which re.urs in ..mntlesa
examples ,,fall the various fornis of, 'hlS
. t--carved on s^uvophagi, sculptured on ivories"
0. depicted in the mosaics of the basilicas, and
the Ircjscoes of the catacombs, thus evidencing the
iin-.J Ihe Nativity without the Magi is of very
woi^s^'Tarr'' 'h'"*-' ""'^' •■'•""■'"■> -"inur
woiks ot art, such as coins, gems, ivories or
sarcophagi [Nat.vitv]. The .Alinunciatio , 'aisi
appears very seldom U is represented in one of
; .at clothes the western face (,f the arch of
Without a nimbus, is seated in a chair, behind
>^hich two nimbed angels stand; the archangel
Gabriel stands in front, while the Holy Do\^
Uibiiel. rhis mosaic also inclu.les two other
^ubjects, in addition to the Ado, ,tio„ of the
Magi (see woodcut A.voior.s, Vol. 1. p. 84), in
which the Virgin appears, viz., thJ Pre el-
ation m the Temple, and Christ among the
he", he'd "" "'f^ ''"''J'^'^*-^ ♦''« ^"^ ha!
he, head uncowed is without the uimbus,
anrt IS very richly clad in a gold vobe, and i,
decorated with earrings, necldace. and hea
jewels. (See Ciam,,ini, Vet. Mon. vol. i. „. 1^07
tay 1,.; DAgincourt, PeLdure. pi. xyi. no. 4,'
S Kens Museum, no. 744,5.) The Annunciation'
IS also found on the north w.ill of the apse of
the Cathedral of Paren.o, i„ Istria, viX 'he
Visitation opposite to it. The \n,,\n i, here
.seated, with her head encirclcl bv a°ni„,bus, at
the door of a small gabled cottage, and the anWl
stands before her. A later exam,de is seeii^'i,
he mosaics ot St. Xerens and St. Achilleus at
Kome, A.r>. 796. The catacunb of St Pris-
eilla contains a fresco, which mav very i.robably
he 1, entihed with this same subject: ' In this
the drawing of which is excellent (see woodcut
Ix. \ "'? ^"'■'^ * >'""°g ■"■■'n »"'ly 'lothed
without wings or any of the Inter ancelic at^
tributes with extended right hand, .addressin.' a
seaed feinale who with downcast eyes a'nd
"Pl.ffed left hand seems to be receiving ,1
speakers message with devout submission. ° The
earlier illustrators of the catacombs were far
to the subject of this picuire. Bosio says that
it IS iiapossible to determine what storv it renre-
sents. Bottari (p. 141) expresses his opiiioa
with hesil
the .\nniii
by .Mr. W
p. '.'t), at
(See Ho.sio
tav. 7,% D(
thu itame
f ills "a ver
rative work w
JIarriott (u. ;
tion of this gi
tomb of the .
huilding." Tl
the dignity a:
with the ftiiei
Jioverty and ;
later frescoes, \
assigns it to
or at the late.*
1. e. the close of
century, while
hability, bringi
No- >. VIrjin snd Child
St. PrlKili,.
The fresco in quei
sists of a seated
clothed in a tun
Dirabed, clasping
MARY
th« ,Hme cat,.cu,ub th.r: is anothnr fv.J, th"
MARY
II 19
I'lilliiiiii „HT hii
d'toimine; nor i, its rfl,„ „ '""^y 'J' ''^^uH to
(■ ,. ' "''' a^te nccuruti'v fivi.,l ?»
i' .". "a very small p„rt^,n of a nil, , . ■
ratn-o work which," aoconiing to S \ Vh T""
tion of thi gyoL mi^hf r *"-' ''"^'''■' «^^'-M'-
tomb of the^Nast ,f !!'"";u'-"'" '"""'^ '" 'he
with tie L.e.M\ri ac i„n*''ru„;z',^r
poverty and stillness which chkmctert h
later trescoes, point to an early dnt^ De' R •"
.■'■•'■•'igtis ,t to the rei^n of Tra^n or H.. '
or at the latest to the time nfth«i .''■'*"•
«. c: the close of the 2n?l ITt ■ ^'><onines,
century, whii: jL:/ H. ParkT wlfhl ''" "'''
^^^ilny, brings it down 'rVat;aI\'r I'^a-
The fresco in question (,ee woodcut No 2^ .„
«i'uM, clasping ,„^;;^^|]--^;n-
'!"" I"'""*"", t" her nak«l I,
"tan. Is a yn„„c; man, with a
'» very rnasonnhly int,.rpret..d (,v'M, Vh ,
Mnrr,„tt(„.,,.)„f,h„„ ,, k„ ,. ,,"''"''"»
tinnal r^|•,rp^erltaM■..n „f ) k ^' ' '"' '"invn-
with which w" ,,, " "V'":'!;'' "» nn ,dd ,„an.
In ant Saviour ■.» iK / * ">f"' '""'
testimon .'""[,;;. t f 'T ^'"'■''■'■' "'' l'-l'hw,c
':%tav..^N',HhXlt^7:-y'7-
ft'on, the catacomb „f no ' , "'"'Vl':. •';").
tinns on the Kl-m,i„i. 'iv '"' '"' •^•- ^"l'"-
;;.-:arr..cciS::!:.^;r'^;;;;;;;;:;'''^^
w:rh'?:'^:^'f:^,[^^■'•;-i"^';^l:;^^*^,l;o
•n.m clothed in a , " and ,.,l'l"'""'. ' '! '"■'"•'''"'
a veiled female o , "" l' """ ,■'.■ '''e •■cntre,
eight rears old wiH • V ' ' " '''"''' "' ''Imut
'"the gh ' U sh ml I h "•"'" " '"■'"■-•.
•i'at the ea lie ■ s W ' ^T"!-'' '"' '"'■'"i""-'!
•*"''- ^ and Aw;Mtli,^,-^;';-;;;^'^.B,,sio,
vcre re,,rese«tations of the ,e • „ *^!"'.^'-''
the tomb below. De' Ro 7 ju '"■,""' '"
I'i^'tiwe from a mutilate Ve^ ."." ""'''"K""-^
Hain?:i";fe?;;S7t1''^v?
he considers rei)resen»« ♦>, female, which
M.rti,„y(^,sr/!:4'"' """" ""'"■' ^""^'-
the early date and the fr' ^'^ '" ''enumstrate
with h„, IV • ' -"i """^ '" which she aM.e'irs
she is :;ret";:d ,':-. ''f ^^ '^"■^^' •■' ' '"''^
with arL ou rS V^*''";'"-^'^-;"" "'"•-'•-■••'
attitude of praver Them, f '"''■' "'"■•■' '^'-"'' '"
turesof the first class L.r; '^^""""'^ "f the pic-
nist Class IS the fresco on the plafond
''■■S
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IMAGE EVALUATION
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JA
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Sciences
Corporation
23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80
(716) 872-4503
>>,%
v^,-^
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. ^
^
1160
MARY
MARY
J
li-;
of an aixosolium in the cemetery of St. Agnes
ou the Via Nonientana (womlcut No. 8). It is tho-
rousfhly Byzantine in character, its stiff religious
symmetry contrasting most strongly witlT the
freedom and grace of those jiwt describeil, from
Ka. 3. Viisia lad CbUd. FreMO frum 8t AgBH.
the cemetery of St. Priscilla. It can hardly
be placed earlier than the first years of the 5th
century, though De' Rossi assigns it to the time
of Ccnstantine. it represents quarter-length
figures of a mother and child, the latter standing
iu front, clothed in a blue tunic up to the neck.
The mother stamls behind, vested in a green tunic]
and a pallium falling over her arms, with her head
covered with a veil and circlet of beads round
her neck, and extends her arms in the attitude
of prayer. Neither have the nimbus. The sacred
monogram ^ on either side is turned towards
the group. This picture is generally recognised
as that of the Virgin Mary and the infant Christ,
but the identification Ciinnot be considered beyond
question. liottari, following Bo.sio, considered it
merely a memorial of the persons buried in the
sepulchral recess. This idea is strengthened by
the freciuent occurrence of portraits in the same
position in other arco.solia which are unr.uestion-
ably of that character (cf. Bosio, pp. 473, 499).
Its identification with the Virgin and her Divine
Son is asserted by Garrucci {Arti cristiarw pri-
mitive, vol. ii. tav. 66, no. 1), by March i (p. 157),
(who has some excellent remarks on the infinite
distance between the Mother and the Son, indi-
cated by the fact that she alone is represented as
in the act of jirayer), and De' Rossi (^/)mg. Select.
J)l. vi), and is accepted by the judicious Munter
{Sinnhililer, torn. ii. p. 128) and Wharton Mar-
riott (K. s. pp. 28, 2i»). (See Bosio, p. 471 ; Bot-
tari, cliii.) There is also a seated female figure
with unveiled head giving suck to a naked infant,
given by Bosio (p. 549). and Bottari (tav. 180),
from the, cemetery of St. Priscilla, which may
be reasonably identified with the Virsjin and
Holy Child. It deserves remark that this group
occupies a subordinate position in the right-hand
corner of the lunette, a tall and stately matron,
as an orante, identified by Bosio with Priscilla
her.self, being the central object. But the whole
subject of this lunette is obscure. Among the
few undoubted pictures of the Virgin, furnished
by the catacombs, there are two of late date
given by Poifet. In both she is accompanied by
her Son. Neither can be placed earlier than the
9th century. That from the baptistery of
Valerian under the church of St. Urban all
Cafiarella, a rude and ignorant work, represents
thp Virgin ip ^ blue veil over a rod tunic,
holding Christ on her knees in the act of bene-
-n.
diction. MP ©V is inscribed above the group
(Perret, vol. i. pi. 8:!). In the other, kn.nvn
as the " Madonna della Stella," from a cat.icomb
on thcAppian Way, near Albano, Christ is |,l,iced
between his Mother to his right, ami St. Sma-
ragdus to his left. Her ban Is are outsjiriMd in
prayer, and MUkr tiikv is written above her
(Perret, ib. pi. 84 ; Agincourt, feinture, pi. v.
no. 2.i). A fresco of the Virgin and Child,
discovered by Mr. Parker in the corridor, or
sentinel's path, in the Wall of Aurelian, near
the Appian Gate (now the Porta di San Sebas-
tiano), is perhaps one of the earliest examjiles of
the Virgin and Child extant. From the stvie of
the painting, which is Byzantine of the 6th cen-
tury, it may probably be regarded as the work
of some Greek artist for the religious benefit of
the troops of Belisarius during the siege by
Vitiges, A.D. 5,38, when the fortifications of the
city were generally repaired. It is executed on
a piece of lath and plaster stretching across
the corridor, through which the guards would
pass. The painting possesses "a kind of solemn
grace, characteristic of the best Byzantine art,"
The Virgin is represented standing, holding her
Son on her right arm. She is veiled, and both
have the nimbus. (Cf, Mr, Tyrwhitt's remarks
in Mr, Parker's Church and'AUar Decoratiuns
and Mosaics, p, 157 ; Parker's Photographs, no.
The' second class of representations, viz. those
in which the Virgin appears alone, without her
Divine Son, while it supplies a very large number
of possible examples, furnishes verv few that can
be certainly identified with the Mother of our
Lord, No» object is of more frequent oc^- rrence
in every form of early Christian art, on sarco-
phagi and monumental slabs, on gilded glasses,
in mosaics, and especially in the catacomb fres-
coes, than the so-called "oranti," i.e. standing
figures, wi.'h the arms extended in what was of
old the ordinary attitude of praver, 'Ihese
figures are of both sexes, but the females lar,;ely
predominate, and are represented either alone,
which is the more usual practice, or sujiported by
a male figure on either hand. These " oran i ""
were generally unhesitatingly regarded bv Bosm,
Aringhi, Boldetti, and the earlier investigator.s,
as memorial pictures of the individuals interred
below. Others consider the female " oranti " to
be symbolical representations of the Church,
This view is stated by Martigny (^Eglise. p. 226,
§2) as well as by Garrucci (Vetri, tav. xxxix.
n. 3) and is fur from imjirobable. One or
two are considered by Bosio to be pictures
of the Virgin, though it is difficult to see
on what principle he distinguishes them from
the others Oe' Rossi, on the other hand,
and his translators, Messrs. Korthcote and
Brownlow, have adopted the opposite rule of
interpretation, and have thus enlarged the list
of supposed catacomb-frescoes of the Virgin to
nn almost indefinite extent, and certainiv far
beyond what the facts admit, Dr, Northcote
allows that the female oranti may possibly in
some instances have "denoted some martyr or
person of distinction buried in the princii)al
tomb of the cubiculum where the painting is
found " (R. S p, 255). But in forgetfulness of the
fact that male oranti and children arc iiftcn found
in precisely the some positions and with the same
surroundings, and that the names of the indivi-
duals are not unfrequently given, he speaks
MARY
»;.„ (■ •^ "Oitncote as ev denrp fKo*
the former was intended for that of tl,! v- •
may be rather reirarded «, „ • ^"'8"''
ofoVn.mentationTwhichnothTn''''"*'!''''' '•"'•'
whatsoever to distin..yf.K '.u "T"' """""S
the m an ne of the 7"°''' ""i' P'""'' """^ 'h""
in precisely the same romh^'".."' ''* ""' ""'^ ''
F'son represent annexTi .„%"'"'' ''^""'
"Constnntios Deciae conj J qu^^™""' P" •'"«-
though almost So ^ fr,;;' " '""♦~''-
unquestioningly to the Vi,Ji„ °'^"\''>'''-^-^
up to 'a' mn;t.«„?","d "(p •■°^^? '"."n, running
^-trat&ToSrLr^t-f'r
where theie is nn -J *• , ' "* """iber
-(jiectisroeXVr./." '''•"''''" '"'he
tt>.y »rpe«r I, provT.; "l"!'", "'\'*"-«<'-'y "here
inscrlbd over the Cre^hlT'" """=" » """« "
epl-.ph below. 1"^ V™ a wT" *?'!"' '"""'' "■ ""'
«tae o.,u,l„„, „,„i„,*i ,i^*J„P':, ">: "•^"cci ha, so,„o
»iibj,ct ..>f orantes In g/nZT^Z^ii.'^' "»;"*■)• '>n the
p. 328, note F> '^'nt-Uurent (.ir« chritien. vl.
1
MARY „5i
the first quarter of thlsfi, P'"" '"'"'" '^an
But even here the dtfi-cultv of « "'"'': .C'^''^*--]
Suishing the ordinarTo^Ste ,;r"th'^;'/'"'';
^"•Sln is candidly ncknZlL J .. "" '*''^''»*<1
number as Jar, ;, p^'l^t'C^ '" ""•"<« 'he
't is never posrible f„ . l ^^ confesses that
the person ?ep sent.^ erL l^V^' ^"^'^ '•'
" Maria •%ccm"'„77h'J"«P' "''"" *''« "•■<"■'«
St. Peter and S . Paul eIV'^k'TP""''^'' ^^
not deemed a true one bvpj •" l'""' '^^^ '»
f.njilar example's^ a Sale'L?'''""KP*"''^'-'"y
diffeient name PeieJtin a ^'"■* '^'"'ug a
between two'a^s'ii: Y;." if„«-?' ^'^^ ''-dig
at Saragossa, where " Fork " i !?''"'P'"'«"''
name) suggest the doubt whether whei'* if "*"i
"Murs t necessiiilv inj' """"ei when '-Mar a"
This doubt Teems Vard';' ^ ^^'"^''d Virgin,
frequency with which th^ K™"nded. The
these gilded glioses A "'""• "^^"^^ "'''-•"'^ «n
than Iburteen^r^TTav "•'" «.'*''" "» '""^^er
the conclusion thai h w"'" ""•>-P''ints to
ftmalebearing^hatn'amUuTtSrholvVw'^r
Agnes, who was intended Th • '"""'en St.
holds good with, iir^,l„; ^^^ """« argument
Maria^lthough the fnt.rl.T^"'^*''"' ""^ """'^
tional attributes flrbids . !"f "'^ ""^ ™"'-«n-
the point. VVelive^n, '" "*' certainty on
(tav'ix. fig. 6 vTof TheL"'"!' '1 ^""'' ^""''^^^
both we have the Virlir. ^"'"'^ K'"*^"- On
-mrtedbyti;^^t::iL»;,^:st.^^r;r
Sroreitt^^^drT/zt-^*--^.^"- -^^
symbols of the HolvScri.f "■'^,'° ' ''"^'l »■■«
the Borgian Mu" I' tT'pron '° ""> '' '"'■"'"
be observed that M^. r!f .• P*«""''"' "' "'ill
Peter and S P, ,, ;;j''"^"« P''»i''«ns of St.
gilded glass (OaSu' ci:T«/«.--f ,, Another
i^i'-T:^«k.^'Xi r«^)'nJrjv5:;^-^
.. .,- /'..»,*' a female fic-m-e wjth tK- >
-Mana- above her head «tZS- > "'""^
two trees with bhd, rl"'^ "'""" '"'"^'een
Bide. Another (G r Cf ^J^^ "» P','!"', h.v her
name "Mara" «!,« -1 S t ?' l^^ ^ives the
^«ubtt.,whetho;';;^:SSt%■-^,jt^u
llf.2
MARY
or is n ili.sliiirt iiariiR. "Mara" is fouml in epi-
taphs Kivi'ii l>y HdMetti, 48J, 5+7. Some ot' the
gliis^fs pii'suut St. Agnes ami tlie Blessed Virgin
st.iniling slile by side as examples of iiciv vir-
ginity. Tliese glasses sujipiy one example of the
MARY
the old church of St Peter, at Rome, dated
A.D. 7(13. There is also at Kavonna. in the
church ..'• St.-i. .Maria in I'orto, a has-relief nf the
Virgin as an orante (wocxhut No. H), of Greek
workmanship, probably of the Uth or 7th century.
No. ^ This Virgin ami 88. Puter snd Hmil. From Owraad
Uruali,' u>. li. a(. 7.
Vein
i^(
se.ited Virgin with the infant Christ on her
knees. The Holy Child extends His right hand
in benediction, and is attended by a deacon
hiildini; a fan. (See the woodcut under Flaiikl-
I.tiM, No. 5 ; Vol. I. p. 676.)
To pass from glasses to monumental slabs. A
very curious example, which can hardly be
)ilared later than the 4th centurv, is found in
the ery])t of St. Mary Magdalene at St. Maximin
in I'rove-ice (Martigny. art. Vien/e, p. 660; Ma-
c.uiiis, H,ujio<itiiptn, :iri; I,e Blant, /nscr. Chrgt.
lie It Gallic, ii. 277 ; K.iillon, Monumens inMtssur
VAjioatoht de St. M. Mwjd. i. p 775). Here the
Virgin is rei)reser.ted alone, nnnimbed, in the
attitude of prayer, with long hair flowing down
111)011 her breast. The inscription, rudely incised
on the slab, runs thus, '• Maria Virgo Minester
(le Tempulo Gerosale." There is an evident re-
ference liere to the legend recorded in the apo-
cryphal gosjiels of tne Virgin having spent her
early ye<irs in holy niini.strations in the Temple.
{I'rotcrm,]. Jaco'ii', § 7, 8 ; /-.Vang. Pseudo-Matth.
«; 4-6 ; Eranij. Aatii: Muriao, § 6, 7.)
^ The earliest instance of a single figure of the
Virgin in mosaic is that in the vault of the tri-
bune of the chapel of St. Veuantius at St. John
Liteiau. This is the work of Byzantine artists
under the Greek popes .John IV. and Theodore,
640-649. Tlie upper portion of the mosaic gives
a medallion bust of Christ supported by two
angels, immediately below stamls the Virgin
with her arms outstretched and the palms ex-
pandeil, as the central tigure, with six of the
apostles on cither side of her. Both she and
they liave the same nimbus with Christ and the
angels. She is dressed in a dark blue tunic and
white veil, with a .small cross on her bosom.
(Ciampini, ii. p. 107, tab. xxxi. ; D'Agincourt,
I'eintures, xvii. 1.) Similar but rather later
mosaic pictures of the Virgin as an orante
exist above the altar of the archiepi.«copa!
chipe! at Havenna, saved from the wreck of the
former cathedral, and in the Capella Ricca, in
the church of St. Mark, Florence, broug' t from
Her features are very regular and beautiful, quite
of the Greek type. Crosses are embroideiMHl (m
the Prists, shoulders, and knees of her tunic
and on the borders of the mantle. Her head'
is veiled and surrounded by a nimbus. Tne con-
tracted forms of MiiTiip etuv are inscribed above
on either side.
The condemnation of the Nestorian heresy by
the council of Ephesus, A.D. 431, gave a power-
ful impul.se to the production of pictures of " the
Mother of Goti," which was never subsequently
lost. From this period the Virgin and Inli^ut
Christ became the symbol of the orthodox faith,
which was represented in every possible v •— in
paintings and mosaics, in sculpture, and i
garments, i)ersonal ornaments, and fi
There was no attempt to produce a port..^ ut
simply to portray the ideal QeoriKos as a theo-
logical symbol. The type adopted was probably
not a new one. It has been observed by Mrs
Jameson {legends of the Madoiv.M) that St!
Cyril of Alexandria, who plaved so imiiortant
a imrt in this controversy, and" had so much to
do in fixing the dogma, must in his episcopal city
have become familiar with the Egyptian group. d
Isis nursing the infant Horus, which mav have
suggested the analogous Christianjiubject, even as
at an earlier date the Good Shef.herd was derived
from a classical type. It is just after the council
of Ephesus that we meet with the Hist pro-
fessedly authentic portrait of the Virgin— an
interesting instance of the new demand creating
a supply. This is the famous Ilode^/etn, {'OSn.
yvrpia), which was for so many centuries re-
garded with the deepest reverence by the Greeks
as an imperial palladium, and borne in a superb
car or litter to the battle-field when the emperor
led the army in person. It had been originally
sent from Jeru.salem in 438 by the young empre/s
hudocia as a present to her si.ster-iu-law I'ul-
cheria. and was placed by the latter in the
church of the Ho<!.gi, 'o^yai, erected by her.
(Niceph. Calhst. xiv. 2, xv. 14.) The picture was
on panel, M aavlSt, and was asserted to have
been painted from the life by St. Luke. This
MARY
poiti.its ot the Virgin, and was ™,,catedlv
copied a, „n authentic portrait. The t!uo tv.e
.. «.ven by IVAgincourt (J'einture r,l s:)Z
b^thet;.ueBy.ai:lCH;i^l,i^;^^-f-^
V. Kin .8 »t,indmg and holds our Lord seated on
her i.ft arm carrying a roll in His left hand and
blo.s,,iuK with His right. His nimbus is crudf'rm ■
hers a^plain circle._ The figures are superscribed'
MP 0V HOAHrH'IA- le i?> a
;:Mri;''s^r'''''f "^ »^ --S
p.M(l to If, and Its vario«.sly reported fortunes i,
given 1^. J^-ge (C *,^«V.. XS^
i„i 1 . I ' P'") Another a most eguallv
celebrated portrait of the Virgin bolongire o
n.m iti l,e,ng preserved in the church built bv
s t";:;i""' Th'T' "'■^^"-'-tin-'Ple knowb
(- vo ;, n V/'''' "■ ™'''^'"8 toGarruooi
8 11 in, X r 'm ^' I' 8"'<"' «n coins of C.n-
tc.ud,.darn.L*-an^'oVn't^e: A^htKo^lt
Bv^antine Virgin is the e«T<(«o, r^ n„S
Ill'T/'''" {^^"'"^ (Garrucci, u. ,. No. 2)^so
caled from the miraculous ' spring Leo^'the
Thracian caused to be included within the church
erected by him outside the walls ofrl«? .•
nople, in honour of the Mother of Godfnwlilh
It was treasured. (Niceph. Callist. ,v 26 -u-
cango, Con^^t. Christ, lib. iv. n 18'J ^ In fti i,
Vurtiin. vol. \x, p. 282) -at-ua.
emt>e*tlibt'tir ""'' ""^ '"'"' "' "'« Eastern
It'll u ..,„'* "•■""« hieratic type which
established Itself in Byzantine art. "This tvne "
writes Dean Milman (//,», of Ckr^^SX
p. ,91) gia,lLially degenerates with the dark
nevs of the age and the decline of art. The
countenance sweetly smiling on the ch Id be
coiiios .,,.d and severe. The he.ad is bowed wfth
a gloomy and almost sinister expressionHnd the
countenance gradually darkens ^iU it a ume, „
bhu;l^«ur^ At length even the sentiment of
c^C'u,i^ut"prl"„a, rr?:ir, -) -^^ •o '>'e H
of dev ^^ "I^Ik "'''""" *" """^' thedemS
ui ucvoKws. A further unccrta iitv arlBrn lu tn •!,„ „,
whnre the holy picture, whlche^r .t C t"at «4lT
tured, was deposited. A letter of Baldwin ^cw^ Z
irh^ei:rdterrf'j,~'-|^^^^^^
do Salnt-Luurent. ^r< cAr<i,an, ,,1 aj"*' -^*^'' °''""'"">'
MARY
1153
pain Litnei than ot gentleness, or placid infincv "
According to !)„• Ite.j (A,;,^. v«Y. j jiN
there was no tixed riilnrnrti,„ "-""t, p. 14)
the Virgin on'the ™ ns o" h Ki':'"''"" "^
rorsjmsc^c„f.Hichshe''::^r-r::;!;r
„!,» • , '■^0 * '• J hilfisophus, A.D HSr.-Qii
, . . ,"" " ™"io( Romanus II. a d fl'-.q on i
8he ,s nimbed and crowns the em, e or 'an o' it fhl'
veiled witK »K . "^8'° *''»"'8 en/w,
piece, ana 1 euet, vol. i. frontispiece. See also
preserved at the chur'c^ of^ A rl'^oe Tlr ' t h :
hSi:£;;Ln'^^^''-«'""'-''-HS
Jrom the obliteration or destruction of
Chr,sti..n mosaics by the plcture-hating Mussul-
mans, mosaic representations of the vlrginTre
of the extremest rarity in the East We .^I
give a eut (M. ) from Salzenberg's great wort
taken during the temporary removal of the
whitewash irom the interior of the mosoue
According to a very usual Byzantine trnTcf
the fresco from St. Agnes, No.'s) the Holy' Ch»5
No. 7. •">• J^r'tjn^'lCl.lM. fW«»,l„i,VAltohrirtIId„
lunilenkniaU nm Cuniluiuiiuiicl.' "•""""
not'Tnf?'"' 1*"'"^!°^ '° <■'■«»» Of His mother,
youthful r.*"" '"P- '^'"' '^'"•g'-''^ fece is
youthful and characterised by calm be.iuty. She
J Salatler, vol. U. p|. xlvil, flg. I8rTO7hl,»"7i^
engraved on a seal o. the priors of the convents'^f Zfn"
de Sulnt-Uurent. ^r« .krHien, vol. 11. p. is from DIdrr
IIH
MARY
1.1 "iipimrtcil by St. I'liul nml St. .Tolin the Bnp-
tist CHI oiiluT liiiiiil. This lii'iiiitit'iil mcmiic iiinv
1)1' Miil'i'ly ii»crili«il to th« iniKiii.il orcitiim Dl'tliu
clini-cli liv .liisliiiimi iii the Otii ((.iitiiiy. TIik
<Mi|"i|ii (It' till! .'limTh (if St. Sophia, at .Salmiica
(Thiwalniiica). aaci iboil by M. Tm.mim- to tho naiiiu
dati' as ilH iiaiiifsakB Rt Coni(taiitiiio|)le, i.f. tho
inicbllo of tho nth cuntiiiy, cotitnius n riiiwaiu
of tho Asoi'ii.slon, the lil»s»oil Virgin ami thi-
ApontlcH being inngml rniirid tho ba.io of thi-
hcMiiiKphoie. Sho nionu is iiimbtHi, nixl wmn
thi' oonvoiilloiml veil and pnrpio diesd.'' hi the
eiMiiidoino of tho npra iihu in al.so repiT.s<;nted,
holding the infiuit Saviour (I'Mier, K./Hms
t,V^../,^H(•s, pp. 142-144, pi. ,!.). A niedallioQ
portrait of tho Virgin in n blno veil and r.d)e,
with her handn outstrotohed in prayer to tho
enthroned ligiirc oi" Christ, which o'ociirs over
the royal door in the narthex of St. Sophia, at
t'onstantinoplu, belongs to the lime of I'onstnn-
tine 1'ogonatn.s, tillH-liHS. TIiLh tno,ialo i.4 very
inferior to the former both in design and execu-
tion.
The earliest niosaie picture of the Virgin in
the West is, as we have .saiil, that in the chapel
of St. Venanlius at the Ijiteran, which may bu
pl.iced about A.I). M'i. She is entirely absent irom
the early mosaics of St. Maria Mag'gi.ire (c. a.ij
4;l;)). except in the historical scenes of the An.
nunci;ition. Presentation in the Temple, Adora-
tion of the Magi and Christ among the Doctors,
a.s well as from those which decorated the basilica
of St. Paul's-wifhout-the-Walls before its do-
.struclion by tire ; she is not anywhere represented
in the mosaics of the .'>fh century at Kavenna,
except as a member of the Magi group; nor does
she appear in those of St. Cosmas and St. Dnniinn,
c. A.I). .'•),tO, or St. Lawrence, c. a.d. .'iTH, in Rome.
Indeed the ahsenco of repie.seufations of the Vir-
gin in tlie earlier Koman churcdies is remarkable.
The arliest example in which we find her occupy,
ing tiie position of chief dignity, formerly reserved
for our iiles,sed Lord, in the'centro of the conch
of the apse, and exchanging her primitive attitude
of prayer and adoration tor that of a throned
queen, is tho mosaic of the apse of tho cathedral
of I'arenzo in Istria, the work of bishop Kuphra-
sins. A.i). ,Vt.S-,')43. She is throned and nimbed,
and suppiu'ted by angels, holding her Son in her
Up, rather a.s n diminutive man than as an
infant (Xeale, Xote.i on Pnlmnti.i, frontispiece,
pp.7!), HO; Kitolberger, fC'mstiienim il,- <{<■■< oslrr.
tvk-/iisi-/icii h'aisfr.ititiites, Heft 4. .'■ ; Lohde, Der
J\mi rr)n I'airmo). The church of St. Maria de
Navicell.i. or in Domnica, built by I'a.^chal I.,
c. A.I). 82(>, is the tirst in Rome, in wliich this new"
type is fouml. Tlie vault of the apse is here
occupied by a colossal (igure of the Virgin in a
blue robe sprinkled with crosmcs, seated on a
MARY
golden and jewelled throne, «urrnnnde<l by a
Ibrongol angels and archangels in attitude, of
adoring praise. Christ is noated <m Mis Mother's
lap in a golden robe, a, at l'„ren/.o, rather as a
dwarfed man than as an infant, and blesses with
■« light hand The builder, pope I'a,,|,„|, ,|i,,.
t nguished by tho .""luare nimbus as being alive at
he tiine of the execution of tho work, kneeling,
humbly h„|,|H ,he Virgin's right toot to kiss it!
1 le whole composition is coarse ami tasteless,
without shadow, or any attempt at grouping, but
1^8 general ellect is imposing, (fiauipini, let.
Mm. li. p. 140 „,„ pi. xliv. ; l)'Agin,M.urt, /Vm-
tore, ,d. xvii. t\g. 15, Vitet, //i,t„irr d„ (Art,
vol 1. p. ',,,,) In t|,g mosaics of the chinch ofSt.
Iccllia, the work of tho same pope, we see an-
other signiiicaut advance in tho cult us of the
Virgil). 1 lie face of the Arch of Trinniph is
here richly decorated with mosaics, recalling the
design of several of the earlier works, lielow
are rangcl the four-and-twenty elders in their
white robes, offering their croWns In ad.iration.
Above, ten crowned virgLns between palm-trees
advance with their olferings; an angel stands on
either snle of the central compartment. Hut
that compartment Is not occu|iled, as in earlier
times, by Christ, or by the flolv Lamb, but by a
crownmlnnd throned Hgureof the Virgin bearing
the Child .lesus on her knees. (Cinmpini, Vet.
^A'n. il. p. IK\, oxxvii. tab. M; D'Agincourf,
IjmUa-c, pi. xvil. no. 14; Wharton Marriott
Icstmimi, of thfi Gitnoomhs, p. 49.) We have a
similar representation of the Virgin crowned and
enthroned as Queen of Heaven in the vault of
the apse of St. Krancesca Romann (originally St.
Maria Antic|ua), rebuilt by p,.pe Leo IV., and
decorated with mosaics by pope Nicholas L. A n
S.-iS-SlfS ((;iampini, ii. p. Ui'>, o. xxviii. tab. M),
and in the cathedral of Capua, constructed by
l)ishop Ugo at the en>l of the Hth or beginning of
the i>th century, of which we give a woodcut
(Ciampini, ii. p. IGS, c. xxix. tab. liv.). It took
' A similar representation of the Virgin, In tlie scene
of the AM'onsiun. occiiis in Oi.' rnnious .MS. ol the .Svrisc
(iosrls (A.I,, MM), »l,ich is on,, or lie- tPasiires of the
Motioein Ui,r«ry«t Florence. ll..U»v th.'ssciulin^ Hume
of our Lord appivir the AiH)M 1.8 ^l,y,ui liiRtovlcl error re-
presenKHl as i», Iv,.) with the Vlnta, in the midst, sian.l.
liiK«it her lm,.<l8,..\teu.le,l In the stti.u.l • of pr,mr ami
s.lonition. An aimel .,o ,.Uh.T >l,l,. ol' 1,. r is u.ldr,.»»lng
the Ap.>-tl,s Th,' Vii^lu „nil iho aa^.i, ,,rc iheorily
Ix'rM.iiR «lth the nimbus in this lower Kronp the
«p«tl s l)eing .testiiute of It. (Wharr.n Mar.l„n,' T«.
tiwuiiy of Ihf i„laom,ht, |,.<4i A^s oi.innl. Kihiinlh.
J.'n/ic-. p. m-i. }f,v woodcut.art. Asckls, \ ol, l. p. as.)
Nn. 8. TI,.Vlr>rtn.nlhr.„,»l. (M.Mir ,i r,p„^ SU, omtoiT.)
three centuries more to reach tho climax we
see in the mo.saics of the church of Sta. Maria
in nastevcre, where we (ind the \ irgin seated
MASS
f>n till! sjinip (hiDiin iviik 1, ..
'"-"i"M with ti.;r,,i ..v,:," '" " '""■'<
l;"""""" ''■ ''-■■'mum Mnun-i/'r;','' '''■"' •••
•111- IS fill- l„.v<m,| ,„,,. li ,, • "'" "i"'lal,. „f
""•''vinMi,i.v,M.; ;;>';.•;■:'• ".i(.-m.i,
.■n,„.|,„|,, '"" ^"'■"'""i V n-Ki.i M,„y ,„u,j
A 'it/tori firs, .R/wIrt Tj „
''"'". '''■'--''.-■" -X^rT *'«;"■'•!""•''/ Boi.
''■■"»»l-v, U..,n., !s;V. : „tr. ■•,^""-;"" <.n,i
'' •I'lli-Arti (•rhtiun/ T'J '''"'^ '<''>>
//■"/"'./////.<„, e,|. ( ..^,i r;',""';"'- »'»n.,i„s,
'■'""""■'■•'I 'lo .Saint- L^'T''^ ^'''"•'■f'<««,..v,
^Vl.a..^,„ Ma ■""/■;/;: '""''^ "//'- ^/•"/"««, ;
a«.v;.. ' "'". ^"! J' iclm,j of the J'nmiti4
[K. v.]
J^fATIIKMAT/cng
MASS. [MissA.]
MA«SA CANDIDA [„ fi,„
""•'""ff lim«-kiln, wl,..,l ,K ' '""I' """ ■■'
the ,ritl.,!t. ",7.n,li,la " to thi' . 7' ''■ "■-> '''''■"
';■"'- '■"'• wind, tho mr V,. ''''«':""••'» "'' tlio
'■■iiHiajrinian calondar" !,!„,!; It '• "' '''• '''h«
ration i„ August. ,"j'„'"7/''o,r e.>.nn,..n,o.
»'"i|'l.v " Massno o,n,li,lZr 1 '"' "" """ ''"v
an.l .\,lo Ktvo tho nnmb^, i"!"/i"'K"'i." U.sun,,,
'.-•"'"«r ha.! this fl:Ji;,iii\";;r',r'"\?"f
Ma*'ti'(K:S;; '='""'"'"""'-«tH at Milan
March r(^;'^;;^;''m„omorat„d in Africa
MASTf r T A '■^' "'■'
CmilST. ANT.-VOL. U. t*"'- "J
rr; "■-'■'^-;-;M-?;fr;,!|-
•'"»"';.' '( '/I'-^^^.iAi'^'^' ^''"'"'•'"•orato,! "MJom,
''''^ Mi. 7.-,!»). "'"nil...(l Apr. ;iO(H„||. ^,.,„
l^'ATKUViiH II L I''- "•!
ST -'^'"^'..Sft^iS-is;;!:
MATKlJtrH (1) M , C'- ''■]'
^'■rioa un. 2„ (///n.,3,7) ""'""''''""'•''•-I in
»'ATilANA. [„„„,„, (3). ^"' "J
]»IATII1CMATIC|;h ,
nainu H-a.s asKi,„„. I , ' "" n»troloir,.r -pk
''''"'am (in. now von, V ' """"'■'"'■'•« of |„,,„,,
'f'-'-p^'^r,;;' :;;;:"7''-''^"p^o/v-.;;x''
f^'; v>.at)M.,„„ti,.i«K;. ' „,^'; •^!r-^; xiv. o.i«.
• --')- '".III «i.o„t*^r„'V'M"'""'^ (//'■"
',"|pi.-.iM,.s, „i„.„t Voo . » /;,. „ ^^"'v''"'y .scvtus
"■l'al.ly almnt |,;o, a,C ' >', .^."'"■•"-llins,
"'7'«K of th« w„;,| 'f; "M-laUMn^ ,h, true
"';:''>-'^"'oart,an:':i„!"^"-"":'<tot/,„
::':;''y'^tho,:;t;::ui:„""-'-;?o,it„t:
' "><t tl,« vulvar ,.allh "'"""• '""""■''^ '" ^a ■
'';."'";'• (.Vo<.<. .!«. i^%; 7 '« ';^ nation (;|,a,.
"' tliosH w|,„ ..,.„„ , ''■ '•''"'•whore h,. s,,,a|f,
K""-'tlilia.i rs.,0 Iri, '"'''-"' ''''"I'l-ans an.
'"" •'"■ ■"'■t.on of tho 1 ,'■■"" "'" ''"""«
"■';^ ""•■ name was Jiven t T T^' •'"'"•""^'y
'iiIk.u-, it i, ,.vi,i,.,,Vv '""■"■"'"«->•■' l-y the
;•"'"•■•«■' it t/,o,nM.l ' rZ, "'her, that 'thev
("■/■)■■ "'M.n,.„|o^i„ Hh,h I, /. "" '■'"'I'in.u,
>•"«'..« with maBnit .eot „ ' ^""•'•'•■an.; ,|,.co.
';;;;;hnnati..ian,fas;r;:^'::-,;;''i',t''-™M,h.es
■"'"), who wrote on UuUhIi' . ' V""-'"^ ("''"ut
'•'■"ilentius, ,. ,v,,„, , ": • '".rtullian, * /,/,/. o,*;
«^-X claims thA it^'M '"J- '■■'»';
M,'"'s. i. ,,raef. and „ a ''"' '^^'""nity. See'
or. i"""*^ '■'"■'•'"''" writers St a
"f tho»e " who were ,.» I '. ^"ffstine .speaks
'owcmmonlyfvui ' '7! "'^ ''"'N 'nit are
A-'^-. r/iW.,^y^;/«?V,'';'«'' .nmtheinatiei " i^
"ay, with OelliuH ?.,:;• '^'"•' "n«'ents," he
>>"'thematiclwho„;, J'*^ ":" •^o" tho^e'men
th« later Hen^, ..robaWv h ' '*''"■'' <■'•«<■'/ in
«n.k'rstood thanUt „,'? r^s'' T' ''^""
it:":- "ftT"^ thr('-Ltv:^'ff ,- b,st.
,V ''fr raiiod yn>ntXi„\A, : '"'nii that
«'". nmthetnati^'"'"/(i^^>"'' *»><"" the vnlg' '*
Again: " 'J7ie A,t,;,/ ^'- '° Dan. ii -n
"""> to be controlled
74
nr.fl
MATINH
liy till- I'oiirHo nail I'ulliiiK <>C llio «Iiii'h " (r'ci/niii.
ill l.«;ii. (I. .1. nil. xiii.). (iiilti' in iiccnr.liUH i> witli
lliivHi' mil limit li'H, AiiiiiiliiiiiiH, |>i'iiliiililv II hi'iillii'ii,
iiliniil MHil, niijH dl' lli'lliiiliiniK, wliiiiii III) hiiil
■li'iriilii'il (//i' /. xxi> 1> III) " I'litdriMii |ii'i- Kciii-
liiiiis iiiti'i|in'li'iii," tliiil 111' ttiiK " iiindii'iimlii us
lit iiMMiinriii vulnim " (i/ii'i/. 'i),
Till- riiiliii'll 111' Liimliccn, linwiivnr, nliuiil. 'M'i'<,
iippi'iirH to ilJ.HiiiiKuiiih lii'twi'iMi nstrnlKj;! iiml
mill liiiiint 111, wIii'H It lorlij.l.i inirmiim in uriliirs
til 111' " niiini 111' rni'limili'i-s, m- iintlhi'inatiii nr
list idlii^ti'i-s" (dill. Mil). hiiNiini '\|>liiliH liciic
Hint "till' iiMlhi'iiintiii ni'i' tliiwi' wIid tlitiik tlint
IIU' lll'nVl'llly llliilii'l ll.lVl' llnlllillinll OVIT tllii IMIJ-
vi'i-M', MiiJ tli;it nil iMir nlt'iiii-H nir ri'>;iilnli'il liv
tlu'ir iiintiiiii ; ■ wliilii "n,«lriili'^i'r,H iiir |mm-siiii»
whii witli till' ni<l 111' ili'iniins iliviiii- liy tlni slnri
mil hi'lii'Vi' llii'iM " (rniii,)!. In rmi.). (M'tlii' I'mir
f<«Wi'l/iaro, Aiittiiiiclii', Mii-.|i\ (Ji'i.iiii'liv, Ailin-
liiiniy, 111' llH'ri'l'iMv tlimiiflit tlu' Inst niily to In'
tiiiliilli'ii ; liiil. Ziihiiinii (Oniiiu. in rnn.) wnn nC
i'|>iniiin that tlii' oaiinn only t'uvlihls I'xri's.^^ivc
a, I, lilt inn til any "I" tlii'iii. Krniii tlmir fniii-
iiU'iitM wi' may iiil'i'i' that thi' luiil innvi'nlii'iial
KiliM' 111' thn wuiil wa.H hilliT kniiwu to tlii'
I.aliii.i than to tho (lii'iks.
Malhi'iiiatiii «ri' I'miili'mni'd hy iinini> wit hunt
i'x|ilanitioii in Inw.i ol' Cnu^tanliiiM of Ihn vi'ar.i
:t,'i7, ;l.">H (('. i^.r T/ie<Hli<s. ix. Ki; i/c Al.il,/.
4, (I), of Vali'H.s, ;1T0 (i/iii<, H), lui'l of llonoriiii,
•10!) (,7ii',/. l<), Tho hilt foii!ii)jni'il tlu'iii to |ii'r-
pi'lnal liniii»hini'iit, iinli'siH thoy liinni'il tiii'lr
I'lioks lii'l'nri' thi' iiiMhoii unit iiinlii n |irofiis.siiin of
I'lii-i.-liaiiily. l'oiii|i. AinniianiiH (Hist. xsix. 1,
'J), who I'l'lati'.s till' hiirninit of niiiiihi'ili's.H honks
un.li'r N'ali'ns, .171, on tho |Mvtiini-i> that thi-v
wi'iv "illii'iti," anil of whnli' lihrarii'.i liiiinl h'v
thoir owniTs iu tho |iiinii' oausi'il hy fh« jii'i'si'i'ii-
tion.
Kroiii fho opinion that mtrolonors were in
li'amu' with iliMiioHs thorn nrose nt n latoi- poiiml
tho hi'liof that tho " niuthomatioi," iiloiitilioil
with thoin, piiu'tisi'il tho hhuk art in ovoiy
toini. Thn.s, in ii vory nnoiont jionitontinl pio-
.ii'ivol at Kloniy: "Ifnnyono has hion nuiatho-
iiiatiiii.i, ('. <: hii.s invokoil n ili'iimn, nnil lakon
nway llio niimls of nion or ilrivon thoin iiiml. lot
him siilVor ponnnoo live yoar.s," oto, (o. H.i; Mar-
tono, ,/,■ li'it. I n7. Ant. i. vi. vii. ft); in nnnthor :
" If any ono Iw n mathoniations, i. c. has takon
nway tho mini of n person thrmiith invoontion
of iloniiins, lot him," oto. (/VxhiVcii/mA' Uwn. in
Worin. i/(' l\cnil. App. .'iliO. Soo also (,"ij;lii'vi,
/.■<\7. l)v,jm. X. 'JJIl, 7.) [W. K. S.j
MATINS (.V(i<i('i'ii.i oni^'ii, so'rmnitiht ; .^flltu•
titiiiiii ofiii'iiim; ^tlltutinll(' l.iviili'), the ollioo
anoiontly sail nt ilawii of ilay, hofore sunrise ;
tho nortiirual ollioe hoing so arranpoil that tho
lauils, wliioh fornuvl part of it, nhoiilil he saiil
at this time. There is an interostip.jt imlioa-
tion of tho nature of this ollioe in (Sreijiiry of
Tours' nooount of the death of .St. Gall; "At
ille psalmo quinini.icesimo et bonoiliolione ile-
rantatii et alloluiatioo cum capitello exploto
oonsummavit olHoiuni totum tomporis matn-
tini." That is, he saiil, tho .''lOth (,')lst A.V.)
Psalm, the A-iirt/i -rfc (often known as Hfiie^lvtin).
•the 148th with the two followini; (n|lo!ni«tio'>
Psiilins, and the Cipitulum. See I'liitlier under
HOURSOF PHAYKH, p. 794 ; OFKICK, Till: l)l\ INK.
[C]
MATRIOUr.Aliri
MATrscoNKNHIA CONCII.rA. [MAi^m,
('lM'SCII.H OI'.J
MATIUCIA, wife of pienliyti'f Miiioiliililiin |
ooiiiiiii'iiMiuled lit Muuinudia Man Iw I.I (llutim.
M.iit). [r, ii.j
MATIIICIII.A. A rntnliiKiie or liidex. Iu
oi'rli'-.iaHtioal wrilern the wind moaus :
I. Tim roll of the elor^y ln'loiiijliijr to nny
ohiuih. The fourth eminril of Ciirlliano (Cu'l.
7.'ri7. /l/fi,'. 0. nil) speaks of the roll (mal i Inilii
ot arihivuH) of the Afrioan cliiinli, I'liiitnliiJii);
the datoH of the ordinallons of the hlshops, hy
wliloli their prooedonro was ili'loriniiieil, oiiplos
of wlikh were to lie kept liy I ho prim ite and In
the molropolis. The Ciniiiiil of A^do, A.n. .'ilMl
(o. 'J), oiilors that eoiitiimaoloiis rler^y im lopeii-
taiire kIiiiII have their nailios roplarod on the
" malrloiila," and so he reslorod to their ^rados
and ollioi's. The fniirlh iiniMiil of Orloalis, A.li.
•"i 1 1 (!'. l;l), I'Inims certnin priviloiios as IioIiiiikIiik
to all the iliTjjy wlioiie uunios are iiiHorled in the
" niatrioiila."
'i. The poor who received stipends fiom the
revomies of (lin cliiiirh. The widows who re-
loivod allowaiicos were sometiiiios called " iiialri-
ciilao." OroKory t'le Oroat (A'/i. il. 4.'i) speaks
of n widow "lie mnlriciilis" who had lieeii
severely hoaton for some t'aiill. f Ma rnidi i.Alill.]
Ilolioe Miitiiiiiltt came to mo.in the fund I'loiii
wlilih the stipends were paid; as when it is
said that vows must he paid oitlior iliroctly to
the poor or to tho Matricnla (Com;. AiUmml.
Aiixorie, c. .'I).
M. Tho house in wliidi the poor were lodged,
ol>en luiilt at the door of the cliiinli, mil with
reveniios attached to it. St. I!emii;iiis of Uhoinis
in his will (Kliidoaril, Hid. lii-m. i. IH) leavoa
certain funds for the mainteiianco of twelve poor
persons, livini; in the " malricnla " and wailiinj
at tho ohiiroh doors for their allowaiici' ("ante
fores oxpoitmites stipeni "); ,ind, in iiiiiil her part
of the .same will, mentions tho kuosI -houses and
"all tho matriculao." I)iiciiiino('^/o.v.i.), i|uiitinf;
from a tahulary of fho church of Auliin, .speaks
of a " luatriculii " built atthodoor of the church
of St. Naziirius. (froj{ory of Tours (i/c Minw.
ii. il") speaks of foediiii; tho poor holonuini; to
the "matricula" of a certain cliiirili, and (/fiat.
/•'im;ic. c. 11) of the poor lieliin]4ini{ to a matri-
cula close in front of a church. Ailiovaldus (do
Miiiu: .S IteiKilii'li, i. 110) speaks of a matricula
as nnio»(j the property of tho church of Orleans.
Kinjt |tai;ol)ert 1. is said to have foundod a ma-
tricula and xonodochiiim for the poor of either
sex. especially for those who, having; been thou^'ht
worthy to be restorod to health hy the ({race of
the .saint.s, wished to remain there in the .service
ot the church (Oesta J)a>jolK'rti, c. i!9 ; iligne,
I'dtnil. toiii. xcvi. l;il)5).
4. lor Mot, U;ula in uuothor scuse seo Mother
Cili'iioii.
BIATUICULARII. Tho poor who were borne
on the matricula or roll of the church, (ire^jorv
of Tours (//i'>/. Fninc. vii. '29) speaks of the niii-
frioularii and other poor. Al llielni (i/c' Lauit.
r/r./m. c. Til) relates thnt cert.iin women gave
t'loir ueckhices Rud other ornament.i fn tho
maimed and the miitricuhirii. llincmar of Kheinis
(Cii/iitnl. (/(I /i','6. AtiUf. 0. 17) enjoins that matri-
cularii should be fittingly scbctod, not swinuherdj
ise see Motiikr
X;:;;:l.::;S';;:''i;:::<s, ■ f,"
Ill liiim.,| .iiiiiivni),,,,.,!,.. .• ""'"""' "' ""'rvlci.
»'■""" ii „(■ i.„,„ii , (,,'"'""";'':'"•
mild II. .1) (I VIMllllS, I IIIIHIICH I 7.1)
UH Mat tlHi wcmoM whom tl,,, (l„.,.k, .,,1 ,
ilWinili. nil,., „|,,„,„, i,, i,f, ' , , '7'', *"'■'"'"
till' Im»Ii"|., iC Ht l,.k,„., ,. . '"""'■ "'"'"
'Hshuh III Dor llftnlnl II *1 '• ''"
» '•'■■■lain iillnwan,:,. „(■ |„„ ' '.,f "^"'' ,'" "''"''■"
- " i--ni,...,.i,::^,.„i ",„:::;: ;; «■- .t-
•'"', ^'""MHi't :"'',:';„;;rr'^"
MHUj,ays,,.atitwJr;,,^;;';:::-^'^
-'■:";:.:;;.:;M'!:;;i;i::;::;r!L:tr^
MATKIMONY. [Marbiaok.]
MATKINAE. [.Stonsous.]
MATTIIinv, HT. li:,7
'""•;"' ■''••''' ^'"y 'H ( i^Ji. .1/1,' "
«.^.f .»^^^^^^^^ ■:.-
-^''^^^^r^w,::::';c^:' ■ •
■'-"'-h2;.":'£'i:k'; ■
N.^</(';';;n~; "'"'■'■' ^""""^''
(//l'°l^'/;,!/.V '■""""*""*"•«'•"' '» A,l« Nov. 17
MATUONKOM '11 , ' '
IMATTIr. .., _ '■ L '• "i
MATIirXECCLR8rA.[M0T„KRC,„;„c»]
il/c"o/,). •' '^- -'",'; ^^i"'-- 28 (U„«i|.
MArmAK,IH(l)[MAn.„Kw..s,..]
T.v^lI^Zna^f^'^vnANn^.ii
MhHImhv, a, of 1. '"'^ "'"' ''''"""■« "' «'.
'•» "-« N.-W 'IVhiZ Tl "'* """'■"" '"' ''*•"
''"'•"•ify will I , , M ', ''""-""" "« '" liiH
v.v''^'''^-v :ir':;;ai;';''''T'"™'''
'^'•'-.■t.MiHti,:;oN;:'^ .y-^r-r""''"!--!
whatever (hnt tcim n,.,J ' ^ " ' ''''h"il'iii,
'««>•.•« generally ,|,, n.,ti,.e' ,',, V ?"''''^''
fharti,™... an',, on^.s! .teler ' '""in ^ "^'«
(-■Aclv.,a.oTarn■u.n.^>„uli:,u;!;f^^l'S:
4 K a
11 o8
JIATTHKW, ST.
I
I'
(pf Piirthiii as tiif sccni- of St. Mutthcw's Inliours
(I'lH'ini ,\ix. HI, whiTi) sdu Mnratori'ii noti-;
J'ltti-ul. Ixi. "il4), iinil Vi'iiaiitiim Knrtnimtus
(Pyeiii'itii, lil). viii. U; I'litnil. Ijjxviil. JTO) s|:i-
cilii'H Ills niiiiia of the town, " Miilthaeiiin exi-
iiiium NiiilHaviT iiltii viniin." This place is
ini'iitlciii"! iiy the I'seu'lu-Abillas ( I'iM .S'. Mitth.)
aa in Kthlnpia, probably usfil in n vt'i-y va^»e
way. On the other hand, Isiilore (</<; ortu et o'lilii
J'lUrum, c. 70; J'atrol. Ixxxiii. I'lll) says that St.
RIatthi'W, nftor preachiui; in ,luila(ju,'went into
Mai'oflonia, and at last died "in montibus I'ar-
thoiuiii."
It iMnnot be definitely aaid whether St. Afat-
thew iillcrcd a martyr's death. Clement of
Alexandria, quotini; llerncleon the Onustie, st'pnia
to ar(|nJcsoo in the statement that he die.l a
natural death (Siroin. vi. !•). Later writers
jjenenilly take the other view, in aecordancc
with the natural tendency to nmplil'y. Not to
allude at present to the martyrologies, we lind
Miophorus (I/tst. Eccks. ii. 41) describing the
work, sutl'erings, and death of St. JIatthew in
Myrmene, the city of the Anthropophasi. We
meet with thi.i also in the Apocryph.il Acts, to
which we shall again refer. One o'ther tradition
about St. Matthew may be mentioned here, which
we are told by Clement of Alexandria (P .«/»(/.
ii. 1), that the apostle abstained altogether from
fle>h. and lived on berries, fruits, and herbs.
\\V nee.l not do more than allude in the most
passing way to the story of the translation of the
body of St. Matthew to lirittany (where it was
conveyed from Kthiopia in the 9th century !), and
thence, at the expense of a startling anachronism,
to l.uoania by the emperor Valeutiuian. In or
about the year A.D. 9,54, it was removed to
Salernum (Leo Ostiensis, in Actn SamtO'Um,
infnt), where May 6 is observed as the comme-
moration of the translation. Strangely enough,
a second finding at Salernum is recorded in the
time of Gregory VII. about A.D. 1080.
When a festival of St. Matthew first arose,
distinct from the collective festival of all the
apostles, it is impossible to say definitely, but
it is certainly late. It is absent from many
f<irms of Western liturgies, which we .shall men-
tion below, and it would appear that there are
scarcely any sermons or h(]uiilies found for this
day, even in writers of the 9th and loth cen-
turies, among the few being one by Nicetas
I'aphlago (Conihefi.s, Aiu.tannm, p. 401). The
day s|iecially associated with St. Matthew in the
Western church is September 11. This festival,
liowever. is wanting in the Leonine, (ielasian, and
Galilean liturgies, and in l\\e'),--tmnitteOotldi:um.
It is found in the Gregorian Sacramentary in the
edition of Menard (col. Lid), but is obeliseil as
doubtful in that of I'amelius, and omitted in
that of Muratori. Menar I's edilbn also gives a.
mass for the vigil, but it cannot be doubfeil that
both masses are a later addition. Menard him-
self remarks {not. in loc.) that both masses, espe-
cially that for the vigil, are wanting in some of
the best MSS. On the other hand, tlie festival
is recognised in the Ambrosian Litnr-v, as we
now have it (I'amelius, Litur,/ 1. Latt.'i. 4l!;)),
and in the Siozarabio I.iturgv aul lireviarv
(P'ltiol. Ixxxv. StJl, Ixxxvi. lj\l>.). We also find
it in the Latin marly iolngii-s g*^nrra!lv, as in the
Mart. Hieronymi. lUnn mum, liede, Ailo, Ijsuard,
and Xotker. The notice in the metrical mar-
MATTIIEW, ST.
tyrology of liedo I,, " Undecimas capit at Mat-
thaens doctor am.cniis" {/■atrol. xciv. Uu,-.);
that of Wandalhert {['itrol. cxxi. 1)1 1):—
" Kowndt Ciirlsti) miinUI cpil lucm voennl*
Unil<icl»iuin .MuttliaeuK ivangellco ore iucravlt."
Ilpsi.les, however, the commenu)ration on Sep-
tember L'l, the M„t. Ilieromjmi, as edited by
1) Achery (Sjiii'lleiji „n. vol. iv. jip. 617 sipp). gives
the name of St. Matthew several times. Tlius
we have on May 1, "Nat. Matthael et .lacobi ;"
on May 0, " In I'ersidn, nat. S. Matthaei aposloli
et evangelistae;" on May 21,» " S. Matthaei
apostoli;" on September 21 (supra); and loi Oc-
tober 7, " Nat. S. Matth lei evangelistae." What
these multiplieil commemorations mean, it is very
hard to .say ; possibly they point to the comlu-
sion that we have here a collection of various
partial and local commemorations. It may be
noted here that the Cdd. Hagenoyensis and' Va-
ticanus, cited by Soller among the various (i»r>
tai-it to Usuard's Martyrology, as.soeiate May 6
with the traditional translation of the apostle's
body to Salernum {Patrol, cxxiv. 29). With
this statement, however, though found in Haro-
niiis's JAiW. /.'oin., we need not concern ourselves,
for the alleged date of thin translation is, as we
have seen, very late.
^ The calendars of the Greek and Russian
Churches commemorate St. Matthew on Novem-
ber 11) (Neale, Etstern Church; Int. p. 7H4).
The notice for this day in the Greek metrical
calendar prefixed by I'apebroch to the Ada Sauc-
tui-um (or May (vol. y. p. liii.) is, i«aMBToi/
VlaTeaioti Ttvp SffcnVp Krdvfv (KTti. The tthiopic
and Kgyptian calendars published' by Lu lolf put
the festival of St, Matthew on October 9 (Coiiiin.
"d Hist. Aeth. p. 394). The same is also the
case in the Egyptian calendars published by
Selden (dc Siinedriis veterum Ebraeorum, jiji. 'Jl_',
2-22, ed. Amsterdam, 1(579), one of which als"o
gives another commemoration on August HO (iVi.
p. 210). Ludolf's Lgyptian calendar has also a
commemoration of St. Matthew on November IG
(|). 394) ; anil in the list of commemorations of
saints in the Armenian Church this List .lav is
associateil with St. Matthew (Assemani, Bid'.dr
iii. 1. 648).
As regards the pseudonymous literature attri-
buted to St. Matthew, we mav mention (1) the
apocryphal Latin gosi)eI of Matthew, on the
birth of the Virgin and the infancv of the Savioui,
edited in part by Thilo, and fully by Tischendort
(ICcangeli.iApocri/pha, pp. xxv,,50). A majority
of the ,MSS. of this gospel jircfix two letters, ac-
cording to which it is a translation by Jenmie
from the Hebrew. It is on the authority of this
preface that tiie gospel is referred to St. Matthew.
It IS impo.ssible to say whether we are to connect
tills with the reference made by Innocent I.
(h/.ist. vi. ad Krn}XTiam Tolusmum, c. 7 ; Putrul'.
XX. .")02)to sunilry apocryphal writings professing
to be due to some of the apostles, among them
perhaps being Matthew. The reading, however,
varies between Matthew and Matthias,^ the latter
being apparently to be preferred. (2) The acts
of Andrew and Matthew [Greek] in the city of
• Ihls only occurs in some MSS. ; the Cdd. Corbeieusk,
Kptemacensis {Acta Sunctoruin. September, vol vi r,
191) ■ ' ^'
>> This statement as to the various reading Is given on
the authority of Tiechendorf (pp. cit. p. xxvL).
MATTHIAS, ST.
«he Aufhi'n,,„,.h„g|, first puMi.h..,! «,.,,nr„t..|v bv
Ti.,..s ;a,.M i • ,v , ,; ,1 ."r I ?' '," '" ""-■ I"'--
! '>'-'H--v^.t'Mf*T;:;;:'i;:;';Mr"
"MM, iii.ir lit 1 1 else nets (^\ 'I'l, ... ■
■ ■■'• [I{.S.]
.s.nneoCSt. Miitthiis'. ... '' pl"-'" ''•'" ""e
m.nt also i,s ge ,tallv f , '?•■ ' Y" "''"' »'•"«-
general ten,,,, o • ^,e fnl , '"/.t "^^J*" '^^e
s«M„ to imnlv l,f " S""-'-f"'e above woulil
death. ' ^ '"" ""' "l"^"" died a natural
Other witnesses, again, spoalc of St M ..u-
?hr7ri;''^'t''''«(^^^-'^«''<^;So:
>i-«i.vt,,„.,;;™u;,.~r' ."''''■'• """
MArTIIIA.S, ST. 1159
; "le (i..|,,,i„u .Sana,, .,,:.. ""' "'" "^•'"'' "'
J^/- //".-•, but s , ," • ."'■ "' ""•• '■•'"-»
"'"I i" inilbljesslv fn ' ''V"'"'"' 'I/"'*'"/.,
'''••''■'''''''"" iltz "-^ "»^' '" >'.«
' l'^'"'-(J"U,io calon la • , ''•""•"'.'"■"y-' The l|„.
'!.^^.!.l:d^:r;^ti,i.:;i«^^'-i''''"^
'"■•il iin that ilav is ,-e«,.'„ ^^ " ' "'"' '"" *>">•
C^"/'v,/. X.U. 44,-,], the \l,r r ;■ !'"''""l"'"
«'• 'Jail AI,S. of tie IJ 7J '';',••, '""I "'«
(Act. .V„„J.,..„;;, mTJ/- v"'"TiV'':"'!'^ '"'"■-•«r
"n ancient M.s Mart n ' '"• f'"'). ""int'ons
tl'e le.stival altugetlier.' ^"■''''"y""' *''''^h ^"m.s
In C(in.<e(|iienee of Febriinrv <)± \, ■
^•lioseu as the Jay (or t Im ? V , ' *''"'^ '"■"»
"'Ht in leap-vear^t wou 1 . n""'j ," "'""«^<'
;•'--'. year;':';,;::t'w::;'^K^r;'7;;'''''«.>
twiee over, whei,™ fh.. „ , ';.'^'''- '''•irt." canie
;''"i''ii'Htthiaea,,...:-"^'^\f:;;;,-'"-ke.l
however, re.i.l .M,ttl,„.l .1- """■'' •^'■'^'■'■.
ti-io^s t:u,■s'•l"'•""^:^''"'•^''^''«'^-
"«ti™ for thi,s d 7, ,'i i'V;.'" '^"J^"^' 9-^ 'i'l.e
'"<■'•«», prefixed hv ',,,1 ,?".'' ""'"•'™' -E)'^'*-
^-v, fii,^ .^e.o;Ml; Iw'"^!" ''f"'!''"f'
.?n-^l«l in the Gr<.ek Chim (, ? ^'"'""^ "'"'
•_^-'- ^''e Lthio|iic talen-
tills I.imrg, In the v».ir,„' I ?'^ "'™li"n8 a MS. of
-ilea Herman, o'^fofThetve,:;.'.'" """""'^ *"» ■«
«-»ted ,„ Ku,UZllZT^ "' S,.AI..tth,aH
hoivever, byl|eu,tlevffl;,rn.J.- .. . ■*''" ""■lh,,,
the l»ri,Kl An. 901-,cos '""'""'""y- »» be referred i„
^•^t.r«oT.n'':i:;rtheer''"''^ •'^^•'"'^'' f^*«
an enteriirise aglln, B Lh^T'' *',''^'°""^'' ''"!«• in
this fact. Souihey hl"e™ bow. "^ rorgHM^e^s of
..ave b..„ a.are of thru:' eX^tiL:"""' -■" "•" '"
I'rayer.B^Kik^f J %t:^*';;,^,f'''; 'ollo»c<i by the
Psalms ana Lessons^f thTzar.. "'""■ ""'' '" ""•■
'■""ngday.excpt this latttr 1%' '?" '**'" ""■ '"'-
intercalated day was taken ^ .t aZ'"^" '" ''''■^- '"«
present plan. "* ""' "'"'• according to t),«
to:^l:l„T^:f1rMa':h1:"Tr"^ «'-<'^ -f"-d
entry lor Aug. 8, «hir l« d^^,^"" J" '"« '■»" "f the
01 the transcriber. «ho aLoM h " '^"' '" " ""■'" e>Tor
the following day '"^ *"" P"' " «t the head of
llfio
MATTHIAS
i
I i
I'
i
il.ir |iiibli«liwl by r.iidnlf (OiHim. n<l llld. Act'.
|i. 41IIJ lijtfa til* I'enliviil uu Miiri)i 4 FMin;,!.
bit H].
A itrtain •ninunt of iMeudiitiymnu.* litoiiitiiru
Ih iissMiMiittfil with thtt Qiiiiie i>r this ii|MiNtli', An
H|p.iii'y|)liiil ({(wpul umli-r tlii! iiiiiiii! ciC .\Ialtliia» is
liii'iilMiriuil by (h-ij(i'li (Horn. i. iV. /, n:. hjI. v. M7,
(MJ. I.oiiiiimtz.scli) iiuil Kuaubiiis (//(,«(. /om. III.
V!>) : aii'l ill tlio nets of a couiicll liulil iit Udiiu.'
Ill till) i'|ilsio|iate of OubmiuH (A.D. 4!M), we llii'l
" Kvniii{i'liuiii ((j/. Kviiii|<c'lla) iiiinilui! Miiltlil.io
H|hiiry|iliiiin " (I'atrol. lix. 111.!, 17.'i). TIiIm iiiiiy,
lH'rliii|i!i, be the Haiiio an the irapa«i<(rnt of St.
Al.itthiaH rufeircil to several tiiiien by C'leiiicnt
of .Mexauililii. From hliii it would n|i|ieai- that
the work was witten in the iatereiit* of aoiiiu
(iiio-lic Hect, for ho 8|i«akH of the followers of
V.ili'iitliiii.i, M.ircioii, anil lla^ili.|e.^, boastinn that
they ((iioteil the opinion of Matthias (Stnnn. vii.
17). t'leineut seviial times i|iiotes this book
(StiMin. ii. it, iii. 4, vii. l;l).« besides this, there
are apocryphal nets of Andrew and Matthias,
iiiil.llshed by Thilo in a separate form, and also
ii,v 'riM'lieudorf (ilc'iij AiiosUihium Ainici-iiiilut, pp.
xhii, l.;j). Thilo refers the ori;{in to Leiiciiis,
iMid speaks of the book Hs used speeially by the
(inoslics and Mauichaeaus. it slinnld be added,
however, that it seen^s very doubtful whether
we should reaci the name .Matthias or Matthew.
'I'iM'lieii lorf, tollowinj; the (dilest dreek MS.,
gives .Matthias, but the otliev (ireek MSS. and
the Latin give Matthew. So also do the Syriac
acts recently published by Dr. Wright. Wu'iiiay
a li', here that Innocent 1. (E/jiat. nj Exu, ei-iwn
7Wo3.ii,i(;;i ; I.ablie, ii. I'.'.'ii)) condemns sunliv
writing's ascribed to Matthias and other ajiostles,
but referred by him to I.eucius. Ilesides these,
»ve have Atts of St. Matthias e.xtant in Latin,
piolV.vsiii}; to bo translated from the Hebrew by
a monk of Treves, it woulil seem in the I'itli
century {Acti ii.mct. supra, p. 447). Finally,
the name of St. Matthias' is connected iu the
A/ ostutic Constilutiuns with the rejjulntions as to
the blessint; of oil and wine, and lirstfruits and
tithes {Apuat. Cunst. viii. liij squ.). [U. S.]
MATTHIAS, bishop of Jerusalem, and con-
fessor; cimimemorafcd Jan. 30 (Usuard. Jfurt. ;
BoU. Acta as. Jan. ii. 1025). [f. II.]
M.\TULU8, martyr; commemorated at Ni-
conieJia Slarch I'J (JJiirun. Mart.). [C. H.]
M.VTURINUS, confessor, in Gatincis ; com-
memorated Nov. 1 (U.suard. Mart.). [C. H.]
MATUUUS, martyr; commemorated at Lvon
Jime '-' (Jlierun. Mart. ; Usuard. Marl.). [C. H.]
MATUTINA, martyr; commemorated in
Africa March 27 {Huiron. Mart). [C. H.]
MATUTINU8 (1) Martyr; commemorated
at Tliessalouica April 4 {Eierun. A'art.).
(8) One of the eighteen martyrs of Saragossa ;
commemorated Ajir. 16 (Usiiard. Mart.) ; at Va-
lencia in !:pain Jan. 22 {Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
• This passage Is not dUtlncily refem ; to the irapa-
i6<reit, but It Is probably to be coiini ctcil therewith
' Amr MH.".. her*' rr,*! M:<ttbew, but this is an ul'.viuus
error, since the name of this latter uposUe bus already
been given.
MAUNDY TIII'IISDAY
MArVDY TIII-K.^MAY iJUc.i M.m^ht!),
the Tlinr-diy in Ibdy W.ck, the .lay of the in-
stitiillon of the l.a>t Supper aii'l of our Lord's
betrayal, so called with reference to the and-
phiui " Man latum novum do vd»i», ut diliKatlt
inviiem " (Job. xiil. ;14) appropriated to it. The
name, whi. h is not a very early one, probablv
i:iui(ain.> also an allusion to the other couiniand
of our Lord in the same chapter (Joli. xlji. U-
lU), as well as to the ntura iraiurt of Luke xxii.
1!>; 1 (.'or. xi. 24. The collect at the v;ivlni{ of
the Kiss of I'eace in the (Jothic missal (.\luratori,
lAtiti-ij. Jiuiwm Vitun, il. ,'i78) speaks of "cmi.
niands" in the plural "inter praecipua nian-
datorum tuoriim I'atrlbus noslris Apostnji, r,..
lic|uisti." In later times " Mandatiiiii " bv Itself
stoiKl (or the •' Footwashinji," which had beiui
instituted on this day, and even lor thi' R,-arl-
nu'Ut iu a monastery appropriate I to il (iliicanjje,
»'ih vu,.). Other names for this day are i\ niydKri
ir«V»Tt|, il ayla rtifTa^, feria i/iiiiit,i juim-/iiw ;
also, as the day (d' the institution of the Kiichaiist,
Coivt.i J)(iinini, ilien cwnna fluininl, ffriii inlnti in
coeiui Ihminica, dies wttais Eitv/mrintiir, wit lis
calicis, tlies pmia, litcia, nviatcriwrn ; also, with
reference to the other ceremonials behuittini,; to
the day, (/iV.t mm/ieti'ittiiim, (Ufa imdi/./inti'd; itiea
pidilaini. The more re-ent title. dii:i ciria i/h,, t o
which the (ierman name (Iriinilo niO' stiK/ mnv-
spo»ds, IS of uncertain origin. The referiences to
a supposed introit(l's. xxil. 2), and to our Lord's
words (l.ui.e xxiii. .'il), are purely coujcctnral
(tlerzog, l.iul - Eiu'i/ct. xviii. 22.1; AuKUsti,
C/fi.-.t. A'chaul. i. r>49).
^^ The cerenioiiials specially beloncin;,' to Maundy
Thursday whicli call for notice are those relating
to the can liilates for Baptism, the lieconciliatiou
of I'enitents, the Consecration of the Chrism,
and the .Vdministration of the Kucharist.
(0 VatecliHinciis. — In some churches the »r7.
ditio a-ih,hi)li took place this day ; i.e. the cate-
chumens were required to rejieat the creed which
htid been given them by the bishop and presby-
ters to learn by heart (tmditio ayiiM:). \Ve
find this ceremony fixed for Maundy Thurs-
day in the canons of Laodicca (can. 40 ; Labbe,
i. l.'iOl), and in the ''capitula" of Martin,
bishop of llraga (cap. 40 ; il,. v. 911), and in the
canons of the (juinisext or Trullan council (can.
78 ; ib. vi. 117,")). The mcire usual time for this re-
petition was Kaster-even (Martene, de liii. Ant.
Eccl. i. Uti, lib, i. c. i. art. 1,!, § 2). Ihe paMi-
vium or washing of the feet of the catecliuniens,
of which some traces appear in the ritual of the
early church, was in some cases performed in
this day, the washing of the head, cajiiti/urium,
having taken place on Palm Sunday. There is a
reference to this ceremony in two letters of
Augustine to Januarius (^Epiat. cxviii. cxix. c.
18); but in the former he speaks of the custom
of the catechumens b.ithing the whole body and
not only of washing the feet on this day, and that
merely for purposes of cleanliness "quia bapti/.
andorum corpora per observationem quadra-
gesimao sordidata cum otfensione sensus ad
fontem tractarentur, nisi aliquo die lavarentur.
Istum autem diem potius ad hoc electum quo
coena Domini anniversarie celebratur," and adds
that this liberty being granted to the catechu-
mens, many others claimed it also, and baliiej
with them on this day— a luxury forbidden dur-
ing Lent. In the second letter he makes parti-
MAl'Vny TJUrnSDAY
f..Iar nvh ,.,n„f washing fh. f,...t of th« o«f Prl.n.
nh««rt.r.,t, h„t a,l,U that l..,t, ,t »h,.„|.| ,'',".
to b« .1. «ny w,.y e»».,„ti„| toth.. m., ,„.,„.„t , „n ■
.•hufh... ,„, ,„.v..r „.l,„llt.,l the . „st,„„ „ I
o.h..r»hH,l .11,00,,. i„„..,l it, whil« „,„„. h„. ' :
I'"" t "lU I,....,. ,|ay. Allhn„>;hlhis.,t ,,
(AiMhr.w /,. A,„,.,v„„. ,„. ,,_ n ,„,,,,,i|„,| ,.
(fuul, M,l,„,, ,„„| S,,„i„, |,„t it K„„„ f,.l| „„t t
fav,,.,,-. a„J wan .,,,r,.s,|y ,„.„h,l„t.„| l.y th.
canMns.ilth.. ii.„,i,i| „( Klvirii a i. unit ^ ,T
lib. ..• ..art. 1,1 i,,; !,(„,, „ ,,k. ,|,•^.'•i,•
''•';, '';/*'^.*^''''s«.vnl.i.,,. 1,34.
he .ay tor th„ ,,ul,li, „i„„j,„i„„ ..',,.■".'„
J-"*"''"?"' ('■•'X'in.icH it in rightly glU
"^"'7 ">"'■";■ '"^""n "»■ tho Chu,-,.h of It,,, J
was to gn„,t ab,ol„ti.,„ either of v,.„ial or „,o, I
M„s n„!y, ...,,„„,a f,.,.i„ antflWha," „, I " the
J.n,;.awa^at,,o..lby«....rosi.i„.«:u.^::
11. 1.* ). ht. An,b,o,st., writing to hi,s sister
he r..|ax„t,o„ „f ,,e„,„,ce, " erat .1 ^ 0,0
I>.„.,n.,s sose ,„■„ nobi, t,a,li,lit, ,,,,0 iu cvcl?,,?
celhn. .t. y/,'.r-tf,„m-«, lib. v. c. '.>,^). „„,! st
Jero„,e s|,eak.s of Knbiola a., »tnu,li„e n o .blic
pcnan.o on this ,lay. » ^„i, hoc cr fret .' „
tola >,rhe s,„.,.,ante Ron.ana ante ,||e„, , a^hao
Z1' 'y "'?'"!? I'Titenti,,,,,?-- (Hle.-o„' AW
^^.. A iettero?Gi,bon'::,,:„ii:;„ , y-; ■;^.::
.W p. 80), states the custom of the I,i,h ehuT^^"
be hat venial sins were absolve, '.;^",^.
ymW >no,tal sins " in Coena ai,in '•C
.e„„ents l,rst asse.nblo-l outsi.le ?^e chureh
;l;";.-.s. where they heard a sern,„a fro n ,e
b'shop ; they wei-e then mlmitted into the ch„r h
he o -'t ."''■^" "'","' '-"'■'g SMnte,! then, before
«eh.s|„s to this day'X Z ^^TZ^
Of the penitents, which, af,er ce'r, n c Ilea
(e) ('o«s"c-v,i,y„ 0/ CAmm.- The sacred oil
that «.,„ re,,uire,i for the use of the year hl,:id
be consecvUed ou Maundy Thursd, y n £
io«mU^,rony,ni we find under this da7"ChLn,a
MAIXDY TllUnsDAY \U\
f"l„l ai>|p,.ars in (K.. !/• 7, ''' '^ s,,,,,),,,
I'amelinVr/v, '.'" -''^"'" ^'"Vo.s,„„„ given bv
•h.-hrislr Sri!,;" ^ '■■''':■?•''■'' "^
(•h.^sti„'n worll' Vhe V, ' "";""«'""" the who!,,
-.«:-K ;y;:S:;'r,z';'t;;i:::^^
'■ '- Th ■.;;; '".r- ";">; '" "'« ^^'•'■''■»•'
"h"..blbe'i.!i,''j;--«t.^thealtaV
^f'^^C" S,;i::'i;;7; n"""s^""r ""■;-'
•'Iso, while insistiuK on fasti,, /:. A"«"^"<'«
-I'y. '-"Honsti!;,r's!: "rr;::";;:'^-
iiietnorat en n,o,e Htiltm , ^"""^
anil in fl,« „ • 'I"' ■''■iKc ot those who <ne
" "(A gu!, :,n-/"; ""'.."'""' «•• "'"- wh,;
V'ligustine, y;y„,v<. C.XVI1 ,„(/,/«„«„> ,. 7^
he p,act„:e of an evening celeb.'n I n on tl i "
(e) Ot/wr Observances. —The bells of ♦!,
after Latins ^if?M8';;'^*'f^
kept burning till thSatu,-7 """ """"^'^ "'"^
tui i> ,"'"«/'" 'le 5>aturdiiy morn n,? uli».n
Es^'i'^sat^c^.- ,^- f ■ /- «»>iH ctTcif.;
firstroldr;Ma<r-^^«J^a ^v.303)andthe
(Hcpinianus, <ferifp",.\« roo '''1;^ V'?"
1162
MAURA
MAUSniAS
If ,^
a):
MAURA (1) Ctimmemorated with Britta,
virgins, at Tours Jaa. 15 (Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i.
1018).
(2) Martyr with her husband Timotheus a
reader, A.i>. 2S0; commemorated May 3 (Basil.
Mcno/. ; Cul. liyzant.). [C. H.]
MAUKKLIUS (1) Bishop oflmola. cir. A.n.
5,'!2, martyr; commemorated May 6 (Boll. Acta
SS. May, ii. 106).
(2) Bisliop, martyr in the 7th century, patron
of Feirarn ; commemorated May 7 (Boll. Acta SS.
May, ii. 154).
(3) Presbyter in the diocese of Troyes, 6th
oi'ntury ; commemorated May 21 (Boll. ActaSS.
Jlay, V. 4;i). [C. H.]
MAURELLA, martyr ; commemorated May
21 in Africa {Ilicron. Mart.). [C. H.]"
MAURELLUS, martyr; commemorated at
Rouie in the cemetery of Praetextatus, May 10
(Hierun. Mart.). PC. H.]
MAUREXTIUS, martyr with others, under
Diocletian, at Fossombronc in Italy; comme-
morated Aug. 31 (Boll. Acta SS. Aug. vi. 665).
[C. H.]
MAURICILIUS, archbishop of Milan, cir.
A.o. 670; commemorated March 31 (Boll. Acta
Si!. Mar. iii. 910). [C. H.]
MAURICIU3, MAURITIUS, MAURICE
(1) One of the forty-fiye martyrs of Nicopolis
under the emperor Licinius ; commemorated
July 10 (Basil. J/eno/.); at Alexandria (Hieron.
Mart.).
(2) Commemoratod with John Palaeolauritas
July 26 (Basil. Men;l.).
(3) One of the Thebaean martyrs ; commemo-
rated at Agaunum (St. Maurice) Sept. 22 (Ifieron.
Mart. ; Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart. ; Bed.
Mart.; Boll. Acta t^S. Sept. vi. 308). His nata-
lis is in the Antiphonarium, but on what day is
not stated, and he is named in the I.iber Respon-
salis (Greg. Mag. Lib. Sacr. 710, 810).
(4) Martyr with Photinus his .son and others ;
commeuioiated Feb. 21 at Apamaea. (Boll. Acta
SS. Feb. lii. 239.)
(8) Martyr with Oeorgius and Tiberius at
Plt;nerol, under Oiodetian ; commemorated Apr.
2+ (Boll. Acta SS. Ap. iii. 266). [C. H.]
MAURILIUS, bishop and confessor ; his de-
pnsitio commemorated at Angers Sept. 13 {Hieron.
Mart.; Boll, ^rfa -SS. Sept. iy. 62); Mauriuo
(Usuard. Mart.). m jf i
MAURILUS. martyr ; commemorated in
Africa \\m\ 28 (_IIierun. Marl.). [C. H.]
MAURIN.A, martyr; commemor.ited at Tomi
May 27 (^Hieron. Mart.). pc. H.l
MAURINIANUS, martyr; commemorated
ir Afiica Feb. 1 {Hieron. Mart.). [c. H.l
MAURINU8 (1) Martyr; commemorated
May 26 at Tuscia {Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Abbat, martyr at "ologne; commemorated
June 10 (Boll. Acta SS. Juqe, ii 279). [C. H.l
MALlJlTAXUS, martyr; commemorated in
Mauritania Oct. 17 {Hieron. Mart.), [U H.]
M \URO\TUS (1) Abbat of BroyhisfBruol)
in lieigiuni. A.n. 7ol ; commemorate I May 5
(Bed. Mart. Auct. ; Boll. Acta SS. May, ii. 53).
(2) Bishop and confessor, of Marseilles, per-
haps A.D. 786; commemorated Oct. 21 (Boll
Acta SS. Oct. ix. 362), [o. H.]
•MAURUS (1) Abbat of Glann.ifolium, A.D.
584 (Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i. 1039), in the terri-
l.>ry of Angers (Usuard. Mart.); commemorated
Jan. 15.
(2) or MORTUUS-NATUS, hermit in Bel-
gium in the 7th century ; commemorated Jan.
15 (Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i. 1080).
(3) Bishop of Cesena in Italy ; commemorated
Jan. 20 (Boll. Acta SS. Jan. ii. 333).
(4) Martyr with Papias, soldiers ; commemo-
rated at Rome on the Via Nomentaua .Ian. 29
(Usuard. Mart.; Bed. Mart.; Vet. J,'um. Mart.).
(6) Martyr; commemorated in Campania Mar.
18 {Hieron. Mart.; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(6) Martyr; commemorated Apr. 12 {Hieron.
Mart.),
(7) Martyr; commemorated at Antioch Apr,
27 ; another elsevyhere on the same day {Hieron.
Mart.).
(8) Libycus, Roman martyr under Numerian,
buried at Gallipolis ; commemorated May 1 (Boll
Acta SS. May, i. 40).
(P) Martyr; commemorated at Rome June 5
{Hieron. Mart.).
(10) Presbyter and his son Felix, in the 6th
century ; commemorated at Spoletum June 16
(Boll. Acta SS. June, iii. 112).
! (11) Bishop, martyr with Pantaleemon and
Sergius at Biseglia ; commemorated July 27
(Boll. Acta SS July, vi. 352).
(12) Martyr, with Bonus, Fau>tus, and seyen
others ; commemorated on the Via Latiua Aue 1
(Usuard. Mart.).
(13) Martyr; commemorated at Rome Aug. 12
{Hieron. Mart.).
(14) Martyr with fifty others at Rheims in
the 3rd century; commemorated Aug. 22 (Bed
Mart. Auct. ; Boll. Acta SS. Aug. iv. 515).
(16) Confessor, with Salyinus and Arnlor at
Verdun ; commemorated Sept. 4 (Boll. Acta SS
Sept. ii. 221).
(16) Bishop and confes.sor at Placentia about
A.D. 430; commemorated Sept. 13 (Boll. Acta
SS. Sept. iv. 79).
(17) M.irtyr in the province of Histria; com-
"memorated Nov. 21 (Usuard. Mart.; Bed. Mart.
Auct.).
(18) Martyr at Rome under prefect Celerinus •
commemorated Nov. 22 (Usuard. Mart.). '
(19) Martyr; commemorated at Rome Nov. 29
{Hieron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Auct.).
(20) Martyr ; commemorated at Rome Nov. 30
{Hieron. Mart.).
(21) Martyr with his brother Jason and their
parents, Clauilius the tribune and Hilnria, at
Rome; commemorated Dec. 3 (Usuard. J/ar<. ;
Vet, Horn. Mart.).
(22) Martyr; commemorated at Rome Dec. 10
{Hieron. Mart.). m. H.]
MAI'SIMAS, priest in Syria : cnmrncnxirafed
Jan. 23 (Co/. Jiytant. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jan. ii.
*•*"'• [C. H.]
MAVILUS
[(J. H.]
MAVR0XTU9, abbat of „hl Sf n '
i'-i. ^a«o.. K«. Col. Ag. i6i«;^ol.V .;;7):
MAXENTFA, widow of Trent cir a"" n lln
co.nu.nu.ratea Ap. 3u (B«irl.^;'ij;';- f ';;.;
MAXENTIUS (U M«rfv.. "'"^
at Nic.„„,edia Feb. ^rJ/Kf')};.';")™"""'"'''''^
(2) Pi-esbyter and confessor in I'o'ltn,, .
at ^^^^omJW(i^]i,^'tl"t \ '="•"'""»"'■«'-'
p.'w2!;.r:['r "'■'" ''""'"""^ «"''''■'■
Jan. 8 (tJMianr:!}:;;./'""^'"'^' •-•".n.nemoratud
MAXIMA (1) AHrt^v. „ '■■'
natus in Wot jL. "■^'"""' '^ "'""'' '^'u-
(/£f J/!;;.';.')™'""^'""''"'*'' «' Antioch Apr. 7
^^(J^Martyr; commemorated Apr. 12 (//fe.o„.
^|ei--St=ns--tJ^^
Ai^S^irJEllZ^r"'^' «t Alexandria
j"iM ('fel'ClT'"""'"' "' '"'"''*'"'"™
(///"i.*S.'): ™"""'"""'''«d at Rome June 2
irAXIMUS
11(53
"nufin!il!:;ir;:rl;» Africa with Marti.
(UMK.rd. .U,,;;.) " ' ='"»»™«>-ated Oct. l,j
■•H^lIS"^' °''{r'"^!«"';n"I'l«;commemo.
(») One „/ the'- s:^- t";:' :vt'/-
A^^n rJiTard^l.fr"-^ ' commemorated
inffiShZ;:;:!!^'::^"-'^^^- in Africa
Maytf ™1S S f-'y-^ con.n,emor!tea
lO^XSriyT,;. -'•"""•norated at Antioch July
J'S^lofjJUU.Z^^"^'^^''^ '^t Alexandria
(2) Martyr; commemorated in Svn« M.
(3) liishop and confessor «> t
innmorated May 29?//. "'Treves; com-
(4) liishop of Tongres, cir a d ^t\c^
mcmorated June 20 (boll Ac a 9^' T^'. c""-
(K\ r <,"iii. Jiua b\ June ,, -■>
.■ir'A^''™^V'^ ^''''"' '">'' Martyr inOaul
-S',,L"na.'S7^^,^^n,--mo-
(3) lii.'ihop of T.Kirmim .-r, u- ■> • .
(0) Propraetor, martvr «,;.fc l-
IKU
SIAXIMl'S
(fl) Minlvrj I'liiiiiiii'iiioi/itiMl lit Ali'Miii'li'iii
Vi'U. 11 (//,.■/, III. M.iit.).
(7) Ttto inmtjrii ('(MnmiMinniiti' I in AlVicii
Bllil iM\i> cIm'wIii'Ii'. \'>'h. 1(1 (//i(iii;i. ,l/,;)7. ; Hull.
AittI S.<. jVli. ii. Si! I).
(8) Miiityr with <'h\ii'liiH iin<< liii nll'n n\
0>li!ij I'i'iiinii'nii iiitixl I'l'l), 18 ^1'i.iiaiil. Mml.
1,7. /m./ii. .lAi.Y.).
(0) Miirtyr with 'rin'oilntiin ; cimiiiii'iiiMinti'il
Vi'li, lliill.isil. Miiu'l.); il|iiini('iillv tlio niiiih' hn
(10) Mnivi'; riimiiii'ilioiiili'il ill Niouini'ilin
Miiirh \'i (li„'v,m. M.I t.y
(11> Mriilyr; loiniiii'iiini'iiliMi in Miimiliiniii
Ai'iil 1 1 (llnnm. Miitt.).
(13) M^ntyr witli (,)iiiiilili.'iiiiiH mil |)a'lii
nil. Ill- lii.'rii'liiin ! ciiiDiivniiiriiti'il .\|iiil 1.1 (hull.
J.I, \.\ A|.. ii. l.!7).
(13) M;ulyi' Willi 'rilnnliiH inul \'nli'riniiiiK ;
I'oiiinii'ninniti'il /\|M'il 14 lit I In' ccnu'ti'iy of I'riio-
(I'vliilus. iM> tho Vi;i A|i|ii!i (//i.ivii. M.i't.;
r-iiiihi. .U.iiY. ; \,'t. A'lim. M.irl.; lUI. M„,t.).
His ii.il.'ili,H nil Mils iliiy ill (Jii'ii.iiy's .'^ai iniiii'ii-
liiiv, aiiil liiH iiiiiiio in llio chIIimI ((iii'K, Miii(.
J.ili. s,,,;: .s:i),
(14) Miirtyr. Willi 0|iliitiiii nnil nlliorsj coiii-
iiiriiini.itiMl .\'|iiil U (l/u^ivn. Af.il.; Itnll. .I.7,i
.^>. A|>. ii. 'Jlv').
(ID) SnMii'r mill miirtyr, uno nf Ilio llioli.iiiiin
li'ciiMI. ril'. A.l>, V.'!t7 ; COIllllliMlli'l'llti'il Aplil I i llt
Mil.in (II..II. .4.7.1 *>'. A|i. ii. 'JI'JV
(10) Miiilvr Willi Olympi.i.livi. ii.i1.|,miiimi, nt
C'.'i'.lul.i ill I'lMsiii, iin.li'i- I'l'iiii.; <Miiiiiii'iii..i'ii-
1..IA|nil I.. (l'.Miiiia. .)/,i)7. ; 1 ...1. ,l/,i,7. ; I <7.
lorn. M.^il ).
(17) Mriilyi'i ooiiiniiMn.Miih'.l nt tln> oi'iiiotory
ot »':ili\Ui> on till- Via Appiii April 'Jl (llnivn.
M.iit. : |lo,l. M.itl. Aiht ).
(18) Miiilvr; onniiiu'iiiiiiiiti'il in AlVi.n Ap. '.Hi
(ll„r.>n. M,„'t.; Hcl. .1/..»7. /li/,7.).
(19) Miirlvv; r.ininii'inniiiti'.l in I'tuvpt Apr.
•j; (//i.T,.D. .U,i,7. ; IW,I. J/,1.7. ,tM,7.).
(80) M.iityr, Willi iM.lii.t iin.l (inintilinnnii, Bt
l>i>ii.>toi mil i roiiiiiii'iiioriitwl Apiil 'J8 (liii»il,
.l/.H../ ).
(81) MiirtYV in Asin, oiro. A.n. -'."lO ; rnni-
tiii'iiiiiMli'.l .\pril ;io (Klnnis, up. Il..,|. M,trt. ;
H..II. .1,7,1 ,s\v. Ap. iii. 7;l'J); Miiy l\ l.y llio
lirwks (llii,-il. Mr-n,^.); liy olhois on April 'Jl
iin.li'i' till' n;inii> nl' Miiivi'lliiins, niiil mi April 'J.'i
.IV Miii'i-i'lliis. r..i' nnnllKT M.'ixiiiui.H rninini'-
iii.'iiilcl on April 'M liy tlio (frccks, soo Uoll.
«(/ ,','h;i. p. ''X\.
(28) Uislu>p of .Ii'niMiloiii, <'nntos»or. ,irii'r A.n,
.'ii.>; i-oniiiH>moriiti>,l Mny 'i (Boll. .1(7.1 ^X
Miiy, ii. T).
(88) M:irlvr; conmioniorativl at Milan May
(//„•.•,.». M.iit.).
(24) Two martyrs j tHimmi<moratpi) in AMcn
May 7 (//icniii. ,lAi)7.) ; anotlior at Nicoinoilia
tlio .<anu' (lay (Hi,ivH. M.irt. ; H<>,1. M,,rt. .li(<7,).
(86) I'rosliytiM- ; i-oimni'moialixl at Coustau-
tinoplo May « (llwivn. M.irt).
(86) Martyr; ooniniemoratod nt AlcxAQilria
May t;( (Hienm. Mrn-t.).
(87> Martyr ; i'oniniomoiMt(>.l at R.itnp on tho
Via .Voniontana, May '.'8 (^Jl.ci'on. J/m<.).
MA.XIMUS
(88) Hislii.p of Vi'r.iiiii, ^lli I'i'niiiiv; cniii.
nii'iiioraliMl May '211 (II,. II. ,l,7.i ,s'.S'. May.'vii. :ill),
(80) Marlyi; coninii'iiKiralcl at 'llii.».<aliinlru
,hiiii' 1 (//ii'ii'ii. M.i.l).
(80) Or MA.XIMINUH, liishop of Aijiiae-
,'^i'xliiii' in iHt, till, or I. til ri'iitiirv; ihiiiiikmiio-
rali.,1 .hini'H (Hull. ,1.7,i .'"'.v. .Inn,., ii, ,'i,i).
(31) I'li'sliytor i I'oninii'inorali',! at AI,'Min.lrla
.liMii- I) {l/it'ivit. M.irt. j lloll. .1,7.1 .'•>■. .Iiiiio, ii.
1711).
(33) Martyr; hinliop of Napli'H, li,'l',.i„ a. I),
Mliil; I'nniiiii'iiiorati'il .liiiiii 12 (lloll. A, l,i .S'.V,
.Iniio, ii. .M7).
(33) llisliop of 'I'liiin al),.r AH. ■dli); ,.oni.
ini'iiioriiti.,1 .liiiio v.','> (Hull. ,1,7,1 ,s'.s'. .Iim,,, v. ,'iU).
(84) Marlyrat Ali'xan.lria willi I ....iiliiiM ami
othiTs; i',iniiMi'iii,irat<'.l .Inly 10 (//»'/',i;i. Miirt. ;
lloll. ,1 7.1 .s-.s', .Inly, iii. ,',;|).
(36) Martvr; loninii'iiioraliMl at Svriiiia .Inly
l.'i (//k".i;i. ,(/.((7,),
(36) Martvr; I'ommoiiioraliMl at Aiilimli .Inly
111 {l/i,r.m. ,l/,i(7.).
(37) Martvr i i'oniiiiiMiioralo,l in Asia .Iiily 17
(//|<'/„H. ,)/.«7.).
(38) M.irlvr; ooininiMiioratcl at Dorosloriim
.Inly IH (//.,r,m. ,l/.i/7.).
(89) Martyr, with Sahinnn nn,l othi'iB; cnin-
nii'niorati'.l al DaiiianiMiH ,)nly 'JO (//icriHi. lUmt. ;
l"snar,l. .l/.i(7.).
(40) Martyr; ooinnii'ni.'rati'il with Cyriarud
an. I olhi'rs at «'oriiitli .liily 'JO i llicnm. ,U'.i/7.).
(41) Disliop anil coiil'i'.^wir at I'.itavinni, '..'inl
I'l'iitiiry ; ooinini'iiiorati'il Aug. '2 (lloll. .I,7.i .S'6'.
AiiK. i.' 10'.)).
(48) <"onl'i>Hniir, "our holy father;" transla-
tin Aiii{. 1:1 (lla.sil. HiHol.; tii.', /U/miit.; Uaniol,
Co,/. I.ttHiy. iv. '2il(l).
(43) Vontlil'ul martyr in Africa nmliM- lliinnii-
vW; I'omnii'moraloil Aii(t. 17 (Ui<iiaril. .l/.ii7.).
(44) Ahhat nml i-onfi-nnnr ; roniniomoralml
Ann. '20 at Cl.lnon (lli.ron. Miuf.; llo.l. Unit.
Aurl.; lloll. .1.7.1 >S'.V. Ann. iv. .'>,'■).
(46) Martyr, with (iaiann.s an. I othors; com-
m.'iiiorati'.l at Anoyru Anjj. Ill aiul ,S,.pi. 4
(llicnm. M.irt.).
(46) Martyr with Tlii'oilotiiii nml Asclopioilotcit
in'l'liraco; c-onimrmorati'il .'^opt. l.'i (llasil. ,l/i';i()/.
Uoll. .1,7.1 .'^■.s•. .S,.pt, V. HI). S,,,. (0).
(47) Martyr; ('ommomorali'il at Niici'i'ia
.Si'pt. Hi (/lirr.m. M.iil.).
(48) Martvr with .InviMitinun j comnicnio-
ralo.l *)ot. !i (Hasil. Mvnol).
(40) Marl vr at C'onlovn j oommcmorali'il (Vt.
14 (//iV-iVft. M.irl.).
(80) I.ovita, martyr nmli'r Hcins; i'oiiinii>.
m,.r»l,.,l Oit. !!• (|i,.il. Ad.i SS. Oct. viii. 417);
t)»t. '2.1 (|!.-uar.l. ,1/,»7.),
(81) Martyr with l'2i) other soKlli'rK ; oom-
mom.iiali',l at Koiiio Oit. '2,') (//icmi. ,l/.(i7.).
(88) llishop of Mi-ntf, in Ihn 4th rontnry;
ooimiH'morati'd Nov, 18 (.Snrin.t, do I'nib. i<S.
liisl. t. iv. p. 401, Colon. 1(118).
(63) Presbyter am! martyr, i!!!,!:'r Mastmt.->ii ;
rominemorateil nt Konie on tho Via Appia Nov,
l;' (IliiTon. Miiii. ; I'Mianl. Mart.; \'et, Horn,
J/ii'7.),' MnximuiUD (Ik^l. Aluit. Auct.),
^^!tri:%:,r'"'' '■ ' "' '"""» '^-
^.'"l:.■S:.r■:c;: ■ '"^"
(98) Marl.vr «(||, « •Invs,,^,,,,,,, „,,,, p., „
..,",'!!:,!:i'„:,,;: "-' " ■"■ ■'-■.
(01) I'lCsliyicr ninl (■..iifi'Mmn. . ,„ .
»•"" »''-. i^M//.v.:.Zi ''''T'im'
"'■'••■'!? (I !,sn„r.l,yl/,„.,.). " "' Al,.,,,,,,!,,,.
MMDIATOKH
1 1 r,r,
'.«.'i"™::is:;;ri:i:!'s ;•;■■'
MI;aI,N On a til) Ti,
*') «'''""|- '■''■■>■ (•,„• i„,,„|„„ 1 „ ""••';*'"i't
-l^'r;.;:!;:^;:!:;;;;^-£:;::M:;.';;;
M' '•■■(, ||,i, ...iti, ,,„ •'"""« ( /iMvYi.mMmr)
■■v"".ri- T i r." ""'7 7 '■;■'"• ""'V"
t||,.,'S iil II I """ "''I'lli"!! („ ,,i,..
ihi-lt, ;;';;;'";;: :""'""r"- n-1.;;,.
- --'.t.'.! Hni o „;rs, ^""""r
'■■ II- P- 2!l;l, ,.,(. 187,(1 nn.l <• ■ '■ " '• "'"'
^';'^/-.- ([„;,.„,.. Si,: 1 n''-*;"'" ^;; [Vf'
ii..nMi,, :,,,,'■'';;;; •;-' ■■'■.)„.,. ,,
'-"i-.^i.' ,::::::''''■': i ••"•-
•I'Mni,!,,,,, J j; ;;;''"; |.h.-.,„i „„
'''''•'''<i^^'("o■• "::":;'''•''•'':;'•■•'■• '•'-'■«
'"..W. V. 0.1) Tin' " "'■ <'''""l"....
""'■V..H. „r,. ,m;|,,|,| ,''''.'"'•''• "^ li-I.HI,.'„,,.
'■''|''''"M«. I, I ''''''::'''■ ■'■'"• ^ '■''-
lli.K. Iriinr TI,. »'V""Hi,„„ t|,„c r,.r„, „r
•'-•■■■I 'n;.„„"r;;::;,:7 ';•"••• i-
I'"!',""! I"M,' (vill, ,. I„ ,' "'"""'■'■ 'I'""-
!" ■•>-"InI,,':;;";:'';^';',"- ■'•'-• -
;;""«"^ '-u: il,. ;': „;;;""":^, '■ ■
(!>,), l,.H,.|ii,„„ „ ,1,1 J"..:"]"'; Aili,.,„„.|i,
(''^ ■'!••) n,l|H it ii',;'" •<'"''. "...I V„n.„
I '>". "inn.is ,1",. I,, :;''''■;■'''••''■■'• '■'''■•"-•
"";i-. TI,., iw., ..,„ ' tM,:;: ,i""' '""■'''"
['<• St. ,1. T.j
Mr.;r)ANiiH .„. mi.;i,|)ani,h i.i ' , ,
-'-;om,„..„,,,,,.t,H,,t,i,,: ; -
-S'^^™ffir'!e; rif
.■i,"!'''"T""' "'•■'■"•' .'..I'..,;
''''''•'•'•''''''• ^'■'■' -w. A„«/viA,V "n'l''
tliP_ Kiiin., i,i,.„. P" "■''*-'• <^"""'' rti,cat
Tim Biithi.r , C (l,n a,^„, ,■ , ,,
ill
•i'i-i
it;
m
n
1100
MKDK'ira
I?:
ns iliicK nlm) OiiKi'ii. St. Cliryu '•-Imn, St. IlnHlI.
Rllil otIlcT.I c.f tlll> (illM.k IiiiIkmn. lint l,y tllili
tlioy ni'i'in f-i Imvo inti'iiJcil, iidt tlnit llit> inlcvit
WHS |irii|M'rly n iiii'ilialnr liiili'|iiMii|i'nlly nn<l liv
liix iiwii iiiliciiMit ftiilliiiiily, liiit iiii'ii'ly nthi liv ii
fij(ill'i' 111' ■<|iiM'i'li Rs nil iiili'iiiuiiritis 111- iiii'iliiiili dl'
onniiminii'jiliiin. In this nimiic St. IIuhjI (,/,.
•S/'irltii S.iiirtn, o. 14) an<l Tbi'iiilona, (•miiiiM'iitliij;
oiHi.il. ill. Ill, 'Jil (whiT,. tho ttoiil ftKtlnit in
ri'|iMitc.lly (Mii|iliiy(iil), tciirli thnt Mnw.s wiih ii
liiciliiil.ir lii'lvv.M'ii (l.iil iiml III,, I |,1,. „(' lsin,,|.
Till- I nil' iiu'.liiilni' is, „|' ciin-H,., ij,,, | ,„.|| ,|p„,„.
Tho aillilii ntnir'ijf in SiiIci'1''n TIicmiii-ux inny
hi' cuisiiK,.,! with ^'iniit iiih-niilinrn. II,. Iwin ,.„|'.
In'li'il n l;n-);,> iiimsk ,,!' ,ni,i|,itiniis iVniii tho (Inii.ji
flit horn, .^lll'^vill){ that tliov oinistiiiillv iiiiii iiiij.
(iiiiiily ii|i|i|j,'<l tho toiiil m«"'t»,v, ' 111 nil its |
vniliitloM 111' iiii'iiiiiiiij, til ,l,..«ii,s Chiisl,
'I'hii l.iitiii ratlii.r., «v„i,| ||„. ,|so ,if nwiH.it.ir
III lliis .viiso (lis ii|,|ilio.l til iho luio^thiMiil), St.
(\|iii.iii iiMvs it "iliviivrniit ml jinliivs, lijunl
(liiiiliii- inoJiatiirihii," (,/f (\,,iliiiii/. H/u'ri'i.
C/iri.<fi /V.i/ii,/, -tho niithiirshi|« i» iiiiooi-laiii),
lint 11(1/ iif |l|•i,.^ts. St. Aiiiriistiiio sti'(iiii;ly pni-
tostH ai;aliist it in his ti',.ativ,. ,n:aiii,4t I'aiiii'oiiiaii,
ft Dniiali.sl liishoii. whii hiil sai,| that tho lii,s|i„n
was ,1 ino.liatiir liolwooii (iml ami llio |ioiiplo.
"Si.loiiaiiiios ili.'oi-ot . . . iiii'.liatiiioniniohaliolis
npii'l ralroiii, ot ojjn oxoro \n-« |ici'calis voslijs
(siiMit I'.iriiioiiiaiiii.s ,|ii.,i|aiii Iwo luisuit o|iis,',i-
|iiiiii iiiolialni-oni iiitor pii|,iiliim ot Koiiin) ,|iii,,
Piiiii t'oiiot li.iiiiiriiiii iiti|iio li.loliiiiii ChiLstiaii-
oniiii " (iwi^vi /'iicHiiM. lib. il. c. h).
[i^. .'. K 1
MKDICrS (St. Mil.;), eonfos.,,,!. nt"ll,iisso,'iii,
Iioliovo.l l.i have llvi'il in tho t<tli or iiih cont. ;
<'iiiiiiiioiiio,.alo,l Mav 2:l(lloll. A,ia ,s>'. May vii'
8*^)' [C. H.J '
MEDIOLANl'M. [Milan,]
JIKDION. inaityr; commemomted in Alri.a
Slay 14 (//irnm. M„rt.). n\ || -j
MKHH.WrS. with hi.s l.inlhoi- Oilraniis,
conlosMii'.s in liolaiiil; oiiiiiiiioinoiatiiil .liilv 7
(Uoll. Ada SS. .Inly, ii. 477). [C. ll.J
MKnm,.\ or MKIHILLA ami hor o,in,|ia.
l"'.iis; i-uiiiiiiniiiu-aloil .Ian. 'J.', (CI, /it,., ml ■
i4..ll. Act,i .v.v. .Ian. ii. tilt!). [('. n.j
AIHFOMUS, niailyr; conunomoratod .Iiino ;i
(.llicnm. ^t,n■t.). n; n -i
MKtil'Vrr.X, martyr. [Mioktia.]
MK(!(:iNr8, niarlyr; rommomor.ntc.d in
Mauritania IVo. •> (/f;,;-on. ,l/,ir<.). [0. H.]
MKtJINl'S. martyr; rommcmoratud nt Po-
nisiii ,\p. ._><) (/fii'ron. M,i,t.). [c. n ,]
MK1„ Iri.sh hisliop in tho ."ith oont. ; oommo.
moialoil I'ol). () (Hull. Ada .W. Kch. i. 77H).
MKl.AXI.V HOMAVA, "Our Mllthor--
poinniom,iiat..d Doo. ;U ((' /. /i,,uv,t. ; Basil,
i/.H,i/. ; Dimiol, Cixi. I.itmy. iv. ■J7«). [C. II.]
MKLANIITS (1) Mshop and onnlossor; ooni-
moinorat,.d nt Ronnos .Ian. (J (Usuard. Mart •
noil, Ada SS. Jan. i. ;)'27). "'
(2 W.shop ofTrovi.» !!! tlu>4lh rout - com-
niemoraUd Ap. 22 (IJoll. Acta ii^: Ap. iii.''J9)
[O.H.]
MRF.ITO
MKI,ANTtTS, martyr; oiinimoinn,.ntod at,
liijnii ,\iiv. 1 (lli,'nm. Mad.). U', l|.]
»t|.:i,AN|l,4, mnityr In Afrlonj ooiiimonin.
rnli'il l)|.e. II (l/Uniii. Mad.). u\ |j.]
IMKI.ANI'H, marlyr In AlVlon; oiiniiii,.ii,„.
rati'd Ho,.. J (lliervn. .ktart.). (,'. ||.j
MKI.AS or M|i;i,AM.;.^, Iiishnp 01' Kiiliiii.
00 lira .■,inl<..s«,,r i,, |||,. ,-„|, ,.„„,.. ,.„umm,u,.
raloil ,laii. It, (|l,il|. Ada NS. Jan. ii. l,',).
MMI,A,'^ll'lTH(l)niartvri,.„ni ni,„.!''ll
at l.annioi, .Ian. 17 (//umn. Mad.; IIshmi.I
^" ;,'•'■ UMI.)
(2) Marlyr with his wil'o Ciwlna ami mhi An-
toniiis; oiiniinoiiinialod Nov. 7 (Ilasil. M.n,./.).
MKl.CHIOJt, Marian kingj commoininalod
.Ian. Ii (lioll. Ad,t >y,s'. Jnn. !. ,l'j;l). [Ki'iniANv.]
|('.ll.|
MKI.flllUS, Irish Iiisli.ip, of .Mh oonliirv
ooiiiiiioiiioratud Fob. (i (Hull. Acta S.S. h'oli.'i
"^^' [0. H.J '
MKKCnADKS (1) liishop and oona's.sor ; do-
piisitlo o„iiiiiioiii„i„|,„| „( |;„„|,, ji, ,1,,, ,.,,,||„|,,ry
■if Calisliis nil Iho Via Appia ,lan. 10 lllunm
Mad.); Mohhiados (H<.il. M.id.).
(%i Martyr; ooiiiiiioiiiiiralod nt Aloxandria
Ann. '.* (Iliciim. Mart.), u\ \\ \
MKI.DANUH. [Mkhamis.]
MKLUK(;asI!,S. niarlvr; oommomornlod nt
lorraoiiia Nov. 1 (llieron. Mad.). [(;. ||.]
MIOLKTIUS (1) ULshop of Antlooh, "Our
lalhor," A.I). .'IHl; oommomoratod I'Vh. IJ (('.(/
Kitant.; Danlol, V,4. /.aw;/, iv. y.'-i.'l ; |l„||'
^il!.i .S'.V. |.'i.li. ii. r<Hr>; Ant;. 'J;! (Hasil. .l/,';i„/.). '
(2) Ihix, marlyr with li!.')0 ,.,nnp,inions ; ooni-
liionioralod May .!4 (Ilasil. Mi-itd.).
(3) Cnmiiioinoralod with Lsaoiiis, bishops of
Cyprus, .Sopt. 'Jl (Hasil. Mend.).
(4) Iiishnp mill ooiir«s»or; ooininetnoraled in
I onliis Do,.. 4 (Usuard. J/iir<.). [C. II.J
JIKLKUiS, miirtyr; oonimomnrntod nt Alo.x-
nmlria .Inly Kl (ilicron. Mad.; liod. Mnd
Aud.). |-(,, „ J •
IMKMSrUS, bishop and mnrtyr; commoino-
ratod Ap. 22 (Usiiard. Mart). [C. I|.]
MKMSUS (1) Mnrtyr; oommomorutod in
Alriua Nov. 'Jt! (Illeroii. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; oonimoniorntod nt Nioomoilja
Nov. 27 {llieron. Mart.). [(;. H.l
MKr.lTKNK, COUNCIL OP (Mditeum^c
Con-tlium), ouu of tho synods nt whiih Kiisla-
1 hills, bishop of Sobaslo, was oondoninoil, and
hi'ld, oonsoqiionlly, boforo A.I). .'l.'iSI, by whon ho
had ooased to ho possossod of thnt soo. (.Maiisi,
iii. 'Jill.) Molitino Iny on thu frontiers of Ar-
monin Minor and <.'nppndo(.iii. [K. S. I'l. 1
HiKM'riNA, of Maroiani)]inlls, niarlyr iindor
Antoninus; commonioratcd Sopt. 15 (Basil. ,1/.
""/. ; Boll. Ada SS. Sept. v. 29). [(.'. II.]
MKI.ITO. bishop in Itiu Ul or 2iid oontiirv
commenioratud Ap. 1 (Boll. Acta 6VS'. Ap. i. 10)
[C. 11.]
MKMTirH
• Ml
•"'"• ">■■ A.I. 411 .;,'"• """■'y- 111 iiii-
^^•.<^w,,;«\;:,'V,;,;."'''''''-•"'"'■''''■■'•'""••',(l«nll
""' ;•"•' '(E;z":r"'"''''"''[:;,^^--
''v'I;'w„)'^,r^r,^i,'";f f;^'" /'^A"". « si......,.).
iMiiil ,|n„, „f , , ' ^'1'. <'iiiiM („ |,„ , ,
<"-; .vM /"'/,/. i.'^H';'«""»|'i";>im
^""'■'<'. " IliiYiniiH •
iii'li'i"!. dl' iinv kin,|
<'l'"(?"lills Moiillcluis
"' lni,.(„M r.„.,,,s," ,„.
OY.m„;-y.) ^^ ^,
Mi<;t/n/\i)F,s ''''"'' ''■-'
ri-'.i..ao«,. 17 (//,'•:: ,;;:;;;;^""'"-'"-i ill m,,,,.
. MrarMiOKiiM, „,„Hvr- ' '
M'OMMr^ imirtv... ' -^
FWi. Hi ( ///,,,.„„_ ^^/„,.,_^ "' '^■■" < <'"i>i"ii'ini.nit..,|
(4) llisli.i .111.1 ,.„„(" . ,
'"^^■' ""ii.^i. Stub's ' """rrtr-
lioll. Arf„ ,s,y, A,,, iii. 57„,'- -^ O^iMl. McHul.,
MtOrORfA mnw '-*■■ "'^
i-' M.'r <i (//.vC]^;!"/)''""""""""-'"-' •" Ali-
'"'•< <;"m|janiiifiH
[c. n.j
^^S^a'SL£--:s
I viii-iiil,||, ii,.,.i„ ,.r ,1
'""" Hi" l.iv.., „(■ , c '>""■'"'■'", ni- I ti,„,.
;.' ■• u ./i;.^:?'"' ' '"""'""■"' '"'- -
!'"' '■''"'•«y,.: 1 1 j^:',r>v!r■'^"''|■'''-"
;:'"'''. '-'"I u;,, ,,:'i'' '"''-'■'''• "•-'^«
' (//"■/•'„,. M,„., . ,"""'' 'l/'l'i'i ill Ar/,l,i;, A,,^
;^', "' ^i «t l^:ah';;.V- / '- -
(//"■'"". ,I/,„.<.). •"^"' ""'« ilHMl Un,m
(2) Miirlvr widi n 1 1
:";";^«i --..H.n!.t. "It',/""' •'"'"". H.r.e
(""ll./(,*,,V,v. A,,. ,■«./;{ "'" ''^•■"l<-' A,,. 12
(3) or MI'JWau . ,
""I''". "OmSmt ■•"?■'''''"''"" "'•'•"-".....fi.
"'»). ** <■"""• -^cifu -W. Aug. V.
(4) "r MKVVAH
"l-'-l'-.i Mf „, '.M,,,,"; .."" .''.'yplli.n ,„„rUr
»'"! MHxi.„i„„, wi , te' "'"''•^ '"-loH,.,.
/.'toy/, iv. ^74). :,„ ■ .^■' "''ni"l, 6W
'""iilMi-y, and hi.s „„,„„, ." '"^'X'Ty'^ .S,„.ni.
(;'"T.Ma,. A,.:,^;::--;;<'''';"iii..i,..cMiA
'''"'(< '"'inns, ,/,,,sv,2';i;j''';;vn,, d,.,,i,..„t„,i /•
rnoril,.,! ,n„^, 1 , (f, Mair A V , ' "'""ne-
Mal.ill,,,,, Act,t.SS:of,f^- ''?'■ '• "'• <••. 'M-
l-l.'). •■•^^•'""••'=-'-i'.a5,-,,Veuet.
(6) 'ir MEN.Vasi », .
"'""•'"KniWHiH. i..r;Ar„"[*[L"""' ""^•""R"'"".
^';' '" { nasi I. A/onol cT, '"'""""""^""•'l
, MICVDIOANCY Ti,„ c C- H.l
^'^'' .iJi..' an,, the wS..:;"/"";"""'"'^'--'*
lllH
MKN'DU'ANCY
tlw pniii- vIliuM iMMinri'j;i\fi' ruiiiiil llio iIuki'k nf
MKNI'MIHK
III!' iliiiirhi"* 111 H.ilinl iiliii* WHS I'l'^jiinlnl ih it
luihliililii iMiiImn I'nim vnv\y tImi'H. Si'mtuI |iii«-
wiKi'-. Ill fill V -11^1 (MM rniilniii Nli'miK mluM liiliiniM
111 tliii |ioo|ili' 111 l)i'«|i)\v mnni-y in rluiiilv \wii\\i'
I'lili'iiim rliunli. Ah tlio ('liilslliin In his iliiy
li:i I wili'i' Kliiiiillint lii'lnic IliK iliinr lliiil (111.
wniA|ii|.|ii'iK iiiiijhl III I wimli tlii'li' hull, Is, HO
llii'ir roii'l'iitlii'iH iilrii'o,! ili,> |iii,ii' ilioi'o Ihiit I lie
I'.nvi'r of .hurlly nil|{lit |Mir(l'v (lin soul (ChivH.
/I«,n. \\\uil,- IVr/i. .l/l.■,s^ I //om. i. m '2 /i»i. ;
y/"»i. iii. 1^ I'.^nil.). Willi mii'li iiiilisi'ilniiiiiilo
lllllls)ti\ill); il «nsilll|i(nsilili' Hint I'liiillly nhoiiM
ivl III' iiliiisci, Amlii'oso roiiiiij II, tii.i'i'HHiirv lo
Hiliiii'Uish ^l/<• (ijHrAv. Ill) lhi>liiKlio|i.siin.| |ii'i.',s|»,
who hiiil llu' liiMiHUi'i's 111' Iho cliiii-i'h lo ilN|iriiNi>,
(o 111' I'lri'l'iil ihnl llii'v iiro iiol. wimli'il ii|<om Im.
|ioiliihiilo iM'nniirs. Nliiny ('(Uiio In imk lor nliio*
out I'l' ini'ii' i'lli'iii-Hs; ihi'V iin> Wi'll iililr lo liilto
ciui' ol'thi'iiiHi'lvi'H, mill il'thi'y iiiii lii.liil);i',| th,.y
will Mi.'ii I'xli.'uisl. ihii |ifovNloi\ oC ihi< pooV
an. I lii'lili-ns. MorooviT, Ihi.y mo not loiilml
with II III do, lliov .lii.»« Ihi'iiisolvosns iionllonion,
nn.l |.i..|..|il 1.1 111. of j;o,i,| linili, „n.l on tliiN
Croiiiil olilain n uri'iiloi- sluin.. Ciu'o lui.l iiioili'-
iiilioii niiist, 'hi'ii'l'iiri', ho omti'Isi.,! {n Iho ili-
trihiilion, llml Ihosi. who nro roillv In wiint miiy
n 'I 111. M'.il iiwny iMn|i|y, luiil liial iloslunini;
liou'K'<i'»in.iy not iimkon ^|.oil of llio nminli.n.iiiic
111 111,, poor, lillomisH hiiK iiovi'i' lu.i.n I'l'^niiloil
in .jiiili. I ho s:imi. Iiuht in llio south iiml oasl of
Kiiioi'i. lis niiionj; iho moro in.lw-tri.ins iiiilionN
of llic noiih; an. I anions llio noilli..iii lilln's
iilli.i' thiiv cniivoi'sion till. I'onilitii'iis of lito won'
Mioh liiiit h.iltiliial nn.n.lii'anry iimsi havo hoon
rail'. Ili'niM' ilisii|.liiiary canons ajfainst h.-jjuin^
nro not foiiml in tin' rmuiiils oi' I'l'iiilonlials.
Thoro lire, howoviT, ci'rtain tonus of Iho ovil
ooni.|'ti.i| in till' Thcoilosian ooilo, A law of
Viili.iilini.in II. (('is/, T'i.ni. XIV,, xviii. I, ,/,.
»».'«(/i.iiii/i H< II, .11 iHNi/ii/i.v) iliroi'l(.i| iho onsos
of all alilc-lio.lii'.l hi'uij.iis wlio (loil tVoni their
itristi'is to lumu- in or.U.r to livu on ihaiity to lio
lnvi's(ii;aloil, ami tlioso who wcio foiml ahlw to
work won' oilhoi- to lio i-i.tinnoil to llu'ir original
maslors or liocouu' the posM'ssion of the iiifoiinur
who ilisiovon,! tlioin. This law was ii'-tinai'loil
liy .liistiuian (('.sA .liixlln. II. \xv. 1,
With n'i;anl to Iho cli-i-jfy Ihcmsi'lvon tho
olmii'h ttas oarofnl that ihoy ili.l not ahnso Iho
iihi'ialily of tho pi'oplo an.l i-ink into « life of
i.lli'ni.-s Mippoiti'.l hy ohaiilv. The torni
(3.iif(iitiri,ii, iir i;h\i<itivi, applicil (Syno-in.s, Kp.
t'^i) to ili'ijty who ili'-oiti'il tlu'ir posts an.l wan-
iloiv.l from plaoo to pla.o, was a sti(fnm allixoil
to i'lli'mss. Ami it w.is proli.ilily with a viow
to ohook ilorioal nn'mlioancy, as well as for Iho
,«aki' of ocolosi^islioal ri'sjnlaiily, that tlio i-otiniil
of Aijlo, A.l>. :"'(»!, (l.'iioo 1 (0. .'r.') that I'loijty
niovinn .il.oiit fioni one .lioii'so to another witli-
out i'..inini>n.l.ilovy lollors wuro ilcnieil ooni-
niunion, Tho oouncil of I'.paou, A.n. M7 (c, l>),
has a similar ili'iioo ajjainst olorioal vajtranis.
Ami tho siino nilo is l.ii.l down in the Spanish
(•lUii'i'l of Valenoia, A.n, .'>'J+ (e, ."i). The
ten.leney lo idleness, inseparahlo from the
monastic life, tonn.l no Mnipovt from the early
chnrch writers. Tassian (i/.- (Wii. /,islit. x. ..m')
,ji!,iti« n sjiyiri;; of th.- K;yptian father.';, that ,\
workinit monk wn.s temptcil with one devil— an
ill.' on- Willi a l.-jrion. t>f Anthony the cele-
braleil ascetic of tho Thehai.l, it is related {Vitii,
>•. -1) Ihiit he l.iliiiiireil with hhi own hands, anil
Huve away all ho ei.iild sp,ne. Tin I '..iiiolilleH,
or aseiilies. liviiii; In enniiiiiinllles, an.l ol' whom
lliore were not less than .Ml,!!!!!! in Kijvpl in Ihn
■nil ci'iiliny, siipporti'.l llieiiisi.|v,.a hv their own
In.lllslly (ras>lan,i/e(',i, II. /unlit, x. L".'). They em-
j'lo\el theniselves in nL;i Iciill lire, an.l In tiii'ikiinj
Im|s1(,.|s, r„p,., nil. I siindaU, llieir prodnee lielni;
sent down the Nile f. rsiili'ln Ali.\aii.|rla,ani| whit,
was not i'i.i|iiii'ed for their own inalnlenaiiee w.is
Ifiveii 111 till, iioor. In ueneral il imiv In. sidd
Ihal, liidii. trial occnp;ilion wis the rule nnn.im
the inonl.n In the Kiisl (see liolierlson, ('/i. //isl.
ii. il( ,U,e,.i.>/i, i.viii). AiiKiisline wrote a HperlMl
Ir.Jlllse (/I,. ('/.,.,■,. ,l/„)i,(, /loiHiii) illiccle.l ilHiiiii I,
monks liein^' exempled fiom lalmiir. In ....imi
inslanies, however, iiiiiinial lalniiir was ren.iiili.l
with less lavoiir. Maitin, who liiiroilm |.i|
iiionastlclMii into l!aiil.<li rajjed hil.onr In Iho
inoniisleries which he eslalilished nlioiil I'ollicm
an.l Tours. The yoniiKer Inelhren were all..»i',|
to transcrilie hooks, Imt ihls was Ih ly imiiiinil
work pennille.l (.Siilpj, in, .Soveriis, liY.i' Minlmi.
10). Ill till, ureal iiionaslle NVstem eslahlishel
in the West l.y llenedicl, ill (he fh-si ImH' „(■ (|,„
lilh eeiiiiiry iminn.il l.ilionr was one ol Ihedi.-
Iiii)jnisliini( rules of Ihe ordor, .Seven h..iiis
ilaily was liie lime allollcd to work ( /i''',/"/.i,
c. AH). Thi. niaiiner in which the ininnclion l.i
Willi, has lieen carried out hy Hie Hciiclii line.,
holh in Iheservl if civili/.aiion and lileialiiic|
is a mailer of history. In the ^reul niomi-leiy
of lliiiiKcr, ili.sciplcs from which eonlrilniled so
much 111 Ihe evanneli/.alion of the north-wesf
of Kiirope, lle.le states (l/M. il. 'J) Ihal ll.e
monks supported themselves hy the lalmiir of
their own hands. The exaltation of poverty
Into n virtue and the rise of the iiiendicMn'i
friars lie oiilsi.le onr period. [(i, ,M.|
MI';N'I'',1)IN,\, martyr; eommemorale.l in
Ktrnria May '.Ml (//ici-oii. ',)/,()■<.), [('. H.J
MKNKI.AMIM'S (1) Martyr; .•ommeinn-
rate.l in l'i;ypt .Ian. \rt (Uirnm. ,it,i,l.). |('. ||.|
(8) Marlvr; commemorated nl runt ns , Ian. \H
(ll:n;m. ^t.ll■l.).
(8) Marlvr; commninnroted nt Cnrthnicn .Tnn,
t!" (///.roil M,iit.).
(4> Martyr: roiniiiemoriitod nt Sinvrim Keli
a? ( llicnm.' .U.irt.).
(8) Martyr; conimemorateil at Tarsn.s Mar
■-'.S {llin\m.'M.irt.).
(6) Martyr; oommeinornted In AfVlc»,liily 17
(//otm/i. M,iit.). [(', i|.|
MKNKIjAN'ITS, martyr; commemorate.l in
Africa Keh. J:l (//I'l nm. Miiit.). [('. 11.)
MKNKI.AI'S, nmrtyr ; rommemoraled at
Alexandria .Inly;! (Ilurtm. Miirt.; lle.l. M.ni.
Auit.)\ another at Tarsus on the ^ame day
{/Ii, ivii. M.irt.). [C. Il.j'
5Il';\KI.r.rS, alilmt nnil eoiifessnr in An-
vorjtne ; conimemorateil .Inly '2'2 (Usnard. Mmt.;
lioll. ,li'/,i .v.s', ,lnly. V, .(O'J), [r, H.J
RIKNKSKISK. OOtt.NdL OK (.^ft•ne.•:h rns,
cimci/i'iim). When all the lilshopii of Uritlany
met At A inonnlain of thai name, near til. I'ol tie
I.i'on, to exconmuinicate I'ouiorre, count of I.cou,
A.n, .'I'.iO, or thercahouls. (MaiLsi, x, 4i)l,)
[K. S. Ff.]
MKNKHI 1)10 Its
MICNlOsrid'MIN. in.iHvr.
^' '''■'. '"iy'.(/;;;:;2'.A;:;7'''"p'7j"'
I'-!. II I
MKVVAH. [Mknah,] ^
MKUflllflfH
n()!>
MKNHA MYMTICA. Kr„
MKNHIIltUA DIVIHK)
(K. .». II.J
'•iMMvi,, ,.„,i. ii. i ' :,^:'''''':"''V''"'''" ""'"""
IVnni very vnvh li, , , "'" ""'»'" <l"l<«
'l'-'nh\.»: \,,' "%;.';', '^''\;"'''-'" y
(A.I.. ;m7), whirl , ■ ; ""."■■'' '■' *'"rtl.«K"
"niiiluiMnini," ,.„,,„, i,., '"""i"' il.vinnr
,.,M,. •M.ic.ai.a ^r, :;:;"'•■''' -'i|''"--.
nn';::vK:i!,,;i;.'7r:"!,,';^;«--''w-'".n,.yi.n
«"iNi», ,,is„ i'„ii . H ". "' ','";. '"•"' ■■'■ the
llitlOni,. (,.ir. A ,„ ;'' "'^, ""'"""l"'ll" I"
»•".„ «h, wr.,., |i;l^^:i "'"•"' '>'«'•■ •■IHVH,,.
"(• Ih. I, rt ,,."', ^""'",""'" I'" ll..n'„iu
(A.... Hrt7 NH<)) n,.,^" M-.,.,i„„,„„
<'""st,„„i l^'^iv■ 1 '"'''''■"'"'''''■''• "'"I
<^'/'"'- ..(• the .. „„i ., ;, , ':"""'"■'" «r Vhni-
"■■'-■';;n«toH„M:;;;,tr ^h;/:";rs';''r''''''
"'"' '-'"I'l in th« cm,.,, ,• '",„"•" M,.n„fl„,
MAtlM„|.,„C the ,„,ir .;".'''''""' "'■"■'• ">n
"ith ii::;;7 ir;;:^
'!• '« l.iin.l otf^ . 1. ' '""• "'"» 'i<mr („„<.
-"". o,ih.i;\:,!^;',J.,;;''"'-«|"Kui..runML„.
f«.%,u». .iicui."',;,rr;'r;r''''«''
tormn vitas voluni(.|i hiovihiu v,.. T"^'
Br.m^.t,ue in ,.,.u,libua c/i^'tl^f I:'"'"-
'"'■"« 'V.i;;ii:r.-S!i;;,.";:i!;,r'""''
!!^f!!y^.,^'':r^^'"'/>'M.^v .i:ii
^'i^w,„,,h;,:\ ,;;;»'''■"<'•; "twhi.h .st.
>^'"'' CM„n,i, ,ii I ,;,""'""'"'y '7 ;';-li„K hi;
'' IK H. M'.J
".u^^pi'::'^;:^''^'-'^^^^^^
ai^Sm;!;'^^,:::^'; t",'- ^"" "• -t
"^S-?^!:.i;&;Lr; --
^'u/y.>';;;;!-;;A;,.;:;:"'"''''''''''''''' "^ «"'"'". a „«,
(3) Miirlvr iini|,.r I),,„i.,.
■ llt.U. V,;]. '; "•/■'•'"'"""'■"'"INw.
"■"!;;?i::;::;:i;:;rt;,;;;?— 'V5"''"'
.IlMIC. ii. ,1(1) ' """ ' (""11. Arlit US.
L''- n 1
MKUiMA, Coiivcfr OF.W/,' ,
'■'/"""), hi.|,l * I, lie,. . M , . ('^""■'•'''ww/n-
■■■wniv!; hi ,^; i,;;i,^"'i'''''''^''tr'M"-i,,n..
"""' «<•". th ■»,',« ''•"'';■'"" ''i"''"i' "I
7';"^y-u.. "-:^r ::;,,:;:''"'•;:'-! v^"
"t thiiMn the CI,,,,,! „(•(' ""l""^"' In f,h.. I\nt
" "'ii''"!.... •• ,1. ,: ,';,'"'''"'''''''■' '^"'' t''"
'-'-7 .iHH...h:;;: ;;;;::-';'-""'• ''•n';vv.,ihy
'"• will not «„„„„t to if II ",,''" ■■'"","'" ''■'"".
vitatory, „, .. \-,.,,i .. V, "^ ','"! """""I. "10 in.
•"'"« "t v.s,„. H n th/ 1'""^' '"''"•'"^'•■•'1 t" I'"
'l''"'^<H t.> l.« om. 0^ I Iv tr ;h!'"wr''''? '"
"'•■"r who, ^„^,„,, i„";7 '^^ut ?.'''"« ?'' »•'«
"'■'■ l"rhi,M„„ to h, talcTr' I.! ^ '-^'' "'""'' '■""«
'■'"•'«- ->r ( r ,1 In f«l ''''■■ '"-Kl^l-'K tho
"I pari.Hh (hiir.heH An, Inli'^ i ""■' >'«'■'>'""•■»
'- "--^:.':i^»S^:l:;^^;'r'""
~S!;'J;,'^:y;:;:;-;'f.j^ii»«n,io,ho;?,
with Kclix mil ., h . ''"'(''''■'■'^■^^"'•<.).•
■^' CO- H.J
1
1170
MEROBUS
MKHODUS, ni.iityr; comnieniorated nt Tciin
St'iit. !:> (J/,<jivn. Jfurt.). [c. H.]
METATUS
»i i
JIFOItOLA, maifyr; commemorated at An-
tiutli Nov. ,!U {Huron. Mart.). [c. H.]
MEIIONA, martyr, commemorated nt Tomi
July j (I/icivn. Mart.). Cq^ jj "i
MER0VAEU8, monk of Bohbio, dr. a d.
6i(i ; .uijiniemoruted Oct. 22 (Uoll. Acta SS Oct
ix. 014). |-t; H -|
MERTIUS. [MEORTina.]
MESIIACH. [MisHAEL.]
MESIPPUS, martyr with his brothers Peu-
siiriis "''Slieusijipus amll-:iiisii)|,iis or Kli'iisippiis;
cciinnicmorated Jan. Id (Cul. Jlyzant.). [0. H.]
MESNE PROFITS. [Vacancy.]
MESROP, commemorated Oct. 12 (Cal Ar-
mcu.). (-(j-j^-i
MESSALLIVA, virgin mnrtvr, under Decius,
iit Iniliniio; commemorated Jan. 2J (Boll. ^c<a
SS. ,Iaii. ii. 45.'i). ^^> |j -i
MESSENGER. Polycnrp is desired in the
Isnatiau epistle to him (c. 7) to choose some one
who may be wortliy to be.ir the na -e of
ee<iSpoM«s, to carry to Syria the tidings of his
(1 olycarp's) love of Christ. The word etotrpeir-
fivrns IS used in a precisely similar sense iu the
Jgnatiau epistle to the Smvrnaeans (c. 11)- and
similarly Polycarp (.id Hilip,,. 1,!) speaks of
sending one to be an ambassador (7rp€n^^etio-o,/To).
Ihese emissaries were probablv in most cases
deacons of the church. Baroniiis (Ann. a.d .58
c. liW) wrongly sui)poses these e^Spouo, to be
CUKSOUKS (p. 521) for the summoning of assem-
blies, (limghain's Antii], Vlll. viii. 15.) [c]
MESSOR (1) Martyr ; commemorated in
AInca .Ian. U (Hi ron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; commemorated at Picenum An
lo {Iheron. Mart.). n- u -T
METATOR. An officer sent before the
sovereign when on a journey to take care that
proper preparations were made for his reception,
[ftce Mi;tatl-s.] Cyprian (A>. 81, al. «, 8 4)
applies the word to Kogatian, the first martvr
sent to prison in the Decian persecution, who lie
says, went before the rest as a harbingcrfmetatori
to prepiire their place in the dungeon. See also
Ojitatus, de Schism. Don it. iii. 4, § 61. [p. O.T
METATORIUM (M^rara^.o., ^.Tar<i..„.,
^e(raT4,p,or) one ot the subordinate buildinu-s of
an oriental church, usually regarded as identical
with the diiconiam [Diaconicu.m . Tims in
the Luchidogia we read of the pat'riarch goine
down "into the metatorium or diacnicum," and
passing from it to the altar from the right-hand
sKle. Cedrenus records that when the emj.eror
J.eo the Philosopher was forhidilen by the
patviarch Nicolas to enter the church, .n ac-
count ot his having contracted a fourth nni-
ruge, he performed his devotions i„ ,he ,nef,- i
torium, on the right side of the altar (CVdivn
ZTA ''••♦fS'!''-. J'"'-- P', «<»2)- The me.atorium i
eie, ted by .lustmirin at the church of .St. Soohja
was u.sed by him and his successors as a place of
retirement and repose, in which the e nperois '
[ also sometimes partook of a in.>al (r(. Theodor
•ect. AWo;/ li. p. lij.-,, and the ..tlier lelcivnccs to
IJyzantine historians given bv Ducan.'e, Cvn-
atantinij/iolia Christimi, lib. iif. \», ha] Gonr
IS of opinion that the metatorium was aiso used
hy the ministers of the chuich for rest and re-
treshuient, and that they there partook of a
slight repast. He regards the word, as does
.^uicer(a«, voc.) as a corruption of ^.^aoTuJpio,/,
derived iy<>mjxl„<ro,, ferculiun, or (ro,,, ™„s,,
a table. But Ducange is j.robahlv li.rht in re^
gaiding It as a Giaecized form of the low-1 at in
' metatum " frer(uent in Gregorv of T,.uis, Gre-
gory the Great, and contemporaneous writJrs, in
the sense of "a dwelling." The (hrek form
t^iTdTov, i>T Hfrdroi', is of not unfre,|uent occur-
rence: e.,J. yoni(ovTts «al ^•'T^^iTdrwavTm, iv
<i) ird\ai KarfutiPfv (v^iaKiaBai aMj„ ifi)Tl](ra-
tifv {Lmml. Cunstantinop. siib Mam.,, act. ii
Labbe, y. 57 ;) inf(^Tr,af ^irarov (aliter KfWiov)
IxtiQav A XpKTTiarbs (Athanas. d,- /,„„,/. /;,.,»< )
Augusti, with far less probability, considers it
another form of " mutatorium," in the s.^nse of
a vestry," croncm puramcnti, where the mini-
sters of the church changed their habits (\u.
gusti, Hmd.xtch der Christ. ArchUul. i. ypo •
Binterim, DcnliwurJigkeit, vol. iv. i. p. 14o). '
METATUS. The duty of providing food
and lodging for the sovereign and his retinue
when on a journey, or for the judges and others
travelling on public business. Under the lio-
man l,iw the clergy were exempted from this
obligation Cod. T/wodos, xvi. tit. 2 leg 8)
According to Gothofred (Com. ia Cod. rto.los
vii. tit. 8; de (hicTe Metatum) this e.vemptiou
was given to the clergy, to senators, to Jewish
synagogues, and all places of worship. The
capitularies of the Frank kings, on the other
hand, appear to lay the burden chieflv on the
clergy. One reason of this undoubted iV was to
be found in the freiiuent bestowal of fiVfs upon
the church, to be held by this and other feudal
tenures. I'homassin ( (X, ei Nov. /,;,/. Iiisnp
111. 1, c. 48, § 3) says that under the liom.in law
the obligation was considered to be a badge of
servitude, but among the Franks such e.xercise
of hospitality was esteemed an honour and a
tolcen of the alliance between church and state.
Bishops especially appear to have been ex-
pected to receive the sovereign. Thomassin (16.
Ji>. I.e. 39, §§ 1, 2) gives instances of farms
bestowed l)y Charles the Great on bishops who
had received him with such hospitalifv as was
in their power, and of punishments inflicted by
him on certain bishoim and abbats who had
neglected to receive some ambassadors from
Persia on their way to his court. This custom
appears to have brought with it certain incon-
veniences. A curious canon of the Council of
Meaux, a.d. 845 (c. 2(J), reminds the reign-
ing monarch, Charles the Bald, that w.unen
were strictly forbidden to enter the houses of
any of the clergy, and that especially the
dwelling of bishops should be free from their
presence, and implores thein not to comi.el bi-
shops to turn their palaces into lodging houses
tor women during a royal progress. The right
W.MS also claimed for tho~e who were travellinif
on public business. A capitularv of Louis the
lioiis (11 tit. Iti, ed. Baluz) sets forth that
certain places had been appointed by himself
MKTELLUS
"n I his fiithiT c.r (I,.. . ,
'"I":. '."I H us J'"?' ""■'''" •"'h-ri-
■■■"•'■''"llv .liM.harLl « "",""" ""'^ 'l"tv u.s
«"'! l-uvisi'n ,•„, ), J J'"» ^•"•<'Hai,„„„„t
t)'n.at,.n..| with deprv.f ,'7 i'""'"'-''-^"'") are
they ,„,,v h„l,|. rle ' on „:? ""' ""''"^ "''t
by statute thtVo oVrT'r '" ^•"'•"•■™
swvM.,, or „n anvdutv LV •'^■'*'-l'"iK nu his
^vas -.ui.abi . -IC h2° "-»S it -nore ,h,,n
I'. !«-'), e.vhort.s h m not toT''''''^''^"''"- "
by continual f.rog lef." w,^:',"".,:'"' .^'""•'h
exactions whid, were Tot r, ^ ^ ""'' "*^"
of ),is preJooessor, ""^^'^'^ ""•■"7 in the ti.ne
>»"''i",?itapretexW„rlTe l'w:i,:>' '''''T
proshyters of ,),„,> di„eeses ° A V'""'\."l'"'> '•'"-'
tion delivered bv the nWr A ''"" "' in^'nio-
t"«'^ii.p..)Jo;'esr■ ;:^';;" (f'™''"''- ^''"•
•heir fr'nds , S'';;: ""^''' l"--''y.ers for
the name of free eifts ;,'■"' '" •=«"'•' "'"l^'r
any su,,plies of h,^.: 1 ":?'•""'' "' "'' '■'l"'^' ")
■nakiug 'provision ?„; u,e ■'^''* "" l"'^''^'"- »''
bassies! SouH'thnes thi ""'"T^'' <"■ his en,-
«h" had no t ie to i' ^7''""""' ''^ ""ose
^vere exempt. aI elict' ^f 'r, '"'"'"■^ ^^bo
practice which hnrt .,„,., " -' P'"hibits a '
if the omp!^re, oftSL"'; T""^ ""' '""^■«" I
•■"■ce (•' man.i ,nitieo7., '^ '"''g'ngand conv..,- I
f.«m free menbut L, '""'•''''"'^'^" "^' ""' ""'^
gn-.-houses;;?:?hS,^~i-. convenes,
Exemptions appear to hw!?. .'''''''''''''"'•
mo.,a'teries. An " ictof I ? ?u '''^'^" g'^'^" *»
by Thom,a.ssin ( r'r.V A "'i'' ''^'^''''^■ '1""'<"1
"nod|ing^^;;:::!:itSj';:/;"r"'^^'^'"^
monasteries. Flodonrd V'//- , I ^ ""' ^'''ni'l
that Kigobert. ar Sb 'h P '^- Kh'd "'• "^ '^''y^
that all church nropertv f„ M • ""'' "'■'"'■•^J
f'-m the lights if enteHn . '?'-'''" "■•"* ♦■•«e
j..'iges on the ground of e?'"! *-"'""""'' ''>' »'"=
the Frank kings ThU "'"'''V"°'' ^'^nted by
times extended to it , l^^T *"' «'"no-
themselves. Aeharer.^'''\"^ '^« ^'^^hops
mond, Co«o. (;„;/ iu ll\{ ^'["S^c (Sir-
bishop or count shoudci;„K!h ''■■'' f"
any right of lod^ino- or r, • ■ "" """nks
but that the, shS b ZTTZ '"' '^' '^"y- I
duty of hospitalifv to all 'K '' '" '''''""' 'h--'
""■• ••"'"■ the utis e "eete'f."'"' "' ''""' '"^° '
"itntions in the wav of re " "'""''■^"■'-•in-
distinct from the hfw of rm";":^ v^^-'"i«'-«. «^
TALtrv; Hosi-itjum! 'n«'atus,' see Ho.sp,.
oth'^f l't\''eS;s«";:a'.'!j,r'*'' ''"''""'"^" -^
(L'suard. J/;w.). ' '^"'""'eraoi-ated Jan. 24
™^^«e' CONCILIUM. Cm4"'^
Oo,¥"Ou^r°hTfit\\,!'.»?"''='' <"■ Constanti-
cusisr. A.VT.~voi, 7i. ' "="""'«'"o>-'>ted June
METltoPOLITAiV I171
J/"'-/-; I>auiel, Co,/, liiurj.
H (nasi
(2) Itishni) ni' P.*
'ian ; con,„, ,„,„',' '■";"• ■"»■•»)■'• "n.ler Djocle-
MKTRAH or METRAVtlS ""^ ""^
1^ r-^;""iria , eommemo -ated J.n .', ni"i^''. "'
^^- Jan. ii. Ui7<,)_ "^'^ -*''"• Jl (liidl. y)c/a
^-S'^iT^f'fZ^ ; commemorated i„
^Mc/.) V^'ttz-on. Mart.; iie,|. j/y,.j_
"x-ated at Mcomtdia i ^^rr."-" ' •=""^"'-
/Si \f . »• " ("""'on. Mint 'I
METRODORUS n« k . '•^" "'^
7'^'icom,nemSKri'^;?r'^'"'"^'™-
METROVA ' -I
'••'-aAp.29\/A;'^:']^;;p™"rated at IV
'""rated June 4^basn' Zi t'"-^-^ ' """'"«-
and ^LandUitf- S,^:r No^;^""""-
METROPOLITAN nvr , f^^'' "'^
- 6) co^siderr'tl! t S.i'^f- ^•"'' "b. it
"/ «|.ostolical institution ,,," ."';' '■'"""■
^I'ostles founded the IhSl '''" " '«''st the
a» to put matter. ineWtllvTn T- " •^^•^'^■"'
^'•ection ofmetropolita e"-Ld mrr /'"'' "'«
be suj.pnsed to have cnnV ' 1 ?"''• tbereforo
;v''ich 'their act". ,u ." iT*;';' '"V" '■^'■^"" '"
'^'J- In support of tM :; ""' necessarily,
the fact thai'tl e apos les i ?• '"''" '^ '"''' "n
vince of the enipirech 'l ^'.""^ '"'" anv pro-
"^ that prov'i'r i ': iX "r'!,"""^"''""^
quarters, and to found «.h ' ""•'''' ''ead-
I "ample, Antioch v the nttr '•,• '^'''"^' '"'«•
Corinth of Achaia, Kphe''' o^^l"?''" ,',t "'' ^-^'ia.
of Macedonia; and wl en , .0' th'"' ^ '^^^alonica
I centre, other churches h'd, .■"' "' '''•'"» «
are collectively spoken of anH '"""'''' ">ev
in >-efere„ce to the Rom' " •^"'""P'^ '"S^'be,:,
'■.-e to its metropolis '"•Anrr""-*'"''-^-
^ew Testament of the chn .h !";"' '" ^^e
churches of Macedonia the ur!L''^•'^'^«''. »>«
■nterence, therefore, .s drawn H Z'^'""- ^^
ecclesiastical conne ion hltZ ''?' " <=«"aiu
the chief city an"l the chur .r^K*'' '^'""•'='' "f
P'-vince, wlih had derived Theit'""^'!'""""'
>t, was to be expected an.l •" ""^'n from
this, it is urged 1 '° T" '"'"nded. And
P'evail at an^early pS^'^r •"*," *'°""'l '»
'"••'-i that Titus «ihJin%'"r''^^ ^•-
metropolitans in Crete An,) 7k ^""^ "'''«'' as
Chrysostom is cited ^n.'^^Mr"'.^'''- which
chryfto.„•.,edZ:Tar'^'^''■^
I <JAd«A),^<,^ Vir.VptJ,e^ 1 *' '■7" "^'^o"
75
1172
METnorOI-ITAN
ttHiiraivKpitTiviitirpiy^ty. (C'iim|). V,»*. Tflnt. r'rcl.
lil). ill, c. 4, 111). V. c. 'J:t, lili. iv. r. '.M, wliiili
j)ii»»ii^;(!« hdWuviT, it m.iy |it'iliii|w lie ;«iiiH, do nut
Kuvm iicn'Miiii'ily tu iiii'iiii iiKii'v tliiiii tliiit tliv
wlmlcr \vii« (1110 lilshiipric.) Ilairow, Imwi'viT,
wliilt' ihlinittiii^ UN II tiiut that thu ilili'l' cjtit'x
were u>u:illy iti'k'iluil as tlit' lir»t scats iil'ihiii'i'lira,
yt't ciiiinidi'is that "all cccleslaMtiial |ii'uHiili<iii'ieH
au>l xtiliiinliiialiiinH, ar ili'iit'uilciirics of kdiiik
ll.>li<i|is nil iitlii'l'ii 111 ailiMiui>tratii>li nl' uplrilllal
Hlliili's, weru iiilnxiiiccil nii'it'ly hy hniii.iii nnli-
liaiio', ami cstahlisheil hy law nr tii^ldni, uimiii
)il'iiili'iillal ai'iMiiiiils, aci'oriliii); to th« cvim'iicy
of thiii){!i." "At (iint," he says, "I'M'iy hlshup,
HS n |>i'iiice in his own rhunli, did act fici'ly
lUTonliiii; to his will and diserclicpii, with the
ndvici.' of his cccli'sia.stiiial Kciialu, and with lh«
consi'iil of his |iu(i|d(! (thu whiih he did iisu to
I'oii.Mill), without bi'inx (.'<intndhildi> by iinv
other, or accouiitahic to any, fnitlii'i' than his
ollli^'alion tu U|diidd the vciity of Chiistlan pi'o-
iV'sslon. anil to maintain fraternal coiiiiininion in
ehai'ity and |ieace with neii;hh(inrinj; ehnrcht's
Jill iei|niie." liiit " hccausu little, disjointed,
and ini'ohei'vnt hodies were like dust, apt to he
dissipated hy every wind of external assault or
intestine fnutiun: and peaceable union could
hardly be retained wi'hont some li);aturc of dis-
cipline: and churches could not mutually sup-
port and defend each other without some methoil
(d' intercourse and rule <>( confederacy engaging
tliem: therelore, for many good purjwses (for
upholding and advancing the common inter"sts
of Christianity, for protection and support of
each cliurch t'lom inbred disorders and dissen-
sions, for preserving the integrity of llie faith,
tor securing the concord of divers churches, for
providing lit pastors to each church, and correct-
ing such as were scandalously bad or unfaithful)
it was soon found needful that divers churches
fihonld bo combined and liul<ed together in some
regular form of discipline ; that if any church
did want a bishop, the neighbour bishops might
stej) in to approve and ordain a (it one: that if
any bishop did notoriously swerve frimi the
Christian rule, the others might interpose to
correct or void him : that if any error or schism
did peep up in any church, the joint concurrence
of divers bishops might avail to stop its progress,
and to quench it, by convenient means of in-
structiiui, reprehension, and censure; that if
any church were oppressed hy persecution, by
iniligeni'_^, by faction, the others might be en-
gaged to afford etVectual succour and relief; foi
such ends it was needful that bishojis in certain
jirecincts should convene, with intent to delibe-
rate and resolve about the best expedients to
compass them, and that the manner of such pro-
ceeding (to avoid uncertain distraction, con-
fusion, arbitrariness, dissatist'action, and muti-
nous opposition) should be settled in an ordinary
course, according to rules known and allowed
by nil."
He then goes on to shew that as in each
political province, there was a metropolis or
head city, to which great resort was had for the
dispensation of justice and other important
affairs, and which usually possessed a Cliristian
church which excelled the rest in opuleni-v nnd
in ability to promote the common interest ; and
V also in all mecting.s some one person must
(reside, this duty would naturally devolve in
MKTnnPOLITAK
mwtlngn of bishopM upon the pndato nf th«
iiU'tropiilis, "as being at honie in his own seat of
|ii'''id e and receiving the rest under Ilia
wing," as well as ou account of his "surpassing
the rest ill all adviilitages answerable to thu
seiular advanliiges of his cily." Accordingly
llie metropolitan bishop became the president of
tlie episcopal nii'etings, which soon develupcil
into provincial synods. "'Ihus," lie concludes,
" I ciinceive the iiiitni|iolitaii governance wan
iltroduced, by human coiisi.liT.itions of public
necessity or Utility.* There are, indecl, some
who think it was instituted by the apostles, but
their arguments do not seem convimiug ; am',
such a constitution doth not (as I take it) well
suit to the state of their times and the course
tliey took in foiiuding churcbes " (VVnidsf un the
I'vi'/a S'l/Driniici/, >Suppos. v.).
Dr. Cave, iiiioted by llinghaiii, and apparently
Itingliam himself, appear tu take substaiiliully
the same view as liarrow,
Thom.issin lays stress on the fact that the
|iriiicipal towns being first evaiii,'clized by the
apostles, Christianity would radiate thence, nnd
ilangliter-churches spring up around the original
church in the mother citv, owing it a liliul obe-
dience as sprung from it.''
.Such obedience, however, If taken in a strict
sense, though well established in later days, was
at first id' somewhat gradual growth. Soon after
the middle of the 'Jml century, .synods were ren-
dered peculiarly necessary by tlie diversities of
opinion which then sprang up. And, as liarrow
states, these would naturally he held in the chief
city and under the presidency of its bishop."
Tlie more frei|ueutly sucii synods were held,
the better defined would the dignity of the iiie-
tropiditan become, especially as it would be his
duty to rnuvene them. When they came to be
convened at regular intervals, it would assume
an established ciiaracter as an integral part of a
permanent institution.
Nor is it difficult to suppose that in the inter-
vals between synods the )iresi,leiit would probably
he referred to, when the decrees needed either
explanation or enforcement. What at first was
only llie inlluenco due to his superior position
would thus by degrees become acknowledged as
an actual authority. Other occasions on which
• Accordingly wo find that tlie civil nietropuUs was
also the eccli-sliu-tical nietrii|iijli», even when it nilnlit
have been ex|>ectcil to be ntherwiso. Thus C"ic Siiroa, not
Jcriisalcm, was lUe sent of ihe metropolitan in I'ulestino.
Coin|inre canons 12 and 17 of Clialciilon.
^ " Kx quilmscolUnUur, «i civiles nintropoles In motro-
poles etiiiin ecclesinsticaB eva.sore, Id eo miixinie fucluiu
esse, quixt metropoleun ecclesiae coteras quoqiie (M'pere-
rlnt fuiuturliitque provinciae ccclisi^ie; eo prorsus nioilo,
quo urbis ciijusque catbedralis, ceteris vkliioniin oppi-
doruiu eccleslis ortutn dedit, atque adeo niatcrnaui fa
eas doinlnationem jure est consecuta " (Part. i. 1. 1, c. 3).
' Suili at least was Ihe general, though iiotat first porliii|i9
the hivarialilo rule. For Euscblus ( //. /,'. 6. c. 23) speaks of
u syn(«l of Ihe bishops of Pontus at which the senior
bishop appears to have presided. In Afiica the rule as
to metropolitans was pecullnr. With the exception of
Ciriliage, "hich seems to have be<<n the stHiidiiiK metro-
polis fur the province of Africa proiKrly so called, tlie
senior bishop tor the time being of the province was
m- tropoliun, whaicver his see. Such was the caot<jUi
In Niunldtft and Muureianla. It is to be observed, how-
ever, that Cariliagc feems to have hart a kind of primacy
uver ibem. See Oleseler, 1st period, ( gti.
Mi:Tnf)por,iTAN
fho riin'sti ,n (hh.il.itiint, .,f „ t>
;v;;..w«.,..-.!.„,,;3i;;;:-;™,-;;...
HMfitV th., .1 „r . 7. , ''"'" "'"■'' '■•'"' f"
"h...uh.v,,ii, „',';;;• iff-'', ''''■"''■•'''
«i"n, anil ,h t.. tl,o .,, . ," "'" ''^"'•'•»-
;•-•«-■.. ana ,l;;;':.^'--j'-/h,.y „.,.,,,
I'l-li"]., in casp nnv nth,.,, i • ' "Knl'H'
what was ,|„„e I'n uT rl^l *!'" '" '■»"■'■^■
tiitis suae arl itri, m .,, ''''"'.■'tl.s ct potes-
■^'''"•""■« '■'' Cone. C:,.C AD 2i'6'""j^'';
"'li'i' was rather tC 1( I "'""' ♦'>"' his
'l-'tion or the othp /"''''""J;">y.''<^tual subor?
J C.-l. .....
MHTKOPOUTAK n;3
HrouM Canons.! II.' V ■''''""''• [■'^"'' A|.„.
""'i'l"itvl„.,.anJ. (h. *'" '"■*•'""' '"'• "i,.ip
;'"''''''"'''»'"'--4i I ''''!'/'' ''•'''''"-'''■•
',"'-r- ''i'kWlani|,,u ;,,'"'''''''■ '""■""■
"'" »'n'« tinis l',i' , , '„ 7"'"::' '■'■"^''''■'- "'•■'t
("" matt,.,, by what ,:, .""■'•'■"l"'li'an ai.th„iit;r
""■ "l""'Mi.' -an , , , '"T'^'" '"' ""-I'- that
'''-'Mn.'atal :,.tt'7/r
'hi- '•""". il „(• Xi,,. " ,;, " ='"'''•- a ly. that
'"■ i^ not to b,. hX Tith,' r^' ?.'' " "''"••'■wis.,
"ee als,, can. iv) '^ "^ " '"'"'"'P (•-•an. vi. ,
"••-^.rnMhif ":"?'' f™"- -■) h- -.li„it
'''«»»«.-l, but'witl , t,l;„S'.-a.,al "a'"re 'a>e
powers of p,„.h bkhn ■ ^ '"•■^"vali,,,, ,,s t., the
-i^b;i;:;?;;;!,,;';:"'"«i«<3that„„„„e,,
«'■ the metro ,,:^ ,„;'/. ,V7'"' '"?'' 'h-' p.e.se„<.e
tion (can. xii.) * "''"-''' '■'-•P=ats th. injuuc^.
o.j.re„.,nc„sto.„:::xt.t."'S;.."r '"^■^'' -
""' •"A.I'x.'a., (en. 6). Kv,n 1. Im"'"""" '"^f"'»«
'.. the N'i"oeL'car„ Itd^ L^;rK ^^^ -^^-
-rr,::;'';!^r"t^t'i;--cs
4 2
I
llfl
mtinoi. UTAS
k
m
',.t
Th* tight iif )i>'i'-><iDiiUy ilmi i.llnit app<- iN wan
*'>l « v>J»»l 111 iiiflripi)iilltiin» lUI II latB ppii.l.
11)0 cuumil uf .Siirlicii may Im tliminht in
^Ar* * Umv ■'( it, hut tht! iliTicf* ot" tills fiinti-
lid <nii riltttubji *- u( ii(j(iuald nm (leriiap '|>«u to
Xk* *"»■«'• of J<(i'« dlreoleil thiit nyn. !<
•lioulil W ' ' ■ f l'< ''■•> « yeitr in i-iich prnvinie, in
oi'ilui' iWul »li«B li-r^mpu "f liiynn'ii hml Iwuii
cxiiiininiinicatei liy fiislr own lHr.li(i|H th« imi-
I'lii'ly III' the »L>ntime<' iiil^lit bu I'XiiniiiU'J iiiij
riiiiliniHil, or niiti|{:iteil. (.Sim> raiiiiii v.)
The ciiUlii il iit'OlmlciMldii (call, ix.) ilflini- 1 tin
omiise til lie that when unu iliMHyiiuui com|ilaini'i|
iiijahi.it another, tlijy nhuiihl lir^t v;ii bdlnri- thiiir
own hiiihii|i, or beliiie jmlge* si'lci 1*1 hy Imth
iiirties with hU Hiinctlnn. Itut If a ('lei');yiiiau
iii'iiii>;lit Ik <'om|>lalnt a^'alnst a bii«li>i|i, it wan tu
bo iluli-rmlueil in the [iiovinoial syiiml.''
In lilie manniir the cuumil of Autinoh (can. vl.)
alliiweit A |iitrty exouiniiiunicali'il by hln uwa
blnliiiji to u|i|ieal to the next ensulni; nynml.
In thene Hyumls the metni|iiilitan wnulil no
iliiiilit |iresiile, nnl exercise great Inlliienee, but
there is no |iriMif as yet of his juiljjiug aUme in
matters of Iniiiortanea.
An interineiliate staije seems observable In the
laws of Jiistlniaa (Co'l. i. tit. 4, lei;, ■j',)), jn
wliii^h an a[i|ieal is given to the nietrnpulitaii,
with H further a|i|ieal frmn him to a syuoil, and
a liiial iiiipeal f.vom the lynoj to the ;iatriarch.'
P'lwerofcoiinriniition came Into the banda of the metro-
liolil.iii piTsuiiiilly. "yuoiiliim Inier epl-mpns iinlliui-
I'lrt's, {iriniiis et priiPMB iiis"t metrnpnliiiinus ; niqii*'
in'MipiT uiiiiiibiLi c<'m|irovliKi.ilib»H epl-cnpls cdmiiio-
(linii iR4i>t, ud sinKuliiH eplscoporuiii nrdiniitl'tius con-
veiilre, senslni ex quiidiiin ul minus t«ill.i icclislae
roiiHoiisti lid nietropoliianuni, inie^riim p< ni* d'-vuiutiiin
csi Jus elecliones dthcutiendl, eu^iipie vet ut eanoiiliMS
priiliaiiill, vcl ut minus eaiiunlciis repMbamli." (Van
K«pHii, part 1. tu. xlv. c. I.) For the prufesslon of
olieilU'iice made to mitropiilitans liy the bli-liops uf lliclr
|iruvl[ice. see Itislioe, 1, (t,
' 6 iKfiaX\6lltvOK i\tTu f^ovirCav in'i rhv inifTKnrroi' tt}?
fii^rpoTroAcajf T^s OIITT7V firap\ia? niTar^eytii'. ti &e o t^?
fiitTpoTToAfwt ofr«irTie, «iri roy TrArj(Tio\wpoi' ifaTaTp*'x*il',
«ai a^iovv, 'iva fura oKpifieia^ aurnv i^tTa^Tjrai to
irpiiyna (c. H, t. 2). TliumasHJn (pan I. till. I. c. 401
ln«i>iB on the view that as iiietnipiilllaiis ordalni'il the
bi>liops of the'.- ;iriivince, they liiul n paliTiial auihorlty
ovir tliem. " I' .ta Ilia emt Juris aiiilqui n'uula. ut qui
bubet orillnundi, liulieut et Juilleaiidi p"ti»lali'm "
^ It he bad a dispute with the iiieii'o|Hj|lliiii, it vag-to
be lieiird before the exarch or by the putrlarch. (Caiin.
i\. imd xvll.).
' '^((TiTL^otief fxrjitva riuv evAa^etrT'iToie wAi^ptirdii', tire
irn^a tivik ffvyx^rfpiKOV, t'lrt irapa tmv KnAoufieVdji/
AaiNuii' TlfOd tvQi)^ Ka'i iit npuinj^ (v nirtdrrn yfi't.tTlfat
irapa to'; juafCapiuiraTOi; Trarpiap\ai¥ SiOiKriaeuii iKafTTrj^'
a-VAa irpioTov Kara Toey lepoO? H*trfxoi(? irnpa rut ryj^
iroAtw? eiriaicOTrut Kotf' tjl/ 6 KAirpocbc Siiyet- fi 6t t'ln-on-TtuT
i\n irpb? «fccil'Ol'. v/apa ri^ Tt/« fii)rpoirdArujC eiriandn-iu
73UT0 ilpdrriiV' f( i>i d'u^ fiKOc) oi're ra kit' eittU'Oi'
nvTi^ dpe'iTKOt, TTl*"<c ' '''pb? TTie tiioyri (TVl'nS'tv ttji' liji
Xiopai aytiv aliTo,' Si ■■i"'y, Tpiuii- limt rjj ^Tjrpojro-
Ai-17 (Tui'idi'Twi' fitot\\tit '. iv T.^ntuv '■■iii' icaTa riji'
ri^tt' TT^i XeipoTOfia't -pf;'.\, -.yf. '-.Tni f ■-*. tV ra^ft
rrfi pAi;? (rvif66ov i^er^-'.-^-r-.: t.i ti ul' •: 'to\ftf iri to
lffKpl^lefttt^Tpay^AdTUV'^■r■■\t:''. #' - /^iVciT) 0f^Ad(/)-
Gat, TijviKavra eiTi«caA--t<rt' .; ■'■ ./c -(piuiTaToe iraTpi
ap\i}i' T^ 5ioiiri}(reuf i'rAv:ii. '.cu , ■ ir-.p' ainov Kpivofit
tiprjfievoi JixaoT^s. Ka- ' -yOf' Tuii' roioiiruie ciriTKOiruie
airQi/idaciiif ovjt tlifat X'"f"^^ ffrxAi}T((> rots irpb ijfiiuv vtvo-
uoSeT/)Ta»,
MKTIlorOIJTAV
Tlio lr..u),|i ! -tate nf airiirs soiiajly and |i')ll«
tieally, ^|» w>li ' ecilesiiistii'iilly, which ensuoii
during the In thin;.' up nf the Itoiii.iu Kni|inM,
and tlie growth of in. various Kuro|>eiiii iiiunar-
cbles iVniii Its ruins, iimi liTe I It dilliriilt to bring
together distant lil»hn|is, and i'iinsei|Uently synods
were iv ly held or tell into disuio "• This wnuhl
largely- "fiibute to In lepeudent action ou th«
part of : ui'tr'iiiiditiins,
Spealiiiu,' in ri'lalion to the «tnte of things In
O.iiil aliiiut the nth and 7th ceutiiries, Ii11l2.it
says: ''The civil metropolis was geiiei'.illy iimie
wealthy, more populous than the other towns of
the province; its bMiop hinl irioie inthu'iire ;
people iiiit around him on all important ocni-
sious ; Ills residence became the chief place of
the provincial council ; he convoked It, and was
the president of it ; he was 111 ueover charged
with the c.iiitinnatioii and iiuuseciiition of tlie
newly-elei le.l bishops of the iirovincc ; with re-
ceiving accusations brought against bishops, and
the appeals from tlieir decisions, and with car-
rying them, al'ler having inaile a first examina-
tion, to the provincial council, which alone ha<l
the right uf judging tlieni. The archbidinps
unceasingly attempted to usur|i the right and
inal<e a personal power of it. They ot'ten suc-
ceeded ; liut, in truth, as to all important cir-
cumstances, it was to the provincial council that
it aiipertained ; the archbishops were only charged
with superintending the execution of it." (/list.
0/ Civiliaiitiun in frjiwo, vol. ii, p. 4(i, tng.
trans.)
In .Spain, in the Gth century, the council ot
Toledo (can. -i I) says, "let the priest.s, whether
parochial or di.icesnn, who sliiill be tormented by
the bislii.p, c.irry their complaints to the metro-
liolitnn, and let the metropolitan delay not to
repress such exce.s.ses." This seeina to imply a
direct personal power, but it may be observed
that this canon ret'ers to unseemly exactions on
the part of individual bishops rather thau to
their judicial sentences.
Ki.im this time onward the authority and
position of metropuliii'us in the West wore sub-
ject to iimny lliictiiatiuus, and varied much in
ditl'erent countries. Hume uf the pupes, who were
jealuus of all iutermeiliate authority between
tlieniselves and the diocesan bishop.s, shewed a
dispositiuu to wealien the metropolitans. And
the bishops themselves, with a somewhat sliurt-
sighted policy, preferred to have their sii|iciiiir
at 11 distance in Italy instead of in tli. i' .iwu
puuntry and province. Moreover as tlic .-upe-
riurity of th" iiieti(i|politans was in a great, le,'i. >
dependent ou the pre-eminence of tbe ".' . lU
which their see w.is fixed and on its ain cjut .'1.1.
raeter lis a metropolis, the changes which tools
place in the relative importance of towns at
jieiiods of iuvasiiin and social change materially
allected the jiosition of the |irelates.
It is not surprising, theretbre, that in many
[ilaces the metropolitan authority should decline,
or that in the Sth century rejiin shoul.l have to
consult pope Zachary as to the course to bo
adopted for procuring respect for metropoli-
" In the course of the 6tb century there were held in
ilaul lllty-four councils of every descriptlim : In the 7th
ccotuiy only tftelity. In lie- ilisl lialfof the 8II1 cmluiy
only B^ven, and ttve uf tbcse were held In Belgium or en
the txuiks of ilie Kliine. (liuizot. Hut. of C'ivi^Kadon
in t'lixnce, vol. 11. p. 49, 1'^ng. trans.)
MKTUOI'OMTAV
t" l.-.t"i.. t lu lii,tiliit|,„i , '■'
vu ■.-■in,. i,.i,ui: „■:,:;;'"; '"^ '^
m-itfuu ,„i<|„ have. luJ tl.i, ...1 1 I ,.,'■;"■;
J,,!!,;."'"'"'"""'""""'"™-! »,
ol' these -u,,orim.'p :.:';, 'Vl'l '""^■"^
"fiea chiw.n, the iiw.ti-.ii .,i;t
l«t.iaroh (.eu Th.„nas „ , " -t^ \u T''*' "'
ti.0 a,,,,„i„i„i„n,' ../ w i .: i ;r : ^"'"^:''"'
h"uu.l to >vait tor this b'f .-p , , "' .•^'^■'' ""^
" Soe ()I,w1ot, 3r(l ppriml, dlv. 2, <5 25
of s ■::'rc^;r'ir 't- '-"- "^ »-«
III.. I,c. 48) metropolitan power (part i
"Thaa L«.(A>.88),. ■' Metr„p.,litan,. ,|„r„„,t„ ,„„,
l-t^te discussa ex p.e,l,yteri:!3L ^ ^^ s^ Z "e";
oi» onis optiiuus cligatiir." ■" <:w.ie81ae, vet ex
MKrUOPOI.lTAV 1175
I'v th,.- ,.„i„„ , """""■'•'' Ihi.i waoiinstruH
, • ,, |'"|"'s to iiiiMii n iiro,i,,,„ „,• 1 ,
-;::H.uo.,Laoit;:'o<i:,[;i:;j--
Ni'' ...h,„.i,",,^';^' • ","Ha,alcol,.ua„|
tl..ir bish,,,,. 'ha-,| ,n " ; ";tf"l'"li>. u..!
'"^';^"', part i. 1,1,, i. ':a|' ,.V"'' ■■■"'"'""■" ■^''"■-
f^>KU,ms thiLs: • '•■""'"""•'»t«» th.ir
•^--■Ichrata. co. rn.ar.. „ '' .'" .•"■■"i'-^ii '"i
=,:- ■ "-'«t,:-;:,*-,:;»;
>"vfs=~:"rsr:'"'-'
j..:.:..i;,;":;-".::!;;';:;;,;r; ~
«i--...i.o,:::;:!;;:;;;;-,-.-;-.i....t
''.'i-w.iseoiU::^^^^ ''r«;''---'tiah
Ti,eothS;n;;L^i:-th::l-';.f"''''-p-^')
nihil ollioere, v 1 it,ol,,„ ''"■''■'''''■'"' "''*'•■'■'«
.>;-n,,oiitaui'::';:;:; ; i2"p----;iiK..-ui
politauo „t eiiiscir ™"""uui.. a ,„etr„.
'■'•aut: praeser ,7;; '"•"^■.''"^'■'« Pert,a,.ta„,la«
-porum^L: rnStrin^'''""^';•..'^'''■
Ji. n..ne„. deproll^C ve :r'r7; '" ■"""'"
l)rovucatum vel .-nm : " ' '""I* erit
l^eae. tnot"!,:;:!,:,';'^ ~~''-tuiaba.t.
praeterebat se.lis aposto He 7 Oh """?■"""'"
".n«nu,n p.aele,;ti erant et vin"^^:''*""'"''""
vioktorum in iusos cul,,» ,„ .''"^'"•'•'^ ! "npiuiB
tat Dabant liirn t't't ' Tri;'"-"'" '■"•'''^■
et .Irlicabanluf ao dotublnM^; """ '"'"'■"■■*'""«
l>"l,a di.,tiaheb»ntur,,h '"''-'""''• "^^ ••'•'"•"'"
ordinanJoru „ e" c.— "^ "'" = ^"""-'"^
cone , liabat auth! tTm ™'t L :«"".' '" '""^
in eosJen, e^regiae pot^^tatL juri!"^''"'' ™"'i"'^
1 *e Van Kspen, part 1. til. ,(j caiT^T-j,
' This Ut I.e.d rel.r^iL ?'"■'• ''"* P''"'""' V
which in Africa (,..«. canon MrfM.'"' •^"""""Ja-io,,
thug..) and u,l,eV^,r. " ^Ott; '^"'""" "' C^'^
viii. .S) wore granted tyh^l^JZ? '^" "'"'"• '''"'*•
beyond sea. ^ mttrupoliuu to blabops g„in.
117(3
METltorOMTS
MICIIAKL THE AHCIIAXGEL
h'f.
p^i
I
if: 'J
Aiil/ui itii'H. — -Ilowriilpft, C(mI, Ctmnnum Krr/e-
s'<n' Ciiifvrsitf ; :u\'\ I'limlivl. Ciuoniiiu. HiU'ruw,
'J'reittiiif iiH t/irl'ii/ia'a Sit/ir<'initci/. l(iiigh:iiii,.lii/i'/.
vt' C/iristi(iii Ciiiiruh. (Jiesuliir, Tcjctlno/to/ Kictes.
Jllsliinj. TlKimiis.sip, I V;( '.« ft Sura AVc/i'.imi,"
Jiinriplini. Iticlti'll, <h'sc/tic/ite (U's Kirchc rcfhts.
Van I'.siien, Jus Kcctes. i'ltivcrsuin. [B. S.]
METROPOLUvS (1) Bishop ; commomorated
All.,'. ;l (llicivn. Mitrt.).
(2) liisliii|) and ccinl'i'ssor, iierlmps in 4tli ci-n-
tuiv: iciniinemorato 1 at Trevea Oct, H (IJidl.
Aciii SS. Oi;t. iv. 210). [C. H.]
1METTANU8, martyr; commcmoratpd at
Alexandria Jan. 31 ( Vtt. Horn. Mart.). [C. H.]
MKTIJANA, martyr; commemorated at
Rome .June 3 {^Ilicron. Mart.), [C H.]
IME TUUUS (1) Martyr; commemorated at
Alcxauilria Ap, 'H {I/icroii. Mart.).
(2) M.utvr; conimemnrated "in At'rodiris "
[? .Aphrodisiis] Ap. 30 {Hioroii. Mart.). [0. H.]
JIETZ, COUNCILS OV (Metensla Cun-
lilki). 'I'hreo such are recorded :
(1) A.D. .'i.^O, or thereabout, on the death of
St. (jail, bishop of Clermont, when Cautinu.s,
his archdeacon, was cousecrated in his stead.
(Mansi, i.\, l.'il,)
(2) A.D. 590, when .\egijius, metropolitan of
lihciuis, was deposed for high treason, and two |
luuis who had been excommunicated, one of i
them a daughter of king Chilperic, had their
sentence remitted. (Mansi, x, 4o9-ti'J.)
[K. S. Ff.]
(3) A.n. 75."), or thereabouts, but all the
canons assigned to it are embodied in a caydtu-
larv, dated Metz, of king Pepin. (Mansi, xii.
571, and ib. App. 125.) [K, S, Kf.]
MICA (1) Martyr; commemorated in Africa
.Ian. 17 (Huron. Mart.; others read McciL'S
(Uidl, Acta SS. Jan. ii. 80).
(2) Martyr; co -nmeraorated in Poutus Jan. 18
(llieron. Mar*.).
(3) Martyr; commemorated in Pontus Ap. 16
(H:eron. Mart.).
(4) Martvr; commemorated in Africa June 1(5
Ofioron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MICAH, the prophet; commemorated with
Habakkuk Jan. 15 (Usuard. J/dri. ; Vet. Ji'om.
Mart. ; lieil. Mart. Auot.) ; Ap. 21, without men-
tiiiu of Habakkuk (Uiisil. Menol.); Aug. 14 (Gil.
Jii/zant. ; Daniel, C(hl. Liturg. iv. 2()t) ; Boll.
Acta 63. Aug. iii, 147); Aug, lb{Cal. Actliiop.).
[CH,]
MICHAEL (1) Bishop of Synada, confessor,
sat in the 7th council, "our holy father;" com-
memorated May 23 (Basil. Jfciio/.; Cal. liijzant. ;
Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 2t)0).
(2) Abbat, and martyr with 36 monk.? near
.Scbistopolis in ,.\rmenia ; commemorated Oct, 1
(Bii^il. Menol.; Boll. Acta S3. Oct. i. 307).
(3) AIIAG AWI, monk and confessor in Aethi-
opia ; c<imuiemorated Oct. 11 (Boll. Acta SS.
Oct. V. 606) ; " the old " (Cat. Aethiop.). [C, H.]
MICHAEL THE AllCilANGEL, AND
ALL ANtiELS, FESTIVAL OF. It is not
our province here to eater iuto the general (ques-
tion of angelolatry. It may be well, however,
to call alicntion to the tact that in the e.arly
Christian liiurch a certain tendency to ang(d-
' worship nianilestel itself: thus, for example, it
forms (me (jf the pcpints in the heresy which
all'ected the C(do.ssian church, against which >St.
Paul distinctly imitests (Col. ii. IH ; cf also
i. lii). The Lsseuic character of this here-.y,
whether or not there be historical connexion with
the Kssenes (d' i'alestine, must not be lost sight
of, inasmuch as angelology t'orined an important
|«irt of the esoteric creed of the latter, and, in-
deed, entered largely into the sp(M'ulations of the
Jews generally (.losiiiihus, IS. ,/., ii. 8. 7 ; cf. l.i>,'lit-
foot, Coiossiaits, inloc., where a number of illus-
trations are given of this point, in connection
with Jews, .ludaizing Christians and Cnostics.
Those from the curious Ophite work, the J'istis
Siij)/t!a, into which aii-gelology enters very largely,
may '"' especially noted). It is interesting to
observe that liuig afterwards, in the 4th century,
we lind a council of Laodicea (c. A.[). 3i!3) in the
immediate neighbourhood, that is, of Colossae,
holding it necessary to forliid th( ..ngel-worship
then prevalent in the country (cai). 3,') ; Lalilie, i.
1503). The canon is strongly word("d, bidding
men not to t'orsake the church of God, and invoke
angels aud hold commenujrations (ayyf\ous
uvoni^eif Kol (Tvud^ds iroieiy), bccau-e those who
follijw this secret idolatry are accursed, as having
forsAkeu the Lord Jesus Christ. In the next
century we liud Theodoret (in Cul., /.c.) referring
to this prohibition as necessitated by the spread
of this woi'shiji through Phrygia and I'isidia, and
he adds that (jratori(!s ((tiKTiipia) of St. Michael
were still existing in the neighbouring districts.'
On another imint of connexion between St. Mi-
chael and this region we shall subsenuently
dwell at length, his alleg(.'d ajipearance at Chonae,
a town in the immedi.ite neighbourhood ofCo-
lossae. It may be added here that the above-
cited canon of the Laodicene council was, with
the rest of its decrees, repeated centuries alter
by a synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (A I). 789), but
with the reservation, " nee aoininentur, nisi
ilhruin i/mos haljcnMS in auctorilate. Hi sunt
Michael, Uahricl, liaphauV (Capit. Aquisgran.
can. 16; Labbe, vii. 973).
Besides such conciliar decrees, strong expres-
sions of opinion are continually met with among
the fathers. It is perhaps hardly fair to cite
Kpiphanius as including the Ango/ici among his
different clas.ses of heretics, because th(Uigh he
mentions as a possible derivation the view that
they were worshippers of angels, he conlesses
that he is really ignorant on the [loint i* (Iliwr.
60[((/. 40]; vol. i'. 505, ed. Petavius). Augu>-
tine, however, says plainly enough, '• we h(]notir
[the angels] thnuigh love, not through slavish
fear, nor do we build to them temples ; for thev
wish not so to be honoured by us. because they
know that we ourselves, when we are worthy,
are temples of (jod Most High " (i/o I mi /iC/e/.
110; vol. i. 1266, ed. Gaume). Again, in his
Con/t;ssw;iS (x. 42, vol. i. 327), he says, " Whom
could I tind who should reconcile me to Thee ?
Should I have recourse (ambiandum mihi fuit)tij
• See the curious InsirlDiion from the theatre iit Mile,
tua, quutrd by Dr. lilglitlbot (p. 6» n.).
" Reieroiice ..\i\y also l)e made to Augustine (de Ilaeret.
c. 69 i vol. vUl. &?, ed. Quume).
MICHAEL TIIK AUCIIANOEL
•n^'olH?" 1„ his /V ant„U- IK-i (s,,.. lil,, X ...
fine::,,;':;;:--;-:;™,
Jhus taking the ohurch ns ,i wh,.|,. f,h„„„i,
miK'h inciio tnic f,.r this W...t .k .1 ,.
(1.."., vi,. .•«;.■.."'■„'"£,.":„"'• '""■
]:;^:.^— :r,£H tr-i-
Imsud on «„v such ,,' ',,,'•,- ' u"'* "'"
sin-ply oon„non.„..,.u,r", ::,,!';•, 7"™
events, ua,„,.ly, manifnsf „ti,„ s f h ,,,. K ^"''^'
at s.im,. s,,«,.al ,(,„„ ' ' "' <h.Min!ha.iK..|
ca^;n,,faUnn.h*ni;h;',i:!r''^''^" ''«'"'■
., -,-\ • iL (,.itf(( ^tnctitrnin. Sent yd
vervbrieriv tl, A b. 1 h' '" "'" '"«""■' '''
cave. a,,,| when it var,,"",?'''''"™'"''
turne,! an.l str.u.k the ar ■ ,.r ' A '"■'.'"^ /••-
«>-'«e, a.1,1 file l,ish„,. of s . '"'""^ ""'■"
di..ceseMount,iaJ ,;Lw '::;";;"•, '"."'•"-
given to faslinL' „ii,i oi-aver w ' '''' ''"
tin.eitwasv,rueh'a--,-,h; ,,'''':'■'''''''''
ai-ehan-el i„ ,, vision 1 ,V L ''"'"" ■-"^' ""-■
timt tla. 1.1 .. „,T M„|.^. h'*-'*"' "■'"■ '"''' '"■■"
taeutre at Mile-
itine ((ie Ilaeret,
lrMitai„,o fJc, r „ I ^ """ '"*■'" '•'"■-•I-
21, vul. vlil. 546. '^'''" "'""■'* '■««'<«»'. Jix.
m:,t'ti:::;'^:„^r:;;:!l^:i«---p"""to, ..te.
payers to atigel? 4 i,,''*'';"'. "".'"""» « -il'v.t
MTCIIAKI. THK ARCIIAXOEL 1177
"■i»h the ta,f o, a '1 '^ '" '"-' '■onneetej
«il."ii.o,., anil 1, n" ,."'::""" ,"'■• l'-|.J.- of
been ina iitaineil ..n 1 ' '""i. It has a so
that the ;';;.'";■ 'I".'"'" •' "" ■'^""'' ^■'"""•^»<
tlio aiThan.-e -s „ .' """'• ""-' '"'li'-''' »f
tion of the connexion bctueen tM i'' ''""■'-
""'1 the ro,nM,e,„on. ion „T ''"'', "'^V'""'^'^'"""
»halls,,eal.„,o,..nMirM„:!'''''''"'''^"''''-«
J*l""t .St. Miche nor ;^ Oipi-nrently the
yea,- A.D. 710. to a";' f "."["■h'^'^), about the
"fits hei!h ml „| """"" "'.'"""'■■^ "liacenunt
i"terwa,.,isad,l;:i),'^tiri.,r;rr'"'^ '-■'"«
rb;:;;:;;:sr!/r^r'-^
tH«^<-^..,t-this,nanire.sta\iol, '„,'%•:; ;•"•'■-■«
U»t antieai- at 'ill -.,.... .•' "' /■™''<-""'. it cioe.s
^■7i"H,.ea:^th::;:z::;:;C\,;''^,:;:7''''
^.iLrSt;';-:;-,:r''^^^"^^""^
Mount (Jaivanus as I ■ M '"•■i""<.'st,.tion on
w« fin,! mention^,' dtd ' 7;, , " »''-■" again
toNt. Miel,ael at Kmne so ,h '''l'" '-'"''"'='>
raises ns Pi, cb,.;.,.,,,. T , 1''"^'""" to sii<h
-''e,.ei„M;t.:t 'rtr'o^;^''"---.
«l'>'™.l thro„gl,out tie ,Wut WeT"" ''^'"'^
"'"' ''■■l"'"l in the for, ?.,. f ' , !""'•;','" '■''"'■'^'>.
2S\;r'S';r £"'*'■• ?«■"'*
,rJ- //"''•"".'/''" .fives, nceor,|inV to the r >
• Thin Ih Mabllloii'a duK-- S[l1iin„ /i , „
*Pt. .9. p. n a) give, moltc :",! „^,';!:5r'^'^
m
ff I'.
111
1 178 MICHAEL TIIR AUCIIAN(3TX
07.')). Tlio Afiirt. Gellitnonsii h1ii-\v« n siinilnr
vai'ialion nf MSS., tlu" slmrtcr forms ticinij np-
imi-cntly tliosc nf tin? (ilili'st (i'.. xiii, 41.i, -l-'Ji),
4;t',i), UimIc, aiomdiiii; to the li'xt, ol' lliu lii.l-
Imiilist cililiiiii, liiiM iniTi'ly "ili'ilicutiii I'lU'lcsiai'
Kaiii'ti mii;i'li MicliaiMis" {/'iitrut. xciv. 10."i7),
but III sniiii' fnniis lit' this last the oiitrv niiis,
'• Kmiiai', viii Salaiiii niiliarii) si'|ilinin, duilicatjii
lin.silii'ao saiicti iii-clianijcli Miiliaclis, vi'l in
iiimiti'. . . ." In till! Mint. AiKciiNc, us here,
the Kdinan cninini'iiiiiratioii (■(iiiics first, lint
thori' is nil nii'ntiiin ol" tlu! ,s)ii'cial Inralitv; tlii.s
is jjivi'u in a vajjiio way In a Mint, (^ii-'eicnsf
(I.i-slii', not. lul Litni-ij. Moiiira'K, in /m'.), " l{iiiiiao,
niiliarii) scxtii (sc|iiiinii ?) . . . ." 'I'ho niartvr-
iilnijii's 111' Kalianiis Manrns (I'ntrol. ex. 1171),
Alio (iVi. rxxiii. ;liiS) anii Usiianl (iVi. cxxiv. M.S)
inaki" ilistinit niiMilioii ot'Miiunt (!ari;anns. 'I'lic
nii'Irii'al niartyrolniiv uf lli'ilc, " Mldiai'lis tcrnas
[si\ Kill. fAY.] tiMnpii iluilicatio sacnit " (rt. xciv.
(iii,"i) is qniti' gcniiral, ami also that of Wan-
dulljei't (I'l. oxxi. (U'J).
" Ai'lliona virtntc imtens, prlnrcpsqiio i>u|H<rnaa
MilitJiU' Miclmi'l tiTiU) silil ti'iiiplit BiiiTuvlt."
Tlio I'liiiiiuinin Piirvinn oomliinos two nnticos,
"In Miiutc (iargano, viMicraliilis nu-nioria arcli-
ani,'i'li .Mii'haclis. Kt Roniao. Hciliratio ccclrsiap
I'jiisili'in arrliangcli, ii 11. lionifario papa ron-
Ktrnrt.ii- in linn, ((ni locus internubos 6ici[\ir"
(ill. cxxlii. 170).
Wo ni'xt rolcv to the three Roman .lacra-
iiii-ntarics. 'I'ho I.eonlne (umlcr the ilatc Sept.
Hit) irivi's no less than live masses, each with a
special prcf'ice, with the licailing .\iitiilc hnsiliciie
nil I'll ill Sii/iiriii' (.ii: rill). Koiir of these masses
are siieiially assuci.ateil with the name of St.
Michael, ami the lemainini; one with aiijrels ami
iirchau'jels i/encrally (vol. ii. <J9, eil. llallerini).
'I'lie (ici.isian Sacr.iineutary merely gives dra-
tiiiiirx ill siiiirti nivliiinjeli Micliadis (I'ntrnl.
Iwiv. 1177). hut in the (Ireirmian is (^ci/i'cu/io
biuii/ii-iii- .iiiiirti Mii/iiiflis (cnl. i;U, e:l. Mcnaril).
On a survey of the forcffning evidence, we are
indiiieil to ciHisiilcr the most satisl'actory expl.a-
liatiun to lie that there was a Konian coniinemo-
raliun orii/iiiiil/i/ ilistinct from nnv connexion
with the ciimiiiciiiuration of the manil'cst.atlim
on Mciint (iarsramis, ami ]iriihalilv of earlier
ilate than the allcL;c.l appearance there. This
orijiiual lloiiiaii festival mii;ht I'lirlv he a.ssn-
ciateil with the cluirch in the Via S.ihiria, which,
hiivvever. gut thrnvvii into the shaile liy the
increasing fame of the commemoratioii on Mount
(iarganiis. K Siilise.|ui'ntly Umiiface erecte.l a
church to St. Michael in Rome, to the locality
of which we shall again refer. The )ireseiice of
this church in the city, ami the distance of that
on the Via .S.ilaria, may have caused the latter
to he less fre |Uented, so that the more recent
churcn hecame the favourite in mai tvrologies. I"
' It may \k remnrlt il iliat twlii' tii tliese niimses arc
allimiuiiK til "/i«a sacmin(diiiitu>" to Uml in fiunuur ot
Si. Jf icii.iel, Implying, according to Boine, the exIsU'nce of
sevt'r.il ciHirches.
« it is KUi!K>'«ted (I-eslie, not. ail Litiirg. Mmarab., in
liK.) that Si'pi, 30 was n ally tlie nniiiveiSiiry ol tfif tliifi
citfoiiiif tlie cfiiirch in Ihe Via .Suluria, wlifcli wa>. slift'icd
to Sop;, ■iv to iiioiird with that of tlie dnlicailon of the
clc.l'.di nil X!,)i;!'.l (;;iri.-ar.iis. in v|.iw, |i,.sv,.v, r, ;.f the
cli'Sc priixlinlty ot till- iliiys, ilils sivnis rather far fcicliiHl.
>• I'lierc In Ml allusiun to the chintb In Vm SaluHu
MICIIAKL TIIK AnniANnEL
In considering the aliove view, it will he well
to hear in mind (1) that the meiif imi of fho Via
Salaria occurs in the oldest sacranieiil.irv ; (J)
that this locality cannot at all he reiimclled
with the notices of the church huilt hv llonil'ace;
(I!) that in .some of the nnirtyndogies we have
cited the Koiiian commeinoraf ion comes first,
whereas we are told that lioiiillice hiilll his
church soon after (mm inultii ;«»s7) the maiill'cs-
tation on Mount (iarganus; (t) Ihat a church of
St. MIcliael was existing in Koine prior to the
episcopale of any Honiface except llunlfne I.
(oh. A.I). 4'JU), who lived long liei'on; the alleged
date of the manif'esfalion on Mi.iiiit (Iarganus.
This we know on the anthority of .\iiasfasiirs I'.ili-
liothecarins (HO), who tells us that .Syiiiinachiis
,ol). A.I). .M+) enlarged and improved the diurcii
of St. Michael, so that the church, and pre-
sumahly also the festival, were existing before
his time.
On these grounds we hold it In he at anv rale
fairly probable that the /i*vi/ Koimiu festival is
earlier than the Apullan. To the ini|niry, how-
ever, how far such a festival is fraieahle hack,
it must be admitted that there is a scircify of
evidence. Haroiiins (.Mnrt. Hum., May H, iwt.),
who argues for the great antiiiuily of tiie Roman
festival, cites iu evidence the Chrisfi.ui poet
Drepaiiius Klorns ; but he is cert.iinly wrung in
supposing him to he the Drepaiiius meiifiiuicd
by Sidoiiius Apollin.iris, and the puet in iiiiestiuu
is trt he referred to Hhoiit A.I). 84H (Cave,
Cliiirtnph. Kid., p. lOO). Nur need we attach
much weight to his remark that in a MS. vuluiiie
of sermons in the Vatican library, bearing the
names of Angnstine and others, is one of (iregury
the (ireat fur the festival of St. Michael. Sliil
the evidence of the I.eunlue Sacramentary is
indicative of a decidedly early date, and we
probably shall not err iu assuming the existence
of the festival in the 5th century.
We must next refer to the" church of St.
Michael built by Bunil'ace, This, it will be rc-
ineinliered, was spoken of in tiie Mnrt. Iloininum
ini-vum as being in circo, in a place known as
inter hkV.s; and the martyrology of Ado in lil<e
manner speaks of it as in mwnnitittc circi. Wh.it
this locality is, is very donhtfiil. liarouins (/. c.)
ideufilies it with "the Mnlcn llmli-inna, and
connects it with an appearance of the archangel
in that place to (Iregury the (Jreat, on the occa-
sion of the cessation of a |)estilence. The liuui-
face he coiisi lers to he either the Third (oh. .\.|i.
iilMi) or Kuiirfh (oh. A.I), tll.'i), rejecting the
cl.ilms of Honifice II. (ob. A.I). ;'):!'J), un gruiimls,
huwever, which depend for tlieir validitv on the
acceptance of his theory as to the lucaiilv. It
may be remarked that this place is uuw and
has been fur centuries known as t'astello di St.
Angelo. Stilling again (Aitn Sin tnntm, p. 71),
I'olliiwing Duuiitu.s, ciiiisiders that the phue
hinted at is the head of the ('inns Klaiiiinliis,
and that the church is that which still exists in
the Korum riscarinm. ' If this locality bo
accepted, the reason against Bunil'ace II. falls to
ns still exlstlnn In the 9th century. In a list t)y an annny.
minis writer ot the liiily phici'S aljoiit Hume, oiled I'.y
Kckli.irl {lie rrhiit Franiiae Oriivlnlf. vol. i. p. s,in.
■ AicMliirrttNn)asi.hiiroliiif.M. .Miolae I m llunu' may lie
meniiuiieil heir, tiait built iiearlln' V.iiican ly I.fo IV.
(lib. A.o. tSj) Iu liommr ul iho vlonay over tin: ilusleniB.
MICHAEI, THE AUCirANOEL
:;-;.'' ''•«A,,niJ;:!;:,;!;,i;;;;:;;':';,_
lM,bl,.,,s K.,nw. n.„.si,|,.,;,l,l,. tin,,.,. I,, V ; '
Wuof festivals ,,r,|,;\:,/';','';',^'''"'^''l'tl..'
JI.M.IZ (A.I. Hli) , , • ' '"•' '^'"""■'1 "''
St .Mm. t|„. IWst Ha '"^^'•' ■''''-
must bo a,| 1, 1, ,„.,.v,. ; tba't I "■■''".■""")• "
c»un,.ii ...■A,.,„; „,,„,-• •;';;-.;;™.^.i„
i« 11" ineiiti,,,! of tliu Ccstiv,,! , '"'"'
I".i't of our »nl.j.,.|/w' nnv 'iT H''''^'^'''"^
tiio .s,„.,.ial |M-„miL„ X .i" 7, ;' "'■"•""' '"
kill:; -1 I'.uiilaii.l (,v.i,. 117H-10I jV T ;
:o:^::.tti:ititrs:;?r''<'"-l--^
Bfiall walk lia ■•, trc ;.;''' .''''''''''■'''■"
c".ifesi„„s. oathoi^, :";;,':lt"""'«''•f•
il■™ Com work. A ,i,.,^V •■''.'"'''■'" ''"
bv a line (.III „,,. ;,• i,,, f " ''" "' '" " 'i'™ man
(1.) Most widely obsoivoil of all is lb- f. .• .
of .Novojnbci- 8. This th,.(', . "^^ f>).ifivnl
V"l.i..„M.f th..' Jl !;,'..). i"''"'";,'"^'' '» t'"^ 'ii^t
IIh' s.iiiK! is tlie nise witli t ,1 i7'^ ^''^'"''■
---M'ictoi-ial.alcJu.' J^'^^^^^^^^
fe.-ts of th. K bio i. .'"" T '.'"'"-' """„M-ous
tlH'foi.tio ..■ah.„,la,-(,W , , s M V "'"' '"
MICHAEL THE AKCIIAXGKL M70
buJ r. ' r;^ , '•;'^''' r^*- Mich,.,. „„c.„uri.
B""inuvi,,ai., tot,;;, u / 7'"' ""•"""■"■'' tliatsi.
«lOnl,„f, |„ .,„».,,,„",'" ''';"""'*7 .0 .St. Al,cl,uel
;ri.^^i..ii.^,.t,i;r,,i:^'s,,:;';rr^'r"';
Hon <,f a H,Ht|v«| of ,St \1 Lh ,1/' ?"* "'"'''■' '" "" ■'"'»-
''" Vb 'r ^""■"" '"■"-— «■>■,.„ i,.
with ti^ ',,',;: i"';;'--iinK i„ .,:,„.,;,;^
ll'i.s fetival is , . ""■■ "^'•■'''li-li»iH,t of
::!;''->' i-nai-i. o'V^lt^'-'^'V" '"■ '•'">-
'lii.sist(,tl tlirt ti, .1 ^"''- '*•"■ •"").
("I'. A.I,. ;..;,)f ,,,',' "';M""'-ianh Ab.,,an,|,T
''"iltbvt'l, .:,,"/^"'' ''-'a, wb„.h ba,l l„.,^„
wa. a la,:;: ';",;; t"'""''"'^^""'-"- '»"'"
wiii.h „a, H,i..„, ;,;;, , rr- "^";""i Mi,.ba,.i, ^
I'wtival ob,s,.,-v(.,l Tlw ■ 1 '"1 " «■■"■" """""I
"■^ l".'"ple thatthovJ, ,ri ■ ""F'-'"'! •"
'^'-■■■ili.^ci to him, s., , ,.f I ^'"'"l"'- '""' ""'•'• '1,9
""''" t" «".l TI, : • ■ ""*-''"■ '■'"'•'■•■•■■lo for
l-^''""iMu'im:.^;;i: :;:::-;;^'•;^•^'^.,o.
'•'■■■'''. on tif;^' ,;; 't„ ,0" '■'', 11" '"■'■'- "'«
""'•nfi-o n,„„,M. , s\ i:,i .."';'^"' ^'i''"-l. «".!
l>. 'M') It i „. ' "'■'": «iMi a .so .S,.|,|,.|,
'--MniV:iS'^;;i"!:T' '^ - this :!,!;;;
'••■".■t,.,-, that, t , ,"l M " '""■^' ''""''■^'' '••'i"-
'•'"""■"i"" with Mol„,.h w I, i , """'"""t ^"""e
who.s,, „a„„, ,,,,,,,„ ,|i, ,';•;"•"' ' ' .f'atnrn, and
!'» '■'•■' w,.s not a lik,. ,' . n, / "■'"'"■"« "I' "f
i" Al,.xa„,lria so lat,. as It," '';.':T ''''l'l""-t
(-'.) Wo sb.,il u,\\ '""■ "' • ""■^taotinc
-i-i^h:,:^' ;;';;"';•;» '''--"iiostati,:;
I'vor Ly,..us, by whth „ , I, , 'l'" ''"'" "'«
Wi.^haol .ni^ht^ have L"''"";'' '''"^''"'^J '" «t.
^•'"P|.u.s, an,lo,,o„e.l ,, chasm i, , .' '"'' ^'-
caiTiod otf tbi w,w..ru',!'f/" ''"■'"■'■'•
tliat thus •' the w. shin f '''«'',"^^'"t '•'■ ika
connected with h ,5..',"^ '^ 'l. ',"'-"^1/
"•>'" fjl. 71 D.) wh,Vh ! T T ""''■"""•
«;....... «... tM;4ri:„,£.x:,tr,,s .s
I ho boa,|,ng t\,r tl,o day in f M ' ' ''.•
whi..h wo have al,.ea,| . on,.,, to, s -p '- 'T ■''"'f'
Ivoloionco may also be ma.b, .„ Hu ^ '""■^^
his logon,!, Acta „re cxta 1 m <''-/!'*'')- <J{
i-in itmaybe;:m,:rr ,:;;H;;\\r'''"''
■-•alio;! by Nicetas C ,oni ,a '„ n ■.;:'';'.', *'''?"''
«aAA,, «ciAA.,.ro.. (p. 2;to: tly^.t[^T''^'''' "«'
*. 6 'M
11^0 Ml( llAIOI.TIir, AUi;ilAN(iKL
Willi St, l\lirll:ll'l, mill il, MM'IIIH |lll»sill|l>, 111! tint
niillii.nly «( i MS. Syimxiiiliili, tn iDciM'inli' IIiIh
\Mlli III!' ili'ilii'iilinii iil'llx' iliiiich (if Si, Mirliiii'l
ill Sivlhi'iiiuni, iii'iii- ('imstaiiliii..|i|c ; Ihciiinh,
(loni tlic iilniost tiitill iil.<i'iiri' III' mIIiihIpII-i tn
Mil li 11 li'^li\lll, it tiMi^l III' vii'Wi'il IIS III iinv lali'
III' iinl iiiori' tliiiii a liii'iil ri'li'lii'.ilion. Sn/ninrii
(/li.-t, l:\-r!i:s. ii. .1), ill ili'iiTllillln ihi' liulMillK nl'
('l'll^l.'llllill<'|lil< liy CiMi'-liiiitiiM'. mill I'i'I'i'i'iili); to
(111' iiiinioroiiK rlniii'lii',1 w llli wliiiti it win
ii.li'riii'il, ini'iilimis us i's|ii'i'iiilly liiinmis i.iic siln-
III. '.I ill 11 i'Imi'ii I'lirnu'ily knuHii us iln' lli'.^lini',
Init nl'U'i wai'.lN lis Ml V"*)Aiiii', s" I'alli'.l I'lciii lliii
lii'lii'l I hill till' aic|iani;i'l hiul iiiaiiil'i'sli'il Iniiisi'll',
mil iV.'iii llif iiiuacli's hU|i|ii'M'il Id luivi' lu'cn
wii'ii^lhl liy Ills iiu'iiiis. It may In' null"! In'io
llial Mi'('|iliiiniN Callislus (Hini. /■.'r<7c.v. v||, ,"'ii)
iiii'iitioiis iwii rliiiii lies l.iiilt liv riinsiiiiiliii.i,
oAAA h,i) ip TV 'Ai'dttKif, Kn\ h Su'irCtViui' ci
^u'l'dv i<\y,.iif )M\>ii'i'(i?|irf>'. It is nut i|iiili' ili'ur
lii'l-i' Hlii'llii'i- lie is ri'l'i'i riiijt in twn ilii,|iiii't
iiiralilii'.'. (-11 X'ali'siiis, iioti' tn Suzi'iiirii, iii /n.'.),
iir iiii'aiis tliiil till' Mill' Siistlii'iiiiiin hail ln'i'ii
j;ivi'ii 111 tlio Aiiii|i|ii Oil Mils |ii>iiit il may lii'
llilll'il 111, it IIh' lu'«ilillj( 111 llui i'lia|ltrr 111 Sii/n-
iiii'ii, 111 « lii'iiisiiini'r it may lio iliii', njiraks ul' llio
Si'slhi'iiiiiiii as tliniixli it wi'i-i' till' saiiu' as ttio
Hi'stlai' or Aiiapliis, ainl that t'l'ilifiiiis (p. IliH)
ri'li'is 111 tliii rliunli, Tui) aiiyurTjiaTi'i^iii) ^f
T^' 'Ai'uirAi" Ka'i ^i»o0ti>in\ riii'ii|iliaiii's nirirlv
KlH'aks 111' till' plan' lUs llii> Aiiapliis (|i. ;H, I'lj.
C'lassi'ii). Niri'|iluiriis u'l-laiiily mily ili'siiilu's
9111' liualily, iiaiiH'ly, mi tlii' 'riiraiiiiii siili' iirtlii.'
Jfiispi'iiis, aiiil lliirly-livi'slailiiinl'ilinu't ilislaiiii'
I'rniii I'liii.'.laiiliiiiiplo, ill thu iliioilinii nf tliii
Kiivliu'.
Tiiis will 111' tlii> most lonvi'iiii'iit plaro for iv-
fi'Viili)t lo tin' otiii'i- I'liiirrlii's ili'ilnuti'ii In St.
Mii'liai'l ill oi- iii'ar ('oiislaniiiiiipli'. Tlu' ompiror
.liisliiiian, \vi' iini toM liy rriu'npiiis, li-vi'lli'il lo
thi' (iioiiiiil two I'hiiirlii's ot' Si. Mirliai'l, oiii' in
till' Aiiapliis. anil tlii' ntlu'r on tlu' Asiulir siili',
wliiili liail lii'i'oiiit' vi'i-y ililapiiliiloil, ami ii'liiiilt
tlii'iii ai;aiii in a vi'iy i-osllv m.iniii'i- at his own
I'vpi'ii-i' (tfi- •irJitiiiis .liisliiiumi, i. M). Krom tho
lollowiiii; rhapti'f «ii finil timl thosanu' I'lnpi'ior
liuill on ilu' Asialio siilo ol' ll'i' straits anothor
rluinh to St. Miiliai'l. IWsiiU's all thf-sii, |)ii-
i'aiij;i' ({'oii.'^liiiiliiioiHi/in C/iiistitiihi, nil. iv. pp. 117,
l^iOiiii'iilioiis no I'l'Wi'rllian lil'li'i'n olhonhiu-i'luw
.li'.liiaii'.l til Si. Mii'liaol In •■;■ 'ii-ar Onnstaiiti-
nopli'. lii'siili's a I'liiinh Tti'c (yifa Tayudrwv (i. i:
III' till' niiii' oi'iliTs ol' aniti'ls), I'roropius also
li'lls lis (ii. 10) iif II vi'i y liiiKO I'luirch of St.
Sliihai'l luiill hy .lustiniau at Aniioih.
(•+.1 In thi' I'l'plii' iliiiii'li wo liiiil ,lnni> 6 anil
till' two t'ollowiiij; iliiys ki'pt as lirsl, .si ml, lunl
lliinl iVasI ot' St. MiVluml ^Sol.li-n, p. '.'40; also
l.iuliill', p. 4 IS). It may In' ohsorvi'il that in the
Ktlilopii' I'ali'mlai', wliili' lli« lirsl of tlmsi' tliioi'
days loiiiis oiii' of tlii' monthly fosliv.ils of St.
Jlii'hai'l, llii> si'ooml anil lliinl ilays ilo not I'nter
into ihii loa.-t, liiil on the M'ooml is a (•oninu'iim-
ralion of St. tialiiii'l.
(.'i.) Bi'siili's nil till' ahovp, tlio Ktliio|iii' ohnrch
coiniiii'iiiorati's Si. Mii'hai'l on thi' twi'lftli ilny of
*aih month, that is of thoir own falomlar, an-
ii\vorin({ in ililli'icnf months to a ilay varving
from the uiuth to tho lillli of our own (Liiilolf,
i» nil-.). j
(11.) Tims far thi' n.imn of Jliihad. oithcr |
tlouo or iu couuexiou with the angi'ls goncriilly, |
MI('IIAI';i, TIIK AUCIIANdKL
' has I'lili'i-i'il Into till' mil's of Ihi' illlli'ii'iit fi'stl-
j viils. Wo may aiM I'lnlhi'r that lliuri' n\v roiii-
mi'iiioralioiis in tlio Klhii.pn' iliiirch ol .-I'lvi/i/iiHi
iia / C/icriihim on Novi'inhi'r !l iiml .liiiii' '27
j (l.iiilolf. pp. .'(lis, 4'JO), anil on Novi'inl'i'i- 4 of
|iii I'lii'niliiin " (I'.i'i/. .".'.17, whi'ii' sn. imli'). ami
on Novi'iiilii'r :tO of Si'raphiin (iliiil. IllMl) in Imtli
till' I'.tliii'pii' aii'l Ciiplir nili'li.liirs.i"
111 I'oiiiii'xinii with this piiii of iiiir siiliji'i'l, wi>
may oall alli'iilinii in pas'.iiii; lo ihi' iliioiiini' of
i;iiaiillaii iiiiiji'ls, ii ilortriiii' iiiiiii'iil ly lu'lii'i nl in
liv tho .li'ws, I'lilly ralilii'il liy niir l.oi'l, anil
always lii'M iiiori' or Irss ili'lliiili'ly l.y lliii
I'liuri'li." A fi'slivnl of tliii "(iiianliaii Aiii;i'l"
si'i'iiis olK'ii to liavi' lii'i'ii lii'lil, piirtiriil.iily in
•Spain, on various ilays, I'spi'i'ially Maroli I. At
i|iiitii a tail- ilalii, it was ili'iiiiili'ly livoil in lliii
Itmiiaii rhiiirli for Oiiohi'r 'J, loi' I'aul V. (oli,
A. II. lli'Jl) ami Cli'iiii'iit .\. (oil. a'ii. Ill7ii).
Ill nnu'liision, mill or two finilii'r ri'iiiarkH in
OolllH'xii'll Willi lllO ol'Sl'l'VJllll'l' of fi'slivalsnf St.
Mii'liai'l, thai liavi' not lilli'il into our main hiiIi-
ji'i't, may liori' ho aihli'il.
No iill'iii' for a fi'stival of St. Miohaol is fouiiil
ill I'aiiii'lius's AmliroHian or Mahilloii's lliilliian
l.itnrijy; liut in tiw Sivriiiiiciiliiriiint lUiiiiiiiiii
is a mass I'li /iimmr .Sm<7i Mi<-/iiii-/i.i. 'I'lii' I'i'lli'ot
for till' il.'iy in till' (iri'i;oriiin Siu'raiiu'iiliiry lian
piissi'il llii'oii^rh till, Sai'uiii mi.ssal, willi hut
slii;lit troilllinilion, into mir own prayiT-lmnk.
'I'lio I'pisllo ill tho ' iiHicv, a» oillli'il hy I'limi'liin
(/.iliii;/;/. I.al. ii. 47) is liov. i, l-.'i, wliiih, Ihoiuli
also lliat of llio .S.iriim iiiisK.il, has iinl hoi'ii
rc'lainoil in Iho prayor-linok. 'I'lio >;iispi'l in tho
C\'\iif!< ami missal is tho saiiio as iiiir own. Mall,
xviii. I-Ul. In tho Moziinihii' missal, Iho /ini-
jilii'tiit, opisllo, mill (;ii«pol 1110 Kov, ,\ii. 7 17 I Ihis
is ii'iul for tho opisllo in \\w SiU-iniunitiriiun /In.
'ii'iiimm, of wliioh w. 7--rj form Iho opisllo in
our own oliiiri'li], 'J Thoss. i. .'l-l'J, Mall. x.w.
.'n-4ii, 'I'lio >;ospi'l in Iho .Sr r. tui'iiniiiiin is
Malt. xvii. 1-17 (I'litral. Ixxxv. Hi.'i, wliiro sou
l.o.-lio's nolo).
Sovoral onlors of knii;lilliiMiil olaim llio aroli-
nnp'l as thoir patron saint, c. ;/, tho l''roiuh
onlor fiiiiniloil hy l.oiiis Xi. In 14l!!'. Tho oiilor
of IlioWini; [ ■!■/ /l/.ij, I'.i'. of St. Mii'liai'l, salil lo
liiivo hoon fouiiiloil hy Alpliouso, kini; of l'orliii;,il
(oil. A.I). llHi), in iiioniory nfa liotnry ovor tho
Mosloms, appoars, liowovor, a vory ilmihl I'ul all'air
iiltop'thor.
I.i:ii;ili(iv. — For tlio niattor of tho foroijoinn
artiolo, 1 liiivo to oxjiross coiisliloralilo ol.liijatioii
(0 Amiiisti (/'('»<■" iinli i/ioilt'ii nus iIit Clinstli li,n
Arr/iiit'liiiiw, iii. 'JSl sipj.), Hiiilorim (t'fiihiiir-
diijki iti'ii ,/i'c C/irisl-h'tit/iiilisi'/n'ii A'l'c.'/ic, v. i. 4i!,"i
Sip].), ami iStillinv; (.4i'/( Simtoruni. Sopt. 2'J),
K.'foroiii'o may also ho mailo to .Sloinri'liiis, ('.,
i/c ^tilil(U•lis itcc/nmi/c/i iiriiiri/ntii, iiiijuiriliiini'iis,
tcmiilis, ciillii (■( ihinii'iilin (Auj;. Viiul., lilJii);
JIaiu.s, J. Ii., Jc Ffsto Mic/iiit'tis, Kilon., liilitt;
m It nift.v l>o notoil that In the (^nlontldr ii« itivpii l>y
Si'liloii (p, tin), tlii'so ilu.v" aro iioii'il loBi'i'itlvi'ly, ns of
Iho "lour iinnolli- llvliin oii'iitiiros," iiiiit ot ili ' "twoiily-
fi'iir oUlore." iinilmlily wiili rol'i'n'iu'o in K.'V. Iv. 4.
u riio followiiiK Inniiiilul piiiyor ill C' mioNlon with
tlio (iiiiiiitliin AiiKi'l ili'SirvoK to Iw cltiil, Iriini llio Alox-
flii.irirtii I/lturgy of .^t. llii-il ;— .iYY.'A,>^' * Jji,)* (h.^,i f^
fKdtrrj) i^fiiin' fi'-'jj iropaicarairnjiroi'. i/ifjoupov^ra. fitanj*
poi'i'Ta, 6ini/.i'Aiiir(Toi'Tci, i/iioTi'Cm'rn. udij-yovora ^juav lit
iroi' ifiyov oyatfor (.Ut'OauJut, p. it).
MICJIOMKKI.;
77,-,). ' t"""' A,:t,i ,S',V. Ap. i
M'. II I
c...n,.,iia Mar. i.'(E:',;^;;;:;;: '"'J'",,"'-
M„!'!l!,S''t,;"n^;;„: ;7" •'.•■(■'i
"f St.
Iliillii'i'
MII.ITAKVhkkvk;/.; hhi
'■'■" (" i'liiviiiii wlii.-J. I I I
'""i"J <n,i„„mnt (,. , • "'"' '">*"« I II
"''"-''11'" . h, ,!'''''''■'''''' """'""* ■
'•"niall,,,, us,.','" """"■" "" "'••'!"-
('^'""^i. vi. .',^7„„;i ,;]"^''"-...--w,.. ,,,,,,n,vo,l.
C^l'-'i^i, xl. i;(),l-.7.) """'""' ''■'■•■'I tlicn jj, „s.,
M"'ni;u(JA.'vir.i„ ,,. ,,., , !''• ■'■ '''J
"•"n.t.d K„i,. zi (i(.ii;/'swT, '''';■ '•""""«•
' '" ''•^- I'l'l). ill, .iHH).
,, M'UKJJTHAor M/LI)Wima .^''"^
MKUNIIH (1) Marlvr.
it'K::!'^;;:;""" "'■"""' "^ "".•-.ci,. i,o.,
(4) Martyr; en,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,.,! Dec ,„ , „■
Mill/.), "^ '•'■• 11^ (i/tfnm
IMKiOVK, niHitvi-. "■■'
(//..n,,,. ,)/„,; ;""'^'' «"-""''.."mt..,l Ap. ly
'■<:Mii.;w,K..;.:;:^^n:;;;^'/;r^'-'"'^"
<'"n.;cninin« IVIaLriani.,, ,'''«'''• '''"t '<in.,ii»
«l'«Af,i™^,,,,;.'«'' '7' «'«",-. 10!, „i .,f
''"^-'•'•■'l i.H m,| f.M,n, i, ,,,;'''"'',''''''>f "i""-'""",
'h« -'(.th M,K.,.sN ,„.,'■'"''■'."' ""• «''i'"
""""■'^'•"I'v, not «l' , . '."'"'"""■■'•■'"'"-'"»-
' """ "' ••' -IMacAN ('(lUNcii.s ^
Mil lo ^ ■ J
L<'- il.j
li''M within (I year „C , i, .,
'•''''''-•il''^'^nr,|i,.^,Hwn ,':''''■'■;,"■'•'> ""■
h '•»'"'V.-.rM ,"^;;,:;l";v^'■7I'^o■
.)■^^^wa.r,.^.,.,,,(A,a„,:^:'S!,;''"*'-'-
j'.rn^Ariani,„,(Ma„'i;';:;;;;:~'''''on„b.
'i-'-«'p;;:;,:x^^!;;:i[!;"^ i'-^^* ""-
Sf. Atha„a»i„« was „, " """"""'""ti".. o(
"■Il"« "U,l l'l..,,i„„ ' ., '^ '';'"« "^'!"'l. Mar.
"■'''■'l» -'^'^M) i,ish'''r '''■'•" '''''•'''I'-N.y ..,,-
«•■ A,h„„a,iu.s, <!.. urn ,H,r"" ''r'"""' "«"'"'^
I'.iiM'liiuN of VVr.vlli ,..i„ ' "" . '"''''■«»H'i| t„
(Mnnsi, Iii. •.'.i.l-r,,,) ^' •'"■"• '-•"nii'osiUon
(4) A.l>. ;1H|I lit ,.,),:, .1, ,1
"«""-'avi,.«i,.',„; ',;;;-•«- bro„«,,t
'■'l»i'. .in.l h(.r «,;,,.s,.rs ■■ '" l"'"""""<«l
i-nr'Tstl"''!*'''"*""
i'"l I, 'M.r,lly „;',,";■:■''; '"''^ v. the.r lottor,
iii. <'X\} ami (i^.vi" '"" "■■' '•-a ling, (ilun.;;
Miiai1,::^-*:;i^,«;;;!''yKu..,i,..L,h,,...,
<"^'"'^S™;:-j-irAXA:J.
ninrat,,,! .I„ly .m J// - '"Armenia; ,:,.„„„;',.
MILITARY SIORVICP lur,- ^^" "'■'
1IS2
MII.n'AUY SKUVICK
MII.ITAUY RKIIVIOR
III
(«'(' |)iirani(i', (ll'us.), Sd Aiiijuslini' C^i'i-m.
8J, § ;i, </,■ /'I'lvrsw, vol. V. p. Ilhi."i; Mii;iii'.
I'lttr'i'.) snys tliiit llnly Si'ri|ituTO In Kpciilviiii;
oC KillililTS lllil.'S not. IlllMII llllisc (lllly Whll MIC
(ii'iu|iii'cl ill ui'tivc wiU'l'iiii,' (iirniiilu iiiiliti:i),
but llmt ovcl'v olio HM's till' wcM|ioiis of Ills
own .'■|M'i'iiil WMi'lurc, nihl tliiis Is fiiiollcil as ii
soliliiT in Ills own i;niMo (.niisi|iio .iiillli.io sumo
cltiL;iilo iitiliir, ill,:,:iiltiitls siimc mill's .li'si'i-iliitiii'),
III I.Mliii wiiii'i* IIm' woI'I lias II ii'l|ili' iiii'Mniiii;:
tlio MililiM ralMlinnlis lii'loni;iiii{ to llii' olliri'i's
nC IliM p.il.ii'o ; ('iislri'iisis to iiiilitai'y norvli'i!
In till' i'iiiii|i ; and ('ulioilalls to civil sitvIcu
in till' |iroviiu('s. (Soc \'iili's, JVo^ ill Sui. U.K.
V. 4; ninnliaiii, /;.■.■/ Ant. iv, 4, § 1.)
It also a|ipli>nl to llioso H'lio lu'lil liimln, ]ms-
sossjons, 01' mil's liy li'iiiiri' ol' (Viiilal si'iviii'.
Thus, (!.(/.. till' Laws ol' the I.oinliMr.l.s (lili. ill.
tit. y, 0. 4) luoviilo tliMt 110 "iiiilcs" of a liishop,
llbliiit, or alilioss .sliiill Insi' lii.s (id' (liiMii'li.'llilii)
wilhuiil lit'iii^ oonvii'ti'it ol' a ri'iiiii', In Aiii,'lo-
SiiMiii I'hi'onii'li'.s the tillo "iiiilt'.s" is coniiiionly
Uai'il to ilcsri'ilii' Iho.si' who woro altai'l.uil in any
I'lip.icity to till' hiiii'.i'liolil III' a pi'liii'i,'. Kor c.x-
nniplossi'i' l)iu-Miii;i: (lilos.i.). So Avlliis of N'icnni',
JC/i. H:l, Sl'_;isiiiiiii.|, kiiii; of Uiiijjiiinly, spcak.s of
till' lilli" of pMli'ii'i.in 1 iiiifcrri'J upon liiiii liy llic
I'liipt'ioi' Aiiastasiiis as "iiiililiae titiilos." anil
(iri'i;oiy of 'roiirs {//i.'^t. /•'••.iiic. iv. c. 4'-') spi'.ilis
of ihi' patrii'ialii wliirli a o'Tlain Muniiiiiiliis
obtiiiiio 1 from kiiiij (iiiiitiam a.s a "niililla."
SoiiU'liiiii'M it appo.'irs to lit.' usoil siiii]ily for iiny
I'owMivIs !;ivi'n in roliini I'lir sei'vico, Tims (Jio-
poiy of 'I'oiirs ( ///.<,'. Fnxnc. viii. :!!)) speaks of
Iho willow of a CL'itiiiu llaili'Cilsiis, liislmp of I.e
Mans, olaiiiiiiii; mhiio propi'i-ly w liii'li wa.s iilli'j;('<l
to liMVi' lii'Vii given to the .see, as the hiie jjiven
personally to her hiisliauil (liaeo est militia viri
iiii'i); anl (I'l/. x. c. lit) .spe.ikiii>; of the treasures
left hy 1 eertaiii bishop Kjjiilius, says that those
of Iheiii which were the pioiluce (niililla) of evil
doiai; were carried into the kiiijj'.s treasury.
Thus in ecclesiastical writers ihe woril is often
found expressing any kind of service either
civil or niililary. The Ajiostolic Canons (c. 82)
priivide that any of the cler(;y wisliim; to retain
any |iiiblic einploynient {crrpartiT. iTXDAdfwj'), so
as to servo botli the emperor and the cliiirdi,
were to bo depose. 1, on the j;round of tlie com-
mand, " Keiider unio Oae.sar the lliinys that are
Caesar's, ami to (iod tin, thinijs that are (iod'.s."
(See llevereije, Nut. in loco, and lliiisjham, Keel.
Ant.vi. 4, §'.',) Sozomen (//. /.'. iv. 'J4) narrates
that a council of Coiislanliiiople, A. D. .'UiO, de-
piisi'il one NoouMs, Mshop of Seleucia, hecaiiso he
had admitted to holy orders certain men who were
biiun 1 to civic ollices, iroAiTfuiVeroi (see Vale.s,
Nul. ia loco). A capitulary of Constaniine (iotl.
/.C;/. "/''I'. <'t' /•/ i."'!'. ft Clir.) speaks of the curiiie
to which certain men belonged as "ollicia quibu.s
liiililant." It is often also especially applied
to ecclesiastical .service. In Iho Cn/o /loinaniis.
c. l,tlie meinliers of the procession that precedes
the pontilf to the churcii are ordered to walk ill
the order of their respective ollices (part ibus
)iroiit militavil). Gregory tl.o (ireat (Kj>. iii.
11) speaks of the servants of the cluirch as
"ttiilitia ciericatfls." St. Keniigius (Sirmond,
O'lic. Ant. a.iU. i. 205) speaks of the lectors'
Borvice as "militia lectonim.''
lu the more limited meauiug of warfare it
niu.st be considered —
I. As regards the laily. The professlnn of
arms in tlio earlier d.ivs of the cliiircli Mppears
to have boon considored with some llis!nl^|, as
Kcarc'ly compatilde with Ihe Clirisliaii ch.irMiier,
since it necessilMli'il tin' slieddiiig nl Idoo.l iiiiil
taking part in cMpiliil piiiiishiiienls. None of
the eonuiils, however, veiiliiro to proliiliit il.
The lir^t council of .Mc,' indeed (c. I'.') orders
Unit lliose who had iiiMile profession of the fiiilli
and cast away the niililary bell, and then ret iinii'il
lo the service and given money to be resliue I lo
llieir rank, should be for three yi':irs among the
hearers ami llu-n for leu years among III" pro-
stralors. Hut this cmiioii appears to li.ive relmi.il
to some piirlicuhir case, very probaMy lo iIimI of
soldiers who bad i|iiitti'd the iiriiiy rather tliiiii
commit idolalry, and llien, repeiiling ol' whiit
they bad done, regaiiioil their posilinn on coiidi-
linn of ollering sacrilico. (See lliiigliaiii, /■.'.■,■/.
Aiili:/. xi, c. .'i, § 10 ) The first ciinncil of Ailes,
A. II. Itl4(c. It, Hniiis, Ciinimi-s, ii, p. 107) appi'Mis
to recognise Ihe fact llial the profession of C'liris-
tiaiiily should not be made an excuse for evading
Ihe iliilies of citizenship, by o.vcouiuiiiniciil iiig
tlioso who throw down their arms in lime of
peace. Another ro.iding is "in lime of war."
The Apostolic Coiislitulions (viii. •. :)'_') |irovido
that a soldier who applies for b.iplism should
promise lo obey Ihe injuuctioiis given to soldiers
by .lolin Ihe liaplist, lo do injury to no niiin, lo
110111(10 no man falsely, and to bo conlenl wilh
their biro. If he gave ibal promise ho was to bo
admilloci. If ho refused lo do so, to bo rejecled.
Kcclesiastical writers treat Hie subject very
much in iiccordiince wilh their own porsonal
lemperament, the gromnl taken by those who
deny Ihat a Christian can contiimo lo be a soldier
being always that soino of the duties roi|uired by
a niililary profe.ssion are incompatible wilh Ihe
laws, oral least with the spirit, of Cbrisli.iiiily,
To'-liillian, as might be ospecled, is luosl oii'l-
spoken anil tiiicompromising. In auswi ring Ihe
iiueslion whether a soldlor in uiiiforui can
be admitted lo the church, he asks in reliirii
whether lliern can be ii .soldier who is not
obliged to take part in bloodshed and capilal
liuiiishments, and again imiuiros bow a Cliris-
liiin can possibly light without Ihe sword
which his Lord li;is taken from him (ilf lili.t.
c, 10). Again (i/c ('iron. Milit. c. 1 1), in aii^woi-.
iiig the i|iie-tion wliolher warfare in any w.iy is
a lawful occupalioii for a Chrislian, he coiiliasis
the ordiu.iry duties of a soldier with the posilinn
of a believer. How, be asks, can a son of poMie
make war, or bo whoso duly it is lo cast nut
idols guard an idol's temple ? How can one who
is forbidden lo biiiu incense submit to have his
own corpse burned by military rule? The ease
is iliileront, ho adds, when those who were
actually soldiers were converted, as the soMiers
who came lo ,liibn lliu Haplist and Ihe believ-
ing conlurion. In such cases a believer ought
either to desert at once, which, he asserts, is a
common practice, or to be resolute not to be
compelled txi perforin duties wliieli are forbid. bu
by the laws of his Christiiin faith. Kiiilli,
he adds, knows not the meaning of the word
oompnlsion. Hut in other places he admits lliiit
bis opriiiion bad not been generiil!y acted •■ ■ Ity
Christians, " We till your camps," ho say.s
{Apulojct. c. ,'i7), " we man your Heels, and serve
lu your armies " (id. c. 4'-'.) The well-known
Mir.ITAIlY SKIJVrCR
'^-;i:::'t;';!';;::;::::V'')r'i.n. ,,.„„,
nn„, ,„„| May n,,:,,, l,„t , 1^, ' 'j;, '' """; "1-
till' (Miipci-ur iiihl tin, imiyci-s Ccr
(4!^.<;:n^:;;::%:\:t;^-'-rp-n.«,ofN„,..
nn.l s,„,,k with nw' , ' ''<" '""'I'l'T v.Vw,
If IS »"t clear wln.tlR.,- I ., I .
'■"'-..i..i.M,„s;!i ,::,.„ ';:;•';" 'ha. w„rn.,i,
(■■'"''- ""-Ian;. ' • J ;; t^;'-;!^ -'■■'^-
on'"i-tio„ „,„j. ,,„ i,.„,.„,'^.;;,;„!;^ "'""«'' <'i«
••"■"■«■ <i."i wl.ll,. tMiJaL.,! • •:"'''"■'■ '•'"
(.'innj; as examples t,W ."l' ""' /^"'•'"'^
>ol-li,.r,s wl,„,.a„;„,, , „ , "'""""^- ""•■
oon.unon who ,,„ ' '" .'V''|''''^'' ''"'' ''-'
/>"'v.,-,, '<'«.<...<.i.4) ho own ,'"'■''• '^''""■" (^'^
- n..r.,. Christ. a,^|(..i^;^ -■;---.»•
-vil hearts (uo„ ,,- „ '"''."l-atio,, h,.t their
n^ikossol.lier e" I ',,„:;'''•'"''''''•■'> »■'"'•''
:''::';xj^^:r;?^ff--'-"nMil;-
iv«..Th.' .(/■^4^s'•^'^''•«'^^•''■'^*>
fit'i"i...Mu.oth,;[^,tr :;;;'??'''''« I
'" "■'■ sins of those who ; I i „ V "■' ''•'"""" '
"Shorts that, thoso who onir!,?n '■''''■/^"'''P- ". 5)
C"imn„mls oft heir ;„v,,:„i^ ',' I'Tin.? tho lawful
«^o.lHarowara..ath<;se';ri-^-Jl,:;-
MII.ITAI£YSKKVI(;|.; ],h3
''•""'■e/lli,,,,,, ;^ .'I l'"'»'-'^ ,m,.|,.r r,.,„|a|
'■'"« "'" .iu!i,. I,,. .Z'i 'Z ';;'"•■ ''■'"''•'• '" "'0
;;"'l'lyN.n.n,|er, . .^;;7^' <'-Mn, ii
v''l"» tlmt wh,.„Vi ,, ^'■''•"*•^''■•'^)|•'"-
■••'""■I'l .se„,| h^ """■'"'■■■es lh,.|„.elves thev
-'■»i.Hhef,,ll,Hvi;/s, , t':,''''V''Vvill l-e
Was l„ ,,r„ve„t. the ,.|,,, ! r' ""■ K'""' 'liUhulty
"'« 'h,.!,- .r,„. ,„ a , 2'; . ■"'" ""■"'-'v's l,.a.|.
"• A." relates , f^ 7 """•"'"' *^"""'«-
"'^-•y'^ .s,ri,.,ivf„ i, ; tT '''"■"■ -'■»
'"■»'■ -oiiiieil „V T r 1 '"■•"■ '""I''- Tlio
'''^HtoheraiJ '': ,;;^:''';'''V'''''''''''-y
'-•'"""•il of Chal ij y, ':^," " j'"'""". Tho
'•"'l'loym,.nt. The ii,. '. "'•"""'"■ I" seeular
■*''"(•■ :,) e„. l:ollll.|| „f '(i.iirs A „
V'. •';, exeoiiiiiHiii ,M»,,^ ,,ii,i . ,' ' '*•"•
""«"«'' ill warfare T , ',''"-'>' **•'"' "'lall
'r''^ '"•m\;s;^ /';;;''- ''•:;''-Ky who
»■''" MMiiiiter at th, . ^' 1,"'"''''"'< lliat all
'"'■10 t„ be s|„.„t ,•,,"• "'" '»•" y-irs
"<■ "»-• l'ishop,\,t ''„'"■':"•'";'-' "t tlH, will
(■••• ■>), I'l-ovi.les that an. ""' ■*"• •'«!
■-'>"llhek,.ptf„r i ," Z ''V ^""""^ '"■"'«
;^' ■*■» Pn'vhles that c. ,;!„,:, ;"■''"'"'■','; '">''
'""■'le arms iu anv ,,^^u . '""'■ " '"'"Kly
'•""''. "".1 '-• "e„t ^f„r '" ,!''"'" '"--• 't-ir
"'•'-'■^ any of the l^yT^:';: '■'■' ('■ ^'),
"••'■"Mipany armies »«. .^ft ' ''""''* '"' to
^^iththeirrhaplil's '„"•;•' 7" '"' '^^" ''i-''"l'»
;'■^--y^^,e;;;st"^:^,,^^-■''.iivisi,,nof
('•• ■)), („rhi,ls ahhats , , '"' •^"'-•'""'■■*. A.i,. 744
"■ho hy their fen, ''"•'"" '"'"'*• '•*••» I hose
.-■■ii«.'n.o,;: /;;:;-- -'■-■'^'^^^^
,a™ssho:i,,EE;;Ri;'''^'"«^-''-voi
""t be a,lmitto.l into lX\^";''"'^»'«' he shall
'■"•••'^•-•n that «.l.iiersar,T I ■"''•■'' S"i"Jf as «
c...n.nan,ls of tl eir 'n " ^^r' '" ""^"'« 'he
lawful they mnv be ' ""'■ ""■.''"'•'h'—ver nn!
♦ho '"""""f liasiUntlenVr n'.' "'"'•"' *''at
have .shed blood tr^e'S:?;'''^
: t^'
M
■\
7 ■
4 M
1^-
i
1134 MILITARY SEIIVICE
for thrcfi yi'iirs, wmilil cflectunlly prevent the
clofiiy iVoiii lii'iirini; miii».
Th:it I hi' ilci-iciil (illici' was hnlil tn ini|i1v In-
capacity (nr Ix^iiriiijt arms is alsn im|ilii!(l in the
liuv (if llciiKiiins (('ikI. 'I'h'iiit. vii. lit). 'Ji); lie
Vftrnm. Ipi;. IJ), which fnrbirls anyom; to cntnr
thi' cli'iiciil "(Hot! in milci- tn oxciiso himself from
si'i'viiiif in the rrniy i>n pled of ln'ing nn ccclusi-
nstical piM'son. [Sim? I'ltiscKH, Consign i' of.]
In practiie, however, it is evident that these
injiinc'tiiiiis were oeca'.ionftlly frnnsj;resseil upon
ninny pleiis. It appears to have been not iin-
ediiinmn for monks and clergy to necompany an
nriTiy to the field for the |inrpose of helping it
with their prayers. Bedc (//. /•.'. ii. '.') speaks of
the slanghter at Westehester of a great number
of monks of llangor who had assembled to helj)
the army of the liritons by their prayers, and
whom he calls nn army (militia); and (i. '20,
p. .^7) of (lermnnus, bishop of Aiixerre, who took
commanil. on an emergency, of the nrmv of the
liritons, and defeated the Pict.'i nnil Scots by the
Weapons of prayer and praise. The transition
from sneh weapons to those of a more secular
kind was easy. Theodoret (/A A', ii. ,'!()) speaks
of James, bishop of Nisibis, acting as general
(cTfioT'j'j'rfj) of the forces of the city during the
piege by sapor, and using his engineering skill
in directing the working of the machines ujion
tlie walls; but it is adilefl that he himself took
Do jiersimal share in the defence, but remaineil
all the time within the church in praver : the
enemy were finally discomfited without blood-
shed by a plague of gnats and flies which arrived
in answer to his prayer. Other clergy do not
appear to have been so careful to oiiserve the
nice distincticm between ailvico and action, espe-
cially in cases where the interests of the church
Were concerned. Sozomen (//. E. vii. 1,")) speaks
ef one Marcellus, a bishop of Apamea, who led
a band of soldiers ami gladiators against the
pagans, and was slain in the affray. Jt is addeil,
proving that his conduct was considered merito-
rious, that the council of the |)rovince prohibited
his relatives from attem]iti!ig to avenge his death,
on the ground that they should rather give
thanks that he was accounted worthy to die in
such a cause. Gregory of Tours {Hist. Franc.
iv. 4;i) speaks of two prelates, Salonius and
Sagittarius, who wore armour and slew many
men with their own hands in battle. Boniface of
JIayeiice {I'p. ad Ziicli.) asked the pope's advice
about certain bishops who fought armed and
shed blood with their own hands; the answer
was, that such should be deposed. Paul
VVarnefrid (flist. Lohi/oIkviI. v. 40) applauds the
bravery of one Zeno, a deacon of Ticene, who
went into battle cl.ail in the robes of Cunibert,
king of the Lombards, and was killed in his
place.
In later days, when the church began to hold
lands under the feudal system, it seems that in
some cases the bishops were expected to come in
person to the army of their sovereign, (.'harles
the Bald (Sirmond, Cone. Ant. Gml. iv. pp. 14H-
14,5) brings a charge against a bishop named
Vuenilo that he had not helped him in his ad-
vance against the enemy either in his own [jerson
or with the forces that it w.as hi-; duty to I'-ring.
Hincmar of Rlieims (Kp. 'Jti), writing to pope
Nicholas, speaks of himself and his 'ellow bishops
as going with the king against th' Bretons and
MII,K
Xormnns, accnrdi :; t<i the custom of the king-
dom. See nKo Klodoard ( I iV.i ///,■!, •„„,/■. iii. IH).
The second council of Vern, A.l>. H4+ (c. S),
when |ii-oviding that lli^hops who are we.k of
body shall s.iid thi'ir f'or('e> unilcr comoiaii'l of
one of the kin',''s olliccrs, Indicates that it was
Ihi' usual custom for bishops to lead their forces
in their own persons.
But eflnrts were continually made to keep tha
clergy as far as possible? from" actually mlii_'liiig
in war. A capitulary of Charles the (Meat
(C'V'i'A iii- c. 141 ; AJigne, /''(</•«/. xcvii. HU)
|)rovides that no priest shall accompany the
army, except two or at most three bi'-.hnps
elected by the others, for the purpose of pr.iver
and beneiiction, and with thi'iii chosen priests of
good learning, anil with the permissinn of their
own bishops, who should celebrate divine seivice,
attend to the sick, and especially take care that
no one died without receiving the holy sacra-
ment. Tliiiy were not to bear arms, nor to no
into battle, nor shed blood, but to emplov them-
selves in their proper duties. Those ecclesiastics
who held fiefs which obliged them to pioviile
soldiers, were to send their mi?n well arnii'd. and
they themselves to remain at home and jiray for
the army. Iliucmar of iJheims, whatever his
own jiractice may have been, gives very good
advice upon the subject. In his epistle to the
bisho])s {"pj). Ii, ir,!), cc. 4, Ti) he says that
the, soldiers due from the possessions Of the
church were to be sent under their appointed
leaders to the help of the prince, but tli»t Ihe
bishops themselves were to give advice and use
all their ellbrts to arrest the eflusion of blood.
The council of Meaux, A.D. 84.'> (c. :!7), provides
that clergy are not to carry arms on pai.i of
losing their grade; also (c. 47), that bishops
should send their forces under the commnn'l of
simie of the church vassals (ex subditis et eccle-
siasticis ministris), chosen with the consent of
the archbishop. A curious jirovision follows:
that such leaders should not indulge in ariv idle
hope of succeeding to the bishojirie, unless in
accordance with the provision made bv (Jregoi v
the rjreat, for which see PuiNcra, Consk.nt Cif.'
But the literature of the period abouuils in
indications that many bishops and abbats piy-
ferred the excitement of the camp to the sei lu-
slon of the cloister or the monotony of jiastoral
duty. [I>. 0.]
MILITO, martyr; commemorated at Rome
July 11 (Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MILK or MILKPAIL (in Art). Milkpails
are represented in the t'allixtine catacomb, (ith
cubiculum of St. Callixtus (Aringhi, vol. i. p.
").'j7). In these two paintings the Lord seems
to be shepherd and lamb, or priest and sacrifice.
The lamb in any case is bearing the mulctra, with
the jiastoral stall'. It may be supposed that
the vessel which often accomjianies the (inod
Shepherd is of the same kind. (See Buonarroti,
vi. 2.)
On soma sarcophagi (see Bottari, pi. xx. ;
Aringhi, vol i. p. 291 ; Maffei, Verona fit Mr.
iii. p. .54) shepherds are represented in the act
of milking their flocks. On the whole it seems
mnrp likr-ly (see ICzekiel xxv. 4; Heb. v. 12, l:i;
1 Cor. iii. 2; 1 Peter ii. 2) that the mulctra
refers to the preaching of the Gospel, than to
the Eucharist.
Mir,K
a c-,„|,l„t U. this oi; t fn m .k" A*'?-'' ''""'"•'
hi» evulent go„a will. 'j-;" y^^'^'"^ "^
Mir,K AND HOVh'v A •J
■"■ni:..erHtoin."r ,lji X';;;^'?'^''''-
Oct. „1 (y/,«,„„. Jf,rt.). ° ^ ' a >,e r,..,^„ „,- i|l,„„inato s." ' nt t^I'l '"'«".'»
MINA martvr. "' I J™'" "' tlwir ,.|,.|.P,. .1... _ ! 1"-^ *""'^ ""> Mib-
July HmrZ:!7/jt.r'"'"'''''''' %*ii'-
■'■ L*^. H.J
MIXIATURE 1185
th^X'r :;r:;:;;r' !",-p-''''' 'f'-n.ri.m.i
I'l'i'^tr.ite (lie fiicts ni. n-at , ""'>' "'''^
'"■'-•''i"-'etu,e, c..mnonia "." *•' '"''""'■^ "'"
i"V"lve sniiitp,! or L, ' '•''■■iiucntly tl„.»r
" "^""™listi ct^ ;, ^ : r;,,"'^' '-"'"i'-- ''"n« iu
'l'''winir. ]„ „, V; ": ' " ' '> '"■• 'I'" ■-•■•ko nC the
"k.ll ^vas,,ro ,/„;';;." ''7' '^■'•"n natnralistio
(/S.Tt) ""'"^'' --^emorated M«.2G
[C. H.]
MIXERVIUSorMINERVIN „, *
F.lea;jar iu the 8th centurv- . '™'"''y'"'^'"'
Lvon Auu. 23 (HicrT D \ ""'"'"'••■'""•ate.i at I
Boll. ^c4 ^5. A\7"r ' ^■^"'•'^v jYi '•
i-s. June, ii. 1050). -""'t. , uoll. ^rfg
«;'ir;sef '■"*■ *-' ^»'- !■;"'?:
[C. H.J
MINIATURE (i/in,a?„ra> Ti,,- .
H^HveJ from >»m.«,„, or ed Jead th ™ ''
universally made use 'of in the ead l., ^.'^'""'l
ornamental writing, in order ♦!. ''"•^' ""^
capital letter, titL. "and tarSns'^7ti:;:
j™t» of th.ir :. iv '"'y to"k the sub.
I'- ve,e,ah.;: ^S,^, "^^.,1:;::^ '■""'
llowcrs, ,1,1,1 c,.,,;,. „ ■,, ' '""fated loaves,
!>«<-"rto„pri,o!^;i::'t:t---;"'-aot„es,:
!n.«oar.h of brilliant d ,a k i?'''''?- ''"°*'''
imitation. spnikling objects of
peS::re'::i-'::'t:rd:,r''''^:'T''^'*'-"-
=:£:;-~~^---
^iniatSrs;i:::'r'""'=-^'^'^i'^
'•ave survived to ,^ j :;"'""*^ "" "'''^'^t 'vhioh
■square drawing, "t intTtlr,''''?' "'""■■>''> «"'all
ornatnental mil ,n,Vs " H *■''".• ^'"""" '"'^
tla-se invaluable nt; „,"' '"??""''^ ""-^e Jf
Library at Vi „„';•' r^'^P '° "■" '"'l"'>'i"l
described by .S.hw'.rTx f ^.)" '*"■""" ^''''^■•"''"•.
i»ci-shigt'fiSdV" "r,,'':!:' "'■"'^ «'-"' «ig''
and they are sm LVed' r,^ t o.,qui.sitely drawn j
early as the rZrof A «;'"'.•''''•'? '^'''''''^^ «
famous purpleTee/codex r '"' "•' ^^'" "">
___Jlj; ^"^ ^"""^ Geneseos, with forty-
':'< I
J186
MINIATUKB
1 .' .[•*
tip
\m
Cdiirt, Pi'Inl'trc, |il, !ixvi.)i written for tlie «n-
lii'fns .liiliiijiii Anii'iii at tlio l)e);inuin|; of tlu' litli
ci'iitiiiv, iinl (irriiiiiH'nteil willi Iht jiortniit iiinl
iii.iiiv mini itiii'i's, iiml (IrHwiii;^!! ul' |j!antM. Thi'^c
an.' ili'si'i'ilii'il I' LaiiilicciuD (/lihlint/iiC'i \iiiilu-
buncimin, Vii'iiiia, lOii.'i). I)'Ai;iii(cii\rt give*,
(•ii|iic.t (p(' the illustrations of tho Vatiian \'irnil
wliicn Wi'>twii(Hl saya may go back to the lime
ot' (-'ciiistantine J ami those, too, arc in »iiii|.|e
reetiiiji;iihir t'orni, nn>l thiiui(h hcjth Ixtiiutit'ui
a\h\ iljustiative, are not iWurntivi'. The last
woril will be c<inline<l throughout this article to
miniatures whicli are coiineoteil with the writini;
ot'a paije and form part of its whole ell'eit. It
wouH ^e^'ln that in almost all the early codii'es
the text was everylhin^; to llie sorilie, aiicl all
the ornament belonged to it, as to a sacroil
thing. Hence tho i;re;it attention jiaiil to i^iAd
and silver writing, and the constant habit (d' cn-
clusiug miniatures in capital letters, where they
were brought into unity with the rest ot' the
page ns a pictorial composition.
It is curious, further to distinguish decoration
from illustration and giaphic oiiiament iVom
miniature, that they have by no means tlourishod
and decayed altogether in tlio name pl;u:e or at
the satue time. From the tith to the Oth cen-
turies i.s certainly a time of general c(j|lapse,
except in the Irish, Ilebriilean, and Northumbrian
monasteries; and few illuminated M.SS. can be
pointed out us certainly executed durin'^ that
period, or until Charlemngne'a revival of art
Cruritltiuii, fi-om Irlsb PdAlrer, St. JoUu'h Oulii-gn, Osfurd.
in the dth. But in our own countrv, in the
7th and 8fh centuries, while miniature paint-
ing had tallen so low as to be simply distres.s-
ing to tiie n)odern observer, extraordinary skill
was manifested in ornamented writing. "It
is impos.^illle," says I'riifessor VVestwood, " to
imagine anything more childish tlian the miuia-
tarcs contained in the splendid Hibernian and
MlXIATrRK
Anglo-Saxon M.S.S. of this period. Neither can
minialnre bi' said to have materially improveil
between theHtli and 1 1th centuries, the drawing
of the hum. in liguie being iii le. the extr' niiiiei
Bingularly and awkwardly attenuated, and th«
draperii's tlutteiing in all dire<:ii..ns." (.See the
illiLstrations in I'.ilie'ijr. Sici;i from tlie Irish
psalter prc'seived in .St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, and liuskin, 7'/ie Tiiu I',it/is, I.ect. I.)
In the present article we have only to ileal,
strictly speaking, with the subject of orn.imeiital
writing as to the capital letters (heads of capi-
tula or idiapteis), which may not only be riibii-
catod or ornanienteil I 'ers, but contain pictures
illustrative ol' the text. Hut it i^ diilicult to
observe this distinction in .Anglo-Saxon, Irish,
and, indec'd, in Vi^igothie M.S.S. The grotesciuea
of the latter olteii mould the letters t'iem>elv. s
into conveiiiional furms of birds, fhiwers, and
anim.ils, often id' great graphic viguur ; and the
extraiirdin.iry curves an I interlaiings of tlie two
t'ormerare lull of .serpentine and lace tine tonus.
The Irish .MSS, are dillerent. The delicacy and
decision of their worliing is incredible (>ee
I'llneiiiiniphi'i Kicni, (jospels of Jlueiel lirith
MacDuruan, and Hook of Kells), but the minia-
tures display a kind of fatuity and inorljid indif-
ference to accuracy, beauty, and all else, which
is a curious anomaly, and suggests a somewhat
unhe.ilthy asceticism. It is doubtless true that
their delicacy and precision id' execution were
unrivalled by continental arti-ts of their time,
or indied of any other period. There can bo
no doubt, also, that missionaries fioiii the Celtic
parts of liritain, a.s St. (Jail and (.'olumban,
carried their arts and religion to various parts
of the continent, and we ma_. a^uert with
Professor Westwood, that many •,'' he splendid
capital letters of the Carolingi,i„ period were
executed in imitation of our earlier codices;
IiiltUl fi, IJwte'H Jli'tnrin F.cf}tsuutiMt, fhjm Westwood's Anffh).
I Saioii lUiU Iriiih MSS. I'l. »l!, Klg 7.
though he admits that the best Franco-Gallic
MSS. drew much of their elegant foliage orna-
ment from remcinbrnaoes of classic art.
Hut til
p»alirr 111
t'imens, w
for I he s
the Iteoed
li. IJ;.':
tj.ixouuen I
tiou.s atro
riaufes, loi
i.orsijue la
fund lie ruil
niieux les I
jdus allecte
that these
have vagin;
the serjient
betiveeii tho
hnest IvUowt
perhaps the
in the evanj;
Count liastai
and Gitorifji,
il. llliistr
eariy j)eriod.
I'liiiy says (
Jihysicians ju
they had iles
rides; and in
Varro great
more than 7U(
iSeueea (Ue li;
as illnstrateii
MINIATUBB
But th.Mo who ,tii,ly ,„ch Mss „. .u , . MLVfATlTRE 1107
r9'='"'^'"y::^:'B£'^^ !....
lilus jilluctedViiibcllir" ,,""'■''",'■"» 'lu'ou a ((„. i , , *' '■"'■''.*■- cnnf,,,-,, niinix,
.11. M, .!■ . i...k"L"^;,t~f; '■ p- '") !"»
turvm lr..|a,ul a«,l Northuinbria l- „, i ,? """ ^'- •■^■nbn.se (7th cl; f ^"° '" " "''•■■•'ti^^ of
seems to hav(> fiill.m . , "•'> l"'-toiial powpr I it ;, 1 "= v.'in century, unc a win, , •» , ,
who. early 'td^I 'Z^^l^lh'' i'-"'"'''''' ^■-'', No'"'t' t^^'""i"\<'f *' '^ «". a P.T/
-iy example., w^ .^j^ttflTu,.^^'^"'";!' '^^^^'^^'fL'T'"' ^^^^^ -n^S
"leuorldouceniorp r , ""-'"^ ^^''^ »" tMch b ,t !rt • ,. '"""^ *° """W tree i.assn.r! ,• •
I ™mM.e, are n,entio„ed by"p, tjl'" Vv"' '"'' -'- "« iJt S '"./'^ -"•Glance ^f • "
a-s coatiuuing boa.itiCul ZZtT^ We.twood and rose abo 4 each nfi, ''"""-''^ '"">' beneath
u Angio-Nuon and Irish MSS
76
nb8
MINIATlUtE
• ilii
very remarkiibly, tml, a« Iim l««n nM, iittiilni a
riitlii'i' iiioilil.l |ilt(;li In thu littui'. Tliu ouiiitiiut
ilseiit' wiikiT an<l mtiirliici'il hunlluii In iKirtlnTii
lil'i' woiiht xivu tliJH tiiiu 111 Iriili Dtiil AiikI<>-''^»<iiu
oruanivut Id |i.ii'tii:uliir. Itiit a very pli'iisiii);
iiroul' III' Itit iiiilvjit'uilout ui'iKiii In liuluml wit.i
iiiti'ly nlvun by Mr. Kreucli, (if l)<ilti>u. A crim»
liail lii'i'U iinlurt'il tii be inailv, I'roni ilrawlugn,
lu wiukur HUil uthor jibiitt'il wurk, by mmii'
Ii'inli irarUniiiD ul' gri'iit nkill, wliu nt liiat
(MmIiu'i'iI unn In all ruHpt'i'tit auuwiM'ing thu In-
Hlnii'tiims siMit hhn, vxc(.'|it tliit hv liuit bwu
(ililij;i'(| til insult a ilrclu runnel thu Intursetthiu
cil' tliv linibH an a fdiimliitiiin t'nr thu othur work.
This kIiuwm tliu (iri^iu of thu |iu('iiliar Iriali vrm*
with iiiMl'i'it L'urtaiiity, and thu adiiptinn cif jiat-
tiTU-' IriiMi wii:kur-wurk U cibvious. I'mlusmir
\Vu-.twuiiira authority muy bs quoted for thU
anucili'tu.
Till' uarliust ornaniunt which Inilicatu.s obiurva-
tinn (if n.itni'u uu thu part of thucali^ra|ihist is in
a iM"*. of uxtiautH fnon St. Angnstine of Ilipjio
(sui.iml half of 7th cuntiiry — tliu jn-opurty In thu
Mill luitiiry of L'Iric Oluuiht, of Stifisburg).
hirls ami HuwurH aiu usuil huru, ilatVoililii bulng
larufiilly <ilisurvuil ami drawn, and liuro thu
cxtraiinl.n iry Frank fanciuji of grolesipiu birds,
li-liu-., and facus suuin to bugin (llastard, vol. I.).
lluaHts anil human ligurus arc lutur, appearing
In rarolln^lan work. Thu colours are red, green,
mid lirowu, with purple and yellow; and iu-
terhic'd work prevails. lied initials seem to
have been u.^ud frmn the earliest date, as they
appear In a .'jth-ceutury MS. of J'rudeutlus.
The first architectural ornament is od a frug-
iiient of the canons of Eusebiu.i, of the early 7th
century.
A Merovingian MS. of the second half of the
7th century (Hast. vol. i. Jiecueil des CUroniqUia
tie St. Jerome, d'ldace de I.amego, (\ill. des
.lesuifus) possesses special interest from the
spirited work of some true scribe-draugh's-
man. Its capital lettuivs are drawn brilliantly
and exactly with the pen and without colour
(luttres blanches ou i jour), and point to
the real origin and principles of caligraphic
iniiiiaturo very admirably. And in some of the
best Carolingian MSS. the pen breaks out vigor-
ously ill all manner of grotesques. The most
nniu^ins; triumph of penmanship ever attained, we
npprulieud to he in au initial portrait of a mouk-
pliVsician. [See woodcut in GuOTtsyUK.] No
ollen.sive or outrageous allusion or idea seems
to occur in any of these records, as might be
expected, though in the sacraraentary of the
abbey of tielloue, 8th or 9th century, there
is a crucitixion, with angels, where much blood
is used, and the drawing is grim and interior.
It soou recovers, however, in the V'isigothic
MSS., where many human and .ingelic figures
are represented, and which may perhaps be
distinguished from the earliest work by the
number of beasts of chase represented iu tliem,
boars and hares in particular. One of the tornier
is annexed. The northern taste for distortion
here begins to appear in the human figures. One
example of an Italian-Lombard MS. is conspicuous
for the absence of interlaced work, and for a
tendency tu gcuinetrical arraiigenietit \ whi'h is
a marked feature in the French-Lombard exam-
files also. They are more numerous thau the
talian, but still dwell on iuterlaciugs. The
MINIATrUB
great MS. of St. Mulurd of Soisnonii [I.irirR-
iiicvi. IUmkh], written for('liarU'magnn(ilistard>
vol. li.), contaiui not inly vaiioiis birds uxi'cutiid
aIiIi naturalistic accuracy, but grand whole-puge
miuiuturiw, Thu uau uf gold and »vurl«t iu tli«
No. 1. rrom t)M awirenwiMrr al <lu Abbafl d* O^llun*,
Charlemagne MSS. Is very brilliant, and new
" iuitiales tieuronni'es," with evidence of fresh
study from nature, occur in Urogu's Sacra-
mentary.
The im(Mirtance of ancient miniature, as repre-
senting architecture, costume, and cereiiicuiial,
cannot bo overrated, and thu pirtiiro In fount
Vivien's evangeliary of the presentation of thu
Work to Charlemagne is most instructive ; but
actual portraits are not wanting in some MSS.
The eiiipuror Liithaire is represented in his
evangeliary with Kmma his wife; also Henry
III. and the empress Agnes. A MS. is said to
be now in the tscurial which contains portraits
of Conr.id the Salic and (iisela; and the Countess
Matilda is deplcteil in her gospels in the Vatican.
The existing (Jraeco-Latin MSS. before Jerome
and the Vulgate do not contain any paintings,
and we must pass on to northern art, especially
fur Irish and Anglo-Saxon miniatures. I'ru-
fessor Westwood's two works contain, or give
references for, the whole subject of early cali-
graphy and drawing. His earlier work puts
forth an able, and apparently quite valid, pl.a
for the antiquity of MS.S. such as the Gospels
of Moeil Brith Macl>urnan and the Book of
Kells, with that of St. CoUimba. They seem
to date from the earlier Irish or Gaelic missions
to the English of Northumhria. Hut the fac-
similes of Irish and Anglo-Saxon miniatures and
ornainents constitute an intrmluction to the his-
tory of fine art in Britain, from the Konnin
occupation to the Norman conquest, and throw
a light on the monastic culture of that period.
The chief characteristic of the earliest fine Irish
or English is the greatly increased size and im-
portance of the capitals and first lines of the text,
with their pattern-ornament, which somelinics
occujiies whole pages, but is often enriched with
miniature. They are certainly enough to prove,
as Westwood observes, that from the Hth to the
end of the 8th century, when art was practically
extinct on the continent, a style of work, totally
distinct from any other in the world, had been
originated, cultiv.ited, and brought to a marvel-
lous state of perfection. Though British, Irish,
and Anglo-Saxon pilgrims to Rome and liavenna
d"iibtU-ss deriv-fd vsri.-.Ur in-pintion-- of s:irr.''.l
art from the study of the great mosaics and of
the remaining MSS. in churches or convents;
they were taught the faith first at home,
»nl re'i
original
seem, w
Eugliah
Tht Eipulilu
and innni
jects, as i\
the tvpicii
the niirncl
I'as.iion of
Ityzanlium
picture-lea
lith centuri
J'ots, lines'
ornumuQt, i
Bonlan. tmm
fricacy of spii
this school IV
between Irish
s'iKht, so that
church of Bril
• lie Irish may
matters.
What is here
'Infe than the
style of more gi
* Tho Riiok .,f I
aliiHist lo a ciTtai
wliaicver dml.t m,
bink of Kells. We
I'l'Tie, uiid also (jiv
i ribo fur the pniypr
ofDiiirow: "Uog.i
I'jirki, ut quicunrju
mii'iii Cuiumbue ,
cvuiiitclium |ier xl
ni.stri," Below is
"Orapromc, fmter
gospels are contaiued
ri»i;iiii(ltiiiilnrili
hiiiln t'Hi'iutD.I
mill nlKilv-|iU|{u
i DCUI'lllt ill til*
^
MiviATrnR
rnilri-'urni-d homo af(,.rw.,.,i . . J^'^VIATI'IIR ijon
^'-fSa
0^->
"";■';' tf<-ln,,.l,.r,utl,„,'
«-i.«l- 0,' birr w ' Saurr^'" '';"" "'«
' """'/ Ullego, DuLlin,
»n.| Innnt., f„ree of chnrnrter Th i
J^-.», «s A.lan, ,.,,,1 Kv., Al ,' h,un V ' ""'',
tith flM.tui'V. |1,„ th,',.V I '.''• "'' '" ""•
ornament, „ud, ,;.r „(,„,„ ali.'tLe'tac;/'^'""""
UiifS lU*
matters. ^ ''"'"^ ""B art with other
' Tlip Jiiiok of |)||.., ... ~ ■
»l"H„,t ,0 a ..rtai,,,,.^;,;;,':, ;:,";,'; "f ■'^'; O.lumba, l,
"luicver d„ui,t ,„„y\, ' '"' "> 'li' '«>liii-s own i,a„u,
b....k 01 K,.|ls UWwuo, "" '" ""■ ''■^'"•' 'l'"e of tl,e
•• ribc f„r th,. pnZn of r 1 ""' "■■""" ^'•'"'«' "f "'e
''.'trld. ut n«ici^.;^„::i'.'",','^';;:.'"™ --o pres„y,er
evan«elium ,,er xll dTrn ' ^ ""^ ^'^P" 'P^^m. t
""^" pro me. fn„er m* o"',,!" ", ™"''"r^''^ "..nd.
gosptUarecontaiuedintheMs " '"'' ^" ''""
from Book of Dnrrow. Waitwnod'i /^T 1
'•'■om the Ho .k « • -'l^, % r' '.""" "'■ "" '■'"■''
"ther «,,le«,li.l llu .;, ' "'c'' '^'"^ ""■"«
psalmist, from th« <'l. . '■ "" '"•'"'"" »"''
l^y t'«-iXus '^*, r'B" ll?;-""" "[^' '■"'""'
•"'•Hi library at Durham H ' '" "■" '""'«-
"«• evangelist ZiZ C "'" ^''^•"^ 1'''^'"""
(Archie,! Li r ry La,nb5hr ."' '''"''^"""'n
'he 8th or 9.h^ce„t rv r^' ",""". **^^'' '""^
''•h"»e from the Go "| ,^ s, V.:'-^ •," '''• ^''""J-
«»ll are n.arked by 1 he .,:':""'''"?'' '"*•
f^nd childhood of the thnn ■'■' "'"' ""»
Jri.sh l'.,alter at St II, • ' ? "•''"""'■' "' the
Uible of Alcuin. and h„ ^ u *"* «''''■''*
Athelstan (end .^ 9,h eenturr"' "' ■""*?
fi'r in advance of nnv of thl"^' '"' ■^"t'-'inly
Theiri^hi: i'r^^;r'^"'''•'^''■'•
■!^wo.^i„gwa.li:L^"^'t..hi::■z■,"'■'
eagle is in tarja- -h -„ " '-"•i«ry, where St. .;„),.,■-
various pi, ture^'of eveZ' In f." "l- ''' "' ^''"' ™''-«l"''
iris., slyle. and iTLte ^e | dralrJ !""^'-^"«
«-nd t..e na,u^-r^t;;:^n;:- -- -
4H 2
!'<1
I
1100
MIXIATUIJE
MIXIATlTvK
■ |".-J
ot' »]iiin!.-i; but lu! fiirgof, or was nnalilo, iiriliu'
the imintiil triiils of tlie time, to leiirn iVush
truths tVoui (ii'ook or Hunuin souvci's. Still
worso, hi! .sooins nuvcr hy any acrideiit to
liavo lookeii witli hope or plfiasuro, or in seari'h
ot" (lesh suhjert, on exteriuil nature ami its
l)L'a\ities. Consequently, he iirel'erreil single
images of evangelists, constantly ruiler ami
more fantastic as his cloistereil lite grew fainter
ami more morbid iu its fancies. lUit in the
Nitivity, Ascension, and (jlorilicntion of our
SaviiMir, and the zodiacal si:;ns of Athelstnn's
]>saltcr, wo have the beginning of early mediaeval
art in Kngland, with all its life and eiigcM'ly-
crowded figures, and yet also with its strong
Ktamp of Classicism or Byzantinism. It seems
in this most singular and beautiful |iicture as if
n later hand, more |inrely (iolhic, hail executed
the two lower subjects of the Ascension and
(jlorilication, while the others retain n shaile of
classical grace in com|iositiuu. The Ascension
From PUHllsr ol Alidatan. WMtwoal'l />ol. Sacra.
greatly resembles that of the great Syriac MS.
;if Kabiila; so much so, as iu the mind of the
writer to connect the Kastern and Knglish schools
of art, and form an inii)ortaut link between the
ancient English church and the East.
The Augustinian or (Megorian-Augnntinian
MSS., one of which is in all probability uow
)>reserved in the library of Corpus Christi Ci)llege,
Cambridge, No. 2Sti, the other in the Bodleian
Library, Oxford, claim priority in time to the
English, though probably not to mauy Irish AKSS.
l''iiur miniatures, besides a large whole-page figure
of 8t. Luke, are given from them in I'ui.ieoir ipliia
•Sdcra^ Their orn.uncut is purely Komanulliyzan-
tine. They are of the highest iuterest, as perhaps
the oldest known specimens of this kind of lioman
jdclorial art in this country or elsewhere, and
probably a few year.s anterior to the MS. of
Kabula. With the exception of a leaf of St. .lohn's
Gospel iu Greek, with miniatures of the apostles,
« Plii.toirrnnlis of thn on!!r» pairea cotitiiniinr thssp
miniatures have been published by the Pula. ogr iuhlcal
Society.
now preserved at Vienna with the illuminated
(ireek Tentateuch of the 4th century, these are
hel I to be the olde.st existing specimens of written
or painted Koman-Christian iconography. The
Entry into .lerusalem, the Raising of Lazarus, the
Capture of our Lord, and the Hearing of the Cross,
are four out of the twelve subjects of the Cam-
bridge .MS. Three of these correspond to those
so frei|uently repeated in the catacomb paintiUjCs,
and on various sarcophagi. The initials are plain
red, and the writing a fine uncial.
A remarkable characteristic, to a colourist, ot
the Hook of Kells and some parts of the (losiiel
ofMoeil lirith MacDiirnan, is the beautiful use
made of different tones and appositions of blue
and green. The writer cau compare it with
nothing he has seen, so well as with the azures,
purples, and blue-greens of many of the mosaics
of liavenna, which, with those of Uome, nuiy
doubtless have suggested much to northern
pilgrims possessed of a style and si)ccial powers
of theii' own.
Many curious questions as to the distinguish-
ing ch.iracterislics of Classical, Anglo-Saxon,
Carolingian, and even Eastern miniatures, have
bi'en lately raised by the celebrated I'salter of
Utrecht. Tlje date of its extraordinary illus.
tratii.ns seems very doubt I'nl, whatever may be
said of the ai)parently more ancient text. There
are in-uper.ible objeitiiuis to Herr Kist's view-
that they go back to the time of Valentinian ;
indeed they appear to the writer more likely to
lie the work of a travelled and highly educated
penman of English, perhaps Northumbrian-
English birth, cmjiloyed in an early Caro-
lingian scri|)torium. He may have been a
pupil of Alcuin's, was possibly a palmer from
the Holy Land, and certainly a '• Komeo " or
liilgrim to Rome. The drawings seem to bo all
by one hasly but skilful hand, directed by a
miml of infinite facility of idea, and graphic
power of realising the idea once formed. The
illustrations are of two kinds; caligraphy,
strictly speaking, and the pen and ink minia-
tures. The MS. is a large vellum 4to. in
admirable preservation, and contains the wlude
of the I'salms, according to the Vulgate, with the
Apocryphal Psalm 'rusillnseram,' the Pater Nos-
ter. Canticles, Credo, and the Athanasian Creeil.
All are written throughout in triple columns, in
Roman rustic capitals, very like those of the Vati-
can Virgil as to size (.Vo«p. Tr. de Pipl. iii. p. 5(),
pi. :sr), Hg. 111. V!). The elegance of the letters re-
sembles the Paris Prudentius(iWrf. fig. viii.). The
headings and initials are red uncials, and the first
line is also uncial, and larger than tlio rest of the
text. Hy the writing, in fact, the MS,, says Profes-
sor Westwood, ought to be assigned to tiie Gth or
7th century; but for the remarkable initial H;
of which this is certainly to be said, that those
who are acquainted with Count Bastard's Caro-
lingian facsimiles, and Profes.sor West wood's
Saxon reproductions, will probably see that the
letter unites the rich use of gold and scarlet of
the one with the unmistakable knot-work and
ophidian form of the other.
Each psajin has its pen and ink drawing, illus-
trating its subject with the inventive vigour of
the best Gothic age, and not altogether devoid
of ■Scaud.iuavian veliemence of treatment.. These
works are 16.5 in number. Had they been ex-
ecuted with any degree of right deliberation, in
the coloi
l.llh, tbi
valuable
unsl<ilCiil,
been (li.st
fancies, ti
cll.lsed it
allowed h
cii'Ut. T
cutting tl
illustr.afioi
in the 1-
I'l'ofessor
an I [risli .
T/ie jire.sem
infer from
fi'oni (iome
too inventiv
apprehensio,
as decidedl-
f'.vrian, in
Lilir.irv at l<
Tins' J(S.
with two oti)
tlu-ee must ;
nnd uuliuown
theUtreciit I
I'salter au.l i
pos.sess the a
Saxon Work, \
by the presei
sources, and
niolels. I.'„r
'Jraeco-Roinan
•I'lia, that it
the pictures
iiuvibly (i,,-|„ :
fi'inify. The
eoatain difKi^nli
""( the Ms.
J'oon, the Hrst
within an orb, i
sits below in a i
vex vault and
liiclates to him,
'I'vay in the tru,
■vvui.. xlii., xlvi,
f.'l'l'esite him is
King, or Tyrant,
I'l'issive chair, wi
and holding a de
«»ord. He has a
■"' the columns al
cmuex Byzantine
> 'luce, evidently
»ilei'. There is a
J free not unlike
lienna Codex Gen
tie Tyrant's guard.'
llie presence of al
'•('llieM.S. iscertai
'"'jng of early daft
'he Utrecht P.^al
"le two pages give,
"'■•"timsoft/.eMida
■Jns-'hi-Saxon Calen,
A 0), and with the
|i-ntms. The liken.
I" tlie draperv, ami
'" so many of ,1,,.
■\'i'«'n. in our woo
Atiielstan will be ob>
JIIXIATUHR
;"-l<'""i. but the arU.tU,."''', ''■''' ""•.^' '"•^
.""■» -'i^t.acte,l In- h,,. '"."'*'">■« '" ''•'ve
<.i"nes, t„ s.,„re ,;,a, („ ,, '' '"•"■".•'^'i Hm'tini;
«'l.>w.dlnmb;.tho«; ''/''■^''''''■-•'''■N'<..^
JiH. present writer, JiuweV "l 'T' ^■'' "'•)
""•■■'• "■..,„ tl,i, that t' , 1. " ■ '"''"'"'"' '"
"•'"" ^".e earlier MS T , l""""*-'" '"■'■ ''"I'iv.l
too,aveiitive,a„,i to,. ,i„„„ •*^„',"''-' ,' "'iKin;,!,
spl'ieheiKsion, boar tl.f ".'"■''"""'.'" 'lis
Library at VinyJ'e ' "' "'" ^""'■entiau
wi.^!'i;''«ti::::3'^^;'»/h««..t,n.t^^
">7 mu^t have be ^ S'^""""''" "' ^"
nnil nuli„„„.n ori.ri„al • „ . ' "" '"">i «"me (.;,r|i,.r
•'-<■■ Utrecht i^,C ;,. , '■•'■;". ""■• "t lior t wo ,rn,n
l'.salter an,l the I'.s'alto r of rV •*•' "»' ""■'I'-'iMn
f'-^-^ess the a,l„,irte,| cV , 7 '•""' '""' 'l"-^-
."^'ivou work, which re '"''"'"''' "'" ^"^'1"'-
«'mm..s, „„,| renrese, en ,'• "'""' '■'"^i^'"!
•Ik.- pictures ,,rove th.V, '" '''"''• '■'■'■" i"
'."•'■i''ly than an,,.K,t ,,'';'■'"" "'•'«'" '""i'o
^•""tarn cliiKculties wh Lb n,- '" '"''' l"^''■
"1" ""^ M«. In t e i J' h"'"'""'""' ""■""«'!-
J'7', the first apna cut .. ' ". " ''^"" •■""I
'""''" ^" "fb, the "her .. """" ''«'"'f.soate,|
"■" vault nu,l a fhl, ,' t' k'' ."".'I'I'', with con-
•''^""M to him, in d ,,;•;■/;'''■' ■ ^\'' ""^'"1
^'"■''y in the true Kn^i <^ '""' '"'^'"^ ''''itte,;,!
•^^■^ii.. xlii., xlvr^ ? I"""" """"'• (see plate
'<i"^: or 7Vra„t.t^,;;'Z "'"";:''"'" '^vii
"'■■'«i>-e chair, with r ,„ | J ''"' l'«'"">"»f- "H a
■>^"'-''' He' has . ia wiT/, n"'," ''""'''"--Ikcv
■^' "- columns abo ! h ,' n I n : '■ [''",";'l'"'"s
c'livex Byzantine likp" . "''''"' "'il<L', are
^■■;"i«e, evi.lently\ rht r '? »!''" ^'"""'^ '"'
"'■I-'-. There isawe k L?'^"'" ''"'"l"''"'"'
■^■i;,"^. Codex Geneseos, ay^, r '? '"',"'••■
ti"' lyranfs guards seen r l , "' '"'" "''li'll
A '').a..d with th'g^h^'r.o ;''■''''■''•'> •'•'''''"
in .so n4-„J.Xtn'ris''''''''''''" '''•''■«'
■H'«in, in our woodcut .^ .'''■>■ •'**''iki"»r.
•^'-^>'-wii,beot;::/ro:r'. r-^
ni.il or clvpcafo
MIMSTER
nni
''-^"'nir."a'-i:H;rv:;?'"^
,'"«"-al. Other Ceatur V *''."'^"""'al than
,''''"'''■'■ ">''«axo-".""'"^^'""«'"t'^"-s of
''^'''''■•'•"i«;tiHM,i",c ";::r "':':''i'i--'t
'''''''"'•-^'•"•^s-vexillum- ,,:■'"''' '''^"■■' '•■'!'■•'-
^"■!^; •'- "'•«au,;;"'s.c ,;ri;';"''^r'-" "■'""-
""'"'"•yuxmher of ,levi ■ • '"■'■»''" "vtra-
/'"™"",- and particu 1, . 7 "•'" ^'■'"' "''''•"I.S
" 'i' of hell, vlnN. 2, ';'' ,«'■--•"' -""o..,er.
;:'■••"'""«»> it n,av,iu'M'"'V"""-'^'ia"
t 10 verv ,1,. ,■ 1 "'yg'an helmet, ful ,■,;; r
- -Me pipes, i,f;;;f'^;.^!-n;;ml. noon;
' ■'"' wKh lour h.n.SGs /'''"•' '''""'iot
' ■■*• '"sii. A Cruciiiv „ ' "'" '" ''-'"'t view
, "'« pahieoKraohi.Ml ;. w ' ^'-Hl'IJNr.)
;'"": '':''^^-» thi' ' ;' „: -^-"-y pianos -^t,
''■'"'■■< far beyond our li ' ';''."""•*■' ^""1 ^'•v-
''''^';'^'o,i;eauth" • I ;: 'i '"'^'''■i---
"'■api.st iairlv u,.ll .'""-aiucle, as a land
•''■'Wpt:;^^:i,,T:"::'i'M^-o,i;;
^™anytbiuc{ i„ the ., V '' "" '"abilitv to
l^'V-ht I-saltor. ec n or;"'l"""^, '' '"'fho
I'"'"'- wl'ioh no Alex^ndiT. n ^"" ,"">'"""!,' Iil<c- a
'""■ "'<« «■> olive, which M"' ''^"•'•■""'ift.'d;
N"-'al*) of Syria "'« ""'••■-t-troe (so t„
;--i>":r",i,;';,:ti':r'''r-''^"'-^-
''^Al^-itselfareas', :;' r:'<;i.'-'''fi«Sto
';•• ('.cyden, I8,i.t . thf ' '"'"' '^'"''''•'"'"A voK
Vestwood's „',,„,,'„ '\l^^'-f'--f; Professor
"""'ly- Master of' Ct yV^"""' '■'"•''
l^aiversity „f Utrc.hV ', " " "^'-^^ '" the
•''"''■■laM^addn. ,V' r"^!''^'''''' ^'^■'■- '«■-'
'i'^l' Museum , , the V l"'"'"-"'''^ "'' ""•' I'-H
i't'/^'*'-''''-'X.'lefK^^
^' •^- I.owis, Sir A l)„iu,-^- *"•'"-' 'it''-.
» .I"--'':'™ by A. I>. .St-,n 4- ; r'"-'""' "''h
'""'stfi', 1874 • Sir If)',,' "™" ofWo.f-
'^'7 ;;4'w ;;! ', :'"rS';; ";;'>"^ ,-':'.^-- '•"'-
and, finally, the e.ce „ /Av ' ' 'i''" "' '-^^4;
«'ay Uirch, F.U.S.L. ' ^^ ^^'""'-■'' l'«
MrmRKUS. martyr with Tif"^''^*^'-'
"■""'tod at I.aodicea!;ulv 23 fT'"' 'T""'-
Uoll. Acta SS. July, V. ;,89). ^"'"''^- ^"rt. ;
MINTSTEIt 1 A n . ^'^- "-^
to, inferior olergv, in coXV r""""-'' f-"''""
»'■''",'• "•• orders ^Jb„v be , Tl'""*";" '" ">''
"IK'aks of "preshvteii „ . • "'^ Lactamius
"'-• word 'to I s .,f/"';'',:''V' ''-t-j: .be
^'•'"-'.ep.osby,er^];;r^,;;fW^;.y
1192
MINISTERIALIS
18th cannn of Eliboris tile wopIs " surer lotos
et ministri" are iiseil aa ci|uivaleiit to " )iivsl)V-
tercs et .liaennes" in the lioily ot' the eaiicm. lu
tlie title of cm. Hit, on the other lianJ, " minis-
tr; " are all the olorgy below the rank of bishop.
In I. Tours, 0. 1, "sacerilote.s et ministri ei'clesiae"
are the whole body of the clergy of the chun'h ;
where we are probably to uniiers'aml by " sacer-
dotos," priests, "ministri " including the other
orders. Compare Ordeks, Holy.
2. Bishops t'reciueutly use the term " minister
eeclesiae," in subsuription.s, as " Kgo N. Carnoten-
sis eeclesiae minister," or " Ego M, . , Sanctae
Meldensis eeclesiae humilis minister."
3. "Minister altaris" is sometimes used as
equivalent to " priest."
4. Archdeacons and arch presbyters aiP some-
times spoken of as "ministi-i episcoporu-.n."[C.]
MINI8TF:RIALI8 or MINISTBALIS.
(1) Ministerialis Calix is the chalice used for
administering the consecrated wine to the faith-
ful, which was often distinct fi'om that used by
the piiest in the act of consecration.
(2) Ministerialis Wier is an office-bock, especially
Hu altar-book.
(.3) Pope Hilary is said (Liber Potitif calls in Vit.
Hil.)to have appointed in Rome "ministralesqui
circuirent constitutas stationes;" that is, clergy
who should perform the sacred offices in the
several churches of Rome where Stations were
held. [C]
MINISTERIUM. The vessels and other
articles used in the ministry of the altar are
called collectively "ministeria sacra." Thus
Pope Sixtus (accoiding to the Liber Pontificalis)
" coustituit ut ministeria sacra non tangerentur
uiai a ministris sacratis." Pope Urban I., accord-
ing to Walafrid Strabo (de Reb. Eccl. c. 24),
"omnia ministeria sacra fecit argentea."
Tlie word is also used for the Credence-table,
on which the vessels were set before they were
jilaced on the altar. (Ducange, s. «.) [C]
MINISTEA. When Pliny in his well-known
letter (h'pi.st. x. 97) speaks of two female ser-
vants or attendants, called ministrae, whom he
thought it necessary to put to torture, we see
that even in those days the word designated an
office-bearer in the church ; nor is there any
reason to doubt that it is used as equivalent to
the* Greek StdKoyos (Rom. xvi. 1). See Dea-
con i-;ss. [C]
MINISTRAU8. [Ministerialis.]
MINISTRY. [Orders, Holt.]
MIRACLE-WORKING. We find a great
number of allusions in early times to this
jiretension, generally made by the founders
of new sectH. Simon Magus (Acts xiii. 9)
w.as apparent iy the first of thi^ class of persons
to come into collision with the gospel, .in-
other instance is recorded in xix. I.S-IB, in
connexiou with the so-called exorcists in
Ephesus. The Clementine Recognitions (lib. ii.
n. 9), a work of the third century, introduces
him as describing himself thus: "1 am able to
disappear from those who would apprehend me.
and, again, I can appear when I please ; when 1
am minded to fly, I can pass through mountains
and atones, as through the mire ; when I cast
MIRACLE- WOKKINO
myself headlong from a precipice, 1 am carried
as if I were sailing to the earth without harm ;
when I am bound I can loo.-e myself, and bind
them that bound me; when I amdose shut up
in prison, I can cause the doors to open of their
own accord ; 1 can give life to statues and make
them appear as living men," etc., etc. Tertul-
lian remarks that Simon JIagu.- for these
juggling tricks and pretended miraC's, was
anathematized by the apostles and excommuni-
cated; and that such was the invariable rule
with regard to this class of men — "et alter
Magus qui cum Sergio Paulo, quoniam iisdem
adversabatur apostolis, luminum amissione niul-
tatus est. Hoc et astrologi retulissent, credo,
si quis in ajiostolos incidisset. Attamen cum
Magia punitur, cujus est species astrologia,
utique et species in genere damnatur. Post
Evangelium nusquam invenias aut sophistas,
aut Chaldaeos, aut incantatores, aut conjectores
aut Magos, nisi plane punitos " (De Idolula-
trid, cap. ix.). The whole treatise is very in-
teresting, and full of information upon this
subject. It was written long before the author's
lapse into Montanism, and it is singular that
the Montanists were among the worst ofi'enilers
in this pretence to sui)ernatural powers.
Eusebius {Ecclcs. Hi4. lib. v. cap. Kj) quotes
the authority of Apollinaris for his description
of. their pretended miracles, and relates that
they were expelled from communion as being
actuated by demons. It was the habit in the
early church to refer all this class of impostures,
even when recrgnised clearly as frauds, to dia-
bolical influence. Thus Kirmilian, bishop of
Caesarea, in Cap|}adocia, writes to Cyprian (I'p.
Ixxv.), mentioning the case of a woman who
counterfeited ecstasies and pretended toi'vojihesv,
performed many marvels — "mirabilia quaedam
portentosa ])erriciens" — and boasted that she
would cause an earthquake. This woman, he pro-
ceeds to say, after having deceived a presbyter,
named liusticus, a deacon, and many lay people,
was subjected to exorcism, and so shewn to he
a cheat, instead of a person sacredly inspired —
"ille exorcista inspiratus Dei gra'tii fortiter
restitit, et esse ilium nequissimum s|)irituni,
qui prius sanctus putabatur ostendit"— ap-
parently regarding the woman as merely a
passive agent ; and yet, in the very ne.vt
sentence, he speaks of her deceiving by "prae-
stigias et fallacias daemonis," and of her assum-
ing to minister the sacr.iments, and such like.
The view taken by the church of such persons
was, in fact, not invariably the same. Cases in
which the free will of the suflerar was apparently
overborne by malign influences from without
{obsession), were classed as Aoi/iovifo'/in'oi
(enerijumens), i.e. possessed, and placed under the
care of exorcists. They were regarded as ob-
jects of i)ity, and incurred no censure from the
church, being permitted to receive the hnlv
communion as soon as their recovery was made
manifest by a time of probation among the
audientcs. But where it was considered evi-
dent that the will of the pisrson in question was
in league and co-operative with the evil spiritu.il
influence, i.e. in cases of the claim to working
of miracles, found in conjunction with dissolute-
ness of life, or with heretical teaching, these
were treated as involving the most grievous
crimiuality, aud jiunished with the greatest
MrUERENDINUS
wrenty. Thus the canon., of St. lia.sil appoint
the .same pnn.,hnu.nt lor one who conL e
him.self gu, ty of .orcery (yovr.la) a.s 1 , a
^foMoAayer^ea. (oan. ,;5). St. A, m sti^ne n
h.. treat,.e on Here.ie.,, a.I,luce,s S" in
stances ...ni.Iar lo that mentioned abov (^«
We Hn,l tiace.s of this practice in more thin
one passage ,^- the New Te.stament. Thus n
v\ai>wn(voi ; where we see fh,. . ■
nnint,.H ,„■» „; ,.v , *'"- Connexion
pointed out above (1) between forbidden arts
arts, anil false teaching. Also, 2 Thess ii Q
where exactly the same view is taken J^
it .eems probable thatfh7ap:s..:''l'3
Dg ol a future whose distinctive fom^s' .nd
passag^ " ays 'ot'lLfllT '"""« "P™ ""'^
great number of laws against th S;,„ Jtf
s:'?^-xt?;''7sV£r'^''"^"^
remarks up ,n a law S Th "^r' ""'^ -^"'"""^
title "^J] L' ■ , ■ T^nt'odosius under this
t mpes,.":m.''„:: ;r\"*'*'r^ ^'•" """"--
t m estatum and the.S>^cW„,„ iv«„„,.,„ j;^
tia.ais— apostataverit vel venem.m ,1; •
cangc). See further under Maoic, Wonders
MISS A
1193
MIRIAM. [Maria, (18).]
MISAEL. [MisHAKL.]
at Rome in fkl S .V 7 )' "^^'"^ Kisuna yearly
:o.te;;;^ii::i;^^:^«'-thewiLda]:
MISETHEUS, martyr; comme^orat... '-t
NKa.a Mar. 13 {/Heron. Mart). JcH ]
HaSKd\Sr"'>' '''"'' "'-^ ^-">-
"uu Azariah j commemorated Ap. 24
De?^.rS^:-,— tea '-,;^{>j^a
asti!!^ ^' "'■'""'" *'■' ^^"3"''' """«««." i" eccles'l-
ast.cal usage originally meant the dismiss, of
q iS^^rmi J"''""'""- thrcrias
Compare ascensT-n' "' •'''""'"'* »» '■e'"*-'"-
^iris-r^tni^'rr^^^'^ii
™il' rm2f !^''^> -f J"''g-nt-h.'lis t
-i;i;:KfdKSi:.-i^^^^
S^kitS-^-^^^^-S
third ht.r of the da'v t); -f T?"'«- *"■* ''^'*''- the
il. ifjssa Caterhumenorum. The worrl »,u„.
was used in the church in reference To thpH
^uni.sau.^^:;^p^;-;-i-*;^
»*). -t. Augustine, about the same time- "Ti
^~:;<-Th*L:'leS""-!
preach a sermon, and then to .'give It 'thri'"
ni.«»nl of the catechumens (oefebrare cat! t'
"ThaUhel'pels^" T"' f, ^^'^tia, 524:
(mis.am) of t^f eat;;htr..\r '^' T
Council of Lerida in fho .>. *■ . '•'• *"e
persons living'-? Inc^^rsrirbe'ril':!"';'"
ptrc:?ecteL^^^\-c Sf^
^t"(Scudam;:4a^!r^^^l,^">-
ieiySrrw:rrer:„[°i:^;,"^'»« ?- ^^y
from the 8thcentur/at"i:aiVte:T''of
1194
MISSA
I*.
Ill -
i^'^'
i^
H-.
24; ii. 15 ; J/us. ftui. ii.) have boon use.l at the
dismissal of the coimnunieants, viz. " Ite, niissa
est." In the Mozaiabic rite, on the WednesUays in
Lent, the priest or tleacon aildresseil the [lenitenta
after their last prayer — " Stand in your place.s for
the di.Mnissal (ad missam)"(i/if,v. Mutnr., Leslie,
'j9). tio loni; as there were catechumens these
words wore doubtless intended for them also,
each class was to remain in its proper place until
the nii'ice to go was given.
Isidore of Seville, who used the Mozarabic
liturgy, writing in 6,10, says, "The niissa is in
the time of the sacritice, when the catechumens
are sent out; the Levite crying, 'If any cate-
chumen has been left, let him go out ; ' and
thence the missa, because they may not be pre-
sent at the sacraments of the altar " (OnV/. vi. 19).
The explanation appears to be that, the more
n;iioriuit, hearing of the missa, imagined that it
meant, not the dismissal of the non-communi-
cating classes, but the service from which they
were excluded. The popular usage, thus founded
upon error, though essentially improper, seems
to have been early, if slowly, followed by the
clergy. The first instance occurs in a letter
iu which St. Ambrose describes an event then
quite recent, which occurred on Palm Sunday,
1)8."): "After the reading [of the eucharistic
lessons] and the sermon, the catechumens being
dismissed," an interruption occurred, after an
account of which he adds, "nevertheless, I con-
tinued ri my duty, I began to perform mass
(uiissam facere). While I am offering I am made
aware," &c. (Epist. 20, §4). The next is in the
Hrd canon o;' the council of Carthage, a.d. 390,
which forbids presbyters to reconcile penitents
"in public fi mi.ssa." Leo, in 445, expressed him-
self agaiI!^ the "custom of a single mass" in
small ciuir les on festivals, at which more de-
sireil to be | recent " than the church would hold
at ojce" {l^pist. xi. 2). Caesarius of Arlt.s, a.d.
502, used the word freely, but in the plural, from
wliich we should gather that the usage was still
unsettle 1: — " If you observe carefully, you will
see that the missae do not take place when the
<liviue lessons are recited in church, but when
tile ■jilts are otli^red, and the body and blood of
the Lord are consecrated " (Si'/Tn. 80, § 2. Comp.
81, § 1). Ca.ssiodorus, 514, in Italy: "The cele-
bration of holy m. asses " {Exptia. Ps. 25, v. 7);
and again, " Missarum ordo completus est " (Ps.
'A'i, coucl.), where he means the order of the
eucharistic ollice. The plural is used by Gregory
of Tours, 57i, as '• e.xpletis missis" {be Mir. S.
Mart. ii. 47), "dictis mi.ssis " (De Vtor. M rt.
bl), eto., and by others. The idiom may have
arisen from a rubric in the Gregorian Sacra-
mentary, in an early cojiy of which the order for
Good Friday ends thus — "Then let him (the
priest) communicate, and all the clergy; and let
the dismissals take place (Hant missae)'" (Pamel.
Mit. SS. PP. L. ii. 257). Gregory I. himself, 590,
commonly uses the phrase solemnia missarum
(Epist. iv. 44, vi. 17, vii. 29). The variety of
usage continued to the end of our period. E.i).
in the 7th century the Council of Toledo, A.i).
6i(>, uses both missas (can. 2) and missam (;i);
that of Autun, t)7o. has " a missa suspenderc "
(can. 11); that of Braga, 675, solemnia missa-
rum (can. 4); that of Toleilo, 694, niissa pro
requie (can. 5). in the 8th, the t)rdo liomanus,
about 7c>0, liaii missarum solemnia (§ 19, Mas.
MISSA
ltd!., M.ibill. tom. ii.), missa (24, 25, 26, 28, .30),
and missiie (22, 25, 26, 28, 46), The Council of
Aix, 789, uses missa (can. 6), that of Frankfort,
794, solemnia mifsarum (can. 5(i). In the Ist
capitulary of Theodulf of Orleans, 797, we have
niissa (cc. 5, 6) and solemnia missarum (cc. 4,
11^ 46). The second council of Clialous (sur-
Saone), 813, uses solemnitates (can. 39) and
solemnia (60) missarum.
ill. That part of the service at which commu-
nicants alone were present has been long dis-
tinguishei' from the Mi.ssa Catechumenoruui by
the name of Missa Fidelium. It was not so
called, however, within the first nine centuries.
In the following passage from Florus of Lyons,
A.I). 837, the phrase means the dismis,sal of the
communicants: "Tunc enim (,sc. post evangelii
lectionem) clamante diacono, iideiu catechiiiueni
niittebantur; id est, dimittebantur foras. Missa
ergo catechumenorum iiebat ante actionem .sicra-
mentorum: Missa Jideliiim &t post coufectionem
et p^rticipationem" (/-.'xpos. missfie, § 92 in line).
The service from which the catechumens were
excluded was also very frequently called niissa
sacramentorum ; but we ore unable to (ind
examples earlier than the 11th century (see
Sala in Hona, Her. Lit. ii., viii. 1).
IV, The breaking up of a congregation of
monks after their ollices was also calleil missa.
Thus Ca.ssian says that among the monks of the
east one who cimo late to prayer had to " wait,
standing before the door, for the missa of the
whole assembly" {tnftit. iii. 7). So again, ii. 7,
" Celeritatein niis.sae ; " iii. 5, " Mi.ssa canonica ; "
8, "Vigiliarum missae." Similarly, St. Beue-
dict, when settling the number of psalms tc be
said at each office, is, e.ij, at matins : " liut after
the three psalms are finished, let one lesson bo
read, a verse and kyrie elei.son ; et missae Hant "
(cap. 17). The reader will observe the plural, as
in the Gregorian Sacramentary.
V. In the liturgy of Gothic Spain (Miss'le
Mozar., Leslie, 8, 1 1, et passim) missa is the name
of an address to the cummunicants (= the Gal-
ilean Preface), corresponding in position to our
exhortation. " Dearly beloved in the Lord." The
oiigin of this usage is clear. The departure of
the non-communicating classes is now followel
by an anthem (.sacrificium =;: the Uoman "otler-
tory"), and that by the word missa, which now
appears as a heading prefi.\ed to the address.
Before the introduction of the anthem {Avtitia
Euc/iaristiC'i, p. 342, ed. 2) the word wouhl fol-
low immediately the pnx'lamafion, "State locis
vestris ad Missam," and would sinijdy indicate
that the "mis.sa" or dismissal of the penitents
and catechumens then took place. When tho^e
clashes of worshippers ceased to exist, it was
naturally supposed that the word was the name
of the formulary that followed it. The address
now called missa is by St. Isidore of Seville, A. n.
610, called "Oratio admonitionis erga populum"
(De Div. Off. i. 15), from which we should infer
that missa retained its original meaning in the
Spanish liturgy in his time. A Galilean preface
in the sacramentary found at Bobio (which fur
convenience we shall call the Besanc,on Sac:ra-
nientary, as it appears to have belonged to that
province) is in.scribed, " Missa Domiuicalis " (Miis.
Hill, i, ,373); but as no other iu.Htancp i. ,-;ir- ir,
the Galilean liturgies this may bo a clerical
error.
VI. I
called I
each a
leave to
Isidore, I
of vigils
be said, (
canticles,
Sundays
missae be
(Keg. 7;
orum hei
"canonic
that of 1'
monastery
are callecl
the nigliti
vigils be
six respond
resurrecfii)
greater am
3 ; Hoist, i
ingly pecu,
with that
office clearl
rule of Cae
Sunday obsc
let (tiie his
reaci \
matin (psali
(caj.. 21 ; ihi
also of Arle.'
six missae fr
the Kpiphau'
prophet Dan
iiocturn.s, wJi.
tion, is being
bat all stand
Hm\: "On
tour missae h
fi'cim tile gosp
martyrs " (f)-
Sim. c. 38).
Vlf. The da
missae, as by
the end of the
of matins and
understand it),
ters from the 1^
much Liter th(
for " matins: "
evening and m
fnnned " (i»(, q^
ea. Maiisi, i. 90)
, \HI, During
liturgical peiio,i
scrted in the liti
ol'ji'it wore colle
Orationes, or Oi
stances survive 1
g"i-' m sacrament
i'"'". Vet. Murat
.'"d for the lattc
,JUc;h groups of
JiMnks are heade
t '■ec. pro Kegibiis,
Helarii," " (>nit. ,
'•Jraf. et Preces ,
n""i«"(/-i<.(/a//.;il
".'' "'*' P''"iiei' pra
tniisae. The word
ni'in Sacramentary
MISSA
each a m„„k n iVh o"! ^, ,r "■'" "' ""^ '^"-1 of
leave to wi.hil.rf 'f , /tL''^""" ™"-^e, obtain
I'^icio-e, compil,.,! in (i''o. .. u' '° ',''« «">« of
f vigils the three canonical • „l '"'^^ ""''•'''»
b« -.i.l, then three m^sa of n '"' "'l ''"'' '"
^•anticles, a fifth of the mf.r'"'?' " '^""'"•h of
S-"i'.v.s an,l feasts of 1,^ "j'f ;'--. ""* on
WKssae be a.|,ie,l, on necn nr <• I""'"' '"-'^''"•"l
orum here are psal.ns'snnir in , n'r''" '""'"'■
'•oannnical-nnii^e,,,. l" ,1, h w'""" *" "'«
tl'iit of Kructuosi,/ h' ,■" *^'"'^l'""'sh K"l",
monastery at AIca 'i ICniT'" "'' ">e grea
the nights of Satiinlav ami' « '°,""^«"'"'--s for
vigils be celebrated wthl^""''"^' " ' " '''' ""=
SIX resjjonsorie.s, that th,. v i "'*'"' ™'^''' «'i«h
.•eM,rrection nj.y t t. r "h""^' "''"'« '""■■'''^
greater amount of ...salr^,!' .7'""''='* ''>' '*>«
ingly l-ecnliar to S, ni,, k! ""l"''" "'*"«<'- soem-
with that of KrancC vhere th""" .^""f-n-lea
ofhce clearly meant tl,» i ""* ""*"''<-' of an
ruleofCaeLuB of A,:Tn J'""' "' ""^
Sunday observe si, „„•! 1 ' l^"' '^"J- • " '•:vory
let (the history of) t ,e , "" *^' "''"^ '"'■'^»''"
«<l When he nis Le""'"^'""" ''« ■■■'"■'"•»
>»atin (,,saln,s) in tnon'Tr '"l'! ''"''^hed, say the
also of Aries, 5r-0 • "0>; P)! • ''''''-■ "'"^"■elian,
«ix missae from the .m-IL/' i "f ''''^ "''■-"••"•"
tlie K,,i,,l,anv . . oC ''^'"'^ «<> "»
piophet Oaniel. " ' j,! ;'* '"I ""'-^sae from the
noeturns, when the (irst'mi'-" ■'" '^^y ■'"'*ei'
tiou, is being read et no ""' ''■ ^^' "■^"'•>■•^'--
but all stand" rOn/oLV"" P''««''"ie to sit,
Again: "On ul ttf^ofZ T""- "■'■ P- "-'
'our missae be „b.^;ved T'^l^' '"* ""'^^ <"•
f-m the gospel, the r/stVromT ""' "i"' ""■'«'
martyrs " ((/,.(/„ /^ ^J^; ""m "'o passions of the
Sim. e. ;!8). '^ '"^ ^"0- «"/. Hoist, ii. 72;
"i'sie. - %°S"ir„T;''r'«'v«^ called
"<= en,l of the morn f ^^''^ '" 500: "At
of matins and ^1^ and evening mi.ssne (,>
"nlerstanditXailrr'T; ."" ^"'';° »«'' "thers
t''" from the PsI ms b '^,!'i-^'V,";- '^t little chap-
'"'"•■'' I^'ter the phrase -Snl ^™'!i^^>- H-^n'e
'•"."matins:" "lVch„ T"' "^'^ " i" ««ed
S.lijf^g-^-^'^Mii^fe:^
'■'"Sal^3,I^,.S-P-t of the first
serted in the liturgy .';.'„ '"''''-"" '» •"-' in-
ol^j-t «ere collect!!^ .^T.HV ''''"'' '"^ »
O'ationes, or Oratione et P "" '*'''^ "f"
^'■■'"- ^'.n-nve both i^ the rT''- *'''"-^ ">■
g"!-' .n .sacramentaries. For tlf; f ■^"'" ''"'' f''''"
^'^«. Ic't Muratori, i. 49) 7 ■ ^^"i'• ''" ^'*-
"'"1 for the latter, Uj i V k- *' ^' ^' <"'^' !
»'"•■'• groups of n -ayers in i '' ^.' "*••'• *■<""'
.'■-'cs are headed T^ecMvi; '"T'-"' *''«
1/ei'. pr"I{egibus,""OrV,.f ./' <^™""n''s et
™." "Orat. et ^ZM^/'?.' '" ^'«ali S
MISSA
1196
"T'name !,f tt fc;"''' ^^ "'' '■'' '"^•"^^J
more than one for th„ ^' T '"'""'■'^ ""■'•'-• "ro
gorian, that puldi hed b! P ''''■''' "^ ""' ^"■-
no' occur inShis sense^ ^""'^T' ^^'^'^ '''"'«
"a'ln.issam»„ft!,.,l • '""r*"""^ »e have
^■^' ^/^. ii. Coo. i^'./'^e^rv;'""'"'"-^- (''■'■"""'■
ever, as a title in the oth- " *•'""""""- how-
H'ihus (Murat. ///„., ;/,%;".'"«^»-^ Missa ,.ro
<-'reg. V. 2ir., 6), etc •"' f'^f ' "'"-'• "i'l> St.
^opyoftheGela^an m'adn \l "" ""'>' "^'■••nt
'i-a in Monastei'VTl :;" torM':''"^"'--^'-
•'U'I'ces male agentesV / i 7 '.n'^^' '^''^^a contra
l"-"';a''ly came from F^nJ''V\ ''''"' "^"S«
••■"'Moved in this «ense in the p'h*''" """■'' ''
n;..s.sal (,..,;. M,,sa in Sancfo n'e ^" ''''■«-(i,.,llican
«'f -'08, Missa in Sy , Ll T '"/'''^'"'■'"•■' ^^'''•
an'l Sim. m,w,/nt tV '^iJ T^raditione, I'.j;-, •
"Itomalia^S'. t, ^""'"r'' C^'" ""Iv n'
W',.,U;i^"!5)'^^/^"--"!-"tof"Orat.e?
f- .'/• Jlissa de Adv 1^ J*^":-^ G^HIicanun,
"Of. one of which is 1 .r"'""*'""' Mabiil„n
^^tale Domini, jZ ^^rr"^'^^:"' •^"-" "'
I'hania, 20t;, etc ) ,vh;lk ' '^'"^'*a hi Koy.
■';''« word isnot ,;„c ':m,r T'''? '» ""-' ''h.
'.''« l.i'"rgy of mZT&' '" ^'''■^: "■■^n-r in
'"" 't in Spain i„ the h?^., " '"• '■^' l-"* »e
ar^^bic Missal (Leslie 4o«"4:'"'^'' "^ ""e JIoz-
probably in the l.Jth cano^ el 'i''^' ^'^'^ "'ost
"' Toledo, A.D. 63'whe„ If «>''"'■'■■ ^■'•""'^il
numan composition, ts.v"' "r'"''"'^ ^■^'"'"^ o*'
h-'mu, sicut comp nunTur jri'™'"""""'"^ "'■g"
vol orationes," etc ?, '^''■-''»«. ^^ive preces,
■"'^^^al of pern-tents' and t \W ^"" « ^i-
rn». in Spain in t'he 7tlf ", '^ "^ ^'"'-'^•''"-
'hmk that the wo:-d ha/' '. '"'""■■'■', "•« cannot
special meaning peculP, . f„T' •■'' *'"'* """■■•
aboye in § y. V'hen Greg.ry if^'r "'^""•""•"'
f'-anc. yi. 4(i) says that fT,^ " ^ """''* (''''^^
•■584, attempted certain "'"""',"' ^^'''^ ''i^d in
:we^::< '^^^^ i:"^ta'r tS
;;^^S^tr';oE'^'^"'^«'^'-^.
the Oratio) super Oblata'lc ""'.''•V= ('
»as (or the acceptance of th" n '''"'• ""'las
when they came to conisfof the" >'"""°^' ''"'
then- intended use often ,„ elements only,
1' was called Secreta, ^bca,' ""'' '='^-
Koper >'V./a.,._this be„an wfth^- <^'> ''''.e
formulary, Veredienum if.. ^'"^ « ''"""'ant
"^larii," "(1,,,r'et l^f' "'•'''•""^ '" ^atali S
-t'Tr.-1-Hs^-^^^^^^
"'an Sacramentary, nor 1 .if .u'l"-^ "1 "'e Leo-
■" 'u an the coj.ijs of the
fc.riuulary,Ver;7i ""' "'S'"' *"h a t
'^t-'-.ta^4(whiZ^K£r"f"'>^"-
pjS'^ar^^'r^'^sL^^
J-coH.)i 494 T R „. Vr,' "> ". <?tc. (Sa.-niin
!!i^^-^J^'prg:r^-^>-^L^5
nntnerous in tK ;ar y ?"" ^''"'''"'■' ««''« cry
(f^/. f^^otef,UV T ''T\!:'' '"^ ">an 220'
'"-were reduced to li(;:i'^^^^h-t..ry
Il;t6
MI88A
I ■ '■'
I
ill
Oue ilivi^iiin nf tin; R.miiin c-inon begins thiis,
" t^ilnlllunil■:lll(l's tt nit.'ni<>ri<iin vi'iitiaMtHs in
jiriinis jr|i(i'in,>ae Meni)H!r Virginis Mariiii'," etc.
Viiriiitiiiiis of this pi'opi'r inr "I'rt.iin siMisons
occur in the (iolasiiin iiml rircgoiiiiu .Sacninicn-
laiics, but uct in the Lecmian. In the (lelasi.iu
fhev are j;uuerally huadeJ " luiVa Actionem"
(Miirat. n. s. i. -i'JiJ, i^t.i'.i, "), r)7'J, etc.), hut unce
'•Infra Caunueui'' (ihij. .'loil). The t'lillmvini;
oxiimiile is the formula for Maumly Thursilay in
that sacriinientary : " Cmninunicantes, et ilieiii
sacratissiinuin celcbranles; quo trailitun est
Diiniinus noster Jesus Christus. Seil ft iiwiiio-
riiin," etc. (Murat. i, 55:)). Other forms are
proviileil for (Jllri^tma.s, Kaster, Ascension Day,
Whitsunday, (f) A jirayer which forms j art of
the canon begins thus, " Hauc igitur oblationem
sorvitutis nostnie," etc. This also is varieil in
the (jlel.i.siau anj Gregorian sacraiuentaries tor
seasons anil occa.sioas, as for Jlaun'ly Thursday
(i. 55:), ii. 55), Ea.ster (i. 572, ii. ti7), Whitsun-
tide (i. 601. ii. 9U), for the dedication of a
church (i. iJl'Oi "'' *^""' (^l*^)! "■^'^- " '" "'*"
heaileil "Infra Actionem" (i. 55;i, 57'2, etc.).
lu the Gela.sian Missae pro Scrutinio this prayer
becomes a petition for the Competentes, and is
followed by the recital of their names and
another act of intercession for them, viz., " Ho.s,
Uomine, fonte ba|'tismatis inuovamlos Spirilu.s
Tui uiuuere ad sacramentoruiii tuorum pleuituni-
neni poscimus praeparari. I'cr." (Murat. u. s, i.
b22). In an earlier part of the caucjn (" Infra
Canonem ") a prayer for the sponsors is also in-
terpolated, viz. after the words "Memento,
Doniine, famulorum famularumciue tuarum ''
(i/iV/.). A special " Hanc igitur oblationem"
wa.s almost an essential part of ma>sos for the dead
(vjelas. Ii. s. i. 75'2-7';'2 ; Greg. ii. '218-'J-2'2), and
w,is inserted in many votive masses (Gel.is. i.
7o3, 719, "'JO, 4, 0, etc.; Greg. ii. 188, 19H, 5,
2iK)). (/) The (Oratio) ad Complendum, post
C ,mmuiauiu.'iii, or ad Cutiununionem (see the Sacra-
nientaries in Lit. I.at, Vctus, Murat. passim).
This was properly a thanksgiving after the re-
ception, such as we find iu every liturgy, and
j)robably came from the earliest period " When
that great sacrament has been partaken of,"
savs St. Aui;ustine, " a thanksgiving concludes
all' " {Epist. 149, § 16). ((/) Ad J'npul'im {Sa,mm.
Ge!,is. Murat. u. s. i. 495, 6, 8, etc.), or Super
Populun {Sdcram. Greg. ibid. ii. 23, 8, 9, etc.),
is the heading of a tinal benediction found only
in some missae, especially in those for Lent.
The I.eoniaa Sacramentary has no heading.s, but
several such benedictions may be distinguished
in it; c. ij., PrUeitor (Murat. u. s. i. 297), Aojj
praijudicet (ibid. 298), Tuere {Hjid.), etc. The
following is oue exainple : "Super populum
Tuam, Uomine, quaesumus, benedictio copiosa
desceudat ; induigentia veniat ; consolatio tri-
buatur: fides saucta sUccrescat : redemptio sem-
piterna lirmetur. Per" (Sacr. Leon. Murut. i.
482). Iq the Koinanizing parts of the Missale
/'/MHCoruKi this collect i.s headed "AdPlebem"
(Lit. GaU. Mabill. 32.3, 5).
(2.) Tito Milanese Miss i, (<i) The collect for
the day under the name of (Oratio) Super J'opu-
inn (Pamel. Liturip'con, i. 293, et passim). This
was originally said before the Gloria in Excelsis
(I'liV/.), which, followed by the Kyrie, preceded
the Prophecy and other lessons. It is now said
after the Kyrie (Martene, de Ant. Eit. Ei.cl. i.
MISS A
iv. .\ii. :;). (')) The (Oratio) Super Sidoiiein.
The .iin Ion is the " fair white linen cloth " of the
Kni;li>h rubric. It was spread over the altar
after the gospel, and this prayer was said over
it. The following example is for the eve of the
Kpiphiiny ; " Adesto, lJ"mine, supplicationibus
uostris, et populo Tuo, (|uem Tibi ex omnibus
genti'jus elegisti, veritatis Tune lumen oslende.
Per Dominum" {il:!d. 314). (c) The (Oratio)
Super Ohlata. This has the same intention as
the Roman .S'r crcta. Before the creed was brought
inV> the liturgy, it always followed the ollertory
anthem (oll'erenda), and this is obviously its
right [dace; but now on Sundays and other
feasts the creed intervenes, and veiy awkwardly.
See Pamel. i«. s. Martene, u. s. ((/) The I'relaca
corresponds closely to that of the Ki>man Sacra-
mentaries. One is [irovided for every holydny,
(c) In the Missa pro Haptizntis or. Kaster Kve a
prayer is inserted "■ Infra Actionem," t. c. in the
canon, in which the celebration is expressly de-
clared to be on their behalf: " Hoc paschale
sacriticiuin Tibi otl'erimus pro his quos ex aqui
et Spiritu sancto regenerare dignatus es " (3.?3).
In the Missa for Maundy Thursday (.3 19) there
is a variation of the Conmiunicantes bearing on
the institution of the sacrament, and a jirayer
to be inserted "Post Orationem Sacerdoti.s pro
seip.so," I.e. after the "Nobis (luocpie minimis
et peccatoribus." These, if we mi ke not, are
the qnly ))roper additions infra canou< m admitteil
by this liturgy. (/) Another interpolation pecu-
liar to the Missa for Maundy Thursday is the
Oratio post Confractorium. This also refers to
the institution. It begins thus: " Ipsius prae-
ceptum est, Domine, quo I aginius, in cujus
nunc Te praesentia postidamus." (i/) The
(Oratio) Post Communimem corresponds to the
Roman formulary, called Ad Complendum in the
Gregorian, but more frequently Po.st Comuiu-
nionem in the Gelasian Sacramentary.
(3.) T/ie Galtican Missa. (u) In the Galilean
church the song of Zacharias was chanted after
the Kyrie at the beginning of the service except
in Lent (St. Germanus, K,rpos. Jirev. in Martene,
de lid. Eccl. Ant. i. iv. iv. 1). It was called " the
Prophecy " (Germ, ibid.), and was followed by a
prayer, Collectio (Miss. Guth. in Liturij. Gall.
Mabill. 190, 251, etc.) or ('ratio (Sacrum. Gallic.
in Mus. ItcU. i. 285) post Prop/ietium, whiiih was
generally based on it, or contained at least some
allusion to it. Three of those extant (Miss.
Franc. Lit. Gall. 322, 4, 5) do not exhibit the
connexion with the canticle, being borrowed
from the Roman sacramentaries. The first two are
the originals of our Collects for the tjth and 11th
Sundays after Trinity. One example occurs in
the Reichenau Kragmeut (Neale and Korbes,
Gall. lit. 6; see also 28). (b) The Kucharistic
litany of the West went conventionally by the
name of preces (Xut. Euch. 301). From Ger-
manus (u. «.) we learn that in the Galilean
church the preces were aaid after the lessons
and homily. In several Missae we have a Cul-
Icctio jx)st Precem (after the Collectio post Pro-
phetiam), which can only be referred to the
litany, and the general character of these col-
lects corresponds to that po.sition. In the Be-
sancon sacramentary thev are headed " Crnfio
post Precem." (Mus. It. "i. 282), ex. : " O lord
God, who art both justly angry with Thy people
and merciful to forgive them, incline Thine ear
MISSA
to oi„. snpplicafions thnt wd who ronfes, Th
w. h „„r entire ftlli.,,ti„ns n„.y ,,bta n „T, ^.^i,"'
which ini cates thaf th^„ „ • , ;— '*»'^'.
o.le,.tory and th^^^AZ Zl'tV''
W whom prayer was made. These coll 1^'
"1'- (<') After the redar,yZ' "''*'* ^'"''''
prayer CoUectio post A^J ^l .l';^^;^
properly had two obiects It 2\f ^'"'
the acceptance of the ei*'; r»„ f '"'"^'"' ''"••
to the Riman Super Ob^k a/ and =""ri'"°""ng
cession for both living '"d^i?/ "1 ^'^'..l ""'■-
■ • • sacrificium laudis oblltum ^ ^" K "'""
quorum sunt recifatione compl^^a 'scWbi rh""*
m aeternitate" (Goth. u. ,vjU^"t' J"^'!^
nnmimbusofterentium frn»..» ii ■ ' . •*"'^'*'s
.«uKra,ment'fi\:r]Chl"„!^,!rfr
ai^it, ^^he'^L-^r^ra^non'Thr"'^^^' .^'''^^'
tained, but the Galilan coU'ecM^ ""T " '■^■
a Koman (J/„,. rt. 279 284 6 7 '^"'''''"-''^d by
and the RoZl 'it^^ZZ'-'l'"' ''' «"»«'
its proper title (iToall no 7^Tl ""''<"■
(/) The ColiecthadPace aclr^:^' f' ^' ''''^•>-
said when the ti,, S * '"'^'' "» P''arer
IToperly a praye f.^r }ZV"' f"'""- '' '^
collects to tM,J»bctannt^''"''.f ""■-■• "-d
Vet. (ibid. 330 3 4 qH^{ ' ^1 **'''' '° ^- »«//•
" -PpWed a'nd'L'aVo'llt' wu'h n'* °r^
ence n them to charit^T... ' *"" "" '"'"Jr-
collect ha., almost enll^ ^'" '"■"" «''"'^«a
K(.manizL Besan, nn ^ disappeared from the
nan.e has Llr:^'^JTXriu o"* t^";
ste'r^S^T f '---Ao^'fcti^i
may ever Dresp,^» ;„"■'. ^. ^"""^^ *''*' we
7 «ver preseive jn spiritual affection that
MISSA
1107
''-e^,v L'.t.CV";'•r'''■^'>•'■'■-•'"^^
names (riven fn fK... V', "'"'''^^ «'ie the
with the wunls '' v! u '"^'""'- '» '"fr'n
th«n, to the witness o,hf,>,'''f/ ^'v-s in
justum est." It Mroblll ' ^'^''''- '"K"""i' tt
to the a4op<<(St Sfa k':r'',T^"' «;i'"-.l^'nt
A.99)oftLUeklHur'i "■ ^i^ ' '^•- "'''»•
ately preceding or f lo^ " '"th'"'"'" '""■■^"''■
lary), from its^forminiT,^ f„/'"', '^"'^ <■'"■".«-
""'re sacriHoial na™of^h?« '"'"'""" '» the
Mi-nejmm<datn issVe Conr'r;-^'''"'^'^'''''"
latio, are used indcrmin„t ?"'"""'['"'""'■""-
Gothieum (/.it. Oa l,T ^^'i^ '" ">« ^I^™"/*
Cont. 194 2 9 210 "T- ,^**«' /'''l. 7, 9, etc. ;
<?««. IW.'(Cont. m' 3')o\"14'' ""' ^"''
testatio. When the K„^ "'' "' P^P^r Coni
the Gallican church the " '""'"' ^"^ "•*'-"' '»
Gallican Mis,:ae etied w?[h'Th "r'"'^ "^ ">«
''««.32«), Jatrin them"';hf R*"'^'^"' <^-''
was used in every mass 7„ Th ^.'"":"'' <'«""">
and apparently in the A // ^^ «othic (;joo),
used .ii'^some ^nlt Hent .'^k'Tk 't''"' '' ««^
many end with ft,, r. '" ^"^^ 'hese, while
The^ReicLnau Mtal",,""'""' """■^ '''' no
P"rely Gallican. S rTr V '"'^•« '"-'
variably ended with Vi,. o .^""'cstation in-
followed in the ri,. I fV"'' ""^ '^'^ was
and was in fact oftl „ . ""■' '"""'^"'^ "n it,
[0 that d„xi;;*r;r'tf'''^™'''^)-'''
benedictus, Uominus n^fier jl ," A""'*"-'' '-''"
(.Lit. Gall. 189; comn IQ- ";k^'"'''""''"^"'c-
t-'ollectio post Sanct r '^; he' -\f'-^- '^'^^
prayer of 'consecrate m • f ,r i T"^^' ^^''''i-'""
with the account of ,he' in ti r "^'' "'""'"''•-■s
the mention of the !,,» . ni"" ""■'""'uce,! by
came to seek 1 , ^ ;rvVfb^>'lV- -^^ " ^hl
^'or He the day before " (202?. ' -^^ur "r,'"^'"
Chn.st, who the day before H. a V','"' "''''^"s
"By the same our Wd wh^fh t"™',, C-'^")'
deigned to suffer for the'sTl "' ' "^ '"'•■ ""
al " (33,5) Tht n .• *"''«''«» of us and of
at le^gth^- »Tr:':,!'%-^--.-"'ten:,:t'
This collect was fat firlt '^"^'"- "" *• '5)
alwavs) ,. ,,,rca£ ' ^"^ ^ "'^^ pre.u.i,
Greek and Ka^tern liturg es or aTl f '" ""^
'-iUerediU^Sif1£i=S;J2
1108
jnssA
'^:
U«.'
fl^f
super hai'c sulcniniii " (.ir (ivth. 228); " De-
scemlat iniiestiriinbilis gNjriiio Time Spiiitiis,
. . . tit fiiit (ibliitici ndstni hostiii sjiiiitiilis "
(Oidl. \'(t. ;):iri); •• Kngamus titi lioc .-.aoiiliiium
tiia bennilii'tiiini! benwlkiis t't Suncti Sijiiitim
roie iipifiindns " (JA Jiicheii. 15). Thu .Spirit is
not nicntinned in many in whuh the eltect M'
fho prayer is the same: e.g. " Ut ojierante vir-
tutu panem mutatum in cnrno, pcieuliim ver-
siim ill sanguine, ilium siimanius,"etc. (.)A (lut/i.
lidii); " I>esccnilat, Domine. plenitiiilu iiinjestntia,
Divinitatis, pietatis, virtutis, beneilictiiinis et
giiiriae tuae super hune paneni et super hune
ealicem " (.JA J.k-/ien. 11). (/;) In the (iallican
rite the fraetion took phice before the I.drJ's
I'rayer, which, as in other liturgies, came be-
tween the consecration and communion (Cier-
nianiis, Kr/ios. Martene, i. iv. xii. i.). The
Gothico-fiallican Jlissal, and that only, gives a
Cu/lectio ml Puiiis Fmctiuncm for the mass on
Kaster Kve. It evidently has some sjiecial history
now unhnown; for in it the oblation is offered
" for the safety of the kings and their army and
all stundin;; around "(/.//. UaU. 2b\). (I) The
Lord's I'rayer was introduced by a form which
is always headed in the missals, CoUcctio ante
Urutiiiii.m Dotniiumm. The following is a brief
example: "Not presuming on our merit, holy
Father, but in <ibediunce to the command of our
Lord Thy Son Jesus Christ, we jiresume to say "
(.!/. Cot I. 192). Another ends thus, "Suppliant
to Thee we cry and say. Our Father" (M. (lull.
\'et. .Uti). Many are addresses in which the
people are exhorted to say the Lord's I'rayer,
e.<j. " Let us be.seech the Almighty eternal Lord,
that . . . He permit us to say with confidence
the prayer which our Lord hath taught us. Our
Father "(,V. (lotfi. 202). (/«) The Lord's Prayer
was followed by a prayer with the title Cudoctio
post Oratiunem Dominicam, which also varied in
the .several MLssae. It corresponds to the con-
stant Roman cmbcdis, and like that is founded
on the last petition of the Lord's Prayer, even
beginning as that does, generally (not always;
see At. Goth. 223, 230, 7; M. Gail. Vet. a4t>,' 9)
with " Libera nos." (n) The Uenedktio Poputi
followed, which also varied with the season. By
the 44th canon of Agde, A.D. 60(3, only bishops
were permitted to pronounce this. The inten-
tion of the decree was, according to Germanus,
about ."iO years later, to " guard the honour of
the ponttfcx " {Expos, in Mart. u. s ). These
benedictions are very uncertain in their formation.
In the Gothico-Gallican Missal they generally
consist of five distinct parts {Lit. Gull. 189, 19tj,
etc ), but some are divided into three (198, 219,
etc.), four (223, 228), six (192, 208), or nine
(210). In the M. Galli-amim Vctus {ihid. 333.
349, 365, etc.), and the M. Hkhen. {Gall.
Liturijies, 2, 20) they are a continuous prayer.
Zachary of Rome, A.D. 741, .says that the Galil-
ean Benedictions "raultis vitii.s variantur," and
that the bishop.s were actuated by "vainglory"
in making them, "sibi ipsis damnationeiii adhi-
beutes " {Ep. 12 ; Labbe, vi. 1.^2(j). As no such
episcopal benediction can be traced to Rome,
some French writers have supposed that Zachary
condemned the practice altogether ; but the
strength of his language would iu that case
imply a spirit of intolerance which we are un-
willing to ascribe to him. It seems more pro-
bable that he referred to the length and am-
MISSA
bitious character of the beneilictions in use.
From Cai'sariiis of Aries, a.d. ."lOii, we iearn th:it
in France the people were in the habit of leaving
church after the gos)iel, if ttiey diil not v.'\-\\ to
coiniminicate {Hum. fO, intev ,SV™i. Au-ust.
App. -MS; see also 281, 282). The c.mni il of
Aj.li!, in 50(i (can. 47), the first of Orleans in
.■'U (can. 20), and the third of Orleans, hM
(f.xn. 29), forbade them to go away before the
benediction. An unvarying short blessing wan
always pronounced here by the priest, if the
bishop was not jiresent (German, t*. ,1.). (o) After
the communion the priest said the CoUcctio /««<
Etu'luiristiain {Af. Goth. u. s. 19G, 211, 2.ii);
GiM. Vet. 331), or fiost Comiri'iniotwin (J/. Gvth.
190, 3, 8, etc.; Af. Gall. \et. 333, :,, 3m(;, 7,
etc.). This collect is often a brief exhortation
to thankfulness, perseverance, or prayer (as
A{. Got'i. 190, 193, 20.3, etc.; Gall. \ct. 3,31,
347 (where it is called Praefatio p. Kuch.), 3.".()).
(/)) The last proper collect is the Con.mmmtfh
Alissae, which name occurs J/ijs. Goth. 19(!, 2.30,
29.'), 4, (), 7, 300). More frequentlv it Is headed
by the words, "Collectio seiimln'r" {At. Goth.
190, 3, 8, 214; G,dl. V. 334, 3.^0, 3ti,-,, (1, 7, 8,
372), or "Iten-. Collectio" {At. Goth. 298), or
"Ccdlectio" simply J/. Gall. V, ,331, 347,371).
Fx. : " That which we have taken with our
months, O Lord, let us receive in our minds, and
may ao eternal remedy be made to us out of a
temporal gift" {.\I. Goth. 190).
It appears prcibable from Gregory of Tours
that in France the missao for one or more great
festivals at least were copied out of the .sacra-
mentaries, and used in that convenient form
under the conventional name of "Libellus."
For he says of a bishop that on a certain occa-
sion, " ablato sibi nequiter IMlo, per quaiii
sac-osancta solemnia agero consneverat, ita p;ira-
tus a tempore cunctum festivitatis opus expll-
cuit " {Hist. Fr. ii. 22). An aged abbat asked
to celebrate, said, " Oculi mei caligine obtegiintur,
nee po.ssum /ifcy/i/j/i adspicere; presbytero igitur
haec nlteri legenda mandate " ( ['it. PP. xvi. 2).
As the canon was part of the missa and always
very short, everything required by the priest
for a given occasion, or even for a longer season,
might be brought within the compass of a
libe lus.
(4.) The Mozarahic Missa. — St. Isidore of
Seville, A.D. ()10, enumerates seven forms "in
the order of the mass or of the prayers by
which the sacrifices offered to God are conse.
crated " {De Led. Uff. 15). His account ofthem
is copied, and therefore confirmed bv Ftherius
and Beatus, a.d. 783 {Do Ado;jt. ChristI, i. ;
Pihlioth. V./'P.yiii. 354; Colon. 1618), and is
found to agree with the Hispano-Gothic sacra-
mentary known as the Mozarabic Missal. We
have to observe, however, that Isidore is speaking
only of the Missa Fidelium, and that he combines
prayers which we have to consider separately.
(rt) There is a variable prayer called the (initt,,.
founded on the Gloria in Fxcelsis and s.aid after
it, coming therefore before the prophecy. It
often begins with praise and ends with pVaver,
as, c. <;. that for Christmas : " Hodio nobis the-
saurus natus est ... . Praesta nobis, Doiiiine.
per gloriam nativitatis tuce a malis propriis
liberari " {Miss. Ain. Leslie, «. s. 37 ; com p. 2o,
32, etc.). (4) Referring, as we said, to the
prayers in the Missa Fidelium only, Isidore says,
"The first
monition a
be sljireil
Till., is f
above in A
Praefafio;
of Invocati
receive the
l.ition " (Is
the Mi.ssae
225). Mia
All., (11, H
the niiu'e fV(
to the .Mi,s.sa
offerers or i
the .said sn
(l»i'l.). Thi;
can Post N(
piusim). Jt
Isidore. E. t
sanctorum m
nt'|ue eorum
ministris jam
these are in
peculiar that
Christ ; see pj
introduced afti
I'f peace, that
charity may b<
the sacrament
C-iL). This
<'alliean, is he
a.ldre>sed to th(
'•The illation i
tinn is introilui
the terrestrial
heaven are cal
and Hosanna it
This answers, as
liih ijref'aco am
'"'gins always "
V>sxim). Jn th
Julatio is never
("llowed by the 1
•iallican, a cont
general ly begin.s '
t'liduig some refe
sung by the choir
'i"i(.'s it takes up
"O.-aiina in cxce
'I'ls i'ater, hoc s,
fl'ii'i • . . caelestii
turn" («6); " Ve
rarely ojiens withe
'■lit st'e examples, r
file jirayers are si
^'"s prayer is noi
''■"'ly because he i-e
iC the praver of (
Jesu hone, etc.), wit
"iimodiately. |t is
it may Live been b
(■aiil, aller the time
fi"lswifh theaccon
;""'s not begin with
I'l't thus, "Dominu
fl«am.cfe,"etc.(Les
'«»f the prayer ,
■^'yitoium, or ru.st
^'•«'"- (Oratio). Thi
"% the canon of Go
'aa'. of Ganl. The ]
MISSA
"Thu first of tho,,, ,v ,K
niti„„ a,!,!,;!": ' , ^^ j'^;^ ("r«li») of a,l-
h<'st,n-i;l »|'toh,.u V,, „' '." """ ""■>■ '"»y
MIKSA
1199
nlMi\e in ^\ v_ jj
HE will
'■• 'nvocatlcB to (J»,l, that MR n
!■'»!"" " (l«i.l. « V 'tm''''^"' "'''' ''•^■''- '■''-
tlio Mi^sae under thV t tl«\ r'^^'T- "'''"■"'■■■' '"
the .noro^Ve ;J,;t^''^^:h tll'r'' ''^'"« ^>' '-
™l Nliociincns, a -.r.vpr f,„. ,i
"' the BiCt.s Lv .. •,iH, '" "'""^•''"■.••tinn
•^"'■ly attached /t if,;^:" "' ?"^'' ""» l''-
^i"n.um Sanctu.n con.r "l/""'' '''''••'''' I'"
'iinietur"(,4.). f/t) Thi n / ^'OKi'ini.s con-
Hin^ always "Diem.m or'™." '""""'""»• U
;"»"■'«). Jn the M ^"''"'" '-'•^' " (Leslie
J.latio is nev r wan,' ,';""^''' ^"""' "■« titl
g«iorally begins '• Vere San . - ^^'""•''"»- J'
':-'"'« -'"KM-eferen,^ t the h' ""'^ '"'"■» '""
■"•"S h- the choir nAer h San 7"""^ ^'"'^'^ '^
''""^^■s it takes up the M, o '"""''"?-• »">' »ome-
'■0,.anna in e" e ' "n ""'f.'** «"•»' haud, as
d>">' • . . caelesti,™ voce [T""'^'^ ""-■*"'""
turn" («(J). " Vere benedl . ""°'"'" P»<esta-
;f ''e^Sille^'^p! 2(ri^""lS ''^^'' '"-'t'^'^^In^arcoiir^'""' "'"'^h''; ';:;>::'
ii!« l"ayers are sVill founded ^0 1^' '.°"'''"'' "^' '^^' ^^ «'") Tl, ' "° «^'""''ati'.n O'i'
-'.E-e';e7iS7^ ^ ^^-^" ^^^-t ir- '-^ - ^i in'M^ ^VSf
:'^^u l'm>e, etc.), with which the .,wf; ' '"'''■'*°' ''""•"Juction for he 7 ' " ""'^ ^e of ) JeJ
y" "'"i the account of the >„..,■..• ™""'' ! 'ntroit. ""on, Cojimcnio, Gkadual
;'::!^r'^'''gLnwM■,h"pL?e.• 'Vi'.^":.,;^''^^^ ^-^^ i^ the G«lliea„ ,u .
'°l'" to a aaiut'riJ"."-'«'^? ^^e prayer,
'■e'"e.ulan;;::r^ «'""■" '^'"te. and
'''>'»i"n of one of the orii^I,;, """»''{ ''""' 'he
;r'«« unusually long \v '*^;' :. '"/•''"''ers which
',""1 in S,.,,iu from the Lr "'^^ ""* ''^'-e'lie-
">fl iately after «ay m. 'irLorr"^ ""''"'« '•"■
afteiwaids give the it / • "* " ' '•''ye'-, and
-J-lo.e. «'.. c 7)":^f,.;'' f'"!'"'" (-"^ ""J
'^"'•'■■e; but after the Ws T. ''^''^'■'^ ''"• 'he
eonjunction of the br..« 1 '">'"■ a'"' the
£;"^npopuli^^il:^.';-^hebene!
,'ke the Gallican Col ectTo ?„' '""-'*' '^ "'•«■>
) I '
1200
MISSA
MISSA
m-
Ooriniini KiiiHcopi (rt. H'J9). Frnni thin use of ■
\hv Hiinl (liiwtvl nniithpr, the t'l'stiviil itM'lf nn I
whiili lliiisf priiycr" wuve ■•iiiil Immhk ""'■» liiHi'il
liy the iiiinic nl' Mi>»ii. 'I'lins in tlic liruiiliii'
CiiniiiiiiMu iini of ('lir(>ili>^Mn)(, written in 7^>7,
Clip. .11, we hiive Misaii S. Ki'nieilii (= Heniitfii)
Jli>s(i S. Mnitinl(.Mi.i,'ni", Hii). A henvtit,' Vie-
cum 1)1' 77il (liicfts that the Hervicett which it
oriloin tiike pliire, Missii S, .lnhnnnis ('''/i. /■'i';/.
Fmnc. i. 'J(l ; siin. in Ciijiit. iii. nnn. Huii, Car.
M. -lUI). In tlie thinl ciiiiitiilnry ol' C'liarle-
ninuni^ in Hii.'i, n (general gathering nf the vassals
(if the em|iiri' is urilereil to take place "(lU tlie
I'iKhlh liel'me the lalencis of .luly, i.i: on the
liia.s* of St. ,lohn the H«ptfst " (ft. :i'J+). Sim.
in a law of I'epin, A.t). 7U.t (i''. .')4:l). St. Mar-
tin's prin<lpal feast (Nov. 11) was formerly
called St. Jlartin iu the winter, or in yerne.
One cx.imple to our purpose occurs in the reign
of Charlemagne, viz. in his Capitulary <le \'illis,
A.D. M(Mi, in which it is ordered that all foals
hid.inging to Ihu king shall be brought to the
lialace "on the inas.s of St. Martin in the
winter" (Mi.ssa S. Martini hiemali, c. LI, i6.
.'!.U). This u.so of tnissa, which became very
common after the 9th century, has be(iueftthe<l
to us such combinations as Christmas, Martin-
mas, Can<llema.s (missa luniinum), etc.
X. In this section we propose to give the
va'ious kinds of missae (In the seu.se considered
in § viii.) that were in use before the 9th century,
and to explain the terms describing them.
(1.) Missa Cirdimilis. This phrase, which is
understood to mean '• high mass," occurs in the
iliriculti S. Ueriini, ii. 7; Add Ucncd. saec. iii.
(th«8th century), i. 1.3J: "Die Doniinicohora quS
cardinalis missae conventus publice agebantur."
('!.) Missa C'risiii'itis. The proper prayers
used on Mauudy Thursday at the ma.ss at
which the chrism is consecrated are .so called in
the Gelasian Sacramentary (Murat. i. 5,')4), in
the ancient Kheims use of the Gregorian, the
e.\tant cojiy of which was written in the time of
Charlemagne (Martene, de Ant. Keel. Jiit. IV.
xxii. § .i in f tit", Missa Chrismale (sic) ), and in the
Anjou p<mtitical a little later (I'l^. § 8, D.4).
(;t.) Missa Communis = publica (as " common
prayer" with u.s) in Epist. liraulionis Caesaraug.
A.D. 627 (Viti S. Aciiiiliani praefixa): "lit
nii».-,a recitaretur communis injunxi " (Acta
Heni'd. saec. i. P. iii. 20t)).
Jlissn Communis al.-o meant a mass said for
several persons in common. Thus in one under
that title the priest prays " for those for whom
he has inade up his mind to pray " living or dead,
and " for all the faithful, whose names the book
of blessed predestination contains written "
(Mun. I.iturij. Alan., Gerbert, i. 270).
(4.) Missa IkccHsita. By a charter dated in
the yenr 760 a grant of land was made to the
church at Brioude, " ut onmi tempore missae
ibidem decensitae esse debeant "(App. Acti Vet.
n. 14 ; Clip. Iteij. fr. ii. 1:19:!) ; i.e. as it is
understood, shall be duly and properly per-
formed.
(5.) Missa pro Defunct is. See Obsequies.
(().) Alissa Dominiculis. This is the title of
mi.ssae to be used on Sunday (Dies Dominicus)
in the Gailicau SacrMUieutiuies. See iiie misMie
7;.-80 in Missale Goth. {Lit. Gall. 292-299), the
36th in Gallicanum Vetus {ibid. 375) and eight
missae in the Besan(,<on {M s. Ital. i. 365-383).
(7.) Mi^sa de Exceptatu is the title id' a riiissa
standing before that lor Chri-tmas \.\k in the
Milanese Missal (I'anu 1. ti. s. i. 44."i). W'l' are
prcdialdy to understaixl with I'ameliiis, that it
is for eieeptioiitd use ; vi.!. when seven Sundays
occur in Ailvent, M^iih in the pr.iviiiK' id' Milan
liegins on the tirst Sundiiy after Martinmas,
-Mabillon, however (/.i'<. Uiill. 99), reads, Missa
de Kxpeitati , and suggests a comparison with
the " I'raepaiatio ad Vesperam Natalis l)omiiii "
in the Mis.t. (.all. \et. {'hid. \\\W)\ but the iimuI-
ing in all the editions, includinij Maldllrtn's luvn,
is not I'raepuratio but I'raefutio, and the lormu-
laiy which follows the above heading is a '• pre-
face"inthe (iallican sense ; i.i,'. an address tothu
people. See Thomasius, Li er Saaam. ii. 441 ;
Murat. Lit. Hum. Yet. ii, 706 j Forbes, inM. Lit.
U.8.
(8.) Missa pro Oraliaum actione. There is
no proper mis.sa in the old sacranieutaries that
is, or could be, so described ; but the ludy l.u-
charlst was celebrated as an act of special
thanksgiving at an early ,.eriod. Thus in a
work of the ."ith century we read that when a
w'onum had been henleil at the ordinary iclii-
bration "an oulation of thanksgiving was again
made foi' her " {De I'rom. et J'raed. /hi ; lUia.
Temp. 4; inter o|ip. Prosper!). A r.ibric in the
present Kmnan Missal orders that "fur thank —
giving be said the mass of the must holy Trinity,
or of the Holy Ghost, or of the blessed .Mary "
certain proper prayers (Oratiu, Sccreta, Pust-
communio) " being ndned under the same end-
ing." The Missa de Trinitate descends from an
early period, being found in the Codex >Sau-
Blasianus of the Gregorian Sacramentary which
is of the 9th century ((ierbcrt, ;1/un. Lil. A mt.
i. 260). The Mi.ssa de Sjiiritu Sancto is only an
adaptation of the Gregorian mis.sa for Wliit-
sunday (Murat. u. s. ii. 90). We cannot con-
nect them with acts of thanksgiving .vithin our
period ; but that a special ::elebration on recovery
of health was then common may be inferred
from a Narbonne pontifical, the MS. of which is
not much later. In this it is said that the
patient "restored to health by the mercy ut
God ought by no means to omit causing a mi>sa
pro gratiarum actione to be celebrated " (Mar-
tene, u. s. i. vii. iv. 13).
(9.) Missa .fejunii is the title of four I.enteu
missae (22-25) in the Missale Gothico Galli-
canum {Liturg. Gall. 231, etc.), and of four iu
the Sacramentary of Besani,on {Mus. Ital. i. 304).
See after, Missa Qutidrafiesinuilis.
(10.) Missa Judicii, the mass said at an ordeal.
The expression forms the title of the pruper
prayers ust.i at a trial by cold water, as ap-
pointed by Dunstan of Canterbury (Baluz, Cap.
Ret]. Frane. ii, 647). The missa consists ol a
proper antiphon, collect, three lessons (I,ev. xix.
10-14; Eph. iv. 23-28; St. Mark x. 17-21),
gradual, offertory, secreta, preface, bcnedictio
ad judicium, antiphona post coinmunionem, and
post-communio. The words of delivery commun
(with variations) to this and later forms of the
kind (see Martene, de Ant. Eccl. Hit. iii. vii. 3,
5, 8, 9. 17) are, " The Body and Blood of our
Lord Jesus Christ be unto you for probation
this day." Gerbert {Dis'iuis.v'i. iii. 3) gives in full
the missa of an " Ordo ad faciendum judicium,
cum volueris homines judicio probare, vel aquae
frigidae vel ferventis, aut iguiti ferri, vel vomo-
rum, nut p.ni. ot mei, vel mensurae." S..v..r,il
htty>n« »l„„,k.r.„l the ,,u.«n, -Mu.ti, „, X f
h'lt, an.l «.>t,.),.:rult .shoui.l •• c.lebnt... h nZ'
f.>r ™..h .hnnce a„,l »„y the «ecr,.t ,M,bliHv",m
fin 1 (.,vj;,„.y VII. nslns this motho.l to LZl
hnnsu). lion, sunony (/,,/, by li.,vv,|«„, j/"//;
Nor WHS It continwl to tho d,.i<7v ti,„ ''
am.r,hoc:on„,.ilofWorn,.s;.;'hr,h\^i/;?;.
.or«,„. rc.....,v..,| the „m«, (rn.n the hnn^
Ha,l,mn ,„ atu.,„.,i„n of his tV,.e,|om f,- " ' the
crnnu ol .ulultery (Kleury, Jfi^t. du (^t!t
(11.) Mim, U,jiUma is amnss celebrated with
all ,lue requisite.,. " WV must own that to be
a nnxsa |e«iti,„„ at which are i.re.ent a „ iest
one to res|,on.l, one who oriers. „n,i , „e who
co,nin„„i..ate.s, as the very com .osilion of the
prayers clearly shews " ( VValafrill, ,i, MjCa-f
w ;ima""'"'p,l : "r "' '*■'-' ''''™- - '~io
kgtinia. lenitents supposed to b. dying
mijiht be coimnunicated without tho previouf
layug on o hands by the bishop j but'Tf thev
recovered aft-r that, they were to '■' sta, d n h^
rder o( penitents, that when they had h„wn
he necessary fruits of repentancef they m,Jh?
receive legitimam communionem ' with\K
conciliatory imposition of hands " (can ;) Cone
^raus. A.». 441; inse^ted much late i'n Cap
(•-'•) f^sa JtfatHtim. The 4th canon of the
Council of Vaison, held in M9, runs thus :»Ut
t the third hour (Soma Eucl 31-3/v The
third Counci of Orleans An -,!« <• 1 • 1
to attend armed '' .aiTifiX'l „t^;^; :„-"
sive vespert na"rcan •^B^ m- "."'"''"'arum
■ndude ?hose of fefl, andTwI S?
except between Easter and WhitsuSerwe e
also in the afternoon. The Gnthicn rlii^
iLU.Oal/. 254) and Old Gallfcnn w'^'^ri';
.mssals have a missa matutinalis pe totum
onliu..y daily m.ss^^aid tn' "m "nTm^ors ei^ie:
(-■■nstit. S. Dionys. Hem. ibid. 297, 301 Thi^
ear her mass was called missa mino'r in contra t
to the m,s,a major or conventualis, whTch wal
celebrated with o-mater ritn! =1 ■ *
II.,.,.., * ^Mi;:MZSsl il'r"'- '"■
(14.) i/.,,u Omnmoda is the title of a votive
MISSA 1201
Mi^»a In the Sa..rai„..„fary of I!esan.o„, which
the pnest oHers for hiiiiser, (.» ..,,,r.„," U, Le
.raea.,o,,rsii,„.,., ,.y„i..,,.^,,^;",;h«
'lUiu), („r persons living „n,| ,|„,,;,r„.,| wh,*,,
names are presented (In^he post' n ,„„»),*
•he sick, naming them, „„,| Kenerally ■■
^» jrs !;:=,::• rx"^.- 5
.?;,'; i"' '»";"■ i"m»...or ih,. 11," ";
J J . i':',?'! ';' '"■■" ■"""' -i» ."'
liaie in ?Vhp K *'";,»^""'!'1'P«" have their
t is r .^^hether the title was adopte,l for
i?n"" k' ''"r '-■'*•"■• ""' ^"'fin- In any
en eofTh^ ^'"T ■"•"-■" ""«'f"«""' ''^ 'he o.eur^
ne.rtim Th""^ conventional signii] an ,".
n ea-ly time, the people were said to olfer even
in the commemoration of the sacrificp n* .k
p5ai^^;r^^^%S?'r3
pp^,s;t;:s-:?^-Er^
!m, r J ! ^ * ^-"P^'- ^'«»"«. 64). This is
implied by a svnod heM bv .St P.\„; 1 ■ ,
taster week, viz. from Tuesday to Fridav iL
Old aa,licanWyfc/:)tre:C.^ ^Ait^
^;;f^;^(^«s^3^^--
(17.) J/issa Pecutiaris. A mass saiH „n .
p ace cauonically on the third hour" fCari,
4o; Labbe, 6W. vii. 1147) "'^''P"- ''•
(18.) J^fissa Pontificalis, H miss celebrated hr
/..aupposedtoLve'^rcon^pL^Jr-
1202
MIHHA
II
il;;^
■■ppm
WM
^HhI
Ml'
^^^H^^^
If 1' •*,
■1
1
whirli ({|ye» liifili'iii for iin cjilin'oim! nui^, it
iliKiiJliud ill it^ I'liilii'Kt Dxtniit c'i>|>y, whii h ih hI'
till' liith lUiiirv, OrJii K(i:lci»iii,tn i MiiiNti'rii
liiimiuuki- Ki^li'H lie. A liiliir VM\iy Hm lni'i|p|l
Onio K>'< l>'«iiixli>'U4 liiiin mill' «iili!»lni', i|ii ililiT
Jli'Mi I'lriiliriL'nlis iiili'bretiir (.l/ii.. /tul il. 2, .1).
(1','.) .1/ sill l'nii-»iii,:tijic\iluru<n. Svv I'lu:-
lANCI'IKILIi, MAWi OK TIIK.
(Jii.) I/mjii I'nviUit \» uHeil in twi) rn'rispt. It
citliiT iiiiMiis (1) "A iiiiiss celi'lii-Ktuil ill |piivati'
nii'l (111 Ik N|i>'i ill! nci'iiiint witiiniit »in^iiii{, iiivl
IhiI oiiu (;l"rl< iiiiointttrink;, wln^tiiur it \w m a
cliiinh nr privatii oratory" (M>)riiti in (luvanti,
|i. i. ill latin. lUn. O'la. I'nulim. § »ii). In wliic h
cax' it IS iliitingiii>heil t'nuii a snli'iiin iniixs ; or
(■-')" A iniis.s ill wliiih the prii'^t alone ooininu-
iiii all's " (ihiil.), in which iiise it is o|i|ioseil to a
]iuMii: mass, A dally mass lelcbiMluii out of
ilivntion in the earlier ages wonhl c mho under
the loniu'r head. An pxain|de (inCassius bishop
of Narni) is mentioned liy Oicjrory I. (Dial, iv,
fiii)' '" neither sense does the phrasn appear to
have been in uau duriuj; uur period. See Miaaa
Mitdi-ia.
C-'l.) Miasfi PiMica is n celebration at which
all may be presimt and oommunicate. The ex-
loes^ion is frei|iient in the epistles of Gregory I.
'I'lilis he " lorbids that I'liblic Masses should ou
any ai imint be celebrated " in a(i'ertain) monas-
ti'iy by the bishop of the diocese, that the re-
tiri'iiient of the monks mi^lit not be invaibvl by
the I'oiuourse of people from without (iv. 4:1),
and si'vi rely condemns another bishop for liaviiis;
]>laieil his throne in a iiiimastic church and dle-
lirahd '• I'liblic Mas.ses " there (v, 40). He onlers
an oratory to be "solemnly consecrated without
IVillic Masses" (vd. VJt), and speaics in reproba-
tion of a bishop who had " hrullt an oratory in
the (liimse of another . . . and did not fear to
ctdebrate I'ublic Masses there" (xi. HI). Another
e.vnniple frimi a law of Chnrlemagno in 8UiS will
siillice. Amoni; otlicr restrictions laid on the
ihoie|ii-copi he forbade them to "give the benu-
dicliou to the jieople in Fublici Missi " (t'a/).
Jit'ii. Fr. i. ,J8l').
i-2.) J/ »«i (JmiJragesimalhth missa to be used
111 I ■lit. See above, Alissit MatutitM. and Mis^a
,/. nnii, A lenteii missa in the licsanvon Sacra-
iiiiintary bears the title Missa Quadragesimalis
<^Mhs. ital. i. 302). One of those in the Gothico-
G.illican Missal is headed Missa in Quadra-
gesima {Lit. Oall. p. 234). In the last-named
missal there are in all only six proper missae
provided for Ix-nt. The Gallicaniim Vetus is
detective Irom Christmas to the great scrutiniuin
and exhibits none {ibid. a;i8). There are but
live in tiie liesanvon rite. On the other hand
the (ieliBian and Gregorian give a missa for
every day in the season, and the Jlozarabic one
for I'very .Sunday, Wednesday, and Friday. The
Koman mis>iie lor the week-days in Lent arc
suppose I to have been chietly borrowed from
those of Jlilnn (I'amel. Jiituale, i. 3J8). The
latter is peculiar in having none for the Kri lavs
(Martene. cle Ant. Keel. kit. iv. xviii. 21 ; Ger-
bert, J/..H. Lit. Al. i. 42).
(2.i.) Missa Quutidiaiia appears to be a missa
that may be u-e I on any day th it ha> no proper
prayers provided for it. There is an example
(Mis^aCt'ttidi n:t)i« the r^j3aut,'on Sacramcntary
(ilfuj. It. i. .)8J). Compare l.egenJis Cottidianis
(3(U_), Lectioiu.'s CottiJiauius (.Lis, M) '. Lectiones
MISHA
Cottillanne (.182. .'1), which are the headlnffii to
lessons for similar use. Again, we liave Leitlo
libri Daiilliid I'roph.'liie in ri.iii,|i,iiia (<!•. .\li,ia)
l.genda C-'TH). Iwo missae in the suiie book
have the incoherent title of Missa t'oltidiiina
liominiialis (tHii, :i), i:,:, a ni s»a that may be
n-ed on any .Sunday that has not Its proper
niis-a. In the Gregorian .Sarranientarv is Mi^»a
(^lotidiana [iro Kege, i, ,•. that inii;lit be said
wlienever the priest chose (.Mnrat. /,,/, /,o,/i.
IV/. ii. IHH), .See further iiii ler J/i.<«i / o/wmk/.^.
(24.) Mima iu-iocata. See .l/i sam ive. ,:aiv in
§ XI. Wo. (d).
(2.').) Missa Simunsin, i. c. borrowed from the
Roman books. The old Galliian canon was very
short, being nothing more than the recital of the
institution, which was added to the varialde
Collectio post .functus. The (irst words of |l
(Ipse enini jirirlie (|iiain, etc.) are frei|uiT)'ly so
added in the Gothico-Gallican Missal (Ut. (hill.
IHit, 192, .'i, etc). The ltesan(,ou .Sai ranieiitary,
however, had adopted the long Koman canon,
which it put alter the contest itio (see 1'1!|:ka(;i:),
omitting the post Sanctiis. It occurs thus in
the first missa in the book, and that missa bears
the title, Missa Komensis Cottiiliana (Mas. ft.
27!t). As the missa retains most of its Galilean
forms under their usual names (post nomina, ad
pacem, etc.), the word "Komensis" must refer
to the canon almost entirely, ami therefore
"Cottidiana" here indicates the daily u~e of
that. The last missa in the GotliiinlGalliian
Missal has the similar heading, Mi.ssa Cottidiana
Komensis ([.it. Gall. 3(10); but alter the first
collect the MS. fails us. That collect, however,
being identical with one in the liesanvon missa
helps the conclusion that the Koman canon fol-
lowed in that book also, and that the Goths
in Gaul, though retaining thronijhout their
liturgy their own mode of consecration, yet per-
mitted an optional use of the Koman.
(2().) Missi do fianctis. At a very early period
it became the custom to observe the anniversary
of a martyr's death. On sucli occasions the
Kucharist was celebrated, partly as an lot of
intercession for the soul of the deceased, and
partly as a thmkful commemoration of the
triumph of truth and grace in his deal h. Soon
the rite was observed in the case of ot her eminent
Christians, and ere long, the original ground of
it becoming obscured, the celebi it ion was sup-
posed to be in honour of the \wr n (in honoretn
ipsorum, — in ejus honore ; Gn _ lur. Mirac. i,
47, 75). The story ot Polycarp (a.d. 147) gives
us the earliest example of such commemoration:
" We deposited his remains where it was fitting,
where gathered together as opportunity serves
with joy and gladness the Lord will grant unto
us to celebrate the natal day of his murtyrdoin,
both in memory of those who have fought the
good tight (for twelve suti'ered with him), and
for the training and jireparation of those who
will be called to it" (Eccl. Smyrn. Epist. 18).
TertuUian, AD. l'.>2: "We make oblations for
the departed on one day in the year, for birthday
gifts "(i^t) Cor. ;i). Cyprian in 250 orders his
clergy to inform him of the days on which any
were put to death, "that he might be able to
Celebrate their commemorations among the Me-
morial.; of the Marty.. ^ . . . that oidatious and
sacrifices in commemoration of them might be
celebrated " where he wa.s (^Epist. 12 aU I'reibyt.),
MlHHA
'•""i»i,..„„r.,ti„„ -1 r/'„ .V 1 iV" ''•*■ "" '""'""1
^"»<"^"«". *l„. ,1 in 'i',,;'"""'""''' •" «t.
"» "'■■ityr..' ,|,,y, ((.!„" iM 'i n"' I"""''''"'!
the MilH„„,« Mi."r,i' "'''""''7 <'*^7 >.••'«■ In
T' 'MIWL "444^tc^i'"rk'.''^"'"«•
(+'), .,r In I." ' .^ i.^"/ 'T'V'V' *''"'y'i^
^'tuli «,,Jc,i Mann.; ;>»„,"'■'''•'• •*'^*>' '-
h-i^ N«t«k. San-^tL I', rae f i ^<n ' ""■"«'"'""
^^-'•'•^- N:cvp!;:::r3'r "''•'*''«-'" -
ohSIm^IJ!^-,!:/-'-" retain.,.,..
'«;'n.^ti Silvestri." r " S. ""'^'' '- <""• h-mLM
MI.SHA
1203
"«"'.ti,H!„„ " ay* AnJT'V" ^•""'•"- ^'^•.
t«i:."a h,.M „t ,.,,.''!'"• "I.r'''""" -yn-
'^- i- N). K,„.r .Mi ,'""""'" (Z^--- AV,/«.
"«•« a.»i,„.,,, .,„. to h'' 7™''"''" '■'"■"■run,
"""'■■■I. in th.. (),.|asi„n S„ '*'""'»y» "bove-
"'""an ,y„t.M>, „(■ ,er(,(ina /.,"■?"'■""''"'•
h- -r™,! w., ;i..| v;.r '..f ;•„ '^' ^' "''»''
''""'• «y.....„li) „: "; ;^ "' «f («"''lm,„ in Tra.li°
i. ;i.f«). ' '"'"'""'••'■•' «nid (I'amel.
"S-..^tiSiiv,:.H"irXr'"'''''"'""'^-'"'"'
'"'■ him (.lee. A.., ,.lB?a^i"s/' T- ^'"y"' '"'"•
rorth,.. former in e ..T '^'"'t''"'"'< (d"^'. 4«;t).
"joi.e for eve in Z. !'?^"">""" " '""""y
G".l, an.l that "en 11. .""^. "'""-' ^'''-t'" "f
Wn."(Murat i.4.4 ll'rr'r'''-' ""'>' «'-''■/
soul heing freed lom.l..-^" '"""• ""at "hi,
nature ■■f man it irh T ^^''"^ ^""" ""'
it' l".rtion in he t, t "^f ' "" ''' """^ '"'^«'
g'Tian booji,. Another i„. ^'''"'an or Ore-
;S:"rer Oblata i^^'U^'^; '^,''l «-«•'--
'■reKiirv: " Vou,.h.«c . '^'" '■'"* and St.
'lh"u ha.,t RranteTthat th ""'"r-^'^Wch
world should be foreive„\n ""i "^ ""' *hole !
l-hy -..ant Leo (r^ :'°„,""J: Pff' .^he .„., of
A» archbish..p of Lvo?. V ^'*"^' "• 2*. 101).
throuifh the interce^ion of thi h ""'^', ,»"■"''' "»
gory)." wrote to Innwent irr """'' ''*» («f'-'-
expliination. Thrn" « L ;! ^''l ^'''«' <■«'• '"'^
^-Hnga^SeripttrrenCenUf sl ^""'"^^ ''^
S-nce the authorit/orSacr.d Wnt"*"""- 'I> =
'lie Hho prays for a martvn !! " "y* '^at
> e same should by n™rl 7!f *'°°K\« ■"urtyr,'
"••the other «»ints " S-" r„ T"!' '"' "'"ught
«lier and the medlaeva ".?"*'•, '"• ^^•^>' The
i« H passage of "re ' * Jf T""''' "J' "'""'"■'«<1
'hat persons stricken ^ifh ^"""' ^ho tells us
f«iebrated masses in h'l "«"",'*•'"' "d«voutly
-1 om.ed the'h ,r?o"c:, f'\''«'^'"-'
«(vr« i.,.„.j; .. , . "V " to uoil tor hi« reiu— "
r- ....;^.,i„,.^.,„ n^^j^j ^- rei«._
('•'•) ^tssa pro Scrutinio rl ''
» called which were sa?H ■ it'l "}^*^^^tr-^
C'lHlST. ANT.-vot Ti ""^ ^"'' **''' 5th,
•"^. " '-'"tituted as .,,X •■''"'''''''' "'■ "'""«.
'""f h th. rust,,,,, wh „ a ^ L""""" »>•"'
'■""'■' ""t .■ontain at ,„? i^n \V"^ "'"'" '" «"
<--m,„u„i,.„,„. , ,;; "" "'"« all who desired to
'h« l.raotice „t ' Kmne i n . h"^" ?."' "''^ **'"'
^'"andria to s„n,.,"^ /'"', ''*■«' 'he pope of
"•hat their ,d,se<va„" L l.^l' P"t'iarch«te,
'•"'■'';•( A>,,,,„rf)C.^;8htio all things ac'
here beeaun-, .,wi„?- iJlT^' ^^l ''"'••'■ '" them
fhe ,,onti,ical ori'. „ .t ' ^-J.-.K^t '« -ganl to
hi'«u ;.ut bv ,ome f„„r .? ."'y''' "''-7 have
h.-'half^oft*; ':r''7l, \ •'»--■' Mas, on
'"■« "f VVi|fri;Tv:,rk^!.'HT '•"'"'■ '"'he
•Jmni die pro ..,. M, , J- ""/'J'"". A..). 7^0 :
(«ap. (J2 in G„l. vwn* ' '""gnlaiem celebrare "
arable Mi- , . ,,^;,f " ;- J '•. 7«). In the Moz-
S<nKul«ris, ,„ ..,';*''"; *•***> ■» a Missa Votiva
of the .-rsonVverT^'' »f <"■ *hi.h the ....n^
t" be .B..ef|«d^ ^ * "upposed to be one) U
expression,., use bWo^the Mini ?' ""'' ">•
the beginning of the 9 h , '*»'"'• '"" hvr
•'■'ainly begmi ,o edeb at. "• '^""^ ''"*"'" had
i'i» i« forbidden Lth!"" * "','''?* ""^-Jaats.
•^0 Pre.byter a» ft tZT'^ °^ *'"'^. «'3 •
a'-e rightly, fo" how I" i ^ "1'^^^".""
with you. . whpn ,,"'"."« say, The Lord bo
hensible pr»oti.« and worthy „f ,,".. "•"'«■
has, partly through neXrt ! "'rre.tion
avarice, oreV in iu mos" ^ Si .^w '^,,""' "^h
of the presbyters eelebrite th«'/ "'*' """»
passes Without ministers "('':„:':"'' '*'" "^
dip. He,,, Fr. V. l.-,9 . ajj ..^o "??• ■*»)• Comp.
"""•eande.tsen'^.rfora'^stdair' ■" '^e
'« the Gregorian Sacramental^ "''■'*''• "^hus
used whenaViestsarantsfJit^heT"' " ^'
«t h>s owa sins is entitled mTsIs,T8''''''*''
dotis (Mu,-at. ii 10,1. ^ Specialia .Sacer-
"Hme he»di„Bamonl h' """P"" '*» *'«> the
Pamel..U28\^SrvT"''*^1^ '"«"'"'''''•"
above in (26X me.nT thi't u '.?[!':'"*' ■»«»>t-acj
•-yr'ii'«u alone, and not CnrZu ■,='^"'"°"te, gf.
does, their fe^ts fall „g ,'n"*'h '' "''"' f ""♦''«
expression oecnrs als^ fn ° . •"I?"' "^^y- '^'ho
-»«e »o K.str^a;^/L:ac:rinis:;i-;
1204
MISSA
MISSA
Wt
m
It '
Missam Spesialom fiicisset, nisi infirmitns iinpe-
iliaset " (Ap. de Vict. Avur. in hist. Franc. Script.
187, or Capit. Ri'g. Fr. i. '257). He is sptaking of
the litanies and other services prescribed for a
public futit.
(:W.) Misaa in SymMi traditione. See Missa
pro Scnttinio.
(M.) Missa de Tempore ; i.e. adapted to some
sacred day or season of tiie Christian year. Such
masses are in all the ancient missals, though the
phrase is late. The Gregorian, Milanese, and
Moiarabic provide missae for every Sunday in
the year, as well as for the great days of Christ-
mas, Epiphany, Ash WVdnesday, Good Friday,
Kiister, etc. In some cases also for the feriae
connected with them. The Galilean rites having
been suppressed by I'epin and Charlemagne
towards the close of the 8th century (Lcbrun,
Dissert, iv. art. i.) are less methodised and full,
but tliey are framed on the same principle.
(;J5.) Missa Vcspcrtina. See above under Missa
Malutina.
(30.) Missa Votiva. By this is now meant any
mass not of the day, even though prescribed, as,
e..(/. the masses of the lilessed Virgin on the first
two Saturdays in Advent (Merati in Gavanti, P. i.
Jiw'jr. (I'B/i. Obs. Prael. 06). Originally, however,
it meant a celebration at which some special
blessing, temporal or spiritual, was sought,
whether for the celebrant or others. This is
the character of two Missae Votivae (omnimoda,
singularis) already cited ,from the Mozarabic
Missal (see (14) and (3li)). Other examples,
though not so inscribed, occur in the same book ;
as Jlirisa de Itinerantibus, de Tribulationibus,
pro alio Sacerdote fratre suo vivo, ue uno InKrmo,
pro Infirmis (pp. 447-454). The Besan(,on Missal
has four headed "Missa Votiva" for blessings on
a single person to be named in the office (Mus.
Ital. :;60-2) ; and two others, one of which, pro
Vivis et Defunctis (363), speaks of brothers,
sisters, and benefactors. In the other, entitled
Missa in domo cujuslibet (364), the names of the
family are to be introduced. There are no missae
of the kind in the other Galilean missals with
the exception of one entitled Orationes et Prec.
pro liegibus in that of the Franks (/.if. Gall.
316). if we except some masses for the dead,
there are no Missae Votivae in the Ambrosian
Liturgy, nor does the phrase appear in it. The
collections under the names of Grimoldus (Pamel.
ii. 388) and Alcuin (ibid. 517) contain votive
missae, but they are not so described. This is
the case also with the Leoniun (Murat. I. 434,
etc.) and Gelasian (Jiid. 725, etc.) Sacramentaries.
In the ancient copy of the Gregorian printed by
Pamelius (tom. ii.) we find neither the name nor
thing ; but both in those printed by Muratori
(ii. l'J3, etc.), Gerbert (Mon. Vet. Lit. Aletn. 279
etc.), the editors of the works of Gregory pub-
lished in 1015 (tom. v. 221, etc.) and others.
We (ind an early instance of a votive celebration
of the Eucharist in St. Augustine. His presbyters
were requested to send one of their number to
pray in a haunted house. "One went, offered
there the sacrilice of Christ's body, praying to
His power for the cessation of that trouble.
Through the mercy of God it forthwith ceased "
■ (^De Giv. /)«•', »»li, 8, fi),
XI. The Eucharist had acquired the name of
missa a long time before any one phrase (such as
missam celcbrare, audire) was generally accepted
to denote the celebration of the sacrament or
lay attendance at it. The lolluwing list is
thought to contain all in use within our limit of
time.
(1.) Missam agcre, peragere. The Oelasian
Sacramentary : " Si fuerit oblata, agondae sunt
missae, et communicet " (Murat. i. 596). Sim.
in two edicts of Hunneric the Vandal, a.d. 484 :
" In ecclesiis vcstris missas agere " (Hist. Persec,
Vand. Vict. Vit. ii. 2), " Reperti sunt contra
interdictum missas in sortibus Vandiilorum
egisse " {ibid, in c. xiii.). We find also missam
pcsragere ; e.g. Ordo Horn. I., after prescribing
the consecration of the oil for the sick before
the end of the canon, adds, " et deinceps per-
agitur missa ordine suo " (c. 30 ; Mtis. It. ii.
(2.) Missam audire. We have not noticed this,
afterwards common, phrase in the writers of the
first eight centuries. It occurs, however, early
in the 9th ; viz. in the 19th canon of the council
of Chalons-sur-Saone, 813: "Let families give
their tithes in the place in which their children
are baptized, and where they hear masses through
the whole course of the year." The council of
Paris, 829 : " Satius igitur est illis missam uon
audire, quam eam ubi non licet nee oportet
auilire " (i. 47). It is instructive to observe
that when Gratian, A.P. 1131, professes to give
the 47th canon of Agde (A.D. 506), for " Missas
a saecularibus totas teneri. . . .praecipimus," he
substitutes "Missas. . . saecularibus totas audire
. . . .praecipimus '' {De Consecr. i. 64).
(3.) Missam cantare, decantare. Bode says of
Ceolfrid that from the day he left his monastery
to go to Rome to the day of his death " quotidie
missft cantati salutaris hostlae Deo munus
offeret" {Hist. Abbat. Wirem. § 16, sim. § 13).
In 803 a petition was presented by the peojjle to
Charlemagne, praying that when the king and
his lay subjects went against the enemy the
bishops might stay at home and attend to their
proper duties, among which are mentioned
" Missas cantare et letanias atque eleemosyn.as
facere" {Capit. Beg. Franc, i. 405; sim. 470,
5, 730, etc.). The council of Mentz, 813:
"NuUus presbyter, nt nobis videtur, solus mis-
sam cantare valet recte " (can. 43). We must
suppose that originally the use of the word can-
tare implied that the mass was sung or chanted.
That this meaning was lost sight of in the fHh
century is evident from the language of Ama-
larius and others respecting the canon: " In oo
videlicet quod ista oratio spccialiter ad sacerdo-
tem pertinet. . . .secre<o eam decautat" (Anial.
Eiloga, 2\.). Remigius of Auxerre : " Consuo-
tudo venit in Ecclesifl, ut tacito ista obsecratio
atque consecratio cantetur"(in the chapter /;»«
Celehr. Miss, of Pseudo-Alcuin, Hittorp. 284).
(4.) Missam celebrare. This is in very com-
mon use from the 6th century downwards, and
sometimes even of the laity ; as of the sick
seeking to be healed, "Si. . .missas devote cele-
brant " (Greg. Tur. Mirac. i. 75) ; even of a
woman, "Celebrans quotidie missarum solem-
nia " {De Olor. Confess. 65). The Capitulary of
Aix, 789: "Anditum est aliquos preshytero)
missam celebrare, et non communicaro " (c. ti,
Labbe, vii. 970). Theodulf of Orleans, a.d.
797 : " Missam sacerdote celebrante " ((\'ipit. i,
6, ibiil. 1138), "Sacerdos missam solus ncqiiid-
quam celcbret " (ibid. o. 7). See Capit. Reg
Franc, i
my.steria
as Greg.
(5.) M
"Ejus cl
{V,t,ie I'i
(6.) M
K. 20 ; J
581: ''\}t
non praes
(7.) M,
facere coej
640: "Mi
sam"(3);
statione fa
Cliarleniag
exercitu
eleemosyna
sim. in Kp.
(8.) Misi
(9.) Misi
communis
A.D. 627, ii
Uencd. saec
(10.) Mii
mass, but th
doubtful. ]
e.vpression n
original sens
dismissed bi
sacrifice " (I
tliey been dl
vious servict
who says of
p.i.ssing a nij
" missas exile
12). Herela
being warnec
wimld attack
the same tim
nnctem in hon
{Mirac. i. 51).
" VIgllii., in }
revocati, de pi
TO'Kii, 60; Mi
queen Radegui
cnmponlt altar
nil! be oliserve
mass performei
without doubt
the materials d
in.^tance it is sa
gifts." The or
'>il')ly, to supply
care " often =
revocans Domii
iiosweyd, 240);
pose) St. Aridim
persons benefitc
eulogias vicissiir
(ad calc. Opp, S.
viicare " means, t
mass to be oeic
The same Aridiuf
to be maintained I
• This alune wool
Mablilon, that " mis!
'his (In note to For
"■ought that the phi
Tlic suKgestlon is ropi
tliuugh withdrawn bj
'i
in our limit of
MrSfiA
■Franc, i. 409, 417 c,-^ ,,,. ,
mysterin, siilemnin ,ll,lL,.'. •> . " ^^'"^nrwrn
«« Greg. Tur. J/.l^'^l ' 90 ^"7 "'■" "'™ ''•-'"^••".
"Ljns cleric concinant nnl ^ ^ ' ^"'"■»:
(l-.i!./e/^a<,-. 5). ^"' '^"■'»'-'<-''at tnis8,u "
non praesnmat " (can ti) *^ " "'"""' '"''«'•<'
64« :/' Ml^as^Cre .^(cu^ '■'r "r'l ''^;';"''''''''
sam "(3) ; Ordo Hom. I. l-oJh V'"'"?'" "'''-
^tafione facit missa,, " c 22 "i. ('"'"^^y'"') in
Charlemagne in -mS^Si'JlZwV^- '^^'
e eemosynas racian^' 7; J^X"' a''''''!''''''™'
(».; Missam peraaere <iL ir' ''
(S') Missam reS: .fZ^''"""*"!l'r<,.
communis injunxi dileofn «,."'"•'"' ''■'•'tai'itnr
/-■«,.</. saec. i. (li 206) ^™''""'' Pwef. ^.<a
doubtful. MaWll" „'t"2 hTti," '"'■^. "'•" »■"'
e.v,,ression an allusion per a„M, K ''" '" '" "■"
originaUenseofmissa «th ""''itT"" '" «he
dismissed before are 'a ^''M''\'"'y'"8 '"'«■'
tl-y been di.smi^:d ? '/t j,'*! ''""? ^^'>'" h-ve
vious service is impi ed a, L n ' *'"^^'' "" I"-«-
Fssing^a night':: ching'^h/r'tV'"*' '""'""^
"mi-sas expetiit revocad". /w ""o "J"'"'"*;
12). He relates also of hi ^ ""• '^- ^'"•'' '
being warned b/ a w,it ^r". '"''"'"• ""'*.
W"uld attack her houle "he h f '^''"'"""'=
the same time sayfng .' Va de 17'',",,''"'''^' "^
nootem in honors (S Benil „/' "''b"" *"''""
'• Vigiliis ini,„' " ''^2, rrr '•'»'f'"'tu,..
'""'"' "'O; Mig„e,88, col 472!. ilf"'\^"-
'l"-n Radegund:' " Mjssi tJLT ''^""' "^
cnmponit altare "(Vita 14. .."■""• • • .lacruin
will be observed that n' all h!' '' ""'• ''^■^^- "
mass performed at reques is irw'r^" "f""""'
without doubt the uersfn J"" '"''- ^^^ ^'''Ich
the materials direc iro;^,,,"^;;/.'"''';' "'•W-li^d
instance it is sai.l thJt th! '^- '" 'ho first
gifts." The oriainni „ r ''"!''" ""''••'•"d many
bably,tosuppl"rflrn rV:- ''"f""' ''-■
care " often i " reddere •• rl ' ^r, " '''■"•
revocans Domino rlttm^ rpl""',-^ "'"«'"'
Rosweyd, 240V «n,l ^„ V '^ frontonii in
persons benefited by i/1?/''"' "'•■""''«'
^"'"gias vicissim ad\ 1, Tf " """'"""'■^
(»d calc. 0pp. S. Gre^^r ,..^o\"''" '■"^'"''"nt "
v-care " means, tS,r„ wo ^ . " *"^'^'"" ■'''■
?^^a^etid^f£P^?rmr
tohe„.^^;£;^^,-«^^d^a^m.s
MISSAL
1205
rwiiirin" fti-t • 1 - "■"•'""ire nieunii in /..i. 1,,..,- -
'i;ou.ht th«t the phrt i'^^,.p^.,tr't' " •"" "-
himself thus: •' Vt n, ♦ •
■"■•■'sa sanct,.rum domLmrm"" matutina et
''•'vo.etur "(.„,/. 13T4" " """""-•his ibidem
Ie-4lli^«f ™^,^-'«'- The Council of O...
vesportina „e ^i^^Z 71"'"''' ""^»'"""' «!>"
ho'lorum usun? specLT" , ' P^'io'^ntibus .i,|
^••r-- " Rex ec.: : , „™°-,^f)- , Gregory ,.f
solemnia petit" (//Z .• 'f"^'-''">da missaru,,.
basilicam. .properawf n " ^"*' ^^ ! "^^d
f.a»"(.W.ix.9fseeatxT T'^'^'wu mis.
"■ 19)- This phraretas s;^' ""l' "^^ ^^'"■'- J^'>-
hat he falls into the u"e of i^ '""' *" ^''S"yy
">K "fa blind man: .< Cum 1^" "'"'" ^l'^""^"-
dSfeo,S:;,J'ii^ '"'T - ^>-rlv
ff Agde, A.D. 506" ^'S a^,i inT ^^ ^^' ^"""^'1
'" oratoriis, nisi „h„„, ^ ° '^'''"'"atibus. . .
«"'Po, miss'as Lire aut"* I'"™"*^'"'" epil
-".munione pellantu; "(can 2?^' h"'""'"'' ''
'"«''-e is evidently said of tbi-*'! "' ""■»'^'"'"
In canon 47 this^s expressed • .^r"""''""'-
i>ommico a saecularih,,? ♦ f " Missas Die
ordinatione praectim„, .- %Ta """"'' ^1^°-^"
"fa layman : " ProceJ ':, n I- ''^"'y "^ Tours
"i««armn solemnia ten'ir- /T "^ '''^'^^'^"^
40). But the second^ •/"'"'• ^''■'""'•- vi.
"r 5«;', appears" ^useirof:' f'^^Y"' ''^>
b»th: "Si quisquinM f„,./P'''\''«'>'' i"^ople
poena Domini, ho^fregaf^rpS^t :,'''"' '^"".'^ '^'
" ecclesia missas non enci '^"'""'°';'" Jy"""'
(^"■'- 16). la ,he Rule of St n r" '^^ "
al»« used of the celebrant „! ?""'^"' " ''■'
for the reception of a pHesI .nto^-"" P™"'''"«
ho says, "Concedatur ei I ^ ^l\ monastorv
ot '"•'nodicere.aut missas" ;;r'' ''^'""'-■■» »'"""«
-HtoUbbas"(e!6rHol^r5r'''"^''^--
-J dLtraut":^b^,:^j4p-hytero
c'bum vel poculum m . P"'' acceptum
Autiss. A.D. ^73 can.'^rDr""'*^: ('""^■•
expression in an edict of h ^"V^^g" finds the
i- (!) ■• " Missas «g e v"m«? '''^"p- ^"-J
;? a mistake. The clnto, '""-'"r ' ^ut this
linguisp„puiotractare"UbV Vu'''"' ^"'"""nt
must be tiken by itself it 7^ "'.'■" " *"=''»•'-■ "
-hor authors. to^'*S^J,1,:t.;Sr'-'^
hrntion of the Ei cK ^u'"' "f "' 'he cele-
f^riginally.hnvcvor th: h„ i""^ ■■ "'" ^'''■
contain i^lher the L'on, „. \" u""'''' '"'I'""
evident from the fac?h.tt?'f '"'"'• ^his is
antiphonarv are of/nn 1 "i" 'eotionary and
fro..! the mi: ,i° Lt^° "J « books distinct
ex«n,ples of both remain ne fsf '"^•^'"^^"J'-'"
7.)2, who s, we think tK. * 1 "'^ "^"rk, a.d.
speaks of a Liber «,' ''''"''"''' "'"«'• "ho
n'm.oofmUXs "OuTm:?"' I!"''- 'he
Gregory in his antinl, """'*■'"' 'he bless.d
(Mis'salflibr„5"^°*'fcr'-r-M'l '"'»^"' hook
have that "mU boo^-aL'r:- '''' '\ "'«
["enfary), «„,| fi„j i^". -<'^,'' "'•^«"'-.'an Sacra-
fcwitntf's-t*;^--XCat;„7;
^---u^^eiJzj^arir^^Soi
41 3
1206
MISSAL
iii:
uf the apostles Peter and I'aul " (iVji'rf. 2). He
orilurud that all who det>ir«tl to be ordsined
piiosts shcuild previously provide themselves
with "a psalter, luctionary, aDtiphonsry, missal
(missale), baptismal otliou, martyrology, . . .and
computus with cycle " (dm. de JiemeJiis Pccca-
toruin,\.). Charlemagne in 789: "If there bo
occasion to write out a gospel {i.e. a book nf the
gospels) or psalter and missal, let men of full
age write them " (Capit. i. 7H ; in CapU. hcii.
Jomw.i.6S; vi. 371). Alcuinin796: " Missas
quoque reliquas de nostro tuli niissali ad quotl-
diana et ecclosiasticae consuetudinis otiicia "
{IJp. 46, ad Moiuich. Vedaat. i. 59, ed. 1777);
"Misi chartulam missalem vobis" Up, 192, ad
Mon. Fii/d. 250). Ludovicus I'ius, 810 : Uishops
are to " take care that the presbyters have a
missal and lectionary or other books necessary
for them well corrected " (Capit, 28 ; sim. Cap.
Ji. Fr. i. 103; vi. 229). A copier of books,
writing about 826 to an old friend who had
become archbishop of Mentz, says, " Send me
some good parchment for writing out one
lectionary and one Gregorian missal " (latto
Otkero, inter Kpist. liomfacianas, 138; ed.
Wurdtw.). Anialarius, 827 : " The authors of
the lectionary and antiphnnary, and of the missal
of which we believe the blessed Pope Gregory to
be the author "(/>« Eccl. Off. iv. 30); "It is
found written in the ancient books of missals
and antiphonaries " (16W. iii, 40). There were
in 831 in the monastic library of St. Hiiiuior at
Centulo several books known iw missals : " Tres
niissales (iregoriani, missalis Gregorianus et
Gelasiauus modernis tempvribus ah Albino
(Alcuino) ordinatus. . . .missales Gelasiani .xix."
(C/iiun. Centui. iii. in Dach. Spicit. ii. 31 1 ; I'ar.
1723). The Gelasian Sacramentary (and, we
may add, the Leoniau) resembled the Gregorian
in consisting of prayers and prefaces only. Had
Alcuin inserted the lessons nnd antiphons, a
circumstance so unusual would certainly hr.ve
been noticed. They were probably distinct
books for a century at least after his time.
Thus Walter of Orleans, a.d. 807, orders his
clergy to " have the church books, to wit the
missal, gospel (evungelium=.'Ovangeliurium, as
in the law of Charlemagne), lectionary ( = episto-
larium), psalter, antiphonary, martyrology and
homiliary, by which to instruct himself and
others" (C(1/;iYt«/u, 7). An episcopal charge of
that period says. " Let your missals, grauuals,
lectiouaries and antiphonaries be com|ilete and
perfect " {App. ad Keginonis D.aripl. Etxl. 505 ;
ed. Ualuz.),
II. We do not read of Missalia Plenaria (or
Plenaria) before the 9th century, but they are
then spoken of in such a manner as to shew that
they were neither new nor of recent introduc-
tion. A will is extant, written about the year
840, which bequeaths " a plenary missal with
the gospels and epistles " ( iestam. lleccardi in
Perard, Pieces servant it I'Uistoire dc liowyoyite,
20). We gather from this that a plenary missal
of those days did not contain the eucharistic
lessons. Leo IV., A.D. 847, m some instructions
to his clergy: "Let every iihurch have a
plenary missal and lectionary and antiphonary "
{Pe Cnrti Past. ; Labbe. Cone, viii. 30 ; sim.
Satherius uf Verona, i'lid. i.\. 12^1; and again
Ailiwi'iitio Sijnodiilis, Api'. ad Regin. 1/. s. .')03).
The question was asked at visitations whether
MI88I DOMINICI
all the clergy were possessed of those several
books, " Mi.s.salom plenarium, lectionarium, anti-
phonarium" (Iiiquiiiitio 10, apud Kegin. m. s. 7).
The missale plenarium of a later age contained
the lesMins and antiphons as well as the collects
ami prefaces (Merati in Oavanti ; Obseiv. J'rae-
lim. i. 4); but it is clear from the foregoing
testimonies, though the fact has escape<l I)u-
cange, Bocciuillot, and others, that they were
not include<l in the volume to which that name
was originally given. Gerbert appears to be
right in thinking that at first the plenary
uii.ssal was a sacramentary which gave the
missae for every day, and not those for Sundays
and other chief festivals, or for other special
use, alone (A's./MW. ii. i. 29, p. I08 ; ii. 1, p. 110).
There was a niis.sal of the latter kind written in
the 8th century in the library of St. Gall, and
later examples are extant (ibid. 108). The
mis.sal which Alcuin mentions in his epLstle to
the monks of St. Vedast cited above was ap-
parently ore of this sort. It may well be
doubted whether plenary mis.sals in the other
and later sense existed within our period. (Jer-
bert (110) says that he never saw a MS. of that
description belonging to the 9th century. No
Koman missal of that age contains even the
epistles and gospels. In France, however, th«
lessons without the antiphons had occasionally
been incorporated with the m'.isae long before ;
for we find them in the Besanvon Sacramentary,
which is a.ssigned to the 7th century (Mabill.
M 'S. Itat. i. 275), though uot in the other
Galilean n ;. als, which date from the eighth
(I.iturg. (lallic. MabiU. 175), or in the Krankish
which Mabillun ascribes to the seventh (ihid.
178). A very ancient Tabularium or Polypty-
chon preserved at liheims, the exact date of
which, however, is not given, also points to
France as the country in which the amalgama-
tion began; for it mentions as one book, "a
missal of Gregory with the gospels and le.ssnns
( = epistles)" (in Xotis Baluz. Capit. leg. /■'»•. ii.
1155).
Other information respecting missals will be
given under Sackamentarv.
The works uamed after Litukoy supply in-
formation on this subject; but the reader is
especially referred to Bona, Rerum J.iiuiyiaint^n,
lib. i. cc. 1, 2, 13-16, ed. Sala, Aug. Tauriii.
1747 ; to Merati, Ob^rvationes ad Gavmti
Comment, in /.Miir. torn. i. P. i. Obs, Praelim. 33-
104, Aug. Vind. 1740 (who gives several kimls
of missae, as above under X., not withm our
period); Mabillon de Liturgia (jailicawi, lib. i.
cc. 4-6, Par. 1729 ; and Le Brun, Explicatiim de
la Mease, Dissert, ii.-v. in tome 3, Par. 1777.
[W. E. S.]
MIS8I DOMINICI. The word mimis is
frequently found in Capitularies, designating; a
messenger, amba.s8ador, or deputy. Coiiiini.<-
siouers named by the king, with a kind of
vice-regal power within certain limits, were
called iiiissi regis. Of these there were in the
Carolingian |)eriod two rla.sse8 : (1) the ordinary
tHissi dumiiiici or dvminicales, reg<tles, fism/is,
fxilatini prinn'jialei, often culled missi aini|ily ;
and (2) extraordinary missi (leg;iti or nuiicii)
apiHiinted for special miergencies. It is with
the first that we are here concerned.
Pepin (Capit. Aquitan, A.n. 768, c. 12,
Pertz, Mon. Qenn, iv. 14) ratilics the decisions
»nssi uoMixicr
lissals will be
-:;::fb;;ru;:,:!;:'''-'"-' ""'■>—.
the- sy.ten. M '"' , "''"'•'"'-•-•el,.,,,,,,.,, of
the excessive power .■( tliP , ..L"' " ''""'"'•■'I'lnB
their territ.,rie,,, he tran ? r i "" '""^''■'"'* "'
that might be nia,l« ■'-*'!"7 ' V'ny omplainto
IN. .18, 71, 69). After X.. I ^i^^ ' '" ' "'t^,
t-'gfther „n the." c,™m ! ' 'V"''""' '"''■■''■■■'»
of Aacheu (Cap Z"T "'■ ^^ " ^"I'itulary
nohle.s as well ard, i I *"" t"«^n f'-'-m hi,
.v.r the whole of hs kin . '^"'"l '"^■'" '-''•"■»?«
his M,bj^.ct8olve «!!'*'"'" ' ^'-' K'"nt« to ,U1
their ,ni.us; "nj'^e TeZ! "V" '"'''"" ''"^ ''^
'I'-'ieotive, a„i r.-nort th^m K ''T "^^"■''d
'imen,! them. For th . ■ ^"'^- ''"'* f"^ '"■'r
visi.n, the en,,. ,^ w..rr''T. "'" ''■'» ■•^"l"''-
(tnissati™, legSes ,,•''■';•'''''' *"'» "''^'^^^
the ,,rovinee of a So X'*' ■ ""*''""^ "''"^
g-.t extent of ttSn^e' re" ? ".'"'•■'■'-'' ''*^
<Uvishm neee.ssary ■ thus m!^! rendered n .sub-
'^'""•■'"'e-i four droits ".p."'"''' •'■ '""■''
K--1 t... c^ntio ,. J'^'^V H '"
bisho,. or nbbnt, and a count ".'"J''
^...■h eircnit ((Wtz, iii. 97 98)' ;'- ' " ^"^ ^"'
-H.el/beyon'd Thrtli ' r"'-^'''''''"° '">■
enforce tl,e due cxeouTnn V .V '^ *<"e (1) to
church and ^tat^S , .f ^'T'r''!>!^
f O'p. mmonim an. 806 e o V:' ™;,-^' "'^ i
l;'7. I..4). (2) Snits no''d;ei,lu, fh""'' "''
">■ their dej.uties thev miX k ''•'^,"'« '■'"'"'ts
f"r which l'm-,,ose tly were trr'lT ^"''S*"'
fi'ur times .year in iL, . ''"''' """'"s
October (C4it Z: T"'^' '^'"""' ''"'y- ""d
l""k to the due main?^ ^ *"'" ^■^P'cially ,o
l'«tz, iii. 119) '^(l\"Ty'''^- <^<'P't. m. HO:i,
"".-.sight of pub i/lindlh^r V','"*^" ">^
the .state or' to the .'hn h "' J'^'^^S'^S »»
" terriers " of „|1 i* , i'"^' Registers or
q-n.ly required "b'ThS Tt" T" '"'■'-
honefieesofbishoM ahlm^ m°' ""'y were the
or vas«.ls of thel^^^'nf t*'!; "''.^''■''f' "'>•' ^""''t''
thn..e belongiug to tlieH/^''^'" ''"''- ^"' «'»»
8'-'. c. 7; P^enViii 174) ' ^^'^"- ^'/""^'•- "">■
dn?i';s,''"thi"miil"' h:i?''"« ""' "^ ">«!'• 'overal
«hich'wer Zmoned thirr'"!. '="»■•'«. »»
th- clergy, the 1°*! i','"S')«'- ^'Knitarie.s of
king's vais'al^, &,. Those Ik"'7.''"«'^'«'''. 'he
were reported to the .oZ 7 """^ ?"' "I'l'^''^
(«;^"'^..cfo^,a;:^^::'^i^;y''oking
Writing (Cap. a/r°:;>"' "'•;;!'/ "Ud in
Pert/ ill" 91T\ /I ^ • "O' 817, c I'?.
MISSIONS
1207
"rr;,r. •■-:■■;;• >^I^ ThedeCion,
''"'S;:;i::'^>"----HJla^.::
-tii' thrzSii'j^'-jr-r "• '^" -"-ity
<:»>l'i.e. A he central n ^'''""'.■^'''"•"'ingi.n
''""^ti«n» of the ,Z w P'"*-'',<'«'^linod,^he
^'- ,J"I^- in thJrseS ';r'r''''-'''«J hy
""Pldante,! by new office, I """'"""' »""-tly
the bishops a^qnfredth.- u° ""'■'"■«' •Ji"'»'«'»
them (see ea Cot ^ "SJ^'" '""■•« enjoyed l,y
''«'' their orth; in thl""^'' P'"''''"''"' Mission,
}-,•"•"■'' "'ten no i-i! ";•;""'• »«. 20), yet. a,
I'tt e, ,r her earliest tocher, Th ""',"'^' ■""
^.1^^ ind::,,"'„/';i;c::^- :r^\ > -
^"■ythia (Kuseb. //. /•,(•») Vi: ^,'"''"*^ i"
'"'li'', of St. Matthew nA,.ri;-' ^ '"""'•*' '"
/-«x /:-,v„.,. p,, 9^,_ '*V' " ^""■K.pm (Kabricii
»f these noti.V, p>;vel ;,w in'!'-" Tr'T f'^'""'""'^"
has come ,lown (« us J '" "'"' '" "-^'''"hle
founder of th^e.laXrZrll'e^s ''" ""'' "'■'"«
^>^hei::r;d:Vtirzc;i""''^"'^''"'-'»
know that the chur.: 'r "fi'"''''''"''-'-^- ^^'*
conquests through A« a M 1 '^^ "''''-''''''''' '>">•
Southern Gaul an.l T,,.! "'' P/'""'' 't"'^-.
f;-'- c. 117, Tert" n.X'^"/]?'" f''''-^''":
he very centre of the old w'„,M ' •^"^- ^>'
hea.hen^w r; e ll' "/ ""' ?''^'= '''""' "^ the
Christian 'iZtZ\jrT'r'^, '" '""l-^ '"
liturgies nlike of ta^'n^rniV %''"''''.'''' *''«
[Heathen, p. 7611 but t»i u ^"■° churches
thediilusionoTcCtSv"' '"" "."■«'" ".--.
ovnngelising l«bour.r o "in S' r l'"''" '''«
''ergy. It was naturallv ,, 1 ■'"'''°'"' ""J
their duty to winTet?hT'''l''^ "" I"'" "f
that dwelt arouid them Tl' *" r ' *'" ''«»"' '■
;^ii5, the "Apostle of tte r I'k' .F!'"""'^«. A-"-
-If. heart ?nd lui, to ^h":;" '"'""-" '""'-
countrymen, and of tLn i """'."-''sion of hi,
herd, and heZen whiirh r/S'^-^ '"''^>^>-
bi'^hop of Vercdl To^/i""'' ?''*"• ^'"««hius,
church the centre' of Vw,^„ '"",''*. '"»<=''thedra
St. Chrysostom founded ! rn^T'f "•" ^'^^' '"»<'
404, an^•n»titutionn which r?.*'"'''^'''' ^••'•
;»ineJ and qualified to peach the" r'^^'l ""^
their own people (Theodore ^r / ! ??.?'' '°
I even during the vears of 1, ' . ' ^- ''*^^ ' >""•
ri'lg-. of Mt. Tau. s d^d h! r''\'^J"'S^' f'-^
;ng in far distant mSiot-fieHs'Tn s*'""/""-
"nderp.rsecutiC'rmSnrStX
12118
MISSIONS
Vl
I'xiiniiile of tlie great npostle St. Paul, ond so-
liiiliug lunils tor supporting mission stations.
(.St. Clirysost. 0pp. W. pp. 7^9, 747, 748, 760,
7!)9; Le Quien, p. 1099, § 14.)
'}. But missiuuHry zeal is "essentially the
child of faith," and has depended, in nil ages, on
tlie varying spirituality of the several branches
I'l' tlie church. The great evaypelising elt'orts of
Uk early church were mainly those of the West,
'file Thubaid, it is true, sen; '"rth its hosts of
iiKJnaslic missionaries, whi penetrated the
(iiuntry districts of the Ki;^t, which still re-
iniiined sunk in icklatry, even when <.!hristianity
hiiil been acknowledged and protected by the
htMto, nud sowed the seeds of knowledge iu the
rL'niou of Phoenicia, on the one side, and beyond
the Kuphrates on the other. But even before
the famous churches of the Kast had become the
prey of the anti-Christian armies of Mahomet,
leihargy and inaction, as regards Christian mis-
iiiiins, crept over them, and the work either
ended altogether or notoriou.sly declined. "One
by one, that glorious centre of lig, , knowledge,
.^md life, which the Anthonys, the Hilarious, the
Basils, the Chrysostoms had animated with their
celestial light, were extinguished, and disap-
peared from the pages of history. Eastern
nionach.jni could neither renovate the society
which surrounded it, nor take possession of the
Jiagan nations, wMcli snatched away, every day,
some new fragment of the empire." (Montalem-
bert, Mun/is of the West, i. 376, 377 ; Stiuiley,
J-'imtm-n Church, p. 34; Milman, Latin Chris-
tianity, ii. 16;J.)
6. And even when wo pass to the West, we
must not expect speedy or immediate lesults.
Herself scarcely recovering from the shock of
ihange, the church found herself confronted
with strange nations, of strange speech, and still
stranger modes of life, who poured forth to fill
the abyss of servitude and corruption, in which
the empire had disappeared. They overran
tiaul, Itiily, Spain, lUyria, all the provinces in
their turn. Chaos seemed to have come back to
earth, and the agitations of society needed to be
allayed, before mission work could be organized,
or even ellectually commenced.
7. But even now ellbrts were not wanting to
deal with the inveterate paganism of the old
world and the torrent of the northern invaders.
I'roiu the islet of Lerins, off the roadstead of
Toulon, where, in A.D. 410, a Roman patrician,
Ilouoratus (S. Hilarii Vita S. Hontrati, ap.
Bulliiuil, t. Ii. Jauuar.), found a monastic home,
went forth an influence, which created numerous
missionary centres in Southern and Western
[iaul, and sent bishops to Aries, Avignon, Lyons,
Truyes, Metz, Nice, and many other places, who
]>roved themselves at once the lights of their own
dioceses, and the leading missionaries of their
day amongst the outlying masses of heathendom.
8. When Clovls, In A.D. 493, became the single
sovereign of the West who adhered to the con-
fession of Nicaea, it might have been expected
that the work of the numerous emissaries from
l.erlns would have been supplemented by the
newly kindled ardour of the Frankis:, church.*
• On the conversinn nf (he Burzundbns scp RirratTO,
£■. //. vli.30; Ozanam. OtrUifation diet let Pramf, p. 51.'
Kor the latx'urs of Soveriiius in lUvaria nnil Austria, see
YUa 3. Saverini, Aita ms. JiuUaiiU, Jan. g.
MISSIONS'
And for a time orthodoxy advanced side by side
with Krankish connuests. But the wars aud
dissensions of the successors of Clovis were not
favourable to the development of Christian mis-
siona. _ Avitus of Vienne; Caesarius of Aries,
and Faustus of Riez, proved what might be
done by energy and self-devotion. But the
rapid accession of wealth more and more
tempted the Frankish bishopn and abbots to
live as mere laymen, and so the clergy de-
generated, and the light of the Frankish church
grew dim. Not only were the masses of heathen-
dom lying outside her territory neglected, hut
within it she saw her own members tnluted
with the old leaven of heathenism, and relapsing
in some instances into the old idolatries
(Perry's Fran/is, p. 488.)
9. A new influence was, therefore, needed
if the heathen tribes of Europe were to be
evangelised, and He who had said, " Behold, 1
am with you alway, even unto the end of the
world " (Matt.- xxviii. 20), did not fail His
church. He called the men who were u do the
work, from two sister isles, high up in the
northern seas, which had almost been forgotten
amiilst the desolating wars of the Continent. It
was in the secluded Celtic churches of Ireland
and the Scottish Highlands that the beacon
was kindled, which, in the words of Alculn,
"caused tlie light of truth to shine to many parts
of the earth." '' '
10. Three well-marked stages distinguish the
ml>slonary history of the fifth and three follow-
ing ceuturles : —
(d) A.D. 430-650.— While continental Europe
W.1S still agitated by the inroads of swarming
tribes of barbarians, Ireland, unvisited by
strange invaders, drew from its conversion by
St. Patrick an energy which was simply mar-
vellous. A burst of popular eufhuaiasm wel-
comed his preaching, and Celtic Christianity
flung itself, with a zeal that seemed to take the
world by storm, into battle with the mass <,f
heathenism which was rolling in upon the
Christian world. Columba, the founder of
lona, aud the Apostle of the Albanian Scots and
Northern Plots; Aidan, the Apostle of the
Northumbrian Saxons ; Columbanus, the
Apostle of the Burgundians of the Vosges ■
Callich, or Gallus, the Apostle of Northl
Jlastern Switzerland and Alemannia; Kilian, the
Apostle and Martyr of Thuringia ; -Viugilils,
the Apostle of Carinthia, are but a few out cf
many," who were raised up to pour back with
interest upon the Continent the gifts of tivill,s,i-
tion and the Gospel. " Armies of Scots " crowdel
to the shores of Europe. From the Orkneys lo
the Thames, from the sources of the lihiiie to
the shores of the Channel, from the Seine to the
Scheldt, the missionary work of the "Scot " ex-
tended, nor did it hesitato to brave the dangers
of stormy and icy seas, in bearing the messaijo
of the Gospel to the Faroe Isles, and even to far
distant Icelanil.
(6) A.D. 596-690.— Again, when the conquest
of Britain by the pagan English had "thrust a
wedge o|
great Ch
British t
invaders,
to the "i
thiit Coll
niissionai'
their wai
than recp
who plan!
(Bede, /A
converted
made Lind
iii. l.l) wh
disciples 01
diet met i
hoys, whon
of'liomo (H
not only w
itH sons to 1
to the henti
(•) A.D.
Teuton of |
native fore
" Come over
Anglo-Saxot
the zeal of t
ing the conv
the Hcsh.
enterprising
his English (
.'form ou the
hiisjiitably re
and a])j)ears (
siiins. (Bede
i« Acta .S'.V.
tnken up nb
WlLI.NIirtORD,
liaviug been
mi.niistic scht
6ugg(>stion, t
niiiiie the neig
the chief scet
bi-m;li, in Aa
Xitntcses in
V. 10). His
helpers from I
named HinvA
"■"id to the
(ISele, //. J,:,
vdtion with t
been ordained
(Acta SS. Ber.
the li(M'uotuarii
the Ems and tin
royal race of ^
of Holland as ti
made Elste his
Otger and Wiro
the natives of (
Chirch, ii. 334)
Friosland, and <
larged materiall
•> Thus Fridolln {Acta SS. March 8) laboured In Suabia
sr.i1 A!se.-.-,-j Magiioalii (Jcia 5i-. April 26) four.dtd a
monastery at Fiiigon j Trudpert penetrated as fur as tlia
Black Kurest, where ho waS mu'dirid. .Sef A. W. Had-
dan's HxU on ttit CutUitumt, «on''tnj, p. k«6.
MLSSiOXS
wedge of ho;ithcil(loin" ii.tn *K ■ I . ,
great Chnstim, c.nnZuC^ tt w'T "^, ^^'
Biitish church failea to ov , ' , u'"""^ *'"^
invaders, GuKoo ,r L r 1 *^'''""' *""' P"S'"'
to the-'n-en'tf K:.t:'" &? ^„""' ^'-'-'--^
that Cul„n,b. breathed i" 'last thr'T. ^''"'
n,.«Monarie. landed, and slowly but «„r 1 """
their way. Aav <?roi.n,l fi ^ . "'"'^ "'"°
than recovered L^the 1- ^^ °" '"" '""'«
.vho planted lu,^he, in Tr"'.n ^'"•'" '"""-
convened MerlY^ Cd;V''I^«''';^;[/-«;
n,«de .,„ i.sfa,ne to Northumb.t ( df V"'
diet met in the and of fh "-"f"' "'' ^^"""-
Ti.L'S tt,"S,7. r.:^':;'a *■' i"
native forests, lijc. fh» 7t 7 .^ ""'" •""
"Come over „„'d M , us " (A ^r Ifr '•^. "''''
Anglo-Saxon missionaries flo^fo!l 7' .u^' r'"""'
thezoalofthefollowersof Pol J' *■ '° '^^'''
i"g the co„versi„r of their Mn"""" '° ■''"'''-
the Hesh. Or , „d wa tT^ T""'"^ '»
enterpri.ine \Vi , kr ,t» ! i, • ^''"'"'" ''^ ^he
hisKiglish^™7„;:''" ^ his flight from
.-torm on the coast of v2 f l "'^ """K ''^ »
h"spitah,v rece;;:J "!y t' r^M 'e ^ L7 A, r
and appears to have ,4„,.ed a harvest of , i^"'
'nl<en up about twelve voi, ^f '''"''^ T
Wn.M:,„!OR.,,c a native of v , "'^'T'"'''' ''^
i-ing been'a VudenT te '"orfe' T':'
monastic schools under Ecpherhf ■ ^'?''
6n?i;esti„n, to select pl^f' "'^''**''' ""•"•"
the chief scene of his laL.f ( fef '/ 'i^^vr'
ho.,';^'..r\C;;:i^'-:i'''i-nyEngiiS
Mmod Hmvali,, a?tem„ed ♦'"" '"'".""''■»•
"•..rd to the "old" ni .*" ^""""^ 'he
I'oval race of Xo fKl;:,;? ■ ,' * P"nccof the
Otger and VViro cam . f ,,»K .' i u ''"'' "'«"-
the natives o Oue,d,^s Mnl" 'f "7' ;"""''g-^'
Fwesia'nd, and'l;h:.!";;p?^r':r^ii? b""'r "'
MISSIONS
1209
... ., ■•-- " ■''•'^•iiiiiiibrian ( !o,1h v in
known Winfrith n, . i, '^''^"■"''''i'e, the well-
Woinz, 1845) He 1, f •■'«'«<-•/'*», Seilleurs,
Willebrord ^t Ut:.er%S\'rU" ''"'''
Ihuiingia and Unnor h .'"','" labour m
Oorma„%hatTh'S,,"::rj,'h- to do f„r
consolidate the work of caW Lr ml i"' ''■"""""''•
■mpart to the churches new .t I'""'"'"' """^
Tom England he att art!T ''"^ """' '"'•^^■
thusiastic helpers H . T """'"'•«"« "nJ en-
jviiiib«id(Aai,'^ruT7«;'';L''':''''-''
Walpurga, with thii-tlrr.^'*'''^"' sister
othe'rs, ero'ssrd the a^rdT"'","'^''"-' "'""-^
Germany, where even hf'f,'' "'e work in
•nartyr^on the shores of T v'"":''"^" '■^■" <*
cliurch had advancTL. ' '^"^'''"" ^''«- '»'«
"tage All!,, V ^"'"' '*' "'•"' missionary
Teutonic fo-tts'^'i te, '"^1 ?""''"' ''"'
Kresineen of Ra,>„ k of Salzburg and
to his Te'o? h?5, : rff Ba^ ''■""•^■^"^ ''*'''«"
E''furt told of labours in TK™'.""' "=' "^
Kuraburg in Hesse th„, ^e Z"T^'''' 'hat of
conia; while hTs' mcf/ i^"''''""'S '» ^''^n-
hadjindsdictL -erTorr'a Ts''" '% *'"'"^
Cologne, and Utrecdit " WiUiSr^' "^-''^S'
a..tios, the Zo n'dlsli re^Tbe; 'TT^^'""
^'th greater powe, ^f 'pracLt ''■ '^'""^
to heUe- Su^ ansCd Ar-'';""«'=' '"''-d.
the service books »thev f^', " .'"'' '"'"•
landed either it oL T .J""'' 'hip and
the mouthsof the"\ote m. '"'"" /'""«
harbours of Flanders tk 'i'"* "'^ 'he
their devotions at th i^ '- *" P'""^''""
Tours, or St Hi a y „f p"'."^ ^'- *'""'!• «f
long the scene under the oaks of 1 '"'^'
sfa-trirt u„ oaKS 01 IJerry or in
Eurfneh^f T ''^""^""^^ i- the hl,r of
we.? f wn low^'rhr""" ,'"k"""' *ho h">s
. |_wiiiow^^vm^hc8, and brushwood; the
m palpobrl,5^'''(SXne ZZZ'':' '^"" P'-'K'.nt
1210
MISSIONS
Nwr
little chapel, with the roiinil tower or steeple bv
itH siili! ;' the rel'uctury, the kitchen, the byre for
the cattlu, the burn for the gruia, aaii other
buildiugs. Here these "soldierii ofOliri8t,"i an
they lovtxl to style themselves, settled down,
and lived and pniyed and studied and tilled the
waste. Men of learning, devutido, and singular
missionary xeiil, they soon impressed the hearts
of wild heathen tribes. Hiimirods tincked to
listen to their religious inst. uvtion. Hundreds
more, encouraged by thtir example, took to
clearing and tilling the land. Luxcuil became
the iiiusionary capital of Uaul, and sent out its
colonies into Burgundy, Kauracia, Neustria,
Brie, Champagne, Punthieu ; reproduced the
Scottish Brechin and Abernethy at St. Gall and
Bobbio, and forced the careless Frankish church-
men for very shame to louse themselves to the
duties of missionary work,
('/) Tlw Efujlish missionaries. — Tlius these
Celtic pioneers laid the foundations. Kxiictingly
ascetic, they awed the heathen by their in-
douiituble spirit of self-r .crihce, and the stern-
ness of their rule of life. The singular success
of their missions 'j Northumbria and Mercin,
Kssex and Sull'o.k, was even more completely
realisu<l on the continent; Luieuil began with
thatched hovels, poverty, and hunger ; it ended
by bocuming the University of Burgundy and
France. But the work, great as it was, lacked
the element of permanence, and it became clear
that if Kurope was to be carried through the dis-
solution of the old society, and missionary opera-
tions con.solidated and united, the rigours of the
rule of Cotunibanus must be softened, and a
milder aud more practical system must be in-
augurated, before the Teuton of the German
forests coui be etfectually evangelised. The
crisis was a momentous one, but it had already
produced a Benedict. With his marvellous
genius for organisation, he arose to inaugurate a
new missionary era, and to give to missionaries
u more deiinite unity of plan. [BKNKblcrint:
Hulk and Okokk.] And now, just when they
were most wanted, bis disciples, the sons of the
new-planted Knglish churches, came forth to their
Teutonic kinsmen. Teutons themselves, they
were fitted, like no others, to be the ap^/stles of
Teutons. The monastic missionary became the
coloniser.'' The labours of WiuKiDand VVihu-
UROKD, in Frisia, were quickly supplementtd and
absorbed by the work of the great Aiio-stle of
Germany. What Boniface did at Fulda is a
type of what the English Benedictines did every-
where. With practised eye they sought out the
proper site for their monastic home; saw thot
it occupied a central position with reference to
the tribes, amongst whom they proposed to
labour, that it possessed a fertile soil, and was
near some friendly water-course. (Comp. the
Pctrle's Round Tovxrt, pp. 3i7, 418; also Skene's CtUio
ScolUxnd.W. p. 100.
1 Which served us a place of refuge in timea of need.
On the Irish monasteries in Germany see Dr. Watten-
bach, Dit Kongregation der SchotUn-Kloiter in VeiUich-
land, translated In the Chltr Journal qf Archacoloey,
July and August, liiSA.
j fjich professed bis willingness to enter the world only
s» an atkltt't Chntti In the propagation of the gospsl
(Ket-ves, Jdamnon, p. 341).
k See Kiiigsley, Roman and Ttubm, pp. 20t-344;
Uilmau, latin Ckrittianity, U. 30S.
MISSIONS
foundation of the monastery of Kulda, so grnphio-
ally described in the Vita S. Sturmi, Hertz, J/«n.
Ofrm. ii.) These points secured, the word van
given, the trees were felled, the forest was
cleared, the monastic buildings rose. The voice
of prayer and prni.se awoke unwonted echoes in
the forest glades. The brethren were never
idle ; while some educated the young, whom
they had often redeemed from death or torture,
others copied manusiripts, illuminated the
missal, or transcribed a gospel. Others, again,
cnltivate<l the soil, guided the plough, planted
the apple-tree or the vine, arranged the bee-
hives, erected the water-mill, opeuSl the mine,
and thus, with wonderful practical aptitude fur
the work, prescted to the eyes of men the
kingdom of Christ, as that of One who had re-
deemed the bodies no less than the souls c His
creatures.' No wonder that the etibrts o. St.
Boniface and of his enthusiastic followers at-
tracted the hearts of the heathen tribes.
" The experience of all ages," it has been re-
marked, " teaches us that Christianity has only
made a firm and living progress, where from
the first it has brought with it the seeds of all
human culture, altl- ugh they have only been
developed by degret- " (Ncand'er, Lij/it in Dark
Places, p. 417).
12. Thus the prominence of the monastic or-
ders in the missionary work of this period is
clearly marked. Monasticism founded the
Celtic churches in Ireland and Scotland ; lied
with the British churches to the fastnesses of
Wales and Cumberland, from the Saxon in-
vaders; returned with Augustine to the coast
of Kent ; with Aidan peopled the Fame Islands ;
with Columbanus penetrated the forests of
Switzerland ; with Boniface civilised Thuringia
and Frisia ; with Sturmi cleared the forests of
Buchonia, and made Fulda au outpost of civilisa-
tion for the Teuton tribes, with its dom-church
and schools, library and farmsteads, the influences
of which were felt for years and years after-
wards. But however the seeds of the gospel
may have been sovn in any place, whether by
the influence of a Christcan queen, or the faith-
fulness of Christian captives, uniformly, in con-
formity with apostolic practice, the manage-
ment of the infant churches was entrusted to a
local episcopate. Sometimes a bishop headeil,
from the first, the body of voluntary adven-
turers. More often, as soon as any considerable
success had been achieved, one of the energetic
pioneers was advanced to the episcopal rank,
and in this capacity superintended the stall' of
clergy accompanying him," and as soon as pos-
sible ordained a native ministry from amongst
the newly converted tribes, and established a
cathedral, or corresponding ecclesiastical founila-
tiou. (Comp. the consecration of Swithbeit
by Wilfrid for the mission in Friesland,
Bed*, H. E. V. U.) Such a provision hikt
recomnieodations of a most practical charac-
' See the Excursus de Cultu Soil Oermanlci per Btne-
dlctlnos, MubiUon, Acta SS. Hened. HI.; Prof. Palgrave's
Hormandy and JCngland, 11. 262.
"» Even In the Columbian monasteries there were
always bishops connected with the society, subject to tha
sbhfti's J«rlr<)l.-:ti- 1, wb.-. =fT-r arelgiit-d tbi-ir abitioi:3, r
called In to ordain, being looked upon as essential tu tAt
propagation of the church. (Beeves, .^dumnan, p. 341 ;
Todd, at. fatrick, 4-10.)
ttr. ;
races,
kind
were re
Datura!
the inte
by their
pearod b
while th
often 801]
and Willi
the heat
that on
native kii
him one \
pagan hig
of his olb
serf, and (
intercede
were the
agents in ,
them f)-om
siastieal q
moral and
the siicrific
heathen g<
formed iuii
fountains ;
crart ( Vita
22; a,nc. ,
eating a du(
life, strivinf
peasant clasi
(<ireg. A>. ;
Thorpe, ,ln,i
U. Itist
terest these
often admitti
seemingly ipi
to be borne ii
period had m
contend. Not
not only wer(
l^y peculiar ti
were in a pos
verts of the
dispensation I
them, or taug
elementary tri
to apprehend,
mosphere perir
were not " pro
in knowledge a
niitted to " ini
themselves imp
"faithful in tl
and were so m
things."
,H. We have,
missionary inst:
of attention.
eminently object
with the great
incarnation of tl
His resurrectioi
coming, and the
good works whic
reception of these
(■--) Tr. She Celt
Pature, and especi
Ireland proclaime
Creator of all thii
MISSIONS
kiuJ of privy :„„h;''J7"""'^ -'" only a
natural *ohi«(i,. The' J,*, """/-y '"v^- a, the
the interior of tl,o '.it?. ?hI!T' ""^ »«'"•''« '■>
by their liock, when th, { ,"""'"'"^'"-»^-«ly
whilo the civil umifi«trat« .nT ,'■ '"'^ •'""«,
Often sought reC* n , Lht ""''",'"y '•^"''*"
f-' willing to med ate bK n TJ, '"""'? *'''''
the heathen connneror iT i ' ''""''''' «■"'
that on the c°nvor° L 'V" "" *"'"'"•' then,
native king or ehieS^a ' ?a"[ to' h"''"' ''"
him one who could assomp .K • ""''•-' "««'•
pagan high priest and wL . ' ■°^'"'"'« o*" ""e
of hi, olLe't's La efw '""th'' ''^,"'0 duties
sen; and defend thrhel, ll"" „^i '^'''' "'' ""'
intercede for the cHmi„»l *"'' ,'^'»''«'«'0'1. and
were the hi-hoK dio « 1 'vn ^""'""-^ ^"'
agents in developing Snrt,rr'T''r{
them from t me to tim, ,, .1 *• "^* '""I
"iastical .,ue."i^,„" 'r:^ °f ""y "^tiling eccle-
morol andsoc a eWls w\ Ti"?.« "l"" K'"^'*
thesacriliceof menin, .'' ''?'^ "•«"' f"rbiddinir
heathen god! ; thVl,?'"'"''* '? """"""■ "f 'he
formed infants- th« ff T'"- "'^ *"«''' "'• <le-
fonutainsT the • aeti n°"^r''S "''S'^ves and
craft (^'-ia IZg/'et''*^''^ "".'^ '^"'h-
eating a due regard for th.! . '"■'" '""''-
life, striving to abo kh . ""''•'"'"«»« of human
peasant clasLanj to stur'';'-'''^' /"/'''>•'"« the
Thorp,.,„^.^-Vi^.,^'^/^Jiv. 13,
teresi t '■"eLiVn'l^ ^"''-'•'^. -■ whose in-
often admitted ?no'?hf:h:,rK'"'"^'^' ^'^'^ '""
seemingly indiscrimlnaU^tSl ""'^tT,?' .r.''
to be borne n mind tha> tt./ • " '"'" 't is
period had unusual iiffliu? '"''"'"''''"«' "^ ''><>
contend. Not only wa sol l" "«""■?,' ^''''^h to
not only were the^ rec pi^n ts^o?'?h™"^ '"t"'''
hy peculiar ties 'n ,^ '."^"^ts ot the rite bound
verts of L ZlZl S j^^''"'" ">« -=«"-
di-spensation had made m„n„fk •" ''"Pa'atory
them, or taught th "m .^1"'" ,""''"■"' '»
elementary truths whirK "''"" I'ne," those
toappreh4d,t:'u.re'w1 hrn^eVr" "^^
mosphere permeated with theh i„« ° '," »'■
were not "proselytes nftK ""^."^nce- They
iaknowledge and civiliLt, ' S^'j-b-'t infants
n.itted to ?. irnt 1 apthm •' T\'^'l '''"" "<»■
themselves imperfeclvT .''f teachers often
"faithful irt'ietw^hl""'.1'u''"' ^'■'"^•^'•«
and were so made In t.t **' ' '^>' -^i'' """-w,
things." • '" '""•-'' ''"le" over many
misstn!;.;^^tr,tTo7^*'r'':' "^ » ^y^'ern of
of attentfonTorfirrt f '%'^«"-'Jeserving
eminentlyoWec-toritH ,°''^','^ ^"^ P'<'-
with the^riat 7a;ts f cL7'°^.^ '""' ^'^W
incarnatio/of the st.lr'^t nr'^Hir'! *^
H.S resurrection, Hi. a.scenlin„ ' »r r^'""''
com ng, and then it prSd ?;. / . '^11'""=
good works which oniKt f ^ *"*'■'••»* of the
-option of tCVuS' 'Au';i ^^- " -'»'
rat^k an'resSda'iiro'^'VhPrs" "^ l*"" P^^^' <"
Ireland proclaS he „'^f ^""' 9"^ ^P"«"« "f
Creator ofall things Lh I ""* '''^""'' ^'< th«
au tnmgs, and then went on to dwell
MISSIOXS 1211
"'Hi:tS'^;Sn'^::r""";.r'' -'■"-"-''
'A* <-•"«. V«„, who was n .k"""," ^ •"'»'. who is
all, unbegot en anTtV,,^ k* beginning before
their hegfnning ;" h ,,^bre r."" ','?«" '""«
I^-aS^Vo^;?- f i-'S..M:
the atte,;^;i:'tthfrri' w;. t '■"■"• '"•■•-•-'
ani Thor to the pLZ „f thp r" "^ ^'"'«''
cross (Bede, //. i j « . i-, ^"^""t "n the
1«). and then, ac.cordin^» i! *• ^"'/"'f'"', H.
(recorded by' A^fri^ a„*d'?"''»''.1'!«''t tradition
tell him of such events in hV^' ',"' "° t°
as were likely to make «n • «"""'■•«•'» life
|"indih„wfoA,s„rand?.r ''''*'T'" "" ^i^
berame incarnate ;h"; a HuTM"'^""""' "«
pcived in the Kast h„w Hn Jlli,"i"' " '""• «P-
and calmed the storm^ h ^.'".' "l"'" 'be sea
sun wi.Mrew hr^h^ningTho't ^ '^■'"^ ""'
the dean, and ascended in»n i, '""^ '^^"■n
come again to judge he a W .1 "l^?' "■"' '^i"
^ (0 .The arguinefts of Osw^^ kfn'' '':-V-''^''1;"
b'-'a, in his exhortation^ i .^"'^"'''bum-
'^■^cx, are mainri?r',°d°*':f ''«"'- ^'ng of
old Hebrew pro, het" aJ.l.. M^" "."■"" "'' tbe
idolatry, and the f. llv"f;" .""' "b^^'Ji'les of
the worship of deitL th f '"'u*'"^'''"'"ght
»b.ent, or t'rodden n r S ""t \l "'""'"''
tion of such gods he bilk h; ^""^ 'be adora-
t" the true OH the Treat rT.^"'''^-- '■"•"
;■; invisible, omnipotent, tnafwh ""T'- *•""
w::hr^^:.g^-~.^ii««i
vva:t::^';;;:t::;j^^anie,, ^shop „f
man, the martyr BoniV. • '«"ow-country.
Wnle deprecatg^anT" :'le"t"a'7, ""f''"'''-
olamation against thon„?. "'^ "''«'«•'«« de-
s-'ggests to the great m?.-"" ^"P«"'"i°ns, he
put such question wouU S ^ ""^ '""'"'d
contradictions of heathtnkVn '"."nggest the
en™ to the genealogy of Z' ^"'^"''"'^ ^' '" "-'''"'■■
disadvantages whiclfnaln ^'^'' ^^' '^-nporal
"Pon those^hrheld '^tT^" "1^''''^ ^«'«"«d
hearers gently to Christtu'tr'utl " rs"' ^ '"'
i'atrotoyia, saec. viii. p 707 )"• (^^^ ^igne,
o^oJr^nflZ thaTh': 1''^ T"' ^l-t'«
verts something far 1„,.„ "^'^^""'^'^ °f his con-
perficial form"ofc rTs "ni?;' '^C T'^'^ -"
hrst is the "right Faith "in \''.\'"bjcct of the
the doctrine of the TWn ^ 'l',?'' '"^ "'"""'d^
baptism to the remisLn?.^' *''* "'"'iw of
of the dead, theTuture .'udZ'' '?" "^""ecion
^^yofrepentaner^Tft^-tiVet
or°stX:rrn[;r.r'r,rn^
first, ninth, and tenth of the .J^J' f""'', ('"•> The
••eae, If. JS, 111 00 m. . ■
the new Mthi^^r^xl ' ^^'^' 'be c'-'ef prie-t, „„.»,.
ofheathe,,isn,^a^d^q^Ji™L^'"'''■*'•''*«'''«»~
briefhes, and uncerUlnty „f i,frw!,fh f '^"'' "" ""e
chord and betray, « yeam,"' l7,ri""=b stnkes a deeper
yondthe rave. (ixJe?^.^ J^' he gospe, of a life |».
.r>'
1212
MISSIONS
'I'',
\h-
P-.
li
Chiistnms Oiiy, la ccini'nrneil with the cri'Btion nf
111,'in, his tali, the pniiiiise nf n riiiviniir, lliii
nlvi'nt, mill the story of IJi'thiolieni. The fmiith
triMitJt iif the "Heat it lilies;" the tilth, of" Kiiith
HUii the \V(Pil(,s (if I,(pve ;" the sixth, seventh,
eij;hth, nml ninth, of"l)eiiilly Sins nmt the
t'hief Cmiiiniuulinents of (ioii ; the tenth nnd
eleventh treat iiKiic fully of Man's Kail, of the
Uerleniiitiiin wri)iij;ht by Christ, Hin Sull'erinijs,
Ileath, Kesurreotlon, ami Future Ooniing. {/b.
Baie vili. Hl;i.)
(/) Further inforniaticm on the same point is
sii]j|iliei| in the eiirresiHimlenee (jf Aleuin with
the em|ieior Charlemagne.'' In teaching those
of ripe years, ho says that order shonhi l)c
Btrii'tly maintained, which the blessed St.
Augustine (Jo Cati'c/inamlis limlilms) has laid
down in his treatise on this subject. (I.) A
man ouijht first to be instructed in the iuimor-
tality nf the soul, in the future life and its re-
triiiutioa of good and evil. ('2.) Ho ought,
secondly, to be taught for what rrime.i nnd sins
he will bo condemned to sutler lierealter, nnd
for what good works he will enjoy eternal glory,
(li.) He nuglit most diligently to be instructed
in the doctrine of the Trinity, in the ndvent of
the Saviour, His lit'e, jiassion, resuneitlion, as-
censicin, and future coming to judge the world.
Strengthened nnd thoroughly instructed in this
faith, let him be baptized, and afterwards let the
pre<!epts nf the gospel be further unfolded by
public preaching, till he attain to the measure
of the stature of a perfect man, and become a
worthy habitation of the H(dy Ghost.''
K'i. Of vernacular translations, indeed, of the
Scri)>t\ires and Liturgy, except in the Kastern
church, we find, naturally, little trace in the
missionary annals of this period.' Ulphilas, in-
deed, c<mipnsed an alphabet for his Gothic
converts, and translated for them the Scriptures
into their own language, but it does not seem to
have occurred to the missionaries of the We.st that
this wa.s oue nfthe most important reqaisites for
follnwin>; up oral instruction." All languages be-
eidei. Latin and Greek they deemed barbarous, and
shrank from giving them a place in the sacred
services of the church. It is with mi.sglving that
we think of Augustine at the court of Kthelbert,
addressing his hearers through "the frigid me-
dium of an interpreter." It is easier to imagine
how Houiface and his disciples.' coming forth from
p Cunip. Kp. xxxvtL Ad Doinlnum Regeni, de sulv
Jocllune llunnuruni, et quuliier docendl sint In fide, et
qiils or<tu sit sorvAtiitus.
1 This doulitless In his school at York AlcuIn lilmself
taiinht AlulHTt and LludgiT, when itiey returned Irom
tlieir labours in tlie Fri-.lan mission tield. ( Vita S. Liud-
geii. Pcrtz, Jtfoti. (Itrm. li. 40V.)
' The Kastern cliurch acted as if liy intuition from the
beginiiiiiK, on tlie principle that tlie language ul every
nutiun. nut one peculiar to the clergy, is the prujier
Telilcli' for public worship and religious life. (Stanley,
Ltcturei un tlie Jiatlem Church, p. 309.)
• Uililxin, iv. 33; MOUer, iMturet on the Sciai of
Language, p. 175; Davidson, Uiblical Criticism, p. i.;6.
This siune leeliiig led, aim, in tlie Kast to the Coptic, Ar-
Cleiiirii, and hllhiopic versions o( Ih" tscrtptures.
' The Course of instruction preparatory to missionary
work wliicli Stumd undtrwinl Is wotliy ol notice:
"1'i.aliiiis leuiici memoriae tr.idiiis, 1 ctiunlbusquc quam
plui lulls pereniii coiiimi lunratlone ruiicll.s, eacrum coepit
ChristI per Scripturuni spiiluall Intclligere sensu, qua-
tuor KvaiigeliorumChnsti mj sterio btudiobiseiiuc cuiavit
MISrtlONS
the first Teutonic church, which remained
Teuton, found access, through their own tongue,
to the hearts nf the tribes nf (Jermany. Still,
even in the Knglish church, the mother-tongue
was never entirely banished from the services.
The Synnd nf Clovoshoo (A.I). 747) enai^ted that
the priest should learn to translate and explain
in the native language the Creed, the Lord's
I'rayer, and the sacred words used at the cele-
bratinn of the mass, and, in the ollice of liaptism,
while individual prelates insisted on the need nf
clergy able to instruct their people in t! de-
ments of Christian knowledge. (Spelman, Coii-
ciYiVi, p. 248; .lohnson, IMijIish Cununn, i. 'J47 ;
eomp. Hede, Kp. ait Aciiherctnm, §;i; and ('harle-
mngne, Caintul. § 14; i. .'lO,').) A short I'orin
of abjuration of idolatry nnd declaration of
Christian faith in the vernacular languat,'e is
preserved among the works of lioniface (Migiie,
/'atrotojiii, saeo. viii. 810), and the worit of
Ulphilas for the Ooths was followed up iu some
measure by Aldhel 's version of the I'salter
(Wright, hio.j. Brit. lit. i. '22'2), and Uede's
version at least of the Gospel of St. John,
while Cnedmon'.s Metrical Paraphrase was an
earnest of the now grandeur, clepth, and fervour
which the German race was to give to tiie re-
ligion of the Ka.Ht. (Hede, J/. E iv. '-'4 ;
Cacdnion's Pantphrnae, ed. Thorpe, p. 47.)
16. One point more remains to be noticed. It
is impossible to pass in review the missinuary
history of the church from the sub-apostolic
age to that of Charlemr.gne, without lieing
struck with the ahw ami gradual steps by which
each important triumph of the faith was won.
The conversion of Europe, for instance, is some-
times spoken of as though it was an event of
speedy accomplishment. It requires an ellort to
realise the fact that the cln,se of the eighth
century, to which our review has brought us,
did not see even the half of Kurope won nver,
even in the most nominal form, to the Cross of
Christ. The whole of the great Scandinavian
peninsula, all Bulgaria, IJohemia, Moravia,
Ku.ssia, Poland, I'omerania, Prussia, and
Lithuania remained to be evangelised. In most
of the countries no missionary h.ad ever set foot,
or if he had, was obliged to retire at once before
the furious opposition of heathen tribes. Kven
at the close of the fourth century, after
Christianity had enjoyed, during more than
sixty years, the sunshine of imperial favour,
the Christians at Antinch, a •■•\ which liad
well-nigh greater spiritual advantages than any
other, constituted only about half of the popu-
lation (Chrysostom, Op, torn. ii. 507; vii.
810), and more than fifty years after the con-
version of Coustantine, the cultivated and in-
fluential classes of old Latin Rome still remained
heathen," while the word " peasant," synony-
oddiscere. Novum quoque ac Vetus Te^tamciitum, In
quantum sulHciebat, lectionis a.s8iiluitaie In c rdi.i sui
thesaurum ncundere curavit." (Fi'lu iS, Sturnii AbbatU,
Perti, Man. derm. 11. 366.)
» In the 5th oontury Leo, bishop of Rome, rtoplores the
deep corruptinn r ven of Christian society, ami nt^jiires Ills
flock not to fall l>ack inio heaibeiiism. The old h.aihen
culms, particularly that of the sun (Sol invictnt) hud
formally entered Itself into the Christian worship ol Hod.
Many Christians, before entering the basilica of St. I'etir,
were wont to mount the platform in order to make tli. Ir
obelsanra to the rising liinilnury. (Murlvule, Cental tiiefl
iff ilm *\uiUicrn Saiufni, p. l/tt.)
mous w
tilow, ho
K'-.f(Mi
nevi-r wa
the ftonil
observant
iiiarvelloi
of no le
ilarkest t
li.i,'ht, an,
mass of»i
client ual.
have belie
»up|ilanter
Were the (,
than any
wnnderful
It is an ncc
tinn wliich
gradually I
liri.sed if, j,
the history
itself?
MISSIS,
Feb. ao (y/fc
MISSOR
f'laiic. vi. 2'
"mi.s.sniiuin
f^ibricaveiat
Flndoard nisi
silver-gilt mi
Kemi at Kei
JIacro (J/ien
by Ducange (
The weight ol
plate or paten
shrine or reliq
!■ '■■) says thfl
"abacus cum
MISSURI^
iu Africa Jan.
(2) Martyr;
(//iei-on. Mart.
MISTBIAN
Africa Jan. 17 ^
JirrisoRu
Ale.uindria Sept
MITRE (W,
The allusions to
worn by (;hrist
olh'cial dress, wl
I'eriod of 800 yc
«ie decidedly rar
silered of very
shall presently d
speak briefly fi,-s
Jewish priests am
maintain that tl
fcetween the Jew
the matter of vesi
, 'J'he cap worn
IS called nyajG
ivii.t. 28 ; Lev! v
gires iclSapis,' 3 ,
' hi one pogvage (j
II would swni at first .
""' " «««iis to us that
MISSIS
K'-^'.^ (Mil,„,,„;/";,7" ;'!;.. -''^ ""I, rate „f ,„.,.
"'" H"o,l w«. not reanl ?! " r"""''-"' *''<"'
■"."■•vello,,, aV f„, „„""l''t,i' "■, /''■"■'"''" "f
"• "" l«s.s siHKular r,?,„.l """""'^ l'«'-iod8
-'"'■l<"»t ti,n., t^o Twerl ot '""• "'"' '" ">"
"■ass otH„d,ty \?„ ? '""','' '" '("''••k-ia tho
h'-v.. i..,li.ne.Mh;t ;/t,e w, rV"'^' """'''
"■'■i" tl,„ father, of » u!bL "^"""""' "^ «'"ne
t'-' nny that h 2..y h 5 "vt f''"'"'''", "'"■'"'
w<M,.lo,/ul transitiou A n„ w 11""^' ' ''''"'"
ti"" w),ioh, as we hav« " " ^"^ " '"'"^i-
K.'H.I„ally hrou^^t aL:t""s,,:,r "'"T'^ »■"'
i"""-'l if, in this mat tor nf ^ ' ■"'* ''« »"'-
MITIllO
1213
«'.« '"»toV; of ChrSn '.nf "''"' ^'^^'-Pm^n ,
itself? ^ ^"'•"'tian iniHsion, sh„ul,l repeat
MIS'Jrs . '^"' *'• "'•J
Keb. ^o'(//i,.:r&.):'"'"'"""""°'' '- ^ypr,.
MISSfUllUM r,. , "■-'
.f'".-'- vi. 2) ten, „, .t?cZl,r'- ^r'"' <''"'•
"•nissoihun magnum ,,u„,l ' " '''"""•"' ^im
H"doar,l also f/C' J?.' ' '''/''"■•""' l-ondere."
Ii.'mi at Keima i '^ • , '"" church of St
'iiie weight of 50 nonni V '"'' ''«'"J'''CU8."
»hri„e or'reliouary Do„, h '" "'" ""'■"^ "<" «
'•';.) »ay, thlit afme take m?"'-'-^"''^™S"'T,
•'"baeus cum omni /uppelUt"' '""' '" ^?
MLSSUKIANUSrnM . "^
iu Africa Jan. 27 (I/iJron Murt'j """""""""'"te'l
MITISORUS, m.rtvr. ' ""'
Alexandria Sept.'g (//X' Co'^lc H]'
Sd^jr^JSt^^tv^r"^'"^^'^
».e decidedly ra,™! L . l""^"^'^ 'j^''^^'" *•»■ 1000,
«ile.ed of /eA doub^fur.h ''"'" """" '"' ««»'
«poak brie/ly firs o? he he„f . ' "' "'" '''«"
J«>rish priests and high, riS:^^'' ^'"•■' ''r
niamtain that there is' 'r '"''''"""' "'""'d
'"IT. 28; Lev. viii 13^ f„.. ^. ! ' *
^J_-J^i n-h,oh we shall have to
c""si,I,.r «„h.sfl,,„eHtlv in H,Chrt ,■
" 'vas mad,, „f (ineh,'" ,,,,'"'""' '""n'ctioB.
""•«» «nd fitting I ;" [:''h' ':«••"""■--..«
^'"'•'/. iii. 7. ;i, wh Jen . '^" ''™'' (''-^Thus,
Josephus speak'n of U Is Wa T''"'"'''" "'"-•)'
""t certainly kn!wn 'whih "."'f' "'"'I™ "
™.';i'''l '-l'. round, I'o,','^" ' ^^ ^ high
[which is reproduce t ll, "* .' "'"' I''"'" ii
more like « .,l„,|i ' 'r,/.' »" Harriott (,,. :.;i4)'
I-«v. viii. 9; ,vi 4» fil L.' ,"' *"'»• ^«, 31 ;
M^/>«orso^et,^es't£.7'"The""-' ''''' «-"
'■""' verb is to wind th« ^''\'"™""'K "C the
«'<!'' to what we houlH . n'' •"'"'« ''""''tl-'"'
likethecapof th„l, J """ " 'urban. T|,i,
d'ilorence in general sh», \ ^. V ""''''''g "f a
of i' was aKf''g?ld\V"4'.'''""/K''"^"'
■;,,7-7;seeaIs:t '^X^'Tr^'^^^"'-
tr Ide crown worn over th7'l;T' ^^ ''-'''''■'' '" »
« f"-; ad,lition to he ordinal V'"' ''""*•"'""•
''"l^ly i«.plying . quasi-rZuv „"".'!: "■"' ''™-
the wearer. * '"/auy on the part of
He^'theTwoT /" "■" Chrisfinn church
theecdtiirhlwr""'^ '""»•' *"■""-
though, as w. have'Siy im,,:^'^ ""'! '"^'""'
factory instances of Tk„- ^ "nplied, early satis-
«"ming. The?en 11*^1 ■ ,r' '"•«. '"•rdl/ forth-
tr words is cu'r"::?; u"n"j 7 ..r^v*" "•«
^'Tpa IS connected with T/l^l Jl ^"""^ ""rd
he two me.ningsT,f a ihilo" ^^'b ""'' ^".^
Confining ourselves o thl 1 f.""'' " '"""l-lross.
the m,-/,-« as a cap worn L ''''' """•"'• ^e find
['■leum Phrvgium cam f ' / •''' "'^ " "™t
ornamentum-irtis r„r ■^'■'"■^' '•""'<' «*t
virorum est, mi a vet S ^'f ''"'"""
w<irn also by Asiafi.swi^h .'•'""• '» was
and «eems, a\ wr,' ;'^^;", „;^^'/,"f '"" "f «".v,
heen specially charnct,,! ♦• r '"'"''"• '" have
but It ««ms ,0 u, ,h,j fn tlTe ' ;;r,T ""^"' ^'"'*'^'*
.""' "'" '"''■P''" It Is more piobiibie thTTTt,
two words hag men-ly \ZnZTJ^ ""* "'^"'"^ ">e
n»tlo^th,.t the first Is p Sri" rdth'*^' """»'" ^
H iu Rabbl„ic Hebnw "^"" "™''' *'"! » *>< «.ui
•igious .. „fe (.««,te„o: v5;«7ccr?,T'^\ •" " ■* -
I'x
m
1214
other
tiiirii.
MITllE
wui'Ih put fur it b«ing cHnrlt and
Tiitiilly iliflerent in iti origin ft-om th« mitra,
tlie Clip of ivomen and etl'umlimtc men, in the
i>i/m/.i, the lillet which tiecked the huiid »( henthen
pric!>t8 and .sacriticinl viitiin.i. It is thiiHduHuud
hy Servi'is, " fiiscia, in modiitn diailem^itis a (|iio
vittae in utraijue parte depundont, quae [ileiuni-
que lata est, plerunic)ue tortilia dc allm et
corco" (in Virgil, ilt'n. x. 5:18; tea also Ii-i lore,
Xti/m. xix. 'M, 4, where the above detinitinn
is citeil). We several time* find Virgil upeiiliing
of the u'rifieing priest as wearing the infum
(«.;/. Aeii. li. 4;)0, x. .'JM8). Again, the vi.tims
about to be sacrifioed, whether beasts or men,
were decked with the mj'ulu (Virg. 'levrif. iii. 487 ;
Lucretius i. 87; Suet. C'a/i}/. 27). In the last
riteil passage, the case i- that of a gladiator,
who, having been guilty of cowardice, was "vcr-
benatus et infulafus" prior to execution
We r.hall now proceed to consider, seriatim,
the cases adduced of the use of some kind of
head-dress as part of the official dress of the
Christian ministry in primitive times. The earliest
instance is one which can perhaps hardly be strictly
called a head-dress, but is sufficiently near to
justify its presence here, and concerns no le.ss a
person than the apostle St. John. The passage
in question occum in a letter sent by Polycrates,
bishop of Kphesus, to Victor, bishop of Home
(A.n. 192-202), on the subject of the Eastern
controversy (Kuseb. I/iat. hkclcg. v. 24 ; also
cited in part, iii. 'M : cf. also Jerome, de Viris
illu^trihus, c. 45), in which he cites the names of
dillerent -Asiatic bishops and martyrs who are
claimed as having held to the Asiatic practice.
Amid this enumeration we read, " Yea moreover
John too, he who lay on the Lord's breast, who
became a priest wearing the golden plate (ts
iy(vi\9T) Uptiii rb ir4Ta\oi> impopfKins), and a
witness and a teacher — he sleepeth in Ephesus."
Before expressing any opinion a^ to the meaning
of this passage, we shall cite a somewhat parallel
instance from a later writer, Epiphanius. The
reference has here been to Christ, as heir of the
throne of David, which is a throne not only
of royalty but also of priesthood. The Saviour
thus stands at the head of a line of high-priests ;
James, the Lord's brother, being, as it were,
successor, in virtue of his apparent relationship,
and thus becoming bishop of Jerusalem and
president of the church. "Moreover also we
find that he exercised the priestly otlice after the
manner of the old priesthood; wherefore also
it was permitted to him once in the year to
enter into the Holy of Holies, as the law
commanded the high-priests, according to the
Scripture. For so many before our time have
related concerning him, as Eusebius', and Clement
and others. Further, it was permissible for him
to wear the Golden Plate ' upon his bead (iwii
' This allusion Is perhaps to he referrwl, considering the
mention of the wirakov that follows, to the above-cited
letter of Polycrates. The passage of St Clement, however,
does not appear to be extant.
' Biaterim (Utnkw. i.2. 3S2) cites from the proceedings
of the eighth general council (fourth of Constantinople,
A.n. f69), from a letter of I'heodosius, patriarch of Jerusa-
l«m, to IptTwUus. pairiarch of Constantinople, lii which the
writer says that be sends as a present the long robe and
•uperhumeral and mitre (mitra In Anaslasius's Latin),
adding that his predecessors had been successively decked
MITRE
Kol ih iriia\ov /irl Tr/' Kt^aArii /ffli< abr^
(ftpnv), as tlie iihove-menticincd tnistwurlhy
writers have tcHtilied." (Huer. xxix. 4; vcd. i.
lilt, ed. I'elavius.)
The word irtra\ov, it will be rBniemhercd. is
that employed by the LXX to designate the pV
worn o^ the hiiili-prieNt's forehead, and thcic can
tje no donht, therefore, when we considi'r that
the LXX .vnul.l be the onllniuv liibic of
Polyciates and Epiphaniu .«, that the meaning
intended to be conveyed is either that the>e
apostles ai'tually wore on iheir foreheads a gold
plate, in direct imitation of that of the Jewish
high-priest', or that the language is distinctly and
wholly metaphorical, meaning that each cjf these
two apostles occupied in his turn the same
position to the Christian church that the Aaronic
high-priest had to the Jewish church. The
question, il i evident, must mainly turn upon
the words of Polycrates, whose position, both in
date and locality, would make him an important
witness as to St. John. Here, though it Is
impossible to feel posil<\u and maintain that St.
John certainly u ore no such ornament, we feel
that it is far moie likely that the language is to
be viewed as allegorical — (1) because of the
allegorical character of the passage generally
[cf. «.</. fityd\a (TTOtx^'o KtKolfiriTai, etc.], m\
which see Lightfoot, Qalatiuns, p. 345 n. (ed. 4) ;
and (2) because the perfect participle seems very
strange, if it were merely meant to indicate
that St. John was in the habit of wearing the
irfToAoi'. If that participle points rather to " a
state or condition resulting from a past act," then
the statement becomes simple enough if we
assume that Polycrates aims at bringing out tlie
fact of " the supreme apostolic authority of St.
John, whose otlice in the Christian church wms
to bear rule in spiritual things over the spiritual
Israel, even as the high-priest of old over l.sr.iel
after the flesh" (Marriott, p. 39 n.). Oue
thing, at any rate, is plain enough : if St. Joliu
and St. James, or either of them, did wear this
ornament, it was an ornament special to them-
selves, and ceased with them, affecting in no
sense the fu"ther use of the church.
The next stance we shall cite is from the
oration delivered by Eusebius' on the consocia-
tion of the great church at Tyre {I/ist. AVt/c,?.
X. 4). This highly rhetorical discourse begius
with an address to Paulinus, bishop of Tyro, ariJ
his assembled clergy, as " friends of God and
priests (ifpf?j), who a.e clad in the holy mlje
that reacheth to the feet, and with the heaveiilv
crown (o'Tt</)o»'Oj') of glory, and with the unctiin
of inspiration (t4 xP^"!^ ^^ Mtov) and with
the priestly vesture of the Holy Ghost." Here
with this sacred garb (Labbe, vlll. 987). In any case,
however, a late 9th-c«ntury tradition such as this nitil
not detain us.
c It may be noted tbat in translating the exiRict from
Polycrates, Jerome renders irtToAoi' by lamina, the werd
be had used In the Vulgate for the gold plate of the hlgli-
priest.
•■ Hefele (p. 225) remarks that though we are lo take
the irfToAof of St. John in Its technical seuise, iieilhi-r
Polycrates nor Kuseblus asserts it to have been ul golil.
This, however, seems needless quibbling; If thewutdis
sHpprei«1 1« te !is*d technl>:'»lly the rest will follow.
> There can be no reasonable doubt that by the rtt
wapt\9iini Eusebius nimply means himself. Hefele
(Beitriige, p. 226) straiige'y makes Paulinas the speaker.
the rhetoi
«ug^'eMts I
finjiroliahl
have relei
the new I
externals
strongly (
disposed t(
view, but
<rr4^ai/oi i
that nami
no vary ce
this examji
respects si
discourses o
38'J), whe
bishop of I
his son with
the ccjurse c
anoiiite^t th
the robe rei
priest's cap j
it will be
high-priestly
bringest him
ort'ering, and
(in I dust con
and dost brii
(Orat. X. 4;
citation may
the use of soii
Gregory's tim
conditiuns woj
is to be vie I
doubtful. il
highly figurat
to the Holy of
would be distil
Some writer
use (if some
Ammianus Mi
describes the oi
Kiimus (A.D.
"Theodosius, aft
rising was comj
pelled to sue foi
■■•peaks of the se
stites, oraturos
restored " Icosj
signa et coronam
interceperat."
on this that tl
fnfula of that hi
had shortly befoi
and Ona" (op.
decidedly be obje<
the two events, a
the person slain (
Christian, or that
a "(Town " at a
whole question ;
reasonable to unc
dotiilis (the phrase
by a heathen) the
illustrations shew
priests. (tieee.g.T
lie Idiilulitria, c. 1
(le Cor„m Afi/itis,
'"J- '"""n •-./ the
sufficiently curiou
"Sacerdotes qui ta
sacrih'cant, nee de i
MITIJE
the r)„.,,„ln,| clm>„,.t, ,■ „f ,1,^ wl„,l. I,
«ut;i;u«t,s th.it the i,(,.,v.. w „ 'HwouMe
have .■c.tc..4,.e to the hI, f '">'""*" '"■"^''' "'"J
the De,. c«v„n nt i,' l""',!-';''""^'"'"'^- "f
eitenmU of the „ ,1 •"' f '""""^""" «" "'«
•l-'^tlr for the ■,„ t tf tl'"' *'"' ■"■«"-
d ,,,o.,..l ,„ claim thulZllfi.'" """■*■ '-^ ""'
view, h.,t i. evidcntlJ in T ^ ""'''""■' "*' '"-
th«t n,„ne. At au/ ^.u t i, """, «""u''y
no very certain concl,.., ' ," *■■'""■ that
thi» ««.m,,,le Our j .""n """ '"' *""" "l'""
3H9>, where he a^Z u ■'"'"""(''''• ^D.
bi-hop o.Na,i«tum'whr.„u':;t'^^"'^'' ''■-
hi» .son with him in tl cTh.K ^ . ■ " """"'^'"te
the course of thl he rV k", "' T f"'' J''
nmiii,(,.,t the chief ..ri/ . . ', ""erefore thou
the rohe re.c i ^^ i'"' • ""^ '-■l<'th..,st him wi.i.
priest', cap [rbyiis'' „ ' '""'•, "'"' "^''''t the
|>i«h,-rie.stl/C:"tl/:[„f,«r'«^tlvan,i
l-nnjfest him to the altar of fh ^'- ''?''• '""^
of-ing. and Mcritfce t th c U- or"""' ''"'■"'■
«n .o,st consecrate hi., hJ^f .."..'"r «';""".".
MITRE
1215
■ -..s. ..uu sMcrincest the mlc „»■
nn I <lo.st consecrate hi- I, , * '^"n»«e<'ation,
Gregory', tim" bit „? I .'? ''«"''-J>es» in St.
co«fiti.'n, wo;:;.":; whltfr'the ' Tl""' ^'""
" to be viewed a.*al Xi I ^"'^ ''"'^''K''
doubtful. Much ce.-.» M "'• ."'"■•*' ""''ii°
highlyfiguraive asheaf '" "■* P'^''"8'-' '-
to the Holy of h;i1;;.''U'?"'" '" ""« ™". «nd
would be itinc J :'faTom ot'th'"", "' '' «"^'"'
Some writers ..itB „ . ' """ '"t't'r view,
use of some kin,l'o?' ^V*-'""' ''"■• ""> «'"•'/
Ammianu., Marcellinu, xli "5^"^ ''T
describes the outbreak ..fan I?', "■'•"'here he
Theodosius, afterwards tC'ror I'v' T '"'^'
"Sing was completely crushed" n ,''{.."''""" 'he
pelied to sue for nea/p Th , ' ' '"'"""'' ™'n-
M-k. of the senS^'f^I'.Vr :;•"'!• ".''^'""'-'
stites, oraturos pacem " Tw,. 1 .'■ ""i" "■"'•
signa ct coronam mr^Ji * 1 ■ • • ■ militaria
inUperatTVCKw;;To-r'"" ^"''''
on this that thereby "isuhli!? '"''•'"" ''''"""'''
Infula of that bi8hon\..t, ,['''»,"''/ meant the
had shortly bf'eT.iainh''' *"■'""""' ^'"'■'^•'''^
and Oua"\o;.".f ',;°ii f^r^'""' "^ ^''''"''
decidedly be oMected-riVLt.i "'"^ ">'^'
the two events and induced ft "''''°'-*'''"« "'■
the person siaii (kn^uT,? "'-""'P'ion that
Chri'stian, or t ^ iTaX" V''"'^''"'''''^> ""^ "
a "erown " at a 1 i* ^'V;'""'. 'e would have
-Hole question ^t^ytrit'T^'r "'•'•"
reasonable to un(l..rst„n,l 1 !u ' ^"'" """■«
f<^.'&(thephras us'r tt, ^'^ "'"'''"" f'^'"'-
Ijv a heathen) the nnbl' '"' '^inenibeied,
'lins.ra.iorihew f"tv 'T""'"' ''^''^ '*^"'"J^""
priest.,, (See* ri-erto' I "T '""" ''■^ '^'""'■en
In „ , _ , ,,' • '"• "<-• m,iv also ■ii.ju.^i
"Sacerdot'esnli tttom '^"''^ "' '""S"' •
saorificant ne, 1» «"ron.,in ponant, nee
'ncant,necdesu.ssumptibusali,,„ilaj id
™unb! ;,r'- y-^ biennium acciper. com-
-"'■iesof;,,.,,,,,.'::'''^' ,;;,'» ""r-;i"nio.j, '» thi
with Christian "^tnlnt""':"''"! '"'';■"'-""«
the word m/W,j wn» n. r "!'"'"'=»' osaM,
-pe.-.l .ne«nVn« ZhZ\ZT^ '", ""' '""'•
drifted into the m ,, in^j^''^'^' ''""" "». hut
"■^iffnia of magistrates or -/ """""«"'« "nj
"'»({l»tracy it,erf. ItTexL T" """ '^^ "*" "
■nj-erial code, at^d etewher^'""'*.^'"'"'* ''•"" "^^
In later e,vlesi„, ica|7„l„ ' '" .^'''^^Hini '.r.]
worddistiu.tiv "hI^^^^^^^^^ w» tind the
d« S. V.ctore LiTcK^c'tT'^''. ("^« «•■'/. Hugo
»«e also Ducanw ;r ' *'"''''''- '^'"^ii. 3.VV
^^iciai -stSy;ix:"'iv;:„::;rf,^^^
^iC:^i,^„n;;:S'»^et:!;;^^:j
explanation to B"ve to tl^l ^7' ""' '""""«1
« Christian m/WH, that tl .""'"''Y .""'"'""" ">
« half poetic sense th.<r,"r'' '"^"''""■s, in
hardly mo han 'the :"'.:''■'"'• ""'' ""'""d
follow.u^..' -rhcChr uL "tS" """' "'« 'ha
•Jweliing'on L name of"]"*' '^'"'''-""i"'*- when
ne.te.( with the cUvo •S,!!"'"""' '""'■^■•» "=»-
iv. 77 sqq.)_ ^ "* S">»goss«, »ays(/Vm/«55A.
He";™"'''"' •*•*''' '^'Xbun,.
"l<"«cmMumd,nnu,i^ulata
Vulerioruni,"
where the concludinj? referenr* 1. . ^' ,
•"shop of Saraeossa -Thl ? f '" Valerius,
i^ written in fSlv l, "'\"''' P^e™, however
Phor, and i„ „ nfl> AkT 7^'" '"•»"' "^ metal
"nagory. "his is'^a iL «"'"""" "'' ^''""■^'"'l
n"si,ec4.i Jttrrt 1 d'hi'" ''r "■»'
m/"/"<<i. ^ ""* "O *he Word
^pe'Eri; c'r^iZ t r-"'"' ^'>''- * •>■ -^^s)
"nderinghim'cU.r„„lK 'I'"""" '■" « P^'"-""!
plural i.s norceabtCil K't;'''^';l''f*''«'« 'he
St. llmtte i bablv"'"'^'-.''"''*'''''- '"4le ^•
.-afte^t^,:-^^^^^^
» Hefele dwells on tbe^dfc^ijIriZ~^
IHK a hea.Mre.s8 distinct fn^Vk?^^'*"'' " '"'P'y-
o'deiofasymxi Which proilbll. "^ti^"""""""" ""•
Inrula .M, ^„ ,,„^ ^^P 2't- rt<» fron, wearing ,„
dent ►tatute onluin, that .IZl,? ^^'""' «" »"-
Clerics ,.«. not ,0 wear '■ vli.l'"''' '? "^ "^ "'^»»'>y.
U-netice,, clergy are tXmJ' v«?^ "' disol„die„ce.
■t nmy be re.uarked that (1 th« rt!^ . "'f'"'^' ^o this
ti""«l synod Is given bv'.„^'**" 'he above n.en-
871), and therefore are not MevaZ,H„' ' ""■
(a) Iheproliibitlnn.., th.V'"""""'0,, resent matter;
10 the materlnl of ,i,e infula'- 'iilf.^l'"'' '-^'dently refers
Kiven time cleric, wore he^'^1^ ^^\'° """* that at a
I '>■»'" 'aynienJ.qulteTdX^rt^n'l''''''^''''"' ^""PO
-heheadHlres, form«ia^nf'!.ffl'? ?"'''''"« '''«»
I tercd in any sense into omZl^ilZ^' '"" " "'-
'!»'•
1210
MITIIE
MtTItK
CHll intitli illKriii " (HMO Arli Sitio tiriiin, CI.
to]. vI, :>74), iiiii the then |ic>p« U .<,il,| to be
"miniini (Hiutihcutun Inlulim noji iiiCDiiKiuii^."
Oil all lilt' iiliovd Inntani'i's It iimy bo romarki'il
that wlilli' thi'V allow ii» tii explain thi'iii If w«i
will 111' II Oliil»tian olHiiiil lieiul-dri'mi, thoy nicit
certainly cinunt h« cniiHiilerdil nn I'viilonrii tom-
pi'llini; UK III mich n bsliel'; nn I lu thu iib^onci' nf
any ilircct trustworthy eviiU'iice /'roin iincifnt
pktiirpH ot' the exisleme o( mich A hcail li- >s,
ami comlili'i i; the known Inter use of the ti m
in/iil.i, wf . jiiot hilt feel that the probnhility
ini'linin Dtiongly n^ linst thime who claim the
abiivu nurki of piuaagen an CHtabliahiDg the ancient
use (if n iiiilr".
Two niori' ;)as»age» which have been cited are
absolutely of uo wei){ht. The (irst is n line from
Knniiilius, a poet of the fifth century, with
reference to St. Ambrose, "Serta reilimitun
gestabat Inciila fronts* (A'piV;. 77; Pntriil. lilii.
818), but the con text, even the following linenlone,
Ber\ . . to shew that we are dealing with meta-
phor and not with fact— " distimtuni gemiiiis
ore parabat opu^," Finally, in a poem (/'.ira»-
nesit fill f.'piKof'us) of Thi'odulf of Orleans (ob.
A.n. H-'l), we are met with the line, " Illius ergo
caput resiileudcns mitra tegebat" (lib. v. carm.
.3, sub Jilt, ; fatrol. cv. :liiM). The whole con-
text, however, as Marriott has plainly pointed
out, is dwelling "n the contrast between the
splendour of the .lewish high-priestly drevs and
the spiritual charautor which should lie the
ornament of the Christian minister. This con-
trast is elaborately worked out, and the line
immediately following the one we have quoted
is " contegat et ' mentcm jus jiietasque tuum."
On a general survey of the foregoing evidence,
it may, at any rate, be safely asserted that no case
has been at all made out for a ycnend use of an
official head-dress of Christian ministers during
the Hist eight or nine centuries after Chri.>t.
Many of the passages adduced in favour of such
a view have been shewn to be, if not quite
Inconclusive, at any rate of very doubtful
character. Hardly one can be called definite,
plain or positive. Also, if direct evidence is
sought on the other side, we may again appeal to
a treatise of TcrtuUian wo have already cited (ife
Coruwt .\fil,tis,c. 10). The words "Quis denique
patriiirches .... quis vel posten apostolus
aut evangelista aut cpiscopus invenitur coro-
natus?" ou>;ht to be definite enough, as shewing
the u<age in his time. When, further, as we
have already remarked, the remains of early
Christian art, which can really be considered
trustworthy, furnish no evidence whatever for
the use of such a head-dress, but distinctly point
the other way ; we feel, that while not venturing
altogether to deny the possible existence, of a
local or temporary kind, of a mitre or head-
dress, here and there, we may still fairly say
with Menard that "vix ante annum post
Christum natum millesimum mitrae usum in
ecclesia fuisse" (^Qreg. Sacr. 5^7). Menard justly
insists on the fact that in numerous liturgical
monuments (e.7. a mass for Easter Day in the
C(l. Ratoldi [written before A.D. 986], where
the ornaments of a bishop are severally gone
^'':,?n\.'^'''!'r'*; A'l'-'V/**'*-, r>.;il„U„vl, thr. uKh>, as well as in writers who hive fully
Ijii.Lf ','■'. .'''■'.'' "'"!.''';" "' ■; '•I"'n"h- ■'Mf,.red into the Hi.bjeit of Chrl-tian vestments,
as Kabauus Mauriis, Aiiialariiis, Wal.ifrid Stnibi,,
Aliiiln (r«eu.|o-Aliuln), there is
We
^iglle
,, .- Uo iiieullou
whatever of a m tin.
Kven a writer a« late an Ivo of Charfres fob.
A.n, lll.'>), while describing the Jewish HiiY;.i,
makes no mention of its Clirisliaii eqiilvaliMil.
There are good grounds, however, for believing
that at first the mitre was an ornament speiially
connected with the lioiiian chuidi, iVoiii wlieu.o
its use spread graduallv over Western (.'lirisleo-
dom, though this u»e had evidently n. t liei e
universal in Ivo's time. We shall very bii,.||y
cite an instance or two to ilhistiale this Koinan
connexion. The following is the earlie.t
adduced:" when the archbishop F.hcrliard of
Treves was at Koine In ad. 1()4!I, Leo iX pi nid
on his head, in St. Peter's ou I'us.sion SiiiidaV,
the lioman mitre. The pope's words in the
charter are " Jiumaiut miliu caput vestrum in-
sigiiivimus, qua et vos et successores vi-lri
in eiclesiasticis officiis /I'oi/mio mure seiiiper
utaniini." (A/;. 3; J'litrul. cxliii. 5SI.'. ; vf. also
J:)i. 77, op. at. 70.1, where the same privilege is
granted to Adalliert, bishop of Ilanibiiii;
there read of the mitre, "quod est 1
Komanorum.") Again, a few years I i.i, m
A.I). 1003, Alexander U. granted to Uuiuhaid,
bishop of Halbestadt, the privilege of weaiiiig
the nrchiepiscopnl pallium and mitre, because ,,f
his special services to the Roman see. We cite in
this case a clause of some interest, as sliewiii;'
the concession of the use of the IJwnian niitre as
not confined to the episcopal oiiter ; " Iiisu| er
uiitras tibi ac successorlbus tuis ac canonic,
excellentioribu<, scilicet prcsbyteris et diaconis in
missarum solemnia ministraturis, subdiaconit in
majori ecclesia tun et suprascriptis festivitatibiu
portandas concedimus" (/•'//. lu, I'atrul. cxivi
l'J87). In A.D. 1U9, Calixtus II. grants tho
use of the "episcopalis mitra" to Oodebald,
bishop of Utrecht (/p. 37; /'((</-u/. cliiii. ll,;ii).
One more example may suffice. Peter Oaiuian,
in an indignant letter (c. A.D. 1070) toCadalous,
bishop of Parma, who was the anti-poju!
Honorius II., says scornfully, " hnbes niiiu;
forsitnn mitrnm, hahes juxta morem Roiiiaiii
pontificis rubram cajipam " {Kpist. lib. i. 2(1 •
J'atrol. cxliv. 242).
Any discussion as to the variation in form and
material of this later mitre is quite beyond our
purpose ; suffice it to say that while the descrip.
tion of Honorius of Autun (Gemma Aninuie, i.
214; Patrul. clxxii. 609). in the twelfth centurv,
still seems to point to a caj) made of linen (mit' 1
ex bysso facta"), that of Innocent III. in tlie
thirteenth, shews that in the case of the bislmn
I .(It is doubtless to be read as Marriott suggests.
"■ A possibly earlier Instance Is referred to by Marriott
(p. 241), from a coin of Serglus 111. (ob, ».i,. 911), ulicre
the mifni Is said first to appear as repluclni; an oWi r
papal head-dress, the Camelaucium. I'hls, bowpvir,
must perhaps not be pressed In the absence of contlrniii-
tory eviilence.
" See for an example probably of this type, Marriott,
plate xllv. (and cf. p. 220), figured from a MS. of the I lih
century. This Is the esrilest example of the kimi known
to Marriott, except perhaps one In the Benedlctiunal of
St. Elhclwald, a MS. of the 10th century. Here, however,
the figure wears a kind of gold circht, which iiiaj Inili.
cate royal rank and not be an ecclesiastical head dress la
the strict sense at aU.
mithiub
n.;tr« t,. the hi^ha^t XZcV'lZ;' On"
»'■"» h"* .I.Kht U the b,w|, on which thh/
rite, without any coverlngTn the h««d '''""
A f«Mne aJ|u,ion ^.y be ma.le h.irn ,„ .^
"!""«--~^ »e.ii„.;j bv" "or. .rs. ■,
alluded to by Oi'tatusrlL'^/","^ ^"f^'"' '»
stc Dui.iii's note) ' ^""'*' '^''"e
M,^«nd Ducange, G/o.,anu,n, s. 'w. A^/wJ
[R. S.J
(/SS)."""'^""' commemorated Nov. ,3
[C. H.]
MODKlUTA 1217
™M ('=::• ^::!;7'"--"- •){-
-EJi;y?(j>>.::^:^-;commem..a.^
Ma? «!&;;. :i;;:;;;5""-'"' «' Con..an.,n„,,l,
MIXTIIM nr MTSTUM Mw „ *
meal or " ientaiiiliiiT, "i- ' * mmninir
ch..ieeinthA:urHn.^t:iSa;^tf
h«'K' r*;^/'' ""^'"->- '^'^'>'«^-
MOCHTEU!. ■fi..,TEn8.]
2ofaSfJlV''"*^'' commemorated Jan.
^SKn^ttis^xnia
by Con.„antine in his g?eat^'h'„rch tc':':!''''
nople; commemorated May 11 Vb^ji ^f " '"
cated to him and s „!''''"-'!" church Hedi-
SS. Aug. ii,. 743). ■*"»• ^'^ ("olj; ^c^a
L*^. H.]
(Boll. Acta SS-T^gH-:. 565r°'"""''\t:!i.f
MODERAMNUS, bishop of R«„„« "
[C.H.i
1218
M0DERATIT8
MODERATUS (1) Martyr with Felix at
Auxerre, probably in the 5th century ; cimime-
morated inly 1 (Boll. Acta SS. July, i. 287).
(2) Bishop and confessor at Verona in the 5th
century ; commemorated Aug. 23 (Boll. Acta SS.
Aug. iv. 596). [C. H.]
MtJDESTA (1) Martyr with Patricia and
Mauedonius at Nicomedia; commemorated Mar.
l;! (Usuard. Mart, ; Bed. Mart.) j Modestia
{Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Ap. 6
{Ilicron. Mart.). [C. H.]
M0DESTINU8, martyr ; commemorated
Mar. 13 Ulierm. Mart.). [C. H.]
M0DESTU8 (1) Martyr; commemorated in
Africa Jan. 12 (^Hiaron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr ; commemorated in Africa Jan. 13
(^Hkron. Mart.).
(8) Martyr with Posinnus; commemorated at
Carthage Feb. 12 {Hieron. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Feb. li. 680).
(4) Infant martyr, with Ammnnius, at Alex-
andria; commemorated Feb. 12 (LIsiiard. Mart. ;
Brd. Mart. Auct. ; Boll. Acta SS. Feb. ii. 580) ;
AIOLESTUS (Mart. Horn. Vet.).
(6) Bishop of Treves, cir. a.d. 480; comme-
morated Feb. 24 (Boll. Acta SS. Feb. lii. 403).
(6) Presbvtei; ; commemorated in Asia Mar.
12 (Hieron. Mali.).
(7) Martyr ; commemorated at Caesarea Mar.
?.8 (Hieron. Mart.).
(8) Martyr, with Vitus and Crescentia ; com-
memorated in Lucania June l.i (Hieron. Mart. ;
Usuard. Mart.)^ in Sicily (Vet. Rom. Mart.;
Bed. Mart. Awt.).
(9) I.evita, m.irtyr at Beoeventum in the
4th eenturv ; commemorated Oct. 2 (Boll. Acta
SS. Oct. i. 325).
(10) Martyr; commemorated in Cappadooia
Oct. 14 (Hieron. Mart.).
(11) Martyr with Euticus, Materus, Disseus ;
commemorated Oct. 21 (Hieron. Mart.; Boll.
Acta SS. Oct. ix. 14; Bed. Mart. Aitct.).
(12) Martyr with Afriges, Macliarius, and
others; commemorated Oct. 21 (Hieion. Mart.;
Bed. Mart. Auct. ; Boll. Acta SS. Oct. ix. 14).
(13) Martyr with Tiberius and Florentia at
Agdi' ; commeme atfld Nov. 10 (Usuprd. Mart.).
(14) Martyr; commemorate<l at Syracuse Dec.
13 (Hieron. Mart.). ' [C, H.]
MODI ANU8, martyr ; commemorated at
Rome June 2 (Hieron. Mart.). (C. H.]
MODIUS. The modius or bushel measure is
sometimes represented on Christinn tombs. M.ir-
tigny refers to Lupi's Disserta' iuns^ ijc, on tie
Ejiitaph (if the Marti/r Scvents, p '1. tab. viii.,
for the best known example. The inscription
over a Christian named Maxiiiiiiius says that
" he lived 2:1 years the friend of all men ; " and
his efligy is carved on the stone w"!i a rod in hi!
hand, .ind a bushel full of corn, fi m which ears
are springing, is placed near him. I'adia I.uiii
thinks this is an allusion to Luke vi. 38 — the
full measure, pressed down and running r,
which Muiimut hoi>ed for lu death ; or to th«
MOLIXGUS
grain of corn sown and washing away in earth,
to bear much fruit, John vii. 24. And he give*
another example of the modius in Boldetti, p,
371, from the tomb of a Christian named Gor-
gonius. He observes, however, very sensibly and
truly, that Maximus may have been a mensor
cereris augustae, or have had some connexion
with the corn-trade, and quotes a further in-
stance of the modius on the tomb of a baker,
one Vitalis (bitalis), dated 401. There is no
reason why the survivors should not have
attached the symbolism of the Lord's wheat and
garner, or of His reward, to the usual signs of
the business in which the dead had been engaged ;
and some disputes might be saved as to Chris-
tian symbolism if we consider that in primitive
days as well as our own, devout and imaginative
people saw and delighted in meanings which may
have been overlooked then, as now, by people
eijually good but more matter of fact. Mar-
tigny refers to his article, Instrumfuts et Km-
hlemen reprgsent^s sw les toinheaiix chritieni,
p. 324, Dict.^ the first part of which enumerates
emblems of the trades of the smith, woolcomber,
husbandman, baker, and surgeon. See Fossoa.
[K. St. J. T.]
MotUoB. Prom Miu1ixii7.
M0D0ALDU8, archbishop of Treves, cir.
A.D. 040; commemorated May 12 (Boll. Acta
SS. May, iji. 50). [C. H.]
MODOMNOCUS (Dominicits Ossoiuk.nsis)
in the 6th century ; commemorated Feb. 13
(Boll. Acta SS. Feb. ii. 673). [C. H.]
MODUEVNA, commemorated in Ireland
July 6 (Boll. Acta SS. July, ii. 297). [C. H.]
MOECA, martyr ; commemorated at the
cemetery of Praetextatus at Home May 10
(Hieron. Mart.). [C'H.]
M0ECHARU8, martyr; commemorated in
Africa Ap. 8 (Hiercn. Mart.). [C. H.]
MOENIS, martyr ; commemorated at .Alex-
andria July 10; another at Antioch the .same
day Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MOER. [Oeconomus, Movastic]
MOGUNTINUM CONCILIUM. [Mat-
KNCE.]
MOISITIS. martyr; commemorated May 12
(Hieron. Mart.). [0. H.]
MOLEXDIOV, martyr; commemorated in
Africa Jan. 19 (Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MOLESTUS. [MoDE.<rnj8.]
M0LINGU8 (DAYRaELwm), bishop of Fern-i
in the 7th Oentury; commemorated June 17
(Boll. Acta SS. June, iii. 406). [C. H.]
MOLO(
bishop in t
as (Boll, y:
andria Ap.
SrONA
nifiiioratuj
(2) Mart;
(Ilicrun. Ma
I. Genrr,
II. Pariici
III. Arohit
IV. List o
A.l;,
I. Gkvkra
— The histor
strangest pm
For niim.astiui
fill inriuences
"f Christ emit
.iffi'iniit to nr
than usually
th'i evil in i't
e.vfricably. T
a distance, «
gl"i'.v, it mav
ell"rt after sii
aiipriiachinjr j|
it more dispa
wmng in juin
linctive of got
un ier certain
Wi'iiilshes whit;
liiMlity of its \
a-< the more gh
as insc]iaral)le (,
it i.< nut so mu
thiHiiirh sometin:
tV"m the first, 1
hy I'ireumstances
ai! aiming in the
" «ar a«:ain.-,t nat
if it.s imnegvrist.
'■ '■''■''' h it is, in
iii;iiinst Go-l." ]
"1.111 into a mach
iiiiiiil; shunning t]
'i"t .■iiiriph- (issei.
tiiii|itatioiis of anc
hi.'' Well-being.
'"''■gral and esseni
"1 "leir eyes a moi
.M"nasti<'ism, in
ciiinot be traced b
-^liii.'st from the v
lianity ascetics are 1,
k\(KT&„ *(fAe(CTOT
fiiiiifiit in the Ch
''''"I'll and .s,inctitv
»"iM," though not
fii'mites or hei-mits
f'nss in the East
.": ""'.v began t
I'liic cnmmmiifie^^
his sometimes been i
';'"-i.e to faith in thi
''• ('"7. Monachatus,
CUBIST. ANl'.-vot
M0L0CU8
MOLOCUS or M0L0NACHU8 9 ,r ,
bishop in th.. 7th cpiitiii-v. ■"'■'"*-'". Scnftish
^.^ (linll. Ada 6'^. June^vi. ii7or'""""rT.' ■""•
f/iLTvn. Mart.). Airica .\in'. uo
{Ihcrun. Mart.).
MONASTERY.
Jll- Architccturo " '• ■• ^iH
T (-. " " ■• •• laJS
^o^ ni«na.sti,i.sin ranks amon^ fK ''" '*''"'''
f"i inHnencos which hHv«? '■ ""'"" l'"'^'!""'
nf '^ns,en,lomt,d o^ciw;i''''■'''«'''-'^♦""-
nttl.,n;,t to annlvse it .hi^ u ",T' '""' ">«
than usually dilliou ''/'''""'''"?">' '' ■'""•"
'^- evil in ii ar billed -^.T,.""-' «'""' «'-'l
e.vtricablv. To those uh '"«"""■'■ "'"lost i„.
Rl'"v-. it niav a 'ear a 1 r""'""'= '"'^'•' "f
e.I-t a,>o,. .s„,,e,.Vunran"exe;, „":: "" '"i''"*^
't n,ore dispassionatolv, it^Lnm ""'"'"'"J?
■•"•'">? in jnincinle. th ,„<lv, i ^x'^ntially
-i--tai^ eo„.mi;' 5;;; «'".<".>-; an.1
- .he n,o..:%t" ;"r^ 7^";-' "^ -''
asinseparable f,om its vorv , " ''"'^'' '''"'•^"•■'.
i' i^ ""t so much a th n " ""J^" ''" "'<"• '
''■'"» 'he first, thouih ™ [' /' " '"''""'<«
Kv -■'•'■^•"•"^tan^es, nuf aSt"'' "'" '■*'""^""'
">""l< slumnins the conHinf „ u"".'"""'"" the
;-'-npi,- .i^sertinrhi: ,r,:\'''r ^^•'''•''' '■'I
fmp(at ions of another kilrt ' ■.' *"" ''"'"■'inK I
hi.' well-being. In bri f r'"' "' '"•'•"""« '" '
'■""■Sn>l an,l essential at of'k ■■"?' ''"'"^ ""
'";;- eyes a morbid 'eJe'i.e """ '^•' " '"
cam:;i'te'n;;";d'\'J;.i'n:n;7r "^ ♦'"' ^"-•'i.
Aim .St lro,n the verv e, n '" •*"• '■""'"•7
'i^nity ascetics a.Un Kri""'""",* '"' <-'"''-
"iinont in the Christian ,!' *"" '"• l"«-
-I^Dial nn,l sanctity b„t "b """>' ^'"' «•••"-
-■■M;" though not' "'ont»'r,h!T,'''" "'«
feniitos or hermHs beann /", '"''''•'' '"iKiiry
i'f ^ f" the iTast ami in A " ^ " '''^"'"^t
^"' thev began to ),1 '^'''"•'" i i" (ho
Imio eommuni^t" The "''^""'^*='J '"^ «■<••"■-
^« sometimes been imnutedTn"'' ""T'^M""'
''•rf i.e to faith in the i. * 8''"wine indif.
MONASTERY 1219
<"^t'heT"^.„':g;;';^,/;':».^1f ' f'-om ^"K"'«n« and
tl- t e.,r/\;:'^i;,;-^; r^t'l -gainst
<''"undless. li,Kh„,. ,1 ' *' .'' not altogether
"<e i-^ to be fo !,,,,; ; "''f n "^ the „,ocastic
"f ""!» of Ale.and ia,' ,^,t V fn t^^''^^ "'' '''«
"* 'he world externa to^.V ^" '"""' ''""^
'"'""7 ana the profl^ac '^?h '"'""•^- '^''"-•
«*en nmre than its -^"u^buv i*""'"" '^"'l'''«
'|"y alienated the most e„, ' Z."*^ Persecuting
>"»" 'lo,„ taking h.ir, a.?' '''^f ''''-"' "^ 'he
then, aud drove them tl', •,'.,'", """«" '""""<'
'"••^I'i'eJ by tl,e nas^^o. a e " "'«'"'""'« "f n>en,
.'"'• •• the Ving oHi ,>"■;? "*■ '^' ''«'l""^'
•% away in," Z wil ,? """. """T ndght
^h« causiC at work w ' ' '"' """^ '^'-' "' rest."
t"« timid and LdoTc^'t ;hr'''''''^-"l'lex. 'i""
•■«'"«« from the torrn "^,.'"""»»tery was .
«"'! a defence 'J^lTtC '"'! 't was a prop
'""I wnverinir- to h„ /'"'*'-'''■*'' to the weak
"'"Shtines^ which wl' u e ' ""'t'l'""^' '"'' ">«
•'">•«. soon imruded into t IT' 1^"" '"'"""■
I'eciestal from which to t . '•'""' " was a
^. M.,uasticism was"u;trh ""'•/"*''''• -^-•^+-)
"""i'y; it was its i^.h;,!'"' '^'•"''.'"^t "'• t-'hris-
I not .t» oilspring but u . '1"' "•'* '"venlion •
I ""tagonisn! betwee u'jTf ^•''''^- '^'''e old
»l"''t, self and the ^711 wm """T' ^'"^ «"J
'l-^elf in all ages, es„rc^. I,.'" "'""'' '"'^ «"«'ted
other Oriental mystics ul ^'"•''■'>l'«utae, and
onivsors of Christh. r' ' *' "'"'>' the pre-
"• ti.e eloist! t Kl Ih "rJ° thedeser or-
'e imssionless n™ ° .^'^^"."'''i". extol-
i
'■'■^thepa^rm::; b^'"?''-'"' «^-
'■"Kulales hi, passions .^"''^ ""« »»« who
';"-"' thiM:ra.ri.t r:'!-;""."'^'' ""^ »y»tem°
, '■"'" '^^'erual thiL ', ,f ' t,"' "'terabst^ction
aet with what t '^^V^t'"''''' '''' ''^^ '^^'''•
U'ouhtless the cherished "'u " '''•"'"ement.
"""■tyrs and cot, tss,rs\yr'™''.'r'''' »'' "-«
'oenturies ol the Ch-W- ° '" the jireceding
"-'i '"'"'y a Ig :;"%!;;';-.'•"'' ''-'ni'hef
"■e»h in,pul,„ i„ f '■III P'^'secution, gave a
l"'"»it)' loi' asceticism . I "'"''>' '» this i.ro-
^■'0 w/th thei t'^th '!""'''T-^ '''"'''''■""t to
^•"'""taiy enduran'^'" ii u, '" f''"" ''^ *''-'
"^oine of the vari, ,,."'' ""''terities.
t'hristian writers urtrm™!. ","''' ^^ «»''l7
't was cotntnonly , 4 .j'"""""'? ^}^f ^^ew ho^
tw.dold origin. ^ ■ he n ', *"'' ■"""trate its
'r'"'e'l '• the philosopher •"^' . T 're^ueUly
""•"• ''-hool'of'irig, -'rrxV'''^ "'"""^'"-^
"'■ntativesof G-eek nhiloso r'''^u"''' '""1 ^epre-
••"'» lovers of God ".r"''''^- ^^ey are termed
as heing the. lineal 1 ■^'' '"'"•'I' Dei, &c)
I'hets all seer "if j:i?'''"'f» °t' Hebre^ p'.ol'
euraordinary rigou^. l^'l'I^:!:;! « J'-iplin^. of
h'.'ni:.hips, like good soldierssVH^ • ■''™'^'^1* es to
;;' "very encumbrance „Lj ,''r°« themselves
1220
MONASTERY
MONASTEUV
if
\\-
>tL2_
is their " wrcstling-ynrd " or "gymnnsiiim "
(4iroTa4<i|U«i'«i, lenuniiniitos ; iraAaf(TTpa, oir-
KT)TT)f)ioi', &c.). Th«y are ciiHikI cniloiiiinnly
" lathers " (ucmni, ahbates), liy way of allec-
tionate reverence ; " suppliants," as giving
themselves t" prayer (Mrai); "the angelic," as
Icailing the lite (if angels (iVdyyeAoi, coelioulae) ;
"felliiw-travellers " (avvoSlrai); "dwellers in
cells" (cellulanl). Their abodes are called
" holy places" {irtfiveia), "seats of novernment "
(f('yoU|Uei'€ra), " sheepfoUls " (^/xduSpai). The terms
monastery (novaar-iipiov), originally the cell or
oavt of a solitary hermit, laura (Aoupa), an
iircitular cluster of cells, and coenoliium {koiv6-
^tov), an association of monks, few or many, under
one roof and under one government, mark the
three earliest stages in the develo]iment of monas-
tieism. In Syria and Palestine each monk origi-
nally had a separate cell ; in Lower Kgypt two
were together in one cell, whence the term
"syucellita," orshi':er of the cell, came to express
this siirt of comradeship ; in tiu- Thehaid, under
the customs of I'mhomius of Tabeuna, each cell
contained three monks. (Bened. Auian. Coiic.
Hfi/ul. c. Ji); Cass. Instit. iv. 16; Coll. .xx, 2;
I'ailad. Hi.it. Lms. c. 38; Soz. Hist. I'cc. iii. 14.)
At a later period the monks arrogated to them-
selves by general consent the title of " tlsc
religious" (religiosi), and admission into a
monastery was termed " conversion " to God.
(Kerreol./i'fi/. I'rnef.; Smnragd. VU. Bened. Anian.
c. M.)
Passages laudatory of monasticism abound in
the Oiuislian writers, both Greek and Latin, in
the 4th andSfh centuries. Biusil of Neocaesarea,
one of the founders of monasticism in Asia, and
his friend Gregory of Nazianzum, the learned
Jerome in his cell at llethlehem, and the
eloijuunt Chrysostom in the midst of a noisy
populace at Constantinople, piofound thiukers
and men of action like Augustine of Hippo
and Theodoret of Cyrus, all vie with one
another in reiterating its praises (Basil. C'unstit.
Man.; Gregor. Naz. Ur. 12; Chi'ys. \'it. Man.;
Aug. de Mor. Kcd. 31, de Op. Man. c.
28, etc.; Hieron. passim; Theodoret, Jlint.
Hii. ; Kpiphan. Ancor. 107, etc.). The great
Augustine is said to have lived in 8 kind of
monastery with the clergy of his c:\thedra!; and
by his eulogies of the monastic life in his 'Com-
mentary on the 3()th Psalm ' to have won Kul-
geutius, bishop of Ruspe, in the (ith century, to
become a monk himself. In one enthusiastic
pa.ssage he expresses a fervent hope that monas-
ticism may shoot out its branches and oti'shcMits
all over the world (l>e Op. Mim. 28). rome
goes so far as to speak of embracing the monas-
tic life as a kind of second baptism (A/>. 39,
ad /'((!('.). And yet in the ivritings of tho.ie
who extolled monasticism most highly there are
cautions and warnings not a few against the
dangers which beset it. Augustine, with cha-
racteristic insight into the strange contradictions
of human nature, describes, almost as one of the
greatest of modern painters has represented
it on his canvas, the recoil of a novice on first
entering a monastery from the vices and inconsis-
tencies of some among its inmates (/n Ps. c. ; cf,
Hicrou. £■/'. ad B-tsi. VZh, lui E-asiach. 22). Pride
was always the besetting sin of the cloister. Anibi-
tioD and covetousness crept in even among those
who bad renounced the world, its pomps and
vanities (Hloron. Epp. nd Hii.it. 12,5, nd Enntnch.
22 ; Aug. Ej). tJO, (((/ //fliiiloi:), and sensuality
assaileil those who had retired, as tlicy hoped,
to a sale distance from the temptations of the
(lesh (ilierou. E/ip. adt litisl, 12.''>, ad Eiistwh,
22). The loneliness, too silence of the cell, often
brought on that torment ot the rn'er-scrupiilous,
a religious melancholy, and sometimes downright
insanity (Ilier. A'/', "d Jiitnl. 12.'>; Cass. Tnstit. v. 0).
And though, as i rule, the monks were among
the fiercest and noisiest champions of ortho-
doxy, at times, in their ignorance and isoliiion
from the church at large, they were enually
zealous l'<ir the extravagant notions of heretical
fanatics (Sozom, //. A. i. 12). Whatever side they
espoused, they were the fiercest of its partisans.
In retaliations on the heathen for the cruelty
which they had inflicted on the church, in |)utf iiiy;
down heresy by force, in extorting from the civil
authorities the pardon of criminals, monks were
ever foremost. iJy the advi<:e of Gennadiiis,
patriarch of Constantinople, and in c(uisei|ueuie
of the tumults in Antioch about Peter the Kuller,
Leo the Thracian, in the middle of the r)ih
century, made nn edict forbi(hling monks to
quit their monasteries and excite commotion in
cities (Milin. Hist. Lat. Christianit;/, i. 2'J4).
The outrages of the Nitrian monks against
Orestes, the praefect, in their zeal for ('yril of
Alexandria, of Harsumas and his rabble against
Flavian of Antioch in the "robber council" of
Antioch, and the ferocity which would not leave
tho saintly Chrysostom in peace even at the
point of death, are no extraordinary instances of
what the monks of th? 5th century were capable
of ill their theological frenzies. Uy a strange,
yet not uncommon inconi.istency, the monk in
his cell listened eagerly for the rumours of pole-
mical controversy in the world which he had
abjured, and reserved to himself the right of
rushing into the fray, not as peacemaker, hut
to take part in the combat. They claimed fur
themselves au authority above that of bishops,
emperors, councils. As in the Iconocla.stic con-
troversy, so generally they were on the side of
superstition. Tho Egyptian monks clung te-
naciously to their anthropomorphic conceptions
of the Deity. One of them, an old man named
Serapion, exclaimed with tears, on hearing that
GihI is a Spirit, " They have taken away our
God I We have no God now " (Cassian. Cull. x.
c. 3; cf. Piulfin. (/(! i'ei', Si:nior. c. 21). Sunie
monks in Asia Minor inculcated rigid abstiucice
generally, and condemned marriage as sinl'iil
(Soc. //. E. ii. 43, iv. 24 ; Con it. mip: c.
A.D. 330, ce. 1, 2, 9). Antinomiani.-im prevailed
among some of the Mesoputamian monks in the
4th century (Kpiphan. Haeres. Ixx.). Augustine
speaks of Mauichaenn tendencies amoug nuiuks
(De Mor. Ecxlos. i. 31).
In the 4th century the growing reverence for
celibacy aided monasticism to make its way into
almost every province of the Roman empire, the
civilised world of that day. (Aug. de Mor.
Eccter. i. 31 ; Theod. Hist. lid. 30). The ehlor
Macarius in the Sceticor Scithic desert, the elder
Ammon on the Nitrian mount, higher up tlio
Nile Pachumius in the Tt.ebais, treading in the
footsteps of Antony, tho celebrated hermit,
iounded enormous communities of monks, with
Fome sort of rude organisation. The numbers of
monks in Egypt thus herding together and with-
druvn i
poiilical
tlKHIS.ind
iv. I.)
Hesych.^s
of .S.ihim
bisJiop of
writers, i
•Minor Hi
(.Soz. //.
H.'lyot, /
Muinr.i (f
raije for th
was chief)
Tne sever
emperor V
rush of p,
II. I-:, iv. :,',
monks in
lAWt.).
Krom Syi
ticisin spre
Ciilled "the
most of the
prop.-igated
Christianity
swarmed wi
Tuscan sea i
Ep. de Mwt.
About the nii
in Ills exile i
^ Koine, and fd
I (Aug. de Mo
niouasficisR!
(aires which
s.-uictiiy ,..oi,!iJ
half a centur
uncomproinisi
in the nionasti
wliiit remainei
fit'.'niness ; it
iiiAury and e
con temporary
Vercellae, in Ni
rwilej under
clersjy, all livin
later, the ill-j.st
vflopment in ai
<"' the chief citi
(Aug. dc Mor.
the .'ith centu
eremitic and c
'I'/iebaid t.i Ma,
tr,idiug place,
torlM. aftenvard
similar iiisfituti
tliM called Stoe
invalids, off th
■It Toulouse, ai
imlor the direi^t
hwntius, and TIk
Toiir.s (Caesarod
pdiice into a mot
followed to the t
}'t- ><, MaH.).
*>« lind founded n
niuiern times T
twium). One oft
a mnnat-fery on 1
"fi- Lyons, and'
(Align ta Treviror,
fl'il of Benedict,
JfOVASTERY
'Ir>"n from or.lfnnrv ,I„t,>, „f , ■ , »«OVASTEIlY 1221
writ.r.s. to prescribp „ J. ' "^™''''"g 'o some
■Minor Basirt : ^^-,; '""""'^'^ '^''''''- '» ^^'■■•
rai;.! (or the monastic life 17 ^: " ^^""^ «'ie
wn. ehiefiy among t^'.^^^^^VS'" -'^"gustine,
emperor Valen.s were nowerl. ' *.. f'T?""'"*?
•nation with t),,.,t Jo, »;. "' ""'' '•"^^- C""mu,nN
""""•shed at an ".„'|. ';■'',''""'■■'■• "'onastids,,,
»"''fl'e.'„ GanI, nmie, ,; ,' i''",,"'^'" "''"' '"
"'he first in.stano,.of.,n uv ' • •^l'i""-''"tlv,
A.n. ;i«0 a .lecree of « ,^„ . ,\. '^J' '''"■ly as in
b,,l,linK j.riests to „(I',et th ,1 '^'-^'SC'-^sa, for-
thnt monasticism ha, Vvt ,1 ' '"'"■''-»-«'>««-
"'''« I'i'"Ki-ess in .V i', V' "v "'"'''' "'"^i''-''--
"""•'f enactments of tho r, ""''• '^'""' ''""nastieism hn i ^".'••"'""n.M.lfs, s
:}]:^ «iste,, in 'uiai:r^^:"i""= i:»:--,.s
called « the Apo ^ ^foHer''''''- ''''^''^'■'""«.
n-^' "Hhe gl-eat miSa 'W Th? " '"""^ '">•«
r"'raj;ate,l monasticism ^i . . ' '""■""'' ""<'
--a-y. Theis,rofu!:.,^„u:!:a::^
which-: ,r;^X^ng from.,.. .,,„.
as was the irro vth , f ' '^'"*'"""'> &''• But ra,.i,|
!ii<ejero,.:'i:,::^,tni:::i"^,!!!-''-<"-.ne-
Tuscan sea slow";",^;, "w' t W ""^ '^'T '" ">« like' .re'kin n'T""-' "''"''' ''---ioui ::•
tajres w)„ch his re,,uta(ion for nr h > "''^■""- Bolivian in the 5t( V ™'''"' "' 'i'"- 'l-ath
what rerpainer! among ko .^.s of th '*""'^.""'= <'^'^«"i»ns, f.rob bVTn '' e"vernment on rare
later, the illnstrioiis Amh,. ' '"'""'What man- of L ^ .'^'"^y ♦ '« absorption „f .„
the diief cities in that ,; >^^l ""''' o"" 'o'" the obli<^«Hor " ''""'•' ""'y hut for lif,
(Aug. da Mor. J'cclelV) "\ ''" '"■■'"■''^"'■■' Mi'«l<'n« one^ A^ 'T """« '" h'eonsid re, ,'
4Ka "" "*
1222
MOXASTEi
MONASTERY
many an instance the redeeming characteristic
of the great monasteries of the West, even
while it gave the rein to an abstruse and
bewildering disputativeness, ever evolving oat of
itself fresh materials for disputing. In Kurope it
was quite otherwise. There, even within the
walls of the monafstery, was the ever-present
sense of the necessity and the blessedness of
exertion. There, the monk was not. merely a
worlver among other workers, but by his voca-
tion led the way in enterprises of danger and
dilliculty. Whatever time remained over and
ahiive the stated hours of prayer and study was
for m lual labours of a useful kind, and farming,
garu.'ning, building, out of doors and within
the hou.-e, for caligraphy, painting, &c. The
monks in Europe were the pioneers of culture
and civilisation as well as of religion ; usually
th-'y were the advanced guard of the hosis of
art, science and literature. From this radical
diveigenco of thought and feeling, two main
consequences naturally followed. A less sparing,
a more generous diet was a necessity for those
who were bearing the fati,(ies of the day in a
way which their eastern brethren could form no
idea cf. A more exact, a more minute arransie-
ment ^f the hours of the day was a necessity
for those who, instead of wanting to kill time,
had t economise it to the best of their ability.
The closer and more systematic organisation
which, from the date, at least, of Benedict of
Jlonte Casino, marked the ., ma.steries of the
West, and the more liberal dietary which he
doliber.ately sanctioned were admirably adapted
for the Koraan and the Barbarian alike in the
Europe of his day. To the one, with his innate
and traditionary deferenca for law. the orderly
routine of the cloister was infinitely preferable
to the lawless despotism of the empire ; and even
the sturdy independence of the Goth bowed
willinsly beneath a yoke which it had chosen
for itself without constraint.
" I' *-uth the prison unto which we doom
jelvos no prison is."
In the Ea.st the monasteries, as a rule, wei'e
larger, but less firmly administered. There the
laxer .system of the " Laura " prevailed more
widely and lasted till a later period than in
Europe (Mabill. Prarff. V. vi.). In East and
West ali'-'!, the control exercised by the bishop
01 the diocese over the monasteries in his
jurisdiction was from first to last scarcely
more than titular. But in Latin Christendom
the centralising authority of the pope supplied
the want of episcopal control, not, however,
without the vices which are inherent in an
overstrained centralisation.
Before the 5th century there was no uni-
formity of rule among the various monas-
teries even of one race or country. Cassian
complained that every cell had its rule; that
there were as many rules as monasteries
(Instit. ii. 2). In .some cases, under the roof of
the same monastery, a divided allegiance was
given to several rules at once (Mab. Antuit.
0. S. B. Praef. 1«). All this was perhaps inevit-
able from the faot that the monastic life had its
oriffin not in an impulse Piven by «ny one
directing and controlling spirit, but in the
exigencies of the age generally. Gradually
order emerged out of this chaos. The ascetic
writings commonly a.scribed to Basil of Caesareia
sometimes to his friend Eustathius of Sebasto, ex-
ercised from the first over the monasteries of the
East an influence which they have never lost in
thos' unchanging lands where change is an
impioty. The rule of Basil — the first written
code of the sort — was po]iular for a time in
Southern Italy, \ stronghold, from the circum-
stances of its colonisation, of Greek sympathies,
was translated into Latin at the instance of
Urseus, abbat of Finetum, probably near the
famotis pine woods of Ravenna ( Mab. Ann.
0. S, B. I. IS), was used in Gaul during he
5th century at I.emovicus ( Limoges ) in con-
junction with Cassian's Institutes (A. IV. 40);
and won for itself the commendation of Cassio-
dorus and Benedict. Some European monasteries
at first a<loi)ted their rules from Egypt, the
mother-country of asceticism ; thus the sn-calli'd
rule of Macarius was in force in a Burgundian
monastery, and the "rulj of Antony " in a monas-
tery near Orleans (Mab. Ann. 0. S. B. I.).
Cassian was the precursor of Benedict in the
arduous, work of -ystematising the development
of monasticism. But it is inexact to speak of
" Ci;ssian's severe and inflexible rule " (Milman,
Lat. Chr. II. ii.). &. -ict!- » akint;, Cassian is
the author of no rule • ^ e ly so entitled ; he
was a compiler of mater. '!•: suggestive of legis-
lati.-.n, not a legislator himself. It was probalaly
thrcugh his influence, in part at least, that
many of the Gallic monasteries copied the tvpe
presented to them by the celebrated monastery
of Honoratus at Lerina (L^rins), which seems to
have been itself in its commencement a copy
from those great Egyptian communities, which
Cassian knew well from his own personal experi-
ence, wherein the brethren, dwelling each in his
little separate cell, all under one abbat, met
together at stated times for the sacred oflices,
and for refreshment (Mab. Ann, 0. S. B. I.
29, 80).
The apr<e nee of the rule of Benedict, first
and grea js in the long list of monastic
reformers, was 'h jommencement of uniformity
in the monasteries of the West. Starting from
its birthplace, Monte Casino, on the wildly
picturesque spurs of the Apennines, it asserted
its supremacy iu Italy before the end of the
6th century, in the countries which are now
France and Germany after the era of Winfritd
or Boniface, and in Spain, where the rule of
Isidore had prevailed, after the 9th century.
In the next century it was almost universally
accepted throughout Christian Europe (IVl-
liccia, Ecc. Cnr. Pot. I. iii. 1, 4).
Like Aaron's rod it swallowed up its rivals.
For a time, indeed, the more ascetic rule of
Columbanus, emanating from the remote shores
of Britain, where, bel'oi'e his rai.ssionary laljours
in Gaul and westwards, he had been trained under
the rigorous tutelage of the famous Comi;all,
abbat of Bangor, came into conflict in central
Europe with the Benedictine rule, and disputed
its pre-eminence. But the followers o"'^nlum-
bnnus never became a sejiarate ord.-. '''he
monasteries wherein his rule w .i ^
solely and absolutely were ne-.-er i,.;.
More usually his rule was combined ■ c"-
of Beneilict, as in the monasteries of Li. \i,vium
(Luxeuil) and Bobium (Bobbio) in the 7th cen-
tury. The most characteristic part of Iiis rule
the P.ei
Draconic
Alter tht
Matisam.)
Eustathius
brought fl
Coluinbani
exist separ;
and more
more in h.i
Italian i)ei
Christian \;
siastical ]
pati'onage (•
(Mab. Am
Wherever t
the same m
and as of n
Hibernian.
standing the
native monk
)>iepossessioi;
ing Easter ai
tonsure, &c.,
hold its owt
exotic rival.
lienedict wa
bevond the
Me.jul. S. J;cn
Amid all tl
that which g
monastic sys
authority of
tlian that of a
iu modern tim
"*' an Oriental
7M)- For his
field his otlice,
walls, primari
enemies from h
lie (juite ,as usel
he reigned su]
followed them
(Cnic. I'lirracon
"nn was a spv
--); was boiinv
any misconduc^t
iiabitual contfls!
himself. It was
P"lii'y thus to I
I^t was, in a wf
Gregory the Grei
olmruh has alw
her monastic auxi
T.isjabond monks
'"ii- •!'), &c.; of.
On the same prin(
that solitary reel
either .is monks
■*"• I'C. 17, 806
y'"-<-/l. V)3.) Th.
'icism, thevowof 1
chndience has beei
vitality.
t'nirn the fi,-st 1
nise I of repressing
hand. Jerome am:
l.iH-lessness of the
^^i*'^," the -Gvi
"irrants (Hier. i".
■V:n. cc. 28, ;i 1 : 7^,
had recommended 1
MONASTERY
Arte,- the ..vno, „/■;'!'"•■ «'-'"''''^'"y l"'l'"l.,-.
exist separatdv 'Hip LT . ''■^'■'' ''"■■'■"«'' *«
""i-c inharmnny with fhpf„ '"""'' " *^'*
Italian peninsula wh „ T"',"'""""''" °'' th-.'
Ma..ti.:al W, . t Z ?"l"''^ '^'•"- "'•■'■1^
Wheievei- the two rnio "f' f'P- '•'*' ^5).
the^aniemoL^^t ;;^;-^;;;'*''y-iei;
an,l as of n„c,ssitv ,„„„ V'"'"' '"'^^''"''ly
Hibernian. Even fn'i rown u' ^7 ""^"^^ '''^^
iiatue monks (" Scoti " ,^ t "V^ ^'^'"^^ 'he
'H Easter an,l the right war < <• 'k /"'. ''"'^P-
tnnsure, &o, the rule of "^ "(^shaving for the
holJ if,, owk aca "st ,h» ""'"V""^ *'"'«'' ^o
exotic rival. f the sfh *°'^r"'""°"''' "'' ''-^
Bene,lict was ca ./t T'""-^'' "l*^ "'"'« •"'
biMond the Twee rHolt n '"'»-^i"narles
Am„l all tliese (iivercencie, ,nT )• ■
that which gave cohesLn T i '''.f -epaneies,
■"onastic svftem was th, f"*"'"-^' '" "^e
authority of the abb! ! "'."""' "'''^"■'"8
t'.an tiu.Iofac,;tfta,"Kn:Mt'*^ ^""'•'^■'
>n mo,leru times, an,i aim'sl on^ man-of-war
of an Oriental de,p t " ^ r„;' T "'"^ ""«'
7W). For his monkl f„ I?" ''■ ''''"^"f. a.d,
hW.i his Office '^."iA M^itT;^ '"^r-- ««
«all«. l>n-,narilv in !; a tr fV ^^''^'"'^ "'«
enemies from without bu wi i .h "'"•■' ''■'^"'"■^'
he c|uite a.s useful fb • V, • , •'"'"' '^"'"e to
)>» ■•ei?ned s p em . TnT^"'" ^"""■'=" '"•
-^')i was bound to inform til .• fu ''P' ^
nnv misconduct on he • '■'"'"■•i-abbat of
rs.,":v{HF€f 5:::ft2:;!
W monastic auxiliinJr ' ■" "'il'-iing
vagabond mon s (G l^' ^j'^^'-y --«■•« against
"'■ •!«, &c.; cf (h^ ^'j ,^^P- '• *0-vi. 82,
Onthe'sam;\,H„c:;recft: .rG^'V "^ ''^■
tliat solitary rechisp. , ""^■' '"^ Great enacted
obedience has been on« 1 ►^ °'' ""T"'**'«Di''f;
vit.lltv. ""^ S-'ent secret of monastic
hand. Jerome anVr ;""".'"" "^'^^ "« "'"n
h^N«ri:fr^E:::^?r"rt'^"«
MO .VASTER Y i223
'hattheg„vernu:;nt';" :^2n';T'''''™^-'-^'
b'- c:,rried on bv abb.t • i T ''"'''' "honld
"'^^■'■vention of a tuior hi t k'""", ^^'"'""' "'"
rivalry between hi 'ibbn 'l'" ."'"'"''' '"= any
As n,on,usteries, oth in k",' '"■' ''""tenaut.
Christendom, began to brf"'" ,'!"' ^^'"'"'"^
I'.-'>ximity to g4a? c.tie, th "" "^ .'■" ^■'"^'•■'•
precautions against disolr be "'"' ''''"'''"'
more necessarv Greg y L r "f """''-■ ""'
an rJmost ubi,,uit uf ?„, ervi i'T'' ''"''T"^
thnstendom, recmmer lid ^nV ?■ "''"'' '-'""'
three years before aZvi e sh„' 1 1 h "" "*" ''"'"'
(«reg. JI. /;>,„. i^. oV.'' 7"" '"become a monk
hi< -licitud/'^,;Vh; Lsl^'?. "'"^ ,%'^''n. i"
"-nasfic <liscipli„e he ,t i , ^'.'" "' " "?i''
'""•^t be a monk 'whose n, i"""/''" "'''^"t
fitness has been welT oveT - '" "''''■"""'
'"^ election; tha he ?'' ''■'*'''' ''^■'"'•e
*'^"- «« Poss b e of- m „ " "'T-" ''i'"-^elf, as
.'•-•i-g a good lav-^genT ;tT .''■'^"■''""•^ ''^
brother whom he bel" e ' h ? ''•'?';'^"'ti»g 'he
.""ice 0V.pas4 c ,dl "t '^"■■''''''''' ''"• 'be
«s f^^'lminationsagainst , ,1 " '""'"■" '■»^"''''
-nks, and end^:;; er^^^l^-'-'-l'-rderly
organisation of each innn., t [ together the
Pac'tly un.lor on he rt'-' 'r'^ '""' »"'"
Asde, A.n. ,50«, orde ed th.t ' ""^ ™""^''' »''
.'omn^unity should le i 'f ^71 T'"!'7 "' ''"
clo.ster, except bvtt-e abb, ' " '''l'' ''■'"" 'be
p;^n so, outiide the p ed etV :f ■:;' '""''=• ""'••
no abbat should si, eV, ted""""' '"*Y^"^ "*^"
monastery, hospices 'e.e'j^ ""'' "'^n one
/-"jU. .T. 41) The nil ;' ^"'^ <jiregor. Af.
the monks {-Ben d tnl T "■^"/">- <^'-"^'' by
I-OKis, the son .nl "'"''''■''• '^>/«'- ^V. i.)
Great restortM:an:Sr,°'' "^'""'"^ "'«
abbeys of his dom niu ".]'". "S'' to the great
had wrested it. [iBiiAT] '""' ""* '''"her
uuder the'ouset ofth'C, .: "'"t."'' '<"'"«
disintegrated empire had eel ' ""^ ^''-''^^'re the
the strong hand o 'h n L h! cTTT'"^ by
were evervwhere the , I !r^ ■ f *' "'e m,.nks
lawless violen . of t " 7-' "^ T^^' "^ ''^^'
asainst the brute force off. """^ '^'^''"' '"
and again they con nted kit 'If ''?'"";', ^^^""
out fear, and without favout" I ""'"'^^ "■'"'-
>n«^.nce, among the Sk' ^"'""t":"^ '"■■
profligacy of tL (ii *'.''"?^' rebuked the
prou.iest'iJi S--;;^-n princes. Th:
barons, bowed in re veren" e ber '"'-l "'^ ''is
feriouslv awful attribti*- .^'^'''' '^e mvs-
reeluse -counng tl rth 1 ^01 nb ''f ' ""'''"^^'^
eell, or, at lefst. IZ^ tlu? ft""'?. '■••"" ^is
powerful an ail v. T|,e doi 1 *'f"'-'^"'I' >''' -so
tuary and asylum f r the A ' u"^'' " """■
unfortunate, became 1 1 ""'/''•' ""^ the
tenure of the throne was oTe;'''" ^"" ^^e
-n.ent place ..r the inc:Cj;ir----
1224
MOXASTFUY
*-ss;:,
n ,i'^-\i
it vv.is ilfsiiiitili' to put. . iif the wiiy witlimit
liillinj;. What li^il hci'ii at lii-sl in many cum's
JnvolMiMai-y, caini' In In' [iriziNl liii- its (■wii sake.
CldlliiMa, tlic willow urcii'vi.s. in tin' ■it h century,
wlii'ii lliii'HtiMicil with ileath or llie lonsnri' lur
luT suns, pri'leniMl ",l«alli liernre il('i;railalion."
In the Hth ci'iilury two ex-kiiiKs, t'ai'loiiian the
Knuik, ami Kailiis tlic I.oinlianl, sought aiiil
loiin I sholli'i' at the sanio inianunt liy their oivn
rhoice.in the nnoiaslery nCMonte (.'a.sino. I.iriiis,
the snecessiM- ot'Charles the (ireat un the tlirene
of the Krank.s, wasonly ilissnaded liy his inililes,
i\\ A. II. Sl'.l, tVoin liecoining a monk ; t'oiirtijen
years later hn wa.« eom|ielleil liy his sons to
retire to the monastery ol' ,St. .Me.lanI, lit
.'iolssoMs. The list of .s()verei);ns wini I'rom the
.■)lh to the l(.(i\ centnry, either hy eoiislraint or
hy ihoiee, liecante monks, is iniliieil a loni; one.
lHstini;iiish,-'l otlenders amoiiij the I'lMnks hail
the option of leiiia: alint up in a nionaslory i r
ol' iin leigoinj; Mic usual eanonlenl ponHiiuof
(tjipitul. A'.'/, Fnini: v'-. 71, !"•; vw. .'li').
Karly in the lith eniMiiy, ''<\ 'he iirst tiino,
neeiM-ilinj; to Mahillon, criminal ;.: >,-.(.i iiV'li-ioon.i
were sentencoii ))y a council in ti f ■liifh-o,; I, ot"
Kranee to inrnnenfion in a nioimsts'iv (■' u/'-
/Ijniuiiciise, A.n. '>i;, 0. .'t ; of. 'Jioijii;' 'M ^ijip
viii. 111). In the 7th coninry, in Hit w in^s ot'
the s;re:it historian ot" the We^t'.'rn dm ,';i, "tliu
pi'acet'iil passion lor munacliii-hi hinl ,'".'(;oine H
madness, which seized vn the sti-oiii^t'.st. soino-
tinies the lien'est soi\ls. J!.ina.''crii'.. arose in
all iinarters, and j;athered their tnlmle ^'f we.'illh
from all land.s " (JliJinun, Hist, of L d. Ckristi-
unit I/, il. '-''Jl).
Under the fostering caro of the great Cli.^rle<,
iiioaasteries were not merely a shelter and a
!;ii.;e from social storm.s, and centres from
whicli radiated over fon and tMrest the civilising
Intlueiiri's of the farm and the garden, lint .schoids
of useiiii learning, according to the rei|nireniunts
and cap^'citios of the period. Already, under
the Menu ;n,'ian.s, .sons of princes, for instance,
Meroveus, so. of Ohilperie, had been sent to
monasteries to he taught (Mah. Ann. 0. iV. Jl.
iii. .'i+). Charles made many and liheral grants
ol'l.ind to the monasteries, and his monk-loving
Mm ;;ave even more bountifully. ]lut line build-
ings and wide domains, besides attracting the
cupidity of the spoiler, brought with thein the
)>ri le and tlu> lu.vnry. which follow in the train of
wealth and prosperity (Milman, L. C. ii. 2!I4).
Alibats too often took advantage of the ab.seuce of
ueiajhlionrin;; barons mi military .service to seize
their liet's, stepidng into their jdaco, and becom-
ing themselves feudal chieftains. Hut they were
not content with the coniparatively limited
jurisdiction of their predecessiu's. The recognised
appeal to the king in their case soon fell into
desuetude ; they assumed a position above their
feudal peers, us suzerain lords ; and on the
principle that a thing once devoted to God
beiaunes His only, His always, His altogether, they
claimed various immunities for their lands from
the ordimiry tolls and taxes. " Their estates were
held on tlie same tenure as those of the ■ a
nobility ; they had been invested with th ,
especially in Germany, according to the ' .
Teutonic law of conquest. Abbacies were
oripinaHy, or became, in the hlriclesL sense
henetices. Abbafs took the same oath with
other vassals on a cluiug- of sovereign. Abbats
:.» W h; are
: to iiir)self
!JuiliM- rhe
MON'ASTIORY
and abbesses were bound to appear at the Ifeer-
li.inii of the sovereign." (Milman, ih. ii. oH!l.)
'I'liongh the abhats themselves were forbidden to
canv arms, and took their oath of fealty a
CO Hi ..llors, their " men " were as much boui. (
to 11 llow the king in his wars as the '• men ' .t
his I ly vassaN (iVi.). The lirsl instance reijorlut
of H ti',;hling ahbat is that id' Warnerius, in i,
brea-' plate and other accoiitremi'iit^, taking .m
activi' part in the defence of Uoin-' against ' i ,:
I.miibirds in the H'h centnry (i': ii. •_'4.l).
j Abhal ., not iinnaturallj- perhaps, in circnmstaineH
', liketh-se. grew lapiMy l.'.s and la.ss oisliiict in
their ni.aiiiier of life from ';i;:i' compeers, tn. lav
aristocrac, M-ound theia. 'Ili-i.- illustrious patron
i had to Pi j),'..., their huMiaj; and hawking pm-
I jieiisitiei, or.lering them to do their shooting :iu\
their other (icid sports by ih:\ uty, i > (he p'-r ..ii
of the lay br (l.ers (Cii/nt. ■'!.•■' At. K.u. jfii^ e.
:i, A.l). «0i!, 1. c. I!); Vuiu:. Mi^/iin'. ,.l>. 'i!;!, ..•.
14), and he denounced severely mo
i " lazy and caiele-ss." ('harh.i reserve
: the appointmeiil of the great abhats.
' feebler .-^way of his succes.sors monasteries became
! more 'in I more secular. The younger and the
illegitimate sons of noble or royal families
' came to regard the richer abbeys as their
j pii'vimony, and resented the inlrn'sion of men
of lower birth into these high places of the
ciairchi And though then, as always, in spite
of every discouragement, genius andpiety imiie.
times forced their way to the front, and tin. i jh
sometimes baser arts won preferment, the laiu'.-r
ecclesiastical liet's passed so generally into .he
hands of the nobles, as to make the great nblmn
almost a caste (iMilni. Lit. C/ir. ii. MJ'I).
The relation of monks to the clergy, and
their continuall; recurring jealousies, form a
curimis chapter in the history of monasticisni.
Origin-,' ■ monks, as a class, were regarded as
layiueo. thongb even from the lirst there wore
individual instances of | ersons becoming nimiks
alter being ordained. Htill, as monks, all ranked
collectively with the lay, not the clerical part
of the Christian community. The term "clerici "
was applied not only to the clergy [iroperly so
called, but to the nuiuerons olticials eoniieilid
with the church in various secular caiiaeitii's,
as bursars, doorkeepers, &c. Accordingly, the
monk, even if he were not himself a lavniaii,
was naturally classed with laymen, as 'being
unconnected with ecclesiastical ollices of aiiv
sort. Monks, for their jiart, were more thiin
content to bo so regarded. It was one of
their a.\ioms that a monk should shun the
company of a bishop as he would the companv
of a woman, lest he should bo ordained perfone
and against his own free will ; for monks were
in re<|uest for the diaconatc or the priesthoed
as well as abbats for the ollice of bishop" (Cass.
/(i.s-t. xi. 17 ; I'.ingham, Urii;. lCcr/,:i. iv. 7).
Monks indeed had no cause to be ambitioe <"
ecclesiastical dignities. In the 5th ceii
they took precedence of deacons (Kpiphan. /
Ixviii.); and iu tho East their archimau .
had places at the councils of i^ •' i
'C. P. A, Com:. Kph. Act. I. Sess., dn
Like other barriers between the ii . ; .-..ir. h\>
fellow men, this demarcation betwec: • aksand
• After the Stli century, blshopa were frequcnllj' liiwmi
fruin muuiig the luuuks.
clergy bee
41 h centn
iiiitive aii.s
' 'le can -. ,1
ajijiroiimal
-/i/;. (1,/ / ;.
work. Till
" train ,iv;.i
(I'' Hltf. ;
tin) OH- Isi
than the pa
on the ot
M»: [U'iest I
its resideni
looked ii.ttu
help :.l tliij
tb..ns/h fori,
rii.ii,' l.omilic
Bished in ,..
semeiiriio; n
with the ■ .ui
iii. ofi). Am
clergy in tliei
clerical costu
Ctli century i
wearing tho
their wearing
own rude .saiii
Am; I. i. A.I).
Cunc. Laijilic.
more usually,
tery were siijij
at the ahbal's
times; soiuiitii
reside in the i
the monks th
JI. /.///J. pass.).
resorted to the
i. 2). [OitAioi
One of the h
was to regulate
their monks a
Great, like his d
first of the pop
lahiaireil to prei
heyiiiid its own
and [irivileges ol
til iilliciate wit
(cf I,eo I. l:j,j
parochial clergy
curi!> to theq'ui,.
He ordered ba)
iniiiiasteries. H
and he censure^
either entered
without tiieir h
however, he train
neglected by its
of the adjoining
they should pr
theiiisel . es for a
their " vicar " (
iv. 1 ; iv, 18).
begun to bo ch
with tho clergy
■''»"'■. ii.); and tl
gre.it Carlovingiai
'iiry, by subjecti;
di.:!i,-.n ..j' ([,;. i^i^
teatiiinally f:ivour<
Koine, in A.I). KL'7, i
order (Cone. limn.
M
fll,
ITcnr-
il)
li
•JHlt.)
In
'l>i.
ilun ti'
(if
I'l'i
Itv ,. ,
IIIIK.'ll
l)«'"r,. (
! '
' llU^ll ' .( j
MOVAHTKRY
tlalu ■: v,,i\^gu •• t«r tlui rUTL-v (lli,.n,n //
rari: :"^^iHT■'
withmit tneir l,ish,,,,.,' sanction T r
V uum. c. .0;; a council at Aaclien
MONASTERY
1228
>i 1 • ■, "" '" pliri.slKH whi.Pl' tli,.v 1, 1
''"■"''■'li'"" ■• '-r r,;si,|..„,,, ,irl, ;,!''.:' ""
.•rimi,.„t,.|y. 11,,,, tl.o I„„" , •"'■"■' """«-
'-'^.■m. the monks r^, ^^r^"^^"'^ ■•""'■•y
C"mtni'n(vnii.ri» „f „ yiKn imin (Ik; very
bv the l.i.shopshoul, Zlll ""-' "'"""^terv
"f Byrsa h vin/ boon *"-' "''^''*' i" the ,lince»«
own Lho., 7h ^ . "xconimunicated by hi,
fro"';,: •„ve1:'b;Sil!" C;,.rth..g., (..o. 525)
favour of the ,bb"'t uT\ ""' P™nou„co<i in
' l-vent any intuln 'on'^ll'e .".a/t" Jlf": *°
the council wont so hr 1 fi' . '-'beratus,
that m„na,rerie, be L a^b"^ I'T" *'"' '"'«
son,po,. fuorunt " ent fly"e.et'.f tm /h"'V7*
gat.ons which restrain th^ IuXTc,^^^-^^^''
elericorum libera"^ ,hnnU k V " f""''''"ne
^••-■•"wn «en»o':fUatHSt'(";Si ;'">; ^
ac Deo d acentia "^ »n,i .i,' > ' '"it"".
firn,.., ' a ^r, niT'^eS, t^r T '""■
Mabillon think,, that tM, rf^hV f' ^'^*^'
to another bi,ho,,, involving f„?fh "^ "f'"'"'
jho^i^ht of ch,!™ing "^nji^ :t:^.::°T::''j
Insula (Lerin,) and Theod:Vu: 'bi hoi i'Fr"' '"
Imm (Prc^u,), was settled at Ar e, ftr m L ■'•?'
ably. There it was enacted. trt'^^Srak:
1226
MONASTKUY
nhiiuM (il)i'y tliH liisliiip ill i|tii'Hlii)nN ri'lafiiiff to
tlu'ir iilticH iiH ili-riiy, wliili' liiy iiiciiikH slmiilil
obi'y tlii'ir alilml ciily ; "ii tlu> iiiit> Iminl, thnt tm
one nhdiilil iillii'iiil;( in tliu iiKiniiNti'iy, cxri'iit. a»
(loli'iriiti'.l liyllio bijilinp, iiiiil, on tlio (It her, tliiit
fho l)isliii|i shiiiilil lu'vcr ri'i'civu iiiiy liiy-bintln'r
to oKliniiliiiii, witliniit tlui eoiiiii'iit (>r tliu iil>l>at
(Liilib. ('"mi/, eel. 17(11!. viii. pp, ti:l,")-():)ti). Itut
I'vi'ii tins WHS no linul or ptirniiincnt suliitioii if
till- i'Vi'r-rr('urrini{ ilillii'iilly. ('imniils nuain iind
aifiin throinjh tliti (illi aiitl 7tli icntiiiios ri'-
alliniiO'l llii.s riinilninciitnl ilistinction lii'twccu
niniilfs (IS iiioulis, an'l inonlts as ilcrpy, Imt in
vain. 'I'lii- tcmli'iicy of lliin^;s iiclually was
to innki' I lie inorasteiy within its own liomuiu
niori' ami niori' Imli-pcniliMit of its bisliop.
No ni'W iiionastcry loulil hi) foiimleil without
the bishop's sanction (t'imc. Chitlicii. A.ii. 4;>l,
f, '2+ ; Ci'iic. Afialh. A. I). 5()(!, o. 'J7); just n» ii
layman iietMlitl tho saniu porinission to (iVBct
a ihurcli (Com: l/mtl. A.I>. .')'.'4. o. It). If th(>
bishop liimsolfwi^i- tho foiimlur li« nii);ht di'voto
a fortieth part of his opiscopul iniHinio as en-
ilowiiii'iit, insttiail of tho hun^lredth part pcr-
inissibio for tho omlowniont of it iii'w church
(Co/ic. Tolct. A.l). (i,'),'), c. .')). Hut, tho nioiias-
tory once foundoil, thu choice of n now iibbat
bi'lonijod not to tho bishop but to tho monks
themselves. Hut the bishop minht interfere, in
case of thi'ir elect inij ii vicious iibliat. 'I'iioy
were free to elect whom they would, one of their
own body by preference, if possible, Imt, in tho
event of there being no eliijiblo candidate amonj;
tliemsclve.H, a stiannor from another monastery
(lieiicd. Anianens. VunairJ. lU'^inl. v. s. ; Cone.
JiO'iKin. A.l). (iOl ; Cone. Tulot. x. A.D. Ii.">(i,
c. .'!). Nevertheless the abbat was to hold his
ollice under the supervision of the bishop; ho
was to attend the bishop's visitation vearly ;
if he failed in the dischftrge of his diity, he
was to be admonished and corrected, or even,
in I'.ise of uross misconduct, deposed by the
bishop, not, however, without a riijht of appeal
to the iiietropidiian or to a ijeneral assembly of
abbrtts (Cuiu: Aitii-I. A.n. .Ml, cc. 19, 20; C'lic.
i^jkiim. AD. .'>17, c. ly ; Coiu:. Arclut. A.l>, fi,')4,
c. ;t; Cimt: Jwiium. A.l). tiOl). (.(utside their
monastic precincts the bishop was sui)poseil to
h.ive a general juri.sdiction over the monks in
his diocese, and in this way, ohviou^lv, mi^ht
often jirove liiniself an invaluable and almost
indispensabl.' ally to the abbat, seated within
his monastery, in coercing and recl.iiming
truants. (Cono. Aiirel. A.D. .Ml, c. I» ; t'oiic.
Artliit. A.I). i'),")4, c. 'J). Monks were forbi.blen
to wander trom one diocese to another, or from
one monastery to another, without commenda-
tiuy letters trom the bishop as well us from the
abbat ; if coutuiuacious. they were to be whipped
(CoMC. iuld. A.l). G'.ib, 0. u;!; Cone. ]'i'tu:t. A.D.-t().'),
CO. ;), ()). The bishop's permission was renuisito,
rot the abbat's only, for a monk to occupy a
separate cell apart from the monastery (Cunc.
Auivl. A.D. 611, c. 22). In short the bishop was
in theory, if not actually, responsible for the
moral conduct of the monks in his diocese. Of
course his control was more of a reality over
their cci lcsia>tical ministrations. The bishop
niij;ht not ordain a monk, nor remove a priest-
niunk from a monastery to parochial v.r.ik with-
out the abbat's consent, might not interfere to
preveut a priest or deacon from taking the
MONAH'l'KllY
monastic vow (('oiic. /l,/ii</i. .''ini!, n. 27; Cimc.
Ii«tiiiiii. A. II. liiil) ; might not ord»iri a miuik who
broke his vow and relapsed to the life seciiliir
(CoHC. Anivl. .Ml,c. L'l). .Si ill. in aecordame
with the principle promulgated at Arli'n in A.D.
.'i.')!! (u. s.), it win generally admitled that the
iiii>nk's vow of obeilienco to his iibb.it was not
to siipersedo the canonical obedieiu'o of the
clerk to his bishop; and, though the force of
circumstances might natiiriilly draw the monk
to Uib abbat and to his brother iii> iiks uhciievir
their peculiar rights ami privileges were
threatened, tho liisli- p could alw;iys retort
elleclivclv by simply holding baik his h:iii,|
wlien called to ^;ive the m.inastery the benelil of
his episcopal services. From the reiterated
cautious of the councils In this period llg,■l|||^t
any encroachment of tho bishops on the pro-
perty of the monasteries, it would seem as if
a weallhy monastery was sometimes a " Naboth's
vineyard," as old monastic writers express it. in
tho eyes of a greedy or overbearing prelate.
lilshops are forbidden by the council of I.erida,
in tho north of .Spain, A.D. .^'24, to seize the
oU'erings made to monasteries (Cunc. /Icnl. c. ;t ;
forbidden to tyrannise over mona.sterii's or meddie
with their endowments by the council id "I'oledo
{folic. 'J\ilit. iv. c. .'il), and by the council of
Home, A.D. t!01 (CiHic. Vi'om. A.D. (inl). An-
other auincil of Toledo in a.d. tl.'ui, ordered any
bishop guilty of appropriating a iiioiiastery for
the aggrandisement of him.selfor of his family
to bo exooinniuuicatod for a year (due. J'uUi .x
c. ;t).
The miuster mind of Gregory the (treat was
quick to recognise the importance of keepiiu;
the monks distinct from the secular clergy, and,
at the same time, of providing some ellii lent,
ollicial supervision, against la.xiiy or imiiioriliiv
in the monastery. Of those numerous letters lif
tiregory, which attest his almost ubii|iiiii)u»
vigilance over tho ecclesiastical allairs of we.-.t.i u
Christendom, and the commanding inllueme
which made itself felt far and near, not a lew
contain his adjudication in quarrels of abbats
with their diocesans, ills personal svmpatliies
wore divided, for he had himself been'au ardent
and devoted monk, before becoming tho head of
tho ecclesiastical sy.stem of Kuropo; and, like a
true statesman, ho .saw thnt tho wav to niake
tho cloister and the diocese mutually helplul,
was to guard against any confusion of the
boundary-lines between their respective spheres.
The otHco of the monk, he writes, is dist'nct
from that of the clerk (dreg. M. L'ji. v. 1); it is
dangerous for a monk to leave his cell to
become a priest ; a clerk oni'o admitted into the
monastic brotherhood ought to stay there,
unless I immoned to work outside the walls by
the bishop (h'p. i. i>). Tho abbat is lirst to be
elected by the monks, and then to be formallv
consecrated by the bishop (Kp. ii. 4, ■-'). (Juoiie
occasion Gregory, taking the selection of an
abbat into his own hands, semis u certain monk,
Uarbntianus, to bo instituted abbat in the diocese
of Naples. But in writing to the bishop, (Ireirorv
qualities his mandate by adding, that liarbi-
tianiis is to be appointed " if the bishop approves
his life and character "(" si placuisset vita ac
mi.r?s"). liaiualiauus, 33 abbat, admitted into
the mona tery without due probation a postulant,
who soon afterwards ran away. Gregory blanies
the bishop i
quiries befiii
81, X. 1-4).
vei'y severel
after tho inn
"lore than o
bre.iking the
"""■Id, he lav
tho bishop ii',
viii. H, ix. 1
bishojis to e.\
away monks, ,
from holy ,.,„
bishop is not
Ihi nastery
he is not to (i\;
tlie iiionasterv
for niiiiisteri'iil
willioiif, the /I
I'e is not to one
their abbat; a
been the most I
is not to harass
visiting them t,
inonlinato e.xpei
fering with the
with its interna
»'iy; onthoconi
and privileges di
34. ix. 111). In,
ot ejiiscopal (■,,„(;
I'lai'ed themselve
diocese (,Mah. ,-!„
The poliey „(•(■]
w.is nioro"repre
it substituted alsi
mainspring „f (),„
tile linal npji-al s|
nt once t„ ,„„|(,,
lii:.iiiig, and to j„
Cluing a separ,,
cliiircli and state.
Mild asdeleg.ite',
I'll! not as a |)ower
in his authority uv
time to keep hini
bishop. The empe:
«nd monks of ),i^
f'Midal retainers, a c,
f'lr delensive and i
in flieir cells and
dioceses were all to
ni'inastie order or ti
tc.'iehiiigi>intheschi
'""•ifs, tho clergy bu
"I'ler their bishop.
Ii'gi.dation was done
'•iill, for this p,,,.]
direction in tiie pari'
Bit in sjiite of «,„„
ni"n.isteries grew in..
ttie (larochial clergy
'""■■e easy, as (Srego,
till! bishop must be 1
in monnsterios of his
'■"■aforcehisauthorit
»«ept it. It was'
' The emperor's attenti
"'„»" "h'cational reform,
liters to himself from
'"''i^- Monatt. i. c. s).
MOVASTKUY
Hio huhoM f,ir .,,„,i . ,1
<)'"n.sl.,,!',,,,,,, « "tf •"■';;.l<.- l-rnper c„.
f»l. X ■>.i\ «.,"'""'■ """•IwtmiiiH (/:.,,, i,
v-y..;:^;,,'' :;;'•;;,[■ ;- -i- „,i: >!li
•''••''V''«''''''"""' V. «:ir':;'''' "•• " """
«'"l'l. I." lavH tin. Cm.I I '"'■"'"«'" "le
»•"'• «. ix 114 X H '^'\''"'' •'■''''• -"-'. ^»
away nmnk.s, „,„| ,„ (,,, ' , V "'' "'""Mn^' ,„„..
['?■"' '■■-ly-nMnuuin(";'\'" ,':'''• ''"«'' '
i>'^h,ii> , „„t ,,, ... V' • ■''- '•''••). Till.
l«^'n the most fn.,,,„„, ,V ' "'j'* """'"•^ '" Ixn,,.
f-in,^ with tl, 1 , :: ";,™ >^ ''y in....r-
it Mn,stitn.,,.,i/uM,t;;;e„:,, A' ;■';,,''' "'■"«'"■>•;
"' ""I'.' f" mak,. the n, , ' "'"" '''■•"'""
CKinJ, nn,l state. H,. « , Z '. ""'"•I"'"''""' <'C
«l'l«it as ,|,.|,,,,„,,,, „fVh,. I "KKra.i.liso th,;
timo to ke.,, hi, ,2 iir
I'i^fi"!'. ThJon,,!^ '' ' '""' ''"'"'"1 to hi,s
«n.i innnkso " r;;,;;:" r-^;^'"" '••'•'^'oiv
ni"n,,«tic onl,;,. „r the n L, '^'""'."'f '"I" of the
"■•■".•lm.S >■ in the s^hooln ! :'1."'?1'"'' "'« ""'"ks
t"n^s, the clen-v b, it ,f '''V'' ""^^■''' "><'nas.
""'I''-- their bish;,,, IT, ',' "■"'•''/" their way
«^'ll' <•">• this ,' "'' """"■'th ".ns„„„nat-e
■""n.isteries grow i, se. i) ? """■ ™'""IS the
'"".0 easy, a.. Z^hZ'T"^'!- " **»» ''"■^
t^^'hisho,, must bf ,,tlij:;,'"/' '"""ythat
I" n,o,,,,steries of his ,li 1" ' 7 «'""' "'■''«'
-nfnroe his„,,thori ; o ! ,n '""/" "•'"''''■ '"•''
MOVASTKRY J 227
-n;:;;t''i,im::r\:;;:':e/'';;r„o''''',.'^''-'''"ho,
''"t'"ili"tC,of„sy,„ ! .'";;''<'l";lita,„ a„,|,
a «n.T,.ss„, a,,,,oi„,„r( ; , ^IT" «"n;"-""y. a„,|
fin;ie^l na.ler (■|,,a^^r V , w"'' !'''" '^ '-^ ''■"■
-•''-tothe:';; .:;;;:';;•' t" his,, i,,,,,,,,,.:
;Hho,,t th,;i:h;;l--,.:;;"-, their aM„^
;'''">v to the bishop L Hi ;/'• "". '"• *^"« t"
' The emperor'" attrnn~„ ^
^f •" '^"^tio.ml^efortul""!,;*''''''''''*' '" "•" »<'««
««»" ,„ himself fro™ clr^,,'^^ '*""" """"y written
^Stud.Munail.l 9; "'""'"'teries (imw):
'"" the bisho,M,r metro,; ,, ',"";''' ^■"'"•''■'l
•""■-r or treas,,,^;: '.':''•';: ' ."W-iut «
'"""■■-"■■•y ,„.t ,.r.,vile, wi" ^ ' """>'
•"•'•I' "'■"'lint of t|,„ , ■ ' " """ already, u,
«'"< that any ahLt ':,;:;; 1: ",;";! -■-"^u'
"'"1. 'nto the monastery for , ''"'"""K '"''"is-
•""'i-h.'.! to anothe, ,„?n„ , "">'• ■-''""''' he
'"•'"""" (Couc. i Av " "^ "'"' th..Te ,i„
''-;;;::^l'::^~.,;;L;^'•■'""'''«"'^'''ways
"""'« then, mo,., « ., r i,. ;\'''''"'"''^''-' '"''1
hut the ,...werof the g .t Zj^'!' l"'-'»^i"ns :
'■'■'■<""!'>( I.'o,,nrtionaMy ''""^ '' '""'"'!« ^as i„.
'•■'I''"ity or the ty,an,v'of Th .'"""•'t'""-' the
th<" IM'oteetion of the kl,,,/ ' "'*'■" '""'^T
(Milnrnn, /.„,,■,; anS,;, "•"' o' '"'^ '""'"'■^
l'"!-" took «o,„e m,m ;!: "• .^i'*-.-). Tl,„
"I'oeial tntelage as h , ' T'"' their own
t'"-«.st, an/,:'t;?; , .P-; ;;-h.Yh«;ldo^^ in
-■•'« "f theg,.eatest b.wer ',,'"'■ •••""'■/
the ,,o,,o, an,| HO,,,., „f th, ,,, r ? "l'l""'"."l hy
t>"n,s concerning the '., ' '"l""-tai,t ,(„es.
-''•■ y hy him (i-e,iici„^!:::S 7:n '""'"'''
-^;s,r:?r:!;ir''"^'^'^ '-'''-
■n-liate contact w I, ,1 7""""' ^'""" '-■'-
"f cventH was s-ZUa i r ''I''"' ,''''' '•■•'"■•■^<'
f '•'"" "cc„,,„tio,. TuLnZ C ■■'"'" '""
tor.es were „|,.e„,iy -erv , " ' ^'"^? """' "•""•'■■'■
^« <'-'yli'« of the ,,:;£; '"''^■"■MIH
father a missionary than , . ^" ''."'"'"ha was
""'I his infl„ence,tho,gh V r """:'■"' '"""•'"'"•.
W.-.S lather the p .,•'", fi„,T^ "'"'"'>■ ««t"n'led
than the stereotV,' "lir r' " ,''"'^ "'""
-lumbanus had be'fu ."theThi ", ''•«'"'""'••
lands rather than to li "" ''"''•' t" other
■-.-a,.,e„t* ot° " kX T''^- :'■''•' f-"vid
:i':'ont '.f co,,trol/|ess ,me,,Tn ? '!'""' '<■»'
.• taiies, that is monks Ih^ >*" •^''''VU,>..
; 'n his cell, „pa,.t ft'rthc Zl^ ''"'"''"' ""-h
j ^,0 Bystemnticaliv disco.Vntr 'f'"-"*' "■"« ""t
' tullvsupervised in /',"'-■'-"'• ""'" »» '^•'i--
The-cha^acter", al of the^ '*' "," ""' '"'"ti'H.n't.
'-Hon tended' to make t,'/™^-^'?*'""' "--g""-
pendent on its bishop oli^i^r.^u''^ '"^'^ J«-
0' the clan o^tribe.'^ve^St'^ii:;:'-
*«%
12J8
MOXASTi'.UY
1^"
i"-r;i-
Oliil-lliinity, cxeirlm'd « imtriai'ilKil mithnritv in
Bjiiritn.il, II-. vvi'll ns in ti'iii|i"i I miiltiTs; nrnl >
tli» cimvi'utiiiil c)»tllllli•^llnl('llt^ j^iow in iiuinbcr
an I inipc.rt in.c, 111.' ho,(.Uhi|i -I' tlu'ni wan mil
r.'liiini'il ){.'n.T;illy in tli.) luniily dt" tint ch . I'
tain. tli<! iilliri! Ill' tli(> aliliat, lil<.' the iilli i .it' im'
bill, wli.i WHS u~.Uiilly ti) III' t'i'iinil m .;vorv
Ki'liif lll.lll;l^tl'^y, lii'iiij;, u< u rule. 1 . is.liutry
(M..ntiil.^Tiili.'1-t, Munlis iij' tin' West, in. in.. 11)4,
2.^1-'.'M7).
Ainim); tlio Siixonn In Knpilnn.l a similar
ivsnlt was im'oiIii.imI by otln'r iiiii ■ Whuii
Cbiistianity .■am.', the sutun.l lini.', int.. Ilio
islanil, it iirni- in the f,n\^e .1 in.niai hisni. 'I'lui
in. ink aiiil the iiii.^»l.inar} wuie .ini'. Many (if
the l>riti>li in.'nks hail b'.^i nia>sarr.'il liy thi'
lii'atlii'n invail.Ts ; many ha.! (Ii'.l li.r safi'ty to
the pi'ai'i'l'iil am! |ii-iisi)«iiinH ih.iiiastfrli's nl' thi;ii-
bri'thivu in Iri'lami. Iliit tbi'ir iilaci'K witi;
quickly lillu.l by tli.ii Ti'iitunii; succuss.irn.
Alm.ist cv.'ry largo chm- 'i wai> attacbi'il to a
monaKtery ; nn.l In thullr i instamo tin; nmnks
Wi!re thi! |iai'iMh-|irii!sts i I tho ill.i. oso (Milman,
Ldtin Oiiistiiiiiiti/, ii. ('.4). All this j;avii thi!
nmn.i.stcrii's in Kiu • '' n ii"M "vcr the po.ijilc
whiili tlioy nm'or In, t, till thi'ir ilissuhitinn in I hi'
liith ..'ntury ; ami as tli tiegiow Hi'aki'r which
ha.l (;i'.iu|ii'il fho ni.ink.i aiouml the bishoii of the
(linceso, ami as the in. mastery became iletacheil
frniii the minster, all tliis strenntliem' I the alihats
in their imlepenilence. The f.irmal excniptinn nl'
ni. masteries frinn upiscopal cimtinl in thini;s
secular ilates from the 7th century; anil the
council (if Ceakhythc (Chelsea?) a century later
only aHinuL'.t that the monks sh.iul.l take the
bishop's ailviee ("cum consillo episco|ii ") in
cleclinif an abhat ""'.'HO. Ciilfut/iL'iis. \ n. 787, c.
5). Kor all practicil purposes the authority
of an iu.lividual bishop in Kn>;lauil cMr a
nuinastery was hanlly ever mure tlinn nominal ;
ami in course of time the lonlly abliats of the
great monasteries vie.l in power and maguilii cncc
Willi the iKTUpants of the greatest sees.
The history of mouasticism, like the history .f
states and institutions in general, divides itself
broadly into three great jieriods of growth, of
glory, and of decay. Not indeed us if the gr.v i b
Were unchecked by bindrauce, the glory • -
ch.iiuered by defects, the decay never arrested
by transient revivals from time to time of the
tiickerin,.' tlamo of life. Still the successive sea-
sons of youth, maturity, old age, are marke.'
plainly and strongly eu' ugh. From the begin-
ning of the 4th century, to the close of the Tith,
from Antony the hermit to lieuedict of Monte
Casino, is th.' age of undisciplined imimlse, of
enthusiasm not as y«t regulated by exjierience. It
has all the fervour, and all the extravagance of
aims too lofty to lie possible, of wild longings
wiLluuit method, without organisation, of energies
which have not yet leurne.l the practical limits
of their own power. Everylliing is on a scale
of illogical exaggeration, .s wanting in balance, iu
proportion, n yminetry. I'urity, imworldli-
ni-'ss, charit) , ,.re virtues. Therefore a woman is
to lie r.garded .as a venomous rejitile, gold as a
worthless pebble, the deadliest foe and the
dealest friend are to be esteemed just alike (f../.
Rnlliii. dc \'it. .'■S. c. 117). It is right to be
humble. Theielore tlie lu.iu's culs oif hand, ear,
or tongue, to avoid being made bishop (e.g.
PuUaii. Jlist. Zaus. c. I'J) and feigns idiocy, in
MOVAHTRHY
order not to Im accuuntcd wi^c RuflT. li, o,
IIH). It Is well to leach people t.. I.e patient.
'n 1 ■■,'■' a sick monk never speak- a kind wonl
I Mi 'ho brother iimnk \. h.i nursed hiin
i.".,.f. liiKw. >'i'(. /',((,■. ••. I'l). It in right
to. i, 1 1. J lips fi-om idle w.inls. Therefore n
monk h»lil» a large stone in his nioiith for three
veins (il). c. 4) Kvery precept Is to be t.ikin
literally, and obeyi'.l iinieasoiiingly. Ther.t'ore
.some monks who hav.' Iieeii plu'ii.lered by a
robber, run after liim to give him a simu-thing
wliiih has escapeil his notice (Mo-ch. J'liit. c
'Jl'-'). Sell'-ileuial is enjoin.Ml in the gospel.
Therefore the ttust. ,'■ 'icisui are to b:
'simply emlles'-. ' ic u-^celu. iii.ii.i's hi- •< i.-llinj,
in a hollow tree, another in n cave, iinotlier in a
tomb, another on the top of a pillar; anotluT
Il is so lost the very appearance of a iiimu, that
lo lssh.it at by shepherds who mistiike him for
a wolf (I'allad. J/i,t. /.oim. c. T) ; Mosch. /Vof.
c. 7.1; The.idoret, /ViiA.M. c. 1.".). The natural
instincts, instead of being trnin.'.l and cultivated,
are to be killed outright, in the utter abhor- me
of things uialerial ns a dilileiiient of the sm '..
Adolius, a hermit near .leru-salem, and it is
merely one instan.w out of iiiiiny, is said to have
I'asled t"-o whole days tng.'ther ordiii.irilv ;■, d
live in Lent, to have jiussimI whole nights on
Mount Olivet, iu prayer, standing and iiiotionb-ss
(I'allad. ill. <:. 104), and habitually to have sl.pt
only the three hours before niorning. Dorotheus,
a Scetic monk, use. to sleep in <i sitting posture,
and when i: ^'cd to take his proper rest, wiuilil
reply " I'ersuaile the angels to sleep I " (i7i. i-, J).
Cleanliness became u sin, as a kind of self-inilul-
gence. The common duties of life were shunned
and neglected, heiause the en.l of all smh tliini;s
was near. No wond. r, if with no more active
occupation than meditation, or twisting osiers
into baskets, the soul of the recluse prcveil iipun
its.'lf, and peopled the dreary solitu.b- around it
with demons and sjiectres. No wonder, ijiii this
superhuman ll'ort to burst the bariieis cl" our
mortal natnr. by a protriuteil suicide, imu
mistook apathy for If-control, and l.e.anie like
stoc's or stones, . orute bea.sts, while wishing
to be a^ (lod. [M i IFICATION.]
The period win. u udlows, from the first Bene-
dict to Charlemagne, exhibits monasticism in a
more mature stage of inonastio aclivitv. The
social intercourse of the monastery iliily har-
■ ' 'lised by u traditb-nal routine, wii', its sub-
ordination of ranks u,i\ olHccs, its division of
duties, its mutual dip.ndence of all on each
othernnd on their head, civili.sed the monastic
life; anil as the monk ' . .It became suhj.'ct to
the retining ii'tluen.'i. i civilisation, he went
forth into t' orld wi'-iout t» civilise others.
Theconten', i of i iritual things was sii'l
proposed as rat . ct in view. I'lUt slat, i
and regular r» fo; ■ religious servi.es l.-it
leisure lor ,.r ociu|. lions, and brainwerk
took its prope.i- place alongside of manual hilioiir
The Benedictine rule implied, if it did not asMit
in so many words, that monks are to make them-
selves useful to others as well as to themselves;
and the practical result is seen in the convcrsinti
of the greater part of Europe to Christianity,
and in the revival of Europcuu Icaruine and arts
among the wild hordes liom the liiirth, the
c.ini|ueriirs of Rome. H.id it not been for monks
and monasteries, the barbarian deluge nii^ht hav«
•wept a-va
ti.in. Till
<if civilisii
• liTMiany,
(.Mal.illon,
alia, heil t(
the preciiis
France, of i
liene.lictlue
Chri-iten.ioii
ni'ouiid him
even ill reg
of Benoilict
fistnessiw, ('.
by iiresetvit
licrljits, both
by recording
neons events
knowledge u
and hoar.ling
searches oC a
niiisicians, jiui
fit't.^r the (low
'Mislaiight of t
'i' ■^tii.l. Mull.
'u what are
monastcies of
•h'licy of the i
the onier. 1
cinteinplutcd
ahhat of the
cliapter.s-gener;
nlilut of Mont
fltlually, suprei
Odd of Cliigny
Ills order of Ben
'lie fri;ir.s, the
U'l'ii'i 1(1. authc
Hh.ile order uud
nt I; nie (Ferd. '
P'^lli ,,la, C/ir. £
'low the origii
0, time to he lost
wealtoy mid po«
»;is corrupted a
ine monastic ordt
aggrandisement, 1
nviilii was einl
J.ettie.1 kind, an
l'«.inii. thejani.ssa
pip-icy, is hevond
The lilH'erenoe bet
aoJ lioine in the d
?'''■'"'.' than the
raiMiii, ,|,„u,„„,ji
tiiti.Mi. i|,purtena
iii.maste.v in the
/"iiuders,,f,„on„j,tj
new or. 1,.,., hasbeei
•iegeii.r.cy, „ .,p,i,
lu-istin.. .-iinpljcity.
'lie ihcadence of I
""' exclu.sively, no,
'■"■"'"S u])on it {
'0 something withi
0' .Is v,.ry being ft
M,m the surface, i
J'l^ilyse the cnmide.,
I'll'iW'ns in hurniiS ."
'"""■i^'icism, we ca
f«;*nfiilly at work
Mllbhoesi. Fear of i
MOVASTIortV
tlt'.-lK-l to tliH lor, ' '^' "'""el,,,,,!,
«'-'"M.I hi,,,, it 7,, t ■"'T'" '"" "'■"n.H
l-.v I're.u.,vi„g „u,, ,,,,' "' f """' Ath.,H, wl,.,,
"'■'■I,.t,, b.,th CLrllf. ., *^ ""'"""^ ""•"«'•
n''"us events, ,,,., h,.n linl ' "^ ',""'""'I"'ra-
"--'.iK,, uiquenchd t?f;;':;: ''■'•■ ''''■'^''''
m.uMdHns,p.ir;s „ « «:^^^^^ .Th.Hir«t
"''■^'""Kht or (he l„.rbar , r w ' '' ,""'''"" "-o
•^■■-M. M,n. i. CO. 4, 7 H 9 'i'.';?'"* (*'»''"'•
'-whatarecalk-d u;,,;i,^l,, ;•/->■
n..inu.st,..-i,,.s „f J,,,.,, „,,.„":""' '"!"». ""-viriou,
''■"-T--f the n,o„,"r ",:'■" '""'''V''^' l"""'-
tl'o onior. This d v.x., *^ ''' -^ "'« -""'t of
CM,(cM»pla^.d ;;\h;^t» ,""' not been
al^t-at of tl,B ...rent m . ' ^^"''"■''^■t. Ti,«
M.a of Mouto C„M ,, '1' '" rnUny, the
Ht..-le order under « "„"„,! • ""-'"'•, '""1 the
at ; ,ne (Ferd. Walter, i" J";^\ ' ^"J«nt
« - --upte.? and ;; "o SeT'bT'l" "'"'■".'•''^
"no nioua.stio o,-,|er vied ui h .^ '"»ury, hotv
«,Wr;,„di.se,„..,„, LTl^tr't'' "" ^^'"-''"r
i'e.Hn,o thejani.s»ariesor ,„ '"»'•»''*'= <rder,
P'l-.y. i.s beyond m V pre eTt /""' "'^'"' "'' ">«
The dirteronce botw'on R,m T '" '''^^■•"^'■'>"'-
?'■'■"■ than the iz„n;rr;''"' '^ •""•'">•
'"''"" ' ' M.purtenan c^ i ^e ^r'' T' '-"''- ,
"""i^'^te, V iu the rulei ll, , '■"°'^«i't'"n of a '
'"'""l"r»"fmona.tiei.m T! """^ '''« "'•«»
""v.nKr, ha« be,,, rturrZ"'"'/"'"' "'«'T
l"l»tll,. M,„,,li^,j,^ But ft, . ° ''"^"t to
'h" >l..oadence o^ the mon! "-''"w «"''»" «"''
»'ting upon it t[,„„ *"',""'>'• to causes
•<- -me.hinjf ^mrtJ,'^"'"''- .•"" 'Other
"'its v,.ry tfei„K f,l"h 'fi"" '"''«'•'-'•" PHrt
l-^l'^v the\nrf fe and ,1 u"" *^« '""^
»-l-e the ,.o.npler 1.. ^Tu. ''.'"'-"/ to
''■'l'l'<'ns it, humni .,„,;' '°t, wh ■, as ever
'""M.r.tKi.sm, we ranno'f' ''i;'°;i*"f' to result jn
'"*'■""")' at work ,.„ "' "^""""^ t''. re,
MONASTERY
1 '20
9"tr;:rTG::;;";;;:;!."^r-''-'^r
»«lv«. fnr,vard «, th. I. .''.':'"•'''' ''^t ri.e....
'''i-«H...r..nt„ei;t,, .;;;::;"';'"■« i-.n,^ „
tui-nndous ,n be ev,, X '"•/'"' •''•''■r.„al, ,,,,,
•y w.riiicin^ at U,v\JZT '"I '"'"■"'• ""''■'">
t.e, and .ho%riv,l ' ^I; "'V'''' ''''"l'"''^''''!!-
''"'"'tf-n. In his fa t'a ' '""' "'' •"«"'<•
''^ «*vn salvatio,,, th'e del '"'r'"" '" "'"''
"'^'«J '" tl,e world" f «'", '""' '"""try. Ho
Not. a..,„.dieti„,), ';,/"";■■ M. f>7'. i. 44,
'"^•-'--^»y.n,.at:.;,s-^,;::i::,:7'-'^'t'.
"oHiinuM, Uc J ,' *'•'"'»'" I-', IImumts.
';':^""»"ry „;'r',^'r^""«- "t- in tlli^
(.'■'/.v. ,.< /v,L',,,,l V "";i"nmnus (l{„d.), ^/J
I ;,„'>• Jhoniassinus, A',,^,,^, ,•, ('««t.«bou,
(I.uceae, I7:,'H). M, h,ii , / V'"' '^'"'■'j'/iwt
fUMpeig, 1744^/ lUM^ ,,'■ ^^"^'"■'"""■'l.
A^tCr^i^^^^' ^K;Lt.^(i:;:^;..«^^
H'aris, ,855r «, ^^nS^ Tf "" ' '" "" ^^
Jfr.U„» /,</.«,/S'. l,;"!'^;": "•■'^, "I'- Mi^ne,
^«ft,/.^.„J^-£--;^5);^Mo„.a,eJ
'h->tabli.Le:t''o ■;; ~'^ -''-'."ent t"
'-'"l.est monks were .„7h 2 ' ''^"'^""'- '''''«
''"■«"inK )f the w, I T ?*"*'"' ■^"•i^»
occupying is.lated vJlsTa,l!'''i' «"'it"nes -
of the d..M,rt, or the m !f '^'"^'"^^ '"•^^'^'•^^
tain ,„r,es, r^, f,,,, a sp," l'r''T,'''* "'""»-
habitation.. The lifeTan L T"' """"' '"""«"
fore absolutely i„de Iden? t "f ' ""^ '^ere-
f 'iherty to iV«n, 7or hi.nsel^"'*' r"""-^ ^"'^
!'^. '"""J hest«daj,ted fi., thl . 7'*' " '■"'^- "^
';'^" ot spiritual coLlu ion eo'nTe '"!""" '" "">
ab.st,a,:tion from all "Z'lllv, "'''""""• "'"1
"■a,s his obje,,t. Ifc ,Z\1 > f""-"'"". whiW,
others, but-'he waTf,! '^.^^"f^V'""--! tVo.„
No one could ,l«i„, to lav '"■ '^"''^ '"*•
rir'::';,^: ti".-on!^.tT'.,»J-[-
^«^.;•;ir:::,l;^"t^I;r:,^^ th;j::nX :
P-'nence of otl,ers,\„a »■" P'"^' **■' *'"' «-^-
a.scetios were .,„lle. .""^ ('..'""" "'■'"•"•»*'"»
ie« discipliued brethreTto -d.';',' T' ■""'
IS
l2;io
MONASTKIIY
MONASTKUY
fcir tliijr KuiiUncit in wimt bfjjnn tn Im rnllcil
" thi' tiut' I'liili'Hiiiihy."
Jinlr.ioi SI. Aiitiini/ ,ii,il St. Am'd'i.- Thi- cchIiw
of ruli'H cit'tlil-i imtiirc, wlilili Imir tin' iuimii'h «f
St. Aiitimy un.l tlii' Svriiiii iil.l it Uninh, |iiint«'(l
l>y Iliil«lfiiiiis III lilx <'iili:r Jii-./it/nruin, nvi<. it in
»(kiio',vlivli,'oil, ciiiiiijlRlldnH oi' II Inlcr iliiti', mul
jinitiiilly ii.lii|iti'.| til till' ciifiinliitii.' ny^ti'iu. 'I'Ih'.
hsvi' li.iwi'v.T i-iiii'.i.li'rnhlii viiliu', ih iiflmiliii. .
fMithriil piitiiic I'I'llii Ii' , r lir,« ultln'i'mliot
•<<lilni'ii'-i, nu.t inilii'ittiii)( tliu ti'iii|>tiitiiiiiH to
wliiili thi'v wiTf niii.st liulili'. Thi'V rtrii (ji'ir'-
r:\lly ihsrai ti'iini'il hy mhiikI I'mnniun mciisi', anil
AM intiiiiiiti' kiiiiivl(>.|({i' lit' Ininiiiii imtm-B. 'I'lio
olij.'it III' till' iiilo, tn which hII i'Im' whs milisi-
(liiii y, win li iiH liiiniiliiitiiiii l'"r sin, with I'anu'st
•ontiitiiin, as n nii'Hii« nl' irHinmij tlw jinrlnn mul
l'»viiiir 111' (i.i.l, Uiniil .si'ir-ilis,i|ilini' i« I'lil'iirci'il
a» n iiii'HiH til this ciiil, viiliii'li'ss ill itii'll'. The
osti'iitulinU'. iliiplHv iifiimi'tii'ism, nlinsijiving, nr
dcviitiiiii i.H sti'inly |iroliiliit('il, uml w.iininijs
•re Kivi'n ni;niiist s|iiriliiiil |iii,le. The il«y in tn
be iliviili'il lii'tvviM'ii nmiiiml liilmiir, ri'Bilin){, nml
prnyer. " Orn I't li'>;ii |iir|ii'tuo " ( A'l'v. iS". Aittim.
c. 'J; /.'ir/. /s. 11); pvcii when ({iiinu; to drnw
water the niuiils is tn oriii|iy hiiiisell' in roailiiii;
(.!.<. c. 'j:i); till' I'sallils aii' t" he the rliiet'
suhjeet.s (if his perusal anil ineilitation, tn keup
him Irnni im|iiire thi'Ui;lit.H (.In/, o, 4(1; Is. I.!).
The aii|iiiiiiteil hmirs ut' prayer are tn he striitly
observel. lielnre tij' nmiik i;iies tn rest he is to
devnte twii hours tu watihiiij;, in prayer iiud
prniso. Miiliii'.'ht is to Iw spent in wati hiu^ to
prnyi'r (A. e. ."i"), anil as snon as he risen he in to
Jiray ami nieilitate mi the wiinl orcjoil, then lie-
gin his work {.int. <:. .V2). I'ruyer is to he
iiinile staniliiii;, aiiil that with tlic utmost rcver-
eiK'o 111' lioily ; the inoiik must not lean au'iiiust
the walls ol' his cell, or .shift his weight tmiii
one foot to another (/s. o M). Foml is never to
be taste 1 lielnre the ninth hour, except nu Satur-
day anil .-^unilay ; only one meal i.s tn he taken
in the day (.4ii/. c. 'J) ; eatiin; to satiety is tn ho
Bvnided, still more cliilt.my {Anl. c. 3L') ; ii
little wine is nllnwed, hut all drink must he
taken slowly, n..t fiulpe.l down nnisily. If twn
or more iiioiiks eat tnjjetlier each is to take what
is placed hel'ire him, and not stretch out his
hand to another dish {Anl. .'Ci ; /.s. 20). The
sick are not to he forced to eat, nor to be rohhed
of their portion (Ant. e. !i). Meat is to he
avoided altoaretlier {.int. c. 14). Wednesdaya
and Fridays are to be kept as strict fasts, unless
a monk is sick {Ant. c. l."i). The time for taking
fond and its quantity is to be li.xed by each monk
for himself, and the rules laid dow'n are to he
strictly observel, giving to the body as much as
it wants, that it may be able to prav and wor-
ship (iiid. K.xcessive fasting is to he avoided (/s.
c. 54, Titi). The monk must maintain solitude,
live alone, work alone, walk alone, above all sleep
alone (.Ih*. e. (i8, 8 ; /,v. c. IS). He is specially
to avoid conversini; with boys or youths, and as
the most dangerous of all, with'women {Ant.
c. ;t; Is. K. 1). Kven his relations living in the
world are to be shunned, and the thought o( them
repressed. He must not loiter in other monks'
ceils. But if any one knocks at his cell he is to
ojien to him immediately, and receive him with
a cIki • ill! couuteuance. No idle questions are to
b« put to him, but he is to be asked at once t(
pray, and a book is to be given liiin to read. If comprising 194 separate heads. The society, for
he Is tired, water i« In be '.jlven for liiii feet 1 if
hid ilollies are rni;gi'i|. iney are to he niended : n'
foul, wiwhel. If he ihailerii fnotislilv he is tn he
laiilinii-ly sileiiiel ; if la' is an idle ruimifnti he
is to l,e refreiiheil and sent about his biiniiiest
(/.«, c. :i;i). When the ownerof the cell i|i'|iarts,
the visiliir is lint 111 raise his eyes to see wlmli
w.iy he ui'cs (/,,. c. :),')). If the guest leaves iinv.
thing beh lid the host miiht iint exaniltie it In ■. e
what it is {In. c. :)4). If it is some vessel r
iiiijileiiient of iiiniinon life he is not to use II Hin..
out his leave (A. c. (10). I'mwded i hiirches m,.
tn he shiiiiiied {Ant. c. in). If anything lakes a
niniik to the city he must keep his eyes mi (li,.
grmin I, liiiish bis business as soon as he can, aii'l
return promptly. In nllering his wares for sal,.
be is never to haggle about the price (A, c. .Mi).
If an old man accmiipanies him on (he rna I he
is not to be allowed In curry anything ; if ymingir
men, they are to share Ihe load equallv, or if ii is
very light each is to take it by turns'(A. e. I,i).
Idleness is to be shunned as the greatest .i|
laugers (Ant. c. 411). The monk must I'mve
hiiiiself to work against his will, and fullil imy
task assigned to him without iiinrniuriiig(A<.c. 7 ).
If two monks 111 copy (ine cell, neither is In Inrl
it over the other, hut each Is to he ready at micu
to do what the other bids him (A. c. ;i(l). Tlie
ntmiist respect is to be |uiid to others; iiniio
shoulil spit or gape in another's presence
(fn. 0. 21). All sense of pitiperty is to he
jitit away. If a monk returns to a cell he has
left and liiids it occupied, he is not to try to turn
out the intruder, but go and seek another ei II
(/». c. G;t). If he changes his cell he is to Like
nothing away with him, but leave all to his
successor (/.v. c. (!4). All ostentation in dress
is to he avoided ; young monks are to go simliliv
and wait tHI they grow old before they wi.ir
a good dres's (h. c. .'(H). A monk must im't .shew
nil' his voli I , but pray in a low tmie (Anl. c. 27).
If ho cnpies a book he is not to ornament it (A.
c. 2:t). The love of riches is to bo regarded as i hu
bane of a monk (h. c. titi). The sick and intirni
are to be visited, and their water vessels lilh.l
(.-III*, c. 34). Alms must be given up to, hut
not beyond, one's means. A monk should never
laugh, but always wear a sad countenance :is
one that mourns for his sins, except when ntlier
monks eoiiie to visit him, when he is to shew a
bright face (Ant. c. 47 ; la. t. .'lit). The diseiisis
of the .Sim, I are to be opened to his spiritual lather
(A. c. 0,4:i). All is to be done that others nmv
glorify their Father which is in iieiiveii {Ani.
c. ;)0). (I{c,jh/(W S. I\ A'. ^iiio7(i'i „(/ jilinx smis
mtmivhus ; Isaiiie Abbiitia A'o/m/.i mI Muiuic/ws.
llnlstenius, Cixi. Ee<j. torn. i. jip. 4-9.)
y.'Nfe of St. /'n.Aoiiim.s.— When the eremite
gave place to the coenobite, and the solitary ivll
developed into a convent peopled with a iiiiiiii'-
rous society, the need of rules for the goveriimeiit
of the fraternity was immediately t'elt. liesiil;!-
tions had to be laid down as tothe dress, I'l.id,
and daily occupations of the inmates, as well ns
for their stated meetings for worship and erdi-
iiary intercourse. The earliest rule of this iiiitmv
is that of I'achomius, the fnundor of the cnemihitic
system, born, like Antony, in t! Thelmiil, A.n.
2!(2. We have this rule in nine's I.itin
translation, with a preface from tiie pen of thiit
father. It is a document of great interent.
wM'h It was
the island of ',
it extended wi
Iminder's i|„„,
enelliiliia fiir 1,1,
wmiien. The „
(iriiiiiinted tn ,",i
The w hole a„,
»nd relii;i,„i» ft.,
"ived implicit II
tiii!itfrif)nini urit.
h.illse, 111 which
n year, ut Kaster
'I'he I'asf'hal nu
fi'.<lival of the ve
f'lr clearing uj,
iilar. All reci
ivi re at variance
(Mti.rs of „n,;h
niToiMits, all neei
Slid iillicials Were
(lliernn. I'r,u'f„t.
iiuiiiastery w'a,
hmisi'S {ilinnun), ,
Arty brethren ;
grmqieil acpiirdiiij
ki'lhreii iiitn a >• i
went to work toge
in the weekly mi,
jiri'sided over by ,
stnlf of stewards
ilsries, and ministi
nonised authority
hri'thren gave n w
' 'I'l/. c. '-', (I), 'J'f
\\u very strictly de
lie »ns absolute. N
out his .sanction. A
«M in his kee|iing, ,
h theiight good, goi
firtliat pur|iose. N
«ssli;nnient, or try
nii<nk(/iV./. ,S'. /',„7„„
siithiirity was chielh
nary power was resti
I'aies of insuhordina;
fcriiiighthefnretheahl
himself tn rebuke if h
time to rejinrt them
iniportiince of his oflic
number, particularity,
jmictiiins for its execui
frtiiins against the a
[« c. I, '111). Jle ,,.^^ ^
" lie slept out of the
t'l'lmitted, even afte
fuperiiir's leave (ihid. c.
»iTe the /i,'lK/,),n,((ii,rii, '\
'"•eckin rotation in
with divine worship, m,
diities(i4,;/.,.. i2_i5) rj
»,v. lifter mattina, the h
"if abliat for orders, am
''""■ '''I"')' were to visit
«■ at eneh wanted, to ,,
f «t and re,,lace then,
(''"''■ c. 'ir>). These olli,
prnriist, were to be vii:
ffrrty of the r.nnv..nt
'^•;f\ back at the end
H'llneked up till the
(«-M). They were to
MOVANTKuy
'"''i" '•"r „ ,„„i „„.: I ,^iiM:r''i"'""'' "'"-
::zJ^: ;::;::- "^ -^!'r^':,:x::;::
'■»'■; i'>i"it„, iJ^^^:.r^ ;:;::;■'' '•■'■''•^'^''''•''
«.v.«,-, «t Ka,t,,' an,!!?, .h ■ """••'"''''■•I t'vlr.. I
»"'••■ »' ^--i"""' w,..v r,.,.„„ . „ ' "',;'""'"'■ »l",
tlnN.l'H (iC „,„.h -,„,,„, ' '"■ "i"' 'iilniini«.
»-.n,f,,„,,'„L: ;";;:[,,,'•"''«•'' '" th,.ir
..^1 "Minnie w..r„ .., ,^, ' "h""" "'"""'""•■'.
""""'■^'•■'•y wi.« IK I "l ""• *'• '• ">• K'«'h
H-n,,.. (f/,,,,." ';:'";' ""-> »hi'ty -r f„,,v
f-rly .„\.thr«n; th.l ,r'f ■-'""';:'"'"« «'"'">
--^"f -t,.wJ,^;:;^,2-:.''";;H«.Mu
f.u.rn»,.,| n„th,.rity I,, onlh TJ,"! Uir'T'-"*"')
' ''1/ (■ " VA tI ^ n<''"iirit „f tin.ir w.,ik
-v;;v;;;^Hy l;7'':^!^ ■"•"••' i.n.v::'
!.<■ «™ , hsnhuo N h • "'"'''"^'■rt-'iM lirnitH
■mthi.,ancfi, ,\"! «"■""♦" I'-I'^ne vnth.
".win hiH k,.,., „/ „ r^u '"■"l'"'y "fth" hn„s..
h-thM,,.,t Ko,Vr«;'^, „;:,''; ";'''"!— it «.s
f"'th„t ,,ur,.„,s„ Nmmh w„V/' '"' "■'"■''■^''"l'"
«s.ii{„n,™t, „r try . ,. u"" '" ■"'"■"'""• "t '-i"
«iitli»ritv \\m ,.hi,.flv ..,•„,„.', 7 .'/' ""' ''i«
»"y,.o»..rwn,rZd ''■'*'•, "'^ '""'il'li-
'w/"f ii.»nb»Hin„t i, ,r^,,!'' l"''''''"'>f '"■'""'^■•-•.
l'^""Sl.tl..forothori„,;,f ."'''' "■"'■" t" '■«
'- <■■ -pon th;!,:\:j:f r-";^;" /!;--i;;y.'
j™ction,Vo' ";« ;;."''„ uf''"-: "'' "'•-' "'-
r-aLnitt, I. e on „ W " '"' ""^ '"" '" ''"
'"■e»k i„ ,.nt„tion i„ nmvl 7 '"''''■'''■"■'•''
'Xh .livin. worship ,,;,",''"'"'» -""'■'.•to,l
'fc'ablmt (or or,l,.r3 1 1 """'!"■" ''■"•« '» ask
«"to„,.h wnnt.vl,t«siv"i ':'r «■'-<'
'*ct«mlrt.pI,„■ethom„^ fK , '"'"''■'' ni"l
"'"'■ ^' 2.-.). Those of / "'"' "'■ "•« «-'>"k
h-«). T^Je^t^'7^;;:- :-:
MOVAHTKUY
12;tl
' the p»ve„„.„(, „f ,h„ ,
!"■'• .|"H"tity c,C n.,1,.. *'"■*'•"'• "pro-
!;'•'«. '-■Url,:''"k.,,'^7'-' '-r .'p...
'■"«h w..,.|, (,/„,/, ",, .,,,',1''"' !'"' '•"l"'»inHl.,
"'iiomit „(• work wfts-^V *'"''■' ''"i'y
•'■■"th-r. hut th,.y w?r n t T /'"I"'""' "'' •"" ^
I K'»ii with puhlicpr V,; r // /'-'• ''■'"• ''«y
''"■l.i"»tr,.(un,,.,ir" ' ('"!'"'. '""^ "''•'<- "'
h'"'" or trumpet A ,. "*"" """■"■'n..,| hy ,
'""i"»fwiti thvv;,o„ ■';;*'"''■ I'' m.
«"^" "ll t„ repent H.r,';^ ,,."""";"• '''^'''Y
"" ''.»■ '''"ITi-'K the ha. , Th T " '"■" '"""'I
•■rl.alte,|\;..re.hi,ir, •^,^''"'■^''•'''■''''''''■■■•■'1
I'"""""- whe„ pn , ,''• )' """ """• tn l„„k at
'""(file,! .Iuri„„\, jl . '^^' . ."^ "">■ ">'" tall.,.,1 „r
th-ultar«ith hi h I r/* '" "'"'"' '"•f-ro
•'"''•'"rehuk'ltth"/ '''''■'' '^
"«'-i'' '•■■• .^si ; :,/ r ^"1' "<■ --ins
"'■;■'■• »!"■ mniiks were t. a ;..,:, '^ '"'"t"..
" ''i"l-"tati„n |.rn,,os ,1 y Th' : ,". 'T"''"'"^"' "'
tHi.iew::; : ~'7''"'t:'.-mi,i-,,ay."'';t
h'^'f» "!• s»m,„,-./;4;„7' "■''''» t'H' extremo
"""'liMuHine,! t„ cMue ,/""'"•,. "'""""I<
»;.H all,,,,,.,, ,„,^„,, the |;ul,l„ tal.l,. 1,0
//"■'■on. (. •,, I, , ' ""'t "> hi« vi-WU'nu'f
'"•'"'^ -■»" tai V i;;" ::''•:•'"-''"' '"^^
-t'vt.h out the hand v^rh ;'*'.,''''•• ""■"'.'•>
"t "th. rs eating. f l,' '^ ""'<;. "r t" look
'••""'K-hisplaeehcnu t T'-'""' ''''' « '"""k
'•"'"'I hy ..si^n ,1 'yt '" n«l'^;J (or, hnt i„,|i,
■ «■"» to have more or n!„ ^ '■'■ '• '*'^>- ^'o
another. The „1 „ "V ■ "• ''"'""t'' f'""! than
''•:'t'''"''^'hey^.-i'"'S^^^^^
""Kht work in his ,..|| -r, 1 ^- ^'"""■'l'
work took |,iek|,.,| v„, . iV '' '"■''" "''"touf to
«"). At tii: el: ';;x"--''' them (■■.;,;.*
^'■'""A') were Riven tcfh f"'"t".' •its (/,„.
the re.eetorv, t?i^ t^ke, "'n^-. "' '''" ''"'"• <>'
'" their hoo,|.;, an, I'te,, fK ""■"If""', ''ut not
;■■.» not to take h s ewn ha ^Z ^^ '"''"''-"r
-;n the .„.„vost («.t' 2^'^',/"';''"-e it
'iile he|,|V,„„| j^ fh„ ,1 .'■,'• ^ "onilnr
nniterlal, C work „n MI '' .f ''''"'i"" "f food,
"•-ity of all things ;.tw-H "" '^''''' *-•""-
t" Pn'.snn.e to take an thi^ V ^,". '""' *^«»
veKetahles (c. 79), pal,.,.,"^ ' ^""■''■"^' "t-ither
74), ears of oorn ^J, 'T ''"' "••avini; fc
-"'0 were to bf hr ugh 'to ^^*,"" "''"*- "»d
stayed at home, f.,r thef, eafin ^'■'',*'"'^'" «ho
""« ^e «Ue„ nJr taken the*^.'!;";""'"" '"""
l"'"'' "I- «t the root of the t,w '-I'-C "^>' "^"t
l-r "f tweeter, for ,n IliL of.^ h'"'"' '"» "«■«
"''" pair was to hanV „ the • ^"■'" ' « """-
'••'""«" ^vere placed fc 82) '^i"''"r..'^''ero the
" (.c. «^;. Ao addition must
! • ■^''
'k iKt».iv •
ifl
i
if?
1?32
MdXASTERY
lit;
be male to the cldthins; ])roviiIe(l by the siipprinr,
viz. *,W(i tiiiiics (Iciitomiria), ona wcirii with use;
a Iniii; cnpc for tho ni'cli iiiij shouliliTs {siihivius) ;
a Icatlieni in.ufh to h.mg at the side; ^alnshi's
{ij illii-w) ami two hnoils ; a girdle ami a stall' (e.
81) : anything besides this equipment a brother
might possess was to be brought to the provost,
and placed at his disposal (c. Ul2). The hoods
W( re to bear the mark of the eonvent (c. ii9).
Ti e monks were to tieep alone on a mat spread
on the floor without a bolster (c. 81, 88). The
cell door was to be always unfastened (u. 10").
No one was ever to sleep in any place but in his
own cell (c. 87). The rule guards most carefully
against the dangers of unrestricted intercourse
between members of the society. No one was to
enter armther's cell witho .< necessity, or remain
there when his business i. '■- concluded (c. 102).
They were never to speak to one another in thn
dark, or hold one another's hands, or lie together
on the same mat. No one was to go out alone
(c. ,")ii), but when two walked together they must
be a cubit apart (c. 94). A ir.iink was forbidden
to ^miiint, wash, or shnve an.ther, or take out a
thorn for him,,excppt by th j provost's ])ermission
(c. 93-9.5). Two might 'ot ride together on an
ass, or on the tilt of a waggon (c. 109). When
forced to be together, as when kneading bread,
or carrying the dough to the (pven, silence was to
be maintained, and the mind given to meditati(in
on Hi>]y Scripture (c. llti). The same rule was
to be observed on board ship, nor were thev to
go to sleep on deck, or in the hold, nor allow
others to do so (e. 118, 119). The greate.st
vigilance was to be observed against wondering
thoughts. All who had mechanical duties to
perform, e.g. to summon the brethren, give out
materials, or serve food or dessert, were to
meditate on a portion of scripture. When they
went to work they were never to talk on secular
matters (c. 59, ^u). All tattling abroad, or
bringing gossip home, was strictly prohibited
(c. 8."), 8(i). Th'' rule of Pachomius, in broad
distinction to some later rules and the practice of
the majority of solitaries, is very particular in its
directions about thewashingof the mcpnks'clothes.
This was to be done in common, at the provost's
order ; the clothes were to be dried in the sun,
but not exposed later than 9 a.m., lest they should
get scorched. When brought home they were
to be gently suppled {temtcr millUmtur). If not
quite dry one day they were to be laid out a
second. There was to be no washing on Sundays
except for sailors and bakers (c. (17-73). Invalids
received special care. A sick monk was conducted
by the provost to the infirmary (trict'iiium
aiyrutantiuin), which he alone was permitted to
enter. Kxtra clothing and food were given to
him, according to his need. He was forbidden to
carry these to his own cell. He tnight not be
visited even by relations, except by the licence
of the provost (c. 42-47). A monk who had
hurt himself, or was poorly, but who was still
about, might have extra clothing and food at the
discretion of the provost (c. 105). There was to
be a guest-house {jcetuxlochlnm), where all who
claimed hospitality were to be entertamed wifi
due honour. Weaker vessels and women wr e
not to be rppul.se{l, but '<> be received \v ...\
caution in a place apart a,oo,gned to them (c. 51).
If a relation came to see a mimk, by the special
Bauction of the abbat he was allowed to go out
MONASTERY
and converse with him, with a trustwcrthy cnm-
jiafiion. If any good things were brought him to
eat he was permitted to carry sweetmeats and
fruit to his cell, but whatsoever had to be eaten
with bread was to be conveyed ti the .iick-bouse,
anil there partaken of (c. 52). If a monk had to
leave the convent to sec a sick relative he Wiia
bonud to observe the rule of the monasterv as to
eating and drinking (c. 54). He could only attend
a kinsman's funeral by the provost's leave (c. ,")."i).
Difierent degrees of penance were ordained fur
minor otlences : breaking earthenware (c. 125),
losing the pr.'porty of the convent (c. Vi\),
spoiling hi.s clothes (c. 148), apjiropriating what
did not belong to him (c. 149) ; and heavier
punishments for offences of graver coin])lexiiiU •
angry and passioni-.te words ('.■. Ml); liilseli J
(c. 151); false witness (c. 1(52); corrupting
others (c. 1(33) ; stirring up dissension (c. lil.i).
Any article found whose owner was unkiK.wn
was to be hung up for three days before niafliiis,
to be claimed (c. 132). A novice was first to
be taught the rules of the order, and was tlien
set to learn twenty I'salms, or two Kpistles, nr
some other part of scripture. If he couM ut.t
read, he was to h.ive three lessons a dav, aid
be forced to learn to read even against liis will
(" cti.im invitus legere oompelletur "). j.veiv
inm.itt' of the convent was expected to know by
heart at least the Psalter and the New Tesfii-
meiit ''c. 139, 14o). If any of the boys brousfht
up in the monastery proved idle, and can less
and refused to amend, they were to be flnggi.d.
The pi'ovost was to be punished if he neglec t,d lo
report their misdeeds to the abbat (c. 172. 17;;).
The rules which pass under the names (d' the
early anchorets, Serapinn, t'aphnutins, and the
two Macariuses, thcnigh with no claim to be
regarded as the production <jf those fathers, are
important as additional evidence of the charac-
ter of the earliest coenobitic life. The sepa-
rate ordinances in the main correspond t" tliiise
of Pachomius. They supply more disfii'.t
information as to the aiiportioninent of the earlv
part of the day. The time between the conclu-
sion of mattins and the second hour, 8 .\..M., was
to be spent in reading, unless any nece.^saiy
work had to be done for the society. From tlie
second to the ninth hour was to be devoteil liv
each severally to his own work, without mur-
muring (/.ei/ul. Patrum, c. 5, 6). Passing over
the rule of Orsiesius, abbat of Talieniiae. the
di.scijde of Pachomius (d. c. A.I). 3i:8), which, as
its title, " Ihctrina sive tractatus " imidies, is
a prolix hortatory address to the member* of
his society, embracing all the chief jiarti.ulais
of Pachomius's system, not a code, and the /i'';ii'a
Orii-uhilis, compiled in the 5th century by Vij/i-
Innti is the deacon fi-om the c.rlier monastic
rules, which exhibit nothing deserving special
notice, we come to the rules of the founders f
Cappadocian monastici»ni, Kustathius of 8ebastt,
and Basil the Great.
/,'ule of St. ISasll. — St. Basil's mflimstic
institutions rnn to a considerable length. Thcv
are com])riscd in his Scnnoncs Asvctlri, ml
his two collections entitled respectively llajulat
fvsins tractat'ie, and the iPcr/M/o- lirerhu tnic-
'i;.:t,\ The Cdnstitufk-nfg A:~,(tktU' [ivh-.h-.] in
'i .M'a works, are assigned by thif best authiri-
ties to Eustathius of Sebaste. The ^riTi'/uia »t
I'oenae in Momuhos Delimwutcs, an early
example of a Pot
Basil's pen.
The picture of
rules is charac
piety, and a c
intimate knowle
.?aine<| ii, his inte
life, which isofte
The jirinciple wit
one object of the
the soul, and tha
that simuld be
divine command,'
sive form too soon
has no place in 15a
Self-discipline is si
any merit in itsc
enabling the spirii
conquering the ar
nature to give its
ivit.T God, The h
obedient servant ol
unfit for such servi
Selfishness is incou
religious life, ii j,
Irions religious con
aud scditary ancho
perfection of Chri
psalmody were to ]
but by no means to
to useful labour.
to be absorbed in ai
with the Deitv " (Jl
W-. iii. c. 9- vol.
zealous advocate oft
the eremitic life, wh
trafingonselfthegi
the benefit of mankii
talent in the ei.rth,
sloth. Me can neit'l
clothe ihe naked, nor 1
towards whom he car
passion, or pati.-nce.
bring him back ; ;f h
up; his offences renin,
one to rebuke him, '
he decides to be bot;
(Basil, J^e,;.fusius tro
a coenobitic establish
tired place, far from t
<:• «), and that there shi
such house in the sam
and squabbles, to dimi
«M to save aspiranti
choice and from ficklen,
Ihe number of brethre
than under ten, A ma
morals should be plae
wiglit be a pattern of ,
connnend his authority
implicit obedience musl
fforJ must be law. H.
than young, but advan
darned the chief quali/i.
P' "^r*^ sq.. ii. p. 32.
»"P«ior i, to rebuke oil
favour (c. 2,>). The br
» him all the secrets of (
.-- ... fh^ cst.-ibi,^|,i,i,
fcavc c deputy to supply 1
busy (e. 45). N,;'brot
""hout eiamination an.
MOVASTORY
piety, and a con rotse-L"";'' ' '';.«''-'"'""'
inthnato knowledge ^? h '^ ''"*'"" ''■"■" ""■
gai"<Hl in his intercourse -f h?K "'"'";'-' '"-' >""'
lift', which i.s<,ften wnnti,,;'''' '^'' ^"'"■''' >" ""■ly
The principle witLwhi h'^h '•'•'«» oflnter ,hu[
one ohject 'of th L ^ ;^i''r: • ""^ ''^ V"" " "^'•■
th« sou], and that vo rvt n J t^';' '"'7""" "^
that should be TevZl,l'",f "'"■' "-"""I""'" to
divine ...mmand " Th„ ^' "'^""^■'"l "" «
sive form too soon aslld'll"T*""' "'"' '•"P">'
has no place in BasM's idea ^^V»'^■'•" ««««ti 'i"-
Self-discipline is set «,rthV/ht Zt'""^ '"'■
any nicnt in itself, but al a , /„ "" '"'^"'«
enabling the spirit io L . '""'''"'""'it for
conquering thrinneHt ' """''-' *''« ""^h, and
..a.nre to'^i.e it?' '„',? pi"?'""* '"■ ''""-'
"it.i God. The bodv was fo^' C'-mrnnnion
obedient servant of the Wb , . ""''"'■'"' t''*
■""'^t for such serv ce bv ef ""*'"''' ""' """'«
Selfishness is incon' stent ^^^K ''!:''"' ""»t'"-"i"».
religious life, "t 'is ,K|- <•'''' '''"" "'" ""^
and solitarv anchoret wM V ""' ""'"'''lit
l-fe-tion of CirtianS ' ""^ 'l "''^" ^''^
lisiilniodv were to biv» .k ■ " ' ■^''.^'''>* am
bntbvno meanrtoi"?r„l ' "W'ointcd hours;
to useful labour '; "'"'" ""-^o 'i«^»f«l
to be absorbed in a"p*ernef !)"'*" J" "° "''l"-''t
-''"..the Deity " S^lf^^^'^T
bk in. c. 9; vol. iii. p loaV-'^l,??'''''''''/'
zealous advocate of the ,.n^„ ».■ "'*'' ""»«
tbeeremiticlife, which he com" "' 'W""--'^. '■
fating on self the gifts ^' "'""''"•">-' «« ".nc^n-
the benefit of mankf^d rt '^''T ""'■'"'''"' ^•"'
talent in the"!rth L I r''''''"y '^"'•''•» his
t'h. He can n ft'h:, fj^r't;! 'I "'"'""" ''^
clothe the naked, nor v it he si k n7''^' ""''
towards whom he can , vi. i u ','"''«'* >"">iit'
P-hm or patite"", ;« ;.™ he"'"^' """ ^'■'"■
bnng him back ; ;f be (1.1 Un. "" "" """ *"
"N his offences rem. ■n'ii"";"'' ^" 'i^ him
one to rebuke him l K 7, I" '^^'^^""t "f "ny
he decides to be befh d-H' u ^ ''("' 'howfore,
a crenobitic establishmcnf I,' i >® Mvises that
tifed place, far from the '"''' *"> '" « ^'^^
c. «), and tha there should nVr" "^ """' (*«•
8..ch house in the same 1 ^ """■" 'han o„e
andsquabbies, to dTrnini',! *' *" '"■"''' ""^^^T
»«<! to save 'a pirrtfL'T"?'"' "■""''!.%
choice and from ffckleness^,r "'' '"'"'^""y "^
The number of brethren sh ''n'r* ('''«'• ^•S-"').
than under ten. fZl .f trfd^*"'" '""'^■'
"i-als should be placed „*i^ .^'ha'-'^tor and
«ight be a patternofall Chri * "'"^' *'"'
connnond his*^ author itv bv b ?? ''"''""' «'"'
'"'Plieit obedienc m"^I k^ h>s blameless life.
«"rJ must be law He «b '^m'* .''""' "''' hi-
'han young, but advan « ""''^ *" "''^ "'th-r
J«n,e,l the chief q^S ^"":? " ■"" '" '"
"Perioris't, rebui;e ol'nH '^- •'; ^^^^ ''"he
favour (c. 2.>) The b eth,"* """'""' '"''«•• <"•
'» him all theiecrttsoftheir'h "7 '" '"^^ ■""•«
f»r of the cstiM i ''*'"''''= «' 'he r.-.r,-
havc . deputy to trnlTbi' ^^^ ''^; "« "h"uld
»' busy (c'; 4,(). K rrotherP'"'* "^u"'^''' »''««"'.
MOXASTERY
1233
'Jfhet^:^nce^?t;l';n"''""^'— ^
'■•hiMren when prese" u!^ If T'." ^'■- '-)' ""J
"wful '-'"".•dians h„ns f , '^K ^""''""' '"
:' ho adopted as the cH" -en ,f t'b "''" ''""'
Jhese were not to be placed on fh '"."""""ify.
they 'vcre old en,.u^b * ' a ""f ''''K'*''''' '""il
nnJ could und" stld A^''^' "■■ 'he.nselves,
>n""astic vows Thev f "Venning of the
the hrethrer^TcoJt-.rr. " ''^' »<'P-'"'->teJ f.-m
'■"ll'Hv.specia ruleias to^^I r'""'"'l'' "'"' '»
-Mtabie'to theiraVe A S" k"'' '"■"■•■^- '^^"='.
niter admoniti.m and rLf ^ ^' ,.'^"""»«.v "laves,
sent back to the." rat^fTV:"' """ '" '^
evil man who comnZdeTf'hin ' '""''"'■ ""^ ""
1"^, the slave was be »".?'.'""'■•'"•>■ t"<-'l'8
"•"therthanmarandt 1 "'■*"' '" "^ev Ood
he might hav'r'i:: ] .. ™c Pf/.-'l-V the trials
entered the socictv w„,l . P' ^h"se who
their .property M^ th "hand of^Th'- *" ^"'•^"
heirs if they were likeW t i, """'" "■''"^1
entrust it to th' se wh7 m""' ''' '"'* should
Kl"ry (c. 9). The idea or** "\' " ''"^ ^''^'s
studiously ..pressed „„ "'"'"'P ""^ to be
either sh^e o';":irtr;'^^":!"''">-'''"'^.
"'"•>-. "f life, his own. AH th! 7h T T''-
'•eiinircd was to be kent in „ " brethren
"•"' dispensed at thS seUionTfTb^'""'''""'
="lV1.r'^.°"r^/^:"[-;-:
('!•■ p- 3.^2). "t'Thoo" r "" n'"""/
K'vcn to praver (ib n ^9.^ \ "'"' *" he
■■esularitv in devotion ?L^' • *"?' *» secure
to I'e observed the mn I ™"""'^'«' hours were
;:'t" two to r:;,keuXXZn- '--'^^'ivl^ied
'■«• cxi.x. V. 104 (;/, 'p 3.2'> W T' " ^"y " "^
"eKlected on the plea of<W * 1" "'*"""' to be
was to be vocal in „.»v ?*'""• ''"t the tongue
hands werrbusy '^ tC ""'' 'r''""''^ ^hile fhe
distance were tTkeen the bo '"" T^'"^ »t a
;••. •^" )• Kvery meZ of tZ V", '^' '^^''^ (^<^^-
himself to the works h" .. ."'^ '"" to give
the whole commumtvmiXf ^^ '"''' '" that
"I'ours of its own hanTl^Th' '""""■""' ''■^the
labours was stri tly defi ied Tb""'"" '"' ""^^«
such as were of real use to Vb ^ ''"' *" '''
such as might contribute to I ™""»"°it.v. not
''s could be pract Led wif h i"^"''^' '"'h- "'so,
'iistnri.ing the u, tv of the"l' f."'''^' """■''«' "'
grounds weaving and It ''"fhren. On these
preferred to bulhiin" c«vn"T'""« ^^"« to be
'■•ost recommended '^3"8*r' ;?f '^"'ture «as
these handicrafts were toK. ^^^ P™^""'e of
elderly nmn, desen-inVof . "k?'^"^ *" « K'-'-ve.
disposeof them wi iont 1 '=""^'f"ee, who Would
toleave the iT^lZZ'tT'' '''t'"^
themselves, ^th y shot ! ''^^'' t" sell their g„o,l3
-ne.together To t^^ ^''^h as possible,
even if the market W«, „ . ''''"""' there,
wander from"";":':! T ^4" «?, ' V:'""- than
!rom di/lerent convent, Vh , , 'nc i.MUika
««"'e inn, both Ta mutual ,af '"'T''''' '" the
■'"re the keeping of The h '"^S"»rd, and to en-
'honld be chosen wl eh h?d°^'I'T''- ^own,
('"■ piety (^.„, c. 39) 5w "i ^'^^ '^^'""'"eter
' -v'
I-
h .
1234
'V
> ■
i
1,
B4 I
i. L-ii
MONASTERY
s\ich IS wnulil nourish the body, and whatever
was put on the table was to be partaken of ; nor
was wine to be rejected as something detestable,
but drunlf when necessary. Satiety, however,
was to be avoided, and all eating for the gratifica-
tion of the appetite {Sorm. Ascet. i, § 4, p. 321 ;
licij. c. 18) No rigid uniformity was to be laid
down as to the amount of food' taken, but the
superior was to judge in each case what was
sndiiient, with special regard to the bick (c. 19).
Kijuabbles for the highest iilaces at table were
discreditable to a family of brothers (c. 21). If
guests visited them no ililTerence was to be made
for them, but they were to partake of the
ordinary tare (c. 20). The monk's clothes should
shew humility, simplicity, and cheapness, and
should be characteristic of his vocatiou. He was
to wear the same garment by day and night, and
never change it for work or resting (c. 22). He
was always to be cinctured with a Jeathern girdle
(c. 2.'.i), Silence was to be strictly observed
except in prayer and psalmody (c. l;i), and loud
laughter was absolutely forbidilen, though a
gentle cachiunation was approved of as a sign
of a cheerful heart (c. 17). Noils or signs were
to be used in place of words or oaths. ISut even
these were forbidden if they indicated sullen- {
noss or discontent, or illwi'U towards others. I
When it was necessary to speak it sliould be in I
a low ami gentle voice, except when rebuke or '
exhortation had to be given, when a bnuler tone
was not forbidden {Serin. Ascet. ii. p. 32i;). The
rejection of medicine under a false noticm of its
being an interference with the will of (Jod is
decidedly condemned. It was to be accepted as
God's good gift, to enable the body to render
Him more ready service. It must not, however,
be tru.-ted to of itself, nor always resorted to on
any slight cause. When the malady was dis-
tinctly a punishment for sin, it was a grave
question whether any attempt should be made
to remove it, instead of accepting it submissively
as God's gracious chastisement (c. ,3.")). No one
\yas permitted to leave the convent without the
licence of the superior (p. 320). Long journeys
and protracted absences from home were to be
.ivoided as far as po.ssible. When for the
interest of the convent it was nei/essary that a
visit shcuild lie paid to a distant place," if there
was one in the society who could be trusted to
travel without harm to his own soul, and with
alvaiitage to those whom he might meet, he
might be sent alone. Otherwise several brothers
Were to go together, who were to take care
MOXASTERY
^ ,-, T " — ...... t.. tunc i.iiie
never to si parate from one another, but to be a
mutual lafeguard. On their return a very strict
inquiry was to be made into their conduct
during their absence, and suitable penances
imposed if they had in any wav transgressed the
laws of the society. All idle gadding about
and huckstering under the plea of busiiiess was
prohibited as utterly inconsistent with the
monastic life (c. i4). All women and ille
persons were to be excluded from the convent
precincts. If such presented themselves, on no
pretext was there to be any intcrcour.se between
them an:l the brethren, the superior alone was
to iiuestion them as to their business and receive
their answers (p. 322). Intercourse with rela-
tir:;is wa= ifirsfu'ly gurtnlc-i, an! w.i.s oniv to lie
permitted in the case of those with" whom
edifying conversation whiid bo held. Those who
set at nought God's commandments were not to
be admitted. AH talk which could revive the
memory of the monk's former life in the world
was to be studiously shunned. A monk's
relations were to be regarded as the common
kinsmen of the society, not sjiecially his own
(c. 32). The necessary intercourse between the
male and female members of a religious society
WHS to be ordered so as to gi\e no room for
scandal. Two of each sex were to be present at
every such interview (c. ,33). Labour and rest
was to be equally shared among the brothers,
I who were to be told olf in rotation in pairs,
j every week, for the necessary duties of the esta-
! blishment, so that all might gain an equal
reward of humility (p. 322 ad tin'.). A discreet
and experienced brother was to be selected, to
whom all disputes were to he referred, who, if
i he could not settle them himself, was to bring
them before the superior (c. 49). The superior
must be careful not to rebuke anyone angrilv,
lest instead of delivering his lirotner iViiii tlie
bonds of his sin he bind himself (c. .■)0). If rebuke
was not sullicient penance must be imposei
corresponding to the otlence, (,'.</., exercises of
humility for tli;; vainglorious ; silence fur the
empty chatterers, vigils or prayer for the slug,
gards, hard work for the lazy, fasting tor tiie
gluttonoiis, separation from the others for the
discontented and querulous (c. 28. 29, ,■,1).
Other usual penances were exclusion Iroin the
common prayers, or psalmody of the soi-ictv, or
a restriction of food. Incarceration was" the
punishment for the rebellious, who, if they con-
tinued obstinate were to be expelled (p. 32^:,
c. 28). The superior himself was to receive
needful warning and correction from the oldest
and most prudent brother of the society (c. 27).
The superiors of diii'erent establishments were to
meet at stated times for mutual counsel as to
the regulation of their societies, when dilliculties
were to be discussed, the negligent reprimanded,
I and suitable commendation given to those who
I had fulfilled their duties well (c. hi).
Tlie A'O'iuliw brerius tmctnliu; 313 in number,
are very short decisions of questions relating to
monastic life ; e.i/. whether it is allowable to talk
during psalmody, if a sister who refuses to sing
is to be forced, whether a serving brother may
speak in a load time, if all must come punctually
to dinner, and what is to be done with those
who come late ; as well as resolutions of theolo-
gical and mora! questions, and of scriptural dilli-
culties. The collection is valuable as helping to
form a faithful picture of monastic life in detail,
but does not answer to the -a of a " rule," as
dealing with minor details rather than with
broad principles.
The 34 Cotistitut'oncs which, as has been staled,
are iirobably to be assigned to Eustathius ot
Sebaste, are partly addressed to solitaries, jiartiy
to coenobites, seventeen to the one, and seventeen
to the other cla.s8. They are baseil on the same
lines as the rules of St'. Basil, and do not add
much to our knowledge of monastic life. Tim
duties of humility, obedience, temiierauce, and
independence of all worldly interests are ex-
pressed, and rules laid down for the regulation of
intercourse with the brethren, and with .seclars.
iiieniniik must not seek honour or dignity, or
desire holy orders (o. 24); be must have no
personal friendshijis (c. 29), nor private busi-
ae«s (c. 27) ; 1
his clothes or
his food (c. 2i
V^ery whol.
superiors, to ti
kindness, and
puwer, though
one hides his g
31,32). Ther
receiving breth
by admitting t:
encourage lazii
diligent and fa
,ind render the
didicult (c. 3,3).
Tfie liuie of
rule for monks
Augustine. Thi
rule which can
nuns contained i
it has been eitri
as the Heguia S
praescripta. Thi
this role was dra
Augustine himsei
till her death by
cecded by a nu
served under her
whose rule had i
listers that they
her, and ciamouri
respects the pictui
letter is far trom e
only mutinous, but
fecUquality offoc
claimed superior i
property they had
looked down on (
their turn grumbh
of partiality. J^a:
squabbles were rife
unseemly jests and a
not unknown. Presi
the outside world.
one of self-induigi
discipline, and, foule
walked about or att
and deportment was
V tile purity befitt
Iii«y had begged Si
but he declined lest
Ming their dissension
to adopt severe mea
he therefore wrote
severely rebuking the
he proceeds to lay dov
"ture discipline. U
fundamental principl,
Ifct oneness of heart
community of ail thin,
he lady superior, praj
tribution of food and ci
'he requirements of c
property enter the moi
make their wealth ov<
' *"" ""y carious pai
MbebmiiiorvecfUhie.
"' "■*' ""' reeommends its
•""'•of br,.„d or vegetable
OURIST, ANT.-vot. 1
MONASTERY
his food (c. 25).. ^ °^' "' ^« particular in
V^ei-y wliolesome connsp?. .,. •
fuperiors, to treat the b«thr "^,?"'«n ♦<> the
kindness, ar.J not enSn df.ti"''*^. "" ^""-"'^
power, though they mlt •J"' '">"'"'' ">'"'
"■•e hides his^tren/th to .,*t I'*'-* ">«' ""
31. 32). They must also?,5'I^ •"" *'"''' («• 28,
receiving bret^hr^rfro" oJhet" ^'*''* '='"•"<'-' '"
b.v admitting the disoZil^'^JZT"'''' '^^'
encourage Jaziness and disoX ?."""«"»- "ley
d'l.gent and faithful members ^f'^h""*.™ '^'
and render the mainten^n. . J- """"■ """"es,
Jilficult (c. 33). °'*'°**°«'":<' of discipline more
rnlftort^^kf is'^e'xfaTu'^-;^'-^ *>""' ""^
Augustine. These nra.n^*'' "'^ "««« of St.
rule which can danVP""."""- ^he only
"unscontainedin hriSSth 7',?*^;^ ">«* ''o'
it has been extracted and ar^'^i ^^^ '^hich
this mis was drawn un w« .1 ^i- "'^ "^ ^^hich
Augustine himseTf atC'""/'"""^^'! ''7 Gt-
till her death by his s.^ter 'sh"\P^*^'^^•^ o^^'
ceeded by a nun nf i ^'"' ''"'^ "'e^n sue
served unir her with heTfn*'"'"""! '^''° '""^
«hose rule had proved Vo^d^V r«/f"<=«' h"t
fisters that thev ro J in ^'^tasteful to the
her, and clamoTreTfo'r h^l^'''"'!''''",''*^"'-*
respects the picture of thn J "moval. in other
letter is far ll^om edifying rlT' ^'^*" '" *'''»
only mutinous, but .lisordtly in!?!:'/ T ""'
feet .q.,al.ty of food and habk /h u "'^"i'"-
claimed superior indulgence ''on ''''" '''"«"
property they l.ad broS fn* f^"""* "'' ^he
looked down on thlnn '" ""^ house, and
'J- ri g--hi^5 !7:LZ7'r' ^'^ '-
ff partiality. Jenlousieo Z tu " superior
shabbies /ere rift Hart ^H^^rt"''"*^^' '-^"^
u..»eemly jests and sports alnrtheT "^""^
not unknown. Presents an,l l i ^ "*'"'* ^^<■'•'-•
the outside world The 1 fo „,-?K '*"'" '" '"^"'n
one of self-indulgence rnfhJ i' ''''"" "'a^
di-ipline and, fonfeiroharge o „ '"\'"" l^"""
»alked about or attended chulh'fb''^'" ""^^
«n(l deportment was far fmm k • ' *'""'" '^P*'':t
''.'the purity Lefitf^n/fr ""^"'""•"^'^'■'■•^^d
Th^yhad bogged St f„ /''""'"' of Christ.
Int he declin^ed lest ht^ntf"" '" T^'^ 'hem
bring their dissension, to aTelT '}7^'^ ""'j-
{« adopt severe measures ftlh*"'' ^"''^ »""'
He therefore wrote a1 ttei f„'''\<^,"»o=tion.
severely rebuking the sisters fo; Z- "^' "*''''»•
He proceeds to lav down « . *" , "''-'""'"niacy,
f'ture discipli,;:^ He first r'^'"'" ''"' """i^
fiindamcntal principle' of i '"""""'o'. ^ the
f-t oneness o'f hea^a:^ ™7" •"'"-■ 'ife, P"-
oommunity of all thin<r, n„. u'"'"' complete
tke lady s^Vrior pSsfni ''''"f ""''"'-1 to
tribution of food andX^iu' • ''**''''"** *he dis-
'He "quiremenU o'f t ^/. '", ^T .'-'^« "ith
MONASTERY 1235
are the poorer sisterTf? •""" Parents. Nor
on obtaining in the 'c'„;:::;nf "'«'« 1'""-'^-
s"cha.,theycouldnoth«v!K ^ '' ""'' ^'^"thing
n'uch of the„,Jv","7*7^'"'d outside, or think
members of the simp ^"'""'"^ "'' 'heir beina
'hey could n^t VpTo ,h Jf/, -"h, iajiies whon^
the rich are humb ed^n ' '"""''''' 'fst, while
ho puffed upJCta) The n?^"'=P^'"^^'»'">
only for its proper^lnl 7'»'»heused
prayer, lest, if'^he'^ steCrtL;^ ^:"«"'g and
those who wish to go th^rftr '■" " '" S"^'*'!'.
should be hindered ThZ '"'"■'"'' ''ovotion
meaning of the words whL":^' '^'"^ "^ 'he
s.ng anything but what sLT d"^' ""■ "»'
When at table, thev are nnf i\ ''"'^" («• 4).
o,.the reading. 'Phe! m't° !""''' ^•" ''^'on
de hcate food to the f ^blTin he"L^'''"'"'= '"»«
^^■ho had been accustled .^ ' *"■ '" "'°'«
niode„f]ife,„„t regaVd^'^fK " '"'™ '"^"^'i
"'• having such ind^fgtefs buT ft ""' .'''''PP'"-
not requiring them (c 5T' n *'"'""^'='^M lor
^■'^Peeted, presents a^great d^rV""'^^'' ^^
dresses ought to be in one ''''^""y- All the
on as common prop ^y so th"'«r'''' '""' '""''^'1
'ake it ill if she does not alw T ""^ ^'"''d
•l^ess given out to her b,?^^ ''•^'"^ 'he sa ,e
worse one than another sisW^fTl*"""'' ''"^ '^
should grumble orsquabbW '>'' """ -"he
nun is allowed to have ad- *""^ ^''"*'" ''' «
always be put in the sam '° ^''"'^^' " "lust
-est,andno\n,e?spe?mitred7''^'"t' "'"' 'he
either for her bed "r hi '""''" anything,
girdle or can If „ '^ P'"""' not eien a
maJetoanun she ^'^.P''""^"' "^ clothn.g "
h"t give it to II "' ""' ''eep it to h,.rllf
have'it Vhen^s t r^alf/w' ^^^ '^"' '^ ' h r
s to be closely coverei^n!"!"'? "/ '''heir haii-
to stray from^nder the / ''k ^""^ a"<,wed
, "■• of set purpose . Iz ^ ^^ earelcssnfts,
he so thin L to let' tSeb;:'"'! '^' ^''^'^-^^^r
(e- .6, 10). The nuns' eloTh " '''" ''"Aga
! washed too often b«? n„V ? "" "ot to be
thinks right fc ih Th ^ "''"'° ""^ superior
ahathoftLr^Uioe^,^;-*;"-^^
sician orders it. NotkwJ^T' ^"'"'^ 'hephy-
■' together, and these no' bvT.'^"'''' "»'»' '»k«
but namrd by the su l-r^or ^, d'"" ""■" ^^oice,
I'o be accepted as an excuse for'T".'"" " "»'
unless under medical sl'ti^^ /''"^ * ''""'
receive letters or rrese' " nf ^"' , ">■ ^o
regarded as a crime^ of th' f ""^ ''""' ^«»
punished severely iLlJu u''''"' '^>'e- 'o be
»elf (c. 9). All mt^fnd » "' ^^ ">« '"'hoi- h-w-
hetwVeu 'the ite'^SLTv rrr;'^ '''■"'-'^'•"?
^11 as ail gating on mtrwilhde "''"'" ^'\ '^^' "'
character as to eJcite de IT T I I-' 1" °'^"'^.'' "
;haractera^e:Sd::;;:'t'^-«'-''f^nch7
,1,. , , »■"< ciotning in accn-,1 " '■"- | 'hat those who do so «..« '""y'^nst remember
'l-e requirements of each A ' n r T""* "'"' "° one sees them ?1 '""' '''^''" 'hey think
Pwperty enter the mona terv fh ^' ^"'^''^ of mo>tal eves thev ' '' '"""' '^ 'hev escape all
-^^ 'heir wealth oveTtThe t'mmon ^!"">- ' ""--nfG'o '(Z r'Lrr '''' ^-^ '" 'h"
— ™°" ''"'•'''■' 'he char|e of one ILvJl "5^ "■•« '" be under
' Som. very cnrl„„. Z "■■"" Purpose, who UtlUlt 'P?C'ally told off for that
Mb. br<.„d or vee^tahT™. i!?.™' "'.".'"'"" '<> Kive „st I (c 13). Th« ., "J'^^'f «"'hout murmuring
•-'-*, i.ut recommends its bt'in'sr mftT? """* ""' ^'"^"' ''"'*' «nd at no othe7/r." ^l-^'iT' ""' «' a'ixed
1236
MOXASTEBY
fit.;-
1
f:S
i :! i a. ' •
tinuea obstinate, she is to be reported to the
superior, by whoi>e verdict, or that of the pres-
byter in charge of the convent, she is to be
)iunished (o. 8). All ditTerences or quarrels be-
tween sisters are to be checked at once, and for-
giveness is to be granted immediately on the
expression of penitence. Any one who is
unwilling to forgive is out of place in a convent
(o. 15, IG, 17). Due self-respect forbids a sister
asking pardon of those whom duty has com-
pelled her to rebuke, even if she is conscious
that she has used over-harsh language. Hut she
must ask pardon of God alone (c. 18). The rule
closes with an order that to do away with the
excuse of forgetfuluess, the rule is to be read out
aloud once every week.
The Benedictine rule has been fully treated of
in a separate article [Benedictine Kule and
Order].
The Jiiilci of Gtesarius of Aries. — Among the
Western monastic rules which yielded to that most
perfect order, was the almost contemporary rule
of Caesnrius, bishop of Aries (d. A.v, 542). This
rule,which,inlwodivisions,enibraces both monks
and nuns, and was a groat advance upon those that
had preceded it, has been censured as needlessly
pedantic and minute. The censure is little
deserved, at least as regards that for monks.
That for nuns is much inferior in elasticity to
that of St. Benedict, and enters perhaps need-
lessly into details. But, as has been remarked,
the rules '■ must be judged by their age, and
regarded in the light of the whole spirit of
niona.sticisra " [Caicsarius. St.]. The rule for
monks starts, as usual, with the perfect com-
munity of all things. No one was to have a
cell, or even a cupboard, which could be closed
(c. 3). Talking was forbidden during singing
(c. 3) and at taljle, when one of the body was to
read aloud (c. 9). No religious of eiiner sex
was to stand sponsor to a child, lest it should
indifce too much familiarity with the parents
(c. 10). Late comers to service were to be
caned on the hand. No one was allowed to
reply when rebuked by his superior (c. 11).
Jlonks were to read to the third hour and then
fulfil their appointed tasks (c. 14), which were
not to be chosen by themselves, but assigned
them by the superior (c. T). The receiving of
presents or letters without the cognisance
of the abbat was strictly prohibited (c 15).
The fasts were to be limited tj Wednesdays and
Fridays from Easter to September. Saturday
was added from Christmas to a fortnight before
L«nt. From September to Christmas, and from
a fortnight before Lent to Easter, they were to
be observed every day except Suhday, when to
fast was a sin. Poultry and (lesh-meat was
forbidden at all times save to the sick. No one
was permitted to have anything by his bedside
to eat or drink (c. 22, 24). A monk excom-
municated for any crime was to be confined in a
cell, in company with an elder brother, and
employ h's time in reading until he was bidden
to come out and receive pardon (c. 28). The
service for Saturdays, Sundays, ar.d fe 'tivals was
to include twelve psalms, three antii hons, and
three lections : one each from the prophets,
epistles, and gospels (c. 25).
caid, mnch more minnte and particular than
tlut for monka. It is ba^ed npon that of St.
MONASTERY
Augustine, the chief provisions of which it
embodies almost verbatim. Among the most
remarkable additional regulations are the fol-
lowing. No one, not even the abbess, was to
have a waiting-maid of her own (c. 4). No
infant was to be received, nor any child under six
or seven years old, who was too young to learn
to read and render obedience (c. 5). All the
sisters were to perform the kitchen duties and
other domestic offices in rotation, with the sole
exception of the mother or superior. The cook-
ing sisters were to hart some wine for their
labour (c. 12). At the vigils, to keep off sleep,
work was to be done which would not distract
the mind from listening to the readiug. If a sister
got drowsy, she was to be made to stand (c. 13).
The chief occupation of the sisters was to be spin-
ning wool for the clothing of the convent, which
was all to be made within the walls, under the
superintendei.ee of the provost {praeposita) or
woolweigher (Jitnipendia). Each sister was to
accept her appointed task with lowliness and
fulfil it with modesty (c. 14, 25, 26). No
talking was allowed at table. The reading over,
each was to meditate on what she had heard
(c. 16). All were to learn to read, and to devote
two hours, from six to eight in the morning, to
study (c. 17). All were to work together in
the same apartment. There was to be no con-
vershtioSi while thus engaged. One sister was
to read aloud for one hour, after which all were
secretly to meditate and pray (c. 18). The
sisters were most solemnly charged " before God
and the angels " to buy no wine secretly, or to
accept it if sent them, but to give it over to
the proper officers, who should dispense it to the
sick and weakly. Inasmuch as it was customary
for a convent cellar to have no good wine, the
abbess was to take care to provide herself with
such as would be suitable to the sick or deli-
cately nurtured (c. 28). The officers were to
receive their keys as a sacred trust, on the
Gospels (c. 30). No men were to be admitted,
except bishops and other ministers of religion
commended by their age and character. The
utmost caution was to be observed in the intro-
duction of workmen where any repairs were
needed (c. 33). Even females still in the lav
habit were to be excluded (c. 34). Banquets
were not to be prepared for bishops, abbats, or
distinguished female visitors, ei'-ept most rarely
and on very special occasions (c. 36). The
abbess was not to take any refreshment alone,
except when forced to do so by indisposition or
any close occupation (c. 38). If new clothes were
sent to a nun, she might accept them with the
abbess's leave, provided they were of the proper
fashion and colour (c. 40). No dyeing wai per-
mitted in the convent except of the simplest
hues. The counterpanes and bed furniture were
to be of the plainest (c. 41). No embroidery
was permitted, with the exception of sewing
crosses of black or cream-coloured cloth on
cushions or coverings. No male clothing or
that of secular females was to be taken into the
convent either for washing, mending, or anr
other purpose (c. 43). No silver plate was to
be used except for the service of the oratory
(c. 41). To the rogvla, a recapitithtio is
particularity relating to diet and the duties of
the cellarer and porteT'
little of S
S'nuD us of t
monastery ii
•St. Isidore of
rules are of
in other codi
homilies on a
engaged in p
were to be nl
hands at the
which they i
work, they w(
the day was
morning to 9 i
12 to 3 p.m
autumn, wini
changed pi, , a,
A'hen saying tl
talking and lau
in adoration a(
I'll' times a \
whei. the brot
receive instruct
at which any m
ii'g anything he
reading (c. 9).
same refectory, i
his place at the ,
/are with the rea
feast days, when
the diet was to
'lerum cibos et
was to eat to sa
while one brothei
Dionastery were t
no layman was to
was to be taken, si
linies (c. 10). ■;
sufficient to keep
neither for spleudc
never to wear lin
tunics and as man
a|iieoe, to whii'h wa
^'«, 01 a scarf (nuip
and a pair of thick
were only to be woi
of winter or on a ji
Consult decorum by
T, if not, their mi
tion is levelled at I
to the appearance
petulantiae et lasci
were to have their ha
I' being reprehensibl
•Jbinonestdiversum
I'Wthren were all t
l»ssiUe. Not fewer
the same apartment;]
f*"^"'""- No one was
W furniture than t
'■'">tm with a 8tra\
fiieepskins. The pill
sterner rules were cil!
l-uttH-o. A <or«.V«.-a,/
iW of their equipmei
«ere to be inspected b
•■lat no brother might'
than he needed. Each v
-•:t:-:-_T Ti'M tu 'je obser
w kept burning Cc. 1
"1,^ rules of the mona
»'th different degrees
MONASTERY
. ■»»& of St. Isidore of Seville K ■ .
3iven ua of the internil nr,„„ '^ V^tnre is
monastery in th^Tth .Jn?^'"'"""' °'^» ^^l'«'"»l>
■St-isiJorJofSevnie' d.^^tSii)'"^!!^ "■"'" "^
rules are of much greater Icntth 1 '"'^'""'"^
in other codes anH^,^o u ^ " *""" " usual
homilies on a g'ive,?text^ Tk '""""; "'^^'^ 'hort
engaged in public wo„hi„^' '"°"'''' *'''« "»*
were to be t^L^^L^^l I ^^ ^'^'^'^ Payers,
hands at th ^LVoKt '° *''.'"'''5« '^'''' 'hoi
which they wire best «- •'1''°.'"""'''"' '"'^^
work they^wer^o^* ' Tr:"- ,„^''"« -^^
12 to 5 p.„ *-";'t'r°'| ' fr""" 9 to 12, reading^
autumn, win. r 7nA * ^^^rs, work. In
changed' pl a before T."^'/**'^'"*? »"'' work
When sayfng the hitrs th« ^'^''J ' "•"• (<=• 6).
talkingand laughWaM ton ""^^ **'"'' '° «^°'d
in adoration at^ the e„d 'fi'"'' ^'"'""''''^ ''''''
Thv times a week thnr. -, ^ ^'"^"^ <"=• 7).
whcu the brothers wer? to*". '" ""' " "'"''^'
receive instruction from o„e of tZ* '">''"'" *°
at which any monk miZhT! I ^^ '*"'"" («• 8).
ing anything' heTad n f L" s^od inh' """'"■
readnig (c. 9). All wor^ T '° "" private
same refectory, tfn a^a ♦■.^V^^"'S**''" '■> '^e
hia place at th; head and* f' ,**'' "^^''^ '»l""ng
/are with the rest V ,I.'^<''"'\.'"« "'' ^^e aamf
feaat days, when a ve^y h t^^*";' ^""-^T """^
the diet was to be of veil H'"* !"" """»«''.
'l-.n cibos etn:i,:nt"C,mi.r'';r\;->-
was to eat to satietv Silo^^ ^'^ «"«
while one brother read" aloud rr*" *° ^' ""^P*
monastery were to be jZa ^t meaf r ' °^ ""^
no layman was to venturn .„ .""""'-'""es, and
was to be taken save L t ""■'"^*- ^'« ''""J
times (c. iS The Lnt^'^y^'^P' »'"«*].
sufficient to keen him ' "^"^ '^•«'' *" be
neither for spltXurTorr^l^'netr ¥h""'"'''^
-^^^•m!;::r^.pS'l^*°'-^-
»l>ic-co, to whi.h wZt?r ^.rf'"^ *"'' ""« hood
kin, or a acarf oC„ I--? 'h't" '''^^P^'''"' "«P-
«n^ a pair of tliS V.rirTtTt'' '^^
>^ere only to be worn indoors dTrin/^Lf'"^'
of wmter or on a journey The hris "-'*"'"^'
cunault decorum by wearing »^ "'"' "^"^ *"
^r, if not, their ,^,L„T^ f'"' ""P"' ""l"»rs,
lion is levelled «r.K'^ l ^ '^^"■<' ^ienuneial
't being repreheS^'d tTumtar^ ^'''™'
ul-i non est diversum nr,.V. -f ,, ^ere cultum
i"-nhren wer^ a 1 to^sK"""' ("=• ^3). The
f--ihle. Not fewer than^toM ""' ''"""h", if
the aame apartment undt the uner?n/"r''"P^-
a*can„,,. No one was to h»,, t ./ "*'^"''''"<^o "f
ted furniture than anoth ^ 'itV ''""••'''"'"'^'
'•"atent with a straw Z/", u , '''" *" ^^
»t«ruer rules ,v.^re^"wL'^7r'' ''^^ ^''''-li"- and
m of their eS^nV f,^tr'"'"^r"''" '""■•'"«' l
««re to be inspected bv t hi ""■ "'ght. The be.is
•^'at.obrothe^miltLv!"^''''' T' " '^^"k. '
.'^ he needed. KrhVt t„r;?,!!l'' <=-"„-«
^ipt'i:,r:i;;;t'm-:^''«F'^»^^'t:
'",e'"l« of the monastery l',.:r? "«""'»»
"ithdiiTerent degree, of -• ' ''''"''''■'^
"fgiiea of puiusiimont according
MOVASTERY 1237
penances l?^ ^ thLe da? "' "'^" "--'"""r
(«• Iti). i;xcommu„,catit^t.""'''""'""'''^''''""
the abbat or provost Th' P'-"nounced by
party was confined to one ,la,.»"''T'"!"""''^'"'-''
-^ut off f,.„m intercouV witlTh/h"'',."''''''"'''-^
one might talk, prnv or l^ J-^u h^''">ren. No
to fast till even nVVh/n I '"'"'.f'in'- He wn,
water was furniZd him IT "^ '"'^'"■J •■'■"'
of winter, he must sle^™ thT' *" l^' '^"i"^
•nat, and wear nothinlbut a . 1 ^i "" u'^ '"' "" "
or a hair shirt and rush shoes c T '^ '\T ^'^'^'^
g'ven to the house were to bn ,1 ^ . " '""'"'•'■''
parts-one to buy TnduWn J"'"' """ "'re
«ick, and superior 'fo^tS^dr ""^ t "'"'
poor, one for the monk.- ^ .k"^'' ""' ^"' '''e
necessaries (c. 18) ' ''""".ng and other
The oflicei'd nf 4^^^
abbat were-rn Th """nastery under the
had to Cnag^eill'LHr-fr^^''-. ^^^
estates and build nesth''' *''^ ^''^ "^ "'e
farms vineyards, anfkct. "TaT^jt °' '■''
who had to see that the bell wi. 'he sacWs<,
"nd night offices, to take dl oAl""^-!"' ''"-^
ments, sacred vessels hnnt? i u. 'he veils, vest-
pertaining to publ c worsh h, '^Th' ""' "'.' '^'"^''
the member, Ls also 3 his c^l''-"""':''^^ "'
to give out the thread f,llZv' ^> "'"^ he was
•clothes. The plate of fh J1^ '" ""^'"'"'g the
articles of metal were nniVh-"'''i^'''"^'''' '"»' "''
"1^0 wa., committed the o'ei^^li^"??; '^"'^ him
senmstcrs, chandlers. &c of 1 l^h' ""^''"^ '"'I"'-'-
dW>fe.^r was to gu.ird "the 'nn ""'• ^^^ '''he
al comers, and takrc„re of ^ '' """""""^
cellarer had charge of the lir'?,'' <^) '^''e
"lent, giving out to the h.h. ".""'"^ '^'^l"'"'-
was necessary for the mat:'T'''"'-' ^^hauncr
brethren, theVeststd the si '™r^ of the
he was to take account nfVk , ^''"'>' "eek-
to the outgoing hehdomL ""'"''' entrusted
o^er to the "corner Thl'"'-";: T"' h«"<i th,,,,
thesourceaofsuppK bo b f""!?'' "^'^'''^'^ht of
wardrobe, was 1 aM o'n h '' * " '""^'^ ""^ the
takers, shephTrds form, e,™' f"''u*h« labourers^
were under^i™ir "c5 %tT'f^^"'^-^-
was the brother told off in i,\^he ^eW„,,«</„
duties, such as s tt/the'tltr '^^'" "" ""■'"•'•
d'shes and ringing the bell rfl^ ^^''""'"e 'he
had the care of the i.i ves of „ ^ ^ ,h' ""'■''""■'•
proper duties cf hsXaT'iV "''''"'■"" '" 'h"
the bread devolved imrtivnn he I'repantion of
monks. All the morel, ■ '"•'"'""' ('•■"fv on
ing and grindiL Le ' Zi"'/V'''''- '''« ^■'^«''-
former, the mnnt. i ,"'' belonged to the
?'he layme: w e% Scf'Thf '^ 'he do,, h !
hakera. The biv^^ "eemed the more skilful
to be made by\'h;,/"f|;'t' Ti' ')" ''^^ «'"'
monk was entrust "wilh^^P '""'"'■'■>• K^''^
house in the city, whrwas to u" "^ """ '^"■'•'--
two boys. (Q) A hX • ^ accompanied bv
was .0 be seleotid ' ,^::'^^' "'"^ "S-^J h.othe"
, boys; and (10) one who ,'^ "'' ".'"' '^"^h the
admiuiatratiimirtoLt irT""' *''^ S'^ -^
observed lest sicknosTwr. ' ^i"' '■■*""'"" "as
induhrences. lwr!.,;;f_,.'!'""''''«<l to obtain
to those whos.i hn.UL '" " ' ^''^'''t'^'^d, e.xce,it
Guests werto be rei 'T"'.^ 'hem (c. 2,'
and honour, and th 'if ^^''''''''heekidne '
Absence from th'corivnt" V'^"^ (<=• ^--O-
'^ "press permi::r^^/:::^S:^^^
4 L a
1238
MONASTEKY
mn
should aUvay8 go together if duty '(illeil them to
the town or elsewhere, who, before they set out
and on their return, were to receive the solemn
blessing of the society in the church. None was
allowed to see relatives or friends, or to receive
letters, or send letters or presents without sp'cial
leave. Monks visiting another monastery were
bound to live according to the law of the society
to avoid giving scandal to the weak (c. 22). On
each occasion of the decease of a monk, the holy
sacrifice was to be offered before his burial for
the remission of his sins, and a general celebra-
tion was to take place at Whitsuntide for all the
departed. The dead were a'.l to bo buried in the
same cemetery, " that one place might embrace
those in tU ciiwhom charity had united in life"
(c. 23).
We have the rules of another Spanish honse in
tlie Hejuu) M(jnachorum and the liecjila Monastica
Communis of St. Fructuosus, archbishop of
Braga in Portugal, in the 7th century (Hol-
sfc-.iius, Mil. i. p. lyS, sq.). These will riward
examinntion, but space forbids our entering
on them here. The most detailed rule 'nelong-
iug to this period is that known as the SigiUa
Jilagistri nd Monachoa (Holstenius, ib. p. 224
sf).), containing no leas than ninety-five canons
of considerable prolixity, each containing an
answer to a question of a disciple. The date
and country of the author are doubtful, but it h
clear that his rule is subsequent to that of
St. Benedict, and various expressions and allu-
sions render it probable that the rule was
composed in Gaul. The minuteness and puerility
of some of the rules shew the decay of the free
S' If-reliant spirit of the original founders of
monasticism.
Euto of St. Columha. — Our examplss of
monastic rules have hitherto been taken from
Asia and southern Europe. We will conclude
with the transcript of that attributed to one of
the noblest patterns of Northern monasticism —
St. Columba. Although, in the words of Mr.
Haddan, " the nature of its content? and the
absence j( evidence that St. Columba ever com-
posed a written rule, mark it almost certainly
as the later production of some Columbite monk
or hermit," this document may be regarded as
embodying the principles and genoral regulations
of early Celtic monasticism, and therefore of
great value. This rule was first printed
by Dr. Reeves from a MS. in the Burgundian
Library at Brussels. It is found also in Haddan
and Stubbs, vol. ii. p. 119. The translation
alone is here given from Skene's Cdtic Scotland,
vol. ii. p. 508.
" The r"le of Columcille here beginneth :
"(1) Be alone in a separate place near a chief
city {i.e. au episcopal see) if thy conscience is
not prepared to be in common with the crowd.
" (2) Be always naked, in imitation of Christ
and the evangelists.
" (3) Whatsoever, little or much, thou pos-
sessest of anything, whether clothing, or food, or
drink, let it be at the command of the senior and
at his disposal, for it is not befitting a religious
to have any distinction of property with his own
free brother.
"(•1) Le.t a fast place, with one door, enclnas
thee.
" (5) A few religious men to converse wiih
ibee of God and His testament and to visit thee
MONASTERY
on days of solemnity; to strengthen thee in th«
testaments of Qod and the narratives of the
Scriptures.
' (<i) . perwn, too, who would talk with
thee in idl.- words, or of the world, or who mur-
murs at what he cannot remedy or prevent, but
who would distress thee more were he to be a
tattler between friend and foe, thou shalt not
admit him to thee, but at once give him thy
benediction, should he deserve it.
"(7) Let thy servant be a discreet religious,
not tale-telling man, who istoattend continually
on theo, with moderate 'abour of course, but
always ready.
" (8) Yield submission to every rule that is of
devotion,
" (9) A mind prepared for red [bloody] mar-
tyrdom.
"(10) A mind fortified and steadfa-^it f'-r white
martyrdom [I'.e. self-mortification, and bodily
chastisement].
"(U) Forgiveness from the heart to every
one.
"(12) Constant prayer for those who trouble
thee.
" (13) Fervour in singing the office for the
dead as if every faithful dead was a particular
friend ijf thine.
"(14) Hymns for souls to be sung standing.
"(15) Let thy vigils be constant from eve to
eve under the direction of another person.
" (16) Throe labours in the day, viz. prayers,
work, and reading.
"(17) The whole to be divided into three
parts, viz. thine own work and the work of thy
place as regards its real wants ; secondly, thy
share of the brethren's work ; lastly, to help the
neighbours only by instruction, or writing, or
sewing garments, or whatever labour they may
be in want of, as the Lord has said, ' Thou shalt
not appear before me empty.'
"(18) Everything in its proper order, for
' no man is crowned except he strive lawfully.'
"(19) Follow almsgiving before all things.
" (20) Take not of food till thou art iiungry.
"(21) Sleep not till thou feelest desire.
" (22) Speak not except on business.
" (23) Every increase that cometh to thee in
lawful meals, or in wearing apparel, give it for
pity to the brethren that want it, or to the poor
in like manner.
" (24) The love of God, with all thy heart and
all thy strength.
" (25) The love of thy neighbour as thysel".
" (26) Abide in the testaments of God through-
out all times.
"(27) Thy measure of prayer shall be until
thy tears come.
" (28) Or thy measure of work of labour till
thy tears come.
" (29) Or thy measure of thy work of labour,
or of thy genuflexions, until thy swe.it ohea
foraes if thy tears are not free." [E, V.]
in. Architecture. — The object of the
pre-sent section is to give some account of the
structural and architectural developmeut of
the buililings comprised under the general term
" mocasterv."
The word monastery has in popular use tra-
velled far from its original meaning. True to
its derivation, jxoyairrijpioi' was primarily the
dwclling-phice
where ho live
fellow-nieu. (
the di/tiji-once
roenobinm. "I
habilaculnm r
potest nisi p
naitacoinmunic
of Chri.stian ni
remenihcred, 1
cocnobitic com
i^gypt, and Hill
of Ea-storn a
example in abn
self-discipline, r
tombs, rock-hew
the rudest consti
n'nns barely affo
liilarion, c. a.i
in a cabin on th
boards and broke
too sm.'.ll either
J^ccl. Hist. iii. ] 4
theearlie.st form
the ascetics had f
ing entirely from
placed their hab;
from a village or >
independent of oi
selves by the la!
tributing what ren
own scanty wants
ing fear of contaci
hope of escaping U
society of their kit
tributed to drive
S'.litude.'!, and the
desert. But even t
A hermit's reputr
robbed him of the i
rai'ts the determine
stantly obliged to
He could scarcely
cavern so profound,
that he would be pr
competitor, or invad
of some disciple
liimself the more wa;
•uJe of admiring ant
built or occupied his
bourho.)d. A mona.,1
formed around the I
ThiSt-radtial .".rmati
"■'y ■■■• stiikiugly e'
Anton) (A.P. 312), wh
mit. v.!. iii. p. 316^ (
conscious design of \
founder of a new m,
ihus arose the first s(
wed scattered in sini
'ogefher under one su
«l this rudlmentarv co(
Juhanus Sabbas, who,
in Osrhoene, was follow
whom he shared his
many as a hundred at I
labyriathine recesses (1
„—•'.- -•■■'-•«' :ne i.tt,i
Honoratns also at the
n™' occupying a cav<
Ttjus, converting the lai
JIOXASTERY
potost nisi ph rimo^m r "'™ '"'^''" ""»
-nobitio Ltni i"; ) V„ ,, •""T''/'^"' -^
igypt, "nd flilarion n pLi„ ?• ""''/ntony in
of Eastern Svet! T""' "'" '^' ''''"^
example i„ abnega?Ln of th„ "",""'''' ">'^"-
self-discipline, mfde thei, . n"''^ ""^ '"'^'-'■•«
tombs, r;,ck.he,vn or na r^l'"'""''''' "" ''"'^^'■'«''
the rudest construction X ""■"■"'• "' *""'' "f
Hons barely afforded sh he, V""'?''*''^ '""'<"'■
Hilarion, c! a d %>^ ' . ^'"' " '''™an body.
in a cabin on the se; 'hi "''^^"' "' '"''"g
boards and broken t tj anS tl,7'. "."'"' ^""^ "^
too 8m,'.ll either to st'and 1 r "i' '•""'»f«*.
/-co/. I/isl. iii. 14) T,h »fr J" '^"^^'' '■■' (Soz.
the earliest form of ri,V»i''' "" example of
the ascetics had felt thtr "'"""^'i'^'™, b^for.
'"S entirely f^m the world'"=nf ^ "[ "'""^^''^-
placed their habitations a't n^ ""'' '""'' '^"y
from a village or town tfc .1 ^'''"*' '^'s'""™
independent^of one „;„Tk"" ""'y "^^'^ ^'nff'v,
-'- by the laturofth^irhTr-"^ ♦"-•
tributingwhatremainBH.ft.L ""''■''' """l dis-
own scanty wantrto thA '■"'' ''"PP'y of their
in? fear of contact wth T" "''"V"'^- '■'^■•'«^-
society of their kin™ aided h^ '""^ '^'"'^ *he
tributed to drive thef^ ^ Pe'seention, con-
-litudes,and h ro reCr '"*" """"'"""
desert. But even there tW u '''"^^ "^ 'h*
A hermit's reputation f ^ "'"^ ""' ^' «'"ne.
robbed him ortRoiatinl K ""^""°'' '"""'itv
pits the determin d Lrv7"'f u^- " ^° ""
^t'latly obliged to recede flfr"'""'/'-'''''" ^»''-
"e could s^arcelv find „ " ""'' '^^''^'er.
cavern so prof^ a rock '' •"' "' ^'■^'"'"- "
that he would be pressed ton" 1'"''''''^'^^^' ''"t
competitor, or invaded bv ^1^1. •?,"'"" ^""'""^
"fsome disciple k^' tumble vena-ation
himself the more Vis he Tr''" ""^ """oealed
."de of .dmirin^ Tnd elZt/T "^ " """"-
built or occupied his ceirinth ^f"^'''- ^ach
hou>-ho,d. A mnnLZl ^u ^"""^''ed neigh-
formed around the L;7Jt".^,"!{"r'--Ptibly
This.-radaal f.rmat ou % „ ' ^ ' '"■ P" 207).
nity i.^ stnkiugly e,e„Dl,td "nu'= '=°'"'"'-
Antonva.r 312/whl ^v .'° "'^ case of
conscious desi^gn of hi, n ' Vc ^'""'"^ ""^
founder of aTew U / f°r " '"'"'""« th'"
Thus arose fhe fi.^tl . '":'"« '» common,
lived scatter inliZTZ:' '"'i''"''^'^' "^o
together under one TutriTr " "oth""'^' ""'^'^
of th s rudlmenfarv o^^n. .^' """"" eianip es
Julianus Sabba Jho h^ "^ ''' ^'^en by St.
inO^rhoene waVr^lowedr- ""'•'"' *" ''C"^*
'^''om he hired hrli'h"^" '?*'''•''''• ^^i«'
.to'nyasahunTrtla la:t rtnir i^?'""?' »«
{^Hnthinerecesse:'clro,^''S«'-i;ij^
^'^«.coS-^:-Oape^-u.n^
MOXASTEIJY
1239
'ncbaid, throuirb (k„ _ ■ .
'hat ""cked oiiin'td'"?'",""''' "^ *''« d'«ip'c..
adja,..nt caverns '?;,"",!, :» "'' ^""^i'' "'-d' in
^"tnt<: ;/„„„„. in the if, ^"'-"tales, and /«
-•ebrnted«p;„;:ht,j:;;:-;'"';''"-/"nd,i^^
ment.nned bv l.e No ,?72, /"^^''"'■'^'■'•'"•■'•■•e
»« -^tiil exhibiting n e^;^.'''"""'' "'<^"s:i.r-)
"lanner in which monas !' !^. """'P'o" of the
g'«w up around the "«; -n tn' u''" '""='• ■^'^'^^«.
»ecrated retreat of 'ome ' p,'' ''"' ""- <'on-
for his sanctity. Le \oi,Z "'■"'•^' '^^e''-' bra ted
no fewer than thirteen d/'"! ? P'"" «'"-'«ing
l^-^fed round the Xe tf'''h' ^^''^'-ges col?
Mont Serrat. A livin, ''""'^ """odnes. at
funeral of St hthJ l'"^ P"'"'!"? of , '
ntheentury pS;T fc,"'. ''"'' '"•'''1;
» he Vatican,' engraved favt^*""'-^''"" '''"^^"t"
P'- '^v-^ii.), aHi;rds a g ■« hj^ ^/'"™"'-t (/'clnture,
of these communitie^s rAW?'''"'''''*"'''°"''f'''>'
°r eight caverns are ep ctej e,' h"*, ^J^^^' « '^■^"
■'■"'ates, some engaged ii'^ "''"'"■•* '""''"•''ed
basfcet-„,aking or for|e ,v rk'^'T' "l^" '"
ol the caverns denon,! I '^'o™ the roof
St. Martin ot' Tot :f„ i"^'" ^^^ ^""■'■"' P*'^'"-"
he collected abo" h m o^' r?'' '^';"^'^'' 'he m„aks
he collected-ab;;rhr--«^Moused the ,..„„.,
w wattled huts, his own h ""^t- "•^'"" ''"itiers,
racter, "jp,, 'e" ,"""''«"'? "f the same cha
'habebat"(^«:,„^ fc -"'"'"m cellulan.
^f" later'perod of ii, life k^*^""' ^'"'■""').
»;K"ed his bishopric at Tit;""? ''" ^'^ '«-
Marmoutier (Maiuswi '■""'' '^''^ed to
collected a confra"ernf/r'T'"'"""'' he ajnin
being hollowed out "Lufr'S ''■'"' '''' ^'^'^
'•The first to introdme -f . calcareous rock.
these irregular c lect ons o;:,""' 'y^'^'^ '"'o
was Pachomius (d. a 7 348 ^T"'"" "cluses
garded i,s the founder ;,/-'' '''''" "'"y be re-
Christians. The so ital"''""'""'' "•'« «™"ng
■no^t part to live n th T^^"""^ for thf
-re i-ncorporrted intoT,:''' T"^' ''"* 'hey
by the adoption of rules '/^"':'"; communitv
;^a-' tne author, for Lj''."-'' J'^chomiu's
time, their daily occZtinn=*K •'"""' "'" their
■n?-^ for worship and'C" t'c :m 1"'"'' ^■^""'■-
bemg subject to the head llf f/ """ "'^^bers
The first ascetic comni, „tv 0^ tr ' "^ '^' ^''^y-
formed on the island of T I„ *''•" ""'""re was
&Pcr Kgypt, between Ten ;^'' '" '\' ^^^^■' i»
ttght others were founded in^pr h""- ?'-'^«-
t-me, numbering 3000 monkl '^?,^'"""!"^ ' li'e-
of a settled organisS 7'* advantages
■-•"thority caused^h r L « • '"'"^"''"i
^''tution. A mulitud^'of Xr:'/*'''^ '•■'-
sprang up in Ee..„t and thfr^^ 'i'^^'' coenobia
Jabennae as the Ithe, h„ '"'^V''^'^"^^" '"'S
fi'ty years of PachTmiu,'. ^TC ^'^''^ ^^"hin
50,000 members Th^ri; I "^ ™"'^ ''^ckcn
P«red to religious vi We?, "? f?^ ^' con.-
workingasceticbrnthllC^ .'^''P'*'^ hy a hard-
were 4idi; ':Sde".''"t ,-" ^'f ^^'"^'-
surrounded by an enclosure "d, "'"""' "'''
una aula" (Palkd. X L, "'\"=«"'''""
s-ngle door guarded bv „ I T" "■^' ^^''h a
thirty to forty'dwe lings Luh '"'"'"''''''' '''•""
or _four being united LfoC^ ?T^ "^ l'''-^
!^.^"=, oaoj, of which, according ti,' ^ ''■ '''''"'''
"'• 14), housed thiee ' „n!'^°''""«''(^•^•
C'nIanent separati sei«n?tu '„T* ''ctached
«anent,"Pallad. Bi,t. lalS'ii 1?h '" ''^''''
uiMiuc. ii.j, and arranged
'fi
•Niiii
12J0
MONASTERY
m
th'
in orderly rows or avenues (\avpai). There was
II c'ciinnioa rrfuctory, with itskilchen nml cellars,
til which the brothers weio suminoneii tor their
cmnnion repii-st by the sound of a horn at 3 P.ii.
(/ id. ii. xix.)i "P '0 which time they fasted.
There was a garden with its gardeners (xxiviii.)'
Kur sick monks there was an inKrmary, with
a tiictiniiiiii ucijritantium (xx.), and for
strangers and wayfarers a guest-house, xeno-
(iochiuin. There was also a common oratory,
to which the monks were summoned by a horn
or trumpet. The monks slept in their cells,
nut in beds, but on reclining chairs. They
drvotel their time to handicrafts, chiefly
the making of liaskcts and mats from the
rushes of the Nile, but also paying attentinn to
agriculture and shipbuilding. At the end of
tl. e 4th century each oft he rachomianooenobia had
a vcFsel of its own, built by the monks themselves.
There were also artisan brothers who supplied
the community with its chief necessaries. I'al-
la 1 us, who visited the Egyptian coenobia townrds
tiie close of the 4th century, found at Panopolis,
among the 800 members, Hfteen tailors, seven
tniiths, four carpenters, fifteen tanners, and
twelve camel drivers (Pallad. //i-t. Louaiac. c.
30). Each coenobium was regulated by its own
oi'conomus, the whole body bemg subordinate to
the oeconomus of the entire Pachomian confrater-
nity (4 /x«7oj oiKocii/ioj, residing at the prmcipal
niona.'itery, where they met twice a year under
the p.esideucy of the archimandrite (the "chief
of the fold"), and at their last meeting gave in
an account of their administration dunng the year
( Vit. I'achom. § 52 ; Hieron. Prnefot. in SeyuL ;
I'achom. § 8, quoted by Neander, vol. iii. p. 318,
Clark's edition). Coenobitic institutions were
introduced into Palestine by Hilarion, c. 328. He
fuumied a monastery on the Pachomian principle,
near his native town of Gaza, the houses affiliated
tu which soon spread over the whole of Syria.
Chrysostom in early life joined one of these
monastic communities in the vicinity of Antioch,
and we learn many particulars relating to them
from his writings. The monks lived in separate
huts, KaKv^ai, dotted over the mountain side.
They had a common refectory in which they
piirtock of their frugal evening meal of bread
:uid water, reclining on hay. Sometimes they
took their repast out of doors. There was also
an oratory in which they assembled four times
a day for jirayer and psalmody (Chrysost. Ilomil.
in Mitt. 68, «9 ; Homll. in I Titn. 14). The
coenobitic system spread rapidly in Asia. It was
introduced into Armenia by Eustathius of
Sebnsto, into Pontus and Ciippadocia by liasil the
Great, and the influence of Kphrem Syrus secured
for it an enthusiastic reception in Mesopotamia, but
few, if any, details of the arrangement or con-
^U■uction of the monastic buildings have come
down to us. A century later we learn much
respecting the coustruction of Syrian coenobia,
an I the distinction between such institutions
and a " Laura," from the life of Euthymius (d.
.\.D. 473), by Cyrillus Scythopolitanus. The
monasteries, as we have seen, generally had
their nucleus in the cells and hermitages of
distinguished anchorets. This was the case
wilh those of Elias .and Martvrins ( Vit. Ktifhinn.
c. 95), and still more remarkably with the
vast monastic establishment, called from its
Venerated founder, Euthymius, which was
MONASTERY
gradually developeil from the little dwelling-
jilace erected by his noble Saracen convert,
Ashebethos, or Peter (afterwards first bishop of
the Pnrembolae), as a token of his gratitude.
Ashebethos began by excavating a huge cistern,
near which he constructed a bakehouse and
three cells, and an oratory, that Euthymius might
stand in need of nothing he required. There had
been no original intention of erecting either a
laura or a coenobium, but such a step was
rendered necessary by the large number of
Saracen converts who flocked thither desiring
to embrace a religious life. For their accom-
modatioil more cells were built, and a church
erected, consecrated by Juvenal, bishop of Jeru-
salem (Vita ICnthymii, cc. 37, 41, 42). It is
evident from other parts of this biography that
a liura was distinguished from a coi-nMum,
as being a place of stricter discipline, and
therefore less fitted for a young monastic
asidrant (cc. 88, 89, 91). A coenobium, with
its oratory, refectory, and other mon.i-tic
offices, and orderly rows of contiguous ceils,
enclosed within a high protecting wall, not un-
frequently formed the central mass of the wide
area of the laura, with its strangling groups of
cabins. Thither the anchorets from the laura
repaired every Saturday and Sunday for wmsliip
aud insiruction, bringing with them the mats and
baskets, and other articles they had finished,
aud taking back materials for the work of the
ne.tt week, together with a supply of bread and
water, after having partaken of a little coolied
food and wine in the general refectory (^ibid. cc.
89, 90). On the elevation of Anastasius to the
see of Jerusalem, A.D. 458, he ordained his earlv
friend and fellow anchoret, Fidus, deacon, who, lii
obedience to a supposed vision of St. Euthvniiiis,
destroyed the cells of the laura, and converted
the whole establishment into a coenobium.
Anastasius supplied them with a large body of
masons, and builders, and engineers, by whose
labour the work of rebuilding was competed in
the space of three yoiirs. The whole area was
fortified with a palisade and wall, and further
protected by a strong tower, forming the citadel
or stronghold of the whole desert, rising in the
middle of the cemetery, on the very brink of the
steep precipice on which the monastery was built,
with the gate just below. A new church wsa
built, the old one being converted into the refec-
tory of the brethren (ibid. cc. 114-119). The
tower, just described, was a very usual feature
in the monasteries of the East, which, from their
liability to attack from the predatory tribes,
assumed the character of strong fortresses, sur-
rounded by lofty blank stone walls, sometimes
crenellated and strengthened with bastions,
within which lay the monastic buildings, in
some cases with the additional security of a
moat and drawbridge. The whole establishment
was dominated by a lofty tower, near the
entrance, like the keep of a Norman castle, pliiceJ
under the patrona^j of the Virgin Mary, St.
Michael thearohangel, apostles, orsaints, to vvhiih
the inmates might flee for protection when the
rest of the buihiings had fallen into the hands of
the assailants. As examples of these fortified mo-
nnsfpries we 5!}av mention the V^'hits M^'S'isterv
in Egypt, which Denon savs, with a few pieces el
artillery on the walls, cpcld be defeaded ngainst
an enemy — the monastenes arouni the Natrm
Inkes and tl
Meteora in The
was still furthi
being made ma
accessible by lot
by » windlass,
Catherine on S|
in Egypt, the mi
Mount Athos.
The ground pi
where the local i
angular, with thi
chief object in thi
round. These w
groups, and ultiu
connected by a i
monastery of San
typical example o
fortified enceinte e
acres, comprising
which stands the
open cljister, from
open. The refec
west cloister faci
info the large outi
about 100 feet eacl
nation. The Easti
built on the plan
apsidal recess on e
with the existing i
(see woodcut, vol. i
now demolished din
of a similar form, b
A very reraarkah
which preserves iu t
or 8th century, tho
hostile atfcicks, exist
siastical capital of (
was founded A.D. 302
in the reign of Tirid
embraced Christianil
conversion of Cons
battlemented wall, a
fusevi mass of buildic
besides some gardens
almost a little town,
every description of t
of Panopolis describe
liazaar or market f'oi
produce. Besides the
Vfest side of the great
for the Armenian pat
archbishops, bishops,
other monasteries. A
the south, with a foi
devoted to the recepti
two refectories, one to
for winter use. The
long, low-vaulted room
table running down t
stone benches. There i
the patriarch, and a pu
i^ureh is cruciform,
transepts, and a small a
«iuare with lour shallov
aff-'Sia and Ararat, p. .
Hie Coptic monaster
•"long the earli»«f „n.i ,
"■•'eace. Le^ir gTves'
^Taller mon.asteries, sh
f"^."t''^"ildiDg,of,hic
«<f"nmating in three c£
MOXASTERY
tnkes, nnj those on Mount A.k„.
w« .till (mCrllcJdh'T «««,, protection
b«ing made m'nvT t „h^ t"»-<ngle entrance
Catherine on Mount Lai ♦h'""wi!'"'y ""' «'•
in %ypt the mirteaNurind th°""'.
Monnt Afhos i'lina, and those of
.nsnlar. with the church or V"^:? v""^'' '""■''
chieC object in the mid/t of L '•'''" "' *''«
round, \he3e we,T'^tf t^'- ' t:^''-''
group.,, and ultimately ranged .idei . '?
:s:sz^:hr^HS^"^
Jest cloister SrihrchurT"' f""" .'^'
into the large outer covert I .' ""'J P^'J'^^'''''
about 100 f?et each wav wi h ""'='.'^^"'" hall,
nation. The yaaterT r^fn •''° "P'"'"'' *""»"
built ou theXrof 1 tiT ■'"''''' "'"»%
apsMal recess Jneach'ot-t'er'r' t'^ "°
w.th the existing refectory at Parenzo i„ 1 1""
(see woodcut, vol. i n 377\ „„ i .if > ' *'^"'
now demolish'ed di nVha I'aTtho L^ ^ "^ ''"
of a similar form, but^„uch longer ^'"''''"' '^'^^
A very remarkable monastery ^f early ,Ut.
hostile attacks, exists at Kfl.^ •"•'"""' '"
^i-i-l capital\Trh;?rm „r r^i:^ "^t
was founded a.d. 302 by Grsfforv fh n , •- ^ ""
in the reign of TiridatL? w1,?^th 1 u""""r'
embraced Christianity twelve v^lr» h''.P^'°l'^
conversion of ConstLtrne ' Chin a'l'^
batt emented wnll u ■«.! • .""""i a Jotty
fused n,ass of bu Idtn;" f IIIS'^ ""•'' """
besides some garden fndonpn descriptions,
almost a littlf town tithZltT' T^}^^'''^
every description of't^ leJ-a^tr "^l"^""'
f '"-"polis described abo;e-nda"r„d'""f
bazaar or market for the sale nf,h "^
produce. Besides the cell! „f fu ^^ '"""astio
Ut .side of tlie great cTu.^1 "■« "«""'- "■> the
for the Armeniarpatr ;"ch' tTen "^'T"''.''
arehbishops, bishop, and 1 K, ."' ''"^ ""^
other monasterie "' \ sepiuat '[""' /"■""^
tho south, with ; fountaC? q-adrangle to
devoted to' the receptTn "f%'u"es ts* Cr?' "
wo refectories, one for summe ,nd 5 othe!
for wmter use. The former is des„r^/
K, low-vaulted room with nL i *" "
t^ble running downThe middle ^?*^' """°^"
"one benches^ There is ,clnln- ^T'^° **"
the patriarch, and TpuTpil f"" C a a, ""V'^
«"*'«;« ami Ararat, p. 303 fff) ^ ' ""*"
I he Coptic monasteries in" ijDDer V»-nr.t
•moDs the e.ii-Ii»»f „„.i .L. , VPP.^"^ ^-gypt are
"■^teuce. Lenoir ei'vesT r,h!'^' "^'*""^ ""'" '"
««''lle,- mo„.-«teriof sLwin!^ « ^ °T "* **>«
»«»» of building, of ;hich a thr.» '^T^•'^5•'1"
MONASTEUy 1241
of cells, op,.„,„g on the sd^T^'■""' " '•'""?«
"I'l-roache'l by l suZZl'''^' "^^ '""S """"J"'.
on threiS':^ "h":tbKlV'''':'-^^- ^^--'.
the empress Helena cor 1 .' "'"-"""oJ to
(Curzon,ifom,,S,-'''jr'r'''' '° 'his type
i', described „. abui ding" of ^r'^br '''{ ''
about 200 feet in Icn^fh V ri'^'"''^ "h"!"',
very well built of fine, tot ftha" '"'• '^''^'''
outside larger than loonh;,! "" "indows
«t « g««t heigh? froJ^X"' ''"^ ">«'"' «'«
on the .south sidf and nre a1^ thf^^r' ' ' '^*'"y
walls slope inwards .nTl '""'*' '"''• The
ove.-han|ng^?r;tn rirot T"" '' "-"
the south side, entered tZ ''"urway on
-•■hurch was \ ImI Ln- " '"'"^"- Tbe
column, on each si I of th" n™'e H'" '^'""■■'^
transept recesses covered withTemi I *'"" "" '
monks' cell, were contain^ ^aZt'T'' ^''^'
"le of the church lit hV ^ "''1' ''*■ the
There i» no court or open af,.,'"',;'' '"»''''"'''"■
"^S- The flat rlf atCl d Ve'n ''■ ""'/""J"
, a.r exercise for its inmates Th ^'^"^ "'^ "!«"-
Natron Lakes n-hi K ^ he de.scrt of the
U^'ts of monasN-S 1^" "' ">« «•''■•'!-
'"•'rly convents. On "vfou,!" ■"'""' ""'""^
the ruins of manv aher, '""", """'■•'' hut
Those which m°iin a' ,?Tr'J!"' ''•' '""=«'•
h-ger type, surroTnd /by'^f""^^,'-' «>/ 'h.
mense strength, unbr, k,.7i ^ • '?"'' "^ 't""
otherapertufe, avethe „ '^ ,"""<'',w or any
Even this open ng has in if ' t" "^ ""'^""ce.
infrequently buUt un fol "^ """ '"^«° ■""
hostile attacks, and t?e n i ^'°'''^'«'^ "gainst
^throng, a wiL,a:^blS:;f»
gtnr'iL.rg^a^.derfnr^ ^p-'^^^^
"dually contain ^f:.:rrL::^f' r-*
Ihe mon.isterv /)«„v w ;""acned churches,
celebrated anlhSro/^teT' "'"'' "''"'^ 'he
•^hnrches, the iJa^r LI, T^T.-k'"".'''"'' '■»«'•
*'>Ao.; three each^ an/ thl V i .^^ ^"■V'-^'ni-.
Eastern desert, h; hrtLtf''''V'"™'"' ^ the
huilt over the'cav fft Ctr" ^, '" ^^^P^'
fourchuichesstandiniroi ,» . . I' ?''" contains
toMes of these monaS,'''V''^- ^'^' '■^^'^c
vaulted rooms,fu3edw?th %'""'■ """''^'
its entire leng h, , nd usuhM^ "W*""" '"hledcwu
01 either side: and a S i^T"\'*""« benches
of these religious houl is "'^ '!"'"=• ^"'-'h
W/- or towPi -,„ provided with its
Michael, a ha'e 1 tT"K'^ '^"^'"''"'^ "> St
f^y. c^votSihrco^tVv'rr'-r ;-''^ *"p
^^Ch^ester, ^..Wo,j/";o!:;,Lrvo'rC'p:
The genius of the We.tom „k i
by the enthusiastic adhesion Tf i . *"" '"""•"J
and Augustine. Little h '^'"'"■c'c. Jerome,
the arra'ngements'of 't'he' rr'fta 1 '°""» °^
t>c institutions. We le.vn ^ i,'"" ">°nas.
the rules Laid Ho„a /r^l ^"'^^''' ♦™"^
thcg"i;laaceofhlr::„,'^^,,-tr' ,tbr
w"SrsXtr"^?f-^^e
or two wardrobe keeper wb "''"t ' " ""^
'to beat ana shake KUtld'l^AC
B«'j "»r; IB
Jl^-'
1242
MONAOTEBY
free from m.ith. There wns a lilirnry for the
" codicoH," nml as there wan a "(:ull.:r;iriu9 " ihi-ro
muni have been a cellar (St. Aiiguatine, Itejulao
pro Simdimuniiililjwi, 10, 13, 14),
ThH nioniistic institutions fur malcH.Mtablished
by Auirusline in North Africa, SBsumed an in-
termerliiite form, correspondinp to n (•oimidorable
extent to tlie collejjes of secular canons of
later tliiics. The foundations of Buch an
institution, proliably coeval with Aujjustine,
Wuiu distiivered by Leon Renier, at Tebeasa, the
ancient Thevcste, of which a drawing and de-
Hcription are given Hy Ije Noir (Architect. Munast.
ii. (1. 48,1, pi. fiSH). The plan gives an outer and
inner court at different levels, the inner being
the higher. The outer court is surrounded by a
cloister, and has the domestic ollices to the
north, and a long narrow vestibule to the south.
The i:inor court forms an atrium befori; he
church, a basilica of ten bays with an ajue.
The whole church and atrium are surrounded by
a succes.<ion of rectangular cells, opening en the
lower level of the outer court, surrounded by a
terrace walk. To the south opening from the
church is n large triclinlar refectory, a baptistery,
and other offices. The whole is surrounded by
a wall and towers. Lenoir also gives the ground
plan of Strassburg cathedral (ii. 480) as built by
Olovia. c. A.D. 496. The church is rectangular and
two-aisled, ending square, not apsidally. To the
cast of the church is an open court, surrounded
on three sides by the apartments for the bishop
and ills clergy, partially embracing thf- "^"vch.
Monasticism in the West, after h..v..4i.: iieeu
almost crushed out during the in: •v'isiu?' iind
settleineut of the nations, was r- •,■,;. i (>'i St.
lienedict of Nursia, c. A.D. 5?(t y,. ■ hem the
system was reorganised and r.'/.n-i f , irder.
"The IJcnedictine rule w.is uuiveri .i:y . .\>ived,
even in the older niona.steries of Gaul, V;-itain,
Spain, and tliroughout the West — not as that of
a rival order, but as a more full and perfect rule
of the monastic life " (Milman, J.at. Christ, vol. i.
p. 425, note x,). Not only were new monasteries
lounded, liut those already existing were fre-
quently demolished and rebuilt in accordance
with the re.iuirenients of the new rule. One
leading principle of the Benedictine arrangement
was that the walls of the monastery should in-
clude within them everything that was necessary
for the material wants of the establishment, as
well as the buildings connected with their reli-
gious, literary, and social life, to do away with
the necessity of the inmates going beyond its
bounds. It should contain water, a mill, bake-
houses, stables, and cow-houses, etc., together
with workshops for all necessary mechanical
arts {liiyulae Sancti Bencdicti, 57, 66). The
precinct was to be surrounded with a wall with
one gate, at which a cell should be built for the
gatekeeper, who was to be always on the spot to
give an answer to all comers (ibid.). The build-
ings were to comprise an oratory (52), a
refectory (38), a kitchen in which the monks
were to serve week and week about (35), a
cellar, superintended by a "cellerarius " (31),
a dormitory large enough if possible to contain
all the monks (22), a wardrobe (55), an in-
firmary (36), and a guest-house (50).
These rules are illustrated by the very re-
markable i)lan of the monastery of St. Gall, c.
A.D. 820, the larger portion of which has been
MONABTEKY
engraved to illustrate the article CiipncH
(I. p. 383). Its general nppear.inco is tha'
of a town of detached houses, with street:
running between them, forming thirty-three
detached blocks of building, all of which, cxcejit
the church, were probably built of wood, and wcr«
generally of one story. The building-i form di»-
tine groups. In the centre is 'lie murch and
(;loi^^l'r, and the group belonging i the distinctly
monastic life; to the cost and mith the grou])
appropriated to the education of tlic young, an 1
the care of the si'.k, with the alibat's house
watching over the whole. To the west and
north-west lies the group appropriated to hospi-
tality ; while the group connected with the
grosser material wants of the establishment it
placed at the furthest distance from the church
to the west and south. By a reference to the
plan it will lie sc»-n that the quadrangular
cloister-court forms the nucleus of the establish-
ment, round which the principal buildings arc
ranged. The two-apsed church stands to the
north, that the cloister might be sunny and
warm ; the refectory to the south, the side
furthest removed from the church that the wor-
shippers might not be annoyed with noise or
smell, with the kitchen annexed. From the
kitchen a passage leads to the bakehouse and
brewhduse, and the sleeping-rooms of the domes-
tics. To the west, closely adjacent to the kitchin
and refectory, is a two-storied building, cellar
below, and Inrder and storeroom above. Tiic
absence of the chapter-house is pcrplexiui;.
In all Benedictine houses the chapter-houve
opens from the east walk of the cloister, and the
entire absence of so es.sential nn element of
monastic life throws a little doubt on the per-
fect accuracy of the plan. The east side is
entirely occupied by the "pisalis," or "cale-
factory," the common day-room of the monks,
warmed by flues under the floor. The dormi-
tory occupies the upper story of this building,
communicating by a staircase with the south
transept of the church to enable the brethren
to attend the nocturnal services without going
into the open air. A passage leads from the
dormitory to the " necessarium " — a i)()rtion
of the monastic building always planned with
the most delicate attention to health and
cleanliness. Above the refectory is tlic
" vestiarium," where the habits of the monks
were kept. The " parlatorium," wliere the
monks might have intercourse with members
of the outer world, lies between the church and
the cellar, with one door opening into the
cloister, and another into the outer court. On
the eastern side of the north transept is the
"scriptorium" with the library above.
To the east of the church stands a group of
buildings comprising two miniature monastic
establishments, each complete in itself, the in-
firmary devoted to the sick monks, and tha
house of the " oblati " or. novices. Each has a
covered cloister, surrounded by the usual build-
ings, refectory, dormitory, etc., and an apsidal
chapel, placed back to back. Contiguous to the
intimiary stands the physician's residence, with
the physic garden, the drug store, the house for
blood-letting and purging, and a chamber for
the dangerously sick, closely adjacent.
The " outer school," standing to the north of
the church, contains a large schoolroom, divided
across the midc
•urroiinded by (
dwellings of th,
house stands oi
the church. 0,
stands the nbbf
transept of the
the supervision
tiunal departmoi
house of the nov
The two "Ii
strangers of dilPe
common chanibe
iiirroiinded by h
brewhouse ,uid bn
of a higher (:la.,s i
and storeroom, si
servants, an 1 sta
fiJj hospitinni for s
wall of the cliurol
Beyond the chi
of the convent ar
tD'T'" containing
saddlers, cutlers, a
tanners, curriers,
Biniths, with thi
this side also is
■iienf, comprising
«'wr, mills, malth
piggeries, sheep-co
vanl-' and laboure
east irnor is the
and hen-house, and I
tv '8 the kitchen.
jJanted with fruit
iJenedictinc monaste
gious, educational, a
in which everv depn
iwsition, and nothing
conduce to the well-,
the adequate ful/iln
fuuudation.
The Irish and earli
6th and 7th centuries
lona, followed the Kas'
proper was enclosed
which, however, wi
quadrilateral, intendci
fur the security of its
""eluded the church
with its kitchen and
kospitia, of the commu
fhtca. The hospitla ,
giMlly, as in the Kasf,
wattles or of wood. T
each provided with a si
Ihe abbafs hou.se in C
stood on an eminence
from the other dwellino
fid joists. Here was
here also he sat, and wi
by one brother, who occ
oy two, who stood at
orders. The codices be!
I""!,? in leathern wallet
special apartment, whi
waiod tablets and the si
horns. On the arrival
was no guest-house,
'fund in not a kw Irish
huts W.1S specially prep,
the vallum were the vari.
M0VA8TERY
BcroRR the nuM.M.* i
house stands onnc.sit.. „ i .> ""'"' '"'»'»i-.f
the church, c' „ t,; ,h ' I''" ,""'"' ^"" "*■
tnmsopt of the church ? ''''""'";' ">» ""^'h
the supervis ou of b, fh """^""'^-"tl/ placed for
l'"»»«of h no^l'''^"?"'- "?^'"l. "nd the
The two " hostm; • ' *" "' "'" """"'ory.
bniwhousoandbal- h""„ ^'u'" i"^ "» ""'U
of a higher c , I atn ' "":' '^'•"^^"• travellers
and storerooi t eon u7«r'' "' T'^ « ""•'■•''«■>
-vauts. aai',rrbirLrrr'''Tr '■' V'»
:.n:r;^;:":^,t.r-«-°^-"^-he':^
of thr:itttr^to'"th'^ Tk'^-" "-""-t
tory," containing workHho.r"/'' "k""' "''"-^
t-ners,' .unVe's 'lifers '"1 r-*^'""-,'"''^"'- •
™iths, with th..r^ '>,"''' "'"' e<'i<J-
this side ISO i7th. "? ^'^'''"^- On
menf, com,, i^int tt »8'-""ltural est.blish-
«,-.\n,i.,s:"Sh:L;nr.rdri.?7!'^
p.ggenes, she.p-cotes, tocetherlifh ,?''''""'
vanl^ and labourers''qua?tJ^^ 7."^, '"•' T
th fruit tree?' TkI 't '^'■'".^'"y.
BIOXASTERY 1243
'SSn;?;r:;r;^^,:;;«,^-.thek^^
th« mm with its pond „!?''""'"" ('■"»"'^'».
and cart sheds. The^e « ? """'"' "'" "'"^es,
''«rpont,.,'.s.sh;n Indir" "'"'^ » "'"ithy „nd a
kind. Th„,s.. wTo desi ',|7' ".'r'"'"*-"-'^ "^o "ke
granted by the abbat wi.h , l"'"»i'<»ioa
tary j.lace iu the neilM "'"'''?«' »" «"mc s„|l.
f-'ry, where h^v , ' hrr ". "f ''"' """""-
undisturbed medita . \. m'"'' ""^"-'^Ives to
l-ondofbrothcrhS'sucrarT' '^''"^ "">
was called n J«^/ f, , „, .u ^1''™.'''^ ''''''"•ement
word which isTvorv -r^ * '"'"' ''""•'""'• "
""■'.V Jrish and L . if '"',''"f"* '"-''■■'■rre,,
(of'i'u «»t to be nriiTr*:" ''"""'"'"■''^»
tho nK.a^M•e noUces ot" ,1 /' ,^""'"^'''^hei in
-^i"-"ded in t^ tcirc;'t^:i:h;
i'^'nted with >: uTee? Th ', "''
Benedictine .nonasterlr'a Jlu '"'" '" r^ ■'
gious, educational, „n^tndush.i.rfT,"''u^ ''-'"■
>n which everv dep.,tmen ^ '1 '^'"'^'"''""ont,
i-inon, and nothi';;'^," 4 ,; j":;;:Lr''"'''«
conduce to the well-beintr of .k • . • """'''
the ado,ju.,te fulHl nen?Vf th "'^"'"""°' ""'I
fuundation. "'""">"" of the purposes of its
etSS^t^ll^S:^ --stones of the
lona, followed the IS:ZZl^,'''^l^'"'''«'' "'"'
proper was encln«o,l , " ""o""'- J he monastery
«l.i^h, howctvetas^^u'air''' "',''■'"-'
quadrilateral, intended ritherc^ """''"■' "»'
for the security f itslVn l^f 'or restraint than
i",ci;.w the 4uic^r;iaVt;v'7''"™"
«-.th its kitchen and officers iU 'f ^'"'7.
V'iw, of the communkv nl» ^ ''* .'odgings,
Plotea. The /,o3,V,- ' ^ ""'''' """"od a court
Si-ally, as in KyEi; ^P^ve been ori^
watdci or of wood 'fh/ " 'l^ V''' '■'"•""='1 of
oach ,.r«vided with a Itr.w ^m'^^'^P^ "" '"^'"''.
The abbafs hoZ ,•: r'^ T "* "'"' " ''o'^'or
stood on an en n n.t ir'"'' 'T' '"^^^'''""'.
from the otheXeuLan,r'"' '"1^ ''-^'""^^
here also he sat, and "vroL „r "f"" ^"'"""''
tyone brother, who oc^.^nni,""'''/"''"'''''^ on
h two, who 'sttd at tZn'" ""'' '° ^'"^' «>•
orders. The Codies, hi. ■ '*""'■ "waiting his
h-ng in 1 a4ern waller^'^^i" ^""^ ^""'^''«fon
VecW a,,artment whL l''^ "'* ^'»"' °f «
wa.=d tab'letsT^d !he Ses /he """''""i *'^«
•■was. On the arrivnr of !' ? P'"' ■'"''' ''^1'-
found in not a1w 'h molf'"'. 'j"^"""' ^^'^^
'■"ts was speciairv ni.. ""','"^'«"^s, one of the
were the various agricaitural depen.
tiswood, Kuen II u '^'''''''' Arch.lall, Snot-
-rly\r,^et"«J,„«tter I h ".^ ^'•»'' '" "'e.:e
housesfornuns M .^ •'"" ^'""' V^otixed to
-dAngn,j;-:;„« 7^-e^oftb Hened^^
O. Ben. and Aii</ • an!i V"'"*e't respective y
of their foundatl'-lstce* at IV'lt '^'^
tions c. for ciVr-A «^ri ""-"""i) the abbrev a-
while a. forZTeT'XMlTr! "'' "-' '
many instances as C earliest t' ^"■*'"°
the monastery's existeu™ f "^^ ''■"« of
reference there ha be!" lu ?°^'""«'-^'e of
MENTARv Index of .b«n ''^"^ " ^■'^''^6-
monasteries, where the! "hT ""'' P'"<=«-^ "f the
the alphabeti!;i y^r/an Jd "".'""'^''^''y ^o™
name in the list itse7f ^ °"^'" "' *''« ^tin
.(iiiuANi, h. Kilebbane, near Athv
Queen's Co., built by St Abb .n '
4. ABB.NDONIEN8E (Abi/gd nf b;VV
shire ; O. Ben
(Rem.remont), VosgesjO.lfe™
_S"fiufcr«--'-:ud
7. AcuDABLKNSE, iu Lnsekch fc
gr^^^founded by St. Finia^f
9. ACHADCHAOINENSE ' '(AchonVy/^''"-
Shgoi^founded by St. Finian'o^f
10. AciUDDOBTHINOnENSE "f Achaddub-^'^"" ''"'*'
thuigh), Antrim . /
n. AcnAn^.^.o,^,,,,^„^„ •^.^. ,_._^. a. 700
12. AcHADFOBAiRENSE * (Aghago^erf *• ^^
Mayo; founded bjs\iatiTcrVu«„t.
A.D.
a. 600
640
0, 650
673
c. 644
a. 617
a. 552
■ ;3''||f
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; ?
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IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
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1.0
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11.25
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1^ 1^
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2.2
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M. IIIIIM
Photographic
Sciences
Corporation
\
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■^
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m
'Ck^
23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y, 145S0
(716) 872-4503
— x,- —
■^
O^
.v^^
r
1244
MOXASTERY
Hi
|/t
wh
-•-K
13. AciiADMORlENSB (Aghamore),
Mayo ; founded by St. Patrick V«* cent.
14. AOHADNACILLGMSB (Achadancill),
Aotrim ; fouaded by St. Patrick V* cent.
15. AcHADURENSB (Freshford), Kil-
kenny; founded by St. Luctan . a. 622
16. ACOEMBTARUM Magnum, near Con-
stantinople, in Bithynia; founded
by abb. John V"' cent.
17. Adicscancastrknsk, or Exosiensb
(Exeter) ; 0. Ben a. 700
18. AEari'TioRCM, near Anazarba,
Cilicia a. 600
19. Aemiliani, S., in Aragon; founded
by St. Aemilian 574
20. Aeliotarcm, near the Jordan ;
founded by Antony .... a. 600
21. AaAUOENSB, near Mountrath,
Queen's Co. ; founded by St.
Canice Vl^icent.
22. AOAIJENSB (Agali), near Toledo,
Spain ; 0. Ben., founded by king
Athflnageld 592
23. Agamobbnsb (Abbey Isle), Kerry ;
0. Aug VlIO" cent.
24. AoAROissENSB (probably Akeras, or
Kilmautin), Sligo ; founded by
St. Molaisse 571
25. AOATHAE, S., on the Ticino, Lom-
bardy ; founded by king Grimoald
Longbeard 673
26. AoATiiESSE, S. Andreae (Agde),
HirauU j founded by abb. Severus c. 502
27. Agathensb, S. Tiberu, (Agde),
Hirault ; 0. Ben c. 770
28. AOAUNENSE, S. Mauricii (St.
Maurice in Valais); O. Ben.,
founded by king Sigismund . . 545
29. Ageuici, S., previously S. Martini
(St. Airy), dioc. Verdun ; 0. Ben. 639
30. Aomacariense, near Durrow,
Queen's Co. c. 550
31. AiLECiiMORiENSE, io Artech, Ros-
common a. 550
32. AiRECAL Dachiaroc (de), in Tyrone a. 800
32b. Alaveedense, on the Alan, Geor-
gia ; built by father Joseph . VI"' cent.
33. Alhachorense, or Bangorensb
(Bangor), Down ; founded by St.
Comgall . c 555
84. Aliiani, S. (St. Alban's), Herts ;
O. Ben., founded by king Otfa . 793
35. Alhaterrense, S. Salvatoris
(Aubeterre). dioc. P^rigueux j O.
Ben., founued by St. Miurus ;
or in 785
86. Albini, S., Angers ; 0. Ben.,
founded by bp. Albinus . . . c. 540
37. Album (White Monastery). Egypt ;
said to have been founded by
emp. Helena IV* cent.
88. Alexandui, St on the Euphrates ;
the first monastery of Perpetual
Adoration, founded by St. Alex-
ander c. 400
89. Alksandri, S., near the entram^e
nf thfi Hl.ii'k Sea ; founded by St.
Alexander a. 430
40. Alexandriae Suburbanum (Ale.t-
andria), Egypt 387
41. ALEXAMDlusi;il(Alexandria), Egypt 387
MONASTERY
AA
42. ALEXAyDRINDM, S. JOANNIS
(Alexandria), Egypt ; founded by
John Eleemosynarius. , , . a. 650
43. Algxamdrinuh,' Pauli Lepris
Apfecti (Alexandria), Egypt . a. 500
44. Alrxandrimdh, Sandauariorum
(Alexandria), Egypt . . . IV'* cent.
45. Alexandrinum, ViRQims B. (Alex-
andria), Egypt ; founded by John
Eleemosynarius ..... a. 6.50
46. All Fakannain (de), in Connaught a. tiOO
47. Altha Inferiork (de) S. Mau-
RITII (Lower Altaich), Bavaria;
O. Ben., built by duke Utilo . 741
48. Altha Scperiorb (rr,) (Upper
Altaich), Bavaria ; O. Ben., built
by duke Utilo c. 739
49. Alti-Montis, SS. Petri et Padli
(Haut-Mont), Ardennes; O. Aug.,
founded by count Vincent . . 640
50. '*Altitonense (Altenburg), near
Strashburg ; founded by duke
Adelric Vlll'licent.
51. Altivillarense (Haut- Villiers),
dioc. Rhcims; 0. Ben., founded
by bp. Nivardus 662
52. Af.Yl'ii, S., near Adrianople, Paph-
lagonia ; founded by St. Alypius
the Stylite c. 620
53. ♦Alypii, S., near Adriani>ple, Paph-
lagonia ; founded by St. Alypius
the Stylite c. 620
54. Ahandi, S., or Elnonense, on the
Elne, dioc. Arras ; founded by St.
Amandus and king Dagobert . 637
55. Amantii, S. Ruti enense (Ro-
dez), France MI
56. Amasiense (Amasia), Pontus . . a. 550
57. Amasiab Joannis Acropolitanum
(Amasia), Pontus c. 560
58. AMniACiNENSE (Ambazac), dioc.
Limoges a. 593
59. Ambresburiense (Amesbury), Wilt-
shire; founded by Ambrius, or
Ambrose a. 600
60. Amebbachiense, dioc. Wiirzburg;
founded by St. Pirminius . . c. 764
61. Ammonii, near Alexandria, Egypt IV'cent.
62. Anagratessb (Ainegray), dioc.
Besani,on; founded by abb. Co-
lumbanus c. 570
63. Anastasii Abbatis, near Jerusalem ;
founded by abb. Anastasius . . a. 600
64. Ancyraeum, Attalxsae (Ancyra),
Galatia a. 620
65. Andaginense, S. Huberti, in the
Ardennes; O. Ben., foundeil by
duke Pippin and his wile Plec-
truda 702
66. Andegavense, SS. Sebqii et
Medardi (Angers) . . . . a. 705
67. Andegavense, S. Stephani (An-
gers), France a. 814
68. AsDEOAVENSK, S. Venantii (An-
gers) ; founded by bp. Licinius . c. 520
69. ♦Andeliacensb, S. Mariae (An-
dslys. on the Seine); founded hy
St.'Clothilda ...... 526
70. Andochii, S. Sedelocense (Sau-
lieu), dioc. Autun ; founded by
nbb. Wideradus Flavini.icus . . a. 722
MONASTERY
71.
A.D.
c 520
617
c. 800
.800
a. 500
a. 560
493
420
AsDREiE, S., in Arvernm rCler-
mont), France . . . • . ro,
72. Andreae, S., Isle Vulcano, Sicily.' a! 600
7d. Andreae s., SUPEH MascaZIs
(Mnscala), Sicily .... «. 800
74. Anoeliacense s. Joanna "" ^°°
(Angdly), Indre-et-LoIre . .
7o. Anunensb (Orleans); O Ben'
fimndeJ by abb. Leodebodus "'
76. Anianensb, s. Salvatoris
(Anmne) Herault j O. Ben..
founded by abb. Benedict .
ANiANi ET Laurentii, SS., Nevew :
O. Ben. ...
78. Anisolanum, or's.'CARILEFl'fSt",
Calais), Sarthe .
79..*Anthymi, S. Senens'b (Sienna),
Tuscany . . >• />
80. Antinoopolitancm' ' (Antinoe),
,, . '^gyPt \ , fv,h cent
8 . AyriocnENSE EDPREPii(Antioch) IV-h cent
8i. Antiociiense GregorJi Patri-
ARClii (Antioch) .
83. Antiochensb • Theotoc'i B. (Anl
tioch) ; founded by emp. Justi-
man . .
84. AXTIOCHIA (DE) MrG'DON*IA('Nisi'bis);
Mesopotamia ... IVA <.»„f
85. Antonini, S., near Apamea, sl-ria a 520
86. ANTONINI S (St. Aitonin), LI ^^°
Rodez; 0. Ben. . . . -~_
87. AONDRiENSE (Entmmia), AntHm'; '
founded by Durtrach
88. Apamense (Apamea), Syria' " '
89. Apollinis, S., near Hermo^olii
90. Apr., S. Tulleksb (Toul), Fr^nc;
91. »AQUILEIEN8E (Aquileja), Illy ria j
founded by bp. Niceta
92. *Archangeli db Maciiari
(Machari), near Naples
93. Ardaohensb (Ardagh), Longford';
founded by St. Patrick
94. Ardcarnensb (Ardcarual 'Ros'-
common . . - .
95. Archarnense, in W.' Meath" ' '
96. Ardfertensk, S. Brbndani (Ard'-
fert) Kerry; built by St.
Brendan . . ' y,,,,
97. Ardiense (Mngillagan). ireknd ;
founded by St. Columb. . . Vph cent
98. Ardmacnascense (ArdmacnasaX
Lough Laiogh, Antrim ; founded
by abb. Laisrean . . . «-„
99. *Ard3enil,8Sensb, in Tyrer'agh,
im .a!'^"' f-onded by St. Patrick V'k cent
100. •.ARE.ATENSf), S. CaESARII
101. ARELATEN8E, S. Mariae (Aries);
founded by bp. Aurelian . . ^'
10-. ARGENTINEN8B, S. MarIAB
(Mrnssburg; ; endowed by kine
L'.i'^obert II. ^ •*
103. *ARaE{,TOLIENSB, ' S.' mklAK
(Argentcu.l), near Paris; en-
ini i^""''"'.'' king Childebert III. .
104. AR.MINEN8E, SS. ANDKEABK-n
TuMUB (Rimini), Italy; a
105. AjiMACHANENSB (Armagh), 'ire'.
I'lndj founded by St. Patrick .
MONASTEBY 1246
(KillermoghX
founded by St.
558
106. Armctighense
Queen's Co. ;
Columb . .
107. ARKE8BUROE.N8E
l.ifl A ^^^'Phalia .... f[
108. Abnulw-Auoiense (Schwartzach),
dioc. Strassburg; 0. Ben., en-
dowed by Rothard . '
109. Arndlfi, S. METEN8I8 (Mc'tz)';
110 aI;' "•• '^"■"led by bp. Arnulph 625
110. ARRAOEtLENSE (Arragell), Der y •
in ,^"""•''^'1 by S'- Columb . \'l.hcent
• ■*«^''''N8fc, S. Mariae (Apre-
1iq aT ' ■*"■'*">• Kou'sillon . . Vllpk cent
113. AR™m.N,sVADO(.E)(Kedbridge), ""''
- 680
(Arensburg),
Vlll'k cent.
718
625
a. 600
a. 778
c400
a. 500
a. 622
458
a. 600
a. 454
a. 523
• n. 523
580
a. I
0. 501
554
675
697
a. 600
c. 457
114. A8CLEPii;s.,' Mesopotamia .
no. AscuoyiENSE, S. Mariae (PAscL
bach), Lower Alsace . .
{ 7" ff.'^ANi'M, near Asicha, Syrii '.
117. Athanense, S. MARTn,'or S
;^«^"" (St- Y'-eii), dioc. Limoges ;
119 A?" ■' *'»"°ded by Aldeon . Vlpk cent
118. ATUDALARAQHENSE,on the B^yle
Koscommon . . ' Vth
119. ATHENACEN8E, S. MAkxiNI '(Ai-
190 °''y)'''e«r Lyons; O.Ben. . VI" cent
laraght) Roscommon ; founded by
t>t. Patrick . . 'irii,
123. ATRBBATB^B. S. ' AUBERT.'^ ""*•
(ArraOi O- Aug., built by bp.
124. Atrbbatense, S. MaeiIb (Arr'as)';
O. Aug. . ■^ / 1
125. Atrebatensb, S. ' VEDAin-i,' oi
NOBILIACENSB (Arras); O.Ben.,
built by St. Aubert . .
126. *Adbkciuen8B (Auchy.'les*.
Momes); built by the nobh nan
Adolscarius .
127. AuDii Dacia; Andius 'founded
loo /'-'^^"' raonasteries here . I V" cent
128. ACDOEN, s Ror.iOMAG;:N8B '
,on C^ouen); O.Ben. .
129. AUOIE.X8B, or ArouE 'di^.tis
(Reichenau, lake of Constance); 0.
Ben., founded by abb. Plrminius
nn aZ ^'""""s- prefect of Germany
130. AuousTENSE S. (Jdalrici et
Afrab (Augsburg)
131. AuGU8T0DUNliJJSB, s'
,„„ (Autun); O.Ben. '.
132. •ACGUffrODDNENSB, S
(Aufun); founded
Siagrius . . , ,
133. AUQU8TODCNEN8B, S.' SVMPHO-
R1ANI (Autun); O.Ben., founded
,„. , "y op. tuphronius . . v'li
134. AuNAoiiDUFFBNSB, near Lough
Bofhn, .reland ... -«,.
135. AUTISSIODORENSB, S. AmaTORi's
(Auxcrra), Vonne; founded by
,„„ . V- Ur^us and Germanus '
138. AUTTSSIODORENSF., S. GeRMAOT
(Auxerre), Y„nne; 0. Ben.,
founded by bp. Germanus . 570
JOAKMS
Mariae
by bp.
SVMPIIO.
534
C.700
a. 659
c. 724
a. 700
c. 589
a. 535
' cent.
c. 590
1246
MONASTERY
MONASTERY
n
570
a. 800
A,I>,
530
521
a. 676
a. 637
a. 700
137. AUT188IODORENSE APCD QCOTIA-
CCM (probably Couches), Saoue-
et- Loire ; founded by St. Gcrmanus
138. •AOTISSIODORENSB, S. JULIANI
(Auxerre)
139. AUTISSIODOKENSE, S. Mariae
(Auxerre) a. 670
140. AuxiLU, S. (Killossy), Kildare;
founded by St. Patrick ... a. 454
141. AvENACENSB (Avenay), Marne;
O. Ben., built by Gombert and
his wife Bertha c. 660
142. AviTI, S. ACRELIANENSB (Or-
leans) ; O. Ben
143. Aviri, S. Castrodunensb (near
Chiteaudun), dioc. Ohartres; 0.
Ben., built by king Clotaire 1. .
143b. Baiensi Insula (db) (Isle of
Baya), near Sicily ....
144. Bailkiseqrababtaichense, Ti-
raedha, Derry; founded by St.
Columb VI"' cent.
145. Baisleacense (Baslick), near
Castlereagh a. 800
146. Baitheni, S. (Taughboyne),
Donegal ; founded by St. Baitlien c. 590
BaI/Gektiacesse, SS. Mariae et
Geniiani (Beaugency), Loiret;
0. Ben VII"" cent.
Ballaqhensb, near Castlebar,
Mayo ; founded by St. Mochuo ,
Ballimorense, on Lough Sondy,
W. Meath
150. Ballykinense, near Arklow;
founded by a brother of St.
Keivin VI*" cent.
Balmensb (La Baume), dioc.
Besanvon VI"" cent.
*Balmensb (La Baume les
Nonains), dioc. Bssancon; 0.
Ben. Vll'i-cent.
153. Balmensb S. Romani (La
Baume), Jura ; 0. Ben. . . V* cent.
Balneolense, S. Stephani
(Banolas), Catalonia; 0. Ben.,
built by abb. Bonitus ... a. 800
Bancoknaburgiense (Bangor),
Flintshire V"" cent.
Baralbnse, S. GEOBail(Baralles),
Arras ; 0. Aug., founded by king
Clovis and bp. Vedast
157. Barcetum, S. Anastasii (Barca);
built by duke Luithprand
158. *Barchinoense (Barking), Essex ;
founded by bp. Erkenwald . VII** cent.
159. Bardeneiense (Bardney), Lincoln-
shire; attributed to king
Ethelred a. 697
160. Bardseiense, or De Insula
Sanctorum, Caernarvonshire ;
O. Btn a. 516
Baribiacum, or Faverolense
(Barisis, or FaveroUes), dioc.
Laon a. 664
Barnabae, S., near Salamts,
Cyprus 485
163. Bahri, S., Cork ; fonnded by St,
Barr . . . ' c 606
164. Bariowense (Barrowe), Lincoln-
shire; founded by St. Chad and
king Wulpher o. 691
147.
148.
149.
151.
»152.
154.
155.
156.
c. 535
723
161.
162.
c. 570
c. 3,')8
a. 460
G76
630
c.650
420
c. 700
18.5. BaRSTS. S. (de), in Jfesopntamia IV* cL-ut,
166. Barvensk, in England ; built by
bp. Winfrid »• 675
167. Basoi-I. S., Verzy, dine. Rheims;
founded by bp. Basolns . .
168. Basilii, S.,' near the Iris, Pmitus;
founded by St. Biisil the Great .
169. ♦Bassae, S., npar .leriisalem . .
170. •Bathoniknsb (Bath), Somerset-
shire ; founded by king Osric
171. BaUM (DE), Thebais . . . IV-tont.
172. Beacani, S., Kilbeacan, Cork;
built by St. Abban . . . . a. G50
173. Becani, S., Kilboggan, W. Meath ;
founded by St. Becan . . VI'" cent.
174. ♦Beciireense, near Paban, Egypt;
founded by abb. Theodore . 1V"> Bent.
175. Bkcia (DE) B. ViuQisis, Ancyra,
Galatia a. 580
176. Beduiciisuerdense (Bury St.
Edmunds), Suffolk; founded by
king Sigebert
177. Be«ae, S. (St. Bee's), Cumbor-
land; 0. Ben., attributed to St.
Bega
178. Begeriense, or De Hibernia
j Parva (Isle Begery), near Wex-
ford ; founded by St. Ibar . .
179. Belisiae, Milnster-Bulsen, dioc.
Liege
180. *Belisianom (Bilsen), dioc. LiiSge ;
founded by abb. LandraJa . V]ll"'cent.
181. Beneventanum, S. Mariae
(Beuevento) a. 769
182. ♦Beneventanum, S. Sopiiiab
(Benevento); founded by king
Raschis
183. Benioni, S. Divionense (Dijon);
O. Aug
184. Berceto (de) S. Abundii, after-
wards S. Remigii (Berzeta),
Parma; endowed by kmg Luit-
prand
185. Berclaviensb, S. Salvatoris
(Billy-Berclause), on the Deule;
founded by abb. Lsdwin . . Vll"" cent,
186. ♦Berinense, or Bericinense,
England ; founded by bp. Erchon-
wald n-G'S
187. Bethlapat (de), S. Bademi,
Persia ; founded by St. Badsmus IV"" cent,
188. Bethleemiticum, St. Cassian's, at
Bethlehem IV-cent.
189. Bethleemiticum, St. Jerome's, at
Bethlehem IVcent.
190. Bethleemiticum, S. Paulae
(Bethlehem); founded by St.
Paula of Ro-ne
191. *BETHLEEM:i'ICUM, S. PAULAE
(Bethlehem); founded by St.
Paula
192. Bethmamat (de), near Emessa,
Phoenicia
193. Beverlacense, S. Joannis
(Beverley), Yorkshire; founded
by St. John of Beverley . . .
194. Beyronensb (Alt-Beyren), dioc.
Constance ; 0. Aug. . . . Vili'''cent.
195. Bezuense (Bize), dioc. Langres;
0. Ben., founded by Amalric,
duke of Burgundy . . . . a. 670
774
a. 734
18
387
387
a. 450
c. 700
WOXASTERY
196.
203.
204.
653
^'^ftW^'^-"'^' siigo; built ^■°*
200. BimoN.K.V8,, SS. Pp.TRr e't piuLi "' '''
(Glendalough),Wicklow; founded
oy bt. Keivm . . -.„
201. BiTUMAEUM, or 'ad •tuveoI '^ °^
KP.AEUM, on the Severn. Worces.
203. »BrTun™ • S.- UnnEWii " "°
. (Bourge8) France; 0. iSen., as-
cribed to St. Sulpicius . VII.' cent
Blandiniexs., S. Petri (Blan- '
deaburg) near Ghent; 0. Ben..
founded by St. Amand . '
•BJANGIACEKSE, S. BeRTHAB
(B angy-en-Ternois), Pas-de-
y- Uen., founded by St. Bertha.
daughter of Count Rigobert^^
205. BonuiENSE (Bobbin), Milan ; O
mn Rnn?;; "°'^"? ""y S'- Colunibanus
203B. BoDBEANL'M, in Sacheth, Georgia
206.BOETn S Monasterboice,LS.
founded by St. Bute ' ,„
207.Bo„„-MedL (OE •i„-De;ry: "' '''
founded by St. Coli'mb . 7 VB-cent
208. BoLnKNDESAaTENSE (De,-ert), '"''
d^f:?S/"""''^^ "^ «'• ^-i,
209. •BovoK (Bologna); Vounded"^' ""'•
by bt. Ambrose . iva ^
210. BosANHAMENSE (Bo^ham), Sus'^ex'"*-
attributed to St. VViltWd. •
"e'iaT'"''''''' " '"■^«°«""''
212. Bovig INSCLA (DE)'(B;ph,-u I'sle)!
213. Bovis Insula (DE) (InisbotHn), in
^■I'-Sfjj^. Longford; founded by
214. Bom 'insula "(DE) V. j^j^niAE
(Devemsh Isle), Lough Earn;
'<'unded by St. Laserian '
2 5. BitAccANi, S., Ardbraccan, Meath
7 ^ '"^^^ (B--""). dioc. Chartres
o,c „f ""'^'^i (Brionde), Haute-Loire
215. *Biiix,ENSE, SS. Mio.AEHs et
S'h k^^'''^'='">' I-o-nbardy
oon »„^<""''''^d by queen Ansa . ' '
220. ♦Br.xjexse, S. Salvatoris et S
t^^f^, u^^'""''"'^' L'-mbardy;'
20, ♦^"'"'"J by king Desiderius . '.'
U?n^T''!"'^' byLakeFedersee
Upper huabia; founded by a
222. B p",^' r,:l^"^^ "i'^^brand' ?
2:3. B0RDIGALE.VSK, s. ■ SEVEumi
(Bordeaux); O.Ben. . , . . a_ gU
MONASTERY 1247
A.n.
228.
227.
c. 740
a. 650
a. 765
a. 600
a. 600
c. 570
c. 380
686
686
a. 380
681
a. 721
a. 530
a. 716
.510
a. 758
671
756
6.50
250,
BaRENSE(Beurn), neartheAlp,;
0. Ben., founded by Landfrid
WaldramandEliland '
Bl-surunnensb
^0 BenT ^f7l^y>'' Cayenne';
0. Ben., founded by prie3t\„ne.'
28. EvzANTiNORDM," near 'jerusalem ^"'' ""''
1 clp«V"''*''y *''''• D«'^ideratu'.
CAE«GpD,E.N8E (Holyhead), Anglel
2 Cap^r Jr''''""*y S'- K^bius . .
land . r '•''f.^?''"^'^)' Cumber!
3 •clrtL^"'"^''* ''y St. Cuthbert .
■ brsrsy^"''«>'^''-d«j
t. Caesame (Caesare;).'cappal
'• 'docTa'"!'*''" ('^««''»^«»)."Cappa:
. Caesariense (Caesarea'> P.u\- '^"' <=«"*•
■CAa.cAv,.oELEri^st;: -^'*'^
• ""o Berr*fVr>'' Tourainer""'"''*
rate), Lombardy *• '
J^-alamo.ne (dl;, near Jerusalem
•t-ALARITANUM (•Cairlilri\ . .• J 'i
by Theodosia^ «""'^"°"'"le'>
'-ai.tNsh, b. Mariae (Chelles'V
&hirda''°'^^'^°""'^«^'>xis
'• "ir""^^. (Combronde), in
S. Camerace.VSE, S. AuDEkTr /-P^.^'
r. OAMKRACE.VSE. S P... '
est r^-.. ' WA.VOERICI
V u'7' '■«'"■ Cambray). O
Au^., buiit by bp. GangerLu's
I- CAMERACIiN.SI.:, S Pftbt >. "
^K.MJSt.Gh.slam, inHainaut);
■ ^p'!k.!:"''^"'^^"^' S. PRAWECTlVst:
J "X), nea,. St. Quentin, Oi»e- O
Ben., bui t by All)erf r 1 i
Vermandois ^ '*' ^°"°' °'
^ril^oT" ^/^°iP'«n). Baval
Hfldejrd "•' '"""'•'^ ''y 1"->
'tu!l?t;;^'i£''-^^ei-er;
Canopeum Metanoeab (Canope);
tANTCARiKvsE, SS. Petri et
I^AULi, afterwards S. AuonLrv,
(Canterbury), Kent • X, ?
Rnn f 1 ■ . > *"«' wards
lert and % t^ ^^^ """e ^'beU
ueii and fat. Augustine
400
a. 708
a. 430
a. 470
e. 600
a. 655
c. 680
a. 600
637
600
a. 691
c. 800
777
a. 640
a. 380
605
1243
MONASTERY
m
599
a. 814
c. 540
B.400
a. 580
c525
723
c490
255. Caois Insula (de) (Iniscaoin Isle),
Lough Earn, Ireland .... a. 650
256. CAi'KBbT (DE), Dear Emessa,
Phoenicia a. 450
257. Cappanulensr, SS. Martin; et
QuiMACI (Cappanello), dmc.
Lucca a- 725
258. Capbae Caput (ad) (Gateshead),
Durham .a. 653
259. Capiuolo (in) St. Valentini
(Capriolus), Syria; founded by
St. Valentine of Arethusa . Viccnt.
260. Caranni, S., near Chartres; 0.
Aug
261. Carcassosense, S. Hilarii (Car-
cassonne), Languedoc ; 0. Ben. .
262. Cardena (DE) S. Petki, Old Cas-
tille ; O. Ben., founded by Sanctia
263. Carsotense, S. Pbiei (Chartras);
O.Ben Vl'ktfent.
264. Carpensb, S. Mariab (Carpi),
Jlodena; 0. Aug., built by king
Astulph 750
265. Carrofense, S. Salvatoris
(Charroux), dioc. Poitiers; O.
Ben., founded by Count Robert . 769
266. Cartebii, S., near Emessa, Phoe-
nicia a. 450
267. Carthaoiniensia ; at Carthage
there were very many monasteries
268. CARNES9E(Caruns), Derry. . .
269. Caseoonouidinense (Cougnon),
Luxemburg ; O. Ben., founded by
king Sigebert 660
270. Casinense (Monte Casino), Naples ;
fount" sd by St. Benedict . .
271. Castellione (de) S. Petri
(Ciistiglione), near Lucca ; O.Ben.,
foun<led by Aurinand and GodtVied
272. Castello (de) S. Sabhab, S.
Palestine ; founded by St. Sabbas
273. •Castrilocense, Hainault Mts. ;
founded by Wnldedruda, sister of
St. Aldegund c. 610
274. Catalausense, S. Petri, or
Omnium Sanctorum (Chilons-
on-Mame); endowed by king
Sigebert and bp. Elaphius . .
275. Cauciacense, S. Stephani
(Choisy-le-Koi), near Paris . .
276. Caulianense, near Merida, Spain
277. Caunense, S. Petri (Cannes),
Aude ; formed by abb. Ainan
from two older abbacies . .
278. ♦Caziense (Caz), Switzerland
279. Cellae S. Eusitii (Cclles in
Berry) ; founded by abb. Eusitius
and king Childebert ....
280. Cella Magna (de) Deathreib,
Kilmore, Ireland ; founded by St.
Columb VI'" cent.
281. Cellardm, Nitria, Egypt . . IV"" cent.
282. Cellense (Celles), near Dinant;
O. Ben., founded by abb. Hada-
liaus 664
283. Cellense, S. Petri (Moustier-la-
Ceile), Troyea; founded by abb,
Frodobert 650
284. Cenomannense, S. Petri (Le
Mans); founded by bp. Bertich-
ramnug 623
a. 600
a. 739
a. 600
a. 793
a. 760
532
MONASTERY
>,D.
285. Cekomannense, S. Victoris (Le
Mans) a. 800
286. Cenomannense, S. Viscentii et
Laurentii (Le Mans); O. Ben.,
founded by bp. Domnolus . . 570
287. Centulense, S. Rictiarii
(Centule), dioc. Amiens; founlcd
by king Dagobcrt and abb.
li'icharius c. 625
288. ♦Cerab, S., Grange, Cork ; founded
by St. Cera a. 679
289. Cernellense (Cerne), Dorsetshire,
O. Ben VI"" cent.
290. Certesiense (ChertKcy), Surrey;
O. Ben., founded by earl Frithe-
wald and bp. Erkonwald . . c. 6G5
291. Cestrensb, S. Werburqae,
Chester Vll'" cent.
292. CllALCBDONICM, SS. Al>08T0M,.
(Chal<'edon), Bithynia; founded
by Rufinus IV* cent.
29.''. Chaix3i:donium, S. Htpatii
(Chalcedon), Bithynia ... a. 500
294. Chalcbdonium, S. Michaelis
(Chalcedon), Bithynia ... a. 500
295. jCiiALCEDONiUM, Pi'iiuoNls (Chal-
cedon), Bithynia .... V" cent.
296. CiiALCiDlcuM (Desert of Chalcis),
Syria V'"" cent.
297. ClIALCIDICA AUDAEANORUM
(Chalcis), Syria; several monas-
teries V"" cent.
298. CiiAixiiDicnM de Critiies
(Chalcis), Syria c. 420
299. CuARiTOSis, S., near Jericho . IV'' cent.
300. ClllNOlMjscKNSB, in Egypt . . IV"' coat.
300b. Chirsanum, near Bodbe, Georgia ;
founded by father Stephen . VI'* cent,
301. Chnuum (C'hnum), Egypt . . IV" cent,
30i). CiiORAOUDiMENSE, Bithynia . . a. 5(50
303. Chorae, near Constantinople ;
founded by Priscus . . . VI'' cent.
304. CiiozABANCM, near Jericho;
founded by St. JohnChozabitus VI" cent.
305. Chremifan'ense, S. Salvatoris
(Kremsmilnster), Bavaria ; O.
Ben., built by duke Tassilo . a. 79!
306. •CiiRiSTOPHlLl, S., Galatia; for
nuns and the possessed ... a. 580
307. CiiRYSOPOUTANUM (Chrysopolis),
Bithynia ; founded by Philip-
picus c. 60+
308. CiBARDi, S. (St. Cybar), dioc.
Angoul^me c. 570
309. CiNClNNlACO f DE ) (Cessiires), dioc.
Laon ; founded by bp. Amandus
and duke Fulcoald .... 664
310. CiNNiTEACilENSE (Kinnitty),
King's Co. ; founded by St. Finan
Com 557
311. Claramniesse, near Emessa,
Phoenicia «• 450
312. Clariacense, S. Petri (Clnrinc),
dioc. Agen; O. Ben., probably
founded by Pepin . . . . c. 800
313. Classense, S. Apolusaris
(Classe), Ravenna . . . . a, 690
314. Classense, SS. Joansis et
Stephani (ClassO, Ravenna . a. 600
316. Cleonadense (Clnne), Kildarej
foundel by St. Ailb« . . . ». M8
MO\ASTERy
548
550
a. 800
800
663
a. 577
■n he\alteli„e,ortheGri.s.m/
817. CwonmKSSK (ClogheTl Tn-o ' !
founded by St. Aid / ^""'"'
818. CUJ.VARDENSE, S. PETRI (Clonardi
319. CL0.vt.NAQHEN8K, near Mountrath,
Queen'. Co.; founded hy St!
320. Cu).s.".vsE, "or' Dun'keranensb
(C.loumacnoise), King's Co. :
founded by St. Kieran . '
321. CLOXPERTBNSf^ S. MOLUAE
(Clonfertmulloe), King's Co
founded by St. Moluo vni. .
founded by St. Brendan **'*^ '
323.C,.™LRPAri''^),-,„Kn: '-'''
324. Cu>.n8ha.nv.lleW, in ' B;yle' ^^
Roscommon; founded by ^St!
S2_6. CWO.VFADENSE, in Roscommon' .'
32<. Cloonmainanensb, in Meath
328. CL00N0EN8E(Cl«nr), near Longford
329. ♦Cluainboireanense, on^ the
,o. .^ *"""''' Koscommon
330. •Cluainbronachense rci'onpl
brone) Word; attributed t
ot. Putnclc . . ,.,^
331. Cluaincairpthense (Cio^crW).
Ivoscommon . ko
332. Cluainclaideaciensb, ii »„»! ""
conail, Limericlc ; built by St.
... ^MaiJoe of Ferns . . ' . «o^
333. Cluai.nooxdrcnense, near ' tl,; ^^*
Abban '''^''*'^' founded by St.
334. CLUAiKDACHRAmE;sE-(Ci;nr;ner* ""'■
W. Meath; founded by abb
Cronan M'Niellan . ' ^ -,.
ZtlT^'^"^''''' (ClondalLin); " "°
near Dublin . ■''
336. *aUAINDUBHAINEN8E,' * Veap ^
s?tecj^--' ^-^«^"
333.cS!,urtn'S;tr''^--
founded by St. Froech . "° ' „
Pauu (Clones), Monaghan ; 0.
Aug., founded by St. Tigernach a
341. CLUAINFIACULLE.NSB '^rdon
^^ ^feakle), Armagh . . ^^'""'•
342. Cluaivpinolassense, in Ckre*:
founded by St. Abban . '
Mea™*'"^^ (Clonfad), " W.
344. Cluainpomense, ' ne'ar " Tu'am'-
founded by St. Jarlath . . '
346. Cluaik iWla (de) ^^lini^h kr' '^'"•
I^ugh Earn, Ireknd . . . . „«
'"Sr"^"" (Clonleighi '•"'
•* a. 630
MONASTERY 1249
348.
A.D.
.570
.548
a. 580
650
a. 577
c 540
^';f„^'^Y'='E.vsE (Clonmnny),
''''vv"Tar™''-"^-""»«^ ""'
350. Cu;a,n».aue.vse ' (bloiem-ore) " '"^
h.ng^s Co.; founded by St. Moch-
351. CLUA,.VMOREN8E(CIonemor'e),We;. '' ®"
352 Cn'^'ll ^"'"'•^"'^ ^y St. JIaijr Vl.h cent
352. CluaI.NMORPER.VARDENSE, in
c^a^''>"-"-^''^''ysv,.
353. CualnnamanacheIvse; i'n •.7'" <=«»'.
,,,, ^♦■'■■ach. Roscomm,.n
354. CLUAINREJL0EACUES8E, in Kia
d55. Cluainumiiense (Cloyno) 'irc'land
I 3o6. CLUNOK Wau„e.4e. i 4nS«
sMr? f "^ YV"^' Caernarvon-
uw;d'ai;r''^'* '^ ^^y^'y^ °f
357. Clyvud Valle Vde^ 'fn,„^
Valley) DenbighsL^; ffl
C-tle), Suffolk; fonnde^d b^^
o=Q ^^'"''^"^anJkingSigebert
3o9 CNODAiNEN8E,ia!)onfgal ' '
& Wa?.'^''' ''y Counts'^Und:
-ifll n«,.„ • *^ "'''•"«> and Illiland
36 . COEMANI, S., near Wexford , '
362. *C0LDiNonAMEN-8E (Coldingham)
Scotland ; for nuns and ionks-
founded by Ebba . . . """'
363. C0LERA.NE«8E (Coleraine), 'irel
364. COLOAN,,' S. "(Kiicolgan), dioc"
Cbnfert;found«ibygt.&Cb:
365. COLOANI," S.; Ki'lcokan' r 1 * ^'"' *^*''*-
3e7.co'US"r&^^"'s-- •
co.;*?o'Ud';;.Jtty"'*^''
"turds' .'%'• ^^^'•^"--"S afte^
7 J . ,' CUNIBERTI (ColoffneV
IRQ Jr'"''^ ^y S'- Conibert ^ ^'
369. »C0LDD0NEN8E, England . "
3/0. COLUMBAE S., DrumcoIlumb,Slieo'
0-, f^u^ded by St. Columb .' %.h,„,
371. CotUMBAE, S. SENoKEK8E'(Sons)r
^^"^" ^coZi-'T^ /«• * p^T'^u
(Colombiers), dioc Bourues-
o„ ''"''t by abb. Patroclu. .^ '
373. C0.MEN8E S. Abunwi (Coma)
Lombardy; O.Ben. . / ^'
374. COMODOUACENSE, S. WlANI
(St. Junien-les-Combles), dioc
375. C0MRA.RE.8E, nea; UsneU; w:
"'■'■D?nS'':'^*^''"''-''^'-i
oil- ^''^"'t, S., Kilconneli; Ga'lwaV 'V" n.'V
378. CONCHEX.VAE- S., Killachal^on- ""*•
ir,; ^*'"^' '"-^^'^ '■rst.
Vincent
a. 600
a. 600
707
616
c. 637
a. 600
c. 740
a. 639
a. 673
a. 700
680
c. 570
a. 664
a. 684
a. 659
c. 541
a. 814
c. 500
a. 653
c. 590
1250
MONASTERY
MONASTERY
879.
880.
381.
382.
383.
755
a. 673
a. 650
COSCIIENSB (Conques), dioc. Ca-
hur.s; 0. Ben., probiibly built
bv bp. Ambrose . , , , •
♦CONDATKNSK, S. MARIAE (ComU),
dioc. Cftiiibray ; attributed to St.
Amand <:• ^80
CONDATENSE S. MARTINI (CandtS),
dioc. Tours ; O. Bea. . . . Vl'" cent.
COXDATESCKNSE, Of S. EUQENDI
JuRKNSis (St. Oyan), Mt. Juraj
O. Ben., founded by abb. Suspi-
cinus and Komanus , . . . c 520
CONFI.UENTENSK, S. GEOROII
(ConHiins-en-Jiirney), Lorraine .
384. CONQDAII.ENSB (CoDwall), Donegal
385. CoNUENSK, V. Maiuak (Cong),
Mayo: founded by Donald, or
perhaps, St. Kechan . . . Vll'" cent.
S86. CoNlNGENSB, in the Golden Vale,
Tippeiary, built by St. Dcclan VI'" cent.
387. C0SN0RI-.N8E (Connor), Antrim . a. 771
388. Co.NRiKNSK (Conry), W. Meath . a. 7o8
389. CossrANiiiNi, Aiidatis, near
Jericho »-600
cosstantinorolitaka monasteria
(Constantinople).
390. Abraiiami, S V'" cent.
391. AnllAlIAMITARUM . . . • *'• ^,^
392. AEoyi'iiORUM »• ■*'^0
39i Albxandri, S. ; founded by St.
Alexander •
394. Anatolii ; founded by Anatolius
395. Areobindanum ; founded by
Peter, brother of emp.
Maurice
oon Bassiani, S V'cent.
Betiileemiticum; attributed to
emp. Helena .... IV'^ cent.
Caixistuati .... iV-cent.
399. Caum et Babylatis, SS.;
founded by emp. Helena . IV" cent.
400. Dalmath, S V'" cent.
401. Diaconissae; founded by the
Patriarch Cyriacus . . . c. 600
402. Dii, S. ; founded by St. Dius . c. 420
403. i-USTOLiAE, S. ; founded by SS.
Kustolia and Sopatra . . Vl'" cent.
404. Flori IV'" cent.
405. Gastuiae: founded by emp.
Helena I V" cent.
406. IMPEUATRICIS; founded by
Justin I «-526
407. ISAACi, S.; founded by St.
Isaac V«''cent.
408. Joannis BaitistAe, S., or
SioniENSE: Acoemete, founded
by the Consul Studiu* . .
409. Job, S. (de) . . . • • •
410. Macedonii; Macedonius founded
several mons. in Constauti-
. nople IV'" cent.
♦Magsae Ecclesiae ... a. 000
Mauatiionisj founded by Ma-
rathon iV-eent.
413. JlATRONAE, S V"- cent.
414. Maurae, S. ; founded by St.
Maura iV" cent.
415. Mykiock.rati . . ' . . . o. 450
416. Olympiadae, S. ; founded by
St. Olympiada <=• 400
, 430
.500
a. 600
397.
398.
463
a. 450
411.
412.
5,50
.660
780
c. 000
417. Pal-LI IV"" cent.
418. Paulini; founded by a noble-
man, Paulinus .... V"" cent.
419. POENITENTIAE NOVAB ... a. 600
4'.'0. Petri, S., db Hormisda , . a. 653
421. Rauulae, S. ; founded by St.
Kabulas »• 515
4^2. UoMANUM; founded by Hemon V'cent.
423. Stephani db Komanis ... a. 600
424. Syrorum a. 450
425. Thalassii, S a- 4:i0
426. Uriiici; founded by Urbicus . a. 518
427. Zaciiariab, S. ; founded by St.
Dominica IV" cent.
428. ZoTici ; founded by Zoticus . a. 360
429. CORBEIENSE, S. Petri (Corbie),
dioc. Amiens ; O. Ben., built by
St. Clotilda an<l her son Clotairo
430. CoKBiONENSE, dioc. Chartrcs .
431. CORMERICKNSB, S. Pauli (Cor-
mery-on-lndre), France ; 0. Hen.,
built by abb. Itherius, and emp.
Charlemagne
432. COBSICESSE (Island of Corsica);
, built by a nun, Sabina . .
433. (ioaiLAONis, near Chalcedon,
Bithynia IV'" cent.
434. CosMAE ET Damiani, SS., in Spain ;
0. Ben a. 644
435. Craobense, S. Grellani, in
Carbury, Sligo; founded by St.
Finian of Clonard . . . VI"' cent.
436. Craoibechensb, near the Broson-
ach, Kerry, founded by St.
Patrick V'" cent.
437. CRAS3EN8B, S. Mariab (U
Grasse), dioc. Carcassonne ; 0.
Ben., built by abb. Ninifrid . .
438. Craykknse (Crayke), Yorkshire;
founded by St. Cuthbert . .
439. Crispinensb, S. Petri (CriJpin),
near Mons ; 0. Ben., founded by
St. Landelinus c. 640
440. Crispini S. in Caqia (Chnye),
dioc. Soissons; O. Ben., built
perhaps by bps. Principius and
Lupus V'" cent.
441. CUONENSF, or Chrononensb
( ournon), Auvergne; founded
by bp. Callus c- 551
442. Croylandense (Croyland), Lin-
colnshire; O. Ben., founded by
king Ethelbald 716
443. Cruce (db) S. LeufREDI (Croix
St. Leufroy), near Evreux,
Eure; 0. Ben., founded by St.
Leufred
444. CRUDATEN3E (Cruas), Ardt'che ; 0.
Ben., founded by Count Elpodore
445. Crusayensb (Isle Crusay), W.
Scotland; founded by St. Co-
lumba VI«"cent.
446. CuANNASi, S., Kilcoonagh,
Galway VI" cent.
447. CuiMiNl, S., Kilcomin, King's
Co., founded or enriched by St.
Cuimin »• ^68
448. CusQARi, in Glamorganshire;
founded by Cungar and king
Paulentus c. 474
a. 779
685
692
814
MOVASTERY
MOXASTEnV
450.
451.
452.
453.
456.
457.
458.
589
a. 700
a. 560
c. 492
B. 620
a. 639
546
470
540
a. 700
a. 814
667
c. 716
449. CuuTUA (nr.) S. Pktri Ckno- *■"■
.MANKN.S..; (|„ M«n.,); O. b«n.,
I'liilt l>y l,|,. Heninm
('lliSANincNSK, S. JoANNtS BapI
1 ISfAK (CisancB), .li„e. Husanvon ;
y^ »c'.i., t„un<l<.d by St. KrincnfriJ
CVRUCI, S. (St. Cirgue.s), Au-
veigne ; 0. Hen. . ''
I)a..k,k;i S r.nugh,learg, Donegnl";
r)AI)ANUM PHIU.XKNI (Dada).
454. DAfuiNi, S., in Decics", Watcrford
4o5. Dairmaciiknsk (Durrow), Kinu's
t,". ; found«d by St. Oolumb
rAM,KTTA(DK), Kgypt . . IV"> cei.t
ui the Blaolc Sea .
i-.. m;"^""' '-''''"'* (°''=)' n^" Wexford
4oU. Ukcm.ack.nsk, S. Cirici (? Dix-
..A ,"""")• ■"">'• Joigny, Vonne . .
4G0. Dkknsk, S. PIIILII.KRT, (Die, o^
/"-nnil-Lieu), dioc. Nantes .
4bl pKN TK (DK), Cork . . . VI- cent
462. Dkooat, S. (St. Dii,Vo;ge;, or
Vii-Oal.lde); O.Ben., founded by
ot. Deodatus , .
463. Dkoui.yrstknsb (Deerhurst),
pioucesteishirej 0. Ben., founded
by iluke Dodo
464. Dkukuamknsk (E. Dereham), Ivorl
f"lk I 0. Ben., founded by king
Anna .... °
465. *i)KRWENTEN3E" (Ebchester), bur*.
ham ; founded by Kbba, daughter
of king tthelfred
466. Dkrwensk, SS. Petri" et P^uli
MouOei-en-Der), Haute Marne :
built by abb. Bercharius and
Kins; Childeric
467. DiKNSE, S. Marcelli ' f bie>
Oauphini ; O. Ben. . . ^ vill"- oon»
4G8. DiKUMiTr, S., Ca«tledermot, kTi- """•
daie ; founded by St. Diermit ,. <^nc\
*'"• v\ms%\\, s. Parisie.nse fSt
Denys), near Paris ; O. Ben '
begun by king Clotaire II.'!
hnished and endowed by kind
Dagobert I. ' s
471. DisKinKNSE, s". Tol^e (Di^ertl
t;ila), Heath; founded by St.
472. DiSKRT "Hr " TnUACHmtENSE
(De2ertoghill), Derry; founded
oy St. Columb . vnh l
473.DJSKRT MEHCMol, (DE), 'nea^ ""*•
I-o«gh Innell, W. M^ath; built
DV ot. Colman . viih »
474. D,sn.ODi, S. de Moxte "(DLsen: " "
biiig), dioc. Mayence; 0. Ben..
fouri.led by abb. Dislbodus . '
475. »lnsir.ODr, S. de Monte (Disen'-
,„ buig); founded by abb. Disibodus
476. D-noNENSE S. Stephan
,„ ('>'.l»n)i afterwards 0. Aug.
477. DoiREMACAmMKCAINEN!?!,, !,,
Meath; attributed to St. Lafra
the virgin
478.DeLENSE(Bourg-de:De;is),'lndre";
CHBIST. ANT.Jvoi;. u. * * • ^I"" cent,
1251
A.D,
623
a. 700
a. 600
650
. 660
673
490.
491.
632
.733
67*4
a. 700
c. 580
c. 600
479. Dm^jENSK. or T.rEOix)o,ENSE,
■V Mauricu (Thuley, „r St!
Mauri,'.. Vosg,.,); o. Ben.,
d«A J""'"'""'y '''"K l^«R"bert . .
480. I>0M.VAcm.n,E.V8E (Movill), oi
Loughf.iyle, Ireland j founded by
t>t. Patrick . . \^■^
481. DOMNAC.I CoMMUiRENSE (Cumber)
4«9 Jt'*" ' '"""'''''' ''y •"*'■ '''"'•i'^k V" cent
^ork*""*'""'''"''' (Donaghmore), '
'''• "X^Sr^ "(Donaghm-ore),
484. DoMNACi.MORKNSE (Dmaghmore),
near Dungannon ; founded by
St. Patrick . ■'vih
485. DOMVACHMORENSE, in •Magh»;ola, '""'*'
noscominon . ir.h
486. Do.m.vachmor,en8e: ia Tira^ley,"^ ""'•
-t«7 n^ •"' ' '^^'""''*'' ""y St- Patrick V"" cent
487. D0MNACH8AR,0E.N8E,inKreimacta-
Bieg, Mcath . . vih
488. D0M..ACi.TORTA.NEN8E* (bonagh- ''"'•
m..ro),^Meath; founded by St.
489. Do™ (OE),- S^. RoMANr; i/'" ""'•
hpain ; O. Ben., founded by John
and MuniHs . '
^7«''';^™"CIEN8B ' (bonoghl
pa rick), Meath ; founded by St.
i atrick, and Conal M'xVeill . V"> rent
PORENBE Derry). Ireland; founded *'
by at. Columb . viih
492. DORMANCA8TR,EN8E (^aisloi)^ ''^'"■
.lo, .,^"'tham|,tnnshire . . '''
'jJ;'*^^*"^<='^-^«'^ (Dornac), Haut".
494. D0R0T,,Ei inruTis, near* G;za",
Jounded by its first abb. Doro-
DORVLAEO (in) r.EORQli DE FONT- '''°''
il.is (Dorylaeum), Asia Minor
novoRENSK (Dover), Kent
DROMORE.NSE (Dromore), Down";
498. Druimarde.nse (probably Kill
laird), Wicklow . '
499. Druimchaoinchellaiohense," in
byltMban^''^'""^''' '"-"^■''
500. •Dru.mc.eoxense, neir Mt. Slieu
Buleith, Longford: founded by
ot. Patrick . . \^^
501. DRniMci.ORcoTHRiENSE,ne;rT;ral,
.An ^*^™"'; founded by St Patrick V". ..nf
502. DHCiMcuAnExsE ' (DruSe),"^ ""*■
";nq nf ^" ' '^""°^''' ''^ ^t. Columba . 590
503. DRu^McmLENSE (DrumcuUen),
504. DRUiMKDERDALicHENSE, ik Tirer- "■ ^^^
r«r ^^ ' ''8° ' founded by St. Kinian VHk „»-»
505. DRUIMINDEIC.IEN8B ^ (Druimin *•
PMHo'k ^"''''" ' '"""''*'* ""y St.
506. DiiuiMiNEA8^LuiNNEN8E, ' near "" ^^^
Drogheda Ireland; fo'undodbj
St. Patrick . ■'vtii
507. Druiml,a88en-se (Dromlea's), Lei- ''"*•
ino n"" ' ''"'" "^'f St. Patrick . V" cent
508. DRUIMUA88ENSE. in Sligo; a Uri-
buted to St. Patrick/: . V". cent
80
495.
496.
497.
c. 650
635
a. 600
c. 640
a. 699
a. 583
a. 650
1252
MONASTERY
MONASTERY
I!
609.
&\Q.
511.
512.
513.
514.
515.
516.
517.
518.
519.
620.
621.
622.
523.
524.
525.
526.
527.
528.
629.
630.
531.
532.
533.
534.
635.
536.
637.
638.
.639.
DniTiMMACUnLENgE, io Crimthnnn,
Mfnth ••458
Dmji.M.NKENSK, near Lough aarngh,
Slign ; lounJi'd by St. I'atrick V* cent.
DiiuiMTMUOMENSE (Drumhome),
Donegal «• 640
DiiuiNOHUM, near Cinna, Qa-
latia «.600
Drumiioense (Drnmboe), Down ;
foiin.led liv St, Patrick . . V" cent.
DliUMCUlM KNSE, near Ratheuin,
W. Meath a. 590
Drumlaiianense, B. V. Mariae
(Orumlane), Cavan .... a. 550
Drumranense, S. Enani, near
Athlone, W. Meath .... 588
DRUMR4TiiEN8E(I)run)rath),Sligo;
founUe.! by St. Kechin . . VII'" cent.
DuiNNAE, S. (Kilduinna), Li-
merick ; f lunded by St. Duinna IV" cent.
DULEECIIENSB (Duleek), Meath;
built bv St. Patrick . . . V"" cent.
DuMiKNSK, S. Martini (Dume),
P<irtugiil ; O. Ben., founded by
abb. Martin 572
Du.vKNSE, S. Patricii, or Leath-
OLA88KNSE (Downpatrick), Ire-
land ; founded by St. Patrick . 493
DuoDECiM-PONTiBOS (de), nesf
Ti-oyes ; built by Alcuin . . c. 780
DuoRUM Gkmelix)rum, near
Bayeux ; 0. Ben., founded by St.
Martin, abb. Vertou . . . . c. 760
DURMACENSE, or DEARMACENSE,
in Ireland ; founded by St.
Columban a. 600
DusEBEKSB, S. Mariae (Douzire),
on the Rhone ; O. Ben., built by
abb. Norfrid a. 814
DVNIACENSE, or Denoniense
(Denain), dioc. Arras ; O. Ben. .
Easmacneirensb (probably Inch-
macnerin Isle), Lough Kee ;
founded by St. Columb . . .
EiiORACENSE, S. Mariae (York) ;
0. Ben., where Alcuin studied .
EiiRONiENSB, S. Mariae (Evron),
dioc. Le Mans ; O. Ben., founded
by bp. Hadoindus ....
Edardruimense, inTuathainlighe,
dioc. Elphin V'* cent.
Edi-:83ENUM, S. Thomae (Edessa),
Mesopotamia .... IV'" cent.
♦EicHENSB, dioc. Li^ge ; 0. Aug,,
founded by the parents of the
abb. Hirlinda .... VII"" cent.
EiXERARENSE, near the Jordan;
built by Julian c. 500
Electense, S. Polycarpi (Aleth),
Aude ; 0. Ben., founded by abb.
Atalus and his friends . .
ELtaBANi, S., in Abyssinia . .
•Eliense (Ely), Cambridgeshire;
O. Ben., founded by Etheldreda,
daughter of king Anna .
Ellandunense (Wilton), Wilt-
shire; fouudcd by earl WuUtan 773
Elphinense (Elphinl, Roscommon ;
founded by St. Assicus . . V"" cent.
Eltenheimense, in Germany ;
founded by bp. Heddo . . . 763
,541
542
543.
764
a. 563
a. 732
630
780
a. 530
673
540. ELWANaKNSE(Elwangen), Bavaria ;
O. Ben., built by bp. Hnriculf . 70+
Emi-:haniim (Emesa), Phoi'iiiiia V"* ccut.
Enachtuuimbnse, near Mountrath,
(Queen's Co. ; founded by St.
Mochoemoc c. 550
Enaohdunbnse, Lough Corrib . a. 700
544. •E.NAaiiDUNKNSB, V. Mariae,
Lough Corrib Vl"" cent.
545. Enixio.nbnse, or Hensiosense,
S. JoviNi DE MARNis(St. Jouin),
near Thouars, dine. I'oictiers . a. 482
546. Eo Insula (de) (Iniseo Isle), Lough
Earn a, 777
547. EpiitaiUM (Ephesus) .... a. 450
548. El'Il'llASlI, S., near Eleuthero-
polis ; founded by St. Lpipha-
nius IV"" cent.
549. ♦Ei'iscOPi-Vil.LA (de) (Villo da
I'Ev^que on Marno), Aisne;
founded by bp. Rcolus and abb.
Bercharius
550. Eposienhe (Carignan), dioc.Treves ;
O. Ben., built by abb. UlHluus .
551. ElTBRNACBNSE (Epterniic), dine.
, Treves ; 0. Ben., founded by bp.
Wiliibrord and abbess Irmina .
552. Equitii, S., Valeria, Italy
553. Erasmi et Maximi, SS., in Xaples ;
founded by Alexandra
554. Erbfordiensb, or Petri Montis
(Erfurt), Saxony ; founded by
king Dagobert 11
555. Erminii et Urshari, SS., near
Lobbes in Thiirnehe, Artois ;
attributed to bp. Ursmarus . ,
556. ERNATlENSE(Cluainbraoin),Louth ;
attributed to St. Patrick , V
557. EscAiRDRANAiNBSSE (Ardsallagh),
Meath ; founded by St. Kinian
of Clonard a. 552
558. EsTERNACENSE, near Treves . , a. 740
559. Etiionis, near Kentzingen, Ger-
many ; O. Ben., founded by
Wingern, or Count Etho . VIIP" cent.
560.' EuDEii, S., Arran Isle, Gulway ;
founded by St. Eudeus .
561. EUGENII, S., near Siena, Tuscany;
O. Ben., founded by the nobleman
Wanfred
562. EULALIAE, S. Barcinonense
(Barcelona), Spain ; O. Ben,
563. EuUXlll, S., in Mesopotamia .
564. Eumorphianab Insulab
Petri (St. Mary's Isle), Italy
565. EuNUCiiORUM, near Jericho
566. EUPHRASIAE, S., Thebais . .
567. EuSERil, S., dioc. Apt, Vaucluse ;
O. Ben., founded by the hermit
Martian c. 800
588. EUSEBONAE ET Abibionis, SS., in
Syria ; founded by SS. Eusebonas
and Abibion IV" cent.
569. EUSTASIA, Abb., in Abyssinia . VII"" cent.
570. J^USTATHlI, near Caesarea, Cappa-
docia ; founded by Eustathius . a, 370
Ettstoroii Abbatis, near Jerusa-
lem ; founded by abb. Eustor-
gius c. 450
EuTHVMil Maoni, near Jerusalem ;
founded by St. Euthyraius . . c. 42J
686
a. 595
G98
a. GOO
a. 600
677
c. 657
' cent.
a. 490
731
. a. G44
IV" cent.
S.
. a, 600
. a, 500
IV" cent.
571,
572.
MONASTERY
673,
£74.
745
575,
576.
577.
578.
579.
580.
581.
582.
583.
584.
58j,
586.
587.
m.
589.
590.
591
592,
593,
594.
595.
596.
597.
559,
783
0. 625
a. 651
EvAsir, .S DE Casam (Onsal),
.<m,lm.,ly; O. Aug., endoweU
l>y king l.uitpianil . .
EvKsiiAJiKNgi:, .S. Mariar (Eves",
h'lin), VV(.rcestei>hire ; 0. li^n
fmin.l.Ml by I,,,. Kgwin and kings'
( <ini«d and Offn . . ,
EviNi, S. (Monasteipvan), Kill
dare ; foumlfd by St. Abban
EyuRTii s. Aureuanensb
(Oripans); O. Aug. .
ExiDOUK.Nsis Cklla (Eicideuil),
di..c. Limoges ; O. Ben., founded
by St. Arediu.? .
. FAnARiKNSK, S. MAKlAk (Pfeffers)'
dKic. Stnissburg ...
♦Fark.nsk, or EbORiACENSE (Fnrel
nioulieis), dice. Menux ; O. Ben
founded by St. Ferra and abb!
hustasius , ,
Farpensk, S. M^riIe '(Farfa),
prov Home ; O. Ben., built by
bp. Laurentius Illuminator . VIU cent
FaRNKLAND (DE), or LlNDlSFARN-
EN8E (Fame l.sland), Northumb.
Faronis S. Meldense (St. Faron-
^s-Meaux), Seine and Marne: O.
Bon., founded by St. Faron . . 651
FATi.ENE.NSE, S. MuRANi (Fahan).
near Derry ; founded by St
Columb , . ' yju
FAUCE.N8E, or "fcmense,' S
Maoni, in the Alpine Swnbia:
O. Ben., founded by kin? Pepin . 720
nATOiiKRKNSB (Faugher), Louth;
founded by St. Monenna . . 638
Faverniacum, or VAvnimAcvv,
S. Mariae (Favernay), near
Vesoul ; (afterwards) O. Ben. c 747
FEDDUNE.NSE (Fiddown), Kilkenny a." 590
^ERN^^SE (Ferns), " Wexford j
founded by king Brandub ,
iERRANENSE, S. Martini, in
Castile; O. Ben., founded by
John and Munius . ,
Ferrariense, S. ■ Mariae," op
Betiileemiticitm (FerriJ^res in
Gatinais); O. Ben., founded by
king Clovis the Great
Fkrreou, S., Uzfe.,, Languedoc';
founded by bp. Ferr&I, after his
own order . ,
Ferreoli S., i"n Burgundy";
founded by abb. Wideradus . 721
FERR.NQEN8E, S. ANDREAE
(Ferring), Sussex ... .70/1
FiACHRii, S., near Kilkenny . VII'" cent
. Hdhardense (Fidhard), Gilway;
fouuded by St. Patrick . . V"- cent
. FiDHARDENSE. in Hv Mainech,
Koscommon ; built by St. Patrick V'"' cent
FWIACENSE, S. SalVaTORIS ET
h. Mariae (Figeac), Lot; O.
ijen., built by Ambrose, bp.
Uhors, and king Pepin . . 755
I'lNGLAssENSE, near Dublin ; attri*.
buted to St. Patrick . .' . y* o™(
f"^'"!'', ^u- ^^•"•«"n«n. Tipperary ;
founded by St. Finian the Lepe; c. 600
FiNNLUGHANi Temple FinlaghSn,
Derry; founded by St. Columb Vl'h cent
MONASTERY 1253
604
607
c. 600
772
.515
580
620.
• •''^"^J'JJACMENSE (Fenaugh), Lei- *"■
F.oNMAo;.EN»R,' -,„• kdharty^"""'-
L-Mnsterj founded by St. Abban
niNCAii.NE.NSE (K.eamp), ^„r.
nmndy; founded by count Wa-
(I- an), dioc Beauvais; O. Ben
built by abb. G,.remarus . '
Flavianum, near Mutala^Mis!
'appadocia . '
Fl.AVI.N,ACEN8E, S. " PRAEyECri
(Havisnv) CSteMl'Or; founded
by abb. Wideradus
Flei>a.ni.urikn8e (FIttdbJrv),
Worc,..steri founded by king
hthelred . , ' »
)8. Florkntincm, S. "joahnw Bai-"-
TI8TAE (Florence); O.Aug..
'9. Fl/)R,ACE.N8E, SS. PETla f^
BENEDien (Fleury on Loire);
founded by abb. Leodebodu^,
Joanna ot t'leury, king Clovis II
and his queen Bathilda . . «,;,
1. *^0'^TANEN8E(Folke,stone),Kent;
U. Ben., founded by king Eadbald
2. Fontanel, ENSE, 's. %Uriae
(tontenelles), dioc. Lucon ; O
Aug. ... 1 , yj.
I. Fontanellense, SS. " Petri et
Pauli, or S. Wanbreoisilli
(tontenelles on Seine): O. Ben
founded by St. Wandregisillus ''
• FONTANENSB (Fontenav), Nor".
mandy ; 0. Ben., founded by St
Evremond . .
• fONTANENSE, S. MARiANI (Fonl
tames), near Auxerre; founded
by St. Germanus .
■ F0NTANEN8E, S. Mariae (Fon".
taines, Vosges); built by St.
Columbanus .
by St. iiechm . .
FORNAOIENSE (Forgb ,.. ■ vv
Meath; founded by Si. iiuni,, "
FossATEN8E,SS. Mariae kt Petr'i
ET Pauli, or S. Mauri (Fosses St.
MauO, near Charenton, France;
y- Ben., founded by kin?
Clovis IL and St. Blidegisill„s 7
F0SSEN8E, S. FURSEI (I.a Fosse)
Hamault ; O. Ben., founded by
Ireland" ""' *""* '^""°"* °^
FRIDratARIENSE, * s! " Petbt
StB':^;if«:r'^-^--^""'
by kron^"^-''"''""^ '■-">'«''
^yFnfff'u ^-o S^^VATORIS
(Fulda), Hesse Cassel j 0. Ben
built by St. Boniface . '
FULRADO - VlLLAKENSE (Villers>
Lorraine; founded by abb.
Fulradus . '
Pf'''^^'^('''<"''li).ital"y;"o.Bcn.",
founded by abb. Honoratus .
4 M 2
a. 650
c. 664
760
a. 440
721
691
a. 721
607
cent.
c. 630
a. 684
a. 673
c. 568
a. 570
a. 597
c. 630
486
640
c. 455
0.748
a. 685
747
8.774
a. COO
**'(
B
1 i-
1284 MONASTEUY
A.D.
620. Fdri:;i, S., In TmI AtiKtln; 0.
IWn,, fdUMiK}!! by nh\\ Ktiiai'iiA uf
Irnliinil, Hiiil kinK Sl)(l)i'rt . , c. 670
627. QALKATUNHt:, 8. Hll.Altl (OllU'atK),
TiiiiL'nny ; O. Ucn., fuumluJ by
St. Ililiiry •,754
628. GALiNt;NSK (Oiillcn), Kia^;'* Co. j
fuunJed by St. Canoo , , , c. 492
629. Oali.i, S. ad Akdonam; St.
Oiill, Switzarlaiiil ; U. Hon.,
fiiunileJ nr enlarged by St,
(ii\llus of IrclanJ . . . . , 640
630. Gai.i.iacknsk, S. Quinti.ni
(UiiilUc), ilioc. Alhy ; 0. IkMi. . a. 755
631. Ganden.sk S. Davonis (Ghent);
O. lien., fuunduJ by St.
Amaudua VIl"" cent.
632. Ganhknse, S. I'ktri (Ghent); O.
Hen., built by St. AmiindiiH . . a. 653
633. Gahmani, 8., Dunniirviin, Wiiter-
f(ird ; fcunded by St. Gmlmn VII"' cent.
634. GAimnJANUM, in Georgia; r<iunde<l
by father David .... Vl'^ cent.
635. Oaiwknsk, S. 1'f.tri, on the Inn,
(lioc. Salzburg; founded by Uoao,
a noble priest c. 768
636. Gartone.nse, near Kilmacronan,
Donegal ; founded by St. Columb VI'* cent.
630b. Gauoerici, S. (St. Gury), near
Cnmbray ; built by bp. (jiuige-
ricu9 600
637. ♦Gavini et T.uxorii, S3., db
TuRRiDUS, in Sardinia ... a. 600
638. QEDniN0EN8E(Gilllng), Yorkshire ;
built by queen Eanlleda ... a, 659
639. Gelasii AliiiATlS, in Palestine ;
founded by abb. Gelasiuu . . c. 440
640. Gkllonense, S. Salvatorw
(Gellnne), dioc. Lodeva; founded
by abb. William . . . . a. 807
641. GE.MKTICENSE (Jamets in Unrrois);
O. Hen., built by SS. I'hilibert
and Hathii la c. 684
642. Gi:mmktici;n9e, S. Petri
(.lu.mitSges), Normandy; 0. Ben. o. 655
643. Gendaranum, S. Asverii (Gen-
dara), Syria 1V"» cent.
644. Genesii, S. Tiiioerniessb
(Thiers), Auvergne ; O. Hen.,
founded by bp. Avitus . . . c. 520
645. GE.NGENnACENCE (Gegenbach),
dioc. Strasrburg; O. Ben., built by
count Kuthard 712
646. Genoliaco (de), Genolhac, dioc.
Perii;ueux a. 585
647. Genovefae, S. Parisienhe (St.
Genevifeve-du-Mont), Paris ; O.
Aug., founded by king Clovis and
St. Clotilda VI" cent.
648. Georoii S. de Marato (Marat),
Sicily a. 600
649. Georoii, S. (Saint George), dioc.
Le Mans c. 802
650. Gerasimi, S., near the Jordan ;
founded by St. Gernsimus . . a. 470
651. Germani. S. AuTissiorortESSK
Parissiense (St. Gerniiiin I'Aux-
enoi.'.). i'aria ; probably built by
king f'hildebcrt a. 558
652. Germain, S. ^ Pratis (St. Oer-
maiu-des-Prvs), Paris ; 0. Ben.,
MONAHTERY
A.D.
founded by bp. Qermanus and
kingl'hil.lebert 568
053. Gekmani, S. (St. Germiiins), in
(^)nlWllll c. 114
054. Gkumani, .S. (.Siiint Germain on
Siirthe), dioc. I.u Mans . . . c. 802
65,1. Oermanum DuMiN.ii: db Alioeta
(G«rm;i), Giilatia a. CilO
050. Gehundense (Girone), Ciitaloiia ;
foundetl by bp. John . , . , c. OlO
657. Oerwiensb, 8. Pauu (Jarrow),
Durhiiin ; foumled by nhb. Bene-
dict Hiscop and king Kgfrid , . C84
658. Gr.AlSMORKNSE (Cla.-,huioie), near
Youi{httl ; foumled by Cuancheur a. 0,')5
659. Glanciioix'imchii.le.nse, Clare;
founded by St. Columb . . V'l"" cent.
660. Gi.ANDERiENSE, S. Martini, or
I.ON(iovii,LANUM (filnmli^res, or
Longuevillu), dioc. Metz ; 0. Hen.,
founduit by Bodugesilus, father of
St. Arnolf c. 587
601. Olannaeouense, S. Mariae
(Glanleuillu), dioc. Angers; O.
Hi-n 8,800
662. Gi.ASNAOiDENSB, near the Litfey,
' Kildare a. 544
663, GLAS.SM0REN8B (probably Moor-
town), Dublin 1,031
604. GLA9TONIEN8E, or AVAM/JVE.NSE,
and YNYswrTRiN (de) (Olast(pn-
bury), Somersetshire; afterwards
O. Hen,, attributed to St. Potrick c. 433
605. Gleanciiaoinense, Hy Ling-
deach, Clare ; founded bv St.
Patrick '. V'l>.:eQt.
666. Gu)uciaTRiEN8E, S. Petri (GIou-
ce>ter); 0. Ben,, founded by king
Wulphere and Osric , . . . c. tiSO
667. GLtnNiiusANNENSE(Glenne), King's
Co. ; founded by St. Diermit . . a, 500
668. GoiillANi, S,, Teghdagobha, Down
669. GoMON (DE), near Constantinople;
Acoemite, founded by abb. John . a, 483
670. GoNAOAECM (Gonajje), Syria , . a. OoO
671. GoROONiAE Insular, S. Mariag
(Isle Gorgona), Adriatic Sea . . a. 600
672. GORMANI, S., Kilgorman, VVicklow a. tiOO
073. GoRziENSE, S. Petri (Gorze), dioo.
Metz; 0. Ben., founded by bp.
Chrodegangus 745
674. Grandisvallense, S. Mariab
(Qrandval), dioc. Strassburg; 0.
Ben., endowed by king Pepin . 770
675. Gravense, or De Gravaco
(Gra\ ac), Piacenza ; 0. Ben. . . c, 746
676. Grassellense, SS. Petri et Vic-
T0RI8 (serait-ce Greoux ?), Basses
Alpes; 0. Ben 093
677. Gratterense, or Gazerense,
Naples ; 0. Ben a, 600
678. Greoorii, S. (St. Gregoire), Al-
sace ; 0, Ben., endowed by Bodalus 747
679. GuiNTMARi, S. (Lierre), dioc.
Meaux ; 0. Aug., founded by
Gunthmar a. 775
680. Gl'rthonensb, or Guerdokensb
(Oourdon in Charolais); 0. Ben., a. 570
681. Haqustaldense (Hexham), Nov-
thumberland; founded by St.
Wilfrid 674
683.
684.
c. 748
678
678
620
«90.
CUl.
». 800 714,
758
c. 780
655
. 500
MoV.VhTKUY
682. H.VANAI.,.„„KN„,. S. M,C„AK,.,. *•''
l.im..inlM,,«), ,11,,,.. May,.,,,.,.; u
HA.SKr.A.;KNHK (ll,„.i,„.h). ,|i„„.
f"^'""""lC! "■ II-'.., Innn,l..,| by
llA'..N<..NIK.N«l.;, .S. I'KTUI (1|„.„„„),
685. •IIASNO.N.K.NH^ S. Pctu, (Ila.l
687.*iU.TK,UK.v«,..(Ha,U*re;).MeuMhV," "*"•
" ","'7' l-y "«"h«, wiCo of count
638. Hkamiiuwensk '(Hindbur;), Staf.
689. IU:i„KNi.KiMKN«B ■(H;ide'..h;im);
»m,.|,al,l, M,n„ll<inK Uichar.l .
I'lMlt Hl»u by abl,. Win«b«ld .
•1IK0«TI1UK.N«|.; (Hartlep«,l), Durl
«r.o ,,^,:.'" ' '^"•""'"'' by king 0.W „ .
..^o „'"">'l'-''l by St. S»bl.u» ' . rn(
OJ-J. HKIlt.NSI.., S. PlIILUlKKTI (I.hIu of
H-rr); O. Ben., foim.led by bn.
Otto and «mp. Charlemagne . .800
.95. m,RMO,.OL.TAN(;M, S. aLI^NU
.„. u^""'""!"'''^)' tRv-i't . . . I V" cent
696. H .R.VKLDKN8E (Her.feM), dioc. '
H«lbo.-,,tudtjO. Hen., founded by
htuimms, or archb,,. Mavence . . 790
Kyoslimd), near Howth J founded
By M. ^e.ssan . ,-
H.i;nsk (lona, or Icolmkill 'Man,!)',
Ari?yle,hire;builtbySt.Columbo c SC
... ..N'S (Jerusalem) . . „ „„,
,00. H..R^yM,rANt;M, S. eLiae
(./eruaalem) ... „ rnr
700B. HjEIUMOLyMITANDM iDERIANui
GI»>Hi^.lem); built by king
VVakhtang of Georgia. . . f „ 449
701. *HlKllOSOLYMITANUM, S. MeI
LA.viAE (Jerusalem); founded by
St. Melania the Elder. . . , 30^
.02. HiKi««oi VMITANUM, S. P.„upp, • ^^^
(Jerusalem) . . ,„,
702D. HiEROSOLVMITANUM. * TawANF
(Jeru^alem); built' by'^Sce
latian of Georga vik .
703. H.k«osolvm.taI„m B. Thec^ici """'•
(Jerusalem) . . ,.,
.04. H.LARIACUM, on the' Mos;ile-
founded by St. Fridoline . . Vl'kcent
.05. H ....01.VTANUM (Tra.sma), Aus ria; '
fj'unded by abb. Adalbert and
706. HiRSAUOl'ENSB, "s. AukELii (Hi/-
f"ge), dioc. Spires; O. Ben
■(17 »,r""'"' f'y count ErlaCrid ''
.07. *HonK.NutjROENSE (Hohenhur-)
«-c^6trH^burg; built by abb.
(Huhenhausen),dioc.StraMburgj
M0NA8TKRY
1255
A.D.
63,'J 710.
711.
712.
698.
699.
c750
c. 772
c. 720
700. II..K.v,.ACKN«K, a ■pBTO.'dj'ornl
"'• rirnimua . '
»l"KN,.s„A („K) .S."rova"ni (Or:
«'»", .li„... T.,|,.,loj (,. '1^..;
l.|un,|,.,| by king ein,l»,vi„a and
IIOI.RKKNNK, .S. AfAR,;^, •o...^^,-
;i-;- Trove, ;o.B,„., ,.,,,;„,,;;» J
rminn, -laughter of king l)„g„{
l>ert, n„,| bp. Modoald ^ ^
71, \\""^ (""O. in lii.hynia . ' '
713. H,.ACni.,.N.v I.NHULA (DE) ( ni,!
q-..n),;.„„ghCorrib,Voundedby
ot. lirendan . '
"yi.KKr, s., in Ardknnm (Arl
t°!h. '.':>• O. U-n., foui.lod
tn„la '"" ""* *"* *"'• '•'"«-
715. HuLMEvsH, s. BENEDic;ri(Hulme)
Norlolk; O. Ben. . ^ '''
HrTNK..i;.vni.s (Uo,nblif.r,.s), , i„c '
Noyons,Hft„wards O.Ben, built
^.bp. thgius and king Lo-
717. •HuNur.FocuRTENSK. "s. ■ Pctr'i
(^i;~urt),Nord,ft.„ndedby
717D. IHER.A.NUM, S. ."JOA.NNIS BaI'I
lu'ul "*'V""'"'''' V. Mauiae,
John l.t\' ^"""^"^ ^y ">'-' '"-">l*»
Shi rr'"i= f'.™"'"'^>' I-'""''"-
719 l„?'"' '"""'^'""'ySt.Uotolph .
719. lOAtTHi.ENSE i„ Sacheth, Geirgia
720 ,„'';'''' ''y '"'her Zonon . ^ vi.bcent
720. I. AMENHE, S. Martin,, i„ Sp;in ; ""'
721. lUMONASTRiuM," n;ar'lngols;„dt; "^
722 ,„^",'""''"""'>'l'-"lbyUtho . VlHu. cent
722. IMLEACHCLUANNENSB, Antrim'
founded by St. Patr ok 'v.h
723. I«.EAC„Ex^E (Emj; 'ripper;ry.' ^•'"•
/"undedbyStAilbe .' " ^ ' , r„
724. IM,.EACHENSE, S. Brochad,", in "•"'
Koseommon
725. IMLEACHEOOENOE ' (Emlaghfadd). " ''°
72fl J«lT' '""'"'y St- Columb . VI'i.cent
726. lMMAG,iE.N8E (Immagh Isle) Gal
727 ,"7'^"""''«JbyslFeS."'
727. J''";;«0A0n.EN8E, S. Daoaini, in
Ken.selach, Wexford .
729' iNCHv^*'"^''"^' Tyrccanel. Ireland
730. XOELTINOITNENSE, f„ Englind* !T.I-
731. iNisnEoiENSE, in Kenselaeh, Well
7S9 ivVTj '"'''' ""y ''*'• P^'fick V-cent
732. lNiscAORACHENSE,Ibrichan,Clar.!
/ounded by St. .Senan .' , '
733. Iniscarr:nse (IniscarraV Pork"
built by St. Senan . "^ '
734. iNlSCATTEREN8E(Scattery Isle), i^
Senan attributed to St.
735. I»i8CiuoiNENSK"(Iniskin), Uuth '.
c. 720
a. 700
c. 684
c. 675
c. 5(i0
a. 6:>6
687
. 800
650
680
800
624
a. 664
a. 639
a. 563
c. 530
c. no
c. 530
c. 600
3."r a; ■'■^
1256 MONASTERY
A.D.
736. lNl8CLOTnnANyF.NSE(lniscloghran),
l.oujjh lioe, Longtdid ; t'ounded
by St. Diiirmuit the Just. . . c. 540
737. Ini3Ihji.miili;nsk (Cape Clear Isliind) a. 800
738. INISFAITIILKN.NKNSE (Innisfallen),
lake Killarney; founded by St.
Fiiiian Lobliar a. 600
739. *1niskidknse (Finish Island), in
the Shannon V" cent.
740. Iniskultairknse S. Camini
(Iniskeltair Isle), in the Shannon j
founded by St. Camia ... a. 650
741. Inisi.kamnactense, V. Mariab
(Inislounagh), Tipperary ; founded
by St. Mochoemoo .... a. 655
742. Inisluaidbnse (Inislua Isle), in
the Shannon ; founded by St.
Senan a. 540
743. Inismorense (Inchmore Island),
Lough Ree, Ireland ; founded by
St. Senan VI"" cent.
744. Inispuincense (Inispicl), Cork;
built by St. Cavthagmochuda . c. 600
745. Inistiooense, on the Noire, Kil-
kenny °oO
746. Inistoruense (Torre Isle), Donegal a. 650
747. iNlsVACllTUlRENSE.in Lough Sillin,
W. Meath ; built by abb. Carthag c. 540
748. Inreatiianense (Ui-catain), Down a. 540
749. Insula Bariiara (de), S. Martini
(Isle Barbe), on the Saone ; O.
Ben IV"" cent.
750. Insula Trecensi (de) (I'He), near
Troyes 537
751. IsiDOKl, 3. DE Duenas, in Leon;
O. Ben a. 714
7r)2. IsiDORi, S., Thebais . . . IV"> cent.
753. Issiodorensb (Issoire), Auvergne ;
0. Ben a. 550
754. Itae, S., Kilita, Limerick;
founded by St. Ita . . . . a. 569
755. Ithancestbiensb, on the Frods-
ham, Essex; erected by bp.
Cedda c. 630
756. Jacoditarum Adu-Macarii, in
Egypt a. 6<10
757. Ji;REMiAE,near Bethshan, Palestine a. 530
758. JoANNis ET Trecihi, SS., in
BuxiDO (Saint Jean-de-Bouis),
Allier; O. Ben a. 800
759. JoANNis, S., Thebais . . . IV"" cent.
760. JOANNIS, S. AD TiTUM, Or AD
PiNOM, near Class^, dioc. Ra-
venna ; 0. Ben a. 700
761. JOANNIS, S., IS EXTORIO (Citou),
dioc. Carcassonne; 0. Ben.,
founded by abb. Anian ... a. 793
762. JoANNis Nan.si, S., in Egypt IV"> cent.
763. Joannis Silentiarii, S., near
Nicn,,oIi9. Armenia; founded by
St. .John Silentiarius ... V"" cent.
764. Jonoci, S. (St. Josse-sur-Mer),
dioc. Amiens a. 800
765. JoTRENSB (Jouarre-en-Brie), dioc.
Me.iu.t ; 0. Ben., built by Adon,
brother of .St. Audoenus . . . c. 630
760. *JoTi;i;ssii (Jimafr-.-vn-Brie) ; O.
Ben., founded by Adon, and St.
Bathilda 684
767. JuoATiuM Pauli, S. (Jugat),
Syria J fouaded by St. Paulu* V'^cent.
MONASTERY
A.n.
70S. JULIAM Cenomasen.se (I,e Mans) a. 802
76'J. JuMKRis, S. ; enriched by St.
Uadegundis c. 545
770. Junautensk (Zunault), dioc. Ro-
dez; 0, Ben., founded by king
Clovi.s a. 511
771. JURENSE, S. ROMANI (Joux),
Jura ; 0. Ben., founded by St.
Romanus and friends .... 460
772. ♦Jdssanense (Joussan), dioc.
Besanfon ; founded by Flavia,
mother of St. Douatus . . . c. 650
773. JuxTA Antrum, near Emessa,
Phoenicia, the site of the Inven-
tion of the Head of St. John the
Baptist ; founded by Stephen . a. 430
774. Kedemenestben,se (Kiddermin-
ster), Worcestershire ; founded
by king Ethilbalt .... 73G
775. Kemmeyense (Kemesey), Worces-
tershire a. 709
776. KEMPERLEaiENSE, S. Crucis
(Quimperle), Lower Brittany ;
0. Ben., founded by duke Gur-
thian c. 550
777. Kenanum, V. Mariae (Kells),
Meath ; founded by St. Colunib . c. 550
778. KiARANi, S., Seirkeran, King's
Co. ; founded by St. Kiaran the
elder c. 402
779. KiLALQENSE (Killegally), King's
Co a. GOO
780. KiLiiiANNENSE, in King's Co. ;
attributed to St. Abban ... 583
781. KiLBBENiNENSE(Strawhall),Cork;
founded by Aed a. 588
782. KiLCLiEFBNSi; (Kilclief), Down . a. 600
783. Kilcolpense, near Downpatrick,
Irebind ; founded by St. Patrick V'i> cent,
784. KiLCULLENENSE (KilcuUen), Kil-
dare V"" cent.
785. KiLDALUENSE (KiUaloe), Clare;
founded by St. Molualobhair . c. 610
786. KiLDARENSB (Kildare), Ireland;
founded by St. Brigid, for monks
and nuns together .... a. 484
787. KiLDELQENSE, in Upper Ossory,
Queen's Co a. 721
788. *KlLEOCHAiLLENSE (Kilnagallegh),
on the Shannon .... V" cent.
789. KiLFOnRiCiiENSE(Kilfarboy), Clare 741
790. KiLFORTCHEARNENCE, Idrone, Car-
low ; attributed to St. Fort-
chearn Vincent.
791. KiLHUAiLLEACHENSE, probably in
Fercall, King's Co. . . . a. 550
792. KiLKBNNiENSE, near Athlone,
W. Meath a- 773
793. KlLLACHADDROMFODENSE (perhaps
Killaghy), Kilkenny . . . . a. 548
794. KiLLACilADENSE (Killachad),
Cavan ; founded by St. Tigernach a. 800
795. ♦KiLLACHADENSE (Killeigh), Cork ;
built by St. Abban . . . . a. 650
796. *KiLLAi.VENSE (Killeen) ; founded
by St. Endeus a. 540
797. KiLLAl>Jf.KSi; (Killcpn), Meath;
founded by St. Endeus ... a. 540
798. KiLLAMRUiDENSB (KlUamery),
Kilkeimy ; founded by St. Cobban a. 710
799. KiLLARENSE (KiUare), W. Meath 5b8
800. KiLLEACHE!
MONASTERY
MONASTERY
1257
800.
A.D.
801
802
803,
804.
805.
806.
807.
808.
809.
810.
811
812
813,
814.
815.
816.
817.
818.
819.
820.
a. 5,")0
n. 760
c. 500
c. 620
821
822,
823.
m.
825.
826.
827.
828,
829.
830.
831.
KrLLKACiiKNSE (Killeigh), King's
Co. ; attributed to abb. Sincheai
M'Cenenain ....
Kii.lomu;nsk, in Roscommon '.
KiLi.UNciiE.NSB, in Louth
Kn.MACDUACiiENSE, in k'iltarton,
Galway; founded by St. Col man
KiLMACBENANENSE, CD the Gannon,
..^"»«K"' VI"' cent
hiLMniANEJiSE, m Down . a 533
KiLMOKiKNSE, near Athlone : built
by St. Patrick .... y"- cent
KiLMORiENSE, near Nenagh, Tip-
.^"'■••■"•y 540
KiLMORMOVLENSE, in Tirawlev,
Mayo ; founded by St. Olean Vl'fc cent
hiLNAGAunANENSE (Kilnegarvan),
Mayo; founded by St. Fechan . a. 664
. KiL.VAiNGHEANENSE, near Arl{-
..'""' Vl'bcent.
KiL.VAMANACHENSE (Kilmanagh).
near Kilkenny ; founded by abb.
Natalis ,„„
KiLNEMANAGiiENSE, in Leyney,
Sligo; founded by St. Fechin v'll"' cent
KiwsconENSE (Kiloscoba), Antrim •
founded by St. Boedain . . a 550
KiLRATHE.vsE, near Mt. Claire
Ireland ; built by St. Coeman Vl'k cent
lULROENSE, in Tirawley, Mayo . a 604
K1LSKIRRIEN8E (Kilskerry), dioc
Clogher ^^g
♦KiLSLEVENSE (Killevy), Armagh VI"> cent.
UI.TOA.MKNENSE, in W. Meath . a. 600
. Kl.NGSALENSE, S. GOBBANI (Kin-
sale), Ireland .... ^ gnn
Laktiense, S. Lamberti (Licssies),
dioc. Cambray ; 0. Ben., built by
count Wicbert and his wife Ada
LAESriNG£NSE(La5tingham), York-
shire; 0. Ben., founded by bp.
Cedda and king Oswald .
Landkmnense, or Wallarensb
S. Petri (Wallers in Faigne), dioc.
Cambray; 0. Ben., founded by
bp. Landeline and king Dagobert
Latiiuechense (Latteragh), Tip-
perary
Latta (de), S. Martini' (Si'ran'-
la-Latte), near Sivr^, dioc. Tours
Latisiacense, S. Fursei (Lagny
on Marne) ; O. Ben., founded by
Count Erchinoald ....
. Laubiense, 01- I.OBBIENSE (Lobbes),
dioc. Li(ige; 0. Ben., built by
abb. Ursmar and Pepin senior .
Lauoonense (Saint-Lupicin), Jura ;
0. Ben
Laurentii, S. Pabisie'nsk (Saint-
Laurent), Paris . .
Laurentii et Hilakii de "abI
UATiA(Saint-Laurent-des-Abauts),
,A Auxen-e; 0. Aug., founded
by St. Ulfinus . ,
Laurentii, S. db Glibejo" or
Montis Olivi (Mt. Oleon), dioc.
Uirctssonne ; 0. Ben., built by
abb. Anian ... a. 793
LAURrailAMENSE, S. NazARU
(Lauiesheim or Lorch), dioc.
Ireves; O.Ben 8.770
751
648
634
a. 548
a. 600
8.32
833,
8.34,
835,
836.
837,
838,
839
840,
841.
842.
843.
844.
845.
846.
847,
848.
849.
850.
851,
852,
a. 600
c. 774
750
c. 654
691
a. 520
S91
578
853
854,
855,
856.
857.
858.
859.
860.
861.
862.
863.
Lausiense (Luze), dice. Autun . a* 540
LEACFiouNnAiLENSB (Liauama-
nach), Mayo; erected by St
, P'*"-i'=k \ V'h cent
LEACiiANEN8E(Leckin), dioc. Meath a. 664
. Leamchuilliense (Lei,), Queen's
Co. . , , ,
Lebrahense (Leber), dioc! Strass-
burg ; founded by abb. Dionysius
fulrad
Lechnaghense (Pierstown), Meath
LEQIONEN8I3 UrBIS AD MuROS
S. Claudu (Leon), Spain; 0.
-^"n Vl'i-cent
Leighlinense (Leighlin), Carlow ;
founded by St. Gobban . a filfi
Leitiiense, S. Manchani "(Le*. '
managhan), King's Co. . . vil'k cent
UlTi.MORENSE, Kly, King's Co. ;
founded by St. Mothoemoc
•Lemausense, S. Joannis (Lil
mours), near Etampes ; bui ■ hy
Gammo and his wife Adae
■ Lemingense (Liming), Kern , O.
Ben., founded by queen Ethel-
burgha ....
*Lendauqiense (Lindaii), Bavaria'-
founded by count Adelbert '
^^?«;^7*E, S. Toletanum
(loledo) . ,
Leodegahii, S. de 'caote'llis
(hamt Lcger on Beuvrav), dioc.
Autun ; O. Aug., founded by St.
Leodegarius and Ansebert
Leodiekse, St. Petri (Li^e)'-
founded by St. Hubert
Leomonastebium (Leomins'ter).
Herefordshire; 0. Ben., built by
king Merwald . '
Leruense, V. Mariae (Le^ha),
Longford ; founded by St. Patrick Vk cent.
Lerinense (L^rins), island in dioc.
iTejus; attributed to St. Hono-
ratus . , . lyii, ,
•Liadanae, S., Kiliiad'uin' Ki'ng's
Co.; founded by St. Keran of
Saiger V-cent
Lievanense, S. Thitribii, near
Potes, Spain; 0. Ben., founded
by St. Ihuribius .... vi">cent
. Linnallense (Linnally), Antrim . a 771
. *Linnense (Linn), Antrim. . V-cenV
. LiNNENSE (Maralin), dioc. Dro-
more ; founded by St. Colman . a 699
^'^''V^iBENSE (probably Lynn),
LiSMORENSE (Lismore), 'irel'and' .' a" 600
Liti.azomenae, Alexandria . a 600
LooociACENSE (Liguge-), near Poi'- '
tiers; attributed to St. Martin I V'h cent
L0EC,3<DE), (Loches on Cher).
Indre and Loire; afterwards 0.
Ben., founded by abb. Ursus
•L0GIEN8E, near Caudebec, Nor'-
mandy; endowed by St. Bathilda
I.ONGOQIONEN.HK, S. AOATUAE
(Longuyon), dioc. Treves ; built or
enlarged by Adalgiselus . . VII'i>cent
L0RRAHEN8E, S. KUADANI, near
the Shannon, Tipperary; founded
bySt.Ruadan 3.534
a. 655
8.703
633
810
a. 644
c. 696
714
0.660
500
680
™
1258
MONASTKUY
M0NA8TKUY
i;
^1^1
V* cont.
722
721
713
729
718
540
a. 500
c. 600
B. 570
:i. 407
611
864. LoimiKNSK, V. MAItUR (Louth),
Ircliuul; fouiiilcd by St. I'at-
ri.k V'i'cflnt.
885. T.l'O.vr.. near Metoima; foumloJ by
I.IIIIHM
860. •I.i'or.Nsi:, S. MMiiAr, (I.iiccn)j
built by the clt'igy limn Uis\i« ,
867. Li'ci-.NMK,, S. Mu'm'am.is (I.vnca);
O. Ui'ii.. fminJed by tho iiiiblcmnn
IVrtiinld
868. Li'OKNSK, S. rinui (l.iiccn);
fduiiili'ii by tho priest Kortuni\tu»
ami his »iin Uninuald ....
809. l.l'Oi'.NSi'. Xr.NoiHH^im'M (I.ucca);
('ii\mili>il by king Siohimuiid and
uiibb'nion
870. Liioi:n8k Xknoi)OC1ih)M, S. Su,-
vi',siui (Lucca); founded by tho
citi;:iMiii
871. LlH'KISNKNSK, SS. Maiiuiou ot
l.miiKtiAiiii (Luconio), Switzor-
lanl; 0. IWn VlH'i'ccnt,
873. LiciANi, S. Ukm-ovacensk (Beiiu-
vais), Kraiicc ; O. Bou., founded by
kins t'hiblebi'i't
873. Ln-ri.i.ANKNSK, S. Sicvekini
(Lucullanii), near Naples . .
874. Llci'siANi'M (Lucusio), Talernio;
O. Hon., foundcil by pope Gregory
the (iroHt • •
875. •I.nini'NENSK (Lyons) ....
H70. LraoANK.NSK (Lusk), Oiiblin . .
877. LriiiKA (ni.) SS. Martini ct
l)i;u»i,AK (Lure), dioc. Besaii<;on ;
(). Ben. ......
878. Ll' ix>si;nsk,, SS. Pf.tui et TAltU
(Louzo), dioo. Toiirnay ; 0. Aug.,
founded by St. Ainandus . . .
879. LcxoviKNSK (Lu.'son), dioc. Besan-
von ; O. Ben., founded by St.
(Vtuniban
8S0. Lycho (i)E) (Lychus), Egypt . IVicent.
SSI. Lvnnkai.i.i;ii:nse (Lynnally),
King's Co. ; founded by St.
Column tlo a. 610
882. JIacauii, S., Scithic Desert,
Kgypt IV'" cent.
S.-^iV JIaoi;ix)NII. AuUATlS, Dithynia . 8,480
864. Mai'ui^ae, S., near the Iris,
IVntus c. 358
885. MAi.i.HfANi, S., Tallnght, near
Dublin B. 750
880. Maoiiii.i.knsk (Moville), Down Vl'i-ccnt.
887. Mai!1ii'.ensk.. in an island of Ire-
land ; built by bp. Column . .
888. MA()iiKi,i.KN'sK'(Maghoo), flahvay ;
St. Abbnn built threi" monasteries
on this plain
889. Magiikre NuiniiE (ok), near the
Barrow, Wexford ; built by St.
Abbim ' .
890. Maoniuxjk.nse, S. Sehastiani
(Maulioul, near Cl'rniont; 0.
lien., founded bv bp. (lonesius .
891. Maouendi, S., kilinaiuham, near
Dublin c. 600
892. 'Maounense (Mayo), Connaught , c. Ii04
893. Maoi)Ni;N8K (Mayo); founled by
St. Colman 665
894. Maounziani (Maguzano), dioc.
Verona; 0. Ben a.800
545
fOO
667
a. 650
ft. 647
656
900.
901.
. GBO
, 310
601
500
005.
906.
895. MAlI.lM)8ENaE (Melrose), Scotland;
O. ColumbanuN, founded by abb.
Aidan a.
896. MA.IIJMA (I>E) S. lllLAUIONlS
(Majuuia), I'alestino . . . . c
897. Ma.iuh MoNAHrEUliiM, or 8. Mak-
■riNl (Marmoutier), near Tours;
(). Ben., foiiniled by St. Martin IVi-cent.
898. •Mauwdiknse, 8. MAiiiAE(Mau-
beuge), Nord ; founded by queen
Aldegund
899. MAI.1.SC1IIO (BR) S. KlUMlNi (Malis-
chus), I'aleBtine; founded by St.
Kirniin c.
Ma 1,1,1 ACENSE, S. SlII.EMNlS
(Maillo, or l.uynes), near Tours;
attributed t.) bp. Soleninis . Vl'^cent.
MAi.MMimur/.NSE, or Mei.ih.'Nen.se
(Malniesbury), Wiltshire; (). Ben.,
founiled bv libb. Maidulph and St.
Aldhelni '
902. MAl,MONDARIENSE(Malnilldy),dioc.
Liege; O. Ben., built by king
8igebert and others ....
903. Mandanense, or Mai.im'inim
(.Saint Malo), Nornmmly ; O. Ben.
904. Manseense (Maunsee), Austria;
O. Ben., built by duke Utilo . .
MAUAriiA (de), near tho I'.u-
phratcs
MAHOELLT, S. CA11IIX1NEN813
(.Saint - Marcol-les-Chillons, or
d'Obiliac); O. Ben., founded by
king (iuntchramn
907. *Ma1«!ENIEN8E, S. Rictiu'dis
(Marchiennes), near Douny ;
founded by bp. Amaml . . .
Makoi, S., near Spoleto ; 0. Ben.
Maucianense, S. rETiii (Mar-
chiennes), Nord ; founded by bp.
Amand
Makuiani, near Bethlehem
911. Mauiae, S. ah Liqerim (on tho
Loire) ; endowed by bp. Ageradus
912. Mauiae, S. Cknomanense (l.o
Mans), France
Mariae, S. de CIIARIT.VTI; AD
l.KiEuiM, Nievro; 0. Ben. . .
♦Mariae, S. dk Sorinioixi, near
Tours ; founded by Ingeltruda,
aunt of king Guntramn .
915. Mauiae, S., in Monte, nearWilrz-
burg, (iermany ; founded by St.
Burchanl
916. Mariae, S., or SS. Oervasii et
ruoTASii, in AUUIONNO, near l.o
Man-s ; founded by bj:, Bertich-
ramn
916b. Mariae, V., in Georgia; built by
Kvaitrius Vincent.
917. Mariae, V., Insula (de) (Inis-
murray), Sligo »• "♦'
918. Mauiciia (de), Talestine; founded
bv Severianus
919. Mauiw>len8b, S. Petri (Maroil-
les), dioc. Laon ; 0. Ben. .
y.'O. Maris, Ar.ibia ; founded by Maris
921. Mauonis, S., near Cyrrhus, Syria;
I'oiiniled by St. Maron ....
922. Martiams, S. Lemovicesse
(Limoges) VI"' cent
908.
909.
910.
913.
914.
ceo
GOO
, ,VJO
7:19
V'cent.
79
047
a. 000
047
a. .").")0
686
a. S02
c. 70t)
c. 580
a. 752
c. 680
c. 500
c. 4:0
n.420
MONASl'KKY
023.
A.D.
M0NA8TEIIY 12.59
924.
92.';.
9'.'rt.
927.
928.
929.
830.
9.11.
a. .'i2.1
a. 5(i7
c. 020
a. 802
n. .'■.H.'l
c. 425
c. 42.5
a. 000
600
590
Maiitii, S., ill AuvwiNis (Clnr-
imiiit); O. Ueii., f,.u,„lej by bn.
nliirtiiia ...
Makiini, s. ni"; Cami'is i'AHwm
(I'liris); C). ll,,„. .
92.';. Maiuini, .S. i.,.; I'ontim.i'va
(I'onlli,.,,,.), ,„,„r l,„ M„„„.
f.iiin.lc.l by bp. lkMti<hrmnn .
Ma HUM, S., i„ ItlAltLENIICo'
ilKJc. I.« Mann . .
Mautini, S., in IliH"i.ANrA,"bol
twcTii Murvi..,!,) ami i;.irt.hiiK,.im. „ f,H;i
MAin-.Ni, S., in SiciUA (.Sicily) Vl'i.,:ent.
929. MAinvim, noar J«ru»»l.m ;
f<'iin.l...| by M/iftvriiis. . „ -iOr)
Mawaui.m. .S,S., or.S. Knuhaiiab '
Ai) Washam Canoidam (.Sara-
K"«w); (). Hon. . . »..
MA,saii,n;N8i.:, .S. Camiani (Marl '
».mII,.s)j f....n.l.,l by ,St. CasKian .
932. *A1as.sii,i..:n8k. S, Mak.ak de
VVKi.iNo (V,.«un«, nonr Mar-
Bciilcs); f..un.l,.,lby .St. (Wian .
933. JIa.s«ii,„.;nsi.;, .S. Vurmim (Mar-
M'llk's); iicrhnps tho eaniB as
No. U.'U . . , ,
934. Matihconknhk, .S. Pctui (Miioon),
.Saiiiio and Loiroj 0. Jlun.
935. Mauki-Mo.nahtkiuum, or Maiiui*.
nia(;i.:nhi.: (Maurs-MilnKtcr), (li<io.
Stra.s«burf? ; (). ll,.n., f.mn.leil by
•S.S. MaiiniK ami I.eobanl
93(5. Mauziacknsk, S. I'kihi (M„„"s„,..).
torrtzfl; O. Hon., built by the
«i!riat(.r Calniitug and his wife
^'""""Ift VI"' cent
937. JlAXKN-r,., S., or S. Satuunini
I rriAViKNSK (I'oitiorn); O. linn.,
built by Agapius ami nKinks. (ru-
liuilt by St. Maxentiu.H, c. 5(1?)
9J8. Mi:oiii.inii.;nsi.;, or MAI,l!^NAc^,NHK■
.S. KoMiMMH (Mochiin or Ma-
liniw), Bcl({iuni ; 0. Aug.
MkDARDI, S. KutaSIONKNSK (Soisl
K'lns); 0. Bon., foumled by kine
tlotairo ... ' o
JiMuioiN Insula (m) (Iiichmoa^
Isl.'), Lough Mask, Mayo . . V">cont
941. Mkdianum-Monasteiuum (Moycn-
M"ftti...r) Vo»K«.Hi O. Bon.,
Iimmlwl by abb. Hidulph
942. MKniANUM-MONASTEKIUM (Moyonl
Mnatier), dioc. Bourges; O. Aug.
943. MKmoLA.NKN8K, s. Martini
in .'"''"")!*""'"'«•' by St. Martin lV'i>ccnt.
044. MKm0LANK.NSK, S. SIMI'LICIANI
(ni-ar Milan); O. Bon.
SW, Mi.;i,ANiAK, S., Pal,.»tine '. ' '
WO. Mi:i.ANii, S. KiiKDo.vK.NSE, or Dol
l.i;.N-8i.; (Redon), Brittany j O. Ben.
W. Mh.itknk (I)k), Armenia .
.'4S. Mki.iti.:n8e (perhaps MilhauXAu'-
vrgno; huilt by abb. CalupanuH
J49. Mi;i,i.AK, S., Doiremelle, Leitrim;
fuiindnd by St. Tigernaoh .
9oO. Mkmmii, S. (Saint Meuce-). near
! n,ii.m,-„u.Miirnu i O.Aug. .
9^1. M';.NATisNSK(Menat),l>uy.de.D,-,mc ;
9'i!) M • '^"""'''"' ''y *''''• BrachionVl'h cent
852. Mknduoiciietense, in Os^ory,
A.O.
9S0.
000.
(•01.
'J(>2.
939.
940.
c. 450
.700
500
703
c. 624
700
a. 430
c. 530
a. 400
a. 576
a. 787
a. 576
053. •Mmnknhi.;, near Tabcnnn, Egypt.
f">iml,.,| by .St. IVbomius . I'v-'cont
0.'->4. M.:ni, .S.. n,.arJ„ru«ak..n;loumk.d
I'y St. Ban.sa ,
055. M|.:iiki.;nhe, S. Maktini (Mety on
( hor) . , , ,
850. Mkhhaniinhe, S. .Io'annir Bai'tisI
TA|.;, now S. l'i,AOli.i (M(!»«irui),
t-icily; U. Ben., lound.id by St.
I lacidus ...
957. Mi.:rsani.;nhe, S. Tiieo'doiii dh»-
«i"H); (). Ben.. .
058. Mr.;rANiKNHK (Metten), Bavaria'.
«>. Ben., ioumled by emp. Charle-
magne ....
•MkTKSHI.;, S. ■ nu.I„";H,N„AE
(Metz); foundod by St. Olodcsinda
daughter of dukiiQuintrion
Mi:ti,nhi.;, S. Maiuini (Metz)'; o".
Aug., (Viunded by king .Sigebert ,'
'Mkiense, S. 1'|.;iui (Metz) .
Mctknhk, S. SiKi-iiANi (Metz):
ono „'"'""''"' h •'!'• Chrodegang . .
903. Mkv;nn„, S., or .S. AIa.u.v,;
(.Saiut-Meen de Ohe), Brittany;
904. Mi.N.AixiH, .S. et S. Pctui (Saint-
Mi.hel), Sirily; 0. Ben., founded
iiy abb. Andrea ,
905. MiCllAKI.lS, ,S., illl'KKICUI/)'MA»ls',
or i>K Monte Tiimi.a (Tombelaine-
«ur-Mer) Manehe ; O. Ben.,
„„„ ,/"Unded by bj). Autbert .
900. MiCIAKUH, S. VlRim,N,,N8,8
<2 •■•!•;,''",') ;0. Ben., built by count
OCT ,,^""""''' •""• his wife A.lal.siuda
907. MlCASENHE, .S. Maximini (.Saiut-
My), near Orleans; 0. Ben
aro ,/""'"'"''' h '«I"K <^'l»vis I. . ;'
908. Mli,i.m.;i.i, .S., Isle of Thanet ; O.
nrr. ,."'•"■• '"'inded by Domneva .
J09. JIiui-KO), or L)N()ouEio (m)
(I-"nguay),dior. Auxerre; 0. Ben.,
oun, e,l by abb. Sigiran and king
IJagobert , .
970. ♦Mii.izENSE (MJUej, Bavaria'; 0.
Ben
971. MociiAN (DE), Egynt ' * ' ivih V
>.72. M,K..,EA,iooti, %'.; •Kii;all'ockr " •
I.iineriek; (ounded by St. Mo-
cheallog .
973. MooMOAE, S., Timohoo, 'Qu^-en-;
n,. ,. "•' '""'* ''>'St. Moehoe. .
974. J oi.ANi, S., near Ardagh, Longford
975. M<,m)iniKNSE, S. .Ioannis (Mon-
;'"'■'>,' ,"-/"K-. built by queen
Iheodelind. . viiiih. »
970. •^KKiu,TlNUM(Mayonc;);'f„und!i" ""*•
l)y Bilehilda . .
977. MofiUNTlNUM, .S. ALHANi (Mayl
enee); O. Bon., founded by bp.
14iculf ...
978. Moiiii.LKNSE (Mohi'll),' dioc 'Arl
070 n,^^ ' ''"'" ^'y •'*'• Manchan . .
979. Mo.ssiACKNSE (Moissac), dioc. Ca-
hors ; 0. Ben. . .
980. Moi,AM.iDAR, S. Insula (de)
(M.dano Isle), in the Bl-.^kwater •
QQ, f"""'''-''' by St. Molai.i... . Vlthceni.
981. MoLiNoi, S. (St. Mull., 's; Oariow
founded by St. Mohngua . . .' ,.697
a. 480
a. 541
a. 039
s. 000
c. 800
004
044
a. 7H2
740
c. 565
0. COO
709
700
.507
.670
032
a. 783
a. 050
a. 497
a. 591
734
805
608
.680
Ml
I
1200 MOXASTKIIY
A.O.
982. Moi.iHMr.NSK. or Mi:i.tiNni;N8i% S.
MiciiAKl.ls, iil'liMwariU S. Mau-
TiNi (Miili'smi'), Viiiiiii'; (). Ili'ii.,
liiiilt liy kinij Cliivis the (irciil . n. T)!!
98;j. MoNAiNt'iii.Nsi;, S. CiiU'MiiAi;, or
ItK iNSl'I.A VlVKNI'lUM (ill Mn-
lu'ln Hon), Tippi'miy . . Vll'^ociit.
984. MiiNAsri;iiii;Nsi:, cir 'Mimiiuiuh;-
I'liUDi.Nsr, (MiiiiRliT. Ill- Mdus),
llolKium }0. U«u., liiiiii.loil by lip.
l.iiiljti'r <"• 748
0«.'>. MoM" tvsKNgi:, in Kgypt . . IVofiit.
681). Ml)NSlMlll)l.i;N.SK, S. Sai.vh
(Mimtrciiil-siir-M«r), I'lis-ilo-
i'liliiis; (). lli'ii., niti'ilmteil fo
St. .Snlvins VII"' cent.
087. Monti-; Ai)MiUAlin,i(ni-;), iienr An-
tiiioh, Syria ». GOO
988. MoNTK AMANoCni'.), Syria; f'um-
.K>il liy St. Simoon . . . IV-cunt.
989. MoNn-; Amiato (ok) S. Salva-
Ti>ui8(Mt. Aiiiiiit), 'rusoiiny ; <).
Hon., fouMiloil by ubb. Krpoii and
king K;iohisiiis 747
990. •MoNTl'. ('AST111UX5K.NSK, S. WAI.IV
Ki!nis(Mons'), Uol(jiiini ; (ouiulcil
by visoouiitoss WiiMnule . . c. 040
991. MoNTK Castui I.t)0o (dk), S.
(iKUMANl (Mons); O. Aug.,
fmiivloil by viscount Vinoont iinj
bis witV St. VVrtblrmlo . . . c. 640
992. Monti--, (^iiuisti (pk). S- Mamiu-
AN I (Monto-Christo), Corsica j 0.
Hon 0.595
90;V MoNTK Couvi'ilKO (i>F.), near An-
tiooh ; foiimloil by Ammian. IV"" cent.
9iH. Monti-; DuaconisCdk) S. Oeorqh,
Asia Minor Vll'l-ccnt.
eO.'S. Monti-: Kxtkriohk (nK), Pispor,
Kgypt; fonndoil by St. Anthony, c 305
9i>i>. Month Nituico (di.) (Nitria),
K.^vpt; many moua.stcrios here
in . . . . . . . IV'i-cent.
997. MoN rK.NSK, S. Gkrmani (Montfau-
ooii), betwoon Kheiiiis and Ver-
dun; 0. Hon., founded by the
priest Baldric 630
998. 'Montk OI.IVAR0N (ni.), S. Mi>
LANlAK (Mt. of Olives), rales-
tine; founded by St. Melania
junior c. 430
999. Montk Ou varum (iik.), S. Mkla-
Nl AK. (Mt. of Olives) ; founded by
St. Molania junior . . . . c 433
1000. Montk Olvmi-o (di.) (Mt. Olym-
pus) IV'i'ccnt.
1001. Montb S. Antonii (de), Thc-
bais, KRvpt IV'^cent.
1002. Monte S. Romarici (i>e) (Ue-
mircmont), Vosgcs ; O. Ucu.,
built by St. Uomariou.s . . . 680
1003. Monte Siceone (he), G.\latia;
founded by St. Theodore. . . 8. 580
1004. 'Monte Sioto (de) Tryohina-
HH'M (Mt. Siopns) .... 8.470
1005. Montk Soraoie (de), SS. An-
dre ae et SlLVi.-sTUi (Monte San
Oroste); O. IJcn a. GOO
1006. MoRliACENSE (Munstortnnl), Al-
sace ; 0. Ben., founded by count
EberharU 8.728
0. MO
a. 7110
hM
a. KO
n. :<^2•^
' coiit.
' cent.
MONASTKRY
1007. MoTilKl.i.ENSE, near Carrick,
\V«tei-loi-d; foiimled by St.
Hi-ciKi>"
!n()8. •MoWENirEIMENHE, ilioc. Kichstiiilt
100!). Mi'iiNissENHK, in I.oiigli l>er(t,
Ciilwnv Vl'S-cnt.
1010. Mi'CKAMOUENSE, U. MaRIAE
(Mnrkanini-o), Antrim; built by
SI. Colman Klo
1011. Ml'(lNAMEI,(;ilANENHK (Mugna),
Kiiin'" ^'"' ; built by St. Kinian
and kini; ('arbrens ....
1012. Mi'iiiiM-; Sam, Insula (de) (Inls-
Mac-Sftiiit), I.ongh Kani; founded
by St. Nenn
1013. MiiNdRETENSE, near I.inierlek IVin-iit.
1(114. Ml'NNtll, S., Taubinon, near
Wexford ; founded by St. Munnu a. (Ili-t
1015. MVI.ASSANUM, S. Androvici
(Mvlassa), (;ari» . . . IV"-
1016. Mvi.'as.sanum, S., Stephani,
(Mylassa), Caria ; founded by
St. Kiisobift V'"
1017. Nauohis, S. Metense, at first
S. Ilit.ARll (.Saint-Avoid, Molz);
O. Hon., founded by St. Kridolino
nf Ireland
1018. Naoran (de), in Arabia Kolix .
loi'J. Nantense, S. MAiun'i.piii
(Nantouil), dioo. Oonlanoos; O.
Hon., foundeil by abb. Marc-iilpli
NANTOi.ir.NSE, S. Mauiae (Nan-
teuil-en-Valli'e), V'harente ; 0.
Hon., built by omp. Charlomncne
Nantuacense, S. Mariae
(Nantiia); O. Hen a. 757
NaSSOVIENSE, S. MONNONIS,
dioc. Lii'ge; attributed to St.
Monnon Vll"! cont.
Nataus, S., Kilnaile, Hrcdiny,
Ireland >. Iit)3
Navense, S. Sui.i'icii (Iji Nef,
Hourgos) ; C . Hon., founded by
St. Sulpicius Pius .... C28
•NEAl'0l,lTANUM(Naplc8); founded
by Uustica Vl'" cent.
Neai-oi.itanum, SS. F.r.nhmi,
Maximi, et .klUANI (Naples);
O. Hon., founded by Alexandra
NEAKII.ITANUM, SS. NiCANDRI
kt Maroiani, now S. 1'atuicii
(Naples) ; 0. Basil ....
Nkai>oi,itanum, S. Seiustiani
(Naples); 0. Ben., founded by
the nobleman Komanus
Neas (he), Jerusalem ; mentioned
by (iregory the (treat (perhaps
the same as No. 1049) . . .
KiCAKENSE (Nicea), Bithynia;
founded by cmp. Justinian . .
NiCKRTANUM, S. AOAl'ETI
(Nicorta), Syria; founded by
St. Agapetus . . . . ^
NlCERlANUM, S. SlMi:ONIS
(Nioert;i); founded by 3t. Aga-
1020.
1021.
1022.
1023.
1024.
1025.
1026.
1027.
1028.
1029.
1030.
1031.
1032.
1033.
1034.
,'iUO
a. 800
c. COO
363
c. 595
8.600
a. oiu
' cent.
pet us
V" cent.
NlcorOLiTANUM (XiOTjjnlis), Ar-
menia; founded by einp. Justi-
nian a. 563
Nlcoi-ot.iTANUM (near Nicopi-lis),
Palestine ; I'ouuded by St. Sabbas a. 500
Mo>fA,s'n nv
MONAHTEBY
I'.'Gl
l.D,
10;)r.. •NiDi-RMiimiiKNsi.;, nonr Vmmu,
llavaiiii; O. Hen., built liy duke
Utild '
lo;),")!!. NiNAi:, a, in Onn'ih Snch'uth",
^, "'""•«'" 0.400
N.V|.;UNKNHK, S. MAnriNi
(N.!V)U-.s); 0. AU){. . . .
NlVKUNKNHK, H. STKI'IIANI
(N.'v.th); O. U,„i. . .
•NiviKM.KNsi;, or Nivioki'lar
(Nivelld), Uriilmni ; t'i>uiuli!<l by
Itn, will) (,f I'lpplii „f Limtlen,
unci luT (liuiKlitui' Ourtrnili)
Noiiii.iAiJKNHi;, 8. Vkdasti
(NiMiilly), AitoU; built by bi>.
VlMluMt . . . . ...
NoDNimuMKNSK, Iti Down" .*
Noi.ANUM (Nubi); founded by St.
raiillriu.'*
llKUI.
10:17.
1U38.
1039.
loto.
1U41.
c. 7;)9
a. 700
600
040
n. .'■.40
n. 5iiO
OltANi, .S., (JolniiHiiv Ml', ArK.vlf^-
"hiru ; loundod by .St. (;„lu,„b« Vl"- ,.,.nt
OllANi, S., UroriHav |,|,., AikvU-
innii r/''"'" ' '""'"''"' ''7 ^'- <■'"'"'"»« Vl'" cent.
cIiim;. Hoi»»oiih; 0. liuii., loumlcd
by itii:h|i. UiMilus
1007. OuwitKKNSK, H. M.i:(.Ai:..w
(Ordi.rf),dloc. Mnvi-nw,; (>. ii,.,,
inno „'■"•""''"' '-y ''!•■ Hi...i(ai:« . .
1008. Onii:Nrii, S. Auhoiknsi.; (Aueh),
""Hcony y|ii, .
1069. O88AN1, S., Rath««»„i„, 'noHf ' '
I rim
1070. Ootkiuioviinsk (OitiThofin)," In
0«0
c. 740
.680
liavniia; O. l»,.n., built by St.
1042.
1043.
1044.
*Noi,ANU,M (Nola) . "
i\()NANTUI,AN|;M, S,S. PlITni ET
rAOi.i (Niiiiantola), dioo. Mii-
ili'ua; O. 1)|.M., built by iibb.
Aiisolin and kln({ AlslulC . .
NoNANiJM, utMir Aloxandnn '. .
1045. NONNIACUM, or MlOMAClIM
(Mi'in.ir). "Hoc. I.imogcM ; founded
by St. Aredlus ....
104G. No.NiJM, Cadiz, Simln; built by
b|>. Kructuosun
1047. Nova Cki,la, or Juviniacionsb
(.luvlnino), Mont|.«llii!r ; O.
hen., built by abb. Hon.idletus
1048. Novak Lauhak, Lower %yi.t .
1040. Nova Lauiu, near Jerunniem .
1000. NOVAMACKNSK, SS. JUNMANI ET
H11.AR11 (Noaillo«), dioo. Poi-
tiers ; O. Bon
1051. NOVAMCIACKNSK, S. PcthI
(Novallee), Piedmont; O. IJen.,
founded by Abbo
NovKiK.NSK (Novi, or Novion)"
Ardennes J O. Iten.
Novn:NTKN,si;, or Kiikiwiikimknsb
(Neu-Villler), Alsnoe; O. lien.,
fouudeil by bp. Sigebald . Vll"- cent
1054. Noviui;ntknsk (Nogent or St.
Cloud), near Pari.s; founded by
St. CModoald, son of king Clodo-
mire
♦Noviomensk; founded by' bp.
i'.liglus and kin; Kagobert . .
NUADCHONOnAILi SK, on tho
Jioyne, Meath ... a 700
1057. NimwoM.KNSH (Nutcell), Hamp-
shire ; O. Ben. . '
1058. OiiONNKNSK, S. Makiak," or
S. M1CIIAKLI8 (Obonne), Spain ;
0. Hen., built by Adulgaster, son
of king Silo . • , .
1059. OnnACiiEARKNSE, in Pntrieia!
Mayo . . ' ^
lOGO. Odu'tni, S., in Hyfalgia," Queen's
tt-',.:^ •,.•„■• • V'-cont,
400
1052.
1053.
000
7^r,
000
572
685
fl. 799
a. 5;i0
a. 550
a. 559
739
548
1071,
1072.
1076.
1077.
c. 739
727
c. 754
754
C90
a. 800
1080.
1081.
1055.
1056.
560
600
a. 700
780
a. 600
1001,
1062,
1063,
OMAO!iENSE(dmagh),' Tyrone . 792
OMNIUM SANCroKUM InscLA
(i)i:). in Lough Kie, Longford ;
founded by St. Kioran . . 544
O.NIKNSE, or De OnIA SiLVAB
(Forest d'lleugue), dioc. Bour-
ges ; founded by abb. Ursuii . c. 500
,,. . . ' ■^- • » ."..II.
I'lrminiuK and duko Otto .
•OXONIENHE, S. Fmr.lOVIDAE
(0»foril); O. Ikn., foundid by
St. Krldeswlde and earl Uidan
OxYHiNoiio (r.E) (Behnustt),
1071 J *"■'"""- '•'Kyj't .... I V" cent.
1073. •PalatiOW (de) (Palatiole),
Tuscany! founded by the
brothers of St. Valfred
1074. Palatiou) (de), S. Peiki (p„l„l
tmie); 0. Ben., founded by St.
Valficd of Lucca .
1075. •PAi.Ariorx) (i,e) TkevehenhI
(Palz, near Treves); founded by
Adela, daughter of Dagobert
PALNArUM, S. SalVATOBW
(Pannat), dioc. Pirlgueux
Panepiivbium (Panepbysis),
••'KyP' • • • . . . IV-cenl
1078. Pano (de), (Panos), Tl.obals,
1079. Panohmitanum, S. Hermae
(Palermo); O. Ben., built by
pope Gi'egory the Great . .
Panormitanum, S. Tuequoiu
(Palermo); O. Ben.
Pai'iensk, S. Petri Coiii.i
AuREl(Pavia); O.Ben., founded
by king Lultpnmd , .
1082. Parisie.nbk, S. Petri, afterwards
S. Oknoveeae (Paris); built
by KHij; Clovis II. ,,nd St.
Clotll.ln . .
108,3. Pasa (DE), Cappad'ocla" ' * '
i«or" i'*'«A'"0Nl8. S., in Palestine' !
108j. ♦PAfiSAViENSE (Passaii), Bavaria;
founded by duke Ulilo
Pataris (Di;), (I'ttfara), Lycia IV" ccut
1 ATRICIACUM, or PRINCIACIJM, S.
KusiTll (Pressy on Cher); O.
Ben
Patiiiciae, bear" Alexandria";
founded by St. Annstasi.i .
1089. Pauuacensb in Aiivernis
man »(^"^«'K"'-') IV'i-cent
1090. *PAVlUACENgE (Pavllly), dIoo.
Kouen ; founded by abb. Austre-
berta . ,
1091 Pentacla (DE), near "the Jonlan
1092. PkOKENSK, or PitAEONENBE, lu
inn, _<^'''"'-'a; built by St. Kructuosus
;««;• |^'-=«KO«"*ORUM, near Jerusalem
1094. Persiiorense (Pershore), Wor-
IA0. „<^«"'e'-''t'i'e; founded by Oswald
109o. Pkhu Aubatis, near the Jordan
1086.
1087.
1088.
c. 596
n. 600
c. 722
,".45
a. .'(70
n. 4.10
7.39
a. .531
a. 5.50
650
a. 5,50
070
a. 600
689
a. 600
1202 MONAHTKUY
A.n.
lotto, riiiii, S. Uniiio (111'), or
Ml'iDIHIIAMSnilKNHK (IVtcr-
lior(it\)(li), Niii'lliiiiii|itciMihii'o ;
O. Hon., t'niniilcil liy kiiiK \'<-.>\n C'lO
101>7. I'liin, S. UK Moniiihih, i\un-.
Ali'itin, S|iiiin ; (). Ilcii., riiiiiuloJ
liv St. KnicliiiiNHn .... 040
lO'.IH. •I'Kiui, S. Vivi (.Siiint-riorn>-li>-
Vil). iliiir. .Souk ; Imill liy hih-ou
TI(,MMl...liililn c. Mi
1000. I'l IHOCKNHI: (lliiilinih). ('unnvnll ;
O. ll(Mi,.iillrilHili>il td.St.lVtro VI""™!!!.
Ittio. I'KVKiUKi.Nai'. (IVykirk), Nur-
thnni|.li>iishii«>; O. IWii.. . Vlll'i'i'mil,
1101. I'l-AI-l-LNMONASTKimiM (I'flliriMl-
ii)iii)«|i'i), Unvmiii ; 0. ll«n.,
l.uill liy .luko lllilo .... 0. 7:10
IIO'.V riiAKANi'M (I'liHinn'), rnlpstiiio . a. IIOO
lioil. I'miiMA. MoNiK. (i>i'.), Kuypl. IVhrciil.
IIOI. I'mi.ouoMi, .S., <iiili\lii» ." . IV-coiit.
llO.'i. riuH-AK. S.. riiociili'iii j fouiiilcd
liv I'liip. .Iiisliniiiii . . . . "• •'■''1,')
1100. I'liii (i>i;). Kdvpt .... IV-omit.
1107. ♦I'U'IAVIKNNK, S. Oltl'i'18 (IVl-
(iiMs)j ruiimluil by Si. Umle-
){iiii<lji 5>I3
1108. Tici vviKNSK, 8. rvruuNi (noiir
I'lMliiMsV. 0. Hon., I'lMimlvil by
kiim; lV|.in 758
1100. I'll TAVIKMSI':, S. lUl>H(HINl>I8
(I'lMljiMs); O. IWn., built by
i)iu'iMi Uiiili'umiiln . . . Vl'^cont.
1110. I'lM.il'M (rineto), Crtm|>Rgim Jl
Kc.mii n. 400
1111. I'lKONis. S., jirolmlilv Islniul
Uaclmnnis, Oiinimi'l\i«ii»l>iro ;
I'lMinilcil In- ulib. Tiio . . . c. 513
lll'J. riaii)Rii:N8"i:, S. .\NOKU(l'i»toji\),
'ruMiuiy; O. IWii. . . .' . n. 800
lll.'t. ri.SlX)UlKN81-:, 8. llAKTIIOU)MAKI
(IVtoja)! 0. Hon n. 748
nil. risrouu vsK. 8. ri:TUi (I'istoja) ;
f.>nn.l.'<l by UatotViii .... 748
111,'!. •PlSrOUIK.N'sK, 8. I'K.THI Ot rAlM.I
(lu'iir I'istoja) ; foumleil by IJntc-
tri.i 748
llli'i. •I'oKNirKtrriAK, noar ConsUnti-
iiciiili' ; l"i>i' ponitonfs, fouaitud
by omp. .Iiistinian .... «. 5liO
1117. •roi.UNDKNSK (IVUiiiji), Diivftrin j
O. UiMi., loiinilcii by OiMintji l.«nd-
triil, WivUliixni, imii Kliliiml . . c. 740
1118. VOMIXWIASUM, 8. AimK.LIANI,
ncarC'immuchio, dioo. lUvonnit ;
attributcit to bp. AiUflUn . . c. 460
1119. Po: :ii, 8., umier Mt, Oimior; O.
IWii., founded by emp. Ohmle-
maguo 777
1120. PoiiTiANV, S., dioc. Clermont;
h\iilt by alib. l'orti«n , . . c. 527
1121. PoRTrKN!"-" (Porto), nenr Rome;
O. IWii.. Built by [w\>6 Qrogory
the Orent. c. 598
1122. rRATi'.l.Li NSK (rrcHUx), Nor-
mandy ; 0. lien V 111'* cent.
IVIX Promoti, near Const. ■\ntinople . c. 390
1 i 24. I'Rr Ml KKSE (Pruym), di.io. Troves ;
O. Ben., founded by duchess
Peitha 721
1125. PSALMOniK.NSE, S. Pctui (Psal-
modi), dioc. Ntmes ; O. Ueu. . R. 791
MONASTKKY
1120. I't'in.lf. 8. OiiAKOliM, near Zeug-
iiiH, 8yi'la IV
1127. I'lMil.M, 8. 8villAiMisi, nenr Zeiig-
iim, Hviiii IV
I12H. ♦{•i'i;i.iiAiii; MiiNANTKliniM
(I'lU'lle-MoUHtler'), ilioi'. Uheiliit ;
founded by litdy Matilda and 8t.
KicliariuK
1120. PlllKOl.ANtIM, Pau'IDIS (Po»-
luidi), near Naples ....
li;!0. I'UTi.oi.i l.t'iiiNi. .88, MAimicii
el MAiiriNi, or MoNAHriniKii.iiM
(Aloiilreuil), ilioc. I.ann; (). l>eii.,
built by 81. llerebiU'iuN . .
It:)l. IjHAKllAOINTA MAIII'YUIIM, near
TheodoslopoliH ; rcHtored by unip.
.liiKtinian n.
Il:t2. yiUNOIACKNHK, S. UKNKHKrri
(yniiisay). dioc. Poitiers; (). Ken.
li:i:l. lUlUU.l, MeKopidamia; founded
by KaliuluH nnil IiIh wife . . n
li:l4, ItAlil'l.i, 8., Pliouniein; founded
by 81. UabiiUm n.
1135. KAClll.iNKNtii': (Hnrlilin Inle),
Antrim n.
1130. Kachi.kknuk (Iteculver), Kent; O.
Iten,, fonudud by Basse , . .
1137. Uaihii.iinsi.;, S. Pkthi (Ucuif).
dioc. Meaux; O. Pen. . . VII"'
1 138. liAi riiA (l)lO, near Mt. Siniil . 1 V"
1139. Kandanknnk (Kandiin), Au-
verjine ; O. lien n
1140. UAriiAi)l)i;NHK(Kabue), W. Mcath;
founded by 8t. Aid ... . »
1141. RAriiiiKOANiF.NSH (Uathlieij),
King's Co. ; built by St. Ablmn. a
1142. KATillHn'llKNSB (Uaphoe), Done-
gal; foundeil by St. Columb Vl""
1143. IUtiicunoknbk (Hathcungn),
Doueitnl; founded by St.. Patrick V"'
1144. lUriiKNiNKNSK, in Kertullaj'b, \V.
Menth ; foumled by St. Carthng
1145. l!ATiii,iHviiKNNiiNSl'^ ID Fercall,
King'n Co n.
114G. IUtiimatmf.nsk, in Lough Corrib,
flalway ; att libnted to St. Kursey «,
1147. KATiiMUiaiiENHB (linthmuighe).
Antrim V"
1148. •1Utisi"oni;N8B (Rntisbon) . . s,
1149. Katisi'Oni-.nsk, S. Kmmkrammi,
or S. Sai-vatouis (Rutisbon);
O. Pen., founded either by duke
Theodo, a. P. 097, or count Kkki-
beit Aud bp. Adnlvine , . .
n.
J LIS. ViTAi.m,
Kccjcsiun
cut.
I'lit.
bur^
1159. Zauiiaiiia
foiindeij
dnui;hter
I'lacldiii
flSO
llflO. •RiKINACIAK
000
Kind's Co.
Rciiuaciii ,
c. OHO
a. ,'.«.')
(•>.-,4
a. 4;i0
n. ■I'.M
n. f)llO
fii'.O
* cent.
"n'Ml.
». :ifi
a. (i,"iO
■cut.
vul.
,V,iO
,'-40
li.M!
•ont.
810
Ravknnatenbia MoNASTKUiA (Rftvennn)
1150. Andbrae, S. ; built by bp.
Peter Chrysologus . . . c. 450
Martini, S., »nerwnrds .''.
AiKii.i.iN'ARll ; founded by
king Theodorio . . . V"" i
NA7.ARII, S u.
Pktronillab, S a.
ll.'>4. Pulmonis, S «.
1155. Skvkri, S. ; O. Pen,, built or
restored by Peter Senior .
1156. *STt;ruANi,"(ii;uv.lsii, ct PftO-
TASii, 88. ; built by the archi-
tect Ltnricius
1157. TiiKOmmi, P. ; O. Ben., founded
by tinrch Theodore . , . c.
1151.
11.52
1153
(■lit,
4.'.0
4iW
4(10
578
4.10
809
MONAHTICUY
A.n.
4H()
44'J
«;ir
iir.s. VuxuH, H.- ro„„,i,.,i ,,y 1,,,.
.•■'''"•'""'U"'""! Jiilliiin.lSiin,!,-
Imiix ....
IIM). /.AciuHUi;, N.'j ■().■ I'l,,,,'
'"•"";'"' h Niii«l.-li,,, Kr,.,>,|''
"•'"Kl'l'T of m.,,,, ,]„ii„
"'"■'''"' V'-cnl
llOO. •I{.;..NAC,AK, S. rUnv„„Kl.),
•^M'K" <•".; f.Miii,l,!,| i,y V
Hi'Kiiili'iii ... viih ■
HOI. K..:o„.,:.«,, «..,„,,,•,,(•,,,,:„ y' ■""'»
-"-"■. Umkiohj (». H,.„., I.i.ilt l,y
,,„ •'"'"'. »mi .,(• „e„r llilriry. .
";;■,'■';.;;"*"*'•• ('"■:)(«-i'i"»), iK'iby.
"«■'• >'">''''^<'";NH,;H;ivr>.,;.,r"ii,;.m>: "■"""
H<>I.VMA Al'Uti l(h:NIIA(niM (K,.-
I'"ix). ill.ir. M,,,iiu; (>. 11,.,,
l"ilii(l,.,| \iy |)a,|„ ■•
1IC4. Hin.:MKNN,.;, ,S. M.-AHl'l (Ith.lmH)";
<>. 11...,., |laHili,,„l,„i|, |,y,,r„,„ot
.'"VlM.H, rir. A.I). ;i(l(,, ,„ whirh
th'. iru.niiMcry wuh aftuiw.ir.l.
niMi'il.
11G5. l^iiKMKNs,,, .S. r{,.:Mmn(Uh,.|n,H);
< . Ilmi. f,„„„|,,| |,y St. Kaini-
kIi'h 1111(1 kill)? CloviM
HllMIKNHK, ,S. Six,.,' (liuar
Khfiiiii); (). |t,.n. ^
KiiwiUNHK, ,S. Tiiw,,,;.;!,,,':, (noni-
It inm«);(). II,,,,., ,•„„,„,,„, ,^,^,^,^_
llii'»,li.i-i,, ,i„,i kiiiK Tli,....l..ii,.
Kii|.:.NAIi.iii.;nhi.;, .s. Maiiiai;, „r
h.V I KTlil ..t Oi.AHii (lUiciim,,),
/^"ilch; 0. II,,,,., i„„„,|„,, '•
coiiiit Viilfiilmnl . '
\m. I!lllN.K.()|,„UANUM (l{hinn*,;„l»rn)'
KKyj.l ; ((.uml-Ml l,y ,S(,. |)„„i„ IV"- cent.
1170. HiciM.:u,A|.;, .S., Kilni,.ki||, Oul-
.";»yi '';'.''l by St. |',,tii,:k . Vi-cent.
1110.
1107.
1108.
a. 5;i;i
n. HOH
c. r).'5o
778
1171. HiCMIIll, S., nil thnSarllK)
117.'. liinyNKNH,.; (Ki,,,,,,). YorkHli'lm';
0. li-'ii., htiilt by AlCiu,!, «,„, „f
kill)! ('»wy .
1173. Rn^NiMui.;, S,, ArmonL. ; Voumlci
by .St.. lillfllMIA . . . IV'ri.nt
1174.Ii.H:„A,,lNautA(„K),l„|«r;ch« '"''
iMifrh |.,a|.i .
1175. KoKi'DNSi;, s. Ani.kkak (Kocjicsl
t-r), h..|,( ; O. !»„„., ,v„„„|,„, ,
kiii({ Ktholbnrt . . ^
1176. liorFiACo, „r Kosiaco (di:) (M„ft'.
l;i"i-li.,m|,il), ,li„c. T.n.r» ;
(mimlml by iibb, Ar.'iliuH
1177. K(.MANi;.NHi.;, .S. Hah.vak'ih (I{„1
mails), „n (ho !><,,■,.; 0. Ben
foiiii.li!.! by b|). lianianl. . ''
11.8. lioMANr, S., „,,„r i(i„..»
li nbMiix ; 0. ll,,„. .
1179. RoMANIIM-MoNASriMUUM
iiiaiii-,MoOli..r), U,.in,,. O. ..,,.
''"'"■ h ss. Liipicii, „„,i K,;:
niaiiiLs
dliic.
Hen.,
a. Hno
a. 0:>8
a. 500
COO
672
640
a. 080
Ro,MANA Mo.VASrilKIA (Rome):
|1«0. AuuiANi, S.; O. Bcu.
jj^l. A„An.:Tr,H.;0. Ben. . '. [
IIH.. AdATiiAi;, S.
1183. Ao.NKTis, S., or'DuoiiUM KurI
SOBUM . .
530
n. 795
n. Vil,")
n. 795
.705
MOVAH'l'i:UY
IIH.I. Anamiamii, ,S., a.> AgirAH
Nai.vianj H. 11,.,,,.
HH.",. Ani.iii;a|.; ,.(, I1ai,,|,„;.„,„\,,,,"
M.- n.ii,.„,,„t,,.ii„|,,.,, ,, , ;^
<lr";,'niytli..(l,-,,„t(f,,„„,^l,,,,^
^^ AinfiiBline wiM Kiuit t.)
I'.iii,'laiii|) ,
ani.i.i.;ai.;, »., ;„. ■ m;«,;
■llll.lANA ; (». H,.,|.
AlJI/AK l''l,AVIAI: ; (). |l,',„
il<>Nn.ArM,,S.; (). II,.,,., ,„„;„,,„1
by |"'|»' Umiirai'ii IV.
"•''AraAllll, ,S. ; (). |l„n.
<;awani,,S., wltbont ,h„ ,;„iu
< iiiiVHOdoNi, H. i O. Itnn.
• '"IWAHIIM ... * ■
C'lHMAi; at Damian'i, S.S. j" ()'
lll'll.
12(73
A.U.
8.795
1IH7.
UlH.
tlR,.^l
IIHII.
iniii.
inii.
IIWH.
, .in,-;
a. 71)5
a. 71»5
(107
a. 71(5
a. 7(1,^
a. 7!)5
a. 7U5
IIO.'I.
<).
111)4
111).',
II DO,
11117,
IlitH,
111)1).
1200.
1201.
1202.
12(l.t.
1204.
1205.
1208
1207,
1208.
1209.
1210.
1211.
1212.
121,X
1214.
121.'-,.
1210.
1217.
I.'IS.
1219.
1220.
1221,
1222.
I^'NATI, H., „,. H. i'nwiA
Itrli
KllAH,vil, S. i fdiinclwl by tiniw
Al|lM,,|„t||H . . 'II
KI'<•^:^flAl•:, .S. ; (). il,,„,' \ \
Kl'I'UKlHIAK at AllOIIANdKM, ,S,S
f.l'NTAl.'Mir, H. . ,
OKimuii, H. , , \ ' ' '
fi'ii:<ioiiii, S., C«,„|.ii, MniUN ."
OHKiimn, ,S. ; «>. II,,,,., ,„,„„|„,,
by |,„|„. Ilr,-K«ry t|i„ (J,.,.„t .
Illi;miNAI,i:M(lM:); (;. |J,,„.
iHirxmi, .S, . . .
•'OANNIH, ,S. ;'()."u,,,i. ■ ■ ■
■'••ANNIHl.t. 1>AIII,|,H.S. jl). All,,."
/'"""''"' '7 I"'!"' I.<.'(ith«(lri.,,t
. JDAN.MH KVANOMI.IHlAK, ,I.>A,S-
NIH lUlTJHIAl:, all-ANCIlAlK,
h^*- ; (>. Aug., rpHtorcd l,y
pnpi) (Iri'ifmy II. ^
JlJVDNAM.S, H. ; 0," B,.„.;
',"","''"' '-y the i-atridan
"M'liHarniH .
r-ADHKNIII, H., KXIRA Mukob";
f.>iin.li.,l l,y ,,„|,„ ||j|„rv .
Laiiukntii, .S., intiu Muuog;
'"unilwl liy |Mi|iK Hilary
I.1;<!1A|.;, ,S., or Uk KKNATli
''• Ben.
Makiak, H. ad Pi,a™i*|.k";
(oiii„|,.,| |,y |„,,,„ (ir,,„„rv II
M*'tiAi;,8. i.k.Iiu.ia: O. 11.,,.
Maiiiak, ,S.. „r ,S. AMiiKOHii;
Maiiiini, 3. ; O. Aiig. ■ ■ '
Mk-'iiadmh, ,S. ; (). B,,n. ; •
I'AN(!IIAII1, S. ; O. Bon.
I'Miti Mr i.uoiAi:, or U,'oak,
< . Hen,, fiiundod by t«(i.o Leo
tlie (iii.at . . .
Sahak, .S.; O. Ben. \ ' '
KAi.VAroiiis, .S. Latkr".
ANiiNsiH; O. Ben.
Skikiii kv Bacciii, ,S.S.' ', ]
.SiKi'iiANi KT SiLVKgrnr, ks. '•
O, lien., founiknl by' i.«i',J
I'aiil I. ...
StmI'KanI, LAnRKNTII, ' ET
«.'HRv.-,<j,i„j,i, .S.S. ; o. Ben.,
tdiimled by popo (ircgory HI.
Stisphani MA.ioRig, s., or
C'ATAriAI,LAK PATRIOIAE ; O.
Aug
.795
.71)5
«(!0
a. 795
a. 795
a. 79.'i
a, 795
a. 795
.^9o
a. 795
a. 79,'!
a. 796
401
720
.'■.40
400
400
a. 795
714
a. 795
». 795
n. 795
a. 79.->
a. (300
n. 401
n. 795
n. 708
740
756
735
a. 795
jHI
^B^jX^iL
ill
12l)i
MONAS'ir.llY
1'.".':'. Viciiiim, S
IJJJ. \ni, S., HI- l)H S.VIIDAH . .
l.'J.i. ViVlANAK, iir llllllANAK .
IJJii. Xkndihhmiia ! liHir wcro ic-
Hloii'il liy piipi' Sli'|ihi'ii II. .
rj'27. Xi.NiiiMH'iiU'M ; tiiiiinlml by
|I|<|M> Sll'|>lll'll II
12'J8. ISOMAIUCKNSIS MONTIR (lii'iiilro-
iiiiHit), V(i»ui"< ; O. IW'ii., rniinili'il
l.y l>l>. Ani.iir c. fl:io
I'J-O. K^»^^^>MMON (111), Irulninl; fminilml
liv St. Ciii'iimii c. 540
rj:U). HOSI'KHKNSI:, S. Ckonani
(UoMTi'a), Tip|H'rnry j finunli'J
liv .><t. I'mnmi ». 000
I'.'lll. litviSiNsi, (1{(WM.), Month . . B. (114
liillJ. liosNoiuniiiii.NHio (K(WH Orry),
near Kiiiii»killi'n ( rimmloil liy
St. Kiiuilii'ii «. 4H0
l'2'X\. UiMsit'iiii'iNSK, ni-ar Mt. Sliou
llloc.in. gui'.'n'K ('» «• f>'i'>
1'2M. K01NAS4M.N8K, S. KllMI'.TI8
(Ui'imix), ni"«r Ouili'imrilo ; O.
Ann., luuinlml liy St. Aiiinml . 54,')
12:l,'i. Saiiai.i.i:nhk (Siinl), Down;
f.uiii.l.vl hy St. I'nliick . . V" font.
I'.MO. Saiiiiai:, "S., S. I'alostino ;
I'.iiniilc'.l hy St. SiiMins . . . «. 480
l'j;i7. SAmiiii, or Savini, S. Vutta-
vii;N.sia (St. Siiviii), ilioo.
roiliiM-.-.; (). Ui'ii., li('(;iiii tiiiilor
omp. ('liinli'iiiiiniii" . . . . c. R14
12'8. Sai.ama (mi), near Alcxanilrln . n. tiOO
l'2:i'.t. Sah'ima (111;), AU'xainli ia . . n. (idO
l'J40. Sams (hi;). S. Mauiak (Sales),
iliuc. lioiuKi's c. 63'2
l'J41. SAi.ism'iuir.Nsi:, 8. ri-.TRi
(.Sal/.l>ui,(), Austria; O. Hon.,
fotiiiiloil iiv li|>. Uu|ivi't nml iluko
Th.'o.loiii'" c. 580
Sauini;N8K (Salonii), Lombardy ;
O. 11.M1 a. 777
*Sai.w (ni;), S. Mauiak, (Smilt),
Kivjiis; Imilt by tlio nobli-nicu
Kilo anil Zani'tus .... 768
Samii'm Ciiauixkni (Islo of
Sainos) c. 620
. SAMTIlAWISSKXaK, on
Ki'ihiila. (loorgin; built
t'atlior laiiloro
Sani>avik.n8i',. in the Alps;
A.Il.
n. "li.'i
rj,'.'.'.
a. 1'Xi
a. 7li:i
n. 7,'-.0
l'J,%4.
7,'>0
I'J.'.."..
1242.
124.1.
1244.
1244H
1245.
1246.
1247.
1248.
1249.
1250.
1251.
the
VI"" cent.
hvn., t'omulcil bv connts Ijind-
friil, Wal.iinm, limi Elilamt . e. 740
SANNAHAnKN8K, S. I.KUCAnil
(Siiiinabailus), Oap])«(looin . IV" cent.
Sanwnk.nsk, or Sai.iuinknsk, S.
Mauiini (.Salijjnao), ilioc.
S:iinli's ; 0. ISen,, tounilad by
abb. Martin c. 400
Sai'SA (ni;), N. Arabia ; founded
by its lirst abb. John . . VI'* cent.
Sauahuriiknsk (Saarburg),
Tri'Vi's; (). Ben., endowed by
king Oatrobort II 577
Sahlati;nsi;, S. Sai.vatoris
(Snrlftt). Oordocnc; 0. Ben.,
attributed to bp. Saeenlos . . 720
Savini, S., near Barege, dioc.
Tarbes; 0. Ben., built by St.
S»Tinas c. 700
rj.-itl.
12:>8.
r.'.'i!>.
I2(i0.
I'Jfil
l'!(12.
•|2ti,'l,
1204,
120.').
12()«,
1207.
12(18.
1209.
1270.
1271.
1272.
1273.
1274.
1275.
1276.
1277.
1278.
1279.
1280.
MONASTKUV
A.t>.
•.SfMMii;N8io, .*». Si;xiii'HnAi;
(Miiistii), Slieppey ; I'oniidi'il by
iilili. Si'xhiiri:ne r. fi?,'!
■SciiirNis (nr), in (ii'iiiiany ;
Iniiiideil by lluiilVI'l of htria ' . r, KOii
.'^I'llllilAi;, S, (Kiiskiru), Ire-
land a, 71,',
S<'lil,i;<'lllKmi''l,NHi:, in the Alps ;
O. Ili'H., t'liMidcd by luiinls
buhllVi'l, WaldraiM, and Klilnnd c. 710
S('III,ii;iini;i:n8k, by lake Sililicr,
Havnria; O. Ili'ii., t'nunded by
Adi'lward and lliltpidd . . . r. 'M
ScMiij.AiiU'M, near .leni^nlcin . a. Iliil
SriiDi.AHTii'AK, S., dioo. I.i, Mans,
Onie; (>. lli'ii a. H&i
Si'lioriNi, S., in Sliemiinr(jle,
(Queen's Co Villi iiMit.
S('i(tii,ri;iiiiANi;NHi:, S. Mkmiaki.ks
(.Sihiilteien), Al»ai:e; O. lieii.,
biiilt by Otto CO.)
.SciUKiiniiNK (hi;), S. Makiav:
(SherlKiriie), Dorseliihire ; ().
Bi'n a. CiTl
Sciivil.iAincNBK (Kruillrf), Maine
and Loire a, Hivj
S('Vllloi'i)l,lTANUI« (Betlisan),
I'abwtine IV"" ei'iit.
ScvlllOI'OI.ITANt'M KlIMATllll
(near Bethsan) ; founded by
I'.niuathiiis c. ,'irtO
Skaciii.ani, S. (Oiuishanlin),
Meatli ; founded by St. Seaililaii n. 443
Skanmoiiiknsk, in Kenselach,
Wexl'onl a. (!'.'4
Si;iiA8rANtiM (Sebasti), Armenia;
I'oumled by eiup. .lustinliui , . a. ,'iO,'i
Sl.cKINUKNaK (Seekingen), on the
Kliine ; founded by St. Kridoliiin 4',I5
Si;(ii;miii;NSK, or S. Ki.yt'ANi
(St. Seine), (lote-d'Or ; (). Hon.,
founded by abb, Seipianus . . .'iSO
SKlNdl.KANKNSK, dioe. Knphoc ;
founded by St. Odunib . . VI"' cent.
Ski-imiknsk (Selsey), Sussex;
founded by St. VVillVid ... 681
Sr.i.K.roiUM, S. lUsiui (Scleueia),
Syria ; founded by St. Basil,
bp. of Seloiicitt .... V"" cent.
Ski.kuch'M, S. Tiieclae
(Seleueia) a. ;170
SKNAPAUIAE S. I.KOHATII
(Siinevii>re), dioc. Tours; 0.
lien., founded by St. Ursus . . c. 500
Sknociii, S., near I.oehes;
founded, or restored, by abb.
Senoehus c. 576
Sknonknsk, S. Columbae (Saint-
Colonlbo-l^s-Sens) ; O. Ben.,
founded by king Clotaire II. . c. 620
•Si;noni;nsi:, S. Joannis (Saint-
.Iean-l*s-Sens) ; founded by bp.
Her.iflius 496
Sknonknsk, S. Petri (Sens);
O. Ben 505
Sknonense, S. Remioii, or
S. Mauricii (Sens); restored
without the walls .... 535
Se.sojjiense, S. Stepiiani
Senones (Vosges); 0. Ben.,
founded by bp. Gondelbert . . 661
r.'Rl. SKllflii, fl.,
reisia ,
1'282. Si;iiiiii, .S., „.
to it» all!,. >
l'J8,'l. Si;iiviTANi;j|
Valeneiii;
Moiiatiis am
1384. S|'>imia(!i;nhi,;,
(■Salnt-I'air-
founded by
128,'i. .S|.:vi:iii, .S.,
Talbes ; ().
SeveruH Sill
12Hn. Si:vi;riani, I
\'M. Si;vi;iiiNi, 1
(itorileaiix)i
IMS. SnxrKNHi;, s
1'" '•''.)"»); O.
Krfi) and Zai
. SlMAIIJI.irANl
■''yiia
. SiMAIIll.lTANt
.Syria
. *Si(!i;oN|,', (
{t^i<- i), Oal
, Sll!l;()NIM, DK
(Siceiin) ;
Theodore
. SlCIMAK M0>
by pope Orej
SlI.VANI, S.,
tine; foundoi
SiMI'IIORIANI,
founded by b
1296, SiNAiric'UM (^
12'J7. SlNUIIKAK, S.
Meatli ; founi
12i)8. SlNDKN (1)K), I
by St. ZoBimi
1299. Sl.NKRSTATlKNS
Ben,, foundec
fiid, Waldriin
1300. SlSrARICHNSK,
roil), I'rovono
1301. SrniivENSK, S.
0. Ben., four
marus, bp. Th
Ailrowald.
1302. Ski;i,ioenhk ((
Kerry; found
1303. .Slanknsk (Slan
1104. .Si,kiiiii;nsk(SIi
1305, Slikvb Dona
Iveagh, Dowu
Doiiiangart .
1308, SiNAMLUTIllRKNl
Sligo; founde(
1307. SOLEMNIACKNSK
Pauli (Solign
0. Ben., found
and king Dago
1308. SOLENIIOKFENSK
dioc. Eichstudt
by B. Solo .
1309. SORICINENSE, I
Mariae (Sorfe:
0. Ben,, foundi
klO. Si'KLUNCA (DE)
Palestine ; font
1311, Si'llIOMENUM (N
by emp. Pulch:
MONASTERY
MOVAHTKRY
1205
fl.i nniir IlolliKnlcmm,
A.D.
0'2()
. 000
inr,
1280.
12!K).
im.
1J9J.
i29;i.
r.oo
s. ooo
a. 5u;t
702
1281. flMWil,
I'ciKin ....
1282. Si:iiri)i, .S., „,.„ oiui. j 8ltilbiit..,'l
III IIh iilili. Scri.liiH . , , VI"' ('('lit
IM.'l. SKHviiANniUs .S. iH.NAii (Snrvil), ' '
Vnl.'iiciii; I'oiiii.lci,! by „|,|,.
I><iimtiin unci Miiichoii .
1384. Sl^aWtACliNHK, S. I'ATMINI
{Siiliit.I'iiir-.lii-Mnnt,Ciilvml,«>;
f"'iii.l(.,| by St. I'litciriiiH
mr,. .SKyiiiu, H., k„„»t„n«, ,ii„,;.
Iiiilx'n; (). »,!,., C,,,,,,,!,,,! by yt_
SlIVlTllH Slllpil^illH ,
12Hn. Skvihijani, I'liluKtiiio ' " '
im. Si;yi.;iiiNi, H. UviwmM.Kmt'a
(llniiUmiu); O. Hon.
1288. SKxrKNHi:, .S. Maiuak (.sWto,
^'■';.|ii-)i O. »,.|,., CmhkIu,! by
hrlii luiil Znrintuit ...
SlIlAI-OMIANUM (SibnnollH),
f'yi" I V" cent
SlI.Al'OI.ITANUM (SlbnpollN),
•>'"' IV'-cont.
♦.SI,M-,()NK (r.|.;), I'KTOINUM
(hiiKHPii), Oiilatiii ... a 5H0
.Su'wmm, i)K Vai.i.m n. VimiiNm
(SictMiii); fuimdoj by St.
TIiimmIimo J juQ
SldlMAK MONASTKRU; Vonndo.'l
by l">po «r«K(iry tho (Ji«,,t . a 594
Sil.VANi, .S., i„,„r flornr, I'alos-
•">'•; fmui(l«,l by St. Silvanim IVoonl.
129,.. SiMi'iioiiiANi, S., nil tl.u M.wella;
Idiuidod by b|.. SiinplKniaii . . OV,
129(!. SINAITIOUM (Mt. Siimi) . . IVrct
1297. SlNUMKAK, S. (T..I,Hinch«), E.
Month; Imindcd by .St. Abbnn .
1298. SiNnKN(i)K), ncirfyrej founded
by >St. ZoMitnu* . .
1299. SlNKItSlATlUNSi.;, in tho Alps'; O.
lien., founilad by lioiintB Land-
fiid, Waldriini and Kjilaud
1300. SisiARicKNsi;, S. Mauii (Sistol
ifin), I'riivenuo ; O. H.-n.
1301. SiTIIIVKNSK, S. l»KllTINI(Sithin);
0. Hen., foundod by St. Ando-
manis, bp. ThdrounnuBand count
Adniwald. . ,
1302. SKKLKiKNHK (Great Skdig I»le)*
Koriy ; foimdud by St. Finian V^'cent
1103. Slanhrsk (Sb.no), Muath. a 6M
rm. Hi,,.;ni„.;N8K(Slet ty), nearCarlow Vp'-cont.
1)00. hLiKVB DoNAiD (PK), Upper
Ivcagh, Down ; founded by St.
DoinaOKart .... Vincent
1306. SNAMLUTiunKNSB, in Carbury
Shgo; founded by St. Coiumban
1307. SOLKMNIACKNSB, SS. I'nriH et
Pauu (Sollgnac),dioc. Limoges;
O. Ben., fouuded by St. Eligiug
and king Dagobert .
SoLKNilOFFKNSB (Solenhoffen),
dioc. t.chstudt J 0. Ben., founded
^''yB. Solo Vmo-cent
. SORICINENSE, or Pacense, S.
Mariae (Sorize), dion. Lavaur ;
O. Ben,, founded by kine Pepin
' S';j;WNCA (DK), S. S.VI,DAE; S.
Palestine ; founded by St. Sabbas
1311. Spiiiomenum (Mt.Atho8), founded
by emp. Pulcheria .
a. 597
c. 520
a 740
c 500
638
A,i>.
i:il4.
i.'ii,'-,,
1308,
1309.
i:;io,
c. 600
631
a. 768
c. 500
c. 450
1312. .SntrriiAllt<ii;Allir:NHK, In Wirkbiw
niMir .Slcttv , . , . '
l;il;i. .SlAmii,|..NHi:;(.S»„v,.|„t)',Ardc linos';
<»■ Itcn., I'l.iiii.liMJ by king .Si^,,,.
iM'it and MajcrdoniunOrininald.
I.)l,j|l. •,SiAK|.i.l><i;|.,NHK, in the Alp«;
[>■ Hon., Innndcij by rmmt, I,,„„i.
(lid, Waldraiii, ami KlllancI .
SiAMi'iNHK, S. Maiuak vk HhoI
••A mm (ltn,yf.|„», Kl»nipo»);
(iHindod by Clothilda . .
Stani.-(.iii.|.,nhi:, S, I.konari.'i
(Slamliird), l.iiM iiln»hlio ; ().
H<'n., rounded liy bp. Wilfrid
and AltVoil . .
l.Tlfl. SlAVDUKNNi: (Slavnroii), ll.dlmid"
■ 117. ,Sri;niANi, .S., noni- Cinna, ()nl„tla
I.IIH. »Ti;i-iiANi, S., noar .ioiuHaloin ;
loiiiidod by oinp, Kildoxia .
l.'tlHii. SlK|.|iANi. .S., noai- Mainoba,
<' Hiii; I'liilt by father Thad-
deim . . . yi
l;ilO. SiONi.; (f,|.;), in' Stan'ordHlIiro;
fi' h"l by king Wolphoro .
.STiiAiKdiii, (DK) ; pr(dinbly Strati
(ord-npon-Avon, Warwiokshlro.
•SlIlKANHIIAUJKNSK (Whitby),
Voikslilro ; foiin<lo<t hy aldj.'
Hilda, daiiglitor of king ()»\vin .
SrilKAN.SIIAI,C|,NHK (Whitby); ().
Hon,, loiindod ly king <)«win .
i;)2;». Si-lii.AOKNKK (Sublaoo), Aponnlno
Mt«. ; O. Hon., built by St. Hu-
liediot and bin sister St. Scho-
laHtioa ....
SiicA (m;), Palodfino ', ',
♦SUIMHIONKNSK, S. MaRIAK (,Snll(l
HouM); foiinilod l>y Majordoinus
Kbroiu ami hlH wife l.outrude .
Si;n(1kia(!i:nsk, or DeSoneoiw.S.
VlNCKNlll (.S.dgnieH), llainaull ;
O, Hen., founded by count Vin-
cent
1327. SlilTKNTONiA (de), Tuscany"; o!
Hen
SUKDUM, S, CoumnAE (Swoi-ds),
Dublin ; foumled by St. Coluniiia
SlISTERENHK, or I>E SUiaTllA (Sud-
teicn), Juliem ; 0. Hen., founded
by St. Willibrord and Pepin
d'H^riHtnl '
1329b. SYMi'iioniANi, S., Bourges;
founded by St. Ursinus . .
1330. SiTMi'iioRiANi, S., near Metz; 0,
Ben., built by bp. i'appolun. .
1331. Syncletiae, S., near Aleinndria,
KRyjit
1332. Taiiennae, near Assouan, Egypt ;
founded by Pachomius . .
1333. Taojwtanum, S. Melaniae (Ta-
geste), Numidia ; founded by St.
Melania junior
1334. •TAOhMTANUM, S. Melaniae (Ta-
geste) ; founded by St. Melania
junior
1335. Taminanum, S. Mili (Tamina),
Lyt:nnnia
1336. Tamnachaduadense, in Magh-
feuvhin, Tipperary ... .^ 7.50
1337. TA8ENSE, Thebes ... cent
1338. Tauhini, S,, Evreux ; 0. Ben. Vu-cent!
'I!)2
056
1.'120,
1:121.
1322.
1324.
1325.
1326.
1328.
1329.
C.740
67a
0.',8
HOO
(;oo
460
"" cent.
670
a. 703
653
658
c. 820
a. 500
666
640
600
512
714
'V'K cent.
608
387
330
c. 400
c. 400
8.590
MONASTKIIV
i;
S'i'
?;iili
^^m
1266
A.D.
13;10. TAiisiniACiiM, or Tausimaci-m
('rnisi'liiy), llcny ; O. lleii.,
riiiiiiilc'il by St. lJr>u« . . . c. flOO
l.'UO. Tkaimiiiomamknhk, mi fhii Di'u,
Wickliiw; lounJeil by St. I'nl-
liKliiis V'cent.
1.1+1. Tkai.i.kani, S. (Teltown); foumU'il
by St. Toiillfiiiii n. 7'.;o
11142. TKiVrAl.AlNKNSK (Tuhiillnn), Mo-
niiijlmn a. 071
1343. Tkiisaciiknsk, or Tassaoardknsk
(S(iK(;iir(l), iKMir Dubliu ; ('ouuilisl
by St. Miisaere .... ft. O'lO
1344. TiJANllM, riiiygin; f(iun(l<Ml by
St. Kutyc'hiis a. 580
1345. Ti:i,AMi8SANiiM, S. Hassi (Ti'bi-
inissii), Syria; foutuleJ by St.
BussuH IV'i-oent.
1340. Th;i.ani».si:n8K, Svria . . . V"' cent.
1347. Ti;i.l,ii, S. (Teiiglilello), W. Meath ;
t'lmmlod by St. Cera . . . . a. 57(i
1348. TK.Mi'raTATt-M, near Apnmca, Syria a. 5J0
1349. Tkmi'M lluKiinnNsiH, Armagh ;
altriliuloil to .St. I'liirick . V'cent.
1350. *Ti:mi'I.i Miraoi;m)iii'M, noM- Ar-
magh ; foumlod by St. I'atiick V'cent.
1351. Tl'.HiUO.NKKCllANKiiSK (Terl'eikftn),
near Drouhoila C(i5
1352. Tr.UKACi-NUNaB, S. Stkimiani
(Teiracina), Rmne ; (). Ben.,
toiinileii by bp. beneilictns . . 542
135.3. TKitTio (i)K), S. Maktini (Terzo),
Italy Vincent.
1354. TKTTKnuuY (juxta) (Tetbury),
Glimcestersliire ft. 680
1355. TiiiiCl.A HaimaNot, S., in Aby.s-
sinia ; many mnna-steries owe
their origin and rule to this
saint Vll'^cent.
1356. TliKCOAE DE SOLITUDINE, Pales-
tine a. 500
1357. TiiKDCnsTi, S., near Jeru-saletn ;
founileil by St. Kuthymia . . a. 410
1358. TiiKODOSil AmiATis, in Soopulo,
C'ilicia; founded by St. Theo-
dnsius a. 400
TiiKODOSll, S., near Alexandria IV' cent.
T11KODO8II, S., near the Psilis,
Asia Minor VII"' cent.
TiiEODOSii, S., S. Palestine;
founded by St. Theodosius Coe-
nobiarchus a. 490
TiiKorxisn, S., de Petra, near
Seleucia, Cilicia; founded by St.
Theodosius a. 600
TllK.ODIISIOl'OUTANUM, S. SeRGII
(Thendosiopcdis) . . . . I V" cent.
TiiEddNli, near .lerusaleni . . a. 550
Til EOK laiiu Rl ESSE (Te w kesbu ry ),
Gloucestershire ; 0. Hen.,
founded by dukes Oddo and
Doddo 715
TnKOTiMi, S., Scythia. . , V'cent.
TllIERIIAUI>TEN3i;, SS. PETRI ET
I'auu (Thierhaubten), Uavaria;
0. Hen., built by duke Thassilo 750
TiiMiMTiOKM (Thn'.ui), Kjryjit IV" ceut.
TiiOMAE, S. Ai'081'01,1. India . . a. 600
TllURNEOIENSE, or AUCARIOEN'SE
S. MaUIAE ET S. ROTULKI
(Thorney), Cambridgeshire ; 0.
1359,
1360,
1361,
1362,
1363,
1364,
1365
1.366
1367
11fi8
IHiO,
1370,
1,171.
1372.
137.1.
1374.
1375.
1376.
1377.
1378.
1379.
1380.
1,381.
1382.
1383.
1384.
1385.
1380.
1387.
1388.
1389.
1390.
1391.
1392.
1,393.
1394.
1395.
1396.
1397.
1398.
1399.
MOMARTKRY
Ben,, foundi'il by kini; Sebert,
or abb, Savulph .... a. IWi
TiliRAlii.Nsi:(!'ippi'rt), W. Meath;
founded by Si. Kicliin . . VU"' lent.
*TlCINI,NSE, S. TllK(l^)TI, or S.
IKmm)si (i'avia) 7H(i
Tii.i.Aiii'uii Ns:: (Tilbury), Ksitex;
erei'ted l)y bji, Ceilda . . . c. 630
Tll.l.im (HE) (perhaps Thellgiiy,
near Maiucis), dioc. I.e Mans . a. 8u2
Tll,.MiN)MANU.M (TilnioKlia),
.Syria V"' ceut,
TiNEMirrENSEor('i;l,i,AS,.\i.iiANi
(Tininoulh). NortliuinberlMiid ;
O. 14en,, ascribed to kiujj Kdwin a, fi.l3
TlRDACIIUOKIlKNSE, in M'Mlth;
founded by St. t'cduuib . . VI"' cent.
TlRDA<ll,A!i(iK.NMK, by I.otigh Uoiri?,
Tipperary ; fiMinded by St.
C"(duiiiba M't'rinilhann ... a, .'itl?
Ti8ME.NE.NSE, or Menense, near
I'anos, Kjtypt .... IV"' cent.
TlTAS-.Mo.NTE (l>E), near Kiinini,
Italy ft. .'100
T.NITE.NSK (Tnii), near Colocjne . 7J3
TOLI.ENSE, S. I'EtRl (Tolla), iline.
I'iacenza; O. IJen., built by bp.
T(d)ia '. Vlll"' cent
*T0I.08AN1M, S. Mariae Deai'-
RATAE (Toulouse); (afterwards
for monks, (J. Hen.) . . . c. ."iSS
T0RNACKN8E. S. .Mahtixi (Ti.ur-
nny); 0. lieu., founded by bp.
KliVius 6.')2
TonNoiinoREN-sR. S. Miciiaelis
(Tonnerre), Vonne; 0. Ben. . c. 800
TRAJKcrENSE. S. Marttni
(Utrecht); <). Ben,, attributed
to kini;s I'epin and Charleniai;ne 770
Trei.ickmoue.nse, in Omagh,
Tyrone a. 613
■►Tkenteiiam (de), in StalVonl-
shire a. 783
Trevirenxe, S, Joannis, after-
wards S. HiLAHil and S.
Maximi (Treves); O. Ben.,
founded by St. Maximinus . . c. 500
Trevirense, S. Mariae ad
Martvres (Treves); O. B.n,,
established by bp. Willebror.l . 694
Trevirense, St. Martini
(Treves); 0. Ben., founded by
bp. Mngneriu* 587
Trevirense, S. Mattiiiae, or
S. KucilARll (Treves) ; 0. Ben. a. 62,3
Trkvotense (Trevet), Meath . a. 800
Trinitatis, S., Trinity Island,
Lough Kee
S. Leontii
n. 700
a. 400
Tritolitanom,
(Tripoli), Syria .
Trium Font'ium, S. Anastasii,
near Rome ; O. Ben., endowed
by emp. Charlemagne . . . 803
Trochi.eae, B. ViRiiiNis, Egypt;
attributed to emp. Helena . IV"" cent.
Troclarense (Le Truel), near
Chrameaux, Tarn; 0. Ben.,
built bv Chramlic, tiuher of
St. Sigoiena c. 770
♦Troclarense (Le Truel); built
by Chramlic c. 770
662
780
432
4H7
675
M0NA8TERT
1400. Tiii;rH>Nig, S., or 3. Qijintini
(TniyiMi;, Uolgiumj (). li,.|,,,
fiumUa by ths nobleman
Tritlii
UOl. TitUTiiMKiiri, S. (St. Trupt),'ne«*r
FiibuiK; 0. U«n., Couiiiled by
fouuts Utjiurt and hh grandnon
KiiminMt
1402. Tkvmk.nhk, V. Mariab (Trim),
Mo.ith ; t'imnded by St. Patrick
and Ketlilfinid
H03. TuAiMiiiuNiiNSB (Tomgrany),
('lara j_ yjr,
1404. TuAMKNgE, V. Mariae (Tuiiin),
Iroliind
1405. •TUFKIAOO (nE), (Tuffi), Maine
and Loire J founded by abb.
Loppa
U06. TuLAciininiai,Ai38KN8B (Tii'liy),
dioc. liaphoo; founded by tit.
^^^'x'un'b Vl^-ccnt.
1407. TULACI1P0IIAIREN8E, in Kildare ;
founded by St. Fechin, and en-
dnwod by king of I.ainnter . VU" cent
1408. VULACII MiN (DK), (Kermoy),
Ireland; founded by St.
Molagi;a
1409. TULKNKNSB O'uilel'"). * King's
County
1410. TURONKNSB, S. JtJUANI " DE
ScALAiius (Tours) ; O. IJen. VI"- cent
1411. TlTRONENSE, S. RAt)K(lUNDI8
(Tours); 0. Ben., founded by
St. Kadegunde
1412. TUR0NEN8E, S. Venantii (Tours)
1413. TURONIUM (La Torre), near Uraga,
Portugal; built by St. Fruc-
tuosuu
1414. TuRRiUM, near tho
founded by Jacobus .
1415. TussONls Vaixis (perhaps Thou ry,
or Thusey, near Vancouleurs),
Campngne; founded by abb.
Orderic
1416. TiJTELENSE (Tulle), Corrize; O.
Ben., built by count Cabninius
and his wife Namadia , .
1416b. ULCMiiANUMiin Karthli.Georgia;
built by father Michael . VI"" cent
1417. Undolense (Oundle), North-
amptonshire a_ 711
1418. UsKKCiiAOiNENSE, in Inisoen",
Donegal ; founded by St.
Coin nib yi'^ cent.
1419. Utenhurriense, or Otten-
^ I1URIEN8E, on the Gunz, Gar-
ii'nny; 0. Ben., founded by
duke Sylachua and his wife
Ermiswinda 784
Uticense, S. EBRULri, or S. Petri
(Ouche), dioc. Lisieux ; 0. Ben.,
built by abb. Ebrulf ', ,
1421. UvAE Lacu (DE), Fermanagh
1422. VaLERICI. S. Amiitawi'voi.'
MONASTERY
1425.
VAi,Lli Ro«ll«AE,iieai-St. JariJX
Pi!Uib:-iik«»hJru J founded by
1267
A.O.
by
c. 519
a. 700
1428.
1429.
1430.
0.662
IV-i-ccnt.
IN
by
a. 664
s. 550
555
506
1434.
1435.
744
a. 750
682
Jordan ;
605
c. 500
696
c. 700
1420.
560
500
Valerici, S. Amuianense (St.
Valery-sur-Mer), Somme; 0.
,,„„ ^B^n-. built by king Clotaire 11. 611
.423. VALLI8 Cavae. A.Hturias . . VUI"' cat
1424. Vallis S. Greoorii (St. Or^goire
du Val), Al.sare; O. Ben.,
founded by Childeric, son of
Grimoald . 394
CHRIST. ANT.— VOL. U.
St. Ifttvid
1426. VaKK.NA* (AD) S. VALKRlANi
(Varu:in«H), dioc. Auxorre : <).
Ben ',
1427. Vatoi-edanum, Mt. Atho«;*at'.
fribdtiMl to emp. t'on»tanlinB IV* cent
Va/.a(,anum, S. Valkntini
(Vazala), Syria; fnuuiled by
St. Valentine of Apamca . V" cent
Vknktum, .S. (Jkoruii (near
Vannes); O. Ben., founded by
king Cunibort ....
Vkrckm.k.nsi:, S. Ki;sKnii
(Verccdii), Piedmont; ascribed
1A1I , '" '•!'• '•'""^•'''"« ■ . . . IV-cent.
1431. •Veiuinknhk (Verona); founded
by St. Ziino, ^aid to be the
earliest in the west .
1432. 'VERo.NiiNSE, S. Mariae"
Oriiano (Verona); built
Anteuiida and Natatia .
1433. VKUoNKNai;,S.ZENONis(Vero"na)':
O. Ben . '
Vktus Mo.vAffrERiuM, .S. Mariae
(Montiires), dioc. Thirouauue ;
O.Ben., built by bp. Aunomar
and count Adrowald
VieroRis, 8. Genevensis
((ieneva); 0. Ben., founded by
queen Seleuba .... VI"" cent
1436. ViK.NNKNSE,S.FERREOU(Vienne),
i^Q, v'^""'''""''' ^' ''*"'• • • Vincent.
1437. Viknnkn.sk, S. Petri (Vienne);
O. Ben., founded by 'ubb.
Leonianus ... g 515
1438. Viennj;n.sk, S. Tiieud'eri'i
(Vienne); 0. Ben., built by St.
Theuderius vi"" cent
1439. VlooRlH, S. CERASIEN8E (C(Srisy),
near Bayeu,x ; O. Ben., founded
,.,« , by bp. Vigor and kingChildebert
1440. ViLLAE Maonae, SS. Martini
KT Majani (Villemagne),
,.... , ''Argeiitif're, Herault ; 0. Ben. .
1441. Villa Luto.sa (Leuze), near Tour-
nay ; 0. Aug., founded by bp.
Amandus
1442. ♦Vn.LARENSR (Montivillier), dioe^
Rouen ; O. Ben., founded bv St.
Philibcrt ... ^
1443. »ViLLA Sanctis, S. SatdrniVae
(Saints-16a-Marquions), dioc.
Arras yjih g^^j
1444. Vincentii, S. ad VULTtmNUM,
Benevento ; 0. Ben., founded by
three noblemi-n, brothers, Paldo,
Paso, and Tuto .... q ygg
ViNCENTii, S. DB Oveto (Oviedo),
Spain ; O. Ben., founded by abb.
Fromista and his cousin Maximng
ViNCENTlI, .*!. LaUDUNENSIS
(Laon); 0. Ben., ascribed to
queen Brunichilde . .
1447. V1NDICIACKN8B (Venzat, or Pan-
-at), Auvergar; ;r:;ndcd by abb.
Bracchio and lady a^nachilde .
Vinearum, near Ravensburg, dioc.
Constance ; 0. Ben., endowed by
oouQtess Irmentrude
538
a. 800
645
682
1445.
1446.
1448.
791
580
53ft
81
C.800
m
m
3'*
to.
709
660
11.505
a. 595
560
ft. 800
ft. 550
».700
657
•.686
c. 680
623
1268 MOS^AStKKY
1440. Vj«)i™KM«r * Mr'^AUUi (V«r-
Juk); Q B«Bi,fouu.i I by count
1450. VWUMKIIU. **•' '-»"'"». ia l.<"in ;
O. Ben., fvu»"'' ' < ■) • fructu-
otu* .... •
1451. ViTi, S., n« Sardinia; o B«d.,
fiiumled by the Inly Vitula .
1452. Vrri, S., n«i«r Alt. Ktna, Hicily ; O.
lien
1453. Viriosi, 8. VinDUNKSSi* (Vn-
dun) ; 0. Aug c. 607
1454. ViVAUiKNHK (VlvliTs). "eir Ei-
iliiilini, CiilnbriK; foundml by
CasHiiHliirnt
1455. Voi.vioicNSK (Volvic), near Hiom,
I'liv-ile-Iirinie; O. Hen. .
1456. V()sli>KN8K (U Vigeiiii.), Vlennej
(). lliin
1457. VULFINI, S., dioc. Auxerre ; O.
Aiijf
1458. Waslaiikssk (VViil«r«-fn-Fal(,'nc),
di.ic. t'unibrnyi 0. lien., built
by U. Landelinus ....
1459. ♦WAnuNKNSK (W'ation/, Vork-
iihirc i founded by abb. Uillebert
14C0. •WiiDONiiHSK (Wediin on the
■Street). NortliiiinptonsSIre ;
nuDdod by St. Warburgha . .
1461. *> EissKNiiuaoKNSi:, SS. I'ktri et
SrKPllANl (Weinsenburg), Ba-
vniiii ; 0. Ben., founded by king
Diigobert
1463. Wi:i;ri:sJi)LiiQEi»8K, S. GEonoii,
near Kiilinbon ; 0. Ben., founded
by duke Theodo . . . .VlII"'ccnt.
1463. WtSDKSCLIVENSli (Clive), Glou-
cestershire *• '80
1464. WllRKENSK, or WERTI11KKN8B, S.
Salvatouis (Werden), dioo.
Cologne; 0. Ben., founded by
bp. Ludger *• 778
1465. Wesiexi-bumkhsr, S. Petri
(Wesbrun), Biivnria; 0. Ben.,
founded by counts Landfrid,
Waldram, nnJ KlilanJ . .
1466. Westmonastbhi a (Weitmin*
ster), Middleieii 0. Ben.,
ascribed to king Sigbert
1467. VVIOORSIENBE (Worcester);
Bscribeil to Aelfred . . . VIII" cent.
1468. WiLDESiiusANUM (Wilshosen),
Westiihalia; founded by duke
Wigbert c
1-469. WiLFRlDl, S., Inch Rock, Scot-
land; founded by abb, Wilfrid
and king Alfred
1470. ♦WlMN'ICASSEN3B (Wcnlock),
Shropshire j foi>ni by St.
Milburga. ... . v
1471. »WlNBURNEN8E (V\ ' ■ tt>'''
Dorsetshire ; founi,jd vi.
Cuthburga, or abb. t.t.Mi ,, . '
H72. WiNCHELCUMBESSB tW;t('i.'»
combe), Gloucestershi)"?; .'. ,(:,,■..,
founded by king OfTa (h'I.-i Vi
yp^establishsd for it- nWs by
Kenulph)
1473. WlKOCIBEROENSE (Woiinhoult),
Flanders; 0. Ban., fo'iided by
St. Berlin
MONASTERT
1474.
A.n.
a. 646
M0>
1470.
1477,
147H.
1479.
1480
1481
0.740
C.604
,800
682
.680
?ia
787
695
Wi!nO!IIBOT«(Wlnihei(t.'ri . ,
WlRKML'TIIKMai:, 8, I'KTUI (WlMC-
miiiith), Piirham; the inonadtory
i( Vi-n. IV'ti- and Alciiin ; <).
It»n., fuumli"' by abb, IWiiedlct
Hlscop tvA *'«ng Kgfrld, or
Naitau 674
♦WuDlANDliNKKSB (Withlngton),
W"rce«ler«hlr« .... VII" cent.
Xanxahiuo (pk), Cnp|iiidoi;la . a, 380
XWlOl'OTAMl) (I)K), S. SEROII,
near Uathkheni . . . . a. 600
Yl-IIKNHK, gr MoniNENSH S.
JoANNW (8t. Jcan-<lii-Mont,
ypies) ; O. Ben,, founded by
king Thuodoric II 686
Zano kt Bksjamin (de), 8.
I'ulestlne; founded by Znnui
and Benjamin .... VI"" cent
ZlPiioms DE.SoUTODiNK, Arabia;
founded by St. Eulhymia . . c. 420
INDEX REFEBttlNO TO TIIR NlTMnER-S OP THI
MONAfffEUiEa IN THE PREVIOUS U8r.
Ahbry lull-, M
Achonry, B
AgtW, M, 21
Anhivgowi^r, IJ
AKhiiniore, 13
Alimy, in
Alnegniy, 61
Airy, St., »»
Alcth, »;i4
Alnxniidrla, HtS
Aliaiiliurg, SO
AmeHbury, 5*
Aiicyru, 175
AiigiTH, 36, 66-8
Arilbrnccun, 2\i
Anlfenimn, &»•
Arilsiilliigh, B&T
Arensburg, 111
ArlpH, 105-8
Arli'Ain llouMlIlon, 117
Arrun Islt, 660
Arrim, iaH-30
AthoH, Mount, Til 8,1311,
U'iT
Aub»>l('rre, S5
Auuirlgenee, I3T0
Aucb, 11168
Aucliy, 131
Aurcllanense, US
Autun, 136-8
Auxerre, h6-*-8-»
Avalloiicnse, 66t
Dacliannla Island, IIU
Hiillyvoumey, aa
Bangur, 33
Barbe Idle, 74»
Barcelona, 562
Barking, IM
BosUck, 146
Baum" (La), 161-8
Deuigeiicy, Ml
B(>«uvaiB, »7a
Bcbnesa, 1071
Bcni-.ento, 1444
nDthleemiticum, 690
Betbaan, i:!63-4
Beam, 224
Bllsen, <80
Bo<)mli!. •"»
Uophin >. J. 'ill
BordeaUA, 112-S, IIW
BourK-d»-l><il«. 478
Bourges, 203, IKW •
BouBsy, 227
Bre.i tain, 748
Brescia, s|«-20
Bruu, 210
Bniyires, 1314
Burgh Oartlc, 3Sn
Dary 8t. tJdmuuils, IT*
Cadli, 1046
Cagllarl, 242
CalHtor, 492
Calais, St., 78
Canibrav, 246
C.uulo. 3H1
Cape Clear Island, 737
I'arlanan, 5^0
Uarllsli', 232-3
Caul, 673
Casilortenniit, 461
CamrixluneiiBv, 142
Caliibrniifiwi!, 2f3
CtSrlsy, 1439
Cenniirei, 309
Cbtl<>nH-i<iir-:\(anie, 974
Cbilon»«ur-8a&ne, 228-230
9ue
Cbantoln. 263
Charroiix, 265
Ghanrea, 263
Cbaye, 440
Chelb'S, 244
Chertfcay, 290
Chefiter, 291
Chlnoii, 238
Cholsy-le-Uol, 276
CIrgucs, St., 461
Cltou, 761
Clane, 81S
Clashniore, 668
Clfrmont, 71,923
Cllnish Isle, 346
Cllve, 1403
dondalkln, 336
Clone, 339
Clone, 328
Cloni'brone, 330
Ckinemore, 360
Clonemore, 361
Clone*, 340
aonfad, 343
Oonfeakle, 341
Clonleigh, 3)7
Clunmany, 348
Clenraine. 334
Clooncrafr, 331
Cloud, S«„ 1064
Cloyne, 366
Ciuoiubrauin, 6K
Colombl»r«,312
Culonsay Isle, 1014
Combronie, M6
OanqU'iiS?)
Ormwalt, 384
Curk, 10.1, 101
Cuuch"», H7
Cjugliuil, 26Q
Ci.urrMjii. 441
(Ylx .Si. l/durhijr, 4a
I nun, 144
Cunilxr, <8I
C')lMr, Si., 30t
IkarmarinM, 624
HKTliunt, 463
iMuin, 6^6
li|..iy», .Sr., 470
jifiry, 4 ill
Ikwrt, 2IW
iJevilughill, 471
l>g'>n, IN3, 476
liwiiliirrg, 474-8
Illxni.Jht, 469
IkilrrnK-lie, »4t
liilciiic, 916
[lonu^hmiirs, 481
[hmagliinure, 48S
IkinaKliniiirr, 488
Duiiagiiniore, 484
iMicrc, fiA
Itmniialrick, 631
I'romf'-MR, 6i>7
Drumi-llfTe, 602
l^'umrullunib, 370
liruiiiculli'ij, 603
Iirimiljcitnii, 611
Dunnrvan, 634
taii[. ran'.nte, 810
Uunshaglin, 1261
Iiurniw, 466
Ebcbntof, 468
Uvr^haini, 1063
haUt, 1262
KinoncnHe, 64
Kmlaghlaild, 728
tfflly, 723
biirulmu, 92
lirreiit, 1338
[rron, 629
l!»et«r, 17
Fiban, gfi3
F«vfnilcn(», 161
rituDuutlers, 670
1''-C4ni|i, 60:1
1 luugli, 601
Iirai.% 1408
Fernert», 60o
llililowa, 687
(iolih Inland, 738
H"lbury, 607
Htury, 1109
tVilifdrd, 16
FiuwDM, 684
Oiillii!, 630
"•'".lii'ld, 2«<t
'Jin-.ituch, iHt
■'Mn, .>)L, 248
liilimg, 638
Wrone, 6^6
Sleine, 667
Bleniialogh, 200
omtdon, e»o
J^nd-Lleu, 460
5«»>e(La),437
{'f«l lile, 7i8
JMre, St., du Val, M14
Cfo-W (f) 676
5»"<lbiiry, 688
J>«1«M1, 691
;»oi-.>lont, 49
""M'illiers, 61
«SNe Forest, 1063
I J''"""!, 681
j!b.n,l.p.rTa,m
"fwlymn apod BMba-
I ram, 1183 ^^^
i.n.
•
a. (M«
»•
I
t
r
074
"• CIlBl.
,
a. ;i«i)
I,
i
a. 000
t,
8.
086
UK
VI'" cent
n;
•
c. 420
a
■)? THE
uet.
S4
ud5
irt
M0NA8TERY
OMiwtlt. ]n4
CVrk, lei, in
CjUglllHI, 1«0
Ouriain. 441
OU Si. I^iityojr, 443
iriiM, 144
Cuuilwr, (til
Cjlur, 8|., 3111
IhnrmiiO'iiM*, 834
Itei'riiiint, 443
UiMiii, »H
lifiivn, Si., 470
l»rr), 4i"l
Iiwrl, im
lifVikiKhlll, 4T3
hUuii, iHj, 47a
IriOTiliiirg, <7-l-J
|i|>ninnt, 4i9
ikilrpnii'lla, •4(
I'jIdKP, Rl«
IloiiiiKlimiira, 4DS
Diifinliiinurp, 4K1
l>inii|il>iuiire, 4NII
Ouiiitthnioro, 484
IkiUlrrc, tail
Ikiwn|«irlck, 821
I'rnnil'-MH, Sii7
Iirunii'lKri-, soa
Ijriiini'ullunib, 3T0
i'ruiDCulti'ii, 603
iTimiliDint', fti I
Dunnrvmi, 634
Dtijjii. raiii'iiM, 830
Ininiihimhii, u«t
Iiurrow, 4(t
ebclmt>>r, 4t5
U>er>ihelm, 1U63
tui:le, I'iU
Klnononse, 114
bnliftlilaild, 735
Imlj, 723
tnirnlnui, »1
Iwux, 1331
Erroii, Bin
Eirttr, 17
Fihan, SD3
F»»rolcniie, id
Finmoutlpra, tn
ri-uQip, 60:1
f uunh, 401
rfnii..y, 1404
FernerK, 69o
FliMoWii. 6h7
Hoiili liland, ?SS
FtiJbury, 807
Fitury. (lot
FMiifcird, II
FuncDM, 684
Olillic, UO
I5"-Jh-u1, WS
'jui ituch, /J40
- ;'Uin. Su, 348
iJilimg, 438
Wane, 667
Jlendniogh, 3IX>
"onnlon, 680
G'»nd-Lleu, 460
'■''Dge, 388
G'»w(U),43T
™«i l«le, 7i8
fiwgolre, St., da VbI, ua4
Srewu (?) 676
5"<""iry, 688
J«'ll«Ikol, 691
™i..«ont, 49
g|;«;Vllllert, ji
2:;?«Fws?,'io«3
""bam, 681
«'k<riiUl..rT«,17«
ram, 1163 ' nww
llMlybctil, 331
'luititiiii>rr», 7|«
Honni'tuuri, 7IT
Irolmklll, «tt
liii-limatucrlfi III*, 63)
liH'hnimii l>lt', mil
liitlimnrc' i>Un<l, 743
liii'h lUiik, I4»V
IlilaUinin, ';|3
llll>rtti)lii lair, 361
IiiImu laid, 64(
InUklii, Ml
liil«-.M.ie-.S«lri, iPl.i
Inlaiiiiirri , 91"
lulM|iiiii I N 7IJ
liiUriiclio, 1,74
lnMl-.fttllcM 7jn
l<'ii»,6(8
InlaiHl'a Eyo, «u)
r«n■'l^,«^l
' ' r.w, 667
Jo«ii fSi.) d« BonU, 7811
J«n(,St.)dii.M«iii, I47»
Joruaulii/i, Wi-ltia, luM
Jiiiiln, Si., S44
Jiiiiuaii, 773
Jiiux, 771
Jiiiiililn*, «43
Juii|pn(.Si.)leiOon)bU!t,,ij4
Juvlnluc-, 1047
Kivl Idiiid, S7«
K.ll., 777
Kinlf ton, 2S0
Klililcriiiln^ter, JJ4
Kllul>h„iii, 3
Kilb«iicliaii, 171
Kilhfgiiuii, 173
Kllculg.iii, .164
Kllcdluiin, ;166
KIIcuIkui, :i6t
Kllcolmiui, 3«T
Kllciimin, 447
Kllooiinpll, 377
KllcunitKh, 444
Klliliilnna, 61||
Kllehliaiip, 3
Kllfoliain, 810
Kfluomi;!!!, 673
Klllta, 76.1
KlIlachud-ConcheM, 3}<
Klllaahy, 793
KllbiW, 498
Klll-.l.*, 785
KIJLtragbi, I36*T
Kill .en, 796-7
Kill.'Kftily, 779
Kill UU, 796
Klllorm..Kb, lU
Klllevy, S17
Killluifuln, 861
'■'llo,«sy, 140
ivllinaliibam, ill
'A''n; iloek, 973
....iuuna«h, 8U
Kllmantln, 34
Kllnagullegh, 788
Klliiail", 1023
Kl'xickill, 1170
KlUkire, 1364
Klniiltty, 310
I^Wy, 828
Laon. 1448
LMthgla«8t-n«e, 621
I-ecklii, 834
heuer, St., 846
I'Clx, 836
Irfnianaghan, 840
leuii, 838
Ijeme, h78, 1441
I'lanaiiiaiiach, 833
IMae. 1147
Lierre, BJ9
Mi'saies. 820
Ll-'uc*, 859
Liming, 813
l.llliogee, .133
I'loioun, 843
Mndan, 144
l.liidiarariifna*, Ml
Liililxa, II36
L'tuford, 139
lx>iigiirHfi. iiof
Ijingiivlllaiiiiin, MO
j/'ii|iiiay, nuv
l^ri'h, n3l
l.iiriii, (,33
I I.npl.lii, .St., 837
l.iir.', n77
l<iiyii»«, HOO
I 'HIP, H33
l-ynn, nn
I y 11", 879
.Mmhurl, 97
Mjoiin, 1134
>l«gllliigaii, 101
Maio, N., 9113
Muiilliii, huo
Mmi»(U),3H4-6, 449, 768
Marallii, 8U
M.irat, «4n
Al«rm..uil«r, 897
Mar«ll|p», 031 .3
JI«ry'»(Si,)|,|o,884
Maacala, 73
Muubvugi', 891
Maun^rc, 904
Maurlci-, .St., 479
Maurice. Ht., In Valalg, is
•"ayeuop, 978-7
Mayo, 893-3
.Mcdonhannipd, loM
MiSci , St., 983
Mi'Idiinrnae, 901
MelriiM, H9S
Mi'luiidiinae, (83
Meniac, 1046
MeiieiiM, 1379
M»ngc, .it, 960
MelU'ii, 968
Metz, 114, 1017
Milan, 043-4
Mllhau, 948
AllmigurdnionlgnM, fg4
MlmitT, 1363
Monaalerljoic*, 306
Miinaniercvan, 676
Moiiiluvi, 976
Munelu Bog, 993
MiiiiK, 981, 990-1
Montfaucon, 997
MontldrM. 1434
Mouiivllllir, 1443
Montroiil,,»-i8, 1130
•Mdortown. 663
Morlni'nac, 1479
»?0U8tler-l«.0iMle, 383
MoiitliT-fn-Der, iiio
Moatlor-IUuilc'U, 1IJ8
Muvlll, 4iiO
Movllle, 1186
, Moyen-MoaHor 941
I Miiyen-.Miiatler, 943
Mullln s, St , 981
M.lnstnr lii;l.wn, 179
Mnn»t.rthal, lOOS
My, a, 9«7
MONAgTEnv
1260
Naplpg, 1026-8
Ni'f (l,n), 1021
NeulUy, 103U
■'"'I'uwlller, 1053
NevcTa, 77, 1036-7
NItibIa, 84
Nltrb^ 198, 3(1, 9M
Nuallles, lii.-io
NoblliaK'nac, law
Nogent, 1064
lOeren, 111
Orion (Mt.), 830
Orl&iiis, 75, 143, 57g
[Orri'-.r, lis
lOron.say lale, 1088
I OtttnburlenM, I4i(
I Ouche, 1430
I Oiindle, 1430
I Ovledo, 1446
|0yaii,St,3aa
l'a<>cna«, it
j'alriHi )d„MPBe. 1314
raliniiu, I07».i«
I'xiinai, iii7«
I'aiiaat, 1447
I'arb, 034
I'avia, loil, n;j
I'trlli-rt, (178
I'liaroiipfux, 1093
I'li'ralim II, K37
haiKT, 9lllt
j'"lt ff., 9.17, lio7.»
I'liialii'iK', 931
I'(ir.aiinl|, I ia»
•'riany, |||H7
I'rinclaium IO8T
''ri». St., 349
yulmporl*. 774
llahui>, 1 110
itjiphoi-, 1143
linfliiiMalii. io6(
lU'halx, I HI
Ucciilvcr, Ii:i8
UMIiridgc, 118
llc'ilon, 918
tttklieiiau, 134
H«iiilremimt, 6,1003. I32t
Ketialx, 1331
Itvull, 1137
Ki'viiagii, 1160
Khudcs, 66
HiiMinl, l<9
Ilimiarl. I Monilt, |
l(i»«0.ry, 133^
li"U n, 133
H'liiataiig, 13-.9
Kutbeiiciiae, 68
Saggaril, 1 14.1
Ha(nl.-l|.,-Mait,moni, 1443
Nalignac, 1317
Nuliburg, 1211
SaragiMxa, B30
Saul, 1336
Suiilleu, 70
Saul I, 1343
fW'lD, 8., 1237
Scatcery lalo, 733
fwhwarlzacli, 113
*-lMy. 1371
ftera, 371
Se«to, 1388
•Sherborne, 1281
SIciia, 79
Sicrkeran, 778
S ran-la.|.,atte, 824
»olgnle^ 1336
Soiaaonii, 93», 1326
Siillgiiac, 1307
Stavi'loi, 1313
Sirasburg, lOT
StrawhuU, 781
S words, 1338
Tadcaater, 343
Tagliniiin, 1014
lallagllt, 889
Taasagardenie, 1343
Taiighhoyne, 148
IVaghtidle, 1347
Tetbainclio, 1297
Teghdagoblia, 668
Tfhallan, 1343
Tcltown, 1341
Tenkealiury. 1361
Th.«l«, 668, 761-9, IMl,
TliebM, 1337
Thillgny, 1374
Theologienae, 470
Tlilira, 644
Tholey, 47»
Thourv. 1 418
Tbuaey, 1416
Tim' hiie, 9T3
Tfppert, 1371
Toiwlay, 13S»
Toledo, 846
TomNlaine, 965
Tomgrany, 1403
4»t
I i'
1 (■ " :
J i
M
1270 MONASTIC BISHOP
i i
mWL
H
1-
Mil
LilU
Tonnerre, 13-i8
ToTi' lxle,!48
Turro(l.a), 1113
Toul, fl6
T<>lllol.8^ 1383
Tours, mil- la
Tr.imnu, 70B
Trim, 1402
Tiuel (hc\ 1398-9
Truyfn, l4iio
Trycliinurium, 1004
'luileim, 140a
•luUe, 1416
Tuliy, 14116
Tuueoneaeum (ad), 201
lltrec t, 1388
U/cs, 61)1
Viil-CiollWi', 4«a
Veauiie, 932
Veimt, 1447
Verdun, ')66, 1449-53
Veijy, 167
ViBCiilsn.e), 1446
Viliede I'KvSque, S49
VillliTi', 6',U
Viveiitium Insula, 983
Vulcunu iAv^ I'i
Wall'TS, S22
W,-nlock, 1470
WeriTOOiith, 1475
Whitby, 132l-a
Wilton, 637
Wliicboslir, 1474
Worcc.-tiT, 1467
W(jrmliolt, 1473
Ynyswvlrin, 664
York, S2H
Vreix, 122
Zunault, 770
[E. B. W.]
MONASTIC BISHOP, though not entirely
unknown in the Eastern church (Sozomen, Hist.
i:ccl. 1. vi. c. 34) c-ime into greatest prominence in
the Western, in the develojiment of the cliur-;h's
life. According to the Catliolio idea of the
church, the bishop is supreme in all spiritual
things in liis own diocese, the visible source of
orders, mission, and all sacramental graces (C.
Antioc/t. c. 9). But in dirterent ages this has
received various limitations, specially from the
principle of patriarchates on the one side and
Irom that of raonasticism on the other. I he
relation of the monastery to the episcopate was at
first that of entire subjection (C. Chalc. c. 4 ;
Baronius, Ann. Eccl. A.D. 4,M, § 2b; Bingham
Oriii. Eccl. li. 0. 4, § 2), even to the appointment
of the ;ibbat (Justinian, .YoirH. v. c. 9). But in
course of time this was altered, (1) by papal ex-
emptions, on account, apparently at the ""tset,
of ep'-copal otficiousness (Baronius, ih. A.D. o98,
§ 3, 6iil, § 2; An<]lo-S<ix. Chron. A.D. 67."), 9b3),
or by regal, as by Kin^ Ina's charter to Glaston-
bury A.D. 725 (Wilkins, Cone. i. 80), or by con-
ciliar, J»s by the synwi at Hcrutford, A.D. 673
(Bedo, //is*. Etxl. iv. c. 5), and perhaps the third
council of Aries, A.D. 455 (Bingham, OrUj.Ecd.
i. c. vii. § 14), and (2) by the spread of Christi-
■nnity through monastic ayijncies beyond the
limits of the old Roman empire and hence out-
bido the ordinary means of diocesan organisation.
[OUDERS.] So long as the monastery continued
under the entire jurisdiction of the bishop as
head and centre of spiritual life in his diocese,
he supplied the needs of its members with all
episcopal offices. But when the monastery was
either withdrawn from his jurisdiction, or was
c^ablishcd prior to and practically outside tne
direct agcncv of the bishop, the natural relations
became inverted, and while the grace of orders
remained of necessity with the bishop, the juris-
diction and mission passed for the time to the
monastery, and the monastic bishop was under
the jurisdiction of the monastic head, the abbat,
wheUier ordained or lay. This is most frequently
mat with in the Celtic church of Ireland and her
otl'shoots in Scotland and Northumbria, where it
pre<entpd itself to the venerable Be le as an " ordo
iuufitatus" {Hist. Ecc'. iii. c. 4). It is also met
with on the continent. According to ecclesiastical
principle the monastery re<i»ire<l a bishop for the
discJiarge of episcopal functions to the inmates,
and if tlie chief olHcial was the abbat, the bi.-hop
was at least ouc of tlw " fr.mily," honoured indeed
MONASTIC BISfiOP
for his snored office (Adamn. Vit. S. Cnl. i. c. 44),
though under the abbat in jurisdiction and
monastic precedence ; he was higher in spiritual
])ower ( fb. i. c. 36), though lower in local dignity
and otlicial, that is, monastic rank.
Monaaticism spread rapidly from the Thebaid
into the Western church, its great patron in Gaul
being St. Martin, the celebrated bishop of Tours
(A.D. 371-307), who built monasteries at Fui-
ticrs and Tours, and by his authority and exhor-
tation established the monastic system. When
and by whom the Gospel was carried across the
Channel to Britain and Ireland is unknown to
authentic history, but Pelagius introducing
mouasticism seems a fable (Cave, Hist. lit. i.
291). When the Gospel is met with in Britain
it is radiating from mon.istic centres (Bede, //isf,
Eccl. i. c. 27, ii. c. 2), and it was not till the
12th century that the monastic church f
Ireland had become merged in the dioce u.
Accepting the " Catalogus Sanctorum Hiberniae,
secundum diversa tempora," supposed to have
been written by Tirechan in the 8th century,
and first publislied by Ussher (/frit. Eccl. Artt. vi.
477-479), as embodying a certain .amount of truth
regarding the condition of the early Irish church,
as at oniTtime purely episcopal, then monastic,
and finally eremitic, we find raonasticism finnly
established in Ireland at an early d.ate. St.
Patrick, himself a bishop, founded churches auJ
monasteries, ordained bishops and presbyters, and
spread the faith as a zealous missionary ; yet in
his own church at Armagh, while bishops are
recorded in an uninterrupted line from A.u. 447
to 535 inclusive, bishops and abbats are mingled
from that date to the twelfth century (Four
Mast. ; Ann. Uist. ; Ann. Tiij.; Ann Clonm.; Ann.
luisf.), the obits of eleven bishops and fourteen
abbats being given between the years 547 and 811
inclusive (/'our 3Iast.) j but in the common lists of
prelates these areall alike treated asbishops(\Vare,
Irish BisUops). So at Kildare from A.D. 51'J to
8fi0 inclusive, there are recorded eight abbesses,
seven abbats and five bishops, but at Bangor
from A D. 552 to 812 inclusive there is a single
line of twenty-nine abbats and no bishops (fi.iir
Mast.). From this we may infer either that the
obits of abbats and bishojis alike, wheu coutem-
poraneous, were entered in the annals, or more
probably that the leading idea was to give the
abbatial succession, and that a bishop at times
held the abbacy, as at other times he was scriljo
and anchoret (Keeves, S. Adamn. 365), yet
" Affiath, bishop of Ard-Macha, and AireaohtaLh
Ua Faelain, abbat of Ard-Macha, died on the
same night" (four Mast. A.D. 793), anJ Ware
has to count them both as one bishoii (lodil, it.
Patrick, 20 sq.; Prim. Hist. Ch. Ir. 448, Diibl.
18'>1). . , . ,
The first clear instance of an Irish monastic
bishop is in St. Brigida's monastery at KilJaie.in
the end of the 5th and beginning of the Mti
centuries. Cogilosus (\ita S. Jlrijidae) says in
the language of probably the 7th century,
" Haec ergo egregiis crescens virtutibus, ulii per
famam bonarum rer-'n ad cam ah omnibus jiro-
vinciis Kiberniau innumcrabilca poinih '.f utre-
(|ue sexu contluebant vota sibi volcntes voiun-
tarih, suum raonasterium caput penfe omnium
Hibernicusium ecclesiarum, et culmen praecel ens
omnia monasteria Scotorum (cujus larrochm
per totam Hiberoiensem tcrram dillusa a man
osque nl mare e.xten
lanipi Ulfei supra fui
tonstruxit : et pruden
rnabus eorum regul.iril
et de ccclesiis multf
adhaerentlbus sollicita
quod sine summo sacer
trarct, et ecolesiasticos
e^^e non posset, illu^ti
omnibus moribus ornaf
tutes operatus est plui
ereino . . . ut ecc
nitatc cum ea gubernarc
s,icerdotali in suis dees
(Colgan, Tr. TKaum. 51
Smith and Wace, I'ict. C
Though not so c.xplic
precision we find the sa
vailed in the Colum
" Habere autem solet
senqier abbatem presb
(minis provincia, et ip;
inusitato, debeant esse s
primi doctoris illius, qu;
byter extitit et mon.achi
c. 4), and the fourth a'
is culled a bishop (Fmir
DoiKj. March 2 ; P»eev
372). To Lindisfarne I
the monastery of Hy (
there also the abbat gi
with the bishop himsell
rnle (Bede, Vit. S. Cut
or Virgdius, abbat of Aj
Salzburg, in the 8th
ordinatione ferrafe ann
habuit secum laboris
episcopum comitautem c
al persolvendum episco
Virg. ap. Messingham,
In S. Columbanus's Irish
slightly ditferent practic
lothejealousy already ari
tery and episcopate "and
mniiastic e-vemptions by
MS invited into the mm
was specially excluded fr
tic affairs (Messingham
limes a bishop-abbat di
monastery [Abiiat], not
where (lieeves, Eccl. An
the monastic bishop e.x
the monastic jurisdictioi
108-9).
On the continent, mo
and monasteries, the mo
fpgnized official in the i
aljbey of St. Denis near
Martin at Tours, the i
Laubes in Belgium, and I
bnrg in Bavaria as aboi
Patrick, 48 sq. treating t
authorities; Lanigan, E(
I'nder the Benedictine I
provision ma<Ie for him ;
praesertim fratribus om
tolleretur ad sacros susc:
Suircnaum chrlsiuu, neve
in monasteria ad sacras .
quies monnchorum turl
itopiim ad manuin semj)
•bbatemsivesimplicem ni
MON'ASTIC BISHOP
osque nl mare extcn.sa est), in rampc,«tiiljns
uini|ii Lilfei supra funilamcntiim llloi firmum
tfinstruxit : et pruJciiti ilisjiens.itinne tie aiii-
nwbiis eoriim reaul.iriter in omnibus procurans,
et (Ic ecdesiis multanim provinciarum sibl
»ahaerentibus sollicitans, et secum revolvens,
quod sine summo saconlnte, qui ecclesias rnnse-
crarct, et ecclesiastioos in eis gradus subrogaret
e.-oe nnn posset, illu^trem virum et solitaiiuin
omnibus moribus ornatum, per quem Deus vir-
tutes operatus est plurimas, convncans euni de
erenio . . . ut ecclesiam in opiscopali dij-
nitatc cum ea gubernaret, at(|uo ut nihil de ordine
s.icerdotali in suis deesset ecclesiis, accersivit "
(Cilgan, TV. 77.auin. 518 ; Todd, 5. P„tr. l.■^ sq. ;
Smith and Wace, Hkt. Christ, liiog. "Conlaedh.")
Thousjh not so exi)licitly yet with suHitient
precision we find the same practice to have pre-
vailed in the Columban monastery of Hv.
"Habere autem solet ipsa insula rectorem
semper abbatem presbyterum, cnjus juri et
omnis provincia, et ipsi etiam episcopi, ordine
inusitato, debeant esse subjecti, juxta exemplum
frimi doctoris illius, qui nnn episco])us, sed pres-
byter extitit et monachus " (Beile, Eccl. Hi>t. iii.
c. 4), and the fourth abbat there, Fergna Briti
Is ciilled a bishop {Four Mast. a.d. 622 ; Mart.
Doncj. March 2 ; Reeves, 8. Adamn. 340-341,
372). To Lindisfarne bishop Aidan was sent bv
the monastery of Hy (Hede, ib. iii. c. 3), anil
there also the abbat governed and the clergy,
ffith the bishop himself, observed the monastic
rule (Bede, Vit. S. Cuth. c. 16). When Fergil
or Virgdius, abbat of Aghaboe, became abbat of
Salzburg, in the 8th century, "dissimulata
ordinatione ferm6 annorum duorum spatiis,
hnbuit secum laboris et coronae participem'
efisciipum comltantem de patria, nomine Dobda,
ad persolvenduni episcopale officinm " {Yit. S.
Virg. ap. Messiugham, /for. Lis. Sanct. 331).
In S. Columbanus's Irish foundation at Bobio, a
slightly different practice prevailed, which points
tothe jealousy already arising between the monas-
tery and episcopate and ending in the frequent
moiLvtic exemptions by the pojies; the bisjiop
was invited into the monastery as required, and
w;is specially excluded from all power in monas-
tic oftairs (Messingham, i6. 248). At other
times a blshop-abbat directed the afi'airs of the
monastery [Addat], not in Ireland only but else-
where (lieeves, Eccl. Ant. 129), and thus was
the monastic bishop exercising, pro hiic vice,
the monastic jurisdiction (Du Cange, Gloss, iii!
On the continent, mostly in exempt abbevs
and monasteries, the monastic bishop was a re-
cngnized otRcial in the 8th centurv, as in the
ahbey of St. Denis near Paris, the abbey of St.
Jlartin at Tours, the monastery of Lobes or
Liuljes in Belgium, and the monastery at Salz-
bnr? in Bavaria as above mentioned" (Todd, .S.
PatrKk, 48 sq. treating the question fully with
authorities ; I.anigan, Eccl. Jfist. h. ii. 254-5)
Inderthe Benedictine Rule there was speciii
rrovisioD made for him ; "igitnr ut junioribus
praesertim fratribus omnis discurrendi occasio
tolleretur ad sacros suscipiendos ordines. ad re-
r-ttrcncium chrisiiia, ueve ailvcntu episcoporura
in monasteria ad sacras ordinationes explendas
quies monachorum turbaretur, pleriquc epi-
sn>pum ad manum semper in monasteriis sive
Mliatem sive simplioem nionachura habere volue-
MOXASTIC BISHOP lli^l
rnnt " (Marti-neet Durand, Tlics. Kov. Anecd t i
I'raef ap Todd, .V. iatrtck. 69). In the monas-*
tery ol Mount Sinai, in the Uth centurv the
abbat and 50U monks had their own bishop (Todd
10. 67-8). ^ '
But regarding the monastic bishop a further
distinction is necessary. Bishoj.s sometimes, in
the first zeal of monasficism, lived with their
clergy in a qiuisi-monastic state (Bingham Ori,]
Ecd.sW. c. 2, § 8) to assimilate the life in cities'
to that in the desert: thus St. Augustine of
Hil)po "(actus presbyter monasterium intra ec-
clesiam mox instituit, et cum Dei servis vivnre
coepit secundum modum et regulam sub Sanctis
Apostolis constitutam"(Possidius, Vita S Aw/
%tL^^1' f- A"-'- V "■ -^''P- ™'' 2«0, Vcnet]
17. J). And W'lieii he became bishop he had
in ista dcuno Episcopi nieum monasterium cleri-
corum" (.SVrai. 49 de Di.ersis, t. x. 519) or
bishops demit ted their episcopal charges and
retired to monasteries for contemplation and
prayer. But neither of these were properlv
monastic bishops. Again, according to Catholic
rule, ordination and consecration could only be to
dcfinitecharges, and not oiroAfAi/jtifVcoj "at large'
(Bingham, ('ri;j. Eccl. iv. c. 6). yet in the Celtic
church this rule (Cone. Chalc. c. 6) seems never
to have been closely followed, but the episcopate
was frequently conferred on ]iersons who were
eminent for learning, piety, or other iiersonal
qualiiication, as it was also in the i:ast(Sozomen,
Hist. Eccl. 1. vi. c. 33-4). Hence, in the Irish
annals, we find bishops without Incal designation,
or named only in connexion with the jilac'e where
they chanced to live at the time without being
citloir diocesan or monastic. Again there were
groups of bishops, seven being a favouriie num-
ber {Mart. Buneg.), ami also in single monasteries
a large company of bishops under the abbat. as
at Louth a hundred bishojis under Mochta
(Colgan, Acta SS. 729, c. 7). The evident etleet
of this system was to multiply in lefiuitelv the
number of bishops both without and within the
monasteries, and to foster that restless spirit
which was attempted to be checked bv the
synod at Herutford (c. 4 in its disputed reading,
'■ Ut episcopi monachi non migrent de loco ad
locum," Bede, I/ist. Eccl. iv. c. 5), which carried
so many Irish bishops across to the continent,
especially after the monasteries began to be
plundered by the Northmen, and which ca:ie 1
for the frequent conciliar enactments against the
see-less bishops, the cpisco])i vagi, vacantes, and
vagante-, and the"Scoti qui sc dicunt episcopos
esse" (C. Cabill. c. 43) [Bisiiop V.] both la
Kngland and on the Continent. Having been
trained under a diHerent system, they came into
frequent collision with the diocesan bishops, and
even in the 11th and 12th centuries St. Anselm
of Canterbury and St. Bernard of Clairvaux could
reganl the want of diocesan organisation in
Ireland as a serious blot on the whole Irish
church (Ussher, Jirit. Eccl. Ant. iv. 523), a
" dissolutio eccl.siasticac disciplinae, censiirae
enervatio, religionis cvacuatlo" (S. Bern. De
Vit. Mai. c. 10).
(Du Cange. Gloss.: Fkury, Ei^l nisi; Reeves,
Adamnan's life vf S. Columha, Histc^y of the
Ctildees, and Eccl. Ant. of Down, Connor, and
Dromorc; Todd, S. Patrick ; Mosheim, Ck. Hist. ;
Mohumcnta Hist. Brit. ; Skene, Celtio Scotlaiui,
ii. ; Binghum, Orig. Eoci.) [J. G.]
i. P.i.H
pi 1*1 )K
■k',
>■&
i;;'
1272
MCNES8A
MONESSA, virgiQ. [Munessa.]
MONEY. Itilroductlon.— The ajipearnnce of
any positive inJication of Christian influence on
tlie coins of the Koman emperors has been
gi'Bev.illy consiilereil to commence under Con-
sliintine I. the Great, since during his reign most
of the public money bears official marks of the
new religion which he embraced. There are,
liDwever.'a few isolated examples previous to hi.'
time, which are of sufficient interest to need
special illustration; (1) the representation of
tiie deluge ; ('2) a symbol like the monogram of
(;lnist : and h) the legend in pace.*
1. Obv. AVT. K. A. CenT. CEOVHPOC
n€PTI. liust of Septimius Severus to the
riaht, laurcated with paludanwntum and cuirass.
liev. en I ArnNO©€TOv a pre ma. r.
In the exergue AflAMCON. [UiuJer Artcmas,
Aioiiot/ietes {or jxuilje at the games) for the third
time (monei/) o/ the ApnmeatU!.'] Two figures, a
male and a female within an ark, on which is
inscribed Nfie, and which is floating on some
water. Outside the ark two figures, a male and a
female, standing as if in adoration. On the top of
the ark a bird perched ; in the field above a bii-d
» Professor Churchill Bablngton has kindly called my
aiteutlon to the coins of the kings of Kdessa. and lias
sent nie the following note respecting them :—'• Among
lh(i kings of Kdessa, Abgar ftir Manu, or Abgar Vlll.
(who reigned 153-188, accoidliig to Langloi8)l9 said to
have btwn 'a holy man,' (i<p!>f iviip Jnl. A(Hc. in
JSu.ieb. Chrm. Olytnp. 149, 1) ; and as he patronized the
Ciirlstian Banleaanps, and lorbode the worship of Cybele,
it has been inferred that he was a Christian, and tills in-
fennce is thousht 'to be strengthened by the fact tliat
on tlie coins of this prince the usual symbols. of the old
national worship are for the first time wanting and the
sign of the crossappears in their place ' (Neander, Ch. Hiit.
vol. 1. p. Ill [liohn], following Bayer,/fi»t. Cur. et Edeit.
ex ^'um. illuttr. lib. ill. p. HI. who figures two coins of
an Ahgarus, contemporary with Severus, and bearing his
licail o.T which a croat appears on the tiara). The cross
is formed in one case of five dots (pearls), in the other
the central dot becomes oval. The chronology of these
kiiiRs is doubtful. Neander places Abgar Bar Mann
between 160-170, but it seems ImpoiV'lble In any case
that those coins belong to him. The cross, however
(apparently of five united dots), U found on a coin of
Ahgarus, having the head of Commodiis on the reverse
(Laiiglois, iVum. de I'Armenie, pi. iv. No. 7), who may be
Abgar Vlll. That which is certain about tiese coins is
that on some coins of an Abgar contemporary with
Sevevus a cross occurs on the diadem, while on others
wo have the crescent surmounted by a star, taken by
Bayer and Noanilc r to be the symbols of the old national
wo^^hip." On a coin of Abgnrns and Oominodus in the
Uiiti:ili Museum, thore appears to be on the diadem of
Abgar a + or X, but 1 am liKllned to think with Pro-
fessor Bahlngtun, that the sup|ioeed cross on these coins
of Odessa is only a cruciform star or ornament without
any Ciirlstian significance.
On a coin of baibarous fabric of the Roman emperor
Totrlcus (26T-273), with legend OUIENS Avo (Cohen,
Suppl. No. 20), or of I'acUus (27S-276), published by
Raxclie (_Ux. vol. i. pt. 11. p. 1098), there Is said to be in
the Hold a cross, but In both cases it is probably a star,
though It may be that those pieces were Issued long after
at the rptich of Chrtatiaitity. A crvss ia also given by
Cohen {fleii. Imp. vol. vi. pi. xv.) in the field of a coin of
Constantlus Chloruii and Oalcrlus Maximlan, but this
coin has been incorrectly engraved and ilescribid and the
0<>J'H t is really a star (JludJen, Uandb. (/ Horn, Sum.
p. liH, 1861, pi. Iv. No. 3).
MONEY
flying toward the ark, holding an olive branch
in its claws. £. (Fig. 1 ; Cabinet des M^daiUn,
Paris.)
The remarkable coins giving the representa-
tion of the deluge were issued during the reigns
of three emperci-s, (1) Sept. Severus, 19;!-.ill,
who. was at first favourable to the Christians,
and whose son CaracjiUa had a Christian uur.se
(TertuU. ad Scap. iv. ; cf. Spart. in Carac. 1), but
who at a later period of his reign, 202, allowed
a persecution to prevail (Spart. in Scv. 17 j
Euseb. If. V;. vi. c. 2); (2) Macrinus, 217, under
whom the church enjoyed peace, and (3)FhilipI.
244-249, whoso Christian tendencies have been
the source of much discussion (Moniglia, de Reli,j,
utriusque Phil. Aug. Diss, dttae, Rom. 4to, 1741 ;
Greppo, Aotes hist. biog. eta. concern. Ics irem.
sieclcs chiit. Lyons, 1841 ; Milman, list, of
Christianity, vol.'ii. ; Lardner, Cred. vol. vii. etc.),
and who by many ecclesiastical authors has beta
considered the Jirst Roman Emperor who was a
Christian (Oros. Hist. vii. 20; Hieron. de Vir.
III. 52; Chron. ed. Mai, Tol. viii. p. 646), an
honour that more properly belongs to Constau-
tine I. the Great (Lactant. De fats. Selig. c. 1 ;
Sulp. 8ev. Sacr. Bist. ii. 33 ; Euseb. Vit. C<.nst,
iv. c. 75; Theod. //. E. v. c. 39).
The type of these coins was by early numis-
matists and scholars (Falconeri, Froelich, Hav-
douin, Bryant, Harrington, Milles, etc.) cou-
sidered to refer to the Greek legend of the flood
of Deucalion, in which it is stated that Zeus had
resolved to destroy all mankind, with the excep-
tion of Deucalion and I'y rrha, whilst the letters on
the ark were supposed to have been either added
by a forger or altered from NEOK [opiv]. Nu-
mismatists, however, of the present century have
not failed to recognise that the letters on
the ark are certainly NOG and that the type
refers to the Nonchian deluge, the figures both
inside ami outside the ark representing Koah
and his wife, in the latter case holding up their
hands in thanksgiving for their safety. It has
been suggested (Eckhel, Doct Num. Vet. vol. iii.
p. 137), and with much probability, that the word
N0€ was placed on these coins so that there
might be no confusion with the flood of Deuca-
lion, in a similar manner as on the coins of
Magnesia in Ionia the word APTfl is put to
show that the vessel thereon represented is
the ship 'Argo,' in which history makes Jason
and his colleagues sail in search of the goldeu
fleece.
It is not difficult to distinguish on these coins
the form of the raven from that of the dove,
and the Bible gives an account of the presence
of only those two birds. In the short descrip-
tion of the flood of Deucalion, by I'lutarch
(De Solert. Animal, xiii. cd. Didot) there is allu-
sion to a duve, but there is no mention of an
olive branch or of another bird. In the Chnl-
daean accounts of the deluge, as preserved in the
fragments of Berosus and Abydenus (Cory, AiK,
Frag. 2nd ed. ]ip. 28-34), some birds were twice
sent out to discover if the waters had receded,
and the second time they returned with, instead
of an olive branch, some mud on their feet ; whilst
in the Assyrian accounts (U. Smith, ChaiJ. Aai.
of Genesis, 1870) it is stated that "a dove, a
swallow, and a raven " were sent forth, the two
foriner of which returned to the ship, but the
raven did not come back. These statements are
years" (Gen. v. 22).
MONEY
(jtiite contrary to that in Genesis, ag nlso to the
subject shown on the coins. A very important
feature of this type (Lenormant, Mit. d'Arch
vol. 111. p. 199, 1853) is the exactness with which
ss regards tlie raven, it agrees with the Hel.rew
text, which is quite at variance with the LXX
ami Vu\g. In these hitter (Gen. riii. 7) the
raven is stated as ■' not retumin<) until the water
had drie<l from off the earth " (xal ^{(A9i,„, oAk
4«o-Tp«i|/fi/ ias Tov ivpaveijvat rb ISSwp 4ir6
TVS 75s.— Qui egrediebatur et non revcrtcbatur,
donee siccarentur aquae super terram), whereas
in the Heb. text we read that the raven " went
forth to and fro until the waters were dried up
from off the earth " (3\eJi Niv» NV»1
riKH H'O P'Sn nS'ap;? " Et exiit cg're-
iiendo et ralcundo, donee arescerent aquae de-
super terram," Walton, Polygott; Kalisch, CrU.
Cum. ; Patriclj, Cum, etc.). The e.\pression " to
and fro" leaves no doubt that the raven -a
bad messenger and Noaf, -Hose another, the dove
—must have returned :-.t ntervals to the ark,
and in all probability rested on iU top, as indeed'
it is represented on thpse coins.
It is also intcrdsting to compare the type of
tnese coins with the representations on early
Christian monuments. A painting of the 3rd
century, in the catacombs at Rome (Savinien
Petit, MeL d'Arch. vol. iii. pi. xxix. Paris, 1853),
ihows Noah in the nrk and a dove holding an
olive branch in its month flying towards him •
Noah's wife is not represented, nor the raven'
but one cannot fail to observe the striking
limilarity of the shape of the ark, its cover
the (igure of Noah and the dove. Though the'
raven is not found on any of the paintings of
the catacombs, it may be seen on a bas-relief
found at D'Jemila, in Algeria (De la Mare
Saiue Arch. 18+9, vol. vi. p. 196), and is here
occupied in devouring the carcnaes.
It now remains to assign a reason, if possible,
for this type occurring upon the coins of Apanreia.
Id the first place there was a Phrygian legend
ofa great flood relating to Annacus or Nannacus,
> king who resided at Iconium, and who lived to
the age of 300 years. When he died the tradi-
tion was that all mankind would be destroyed
(Steph. Byz.s.u. 'Ikokioi'; Suidas, s.r. NdvfaKus).
There is not much doubt that the Old Testament
inHueneed this tradition, and it is perhaps not
unreasonable to sujipose that there is here a
reference to Enoch, the father of Methusehih
who after his son's birth "walked with God 300
MOXEY
1273
Tears" (Gen. v. 22), Prof. Ewald indeed has
supposed {Gesch. d. Volkes fsracl, vol. i. p. a.-iij)
that the city Enoch, which wa.s built by the
eldest son of Cain, and called after his name
Gen. IV. 17, 18), refers to the Phrygian city of
IconiuiK, at which Annacus is supposed to have
resided. In the second place the curious lines in
the "Sibylline Books" {l/rac. Sihiflt. vv. 247-
256, 2<iU2l37) may have actually suggested to the
A]iameans the types for these coins. They are as
follows: "But Noah resting some days sent
J!!M the dnvn that he might know whether the
I'eluge had ceased, but she flying up and down
M away, and descending to earth rested a little
her body on the wet earth and returned bring-
ID? a branch of an olive tree, a great sign of
good news .... and then presently he sent
forth another bird black-winged, and she flew
away and remained on the earth There
is on the continent of black Phrygia a high and
great mountain called Ararat Here arise
the springs of the great river Marsvas. On its
jotty top the ark rested when the waters receded "
The term KifivrSs, "an ark," which occurs in
these verses is of special interest, for not onlv
was it employed by the LXX (Gen. vi. 14) b"v
the Evangelists (Matt. xxiv. 38; Luke xvii '27)
and by the Apostles (Heb. xi. 7 ; 1 Pet. iii" 20)
for the "ark of Noah ;" but Apameia itself wiis
called CMtos (Strab. iii. 6 j Ptol. v. 2). probably
on account of the great wealth collected there
It being a great emporium next in dignitv to
Kphesus (Strabo, xii. 8), and k,0ut6s signiKes
a chest or « coffer." Moreover that the ark
was supposed to rest at Apameia is festiHed by
the line Ma ,p\40f, /x^dxou irora/uoD Mapaiao
ir(^UKai>, for the river Marsyas ran by Apameia
and was also itself called CMtos, ns testified
by coins struck at the time of Hadrian (Madden.
Num. Chron. N. S. 1866, vol. vi. p. 211, pi. vi
No. 4). r > t .
Among the various suppositions which may be
brought forwai-d to exjilain the appearance of
this type, whether it be suggested that it mav
have been produced owing to the semi-generous
treatment that the Christians receive.l during
the reign of the emperors under which they were
issued, it is certain that the type did not emanate
from a Christian sect. The deep root which an
ancient tradition of the Deluge— shown by the
f/"!?!"? 'fK^nJ. Pi-obably greatly influenced by
the Biblical account and the minute description
in the Sibylline books— had taken at Apameia
IS tar more likely to have originated these pieces.
At the s«me time it would be presumptuous to
suppose that they might not have been designed
by a Christian artist, for the worship of God had
long circulated throughout Asia Minor. (For a
full account of these coins see Madden, Num.
C/iron. N. S. 1866, vol. vi. p. 173.)
2. Obv. AVT. K. r. U. KV. TPAIANOC
A6KI0C. Bust of Trajan Decius to the right
laureated, with paludamentum.
liev. En. AVP. AI-IIANOV B. A;&
A- TO B. CTeiANH. [^,1 AipnMoo 'a*^
<l>idvou SU llpxovTos iya,yoe4roi, rh Stirtpoii
iTrt^ayiri<t>6pev.'] In the exergue MAIONnN
Bacchus, holding in the right hand a vase and
in the left a spear, seated to left on a chair,
which is on a car drawn by two panthers!
Before him a female (Ariadne?) walking to
left, but looking at Bacchus and carryincr a
large vine-branch covered with grapes. "jE
(Fig. 2 ; Cabinet des M^daitles, Paris.)
This medallion was issued during the rei^n of
Trajixn Decius (249-251) at Maeonia in LydTn.
It will be observed that the engraver has
taken care to place the monogram between two
A's (A^A) in the middle of the legend at the
top of the coin, as if to call special attention
to it.
Su^igestions liave been made (Lenormant, M(l
d'Arch. vol. iii. p. 196) that a Christian inoncvcr
intended to introduce on this coin the mysterious
sign of the new Faith, and that thouph svmbols
of a similar character to the Christian monogr,im
occur upon other monuments anterior to Chris-
ills
. m
1274
MONEY
tianity (see § xv.), yet in this case the aign is
more probably the work of a Christian. More-
over, that the Bacchic emblems, appropriate to
the institution of the Eucharist, may also bo
found on tho sarcophagus of St. Constance and
on the mosaics which decorate the mausoleum
of this priucess (Ciampini, de sacr. Aedif. a, Cotist.
maij. constr. pi. xxxii. Korao, 169;)). This opinion
is further sustained by another scholar (De Witte,
Mel. d'Aich. vol. iii. p. 172), who adds thit the
titli! i.px'"' chosen by the artist in which to
introduce the monogram of Christ seems to offer
a direct allusion to the domination and the reign
of the Saviour.
The form of the 4> ( 'I' ) '° ^^^ words
'K<p(piayov and 'S.rtipavii'^ipov have been also
considered to allude to the form of the cross
(-\-\, but it would be hazardous to affirm this,
as a similar manner of engraving this letter
occurs on the coius of the Seleucidae. of Phila-
delphia in Lydia, and of Sardes, in the latter
case on a coin of Salouina, who is supposed to
have been a Christian (see par. 3 ; Madden, Num.
Chron. N. S. 1866, vol. vi. p. 218) ; at the same
time such a form may be seen on the top of the
lalhxr'iin of certain coins of Constantine the Greit
to which I shall presently allude (§ vi.).
It must, however, be remembered that under
Trajan Decius the Christians were grossly per-
secuted (" Exstitit post annos plurimos exsccrabile
aniiitat Decius, (jui vexaret Ecolesiam," Lactant.
de Mart. J'ers. c. 4). Kabian, bishop of Rome,
the tirst authentic martyr pope, was one of the
early victims (Milman, Hist, of C/irist. vol. ii.
p. 188; vol. iii. p. 329), and many4)ersons were
killed throusjhnut the empire. Vet the quiet
that the Christians enjoyed during the mild
reign of his predecessor Philip, and its effects,
cannot have been suddenly stopped even by this
attempt to extirpate Christianity, and it is not
therefore improbable that a Christian artist here
sought surreptitious means of protest against
the tyranuv of the ])ei-secutors of the church.
I may add that Tryphnnia or Cephici", the
wife of Herennius Elruscus, son of l.-jan
l)ecius and Etruscilla, was probably converted
to Christianity with her daughter Cyrilla after
her husband'sdeafh (De Witte, op. cit). Of this
empress no coins are extant.
3. Obv. CORN. 8ALON1NA AVd. Buit of Salo-
nma to the right on a crescent.
Jiev. AVG. [or avovsta] in pace. Salonina
seated to the left holding an olive-brauch and
sceptre. In the exergue sometimes the letters
M 8, sometimes P or S, sometimes B I. Billon.
(Fig. 3 ; British Museum.)
the explanation of tho remarkable legend on
this coin of Salonina (ciro. 260-268) was first
given by M. de Witte. who in a most interesting
memoir published in 18.'32 (-Win. de I' Acad. Hoy.
de Beliii'iiu', vol. xxvi. ; cf. Jiev. Num. Belize,
vol. ii. 1853 ; M(fl. d'Arch. vol. iii. Paiis, 1853)
traced the origin and names of Salonina the
wife of Callienus — carefully distinguishlrv;
her from Pipa or Pipara the coricubine; — the
character of thia empress, and finally at.t.'mpt.'d
to show, and not without success, that she was
a Christian.
It has been amply proved, in spite of many
obioctions, that the formula KN KipilKil or IN
1>A0E was eiclusively Christian (Cavedoni, Sugg.
MO>fEY
dei Mm. dellc Art. Crist. Modena, 1849), that is
to say, not in vogue among the pagans, though
it was used previ.jsly by the Jews (Greppo,
Not. sur des Inscript. ant. tiroes de qitelq. tom-
beimx juifs a Rome, Lyons, 1835). It was more-
over a formula of Christian apotheosis, and as
such has been treated by M. de Witte, who in
the papers above referred to has supposed that
these coins are commemorative, and were struck
by order of Gallienus, after his wife's death. A
few years after, two finds, one in 1855, consisting
of some 4000 coins, the other in 1857, consisting
of some 25 or 30,000 coins of silver and bilkin,
among which were some of the pieces of Saloniim,
with the legend AVO. or AVGV8TA in pace,
proved to M. de Witte (Jiev. Num. 1857, p. 71)
that these coins must have been issued before
265 and consequently during the lifetime of
Salonina, an opinion that was shared by the late
M. C. Lenormant (Bev. Num. 1857, pp. 243-
245), but which has not commended itself to
Mr. C. W. King {Sarly Christ. Num. p. 49,
1873), who whilst suppressing all mention of the
authority of the two finds speaks of M. de Witte'a
conclusion as an "unldcky after-thought."
As regards the letters M S in the exergue, Mr.
King(op. ci<. p. xiv.) is of opinion that they must
stand for some title, and that Memoriae Samtae
not merely gives a most appropriate sense, but
is supported by the Venerandcte Memorise ou the
coins of Constantine (§ xiii.). The fact, however,
is that other letters occur in the exergue, auJ
the same may also be found on pugan types of
the coins of Si\lonina, and on the coins of
Gallienus, so that this hypothesis is out of the
question. I am inclined to think that the
letters bear some reference to the mintage or
place of minting, but I am unable to otter any
satisfactorv solution.
It must be added that the late AVbi Cavedoni
considered (Album. Giomale Lett. vol. xix. Rome,
1852) M. de Witte's suggestion a paradox, and
did not admit his interpretation of the legend.
§ i. Chronoloijicat and Historical Sketch of the
Reijn of Constantiw. — Previous to cominenciug
the actual description of the coins of Constan-
tine I. with Christian emblems, and for the better
understanding of their arrangement and classi-
fication. It is necessary to give a brief chiono-
logical and historioi\l sketch of the reign of thi«
emperor.
3H, In the year 311, Constantine I.,
being determined to stop the tyranny
of Maxentius, reviewed in liis own
mind all considerations, and felt it
incumtjent on him to himour no
other than the God of his tiithci'
Constantius 1. Clilorus (tuseb. Vit.
Const, i. c. 27). He is consequently
said to have prayed earnestly to
God, and whilst thus praying with
fervent entreaty, a most marvellDUS
sign appeared to him frnm he:iven.
About midday, when the sun w,i!
beginning to decline, he saw with his
own eves i"- the heavens the trophy
of a cross of light placed above the
sun, and bearing the iuscrii)tion lif
THIS CONQUER (TOVm NIKA).
a miracle witnessed by his whole
army (Euseb. lit. Const, i. c. 28).
S12.
MONEY
But doubting in his own mind whnt
ttie import of this apjiaiition niii-ht
l-e, he continued to meditate till
night. During hia sleep the Christ
ot God appeared to him with the
sign that he had seen in the heavens,
nnil commanded him to malte a
standard rssembjing the sign and to
use It as a safeguard against his
enemies (Euseb. \it. Const, i. c. 29)
So soon as it was dav he arose, and
calling together those that worked
in jewels and precious utones, he
sat in the midst and des.ribed to
them the figure of the sign he had
seen, and commanded them to make
one like it in gold and precious
stones, to which Kusebius adds, "and
I also have seen this representation"
( tit. Const, i. c. 30).
The descrijition of the standard
of the cross, called by the liomans
labai-um, is minutely given by Euse-
bius {Mt, Const, i. c. 31. See art.
LAliARDM), who says that two
letters indicating the name of Christ
by means of the first letters were
placed on the crown, " the letter p
being marked diagonally with x ex-
actly 1,1 its centre " (x<aCo;i«Voi/ toO
p Kara rh fifaaharov), which would 312-313
perhaps rather give the form /^
than )^, and these letters the
emperor at a later period used to
wear on his helmet. The form of
the cross, as employed by tlie soldiers
on their shields, is given by Lactan-
tius {De Jflort.Pers. c. Hy-tram-
tersa p^ litera, summo capitecircuin-
flexo, i.'.. Np.
Encouraged by these signs, Con-
stantine advanced against Maxentius
whom he defeated on Oct. '>!, 312
JIaxentius himself being drowned in
the Tiber while endeavouring to
escajie over the Milvian bridge. Con-
Btautine thus became sole master of
the Western empire.
Shortly after Constantine's entry
info Rome, he, in conjunction with
Licimus 1. his colleague, "having
first praised God as the author of all
their successes," drew up a full and
comprehensive edict in favour of the
Christians, and then seut it to
Waximin, ruler in the east, who
fe.irful of refusing, addressed a de-
cree commencing lovivs waxi-
ui.N-vs AV0VSTV8, etc. (a title
assumed by him after the death of
Oalerius) to the governors under
hini, respecting the Christians, as if
of his own free will (Kuseb. //. E
IX. c. 9).
MONEY
1272
Imed hy Maximiu Is giveu by KuseWus In Grt*k (Jl. I
814
The whole Roman people received
Constantino as their benefactor. The
senate who paid adoration to the
'"n.r"? (Prudent, m Summ. 49^
4Jb) decreed him the first rank
nmong the ^«-/U4«{Uotant. de .Mort.
fers.c. 44), and perhaps oHered him
the title 01 Maximm, " .juem sibi
JMaximinus vindicabat," to the great
gnet and indignation of Maxin.in.
Cognito delude senatus decreto, sio
exarsit dolorc, ut inimicitias apert«
prohterptur,conviciajocis mixta ad-
versus Imperatorem Maximum di-
ceret (Lactant.op.c,«.). [See under
rflo.J Constantine erected a statue
ot himself in the most frequented part
ol Rome, aud ordered n long spear in
tho ;o,',n 0/ a cross to be placed in
the hands of the statue, and the
lollowing inscription to be engraved
on It in the Latin language :— Br
THIS SALUTABV 81QX, • TI|K TRUE
8VMB0L OP VALOUR, I HAVE SAVED
YOUtt CUY, LIUKUATKD FROM TUB
YOaE op THK TYRANT. I HAVE
ALSO RMTORED THE SENATE AND
ROMAN PEOPLE TO THEIR ANCIENT .
DIGNITY AND SPLENDOUR. (Euseb.
J tt. Const, i. c. 40 ; II. E. ix. c. 9.)
' ,. .". 312-313, Constantine and
Licinius were at Milan, where the
latter was married to Constantia,
the ha!i-sister of Constantine (Lao-
tant. de Mort. Pen. c. 45 ; Vict
i-pit. ; Zosim. ii. 17); and here the
two emperors issued a second edict
• giving liberty to theChristians in par-
ticular, and to all men in general, to
to low the worship of that deity
which each might approve, so that
thus the Diviue Being (Vlvinitas)
might be propitious to them aud to
a 1 their subjects (Lactaut. d,- Mort.
rers. c. 48; Euseb. H. E. x.
c. 5),
In the meantime the impious
Maximin Daza, taking advauta.'e of
the marriage festivitie<i whi<h were
going on at Milan, marched irom
bvria into Bithynia, and from
thence into Thrace. Licinius .nir-
sued him, and in a pitched battle at
Adrianople defeated him. Maximin
!)ed to Jlount Taurus, and '.i.uuce to
larsus, where he is said to have
given glory to the God of the
Christians, and enacted a fuil and
complete law for their liberty
(Euseb. H. E ix. c. 10), but too
late, for being seized with a violent
disease, he perished miserably (313)
Litimus tlius became sole master of
the East, and on arriving at Nico-
media, he gave thanks to God for
his victory (nrutlani l)en c\viii
m^cilio vmmt, Lactnnt. di Mort.
rers. c. 48), and repeated the edict
in favour of the Christians as issued
by Constantine and himself at
Milan (Lactant. op. cit.).
Jn 314 Constantine and Licininf
nmil
:»ti
I 'r-
X ki l|
l>»..-«-i^
1278 MOJJfiY
quarrelled, but tlio Intter, being de-
feated, sued for peace, which was
accepted.
110, In 315 the title of Jfarimus and
the diddein were officially decreed to
Constautlne.
The title of M'lximitt is given to
Constantine by Kunienius in his
panegyric pronounced at Treves in
310 (Pane<j. Const. Aw/. 1'ic.t.), but
the statement cannot be accepted as
true (Hcync, Cens. xii. Pancg. Vet.
in his Opusc. Auad. vol. vi. p. So).
Pagius {Crit. Baron, nan. 311) gives
the date as 311 on the authority of
a coin having on the obverse MAX.
and on the reverse voTis v mvlt. x,
but Mediobarbus, from whom the
description of the coin is taken, is
an authority of no value (Eckhel,
" Doct. Num. Vet. vol. viii. p. 9+).
Some modern numismatists, on the
•other hand (Feuardent, Jicv. K'Mn.
1856, p. 249; Cohen. M^d. Imp.
vol. vi. p. 89), think that coins with
this title were not struck till the
cnrf of his rcujn. The title was pro-
bably ofl'ered to him in 312 by the
senate, as I have previously stated,
but it is more likely that it was
officially granted to him in 315,
when the triumphal arch, to coni-
meraorate the victory over Maxeu-
tius in 312, was dedicated to him.
— IMP. CABS. FL. CONSTANTINO
MAXIMO P. F. AVOVSTO S. P. Q. R.
etc. (Orelli, Itiscr. No. 1075; see
§ xviii. "False or uncertain coins
of Constantiue I.") on which it was
proclaime<l that by the greatness of
his own mind and the inspiration of
the Divinity (instinctu Divinitatis) '
he defeated the tyrant Maxentius,
and this view is confinned by a
genuine brass coin preserved in the
" Musde de Vienne," having on the
obverse constantinvs max. avo.
COJ. nil and on the reverse the
legend SOM INVICTO COMiTl (Eckhel,
Cat. du Mus^e da Vienne ; Cohen,
M(fd. Imp. Nos. 467, 468).
It is extremely probable that
the senate decreed to Constantiue
at the same time the diadem (see
§ xvi. " Coins of Constantii;e with
the diadem "). and it was perhaps on
the occasion of these honours that
' The words initinctu divinitatis have l)een suppospd
by some (Guattiiil, Hon, Ant. di Kama, p. xclv. 1789;
Jtam. deter, p. 42, 1805 ; U'uzon, Suppl. ad Ordl. vol. Hi.
p. 113) to liuve been written ooer the tfTuceU words nutu
joviso. m, or pi'rhajw Diis faventihui, but Gorrucci quite
■els the que.stiuii at rest l)y assuring us (//urn. Cost. 2nd
ed. p. 245 ; Reo. Num. 18ti8, p. 98) from personal ini-pictiou
that the inarblo was nut lower (n thi- p'lrtlon where theKe
words 01 cur than in otbir parts, nor are tlie li tiers thein-
Belvfs contused, nor are there any traces of ktiers ttj be
Been thut could liuve been previously engravid. It may
be addml that Constantine liiniself !:i his oration to the
assembly of the saints (ap. Kuscb. c. 26) speaks of his
arrvices as owing tUolr origin to the inspiration qf 6'oci
(•I (irtiri'Oiat Otai).
MONKY
Constantine distributed money to
the ]>eople as attested by his coins
(CONSTANTINVS MAX. AVO. Bust
with diadem, Cohen, Med. Imp. No.
160. fi-nm Weh[).
817. In 317 Crispus and Constantine II.,
the sons of Constantine I., and Licin-
ius II. the son of Licinius I., were
made Caesars.
821, la 321 Constantine enjoined all
the subjects of the Roman einpiie
to observe the "Lord's Day," and
passed an edict for the solemn ob-
servance of Sunday (Clinton, F. R,
vol. ii. p. 91), which he called dies
Solis (Kuseb. Vit. Const, iv. c, 18;
Sozomun, //. E. i. c. 8).
SiJS, For nine years there had been
peace, but at last, in .^23, a second
war broke out between Constantine
and Liciuins. Two battles wc"<
fought, and in the second Liinnius
was utterly defeated and obliged to
sue for pardon. His life was spared
at the retjuest of his wifeXonstautia,
' but only for a brief period, as he
was put to death in the next year,
324, at Thessalonica, wheie he had
been placed in confinement (Eutrop,
X. 6 ; Hieron. Chron. ; Zosimus, ii. 28 ;
Euseb. Vit. Const, ii. c. 18 ; //. £'.
X. c. 9).
By this victory Constantine be-
came sole master of the Roman
world (RECTOR TOTivs 0RHIS on a
golu coin struck at Thessalonica,
Sladden, Awn. Chron. H. S. 181)2,
Tol. ii. p. 48).
On Nov. 8 of this year Constan-
tius II. was mada Caesar.
32S> About 325 the combats of GLidi-
ators were abolished, but they
appear still to have continued till
as late as 455 (Gibbon, Mom. Emp.
eJ. Smith vol. iv. p. 41, note), and
perhaps also the punishment of the
cross (Aur. Vict. Cacs. c. 41 ; Sozo-
men, H. E. i. c. 8).
830< 330. Dedication of Constantinople
where Constantine abolished idolatry
and built churches (Euseb. Vit.
Const, iii. o. 48), placing in his
palace a representation of tlw cross
composed of precious stones richly
wrought in gold ( Vit. Const, iii. c.
49).
338, 333. Constnns made Caesar.
337. 337. Constantine now began to
feci signs of failing health, and
visited Helenopolis, the birthplace
of his mother Helena, whore he is
said to have for the first time re-
ceived the imposition of hands with
prayer, in fact became a catechumen,
after which he proceeded to Nico-
media, where he was baptized by
Enaebius, bishop of Mcomeilia,
though he had intended to ilelerthis
rite till he could have been baptietd
in the river .lordan. He soon after
died, at noon on the feast of Pent*,
cost (Euseb. \'it. C'l/WsMv. c.ei-tHj
From these stat
Constantine the Gr
snity about the ye
Licmius i. pretendi
at or about the san
his reign after this
anjthing but a Chi
specially mentioned
in 324 contra jus sc
his son Crispus, at
of eleven yeai's of
murder of his wife
nod other reasons, i
his coins the inscrij
considered (Niebuh
3.59) that he must 1
liomenon and was ce
this as it may, ft i
stantine that Chris
marked manner on 1
dated tituli.
In the numismatu
it will be seen whel
ordered to be place
cither openly or late
from the time when
anity in 312, or wh
till 323, after the d
"ruler of the whol
without opposition,
the symbols of the ti
§ ii. Coins of Com
-1 312—? 317.
1. Ohv. IMP. CONI
Constantine 1. armed i
belt, holding a spear s'
and on the left a shi
horseman striking n
The head is covered
the middle by a large
the monogram ^ be
i?CT. VICTORIAE tA
victories supporting a
M the shield VOT. p.
in the exergue b. sis. (
(Published by Angi
^ Gibbon {Rom. Emp. ci
ttlnlts that there Is reason
P«t, that she escaped the 1
bw husband, and appareni
In an ovation pronounced
[Mimoi. in CmttanHn. ju
Huercamp). But the Ab
W(. etc. p. 4, note) that t
talh of Conslantliif Junior
lohave l«.i, written on th«
lus.aiWMi the middle of a
(«'• t'un. ed. Frotsclicro
itmlins, p. -65) treats the
lliwe is, however, a great \
(IWliuu.
Money
Socrates, //. E. i. 39 ; Sozomen, IT. E
". c. 34 ; Theodoret, 11. K. i. c. 32)"
Delmatius and Hanniballianus, and
other members of the Imperial
•amily, excejitin? Julian and Gallus
were put to death, and the three
sons ot, Constautine I.— Constan-
tme ir. Constantins II. and Con»tans
were declared Auguati.
MONET
1277
Finm these statements it would appear that
Constantme the Great was converted to Christi-
anity about the year 312, and that his colleague
Uonms I pretended to embrace the same fulth
h..se,gn after th.3 date show that he acted in
an; thing but a Christian spirit. There may bo
.penally mentioned : (1) the murder of Licinius I.
In 3-4 contra jus sacra,nenli; (2) the murder of
h.s son Cnspus, and the young Licinius, a boy
of eeven years of age, in 32ti j and (3) the
murder of his wife Fausta in 327." For these
nnJ other reasons, especially because he had on
his coins he inscription Sol Intictus, some have
3,)9) that he must have been "a repulsive phe-
nomenon and was certainly not a Christian." Be
this as It may, it is during the reign of Con-
.tantine that Christian emblems appear in a
marked manner on the coin, and on the Roman
lu the numismatic studies now about to follow
it will be .seen whether Constantino the Great
ordered to be paced on the imperial coinage,
cither openly or latently, any Christian emblems
from the time when he first professed Christi-
n%o^ ft ' "' '^•\«">er he deferred so doing
1. 323, after the defeat of Licinius, when ai
"rmer of the whole world" he could dare
without opposition, to inscribe upon his coins
the symbols of the trtie religion of Christ
Vq.o^"''? .yf,^'^''"'""* ^- ''nd Licinius I.
1. 04b. imp. OON8TANTINV8 AVO. Bust of
Oonstantine 1. armed in cuirass with the shonlder-
bolt, holding a spear slanang over right shoulder,
and on the left a shield on which is figured a
horseman striking with a spear a barbarian.
The head is covered with a helmet divided in
the middle by a large band, on which is engraved
the monogram ^ between two stars.
}!er). VICTORIAE LAFTTAE PRINC. PERP Two
victories supporting a shield placed on a pedestal ;
n the shield VOT. p. r. ; „n the pedestal au l
in the exergue u. sis. (2 Si^cid.) JK. '
(Published by Angelo Breventano, in Macar
J Gibbon (/torn. Pmp. cd. Smith, vol. II nn 384 •^«K^
toks thul there is reason to l-elleie. o LZAt 'm
pect that she escaped the blind and su,p,e „„, „ueltnf
er husband, and apparently prlncrpnlly on a ZZiul
1 an cation p«,„„unc«t durlrg the suc^,",!
lohave he^n written on th<! .l.-^atb t.f •■■hcoi rL r T i^
PIS, about the middle of Ih, tf, ,i. "™"'^"'' ' "'"eol"-
Zl however, a great want of positive proof on tUi:
f^Oioohpta, p. 159, 1856; Baronius, Ann. ad
ann 312, p. 510 ; Snda, Di.hgU </,/'^,,„",w
p. 17 Rome 1592, Tanini, Su%t. a, tZZ)
p. ^7 J , Caronni, Mus. Hederv. Nos. 3990 3971 •
Cavedoni, Afc<,roA.. p. 15, Nos. 18, 19-thc latte/
haying the additional letters P. i. on the obverse
with neither the shield nor the stars Garmcci!
1866, p. 81, No. 1 ; but I do not know where
this actual example may now be )
2. Obv. IMP. CONffTANTINVg AVO. Bust of
with the shoulder-belt, holding a spear sImtiZ
whTch'1 ' V'h""""' "'' "" ' '" lofi ^shield' f
b^irbari" Thrr"." •""'"°8 ^'"^ •''' ''1«"»
oarbartan. The head is covered with a helmet
divided in the middle by a large band, on wh" h
'idrofTht r:? "°f » ™''" gi"i'ui;ron ta
Side of the band on the erowBof the helmet the
monogram J^.
Sev. Same Ieg«nd and type; on the pedestal
the letter X; in the exergue a sis. 4(. (2
So ^* ^*'*- *'' ^"^'"^ ** ^^'""h
^T. s. T. or T. T. (Prima, Secund,, or 'JWtia
^'rracons) the first and last of which are „
the British Museum, on which the mono^««
^ occurs. On another example in the British
Museum, with reverse legend vier lakta«.
if 5 M ^u* '" ""^ ™y" ■"■* ™'J t" t»ke the form
and at^London (Lagoy, Jiev. Num. 1857, p. 196)
3 0«» IMP. Lie. UCINIVS p. F. AVG^ Bust
oui^^r'"' '• *" *'"' ''«'>'' ''"»-'^'^. -i'h
Hev. Same legend and type; on the pedestal
X; in the exergue a, sis. ^ (\ Siscid.) M.
(British Museum.)
The cross (X) on the pedestal is verv like
the one on the coin of Constantino No. 4 Z
struck at Siscia, and may be a Christ an eniblem
t/oiTrpSr"'-^*^ ^«---"-a-
4 Obv. CON8TANTINV8 MAX. AVO. Hclmeted
witrcS:''"'"^ '• '° '•>-•'«'''' '»~''
Rev. vicrORiAE LAETAB PRINC. PERP. Same
type, on the pedestal an equilateral cross c"q
In the exergue s. t. {Secunda Tarracone.) ve"
(Garrucci, A urn. Cod. 2nd ed. p. 2.49, No's
pl. No. 2 trom coll. „f Sig. L. Depol.tti dealer
in Rome; cf. Jiev. Num. 1866, p. 83 No 3
pl. n. No. 2, where the revels, is enslaved
VICTORIA! LEITAl (sic) PHIKC. PERP) ^ '"^
Crbpus "*■ "■ *'''"''' ""''■ "^"^^^ «™<J "f
/i'rc. Same legend and type : on the pedestal
an equilateral cross. In the exergue ? K
(Garrucci from r.minl.)
8. 06» CDN8TANTINV8 IVN. w. c. Bust of
2nstant.n.,i.toth.Urt.,^i,,ed.wit?"i:f
' ' '.„„
' ,'i sJii
1 >li'
■ ''- -mm
ti.'-T
1278
MONEY
Jlcv. Slime Ipgond nnd typo : on the pedestal
an equilateral cross c[]a within a wreath. In
the exergue P. LK. (Prima LonJinio.) JR.
(Fig. 6; british Museum. Another example,
pulliahed by G.irrucci from JVinini, has on the
obverse the additional letters FL. CL,)
Cavedoni considered {likerche, p. 20) the
monograms on coins Nos. 1 and 2 to bo more
like stars, or monograms composed of the letters
5 and X, the initials of 'ln<rovi Xpt<Tr6s, but they
seem to have really the form of '■^.
As to the date of issue of the coins above
described it is supposed that some may have
existed previous to 323, as there are specimens
of tlie coins of Ooustautine 11. among them, and
none of Ooustantius II. made Caesar in that same
year (Cavedoni, Appeiidice, p. 6 ; Garrucci, op.
cit.). The coin No. 4, bearing as it does the
title of MAX. {Maximus), might have been issued
in 315, in wliich year the Senate, as we have
seen, granted him that title, whilst the coins of
Omstantine I. (Nos. 1 and 2) might even be as
early as 312, and those of Crispus and Constan-
tino II. (Nos. 5 and 6) as early as 317. They
are all probably anterior to 319, and certamly
precede the vear 323.
The first two coins are interesting as confirm-
ing the words of Eusebius ( Vit. Const, i. c. 31 ;
cf. Sozomen, //. K i. c. 8) that Constantine,
besides having the monognim placed upon the
Uaruni, was in the habit of wearing it upon his
Mmct. The helmet is sometimes ornamented
with i^elk'ts or stars, and the former are no doubt
intended to represent gems, according to the
account of his panegyrist Nazarius (xxix. 5) —
" fulget galea ot corusca lucei/em/mirunidiviuum
verticem monstrat," whilst according 'n Philo-
storgius (//. E. i. c. 6) the holy sign seen in the
sl(y by Constantine was surrounded by stars
that encircled it as a rainbow— icol aaripui/
a\irwv K\iKK(f itfpLBe'ivrwv tpiSos fpiittf.
The words vicroRlAE I.aktae may be com-
pared (cf. Cavedoni, Riccrche,^. 16; Disimina,
p. 212) to the scriptural expressions "■ Lactahor
ceo sui>cr eloquia tua: sicut qui in\enit spolia
niulta'"(Ps. cxviii. 162), or "/.acta6un«ur ....
eicut exultant victores capta praeda, quando
dividant spolia" (Is. ix. 3), and to the line of
Horace (1 Sat. i. 8)— "Momento cita mors
. veiiit, aut »i toria laeta."
§ iv. Coins of CunstdnVno L, Licinius /., Cris-
pus, Liciiiius II., and Constanttixo II.— t 319-
323.
""?'. Ohv. COS8TANTIKV8 AVO. Holmoted bust
of Constantine I. to the right, with cuirass.
Ucv. V1RTV3 EXERClT. Standard, at the foot
of whicli two captives, seated ; on the standard
VOT. XX. In the field to left )j^ . In the exergue
A. SIS. (1 SisciA:) R. (Garrucci, from Mvseo
Kircheriano.')
8. Ohv. IMP. LICINIV8 AVO. Helmotcd bust
of Licinius I. to the right, with cuirass.
Rev. Same legend and type. In the field o
left ^- la t"« ciergue AQ, S. (Ai^iikxa S--
ounda.) JE. m, . . ■,
(Fig. 7 ; British Museum. There is a similar
. example in the Cabinet des Midailles, Paris, struck
at Thessalonica.)
MONEY
9. Ohv. CRI8PVS NOD. CAES. Bust of Cri«pus
to the lelt, hiureated, with cuirass, and holding
a spear and shield. . /. , ,
licv. Slime legend and type. In the field to
left >^ . In the exergue AQ. P. (A-jMiteid iniiua.)
"(British Museum. A similar specimen with
Aij. -v-tirtia- is in the Cab. dca MeU. fai-is.)
10. Obc. L1CINIV8 IVN. NOM. C. Bust of Li-
cinius II. to the right, laureated, with paluda-
mentum and cuirass. t xt. c i . ,
liei: Same legend and type. In tlie tielil to
l,.ft nJ/ . In the exergue P. T. {Prima larra-
cone.) M. ^ . , .,
(Kig. 8; British Museum. Garrucci describes
another example from the collection of Signer
Depoletti with T. T. in the exergue, the emiiernr
on the obverse holding a globe surmounted by a
victory.)
11. Obv. LICINIVS IVN. NOB. C. Same type
as No. 10. , ^, .,,
Rev. Same legend and type. In the holj a
star u'ith eight rays. In the exergue ? A'..
(Coheri, Suppl. No. 3 from coll. of M. Poy-
denot.)
12. Obv. CONSTANTINVS IVN. NOB. C. Bust
of Constantine II. lo the left, laureated, with
cuirass, and holding a globe surmounted by a
victory.
Rev. Same legend and type. lu the field ^ .
In the exergue p. :^ T. (Prima Tarracone.)
JE. (British Museum.)
Cavedoni would never believe that the sup-
posed monogram was anything more than a ftir
of six rays,or at the utmost the monogram ccin-
posed of I and X, the initials of 'Itjitoi's Xpin-r.is.
From the coins of this series which 1 have been
able to examine (Nos. 8, 9, 10 and 12) it scorns
perfectly clear that the form is )|C) the vertical
line terminating in a globule or a circle. Cohen
(,Wd. Imp. vol. vi. p. 83, note ; Suppl. p. 375,
note) agrees with Cavedoni that the sign is a
star, which view he considers confirmed by the
coin of Licinius II. (No. 11), which has a stnr of
eight rays ; but as he allows that the niouograra
Np (?) sometimes aj/pears on the coins of Crispus
(No. 9), there is no reasion why it or ^ or j^
should not occur upon the coins above desciilpoil.
The piece with eiqiit rays proves nothi^^^all.^ we
have seen that on the helmet of Constantiue
there was sometimes placed a star of eight rai/s
^ — instead of the Christian monogram.
(See under No. 2 ; Fig. 5.) , , . „ .
I do not myself see any reason to doubt that
these signs were intended for the Christiaa
monogram, though at this period of tlie reign of
Constantiue expressed on the coinage in suiiie-
what a latent manner. , , . »i.
This series was probably introduced about ttie
year 319. It is anterior to 323, coins of both
the Licinii being common to it, '.vhilst those "f
Constantius II. Caesar, are wanting.
§ V. Coins of Constanti>u3 I. u-ith the Man
Conservator" and "Sol Invidvs" t<M>es.-
?312— ? 323.
MONEY
It was nt ono time considered thnt the c^lns
ofConstantine I with pngan symh,>l, were uot
entirely excluJed till 32H, „Cter the defeat of
Linnuis l.ut on no safe grounds, as the coins
beann^' the names and types of Jupiter, /fcr,n,/cs,
and X'nn never bear the title of Mi.cimus, be-
stowed upon him in 315, from which it may
reasonably be inferred that all these coins were
struck previous to 312, when Constantine openly
professed Christianity. One coin, however, of
the if.irs type and the title MAX. has been
d.!.«ribed from /adm.' (Cohen, .J/rt/. Imp. No 361)
whiLst there is a series of coins of Crispus and
Constantine II. with the tvpe of Jupiter Cohen
o-,. T ''"l- '■'• '•''• '^^' '»». Nos. 83-85 1
p. 234, iNos. 143, 144). which were cevtninlv
issued posterior to 317, in which year they
were created Caesnrs, but the type was not
struck in auy mint in the dominions of Constan-
tine, but in those subject to Licinius.
Some coins of Constantine I. with the loecnd
MARTI [or MARTI PATUi] CO.NSKRVATORI, hnvi.le
tor type the bust of Constantine (?) with the
helmet adorned with the monogram, or Mars
standing, and in ttie field nn equilateral cross
or on his shield )j^, and others with the legend
80LI INVICTO COMITI, the sun standing, and in
the field j^^ are supposed to be in e.xistcnce
(Oarrucci, Sum. Cost. 2nd ed. p. 241 sen. ■ Rev
hw, ma, p. 86 se^.), but it is not c'learly
est.iblished that the " monogram " is not a st.ir
or SLV c<iual rn;/s; or "the equilateral cross"
the L„tm letter or numerical mark Y drawn
sdmmjs. On available sj-ecimens, from one of
which a drawing is given (Kig. 9). there is a
symbol which apiwars to be a cross, but it differs
considerably irom that on the coins previously
described, and may indeed be only a numeral or
a letter.
According to Zon.iras {Ann. xiii. 3) Constan-
tly placed in the forum of Constantinople the
circular porphyry column brought from Rome
and on It he put the brazen statue of Apollo
which he set up in his ourn name, substitutins
some of the nails of the passion for the rays of
the sun, thus assuming with "singular shame-
lessness (cf. Von Hammer, Const, und Dosp.
vol. I. p. 162) the attributes of Apollo and
thnst, Ironi which circumstance Garrucci has
found un diincu ty in supposing that Constantine
changed the head of the statue," and fully
intended to represent himself as Sol upon his
coins, ^
Thouo;h Eusebius (I'lf. Const, i. c. 43 : cf. Lac-
tam. <fo Mort Pcrs. c. i.) in the rhetorical
anguage of the time, compares Constantine to
the sun rising upon the earth and imparting its
raysot light to all, and though in the legend
mil i.NyicrO OO.MITI there may be the idea of
the ancient Sun-god and the new Sun of Uight-
wusness [see art. Christmas], it is doubtful
Whether Constantine would have placed the
monogram of Christ beside the image of the Sol
Inwtus,or havechused himself to be represent-d
unJer the semblance of the sun tn.reth»r 'vith
iigiis of Christianity. °
Should the coins of th« Wars and Sol Tnvietus
types be considered subsequent to 312, in any
case they must be placed before 323, since coins
«t toastantius Caesar are wanting in this series,
MONEY
1279
and M to the type of Sol rnmclu,, as no
specimens of the coins of Licinius H. h, ve been
dscnyere,!, it would seem that It was first
jruck by the two ^«;/«-v«, Constaiitin; I. a d
I-cinius L and secondly by Constantine Land
hi sons, after the year 319, when the quarrtds
between Constantine L and Licinius I. h'ad pro!
bably commenced. ^
There appears inileed, to be little doubt that
Cons antine ., after he had conquered Maxentius
'ndU, found himself compelled to tolerate for
■.oine years on his coins, and on those of Crispus
and Constant ne IL, some of the heathen types!
such as the J/.,rs and the S„l Invietm, one C
cmen of which, with the title MAX. and cm
ini gives the date 315 (see § i.), whi \Z
coins of Crispus and Constantine 11 witfthese
t>-pes cannot be anterior to 317, when they we a
made C.,e,,„rs Soon after, the coins with the Sun!
ypc. but vyith the legend Caritas Bicn-viiucAa
"n the coinage ot^nspus and Constantine U.
must have been introduced and continued in
circulation till about ? 317 .r 319, when the
new eoins of Constantine L, Crispus rmCon!
stant.ne II. with the legend victoriak laktae
PRINC PKRP. (§ iii.) and the coins of J;^!;'t?n!
tine I. and Licimiis I. and their sons, with the
legend virtvs exkrc.t. (§ iv.) became'unlversal!
§vi. Corns of Constantine /., licinius I
hT"' ^/"'^f "''■"" ^^- ^»rf Li^nius II. J k
the spear head endin.j in a cross
Bust of Licinius I. to the right, helmeted with
/x./«<i»mt'n<«,n and cuirass. ' """""ea. with
of wMVh'*"''' ''■''.^'''''"- ^'""''"'•''' "t tf-e foot
VOT XT TK T"''? T^"^' "" «>>« -standard
vot. XX. ihe top of the staff of the lahanm
ends i„ a cross. In. the field to right an.l uTt
S^cunda.) A. (^■g. 10; Uritish Museum.)
himilar coins exist of Licinius L, Crispus
Licinius 11 and Constantine IL, struck kt 1^^
Uica, and at Treves, of Constantine L and
s'tS^t^ril"' '^""^'"""' °^ Constantine I.
R,,^; ? 32 1-323. _ 04r. COnstantinvs avo.
Sh\i^sr''"''"^ '• '° '''«'•'«'''' ''^'-'-'.
liev. VIRTVS KXKRciT. Same type. In the
• About the year 323, afK'r the defeat of Licinius I
-r'^L""" '-»'■<""/"» mints of Lyons. l^^llJi
Treves, a series of coins of Constantine I.. Crigp^
•loin us 11. „„„ (:on>t.„tine U. Cae.are, *wUh7e*
legend i,E,vTA TRANCiviLLiTAS and the typaa globe on an
altar on which vorrs xx. and above the gio^^ fhre^ Zr^.
On the globe may be seen .:.|.|.:. "H" and .^
which according lo Caved„nl (/rtcercAiyio) the' holy
fathers dohghted to think was the sign oflhi cro» I
Ojelour card,,,,,. ,«.„ts of the g,o.. (f. Ma'x'musTa",';"
W. L. quae est II. <fc „ace ; S. di.lius ram^. Pasckal.
(Baron de Kohn.', Descr. du Afus. du feu U PriJZ
had been early diffused, A.iing about 324 there has be^
thought to be « «-oM(Cavedonl,Ji^„rf.c7p m^
.B63 the Count Ouvaroff discovercd.'Tart^..!:.!^!. ^
fnZ^^i "T" P«^'™«"' Of "Christian church built
\ enus (Kuhne, (jp. ait. pp. 447. 448). »^"' "'
i,: 'y
■' l.-llli
1:
:.(
m
M
■■■■■a
'iw
r > •
1380
MONEY
Simil.'ir coin.4 oxUt of (Jriiipiia an>l Cuastnn-
tini' II.
Of tho RPrlos of these cninn struck At Thossa-
louic^t tliKi'u is DO ciiin of Cuntitantinu 1., cif thiit
atniik ut 1,(111. lull there U no coin of l.iciniuK I.
Thill II c<iiii of Constantinu I. of this sorius wan
issui'il at TSiusMlonica is more than prolmhle,
as Iliyriciini, in which Tho.ssaloniui waH xitiiatctl,
wiu ii'lJoil to the dominions of Conr^tantiue in
314, after the war with Licinius. Why no coin
of Llciuiiis 1. shotilil occur in this particular
branch of the London sorios is nut so clear, as
coins of this emperor were probably struck there
up to It'Jl. It may be that the new quarrel
with Licinius had commeocad, and determincHi
Constantine not to strike any of his colleague's
coins at London,
The coins having the top of tho stalT of the
lalmruin ending in a cross, were a<liiiitted in the
(irst instance by Cavedoni (^likorche, p. i>), who
]iHblished from tho Tresor de Nwnismatiiiue
(I'. l:il, I'L Ixii. No. 8) a gold medallion of
Constantine IL with the legend rBlNClPi IVVKN-
TVTUJ and having in the eierguo the letters
CONS. (Constant iiiopoii), and alluded to brass
coins with tho legend VlIlTVS exkrcit. This
example is not specially published by Cohen
(cf Mt'J. Imp. No. h), and Cuvedoni, ap|)nrently
forgetting that he had mentioned this medallion,
came to the conclusion {ApjjvnUiai, p. 3) that the
supposed cross on tho top of the labaruin was not
in reality a cross, but only had the appearance of
one, being nothing mcue than small pellets in-
dicating the extremity of the curds or holdera
or other ornaments at the top of the spear.
Garrucci, on the other hand, has stated (.Vu/n.
Coat. 2nd ed. p. '252; cf. Jiev. Sum. 18ii6,p. 107,
pi. iii. No. 1.')) that he has seen a coin of
Licinius I. struck at Aquileia, of which the form
of the cross is f^l
I have not, however,
myself seen any specimens of coins struck at
Aquilein shewing such a decided cross, and it is
dirficult to say in most cases, whether the head
of the spear is meant to express a cross or not.
On some coins, as on those struck at Treves,
Lyons, and Aries, the form appears to be | , on
others, especially on those issued at Thessalonica,
the form becomes more a cross "T".
§ vii. Coins of Constantine /., Cotutantine II.,
and Constaniius II.
326-333. A. mth cross C^ in field.— Obv.
OOS8TANTINV8 MAX. Avo. Bust of Constan-
tino 1. to the right, with diadem and with pa/u-
damcntnm.
Kev. or/)niA exercitvs. Two soldiers stand-
ing, each holding a spear and leaning on a shield.
Between them two standards, and between these
In the exergue AQ. s. {Aquikiu
Secunda.) M. (Fig. U ; British Museum.)
Similar coins e.\ist of Constantine II, and
Constantius 11. Caesares. A specimen of a coin
of Constantine II. in the possession of Garrucci
{Xum. Cost. 2nd ed, pi. Ho. 11; £ev. jVuhj.
MONEY
I8Cil, pi. ili. No. 11) hua o crosi with a tqunra
'"Pt^- (See § XV.)
Tho type of tho two soldiers was not intro.
duced till after tho death of Crispus. Thise
coins must have lieen struck before :13:J, because
those of Constans Cacsir arc wanting,
B. icith monogram >t in field. Similar types
of Constantine I. (Fig. 12; British Museum)
Constantine II., and Constantius II but in the
exergue, 1". or 8. co.NgT. {i rimu or Ml . nUa Con-
ttantimi [Aries].) M,
This series must have been struck before
33,'), because the coins of Constans C'ucsir are
wanting.
Feuardent, Cavedoni, and Garrncci would
limit the date to 330, supiwsing that the c.\eii»ual
letters CONST, refer to 0,natiintinople, but it has
long been established that these letters shouM
be interpreted ConatuiUina, the name given to
Aries by Constiintiue the Great, probably nbuut
312, after the defeat of Maxentius and Ma.\iiiiin
when he improved the city and made a new
town on the opposite side of the river. It is
called by Ausonius (Ctttrae nrbes viii.) duplvj:
and the exergunl letters CON. or a)NST. (Cn-
utantinity.swe always preceded by a /a<m diiler-
ential letter, or accompanied by of I, II or iii in
the field, whilst CON. or CONS. {ConatantimipiMs)
are followed by a Oreek numeral in cases where
there is n ditl'ei-ential letter (cf. F. W. Madden,
Ifiindb. to Horn. A'um. p. 167 ; Num. Chron. N t*
1861, vol. i. pp. liiO, 180; J. F. W. de S.ilis,'
Arch. Journal, vol. xxiv. ; Xum, Chron. N. S
1867, vol. vii. pp. 326, 327).
It has not been hitherto observed by any
numismatist that the letter x of the word
EXKRCITVS is on these coins placed at thf lop
of ttte coin exactly between the two standards,
whilst on the coins with the same legend and
two soldiers standing, between them the lubaniin,
struck at a later date (335-337 ; § xii.)the letter
X is placed in the ceittre at the top of the laba-
rum. I am inclined to think that the arrange-
ment is not accidental, but was specially intended
by the arti.st.
The coin engraved (B. with ^ ; Fig. 12) gives
the earliest example of the so-cnlled Constan-
tinian monogram on the coins of Constantine.
§ viii. Corns of Helena and Theodora.
After 328, Obv. fl. ivl. iielenae avo. Bnst
of Helena to the right.
Rev. tax pvhlica. Peace standing to left,
holding olive-branch in the right hand and a long
sceptre in the left. In the field to left ^,
In the axergue tr. p. {Treveris prima.) E.
(Fig. 13; British Museum.)
Obv. FL. MAX. THEODORAE AVO. Bust of
Theodora to the right, laureated.
lit:v. PIETAS ROMAMA. Piety standing, carry-
ing an infant. In the field to left ^^1 • In
the exergue tb. p. or TB. '8. £.. (British
Museum.)
Helena was the mother, and Theodora the
mother-in-law of Coastintine the Great.
The coin of Helena has been supposed by
Cavedoni {Ricerche, p. 16) to have been struck
about the year 326, when it is thought that sh«
illscovered the ci
MONEY
Jldcovero.l tha cro«» of our Saviour, And he
w thou oniering iuto th. ,,ue,tloa of thl
"l«genJ ot tho linking of the cro,, " [(.'liol
KlNomu OF], It may (.0 >n»utione.l that EuVbir
who g.vuj. au account of Helena's vUit to the
hnly »e|M.lchre, «ays nothing about the .lincovery
.t the c.o»a a point he was not at all ll|<cly to
h.io omitted h«,| ,uch really been the ta»o (Vit
Const, m. c 4,t). Hut the real fact I. that bolh
the coum of ]lel«na and Theodora are "restora-
tion coins and struck after tMr death by Con-
•taDline the (Ireat, and therefore after .S'is It
will be notLed that the legend i» in tl«, dative
me, and that neither of them bear the titl« of
Dtva as they were Christians.' It h»B been
nsinuated that Helena Hrst .embraced the
thris mn faith, aud gave her son a Chriatian
►lucation (Iheodorot, If.K i. c. 18; Gibbon,
ta A,.;., ed. Smith, vol. i|. p. a, note 10). but
Lu*bius vositively asserts ( Vit. Cmst. iii. ,V. 47)
thHt s!u- ,.«ud her knowledge of Christianity to
Const iiitinc. '
Shortl.- after Constantino's elevation to the
rurple lie vecalled his mother (who had been
.et a«ido by his father on hi. ma.Tiage with
Theodora), and either before Fau.ta became his
wife or upon the occn.s.on of his marriage in
307, he issued some braw coins with the legend.
.Dd titles FAVSTA N. p. {nobUmwu, femim) and
HELE.VA N. F. These coias have on the reverse
a larse stiu- with eight rays within a laurel
Tu ., Constantiue always treated his mother
with the high-..st respect, and after his marriage
gave her the title of Awjusta, striking gold and
brass coins m her honour with that title, the
former of which are mentioned by Eusebius—
Yi|(TO.. T« voj^hfiatT, Kdi ri,v aiVfl, iKrvnoioBat
iiK6^a(Vtt. Coint. lii. c. 47 j cf. Sozoujen, //. £
II, c 2). ' '
fila.-'-ffAso':'^'''''''''^'''"" ""^ " ^'•*»
Obv. coNSTAicTiNoPOLra. Bust of the city
to the left, helmeted with sceptre.
Jev. No legend Victory with wings extended
walking to the left, holding a ,p«ar in the right
hand and resting _the left on a shield. In the
field to the le.'i
MON'EY
1281
)^-
In the exergue p. cONdT.
JE. (Fig. U; British
Bust of the city to the
{Prima Constantind.)
Mnscum.)
OI>v. [VBIIS] ROMA.
left, helmeted.
Hev. No legend. Wolf suckling twins ; above,
tlie monogram -^ between two stare with
'J^""' T-JV*''* "'"-g'-a P' OOOTT. (Prima
Cmtant,nd.) JE. (Fig, la ; British Museum.)
'This remark inuit not however be taken as absolute.
for he .on. of Constantlne struck coin, after his deaU,
givlnn him the epithet of Oivuif(i x"! )
I TbI. aililbutlon Is objecte.1 to by' Mr. C. W. KInir
{My CkrUtian K^mUmatic. pp 36-39, 304 whf
^un. and those of Kausta to soma ladr »fho miahihavt
-. a.„,. In „„ epl,t!« to the Ath*nl«n». I «„ not.
8»By paper in tho Jir.». ckrm. N. 8. 1«7. v„,. ,vll.
thJ"^'"n *?" """,', '""•■"'"™'' "• the time of
the dedication ol ('nnstaiitinople j„ ;);|() Tk,
,dec,.H „ hove descrilHMl were not howeverissu.,'
at Coutaiitinople, hut „,.. Aries "(CoM,,<,m/.mi.
& v lO. he stars ,,„ cither side of th.- mon.igram
n he ,.,„„ w.th v„i« ,U3MA recall the wonis of
bv St rl •'"J. 'f ,'*''', ':'"''y "'«» ""'•"•"nded
(§ii'.) *""■' "'"""'y """''^J
Some pieces of the VKM noMA type hav.
but I doubt this reading, as after the defeat o«
Mnxentiiis m 812, Constantine transferred the
mint of Ostia to Rome (Madden, A'lim. C/,,^
.N. S. 18bJ, vol. 11. p. 47 ; 1865, vol. v. p. IH).
^i/>.~A'ft:rl'.a""''"""* '• "'^ ^""•'^
I. Obv. CONfflAN-lNVS MAX. AVG. Head of
Constantine i. to the right, laureated.
lifv. Sfics rviiMcTA in fiehl under spesI The
faJ«u,« on which tliree globules; ou the top of
the stair of the spe«r )^, the extremity of the
spear piercing a serpent. In the exergue cons.
Sr""'^ •^ ^- ^''''«' ^^'^ *''""'"°' o»
A e,,eclmen of this extremely rare and in-
terestmg colli which has been from time to
nme published by difterent writei-s (Baronius,
ot the rriiuc de Wal.lcck, by Eckhel, and was
rccogni.sod by him as a genuine coin (Doct. /uZ
Ut. vol. vui. p. 88). The drawings usualW
given ot It, such as that reproduced after Bar<i
nius, byAringlii (R<ma Sutt. vol. ii. p. 700) and
again engraved by Martigny (^Dict des Antiu.
Chret. s. V. i^erpent), are of such a size as to lead
mos numismatists to ,us,.ect it. But there is
no doubt that at least tuo genuine specimens
exist, the one engraved, for the cast of which
I am indebted to Dr. Friedlaender, and the
example m the "Museum of Frince von Wald-
*?*• „P"'"»''«J ^y I^r. Friedlaender nilUtter'
ilW^^Ht)"*' "'• '• P- "^' •"• ^'•^o- e.
2. 06b. constantinvs avo. Bust of (Jon-
atentine II. to the right, laureated.
Mev. Same legend and \.y\>e. M. (Fie 17 )
This rare little piece, of the smallest size,
sinaller even than the similar coin of his father
which I have introduced here, instead of in it^
proper chronological place, for better illustration.
IS m the possession of the Rev. S. S. Lewis, Fellow
k„?nv''lt ■;■";" '^""'«'' Cambridge, who most
till w° * *n "^ *° ""• '' ^"^ <"«"n«>-ly
m the Wignn collection, and may be the same
a. that published by Gaillard {DeJript Z
Mon de J Garcia, p. 304, No.' 4929" pl.^
No. 5). It has been published, and an engrav-
ng given of it twice the actual size, by Mr.
C. W King {Earl!, Christ. Am. pp. iVi. xxiii
and 25 note, engraved on title-page; of. art
Labarcm) who has allowed himself to be led
«way, as he says, by the "practised (and
what IS greatly to the resent' purpose), the
l^PrejM eye of his draughtsman," ' who
reads the word deo on the M^.mm, which c.n
examination turns out to be nothing more than
which probably represent gems or oth/irn*.
mentsof the labanm,ox may be intended for th^
I t
Jf-
.V'f
m
1; >r
[1 '"Wf
1262
MONEY
Ikret ilari an rcpronetiti'il on thu coins with lh«
BKATA IKANQVII.I.ITAS ty|H.> (llfl) § vl. nutf),
Itotli cdlDri liciir tlio mint mdrk a)Nii. which
can only be intoipieti'il CimtttntuiCfxili. This
livlnu tli« en«e, I may olmi-rvi) thiit thi^y me th«
only roiiin of ConHtanlini) I. ami hU win liiniinK
f)o»iliic ClirUtlaD embli'ini UauuJ at th« miut of
ConHlautinople.*
Tlic coin ol' Connt(intine I. wa» mimt likoly
•trnck in .'t'lO on the ilciiiciition ol' the new
cn|>it.'il ; that of th« nou wu.i iiroljnbly ixiueil
ftftei- lilt fHthur'K ilcatli in ;I:17 or :I.I8, an It Is
Mconlcil ((iil)l)on, li'nii. h'/n/i. eil. Smith, vol. ii.
J). iti)il, ami no<c .Mt) that " at the piTsonal in-
t*(ivjcw of the thiee hrothers, Constantino II,
the el lest of the Caesars ohtaineil, with a certain
pre-eniiucnce of rank, the [KwHession of tho new
ca/iitiil, whie/i bore hi.i own nniM and timt of
his fiitlter." M. Kennrdent (quoted by Mr. Kini;)
Wou'il assign its date to the iieriixl of the eleva-
tion of Constantinu II.' to the rank of Au'ixvslus,
in the lasit diii-i of hit fithfr'i lifetime, but I do
uot know of any authority for such a »ui)|iosi-
tion (cf. Socrat. //. K. i. c. HU ; Suzoinen, //. E.
li. c. ;i+; Kuseb. Vit. Cumt. iv. c. 0), Ii8).
The type of these piece.s and the inscription —
thouu'li the le;;end is by no means a new one,
occurring as It does from the time of Comuioilus
(Cohen, Suppl. p. 4H4) — indicate how " the
public hope" (cf. Ki.seb. Vit. Const, ii. 0.29;
iv. c. 9) was centered in the triumph of the
Christian religion over the adversary of man-
kind — " the great d'iVjon, that old seipent,
called the Devil and Satan " (Rev. xii. 9 ; \x. 2)—
and wo are tidd (Ku-^eb. Vit. C<mst. ill. c. 3) how
Constantine had a picture painted of the dragon
•^the llyicg serpent — beneath his own and his
children's feet pierced through the middle with
a dart and cast into the depths of the sea (/3(\(i
irtnapuivov kotA tiicrou toO /ciItoui ; cf. Luseb.
Const, unit, ad Sonet. Coetum, c. 20)
The spear-head on these coins ends in the
mnnoi/ram of Christ; on those struck at Thessa-
lonica, Aquileia, London, and other mints, it ends
in a cniKn (§ vi.),
§ xi. C'lnv of Conntantlne /., Constantius IT.,
and Co'ist'ns.—a^3-A:ir>.
O'lV. CO.NSTANTINVS MAX. AVO. Bust of Con-
gtantiue I. to the right, with diadem and with
palmldinentum.
Iter. VICTOniA C0S8TANTINI AVO. Victory
walking to the left, holding trophy and palm;
in the field to right LXXII ; to left JE, .
In the exergue 8. M. AN. (S{;jnntit moneta An-
tiochia.) M. (Fig. 18; British Museum.)
O'r. CON8TANTIV8 NOIl. CAE8. Bust of Con-
stantius II. to the right, laureated, with /)a/u(/u-
mentuin and cuirass.
I> (111 Certain coins of Constantine I. htruck at Coiisinn-
tlnoplo, his liead Iwars the nimbus (sec } xvii.), whlloi on
the m:igiiiticint guld medallion uf OnMtaiitliis II. Caesar.
also striKk at C<>nstaniinople (Colipn. .Uid- Imp. .No. 21,
from Musie de Vienne) welgliing 3920 gruinu or 56 solidi,
Consiaiitine 1. Is represented standing lietween Ids two
»ons CuiiHUiniine II. and Constjjn', whilst o hand /rem
heai'tn crowns him with a wreath (^ xill.). This piece
must tiave Ix'cn Issued between 323 ond 337, aa Con-
iuiiti'is 11. is Caesar, ar.i prrhaps in ;!3i; on >,ccii!i;un of
his iniirriiig". There Is also the gold medallion of
Omstjintlne II. vi\ih tpear-hend ending in a cross »nj
ezergiml leiters conb. (.see ( vi.).
MOVEY
S«V. TTCTORIA CAMAH NN. Victo/y ; In field
to right I.XSII ; to left nU hut |irolably slionid
he an eijht'rnyed star ; iu the exergue 8. M, A!l
A'.
(Sabatler, f-on. Horn. Tmp, pi. »cy|. No. 8; Mon.
Jiyt. vol. 1. p. h6, but iuoorrectly attributed to
Coniitnntitta OhIIuh.)
()ht>. Kl,. IVI,. C0NHTAN8 NOB. C. Bllstoffon.
sfanstotlie right, laureated, with /«(/M(/iimc)i(inn
and cuirass.
Jlev. VICTORIA OAEava NW. Victory ; in field
to right LXXit; to letl ^, In the exorgui
8. M. AN. M. (Brit'sh Museum.)
These gold coins were probiiljly Issued iiIkiui
the »amo time. They cannot havu been struck
before aii.i, in which year Const.ins was miult
Caeaar, and perhaps not till ;l,')5, when (.'onstan-
tine celebrated his tricenmilin, and divided the
empire between his sons and nephews. The
mint of Antioch was in the dominions of Con-
stantius II., and the form _£ instead of nP ii
that specially employed iu the Kast (see ^ xv.).
The figures LXXII signify that 72 snlidi were
coined to the pound, Constantine I. having re-
duced the aureus about the year ^J12.
It was at Antioch that the name of Xpianai/it
was first used (Acts xi. 2ti) about the year -14.
§ xii. Coins uf ConstantiM /., Conat'intiiw [f.,
Constantius II., Cunatans, and Velinutiua — 3;Ji>-
337.
A. With \^ on labarttm. — Obv. cos8TA«f-
T1NV8 MAX. AVO. Bust of Constantine I. to
the riglit, with diadem and with palhdamentum
and cuirass.
Hev. (IIXJHIA EXKUCITVS. Two soldiers st.inil-
ing, holding spear and leaning on .shield ; be-
tween tl'.em the labarum, on which ^^. In
the exergue P. CONST. (Prima Cunstantina —
Aries.) £. (Kig. 19 ; liritish Museum.)
This coin was attributed by the Lite Mr. de
Salia to Constantine 11., but a comparison with
the coins of this Caeaar, as also with those struck
at Lynns and Siscia wlien he became Awi<istua,
make this attiiliution doul)tful, an opinion also
held by Mr. Grueber of the British Museum
(see § xix.).
Similar coins occur of Constantine II. and
Delmntius. Those of Constantius II. and cf
Constans wore no doubt issued, but no specimens
are iu the British Museum.
B. with N? on labarum. — Coins of Coustan-
tine L, Constantine II., Constantius IL, Constans,
and Helmatius exist. (British Museum.)
The coin of Constantine I. engraved (Fig. 20;
British Museum) was also attributed by the
late Mr. de Salis to Constantine IL, but with
even less reason than in the former case.
These two series were not issued iiefore 335,
as the type is found on coins of Delmatius, who
was made Caeaar in this year, and it continues
to the <leath of Constantine I. in 337. (See § vii.)
§ xiii. Cunaecratiun coina of Constantine I.—
Obv. Di f o CONS [tantino p] [atri]. Bust of
Constantine I. to the right, veiled.
Sev. [aeterna] pietas. Constantine )t»iid»
MONEY
lag, hoMlBg .,.e«r nu.l ^loU; above th. glob.
"«P- 'K. (Klj{. 21 ; lir|ti,h Mu.eum.)
Vaiielie- of thin ,.„|n occur with .Ither £.
T >^ or X "truck nt lyotu and«t Arlt-s. They
mu.t hnv« bo,.n „.,uoJ ,h..rtlv nfl..r tl.« ,l«„th „f
:'""' '"'^ '■•|^;^'-^."l {/'ismni,,,., ,,. ji,...) ,',,„, ',,
yi'orup,. .,..,„., the »t..t,u. «..!,,, by (Jo h „
lot e.onun of Om.tu„ti,.o,,|„(UoV; '"•''''
in„M' .un-swration ..„i,„ wme .t.u.'k' h.ivinif
-0 :;«'■":';, ,r/.t^'"J ^ONrrANriNVH Avo'
VENK«A.,. or VN. Mu, [,,.„, n,„./„„ ,^„::; ij' .^,i
Tc'v \oV. V"» ?"»'"" "• t''^' riKhf. v.iled.
nsht. hobhuK hi. h„u,l ,0 nnother hanH i'
rom hniiv.n (« ,.„....:... ■. . """■"
MONEY
1288
J«cen,ls (rom hcav.u to leceivo it , above a
fov J. Wordsworth, iJicT. ok Christ llui .
n\, p. 049) s,,.,,,k,, „f ,he»e coiu! a,' i Z
"Alexandria, Aut.och and CarthaKe „lo, "'
ut no com. were nru.k at CartU,e at ;,
lue » d.le. They are found with thVinini^
™rk,«f Heraoleia, Alexandria, Constant nZ
U.,cu,, N.comedia and Antioch. On . e
!l<cinieus thero is no «tar
With reference to the word DIvu,, the sys-
Un 0. "consecration" seems to have obtained
" V r ""^ *""" "•■ Constantine I. n Z
h.sChn.t,an successors , Constantius II. "merui?
inter d,vos referri" fKutroi) x 1'^\ '"eiuii
"inter </,Vo, relatus est^"' K,: op'J'aV- uC
n..ml. was consecrated by bis son 'aru "i
'dmmshononbus"(Auson.ad Oral. actcT)
wh.ch may bo added the name of Va ':
Imian II „s ajipears from a marble of
Jtaen. , 853). No coins, however, bearin,' the
.tle^ot Vnm are known of any of these^m!
The coin engraved (Fig. 22) Is especially men-
ODM. There miv 1,» 1 ■ n '" ^"''"t'on
~t, f w' »^ '''' "?.""' f^"'-* -n.ecrat n
h'ddlnR a ph-.ni, wifhiu the «..iinc (.Madden
'^""^■C',o,, V. S. 1H.)2, vol. li. p. 4. '"•
AinW ^ tern.,.,, Kekhel, J,,.t. X„„,. ,.,/. v,d.
....). and a«a,« reappearing on the b.a,
''"'"" "^ «'"»"t.'ntlne I., with the legend
I *'■''"!■* r^K^VM viiirvs rAi,.s, „„,i ..rolnl I,
^ nak a.tor 111:,, as they bear the t tie' f mIy
(« "ben, No. i„4,, „„,, .,„ ,,„i,„ „f (.„„,,,, Jj.f/,^-
.ud^C,,n.,ans when .,„,,«,, (Cohen, J/- r /;;[';
The"hanil from heaven " occur* on the irobl
ine.lnllions of Constantius II to wM.h r h
S uv. Cma 0/ Comt.mtine I. and II with
L'obl 'witrVy'"!" '■"'"■' "<-(-""n»tantine I., ,om.
i^'. Imp. No. 17, ,•,,„„ T;,ni„i), so,,,.' H||ye^
w;th TAX AV.1VST0HVM (Cohen, No 7 TZ
us^o^le Vu-nne), and of Vonsta'ntfn ' II Vv C
(.«»«) w,th I.KATA T.UNgvaLlTA8(C, ben N?
H , rom I>ua,u,e) having a ,™« e[,be 7n tl°e
f wh ; , "'""''"''''• "' "° ""' helmet" Iu
'" """• '"r"i It l» impossible to sav Th., V, .
alter ,)!.') without t fSiv"*- i,n,l ., /v .
.ihout 323 (§ vi.). ^^ ■-' ' ^'"' '^"■'1
§ XV. Hcinnrh on the Forms nt n^ n
..ubt that Constantino did nit ^^ Cm
of the cross or monogram which appears on h^.
coins. The monogram -j^ may be seen on th.
coins of Alexander Bala, king of .Syria (n c 146^
and on those of the Bactrian kinL H ''
".c. 1*8-120), and also occu o ?he rnTo?
'■•ajan Deems (A.n. 249-251), forming pTr? o,
the word A^^ (ipxovroO to which I have
already referred (see Introduction), whilst the
complete form of the lah^rnm eg may be found
on the coins of the In,In-Srv»),j.,„ , •
(n.C. 100), and on thole ofrllu" A'"8 ^''"^
Hippostratus the G.t:t ( ,V 4o"l Z:";'" '^5
i^^.i (oc^:,.cunmn"gri;r'vr'^.rn'
1868, vol. v.ii. p. 2(13, pi. vii. Mon. No 4,! &c
LI homus, ^u„.. CAron. v.d. iv. pi. viii: No. 3 j. Th j
^ wy have sometimes signified XPu,r,„n6,
it WBB u,sed as an abbreviation for XP^^^X-
since n collection of passages «o m»,i, j • , '
make up a y<,v,rroude7.T n T '"""^ ""^ht
XP.../an.l Kl^fell ndt"o.t^*r; iT
'mt It eventually became the ChH, ' ^^'
.«::'];r/rT^"t--^ ^ fnd Vthe?w':i-r:i iTti:;;
The form with the vertical line ending in a
cncleorapelIet(^^),,^,.Jp^^
with the monogram ^^ supposed to signify
82
ilii
.i';t<
4i
iq
•'
;. .H'
f;
) <
*
*<ni^
'ij™
t 'f<'
1^;
4.^
''I
itiffiSf
' sv
fei
•:! i'g
Mir
11- ;, ■"■- U
Hiftrtl:
'I '
M
iin
■ vk-i
, ' vli ft' !
I' « .•i'l 111!
r' '.
4l
4
i
1284
MONEY
XI\(opx''^> ^^ '''*' occurring on the coins
of the Ptolemies— i£, vP ^ ^^ ^, to
the Nl/ on some (though rarely) of the coin»
of the Itings of the Bos[ihorus, and to the star
or comet above the heads of Julius Caesar and
Augustus (Letronne, Inscript. dc t'Ei/i/pte, vol. i.
p. 433 ; Mionnet Suppl. vol. ix. p. '22, No. 1'22 ;
Koehne, Mas. Kotsnhouhey, vol. ii. p. 309 ; Cohen,
M^d. de la SiTpub. Rom. pi. xv. No. 30).
The form _E occurs on the coins of Tigranes,
king vf, Armenia (B.C. 90-64); on coins of
Arsaces X. XII. and XIV. (n.c. 9'2-38) forniiug
TirPoKoKfpTai or Tij/ratiocerta, the capital of
Armenia (Mionnet, vol. v. p. 108, No. 939;
Cunningham, yum. Chron. N. S. 1868, vol. viii.
p. 196) ; on the coins of the JewLsh king Herod i.
(H.C. 38), and on the coins of Chios of the time
of Augustus (Madden, Jew. Coinage, \\\i. 83, 8.'),
87, 244). This form seems to have been that
exclusively used in the East, and I.etronne states
(La Croii- ans^e in M^m. de I' Acad. vol. xvi.) that
he never found the ^P on any of the Christian
monuments of Egypt. Its adoption was
doubtless from its alfinity to the crux ansata.
It IS the only monogram in the Vatican Codex
(4th cent.), in the CWe.r Pezae CanUih. {bt\\ or
6th cent.), and in the Codex Sinaiticus (4th cent.),
where it occurs in four places, at the end of
.Jeremiah, twice at the eml of Isaiah, and in the
middle of the word ESTAVPCO0H in the 8th
ver. of chap. xi. of Uevelation (Martignv, J-'ict.
p. 416).
It was on the coins struck at Antioch (§ xi.)
that Constantine first introduced the _H, about
the vear 335, though the same form occurs on
the coins struck after his death at Lyons and
(?) Aries (§ xiii.).
The earliest example of the equilateral cross
t5?| may be seen on the breast of or suspended
from the neck of one of the kings on the slabs
brought from Nineven (Bonomi, Mneveh and its
Palaces, pp. 333, 414; cf. p. 303). At a later
date its form was -+- (De Witte, Mon. Cii-am.
vol. i. pi. xciii.)i sometimes accompanied by
globules 7T^, as on vases, both of which symbols
may have had their origin in the sign >-4-i,
which occurs on the coins of Ciaza — frequently
cjiUed the " monogram of Gaza " — on monuments
and vases of Phoenician origin, on Gallo-Celtio
coins, on Scandinavian monuments called "Thor's
hammer," and on Indian coins called " the Swas-
tika cross " (Kapp, Das labarum, etc., in vol.
xxxix. of the Vereins v. Altert lumsfreundem im
Rlieinlande, 1885; Garrucci, Num. Cost. 2nd ed.
p. 242).
The three principal forms of crosses in anti-
quity are (1) the cross X called decussata (2)
the cross X called commissa, and (3) the cross
-T- called immissa. [Cross.]
The form ^^ was doubtless an abbreviated
inonogram of the name nf Christ. Julian the
MONEY
Apostate, in speaking of his hostility against
Christianity in his satire against the people of
Antioch, writes (MisopOjon, Jul. Op. p. Ill, l'nii>
1583), "You say I wage war with tlie Chi and
you admire the Kappa" («af 8ti iroAe/i(i t^ xr
■ir66o$ 5f vnas (XatiiTt rov Koittto); and again {on.
cit. i>. 99), "They say that neither the C/ii nnv
the Kappa ever did the city any harm; it is
hard to understand the meaning of this wiso
riddle of yours, but we happen to have been
informed by some interpreters of your city that
they are initial letters of names, the one dcnotin'j
Christ, the other Constantius '' {rh Xi, (pi^criv,
ou5f c f^UKvat r^v hAMv, ovif rb Kinita ....
iriXouv SV9<'\f If ri> fiev XpicTThv rh Si KwKTTay-
TlOf).
The cross f is in the form of a Tan an.i
appears to be a variety of the crux ansata, nr
"cross with a handle" found on Kgyptian aud
Assyrian monuments. It was sometimes used
in the same manner as the S^ in the middle of
the name of the deceased, as may be seen on «
marble of the 3rd centui-y in the Callixtinc
cemetery with the legend I U E "^ N K.
Thp cross "T- has been generally supposed to
be the kind on which our Lonl was crucified,
which seems further corroborated from the fact
that the title of Hebrew, Gnek, and Latin w,is
placed a6oie his head (Matt, xxvii. 37) or orcr
him (Luke xxiii. 38; cf. Mark xv. 25) or over
the cross (John six. 19) and so would have a
form like ^^
De Rossi has shown (De Christ, tit. Cnrlh. m
vol. iv. of Spidl. Solesmcnse, ed. Pitra, 1858) that
no Christian monument of certain date before the
5th century gives examples of the cr"x immissa,
or of that which has been called the Greek —
— |— • On the other hand an epitaph, which
from its consular date is earlier than the reign
of Constantine, proves that the Christians had
a monogram composed of the letters l and X
('Ir/o-oCj, XpKTTos), thus formed ^ (De Rossi,
Insrript. Christ, vol. i. p. 16, 1855).
The luost ancient and most correct form of tlic
monogram of Christ occurs upon a m<inunient of
Sivaux in France, which is considered by De
Rossi (Bullet. Arch. Christ, p. 47, 1863) earlier
than the time of Constantine, having the arms
of the cross of great length "^^^^ [In-
scriptions, I. p. 8.')6, where it is engraved.]
This was not long afterwards modified, and it ie
at the time of Constantine that the N? occurs
for the first time on the Roman dated tituli.
There has been discovered (De Rossi, Bullet.
p. 22, 1 863) a monument of the year 323, whicli
is precisely the year of the di'feat of Licmiiu,
having on it the monogram ^P . De Rossi ha.i
also published (Tnscr. Christ, vol. i. No. 26) «
fragment with the inscription [vi]xit . • . • x
. . . aAL. OOM88. which he thinks might perhtps
be of the year 298, when Fau.«tus and Callns
were consuls, adding that if he could only tiud
I the missing portion and it bore the name of
343 are known. In
Constantine struck al
MONEY
Uesar, who were consuls in 352 'W-K ITt
Other marbles of the years 331, 339:'3l-l' and
343 are known. In 347 the form ^ occurs,
bat not for long, for the )^is dropped, nnd this
form together with the old one continues in exist-
ence t,l the end of the 4th century. F -om t
oth century the p disappears and the LaUnJo^l
f or the Greek J^ take the place of the
monograms, so that after 405 the ^ (at Rome
at least) especially on epitaphs is entirely
.ch,,sed, and the plain cross is found on aU
monuments (Martigny, Dici. des Antig. ChrJt
p. 41b) excepting on coins.
The form of the cross on some of the coins of
Constantine struck at Aquiloia is D^ This
p. 3) to be not the Latin but the Alexandrian
or tgyptum, an opinion not acceded to by Gar-
rucci (Urn Cost. 2nd ed. p. 259), and t nnv
k noticed that Garrucci h'as published a c i^
w,th a S7,*ar« mstead of a roun.led top (Xum.
^t'lnd ed. pi No. 1 ; Sev. Sum. 1866, pi. iH
N . 11; see § yii.). It is certainl y very dou bt-
1..1 .f the cross on the coins of Aq- i le u is the
cr^an^ta, and even Borghesi did no know
Z )l ™''-i^«'' "f^ity could have in cX
mon mth the l^ndtc of the Egyptian cross, f™r
ihe cross called ansata has not a mund but an
md tap, into which the hand might be in n°
m inson"!. V*'"!."" ^"'"'"8 n>onuments
21, etc ) ^Syptians, 1841, Snppl. p|. 20,
{^m. Cost 2nd e<l. p. 261) that it may have
^en meant to allude to the sacred head ^of the
Kedcemer, wh ch was thus intended to be re!
presented projecting a6ot^ the cross, an idea
con..dered by Cavedoni (RMsta, p 210 a
wh,ms,cal fancy," as "everyone," he sivs
^71"""^ It"' '"'"' ?""••=" heaJ rested S
"le beam of the cross tself." R„f p„.„j •
faidedly wrong, as th^ollcwi g'' tst'
™,,les of the crucifix show the hl.d 1 '
cross beam i (1) crucifixes on a oorndran
f "V'nedited ivory of the 5th century
(Garruoci, Diss. Arch, v 27V Coi ',„ -c ^
tobuin (Assemani, Bibl. Laurent. Medic Cat
plum. Forcnce, nio). /ox ,l„ ' .7 ''"'•
and relioimrv of Th?"i V^V X P^"'"''*! cross
1 reliquary ot Iheodolinca, Queen of r^m
wii ocwfure, etc. vol ii too. p An-
mffi ' .''"■'" "'■''}' ij" Hdtled the curimm
As "■ '""■''="'"'•'='• representation of
e crucifixion drawn at the end of the 2nd
Mh^^ping of the 3rd century (st: art'
MONEY
1285
?3I5-3;i7^'"''""-^ Con,<«„<.-„<, /. ,„■« thodiaden^
inti:;SLT;i::fa^"::;';i'""Tof.he
emperors, it is certain thTf r ^'""'' ^^ ">«
the^irst^o unhJ^^U n„ 5"^^^""^°""! '•.^"
-na.p-«^-^.F-et.pJe
vol'.' vi".T80?[hTt\*^-'^'=^''*"'.^''^'- ^'"'"' ^^'•''
r,„- h; A- J V """'^ "' "'s norse, the othor
^«id(^non,KSvm 2TTil''* T^Ji" "
note 33)-probablTfn q 4 k' Tillemont, Const.
the tiHp3- T V '1 31a when he was decreed
alludes in his "Caesars" when he sneaks^'nf
-romh""": ';r ""'"••"^'* "^ theUrn Vn
hp ,fli f.-^'.' *y*' constantly fixed, and from
the .style of his hair and face leading the lifeTf
m7nl^:"''''T'^- Constantino flso had M.
all Constantme'e sons Caesars, and Eusebius
Several coins and medallions of Constantine I..
of h s wife Jausta, and of his .ons Crismw
Constantine II., and Constantiu. H. with th.!
mmAw, some of which were issued at C^n Lt "
nople are given by Cohen, but very few are
now in existence. The abs'urd brassUd^ufo"
' Tlie Rev. J. Wordiworth (Smith. Diet of rkri,i
Buv. vol .. p. 649) .peaks of ihe ^'nZ-ty^^
traces of the hands mentlonwl hv Vaa.",.,""?'^
author doe, not mention the *ami,'in~™1;„ ;;Vt'iJ
««n, on which the face I. " .trctched out Tup Toward
Ood («.-aT,T<M»Vo5 wph, B,oy), but In conn^tlon with
the puturt where the kandi'^ mmT tale b^
^s.mcheclforth"(^,.-^,.^^^)^^^«,J^
4oa
f'l
Ij llvl'i"
!•'
i;::i
1286
MONEY
MONEY
iiWi
'i:s
*\1
I <r,' i
hV
ot' Ciispus, with legend SALVa ET 8PES XPPVn-
LlCAi; {si;) aud Ohiist scntcil facing, holding n
cross, etc., and in the cxorgue s. P. Sanctus
Petrusl (Cohen, No. 27), is evidently nr. ..Itered
jiiece, the " XP-PVHMOAI;" being substituted tor
" KEii'VUMCAi;," "the cross" tor "n globe,"
and "the figure of Christ" for "Constantine
witli niin)ms seated facing," as may be seen on
a genuine medallion of Constnntine ; 8. P. should
certainly be s. u. {SccwicUi Ronui). After Constan-
tine's death his sons continued striking coins re-
jiresenting their father with the nimbus (Cohen,
Constans, No. 3, No. 34), and they very soon
frequently adopted it, a custom continued under
their successors, and especially on the sjdendid
gold medallions of Valens preserved at Vienna
(Cohen, Nos. 1, 6, 8, and 10).
Some of the coins of the Roman emperors
oarlier than the time of Constant ine, are deco-
rated will, this s/\nbol, notably those of
Claudius, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius (Madden,
Kam. Ckron. N. S. 18G8, vol. viii. p. ii-t), so that
its prcsAce gives no direct proof of the Christi-
anity of Constantine, though it was doubtless
adopted in this sense.
§ xviii. Falsa or uncertain coins of Constan-
tino T. and II.
(1) Silver medallion representing Constantine
holding standard on which ^P, and iu the
esergue R. P. (Garrucci, Num. Cost. 2nd e<l. p. 248,
from Caroiini); (2) the brass medallion with
legend IN HOC SIN. (sic) VIC. and monogram
""& ; above a star ; totally remade from a large
brass coin of the time between Trajan Decius
and G.illienus (Cohen, MAI. Imp. vol. vi. p. 119
note) ; (3) the brass medallion of the contor-
niate style, having for legend the entire inscription
on the arch of Constantine, placed thereon to
commemorate the delVat of Maxentius in 312.
Its authenticity was vindicated by the compiler of
the Pembroke Salo Catalogue (jp. 297), but whether
it sold as a genuine piece I am unable to soy ; see
§ i. under 315; (4) the gold coin with the legend
VICTORIA MAXVMA and type A ^ CO pub-
lished by Garrucci and accepted as genuine by
other modern writers (Martigny, Diet, des Antiij.
Chr^t. p. 458 ; see Art. A and ll) ; it is not pub-
lished by Cohen ; (5) the coin with legend bap.
NAT. supposed to refer to the baptism of Con-
stantine, but which by the alteration of one
letter becomes D. R. P. NAT. (uono Keipubticae
NATO); (6) coins with the monogram >P on
the helmet, and ^ or _^, trao4 en creux
on a pedestal supporting a shield, on which VOT.
P. R., originally published by Garrucci (Aum.
Cost. 1st cd. Nos. 13 and 16), and now considered
by him to be false {Xum. Cost. 2nd ed. p. 253 ;
I^ev. Xum. 1866, p. 110). To which may be
added the sihur piece of Constantine 11. Caosar,
described incorrectly as a gold coin' from Tristan,
by Garrucci {Num. Cost. Ist ed. No. 10), with
the legend VICTORIA AVCKJ. and in the field -j-,
a piece which has been in all probability con-
founded with the coins of Constantine III. (407-
411) with the legend victoria AAAVQGOa.
§ zix. CoiiM of Constantine II., Constantiua II.,
and Constans Angusti — Introduction of A itnd <j)
on coins.
After the death of Constantine I. the ty|i(' of
the two soldiers and the legend oIjOria kxkk-
CITVS was continued by his three soiis.J Thi;
cross on the labarum is of three forms:
(J) ,-[_ . (Fig. 24.)
(2) \^. Of this series I have not seen any
coin of Constantine II., but it doubtless e.\ists.
That a'tributed by the late Mr. de Sails 1 havo
restore! to Constantine I. (see § xii.). The cuius
(if '^on.stnntius II. and Constans of this series
are in the Uritish Museum.
(3) 5^- (Fig. 25.)
On some coins all three emperors have the
title of Maximus. The coin engraved (Fig. J.'i)
was struck at Siscia, but similar pieces with the
title MAX. were issued at Lyons. They are
erroneously attributed by M. Kcuardent (lin.
Xwn. 185(5, p. 253, pi. vii. No. 2) to Cou-
.stantine I. the Great.
The same type continues for a short tinio aftor
the di/ath of Constantine II. in 340, but only with
the symbols O^ and >P on the tabarum}
but many other types were introduced, among
which may be noticed the FEL. TEMP. Repaiiatio
{Felix temporis rcparatio), bearing on the Uharmn
all the three fonns— |J«, ^, )^ (Fig. 26).
The " happy reparation " did not however e.Nten^l
to the softening of manners, for the types of the
coins as a rule represent scenes of the grossest
cruelty. At the introduction of Christianity
artistic style seems to have poriished, ami the
coinage of this and later periods, to quote M.
Cohen's expression {MAI. Imp. vol. vi. p. 26+,
note), can be summed up in two words — " mono-
tonie dans les types, lorsqu'ils ne sent pas bar-
bares, barbaric lorsqu'ils ne sont pas nionotone.s."
It is during the reign of Constnntius 11. that
the brass coins with the inscription HOC sioxo
VICTOR ERIS are first issued (Kig. 27), a IcgenJ
which is repeated on the coins of Vetranio (350)
and of Constantius Callus (351-354).
The most important innovation of this period
was the introduction of the letters A anil U)'
I havo already pointed out (§ xviii.) that the
coin of Constantine I. with these letters caimot
be relicil on, and I have now further to st.ite
that many numismatists and others ((iiirrucci,
Martigny ; see art. A and CI) have accented
OS genuine a gold coin of Constantius with the
i For the classiQcallon In this sccKon of the coins uf
the sons of Constantino with the loRend olobi* ex-
EHCiTvs, which Is fnlly developed In my pn|HT In the
Numitmatic Chronicle, (N. S. 1878, vol. xviii, p 33), I
am Indebtcil to the labours of the lute Mr. tic Sulis.
' On some of the coins of Constans and ConMuntius II.
the letter M occurs on the labarum, which M. dc Wllle
baa fUggiB'ed {Rev. iVuii. 18B7, p. 197) may U' the Initial
letter of the Virgin Mary, and Mr. King {f:arty rkrUU
.".';;». p. 4.'!) n( if(ig}UT.ti:i:. coa'.jnander-ln-chlef un'l"
( nstans, bnt neither of these theories Is worthy ct
serious thought. Moreover the letters 0, C, G, I, S, T, or
V, alK> («ur on the toliaruiii, and how are these to hi
Interpreted I I cannot explain the letters.
jlobe surmounted \vi
MONEY
* )^ W which turns out to have been
de.sonbe.1 oHgimilly by Uamluri (vol. ii. p. 227)
•s A )^ Q; but the authenticity of the
piece is very doubtful. These letter., do how-
ever occur upon the second brass coins of
.n.tanfus 11. (Ki,.. .«). ,tmck about (?.5(.u
3..!, and also on a rare silver medallion of
unstans m the 'Musde de Vienne' (Coh,. f
leJ. Im,, No. 28), on which are represented
lour m.htary standards, on the seL„,r the
letter A. on the thir.l OJ, nn.I above nP
anJ Lssucd at lto,ne. It ha.s been sugge"^ed
{Mm Appculce p. 15) that Constais i
St, ing th,s n,edallion at Kon.e wished o
tost A his^ adherence to the Catholic .hnnna
of t e divinity and eternity of the Incarnate
Hor.1, in opposition to the Arian heresy
avoured by his brother Constantius, „„d it niav
ave been struck soon after the council Jf
Mrhca in ,47. Though the letters A and U)
w«« probably en,p oyed perhaps even as en.^
» the council of Nice in ,325 (art. A and n), it
.,^s nut till about 347 that they commenced to
on into general use in any ci.se on coins. As
t. the form U) instead of fl, (iarrucci asserts
(}hj^.jl!lpU,, p l,i8) th.at the fl nowhere occu
on any authentic Christian nu.nument, and con-
omns as al.so does l)e Kossi, a ring published
§xx. Coins of Ncpotian, Vetranio, Magnenlius,
Nepotian made hiir. df master of liome in
iM, and issued gold coins with the legend
VRU3 HOMA and the type Kome seated holding a
gUe surmounted with )^ (;g), but was
killcJ after a reign of twenty-eight d„vs
Umnio, on hearing of the death oJ-Constins
«i.ithe revolt of Magnentius, had him.sel? pr".
trt "T""" "' '*'™'"'"' «■"' P'-'Hluced-n
Z 71 'u-''i:V^" Ri^H-viiLiCAii with the
tjpe of himsell hol.ling the taharwn, on which
■^- He also repeated the coinage with the
logcnJ HOC SIONO vieroB kris. The usume.-
Jlaguentius (.350-353) and his son Decentius
struck coins with the A )j^ (u at A.Man-
«« (Amiens), a mint that was suppressed soon
«U.r his death by Constantius II. On the c„ins
01 Constantius Gallus Cacmr (351-354) the
mm,o VICT0« er.s again, and for tl! last
e occurs. Some coins of this prince with
e/,j, reverse shew that he to a cei-tain eU nt
Mhor Tdi^";! "'*'' ""* ''"«"" "i''"'""' »'■ '"»
hmnediately on the accession of Julian the
Vtae(,5 -3ti3)all Christian emblems were
etnbli,.hed. In consequence most of the coins
I thbemperor bear the image of Ap,dlo JuDitei
;-.iv^g;;p,;;:So;nft;^,:;^rse;-
ElvtVr ^'^' "f""-^ -^^ I»i»- It i-^ then
S« would h?*^"""" J*""' ""y "^^i" °f this
innw would be m oi.stence bearing Christian
Mf
MONEY
1287
I »ig"^. "n'l yet one has been published -a bronze
I medallion-representing Julian holding a stm-
dard, beneath which is j^ ^Colieu, MeU. L„p.
t;J:l'uZjir^'^- '[''," °"'y ''"'"t ■■» its
t Vt! <• ^T "t It shews Julian ns bearinir the
'tie of a„-sar, and if really authentic m,t
l.nve been struck imme.liatcly on h ,„„,"";
ment to that honour in 355. I canm h o v ,"
say that the medallion is above B«"Sn
to thedcm .,f TAoodosius t/w Great (395) '^
Under Jovian, the successor of Julian tK«
f'^tate although a few coins b ari g " i*
tyiies^ with the legend VOTA Pviu-iCA occui nnd
which continue to circulate during the X;; f
\ alentinian I., Valens, and Gratiantchri ti m" em
•■^■f; 1" a cross together with the monogram
;j< or the simple, laharum are of common oc
currence (Cohen, JM. Imp. Nos 17 2n T},.
^^'■.^4Go;Ki;:g.^4'^;!^i:'«;f;;^'i;^.
as struck at lUvenna, cannot be genui e l'
Ifavenna was not established as a i.Tint z^' iT.
ro^ of Ilor^ri.. (Madden, ^nl cl^nfs
181.1, vol I p. 181 ; 18«2, v,d. ii. pp. GO 253 •
/frnd',. of l{„m. Num. p. 159) * ^ ' '
Under Valentinian I. the mo.st notable rein-
troduction is that of the form £. which is
generally carried at the top of the sceptre held
by the emperor (Cohen, Med. imp. No. 20) bnt
sometimes occurs in the field of the coin (No 05 *
bimilar emblems, as also the /afta,^„/ad -r;;-.'
with the )g or X continue on the coins
during the reigns of his brother Valens the
'iniai;"l ^''-.l^' 1'".=' ^""•^' «■■■"-" «nd Val n!
tmian 11 and Iheodo.sius I. the Great ' The
h'lifrofT^'f •*'"',' 'T "'•AeliaFlacci
fin- rS • } ^^i""'"' '■- who was much esteemed
fo her piety, also exhibit interesting Chii't „„
embems, among the most .striking%f \h ,h
■^ the type of victory .seated inscribing on a
shield the s^ (Cohen, M^d. Imp. No. I), a
coinswf"" H "'""'" ^"l-^ntly afterwards on the
coins of other empresses; whilst the coins ,,f
Magnus Maximus, usurper in liritain and Gau
and of his son Victor (iiONO RWPvdlicae kati)
tl.e form conob ConttantimpoH 72, wruis oJ„ „ h '
Vafcn nlun , . and The,Kl,«lus 1. (Ma,,,,.,,,, ;v«« c' ' "'
sotutl,' coined from one pounU of gold (yum thr,^
p. 3.7). that M. „e Pe..«„y inJ^^yl^' hM.' p"': i'i
! .*
wy^ >H.i !. ',
L MM
Ii88
MONEY
\^''4'' ''11 '
m4
kiilI of Eitgenius, usurper in Gaul, shew more or
less the same symbols.
§ xxii. Division of the Empire (395). A. T/w
West to end of Western empire (476). B. 'J'he
East to the time of Leontius (488).
A. TAi' Vies*.— After the death of Theodosius I.
the empire was divided between his two sons
Arcadius and Honorius," the former taking the
Eastern, the latter the Western provinces. About
this time the type of Victory, holding a globe
surmounted by a cross, is introduced (Arcadius,
Sabatier, Mon. Byz. vol. i. p. 404; Honorius,
Cohen, Me'd. Imp. No. 24), and the Greek cross
may be seen on the exaijia solidi of Arcadius,
Honorius, and Theodosius II. (Cehen, No. 6,
Sabatier, pi. iii. No. 9). On a gold coin of
Honorius struclt at Ravenna, in the collection of
Dr. John Evans, the emi)eror is represented
holding a spear, surmounted by _E, on the
head of an animal which appears like a lion
with a serpent's or dragon's tail.
On certain coins of Aelia Galla Placidia, wife
of Coniitantius III., the colleague of Honorius
for a fc'S' months, the jP or a crosf, is re-
presented on her right shoulder, whilst the >P
i.s within a wreath on the reverse (Cohen, Nos. 1
-■IC), and the hand from heaven crowning the
eijiprcss i' introiIi.ced (Cohen, Nos. 2, 10, 11), as
bad also been the cas.> rn ihe coins of Eudoxia in
the East.
The us'irper Pristv Attalus seems to have
dr.ii):>ed Christian em'ilems, and Uome having
bi'on sac!;eii by Alar'" who placed him on the
tlivone, he (Ureu tostrilte silver medallions twice
♦ he size of a Hvc-shilling piece, and gold and
&iKer coins with the presumptuous legend
INVICTA ROMA ALTERNA (Cohcn, NoS. 1, il-S).
The usual emblems occur on the coins of John,
proclaimed e;ri)eror in 423.
Valenlinian III. appears to have been the first
emperor who wore a crosf on his diadem, if the
gold medallion is genuine (Cohen, No. 1, from
Banduri), and on other coins (Cohen, No. 11),
holdmg a cross and a globe on which Victory,
"• I )urlng the reign of Honorius some bruss medals were
issiiod representing in most casts tUe head or Alexander,
bnt sometimes that of Honorius, and on tlie reverse ar
ass suckling her j-oung, accompanied by the legends n. N.
IHV. (jit) xi'S DEI riLivs or lovis FiLrvs or asina, or as
on a largo medallion of the contomiate class, the monu-
gram jP . The efflgy of Alexander the Great seems to
have been considered as a " pnitectlon " (Trcb. P(iU.
"xxxTTR." 14). John Chrysostom (ffomii. II. No. 6;
cf. Montfaucon, Op. Chryt. vol. 11. p 243) reproacbed
certain bad Christians of his time for wearing as
amulets on their beads or feet medals of bronze with
the head of Alexander the Macedonian (voiiitriiara
XdAta ■A\efai'8pov tou MaKtScSiXK rai? xeifiaAai; (tat
Toi? iroo-i iripiBtiTiJiOvvniv). These me<?..d8 were
thought by Eckhel (Doct. .Sum. Vet. vol. vlli. p. 173) to
be symbolic representations made by the Christians, but
Tiinin' .-.ppcars to have l)een of opinion that tliey were
BOtlrlcal pieces fubricited by the Pagans to turn Into
derision tiie namt •! Christian, whilst Cavertonl (Rev.
A'ltjrt. 1S57, i>. 3U), thinks th.it "tbry arc !lic w.^vk .->f
certain evil Christians or the Gnostics or Basllldians,
who employed these medals as 'plerrcs astrlfenfl" to
circulate among the people their falae and detestable
doctrines." [See Heuals, below.]
MONEY
he changes the ordinary captive trampled under
foot to a hum m-hcadei}. serpent, a custom fo|.
lowed by many of his successors. The type of
the emperor holding the mappa or volumen and
(I tonij cross was also introduced (Cohen, No. 21).
His wife Licinin Kudoxia also bore the cross on her
diadem on her coins struck in Italy (Fig. 29; Cnhen,
No. 1). A very rare gold coin of this einprevs
(De Salis, Num. Chron. N. S. 1867, vol. vij. pi,
viii. No. 1) has the >P sui rounded by a circle
and the legend SALVS OUlioNTis fkucitas ocoi-
DiiNTis. It was struck on the occasion id' her
marriage ifn 437, and she was so called beL■:lll^e
Theodosius II. had no son, and the Eastern em-
pire seemed likely, as well as the Western, to
become the inheritance of his eldest daughter's
issue (De Salis, op. cit. p. 206). Some coins of
his sister Justa Grata Honoria bear the legend
BONO RBIPVBLICAK (Cohen, No. 1).
The usual types occur on the coins of Petro-
nius JIaximus, Avitus, M.ijorian, Anthemius,
and his wife Eufemia, but on one coin of this
emperor representing Anthemius and Leo, tliere
is between them a tablet (surmounted by a cioss)
on which is inscribed the word pax (Cuhcu,
No. 9).i On the acces.sion of Olybrius he dared
to introduce the legend SALVS MVNDI, engraving
on his coin a targe cross, though he only enjoyed
a reign of about three months and thirteen days.
The coins of Glycerius, Julius Nepos and Romu-
lus Augustus (Fig. 30), the last emperor of the
Western empire, oiler the usual symbols.
B. Jlie East. — Under Arcadius, as already
])oiuled out, the type of Victory holding a ylobt
surmounted by a cross was introduced. Coins
with the legend NOVA SPi-3 RMi'VliLlCAK ami
the type of Victory resting on a shield were
struck (Sabatier, jl/o;». Bi/^.. No. 17), niatehiiig
the coins of his wife Eudoxia, with the leaeml
SALVS RiPVBLiCAE, (sic) and the type of Victory
inscribing on a shield the ^P (Fig. 31; Sabatier,
No. 3), a type that was already in vogue at the
time of her mother in-law Flaccilla. The question
of the attribution of the coins bearing the names
of Kudocia and Eudoxia was for a long time in-
volved in great obscurity till set at rest by the
late Mr. de Salis (.Yum. Chron. N. S. 1867, vol. vii.
p. 203) ; and many coins bearing the name of
Eudoxia with the >P, given by Sabatier to
the wife of Theodosius II., are now attributed to
the wife of Arcadius.
Theodosius II. issued coins with the legeml
GLORIA ORVIS {sic) TERRAR. representing hitnself
holding the labarum and a globe cntcijer, and all
the coins with the name KVDOCIA belong to the
wife of this emperor (Fig. 32).
In 451 Marcian was proclaimed emperor owin^-
to the influence of Pulcheria, the sister of Theo-
dosius II., whom he married, and who was at
this time about fifty years of age. A gold coin
was struck by Marcian to commemorate this
event, bearing the legend feliciter Ni'l)Tils(sce
Ma<Iden, Xum. Chron. N.S. 1878, vol. xviii. p. +7,
and "Addenda," p. 199) representing Marcian and
Pulcheria, both *ith the nimbus, stniuliug joining
hands ; in the middle, Christ, with the niinim
cruci'/er, standing and placing his hands on the'.r
shoulders (Fig. .33). This piece, which is one of
the most interesting examples of Christian Nu-
MONEY
mi.sm.ilic.s, Ls preserve.! in the Hunter Museum
Glasgow, nnd 1 n.n imlebte.l to Prof. YouZuu'
Oura or the Museum, for sending n,e° n m,':
press,„n of ,t (ef. Kokhel, Voct. AuJvet! vol v
p. 191 J Sabat,er, No. 2). The roins of Puk'he r a
bear snn.lar types to those of the other empresses"
Some coins of I.eo I. shew the _P in the
held (Sabatier, ,d. vi. No. 24), „nd represent
hm. ho dmg the ,nappa and Ion!,' cross (No 9)
IZA' "T: f ^"'«"'"^i»n Jil- previous";
alluded to, but the type of the coins of his
wde Venna as well as those of Leo II. an
the la ter with iNvieiA uoma and s. C. Senat
oonsulto), his wife Ari.iJne, of liasjliscus
/ononis, and son Jlarcus, and of /.eonf
eihibit any novelty of type.
the t„ne of Amstasius (491) to tke takdj of
Constantinople hi/ Mahomet //. (145'j)
The true Byzantine ty|.e of coinage commences
ander Anas tasius (491-518), who instituted a
monetary i-eform. During his reign, as well as
ui-ing that of Justin I. (518-527), the types of
the gold and silver coins are priacipallv the
usual Victory holding a globe, on which u7cross
or else a large cross, or a staff surmounted by the
)^,whilst the s^,^ or sjj. are of frequent
occurrence. The A .^ (x) or ^j^ ^ ^J^ may
be found on the small silver coins of Justin I.
Sabutier, Mon. lin^. pi. jx. Nos. 25, 2(5), a type
likewise appearing on those of Justinian I. (Sab.
pi. .xii. Nos. 12, 15, cf. A -|- U) on /E coins, pi.
xvii. Nos. 3(J-38) and Mauritius Tiberius (Sab
|.l. XXIV No. 14). The copper coinage now
umler Anastasius for the Hrst time bears an
«hnle of the field, almost alwavs accompanied
by crosses. One sjiecimen shews the enij.eror
Justin I. wearing the ^ on his breast (Sab.
pl. X. No. 1), or the -j- on his head (No. 2).
In 527 Justinian was «s.sociated to the empire
y his uncle Justin, and coins were struck of
gold and copper bearing both their portraits
On a very rare co,,per piece, formerly in the
collection of the late Mr. de Salis, and now in the
Br ish Museum the word vita appears for the
first time (Fig. 34; Sab. pi. .xi. No. 22), a form em-
I oyed atterw,.,rds by Justin 11. and S^phil^sl.
P . «.. Nos. 10 12 13), and Mauricius Tiberfu
If '.f '"• iV- ^"^' ^'g^'fyi^R. according to
he late Baron Marcliant and M. de Saulcv, "&/
^"t y™'" '"•' «hich the Abbe Ma/tigny
[Di^t. des An,, CMt. p. 464) thinks may refer
he sign of the cross as the source of true life
In favour ot he first interpretation M. Sabatier
™"'"' (;«'• '• !'• 170) the words yiJ^BZ
MhA on the contorniates and the legend Ne
^m.t (but probably Foster p^rpctlus) on
the brass coins (Sab. pi. xxvii. No. 2ti) of Kooas
»ndl.e„ntia (,i02-610), a» also the letto;:
P- A. M'lL. or V. A. Mvu on the coins of
MONEY 1289
! or MVt,TVSAN:»lS occurs for the first time on the
coins of Justinian II. without the leUeis pa
considered {Rev. Awn. 1859, p. 441) tl .t n.» .'
letters signified pathb or .'ati.h Ivov r an
op.nion that M. Sabatier seems to have a'l meS
m Mher parts of his work (vol. i. P.T4 'vT ,
1 . 46). It may be mentioned that the Mhi
Uvedoni preferred to read Perpetuus a1,'uZ,
399) ; but this inter|>retation is doubtful *^
Un the death of his uncle, Ju.stinian I sor-
;ius, do not h's reign. The ^ (reversed) is also fixed
No 2'A sT'' "5 ""' '"'^'"" (Sab. pi. xil.
^0. 22), set as ,t seems on a plate surrounded
by gems (Kig. 35), and the form n|^ occupies the
ZtlVZt^\"^"-\^^ '"'"' "*■ ""' ™'-'" copper
wins (Sab. pi. xvu. Nos. 2 and 9) '
The coins of the Ostrogoths in Italy com-
mencing at the overthrow of Romulus Augu;
(47b-5„,!), which generally bear the poftr it«
ot Anastasius, Justin I, and Justinian I and
many of which cany on the far.ica egeml of
-NVlcrA RO.MA. as well as the coins of tlfe y'iu.
snci.:r an '■'•'-'" ^'''•''*>' ''" ■"" «'imre any
The reign of Justin II. (505-578 , with the
e.xception of the pieces of himself and\vfe
So,,hia with the inscription vita, to which 1
have already alluded, oilers no new types
(578"' 821 th ""'''™'" V^'""' "• ^^»-^tantine
(0(8-, 82) the cross is placed on four steps (S.b
p. X.X1.. No. 13), or on a circle or glCe gab
P . xxu. Nos. 17, 18), types that become espe-
ually common under Heraclius, whilst on .some
ot his coins he IS represented holding the volZ
men, and a sceptre surmounted by au e g^
above which a cross (Sab. pi. xxii. No 1,5 ; xxi 1'
b't '' 2'.""tl'^)' " t.vi'« "ccurring on ti, ™ h
of Mauricius liberius (682-602), who al.s,, iss.i v
a ery rare so/«/,« (of which a woodcut is .iv,.,
bv habntier, vol. i. p. 238), representing himself
holding the ro/.-»,f« and long c o.s.s, and on the rV
verse V ictory holding a long sceptre terminatiu:
in -p, and a cross on a globe (see the descrip"
tion of a coin of Leo I. § xxii.). The coins of
tocas (602-610) are of the usual type
Heraclius(610-641),whoissuedcoin;ofhimself
and sons Heraclius Coastantine, and Hera,de,.„a
with the 1 tie of Cons,,/, an ofHce that w, s ntt
definitely abolished till the reign of Leo VI. (886-
912), produced the legend DfVS ADIVTA
ROMANIS (Fig. 36; Sab. pi. xxix. No. 23) on
his silver corns, a legend which continued on the
coins of his successors down to the time of Jus-
tmian II. (685). Some of his copper coTa, , ^
an entirely new feature, in that the l.ge, | "
completely Gr..*, instead of the curious mimre
of Greek and Latin, and also reverts to the
Constantinian legend gN TdTO NIKA {~-!,
I
121)0
WONKY
MONEY
nmi
Im
i'm
Ira
NIKATEon thdsa of Micli^iel VII. and Mum
(Sab. pi. li. No. 11).
Thi' late Dr. Kinliiy liaa stigi^csted (divece nmler
the A'om.iiw, p. 5++) tliat the cupper voiat, ot' nule
falnic with tlio €N TOTO NIKA legend
were prcibably coined by Heracliiis fur the
use ot' the troops and proviminls during his
Persian campaii;ns, to wiiiih tlieory, with tlie
e-xeejition ot" the words " nnle t'nhiir,"as tliese
coins are no rud;'r tlian tlie rest ot' the copper
currency, the Hon. .). I.. Warren assentoil, addins;
" that s\ioh n type would lie peculiarly npjiro-
priate in a war aijainst the crescent and the
inlidels, thus readoptinj; the lahur m iru^tto,
translated, however, and thereby shewins; how
C.s.sentially Greek thecni|)ire had become " (Xuin.
C/inin. S. S. 18i!l, vcd. i. p. i-2'.)). The .same
type Wiis copied by Constans (t!41-l)(!8), and an
interestin<; account "f some coins of this emperor
and his sous, discovered in the island of Cyprus,
has been written liy Mr. Warren (up. cit. p. 4'_').
■ Durin-,' the short reiijn of Theodosius 111. (71l>)
«<inie small silver coins were struck (Sab. ])1.
j[.\.\i.\. No. .')) benrini; the legend AMtNITAS
D6I (the loving-kinclness, i.e. the grace of God)
within a wre.ith of myrtle.
Durins; the reign of Constnntine V. Coprony-
niu.s, and his sou I.co IV. (751-77.')), the hand
"descemling from heaven" occurs on the gold
coinage (.Sab. pi. .\1. No. 22), and the form in
which the haml is held is sup])0sed to express the
saere I letters IC— XC (UlCT. OK Chuisi'. Antkj.
I. p. Ifl(t). The liand also occur.! on the coins
of .(ohn 1. Zimisces, Michael IV., Jliclmtd VI.,
Alexins 1. Coniuenus, John ll.Oomnenus, Manuel 1.
(/'omucnus, Isaac II. Angelus, John VIII. I'alae-
ologus, and on those of the emjierors of Trebi-
zond. The legend IhSMS XPISBMS NICA,
with the type of a large cross on three step.s,
lirst apiiears on his silver coins (Sab, pi. xl.
No. '-'.")). though on a copper coi:. with the
clKgies of I.eo III. (dead), Constantine V., ami
Leo IV. (Sab. pi. xl. No. 17), the letters X N
for xiistits sica may be found. Sometimes the
X-N
letters are triidicated, X-N as on coins of Irene
X-N
(Sab. pl. xli. no. 13). This legend was continued
on the silver coins of Leo I\'. (775-7S(i), and
of Constantine VI. and Irene (78ii-797), but
Nicejiho-'us 1. Logothetes struck it on a <jolit
coin (Sab pl. xli. No. l-(), and it is generally
found on the silver till the reign of John 1.
Zimisces (909-970), on whose coins the face of
the emperor is rej resented within a circle sur-
rounded by the letters . . ^ (Sab. pl. xlvii.
No. 19). On some of his brass coins (Sab. pl.
xlviii. No. 0), as also on those of Alexius I.
Comnenus (Sab. pl. Hi. Nos. 18, 19), and An-
droaicus IV. Pnlaeologus (Sab. pl. Ixiii. no. 1),
the legend is
Alexius L was the first
eniiieror who was really Greek, and Latin le-
gends are after his time no longer to ba found
on the Hyzantino coinage. It was on tne coins of
Michael L Rhangabe (811-81.!), with the legend
IhSUS XPISBMS NICAfSab. pl. xlii.No.8),
thai lite woiti-s 6A3IL!S ROOOAIOh were
first introduced, "a sad acknowledgment of a
rival Soinanorum Imperator " (Sat, Jieview, Jxxae 1,
18liP; andTheophilus(8'J9-812)ousomecoinsof
the same legend ami type (Sab. pl. xliii. No. Id),
calls h.mself 06OFILOS ^MLOS XPISBUS
PISTOS en AVBO bASILEM ROMAIOh,
whilst on some of the same type he inscribes
CVRI€ bOHOh XO SO 60VL0)L;e
Kiipif /3u^fl<i rif <T^ Sov\(p (lord jirotcrl tlii/
surv'int).
The principal Christian types on the I'.vzan-
tine coinage may be classified iu the foilc'wlim
manner : —
A. CiiRlsr. — During the reign of Justini.in I!.
(08o-09.")), who had been deposed on acciniht
of his cruelties in 09.') and banished to tlio
Chersonese by Leontius with his nose cut
oft', and hence his name of likinoiiru'tm
('PiC(iT;U7|Tos), but who was restored to the
throne together with his son Tiberius in 70.5
many innovations were introduced, the most
notable of which is the bust of Christ hol.lin?
the gospels and giving the benedict i(ui, with
the legend JN. IhS. ChS. ReX ReGOAn-
Tll|m, and on the reverse the emjieror holding
a long cross with the title of S€RM. ChRISSI
adopteil by himself. On some of the cuius the
emperor holds a globe (on which is the word
I'AX), suj-mouuted by a cross (Kig. ;}7 ; .Sab.
pl. xxxvli. No. 2). The former legend is gener-
ally found on the (jotd coins, but it some-
times occtirs on the siivcr and copper, and it is
always accompanied by the type of Christ repre-
sented in the four following ways : —
(1) Ihtst of Christ facing o>i a croKs tm the coins
(Kig. 37) of Justinian II. Khinotmetus (085-iil)j)
and on his coins, with his son Tiberiu.i IV. after
his ri^storation (7i).')-7H). From the reign of
Leo III. the Isaurian (710-741), the fir.st of
the Iconoclasts, to th.at of Irene (797-802),
all images of Christ, the Virgin, and Saints
were abolished, though the legend IhSHS
XPISCMC NIKA without any image, as I
have above shewn, was introduced during the
reign of Con.stantiue V. and his .son Loo (751-
77.")). The bust of Christ facing on a cross
was again produced (S.ib. pl. xlii. No. 1) on
the coins of Michael I. Khangabe (8 1 1-8 1 3), and
at'ter another interval of about 30 vears, on
those of (Sab. pl. xliv. No. 7) Michael" III. and
his mother Theodora (842-856), and on thnse
of Michael 111. (Sab. pl. xliv. No. IJ) when
reigning alone (856-866), but with the legend
IhSyS XPISBOC^ . On a brass coin of
Michael VII. Ducas (1071-1078; Sab. pl. li.
No. 8) the bust of Christ on the cross occurs
between t'l'o stars but without any Iciicud.
(2) liiist of Christ faciwj on a cross with
nimhiis, from the reign of Constantine X. and
Romanus II. (948-959) to that of Isaac L
Comnenus (1057-1059). The nim'ius is gene-
rally adornea with gems. [Sab. pl. xlvi. No. 18;
xlvii. Nos. 10-12, 17; xlviii. No.s. 10, 19, 20;
xlix. Nos. 3, 5; 1. No. 1.]
(3) Christ tcith nimbus crucit;er seated facing,
sometimes holding the right hand raised, from the
reign of Basil 1. and Cimstantine IX. (869-870)
to that of Manuel I. Comnenus (1143-1180).
[Sab. pl. xliv. No. 22 ; xlvi. No.s. 1, 3, 4, 6, 12;
xii.\. No.s. 2, 4, IG, 17; 1. Nus. 2, 0, 10; Ivi,
No. 3.] It was on the coins of this type (Sab,
pl. xlix, Nu. 17) that Isaac I. Conineaus changed
SIKI (see above) i.^
MONEY
thotv|,e„ftl,e ^-oM coinnge of the empire, «n,l
nnr.'SM..,! 0., ,t l,m nwn tigure with a ,| -awn
.war, ,n ins nght han.l, thereby, „„ the Uv n-
nc uruens pretend, n,cril,ing his elevation to
tlie throne, „.,t to the grace of G„,|, but to l,i"
ojvn eourngu (Kiulay, l{,st. of By, and W
(4) Christ wllk Himbm cni>-i,,cr stawlhin f,vin<i
™ ';^;^;::;;r(t••l^-'-•^"•l■i)ofThiio•
On a go a c.,in of l{oman„s (. Constautine X
a.., hnst^,,horus (920-0^4), Christ is re,,,^:
.s^nte,! ,r,M a cross at the back of his llul
stnn^mg crowning the emperor liomanus I. (Sab
I'll A 1 \ J ( i\ (J* Xi'l,
The type of Christ also occurs in the follow-
mS various types, accompanied by the letters
lw.-rhe letters jc-xc aii,i this type first
"=> "'« '"••-'ss c'-ins of .lolin I. Zimisces
MONEY
1201
?i:5^"7«^b;;;;i;rthrXir;;::o^~:
+ inbgs XPISTMS bAS L6M bASILP
(K.?. 38; .Sab. pi. xlviii. Nos. ;i, 5, ? k> ':« I
.he n.tribution of these anonnn^us" coiills
John I. /imisces ,s founded on a passage of Scv
ite and of Cedrenns, where it is said that
"this emperor ordered to be placed ui.on the
con^ he linage of the Saviour, which had no
Ik n done belore, and on the other side L.,tin
letters forming the sentence, iicsvs ciiRisi vs lu x
an only refer to these cop,K-r coins, as the bust
ul Christ occurs (as 1 have shewn (1)> on the
coins ot other metals of earlier d.ites. The same
letters are sometimes connected with the word
SIKA (see above)
(Sab. pi. ilviii. Xo.
B; lii. Nos 18, 19; Iviii. No. 18; L^iii. No n
a form ot legend also occurring on the com.ei'
«>ms of Romanus IV. Dio.on.s (1U07-1O 70)
™t lioi-e representing the bust of Christ uW„mt
tlie cross or mmbus, and with three globules
on either side of His head (Sab. pi. li. iiZ.iT
Ihetype continues from tlie time of Theodora
Am. 1», 20), as well as on those of his urede-
«or Manuel II. (Sab. pi. l.,iii. n„3. y\\"f'-
tie bust of Christ is surroumled hy 'sttsov
crosmmth the legend OV.XAPITI BAP Acr
X?"'^"^ "^^ ^'-^^^ofTAi,?,
' k *o„.,„,,"_equivalent to the Dei ./ratid on
r wn coinage. It is sometimes accompanied by
f-s legend KgROHOei for K.V.6 BOH06I
« on the corns of Alexius I. Comnenus (Sab
M"..No. 0),and Manuel 1. Comnenus (Sab
fi. v.Nos.5andlO; Ivi, No. 5). ^
(t>) C.insi mth nimbus crHci,,er seated facimi
SXS6ASILe 6ASILI, and on a verv rare
Ttie words K6. Rowmci -,.„
aHcd nn fl,„ „ ■ ? ,, '^^l "'« sometimes
"iiM on the coins of Alexius I. and John II
»h.lston some of Andronicus II. PalaeoJo^ anj' |
I Andronicus III (\'i"r. ii')h\ ik i , .
iNVfit BOH©6l (Sab, pi. hi. N„s. 14, 1,-,)
On some the coins of Michael VIII.'( ,4.
1282 Sab. lix. Nos. 3-(n r/iriV , .11. ■ ,
--A/.r or,,i„,.us is ...^h^l J ^^^S
sr^orl^c;:.;i^""""^-'""''""'^"tth^
u,';xi:^^ry:i;;^'^'^^''^'^-^^;^^:
Ale^x"!?. '?"/s"i 'ST."^9, °'='^"'' »" «"•"« coins of
No 11) " Wy ^'^'g' JJ; Sub. pi. xlv.
.0 have been ;,rrrm,i*trrthV'''"''^'r^ '''''''
a «!' o?Sfo:t;ir*r ^'"^v^<'«%
of (Sab. pi xlvi No t«w K fvf''"'" *''« *"ne
VII. Duels lS711,r^'-''-^''' ^' ^> ^"-^hael
panied b;\h?i S'^^k^BoSen •;;^'^"'"-
ffo^f'^i. mother of Zl M^) BOH0ei (e.or<i«,
medal/ion rests i l^rch^wMUtT,"""? *'"'
raised., on the coins ot '(Sab 'pMi'^iif f"?
. 7 7 , ^ -^'exiHs I. Comnenus n08I-1 1 1H^
and of (Sab. pi. liv. N« \i\ I„l,„ ir ,/ '^^'
(1118-1143). ' On the coin of I K ^T"''""'
there is the legendrnlTsu n^nn-""'='='
wha^^«S.h^n,z3-_-^
Ma// no. /..V „/ tt, ,,,^;- (£---« -^^^
V^ 7,'- ,"■"•'• ,''• 2o» ! PJ- vii. No n "■
ri
1
'.I"'!
■■h.illllj
it-
1292
MONEY
' * «'.]
r-'
! •'
'1
Paliie.iliicus (I'JOl-lJS'J), of (Sab. pi. U. Nn.t.
1-4) Aniln>nicus II. I'alftuolojrusi (rj82-l.'i28),
and of (Sab. pi. Ix. Nos. 1.1, 14) Amlronicus 11.
anil hi.s s(in Mtchiiel IX. (l:;9l-i:i2o).
The walls are those of Constantinople, anil the
type comniemoiaten the restoriitinn of the <lreek
emperors at Constant inoi)lc after it hail been
under the sway of the Latins for nearly fifty-
eight years. I'aehymor of Xicaoa, who Hourished
during tiie reign of Michael VIII., records that
'•Michael, after the taking of ^.'unstantinople,
changed the type of the old coins, engraving
instead a representation of the city," but at the
game time lie debased the standard of the mint,
and issue I coins containing only 15 parts of gidd
and 9 of alloy (I'achynier, ii. ;i'4;i ; Kinlay, f/ist.
of llj/t. <ind Qrcck Empires, vol. ii. p. 4;?t)). The
obverse type on his coins represents the emperor,
presented by the archangel Michael, kneeling to
Christ seated, or the emperor in prostration
before Christ staniJing, or the two emperors
blessed by Christ, [/'jies of Christ, (6), (7).]
(ff) I I'n/i/i with nimbus saitoil faoinj, on coins
of John li. Comnenus (1118-114.!) but with the
Kinds outspread (Sab. pi. liv. No. IH), of (Sab. pi.
Iv. No. (i ; Ivi. No. 4) Manuel 1. Comnenus
(1143-1180), and of (Sab. pi. lix. No. ,5) Michael
VIII. Palaeologus (1201-1282). (Sab. pi. hiv.-
Ixvi.)
(/) ' 'ir^m with nimbus seated, ho'dlmj medallion
of Christ, from the time of Michael VII. Ducas
(1071-1078) to that of An.lronicus II. and
Michael IX. (1294-l:i20). [Sab. pl. li. No. 5;
lii. No. 1; liii. No. 18; liv. No. 1; Iv. No. 11;
Ivi. No. 14; Ivii. No. l.i; Ix. No. 16.]
(.'/) l'i»;i/m with nimbus standing, hands raised
and medallion of Christ on her chest, on the coins
of (Sab. pl. lii. Nos. 8, 12) Alexius I. Comnenus
(1081-1118), of (Sab. pl. Ivii. No. 4) Androni-
cus 1. Comnenus (1182-1185), all with
K6. ROH06I, and of (Sab. pl. Ivii. No. 20;
Iviii. No. 5) Isaac II. Angelus (1185-1195). On
gome of the coins of Andronicus II. the Virgin
holds the meduliion with boti hands (Sab. pl. Ivii.
Nos. 5, 11).
(A) I'lVi/jn with nimbus standing on a cuahion
holding the infant ( hrist, with nimbus cruciger, in
her arms, on the gold and .silver coins of (Sab. pl. 1.
Nos. 14, 15) Romanus IV. Diogenes (liit37-1070).
On these coins the legend flAPOgNe CO!
nOAVAIN€ DC HAniK6 HANTA KAT-
OP0OI (0 glorious Virgin, he that trusteth in
thee pr'spers m all things) forms an hexameter
line. (Fig. 40.)
(»■) Virgin with wrn'ms ftandinj facing and
hands raised or arms folde from the time of
(Sab. pl. xlix. No. 11) Constantine XII. Mono-
machns (1042-105">) to that of Alexius I. Com-
nenus (1081-1118). [Sab. pl. 1. No. 7 ; li. No. 6 ;
lii. No. 7.] On the coin of Constantine XII.
there is the legend AeCnOINA CCxJZOIC
€VCEBH MONOMAKON {l.adymayest thou
preserve the jjious Monom icims). On some speci-
mens the words ©K€. R0HO6I occur.
On other coins the Virgin is repre.sented sicfe-
faced as on those (Sab. pi. Ivi. Nos. 12, 13) of
Manuel I. Comnenus (1143-1180).
0) Virgin with nmi'^us standing croming em-
peror, smrtetimes half-tenqth. on coins of (Sab. pl.
xlvii. No. 17)John l.Zimisce<(9ii'J-H76),ou which,
in addition to the letters M© above her head,
there is added the legend ©eOTOC. 60H©.
JIONEY
1(0 063P (mother of God help the lord John)
[A. CiliiiST, No. 2J, and from the time of
Komanus III. Argyrus (1028-10;!4; Sab. pl.
xlix. No. 2) to that of (Sab. pl. Iv. Nos 7. p.)-
Ivi. Nos. 3,3) Manuel 1. Comuenus(114.'.-l 18i').'
On gold coins of (Sab. pl. xlvii. No. 12) Njce^
phorus 11. Focas (SlLJ-JOliD), and of(Siib. pl. Ixvii.
No. 1) John Angelus Comnenus, cnipuror of
Thcssalonica (1232- 1234), the Virgin is repre-
sented half-length presenting a laixg cross to the
emperor; on some of Michael VUl. Palaeoloeua
(1201-1282; Sab. pl. lix. Nos 10, 11) she is re^
presented /m//-fe/y</i holding the/ (iacMHion which
+ ; and on a brass coin of (Sab. pl. Ixii.
No. 17) John V. Palaeologus (1341-1391), the
Virgin and Emjieror are shaking hiiids. On
another (Sab. pl. xlix. No. 13) of Theodora (li)5:)-
lUoli), to which I have already alluded
[A. Ciiuisr, No. 4], she is standing full-leniVi
with Theodora, both holding the labarum.
C. Saints. — The figure of a saint (genmallr
standing) was first introduced by Michael Vi.
(1056-1057). The following are the saints and
angels rejjresented — Ht. Alexander, on a ijold coin
of Alexander (912-913; Sab. pl. xlvi. No. ,!)•
St. iliehael, on coins of Michael \'l. (Sab.
pl. xlix. No. 16) and of Isaac II. A^l^'l■lll8
(Sab. p(. Ivii. Nos. 15, 16, 17) and other
emperors; St. Con tantine, on coins of Alexius
I. Comnenus (Sab. pl. Hi. Nos. 16, 17); St.
George, on coins of John II. Comnenus (Fig. 41 ;
Sab. pl. liii. No. 15, [A. ClirtlST, No. 6]),
and other emperors; St. Theodore, on coins of
Manuel 1. Comnenus (Sab. pl. Iv. No. 2), &c. •
St. Demetrius, on coins of Manuel I. Comnenus
(Sab. pl. Iv. No. 9), &c. ; St. Audnmieiu, on
coins of Andronicus II. and III. (Sab. pl. Ixi. Xo.
17); St. Eugenius, on the coins of the emperors
of Trebizond (Sab. pl. Ixvii.-lxx. ; some on
horseback); l^t. John, on the coins of John I.
Axouchos, emperor of Trebizond (Sab. pl, hvii.
No. 9, bust facing ; No. 10 standing) ; and some
unknown.
The winged head or body of a seraph occurs on
the bra.ss coins of Andronicus I. Comnenus (Sab.
pl. Ivii. Nos. 9, 10), of Andronicus 11. ,inJ
Michael IX. (Sab. pl. Ix. No. 19; Ixi. No. U),
and John III. Ducas emperor of Nicaea (Sab. pl.
Ixiv. No. 15) very .similar in form to the sern]ihlm
engraved in the article Anoels a.sli Akcji-
ANQKlfl (§ 14).
On some coins of Romanus I. and II., Con-
stantine X., Nicephorus Focas, John Ziniisces,
liasil II., Manuel I. Comnenus, and Alexius HI.,
the initial letters of the names of these emperors
are so placed as to form a cross (Sab. pl, i. Nos.
54-60, 63, 68, 69), in some cases, as on tlie coins
of Komanus I. and II., taking the form of an
anchor, whilst on those of Romanus IV., Alexius 1.
Comnenus, and Baudouin (Nos. 6.'i, 67, 71), the
initials are figured around a Maltese er ss.
There are yet one or two curious pieces to
which I mu.st allude. During the reiaiQ of
John I. Zimisces (969-976) some brass coins or
tokens were issued (1) having on the obverse
the bust of Christ with nimbus and the letters
IC— XC, and on the reverse the lesends
Qli)AAN - 6IZ6ITOV - OneNHTAC -
OTP€<t>U)N, and (2) on the obverse AA-
N€IZ€I— ©€U), and on the reverse OeA6-
OONnTOO-XON, which may be interpreted
liut a])pear3 to be
MONEY
»>V »a»;f„ robs ir.V»,Ta.iT^,>j^„„d Aa^/C..
turns of tl,e «ame Hobr.-w verse (I'.ov. xix. 17)
ami the lat ter is the exuet tra,.,lation of the LXX
lhoi.e|„eces have been published by Dr. Krie.l^
ae„, „r (.Vu;„. ^.U.cM/t, vol. ii. Viiua,, mo;
IVikle. Dr. Frei.ilaen.ler remarks that "il is
n,r>ous that the coins of smallest value are a -
ways those which remind (he possessor to Rive
them til the iioor." • i" gi>t.
Another brass coin or medal with the legend
fek-n°7,ft°)? •"•' "'"''■ ^""^ "*•"'•""-"» '"this
re Kn, but (he piece is not above suspiei,.n
Madden .WCWN. S. 1H78, vol.'l^'i
p. 1»I.) [bee JIkdau below.]
To the time of John Ii. Comnenus (1118-
mi n^n"-^' '"'';•"'"' "''''"''" ^'- ''"'^'eologus
(lJ41-l,iJl), according to the late Mr. .le Salis
.ndwith greater i.robability, a most remarkable
p,ece>s attributed, of which the following is a
descrijition : — »
Obv. The emperor with nimbus standing
facing, holding cross and labarum (surmoun ed
by cros.s) on which X. ■■"ouuieu
in/'? m'^'v''''^' *':'--''il>l'ing and making offer-
gs to the Vngm Mary, who holds a child in her
lap. The \ irgm wears the nimbus >xnd is seated
raismghernght hand. Between the Magi and
the Virgin the letters ^^^O.fi. (Fig. 42.)
This ,,iece, which is in the British Museum, is
coDsalered by Mr. Grueber to be undoubtedly
genuine. 1 he shape of the labarum is uncertain
MONEY
1293
'■ ■ l!
but appears to be ^ . The inscription is
perha,,s6VA076<r.,or rather EVAOyVf'^yv,
which ,s not improbable, as fe Vh?rM„7;
was hailed by her cousin Elizabeth a-s" Blessed
among women, and blessed the fruit of her womb"
taprhs TVS Ko,\(as aov, Luke i 42) ^'^ " "
Another specimen of very similar revwsP
S;t fcin^'^r "'V'^*'-»''*'->^-"f
KHJIANV I, (s,e) was formerly in the I'em-
thfh.tl r w"' ""''•'""^'"S "''° *'"' -^ineHf
the Kev S S. F.ewis, who has published and
jngiaved ■ i„ the new illustrated edition of
"uei anirt^^y ?^^/ ^P- ^^ «d- fa.ssell
ette , and Gali.in). Mr Lewis kimllv sent me
the piece to see, and I must confess that^I am no
« logother favourably impressed with its appear
T% ' """y "*«*«"■« that Mr. Burgon the iuthor
of the Pcnijrohe ScUo CaMogue (p. 324) Zsed
!t among "early fabrications in copper bear n^
minginary types," and stated tha '"the c ,„!
1«. .on can hardly be regarded as genuine bu
" spunous only on account of its^ co,n^ltZ.
The two birds (doves?) in the ev , of the
reverse, Mr. lewis (o,,. cit.) suggesis mav "deli-
jately symbolise the puriHcatiou." [See Mkuals,
,/.iST^^V! ^'"""g")' has suggested (lict.
<cs Ant.,/ Ch-ft. p. .iHi), that mells or medal
ons 0, thi, description were fic.uentlv "tru k
loi suspending round the n.ck, as was done with
someot the mr,. ,tore. witli the samesubjict
(Oarrucci, U'/n, iv. \o. 9). ''
The re|,resentation of the a.loration of the
J-ag. on both these pieces, especially on he
!. tter, IS somewhat similar to that oi. a fresco
ot the cemetery of Callistus engraved by Ma-
tigny (o;,. cit. I.e.). or to that on a fresco in the
cemetery of St Marcellinus, engraved bj^ the
•WS. 18(7.) (Compare p. 1299.) ^
MrU^Tl""'"! ' '""■'' '•"'^'"■J "'y th-nks to.
i U ■ ^- ^'I"'-''«'r> assistant in the Department
of Coins and Medals, British Museum "the
trouble that he has had in superintending he
asting of most of the coins here eng,•ave,■^ „„d
n tL "'"" "■'"' "■''''■■'' »"= '>''' ''"^«''^red
my numerous queries.
The principal work.s referred to are as follows :
-feuardent, Meyaillci cle Constantin et do sos Ills
portant Je. su/nes cle Christianisme in the /cr«"
jum,s,mt,,uv, 1856, p. 247; C. Caved"ni
Jiicerche cnticho inturno alle meda,,lie Ui Co.tan'-
t>noMa,jnoo -/«' .«„.• /,,,„./; insk,niteT p\
d swiboUCnstUmi in the Opnscoli Jielujiosiul
(Zl\ ^''7o'- '• '"• '*''■ ■■''-"1- ^^'odena, 1858
(t rage i part 27 pages) ; N,u.ve ric. crit. intorno
altc mcJ. Custantmiane insi.jnite deW effinio delta
Cro.. ,n the Up,^coli Keli.iiosi, etc., lTv. J^
5.J-b3, Modena, 1858 (tirage 4 part 11 pagei
K Garrucc.,i\ «m.smu<«;u Costantiniana Lrtant,
.„ • 7 ■ n ■'. r "»"S'"''<«;u Costantiniana portante
ic.imd, Lnsttanesimo, in his VetriOrnatidi fi.nire
". oro trovatonei Cimiteri dei Cristiani prUuM
d,Soma, ,.p 86-105, Roma, 1858; C Cavedo^
'mndu;eale rcerche critiche, etc. in the Op^l
rf,nV/ /r-l* -^/P"''' ?*^ f^K"')! H. Cohen, J/.-I
dmles Mp^r,ales, vols. v. and vi. Paris, 1861
1802, vol. vn. (Supplement), 1868 ; J. Sabatier
Monm,es Buzanti^ies, 2 vols. Paris, 1862 -K
Wucci, .^„„.. Cost. sia dei sel/ni di Cr^i
p. 232, Koma 1864 [a partial translation of thU
('po''232^ . '-''^;'!^' ""'"/"K »•'« ■•■'troduction
■'5^' ^2f:-''5)'««l t^« concluding remarks (pp.
I866 p^'7«"""h-''."\, ""'/'^'^ ^yumismatiixl
w ?■ 1^:/^' ^^""^ ^"« """^n translated into
Lnghsh (but must be used with caution) by Mr!
l;v\ i"^' ^'"•'yj'"-'^t''^'> ^nmisJti/s a>^
other Antuiua,-u,n Tracts, 1873]; C. Cavedoni
^'^"^'l^nella „^,„ .aizione della Num. c7st.
MP. Raffaelc Oarrucci d. C d. G. in the Sivista
dolla Aum. ant. e modem, vol. i. pp 21ol2''8
AstU864; R. Garrucci, Aote alia Fun Cost in
the r,ssertaz,om Arch, di vario argomento, vol i
pp. 2^)-30, Roma 1865 ; Martign^, Z SrTtt;^
18bo; K W. Madden, Christian Emblems on the
1877 7 H ^t"":smaiic Chronicle, N. S.
8 7 vol. xvn. pp. 11, 242. 1878, vol. xviii. pj
' ^^^- [F. W. M.]
Passing from the Eastern Empire to Western
¥'\
I i ' "«H
m
' i! 'tC'i
i ■ p
•t *
y
ir
i
1294
MONEY
U'
I
KuHPiio, we liiil that, frmn tho roign (if Ho-
ndi'iiis ildwiiwiinls, thi' grailiml loss (it" tcrritdry
t(i the Uciiiiim I'tniiiro is miirl;(».l by tho iiitrd-
(liu'tion (if new Cdiniiijcs issued liy tho biirlmrinn
invailcrs in plnco of that which iirnoci'ili^l tVoni
th(! ini|i(.'nal mints. In nidst cases, hdwcvcr,
tlicse now issues liogin ns nicru imitations dt' the
Western or Kastern imperi.il coins, and it ia not
till Idng »iibsei]uent to their ac(niisition of a
cdimtry that tho barbarian nations institute
ilistinetly roooi;nisable series of coins. The tact
is, that the imperial ciiinage had biM'n so loni;
the coinai^e of the Koman world that it was onlv
gradually that the Teutonic invaders conceived
the uossibility of substituting a .soparat(! coinage
of their own. The length of time which often
elapsoil between the settling of these invaders
in Itonnin territory and their lirst issue of a
coinage on which the name of tho emjioror is
replaced by that of a barbarian king, is e.'sem-
pliliod in the case of the Visigoths, who under
Astanlf in 410 established a kingdom in A()ui-
tania, but who did not begin a national coinai'o
until tho reign of I,(>ovigil(| (.'i?,'!). the first
kmg of all Spain. Inde(Hl I'rocopius com|dains
of tho audacity of tho Frankish king (Tliood(>-
bert), who for tho first time ventured to .strike
gold coins " bearing his own portrait, not that of
the emperor as was [heretofore] the [universal]
custom;" and acids with slight exaggeration:
"t!ie king of the Persians, indeed, used to .strike
silver money of his own; but it was not lawful
either for him or for any other barbarian king to
make his j^old coins with a portrait of tho
ruler." (/kll. Gvth. iii. 33.) This was about
the year 544.
It is obvious that this long period of imitation
must have had a great ell'cet upon the symbols
of all kinds which appear uimn coinages of the
West, and accordingly we find that the Christian
symbols upon these coins are generally taken
directly from the money of Constantinople. V\'e
may divide the barbarian coinages of Western
Europe from the accession of Honorius to that
of Charlemagne into six distinct classes, struck
respectively by :
(1) The Vandals in Africa from Huneric to the
defeat of Gelimir at Trikameron, that is from
477 to 533.
(2) The Visigoths in Spain from I.eovigild to
the (iefeat of Koderic at the battle of Guadelatn,
from 573 to 711.
(3) The Ostrogoths in Italy from Theodoric,
493 to the battle of Mons Lactanus, 553. These
were followed by :
(4) The Lombards, who include not only the
Lombard kings at Pavia, but likewise the clukes
of Benevento and Spoleto, who struck coins. The
coinage of Pavia and Lucca lasted from the time
of Aripert, 653, down to the conquest of the
kingdom of Italy by Charles in 774 ; the coin-
age of Benevento continued till the death of
Rrtdechis in 95.5.
(5) The Merovingians, who began to strike
coins about 544, under Theodebert, king of
Austrnsia, and continued their issue until a new
coinage was introduced by the Karling dynasty.
(6) The English, who may have brought a
c(.un:tge with lliem into thia country, but who
cannot with certainty be credited with a national
issue until the time of Feada, a king of Mercia,
about 655.
MONEY
On the first and third of these six clas.ies, tho
coins of the Vandals and the Ostrogoths, (.'hris-
tian symbols are curiously conspicuous by their
absence. On the Vandal money none appears
save upon some copper coins of doubtful attri-
bution; on the money of tho Ostrogoths the
only exception is found in the largo (-ross which
appears upim the onibriiidered robe on th(! bust
of 'I'lieodahat as displayed ipon his copjier coins,
and in tho crosses upon some n-imeli".s cojiper
ciiins struck at Homo during the tim(. of 0,,tro-
gotliic rule, but not necessarily by the authority
of the baruarians theuis(dv(!s.
Yet if we were inclined to attribute this wiiiit
of Christian symbols to the Arian proclivities of
the Vandals and the Ostrogoths, we should find
that our couclusions wore defi.'ated by tho money
of Leovigild. t!ie last Arian king of .Spain. Ho
seems to have adopted throe typos fur liis money,
which, with little change, run through the
whole series of the coinage of this dynastv.
The (irst iir^-sents on the obverse the rude
representation of a head (ir bust; on the L^verso
a cross luviHu'e, or raiaod upon three step:, a
type which was first introduced by 'Clberius II.
(574-58J), and was probably adopted 1)', Leovi-
gild about the ])eriod of the second date. The
engraved coin, which is one of Chintila, struck
at Narbonne, will give an adequate idea of this
type, for ft is the iieculiarity of this .series that
the style and fabric of its coins varies scarcely
at all during tho whole ]ieriod of nearlv a
century and n half during which they continued
to be struck. Tlio obverse reads -f- oiiiNrii„i
Ricx ; the reverse, nabiiona I'1V[s] : the name of
city of minting, Narb(mne (Fig. 43).
This type of the cross Imnss^c is the onlv one
which can bo distinctly recognised as Christian.
lint it is curious that the cross is not iulohted
upon the coins of Leovigild'a catholic son S:n
Hermengild. He adopts Leovigild's second
type, which is al.so an imitative one, copied
from the Victoria Auijusta coins of Konie and
Constantinoide. The reverse represents a
winged figure (Victory) walking to the right,
and holding in her right hand a wreath. AnmnJ
the usual Koman legend victoria AVd is re-
placed by the name of tho king, or an attempt
at the legend ikclytvs hi:x. (.See Ileiss, Mun.
dcs Hois Wisiijvths (C E.^ipai/iw, |il. i. Nos. 1-3,
and pi. ii. Nos. 1-3.) Now, though this coin ia
undoubtedly, as far as the origin of its typo
goes, of a pagan character, it is equally ceitiiin
that it is impossible in the history of Christian
iconography to sejiarate accurately the Angel
from the Victory or Nik(j of the Romans and
Greeks; and there can be little doubt that the
figure upon the Visigothic coins would have
passed in these days and in popular estimation
for an angel. The third characteristic lype of
the Visigothic coinage represents simply a ruJe
bust on either side, and is devoid of any attem|it
at symbolism. In addition to the Christian types,
we have on one coin of Leovigild the letters A Cu,
and on one of St. Hermengild the legend Ueiji a
Deo Vita, an almost unique instance of pious
iiLstruction upon a Visigothic coin.
The Lombards may lay claim to more ori-
gir.;;iity th.'in the Visigoths, in thst, upou their
pieces, a most undoubted angel is portrayed,
with a legend shewing that he is intended to
represent the Archangel Michael. The engraving;
AIOVKY
(Kii:. 44) r..pr..H,.nt» n coin of Ciinircrt of thl« tvpe
I h,. .,l,verKe r..n.|, i,n cv.ni nc n;KT. Dialenuni
hu.st t» n^M, wrannif fmln.l.muiitmn ; in front
«m'o.tn,„ ,.„„,, „; ,;,.,, „,, „, „;,,j,_ ^^ -
Jliohanl stanuini; t.) Irft, huMini; l„„j, ,,r,„,
pv.»»Mn,i«„t,»„,l,,nK.ft„,,n,r,u,n,Uhi,.|,l.
Jhi«nnK,.| M.,,n,s t„ have l.wn h.M i„ ,.,|„.,.ial
hunonr l,y th,. I.„n>banl.,, t„ Imvo been, in fa,t
:n snm.. sort thoir ,,atr„n. He is nlontione.l
»n-cral tinu-H l.v I'anlu.s l)iac„„„s (iv 47
V..:), |.l). nn.l wo gather that there were in'
VanietrM , tinie .nany ..hurches „n,i cities
de.Neat,.,| t,. hiin. The cathedral of fit. Mi,.h«el
at lavn. was the scene of the coronation of the
...mharl km,i;», „„,1 some have considered-
thuugh without, satisfactory reasons-that the
now standini? church of San Michel,, dates fron
MONEY
1295
... .. ^,. ,, " •-"" *"i«-in:ir (uues iron.
thcr t,mo. hdlowin^ the observable tendency
ol imddle-nge Cath.dicism to prefer the c-ult of
saints to that of „„g,ls, the niajoi-ity „f ,h,.se
churches and cities probably became in later
days rc-dedicated to some more human and m,.re
popular object ut reverence.
,11'" ,'»'/■'■ '-""'I'lrdic coins abandon the tvpe
of M. Michael an,l a.lopt for their reverses either
« (lower pattern, or else the cross potent, having
one limb longer than the other three. Those of
the 'li'kos ot Henevento, who form a lesser'
branch of the Lombards in Italy, imitate more
closely the contemporary coinage of Constan-
ino|Je, generally displaying on the obverse the
bust of the duke facing, and on the reverse the
ong cross potent and /i,ms>^ upon three steps
known under this form ns the Uy.antine cross
1 ?; ^'^^ i"'' ""'"'' "'^'-■•^■'«'' •'«"• not in-
fiequently the legend SAN MICIIAM3, althoueh
only m one instance do they display the im«|e
of the archangel. *
We now turn to the coinage of the Franks,
which, as has been said, begins with The-- lebert
the second king of Austrasia, the son of Thierrv
and grandson of C. --is. Dating from an earlier
character of the h-ankish money is much more
apparent than that of the Visigothic or Lom-
bardic eomages All the types of Theodebert
aie borrowed directly frop, Constantinople with
no change but the subsnitution of the Mero-
vingians name upon the obverse. The most
common, as also the most Christian, type is that
tiven m the engraving (Fig. 45), and is taken
|;.., the contem|,orary coinage of Justinian. It
a loivls a good example of a Victory which has
just iiassed through the transitional stage and
become an angel, while the legend on the re-
verse VICTORIA avooga still remains to betrnv
Its origin. The attitu.le of the Hgure upon these
with that of an angel which is carved in vorv
upon a beautiful consular diptych' of this epoch
now in the British Museum. ^ '
As time went on a change takes p'ace in the
Merovmg, ^^„^, .^ ^^1 ;-^m he
■n that of any other country of Europe. Not
only dees it depart more and more from the
■mperial type,buta coinage bearing the name
of no king, only that of the moneyer who
^ rnc It, and of the town where it w Jmi, "jj,
isi.tmiuced alongside the regal issue. It seems
^■-Jy-that It waswithm the faculty of almost
paHlculul,^"l''"l'""" »«''k" 'heso coin, fbr
b I r l""T''"e^. Then, is „o r.as,.,,
' ''''"■'*"• 'V ^"»'^ '"'"» thought l,v som, hat
tMsnon-regal „i„ney wasissue.l l,v the a h'nri v
..f a religious see or order. Mo^t „f I, I er
M..'rovinKia„ coins, whether myal orn. „i ,J
.|- kmd known as trientes o^remi J ' ,.c
tiMid, hat ,s, of the solidus aureus. Thei ■ v «
«.'neral y displays a heal upon the obve'e a
..the reverse a cross of .some sort. T«„ • 'ns
. tne royal issue with rather peculiar v,,d
H'V engiaved beneath. Figs. 40 and 47 Ti . ' ,
wh,.^ was struck by (/|.„ribertn:'(o'u:J:[?5
he,:^L;Sr''^'''"""'°""'>«°''^'-- 1"'-
A.u. cuahmikhtvs rr. Figure, probablv a
'^haliee surmounte.l by « cn^s^uXi' ,e
JU.n,,ues XUi..„U.s ,/,j Franc, / 2^) "yt
G-:t'""'' '•^■'"vUorChlJlvigIj'(o^^!
right"' ^"'^"°^'°"^« K. Helmeted bust to
this rare and interesting piece is St Fl ill
tr..su,-c.r of Dagobert l' ind 'c vis li 'Vh:
before his elevation to this post had bee, a g d d"
:""'^ •l"''.";"'"^y'-''"»J«rClotaire li. (jjee^/ i
"/ 'it. ho, by St. Ouen in l>'Achery'» &.wf
iimm, vol. ii. p. 7(j.) ' " "'/'"■"«-
A great variety is observable in the symb.ds dis-
pHVed upon the Merovingian coins, though thy
sting yijes given here (Figs. 48 and 49 e, I
sent a Calvarv, on ether side n( «.K; i '
i-tanding, and a moi!:t;.a:^!:r:Le:^'^; ,M;;::
«teps. hey are taken respectively fV, ma
•silver com of Le Mans and 'a gold^renT of
N\Tr6a^str'^--^^^^^--p"iv!
period which preceded the inti.oduct"!n ^f he
Seniiine barUric gold coinage into Ku rope and
a e-wi h the exception of a few coins' whTch
; splay the monogram of Theodoric - coinnS
m silver and copper only. The money of fhe
VLsignths the Lombards, and the Franks wh ch
are iwe distinctly national and barbarian' i" ues^
aie almost as exclusively coinages in gold- ftr
when the invaders obtained full posfes t'n of
a Koman province they seem nearly to have
discarded the use of silver coins. In our own
coun ry, on the other hand, and probably a V
.n the region of the Lower Rhine, a ^silver '
coinage was almost the only currency and if
'"T,;^ the gold tremi.ssesIor, ^s tYe'/werJ
calle,! here Mry«,_f„und their wav across the
Channel, their appearance must be 'regarded as
qm e exceptional. This fact forms a m^rl"
that of the greater part of continent! I Europe
fhe silver corns which were in use in England
before the rise of the Karling dynasty were the
sceattas, small and thick pieL,''w:igli:raom:
■ \ .1]
iii
•;, 'f''^
i ' f'S.
• 1:
I
1^ . .M^^^^__^_
H^^^^^H^^
^^^^^^^Ba
i 1S.M
12P6
MONEY
U>^.
i!!'l
;
s¥'.H
' I''
. . f < '' < 1
: Hi A"- -*
-•'IX "'i'' . ^
niiieti'on iir twi'iity grtjiiii ; In thi> nurth hmv-
••vpr, that Is, in thi' iMnintrlft of Ucriiicin iin I
l)oir». ft cniiiiiT c m, tho ><;/«!, iin|iiill(>il tho
plnce lit' the nocatt. Snmo few iif thfl .iccnttns
iicnr the naini--. i.f known Kovi'ri'l((n», nml in
thiit ciiMi their iliite i« of cunrHC ik'ti'iniiiuibji'.
Tho cailipst pioco of thU ilosuiiption hears m mm
Utters tho name of I'ncild, n son of Pnnla, kini; of
Moriia, who roiKiifd niHnit (tj.'i. 'I'ha ^'renter
part of these eaily iciinn however are without
intelligible leijenil. They hear a i^vi letters of
the Itoninn chnracter, which seem to have lieen
nothinK but ruile an<l i(;n<>rnnt copies of the
le(;en'l upon some inijierial coin. Their types are
so niiMierou* that « <letnileil deseription of them
is impossible; but the reader may consult the
plates in Kmling's Aimii\» af the Coimije, anil in
Hawkins's En-jlish Silver C 4»s,'2nil ed. A great
majority i.f these seeattas have one or more crosses
upon the field, and this tact has led numismatists
to infer that those pieces upon which no such
symbid occurs were struck before the conversion
of the Kn«lish to Christianity. M. Dirks
(I'erue (/<• In Sum. Jkliic .'jth series, vid. ii.),
who has devoteil special attention to this class of
coins, has gone further than this, and signalised
some types as bearing a distinctly heathen
character, the head of Wodin, the Fenriswnlf,
the sea monster Jormundgandr, &c. On thin
point it is dillicult to iironounce with certainty,
it is extremely probable that most of the aceattas
were copies, more or less remote, of Koman coins ;
Mr. Hawkins in his CitfnLilc /Viu/ has given an
instance of an undoubted copy separated by
a distance of nearly five hundred years from
its original ; therefore neither the presence nor
absence of Christian symbols upon these name-
less pieces can bo taken as conclusive evidence
of t'lie time at which they were first issued.
The earliest known coin among the stycas
merits particular notice. It was struck by
Kcgfrith, king of Northumbria (670-ti8.')), and
bears upon the reverse a radiate cross, with the
legend + LVX or, as we may perhaps read it,
LVX X(/,tir Christus, Christ is [my] light). (See
Silver Coins of En(]hnd, 2nd ed'. No. 09, and
Ruding, Anna s, vol. iii. pi. 28 ap.) This king,
who is called ''rex religiosus" by the biographer
of St. Wilfred, appears to have been in his earlier
days a great friend of religiou and of the arch-
bishop of York. The types of the subsequent
Northumbrian stycas is a small cross on one or
both sides enclosed by the legend, without fur-
ther ornamentation or symbolism.
Towards the end of the 8th century, and after
the rise of the Karling dynasty upon the conti-
nent, pennies superseded the jceattas in the
central an<l southern districts of Kngland, while
stycas and some sceattas c<intinued to be coined
in the north. The penny usually displays a
cross upon the reverse, mid this cross is treated
in curious ornamental devices ; but the coin is
without any other religious symbolism. Type,s
of the early English penny may be found in
the works of Hawkins and Kuding.
Beside the royal money, coins were struck by
the . archbishops of York and Canterbury, by
the former stycas, by the latter peunies. The
earliest of these episcopal coins seems to have
been struck by Kcgberiit, arclibisiiop of York,
ftom 730 to 766, conjointly with his brother
Esdberht, king of Northumbria. One side reads
MONKY
K<.'illli;mir[An?]. Figure stnnlinif between two
long processional crosses. The figure sii'Uis to
wi'nr a sort of three-cornered hat, which miiy
very pridiably be intended for a mitre. The
other aide reads KcrniKltllTVH, and represents «
figure stamling (Hawklnn (t'<J), p. 07, and Kuil-
lug, ill. .'< ; the engraving in the latter, however
is very I'aulty).
The other archbishops of York of whom we
have coins are, Kaiibiilil, 7H0 to 71IH ; \lgmiind,
H.tl to 85+; and Ulfhere, 8.J4 to 8!).'>. Thesd
coins, Which are stycas, follow In typo tliosi
of tho contemiMirary Northumbrian kings, an
described just now.
The arclibishops of Canterbury, whose peniiii>s
resemble in typo those of tho kings of Kent, mid
subsecjuently those of the kings of Knglund, aio
.laenberht, 70:1 to 790 ; EthilhearJ, 7yij to 8(K) ;
Wulfhcard, 80:t to 8;iU ; Ceolnoth, 8 !0 to H7u;
Ktherod, 871 to 8i)0; I'legmund. 8!ll to HLM.
We have said that when the K«i ling dvnastv
came Into power it introduced u new coinage of
silver to supersede the old Merovingian gold
money; and the latter began Ironi that time
laiddly to disappear. Pepin the Short .struck
denarii or pennies of a new pattern and fabric,
bearing no reaembliince either to the current
gold coinage or to the older dennni of Kome.
In 781, we find a decree of Charles the Great
ordering that the new denarii shall be current
throughout the Krank; h kingdom; and iVom
this time it would appear that the coining
of gold almost ceases in western Kurope. The
types of this money of Pepin and Charles nro
as rude as they are original. All attempt at
a fnce or bust is for the most part iibnndoned :
sometimes nothing but an inscription i.s given
on either side, but generally the name of the
king is displayed in a monogram disposed
round the four limbs of a cross, soine«hi\t
like the monogram of the word Rutivi io
the figure 51. Generally, too, a cross occupies
the centre of the reverse, a cross of a some-
what new shape. It is the cross pattie whuh
from this time becomes almost universal upon
Kuropean coin.s, a small even-limbed cmmi
slightly broadening towards its extremities.
" We must observe the position of the cross. It
has its limbs of equal length, and they nf
slightly pat^ at the ends ; the cross is iilant\
and detached, its limbs not touching the cir lO
which surr'unds the field and separates ;h«
legend. A cross of this description only iipi irs
quite accidentally upon the Roman money ot'the
preceding centuries it appears occasiinially on
the Merovingian coins; it became common, and
at length indispensable on those of the Car-
lovlnglans, and no other sort was used " (I elcwel.
Num. rfu Moyen Age, torn. I. p. 87 : see Fig. 13).
After his conquest of Italy, and for the use of
that country, Charles seems to have struck coins
bearing his bust, represented like that of the
Roman emperors. He also introduced a very
Important type, which became comnioa upon
the coins of m.iny succeeding emperors. It
represents, probably, the frout of the bisilicu
of St. Peter with the legend xristia.na
BELIQIO (Fig. 50). Fig. .')1 a coin engraved by
Conbrouse, which is supposed to have been
siruck either to commeuioraie tin risiiiuiion of
Adrian I. to his rights and the assumption
by Charles of the titles king oi Italy and
MON EY
l..th tl,™._ cn.n» „r« ,|lvt.r d.nnril (O.m.
bn u,,.. ,,1. 10,) KIg. 52 nlH,. rq,r«,..u(, „ ,Z.
I 88, Til'"''".'";', '" P'"''"""'*?"" ('-low I
» tMK tu.,|,H.nt y ,n »,e among t|,e Arul,,. „„.
. to l.« „„.t with upon eoin, of ,h,, 'Abbi,,.,.
,yn,yty as „,,rly as 78.) (Ti..»,.nh«u>....n, ^o« /«
h/ni/ifv, Ur. |.. 108, No. (MIT).
In the. ,i„K. „r Chnrlemagne wo h«Te nl.o to
""•'"• "''• '"'Kinninj? of „ ,,„,,„| <.oi„„ge. Tl.e
r,.r. n,m,s of A.lii,„, I. wore ,.robnbly ^,r , k
.nbH.,,.„.„.ly to th. overthrow of th« l.omb.mli •
.ont the b,„t ot the po,,„, facing', in n stvlo coL |
,vm h«.:ninageofC'on»tantiMoi,io(Kl^;.Vt) The
Sin."""" **'" ■" '"' """"her.l.loof
on two H,..ps, „„,, having three* li,„l., jj,^
ulWaUoa byzantine erosH ; on eithir .i.le
R m , m exergne co.VOli. (See Lelcwel, o c
r.! Join " "'^"''"■*' '" •"•"•^"'''y ">« "I'l-t
pnp.ll COM. l,o|,„.el BttMbutes «ne uncertain
piece to Vo.l„,u, as earl as the «,h cen my
■ina h.g. 51 has by some numiMnatists been co^„:
,ue,e,l he proof of „ ,.oi„ ,„• Grego.V
l.>-..n . n spite of the OHK n, howevc
1 M» nt.nl.ution is extremelv .l«,.btf;,|. WiVh'
. « excepfon of these rare papal coins, a„
the corns wh.ch continue.! to be struck l"v
e ukes o, IJeueventum ,lown to the mid,lle
fthe lOlh century, Charlemagne's denarii
i;,rmed the conmge of western c„n,i„'en,nl Kuro
>.?. ."). In our country the introduction of
tV T T '""""■"' ''>• ""-• ^"l-^titut on of
epc.»nv for the sreutt, wh.reby, with a change
of f,,rn, an, « s| ght change 'of weigh,. "h\!
with that of the continent. The shai.e of the
oro,s ,. approached to that on the Ln v f
Charlemagne, that is to say it is now gc,"en,| v
r:":^':;^t:?iri"^y'»«.thece„^.eofth-
MO.VKY
1207
homo donlor, attributed ,o the la, -„ ,,n I r ^'
are howeve,, undoubtedly ^,ul ."'' j':?:
1 Me'r,' :^^!^h"'' '''; '"' '-■'" "^
ti-nis pr'aised by'.h ett':.' "" 'r;-''"'"""
""/-'•.■"». ; and on the other id* a en, ol' 7''""
'^nins of Charleinagne and l.oui, 1, 7 ' ' ""
-H. '"8-"I.X../„'hri't.or,^'!^ -■-;-.
Ih,i money (of which tlw.r,. i. ^ .'■^'^■^IM.
l»r,ti,h M.;Jum;i, M ,';: /LTT""" '" *'"
«t the ti,„,. when the V. ■, , , et:! -dH ''""''
with Charlemnene after .V",.'^""'-' "''"I '«■'««:«
•hoy inflicted o^p;pi":'^,.',^H'l^"""""■ "'"'''
ascriiLdb s:L:u^"S'vr''"7«''
to the very boginuiuff of th,. <),.:' * '
"imo.twitii:,utiub;s?'at,ch'iat::t;r''''*
[C. K. K. and C. li.]
Mkdaijj.
on one side only (j.h.tu-) Med "'""""""'h
■norate events or iXon. j^^"'"""/ '"■"""e-
purposes of devotio,^ or as ;.l ^' ^ '""' '"'"■
<br.!rna„,e,.t:;!;r;:T;"™:.-^-:!M'>oy^^
as they are con,mo„ly ,1 ',l"% ■"*
mntics, this article wouM . , -^"'""-
out some notice of t" ,,.. 1 y^'^' *''"'■
which have come dolirt'l'SXT'"'.'
umbi-accd in this work T(, .• ,, ■ " '*•"•"'
prmcipal subjects IvI^Lt"'"^'"^ "-'»'"'
--('■'- "'9^) trihiiir^
les.
i. turned to the"l'eft""il,'"'™,^"""''"' "'"'buO
buskins o-rhLlels t ' TV'! ' '""''''• '''"'
« staff- upon the ground • his nVh K . f '"^ ""
his left instep. On either V. • ?' '"*"' ""
Jered by l^u'^naroUi " ,e ^pa,^ %T r'K
(with perhaps better reason/ nt -V '""'■*»
the ,uiddle I sheep (ofZ iVsi.e) "Vh'"!' '"
b' --■"■ley, 1000, indeed' accounts an,( I """i 's here sa.l »oin,r !„ 7' . * ishep-
Srin'v^"'''" f *'"' -'-» »^ '«» doges ,:h '''^n', intended ' hTrelZZlt t°/ l^! '"'*
™t in \en,co from a.d. 697-827 • but manv 'he reverse has two V.^l , " *hed,stance.
.e earlier .,...„. ... --■ —' ' "' "'"^ ' 'he Sheph^H^.^!. ^r^^^^^^^^^
holds no staff but ti i ^ betore) now
si-) acrosfhfs's I. r, tlLft ""^t'. '"«"
by either hand. This m^' & ^gl''' '"^
ooMnd nitheradet^i:' -t^ r"?;.:,:^ worK (,.. ro. „,„.,„„, ,„. ---;^
h«namere symbol. In fact, ft-om this tlm^ "ent subject 1 ChSn t t'"^ -""'t «
Jrw.rdthrn,,gi>outEu,„pethe'general tend n"; ?" the obverse the SXVrviU ?""• 'l*^
Lla an "1-1," ■" "T"'" O" architectural '» turned to th„ l„.*'"!.'.".':':'.(.» '"">"' mmbv
"igD, and ujlowing ;he same impul e, the
I Sr" " ''"'""'' "■•chiteotnral r,|-:.,er'than
It is probable that the earliest coin^^oV VeniL
%. d, Vencxia (Vene.ia, Giusenpe Grimald
£"':•!.. ''.l''«\ A^^'^- .">''eed^'.ccounir"a„:
;f these .jrlier HeceV^rridlidlt;;^"^
^ or to be forgeries, and all labour under
S ':':'""""•• '"'?« '>•''" <"■ the c ins pub-
, ' "* K^noine is, in nearly every case
^«Z\ trt,T • '"c'Y ""'•■'«'■"«» rudelv' I :"-•■" - catacombs of Rome Ue, -k.^
mui, the limbs ot which are nearly equal ""'' figured Ijy liuonarotti ^f l^escribed
!:;il^L':r'l'Vf the Maltese ty'pe*'""'; I"'-"' /~4.' T^J^^^WS™"; Z"^"
,L " *<' the »cad 01 Uie legend, or in i ^ _1 ' PP'
centre of the coin, or in both one and fl,„ ' '^'bbon bu« ever often sneoir* nf -Ti
1 "^^rT'V 1, ''''"'"-"' An'esto («97! f^^ •^--h »rit.r, ii; ^et ° t^ft .r.'t^i"
''^Marcello Tegalliano (717-720), Teidato | eK ^ orSL^ft^e il!::" '^ZZl^"Si
iij
•Hi
• ''All'
1208
MOXEY
MONEY
24-28. t:\v. iv., anil after him by Perret, Cata-
com'ies dc Home, vol. vi. p. 118, and vol. iv. pi.
xvii. nos. ."> and 7. Perhaps of the 3rd or 4th
century.
There are other bronze medab exhibiting
Christ as the Good Shepherd. One, now in
thp Vatican Museum, having a design on one
eidn only, gives him (without nimbus) standing
to the right beneath a tree (mistico olivo, De
Rossi); a dog near hia feet looking up: in the
landscape at dill'erent heights are seen seven
Bheo|), standing, lying down, feeding or playing ;
another tree halfway up the landscape on tlie
other side. Diameter IJ inches, with a ring for
suspension. Considered by De Rossi to be not
later than the 3rd century {Bultett. Arch. Crist.
IStlO, p. 42, tav. n. 1). He quotes (p. 39) Marini's
MS. description of another most interesting
modal of this class, formerly in the eolle<ition of
Cardinal Stefano Borgia, out which he has in
vain en leavoured to trace. " Velitris in Museo
Borgiano in orbiculo aereo incuso in antica parte
capita se invicem respicientia SS. Petri et Pauli
et litterae pktrvs pavlvs, suju-a ^, infra duae
aviculae bibentes : in postica stat pastor dextra
innexus pedo, sinistra ostentans fistulam, ad
pedes canis dominura respiciens, hinc inde oves
et inscriptio —
SECVNDiNE viv
AS."
A variety of scenes from the Old and New
Testament is combined in the following thin
bronze ijlaque, which liuonarotti suspects was
intended for a [irocessional cross ; it would he siiit-
ahle enough for insertion into a pastoral staff'; but
was probably made for neither the one- nor the
other in the tirst instance ; a casket is at least as
likely to have had it thereon. Christ, as the Good
Sliepherd, in the centre bearing a sheep, two
other sheep are at his feet. About him, in four
compartments, are the following nine subjects
taken from the Old Testament, having (or sup-
posed to have) some connexion with the Saviour
(see Buonarotti, «. s. pp. 1-3).
In the first one : (a) Adam and Eve ; (b) Noah
in the Ark, wp,Icoming the dove ; (c) Jonah rest-
ing under a gourd.
.'u the second : (d) The Sacrifice of Abraham ;
(e) Daniel in the Lione' Den.
In the third : (/) Moses striking the Rock ;
(jj) Samson bearing the gates of Gaza.
In the fourth : (A) Jonah swallowed up by
the whale ; (0 Jonah vomited up by the whale.
Diameter, 1 J inch. Found in the cemetery
of St. Pontianus; first published by Ciampini,
Ve dua'jus Emblem., p. 4, Kom. 1691, then by
Buonarotti (u. s. tav. 1), from which an enlarged
copy is given in Perret, Catacomhes, vol. vi. p.
120 and vol. iv. pi. xx. n. 7. It does not appear
where this most interesting monument now is.
To judge from the figures it would seem to be
very ancient, perhaps even as early as the 3rd
century (Fig. 56).
The Good Shepherd appears in fine (as it
would seem) on one side of a medal described
below.
(2) Portraits of Christ. — These are not found
upon coins till the reign of Justinian Hhinotmctns
(685-711), and it is by no means clear that all
the medals which have them are not later still.
The earliest in all likelihood, and certainly the
most important, is a massive plaque of i^nU, cm
one side of which the face of the .Saviour in \,,v/
relief is represented in the centre, the oyos Ijoiiii;
formed by garnets or by paste- in imitation of
them. Around it in six compartments is the
chrisma formed of X.nnd R (not P), .-md iVdm
the transverse bar of the cross are suspi-inlcd o
and ai. "Ces lettres sont di-coupiSes i jour."
Ornaments in the centre arc formed of eminiels
chissonc's. Reverse plain. Diam. 63 mill. ; «iii;iit
39 grammes. Acquired in 1855 for the liihlio-
thcque A'ationale at Paris, having been found a
few years previously at Linon in the depart meat
of Puy-de-D6me. Heferred to the Merovingian
jieriod by M. Chabouillet {ditul. des Camkf, ic.
n. 27U, p. 402^. Three holes in the ni.irgin
shew that it had been used fur insertion into
.fome piece of ecclesiastical furniture." See
under n. 3.
(3) Infant Sniour adored by the Mmji. — Throe
me lal.s on which this subject is represented are
known, an 1 there has been mucli controversy
about the age of one of them ; none of them can
be earlier than the 5th century, and all may
probably be much later, perhaps even lower than
the period embraced in this work.
(a) Obv. Bust of the Saviour, with circular
nimbus, between two stars (»'. e. seen in heaven),
holding a wreatli in each hand, crowns two
saints .(without nimbus) in long drapery, each
holding a long cross in one hand, and holding up
the other towards another larger long cross
between. On one side of this cross is o, and on
the other ai. A boy, holding a candle (an
Mate) on the left, approaches one of the saints:
folds of drapery on each side the coin indicate a
ciborium in the apse of a church in which the
scene is placed. Jk-v. The Virgin (without
nimbus) seated on high chair to right, a stool
before her ; on her lap the infant Saviour (with
circular nimbus), before them three magi standing
in short drapery, each holding a round object in
his hand ; above the Saviour is a short cross
(appruacliing in form to the Maltese); higher
up a dove holds a branch ; above the middlf
magus is a star. JE IJ inch ; figures in in-
taglio. Space below exergual line on both sides
empty. In the Vatican. (De Rossi, «. s. p. 5,i,
tav. n. 9.) The composition of the S:iviour
crowning the saints is compare 1 by De Rossi to
that in the apse of the church of SS. Prinio and
Feliciano in Rome (A.D. 645), figured by Ciam-
pini ; he inclines to place the medal in tlie Bth >
or 7th century.
(/)) Obv. The Saviour standing on a stool,
front face, in long drapery (with circular
nimbus), between two stars, holding a cross of
double limbs, each botone ; on either side of him
angel looking towards him with circular nimbus,
palm-branch behind. linv. Virgin, Child and
magi, standing nearly as before ; star above the
Child; dove with branch above the magi; palm-
branch behind the Virgin's chair. Below the
exergual lines on both sides two stags drinking;
facing each other, and a stream between them,
M 1^ inch ; figures in intaglio ; very rude
» The (toldon Saxon bracteate, represented by Wise,
6to(oi. ^ium. Bodl. t. xvll. and dc«:rilx?d at lengto by
Pegge In tbe first volume of the Archaeologia, p. 119,
sqq., Is probably rather too late for thia work. It re-
presents tbe bust of the Savioor, SDd reads eqo a & «•
^LEYiBASlLE (in f„u
I CHRIST. 4.NT.-V0L n!'^
MONEY
n.osa.c of ,t. SellJ'iJZ.r'^ %1°'^'
thinks it earlier than f K^ oik ' ' '*'' ' ^"^
whioh time he find, no medals Ji'th 7' '"•'"
intagiio («. s. pp. 55, 56, Uv „ Tm T^,"'' '?
the preceding were referred tn fK " . "?''
Comneni by Maransoni whn » f "^^ "'^ '''«
them as mone/(S'Rossi ^'^f'^K^"".'''^^'''^^
perhaps not hare erred gre'tly aV'to th ' """^
has a similar rerewe wirh tK J \ *'' "^^'"^
(three) -gi, burthV^a^/tfC^" "f .t
\.rgm alone has a circular nimbus [p 12931
(C) 06t!. EsiMANVHLrsib) Bust of fL« ^'^
full faced draped, with^ criiZm", imbus^";ad:
tab of the cross double, enclosed k a circli
faJ^fp^Siij---£l^
fcfCHnst, p/ai (repro'duee^'here^V^Tr^;!
Aura. CAron. 1878, n 194 nl T ' ,f '•''
mmple of this medaf was fbr'i'erlV in ' """
™nof Pasqualini, who coTrTspi, f/i^o"
^ircheriL Museum.'Srhas Lnroe Zl lH
:er^r^.f::tx:r;^ri:t^'^^?^''^^'
•fthe o4inal), was re^rX InTs^g 'bVL\^
P«si, «. s. p. 44, n 5 Th» Uf* • . ^ '^
^.ce'of the' second half of tt 5tV?" "' '^'
of the first half of the 6th He^h- tA"""-''' °''
Bonev ascribed to John 7- • ^'"''' "'"* *he
ai„i; I '•"""''' '<> John Zimisces f9(j9-97fi^
ri h bears so great a resemblance to th s ,„edai
ne obverse,, was derived from an ea tier nro
-e probable that'tht^mlSb' i^:™--;;^
^Lr^ts^i^^ei'^^h^""'"^"-^'^
^ ".ore artificial and lateMhan Zll rT *°
'funds the S,ivinn,.„„ it "^"""'nat which snr-
MONEY
1299
o^i:nusta,^Sl"''"^^?f <^°-t-tine"x.,
(Kocas), and o?lS irrlih-;^^''^'^'''"''"' "'
sivi. nos. 4, 6, 12 18 nf i"*-.'^"""- ^i'*- P'-
other noticJs of this ni'ecfii ^'''"; ,^0- 12). I^,r
f ^»^ CV,ni^? tern i p'' oi'''. ^■"f '"'• ^"V.
Matranga, R„m 184fi^^'r ','?^ '• ''^- ^ (E<1.
I'Ia<lueofbron^e neXiike .t tl't''^ '" »
KdmondLeBlinf Ti' . ^' P- 9), by M
work, ustd as an SL""'"""""^'^"'^ '•'^^'"*.
the Christian Museum nf7u"'"",?"'' " ""^ '"
(De Rossi, „. s p 37) """'" ^''""'y
Pott^^dt^Lfurf^"''"--'^'^'' ''-''« of
medal, said to hav/bLTr" ,\'''""''"^ ^^°"=^«
the Catacombs, Wuchh:i' ^^ ^"1'^'"' '«
i'lour fad„rh°di^/th: „ .""^'' ■""" "f "'«
Itiiru r '"^^S I XRISTVS I BA-
medal which he Lw wL 1,"™,;^ ^ "'" ^^ ^'""' '"«
Whose age lit,,: c/nT .""wth'r/, "" "^'"«'' "•»"'
I»th arc lute. Thoy Zv Tl f,""''™''^. e^^^Pt that
9"> century, and i7a? L ° ""'' '»' '""^^ "">" ih,
work. V.t a Short Itfce ml '"k" "'^ P"^""'
"nder the doubiful circum 1!^ '^ ""^ "^ unwelcome
obvere. the ,u,l ,Lf of ,h«T". '" """* "" '"«
nimbus enclosed I . a cirde f r":!'/"'' '™''f°rn,
generalcharacteras.hat ^ I" * '° "^ "'e 8«n>o
One has on tl^e r.v rs he , "°T "^ ''<""' ^'°>'-*"-
building With a dZV^loJ'y ^''^"*"" """ "
which is a soldier a"o p ,, ?„"cM°"l"' "" f "" »id« "f
(On». «< J».<. Christ. Ti n ti;. mT"^ 'n Mamacbi
aftor Vettori. ^umm. aereu, r,t rT^'" "^"'"•"-
ianinl, whodesrrih,., fi,!.- , • <^A"»<. p. 47).
collection of cJ!'C'Z7ll'7 l^'^il"''^^ ^-^ "-
tonslanilne (s-unpi adV„\,:, I \ *'**"' ""e coins of
have been .t uck when ?1./ '';.^*"'^' "'"' """'«' " may
the A„as,asis onrbe"lt^of1;; "h ',""L' '"» "a.illca «";
the style of w„rk renders ,1," '"'•'' ^^P^'^'hre. B„t
John 2in.i»ces. De "nfL 1^ '' tT^"^ ^ ^''«» " '<>
for pllKrin.s as a m no ill of fh P ','","''' " '» «"'<^"
Sepulchre at Jernsa.emKL the. /'''' "> "=« ""'7
this medal h,i8 giv! rl ^""'"''''"'''"owhich
Madden, .„„. ^j;^, -•-/'« Ro^i. „. ,. ,„,
the reverse the baptism of nZ', T''^ °"'er lias on
Jordan. Who standing o,rthe bank! "^ •^"''" '" "'o
h^ad an He is immersed i, the r^ver*^ f ^T' °" ""
above Is the dove; the leJe , 1 L ^ ^ '° "'« m'^'fe "
«0M,KVM. with -oROAinTx r "Inch^'p"''"' """
Vettori by Mamachi, u. , t Tn 2/n l^" ''"'"'red after
av^tusmonumenium; "qnotaLn ," ''''^""" '""'
fuerit ne susplcarl QuidenTp Z .'™rr"'''r"""
«nmined this specimm, no/ i,, Kp r„, "f ' ''""'"8
u.iubleroform "unBiu, 1^10 sullVf^» .?" ^""■'''"J'' "
m.d.glia," and is indln,,. ?„ S'lU'artedi questa
There are two u Z,^ " '"Tf* '*' K<^'>"'nenels.
"'lKnofamiBes?o„ o™w H'b'"',?\'''f"^^'^ '» '"«
before on the obverse ace" mn nt^ " "■"' "^ Christ a,
rever.e©a)AAN I EI7P^tAw i^-i",^"' »"" "" '"e
obverse AA I NEI7PI 1 r^i^/ . ''*''er has on
OEAE I WNnl^ iS^^',""? 0" the reverse.
rendering'oW,!^i;!L^:40N;,;;'cb is exac,ly the
have been publl h„d i,y Dr Fr,H,"- Jhese pieces
'thrift, vol II. vien, ,f ,„Lf"' *""''«'• C^"-"- Z'it-
M.«id..n (.V«„. cllZT:jri\;^^ from him by Wr.
No7hL^er:2^r '<rv:^^™^"'- "-
perhaps too hastily to suspccmLm- '' P" "■'' ""te)
the Renals«.nce. is It (^"^s J '«",?''''= ''8<= »'
medunion orancent KoXriirhTr^L";^
83
lllj
Mi
u ;ij(f
.< j.ii^
1300
MOJfEY
MONEY
l'.X4
and Paul). Another bronze m«dal with the
lame heads inscribed with their names and
various accessories is mentioned above under
n. 1. A third of the same roetal in the Chris-
tian Museum of tlie Vatican, (2J inches) en-
graved by Perret, bears the same heads, but in
a different style, having the chrisma between
them {Catacmibes, vol. ii. on title-page). A small
oblong medal or plaque in the Vatican of rude
woric, having a neck-like loop pierced for sus-
pension, gives the head of St. Paul in intaglio
with legend scs pavlvs (De Rossi, «. s. p. 44,
with Bgure). Age uncertain, probably late (^id.
p. 56).
(5) Representations of other Saints. — Among
the few of this class which can be recognised is
St. Laurence (Fig. 58), who is represented as being
broiled on a gridiron, with his feet held by an
executioner behind ; in front sits a Roman ollicer
bearing a stalT, with an officer standing at his
feet ; above the head of the saint is the chrisma
^.^\ and above his body is seen his soul rising
upward in human form (see Martigny, Diet. a. v. ;
Ame. ed. 2, 1877). It is crowned by the hand
of God appearing above, between Alpha and
Omega. . The reverse has an oblate (?) beai'ing
a candle, approaching a cancellated structure,
arched, but open above, which is probably
intended for the tomb of St. Laurence. The
legend svccESSA VIVAS occurs on both sides,
she being the person for whom the medal is
made ; it has a loop above, shewing that it was
intended for suspension. This lead medal, for-
merly in the Vettori Museum, now in the
library of the Vatican, is in intaglio (IJ inches);
it is a cast from a bronze, probably of the 5th
century, described by Menetrier (De Rossi, «. s.
pp. 33-37, tav. n. 8). Other medals are found
with figures of saints either at full length or the
bust only, about which little can be said with
certainty. One (perforated) has a head seen in
front on the obverse, the reverse bearing the
ordinary chrisma with a and at in the angles.
Probably of the 4th or 5th century. Bronze,
nearly 1 inch (De Rossi, «. s. p. 41, n. 6). Another
has the Saviour at length with circular nimbus
between two other figures (Peter and Paul ?), one
of which has a staff on his shoulder terminated
by the chrisma with legend ZOSIME VIVAS; the
other side has a shepherd between trees, with
staff, dog behind. M. \^ inches (/</. «. s. tav.
n. 4). De Rossi is probably right in thinking
tliat the Saviour here commissions the two great
apostles to preach the gospel ; he holds some-
thing (perhaps a volume) in one hand towards
one of them (see De Rossi, u. s. pp. 43-45).
Probably about the 5th century. Another (p. 45,
tav. n. 2) gives two figures (a woman with
uplifted hands talking to a man, the chrisma
above, and on the other side three men. M. IJ
inchei". These are su8j)ected by De Rossi to be
intended for St. Kelicitas and her seven children,
martyred along with her ; and to have been
struck in Rome in their honour. Perhaps about
the same age as the preceding.
(6) Chrisma or Monogram of Chri-^t. See
have seen cr rcati „-f. A tin-foil imprcEsion obtained at
his request by the Rev. H. R Bailey from the original
by the courtesy of M. De Uoeil, was unfortunstely much
injured, and does not enable him either to confirm or re-
move his suspicion, The diameter of the uiedal is 3 laches.
above, n. 5. A small piece (described by Marini".
with reversed chrisma ( ^ ) in circle on ons
side and viNA | NTil in two lines on the other.
JE. ^ inch (De Rossi, p. 43, tav. n. 6), the other
aide blank. Another (perforated) found in a
loculus in Aringhi's time, has the ordinary
chrisma. JE. 1 inch (De Rossi, u. s. p. 43 en-
graved at p. 44, n. 3). Another, a plaque with
loop for suspension, has the chrisma between i
and N, LKO being in a line below (i. e. in Christo
Leo). .E. IJ inches. In the Kircherian JIu-
seum (De Rossi, u. s. p. 44, n. 6, and p. 39),
These pieces may probably be of the 4th century
or a little later.
(7) Cross.— A bronze piece (perforated), irre-
gular in form, about 1 inch in diameter ; has on
one side a Latin cross, at the feet of which are
the a and a in silver, incised and worked in
niello (incise e niellate in argento). Museum ot
the Vatican. Not earlier than the 5th century
perhaps much later (De Rossi, «. s. p. 43, en-
graved p. 44, n. 4). Crosses of various forms are
also figured as accessoiies on other medals, see
under n. 3.
From the Old Testament we have a few scenes
such as the following : —
(8) Sacrifice of Alyraham. — A plaque, represent-
ing Abraham and Isaac on the top of Mount
Moriah, between trees ; an angel looks down from
heaven. An animal ( leant for a ram) behind
Abraham. The style is peculiar, apparently very
ancient. IJ inch, bronze. (De llossi, «. s. p.
40, tav. n. 3.) The same suljject is repeated on
a badly preserved bronze medal, which has s
loop for suspension, where Isaac kneels before
Abraham, who holds a knife; a ram is behind
him ; the legend above (now remaining) is
VRHICVS. The other side represents a male
figure in long drapery, presenting a chalice
before an altar on which are three liglits, the
slab being supported by spiral columns on a
frame; behind him an oblate; the legend is
GAVDKXTIANVS. De Rossi explains the medal
thus : Urbicus devotes his son Gaudentianus to
the service of God or one of the saints, possibly
to St. Laurence ; Abraham would resemble Ur-
bicus in offering his son to God. He thinks the
modal was struck about A.D. 400. (De Rossi, «.3.
pp. 49, 50, tav. n. 5.)
(9) Daniel in the Lions' Den. — A plaque with
this device is figured by Vcnuti among tlie
medallions of the Albani Museum {Ant. iVura.
Mux. Mmi. Mus. Albani, t. ii. p. 119). Xow in
the Vatican. De Rossi regards it as an orna-
ment for furniture (u. s. p. 37). See also under
n. 1, where this and other subjects from the
Old Testament are figured as accessories.
Of the preceding medals those which bear the
figure of Christ as the Good Shepherd are in all
likelihood the oldest; and these (or some of
them) may probably be earlier than Constantine;
the greater part perhaps of the others may be
referred to the 4th and 5th centuries ; all those,
however, that bear the portrait of Christ with
cruciform nimbus are later, perhaps very nii n
later.
M, De RoMi, who above nil others has contri-
buted to the knowledge of Christian medals,
quotes a passage from the Acts of St. Gormanus
of Auxerre, in which it is said that after Oeneviivc
had consecrated herself to God in perpetual
MONEY.-PLATE I. OF COI
NS.
' m
4 P 2
MONEY-PLATE II. OF COINS.
Conatimtlne T.
Lldnliu 1.
CooBtantlne 1,
Helena.
Constantloe L
Oonstantine II.
Constantino
Oonstantin* I.
Constantlne L
CoDBtantlne 1.
Constantlne L
Conitantlne I.
h
^^J
%
.&iy
MONEY.-PLAfE IM. OF COINS.
Constantine t
Oonstuitiao I,
OoDstantfaie I
Constantine IL
GomitaDtine U.
ConatantluB 11.
CoDstantlos II,
Constontiua II,
' i|
P|. !
^ -If
Ami
^.m
< lllii
.1
fi'nf
|'>'^.
'M^. '*'
■'f
H,' '
T tS^
11
m
J.M'
MONEY-PLATE IV. OF COINS.
Bomnlas Augustas.
Eudoxio.
Fig.3a.
A'
Eadocto.
MarcUnns.
rig. 34.
Jnatln I. and Justinian I.
Fig. 35.
f5.
Justinian L
MONEY.-PLATE V. OF COINS.
HeracUus and HeracUus-Constantlae.
Justinian II.
John I. Zlmlsces.
Leo VI.
Eomanua IV. Diogenes.
m
i :m
M'l
^^:
■m
'. '.i
ill|Mi.
lim
MONEY-PLATE VI. OF COINS.
Joba n. ComneDus,
.John V. PaIaeologu8 (?).,
Fig. 44.
cuomo.
Cunipert
Pig. 46.
Cliaribert II.
Fig. 48.
Le Mans.
Tbeodebert.
Fig. 47.
CIoTls n.
Fig. 49.
^Angers.
Charles the Qrsat.
Christ as the Good S
NiOKEY.-PLATE VII. OF COINS.
Charlug the Groat
Pig. 63.
A.
Charles the Great.
Pope Adrian I.
»'g. 86.
Pope Gregory II. (?).
Cenarlus of Charles the Great
Pig. 66.
Chriirt as the Good Shepherd,
(Prer^er^Lr^^ r- '^■» «■« 0" Testament
iil::-'
"Hi.
\m f
'i-'l
MONEY-PLATE VIM. OF COINS.
Adoration of the Migl. (Rev. S. S. Lewis.)
This cut Ib reprodaced ftom the llliwtriitcil edition of Canon Farrar's L\fe qf Chritt, by penniMlon of
lleson, Cusell, Fjtter, «nd Q&Ipin.
Gbt. Martyrdom of St. Laurence. 'Hn. Oblate approaching bis tomb or ehrine.
(De Eosii.)
Amulet against the powers of darkness. (King of Holland's Cabinet.)
He ap[iears to be :
the tollowing are
which St. John C
ill 1748 first publi
«nil name of Alexd
but bearing on the
niather, acconijiani
and the legend n.N
«.3. p. 61, ilONEY
» copper plate {la
suspension, in the
dealer in antiques
as follows: — In tl
DOMi.vvs and sevei
circumference, bic,
RAWS DAVIT. ('/'/
the rcxd of David ,
reverse, iesv >P g,
MI ET SiaiL I LV
IVnSA I NON BALE
SVl'BA yviS I VIS 8)
thee, the arm of
{have howid thee), j
fremit to approach
her, whoeeer thou bci
I'yDe Ros.si concernii
There is a very sin
('■''.?• 59), meant f,
euspensioii, which w
Sicca Venerea, in Tui
Holland's Cabinet at
4' Rouvens, at the
letronne (pp. 29-32)
conjectures are also h
Ok. InviUia invidU
""•ma pura et mund
iata tnaUm (maligna
i'^lMt te Dei brdchii
I'Omm et aigillum
(Abraxas ?).
^^1'. Owl: legend r
"H'rarmleas (sic: pr
■-:■ intaiiti ?). Zigabit l
!" «'» '-•'MS. (Reuvens,
fa Papyrus bHingucn, A
an enlarged figure; fr,
prasion kindly sent by
MONEY
be .ve, boon „,|duce,l fr„,n ancient au ho '
t;H.t bro,ue „,e,la , n? Alex«,M° r of C 'r'""""
.ttaclie.l to the ht'^A llTe I ,"'' "^"^
^. rary, bearing,,,, the obver-etho hen.l of A ol
.nl..r (reading Alkxanokh) covered lih the"
I'- -k.n (a. on his silver coin,), and t
MONKS
1300
I
— ""•" >;"i"»;, ana on the
r.vorsethechri,ma(^) enclosed in a circle.
which St. Un Chr^sost "„ prot" ts^'p?""",*
in 1748 Hrst published a mi.,K • '^'"■'"""''
«n.l name of Xle.ander LTf '"\« *''" '"""J
. copper plate (/am.«a di ramr), perforat«i f",
."spension, m the possession of 4wZ\ ti I
dealer m unt ques at Komp ,„„ r '^<'™"i. a
u follows :-Jn the cenTre !"'''"« "" T ''"^''
i)0Mi.NV8 and seven star.. • °"',' "'"'"* '*
prevail toamrthiL} °f ''"'''S^y^t thou not
geP.s.co„ S-thf:^ffili-l«
Holland's Cabinet at the H " """ "l ""-' '^''"S "^
h Keuvens af f h» . ^ ■^^"*' *'"' " '"''■"lered
conjectures' are also his """"'' *''* '^""'^"'"'
p-onWsS"Sr.^!.:„S/r;r„ti
"K'Te of the size of the original is UUn tv
occur on n »„l.,,„ii ■^"™»'»» here seems to
i. u^drubtedly fithn'"rs""r"""^"' '''"'^^
note.] ^ «-nn8ti.in. [bee GEMS, p. 720,
MONIAUS. [NuK] ^^'^'^
the.v^raiad!:ri:;:„st'oni?[oUr^-"'''-^
^u2\hi';TaTrd'„';?trb: :'r ^-t •"""='' "'
iu the ensuing wt^k^'Vus'st Au^SoTrS
3 s fin.) begs the people to observ^e on tlS;?:
day the anniversary of the ordinationo?Au 'o us
««,„.%„,;;,! * ^ ^^- ^"'^ "»"<=«'' were called
who passed their liv..^ i„ Ir. . ? ^ ,2 '"**'«
^oystill retained tKrShr^'dS
derived trom -litu.rhL "Lm T deLTaS
one who IS emphatically a member of^?
mututy ; and a word whi^h origin h .^'itnat:]
the solitary retreat of a hermit has Z,^et
?k"::1?\V housecrowded with organlLT lifl"
: °" ^'": '^"' °' tne individual monk is stiM
a^M-a.rVo. in the stricter sense of thi
fci
a^m many cases to tell the ecclesiastical S
r !:
)J4 "'*n
If '■■?!!'
II
mm
mm
1310
MONNUB
the civil. A« St. Anthiiny'ii (ii»t nrnnnUnflon of
the monu.ttlo llf'e.nsdiiititimiiNhetl iVom the crvmi-
ticiil, <liitv!i from the htttcv hnlf of th(> third cen-
tury, no reproHcnfRtion of monks ciin b« expeotiMl
miioh eurller thiio the fourth. liotlarl, however,
at the Iji'ginning of liln Mnl volume, In a picture
of the burial of St. Ephrem, roprescMitu three
coenohlteH of the Kiut, one > prnyer, the other
two occupied In bnsket-lli i „ iig; Indicitinif, of
course, the rule of devotion and I i.our which
St. Benedict alU'rwards adopted for the Wcitprn
monnstcrien. (See woodcut. > Mnrtlgny (Diet.
p. 4(17) »ny« that he know , no more ancient
representation of the monastic habit. It is to
bo observed that the nun like habit usually
represented ns worn by the Blessed Virgin, ia
later tlinn tlie mosaics of Sta, Maria Maggiore
(circ. 4.11), where she is represented bareheaded,
•nd richly dressed (llimult de Fleury, V timmiilc,
vol. i. ji. t)4, pi. 21). Her dross has n decidedly
moDMstie appearance in the I'liitenost of the
Lnmentian MSS. of Kabula (Asscmani, Calal.
Biblioth. Medica Luurent. tav. xxvi.), and monka
are certainly represented at tav. xxv., though
the apostles in the former plate wear togae with
clavi. See also tab. iii. iv. vii. and indeed passim.
Thi3 MS. is dated A.D. 5»;).
Uonlo. From Varifgnr.
The dress of saints in the mosaics up to the
11th century is rather ecclesiastical than mon-
astic, though of course many are represented
who were under monastic vows. This a])pcars to
bo the case even in the 9th century Greek Mcno-
logium of the Vatican (D'Agincourt, I'cinturc,
pi. xxxii. xxxiii.). The writer can find no dis-
tinctively monastic dress in Professor Westwood's
Irish and Anilo-Saxon MSS. up to that of St.
Dunstan, 11th century, plate 1. The dark colours
would be objectionable in illuminations; but the
black Benedictine robe and tonsure are unrais-
take.ible. A monk, apparently in glory, h:is a
pink habit and the tonsure. [U. St. J. T.]
M0NNU8, martyr ; commemorated at Rome
at the cemetery of Traetextatus Jlay 10 (Ilicron.
Mart). [C. H.]
MOXOOnAM
MOVOnAMHVT.UM (,y,o,inww\w\ fh«
candlestick hid ling a single tiiiier, carried belnre
a patriarch nf (.'onstantinople on ordinary occa-
sions. Dn the day when he received the pastonil
stair from the einipcror he was honoured with
a candlestick with two sockets, di,tUiinl<ijl\tn,
8ie(^»oiiAi/i (I'acbymeres, Hist. ii. 28). "[('.]
MO\(H;aMY. [Dioamvj Mahiuaqk ;
OllDKtlS, IIOLV.]
MONOORAM, an nbbreTlatlon of the nnm«
•lesus Christ. The Christian public or olliciid
use of this symbol is Involved in nearly the san]e
chronological dilllcultles as that of the cross.
[See Cki)HS.] The term Chrisimi is tVcqucntly
applied to it. Its original form was cert;iliily
that of the X- 'he initial letter of our l.nir| j
name, with the letter p across tlie intcrscciinn
of its limbs. It was subseciuently altered by
enlarging the central p into the form j^ ,
A further modification, which turned the X into
the Egyptian T, brought the monogram into
the form of the penal cross thus ^. It is sug-
gested under Clioss, that though we can pnvluie
few or no instances, before Constantine, of the
public use of the monogram of the name of the
Lord, or ttie cross which symbolized His person
and His death, both the letters and the svtnliul
were then in private use: so as to be fuliv un-
derstood as representing Him. The distinction
must bo observed that the monogram, as an iui-
tial, is only a phonetic or letter-symbcd ; whi'reiis
the Cro.ss is a graphic symbol or hieroglvph, .ind
appeals to memory and a train of a.<sociiiti<iiis
connected with the Lord's person, and indeed the
manner of His death, the nature of His .smri-
tice, and His whole church as a system and a
kingdom.
The modification into the penal, the Egvpti;in,
or Tnu-cross surmounted by the p, seems to iliite
from about the time ofConstantine, and niiiy have
been produced by cither or both of two ci\uses.
At that period it became safe, and it may have
been thought both right and nccos.s;u v, for
Christendom to avow the Lord's death as a male-
factor: the reproach of the cross would then be
uo longer intolerable to fresh converts, and the
manner of His death had to be rememborod In
attestation of His perfect humanity. Hence the
penal cross of His death was raised as a stand-
ard. But this later T-f"i''" "f the monogram
seems to have been especially pojiular in the
East, and in Egypt almost exclusively used
(Garrucci, Vctri, p. 104, and Letroune, Ve let
Croix ansee Etjyptienne, p. 16). It is (juite jms-
sible that it may have become more pojailar
under Alexandrian influence, especially alter
the appearance of Athanasius at the council
of Nicaea. Garrucci is decidedly of opiuion
that the monogram and the cross were both
adopted, simulti\neously and from the first, by
Constantine, and considered in fact as the same
symbol. In some cases the ui)right cross was
added to the oblique one so as to form an eight-
rayed star -4^ , but the <D monogram and the
Greek cross appear alike on coins of Coiistantines,
published in the "tavola d'Aggiunta" at the
end of Garrucci's Vetri. [Monkv,] He says it
is certain that the P monogram represented
named rcrieteriea
e says is unique ncci
MONOGRAM
th. .TT.uprf, or cro„ in M,.. Cni.tlc rlinrch .n,l
give, th« ren,,,,, f„r BttHchlne th.let „,, A"°
.aJ then IJon.Uie. It with the ?O.S.l:^,gr;;:!,"
■P . (/>PP. V. lil. 477, ed. A.«manl.) A.i r/
Jatunn MS., that of Mount Sinnl pu'bfweU by
Thchi^mlorf, nnd thnt at Ciimbri.lge. ^
pp. ,i.l«-,t47) give, R ,erle, of e.xnn.i,|eH of the
monogram from the catacomb, „n,| rometer e. of
S.S Akdos, PiaetextatUH, Calixtus, Cyria « Oor-
»nu tlippolytus. All except two la the two last^
MONOGRAM I3n
nprlght monngfam (n the letter N th... -r^
f"'- XPICTOC N.M. [CU0«, ,,. 4U80 xQ-
In Arlnghl, vol. I. p, 605 th.r. i. « '^-
a .epulchral iuscrlptfon fn^rn ,h! f*'''^ "'
uncommon, but MartiRny, in hU N/
° with th« monogram : the two
^
f^
fir»t from Lupl {Severae Eoif- mi-'m t d
:^or J
nnmed d neterles are of the
[Inscriptions, pp 847 ff.] fht^„tter may have
Wea a.lopteJ „m,.ly because it ,., «,u.i«r to wr?te
B,^ low have the a and „; and thi, m^be
'""" r »7« ndicatioa, „t least, that the^nre
aut«co.lent to i,e Nicene council. [A and»^ 11
In the annexed ,.xa„,,.Ie the Creek P i, , sed a/a
R..m,,n P lor the better arrangement o ta n-
sor,i.tion on the «>g,l or .tamp. The un ver M
of
0-
ih
in
I.e
Mh?Htf r "■"• *''"* tlie Human church,
D The A and u are sometimes
hung by small chains to the
branches of the cross, or thus re-
I presented. (See Boldetti, pp. ,3;)8
«nJ ,14,5, and Bottari, tav. iliv.)
Ihe first of these examples i.s
Bomewhat rare, as representing
these letters attached to the $
.„..k monogram. They are civen with
in alhc ■D^cnp,ons) surrounded by« wreath of
_P.>ln> or other leaves, in si^n of th. h'^^V
■■■^^iti^i., is an analogous use of placFng "the"
npfl^l^Xn'"" '"' """ '""^ the^^^'iiJTh^,
''PP«l*u^ taken u numerals, aU amouat to no. 7?j
lermo ITU), the other fro^, a Jette. •
';yon», which give, account ,f C'^evn in
tions on various monuments. U d'tej ''
he Karbenni ,b,ary, and pubb - ; ? ,,
Hlant ilnscr. Chrittennes Je 1,1 Uau ■ . | •„ r...
..b..«u,,.j,.„,,,,.iCi.!,";r;k"rr3
St Paul, „■ .,h., „,,„ (B.„„r.|,|.';*;™
Ti « Ko,.nrT,ivT.ov; and again (,^,. In.f.y) 'f
ORORS It may have been used priTatelv or in
mens. Jt is remarkable, however that tL
monogram or cross i, not mentioned in ,i
meat's list of permitted symbol on r inga a"
raeJaqon, in. n. n liR r, a "" iiugs at
«ymboZn was IfloLTy °he s> na'Ltre" th" ■'
the use of the cherub-forrpVoCbfy^Sed'l^f^
ISch 2 r""'i", ^'"' aChristi.^n so fetT a
n"ated' f aO^oTe'a r:'"'c":rnot t"^^*"" '"'^''r'-
without the usJof emMeri>r.«!';^,r .^"".8
licant forms ; especially wh^r^e secreTy was oftel*
an object. The passages in Arm 11 2 rt^
where the sign of the Son ofX I -sL:';-^.'
compared with Ezek. ix. 4, 6 sulo-^t ♦)?«•/ '
that th, monogram is there .'tend'erand 'though
!'!
w
jlJii
!
Ah'M
1312
MONOGRAM
MONOGRAM
the siiecul;itinn is not one to be pursued far, it is
txcusiible. Whatever the subjective roiility of
Constiintine's vision may be, it is clear tliat he
saw, or thought he saw, or paid he thought he
saw, some einblem or sigu whose meaning he and
his Ibllowera well knew. There is no reason for
supposini; that the form of the Labarum was
reve.ileJ to Constautine for the first time, never
having existed before. In Eusebius ( Vit. Const.
i. 24-2tj) his vision is spolten of ns a dream ; and
it is consistent with the mysterious admixture
of the natural and the providential, which con-
stitutes what we call divine interference, that a
well-known form should be for ever invested, in
his mind, witli divire meaning, rather than that
h new (iiie should have been invented. In fact,
had the labarum been believed to l)e a new reve-
lation of a divine sign of the Son of Man, it
would everywhere have taken the place of the
cross, ou the authority of Constantine, as tho
man privileged to see it ; and might have pre-
vented the use or worship of the crucifix. The
change to the upright cross in the labar 11 may
have proceeded naturally from the cruciform
vexillum of the Koman cavalry [Lauahum,
p. 11]. But tiie earlier 'Str. or ^ continued in
use even on that ensign ; and it is certainly
found, in most instances without Christiau
meaning, on ancient coins and medals, as in the
Lydian or Majonian medal quoted by Martigny,
s.v. "Nuniismatique," p. 454, where the letters
X and P> which form part of the legend, are
united so as to form it thus
M-
See M. Ch.
Lenormant, Sigties de Christmnisme sur les Manum.
numismati'/tics du troisleine Sitcle, in Melanges
d'Arc/iAiloi/ie, t. in. [JlONKir.] In this matter, as
in every other which concerns the monuments of
Christian Home, we have to lament the etf'ects of
relic-removing, collecting, and devout interpo-
lation. Inscriptions are collected in museums,
arranged and re-arranged according to tastes or
theories, and crosses and monograms of secondary
date are everywhere found inscribed on more
ancient tablets after the peace of the church,
and thus the monuments will vitiate each other's
evidence to the end of time.
Until lately the earliest certain Chi-monogram
was supposed to date a.d. 3,'!1, omitting the
mutilated and doubtful .'.agment which is
thought to present date 298. (De Rossi, Inscr.
Christ, t. i. p. 29, and p. ;i8. No. ,39.) But an
earlier example tiian the former — as far back as
.32;) — has been found under the Constantinian
basilica of St. Lawrence in Agro Verano. We
have already speculated on the greater import-
ance and more frequent use of the symbol after
the council of Nice. But this year is also the
date of the death of hicinius, from which time the
symbol begins to be engraved on coins (Ue I{<i:
Btillvtt. 180;!, p. 22). In 35.") it is for the first
time joined to the A and a>. Other forms appear
about 347, the upright cross being first added to
__ the (Jhi-rho so as to form a kind 1'
K^Jy' star ; then the X 's withdrawn and the
/TNT P reiiKiins. To the 5th century tho
old and new forms go on together, S
and ^ J but early in the 6th the p disap-
pears, and the Latin or Greek cross takes
the place of the monograms, Martigny gives
a very curious and interesting instance of the
final transition into the cross as symbolic not
only of Christ's n.ame but of His death. The
.monogram -p is used in the Sinaitic Bible
four times : once at the end of Jeremiiih,
twice at the end of Isaiah, and in Apoc. 11
8, in the middle of the word ECTATPnaH*
(Do Rossi, liutlett. 180.3, p. 62.) Howcvei-
in the Western world the use of the ancient
letter-symbol continued to the end of the ,'ith
century. It was revived for a time by Chirl,,-
magne, and used by councils held unJor him.
and even on sepulchr.al inscriptions. For the
former, see Mabillon, de lie Dii'lomatkn, 1. v.
tav. liv. Iv. Ivi., ed. Nap. p. 408 sqq.
On a larger scale the monogram occurs on the
exteriors and interiors of ancient churches imd
b.asilicas. See Boldetti(Ci'rtj<;i. etc. p. ;io8), whfie
a rude example of it with the A and ai is given. It
continued visible to his day sculptured ovim' the
Latin Gate of the walls of Belisarius. He found
it mcxe frequently in the tile-mosaic in the
cemeteries of Cyriaca and Priscilla, and in the
tomb of Faustina, Callixtine cemetery (Buldetti,
p. 339) it is enclosed in a wreath, which ni;\y
represent a crown of palm. This is carved ou a
marble slab. But the sign occurs frequcntlv iu
the mosaics which adorn the apses or arches of
triumph in the churches of Rome and Kavenn.i;
as in S.S. Cosmas and Damian in the former pbice
(Ciampini, Vet. Monum. ii. p. 00), or in (lalla
Placidia's chapel at Ravenna {ih. vol. i. tab, Ixv.
Ixvi.), So also on the inner walls and veil of the
sanctuary (Mabillon. de Re Diplum. bk. ii. c. In,
p. 110), The eari.est example on a s.iorcJ
building is now preserved in the Hotel ile Ville
of Sinn, and dM'es from A.D, ;t(". It was pm-
bably often nscu in baptisteries; Martignv gives
a woodcut from Bottari (tav. xxxiv. ; Aiiiighi,
vol. i. p. 319) of a round or octagon building of
this kind from a sarcoi)hagus in the Vatican,
which bears the monogram in the centre of its
low roof. An interesting engraving, .as recoriliiij
a very early adoption for Christian purposes of
that form ; of which the Tower of the Winds, or
Horologium, Athens, is one great example, unit
San Giovanni at Florence the chief one of the first
Etrurian renaissance.
On sarcophagi and funereal monuments the
rnouoiiiHUi niuy be said to occur passim; ufteu,
as ol il, standing as sijnum Dumini or .«i;/)ium
Christ!, representing simply the name and per-
son of our L ,rd (Boldetti, pp. 273, 340, 399).
MOXOGRAM
«In^ Aurelio Marcellino Deposito, in
*
MOXOGRAM 1313
vii. Idus Martia," the first of these examples,
may stand for the others also. At d ■«
(Bo detti) there is a woodcut whi;h fs he^e re-
produced (see below) of a tile, or ancient and
hm bnck, which was once used to close u,. a
loculus in the cemetery of St. Cyriaca. li a
pamfingofthe Adoration of the Magi, recently
dKscovei^d after a fall of earth out^de of this
place, the monogram takes the place of the star •
perhaps with some reflection of the Lord's pro-
phecy of the appearance of the sign of the Son of
man in heaven.
For e.xamples on sarcophagi, there is a very
rich one in Bottari (tab. x..xvii.), Aringhi, i. p^
62,, and at Bottari, tay. xxx., Aringhi, i n 311
It IS attended (as representing our Lord) by the
twelve apostles. On the bases ofcolumns^nd
pilasters see Bottari, tav. cxixvi
Some reference has been made above to the
works ofBuonai-otti and Garrucci for the use of
the nionngram on glasses and cups. It is renre-
sented alone, or between St. Peter and St. Paul or
other saints, or on marriage cups with the wedded
pair. We add an example of a lamp from Aringhi
S« Lf^y^i'^' ^' ""y^- " "f «"l7 date,
ft'. »^i, y-J, 9J4.] Ihere are several cxamnle^
n nags ,n Boldetti (p. 502), with or Su
fcfiT;.'!''"''^'!.-., ««/nc<,lpia and arliuU-ts
th~err:;rn7ns';a:.Vi thl'xt'T''^"- '''I
IXerc n,l„-,.K 11 1 " '"'* niytK; word
Koman meaning, Boldetti, p. 33(5.
A small bronze figure of St. Peter bcarin.? th«
this w;s rst'n '"/?■ P- "'^> '^''"^ 'ha
<rVII-uov T. tim(oi; <rToi;,,oC). ^""to,j t6
utensiK Martigny iJers'tra^;;„„"r. "r.7-
or laldstuo , now orp^ewo,) .-« »k f "J"ne,
S °'-^; «'"'^^"»J. wife of Clotfire , son
01 <.iov 8. The monogram is rough! v carved .,n
■ within a crown, between two croses 01 crud
n,„ . '"P"y"i's to Constantine. in whiih
sXTn,? r^''^^^^'^ - P"°* «*• the Vhip o'f
Theobett of »i cross-monogram is his helm.
which he compares the emperor to the woHd's
Zr%* , P ''"''" '"^"•'Ptior.s. (De Kossi^
Inscr. Christ, p. m. No. 221. A-^Cmrvi
Again, on the collnrj worn by fugftife E^
(hee G.orgi, p. 39; Kabretti, iii. 385.) oi.e fn o.r
ticular seems to have belonged to a serf of '^^Ip"
ancient basilica of St. C'lemfnt at VZi i
inscribed A dominicv cl^mpk-t,= ,?*' ^""'
jn'."i'ignori(Vrxxi>':irVc/r!;o;?
hav" ))..|-, ,,-„! • V ' "* ""* seems to
.1.11- .)i.in <(.f-xlL'iiNivc w ti thui ^t' »u
«r^"i^wS.s^s^.r:fVS-,^^
% :
1314
M0N0GUNDI8
■mU
. >
» '.t,
«;,'::
is
Anninteil, and the symbol of His ppraon, lifo, nnd
(loath were formally uiiiteti, i\t or befoie the time
of Constantine. A later monogram seems to
have been constructed on the same principle from
the first three letters |HC of the name Jesus.
It seems to have been derivtMl from Byzantine
usage. The usual Lower Greek abbreviation for
the Lord's name is |C , and one may give cali-
graphcrs and miniaturists credit for developing
it by adding the H and ])erpendicular stroke, so
a« at length to form the h^S "f 'ater times.
Martigny «ays that St. Bernardin of Siena
'd. 1444) was one of the first who used it, and
is is confirmed by a passage in his Life in
Alban Butler (May 20), in which he is said
_ .ing one of his sermons to have exhiliited
the name of our Lord beautifully
^®_,^ carved on a gilded panel, and in-
^vy^ curred some suspicion in conse-
I quence, Martigny closes his
T""7 I r~T article on this subject with one or
\ l-J LJ / two curious examples, of ancient
/ n nl da*e> where the y^ and |HC
•*"■ monograms seem both to have
been in the mind of the in-
scriber or sculptor. One is in
Lupi's EpittpluHin Secrete, p.
I'it, and bears the anchor-mark,
which may indicate great an-
/ \ tiquity, with both monograms,
/■^^^ thus hH i^ • The other (p. 420)
is from the chapel of St. Satyrus in St.
Ambrogio at Milan, where St. Victor bears a
cross in one hand and the annexed symbol (see
above) in the other. It seems intended to com-
bine the ancient Chrisma or Chi-Uho monogram
with the initials |(^, if not IHC> ""'^ the
cross, so as to join both initials and symbol in
the words IHCOTC XPICTOC.
[R. St. .1. T.]
MOyOGTJNDTS, nun; commemorated at
Tours July 2 (ITsuard. Mart. ; Klorus ap. Bed.
Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. July, i. 309). [C. H.]
MOXOLAPPUS, martyr ; commemorated at
Nicomodia Sept. 2 (llieron. Mart. ; Bed. Mart.
■Awt.). [C. H.]
JIOyOMACHIA. [Duel; Ordeal.]
MOXONIS, hermi*, and martyr in Belgium
in tlie 7th century; commemorated Oct. 18
(Boll. Ada SS. Oct. viii. 3t)3). [C. H.]
M(:)\<')RGUS, martyr; commemorated at
Cortliosa May (i {llieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MONOTOR, bishop and confessor; comme-
morated at Orleans Nov. 10 {llieron. Mart.).
MONTANUS (1) Martyr with Lucius, Juli-
anus, and others, in Africa ; commemoj-ated Feb.
24 (Boll. Acta SS. Fob. iii. -VoiX
(2) Presbyter, and his wife Ma.vim.a, martyrs ;
commemorated at Sirminm Mar. 2(3 (Usuard.
Mart. ; Bed. Mart. ,• Boll. Acta SS. Mar. iii!
61H).
(3> (>fo>:T.<srA>;F-?,), mnrtvT; commomoratcd
at Sirniium May U {llieron. Mart.; Boll. Acta
SS. May, ii. 62j).
MONTH
I (4) Monk in Gaul; commemorated May 11
(Bcdl. Acta SS. May, iv. 35).
(6) Slartyr ; commemorated in Spaiu May 22
{llieron. Mart.).
(6) Soldier and martyr at Terracina ; comme-
morated June 17 (Boll. Acta SS. June, iii. 278),
(7) Martyr; commemorated at Tarsus July 3
{llieron. Mart.).
(8) Martyr; commemorated in Africa July 20
{llieron. Mart.).
(9) Martyr; commemorated at Carthago Nor.
17 {Hieron. Mart.). [o. H.]
MONTH. The month-reckoninq used by th«
church in the first century, in Palestine, was
doubtless that which was followed by the Jews
such as we find it in Joscphus, espeJiiilly in tlie
Heirs. Writing for Syrian Greeks, lie con-
stantly substitutes for the Jewish (Babvlonian)
month-names those of the corresponding Mace-
donian lunar months, which names were intro-
duced into the Kast in the track of Alexander's
conquests.
The corresponding lunar months in the
Jewish, Syrian, and Macedonian nomenclature
are as follows : —
J/dcedoni'an.
H.vperlcretaeus.
Dius.
Apt'Ihieus.
Aiidliiaeus.
PeiHius.
Dystrus.
Xanihicns.
Artemisius.
Daesius.
I'ancmus,
Ij>U8.
Gorplaeus.
The intercalary month is inserted, when neces-
sary, between Adar and Nisan. The months arc
usually of 29 and 30 days alternately.
Later, throughout Syria, these Macedonian
months were absolutely assimilated to the Roniiin
months, in dimmisions and epoch. Thus Hvpcrlip-
retaeus is identical with September, Dins with
October, etc. But no month-dates, lunar or other,
occur in Christian writings earlier than the middle
of the second century.* When such do occur,
they are constantly Julian-Roman, or in terms
of a Julianizcd calendar, usually in both to-
gether. From Galen {Co>nment. in Uip/xxr,
Epidcm, ; 0pp. lllppocr. et Oalen. ix. 2, p, 8)
we learn that in his time (circ. a,d, IhO), "as
the IJomans, so the Macedonians, our own
Asiai,. (Asia Procons,), and many other nations,
• Assemanl, Indeed {Bibl. Orient, il. 486), drscrtblnga
Syrlac MS. of "a Gospel" preserved In the Vuilcin,
gives from its epiwnph (Syriac) the followlnn p'artlind
d.ite—wlilch, however, he roc Ives nnqufbtionrd— " Al>-
polutus est Isto lib<T fcrlii qninta rile IS Oamin priori!
anno Orarcorum 3S9 " — which year ( Aera St Icuc.) l* g«n In
the autumn of a.o, II. 01 routsu there Is some error
here. At any lime to » hlrh the epigraph c«n hi' refrrrod
the .Syrian inniitlis were idenllcnl with the Julian: the
" former Canun " was Syro-Macedonlan Apeliaens, idin-
thai with 1 licemlKT. Now as In a.d. 77. Sunday lottiT
K, ihe Isth December did full on a ThursiUy, the simplest
r.xplanaiioii is to say that there Is nn error in iho ccmn-
rlis; lor 3m rend 1089; of a.d. 777 the Sunday letter la
of course E, as of a.u. 77, and 18 Dec. Thursday.
Jeiaitk.
Syrian.
TIsrt .. ..
First Tlsri ..
Marcheswn
Second Tlsri . .
Klsleu .. ..
First Kanun . .
TelM'th .. .,
Second Kaimn
Shebat .. ..
Shebat .. ..
Adar .. ,.
Adar .. ..
Nisan .. ..
Nisan .. ..
IJar .. ..
XJar
Slvan .. ..
Haslran .. ..
Thamui
Tliainuz . , . .
Ab .. ..
Ab
Klul .. ..
Elul .. ..
Allan.
Kpht
CsesariUB ..
l)lU3
Tiberius ..
Apel
Apaluiius ,.
Audi
PosMeon . .
Peru
Leimeus
Dystr
Hlcrostbastus
Xantl
Artemisius
Artru
KvsiigelluB
Daisii
Stratoiilciis. ,
Panen
Hecatumbeon
Louo
Aulaeus . .
Oorpla
Liodiclus ,,
/Hyper
\ taeu
MONTH
had AdoiAed the solnr venr " ♦»,„ „ 4- i
of which (ns he coos on ."'i *''« '='"''1">al points
.. fixe,! by jT\m°CaTJ T"'^^ *«'•« '"^en
Macocionia'n ZX'Z's "p STT"^' ''"
mllx,us made to .eein it „r n ' ^"'™'»'"».
Dec. 2r,, March L'5, Tune It ? T' f *•''"• "4,
the nanies „„J «e,,,.enc" of .l! '^''Tf'^- "'"
everywhere AIacedon?„n LlH "' '""'"^' "" "»'
the J..me. The rZi );„■"■ '"■' **"= '-'l'<'«hs
points. lahori„u\,;T:treTrh'"?rT ""''*''
«PP. to his JL7v7iV'Tf^''''^ ^''"'"'•'^t;
\m-), oonfir;s tytrr:^"!'""/ '>:'^^'- '■ "■
riK,u-., .since brougl t to li^h? "^ n' '.'"t'^''*"'
i"ldeler(/W,,...«;V,^,i;S.w.ll be found
»lar y.ar wa.s "do^ I run 1"";° >'"' ^'"''' «
Ephesian arrangemei , Ihe " Tsian''"'"'"' """
I e. those used iu procon ,, In, i • names-
Ihouifh, as Willi le""^^'^^"»-«'^
MONTH
1315
' naoBlu», vflfd.junr . ,
2* nystius, Ix kal. Apr r- 24 M», t
2 Xan.hlcu,, lv. ..on Ar r 7- Q ^ ^, ■
20 l.lua. XII kal. I.ec. r-iU^;*-'""-^'""^''* "--paa,™?,.
2 xantbicu, «... .•/a4^?::;i;e;';«^^"o« n..>;.
Goesurlub . .
TllXTlUS . .
Apatui-Jus ,,
Pwideon . .
Lenaeus
Uleros('baHtU3
ArtcmUius
livingdlns
.Straionkiis. .
Heaitonibcon
AQtacus . .
liUxliclus , .
J':phet\an.
Dins . .
Apcllaeua
Audluaeus
Perltius
Dystnis
XantbicuH ,
ArtcuiisluB
l>ai'9iU8
P«nemu8 .
Uorpiacus ,,
/Hyperbere-
( taeiis
24 Sept. .
24 Oct.
21 N..V. .
26 Dec
24 Jan. .,
22 Keb, ..
24 Mar. ..
24 Apr. ..
J* May ..
24Jnne ..
25 July /
24 [AHlan 36]/ ai
Aug. ([Ab. 30J
In bissextile, Lenaeus has3l>dav, in th» a •
alendar, Dystrus iJO davs in ♦! J,''?^'*""'
Nvcarp (^Mart. j'Z c 21 T'-'j/^""' of St.
Htfele, p. 220 eJ !«%> ' " /"''"• ^Z^"'-;
"• 15) gives 'as'il r'd;to"°o7;h'""'- ^- ^•
'^'I'^d^'te given in he^^r '"o"^'•'^"""'='>
»ISt.Polvcarp is als,^ L ■„ I ' .."'' *'^^ ^^"'"'^
I '■«'- the seventh to TSL'" '\T' «■><! there- ,
«long afterivards-asi " L ''"''°"'''' '" '
*«l dianuise included „?1^ .u'"" '" « Pa*'
S'.Chry^ost.t.vii.'S''.;™"-?.,'^.'' ^'^'."-'^ 'pP-
l^H.E. viii are nil , vT'^'"- ■'"'««»<. a.-,,.,
I «». , •' r'j "'nP Joilble dates, .on;. ...iA
J^*', in which the M„ •""' *=^^''''»<'. «r«,
-.rteXcially tf^ '= <>' '"-^-at oc-
oftheSeleuSr^ihusTn'tr."",'.' "^'^ ^^
acts of the Council of Ni'° ^ ^^"'""t "f the
'rom Alexander f-lvw?"-''' ",>•-■'"• «^6
paesius, 19th day, the xiii k:,| ,'", .,"'!' ■"""th
J"ne, A.„. 325/' Kv„J,iu"h •'•''■ '^^h
''.storian, uses it, as does InU M , T''''>''->io^\
of Antioch, and also ttwtl •)"'•'•■ " '""""
as may be seen ■„ . •^""a' '-hroni. ,,nj
const,.„tly occurs in f";"!" ^^"'''- «'" "'•) 't
riac MSS. In E.inh "'-"' 'P'g'-'H'hs to Sy-
'WSPetavXvve tv^T" ^"""'- "• '^"^ i P-
respondences, Chr t h^. "^"'""'■'"'on of [.or-
■'an., which is « ALmlkr^''' '^''^ '"'■" '^f'
(Weier.i. 3(51), y A. 'ivn "'"" "' -Athenians
'>. Syrians," f'iTvbi;Y?r".1 "f. "'« Greeks,
8'^'lrians), 4 Juu,o?tt. >'?*""'■' ( = ^^'"-
Sth month of the SaLn '■'"'''"""■'' '" '"' the
Cnppadocians. tL W, 'r\''' ^^•'"■'^' "^
8th November, wh ch •. , ''Tl"" ''« ''"««
Athenmns (Ideler, „ O S n- '"•''■^""''"° of
''V. Svrinna •' w » "'.."■A Wils "of Grpelra
AthyVr'lSgyi'iiP^'"?; ''7.Wo„ia,."1^2'
gonieus of Pafht^^ ^oea'rof's .l^^' • '•" ^I"^
Amtata.of Cappadodans "'^Salam.u.ans, 15
of StJ-Xs"eS,''Stirr*'^^'- '"-*"«
the year's end (2+-28 A, a I ? <'/"'Vome«„« at
«nd of each foirtt year^so' '^ " ".^"i " ">e
year always be, an n ThothV "o"^','' ""*' 'h"
stood its eround .,„ • . 7 on 2!nh August-.
Macedonia! yea" S^^stiH Vt""''".'f ^ «>'-
Abr»»inians,^nd '(.,„„«; A. min'!!.!""'^^^^ ''?''''
this calen.
„j, ami IS sti 1 rpf..i
= 2P Aug.
= 2s Sept.
=^ 28 Oct.
= 27 Nov.
= 27 Dec.
= 26 Jan.
1 iVi, , = 26 Jan.
I I'hamfuotbs ae Feb.
1 Phammtlil =: 27 Mar.
1 i'arhon r^ ■,,■ .„ '
}#^' =25iu^'-
('"■*'*<"'•« 401, p. Vc?:)
«odiHidih':™ieL'd:;SThe'r\""''-''--'y
Gaza, Ascalon, Cappadocia Snl'''^' ''''. ^''™''-« ')^
1 f^^thediscuJionf.^teVatr]/''' ^>'''»')
I So:;;ir-" "«'-•« ^S"^n:yt:
'fe.rr-Jx^irtt'if''"'''^"-
tiCDized, to be incomn^V^M '.''^ '™'' t;hria-
m«»l« of theohu chCd b'V"' *!'" '•'"1"''«-
our period, with the '„ .•' ""^ ^'•«« of
, Aethiopiana' (Abvli„?« * x "^P^" of Copts,
I form, all the churcheL had . '^e Alexandrine
»ethod (with or wUhout thrP '^ "'^' ''""'"'
according to which JanZry MafTM ""',""'>'
Augast, Octoler, DecenZ7h!i ^' *'"''' •'"')'.
I February 28, in iZ^Z 071?'" '» "«/»,
: ,"?"'!"•"« four months," soliy,^ Th "'/',"
shed Roman notation by S;, ''"' '•''"•*'^-
Jdes, inconvenient and „h ^ ca'endc, nones and
i was long rernLl^Vt'^i^; '^ 7'"^ '? -•
continued to be the only wrft\.n I ' '" ^»"''
^v«t- ^»-pt*.'nde^:r;iT;°/;;
84
T' i|! 11 .
S
m
1318
M0NULPHU8
duco the rcjfuli\r numericiil count of month-dars,
as by Orogory the Great at the close of the
6th cent my. Of earlier times, there is a frag-
ment of a Gothic calunchir (4th century) in
which the month-days ar» numbered (Mai,
Scr-ftt. Vet. Nov. Collect, v. i. 6(5). In the By-
za...iu. church, the numerical way of dating
began to be used in the 7th century. It ap-
pears, together with the old way, in the Paschal
Chronicle ; but in the same century the em-
peror Heraclius, in a chronological writing of
his, keeps to t « old method, which continues to
be used in numerous iroirxoAio of later times;
Georgius Syncellus (end of 8th century) employs
only the new reckoning. [H. U"]^
MONUI.PHUS, bishop of Utrecht in the 6th
century; commemorated July 16 (Boll, ^cta 5S.
July, iv. 152). [C. H.]
MOON. The moon does not appear in
Aringhi's ' Index of Christian Symb 's,' nor does
the present writer know of her being used as a
Cliristian emblem until the 6th century, when
the crucifixion began to be a common subject of
representation, and the sun and moon of course
formed a part of it. [See CnfCiFlX.] The latter
appears as a crescent or female figure, or as
cither, holding or containing the other, or as a
face. In the crucifixion of the Laure- ian MS.
she is a crescent within a round disk, and there
is a very singular picture in t.ib. v. of that MS.
(Assemani Catalog. Bibl. Mtdic.) of a partial
and total eclip.se of the sun, which seems to re-
present the moon as a white disk and face, and
also as a black disk marked with the crescent.
See the crosses and ivory pl.ique, Mozzoni, sec. 8.
The associations of Asiatic and Egyptian paganry
may easily account for the omission of the moon
from Christian art for the first three or four cen-
turies. The Mithraic worships prevalent in Rome
in the earlier ce iries must have included the
moon as well as tl.j sun. See the Abb^ Aubur's
S;/mOolis,ne J^elii/ietix, vol. i. p. 109. Even in
the many arabesques of vaultings in Bosio's
plates, the writer ."an find no use of the disk
or the crescent as ornament, though in the
earlier basilicas and memorial churches, where
roofs were sown -^'ith stars (as notably in the
chapel of Galla I'liicidia at Ravenna), the moon
may also have occurred. The great Apocalyptic
mosaics would allow the presence of the sun and
moon in the Lord's hand ; as also some Old-
Testament subjects, as the .5th-century mosaic of
Joshua in Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome, the
Vienna Greek MS. of Genesis (4th or 5th cen-
tury) in a dream of Joseph (D'Agincourt, pi.
xix., and compare Vatican Virgil, pi. xx.). But
they seem to have been held in earlier times to
be a part of the idolatrous symbolism against
which Tertullian protested so decidedly in his
treatise ' De IdoIolatriS '; and to have been neces-
sarily banished from the Christian Church
wherever there was danger of confoundini;
pagan rites with her own. The moon does not
occur in Garrucci's or Cionarotti's Vetri. The
classical enthusiasm of the Carlovingian period,
both English and Frank, seems to have accepted
<> This article hail not the advantnge oi Mr. Btowno'*
fira: revlnloii. luvlug bees luft in MS. at lila aeatJbL—
[EOD.J
MOON
solar and lunar imigery with equal roailiness.
both being now fully allowed in the criicj.
fixions and ' ocalyptic pictures. The former
Saxon worship of sun and moon seems to have
haunted the minds of northern Christliiuity very
little, and the .symbols o both seem to have hetn
80 freely used in crucifixions as to be cnnsi.ierej
safe anywhere. Sometimes persdnificatmns
occur, such as those in the Cottonian Aratus
(B. Mus. 'i'ibmus, B. 5 ; Westwood, Amjlo-H.txon
and /n'fh AfSS. pi. 48). There is a very inte-
resting miniature of chariots of the sun and
moon in Count Vivian's Bible, middle !tth
century (Bastard, I'eintnres des Mnnuscrits, vol.
ii ; see wooitcut), and a Franco-Saxon MS. in
the same volume contains a crucifixion with a
crescented Diana's head, as moon, on a medallion.
From Uie Bililo of Couul Vivian.
It seems impossild o connect Egyptian lun.u
symbolisms of the j: d Isis with aiiyOhrbtlan
emblem. But a two.-j". allegory was con-
nected with the idea i.f the moon from the
days of Augustine at least. He speaks of her
as representing the church (Enarr. in Ps. .x.),
"Luna in allegoria signlficat ecclcslam, quod
ex parte spiritali lucet ecclesia, ex parte autem
carnali obscura est. Alii dicunt non hahere
lujam lumen proi)rium, sed a sole ilhutrarl.
Ergo lunS intelligitur ecolesia, quod suum
lumen non habeat, sed ab Unigenito Del Flllo,
qui multis locis in SS. allegorlao sol appollatus
est, illustratur." One of the latest ami most
beautiful repetitions or echoes of this idea is
the well-known passage in the ' Christian Year,
beginning "The moon above, the church befow,
The presence of the sun and moon in cruci-
fixions may be accounted for as representing the
darkness which prevailed at the Lord's death;
but it seems that it gave occasion in later days
to the idea of the moon's representing the
synagogue, or Hebrew church. St. Gregory the
Great takes her to represent the tViiilty .lud
decay of the flesh (/a Evang. S. Lvc-te, Horn. 2.)
The Turkish use of the crescent after 1463
was the adoption of the ancient symbol of the
city of Byzantium, which was probably more
welcome to them as unconnc'ted with any
Christian association. It is found on Byzantine
coins (Mionnet, Deaor. des MAia'Uos, vol. i. p.
378), and dates from a repulse given to Philip of
MOON
Macedon about B.C. ,S40, when a mysteriou,
light at nbuted to Hecate, w,uned the city of a
nght attack. (See von Hammer, GeJ der
O^man. vol. i. p. 93.) ^k. St. J. T ]
AvS?^OF «Vr^^^'^^'^"'^8 OB8ERV-
A-^UJ. OF. The practice of blowing horns
lo d fend 7h "" ?'• ''"""*^ '^'^"P^^^ »'■ "'« "'-">
to defend those domg it from witchcr.ift, w.i^
w.ll-known to the nation, of antiquity. JuVenai
(&((ir. VI. 442) refers to it:
"Jam nemo tubas, nemo aera faHgct ■
Una Uboranti poterit sulwiirrere lunae."
It was an old custom therefore, which lingered
on Ion- after the mtroduction of Christianitv-
ami was reprehended by more than one of the
fathers. A sermon attributed to St. Augu.tine
&™. 210, l>e Tempore) details, in order to J
denounce and (orbid, this among other super- 1
ftitious practices. Ducange quotes a MS !
Poenitential, which says: '-Si oLervasti tradti
■ones paganorum, quns quasi haereditario jure
diabolo .submmistrante usque in ho., dies
p,itres filus rehquerunt, id est, ut elementa,
colores, lunam, .olem, aut stellarum cursum
novam lunam, aut defectum lunae, ut tuis
clainoribus aut auxilio splendorcm ejus re-
stanrare raleres," etc. And in a Life of St.
Lligius (c. 15) we find: •' Nullum si quando
luna obscuratur, vociferare praesumat, quia
Deo jubente certia temporibus obscuratir."
The practice seems, indeed, to have been com-
mon to all savage nations, and not to have died
MOPSUESTIA, COUNCIL OF (J)/o«.
SKitennm Comihum), held by order of the
emperor Justinian, AD. 550, to make enquiry
whether the name of Theodore, formerly bishop
of Mopsuestia whose writings were comprised
m the celebrated three chaj.ter.s afterwards oon-
emned by the fifth council, had ever been on
he sacred diptychs or not. Its nets are pre-
r •'° 'itf ^?'' ^•'■^^ion of that council.
(Maasi, IX. l.,0 and 274-17.) [£. s. Ff.-V
MORGENGABE (German). A gift by a
husbanJ to his wife on the day after marri.ige.
Gregory of Tours (^Uiat. Frard. ix. 20) says^of
It, tam in dote, qunm in morqenaabe, hoc est
matutinal, dono, certnm est adaequasse " (Madl
llmrokx. s. v.). *■ r-p ,
M0BLAIX,COUNCIL OF ( ^far/acense Om
c ...«.), held at Morlaix in the dLe"e ^TuS
Mnile, near Paris, a.D. 677, under king Theo'
drnic, whose ordinance relating to it is ex ant •
i^hen Chramlin, bishop of Embrun, wasdepoTed'
..d at which Mansi thinks St. Leod garor K
ejhib,ted his last will and testamit (xi.^^
MORNING PRAYER
fHAYER ; Office, the Divine.]
MORTAL AND VENIAL
Hist among the early rhristi..in .
""''" such a distinction is Tertullian Hp mnt.
[E. S. Ff.]
[HODRa OF
SINS,
writer;
The
who
MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 1317
stupro, fal^o tes'S V,„' r-S/Zr* "■"•
lib. iv. can Q^ qi^h ,'"",'- (-/iito. Marcwn,
cap. 1. And in /)« Ti '^;«"' ^'' r^Mctrid,
si.nilarll^t,h"dd^"H::'''^^■'.''■ ">' "'■'"«
Dcninum ^^-dicta.'^ (Th'^'^wtll^r'';''" '"""'
Parently, with him, a^ gener^rt rm V^' j;;.".':
and dependent on the particular aim.lln ■ i'
a^^ijLilr^^bf-?'"--
wnters,onth::::;far:^^^s'ru:^;";:;
KrM47''*40ri!;'Ve ""■"'"-' "''^is
?anks'amlng the'itmLr' f ti,?^. ZT ''
■ «nger, evil speaking, a blow strucr ^ , '
; oath a failure to fulfil a promise " He c.,?"!
by shame or necessitv • "(^ 1 1 '"• ."*us<^'J
missibilibus a Doo soln " a. t ""'"' «t iiie-
was a milder party" ^^nd a mt e'rigK: 1^^
mam ainmg that no 'Mocuspoenitfn '.. % K ,
bo allowed to certain classes of offei.deis ^n
this difference of opinion was one of the caVses f
the Novatian and other schisms. [Pkvitkvce {
which are not in the rank of great "n///
^ii:r^ii-s:^^----^:t
thS&!:;?£^f^^-- accurately
great that they are to be 0.^;^/ t ""' '"
munication, tU are%ff r^hiclfX
remedy is not necessarv hnf *l ,
a? J^^e -diJuT^f cKtilSnl^fanS
lastly, there are some which are verv li^ht
fnstrrVdSstSij'&^'S
Forgive us our trespr^sL," ' c - "'^i i 'S
tente. vocantur, .ed "uZsram" r' r.ti^um
raed.camentis, non diceret ipse Domin J Tw
npe inter te et ipsum solum, eVcPo'trer^o"
n.M es,,eat quaedam, sine quibus haec vi.a Ton
4g2
».-.',<
i ^ Vk]
-■JJigPAftTtTS.
11 ''
1318 MORTAL AND VENIAL s-INS
agitur, noil quotiJianam med«la ) , meiut in
oratione quum doonit, ut dio'\ >.% Diniitto
nobis debita nostra" (be Fide et G/wW>tw, caji.
26). Many other passages might bi' (luited
from this father, and all to the same effect. To
the above may be added that St. Greg'oiy
(Moral, lib. xii. c. 9) distinguishes between
peccatmn and crimen, as does St. Augustine,
making the first to mean such sins as are for-
given daily, upon repentance and prayer ; and
the second to mean flagrant crimes, to be
punished by public penance. The general con-
clusions to be drawn from these and other de-
clarations mr>y be stated thus:
That all sins were deadly to the soul : not merely
those called great, mortal, capital, or deadly sin?,
but also those known as small, light or venial.
These St. Augustine, iii the treatise last quoted,
goes on to say, destroy the soul by reason of
their number. They are like the small drops
which till a river, or thi: iriaino of sand which,
although they are si:iil; individually, will
oppress and weigh us cVv n ; or as the li'^" '-'^ o
ship which, if neglected, will swamp the ' ,s(|
as surely as the greatest wave, " !(y long ci u ii.'E
and never being drained."
That it W.1S not all mortal or deadly sins, brU
only sins of a public and hTinous nature, wiiii;!)
gave public scandal, that were put to pubii.
penance for a longer or shorter time. St.
Gregory Nyssen, Id his Letter t i L'tohn, gii-tr:
a list of such publicly punishel siivs, aiai na
which he mentions idolatry, Judaism, Mani-
chaeism and heresy, magic, witchcraft, and di-
vinaton; adultery and fornication; public and
violtni robbery, and murder. All these might
be put in penance of various degivts, and then
the offcniicr might be re-admitted; but it would
seem that j.enance was permitted oijly once,
and that tii !i' were a multitude of other sins
for which pwi'Uc penance was not imposed,
which wore, nevertheless, entirely distinguished
from venial or less ,er;jve otFences.
Idolatry was cons; icred, in the early church,
the greatest of all sins. A letter found among
the works of St. Cyprian, and purporting to be
from the clergy of Rome to him, calls it '• grande
delictum. Ingens et supra omnia peccatum "
{Ep. 31); and Cyprian, in a letter to his own
clergy, iigrees that it is "summum delictum " —
the sin i;eainst the Holy Ghost, which he who
commits '• non habebit remissam, sed reus est
aeterni peccati " (Ap. 10). But here he is
speaking of apostates.
The councils do not, apparently, treat of this
distinction specifically. There are many pro-
visions as to the degree of penance for particu-
lar offences, but do attempt at a general classi-
fication. I5ut yet they recognized this dis-
tinction between classes of sins, which, indeed,
was one that could not be overlooked. The
Council of Agde (a.d. 506) forbade the excom-
munication of persons for slight causes (can.
3). Similarly, the fifth council of Orleans,
c. 2 (a.d. 549), has a provision that no per-
son of right faith should be cut off from com-
munion for slight causes, bat only for those
offences deemed worthy of excommunication by
the fathers [EXCOMMUNICATION ; Penitence"].
Bingham refer.^i to a similar provision made by
the Council of Clermont in its second canon, but
this is, apparently, an error. [S, J. £.]
MOnXIFICATION
MORTIFICATION (mortifioatio, vinpuin,).
Under this head it is intended to give .some
account of the practices adojited at various tiini's
by Christians, to " mortify " or deaden " thnir
members which are upon the earth." A gcncriil
account of i\\i progress of ascetic ideas h;i»
already been ^'iven under Asceticism.
I. MORTIFil'ATION IN REGARD TO BatHI.No
Clothes, Sui.ltkr, Rest, and Food. — To c.ut
a8h'.?» upon th( hoad, to abstain from bathini;
and oven from washing, to lis on the i..ire ^rou i,
to wear dirty ai'.i ragged clothing — ail the^e w , .
methods of mortification practised iiy vaiioui
ascetics. Jerome, for instance (/'pint. 77 ,,(/
Ocean, c. 4), descrili"s the dishevo)-!"; hair, the
sallow face, the di;t y hands, thi' ;ii;,i, m neck
of Fabiola perform i;,y: her penai>'" . i himself
he says {Ep'st. 2J, ad ICtuitoch. c. 7) tiuiv his limbs
were scarred and rough with the use of sac'
cloth, while his unwashed skin was ..'.nek a-
that of iiii Ethiopian; ,ii,d again (lipist. 14 ,■/
lleliod. ■:. 10) he asks, what need there can l;.-
for one who is washed in Christ ever to waii
again ? i'alladius {L<msiai:a, cc. 142, 143) relatc-
of the ijiichoret Sylvania. that for si.vty ycar.<
JIM never wash^ , -ixcept her hands for the re-
I ceivii.o of the iji.'clurist. Even at a much earlier
I period, Kegesippus relates of St. James the Just
I :.i EuBijb. //, -'■:. ii. 23) that he neither anointed
I i.'riseif witi, oil nor used the bath. Several of
I the eaiiy rules of nuns, as those of Augustine
j (o. 12), CaesariuB (c. 29), Leander (c. lu), dis-
I courage the use of the bath, as an indulgence
! only to be granted to sick persons. Jerome
' refers {Epist. 77, c. 2) to Fabiola's dcliber.ite
preference of the poorest and meanest clothes tci
robes of silk, and {Epist. 54 ad Furiuin, c. 7)
deliberately lays down the principle, that
the fouler a penitent is, the fairer is he —
"poenitens quo faedior, eo pulclirior." Some
ascetics allowed t*^e hair to grow unkempt ami
uncared for ; on * ' ■ other hand, the cutting olT
the hair of the ht- » was practised as an ascetic
disfigurement, a very wide-spread custom, as an
indication of mourning [Haiu, Weauinq of,
p. 755 ; Tonsure]. It was naturally a special
mortification for women ; in the 4th century
(a.d. 370) the Council ofG8ngra(c. 17) anathe-
matizes women who cut off their hair from
mistaken ascet'cism. At about the same period
Jerome [Epist. 147 ad Sabinianum) testifies that
virgins or widows on entering a nunnery oD'ereJ
their hair to be cut off by the superior. Optatus
of Mileve (de Schism. Donit. i. 6) and Ambro.se
(ad Virg. Lapsam, c. 8) blame the custom, which
evidently existed in the Western as well as the
Eastern churches, of nuns cutting their hair on
entrance into a convent. In the capitularies of
Charles the Great (vii. c. 310) the cutting off
the hair is only prescribed for penitents. Some-
what different from the purely ascetic view is
the cutting off her hair by a woman *o avoid the
love of a particular person (Isidore of I'elusium,
Epist. ii. 53 ; compare Mabillon, Ada SS. Bened.
ii. 592).
The early Christian Fathers earnestly protest,
as <c 'tural and right, against luxury »"■'
ostev. ; T in dress; but the fury of ascetici.-.!.
somv. ■ went far beyond all moderatior
Sc-ne .. latics passed their lives in absolu'
nakedness, like that hermit of the Sketic Desen,
the sight of whom convinced Macarius that he
■■f:f>
had not attaine(
austerity; the I
bably not very
(•■«.m n. /;.;.,,
t!t v<;rus (Dinl. j.
whi for fifty ytjv;
hi» 'I'n hair;
Ot u, '^rriis and Si
tilt V.;st too, silll
tile (iiiiio'.is .Spill. ,
•..'.• iii'tDjce, is .;
oriod of pennnce
■ '■'■'la S. Frucluo
,'■ ■'■'-). A comn
comfort was weai
Haikclotii, of '
ma io. [Sackcloi
Goii.g- bare' lot
a-scetic practice. |
Attempts to con
«ili5i:i ih: ii.-fi'iow
iiiado so long y.a t: ..*
all. Wnny of th
s'l'iTj. >■,; tobanisJ;
by standing in pr
Wily exertion. M
to have succeeded i
irnd without sleep
(Palladii Laus. c. '2
Theban carried ston
ing of cells, and at
making rojies of pa
to rest (/,avs. c. 2).
attempted to banish
monks of Tabennae,
(art.JO), slcptinaki
Uicy were unable t(
:'iers, mentioned I
* lii. 1 ; /iistit. iv. 1
(mattiie, tliladot) of i
rigorous ascetics lay
Jerome says of hims
c. ?), that when slcef
aimselt; he dashed f
ground; and Paulin
of Tours ( nta, iv. ;
.'iifficed for his light
feebler sex wanting in
yf.Vaziiinzus tells u.s(
iiis .>istcr Gorgonia iai
ground; and Jerome
(Episl. 1(j8,c. 15) for
a W even in severe ft
™ the hard earth, wit
wr. Benedict allowe(
t- 5o) a mat, a blanl
(matta, sagum, laena,
'»sloep in their clothes
wocdiot's rule furnish
moukish bedding for m
monasteries sleep was i
■'i':«frisingfortheofr
■lor ing [Hours op Pr.
"i;stom of living
r began, as was n
■'. where for the gr
," 'f '" P»ss the nigh
■i. Theodoret (///««. 7J
■ermiUofSvi-in, Pale
'it''"'"!' «■'>« 8pent thei
J"l"> tlie Baptist in I
■^«i endured this ru
MORTIFICATION
tlu '.'..St too, similar a'.. . , '" """r "'hers, in
.'•■-'-). A common method of prolucin^.lil
wnifort was woarins noxt fli„ ! . '"'•'"S '">"
Haiuclotm, of M U :^l" "■' '■""«'>
muc. [Sackcloth] ^""'-' ^'""'""■•ly
Gi'iiiii' bare'')!)* u>'n r»»»
ascetic 'practice [""„i:8l ""'"'"' ''"""' '"
Attempts to oontii: ■ ■.hdr. nn,l „
mad. .0 long -T^u/m^t k'""' '"'^« f"™"
ail Wfiv nf fK. ■'"■»» been pniotised nt
■fneban carried stones'™ ul ."/one rth^l^' 'u
m of cells anrl nf «; ul^ " . ^ '""^ '"® build-
™a\ing ripes^'if pIlS r.'.Svii'^^f '"
to rest (/.a'js. c 2^ TK„ 'f i ^'"^ ''"^^n
-££t: K-'t"" »'""'r£
nisMster Gorgonia kid h«lV ''i " Y' ; '"^^ ^ow
Kv ,"''"''•'' '^"J- 'he greater partof the yearTtis
-e naur^ thirru:iri.;:;'f^-„„t3
MORTIFICATION 1319
Cyra (Theod. JI K ^ oa\ ■ ,
i-HbulousMaryofEeVni wh,' '""'.'''«, l"-°'>ably
-ven years in' It^ Kes^rto'Th"'' "'■'^;
Jordan without the shfuJ t . ""■ "-'"*'■ "'
intercourse with mankii "^^ '»'" «■"! without
themselves on bare S;^:";''" "P"-''
or on pillars built for tL .^ ' '"«>">tnins,
of the sun and to all fh ''•'"?• '" ""^ heat
P'"- saints were d idlf .r't '":-"^''''-^'''
"'"•-rTo,, the former of vhL 1 f^"^"""' and
I'latform which formed I " IT' °'' ""^ >'««
while .he latter hXttt t''.! ^L"' /''^P'"-'
home hermits lived on Tr,. A ' .''"'"■'""•
Adda, of Mesopotamia Mosc ^'"'^-«'). as
c- 70); n.any /ived in caver/a^l - '""} ''''"■'■'•
Egyptinu monks Elias Wtlr! ^^"'i'"'""^' "'^ «he
theus, Capi.o, and E nidi of rP 1, p'''"''"' "">-°-
51, 74 9b' '»Q^ ^-'P"' u« (Halladnis, Jmus. cc
-'"Si), as S^L^at '"^; n'''>,^>'''^f'-'
Macarius Romanus (4, c'.^- ^- V") '''"''
ho .continued 'a?" ie's 'tht '^ n'T' '"■"'
dition, but the whnio 1 ?• ,'° 'his con-
ordered mind In th'o-"' """ " ''"■
Western liur^pe the kind f T''""^ ^'''""*« "^
possible in EevD 1^ l> ,''*,?^l'"»"'« which is
covered to be7e^t'ru"c°tiv tMil^ T ^""" ''■-
■■egioo even cave-dw [lers ar„ ' '"'' '" "^"
rare ; hermits coul.l „„1 * comjiaratively
of .shelter, 1 ;*;,;;"« ""■"'" ■^"■"'^ "^'"^
ever, not very uncomrn^- ^"''''"'' '''"'' ''°-
insufficient or distnsfBfi.i f i •
common form of mttS n '"1-,,;\h' '^'^
cipal ecc e^iasti.•«l i,r,.v,.,i .' "0 pnn-
n-anneroffl t g4X^^ "' '". '''"^ ""-J
With regard to fC^a^^^lZ^;^'^'^^'^^^-
we may remark »(.,.» „ * ' i"^"''-'"'™ ascetics,
abstine'nce T'p's f fe n"lhf m'n?*"' '■'^""'' "*'
the East than in our Lw ^ 'l' "'«'°"' o*"
Eastern ascetics lived wholt nn""'' , ^"''"'^^
a^^'/OAmmoniusE/^;" ""'T'*"'^ ^'<
Apollo, ,-6. c. ,52 p fil, • ^^'"^'''''a 0- 12, p. 716 ;
of Eastern Mo.,;o'hism-^„?h\P'"'uP,''' '"""''«»
I'achoraius-were Zn of ! y. ".'''"■'°"' "■''l
life; the laZr wrtaiXT'"^.^'"'''"^^'!
Palaemon, to maint^fn ne^ ^7 '"' "'"■^'er,
aione, without'"o'irriL'';^r;'i'"''
daily, at lea«t, one meal of",„ u" '^^.^ '^"^
rations of bread th^f ♦»,» °"K^'^ ^"< ^'th
endure their lir'f^.^^e Zt VI t!'' '"
was in no case included n /hi- > "*" "'»*
insupportable hardshh. t .k v ''"""^"-^ot an
the ^b^ead w:, th?'' .Timttiur.'.'^ n ^^^^P' '
baked bread or biscuit-wSp "X'^ t^'"-*
19) informs us CThe ,1 r'^'M^''''"'-"-
Egyptian hermits of his t mo T,« - 1 "'l, '***
ance for a monk wa» ^„L^"' '* ''"''-^ ""ow-
cakes of tMrteHlwSgC'ot?""'^ '""
• See Altescrrae Aiaticon, v. II.
If
■ft
.-"i.'f i'-'
;:•!
I s"
1320
MORTIFICATION
MORTIFICATION
c. 20, p. 72J) ; Hiliinon to have livcil from his
t,hii-ty-tii»t to his thirty-lit'th year on ii iliiily
alliiwntKe of nbout six ounces of Itiiiley breaJ
(.'oronie, Vila llil. c. 6) ; MarelanuR of Cyrus,
on tlie Kuphiates, to hiive talteu no other food in
ft (lay than his evening meal of three ounces of
bread (Theodun^t, Hist. Met. c. M). In a cidder
and (lani]H'r climatn such excessive abstinence
was, of couisp, ini|practiciiblo. " We are (lauls,"
said the nmnlts of St. Martjn (Sulpic. Sevorus,
Liiiil. i. 4, § 6), "and it is inhuman to coni|iel us
to live like angels." .Such ccnsiderations probably
compelled lienodict, in drawing up his statutes
for the monastery of Monte C'assino, to content
himself with a moderate dietary; the scanty
portion of bread on which an exceptional person
like Macnrius subsisted was not to be the rule
for a whcde community. He allowed (/^c;/. c. 39)
a pound of bread for each man per day, with two
dilVerent "made dishes "(coctn duopulmentaria),
that if any man could not eat the one he might
take the other. Wiien fruit or fresh pulse was
to be had, ,i third course of these might be added.
In ca.se of unusually hard labour, the abbat
might order a more generous diet. The flesh of
four-footed beasts was altogether forbidden,
except for the sick and infirm ; fi.sh and fowl
were allowed With regard to wine, Benedict
b'dieved that one " hemina " — about half an
Kuglish pint — of wine per day was sufficient for
each nan ; but, though he allowed this, he
eviderdy preferred total abstinence (Heij.'c. 40).
The rule of St. Benedict became the standard of
Western monachism. which, however, constantly
tended to fall away frnm the severity of its first
estate, and was from time to time recalled to its
old rig<iur, or even more than its old rigour, by
such reformers as Benedict of Aniane.
Abstinence from wine was commonly practised
by ascetics. Clement of Alexandria (Sirom. vii.
c. 0, p. 850) deprecates the use of wine by the
Christian .sage, and he does also that of flesh ;
abstinence from wine is one of the practices
which Eusebius (//. E. vi. 3, § 12) mentions as
having injured the health of the ascetic Origen.
Some of the Gnostic sects abstained altogether
from wine, and the Encratites, in particular,
thought it the "blood of the evil spirit."
II. Special kinds of ' Mortification. — 1.
f'se of the Cross. Among the methods of morti-
fication must be included the stamping or
impressing crosses on the flesh in a painful
manner, the expanding the arms in the attitude
of one crucified, and the bearing a heavy cross of
wood.
The first of these may perhaps have originated
from a literal interpretation of the expression of
St. Paul (Gal. vi. 17), " I bear in my body the
marks (ffTiYftora) of the Lord Jesus." St.
Khadegund ({ 687), to take one instance, to give
vividness to her conception of the Passion, used
to lay a nietal cross, heated in the fire, on
various parts of her body (Venant. Fort. Vita,
iii. c. 21). To be "crucified with Christ " has
sometimes beenattempteil by rapt enthusiasts in
the most literal sense. But a more common kind
of self-torture was that of standing with out-
stretched arms, in the attitude of one crucified.
This was practised within our period, both as a
form of ordeal (stare vel vadere ad cruceui) and
a6 a part of monastic discipline. The way of
ajiplying the former, seems to have been that
accuser and a. cused took their stand in the rrucj.
form attitude, and the one who first drojiped his
arms was adjudirel to have failed to prove tlie
charge or to vindicate his innocence, as the cn»«
might be. Thus, in a matrimonial case, husband
and wife were ordereil " exire ad cruciin"
(C'lipit. \ermfi-i. 17 ; Baluze, C'ipitulariit.i. hit).
The remaining for l"ng periods with the arms
expanded, as a form of penance, originully »
merely monastic practice, was introduced In the
8th cen'ury by the rule of Chrodegang into
the cancmical lifV. St. Lambert (about a.i>. (Oii)
is said to have nearly lost his life in conM'i|iien''e
of having been compilled to stand in the .ittifi-.de
of one crucified against a stone cross, in tiie
court of his monastery, during a cold winter's
night (I'l'ti S. L imhcrii '\n Canisius, Var. In-tt.
II. i. p. 14U). St. Austreberta is related
( Vita, § IS, in Acta SS. Feb. 10) to have emhired
a similar penance. More p.irticular precepts us
to this matter belong to a later age. Cas.-ian
(t c. 44.')) mentions (Collat. viii. 3) certain
Egyptian ascetics who carried nbout with tliom
a heavy cross of wood ; a practice which, he
says, occasioned more laughter than respect.
The practice seems to have become more commoa
in the Middle Agce.
2. The practice <'f wearing chains or n'm/s of
iron, which has existed among Brahmins and
Buddhists from a high antiquity, is found also
in the Qiristian Church. Gregory of Naziiinzus
(Carm. 47) mentions monks who labour under
never-ceasing iron fetters, wearing away the evil
of their nature as their flesh Is worn awav,
Epiphanius {Expositio Fidci, Ojip. i, IKnj d)
bl.ames monks who went about in imblic with
neck-rings of iron; and Jerome (_E/ist. 22 ad
Eustochium) bids his friend beware of those who
went about barefoot, laden with chains, with lone
hair and beard and dirty black mantle, to |je
seen of men. The hermit Apollo in the Thebaid
wore chains, as Uufinus ( IViue Pair. i. 7) intiums
us ; Theodoret cannot say too much of those
chain-wearers, whose story he tells in the llistom
liclifjiosa. The well-known Symeon of the Pillar
was for some time chained to the rock on which
he lived by a long chain fixed to his foot ; after-
wards, on his pillar, he wore for thirty years a
heavy chain hanging from his neck ; his iron
collar, the historian Evagrius {Hist, Eccl.c. 13)
says that he had seen with his own eyes. Many
other instances of men wearing heavy chains or
rings may be seen in Theodoret's IIlMoi-ia
KetiijioM. See also the accounts of the Abbat
Senoch of Tours, in Gregory of Tours (IVMa
i%<r. c. 15), and of St. Radegund ( Vita, iii. c. L>1).
From the 6th century onward we find the
wearing of chains and the like prescribed as a
penance. Homicides of their own kindred were
sentenced eithe.- to an oppressive weight of chains,
or to wear an iroj band round the body made
from the blade of the sword with which the
homicide was committed. This punishment
Gregory of Tours (de Gloria Conf. c. 87) tells
us was endured by a fratricide, who also bore
heavy chains. Charlemagne {Capit. A^jnismn.
c. 77, in Baluze, i. 2:;9) in 789 thought it
necessary to issue a caution against vagrants ivho
went about in irons (nudi cum ferro) which thoy
pretended to wear lor penance t-ake. Unchaste
priests were not uncommonly sentenced to wear
rings or hoops of iron round their arms or bodies.
MORTMAIN
3. /?««// Pain and Disfy'iremant. Tho
voluntary self-woun.liD)? of the li.ial priests and
Pthcr pai/un hierophants was not nltoiri'thcr
unknown in the Christian Church, thonich it had
1 less orgiastic character. Tlieophilu.s, bishoi,
of Antioch, in his J::,,u,lola Sipioilica to the
buhops ot Pa. ,tine and Cyprus (Hieron. 0pp. i.
543, ed. Vallarsi), rrprohates the conduct of
Mine \yho, he says, mutihited themselves with
the knife thinlting that they shewed leliKion
snJ humility in going ahout with scarred fore-
head and cropped e«r» ; one man had oven hitten
oif a part of his tongue, to reprove the timidity
witn which some served God. Ammonius the
monk cut oft one of his cars and threatened
to bite out his tongue; but this was not
from ascetic motives, but to render himself
ineligible f<,r the oftico of bishop. He was, how-
ever, in the habit of burning himself with a red-
hot iron from pure asceticism (I'allad. II,st
UiisUtca, c. 12, p. 716). Another Nitrian monk,
the yoiiiiger Mhcarius, is sabl to have exposed
his Diiked body fo- six months to tho stingy of
venomous flies to atone for the anger and im-
patience with which he had once crushed a fly
that stung him {Lau^. c. 20, p. 7J2); and
Symeon, the pillar-saint, to have allowed vermin
to eat into his body for a considerable time
(Iito, 0. 7 in Kosweyd, p. 172). The Greek
MmlofiKM (Jan. 4) relates that St. Apollinaris of
litypt used to expose herself to the stings of
gnatsaml g.idflifts ; and Johannes Moschus ( /Va/«(«
Spintwile, c. 141) voluntarily exposed himself to '
the stings of the countless insects of the hot
JoMan valley, thinking so to escape the never-
dying worm and the flame that is not quenched
A sister of the famous nunnery of St. Bridget at
hildare is said to have burned her feet over a
lirewnich she had secretly lighted in her cell
(Ilia S. Bn,,i./ac, c. 11, in Surius. Feb. 1). Mar-
tinianus scorchei' his whole body in the flames
of a fire of sticks, with a view of counteracting
unlawlul passion. And these are but specimens
taken from the crowd of records of self-torture
which may be found in various hagiologies.
lh» discipline of the scourge will be treated
lep ,1'ciy [Whippino],
4. CM. Ascetics frequently attempted to
oool the burning passion which possessed them
by exposure to cold. Thus the English monk
Dnthelm is said (Bede, U. E. v. 12) to have
remained immersed in a stream during the
recitation of many psalms and prayers. Of
ames the disciple of Maro, it is related
Thendnret, m4. Rel. c. 21) that during his
long devotions in the open air he was sometimes
so covered with snow that he had to be dug out
bimilar austerities are related of many other
"cetics, both male and female. Abraam of
arrhae is said (Theod. H. R. c. 17) to have
"T *"« an altogether superfluous luxury.
yJ^J A ^'•""™*'' EXERCISBS of ascetics will
b noticed under that heading, and the ascetic
Ckuha!; ™ " ""''" ViRQiNiTY. See also
(This ai-ticle is taken mainly from 0. Zockler's
W/i. Gesckchte der Askese, Frankfurt a. M.
MORTMAIN
1321
MOETMAIX. The law of mortmain which
m the Lnghsh use of the term, is a law restrictl
"■g the acquisition of property by permanent
corpora ions, especially of a religious character,
is based U].«n two distinct considerations of
poliey; one that of preventing property being
withdrawn for ever from the general market
(that IS bein^ grasped by the "dead hand " of
an artificial legal personality); the other, that
of opposing (,bstacles to fraudulent or extor-
tionate impositions on the part of religious
«avis«rs. fhere is no doubt that both ?hese
lines of policy are distinctly represented in, if
not directly copied from, the Koman law at
Its ripest maturity, and the later legislation
ot Christian emperors. Ulpian (circ. a.D. 200)
says we are not permitte.l to appoint the gods
ns our heirs with the exception of those in
favour of whom either a sen.hi.-, consultum, or
imperial constitutions, have conceded a sne-ial
priyileg.^ as, for instance, Tarpeian Jove." The
policy of this i>rohibition mav have been the
same as that by which Justinian, three centuries
ater, enacted that, where a testator nominated
the Lord Jesus Christ as his heir or part heir
and added no limiting words, the inheritance
should accrue to the church of the testator's
domicile ; and similarly where an archangel or
martyr was nominated an heir; and where there
was no such church the sacred edifices of tho
metropolis should profit from the inheritance
(L. 2., (c. 1.3)). Saviguy (System, vol. ii. b. ii.
c. 2) has adverted to the real meaning of this
policy, which was to secure that the b^'neflt and
I responsibility should be vested in concrete per-
sons distinctly cognisable by law
The law with respect to colkfjia, that is, cor-
poiate bodies consisting of at least three persons
IttVf ■ ^' I: '?''°"''' Perhaps, the greatest
ight on some of the aspects of earlv mortmain
law. As early as a.d. 117-138, we see that
colle;m could not take inheritances unless thev
were specially privileged for this purpose (L. 8. C.
Cyi. 24)) A passage of Paulus (a.d. circ. 200)
alludes to a seaatus consultum of the time of
Marcus Antoninus permitting the legacies to be
wl' r 7T "^ """'"■'"■"' supposing the coUe,,ia
were lawfully constituted (L. 20. 0. xxxiv M>
..nd with respect to the constitution of these
bodies it appears that a religious purpose was
presumedly a legitimate obj'ct (" religionis
causS coire non prohibentur; dum tamen per
hoc non fiat contra senatus consultum quo illiJita
corpora arcentur"(L. l.D.(xlvii. 22)). Neverthe-
less It appears from a constitution of one of the
Antoninesm Justinian's code that the corporate
body of the Jews in Antioch was not reckoned a
legal association, and could not sue for a leeacr
whicn had been loft it. * '
As respects the claims of the Christian church
to inherit, or even to own, property, it must
have depended at first upon whether the local
religious societies were or wore not treated as
legitimate collegia. Gibbon (c. xv.), indeed, ad-
duces an interesting story, told in the life of
Alexander Severus (a.d. 222-235), of a dispute
in respect of land between the society of Chris-
tians and th» victuallers (poplnarii), as a proof
Chrlfi'J;'! h"'' *'"'"*■'' '*Sally vested in the
r ®"V;"„ " ""'*'" '^"n-stantine's Edict of Milan
(A.D. 31.S,, by which he restored to the Chris-
tians the property of which they had been bereft
in the late persecutions, that their ri^-ht of
ownership in land was formally recognised." Thi*
1!'!!|
liii
i
LiL—Lli
ia22
MORTMAIN
I'dlct jirpparod the way for tliii mop' celebrittsd
i>nii III' tliii yiMir A.l>. '.i'2\, liy which itnr'ino " wiih
t(i hiivii lull pdwor (if ImhvIiii; liy will whiiluvcr
|irn|i(Mty hi- chnnii ti) thu iliiirch iiiiil il < (jovui'u-
iun liciilii's." It wiw within litly yunrmif Mx timo
thnt the lirHt iiiiniintakoHhli) mortiniiiii I iw wim
omiutod by Vnlcntiiiiun tho Kliliir (('ml. I'k. xvi.
'20). It hirhidii nil oortit of cocleKiiiHlicnl |it>rH(iiiii
from (ililoriiii; on the proiH-i'ty of wi lows or
wiirilx. It (ircvi'iits thtiin from iiri|uiriiiK niiy
liiMii'lit I'roiii the tlmmtioii of thi< wilV of iiny i>u<-
wliii, miller prtitoxl <if roliv;ion, Ims privatilv
joinoil hiiiisi'lf to thpiii. Thi- whohi uift in to In'
Ml r(iin|ili!toly invftliJ thnt tlu< olliMiilinv': pir ■ ii
onnmit tnko nnything from thii niiuiu i|iiiirt<r
t'ilher liy Kilt or by ti'stament. Any attiiii|iti'il
({IIYh InjiMMl to the trcnuury.
Tho iii'xt law In twenty yoiim Int-r (Cix/. Th.
xvl. 'JH). Aftor |irescribiii({ thi: coinlitioiis
niiilor whu h n woninn inuy liccomo a ilo.iconii.Hs,
it vnat't.s tlinl xhoshall niiiKu nuilln'r thn ohnrch,
the cliMjty, nor tho poor her 'im:. Any nt-
tempti'il net in vlolntiin of the .n.v wouhl lio
invaliil. The followinii; lnn);iiaj;« i i ho l.iw may
nimost hu itnp|W8i!(l to have Hiippl .'il tho poliry
and tho t(>rin» of nn Kn);lish muitmnin act.
" Imniii »i ipiid ab his inorl< I'i 'nerlt cxtortiim
neo tacito lideiconnnisKO lh)iiid cluriciN in
frnudom voncrabilis sanitionis (■■lUiiU arte nut
prolirosit I'lijiispiani conhihontii . ilerntur : ox-
torro.H sint ah omnibus qnibus inhiaverant bonis:
et si i|niil forte per epintolam, codiiilluin, il^ua-
tionem, tostamontuni, quoliliotdeniquo detuk;itur
ergo cas quns hnc snnotlonu .snlunovinius id ncc
in jndii'ium <levocetur: sod vol ox intostati is
qui siiii lompetere intoDegit, statuti hujus do-
iinitione suciodat." Women oll'cuding ngainst
tho law are forbid<leu to enter a ehurch or to
receive the communion, and any bishop i t
cuforoiuir these ponnltios is to im deposed. About
two m inths later thiii constitution was partinlly
rope.iled, to tho extent that deaconesses were
allowed t<i alienate moveables in their lifetime.
A contrnversy subsequently arose as to thu true
import of this repealing statute. The emperor
Marcianus held that its ell'eet was to sweep
ftWBy all restrictions on dispositions in favour of
the church. The merits of the controversy are
lucidly expoundeil byGothofred in his note to the
pnssaire in the Theodosinn Code.
We have tho aitvantage of studying this
legislation in n more impressive form than is
presented by the bare letter of the law. St.
Ambrose writes: "Nobis etiam privafne suc-
cessionis emolumentii recent i'lus legibus dene-
g.antur. Et nemo oonqueritur. Non enim
putamus injnriam qui disjicndiuin non dolemus"
(Xi'V/. ii</ her. reliit. Hi/m-)- St. Jerome, ngaiu,
writes still more explicitly : "It shames one to
confess that idol-priests, mimes, charioteers, and
harlots can take inheritatu'es, and only the
clergy an<l r, onks are disabled from taking them ;
and it is not by persecutors but by Christian
princes that they are disable<i~ Not hat I com-
plain of the law, but 1 lament that we have
deserved the law. (';,: . ry is good; but how
has the wound come \v. !cli calls for the cautery ?
The cautery of the law is provident and safe ;
nnd yet even thus our avarice is not restrained,
hut fay secret trusts ve cvaiic the law " (-tfi. 2,
ad yqiot.). A curious allusion to the current
legislation is also contained in a letter of Gregory
MOSAICS
Nrtzlnnzen, In which he besi-ech.s Aiiriin and
Alypius to iwiy the legacy \f(t by their mnthci
to th.' ihiuch. He nays, Tufci l{oi /i/i^ai'T«i
yiifAtiui Toif i)iuTipuit SuvAfi/irar* (A'/j. Ui.)
Hy Jus'inian's time the policy of restrii ine
girt" ' I itherwise to religiius ni|,|
>hai '. ■ , 11 '. . ems chielly to Ikivc Inon
ba-,.' 1 it{i<iii I . . ,,,,, iriauce of seciirlli^r dun i|,'|j.
I i.i-rntion iiu.l publicity. Thus a clistiin'iioii w;„
i ilr iivn by a constitution of Justiniaii'ii lii'lwi.,.|,
{ ..'ilts to religiiiiis nnd charitahlc iiislitiitions ul
less and of more than TiOO sulidi i'l value; only
the latter requiring to bo puldi, ly n'k;i.ti.n.,|
(I., lit; i;. (1. li)). It also appears from the sivtv-
lifth Novel (though this novel is iiupcrteclly pro.
served) that, in the case of irrnntl'i" ' 'vuable
property to a church, I'. I<.ii r „. tc»latorii
reiiiiirisl to usi' very pr.ciso words in order to
determine I'oi' what ilistiiict obji.el or olij.'ils hit
gift was intended, whether the ailntance ,,r only
the inconii if the prii|iei ly was to be rendered
availalde fur them, aii'l whether a sale was or
was not to be made. It iiiav be iiincliide I then
that all jealousy of ^orporaio bodies as uwHcrs
and all apprehension of frauds perpetrated en
weak-minded testators, were, duriu;: Ihi- periiul
in nbeyance. The progressive tniimph of tho
church and its proiiiiiieuee in civil lioverinnent
may likewise nicount for tin' absence <if distinct
mortmain legislation up to and inehi.liiig Charle
inagnofs period. The utmost aim ol Charle-
magne's I'apitularies in this respect was to
secure thnt religions gitYs were ma le with sufK-
ident doliberntion. Such a preeaiiliini is cim-
tninod in the cnpitulary of A l>. Hn:l (A.ldita ml
legem Sttlieam), "qiu res suns pro aiiiuiii huj
ml asam Dei tradere voluerit domi traililinneni
faciat coram testibus legitimis."
(tiiannone, llht. Civ. ili A'ay«/i, lib. 2, lap. 8,
lit. 4, •' Jkni TrmpovaU" : F. I'aolo Sarpi, Ikik
^liiterie Heiwliii.iru} ; Savigny, i<i/.item lies /iciUiiim
/,'cchts, liimd '2, b. L', c. it, Stiftwii/en : Cvdcx
T/ic'odosianus ; Corpus Juris.) [S, A]
MOSAICS IN Ciii-.isTiAN .\UT. — It is not
the I iirpose of :1\is aiticlo to enter into the
history of tho form of pictorial and architci:turiii
decoration known as "mos ,•." Any disijui-
sif • on tho oi^gin of tin irt, the conn'ne.s
wli it wiu , I'st emplcr . its introdii 'iim
into vieece and Koine, its various forms, iuul
tho names by which they were known, woulil
be out of place hero. All the ini'oniwtion
rciiuir'"! . these and kindred topics wil'
be f.iirt elsewhere, espcci'i|!y in the latt
Sir High; Wyntt's excellent !reatises, F/'ii Art
of Mtisaic, and Tiie Geomctriail Mosaics of tlie
Muiilla Ages, Neither do wo pni'i t > enter on
the vexed queslion of tho orth ;ihy ad deri-
vation of the name. A 'tor all that has been
written upon it the '• tymolo,y of the word
" mosaic " still remHi,, latt of speculation,
iiete:
uo8ai>
>mall cui
■d. SulKee It
■*e understand
irs or tesserae
nnd perhaps can neve
to say thnt by the tei i.
the art of arranging
of dill'erent substancus, either naturally hard or
nrtitioially hardened, and of various colours, so
as to produce an ornamental pattern or a histo-
ricnl or symbolical picture. The niateiials of
fiiese tesserae were at first chieriy diiTca-at
I iiloured marbles, hard stones, pieces of brick and
tile, earthenware, &c., the natural co'ours being
M08AICH
Sa:i tz^^ ^::;!a,v t:rir"r n- 1 1^ con,u„t,o.
MOSAICS
portions „. »||,„ „„,, „,,„„,„ vilrKHl . h
uiftnllii' o»i(K,H." • '" '""
»|tl.vl„K two thin pi,,,,., .„• Kla,H w fl /I i
«n.,m,,l.lu.,,vi,n^i„«,,,,,„l.,|,,i,,,,™-|
i;t23
thii
>i" tniit miiKiiK-woik w ili'li I,,. I 1 ' ..
th m to ,,l,ta„. ,,|,„,„ „,• „„,, „i,„
quln;,l. at a n.st Car small,:,- than that . f tl
I'""'"',"" '"'"■''''■^' "'"'. "i" -■"■«• of ,l,.to,'i„r,t ,^
l,Mnh..rv.,l ..„„,.c»,on.,|,„„|,|..a,„.,i;,
,i.jrl,Ksol.(-^.-„ot,.:-„r,|,.tHM„.„t, tl„. ori,.i, d
lo,e,l .„„sa„: |,K.t,n-o« „« i,>-a,.tl,.allv in,l..st.-uc.
mthew,.nl«„i (i|,i,.i,.,„, j„_,.„,„„„| ^ ';
'Z-" ">•■ ^' '"'•"' "••|'iHoH,i,,,.,;,U,,,'^
• .11 ." , ,XH.|,lt.,l so M,i(nl,|,. |„r tt. .|,.,.o,'„ti„n ot'
^•lesinsticnl b„i|,|,„,s, i,, whi, • h. ™"'
Demr o( ,.v,.ry ,l,.t,.i| slio„l,| sv,,,. . th,.,.',
|*l.n.y „f the n,i„,. The .s„h,|,„„. ,,,hn ,., ' , f i
.-■'■"""'" "'" exto„sively „»e,l, „„/„t ,,„ ^^^'^
:'""■ I'H Kn.n,| ,1,1 .s„|e,nn charafto,- ■ T,?
^:"" --"""ion of saore,! iiin.U 'S
I 1 lii'i-rnao, the I'alacu of th.. c,
i-i '" n.,..oK„iso „,„s, :;!.,.^^', „ " '"■""'"'o»t
•''"■■M;'-..n,,.;;i..tith'""Art^/'''''''^ "'^
Mlhje,:f,, „n,| thoh- ... ' "''hidloii of
til ,'i.Eh tl„. J.h, !,,• .u '■''"'"'■>' ""w.n-,U
">is wal|.,„j..t„,.„s of St. Ma,.k\ V, ai,." , n^
"«ni™ of th,. i(„y„| Cha,.,.|at ..,■""''"'"
Christ ,m,ty,.n,e,j;,.,| tVon, the hi,linic.,,l,„..., i,} | „„ ";;''T !" ".'".""Pl «».,.,;! at i'ah.r.no „'i;;i
.he c,.ta,.o„„.., „„, ,eo,. triu,„,,hantly i„,tan;.;l "",„' "th;: .'Si^'t """'-'■■''" T' ''""''' '" '^-'y-
was us,iri,eil , , l,„ ,..,,• ''""•' "* •""' i^"i'il
.^ «t up «.cr,.u pi tu .:«*;„.,; "" '. '" ""^ '■"'"
«r.I. „.w n.ll!""':!:!^ "'-^''^y'" ^"^ "- rt.'c. Mon I .^vpify the T,4 ,,f Life. wMl/ .,'. ."""'. '^"' '
or tl. „fw n,r«,,u. »;V;:i-' "' •> 'V!"" 'or the dec, , l„„
H'tt ,*r,lury „l8„ Ko,™,"^'!!'' Jnt '.t '",','''1," "" ""'
ito lailinnt niiitti'iir,.' «J„.i',"|.''' T i"-"'-""''t w.ih
1 ^
I!;
I
1B24
MOSAICS
gc 'nil, issiip fiiim thfl (jote^ of the two hnly
cities, Jeni.tnli'iii ami lt«lhloliiiiii. [B^tiilkiikm, |>.
2(11.] Oh tliu wc<f<iru fun' of th« ({n'lt arili
of the apse or the arch of triuinph we iee at Ihe
iipex n iiiu<lalli(m bust of Cliiist, or the Hot
loly
villi
Lamb, 01', which U very fiei|ueiit, tlie liock w
seven neals i-levateil on a jeweileil thiou- . Oil
eitlier »l'le are raiixed aiii?cl«, the evanj;elistu- sym-
bols, Kiiil Ihe seven goMen caa<lle>tlcl(s in n hori-
zontal ban I, the Hpan'lrels below eoiitainiUK the
twenty-loll r white-robed elders of tiie Apoealyii^e
offering; tlvi' ■ crowns with arms cuitstretcheil in
adoriUion to the I.aiiib. In the lnr;;ei' liasiliias,
where a traiiNept He|>nrates the nave fnaii the
apHO, a second transverse aruh is iiitroduied,
the fice of whicli is also adorued with snlijerts
taken from the Apocalypse, That at St. I'raxedes
(see jiDst) represents tlie heavenly .lernsalein
with the reileeiiied in luug Hue euturiug the gutea,
whi' h are guarded by angels.
The detailed description given by Paulinas of
the mosaics executed by his direction for the
basilica of St. Feli.x and the "liasilita Kundana"
at Nola early in the .'rlh century (/./I'at. ad
Sever. .'('.') indicates points of resemblance and
difference wilh the sub.senuently recngiii.sed type.
The whole rejiresentation was strictly symbolical,
and the human figure seems to have been rigidly
excluded, so that it would speak only to the ini-
tiated. He describes the Lamb standing on the
mount from which i-ssue the four rivers typical
of the Gospels, the symbol of the Father above,
the lofty cross surinounled by the crown occupy-
ing the chief place, which are familiar to us in
other mosaics. Ilut, what we do not see in any
existing mosaics, the Holy Spirit, under the form
of a Dove, was rejiresented as descending on the
symbolic I.ainb ; the apostles were also depicted as
doves (a symbol rejiroduced many centuries later
in the a)ise of St. Clement at Home), and in
addition to the customary sheep as many goats
appeared on the left of the Saviour, symbolizing
the last judgment. We cannot sufliciently regret
the loss of these v;:ry remarkable early works.'
The catacombs i)resent very few examples of
mosaic work. There are fragments of a mosaic
picture of considerable size on the solBt of the
arch of an urms'itiuin in the catacomb of St,
Hermes. From the engravings given by JIarchi
(_iIonum. delte Arti Crist. Primit., tav. xlvii., de-
scribed p. 2b7) we see that it must have been a
very rude performance, the drawing bad, and
the execution coarae. The portions remaining
exhibit the raising of Lazarus, Daniel tn the
lions' den, and the paralytic carrying his bed,
only dill'ering from the ordinary catacomb fres-
coes in the material employed. The mosaic
cubes, according to Mr. Parker (^Arc/uwoh/i/ of
Some, Catiicoinbs, p. 110), are entirely of gXauB
paste, not of marble. Marangoni (Cosv OenUlesclic,
p. 461) preserves the record of an arcosolium in
the cemetery of St. Oallistus decorated in mosaic,
with our Lord .seated between St. Peter and St.
Paul, also seated. Two sepulchral mosaics from
the same catacomb are jireserved in the sacristy
of St. Mary in Trastevere, one representing
birds, probably, according to Mr. Parker, of the
2nd century, tne other, representing the miracu-
lous draught of fishes, of the 3rd (Parker, u. a.
* Paulinus' description Is given in aitlcle Dovi, vol. I.
p. STO.
M0HAIC8
Mosnlei, p. .1), Two monaic busts In rinular
iiie lallion*, from the cemetery of St. Cynaia,
iliscovered in lii')'!, are preserved in the t'hi^d
Library. One represents a young man, Klavius
Julius Julianiis, with short black hair; lliu
other his deceased ^ifi, Marin Simplicin Kustica,
She, as one deceasL i, is represeuteil in the atti.
tilde of prayer, with oulstretched hands (!>«
UiMsl, JAuamVi Cristiani dlle Chiese lii /.••mn).
Perrct Cvid, iv, pi, vii. No. II) gives a inosnio
fragmi , depicting n fighting cock, also ironi a
uitadmib. This scanty list comprises nearly, it
not iiuite, all the catacomb mosaics rtcordeil.
The earliest known examples of mosaic art
u,sed tor tlie decoration of a sacred building are
those of the 4th century, which cover the wagnmi-
roof of the circular aisle of the cliurch of .st,
(/'onstanlia, in the immediate vicinity of the
basilica iif iSt, Agues, outside the walls of liiiiiin.
There Is sulFiident reason to believe that tliis
edifice was erected by Constant ine tlic Great
either us a baptistery to the adjacent basiliia
(Uaii'Isiiiuy, v(d. i. p. IGh), or after his di-.ith
as a place of sepulture for his two daughlers,
Constautia, or Coiistantiua, who died AD. il.H,
and Helena, the wife of Julian, who died A.a
MO. As in the earliest Christian frescoes,
the style of art seen in these mosaics is In
no way distinguishable from jmgan art of the
same period. They belong es.sentially lo ihe
class ot* decorative |iaintings, and nlthi>n',:h tloise
who wish to do so may rend a Chri.^tlaii .sym-
bolism into the viutage sceuee which cuvcr
the vaults, it is probable that none such was
intended. "They have quite the light and g.iv
character of ancient pagan wall decoration, 'ind
if they must be considered of Christian origin —
the vine aud viutage scenes having been fre-
quently adopted as Christian emblems — they are
probably the earliest Christian wall-mosaics that
have been preserved " (Dr. A])pell,C/i//A<Mit J/osaio
Pii tures, \>. 0). These mosaics form Iwehe etpml
comimrtments, the opposite bays having analo-
gous decorations. The ground of tlie whole is
white, instead of the blue or gold which subse-
quently universally prevailed. Days 1, 2, 12
have ordinary geometrical designs with octagoni
No. 1.
DOOR
Plan lit St. CoDlUnUa.
and crosses without flowers or figures. Bays 3,
11 have intertwined arabesque wreaths formiDa;
small compartments framing airy daniiug
figures, winged (imoniii, and richly pi\ i it:eil
birds. Bays 4, 10 contain vintage .scenes. tie
genii are actively engaged, some gati. .mg
MOSAICS
gr,p««, .nine e:„lii.K tli«m h,.me, .ome tread.
,„ U,. wM....,,r.,.,. u„„ |,„KU „ w.ltl,(ii« M.«k..
li,ra.«i« (luitfni.tjtt.noug th« bruncl..,«r .Kickiue
the gr.ir» rrn.n the vu,« wl.jeh gruceiully tn.ii;
u.|:lnev«„l. In the c.ulre (/« , J 'l!u
So .'.; (1 ..,.-,y be remarked th„t .cene. very
,.miliir t., tl...„, ailorn tlio iimguilirent red i,.,..
^„yry »,.rcv,,,aBUs „( Coa-tumia wl.ieh .t.,od
we, uow 111 the Vat.oun.) Ilrtys :,, y ....^ y„„
,„m iir .,. luv, ,11 1. Hay. 0, s, »,„ ,•„, „.„ ,j,,,,^, ^
c Ih. vvLue. lla. vault,, covered witl. l,„uuh»
olulive :.u.l .,ther truit-bearing tree,, with L.
^k,, guinea lowl., ^urtridg,., und other b ids
MOSAICS
1325
int9r.per,..,| amooK th,,,,, «„th..,it any attemi.t
" ^""voutionalMin. ll..y 7, uhi.h w«, |,r, b by
, :, ""t «"'""■"" «»• "•*• >vhole. ).a,, lieu I
ilertiinod. llie two »ide ,ii,„,h („) (bl ..nnt „
-«,«e m-druwn ,n,«aie, if „ nu. W , T 2
(n,l, e,l by ,,ope Ha.irian A.n. 772-7UH) J '
•fathig Christ and .on,, of th,,. „i,.H ' V:
latter c.ouch.nK in diKtorted atti d: ^ ,«
h.nee 0. anat.,„,|c«l po.s.ibilill,.,. Tl,e ^ontraH
"■"I the gr,„. „„d«,uholy of the later in ,»
'm'l<edthatitl.,di(lin.|f-,o,.,„„..iv. how ho7
<i',
No.! The VtatiMjfc Fr„„ at. Oonrtintto. (Sonth Kendngi™ Ma»ma.)
So w„lespread and complete has been the
destruction of the earlier mosaics that the only
other work which can be with any probability
referred to the time of Constantino is that
ifhioh decoi-ates the cupola of the church of St.
Wge at Salonika, the ancient Thessalonica.
rte chnich ,.s on sufficient grounds assigne.l by
MM Tesierand I'ullan to the first sojourn of
JonstaDtine at Thessalonica (323). It is a circular
„ l.,,r,j, ,.„„crcd with a dome more than
•1" loet ,n cinumference entirely lined with
Sm t ""' """" mngnificent character, '
probably the most exten.sive work of the kind ^
u luperficial areo that has come down to I
us. According to the aut'iorftics jjist quoted
this mosaic, which is one of Iho vorv few that
f.i.'"irr'^ "'* ''"'•y "^ t*!" Ic.noclasts or
ot the Mahommedans, covers n.. less than 9,732
square feet, and it has been calculated to contain
more than 3i5.n00,000 tesserae. The light and
fanciful architectural designs, vividly recalling
the wall frescoes of the Baths of Titus or those
at Pompe,,, which arc .0 n-,;,rkedlv ab.ent from
the majority of the Christian mosaics furnish an
unmistakeable evidence of its early date. The
drawing, though conventional and architectonic,
IS goo.l the arrangement exceedingly dignified,
the louring rich and harmonious, and the
H
■
WKKM
^^H'
^^s^^
^^H-
1326
M0SAIC8
whole pffect of the cupola, with ita gold ground,
extremely Rorgeous. The cupola is divided
into eight coniniirtments, alternately repeating
each other in general design. They present a
scries of sacred e.liticesof fantastic architecture,
veiled with purple curtains Aoat'^g lu the wind,
with richly plumaged birds,— peacocks, ibises,
ducks, partridges, curlews, doves, &c.,— perched on
the friezes, >yhich are themselves decorated with
dolphius.bi. Is, palm trees, and other naturalistic
devices. Each of these buildings presents a
splendid colonnade, in the centre of which a
semi-circular or octagonal apse protected by
cancelti retires, or a veiled baldacchino stands,
with a burning lamp hanging from the vault
above the curtained altar, the whole displaying
invaluable evideace of early ritual -rrangement. ,
On either side of the altar stands .i hidy person- i
age, colossal in stature and severe in aspect, in
the variously-coloured dress of solemn cere-
monial, with his hands elevated and outstretchea |
MOSAICS
in prayer. (Woodcut No. 3.) The personages
represented, who all bear names famous in the
Greek church but less familiar in the West, are (1)
over tne west door (a) Komanus, a white-bearded
presbyter ; (6) Eukarpion, a young dark-hailed
soldier ; 2. (to S.) («) ell'aced ; (6) Ananias, a pre,-
byter; o. (u) Jiasiliscus, a soldier ; (6) I'risuus, a
soldier; 4. (a) I'hilippus, a bishop; \h) Tlierinus
a soldier ; (y) basilis^us, a beardless youthful lay-
man ; o. eltaced ; 0. (to N.) (u) Leon, a soldier ■
(()) ' I'hilemon, a flute-player; 7. Onesiphorus, a
young beardless soldier; (6) Porpliyrius; 8.
(a) Cosmas, old, grey-headed and grcy-bearcied ;
(6) Uamian, young and beardless. These magni-
ficent and most interesting works deserve to be
much more widely known and iiiorj carolully
studied. (They are found well repr(iJui;i;ii in
chrorao-lithograph in Texitr and I'ul Urn's ^yfoj
Jlyzaiitines, pi. xxx.-xxxiv. ; and Nos. 1, 4, 7, 8,
are engraved by Mr. Wharton Marriott in his
Vestiarium Christianum, pi. xviii.-xii.) Thes-
No. 3. Quo of the Moiala In th» Cnpols of St- Oeorgo't, ThMmlonlna. (From Toiler and Pullan.)
salonic", boasts of another magnificent mosaic
in the cupola of St. Sophia, a work of the
6th century, of which we i<hall speak in its
place.
The only other ancient mosaics breathing the
spirit of classical art are those of the 5th
century, which decorate the quail ri partite vaults
of the chapels of St. John the ilaptist and St.
John the Evangelist, which open out of the
Lateran baptistery. These are said to have
been apartments in the palare of C'nnstantine,
converted into chapels by pope Hilary, A.D.
461-467. The Christian char tor of these
mosaics is shewn by the ninibe^i Holy I.amb,
surrounded by a rich garland of fruit and
flowers in t'>e centre of each ceiling ; but the
decoration with its graceful arabesqufis, vases
of fruit and groups of birds, peacocks, ducks,
parrcquets, red-legged partriilges, and doves,
and other conventional ornaments, are quite in
the classical style of St. Constantia. The
ground, however, is gilt, not white, as in that
building. On the walls of the chaiiel of St. John
the Baptist are figures ( f the four Evangelist.'.
■ (Ciampini, Vet. Mon. vol. i. tab. 74, 75; Parker,
Mosaics, p. 16.)
I We have purposely described these last
I mo lies .somewhat out of their chronologicai
' on cf n account of their artistic connection
I with th. already described. The very exten-
! sive saries of mosaics in the ohurch of St. Mary
I Major, or the Liberian basilica, though some-
MOSAICS
stated in the i^tor :^m:^t:: :^::^s I
Charlemagne (Labbe, vii col 955^ nn^il 'i!
the met .olvkable wo4:\fetl "cf S
«rt belong to a totally different s-chool As
MOSAICS
1.127
((
none stand so
;^'f, vol. ,. p. 99_ Letter fi:);'
isolated ; none have had so litn„ i„fl
on the latter ages of i L de velopmen "• "tk'
reason of this want of artistic Tettbu wlh
the. had formed ''tU^its^^-^ti!^^'-:'
e study of classical bas-vel.e.s, ■ , 'ial Iv
those of the columns of Trajan -ind AnT n' ^
while their predecessors ha^il^'th^e" f e" ^es
of the baths as their models, and their su ve or.
forn,.d the.r taste in Greece or BvJan i m
These very remarkable mosaics consi:st of '™
,enes: vi. (I) those decorating the arch of the
tnbune, and U) those ranged along te walls of
he nave, occupying what may be tailed he tri-
for,um sp.ce. Of these the-former series «.e
much the infer or • " sfi-or»,»ii„~ • ""="» me
writes 1 0,-H t n i ' '"'f SS 'Dg in coniiiosition,"
writes 1.01 d Lindsay, "and poorly evecuted "
They have indeed, little artistic interest elept
as the earliest known representations of scenes
from the early gospel history. As such UhT
een reniarked that they ma^ifest\he di'tficu y
D a tist who had only studied in class"' al
■^hools had in depicting subjects which a ye
uad no fixed type in Christian art. The picture
nftaracteust ics or anything that diHerences
t em essentially from Pagan'subjects. fW the
hnt time ,t IS true, we here see at the apex of
to arch ,n a medallion, the familiar syXl o
Ui jewelled throne bearing the apocai/p o roll
with se,^.n seals, and above the roll a^Lmmed
Prut"wtrtr'-^"''f "■,"''' •'^ «'• •'«»- anTst
aul, w,th the evangelistic symbols on either
side, and below it the signature r.f th°bui,ler
xvsTvs . EPisco-vs. PLEm''. DM. But the ."cn I
t^^^ These, ctuL^^^y^w^^^oS^
f:5,^::i^rtiy:oS\r.^L^-
the angel, c message to Zacharias ; (6) the Annun
yS^.'tn,'''' ^V""" '^--tatio^i"; h":
lempie, (2) the second row contains rrf) the
A S"vofi "'-«.t^; .^'''' woodcut,^ttid
S|jih^-ta.^--:l---
f Be? ehei, «„H l''"' '",'"' ""= ^""^ ^olv cities
"' "eioieneiii and Jeiusa em • a^ «k„ cW\. xi
Faithful hsured as sheen T I ' *''^
m »!,,. s"'"" «» snecp. It deserves notice that
P; '»'; Valeutini, h Patrial, /la^i'^l.^nLl"^:,]- I
wJ urouDir «■.»» K^ " ?P*'''"'' "> ''rnwing
we recognise the spirit of the antinuB .fill
Ys^'t^g. while the distinctly relig?oisidefil
almost entirely wanting. Th^y we,^ ^ i^ , ,!
foJty-two m number, but are now o„ i
twen,y.,even Six were destrL ed o f ,
the arches of entrance to the Borglese ^S
Sis DC chapels, and nine, lost through accident
o> decay have been replaced bv paintingr "n
these, which wc- m,,v reeard k< thn «,?»' ,
ast effort of any extent in dian't ,' -e, t^ent
on 'the composition is often excellent tt
1 eiiet, and the conception is altogether superior to
the performance" (Lord Lindsay, „. s. , ,oi
left w';;? :;; ^'h b"?!-^ «' the .f^per eni'to "h^J
chi.edVl, .'"'"' "r of ^'"•aham and Jlel-
^hu\f '■''"' "" "'^ ^''' Testament historv
fhi-oush the times of Isaac and Ja-obl;!
Some of tfe ;;'•'' •*"i""' ''•''*"•= "^ Jiethhnron.
In that of fh"''"" "^■«"'^^ <ii«l'lay real life,
in that of the separation of Abraham and Lot
the figures," write. M. Vitet iJ/istoire de' Art)
No, 4. VWt of An»eU to Abi»h»ni. Fn.tn st Mi^ir
fh«/.K . '" ""^"^ ^^"^ "^ "'"'"*• One feeU
TnnnK i! 1 S™"?'"" separating. Isaac blessing
Jacob has almost the same pose as Raphael ha!
?";"/' in.the Loggie; thetakin, o Je cho
the battle with the Amalekite.s, also have details
which are not without a certain interest." The
visit of the angels to Abraham, of which we
give a woodcut (No. 4), in which three stages .f
the story are represented in one picture, has a
solemn dignty not unworthy of the subt?
(Ciampim VeiM,.,y„li. tav. 50-04; Valent n
u.s; Parker, 1'hoto.jr. 1952-1966; y03rt-20oS)
' Ho/. 1 " u""* ""^ ""''"°' ""■^^ "f ^'l^'ch the
date has been more variously assigned than th»t
of the very remarkable mosaic in the apse of
ot. Pudentiana ou the Rsquiliue, perhans the
most beautiful in Rome, ll has hi placed a
various epochs trom the end of the 4th to the
withmt .' «'h c^ntO'T. The earlier date is
with httledoubt the correct one. It is trne that
M wo see it now the picmre has sulfei ed too mir^h
from the hands of restiaers to allow us to speak
with absolute certainty on the point. But in
the remarkable dignity of the composition, the
treedom of treatment and correctness of per-
'It
M
Pf^
iui!|
lite H
1328
MOSAICS
spoctive, as well as in the whole drawing group
ing and drapery, it has all the essential marks
of a living art, and points to a time when the
still surviving traditions of the Pagan schools
had been quiclcened with a new spirit. The
figures do not, as in the later mosaics, stand in
rit[id isolation, gazing out into vacancy, but are
seateil with most calm dignity, " grouped so as
to form a picture," and displaying much variety
of attitude and individuality of feature. Kug-
ler's verdict is certainly correct, that "even if
the building itself be proved to be of more
recent date thau Siricius, who built the church
A.D. :l9ii, still this woric at least must h.ive been
cojiied from one much older" (u. s. p. 41). This
picture rejire.sents Christ enthroned in the centre
of a semicircle of Apostles in Koman costumes
(two of whom have been lost by modern repairs),
each seated in front of an open portal, forming
MOSAICS
a crescent-shaped cloister with a tiled roof,
above which rise the roofs and domes uf the
heavenly Jerusalem. St. Peter and .St. Paul sit
on either side of Christ. IJohind them stanii
two female figures of singular dignity and
beauty, with martyrs' chaplets in their hands,
representing either St. Pudentiana and hor sister
St. Praxedes, or, according to (iarrwcri, th^i church
ofthe circumcision and th.it of the gentiles. iSHne
are nimbed except our Lord. <.'hii.st is seated
on a richly decorated throne, His right hnr.d
is raised in benediction, and in tiie left He
holds a book inscribed J'omiims Cuuse'-'-fitur
Ecdesiae I'ltdeiUianae. Hehiud His throne a
tall jewelled cross is phinted un a mount,
and among the clouds which furni the ba':k-
ground are seen Evangelistic symbols uf scjuie-
what large dimensions. We give a wnudcut of
this very remarkable and beautiful work (No. by
No e. Apse of St Pniljntinn*.
(Gaily Knight, Eccles. Arch, of Ttal;/, vol. i. pi.
2;); I.ab.arte, Histoire des Arts Industries, album,
vol.ii.pl. 121; Fontana, Musuici ddlle Chwse di
Jioma, tav. 14; Parker, P/wto/r. Nos. 280,
1410-1419; South Kensington, No. 7987;
Parker, Mosaic Pictures, pp. 2;i-27, 153.)
Passing over the small remains of the mosaics
of St. Saljina, Rome, with the singular " imagines
clipeatae," and the noble figures of the churches
of the .lews and the Gentiles, entirely Homan in
type, character, and costume, c. 424 (Ciampini,
U.S. vol. i. c. 21, tab. 48), and the fragments of the
once imposing decorations of St. Paul's outside
the walls, set up by Leo the Great, A.D. 440-402,
mentioned in Hadrian's letter to Charle-
magne already referred to, which were almost
entirely destroyed in the conflagration of 182.1 to
the irreparable impoverishment of early Chris-
tiau art (Kuglei, u. s. p. 20; Parker, Mosaics,
p. IH ; see woodcut, art. CHURCH, vol. i. p. 371),
we must now transfer our attention to Kavenna.
No city in Italy, Home hardly e.tcepted, can
shew such admirable spuciincns of this art.
They belong chiefly to the earliest and bejit
period, while the principles of classical crt
were still in living exercise, before the niovaticil
trjiditions of the Byzantine school had l>egi'n to
proscribe all traces of freedom ami natr.re. No-
where do we find pictorial decoration mere iuti-
mately allied to architectural arninjiciiients, the
two being so closely connected ' .t oarh appears
essential to the completeness of ■■ •■ other. The
mosaic works still existing at Kavenna— nunv,
alasl have perished — exhibit four distinct styla
of art. The earliest and most classical in style
and drawing are those of the lower jiart of the
orthodox baptistery, set up by aichliishup Ncno,
A.D. 430, and those which cover the wholeof ihe
interior of the mausoleum of Galla I'iacidia.now
known as the church of St. Nazariu.s and Celsus,
A.D. 440. A century later in date, and decidedly
• IJibarte considers that the Apoallos and female
figures arc works uf the ith century ; b'.t that thi> liitiiK
of Christ aiirl the Kvnngcllstic symbols tx'lonn to a l«l«/
epoch, {.irts Indiutrielt, Iv. 172.) ThK l'nls^tl-opirii.5
of Viiot. O^irriiccl also attributes this mosaic to ps^
Siricius, A.i>. 390.
n
i
ffl
m£°
M
M
III'/
[jT
3!
1
3
MOSAICS
inferior in style and execution, though still
entirely free from Byzantine stirthess, are those
which decorate the domes of the orthodox
bai'tistery, and of the Arian baptistery, which
may be ascribed to thj same date, c. a.D 653
We have exami.les of a third mode of treatment
distinct from the other two, in the mosaics of
St V ital, A.i>. 547, of the chapel of the arch-
bishop s pala<:o, completed in the same year and
of the basilica of St. ApoUinaris in Classe
built in A.D. 549. "In them.selves," writes'
Mr, Layard («. .. p. U), "these mosaics are
deserving of the most careful study, as belonging
t.. the best period of early christian mosaic art
They are especially valuable to the architect as
artording some of the finest examples of the
treatment of pictorial mo.saics, and of the tech-
nical qualities of the material." The Havenna
nio.saics, though, as we have seen, extending
over a period of full a century, and display-
iui; various styles, are evidently productions of
one and the same school of art; exhibiting
It IS true, a gradual decline from classical
dignity and purity of taste, but maintaining
on the whole the same high level, both in
drawing and design, as well as in harmony of
MOSAICS
1329
I colour: we shall therefore treat them together*
To conimence with the orthodox baptistery
I erected by bishop Ursu., a.D. 4utU41.,,'a, 1 dZ
430. Ihis building IS internallv an octagon
i covered with a cupola, and is brilliant with m^
I saics, a most from iioor to r<,of. The 1, st It
markable of these are the eight proph .t g,„„d
majestic tigures Iraped in white, which 'of 1 pj
the spandrels of -he lower tier of arches u I
an oval background of gold enclosed bv a an hus
leaves which sprea,l out in lovelv " arX Jue
i .-jcroll-work. To quote a verv "appr , a ve
i description, "the most remarkable indildualiy!
not merely .n face but in tlgure. is pivserved
■u each; and in each there is a dislinct ex-
pression, lile-like and full of character. Found
I" a pagan building, one would say thev
represented Koman scnator.s of the sterner
republican type, and were portraits. Their
actions are essentially .lilfcrent ; their drai.eries
cas with hat truthful, excellent variety of
talZ" I'll*"* '"■'-'■•^^I'l-.'s onlv could have
Tr',?" ^^^ manipulation of light and shade
1ft j)Gl ItJCt.
The ornamentation of the cupola is divided
No. 6. Sofflt of Arch. Mnn,„l„„m of Galla Ptelrlla. Itavenna.
into two zones encircling the central picture re-
presenting the baptism of our Lord. The lower
tone, which may be ascribed to the earlier period
presents a series of throned crosses ; altars hearing
the open gospels ; episcopal chairs beneath shell-
ri'ofwl niches ; and tombs surmounted with gar-
lands, set within an architectural framework of
almost 1 ompeian elegance. This lower
ppnngs from a profusion of acanthus leaves, on
which p.wrots, doves, and other birds are perched
the upper zone, containing the twelve apostles
together with the central picture of the bapti.sm
slipiv in.lications of restoration at a later and
inferior period of arL (c. a.d. 553), though still
preserving much of antique dignity and grace,
the ajiostles. colossal in size, robed in gold
«nd white dr-ip^ry flo.itin? in th<^ wind in
pracelul folds, advance with rapid step towards
t.le central figure, bearing in their hunds
jpvvelled crowns. The life and movement
"I tho advancing figures present a striking
wntriist to the motionless repose of Inter
mosaics. In the picture of the baptism, which
filLs the centre of the cupola, Christ is entirely
nude, immersed in the river up to the middle.
The Ii.apt,st, half nude, pours water on the
bMViour s head, on which the holy dove is de-
scending. An incongruous relic of paganism
appears m the firm of the river-g.,d .)„rdan
ri.^ingfrom his stream an.l oflering a napkin .as an
zonu , act of homage. The mosaics of this buih
.stand in the very highest rank among simil.a?
i works for the richness of the ornamentation, the
harmony and delicacy of the colouring, the ex-
cellence of the <!rawing. and the dignity of the
composition. (Ciampini, Vet. Mm,, vol. ii ,. 05 .
vonQna.st,yi'air»!n(i,tar i. pp.4, 5; Kuglcr p "5 )
Analogous in style, and rivalling the bap'iste'ry
in the rich harmony of its ornamentation, is iK„
mausoleum of Gaiia I'lacidia, a.d. 440. This is
•> In describing tha Ravenna moinlcs I have drawn
larK.'Iy from tlie ndnilr.ible urtlclos wlilch appearrd >n iho
r.tVr;,'''"''"' ''"'■''"' ""■ >■"•"" l«'».e9iiecmlly Uio«
pul)ll-li<Kl *.picmbcr 25 and December 30.
• Tima, u. I.
\i i
a.
m
H^'
m
HH^'4
' ^
■SBnl'l
, t
^|gk<^
1
H^^Bsc^^
^i ■
1330
MOSAICS
a building in the form of a short Latin cross, each
arm covered with a barrel vault, with a small
cupola rising on a square lantern above the inter-
section. The whole interior, both walls and roof,
from the height of about six feet from the floor,
is coated with mosaics, which, as Messrs. Crowe
and Cavalcasalle have pointed out, are of special
value as a connecting link both in the subjects
and their treatment between the Graeco-Roman
work of the primitive Christian church, and the
strictly new-Greek or liyzantine ; between the
frescoes of the catacombs and the mosaics of the
Roman churches. The chief arches are deco-
rated with rich acanthus scroll-work (see wood-
cut No. 6), which also covers the lunettes at
the ends of the transepts, where the britjht green
leaves pencdlled with red and bl.ick and bordered
with gold, stand out on a dark blue ground, with
stags making their way through the foliage to
slake their thirst at a fountain, in evi.ient allu-
sion to Ps. xiii. 1. The subject in the chief
lunette facing the entrance has been \'ariously
explained. It represents a male figure, advancing
with energetic stride, his pallium floating in the
air, and bearing a crux hastnta over his right
shoulder. In his right hand he carries an open
book. Before him to his right is an iron grate
or gridiron, with burning wood under it. liehiud
him is an open cupboard, or scrinium, containing
rolls of the Gospels. This figure has been
identified from the days of Ciampini downwardn
with our Lord, and the book is supposed to be
an heretical work which He is about to throw
into the flames. Such a representation of our
Lord, however, is quite witliout a parallel in
the ,vhole cycle of sacred art, and it has of late,
with more probability, been regarded by flarnicci
and Richter (Die Mosaiken von Ravenna, p. 31),
as St. Lawrence with the instrument of his
martyrdom, as the sword lies at the feet of St.
Agnes in the mosaic in the basilica bearing her
name at Rome. The book held by him would
under this interpretation bo one of the Gospels
(before the restoration of 1875 the scrinium con-
tained only three rolls, St. Matthew, St. Luke,
and St. John), borne as a symbol of his office as
a deacon (cf. Const. Apost. lib. ii. c. 57 ; Hieron.
Epist. Ivii. ; Concil. Vasens. ii. c. 2). Very
superi<jr both in design and execution is the
celebrated, but somewhat overpraised, mosaic
of the Good Shepherd in the lunette above
the chief entrance. "For beauty and purity
of design," writes Mr. Layard (ti. s. p. 1+),
" which nearly approaches that of classic times,
and for exquisite harmony of colour, this is one
of the most |)erfect specimens of the art that
can he found." Its resemblance to tome of the
catacomb frescoes of Orpheus is too strong to be
overlooked. [FhesoOES, vol. i. p. tiSO,] The
Saviour, represented as a beardless young man
with long riowing hair, clad in a long gold tunic
striped with blue, and holding a crux hastaia in
His left hand, is seated in a grassy, niUy land-
scape, with His sheep grazing around Him,
caressing with flis right hand one of the floc't
that has lovingly approached Him.' Each o.'
' The somewhat cxaggcratcc !aiid:itii;i: •^h-cr: i-j ijxis
mosaic by voti yiiast and othors may be estimated by an
inspection ol the accurate repruducitun of the original
gizo, by Sulviiitl and U olo, in the gullery of the Bouth-
vaisl court at the Soaih Kensington MiiBeam.
JIOPAICS
the walls of the lantern supporting the cupola
bears two standing figures — perhaps apostl.?s—
by another and inferior hand, but full of actioi
and admirably posed. Below the windows are
doves perched on the rim of a vase and drinking
from it, reminding one of the celebrated antique
mo.saic in the Capitol, described by Pliny. The
dome itself is spangled with stars shining forth
from, a red azure ground encircling a Latin
cross. (Ciampini. ^'(t. Mon. vol. i. tab. 6')-67;
von Quast, taf. '2-G, pp. 10-15 ; Kigler, ]>. 28.)
We have to leap over a century to arrive at the
period of the execution of the mosaics of what
is known as the Arian baptistery, or St. Maria
in Cosmedin, said to have been built bv Theo-
doric, and after his death reconciled unl deco-
rated by bishop Agncllus, c. 5H(}. Our limits
fitrbi 1 our dwelling upon these works cf art,
which are almost exactly reproductions of those
in the upjier |iart of the dome of the orthodox
baptistery. We have, as there, the baptism of
Christ in the centre, with the attendant Hgures
of the baptist and the river-god Jordan, with
the lengthy, angular apostles in a lower zone
dispropor-ionate, figures — bearing crowns. (See
Ciampini, Vet. Mon. vol. ii. c. 23; von Quast,
18; Kugler, p. 35.) '
We jiass now to the celebrated church
of St. Vital, consecrated in 547. It will
be seen from the ground plan and section of
this remarka^!" edifice (CllURCli, vol. i. pp.
375, 376), that in its general plan it is
circular, covered by a dome, with what we
may call a quadrangular chancel ending in a
domed apse. There can be no doubt that the
principal dome, together with the whole of thi'
interior, was originally decorated with mosaics,
but the whole have perished at the hands ct'
later restorers with the exception of those <if the
sacrarium and apse. These are so remarkable io
their treatment and so splendid in their gfneral
effect as to make us regret most keenly the de-
struction of the others. Although the architec-
ture of the church is what was afterwards
known as Byzantine, and it owed its erection tn
the Emperor of the East, the term •'Byzantine"
cannot properly be applied to the mosaics. ''The
style of art," writes Kugler, "is .still of that
late Roman class already described, and we have
no reason to conclude that the artists belonged
to a more Eastern school " {Hatid'wkof I'ainti.u],
u. s. p. 34). It is evident, however, that the
direct classical influence was waning, and giving
place to realism. They no longer, n in the
representations of which " the Good Shepherd"
of the mausoleum of Galla Flacidia may b*
taken as a type, " reflect pagan art-traditien
glorified by Christian sentiment," hut either
depict scenes belonging to their own times or
sacred subjects into which the spirit of the day
has been breathed, with scarcely any trace cf
antique feelings. The broad .soiHt of the arch
dividing the sacrarium from thi central domical
' At the cattiedral of Naples there Is a biptlatetj'
ascribed to Conslantinc, but assigneil by some to blslwp
Vlncentius, a.d. 656-670, the cupola of which is enrich«l
with mosuks. The sacred raonogram o<copl s the crnlrt.
the pmpliets presenting their crowns. The atiltudes ar«
Bald to be varied, the action suitable, and the dmpc rlen o(
ctasfiic dignity. (Catftianl, ChieM di A'apoli, voL i. p. Mi
Crone audCavalcoselle, vol. I. p. 13.)
Ko. 7. Moaair of JniUniai
m
MOSAICS
»re« is decorated with 15 medallions containins
inJ V, ual portrait-like heads of our Cd
«nJ H.S apostles and the martyrs Gerva i us
and Protas.us, set in a field of gold-green
wair?,rtl ""'' "° " ^'"-^ Sround/Xhe^'two
wa is ot the sacranum exhibit a . arkab p
senes of 01,1 Testament subjects, ch;.«; If^
bohcai o( the Eucharist, together ^vith fiiurerof
fnmewo rk The ,ui„,.i,.al picture on ea<;h side
contamed in the bh,nk hel.d of a semicircul' r
arch, above which two au.els floating th 0".'
hea,r support a circular medalli ,. bea i Za
L,t,n cross with the letters A n. ^ach semi!
curie mcludes two subjects combined in one
picture: th.,t .0 the north (1) Abraham and
b^nxh entertaming the three angels, and (2)
ADral un raiding his hand to slay his ^on, while
a hand from heaven points to a ram. That to
he>outh (1) the ollering of Melchizedek, who
dapel m royal • .tments of white with gold
ornaments, advan, . f,,,m a palatial edifice to an
a tar or draped table, on which stand two loaves
of read and a chahce; (2) Abel, "an excellent
and perfectly anti.iue shepherd figure " (Kugler)
clad ,a a kmd of goatskin, holding a lamb fn h is
extended arms, ever the table, with a rude hut
MOSAICS
1331
No. 7. M<«i. d JwU^o^^^nd^M. Attodanto, io SI. Viul,
at Vim, naroDi-A. — -™, ui
behind him These figures are nearly life size
To spandrels to the south contain ol one side
1 o»es keepmg the flock of Jethro. and above
.) .Moses loosing his shoes from his feet • and on
-ther side (3) the prophet Isaiah standing ;
LTehp ' k""""- c^"'" ^'e^" "° this side
« re the arch are St. Matthew and St. Mark
.ith their symbols of the angel and the lion Ae
espon ,„g pictures in the southern spandre
«re(l). Moses on the Mount receiving the law C>)
»?r"Ul.„f Israelite h<>l„,„ .^.^ ".^"^^'H
;"em,a^ also standing by a crowDed'nniar '''st'
S: :' ''• i"^°' -'" the ox"S t;g' ;
b n? lepiMsented above. Advancin,^ into fhe
P; proper, the walls on either side^ the en '
Justinian and "his strangely chosen empress"
fheodoia, with their respective suites ,,,!
their costlyollerings a't {he cons c m ' n flhf
church. (Woodcut. .So. 7, «.) These, ' as al L ,st
the sole surviving specimens of the higher "'e
e.xample» ot co»tume quite invaluable." Thev
aie liowever, interior in knowledge 01 form an ^
m drawing, and display little skiH in g Zir
he art.is endeavouring to make upSoi 'X';
de ic.encies by minute and caretnl cxc'cution and
gorgeou.. colouring. The figures are Ule-si^e .and
a.e upon a gold ground, lioth the emperor nd
e-npressaredistinguished bythenimbu.s aidw "r
diadems. (See the woodcuts in artick 0„owT
J- I'- ^^,'i-^ "^'^ '-■'"''"•"^ '' P"'^'-"f«'l by the'
archbishop M.aximiunus (a.d. 54b-5ti2) who con-
secrated the church, a very characteristic figure
accompanied by a deacon and subdeacon, the one
bearing a jewelled volume of the gos.els, the
"ther a censer. On the other side a chalnbe'rlain
i u a'i^r',t'r "T"^! ^'"^'^ "- -"broider S
dora° I K • H"" ™'""'- ^be border of Theo-
h Mag '^ 'Thfh T;!^"'' "''*' ""^ Adoration of
vontK .1 '"''? ''Sure of Christ as "a godlike
)outh with richly-clustered hair" seated on an
r- '■"=■ the l,>unJer of the ehurch i.i ut\ Te
Snd OnT^ 'if™'"^^ '""••b «■> « =t"'v
angefs bear the'n,'"'" '" ^'T "^ '^'^ «?»' ''^°
citfes of Chll '^/r °^ ^''''^'' ^'•••"' 'be
(luesot ilethlehem and Jeru.saiera bli7incr wifi,
Cat' '''"'' ''«'''-. -""iJ vine-tendr 1 "nd\T S
fonnTTn tb K^,"* °^ ^'- ^'t'''''' •■"•" t» be
lound n the whole circle of Christian art
(Ciampini, Vet. Man. vol ii tab 18 o'J! a!:
court, FeMure, pi. xvi fi^ H in .0 ' n^u'
Knight, ^W.,.'2c..'oy>S, tu' p? io^^S
' sinle'fb"'"'"' ''°r° " S'- Apollinare Nuoro.
! T V^". "'"''^'•»' thither of the body of St
I th^U t" '"J "^^'-"y '" ">« ''th cen ury from
' oridn'a '''1.° /''k "'^! °''""'' i"" " «a««o^ bu^
I °'^'g'"ally built by Theodoric, ^.d. i,00 for
Arian worship, and designated "St M.'rtin
jn coelo aureo," from the fptnlur of it goMe":
two ^r.^,V' "^'•■''°1 "^■^""'"nArii." presents
two grand processional frieze.s.of .„!„...l\;„.,.":
ritending the whole length of the DrveTi'n'';^
we have called the " triforinm spaces "which
remmd us cnrionsly of the PaiMthcnaic nro.
cession on th. frie.e of .he I'arthrn"°(Kugi;:;
««. *0 ll>»t to the south consi,u of twenty-
85
I '1 "J'H
i' <' t
m
iM
1 I Tl!
I!JS2
MOSAICS
four male saints, nimbeJ, holding crowns In
their hiinJs divided by pnlm trees, all t-K^hed
in white robes, with the exceptiun ot' the putron
saint, St. Martin, the last of the row, who is
clad in violet, advancing in stately march from
the city of Uaveuna towards the throned Saviour
seated between four angeU (a restoration since
Cinmpini's time) ; on the north, or women's side,
we have a similar procession of twenty-two
virgin saints issuing from the suburb of Classis,
clothed in white, with a gold-coloured short-
sleeved robe over, the head covered with a white
veil, and the left hand which holds a crown also
sinjilnily veiled. They are preceded l-y the
three kings (restored) presenting the oH'erings to
the Infant Saviour scitod on His throned Virgin
MOSAICS
Mother's lap, with two stately angels on either
side, both mother and child liaviug the nimbus,
anil with their right hands raised in act of
benediction. "Kow of man's works," writes
Mr. Freeman, "a.j more niagniliceut than that
long procession of triumphal virgins. ... not
stilf couvcutioual forms, as in the late Bymintine
work ; but living aud moving human boiugs."
There is great variety in the e.ipresniun of the
faces, and the i'eatures are some of the mont
beautiful in early Christian art. Tlie niimes are
inscribed over each saint. Mrs. Jamcauu calls
attention to the fact that only five of the whole
number "are properly Greek saints, all the rest
being Latin saints, whose worship originatej
I with the Western, aud not with the Lustern
No. 9, Capols ot the An:biepl«»|»l Chapel, Bavenaa.
church" (Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art,
vol. ii. p. 527). Above the friezes the spaces
between the windows exhibit small single figures
of prophets and apostles in niches ; and over
each window, a vase with two doves recalls a
familiar feature in classical art. Higher still,
juft below the roof, is a series of small subjects
from the life of Christ. Those on the ritual,
north, depict thirteen scenes from the life of our
Loid: — (1) The cure of the paralytic; (2) the
cure of the demoniac; (3) healing of the man
■with the palsy ; (4) severing; the sheep from the
goats ; (5) the widow's mite ; (6) the Pharisee
and publican; (7) the raising of Lazarus; (8)
Christ and the woman of Samaria; (9) the
woman that was a sinner ; (10) cure of the two
bliv.d men; (It) miraculous draught; (12) the
feedine of the five thousand; (13) gathering up
the fragments. Those on the south, as many
scenes from the Passion, commencing with the
Last Supper and ending with the appearances
of our Lord after His Resurrection— to the dis-
ciples at Emmaus, and to the eleven apostles;
and, what is noteworthy, omitting the Cruci-
fixion and all the physical sufferings of Christ.
It deserves notice that in the former our Lord
is roitresented as a beardless young man ; in the
latter as aduil aiiti ;>«-aidwi. inesc m.isaira .ire
of liieh value in Christian art, and deserve to be
bett- ■■ known. The best account of them is in
Richter, Die Mosaiken wn Ravenna, pp. 44 ff.
Above the saints we see the conch-shaped
ran It of an apse,
1 cross above suj
«i:le. (Woodcut, {
Cwmpini, Vet. ^l
Agincourt, Peintu
Garrucci, Arti Pn
7; South Kens, i
pp. 38-40.)
To the s:ime pei-i
chapel of the arch
.No. t».) We have he
of Christ in the cen
anJgracci'iil angels,
rathe spandrels.all
each of the foursust
seven medallion hea
L'hrist(a very youth
of honour in the uen
three of the apostl
of the remaining
ornamenting the wi
eihibit six male sain
fcraa'c .saints to t
moLoi;iMm in the c
conceived in the s
irch of the sacrar
inl'erior in design an
The mosaics whic
St. Apollinaris in
period, c. 671-677,
ently treated of hei
the same school of ai
of close resemblance
mosaics are pronoun
highest impoi'tance iu
art, a- almost the on
the conflagration of
manner in which " i
ijTubols were employi
of churches " (Kugle
drels of the nave ar(
Christian synibcds, ft
to the Good Shejih
while a line of nied:
esiiibits full-face port
Kavenna, on the same
in St. Paul's, which
tile wall of the aisles.
Cilfumi, vol. i. p. 377
a|iparently correct co
8|)se aiv original, aui
«rch of the tribune
laiigeraent. The bu:;t
wcniiles the centre-
symbols, with twtlvi
inning from the gat.is
a.ivaacing up the sid
i'm are the two i
Gabriel, with heads c
loliling the labarum.
ofSt. Matthew and St.
•lie apse present two v.
compositions, evidentli
«f those at St. Vital. '
orifices of the Old T
Wchizedek, and Abr
t They nro nrrtMQjj„-._,j v
11* century clillyon'Mcoui
"I'h lie considers to refer
'33-(54. KMghr would pre
i«»n4l,lshopPeirn8lV,A.i
i||:iil
MOSAICS
wult of an apse, with a pensile crown, nnd
•r^rw^? rT''"^ ^y " ''-'« "" -either
Hlo. (Woodcut, Corona Lucis, vol. i. p 41JI •
Cwn.i>mi, Vei. Man. torn. ii. pp. 126 V'l'.
Agincourt, Peinturc, pi. .,vi, fiij 13 is.on.'
G^nucci Arti Prmitiv. Crist.: von g'.mst, taf!
To the same period belong the mosaics of the
chnpc'I of thRarch,episco,,Ml pala.e.K (Woodcut
f'k • ?^' ^'r '""'" " ''""'" "•'"' »''" monogram
of hr,st >n the centre, supported bv four simple
and graceru ange s, with the evangelistic symbols
,n the spandrels, all on a gold gr,.und. The s„llit „f
each oftheuursustalningarcheMs decorated with
seven medallion hea.ls on an a^ure ground, that of
anstfa very youthful bust) occupving the place
ofhonuurm the centre of the chancel arch, with
three ot the apostles on either side, the heads
of the remaining six with that of St Paul'
ornamenting the western arch. The side arches
exhibit SIX male saints to the north. an,l as manv
fema'e saints to the south, with the sacred
mouoL.i.im in the centre. These medallions are
conceived in the same spirit ,as those on the
arch o( the sacrarium of St. Vital, but are
iDtenor in design and execution.
The niosaics which decorate the basilica of
St Apollmaris in Classe belong to a later
p.nodc. 671-677, but they mify be con '^ , -
ently treated of here, as they are examples of
t e same schoo of art, and present many points
of close resemblance to the earlier works These
mosaics are pronounced by Ku^ler to be of the
highest importance in the histnry of ecclesiastical
art, a- almost the on y surviving example, since
the conflagration of St. Paul's at Rome, of the
manner ,n which '■ whole rows of pictures and
..rmols were employed to ornament the interior
hurches (Kugler „...p. 6)). The span-
dels of the nave arches oiler a series of early
Christian symbols, from the simple monogram
to he Good Shepherd and the Fisherma^
wilea line of medallions on the wall above
, a full-lace portraits of the archbishops ,f
K.»e„„a, on the same plan as the series of popes
St. Paul s, which are continued also along
ne wall of he aisles. (See the woodcut, article
"t-RC, vol. i. p. 377,) These are modern bu
PF-ently correct copies. The mosaics of th
«|W ar>. original, and verv remirkable The
TO., of the tribune presents the fam Har ar
iMgement. The ku-' • " Christ in . ^ ii-
or™i,i..« fi,„ I '•'"i"'t> in a medallion,
ym the cen.rc- b.itw<,ea .1- evanselistic
"■mbols with twdve she.p on eu^^r^l
^™mg from the gat, is of »he two holv citiL an,
Glancing up the .ido. of the arch. Lower
U ' r , ,'"''"'' °* youthful beauty, each
1 lJ.ng the labarum. Lower still are «„!,?"
«.zedek, and Abraham, are combined in
MOSAICS
1383
M, he eonsders to refer to Veir». cZZulTTu
pne really spirited composition. To the no.fh
;;-!?;= J:si:^r{~"'"r
secular costmie of tbn 7ti, . ^ itcorcif, uf
the live wind vV f ,t ^ ""'""•''• ^^''''''''
o^n^'^of^tiiraJ-^scrcK/i'l;,:^:
-Ai-n.si„aiit^thra;ri:::;:!:Lt:!
Venice), but the walls of St V , 1 "■''''•
AlKdlinar^ i, Cli^^ ^^ kf ' n "SL ^ ' l!^
Rav^nnr'arT^r" '''"' '^^ ^""''^' -""-"- -^
Ambro.,e. Those a St I !' ''"''"•""^ ""J St.
lateral apses o^ the 'Incir^blp:? ll %^
•iquiiinus, containing the tomb m'aI ' ■.'
the first husband ofS'„1?a '^td fl'XV,'
They may be safely ascribed to th» ear v par of
ho ,,th century, and are entirely f.,ef,„m
By.an.me influence. That to the^right re Z
4 B 2
(f''*
■^Mtm
1334
MOSAICS
sonts Christ, youthful and beardless, clad in
white. (Woodcut No. 10.) His head cuoiiclod
with a crucit'onn iiimbus, beariug A n ; His right
hand raised in bemidiction, His left holding the
Book of Life. The apo.stlcs sit on either siuc, all
robed in wliite long-sleeved tunics, with a black
clavHS over the right shoulder. Their feet are san-
dalled The heads display much variety in e-iiires-
bion, meditative stern or cheerful, and some are
characterized by youthful beauty. The tribune to
the left reiiresents a pastoral scene, where three
youthful shepherds, one asleep, are depicted
with three sheep in a rocky landscape, under a
tdiiudy noclurual sky. Two diguilied figures
clad in rich gold-coloured robes are directing the
attention of the shepherds to something out of
the picture. If, as Dr. Appell believes, this
represents the angel appearing to the shepherds
at the Nativity, it is an interesting jiroof of the
entire absence at that early period of any
MOSAICS
recognised type of the scene (Allegranza, flpieqa-
zoiU, &c , tav. 1 J South Kens. Nos. 7782, 7iit;7).
The mosaics at St. Ambrose are in the side
chapel of St. Satyrus, or of St. Victor, "ad
coelum aureum," this being the original plant (jf
the latter saint's interment. They are ascribed to
the middle of the 6th century, and are of rcniaik-
able excellence, characterized by a living frecldm
and absence of stillness. On each side wall of the
chapel are three standing .saints ; on the gospel
side, St. Ambrose between St. Gervasius and
St. I'rotasius ; on the epistle side, St. Matenm.s
between St. Nabor and St. Felix. All wear
white togas over tunics, their feet are san-
dalled, they have no nimbi. The cupcda has
a gold ground, in the centre of which, within a
garland of gay flowers, is the half figure of St.
Victor, a bearded and moustacheil young man
of a high colour and short brown hair. (Woiuicut
No. 11.) He is clothed in a red tunic, with a
No. 10. The Apae of 8t AqnlUnns, Bt Lorenio, Hllim. (Sooth Kaudnglon Mtuenm.)
light purple pallium over it. He holds in his
right hand a cruciform monogram of Christ with
an inscription on the horizontal bar of the H,
read by Kerrario, Panatjriae. In his left hand he
bears im open book inscribed Victor, above is a
«ross with Fau tint on the horizontal bar. The
evangelistic symbols as usual occupy the pen-
dentives. They are more unconventional than
usual but the lion suffers in drawing from the
artist's ignorance of the real animal (Ferrario,
Monumcnti di Sant' Ambroijiu in Milano).
Before we return to Rome to trace the gradual
stiilcniujj and shrivciiing up of ecc!c.';:asticai art
under increasing Byzantine influence, we must
cross the Adriatic, and take a survi'V of the
mosaics of the very remarkable basilica of
Parenzo in Istria, erected, according to an in-
scription on the tabernacle, (strangely misread by
Dr. J. M. Neale, and the German authorities)'
by Kuphrasius, the first bishop of the see, between
A.D. .^3.5 and A.D. 543. These moisaics have a
strong family likeness tf. those of Kavenna,
especially those of St. Aimllinare Nuovo, and
evidently belong to the same school. The soffit
of the arch of the tribune is decorated with a
series of medallion heads of female .saints, with
the sacred monogram on the vertex of the arch.
The western face of the arch has only ribbons
and arabesque foliage. The side wall." of the
•• The inscription i« Mt fciUnwii : •'Fftnml(uB) . Ke")! .
Eufrssius . AntlB(te») . temporib(uB) . suis . »g(««)
an(niim) . XI . hunc . loc(iini) . a . fiin(liun(ni,o»)^
l)(e)o . Johantfpl . fee . Oeccl . Cathota-vaH) condtdtt."
■|'he words imi . jnbantt, i.e. Deu jwmmle, Imvp »•«
strangi'ly read into an abbreviation ae />»»»«•(<•
beatitiimo Aniittite.
mosaics'
ipjte present the Annunciation to the north, «nd
Ue Visitation to the ^outh. Two saints an,l a
gci.l ninibed angel in white robes hol.linir „n
MOSAICS
1336
we
A sucreii tigur
lion A siicre. tiguru occuiiii's tlie cTntral i'l„ce
with saints an,l angels r,tan.|ing in solemn atten- I
dance on eithci- si.le, while from the clouils above <
the Divine ilami holds out a crown But it '
— -" — ■• ^ivi»n. liut it
I, no longer Christ Himself that is the chief
obji'ct ol veneration, but His Virgin Mother
thn.ntd and niiubed, holding her Son on her la,.'
This mosBic therefore indicates a distinct step
onwards in the cultus of the Blessed Vircin.
anticipating by three ,aiies the throned
Virgin of hanta Maria i- i „mnica. On either
side ot the central group stands a statelv angel,
and beyond three saintly personages; {hose to
the Virgins right hand are the patron saint,
ht. Maurus, hobling a crown, bishop Enphrasius
the lounder, and archdeacon Clau.lius, the
architect of the church, a mo.lel of which
huphrasius is presenting; and between them a
second hiiphrasius, a boy. the child of Claiuiius.
the three, saints to the Virgin's left are anonv
ni(JUN\ The mosaics at I'arenzo are not limited
to the interior <,f the <hurch. The western
tavnde was decorated with a mosaic jiicture of
Christ in a Vesica, between the Kvangeli.tic
symb(ds, with the seven golden candlesticks and
two saints below, all in a state of sad decay
Na n. Cupola of the Chapel of St lifctiro. at St. An.bn.gio. Milan
The very remarkable mosaics of this basilica
demand careful illustration. (Lohde. Der Don
m I'arenzo; Eitelberger, Kunstdenhnalc des
WsterreM-hischen h'aiserstaatcs, heft 4-5, pi
""^roA ^^'^'^' ^'"^' "f J'^'-ney '■« Dalmatic^,
i'roceeding still farthsr to the east. Justinian's
glorious church of St. Sophia at Constantinoi.le
."csGsij, ttu Bxampie of mosaic de oration tin-
Paralleled m exte.nt and iinsurpassea in mag-
iiilio«ce, but almost entirely hidden beneath
tUe whitewash of the image-hating Mussulmans,
anJ on V known to us bv the rhet.,ncal descrip-
turns of Paului Silentiarius, and from the draw-
I logs of Sahenberg, taken during the temporary
removal of the plaster, and published in his
m.ignihcent work on the ancient Christian archi-
tecture of Constantinople (Altchristlicne Baudcnk-
rmle von Gonstantinopcl). The present state of
the mosaics may be seen in Signor Fossati's work
Aijta Sofia. Salzenberg's plates afford an un-
demable proof th.at pv^n in !$y2auiium itself the
stitlening inHuence of Byzantine pictorial > •>di-
tions had hardly begun to operate in the Cto
century. It ,s true that, with some exception
there is little attempt to produce a pictori; :
composition. The mosaics chiefly consist of
majestic single figures rhythmically arranged as
.i;
li
It ' ■
lit
I. ir'i'
1886'
MOSAICS '
accessories to tho architecture, looking .lowu '
calmly on the worshipiwrs bvlow, without any
in'lication ofiictinn. Hut they aro well .Iniwn,
siiil ilispliiy nciuu of tho spoctiul liiiiiliiy and
ottenuatiiil liinv^th which renders luti;i' liyzauliue
art 80 rei)ul»ivL'. The suUidiary oiuainejilatiou
on the walls, panels, «"tlitH and Npundrels of the
arches is no less free and joyous. Here wo have ;
beautiful araln'siiue foliage, brauches of trees i
with clusters .1 fruit and Howers, with stars,
lozenges, trian^tles, and guiUmhe borders, mani-
festing the intluenre of a still living tlassioal
tradition. The whole interiiu- of the ehunh was
originally invested with inlaid work. The lower
portions" were covered with "opus sectile," i
patterns inliiid in vnri"Us-c(doui'ed marbles,
while the upper and far larijer portion was
»wathed, as it were, in a continuous gold sheet
(we see the sauo-, at a later date, at St. JIark's,
Venice), thnnvin'^ up the stately saered forms.
Tho general arrangement of the mosaics may be
seen in the section of St. Sophia, given in our
MOSAICS
first volume (Oali.kiuks, vol. 1. p. 707), Foot
vast seraphs, with faies of youthful majesty, set
in tlio midst uf six overshadowing wings, oicupy
the peudentives of the giitut cupola. These are
still partially visildu, their faces only beiug (nn-
cealed by silver stars. The dome itself had
no figures, ano was simply divided by liau K ot
couveutional 111 .iuuient. Tub solfits ot the in-
tuuin arches supportiug the dome were adm \\k\
with full length culossal figures of sacred | i.
sonages within rich mosaic borders. The smlit
of the arch of tiie apse preseu'-ed on either side
a truly magniticuut picture uf a white-rolied
angel holding a ghdie and a wand, with two
wings of vast ieugtii and lireadth, almost reaching
to his feet. The face is characterised by a nciMe
youthful beauty; the hair long and cuiling.
'rile .rrangeme'ut of the wall spaces withni tlib
cupola will be seen in the WLudcut already re-
ferred to. The six smaller figures between the
second tier of windows represent the nnnor
prophets, Hanked at either end by taller figures
No. U. Mosaic In Nnrthei, Agto Sophta. From Salienierg'a dmUatiKifd.
of the major prophets, Isaiah and Jeremiah to
the north, Ezekiel and Daniel to the south.
There is much variety and individuality of ex-
pression in these stately figures. Jeremiah has a
very noble head, with long tlowini; hair and beard.
Jonah and H.ibakkuk are also uoticeable. The latter
has a very earnest face, without a beard, and with
short hail- (Salzenberg, pi. 30). A mos.aic given
bv Salzenberg (pi. 31), from the Gynaeceum, re-
presenting the Uay of Pentecost shews the only
attempt at a regularly composed jiicture. The
twelve apostles are ranged in a semicircle (it is
noticei\ble that the Virgin is absent), tho descend-
ing fiery tougues being depicted on the ribs of
the half dome. A fragment from one of the
lipnndrels shews a portion of a group of by-
standers, depicted with much graphic power.
Half-incredulous wonder is well represented in
their faces. One ill-looking fellow with a goat's
beard is mocking. The mosaics of .St. Sophia
are evidently not all of the same date. The
figures of Eastern saints, Anthimus, Basil,
Dionysius, Gregory Tiieologtis, &c., from the
walls of the nave, shew a somewhat soulless
uniformity in dress form and feature, with an
ajiproach to excess of length, indicating a decline
of art (i6. pi. 28, 29). The mosaic of our Lord
enthroned, wjth the prostrate form of tho
emperor (Constantine Pogonatus) awkwardly
poising himself on his knees and elbows at His
I'eet, displays the union of excessive gorgeousness
of dre-ss and accessories, with bad drawing and
ignorance of anatomy, which characterizes the
later Byzantine works. (Woodcut No. 12.)
Another contemporaneous specimen of Greek
mosaic, on a scale of which unhappily there are
but few examples remaining, is the cupola of
St. Sophia, at Thessalonica, representing the
Ascension. This vast coiuposilioa covers an .irra
of 600 square yards, and is executed with a
finish rarely exhibited in such works. It may
be safely assigned to the middle of the 6tli
century. The ascending figure of Christ in ao
aureole supported by angels, in the centre ot
the dome, has aim
Vii'j .n and twelve n
htJe conical hills c
io a circle nuind thi
mure th.ii twelve ti
golden c.iucave. Tl
place opposite the
a purple robe, with
goilen nimbus, as Im
OB either side of her
The ajiostles are un-,
T8iy varied and life-
wnie lean tlieir hea
ihouijht ; some hii|.|
astuuisiiment. 'I hen
paralyzing ellect o
de»potic ai't tradition
work (Texier et I'u
il, xli, pp. UJ-U4
to doubt tliat Greece,
these mosaics are urgcn
slso reports that the
Vitopedi and St. Laun
Daphne, near Athens, a
are (:o\ered with mosi
details.
The devastating inroa
in the h'Cn centurv efl
native art both in the c
cities. The revival ofm
other forms of ecclesias
buted to artists from I
brought with them thei
pictori.'d traditions. It
later p,-ri.-al, a, has been
tke rapid decline which
line school [iroper set ii
'ions in Rome belonging
fihibitalife and moven
.la point of composjti
MOSAICS
th« .lomc, h,i8 nlmoit entirely perished. The
Vu| .a .in,l tvve ve n,K).tleM, j>„i„„,l m„ecurely on
litJe (■.m.cal l„ll« divide.l by olive trec«, «t„ud
10 a circle .■„„n,l the base, their a,Um,xl li««res
mure tha , twlve feet hi«h, .tretchiuir over tlie'
golieu .„uuive. The Virgiu orcupios the chief
piao: oppoMte the eutrauce ; he in ve.ite,l iu
a purple robe, with scarlet sanlaLs, an.l has n
goileo iiMiilnis, asiiave the two an -U who, oue
00 either si.le of her. are u,Mr«.s,,ii,j; the apostles.
The a|,o,,ti,.. ,.ie uu-tiimbej. Their expre.ssiou is
very vaneJ aii.l lUe-liko. Some gaze upwards ;
wine eau ti,eir heads on their hands in ,le,.„
thouijht ; some h.dd up a hand or a Hui;..r in
utomsMinent. 'Iheie is as yet no trace of the
paralyzii^' ellect of Uyzautiue stilfuess and
despot!.; art traditions in ti.is truly manuiticent
worK (fexier et l-M:n>, J-Jjlises /ly^.„Uines, ,,1.
.'/;.':','• |r'+-^>- ■''''«'« "^'O >'« no reason
to doubt that Greece, Asia iMiuor, and the il.dy
MOSAICS
i"m-
L»nd one* poMt^ssed many other equally noble
Mwoiinens of ,„„sa,c decoration, " incomparably
more s),lendi,l, more extensive, and grander in
idau ((.ally K,,,^;,,,, ,|,,,„ „,„^^ ^\^^ ^ ■"
we are most familiar in Italv ; but v.rv few
have survived the wasdi^' effects of the ele-
ments, wars, tires, and earthquakes, and those
viii Tr '":;;,"""">• »"'' l-' ''>■ Mahommedan
whitewash Ihe apse of the chur.h of the
convent ot Mount Sinai has preserved it»
mosa.rs o» the time of .lu-.tiuian.' r.| resentinff
the lransf,«uration, with (Inures „f Christ.
Jlose., and Klia.s, and the three apostles below!
set in a border of medallions , i.taini.ic busti
ot prophets, apostles and saints. I'ortraits of
Justinian and Theodora are found ou tb.- face of
the arch o( the apse. Above them are the
appropriate historical scenes of Moses and the
liurning liush, an.l Moses rc'eivim; the Tables of
the Law. Accurate Jrawings or jdiotographs of
N
lc«
• li
"M
Na IS, Tl» Ap» Md Trlnmphal A«h of 8S. Cotom ,uad Dami»n, Borne.
these mosaics are urgently called for. M. Didron
alsa reports that the " vaults and cupola of
Vitopedi and St. Laura on Mount Athos, and of
Daphne, near Athens, and of St. Luke in Livadia
are (|o^e^ed with mosaics," but he supplies no
details.
The devastating inroads which swept over Italy
w the ,Hh century effectuallv stamped out all
native art both in the capital and the provincial
cities. The revival of mosaic decoration, as of the
other forms of ecclesiastical art, must be attri-
uted to artists from the Eastern Rome, who
brought with them their technical processes and
Picton.d traditions. It was not, however, till a
at»r !«.,■,.-«), as has been alrcodv remarked, that
He rspid decline which characterizes the Byzan-
me school proper set in. The mosaic composi-
lons m Rome belonging to the 6th century still ;
anibit a life and movem-nt which render them !
.in point of compositioo scarcely perceptibly j
inferior to those of the .ith, and in splendour of
material by ;o me.ins so" (Kugier, «. s. p. 31)
Ihe fine^t mosaics of this class existing in
Rome are those in the church of St. Cosmas and
St. Uamian (the Eastern physician saints) in the
forum, built by Felix IV. A.a 526-!:,30. (Woodcut
'^?- ^^-f Here we perceive that we have finally
saiJ farewell to pictorial composition, and enter
upon the system of pictorial architectonic decora-
tions, which continued with ever-increasing for-
mality .and stitTnessup to the extinction of the art.
Ihe effect is made to depend entirely on majestic
figures rhythmically placed in motionless repose
striking the eye of the worshipper with their calm'
and solemn grandeur, and filling his mind with re-
verence and awe, while " the rich play of antique
decoration islostsight of behind the sevei'e gravity
of figurative representation " (Llibke, IJistor,/ of
CAnstmn Art). The arrangement of this aJiiiir-
able mosaic, the last work in Christian Rome in
^r-m
,.ieu-i . ,|, |M
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1338
MOSAICS
MOSAICS
\riiich we trace a really liviDg art in contra-
distinction to the mechanical reproduction of
hicratical forms, conforms to the type described
at the commencement of this article ; conven-
tional in arrangement, gorgeous in colour, severe
in form, and stern in expression. A colossal
figure of our Lord, His right hand raised in
benediction, His left holding a scroll, occupies
the centre of the roof of the apse. To the left St.
Peter introduces St. Cosmas ; St. Paul, to the
right, St. Damian, each bearing martyrs' crowns.
They are followed by St. Tlieiidore to the right,
gorgeously robed, carrying his crown, and
pope Felix IV., the founder of the church, of
which he carries a model, to the left (an entirely
restored figure). The composition is terminated
on either side by a palm tree, laden with fruit,
sparkling with gold, symbolizing the tree of life.
Above that to the left is the ph(ieni.\ with a star-
shaped nimbus, typifying eternal life through
death. The river Jordan is indicated below Christ's
feet, as it were dividing heaven from earth. A
frieze encircling the apse bears twelve sheep,
drawn with much truth and individuality of
expression, adrancing from the two boly cities
to the Holy Lamb, who, with nimbed head, stands
on a hill, from which issue the four rivers of
Paradise, which, as well as the Jordan, have
their names inscribed. The arch of the apse
presents the usual symbols on its face. In the
centre the Lamb, "as it had been slain," on a
jewelled altar with a cross behind and the
seven sealed book on the step ; on either side the
golden candlesticks, two angels, and the evange-
listic symbols, two of which, as well as the
throng of elders below offering their crosses,
have been nearly obliterated by repairs. The
only nimbed figures are Christ and the angels.
" The figure of Christ," writes Kugler (u.s. p. :i2),
" may be regarded as one of tlie most marvellous
specimens of the art of the middle ages. Coun-
tenance, attitude, and drapery combine to give
Him an expression of quiet majesty, which for
many centuries after is not found again in equal
beauty and freedom. The drapery especially is
disposed in noble folds, and only in its somewhat
too ornate details is a further departure from
the antique observalde. The saints are not as
yet arranged in stilf parallel forms, but are
advancing forward, so that their figures appear
somewhat distorted, while we ah-eady remark
something constrained and inanimate in their
step. ... A feeling for colour is here displayed,
of which no later mosaics .with gold grounds
give any idea. The heads are animated and indi-
vidual. . . . still far removed from any Byzan-
tine stiflhess." (Cianipini, Vet. Man. vol. ii.
tab. 15, 16 ; De Rossi, Musaici Cristumi, fnsc. v. ;
Fontana, ^fwsdici delle Chiese di Roma, tab. 3 ;
Liibke, history of Christian Art, vol. i. p. 319;
Parker. Photajr, 1441-1445 ; South Kens. No.
7805.)
A very decided decline in art, though still
preserving some traces of the ancient Roman
manner, is manifested by the mosaics of St. Law-
rence without the walls built by Pelaglus II.
fA.D. 577-590). The apse was destroyed when
Hnnoriui III. (A.D. 1210-1227) i-evcrsed <he
orientation, and erected a long nave where the apse
had stood, and the only mosaics remaining are on
the back-side of the arch of triumph. They are
too much restored and altered to be of much
value in the history of art. Christ Is here
seated on the globe of the world, holding a long
cross ; to his right stand St. Peter and St. Law-
rence bearing similar crosses, and St. Pelagiuii,
a diminutive figure, presenting his church. On
Christ's left stand St. Paul and St. Stephen, and
St. Hippolytus bearing his martyr's crown.
Vitet remarks that the savage ascetic aspect
of Christ resembles that of an Oriental monk.
(Ciampini, Vet. Man. vol. ii. c. l;i, tab. 'M ;
Parker, Mosaics, pp. '20-22.) "Standing un
the boundary line between the earlier and later
styles" (Kugler, u.s. p. 59), but shewing a very
decided tendency to Byzantine treatmiMit, are the
mosaics of St. Agnes, the work of po,.; llouoriua,
A.D. 025-638. The picture, limited to three
figures, is a strong contrast to the crowded
compositions of later times. Here, for the first
time, we have a human saint occupviug the
central i)lace hitherto reserved for Christ. The
Divine Hand holds the crown above her hcul.
The execution is coarse, and the design poor. The
forms are stiff and elongated, and the attituiles
conventional, while an attempt is made to com-
pensate for deficiencies in art by riihness uf
colour and gorgeousness of costume. St. Agnes
is attire^ with a barbarous splendour in a dark
purple robe embroidered with gold ami overloaded
with gems, as is her jewelled tiara, while stiiiitfs
of pearls hang from her ears, i-eminding us cfthe
Empress Theodora at St. Vital's. Her red chocks
are mere blotches, and the figure is outlined by
heavy dark strokes. A sword lie's at her feet,
where fiames are bursting from the ground, sym-
bolizing her martyrdom. To her right Hunorius
presents his church ; to her left pope Synim.i-
chuE holds a book. The ground isof gold, which
by this time had become the rule, seldom do-
parted from (He Rossi, Mmaici Cristianl, fasc,
iv. ; Fontana, u.s. tav. 8 ; U'Agincourt, l'dntn:x,
pi. 17, No. 2; Parker, Plwtonr. 159:!; South
Kens., No. 974). The mosaics which deeorato
the apse of the oratory of St. Venantlus (A.n.
632-642), attached to the Lateran baiitistery,
depart somewhat from the usual type. Christ
and the two adoring angels are reduced to bttsts,
upborne on gaudy clouds. Below, not com-
posed into a picture but standing niotionless
side by side, are ranged nine full-length fiijurcs,
the central one being the Virgin as an "oraute"
(the earliest e.vample of her represontatiim,
not in an historical subject, in a Itomau nui.snif).
To her right arc St. Paul, St. John, St.
Venantius, and pope John IV., the bulMcr of
the oratory, of which he holds a model in his
hand ; to her left St. Peter, St. John the Baptist,
St. Domniu.s, and pope Theodore, by whom thg
oratory was completed. The frieze above the
arch has the usual symbolical representations;
in the spandrels below are eight full-length figures
of saints, four on each side, some having crowns,
others books. The execution of the whole is
coarse, and the design tnsieiess. We must pass
rapidly over the remaining Roman mosaics in
which Byzantine formalism gradually crushes
out more and more of the life of art. Those of
the small altar apse attached to the round
church of St. Stej-hen, on the Coelian Hi!!, -t.n.
642-649, display in the centre a richly jewelled
cross between the standing figures of St. Primuj
nn<t St. Felic'''-",;s, with a medallion head of
Christ "n ' ^ upper arm (recalling the analogoui
MOSAICS
•rrangement at St Apollinaris in Classe), and
the Land ot the tather holding out the martyr's
crown above A solitary Hgure in n.o/aic,
that ot 6t ftubastian, over a side altar at St
hetro m V.ncoli, belong, to the same period of
youthful hu f-uakod Christian Apollo, but a,s an
old man with white hair and beard, in full liy-
wnt.ne costume, with richly embroidered trou-
.ers bare legs and sandals. He holds his mar-
tyr s crown. His countenance displays stern
resolution. Ihe figure is stiff and lifeless
Some tn.gments of the mosaics put up in St"
Peter s by John VH a.D. 7o;i, LoZ l^^
the basilica w,is rebuilt, still exist. A fieure of
the Virgin, with .jplifted hands as an orante, is
preserved in the Kicci cliapel, in St. Mark's at
Horence A portion of the Adoration of the '
JlRgi 13 to be seen in the sacristy of St Alarv
mtosmedin, which "shews composition of a
good ch.iracter somewhat in the older taste."
The circular church of St. Theodore, A.D. 772-
795, contains a well-executed picture which
MOSAICS
1339
I " is chiefly interesting to us as one of the ear-
(Kugler, „.,, p. 41). ^.^^^1 i„ a vi.det robe.
with long light hair and a short beani, hold-
mg a cross in his left hand, is seated ipon a
blue starry globe. St. Peter on the right is in-
troducing St. Theodore, both being exfot copies
St. Damian. St. I'aul, on the bft, introduces
another youthfu saint. li„,h „re oi'leriug he r
crowns on an embroidered mantle to Christ The
unmeaning draperies indicate the rapid decline
01 art. 1 he largest and mo.st magnificent of the
work of this period are those in°.he church of
kt.n'""^ '• ^'T''"''' «^^-l't at Venice and
Ka^enna, do we find so wide an extent of m„saic
decoration in the same building. Not only the
portions usually so .,rnamented, the a,,se and its
arch but a secon.l arch crossing the nave, and
a side chapel that of St. Zeno. with its vaulted
roof are similarly vested. "The ellect of this
grand work," writes M. Vitet, " is most imposing,
the eilcct entirely of decoration, independent
Ka U St Pruedoa; Borne. (Prom Kngler.)
of the character and value of the objects re-
presonted. If the eyes are not charmed, they
«io iit least dazzled, and it is only after soin«
time that we are aware of the feebleness an,l
cnrscness ot the work, and that we feel a sad
iur|.nsc at this groat degradation of art "
Any detailed description of the subjects is
rcLjemI unnecessary by their being a formal
r production, with the necessary substitutions,
of the mosaics at St. Cosmas and St. Damian
The sainted sisters St. Praxedes and St. Puden-
to» take the place :f St. Cosmas and St. Damian,
• 1 pope Paschal of pope Felix. All else is, in
m i>t least, the same. The degrading influ-
<ncc of the Uyzantine art traditions were, how-
wr too potent to allow the imitator to copy
h u ly He has reproduced the genera! form
M lost Ihe spirit. The execution is rude, and
e pi geousness of the colouring only increases
he barhnric effect. The figures' are stiff atten- ,
«».■<! and angular ; the countenances meagre
iM Md ascetic; the drapery formed only by
CO ''rVi'M'Tr *"•",' '""''" '""■--'''wood badi;
cut (\itet . Ihe arch ofthe tribune preserves the
d oiation in a degraded form which has almost
en ire y pn^-ished at St. Cosmas and St. Damian.
\ oodcut ISO. 14.) The front of thearch of triumph
represents ,n the centre the heavenly Jerusalem
within whose gates stands our Lord, too dim n
tive tor eflect, atten.led by angels and sain
while below a multitude if the redeemed apl
p. each m solemn procession "clad in white
Ihe simultaneous action of so vast a crowd
IS not without solemn ehect, but the whole dh>.
ele^, tion"?p"f'"'". "'""Sht and feebleness of
execution (Ciampini. tom. ii. tab. 47 . Fortmn
vo?i ^P*.-,:- £• f ' ^'r' ■""' CaVaicaseli;
u ', ?^ ' ^""*'' J^*"'-. No. 97G). The sid.
chape though from its l.rbaitc splem our ?
has obtained the designation of the "Garden of
., It
VJ
1340
MOSAICS
Paradise," is even puorer in design and ruder in
execution. Tlie walls aie covered witli long
lean figures of saints— the Virgin Mnry, St. Jolin
Baptist, Apostles. Virgins, busts, and sacred
•ymbols, ranged side by side on a glittering gold
ground, with no attempt at combined pictorial
effect. The vault exhibits in the centre a half-
length figure of Christ upborne by four angels,
apparently copied from the ceiling of the archi-
episcopal chapel at Kavennr,. The most interest-
ing portion of these decorations is the Holy
Lamb on a mount, from which issue the four
Btreanis of l'ara'li?e, at which as many stags are
drinking. The window above the side door is
framed in double rows of medallion portraits,
"which are morely rude caricatures" (Kugler,
U.S. p. 68). (Ciampiiii, tom. ii. c. 26, tab. 48,
60; Vnvker, I'/clo./r, No. 15i>«-l.'il2 ; I'nrker,
Mosai s, p. MS; South Kens., No. l:^S^.'i-l;^96).
To the same pope. Paschal 1., are due the mosaics
MOSAICS
of the apse of St. Cecilia, in Trastevere, where
the subjects and arrangements are nearly the
same, and which in rudeness aud " multii)licity of
figures corresjiond pretty much with those at St.
Praxedes." We have " the same forgetfulness of
the human frame, the same disparity between
the rIchne^s of the costumes and thedefoimity
of those who are clothed in them "(Vitet). (C'iam-
pini, vol. ii. c. 27, tab. 51, 5'J ; Parlser, /'/lo-
toiji. 1706.) To Paschal al.so we mu.st asciibe
the rich mosaics of the apse of St. Mary in .Vavi-
cella, or in Uomnica, where, for the first time
in existing Christian Koman art (the example at
Parenzo is three centuries earlier), we find the
Virgin Mary enthroned with our Lord on her
la|>, not as an infant, but as a dwarfed man,
taking the chief place in the composition. (Wood-
cut No. l.'j.) Kugler calls attention to the richness
of the foli;ige decoration, usually proscribed by the
moroseness of Byzantine art. The mosaics of St.
Ro. 1& 81. Nuto Id Damnk* : Bomr. Ctns fU.
Mark's, erected by Gregory IV., a.d. 82S, are,
according to M, \'itet, " unquestionably the most
barbarous in Kome," in which "all respect
for any kind of rule, all antiquity of cxpies-
sion, all notion of order and beauty have dis-
appeared. The meagreness of the figures, the
lengthening of the bodies, the stiff parallelism
of the draperies, cannot be carried farther." The
subject, Christ attended by apostles and saints,
with the usual accessories, calls for no remark
(Ciampini, tom. ii. c. 19, tab. 36, 37). The ca-
thedral of Capua possesses mosaics of the same
school, which deserve fuller description and illus-
tration (Ciampini, tom. ii, c. 29, tab. 54). The
celebrated mosaic of the apse of the Leonine
Triclinium at the T.ateran, though a modern re-
storation by Benedict XIV., a.d. 1740-1758, is a
tolerably faithful copy of the original work,
erected by Leo III., a.d. 798-816. The chief
subject is the eonatantly repeatod one of Chri^t
and His apostles, with the river of P.iradise
gushing out at their feet. " The figures in
their stilf yet infirm attitudes, and still more in
the unmenning disposition of the dnpery, dis-
plays decided Byzantine inlluence " (Kugler, m.«.
p. 66). On the walls on either side of the apse,
at the springing of the arch, are the pictures
famous for their ecclesiastical and politi -al .sig-
nificance. To the left the enthroned Saviour
bestows, with His right hand, the keys on St.
Sylvester and with His left hand the Ve.xillum
on the emperor Constantino each kneeling at
His feet, as the symbols respectively of the spi-
ritual and temporal power. To the right St,
Peter, similarly enthroned, places a crown on
the head of pope Leo III., with his right hand
and with His left gives the Vexillum to the cna-
peror Charles the Great (Ci.im)iini, tom. ii.
c. 21, tab. 39, 40 ; Wharton Marrh'tt, Testhmmy
of Catacombs, p. 95, jd. 6; Vestiurium Christ.
pi. 32, 33; Parker, Photogr. No. 761). At
the church of St. Nereus and Achilleus, rebuilt
bv Leo III., A.D. 796, the mosaics of the apse
have perished, but those above the arch rcm.ain,
!uid are i'ei!!;iik;"tble as r?pvo-.-'nting hi.storio-il
scenes instead of the usual syndmlical and npo-
calvptin subjects. The Transfiguration is repre-
sented over t'.se arch, with Moses and Klias
standing on either side of Christ, whose superior
dignity is indicated with a puerile realism by
his taller stature, an
figures of the three i
to the lel't is the Annu
the Virgin and Child
less ungraceful than
whole composition str
•fate to which art hat
8th century (Ciampi
38). The liist mosaic t
is tliat of the cliurch i
Antiqna, then changed
dedicated in the lUth
Kmiaua, the name bj
known. In this work t
of good and bad, with
Bent, indicating the it
fiuenoe. The cliief fi(
Navicella, is the Virgin
our Lord on her lap, t
first time crowned.
composition is entirely
tural composition is s
figures are, according t.
which we become afterv
first time i)laced each
continuous arcade, sup]
•ort of tabernacle, in
shell, spreads over a
the mosaic. The drav
figure of the Virgin, " oi
that can be imagined
sirajiiy reil blotches, tli
merely dark strokes, po(
the Oriental magnificenc
ciaily that of the chief i
fblia;;e, however, displaj
from the usually morose i
schoiil. Indeed the whol
some original power and
'!nrt of its designer
■• 53). With the i
osaic was transfi
:. en. Charles the
arti.sts to dec(]rate his
enrichment of which rit
were transported from
(lom. ii. c. 22, tab.
design of the apse, whii
usual conventional type.
I.orJ enthroned, holding
on either side. Below a
of the elders rising from t
log their crowns at our
9th century, during th(
contemiiug factions, by wl
was rent asunder, mosai
Borne and in Italy genet
was in the republic of Ver
eariiest examples in the i
«t Murano, and on a mos
with the utmost gorgeou
St. Mark's. These, how(
chronological limits. The
in its revival in Rome its«
"ampics, evidently the
•rtists, belong to the 12tl
'pecially mention those oi
tevore a.d. ll3o_iUi. g(
12(4; St. John Lateran, A.D
of S>t. Mary Major's, of th
"tcrual mosaics in the fa^i
But on these also their late di
MOSAICS
his taller rtature, and the awkward prostrate
figures of the three apostles beyond. Further
to the le t IS the Annunciation, and to the right
he Vngm and Child accompanied bv an an|e
less ungraceful than the other figures. The
whole composition strikingly indiciUes the low
.tate to which art had fallen at the end of the
?'*? "°'"''y. (Ciampini, torn. ii. c. 20, tab.
3») fhe .u,t mosaic to b« noticed in this period
IS that of the church originally called St. Maria
AntiquM then changed to St. M. Xov.'j, and re-
dedicted m the Kith century to St. Francesca
K.maua, the name by which it is conin.ouly
known In his work there is a strange mixture
ot good and bad, with some novelties of treat-
meat, indicating the introduction of a new in-
fluence fhe chief figure, as at St. Maria in
iNiivicella, is the V ii-gin attended by saints, with
our Lord on her lap, throned, and now for the
(irst time crowned. Tne attempt at pictorial
composition is entirely given up, and architec-
tural composition is substituted for it The
figures are according to the arrangement with
which we become afterwards so tamiliar, for the
first time placed each under the arch of a
contmuous arcade, supported by columns. A
ton of tabernacle, in the form of a cockle
8 ell, spreads over all the upper part of
the mosaic. The drawing is very bad ; the
hgure Of the Virgin, "one of the most hideous
that can be imagined" (Vitet). the oheeks
siraiiy red blotches, the folds of the drapery
mere y dark strokes, poorly compensated for by
the Unental magnificence of the costumes, espe-
cially that <,t the chief figure. The garlands of
olia^e, however, display a certain grace alien
from he usually morose rigidity of the bvzantine
school. Indeed the whole composition indicates
«.me original power and freedom of thougiit on
'■■"\o! >tf„Jesigner (Ciampini, toiii ii. ,..
■• t,i). iVith the imperial power the art
csaic was transferred from Kome to
;. en. Charles, the Great summoned the
aitrsts to decorate his new basilica, for the
cnrithmeut of which rich marbles and pillars
were transported from Kavenna. Ciampini
tom. 1, c. -22, tab. 41) preserves the
ile.igu of the apse, which is very unlike the
usual conventional type. In the centre is our
LoiJ enthroned, holding a book with an angel
on either side. Below are seven small figures
f the elders rising from their thrones, and cast-
mg their crowns at our Lord's feet. After the
h ceutury, during the fierce struggles of
conteiidiug tactions, by which the unhappv land
was rent asunder, mosaic ceased entirely in
Home and in Italy generally, its first revival
™.n the republic of Venice, where we find il!s
Miiiest examples in the church of St. Cyprian ,
. Iumno,andon a most extensive scale^nd
wlh the utmost gorgeousness of character at
ch on„|„g,ea imits. The art was much later
"Its revival in Rome itself, where the earliest I
i"uples, evidently the ^Jork of By^ u .^e
rtM, belong to the 12th century. We may i
Pscmlly mention those of St. Marv, in Tms^ !
^eA,.>.lK|0,U,;St.<>ment:I.al2^^
fSM.vM •.'■'"''/•?• 1288-129+i the apse
,„ ;, f"-' ^^'^J",'''- »f the same date and the
eiterual mo».iics in the fa.ade, ad. 1292-1307
Butoathesealso their late date forbidsusto touch"
MOTHER CHURCH 1341
AuthmMties._Ai>pel|, Dr., d,-istian Mosaic
Pictures; Barbet de Jony, Mosaliuc-s ,le W
Campin, I eteru Monimenta ; Crowe and CWaU
fetches; turietti, Ue Musivi.« ; Garrucci, A,ti
lAt Chr^^-n; Kugler, JJandbooi of I'.nntm., ,
Park /7"'f '"'■ ^°^^''^ ^'""' "<"• J'<"-':n'o:
Parker, Arc/,aeolo<jy of Mom, Mosaics; I'hoto.
pur ies Monuments; Texier et PuUan A;,,/t«
^^antines; Tyrwhitt Drake, ArtTe^J^'^Z
^J^l ^'""'tive Church; Vitet, J.'Art Chmim-
tettartum thnsUanum; Digby Wyatt Art of
Mosaic; Geo,netricai Mosaics%f the midleljt
M08CENTUP .Tiartyr; commemorated^'in
Achaia Jan. 12 (Hieron. Mak). [C H.]
MOSES 0) Martyr ; commemorated at Alei-
andria I'eb. U (J/ieron. Mart.).
(8) (MoYSKs), tho Ethiopian, "Our holy
^a her ; commemorated Aug. 28 (Basil. Menol.;
aL<T'J-' ^'i*"''''' ^''^■^""'V-iv. 267; Boll
Acta SS. Aug. vi. lyg) " ' "•
[See alsotMoYSES.] fC H 1
ni,?^*^^ r^^ (*!"^'8Kus), martyr with Amrao-
(U nard l/:;/'. '^/■""'' ^^memorated Jan. 18
■ "• '^^^- [C. H.]
num'^n^T?^ i/""'^!?; «°n»ne°>orated at Pice-
num Ap. la {ffieron. Mart.). n^. H 1
I«f ?7^?S^'^' ■"."/'y'" ' """"neaoratcd in Afric.
Jan. 17 (Hieron. Mart.). r-Q j^^
aft^<£xr^viS^2:;^^sr5:!
pendent upon it. We may distinguish four ds-
I ^\r % '''""■'''' P'^^'ed immediately by ths
I apostles, from which other churches were after!
wards derived and propagated. Thus CtnH,";
which the apostles preached, either in person or
by their epistles, by this name, and makn th-^^
traltions to be the rule of doc rine ;r tt
whole church: "constat pr.inde omnem doo!
trinam, quae cum illis ecclesiis apostolicis^natrr
cibus et originalibus fidei conspire ye-u"!
deputaadam, id sine dubio tenen em, <iu<^ i^'
1342 MOTHF.R CHURCH
clesiae ab Apostnlis, ApostoU a Christo, Chriatus
a Deo, suscepit." And m this sense the second
general cuuncil of Coustantinople called the
church of Jerusnlem the mother of all churches
in the world, Tiis 8^ yt firirpht airairuv rwv
iKK\r\ina>v. And the church of Aries Is mii-
larly called the mother church of Friince, because
Trophimus its first bishop was supposed to have
first preached the i;ospel in that country.
II. It denotes a metrupoUttxn church, i.e. the
principal church of an ecclesiastical province.
Thus iu the African canons (can. 119 or 120),
" Si nutem non fecit, non praejudicetur matrici,
■ed liceat, cum locus accejierit episcopum, quern
non habebat, ex ipso die intra trienniuni repe-
tere." And in can, 90 we meet with the phrase
"matrices cathedrae," and Ferrandus Diaconus
uses the simple term "matrices" to denote
metropolitan and cathedral churches {Brov. cap.
ii. 17, 38). Similarly Agobard (</e I'livilenio it
Jure S,icerdotii, cap. 12), " nos ab ecclesii non
recedimus, neo spcrnimus matrices ecclesias.
But Uucange suggests that the reading here
should be nutrkfa.
III, The term was also and more generally
used of the chief church of a diocese, a cathedral,
as distiuguished from parish churches, com-
mitted to the chiirge of smgle presoyters, which
were called lituli. Among the Greeks the
former were known as KafloXiKal - generates.
Thus Kpiphanius, in treating of the Arian heresy,
calls the cathedral of Alexandria KaOoMiefiv.
See also a canon of the council in TruUo (can.
58 or .'■)9). In the African canons (can, 12,S),
we find again the phrase: "si in matricibus
cathedris episcopus negligons fuerit adversus
haereticos, convenia' ur a vicinis episanpis,' And
in the same sense, can, 33, by which the bishop
is forbidden to alienate or sell the property
of his cathedral, and the presbyters that
belonging to their parishes : " non habenti ueces-
Bitatem, ncc episcopo lice.at matricis ecclesiae,
nee presbytero rem tituli sui." The fifth council
of Carthage (a.d. 401) calls the metropolitan
church " principalis cathedra " (can. 5). It was
termed the " mother church," and the rest of
the churches in the diocese diocesan churches,
ecdesi'ie Jioeceswiae; as in the 8th canon of the
council of Tarraco (A.D. 516), which directs
bishops to visit their dioceses every year, and
ascertain that the churches were in good repair;
which, continued the canon, we find not to be
the case in all instances—" reperimus nonnuUas
dioecesanas ecclesias esse destitutas,
IV, The term mater or matrix is sometimes
applied, at a later period, to parish churches
also, as distinguished from chapels or other
churches dependent ecclesiastically upon them.
Thus pope Alexander III., in the Appendix to the
third council (A,D. 1167) at the Lateran (pars i.
cap. 7) : " nee eos duas matrices ecclesias, quarum
unam sufflcere sibi videbitis, tenerc permittatis,"
where it is apparently equivalent to ecclesia
baptisimlis, a church in which baptisms were
administered, which is one way of describing a
parish church, as in Walafrid Strabo {de Helms
Ecc'lcsiasticis, c. 30), " Presbyteri plebium, qui
baptismalca ec-tlesias ter.fnt, ft minorihiia pres-
bvteris praesunt.* And similarly a charter of
Hugh Capet mentions two churches existing in
a aarticular place: "quarum una est mater
ecclesia, in honore B. Remigii, et alia capella in
MOURNING
I honore S. Germani." This distinction was one
! commonlv existing, and clearly recognised. The
I mother church was considered as a church per se,
i i.e. owing obedience to no other; having its
I own presbyter, and aodlstinguislied froni chftjjtls,
' which v/ere probably always served tioin the
parish church. [Okatory.] In illustratiun of
this we may quote from a letter of llincniar of
Rheims (I p. 7): "dicunt enim <iuia ex qo" me-
morari ab his qui in carnu sunt potest, quoniiun
ip.sa ecclesia per se tuit semper, nulli alteri
ecclesiae fuit subjecta. . . . Kvidentibus lUicii-
mentis invenerunt, quod ipsa ecclesia de K..lla-
naebraio nunquam ecclesiae in Coiliciaco fuerit
subjecta, sed prcsbyterum semper habuerit."
[S. J. E.]
MOURNERS. [Penitence.]
MOURNING. Outward signs of grief.it the
loss of friends, either by ((i) formal lainent:ition,
(6) change of attire, or (.) seclusion from society.
The mourning of the disciples after our l.onl's
crucifixion and death (Mark xvi. 10), that of the
devout men at the burial of Stephen (Acts viii.
2), and that of the widows on the death of Doicaa
(ib. ix.*'0 ai'e passages that have been cited to
shew thht demonstrations of grief on such occa-
sions were not regarded by the ])rimitive Church
as inconsistent with the Christian theory of the
future life of the faithful. The language of St.
Paul (1 Thess. iv. 13) probably indicates the
character of the Church's teaching iu rolatiun to
the question during the first three centuries;
such losses being viewed as occasions lor natural
sorrow, tempered however by a firm belief iu the
joyous resurrection of the departed and their
future reunion with their friends. Uimn the
bereaved Christian the Church enjoined neither a
stoical disguising of all emotion nor a fuinial
affectation of grief.
The earlier Christians appear to have con-
demned even a change of iittire as a relic of
paganism ; and it is certain tjiat many practices
— such as the custom on the part of relatives to
walk with the head bare, the women with their
hair dishevelled and beating the breast, the hliiug
of female mourners (praelicae), who lamented and
sang naenia or songs in praise of the dead, ami of
lictors dressed in black, corresponding to the
modern mute, the observance of a lietinite period
of mourning, during which time it was regiiided
as indecorous for the relatives of the deceascJ to
appear in public— are all distinctly traceable to
Jewish or pagan precedents Traditional I'bser-
vance, however, often prevailed over religious
conviction; and, speaking generally, actual prac-
tice appears to have been somewhat at variance
with the more enlightened teaching of the Church,
The authority of the most eminent among the
Fathers is clearly condemnatory of such displays.
St. Cyprian disapproves of excessive lameutation
and black attire : " desiderari eos debere, non
plangi, nee accipiendas esse hie atras vcstes,
quando illi ibi indumenta slba jam sumpserint,
occasionem dandam non esse gentilibus ut nos
merito ac jure reprehendant quod quos viverc
apud Deum dicimus, ut extinctos et perditos
Imrpamus, et fidem quam sermone et voce depro-
mimus cordis et pectOiU testimonio uou piotw-
mus" {Lib. de Mortal. Migne, iv. 234). The
langua<'e of St. Zeno, bishop of Verona la the
following century, shews that it was still ens'
ternary for widows to :
Mcessive grief. In a di
marriages among this cl
without direct censure,
hair over the corpse, la(
foedata ubera," the moi
ululatibus rumi)ens," as
sorrow on the part of w
The authority of St. Chrj
pronounced against such c
an audience, he says, "Tl
no one beat the breast, or v
victory. For He conque
dost thou, mourner, w^
This state (t!> 7r(ja7^a) is
thou lament and utter ci
Gentiles ("KAAt)V€s) wer(
ought but to move us to s
in evident allusion to Matt
ai'ToO). Hut if thefaithfu
by such practices, what ei
For how canst thou expec
acte.'-.t thus foolishly, and
has so long been risen a
resurrection are so clear ?
jeeking to magnify thy ofll
fic.ie (l)f>r)v(fiSi){is 'E\\r]viSa
niayst add fuel to thy g
furnace of allliction ; and I
of St. Paul, ' What conco
Belial? or what jiart ha
with an infidel?'" (fj.jj,,
Oraec', Ivii. 374). This p
nnJerstood otherwise than
practices condemned were pi
inChrysostom's time. The
homily is that the Christiai
for the relative who h.is bei
calamities of life, nor even,
future reunion, to grieve ot
ration. The jiassage is quot
his own view by Jolin of D
Parallck/'De mortuis,et q
tit lugendum " (MIgne, SerU
see also a sermon attributed (
Benedictine editors (rt. xl, :
conduct of Iloratius on recei
of his son's death (Livy, ;
approval,
St. .Jerome holds similar It
to one Jullanus, a man of
lapse of a few days hud m
and two daughters by death,
able portion of his property I
of the barbarians, he says, "
• • • quod laeto vultu mort
quod m quadragesimo die doi
gubrem vestem mutaverls,
martvris camlida tibi vestim
nonsentires dolorem orbitatii
nniversa sentiret, sed ad tr
einltares; quod sanctissima
;«n quasi mortuam sed quasi
^"""'"(^/"si.cxvii. Migm
Jt IS, however, unquestion
Mmewhat different views wer
"0 one of the Apo.stolical Const
' '- <:™j--'-tnred, iu the per
tween the age of Cyprian and t
'hews that a more definite and
ofcertaiu rites was already rei
wted by the Church, thought!
MOUBNINO
ternary for widows to indulge in displavs of
Hcessivc giief. in a dissuasive ae.iinst s'econd
maniajTos among this class, he adverts, though
without direct censure, to the rending of tlie
hmr over the corpse, lacerated cheeks, "livore
foedata ubera," tlie mourner " coelum ips.im
uMilatibus rumpens," as ordinary expressions of
(orrow on the part of widows (MiRue, il :)05)
The antiiority of St. Chrysostom is emphatically
pronounced against such excesses. In addressing
an nu.liLMi.e, iie .says, "Thenceforth therefore let
no one beat the breast, or wail, or impugn Clirist's
victory. For lie conquered death. And why I
dost thou, O mourner, weep without measure ? I
Iliis state (rh wiiayfia) is but a sleep. Whv dost |
thou ameiit and utter cries? For if even the I
Goutilcs ("EWnves) were wont thus to do it '
ought but to move us to scorn (Karayt^h^ (Set,
in evident allusion to Matt. ix. 24, koI (carfvAwi)
BITOI-) Hut if the faithful dishonour themselves
by such practices, what excuse can they plead ?
For how canst thou expect to be forgiven who
icte.',t thus fioiishly, and that too when Christ
has so long been risen and the proofs of His
resurrection are so clear ? But thou, as thouch
Mekinjr to magnify thy oflence, bringest Ri pra'e-
ficae (BprivcfiSabs 'E\Kr,viSas YuroWs), that thou
mayst add fuel to thy grief and stir up the
furnace of allliction; and heedest not the words
of St. Paul, 'What concord hath Christ with
Mial? or what part hath he that believeth
with an infidel?'" ^H.mU. 31; Migne, .y^r, I
Gmec, Ivii. ;i7+). This passage can'liardly I.
unJerstood otherwise than as imjilying that the '
practices condemned were prevalent in the Church
inChrysostoin's time. The final conclusion of the
homily IS that the Christian ought uot to mourn
for the relative who has been removed from the
calamities „f life, nor even, with the iirospect of
future reunion, to grieve over a tomjjorary sepa-
ration. The passage is quoted in confirmation of
his own view by John of Dama.scus in his Sacra
/-arm/fe/u "De mortuis,et quod eorum causa non
Mt lugeudum (Migne, Series Oraeoa, xcvi. 54:5) •
sef also a sermon attributed to Chrysostom by the
BeaeJictine editors (ft. ,1. uoy), in which the
conduct of Horatius on receiving the intelligence
a rotil" ^^''''^' "• "^^ " cited with
St..Ieronie holds similar language. In writing I
to oue Julianus, a man of wealth, who in the
lapse of a few days had not only lost his wife
ami two daughters by death, but also a consider- '
able portion of his proi>erty through an invasion
of the barbarians, he says, " laudent ergo te alii
... quod laeto vultu mortes tuleris riliarum,
quod in quadmgesimo die dormitionis earum lu-
guhrem vestem mutaveris, et dedioatio ossium
martyns can.lida tibi vestimcnta reddiderit. ut
Bousenlires dolorem orbitatis tuae, quem civitas
M versa sentiret, sed ad triumphum raartyris
Multares; quod sanotissimam conjugcm tuam
r ''"'V.' "l?'''""'" seJ quasi proficisoentem de-
i^i^m-WEp.st. cxvii. Migne, .xxii. 794).
« 18, however, unquestionable that by many
wmeivhat different views were held. A paTsage
Ijoneot the Apostolical Constitutions, belonging,
lJ!n?i!'-'"''*"''r!; '" ''"-' period intervening bi-'
ween he age of Cyprian and that of Chrysostom,
ews that a more definite and formal oblervanTc
«ted by the Church, though the passage probably
MOURNIXG
1343
indicates the practice of the East rather than of
tlie West [Al'OST. Co.nst. p, 12S]. a short
religious service, whereby it was designed not so
much to lament as to commemorate the deceased,
.s her^e directed to be held on the third, ninth
and fortieth days after the day of death, the
anniversar.v of the day to be observed by a dis-
tribution of alms to the poor. ■EriTeAel.rfe 8*
rpiTa TO,!, MKOi^r,^ivuu, iv ^a\no7s Kai iyayvu-
ZZf,T ''"'77«''' «'*, ^^•' «'A ^P'".' mepiu
iytpiivra. KaX („„ara, tis {,ni,,ur,(Tiv rwv li.p,.
oi'Tw,> Hal TU.V K.KOiixnixhwv Ka\ Tf,TaapaKoarii,
I a!!!/^"/"^"' ^''^T M"'^^''7ip ou't<.i 6
xal md^da iK Tuv i,„apx6vTa>v airov, T,ivn(Tiv
"f aca/xi/rio-iv oiroi; (Const. Ap.,st. viii. 42 • Cote-
leiius, I. 424) The repetition of such obser'vances
on the nmM day (corresjionding to the Greek
{"ora, Lat, wmndialia) appears to have had (uilv
pagan prece,lent, and is accordingly condemned
by bt. Augustine, who considers that the obser-
vance of the other days is in conformity with
Wural usage. "Nescio utrum inveniatur
alicui sanctorum in Scripturis celebratum esse
lucturn Dovem dies, quod apud Latinos .\ove,,diut
appellant. Unde mihi videntur .ab hac consuetu-
dine prohibendi, si qui Christianorum istum in
mortuis suis numerum servant, ([ui mi.gis est in
Gentilium consuetudine. Septimus vero dies
auctoritatem in Scripturis habet: unde alio loco
scnptum est, Luctus mortui sejjUm dieruin; fatul
autem omnes dies vitae ejus (Kccles. xxii. 15).
^eptenarlus autem numerus propter sabbati sa-
cramentum praecipue quietis indicium est : unde
merito mortuis tancjuam requiescentibus exhi-
betur {Qmest. in UeptatcHclu i. 172; Wigue,
Ueodosn (ann. 375), says, " Kjus ergo prinoipis
et pioxmiecouclamavimus obituin,et nunc quad-
ragesimam celebramus, assistentesacris altaribus
Honorioprincipe; quia sicut sanctus Jo.seph patri
suoquadraginta diebushumatiouis otficia detulit
Ita et hic Theodosio patri justa persolvit. Et
quia alii tertium diem et trigesimum alii septi-
mum etquadragesimuni obscrvare consuererunt.
qmd doceat lectio consideremus." He then quotes
Oen. 1, 2, and adds, "Haec ergo sequenda solem-
mtas quae praescribit lectio;" quoting again
I h»h ; "'"/• ?• •" 'T' " ^"'"l"' «''g° observttio
nabet auctoritatem."
Tertullian (cfe Coronir, c. 3) speaks of otferings
in memoiy of the departed, "oblationes pro
detunctis, as customary on the anniversary of
their death ; and Evodius, bishop of Uzala, in
414, when giving an account of the obsequies of
a young Christian, says, "per triduum hymnis
uominum collaudavimus super sepiilchrum ipsius.
et redemptionis sacramenta tertio die obtuliinus "
iEp>st clvm. Migne, xxiiii. 694). This passage
IS adduced apparently with little reason, by
Martiguy (D,ct. d,s Antuj. Chrgt. art. Deuil) ia
evidence that offerings for the rejiose of the soul
of the departed were authorised bv the church.
_ Ihe contrast of Christian to pagan sentiment
m relation to the subject is perhaps strongest in
the manifestations of joy and exultation rUuRiAL
OF THK Dbad, p. 252] with which tho reWtim
and friends followed the body to the grave. These
demonstrations were, however, widely diflerent
ZT .k' T"' '" "'■'''='' »»""' b'>>-barous nations
(e.q. the fhracians, the earlier inhabitants of
Marseilles) often conducted their funeral riten.
1344
MOURNING
The latter imlulged in unseemly riot and revelry.
The feelings of the early Christinns resemhled
rather those of the ancient Ciinbri, who were wont
to rejoice over friends fallen in battle (Amrn.
Marcell. II. vi. '-!), and such demonstrations ainiear
to have been confined to (a) the ohscnuies of a
martyr, (3) those of some distinguished Ijcncfactor
of the Oliurch, (7) those of an ecclesiastic of
superior "uuk and eminent piety. Jerome, speak-
ing of the .'uneral id' Kabiola, say», " totiua urbis
pupulus ad exsequias congvi'gabat ; sonabant
psalmi, et aurata tecta templorum in s\iblime
qualiebat Alleluia" (Migne, x.xii. 400). A decree
attributed to pope Eutythianus directs that no
martyr shall be interred without a purple under-
garment (sine ciiliMo purptircu), the emblem of
his service in the cause 0.' his divine Master (16.
V, 1,^H-I<)1). Gregory of Tours, in recording
the burial of St. I.upicinus, says, " celebratis
missis, cum summo honore uaudwi'ie seiiultus
e.-t." The oiKoe for the burial of a bishop in the
time of Gregory the Great appears to have
included the singing of the Hallelujah (Migne,
Ixxviii. 478, 47'J); and the singing of hymns when
conveying the dead to the jdaco of interment
«eems to have been an invariable accompaniment.
Victor Vitensis, in ilescribing the condition of
the fidthful during the occupation by the VaudaU,
ann. 487, says, ' (Juis vero sustineat, ac possit
sine lacrumis recordari, cum praeci|ieret nos-
trorum corpora defunctorum sine solemnitate
hymnoruni. cum silentioad sepulturam perduci"
('/list. I'ei-secut. Vand. I. v. ; Jligiie, Iviii. 5).
The I'seudo-Dionysius, which may be regarded as
of some authority with respect to the theory of
the Eastern cliurc'h in tlie 5th century, inculcates
the observance of distinctions in the funeral rites
of tlie unconverted and of the righteous, cor-
responding to the .sentiments proper to their
ditTerent careers. Their lives have dillered, and
so tlieir manner of encountering death must differ.
The righteous man, who has not given liim lelf up
a slave to corrupt passions and criminal excesses,
is filled with joy at the prospect of completing
his course of trial. Similarly, his relatives, on
his completion of that course, pronounce him
happy (naKa(iiQ)u<Tt, irp6t rh viKri<p6pov (vKTaiws
iLipiK6n(Vov TcAas)and glorify Him who has given
the victory, hoping that they themselves may
come to a like end. These sentiments find, in
turn, fitting expression in the actual rites
[BuRlAl, p. 254]; Obskquies (De Kcdes, Hie-
rarch. c. 7 ; Migne, Series Graeca, iii. 2()3-2()5).
Undue parade and excess of adornment are
censured by St. .lerome. Writing to the mother
of Blaesilla, a convert who had died shortly after
her conversion, he says, " ex m-jre parantur exe-
quiae, et nobiliuni ordine praeeunte, aureum
feretro velamen obtenditur. Videbatur mihi tunc
clamaie de coelo: non agnosco vestes, nmictus
iste non est meus; hio ornatus alienus est"
(Migne, xxii. 177). The language of St. Augus-
tine ((fe Civit. Dei, i. 13) is that of one who
looks upon details of ceremonial of this character
as of little or no importance. At the third
council of Carthage (A.D. 397), at which he was
present, the practice of placing the Eucharist
between the lips of the defunct was condemned.
The ceremony of bidding the deceased farewell,
probablv by the kiss of peace, was condemned in
the tith century at the council of Auxerre.
The custom of remaining within doors, secluded
MUINTIB
from society, during the first week of mourning
is traced by Uuxtorf (Lex. Child. Talm. ad v,
Zi(c<«s) to Jewish precedent. Under Valentininn
and Tlieodosius, it was enacted that a wiilow
marrying again within a year from the time of
the death of the husband " probrosis inus'a
notis, honestioris nobiliaque peisonae et decore
et jure privetur, atque omnia quae do prioris
roariti bonis vel jure sponsalioruni vel judicio
dcfiincti conjugis consecuta fuer.it, amittat et
sciat nee de nostro beneficio vel anuotatione spe-
randum sibi esse subsidium ' (CuJ. T/iCudiisinnw,
ed. Hllnel, iii. 8). This law is evidently a reflex
of Human rather than Christian sentiment (see
Ovid, /(is<i', iii. 134; Zodler, Vniieisal- Lexicon,
s. v. Trauerjahr).
The tolling of the bell at the time of death,
which is regarded by some as a tradition iVora
paganism, and designed originally to drive away
evil spirits, does not appear as a Christian usage
before the 8th century [OiiSKQUira of tub
Dkad], and was more probably inteiult?d as a
signal for prayer. [J. B. M.]
M0YSE8 (1) Bishop of the Saracens in Ara-
bia, 4tli century ; commemorated Keb. 7 (Doll.
Acta 55. 'Feb. ii. 43); called Movsetes hy Usuard.
and Vet. Loin. Mart.
(2) Abbaf, martyr in Egypt with .six monks,
in the 5th century ; commemorated Feb. 7 (Boll.
Acta SS. Keb. ii. 46).
(3) Martyr with Cyrio, Bassianus, and Aga-
tho ; commemorated Feb. 14. The same name
occurs in Ilieron. Mart, on this day in conne:;iott
with others. [0. H.]
M0YSETE8 (1) Martyr; commemorated
Feb. 7. [MoYSW (1).]
(2) Martyr; commemorated in Africa Dec. 18
(Usuard. Mart.). [C. H.]
MOY8EU8 (1) Martyr ; commemorated Mgy
12 (IJicron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr ; commemorated Aug. 12 (Ilieron.
Mart.) [C. H,]
M0Y8U8, martyr; commemorated at Nico-
media Ap. 6 (Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MUCIANU8, martyr; commemorated at
Alexandria June 9 (Hieron. Mart.). [0. H.]
MUCIU8 (1) Martyr ; commemorated in
Africa Jan. 17, according to one reading ot
Hieron. Mart., otherwise Mica (Boll. Acta SS.
Jan. ii. 80).
(2) Martyr with Lucas, deacons, at Corduls ;
commemorated Ap. 22 (Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Rom.
Mart.).
(3) Presbyter and martyr at Constantinople j
commemorated by the Latins May 13, and by the
Greeks, who write the name Mocius, on May It
(Usuard. Marl. ; Floras ap. Bed. Mart. ; Boll.
Acta SS. May, ii. 620). [Mocius (3).]
(4) Martyr at Constantinople ; commemomted
Jone 15 ; according to another reading NDCUS
(Hieron. Mart. : Boll. Acta SS. June, ii. 1050).
*• [C. I!,]
MUINTIR, the Irish family or clan, came to
denote the monastic society or congregation, id
Latin " familia." It was first applied to all
within the one monastery,
0/ Aem/us of the monks
idiind of Egg, and in Ann.
. m, 748) of the brotherht
igain (A.D. Tti.i) of those a
mncnoise. who were at war
in a wider suiise it also ini
leries which had been foun
house, or were under the
were coarbs of the same c
thu.i owed fealty to the
monastery, like the monasti
row, Kilmore, Swords. Ke
to that in lona (Kecvcs
S. Culumha, 162, ;iU4, 342
Down, Ct/nnor, ami Drumo
Pativi, 158-9 ; Skene, Celti
MULCTRA. ThefiguH
herd [SiiKi'iiEUD, THE Good'
»ith vessel either hanging J
pended from a tree near Him
ImbwithUnlctm. {From the oei
These are mulctrae, the pails ii
ire milked. (Compare Milk,
mmple of the introduction
oond in the cemetery of Dor
umb, obviously typifying the
Him a milking-vas'sel suspende
iti£
I«rnl.rith«IuI(ilr«. (Fn>m *
The Lamb is also represented i
«• vault of the cemetery of SS.
MULCTRA
»lthln the one monastery, an used In the Felin
0/ Amius.t the m,,nk, of St. Donnan in th^
. 716, 748) <,f the brotherhood in lona (Jn), and
.gain (A.D. 70;.) of those at Durrow and Clon-
macnoise. who were at war and bloodshed. But
m « wider s.M,se it also included those monaa-
ene, which hiul been f„uu,led from the parent
house, or were under the rule of abbnts who
were conrbs o( the same original founder and
thu, owed ealty to tlie abbat of the chief
monssteiy, like the monnsteries at Derrv Dur-
Ui that in lona (lieeves, A^hmuan; Life of
SMa, 162, ,104 342, and Keel. Ant. %
ZMun, Connor, aiul J),:„rwn; iM; Todd 9/
MH 158-9, Skene, Celtic 's<^ilan<i\tm).
miLCrUA. The figure of the Good^Shel
her [SllKPHKBD, THE G,x,d] ia often represent 1
,-,th vessel either hanging on His arm, or sus-
peD<l«d from a tree near Him, or lying at His feot.
MUNERABIU8 1346
Petrus bearing on His back tho mulclm ,nr.
tha" tie Lr""":',;' '" """" »'■« -»« "«nner
that the (i.h m the cemetery of St. Cornelia
bear, a basket containing the bread am wine
bol ♦?^''-^'^*J- Th« I.«mb being th sym!
bol ot the .Savour, the mulctra i» the svmboUf
the spiritual nourishment derived from Hhu
oU*'w^"i'?',,T'"''y' commemorated at Hera-
olea Nov. 19 (//iron. Mart.). [C ll.T
Oci^i?Sn^i^.^^.V n''^'"'' ' -"""e-norated
i^ot. 10 (Uoll. Acta SS. Oct. vii. 2. 95.5). [C. H.]
MUMMOLUS, abbat of Fleury in the 7th
Aug.ii. ,iol; Mabill. ^c<a ^a 0. S. B me,- il
t>45, Venet. 1733). ' /^"-'^^ "•
wi^Zl?^' ''"^•'y*" ""^ ""'y. with hi.
r/(i'"r;:r"'"''""='' "' "™'jSho-
MUNERARIUS. With the Romans, munus
inone of Its senses, denoted a show ofgbdTators
and the person .vho paid the expenses of s,^h a
show and presided at it (cdeL) wa called
edUor dominus. muncrator or munararL and
was honoured during the day of exh bftZ'eveJ
ilV::iT ''^r: ^'"» 'he official ensign of a
of Or. and Soman Antiq.
■mb with Unlet™. {FroinUnoenieloryofDomltfll..)
riissc are mu/c<ra«, the pails into which the kine
Z r (<^'ompare Milk, p. 1184.) A good
"ample of the introduction of the midctra is
fmi in the cemetery of Domitilla, where the
^mb, obviously typifying the Lord, has beside
^amilking-vassel suspended on the paatoral
Umh rith Malart (Frum MarUgnj.)
vault of the cemetery of SS. Marcellinu. ind
magistrate. " IDic't.
art. ' Gladiatores.']
From the very rirst, the church stigmatized
<liew, as far as her power extended, all Christian,
from any share in or responsibility for hem
[Gladiators p. 728.] Ter'tullian (.-1^ cap 44^
cnmina s and of the lowest class of people but
among them no Christians, if there Tel any
p.-.scunt nemo illic Christianus, nisi plane tfn!
tum Christianus, aut si et aliud, ^aT noa
rh"^K '■ *i"''^ •='"'»°' "'Jer. that those
Christians who had taken upon them the otKce
otflamcn to which it belonged to exhibit thes«
games, if they had offered the sacrilic \o t":
heathen g..ds which were customary, were never
to be received again to communion, even at the
hour of death ; and such as did this but avoided
thesacrihce, were put to life-long penance and
on y admitted to communion atS'he hru'r "f
death, alter satisfactory proof of their nenl
mlTinthe^'oth'" ^^^'^K V^-'^ 'hTen':!
^\\ cZ * obth canon ot the same synod, that
all Christians who took upon them the dtv
magutracy or duun^.irate (to' which office! also^
It beloiiged to exhibit such shows) should be t'
L'itic'lTheTStffiV-'ttf r^^*"""' f
deeper shade o'f bhlt'attS' thot^t
were present on such occasions, and wore *h2
crown or garland for the sacrifice (comp Act!
X.V 13), but had neither actually sacrifiTed no,
P«d any portion of the expense. Such were ,1
, 1
1340
MUNES8A
•dniitteil to communion nfter two vesTi' ponance
(can. •'>.'')• It ia to be noticed that mk\\ pro-
vinions lire not repeated by later HvnodK; and
proliMlily thi'y were rendered neodfiil l>y » mere
temporarv phase of tiio contlict between fhria-
tlunity and heallieuisni ; wlien thu newer faith,
while yciirly growing and already stnincer in
numbers thiiu the pa|{i>ni»m which it was »up-
plantins, I'l'l for " while to deal with a social
system in which the latter was recoi;ni/.ed as the
religion of the stat. Hut, in fact, a very few
Tcais later (A. I). ;U:i) Christianity was itself
estal)lished as the religion of the Itoiniin em)iire
by C.instniitine. Nevertheless the gladiatorial
shows lingereil on until the reign of the emperor
Honorius, almost a hundred ye^rs later, and
were only then abolished through the sell-
sacrifice of the monk Tcleinachus (ad. 404).
[S. J. K.]
MUNESSA (Monessa), virgin in Ireland,
probably after A.D. 454; commemorated Sept. 4
(Boll. Act.i SS. Sept. ii. 2'27). L^- ".]
MUNICIPUS, martyr; commemorated at
Jumilla Jan. 22 (//leron. Mart.). [C. H.J
MUNIOUS, martyr ; commemorated at Neo-
cnesarea in Mauritania Jan. 23 {Uieron. Mart.).
[C. H.J
MUNNU (FiNTANUS), abbat ofTaghmon in
Irc'and, A.D. 635; commemorated Oct. 21 (UoU.
Acta SS. Oct. ix. 333). [^- H-]
MURDER. [H0.MIC1DE.]
MURICIJS, martyr ; commemorated Ap. 12
(WuTun. Mart.). [C- H.]
MURITTA, martyr with archdeacon Salu-
taris; commemorated 'July 13 (Usuajd. Mart).
MURU8 (MUBANUS), abbat in Ireland, cir.
A.D. 540; commemorated Mar. 12 (Boll. Acta
SS. Mar. ii. 212). [<^- H.]
MU8A (1) Roman virgin m the 6th century ;
commemorated Ap. 2 (Boll. Acta SS. Ap. i. 94).
(2) Deacon ; commemorated at Etrusia Ap. 22
(Bed. Mart.). [C H.]
MUSCA, martyr; commemorated at Aqui-
leia June 17 {Hicron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MUSCULA (1) Martyr; commemorated at
Capua Ap. 12 {Hieron. Mart.).
(9) Martyr; commemorated in Etruria Nov.
23 (Hieron. Mart.). [C- H.]
MUSOUS (1) Martyr; commemorated at
Treves Sept. 19 (Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr ; commemorated in Africa Dec. 18
{Hieron, Mart.). [C- H.]
MUSIC— For the first thousand years of the
Christian era, the antique Greek system of
music was adopted, with but few alterations, and
those chiefly modifications of the compass of the
scale, and of the notation. In the article on
Amdbosian Music, the matter (so far as chants
are concerned) is taken down to the 4th
century. Through the influence of St. Ambrose,
«11 masic but that consisting of a diatonii;
MU8I0
sequence of notes [see Canon] was discirdwl ;
the other methods had been consiJenKt prelVr-
able, perhaps on account of the didicultv in
performing such music, or (roni reiiiihJMiinies
of an Oriental origin; and with the suliscciiunt
irruptions of the barbarians, which iiui-.t hme
operated very seriously against the lultivaticm
of any but ecclesiastical music, they becaiin
obsolete.
GkkOOBIAN Chant. — It was observed liy St
Gregory, a great musician of his time, thit the
Aiulirosian chants, hanJeil down trailitidually
to a great extent, bad become cornipted; he
therelore subjected them to r.ivision, aiiii ajilcd
other modes and scales to those f(jur which St.
Ambrose had retained. This was done liy liikiui;
away the upper tetrachord from the .Xnibiosian
scales, and placing it below the lower tetniehorj.
The octaves thus formed were called from the
jirevious scales, with the prefix hypo (nh\
thus: Hypodorian, Hypophrygian, llypulyilmD,
aad Hypomixolydian. They were also cillcd
Plagal, while the t'our original ones were oulled
Authentic. Thus in the Toiiurius Ilciiinonit
J'riimensin (middle of 9th century) we iin I them
callfid "Authenticus protus; ii. I'liiga pioti;
Tonus tertius autenticus : Tonus quartiis, pln^a
deuteri ; Dilferentie v. toni auteuticus tritus;
Did'erentie sexti toni plaga triti ; Dill'erentie
vii. toni autenticus tetrarchus ; Incipiunt viii.
toni plaga tetrarchi." Thus we have the
Uorian scale (first mode):
giving the Hypodorian (second mode, plagal):
giving the Hypodorian (second mode, plagal):
tJ -23- -S" ^"^
the Phrygian scale (third mode):
-^ — (S-
giving the Hypophrygian scale (fourth mode,
plagal):
rrrrn:!:: ^^^^ ^g^
-T — ts— ^-
S~o— *^-^ ■
the Lydian scale (fifth mode) :
-jarz^
— ■ n O
^1^ fJ — =: ■
giving the Hypolydian scale (sixth mode, plagal);
and the Mixolydian scale (seventh mode):
living the Ilypomlxolydia
plagal):
But It seems that the en
(X|)ectc<l to be conrined wit
«nii those which are ge
typical examples in the odd
not so much within such Ii
cren modes, which points
that St. Ambrose's chants h
that the oiiginals were pi
most instancej : in the (irst
bHat is generally found, 1
ihe scale, and certaiulv soi
f.f chants m this mode h
without any indication ; it
imagine but that it was su
Ih) borne in mind that the
being s monotone with an 01
are in eveiy one of these s
Dotes: the Dominant, or
which the psalm was sung,
which the chant was made t(
.\mhrosian modes, are reape
Deuteri c, E; Triti 0, F; Te
pligal modes, the same final
lijit, and the dominants pi
c, The first mode approximi
inelTect to our modern minor
our major moile with its fou
seventh and eighth, to our m
The sixth, although it consif
firming the natural scale oj
tonality of F. Our modern
aathenlic and plagal, as ap
wems derived from the seventh
which are authentic and plaga
Joiiiinant and final in each of
icommnn chord on them in
Mlhentio (or odd) modes wil
tiieir tinals as the lowest no
sometimes, but rarely, melodic
toe been found to descend c
»heieas in the even plagal mo(
teceaded below the final, a
KlJom exceeded a fifth abov,
"18, " Vult descendere par. s
nodus impar."
"Majores toni, i.e. autentic
Krtius, quintus et Septimus p
Mavoceafineetascendereocto
'™'' '■«• I'lagales, viz. secun
imiisetoctavuspossuntascenc
teadere v., quod patet his vt
"M^Jons a fine ton! desccndei
Ad prfmas voces ascendant '
Ad quintas voces scandunt a
■Ad quintas etinm possunt dei
CHIlISr. ANT.— VOL. H, "*
MU8I0
filjil):'"' "yP*""'"'^^''''' "-••I* ('ighth mode,
MUSIO
1347
But It »eem» thai the cnmpnM ot chantj -wa,
HpeckMl to he cnnhne<l within Hro or »ix n^fs.
111.1 those, which nra Koa^rally acouptcl a»
lyinral oxamplns in the odd mode, are certainlv
D.t »o mi.oh within such limits „s those in tlu.
,r6nmod,.s which points to the supposition
th» St. Ambrose 8 chnnts had become so nit. -red
ihut the ongmal, were probably forgotten in
mast instances :|n the (irst mode, Cor example,
bflut IS generally found, whereas it i, not in
19 scale, and certiduly some very early copies
of chants m this mode have assigned the b
without any indication; it is, however, har.l to
iniagine but that it was sung b Hat. It must
teborne in mind that the system of chantine
Wing 8 monotone with an ornamental end, there
aremevejyono of these scales two imi.ortant
totes: the Dominant, or prevailing n„te on
nhich the psalm was sung, and the Final, on
which the chant was made to end. These, in the
.taljiosian modes, are respectivelv : Pioti n !)•
Deuteri c, E ; Triti c, F; Tetrardi d, G. In'the
[■l,,g:,l modes, the same finals, D, E, F, o, were
kejit, and the dominants placed lower, V a a
c. Ihe first mode approximates the most nearly'
iiefct to our modern minor mode: the fifth to
ourmijor mode with its fourth sharpened ; the
jjventh and eighth to our modern major mode.
rhe sixth, although it consists of the ootes now
fTiiiing the natural scale of C, is really in the
tooahty of F. Our modern use of the term!
suthentio and plagal, as applied to cadences.
There (, very little direct evidence in th«
fi.t eight centuries as to what the chants wer.!
racts of lih ' 1 '"'"r"' •"■'^-"™ '■■•"■" va.ious
tracts of the (vnturies immedialel) f„l|„win.' in
many o which thcMuithnrspeaksV the I'n."
^ui y. Ihe great musical epoch that parts
mediaeval musio tVnm the ai'.thiue Is th of
.tVrr^(''''r''''-^^="^^^ '-"'
unvanra,":::!™':'"'"''^""''"'^^-""-"'^
It ap,,ears that a distinction was drawn in
he nccommo-lating of chants to the psalms, the
■n r„.ts, the co„,„„,nions, and the responsor es!
All these appear in the TonariH, R,,i;,ums
W»,« („th. century, „„,, with tlolT!
writing r "'''""'!•""'■•« ,">'"■« lik« shorthand
writing than anylhm- cl-e; a kind of attemi.t
render visihle^H. pitch of sounds. T he" e Z
tar^t,,. My the same as o„r present one; so also
■the In onannm attributed to abbat Oddo and
lievedhy«J„i,|oAretinustobehis. In som
"f these appears a more elaborate fn,m, an-
.priaed to the Canticles MagiiificaT' and
Uenedictus. I he various forms of beginning the
antiphons were called Dilferentiae, and th ise 1 md
appropriated to them dilferent "eidings" of he
,«a m-chant. One antiphon, ingeniously cho 1
(IX the mode, ,s given as a specimen, with a
•2'""" "' ""^ «"'l «'■ ". «n-l intended to be
committed to memory: and these have, in the
lo,uu-ms Iie^.n,mh, been added by a later hand
ihere are five dillerentiae of the first tone in
Resino: nine m abbat Oddo, and twelve a
^iveL" IX'T, ""-' '"'.'""^^'"K '» ""* d-criptioa
given m the last-named author:
Protiis iirtest, d. Ills formarum nexus habenis
yuc nioduni nectunt autentum undlque totunij
I e tibl sint crdl. Juglter Imb, antur in ore ;
ilas qucso ne uiiuuus ; poteria si adders curai
wmsderived from the seventh and eighth modes,
jttn? ""l « "'i'". ■""* f '»«"'• '''■""' '""""S the
oimn,int and final m each of them and phlcing
comiTinn chord on them in succession. The
uthentic(or odd) modes will appear to have
their hnals as the lowest note ia the sciWes-
iowtimes, but rarely, melodies written in them'
wbeen ound to descend a note below this:
I! T !■> thf e^-en Plngal modes the scale itself
tended below the final, and the melodies
*ra receded a fifth above it, whe"n:e^^^^^^^
-M»Jo'-es toni, l.e. autentici, sell, primus et
"Ll"« ■'/' "P,"""* P°^^""' descendere
■moce a fine e ascendere octo. Minores autem
L :; '! ^^'''''' '"^- ^e"""-!"" et quartus,
mimctoctavus possunt ascendere v. vocibus et
J«ade,e v., quod patet his versibus:
"W.J„rt5 a Tins tonl descendere possunt.
Ad priraas voces ascendunt vdclbiis octo.
Ai qulntas voces scandunt a fine min.ires.
•id quiiitas etiam possunt descendere voces "
OHBIOT. AST.-VOL. II. ^'^""»«^«'-. vol.' il.
m^^*m
l-B-R
Pri-mum quaerlte reg-num Del.
^^'^Ei^lSi
Glo-ri-a, se-cu-lo-rnm.Amen. Eo -ce no-men.
II.
OIo - ri - a 8e-cu-!o-rum, A -men,
III.
■i
i'i'
iIIm •' ''
f h
■wI^hI^I '
ijjjl
tt4«
T.
MU8I0
MVSIO
^^^
Olu -rt • • le-ca-lo- rum, A • mf n.
gg
t^S^SSl
Cilo- ri • t M-cu-lo»ram, A-m<n.
VII.
^^^^^^_
Olo - ri - « M - cu - lo-rum, A - men.
^
m
Ulo-rta
I • en • l0 - rum,
rivprso niimero foWH non nomine Untum
HIc protus: pn>prlmi cunceptu* habere figurt*.
C^uia iiec mlscuit antiiiUi primo online Bxo,
Cunslniill Tocc dlsconlft recto U'nore.
_s ^ — ■— ■- ■— ■— ■— f-
Ulo '
M - cu • lo -rum, A - men.
Ef_— .J— ■— ■
;:^^-| — I — p* n ~
(jlo-rl • a te - en - lo-rum, A • men.
do
rum, A - men.
^^♦rj-ita
m . . hole.
.■_■ . ■-
Olo • rl • • M '(u • lo-rum,
■^■-x
i
■+-
Olo - rt-« H-oa-lo-ruro, A • men.
thun giving two " ending* ;" but the former ii
•viileutly trani*i)0««<l, ami n-quinw b llal. In
Keginu iinil Oiliio there in but one dill'eicntlu of
thia tunf, HHinely the usuiil ending, but with the
■oocnt diflereutly pUced ; Men»i«. I)(ir»n nnd
Nottioghnm hnve placed it thus in their Psalter,
The third niodo (Authentus Ueuteri):
Phrygliu modus eet protun bypolydlui di-utcrua eitqM
Hie allUr mixluii nraclt dMIuKUere v«cum.
HIc rrauiukiit crUa tantum splranilna quinto.
Ulc gradlter aexto ueo borum lugu tenrtur.
S-TPi^
^lE^EEiE^*
Ter-U - a . , dl - M . . est . quod
^^S^iEi^^J^-^,^^
It would nppear then that the first mode was
allowed a compass up to d, and down to B, or
perhaps more probably down to C, with the
power of using b flat or b natural ; I.e. using
the liyncmmenon or dlezeugmenon tetrnchord at
pleasure, which would have been, in the latter
part of the age» we have under consideration,
■written b or jj.
The second mode is thus described :
PlaKarura tropi soclantnr rite secundl;
AuUTtaa furmas ntinenl, semperque minorea:
In qu<baB et pruti prtmuni cuntexore plagln
LIbiilt, ut recto succedaot tramlte cuncti
Arrtua hic spemlt, mrdla et graviora reenmit,
Et se per dnplas patltur couBtringere fonuas.
. . . bee . fac-ta sunt. .
Fire endings ore given iu Guldo :
I.
5^
rrtzizf
=£1^1^
Olo -ri-a se-cn- lo-rum. A - men.
II.
Eg^ ir/— ■^JtJ=g:
Glp -ri-» ae-cu- lo-rum, A ■ men.
HI.
Olo • rt • • se - on - lo • rum, A • men.
Glo - rt • a ie • «B • lo-rum, A - men.
V.
■■— ■-
5EEiEKr=3^r==L-=5
1^
Glo - rl - • «e - cu - lo - ruui, A - men.
The first of these do«8 not appear in OdJo
in Regino there are five difierentiae.
MUSI
The fourth mode (I)eutei
" Deulerui In qiilnia nibac
Ipaiua aOKrlc t 111 lurratu
yue quoiidttui I. nibln <«iii
iDimeiuua p^limm niultl
0)ii<ult In Hiiirt graillKr
agd the following aix en
Guido :
Olo • rl - a lo-cu - lo-i
Qlo-ri • a ae-cu-lo-m:
Glo • ri - a se - cu - lo
Olo - ri - a ae - cu • lo
Olo- ri • a ae-cu - lo'
Fn Oddo, four endings are gi
lirit and fourth of these : Ih
jomewhat: sii differentiae
K«g{oo,
The fifth mode (authentus ti
"Troiwrum quintus trltn.< agri(
Inwqultur fplendons crocpo ri
HIc miinstrat ei teros super bI(
Deutenim et piotuiu subecrip
Clavlger ac fortU reserat sic w
The allusion in the second of
I meti.-e which was PxteD^iV'
thii invention of the stave, of us
that on which F was situated,
fm line for 0, in place of
ileminsnt and F the final of thi
MU8I0
The f.)uith moile (I)«iitoru« PUgU):
" Itonlrrui In niilnli nilMntwi nrngtM* nIrU
Ipalun niittrlci 11, .urrtlur unllr... pl«Kln
yiie quuiKlaiii 1, nihU rAiitiia fulmrp novrnli.
Immfii.iu iK-Ugm nmltl ciu.^iup d^re nM.tua
Ouiwult In miIh griullwr liicliu ulbuii aileptla "
fei! bi*j:g ri^^r!^-^rg^j:"^
-£^-5:
Qiur-U
vi-ll -lU
venH
T
HU6I0
1849
<;ulnquerru.d..„.t«i . . to.,r. . vV-runt «1 "
^
■ ^Pi
^Z?L-JE£^«E*E?£:
nup • tiM,
Onido gJToi three eodings (
£r^!*E3E5.^<
•< ••Ofc
«Dil the following sii endingt are given bv
L
Olo - ri • • iixu - lo-rum, A - Dien. .
^31t?=*3^=??
aio . rl - » le - en - lo- rum, A - men.
IV,
Glo-rl - • ee-cu- lo- rum, A-men.
Olo . ri . » Be - cu - lo-rum, A - men.
mea. /
in n ".'^''° ""'-^ '•'« fi"t **o of these are givcDt
in I^esino three dilToreDtiae are noticed.
The liith mode (plggiii triti);
"SInipllclor caaii« qiiam jtriciaa poMi|,|,.t nmpUt
1 en la pIaB„rum dNirlctp H prinm mb urja '
IbKuIa fotnianiin varllKiUB liisUtire rwurn
Oidhilbuwiup dolont fu!.ra ailorare all..no
Sub modulo triiim referetur Urtia voium "
pa - te • urn.
VI,
^^
-p_j
Qlo-ri . a
•e. cu . lo - rum A - men.
In Oddo four endioffs are giren, including the
firit and fourth of these: the other twodilfer
lomewhat: sii ditferentiae are specified in
The fifth mode (nuthentus tritus):
"Trojiurani quintus trltn^ agrlcole dicttu
Inpwiultur fplciidons orocoo rubroque colore
HIc mcinstrat » teroe euper elgnacula notoa
Deuterum et pmtuin Bubsciipto ordine primum
Cuvlgpr ac fortis rescrat sic oittia voch."
The allusion in the second of these lines is to
infHct,., which >.va.. «sten.iyely »l<,picd after
«^s mvention of the ,stave, of u..ing a red line for
IW 00 which Fwas situated, and a yellow or
P-Utn line for C, in place of clefs; C is the
toaaat and F the fin.il of this mode.
OdS'v'ir" ""'^ *"** *'"''''* ^'''*° '" °"''^° "^
Glo . ri - a
m^^m
ee - cu - lo - rum, A-men.
and one differentia in Rcgino.
The seventh mode (tetrardua authentos):
" Ultlmu. authentura tetrardua p*ce vcortur
Coriwre d. tractjia In ciiJub redderc formaa
rerplaruii certU, valcant quo ciere pbtungis
PuUulat ex proto et trlto nam sub super hlsqne "
Sep-tem . . sunt
spl - ri -tua an - 1«
-M;
n-zrr
*:■_*■
"affzfliizrc
tro '
De-1.
s-e
^^^^^m.
4S 2
1350
MU8I0
Guido gives the following eodings ;
I.
^^
Olo -ri • a Be-cu-lo- rum, A - men.
QIo • ri • a ae-cu-lo-rnm, A-men. . . .
III.
:«=ni-"=«— ftHH
I
. ■*:
Glo - ti • a
IV.
ee- cu- lo-
rum, A • men.
EF--^--^
- ■-%-■!=
-
-1 — ' '-
Glo - rl • a
V.
se - cu - lo -
mm, A - men.
Glo - rl - a
VI.
BO - CU - lo
_ . _ ■-
- rum, A - men.
:s ! -^~;
_■_-„■_-_ «-_,_||-
Glo - rl - a
VII.
Be - cu - lo
u_
- rum, A - men.
3=1-^
•-■-^i
-■— ^-B-H-
z
Glo • rl • a
VIII.
-1 — 1
Be- cu- lo-
rum, A-men. . .
'-
Glo - rla secu- lo- rum, A • men.
IX.
MUSIO
?^
•--A'-
iqrir:!
^
Glo - rl - a
- cn-lo-rum, A - men.
Oct-o
E5i5^^
sunt
be - a - U
IZii— ■>
. . tu • di - nee.
Guido gives four endings;
I.
=Ee
Tlie penultimate note in II. would seem to be
an error tor a.
Oddo gives six endings, viz. the first, fifth,
sixth, nnd sevL-nih of tliese; one which is sub-
stantially identical with 111., and one with
which IV. would be idoatieal if tlie three last
notes are written in error fur c, b, u. Kegino
specifies six difl'ereutiae.
The eighth mode (pb.gis tctrardi) :
" Fine plagln sequltnr certoquo fine tenctiir
Niimen halwns proprlum toto Ue tannine vocum
Nanique alii qui ibi sunt qnarti quiiitiqiic lucatl
Uiiile magia induiii datiir variiiltl' In ipaus,
Nei-cius u^t horum fortur stricti-sime rectus
Octavus punitnr sulisupor, likqiie vocatur
Ut nomcn loca sic muut per climuta nuisquam."
Glo-rl ■ a so-cu-lo- rum, A-men.
II.
^=i=i
4:=:^="-i-^=l=ifl
^
Glo-rl - a se -cn-lo-rum, A-men.
m.
=I^SE
=P
Glo -rl-a se-cu-lo- nun, A - men.
IV.
3=si=a:*^:
Glo - ria se-cu-lo - mm, A - men.
Oddo recognises three differentiae, the tirst of
which is identical with 111. above, the third is tlie
ending commonly known and nearly identical
with iV., and the second is " the Peregrine Tone :"
why it should ever have been classed under tlia
eighth mode is inexplicable to the writer; he
thinks it naturally belongs to the first; the
beginnings of antiphons given in Oddo are
certainly more akin to those of the first mode
than to the eighth.
m
Se - cu - lo • mm, A - men.
^— JH-B B-B'
[l:::"_iz!qrJt=«:
In ex-l-ttt Is-ra-el de E-gyp-»o.
EPnB-BZBrBTBZBZB rB--., ■-■fc J
Domua Ja-cob . . de po-pu-lo bar-ba-ro.
s=
TT
Sa
"1-
pi .
tla.
No b flat is here indicated, though it would
seem most probable that it was useil, as in the
first mode above, where it is not written.
This renders the verses more obscure, in tM
third and fourth lines, which the writer thinU
must be intended
between b tiat and
Guiilo would not i
eighth mode in con:
In Regino three
recognised.
As stated above,
cot taken arl'itraril
ihe present time), I
ling of tlie antipho,
the works here cite
under each diirerenti
with musical notatic
lelt for the cantor t
Thus in abbat C
the antiphon began
above was used, thu
When the Antipli
descending to C, the :
MU8I0
must be infcnJed to refer to the variation
betweuu b fiat and b natural. Perliaps howuver
Guiilo would not include this chant under the
eighth mode in consequence of its using a b flat.
In Re^'ino three diHerentiae of this" tone are
recognised.
As stated nbove, the endings of the tones were
Dot taken arbitrarily (as is done so commonly at
llie present time), but depended upon the begin-
Diugof the antiphon used with tlie psalms. In
the works here cited, a list of antijjh.ms occur
nnJer each dilferentia, some of which are supjilied
with musical notation, and the others apparently
lell for the cantor to sing in lilte manner.
Thus in abbat Oddo, in the first tone, when
the autiphon began on D, the first ending given
alxiTe was uaed, thug :
Ant.:
MUSIC 13.J1
mentioned generally being Culler, requiring more
eiugiug tliau recitation. i t, »
In the fin
for introits :
In the first mode, Guido gives the followiuir
oits : o
^J^^^m
Olo- rl - a ee - cu - lo-rum. A -men.
II.
^^^^^s^i
GIo - rl - a se - cu - lo-rum, A - men.
III.
Cum oc
turn.
|^=?^=^^E^E
E - vo - va • e.
When the Antiphon began on C or on g
descending to C, the ninth ending was used ;
— ■-
-■■
-■—■"-
- cu - lo-rum,
"9-
A.
men.
"F
Olo
rv.
-ri
- a
se
-f!»-
i"~
wfiz
-■-
A:
*~ll— '
iP^
,4'
Glo.
rl -
a
se
cu -
lo - rum,
A -
men.
and for communions the first and third of thesp
In Regino three diHerentiae for introits and
one lor communions appear.
In the second mode Guido gives the followine
form for both introits and communions :
Ant.:
E
mm
Po . eu - e - - runt.
Or, Ant :
GIo - rl - a se - cu - lo - ram, A
-r-
^flE
■ men.
Ve - nl te ec - ce rex.
i3
No niore dilTerentiae are to be found in Regino.
In the third mode, for introiu Guido gives
the forms: c""
Glo - ri . a se - cu - lo-rum, A-men.
II.
And so in other cases.
Of'jourse in the Intonarium of abbat Oddo
l.e music was indicated by a notation diiTerent
rom the modern one : although it appears with
«e stave and notes, these must have been added
yOuiJo Aretinus when he revised, or edited,
t»e woik And at the head of every tone or
'oVAVVkTmI''' ""tJl'"'^^"^- <"^«»r the words
nnn^ ^1^^' "''NOiiACIS; with .some slight
variations: these are supplied with musical char-
ters, and appear to be artificial words to assist
le memory of the singer in making the proper
Actions, something after the manner of
t.^V\Ahq.v.): the former of these belonir tn
'■If Utter to the plagal modes.
In Regino and in Guido are to be found forms
r he mtroits and the communions, which
mt in some respects from tliose already
Glo - rl - a se-cu-lo-rum, A-men
For communions, he gives (II.) again, and
rx-q_
r«r^:
i5^i
Glo - ri - a se - cu - lo-rum, A- men.
whicli maybe thought an error for (I.) above •
but the error, if any, may quite as well be the'
other way In Kegino, two ditferentiae for
introits, and one for communions appear.
In the fourth mode, Guido gives for introits i
li
ii^ffl
5|fflKfM
{I
rum, A-meu.
MUSIC
Olo -ri-a se-cu-lo- mm, A - men. . .
and the first of these for communions also. In
Regino, there are two difl'erentiae for introits,
and one for communions.
In the fifth mode, for introits the following
two forms appear in Guido, the first of them
also for communioos :
I.
- fe ~ ^^^^m — ■ — ■ — ^ — m^»^
Id;
m
Glo - ri - a
II.
' CQ - lo ■ rum, A - men.
i^*
^^^
Glo-ri-a se-cu-Io-rum, A-men.
This appears to agree with Regino.
In the sixth mode, Guiclo gives two introit
forms :
I.
Olo -rl-« ee-cn-lo- rum, A - men.
and for communions :
:^i=^
Glo - rla se - cu - lo - rum, A - men.
only one form for each appears to be recognised
by Regino.
In the seventh mode, Guido gives two :-troit
forms :
^■5:e!!eI
^i
Glo -ri-a ee-cu-lo- rum, A - men.
II.
^^5?^=^^
Glo - ri-a K-cu- lo-rum, A-men.
and two communion forms :
MUSIC
^^^i^^E^^^^
Glo -ri-a se - cu - lo - nm, A - men.
Only one of each is recognised in Regino.
In the eighth tone, Guido gives the following
for introits :
'^M
Glo -ri
M • ca - lo • rum, A
IL
^
zr
S^
Glp - ri - a se - cu - lo - rum, A - men.
The former of these appears to have a pncuma
added to it.
For communions :
5^
-p--*.^
Qto -ri-a M-ca-lo- rUm, A-men.
Glo -ri-a 8e-cu-16- rum, A - mcii.
Only one of each is recognised in Regino.
Besides these, Guido gives one elaborate t'orm of
a clumt for tiie Gloria Patri in each mode: it is
preceded by a response and a versicle. These
responses appear in Regino, for the mast part :
but in that work it is professedly a selection of
them only that is given.
The Intonarium of abbat Oddo concludes with
a short " Modus Intonandi Psalmos," professing to
be then of an antiquity of two ceiituries ami
upwards : the following complete forms tor the
tones appear; they are as given below, with an
example "Dixit Dominus" (Ps. IIO):
Pri-mus tonus sic &ec-tl-tur, etslc e-le-va-tur,
HE?J!5:E?EEEiE^
et Bio B - ul - tur.
The G before the last three notes hns been
accidentally omitted, as it is given In his
examples. Here we have the ' intonation ' nt the
beginning, and the ' mediation ' (" sic elevatur,")
and the ' ending ' : besides this an ' tntleotion '
appears ; but it does not seem quite clear how
this is to be used.
Be - Guu - dus lu - uus iiiu Owl - tl - tur,
6— ■—■—»— ■ —"—■-P»-»-M —
The tenor clef h
the bass.
Quar- tus to - [
Quin-tus to - nui
Sex- tus to-nusBl<
The last five notes
line or si)ace too 1
examples : they shou
ifep - tl - mus to -
From the examplei
»-l«- "should be f, e, d
Oc-t«-TU8 t0-nU8Bl(
etslc e-le-va-tur,s<
A more florid for
Mapificat and Bened
•bbat's, and has been
et 8to e - lo - va-tur, et sic B-nl-tur.
MU8I0
The tenor clef hero seems put oy mistake for
the bass.
Ter - tl - us to - nus sic flec-tl - tur, et aic
e - le . va - tur, et sic ter ' mi - na - ttir.
■ -■-
^^'
::q— :==z
MU8I0 1363
' * "'ii
s^ ir
qui- a vl-si-u-vlt et fe-clt re^lump.
• ti -oii>em pie -bis su - e. . . , .
<Juar-tU8 to -nus sic flee- »i -tur, et alo
o-le-va-tur, ct shs ter - mi - na < tur.
^P
-■— ■-
-■— ■-
Quin-tus to - nus slo flec-tl - tnr, et sic
Jz
Be- ne - dic-tus Do- mi-nus Do - us Is - m-el:
qui-a vl - si - U-vlt, ic. ple-bU eu - e
III.
-■ -■-*-■-■ -
e - le - va - tur, et sio fl - ni - tur.
Sex-tus to-nusBlcutprlmUaflec-ti-tur, *t sic
^SH|jflj;_«-,--B~||_B-B-
_»rj
e - le - Vft-tur, ecd a - 11 . ter ter - mi-na-tur.
1
Be-neKlio4aa Do-ml-nas De-us Is-.ra-el:~
qul-a vl.8t-to-vlt,4c., pie - bis su - e.
IV.
Be • be - dic-tus Do-mi-nus De-us Is - ra - el :
qml-» vl-sl.ta.vi^aec.,ple - bissu-e.
The last five notes of this have been placed a V
line or space too high, as appears from the
examples : they should be F, G, a, G, F
! —■ -■—■ _■ :
Sep - ti - mus to - nus sic flee - ti - tur, et sic
'^^m
e-le-va-tur, et slo ter - ml - na - tur.
From the examples the notes e.d, c, at "sic
•■Is- "should be f, e, d.
Oc - ta -Tus to-nus sic - nt se-cun-dui, fleo- U - tur,
i^z— rrJttiftJtf:
:c:Lz:i
tt
Be- ne-dic-tDs Do-ml-nas De-us Is-ra-el:
qui - a vi - si - ta -vit, &c., ple-bis su - e.
vi
iftirfttjElttB-itE
^■-B B^-i-B-iTS^
etBic e-lo-vtt-tur.sed a-ll-ter ter-ml-na- tur
A more florid form was adopted fo- the
M.ip_iHcat and Benedictns, in this woric of the
«bbat s, and has been continued in later authors •
Be- ne- dic-tus Do-ml-nus De-us Is - ra - el
Be - ne-dic tns Do- mi-nus De-us Is-ra-el ;
i^^^
qui-a Ti - si - ta -vit, *c., ple-bis su - e. . .
This ending is misplaced a line or space too
low, as appears from the psalm ' Dixit Dominus '
given with it.
i
Be - ne-dlc-tos Do-mi-nus De-us Is ra - el:
-p;
qui - a vl - si - ta -vH, 8ec, , pie - bis en - a,
F 1 i ,
mw >•%■*,
1354
VIII.
MUSIO
- 5 — — -■-■-■-■-fc-^
-»-"l-«--H-
_]: ■ ,.■ ■ .: 1 J
i
-
Be - nc-dic-tU8 Do-ml- nua De-us la-ra-el:
-B-=-B-»-»-^-" ■-■-=
-
■ , ■ ■ ■
L_
qui - a vi - Bl - ta - vit, &c., ple-bis su - e.
Tone.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IntroiU. Offertories.
8
1
S
2
a
1
3
1
Communions.
Ecsponsorles.
Antipl
2
6
5
a
1
3
4
6
5
3
1
4
1
3
8
11
1
4
5
It appears also that occasionally.the modes in
Antiphons were changed, i.e. an Antiphon would
begin in one mode and end in another. This is
what is called in Euclid commutation or
moduliition (fiera^oXii), for example changing
from Dorian into Phrygian, or the like. Thus in
the TomirMs Segirwnis Prumcnsis, under the
iirst tone we find to the antiphon "Domine
Bslva nos, perimus," the note "Finit[ur] iii.j
fono;" and under the 2nd tone to "Cum
indurerent " and " Primum audisset Job " is the
note "Ton. j potest esse." And so in Guido
Aretinus, " Sunt preterea plurime antiphonarum
que hujus videntur formule [third tone] cum
sint ex autento proto ct prima voce: sic est
Pulchra cs et inter quas quidem auteuti deuteri
faciunt, non bene tonorum .semitoniorumque
]iositionem intuentcs: vel idcirco cas deuteri
faciunt ((iiidiim quibusda.n D, E, F, et G, finales
Bonstitute in omnibus omnino modis vel vocura
tropis indillerenter et iniprovide sint." Again
imder Tone 6: "Iste due communiones que
sequuntur, i. e. Panem de celo ct Aninut nutira
)iroprip sunt du i|uiiito tono et de secunda
dirt'evcntia. Multa responsoria sunt ex isto modo
que magis (iniuntur in tetrardo quam In trito,
Kicut est L'(jo sum id qw>d sum." So J. M. Neale
(De Sequentiis ad H. A. Daniel Epistola) mentions
some MSS. containing a list of sequences &(■.,
m which occurs the word " Frigdola," applied to
melodies, as some other adjectives are in the
MS.: of which he says, " Frigdula vel Frvjdora
fiicillus agnnscit etymon : idem enim vult atque
I'hrygo-Doricum, i.e. Tonus primus mixtus cum
tertiu." One of the best known examples of this
practice is the old melody of the Te Deum,
usually attributed '.o St. Ambrose ; which is in
the third and fourth modes combined: and this
fact would lead us to conclude that the melody
had undergone some change since St. Ambrose's
time, as the fourth mode was not then in use,
unless indeed the tradition of it may have
varied, which is quite possible, and may have
liad some weight in mducing St. Gregory to add
the four ])lag8l modes.
The chief authors used here are those men-
tioned, and reference has been made also to later
ones, sucli a" St. nproavd (Tonale), Peter de Crnce,
Walter de Odyngton, John de Muris, Hiclialdus,
&c., preserved in the collections of abbe Gerbert
and M. de Coussemaker. The most valuable
authority (probably) is the treatise of Gabriel
MUSIO
There is no indication here whether the b in
the first tune is fiat or natural: but prolmljly the
fiat would be taken, in the synemmenon tetrachord
of the Dorian mode.
Amongst the early authors preserved by
abbe Gerbert occurs Aureliau ; he lived in the
ninth' century, and he gives the following
varieties in the several tones;
Antiphons. Invit-'crics. Total.
17
6
2 12
4 18
2 9
R
21
12
Nivers (Paris, 1685) which the writer has in vain
endeavoured to meet with : it is mentioned in
Sir John Hawkins' History of Music as the most
exhaustive book on the subject published up to
that time, and seems to have been pretty well
known then.
Musical Notation. — During the first six
centuries of the Christian era the Greek musical
notation was in universal use, and indeed the
knowledge of it was kept up as late as the time
of Johu de Muris (c. 1320). This notation wna
exceedingly complicated, being at first sight
purely arbitrary, and scarcely relucible to any
law. This is the more extraordinary, as some
instances can be observed which indicate the
acquaintance possessed by the ancients with the
property of the octave which has caused sounds
separated by that interval to be now called ly
the same name. Referring to Smith's JHitiomir;/
of Antiquities it will be seen that the ditlorent
modes, Dorian &c., were ultimately, at any rate,
nothing more than transpositions of the ' greater
system ' of two octaves :
MUS
122:
za^^
ySt-^
3-0-1
P
Dc=-
5~C-
-s»-
:js;
1=^
and they were determined by the pitch of the
Proslambanomcnos, the lowest note, an oitave
below the Mese.
These are mentioned in Euclid's Tntrodudio
Harmonica. But the most important work f.r
this purpose is the tract of Alypius, published
by Meiljomius amongst the Antiquae JIusicaa
Auctures Septem : this consists of a .■■hort preface,
a mere rdsum^ of Euclid's Intr< dudio, ami
a catalogue of all the notes in every mode.
There were five principal modes, the Dnrian,
lastian, Phrygian, Aolian, and Lydian: these
h.ad for their Problambnuomeni respectively
~ja-
~^ Gl> — gsJ-
P.&-
I
and five others, named from the above with th«
prefix Hyper, whose Pruslumbanomeni were
a^-fcs nj^^
lod five others, named frc
prefii Hypo, wliose Proslai
"Sf
7=^-
The Proslambanomcnos
mode was supposed to b
producible by the human voi
Proalambanomenos
Hypate hypaton
Parhypate hypaton
Lichanos hypaton
Hypate meson
Parhypate meson
I.ichanos meson
Mese
Trite synemmenon
Paranete synemmenon
Nete synemmenon
Paramese
Trite diezeugmenon
(
(
c
(
(I
(I
((
(a
(b
(<=
(d;
(b
(e)
Paranete diezeugmenon (d]
Kete diezeugmenon
Trite hyperboleon
Paranete hyperboleon
(n
(g)
Kete hyperboleon (a i
The following are the notes
■a H 3 b
a. T e w
J_
Hi
^1 fl H jc
-rs-
1 H J. r
i;
-s»-
MUSIO
.nd five others named from the first with the
prehi Hypo, whose Hroslambauomeni were
3_42j2:z::i
The Proslambnnomenos of the Hypodorian
mote was supposed to be the lowest sound
producible by the human •, oice {06/ifios, Eucl. sect.
MUSIC
13o5
Can. Theor. 19). Meibomius arranged all the
I diaton.c note.1 m a tabular form (as also all the
chromatic notes, and the enharmonic notes)
! but the overlapping of the synommenon and
trbrar:^::;.:.^ '■'^^ '-' causedhisdiagram^
The writer has combined the whole set, without
ntroduce hem here without interfLring with
the couvemenceofthe book "S »iin
hJrwJtT'"^ °""'' ^''"S "'"'« "'■'he diatonic
Dorian mode, are given as an example.
Proslambanomenos (our A)
Hypate hypaton (B),
Parhypate iiypaton (C),
Lichanos hypaton (D)
Hypate meson (E)
Parhypate meson (K)
Ijchanos meson (G)
Mese (a),
Trite synemmenon (b [j)
Paranete synemmenon (c),
Kete synemmenon (d),
Paramese (b l|),
Trite diezeugmenon (c),
Paranete diezeugmenon (d),
Kete diezeugmenon (e),
Trite hyperboleon (f),
Paranete hyperboleon (g),
- E
n> 111
H
V
12
S'
T
n
o
K
H
M
A
H
r
B
^
D
K
A
>
TT
>
N
I
Kete hyperboleon (a a),
J- \
(antinn and double w).
(i sideways, and c written square),
(half fl, looliing downwards, and 6 square, inverted).
(5 iiverted, and t sideways, reversed).
(the left half of m).
(half ^ inverted).
(digamma reversed).
(t reversed).
(half 8 extended),
(A sideways, reversed).
(it extended),
(half 8 inverted),
(the acute accent).
^^ *'h'al?or°'i"T^\"' '"^M^and the left
halt of a looking down).
(t inverted, and the right half of « looking up>
He following are the notes with their present equivalents i
^ H 3
'^ T e
^ 3-w S ^"n"ST n"Th
SM'i
H M ^
h or _ or ,
fl H
V - i^
'ft H /n itf
7 H
3 H f-
1356
MUBIO
MUSIC
.,,-
t
— s»—
=1— — *-
rs
\
-^
-4-
-^
F
X
X T ♦ T
c
c
c T n
p
u
•<9-
n p
_ or
3 vrf
O
K
o n N fi
»
^
^
M
N fe A
J
K
A"
N A
1
<
-{7P
1 K H
or . or
> A >
e
V
C7~
>
e
-25 Vs>
Z Z H
c c">
or^orH E
3 > U
p
i.
-L
-S"-
jez:
r A E
^
B
/
or — or . or ^ tJ y or . or "r
23 Z Z A /
or _| or .or
i
i
-o-
£&:
Pa «=7_:r
:i#=r_
_i s „.x
=1^^
-<s>-
isa:
•:a:
M N
N fe A
/or / or V, /
K N A I
/or /or /
' , vs ' "* / or -^ / / * / ur /^ «r J
I K I
/ or i / or /
< A >
-SI —
cnr
rjcsi
*fc==
i^
e
V'
>
/or ^/
Z H
/or /
c >
r
N'
A
¥'
The symbols here given are formed from the Greek letters !
A V / >V. y' \ ^'^"^ Ti'^\. aud left halves of the letter tnade " to look up or down ")•
B B (/8 imperfect).
r 1 L (7 invi rted).
^ ^ ^ jtt^ (8 imperfect, and lengthened).
£ 3 U (< written square).
2 7 (imperfect).
Noi!.—" We have see
that an atnadnff nnmbe
eANovcllo, 1863.^ 'Jh(
((•enty-eiKht). and a fev
tojtrumenul, from AlypI
The ambiguities hi
different genera, enl;
diatonic. Thei-e are i
mode. The ealiarmoi
over them) have gei
is tlie cliromatic nott
few in.stiinces, wliere f
tliose witli tlie line th
Holes, in the Lydian m
to suspect that this w
the cliromatic systenu
lion.
The immoveable su
hoslambanomenos, H
meson, Mese, Nete syn(
diezeugnienon, and N
course expressed iu the
moile)by the sameeymi
>nj tluee Ti'itae in th
Mine characters ; these
notes are identical, but
flatier. The two Lieha:
the chromatic genus, 1
liue through them.
In some of the latter
found ; it is probable th
to both the symbols emi
octave above the notes
sending 11 naccentedsym
liave been done when the
Its fullest development,
wtavfi mentioned before
that the musicians avoi
troduciii? fresh arbitrar
suiprising thing that 1
nlwm in the notation, d
notes symbols different fn
pitch, nnd making a sor
MUetlO
*»» (halfofth<,letter> ' ^^•^^"""X •
K i^ X
A V > <
JJ W /^. v\ a. (thehalw»ofth.Iottw\
N H (antinu). ^
^ lUiUxP ("'•ouWa-'f, sideways).
n U C 3 n (Jengthened), ^ y (« double-).
T ± X U ^ ^ C**"* last thvee are" double "i'i>
T X
w ,!? f "• ("'«*''o'>»'^« of the letter),
X '>||^ (»if*9o/>(Jj).
fl (=»1''H to distiuguUh it from double t> 1 r -,„».-
F q y_ [. "m aouDie I), IJwntten iquare, and inrertwU
\ (the acute and grave accents).
Thfi nmliiffiiittAn l,.... _i. . - _
mo<lation. For these symbols had become nno,
rXTc'ai::^^' -^P'tchf^ther thanXVZ
The ambiguities here shewn arise from the
Lt'n',"!. ^rr™' '"••"•™'""-'=. chromatic? and
taon,c There arc no ambiguities in any given
mode The enharmonic notes (which havf aft
Zl 7^ '^r generally the same svmbols
«the chromatic notes next above them In a
few instances, where four alternatives are given
totes, in the Lydian mode: the writer is inclined
suspect that this was carried throughout all
tW chromatic systems for the sake of distini-
The pau^ of symbols are sometimes put side
^he hf'/";! fS^ °^r' *"'='' «"'"•' «» J"«' given •
ptliei to the accompanyist on the lyre or other
hZT"'- ",'"»"'">g« «hat it\ho,ild not
have been seen that one symbol would be auUe
t.on must have arisen from the use of the same
symbol to express diHerent sounds, accor, inTis
It was to be sun? nr nln„«,) . .i... ' .. » "»
T e immoveable sounds «<rrST„), viz. the hf wl .! h! ^ '' '''"T"* '"""''«. «ccordingT,s
hoslambanomenos, Hypate' hypaton, Hm.te ' '""« " P'^^^'' ■• '''"^ U "^ » ^"cal
m«on, Mese, Nete synemmenon; ParanesfTeto ' '
diezeugmenon, and Nete hyp^rboleon are of
mode by the same symbols ; the two Parhypltae
•nJ three Tntae in the three genera have th!
jame characters; these chromafic and d aUi'
tlli'^rtV'™';.''"* *>-« enharmonic ones a e
Hat.er fhe two I.ichani, and three Paranetae of
.t.trgf^r'^'-^'-'"s"'^'>e^''rth;
In some of the latter notes an accent will be
note is ^:z:_^_^ the Proslambanomcuos of
the Hypoaeolian mode in all the three genera, or
^.e same sound as the Hypate hypaton of the
Hypoiastiau mode in them all ; or the sam!
sound as the enharmonic Lichanos hypaton "f
the Hypodorian mode ; or it is ^2' zm
— rrCz^rr:
I "' "> pruoauie that this shmiM Ko „ i- j the chromatic Lichanos hvpafon of the Hvno.
'«both the sj'mbols empToj'ei : th se a'e «■[ one fhTT^.^^K"' '."V^ ""^ ins.rum.ntal „„toT^
-^ave above the notes '^bejongingto tie Ire or the Trit/!?i '*"" '° '^* Hyp„lvdi.u mod
«P'iDdinBunaccentprl>,u^i,„i„ 'rL-*_ . . " * "■ tie I rite diezeuemenon n thp 1,-h:,,,. j '
-veabove't.e";;^:'^:!;^---^-
Pd.ng unaccented symbols. This must evidTn iJ
u Z detr''" ''" ' *'"'" «>-^»<"« • «»'"^d
"Mullest development, and the proiiertv of the
ave mentioned before had bee^n ib e^ved, so
tl IT'T'''"'!,"^''''^*''' "'« necessity of in-
trodttcins fresh arbitrarv symbols. But it i a
titdi nni .v, I ®°' "^'"" ""'se 'n the medium
fitUi, and making a somewhat similar accom^
ortheTrili . "yi"".V">.i" mode,
o- th.^r •! •^"'^•"'g"'<'n»'> in the Lydian mode
01 the frite synemmenon in the Hyperiastian
mode, and will therefore be
when
it is diatonic or chromatic, and
when enharmonic. (Here the S oTt, above th.
1358
MU8I0
modern note sharpens or flattens it hj a quarter-
tone.)
Aiiatides Qiiintilianus gives a description of
all tlie genera and modes, with notation, which
is iilentical with that of Alypius, but n little
extension downwards is perceptible. It would
appear that the enharmonic system was be-
coming obsolete in his time, or liljuly to become
so; for he speaks of the diatonic as most natural
(^tpvffiKiirfpoy) and capable o*" being used even by
tiuinstructed people (TrSiri yiip, Kol roTs avai-
Stiron irofTciircuTi fi(Kcj>Sr)T6i/ ViTTi); of the
chromatic, as most artistic (Ttx>"ic<iTaTov), being
manageable by practised |ierfoi-mers only (iropck
yiip fxivois n(\<i>^uTai roU rtiraiStvn4vois) ; of
the enharmonic, as most subtle (iKpi/3«'(TT«poK),
because it requires none but the most advanced
musicians to attempt it (^irapi flip to?i iitttpavfir-
rdrois iy novcriKJi TfTvxvte irapaSoxris); and that
it is impossil)le to average people, and they were
discontinuing the use of it (toij !i iroWors iartv
iSiiraTov. 'oOfy i.itfyvw(Tdv rtvfs tJji' kot4 iltaiy
^(Xf^Sia", 5ia riiv aiirwy acr6ii'tiav Ka\ Travri\ws
iifif\i^Sr)Tov fhai rh SidffTrifia viro\a$ivTti).
He gives the enharmonic notes arranged in dieses
for the lowest octave
zzsz
'.> ^I"^
-fi»-
in semitones for the next octave. In this list
appear the following, not in Alypius. ^ used
i_
for 1
' (it has been already used for
FF#), and H for
And in
another list of notes, nrranged according to tones,
he gives »~^ for
■ST"
P<SH
and t^ for
E'
From his semitonic list we find also and
R L/ — 1?<^ ^
" for y^r ^ ■ respectively, and
He has also catalogued them in such a manner
as to shew that the vocal notes were tir^t chosen,
having the twenty-four letters adopted in their
usual form ; then thc^e t'nr the nio'^t part in-
verted, some written ' imperfect,' and f and i
'doubled': also \— and J3; and p correlative
with £.
MUSIC
If the diatonic vocal notes be taken out, thoy
give the following:
AorB TorE Z Hore
-C7- -(S>- b^Sl- ,o
I KorA Mor ^ O
riorP C TorY <t>
lis:
1^
XorH* ilorR 1 VorF
ZC3. l2e
> ri or rn — or V lAI
1^
-S>-
'4^=
H^oimP 9 U<"'b 3
::z3i
-$&-
— is-
'-T^
This ends at the Hypate hypaton of the Hypo-
dorian mode, and, therefore, must have been la
use belbi'e the Proslambanomenos w^s iidleil to
the scale. The first note. A, is the Nete diezeug-
menon of the lastian mode, or Nete synemineunn
of the Aeolian, and also in their derivatives. Tlie
sound is not in the Lydtan or the Phrygian moJe
at all; the Dorian employs B, the Hypenlnriau
both, and the Hyperjihrygiun B. Tlie remain-
ing inverted letters seem to have been adnpted
lor the Hyperboleon tetrachord, which would
obviously have been added to the lyre at boins
later period.
I
:d;
:i3-
-s»-
The law of this seems fairly evilent, the
alternatives arising from different modes. The
order, it will be perceived, is precisely the con-
trary of the modern one ; probably it was derived
from the position of the lyre, and the haml of
the performer on it. The higliest note but one
of the original tetrachords, being called Kixafo!,
would seem to indicate that the highest string
was played by the thumb, and the others Ijyour
first, second, and third fingers, and this maJe
one "position" of the hand, which woul.l be
"shifted" for another tetrachord; tlie lyre
would be held on the l.-?ft sid.- «f thn j,.<.rf«rmor.
and the letters of the alphabet would follow the
order of the fingers of the right hand. The
omitted letters, ^, N, V. ^ are only ehromatio
Wiich he also gives In th«
t«aoi,ced, of letters (alo
's«l'ove),buthehastrana
MU810
«n1 enharmonic nofos. vrn^n »h. u i
1 . -1, as nujit to C, but not inverted,
MUSIO
1369
presented itself at once for ^-::mr:
i- for an enharmonic note, and next
: ) then
The notes aboTo ■
mre indicated bv accpntim. *i,„: i.
low, a, ha., been Lid Thf in^ n."' -''' '"'■
.ere then, apparently, made u of Z"' ""''^
wntrivances seen alioVe Tk' ,"^ ^'"'"»''
a|r«led to, ilouW.htrai the f ""*^""'' ^'''
sm.nd centiry. "" H'-nuing of the
The most celebratod ii,i*i,„ yi
.pects) of the ear ; centu,?eri5'n T'''^ ''■
toimi.tely his work JMAfT- ""^*'""si "n-
piete, in L tire^i^^^f^'^rfLrTh'* '"" '"T"
■nodificafion of the notatTon i„ K, T"°K "^ *
-Plicity ; stii, thoSrd't"t:t n'was":re:e°,;e5'
'"' '" '»""' '=»'»-•» tl>« letters wm Joined to!
gelher, thus Zj. There appear to be some
..d clerical errors^ i" the°Ms*."L th/^'^'K"?'
in son,., cases do not agree with J „»fK '^'."'^''^'
facriplion of them OnT JJ "»«thiu8's own
Sn^h^raSHr---
fee. em to have ooStrnred\'h'emt;;r;Hh-
-e^ymbol only in the pairs, thus HucbaUus
^ r B F riorC rTTo X7~i~"
F riorC CorP M |~
fr^ |c; <s> —
eUorE U C GorE
U<"U N Y Tj I
(" Iota extcnsnm,
sic v.")
?are&: " ''•""'"«" « <»r'«Ption of the
thet'note's" '""' '"'"' -»" "-" -« -me of
Ui'or^) [j«„<,ri- <(fo,<)
J ('•"■•Ji)
Paranete diezeugmenon
Trite diezeugmenon
Trite synemmenon
Jlese lydii modi ^
V(fcrV)
Liohanos meson
Parhypate meson
ft ; jl
i|
tra - ve • runt
Koiid"':? f et?' 'VI" '""■^*'''"' p^"-""- to
'^«bov but i? /"'""'' ""'' '""'^«<'° lines
•"oi e;, but he has transiiosed it. His ' letters '
are appended underneath the text here and th.
e^utvalent codern uoUtion (not'tr:'a:jos2)'
■'hmi
1360
MUUO
•M
■•-■-
(^In -qua
a a K
pru .
ft G
d
den - tPK,
a O K
^--.nPffTI
E^^l
In - irn-vprunt »d .
a G F F K F a
, n'lp - - tl-M.
e (i b c b a O
i^^^
abc cbaQ aO OF
It is ri|;ht to n\j that this is subsequent to
the invention of the stnve.
But the great chniige made about this time
was tlie luloptidu of Latiu letters instead of
Greeli, aud using one symbol only, instead of
two. Buethius gives the following as one system
of notes :
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
moderii equivalent B.
C.
Ilypatc hypaton,
Parhypiite hypnton,
Hchanos hypiitoB,
Hypate meson,
Parhypate meson,
Liclmnos me^JOU)
Mese,
Parumese,
Trite diezeugmenon,
Paninetediezeugmenon, K
Nete diezeugmenon, L
Trite hypcrboleon, M : „ f.
Piiranete hyperboleon, N: „ g.
Nete hypcrboleon, 0; „ aa.
The Proslambanomenoi here has no letter as-
signed to it ; but it seems that it was soon found
advisable to do this, and so the whole of the set
just given was shifted one place, thus using up
the letters from A to P, and occupying the
double octave
^=P
; through
our modern natural notes.
But in another place Boethius gives a larger
system, combining all the three genera, and
giving the relative lengths of the strings pro-
ducing the respective sounds.
Diatonic :
-«s>-
rtzpz
-&-
A
9216
B
8192
c
7T76
E
6912
Bor H I
6144 6831
Wz
MO E TV
6194 46U8 elsewhere, R 3888 3466
4374
-SSi-
:z2:
X Y
4086 3888
i
CC DD
3466 3073
FF NN LL
2916 2682 2304.
MUHIO
Cbromatlct
^^^1^
res;
O C F E or H I
I19S 7776 7296 6144 6X3]
N O E s y
6442 4608 elsewhere, R <098 3469
4374
i
w
^
X y BB DD FF KK
4096 3888 3648 3072 2916 3736
LL.
ZiU4.
Enharmonic t
-c?:^
B D F EorH
8193 7984 7776 6144
K
L
5833
o
4608
P
4461
R
4374
Y.
3466.
;p
r^EJ^^E^El
X Z AA DD EE NN LL.
4096 3997 3888 3072 29!I4 2'JlS 23U4,
His description of this is, "Sed ita ut qimmnra
trium generum est facienda partitio, nervonini
que modus literarum excedit numenini, ubi
defecerint literae, easdem geminamua versus hoc
modo, ut quando ad Z fuerit usque pcrventum,
ita describamus reliquos nervos Bis A, i.e. .A A,
et bis B, i.e. BB." He assigns A, 0, and I.L,
and a tew more, but some errors would semi to
have crept iuto the table from whence thejilmve
is obtained.
It appears from Walter de Odyngtnn th.it the
double octave of the diatonic genus at oae time,
used the letters from A to S, the I'rosinuilinuo-
menos being A, and the rest uj) to the .Mcse
B, 0, D, E, F, G, H ; the synemmenon notes I,
K, L; and the diezeugmenon and hv]iiMliole(in
M, N, 0, I', Q, R, S. This would miike K nn.l
L identical with N and 0. But it wouhl stem
that this was soon reduced to the lilteen.
Accordingly we find Jerome de Moravin describ-
ing the eight modes as follows:
" Let the double octave lie A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H, 1, K, L, M. N, 0, P. Then—
A to H is an 8v8, and it the Hypodorlan m(ide.
Bto I
CtoK
Dto L
E toM
FtoN
GtoO
Hypophrygiaa „
Hypolvdian „
P.ir!r,-: „
Phrygian „
Lydian „
Mixolydian «
And another one m
which was done by 1
The next develop
ind arises from a
qualities of the oct
rwpect of the accei
upiier notes; if the
eliminated, the notes
Hch an octave abov
bannmeDos; and wh<
ID almost identical
tmn suggested by I
inyhow St. (Jregory
kcome replicates ol
trfigning to them t
jectcd all the letters
totes frcjm the Prosia
BM meson, inclusive,
E, F, G ; from the M«
bolenn a, b, c, d, e, f, g
it«elf aa. This nota
the present day, and t
ploy it here. It is
coDtinued further, ai
our present n,/menclal
tftrachord be ru-intro(
neit to a to bo a semi
accordingly, in the cot
longing to this receivec
mil "rotundum," V
diezeugmenon or syneii
be used ; these were a I
b"molle," and the f
This ia the origin of t
ofll for th> note a se
Bto that a semitone i
iiigtte OD his own name
•nil also of the terms " c
to the major and minor
once seen in the kev of i
of the symbol [>, and I
•pplied thereunto.
Accordingly we find
giviog the compass of thi
CUKFGabhod; U
r.4BCDEKGab; Phi
de; Hypophrygius Plag
Gabhc; Lydius, E F (
lydios Plaga triti, BCI
mitolyJius r G a h c d e
letrardi, CDEFGabh
lut but one should appar
These letters were wri
wi-da to be sung ; there
dicatmg duration of souc
Jfpendent upon the "qua
itus, from Jerome de Mo
•Ai antiphonam vero i
ttttiter talis diflerentia da
MUSIC
knit nnother one miot be added, from H to P
whidh wa.1 dune by I'tolemy." '
The next development u"due to St. Oieiforv
U.J «.Ue8 fr,,m « r„,.,her uorception of tlu
quahte, of the octave a, .ift.ded to above, in
wt^^t of the accented Greek ,y,nb„l, f„, 'the
upper notes ; if the Kynenimennn tetrachord b«
elmnnated the notes from the Mose upwards are
Mch an octave above thote from the I'ro.slam-
b»m.meD,«; and when performed they produce
M al.no,t .dentical etiect. The idea may have
b«n ,UKKe»te,l by the accented (Jreek notes-
anyhow St. Gregory made those from the Mese
become replicates of the prece.ling ones, bv
i«,gmug to them the «ame letters^ this re- '
jeoted all the letters beyond the first seven ; the
notes from the I'roslambanomenos to the Licha-
«(« nieson, inclusive being written A, B, C, D,
E-K 0; from the Mese to the I'aranete hyper-
W.on a, b, c, d, e, f, g; and the Nete hyperboleon
it«elf aa. This notation is sometimes used at
the present day, and the writer has hiwl to em-
ploy It here. It is obvious that this can be
coDtmued further, and, indeed. Is the basis of
cur present n„me„clat„re. If the synemmenon
tetraehord be rcntroduced, it requires the n<.te
next to a to be a semitone, not a tone above it ;
accordingly m the course of time, the letter be-
longing to this received tw^ forms, "quadratum"
.nd "rotundum," ), and b, according as the
tezeugmenon or synemmenon tetrachord wa» to
k« used ; these were also called b "durum » and
b mol e, and the former became written b.
nisLthe ongin of the German nomenclatui^
« ll\ ""** * semitone below C, conHnine
Bl« that a semitone above A (e.g. J. S Bach'«
fugue OB his own name :
MUSIC
1301
«b««n «i«8baOKahOnn n
o"d 7 p "■"""' •"■ '"'''■'" ''"•■"'^ ^^■'"' -•
ij.u?..iu:t a,i„L'T:.bu„,,n:urJb?„t
O G IJ F K D
In gut - tu-re su - o.
I Another method of notation appears to hnr«
been in considerable use about the «th and mh
rmpiojfl,, j„r „„^ purpose the svstem nf
t trachorc s was eniplofed but they C e all
J'^joined by a tone from each other,^gi;i;g the
notes of our natural scale from ^'=ri^
^ — -a~ and occasionally to 5^"—^^^-—^
hirifvT*'."^' T'*"* '" "■'<' tetrachord a .iml-
a— 1
spend to the notes
for the tetrachord next abnvo 4i,„ "
reversed, T P I r' ®' ^^T "^"^
'__ '__ I * con-esponding to
ffW0^
„, — ; for the next two tetra-
&o.)
and also of the terms « dur " and " moll " applied
(0 the major and minor tonality. It will be It
once aeon in the key of Q , it i also the or g^
of he symbol (>, and the French terra irtno/
ipphed thereunto. ^"'"'
Accordingly we find Walter de Odyngton
clu- Fr "7T' f ''if ""'*««• ^^"' •■ " ^»rius.
ABCD VhV V ' "yP^J"--'"' Plag" Prothi,
r A B C D L t G a b ; Phrygius, C D E F G a h c
de; Hypophrygius Plaga deuteri, A U C D E F
G.bhc; Lydius, E F G » b h c d e f ; HyJ-
¥m Hlaga triti, B C D E F G a b d ; « vl;^
wirarai, tUlii'Oabhed e. ' CThe r in tKo
l.«t but one should apparently be K ) ^ ""
worfft, h'"" *•"•«*'•'"*" over or under the
d^^tL H .^' i"""'" *■" »» method of in-
icatmg duration of sound, that being entirelv
V^deat upon the "quantity" of thf sXb »
Thus, from Jerome de Moravia : *y"»«>i«-
•^ • « c c c c c c c c a a
:, et Bic flee - ti-tur,
chords above these were inverted, J^ ^ If j,
correcponding to (^— ' '
«-t»-vaa to-nu» sic in-ci-pit,
i-ttJ '^«''BeaGc,cdo
""•■*^- »-««■■."»'« a-ni-tur,etBlc fl-ni-tur.
•""1 -t U X Ivi corresponding to
> — ■
. The connection
"' N h X I together is not very evident but it
professes to exist. In abb,S Gerberf collec^fon
Id^T'L^/ ^- '''" ""tot'"" » argeT;
Aretin^s "'""' "'^ " """"'"""^^ ^y G^Z
These notes were put in amongst the text n,
over ,t; this latter mode doubtle» to % hn 'liL
the reading of the work. simplify
HucbaMusf'''''"^^' **"• '° *''* «"* ""'^''. from
NosiarnolPerajPner^- irjt tJ,
firjLiriPTr.
Glolriraj: et J. nuncXJ et- T ,,„, J^f^
perj; etri infj. se^cuJUaa seJtcuJt
loJjumri af menrlr.
ErjPurgerr serPvel borncr.
1.102 vfmfu
whir.h la •M^nlTnlMUt li>
1
:tr«;
m
KJLm
r^^^^^^^i
Qlo-rl • a rt niino <( irm-per *l
L.a a^a ■ • a^ -mzwr-z
III no-cu-U *- cu • lo - rum, A - men.
J*— .-
E . u • ga Kr - vt bo • Da.
Hymn, from the «nm« :
r ^rr r >i sj h j
Kt iiwr - ty-niiu vie - to - rl - a«
Liiu - lies fe - ri'ii - ten do - bl • ta» Li> - tls
JL r I r r JLf I rr
tl • bus.
Pa
1
One method of assisting the performer by
indkiitini; the Jistances lielwoen sounda is mon-
tioneil by Hermanus Contractu'.: it cnsisteil in
ipocifyiuR the intervals which the note belonging
to each sylbible stood ;ibove or b'-ln'.. .'? preceding
note ; thus, e for unison (eiiual_>. s somitone,
t for tone, ts tor the Minor liuv;
pert'eit fourth (di.^tessanm), J i ^r t\. ' v
tifth (diapcnte) a point bein;;: phicid .rha ''.
when the interval wiis taken in a. ■,r's. -•:.
manner; nnd a comma when an'ja'i'^
example:
t t, t. t. ts. d, t, 8. d, e, t. . . d, e,
Ter tri-a jiinctorunisnnt iii-terviil-la s-o-no-nim
ZSzm:-':MSi^i:mzFz:zim:mz.^--.mzM
^ _ — - ■ ■ a —
Mimio
It wax thxn attamuted to render th'> ponltlniu
of the xoiinds vliilbla, so that th» eyv inichl
•Mint III ear of the perl'ornier; and the IliU
»V«tem wu.> lilt iil.nt on»'d liefirii nn Ilk.) shurt.
hand: the r.lbiwiiig !• ettiacind I'r.iin the
ybiKiri'uj Jieijiwimi J'lUim'i'-"- under the Sui.iinl
Tone,
8<.-eun-<tum au-tem kI • ml ■ In
(apparently)
■V?^;!
est hiilc.
O^
M.
'z3'~
^"_rf
ifc^iHr
EUlti
~
mg
« ^
" - w
" -z
&z
T*r
■^i*
i-dtztr
m ■%-
— .
S
J-
7 -7
J- "
m=
=^
=:<-
^^-i*-
1^-"E
n. I
8a
fi • au
U - 3,
I
These are not precisely i'lentieal with the
versions above, or in Walter ile Odyngtnn. llul
it is obvious that groat uncertainty niiisl have
prevailed on this system, so that witlinutdilijfpot
study and much instruction no .<inger coiiM s'mf
these without error; accordingly we lii'l th«t
great varieties were known, so iiiiich Ihatnlniost
every church had its own way of singing.
This" was partly remedied by the intrc»lucli.in nf
a red line and sometimes another whu li wiaild
tend to lix the pitch of thj notes placed en or
near them. Ai'cor.ling t.) Sir Jolm Hawkins
(///,«<. .Wiui'c ) (iabriel Nivers exnipinid many
old M.SS., and concluded that the wloile sysieni
of notation before the time of (luido Aii'tiiius
was uncertain, that there were no nieaui. in this
method, of ascertaining the distinction between a
tone ami a semitone, which of course was of
itself sulhcioiit to induce musicians to seek
improvements.
The tirst was the multiplication of these lines
and the writing of the words on them in such a
manner that the position of the syllable shoulJ
imlicate the sound to which it was to be suni;.
Kach line corresi>onded to a sound of the scale nf
the mode adopted, nnd the symbol for its note was
placed at tho beginning of' it. See the exainiile
c>n the ne.it page, from ' Aribonis Scholastica.'
Th's was further improved by adopting a reil
Up ' f^,T the place of K, and a yejlow one for that
:>' ;.;. So wo iind Guido Aroti'nus writing in hii>
;.l'lO/'0/0^«S,
" Qoasdam*! -i ,ui slgnamus varlls colortbus
Ut quo loco sit sonus inox dl-cornot culm;
Oriliiii' tortiiie v.tls srl'iidens rrocus riullat,
St xta (Jus, B. d nllliils ttavo rubet miiiiu."
C being the third from A, nnd F the sixth, la
ascending order.
It is easy to see what (
toloured lines introduced
Dumlier that would often
The improvement of G
in |>huiDg notes in the
tvpiy other line; when t
niwle iviia the only one wl
mi C on lines, and th
r. u iihr..,|uicol'ire."
Auiyitici; rea^'-n has I
m«ir,^ li,,,. . p ,,.|||„v
""«;■■ :, 'Id !' \, most
I vUi), iju C may repres
of the Christian graces; ai
l»l'', which may stand for
"wtyis to seal their t
Uood.
These lines most probn
t»e Krst instance to represi
iomething .itU-r the manne
»r the lute was written
Maces Alusick's Monume:
sicients were not appnrcr
'Mart of "stopping" str
And 10, ouriouslv enoucrh,
Mfp, coloured iti'ings (
~!5"7 i« tho C's and F's,
"iwal colour of the cafe
"Mdconnecting this with 1
CmiST. ANT.— VOI* II
^m^i
m
BIU8I0
Mueio
136.)
Thd neit step wm to hnnMi Iho words
mess liiius, iiml jMit |.oiut.H (,i, tlwiii In Sir
mwkins' l/,H. Mu,i: i, „ ,,|,u,i,„„„ |,.„„
\,OTati» (Milei, which U mudi Hiitoii
iHiidoAiotliiiisj hut it (Inua nut aiMmii- t„
l«fn cnriTctly tnuixlatwl , tl.« v,.,',i„i, i»
revMj, iiccoiJliig to tho nolas given abovo
^E^!
frrim
.Inho
I'loin
II' to
liavu
iiuro
I is a«y to »ee what a Rrent ronvenionco ll,o
folomP.1 hucH mtr.,,luoe<l w,.ul,l !,« iu tho ,-r . t
mnilier that wuul.i often be use,| ''
The improvement „f Oni,l« Ariflnu., con.Hl,teJ
in pla-mg note, in tho spaces, I.,, nbolis mW
-ryolherline; when thii wa,;. lone e'l^
»«ie*,u. t e only one which wo„l,l havel.o.h i'
md C 00 hues, anJ therefore be "splemlens
ftheChrMInu graces; ami a red li,',; j, „;.,„
>ot,wh,ch may staml for Faith tha ca sefl he
«jr. to «eal their testin.ony wUh^thS
These lines most probably were intended in
i, • '"-^ ;^°'^^« '« ■•eP''c»ent tho actual strils
w tne lute was wr tten "in tabl-itnvn" ,'
;::t'\r""t""'"'r'-'''V''oau];inSw
Heart ot "stopping" string, in i„.rf„rinance
ClIlklST. ANT -VOL. II. '""""'*' '"^
Z;,'!-.'"""' ''"""''''••"'''''>''''''•'«'''. chosen
said'";:;'',::."",!!^ "'"''"'^ improvement may b,
«"i'l to lit; III,, invention of the slave in .1,
"nise of Indicating ,h„«,,,,ndii,;:;;;,;«
-nimentprodiicingit.andwheil.hilva o
''<']<■ tie whole sy^tcii, .,f ,n„,|,, |„„^ "•«
""".MM «. to enter „,,„n a new pha,e 1„ "c , ,' '
1 leilluival instead of antiiiue: which i^i ln/7i .
the piiipoM,. of ihH b„„|<.' ' ' " '" ' '-'" '"
The writer has here u>ed the modern stave n»
^ve ,10.. and ,1,., ni„.|crn forms „|' sll'^",,^
olels: there is uo .1 I inon'e in i,rio,.i„l., i .
these and their pHcces.ors " '"t ^ *;^''::j
Miiieh more easily read. '*
;::Lr;;::;i:;,:;':^sr;";,';K;h:!-v^^;;-^:r
;.....) in which here. J!f';i;,;; '.),;: •
i:;n;u:;Ln;;"i;:::;"ira:^j'^--' ""'■
tnese It wciiilij seem most reasonil.l,. t., .,
suohasth;dioi...ses.ur*; Ik rr''"";?
ot these would rc.oire „ somew) t' dilfcr
chant having an Luil^l^:;:,: ~--
second with soincthin.' more like a r ly hmicJ
tune, and the third vvith a melody i^,". 'to
hose 0. the antip)„.i,s. a is co,i,m,f„|v • ,„\^
that bt. Amhr,.>e t„oka melodv that l,;,d been in
i>«e in p.gan rites, and .ulapted it to his aZ ,»
stil in use. though with some varieties of
rending; and it is ^asy to see th.t .V . i!
compositions Ihe e, ;,m^,e w.^ld "^'e' :,„;,?
^11 the early writers assign to St. iKnatiis tlu."
:"^^^re$r:ShititSS'
npostoiis,'Vidi;'4:E"r^j-r;:rT
per antiphonas Sancte Tri.dtati c h-ln?. "
isquo modus visioni.Aatioeh:;';::!]^!:::^^!:;-
87
Mr
' i
fill
1364
MUSIC
ecclesie, et ex hoc ad cunctas transivit ccelesins."
(Tunarius Ueginonis J'rumensis.) Accoivlingly
we tind these forms appearing in the liturgie.s :
the thirty-third psaim is specified in that ot' St.
Clement, and the twenty-third and others in St.
James's. But the presence of a choir is recog-
nised, and a part assigned them. Lit. St. Marlt :
Kal xlidWovaiv 6 novoyeviis, — /col i^dWovat
rbv x*?""^""'''' — '^'"' ouToTr ifivovvTuv koI
KffovTuy ■ [ 'O Ka6s ] "Aytos &7101 ayios
Kipios.
So in St. James : Efro 0/ ificJArai rhv rpiffi-
yiov \li<i\\ouffiy ii/ufoi', — Oi }pd\Tar "A^iSv iariv
iis a\ri6u>s' ic.t.A., — Ko! iriKiv rfidWovatv, — and
St. C'hrysostom : Kal i\ii\\(rai t1> vp'Tiroy 'Av-
"rlifavon irapa ray 'fiaKrwy (and so for the second
antiphon, and the third, or in some cases the
beatitudes) ; \tia\\onfyov 5c tou Tptaaylov, Kiyn
i 'Ifpds T),|/ (uxhy ravT-nv ^uffTixij,— Eux'),
fjy Ktyet i 'Upeiis KaO' iavrby, tov Xipov&iKov
aSonifOu. Accordingly provision is made for a
choir in the early cliurches. Neale {Introduction
to I'l-iinsl itiim of rrimitixe Liturgies) gives a
ground [ilan of the church of St. Theodore at
Athens ; in it the choir are placed under the
trullus, or dome, which position was maintained
up to the I'ith century. A very early ode is
still extant, <pa>s i\aphy 07(01 8(i{r)s ; but it is not
known whether the music of it has been pre-
^prved. The use of the church of Alexandria in
the 4th century is shewn by an account in the
Gcronticon of St. Pambo, abbat of Nitria (apud
Gerbert) ; he h.ad sent a disciple there for some
purpose, and the disciple regretted the ignorance
of singing in the monastery ; ' Air(\66yTos yip
/now iv 'AXefofSpcfif, (liov Tck riynara tt\s
ixKXiitrlai irwi ^i.K\ov<ri, koI ly Ailirp yiyoya
■7roKKr\, 5iot( koi TfixtiS ov '^iWofitv Kav6vas Kol
rpoirdpia " (vide CanON OF Odes). The abbat
thought his disciple departing from primitive
simplicity. From anotlier work of uncertain
date, but of great antiquiiy, preserved by
Gerbert, the Institutio Pati-uin do inodo psaltendi
sire cantandi, we find three kinds of chanting
recognised, according to the nature of the day,
whether a principal festival, a Sunday or saint's
day, or an ordinary day : "Tres ordines meloJiae
in tribus distinctionibus temporum habeamus,
verbi gratia, in praecipuis solempnitatibua
toto corde et ore omnique alTectu devotionis; in
Domiiiicis diebus et majoribus festivitatibus sive
natalitiis sanctorum . . . multo rcmissius ; pri-
vatis autem diebus ita psalmodia modulatur
nocturnis horis, et cantus de die, ut omnes
possent devote psallere et intente cantare sine
strepitu vocis, cum afi'ectu. absque defectu."
And the nature of thi:: chant, as similar to th«
Gregorian chant, appears also: "syllabas, verba,
met rum, in modo et in finem versus, id est,
iuitium, medium, et finem, simul iucipiamus, et
pariterdiiiiittamus. Punctum aequaliter tcneant
omnes. In omni textu lectionis, psalmodiae vel
cantus, accent us sive concentus verborum (in
quantum suppetit facultas) non negligatur, quia
exiude permaxime redolut iutellectus. Scire
debet omnis cantor, quod literae quae iiquescunt
in metrica rite, etiaiu in Neumis musicae ritis
liqu—cunt." 'This last shews that the musical
rhytnm conformed to the poetical, elisions and
erases being made when necessary ; and probably
that the system of one note to a syllable was
adopted ; in this case Neuma (q. v.) would mean
MUSIC
a cadence, and not assume its more usual
meaning.
It does not appear that the early British
church used any music in the services; from
the few remains of the old churches that have
come down to us, it would seem that no provision
was made fur a choir: this is remarkable, so
far as the Cambrian part of the British church is
concerned, since they had an order of bards, and
were skilled in the harp. According to Joha
the deacon, certain singers came with St. Augus-
tine to Canterbury, and the church's song (more
Komano) became known in Kent ; and in several
instances we tind from Bede that exertions were
made to sjiread this ove England. Thus when
St. Paulinus became bishop jf Rochester he left
behind him in the diocese of York a deacon,
James, a skilled musician, who lived at (,'attericlt,
and taught the Uoman or Cantuarian method c(
church song. " Qui, quoniam cantandi in ecclesia
erat peritissimus, . . . etiam magister ecclesi-
asticae cantionis juxta morem Komnnoruin sen
Cantuarioruni multis coejjit exsistere." (licde, ii.
2U.) And the custom of using music in the
church service began to be generally spread
over England at the accession to the see of
Canterbury of archbishop Theodore (a.d. 609).
" Sed et sonos cantandi in ecclesia, quos eatenus
in Cantia tantum noverant, ab hoc tempore per
omnes Anglorum ecclesias discei'e coeperunt;
primusque, excepto Jacobo, . . . cantandi
magister Northanhumbrorura ccclesiis Eddi
cognomento Stephanus fuit, invit.atus de Cantia
a reverendissimo viro Wilfrido" (Bede, iv. 2);
and the archbishop filled up the vacant see of
Kochester by another musician, Putta; " maxirae
modulandi in ecclesia more Romanorum, quein a
discipulis beati papae Gregorii didioerat, perf-
tum" (ibid.): a few years afterwards this bishop
abandoned his see, and having received an
appointment from the bishop of Lichfield of a
('liurch and glebe, propagated church music:
" in ilia solum ecclesia I'eo servienset ubicunque
rogabatur ad docenda ecclesiae carinina diver-
tens." (Bede, iv. 12.) About this time John the
precentor of St. Peter's, Rome, was sent by pope
Agatho, and received by Benedict Biscop into his
monastery at Wearmouth fov the purpose of
teaching church music, and was very much
resorted to. "Non solum autem idem Joannes
ipsius monasterii fratres doceijat, verum de
omnibus peno ejusdem provinciae monasteriis nJ
audiendum eum, qui cantandi erant periti, con-
fluebant. Sed et ipsum per loca, in quibus
docei'i t, muUi invitare curabant." (Bede, iv. 18.)
From this we may fairly infer that the Cantus
Gregorianus soon became naturalised in Englami
so as to create an Anglican tradition of it, of
which there is reason to suppose traces have
descended to this day.
The same ute was professed in France and
Germany, but had become corrupted. Gabriel
Nivers ((|Uoted by Sir John Hawkins, Hist.
Music) asserts that in consequence of pope
Stephen 11. coming to Pepin, king of France, a
number cf singers who hod accompanied him
propagated the church-song in the Gregorian
manner over France generally ; but after the
death of I'epin, the i)urity of the soug was aM
maintained. In consequence, Charlemagne made
an ajiplication to pope Adrian to send experts to
restore the music : this was attended to, tut «
its more usual
MUSIC
,.<-on.l mission of experts had to be made before
tile desired result was accomplislied
. !iisiruments.~\VhiteYer evidence is forth-
coming, IS to the eflect that the eaily Christians
did not use musical instruments. Various causes
would operate: the poverty of a considerab e
portion of the church, the frequency of persecu-
tion, but chiefly the associations, theatri'<^a ami
latent, with which the musical instrument
that were attainable were associated, (v. Dia'
m.,MA) But at a later period, after the disrup-
tion 0. the empire, and the re-organisation of
society such causes not existing to any extent
the leeling against instruments ceased to exist-
>nJwe find that organs were introduced into
c urches and in some cases other instruments
Iso Thus It appears, from the above reference
toGabriel N.vers, that the choir that accompanied
|«|». Stephen II. into France sprea.l over that
country not only the knowledge of the Roman
1 ain-song, but also the use of instruments.
Organs deserve a se])arate notice
//.,.m,,i/._ Whether the ancients were ac-
quainted with harmony has been much disputed :
tne writer, following most of the eminent
nmsicians, is strongly of oj.inion that they were
Dot (t). Canon ok tiik Srini. a„,.».' ,
^ "' ""' ''i.Al.t;. op^oi/io would
appear to mean nothing more than 'true intona-
lioD, or producing successive notes in their
right sound. Seneca has been cited to prove
the contrary. " Xon vides quam multorum
ocibus chorus constet? Unus tamcn ex omni-
bus souus redditur. ^liq„a illic acuta e,st
aliqua gravis, aliqua me.lia. Accedunt viris
feniinae, interi>onuntur tibiae, singulorum latent
y«s, omnium apparent." It would be perfectly
impossible that " one .sound " should be produced
un ersuch circumstances, unless the viices and
."..ruments sung and played in unisons and
«hv.s. n„s passage and others appear in
h|m-kins ILstory, an<l the writer only wishes to
.iJdthat the adoption of the accented symbols
(.mhown above) for notes an octave above the
o.heis.ippears to him proof positive that this is
he tr.,,e meaning of this and similar phra.seolocry'
L, 1 "";" f"^'' ':""''"' «ing together the same
..nd f he"interpo.s,tion-of the tibia is to be
Uq literally the consequence is consecutive
llh» 01 di.scordance, which would be detected
instantly as not ' unus sonus.' ""ecieu
It has been conjectured that the practice of
nacny 01 some kind. i.e. the use of 'two notes
N al vny of the same modern name (A, B, C,
in ;: T""'"™"^'^'- ^°"""' two p'ers'ons
f' Id not alwnj-s sing in unLsons or octaves
r/st^ !"•''""'" ^'■■"'''"^ Cambrensis, who
p.u. the lujl.nving account, and believes (Hawkins
b ,U? h"' ''"i'"'''^"* '•'-■•■'■^"") 'hat t^e Nor h-
h nans obtained it from Denmark or Norwav
» orealibus quoque m,,joris liritanniae partl:
« I ans Humbrum, Ebor.uique Hnibus Ancrlo-
cDdosjmphoniacae utuutur harmonia: binis
; :;! l":^'''' T ""■"■"■' ^"I'murmurante
ne (!.<!. singing 'in two parts'). Nee arte
w^idiutma jam converso, haec vel ilia sibi eeii,
i»c sfccialitatem comj,aravit. Q,.i .n^ .^Z
MUSIC
13G5
u nihil hic simpliciter, ubi multipliciter ut
apud priores, vel saltem dupliciter ut anud
-luenfes, mellite proferri con'sueverit Pu^ ^
otiam (quod magis admirandum) et fere infant bus
(cum ,,rimum a fletibus in «.ntus e um^ i t
eamdem modulatlonem observantibu C
je qu„n,,„„ „,„ generaliter omnes sed bmeafes
do' Sor:"ir™"' "'"k^*" --iniatioiib,',:
cieuo quod a Dacis et Norwacrjensibus on.'
rnrtes illas nsulae frequentius oecup.are et d.'uU i,^
mei 1? :f •"'."'' f'="t loquendi a'tHnitatr, s c
Exiii:) '""'■'"""" -'"-"unt." iaUr
pricentr ''f P "''T''"''. ""''""^ '^''^ ^"^^ the
Time ,nT T' '"■"' "' Wearmouth for some
jectuied that the invention of this kind of
harmony (or ifs introduction info TngI n ) i
d . ■"K^'"l■ ?" "■■■'"^'- "'i''l*» that the s • en
h the ,*;>•,«"•"'''—>• -"oan no more' h™
that the melody was not sung in octaves at
least at the time of John, whatever it mly have
become atterwards. If this be true, the pra t ne
fnH»-'"';K'!"J''':'f' """^ ♦'"■"'^'< he ""ght here
to mention, that Sir F. Ouseley (a good authority
believes harmony to be an invention of the
nor hern fnbes of Europe; but he is not ac
quainted with the evidence for thb, belief and
10 essor Macfarren (Lectures on Harmed ,) cZ.
tiasts the peoples of the South and North in
respect of inventive power of melody and .. "
tT« -Vn • . "■''•' '"'^''"•''*^ ""■ "Pinion that
onsiderr f "■"■' "^^"''""'^J «'ith' harmon •
consider a strong point of evidence to be the
number of voices and instruments collected f !
gether on several public occasions: but a the
writer IS not satisHed with this, he thinks t
tTe'Tearnl^ '':'• '""'T"^ '^^ « discovery f
the learned musicians, who had had the experience
of their predecessors for cenwries, during which
mu7c""anrt" '■^'tl'"'? '""'^ '" *"« --- "^
music, and tha. the invent ve powers of the
people have little to do with if : and in thi
view It is certainlv most likely that s?,nh n
discovery should have been m de, o a leas'
pursued, ch efly at Rome. It is rather dffic^
imagme b..rbaroiis tribes inventing harnionv
while civilised people were ignorant of it and
tudied music all the while. Certainlj toward,
the ninth century, the practice of producing
octaves, fifths, or fouiths simultane«riy wa^
known, and in the former two cases it was
called 'symphonia,' and in the Utter 'di.phonl'
rhe terms 'succentus' and ' concentus ' are also
used as synonymous with 'symphonia.' Regi lo
rumeiisis allows the use .(Lx-mi'us in t'uZ
and hfths but he prohibits diaphony: Hucb dus
acknowledges both. Thus for a 'irmphfnv' J
oc av« and fifths we should have.-iate "^fth
s^S-^'g:S§^^=5:
■g5^^~=H:
> ^>'J'
4T 2
13G6 MUSIVUM OPUS
and for a diaphony of fourths, we should have
The ancients always considered the fourth a
concord; and it is a satisfactory interval in
melody; probably for this reason the exjieriment
of sinrjing in fourths as well as in fifths and
octaves was tried, and found unsatisfactory :
wherefore it was called diiiphony, a term vised
by the ancients as contrai-'/ to auixtpavla. This is
douutless the reason why the fourth is now
considered a dissonance. Harmimy appears to
have extended no further than this before the
time of Guido Aretinus, [J- K- L.]
MUSIVUM OPUS. [Mosaics.]
MUSO, martyr ; commemorated at Neocae-
sarea Jan. 24 (Usuard. Mart.). [C. H.]
MUSTA, martyr; commemorated Ap. 12
{Ilieron. Mart). [C H.]
MUSTACUS, martyr; commemorated at
Kicomedia Keb. 16 {Hia'on. Mart.). [C. H.]
MUSTILA, commemorated Feb. 28 (Hleron.
Mart.). [^- H.]
MUSTIOLA, noble matron, martyr ; comme-
morated at Clausen July 3 (Usuard. Mart.).
MUSTULA (1) Martyr; commemorated at
Rome Feb. 2 {Hicron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; commemorated Ap. 12 {Hieron.
Mart.).
(3) Martyr; commemorated in Mauritania
Oct. 17 {Ili'eron. Mart.). [p. H.]
MUSTULUS, martyr; commemorated at
Rome June 5 {Ilieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
MUTACUS, martyr ; commemorated at Rome
in the cemetery of I'raetextatus May 10 {Hicron.
Mart.). i^- H.]
MUTIANA (1) commemorated at Caesarea
June 8 {Jlieron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; commemorated at Laodicea July
26 (Hicron. Mart. ; Boll. Actu SS. July, vi. ;105).
[C. H.]
MUTIANUS, martyr ; commemorated at
Caesarea Nov. 19 {Hijmn. Mart.). [C. H.]
MUTILATION. [Bodv, Mutilation op
Tin;.]
MYGDONIUS, martyr; commemorated Pec.
28 (Basil. Mcnol.). [C. H.]
MYRON (1) Bishop, "our holy father thau-
jnaturgus," of Crete ; commemnrated Aug. 8
(Basil. Mcnol. ; Boll. Acta ,SS. Aug. ii. 342).'
(2) Presbyter, "holy martyr" at Cyzicus
under Decius ; commemorated Aug. 10 (Basil.
Mcnol.); Dec. 17 (Cu/. JJi/zant. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Aug. iii. 420; Daniel, Cod. Liturij. iv. :it)G).
[C. H.]
MYROPE, martyr at Chios under Decius ;
commemorated .luiy 13 (Basil. Mcnol.; Boll.
Acta SS. July, iii. 482). [C. H.]
MYROPHORI (fj.vpa<pipot). The women who
brought to the Lord's tomb the "spices and
ointments " which they had prepared are so
NABOB
culled in Greek office-books. The third Rundny
after Easter is in the Greek church the ".Sunday
of the Unguent-bearers" (j&v fivpoipipwv).
[C]
MYSTAGOGIA (nvffrayayia) would natu-
rally, mean the conducting or initiating into
my.-.teries. It is, however, commonly used by
the Greek fathers as a term for the sauramenu
themselves, regarded as conducting to higher life.
Thus Chrysostimi uses the word tiv(rrayit>yi» fur
Baptism, up4 ixva raywyla for Holy Commuuidii,
Kpariip rrjs ixvnraywylas for the cup in the
Lord's Supper (Suicer, Thesaurus,s. v.). [C]
MYSTAGOGUS (iJiV(rTaya>y6s) is, as Suilns
has defined it, " a priest, an initiator into mys-
teries." Hence the Lord Himself is described as
acting as Mystagogus to His disciples (Groi;,
Nazianz. Ur'at. 40, p. (i59). And those who
prepared Christians for initiation into the s.icrej
mysteries of the church were called by tliesame
name. Hence the lectures which Cyril of Jeru-
salem addressed to his catechumens, in whith
he expounds the rites to which they were to be
admitted, are called KarrixicfH fivarayayiKal.
[C]
MYSTERY ( lUuiTTflpioi', root nv-, as in
/ivfiv, to shut). A fivar'liptov is properly a riie
to which none but the initiated can be adniitteii.
Hence baptism, to which in early ages men weiu
not commonly admitted without a catechu-
menate of some length ; and the Holy Com-
munion, to which none could be ailmitte'l
without baptism, and of which the most sacrej
portions were concealed from the profane
[DlSCiPLlNA Arcani], naturally came to be
called /ivcrr'ttpta. Thus Chrysostom on St. John
xix. 34 {Horn. 85), speaking of the water and
blood, says that from these are derived the
mysteries of baptism and the Lord's Supper.
Gregory of Nazianzus {Ornt. 39, p. (i.'l'J, fil.
Paris, 1630) calls the ministers of Iwpti.sm
otKOfSfjiOvs ToC /luffTTjplou ; .inil {Oiat. 44, p. 7l;l)
says that Jesus in the upper room partook of
the mystery {Koivwvtt ruv fiuffriipiov). The
Laodicean Council {Cm. 7) provides that ocrtain
heretics, after learning an orthodox creed nnl
being anointed with chrism, should be ndmittel
to the holy mystery {koivoiixTi' t^ fivirrriptti) tv
ayitp [al. ruv fi. tHiv 07.]), )'. c. to the Holy
Communion, for they were already baptizeil. In
later times, however, the word /uuirT^pioKcame to
be applied to niiuiy rites of the church in much
the same way as the Latin Sacrammtnm, mA
the Greek doctors generally reckon the same
number — seven. Compare Saciiamknt. [C]
MYSTIC RECITATION. [Skcrut.]
MYTHOLOGY [Paganism.]
N
NABOR (1). Martyr, commemorated to
Africa, March U (Hicron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr, commemorated at Rome, Ap. 23
{Hicron. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Ap. ill. 165).
(3) Martyr, with Basilides and Cirinus, com'
memorated at Rome June 12 {Hierun. Mcrt. ;
NAB0RU8
Psii.iivl. ,}fart. ; Bed. Afart. ; Boll. A.-ta SS. Jun.
. ii. 'y^i).
(4) Martyr, with Felix, Januniius, Marina ;
commciiinnitej in Africa July lU(//k.rort Mart ■
Usuard. Afart). " '
(6) Martyr with Felix, Eustasus, Antonius ;
comnieinoratej in Sicily July 12. The name also
oivurs oil the same day in fonnexion with Felix,
I'riniitivns, Julius, at Jlllan (J/ierun. Mart.'-
Ui Acta SS. Jul. iii. 2811).
(6) Martyr, commemorated Sejit. 26 {IHeron
Hart.) ^(;_ H.J
NAMRS
1^67
NAB0RU8 (1) Martyr, commemorated in
Africa Ap. 2ii {Illeron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr, commemorated at Alexandria
Ap. '25 {I Heron. Mart.).
(3) Martyr, commemorated at Arecium June 3
(Ilieron. Mart.). n'_ fj -j
NAIIUM,' prophet, commemorated Deo. 1
(ISnsil. Memt.; Cat. Jiytan' ■ Ml. Etlihp.;
liamel, Cod. LUurg. iv. 276). [0. H.]
NAMES (Influknc; Of CiiR;sTUNiTV on).
The oiigiu and meaning of nam-.j, a subject long
regarded as too capricious and arbitrary in cha-
racter to admit of scientific treatment, has re-
ceived considerable elucidation from recent phi-
lolojiical research both in Knglanl and on the
TOQtiiieiit. Very slight investigation suflices to
shcT that religion, whether pagan or Christian,
liirnishes a most valuable clue to such inquiry.'
Tiie present article is restricted to the compara-
tively limited field presented in the nomenclature
of Christian nations during the first eight cen-
Inries, and to an endeavour to determine how
tir that nomenclature was modified or remained
unmodified by Christian influences.
For tills purpose, it will obviously be of
piimary importance to ascertain how'far the
early Christian theory re(iuired from converts
llie assumption of a new name at the ordinance
o: baptism. On this point the evidence is some-
ivhal couHictiug, but generally it would seem
liiit the practice was comparativelv rare until
allir the period of persecution. In the first and
Monil centuries, it is to be remembered, the
anoipiit gentile relations, which transferred to
su adopted member of a gens the pracnomen,
iiBK'n, and coijncmen of his adojitive father
Srailually ceased to exist. So early as the rei>rn
ijl Irajau we find instances in the I-'asti of the
Jsignalion of consuls s.dely by their coqnomina
01 'igiMnma ; aud iu the second and tliird cen-
liiiKs such instances are numerous. Sometimes
» c"nsul is designated only by his co./uomen or
'•inm^'n, and sometimes by all his names. Thus
imiitums colleague in his ninth consulship
t.n. 8.i) appears now as Kufus, and again as
pelilius Kulus; the colleague of I'hiliimus in
ne rciga of Homrius is sometimes Bassus, some-
iineii Amcius Aucheuius liassus. firaduallv
k'Hvover, the Roman form of nomenclature almost
ra.irely disappears ; though even so late as the
O.h century „.e Hnj Fulgentius, the eminent
Aaican bishop, beariu? a!.,, thp n^imes Kubius
Uiu.liiis Gordianus, while Si.lonius, bishop of
wmont, in the preceding century, bore also the
'iirae Apollinaris.
The inHuences that successively determine.l
l«riaian practice, were-Cl) indijfercice, origi-
nating in the causes above mentioned, with regard
to adoption or family names; (2) the f.ecdom
conceded by legislative enactments j (.i) the re-
moval of deterrent considerations such as existed
during the persecuting age; (4) the exi.ress
exhortations of the teachers of the church to a
change of practice ; (.5) the veneration of relics
01 these influences (1) and (J) were shared in
common with paganism, and belong to tlie first
three centuries; (:!) (4) and (5) are connected
with tlie subsequent period onlv.
(1.) The letters of Cyprian illustrate the pre-
valent indifference of his age. In default of
motives like th..se which had formerlv existed in
adopting a Homan name on admission to the
rights of citizenship, the i,rovincial contented
himselt with Latinising his native name. We
find, lor ex.amide, Cyprian referring to a fellow
bishop bv the name of Jubaianus,' a provincial
name with a Roman termination. (Migne, I'atr.
IV. i..y.) In the same correspondence we find
in letters written on behalf of different church
communities, and signed by their leading mem-
bers, names of signataries such as Saturninus
and tehx, repeated with adilition of alter or
^torum alter {Und. iv. 158), where it is evident
that he employment of the nomen ov praenomen
would have ellectually prevented any c'onfusion.
(^0 in the .trd century it was declared lawful
by the state for any citizen to lav aside his
name and assume any other he might wish
Ihis enactment, first promulgated in the rei'^n
of Caracalla (a.D. 212), and sanctioned by Mfc-
ceeding emperors, is thus re-enacted un.ler Dio-
cletian and Maximin:--'Sicut in initio, noniinis
cognominis, praenominis recogn<,scendi singulos
impositio libera est privatis : itu eorum mulatio
mnocentibus periculosa non est. Slutare itaoue
nomen, yel praenoinen sive cognomen sine ali, ua
Iraude licitojure, si liber cs, secundum oa, quae
statuta sunt, minime j.rohiberis : nullo e.t hoc
praejudicio foturo. S. li,. Kal. Jan. A. A. Conss "'
iiSt'm ""' ''■ "' '' ^'^- "^"'■- ^'"''- ^'-''"^'''^•
(3.) Under ordinary circumstances, the Chris-
tian of the first three centuries appears to have
.shared in the prevalent inditlerence with respect
to names, and to have baptized his children with
little regard to the significance of the particular
name bestowed ; the expression of St. Ambrose
that our ancestors were wont to coin names on
definite principles,—'' apudreteres nostros ratione
nomina componebantur " (Migne, xvii 47^ is
confirmed by the language of St. Chrvsost'om,
who .says that the Jews made the names given to
their offspring a means of moral training and an
mcitement to virtue, and bestowed then? not 'is
men did in his day, carelessly and as chance might
dictate, Kai ov KaBiwip ol uvv 07rA£s Kol ij ?tuy€
Toj Tpo<r7)7opfas jroioiVrfi (Jligne, S. G liii
179). It may he observed that this latter passaee"
IS alone sutiicient to discredit the spurious
4, ,. i ,, -■'•■•■.' im; siluriOUS
Aiabian canon of .Nicaea (Mnnsi, Concilia, ii.
961), quoted by Martigny, which represents the
church as having already, in the early part of
the 4th century, forbidden the faithful to crix,
tncir children names other than those distinc-
tively Christian. There is, however, good reason
for inferring that prudential motives also deterre,!
Christians from assuming names significant of
their change of faith, although in times of perse-
cution, when compelled oj.enly to avow their
i\:\AhA
1308
NAMES
I
religion, they nffi-n ohangeil a psgnn for n st-rip-
tiiral namo bel'oie uinieigoiiiw a niiiityi's deiitli.
I'rocopius of Giui\, who wi-otu in tlie first Imlf
ol' tliB nth cfutury, I'ot'crs to this as no iiuoom-
iiion iiriicticiMin'lersucli circiimstHiici's, "Oiif,"
hu says, " calloil himself JhchIi ; aiiutlier, Israel;
another, Jeremiah; another, Isaiah; another,
Daniel; nn't having taken these names they
reailily went forth to martyrdom " (rom/aciit. in
Ijaiii/i, c. +4; Migne, S. (/.' Ixx.xvii. '2401).
(4.) The example and teaching of the fathers
proves that from the earliest times the teachers
of the church did not share in the jirevalent
indillerence. St. Cyprian assumml the name of
Caeoilius in additicm to his own, as an acknow-
ledgment of gratitude to one to whom he oweil
his'oonversion. Knsehi\is took the name of i't//n-
ji/iiH from that of the martyr I'amphiliis, whom
he held in special veneration. It is, liowever, in
tlie 4th century, wiien Christianity had received
state recognition, that we Hrst find evidence of
a desire on the part of the leaders of religions
o])iniou to modify the customary practice. St.
Chrvsostom, in the Homily above quoted, dis-
tinctly censures the prevailing fashion of giving
a child his father's or grandfather's name with-
out regard to the import of the name itself.
Such, he says, was not the custom in aucient
times. Then especial care was taken to give
cuildreu names which should not merely incite
to virtue those who received them, hut also
serve as admonitions to all wisdom (SiSaffwaA/o
(/)iAo(ru((iias ijriirTjs) to others, and even to after
generations. " L':t us not, therefore," he con-
cludes, " give chance names (ris Tvxovtra!
vpoariyopias) to children, nor seek to gratify
fathers, or grandfathers, or those allied by
descent, by giving their names, but rather cho«se
the names of holy men conspicuous for virtue
and for boldness before God." (Migne, S. 0. liii.
179.) At the same time he warns his hearers
against asciil)ing any etticacy to such names, all
justifiable hope on the part of the Christian
being grounded upon an upright life. We find,
from another discourse, that the pr.ictice he re-
commended was already sometimes observed.
The parents of Antioch, he tells us, gave the
name of Meletiiis (an eminent bishop of that
city, who died 381) in preference to any other
name, each thinking thereby to bring the saint
under his own roof (Migne, S. G. 1. 515).
lint notwithstanding some eminent exceptions,
there can be no doulit that, prior to the 4th
century, such practice was rare, a conclusion
supported by the evidence alTorded by the early
Christian epitaphs. T"he Martyrologies also pre-
sent us with many names (as will be seen from
the subjoined lists) which reflect not merely the
secular associations of paganism, but even its
religious culture. Martyrs often encountered
death bearing the names of those very divinities
to whom they refuse to olTer sacrifice. It has,
indeed, been sought to qualify the evidence
derived from Christian epitaphs, by conjecturing
that, in order to prevent confusion, only the
original name was inserted in the inscription,
and that in those instances where we are pre-
sented with .1 socornl name, — e.g., Mvscula quae
et Galatea (ann. ;!8;!, De Hossi, i. 112), Asellus
<pii et Mirlinianvs (Marangoni, Cose Gent. 458),
and in the well-known one of king Ceadwalla,
Jlic (IcpositHs est Ceddivalla qui et l\tnis (liaedae
NAME8
Ffisi. Eeclei. V. 7), — the second name is that cnn,
furred at baptism. Against this theory I,e lilmit,
however, quotes the equally notable instunio
Petnis qui et li.iUuima (Kuinart, Ada Sincem,
p. .^0l). Ilalsanuis, according to the A'tn, i,n
lieing a.sked his name, replied, " Nomine patiis,
IJalsamus dicor, spirituali vero nomine, quod jq
baptismo accepi, I'etrus dicor." Otiier instaaa^,
(?.//., Miirina qifte Joviiia (Marangoni, AcU
San'ti Viit., 88). VUnlis qui et J>iosi:im,s
(Marangoni, Cuse Oent. 4(3.')), C'ln^isi'is ijUi cf
Asrlepiiis (Mai, Coll. Vat. v. 14), where the
second name is directly derived from the |ki','.iu
mythology, are equally adverse to such a theiiv,
(5.) While the customs and associations whii'h
had once given interest and importance t" names
gradually disaiipeared. other circumstances hegan
to invest tlieiii with new significance. Koreinu.st
among these must be placed tlie superstitious
veneration of relics. As the ju'osence of a sup.
poseil fragment of a body of a saint was bolieveil
to secure his jirotection for the locality wluue it
was enshrined, the inhabitants of the distriit
sought to prove their reverence for hlsmemiuv
by assuming his name. In later times, with tlie
adoption by each country of a patron saint, the
same principle became still further exti'nlwl.
St. jkmes (San Diego or I.'igo) in Spain, St.
Andrew in Scotland and Holland, St. Martin in
France, and St, Maurice in Switzerlaul, lue
some of the more notable instances in which a
name (in some cases that of an altogether myth-
ical character) became the favourite national
designation for the individual. In those cmin-
tries which were among the bust to einbi-aie
Christianity, this principle is to be seen yi'*
more wideiv extended. Here the adojition iit
baptLsm of a Christian name was the usual prac-
tice. In the I4th century, I-adislas Jagelldii,
duke of Lithuania, on buioming a convert to the
faith, persuaded many of his subjects to follnw
his example. In consequence of their nuniiii'is
thev were bajitized in companies, the same name
being given to all in one company. All the
men In the first company were named I'etcr,
and all the women Catherine ; in the seconi
company, the names given were l^aul and Mar-
garet ; and so on. (Salverte, i. 171.)
A considerable stimulus to the interest attach-
ing to names was imparted, in the 7th contiiry,
by the chapters on the subject in,the Eti/mohnin
of Isidore of Seville. He taught that all scrip-
tural names had been given with a pregnant
reference to the part or future career of tlie in-
dividual, and in a lengthened onuineratiun as-
signed to each name a meaning (olten erroneous)
expressive of that individual's character or ej-
periences. To the influence of his treatise, we
may attribute the fact that in the 8th centuvy,
with the revival if letters in Krankland, it be-
came a not uncommon practice for men of
eminence to assume a literary alias. Charles
the Great, and many of his courtiers, were al-
dressed in more familiar intercourse, by other
than their baptismal names, scriptural names
being generally adopted. Charles probably was
led to assume the name of David, from the erro-
neous moaning givr-n to it by Isidore "I'ortis
manu, quia forti8,';imus in praeliis fuit." (5 igno,
Ixxxii. S2:i.)
The following lists from Martigny, but veriheil
and augmented, represent two classes ;—(-^.)
NAMES
Ka.mks of Christians deri
IXCIKniRS; (IJ.) NASIliS OF
iSU SirtNiFiCANOi;. Of the
these lists have been prim
critical notice will lie found i
(lip. 841-844) ; see also Cat A
Those wliich rest ol the a\;
Biil'b^tti, or Tenet, must be
CHUlion necessary in relation
taose arcliaeoliigists, but it hi
desiialile to expunge them
must also bo borne in mind
this evidence rests, in not
the assumption of^ the ex
chiir.uter of the Catacombs (
iJn|iteil in Catacomiis, and m
Xorthcote and lirownlow (.
but one liy no means unanimi
A. (o) Under the first hei
ileriid, uiic/iau led, or (>"t sli
the ii-nj'in iH'/t/ioloiji/ : Aleinoi
it)); Al'Ol.lXiS = Ajiollonius
to be met with even in
(Dc Ro,ssi, i. l(ii:i); Apoll
At. S. V. 122); Apol
nesmir. 18:)0-(j); ApoHoni
ilv. Feb.); I'hoehe (Kom.
{.M. S. V. 81!). From Aim
{.Marlnl, A'-ral. fiO,")); APTEN
pi. 78); Bacchus: ISacchiui
nt. 4.').")) ; 6ionysia (Act. ,
{Pi. 87); Liberia (Vignoli,
X\k Uidscmu (AU. S. I'. l:u;
CALUOMi, Calliopa(.l/a/ivr. \
l.'ore.ills, and from Demcter
S. v. 11.")); this name wou
been oifrne by many martyrs i
biimesis (/'). 89); Cinthia(Vi
tills appears as the name of a
the coinniencement of the 5t
(I'ervet, v. p\. 4(3); a mart
anJei- Diocletian (Oct. xxvii,
tiieiiles. Hb;iicuLi-;8: (?) Here
|il. o8) ; Krncles, Kradia (Ac
Heraolldes (Kuinart, p. 121);
S. r. 77); Hevaclius, m. (Oct,
llydas (i* .4 t. S. V.). Janus
38;, 1); Janilla(/). 1886,li),
(.id. S. r. 120); Joviauus(
.lijvinus (Mariui, 3813); Jovit
Olympius ( J.j. ,§. V. 10(>);
he. Velit. 20;!); Olympiade.s,
J«jiiter Am'iion: Ammonius,
fW, jussim). I.kda : Laed
I.icina: l.uclna (/A. 428). 1
(Inn. xxi.); Martianus (Bole
tiiills, .Miirtlnus, Martina, jxii
(July il.). Mkucuiiv: Merci
8i); Mcrcuria (fb. 98); Met
Meicurus (Fahivtti, 551); :
"111.1; .Mercuiilis (Mai, v. 39
(De Kossi, i. 71); Mercurina (
Mercuriiilus (Cancellieri, Ors(
Hkumics: trmes (lioldetti, 4
{Ad. S, V. 72); Krmogenia (
ni.iuy martyrs, Nov. ii,, Mar, i.
{Ikv. X.; Sept, xi,). These
tstiviaely common in the prim
Vartigay conjectures that thei
be a.scnbed to the occurren
(Romans xvi. 14) as that of .
duciples. This supposition is h
NAMES
NAMKS of ClIRIS^riANS DKRIVKD FROM PvOVN
iSCiKmus; (H.) Namics of CiiuisriAN oukiin
isu 8iaNiFiCAN(!i;. Of the works (nm whi.h
thesi) lists have heeii |iriDci|ially C(ini|jile.l, a
crilical mitice will he f.)uii.l umler Inscuii-tions
{|ip. 841-844); .see also Catacom lis, p]). 2!t.')-,'!iiG.
Those which re.-.t du the authority iif Arinslii,
BoMetti, or IVrret, must be aec'eptel wilh the
CHUlion necessary iii I'clation to the researches of
those archaeologists, hut it has not been thought
liesirahle to expunge them from the lists. ° It
must also he b<inie in miml that the value of
this evhlonce rests, in not a few instances, on
the assuni|itiou of the exclusively Christian
character of the Catacombs of Home, — the view
iJojite.l in Catacoiius, ami maintaineil by Mes.srs.
Xorthcote au.l Hrownlow {lioina ^utlerniiiM),
but one by no means unanimotisly. accepted.
A. (a) Under the first head are given mines
itriid, uiicImii leil, or l)"i $lii//ttl;/ tiuxiincd /rwn
the pitij'tn mi/t/iohi/!/ ; .Alcinous (Act. Si'mrt. Vk-t.
?tl); Aionxis = Ajiollonius (1 Cor. xvi. I'J);
to be met with even in the fith century
(Do Rossi, i. miH); Apollinaris (Marangoni,
At S. V. 122) ; Apollinaria (Muratori,
nemnr. 18:i0-t)); ApoHonius {Xfurtj/r. linm.
liv. Feb.); Hioebe (Kom. xvi, 1);' I'ythius
(Ad. S. \: 8;!). From Altriojirs: Artaeniisius
(.Miuioi, ^Imi/. (iO.-)); APTEMEICIA (I'erret, v.
|)l. 78); IlAaiilUS: liaechius (Mari.ngoni, Co.w
tfnt. 45.5); Dionysia (Act. S. V. 11 i); Libera
(/I. 87); Liberia (Vignoli, fuse. Select. ;);U).
Thel)l(iSCURl(J.,l!. S. I'. l:U); Ca.storia (A. 98).
t'ALLioi'K, Calliopa (.)/«/ ii/r. viii. ,Jun.). Ci:ui;3,
Cerealis, and from Demeter, Demetrius (Act.
S. V. 11;')); this name would appear to have
been oiirne by many martyrs (R. 7(il). Diana :
Dianosis (/■). 89) ; Cinthia (Vignoli, .■J;52). Klios:
this appears as the name of a bishop of Aries at
the coinnieucement of the ,5th century ; trotis
(I'emt, V. pi. 46); a martyr in Ca^padocia,
unJer Diocletian (Oct. xxvii.) was named Kro-
tiieiiles, HiiitotJLKS: (?) Heroulanus (I'erret, v.
[il. 58) ; Kraeles, Kradia (Act. S. V. 77, 120) ;
Heiaclides (liuinart, p. 121); HPAKAEIA (Act.
S. V. 77); Hevaclius, m. (Oct. .v.\ii.). Hvoika :
%ias(?i4 -t. S. v.). Janus: Janus (Sluratori,
38M); Janilla(/,. 1886, IS). JufirnR: Jovina
(.\ct. S. V. 120); Joviauus (I'erret, v. pi. 27);
Jovinus (Marini, 38:j); Jovita, m. (Feb. xv.)-
Olympius (/I. <. S. V. 106); Olympia (Car.linali,'
Isc. Velit. 20;i); Olympiades, m. (Apr. i. Dee. i.).
hiiiter Aiicnon : Ammonius, Ammononia (M<tr-
W. /Mssi/H). I.kda: Laeda (JJoldetti, 379)
kci.NA: Lucina (fk 428). Mars: Martia, m.
(im. xxi.); Martianus (Boldetti, 487); Mar-
tiiilis, Martinus, Martina, passim; Martinianus
(July ii.). MioncURV: Mercurius (Act. 8. V.
M); Murcuria (lb. 98); Mercurionus (/6. 4) •
Meicurus (Kabrefti, 5.51); Mercurialis (Way
"iii.i; Mercurilis (Mai, v. 39:!) | Mercurianetis
(l»eKn«i, 1. 71); Mercurlna (Le Blant, \. 74);
Mercuriolus (Cancellieri, Orsa e SimpVc. 18).
HKiiJlra: Lrmes (Boldetti, 483); Ermogcnes,
(Aa. S. V. 72); Krmogenia (lb. 94); Hermes,
mauy martyrs, Nov. ii.. Mar. i. etc. ; Hermogenes
NAJIE8
1369
(Deo.
X. ; Sept. xi.). These last names were
wiemely common in the primitive church, and
Martigny conjectures that their prevalence is to
be ascribed to the occurrence of the name
(Lomnns xvi. 14) as that of one of St. Paul's
ili'i.iijles. This suppoaition it hardly in harmony
j with what we have seen to be tho practice of
I the chuieh at th.it period. Mi.vkkva : Minervia
1 (lioldetti, 41li); Minerviniis (Dec. x.xxi.); Mi-
inervus (Aug. xiv.). Athene: Athenodorus,
martyr in Mesopotamia under Dioc letian (Nov.
xi.); Atheuogencs, bishop of Sebaste, martyr in
the same [ler.seeution (.luly xvi.). I'atUi : I'alla-
dius (Osann. 539, 14) occurs als„ as the
name of a hermit of Nitria, afterwards bishop
of Uelenupolis in Bithynia. Mi;,SAKis: Museu*
(I'erret, V. p'. ,i9). NkmivSIS: Nemesis f Mura-
tori, 1,51,5, 9); Nemesius (Feb. xx.); Neme-
sianus (Sept, 10); Naemisina (De Itossi. i.
272); here, however, De Uo.ssi observes, '-Vol
Kmisina ilefunctae patriam significat, Lmesam
nempe celeberriniain I'hoenices urbem." Nioi'-
tonk: I'osidonius (Le Blant, i. 339). Ni:i!i:its:
Xereus saluted l)y St. I'aul (Kom. xvi. 15). The
Itomau m.artyndogy gives (Feb. xvii., the name
ot a martyr named liomulus. Saturn : Satur-
ninus, extremely c immon in tho primitive church
(Marchi, p. 85; Act. S. V. 82); al.so name of
the reputed founder of the church at Toulou.se,
sent liy Fabianus, bishop of Home; Saturuina
(Act. S. V. 80). A brother of St. Ambrose
bore the name of Sitt'inis. Sir,VA.NUS: At'rican
martyr (Feb. xviii.), bishop of Emessn m. iFeb.
VI.), and many other martyrs. The Mu.seum of
the Lateran (Inscrlpt. class, xviii, n, 17) c.jntains
a marble inscribed with the name Uraxia •
OAerico (Sj/ll. iet. TiisMpt. Romae, 1765) givs
(261) the name of a Christian, derived from that
ot the muse of astronomv, Uranius. Bol.letti
(p. 477) gives the epitaph' of a Christian female
named Vknus. though Maury (Craiiaiices et
Lejeml. de rAnti/uiW/.m) denies th.it'the name
can be found in the Acta, and endeavours to
prove that the St. Venise of Gaul was really the
Venus of antiquity accepted uuder Christian
modes of veneration; we have also Venere
(Marini, 452); Veneriosa (1,6 Blant, i, 117);
Venerius(/ft. ii. 467), also a bishop of Milan
and a hermit in the Island of Palma (.Mav iv ;
Sept. xiii.) ; Venerigine (Oderico. 259). Aphrodite,
Aphrodisias (Act. K V. 97); Aphrodisius, m. at
Alexandria (Apr. xxx.). In Egvpt many Chris-
tians bore the names of the divinities of that
country, though these often receive from writero
or m inscriptions a tireek oi Latin terminal,—
e.g. Scraido from SiiRAi'is (Boldetti, 469); the
Act, of Bcmie of the martyrs uf the Thcbais give
us the names unmodified (Giorgi, Jo MiraciU. S
Cotuthi).
(0) from reii<ivms rites, myuries, and omens
Augurius (Marchi, 39); Auguriuus (Le Blant,
I- 341) ; Augustus (ib. 26) ; Auspicius (Le Blant,
1.342); Desideriu", m. (Mar. xxv.); hxpectatus
((.azzern, /scr. del ''im. 28); Faustinus (Marchi,
,l}[ ''''J."';'"^' "1 (-"^"S- i.); Felix (Act. S. V.
12J); Felicia (I'erret, Ixii. 62); Felicissimus
(lassionei, 118); Felicitas (Perret, v. pi. 3); the
derivatives of these in great number; Firmus
rn. (Feb. xi.); Fiima (Matfei, Mas. Veron. 281)-
Macarius, m. (.Sept. ,5), the Greek form is found
on many marbles; Optatus (I'erret, xv.); Pro-
futai^rus (i6. xli.); Pretiosa (Wiseman, Fabiola,
(y) From numt>ers. Primus, Prima, Primenia
(babretti, 579); Primenius (Do Kossi, i. 206)-
Primigenius (Marini, 96); Secuadus, m. (Jan
IX.); Sccundilla, i.i. (Mar. vii.); Secuadinus
(lerret, 41); lertius, conf, (Dec. vi.); Quartu.<,
Li 1 M
(^ r
V
' ■ in
'i. * V 'H
1.'
Fll
? ', It!
f!
u.
m
I-*;
1370
NAMES
(lisriiilo of til npnatles (Nor. iii.') ; Qimrtimis
{Act. S. V. W'i); Quartina (linM.'tti, 47i");
l^iiiiitilinmis (Do Uossi, i. 2J'.'); giiiiitiH, ni.
(M.iy X.); Sexlus (I'lMiot, Ixii.); St'ptiniiiH (16.
Ixix.); tii'|itimhi8 (i'l. xvii.); Octiiviaiia (Mimiii-
(rniii, Cusv- Ofiit. 4M); Octnviii (Fabrctti, :i".')) ;
()(;taviiis, ni. (N"V. xx.) ; ()i:taviamia(l)e lioissicu,
,Sup/il. xiv.): Nonnosa (Du liossi. i. '.'(»')); Ni>n-
nraiis (1,0 lilaiit, i. lUO; l'<-'<;ia (Ariiii;lii, ii.
iii)'2); C'livliamis, martyr bishoii (.Inly viii.).
(5) Fr.im ciilo'irs. Albainis (.liine, xxl.);
AUmiio (Mariiii, 2G0); Albiiia (Kciiius. W2);
{'.iiiiliilus (I'cnot, xxxvi); Oan.li'la (Do Knssi, i.
:Ut!); C'aii.liiliaim (Doiii, .'■);!9-70) ; Klaviua
(llosio, 4;!;i); Kusca, v. 111. (F>:b. xiii.); l"usoiiliis,
111. (Supt. vi.); Nisriiuis (I.e llliiiit, i. MHH);
Kubioiis (I'assionei, 118); Kul'us (Mai, v. 4U+).
(t) /■V-ciHi iiniiitals. Nanios of this clnns,
already adoptod by pnsani.sni, seem to have
lici'iuiK! niciro coiniiion anuiiig Christians; not
improliably, as Martit;nv sui;gosts, fnuii a »eiiti-
inciit olhuniilitv. A \:i'r (Act. S. V. !• <) ; Aequi-
tius (Odcrii'o, Hi); Ajjnes, v. in. (.laii. xxi. ; Le
Want, ii. 4ri,')); Agnelln (Do Unssi, i. 2'1);
Agnidhis (Doc. xiv.); A(|iiila, m. (Juno xxiii.);
Aqiiilinus, m. (May xvi); Aci'.iilins (Le Want, i.
1,57); Asolla (JoV. ^'. V. IJU); Asolhis (Mallei,
•JSl); Asellicote (Marini, 30 0; .Asollicus (16.
4'2'J); AsoUianus (IJoldotti, 4«7); Asollius (Ma-
lini, 20:1); Asinia (l.npi, Sci-eri m o-ti/ns cfiit'ipli.
102); IViMlisciis, 111. (Mar. iii.); Capra (Uoldetti,
:il!l); Cypriobi (Act.S.V.8:>)\ Capriido(A, 102);
t:apriolo,s (I'orret, v. pi 5); Castoni (Mallei,
'2iU); t'astnria (Do K<!.<si, i. 281); Castonus,
((iriiter, lo.iO, 10); t'astirinus (.■let. 6'. 1'. 1'29);
Castollus (lio.slo, lOG) ; Cataiiuu.s in. (.hily,
XV.); (.'atullira (.KY. N. 1'. i:U) ; (Vrviola (Mai,
V. 424); t'lrviiuis (I.iipi, .<crcri in. epitiph. 173) i
t'orvonia (Marani;"ni, 4r,0) ; Odiiniba, ni. (.Sept.
.wii.), ('ohiinl)iuuis, ete. ; Draoontius (lluoHiur.
Vcti-i, Kill); Daiiialis is perhaps the true form
of Da'.n.uis, a convert of St. Paul at .Athens;
I'oliiula (Kabretti, .■)491 and Faelicla; Formica
(Muratori, 1872, .">); l.eo (l'as-<ionei, 126);
l.oonilla, l.oontia (Mariiii, 188); l.eonteia (li.
Arv. 422); l.oontius (Do lioissieu, Sii/ip/. iv.) ;
I.eoparda (Do Uossi, i. llill); l.oopardus (I'erret,
v. pi. 2(i); lopuscuUis I.oo, those two names
<.f a (diild present tliemsolves iu singular con-
trast on a Konian marble of the year 401 (De
Kossi, i. 22t!); I.upns, m. (t)ct. xiv.); I.upercus
(I'c'rrot, V. 111. 41); l.upicinus (Marini, Arv.
•Jllil); l.uj.ii'us (lloldotti, :iMS) ; l.npula (I.e
Idaiit, i. liSHJ); Melissa (^c;<. S. V. SKi); Morola
(De lioi.s.Mou, 54,")); Merulus, m. (.I.m, xvii.);
Muscula (I'errot, v. pi. ;!.! and 71); Onager
(liol lolti, 45,^) ; I'aluniba (Muratori, IStl'J, 11);
I'aluMiiois (Uoldotti. 4l:l); I'autoris (I'erret, v.
111. 60); I'ardales (De Uossi, i. 218); I'ecus
(Mai, V. 307); I'ecorius (l.upi, 181); I'or-
laria (De Boissiou, Mil); Poreolla (Boldetti,
;;70); INucns, IWcia (Uoldotti, 440); Serpontia
((7>. 482); Soricius (Act. S. V. 163); Taurus
(I'.oldelti, 413); Taurinus (IVrrot, v. pi. 58);
'i'igris (Fabretti, ii. 2^7); Tigridina iHoldetti,
;i4i)); Tigridius (I.e IMaut, i. 20); Tigrinianus
(UuMetii, 41o); Tigriims (Koines. .\.^. 398);
Tigritis(De Kossi, i. 281) ; Tigiius, m. (Jan. xii.) ;
Turdiis (Boldetti, 400); Turtura (De Uossi, i.
423); Ursa (Boldetti, 429); Ursaoins (l.ami, <fe
J.'nkUt. Apost. 36:1); Uisicinus (I'orret, v. pi.
oL^); Ursulus (Mariui, Alb. 103); Ursula, v. m.
NAMES
(Oct. 21); Ursnn (Boldetti, 308); Vitolla (IW.
lari, ii. 127); Vitollinnus (Mallei, 4H1). M;iny
of those names owe (heir prosorvalion to th'o
fact of their having been borne by iii<irtip\!, .\
stono engraved by Macarius (Hniioiil. lidii) ^\yt.^
us the name hlX0TCA from I'vfli'.s, a li»h
(IXOfC). As if to leave no duubt that th^!
signiticanoo of the name was pror,ont to tho
minds of those t" whom the boaror was l<iwi\vii,
we sometimes find, side by side, a lignro df the
animal delineated. Thus the name of ruro'lja
is accompanieil by a design of a young sow (lln|.
detti, ,370) ; that of Dracontius (t .. 3Kt;) liy ihut
of a serpent; that of Onager (t">. 428) by that ct'
annss; th it of Caprioles by that of a yiiiis;
goat ; that of Turtura, by two turtles (Mai, v.
461); that of Aquilius, by two oaglos (lie
Boissiou, 602). Over tho tomb of a IVnide
Christian named A(|uilina (Boldetti, 397) tliore
is the ri'presontatioD of a Hying eagle; while on
the marble of I'ontius Leo, in the corridor el'
tho Vatican, there is the figure of a lion. Signs
of another description aro used iu the same
\J U
way. The following is one which can only be
explained thus: gknI';tiilia ivoati coivoi ix
I'ACi;. This inscription is accompanied by a
design (see woodcut) evidently intonvlod 'or .1
yoiio, in ullusiou to the name of the husbaml,
Jugas.
(f) Names relating to /l.;n'<'i(/<(()V.— Agellus
(De Bois-ieu, .'<uppl. xxiv. ; (ia/./.era, 21); Agrl-
cia (De Boissiou, 662); Agricola, m. (Dee. iii.);
Arator, bii. (Le Blant, ii. 407); Aniieiitaiius,
bp. (.Ian. XXX.); Cepasns, Cepasia (.M.S. V.»\,
112), the onion was considered a sacred plant by
the F.gvptians; Ceimla (JIarangoni, Cofo di-n:.
467); Ceroalis (Boldetti, 300); Cicerciila (Ma-
rini, An\ 827); Citrasius (Uobletti, 407); I'ii-
bius (rerret, v. pi. 41); Fructuosiis, in. (,lan,
xxi.); Fructulus (Feb. xviii.); Frumontiiis, bp.
(Oct. xxvii.) ; Georgius, saint and martyr, in
the last i^orsecution; Hortulanus, bp. in Africa
(Nov. xxviii.); Laurinia, Laniontius (.l/. .S'. I.
85); Olibio (oliva. Boldetti, 82); Oliva, vir
(.hiiic iii.); I'aliiiatius, m. (May x.); I'astor
(Marini, Arc. 266); Piperusa (i'l, 492); I'i-
periou, m. at Alexandria (Mar. xi.); Uusticus,
Kustica (Martyrol. prissim); Silvauus, Silvana
(De Boissiou, 138); Silvia (I.e Blant, i. ;!0:!);
Silbina (Boldetti, 492); Stercorins (hiliictti,
682); Stercoria (Marchi, tav. xv.); CTF.PKOPl
(Boldetti, 377) ; these last names are l're(pitMitly
to be met with on the tombs of Christiaus. but
scircely ever on those of pagans, and probab.y
cmbodv a sentiment similar to that espressiHl v
St. Paiil (1 Cor. iv. 13), and a souse of the public
(dilocjuv to which Christians wore at this time
exiiosed. Theresa, wife of Paulinos, the Inful
„f J, .,me; Tilia (Act. S. V. 01); VenantiiH
(Le Blant, i. 117); Vi.idemialis (MalVi, ,ia8 »);
also m. bp. under Hunneric (Greg. Tur, mt-
J-'r. ii. 3).
(71) IVom Koirers.— Amaranthus (Slarangnni,
12); Balsamia (Odoiico. 34ii); Corona, m.
40
(May xiv.); Florus, m. (Dec, xxii.);
flora (1)9
NAMES
B<il»Jieii, 30; Kloroiitiiis (Maiiiii, Arv 171)-
Floifntioii (I',.riet, v. pi. 54); Kli.iciilinus (Act.
' S. V. 12..); KliiiiilH, Kloris (»■/). 8:.); Klciiux, in.
(Oct. xxvii.); Klo.H, m. (Dw. xx.xi.); l'l„,s(iilu.s,
1>|). (Hel). II.); a chil.l martyr in thu roii;ii of
Viileriau bore the iliminiitive Klocx'lhis ; I.aininiii
(Ad. S. V. 8.')); I.iliosa, ni. at Conlova (.liilv
jxvii.); Mellitii.s(A<..S. V. lOu); Nari'issiis, in.
(Sept. xvii); Kosa, v. (.Sept. iv.); Hosariu.^ (Do
liossi, I. n. !);!0); Ko.seta (Marnngoni, CW (lent.
♦M); Uosius, tonf. (Sept. i.) j Kusula (.Sept.
lie.).
(0) From ./(!i»c/.<.— Chry.saiithns, hiisliaml of
St. Daria; Margaret {fxapyatiiT-ns) vir. ni. of
Antiiieh; Sapj.hira, this entirely sliuiiued by
Christians; .Sniarai,'ilus, ni.
(i) J'hiin mivitiino or miHtiiri/ life. — Svinliols
and names of the former class were ailo|ile(l bv
I'tiri.slians iu the (irst asjes of the chiircli, pre-
ceilcnta beiUR allbnleJ by the New Testament.
ArmiKer (lliibner, n. 7); Enierentiana, ni •
Mariims (liosio, 5G4) ; JIariiia (Mallei, 'JOM)'
Mariiimus (Kabretti, viii. 5) ; Maritima (lieines!
XI. 44:1); iNabira, ac(Mjmpanieil bv the (li.^ij;ii of
aship(liol(ietti, ;)7:i)i Naiieello (A. 4H.-|); Siu,-
ti(:u.s(Arintchi, ii. 201); Navalis, ni. (Dee. xvi.) ;
.Navina (De Kossi, i. 40); iVavigia, iNaviiriiis
(.Muratori, 1924, 1997); Nautico (liosio, ,',(iii)-
Navii'ius (Doni, xx. U4); I'elairia (liosio, 21.))!
This name also occurs in au iuscrijilion !,'iven by
Marant'oni, " I'elagiao Kestitutae Kiliae'" {Act.
K V. 107), with a fish between two ancliors
Ma!;io (Bosio, fto?); l'ela>;ius (Marchi, Id.i)-
I'elaciauus (Kabretti, ,'•,49); Scutariiis, bp (!,'
blant, i. :J4ti) ; Sii^arius, ,St. (.'-. i. 49) ; Thalasia
(i'l. i. 147); Tliala,ssua (Ueines. xx. .iU.'.); Tlia-
la>>iae (Spun, MisccU. 232) ; Talassobo (Bosio,
(k) From nicers.—Cviims (lioKletti, .'iO") •
loachus (Kabretti, 548); Jonlanis (Muratori'
1972); .N'llus (;6.); Uo.lane, 'm. of Lyons; Ko-
danus (Jiai, v. 401-8); Si.iuan.'j, name of a
fi'iiiaJe Christian whose titulus was discuvered in
tlicyuartier St. Just, at Lyons (De Boissie.i
■iii7). The church of Kvreux celebrates on ,lau'
1X11. a martyr of the name of Orontius, who
lurtcre;! umler Diocletian.
(A) I'rwii C unfrUsa7id Cities.— Afra, m (Jlav
HIV.); Arricanu.s, m. (April .x); Africa (lliibner,
B. -1); Alexamlria (Bobletti, 484); Araba, m
(.Mar .VIM.); Aus,.nia, m. of Lyons; Barbara!
m. ot hehopolis; t'alceilonius (Act. .v V iu8)-
XAAKH^ONIC (Kabretti, 5H2J ; Creticu; (BoU
d..(ti, 4111); Cyprianu.s, bp. of Carthage, n.
5>'|.I.XMg; Daciana (Mallei, 179); Dalmatia
(l.e Bant, „. 144); Dalmatius (D'Ai,nn,„.u-t,
111. ;0; Danlanius (Le Blant, i. :i49)i (ialatia
(l'f"t'i.Hu8);(Jaramantiu.s; from a country
in Libya Mo<. S. V. 82) ; Germanus, St., opponent
lelagms; Galla (Le Blant, i. iiO.i) ; Gra.cinia
Boissieu, .s» ,/,/. 28) ; Heraclia (l.upi, ii.) ; Italia
Pe hoia. PolU. ICcl. iv. 1,V2); Lko'dicia' (Mai
f.4.)0; Ligur.us (Keines. el. xx. 11.^); Libya
M;'"'~-"M/r,""''>' '-y-'ia (A'=t.s, XV. 19)
KKr';""-f 10 '*';';'""'' '*'^)' M««"i.inius (d^
Kossi 1. oilO); Maura (Lo Blant, i. 382); Mauri-
Z,'. P '.'' ■*"•' i /'^'■""■"«. J>.sciple of St. Bene-
te; 1 artenope (Perret, xx. 82); I'elusius, m. at
Aexanjria (Apr. vii.) ; Pausilippus, m. ,Apr.
«ouei, 124); POMANOC (Mus. Later. In.crip.
«^». ^vm. 8); Sabian, m. (Aug. .xix.); Subi
NAMES
1871
nianus, m (Jan. xxix.); Sabinus, m. (Jan. xxt.
mill loMetti, ,^,45); Sabinilla (Mai, v. 477)-
habinilius (De Kossi, L 2.ii;); Samuiu., (BoLletti!
;;.t4); Salonice (./,. 419); Sebastlann.s, from
bebas OS, the Greek cjuivalent for AuRustus.
P';"l«il.ly prior to the assumption of the title by
I loeletian nn.l his colleague, but fre,|uent in the
Mai-tyro ogy. hepianus (.Sept. xix.); Si.b.nia
(i "Metli, 481); Te.s.salius (Bobletti, 41.)). TuZ
salomca m. (Nov. 7); Tiburtius (Mamachi, ii.
2.0); Irajaniis, bp. of Saintes (Greg. Tur. <fe
Wor Co«;. c. hx.): Transpa.lanus (Mai, v. 408)-
lioadius, ni. at Neo-Gaesarea in I'ontus (V.JS
Nyss ,1, Act. (Ire.,,. Thnum.); Tuscula (BoUetti,
4.11.); Urbanus, greeted by St. Paul.
42 i Made,, 288; Marini, Jr,,. 5oG) ; Dec uibe;
larangoni, O,,,, (,„,,. 4^) . ^rkEMBPOC
(I erret, V. p . 77); Decembrina (Bobletti, ;)89) ;
tebnianos (Le Blant, i. ;i24): Januaria (Mariiii
((a era App..,,. „.), ,,,.„onrinus (Kabretti,
^•.); Jnhus Manni, yv,/«W., 301); Junia
(lerret, v. pi 40) ; Junianus (ib. v. ,d, ;i"w
Kalendiiis (Bo detfi, 490); Marius (Mar hi, 91 ;'
Marlius (,',. 410); October (Act. 8. V 92)
Balbina 'V-n-et v pi. 29); Capito, m. (July
21); Calli.sus, Callista (Oct. xiv. ; Sept. ii ) •
U-.,sp,nu,s (Perret, vi. l.Vi); Crispis, m. (Oct'
(Miiini, Alh. .!2); huchari.stus (Mai, v ;i7(!l.
tlI:itui'';?M^';'"'^'"' '• •■-^^); t;-har."st'"n' •
' f-\' *''■;""«. "I- (April xvi.); Longina
(BoMetfi, 47..); Pulcheria, v. m. (Sept. x ) •
Venustus(May vi.); Venustianus, m. (Dec. xxx )'
(0 Uplljm,, mental or moral ,,ual,ties (very
numerous . Agathon, m. (Dec. xvi .) ; Amandins
Amator (Hubnor, n. 171); derivative,,' from aii^
seem to have been especially in favour with the
A,.sto(De KOS.S,, . I60,; Buna (Bobletti ;i81
omfacusm. under Diocletian (Kninart 284
lonosus (Campin., Vet Man. i. 275); Bonus
tandidus, Und.da (Martyrol. m^im) ; C.Ji.
>ima (De Kossi, i. 44); Casta (Mai, v. 425).
Usfnus (Act. J. V. 82); Ca.stns ' (Boldetti,'
^ll V, ="•"■'' f: «^»' ^V. of Nantes ,^rd cenl
frt^'rh 'T' ^"^r- ''; *'• «^)' t;iementla«„s
(''. l.)2); Concordia (Le Blant, i. 344)- Con
sUmiMMarini. .m.^i,);Constnntius :,.^:S
h;s A' S"""""" "«"». with the adjunct Venera-
b.s(Le Blant, ,. 177); Credula,n.. (Kuinnrt.
201); Crescens, companion of St. I'anl • De-en-
.us (Boldetti, H45); Digna (,7, 492) , DiVnl U
16. 4 o); Dignantius (Le Blant, i. ,S.^,o)';Dul" ta
(U Blant, ,.. .58)5 Oulc.tudo (Bolde i, 41 "
(leriet, \. p|. 21.;; Hnmus (Art. 6' V yyA^.
torlissima (Marini, 4.^;i); Kulgen.s, Kulgentius'
aivl the diminutive Fulgentillia i^ Kom, n ^I
scription ot year 38,^ (De Kossi, L l,^.',); Gauden-
....s m^(Ku.nart, 2oi); Generose (Mimaehi M.
24.i); Generosu.s, Gpn.^ro»:, (M:,rtvrol. j^^im).
Grara, V m. (May i.); Gratinianus, m , nd ;
Uec.ns(Junei.); Gratu.s, m. (Dec. v.) Hidoni as
Oder,co.349); Hilaiius, bp.\f Poiti'ers h" no
rata (De Bmssieu, 47); Honoratus, bp. of Milan
(Feb. vi.,. ; Llospitius (Mav xii.)*^^ L Lua
(Sterner, 84'..)| Inuocentia (Buldotti, 79); T«^
r 'in
137
NAMES
eoiitiiiii (I'urret, v. |)1. 37) ; Inimcpntiin! (pnnaini);
Jiistii, .liistuit (Miirini. I'lip. 'M); .lll^tilla
(I'eri'i't, V. |j1. ,'):1); Kathiiiinn, v. ni. of AK'X-
aiiiliiii; \,wlm (l-c lUuiit, ii. .Vl\); I-uininiii-us
for l.niiiiiicnus (l»« KoHsi. i. 4iiit); Moilusliis, m. ;
Noliilis (l)n lloissiou, a U); I'utii'iu. I)|i. of l.ynm;
I'n'tinsH (,U« Ko»»i, i. Jl )); I'li'li'ii", rii'li'iitiiiMii
(Miuatoii, l«r)+); rrolms, m. ; l'ioi-o|iius, in.
miller l)iocli'tiiui ; Koveroin (Oilcrico, ;)4) ;
Siinctus, Suiictiniis (Miiratori, l!iH."i, l.l);Solio-
liislirii, .sistm- of St. licuHilict ; Si'ilatiis (.Slciiier,
b.Ui); SiTi'ima (llosio, .'>;)1); Si'vcnis (Marchi,
».)); Siiii|ilioiui (iV). 27); IIMUAHKIA (Act. K
V. 71): Stuiiuiitiun (Miiiatori, l'.i(i7); Urbana
(Hilmt!!-, 11. IIJ); VcuoraiuliK (Marini. J'lifi.
3:t.'); Vura (IVrrot, V. |il. (i'2); Vtrus (,'lt<. .V. V.
8.7); Viiiruii.la (IVnet, v. p. .'>!); Viijilantius
(1'asi.ioiK'i, I:;.')); Viri.s>iniiis (lioMulti, 4;U).
(o) liidicatiw of rorvila cuwlitinn ur extraction.
Tlic sod to which Jliiuicius I'V'lix rofi.'is (c. 8 ;
Jlijjnt!, iii. ■J.MOa.s "latobnisa et lurifui;a.x natio,"
apiiears to huvu inchuioci iiimiy of tho servile
class, thoiiijh, vvhi'ie the master himself beoanie
a convert to Christianity, their enfranchisement
almost necessarily folliiweil. Tertulli.in, in ad-
cliicinsj exani|iles to shew how ineHi'ctual was the
reformation of character that fnllowoit upon eon-
version to protect the Christian from the odium
Bttachiug to the naini", takes as one of his in-
stanres the converted slave (.;l;)o/. c. 8 J Migne,
i. 281). [SuvKitr.]
Two martyrs bearinjf the name of Servus suf-
fered under llunnerii: iu the ;"ith century; one
at Carthage (Aug. xvii.), the other at Tiliur (Dec.
vii). In the Uonian Martyr(doj;y we linil Ser-
vilius(Miiy xxiv.)Servilianus, a m. under Trajan
(Apr. x.\.), and Servuhis, a m. at Adrumetum
(Keb. xxi.). This last name also occurs on a lioman
niarble of the year 424 (l)e Kossi, i. 277). Other
ex:imp;es are bcrnacle (IScddetti, if^y); Hei,.acla
(hibretti, viii. 140) for Vernacla; Vcrna (Mnlfei,
3.')8); Vernacia {Act. S. V. I).')); Vernacla (Le
Blant, i. UH); Vern.icolo (Hosio, 4m8); Verna-
ciila (boidetti, 54); Serbulus (Reines. 987);
Servili.inus (Mai, v. 40ij); Servuli (liosio, 21:1).
(ir) Diiniiiiitives, expressive of endearment, and
chielly bestowed on females, are common to pa-
gan and Christian usa^e. Aujjustula (Marchi,
30); Capriola (,1'eriet, v. pi. i.')); Castula (l)oni.
XI. ill); Catulliua (ylci. S. V. i:U); Fabiola
(l)e Kossi, i. :S.l4), (1. 4.')2, conseiiuently not the
Fabiola praised by Jerome; b'elcicda (I'erret, v.
pi. 07); t'ornicula (lioldetti, 54,^); Kortunula
(A't. ■•^. I. 94); the tomb of a young female in
the year 444 gives the diminutive Gemmula (l)e
Rossi, i. 31:!); Miisc'ila (ib. 112); U..sula, m.
(Sept. xiv.); Sanctula (Stein, 8:i.">) ; Serenilla
(lioldetti, ilti.'i); Silviida (l)e U<issi, i. 2:!.'i).
Examples of abnormal forms of inflexion some-
times occur: as Juliiiii?nis for Julinnno, Zozi-
mcnti for Zosiniae. We also lind Irenetis, Ispetis,
Leopardetis, etc. (Lupi, ^Vl•cr. m. Kpituph. I.j7).
These latter tbrms, however, occur as early as
the commeuccmeut of the Kmpire, examples being_
found of the time of Claudius and even in that of
Augustus (Caredoni, Cimit. 157).
(fi) Names .if Msti/i-icai ccicbrii;/ frequenliy
occur, especially in the Acta Martirmn: Agrip-
pina an ago<l m. under Vilerian (May xxiv.);
Alexander (Martyrol. pi(ssim); Amphion, bp. in
Cilicia. conf. under Maximin (.lune xii.); Amulius
(Uoldetti, 470) ; Annon, bp. of Cologne (Dec. iv.) ;
NAMES
Antignnius, m. at Uomo (Keb. ixvii.); Antioch:!,
m. at Scbaste (.luly xv.); Autoiiius. /iks^iVh ;
ApolleH, one of the earliest converts |lt'imiio.i
xvi. 1(1); ArcailiuH (.Ian. xii.); .\rchelaiis (ll.ir.
iv.); Augustus, m. in Niconiedia(May vii); Cato
(l,e Want, i. -VM); Cesar (i'.. i. ;i44); Coiirlus
(ih. i. 72); Corni'lia (i''/. i. Mit) ; Darius, ni. Ju
Nicaea (Dec. ix.); Demetrius, pa-t.^iiii ; |i<ini)-
critus, m. (.July xxxi.); Diochw, m. in Istrla
(May xxiv.); !>iomedes, ui. in Laoilicea(Si|jt. vi );
iJomitianus, deacon, m. at Ancyra (Dee, xxviii.);
Kpictetus, m. (Aug. xxii.); Kabius, ni. nt C'liesa-
rea (.luly xxxi.); Klaviiis, Klavia (Miiy vii.,
Oct, v.); Iladrianus, m. at Caesarea (Miiy v.);
Hernclius, iiuisiin; Juliana, in ; Juli:iniis (Ue
Kossi, i. 500); Narses, ni. in Persia under .Supor;
Orestes, in. under Diocletian (Nov. ix.) ; Olmijia,
wife id' the emperor I'hilip ; I'atroc lus (I.e lllant,
ii. 410); I'eleuH, bp. ni. in I'boeii.c in, luulur
Diocletian (Keb. xx.); I'hiladelphiis, in. (.May x.);
I'lato, ni. at Ancyra (July xxii.); I'lulaithus,
m. (June xxviii.) I'onipeius, bp. of I'aviii (|)ec.
xiv.); I'oppaea (Uoldetti, MOI); I'toleniieiis,
Holdier in Alexandria, m. (Dec. x.); I'yriis (llol-
detti, 415); Satyrus (Do Ko.shi, i. I'.IH);' Seliucus,
m. (K«b. xvi.); Socrate.s, in. (Apr. xis.); flie.
mistocles, m. in I.ycia, under Decius (l)ic, xxi,);
Theodosius, ni. (Mar. xxvi.); Thraseas, lip. -n. at
Smyrna (Oct. v.); Tiberius, m. under Diinieiiau,
(Nov. x.) ; Timolaus, m. at Cae.^area, uulir tliu
same (Mar. xxiv.); Titu.s, disciple of St, I'aul;
al.so ni. at Rome (Aug. xvi.); Vakns, bii. m.
(May xxi.); three martyrs bearing the ii,iiiie.< ef
three Roman einiierors, Valerianus, Maiiiniis,
and Gordianu.s, sulfered at Nyon iu Swilzeilaml;
but nothing is known respecting them. Ijeynml
the fact of their niartyrdoin. Varus, si. Idler, in,
uuder Maximin (Oct. xix.); Vergilius (l)i: Hnssi,
i. l'J5); Volusiauus, bp. of Tours in the tiineof
Childeric, son of Clovis (Oreg. Tur. 1/i.^t. I'lvnc.
ii. 20).
B. NaMM of CillilSTIAN OUIQIN AND .SlO-
NlKICA.NCl';.
(a) Tiioae derived exclusively from C/iristlan
doc: rine.
Aeternalis, found on an ancient marble at
Vienne, suppo.sed by Martigny to be thi; noly
instance of this as a proper name; lliibner,
however (n. 25) gives another example I'lniiiil nt
Emerita in l.usitania. Anastasia (I'ernt. v. pi.
01); Auastasius (Uoldetti. 30;i); Athauii-sia,
Athanasius (Martyrol. passim, but alniH.st en-
tirely confined to Italy); (Christianas. (.'hiisteU,
m. (Oct, xxvii.); Christinus, Chri.stnphurus
(July XXV.); Aiiuisita(.(lc<. iS. r. 12:1): liuleinpla
(Lupi, 185; De Ho.ssi, i. 150); PEiiKMnTA
lAct.S. v. 109); Kedemptius (Viirmi;,:lii>li, /scr.
yVm/. 589); Kedemptus (l.upi, i'». lM;(iii/:zera,
10; be Uoissieu, Append. M) ; Keparatus (.Nico-
lai, 2:!2). With ret'ereuco to spiritual salvatiun ;
Salutia (Bosio, 532); Salvias (.Ian. xi.); Soteiis
{Act. S. v. 91). With reference to I're.le.tina-
tiou: Prelecta (De Rossi, i. 597); PEKEHTOC,
Receptus (Arinehi, iv. 37, p. 121). Kderriug
to the new birth and adoption by baptism:
Adepta (De Boi.ssieu, 534); Uenata (Ad. S. V.
81); Kcalitutua (Uoldetti, I'.O'.t), this la.st bein;;
of frequent occurrence in the Martyrulogy.
With reference to the spiritual life: Viveutiuj
(Act. S. V. 106); Vivianus (ib. 134; Vitalis
(ib. 88); Vitnlissimus (ib. 123); Zoe (i: 129);
ZflTIKE (Osaun. 441, 119)-, ReiVigeiius (Ue
NAMES
R.HM, I 88); nof,lgeim(Il„l,|e(H, 2Sfi-7) Pnu.
^;^'::^^ ^'^ >^ r,u.L r.,^ ^,^::iza:
(/9) /•',•,.,« Feslivah and Kites of the Chnroh
EiPii-li'ui,. Ml. „n,|.,' W,„k.tia.,(,J,riv xii) Kni
empcr.r Hem,.!,,,, I. ,v,h cnllo.l K„i,,|„„,i' / '
was l,...o,,h«„,„): N,.taliH, N«t„li„, ,„. (.luy
xxvM.); Nuti.li.s (Ii„|,|,.,ti, 49J)j IWa la (|u
Jl) PascjiNUH (A't. H r iiVh\. I. ,'
(Xin,lai, y/„,„y. li H. I- 2 10) /.„.,. ''"■'''""'
(M;.i'. XX.); l'.nl(..,'ia (Mimii. IVW f.v iii C'
NAMES
1373
Sablmtius(|.assio,,d ^l/i) jSaM;,;;;; ^'^ Zsf\[
8(); >"l>l'iitu.s(li„|,|i..tti, 4f»i)) '' ' '•
(7) Maitynl,,,,,, f,,.,,, tho v«nomtion which it
crnnnin,.!.,!, .,,„,, i,„m,„a Christlann to „ I,,, t
he nana, ot th., ,,„|I„,er,; while th. g „„,';'
<er,n gave ri.so t„ th... „amo MartvHus or
>l.rtyna(L.,p,, 82,«,.uter, ,„liii, ;);■«.„
go I, et...) Martigny o,,,,,,,,.™ with tliis t?o
widcsprea.) na.ne «f Tou^.aiut (All Saiut») in
moderu turn's. ^ "uioy m
(5) /V™. CTniiim .,><«<.,. Amonif those
Agu,.em.,llr..u„,with their nerivativ,,,, „,..,, f
.»,,ec,«lly frequent occurrence, the latter bcin^
ct^en borne by the Kastern i.nprcs.ser Tl^y
1 fresco Ironi the cemeterv of St M ,. n- !
p...eo>ottari,..;)they';j^.LrL'i::'j;:Xf
withahgurntn-enllu.ion to the heavenly fds
thercm ,ie,„cte,l, but they are al«, to be toun
by Le lilant (i. 40) gives tho eiM'taiih of a
Lyon„e.se merchant with the nan,e'of VLrapus-
b.i "si'i^f •^?">^'-""-^^:
cj;S!:';ir^:™t;-^;;,;::-;f;^^u..e
a one l.imily (!)« |{os.si, ixerc 19). Tl,,.
Koman Martyrology (Aug. i.) recor.l th, c
unaei H ,lna„ Passionoi (118, 47) has the
qotaph of a Christian la.ly „a,ne I Fi,!, s Th'
J.-.t wife of Hoethius wa^, ac'r'llnr "o tra
^t.on a Jau,i,-hter of the consul Kestus ]Z
b<,re the name of KIpis. The bisho, ^f he
,|iHu a !•. I i,|ephnrus, are to be met with
pesma (yprian, ^/..-^^ x.vi.. Mi^mo iv 281 •'
n-emorates Dec. xvi. Brotherly love i ex pre le i
!> >;uu, V. pi. di; J Aromatia (Matiei,
270)! Benedictiis ; Cyrict.., (Aet. S. V anu
^?;r.;::;:;i,^:::lt'^ia- - [^^
reference to the phrase fre,,„'ent in Chili „
«anc.:..a^.uo.i,,.5:i2);s,:;et.:;:;s"i!i, u
4.l..)| S,ph,a, hr.st u.lro,luc.,Hl fron. the ,k.,lic«.
"not the newly.erect.,1 church at Con iti-
■> I'le, was «ub,se.iuently adop,e.l by the n" of
J».>tinmn'» con.sort ; it af 'erwar, s be.amo „
;""' ""''; y ">nong the Slavonic nations : Vera
(l.e lilant „. 2,(4); Vitalis (Do Hos.i, i"^ '2)
Derivatives from 9,rf, ,]■, freouent : mam.
however, appear to have been tran'snii t'e, 1 „'
imganism. Theophilus was the name of ■. r, I
i:M::ei]tt'r^"""*'^-"'"""'«'"^^3
.11 11 1 ^ • '■"'"^ '"""' evidentlv have been
VI. 1.(2), an,l ulso as borne by two martyrs of
.^rtr'trit^r '•"*-■'"■ ''^■' ^"' ^"'-^'^'trwho
at lust toolj It for a projier name in the inJcrii,
l»n ou a tomb in the 'cemetery of St 3
textatus, subsequently foun,l .ho word, im
ue.sse,l with a seal on' tho cement oTlLZ
■n the cemetery of St. Amies— a (It It ^
wouM seem to imi.lv thlt it **""
,„ , "iipiy mat it was customary to
aup them on the tombs. AncUlu U. i, ZVd-
'■><; to De licss, (i. l;i:,), was also a pmner „\me .
and an inscription of the year ^i^^w'^ll
Qu,Mt vult Jiens (,4. -JU). This latter is i , un
f'-equent ,n the earlier centuries, and wa bom
thJ »■• '".'''"I'' " ™'»t'=>"l«'>ary of AiLn.s-
%']'. ""'^"'''' ("• ^) gives the singular urn e
I)c;domH,. A marble at Naples bears an u "r o
■ou with the name lAM Aus (F.ibr a 70 '
1 he first Sa.xon archbishop was called iM/u
Haddan and Stubbs, CWc-. iii. 99). riN^'-P
s■^«ly Christian, suggest their probable aduotiou
'rmn a conception of the Chrisliau life ti , n
ot warfare: liellator (.Ic/ S K 9 n • i .»
fMarini J.in . <-■ V^'"- »3. f-J-i); fortissima
btshops ; V ictor (Boldetti. 807) ; Victora 'errj
O) nt ^^i' • "i'oT^l'':'-^' ^-SS); Victorianu
Vt 'r'(Hu W ' n'^'8)''-"^Vi't'"--^''r '''>■'
conf. undel jS (Aug ' vS ''''vi'u L'" ""'
m Afnca (Dec. xviii'); f'inc'n^a' ( • rre "' Z'
2b)i Vtacentiu, (De Uossi, i. 217\ IIUbLi'i
1374
NAMES
42); Vini'iMitm (nikk) (lii'iiioaius, cl. XX. 221);
Viltoria (I'orrot, v. pi. M). „, . , ,
(t|) Oilier tiiimes exprosn the CliiHtinn joy
ami aasuranoa in thu miJst of trilnilatiou ;
Ueatui (I'enet, r.i)); Caelestinu.s (i)e Ko'^si, i.
7J); KxillaiMtus (ibiit. 1. :>.V.^); Kclix, Kulicio
(Mai-lni, AI'k 110, ^i!); Koli.i-simus (yl •<. S. V.
91) J Ficl.'iicius (Le lilant, ii. ir)); Oau^lonti.iliH
(i6 i. 30t); Giiiiilontius, Gauiliiwvu (Kabretli,
iv. 46); llilarn (Marolii, f>.'!) ; lliliirin, llilaiitas
(lioKlotti, ;tli7, 4u7)i llilarius (Martyrol. ;> miin) ;
Hilarui (Marciii, H'J) ; llarUsus (Marini, Arv.
405); lodocus (from jncus),uu Armuricau I'lince
who settle I as a hermit in I'oiithiou, ami s^ave
his name to a monastery owned by Alciiiii;
Jubilator (Ariughi, ii. 1?5); So^omen, vhe
church historian ; Sozoraene [lo Blant, ii. 234);
Tutus (.-6. i. 204).
The ilesi^'iiatiou ulol (ptirit (1 Thess. v. f))
seems to luive suggested many names. Boldetti
(407) gives an inscription containing three
derivatives trom lu.c.
l.uci;io I.uci;i.i.o Fr-ORi:NTio
Qui vixit Ann. xiiii. mkn8) iiii.
Died, x.wiii. oris XS. Luckius
UUFINUS I'Al'KR CONTRA VOTU.M.
Towards the close of the 4th century, the
name of Mary, preceded or followed by another,
is occasionallv to bo met with. LIVIA MAHiA IN
rACi; (l)e Itossi, i. 14;i); MAPIE I*1NI, Iphmae
for Ruliuae (Act. S. V. 77). It occurs, also, in
two inscriptions given by Ferret: mauia in
PACK (v. C.) and MARIA FKCIT FILIAK CIRICI-:
(Ixiii. 2 i). L)e Boissieu (p. n8"i) gives the epi-
taph of one Miriii Vettorabilis, a centenarian
of Lvons in the. 'ith century. A marbto ot the
cemetery of tJS. Tliruso et Saturninus {Act. S. 1 .
8i)) gives the name of Anna, but this is yet
more rare.
The following are instances of apnstnlic
names :-Andreas(Vermiglioli, f.89); ANAPEAC
(Osaun. 4-28, xl.v.) ; Johannes (Marini, I'o/i. 2.>1),
Huinart, p^isiim ; with the commencement ot
the 5th century the nann^ becomes o( more com-
luon occurrence (Ue Kossi, i. 'J78, 280). I'anlus
(Act. S. V. 105; De Kossi, i. 191); ♦AATIOC
nATAOO (Act. S. V. 73); Paula (.''. 10-).
Petrus (Marchi, 27 ; Hiibner, n. 135a); HETPOC
(Osann. ib. xlvi.), with its derivatives I'etiius
(Act ■'^. V. 120); I'etronia (Jlontlaucon, Iter
ItaL 118); Thomas, extremely rare, occurs in
the year 4'JO (De Kossi, i. 398; Hiibner, n. 1.8).
0.sann. (485, xi.) gives us the derivation trom
Stephanus of CTE*ANINOC.
Among n.ames taken from the Old Testament,
that of Susanna is not uncommon: svssaxna
(Ue Kossi, i. 19t)); Kebecca is found in a Koman
epitaph of the 4tli century (Ue Kossi, ib. 91))
lu;vi;ccAi-; is.NOCi^Nri. Many name.- of martyrs
are of tliis class: Movses, at Alexandria (K'b.
xiv.); S.imuel and Daniel, in Mauritania (Oct.
xiii.); Tobias, at Sebaste under Licinius
(Nov. ii.). . , , , J
Tlie European races which remained unsubdued
by the arms of the Kmpire, or but imperiectly
subjugated, otier certain points of coiitra.t which
iiiav be briefly noti'ii. Among the Celts there
is discernible, 'on the part of the early converts,
a feeling of deeper reverence and humility in the
adoption of sacred names. The prefixes of Cci'e
(the companion or vassal), Cear (the fnen ),
CaiUeac\ (the hnndmaileu), and <jiMa, the
NAMES
modern ,'/t7//e, and mid, a disciple, dcnoti- no.
thing more than relations of reverent dep.'u I-
cnce. St. Michael was the object uf widespva i
devotion; hence ('ear Michael, now C'arinicli^ad.
In inaiiv Irish families of the old Celtic blond
Gilln C/iriat (Gilchrist) appears to have beci a
Cliristvan name (I'l'trie and .Stokes, \). >u).
Oillespiug (liillesjiie, ,',s//,i(;/r:,7J.5co/m.<J U-lnn'^ed
to the line of Diaimil. Tiie names of f..iir
northern proprietors in Domesday Uo,),.,_
Ghileniii'el. (ihilander, Giiillepetair, and (ihilo-
bi-il,— probably attest the prosi^nie of a Celtic
element attracted by the illustrious foundation
ut l.indisl'arne. The name of Mary, which
gradually sjiread in the Latin church, after the
4th century (Northcote and lirownlow. A'. .S'.,
lip. 254-7) is wanting, a point illustrative pus-
sibly of the divergence between Celtic and l.alJD
Christianity; it is not until the 12th contuiy
that we find the name of .MaHmntrc, " servant
of Mary"(Petrie and Stokes, 59). Maelc.iluin
(Malcolm) bears te-timony to the veueratiuu m
which the memory of the apostle of lona was
held.
Among the Teutonic races on the continent
we find, ourselves on less firm ground. Muiy
names compounded with that of the Supreme
Ueing were assumed in purely pagan times, ami
it is often a matter for doubt whether the prelii
that belongs to names of this character does mit
really den "te a name of the numerous class com-
mencing with (jurul (war), a class conceive I ni
a very dilferent spirit. Other names, aiiaia,
like Theodoric, Then leliort. etc., oiler a dectiitive
but unreal appearance of alHnity to Greek (Jliria-
tian derivatives. Converts apiiear to have re-
tained their niini'S unchangel; Kreda (? b'le l:i),
Uriuca or Uringa, Uviliaric, Trasanc, Sedaigau-
cluis, occur as tliose of (lothic Christ ians (McCuil,
Christian Inscr. p. 21); in the opiiii.m i.f
Schottel (Tcuts-ha Hnuhtsjinc/u!, p. llKil) it
was not until after the death of the emperor
Kriedrich II. (ann. 1250) that, under ecde-ias-
tical iutlucnees, Germany began to admit a cer-
tain infusion of Latin elements in her numeiicla-
ture. I'ott, however, recognises a Christian
element in proper names like Traitjott. I),ni.c;i"tt,
Hottloh {i ' Deuni lauda '), and in family names
such as Kcnwqott, l.eb,)utl, OMlcbcr. regardiiii?
them as originally imiieratives, dicta'ed by \>\>n\i
sentiment. To jle r and llcrgolt, which snnie
have .lerived from the pagan Ihvits (e.g., D,m
Augustus, Di IIS Antiochus, etc., combined with
the eiiuivalent for 0*os), he attributes a h^e
origin (Die I'crsoneiin im n. pp. 94-98).
An interesting illustration of the im|»ntaiire
of this subject will be found at p. 879, m the
account there given of the name Yeronica-au ex-
ample of the manner in which a lalse elymnlngy
has sometimes in turn given rise to the labnca-
tion of legend. .
(Works of reference: besiles the authoruie,
quoted in the course of the article, Baconuiore-
Salverte, l-.'ssa! historiquc et philosojnKl'ie s r les
yoins d'llomnxen, de I'euplcs el de Ihcux, tr.in I.
by Mordaque, 18U2 ; Petrie and btokes (Aris-
tian Uscnrtiiins m the Irish lAmgua,jc, lH,.-t.
Pott A. F. Die Pcrsonam-tmen. i»is':c.i,.(i!.'i'.'¥ «"
Famiticnmnxen und ihre Eutstehwujs:trt^»Ai;^^^
NA3HES APPLIED TO CIIRISTIASS.
[FAirilFUL.]
NAMEb
hin. by name." TI,i,H pr,.cei,t w», in ih,. r? ■ i
.»xt.ft),e^;..,„/^J,^J^,-;:- --J^-
mthe hyi-me recousion as wi-li as „ tic- h. "
ht? . . hi ■ ' '''"■'"-■'' ""^ ntlierwisf thai,
by a public u„ti,.e ia church, ai.,| if this wa,^
.lone m the ca,o .( olWmng, f,„. tha p „
.™M soon be ,lo„o for other' offering,, 's h
th.i.rubable or,«,n of the recital or " „hl,tio, •■
"■ l.'M„une.Hof,heonerersiuth«Li,urJ "a
iUt w..re hro„sht on behalf of (he Mck orother-
w-e M,llen«j-,or of one ,locea«ecl, then it was
t..o,r name, n,.t th.t of the ,.er.on who brou^hru
wh ch was offere], Jn auy c,u,o the publicatio
01 the name wr. on,lerstoo,l as a re.a.est br the
Wers uf th. church on behalf ol' the %Tn
St Cyprian u»os the phrase " nomen ofl-erre"
of the hv.UK, when, complaining of theloo
NAMES 187a
(C. J'armen. ill. (i ) '"* "'""
the';,R!r\,r:''":'''^;^^"'''--^''' «-« -^^
t«w times at the most- h„t .i ^ "^ "
.'-.-■. a^tho^e^i^biX s..:h;rt'-
e«v ab.olufon granted to the lapse,!, h says
"Wn.le the per.se<mti„n still cont nue , ere the
p*.ce ot he church itself is yet restored they
.ar.le. a charitable collection to N.imidia he
gave the bishops there the names of all h con!
.ribu ois, and of the other bishops, and of the
pie.t, who had assisted in making it, " tW
U- '""Sht bear them in mind in their titbn
f ™"" " '■'-'""•n '"■• their good work in sacX'
c« and prayers" (1.„,cks, Ad Jan.ar I''
0.). ht. Jerome s|ieaks more than once of this
praotic^e, which apj.ears to have had ts evils
liter the conversion of the emnii-P •" . Th
.ftheotrerersarenowXl^reVite ::rth:
redom.;tian oi sins is turned into praise "(W
1! the churches the names of the olierers ' She
oiers so much,' ' He has promised so much ' and
.evtake pleasure in the applause of the Iple
h^ conscience ,s tor-.nting them " ('cW, '
fof'iiyoIT-'"''^. ^■'"'" "'^ beneVact n
n ot an enduring kind, as the erection or
" «cieel that "the names of those by whom
t ts cer ain that churches have been In It o^-
• are declared, or who have been d Tela "d to
iM.i:;^tpa:.^^^:'Xn'Cr^^rs
'« si d d 'If / '''""" ";»' one who had
, — -^ "Via ui iii(j t;
names ot\h'^-';'vho t L^U'd'Ttrf ^l:"
at-e at rest" (^oo). Simila.dy t liZ^t
Orationes post Nomina: "Olll.rentibus "
venia
I.
im
-osiie, 17); ''xNominibus sanctorum mirtvi-nm
«rdinis recensiti "' S'. ^tc T I't t"!;"" '""'
were all offered abo„\ tU ll, i ' ^^j^-r
plied whenever petitions for the living ami "fh.
HI- ■ ArL"^''" '"'■ *''e spirits of those at rest
Hilary, Athanasius, Mar in Amhrn n a '
IS said, l,et the presb'jter ■^mi «■„,. tu ' ' , >
life «.' the living.^theXdtn'f U s cl- "a^i' !
rest of the faithful departed, for ever a'n , le' "
it ' «^n ^^ "'■ ♦''^ ''"■■'' ^^'0""na its If St
Isidore, blO says, "Eff-unditur pro off entibus
-•^e pro defunctis fidelibus " I^De Ecoroffl
The later Roman rule and the reason for it
w»re, as we learn from Psen,!, Tn!, I
Kr-!''i,<''" '■). Kf«« .1.. ;".r„s
" "• "-' "' - -- ~- - 1 iiEWSirarjiEiS
11
il^
!'.!'
;■!
■n^;
! '• -is
t 4«
■ MM
■ m
. m-mm
I
1.37(1
NAMEB
br r»rltel. Tli" <>liliili<iiiii mo theicfnrc to ho
coimiKMi I«m1 lir<t, nu<\ tlu'ii the immepi o( thiw^,
wliiitu obliitiiin* IliBy ar«, t(i be givt-ii out; thnt
tliey niiiy tie nnnn!<l in tlio holy iiiy.<lei!e« [i.e., In
the Ml«'ii Kidi'lium, or »n;i|ili()ra], hu'I nut Mnong
the (itlier forms [»« lu the (leoreta, or collectl.)
poHt noniinii] whirh we (lut bc't'oie them, thiit by
the mysteiius thi-mnelves w« nmy open the wny
fur our «ubKe(iU()iit jiruyern " (A.'/'. nJ />«<<'»<. 'i)'
Ilence the oiiniii of the Cimimmuritiin pro vitit
lefiiie the coii»eiriiition, and the Cumntcmorntii
vrv di'funclin after it in the Koir.an canon. In
both, the |iiie»t nmy atill call up nilently the
names of anv for whom heilcsires to pray (Rit'S
Celehi: viii. ii ; ix. '^)) hut when the chnnge was
first made, the canon was still saiil, and therefore
the names would b« recited, aloud. See i\otitui
Eitc'inri thi, ml. '2, p. .M>5. In the Vatioan MS.
of the <ire({orian Saorameutary, printed by Hocoa
(Orp. Ore({. V. Gi; ed. 161.')), the former com-
meuiorHti(.n runs as follows: " Memento, Domine,
famulorum fiimularumiiue tuarum, ///. it III.
et omnium cinuni astuntium, iiuorum Tibi lidf»
eognita est et nota devotiu, qui Tibi olferunt hoc
sacrilicium laudis pro se suisciue omnibus."
The Klinian codex resembles thin (Menard in
Orp. (iieg., ed. Iten. iii. :»)• 1° ths margin
of the Othoboniiin, and in every vacant
space about the pages, are many names of the
livins; who sought the prayers of the church,
eipeJially of the sick, as well as of deceased
persons (.Murat. Lit. Horn. Vet, i. 73; ii. '2).
One of the Cologne MS.S., used by Pamelius,
m.serts after "tuarum," in the margin, "et
eorum quorum nomiiia ad memorandum con-
wripsimus, ac super snnctum nitare Tuum scripta
ades,se videntur" {Ri title I' I', ii. 1«"). In the
canon as given by Anialarius (Ecloiae do Off.
Misi. in tine) we'h.ive, after "tuarum," " Llo-
ruinet Wanim [Ilic nomlna vlvorum memoreii-
tur, si volueri.s; sed non dominica die, nisi certis
diebusj, etomniun),"etc. Sim. a Saltzburg Ponti-
fical, cited bv Martene {Ant. Eccl. Hit. I. iv. viii.
15). The old Anibrosinn canon here resembles
the <dd lioman, but contains an additional clause
which has been liorro" e-l by the later Koman :
"Memento, Domine, famulorum famularumquo
Tuarum [lllorum]et omnium circuin adstantium
quorum tibi fides cojjnita est et nota devotio, pro
ijuibtts m ojjerlmtts vet qui Tibi olferunt," etc.
(Murat. U.S. V'A). ^ _
There is no Commemoratio pro Mortuis m the
Gelasiiin canon (Jlurat. i. 097), nor in several
copies of the Gregorian, flerbert mentions three
in which it is altogether wanting, and three
others in which it has been supplied by a later
hand (Mun. Vet. JAt. Alenuimt. i. 2:)6). Only
in one copy, it is believed, does a memorial of
the dead oicur in the canon both before and after
the consecration ; vi/„, in the Rhenaugen MS. of
the 8tli century (itself shewn to be a copy of an
earlier) from a transcript of which Gerbert
prints. The former of these commemorations,
which immediately follows that for the living
is as follows: "Memento etiam, Domine, et
animarum fimuloruin famularumque tuarum
fidelium Citholicorum in Christo quiescentium, |
qui nos praece.>sei»ul, iUurtun et iiiarum, qui per j
cleemosynam et confessionem Tibi reddant vota
sua" {Olid. '2:iH)' The second memorial after
the consecration, in this MS. is, " Memento |
eti»m, Domine, et eorum nomina, (^ui nos
NAM KB
praecewerunt cum signn fidel et ilormiunt In
somno pads." With this nifreei to tlie littiT
one (.'ologne MS., fi'om which I'unielins piintj
(i. 1H2), the Homani^lng Krankish and Ue.MiM.n
Missals (Murat. Ii. tiiU, 77!i), «nt| the ciinon givin
by Amalarius, but the liist named ml Is, " /.'<
rvcilmitttr miminii. l>cin ftont'imim rinit.il.i /«, .
rinlilic 't,'' etc. In others the prnyerbegiri^ ihin;
" i'<n/i«r lUptiithii" {Ciitt. Vittii; limca), " .Meniinto
etIam Domine famulorum (N. Coil. I\,!.'2 \ I'.nnel.
u. «.) famularumque (N. I'oil, Col, 2) 'I'unruni
(fit. Rocca and Ctxt h'.lil. u. ». 4; lllnnim ct
Ititntm (with neveral names in the m:\rgtn),
ChI<-x Wttic. Uilil. Murat. ii. 4) qui nos . . ,
pacis." All these proceed thus, " Ipsis, lioiiiine,
et omnibus in Christo quiescent iiius, lnuir re-
frigerii, lucis et pacis ut indulgent daprecaniur,
per," etc.
The Council of Aix In 7R0, under the inllii-nre
of Charlemagne, adopted the Int-sr rule of Iliiimi
as eipresHi'd by I'seudo-lnuocent (can. .'i4 ; >..■*
also t'onc. Francof. A. I). Tilt, can. h\).
The early Ainbrosiiin canon did n"t rummomn-
rate the departed (Murat. «.». I'H), but iiii un-
varying prayer, intriMluced at an uuknowu pevin I,
was said. secretly after the obliitiims were mI iu
the altar, but before the Olferend, Ciecd ;ui 1
Super Oblatum, in which both living and d.;i I are
prayed for: " Receive, holy Trinity, this oldiitimi
which we offer unto Thee . . . fi.r the health
and safety of Thy servants and hiindmiiilcn* N.,
for whom we have promised to implorii Thy cli'-
mencv, and whose alms we have reciMved, nml "f
all faithful Christians, both living aud departed "
(Famel. u. s. i. iiOH).
The liturgies of the Kast do not shew exjnessly
where the names of olTerers were jaibli^hfl,
but there is evry reason to think that it whs
done when the diptychs were rend. St. Miiik
thus refers to offerers in a prayer before tlie
anai)hor.i, which, fidlowing immediately thi!
dilityohs of the dead, intercedes for them and fiT
the living also : " Receive, God, on to Thy holy,
supercelestial, and intellectual altar, the gn'iit-
ne.ssof the heavens, through the niinistiy of Thy
archangels, the thaoli-olleriugs of those tliat iller
the sacrifices and oblations, of those who di-si.e
to ofl'er much and little, secretly, and openly,
and are not able ; and of those who have this
day oll'ered the oblations" (Renaud. i. l.")")- I"
St. James these intercessions come after the
consecration. As the oll'erers are mentinnd
immediately after the diptychs of the living
(comi>are Assem. Codex Lit. v. 4.! with »:<). we
infer that their names had also been recited at the
same time. The clause in St..Iamesis," Vouchsiifd
also to remember, l.ord, them wlio hare this
day ofl'ereii these oblations on Thy holy altar,
aud those for whom each has ctTen-d, or has in
mind, and those whose names have been now rend
unto Thee " (u. t. 4:!). The diptychs of the de^ad
follow. In St. Basil, which is derived from St.
Ji\mes, the diptychs of the living and dead nit
read before any of the interces.sions are said.
The following is the reference to the otfcrcrs:
" Remember, O Lord, those who have ofleied
these gifts unto Thee, and those for whom, and
by who.ii, aud .-T, ar.-or.r.t. of whom ihev have
offered them " (Goar, 171). This is not pre.serTed
in St. Chrysostom, nor in the Armenian, which
is also derived from St. Basil. Perhaps it waii
thought, when all oblations but those ol bread
KAMEg
'"''"' '"»'! <'<">"«.l. th:.t th. .Imll.,r cl«u«, In
h.i.ray.r,. ,,r„lh.,U (" Il,,m.n,l...r lh,,,« wlo
, hue ,,U..;..,I, „,.,| ,h,„.. f,„ ^h..,n .h,.y Imv^
oir.r..d. <f..nr, «.!),„„, ,„|li,l.,ut. In St (« .,
I lM>n.Ver I, .uM wi,,. tl,« ,«„.« ,:;,:;nT
lh« K'";>t -ntran™ (A,«.m. „.,. 17,. ,„ „,;
S,n«c. rlh., .I.rlv.,,1 IV„n, St. .U,„e, ,he ,„;i,;':
.re |.r;.yi.,| ft.r, ... in tl„it, wh.u the ili,.tyrl,»ur«
157.4...). TI,«rol» no prayer C.r tlwrn in the
»11u.MHlaUr(l!a„lln.,M4). In which U,",!!
* .re th.. cun,«ur«ti„n, though the .li,.,„itl<,.,.n
h ,,h,.)woror..«,l„ven U.f„re fl,e Hu.,,hor».
D.he Upti,: .St. ll,H|l the ,le,.,.on »ny«, '' V,^y
•■r-, "ppora'tly namlni? the om.r..rs: an;i
thei.nest ••|„,i„t|„^ to the l,r..,i,l an,l -Vine "
[.my, for 11,,.,. who oiler them, an,| tlioso f,',r
.h,mtl,..yo,ler"(l!,.„.i. 17). This I. „/<,r the
^.»«•m ,o« J ,n.l ,0 the (3reok Ale,«n<lrl„.,
IWIaml Gregory (MA/. 71, 1„H); hnt in the
,.|,l,c.,roj{ory ,n,| Cyril nrJ the Klhl„,,i„ (;,.,
ly. It /.-<*,. n.rne, wore not o/,r«/._Wl,en nn
obl:,t„m w«. I,r„u«ht, th,. ,,ubli,.atio„ Ttul
™,... nc.ce,.snnly ,le,,ende,l on its acceptan,'* or
e|ec„,„ rim, the council ofllliherL in ;i ;
orU, the nnmc, ,.f enersumen., t„ be kIvcu out
"*ith an oblation at the altiir " (can. I't) 0'
ll,» .-.jection of oblation,, »ee Oni.Ario.vg 's HI
On the exclusion o. names of the livinK "V Jea,i
f.r «hoin mention w«s claimed as a token of
"mu n, .see Uiptyuiis, § 2.
V. ll,/ ,r/io,n the „„nu!.i were recUnl—Thh w««
PKTally the olhce of the .leacon, both in Th"
'«. an west. VVe have aeen it ^^rih ,1 „° ,1 „
,'StJernuR.. St. Isidore of Seville says "To
im ,1,0 pertains the office of praver« [PltKCi si
Mcctation „f the names " („J I^^./k 8). k';
.Ihi. ,rr,.coucilable with the lanituaae of St
Cyprmn' Named at the nitar of\i,„i in the
prar"«l'thepri^t.sts,"f„rwenmv»upp„e,h
. fnea, as .„ Caul an,l Spain, the pr est mX
< «, reference to the names published by Th*
•IrtcoD, immediately before. If there uaVm,
;-l;'i"n. tliey were rather published v t
'«Wea,.,n th-,n by the prie.st. Thu, [ „ „n
'■^ntrntlHcal the MS. 'of which , I Ues from
teulh c,.ntury,"the sulKleaoon, behin.l th^
Itar Qame or recite the names of the liv ! ami
W"(„t the "Memento," 3/.-,., j^.^^j^'^^
Nm at liheims reconled as still 'e.,i.stin^
>>ml 9(j,), the subdeacon d.iilv recited «t m,«
;;'eearof the celebrant the name Tf
t,hnps of the ,lioce.e ( Kulcmnus *
ll< J^O"ens. vn.j Syicilayiu^t Dacher. vi
in the Greek Liturgy the de,icon still rea,?s
m are derived (Aaem - A^L ^'"'-^-
NARBONNE. COUNCILS OF 1377
pS:';h:Sv';:';u^'ir'--''— '^-o.
^V-^h:::'t-rn'".f,sr-'
'• Nomina (luoium sunt i....it,..i '"^""'''<J'
.-.ibi j..hei luae?;.':;:, '.:'''r,,''';'"i;'";i
co,.ie.(i chir-i^ ,;,. , : ' r,"',""'"" ."■•"""•
CdA' ..,„„.. .,;.,.,, ""''J"''*'""" "''id"
«-• IMUsautum ,jnae r.citata ., n..' .'^"'"•'••"""»
,11/ I,,, „ J ^ "i.iiaia sunt noniina, Hp,wtoll
-»;;;;: r ;,:r;:s;:'r''>' ■'*"'"»
l>*^rfnsoue eti .,'""" ""'''"l-tlonem com-
i^nasr:;'::, ^d::;^l;!:?;''"■''■'''''•--
vit^*,■.,li„conu1•l A, ^'""K'""!""* mon.tra-
"llicia" ( irr/.'.r 'v"r''=""' "-"vcrtamur
<i , '"^"""1 to whoso hamls nn nlil..
[W. K. S.]
BAA. »"»» o, npimit at Cahors. cir in
NANTES, COUNCIL OP fxr .'^
work of this counci n the sevenm an. •
NARBONNE. COinsfriTq f\v -»• 1
1'
f.'"-i
tl
km
; ll' h
IM
*t
■i}'
'i^ij!!
1378
NARCISSUS
year. By the first the clergy may not wear
purple. The second orders the dosology to be
repeated at the end of everypsalm; or, when a
psalm is divided, at the end of every such divi-
sion. By the third the clergy may not stand
gossiping in the streets. The fifth refers to the
eighteenth canon of Chalcedon, as though it had
been passed at Nicaea. By the eleventh, bishops
may not ordain illiterate men. By the last,
a superstitious way of keeping Thursday as
a holiday is censured (Mansi, ix. 1013 sq.).
(2) Said to have been held A.D. 7S8, by order of
the Kmperor Charles, for determining tlie bounds
of that diocese, which alone shews that the account
given of it is in part spurious. Hut further,
it purports to have been occasioned by tlie errors
of Felix, bishop of Urgel, and yet he is set down
among the subscribers to it. If it ever met,
therefore, its records are deserving of no credit
as they stand now (Mansi, xiii. 8:il sq.).
\_\Li, S. r f. J
NARCISSUS (1) Martyr, commemorated
in Africa Jan. 1 (^Hwron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr, with bis brothers Argeus and
Marcellinus, commemorated at Tomi Jan. 2 {Vet.
Rom. Mart; Bed. J/uri. ^uoi.) ; Jan. 3 (//itron.
Mart).
(3) Bishop of Gerona in Spain in the 4th cen-
tury ; martyr with his deacon Felix ; commemo-
rated March 18 (Boll. Acta SS. Mar. ii. 021).
(4) (NoRSOSKS), Patriarch of Armenia, probably
the 7th, sat in the second General Council ;
commemorated June 15 (_Cal. Anncn.).
(5) Martvr with Crescentio at Rome, com-
memorated Sept. 17 (Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Rom.
Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Sept. v. 47(3).
(6) Bishop of Jerusalem, commemorated Oct.
29 (Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Rom. Mirt.).
(7) Mentioned by St. Paul (Kom. xvi. 11);
commemorated Oct. 31 (Cal. Byzant). [C. H.]
N ARNUS, bishop and confessor at Bergomum,
cir. A.D. 75 ; commemorated Aug. 27 (Boll.
Acta SS. Aug. vi. 8). [C H.]
NARSES. [Nersas.]
NARSEUS, martvr at Alexandria; com-
memorated July 15 (Usuard. Mart.) [C. H.]
NARTHALUS, one of the twelve .Scillitanian
martyrs; commemorated at Carthage July 17
(Vet. R<m. Mart.); also written Natalus and
Narzalis (Usuard. Mart, and Var. Lect.). [ J
NVRTHEX {vip9i)i, irpoAos, alxluv, (qy.
a-'i\i)) bv Paul the Silentiary ; ittoo by Hesychius ;
Parading.) (1) 'I'he word first of all means the
plant called giant-fennel, which was used as a
cane ; then it means a cane or stall', and even a
surgeon's splint. InChristian ecdesiology it was
used to designate the vestibule of a church. Ihe
reason of this application is given in a passage of
Procopius of Caesarea (atrca h-J.!) in describing
the church which the emperor .lustiniau built at
Jerusalem in honour of the Blessed Virgin. " A
great qu:intity of columns, immense m size
rtn.i in colour losembling a fi.ai.r of fire, support
the church (rbi/ vtw) on every side, some below
and some above, and some about the clcusters
(ffTons) *'>»'•'> SI"'™""'' the whole precinct (itpbi/),
eiceiit on the side which is turned towards the
NARTHEX
east. Of which two stand before the door of tho
church (toD vfui), very fine, and probably secnul
to no columns in the world. Next there I'ollows
a kind of cloister (a-roi tis) named al'ter the
narthex, I suppose, from its not behvj rimle
wide." (Procopius, (te Aedifciis, lib. v. cap. 6, ed.
Dindorf in Coc//«3 .'•'criptorum Ilistoriae lii/zan-
tinae, vol. iii. p. 323, Bonn, 1838.) It is laid
down by Hofmann {f.e.c. Univ. s. v.) that the
length of the narthex was the whole width of
the church.
Another etymology, unnoticed by Bingham
and others, but exc'lusively relied on by the
Ktyinologium Magnum, and the Lexicon of
Zonaras, connects the word narthex with vepem
(iraphTh vi(>6iv tTvat toD vaov [al. lect. i.a^uvo's,
ed. Gaisford]), because it was on a lower level thcr
the body of the church (see a long note uponthf
subject by the commentator on the C tKordia
Reijularum of St. Benedict of Anianum, temp.
Charlemagne, ed. Migne, Patrol. Cn-sw, torn.
103, p. lUlO). This however does not uppeir
to be in accordance with the fact. K. r it will
be seen lower down, that in some c ises the
narthex was the receptacle of the female part of
the congregation, and that that rece|)tiicle was
upon ft higher, not a lower, level than the body
of the church. [Nave.]
The word is used sometimes of a part within
the church, and sometimes of one without;
but it always means a part of the church
further from the altar than the part wlieie
the faithful were assembled. Hence it was
a plac'; for the catechumens. Near thorn the
possessed (x^tnaC6ixfvoi, Syn. Ancyr. Can. 17)
seem anciently to have had their plai:e, also in
the narthex. The entrance from the narthex
to the nave was, according to Beveridije, by the
" beautiful gates" [DOOUS, p. 573], near which,
as the most honourable part of the narthex, the
Audientes stood. The communication of the
narthex with the outsiile was throuch the
" great gates " (nf^nAai irvKai). The place of
the Catechumeni in the narthex was near these
last gates. The Energumens or possessed coming
between the Catechumens and the Audioiites.
A passage of St. Gregory Thaumaturi;us shews
distiuctiv that in his plan the narthex was
witiiin tiie gate of the church. He says that the
Audientes were to do their part "within the gate
(of the church) in the narthex," (ei-Soe. ttjs
TTilAnJ ^i- T<? vipSTlK'). ^/"'s*- Canonira, Can. xi.
See a discussion of the several views m the com-
mentary of Uu Cange upon Paul the Silentiary,
cap. 81. . 11. ti, ,
Leo AUatius wrote a tract upon the narttiei,
in which he refutes the opinion that the nartha
was in the porch, and shews that it was inside the
church, near the door, and that it was the place
where the Catechumens, the tnergumens, and the
Penitents were gathered. _
Du Cange (Oloss. Oraec. 3. v. 98(5) points to »
distinction (and possibly to some solution ot the
discrepancy amongst writers) 'f ^^'^^".""'°"'''
and non-monastic churches; and he aOirms ths
in the latter class, the narthex was outside, not
in^ido, the church. In monastic '^hurohev. di ■
tinctu'n had to be made between the traternilv
and the general public; and ""•'"■''"'f '>' "'"^
churches were divided internally into re^
parts : (1) the Bema(Sacrarium) w. h tliescr ,
(2) the .abs, for the monks, with rails separating
NARZALI8
it from (3) the narthoT for the non-monastic
Mblic. 1)1, Cange quotes a MS. Life of St. PhuI
Utrcnsis, which says that his body wa.s bnriod
•m the choir of the church (i/aoO); we have
itea accustomed to call the places narthex " As
to the distinction between monastic and ' non-
nwn.istic churches in the East, Magri (/7,Vr->-
lexKon, s. V.) gives a different account, which he
;ays depends upon his own observation. The
Bjilhex, he says, in monastic churches serves
lor lay monli.s, and in secular churches for
women. In the latter ease it is fenced off bv
grilles and rails. •'
A search has been made in vain for any tran-
imption of the Greek word by any of the earlier
Utin writers. It appears to be alwnvs trans-
ijted by portiais, atrium, or some kindred word
Brngham, indeed (Antiq. viii. cap. 4, s. 2) while"
«e claims great antiquity for the thing, admits
tliat the name itself is " not very ancient " But
tlie passage quoted above from Gregory Thauma-
turgus may be thought to shew that even the name
was more ancient than Bingham imagined
It is affirmed, indeed, by Hofmann (^lexicon
(m s.T.) that the narthex was by the Latins
dH Paradisus. This, however, seems to be
itnctly the name for the cloistered court, which
in some of the older basilicas stood in front of
tlie entrance to the church proper. In the view
ol some writers narthex was the name ani.ro-
priated to that side of the quadrangular cloister
which abutted on the church wall. It is not
till the 6th century ((?re(/. Turon. lib. 2, c 21)
that wc find any trace of the font being placed
in tliis part of the structure.
NATALE
1379
(8) The staff or sceptre which the Greek
mperor carried in his hand at the altar-service
«i Ills coronation. rfj_ TAT
NAEZALI8. [Narthalus.]
NASO (1) Martyr, commemorated at Rome,
iBthe cemetery of Praetextatus, May 10 (I/ieron
*"'•)• [C. H.J ■
(2) Martyr, commemorated at Cyprus July
l2(Lsuara. Mart.; Vet. Rom. Mart.). [C. H.]
NATALE, also Natalis, dies naialis, mtalitia ;
1<f>^:o», -nfUpa y^v4e\L0!. These words desie'
Mf in the language of the early church, the
fathHiay of one of the faithful, regarded as a
tahmto eternal life. Even in the\eneration
whch immediately succeeded the apostles, we
nllhe church saying of Polyoarp, " we cele-
« the birthday of his testimony or marty r-
»»►) {Mart, robjcarpi, c. 18); and at a
.»™liat ater date, Tekullian tells us (*
« r« ^ "oblationes pro defunctis, pro „a a-
., annua die facimus," where the word
^M(« seems to be used for the death-dav, not
•Uraartyr only, but of any of the faithfuL
Hit fh/°r fT'^T' '""'• ®^' "• 2'^) contends
to he „«w« of a martyr in the calendar is
nr^b-h;sac ual death-day, but commonly that
the translation of his relics, as in time of
P;^«ecut,on the actual deathlday could not
ii.','w'^ ''=4'^";""-«'i- Muratori, on the con-
fl(I^e SS. Martt. Natalitiis) believes that
J church took all po.s.ible pains to determine
»^8i"lv^""' ^'""°'""''=«t<'» to the faith-
"■nlW. AM. — VOL. II.
[h'pv*'"T/K''?-r "^ "'' ""'"''» "i-rtyrdom, that
they might hold an assembly on that day (Acta
that the death-days of such „f the faithful as
died in prison should be communicated to him
m order that they might be commemorated b^
an Ob ation on that day. In this way were
formed Calksdars and Martvkolooifs Cal-
endars of this kind were also common among
pagans. in the records, for instance, of the
TlTIJ" '-''",".^-'"'"' Published by Jlommse*
Itich '^'"VPi^'^V^" '^"•1 the death-days
which were to Re celebrated by members of the
collegium set down thus : "xiii. Kal. Sept. natali
irT^7 Z'r" f I'"''," '''• ""e we have the
form adopted m the oldest Christian calendars
(De Rossi, lioma Sott. i. 210). We have but to
substitute some such name as "Callisti" for
entrr°m ""'* ^ '"'"' "' ""<=« " ^^^ristian
entry. [Compare Maktvr, pp. ] 123, 1127 1
In inscriptions, Natale or mtalis is verv
common. '
To take two examples out of a multitude-
the inscription Sanctis MARrVRiBvs TinvRiio I
nALERIANO ET MAXIMO gVORVM || NATALE^
t^ il^ !f\ri"- ''^''^^^'^ Maias tells us
that the death-day of the martvrs Tiburtiu.,
Valerianus and Maximus was on ihe eighteenth
day before the calends of May; and the inscri ,-
tlon PARKNTKS FILIO MERCVRIO FECkUrvnT QVI
VIXIT ANN. V. ET M,.:s,:8 VI.,. || naTVS Tn PACE
IDV8 V KBRV, that the Child Mercurius was « borS
M^'^^u ■;".• ^''^-^'^ *''« ides of Fcbruar^
Lv P' :.. ': .J '^"' '" a^ordance with this
leeling that the anniversary of a Christian's
death-day was celebrated with the rejoicine
which generally accompanies a birthdav rCELLA
Memoriae]. It will be observed in' the two
nscnptions given above-and the same is the
case with al inscriptions of that antiqultv-
mark the day on which the annual commemo-
ration was to be held. "nuemo-
.„!*" ""'"/'■« "'■•^'^V'Suished persons naturally
soon came to be used themselves as dates. Thus
lairtolT'^V"". ^"'l ^^ ^'' K"^^'- St" 'entia is
(jln. 16) °° *''' nafcfe of pope Marcellus
mean lit le more than an annual festival, and
was applied to commemorations to which in
A"/.nJ"* "Ti* """ i"»PP"eable; thus the
V II. Ral Mart. Natale Petri de Cathedra "
for the festival of the Chair of St. Peter And
the word was also not unfrequently used for the
anniversary of the ordination of a bishop. It
designated also, with a certain appropriateness,
the^auniversary festival of the foundation of a
The day of the Institution of the Lord'f
Supper IS calIedJVa<a& Calicis,or Dies Natali
Exu^hanstme. [Maondit Thursdat, p. llrio 1
Ihe Malts Domini is the birthday of the
Lord in the flesh [Christmas Dav.^. 356]'
the entrance into the life of this worfd of Sr
John BAmsr [p. H81] is also a festival.
(Probst, Kxrohliche Disciplin der drci ersten
^tfl^/:^''Vr''''P- '" ff., Martrgny"
88 ^'^
n
m
1380
NATALIA
NATALIA, martyr, with her husband
Adrianus ; commeraoniteu At Nicomedia Aug. 2t>
(Basil. Menol.; Cat. Jiyzant.; Daniel, Cod. Liturg.
iv. 2t)t>) ; Sept. 28 ( Vet. Bom. Mart.) ; Nathalia,
Dec. 1 (Usuard. Mart). [C. H.]
NATAI.IS (1) Martyr, commemorated in
the ICiist Jan. 17 {Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr, commemorated at Rome, in the
Forum Simplironii, Feb. 2 {Hieron. Mart.).
(3) Archbishop of Milan, A.D. 751; commemo-
rated Mi\y 13 (Boll. Acta SS. Mar. ill. 241.).
(4) Presbyter and confessor, third or eighth
century ; commemorated Aug. 21 (Boll. Acta
SS. Aug. iv. 409). [C. H.]
NATALU8. [Narthalus.]
NATATORIA or NATATORIUM, a word
sometimes used to designate a baptismal font,
K0\vfiPii9pa "in naiatorio S:mcti Martyris
Barlaae " {Hist. Miscall, in Zenone, apud Duoange,
Oloss.). In Sidonius Apolliuaiis it is found in
its ordinary sense for a swimming bath. {Epist.
lib. ii. Kp. 2). " Natatoria " is the translation of
I Ko\vix0ri0pa Joh. i.t. 7. Vulg. and Joh. v. 2.
Vet. Lat. (Vulg. " piscina probatica "), and is
so used by St. Ambrose {de Must. c. iv. § 22).
[E. v.]
NATHALIA, martyr, with Liliosa and
others: commemorated Aug. 28 (Usuard. Mart.)
[C. H.]
NATHANAEL of Cana (St. John i.), com-
memorated Ap. 22 (Basil. iTtfno/.) ; July 4{Cal.
Ethiop.). [C. H.]
NATIVITY, THE (in Art). It has been
remarked in a previous article (Marv, the
Virgin, IJJ Art) that while the Adoration of the
Magi is one of the commonest subjects in early
■Christian art, the Nativity, wi'h the contem-
poraneous gospel fact, the Adoration of the
Shepherds, is one of the very rarest. Indeed
it canuot be said to belong to pictorial art at
all. It does not once appear in the innumer-
able catacomb frescoes. It is equally absent
from the mosaics of the basilicas and churches.
The only examples of the subject are sculj)tural,
and must be looked for on minor works, such as
sarcophagi, ivories, and gtms, and even here it is
by no means frequent.
The reiiresentutions of this scene generally
follow one type. We usually see the Divine Child
wrapped in its swaddling bands as the central
object, lying either in a basket-work manger, or
on a tall stool, vested with hangings. The Babe is
sometimes recumbent ; but more usually the
head and shoulders are raised withcmt any
support, in supposed allusion to Matt. viii. 20,
Luke ix. 58. The star appears above. The
Tirgin mother sometimes lies on a rude couch as
a newly delivered woman, cither above or below
the Infant, on which she lays her right hand,
sometimes sits by the manger. Joseph, when
present, is seated at itf< foot, rapt in thought,
his head resting on his baud. The ox and the
ass, the traditional accompaniments of the
nativitv, in allusion to Isai. i. .3, Habak. iii. (cf.
Baron. Annot. i. § 3; Tillemont, i. 423) appear
either behind, or at the head and foot of the
manger. 'I he sheiiherds, with curved stitves in
'their hands, stand by adoring.
NATIVITY
The representations of the nativity on sarco-
phagi are rare. The pediment of that which
forms the substructure of the pulpit of the
basilica of St. Ambrose at Milan, oH'ers an
example. The divine Babe lies on a beil, uuiit-
tendcd, the star resting on its head, while at its
feet couch the ox and the ass (Allegrnnza, Munnn.
di Milan, p. 63, tav. v, ; Martigny, Diciiunn.
lcrvqe.,^^aGv;e^e^^a3e-TaG vJ<v^
Nu. 1. Nativity. 8*rooptiiigiu nndor FnlplUBt. Anilmglu, utka.
p. 89 ; woodcut No. 1). We find the same
subject very rudely portrayed on a sarcophagus
at Aries, (igured by Millin (Midi dc la Fmni:o,
pi. Ixvi. No. 4). Christ here lies on a wickor-
work cradle, to the left of which His moflior is
seated, and on the right stands one of the shop-
herds with his right arm extended, holding his
pastoral staif in his hfl hand. The ox and nni
are seen in the background. Joieph is absent.
In a compartment below we find the three Miigi,
with Phrygian bonnets. The ox and ass are also
represented in adoration on a sepulchral fragment
assigned to a.d. 343, given by De Uossi (fnscr.
Christ. Horn. i. p. 51, No. 73). Here the Infant
lies on the ground, and we have two shepherds
standing with hands outstretched in adoration.
The scene is similarly represented on two Roman
sarcophagi (Aringhi, i. p. 615, ii. 355 ; Bottari,
tar. Ixxxv. and uxciii. ; Bosio, pp. 327, 589). The
No. 8. Fnm a B«rcopliBgti«. ^Boalo. p. U7.)
former, of which we give a woodcut (No. 2), ii
a double subject ; the left-hand half representing
the Adoration of the Magi. It will le noticed
toat one of the shepherds kisses his hand in
tOKen of worship. On the sarcophagi it is not at
all unusual to liud, by a continuation of the two
subjects, the accessories of the nativity, the ox
and the ass, together with the swaddled babe
and the manger, forming part of the Adoratioi
of the Magi. (Bottari, tav. xxii., Ixxxv., lxiivi,|
Aringhi, i. pp. 295, 617 ; Bosio, 63.)
The nativity is a somewhat frequent subject
on ivories. The great collection oftiori (Thesmr,
vet. diptych, vol. iii.) presents several examples.
He gives the ivory sheath of a knife (tab. x.), on
one side of which are carved scenes iVnm the
opening of the Gospel history — the Annnnciatioii,
Nativity, Adoration of the Magi, Presentatiiin ir
the Temple, and on the other side scenes from
the Passi'm. The nativity follows the type
given below (woodcut No. 3), only that the
NATIVITY
Virgin liM on ii higher couch than th« child. In
he background »re two pen.ile lamps, and the
tar. An ivory tablet in the treasury of
the cathedral of Milan (tab. xxxii) represents
the same acene, the Virgin lying below un
NAVE
1381
Ko. 3. Qem from Vetlorl.
Bimbed angels stand at the head and foot of the
manger. Joseph sits i„ deep thought I„ the
foreground are placed a basin and flaeq^ tr
water. It is inscribed H F€NHrir a .i.
ivory fr„™ the Co.p"^ M^^'^.i itjn"
mm ctah »j \ ■ treatment in the ivory
- (tab XI.) ,3 somewhat diBbrent. The
h *l'h'■,^'^^'""•''■"S' '•"'f I'neeling, supports
lier Child on the manger. Jo^^i.h sif. mJ". V^
^ngel-s, unnimbed, sfani I tt ma„~r !?«
which the star casts a trail of h^ht Z' ^1° u
o»e of two sh herds below is'gazinK'th''e"le: aM
Sr>"a'"lamtst3rbr"'^'" ''''' '"""''■
p. ii .Ferret. Catacomlje,, torn. iv. pi. xvi No 84\
urmshes a good example of the tyrdefcribed
We (woodcut No. 3). Both angels and h^
he.J» are absent. The moon appears a. well t
No. 4. K,,,,!^. dmMftomVen.u.
J. .tar. The whole ccene breathes a holy calm
Zr^T'T'^"^ (M«rt?i;!'ar"t. A^t
NATIVITY. [CirmsTK*,.] "^^^ ^'^
NAULI8. [N4VAU8.]
(^,<rro». Jfo,.<.); NaulU (Usuard. AiaTi) "
der V iiir it frnm /^i\ j *. , '"""'i some
oiiv.ug u irom (1) vdoi, temp e, which w th.
u.»M.t, a ship. The fa.:t that n several Kuin>,».,n
ra. gular oratory of the ueonlB- /- • I ^
A-oii „.,a,,.o^). i"; b^^n'^^hirSadetf
sttd'Tt''""'"'^'' ''"'^''''''' the chS ch ex
a:rt::K:;--"s:^^p--
Chu ch"!^^ Tt r JT^-^ ««- o^thl
thechu,,H,^;,:;^:';^^^He^.m,.„^„^^^^,^^^^^^^^^^^^
There is a long parallel in the so-called etiornf
•"•tri. n. r„mU«,„7Z'Z ». r? f
equivalent (ti,.) mnv I- -..i ""^^^^
m the nave the n aop cf tu„ ""gs.
distinct from that :f fcel ^^oTa diT
ferent story (i^.p^ou) of the strarture so that
the women were not visible to the me,; Thi.
col3to°'th"""""'^- *'"'. '^'""«"' '-^'"e Jv
Sii:^: ihe-r^tar^t-'^- £'1
exten^^H^ d«ys the right of asylum foririminal,
extended to the nave a, well L to the «lTar of
the church. See Sanctuarv
In later days the nave has often been nut to
base purposes (.. g. buying and selliL*. 1
4 u a
II -I i
^5 ".'{S*
) !k,i
1382
NAVICULA
search hns been made in vain for any trace of
kimilar desecration within the period einbniced
in this Dictionnry ; unless inclced such a prohibi-
tion as that in tlie 42nd of the African ciinona
be talcen a» a proof that n hiibit was ({rowing
in Africa of converting the body of the churcli
into a banqueting hall. (Labbe, vol. ii. p. 1U70,
ed. Paris.)
The plans of an early church that have been
worked out from ancient writers by Goar and
our own learned Bishop lieveiidge differ from
each other in several respects; but they both
agree in assigning the nave as the place of the
Anibo or Pulpit. Not only were the Scripture
Lessons read from this pulpit, but it was some-
times (not always) used for preMching, so that
some of St. Chrysostoms famous harangues
were delivered from it. A jihrase of Socrates
the historian shews why the nave was chosen
as the locality for it. He says (Hist. lib. vi.
cap. 5, circa med.). thr.t St. Chrysostom had
i-.'en in the habit of preaching from this position,
"fox the sake of being completely heanl."
Some ide& of t!:c sise which a nave sometimes
•Mumed in early- days may be gathered from
the descriptioc given by Evagrius Scholnsticus
of the church ct' St. Sophi . at Constiintinople,
which wf.s built hy Justinian in the fifth cen-
tury, ''The leugth from the door opposite the
•acred apse, wherein the function of the blood-
less sacrifice is celebrated, u;i to the apse itself,
is a hundred a::J uinety fevt (this probably
included a Narthex as well »■. .» Niive) ; and the
breadth from ijoiih to souti is a hundred and
fiflsun feet." (Evagr. Biit. ' ■>. iv. cap. HI.)
An early .'hur' h, whirh is ilescribed to us is
that bui'.t in the time f kinx Childeric over the
Bcpu.chre of St. M;irti>i, ni Tours, by Perpetuus,
the fiftii biihop of the see from St. Martin
himself, lis tctal length was a humlred and
sixty feet, its breadth sixty feet, and its height
vorty-fiv} feet. Us nave had twenty windows
and five doors, C>-"i'eg. Turon. I/ist. Franc.
lib. ii. cap. U.) Another church of the same
period was thst of Arverne. It was a hundred
and fifty feet long, sixty feet wide, and fifty feet
high. This .:hurch likewise had eight doors of
w.Sich Mabillon {De Liturtiid Gallinana, lib. i.
cap. 8> concludes that five were iu the nave,
♦hat is to 5>iy, three in the western fo<;ade, and
one upon each side.
It is siated by Heuke that the word Navis was
first used to designate a part of a church by the
Latin writers of the ninth and tenth centuries.
He does not give the passages upon which he
relies; but unless he refers to other passages
than those which are given by Du Kresne,
i. t). 'Navis,' or by Magri (Hierolexicon), it is
perhaps open to question whether the date
should not be placed still a little later. See his
view in Herzog's Jieal-Kuci/klopadie, art.
♦ Baukunst,' p. 731, near the end. [H. T. A.]
NAVICULA, the vessel in which incense is
placed for the supply of the TiiuuiULK, so called
because it is often made in a shape resembling a
boat. L^O
NAVITU8, bishop and martyr, either at
Troves or Tongres, perhaps in the third century ;
commemorated July 7 (Boll. Acta SS. Jul. ii.
NECROLOGIUM
NAZAUIUS (1) Martyr, with Nabor, com.
memorated June 12 (lied. Mart.); at Rome
(Hicron. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jun. ii. 51G); at
Milan (Qsuard. Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart.)
(2) Martyr, with Gcrvasius, Protasus, Celsus;
commemorated at Milan June 19 (Hieron. Mart.;
Vet. Horn. Mart.); July 28 {Hieron. Mart.);
Boll. (Ada SS. Jul. vi. 5:}?); Oct. 14 (Basil.
Menol.i Cal. Byzant.; Daniel, Cud. Liturij.ii,
271).
(3) Martyr, commemorated in Asia July 17
(Hieron. Mart.).
(4) Martyr, commemorated in Africa July 18
(Hieron. Mart.).
(6) Martyr, with the virgins Juliana and
Agape; commemorated at Nicomedia Aug. 8
(Hieron. Mart.; Boll. Acta SS. Aug. ii. 341).
(6) Martyr, commemorated at Antioch Oct.
30 (Hieron. Mart.). [C H.]
NEABCHU8, martyr in Armenia, cir. a.d.
260; commemorated Ap. 22 (Boll. Acta SS. Ap.
iii. 12). [C. H.]
NEBRIDIU8, bishop of Egara in Spain, in
the sixth century ; commemorated Feb. 9 (lioll.
ilcia «S.iKeb. ii. 301). [C. H.]
NECROLOGIUM. The book in which were
entered the names of the dead for whom prayer
was made in religious houses. It was a sur-
vival of the primitive DIITVCIIS, but admitted
generally only the names of members of the
house, of its benefactors, and those with whom
the community had entvired into a compact for
mutual intercession.
This book had no settled name within our
jwriod, and afterwards it was variously called
necrologium, obitarium, obituarium, liber obit-
arius (all late mediaeval), Kalenthirium (as, e.g.,
in a letter of communion between the monks of
St. Kemigius and those of St. Benignu! , " We dc
for their dead as for our own ; except that briefs
are not sent, nor are they put in the kalenciav
among our own people,'' Litems ad iueundam
Suffraijiorum Sucietatem, v., in Mabill. Anal Vtt.
160, ed. 2; Anselui: "Tell us his name and
the day of his death, that it may be written in
our Kalendar," Kpist. i. 21),— Liber Vitae (e.g.,
Bertram, bishop of Mans, A.D. tiUi, made be-
quas.'s to several churches, on condition that
his name and the names of certain others should
be " recited in the book of lite iu the said
church," Act. J'ontif. Ccnom. c. 11, in Mabill.
Altai. Vet. 257, 2(31, 2(33),— Martyrologium (" au-
niversario quod in nostro martyrolugio .^cribitu^,"
Litterae, iv. U.S.), which was common,— and
Memorialft (•' Postquam defuncti fuerint, post
patres nostros defunctos in memoriali defuiic-
torum scribantur," Litterae, iii. u.a ; "Fratrura
Memoriale," Bernard! Urdo Clun. i. 27 in Iff.
Discipl. Mon. Hergott, 208), or Liber Memoriahs
(in libro memoriali quemcumque vult (prior), fadt
notari." S. Wilhelrai Constit. Birsauj. ii. 17,
Hergott, U.S. 491).
In the l/isciplina Farfarensis of Guido (ad calc.)
may he seen formulae, nniier which mimes of
ditterent classes were entered. One direction
runs thus: "In martyrologio taliter scribendi
sunt monachi, vel amici. Obiemnt Adaljarm,
Oerbertus twatrae congregat<oni3 inonachits, et &•
posido Doinni Conraa
amiconim noatrorum.
mumrhus, ft .sio ,)« nl
I'roofi are numerou
tliciiisjh not under a Hx
Thus, acconliiisr to Be
t.'ry was told' in a \
direct (he monks, "
ill qnibus defniietorur
f«'r the day of St. 0;
j.rip.sf to whom he told
for it in his year-book
1-t.) Bede, who diec
bi^iop, and the monks
am doiid deign to prav
the redemption of niy
own family and housi
amorii; your own " ( I
ISoi.iiace, in 7.i2, writ
pny that you will cau.>
prayers and iiiasses for
fellow-labourers in the
asleep, whose n.imes t
has made known to you
weiu). In Trtr,, king Al
Mentz that ho will, in
oti'ered iu his diocese hr
several of his friends i
pmyers shall daily bo o
teries in his dominions
whose names ho had si
n.imes, he says, in genen
mitted "lierjietuislitera
which we infer that m
monastic obituary was ki
inter /,>/). BoniC, see al
ic.)
Kruin fhe expression
Bede, we might infer tha
a decea.sed person was re«
once a year, viz., on tJK
death. This is confirmei
dence; as e.g., by the
letween two mon.nsteries
saec. IL 1093): " Nom
fratrum Stabulensis ,
Solemaiacensi per singul
fratrum nnniversariis rec
Martene, do Antiq. Mona<
other d;iys might be fixed
injunotion. thus Bert ran
".N'nmen meuni ac saccn
scriptorum locwnm) in lib
bcre, et per singul.is festiv;
The names for the day
neernlogy in the chanter
pnme. They came after a
tvrology (properly so-calle,
l>r the psalm De J'rofun
mer (B„na, Jier. Litwy.
(I* Hnin Desmarets) foum
log among the canons of N
w the middle of the la*
Liturii/Ms, 282).
. When the notice of a den
la a necrologium, the docnni
or Brevi,, (Litterae SocietU
f:l';:'"%(""i"lf"a, C/.ro«
'".Vi/. Dachfr. ii. 31-J, «i,
Wh Rolfe (their abbat)
C««tule are said to have set
NKCROLOGIUiM
positin Pomni Conmdi ncqis, ct ITcwu-i n,,.-
nwmrhus, at ,sie de „lii.,." (Horgott T- ) ^ '
I rooff «ie iumieioii.s of fhe u-ff. ,>i' „„T,. i .
.o,„hnotu„,ioraHx ,a,l;:,;;:;^M r;::?::;•
or.t ,„ h,s j.ea,-book" (a„„ali; ml(, '^^^W
n.) lie who died i„ 7;!,:;/,„ km' tL
b>.hn,, nn.l the monks of Lm,li.;<;,,n« •' W Ip '
amon^ your ow« " ( IV^, CuMorti" ,nL ")
liui.il.ioe, in 752, ,v,i,i„g jo ,,n ahl,a •' W '
rny that you will cause To he c W. t ed kelp ,
l.myors and ,„asses ,»,■ the souls ofo„ bre 1 ';'
el,uv.labou,-e,-s ia the Lord, who have f hu
oHced iu his dioe se f,r ,",^ /r.'j'-'-'f ■" *" »",•
-•o,al of his friends andkin?;, e^UkT'th^^
prayerssha 1 da.ly be offered in "l the I^h
tenes in his dominions for Lullus \ „ d nT
whose names ho ha<l seat to Ui'rki ^' *• L's"
names, he says, in (jenei'al terms wonl,l l„
n-jUed 'M-r,,etuisliterarum nt;r2s " Tm"
.Ineh we infer that no specific ZVth
mona.t.c obiluary was known to him (i„w ±
■atcr /.;,p.Bouif., see also 115, ,,Ofg;-/,^o!
Kium fhe expression " vear-honlr •' ,, j l
M., we might fnfer that .a^ri ,'thermeS
r^h t1 •' ' "? "'" """iversary of their
':::' ^":.;^,r'r.^■i;^"■"^'"/-'-
^.twentwo^Ue:l::in£::^j^-^'^'^'
fratrum Sta^liiensif'^^J^r fttf ?"!"
Soleniniacensi per sin-ulos die. "•"*>'"'"gi»
fr.tn„„ ^nivelsariirSbul^i^^r;-^^-
M rtene, d, Antig. Monach. Jiit. i. v 'V) U,,^
other days might be fixed by special ^ovetnf
.".n-notion. Thus Berfam'of ^ „ '(, rT^n'
".Nomen meum ac saccidofoo .,, ^"- *• -^t" J);
«criptorum locorum) n 1 ,,o ■ Hae i.'ir' '"''"•'■
be^.otpersingulas'fest/v?,:;:!';^;'"'"""-
P.ime. '^They came'afte? L^\Zt "''"'
(U linm Desmarets) found ir'.n-. '"'""''
ing among the canons o Not thi 'Tt r"'"
."the middle of the 1 J cen Z rV *"'
Uw,i.iu,-s, 282) centuiy ( Voyayes
fiotuliiris (Hariulfus TAr, » /. . f '^ """ '•''"^''
in.?;,/,./. u\„i,". ["'^j^'*'^'^!''^; t^entulense, iii. 9,
NKCROMAXTIA 1383
"o^u^;;;l;:;,,;; ;;■"'*;(""...<.? n,
l""»i'«ofpraveis whi, h I '"''•-'' " wflt'i-u
'itnlus. rl.is^ V : ,,, et ;r'"''"' was oallel
^'"'M.- of which ,,;rs''n "-"""■' "" "-
loHiffr. At len^tl it ? ' ••^■'"ge, under
hous;; that sent i^th md , ir^" Y"" '" "'«
'Ticf, issued bv tl . " ''■•'I''- '^"'^''H
'«-« than ■Mil MM^^T ^.""^ "■'"" "•'■>"
'he l.ibr.rv of sr , ^""""' " l"'^'-^erved in
The ,o,W^nfi^;„"-,^'^'^K^ Cambridge.
AmphelisaeprioitCt'L^li^ra '!:"""■'«
omnium HddiuM. d,.c„„ . ""-'-""'■». «t Animae
''--.ui,i:nt';!:'~";r'Tfr'""'
c «<">iu.uuebencfi,-iu ne<..l».-l . Concedimiis
1- vestris: orat:7:'^^!rr^''«-.«™"H-s
;W,;;Oramus,Ac.,a.;^":mmj'\;'^,',r
thSLrSi:l?:v"'^'^'''"-y'--nin
/.v.. /-iu ./ r ' § ^;'.?"' '•'•'>• ";■ ^"^ i i^""a,
Merati A-,.,v«, oo^ervat. a,l
Gav.mt. ,„ y,„v. ^,.,„., V
064'<,.n). in ,(^,/<,,.<. y^,i • "'; ''• MabiHon,
■O'XvCs, cap. .six havr.,: , '•;^"'' ^""«' *
greater lengti ' '"""''' " "' '"mewhat
^ ■ [W. E. S.]
two methods of diviintior Iw ^" .''" '"'«
of which we read w t , 'h V?'':"'' '"^""e dead,
mi-ahiebj^r'siiri.iSrx'^s^r'?'"'^
viscera of newly boru iufatr- (i , ^^ilf.^l /'-
3b ; Sim. f/ist. viii. 141 TK„ i . ^"'"''- '•
after the death of juli.;,', j/''^'"'''"' s"ys that
'"-a just before, lit X'nTmnrl *'"' '"'
omen for the battle fr.m u'e 1 v^r^ ,' '^"''"' '"
murdered for that purpose (i'/"' .? ?*'."'";l'''
Socrates also tells us thit d,,..' .u '" '"• '^)-
Julian, the heathen ^tAthenfAI^ '^J'-'"'^" "*'
other places "sacrificed chairenh"':K''"'' ','"'' '"
5;».aH and inspected fheSllS,:::';^^'-;!
The second method w«« tn ,„! ..i.
^tR:"tadtt5~^™"-
Ju.,tin Mart 1 To uo "'^'l^^'"'?. Tiin,,
mancies„„d^;.ptctio„s'oViElrb"°«^'°^
"^Su:lSthrai"r^^"
' if
1384
NECBOMANTIA
about A.D, 180) the writer, who eponks in the
first person, represents liimself as considering
whether, in the search of truth, he shall go to
Egypt, the chief seat of such studies, and by gifts
induce a priest there " to bring up a soul from
the lower regions, by that which they call necro-
mancy " (i. 5 ; sim. Hoin. Clem. i. 4 ; De Gest,
fetii, 5). These " anlmarura suscitiones " were
alleged as a counterpoise to the appearance of
angels, as believed by Christians (ibid. viii. 53).
Tertullian, citing the Greek historians, says that
" the Nasamones endeavoured to obtain oracles
of their own, by staying at the sepulchres of
their lathers ;" and that, " the Celts spend the
night with the same object among the tombs of
men of valour" (//'a Anim. 67). Constantius, in
a law of 857, denounces those "qui manibus
accitis audeut ventilare" (CWcj; I'/ieod. ix. xvi.
De ilahf. 5), where the last word is understood
of the motions and gesticulations (beating the
air) with which the necromancer accompanied
his incantation. Ammianus relates that Maxi-
min, a high official afterwards put to death by
Gratian, was reputed to have in his service (about
368) a Sardinian, who was " exceedingly skilful
in bringing up harmful spirits, aud obtaining the
presages of ghosts " {Hist, xxviii. 1). Pruden-
tius, A.D. 405 (o. Symm. i. p. 249 ; ed. 1596):
" Muroiure nam magico tonueg exclre flguraa,
Atqne sepulcbrales sctre incanture favlllus,
VitA Itidem 8(H>Uare alios, urs uuxia uovit."
This kind of Necromancy, which was often
called i(ivxi>7 1117(0, was thought to bo most suc-
cessful when the answer came from the soul of
a person murdered for the purpose. Thus in
the liecognitiona of Clement already quoted,
Simon Magus is made to state that his power
depended on the aid he received from the soul of
" an uncorrupted boy slain by violence," which
he "called up and made to assist him by adjura-
tions unutterable " (ii. 13; sim. iii. 44; Jfoin.
Clem. ii. 26 ; Gest. Petr. 27). The soul imme-
diately on death was supposed to have many new
powers, and among them "prescience, on which
account it was called up for the purposes of Ne-
cromancy " {liecogn. ii. 13). Tertullian, who
recognises the practice (Apol. 23), says that a
peculiar malignity, aud, therefore, readiness to
assist in evil, was ascribed to souls early and
violently parted from the body {De Anima, 57).
St. Chrysostom speaks of a popular beli;f that
many of the y6riTts took and slew children that
they might have their souls to help them after-
wards " (Hoin. 28, § 2, in S. Matt. viii. 29) ;
and says that " many of the weaker sort thought
that the souls of those who bad died a violent
death became demons " (De Lazaro, Cone. ii. 1).
Ammianus says, that one PoUentianus, in the
time of Valcns (A.D. 371), having cut the foetus
from the womb of a pregnant woman yet alive,
and " having called up the Manes below, pre-
Kumed to inquire about a change of government "
{Kist. xxii. ii. 2). Here it is probably meant that
this dreadful rite gave him power over other
departed spirits, or over the infernal gods
theniselres. See St. Augustine, de Civ. Dei,
xviii. 53.
When apparitions and responses were said to
be granted to the necromancer, Christian writers
were unanimous in replying that, supposing it
to be true an evil spirit personated the soul ia-
NEO
Toked and deceived the magician. So the author
of the Hecoijnitiona (iii. 49), Tertullian (dacmones
oporantur sub obtentu earum, De An. 57), St,
Cnrysostom (Ilmn. 28, in S. Matt. § 2), and
others.
From the 6th centurv downwards, the word
necromancy appears to have been used vaguely
to denote any pretended txorcise of supernatural
power. Thus Gregory of Tours, A.D. 575, speak-
ing of one who afi'ected to cure disease, says that
he "sought to mock men by the delusion of
necromantic device " (Hist. Franc, ix. 6). Ad-
helm, 709, says that St. Peter went through the
provinces extirpating from the root the deadly
wild vines of the Simonian Necromancy " (De
Laud. Virg. 25). The same writer (ibid. 24)
calls the "spirit of divination," of Acts xvi. 18
a "s|)ir;t of necromancy," and again (5u) a J
plies tlie term to arts by which the reason of a
person was supposed to be atl'ected, [W. E. S.]
NECTARIU8 (1) Martyr, commemorated
with Nicetusat Alexandria May 5(FK;ron.i/iirt.)
both bishops of Vienne in the fourth century
(Boll. Acta SS. Mar. ii. 9). The BoUandists
also give Nectavius bishop of Vienne in the
fourth century, commemorated Aug. 1 (Aue
i. 51). ^ *■
(8) Bishop 0*' Autun, confessor, in the third,
fourth, or sixth century ; commemorated Sept.
13 (flieron. Mart.; Boll. Acta SS. Sept
iv. 59). "^
(3) Patriarch of Constantinople, A.D. 397 •
commemorated Oct. U (Boll. Acta SS. Oct. v'
6u8).
(4) [Nectavus.] [c. H.]
NECTAVUS, martyr, commemorated in
Pontus Aug. 22 (Hierun, Mart.); Nectavus or
Nectarius (Boll. Acta SS. Aug. iv. 536).
[C. H.]
NEEDFIRE. [St. John Baptist, Fire of,
p. 885.]
NEMAUSIACUM CONCILIUM. [Nis-
ME8.]
NEMESIANU8, martyr tinder Valeriap,
commemorated in Airiea " Sept. 10 (Usuard.
Mart. ; Vet. Bom. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Sept,
iii- 483). [C. H.]
NEME8IU8 (1) Martyr, with Potamius la
Cyprus ; commemorated Feb. 20 (Usuard.
Mart.)
(2) One of the seven sons of Symphorosa, mar-
tvrs at Tibur ; commemorated June 27 (Usuard.
Mart); July 21 (Bed. Mart).
(8) Confessor, commemorated in lieuvin,
Aug. 1 (Usuard. Mart ; Boll. Acta SS. Aug. i.
46).
(4) Deacon, martyr at Rome, with his daugh-
ter Lucilla ; commemorated Oct. 31 (Usuai-d.
Mart ; Vet Jiom. Mart.).
(6) Martyr, commemorated at Nicomtdit
Nov. 9 (Hieron. Mart).
(6) Martyr, in Egypt, commemorated Dec. t9
(Usuard. Mart ; Vet Horn. Mart). [C. H.]
NEO (1) Martyr, with Leonilla and Jonilla
at Lingou, commemorated Jan. 17 (Usuard.i/urf,).
NEO
(51 Mnrfyr with Zeno, Enselih.s, Vitalius- I
wmmcmomed April 28 (Ba.sil. Menol) '
(3) Martyr with Agia, Cl«u,Ii„s, Asterius •
conmomorated ia Cllicia, Aug. ys (IIu'n^Mrn'
m he ctj; of hg.a Jn Lycia (Usunrd. Mart)'
Diocletian, Oct. 29 (Basil. Menol.). ^
(i) Martyr, with Nico auj llelioJorus ; com-
memorated Sept. 28 (Biuiil. Mcnol.). [c. H ]
NE().CAE8AREA. COUNCILS OP mo-
! ,,>>'."'',.*"•"* y**" later, as Hefelo
h,nks(C«.»c-.& Lng. Tr. 223) from its f„u '
t*en canons, „„d there i, no reason to think
jl P'^-^'l mo'-e containing nothing about Se
laped. Vet their case may have been pas ed
over designedly, from having had so much^pace
gn-en to ,t at Ancy,-a. This, however, wouW
rmg ,t about midway between the councils of
*r*r 7f l"^''"' *''"* •' has always been
paced. If the signatures appended to it in
the Latin version of Isidore Alercator may be
relied on, the Iv eo-Caesarea where it was held
r , h .' "1'' ' ^"' """'"''"' by several of
thebLshops who had previously met at Ancvra
By the hist of its canons any priest marrying f
Murfeit his order. The third is directed igafn t
.l^r..ons who have been several times married
The seventh forbids priests attending second
m.irr,ages. By the eleventh nobody Vay be
ordained priest who is not thirty years old. ^ By
he thirteenth country presbyters are restrict^
111 then- ministrations, much as countr^ bish'S
(2) AD 358, or thereabo'uts, at which Eusta-
lu., bis op of Sebaste, was condemned oTher
.^Mdm^s case were Gangra and M.^::
oftiemaityi-,, Peusippus, Elasippus, Mesipnus
X^^J'n''^ Terentius; commemorated
ft.L 28 (Cut. By,ant.; Daniel, Cod. Litur.j^ W,
JEOPHYTE («rf^„.„). I. A newly bap.
toJ per.son was so called, as being ne«^v en
Me,, chnst (Zonar. Co,nm. in clX'cZ
Zt':( \t ""'S^""'^^"Kgested by the emplov-
raent of the word in 1 Tim. iii. «. St. Aueus-
»e .0 the same context, says that the gifVsTnd
Pnvieges mentioned in Heb. vi. 1, 2 are "eoiurn
Z^^Ty', 'f^" "^ "initia ne'lhy"
121 t ; t • I """""r*? ^y ">* '^"'•tom of the
cnuich that ''tlie eight days of the neoohvtes
be distinguished from the rest- ie tZtlt
7hth a^ree with the first" J^^'^ ""55 '^l
'".»,r. ,yii^ § ,,), The eight df/stere those
«nngwh,ch the newly baptized wo« thdr white
tes. [Bawism, §§ 60-63, vol. i. 163] St
«^'*ue's words above cited are thus explained
NEOPHYTE
1385
niim, omnes gentct. The eighth hn« ♦■„„ ai, , .
N«^,^r«. nom'e„\ V 'nttgL &''"' Tf
'"r^t^2d^^r:'iffi""V-
it^olf, and h.d7t bre^t. iltu'ld nllltve'be'"
necessary to distinguish them durin;th"t j , 1
V. 11 Amalar. u.s. 29 : Ps -Ale « . \ ...
;« a/6/. (Greg Tur. <fe £/o.^'^CV7V;f''tt
emiliT et ;ne,.f, ';^". "'"IV"""''" « lantiorihus
Conifer. V. 12) ' ' ''"'• ^^'^ ^^^t'"". *
^^r'-o"/ (p. 277, ed. MiMes . ' T^ey l°Z
;;:iS'^i^LmrS™ts:^^^^^
s^nti-;r,,„.^ii,^:|:^f
Oomin. in Oct. Pasch 1 In th» m 1 • ' ^ ^'
after the consecrat on\f the wa ""7^ '•"';
Pniys that those washed therlwith 'mr?'
restored by a new infancy" Le iri80) i ..
Koman prayer of consecration he 'says ^"Om^/
.n unam pariat gratia m.iterin^ntir;'" aS
In veri mnocentii nova infantia renascatur ••
which they were ^tationeVTuri^ng'l^t'^.it"'
;nf'&:t^-^:^:Ssri
Amplm. Mart, et Dur. ix 78 oit„,l K t x ■
Notae ad Miss. Mozar 5.33) StVmh ^ ^*?''f'
iiie altar ot Ood, . . . among the shining lights
of the neophytes, among the candidates ran
allusion to tie.- dressWftKo k„™ »-• ""uates (an
in, T Tr. ^■''^'•"e heaven yknedom"
.%»/«f (ascrib'ed To im'bL)?'..Hi "^Luff
at "'fv"i 'tl^'t :' <^hristi con^e d
(S. x^rii.-Ki;4"5)r" '""^ ^^""-'
" Inde parens Mcro ducit de fonte Bacerdo.
Infantes nlveos corpora crde, habitu :
Circumstansque rud.s festis altartbiis agio.
Cruda salutiferis imbult ova cibis "
npo^h T P "P'"' "^ P"'°"« ^ho died while
neophvfes are extant, m whi.h the fac-t ^ ll
cordei Kg. "Junius Bassus V.C. qui vixit
1386
NEOPHYTE
mnles in Oruter's Corpus Inacrlpt. p. 1051 n. 9
(iiged 8 yenrs), p. lOtiO n. 3 (aged 11), in Bnsio,
Huiiui Sutt. p. 43:1 (aged 6), &c. The followiug
is the cjiitiiph of a married woman, " Hottavie
coDJiiue neoHtc bisomus maritus fecit " (Grut.
p. hioli n, 7). Other instances of female
iieopliytcs occur in several collections, as, e.g.,
in (iruter, p. 105-1 n. 1 (3 years), p. 1U57 n. 6 (a
wife). The last is called "legitinia ncophyta."
Does this mean that she died alter the eight days,
and so had fulfilled all the special observances
imposed on neophytes? Sometimes they were
B8id to have died in albis. For example, " Hie
jacct pucr nomene Valentiano qui vixit anno ill.
et me ses et dies xvi. et in albis cum pace rcces-
tiit " (I.e blant, Inscript. Chr^t. de la Gaule, i.
476, who also refers to K.ibretti, Inscr. Antii].
Kxplic. pp. ;)77, 7H6). It is reasonably inferred
that such persons had, as a rule, received clinic
baptism. TSicK, Visitation of tiik,]
ii. it frequently happened in the early ages
that the fittest person for the olHce of bishop or
priest in a vacant church was one who had not
passed through the lower orders, or at least not
through all of them. At first it is probable that
laymen and inferior clerks were ordained priests
and bishops freely in such cases ; but at length the
liberty beciime an occasion of amldtion, and was
restraiaed by the canons, in accordance with the
injunction of St. Paul (1 Tim. iii. 6), from whom
also the name of neophyte (in this use of it a
term of reproach) was borrowed to describe the
premature ruler of the church. The earliest
prohibition occurs in the 80th of the so-called
apostolic canons. " It is not right that one who
has come out of paganism and been baptized, or
who has left a sinful course of lile, should forth-
with be ordained a bishop. For it is unlit that one
who has not yet given proof of himself should be
a teacher of other.s ; unless, indeed, this take
place through the grace of God." The council
of Nicaea, 32.'>, premising that this "rule of the
church" had been often broken, " either from
necessity or because men urged it, so that they
led men but lately come over to the faith from
paganism, and in tlie cateohumenate for a short
time, to the spiritual laver, and further promoted
them as soon as baptized, to the episcopate or
presbyterate," decreed that such practices should
be tolerated no longer (can. 2). The Arabic
canons of Nicaea depose both the ordainer and
the ordained in such a case (can. 12, vers.
Ecchell. Hard. Cone. i. 480). The council of Sar-
dica. Ml, forbade any one to be made a bishop
who had not before " served as reader and deacon
and presbyter ; .... for so he would with
reason be regarded as a neophyte" (can. 10).
The council of l.aodicea, of uncertain date, but
jirobably about H65 ; " Persons lately illumi-
nated (i.e. baptized [Uai'TISM, § 5 ; vol. i. p. 156])
must not be promoted in the hieratic order "
(can. 3); which is thus rendered by Uionysius
Exiguus. A.D. 533 ; " Non oportet neophytum
promoveri ad ordinem sacerdotalem '' (Hard,
i. 782).
Gaul seems to have been notorious for offences
against this law of the church. Gregory I. in 598
Rays to queen Brunichilda, "their otiice has
there, .is wo h.ive undor-stood, com« to be Fiich
an object of ambition, that bishops (sacerdotos),
which is too grievous, are at once ordained out
NEPHODIOCTAB
o( \i\ymen" (Epist.vW. Ind. ii. 115). Instnnoes
of this are found in Gregory of Tours: "Nict-
tins tamen ex laico, qui prius ab Chilpciioo
rege praeceptum elicuerat, in ipsa urbe (Maiis-
censi) episcopatum adeptus est " (//,s^ Fntnc,
viii. 20), Again: "Laban, bi.shop of llimsej
died this year, whom Uesiderius succeeded from
a layman, though the king had pnimised with an
oath that he would never ordain a bishop out
of the laity. Sed quid pectora humaua uon
cogat nui-i sacra tames" (tbid. 22)?
The Apostolic canon, it will be observed, miikej
an exception in fiivour of those who, like Timcithv
(1 Tim. i. 18; iv. 14), were supposed to receive
some divine attestation to their fitness. Cypriiin
Athanasius,Nectari\i8, andAmbro.se are instiiucus!
The first named had indeed been b.iptizcd ami
made deacon and priest in succession, but nil in
so short a time, that his biographer says of him
" Judicio Dei et plebis favore ad olficium s.nti;r-
dotii, et episcopntus gradum (a.d. 248), adhuc
neophytus, et ut putabatur, novellus electus
est ' ( Vitii auct. Pontio, 0pp. Cypr. priief. 'A, ed.
Fell.). The council of Neocaesarea had in 315
forbidden even a priest to be ordained under
thirty years of age (can. 11); yet only eleven
years after that, the great Athana'sins, in
obedience, it was believed, to a divine intimation
conveyed through his dying predecessor, who
called^ out his name repeatedly with his Inst
breath, was ordained bishop of Alexandria ut the
age of twenty-eight (Sozom. ///sf. Ecd. ii. 17),
Nectarius was not baptized when, in 381, he
was cho-sen to succeed Gregory Nazianzen at
Constantinople; but was then "initiated l.v
baptism), and while yet clothed in the typical
dress (of the neophytes) was declared bi.shop of
ConstantinopleljythJcommon voice of the svnod,"
then assembled in that city (Sozom. vii. 8),' Nor
was St. Ambrose more than a catechumen, when
(a.d. 574) the people of Milan insisted on his
becoming their bishop; but, "being l)aptizeil, he
is said to have tilled all the ecclesiastical oliices,
and on the eighth day he was ordained with the
greatest favour and joy of all " ( Vita a Paulino
conscr. § 9). Some twenty years later, re-
ferring to these circumstances and to his great
unwillingness to accept the ollice, he says:
" Nevertheless the bishops of the west a|.|iioveii
. .y ordination by their judgment ; tho.se of the
east by their example also. And yet a neophyte
is forbidden to be ordained, lest he should' he
lifted up with pride;" but (he urges) if there be
a suitable humility, the defect is healed, "uH
causa non haeret, vitiumnon imputatur"(A'/is/.
73 ad Eccl. VeicelU § 65). [\V. E. S.]
NEOPHYTUS (1) Martyr under Diocleti;in
at Nicaea ; commemorated Jan. 20 (Boll.
Acta SS. Jan. ii. 297); Jan. 21 (Basil. Metwt.).
(2) Bishop and confessor at Leonliura in the
.3rd century ; commemorated Sept. 1 (Bell.
Acta SS. Sept. i. a6). [C. H.]
NEOPOr.IS, martyr with Saturninus; com-
memorated Way 2 (Usuard. Mart.). [C. H.]
NEOTI''RUS, martyr, commemorated nt
Alexandria. Sept. 8 {Uieron. Mart.); Ncotheriii"
(Usuard. J/ar<.) [C. H]
NEPHODIOCTAE. [Tempestarii.]
NEP0TIANU8
ActaSS. Mai. ii uj?) ^ ' "* ^""»"n (i*"".
(8) Bisl.op of Clonnnnt in Auvcix-ne in ih„
^^liZ'^j'n™"'"-"'^^^^'-^^^^^":^,'^:
' ''■ i^- H.J
NEREUS (1) MaHyr with Maj„l,„ «„,,
(2) .Martyr with his brother AchilK.u, pnn„ I
BeJ. Mart.; Bull. aZsI^mJ ^Tl'"- ^^'"~''
ViaA.leati;a(J;,td ^Ll in'th^'" "" "'^'
of l-raetfxtatu!: ( IVi. /J i/i'./s". ''','' ^'"'''^y
^(3) Martyr, commemorated Aug. lo (///,,,„.
^4) Martyr, commemorated Oct. 16 (Ilicron.
^J) Martyr, commemorated Nov. 16 (Ifu-ron.
[C.H.]
NEW YEARS DAY
NEUMA. [P.NELMA.]
1387
{Hieron. Mart.). lamj.hylia l^cb. iij
oo£^;J;:;,^:t^S^^^"•-""''•ors,
n.nrtvre.1 under Dedu'^^tT' ^^'"''-l' " '^''^'"'f
tut on Feb. 28, 'accordij't tJ%Z, V'
of the same uame coui>l,.7l .i.i»i l ■^V.'"'- One
»«jr.n.eh2(«ra:!^'^;p.^g^j»i-
2^,»;'^e.me.mea;:^V^ £:,--).
AM1?S;;:Z"?.T''"'"-''"^ «' Nicomedia
(Ba-sil. J/.«o/.) . Oct S? ;r'"7»'-''ted Oct. 26
272). '^ ' ''' (Daniel, Corf. Z.V.,,-,;. jy
[CH.]"
AfeSS![?4fil^'"'*Z'-' ^'"'"emorated at
(Boll. A.;:5 lLtT4"6o"'"'-^' ^^S'^ORIUS
■ [<-'• H.]
''l"ch Wilfrid was conVwn ^"^*,^' *•"• ^"-' '"
»'«f! the exac r^i "tT; T'' ««'"">n"ui-
M^Jmninmns of Ealdfi-i h t' "'^xf ' " ''*>• >■'
(M»»*i, xii. 157-63 •«n^«V"fu''f^'''•"'"'"bria
25uy. '•" '''^> and Stubhs's VV'illji„s. iii.
[K S. Ff.j
..p^.^'L„']Sr:,';t^\h""'""^-»^«"'»'ake
nil. tho .no;nr„e"„t;th'''T "''"'''' '""^ ""J
the . arknes. of the^'nitht " r 'iT"' °"''/'-'"''''''
O,thot. Cmwrs 'A Th ^'^'''K""' <^<' J"Ct.
St. Eioy he ':;f;?; w , exTrrfV"" "• ^■'"■'•'>
ftrecon.lemne bvSf T V''-'"'"'' h ^"ma who
""-' ") f>t. Ambrose to thw Cfik i
^'^--'. im" r,t:A3" "n"''"''"'
tl.e seveu.hlnd th nin h ■ " s'^'r'"" ,''"'''™^'' ">
"'••nt.. conhci n,,n debent X'^l """"f'"'
«>|.ortc.t" (Hilar iw '^"' '""'" '''"^^' ""•>
"ri«i«:ChH:tiZ Mli^rZ'''''^.'^'^""
blam... u.Vs„ys Hihlrr^ihe ^.r:^%^?
w'y.^i>they.::;/::^;^:-«--ff^"~th,
■nust have be"nf,ritn lit""' ""-' "'r"" ^^"'•''l
"'•'^t day of the iZf ? ^.,™'r"-''""' "''th the
'■' [VV. K. S.]
with the lawEiveu h^ ^.^'"'■"'"g. in accordance
month should ^b the ^fi>tT 'm'"> ^'"^'''"'l
ThusAuatoliu, • thV' °"' "'^ ">« ^'^^"••
as the eVoch of his ^ettio'^y^,; " kew' ^"-^
of hrst mouth in its first ve.r wm!'k <• ,, " """'"
^^6 Phameuoth i„ the E^vut'irn . [""• "" ""'
Macedonian months 1722%' us7,';''r"'"^' ""T
kal. Ai)ril"(= 2'' K-,v^\,\ „ j j ■' , ' ^"'"an xi.
"•""M is that of the it '"^^'■'''"' "''"■>"'
vernal equinox nuL-'Hii •''?■'• '" ""'"■^'' ^he
sius Exi^uus°B de ^n.^" ^ r'T'''^ "i""/-
mouswi^.,^„5S/r';^'t:T:::;TT-
Romanised Syrian CM«nrl„, i i^ ' "* "'«
of the months(Qu n, s TL T'™""^"' "'""«'
p.i.^chal month; thus St Leo a^H P i "'■'' "■•
of the ember se.isons as r.sts nf ♦! J'"'"'' "l^*"''
seventh and tenth mo:thr\ at ^'^ ^"T1^
a canon ot a council in France (Man:i.a/^.^i^.:
imti
m
13S8
NEW YEAR'S DAY
xii. 5Sfl) has, " monse primo, unoil cut, Slaitiis
kiilendia." In Itiily this pnictiiu souiin to have
bcenouly ecolesiajiticiil, Id Kninceit wai nlno civil j
thus tJii'gory of Tours makes July the fifth,
and Deueinber the tenth month, nml from a con-
temporary writer cfc Mintc. S. MuneUini, Ma-
billon ((/i( A'fl (li/jloimt. ii. 'il) has the worils, " A.)
mensem Martium qui npud nos jiriinus sineduhio
vocitatur." The successive coutinuatois of the
history of Gregory of Tours, Kredejjar anil others,
keep to the same reckonini; from 1st March.
Yet here and there Gregory falls into the pojiu-
lar way of making the year ln(i;in with the
first of January (Ideler, I/d'i. 2, 'i-il).
The KoniaaNew Year's L)ay, Calends of January,
was the one great festival universally kept
throughout the empire, ns I.ibauius testilies
(,0pp. i. 2r.6, iv. IS'SO, Roiske); niav J> olta,
Koiyi)v airctfTaiv iir6aot (liaiv virh Tijr 'Pu^aiiDV
itftxh" ' yiyvtrat 8i ivtaurov rov /u«>' imtavnivou,
roil II iLpxoi**''o"- He, as a moralist, repro-
bates the riotous excesses and superstitions
against which the church long kept up its pro-
test. So early as the end of the iJnd century,
Tertullian (de Idolotatr. c. 14) has to lament the
countenance given by Christians to the old pra. -
tiees at this season (nobis Satui'ni>.lia et Januariae
et Brumae et Matronales freijueutantur, munera
commcant, streuae consonant, lusus, convivia
constrepuut), which they excused to themselves as
merely civil and social observances, nowise pajjan
»uperstitious. I'etrus Chrysologus (c. 43.3), Senn.
155, protests similarly: "Dicit aliquis, non sunt
hnec sacrilegorum studia, vota sunt jiacc joco-
rum ; et hoc esse Qovitatis laetitiam non vetustatis
errorem, esse hoc anni principium, non gentili-
tatisoll'cmain. Errashomol non sunt haecluilicra,
sunt crimina." How long and earnestly the pro-
test against this conformity of Christians to
these old-established customs was ke])t up by
the church may be seen in Homilies of St. Chry-
gostoin (A.D. 387), in A'n/enctos, t. i. 697, and
<fo Liiaaro, i. ibid. 707, in the opening of
which he calls the feast of the Calends iopr^v
aaTavtK-fif, Asterius Amasenus (oir. 400) in Ka-
lenda», p. 65; St. Augustin, So^m. 198, de
Cal. Jan (t. v. 907). Maximus of Turin
(A.D, i'Zi) llitm. xvi. de Circuincisioiie Domini,
p. 46 ; Caesarius of Aries (a.D. 502), rf> Kul.
Jan. l^erm. 129, 130, ap. St. Augustiui, Opp,
Append, t. V. 233 sqq. ; Kligius of Limoges
(a.D. 640), Serm. de Rectitud. Cal hoi. Conver-
eationes, c. 5, ap. St. Augustini Opp. Ap-
pend, t. vi. 267, c. (mostly a cento of passages
from the homilies of Caesarius). The protest is
enfirced by the Concilium Quiuisextum (Trulla-
num), A.D, 692, canon 62, tAi oBtid Ktyonivai
KaXiviat, Ka\ tii XfyAfitva ^ira (vot i), icai to
KoAoujuco ^povnikia {Brumnlia) .... Kaidra(
iit T-;s TcSi' triffrav woKndas irtpionpfBfivai ^uK6-
(itla, K.r,\. And down to the end of our period,
the church (even after that the 1st of January as
the Octave of the Nativity was entitled to rank
as a festival, viz. of the Circumcision) con-
fronted the heathen festivities with a three days'
fast. Thus the second Council of Tours (A.D. 567)
can. 17, enacts " triduum illud quo ad calcandam
gentiiium consuetudinem patres nostri statue-
ruut privatas in kalendis Januariis fieri litanias,
ut in ecclesiis psallatur, et hora viii. in ipsis
ka!endis circumcisionis inissa Deo propitio cele-
brctur"; and Isidore of Seville (a.d. 505) de
NEW YEARS DAY
div. Ofl„, rccUy I. 40, says (hat "jejunium
Januariaruin kalenilarum propter rrrori"ii gm.
tilitatis stntuit occlesla . . . pei (,ii,k| nf(ua.
scoreut homines in tantum se prave nuere ut pro
enruni jieccatis necesse sit omnibus ccrli'sijs
jejunare." (Large extracts fiom most of the
auihorities cited may be seen in Kheinwald Oit
Itiiclilic.lic Arc',U',li>:iie, p 223 sqi).) '
When the 25th i)ecemher h'ld come to he sjonc
rally receivoil as the day of the Nativity [iMiiiisT-
MAS], the Calends of January a.:quire(l a ('liri' tiaD
character, and Oionysius Exiguns dates thi3 vi^ara
of his era (our A.D.) a Circmwiaioiu; /ii'nuini.
but the churches long shrank from making; the
New Year's Day of Christians thesainc witirthut
of the heathen, and it was deemed prefcriiblc to
fiommenie the year a A'u/ii)i<(i^(;(2.')th Uecernbcr)
an epoch which continued in use far into the
middle ages. Others, however, fiiund it more
suitable that the year should begin 25th MMrch,
which, if 25th Dijceniber was the day of Chiist's
Nativity, would be the day of the'Concoption,
the Btia aipKuirit, the Incarnation. Hence 'lie'
epoch ab aimunciiitioiie, or a cuitceptione. Those
two epochs were further recomuuMidcd (iu the
astronomical point of view) b; their suinnsej
coincidence with the 6nimu(2r)th llecenibei) and
the vernal equinox (25th March), hnt, according
to an nniicnt Latin tradition, the l'as^ion heiell
2:)th Mijrch. St. Augustin, de Irin. iv. 5 ; '•(jclavo
Kal. Apr. conceptus creditur Christus r/w d
passus. Natus traditur octavo kal. Dee." Il^nce
perhaps, the epoch a resurrectione (or a p(ssiiiiie)
C/iHsti, was originally intended fur the tixed
date, 25th March. Bede relates {de Temp. rat. r.
45), that in Gaul, at first, this was kept us the
day "quando Christi resurrectio fuisse tniJe-
batur ": and Zeno of Verona, cir. A.li. .JOd, Scrm.
46, speaking of this as the day of the resurrec-
tion says, in his mystical way, "idem sni suc-
cessor itemque decessor, longaeva sem|ipr aitate
novellus, anni parens annique progenies, ■nte-
cedit sequiturque tempera et saecula iuliuita."
Certain it is, that the dating of the years of our
Lord from Easter — the moveable feast— (iiii'on-
venient as it was, as so shifting from year to year,
that any Julian day within the paschal limits,
.say 1st April, might fall twice in the same year
or not at all") prevailed far iutothe niiildle ages,
in France down to the sixteenth century. In
this reckoning, the first instant of the New Year
was signalised by the consecration of the tapers
in the night preceding Easter morning, (Du
Cange, s. b. Cereun J'uachalis, and Maliillon de h'e
diptum. ii. 23-6.) In Spain and Piutugiil the
years were dated from the Aununciatinndowa to
the fourteenth century, in Gcniany down to the
eleventh, then from the Nativity. ConvcrM'ly,
the English, in Bede's time, began the lear with
25th December; after the thirteenth century,
with the 25th March, which continued to be the
legal civil recknnii.;:; down to 1752. In Italy,
besides the ecclesiastical epoch, 1st March (see
above), 25th March was the customary civil
epoch, with this curious variation, viz, that in
one reckoning {Catontus Pisanus) a given year of
our Lord was made to begin on the 25th ilarch
» T-- m'--t^t XY'- tnoonsfnlonce, It was utiht! io add fu ite
mouth-day ante patcha or poit paicha. If tlie date In-
cluiti-s the year of the Indiciion, ttils generally rtmovM
all duubt.
'TlibuivenltyeonUnt
NEW YEARS DAY
prerMin,, m.\ in th« „thor (0. FlnrenHnu,^ n™
.h,.h M. the now roceivc-d verkoni.g, til'^ij;^
„»r b.,,r8 date.'. The multiplicity ,„, T^'"
...lion o» epochH (againnt which the Calendar of
tharlcmagne, commencing the vcar w1"h l°t
January: «,,h an mertectnal prote,t) wa« « matte,
c. -or. perp exjty to later historians: thuTdr'
n ron.cae ,cr,pt„r. , ip,e, Domini anuo, d 'e °^
nnL^ et tc-mmi, nu.nerunt nJidam
.iim«DU08 Domini incipinnt computnre ab A ,
..„fat,„no, alii a Hativitate, quida'n a CVcumc .'
.«.e, qu„ am vero a P.nione. Cui ergo Uto^um
mai[i.' ciedendum est?" "»-<'rum
1" the liast the year, in vnr.ou, form, of the
.naaued Maoedonha Calendar, began Utth Se !
t™,*r but .D timt "of the GreeKsf.-... .SyW„„7"
..a,tan ly «,e,| (or the "y„,.r of 'the (•reeks'-
= .ra .,t theSeleucidae. the vear begins 1st Octl
l*r. But the .; IndictionWrom th'eir tir,t"om^
n,-acoment at Constantinople, bore date fr m "t
^leraher, and from the Hfth century this ^n,'
ol« received as the first day of the year Tt
howcfer, at once suporsedine the older » ,.,<l!'
•","■ ««>''-"''-•! while in s/ria th s' t'
c,J,a» epoch, 1st October, has continued in use
' rV <"T ?'""''8 *'y'''"' t;«tholic,, wh,!
.«l e Is September. But the Syrian Kr^
ms he historian a.d. fi94), who uies the "el
Antioch dates its years (ron. 1st September
the u.e 01 which epoch by Gieek-wri 1,^8;.'
», m place of the true Syrian epo h^, Zt
October IS to be explained by the inHuenceof
i;h fT'^-p ^'"' •'" ««Ptember i, the year:
.Fh of the Coustantinopolitan mundane era
•odas ^ew Year's Day continued in Russh
«Dto A.D 1700, in Greece to 1821. K„r the
U,,l., A,y.s»in,ans, and Armenians using the
itendime Calendar, the ye„r begins^29th
r*.,-rfa<m7 During the first centuries in the
J«t the only consecutive Era [p. 6221 was
.ha oh urbc conclita ; the other noteiof the c^
rat.vear were given by the reckon:.g from the
.coe,«,on of the reigning emperor, ..r more com!
»;nl.vby the names of the' consols of he Tt
ary (cos,, .rjinarii). From the beginning
[the fourth century, as may be seen in Clinton
tile AD s'o „„■„?■•. ^^ * '"'^ ""^ Constan-
► This Ulvcrtity contlnneil down to 7 »49.
NIOAEA, COUNCILS OF 1389
NEW YEAR'S OIFTs Th„
"'■•I'ing gifts „u New Vea.'! Dav wm'""'"" "'
pHale wish, prevailed extens e^vT 'l"".?*''""""
'mpire in the early davV.fcK. {■'"."'• """"">
S^^tr:^7i:rS-"---
-n-stal whi'ch was as f""'' ' •'"'"•'''' ""•■"^k.
(»i'.rtignv /L^"! 1, : V'Jr?"''" '^^"«««
«-'ition), a New YoTr',^t'\oi['''- ''' ''*"'• -'"'
moHus. It does not ,u , " ""''"■''■'"• ^'"W-
which have b'n" Iffi'bjr;' ""^ "'' *'"""
-ymbols especially t, ,e of "!:^' .T"?'". "'
"■•iKin; there was iu f, .. „ '^ " Christian
W.ristians should not ado the sim! l'"" "''^
--^^. articles „.anufi.c[ir:S^a:^i:i
«i'5«'f-i^.f!:-,J--.-'".etHe
&v7«,/i97, 98 andCitnT'" ^'"^ '^"g'-^'ine,
council of A uxerre in A D S7H Vl' ' ,\ ■ ^ ""'' "
..SS' rz:;irrs ;;,?"" '•
rich to ,,ersons in power such .s tb^ " ^- ""
not emulate. The glvL of N v'"'".'' ™"'''
''«'! become, he intiS L "^ ^'"" ' «"»«
of bribery ai'id corruption' " °"*™"' '^»""»
ofiii.i^^&l^^rf'^';^""'''-'-
the church sLuM be oSd oh ,1 ''''"""' "^
ciSl?r^^- COUNCILS OP (N,cap.va Coi
Paulinus and Julianus o fin „. '^""'^"'■^''ip of
there was a law publUhe"l n- ( "T '"^■'■'"'^' ''""'
Wcaea, Mav 27rV K'mI i • ^:"n;'«"t">i'- 'l'«tej
going on when the emperor celebrate I hi ao^K
to itf-c;.e;d'fn\h?rcts":f"the''; '":: "■•^"-j
and it wasclosed somellmel./.tlS; . -•'-" !
him (/6. 21, comp^YL^B-'i . 1 ;''P^ !T
All the pnacipal documents relating to'ft way
III
''^HMI
1390 NICAEA, COUNCILS OP
bo sunn in Miinxi's Cincilia or Hcvoii.Iiji'V
S/rUKli'dn, V(il. ii. in each c«»o. Of mithi'iilic
■iii| edutenipuriny (inciimifnts rplatiiiif to it,
iaJouil, there sie hut fuw ; nf ii|)"ory|ihnl, ii
buwililoriiit? h"»t. A« it wan thu first of it«
kiri'l, w« I'iinnot bs BiirpriHe 1 that Itn nets were
not writt.'U down at the tlmi;, aH wat altcrwariis
customary. Thoro wan no boolc Iccpt i>t' the
Bets of tlitf first or oven of the nccoul ciuu-
cli, ua there waH t'rom the thinl onwarils.
Only what wbh a);ri'fil upon in coninmn, wan
committed to writing, ami suhseriboil to by
all. »H Kusebiut «,iy»(l'i<. c. ill. 14). In
this Ihnitocl class wure comprehenilcil only the
croa I, canons, nn'i synodical letter. An Valeslus
well observes, had anythini; nmre been extant,
St. Athanasius would never hiive been at the
pains of recalling so many particulars of what
passed in reply to his friea I, but would have
told him simply where he could Hnd them re-
corded. The '(lopies of the Nicene Council*
(l<ra), transmitted A.D. 4111 to the African
church from Constantinople, containeil no more
than its creed and c.inons. Its synodical letter
i.s extant in Socrates and Theodoret (i. 9), as arc
two letters issued by the emperor at its close.
His circulars in conveuiug it have not been
preserved ; but if we may trust to what Eu>ebius
tells us of their substance ( I'lY C. iii. 10; and
Vales. (iJ /.), his own letter to Chrestus, bishop
of Syracuse (A,. //. -x. 5) for assembling the
council of Aries, may serve to illustrate their
form. The letters of Eusebius to his own diocese,
besides his lil'e of the emperor, and of St.
Athanasius to his friends and to the African
bishops are first-class authorities also for
what passed, as far as they go, though from
opposite sides. What Socrates calls the ' Synodi-
cou' of St. Athanasius is not now extant, and,
being only mentioned and quoted by Socrates,
cannot be placed on the siuie footing with his
acknowledged works. For anything like cer-
tidnty we must be content with what we can
glean from these.
The eiiijieror, Eusebius tells us, wrote .latter-
ing letters to the bishops everywhere, begi^ing
them to iin'ot at N'icaea with all speed ( 1 it. C. iii.
6). St. Athanasius tells the Africans (1. 2) that
bishops to the number of ;U8 came. The council
has gone by the name of the 318 (tit;) Fathers
ever since, though other accounts of its numbers
bad been current. It met in a church (oTkos
fUKTitpios), one of the largest then known, and
situated in the very midst of the palace ( \'U. C,
iii, 7 and 10), whither its members could adjourn
easily, when the emperor desired their presence.
A solitary plane-tree marks its site still ; and
within the village church of Is-nik is a rude
picture commemorative of the event (Stanley's
/;. C. p. 121). But if we may trust the envoys
of Oregory IX., they were received, A.D. 1233.
in the actual church in which the event took
place (Mansi, xxiii. 28(> sq.). The causes which
led to it were threefold ; the heresy of Alius,
the schism of Meletius, and the moot question of
keeping Easter. The first of these was the
newest and most absorbing of all ; but who sug-
gested the novel experiment of a general council
for dealing with it? The council of Antioch.
A.D. 272, at which its then bishop, Paul of
Samosatn, was deposed, had been the near. ~t
•pproach to a general council in earlier times ;
KICAKA, COUNCILS OP
and this had been preceded by n numlier nf
•mailer meetings, as we leara from Kuiilm,]
(A'. //. vii. 28), and so grew out of them iii >|ii«
course. Kut that of Nicaea, the same authontv
tells us ( ViY. C. iii. tl), was the act of one mun •
and "Uo^l it was," says the emperor, " un wlm.j
iugi;est<ou I acteil in summoalng the bishopi, to
meet in s»i li numbers " (Soo. i. It). It was •• by
the grace of tied, and the piety of the einiiernr
in asscinbliiig us out of dilVerent cities ,inl pin.
vinces, that the great and holy synod liunc
together," say they in re'ounting its issues (i/i,).
No two accounts of the same thing couM be
more consistent. Later writers insisted on .mi|^
plementing them with n gloss of their .iah.
Sulpitius heverus, indeecl, argued from cnnLni.
porary facts, when he talked of the couiail
originating with Ilosius of Cordova (ii. 4<i); the
fathers of the sixth council argued from tlie
Usages of their own times simply, when tli.7
talked, in their prosphonetic address, df itj hiivinj
been assembled by pope Silvester iiic/Constanlin*.
Silvester, of course, concurred in nssemlillng it,
so far that ho ^ent representatives thither, biini;
unable, through old age, to atteml in ptiMjn,
They who 'Milled his place" were pre.ili.tri,
according to the same authority; and they Mib-
scribed second. Hosius, designating himself
merely bishop of Cordova, subscribed lirst. llu
subjicribed first at Sardica similarly. No less a
witness than St. Athanasius attests tlii> lust
{A/'ul. c. Ariitn. 49 sq.) ; and the ' I'risca vm-io'
makes him head its list of subscribers at bmh.
He was revered on both sides even then ; ho wis
in the highest favour of any bishop at cnnit
ni>w ; he must have been the oldest bishop, br
far, present at either, if, as St. Athanasius snys,
he was 100 years <dd, and had been bishop iiieiB
than sixty years, A.D. 3,57, when his hqw tnolc
place. Hence, the order in which bishops shmiid
sit at general councils being as yet undetormiiwl
by rule, he who was the most ancient woull be
placed first, as Eusebius expie^sly says hiul -in
done by Palmas (/7. //. v. 23), ami was a cu>t 111
in Africa much later (Cun. Afric. 86; cnmp. St.
Aug. Ep. lix.); add to \v dch, that Hosiu» had
been a confessor under Maxiininian, as he s.ivs
himselt'. Persons talked of him, said the .\ii.ii)s
— at least this is what St. Athanasius putN !r:M
their mouths — as one who presided at syn i>;
whose letters were respected everywhere, wl haJ
forinulat c.l the Niceue Creed {Ep. ad Sol. § - '-'i).
Taking all these facts into consideration, it ii
dillicult to conceive that Eusebius can mean any
but Hosius when he tells us that the bishop wLo
"sat first in the right row" delivered the open-
ing speech (Vit. C. iii. 11); especially when it
is remembered that Hosius had been the oiilr
bi.shop personally noticed liy him in enumerating
those present, only three chapters earlier, iiud
also that the very next thing we are told, alter
this notice of li'im, is that the bishop of the
reigning city was not present, but that his place
was filled by his presbyters, who were the nut !
to subscribe after Hosius. Again, there is proof
positive from Eusebius of Hosius having acted
for Constantino several times before (A'. W. x. 6; j
Vtt. C. ii. 63; oomp. Soc. i. 7). but no conlcni-
iinrarv proof whatever of his havinz ever acted |
for pope Silvester. If Eusebius had dehvertj j
the opening speech himself, he would not have j
left us to learn this from Sozomeu, uor would I
NICAKA, COUNCILS OP
JocratM have p„»».,| l, „ver |n .He,,,.,. TI,.,„I„rnt
kllm.w,,y I., ..ttrilmtiMK it to Ku,tu.l,i,H „C
An<in,:h. which U not »u.|„Ui„« in ,,„., wh,. «,„,
Wt. « uiitivo an,l a »ufli a^an „f that h-o, |„ lat,.,-
t,m.. a .|;«.d. w«h l,.v..nt«,l f„r Ku.talhlu,, ou
hw»iil)iunty, which j» xtlll extant
L'p .0 th.. l,,Ht .i„art..r of th« 5th centnry-
».l»ilh»tan, mjt all that ha,l b..,.„ written ou th«
mmnl hy h Athau,,.,iu.H, «„,| „thor father,, bv
th» on, La in an.l ||„i.« Uun-k i.cd...,ia»t eal
,. ormn. who f„||o,v,,j Ku-chiun, all „1,„ ,i,„t
U b...u cl.e.l rom it hy tho ..ouu.Hs of K,,h«.u»,
CWce.lm., and other i,la.,es-„„t „ wo.,l had
be.«.aH,or a „nt dro,.,,ed, of Hosiu.s having
nprMntcd anybody there but hhnself. a if
4,>l,or thereab..iit«, the .tatement (hat noi.o SiU
,«ler was rej,ie,ented there by him, aJ well «•.
irim own true presbyter,, was a.lventured on
brO*l««.n. of Cyzicu.H, a writer of the poorest
ereht, who make. Constantinople the scat of
ropirewhea the council met, and Hufinus, the
kiitormn, one of those present ; and to this
ilatement bishop Hefele gravely calls upon us to
wool .till (rntnxl. pp. y(i_4i „„j 4,j) I
The emperor, «« l„a,n f,„,„ Eu,^,,,^
.ntering, took up a central position In fr.u.t of
the hr.t row and for a time rem ,ne,I standini:
with the rest, who rose to receiv,- him; after-
«rJ» a chair of gold having been placed before
.m, he seated hmisclf, at the request of the
bl,h,^ps, when all sat ,lown likewise. The oneu-
i.;«|wchmade to him on their part ha.s not
l«n preserved ; his answer has. U was a short
Mhortation to pence delivered in Latin, and
..erpreled Into (Jreek as he spoke. When he
hdhmshe, he let the "presidents of the coun-
a -m other words, the bishops-speak. As
tee were multitudes present besides bishops
tee can be no more doubt that this is what
.<ehius means here by that phrase, than that
Wop. treciuently went by that name. Kndless
4-c«s*i,ms between them ensued, the em.M.inr
wi«g the part of moderator all through, eou-
r'lng with them in Greek, to display his
wnilianty with their own language, though he
W previously spoken in Latin, and getting
i™ to be of one mind and opinion on all the
Med points at last. They 'gave due proof of
mLZ T"' ""■' =""«"«-t:nsebius tells the
•tlhilofhisdioce. -and St. Athanasiusvouchcs
. account (/>,,. i>,c. S,n.<Suo. § 3 and th'
A how the creed was formed. First, the cre.d
f I. own chunh of Caesarea, and, therefore
SS '•f "'■.'he church of' Jerusalem a. :„:
rt,c heh d received from his predecessors, had
Wht as a catechumen, had taught and pro-
ity^n/rV'T' "•«''««i"'d before the
""I*™, '.nd found substantially correct • then
mie, Itions to it having been^ agreed u'ponU
'"l."Mi.shcdin the name of the council Tot
™.are given; but as all creeds had b enora
«J»o wnttea hitherto, we must n„t suppose
te to original form had never varied or
"»-e,l add tions before. Besides, being about
i tothen,, '^i . •° '•»'='""'=■" from that time
I ™' h. natura thing would be that it should
«rp\i>ed pieviouslv. Tl.« „„! .
, ;:."il? it that seems to"hav7 created""nnv
W.y, WM the introduction of thewo^d
"cceew ID getting accepted. No doubt it was
NICAEA, COUNCirS OP 1391
I on this point that Ilosius and Eusebiu, mensured
I I" lu.'n.:., with him, and the former , rev. l.d
W H.h no one else could h.ve done, tlo,;';,;
l-tter was too politic to resent his defeat Th^
mp..ror he tells his people, put a sense on thl!
s: A;i:;:;.asi:;:'«r^iL' ;^ :;::!, t'trt ""-
"hi creed agreed in this: that they. ,„'■
"We (not i) believe," an,l ended /ith a , I
profession of belief in the Holy OhosJ T ' '
he new one, was subjoined an anathema ; but
instead of being commensurate with the cred
■t was couMned, as all .ubse.,uent a ath"„ of
general councils were, to the'maintainers "^f th.
he Aria, ^ mT^„"'?. ~'"''--""-'. 'n this case
to til new formula, says Socrates, exceot five !
»nys lhe<Hloret. except two; and these' a InJ
under he anathema subjoined to it. and r.'A Z
condemn A.i,H. shared his exile, decre by
the emperor. The names of those who .uti
cribed are not extant in Greek. e*c°,.t ,^
he short 1st ofGelasius (MansI, ii. 9J7) 'whi '?
"H purely t,ctltious. No more than 2:;8 name,
are preserved in any of the Latin lists, which a "
have an artificial appearance, being tro i, ed i^
l-rovinces, „ classification which is „ll'i'°
«-.th all the Greek lists of every general cZ^
extant whatever cardinal l'itra(.sL " 1
"■•bishop Hefele (p. 29.i) may sa/ The lead ni
..shops known fiom other sources to have b eS
IMesent were Hosius of Cordova, Ale. ander of
Alexandria Kustathius of Antio'ch, Akxanaer
"f Constan mojde, Macarius of .lerusaltm Fus!
b.ns of Mcomedia, and Kusebius o? (^:. '
the historian; ht. Athanasius. th.. ' . „,: V.^
luremost there, was a deacon oi.l ^
After the creed had been agre, n, ,„ .„. ,
eanons nn discipline were ^ ssed ' Of- T'^
"umber there c!,n be no d.p',:: "foun ed '^J
least, on any document th,.l is both anci n ,„]
authent c. The pretended lotter o, St. A Isiu,
t" |.ope Mark, and the pret.n.led eigh v or 2h "
/"ur can"ns in Arabic, .herefore, proclaim^
hctitious character, l.ut we must ,u,t Zcludl
from the mere existence of the • tt r and
without further proof, with bisho , H fl / T.
he 'Greek church" ever attributed " m Jth "
twenty canoi, " to this council, still Ts etr
quoted other canons as Nioeue, " by mttake -
which were not Nicene as „„„•*, .'""'.'"'*'
Innocent, and Leo did (^ ,n6o!.^7'."f " ^"^'"""^
J he canon meriting attention mcst is the sixth
jrnodica. letter may ^^Sit^-'^J
them next after Aiiia M„i .• l <' '•"vigeu
priests and dea^on^inioS'r:;;^^^^^^
Vnereie j 40). The council depr ved him of all
power in con.sequence, but dealt more leniently
with his followers ; and to prevent any s inHaP
.rregulanties iu future, pas.sed its foun^h fifS
and si.xth canons. Of these, the fourth oniers
that the consecration of « l,i„l,on "!,..!.,''
gcnoial. be the act of all fthe bishnn«r'I'*''.k
province (in which the vacanTsee wTiuate^''
brhoprrnToftt """' '■" '^'•"■•"s- ■^"'' S
(.oisnops;, nut of the province necessarily, coma
m
139:
NICAEA, COUNCILS OF
together )n every case to lay hands on him ; vet so
that the ratification of all that took place sh'oulil,
in every province, be given to the metropolitan.
In other words, so long as the bishops of the
province were consenting parties, the consecrnton
no (ewer than three, and the metropolitan con-
firmed their act, it was not indispensable that
the consecrators, when circumstances would have
made this inconvenient, should be of the same
province. Such, at least, was the interpretation
put upon it by the fathers of the second general
council (Theodoret, E. //. v. 9, near the end).
This (anon, again, it will be seen at a glance,
must refer to the same act throughout; that one
act, namely, which bishops alone, who are the
only persons mentioned here, could perform.
Consequently, the interpretation given to it by
the fathers of^the second Nicene council, in their
third canon, is irrelevant, and need not be noticed,
except so far as this — viz. that the provincial
bishops in consecrating a new bishop, confirmed
his election, and their metropolitan, in approving
of his consecration, confirmed both. But this is
the only reference to his election which this
canon contains. The fifth canon, similarly con-
cerns another episcopal act relevant to this case.
Meletius having been for his offences excommnni-
CBted by the bishops of his province, it is ordered
that the canon iuterdicting any that have been
excommunicated by some from being received by
othei-s (Can. Apost. 10), should rule cases of this
kind ; but that enquiry might always be made
whether any pei-sons had been excommunicated
unfairly by their bishop, synods of all the
bishops in each province are directed to be held
twice a year, in the spring and autumn, for that
purpose. The sixth citnon is not merely con-
cerned with episco])al acts alone, but with epi-
scopal acts ouly between bishops and their
metropolitan, in other words, with episcopal
jurisdiction. Had it, therefore, been always
designated by its proper title "bishops and
their metropolitans — the only persons named
in it, and the latter the highest dignitaries
known to the church as yet — its meaning would
have remained clear. As it is, few subjects have
provoked a wider or a wilder literature. More-
over, the first half of the canon enacts merely
that what had long been customary with respect
to such jiersons in every province, should become
law, beginning with the province where this
principle had been infringed ; while the second
half declares what was in future to be received
as law on two points, which custom had not as
yet expressly ruled. "This is plain to all, that
if auy become bishop without consent of his
metropolitan, the great synod has defined that
he ought not to be bishop". But should two or
three, (rom simple contentiousness, oppose what
has been agreed upon in common by all, and is
in accordance with ecclesiastical law, and reason-
able, let the vote of the majority prevail," that
is, become law. Nobody disputes the meaning
of this last half; nor, in fact, would the mean-
ing of the first half have been questioned, had it
not included Knme. " Let ancient customs pre-
vail "—or become law — " in Egypt, Libya, and
Prntapnlls"— fir.-.vinrps then subject to the
Augustal prefect, and in which Meletius had been
creating disturbances — "so that the bishop of
Alexnndiia should have the power (which he has
by custom)ovor all these . . . and in like manner
NICAEA. COUNCILS OP
at Anfioch, and in all other provinces, let th«
churches be maintained in their privileges." JJo.
body can dispute the meaning of this either,as it
stands. Nobody can maintain that the bishops of
Antioch and Alexandria were called patiiaiclis
then, or that the jurisdiction they had tlicu was
co-extensive with what they had afterwards, wlien
they u-ere so called. "Since this is usual also for
the bishop in the (capital) city, Rome." It is ,,5
this clause, standing v»'"e"*h«tically bt'twcen
what is decreed for the particular cases of Kz-pt
and Antioch, and in consequence of the inteiiire.
tation given to it by Kufinus, more particuhiilv'
that so much strife has been raised. Rufinus may
rank low as a translator, yet, being a native Jf
Aquileia, he cannot have been ignorant of Roman
ways, nor, on the other hand, had he greatly mis-
represented them, would his version have waited
till the seventeenth century to be im|iiMohed
What is called the » Prisca versio Latina " onu.'
not dispute, though it tiies to disarm his paia-
phrase by a gloss of its osvn, his being "L't
apud Alexandriam et in urbe Koma vetusta
consuetude servetur, ut vel ille Aegypti, vel
hie suburbicariarum ecdesiarum sollicitmlinim
gerat ; " that of the " Prisca versio," whicli ij
undoubtedly the later of the two, by some fifty
years according to Gieseler, § 91 : " Antiqui moii's
est, ut urbis Romae episcopus habeat jirincipatum
et sufcurbicaria loca, et omnem provinciam iuara
(al. sua) sollicitudine gubernet ?" Moreover, the
title given to it in this version runs as follows :
" De primatu ecclesiae Romanae vcl aliirwn
ctvititum episcopis." "Suburbicary churclies"
were the churches of the suburban or "siiburbi-
cary places," or " regions," over which the juris.
diction of the city praefect extended (Cave, Ch.
Gort. Hi. 2-;j), embracing a circuit in even
direction to the hundredth milestone. Tli'e
bishop of Rome, therefore, stood at the head of
the bishops of those churches in heathen times
and before the regular institution of metroi)uli-
tans. This was one fact ; afterwards it was a
fact no less, that his jurisdiction bicattie com-
mensurate with that of the city vicar, and was
spread over ten provinces: 1. Campania; 2
Tuscany, with Umbria; 3. Picenum ; 4. Sitilv,
5. Calabria, with Apulia; 6. Lucania, with the
Bruttians ; 7. Samnium ; 8. Sardinia; 9. Corsica;
10. Valeria. Th^e ten provinces the 'Prisca
versio' calls " omnem provinciam suam;" which,
accordingly, went no farther northwards than
the gulf of Spezzia on the west coast, and the
mouth of the Rubicon on the east, leaving the
sees of Aquileia, Milan, and Ravenna, simlhir
centres in their own neighbourhood of the seven
northern provinces to which the jurisdiction of
the vicar of Italy was then confined (Fancirol,
Aotit. Diijn. ii. 2). The composition of tlie
Roman synod at one time bore testimony to its
original, at another to its extended limits; and
now and then its dimensions were enlarged ex-
ceptiomill;/, as will be pointed out under that head.
[Pope ; Romk, Councils oi'.]
The remaining canons need not occupy muck
apace. Canons eight to fifteen relate to th,
lapsed princij)ally — those that had concealed or
.^fajurcd their t.iith to escape persecution. Ttii
Novatians, or Puritans, u thoy styled them-
selves, had incurred censure for refusing U
communicate with those who had beon twici
raairied and also with the lapsed, even uftct
they had performed thei
of restoring all such wa
ordination of any whi
debarred them from the
ias-alid. To the dying,
old rule of the church,
ind most necessary viatu
under any circumstances
take rank with commi
they recover. By the si
th"! clergy from one dioc
hidden. By the sevente(
are to be struck off the i
the eighteenth, deacons
any fuuctious that belong
that uf giving the Euchai
it is decreed that all th
Paul of Samosata, deaconi
re-ba|)tized before they
Deaconesses indeed, ne
imijosition of hands, can
personages. That this is
the phrase Spos ixTtdi
has now been made,' is ch
tion of the words Spos,
and Spifffv, in canon six,
mistake, therefore, which
follows, to understand it
viously passed, whether al
In the ' Prises Versio ' t
deaconesses is reckoned a se
twenty-one in all. By ti
directed to pray standing
whole time between Easter
The three first canons, h
with the causes which led
be considered here more con
they stand. The first decre
made themselves eunuchs n
or, if ordained, must resit
lecoud that none should be ;
priest or bishop, who had no
or after full instruction ; a
nation, should any crime I
person, he must forfeit hi
tlergy. By the third, no
deacon, or clerk of any soj
with him — (rvvdaaKrov as
house, any woman less nea
than a mother, sister, or
ase, such persons as are qui!
It used to be maintained thi
was imposed by this canon;
DMath, that the story tolc
Sozomen of the venerable bisl
a fiction. In fact, the markc
canon of all reference to the
female relatives of the cleri
owe liy his protest against an
and wife.
On the Easter question th
passed, but only the undersf at
"Inch the bishops in their
and he emperor in his circ
hat all the brethren in the I
celebrated Easter with the Jev
keep It agreeably with the Ron
:" '""A r„ * '"'"'"" aaoieufc time
"7;Soc.i. 9). In other
!"'V" "''>»;''"' the festival
weet, though never on the 14th
NICAEA, COUNCILS OP
they had performed their penance. The manner
of restonugnllsuch was now settled "hn??!!
or iua^on of any whose crime" shJuM^It:
S To'Th T''"'-Pr''">°°'» *- decS
u { r .u® 1^'°«' ""^w-l. accordine to the
old rule of the church, the Eucharist, or "W
•nd most necessary viaticum," U not tobedenfed
undorany orcumstancesj but they are not to
ttrrc"ver""Bvr'""f'""l' p'°P- "^-'^
tney recover. By the suteeuth, translations of
h^clergy from one dioce.e to Another a e for-
hidden. By the seventeenth, lenders on uVurV
>e to be struck off the rolls of the clergy. bT
the eighteenth deacons are forbidden t^o^usu™
«ay fuuctious that belone to nHp«t» " '" "f" P
th.t of giving the Euchafis R 'niXn L^
it is decreed that all the clerioal folbt f of
Paul of bamosata, deaconesses included mu be
re-ba|)tized before thev can ha >„ if ■
Deaooae.es ''^^ee^r^Zr^ ^:i^-'':^^
imposition of hands, can only be treated n
personages. That this is thrt^-ue mea^i^g'Tf
he phrase 8p„s i.r^Surai, viz. 'a decree
as now been made,' is clear from the apniica!
100 of the words Spo,, in canon sevente n
tr:^' m canon six. It has been a pure
mistake, therefore, which bishop Hefole blindW
folWs, to unde.;sta„d it of some canon pte^
viously passed, whether at Aries or elsewhere
kthe 'Prisca Versio' this enactment about
eacooesses is reckoned a separate canon, mukin.
wen ty-one m all. By the twentieth al a°f
directed to pray standing on Sundays and til
who e time between Eastir and Peute'cost! '''
The three first canons, having nothing to do
mth the causes which led to the council may
1.1 Ik . "' '*^"««' 'hat such as have
made themselves eunuchs may not be orda."ed
or, 'f ordained, must resign their post The
Kcond that none should be raised to the office of
pnest or bishop, who had not been long baptized '
"'•^"f"" 'n^fuction; and even after ordi
Mtion, should any crime be proved against a
person, he must forfeit his ploce amfn^th!
olergy. By the third, no bishop, Trie^t 1.
wis'hi,:'" ^i^'-^of ««>>' -'-t, ma/'haveliting
with him-o-„„(/a.a«ro,— as an inmate of hi!
house any woman less nearly related to him
than a mother, sister, or aunt • or in »„
c«e, su,:h persons as ar^ quite beyond suspicion'^
lilldbTh "■"'='' '''' oLc,l"eTibacy
So^o^en of the venera'bi bllp'kfhSs ^a
a fiction n fact, the marked omission in tZ
-l,y^hisprotestag..;st':nf-rS:?l^^^
i t't fwTh "he"; """'' '^le '"™"'r
H i{ ^-^S w/StttLs^dt" ::!i::i"
«"id«nSel,!eth^:u:;roftH' ''"' '"^^
lion of our r.ni.? .1 '"s"'*' of the resurrec-
weelt tho^^hn always on the first day of thp
teen, though never on the Uth day of the month
NICAEA, COUNCILS OP I393
^;: r.tri;',r-»rir ?^
He himself originated another eloss unon if
wmmm
■ollecHnn "'"' '"'""='■' '" 'hePseudo-Isido?Ln
collection was penned in their interest Th.
couutil a,dregsed no letter t,7hi^ l^ "at the
»y letter fr„„ U° ?""»„'»,■ -!"'""
I »h. „„;.f js tSei^r. -j-r s
'" «'f '""" ""■• s:.°'n "IS "•'""■'•
.p.oti„i, ,„ ii,.!;s.°'iit "■"'""£ • "•
tran I-ti - "T"' "'"' *'"'«■ even a contemporary
headed: but even so Jh. .f ' "'"'='' ^" '"
uui even so, the statements made re-
'lie
1394 NICAEA, COUNCILS OP
epoctiiiK them aw vngiio i\nil conflictinu;: nml It
might h« xhowQ on nimiliir uviilcmx', thiit a
Ijitia fniiialation of thcsu canons wi»s Hupiilii'cl
by tho Niooue Fiithora to I'opu Silvester himself.
Agiiin, how comes it, if so miiny cut luui driwl
versions of the Niceuo canons were thus early
niHile, Ihiit not one is ever cited at Icmjth, either
in these versions or iiny other, by meniliois of
tho Al'ricun or of tho Roman Church, or by nny
Western synod, in prc-Dionysiiin times: to siiy
nothing of these versions being unknown to
Dionjsius himself, by whom tho African code
W1I9 (irst brought into notice? Tlie fnct is,
Dionysius is iin inconvenient Huthorily for
modern theories respecting the Siirdican canons,
which the Topes endeavoured to pass as Nicene,
till tho appearance of his collection, as will be
shewn further ou. [Saiuuca, Coiincii, ok ;
romp. DiCT. CliUlST. lllua. art. 'Dionysius
Exiguus.'] [K. S. Kf J
NICARA (8) the 2nd council of, the 7th nnd
ias» genera! ; being the last to be received ns
such finally by tlie Western churches in com-
munion with Konie, and the Kiistern chuiches in
communion with ("onstnntinople ; as well as the
only general council which has nt times been
condemned by both, exclusive of Koine. (I'almer,
(>n the Church, iv. 10. 4.) Mi't in the 8th year
of the empress Irene and her son tNmstantine,
A.D. 7H7. It contrasts with the lir>t council
in that its acts are evtant and fill a volume, to
nay nothing of their hivliii; been trnnslateii by
Annstnsius, the Hom:ili libr.irian, and dedicated
by him in a prefice of sinj;ular interest to pope
John VIII.; while those of the first were m.t
even committed to writing.
To understand its decrees, some previous phases
of the contest about imaiies must be recalled.
The emperor I.eo III., surnamed the Isaurian,
had taken a violent ]mrt against imiiges and
tireir defenders, which had been bitterly re-
sented in his own capital, and still more by pope
Gregory II., who challenged him in two fiery
letters to attempt similar measures in Italy.
Tho emperor replied by confiscating all the
papal domains in Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily.
His son and grnnd.son following in his steps
retained them. Hut his grea'-gramlsnn was a
minor, in dependence upon his mother, and she,
yielding to the instances of the retiring patii-
arch Paul, and of the new patriarch Tarasius,
took steps for reversing all that had been decried
against imngesin a council held under his grand-
father (."on.strtutine, surnamed Copionymus, A.n.
Ibi, anil whiih then passed for the 7th ciuucil.
She wrote, therefore, to pope Adrian 1. in
their joint nanu's A.n. 78+, inviting him to a
council which she proposed assembling at Con-
stantinople for th it purpose; but her letter
remained unanswired for two years. At length,
A.D. 78(), two presbyters arri\ed from Home to
be present at it on behalf of the pope. Kven then,
the coumil had no sooner met than it had to be
closed on account of the disturbances to which
It gave lise, Tho year fdlowing it was trans-
ferred to Nicaca, where its proiee lings occupied
r.o more than a iiv^nth, as has her
said.
According to the lists given in Mansi, 200
bi.shops or their repre.sentatives attended its
first action or session, and 310 subscribed to
what was dvtined at its 7tli and last. The
NICAEA, COUNCILS OP
first place was Mslgnod to the legates of Ihn
pope, though presbyters. Tarasius, who luid
just bsen appointed patriarch, while yet a
layman, by the civil power, sat soconil, ami was
the chief speaker throughout. Two presbyters,
representing tho patriarchs of Antioch ami
Alexandria, who wero kept away by tho
Saracens, sat next. Tho see of Jerusalem,
being vacant, wi\s not represented. The rest,
with very few eiceptious — and none farther
west than Italy — camo from tho east. At the
request of tho bishops of Sicily, Tarasius opened
proceedings in a short sju'eeh. The imperial
letter, or Sacra, was then read, in which re-
ference was made to his consecratiin, to the
petition that had been made by him tor n
council, and to tho steps wliich hail bien taken
for assembling this. Lastly, several liislio|i«
who had attended tho iconoclastic icmneil under
Copronymu.s, or been conaecated by those that
had, on confessing their errors, and iind'esRing
the faith of the six previous couiu;ils, wew
received.
At tho Fccond action, two letters frum iinpe
Adrian were read ; ono to the empreis and her
son, the other to Tarasius. The first lieijinj
with a filtering reference to the exaltatiun of
the Uonvin see by the first emperor Cnnstaiitiro
and his mother, together with his recovery from
leprosy through pope Silvester, whoso mts are
then quoted in favour of images, supplemented
by other authorities. Al'tr.,\.irds, if Anasfa«iH«,
or rather the anonymims somebody who pro-
fesses to record his words, is to bo trusted, the
pope commented on the consecration of Tarasius,
and on his being styled oecumenical palriarcli in
passages which tho Greeks su|i|iressed, and cim-
eluded by protesting against the detenliiin of hi«
rights and patrimony, contrasting with it all the
provinces and cities and provinces which ho had
just received in perpetuity from ('harliMnngnp,
besides what ho had regained through him f'reiTi
the Lombards. Hut all this is suspieinus, being
only preserved in a Latin version, and in nny
case should be compared with n letter written
to Cliarlemagno by the same pope nine yours
before (Cod. Carol. I'p. Ix.), for the marked
abstention from any reference to the contents of
the papal archives in one, and tho piilmnry
reference to the donation of ("onstantiiie pre-
served there in the other. Even if geniiiLic, the
Greeks might well have suppressed this pnssngo,
no general council having ever been sskwl
before to occupy itself with such subjects. The
letter to Tarasius Is said to have been similarly
ni\ifilated ; but in this case tho Latin version
contains nothing of any sort which is not found
in the Greek. The pope merely speaks in it of
tho synodical epistle received from Turniiui
announcing his election and containing his yia-
fes.sion. As this last was in entire harmony
with the faith of the six previous connciU, and
had taken the right view of images, he would
not insist on the twofold blots of his eleelion—
at least, if the patriarch will engage to do three
things: (1) to get the pseudo-synod ngsinit
images condemned ; (2) to seek union with th«
Koman see to that cstent ns to make jirofesilon
of his devotion to it as head of all the ehurches
of God ; (:l) to get images restored by an impoiial
edict to their accustomeil places in all thi
churches of the capital and throughout th»
F.n»t, conformably with
Kiiniiin church. Both
(Dtliiisiastically by the c
iasuliseribing to thom,d<
oforthoiloxy for what tin
In the third action, C
CsoMirea, recanted his foi
reoelvod. Then n copy :
iient by Tarasius to his bn
been read out, it was prm
ivhst had been sent to tl
ti)it they had just heard
ingly. Two points iu it
I. It asserted procession o
the Father, through or
aoi'theinalised pojio Himoi
ihellto loaders by name
well w tlicir followers. T
iVom the patriarchs of Ar
anil with it the synodical 1
fclvcs received from tho It
(alcm, on his election, folio
these the Holy (Jhoat is sal
i.nni t lie Ka t h er : the tench
fouiieils is epitomised and i
llouoiiiis is distinctly said
mntised by the sixth. Uotli
in accordance with the pi
■nd subscribed to by all.
With the fourth action
work of the council, I'assi
.NVw Testament were reai
vWWo representations of t
seen. I'assages from tho
imniieii or pictures with
.Scvcrel of these passages,
fmm works of no credit"; so
spuriiMia works, as Cave
firiibly. Still, the eigl
ijoon, which they considerei
rovers their decision in prini
hi been acted ;ipon in the
when n picture cf our Lord i
ii|H)stlo of I'aigland, ns he .
Alt, in general, might hav
fhiirch had they decided o'
where they state their inferen
mil say that thoy " hommr s
of hi.ly persons and holy thin
prpetiial remembrance of
they imsert nothing irration
they mill, "ns likewise nial
tneir holiness," they may rnci
uciting people to euduavuui
they wero."
The 111111 action was occup
tha proceedings of the cour
imilerCeprunymus, a.D. 7,')4. f
nmnf its authorities was exi
juihoritics cited in conden
Jexl, volumes from which pm
im.iges had been torn out were
Ihereactiim against images v
the .Saracens. At the 6th acti
iif the same council assumei
'h«p«. It was subdivided i
f«it< 80 .irinnged that in each
'"'""P of Neo-CaesHre.i, ons
prektes, reads out fiortions ol
l»eiiilo.synod, and one of the
ihmh of Ccnstanlinople their
Jh« eouucil met f„r its si
CllillSf. ANT.-VOL. U.
NICAEA, COUNCILS OP
folt, cnnf.irm.ibly with thn tnulitlon of tho
ILinKin ohiM.I,. U„fh letttTH wore nc«.i,t..,l
entlMis.HstuMlly |,y tho ™un...l, ami f.ho l,i,h.,|,„
II Mil.«rnhM,^r t„ thetn,au.a,iie.| th«in « stan.lnivi
olnrthdildsy l„r what thoy contiiincid.
In tlio thinl Hclion, (ingnrv, bishop of Nco-
(M.«ro.i, locnntcl hi. former o,,;„i„„.,, „n,l w.i«
roceivwl l)i,,n ., copy of the »y,i,„li,.„l i,,,t..r
wntby liiinMusto his brother patriiin:ii,s Imvinir
boon r..,,, out, it wiiH pronoi.nml i.lonticnl witi.
vh«t lm.l b..m, «ont to the popo, whoso «„Hwer
loitthoyhiid jii»t hcar.1 an<l acc-pteil accord-
mgly. Iwopoint« in it ib'sorvo somo noiir, —
I It n.s«.rted procession of the Holy (Jhost from
the Father, thr.iiiKh or by the Son. 2 It
anntnetiiatised popo Honorius with other m.mo-
thf lite loailers by name, and their douinas, m
ctII as tiieir (ollowers. The reply to thi.s letter
inim the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria,
mid with It the synodical letter they had tliem-
(*lvcH received from tho Into patriarch of .lerii-
raleni, on his election, followed. In tho latter of
these the ll.dy (ihost is said to proceed ctonially
i.™i the I'ather : the tenchini? of the six previons
ooiuinl.., IS ejMtomised and professed: while pope
lloiioiius is distinctly said to hav(. been nnathe-
raatised by the sixth, lloth letters were declared
■n .ccoidance with the profession of Tarusius,
■ml Hiibscnbed to by all.
With the fourth action commenced the real
work of tho council. Passages from iheOl.l and
.Vw fesiiiment were read out favourable to
vijihlc representations of things absent or iin-
wn. I'assag,.s from the fathers, mentioning
iinnes or pictures with approval followed
SovoiT.! of these passages. Indeed, were drawn
fnimworKsol no credit ; some from confessedly
ipuriona works, as Cave |H.lnfs out (i Cld)
felbly. Still, the eighty -second Trnllai.
c«oon, which they considered oecumenical, alone
covers their decision in principle ; and this again
hiui been acted upon in tho preceding century,
uhen a picture of our Lord was borne before the
i|»)8tle of f.ngland, as he entered Cantcrburv
Alt, in general, might have been lost to the
Aiircli had they decided otherwise. Finally
whi'ie they state their inferences (Mansi, xiii. lUli
M *ny that they "honour such representations
ol li..ly persons and holy things, as lemling to the
Fipctnal remembrance of their pn.totypes "
t ey essert nr.thing irrational ; and oven when
ey mid, "as likewise making us sharers <,f
Mr lioliness, they may mean no more than " as
"Citing people to endeavour to be ns good as
Iney were, "
The lll>Ii action was occupied with details in
(he proceedings of the council against images
uii4.rC.,pionymus, a.d. 7,H. First, the wort hless-
nmof Its authorities was exposed, and counter-
"iilhoiities cited in condemnation of them
L"l''l! iT" ''"■""' ''^^"^ !'«'*"'«'"' '" fn^-'""' "f
m..ges had been torn out were displayed. I,a.stly.
e miction against images was traced bade to
e-Saraeens. At the 6th action, the refutation
> the same council assumed a more formal
««[». It was suMividod into six tomes or
ijtasoari'anged that in each of them Gregory
r* eK, reads out portions of the acts of tho
™lo-»yno-l. and one of tho deacons of he
'h;^"l. of Constantinople their refutation.
2L7T»t '"'* '"'"■ '*' ''""'^^ *'^"'^'> on
Wiiilif. ANT.— VOL. II.
NICAEA, COUNCILS OP 1305
i ^cilv''^; "l *■" '^^"'"l"'-'-' '-i'l'"!' "f Taormina in
■ or |^I'„ ' ""' "\'''^^"""i""- This, after a sl-ort
irWace, comi,ie„c«| with the cr.!..d, in the Co,.
tnlor.ing •„ exclusive use, which wo find an-
™ded o it at the fourth, tilth, and sixt'oL.
in /ide^^tw"';."'"''''"'.^'"' '"■""""''■'' ■""•'«
-aim side tbat llie insertion of tho "/V/,o.;««"
was decreed at this council ; tho very t 211
w|.s blamed by the council of Fia fk'^f,
the heretics by name, whom the- six previous
ntS:;:i7""''"''^'"'''"« '"■•■" '^-''"^
iiixt. It declared lor piescrv ni' all i.,...l.. ,„ .■ i
t^litions intact, one I,.- ,w,i:;^l^"^^^^
"lent ot symboln.al reprcentotions. And there
-•I.-"" -t; ecrced, lastly, tbat images of r r
;r other material, might, like the coss ba
v.ssels .ind vesfnu-uts used at ilivine service in
pm-ate houses or by the roa.lside, a r h'a "
indies or mcense bornt, accor.ling to cu ton<
belorc them, and be kissed and salifted , i , "i
reu.n.„ce, saving only the worship (| ,
•na clergy, and excommunicating all m„„k, and
hiymen who maintained the contn.ry. Imau, ,1
hers ' '•" J"'""""-' t" the empress and
anir . ;"■'';■•'« ■'■'''/ '''^--■"''l-l'-ishops
^: Xf:,;,:d'C;;;;-i-;^'- -
^ ::^rh^:-:;rtre;;£rd
W ' h'rrT"' ""'';«-*y-two can.,ns pis d!
>l these the hrst insists on the observance of
he canons by all, but seems t,. point rat r r to
.>«...« than discipline. If it is lield t,r ..
■II he canons oi the six previous cuncils it
""..^t, ot course, bo understood' to coiili t|'
':''ll'm or guini-sext canons. The se ,," !
;l<»us that no i,islio,, shall bo consecra wh„
wu not a thorough' knowledge th'tS"
thecanous.„nd lolyScriptur^ingenen,. The
thud declares all appointments of bishop, by
tho civil power void, as being contrary to to
<:anons. Thus Tarasius elle.tuallv b rred U
own cj^,Vombec.uning a precedent t" ,1 h
nd (ilth are strong against simony. Th.. six h
news the rule that a provincial synod ball be
la an\ T'1 """' " ^'""'- '^'^^ »"•'"»'' -•da ill,
h any b shop consecrating a church in futu e
without relics of the saints shall be deposed. Ue
c.ghtli decrees against receiving any ,/ews who
are not sincere converts. The ninth^o. s Zl
.1 there"? "^ ."•" '"'"■'"'•'■'' "' ^''nstantfnoplo
iiiKl there .stowed away with all other heivt™!
sm.h b t"^- ''"'";''• '"■''-'■^*' •"• ''•■"•"" CO calini
stich books ,s to be deposcl, „nd any monk „?
h|yman anathematised. Tho'remainin^ i tten
being of less consequence, ,n«y be passed o ver '
Anastasius is allowed to have translated the«.
cnnons whether ho translated the {"",'cc (U'^.Tf
the eighth «es.sion or not, which some deny Thi
La .„ version which used to bo thought anierir
to his, omits them certainly. »«, if the fit !I
r-ven at tho end of hi, p^efa e ar hi it .
plam that he looked upon tho eighth session i
89
i 1 -■■
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{Kni 1
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'
lWi!-:s
?MI
1396
NICANDER
one with the seventh, an<l such is, nppnrently,
the view which Theophiines, who was present,
tiilces of it in his Chronographia. The other
jiieces in connection with it, also given in Latin
nnil (Jrecic, are : 1. A complinicninry speech
addressed to the council by Kpiphauius, deiion
of the church of Cntnna, in Sicily. 'J. A htter
from Taraaius to pope Adrian, tersely dcscn ng
the council, which " by placing a copy c» lie
Gospels in its midst, constituted Christ its htad,
and by causing the letters of the p"pe to be read
(irst in order, constituted him its eye." 3. A
second, and still more remarlciible letter from
the same to the same, bristles with denunciations
from Scripture, the canous, and the fathers,
against simony, thus not merely throwing light
upon the fourth and tifth canons passed at this
council, but suggesting that they may have been
as much needed just now for the West as the
Kiist. 4. A letter from the same to an anchoret
dignitary, mimed John, announcing and expound-
ing to him t!ie decrees of the C.iuncil. The latter
standing last in Mansi, which purports to have
been aildressed to tlie church of Alexandria by
this council, wa-! probubly written to bring about
its commemoration in a later age. It now stamls
for commemoration in the Greek Mcnology on
Oct, 12, and is there said to have been attended
by ;Ui7 fithers. For the letter written in defence
of it by pope Adrian to Charleraague, which
llansi prints last but one, sec 'Council of
Frankfort.' (Mansi, xii. 6j1 ad. f. and xiii. 1-820 ;
Beveridge, Synod 11. lti5-9 ; Hefele, 111. 410-,'i7.)
[E. S. Ff.]
NICANDER (1) Martyr in Egypt under
Piodeiiau; commemorated Mar.l5 (Uasil. Jfeno/. ;
Boll. Acta SS. Mart. ii. 392). The Meuology
assigns to the same day the martvrdom of
another Nicander, " sanctus apostolus. '
(3) Martyr, commemorated in Africa June 5
(l/ieion. Mart.); Usuard gives the name on the
same day with Maroianus and Apollonius, in
Egypt ; and Hieron. Mart, calls him in the same
connexion Nigrandus. Basil (Menol.) mentions
Kicander with Martianus on this day.
^3) MariyA withQuiriacus, Ulastus, and of hers,
commemorated at Rome .lune 17 (Nieron. Mart.);
assigned to this day with Martianus in Boll.
Ai.tu SS. ,lun. ill. '266.
(4) Uishop of Myra ; commemorated Nov. 4
(r<;/. Jii/zaiit. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 273).
(6) Martyr, with Hiero, Hesychius. an J others;
commemorated Nov. 7 (Basil. Menol). [C. H.]
NICANOR (1) one of the seven deacons
(Acts vi.), martvr at Cyprus; commemorated
•Tan. 111. (Usuard. Mart.; Vet. Rom. Mart.;
Boll. Ada SS. Jan. i. 601).
(2) Martyr with Martiana and Apollonius
[if. N'CASDKR (2)]; commemorated in Egypt
Xn.bUlUron.Mart; Usuard. 3/<i/-<. ; Vet. Rom.
Mart.); July 2H (Ci/. lliizard. ; Basil. Menol. ;
Daniel, CmI Litxmj. iv. 26+). [C. H.]
NICASIUS, bishop, martyr, with his virgin
sister Eutropia at Kheims ; commemorated
Pec. 14 (Usuard. Mart. ; Surius, de J'rob. Sanct.
Mist. i. iv. Dec. 11, p. 264, ed. Coh-.n '■^■y')-
[C. H.J
NICE, martvr, A.D. 303; commemorated by
the Greeks Ap.' 25. (Boll. Acta SS. Ap. iii.
061.) t^'- »-:i
NIOETIUS
NICE (NfKTj), a town so called in Thrace not
far from Adrianople, where the Arlans hclj a
council, A.D. 359, Oct. 10, on their way hoina
from Himiiii, to publish the creed brought
thither by Valens, in order that from the name
which it would thus get it might be confounded
with the Niccne. (Soc. ii. 37.) Instead of which
it WHS condemned in the West, as soon as known.
It betrayed its character by condemning the m t
of the word ' Homoousios ' ; besiles which it
contained "the descent info hell," which hml
not as yet appeared in any church creed. It {3
extant in Theodorct (//. E. ii. 21), and was re-
peated almost word for word at Con.^tantlnnple
the year following (Soc. ii. 41.) St. llihuy
(Fragm. viii.) gives the fullest account of what
took place. The sentence passed on Valens and
Ursacius at Uimini was rescinded nt the snme
time. (Mansi, iii. 309-314.) [E. S. KC]
NICEAS (NiCETAS), bishop of Romntiann in
Dacia ; depositio June 22 (Usuard. Mart. ; Itoll.
Acta SS. .lun. iv. 243). [C. H.]
NICEFORUS. [NiCEPiiORUS.]
NICENE CREED. [Creed.]
NICKPIIORUS (1) Martyr with Victorinni
and Kve others; commemorated Jan. 31 (Itasil.
Menol.) ; Nicoi'lioiius, Feb. 2,'i ( Vet. Horn. Mart.);
NlCOMOnus, Feb. 25 (Usuard. Mart.).
{2) Martyr nt Antioch, under Valeri.in and
Gallienus; commemorated Feb. 9 (Basil. Afcnul ;
Cal. liizant. ; Daniel, Cd. Liturg. iv. 253 ; Boll.
Acta SS. Feb. ii. 283).
(3) (N1CEFORU8) Martyr, commemorated ia
Africa March 3 (Hieron. Mart).
(4) Martyr, commemorated April 5 (Cal
Dytant.).
(6) Patriarch of Constantinople ; commemo-
rated June 2 (Basil. Monol.).
(6) Martyr with Antoninus, Germanus, and
others' ; commemorated Nov. 13 (Basil. Menol,).
[C. H.]
NICETAS (1) a bishop in Dacia ; commemo-
rated Jan. 7 (Boll. Acta S.S. Jan. i. 305).
(2) Bishop of Apollonias, confessor in tha
Iconocliistic period ; commemorated March 20
(Boll. Acta SS. Mart. iii. 165).
(3) Bishop of Romatiana. [Niceas.]
(4) Martyr with Aquilina, under Deiius; com-
memorated July 24 (Boll. Acta SS. Jul. v. 492).
(6) Martyr at Nicomedia, under Maximiau it
is said ; commemorated at Venice Sept. 12
(Boll. Acta S3. Sept. iv. 6).
(6) A Gothic martvr ; commemorated Sept. 15
(Basil. Menol.; Cal. hijzant.; Daniel, Cod.Liturg.
iv. 269 ; Boll. Acta SS. Sept. v. 38).
(7) "Our father," related to th.i empress
Irene, confessor ; commemora'ed Oct. 6 (Ba-sil.
Menol.). [C- "•]
NICETIU8 (1) Martyr, commemorated at
iVicomedia Jan. 20 {Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Bishop of 3esan9on in the 7th century:
commemorated Feb. 8 (Boll. Acti SS. Feb. ii. 168).
(3) Bishop of Eyon, A.D. 673 ; comraeiuorsleJ
April 2 {Hieron. Mart.; Usuard. Mart.; Boll.
Acta SS. Ap. i. 95).
(4) Bishop of Treves. [N1CETC8.I [C. H.]
XICETU8 (1), Bisl
Vienne (Hieron. Mart. ;
(9) Martyr, commemr
Via I'ortuensis, July 2i)
(5) Martyr, commcm
(Hieron. Mart.).
(4) Two martyrs of 1}
tt Alexandria Sept. 10 (,
(6) Martyr, commeino
Ilicron. Mart.) ; NiciTii
Hist. t. iv. Oct. i. p. 2,
ActaSS. 0. S. H. saec. i
(6) Martyr, commcmc
Mart.).
NIOIA (1) Virgin i
Ap. 28 (Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr, commemo
Mart.).
NICO (1) Bishop, " Jl
enippnnions, A.D. 25tt, nen
Bwmoiated Mar. 23 (Itasil.
Daniel, Cod. Litury. iv.
Mart. iii. 442).
(2) Martyr, with Neo 1
niemorated Sept. 28 (Ilasi
NIC0DEMU8, .Jewish
inventio at Jerusalem Au
y&rofi. Mart. ; Vet. Rom.
NICODEMUS. Gu(!r
tych of the 8th or 9th t
Psciaudi (Antiiuitites Chi
plate), in which Nicodemi
rase, fifth figure on the s<
tych. He is to found bi
Kloudemni m tlia Eiitombmeiil.
from a 9th century Greek M
Je Usury (VKvan/ile, vol.
!'m Hibhthequ.' Aationale,
Mfre he is jminted out by 1
Ihe writer cannot find nnv r<
0Mp.jriodofhis visit to our
NICOFORUS (1), mart-
W. 25 (Usuard. Jfart.); Ni
(//wn. Mirt.). [NiCEPiioR
NICETU8
XICETU8 (1), ni,,hop, comin<.morQted at
Vitnne (//i«n.n. Mart. • Usuard. Mart.).
(3) Msrtyr, commemoi-nfo.1 at Rome, on tl.e
I in I'ortucnsis, July 2!» {Ilicron. Mart.).
(5) Martyr commemorated ia ]taly Aug. 2
(//xjron. Mart.). *
(4) Two martyrs of this name commemorated
at Alejandria Sfipt. 10 (,J/ierun. .Mart.).
(6) Martyr, cnmmewoiated at Treves, Oct 1
i/iron. Mart.) ; NiciCTlus (Suiius, do j'rob SS
jlciri 66. C. S. li. saec. i. p. 184, Venet. 17;)3),
(6) Martyr, commemoratid Oct. 10 (/firnm
Mart.). ^^. J, -J
NIQASIU8
1397
ns pieoo,l.nK,«n,l porhnpMi.e same pernon • ,.o,„.
menw.ratml Kel). UH (Iliror. V„rf \. v \
(Uoll. Art, SS. Kel> 11024). ■*' ^'"'l''""-"»
JZ-i?/.)."'"'^'"' ""'"■"'""'"•'""'I >^«>-ch I (//few..
(4) Martyr, commemorated in Eirypt, An 27
(iJurun. Mart.). "^^ ' r, . V, 1
LO. ll.J
i ^ol'Vl-^*^ «'"^i°s """'y' <"">™emoratcd
Ap. 28 (H\eron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr, commemorated May 23 (-//fcron
^""■'v- [C. II.] '
NICO (1) BLshop, " Holy Martyr," with 199
comimnions, A.D. 25u, near tamomenium ; com-
Bomoiated Mar. 23 (Hasil. Menol. ; Cat. Uuzant. ■
kaiel, C«/. Litury. iv. 255; Hull. Acta S8.
Mart, 111. 442),
(8) Martyr, with Neo and Helindonis- com-
memorated Sept. 28 (Uasij. Mmol.). [C. H.]
NICODEMUa, Jewish doctor (St. John iii ) •
mveiitio at Jerusalem Aug. 3 (Usuard. J/nr<.);
Huron. Mart. ; yet. Jiom. Mart.). [c. H.]
NIC0DEMU8. Gu,!nebault names a dip-
hch of the 8th or 9th century, published by
Patiaiidi (Antujuitites Cliristuinac, p. 349 and
plite), in which Mcodemus is holdinff a small
rase, fifth figure on the second leaf of the dip-
tych. He is to found bo in an Kntombmont
Kl«ud.m>« .1 tl,, E„ton.bme..t. (MSB. Bib. N.t., Parf^,
m rieury (I, hvanitle, vo . ii nl v,.i «„ i\
lie writer cannot find any representation within
«"rp..ri„d of his visit to our lord bjnighT.
Keb oi/t ,"; <="""nemorated in Kgvpt
{.Umn. Mirt.). [Nicepiiokus.J
NICOLAS, bishop of Myra. [Nicolaus.]
NICOLAUS (1) Anchoret, with Tran-.in
June ^^ (1{„1|. ^,,^y ,<,.^ ,,||j j^, g^^
(2) Martyr, with llieionymus at Bresci.i •
commemorated July 6 (BoH.^^c<« 55. jdii:
(8) Bishop of Myra in the time of Cnnstnntine •
oommenionuod Dec. 6 (Basil. JW, "u","^^,'
fTso' *"r";^*^'-''. •«'»'■«. /A^^ t. iv. T) :
worker'" fr'w''^"' '?'"V ^''^'°'-*''' " ^^''■">"'-
woi kci (( „/. Jl,,znnt. ; Daniel, OW. /:«„r<». iv
^7t.) , same name and title, Dec. 7 (Cat. Anmn ) ■
Nicolas, Ap. lo {Cat. miop.). ^ [c! H.] '
ftept. 1,, (Usuard. Mart. ; Bed. jWc ) • »;•/
/^m. .»/«,•<. ; Boll. Act. Sk Sept. v. 5) del ca.:
t.on of his church at Rome, June 1 Um "1
ffart. ; Bed. Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart.) ; .led «-
ion on Jiiue 1 observed in Gregory's Sacran en-
t«ry, his name being in the collect (GerMar
L,b iacr. 104). One of this name for S^f 1*5
rn&:lrr"'"''""=^'"^^''-'7/'-«^^
.J/2)*''"'*^''"' '=<"""'«'"»'-ateJ Mar. 6 (/A;,von.
thf [o?';^^^^ COUNCIL OF, A.D. 372, at
the bonler-town, so-called, .,f Armenia M nor
N^ir. I f''"L''T"."- '^^'^ ^i^'h-'P. Theodotus of
N.copoh,, had invited St. Basil to be present
IZ^V ''*.•"'""''' ""'■"& t" hi« having ad
Th.J7 u""""' "^ ''^™'' "n^'tisfactory to
Theodotus, he was not admitted, to his gre.u
annoyance. {Ep. 99 j comp. Mausi, note!T,!
^^■^ [E. S. Ff.]
Hnd^Sf"'"'^^^^"' --'y.- with Styraciu,
Jtf^^o/.) ' =<"n'"emorated Nov. 2 (Basil.
ratSTNP^T^l^^> ""'y^' -"-e™-
rated at Nicomedia, Mar. 23 (JJ,\ron. Mart)
v2) M.rtyr, with Claudius, Castoiius, and
others; commemorated at l{ome July 7 ^nd
Nov 8 (Isuard. Mart. ; V,t Jiom. Mali.:Cd
Hart.) ; Aoy. 8 (Surius, de Proh. Sa-wt.iitt
•V. ^ov. p. 212, ed. Colon. 1618). [C. H.]
NIDD, COUNCIL OF a d 70-; • »,„i 1
the banks of t^e Nidd. inTorttu'n . -a.-b Ji:?
of pope John VI, i„ the reign of Osred at w hi,^
Brihtwald, archbishopofCanterbnrrw/H.ll "f
^b4-267, and Mudsi, xii. 167-174). [IC. S. Ff]
NIGA8IU8, presbyter, martyr, in the VoTin
probably cir. a.d. 286, with (JuiriLu" and ^1
4X2
■4
{.*
■I, -ftm
i m MM
1308
NIGKANDUS
I
ti\; cominoiiinnitoil Oct. U (Unuaril. Mart.;
bull, .l.f'i ^''S'. Oit. V. 510). [0. II.]
NKUIANDITS. [Nicandkr, June r..]
NHiAMMON, Kityptliin rooliiso in lillU con-
liiiv ; I'umniemointwl Jiiu. (Hull. Actii SH.
Vu.'. i. ;i:o). L*.;. H.i
Nir.l'H (1) Miirtyr, with IVleus nnd llclins;
coniinoinorntcil Sfpf. lH (Uiisil. Monl.; Uhuiii-iI.
Milt.; Vit. Itiiin. Miiit.); niiiniMl in llicron.
.if lit. on ihiH il:iy with t'lipiUnis «n.l nthor«.
(3) "Our t'lithor;" coninK'numiteit Nov. Vl
(C.l. Jl!/umt.). [*'• •'•]
NIMIUJS(iN CliuisTiAN Aut), Hilisoorplntc,
coniiiinnly ijoliU'n, .tonu'tinios hmI, IjIuo, or t;iTon,
or h.in.loil liko ii rainlunv, iiliicivl vorticilly
Wliiii'l thu hoaJ.s of porsons ol' Hpi'fiiil ilignity
o)' sanctity as i\ symbol of hononr. This diso
is soinutini(!9 reiUuwil to i\ nii'ro ring, v'.iulo or
ilonlili', showini; tho hackijroMnil tlu'oui!li. It
IS, as II rule, porfuctly plain, ox<o,., in tho caso
of our Saviour, whoso iiliuhus is coininonly ills-
tinsuishod hy a cross. The cross is somctinies,
lint raroly, ili-pictwl Ininioiliatcly nliovo tho
Sacrol Hoail. cither just without or just within
tho circuuilVronco of tho disc (as in tho mosaics
of tho arch of tho triluno at St. Maria Mag-
gioro), hut it. is almost unlversnlly inscribed
within tlio circle. After tho oii;hth century
living; persons were, in Italy, di.stinnnished by
II square nimbus, which souieliiues assHmed the
lorm of a scroll, p.i "tly unrolled. _
The nimbus is undoub' ■ ily of ethnic origin.
It is tho visildo expression art of tho luminous
uebola siiiiposed to emanate from and to clothe
i\ Divine Hoing. It originally invested thewhido
body. Thus Virgil describes ,luno as " niuibo
succinc.fa" (At-ii. x. tiiU). By degrees, however, it
was reslricte.l to the liead, which was naturally
regarded as the chief seat of this divine radiance.
The lieails id" tho statues of the gods (^l.ucian, de
Pel Si/r. li"."i; Tiimin, c. ,M, l.")d), and of tho
emperors, al^er they began to claim divine
honours, wore decorated with a crown (d' rays,
or brilliant circlet. Servius (.n/ Am. ii.
(U.')) defines the nimbus with which Pallas
was distiuguishod at the destruction of Troy,
as "fulgidum lumen, quo di'oium capita
cinguutur: sic enim pingi s(dcnt ; " and again
(bill. iii. 587), " propne nimbus est ((ui deorum
vol imporantium c'pita ([uasi clara nebula
ambire tiugilur." Wo also (ind in the ' I*anegy-
ricos Maximiani,' whuh passes under tho name
of Mamertinus, " lux diviniim verticom claro
orlie comploclens," assnciated with tho traboae
and the fasces and the curule chair as symbols of
imperial iligmty. From the resemblance of the
nimbus as commonly depicted to a circular plat*
of metal, it has been derived by some from the
fir)viiTKos of the Greeks, a metal disk placed above
the heads of statues to preverjt birds tVom set-
tling on them, and pidhiling them (v(. inlerpr.
ml Aristoph. Arcs, v. 1114); but though similar
in fi'rm and position the connection is prob:ibly
onlv apparent, not real (Ciampini Vet. Man.
i. !!2). r.i.o.n.irru.-.ti (r.'s-v-r:?. p. i!'>) i- r.(
opinion that tho nimbus was borrowed from the
Egvptiaus, which is also the view of Pignorius
(Ciampini, u.x. i. 112). Others hold that it was
of ttruscan origin, and ethers again derive it
NIMDU8
from India, where It was certainly nsod to
eni'ircle thu deities of thi Hindu luylholn^jr
(Diilron, Iconihii: Chict. pp. 4.1, I.'IO); but fniin
whalover quarter It was derived, the niinbui
was regarded in the early ages of Chrlstinnlly m
a mere symbol M' honour anil dignity, and was
not at nil asMiciatnl with divinity or special
.sanctity. In tho Kjist especially it was eonsideri'd
as an attribnto of mere power, whether good or
evil, and was used much more prmligally than
in tho West. Thus wo find it nssigaoil in
Byzantine art to Satan (Didron, p. liili, f,^.
4(>), nnd io the beast in tho Ap(ie,aly|isc (i/i,
p. !().'>, tig. 47). In the West it may be aeon
encircling the bust of tho emperor Claudius
(Montl'aucou, /l;i<i'7i(i<t' c.r/Vi'/iK^', v. lOi); tho
head of Trajan, and several medallions on tlio
arch of I'uistautine, and of Antoninus Pius on
the reverse of one of his nuidals (Olsell. 7'Aa.
Auinism. tab. Ixvil. 1). Herod is distluguish»d
by the nimbus in the nmsnics of St. Mary Miijnr's
at Home, as are .lustinian and Theodora in tiio.so
o( St. Vitalls, and (^instantine Pogonatns, IIi.ri\.
cllus and Tiberius at St. Apollinari- in Classe,
and dustiniau at St. Apollinaris vi L'rbe, at
liavouna; and Constantino and Charles tlis
(ireat in those of tho l.ateran Triclinium (Agin-
court, I'i'inluiv, xvi. 18). On medals the niinbuj
is frequently found surrounding the heads of
the (iiristlan emperors. Wo may instance Con-
stant lue thu (Ireat on tho reverse of n great
bronze of Crispus (Sauelemente, jViimm. Select,
lii. p. 182, lig. 1), tlio obverse of a gold coin of
Constantino (Morelll, A'ob. S/k'c. tab. vii. No. I);
nnd one of I'nustn (thid. tab. iv. No. 4);
CavedonI, /Ji'cwc/ic, p. .'id), Constnns, Constnntius
and the later emperors are similarly (list inguisliej.
On the great shield of Thoodosius he and his two
sons have the nimbus. (Bnonarruoti, OsscrV'itioni,
pp. t)0 sq.). A silver shield discovered in tho
ancient bed of tho Arve, near (ieneva in 1721,
figured by Montfancon (Antiq. ICrptiii. xiv. p.
xxviii. p. 51), representing Valentinlan making
gifts to his soldiers al'ter a victory, shews tlio
emperor with his head surrounded by a jilain
nim.ius. The statues of the Merovingian kinp
which formerly decorated the chief portal of the
abbev of St. Ocrmain ilea I'n's at Paris are al.<o
described as having their heads surninunleil with
this symbol of royal di<;nity (MabiUon, v1ii»k/.
Vrd. ncncd. nun. ti'.^l, torn. i. p. Itjil).
In illumiunted MSS. after the sixth century,
the secular use of tho nimbus is very frcipient.
It does not npjiear in a MS. of Genesis of the
fourth or fifth century, in tho Library at Vicium
(Aglnconrt, reintun;\\. xix.); but Priam and
Cassandra have it in the Vatican Virgil ((,'lara-
pinl, i(. s. 1, tab. xxxvl. IG, 17), and in a MS.
of the book of Joshua of the seventh or eighth
century from the same collection (No. 40,i),
Joshua himself, as well as tho cities of Jericho,
Gibeon, &c., represented as females, is thus
decorated. In thu Alexandrine JIS. and in a MS.
Bible of St. Paul's at Home, of the 8th or 9th
century (Agiucourt, I'fintnn', xxviil.-xxx.), not
only sacred and quasl-sacred personages, e.g.
Mose.s, Joshu.i. Kli, Samuel. Balaam, &C., but kings,
:.uch as Pharaoh and Almh, h,-ar it (liuonnrruotl,
«. s. p. lit;). The case is the same in the Alenolo-
giumofBiusil of the tenth century, where the
nimbus is given without distinction to the saints,
and to the emperors, to Herod and other potcn-
NIM
tstei. Medea Is nimlied
liy Miiratori (ii. '.'I), and
culanenm, iloscrilie | bv
tunexed Wondciit of a 'hj
(nmi a fragment of a bii
fsuenn (H. 9. i. |„|,.t. y^
ing the twelve signs o
twelve chief deities, the
the oli'ibus.
Htnary with Olrouliir I
Familiar as the use
as a symbol of dignity o;
the East, it was iinkni
mark of divinity or sai
ngea of Christian art.
(tcowtr. Chift. J,. \(t()),
imiauments in Frnuco and
anil saci'od personages wi
The first five centuries oll'e
mmpU's. Dilrou indeed
that "before the sixth ci
nimbus is not to be noon
nients," It is of tho
Christian sarcophagi, and i:
calaconib.s, excepting tliosi
such (unfortunately a nume
Weu sulije, tod to modern ri
is no class of christian inoi
come down to us in such u
is "iiue whose authority i..
siimiphagi. Kroni these tl
onirersally totally absent.
ejaraple of this symbol on ai
engraved byljisioand Ariug
UiiTau Mu.se N«t „uly
|*r..onages, but Christ Him
llisc()uallynljsent from the
S'lint Maxiniin, nnd Slarse
hiiiievcr, there are two .snrc
sevenlh century, which prosoi
tliat of the exarch Isaac at t
ropre.senting the adoration of
MmHiimxt) of cwl;, 0/irintian
anil one in the basilica of
Clasjc, on which we see a
figure of Christ enthroned bt
He has a plain nimbus, but
anv (iW. p. i;8, No. lo).
The testimony of the glass
in the catacomb belonging
furth century, is e.|unlly dec
introiluction of the nimbus.
fHmiiles in Garrucci's great :
t»o=i 1.^ iiimbed ( i etri' Vrna
«>!• J. tav. x\\{. 6, tav. xx
'■'*' ''injonty of instances He
Buonarruoti gives a very curio
«>•"• 1), on which St. Step}
NiMnus
W»i. M,.,I,.n I, „i,nl„,,| „„ „ „, „^n^. .
'"'""""'"• 'l-^'Til,,, I by |,i,,r„„ ( ,5„j ":
»u,.ex.., w,„Ml,.nt „f „ „i,,,„„, ,„„'„| „f ^' ''^
f."n, n (r,iK,n.M,t nC „ bas.,vli,.f My„n by m„['
<■>« the »w„ v« ,i,,n, „,. „,„ z.„| ,, \ ,7 ,
nimhus
1300
Mermrjr with CIroutar NImInu, (DIdnm.)
F«mil,ar as tho nso of ,ho nin.lMis wa«
IS » symbol of .l,B„i,y ^, power, ,.»i.uci«lly i„
the hn.t It wns unkuowu a» a distiu/tive
mark 01 ; .viinty „,• «„„„i,y t„ t|,„ ^,,,,.,j
W,r. C7..d; ,, K,o), -the in,«t ancient
.nomnnents lu Fn.n,.e an,I Italy j.n.sant .liviu,.
Md .acml i,or.Ho>,n«,..s wilbout tl.e mn.bu.s."
The first f.ve ceutnrie., offer lew, iC„„v, K.M.uine
BamHes l)„|rou in,|ee,i as.sert. (A. p. lol)
lliat •• before the sixth ceutury the dristiau
nnnlm, U not to be «„„« on authentic monu"
t.ienl«. It ,.H of the ...vtron,e.st rarity on
Uri.tinn sarcophagi, and in tlie frescoes of the
ammh,, excepting tli.,se of later date, and
such (unlortnnately a numerous class), as bavo
h«u subje, ted to modern restoration. As there
IS .10 class of christian monuments which have
mne down t(, ns in such unaltered state, there
I* none whose authority is ,« weii;hty as the
>"V"pl'agi, Jron, these the nimbus is almost
universally totally al.sent. There ,s not a single
"a.n|.le of this symb.d on any of the sarcophagi
e»?r,ve,l by U ,s,o and Aringlii, or iu those of the
U...rau JIuso Not only the an.els and holy
1'TM.naKeH, but Ohrist Himself is devoid of it
I !< equally absent from the sarcophagi of Aries,
aint Maximin, and Marseilles. At Kavenna
hmvevcr, there are two sar<'ophagi, hoth of the
seventh century, which present n.r Lord nimhed ;
that of the exarch Isaac at St. Vitalis, a.D. (i44
i^opresenting the adoration ,>( the Magi (Ai.pell'
Momiumls of earl./ C/iri.lian Art, i.. 27, Jso 9)
™lonein the basilica of St. ApolliMri.; in
las^e, on which we see a youthful, beardless
Mreof Christ enthroned between the apostle^
':ji>:/^"i^ ""' ""^^ •"'' -"-'
The testini.mv of the glass vessels discovered
1 the catacomb belonging probably to the
trl century is dually decisive ,ui to the late
«tr»l ction of the nimbus. There are a few
mmi.lus in Garrucci's itreat collection in wh'.'h
I.;.- ... unnbed ( \etri Urnat,, tav. viii. 7, tav.
V t„m|ority of instances He is destitute of it.
B ocarruoti gM^s a very curious glass (Vsscr,al
«'"• 1), on which St. Stephen is represented
in I, niiiii,., of them wearing the nimbus-
'■'' '>""! heaven. o,h„V LinU ': '"
:;;i;:\ii;":;:7f'r-'''"'"'~'-'"
Hr ts la^ A • ^^' ,"'''"'■" ""• '^'""■'"•t"r of the
«. 3\-: :;;!v;;:v;v ;-T,.';v;':;:,'i';',;'-
» also once nimbed (tav. ,,il •( ' '^^- ^^W"'"'
Inrning t„ another department of Christi.n
"'^..et;;;ti:.bs,!;;;:::.:-i^;::-V-
'■'•tfis to a diofvch ofl, '■ .i JIartigny
.-•i.>rd;i:;s':e:/;„f::';;:;^;2"'^.r''->'-''
"rnament is also given Vo the ' > "t"'"
the evangelistic s • n , ""„""'>">"'•. «".! to
6'm 6w4 ,„ «; ;^""'"'^- <""«^'"' ^^-"""<-' <«
oomuClf^'ifh:'';"''"'''^^™'''"'''--'-
•';""^.'^Mbit,l^:,;;;;i:.^:;;r;r^;':^'''''"
;^u::V:h;:;r';"^-;:i::;':;.r:^--'"-
the catacomb pictiireH h-,- 1 '-^'''t'l'™ of
;i;-tituteofthenimb;J(^riihti SOP ';",:"
C-ntisr, HK.Mcl:s^^.r..rlivs OK V « V) T ''
11.^18). [hee Waiiv, Viiwi.N, IN Arc u liUi
•MDears abundantly in the fre r^. ! • . '
tlie second half fc Tb„ ■ ., * """'g'"-''! to
tr;*; :'£■;:= ?s:
of the BM.ti«,„ ,•/,!■,''''■ 'n the fresco
pi. xxi. I, I,). No ,.ei,imce c^q j^^
nlaced on n.^ ''" ° le'iauce can be
pfaced on the appearance of the nimbus sur-
1400
NIMBUS
roiindinsf the hend of our Lord in the famous
early picture preserved in the Vatican l.ilirary,
or in tliat in tiie P.ntunia ticneath Ht. S«lja.itian.
Tliey are in bdtli canes modern additions. This
unautlioriised tampering with early monuments
is severely condemned by Ferret (torn. vi. p. ;)2).
Turning to the mosaics we find the nimbus
ei|ually rare in all the earlier examples. Where
It does ajipear in works bet'ore the sixth cen-
tury, it may usually be considered an un-
authorised addition (" On a tant retouche
lei niosakiues," Didron, p. 3:i, note 'J). As
a token of sanctity it is at Hrst generally
limited to our Lord, and, somewhat later, to
His attendant angels, though it still continues
to be given tu kings as a mark of secular
jiower. Our Lord wears the cruciform nimbus
on the arch of St. Sabina in Home, a.d. 424, and
on that of St. I'aul, A.D. 441, whore the nimbus
is surrouuiled with rays. In the important
mosaic pictures which decorate the arch of the
tribune of St. Mary Major's, A.D. 440, Christ and
the attendant angels, and, as has been already
remarked. King Herod, are the only figures that
wear the nimbus. The Virgin Mary is always
without it. In the Ravenna baptistery, A.D. 430,
our Lorit aud perhaps the Ba|itist are alone
furnished with the nimbus. The case is the
same in the mausoleum of Galla Placidin,
A.D. 4.50. The vaulted ceilings of the chapels
of the Lateran liaptistery, A.D. 4ti'2, e.xhibit the
Holy Lamb with the cruciform nimbus.
In the earliest mo.saic pictures of the next cen-
tury at Rome, those of the church of St. Cosmas
anl St. Damian, the only heads distinguished
with the uimbus are those of Christ and the
angels ami the Holy Lamb. The church of St.
Vitalis ct Ravenna, A.D. 547, shews the gradual
extension of the employment of the nimbus. It
is given not merely to our Lord (Whose nimbus
is cruciform) and the angels, but also to St.
Vitalis, and to the evangelists and prophets on
the walls of the sacrarium. Melchizedek as a
]>riest wears the nimbus, but not Abel or
Abraham. The uimb surrounding the heads of
Justinian and Theodora has already been noticed
(.iee for these the article Crown, vol. i. p. 306 b).
In the Arian baptistery at Ravenna, where the
mosaics are a close copy of those in the
orthodox baptistery, the later date is indicated
by the nimbus being assigned to the apostles,
as well as to Christ. InSt. ApoUinaris in Urbe,
A.D. 50'). every individual of the long procession
of male and female saints on either side of the
nave is thus distinguished. From this time
onwards the use of the nimbus for holy person-
ages became univer-sal, the only distinction being
that the nimbus of Christ was usually cruciform,
that of other individuals plain.
The result of our examination of dated exam-
ples is that, as Didron has laid down, the nimbus,
however frequent previously as a token of dignity,
does not appear as a Christian emblem before
the sixth ceutury. That during and after the
sixth century the nimbus w.is gradually adopted
as a mark of sanctity, though not by any
invariable law. That the .seventh and two suc-
ceeding centuries witnessed the transition from
the ct.»mplete absence to the ctiusiant presence of
the nimbus, the same monument presenting
personages sometimes with and sometimes without
it. (,Didrou, konogr. Chrgt pp. 101-102.) We
NIMBUS
«ee also that (setting aside the secular use of the
nimbus) the image of our Lord was the Hrst to
be tlius distlngaished ; that those of the aiicils
attending upon Him were the next in sucicssinn
(" lumeu (|uud circa angelorum uipita pliigjtur
nimbus vocatur," Isidor. Hispal. Oriij. lib. xix.
c. 31); and that the.se were followed by tho
evangelists and their symbolical animals, then
by the apostles, aud that ultimately, towards
tho end of the seventh or beginning of the
eighth century, this honour was extended tu
all saints. No superior dignity In this ruspeot
was originally accorded to the Virgin Jbirv,
nor does any definite rule seem to have lioen
followed. She is not marked by the nimbus in
the tilth-century mosaics at St. .Mary Miijdi',
nor commonly in the representations of the
adoration of the Magi. Oii the toinbof theexanh
Isaac at Ravenna, A.D. 044, she is unnindK.I
while the Holy Child has the nimi s, while in
the mosaics of St. ApoUinaris in Urbe of the pre-
ceding ceutury, A.D. 600, both are thus ilis.
finguishcd. In the mosaics of the chajjel of .St.
Venantius at the Literan, A.D. 042, the Virijiii
as well as the sixteen apostles and saintly per-
sonages who stand on either side of her wear the
nimbus. In some examples of Byzautiac Art
however, the growth of the cultus of the Virgin
is indicated by the nimbus being assigned to her
while the apostles are without it. As ex-
amples of this distinction we may refer to ths
mosaic representing the .Ascension on the tupola
of St. Sophia at Salonica, of the 6th oenturv ;
and an illumination of the same scene from the
Zagba MS. of the Syrian Gospels in the ileilicpan
Library at Florence, of which a cut is given,
article Anqeus, 1. 85. In early examples
No. 1. (From MirUgnj.)
there was frequently no distinction between tho
nimbus of the Saviour and that of the angels luui
Ho. a. Olirirt wtUi Cmdfonn Klmboi ; Oemetair of Bt. Foolliuioi
the others to whom it was assigned. In ench
case it was a simple disk, or a ring surrounding
A nimbus of a triangular
the Trinity, was constantly
ot art to the Divine Bein
not found during the first tt
mosaics of the cathedral of C
of the Holy Dove is surl-(
gularniinlms, it is almost ui
alteration. (Ciainpini, Vet
CiJron, p. ,S;i, note 2.)
A nimhus of a square or
from the 9th ceutury onwan
» living jiersou. Ciamjiini (u
some doubts on this p„int
r»Se from I'aulus Diacor
M. Gregory is decisive, "c
liibulae similitudinem, quoc
est, praefereutis, nnn coronar
write, "'••'"" n'iqi>i« prae
viVM pingitur, non in form;
qu,v rati, corona ipsa depingit
'■'■'')■ ""■*. instead of a thi
l^^umes the Ibrm of a block ,
IWness. Ase.xamplcswem
P"!«Mar,A.D.-0,Uo8(A
Pl-^xvu. No. 6) and those o
^.n. 8;i<-824, on the mosnic
*m,n,oaandSt.Praxede.,.rSe
"» the celebrated palliottoo£
NIMBUS
the heail, nllowin? »hi> i»i-n..- 1 « i
moot w.. the inse,"! r,;; ,ft,. s a": 'r'A'"""
the disk, with the aTl. itinn r !^ "' " ""
NIMBUS
1401
No. a.
(From Martian;.
tb« fifth-century mosaics of the chanel of «5»
Aquimus, at Milan (No. 3). \hC fiL I"
derriopment inscribe,! the three arms .^ TJ"
ao^ mth the three letters forming 6 Z ( o 4)"
Ambrose, archbi-shop Aeill.rt fh. ,u
^-iar.''i^;:,^-^:^,^-j;m;busis
jquare n.mbus surround ng the -h^.T' ^•'' ""^
- lil. and the emperors Charfe, the r °'. ''"''!
Con.stantine, in the mosaic, ,,»• A .""'• """^
••linium. Charles thTfJr^^! »he Uferan Tri-
the s„me form M a mo^rLt^do" " "';""" "*"
only to be found in xitii .' *""'" *<"""»
at Rome(/'Sn Dl /x ■'■"^' °^ "'« *'''"'■•>•»
Ho.1 P««o,Th««„, „tt.^^ <F«>«DM™n.)
A Dimbus of a triangular form, in allu.,ion to
«otfoundduringtbrfirft";:fn'e rurir'^irij:
DiJron, p. 3;!, note 2 ) *^ >
I ? I'ersou. Ciampini («. ..'ii. u b) e^esses
-ui tie 'o™ :? ; ," f in ta.,let,somf;i,!,'es
liickness A '"'■'' "'^ ''"y substantia)
i.«vii. No ■«?■»„ r^" (Agincourt, y>,„;„re,
D^rninica-md's, P "'«,'"''f'"' "'^ ^t. Maria in
'nmica ami St. Pra.TO)es. [See Mosaics «t iai
On the celebrated pa/fe«/of the^hu?Jh of lij
"■"■»• tlhrenmry. (IVom Didron.)
l^^;S;i^I-:--Modivmea^
oTs . Pra ;d^ Tnd S^'A^'^'^T' ""'' *hose
lurrnshos other examples (i?cm.. i«^.\ p giT
Ihe aureo/« (a«r.o/a, the golden reward of
P!t','"'"'"=f> ""-X be defined as the n mb of
htad ^-o^""! •7'"''^ ''™""' '^ th« °"f the
head. To adapt it to the shape of the body the
aureole ,s usually of an oval form, and^often
pomud at each end, of the shape known as the
b^ttir'it ''■' """;"" '" ^"hristian-art wi:
out briet. It appeared after the nimbus and
disappeared before it. A singular elmple is
nfT l.ii l' ?f ' ""^^ It assumes the character
of a sohd shield protecting the persons of Mo es
' ' I-
mm
1402
NIMFIDUS
Authorities : — Agincourt, S<>ronxde, FArl par
Its Monuments; liehmii de Niiiibis Sfincluruin ;
Ciiiin|)iiii, Vetorii Momiinenta, vol..i. p. 114 Hq, ;
Uuonarruoti, Osservdtiuni supra vasi di virtro,
|). 6i) si|. ; Dldron, Ict^ni/./ntpMe Ch'-etii'unr ;
0»rriK'<,l, Vetri ornati ; flrimouiirj de St. Lnuient,
(hiide de I' Ait Chretien ; JnniDson, Siirrod and
Leiinulary Art; Miirtigny, Dictiunnaire dos Anti-
guitifa C/tr^iennen ; Miinter, Sinnbildci; II. jip.
20 ir. ; Nicoliii de A'Mjis Antij. [E. V.]
NIMFIDUS (NvMPiiius), martyr with
Siituniiuus Ht Alexandria ; cnnimemoruted Se|it,
6 (Uoll. Acta 6'i'. Sept. ii. 527). [0. H.]
NIMMIA, martyr; commemorated at the
oity of Aiigustaua Aug. 12 (ITsuard. Mart.).
[U. H.]
NIMPODORA. [Nymphodora.]
NINA (1), martyr J commemorated at Milan
May 6 (Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Three martyrs ; commemorated at Con-
Btantinople May 8 (Hieron. Mart.).
(8) Two martyrs ; commemorated at Rome, in
the cemetery of i'raetextatus, May 10 (Hieron.
Mart.).
(4) Martyr; commemorated at Thessalonica
June 1 (Hieron. Mart.).
(5) Two martyrs; commemorated at Rome
June 2 (Hieron. Mart.).
(6) Enlighteiier of Georgia, with Mama, vir-
gins ; commemorated June 1 1 (Cal. Annen.).
(7) Martyr ; commemorated in Africa Dec.
15 (Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.]
NINKVITE-FAST. Gregory Bnr-Hebraeus
(quoted by Augusti, H. B. iii. 482 f , from Asse-
muni, Uiitioth. Orient, ii. 304) mentions, besides
Wednesday and Friday, five famous fasts of the
Syrians, of which the tifth is the Nineveh-fast;
this fast, he says, the Eastern Syrians observe
from the Monday in each of the three weeks
before the great fast (Lent) to the Thursday
morning ; the western Syrians to the Saturday
morninjr. The Abyssinian church observes a
three days' Nineveh-fast in July (Herzog, lieal-
Ln?yct. i. 49). [C]
NINIANUS, bishop, apostle of the Southern
Picts at Candida Casa ; commemorated Sept. 16
(Boll. Acta SS. Sept. v. 318). [C. H.]
NINNOCA, virgin in Lesser Britain, in the
eighth century ; commemorated June 4 (Boll.
Acta SS. Jun. i. 407). [0. H.]
NISME8, COUNCIL OP (Nemausense
Concilium). Held at Nismes in the lifetime
of St. Martin, who declined attending it, but is
said to have been informed by revelation of what
pf ised there. Mansi makes a strange guess at
its date (iii. 685, note). [E. S. Ff.]
NIVARDUS, archbishop of Rheims, cir.
A.D. 273 ; commemorated Sept. 1 (Boll. Acta SS.
Sept. i. 267). [C- H.]
NOAH, patriarch ; commemorated Jan. 1
and Ap. 1 (Cat. Et/tiop.). [CI H.]
N0BILI8 (1), Ap. 25. [NuniLis.]
(2) Martyr; comsuemorated Sept. 2i (Hieron.
Mart.). [C. H.j
NORUNT FIDEI.ES
NOCTUUN (Soctiirnuin oJUciwn, nn-tum/jt
vifliliae, wicturniiH). Each of the three divisiuni
of the matin olHte Is called a nm turn Ainiintly
in rcligiiius houses the night was diviilml intii
three portions. In each of which psalms wure
said, lauds following at dawn. .leromc (l.'/iist,
22 (id K'istochiiim) laments that even in his
time the zeal of religious persons had s.< fn^
cooled that monks recited the three iic funis
and lau'ls continuously, [Hoiiw dk I'iivvkr
p. 798; INalmody; Vioil.] (Martenc, A' /,',(.'
Anti'i. iv. c. 7.) [C]
N6DDER, COITNCIL OF, a.d. 7ir,; „n
the river NoJiler, in Wilts, nt which a (h;iit<T
exhibitocl by Adhelm, the ii'-wlv aiipninli'clliislnip
of Sherborne, was contirmcl. (Hadilnn iinil
Stubbs, iii. 276 ; Mausi, ib. 175.) [E, ,S Ft'.]
NOEACIS, NONANNEANE. Artificial
words to fix the tonality of the respect i' .• notes
of the chants or their endings in the nitmory of
the chanter. The first of these beloni; to the
Plagal mo<les, the other to the Authentic. The
words themselves appear with some vailatiimj
of form. [See Musio and Evovae.] [J. R. L.]
NOEL. A word formed from Kntilis, the
commyn French name for Chuistmas Dav
[p. 35IJ]. [C]
NOITBURGA, virgin, in Fran.e, a.d. 690;
commemorated Oct. 31 (Surius. tiu l'rj>. Smut.
Hist. Oct. p. 415, cd. Colon. 1618). [C. H.]
NOLA. [Bell.]
NOMOCANON. A Greek code of ecclesias-
tical laws. See Canon Law, p. 2GB ; CoDKX
Cano.num, p. 400. [C]
NONES. [Hours of Pbaver, p. 797.]
NONNA (1), martyr; commemorated at
Rome Ap. 23 (Hieron. Mart.).
(2) Martyr; commcmoi, ,ed in Africa May
23 (Hieron. Mart.).
(3) Martyr; commemorated in Africa JuW
20 (Hieron. Mart.). [C. H.]'
(4) Mother of St. Gregory Nazianzen, cir.
A.D. 374 ; commemorated Aug. 5 (B-ll. Ada
SS. Aug. ii. 78). [C. H.]
NONNA. [Nun.]
NONNUS (1), Martyr ; commemorated at
Nicomedia Max-. 16 (Hieron. Mirt.).
(2) Martyr ; commemorated at Ale.vanJria
Mar. 21 (Hieron. Mart.).
(3) Martyr ; Cnmmemorated in Pamiihylia
May 28 (Uteron. Mart).
(4) Martyr ; commemorated at Milan July
M (Hieron. Mart.).
(6) Martyr ; commemorated in porta urliis
Romae July 25 (Hiiron. Mart.). [C. H.j
NON-RESIDENCE. [Residence.]
NOONDAY SERVICE. [Holm of
Phayer.]
NORUNT FIDELES, orlNITIATLfwa'
01 ntf^tjyutyoi, a formula of repeated recurrcuce
NOSf>('OMIUM.
NOTARY. I.Origi
IsiJore Hispalensi.s(A</,
niu8 iuventeil ll()(> clii
purpose of abbrevi,itini
readily be recorded, th
proved and added to by
eiten-lr..! the number (
Socrat. s (//. /;. vi. 4) ,„
ftt. lhiTso.stom were pi
Ud writers (i{,^),^^<„)
Chr,st. 11. 2i>) savs thiit
short-hand (nota'e) are ca
U-pist.'>\,am. iii.Migr
the notaries of the chur
isi'l, so that neither hi
scclamatinns of the peoi
(l-O'ist. 172, Class, iii)
dearth of notaries who <
lM)ruage,and(A);i'< 1,5.))
^m appointed on eithe
conferences with the Dona
. '" "I's capacity they wi
in courts of justice. ^
:rf.- ^'{ "< c- 3) repres
Pifadmg that they were i,
"it,„.-.aotas ignorare*
01 the court commanding
notaries had taken down sh
i<™etimes also they appea,
«J«<licml capacity to take
X^- J^'« Augustine (,
calls one Marcellinus a tril
<f/"'"-'H <"/<..«. iii.) .,pe„|,
clergy and fanatics being h
an othcial report previous
""taria). In the acts of tl
«j(.^o<9)mo„tionis Jd
iril)une and notary.
And also in the councils of I
""DC, of r„|ed„, A.D. 633 a
Procedings f„ be observed al
"mongst other officials, th« ^
NOHOCOMIUM
be.,.ni>;pu.,,.he,..!:n,;:' «t;;t;:;:r"Th"
bv the ea • . • ,„Jh w hfh"" T"'^'''"* P'-'"-'
ofth,, faith w h .u„li t ";■''""'"' "'l'"^!.-!,,,.
t.lliKib)e to their cSanr"'"'*' '" '«' "'-
.^-".ittotrir:;':i:::!:rh:x"7;t""
•ho were not yet a-lmitted with n the Chr^""'
!»'• « «»«"bon writes „f it (AW/ 7' """"
»"• N". 4;t, ,,. 490): "Out .>,h ''''■'"'•
p.trnm le.tiono .ui .it i»n,i ' r ■•'''"'' '"
..one«.er,u„„ntnru„/iS,:"S^
of MfM.v/*.Voi, nor«H< init,„eir" i , ' '^^'"^"'
(Hcurrence ir» the wri ine, ' f ri '' "'^ "I"'''''''''
i. found, though Je^. of,!. , n sJ^^''"a ""•• "'"'
Hmil. m Matt, liiii . i^ V "• '' ' ' «■ "'• i
NOSfK'OMIUSr. [HosPiTA,^.] '^'^■^•^
NOTARY
1403
Aug. iniMl. ^e.. ^^.^-g/.'lfjf^; -tu>T,
IsSSe„yi?S|^-!;7'''a„.,,vHter,
purimse of Hbbreviat „" so thir I'h^ ^"' *""-•
proved and «.|ded o bv : ^, '•^',""" ^^"^ 'm-
St. ChrvL om were nT " l'"' ""'•'"""^ "''
.5rHh,^,,i;;;^:|;^^^£-w;. ha;, learned
(AM :il, C/w. iii. Migne I'atTlTh ^'^L""
the notaries of the chm^h V»L ^" '''>'' ""'*
"i'l, - that nekhe hif olis,; \° ^^'' '^
«ctlamation.s of the ne„ 1 '"'''''' ■""■ th
e".hof;'otS::-;ir,":jfrr;h"fT'
c»fJeLwirhtheD«^^^^^ "-"f''-
i» -^tlTStllr T °'«-"y -ployed
pigling ha 'tlievVeTe"'' ""' '^""''*''"» "'^
»f the eonrt cowman li.^^ T^f .*''" P''''«i''«nt
S<'n,et,mes also they ° npear ,o . ''?' *" ''"^'"•
•J"Jicial oapacity^t7t' ke evide'' '"''" ""'" '"
"!»■•'• Thns Augustine (,W?oH ';';/""''!' '^
calls one Marcellinn, » 7,.,V'' T ' '^'"**- '''■)
*rgv nnd fanatics beinl. u"*"'" ' '"""'''"'
«» oiHcial rono rt n,.e i^ T"^^^ '" '""' "f'"
J«^ (.-lo* 9) mention i, 1 ^ 'r"''" "♦' Ch-l^^
'*">.e„ndn.Itarr """^^ "^ "°« Damascus,
rroo«lings ,0 be obse'rved at'.^' '".,'"■''"'"'« ''"^
'">»-g«t other oifioSs tt t.";;.':':"': r""''""-^'
"••""to i:i«e dourn ik ■ '•■-••' •'^-> rth'.-xdutv
•^»' aloud f reZh-ed T'^r '["S^ -""^ >-««J
"!» aooount ofThe 1, ^"'''"''"'P Theodore.
' ■^- '^- "> »")■» that the decisions
vii. -'lO.iMmksoftla'Uv'wHt^r ;"''"" <''• ^•
who took down the c,ntrn I . "*V*''').
«'"no,ata, „t th ■ ...o „ o 77 '■?'*«•-•'■ f*""' "^
»nd .Writes /). Tti [o! 1 """"''• *•"• '^«''.
»» I'ein^ present „; 'tb'.^ ".""'"''""' "'«"»
«<'»il»nd 'ho tinus at L " ''";"'''^ ^""'"■'"'
A.D. ,)5I. ' "' "'" <-•"""■'' "f Sirmium,
'n this":' r! jThr™ ""*" '""P'" -"etan,,.
Thos .Socr'at;..: ^(/^; ^.r ",'""''-' "• courts,
who attempted to sei« th ^ "T »'"" J"'"",
'l«athofll„uorit., ,vrf ^* ';'"'"'■'' "<■'" tlie
-a-r.A-^.iv. ch^rur^hrd;.:':, r.^"?;'-.'' ^-
l>rovi,le,l that eveev ,.*-.*'""• ('"/"<«/. i. c. ;n
'■"'■elH, ow^ nXv In"'.; ""'.'"''"" ^''""IJ
■"iMcene, by John t /■- ''? '"" "'' J"!"' Da-
i» -iJ tha't'r'ne' f'T e'''",' r' 'r''?"'"'"' "
•ypa*.'^.) were en,p|, ye to f I .","'"'.''r f*^'"-
-'tion brought nj'i s, hi ^f 'h' ''''"<■■ n-^c-
n"tary(«,„^^,rf^«' ;.^ ;;■ ''><>" 'rod us wa.
an.l Ath;,na:l7o"'i ;^^ ".'^, .•^;,'- ^/•^- vii. 41),
//■ A', ii. 17) R.rt ,,<• f ' ^'""andria (Soz.
been to act as re 1. , , Th "'■' "'''•""•» "'have
»«em to haye en ,,h-""' „'""'"-'"' "■"' 'hey
became a lector .t e^ht "''""" "" -' ^icino
"■""•that tin.edi change, r'\ "^ "««• «"<«
";"a'y till hi^ 16 h'> f'nijS^".""- of •
t" Augustine (Augu. t' >5^; f^o"''""' «"'.'.">8
"Peak.ng of a youth whom l' 1 .', f ' 'T '"•>•
reader and notary, say, that b '''"' .""'P'-'yeJ as
in note-taking and i^" 1 """'""''''■'♦'Usable
him evendurfng he hou roTtr"'- \" ""^ ">
'hatsodiligeu'ta„d:."^.^;:'l;f^«;'Ji"^
began to regard him i-adw . • *hat he
than as men-ly „ "uth !n "' 1 '""'"'•" '"'''-'nJ
'•'••■^ helon^in/to tC ee o,^( '"'""'^- ^''"^ ""'"•
hel'l a more im norflf ''.'""« "Ppear to haye
heen sent on import ntL"""' "" ' '" ''"''''
e.xte„sive powerHnt "L rri'^"^'^'''"''^ ^''h
"f this will be foun Tn 'he ien'""' >^''^""«'
(he Great; thu,s(L,-,"y ,i ofiM' "' ^n''"S"'y
we find him sending Pan 'l' A^""' ^"^'■"'■i
Apnlia to inquhe fnto an . ' * * """"•>•' '«
against a bishop of Sh "nt, , '™".?''"'' •"""ffht
«iet punishment in '.seL''' '"'?"■ '" '"-
proved. The fir.t , , . accusation was
(V'''-). i-kro/zr !„"/ f?;'- ^•"-.^^^
•■iec of home, by whom Leo enf ."""'^ "* 'he
afCainstthe IvLdlliTists to th" '""■''T'''"»
''^-^"^ir;f'£^ F —---
" ni^arii' refSrii"" 7„ 'T'" ''"'''"'' -"^d
were allotted A ";sf,l-„r\7 ''.f"""^ ''>""«'
to the .sey.,7relTots th Z" T'":'" "W-inted
'iivided nmonL' tho H.L" ' ■ 'I'-incts \yere
deacons w e^.p,,, ntedT"' ""''• """ '''-"^ ^"h-
notaries, and 7 ? ;" ^/ri'^h'"/'^;"',.""' ^^^«»
•iered that the renter- •"' ''"'"'■•* '• or-
' )'
Iff-. V' M
1404
N0TIIKLMII8
b« cnllnpte.l fur iMifa cintmly by the notnrlen. nml
that iill .li'i"l» iiiiJ ri'ciii'ilH »hoiiM be In thi' ••in-
to ly ol' till? iihiaf" I'rimii c>riu»'' of thii niiluiii'n.
Thi-v ulsii iliHcliui'({i!il cortiijn fiiiutiiiin in cim-
nexioii witli the surviiM lit' thi! church. Oii'H'iry
th« (iii'.it (A.ViiT .S'uiT.i/;U"<. § 70) •prnka of tli«
li){htini{ 111' t*i> oanilU'n Iml't by twi> notnrii'«.
Wiisiiiinin I'l'i'-ihylei' ( li<'< l^'Mmirii Arfl<it. il i:.
2. § IM, Minne, iiitml. v. >'" p. 10 14) sayn llmt
it Wils till! iluty of tlm ni.t.iry to luecuile tlio
blsh»|i, cinyiui; his |iiiiitnriil .ttiiiF.
IV. Tliiiy ill) not ttijpeiii' to hiivi' been rpi-komul
»m"»(! tlu' clcMj;y. Socnil , (//. A', vil. 41)
niuTiites thiit Atticu* mmli' )'n>rlii» hh notiiry,
an>l, al'ti!!- hi- hu'l niaile ^;ii'at |)roKrii«.t, pro-
ninti'l lijiii to th« ilimonata. (iiftfnry tlm
OiiMt (l./'iit. ill. ;t4) »i«'iikii of 11 Buliiicncoii
who colli I n.it keep lii» vow of fontlni-ni-y nnJ
thL'iefoie rutireil Ir.im hU nionimtory, (javt' up
hJM oirie m subiluai.il, anil p«rtoriiioil the ilnticii
of 11 notary for the rest of his life. Unt it wii»
rei koHii.l one of the steps to I lie clerical ollice.
Oelii'ius {Iwcret. c. 2) nays that i\ monk, who
wisheil to enter holy oiilcrs, slionM serve for
thn'i! months as a lector, or notary, or ilufensor,
after that he iiiiKlit bu mmle an acolyte. Hut
they seem occasionally to have retainuil their
title, ami probably their olRco, after onlinution.
In the acts of the council of Antioch, rewl out nt
the council of Chalcolon (Act 14) mention it
maile of one Tarianus, ileacon anil notary. The
chapter of So/onien (//. A', iv. :f) which relates
the niartyrilom of Martyriiis, the sub.leacon. anil
Marcian. the lector, is heiulej 'Tho Martynloin
of the Notaries,' and Nicephorus (//. A', ix. 30)
distinctly says that they were notaries of Paul,
the bishop of Constantinople. It is alleged, on
the uutliority of a letter of Juliiw, that ^Iar-
tyrius was a deaion (Vales, \ot. in Soz., N. K.
iv. 3 ; Thoiiiassin. Kcalesiiu Discipliwi). [P. U.]
NOTHKI.MUS, archbishop of Canterbury;
commcmorateJ Oct. 17 (boll. Acta SS. Oct. viii.
117). [C. il.]
NOTITIA. The word no<iVi<i is technically
usoil for a sort of list or oourt-aUnanno of places
and ollicials. and the eiirlicst and most famous
notitiiie are. of a purely civil character. The
most famous of all is, of course, the Sctitix Pi/ni-
tatiiii), compiled in the time of Aroadius or
Honoiiiis, circa 400 A.n. (see Ciibbon, ii. 303,
note 72. I'iincirolus and Uiicking), which is a
complete list of the provinces with their sub-
divisions, and of the whole olficial stall' of the
empire. This has been edited by Pancirolus,
whose work has, however, been quite superceded
bv the editious of Riicking (2 vols, Honn, 18 19-
18:i3) and Seeck (Berlin, lH7ti). This great
niititia is of a purely civil character, and its in-
terest for the student of Christian antiquities
lies solely in its giving him a reiuly means of
testing the closeness with which the local divi-
sions and gradations of ])ower in the church
were modelled on those of the state. It is well
known how the ecclesiiistical archbishoprics and
bishoprics I'ollowed the limits of the greater and
lesser provinciat governorships — the archbishop
whose seat was at ■N'arbonne tor instance exer-
cising spiritual jurisdiction exactly over the
country which had formed the (irovinceof Onllia
Narboncnsis. [OuDUU, HoLV, 111.] So towns in
NOTITIA
A»ia Minor which had Iwen mi'/ni;)o/c,» In the old
senile (for lheci\il sense of the word, if. Mari|iMirdt
/tImiKclif Sltt'ituvrrviiltufii), 1. 18.'i) became iiuln^
;/o/fi< In the new lensn. ItiiiKham has a lengthy
discusslnn of this point. There is a good de.il ilm
to be gleaned from Mnri|iiardt'» lint volimie; an
especially pp. 'Jld, '.'tUt. ltol«si^re In his l.'Al'ri.jut
lioiiHtini' (V iris, IH7H), p. 42 >, has some iiitirr»t-
ing remark-! on the kubject of the ciiii ami
ecclesiastii ,il lioceses, from an iinpiil.lished
lecture of !.(>iin Kenler. Keslilea the S'llitut
iHfinit'tHin th«re Is the important MntUU frn-
vini:iiirum t i ritiihim (htlliiw, coiiipileil ulinut
the same time as the .\iititia IHiinititmn "iuriiig
the reign of Honorins(MBrquardt, i. I'.'H, imti':)),
or al all events some time between :iH>i nml 4,m)
A.I). (lirambach in A7icini»(M«s Museum, will,
p. 262 sqq. ; Kiese, (Ifwinp'.i J.alini .I'limifi^
\i. xixili.). This notitia la also of a purely livjl
chnracter. It is edited in Seeck's edition of ih»
.\o(i<i'ii l>iiinilaluin, and in Hiese's (I'co,/. /,„<_
Min. (lleillironn, 1H7H). The Snlili., I rhisCuit.
■4'mtmiiiolitiiniie, also edited by .Seeck and liieje,
gives the jiositions of the fourteen ecclesiaB la
Constantinople, but is otherwise piirilv civil.
The earliest undoubted ecclesiastinij iiiilitia
that we |ioBscs8 is that of I.eo Sapiens, a.m. 891.
lint there can bo little doubt that such iiotillu
exislml at a much earlier date, and the //i nWii
Si/tu'iili-mns, or Hierodes' Travelliiii,' i 'onipaniim,
has distinct truces of an ecclesiastical clianutor
in it. This work was shewn by Wesseling to
have been written before A.n. .J 1,^. The geni-
tives of places which occur six times in the lists,
and the genitive 8^^oi; which occurs nine tunes,
look us if they should be preceded liy the word
^Trdr/foiroi, as in an ordinary notitia. Tliis is
further continued by the occiinenie of the
definite article in one instance, i Ti/i/3|/i((8<dii
(Parthey. //ieroclii Si/n, cdeniiin el ii'ititine (inwoil
Epiacop luuin, Berlin, l«tiii. |i. v. llieroclejiii
also edited in Kortia d'lrhan's llcinil del
ftiiu'raires Ancii'ns, I'uris, 184 j, with tlieniu.lern
names sulijoined. Kor some remarks eu the
personality of Hierocles, see Schelsl rite's Auti-
</Hitiu A'cc/cat'C, ii, 720). The notiiia of Leo
Sapiens is full for the Ka.st, but not ei|unlly
perfect for the West. It has heen edited many
times. Carolus a S. Paulo for instance, in hit
Gooi/riiphia .Kic a (Amsterdam, 1704), joints it,
in an imperfect form, along with other nolitiiie
in an appendix ; IJeveridge jirints il on p. I'M
of his aimolationes in cuiiuw;!! at tlie .nd of tin
second volume of his Sj/ttoili/iun ; tioar in liis edi-
tion ofCodinus (Venice, 172',t), p. JH?, toll., gives
the notitiae from that of Leo tothat of.\iiilninicus
Palaeologus ; Schelstrafe, ii. (id'-' (liome. Iii97),
prints the chief civil and ecclesiastical noliti.ie;
Bingham gives the notitia of I.eo in the third
volume of his C/iristiiin A)ill<juities: iinrmtu-
nately he is extremely inaccurate (see Neile. //u/y
Enstern Church, vol. i. p. .\ii. of the preface).
The critical edition, however, whicli so I'ar will
supersede all other.s, as well of l.eo's notitia as of
the other Kastern notitiae, is that in the work
of Parthey above-meutioued. The later untitiiis
hardly come within the scope of this dictionary,
but may be found in any of the works meutioned
above, and best of <iii iu Parthey. A ■,::;":'a! in-
troduction to tho study of the notitiae woulJ be
to read the account which Kabricius (i' /ntiris
LtJM Emngelii, p. 342, toll. Hamburg, 1731)
HOT
jives of the contents and
the more impoi taut of tl
it is olivioiis that t
mlv sources iVom whi
could bo con)pilod. 'fi
ciiuiicils are at least
Tbiie cin ha obtained
DSiy editions of the co
lliiidnin or Mansi. The
lienk on the subject is (ia
(ilitisbon, lN7:l), a wo;
lie used with caution on
tonnteilale the lirst estal
HD'I now uiiil then to i
bi.ihop. Ail attempt is n
niililia of the Christian
miijiv Emi/clupe'dui U'hA
Tel. iiviii. p. T.io. C
ri' rred to in the follow!
iliiieieut parts of the Chrli
rstely.
\.' Spain. All the old b
I'.ibject, «.!/. tho editions ol
the forged list of Wambn,
il.iteil, being ) it in the 7
lonijs to the 12th centi
eilition of this list is short
the distinguished Sjuiiii.s
Fffusndez Guerra. Jleii
for « judgment are to be (i
•ble fourth volume whirl
y progreso de los ohisjiiol
sntiguas de sus Silla.s." F
threw doubt upon the snp)
list, and his opinion is now
G.ims's A'irc/teni/e.v/iichte
l(tt)4) is the modern vinr
utical history, written, hoi
membered, from the u It ram
Cortez y Lopez's lJici:i,in,tr
de k EsjiaAa antiijua con(
ihiiuld he read critically.
6V«f«wi (U Cinonas ila
(Mairid, 18.-.0), and ilubne
(Ml u« Chriitiaikw (liei liu, :
fmed to.
2._ France. The great a
than's Oullii Christiana, a
foliuj (Paris, 171,'')), a revisi
tinn of which is now being
Tiie lirst volume appeared a
fok I-:,, and 11-13 hav
I'leliu's Orijines chreticnnes
IS'i')) will be found valuabl
jniphii' Je la Gaule au vi«
wiuM bo useful in ntteinpti:
ties aod circumscriptions of
>lio Le Blaiit's Itiscri/.tivn^
Ofule, 2 vols. (Paris, 1850).
3. Eitijlarul. See Stubbs'
Aitjlicaiiuin (Oxford, 18."i8)
>l-o be made t» Haddan an
aiul Ecclesiuatical Uxuincnti
Bi-^tain and Ireland (Oxfo
VI lumes of this work have s
«ill not be completed on the i
to Mr. Haddan's death.
s:i|..,r,rily. The second editic
Ulet (Venice, 1717-1722) i,
■njnt on the fir.st. Cappelletl
(Vemce, 1844-1871), iorrecti
NOriTIA
llvc.of th« coDt.nU .in.l l,il,l|„gr«.,hy of each of
llii> morf iiii|>(irtiirit cil'thcrii.
It i» ..l.vi.MiH thut ih« iintltln. ore not th*
wlv »miiv.,H IV„i.i whi,.). ,, llHt of l.lKhopri.,,
COM M 1,0 f„.,i|Mle,|. Th,. .ubMii,,tion» tu tl,,
council- «r» Ht l..,ut „f «,,„„| i ,rt,n,...
Thr.y cm l,« „l,t.,ll|«,I fl-,.1,1 «i,y „(• fhl. c.nli-
n«ir c.,lili,„v, of tliB <„MU..'iU, ii,„h ai th.it of
laMuiu ..r hUuni. Tin. „„.|,r„ i.,„„,,r..|u,n,iv«
Ukm th««ul.j..,:t i. ()„„„■, SerU', A>.*o,,„rum
l..t,i,lmn, lS7:i), a H„rk of \,M„mg. ifut to
l«uwl wilh (....i.th.u n„ nrcnunt of ,i u.„.l..n.v
to niitcdHt.. th« (irit esti.hli ,l,,„«„t« of bish„|„|f;
.».! uow Hu.l thnn t- inter|.o»e a c.,ni«ctin«l
tT f !'."'!'■;"''' .'" """'" "' X'"" « '^"■nplMt.,
ni.litm of the Chiutinn world in m^ne't J're-
m<ert h.wi/dop^Jia T/Miu/iiuti (INiris, I8(i2)
Tol. nviii. p. vr.n, othoi- Houroua will I,.:
n^i'iml to in th« following brief notes on the
diifereut parUot the Cliri.tian woHJ taken .ei.a-
ratejy. '
1, Spain. All the oM book, beiirine upon the
(ubject, «.-/. the o.liti.MH of councils, &c., «„ „p„n
in. /orp.1 li»t ol Wiimbn, which is Kreativ ante-
d»ti>.l, being ) lit in the 7th, while it really be-
loniC« <» the 12th .entiiry. A new critical
e. 11.11 of this i.st ia shortly to bo expected fi-Min
ihe ,ii»tingui.hed Spi.nish scholar Aiireliano
JiTuandez Guerni. Meanwhile'tho materials
fnrajudjtnioiit are to be found in Klorez's adniir-
aWe lourth volume which " contiena el oriL'en
yprogreso da los obi.pados y divisiones
antiguiis de sus .Sillas." Klorex was the (irst to
tlirow doubt niwu the snppo.-ed date of VVaiiiba's
li»t, nnd his (.pinion is now universally accepted
?-,"'.?• ^J'-''''""l/^"''''<--''to >/.a-ii«;.s (Kaii'bon,"
\m) IS the nio,lern work on Spanish ecclesi-
jstical history, written, however, it must be re-
nifniberi'd, from the iiltinmontaue point of view
brtcz y Lopez's l),a-iumrio gco;/r,iJico-/,i.storwo
* I'l Asfjafla antii/iut contains many facts, but
.li.iulJ be read critically. Tejada y Kamiro's
(Malr,,^ 18,-,0), aud Hiibner's /n.cri,,tuJs U,s.
;«m<«aiWw,w<,-(lle.lin, 1«71), should be re-
Irriea to.
J-, ^''"T-^7^^ S'-e>it authority is Sammar-
hans (,<.//m C/im<«.«,,, a huge work in manv
fulM(IWs t(ir>), a revised and enbirged edi'-
ti"n of which is now being published by Piolin
liie fii-ht volume npjieared at Pails in 1870, and
vols. 1-,,, and 11-13 have so far appeared,
i.liu s On-zmfs c/.,-t.V,cn„e;, de la Gcu/</ (Paris,
l«M)«i 1 be tound valuable. Longnon's ^W
«.uM be useful in attempting to fix the locali-
li.'» m\ circuinscriptinns of doubtful sees. See
as.i Le Blants /,wTi,.tim.', chretiemws de la
(xi^le, 2 vols. (Paris, 1850).
S. En,iland See Stiibbs's He.natmm S.crum
j.tf/jo„a„„, (Oxford, 18:,8). heference Tay
I- be made to Haddan and Stubbs's Cuncls
an<lhoclesu„Ual Vo.u,m-nU relutiw, to Great
Hnt.un and Mand (0.,ford, 1809). Three
v.umes of this work have so far appeared. t
."KddLT'dttt'''^^-'''^'''^' '''-■-'"«
Jl^'u^- Ugholli's Italia Sacra is the great
rXt'Vy' • ^""^ff •'"'' «'''t'uQ of this work, by
(Tie llh^L,^"^'^"^^"'''' ^'' G'-<^'^d- Italia
lUDjce, 1844-1871), corrects Ughelli in many
NOVICE
1405
pUces, end ..Id. later and more triivtworthr
"'"rma.ion. Hut the work is v,.,y ., ,!, , |,J
;l^ne.^«nd some of it must U
N.ale's //., o,.,, ,,/</,. //o/y Ka,t ,.,. cCZ'ot
tain, a great deal of „,atler. See es, lallv » 73
" Mh. hr.t introductory volume, where , no' ilia
of Uinstantlnople. including .he dio".",, if
aesirea. Kphesn, Thrace, ai.l Hlyrlcnn. rie^f
tale is given. (j„ ,,. ,15 of the '.a volume
thero Is a li, of the see, of Kgvpt, and on p HI
.nother of the ancient and mod.M-n see r hi
J.|"ese of Antioch. I.e (Mi..„., (,,,n.s (l,r^^.
Uanus (lariH 1740) is still however the ^n^t
.o-nce ot authority, except so far as he |,o 7n
..mie point, been superseded by Parthey's e lioa
d the notitiae. I.e tiiilen's consdentiou, o ■ or ..J
in these matters Is both rare and • ixVab.';
See an account of hi, life and labo- ,s ly S.'
in the preface to his Introdiictior. p. xij. T 1
i^reat work of I.„ B,, „„,, w„,,ji„- ; ' ,^ ^ «
a.M,h,j,,iuo en As., ifiuenre, wou. 1 lo ,. to be
used . I it wa, desired to c.impile . . J^Uil
n.. . m. The 5vn,c</.™,„ of Hi^.rocle, /■■
"■"''" "^ 'f S"l'ie".. will be founil, ^ cady
men loned, best edited in Parthey. Kunn/^
l/>m,,chen Ileich, (I.eipsio, ISO.-i), is f.U oJ
matter See especially his section on Kgy , U
4o| loll, and the section on Syria, p,,,,,/" ' '
no h. •^Ar'- '^'i,''^''""-'"'--. ii- «52, inakes out «
in 4 "'sf''"-'" /'"'"."'O ™uncil of Carthage
V' t P' ,' «"°'' " '"'« notitia of Africa^
which may be of service, if critical y„e7
There is a study entitled L'Afri,uo chrU^t
by yanoski, in a volume of i-rm'-.,- W
18U) containing other studies by French writeri
on the history and antiquities of Afri . '"„
Kemer's fnscripli.ns U. .n.Un. s de f At,,erc (vtZ
m.,) contains a certain amount of Ch is [ia
ms ipions, and would repay exainin t n
Uupins Oe^,,raplM Sacra Ajri>;ae, s,u .\otUiL
printed in the eleventh volume of Milne's />",."
H,ae Cursus Computus (I'aris, XH^), u t>^
Kuhn 11 431 foil., collects a great deal o v'. iiable
material for Africa. [VV. T A 1
NOVATUS, brother of Timotheus pr-.bv-
tei ; commemorate.1 at Rome, June 20 (L' ,, ,rd
>/«.^; \et. It.,n.Mart.; m\. A,ta k .June
"• *^- [«. H.]
NOVENDIALE. [MouRNma ; Odseqi-ies.]
NOVICE.
1. Introtucti'.n; 2. Peceptionof Xovtce, ; X rura-
tionanJ Du^cipline of the N,.,ici,te; 4. I'ito
0/ Admission; h. Renunciation of I'ro,.,Tt„;
8. Cases of Iietr„gression, ^r. ; h. Sunonanj.
1. As soon 89 the monastic life be^'an to
assume its coonobitio form, all persons dlsirous
of admission into th, community had to undergo
:,r'::!!r/, ''.™'"'.'?--.. i^-^'s tms time theV
. - „ •, 'I", iL'ss common V " inci-
pientes," ' ipxap'oi," "..orayu,-' (Altese ae
Asc.t,con, IV 1), or " novelli " (H.y. M,,,. 0. 90 ;
cf A hanas. h.^ort.ad Srons. Christi, where Adam
IS called " rudis et uuvellus "), all terms eipre*
:f(
■A
'.tJJ
■ J f I
■ ' '"i
1406
NOVICK
ing Inexperience in a vocntion. They were called
also " piilsantc's" (Miibillon, J'raef. sacc. iii.i. 21),
as knocking at the door to be let in ; and sometimes
iutheKast,Jo(To<()i(poi,asemi-bavburouswordofthe
later empire, curiously descriptive of the inter-
mediate state which they occupied, wearing the
monk's tunic,by way of trial, under their ordinary
outer robe, which they retained till formally
admitted. They were also called "conversi " or
converts. The " conversi " were distinct from
those who were received into a monastery under
age, " pueri oblati " or " nutriti." This use of
" conversi " and " oblati " must not bo confounded
with the use of these words to designate lay-
bi 'hers (Mabillon, r,-aof. iii. i. 21 ; iv. iv. 59).
2. In instituting a noviciate for all who wished
to become monks, the founders of monasticism
followed, as usual, the precedent set by some
ancient schools of philosophy. The Pythagoreans
required a noviciate of five years (Maury,
Jlistuire des Jieti;liuiis do la Orece anti'iuc) ; the
Druids, in some cases, one of twenty years
(Thien-y, ffistohv dcs Ganlois). It was necessary
as a safeguard for stability of purpose. On the
one hand, none were to be rejected except for
gome insuperable impediment; on the other
hand, none were to be lightly accepted, lest the
community should be disgraced by the inconsis-
tencies of its members. On the one side there
was the gracious invitatioii of Him who says,
" Come unto me all that labour and are heavy
laden," and on the other there was the Psalmist's
anxious misgiving, " Who shall ascend into the
hill of the Lord"?" (Basil, /Vfl. c. 6). Thus
Benedict of Monte Casino wisely orders that
ingress into the monastery must not be too easy
(Bened. /I'lv/. c. .')8), and thre>- centuries later
the great Frankish legislator repeats the injunc-
tion, adding that no one is to be forced to become
a monk against his will (Car. Mag. Capitulnr.
Mvii'tsi. A.D. 7H9, c. 11). It was dilHcult to gain
admittance into the monastery, because it was
still more diihcult, once there, to leave it.
" Vestigia nulla retrorsum."
The Hould-be monk had to wait as a suppliant
at the door of the monastery— by the rule of
Pachomius of Tabenn.ie and of other Egyptian
ascetics of his age — seven days (/iVi/. c. 49 ;
Pallad. [fist. Laus. c. 28 ; /.'<;.<;. Senti). Maca,:
etc. c. 7) : according to Cassian, ten days (fn^t!t.
iv. 3,30 ; Collat. xx. 1); by the rule of Kructuosus
(bishop of Bracara [Braga], in Portugal, in the
6th century), ton days (A'c;/. c. 21), afterwards
modilied to three days and nights (2''* /to/- c ■!•)•
He was to lie there prostrate, by the rules of
I'achomius and Kructuosus, and, by the latter rule,
fasting .nd praying, and the p;'rter was to test
his sincerity and patience by insults and revil-
ings (Fruct. ib. cc. 4, 21). If ignorant of it, he
was to be taught the Lord's Prayer (Pachom. ih.).
He was also to be questioned about his moti'-o
for seeking admission, and in particular, lest i.-
should prove to be a fugitive from justice,
whether he had committed any crime which bad
made him liable to punishment (Pachom. »"> ;
Ferreoli A'f;/. c. 5; Kruct. /i«;/. cc. 4, 21).
course of time a less austere reception was
accnrd'j'i to postulants. Mabillnn i'Xi)blns tho
passage in the Penedictme rule which orders
them to wait a few days (live days, in his inter-
pretation) at the gate (''ad iiurtam. Bened.
Jiej. c, .34) to mean not outside the monastery,
NOVICE
but in a cell specially set apart for this pnipnse
within the cloister (Mabill. Praef. i, saee. iv.
vii. 1.^0).
3. Though allowed to enter the monasterv,
the postulant was still an alien there. At lirU
he was placed in the strangers' coll or giu'>t.
chamber, " cella hospitum," near the gateway
(Cass. htst. iv. 7) for a year (Cass. *. ; Kiuct,
liq). c. 21), or, according to the rule of Isicli.rus
(bishop of Seville in the 7th century), fur three
months (Isid. Jie;). c. .")). In JIabillon's e.vpo.si.
tion of the Benedictine rule, the postulant was
to stay only two months in the strangers' cell
before being transferred to the cell of the
novices (Mabill. J'rnef. i. v. s.). UndiT the
orders of the superintendent of the striinscrs,
" custos hospitum," he was to be busily employed
in menial otfices for their comfort (Bened, Ac;.
c. .'>8; Fruet. Jic(j. c. 21). Thence he p:issej,
after a shorter or longer sojcmrn according to
the rules of the m(mastery, to the cell of the
novices, sometimes called the " pulsatorium," or
chamber of those who were still, as it were,
knockini' to be let in (Bened. Seg. v. s, ;
Capitul. Aqiiv^gr. A.D. 780).
■I'he period of probation varied in its duration
and ♦he severity of its discipline. It lasted three
years by the, rule of Pachomius (Pallad. Jlhl.
Lang.) and by the code of Justinian (AoiiW.
V. 2) ; but a latter decree makes this term of
three years necessary for strangers only, that is,
persons coming from a di.stance ; only one year
by the rules of Ferreolus (bishop of Uceta [Uzisj,
in Southern France in the 6th century) (/,'c/.
c. .S), of Fructuosus (/i'<',/' c. 21), ami by the
so-called rule of Magister (//«■;;. Mnij. c. So).
The former allowed even a shca'ter term, live
mcmths, at the abhat's discretion (p. s.) \ ami the
latter even permitted the novice to reside in a
cell not within but near the monastery (r. s,),
Gregory the Great found some abbatsin histiiiie
too facile in the admission of novices ; to (•orrnt
this laxity, he insisted on a probation of two
years at least {Epp. x, 24), and in the case i^f
men that had been soldiers, three (iVj. viii. ')).
Benedict had been content with a noviciate uf
one year (/to/, c. .58), of which, nccordin;,' to
M.abillon, two months were to be passed in the
" cella hospitum," and the remaining ten in the
"cella novltiorum" {Piacf. iv. vii, l.'iO), but,
according to Martene, all the year in the novi.ea'
chamber (/?C'/. Comment, c. .58). This was usually,
but not always, on t' ■ east side of the cloisterer
quadrangle, between the gateway and the east
end of the ?hapel, next to the room of correc-
tion, and facinf, the scholars' chamber, and the
" scriptorium " or copyists' room on the we-t
(Altes. Asa-t. iv. 3, ix. 7). In some of the larger
monasteries the novices had their own iiuaili'an;;le,
almost like a separate monastery, with th(Mr own
refectory, dormitory, inlirniarv.and even, in rare
instances, their own chapel ; biit this ceased with
the decrease in the number of candidates for
admission (A''','/, flem'd. Cuinmeid. c. .'>«).
All the timie of his noviciate the aspirant fer
the cowl was under very strict tutela:,'e. On
entering the monastery, he was assigned to the
"•uardiiui-hip oC "UO of the older and ninrc ex-
peric , >d of the brethren, who was to ivprt of
his heiiaviour to the alibat (Bened. Hfl- ^'- ''^\
Basil. I,cq. c. 1.") ; Isidor. /to/, c. 4; Kruct. Ikj.
c. 21 ; Kej. Jiajist. c. 87 ; Gregor. Magn, Epp.
y. -ifl). As i would be 1
novice to have his own si
posed that the older monk
«ai either one of the di
lte.j. V. s.), or, more pro
the novices" [Magister
special task it was to 1
BencJ. Comment, v. s.). 'J
out of tbe'r chamber ■vr.,t)
\v. 10) They «■, re never
rcf, to go rttout the moi
wta li^ii or without the '
Cor.ineiit. c. 22). Even so
iug with the head up, inste;
to be marked and corrected
7). Slight allowance was n
us yet inured to the sev
cloister. From " lauds "
oiler monks retired to th
with those monks who hi
years in the monastery, w
dormitory, learning psalms
oilieial for the week, or '• he!
"Leave your bodies outsidi
enter the monastery " was
Bernard of Clairvau-V to pos
ir. 1). In the same spirit (
nionachism in the East
ignominious hardships of
necessity of very frequen
their perseverance (Basil.
11th century tho docility
novices in England were s
floggings (Hospinian, jlist. .
Opportunities were given
time to time of reconsiderii:
On first entering the monf
siripped of the outer gam
woni in Xhe world, he was
iiilecd, renouncing all othe
olwy implicitly his new rii
lltil. c. 4H). liy the rule o(
Aries in the 7th century, he
rating-room, or". salutatorii
was read over to him (Jie//. c
to be led into the chapter-
liyiug aside his arms, if ho i
again to make a profession
presence of the fnther-abbat
He might, if ho pleased, sei
njessagc to tho friends loft hi
iv. viii. 150). At the enc
.ig.imat the end of eight moii
at tlie end of the year, the '
tharge he had been committe
Ihe rule to him, bidding him
tilt w.ld if he wished (B
riiully, in the oratory or chf
lenice (I'achom. Jie,). c. 49), i
•Itarwith his own hand his v
ailniission, and invoking the i
»ere there enshrined, in witnt
tMv,is formally admitted by t
"let (Bened. /to/, v. s, ; Mai
I. IK might often hap|)en, he
M was to put his mark to th
•I signature (Isidor. Jie,/. c.
ime\ hefcrs the abhat' rep
'■>iiscipe me," from the i'salt
Bission, he was to pi'ostrate hi
'fmchof the brethren, kissin
wgging their prayers (Seg.
NOVICE
T. 49). As i would be hardly possible foi ea.-h
novice to have his own senior, it has been sup-
posed that the older monk, spolten of in the rub's
».i5 either one of the decani or deans (I'VucV
%. V. s.), or, more probably, the "master of
the novices [Maoister Novitioruji"', wiiose
j|Mciftl task it was to look aft»: them (Ilea
Bcncd. Comment, v. s.). Thc; were never to stir
out of the.r chamber -wr.hout leave (Cass. Inst
IV. HV 1 hey y. re never, on any pretext what-
ever, to go „c-out the monastery at night with-
wt a lis^.l or without the « master " ( /te;. Bcned.
CaVMit. c. .'2). Lven so trivial a fault as walk-
ing with the head up, instead of bent forward was
to be marked and corrected by "the master" (i6 c
7). Slight allowance was made for their not beine
as vflt mured to the severe discipline of the
cloister. From " lauds " to " prime," when the
older monks retired to their cells, the novices
oith those monks who had not completed five'
years ill the monastery, were to wait in their
dormitory, learning psalms under the eye of the
offioialfurtheweek,or"hebdomadariu3"(i6 c 8)
"Leave your bodies outside the gate all ye who
enter the monastery " was the stern welcome of
llern.ird ot Clairvaux to postulants (Altes. Ascet
IV. I). In the same spirit one of the founders of
monnchism m the East enjoined on novices '
Ignominious hardships of every kind, and the
necessity of very frequent confessions to test
their perseverance (Basil. Reg. c. tJ). In the
llth century the docility and constancy of
nonces in England were sometimes tested by
floggings (Hospinian, Jist. Monach. iii. c 23)
Opportunities were given to the novice from
time to time of reconsidering his determination.
On first entering the monastery, before being
sirippd of the outer garments which he had
woni m ihe world, he was questioned whethe
inleed, renouncing all other things, he would
t- "",''!"•"',( '"l" "''''' "■'« "f '"■« (Pnchom.
H c. 40). J>y the rule of Aurelian, bi.shop of
•Wes m the 7th century, he was to listen in the
waiting-room, or "sMlutatorium," while the rule
wa.sre,iJ over to him {He,,, c. 1). He was then
ohe led into the chapter-house, where, after
ijyiiig aside his arms, if he carried any, he waS
"gain to m.ike a profession of his intentbm in
presence of the fnther-abbat and the brethren
He might, if ho pleased, send back n farewell
iiies«ge to the friends left behind (Mab. Praelf
»ganat the end of eight monlhs.nnd once again
targe he h.-id been committed was to read over
e rule to him bidding him go back at once to
Je Wild if he wished (Bened. Reg. c. 58).
mf J;!" '^ "'n "'"^ "^ "''"l"^'' ''«'•'".? divine
('^"'■l^'""- Heg. c. 49), after laying on tho
t»rwith his own hand his written petition for
admission, and invoking the saints whose relics
were there enshrined, in witness of his sincerity,
wn^'"'i'"^r, '"'"""'='* ^^ *'»' "''''■■** into the
Jer (Bened. Re,,, v. s. ; Mabill. Pr,eff. y 3^
as might often happen, he could not write,
w to put his mark to the petition in place
1 *;!fnnture (Isidor. Re,,, c. 5). Ho was to
.eoll„f,re th« ..Khat,' repeating the ? r.se
-cipeme,"fromthe i'salter ; ...d after ndi
el? ArV'" P'-"'""^'' hini'^elf at the feet
l*SS"ig their prayers (%. Ueiwd. Comment.
NOVICE
1407
c. 58; Reg Magist. c. 88). Hi,, secul.ir dres.
was to be laid by in a wardrobe in case of his
n!5'r/,",^"''''iJ^ needing it again by being ex-
V^t '•^"'^^'■■"f'- •''•)• Abbats were forbidden,
under penaty of excommunication, to take any
bribe for admission (Co,w. Mcaen. If. a.d 787
c. 19; Cap.tul. F,;mc„furt. a.d. 794, c. 10). In
^ITfM ''r!"''™""*^ "'■ ""onachism, the con-
smit of the brethren m chapter became necessary
(Hospin. Iliit. Mm. v. s.). '
4. The monastic dress was not usually as-
stimed till the noviciate was over (Oassian,
Or gmally, indeed, the dress of a monk dilVere 1
little from that of ordinary people, except
so far as it resembled the dre.ss of the philo-
sophors of the Roman empire, or wj dis-
tmguished by a Quaker-like simplicity from tha
fashions of the day. When, however the
Zt^(f^.^' ^ ^T' ^''^""^ " ""^ »"i'"portant
pait of the rite of initiation. In the same way
hiir shnr. ■'' ''"■' ""'^ '•'1"'''''J *° •'^'=1' th«
Prti™ ' "'.* P™*"''* "Sainst lu.xury and
thing of later date (Bingham, Ori„. Ec le,. vii.
"1.); By the rule, so-called, of " JIagister," the
novice becoming a monk was to i^ceiv; he
tonsure from the abbafs hands, while the
brehren stood round singing psalms {Reg. Ua,,ist.
c. 9U). The congregation of CJIugny, at a later
period ordered their novices to have he tonsure
as well as all the monastic attire, with he ex-
ception of the hood or cowl. But thiAvas a
deviation from the old Benedictine rule, vh ch
reserved the tonsure with the outer robe for he
Mp.rat.on of the noviciate (Bened. R,y. To 55
58 ; JIabill. Acta Sanctor. 0. S. B. torn, i p 7
not, a). r' • I
5. The novice was in every instance re.
qu.red to divest himself absolutely of atl his
worldly possessions. He was to be exm, ined
very particularly on this point, lesi by ke ^ ng
back a smgle com for himself he should incuf
Oie guilt of Ananias (Cass. /„./. iv. 4; Au.elian'
to be his own (Cass. ih. c. 5). But in the <.arli^t
and purest days of monachism, the mona erV
was not to be the gainer by the no'viee's libS^
but h.s own relatives or the poor (Cass, ib •
to choosfi!- '■^> ^'^""^"■•'^^ he was allowed
to thoose how his property should be disposed of
provided always that he'retiined nothing f^r
himself. By the rule of Aurelian he mi Jhf givl
.t away as he pleased {Reg. c. 1). By the rule
of "Magster," the abbnt was to exh^-r^him to
! .r.trust his worldly goods to the mona,ste.y f!"
the use of the poor, or, if he preferred it, for the
commoi, fund of the monastery (A,,. W.^ c'
»7). 1 here was a curious regulation of the
rrriVo' 'rT^vib^r^™'^ (Mabiir.S
o-. o. /(. 1. JO, 71, 7d), that property "in kind "
was to be converted at once into money in
order probably, to facilitate the distribu"i^; of
L „n '1' " 2""'* '^™»g'it a Hock of sheep,
the abbat was first to buy it for the monastery
or to sell it by the agenc/of ,he prinv, an 1 th^'
annM?! hT- '^' •"'"'="^''' *° ^"^^ ""^ice, to be
applied by his direction {Re,,. Tarmt. c. 5) It
.s e.isy to understand how, in cou.-se of time as
monasteries vied with one another in opulence
and magnihcence, they absorbed the larger shaw
i\
fnr
'n
1408
NOVICE
of what a novice was renouncing. Once theirs, it
was siierilcge to deprive them of it in any way.
Hut these aci|uisition3 were not always iin iin-
allciyeJ aiivantagc. Sometimes a novice, pre-
suming on his munificence, made himself trouble-
some to his brethren and his abbat (Kruct.
Kcii. c. 18). Sometimes, if faithless to his pro-
fi'ssion, he would reclaim his property by litiga-
tion or by arms (16.), It was important, there-
fore, that, whatever he gave to the monastery,
he should give by his own act and deed (" ipse
BuH manu," 16.). And though none might so
much as enter the monastery as a postulant,
f. .Mging with him anything of his own, the
.rmal and complete renunciation of all that he
1. in the world was to be made, solemnly,
publicly, in writing, before the abbat and chapter,
at a later stage of his noviciate {Keg. JU(i(). c.
87). It was even provided in the rule just
quoted that the abbat should recjrd the names
of the donor and of the subscribing witnesses in
his own last will and testament, lest at any
future time the validity of the gift should be
called in question (>&. c. 89). In the case of a
minor, his parents were to lay his hand, wrapped
in the folds of the altar cloth, on the altar, and
might either vow away his property from him
absolutely, or reserve the life interest till he
should come of age {Bened. Re<). Comm. c. 59),
When old enough, the novice was bound to
execute this promise of renunciation (Aurel. Scg.
c. 4(j). By the rule of "Magister" the parents
might either promise all the boy's fortune to the
monastery or might divide it in three equal
portions between the monastery, the poor, and
his own relatives. In either case they swore
on the Gospels to bequeath him nothing {Jieg.
Mag. c. 91).
6. The rules of disqualiiication for admission
varied continually in ditVerent countries and at
dill'erent periods, especially as to the limitations
of age. The conflicting decrees of councils and
popes on these points testify to the difficulty of
a compromise between the conflicting claims
of the home or the state on the one side and of
asceticism on the other. Basil, in the Kast,
without defining more precisely, allowed
children to be received very young to be trained
in the monastery (,Iieg. c. 15) ; but they might
go bai.k to their homes, if they wished, before
being finally admitted. Once in the monastery,
by Benedict's rule, they could not abandon their
vocation (MaWll. Annal. iii. 37 ; cf. Praejf.
AA. 0. S. II.). Cassian speaks of young boys
occasionally among the Kgyptian monks (Collnt.
ii. 11). Gregory the Great forbade them to
be received before eighteen years of age ; but the
prohibition has been explained as applying only
to the islands in the Tuscan Sea, where the
discipline was peculiarly trying (Epp. i. 50)
The emperor Leo fixed sixteen as the limit
(Sureil. 6). The rule of Aurelianus, bishop of
Aries in the 6th century, excludes children under
ten or twelve as tho.ightless and as requiring a
nurse {Reg. c. 47). A canon to the same effect
was ]iassed by the TruUan council at Constan-
tinoiile, A.n. 69'J {Coiu\ C. P. iii. c. 40), Leo IX.,
towards the close of the 1 1th century, prohibited
novices before they nave arrived at years of dis-
cretion ; Urban II., rather later, forbade them
under twenty. After the beginning of the 9th
ceutury they were seldom admitted under scvcn-
NOVICB
teen years of age (Hospinian, de Orig, iiimdch,
iii. 2.1). Boys intended for the iiriesthond were
by a decree of the second council of ToliMln, a.h,
5.')1, to be trained in the hou,se of the bishop till
they wore eighteen years old (Cunc. TUrt \\
c. 1).
7. There is the same uncertainty, and there
are similar contradictions, as to the right of the
parents to devote a child to the iioviciate, and cf
a child to present himself without the consent
of his jiarents. Basil, in the enrlicst davs of
monastii'ism, forbade children to be aiiniittoij
unless brought by their parents (/I'd/, c. i;,).
At a later date the civil law not only disc nunt,..
nanced ])arents keeping back their childnn liciin
the noviciate, but even allowed children to he
admitted against or without the consent of th.iir
natural guardians (NouU. cxxiii. 41). .Icrimie
in a more than usually declnnuitiiry pa9>.ii)ii;
upbraids Heliodorus for permitting his iiil«-
tion for his parents to keep him back frcjin
the life of a monk (Hieron. Kyp. 14, § 'l).
The council of Gangra (Kiangari, in Anatolia)
A.D. 525, a council not very favourably clis|«isc'cl
to monasticism, condemned strongly scuk re-
tiring from the world without their parents'
leave, anathematising all so doing (Cum:, (lauir.
c. 16). Altc^ierra contends, without, howevcT
much' shew of reoson, that this and similar
canons of the council of Gangra were intended
only against monks tainted with heresy (Arevti-
con, iv. i). But two councils during thi! 7th
century in Spain, already distinguished aniung
the countries of Kurope by its monastic sym-
pathies, decided that children under ai;e were
bound by the net of their parents devoting thein
to the monastery, and mu.st Hl)ide l)y that
promise, however unwillingly, in after years
(Cone. Tolct. iv. A.D. 6:18, c. 49 ; Cone. lull, i,
A.D. 656, c. 6). The former of these eouneils
of Toledo, according to Bingham, is the first
council that sanctions this jicrversion of jinrentnl
responsibilities and of filial obedience ('ri./.
Scales, vii. iii.). The latter enacts that up to
ten years of age the child may be devotecl hy
the parents; that on attaining that tender o^e
the child has full power to devote himself, with
or without their approval ; and that, it' (larents
have so much as tacitly allowed a chihl un.ler
ten to wear the monastic dress, he may never
return to the world under penalty ol excom-
munication (v. s.).
The marriage tie was another source of jier-
plexifv. Basil dissuades married peisons from
ent' i the monastic life, unless together, lest
the liiisland or wife left alone in the world
should be guilty of adultery (A'c;/. c. IJ).
Cassian, relating how Theonas, an Kgyptian
monk, persisted iri becoming a monk in spite of
his wife's entreaties, seems by his silence to dis-
approve (Co/lat. xxi. 8, 9). The council of
Gangra, already quoted, condemns any such dis-
regard of domestic duties on the part of wives
or parents (ti. s. cc. 14, 15). In the same spirit
Gregory the Great cautions husbands against
forsaking their wives even for the life of a nicmk
(Gregor. M, I'pp. vi. 48). But these salutary
cautions were in practice too often neglected ia
the fervour of uionastic propagandism.
The case of slaves was difliirent. There thi
monastery was interposing to reai ue men frem
degradation. Yet there, too, was danger of •
:»-!:■;;,.:
NOVICE
collision between the monastery and social obli?«.
"T'l J:TT "l\^^'"'=<^' give an uncertain
louml, and it could hardly be uthcrwise, on this
j«mt. Ihe council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, and
hecoiincil of Cangra A.D. .V2.-,, forbade slaves to
k iwl'.mtted without their masters' leave (Cow
1 { ,1 \ ^T"; ^'"•■''^- =• 3). Justinian
ordered them to be ke,,t three years, and then
, low d them, if not reclaimed, to become monks
(.\.,r«« cxxii. J5i cf Valentinlan. HI. Kovell.
111). 1 asil mi.kes reference to Onesimus, the run-
.»ay slave sent back to his owner by St. Paul
(Ke;i. ,•. 1 1). Ihe great Gregory has frequent oc
Mion in his correspondence to advise on this
knuty point, bluves are not to be taken in
rashly (Greg M. App. ad J-.'pkt. Secret, v. 6),
but ,f they behave well in the monastery, they
,n»y st.y (Epp y. 34); if not, they must be
ml bn..k to their masters (ib. ix. 37); a sub-
deacon to whom Gregory is writing, is told to
W the money to redeem a slave longing to
become a monk (,v,.iii. 4O). On the whole,
without doubt, the influence of the monasteries
WIS often exercised wisely as well as banevo-
Ion y for the alleviation and gradual extinction
of the evils of slavery. For example, a master
d^mns to become a monk, and bringing a slave
wth hiro founJ within the walls of the raonas-
ery that he had with him "no longer a slave
bt a brother in the Lord " (Jieg. Sen.pion. ? 7
&;. lurnat. c. 5, &c.). '
The profession of the monk clashed not in-
frequently with the duties of the citizen. By a
deere.) of Va entinian and Valens, in the latter
l«rto the 4th century, all persons in mona.,-
t-ries liable to serve m the local senates of the
mpire ("curiales')" were ordered either to
r urn to public life or to^sell their estates to
n "[*"?'■« public spirit (CW. Tlieod. xii.
1; Binsh Ory. ;^ofe». vii. iii.). The council
Chalcedon, in the same century, protested
|!.ia»t monks serving in the army or navy
(«. C/K, av/ A.D. 451, c. 7). Gregory wisely
discourage 1 public officers from becoming monks
.je,s hey had first passed their fccoun ,'
and so cleared themselves of their civic resoon-
;t;l;tie,s(Greg.M.y^p.H,65;viii.5)^^^^^^^^^^^^
e admission of criminals involved questions
LrX 'l'*'^""y- There was, on the one
taJ the danger of interrupting the course
J.H .oe by preventing the sentence of th
« from being carried into effect, and of
nnRin^ down on the monastery hkrbourine
..niimls the strong arm of the law, J well a! I
he danger which Dr. Arnold felt so keei, Iv a '
Ife"' "■» ^T^ ^""tagion that migh s-pL*]
i «« t trom an evil example. On the other hand
; 11 "■'^'"= "^•''''^''^ ""* ^he refbrmation
ouaenders one great purpose of the monastery?
NOVICE
1409
Ihe curtalos,"or •• curiae suhjoctl." may In some
»«T* be compart^ to our aldormei, or towixou "11™^
> ™ .ummuned to the oflice. they could ncuZ^Tnd
^.tar endeavoured to evade It, they wore cot^^M "o
rL,. 7':™ "'•"'"""•• f"^ '"e full p.,ym,...t or
'" lmp.«t due from their locdlty. The office beluJ
M»..«.me „«, Inverted with «,me d.^'liv ™ . tl^«
^. .™::!;rbv vthfr^td V XTf. "{^^^^^^
j;*^^rly,,ust,nl.n. C^, l.'uf 7,7 tx^as ; til!
Cassinn speaks of reclaimed robbers and e-en
murderers among the monks of vlJ^T- V
day (ColUt. iii.%. The Juie oK^J ;" ''"'
provides that novicis of thislVe er' ^-1";
be received where the abbat is « n,„„ / ^
than or.li„ary e.-cperience and gravUy „n 1 7Z
uZT' "'T^ l'--b.iectcd'.oaii'seipi„e':f
more than usual rigour (Fruct.i?<;,, c W vJl
J^rT^ira'Tt'^'Tr^"'^"'"'--''^- -
disqualifi"-ti::; Th; ioorlrouiaT """ "
to be let in, with no ^t^X, ^Til
renounce either for the monasterv or for th.
of an irrevocable' vow, everl^thinj w^s dTnTto'
jnsure his perseverance. Should theTeaftTr all
be necessity for his expulsion, his old seculir
COB), and he was either to be elected i^n„
miniously in the davtime or allowed 1 sfe-J
away under the shadow of night ^Cass^S
Zt.^a m'^d'neval treatment of such
pirenders waa more severe ; they were to I,.
=: ^r^^d^srr^^^
Ss :? it,X''r ;::"^„irh7-if h^'^". ^;
atrA'" ?r' ^■'"' ^'"V-n 't f pUi'st •
and the abbafs benediction {li.q. jl/a'; c 88 '
the Benedictine ord^r -f "Gnn^r, » I
"^■ver t„ be allowed to ry Sn fZ T"
mcnt. c. '^9). ' * '° ^^'9- Cum-
N,.vices generally enjoyed, during this proba-
monks'mt":e """'/"'""^ ""1 "-"nit^rof
monKs CAlteser. ..,aU on, ,v. 4). Degradation
h%mm
1410
NOVITIOLI
to the noviciate was sometimes a punishment
for nionlts who were disobedient (I>u Canj;".
GAssit •. I.at. s. v.). Benedict ordered the younger
monks, just out of their noviciate, to be cor-
rected for their faults by extraordinary fastings
^Mec) 30).
i i '1 these carefully devised regulations
about novices shew that tho founders and re-
formers of monastic orders regarded the no-
viciate, and rightly, as a very important part of
their system. If the aathority of the abliat was
the lieystone of th( arch, the rigorous i)robation
before becomine a aionk was the cornerstone of
the edilice. Thus the admission of a novice
(" susceptio novitii ") was one of the five princi-
pal duties of the abbat and chapter ("praecipua
agenda monast. rii ") ; the other four being the
expulsion of renegades, the penances for mis-
conduct, the accei)tance of donations or bequests,
and any proposition for changing any of the
rules of the society {Ren. Bcned. Commentat. c.
3). Benedict himself lays down the p-^ni iple,
that, while the discipline of novices must not go
beyond their power of endurance, still, so far as
it goes it must be adhered to strictly (R'V-
Prolog.). It was a sagacious remark of Eutro-
pius, ;i Spanish abbat (Serbitanus or Sirbitanus)
towards the end of the 6th century, " we do not
want quantity, but quality in our novices " —
"non quantos [quot] sed quales " (M-^bill.
A>in. 0. S. B. vii. 21). Vet the noviciate and the
framing of regulations about it seem to have been
left gencrilly to the monastic bodies themselves.
The canons of councils, though continually re-
lating to the monks and monasteries, are com-
pai-atively silent about the noviciate. It was con-
sidered probably an integral part of the internal
administration of the monasteries. It may be
observed that, while in the commencement of
monasticisra the age for admission was earlier,
and the probation longer, the inverse practice
prevailed in course f time. Obviously the
younger the novice, tiij greater the need of long
and elaborate preparation.
PFor Literature, see Monasteev, p. 1229.]
^ [I. 0. S.]
NOVITIOLI. A name sometimes given to
catechumens, because, says Bingham (^(1/17. X.
i. 1), " they were jr. „ entering upon that state
which made them soldiers of God and candidates
of eternal life." [0.]
NUBILI8 (NoBiLis), martvr ; commemorated
in Africa Ap. 25 {Hieron. Mart.); Boll. Acta SS.
Ap. iii. 361). [C. H.]
NUCUS, martyr. [Mucius, June 15.]
NUDIPEDALIA. A word used to describe
walking barefoot in processions, and other func-
tions of the church, as a sign of humiliation
(Tertullian, ^'l/)o/. c. 4). It was also a pngiin
form of supplication to the deities. (Tertull.
adv. Gentes, c. 40.) [<-'.]
NUMBERS, THE GOLDEN. [Easter,
p. 693.]
NIIMERIANUS, bishop and confessor at
Treves, a.d. 657 ; commemorated July 5 (Boll.
^c<u JS. Jul. ii. 231). ■ [C. H.]
NUN
NUMIDTA, COUiVOIL OF. A turbulent
mcctin.; of Donatists, heid there a.d. ;!48, Ht
some place unknov-', to allay the storm r.iisi'd
by Jliicarius, who ...d been pent on thither for
relief of the poor by the emperor Coustans,
(Maasi, iii. 143.) [E. S. Ff.]
NUMIDIGUS, martyr with others in Africa
m the third centurv, commemorated Aiio. 9
(Boll. Acta SS. Aug.'ii. 410). [C. H.]
NUMISMATICS. [Money.]
NUN. 1. The Name ; 2. Pagan Prercdents ;
3. I'he Sacred Virgins ; 4. Origin and Growth of
Convents ; 6. Age fur Admission and Dnnition of
P<-i,iation; 6. Pcrpetuitg of Obligation; 7. Conse-
cration of a Nun ; 8. Conventual Rules ; 9. Epi-
scopal Control, 4x'. ; 10. Occupations of Anna;
11. Nuns and Monks.
(1) Among the various designations used by
sncient Christian writers for nuns, the most
noticeable are these. " Nonna " (Hicrnn. K/p, 22
ad Eustochiu-.n), a term of filial reverence, signify.
ing an aged woman, a mother, or nurse, just as
the older monks were called " nrnni " by 'leir
younger brethren (Bened. Reg. c. u " . . .-icd,
Anian. Concord. Reg<d. c. 70 ; Mena. ■. ad ioi\).
The word is perhaps from Egypt, and racurs in
the f<^m of vivi\ in some editions of I'lillailius.
" Sanctimonialis, 'or " CVtimoniiilis," ex])ressing
the holiness of tJie vocation ; the litter syllables
of these words biicome in later writers the sub-
stantive word " monialis." " Monastria," a less
usual word, signifying seclusion from the world.
•' Sponsa Chris; '," or spouse of Christ. "Ancilla
Dei," handmaid of God. " Velata," veiled.
"Ascetica," ascetic (Alteser. Asceti'On. III. ii.).
The pames "agapetae," beloved, and "sorures,"
sisters, degenerated into terms of ropm.icli, as
implying familiarity with monks (liingh. (Jriij.
Krcles. V'l. ii. 13 ; cf. Cone. Ancijr. a.d. oU. c
18).
(2) There were prece^. .its 'n paganism for
an histitution of this kind. 1 .e Roman vestals
held a very high place in the Honian constitu-
tion. Usually admitted very young, between
the ages of six and ten, they were bound to fulfil
a term of thirty years after admi^>ion; ten as
novices, ten in the worship of the temple, ten as
teachers of those who were to take their places.
After the expiration of these thirty years, they
were free to marry, but availed themselves of
this liberty very rarely (Preller, Les Dieiix
de Cancienne Rome). Among the Pythago-
reans, also, women consecrating themselves to
virginity might attain a very exalted rank in
the hierarchy (Maury, Hisloire <lcs Rclii/ions
de la Grice Antique). Ambrose seeks a pre-
cedent in the sacred observances of the Jews
{De Virginibus). But the pass.ige in the book
of Maccabees is a very slight foundation to
build upon (II. Mace. iii. 19).
(3) In one sense the profession of a nun dates
from an earlier period than the correspondicg
profession of a monk. Before the custom of
addicting themselves for religious purposes to ."n
unmarried lifu had made much progress in thi,
Christian church among men, it was already in
vogue among women. They had no public
duties to renounce •, it was easier for them to
exchange their ordinary employments for tliose
of charity and devotion ; perhaps, too, they were
predisjiosed to understn:
furity, which are so proi
eihortations to virginity,
about marriage «s thos
Corinthians in the most 1
ib). The " sacred vir
cal virgins," were an i
organisation of the chu:
centuries, and their name
list {'• canon " or " m;
ilHcittls (liingham, Origi)
pinian, de Orig. Monac'uiti
Helena, mother of Constan
iB|iccial resjject for these d
Hist.Evcles. i. 17). But t
not living together in co
l)y vows ((Jyprian, Epp.
Tiri/.). Even so late as
century, a canon of the
•peaks of these virgins ai
parents {Cone. Cart/iag. .
Gregor. .M. Dialog, ii. 7, 1
were to be placed by the
set apart for them. Prob
of the "sacred virgins"
M. Keel. V. 3), by that
evitably follows persecuti
their vocation at once mo;
systematic. Some of the
were induced by Jerome's
themselves to it, continu
Others left their homes to !
completely, as they believed
(Epp. ad Eustocli. ; ad Deniet
ad Mnrcell.). The civil lav
fiempted from the capita
capitationis injurid) these (
and grants them especial i)ri
making it a capital ofl'ente
any one of their number,
marriage to them (Cod. Ti,
isv. ; Cod. Justinian. I. iii. ;
(4) \ery early in the 5tl
describes several communit,
t«gether in the Scetic desei
Tabcnnae, an island on the I
communities were aioiarentl
mreful discipline. Dorothei
CDt of one of them, used
»ludow, looking down on tl
their quarrellings (Pallad. H
3i!, 137). Chrysostom m.
Ksociations of virgins (co(
tgypt, in those days pre-ei
asceticism {I/omil. in Mat
sjwks of them in Oxyrinc
tgypt. Ambrose says "that
Alexandria, in the East, ii
eileemed very highly {De I
ginihut, 10, De Lapsu Wry.).
that parents were apt then, a:
get rid of their sickly or ill-l
in this way ( Hieron. Ep.
''igustine mentions nuns, i
ni ^lnnasteries, making wo(
■ 1 ks{De Mor. Ecctes. c.
against the excesses of Do
;'■■ f'ivfhe indecent bohavioi
onworthy of the name, who
Wing bands of the " Circun
Pi^m.mn. iii. 3; De Bono
In the last vear of the 6th
OHEIST. ANT.— VOi*. II.
NUN
pmlisposed to understand the exhortations to
purity, which are so prominent in the Gospel, «s
ejhorti.tions to virginity, and to take such words
about iniirnnge iis those of St. Paul to the
Corinthians in the most literal sense (1 Cor vii
33). I he "sacred virgins," or " ecclesiasti-
csl virgins," were an important part of the
organisation of the church in its Hrst three
centuni-s, and their names were enrolled on the
'f \'?w"u "i- '' '"^'tricula ") of church
ilhcmls (Bingham, Orifiin. E.:ctes. vii. 4 • Hos-
pmian, dc. On.,. Momc'u.tAs, i. 10), The empress
Helena mother of Constantine the Great, shewed
*il«cial resj)ect for these devoted women (Socrat
Hist, levies, i. 1 7). But these " asceticae " were
not living together in communities, nor bound
by TOWS (Cyprian, Spp. 4, 02 ; cf. De J/afjitu
Vir,/.). Lven so late as the closfi of the 4th
century, a canon of the council of Carthage
■peaks of these virgins as dwelling with thc^r
psief.ts (Cone. Carthag. llj. a.d. 3'J7 c SI •
Gregor. M. Dialog ii. 7, 14). If or|.hans," they'
ti-ere to be placed by the bishop in a buildiue
set apart for them. Probably the persecution,
of the "sacred virgins" by Julian (Sozomen,
M. Ucl. J. 3), by that reaction which in-
evitably follows persecution, helned to make
their vocation at once more popular and more
srstematic. Some of the itoman ladies, who
were induced by Jerome's inHuence to devote
themselves to it, continued in their homes
ethers left their homes to give themselves more
coniplefely, as they believed, to a lite of devotion
^lpi<. ad KustocI,. ; ad De„wtnad. ; Ambrose Jijm
ad Marcell.). The civil law of the later empire
piempted from the capitation tax (i pjebelae
capitatioms mjurid) these ecclesiastical virgins
and grants them especial protection from insults'
making it a capital offence to offer violence to
any one of their number, or even to propose
raamage to them (Cod. Theodos. xiii. x. i ix
iiv. ; Cod. Justinian. I. iii. h). ' '
(4) \ery early in the 5th century Palladius
describes several communities of virgins living
together in the Scetic desert, in Egypt, anr in
Tiibennae, an island on the Nile. Some of these
communities were amiarently not under a very
wretul discipline. Dorotheus, the superintend-
ent ot one of them, used to sit at an upper
windoB-, looking down on the inmates, to ston
their quarrellings (Pallad. Hist. Lmts. cc. 34, 36,
38, 137). Chrysostom mentions crowd.s or
associations of virgins (coetus virginum) in
tgypt, in those days pre-eminently" fertile in
asceticism (//omiV. in Matt. c. 8). Kutfinus
speaks of them in Oxyrinchus (Behne.sch) in
tgypt. Ambrose says that they abounded in
Aiesandria, m the East, in Italy, and were
fflleemed very highly (/)« IVr.yin.V. 7, Ve Vir-
Smiu>, 10, De Upsu Viry.). Jerome complains
that parents were apt then, as in later years, to
get rid of their sickly or ill-favoured daughters
m this way ( Hioron. Ep. ad Denwtriad.).
•igustine mentions nuns, in buildings ap.nrt
^^ Tinnasteries, making woollen garments for
• 1 ks (/)eifor. Ecctes. c. 31). Jn his pri>-
ngainst the excesses of Uonatists, he rebukes
:'.:fi!vthe indecent bch.iviour of the vireins
•raworthy of the name, who accompanied the
^"ing bands of the " CircumcellionLs " (Cont
W,«m. iii. 3; De 1km Vi.uitat. c. l.i).'
™t ,' ■"'' "*■ """ ^"^ '■«"*"'>• 'he pope,
CHKIifr. ANT.— VOL. II. ^ "^ '
NUN
1411
Gregory the Great, attributes the prese.vat.on
of Home from the Lombards to the pravers of
with n Its walls (Gregor. M. Epp. vl. 4'J, vii 26)
(o) At hrst, as was the case with monks, and"
especially ,„ he Last, youth was hardly 'con-
Mdered a hmdra-ce to .self-dedication. Ba.sil
draws the line at sixteen or seventeen (Rca c 7 •
J-^p.adAmphiUh. c. 18). Asella and Paula'de-'
^o ed themselves, or were devoted, even earlier
(Hieron. hpp.). Ambrose advises that it must
I'o. depend on the number of years, but on the
maturity o character (De VirgikitatcVll
Ihe Council of baragossa, in the close of the
4th century, and the Council of Agde, a little
more than a century later, forbid thf v^i? to be
assumed before the age of forty (Cunc. Caosarauy.
tut il^^-^A ^"""i 4'/a/.*«.s. A.D. 50ti, c. 19);
and the third Council of Carthage, about the same
date as that of Saragossa, before twenty."™e
(Cone Carthag. III. a.d. 397, c. 4). GrLorv
the Great writes that nuns may not be veiled
' mfr h'"^ r'' "^ "««' ''"* •he profess on
ZZV\ :.■*■ ^- '■'"• *^> <-'ha'lemagne, in
Older to discourage the practice of taking the
veil prematurely, re-enacted the old African
canon already quoted, fixing twenty-five years f
age as the earliest age for it (Capitni. a.d. 789
0. 4b ; A..>. 805, 0. 14). The Council of Krank-
foi-t allows an earlier age in exce,,tional c"l,
{Cone /nw. A.D. 793, c. 46). The Counl
<-il ot Aachen, twenty-two years later, forbids
young women to become nun, without 'the con!
A.D. 817, c. 20). As to the length cf time ne-
cessary for probati^»n, a Council of Oriels fn
the bth century, draws a distinction between
convents where the inmates are to stay for ev er
In the latter case the probation is to last three
years I ,n the former, one year is enough (Cone
Aurchau. V. ad. 549, c. 19). [Novicl]^
bin ♦w '^^ '"'" '* ^"^ understood on all
Hands that a woman consecrating her.self to the
pofession of virginity ought not to marry; and
in n'p' "' ".'™ """"ght, with apostolic
precepts (Cor. vii.; 1 Tit. ii.), anyone going
back from this profession was gravely censur^ed a!
ialling from a higher vocation (Coni Ancjr. a.d.
31ft, c 19) But it was not till the Benedictine
rule had been established in Europe that he
vow of virginity was regarded as*^ absolute! v
InTC^^";' .">' ^''' '" ^' ■"« '="-^-' if n"*^ in
fJr^i 1. I"''*'"" '*■*' «<="g'»'ied between lawful
wedlock and incontinency. In cour.se of time the
«ame stigma of infamy was branded on a nun
marrying, as on one guilty of gross immorality
just as a monk was condemned alike for marriage
and lormcatiou The Council of Elvira in Spain
early m the 4th century, allowed nuns forsakine
their profes.s,on to be restored to communion!^
penitent, after offending once, but not in case o
c Ssf'^' vn'^l"^""^"* (O^"'-- liiiberitan. a.d.
i'J.t'J' 1 I' ^""' '"'''"'''' * P«"'"«^« of one or
two years before restoration to communion; in
his eyes, the marriage of .-,«« who is :i!.cr-ir the
spouse of Christ is adultery (Ep. ad An Ah.
c. 18). The Council of Valence, in Southern
1867?** "■ ^' ^'* **"°^ «'■ ***'■*«<*• PWMolpH^
90
1412
NUN
France, about the same date, sentenced nuns
miirrying to a long, but not perpetual, eiconi-
munieation {Cvnc. Valeni. A.D. 374, c. 2). The
Theoilosian code allowed tliem to return to the
world at nny time before nttaiaing furty years
of ane, especially if they had been oumiieilcd in
the "first instance by their parents to become
nuns {Cod. Theodns. Nov. v ii. et ix.)- '""F
Innocent I., in the commencement of the
5th century, forbids a nun after marrying or
being seduced to be restored to communion,
unless the partner in her transgrest.ion has
retired into the cloister ("de saeculo recesserit,"
understood by Hospinian as if it were "de-
cesserit") (Innoc. 1. hly. 2 ad Victric. Roto-
marjens.). Epi])hiinius draws very strongly the
distinction, obliterated in later ages, between the
marriage of a nun and pri-'!lis,acT; m the former
ease, after penance done, thf bui of excommuni-
catinn is to be taken off from lier (Epi.ihnD
Haeres. Ixi.)- Leo 1., ii>. the miilule of th-
century, only allows nuns who have bs'ilcn
their vow before taking the veil to be receiv •'
after penance to communion; for those who siy
otfend after taking the veil tbtre is no resfoni-
tion (Ep. 90). Rather earlitr in the contui-y
Augustine, with characteristic largo.nes-s of
thought, aduiits that marriage in these rases,
though very culpable, is not invalidatca (/A-
Borx') Viduitat. 8, 9, Id)- Jerome, a.? ohaiac-
teristically, writes more inexorably (hp. ad
Demetriad.). The Council of Chalcedon, pre-
scribing; T period of penance varying in duration
according to the discretion of the bishop, recom-
mends the offending sister to mtvcy (Cone-
Vhulccd. A.l-» -iSl, c. 16). The second' Council
of Aries, in *A.: year following, re-enacts the
decree, already oited, of the Council of Valence,
adding the limiiii».ion, "if the offender is over
twenty-five years of age " (^Conc. Arelat. ii. A.D.
4.')2, c. 3H). The O-'iree of the Council of
Orange, a few years beivpr? this, is of the same
purport (Cuno. Amusican. A.D. 441, o. 28). A
century later the sentences i renounced are more
severe. The fifth Council of Orleans excom-
municates both parties in the event of a nun
marryinsr after her fourth year in the convent
[Conc. Aiitilian. V. A.D. .^49, c. 19); and the
Council of Micon makes this an excommunica-
tion for ever, except by special dispen.sation
from the bishop in mortal sickness (Cone.
Matiscon. A.D. c. 581, c. 12). The third Council
of Paris pronounces anathema against any one
presuming to tempt a nun to marry (Cone.
Paris, A.D 557, c. 5). Gregory the Great cen-
sures in gravest terms the marriage of a nun,
as a great wickeilness (£p. v. 24). Nuns
otherwise breaking their vow of chastity he
orders to be transfencd to a stricter monastery
for penance {Epp. iv. 9).
(7) The Consecration of a nun was a solemn
rite, only to be administered by a bishop, or, at
least, by his authorisation. The third Council
of Carthage, in the end of the 4th century,
forbade jiriests so to officiate, except by the
bishop's order ; the Council of Paris, under the
successor of Charlemagne, forbade abbesses to
usurp this function {fiuiic. Curt/tug. ill. A.D. 300,
c. 3 ; Si/n. Nippon. A.D. 393, c. 34 ; Syn. Cart/tag.
A.D. 419, c. 6 ; Cone. Paris, A.D. 825, cc. 41, 43).
Ambrose, in the 4th century, cat' t ions women
Bgainst assuming the veil precijjitately and
NUN
without due consideration (De VirqinHafo, c. 7),
His sister Marcellina was formally admitted in
1 he great basilica of St. Peter at Kdnv! by pop*
Liherius, and pirt of the cerenumy was her
receiving from Ii'. hands the mbe of virginity
(Ep. lid Marcelit.; Innoc. Ep. ad ]'iitr. c.
13. He relates dfewhrre how young wcimcn
came to him at Milan from other piuts of
Italy and from other countries to be veiled
(Vi; Vir.iinibus, i. .-,. 10; cf. Cone. Cirthag,
iv. A.D. 398). Hospinian (De Orit/. Mcn.ich. u. s.)
contends that there was uo such rcici.,onv be-
fore Constantine the Ui 'at, and that 'Iwi'llian
(Ve Vinjinibtis y'elaim,:) speaks o! h I'V the
modesty in dress and lejiitment whi, ; iicumea
Christian maidens generally. The favo-nite
seasons for this oeremoDv were Epiphnny, K- ter,
i(nd the festivals of Apostl. (Gelasius. })-.. \)^
ad Episc. iucan. c. IL'). The veil wa.s a
sign of b' longing to Christ alone (Athanns.
hx'iortat. nd Spans. Dei). The fillet or lib.ind
(vitta), w.'lh its gleam of purple or gold,
repie.'>nted the crn vn of victory (Optatus, ik
.<,-Ml.i:U. Donat. vii. 4), and the tresses
gathc.vd up ami lii.d together marked the
'iffcrface bel'veon the bride of C^hrist iind the
ii-i e ;f an e»r;hly bridegroom with hor tresses
' '. .c:i-^d ftccnri'.ng to the old Unman custom,
j'iie ring and bracelet, symbolic also of the
b;trothal to Christ, as well as the use of a
special office for the occasion, were. Uingham
litgues, of a comparatively modern date ('/n'l;.
Eccles. VII. iv.). The Council of Gaugra, while
correcting several laxities of the day, coudeinned
the practice of nuns dressing like monks (Cone.
Gangr. a.d. 365, cc. 13, 30). The same council
forbade nuns to have their heads shaven (ih.
0. 17; cf. Cod. r/teodos. XVI. ii. 27); and so
decreed two Gall'' -ouncils in the 6th and
7th centuries (\i. 'I. Anml. 0. S. U. vii.
52, xiiL 7). Ambrose and Optatus write to the
same effect (Ambr. de Laps. Virgin, c. 8 ; Optat,
de Schisinat. Donatist. vi. 4). On the other
hand, Jerome and Augustine imply that the
custom in their experience was otherwise
(Hieron. Ep. ad Sabinian. August; Ep. 211).
In Egypt and Syria the custom of shaving the
head seems to have been adopted for cleanliness,
nuns having infrequent opportunities of washing
the head (Hieron. u. s. ; cf. Sozom. Hist. Eccl.
V. 10), The uncertainty of rule, and the diver-
sity of practice on this point arose, perhaps, In
part from the apostolic injunctions to the Chris-
tian women at Corinth (1 Cor. xi.) conflicting
with the monastic tonsure ; and partly from
the twofold aspect of the vocation of a nun, as,
on the one hand, pledged to virginity, and, on
the other, beti-othed to the Redeemer. Another
objection against the tonsure of nuns in Europe
was the circumstance that this was a.i ancient
punishment for adulteresses among the Teutonic
tribes.
(8) The rules of the conventual life for
women resemble closely those for men (Mablll.
Annc' ' S. £. i. 52). Scholastica, sister of thf
great ' • rdict, was esteemed in Europe tne
fouun ' ? nunneries, according to the legend-
ary truuuion (Mftl)ill. P.-neff. I. iii.). Th« nanj
were to obey their abbess implicitly (e.g.
August. Ep. 211). By the rule of Caesarius,
bishop of Aries, in the 6th century, they were
never to go out of the convent; were to hare
m
nothine; of their ow
lojiuv r.| a oath »k'\
»>■ r:. I. 4, 26).
!U! '>'S«n! i the see,
rf.siiva 'ii'tsl-.;; withe
s-thvss, <ir,a that if
ht; into tiic c>)rvent,
fciwMKH's frc" ind in
)ii!:i >.reiat. Seih co,
cill»l " Cujusdam,"
by «i ii ' to Columba
contiuuiii silence, fr<
spare diet, very hard
communication (Reg.
10). 'ih( rule of Don
thfrnuldle of the , tti
i'.iif.lo officers corresj
heiidii'i,adarii',sor .inpl
ii Mliiws wio(, w) '. 1
be ailmit \M (cf. .V./n. i
it forbids f'n- nuns tc
eid k-v; it orders
pnnisheil by slappin
lleij. cc. 4, 5, 7, 1
Great, in his life of
a curious legend, how
grievously for their i
M. Vit. S. Bened. c. 23
(9) Nunneries were
laticlpated, more amei
u control of their bi.'
torn time to time o
'"ws that they, too,
iu!iirdiuate (r.q. Cone
C<M\ Forojul. A.D. 791
i.D. 793, c. 47 ; Cone. .
Con: Piris, A.D. 829,
council insists that the
bishop for all immuni
(Cow. Verneni. A.D. 75i
s bishop for not having
ing her convent (Grego
orders the bishops to
prevent nunneries bein
dent endowment.; to kei
{Epp. ill. 9, iv. 4, V.
of abbesse.s, like that of
certain limitations both
out. By the rule t
must take counsel wit
By the decree of an Er
century the abbess is
nuns, either from thei
elsewhere, with the adi
Chalcyth. [Chelsea ?], a.
the Great in his day
sbbesses, and of abbesse:
{Epp.W. U, vi. 12). I
in the 8th century it
lishfi', as well as the (
I be' avlng herself to i
s to superintend
) quit the preci
»^. moned by her s
Must do penance i
•s by the bishop's d
■ -opi. Cone. Vemens. /
2--ijna cnseU-d th.it the
•he Crown any abbess g
't that she might be
■ • ^- 795, c. 47). A
' ' 'KB of his saccei
NUN
BOthitK? of fhr-ir ^'^n ; were to be allowed the
tuxni .. •( a oath ..,.;»,« 8ickne«(Cae.sfti-. Arelat.
tf • -. 1, 4, <!6). ihe ni!, .f Aurelian, his
.uf>«o, ,r. the see. ovd^rs ih^t they may never
-, «iva '.>tsV.- withnit th,. vvnisance of the
,.-.t.v*» «r .i I'lat if :iyone I,:.,,-, « maid with
hi . into (IK- c.iPvent,thflser . ,.. b^ t!,e very act
h..".n'e.« fo. ^nd i. .11 thii. ,. ,..,• equal (Aure-
■ ';; •;-'etat. /?^,,. cc 4, IS). , ..,, ,igorous rule
ralk. ' Cujus-lam," not uoionsouably ascribed
bv 8. ,. ■ to Columba of lona, piescribes f >r nuDs
coBtmuiU isilenee, frequent confessions, a very
spare diet, very hard labour, under penalty of ex-
cmmvnicaiiou (Reg. Cujusd. r,; 'i ,( lo 12 18
19). Ih, ruleofDonatas, ' i^h..;. o.Besa'ngon, in
ib^ni.aala of the , th ceut ,ry, mn.es mention of
, ...ifle o.-ficers correipondm;. to the abbat, friar,
beud..,,:«larir3or ,.^ptimam-,viu» in a monastery
!M1 owv wuv.. M'!', hare .V>fr their husbands, to
b5 admit fe, (ct. .V,,„. iWtha,/. jr. a.d. 309, c 1) •
NUN
1413
It forbids r'u- nuns to Ireep auything under lo4
i3d k:v; it orders small delinquencies to be
punished by alappings (Don.it. Vesontionens.
%, cr;. 4 5 7, n, 32, 67). Gregory the
Great, m his life of Benedict of Nu.sia, gives
a cunous legend, how two nuns were punished
grievously lor their silly chatterings (Gregor
M. Vit. S. Bened. c. 23). v."fe«or.
(9) Nunneries were generally, as might be
laticipated, more amenable than monasteries to
n. control ot their bishop. But the occurrence
(om time to time of a .anon on this point
>.ws that they, too, could sometimes be in-
lulMrdinate (r.q. Cow. Arelat. a.d. 5.54 c 5-
U^'Frn-ojul k.D 791, c. 47; Cmc. Fra^ofurL
i.D, , ,M, c. 47 ; Cone. Aquisgran. a.d. 816, c. 68 •
.'*'/:?• ^'^b "■ ^^>- ^g"i°. """'he;
council insists that they must account to their
bishop for all immunities from episcopal dues
(C.-,.. IWs A.D 755, c. 20). Gregory blames '
abishop for not having hindered a nun from leav-
ing her convent (Gregor. M. Efip. ix 114) He
orders the bishops to install new abbesses ; to
preyeut nunneries being founded without siffi-
cient endowment.; to keep lay-women out of them
(%. 111. 9, ir. 4, V. 12, vii. 7). The power
of abbesses, like that of abbats, was checked 'by
certain limitations both from within and with-
it 1 / * "■"?'" -f .^°""'"' 'he abbess
must take counsel with her nuns (u. s. c. 2)
B.r the decree of an English councilin the 8th
century the abbess is to be elected by the
nuDs, either from their own number or from
A'T .TvJ^i"! *■''' *''"'=« «'■ t*>e bishop (Cone.
aakjtth. [Chelsea ?] a.d. 787, c. 5). 5regoTy
e Great in his day disapproved of young
bbesses, and of abbesses from another convenf
I'Vll'' "•/'^- .^y." "^"""i """^ p--"-''
I the 8th century it is ordered that the
.sh-,a, well a, the abbess, may send a nun
r be .ving herself to a pemtentiary ; that no
^ .0 superintend more than one monas-
) quit the precincts, except once a year
.^... moned by her sovereign ; and that the
. aiust do penance in the monastery for her
IV"" ^.r'^"^'' ^'■•«'=""» «="» consil
. :T:-^T, ^'r"^: ^■.^- 7.«, c. 6). ^-harle.
<h?rr„r tl *"' ■''"""f ■""•'*' "port to
be C own any abbess guilty of misconduct, in
. • -: '^a, c. 47). Abbesses were forbidden,
'■'«" " •"* "accessor, to walk alone, and
thus were placed in some degree under the sur-
lu ; '*'^- <-harlemaene niohihilpd
abbesses trom laying hands on any one or ^<;
7J8, c. 76; Cone. Fruncofurt. a.d. 798, c 46>
..Tdrn tn^'"' -'-/''besses'claime^d-
n tb 11 <■"",' '='"' ""'y ^^ understood
in the sense of admitting into miuor oidc a
or into the sisterhood (Hospinian, u. , ) I n^!
ham states that abbesses are first men ione fs
taking part in the proceedings of a synod at the
a"d fil;' nr'"^''"'jf''' (Becanceldae , in K.'^'
M .■•,? t ^'*"'S- ^'"'9^- J^'-'-''^^- VII. iii • cf
s t m Ir'- ^- ^- ^- ''■'"■ ^«)- 1" th '-d i
y.issais, to the king's service, but by pioxy
because of their se, and vow of seclusion. '^They
"nr^V!;^"''"^ '"''^''■'P "^" 'he fiets belong
'ng to th^jir convents. In each province t^
hrabt "r.r^'' ''"= supreme^aut ori'v of
ust as relon' r""""' "'"''"'" "f 'hat orir
just as the monasteries were subject to a " nrn
" n n Ir^ " ^'^"^■•''l " °f *he oi^e,-. 7 •""'
(10) The routine in a nunnery corresnonded
very nearly with that of a monasteiy Tere
was the same periodical rotation, houJby hour
of sacred services, varied by work, chiefly manual'
statT Zl "r """'"*"•• "^"' hrief intlr^::u at'
stated times for rest or lefection. The usual
occupation in the way of working, was from
the hrst m wool. Jerome, urging nuns 7
make their vocation real by sironuoSf d"lige„ce
nanus (Ap. ad Fustoch.). The nassaire in
Augustine's writings, whe.4 he spearot'them
dresl s^w&th''^''""'' "' 'he'convent tll^
aresses which they have made for the asred
monks waU ng there with food for the nut^^ n
exchange (August, de Morib. Feeles. c. 31) re"
wife n tr""' fPi'^P" °" 'he Roman hi'u e-
W'fe m the simple days of the republic "domi
mansit, anam fecit."' But this prim ive m
ployment was apt to degenerate int^o a p f.ren™
for fancy-work, which was discouraged as
fnyolous and ain, except when it waf made
useful, m ecclesiastical embroidery, &c fo^the
j^nswor^g ^woJ^JT^i^d^'^rj:;:;;
he\"ns 'alf^; ?* '"'« of Aurelian 'oZrs
the nuns all to learn reading and writing
(l.teras d.scant omnes, «. ,. c. 26). Tn h?
revival of education under Charlemagne he
ZZ'Tft «°'"* *""•''=•=• HithertoTon'astic
schoo s had been used chiefly for training monks
and clergy only. The great legislator e^xtend^
the advantages of education to the laity also
Ind l"""-^ f«f 'hem the " scholae errUes^i
and leaving the « scholae interiores " for the
" ":?• ^1?', f^'^^' 'n 'he nunneries were
already useful for girls in this larger sphere
etni rto"fb°^ *'"' ^°".°^ "''-K nat'urall'y conl
&V~'^o2^1he"""^^l^^:Z
in religious knowS' Vu;-!, "'h^ wo'rT
and, more rarely Latin (Altese'r. MeetZ V.
10; Herzog, Kloster-Schulen). Nuns wera
«so empbyed frequently in transcribing and
.llum.nat.ng s.cred books, and in the ans of
4 T a
1414
NUN
nielicine snd pRintinj? (MablU. Acta Sanctor.
0. S. B. i. p. 646 ; rraejf. li. 3, iii. 4). lioni-
fuce, during his missionary labours in flermany,
gent to his old home in England for a >-\\\'\'\y of
nuns to assist in civilising and Christi.mising
the will! hordes whom he was converting
(Othlon. Vit. S. Bonifadi, c. '25; Mnbill. Praef.
iii. 2, 4). Hospinian says that he made use of
them not for teaching only, but also for the
purpose of preaching (u. «. ; cf. Mabill.
Fraeff.W.). , .u « .
(11) Great cave was necessary from the first
to prevent a too close proximity of nunneries
and monasteries, as well as any intercourse
between the nuns and the other sex generally.
Augustine, Jerome, and other fathers of the
church reiterate their cautions against these
dangers. The (Jouncil of Ancyra forbade the
consecrate 1 virgins to associate with men even
as sisters (C<mc. Anojr. a.d. 314, c. 18; cf.
Cone. Cartn. a.d. 312, c. 3). Justminn forbade
women to enter the conventual buildings of
m^'n (Novell, cxxxiii.). In the 5th century
canons were made strictly prohibiting any more
monasteries to be founded for monks and nuns
together, and ordering those already in et'^'enfe
to be partitioned between the sexes (Mabill.
Amal. 0. S. B. v. 2.) ; cf. Herzog, Klostcr).
The n le of Caesarius allows no other man than
the bishop, the clergy officiating, and the
steward (provisor) of the convent to enter
within its walls (u. s.). The nuns were to
make their confession to the bi.shop through
their abbess (Mabill. Annal. 0. S. B. xii. 32).
Some nuns were censured in the 6th century
for having nursed through his illness a monk
of the venerable age of 80 (Mabill. «. s. ).
The Council of Seville, a little later, forbids
a nunnery to be placed too near the monastery
to which it is attached for protection ; enacts
that this arrangement must have the sanction
of the bishop or council ; that no communi-
cation is to pass from the one establish-
ment to the other, except through the abbat
and abbess ; and, while allowing the nuns to
work with their fingers on dresses for the
monks, and the monks to minister spiritually
to the nuns, precludes all other intercourse what-
ever (Cone. Hispid. A.D. 619, c. 1 1 ). The letters
of Gregory the Great abound with precautions
and directions on this delicate subject. The
person acting for the nunnery in its temporal
affairs must always be either a monk or a
cleric, of high repute and of long experience;
he must save them all occasion for going out
of the precincts ; nuns are never on any pretext
to lodge under the roof of a monastery. He de-
nounces severely the cusfotn of nuns being " cotn-
matres " with monks (Gregor. M. Epp. iv. 9,
42 viii. 21, 22). The danger, indeed, was one
of 'constant recurrence, and required unceasing
vigilance {Syn. Carthag. c. A.D. 346, oc. 3, 4 ;
C^. Toletan. I. a.d. 400, cc. 6, 9). The second
council of Nicaea condemned the double or
mixed monasteries already mentioned, and, even
in cases of consanguinity, forbade a nun to see
a monk, except in the presence of an abbess
(CoJic. Nicaen. ii. a.d. 787, c. 20). The council
of Fr^ius forbade the abbat of the protecting
monastery to visit the nunnery without the
bishop's leave {Cone. Forisjul. a.d. 794, c 12).
Still, in spite of every precaution, the insidious
NUPTIAL CONTRACT
temptation baffled only too often the edicts of
councils and reformers. In the 8th century
nuns gained admission into monasteries on the
ground of being nece«.sary in iiicliness ami
similar euicrgencies, and secular Women, on the
same excuse, were harboured in convent.s(MMliill.
Pracff. 111. i.). In the monastery of St. Maurice
(Agauneni-e), in the Valais, wmien were in the
habit of frequenting the basiliia or chaiiel cit' the
monastery (Mabill. Annal. O, lS. B. i. 74). In
the 10th century the archbishop of S.n in
Champagne, destroyed the separate colls (aedl-
culae), then becoming common, in whicli nuns
lived apart from the re.straiiits of the convent
(Mabill. 0. 8 B. Praeff.V. vi.). The " canonicae"
of the 8th and subsequent centuries dillered from
nuns in retaining more of their secular char.icter.
They were not bound by a vow of perpetuity ;
they repudiated the titles of mouiichae and
matres; and, though engaged, like nuns, in the
work of education, they confined their teaching
chiefly to the children of the nobles [t'A.NO-
Nici ; Schools]. The " widows," who devoted
themselves to the service of the church from
its earliest days, belong in many respects to the
same category as the "sacred virgins." Lilie
them, they were exempted by the Code of Theo-
dosius from the ordinary capitation tax ; but it
was expressly provided that this exemption
should only be granted to those widows whose
advanced age and sobriety of demeanour gave u
guarantee that they would not marry again
{^Cod. Theodiis. u. s.). The so-called "Apo-
stolical Constitutions," after saying that a widow
does not receive the imposition of hands (ou
Xtipmovtlrai, cf. Gelasius, Ep. 9, c. 13) enact
that only those may be admitted into the
order who are altogether beyond suspicion
of levity or inconstancy (Apostol. Constilut.
viii. 25). Similar precautions occur repeatedly
in later ages, for instance, in the decrees of the
Council of Orange in the 5th century, and of
the Frankish kingdom in the 9th century
{Cono. Arausicnn. A.D. 441, c. 27 ; Cone 'Met.
X. cc. 4, 5 ; Capitiil. a.d. 817, c. 21). [See
Abbess, Asckticism, .Bknedictine Rule and
Ordek, Celibacy, Monastery, Novice, &c]
For the Literature, see Monastery, p. 1229.
[I.G.S.]
NUNC DIMITTI8. [Canticle.]
NUNCIU8, confessor in the county of Namur,
perhaps in the seventh century ; commemorated
Oct. 10 (Boll. Acta SS. Oct. v. 124). [C. H.]
NUNCTUS, abbat and martyr, near Merida,
cir A.D. 580; commemorated Oct. 22 (Boll.
Acta SS. Oct. ix. ^96). [C H.]
NUNILO, martyr, with Elodia, virgins;
commemorated at Huesca in Spain, Oct. 22
(Usuard. Mart.). [C- H.]
NUNNUS, a surname of Hippolytas, martyr;
commemorated " in portu urbis Rimae,' Aug.
23 {Ilieron. Mart.). [C-l^-J
NUNTIU8. [Legate.]
NUPTIAL CONTRACT. Ta'Mlae nup-
tiales (Tertullian 'id Uxorem, ii 3) were the
"deeds" by which dowry was conferred in
marriage. In many ancient reprcsentationj of
NU
wedded couples a scroll
the hand of one of the
of the picture, wbi-h is
be the nuptial c. .itmct
1114. Two are sometim
(ions on glass, (lluons
^Martlgny, Diet, dca Am
Xuptiale^).
NUT. In the symboli
not bears various interp
idea being the same in a
lure concealed beneath an
Krom this point of view it
priate emblem of Jesus
Godhead was hidden ben
manhood. We find it so e
tat {Sirinin. de temp.; .Dow,
la this passage he dividi
parts, the husk, the .ihell
iinds something corrcspoi
Person of the Saviour. I
the Kk'sh, Bones, and Soul
refining still further, he re
symbol of our Lord's Bod
Deity within affording bo
the soul ; and the shell of
which at the same time div
inward in man, and also
Atonement unites the earti
St. Augustine's friend and ci
of Nola expresses the same
poems (I'ocmi xxvii. In A
2W). He finds a deep
])eeled rods, especially in t
hazel (Gen. xxx. 37), on
ments : —
VIrga nucis Chrlstus qnonlam
Tesia ioris. et aniara super vir
Ceme Deum nostio velatum a
Qui fragllis cjiriie est, virbo oil
I)u>a f!'p<Tllcic8 verbum cnicif
Coeleet u OhristI claudens In i
.inother slightly different li
regarded the nut as the er
tiau bearing about with bin
in a Heshy body. Thus St
writes {cap. vi. Cmt.): "
perfectns quosque intelligimi
Sapientiam intra corpora i
nudeum in fragili testa port
Duces e.\istunt, qui nuclei
ferunt; exterius vero carnis
dunt?" We find a similar
(cfe Vit. Mas. lib. iii.). Bol
gives a representation of a i
ly him in a Christian tomb
the middle, and contained a i
(^■x of Isaac {Osservai. p. 2!
U ; De Kosii, Som. Sott. vol
, NYMPHAEUM, a name
cistern usually found in the c
Wore the doo- a church,
Ihariis " and '• Phiala " (Ki
r.STR.lScK OF CHURCHhS- 1
siu» records that a " Nymph,
hv a triple arcade, was erecl
"1 front cf the basilica of i
(Anastas. 69). In Paciaudi (
NUT
wedded couples r nrroll is reprejented either In
the himd of one of the persons tn- in some part
of tlic picture, whi"h is conimoniv «uppoj,eil to
be the nuptlnl c, .itriict. See Mauriaok, p.
1114. Two are sometimes found in repieseutn-
lions on gliiss. (Uuoniirruoti, tav. xxiU. H )
^Milrtil;ny, Vict, dca Anthi, chrtft. s. v. Tabulae
Suptuile.). j-^jj
NUT. In the lymbolism of the Fathers the
nut bears various interpretations, the essential
idea being the same in all, viz., a hidden trea-
sure concealed beneath an unpromising exterior.
From this point of view it became a very appro-
|iri«te emblem of Jesus Christ, in whom the
Gndhead was hidden beneath the veil of the
manhood. We find it so employed by St. Augus-
tine (Sermm. Ue temp.;. Dominic, ante .\'ativitatem).
In this passage he divides the nut into three
parts, the husit, the .ihell, and the kernel, and
iinds something corresponding to each in the
Person of the Saviour. First, he sees in them
the Flosh, Bones, and Soul of Christ ; and then
refining still further, he regards the huslc as the
symbol of our Lord's Body ; the kernel of the
Deity within affording both food and light to
the soul ; and the shell of the wood of the'Cross,
which at the same time divides the outward and
inward in man, and also by the wood of the
.Uonement unites the earthly and the heavenly.
St. .^ngustine's friend and correspondent Paulinus
of Nola expresses the same conceit in one of his
poems (/Vmd xxvii. In A'at. S. Felio. ix. 277-
2W). He finds a deep mystery in Jacob's
|ieeled rods, especially in the one which was of
hazel (Gen. xxx. 37), on which he thus com-
ments ; —
"In nace Chrlstus,
VIrga nucls Chrlstus quonlam In niicibu> clbus Intus
Teeia 'oris, et aiiiaru super viridi cute coriex.
Cenie Dcuui nostio vi'latuni cijrp..re Christum,
Qui frafllis cjirne est, viibo clbus, et crucc amaras.
Iiu'a srixTllcics verbum crucis, tt crucl» esca est,
Ooelest u OhrlstI claudens in came niedullum."
OATHS
1415
Bnlne,<i, p. 145 sq.) we find an account with an
engraving of nn oblong marble cLstein, found
near the site of I'isauruni, ornamented with
sy"ib(dical bas-reliefs of the 7th century, which
he considers to have been a " Nympbaeum " in
the atrium of a church. The word is u.sed for
ordMury fonntains and tanks by Ammianu.
M,.rL^lhnu.s (l,b. XV. p. Mat), „ud Capitolinus
(.m OorcUano, iii.), "Opera Oordiani Romae
nulla extant pnieter (iimeilnm nvmphaea et bal-
nea. Cedrenu and Zouaras (iiv. 1) used the
word tor a hall for the public celebrntinn of
marriages. Mabillon strangely interprets the
passiige from Anastasius of the place set apart
for females. (Ducange, Cvn^tantinop. Ch.isti, mi,
lo. I. c. 26, p. 86 sq.). j-g. y.]
NYlIPHIA, male or female saint of Laodicea.
miirlyr with Eubulus of Home in the first
century ; commemorated Feb. 28 (Boll. Acta S3
l<eb. 111. 719). |-^, H-j-
NYMPIIODORA, martyr, with Menodora
nna Wetrodors; commemorated Sept. 10 (Basil.
Menot. I Cat. By.ant. ; Daniel, Cod, Liturg. iv.
^^''^- [C. H.]
NYMPODORA, martyr; commemorated , it
N.caea Mar. 13 (^Ili^ron. Mart.); Nimi'ODORA
(Usuard. Mart.). m h 1
NY8SA, COUNCIL OP, on the confines of
cappadocia, where a council was held A.D 375
at the instigation of Demosthenes, the civil
vicar, in which St. Gregory, brother of St. Basil
ami bishop of Nyssa, was condemned. (Basil,
i-p. 237 i Mansi, iii. 502.) [E. S Ff ]
.\nother slightly different line of interpretation
regarded the nut as the emblem of the Chris-
tian bearing about with him the divine Wisdom
in a Heshy body. Thus St. Gregory the Great
writes {mp. vi. Cant.): "Quid per nucem nisi
perftdos quoaque intelligimus, qui dum Divinam
iiapientiam intra corpora sua retinent, quasi
nuclcum in fragili testa portant ? Quid isti nisi
Duces e-xistunt, qui nuclei dulcedinem intus
ferunt; exterius vero carnis utilitatem praeten-
dunt? We find a similar symbolism in Philo
(* Yd. Mos. lib. iii.). Bold'etti describes and
gives a representation of a nut of amber found
w him in a Christian tomb. It opened down
the middle, and contained a cameo of the sacri-
h« of Isaac {Osservai. p. 298 ; tav. 1, No. 10,
11 1 Ue Kosii, Rom. Sott. vol. iii. p. 595).
[E. v.]
NYMPHAEUM, a name for the fountain or
cistern usually found in the centre of the atrium
Wore the doo- a church, called also " Can-
tharas and -Phiala" (Fountains at the
-'iRANa; OF Church K8,' p. 686). Anasta-
sius records that a "Nymphaeum," surrounded
".v a triple arcade, was erected by pope Hilary
jn frciit of the basilica of St. Cross in Rome
(Auastas. 69). In Paciaudi (de Saor. Christian.
V.f^,?' '^^^^ ^^N°° o*"- [Chalcedof as
|). 3o3.j ^ '
OATHS on formal and solemn occasions, or
tor the purpose of legal attestation, were not
proliibited among the early Christians, There
were considerable scruples, doubtless, in using
them, and their use was regarded with jealousy
b* more than one of the great church writers.
Ihe ground of the aversion to them, as to
other practices which have since been held to be
generally lawful among Chri-stian people, was
the prevalence of idolatry. All adjurations in
common use naturally invoked the name of a
heathen deity, or were cast in some form which
a Christian could not utter without a tacit com-
pliance with heathenism. Tertullian has one
passage {De IdoMat. c. 1 1) where, after speaking
of lying being the servant of covetousness, he
proceeds : " Of false swearing I say nothine
since It IS no' ),i,.'ful to swear at all "—a pasi
sag^ which W-: • . seem to forbid the use of' aa
oath under .,, ■ rcumstances. It is manifest,
however, tha Tertullian is not discussing the
lawfulness of oaths, but is repeatiug in a
general way the prohibition of our Lord (St
Matt. V. 34) against introducing adjurations
into common conversation. Nevertheless, the
feeling of that age was strong against the indis-
criminate I, jf oaths. Thus Clement of Alex-
Jil
..I i !J
f,"A
■■■H. ■
1416
OATHS
OATHS
naclria (.Stromnt. vli. 8, y. 861, ed. Pnttpr) ••y«
tlmt a» ti'iiu CliriHtiitn will ever pttrjiiru IiImm' 11',
t'nr lie will not i'V(>u liwoar ; it ix nn indixnily i<'r
him ti> bu |jut U|iiia lilit nalh. Anil uvuiianii-
tviry latur, Lnuiiuiliiis {IJpitoiM, c. ii) iliiii|iiirovei»
of thu u.ie u( (latha (in tliu HsniH ki'ouniI, li.'xt
from vuDHtriiint or ciirvliisiiDrHii a niiin shmiM
8U|- into [lorjiiry. Thu iinlawlulneiw ol' hWi'uriiig
wiw onu iif tliu vii'WB HKt forth by I'ulagiun.
Aui{ustinc (h'li. clvii.) shDWuil, tu rcjily, that
thuro id Biiriiitural ^roiinil for tho lawfulni-i»
of nu oath, Imt, ia conuuuu with many of thu
t'lthvra, he viewed itn uau with nuiipicion and
diitl'ttvour.
'i. Comin)( to the direct evidence that oathii
wi're emiiloyod and Muictioned in th" caily
church, Tertiilliau (.l^xrfo;/. c. it'J) rcpiidiiites
the charge that Ohristians could awenr b) tho
g«nius of (.'iiesar, for the genii ore uothiii,; eUe
than demons! but, ho lulds. I hey do ».m ir by tiie
ciuiioror'n safety ; and he difendH th'i ■ ith, on
the ground that in kings men reven jce the
apiiointnient of (lod, and he holds tha to be a
great oath which involves the nfety of what
Ood hath willed. The same o« ii 'iitip riji
(TUTttplas ToC ^u(r«/3»(TTiiTou Atiyou riou KanKTrav-
riou," is mentioned by Athaniwius (A'p. ad
MiDMchos, t. i. I>. HOG, ed. Colon.). Ciiiu|iare tho
oath of Jo.seph (Gen. xlii. IT)), " IJy the life of
Pharaoh " (i-j; tjik vyltiai- ♦ofjoi, Scptuagint).
This form of oath, which was probably adopted
as an indirect answer to tho charge of dis-
loyalty, so freely cast at the early Christians,
was evidently subject to abuse. So tho fourth
council of Carthage, A.D. 3U8, c. 61, orders a
clergyman swearing by any creature (per crea-
turas) to be severely ruprimanili' 1 ami, if obdu-
rate, to be excommunicated. Athanasius renuired
of Coustantius {A/'oh;!. id Omstiint. t. i. p. 67H)
that his accusers should be put upon oath, in
Vegetius, who lived at the close of tho 4th cen-
tury, there is a form {fnstit. rei Militar. i. 5) of
the oath rcciuired of Christian soldiers. They
swear by (jod, by Christ, by the Holy Spirit,
and by the majesty of the emperor. Other
illustriitions of the use of oaths, cited by Uing-
ham, will be found in Aug. (i?/i. eliv.) ad I'ub-
Ii ol. ; Id. Serin, xxx. JJe Y'erbii Apost. ; Greg.
Naz. (i/). ccxix.) ad Theodor. ; Basil, in I'satm,
xiv. t. i. p. 13;t; Hieron. in Matt. v. The laws
of the Christian empecirs contain frequent mci\,-
tion of oaths. Constantino conlirms (CW. T/teod.
IX. i. 4) a promise of reward tv ihoi'2 who will
inform against the corrupt practices of his minis-
ters by the adjuration, " So nuy the Almighty
be ever merciful to me, and keep me safe." One
of the statutes of Arcadius (Coti. T/wod. ii. ix.
8). shews that contracts were usually conKrmed
by an oath, either by the name of God or the
emperor's saloty. In the conference between the
Catholics and i)onati>ts in the time of Hi norius
{Collat. Carth'iij. dia i. c. 5 ; Hani. Cone. i. 1052),
the emperor'.s delegate swore to juilge impar-
tially "by the marve' . i .. mystery of the
Trinity, by the sacramcii of the Incarnation,
and by the emperor's safety." And indeed,
whatever may have been the scruples of indi-
vidual fathers, there can La no doubt that oaths
were invariably required both in civil and cri-
minal causes under the Christian emperors.
Coustantine laid down a general law {Cod. Thcod.
II. xxxix. 3) that uU wituesseii before a court
wer« to bind themselves by nn oath bifore givitin
evidence, I he .lustiuian Code not only eonliriiiiMt
this law (Viid. I ' < > '■'■ bni a Ided a clause tu it
(ibid. IV. li-K I;, wiKi ill. Ill i.'.i'utilVand ibM'en.l.iiit,
must swiai' Ui>oi< 'h» '••'»|i<'i.; the one, thai, tio
broi' J ■ oii hi" ' ■ lit for tho piii'puir iif
calmunr. but on legitimate grounds; the ui her,
lh.it he had a just de|'en<:u. Ily a further eiiait-
iiiiM) , thu parties tu a cause swore (Justin, S nrl,
( ■ *iv. 1) that no liriho had been or mnll l,o
given to the juil;.;e or any other perMm. Nor
uii> the obligation of an oath conliiied to Uy
amscs. To cheek simony in cases of eeelesi.
astical preferment, the electors , '
(.liistin. Sorol. cxxiii. 1) ti nu nai.i Ui.i
they did not select their tiominee from any im-
proper motive. Also, at tho time of nriliiiatinn
the candidate wure upon the Gospels (.Inslin.
Novel, cixxvii. _') that ho had given nn muntv
to tho bishoji ordaining him. Among the pri-
vileges of the bisho|is was an cxemptiou I'liim
appearing in person to give evidence in lli«
public courts. It is not iiuito clear win ther the
privilege, as originally conferrod by Thei-li .sjus,
extended so tar as this. It wa.s, howivr, dLs.
tinctly granted by Justinian (Sovel. cx,viii. 7)j
and the same law enac'ed, that whenever l)i.shii|)s
were examined in private their testimony shuulj
be talSen not iii>on oath, but upon their word in
presence of the holy Gospels, lis becomes priests.
With the exception of some of the S|iaiiish
synods, scarcely any mention is lound ol natlii
in decrees of councils, li' the decree which cua-
cludcs the acts of tho fourth council of Tnloilo,
A.u. 6.'), the oath of allegiance to kin^s is in-
sisted upon ; and the oii^lith council of Tnlmln,
.D. 6.J.), c. 2, has a long ili.ssertation on tl.e
i,anctity of oaths, and insists upon the necessity
of all oath in making treaties, in the rei micilia-
tion of friends, and in giving evidence; ami
adds, that if no evidence is forthcoming aciiiost
an accused, then his oath is sufficient to cstublish
his innocence.
3. Profane swenriiig was not in itself an ollence
subject to canonical punishment. It was a vim
against which pv'ai'hers frequi ly inveighed,
but an ilinent was eft to each le s consiience.
(Tertul '• Puu. i,. c. 19.) its prevalence
at Antiooii called forth strong remon.stranccs
from Chrysostom ; and in one of his sernmns
{Horn. 22, ad I'up. Ant. t. i. p. 29+) he threat-
ened to e:- it M swearers from partakinir of
tho Holy riysteiies. A form of • I'h which tiie
idolatrous ad ilation of the heathen empernr.'
had brought into vogue was, " By the (jenius uf
Caesar," tV Koio-apoj rvxhf, P' ' j'-aium
Caesaris. It had such a ho ipon tlie
people that Tjrtullian de. - re.t (Ap' I'l. c. 28)
that men would more r sweur tilsely by
all the gods than by the s gei nf Caessr.
In the early centuries thin wa,s I'thctests
of recantation. Polycarp t'req'.i asked by
the proconsul (Euseb. H.J'. v. 15) te -wear by
the fortune of Caesar. A similar temptation
was put before some African martyrs; "Only
swear by tho genius of the king, and you will
be safe." {Aoia Mart. Scyllitan. ap. baron, an.
202. n. 2.) And for a Christian to utter it
was a recognised lapse into idolatry, (leituii.
Apii/og. c. 32; Origen, contr. Cels. viii ;' 421.)
The form of an oath in common use is an in-
direct evidence of the aoonduess oi doctriut.
Thun It was iirgod as
Douatus (t)ptatas, iji. |
his t'ellowei's in swearii
msityrs of his party.
eueted by Justinian
riiiccsisa fair indication
obwrvnnce paid to thu \
(ffwir liy Almighty (joil
Son (Hir I.iiid Jesus (,'
Spirit, and liy Maiv, the
Virgin Mother of (Jii,l,
w>,iih I holil in my ham
aigfls, .Michael and Gii
me," Jlie. (Cave, I'rii
l)..,.hiiin, AiUi'/. XVI. vi
4. Oaths of purgation
»Jmini,stratii.n of justii
Thi' oriliiiaiy term ex
"nairamentuiii." "Jut
nomine ajipellatur sacn
oculis ti'lei jiervidetur, q
couspicilur." (llineiiinr
IMmy, interriig. 6.)
LiciiUv callcti " piirgati
say, a mode of purging; a
a Ji,stin(;ui,shi'd (V,, . >• i
i a duel, ..r hot iron, or
which tho church disci
where tho evidence was
|iurKaliiiU was of no iiv
causes, in wliii S the uvii
iniUllicient, or was not i
or in which o plaintiff
tUdeliiiu.!.., was allowci
the chari^e by n solemn on
this right might open th
the iBith was surrounded v
of awe aud .soleniuity Uoi
DO one would dare to'swet
4iJ, the eeiigeance of Goc
That such interposition!
actually taken |ii ice at
perjury had bueu comm
lours, Uirtuula, i. 20
Life of .St. Kluy bv Amio.
Kouen, A.D. 6ii), cc. 56,
was sulliiiiiilly grave, ll
fendant did not .swear aloi
others supported him m
dtpeniling on the gravity
supporters were variously
of the Oennan and Irisiai,
vi. 2 ; I,i;j. Frisian, i. 2, t
saommmMcii. In the Ci
thf Jieat (iii. J8), cunsaor
(iW iii. G!) jumtorea: ai
/uMiun-s. Cai- was taken
people of good leport, who
trtstworthy, and of the s
t. .i .IS the accused. So
uader the necessity of jiui
cliirge, his compurgators
(f"' "'''"■• ^/"«tf'-A.r). 803
•"",. 34.) An old Wels
mtiit (/.<;/. Iheli boni Iri
that if a wuiM.in is exposeo
cannot be ju-oved, she may i
female ,.,,,>,r,ir-..t,n|.;^ s-'pf
(V'-gat ; if she is accused
win require fourteen ; but
IS any proi.ability in the cl
% women to join with J
OATHS
hi- |n||„«,.r» in »w.«ii.,g l,y hims..lf, ,.r l.y the
mailyrn ,.( hi. ,„ity. ih„ „„th „(• allrKi,.!,,,,
ei.(ti'.l by Justinian from K"*'^rn(.i-» o| nni-
TiiiccSKu fair iii.lkuti,,,, „1 th..(l,.v,l„i,in,.nt,..r th«
olj«rvnnn: |mi.| tn thu ViiKin im.l to «nKi'l»- " I
,*.ar l.y Almighty Go,!, and ,, ouly-lioKotti.n
Son our l.urd Ju»u3 (;hri.-.l, and by thu Holy
Spirit, and by Mary. th.. I„>ly, KJoriou,, and uvfr-
\,r^nn J„.lM.r .,( ()„d, and by the four (iosn.U
V,),,, h 1 M.ld in my hands, and by thu h.dy arch-
aijjtU. Micha.d and Uabriul, to pay duo all.vi-
ii.t, iii:. (Cavo, /■rim. C/trit^tiin. Ill i 'Jl' .
ll,,^ham /l«i.-7. XVI. vii. 4 ; Suiccr, ». v. Sano,.)
4. Oatha /d imrKaliun .iutorud hirjjidy into the
.JmiD.stmto.n of ju«tiee in th,. n.iddlo aKcs.
Thu ..niinaiy torm ejpro.sKing il,is oath was
"«i,ramMntiiin. " Juramontum, o.i.ai mutato
noiiiine appullatur sacrain. iitiiin, quia in eo id
otulis h-hn purvidutur, quod corporis o.uljs non
cuBspioitur. (Ilincmur, <Jc JH,urUj l„//uir. et
ltm.y, interrug. u.) The formality wa, toch-
Lcallv called " purfjafio cauoni™," that i» to
s.)- a mode of purKint; ujiprovcd by the oan^.D-,
as abtinjiui.sh.d Ir.. ." pi.rKatio vulgar! • „uch
s a .luc'l, .r imt iron, or any other ordoal, oil of
wliRh tho church di.scouutonancod. lu uiscs
wkie the evidence wiu couc'isivu, un oath of
l,uri[ali..u wa.s of no avail ; bui. in all petty
auu's, m wlii.'i the evidenc- was eouHiolii'ij or
iibuiiicient, or was not admitted by the judito
or io which e plaintiff or accuser v , , absent'
tUdefr,.,;, , Wtta allowed to purge hin elffroni
the chiirge by a solemn oai h. It is obv that
this riglit might open the road to per, but
tlie o;ith was surrounde.i with such circums.,,uoes
of aw.- and soleniuity UmI it was believed tl, ■
Doont would daro to swear falsely, or that if
JiJ, thu lengeauce of (Jod would overtake
That such interpositions were held to /,avo
actually taken |.l ice at the shrines wheiv the
perjury had been committed, see Gregory of
iite uf ht. hoy by Audoea or Owen, bishop of
Uuen, A.D. bi(., CO. 50, 5<J, 77. Jf the cause
was sulli.ieiilly grave, the accused or the de-
fendaotdid not swear .lone, soM ww»„ W but
others supported him ,u the oath, tho uumber
dupenilmt; "» the gravity of the case. These
su,,porters were variously named. In the laws
the German and iM-isian tribes (U,j. Alcnan.
>i. 2; Lj fruiion. i. 2, 0, 8) they are termed
^rau,.,U.,lc.. In th. Capitularies of Charles
L'i'i'i <-'.'f ■^»*V"'-"""''"""""''"*'' "Id again
(iW in. 6.) juratons . aud (ibid. iv. 26) cmi-
C'lTlf ^T '""' "'^' " ""'* ""^y should be
mtlr '7»r''* '"'■■'« evidence would be
t><.»twoithv, and of th, .same rank and condi-
ui-^th. "'•■""f'^- ^" **"" 'f * P''i«»t w;is
111, '""''■""'^' "' '"""S'"e himself from a
h"ee, his compurgator,s must be priests aLso.
raut (/.,y, IheUb^m irincip. WaUiuc, c. U),
1 otll "■""""! V^'"^"^ '" " "Charge whic I
<^^ be i-roved, she may clear herself by ,eve,. ,
"5P"'^««;"it';hrisa^ous^dTsS,a.;:'^':h:'
IS My probability in the charge, sh. will nee.l
% women to join with ht/i^ attesting lu
OATHS
1417
Innncene*. The sa.rament.Ucs or cumtmvMturet
were selecte.1 paitly by tho accused, wli.i. they
were termed ,i,/i..«.u<, ; partly by tho plaiiitili; in
which ciue they were called ,wmin,ti or ./. 7.-,m.-
mu. AumiiMt, also expressed the nomiii..,.. of
either side. When a perm.u whose CBKe wait ia
'Ippute swore alone, he was said ^u;arc .,«« mmu.
It »ith one witness, uiiicd mvtii, or c-««i uno
n<u:r.u,umt,U, or m »Kinfi /-roxi/m; aud so with
any number up to a hundred. The third conn. II
"f Valence, A.I., H.-.r>, c. 1.), has an in tance of
an oath, aeptia/eswid iiwirta iiuini. The o.*(.
imr:i„ton:i at the time of shearing were r. .luired
to be tasting. {Capitul,,,: Ai,un.,r. a.d. 7H7 . . (i'< i
the m.ide of conducting the formality is given
'n /..?/. AlaiMn. vi. 7. The witnesses were to
place their hands upon the chest containing lii«
relics, and the principal in the cause ah.ne was
to utter the wor.K, „nd lay his hand u,,,,,, their
hands, and .wear that he had right .,» his side.
1" add solemnity to the oath, it was always to
be taken in a church, either on tho . , or the
'iltar, or the Gos|«d«, or the relics. .\ Ui.. Kue-
lish I'enitentials refer (Theodor. 1. vi 4- Jieda*
I H V ^^'"l.'''' .'''•, ^^ '" '"' "»"' thus taken, at
the hand of a bish..p, or „n tho altar, or ou the
cross. An instau. e of a father swearing, with
his hands raised over the altar, to the innocence
of his daughter, is given by Gregory of T.urs
/As . ,1,. .,;, ) Jn the ('apitulary of Charles Ihi
,'•""• "■■ J'^. «/"»l"'ted priest is ordered to
puttie nim.self with an oath tiikeii on the Gospels
in presence of the people. The j.racti.e, how-
ever, ,dr«,,u.riog an oath from thecleigy was
"■'t uniform, 'ihus, the council id' Meaux, a.d.
»i->, c. 48, prohibited bishops from swearing
»/*« any sacred object; it was sullicieut, appa-
ently that the oath was taken in presence of
the obj. iH. An,l, j.rior to this, the CpUulur
'■^P'sy A.D. 8U1, c. 20, had appointed that «
l>no«t ould not swear at all, but simply make
iiiK ition with gravity and truth. Aud the
M. Ecdcs. p. 92, apud Ducange. s. v
■luruHu, .,„, whi.:h bears the name of , .faert
puts a special . .luation on the oaths .,f the
Clergy. In criminal cases the oath of a luiest
was worth that of 120 serfs; of a deacon, (iO
ol a monk, 30. In disputes about propert; the
oath of i priest could transfer the land of one
serf to the church. In swearing by th.. Gospels
the ordinary formality was to lay the hands
upon the sacred v. ime, but sometimes the book
was held. Thu.s I'dagius, afterwards pope, a.d
..5,,-6bO, wlieu charged by the Homan p,'o de of
tactions ronduct towards hi.s predecessor ViKillus
^s^ceaded the pulpit of St. Peter's, holding t^Te
Gospels and the cross above his head, and swore
that he was inD<,cont. Oaths over the tombs
n„« ' , '"■•?, "'^,,''^i."tV'"'' "'■ '■'■'"l'"''" occurrence.
Une ol the Capitularies {Caol Maqn. vi. 209)
required dl sai:ra,nenta to be administered in a
church and over relics, invoking the name of
Uod, and those saints whose remains wert below
Ihe hands were to be idacod on the relio" chest
(Le:l. Akman. vi. 7), or on the t-mb of the
saint (Greg. Turon. de Glor. Confc . c 9'H) or
wei-T to be extended towards .1,. _
-^'-eg. Turon. Mira^ul i 20.; All tle'se'oath,;
for the conhrmation of which some sacred object
was beheld or touched, we.- called corpora
J!or fu.'her varieties ol »ucu oaths, and detail.
m'.
m
If 1
M f
' \^
I '
' (f tl
i' 'm
i- ■ if
•^*4^;d
1411
OnADIAH
OBI,ATI
of their \]*e, tee Uwnnge, «. v. Jurainentnm.
Tli'V were ■iitnetimcH niixa<l up with |iii)(iin
8U| <;iHtitlun». The fdiirth coiintil nf OiIimii",
A.n. 541, c. 18, ccimleinns oath^ tiiki'U im the
heikU (if n will! or domestic iiiiiiiml. An) ili«
council In Triillo, A.n. Wi, o. 94, pruhiblta gi'nu-
rrtlly, lifweoi 'E\A>|viko1. [O. M.]
OUADIA f f, prophet, romraemorated Nov. 19.
(Cat. lii/ttmt. . liftiiiel. Cud. Lilur,i. iv. 'J74.)
[('. II.]
ODGDIESCE. [Dikiplinb; Ordkrh, Holy.]
OIIITIIAUY. [NKcnoixxiiuM.]
OBliATK, {Mata, ohlatio ; barb. Mmli,
oblih/iii, ubiiii). "Ublata" is a lato equivftU^nt
to " obl»tio"(a3 probft»!=probatio, conros»a=' im-
fe.ssin, inlsKn— -miniilo, &c.). Whun ubliititi wan
unJerstuoil of the provision for the Kucharlst it
generally incliidcd both elementu, e.g. " Topuluii
dat obliitionei siias; id est, panem ct vinum "
(Oi'd. limn. ii. in Afua, /till. ii. 46); "Obla-
tioneni, I.e. panem et vinum, viri ct fneininae iid
niiMait olUriint " (il//'K.'utiy A'pisc. 89 in Kegino;
<Je Eai. Discipl, ii. 5; bo Amalarius, de
Er.il, Ojf. ill. lit). The ollering of bread alone
was, however, also called " oblatio, " an by
Gerinanus of I'aris, 555 ; " Uum saeerdos obla-
tionpin oonfranjjoret " (A'xpos. Miasae Brev. in
Marti^ne, ,/,■ Ant. Eccl. Rit. i. iv. 12, Ord. i.) ;
in a Gri'_.irian rubric in one ancient MS.,
"OtVeruiitur a populo oblationes et vinum;"
and by Amalarius, "Cum oblatione calix
Domini auferatnr de altari " {Edoi^a, 2'2). hut
" obltttu " was the tar more common form when
the bread only was intended, and from the fre-
quency of its use, when men spoke of sacra-
rountal bread, it came at length to be applied to
»mallor loaves or cakes of bread for ordinary
uses. Thus a writer in the 9th century speaks
of "rolls of bread which are commonly called
obliitae " (Iso, lUi Mii<tc. S. (Hhinan, ii. 3, in
Surius, Nov. 1(5). In Quinquagesim.* the
monks of CTugny received at .sup|ier cakes
" which by men of the Roman tongue
are called nebulae, by our people oblatae"
{Consuet. Cluniac. i. 49 in S/^cil. Dach. i. 067,
ed. 2). Similarly the customs of Evesham
allowed in Lent a certain quantity of wheat
from the granary "ad oblatas ad caenam," and
half as much on llaundy Thursday (l>ugdale,
Montist. i. 149, ed. 2). At length, when the
Kucharistic bread was made very small and thin,
wafers for sealing were called oblatae, whence
the French (ublie and the Spanish obtea.
O ilata was more commonly applied to the un-
consecrated loaf, hoatia to the consecrated. Thus
in the Ordo Jiomanun, before the consecration,
" Pontifcx . . . susoipit oblatas de maiiu pres-
byter!," "Archidiaconus suscipit oblatas Ponti-
ficis " (drd. i. l.">, &c. ; Sim. § 48 ; Ord. ii. 9, 10,
iii. 13, 14, v. 8, 10), while "hostia" [Host] is
onlv uiwd after (as in i. 19, ii. 13; iii. 16), of the
« fractilJh of the hosts." Yet until " hostia "
entirely superseded it, " oblata " was also occa-
sionally used of the consecrated element. Thus in
the 8th century, when the usage was quite
unsettled, " [".".ritifex s.item tangit a 1st ere oalieera
cum oblata," " Rumpit oblatam ex latere dextro "
{Urd. Horn. i. lii ill). Amalarius: " Kractio
oblatarian " {Ec/oija, 25).
For particulars respecting the preparation and
th* form of oblaten, le* Elehknti, vol. i. pn,
tiO 1-604. [W. K. s;j
ODLATI (MoNA rici). Like the fermi
"cciiiversus "and "doimtui," tlio word "oliliitiu"
in connexion with tiie monastic syateni has
•everal meaiungn, which must be ciucfuliv .lis-
tingui«lied 4 expreislinr dillerent iilean bi.'luiijr.
ing to dill -lit periods in the history of niunai.
tii'iiin. in every sense the "oblati" were t
link between the world and the nionastirv.
In the first instiiiice the " oblati " were f|ii|.
dreii brouglit by their parents to the monastery
and there dedicated to the moiiasti life. In
this sense the " oblati " were distinct iruin the
"conversi," persons of mature age tiikiiii; an
themselves the vows. [CONVKIvsi ; .Novil'i:.]
When monks, in course of time, ceased to Ijc
regarded as laymen, ainl began, by tlio verv fact
of their profession, to be ranked with the eiersy
and as the original simplii ity of tlie monastic
life began to disappear, the need came to be felt
of a idass of i.ersons in every moimsterv who
shoulil assist the monks in some of their mure
ordinary occupations, and so leave them more
free for the services of their chapel and the
meditations of their cells. At the same time
these assistants were useful for purposes ontsidn
the walls of the monastery, and could be sent bv
the abbat or prior on various errands of a senilur
kind without the monks being disturbed from
their devotions (Fructuosi liei/. e. 13; Isidori
Jtei/. c. 20). In this sense the oblati were " lay-
brothers," or, as Menard explains (Cnininentiir.
ad Uened. Anion. Concunl. Jifipil. Ixx. 5), the
servants or domestics of the monastery (servi
vel famuli, ib.), receiving their fond and a dis-
tinctive dress from the abbat, but not bound
by the same vows as their brethren in the
monastery (Du Cange, Gloasar. Lat. s. v.). The
third council of Aries (A.D. 455) speaks of a
" lay multitude subject to the abbat, but not
owing any subjection to the bishop of the dio-
cese " {Cone. Arelat. iii. App.). Sometimos from
humility a novice, it might be of high rank, of
great learning, or already in sacred orders, chose
to be admitted into a monastery on this humbler
footing (Altcserrae Ascetkon, iii. 5 ; Du Cange,
Qloas. Lat. s. v.). Monasteries gradually en-
larged their possessions ; and the services of
laymen were requisite not merely within the
precincts, but to sup. rintend and cultivate the
land belonging to the monastery (DuCaiiie, i6.).
At a later period a class of " oblati " came
into existence, not so closely attached to the
monastic system of which they claimed to be
members. In some cases persons, without
assuming a distinctive dress, or residing withjn
the monastic precincts, devoted their property
to the monastery, reserving to themselves the
life interest only ; in others they bound them-
selves and their descendants to be its servants
or retainers (Du Cange, Glosa. Lat. s. v.). Of
course in cases such as these there was no pro-
bation. The promise itself sufficed. These
" oblati " or " donati " are described by Alte-
serra as the associates and deputies of the monks
(sdjuvae et viearii eonversorum), or ss fh-"
servants (servi monachorum), because they de
cated themselves and their possessions to the
monastery without taking on themselves the out-
ward garb either of a cleric or of a mouk(Altea.
OBLATION, THB
Awl Hi. 5) If, howev.r, the obl.U uotimed
th«(re«», he tlien heiani^ entitled to enioy tl,f
priv,l«K... »n,l im,„u„iti,., „f the or,l/r til'.)
Th.M «.»o. iat,.., i„.vii,« l,eei. ohj,. te,| t., in iome
auTterj, were forin.lly apprcvcl by none
IJrb.n II., A.D. 1091 (./,,). si„ |„, J^ ^J,„
,n„rr,ed, wonwu wore ..„„Htin,e. «,|initte<l on
lhM« ctrnditiun, (.4.). M„billo„ ,p.,|„ „, the.e
"„blHti or "d„„,ti" „ „„t i„ 8„v true
wiMC muiiks (nenu4.iimm monachi), though not
umommonly t.Tnied niouk» of the i,.,.,„i,| „rd^r
(moniirhi .0, imdi ordini,). H,. ,,,|oto» a png,„.,„
from Alcuin, .„ the 8th ..entuiy, about n number
ofluy hrotli,T8 iittachcd to mon(isl,.rio«(({rcx de-
rotnrum), but tho t.nn " obl^tu. " in thii Lmso i.
of « later .•entory (MabjII. j„n.r>, .V // ^^ ^g.
Krmn an o-jHy ,,triod, inde^l a. .oon as the
raoiiastio hlo begun to command tho rcveren.c
ofMLuhir (iotentatcs, thcue, in return for tlieir
Iwnefactionc, not infre(|ucntly suught and ob-
taiiwl admission Into the fraternity, aa out-
inembera, in order to have their n.moa in.eribed
on the roll and mentiono.l in tl,.' conventual
praver, Ihua MaiiniH, a diseiple of the great
Benedict, received Thuodebert, king of tlie
Fraiikj, into tlie monastery afterwards railed
"St. Maur «ur le Loire" (monasterium Glan-
nafohense) in the clo<o of the tith century
i8+. (A.D. 584, Mabill. AA. O. S li v]L
Sti. Mauri cc. 40, 50, 51.) Similarly, 'many
Iciiiifi, ncibles, and prelates during the middle
ages, for instance the German emperor Frederic
1 ., and the Oreek emperor Emanuel Comnenua,
claimed the honours of monkhood, without
formally auhje, ting themselves to its disciidine
111 aome instances gran.lees .were admitted as
oblates during sickness, or at the point of death.
(Altes. Ascelwon, iii. 7.) [I. Q SI
OBLATION, THE (M.,tlo, .acriji,-ium,
KomSii). Inder this name the Eucharist, the
Unstmn thank-otlering, was understood at a
very early period. Thus Irenaeiis, IH7, ref.rrinir
to itk institution, says that Christ taught His
disciples ■' the new oblation of the new cove-
T^ J f'pu"'- 11' § ^>- ■'■''^ ««mment is
»ith h.m rhe oblation of tho church, which
w la (18, § 7). Ihe Apostolical Canons.speak of
the time ol the holy oblation " (c. 3. comp 8)
I. In the mind of Christians of the first litur-
^tween the oblation of bread and wine and the
commemorative sacrifice than woul.l be likely to
survive the e.xi.ansion and rearrangement of the
original lorm of the Anaphoua. For the
memonal of the sacrifice of Christ appears to
ave been made at first by the simple oEg of
e bread and cup by the priest with thank.s
giving (Lucharist), the account of the iu.titu-
ht !f *h ; V^X'"""'"^- '* «Pl^'in« language
p. 68 which otherwise would seem ambiguous
t L r»ir ' !' '"'™"°'»'=^ with the fact that in
the Galhcan liturgies, which have admitted nn
nr;!Ill "the"' ""' '••'"'"''^'' ''^«' "-""^h ^^ should
■">ff call the canon con.sisted to the last of the
arrative of the institution only ; it ace" nts b th
IZ statement of Gregory I. that the canon
w« the composition of a scholastic, and that it
OBLATION, THE 1419
Iw'.d' .n'T "I ":' ■'"""«" •" -^"niecrat. th«
m" ) ml i"" w". ''."""' «"'"'"mod,. oration,
"ni (I'omiuicani) (Amu/, vii nn ».. i r .u
anticipatory refereil^rto t'he T.^^. '.; ,' . ,' , ;,*!
Hon, which occur In the pravers of nbU roV *
many ancient liturgies. «e„„f,„r, ,.,„ j;',!,;", J^
11. lhelra„er„; Co,nmem;r.,t,v.' "W.,^o„ _bV
he renetitionof our Lord's words at thelnstitn'
Ion t^e bread an,| wine were declared t„ !,..",, .«
"rlh His body that was wounded, „„ I lis ,1 .^
that was shed on the ,toss. From th s Z
herefore, the liturgical rite becar- e h , , lu'
-presentation of His sacrifice. Tl.is w ' "j!
ressed in a prayer (called by modern witej.
In.m one or the other of its two elen en^ th,
^^.nor,,/ or the /'r.,,jer of OWoi o„) n wh ch
as atterwards, of the great events that followed
I" its tram), a verbal ottering of the r sent
euchanstic .acrifice was made' with praLrf",
other benefits of that sacrifice which was Im
momo t„, ,,^, ,^ j^^,^_ ,.^^ instan' h, t I Z
mind H.^li.''"""''- ""''•""^'•' "l^" •"•""•"« in
mind H hie giving sullerings, salutary cross
and death, an,l res,irrecti.,n from the dea 1 on
the third day, and ascension into be,n'en and
aess,o„ oa .phy right hand, the (iod ai I Father
and hs second glorious, and fearful coming '
■' " ler un Thee, Lord, this awful 2, ««:
".Hly s.icritnco, praying that Thou deal m w th
;s after our sins," &c. (Assem. Co</,r liturgy
.)7). feinularly St. ehryso.stom and St. Haslj
behalf of all, and for all, we oiler Thee Thin«.
intod. ,,,)8). I he form in St. Mark gieatlv re.
semblesthis(Renaud. Coll. lUur., oJn i.LtX
as do those in the Egyptian liturgies of St Hasil
and St. Gregory both Lptic and^Greel! '(«.■ ^15
b, ; f h ^- ' ^- ^"f."^' ^'- '^ril hn^ no oblation
The K^K- '""'■;?' "^ *'"' '^'^''tl'. &^-- only (47)
1 he Ethiopian oblation, though part of at. otRc*
-ierived trom the Coptic Jacobites, is pec, iar in
naming the elements, " Now also O Lor com
m,m.,orating Thy death and res'urrettTon' we
oiler un Thee this bread and this cm""- &o
519). In al the Greek and Oriental I i, ',,/«,'
th prayer before us, whether beginning wih'ha
Ob ation or the meriiorial, starts from the wo Is
of mst, ution, and is followed, properly, at odm
by the invocation (EpicLKsis) ^' ^
wi h It ■"■"'"''''''• ?"' "'« "''''>'''"' i" connexion
vh the memorial was thought unnecessary b?
th.se who set the example of omitting it^e^
cause of the similar form which intvodfced the
intercessions after the invocatio
snm!,"'" ^*'' ""^ P''"y" of "W 'ti^-n aripenred
TinZlZ'^'ufu'"' ^""°' -meti,neras .
distinct form. It follows immediately the word*
of mstitution in the Gelasian and' Greg.r an
canon: " (Jnde et memores, Domine, nos u?
servi, sed et plebs tua sancta, Christ fill ^
Dommi Deinostri tarn beatae pas.sio„is, n non
Fest". r ! ^-^■':"^«^np. offmiuius praeclarae ma-
pui.im, hostiam sanctam, hosti,-,m immacul™
tarn pan,.,, ,„n,t„^ ^.^^^ ^a uila-
alutis , petuae'- (Murat. Litur,j. utv,'^
'• •'"i u. 4). Similarly in the Romanising
- ." r mil
'I'm
1120
OBLATIONS
OBLATIONS
Missalo Fi-iincoium and the P''cramentaiy of
BesHu -on (fci'J. ii. 034, 778). The .Sjianish and
Gallioan canons were very short, and the com-
tneinoratiun and oblation tbund their place in a
prayer which came immediately after it, the
fust Pridic of the Spanish and Post Miisterium,
or Post i^ecrcta, of the Gallican liturgies, wliich
embraced the invocation as well. Very few,
however, of those e.\tant contain these three set
forth with any d.jtinctness, and some of those of
later composition lose sight of them all. The
following example from the Mozarabic Missal is
complete : '' Facimus, Domine, filii tui ncstri Jesii
Christi commemorationem, quod veniens ad nos
humanam formara assumsit, quod pro homi-
nibus quos creaverat redimeudis passionem
crucis perpessus est. . . . Per ipsum ergo,
summe i'ater, exposcinius, ut banc tua^ piaca-
tiouis hostiani, quam Tibi oS'erimus, e manibus
nostiis placatus accipias, eamque de caelis a sede
placate vultu respiciens benedicas," &c. (Miss.
Muz. Leslie, 15). From the Gothico-Gallicrin
Missal we may select this : " Memores glor'u.-;is-
simi Domini pMssioais et ab inferis resur-ectio-
nis, ollerimus tibi, Domine, banc immaciilatam
hostiam, rationalem hostiam, incruentam ^lostiam,
huuc pauem sanctum et calicem salutarcm,
obsecrantes ut infunderedigncris Spiritum tuum
sanctum edeutibus nobis, vitam aeternam re-
quiemque perpetuam conlatura potautibus "
(//ii. Uall. Mabill. 208). This collect is of great
interest, as down to the word " calicem " inclu-
sive it agrees with a quotation by Pseudo-
Ambrose (rfi; Sicr.mmntis, iv. 6), who was pro-
bably a Gallican bishop, Ambrose of Cahors.
of the age of Charlemagne (Oudin, de Script.
Ecd. i. 18:i7). As the Gallican books were
at that time being suppressed in favour of the
Roman, we [irobably have in this prayer a part
of the Roman canon above cited varied with a
view to conform it to a familiar Gallican fnrmu-
lary. This is made more probable by the fact
that the prayer in Pseudo-AmLrose continues to
resemble the Roman canon from the point indi-
cated, while it becomes wholly unlike the Galli-
can Po^t Mijsterium. There is no express prayer
of oblation in the old canon of Milan, which after
the words of institution proceeds thus: " Haec
facimus, haec cclubiamus, tua, Domine, praecepta
servites, et ad cominunionem inviolabilem hoc
ip.ium, quod corpus Domini, sumimus, mortem
Dominicam nuntiamus. Tuum vero est, Onini-
potuiis Pater, mittere nunc nobis unipenitum
Filium tuum, quern inquaerentibus sponte
misisti " (Murat. Lit. Lat. Vet. Dissert, i. liiH).
[W. K. S.]
OBLATIONS (oblationes, munera, dona,
tapa, <t>po<j<tiopai). The presentation of offerings
of various kinds and under several names is re-
cognised by the earliest Christian writers as one
of the proper functions of bishops and priests.
Thus, Clement of Rome, " It will be no sniaU
sin in us, if we cast oui of the overseership
(^iriffKoirf/s) those who have oH'ered the gifts
blamelessly and holily " (Epist, ud Cur, 44).
This passage may be illustrated from the so-
called Apustolical Constitutions {y'm. 5; see Bun-
»an, Anulccta Ante-Nicaena, ii. .^79). Laymen
were also said to oiler. Here we need o y ijuote
• remark of Hilary the Deacon, who wr.te about
860: " (juamvis enim proprio sacerdos I'unnatur
officio, ille tamen oll'erre divitur cujus nojuibe
agit sacerdos. Ipsi enim imputatur cujus mun-
era olieruntur" {Quaent. ex i'et. lent. 4(i ; in
App. ;i ad Upp. S. Aug. ed. Ben.). Hence, fru-
(juently in the Roman sccretae, or pravers super
oblata, such expressions as these, " J] unera populi
Tui " (Vig. S. Joh. Bnpt.) ; " Oblationes t'amuU
orum famularumque Tuarum " (Dom. 7 post
Pent.) ; •' Oblationes pop ,li Tui " (S. Jac. Ap
Nat.), &c.
Tne present article treats of the gifts or obla-
tions aiiove mentioned, and of the rules and
u.sages that prevailed with regard to them. On
the anthem sung during the reception of the
altar oblations, see OFFiciiTORiUM.
I. Obltitiona of Bread and Wine. — A part of the
oblation of the people from the first were bread
and wine. Thus St. Irenaeus, li'7, tells us that
as God " gave to the people (of the Jews) a pre-
cept that they should make oblations, .... so
do»j He now will that we also should ofi'er on
the altar often, without ceasing " (Ihier. iv. 18
§ 6). The 3rd apostolical canon forbids bishops
or priests to "olier on the altar" (with some
exceptions named) " anything beyond what was
appointed by the Lord to be ollerod at the
sacrifice." The council of Carthag:;, 3'J7, re-
newing this prohibition, adds, in explanation,
"that, is, bread and wine mixed with water"
(can. 24; in Cud. Afnc. 37). In the Adu of
Theodotus, the martyr of Ancyra, 3li3, «.■ read
that the governor of Galatia ordered all bread
and wine to be polluted by contact with things
oll'ered to idols, " so that not even to God, the Lord
of all, could a pure oblation be presented" (Hol-
land, May 18, p. 152 ; Ruinart, Acta Sim-. .Mart.
vii. 298). Martin of Bracara, 669, in his collec-
tion from the Greek canons, inserts a prohibition
like that of Carthage, but makes no exception ;
" It is not lawful for anything to be otli^red in
the sanctuai'y but bread and wine and water"
(55; C'inc. Hard. iii. 397). The council of
Macon, 585, finding the ancient rite neglected,
" decreed that on every Lord's day an oblation of
the altar should be otiered by all, men and
women, both of bread and wine " (can. 4 ; conip.
Pseudo-Fabian, Hard. Curw. i. 1797). The coun-
cil of Nantes, assigned by Pagi to th« year t)60,
speaks of the '■ oblations which are oll'ered by the
people " for the sacrament, and " of the loaves
which the faithful offer at the church," and
directs their use (can. ix.). According to the
Ordo Romanus, " the people give their offerings,
that is, bread and wine " (Ord. ii. fi ; M^s. Jtal. ii,
46). So a rubric in the Gregorian Sacramen-
tary printed by Pamelius : " After that the
otiertory is sung, and the oblations and wine are
otiered by the people " {Liturjiam, ii. 178).
After the 8th century, at least, bishops inijuirtd
at their vi.itation, " if men and women otiered
an oblation, that is, bread and wine, at masses;
and if the men did not, whether their wives did
it for them, for themselves, and ail belonging to
them, as it is contained in the canon " (Hegiuo,
dc iJiscipl, Eccl. ii, v. 89 ; see Cone. JIatisc. A,D,
585, can. 4). Amalarius of Motz, 'i'J.T : '-The
people make their oblations, i.e. bread and wine,
alter the jrder of Melchizedec" (De Eccl. Uf.
iii. 19).
II. Sii . 'ar Oblatiois offered for the DeaJ.—(l)
These were p. litive, but the motive changed
after the .trd century. At first the eiichnrist
was celebrated at the funeral, oi at some othu
OBLATIONS
time after the death of a person in full com-
numon as an act of thanksgiving for his victory.
Oblauons were brought to thefe celebrations by
the friends of the deceased ; but we do not find
that any thou.^rht of benefit to him from these
oSenngs was tnen entertained, beo for informa-
tion connected with the subject of this section,
OliSKguiLS, §§ x\ix.-xzxv.
We mubt distinguish between these oblations
,1 part ct which served to the celebration of the
sucrament, and those which were designed for
the feast of the commemoration. It is to the
latter that St. Augustine refers, when he says
"Oblat.ones pro spiritibus dormientium quas
vere ali.iuia iidjuvaie credendum est, super ipsas
memories n.,n -int sumtunsae," &c. (Ernst 2"
ai Auirl. «). Ihese were of the nature of .-vluis"
bomg given to the poor on behalf of the de-
ceased. See ObS: ijuujs, § xxvi.
(2) Among the prayers of oblation to be said
privately at the odertory in the collection of
euchanstic prayera known as the Missa Illyrici
are three to be said -'pro defunctis," and one
both for living and dead. Thev begin thus
"Susoipe, SanctuTrinitas, hanc oblationem quam'
tibi oHero pro auima," &c. (Martene, de Ant.
Eccl. EiLi IV. 12, ord. 4). The MS. is not older
than the 10th century, but the prayers may be
earlier. J«one of them have been adopted for
open use in the Missae Defunctorum of the
church of Kome. The same prayer occurs in the
Codes hatoldi (who died 986), belbre the Super
oblata (Menard, in Sixcram. Qreg. 0pp. Grce
Ben. iii. 486). -^ °'
There was evidently at a somewhat early
pema a temptation to defraud the dead of their
oblations. The council of Carthage, 398, im-
phes that the surviving friends were sometimes
guilty ot this: "Let them who either refuse to
the churches tne oblations of the dr-partud or
give them with difficulty be excommunicated,
as persons who starve the needy" -can 95)
ihe 4th canon of Vaison, AV2, dwells on this
crime at some length, and or.u.-s the oflpnders
to be "cast out of the church as -li .|ievers "
The 47th of the council of Aries, i-h2 ..Jonts by
Mme the decree of Vaison. See to ( iu sao.c effect
Unc. Matiscon. 681, can. 4. It is probabk- that
many of those who withheld the usual offerings
wereiufiuenced by the teaching of Aerius, who
Si ]"'T'' "",'* ""'"''°8" ^'"' ^^^ d«P«ted
(lipiphan. adv. Hair. hxv. 3).
(3) The very nature of the sacrament implies
th»t many might be commemorated under one
Ihi/wi f I^'k^'V""^ "'■^"■"^ ^>'° doubted
this (Walafr. Strabo, de Meb. Ecd. 22). A simi-
ar error seems to have required correcti,.n in
;„ 1 V "'•"'^fnonofNicephorns ofConstan-
mop e declares that "he does not «n who oilers
one oblation for three persons " (can. 1 1 ; Monum.
Oraec. Cotel. iii. 44C). ■«'"'•«'».
rj"j "''•''"" n"*^""" ""^for toAom received.— (I)
Epipkanius, 368, tells us generally that^he
curch "receives oblations from thos^ who con,!
m r.o "justice, and are not transgressors of the
law, but live in righteousness" (De Fide 241
w<,tow-;c:;;i^i;;A^tu^t
Xn wln^r r*/ ^.qualifications for
taptism would also be disqualifications for offer-
H. Amoujr these were the iirolessions of the
0J8LATI0>f8
1421
actor, charioteer, glaJiator, racer, fencing-
master, Olympic, pi,«r, harper, lyrist, dancer
reilctir'''""'rh"'" "" r°-"""""""''="'' »•"«
f.om i.im who does not communicate " (Cono
Mb. SU, can 28). In fact, with one e.vcepti.1
they were no present when the oiierin.s'were
made (Cono. Val.nt 524, can. 1). The .ousis!
tentes [1-i:nitenck] formed the one exception.
I hey were present, but could not offer
as wTrr' T '" ''""'■■ "■''« f-rhM.n to offer
as well as to receive. See Optatus (Do Schism
fonat.yu 1); the council 'of CaAh,.7,Z"i
(c-iu 93); (ne counri, of Tolr.!.i, 67.'-, (can 4-
and Capit. Sej. Fr. vii, 242): oLorv I a n*
715 (Capitulare, 11). ^ ^''••gory 11. A.D.
By the 94th canon of Carthage, 398, the
priests are to reject the oblations of those\vho
oppress the poor. It was for an act of ty-
nmuy that the offering of \-alens at Cae.saiea,
t™i. « ard'52r' "' "• ''"' ^'"«- ^■^'='
(2) With regard to the oblations of the dead,
the general principle is thus stated by Leo, a.d
440. Horum causa Deijudicioieservauda est. .
Nos nutem qu.bus viventibus nou communical
umus mortuis communicare nou j.ossumus"
(^/'^■['■fjiust 8; comp. i>. Ixxxiii. ac/
sS f '"• .^^■'''■'"" "J'^"'"^ "'^t ''■"" ablations
Uiould be made lor the falling asleep" of one
me hi^ ' '°.™''''-''^'«°"'"> of the canons, made a
p.e.byter his executor, and he says that this
was m accordance with the practice of his pre-
decessors (Lp^t. i. ad Fw-nit.). See Oissequiks,
IV. 17ie Sacramental Bread and Wine taken
out of these Vblations.-St. Cyprian, re;n,v ng a
uch woman who brought no oflering herself
says that she "took part of the sacrifice whh
a poor person offered" (De Opere et ^W)
fh\ Tl I'- ^^^ P"''' '^-^^i^" from thee
that which he may ofler for thee" (Fnn-r Z
Psalmos, 129, § 7). St. Caesarius, 506 : "Offer
ob ations to be consecrated on the altar. A man
able to artord it ought to blush, if he has com-
niunicated from the obbtion of 'another " (&,Z
Hi i ^\ J"^"" "■" ^^''^''^"'^ -^'/^ 0/ Gregory
tin " "■' ''V °^ " ^^"'n"" who wasCr*.
rected by a miracle for smiling in disbelief
when she heard the oblation, which she S
nised as made by herself, called "the body \(
thpiir /"■ *'u^- '" *'"* O'-'J" Romanus of
the 9th century, the archdeacon takes from the
whole mass of oblations, "et ponit tantas " bla!
!^ ^"P" -iltare quantae possint po.mlo
snihcere" (Orrf. iii. § 13, mZ. Ital. i T?!
its,, 'n^r "' ''''"■= "^^"P'"' 'xJi'^eonus) ox
PseuUemen, 4- J >«S i^H^rd.'S! i*
50. Hmcraar of Rheims, 852, provides for tha
use of those "oblates which ire offered t he
people, and are more than are required for the
consecration " (Capit. i. c. 7). ' *
V. Ill what Ves-wls Qjfersd r.r«i r-~-' •■ 7
the West the bread was presented by"t he" offerer
m a fanon of white linen, and received in I
vessel or cloth called offertoiium (see Kaxon
C;), vol. I. p. b61, and OFFEuroaiuii, (') (3)y
The wme was brought in amulae [Ama, vol t
m
If
i
-^'•m
i
r ■ 1
5
■J
4
i
■i' i'
- i':
1422
0BLATI0N8
fi. 71], and poured into a " calix major"
ChaucR, t^. p. 340]; whence, if the offerings
were large, it was transferred, if necessary, to a
SCYPllUS.
— VI. Where these Oblations were received. — It
is probable thiit at firat all who offered bread
and wine, and perhaps oblations of various other
kinds, drew near to the altar and there presented
their gifts to the deacons. Thus, in the East,
Dionysius of Alexandria, A.D. 254, speaks of a
layman " going to " and " standing at the
table" (Euseb. ^I'sf. Ecd. vii. 9). The same
writer implies that, except at certain times, even
women "went up to the holy table" {/pist.
ad Basil. 2). In the 4th century, however, we
find a dilFerent rule, The council of Laodicea,
probably in 36n (can. 19), after settling the
time at which the laity shall " give the peace,
and so the oblation be celebrated," adds, " And
it is lawful for those in holy orders alone to
enter the altar-place" (flucriao-T'^pioi' ; see Voig-
tius, de Altarihus, ii. 28). Another canon (44)
of the same council forbids women to enter it.
The council in Trallo, 691: " Let it not be per-
mitted to any one whomsoever among the laity
to go into the sacred altar-place " (can. 69).
There was an exception, however, " in accordance
with a very old tradition," in favour of the
emperor, " when he should desire to olfer gifts
to the Creator " (ihid.). Evidence of Ihe alleged
tradition occurs in the story of Theodosius, 390,
who at Constantinople not only "brought his
gifts to the holy table," but was expected to
remain within the inclosure (Theodoret, Bist.
Keel. V. 18). Theodosius the Younger, in 431,
says of himself; "We draw near to the most
holy altar for th'i oblation of the gifts only "
\Edict. Labb. Cy.ic. iii. 1237). Turning to the
West, we find Theodosius at .Vilan, 390, "when
the time summoned to offer the gifts for the
holy table, rising up and going on to the sacra-
rium " (tcuv ivafcriipaji' ; Theodoret, «. s.). In
France, in the (ith century, the laity communi-
cated in the chancel, and therofi^re, we infer,
offered there. Thus the council of Tours, 56T :
" Let the holy of holies be open to laymen and
women, that they may pray there and communi-
cate, as the custom is'' (can. 4). Theodulf of
Orleans, 797, says : " Let not women on any
account draw near to the altar when the priest
is celebratine mass, but stand in their places,
and lot the priest receive their oblations there
to offer them to God " {Capitu ad Piesbyl. 6).
Laymen are only cautioned lest they provoke
the fate of Uzzah (ihid.). In the fifth book of
the Ciipitularies of the French Kings (collected
about 845) is a law, not traced to any earlier
source, which orders that " notice shall be given
to the people that they offer oblations to God
every Lord's day, and that the said oblations
will be received outside of the inclosure of the
altar" (c. 371). Similarlj, Ilerard of Tours,
858, cap. 72. At Kome, 730, at a pontifical
mass, we find the oblations of the nobles received
in the senatoriuui ("quod est locus principum ";
Ord. Rom. iii. I'O, those of the rest of the
people in the body of the church, the receivers
going fir t tn the men's side and thei: to tlic
women's (Ord. Horn. i. 13 ; comp. ii. 9 ; iii. 12 ;
v. 8). The priests and deacons offered last, and
"before the altar" (ii. 9). "They alone,"
Myg Amalariuu, " approach the altar whose
OBLATIONS
ministry is about the altar " (Ecloga, 19).
Somewhat later the laity seem to have gone all
to one place to i)rfesont their offerings; for the
revised Urdu says: "Let him (the bishop) be led
by a presbyter and the archdeacon to tlic! )il,ice
where the oblations are offered by the fnithful
laity, whether men or women " ("rd. v. il).
VII. Prayer of the Offeror. — It U to be sup-
posed that a devout worshipper would always
say a silent prayer when presenting his i^ii't.
In the collection known as the Missa lllyrici
some short forms are suggested for use at this
time (Martene, Ant. Eccl. Hit. i. iv. 12, ord. iv.),
VIII. By ichom received from the Ojl'eim. —
In general the oblations were taken, not by the
celebrant, but by a deacon or sub-deaxjii, jf
present. None of the ministers of liasil, we are
told, came forward to receive the obbitions of
Valens, because they did not know liis niinj
about them (Greg. Naz. Orat. 43, § b:) ; from
which it is clear that it was at that time no
part of the bishop's duty to take them even
from the hand of the emperor. Isidore of
Seville, A.D. 610: "The sub-deacons roieivethe
oblations from the faithful in the temple of
God" (Etymol. vii. xii. 23; De Keel. 0;r, ij.
10 ; Amalar. de Eccl. Off. ii. 11; Haban. Slaur.
de Inttit. Cler. i. 8; Cone. AqHi.s^/r. \.[\ H16,
i, 6). In an "Allocutioad Subdiacoiium Ordi-
nandum," in the missal of the Franks, it anpears
to be implied that the sub-deacon not only
received the oblations, but separated at his dis-
cretion as much as would be reipiired far
the communicants (Lituii/. (Ja'l. Mabili. ;iO;i),
Pseudo-Clement, in the 8th or 9th century,
speaks of the " minister of thn altar," i>. in
strictness, the deacon, as " takini; the obla-
tion of the holocaust from the offerers"
(^Epist. ad Jacob. Hard. Cone. i. 5ii). In a
pontifical mass at Rome in the 8tli century the
oblations of bread offered by the ncbles were
received by the bishop himself, the aivhde.icon
following to receive the A.MUI,AI';. The re(;i(in-
ary sub-deaoon took the loaves from the peutllf
and gave them to another suii-diMcon, by wliiim
they were placed in a larger sheet of linen
("corporate, id est sindonom," Ord. Ji'un. ii. 9;
"lineum pallium," v. 8) held by two MOMJytcs,
The amulae were emptied by the areleleacon
into a ffagon (.scyphus) carried by an acolyte.
The other offerings of bread were reeoived by
the bishop whose weekly turn it was, who him-
self put them into the sindon borne after tiim.
A deacon takes the amulae, and pours their
contents into a scyphus (Ord. lioni i ii 13;
comp. ii. 9; iii. 12; v. 8). But Ii- .-ius of
Auxerre, A.D. 880, represents the / . ust as
taking the oblations, though he supiioses a
deacon present: "Suscipit interim (while the
offertory is being sung) saceidos a populo
oblata" (DeCelebr. Mis^.nA calc. I'seudo-Alculn.
de Div. Off.). So Ahyto of Bale, 811, direct!
that, " when the oblates are offered by the
women, they be received by the presbyters .it
the chancel screen, and so brought to the altar"
(Capituta 16).
IX. By whom set on the Altar.—ln the Wmt
iHt- w«f TfiH . I. ...... ... ...i. .
says that it belongs to the I.evites " oblationn
ini'erre et disponere " (Epist. ad Loudfr. 8 ;
comp. Eti/nu)!. vii. xii. 23 ; Cone Aquii^ir. 816,
i. 7); ».#. "inferunt oblationcs in altaria, com-
OBLATIONS
ponunt mensam Domini " {De Eccl. Off. ii. 81
it Wiis thought that the proprietv of this usage
was imlicateU by the fact that the first deacons
were chosen to "serve tables" {De Eccl. Off iii
19). Kabanus «iys: » Levitae oHerunt oblationes
in altaria" {De hatit. Clor. i. 7; comp. with
Isid. above). At Home, in a [lontifical mass in the
8th centuiy, tlie archdeacon, receiving the oblates
from !he sub-deacons, set them on the altar.
Then he takes the bishop's amula, .ind pours the
contents tlirough a strainer into a chalice, and
Birailariy those of the deacons. The sub-deacon
receives the water oflered by the choir from the
prectutor, and '• pours it crosswise into the
chnlice." Next, the bishop, going to the altar,
takes the oblates from the presbyter of the
week aud the deacons. The archdeacon then
takes the Ijishoji's oblates from the oblationary
(sub-ileaccn), and gives them to the bishop, who
sets these on tlie altar himself. The archdeacon
then takes the chalice from the regionary sub-
deacon, and, putting the Offkbtouium through
the handles, sets it on the altar near the bishop's
oblates on the right {Ord. Jiom. i. 14 15.
comp. ii. 9 I iii. 14, 15 ; v. 8; vi. 9). ' '
In the Kiist tlus appears to have been gene-
rally the pai-t of the celebrant. The Apostolical
eanons imply as much when they forbid bisho,,s
and presbyters to bring and set -n the altar
(nfoaipffiuv M rh evaiiKTTnptov) anything hut
bread, wine, &c. (can. 3). The Clementine
liturgy says : " l.et the deacons bring the gifts
to the bishop at the altar " (Constit. A/.ost. viii
12). The liturgy of St. James: "The priest
brinffiuj; in the holy gifts says this prayer" (of
oUatiun, As.sem. Cudex Liturg. v. 17).' In the
Syri:m olfices the celebrant " brings the euohar-
iitic bread on to the altar " (^Liturq. Orient
Coll. lieiiaud. ii. 3), and the same usage pre-
vails amoiiK the Copts and Abyssinians (ftirf. i.
18,-1-188). The Nestorian rites vary (Badtrer's
Nestorians, ii. 218; Neale, Introd. Hist. East
Cti. 436). In the later Greek liturgy, at the
"great entrance" the deaccn brings in the
paten, the priest the chalice; but the latter
sets both on the holy table (/ytchulog. Goar, 73)
X. By w/tom presented to Ood.— Deacons as
we nave seen, ir.ight set the oblations on the altar
buionly a bishop or priest could oHer them to
Uod. "Deacons have no authority to offer"
[Cm. Mc. 3l>o, can. 18). The principle was
tliat^^ exordium ministerii a sunimo est sacer-
dote (P»eudo-Ambr. de Sacram. iii. i. § 4).
mi as the power of the priest himself was
deriv-ed, he could not delegate it. "Apart from
the bishop,' says Ignatius the martyr, "it is
not lawful to baptize or to celebrate an agape "
which included the eucharist {Ad Smum 7)
where the interpolator has, "or to oHer, or to
bring sacnhce, or to celebrate a feast." Hence
priests were forbidden to "celebrate masses" in
OBLATIONS
1423
an) diocese without tho sanction of the bishops
h.'^ff "'1'"^"^' '""■ '^^^ ''''^« bishop was
offerer by himself or by the priest, and
therefore m the language of the earliest period
J good bishop was one who "offered the gifts
blamelessly and holily" (Clem. Kom. Epist.
ru!;- ""'""fZ^'i ''y th« Celebrant. Prayers of
W«ta.-A ii-st "the whole of that action
w, accomplLshed in silence" (Boua, J^er.
lltrg. a, V,,,. § 2 ; Marteuo, J<i Ant) W Hit i
IV. VI. 16 ; and others). It must not be inferred
however, that the primitive .huich did not ,e-
gard the action of the celebrant with respect
of them t., God. It only means that such an
oblation was not verbally ma.ie when thev were
set on the altar, though implied in the long
eiichanstic prayer which imi,,ediatelv followed
M.Irenaeus expressly say, that Christ, in'
instituting the sacrament, -'taught the new
oblation of the New Testament, which the
church throughout the world offers *o God who
gives us aliments-the first-fruits of His gifts in
theiNew lestament " (c. //titT. iv. 17 S.5^ "Thio
pure oblation the church alone offers' to the
with thanksgiving " (ihid. 18, § 4). Hence it is
evident that he who said the eucharistic prayer
was believed to ofler the elements to God Such
an oblation is assumed, though not expressed, in
the long preface (the original .i,xap,<rrla) of the
Clementine Liturgy. AH other liturgies have a
distinct prayer of oblation introduced, as we
must suppose, at some later period. It is always
.said by the celebrant, and was probably at fir"st
only a clearer expression of an oblation of ti.e
good creatures of God then lying before him.
1 his is evidently the meaning of the earlier and
simpler forms; but the later, as will be seen,
introduce thoughts which must appear entirely
out of place. We will begin with those which
are true to their original intention. In St.
Mark, af^ter the cry of the deacon, " Pray for the
offerers, "the priest says the prayer of proposi-
tion, in which IS the following petition, " Cause
Ihy face to shine upon this bread and on these
cups which the all-holy table receives through
the ministry of angels and attendance of arcdi-
angels and service of the priesthood " (Renaud.
Ltf 1 ■! ""'y * P^y*''" *■'"• the accept-
ance of the gifts expressed in a lofty style, nor
can we see more than this in St. Ximes : '• Thy-
self bless this offering "(Ve€<r„.; comp. Heb.
■x. 2; Matt in. 4), "and receive it on to
Thine altar above the heavens " (Assem. n. a).
In St. Basil's "prayer of oblation" Uiyi
Tpoa■Ko^,,Sr|s) the celebrant prays chiefly for
himself th,at he may rightly fulfil" his cIRce, but
also for the acceptance of the offerimrs, "Of
Thy goodness, Lord, receive these gifts from
the hands of us sinners " (Goar, 164). In St
Chry.sostom, however, which has long been the
common liturgy of the Greeks, the praver would
be more suitable after the consecratioi, for it is
au mvocation [Epiclksis], "that this Jur sacri-
hce may be acceptable unto Thee, and that the
good spirit of fhy grace may make His abode on
(Goar 74)* ^''''*' "'"' ''" "" '''''^ P"°P'® "
In all the Eastern liturgies of later revision
there 13 the same tendency that we observe in
St. thrysostom to anticijiate the consecration,
or to confound the previous oblation of the
e emeuts with that of the sacramental body and
blood, fhus m the Armenian : " Do Thou to
whom we bring this sacrifice accept this ofierinff
from us and make it the rnvstery o*' n-- '-'--
au.i blood of Thine only h ten Son, and grant
unto us who are partal crs of them that this
bread and wine may t,e for the healing and
pardoning of our sins" (Neale, t«. s. 444V
In the West there was ao unviryiug'verbil
iiiiuhi
1424
OBLATIONS
I
I?
»l-6"i
a;
4
'i
f
oblation of the elements until after the 12th
century (Microl. A.D. 1160, /)e Eccl. Observ. U).
Five have beuDme of' obligation since, viz. (1),
"Susoipe, Sancte Pater, omnipotcns aeterno
Deus, hanc immaculiitam hostiam." &c. ; (2),
"Otierimus Tibi," &c. ; (3), "In spiritu humi-
litatis," &c. (wliich appear to be borroweJ from
Spain ■ J/iss. Moz<ir. Leslie, 2, 2:f2 ; see below) ;
(4), "Veni Sanctiticator," &c. (which is
Galiioan; Microl. u. s. 11; see Ijelow) ; and (5),
"Suscipe. Sancta Trinitas," &c., which is both
Amirosian (I'amel. IHtu<ile I'P. i. 298) and
Gallican (Microl. «. s. ; see below). Long,
however, before any of these prayers are known
to have been even in private use, there was a
vnriahle collect in the sacraraeutarie.s, called in
the Gelasian the secreta ("because it is said
secretly "; Amal. de Ojf. Eccl. iii. 20); and in the
Gregorian either secreta or oratio snper obhita,
in which the oblations ..ere directly or indirectly
ofl'ered. The following is an example from the
so-called Leonian sacramentary : "We beseech
Thee, Lord, that the gifts of Thy people may
be acceptable to Thee through the intevce.s3ions
of the blessed apostles (SS. Peter and Haul) ;
that as thev are oft'ered to Thy Name for their
triumphs, so they may be perfected by their
merits ; through," &c. (Murat. Lit. Horn. Vet. i.
330).
During the whole office of oblation an anthem
of three verses was sung; the first of which,
callel the OFFERTORY, was repeated between the
second and the third until the offerings were all
brought up, and the celebrant said " Orate " {Urd.
itomfii. 9). "In offerendis revertuntur versus,
dum ollereuda repetitur " (Kemig. Autiss. in
Pseudo-Alcuin, (le Div. Off. 40). See examples
in Antiphonarium Oregor. {Opp. iii. 653 et seq.,
ed. Ben.).
In the Milanese rite the celebrant says in a
loud voice, " Receive, most merciful Father, this
holy bread, this cup, wine mixed with water,
that it may become the body, the blood, of
Thine only begotten," &o. (Pamel. u. s. 297).
This is followed by later prayers said secretly,
and by a variable "Oratio super Oblata alta voce
dicenda" (see MissA Vlll. (2) (c)), which corre-
sponds, though said aloud, to the Roman secreta.
In the Galiioan liturgies, suppressed in the 8th
century, there is no constant form of oblation ;
there was, however, a CoUectio post Nomina
corresponding to the secreta of Rome. See ex-
amples in Siissa VIII. (3) (e). The Mo^arabic
priest savs four distinct prayers of oblatiou: (1)
over the'bread and cup, "Slay this oblation . . .
wiiich we otlerfor our sins, be acceptable to 'ihy
Maiestv,"&c. • (2) over the cup only, " We offer
unto Thee, Lord, this cup for the benediction of
the bloo.l of Thy Son,'' &c. ; (3) setting the cup
on the altar and placing the veil (HIiolam) over
it, he savs, " We beseech Thee, Lord, graciously
to accept this oblation, and to par<lon the sins of
all ;h<^ offerers for whom it is ortered unto Thee,
through," &c.; (4) "In spiritu humilitatis."
&c. (Leslie. «. s.), of which " Voni . . . Sancf-
ficator " (above) is in this liturgy a continuation
The scurijkium (the Mozarabic offertory) is then
«ung; *orao pr."."cr3 of ],ff:pir=iti"n f"!!"-'^: "•'•■•■•
the celebrant having said, "Offenmt Deo Domino
sacerdoteii nostri, Papa Romen<is et veliqui,
pro se." &k., and read the names of those
commemorated, this part of the liturgy closes
OBLATIONS
with the Oratio post Nomina (see Missa viii.
We observe in many of these Latin prayers of
oblation the same departure from their ori^'inal
intention that was noticed in several of the
Eastern forms. Thus in the Roman Missal wa
have, " Receive this immaculate host» whiih I
offer ... for my numberless sins," &c. Simi-
larly in a Mozarabic Post Ni.mina (Leslie, 3ii),
For attempted explanations see Bona, Jier. Lit. j;.
ix. 3; Le Brun, Ex/Aio. de in Messe. iii. vi. 2;
Roms^e, Sens. Rit. Miss. xiv. 5 ; and others. They
amount to this : " Qu'en cominen ant a oflrir
le [lain nous parlons ileji comme si nous ollriom
cette hostie saiis tache qui est I'unique, dent
Toftrando puisse nous laver de nos pe(:hi;s"(U
Br.). Many Roman secrctae contain a similar
assumpth.n (Sucr. Greij. ii. 41;). Similar iniun-
gruities occur in Galilean collects Post Nomina
(Miss, Goth. 191).
It may be conjectured that the foregoing
anomalies first made iheir appearance when an
attempt was made in an age of decaying learning
and intelligence to simplify, by breaking up and
rearrauging, the prolonged eucharistia, which
originally embraced both the oblation of the
gifts when brought to the celebrant, and all
that) belonged to, and was connected with, the
subsequent consecration.
XII. The Remainder of the Consecrated (M>
h'ons.— No uniform mode of disposing of thea
prevailed during any part of our period either
in the East or VVest. For a considerable time a
part was sent to the absmt, and a i)art taken
away by the communicants for daily use at
home. [Reskrvation.] A part wa:i also in
some places, from the 6th to the 8th century
inclusive, sent to other churches, as Fkrmkntlsj.
We have to speak here of the part that still
remained when due provision had been made fur
these purposes, Evagrius, near the eml of the
6th century, tells us that " it was an ancient
custom in the royal city (Constantinople), when-
ever a large quantity of the holy particles of
the undefiled body of Christ, our God, was left
over, for uncorrupted boys of those that at-
tended the school of the undcrinaster to he sent
for to consume them " (Eccl. Hist. iv. 30).
From the testimony of Nicephorus Callistus,
who had himself, when a boy at that school,
communicated in this manner, we learn that the
custom survived till the earlier part of the 14th
century, if not later {lliat. Eccles. xyii. 25),
At Jerusalem, however, as we know fr.m the
authority of Hesychius the patriarch, 601,
" whatever happened to be left unconsumed w.ns
given to the tire," as were the remains of the
sacriHces mentioned in Exod. xii. 10 (Lxplan. in
I^evit. (viii. 32) ii.). In the West the council of
Macon, 585, decreed that " whatever remains of
the sacrifices shall be lett in the saciavium after
the mass is ended, innocent children be brought
to the church by hitn whose otHce it is on the
Werlnenday or Friday, and, a (subsequent) fast
having been prescribed them [Fasting, § 8],
receive the said remains sprinkled with wine '
•This phrase occurs with pro|«r aiipliouilipn In t
Gallitili roat Sc.-rcti, and, -.htT-.T-jp-, b';-? "~ •■'■■= — '
ilun; "OfferlmuB tlb!, Domine, banc immactilatiiB
bostlam . . . Obsecrant«8 ut lofundcre Uignoris Spiniiim
tuHin sanctum edenttbus nobis," &C. (*«!• ''<><*• "•
l,U. aaU. aM.)
lee Missa viii.
OBLATIONS
(can. 6). The following order occurs in one of
the forged decretals about 830, but probably
derived fioni fin earlier documont : " But If any
shall rei.iain, let them not be reserved till the
morrow, but consumed by the cnre of the clerks,
with fear and trembling. But let not those
who con.sume the remains of the Lord's body
that have been left in the sacrarium come toge-
ther immediately to take common food," &c.
{Epist. Clem, ad Jac. : Hard. Cone. i. 50 ; see the
nme as Praecepta Petri in S. Leon. Opera, ed.
Bailer, iii. 61i). That this latter u.sage was
widely spread in the West we may infer from
the appearauce of the above passage from Pseudo-
Clemens in Uegino {do Eccl. Discipl. i. 195;
Burchard, Deer. v. 11; and Gratian, Deer. iii.
De Cunsecr. ii. 23).
XIII. Dispimal of the Unconsecrated Swpl'is.
Ihe Apostolical Constitalions (both texts): "The
eulogiae that are over and above in the mystic
hte» let the deacon distribute among the clergy,
according to the iii.- letion of the bishop or the
presbyters — to the bishop, four parts; to a
presbyter, three parts; to a deacon, two parts;
and to the rest, subdeacons, or readers, or singers,
or deaconesses, one part " (viii. ,31 ; in the Coptic
Cim»t3 of the Apostles, tr. Tattam, c. 75).
They arc here called eulogiae, because blessed
through being offered. Theophilus of Alexandria,
A.D. 3»5 : " Let the clerks divide those things
which are offered on account of the sacrifice
(that remain) after those consumed for the use
of the mysteries, and let not a catechumen eat
or drink thereof, but rather the clerks and the
faithful brethren with them" (can. 7; Hard.
Cmc. i. 20U0). These oblations are spoken of
under the name of eulogiae by Socrates, who
says that Chrysanthus, the Novatian bishop at
Constantinople, " received nothing from the
churchM, only taking two loaves of the eulogiae
on the Lord's day " {Ecd. Hist. vii. 2). John
Jlo.schus, A.D. G30, relates the story of a monk
who, being employed to distribute eulogiae,
"which the deacons had set on the holy altar,"
happened to say over them the words of con,se-
cralion, and thus, as it was afterwards revealed,
unintentionally consecrated them {Prat. Spirit.
Jo).
V/e have less distinct infoiination of the dis-
posal of the superfluous oblations at an »arlv
period in the West. The earlier drafts of the
Ordo liumanus tell us nothing; but from Ordo
vi.(Mab'.ll.) we learn that, after all the oblations
ot the clergy and people had been place.l on the
altar, iiosh loaves were brought to the arch-
deacon, from which the bishop took what he
thought proper for consecration, and then gave
all the rest back to the archdeacon, " who gave
them ill charge to the custos of the chui-ch for
safe keeping " (§ 9). This belongs to a period
at which fewer communicated than during the
7th century. We are not told how these remains
*ere aniployed. but it is probable that in the
•Vest the .superfluous oblations of a festival
MrTe<i for the oolebiatinns of other days; for
we are told in the Life of St. Augustine, bv Pos-
swms, that he would sometimes in church
, . -■•- — ' "•■ '"->! tir^giccc of tnr:
gazoplirUouim ami secretarium, from which the
tilings needful for the altar are brought in ■'(24.>
According to St. Au.brose, the custos was a
iHKon! "Haec quanti consilii sit prospicere,
OBLATIONS
1426
non ignoratls. Et ideo eligitur Levita qui sacra-
rium custodial " {De Off. Stin. i. 5(i, § 265)
Oitts for the altar Were put into the sacuarium
or SKCRKTARIUM ; those for the poor, the clergy,
or the church, into the oazopiiylacium.
As the excess of bread and wine offered for the
sacrament gradually decreased, so it ceased to
form part of the ordinary provision tor the
clergy, and was distributed only as a token of
communion, or blessed for the .-v'nti loion. [Etj-
LOOIAK.] This last application is expressly
ordered by the council of Nantes, perhaps in
6o7 (can. 9; Hard. vi. 459), and after it by
Hincmar, 852 {Ad Presbyt. 7).
XIV. Other Attar 06/u<,ons.— The third apo-
stohcal canon, as we have it, after forbiddine
anything but what Christ appointed t, b1
ollered on the altar (naming Honkv and Milk
[see vol. i. p. 783 ; Tertull. de Cor. Mil. 3 ; Id
adc. Marc. i. U; Clem. Alex. Paedig. i. vi 50
51; Hieron. adx>. Zucif 8; Joan. Diac. Epist.
adSemr.{V2) in Mus. Itu/.i. 75; Sacra,n. Leon.
in Mnrat. Lit. Horn. Vet. \. 318; Rat(ddi Pontif.
■ n Wenard, Sacram. Greg. n. 338 ; Ordo Homanua
in Hittorp. 87 ; Apost. Const. Copt. ii. tS, Tat-
tam s tr. 62 ; or Boetticher's in Hunsen's Ana-
lecta Antenicaeni, ii. 468 ; Ordo Bapt. Aethiop.
in Martene, de Ant. Eccl. Hit. i. i. xv. 16]
" sicera, birds, or any living things, or legumes ")'
adds, "except new grains or grapes 'in their
sea.son ' [tuuixs, Offkrinq of]. The second
book of the Coptic Canons of the Apostles, the
Coptic torm of the Constitutions, permits " the
blessing of the grape, the fig, the pomegranate,
the olive, the prune, the apple, the peach, the
cherry, and the almond." Again : " It shall be
that they shall offer flowers : let them offer a
rose and the lily " (c. 54 ; Tattam's tr. p. 74 •
or Boetticher'.s, u. ,,. 471). The Greek canon
proceeds : " But let it not be permitted tp offer
anything else upon the altar, in the time of the
holy oblation, than oil for the lamp rOlL]
and incense" (Beveridge, Works, xi. x'-xxii,
Oxt. 1848). [Incense, Vol. 1. pp. 830, 8;.1.1
thl for another purpose— viz. for the urction
after baptism— was otfercd at the altar in Africa
before the probable date of the above canon.
h.i3 St. Cyprian, 255, speaks of chrism as
the on hallowed on the altar" {Epist. 70).
Much later, in Pseudo-Dionysiu.s, the bishop
takes the nvpof, ana sets it on the holy altar"
{De E(yl. Hier. iv. 2). According to the Ordo
Jiomanm, however, this oil was brought " ante
altare," and there coosecrated {Ord. i 31 •
app. 7). ^ '
^\- Deeds of Gift, .}c. laid on the Altar, or
held before or over it.-hy « law of the Frank
king Dagobert, A.D. 630, all free persons who
gr.ve aught "to the church for the ransom of
their soul, " vilh, lands, serfs, or any money "
were to confirm the gift by an "epistle" under
their own hand before six or more witnesses, who
were to subscribe the deed. " And then let hisn
place the said epistle on the altar, and so deliver
the money itself in the presence of the priest
who serves thixn" {Capit. Re,,. Ernnc. Baluze,
1. .'o). San. I^-x Alanvmnonm. eod. ann. iiAW
aV). in 803 Ciiarlemagne received a petition
irom his states, in which thev asked for g'-eafer
security for gifts made vo the church, on the
ground that the donor " makes a writing of those
things which he desires to give to God, and holds
1426
OBLATIONS
U\i\
is.' 1 ,-
ll,l
|j*'Y
i't
i Hi',
i.«« ■•
the writing itself in his hnnd before or over
(coram iiltari aut supra) the altar, saying to tiie
priests and guardians of the plate, ' I oiler and
dedicate to God all the things which are set
down in this paper, for the remission of my
sins, and of the sins of my parents and children '
(or for whiteA-er he shall wi'a/i lo make t/iem over
to God for), for the service of God out of these
things in sacritices, and celebrations of masses, in
pravers, ligiits, the maintenance of the [loor and
the clergy, and other forms of service to God,
and of usefulness to this church." They were
offered under exiiressed pain of sacrilege if the
church were robbed of them (Gip. Baluz. «. s.
i. 407 ; or in the collection of Benedict, vi. 370).
It was probably a r('i-y frequent custom to lay
valu.ible gifts of an; .^I'vi, of small size, on the
altar, ai)art from the eaoharistic service, with or
without such a deed as is described above. ThuM
"a devout man" iu tiio 6tb century " [daced on
the altar of the chuirh " of St. Nazaire, near
Nantes, a belt most carefully wrought, of the
purest goli, with all its furniture. He gave
it "ad reliriiiilcs pauperes," but with prayer
for the aid of the martyr in his needs (Greg.
Turon. de t'lor. Mart. 61).
XVI. Ollations not set on the Altar. -^' k\\
things tha' are otl'ered to God are without doubt
also cuiKJCcrat-ed. And not only are the sacrifices
which are consecriited to the Lord ou the altar
called oblations of t/te faithful; but whatever
offerings are offered to Him by the faithful,
whether consisting of serfs or arable lands, vine-
yards, woods, meadows, waters, or watercourses,
furniture, books, utensils, stones, buildings,
garments, woollen fabrics, cattle, pastures, parch-
ments, movables and immovables, or whatsoever
things are done to ifte praise of God, or can fur-
nish sujiply and ornament to holy church and her
priests, by whomsoever they are of free will
offered to God and His church, these all un-
doubtedly are consecrated to God and belong to
the ri'j;ht of the priests " (Capit. ii. Car. Magn.
A.D. 814, c. 12; Capit. Keg. Franc, i. 522; in
Benedict's collection, vi. 407 ; Cap. Hcrardi, 65;
Isaac Idng. vii. 7).
(a) Charitahle Gifts. — .Justin Martyr, in
Samnr'/-, A.r. !40. tr>';s us that, when the Chris-
tians of his day met on the Sua'.ay for prayer
and the holy communion, "those who were pros-
perous, and wished to do it, gave each as he
determined beforehand what he would, and that
the collection was laid up with tlie presiding
(elder), who personally relieved orphans and
widows and those who were in distress from
sickness or any other cause, and those in bonds
and strangers sojourning among them, and in a
word took care of all who were in any necessity "
{Apol. i. 67). Tertullian at Carthage, A.D. 199:
"Though there be a sort of (money) chest, the
amount in it is not got together from payment
as for a religion that is bought. Every person
once a month, or when he will, and only if he
will ( ud be able, places therein a moderate gift ;
for no one is forced, but gives it of his own
accord. These are, as it were, the deposits of
piety ; for th.;refrom are dispensed portions, not
fur it-ft^ts Or drinking bout?, .ir tbr.-!,-!.-rsa h^r.int.;:
of voracity, but for feeding and burying the
needy, and for boys and girls destitute of means
and of parent!), and (or the agi'd confined now to
the house, also for the shipwrecked, and for any
OBLATIONS
who become pensioners on their confession, in the
mines or the islands, or in i>risnns. if only It \»
lor the sake of the way of Goil " ( l;W. :ii().
Caesarius of Aries, 5ii-, considers it the pan uf
a good Christian, " wiien he comes to chunh," to
" olfer according to his ability money or food for
the poor" {Serm. 77, § 2; comp. Serin. 7i;, § 2).
Similarly Pirminius, 750:"tiuando ad ecole-
siam convenitis, pauperibus secundum vires
vestrns nut argcntum ant aliud alicinid pnrrU
gite " (Scarapsus in Vetera Analecta, Jlaljill,
72; ed. 2). Isidore of Seville, h'Jb, says that it
was part of the duty of the arthdeacim to " receivi;
the money collected from the communion" (Ep,
ad Leudefr. 12).
The fourth apostolical canon, referring to the
grapes and corn mentioned in the third, says,
" But let every other fruit be sent away into the
house (or chamber, oJkov, theGAZOl'iiYLAClUMor
Domus Ecclesiae, I'ossid. Vita Attgust. 24), as
first-fruits for the bishop and the presbyters,
but not brought to the altar." in the Lif' of St,
Aui/ustine (u. s. see above § xiii.) a distinction is
made between offerings for the gazophyhicium
and for ti.e secretariura, We learn there also how
the former were applied : " He was always minj.
ful of his companions in poverty, and used to
distribute to them from the same sjurce as to
himself and all his household, viz. from the
revemes of the church, or even from the obla-
tions of the faithful " (28). A feast for the
poor was often the object of an oblation. Thus
Paulinas, A.D. 40.i, relates {Poema xx. 317) how
a pig was reared with this intention. Two other
instances are mentioned by this author in the
same poem (lines 67, 389).
(6) Offerings were also made for the furniture
of the church, and of a lamb at Easter. [Lamb,
Ofpebino of.]
XVll. To whom the Oblations tcere intrusted.—
All oblations of whatever kind were given to the
bishop in trust. "That which is collected," says
Justin Martyr, "is laid up with him who pre-
sides" {Apol. 67). Among the earlier of the
apostolical canons are two (39, 41) which
place the whole propeity of the church from
whatever source derived in the hands of the
bishop in trust for the poor and the clergy, him-
self included. Hence the precept addressed to the
bishops in the Cunstitu'-ions (ii. 2.")); "Dispense
the otferings to the orphans and widows and
attiicted and strangers . . . giving their shares
to all in want, auil yourselves using the things
of the Lord, but not devouring them alone; but
sharing them with the needy, be ye without
offence before God. ... It is right for you,
bishops, to be nourished from the things brou^'ht
into the church ; but not to devour them."
This is in the purer text also (Bunsen, Analecta
Aiiteiiic.iena, ii. 256). See further unJer Pao-
PEBTV OP THE Church.
On the subject of oblations the reader may
consult Franc, de Bi-rlendis De Oblati ni'us ad
Altare, enlarged Latin ed., after two in Italian,
Venet. 1743; J. B. Thiers, Siintetifd,! f'Mfrimde
du Pain et rfu Vin <iu* Messes des Marts; Par.
178; L. A. Muratorios, Diss. xvii. in S. Paulini
Pf^pyY)at«1. Dc Vittis VQtiriS'jue Ckristia^^or^"^
Oblationibtis in his Auecdota, torn. i. Mediol.
1697 ; rejirinted in his ed. of Paulinas, Vcron.
1738 ; and bv F. A. Zaccaria, with the Latin ver-
sion of CI. l?leury'» Disoiptina Populi Dei, t«iii.
OBSEQUIES OP THE DEAD
iii. Diss. 29, Venet. 1761 and 1782 ; Jo. Mabillon
in Pnwf. i. Id Saeo. iii. O. S. B. § vi. Observ.
Ecvtes. nn. 51-6.t, reprinted by Zarcirin, u. s
torn. iii. IJiss. U; Gabr. Albaspinus, De Vet.
Eccl. Hit. Ohsere. i. 5, I.ut. Par. 16'.'3 ; and ad
calc. Oi>i). Oiitati, P.ir. 1679 ; Edm. Mortene, De
Ant. Ercl. R,t. i. iv. vi. last ed. Antv. 1763-
Alex. Aurel. Peliiecia, De ChristUinao ICcclesvil
Pol:tia, iii. 1, Kcap. 1777, Colon, ad Rhen. 18J9-
JoacS. Hildebrandus, I'rimitivae Eccle^ne Olfcrl
toriuinpro Defuiwtis, Helmst. 1667. [W. E. S.]
OBSEQUIES OP THE DEAD.-The
heathen fear of evil, if the body were left unburied
orneglected, was unknown to the Christian from
the tlr^t. "All those things, that is to say, the
arrangement of the funeral, the state attendance
on the burial, the pomp of obsequies, are rather
consolations of the living than advantages to the
dead" (Aug. Do Civ. Dei, i. 12; so Serm. 172
§3. ar.'i De Cur. pro Mort. ii. §4; comi). St.
Chrvsostom, Hoin. iv. in Heb. §5; see after,
§ vii,.). But "not on that account are the bodies
.fthedeimrted to be spurned and flung aside-
and least of all those of the righteous and faith-
ful, of which the Spirit has made use as organs
and instruments for the performance of all good
works " (De Cii: 13 ; De Cur. iii. § 5). It was
inferred from various references in holy Scripture
(Gen. xlvii. 30, 1. 2, 24 ; Tob. ii. 9, .xii. 12 ; &c.),
8Dil especially from the narrative of our Lord's
burial, that " the bodies of the dead are subjects
of the jirovidence of God, to whom even such
works of piety are well pleasing " {De Civ. u. s.)
But the future resurrection of the body was the
chief ground of present care for it ; it could not be
right, they thought, deliberately to destroy and
dissipate that for which God designed a glorious
future. Thus Prudentius, Ilumn. in Hxaa De-
funct. 1. 45 : — ^
"HInc maxima cnra sepnlcrl*
Inipcnditur ; hinc resolntos
Honor ulllmus occlpit artus
El funeris ambitus ornat."
1. The Laijing-out of the Body.— The first
solemn circumstance was the formal composure
of the whole body: "They put the hands to-
gethei-, close the eye... put the head straight,
draw down the feet (Pseudo-Chrvsost. de Job
Horn. 1. 1,2). Diony.siiis of Alexandria, a.d 2.')4
mi that during the ;-'.,-ue the Christians of
tin city "took up tl.e bou,«s of .'- saints (who
died of It) m their ,Mm,s anrt laps, clo.-od their
eye> and mouths, carried them on their shoul lers
an! laid them ont," i.e. (Euseb. m.l. Kcd. vii!
ii.) St. Augustine closed his mother's eyes with
his own hands {Confess, ix. u, §29). Pseudo-
tpiphanais, apstrophising Joseph of Arimathea,
Mys: • lost thou then with thy fingers close, as
become., the dead, the eyes of Jesus, who, with
Hi< undehled hnger, opened the eye of the blind ?
Ani do.st thon close the mouth of Him who
"l-ued the mouth of the dumb?" (De Semlcro
I 11- Ue Washing.—Hhm followe.1 which had
ra"f, """' '•'"'""'"="' '° ft" the more civilised i
■ntZ "rl 'f'''^ '" *''* ^'"'*''°S ''' the case
^f )orc,.s(Acts u. 37); and the practice was so
fill P "';'"" .•l«>-""'''e«m<>nKChristi«n8 that we
r«„?,^.'f" ''•"'""" ("•'»)»''d othersassuming
tHRIir.. ANT..— VOL. II. °
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD 1427
incidentally that the body of our Lord was so
treated. Tertullian alludes to it when he says, " I
can be stili and pale after a bath when dead " (Apol.
42). Gregory Nazianzen asks those who delay
their baptism, if they are " waiting that they may
be washed when dead " (De Dapt. 1. 618) The
ceremonial importance of the action in France in
the 6th century is evident from the fr.-qnency
with which It IS mentioned by Gregory of Tours',
when we can discover no other reason for his
notKing ^Hflist. Franc, ii, 5; iv. 5; vii. 1 ; Do
Glor. Conf.p • V,tae I\,tr. xiv. 4). See other
examples otm^r^ Hist. Franc vi, 46; Do Gl„r.
Conf. 81 ; I ,< ,e PP. x. 4 (" corpus sacerdos ab-
utumreconditm tumulo"); tWc/. xiii. .3. Simi-
larly of women, "Having been washed by other
women, she was buried " (De Gtor. Coif. 16)
Miracles are said by Bede to have b,.en wrought
by the earth on which the water nsed in washing
^ r''^Xf ^i- C"'hl.ert had been thrown ( IV<a
*. turn.). To come to the end of our period,
^l^il "' Charlemagne is said to have been
washed "more solemni "(Eginhard. in Vita, c. 9.
in. Tufi Beard, ^c, cut — At one period ther»
vZ" ' wr °'' "•'."'•ing th* head, at le.ast in
al o,,r;-,--^'''° **"' '""'>■ "f S'' '^'"y. ^vho died
nk.l A-^'.'^'VTr^ from its first resting-
l.hjce, his beard and hair, which had been shaved
oiTaccording to custom at the time of his death,
had grown m the tomb in a wonderful manner "
ofi A ■ 'I'^J "'"""P'« '""'''" in 'he case
«n Angevin bishop, who was buried " barba
Xo) ^"'"""" *'"•'• '• '' '" '^^^*'- ^"h
ly. T/ie Body anointd or embalmed.— The
next process was to "anoint "the body. This
may have been often done with the simple oil,
but more frequently, where it could be procured
with a precious unguent, Mi'-po^ which might be
^./w?»/ fi*?"'."' ?°'y ""edicated ell (De
Methodo MeJend,, xi. id); but sometimes wc are
to understand that the body was embalmed with
various antiseptic gums and spices. When the
S'"V" ?'«"• "^'- ^ P"^''='^ ointment on u
Lordshead He accepted it a,s done in anticipa-
tion of His death, np>„ rh iura^-.d^a. ^c, " with
ArJ'^^,'" r*P'"''' ™« *■">• hurial" (ver 12)
After His death, Nicodemus (John xix. 39, 40)
'brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes, about I
hundred pound weight, and wound the bodv in
men clothes with the spices, .as the manner of
the Jews IS to bury." Afterwards the women
who ha.l followed Him from Galilee, probXy
m Ignorance of what had been done, " prepared
spices and ointments," dp^^^, ^„j f^ipiZlhe
same purpose (Luke xxiii. 56). This*^ Example
would probably have suggested the c^2m
among Christians had they not inherited it from
their Jewish and heathen forefathers
„„ utk'"S 'f """^i"?'" this practice whwi he
says "Ihe Sabaeans will know that merchandi.se
of theirs, more in quantity and more costlv, is
.lavished on the burial of Christians than oi the
censinu of thff (rod= " ''^"->' ^9> i . " ;""
then, look to il, i"f the"''samJ'oV-ts^''of tx^e'
frankincense to wit, an,I other foreign things to/
aaonhce to idols, are likewise useful to men for
medicinal pigments -to us (Christians) also he- •
side for a solace of burial " (De l.lol. 11 ; see ateo
Oe Besurr. Cam. 27). Clemens Alcx;ndrin«s,
91
If a
I III! I'
1' . l!
i
1428 OBSEQUIES OP THE DEAD
A.D. 192, explaining a mystic interpretation of
Matt. xxvi. 7, 9iiy» iiieideutally, " For the
dea.l are anointed " (fivpiCoyrat, I'aodag. ii. 8,
§ 02). In the Octavius of Minutius Kolix the
heathen (ibj<;ctor says '• Ve (Chiistians) re'iorve
ungueutii for funerals" (c. 2). In the same
century (29u) wc find a Komiin governor thrent-
ening a martyr thiia, " You imagine that some
wi-eteheil women are going toeinbaln) your body
witli spices auci ointments? I'mt wliit I am
thinking of is how to destroy your remains" (/lt*i
Tarachi, 7 ; in Kuinart, Arta Sine. 'Mh). And
many other instances are found.
A sweet odour has often been perceived on the
opening of an ancient tomb (see Cat.\(X)M1i.s,Vo1. 1.
p. 3(19). This arose, without any doubt, from
the spices buried with the body, but superstition
has regarded it as a proof of the sanctity of the
person" who occupied tlie tomb. This was an
early opinion. Thus, when the tomb of .'st.
Valerius was opened in 550, the sweet smell was
taken to indicate that " a friend of God rested
there " (Greg. Tur. de Olor. Cvnf. 84). So at
the discovery of the body of St. Mallo-us, the
. bishop of Cologne, who was present, exclaimed,
" I btlieve in Christ that He is revAling Hi^
martvr to me, seeing that this sweet odiiur has
surrJunded me " {iuid. 63). Compare also St.
Jerome's Life of llilariim, 46, where he speaks
of the body of the saint as " tantis fragrantc
odoribus ut iielibutum unguentis putares."
When the tomb of Araantius was opened, an
unspeakablv sweet odour proceeding from it
reached even the people in the porches and
courts of the church (Fortunatus in Vita S.
Amant. 11). See also 7i>'4t. ; hMcm\\ de Eetel.
Stcphaui Mart. § 9 ; Eugippus of St. Severln in
ii;.-* Oest. S. S-'u. Baron. Ann. vi. § 10, ad an. 488,
&c. For a similar story from Constantinople, see
Sozomen, Hist. Ecct. ix. 2. Evagriua supplies
another from the Kast {Hist. Eccl. ii. 3). But
they were common everywhere.
V. T/ie Oratv-chthes.—'i'he body was always
clothed, often in linen only, but sometimes also
in the best dress worn in daily life, or in the
insignia of ofHce. The custom was traditional,
but it received a mystic interpretation, the new
dress then put on being said to represent the
garment of incorruiition in which the body will
be clothed when restored to life (Pseudo-Chrysost.
de Pi'ticntid, ix. 808).
1 The body seems to hare been generally
sirathed in linen (see Catacomiis, p. 309), as
mi<rht be expected from what we know of the
custom of the Jews. Lazarus was "bound hand
and foot with grave-clothes" (John xi. 44).
" Then took they the body of Jesus, and wound
it (Mrjirac) in linen clothes (ofloi'Ioij) with the
spices, as the manner of the Jews is to bury "
(ihid. xix. 40). St Matthew (xxvii. 59) and St.
Luke (xxiii. 53) say thai Joseph "wrapped, or
rolled.it in fine Waeu—ivtrvKt^d' avro (rii/Siiy* "
(KaBaua, M.). St. Mark (xv. 46) says, ifdWfff
rv irtMfi. The custom had been brought Irom
Egvpt and retained, though the Jews did not
embalm their dead. Words that express th»
notion of .sivathing are srisetimps use- at :•. .."..sr
period. Thus the disciples of St. Anthony
ti'XlfocTts his body— buried it (Athan. Vita S.
Anton. 90). Similarly Dionysius of Alexandria
speaks of the Christians of that city as irtpi-
aT0\ah KaraKoaiioCvrfSyin preparation for burial,
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD
the bodies of those stricken by the plague (/Aj(.
Eccl. Euseb. vii. 22). In Latin authors the nurs
common word is "obvolvere." In the above two
instances the material is not mentinncd, but we
may assume that it was linen, the use of which
was common everywhere, if not universal. To
give examples, St. Jerome, speaking ot a woman
who had been unjustly put to di-nth, says,
"They wr.ip the bloody corpse in n lini'n cli^fh"
(Ejiist. ad hinnc. 12). Sixtus 111., a.d. 4:i'>,
" with his own hands dressed " the body of his
enemy, Bassus, "with linen clothes and spices"
(Anast. Biblioth. Vitae Pont. No. 45). In
Gregory of Tours we read of a nun who wiu
buried " imluta linteis mundis " {IJist. Fnmc. vi.
29), and of a bishop who in a vision was told
to prepare for his burial by " yetting liini clean
linen clothes" (ii 5). The linen wiis some-
times waxed. Thus in one Life of St. ('uthliert
we are told that his body was " in siiidnm; cerati
curatum " ( \ita, iii. iv. 13 ; BoUand. Mart. 20).
The boily of St. Ansbert, archbishop of Uouen,
A.D. 698, "m.ngna Hdei anibitione vcstitiim est,
ao desuper linteis ceriitis obvolutum " (Aigrad.
in Vita Ansb. 9; Boll. Feb. 9). In a later
instance we read of a " shirt (camisalc) covered
with wax " carefully put on the body of the
dedieased (St. Udalric), "lest the priestly ap.
parel in which he wms clad should he ipiitkly
destroyed bv the earth " ( Vita S. i'Jalr. ixvii.
83 ; Boll. July 4).
2. Among the Romans, while the private
citizen was' buried in a toga, those in oflioe, even
to the lowest vicomagister (Livy, xxxiv. 7), were
buried in the dress proper to it. The analognus
practice was to some extent adopted .imcng
Christians. In the Acta of Peter of Alexamlria,
martyred in 301, it seems implied that the
linen in which he was wrapped was the dress
in which he usually otficiated (Migne, Ser.
Gr. xviii. 464, 5). This is not a ci'ntempo.
rary account ; but if it be not historically true,
it may be taken to shew the custom of the
country a century and a half later. St. Cuth-
bert was " vestimenia sacerdotalia imlutiis"
(Anon. Vita, u. s.). The same thing is rtlated
of an Irish bishop named Merolilanus (Flodoard,
Hist. Eccl. I'em. iv. 48), and of Gebhard of
Constance : " Sacerdotalibus, ut maris est, vesti-
bus indutus" ( Vita, i. 22; in M^iiarl, note 080
to Sacram. Orejor.). Of St. Ansboit we read:
" As he had been wont to stand at the holy
altars of Christ, so the brethren had taken care
that he should be clothed " (Aigrad. u. .«.},
Hadrian I., A.n. 772, was " wrapped in his ape
stolical ornaments (infulis), as the custom is to
bury a Roman bishop" {Vitu, in Mus. Ital. i.41).
Observe also the instance of Udalric in the lajt
paragraph. Charlemagne was clad in the im-
perial vestments, and "his face covered under
the diadera with a napkin " ( Vita, Auct. Monach,
Engol.).
Under this head we may mention an order
ascribed to Eutychian, A.b. 275, that no martyr
should be buried "without a dalmatic or a pur-
ple coUobium" (Anast. Vit. Pon<. No. 28); snch
ornament? thns becoming the insignia of mar-
tyrdom.
3. A dress more or less costly to stiew
honour to the deceased, but with no otbff
significance, is often mentionei Thn* wka
Mnrinus wa« martyred at Romt a the reigns
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD
Oalli.inus, Astyrius, a senator, cluthca the b(«iy
"very richly" for the burial (Knsub. IlUt. Ecd.
rii. It)). The remains of Stratonica ami Seleu-
cus, A.I). 297, were covered with a silk cloth
(S. E. Assemanus, Acta SS. J/,irti/ntm. ii. I:.'!).
it. Authony wivippetl the bo.ly (jf I'aul, the
first hermit, in a "pallium" which St. Atha-
imsiu* hal given him (lliiM'on. in Vila J'uuli,
§ 14). .St. AnthcMiy him.-elt', when .IcuJ, was
Tr«|)|ii'il in an old cloak which had also been
the gill of Athanasius many years betbre (St.
Ath. in i'itit S. Aiit. § yl). ■ St. Oiegory of
Nyssa gives an elaborate account u( the imumer
in .vhicn the body of his sister Macrina was
prupiuvd fur the i»rave (A.D. :(7y). It was pro-
IHiscI to bury her in her ordinary ilress, but her
bruthi'r had proviiled a better. 'As this was not
ioan to iib'a.se human eyes, an oid black mantle
(iuiTioi/) was thrown over all (A' \ ita S. Ma<r.
ii. A|i|). '201) ; I'nr. 1618). St. Jerome, addressing
wealthy Christiana, asks : " Why do ye wrap
(obv(ilvitis) your dead in garments covered
witti gold ?" ( Vita Pauli, 17.) Of I'aula the same
father says : " What poor man die 1 who was not
wrapped in her garments?" (Epist. 108 ad
Eiistoch. § .").) Several times Gregory of Tours
meations that persons of eminence were clothed
before burial "dignis vestiineutis" (Hist. Fi\ iv.
37,51; Do ai,ir. Conf. 81 ■ Wtae Patnm, xiv.
i, IX. 4). When Chilperic was slain, A.D. 584,
a bishop covered his body for burial with " better
gi\rmcnis" (Hist. Fr. vi. 40). The Seven
Sleepers of Kphasus " to this day rest In the
very place (where they were found), covered with
clothes of silk or fine linen " (Mira:. i. 95),
4. In the 6th century we first hear of a
strange abuse by its prohibition. The council of
Attvergne, 533 : " It is to be observed that the
bodies of the dead be not wrapped in palls or
divine services," i.e. cloths used for the service
of the altar (can. 3) ; " Touching the covering
of the Lord's body or the pall of the altar, let
not the body of a priest, when carried to the
tomb, be ever covered with it " (can. 7). The
council of Auxerre, A.D. 578; "It is not per-
mitted that the bodies of the dead be wrapped
in the veil or in palls " (can. 12). The latter
practice is also forbidden by Boniface of Mentz,
74.') (can. 20). Nor was the East free from the
same superstition. Pseudo-Athanasiiis, as quoted
by .liihn Damascene : " Fail not to burn oil and
wax candles at the tomb, though the body be
buiiftl in an air," i.e. a eucharistic veil of the
largest size (Daraasc. Orat. de Us qui in Fide
doriiiiemnt, § 19).
5. It is probable that, however the body was
dressed, a napkin always concealed the face, as in
the scriptural examples (John xi. 44, xx. 7).
Of St. Cuthbert we read, " Capite sudario cir-
cnm;lato"(Anon. Vita, iii. u. s.); of St. Ansbert,
that "sudiirium ccri litum capiti ejas imponere
vellent" (Aigrad. U.S.); and of Charlemagne,
"Sudario sub diademate facies ejus operta "
(Monach. Engol. u. s.).
6. The richness of the dress and ornaments
sometimes buried with the dead was a tempta-
tion to thieves. This 1*1 to their bein" cut or
torn and otherwise rendered useless: before the
body was l«ft in the tomb. Thus St. Chryso-
6tom: "A costly burial has often been the
cause of the tomb being broken open, and of
th« body that was buried so carefully being
OBSEQUIES OP THE DEAD 1429
cast out naked and graveless. . . , That this
may not happen, many pe- -s tear the Hne
linen clothes and fill th. th many kinds
of Kpices, that they may ; . two ways be
made useless to those who are guilty of such
outrage, and so commit them to the earth "
(/W 85 in S. J„an. Er. § 5). Examples of
such robberies are not wanting. Thus when in
585, a woman of high rank had been buried' at
Miiti, " with great ornaments and much gold,"
some young men of her fainilv " uncovered the
tomb and took and carrie.l olf all the ornameiiti
of the dead body that thev could find " (Greg.
Tur. Hist. Fnin.\ viii. 21). When Hadrian I.
was buried in the monastery of Ncjuantul:!, a. I).
795, some of the monks, thinking th;it the ri.h
robes with which the body was covered would
be better bestowed on their church, " went at
night to his sepulchre, and having stripped him
ot his shining and glittering garments da I him
in poorer" (\'ita Hiidr. in Mm. /til. i. 41)
VI. Hells tolled.— We first hear of bells in
connexion with death in the 7th century ; but
the notices are .scanty. Bede relates that when
St. Hilda died, in 673, a nun in a distant moniis-
tery founded by the saint, while in her dormi-
tory at night, "suddenly hear.! in the air the
well-known sound of the bell by Which thev
were wont to be roused to prayers or called
together when any one of them had been called
out of this world " (Hist. Eccl. iv. 23). Here
the custom was to toll the bell as soon as the
death had taken place. The /Jfe of St. Bnni/are
seems to imply that, in the churches founded bv
him, the bell was tolled when the corpse was on
the way to the grave. The inhabitants of the
place, we are told, resisted the removal of his
remains, a.d. 755, but suddenly " the bell of the
church, touched by no human' hand, was put in
motion " (WiUibaldus, Vita S. Bonif. c. xii. §38;
Sim. Othlo in Vita, ii. § 25). This was accepted
at once by all as an intimation that the bodv
was to proceed to another place of rest. Stur-
mius, the founder under Boniface of the great
monastery of Fulda, seeing himself in danger,
A.D. 770, ordered all the bells of that house to
be rung to assemble the monks to pray for him
and to receive his last words ( Vita, c. 25 ; Acta
Bemd. iv. 279). The second council of Cealc-
hythe, A.D. 816, directs that "in everv church
throughout the parishes," on the death of the
bishop, " the signal be immediately strucK. ami
every congregation of the servants of God meet at
the basilic " to sing psalms for his soul (can. 10).
VII. Prai/ers and Psalms before the Funeral.
— The body of Constantino was watched day and
night as it lay in the palace "in a golden co"liin,"
covered with a purple cloth and surrounded by
inaumerable lights (Euseb. Vita Const, iv. 66) ;
bat we do not read of any religious rite per-
formed at th»t. time. Nor are any prayers or
psalms mentioned at this stage in the case of St.
Ambrose, though his body lay in state in the
great church called by his name (Paulinus in
Vita S. Amb. 48).
1. Yet TertuUian, about a.d. 195, speaks of
prayer being aad-.- ;it this time: "Uum iu puce
dormisset, et morante adhuc sepultura, interim
oratiime presbyteri componeretur," &e. (^/e
Aniinn, 51). What this "prayer of the pres-
byter" was does not appear. In the Gelasian
Sacramontary are four sets of praver to be
4 Z 2
1430 OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD
nsel over the d('|inrteil. The firnt group nru
huaJi'd, Onit. jKist (ihitum l/ominia ; the •P' (ind,
Orut. nnteimn aJ SefnUcrnm deferatnr (l.itnrgia
I'll. Vet. Murat. i. 747,9). In the Oregi.^ i^in dacra-
mentary (iW. ii. 213) we find prayers cdrruspond-
ing to the tnnncr of the above groups under the
h'ftiling, Orntiunea in Agcnla Murtwntm ijuando
Anhni egrediturde Corpore. After these prayers,
p.-,iilma (not iiidicntid ; in the Vatican Codeit,
" i.salmi conjjiui," <'pp. S. Greg. v. 230, ed.
1()15) are sung, and then "dicantur capitula "
("doiude Oratio Dominica et hnoc ver.suum
capitella," CM. Vat. u. s.) : " In mi'moriii," &c.
(Ps. ciii. 6, P. B. V.) (after which Cod. Vnt.
gives "Anima ejus," &c., from Ps. xxv. 12);
" Nc trailos bestiis animas," &c. (Ps. Ixxiv. 20;
see Vulg. Ixxiii. 19); " Pretiosa," &c. (Ps. cxvi.
1,3), for which Cod. Vat. substitutes, " Redimct
Dominus nnimas sanctorum suoruni " (derived
probablv fiom Ps. xcvii. 10); " Non intros," &c.
(Ps. cxiiii. 2) ; " Requiem aetcrnam dona eis,
Domine " (derived from 2 Esdr. ii. 34; Viilg. 4,
Eadi-.). Two prayers fcdlow in this book as
given by Muratori, headed Ttwipinnt Orationea
post Lavattonem Corporia Ciib), which correspond
to the second set in the Gelasinn, as described
above. In the Apostolical Constitutions (viii. 41)
are prayers bearing a strong general resemblance
in matter to the above Western forms, under
the title, npo(T(t><ivri<m 4ir>p riiv KtKutniin4vuv.
They seem intended to be introduced by the
deacon after the usual suffrages in any service
of prayer with the words, "For our brcthrtv
who rest in Christ, let us pray." They migi ;
be said, apparently, at any time after the der,'! ;
The Gelasian prayers mentioned above w_ t ;
found, with some change and omission, in ?. hts j
ancient MS. preserved at Rheims (printed 'iy ;
Menard, Sacram. Oreg. not. 68), in which they
have the following heading: "Incipit Ofiicium
pro Defunctis. In primis cantatur Psalmus, fn
exitu Israel, cum antiphona, vel alleluia.' The
book appears to have been written in the time
of Charlemagne (Praef. x. 0pp. Greg. iii. ed.
Ben.), when the alleluia was generally in the
West no longer thought guitable to a funeral
office. It is still sung in the Greek offices
(EiKhologion, Goar, 526, 527, 531, 535, 553),
and in that for priests with frequent repetitions
(562, 563, 564, &c.).
2. Testimonies to the use of psalms before
the funeral are much more frequent than to the
prayers. When Monica died, " Evodius seized a
psalter and began to chant the psalm Misericor-
dlain et judicium (the 101st), the whole family
responding " (Aug. Conf. ix. 12, § 31). Before
the burial of Macrina there was "psalmody
throughout the night, as at the vigil of a
martyr's festival "(Greg. Nyss. De Vita S. Macr.
ii. App. 200). St. Jerome tells us that at the
death of Paula " not wailings and beatings in
the breast were heard, as is the wont among
men of this world, but numberless psalms in
divers tongues" {Epist. 108 ad Enst. § 29).
Even before Fabiola was dead, if we are to take
St. Jerome's words to the letter, this chanting
had begun: "Psalms sounded, and the alleluia
echoing aloft shook the gilded ceilings of the
temples" (Ep. 77 ad Ocem. § 11). Earlier in
the same century the disciples of Pachomius
(cir. 350), " having cared for his venerable body
after the custom ... as was meet, passed the
OT^hlEQlTIR'a OF THE DEAD
whole night watching, singing psalms and
hymns" {Vila, 53; Rosweyd, 13H). The liih
century furnishes many instancis; <■.'/. the IunIv
of Fulgentins, a.D. 553, placed in the oratory (if
a monastery, " invited both monks and ilcrka
to watch together that whole night in p-alins
and hymns ami spiritual s^ongs " ( I'iM, in liiii';
Surius, Jan. 1, St. Gall, A.D. 554, lay ti ,.
days in a church, "constant singing of pMu ,s
going on " (Greg. Tur. VHne PI', vi. 7). Sim •
lavly St. Salvius (about 560), (id. Hist. Fniw:
vii. 1); St. Aridlus, 571 (I'^i S. Arid. 34;
inter 0pp. (ireg. Tur. 1303); and St. Radeguml,
5«7 (Baudon. in Vita, 27).
VIII. Mourning Ila'iita. — The feeling expressed
in the foregning extracts was carried so far that
in many churches, if nut in all, mourning-drosses
of , (lark C(jlour were strongly discourigej.
Practi.ally this aflectecl one j.ex only, at least
among the Romans, for their women in mourn-
ing already, i.e. from the 1st century, " wore
white garments and white head-dresses " (Plu.
tarch, Quaeat. R<rm. 20). Hence the condemna-
tion of dark colours made a distinction between
the Christian and the heathen man, but per-
mitted none between the women. In the former
case the principle created the difference; in the
latter it was thought more important than the
maintenance of it.
St. Cyprian is the earliest writer in whom the
objection occurs : " Black garments are not t(> be
"ssumed here, when they (who have gone before)
..v> put on their robes of" white " (l)e Mortal.
•i -'. ed. Brem.). St. Basil tells one who ex-
. .;'.'d such outward signs of grief that he
i-" :■ ibled actors in a tragedy : " Like them thon
lh!i kest that the outward condition of things
Vuuld befit the mourner, a black dress and disor-
r;-;;cd hair, and darkness m the honse, and dirt and
dust, and a chant unpleasing to the ear, and that
keeps the wound of grief ever fresh in the soul.
Leave such things to them that are without
hope" {De Grat. Act. ii. 363). St. Chrysostora
condemns among other tokens of grief the
custom of " covering ourselves with blai k gar-
ments " (Hoin, iii. Ill Ep. ad Phil. § 4 ; comp.
Horn. 62 m S. Joan. Ev. §4). An unknown but
very ancient author, whose tract is preserved
in a MS. of the 7th century, asks : " Why do
we dye our garments black, unless it is to prove
that we are truly unbelieving, not only by our
weeping but by our dress ? " {De Coiisol. Miyrt.
Serm. ii. c. 5 ; in App. 0pp. Aug.) Nevertheless
this rejection of a dark mourning-dress couW
hardly have been common among men in the
West in thoage of St. Augustine and St. Jerome,
for the latter, writing in 404, claims praise for a
Roman of high rank for having given up his
mourning habit (lugubrem vestem) and resumed
his white garments (Candida vestimenta) at the
end of forty days, after the loss of his wife und
two daughters' within a few days of each other
{Epist. 118 ad Julian. 4). In France, when the
elder son of Chilpenc died, A.D. 580, there was
" a great lamentation of all the peoi-le ; for the
men mourning, and the women clad in mourn-
ing habits, as the custom is at the obsequies of
husbands, in such sort attended this funeral"
(Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc, v. 35). It may be
doubted whether women in the East acted gene-
rally in the spirit of St. Chrysostom's advice even
in the 4th century. Had they done so, it would
0B8KQUIE8 OF THE DEAD
mt huve been mentioned that the mother of
irejT" y of Niizianzus wore ii JriMs of shining
wliile ut the funuial of her mm t'liesaiius (Greg.
N.ii. Oral. vii. 15). [Moukninii.]
IX. T/w Fiier aiui Coffin. —The body wna placeil
on a bier (leiutrum, led us, griibiitum, sandiipila,
nA/ft,, (TKi^wout), sometimes in a t:olKn (area,
l.» iilus capulua, Ajpvof, aofiiis). '('here is reason,
however, to thiuli tliat the bier .'nd lofiin, by
whatever word described, weie g(iieii,"y one.
The colKn was without n lid, and the thee (at
least) of tlie corpse was often exposed during the
|iri«r»sion. At the funeral of St. l>n»il, ,v.D.
:)70, the p<!ople could see his face (Greg. Xaz.
ijMt. .\liii. 8U). The same thing is mentioned
oihis sister Macrinn (Greg. Nys». (fc Vita M,i,;r.
i'll). When llonoratus of Aries was carried
t,the grave, a.D. 4:>0, the people were able to
lii-« various parts of the bcjdy ("osculum aut ori
ant .piibuscunque membris' iniprcssit," Hilar.
.\rel. in Vita Jlonur. vii. 35). This was probably
general among the (ireeks, for it is their custom
tothisday, the face being painted to simulate life.
It is probible that in many cases the whole
body was concealed at Hrst by a loose i)all, some-
times of rich material, of which we olten read
both in the Kast and West. A dalmatic was
thrown over the bier at the t'uneral of the
lii«hii|i8 of Rome, until Gregory I. ordered that
for the future "the bier on which a Koman pon-
tiir was carried to h vial should be vested with
no covering " (A>i),i iv. 44). He desired to
s»|i|iress the popular custom of tearing the
ilalmatic to pi 'es and preserving them as relics,
ililaiy of Arlv. says that the body of Honoratus,
alre.iiy mentioned, was "clothed on the bier bv
the great solicitude of faith, and almost stripped
afterwards by a greater, when it was taken to the
grave "(l^iiK H>.nui: vii. 35). When the empress
Piiitilla, A.D. 3«5, was carried into the city
lietm-e her burial, the body was covered " with
gold and purple cloth " (Greg. Nvss. Unit. Vun.
<k Wft ///«, ii. 9tJ0). Her daughter Pulcherin is
by the same writer only said to have been
"borne on a golden bier" (kAij.,,1, In Fun.
Pitkk Oral. ii,il. 948).
X. The .Brams.— Tertullian, 195, explaining
Christian customs to the heathen, says that the
olteriiigs of the faithful provided among other
things " for the burial of the jioor " {Ajiol. ;^9).
The council of Carthage, 398, decreed that the
").eiiiteuts shoidd carry the dead to the church
and bury them" (can. 81). St. Augustine,
s|jeai(mg of his mother's funeral ut Ostia, where
slie died on their way to Africa, says, " De more
ilhs quorum olficium erat funus curantibus "
{Confess, ix. ;U). Such orticials, we infer, were
to be found among Christians in every populous
place. At Constantinople Constantine had already
provided a large body of inferior clerks to whom
this duty was committed. Their number wasafter-
wards increased by Justinian. They were paid for
their services out of a public fund,' so that every
burial might be free of charge. [See Coi-IATAE,
1^.XANI FossAKii, Pauadolani.] These pre-
pared the grave, bore the corpse, and buried it.
it IS probable, however, from the number of
iii»Uuices on record, that relations and others
»lten berame bearers, not from necessity, but
irom a desire to shew honour to the deceased.
The body of St. Basil was thus "borne aloft
by the hands of holy men," Jan. 1, 379 (Grig.
ODSEQUIES OF THE DEAD U^)!
Xaz, 0,.„<, xiiii, M)). When his sister Ma.rinu
was buried in th. same year, the bier was borne
by her brother, Gregory of .Nyssa, the bishop of
the diiMVM,, aud two other eminent clergyuK-n
( » Ua Ma,r. 201). St. Ambrose in the same vear
imp les that he helped to carry his brother Satv-
rus to the grave (/'« Axcc^u S.,t. i. 30). Paula
at Bethlehem 404, was " removed by the hau ll
o. bishops who even put their shoulders to the
bier (Hieron. /,>. lo8, § J9). Sidonius, 47J,
!<«ys ot a ady of high rank •• that she .vas taken
up and borne to her abidi,,/ home ,im one
asleep, by the hands of priest , ind relatives"
(A/J/s^ li. s). Piilgentius liuspcfisis, a.D. 55'!
was taken "by the hands of pn,,U" to the
church in which he was buried ( VUa, Surius,
Jan. 1). « ' »
During our period mAnks and nuns were
buried without the bounds of their monasterie»
( Mjirtene, Je .'\n>. M,m. Hit. y. x. 99), and the latter
at least must oiten have emplovod the servicei
ot seculars as bearers.
XI. n,,^ „f ji,„.!„i_ _ ^ Christian funeral
took place by .lay whenever it was permitted.
See ItURiALOF THK DiiAi, (,(), p. i!53. There
was lA trance, at least, a feeling against bury-
ing on Sun.iay ; for in a law forbidding servile
works on that day in the Carlovingian code, we
hnd the burial of ih.,' dead excepted, only "si
forte uecesse fuerit " (lie;,. Fr. Cpit. i. 75, vi.
• 18 )). ^«verthele8S St. Ambrose was buried at
Milan on Laster Day (Paulinus in Vit.i, 48), and
t)t. .John of Naples in that city on the same day
(Uraniua, iJe Obilu F.iwini, 11).
XII. Ti,e /Vocmion.— Allusion.-, to the trium-
phant character of the funeral procession as
iiiarked by the singing of psalms and hymns,
the carrying of lights [see Liaiirs, Ckremonial
USK OF, viii], and palms, &o., are very frcouent.
Hie Apostnliual Cunatitutiuns, probably compiled
near the year ^00, give this direction: "In the
going lorth of those who have fallen asleep
conduct them with singing of psalms, if they are
taithlul in the Lord, for ' precious in the sight of
the Lord is the death of His saints'" (vi 3o)
Constantine, who died in 337, of the funeral of
martyrs : " Nor is the sweet smell of frankin-
cense desired, nor the funeral pvre, but pure
light suthcient to light them that may" (drat
<vl amct. O^tum, 12). St. Paul the first hermit
was taken to his grave, a.D. 340, bv St. Anthony,
singing hymns and psalms, after'the Christian
tradition (Hieron. Vita Pauli. § 16). At the
funeral of Maorina, "no small number of deacons
and servants receded the corpse in order on
either side, all holding tapers of wax," while
' from one end to the other of the procession
psalms were sung in one part, as in the Hvmn of
Ml). At Constantinople Justinian, A.D. 554
made legal provision for the singing at all
funerals (Aoo. Iix. 4). In France, 587, St. Kade-
gund was carried to the grave with psalms and
alleluias. (Baud, m,, § 28.) In Spain, the
council ot loledo, 589, ordered that the body
should be conveyed to the tomb with psalui-
.ringing only.
Incense was sometimes used after the first
three or four centuries of our period. In the
.icta (of late and uncertain date; see Tille-
mont, J/.-in. Ecd. note sur St.-Pierre Alex ) of ,s;t
Peter of Ale.\andria, 311, we read that thepeojde
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1432 OBSEQUIES OP THE DEAD
" carried palms the tokens of victory, while |
ta|iers blazed, hymns resounded, and incense
flamed" (Migne, Ser. Graec. xviii. 465). Hilary
of Aries, apealting of the funeral of Honoratus,
his predecessor, A.D. 430 : " We saw^^ then,
carried biifore his bier, spices and incense" (I i<ii
Honor, vii. 35). At the funeral of St. Lupicinus in
France, in the 6th century, there were "crosses
and wax caudles and the smell of sweet incense "
(Greg. Tiir. Vitac PP. xiii. 3). " Incense and
lightl" are also mentioned by Pseudo-Chryso-
stom ((fe Pat. i. torn. ix. 808).
Neither the flelasian nor the Gregorian Sacra-
mentary indicates the psalms used in the pro-
cession. We may, however, leiirn something of
the Greek custom from St. Chrysostom : " Con-
si.ler what thou savest at that time, ' Turn again
unto thy rest, mv soul, for the Lord hath re-
warded thee' (Ps. civi. 7, P. 13. v.); and again,
' I will fear no evil, for Thou art with me
(xxili. 4); and again (xxxii. 8), 'Thou art a
pla.e to hide me in; Thou shalt preserve me
from trouble'" (Horn. iv. m Ep. ad Ueb.
("• 15)). , , . ,
XIII. Tka Body buried.— thi church inherited
from the first converts a repugnance to crema-
tion, as doing violence to natural feeling. The
heathen ascribed this abhorrence to a wrong
motive, viz. a fear lest the body being dissi-
pated should bo incapable of resurrection.
" Some," says Tertullian, "are of that opinion ;
they say that funerals ought not to be by
fire for that reason, out of a needless care
fur the soul. Uut the reason of that pious
custom of burial is ditferent, not a pretence of
cure for the remains of the soul, but an aversion
to cruelty even in regard to the body" {De
Aniimt, 51). In the Octavius of MInutius
Felix (c. 2), the heathen interlocutor inveighs
against the Christians as superstitiously "exe-
crating funeral piles and condemning seiiultures
bv means of fire." To this the Christian
replies (c. 10): "We do not, as you suppose,
fear any loss of burial (comp. St. Augustine, de
C'v. Dei, i. 12), but we observe the ancient and
better (St. Aug. u. s. 13) custom of interment."
The practice of cremation was extinct through-
out the empire In the 5th century ('• Urendi cor-
pora det'unctorum usus nostro saeculo nullus,"
Macrob. Satunt. vii. 7); but we infer from a
prohibition of Charlemagne that it existed
among the tribes of Germany at a much later
period : " If any one shall cause the body of a
deceased person to be consumed by flame accord-
ing to the rite of the pagans, and shall reduce
his bones to ashes, he shall be capitally pun-
ished " {Capit. de Part. Saxon. 7, in Cap. £ig.
Fr. i. 25-2).
In Egypt there was a peculiar custom of^ pre-
serving 'the dead above ground. " The Kgyp-
tians are wont ... not to hide them under
the earth, but to place them on litters and to
keep them in their houses, thinking thereby
to do honour to the departed." This statement
is made, however, only in reference to " the
bodies of the devout departed, and especially of
the holy martyrs " (Athan. Vita S. Anton. § 90).
The custom was earnestly opposed by St.
Anthony, who ordered his own body to be
buried in a secret place, that it might not be so
treated (ihid.). The author of his ' " istiie only
writer who meutions it.
OBSI.QUIES OF THE DEAD
XIV. Place of Burial. — For the earlier period,
especially In the cities, see Area, Bl'uial,
Catacombs, Ckmetkby. Burial in chiinhes
was forbidden by a law of Gratian, Valeiitinian,
and Theodosius, A.D. 381 ; " Let no one think
that the abode of the apostles or martyrs ia
permitted to be used for the burial of bodies"
(.Justin. Codex, i. ii. 2). This law was admitted
by' Justinian into his code, A.D. 529. [Ciiuucil-
YAUD, p. 391.]
Constantine and his Christian successors, and
the bishops of CoJistantlnople, are siiid by Sozo-
men {Hint. ii. 34 ; comp. Euseb. Vita Const, iv. 7ti)
to have been buried in the Church of the .\p()stlc3
in the city ; but from St. Chrysostom it api^^rs
that this must be understood of the apiiroach
to the church. (^Hom. xxvi. in 2 Cor. pr.
fin.). St. Ambrose was buried, A.n. 397, in tlie
church at Milan built by himself and called
after him (Paulinus, Vita S. Amh. 48). Paula
was interred at Jerusnlem, 404, "subtcr ectle-
siam et juxta specus Domini" (Hieron. Epist,
108, § 30); i.e., as we conceive, under the
church, but from without. Of the burial of
Fulgentius of Ruspe in Africa in a church, we
read : " He was the first bishop who was
honoured by being laid in that basilica, where a
strict ancient custom permitted no one, priest
or laic, to be buried ; but the great force of
atVection removed the obstacle of custom, the citl.
zens universally demanding it " {Vita In Surlus,
Jan. 1 in fin.). Here the ground of the
"custom" appears to have been forgotten.
Queen Radegund in 587 requested of the Wshops
of the province that she might be bu'leJ lu a
church which she had begun to build (dreg.
Tur. Hist. Franc, ix. 42). The occasional
practice is also attested by stories of sinners
miraculously cast out of churches in which
they had been interred. Such in event hap-
pened at Toulouse, according t) Gregory of
Tours {Mirac. i. 89), while Gregiry of Itonie
places a similar occurrence at Ml an {Dial. Iv.
53). Another story of the last writer shews
that two ladles had been buried in .; church at
Monte Cassino {Dial. ii. 23).
XV. The Service in C/mrcA.— The bnay wai
often taken to a church and a service held over
it there, though it was to be buried elsewhere.
Gregory of Nyssa, in his account of the funeral
of Macrina, savs : "When we stood within the
building [of the Holy Martyrs, in which the
bodies of her parents lay], setting down the
bier, we first betook ourselves to prayer" (IVia
S. Macr. 201). The body of St. Ambrose was
taken to a church immediately after his death
on the morning of V.a-U'v Kve. On Sun.lay at
dawn, " after the celebration of the divine sacra-
ments," it was removed to the church in which
it was to be buried (Paulinus, Vitu, 48). The
1 .nguiige of St. Jerome, when he says that the
alleluia of the peojde shook the roof of the
temple at the funeral of Fabiola {EpiH. (7,
S 11), seems to imply an office of praise and
thanksgiving in the church. Paula, before
burial, was " placed in the middle of the churcli
of the cave of the Saviour," and the joyiul
rhantin<7 of the procession, it is implied, con-
tinued there (Hieron. Epist. 108, § 29). PseuJo-
Uionyslus, In the East, tells us that if tne
decea>ed had been of the clergy, the body wM
Mt before the altar; if a layman, by the sacra-
OBSKQUIES OF THE DEAD
rium at the priest's entrance {De Keel, ffier.
T. iii. 2). The foregoing testimonies make it
piobable that the body was always cnrricd into
the church when it was to be buried near it.
XVI. T/ie Composition of thi- Service. — Psalms
and hymns formed a considerable part of the ser-
vice in the church and at the grave, but there
were prescribed forms of prayer also, and lessons
from Holy Scripture, at an early period. We
Kni both of psalms sung and of prayers said in
church. at the funeral of Macrina ( I7<a, u. s.).
Psiilms with the alleluia were sung at that of
Fabiola (Hieron. u. s.) ; and psalms in Greek,
Latiu, and Syriac at that of Paula (//i, r. u. s.).
The martyrs Epictctus and Astion were buried'
"in a meet and fit i)lace, with hymns and
[isftlms" (Mta, 20; Rosw. 219). Of other
niaityrs, Victor Vitensis says, " The remains of
the blessed saints were buried with solemn
hymns" (Pussio Septem Momrh.). The same
writer represents a persecuted church asking
"Who will bury us when we die, with the
solemn {i.e. customary) prayers ?" {De Persee.
Vund. ii.) Pseudo-Dionysius, speaking of the
service in the church, says: "Then the priest
celebrates a prayer of thanksgiving. Next, the
ministers, having read the unfailing promises of
our second resurrection set in the divine Scrip-
tures, chant devoutly the songs of the oracles of
psalms and hymns to the same end and intent.
Then the chief minister dismisses the catechu-
mens, and recites the names of the saints who
have already gone to their rest, with whom he
deems the person lately deceased worthy to be
classed in public commemoration, and exhorts all
to seek the happy end .'n Christ. Then the
divine chief jiriest drawing near makes a most
sacred prayer over him " {De Ecc.l. Hiei: v. iii. 2).
The Gelasian Sacr.imentary gives prayer.s to
be said " Ad Sepulcrum priusquam sepeliatur "
and others, with a "Commendatio Animae " to
be said "Post Sepulturam" {Litng. Lat Vet
Murat. 1. 750-1). The corresponding jjrayers in
the Gregorian are headed re.-pectively "Ora-
tiones ante Sepulcrum, priusquam sepeliatur"
and"Oratio post sepultum Corpus" {ibtd ii
216). In both the " Commendatio " is the final
prayer. We take the following from the Gre-
gorian as an example : " We commend unto
Ihee, Ur<\, the soul of Thv servant N., that
being drad unto the world he may live unto
ihee. And if by the frailtvtif worldly conver-
sation he hath committed sins, do Thou by the
pardon of Thy most merciful pity cleanse them
away, through " &c. {ibid. ii. 218). At one time
the whole of the service in the church and at the
grave was called the Commendation ; for the
connci of Carthage, 397, orders that where a
funeral takes place in the afternoon, "the com-
mendation shall be made by prayers onlv. if
thev who make it are found to hare alreadv
broken heir tast" (can. 29); .■... the eucharist
snail not form part of the commendation in that
case But only a k'x years later we find the
wordu-sed of single lorms of intercession (for the
Si; ^"•^^':^'':- 633, 0. 13. See CoMiiENOA-
nON), and It is the specific name express! v giv^n
t" tne last prayer at funerals in the Gelasian
Wentary^ By an order of Hincmar of
'tZ' *-"'.^^^' *'■' P'''*«' '' '" '«" by heart
ordinom et preces in exequiia atque agendis
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD 14;f3
defunctorum " (Capit. 4 ; Labb. Cone. viil. ,509),
It IS evident therefore, that at this time nothinir
was left to the discretion of the olliciant.
We may add, with reference to the lessons,
that some copies of the Con.es I/ierm^ymi {App.
ARV) tothe euchanstic lessons to be read "in
Agenda Mortuoi-um •• („c) add nine "Lectiones
Defunctorum (see Amalarius, de Keel. Off iv
4J) from the Book of Job, to be read in the Otficia
Mortuorum Of these some or all, we may sup-
pose, would be read in the church or at the
grave, when the eucharist was not celebrated
Ihey are. Job vii. 19-21; i. 1-7 . v s ,.>
xiii. 22-28; xiv. 1-6; xiv. 13-16 ;x'vii: tit'-
xix. 20-24; xi.x.2,5-J7. ' * '^i
The early remains of the Greek church do not
give us the same information respectine the
prayers actually said in the church or at the grave
wi hin our period. The prayers in the Apo-
stoUcal Constitutions, to which we have referred
in § vn.l, might be used with propriety at that
time ; but the rubric (viii. 40) shews that they
were the special addition on occasion of a death
to the ordinary daily service. Elsewhere (vi. 30) '
this book mentions lessons and psalms: "As-
semble m the cemeteries, reading the sacred
books and singing psalms on account of the
martyrs who have fallen asleep, and of all saints
from the beginning, and of our brethren who
have fallen asleep in the Lord ; " a direction
which seems to apply both to the occasion of
he funeral and to subsequent commemorations.
In the l.^st one of the Arabic canons ofNicaea,
referring to the funeral of a bishop, says, " Let
those things be read at the funeral which the
doctors and holy spiritual fathers have ordained
touching the prayer" (can. 65 ; Labbe, Conei^.
For the discourse sometimes delivered at or
after a funeral, see Funeral Sermon.
sav TinV ^f!" /?'* ^'''«'^^«— Pseudo - Dionysius
says that after the prayers the bishop kissed the
orpse, after which all present did'^ the same
{ieel. Hier.y. „,. 2). This was the kiss of peace!
and a sign of communion unbroken by death ; but
It could never have been comm.m. From a pro-
hibition of the practice by the council of Au^erre,
A.D. 578 (can. 12), we learn that there was some
observ-anceof ,t in France in the 6th century.
XVIIl. The la.tUnct,„n.-h a work ascribed to
St.Chrysostom, m the imperial library at Vienna.
It IS said that we "ought to pouroi/on the dead
?Lk ■ vim"' (^"''""<^'- in miio>/,. a,ea.
Lambecii, VIII xlv. 68). Pseudo-Diony.sius says
that after the kiss the bishop " poure,! oil on the
departed, and then after offering a sacred pmyer
for all present laid the body away with'^oJher
sacred bodies of the same (ecclesia.st,cal) rank "
(M<T. .BcV v. iii 2). Theodore of Canterbury,
hb8, says that "there was in the church of
Rome a custom of carrying monks or religious
men to a church when dead, and anointing Their
breasls with chrism, and there celebrating mas.ses
for then. "(Crpit. flO ; Labbe, Cone, vi^ 1877)
Ihese statements are worthy of note from the
feet that in the Greek church of the present dav
ei.hei- oii from tJia church lamps or a cinder
ft«m the thurible is put on the corpse LrLed!
ately before burial {huchol. Goar, 538). Pseudo-
Dionysius gives a mystic reason for this unction.
The unction at baptism, he says, "calls th«
ill
1434 OBSEQUIES OP TUB DEAD
initiated to the sacred strife, but the oil now
poured on the body shews that he who has fallen
asleep has fought the sacred fight, and is per-
fected" (''''''■)•
XIX. Tlus Eucharist given to the Deac/.—Vft
meet with several traces of this profane super-
stition from the end of the 4th century down-
ward. It was forbidden in Africa by the council
of Carthage in 397: "It is decreed that the
eucharist be not given to the bodies of the dead "
(can. 6); by that of Auxerre, 578: "It is not
lawful for the eucharist to be given to the dead "
(can. 12); and by the council of Constantinople
in 691 (can. 83). The ciinon of the last is, how-
ever, only a transcript of that of Carthage,^ and
even repeats its argument : " It is written, Take,
eat ; but the bodies of the dead can neither take
nor eat" (coinp. St. Chrysostoni, Horn. 40 in
£p. i. aJ Cur. § 1). It is not intimated in these
canons that ihe eucharist was placed betweeii the
lips of the corp>e ; and we infer probably, from
other records, that it was placed on the breast,*
especially as Balsamon (Comm. in Can. C. I', u. s.)
suggests that the intention of the practice was to
keep otr evil spirits. St. benedict is said to have
ordered " the body of the Lord " to be placed on
the breast of a corpse that had been cast out of
its grave by invisible hands (Greg. M. Dial. ii.
24). An oblate was placed on the breast of St.
Cuthbert (Amalar. de Off. Ecd. iv. 41). In the
late and fabulous Life of St. liasil falsely ascribed
to Amphilochius, the saint is said to have ordered
a portion of the eucharist which he consecrated
on a certain occasion to be reserved that it might
be buried with him (Opp. Amphil. ed. Combelis.
176, 224). Kor the later history of the practice
see Xutitia Euchuristica, p. 920; ed. 2,
This observance must have been more common,
especially at Home, than has been usually sup-
posed, if modern antiquarians are right in
thinking that the vessels tinged inside with red
found in the loculi in the catacombs contained
eucharistic wine (Catacomus, 308; but see
Glass, 7;iO) ; but the age and paucity of the
notices of the custom must be considered one
objection to that opinion. It is probable that
mtinction was practised — i.e. that the bread was
moistened with the wine. See S^-OON, EucilA-
Risric.
XX. IIoio pi iced in the Orave. — The posi-
tion of the bodies found in the Catacomiis (see
Vol. 1. p. 307) shews that their direction was con-
sidered unimportant for the first four centuries.
At a later period we find evidence both in the
East and West of the face being generally turned
towards the rising sun. Thus Pseuilo-Chry-
sostom : " We turn the coffin to the East, signi-
fying thereby their resurrection" (De Fat. i.
u. s.). See also the Vienna MS. before cited
(Lambec. VIII. xlv. 68). Pseudo-Epiphanius
(Je Seijult. Dnm.), apostrophising Joseph of
Arimathea : " Dost thou bury towai-ds the East
the Dead One, who is ^ kvaToX^ rS>v ivaro-
X&v ? " The belief that our Lord had been so
buried would be sufficient to induce a general
practice. A similar testimony is given by I.atin
writers. Thus Arculfus, who visited the Holy
Land in 679, says that the soles of the feet of the
• Tbe words iv rif trr6iian ainv In Pseudo-Ampbl-
locbiuB ( Vila S. Bat.) are an interpolation, tiee Amphll.
Opera, p. I2i ; Par. 1«U.
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD
patriarchs were not turned as it is the custom
for the soles of the buried to be turneil in other
parts of the world, viz. towards the ciist, but to
tha south, and their heads to the north (Adnnin.
I)e Lucis Sanctis, ii. 10 ; Acta S. O.'^.Jl. ii.). Ufde
says that the boly of our Lord " had tho head on
the west," aud therefore looking eastward (iv. in
S. Marci Er. c. 16).' The body was gcni-rnllv,
but not always, laid on the bade. Chai'tiinagiic
was seated on a throne (Monach. Eiigul. in
Viia).
XXI. Bay-leaves, fc, in the Grave. — 'I'he floor
of the grave was sometimes streweil witli ever-
greens. Thus when the body of Valoiius was
found in the 6th century " lie had bay-leavos
strewn under him" (Greg. Tur. de (I lor. Ciinf. Hi),
When certain bodies, supposed to be tho.se of
St. Simon and St. Jude, were tranyliilo.i fiom
the ancient Vatican basilica in the 17th centurv,
"there were found leaves of bay under their
heads " (Casalius, de \'et. Sacr. Chiist. Lit. tiO,
p. 266). Even in tho 12th century John lieleth
(copied by Ourandus A.D. 1285, liatioii. VII. x.\xv,
38) says, " Let ivy or bay, which keep tho gnen-
ness of their leaves for ever, be placed in the
sarcophagus near the bodies, to express that tliey
who die do not cease to live in Him " (A'u, Vjf.
Explic. 141).
XX^I. Instruments of suffering buried with
Martyrs. — St. Babylas, A.D. 250, according to
St. Chrysostom, requested to be buried with the
iron chains in which he had died (/>c' Unbyta
c. Juli<in, 11). St. Am' ose, about 39.!, as.<erts
that he found in the grave of Agricola at linlugna
the cross aud nails by which he had sutl'ered in
303 {Exhort. Virgin, ii. 9). St. Sabine desired
that the stone which was to be tied to him
when thrown in the river should be buried
with his body (Surius, March 13; not in the
copy of Baluzc, Miscell. i. 12 ; ed. Mansi). When
the body of St. Dauiel was f.iv ' -^ 707, the
Duils by which be suHcred v. :id with
him (I'etr. Natal, ii. 60, apud ' de Fun.
\'et. Christ. 181). For other t.-, ;,s found Id
tombs, see Catacombs, Vol. I. p. :tl4,
XXIII. One not Ouried ott another. — This w.is
forbidden by the council of Auserre, 578 : " Kon
licet mortuum super mortuum mittere " (enn. 15),
and by a law of Childeric about 744 {Capit. Reg.
Franc, i. 153), which was adopted by the com-
pilers of the Carlovingian code (vi. 197). The
reason of the prohibition is not given ; but we
may believe that it could not have been that
assigned in an inscription given by Gruter:
"Solus cur sira quaeris. Ut in die ccnsorio sine
impedimento facilius resurgam " (Corp. Insci-ipt.
mlii. 8).
XXIV. Flowers on the Grave.— St. Ambrose,
392, clearly alludes to a custom of decking the
grave with flowers in his oration on the death of
Valentinian : " I will not scatter his tomb with
!> Isidore of Seville, de Situ Corporum SS. I'etri et
Pauli, has been cited to shew that CbriBtiaii; burled to
th.' east III the Ut century. There Is no work of Isi-
dore's under that title, and the reference con only be to
the tract once ascribed to him, lu Ortu et Obitu I'atrum
(App. 20; »li. 38«, Kom. IBOi), where we read in the
account of Su Heter: ".Sepulius In Vaticano ab urbe
Kuma ad orieiitem (forte. occid<t!f<m) Mrtlo "iilli«rl""
(} 39). One MS. (Jiidoriana, ibiii. c. 107) myt ol St.
Peier, " Ad Ausiralem planum est -epullus," uiiii of St.
Paul, " contra Orienuleni plagam."
fiowers, but will bed
of Christ. Let othe
haakets; our lily is C
St. Jerome, in 397,
lately become a wi
scatter over the ton
ros»s, lilies, and purji
heart's paiu by the.si
miters the lioly a»hea
the balsam of alms "(.
A.D. 405, alludes to
phanon, Hymn iii. pi
vii. in (in.).
In Gregory o{ Tou;
reiid of sage-leaves sc
basilic "m honour o
there.
X.KV. Lights at th
to say when this pract
Elvira, about 305, ordt
not be burnt In a ceme
the spirits of the saints
(can. 34) ; the more p
that a needless blaze
would disturb the devo
frequented thecemeter'
Xotitia Euc/iaristica, la
bable that these were ii
The practice was ajip
Vigiluntius wrote aboi
jiretext of religion a cui
churches, after the fan
liiirning masses of wax
itill shining. . . . '[i
honour to the most blesi
ingthem to receive lig
tnjjers, whom tho Lamb,
the throne, lights with
majesty" (ajiud Hieron
Jerome ascribed the pra(
more zeal than knowleilg
defended it, " Hoc fit nia
pieodum est " (§f 8). Al
lights jeft at the graves ol
and often renewed as at
mother of Aredius was bi
a wax CKndle at her heai
Coif. 104). This i.s relat(
« infer a common practic
Athanasius says: "Fail n
at his tomb; for these tl
tiod, and they bring a gii
(jpud Juan. Damasc. O)
ffonmVrant, § 19). s^g l,^-
UJB OK, J ix.
XXVI. Almsgiving at
01 alms both at the funera
memoration was so stro
strictly practised both in t
It IS desirable to shew the
»» to give testimonies to t
liecause the reason more cc
rise to momentous conseq
Ihe Apostolical Constitulio
^ 'egard it as a simple
deceased, to conciliate res
«Bd to keep it alive among
"lings belonging to him, itl
r-.. !or rt reiiiemorance of
•"»>', viii. 42). Before
wn.tiiiy, however, we fi
'"Slating without hesitation
ODSEQUIES OF THE DEAD
ot ChiLst. Ut others scatter lilies tVom full
St Jerome, iu a97, a-ldresLg one w « ^^i'
lately become a widower: "Other hrban
scatter over the tomb, of their wive " -^
ro»« hhes, and purj.le flower., and solace their
h.arts pa>u by these offices. Our Pnmma.hiu
>vaters the l>oly a,hes and venerable bones wtl
A.D, 40j, alludes to the same custom (I'cristc.
^frHnf"" '"• p'"'"' '"'■' C'-'w />^;„.
In Gregory of Tours (de Qlor. Mart. 71) we
read .t sage-leaves scattered in the crypt of a
te,l.c".n honour of the martyrs »^Wie3
X>iV Zujhts at the tf 'arc-It i, impossible
to s-iy when this practice began. The ^01^^!,?
Elrija about 305, ordered that" wa irt,"h..n
j>ot be burnt in a cemetery in the da^ fo
espm s the saints are not to bedisquieted "
a .. J4) ; the more probable sense of which is
that a needless blaze of light in the daytinTe
wmdd d„jurb the devotions of the f«ithfu[ who
frejuented he cemetery for private prayer. See
AoWiu huchanstica, 133 note: cd 2 It i- .?
Ule that these wo'e in honou'rtfmarty.ro^ y"
T e pract.ce was a,)parently the same when
Vigilantius wrote about 404: " We see 1 n/l! .
hurches, atter the fashion of the Gentiles of
Wmng masses of wax lights while the sun t
till shming. . . . These people do « great
hoBour to the most blessed mar yrs, in conceiv-
,o?.hem to recive light from^wJrthle" wa,
pe s, whom the Lamb, who is in the middle of
ne throne lights with the full bla.e of Hi
.aj.»ty"(apud Hieron. cmitra Vigilani. &i)
Jerome ascnbed the practice to women who had
We ded It, 'Hoc ht martyribus, et idcirco red!
f^7.''r.v'"" S^ ^>- A' a l^ter period we hnd
.g t. left at the graves of others bSdes ma ,vr^
and oltcn renewed as at theirs. Thus when th!^
"Other of .^rediu, was buried, 570 •' t ley p?a ed
t^a/^ 104). 1 his IS related incidentally ; so that
» mfer a common practice. In the East Pseudo-
Aha„,„u, „ "Fail not to burn oil and wa.
1 'anUho' t-""" *''"'8^ "^ acceptable :
Oo^ Inl thoy bring a great reward from Him "
s;rL-rb-hi»sSki^
touse the reason more commonly alleged gave
Za,^.':T1T '='"'»«1''«-c«^ in after.ages!
^'eS f 1 ^""*'""('°»*' «''»"' 200, apifea
Jece ««) » a simple act of piety to the
™ to keep It alive among the peoole • "Of t\.i
tags e gi„g ,„ ,.„_ S^ ther'^bi'.^en';!' Z
i"ot \-ii'":;,r"''7 •"■h''" " (*«" -<<A.^....
Wluv K ^" '^'^"'■^ 'he end of the 4th
Sw ouriiesirf""' ''• ^'"•^-^•-^
"g witftout heiiitation on a very dilieient
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD 1435
' TT ''a '!} '■^^^ y"" ••"""her mode of honouring
hedead than by costly graveclothes, . . , ,he"-^s!
with h.m (Horn. 80 m Ev. S. Jm,i. § 5). flse-
where he urges the practice that the depart^
JicTj; Ln f t^' ,*h' «™"" «'"'y- ^'- h« h-
UKU a sinner, that his sins may be loosed • if a
t//oin, b-J in A Juan. iV. S 5i t Ui.r <■. t.
writer ..lis " the alms left^ to\he ptTby ' ht
Jepar ed dead sacriHces," but adds, " Nev^rthe!
/ 5 ,° ^f" "''" ac^pted of God " (Uuaeit Z
^»M. 90 inter 0pp. S. Athan.). ^ ^
Ihe sa.ne sentiment prevailed in the Latin
hurch at least from the'middle of the 4th cei-
'U'J. bt. Jerome, for cxamule a n Wi .
^idedlyofPammachi,.,th:f;'L"::usSdZ
ashoso his wile with the balsam of alms
■s not to be doubted that the dead are helped
behalf i ,. *'""• ''''*'^'' ""-^ distributed 'on
behalf of their spirits ; so that the Lord deals
Z:-Z'-1f' 1','','''^"" """■ their Is K
deseived (W 172, c. 2; sim. AW„Wrf. HO.
JuorrMw, la, § 22), He expla ns, however th-it
alms alter death only profit those w^ hiv ' o
lived . to be capable of benefit from them
(W,. u. s. cited by himself in Uo Dale. qZ7
u. ». J comp. Serm. u. s. and De Cum u s • alVn
Mdor Hispal. <k Ojfic. i. 18). Laws weVe at
'>! tne fcuglish counci of C'ealchvthe in aia
orders that on the death of a ba.;' » a 'tenth
HakeruZ'!''';'"?/''"" ""^ S'^-*" ••"•■his sou's
sake ,n in„ t j^^ ^^^^^^ ^j. ^ .^
of his sheep and swine, and also of his movi ion'
within oor, and that every Knglishi'an' i"]
iTbertv thrh'"':'^* " ''"" '" '"" J«J-» he set at
l'Oeitj,that by this means he may deserve tn
and also forgiveness of sins "(can. 10; Johnson's
XX VH. ne Feast at the Fmeral.—The mn
tjves which led to the glvingof alms t a funem
a so gave rise to a custom of Entertaining the poor
at a feast, which was often rejieated on davs of
Aposto/Kul ConstUutions: "In the memoriae nf
the departed, feast when invited in an or leHv
manner and in the fear of God, that ye i^^ y be
able to inter, ede for those who have dei arted "
(vi.i. 44). Constantino, about 325 sne.Ts If .h«
"perfectly sober leasts 'celebrated b'm.py"!
the funerals of the faithful "fur pity andVelfef
of the needy and the assistance of exiNes" fO™/
ad Saiwt. Coetum, 12). " Whv " ask Sf rlT'
sostom, ..d„,t thou^-nviteVh'e ^ " md oS
priests to pray? That the departed mly come
to rest you say, that he may find the JudJ!
if thou wert commemorating a son or a broth/;
deceased, thou wouldst be conscience- tricken if
thou didst not observe the custom and invite the
'ij
im
>i Will
./
1136 OUSEQUIES OP THE DEAD
poor "{Horn. 21 m 1 Ci>r. xi. 25). Pniilinus, A.n.
397, lias liift n (Icsciiiition of tho fiinpial ffiist
given liy riinmuidiius, on the death of his wile,
to tlie [loor of Home in the church of .St. IVter
(A';)is(. xiii. 11).
It will lie observed that Pseudo-Origen speiiks
g.s if the festival were of the saine ehnracter,
whether it eeleliriiti'd the death of amiirtvr or of
a private friend. The fact is that the festivity of
a saint'.s diiy was at tirst nothing more than the
repetition of his funeral feast on the anniversary
of his death. [("i:i.i,A Mkmohiae.]
When Christianity beinine the religion of the
people, siieh occasions naturally led to excess
and other evils. " 1 know that there are many,"
says St. Augustine, " who eat and drink most
luxnriouslyovertliedead '(/)<! .I/or. Ixcl.'My^lh).
On this account St. Ambrose suppressed the
feasts of couuuenioration at Milan (Aug. Conf.v.
2); but it is uncertain whether his prohibition
emluaced that held at the funeral itself. St.
Au:u^liue, encouiiiged by the exanijile, induced
his bishop Aurelius to do tho same at Hippo
{/■:,lst. '.'2 ad Atircl. i. § (i). With this advice
of St. Augustine to his bishop we may connect a
canon of the council of Carthage, 1398, at which
both were present ; " Let those who either refu.se
to the churches the oblations of the dead or give
them grudj^ingly be excommunicated as slayers of
the needy " (can. 95). The last phrase occurs also
in a canon of Vaison in France, 442, where the
reason assigneil is that " the faithful departing
from the body are defrauded of the fulness of
their ilesire>, and the poor of the relief of alms
and needful sustenance " (can. 4). Modern
writers have called the feast of which we have
now sjioken '' the funeral agape." We are not
aware that it was ever so called by tho ancients.
Nor does it answer to the true notion of an agape.
It was not a common meal to which many con-
tributed and of which all partook as au act of
communion. Whatever its motive, it was simply
a provision for •flie. poor by the rich mourner,
and it does not appear that even the giver of the
feast sat down td it with those whom he fed.
Though the festivities of .saints' days c.-ij^inated
in the luneral feast, they are more properly
referred to another head.
XXVllI. T/io Xiicharist at Fvnerals. — The eu-
charist was celebrated at funerals, but we cannot
say that this was general, even when the cere-
mony took place'ili the morning. The persons
in whose ca.se it 1* mentioned were of eminence.
The Apostolical Conatitutionn, referring to the
obsequies of the de.ad, say: "Otter both in your
churches and in the cemeteries the acceptable
eucharist, tho antitype of the kingly body of
Christ " (vi. ;10); but this would be satisfied by
anv subseiiuent celebration. The council of Car-
thage, A.D. 1197, orders that "the sacraments of
the altar be celebrated only by men fasting;"
and as a conseijuence, that when the "commend-
ation of any deceased persons, whether bishops
or others, is to take place in the afternoon, it
be celebrated with jirayers only, if they who
celebrate it are found to have already broken
their fast " (can. 29). The natural inference is
that a celebration at the time was not considered
al!-imp.^rt.1nt, Nor was it likely to have been
so considered, seeing that it formed part of the
later rites of commemoration. The following
are among the instances on record of a celebra-
OBSEQTJIES OF THE DEAD
tlon at the funeral itself. Ktisobius says that
Constantino was at his funeral "deemed worthy
of the mystic liturgy, and enjoyed the com.
mnnion of holy prayers" ( I'lYc/ Ctmst. iv. 71),
St. Augustine says iu reference to his nuither's
bnrial, " Those prayers which wo )Hiured out to
Thee, when the sacritice of our ransom wnj
olfeied f<ir her, the body already idaced near tho
tomb before its burial, as is the custom there"
&c (Om/. ix. 12, § ;12) So at the funeral of
St. Augustine himself: "The sacrifice fur com-
niendation of the burial of the body was nlleiej
to God, and he was buried " (I'ossid. in Vita
Auij. ;il). Similarly in the lith century, St.
Lnpicinus was buried "celebratis missis " (nreg.
Tur. VUna I'ati: lit).
St. Ambrose was carried from the clmrdi
(where he lay in state) " after the celelnatinn of
the divine sacraments to the Ambrosian bisilica
in which he was buried" (I'aulinus, in V,ta S,
Avilir. 48). As this was on Kaster llay, the
celebration was not " pro defuncto," but his
name would be inserted in the otlice lor the day,
" Kor this, handed down from the filheis, the
whole church ob.serves, that jirayer he made for
those who have died in the communion of the
body and blood of Christ, when they arc com-
memorated in their place at the sacritice itself,
and that it be a!.so mentioned that it is oll'eied
for them" (Aug. Sthi. 172, ^ 2). To this
commemoration of the dejiarted St. J'vprina
refers when he says of an oll'ender, " He dees
not deserve to be named at the altar in the
prayer of the priest," which he othi'rwise e.\-
presses by saying that " that sacrifice should not
be ofiered for his falling asleep " {Kpist. i. ]i. 8).
In accordance with this Cyril of Jerusalem siivs,
" We pray for the holy fathers and bislin|.s, ami,
in a word, for all who have gone to their re.st
among us, believing that a great benelit will
result to the souls of those for whom the ]iriiyer
is otlered when the holy and a.wful sacritice is
.set forth " {Catech. Myst v. (i). This will re-
ceive illustration from later sections.
XXIX. Commemorations. — There were com-
memorations by prayer and eucharist at various
periods afier the death or burial. Thus the
Apostolical Constitutions: "Let the i/iiVd day of
those departed to rest be celebrated in jisalms
and reading (of Scripture) and prayers, lor the
.sake of Him who rose again on the third day;
and tho ninth for a remembiancc of the sur-
viving and the deceased ; and the fnrticth (some
MSS. thirtieth), because the people thus bewailed
Moses (l)eut. xxxiv. 8), and the anniversary ia
remembrance of the person, and let there be
given of his substance to the ]ioor for a memorial
of him"(viii. 42, the original text; sim. the Coptic
Constit. 76, Tattam's tr. 140). St. Ambrose
says that some observe the third and the thir-
tieth, others the seventh and the fortieth diiy
after death (De (ibitu Theud, A). His orntioa
on the death of Theodosius was delivered on the
fortieth. His first De Excessu l-atiiri was
preached at the funeral (" procedaiuus nd tu-
mulum," sub fin. § 78) ; the second on the
seventh day after the death (§ 2). In a story
told by Palladius, 401, the fortieth day was
being celebrated in a moiiHstery on a eert..iin
occasion for one person, and the third for another
at the same time (l/ist. /.aus. 2H). An .\(mm
bishop, writing to St. Augustine, says, in refer-
OBSEQUIES
OBSEQUIES OP THE DEAD
encp to the fiiiKM-nl of a friend, "For flio spaoe
of three days we praixoil the LonI with hvmiis
over his Rriive, nn.l on the third day wo oHeiod
the anerainents of redemption" (A>. 158, inter
Epp. Auk'. §'-'). JuKtinian in his laws reeoKiiises
tiwilays meiilionod in the AimtuUcil Constitutions
(CM .X. Ki, .xyi. ; A„w«. l;i:j, c. It). The n.ies
laid down l)y 1 heodore of Oantorhury, a Greek of
Tarsus by biith, are esi)c<;ially interesting, from
Us history and position : " lie ought to celebrate
the masses of departed laymen thrice in the
jeai', on the third day, the ninth day, and thir-
tiiith day; beeaiise the Lord ropo on the third
day, and gave up the ghost at the ninth hour,
and the sons ot Jsrael bewailed Moses thirty
days " (('iil>it. ;!7 ; Labbe, Cone. vi. 1870). " Kor
a deceased monk ma.ss is jicrformed on the day
of his bunal, on the third day, and afterwards.
If the abbot will ; for a good lavman throe or
seven masses are to bo said, after' lasting; for a
peuitent, on the thirtieth or seventh day; and
his relations ought to fast, and oHcr an oblation
on the altar on the fifth, as in Jesus, the son of
Siiiieh, It IS read, ' The children of Israel fasted
for S;iul ;' and afterwards, if the presbyter
will " (ihi,l. 19). Of " monks or relighfus men,"
he says that at Rome " a mass is performed for
them on the (list and third, and ninth and thir-
tieth day ; and it is observed again at the end of
the year, if they will " (ibid. 00, 1877). Ama-
larius, at the beginning of the 9th century, says
"We have it written in a certain sacramentary
(comp. the Gelasian, ill. 105; Murat. i. 702) that
the elliees of the deul are to be celebrated on
the thud, the seventh, nn.I the thirtieth day "
(De Ki-cl. Off.n: 42). It is naturally inferred
Irom some ot the foregoing authorities that
these days were reckoned from the death ; but
at Kunie, during the latter part of one period, at
least, It seems to have been from the burial ; for
ID the Gelasian Sacramentary, a commemorative
niissa has this title, "Missa in Depositione l)e-
fiiocti tertii, septimi, xxx""! dierum, vel annu-
alem" (Jlurat. «. s.). So in the Gregorian
Prefaces (Murat. ii. as.'i), "In die depositionis
Ueluncti tertio, ot .septimo, et trigesimo."
Although the ninth day was so widely ob-
seived, especially in the East, we find it rejected
by St. Augustine, as recalling a heathen observ-
ancc. He says that it has uo precedent in Scrip-
ture; '• Therefore they ought, as it seem, to me,
to be kept from this custom (" which they call
among the Latins, novemJial," ibid.), if any
Uiristiiins observe that number in the case of
their dead, which belongs rather to the custom
ol the Ciontiles {(Juaest. in Gen. 172).
XXX. Ammil Commemorations.— The celebra-
tion at the year's end was recurrent from a very
ear y iieriod. Tertullian, A.D. 195, says, « We
malte oldationa for the departed by way of birth-
day gifts on the anniversary " (De Cor. Mil .3)
at. Cyprian, 250, of certain martyrs : " We aK
ways, as ye remember, ofler sacrifice for them
as often as we celebrate the passions and days
01 the martyrs by an annual commemoration"
^r .. ,.A ■' ' "Muuoi uuiiuiieinoraiion
[Tl ■ •' ^■J''>- ^"Kory Nazianzen thus
api'stiophises his deceased brother Gaesarius:
hvery year will we, at loast those who are
'••tt alive, offer honours and rites of commemo-
ion y;rat. vii. § 17). It is probable that
WoDiea had in mind this custom of a yearly
commemorative celebration of the eucharist
OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD 1437
when she said, shortly before her diMtli " I „sk
"n more than that, wherever ye are, 'ye will
o".7"x"o)'"" "' ""' ''""'"'' "" '-"'•'' (-^"K-
XXXI. Daily Masses far thr Dcad'—Ja the
Mh century we find masses said daily in the
West on behalf of ,he departed: ..,„. a widow
of Lyons "celebrated m.asses every dav, and
ollered an oblation pro memoria vlii " '{Gree
luron ,4. alor Conf. tj.-i). Gregory of lt„mo in
his IMo:,H,s (iv 55) speaks of i priest who
'fora whoe w.ek alllhted himself in tears, and
d;iily ollered the salutary host" for one deceased.
He also relates of himself that he once orilered
a priest "to oiler sncridce for thirty , lays con-
secutively" for the soul of a monk who had
hroken his rule (ibid.). It is, in all proba-
■ ility, owing to this statement of (Jieg„rv, that
he practice of trentals (tri..int;,hs tr'entale,
tiigintalium, tri.uintinarium, treiitenarium, trice-
n.-.rium, &c.) was said to have originated with
him (.Sala in liona, Jier. lit. i. xv. 4). We do
not hear of it, however, as usual, until the 8th
••entury n 7..7, Lullus, archbishop of Mentz,
writes to his presbyters: "We have sent you
he names of the lord bishop of I{„me (Stei/hen
U., lately deceased), for whom let each one of
you sing thirty masses et illos psalmos et
jejunium (prob„hl,, corrupt), according to our
.Mistom" (Kp. 107, inter Fpp. H„„if„,ii, ed'
Wurdw.). In the 9th century, the faithful in
1- ranee were commanded to keep fast and to
make ob ations for their kindred thirty dayg
(CapU. J.'e,j. Fr. yi. m,. Similarly Henird of
l'.»rs (can. ,58): "Triginti diebus amici et
parentes pro eis agant." This lengthened ob-
servance of thirty days was obviously su.-gested
hy iNumb. xx. 29 and Dent. xxiv. 8. In Ii"e.le we
read of a priest who offered masses frequently
(saepius crebras) for a brother supposed to b^
dead (Ihst. Eccl.Angl. iv. 22). They do not
apiiear to have been daily, nor is any period
mentioned throughout which he offered them.
AA.Ml mere the Name of the Dcccnsed xcas
mtrodu,:,d.-i> or several centuries there were no
special prayers provided for use when the
eucharist was celebrated on account of one
departed: only the name was intro.luced at
some api.roiiriate part of the servi.'o. The
council of Chalons-sur-Saone, SV.i, orders that
m every celebration of the ma,ss the Lord be
entreated for the spirits of the departed at a
suitable place "(can. 39). At thr.t place the
names were mentioned. It varied, as at length
hxed by custom, in the several liturgies. rDip-
TYCllS; NaMICS, ObLATIONOP.] '"
XXXIU. Missa J>efuncti.-Vfa do not know
when, at a celebration for the dead, a set of
proper prayers (Missa pro Defuncto, Missa De-
functi) was substituted for the usual collects
For a long period « a mass for the dead diflered
[only] from an ordinary mass in being celebrated
without Gloria, and Alleluia, and the kiss of
peace (Amal. de Eccl. Off. iii. 44). There is
reason to think that the change began in France,
for our earliest examples of a Missa Defunct!
are thence. One occurs in the Besancon Sacra-
mentary discovered at liobio, consisting of a
proper Praefatio (Gallican), Collectio, Post
S'i%^^l P«>;^"'- and Conte.,tatio {M.saeum
mi 1. 385). The MS. is of the 7th century.
There is also a fragment of a Missa pro Defunctia
1438 OBSEQUIES OF THE DEAD
discovcroJ by Niebuhr, and publJHhed by Bunsen,
which the Inttor oncribe!! to Hilary of I'oitiurs,
A.D. 350 {Anaiectu Antenic. iii. 2U3). Had it
been »o «arly, we should certainly have found
■imilar-ferms'Mn all' the sacramontaries used in
France, but there are none in thoOallico-Oothic,
the Krankinh, or old Oallican, the MSS. of which
date from about 5fl0 to about 800 (Murat. Ut.
Mom. Vet. ii. 513). There are several such
missae in the Mozarabic Missal, but we can
gather nothing to the purpose from this fact, as
that liturgy was in use and receiving additions
till the lUh century. Turning to Home we find
several such masses in the Gela^tian .Sacrnmentary
(Murat. i. 752, &o.), the MS. of which is at least
1100 years old ; but they could not have been in
general use or much known when Amalnrius
wrote (827), for beside the remark quoted above
he says expressly (i .id,), " Ueconlatio mortuorum
nuncupative agitur ante Xobia iiuoi/iie peccato-
rilms," i.u. in the canon. The MSS. of the Gre-
gorian .'Sacramentary, in which similar forms
are found (Murat. ii. 752), do not carry us with
probability higher than the 8th century. The
Gelasian Missa Defuncti contained a collect for
the day, Secreta, Infra actionem, I'ost C'ommun.
(Grei). Ad complendum), to which the Gregorian
adds a proper preface (Murat. ii. 354 et sen.).
The name of the person for whom the obla-
tion was made was inserted in each of the proper
prayers of the Missa. Thus in the Uesanvon
Sacramentary : "That Thou vouchsafe to take the
soul of Thy servant N. (famoli Tui ill.) into the
bosom of Abraham " (Praef.) ; " To take to Thy-
self the soul of Thy servant N. " (coll.) ; " We
pray Thee for the soul of Thy servant N." (Post
nom.) ; " For the spirits of all the departed, but
chieHy for the soul of this Thy servant N." (Ad
pac.) ; " Do Thou, Christ, receive the soul of
Thy servant N." (Contest.) (i/«s. Ttal. i. 385).
These Missae pro Defunctis were in use in the
church of Kome before prayer for acknowledged
saints was given up in it. The Secreta for the
feasts of St. Leo and St. Gregory was left with
the following petition in it down to the I3th
century (see Innocent 111. Peer. Const, iii. 130):
" Grant, Lord, that this oblation may profit
the soul of Thy servant Leo (or Gregory) "
(Murat. ii. 2.5, 101).
The amission of the Alleluia which Amalarius
(tt. ».) seems to have thought universal in his
time was, as we have seen, contrary to the feel-
ing of the earlier church. Nor was this expres-
sion of joy ever quite disused even in the West.
It is sung with the OlKcium or Introit of the
Mozarabie Missa Defuncti: " Thou art my portion,
O Lord. Alleluia." " In the land of the living.
Alleluia," bis {Misf. Moz. Leslie, 456). Compare
the Officiampro Defunctis mentioned at the end
of § vii. 1.
The Antiphonary ascribed to Gregory I. sup-
plies two sets of Antiphons for these Missae De-
functorum (Pamelius, Rituale PP. ii. 175), in
which the chief point of interest is that one of
them has the introit, " Requiem aeternam dona
eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceat eis " (from
2 Esdr. ii. 345; Vulg. 4 Esdr.), still in use.
The former clause of it had been used earlier as
a capitulum (see before, vii. 1).
XXXIV. Ab'se of Masses for the Dead. — A
drealful crime to which these missae gave occa-
sion is described as frequent by the council of
OBSEQUIES OP THE DEAD
Toledo in 694. Priests would say " missani pro
requie dufunctorum " for a living object of tln'lr
hatred, in hope that it would cause his ilwith
" ut . . . mortis ac perditionis iiicnrnit pericu'
lum"(cttn. 5). It is dilKcult to b.;liuve that
this was very common, though the tminiil
affirms that many priests(" pleriqui- .sacerildtiiin")
were guilty of it. (Jratian givos the ciinou iu
brief, but preserves this startling expression (II.
xivi. V. 13, § 1 ; QUicuw/iie sacei-dotnm).
XXXV. Mntnnl C/jm/iacts for M'isses, .j'c
In the 8th century we begin to hoar cf agree-
ments between priests thnt prayiTs and nu«se3
shall be said by the survivors for those of the
number who should pre-dccease them. In 7.52
we find Boniface making this pinpcisal tii the
abbot Optatus : " We earnestly beseech y<]ii ttint
there be the intimacy of brotherly charity
between us, and that there be mutuiil piayeri
for the living, and thnt prayers and masses be
celebrated for those who depart out of this
world, when the names of .the deceased shall be
sent from either of us to the other" (A;). 9:t)_
About the same time Cuthbert writes to l.ullus:
"The names of the brethren which thou ha»t
sent to me are recorded with the names of the
brethren of this monastery who sleep in Christ
so tha^ I have given order to celebrate for them
ninety masses, and more than that" (Kp. 1S7
inter Epp. Bonif.). As the writer speaks of the
"amicitiae foeilera" long existing between them
and entreats Lullus to continue to pr.iy for him
and declares that he (Cuthbert) remeiiibers him'
in his " daily prayers," we shall not be wrong
in regarding this celebration of masses aa
another instance of the mutual engagements
then becoming common. In 7i>5 n number of
bishops and abbots, met in council at Attigni-
sur-Aisne, agreed that "every one of them . . .
should, when any one of their number departed
this life, say one hundred psalters, am! their
presbyters sing a hundred special masses for
him; and that the bishop should him.elf per-
form thirty masses, unless prevented by sickness
or any other hindrance, in which case he was to
ask another bishop to sing them for hira.
Abbots, not bishops, were to ask bishiips lo per-
form thirty masses in their stead, and their
presbyters were to perform one hundred masses,
and their monks to remember to sing one hun-
dred psalters" (Labb. Cone. vi. 1702). A
similar compact was entered into by the bishopj
at Tousi or Savoniferes in 859 (see can. 13, Labb.
viii. 678). [See Necrolooium.]
XXXVI. To whom Christian liites were denid.
— Catechumens were not generally buried with
the solemnities that we have described. St. Ohry-
sostom, after a reference to those rites, says:
"But this concerns those who have departed in
the faith. Catechumens are not thought worthy
of this consolation, but are deprived of every
help of the kind, with one exception. What ii
that ? Wc can give to the poor on their behalf,
and that yields them a certain solace, for God wills
that we should be benefited by one another"
{Horn. iii. m Ep. ad Philipp. § 4 ; sim. Horn.
xxiii. m Ev. S. Joan, § 3; Ixxxv. .50; ILm.iX
in Act. App. 3, 4). This was the rule, but ther«
must have been exceptions in the c.a.'ie of r.itn-
chumens who sutlered death for the faith, for
their martyrdom was considered an cHeetual
baptism in blood (see Bingham, x. ii. 2U, and
Martvr), and must
hare bocu hehl to ont
Christian privilege al
is. slightly sircngthenc
Mtechumen.H arc rela
the Imptljed, no dim
(tenth is nntii'od (see
We may b.dlevu the
prepared for baptism,
fault of thuir own, "
tine, "that nnt only s
Christ can supply that
lism, l)ut that I'alth an<
aUo, if It so happen tl
the tinii' help is not I
celebration of tlie my
%i(. 0. Don. Iv, 21, §
instance, 1|« was pre
sired to lie baptized, b
before he could receiv
should infer tVom tlui i
that ho was buried with
not only did lie deliver i
occasion of his death, I
the holy mysteries to hli
his rest with pious aflecf
sacraments ; let us wait
!«tions"(/<fl ol,u,^ |-„/j„
In .lii.i the council i
"neither the commomori
theollieo cd |isalm-slngii
00 catechumens who ha
demption of liajitism " (i
garJ to suicides, that " no
be mmie for them in the i
bodies should not be cond
rMlms"(nm, Ki). »„th
Jeelares, had been violate
It made the same order w
who are " punished for th
The council of Auxerro,
oblation of suicides to b
Ejirlier than either, the co
says: " VVe judge that th«
who have been cutoO'inal
'nhiieuuilor accusation fo
to be received, provided th
to have brought death on
own hands "(can, 14), Ki
deprives nuns who persist
of rule, .,f "Christian bui
decrees the same against th
of strength at fairs, &«,, t\
>nance and the viaticu
council of Mentx, 8+8, dcci
of those who are hung on
wieJ to church, and ir
offered t„r them, if thoy I
«ii» (can. 27), ''
XXXVIl. '.'nrfKonciled /
gorianSn(,nmentaryprovld(
lunctis desiderantibua Poeni
coascjuentibus " (Murat. II
"Prehxed;"ir„„y one wh
'*,c shall bo deprived of t
Wilelbe priest is comlDg.lt
«in able witnesses have d«
mselfp,„,,,i,,>j. «, J
lthings,„reg«r.ltothon«
hecnstom," The pro,MirT(
^' Jesired nbsnluti.In, Zl p
"■Vnotdeprivehin, of he
ODSKQiriES OF THE DEAD
MiBTVK), nnil inimt thircfor.- wo ,,
h.,.bueu hel.. t..„„,|tl., the .u'Cr ^ "t'
ChrUtim, ,,r.vil.«o „(>.„. ,|.,„t|,. The nVren •■
l..l.gl.tly -.tr,.n«tl,«n,..l l.y th« fact hit whn
rt '";,""". '"■" '"'"""' '« have .urereH with
h. h,,,,tl««,l „., .lirtbrencfl of treatment after
.Hth Is n.. ,.0,1 (,e« Eu,eb. llUt. AVW v" 4)
W. n.«v b,.|i..v„ iho „.,„, „f jh„,e who were
•i-,;'thn. n,,t „„,y ,JCnt fc t?,?:,;'l«"rf
Chn, can supply ,h,u which i, wantlne 7b«D-
the tm>,. Iu.1,, U not forthcoming tow" d, he
«red .« be bn,. u,.,|, but w«, cut ofl' Huddenly
klore he culd receive the sncrament We
AmU infer from the lanituaee ..f S» a^k
.h«. he was buried with nl^flK 'I'vftw"
not only .l,,| he deliver « funeral oration on the
hehuly nystcnes to his mane,; let uJ pray for
hi. re.t with pious ad'ection. ve the h^eaveul v
Mcramenia ; let us wait on hi. goul with onr nh
Id Ml the council of Braga decreed that
neithor the commemoration o.^.n oblntion no
Iheoihco ,.t i.salm-singing should bo bestowed
on catechuineiis who had" died without the rt-
faipti.m ot l,a,.l|sm " (can. 17); and with It
gard to sulci es. tliat " no commen'.oration should'
trV"\ ."""'.'" ""-' "•''"""«. «nd that their
bode, .should not be conducted to the grave wUh
Hnis (,.a„ Hi). iJoth these rule,, fhe council
tt":\\'" ''" "'"'"'"'l 'trough ignorancT
Itnwde the same order with reference to fKr»
whouro "punished for their cr mes " ('«„ ^6)
The counc of Auxerro "STU .1 „ r\^i' V'
«M»tioa of snicider;„VllS '2 it')"
&"lier than .-ither, the council of Orleans Ms"
*.)•.:" We judge that the oblation of the dead
rt ave been cut oil' in any crime (i.e. probaWv
Millie under accusation for any offenceTorh;
e r«.,.ived. provided that they arc proved ?t
OCTAVE OF A PESTITAl 1439
whicli his will deslr«il " a.„ e .1
Om,ATioN8 Si 9 V L , '^"'■''■er on this,
printed at Leipzig In m7 K st '"TV ''""
tori us. /)e iv/,„rm rA-\-' ''• •*• *'•"■»-
"'"«; Hugo Menardus Ca ««n^ ^espert,.
ad Khen. 1829 : Mat rvt:.^'"'?; 1777, Colon.
I ^hJ^Comt'ittiVtt tt lut"^'/'' °'
tion, 1877 --""er wouse of Convoca-
[W ESI
ASriu^s'^' eZr '""' Thlodorus.
(Basil Afew\.^K ' ™""nen.orated Sept. 4
•/o«n^/ 0/ S. ht. 1866, 429T fc. H.]"
of>trei,Kth a l^irs & : I, r" """''' '"'""''
couDc of M,.iit« mu J ,A '■'• 'he
nf tfc " "'^ "•"'"+». decrees that "the bodies
-trt:":,:;, ""•«,- ""' «""t -?b:
offered t ," th m if thiT'""" »"^ "'''•"•'■"'
«*"(c«n. 27) ^ ''"^'' """''""""' 'heir
toS''' '■"'■«'<'»«■'«•<* /'«,ife„*,._The Ore-
OCTAVA, sister, probably, of St ri..„o„*-
commemorated Aug. h. (J^ZtCt) ''
baptized infants were then taken off * .fnolC
(August rrUfeot. .'."^'"i"'" .'"'^'•tatis"
regeneratrjtTs!"-^:;i:j:'^:t?riS;)5»
4"^ 'iiy5?h^^!y^«"^^^- ^^^*'-''^'^-
after a feltivfl ken^' °'" '^T* "^ "»''* ''"Vs,
firch^h.'-'K^Atu^Sryn''''"
recent times the number of fSu t„ .T-'k
a Kround for if ;„ <i ","."*' 1»ve found
.iifcd St. Aujuil,., M,„ I. .,..il,g ,72
1410
OCTAVIUS
0EC0N0MU8
octiivo of Enntflr »t kept by the newly baptijiod,
OCTAVAK InKANTIUM ((fd DiV. Temp. l'«|l, i. ;
Kp. Iv. :)'»', X\, Jtc). <"' iu 'he iTlubriitimi uf
the Ki'ist (il'TaliiTimoli » Cm' oiifhl 'Iuvh, nr iii \h<e
Feii.-l "It ho UciliiiiliuiKif the IVinpli.' liy Siihiiiiiui,
Anil uf the n-ilt'iliiHliiiii lunliT Zdiiililiftln'l ; ur,
n^iiiii (iiiiiliM' thi! iK'w covonjuit). iu thu ii|i|>oiii'-
nnci' (if iiiir UorJ im the eighth day tVuiii the
Ki'siini'i tinii ; mill in the iiiy>lii«l viilne nl' the
Diiinlii'r el);lit, lis a symbul ol' iieiiectiou ami of
rent.
Hut the firitt Rctiml trace uf the custiim upon
whiih we lijjht is the Octavo of tjister, iliirini;
wliii'h the newly baptized eoutinuuil to wear
theii' white baptismal ({Rimoiits. liede nientinns
the Oitave nf Tente-Mist. In a capilulny of
Cli.'ii'leiiiUi;ne we meet with the octavos of Christ-
mas, Kpiphiiny, ami Kaster ; in can. -ti of the
council oi Maini (A.u. 8i;!)with those of (.'hrist-
mas, Kaster, and I'cntecost. The end of the
8th and be(;lniiinj{ of the ilth century was the
period to which may be a8sii;noil the chief i;rowth
of this observance, in the treatise Dc f.cdea.
Of. of Auialarius, wo hear only (d" the octaven
of Christmas, Kpiphauy, Easter, and I'outecost ;
but it says also (iv. M): " Sidemua octavas
Datalitioruni all<|uoriim Sanctorum celebraro,
eoruin scilicet, i|Uorum festivitas apuil nos clarior
habetur, veluti est iu octavis apostolorum I'ctri
«t I'auli, et caeterorum Sanctorum, >)uorum oon-
suetudo diversaruni Kccbssiarum octavas oele-
brat," de.irly implying that the custom was
growinjt up in dillereut parts of the church, but
that it had not yet become a matter of uniform
obligation.
As to the liturgical observance of those days,
from the fact that neither iu the Ciolasian nor Gre-
gorian Sacramentary is any mass assigned for the
days within the octave, l)Ut only for the octave
itself, we may perhaps infer that at first the octave
was merely, as it is still in the majority of cases,
n repetition of the festival, and of its ollicoon the
day week, and that afterwards the intermediate
days were tilled up by similar repeated com-
memorations. This would only hold good, how-
ever, of the principal octaves. The various rules
for deterniinini; the right preccilence of otHcos,
when other festivals fall within an octave, belong
to a perioil later than our limits.
For the literature of the subject see under
Fkstival, adding Urancolas, Coinininturitts IJis-
torinu^ in Uoiimnwn lireviariuin, lib. i , cap. 4h ;
Venctiis, 1734. [C. E. H.]
OCTAVIUS, martyr at Turin, with Solutor
and Adventor; commemorated Nov. 20. (L'sunrd,
Mart.) OcrAVUS (Jlienjn. M.irt). [C, H.]
ODE. The name wS^ is given in the Greek
Church—
(1) To the nine Canticles which are said at
Lauds. [Canticle, p. 285.]
("2) To certain rhythmical compositions, often
of considerable beauty, relating to the special
commemoration of the day, which are said in the
Greek matin olHce. See Canon ok 0|)i:s. p. 271 ;
Offick, Tiiii UiviNi;; Thoi'AIUa. Tiie arrange-
ment of these odes, generally nine in each office,
separated into three groups by a short litany
after the third and sixth, resembles that of
LtcnO-NS in the Western otiices; they may in
fact be !>aid to take the place of iectiuus, which
are not used In ordinary ollicit 'n the Eaat.
(Kieeman, Principle* of V'Viiu Jirv're, c. i. § S
p. 11!&.) [C.]'
OECONOMUS (1), the house steward, or
manai;or of a household. I'ossidjiis (IVtu
Anumt. c. 'H) says that St, Aiigu>iiiie never
used key or seal, but cominilled the whole
management of his domestic allaiis to the must
able of his clergy, who transacted all the
business of receipts ami payini'iits, and ;;ave in
an annual accouut. See also Omc, lUnl. (c. \\i\
({Uoted below.
J. The treasurer of a particular cliurch.
Thus Cyriac, before his elevation to the patrl.
archate of Constantinople, was oeconoinus of
the great church in that city. (CViroiiiVua y'oj.
(./tii/f, p. ;I78.)
3. A diocesan odiclal, holding a distinct posi.
tion and discharging a public iluty in niainu'iui;
all property belonging to the see, Onginiilly
the business connected with the temporal alDiiri
of the see appears to have been managed by the
bishop and his chapter. The council of Antioch,
a.d. 341 (c. 1'4. 25), speaks u( the po^siliility of
the revenues of the church being ^lli^a|lpl^ell by
the bishop and his presbyters, and deciei>» ih»t
all church property should be administered with
the knowledge of the whole of the clergv, both
priests and deacons, and a roijular aecoiiat kept
of the property belonging to Ihi! cliiuch, in
order to prevent waste ou the mie hand, and
sp(diation of the property of a deceased bishop
on the other. Though the appointment ef an
oeconoinus is nut specially ilecieed iu th»«
canons, yet it seems to have been i^'iisideied as
implied in them, or at least oriijinatiiis; from
them. At the council of Clialcedon, A.n. 451
(act. 9). the case was brought I'orward of Ili.u,
bishop of Kdessa, who was chargeil with malver-
sation of the property of the church, ami who
promises that for the future the revenues of
the see shall be administered by an oeoiuntnuj
chosen iVom the clergy, according to the decrees
of the great council of Antioch. From tiie d.nt«
indeed of this council the oecouonuis is rccog-
nisoil in the decrees of councils as one of the
ollicials necessarily existing in a diocese. The
council of Gangra (c. 7, 8) forbids undor pain of
anathema that any one shall receive or dispense
the revenues of the church except the bishop
himselt', or the ollicer appointeil to the stewaiJ-
ship of benefactions (ji'i oiVocoufoi' fcWoi).
The council of Chalcedon, already (pioied, alter
declaring (c. 26) that it had come to the knim-
ledge of the council that certain bishops adtnin-
istered the property of the cburcli without an
oeconomus, provides that every diocese should
have an oeconomus, chosen from the clergy
belonging to it (/« toC iS/ou KA^pou), who should
manage the property of the church under direc-
tion ((coTck yviinnv) of the bishop, in order that
no wa.ste should be made of the property, and
publicity given to the way iu which it was
employed. In case of the death of a bishop
(c. 25) the oeconomus was to manage the pro-
perty of the see during the vacancy. The same
council (o. 2) mentions the oeconomus among
the olHcials in whose appointment simony i>
forbidden. The council of l.erida, A.D, .VJ3
(c. 10), while reprobating the custom that
ajipears to have prevailed among the Spanish
cttrgy of plundering tl
bi»hop, or.l.Ts that th
of tlie funeral sljall pi
fitly and carefully man
who hascliarge of his d<
with liinisi'lf one or Iv
Itipeads id' the clergy I
household, and take 'cli
the see for the succeed
of Valentia, ad. ,"iJ4 (c
bating the cii.stum of
t ileeeaseil bishop, enact
bishop the iuiumbent o
make an inventory tvil
([ocils and property beloi
•end it to the me'trojiol
prop'r person in charg
order that the clergy sin
•lipeiids during the vac
be handed over unimpi
bishop, [Vacancv,] ,
these canons that the r
unknown in the diocese
of the councils by which
the second council of St
after reciting that it had
of the council that certai
chosen from the laity,
should administer the ti
diocese except through
from among his clergy, ii
of the council of Ch.ilcei
that it is unbecoming thi
the representative vicariu
judgment o-i church mal
who are associated with
ministration ofall'airs ou|
him either in apparel or |
ciuon it appears that thi
some jurisdiction in the a-
matters. Thus we are told
that JIarcian, a convert
C.ithaii, wliom Geuuadii
appointed as his oecouom
that all the oll'eriugs (jf
itanlinople should belong
tfhich they were made, i
liJeiud the proporfv of the
fourth council of tidedo, .
ferring to the decree of the
»nact» that every bishop sh
clergy of his diocese those
Greeks call " oecouomi ;" t
(rice) of the bishop, man.ni
church. The council of Mw
slrictly forbids the clergv (
any circumstances, to eiec
■Biinage the tem|KM'al aftliirs
the assent of the bishop; if
Ndy inlirmity, is incapable
Wop iH to select the oecoao
of the bishop. Another coui
A'%0 c. 14), enacts that
wswp the oeconomus shall I
guardian of the propertv oft
The laws of the French k
neotion of the oeconomus
Kipitulary of Charl.B the (
™'"=-) provides that the o
wpousible for any injury su
I*«yoftheseedinnghis«,
wo mentions an archioeconi
0EC0N0MU8
cltrRV of |.l.u.,l,.nui; the ,,r,.,M.rty „f » .leroase,!
the (m.,..-,, , hall pn.vi,|„ that all thh-K, -'n
fitva..,|c,n,.|,,lly„,a„aKe,|,.,„,|,l,attht.nlfic.>.
t em. /,,r th,- ^u>,«,.,li„^ ti.sl,,,,.. The council
b.,,ng the est,.,,! nf,,l,.n.le,i„K tho hoj „f
,,l,.c.aM.,l iMsh,,,, enacts that at the .l„a.h of a
W,..|.then.,u,nh,.„t „|-,he ,re,t .«,. »hnul,|
make an ,nv,.„„„.y „.ithi„ dsht davH .,f the
p,n , a..,| ,,io|„.r,y hel„u«i„g t,. the diocc.e, and
•.•ml It t., the „.,.|r„,M,lii„n, who «ho„l,| „ut ■,
1.1"1>T person in chaise oC such r..v,.nne. in
order .hat the clergy ,h„ul,l ,„,,,,.„ ,he. rop
.l,|,|in,ls ,lunnB the vacancy, ,m.l the prLc ty
k« hau,le,l over u«m,paire,i to the »uccee,li„K
si,,,,.. [VAcANcr.J It wouM appear lro„^
hose .anons tha, the ndice of oec'uoums wa
uaD,.wn ,„ the do.ese.H of Spain nt the date
the councl... by which they were made. Hut
the socnd cnncil of Seville, A.i). (il8 fr !)»
after rectioB 'hat it had co,n. to the knowfed..'
the c,,unc,l that ..ertaiu bi.hop.s had oeconomi
ch„sen Iron, the laity, enacts 'that no bi«h
hould adm.ni.ter the te„,p„ral allairs of his
lacese except thronRh an .,econo„,u» chosen
frem amon.r h,,, ,Uvgv, according to the decree
Ih. council ot Chalcedon, gi.ing as a reason
at It IS unhecominK that a layiun hi" . b^
the lepresentntive vicarins of a bishop, or it ii
j„Js,nenl on church matters; and hat tho "
who are assoc a.e.l with a bishop in the ^l!
m,ai,tiation ofalfairs ought „„t to di.K w?
h,,,. e,t ler m apparel or profession. Krom^ i,
cauon It appears that the oeconomu., p„ 'L ,
iomejunsdiciou in the adjustment of Hnanci
ma to s. I bus we are told (Theo.l. Lect. //. £. i
that M,,rcia«, a convert from the sect of the
ant',?:/ "".'• ^^'"""^'-^ "'■ ^'onstanli.ople
.a.,,i,,,e should b^ong toM^'Sr: est
«h,th hey were made, instead of beinir con-
il.r.l .he property of the great ch.uvh*^ The
"uilh council of Toledo, a.d. G;i3 (r M^ ,-.
erring to the ,lecree of the connc ofchalc I'd n'
el»t a. every bishop .houM select fmithj
cl gy ot his dioco.se those o.licers whl he
;^™.ly forbids the clergy :rthe dice se^^^nT;
<the^e'eti, ,:: ; Stts'tecn'' "' ."
8-'lian of the proporJ"of0.ote ""'"••'"*
^in.) provides hat L "" ^"- ''■• ^' <»'•
nisDon.11,1 . .■ . '. '"* oeconomus shall be
WMiioug an wdiiuMonainus, probably (h« |
OECON'OMUS
1441
!'"\°^?;,';'r:™Tf ,.'■'; ■ <*>'•»•
;«™.;.i,.K/.ab,ct';;,;,i:;;:v:r,:'
at the ili.ift. ..f .k 1. . "^"'"ffi' ol thclhiccse
tlmt the'Cn^mris th!';"; '"'■''"" 'l"''"'"'
the property „f k„ "' **"• •"^"l"''' KM^nlian of
i.i»4/ui^r:u:%::':^\';:;''7'V'''^
certain .lohn, who wis pro.m.t.V ''"''. "• "' *
oeconomus t„ be ,,r "sb' , ' • .k "', ''"'"''' ""
Tahenuesu.s, „„d af m'w u U b!! a n ' '^^""'''' »'
nomus, hav ng chaiire of h„ , ' "*-"','" '"•''="•
churches. The di ts of th„ '""'""' "^ "" ">«
"^in;"ihXii]::>;tSct-tr'"^^^^
■"^.t of all law ma.t*'er' i w h.t l""^l'
nncoof foodnnH-lothiniT t , »i ,' '"' ""'""■
belonging to ^ • h ? u ""',''''''Ky ""'i "thcra
-^oU.:he-Cil;rb^.J^;;.eS^
be appointed by the b"shoi n t'"^' ""'' *»
■I'heophilus of Alexandria); 9 ^."'""" "*■
i^.«<feo^ii. 173)I^.Tt,at^ .' '" ««^'""''«''.
In Fuur Mast, a.d 777 »,» ,■„ 7i ', ' ''^ ")•
may have been L"al adLn stm,^^:' Stfe^'l
monasteries, or vice-abbat in Thl ".''■'"*
(Keov^..j..„;i%-ri::t'hr::int::
'»r
If' '-^ ■
1(12
OKCrMKAK'AL
of tho Ki'i< hn<l I'hnrKi' "^ ^^'' K"^" "^ ''**' fnllhriil,
hikI, »I II Ulir iii'i'i".!, iif lhi> i<)il»iii)ml iitnl
onttii'linl i'«t«li'« (l>ii t'lmni', (llim. iv. ill>il, Ml),
III Ihi' iiU'iiri^tii' iii'cniiiiimiii ri'i'i'lvi'l I III' tiiliiiti'n
dill' til till' inuiiiisliMi' i wliilii iiKiiin in Iri'lnml
thi' iiii'i'liiiiiii'iii'li, ill Si'iilliiii'l III!' Iii'i'i'imrh, mill
oil fill' rmiliiiiMil till' mlviiinliin I'nli'Kini', I'liriin'il
thii liiiiiin'<t'i' tiriunii or liill'ln, ii^ tlii> nlilmt'ii
Hi'imty, iiiiinr, 'ir Kti'wiuil, « illi n iiiTii'iitinc "f
oiii'-tliir I fur liii lulM'iir. Tin' Inlnitin iiinl titii'ii,
in Irmli "ruin," wri' cf viirimiK kiiil«, nirnrilinu
to till" t'lnii >'f tniiii<»!ri'ii»iiin ; im Ihi' iiniiniiilii
mii-t liiivo lii'i'ii riiii'>iili'rnlili', ii pi'iiiiiii i>( |iriiliity
wii« ri''|niri'il, iiinl tin" iiinii'iit iniiKiiii ri'ipiiri'il
till' I'l'Viin- mi i-ntnuliiil t" ImiIhiiu In tlii' ili'rirRl
orli'r (llini;liiiin, On./. IWI. iil. r. I'J, § I, V.').
Hut ill lii'liiiil thi' lu'ii'iiiiniin nr nmnr hml
ciiKtnlv iiNii, iiii'i iiilly in liifir liiiii"<, nf tlin
mirrr.l ii'liiji iimi valimlili' iirii|irrty lii'linmilm fn
till- iiiiiiiiintri'V ; 111 lit Aiiiwi){h, till' " llimli nf
Arnmi;''." ""'' I'ntron'" lu'll (lli'i'vi'ii, h'-i'l. Ant.
l.'iil, MTtl), nii'l St. I'litrtrk'n I'lndiiT, rnlli'il tin'
"llninlim Ji'Mi"(hi'niiirilii», I il. K .l/.i/mA. i'. Ti),
nn<l hi'lil nil I'liilownniit nf liiml nitnrhi'il In the
nllifo, wliii'h Wu\)i Inii'ilitiiry linn ijivi'ii n iiiiini' to
(ho I'liniily "f Mm Mnyii', niiil tn thi' Inwiiliiinl nf
llnllvniiri' lii'Kiili' Ariim){li(Tiiilil, X /'n/nV't, 170,
171 i IVtrii', /I'liHi../ /■).,•(■,.., M.IH ;l,l.'i; O't'iiiinr,
AVr. Ilih. Sri-ii't i. V.\>. Niino. |ip. Ivii. Iviil).
In lllii-triitii'ii of thin, wi' liinl thii sti'ivftril, nmnr,
mill liili'r thi' thiiiii', HI" n ri'^iil nlliriT inlli'i't-
\t\g till' rnviil iliii's frniii thi' irnwii liiinln, nml
iiri'iii'ntiiii; tho royiil d-nniitry nf Iho niiiiiiiil
himtin)!; whili" n still hinhi'r nllii'iii!, riilli'il the
mnrinimr, or loril hinh nti'wnnl, ilisihnrui'il n
niniilnr .liity in lhi> Inriti'r pri'viiici', whiih nftrr-
wnrils lii'ijuni' tho oiirliliun or ooiinly. (Knliorf-
mm. .Si'// ill/ M/ii/<'/- /ir'»- /-.'(ir/y Ai>i;/.i, i. 'J!t »il., Il'ii),
Cfxllv. ci'xlv.)
[■'
, I. pn.
. (l.j
OKlM'MKyiOAI, (ii.V»wM«»"i«<t) (•)■ Th«
Wiiril " I'l'i'iinioiiiial," when npplioil to n cniiiioil,
dt'Kiifn.'.li'* Olio tn wliioh tlic liinhnpn nf tho whnlo
worlil hiivo I oon Miiiinionoil ; or tho ilorronii nf
which hnn' iil any riito liooii aci-opfoil liy tho
whnlo chiiroh. O'lKovntviKiis in nf coiiriio ilorivpil
finin 1} oiitiiu^Ki'i), whioh, tlinii){h fn>i]Uontly
appliiHl to tliiit iNirtinn of tho wnrhl whioh whs
nrifiinisoil iin.li'r the K.iin;iii ompiro, is onninioiily
Hsoil bnth 111 tho l.XX, iinil in tho Now 'IVstAinrnt
for tho whnlo inlinbitoil onrth (lllook, Krkliir. </.
liiri irslin /■■'I'liii ;./. 1. i>8 ; t'oi'Ni'llJS p. 474). Tho
oomioils within niir iH'rioil which aiii riH-nnnined
«« ooi'iimoniv':il aro, tho First nf Niobcr (•'I'.'.'i),
Cnnstnntinoplo (.181), Kphosiis ( IMl), ntiil l^hnl-
ceiloii (-I.M); tho .Socnnd (.'),'(:l) nml Thini {t!80)
of (""ii>liiiitinoplo, iinil tho Seooiul of 'Nicaca
(T87V
(•2) (>n tho titlo "nornmonloal bishop," or
"oooiimonicnl p:itri«iTh," oppliod to the biahop
of Knnio, soo riin:. [C]
OFFA JUniCIALIS. [Orpkal, V.]
OFFKRKNDA. [OKFKriTORIl'M.]
OFFKRINOS. [011LATION8.]
OFFKUTOHIl'M. (U OfiHorium. Anti-
phixa (!</ (iifertorimn. (\intiis DtfeHivii, Ojfer-
rrvnlii, were naiuos pivon fn the anthem aiing
while the oblations were roroiveil. We learn
from St. Augustine that in his time "a custom
OFFKUTnilllTM
ha<l •priinx up at t'arthni|<< of unylnir 'it lh«
nitiir hiiiiiis frniii tho llmili 'if INiilnis, »li,.||i,.,
Iiofiiio tho nliliilinii, nr « lii'li lliiil » liii h liii.j
boon nib'roil WHii biiiiK ili>lnliiito<| In ilio pinpl,. "
( /i'i7riii7. II). Tho liiHir liyniii or iiiilliiMii »ii»
ii(\i'rwai'il« irtlloil tho ('ii.MMliNiii: iho luiiin'r
Ihn iijffitiiiiHin nr ii/ii ciii/ii ill lliilv, iiiiil lU
ilorivoil I hiirohon ; tho mitiiim, or porlmim iimrp
rniroi tly, vfiiilM, In (llllll, ninl lllr il,lriiji:iiii„ III
Spain. Wholhor tho priniiio nriKiiinli.l n|
('iirlha|[i<, nr hnl boon nlisorvo'l liofnro i'Iii'k||,.|.|i
i» lint kiiottti. Wiiliifriil Strain', A.li. HIJ, ili,| i,,,!
lint kiinw whii aiMoil In thii nllini "tho ollcrlnrv
whii'h In miiiK iliiriii^ tho nlloriii);," nr "th,.
nntiphnii aaiil iil tho onnitnnninii ;" but I'ljiivid
that "ill nlil tinion llio hnly fathom nlliri.l im,!
inlllllllllliintoil ill siloni'O " (i^' AV'i. I:\il, '.'■J\.
Isiilnri', A. II. .'lU.'i, appoai* In In' tho liml uhn
iinoii tho wnril iijfirtitriiim : " Ollirlnria iiiinr
in sarrilirinriiiii hnnnro oftiiiinlni " («, ,)
" Otlori'iiila " wan lator, but n|ipiiriiitlv m
oniiinmn fur a InnK norinil. I| ii iii„,,'| |,y
Anialiiriiiii, i/(> /v'l-iVi'.'. (>]}. lii. ,'llt : "Do nili.ri'iidii
I'll- vrtit in ^rnl," whore ho hn« " nH'irtiiriuin "
aUn; by lionilu'iiii nf Aiixorro (i/o r.Y, Ar, ,l/,.,.,,i^
ail onlo; I'm'inln-Ali'iiin, iff' />ir. Of. onp. 40) j
.?nhn nf Avraiiihoii (Hit. tV/c'ir. Mim. in Aiin.
KiiYiin. (Iir.iiir. Oj'p. dreg. ill. 'J.'i,'i)j riciulii.
Aliiiin, lilt Dii. Ojf. HI.
Thin aiithoin Is nnt prenrribml in tho rnrliciit
Onln Knniaiiiis, abniit 7:ll>; but in tho noininl,
porhnpn alinnt A.n. 800, after the rri'oil, whirh
is also absent frnni tho liisl, " the hishi'ii snliitea
the ponpio, »ayin(;, Tho I.nnl be with yon. Aflir
that ho snyii, Lot ns iiray. Then the nUi'rtoriiini ii
mini;, with vorsoii ' (Sins. flul. ii. 4(i). Whoii
the nblntinns have been all roooivoil ami ilU'ri"!,
"tho ponfill', bnwiOK a little tnwanlii the iiltnr,
Innks at the ehnir, ami nmls tn them to In'
lilent " (47). Tho ver-;es an-l nUVreiiila wm
ropoateil nntil the nll'orinK was nvor. Ki'niigiiii
('(. ».) nays, "So()iiitiir iloimlo nlli'ri'inln, i|ii,ie
inile hno nonion aooopit, i|iinil tiiiii' impnliiii am
iniinora olferat. Seiiniintur versus, a rtrlftnk)
ilioti, i|un(l in ntroroiicla roverlaiiliir, iliini ri'|ii'li-
tiir nlleremla." Tho nll'ortnry is not nn'iitidiirj
in the Oelasian Saorainentary (Murnt. /.i/im/.
Hoin. IVf. i. titf.')); nor in tho Vntiiiin (Irt'Kurlnn
printed by l!mTa(('/7'. dro){. v. H:l ; Aiitv. Idl.'));
imt it appears in the enpien eiliteil by Miinitori
(II. .«. ii. 1), Mellaril ("/i;i. (iroif. M. IWii. ill. 1,
74, 244), anil I'anielius (Hitmlc SS. PP. ii.
178).
The Antiphonarinm aseribeil to (ilrogory, hut
later, proviiles ntVertoria fnr every lonslJcrslle
ilay of the Christian year. Wnlut'rid (11..1.) tclli
ns that down to his tiiiio no otfovtory was iimj
on Fj»stor evo, nor do wo find any provided in
the antiphonary of Gregory (I'aniel. 11. s. ii.
111).
Tho Milanese O/fiTmrfu, now called oflortorium
(Martcno, de Ant. Keel. Hit. i. iv. >ii. ord. 3),
was constructed like the Roman (I'amel. «. j. i.
2',t8). It is now .sung while the priest is ecnilng
tho altar and oblations, after having said the
secret prayers of oblation (Mart. u. s. ; Le Brim,
Di-tfcrt. iii. art. ii.).
Oorinanus of Paris, ^'!'f>, sneaiis of the Oslli-
can offertory under tho naiiio of joiinm. It
began when tho ri;RMKNTU.M was brought in:
'• Nunc autom procelentem ad altariuniforpui
Christ! mm jam tubis inrepraehenaibilibui, leil
iplrllalibii* viielhus
Dsllii iliili'i nindilla
»;»". /(;■.'!'. ,-. I In ,s,i
pUiT, mil as at Kunn
('>(/. It'nin. I. N, Ii, .j)^
iii|(s wore nimle; whi 1
tin fi'iisl nf SI, |'nlyi.|,
liiK, , , , . ti'iiipiia I,
«ilv«ni(, «ii'i'ptii,|i|,i ti
trrimil ijiiniillloi rnrnnl
\\ intiuni " {(Iri'g, Till
I" nut kiiiiw any nitaii
ion 11 in.
The (bilhs of .Spnii
i*riji,-ium ; but prnbn
ri'ntury, as Isidnre in
liiith 111 his liiink /i,f
Kjliltln tn l,ei|i||,|'r,id
liiiwnvi'r, he iisos the p
mris" (U .'.), whiih, p
■imniieH nt the nlloriiig,
the IstiT iisiigii. •■ ,Sni.|
ill the MnxiirnlMo Miss
17, III:). Ohio we hn'
liiimn (|iinil ilirjtiir nil
ciinniil tell the ngii of t|
(2) OfiTliiniim was a
Hi-ih, ufli'ii nf prei'jniis 1
Kinfi'i [Oni.Aiivs] Were r
ulthe ci'li'lirnliiiii nf tho
of Uriu-iliit nf Aiiin;ni, a.
hi- priii'uti'il " vory liirg
nlfrttnriii, mid wlmlevor
thi' work nf (Ind " (Ardn,
lliillniid. Kel). Ii!). [o,.,'
(I) .Sheet.s nf fine liii
fmjiliiyi'd tn rooelvii nr
brnsil, were alsn calli'ij »,
tilt' Onh J{timinii.i (alii)ii'
uthi'y were received by
inlii a line linen cloth (
wrii'd flftiT him fnr th
iiSjin J/m.1, /t„l. Ii. 11^
(<) A cloth in which tl
Ihc minister, when he |j
•Itiir. When the chiiliot
WM \mni'i{ through then
"LeVHt rnliceni archidinci
C'inirc'i{i(iii,irji, et ponit ei
oWntsm pnntilicis, a dextr
""'""'■'■"" (>^ I-'); again,
ralicenip(.ransas"(§lii;i,j„
Such a cloth nii.ler the sail
mih the vessel in which t
"_Aqim etinm ... ah imo
et.ertoriosvrico nll'ertur "(/
CisMndri l.itui-.jica, 2') S
•M 812, gave tothochu
1 her gilt.,, "chalices of a
their ollertories" (Vita «
^m. IV. i. %>). ' '
(5) From the following
'Ppesr that in France, in th
" losst, offertoriiim also i
'■""la in which the wine w
"fang of wine itself, as oh
niMttuipircring of bread:
- •elation . . . one oblate
'«"«"). But if ho shall wisl
1" ' '"'"'« «r can, or more ol
(Hincmari dp. ad Pn-shut.
CHBI8T. ANT.— VOL. II
OKFKUTuilIl M
«ll. .Iiln ,n,„|,||, ,„„||,.l |.;,vl„.|,,.. ',»!
l,.r»Mt.i( .St, l,.|yn.r|,) mm nwU^ri, l,.r(j„.,l-
bu., .... i..n,,„„ ,„l ,„.r|(i,.|,„„ „ll,.r..,„lM.ii
►IV.,.,. „.,...,„,,,,„. turn, ,i„„.nn,„ i„ ,.„;;;'
..In.„,m Vlr.g.'i\,r.,l,-,ll,.,:M.,r,.M). v,
,t;;;;,',.''"''" "">■''''''''' '•''•"'i'i.'..fih,,<),.iii,,„,
Th« Onfh, „f H,mln c«ll,.,r th,.|r „lll.r.„rv
MT,^.«m.- l,n ,.rol,nl.ly „„t .i|| „(1„.- (h., ,1 h
r.nury, n, l,l,l,,r« „,.„ t,,„ ,,„„, ,„^,,,,,,„,„
I"'"! "> I'l" I k /)« t>,n,„i, I. iin'„„i
f-1'""" •■: ' '"fr;"' (§!.■.) ^ ...' u,,:" .„ ;"
,,*,r..rh., ,,,,.,,, I,., ,,hr,,,,..,„,.ri(i,.ii r..,,,„„.'
iopl» (S ..), w ,„.h. ,,r„l,„|,ly ,„.,„„i, „„. ,.„.
ip,..« «t tho nl|.,r,i,K. »,M.M l„. „ »|,.,, ,„v,„,,,,
li» Utor umiifii. "Nnirilii.ini,, '• I i "^'" "
ir,4..). V";;^w«h^v.,^M.in;tlt,n.;l. :
(iniim i|„,»l >l,iit.,ir ollciliiriiim" (h\- i,,,) .
.,n„nt.t..|lth.,„«„„f,h„r,'|„"!. ^ ■•• ''"'""'
(«) r>/,r^n,,.. w„, „u,, ,,,,,,,„,,,,, ,,f ,
.^"•"'"'f'';'' "H" I",,H Mmt,.,i„|,, i„ ,,,,!,,,, .7,
'r;:'t"rrf^'':'''" i-,nv„„:,;,;'i ,,^
. «n.l,.|,„,f, ,,,,.,,,,,,,, K,,..h,,nH,.. |„,h„/,.'
^ //«.,•,/„<, .A„uK„,A.,>.H„|, „„„„,, „,,,„,„'
hM,rn,.nt,.,l .v,.,.y l«rK"»ilv,.r,.),«li,..„. ,i I,"'
:r\:n:^.;r^;"^^^:?' i^''^'^
M«n,i.K,,.,.i,)/^[^';,;:;.|^,;;-,;-;ijS''^''..
(8) Sh^t.i of (in,, |i„,.„ „r r,,,,, . ,„„,.,,
mp.y,.,l t„ r,...,.iv., „r n.vor tl,„ oil.. ",,
the On/,; y,>„„.,»„<,, („|,„„t ,,„ 7 ,„ «
u%w,,ror,H..iv,,,U,ytiUM...l,.l,,,:;a,w..,,/ ,,,:
inlo A (ini. Iiii.'ii ol„t, (,„„,/„„,,,„, ,J..,, ' '"•
«rri,..Uft.,.r l,i,„ f..r thV. , „ , ' /^ ' ' Vr
,i.9|in.V«,,. /<„/. ji. 11,47). '
(«) A ,loU, i„ whirl, tho ,.h„li,.,. w,», l,„|,| l.y
a.Ur. W I,,., »h„ ,:l,„ii,„ ,,„,, ,^^,,
™i,,,„„ ,,i„.„„^h ,,,,„,„. o,,i, i!,,,j;,,\^\
l.nHt n,l„.,.,„ nrchi,li,„.o,„„ ,|„ ,„„„„ ,„|,|i„:
-r.in.K.o„a,M, ,.t |,„nit «„,„ „„ • „|t„rn 't„
licem,,,T,u,»a,;'(§l,|;,i,„i,aHyrM/.ii.§Si,, ;'
Ih the vossol ni which th., wntor wn. ..m.rcl ■
•"OtSl.', RHv.,. to th« church ,,f (i,.||„n nm .n!.'
££:i:;")t^.;::'r'Jr'vr'j>H
iSin 1.' '■"""''■■"? P'""'"^'' '' ^-'''
tl, V ,'""''' '" 'he province of r!h,.i,„,
ma m which the wine was pres.-iitcl or th..
torinm B„; iVi, ""k n''""l ""'>'• ""'' "" "l'--
OFFKinoUY n.ATKH 1 U3
P'i^.S^?::r;;:;i:r:,;,:..r,;S':!'i;
11. II-. h^,//C ,17, ''•',';■''' <^'''.''''''-
i""'i„« to i„.i„nK i„ I,., y ,,;,;''■/ '«'''-\ I"','-
(A.,«Ma,.iu.a.wi7.Hji:/i;,;,V',;;'''''''
LW. K. S.J
*"i-"t ,,i- ■'• 1,^;. '"iwiJof "" '""
I " lt"M, «-. i., tiM. poM,.,»|n„ of (■,,,' ^'^
:.;-:;:rs £*'V';i.. ";: ■;:,;;:';:
r-''"-=.:''=i "1::;:::"=
..;^;r;, ,:,':;:;■,,"::' »""-'i'.. i
■"'•«i« ii"*.' .1?;^::,;;,? "•"•
•'"'■1,1. Tho 8 ,o„« 7, '"" ''■'' "" ''i"
>i...l .1:..,. ... ^ ..
A third ,lis|| „Iko of ,ilvpr „,„i , f n
m«nt,fa,.tiir,., vCrv ,i,„i|,"l ;? , ' "'^ "yznntino
dom.ril„.,l,wu,f„ ,„','' '':r.«" '" """ '""t
j;ctof an clalmratc tr-ati.e b Font iini ';.""''•
Imnan with cIol<„, Hhiohi/ „„!,';"« "'""■;
Vatican, and vain attt-nii.ts hav« ( \, "'
i«i,>ntify the person, roi rented ul "'?'^'' '"
under»tan,lin>r the f.,r'e of th. . '"""' "•''■
92
■ill
;'.!)
,u,
hi',i
1^
1444 OFFICE, THE DIVINE
Roman Pontiff in the name of St. Peter and the
Church to a victorious general, and expresses his
oelief that this, as well as the Veronese basin,
may have been presented to a captain of the
Byzantine army of Bclisarius or of Narsos. But
there is no doubt that Dona Dei in eccles'.as-
tical Lntin signifies gifts made to God, i.e. votive
olVeriiigs. Fontanini gives (p, 32) an inscrip-
tion over a side door bf the church of St. Peter's
at Bai;nac8vallo, c. 8,')7 : De Donis Dei ct Sdncti
Petri Afh/stoli, Johannes umitis Presbyter fecit.
The inscrijition on the golden cover of the
Kvangeliarium given by Queen Theodelinda to
the church of Jlonza contains the same formula,
and there ie no doubt that the meaning is the
same hare. Mabillon (Iter Jtal. p. 77) men-
tions a similar dish of bronze in the Museo
l.andi, which he designates, on very insufficient
grounds, the shield of Belisarius, exhibiting Vitiges
as a suppliant. All these dishes are of Byzan-
tine workmanship, and belong to the same period,
the Mh or 6th century. The British fliuseum
contains an example of an ofi'ertory dish of
Northern manufacture once belonging to the
abbev of Chertsey, and dug up in its ruins at
the beginning of this century, bearing an
inscription in characters variously regarded as
Kunic, Russian, or' "a fanciful manipulation of
German blaclf letter " (Eric Magnusson). This
vessel is a flat circular dish of nearly pure
copi)er with a very wide rim, on which the
inscription, of which we give a cut, is engraved.
Iniurlptlnn on Offertory Dish.
Its diameter is about 9| inches, and its greatest
depth IJ inches. Mr. John Mitchell Kemble
(Archaeolo<l. 1843, vol. xix. pp. 40-46) regarded
it as a copy made in the 10th or 11th century of
a Scandinavian alms-dish used in the monastery
almost from the time of its foundation in the
7th century. He renders the inscription in
Saxon words : G.fi-TKOH VR^XKO, i.e. "Offer,
sinner." Mr. G. Stephens {Jithic Monuments,
vol. i. p. 482), on the other hand, considers it to
be an original work of the 9th century, which
must have found its way by gift or otherwise
from the North of England, to which the words
of the inscrijjtion belong. On the authority of
Russian scholars he denies the Sclavonic charac-
ter of the inscription (on which see Archaeulog.
vol. xliv. pp. 73, 74), which is engraved " in
mixt Runic and Decorated uncials." Mr.
Stephens remarks that " more than once Old
English charters mention an ' offriug disc ' pre-
sented to some church or monastery," and adds
that dur'ng his residence in Scandinavia he
had come across many modern examples copied
from ancient works, with pious inscriptions cut
or painted on them. [E. V.]
OFFICE, THE DIVINE (Officium Divi-
J»UM). This stilted service of daily prayer has
bpfn r.".!!ed by v.iriniis names : such as Ojitis Dei
in the rule of St. Benedict, as though it were the
special work to be performed by the clergy for
and to God ; or Cursus, from the course of the
■un which determines the hours of prayer (St,
OFFICE, THE DIVINE
Columbanus, Seg. cap. 47), so called also by Gre»
gory of Tours, " exsurgente Abbate cum Moniichij
ad celebramlum Curswn ; " and by St. Bnnifne
bishop of Mentz, who bids his clergy "speciales
horas et Cursum ecclesiae custwiiant."
We also meet with the following terms used in
the same sen.se : — Colleala in the rule of St. Pa-
chomius ; also the Greek words canon or si/naxis.
Also agenda in the acts of various coumils, as
being cne of the more important duties to be
performed. The term missa, also, is .sometimes
applied to the office for the hours of prayer.
" In conclusione tnatutiimrum vel vespertinaruin
missarum " {Cone. Agath.").
The name breviary, by which the Divine office,
or rather the book containing it, was subseciuentiv
known, and which in common use took the place
of all others, probably originated in the form of
office, tlius designated, being an abbreviatinn of
a previously existing fonn [Brkviauy, p. 24"].
The object of this article is to give an outline
of the olhces for the several hours of prayer,
which together constitute the Divine office, as
diotinguished from the liturgy — of the breviary,
in a word, as ilistinguished from the missal.
Ther.' is much obscurity as to the sources and
original form of these offices. Hence many con-
jectures, some resting upon very slight hints. To
pursue this most interesting inquiry with any
fulness would far exceed the limits of an article,
and we must content ourselves with the b.ire
statement of results arrived at. It is sufficient
for our purpose that the germ of the oliices as
they now exist may be traced to primitive, if not
to Apostolic times.
But though in course of time the Eastern and
Western forms of worship came to differ so much
from each other, that in the opinion of a learned
modern w Titer, the Oriental rites (i.e. of the daily
office) are, as to their origin, " perfectly distinct
flora those of the I^tin churches" (Palmer, Oriij.
Lit. vol. i. p. 218), it seems more probable that
both the Greek and Latin offices were derived
from the same source, and that the wide sub-
sequent divergence is due to the different manner
in which they were developed or added to, and
largely to the different bent of the Greek and
the Latin minds, and the different genius of the
Greek and the Latin languages.* It is also pro-
bable that the germ of both Eastern and Western
forms alike is to be found in the earliest Eastein
forms.
This form appears to have consisted in the re-
citation of psalms, together with prayers and
hymns, but with no lessons ; and to have been
designed for use during the night and in the early
morning. SS. Basil and Chrysostom and others
often speak of these services. The origin of these
prayers has been traced with much probability
to the '"Eighteen prayers"_used in the Jewish
synagogue. [Archdeacon Freeman develops this
theory with much ingenuity in his learned work
The Principles of Divine Service, cap. i. sec iii]
It may be permitted to say a few words on the
origin and growth of the Western rites, and espe-
cially of the Roman, This has undoubtedly the
• No one, i venture to think, can Btudy the Orrckand
Latin ofHcc books without being struck with this differ-
ence ; and few, t would add, without feeling the wonJer-
ful beauty and fitness of the Lathi language forpurposM
ot dtvutlon.
chiif interest fur We
the nioul I in which thi
rhiii-ch hiive been ens
Though there were
national and local use i
chuich, yet these var
matters of detail which
or 8ub.stance of the olfi
the two important exci
and the Mozarabic, w
the Roman pattern.
The earliest form of
to have consisted sole!
tributed as to be reciti
end of the appointed nu
daily office /'ater nosier
have constituted the c
tained no lessons, hymn
this custom may still I
the first part of the i
called psalterium, thou
great deal more than th
'•ordinary" parts of
lessons and what is appc
are relegated to the pr
which is headed I'sai
heUotmdam; and also i
Msterh still recited at t
each nnctuiTi.
Thus the author of t
among the works of Atl
Mster with the psalms i
ollice; and Gregory of T
ivhen wishing to say that
his office, says he has i
psalms: "Q'uod necdun
decantationem debitam ex
l.essuns were in early t
miiss. So we find that of
s^t by Gregory the Groat
the missals alone container
Ie seen, too, in the course
the nocturnal o(Rce[/uf<roi'iJ
of the Eastern church and
contain no lessons at the p
The first to introduce
tumal office appear to h
ivith the double object of t
in the olfice and occupr
during the nocturnal watc
diet in his order prescrib.
nocturnal office during th
nights are shorter; and wi
in the time of Charlemagr
this provision, Theodemnn
tassmo, in a letter to the e
reison that before the tim.
r«pe, It was not the cu.stor
«ny lessons, and that that
'» adopt them : " In Eccle
s^npturas legi mos non f
'"P- &C. [Lkction.]
Oassian, also, when descri
office of the monks of Pales
alter twelve' psalms thev
and, on^nnlay only, two lesi
this earliest form of
^*f noitcr, the Apostles' Cr
'It will be remembered that (
Nmi appointed for the norturna
m lie Gregorian and Benedictine I
OFFICE, THE DIVINE
k>,f .n crest fur Western Christians, ns bein,
t e mouU in wli.ch the devotions of th ■ Wester?
oh,nch have been cast for so ,„anv centurie"
Though there were countless va'riation , f
aatiouaUnd local use in the early and mediaeva
cliurch, yet these variations were, after ,]"„
mattersofdeta.1 which did not touch the o, t line
or substance of the olfice ; and all the uses, v "h
the two miportant exceptions of the Ambrosian
n,l the Mozarabic, were closely modelled on
the Roman pattern.
The earliest form of the Roman office appears
have consisted solely of the psalter, TZ.
tnbu ed as to be recited once a week. At the
end ot the appointed number of psalms for the
daily oflice Pater noster was said. This seems to
have constituted the entire olfice, whiTh con-
tained no lesions, hymns, or collects. Traces of
this custom may still be found in the title of
the rst part of the breviary, which .til
called p.a/<mum though it now contains a
great deal more than the p.salter (indeed all the
ordinary" parts of the office, except the
lessons and what is- appointed with thera,^vhich
are relegated to the p™;Wt<m rf. tonpo v), and
wich IS headed Halterium d!sposUun{' Tr
hekomdam; and also in the fact that Pater
:r„;:tr'^^''^^^'''>-"^'>^''>^i-'-of
Thus the author of the book de Virqinitate
among the works of Athannsius, couple's Xtr
..«fc. with the psalms as forming a comXe
01 ce; and Gregory of Tours ( Vit^ ]>atr. c 5)
«hen wishing to say that he had not yet recited
his office, says he has not gone through his
H.-1 "Quod necdum Domino psalmorum
aeoantationem debitam exsolvi.ssot " """^^^
Umns were in early times onlV read at the
mass So we find that of the early office books
,?' ^J "^r^y th'' Groat and othe^rs inio Gaul
he raissals alone contained any lessons. It will
e seen too m the course of" this article that
t enodurnal office [Meao.,;«r,o. cr ^^^romJl^
« the tastern church and the Mo^ar.rc J^^
contain no lessons at the present time.
The first to introduce lessons into the noc-
turna office appear to have been the monks
^ the olhce and occupation for tiiemse ves
Juingthe nocturnal watches. Thus St Bene
dirt in his order prescribed no lessons in th."
2 urual office during the sumtier, wh n he
S til'orCh ' r' "'^" " nue;tio;"aro e
i provision ^.'"■'r''''^"''' ""^y he had made
"IS provision, 1 heodemarus, nbbat of Monte
assino in a letter to the emperor, give, ^"^0
ison that before the time of St Gregory he
e It was not the custom at Rome tncite
?"-a Tlliem' X tl"""'"'^ "'^ '"^ «"'
*i.rm. . ■ " ti:clesia Romana Sacras
& ipturas eg, mos non fuerit ante B. G eg
lo this earliest form of office, ma/^, and
'^s:cr, the Apostles' Creed waskdded; and
OFFICE, THE DIVINE lUi
1™ 7 "' nocturnal of ordinary davs both
I" 'ie Gregorian and Uenedlctlne psalters. ^
it is supposed that pope Damasus [a.d. .'536-3841
a i'nn^thTh"'"" "'■ '"^*''"^"''"" '■•• l-'S
n<ting with the co-operation of St. Jenm e who
s al.^0 reputed to have framed an o rd;r of
lessons^ known as G.nes Hicro,.,imi, or sim«lv
U^r Co,nrs or ZiVr Comitis. [1. kctionarv 1
of T^^'^T'' '^' '"■^^""■^ "'»'•« <>"^<ily nfade pa^rt
of the office It is clear that the coni^e in which
nnd by author ty. For in all th,. , '^'. "' ^
'-eviariesoftheRom^^,^^^:^;^^^,;;
the individual lessons may (-irj^-and there "re
great variations-certain book^are readh, ,11 at
eertam seasons; so that Isaiah is u, i" lu v
read in Advent, .St. 1-aul's Epistles in the
lentateuch from Septuagesima onwards, Jere-
TnH ,K r^lt'T'"'^'- *■"= ^''^' "^ f'e Apostles
and the Catholic Kpistles in Eastertide, and the
T in vlnT™'" "■" r'-"'^'"^''™' books fron
,„»T L^ "'.'."-^ onwards. The Gospels were
"Srs:\V''darr°"'^"tnd"'V'4V*"«
th. se,uen::'y .^St:.!^™!^ i^:
mind of the cl,ur,.h, that the modern Trench
breviaries, which utterly revolutionised the order
of a ymg the psalter, respected the course of
Ien<^h ■' "Vl^'"^' "■'"'« "t"" altering and
lengthening the individual lessons' ^
Gregory the Great added antiphons and re-
sppnsories: and this, with the excepHon nf
minor enrichments, the date and origiil^ li, h
oihce to the degree of maturity which is suf
ficient lorour present purpose, and to the fo m
the present day. Later modifications and rev
sions are beyond our scope.
nffi^" ^r ^T^^'^ *° «'^e « skeleton of the .,
orlhoHn T't''- ^'^'""'""S "'th those of he
orthodox Lastern church. Details would be
luiiy than the space at command permits would
tainid ,n ■ th 'p "^ '^' ^''"^ church are con-
tained m thj HOROIXJOIUM [p. 7841 Thev
are^^arranged, beginning wit[.^he Lturnal
The following is the order of the offices •_
After a short introductorv form of praver to
fol Ws r-l''""^ '""^ ''' t^*"--" -^^ -"'Vs]
The Offlce of the daily midnight Service
iMO^oi/fl.a ToO «afl' ^uepai- MWOWKTlOTu.l
Introduction.
If there le a Priest, he says • —
Am™!"'""' "^ "•" '"^' """ ""<* ^°' "" ""-J ever.
r«Ao„T6t 6 e,bt jj^i,. ^D. „l i,i, ,„i ,1, „.
WMvcKruva.Mntv. 'Ami;!'.]''
If there be tin Priest, say :—
•■By the prayers of our holy Father, T.ord Jesu
Christ our Ood, have mercy upon us. Amen "
• The reformml Ohurch of Fti-! mi ai
Isaiah.at Septuagesima with Genesis, and which durC
the summer and autumn are taken tr^m the histor icri'
and prophetical books. ■""■■cu
'^ Tu^' !^"™?''' " """"■" 'n 'he books as 6 ,iAov,rd,:
and the priest Is suld ,ro„r, .vAoY^rd^. ""^oYn^t (
5 A a
>n
1440 OFFICK, TIIK I>IVINE
" (ilory 1m< til I lii-o, mir (iii.1, nloiy lip U> Tliop,"
^{.ita mil, i Hfin iifiiii; Mfn <r<ii,]
A slioit pnivi'r In <i(«l tlio Holy Olmst for
priitciMion i\\\'\ pmilii'iitioii, ln'i-iiiiiiiii? :
llii(ri\fuoi''p'i>'<>. lIa(Hi«Xi|r«. t!) Ilvfi/fin r^t iktittlaf,
K.T.X.
ami known ns nnirAfi! nii<Avit,
"0 ll,.lv (J.i.l, lliily mi\ Mlnliiy. IMy »nil KlcrnM,
Iwvi' incri'V »\wn w."
[ ' A>i.i« i Mf "s, 'A-yiot. 'Iffyi'pfit, 'AyiM 'AMroTOt, JWi|*
iroi- ^Mn«t ktiiwn itw the rpurrtYioi'.]
r.'i/w Ixwiivis of the hemi [^utravnlaf * Tp«rv]
Olori.i I'ltlri [in its K.astiM n form, I'.r. A<({a IlaTfil,
sal TiqS Koi a>((f rii'fiVoTi, Kal i fv, tol 4»1. Kol
en tim'h aiwiat Taii> aUin'a't'. 'Au^i'. Ollon
piinlcil in I lie nllii'o liniiks )!(i(n »fal I'Or]. ^■l d^cir/
;i)ii,,c tot'u- l/ol'i Tiinitii rur ii;M-(ion, i\n'l known
ft'om its opcninc woiiN iis nni'a7(o T(i(ot. 7''<c
y.ii/vr.i I'v.un'i-, witll till' |)osoli,);y. Avi'iV d/cisoll
ticWrc <i'hi('s. fi/i'i'i/. /i'ci</i iic'ic.
T/ic inrit'it >ii/ In tliroo oliuincs hr follown: —
"0 oouw li'i lis worship ttlul full down Iwloio lloil our
King.
O lomr lit in womliln nnd fall itown Ix-fon' Clirlst oiir
King lUitl Utxl.
O (.iiic! Ill US wi r-lilp mill fitll down ln'foTO Clirl«t
Illni-i-lfour King mid liiHl"
[AfrT« fr(H>tr«(i»i-iJ<rfufifi' urti TpocfiTftrwMtF Ty DairiAfi
^ti'Tf'np'^rr Xpurrtjl ry llrtir. ^w. Hti|(t
ArtTfl irfHHT (iiTiji Xpitrry, (t.T.A.]
7"'iivv (m'/i'ii/s (/ thr 'i Ml/.
.Vi'tor tlii-- intriiilmM ii the office proceeds ns
fallows;-
IV. ,'iOf [,M]; r.H. \\n [110] (.mIM tho
iliti'ui)?'), s.ii.i in throe ilivi>ions [mdirni'], cftcli
on'liiii: with (.'o.i-.v ; Aiul iimc ; /'/nv .•I//iYh/i(.«, luul
^/iivr /hiiri ■;.■! of the lu'.ui, Tln'n tho [NioiMio]
( I'.i'. \vh:it is oonimoiily oalloil so, iiml so tliroiiKh-
oiit tho luliilc) (V. ■<•,/, tho ^■l',^• I ,t .11, tho Moft llohi
iriiiitii. tho /,ii;'.r,'i /'r.i iT. iind two ^1>;lll^'lI or
livniMs ill rliythniioal proM', Miit;il)lo to itiidniitlit.
'riion i\ Hii-otoliion (or short hymn uiMrossoil to tlio
Ulossoil Virgin, oonimonioriiiivo ot' tho Inciiiiiii-
tion); A"vi' c/i'i,* M fort, tiiiK.i; n priiycr to
Christ lor gr.ioo nml protoi-tioii, itml ii tow short,
ojiu'iil.itory prayers, the ilolails ol which vary
uitli the liay. Kroni Sejit. 2.! to I'nlni .Snmlay
s\ loiiij praver or.'>t. Uasil is saiil in thi» pl.iio.
At this point tho .vviwi / lc,(^■A, or iiiytnrn,
luav ho ooiisi.lorod to hi'i;in, and tho ollioo pro-
ceeds thus: —
/,in7,ifir./(n,s li'-fore). P."!!!. 12t> [I'Jl], Lrav! ;
1X\ il.H], Jx e nniio ; dVor/. /("V/i tioir. .U/c-
Iniii. /Visii/i'oii, /Arc Itoiniiinof t «i hciui ; Mont
Jioli/ I'liniti : /»• /Miiii ; n t/ieotokion : A'vw
CiViViiii tnrlvc tiii.i'.s; a ;o-,tYC'' in coinniomoration
ot" the departed; n short fj.iiUliHory pnii^cr to
the Trinitv, and one to the Theotokos.
Disnli.^^al hcnodiction.
• ^»Trtit)m* iii'o divldod Into utr. ^tirpai', »'.« Iiiclina-
t!.iii« of :lie hen. I .tkino, what the Ifoiiiaii cenMin.nml
Oils "modi, a lii.lili.lllo," mid fi«T. jiryn.Vai, wllioll are
ni.i.lo h.v ln-ndlng the kiiw nii.l proslration to ihe ground.
When tlie w.rd oceurs, hh ill Ihii lo.\t, wiili,.ui anepithi 1,
?«'-^. ?*'- — ■ "•!-
f rioiiiighool thin artlrlo tho pimlmn arc niimN'rnl
«coodiiig lo the (ireik uiid UilMi versi.in, na they stand
nuinlxiiil hi ilie ollUe l>,.ek-. The nunilH'r aci-ording to
the Knuliiih vi-r.-loii, wlitu It JllTci-s, Is pUani ainrwurds
in brackoi*.
OFFICK, THE DIVINE
The prlost nslts forRivonnnH from tlin pdnpln.f
A short fiti-nn or litiini/, tho rci>iHm»e to
each daiiKO of which is K;inf cliimn.
Thii l'ore);oin({ is tho form of tho midnl(jlit
oHico [fitirofuKTiKiii'] for week days, .Saliirdny
excepted. On .Siitiirday tho olliro Is lhi> saino
up to tho end of I's. .'lO [.M], 'I'hen follows;—
1'ss. (U [I'..'.], (;:> I mi], im [07], said in ono
stosi.t. lolliiwcd hy Oionj; Both now; and tlirea
Atll'luioK.
I's. liT [I'lS], said simlliirly ns n second s/iijii>,
nnd I'ss. ilH [li'.)], (!!1 [70], said ns n third.
VVo/iiiri'ii nnd a longer prayer of the samn
nature as, thoiich dillereiil from, those in tliu
ollice for other days In tho week.
The .second portion of the ollice for Satiirdav,
from tho second occiirreni'e of tho Inrit:iliirr
onwards. Is the same as for other week days,
On Sundays the ollice is the same as on other
ilays as far as the end of I's. .M» [,M]. Then follmvs
tho /ri'iii/ic ntiioit (I.e. a canon liavinj; refireiu'o
to tho Trinity), and some tro/'orui of siiiiilnr
import, called triiitirit [rjiioSiKct]. Then tlic
//■(s.yiiiii nnd otlier short formularies, incIiKlini;
h'l/rii! cliis n forty titiios; tho ^lismiss(ll: tlio
whole concluding with the samu cctaw or litimi/
ns hidove.
Liwls [t!i /((ifljioi'] : —
lllissi;! Ih; ice. infitiitory (as at tha nrcturnnl
ollice).''
IVs. 10 [20], 20 [2t];< Olon/ ; Polh nm ;
trimiiion ; /l/iw( llol'i I'riniti/ ; t/io Lord's frmjer;
certain /»•«;> mW, and n ftiw responaory iw/idimj
for priest and people.
Thou the six psalms following, known as tho
lli'Xitpsalmus, pri'l'acod liy —
"Olory to Ood In the Highest, and on earth |mcc;
gool will tow.inis men" [jiiiil Ihricr].
" riion s'lall o|ieii my lips. O Irtinl, and my moulh
shall shew furlh thy praise " [.^iini liuiVi-] ; -
I'ss. ;i, :i7 [:ih], ii2 [t'-:!], h7 [88], 102 [lo;i],
142 [lt:t], each with its nnliphon.
Twelve Afoniimi /ii-iivcci Uoiflii'al f/'xof] «rp
said hy the ]iriest while the Inst three of those
psalms are lieiii(j recited. A few .i/iiAoi (nearly
corresponding to our versides), the trojuim of
the dnv, nnd tho appointed ]iortion or portions of
ftsolms for the day (each portion being calloil a
I'uthisnin [(fdOiirjuo]).
I's. ,')0 [>M]. 'flio I'linon, with the nine <»/c.«,J or
only certain verses [(ttIxoi] from them, nceonl-
in)5 to the day and the lenijth of the troftaria
(or stanzas') of the canon. Then follow other
tro/i irii), or short hymns, under various uanics,
but all of the same character.
T/ic hmis [id afroi], i.e. I'ss. 148, 149, UiO.
jT/ic j/tviii tuxolixjji [i.e. (iloria in oxoelsis].
« Tills rile cornsisiiids to tlic alternate fimUm ot
the priwt and people In Ihe Uoiiiaii offlces. The priojl i«
Bald in teehiiieiil phrase kaflfU' o-i^xtopirffti'.
This Iniroilneilon Is slIaliMy varlisl during I,i'nt.
1 The dlstrihnlloo of I'salii.s will lie given iinilor
IVAi.Miiivt J Init for olearness, the flxisl IVjilmn u»«l In
the d.illy ollle. s are sixH'llleil III ilils article.
) I.e. the Dde for Ihe day. They are as follewi: (lit
!, .>viiig 111 Mitea, K.\oil. xv. ; fdt i. Song of Mo»,
IVuier, xxxli.; ' <(<• ;i, Song of Unnnnli. 1 Sani.il.; (iK
4, Song ot llaliiikknk. Hub. ill.; ''<!<• 6, Song of liainh,
Is. xxvl. 9; IhW Ii, Song ol Jonah, .Ion. 111.; u(i!7,Siiig
of Ilia Three (Children, D.in. ill. Ist partj Ode 8, Benfr
dlclle, Dan. 111.; (.d« », Magiilllcal and bi'iiwllcliu.
Ol'KUK, TIIK DIVINK
r,v,„,7,w [„rlxm, ,l,l,.||y fn.in II,.. I'«alm., niul
fnrr.'K|.(iii Imi« I" thu VV,.M,,iii i„vrcsl
/.it.iiii/. &v. ; <HKmis.\,i/.
Thm .illin. „f whi.l, Ih,. f„r,.Koi„K in „„ „„t-
Iric, viirlct. In .l.'tnil „„ ,Su,„lnvH „m,| ,.,.rlnin
.IhcT dityii. I hm. viiriatlmi, arcs' f<,r thu nnki) of
iim|ilirily, oimUi'il.
■J'nc hmra [a/ J.,>o,], ^V,.,|P /„,„,. k _._
[11(1], witli..iit«Mti|,h.m«. '■ ■'
A I'.nv sli,/„>,; a t/u;,Miion, h-!m.,!<„i (,I/„,,< ff„lu
Timt:/), l/w L,nr, J'rc,,/,;-: n t/,'.:.,„l^,;,n vMrvinL'
Willi Hi(. liny ,,( (,!,„ vv,„.k. A Nlw,i-t imivw t„
Clinsl th,. tni,. liKhl, that, II.' «.,i.l,| „|„.;v ,h,.
Ii<lil III Ills r..iint..'nan.p. 7/,« di.vni.i.i ■/. [Th.T,.
owhIik'IiI viwiatiiiin .III Hiin.lnvi. and in Lent 1
Th.' mr/dirwn nf t/ir Jlrst hmr : —
rw..-.,/„.a, J/,,,,/ //,,/y yv,«,yv, //„, /,;„,,'; /.,,,';■
iw.i /.•,VMr„,, a <'„.„/„,:,■„„, /u/n,;-l,-is„n f„rt„ li.n,:.l
(ihii/ ; lloth wiw ; a gh„rl /n/iim In I „•' ni;it„lcu!< ■
llur,' :,re.itr,:i;.,vn,;-s, I.,,. ,,rmln,t;.,„s U,rar„la',
^(■yoAoj 7 J I nn.l tHii pniv.TH .iC St. liasil f.,r
l.rot.'.li.m an.l hl.',ssin({ ,lnVin({ tli« day. (/,,»■,/
llol'i liiiii; Di'niiii.s.vi/.
Tlio //.W, «></,, and «,«</, h.inrn, ra.di with
I'. .«M.y....H, ar.. (,f |„ is.dv th.. Kani.. f„rn, as
Ihfl hrst, .:,in»lstin«, nfU-r Ih".. inln„l,i,.ti„n, ..a.-h
i.lM(vy/Ww.s^-,v""''.', &.■., an.l ..ii.linj; with a
liinyiT, ».i that it nwim niin..<...nsai-y t.i kcI th..in
liiit. Tins,! parts nro dillVront f.,r each honr.
llic I'miiiim ar.. : —
At thi. t/iin{ hour, I'ss. Jfl [17-]^ 24 [•>:>'] Mi
M]. At th.M«<;...rw« ,^- </„,</„,,/ /,,„„._ J-'Jl yy
th.) fliX'l Ali«;-,
At Ih.. m-soriiin
Oimvi), TlIK DIVINK HI7
mi.l ari..rHard« Ihat r.,r th,. .|„v „f the w,.,.),
h..-.. Iiav.. r..|..n.n,... „n M„n.|ay-<., //„; /„.,„,„/,,
!<•'• hn ll„,,t,st, ,t ,r^,i»,,„^,„ I ; „„ MV,lni.,dav
"..;! h-rlay, ^, M. m,,, .• .,„ Vhnr.lnv, l' Z
hill .v,„,//,..,; ,,n ,S„,„,day, /„ Ih. ,l,:/urt,:l UH
'"''"'""''7 ■ ""■'- "•"■ ■■>■ tw., „„„,. «h,,rt
.7"'n„.dth.. „„„al,v,„.; th.' Iris,,,,,;.,,, (^,: ■ a
ih.irt /„„,,.,. t., th.. Il.,|y Trliiilv : nn I th.. nil ,',
l"i,t..,linlhis,,la.... in th,. //,„„/„„,„„,. |„,| jt
'l<>i;s.mt .•.Ml,,, within th..„.„,MM,f thi. ani.l,.
Th,. iiri,.Ht l,oirin„, .. ///;,,,,.,, /„, „„^ fi^^i „
f.7,".'i' ''m""^""'"'' ''■'"• '■"'•'■'"'"'•V ,• I's' lot
Th,. «|,|,„int<..| ,r,'t!„n „rr„t/,lmn [HiB„rual„f
:;:;;;;:rr;: -^i-l^i^'nr.;"
!♦., ,«,,.f,j,. ,,„., «,,,.„„„[.,,.,;*,
Ili..«c vai-y with th« day „f tl„.
'ill of th.! snni.! f„rni. 'i'|,ai i\,f
n.r th,. .lay.
w.'.'k, hilt (,!■(
Sun. lay in ; —
" H'lii.i.l n.iw
I,.pr,l."
.SV.VA.M. " Y t »t,,n.l in II,.. !,„„„„ „f n,,, ,,„,j ,
the o.nrlB of th.. Ii„ „f o,,,. „,„| ., ''"™ '"
limlso Ih.. U,„I, „ii JO „.rvunl, „f d,,,
[:iOJ. .'H m. (JO [dlj. At
!■„ .-,;i [,',+) ,H [55]. iio [.)i] „„,,„^„„.
0/ Mf «,.-</. /...«/-, I's,. ,5:, [r.iin r,,. rr_^. |.,, ^1
At til.. h.nM /„„.,■, I'ss. H.! [HI], HI [H.H H.', fH.if
.11 1 hi! m,..wn.»ii (,/• l/,g ninth h u,; I'ss. j 12 11 l;i I
i:,7[i:)H]. i;)it[|.|()]. ' 'i'=L".>J.
In ..d.lition to th....o hours. th.To is nn office
fn.l,!.l M<f <-/;;,■,.., [tA TUT,v4 which in sai.l
nll..rtli.. sixth .,r thu ninth h.nii', am.r.linif to
t e ...jiKon of th,. y..„r. Its origin i, ol,«,;ur«.
Ilip olh.:.. IS as l.iljows : —
IV lOJ [io:t]. ai.,n/, U.-. [1401. JIM no,..
[11 l...nt th,. psalms of thu ninth hour are
sail! instoiid of thuso.]
A short prayer to Christ for salvation.
Ue l,l,:s.mi,/H [„J ^aKap.n-Mol]. Thoso arc
e ,..««„,){» fro,n tho sermon on the „,ount
M. Matt. V. ,i-l.J(t., ,,,„,t is ,,„„r rcrm-d m
^™vi)],aii,lare8ai,lwithth.)(:!nu.H.., "yiVw(.m'„r
i.», /,„,.,<, ,;■/„■,. n.u cm,i,:H in Th,, kin.ui,,,,,,"
*.ula, an anhph.,natthu k.^inning, an.l n.peat.;.!
Tl,.. /,.r.,a»t<»,v m ,h,.i,,,, repeat.i.l, with a vcrae
«nK,l.,ry inl..rp.,8ed hetw.ien th.i liivst two re-
l'i'tilii.118 ; ami lUith .i„i.- aftur thu thir.l.
Ik. M,,mo Creed, f.,llowe.| by a short prayer
fnr par.lon. The I.„r,Vs /■n„/c,'. '
Th..M, if it ba a S,md.,,, or A .saint's day, which
iil'stuatal, the CMt.,ilw,n" of the .lay. If not
' ^'" '"•■■'^ t''« c oHf.MiWt of the trnnsligu'ration,'
'Tills hour Is sal.1 cnllnuo.iMy Villi u7.1s,' and m
Nn. at ,,„ce with th,. Invit„t„ry. If «,|,i sej ,r,.t. ly
ll»«ul.l bo ,,rol«cv,l |,y the ,i,„„l |,,tr.Kluctl„n.
M.TT^r'^'' r""','V'"""'T). Hi" "»iiiil term for the fast
Wor^ Kast,T, ,.«. U,.. WesUrn L..nt.
» ny.hlMs ,ne.,nttl,e "IM,/, l,„l,j. IMytnm the
Uliirw-, u ,IU,ln«„lsheU from the Iri/agion.
' U a short hynm.
A ,»v.../,..r f,„. pr,,te,.,,i.,„.^.., duriuK the niKht.
r^'l'. n/n'"^^ ■'■''■'"'■ '''''•"■•''"'"■•^^
nil I «. U.i [12.1], sai.l ,n tw.i «/i',;/„-. ■'
A„„,: ,/„„,•/«, <,/,,„/,„„, ^^,. _ „„,, ,,.„„.„,,/
[In Lent an. at ..ertam other s,as..n« there
",',' V"''».t';"»l in the ...mdudinK |"..t of the
olh.;e, whi.:h ,t isunm.,;..,sa,ytosp!.,.,IV,)
I h.. f.„-..Koin« is the .,r,ler of .la.ly ves „.rs a.
K.v..n,,, the l.,r.,|,,«y ,.,,,, ed.V..niU'wh.^
h.re ,s a vi«,l „n al.lneviate.l lorn,, om ttin«the
»e..ti.,n Irom the psalms, &c. i., ,ai,l ; „n,| ^ft r
e.impl,n,., .,,-e,a ,,.,,cr. are sai.l. The,"" a," nn
«mplili.!aimnonheor,linaryf.,rm,„n,| i ul
s,... ,.,ns fn,,„ .N:riptnr.., an.l'the ri'te kn.iw, „
n /,«, [A.T^ an, „„ ^rent davs (inishe, with the
'"■''"■'"l" ;'/ "'« '"""■»• [.See th.„o „,t lo,
1|. spi.cfy the variations would go beyond ou^
Ciiiiijilinp [iv6it,wv„„'] :_
There are tw., forms of compline: 4». „/va
nil i:r. ^,M.. (;,eat complin./ i, ,„|d in W
little .■ompline at other seasons. "' '
1 he onl.ir i,f,ir,at cmi/ litic : —
'his is an oir„:e of gr.!at L.ngth and interwt
arts, each l,eK,nninK with the invitatorv
l!!:r 'T '"''' ^•••' »•*'*> 'he usual Ltr.
line , on n„,| ,„,n,,.t„r,. I„ ,ho first week n
..!nt I he (so cnl ...1 ) ,,„„« ,„„„„ j, «,(,,_ ^ "J^ ^
times the ollice begins thus • —
«V.o, rp.„J.,d, U is aflri;, t:,r.^ S ZZ2l: "'
sane. c. .p: . A„.,.„oK..n..H the mnyrZ^T,X''i
It .ip|M«rs t., „„M. (>,.„ rchued to It. p -sent^ol k;
1448 OFFICE, THE DIVINE
[91]. Ki/rtc clci^on thrice. The following
itic/ti said altcnintely by the choir : —
"Ood is Willi us, know yo natluns, and be confounded,
Fur (Iml Is with ua.
Give ear to the onils of the earth,
For liud la with us."
[And 80 on for twenty clauses, with the same
response after ench, talsen I'rom Isaiah viii. and
i.\. and ending thus] : —
" WonUt rful, Ci'Unsi llnr.
For Old 1b with ns.
The mighty God, the everlittlng Father, the Prince of
Pejce.
For Ood l« with us.
The Father of the age to come,
For God Is with us. Glory," &c.P
Then certain troiiaria, the Nicene Creed, into-
eatiuns to the Theotoltos and the saints.
Several other troparia, and a prayer of St.
Bnsil for protection and purity.
The iiivilatury (thrice).
Pss. 50 [.M], 101 [102]; the prayer of
Manasseh ; tro/aria, &c. ; and a short prayer to
the Holy Trinity.
The invitatury (thrice).
Rss. 69 [70], U2[l4;i].
Gluria in cxce/sis [called the Doxology] followed
by versicles of precisely the same form as the
Latin precea,
Ps. l.-iO, with the clause, " Lord of Hosts,
have vwrcy upon us," said as an antiphou after
each verse. More truparin, &c., among which
occurs a jmty'T to the Saviour for protection
during? the night, beginning <5 iv ■navrX Katpf,
Ka\ iriiT?) Spf), K.T.K.
A prayer to the Theotokos.
Two prayers to the Savvur, one beginning koI
8Ji iiixiv tiaitora irpbs Sirvof awioiffw, k.t.A. ;
the other, SffXiroTa iroAi-f Atf, k.t.\. : an ectene
or litany of the usual form, and the olfice finishes
with another prayer to the Saviour.
Little compline [&ir6Snin/ov /nKpSv] : —
" Glory be to Thee, our God, glory be to Thee."
A short prayer to the Paraclete.
The usual introduction and the invitatory.
Pss. .50 [f>I], K9 [70], 1+2 [UM].
Gloria in excelsis, with the versicles following
ns at great compline.
The Nicene Creed, the triingion, &e., the
troparia of the day, A'/r. el. (forty times).
The prai/er to the Saviour, 6 iv ttoj/tI xaipfi, as
at great compline ; a few short versicles.
Prayer to the Theotokos.
Prayer to the Saviour, Kal Shs ri/uv Setrirora,
both as at great compline ; a fe<v ejaculatory
aiicriptions of praise.
I'/ie dismissal.
The VVe.stern offices will not detain ns long.
Even those parts which are not intimately
known to all are of a familiar type. They are
also shorter th.vi the Eastern, and arranged with
much greater terseness and method. The Koman
ojfice is by far the most important and most
widely used. The older English, French, Gorman,
p It IB ImpoBslblB wlihlii reasonable limits to give more
than the Bk.leton of this long anJ Inirlrate office, even
could iiii.rn Ih' attempted without sucrihco of clearness.
The trrparia, ic, are ad of the ordinary form.
OFFICE, THE DIVINE
and Scandinavian uses are of precisely the same
form, and only dill'er in details, such as the
calendars, commemorations of saints, order of
lessons, responsories, &c. — variations which it
would be at once hopeless and useless to attemiit
to point out, and the magnitude and iinpurl-
ance of which have been much exaggenitcl
There are indeed few more striliing cvidem-es HI'
the uniformity and organization of the Komnn
Church than the wide dissemination and recei.tidu
of its oriices into distant regions and dilllTent
races, and the unanimity with which what was
in essentials the same rite was observed. Tii|,
only two notable exceptions are the Ambrosian
and the Mozarabic ollices, both of which are
very diflerent from the Koman, and of great
beauty; but which were used within nanwv
limits, and so are of much smaller practical
importance. They will be described.
The Koman hours are seven or eight in num-
ber, according as matins ami lauds are counted as
one or two, i.e.. Matins, lauds, prime (or the
hour), the third, sixth, and ninth hours, vcs-
pers, compline. Taking them in order we have
1. Jtatins (inatutinum) : —
These consist on Sundays and double feasts of
thre« nocturns. On simple feasts and week dav?
of one. Easter day and Pentecost with their
octaves have only one nocturn with three psalms
The office for Sunday and feasts of nine lessons
is as follows :
N.B. Before matins and all hours except com.
pline is said secretly, Tater nostcr, Are Jtariu ■
and at the beginning of matins and prime, anJ
at the end of compline, the Apostles' Cre.d.
Then with a loud voice —
" Domine labia mea aperies,
Kt OS iiieum annunclablturlaudem tuam
Deus In adjutorlum, Jtc.
l)onilne ad ailjuvanduni, io.
* Gloila; slcut; alleluia;"
except when alleluia is not said, i.e. from Septu-
agesima to Easter, when " Lous tibi Domine rex
ueternae yloriie" is said instead.
Invitaturi/, and the invitatory psalm, 9-1 [95]
Hymn (varying with the day and season).
In nocturn i. I'salms ns api)ointed [12 on
Sundays, 3 on feasts], A verse and rcs/,ime.
Pater noster, short form of absolution (absolutio),
three lejsuns from Scripture in course, each pre-
ceded by its benediction, and followed by iti
responsory.
In nncturn ii. Three psalms, each with its
antiphon. Verse and response. Pater noster,
absolution. Three lessons from the i)atristic writ-
ings, each with its benediction uml respmsorj.
In nocturn iii. The same as in nocturn ii., the
lessons being a commentary on the gospel of
the day from some homily. Instead of the liist
responsory, I'e /eum is said, except in Advent,
and from Septuagesima to Easter, when it is
only said on festivals. When Te Peum is not
said, there is a responsory instead.
[On week days, and when the office is n{ three
lessons, there is one nocturn only, containing
twelve psalms under six antiphons.l
2. lauds:—
DeU3 in adutorium, &c, r.lr.rUi, kc. Alkhii'}
or Laus tihi Domine, &c., according to the se,ison,
as at matins.
Fire psilms [i.e. what is reckoned as such, sail
under live antip/iuns aud live Glorias]. On
OFFICE, T
9unlay [except from 1
these are —
I'ss, 92 [9:i], 99 [10(1
{M as one), liciudicit
one).
On week days the psal
raries with the day ot
sn.l ti(> [t!7], (4) a cat
day of the week, (,")) h
Ciipitulum, i.e. a ver
Hpm (varying with t
vpon^. Banrdirtus. (
m'nwnitions (if any are
3. Prime: —
Fitter noster. Ave .1.
idjiilonum, &c. H;iinn,
Four psa/ms (on SumJ
118 [119] (lirst four s
sai'i as two). On week (
psiilni, 118 [119] (the
Tlu: At/uiwisian Creed (
the Sunday,' and on T
tmm,
Rait. "Christe till T)ei vi
V. Vul sed' 8 ad doxtcram I
V. Oloria, *c. K. Chris. e til
•(juva nos. It. Kt libera noa
Then follow these pre
when the office is doiiJj
Kfie cicison (ter), Pater
I'rcces of the ordinary
pon e. Alternate coupia
priest and choir, A few ii
Then, whether the office
Onxtio, " Domine Dcus On,
V. Benalieamus Domin
On tree/t days the At
wiJ; in other respects the
In Advent, Lent, and oi
aJJitional preces are said
from which point the offici
4. Tercc : —
toiler, Ave. Deus in adjm
sanete nobis Spiritus."
Six sections of eight V(
aid in three, under one i
Ilcsfonsio brevis. Collect /
5, 0. Sext and none are
firm, and re(|uire no sepai
the hymn is " Uector poten
none " Keruni tenax Deus v
ffheii reces are said at 1
freccs i- \U\ at terce, sert,
before i„^ collect for the d
7. I c'spers : —
l'"ter. Ace, Deis in adjut
ajipninted, each with its a:
/Vi(i(varyingwith the da
ml ie-!i,onie. That for o
week days is
V. Diiigntur Domine orallo n
lncins|iretu tuo.
M'lcjnifcat (with its proper
fir the dw/. Commemoratio
< Se I'sAmoDY fordetallii.
' f!i'tft!riii-ilin;i-ySiin.mys is
*c. That for ordinary week da
"iBht Is fir api nt," A:c.
■ U. »bcii a ilouhle feast, wh
«aorJln«ry Sunday, does not fall
' I'he original of our third Col
OFFICR, THE DIVINK
Sun lay [except from Scptuagesiraa to Easter]
I'ss. 92 [9.J] 99 [100], 62 [«;l], an,I 66 [671
{mA AS one), liaudicite, 148, 149, 160 (.aid as
one).
On week days the psalms are ' (I) 50 f)!"! (O)
raries with the day of the week, (It) 6 J [68]
ami 6(i [il(], (4) a. canticle varying with the
day of the week, (5) 148, 149, V,Q.
Capitalum, U: a verse from the Scriptures '
Hgrnn (varying with the .lay). A vcrsr and
vt,po!i>:e. BencJwtHs. CMvt f.r the d w. Com-
wntunitiuns (it any are said).
3. Prime: —
! Pakr no^ter. Ave Maria. Credo. Peus m
jrf/u/onK/n, Hic. /J,,mn, " .lam lucis orto sidere "
hnr psalms (on Sunday), h^ [541, 117 fllSl
118 [119] (first four sections S.f eight verses
m\ ,is two). On week days, 54 [54], a vnrving
psalm, 118 [119] (the same as on Sun.iay)
Tk At/umasian Creed (when the service is on
the Sunday,' and on Tiuiity Sunday). Cupi-
M\m.
Re-'j,. "Chrlsle fili Del vivl. Miserere nobis (bis)
V, '^^\ »ed, 8 a.l d,vvte,am I'atrls. R. Misere-e nobis.
V, Olorla, &c. K. Ciiils.e flII, &c. V. Kxsurge CIniste
•iljuva nus. K. V.i liberu nos propter norucn tuum." '
Then follow these preces, which are not said
when the othce is doxAle, or within octaves.
Kijrie eleison (ter), Pater noster, Credo.
Preces of the ordinary form of verse and re-
pon e. Alternate conjiteor and misereatur by
priest and choir. A kw more alternate versicles
Then, whether the otfice bo doul.l.. or not, the*
Omtio, " JJormne Deus Omnipotens," « &c.
\.Be>udicainus Domino. U. Deo gratiat.
On week daj/s the Athanasian Creed is not
lail; in other respects the olFice is said as above.
In Advent, Lent, and on certain other .lays
allitional preces are said before the conjiteor
Iroin which point the office proceeds as usual. '
4. Terce : —
Piitir, Ave. Deus in adjutorium. Ilumn, " Nunc
sancte nobis Spiritus."
Six sections of eight verses of Hs. 118 [1191
mi in three, under one antiphon. Cupitutum.
l:es[omu brevis. Collect for the dai/.
0, (i. Sext and notie are of precisely the same
Urn, nnd reiiuire no separate remark. At se.rt
the hymn IS " Kector potens, verax Deus," and at
none " Kcrum tenax Deus vigor."
W'hei reces are sai.l at lauds, a short form of
reca , ud at tere,; sest, and nom immediate! y
before i ,, collect for the day. ^
7. 1 espers : —
I'liter, Ave, Deus in adjutorium. Five psalms as
appointed, each with its antiphon. Capitulum.
%(i'i('irying with the day and season). Verse
M'ignijicat (with its proper antiphon). Collect
I'^rineUw/. Commemorations, when said.
OFFICE, THE DIVINE 1449
,n,T\'" ^''"'^' "" ™'<' »* '""da. they are also
said at vespers after »«u^,„Vfcaf. ' '"«""»»
o. Compline: —
lMt„r. ,Jul)o nomne bcnerticere.
lened. .N'Mtcm quietjiD), 4c.
l-xctio brevi). 1 Het. v. 8.
V. AiUutoriuni nostrum'ln nomine Domini.
H. gui fecit coelum et tcrmiu.
Pater, Conjiteor, &c., alternately, as at prime.
V. Convorie nos Rous salutarls neater.
«. tt uvene Irani tuam a nobis.
Deus in adjutorium, Ao.
' S.e I'SALMODY for details.
' r!Kfcr„i,iin:.ryS„n.l„j., i, Rev.vil. 12, ■• nie«si„g,"
«c. 11i,t for ordinary week days, Rom. xill. 12. -llie
jn'iii' *'"" * 1'""*"° *^'"' "'•"'='' ""'0'' precedence of
aaorJIniry Sunday, dops i,„t tail „„ the dav
' Ibe original of our third Collect «i Morning Prayer.
Ps,s. 4, 30 [31], (1-6), 90 [91], 133 [1341.
said under one antiphon. ■■ -''
( le^r'Liv ''oV"? "'"'-' .*«!•'»'""'"•" C.pitulum
f with iV \\ J^^'spons.o brevis. Au,ic danittis
(with Its antiphon). K^rie eleison (ter), Pater
Cred.,, and short pn.xes. The collect '■ Visita
quaesumus," &c. Hemdiction.
^o notice has hero been made of the short
capUu!ar ojjice at the end of prime, or of he
an tiphons to the B.V.M., of .^hich 'one s said
daily alter lauds and compline.
The Koman olHce here given in outline is the
model on which the s^c-.^/- breviaries throughout
the Koman obedience were formed. These were
universally of the same form, though di Jin^
urr'The\?"' '"^•■^' -"--"-atioils a!:!
;Xist]^:y:^^j::iV'^'^'''"*""' "^ '■^^
In the old English uses the hymns and anti-
phons at compline varied with the se.xson ; and
every day after compline and lauds, except "u
dou le feasts and during certain octives and
Christmas and Kastertides, a short form consist-
was sad 'pro pace ecclesi.ae." When this was
»a.d at lauds, a similar form for protection
during the day was said after prime. J""'''"""
The vwnastic ojjice of which the Benedictine
IS the type, differs from the secular in many
respects the chief of which are the following:^
. (1) The Benedictine distribution of the psifltcr
IS used and not the Gregorian. P^'Oicr
(2) On Sund.iys, and days with three noctums.
There iire four lessons in each nocturn, there are
su I'salms in both the first and second nocturns
and three canticles in the third, e.ich with
responsory. Those of the first nocturn are from
of'ti; Tti."""' 'i '^' ^r""^' ''^'"" the writing^
of the fathers, or from the lives of the saints •
hose of the third from patristic expositiof f
the gospel. Te Dexm is said after (not instead of)
the mnh responsory, and then follow the gospel
and collect of the day. ° ^
(3) On week days, and days of three lessons,
twelve psalms are said in two nocturns ; six in
each. In the first nocturn three lessons, mostly
from Scripture, are read. In the second nocturn
there are no lessons. In the weekday office of
he Benedictine rites, from Easter to Nov. 1 no
lessons are read but only a Lectio brevis, varying
with the dav of the week. ""^ing
a»d*Upts" "' ''"^'"■''' '" ^''"' *«•' «' l-'-ds
(5) rt. 30 [31], ver. 1-6, and 2iuno dimitiis are
.'f'.ll.tH
No account is taken of modern French and other
brevlari,.», which do not corae within the prescZd
limits of time. These do not differ in form '^^'"'^'^
1450 OFFICE, THE DIVINE
' not sail at compline, except on the three last
diij'8 of the Holy loeelt.
The Ambrosian office, which is still used in
the diocese of Miliin, except in the Swiss portion,
which iidheies to the Koman rite,' requires
more detailed uni ice. Its origin and, still more,
the steps by which it arrived at its (inal shape,
are involved in much obscurity. It is un-
doubtedly of high antiquity, and originally
framed by St. Ambrose. St. Simplician, who
succeeded hiui as archbishop of Milan (a.d. .'!97),
is said to have made many additions. It is
probable that during the following century the
ulUce assumed its complete form as to its main
features, and was afterwards gradually jierfected
in details. When St. Charles Horromeo became
archbishop, he set to work to restore the ancient
rites of the Milanese church, into which he
tom])kiins that much had been introduced without
authority from time to time by individual
priests ; and by comparison of the ollice, as he
found it, with ancient documents and the
"Ambrosian Institutes," and with the help of
learned men, to bring it back as far as possible
to the original form described by the most
distinguished writers on the divine oflices, and
especially by his pi-edeoessor Theodorus."
The Ambrosian office then, in its present form,
which we are obliged to quote, owing to the
uncertainty of earlier forms, is in outline as
follows: —
Matins (Ad Matutinum) : —
Pator noster. Aec Maria [secreto]. Deus in
adiuforiuiii, &c. Domine ad adjuiandwn, &c.
(llorii. Sicnt. Hymn, "Aetorne rerum conditor "
[sai 1 daily] Rcsponsorij [varying with the day].
The Sunt/ of the Three Children ["Benedictus
es," &c. vv. 29-34] with its antiphon. Benedictus
cs Deus. R. Amen,
[The foregoing is common to all matins.]
Then : On Sunda is three canticles said in
three nocturns, one in each, each with antiphon.
In Aoct. i. Sony of Isuiah [from chap, ixvi.]
De nocte viijilat.
In A'oi't. ii. Son^ of Ffannah [from 1 Sam. ii.].
In Noct. iii. in Winter (i.e. from the lirst
Sunday in October till Palm Sunday ) the Sunj of
Ilabakkuk [Hab. iii.].
In Soi:t. iii. iV» Summer (i.e. from Easter till
the last Sunday in September) the Song of
Jon ih [.Ion. ii.].
[On Sundays no psalms are said at nocturns.]
On uee't diys, the apjminted section of the
psalms, called a deouria, said in three nocturns
[v. art. PsAI.Monv].
Then follow three lessons.
On Sun'lays from a homily on the Gospel.
On toee.'i d.iys from the Holy Scriptures read
in course.
Each lesson is prefaced by a benediction ; and
the first two are followed by a resj'onse, and
the third by Te I'eum when said. When not
Kaid, there is no third response.
» Wlien Cardinal Galsrucb in ttie present century
attenipicd to imp'ise the Ambrosian Liturgy on this
por'lun of the diocese, the public voice answcrid,
•• IClthor llomans or Luthpruns."
" Archbishop of Milan, rlrc. A.r. 480. He wrote a
cnmmentary on the nocti'rnal and matutinal offlce of the
Milanese ihiirch. See preface to the Ambrosian Breviary
as I'dited by UurJiual Uaisruch, A.n. vni.
OFFICE. THE DIVINE
The benedictions are more varied than in the
Roman rite. Tlie responses, on the contrary ar«
for the most part not so full or rich.
Lauds: —
The following is the order for Sundays and
the more imiiortant festivals of saints:
Deus in adjutorium, &c. lienedictus, with its
proper antiphon.
[On Sundays in Advent, Christmas Dav and
its octave, and on the Epiphany, Attende cuelum
[Oeut. xxxii.] is said instead of Jlencdictus.']
Kyrie eleison (ter).
An antiphon called antlphona ad crmvm
proper to the day, and said five, or on some davs
seven times.
The Sonij of Moses [" Contemns Domino," from
Exod. XV.] with its proper antiphon, and prefaced
by an unvarying oratio secreta.
Henedicite with antiphon and oratio secreta.
A collect (oratio !"•) [varying with the
season].
Pss. U8, 149, 150, 116 [117] said under one
antijihon. A capilulum and antiphon Hjoth
varying with the oilice]. A direct* psulin [vary-
ing with the day of the week]. Hymn [varyiog
with the olfice]. Kyrie eleison (duoilecies).
Psaltendaf i. and completorium i. Oratio ii.
responsorium in baplisterio, a I'salm of four
verses [vaiying with the day], Or.uio iii,
Psallenda ii, and compt,torium ii. Oratio iv.
[Commemorations, if any], and the olRce enJs
thus : —
V. Benodlcnt, et exaudlat no« Deus. R, Ampn.
V. Procedanjus In pace. K. In m.mine Chilstl.
V. Bcn«lic;imu9 Domino. K Deo grattis. pater
noiter.
V. SancUi Trinltas noa semper salvtt et bcncdicat.
K. Aniin.
V. Fidi'lium onlmae per Dei miBericurdiam rciulcs.
cant In pace. R. Anion.'
On week days the office varies thus: —
Instead of Cautemus Domino and Pcnelicite
P-s. 50 [51] is said on all davs but Saturdav.
Ps. 117 [118] is said on Saturday.
There are no psallenda. The resp. in bapt.
and the four rerses of a psalm are always saij,
*nd there are three coUectj instead of I'oiir.
There are variations in th(^ arrangemont of
the details of the otiice at special seasons auJ on
festivals.
Prime : —
Pater mster, &c., as at the beginning of all
the hours. Ilimn, ".lam lucis oito sidure." \'$s.
53 [54], 118 [119] (four first sections of eight
versos). Epistolella,' a t'ev,- versicles ami rpsponses.
Athanasian crt-tvi (called simply synboium).
Then on Sundays and the higher class of
festivals three collects, of which tlie first is the
same as the corresponding Roman collect, and
the office ends, —
V. Benedlcamua Donilno. K. Deo gratiiis.
Then the martyrology is read in choir.
On other days, after the symholum, preen are
> So called because said straight Ihrougli, and iiot
antiphonally.
7 'I'hese, and otht-r similar names, are all anllptioiis
of much the same character.
• Tills ending Is common to all the hours.
• This oorrespmds exactly with the Itoman Cflfi-
tulwm.
OFPICK, THE DIVINE
did. These are of the same chnracter an the
Roiniin pieces at priiiu; but lonijor. and the
[KtitioDs are ditierent, and they enJ with Ps 50
[5:].
Terce, sext, and none are in form exactly
limilar to the Koman offlceji for those hours.
On ordinary weelc days short prcces ar^said at
each hour, the form mntaiuing a psalm. These
are, at prime Ps. 50 [51], at sext 66 [blX at
none 8:. [86]. •• ■''
Vespers are said thus -.—Pater noster, &c. An
tttiplion called luceruariuin [proper for the
oliioe]. Antiphona m choro [proper], Ifymn
[proper]. Five psalms with their antiph'ons.
Vratio. Mtiiinificat [with proper antiphon],
Onxtio. Psallendit i. and resp. in hapt. (if said).
Oratio iii. Four-verse psalm, with antiphon (if
ijiiil). Two completoria. Oratio jv. J'sallunJa ii.
and two more completoria. Oratio v, Coitclusiun
of office.
The first two orationes are proper to tiie office ;
the other three are fixed.
(h week dai/s, after Magnificat the office con-
tinues as follows ; —
Oratio ii. Jiesp. in bapt. Oratio iii. Four-
verse psalm with anti/jhon. A completorium.
Or itio iv. and conclusion.
The four collects on week days vary with
the d«y of the week.
On festivals two psalms (or rather what are
counted as two) are said at dillerent points of
the office, the arrangement of the component
parts of which differs in some respects from the
ferial arrangement. There are also certain
variations at special seasons, as in Lent and
Eastertide, into which it is not necessary to
enter.
Compline closely resembles the Roman, though
the m8terials are somewhat ditfereutly arranged.
TheolKce runs thus: —
Filter, Ace. Cmverte nos, &c. /)cus in adju-
torim, &c. ffi/mn (" Te lucis ante terminum ")
Ps.+,30 [31] (1-6), 90 [91], 132 [133], 133
[134], 116 [117], said without an antiphon, and
the last three under one Gloria. Epistolella.
Xitnc dimittis. Antiphon and response.
On ordinary week days preees of the usual
form containiug Psalm 12 [13]. Two collects,"
" Ihumina iwiesumus Domine " and " Visita qwie-
mms Domini:" Conclusion.
When pre,:es are not said, the collects or
orationes follow immediately the response after
Xm: dimiltis.
in Lent an additional hymn is said after the
psalms,
The .U.izarahio or Spanish office differs widelv
from all others. It is of high anti,|uily. The
Spanish tradition would trace its origiti to St.
I'eter, to disciples of whom and of St. Paul it
assigns the introduction of Christianity into
spam,' and maintains that it should bo called
originally Homan and Gothic, after the con-
version of Reccaredus, king of the Goths, to the
Uthohc faith, and the public abjuration of the
Arian heresy in the third council of Toleilo, a.d
5«9 Subsequently St. Isidore, archbishop of
Devillc, and his brother Leander, who was a
OFFICE, TUE DIVINE 1451
friend of Oregory the Great, revised and ex-
purgated the office, which had contracted many
Haws, and it is hence often known as the hidorian
rite. At a later period Cardinal Ximenes, " quasi
npis argumentosa," again revised the office and
reduced it to its final form.
The opinion now generally accepted is that
the Jlozarabic rite is n variety of the so-called
(jallican or Kphesine family, which professedly
traces back to St, .lobn. The groundwork of
tne othca was probably introduced with Chris-
tianity into Spain. To enforce uniformity of
use the Council of Gerona [a.d. 617] directed
that the order of celebrating mass and the
Uivine olhce, which was used in the Metruiiolitan
church of Tarragona, should be alone adopted
tliroughout the province. Gregory Vll. [a d
l'i73-108,^] directed the use of the Spanish office
to be abolished, and the Roman introduced in its
place. After some resistance this was effected
Alterwards so strong a feeling was manifested
at loledo in favour of the national rite, that its
use was sanctioned in seven of the old churches
of loledo, the Roman being adopted into the
others. Cardinal Ximenes afterwards built and
endowed the so-called Jlozarabic chapel in
Toledo cathedral for the maintenance of the
rite,"
The hours are the same as the Roman, with
the addition of yluiwa, which is said when the
olhce IS of the week day [in feriis].'
All the hours begin as follows ; —
Kyrie eleison, Christe eleisun, Kyrie eleison.
I aler noster. Ave (secreto).
In nomine Domini nostH Jetit ChrUti lumen cum
pace. R. Deo gratia).
Doininut mbii um. V. Et cum, &o.
J/<i^'i)sf [matutinum] proceed thus:—
On Sundat/s, hi/mn, " Aeterne rerum conditor,"
followed by a prayer (oratio), having reference
to the contents of the hymn.
Pss. 3 60 [51], 56 [56], each with its anti-
phon. Oratio.
Three ant!phons,t each followed by an oratio
[tres antiphonae cum suis orationibusl JiesDon.
sory with its oratio, ^
'Our third collect at Evening Prayer, said at compine
m the .Sanira and other English offices. The Kurauu
Wlect ni compline is - VLilta quaesumus Itouiinp."
iKfe Prelace to Mozarabio Breviary by Lorenjana.
i The legend is familiar how the two books, the Roman
and Mwtarubic, contond.Ml by the orrteal of baitle a
frenchman being champion for the lioraan liouk (the
Koman office hart at that time been established In France)
anallve of Toledo for the .Mozarublc. The Fiemhman
is said to have conquered. The result however u^s not
taken as conclusive, and the books were submitted to the
fnrtherordeal of Are ; uh, reuix.n the Hnman leaped out of
the tire, while the Mozarabic remained uninjured by the
flames; •• ]l<,inann8 ex Igne procedit ; (Jothlcus sub
flammis lllaesus." The Inl.rence drawn was that the
Honian bo..k should he generally used throuRhont the
kingdom, while the Alozarablc should be continued In use
at head.<niart.TJ, i.e. in I'ol.do.
• The Jlozarabic hours are said to have been originally
twelve in number, the four rejected om-s bi'Ing at the
beg.ntungof night, "In prluciplo n ctis;' before bed-
time, "ante l.ctum;" at midnight, " media noctis : "
and «» ming/rom bed, " In surrectlone lecti,"
' I'he oHIce lor the day begins, a.s in other rites, with
vv3tK-.3 of the preceding .nening; lui in a sliort con-
spectus, such as alone is possible, it seems more conve-
nient to begin with matins.
» Ihe Moz.iral.ic aiitlphons are broken into verse
and respon,w. after the maimer of a Koman r. sponBury.
[oee art. AmirHOK.J '
J'
Ii
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14.')2 OFFICE, THE DIVINE
On well (Idi/n there is no hymn anJ only one
piialni, which i^i ono uf the tlii-ee ^un^liiy |isalins,
with it» orntii. The icnininlur of the ollioe is
of the .same form an tliat fm- .Similay.
Ltmils bei;in at onci) with n varying canticle
[on Siiiiil;iy "Atti'mle ciieliim," Dent, xxxii.].
jlcwJiitns [so ciilleil, i.e. a com pressed form
of the Sung ol thu Tliree Children] with its anti-
phon.
Som. Lattda.^ Pss. 148, 149, 150 [called the
LnHll .s],
A lection called prophctia, though not neces-
Biirily from the l'ro|ihets. J/ynm (varying).
Ci/iitulti (liere signifying a ju'ayer). rater-
nnstir, followed by tlie einholismun. Laudi.'
Bent'iliclion.)
A short form of commemoration, consisting of
B verse and resjiouse, here called lauda, and a
short prayer for protection and guidance through
the <lay.
A urura : —
This service is said when the office is
of the week day (in feriis per totum annum).
Pss. 69 [70], and the following sections of
Ps. 118 [119]: ISenti immacv'iti, In <itto cor-
riijet, itetrihue fciio tuo, said under one antiphon.
A lauda, I'atcr nostcr (with the enibolismus), a
akort form, of intercessory prayers (preces).
Prime : —
Pss. HI] [»i7], 144 [14,5] (said in two divi-
sious), ll'J [ll:i], 118 lllQ'] (Ad/iaesit pavi/ncnto,
Leijem pone, Et veniat), said under one antiphon.
Rispimsury (varying); a short lesson (Zachar.
viii.) called proplutiu ; Hcond (Rom. xiii.); a
lauda.
Hymn ("Jam lucis orto sidere "), except in
Eastertide, when the hymn is "Aurora lucis
rutilat."
V. Uimum est confiteri Domino, R. Et psallere
nomini tuu ultissime.
Then follows, on Sundays and fa-tirals, Te
Deuiii, (Ihria in excelsis, and the Xiccne Creed''
[called in the rubrics symholum apostoloruni].
On week dai/s (iu diubus ferialibus), Bene-
dictus cs (as at lauds), and Ps. r>0 [ol].
Su/iplicatio [in form a shoi-t bidding prayer]
beginning "Oremus nuiudi," &c. Oipitula [a
prayer]. Pater ttostcr, &c. Benedictio. These
all (ary with the office.
Terce : —
Four psalms, i.e. Pss. 94 [95], 118 [119]
(Jtemur e^to, Portia mca, Bonitatem), under
one .Tiiti|ihou. Pcsponsory. Two SfOrt lections
(similar to those at prime). Lauda, hymn, sup-
ptieatio, ca/ ituta. Pater no^ter, &c. benedictio.
All the parts of the ollicu except the psalms
vary with the season.
Scxt and Sone are of exactly the same form
and require no remarks.
h There are varieties of antiphons, as bos hern ex-
plidneil In the article Antii'iion. It is impossible to
translati' thise trchnical Urnis.
' or tliis there are two l<irins — a Ii.nger one used on
8uTi<l.iv8, anil a shorter on other days, later roster Is
said witli the respiinse "Amen" to each clause, except
to Piinem nostrum, to which the nsiionse Is "Quia
Jjens es.*'
1 M'^J'trftble iK-ne^Iiotlons are in thr.-'e rlniirfB, Psch
answered liy"Anien." They vary with the day, and
Bijnie are very beauilful.
» This is said In the MozaraUc rite In the plural:
" Credimua in unum Ileum," &c.
OFFICE, THE DIVINE
The psalms arc: at Sext, Pss. 53 [."i4], 118
[ 11 9] ( /■ cci judiiinm, Mirabitia, Juftus es Ihmiiie)
At None, Pss. 145 [14t)], 121 [122], 122 [12;t],'
12.'t[124]. In I.ent, and on certain other peni!
tential days, the form of the office for these three
hours is ditl'eri'nt, but otTers no 8|)ecial |reiiiliarity
to call for explanation in this short survey.
■ Vespers: —
Aftef the introduction, a lauda^; anHphon-
another lauda. Hymn, supplicatio, eapttuh
Pater noster, &c. Jlinedietio, with its ir tio'.
tlonus (or sono) [omitted "in feriis"], t'lillun-fti
by another lnuiji with its oratio, and a short
form of commemoration of the same I'unn as that
at lauds.
Compline :— Pas. 4, vv. 7, 8, 9 ; 13,T [I'U]. A
few versieles for protection and forgiveness.
Hymn, "Sol angeloruni respice." Pa. 'J(i [iin'
with its antiphon. More resiles from tlie
p.salms. //vwtrt, "Cultor Dei memento."' .iuppU.
catio, capitula. Pater noster, kc; tienedictio. At
the end of the service a short form of cimimeu-
dation corresponding to the commemoratio at
lauds and vespers.
On Saturdays and high festivals, " in diptins
sabbatorum vel praecipuaruin festivitatHin,"iii'tcr
the' psalms'" a rcsponsory is said, ftjlloweii l,v
two short lessons, then a hymn, Ps. 50 [51] witii
a versus, said as an antiphon. hyrie ikisoii
Pater noster, &c. Then on week days (in lerii,)
miserationes, which are short intercessory pe-
titions in tho form of litanies, with a ciastatit
response, so called because the openinj wonis
are " Miserere," or " Deus miserere," or " DuniM
miserere," and varying with the day of the week.
Then a capitulu:i, I'ater noster, and benedictio
and form of commendation as usual.
In the foregoing summary no notice has boi-n
taken of n:;tional or local variations of the nmin
types of office, such as the old KnL;lish u~es
(except in one point), or the ancient i)eci:;i.iritiej
of ritual in the churches of Lyons or liisiiii. on,
or any of the monastic variations from the
normal Benedictine type. These, however inter-
esting to liturgical students, are confine.! t" jioints
of detail. Neither does it come within the sio|iccf
this article to discuss or compare the coutents of
the several oiKces sketched in it. Wo mar,
however, draw attention to a few points which
are obvious even from the skeletons given.
The Eastern offices, we thus see, are much
longer and less methodically arranged than the
Western. They contain also much less oi' Scrip-
ture; while the odes and canons which loim so
large a portion of the office, though ottcu verv
beautiful and devotional, are much too iirolix,
and at times too rhapsodical to suit Western
taste. The same may be said of the prayers.
The Western offices, on the other hand, are
more eleaily and compactly arranged. The
hymns and collects are models of ciiin|)res.seil
thought and language. The antiphons ami re-
sponses are for the most part taken from Scrip-
ture. Among the Western rites, the Koman is
undoubtedly the most terse and pointed. The
Ambrosian has many beauties, and is more varied
1 This Is tjiken from thn P>.ilm^, av.A Is stmrtimfs
called fsalmus or vtsjitrtinmn:" I'iO'mus slve ««/«r-
(t'num, quid Idem f»\."—l:egula S. hid.>ri.
"' Tills means afcer the second set of versieles from tlK
PBttlms, and inmieUiaiely Ixlore the second hymu.
OFKICIAMH LIIJE
b.iok or V(dniiieH cmitnii
The term Is Used with c(
a|i|ilieation. M(inaril, in
fi^riaii .'^acramenfiiry (p.
'jiietiiii; Agobard, exphiii
"Aiitiphonarius;" but a
himself (/,i'4,r(i,'f'i,rm:</«;i
will shew that he implies «
el' the iil>n offit:i(ites, vi;
"Lecti(inary,"aiid the "At
was arehhishop of l.vdin
a,Tees with tho use of' thu
i,'iv/f*.(^/.lib. iv.cnp. 2I»). 1
it may refer to tlio aniip
iiieiitaiy. In cnii. 'i^i, C, To
must be, as Ducaiigo s, v.
StKinmnturum, a book whi
minor ollicea, since thu cam
priests were to be provide
«ppidMtni(!iit, no {Mr i/norani
$iieniiiientis ojj'oiidan't ; so, f
p. 2ti,'')). Oil tho other h,
Amalfirhis {do K'vles, (M
jutitled iu lonio MSS. Lihe
OFFICIUM AD MIRf
the nitmit iu tho Mozaral
probably once current thi
(.fnllican family of liturgies,
still ; for, though Mabillon
p. aii) gives "Aiitiphoiui" n
terra iu tho (inllican liiurg
general name, like our "'
'imihir term, ojjicium tntssae,
IS lound for tho iiitroit in the
ot'themouiuleryofS, (Jeriiini
(Bouillait, H,.st,iiiv do t'.iUHi
(■'■i-m,w,desPret,Jlecueddos
V iwrtie, pp. i:,H-Uio, Ik,
mes ol Saruni and Vnrk, and
Snin (notes to //»h„, /,'„,.. m,
in the missals of the Carthus
Dominican orders.
OIL, HOLY. Tho later
naiiio especially to oil that i
h«ciiiue it has iircjcemlod from
wjiutnpoaition with some su
^"''' ''/''"'s'. I'liilothei, ill y;,
"''lon.J.. ;t4)i though tho
lie oil ol cntechumens ((J,.«r
otthesick,Tiily,o.^A«,„,
<-«). bnder this head w« h,
'"I "I the Cross, that of fhe
Kii"i the Saints, and that tak
Mieymnl from tho chuivh lam
liiKOii, orTiiK CiiMss.-lr
Joubttully (Iscribed to Autoni,
OFPFCIALIS LIBER
in lt« .:oll,.,.t» „,„| It, |„„I„„„Iy, but l„,s, ,0 in its
orl iMiy iiynniH, li,„|, ,,,„;, , j cullccU are
Tl,« .M.,zan.l,u,. Oilio,. h«, tho grontest variety
mil,.. .O.M, .,l^h„,t ||t,„;i..,, „re ve y beau ul'
ortia., I >..„«!, very n,h Hn,| .ug^Jtive, change
w«nt ol r,.j,„««, Tl,„ |,ray,.r5 nre „f ti,e Kastcrn
t)K, UMuIly 1.,,,^;,.,. a„l „,,re dillu«o tlian tiiose
ol .ithor VVusteni OlUce,. [H J. H T
OIL, HOLY
1453
OFFICrAI,IS LIliKR (o^..^., W,..), a
Uk ur v,.lunM.,H ,.n„t„ining the oj/icut J J
I 'T '" "m :' ^"^ --•-"'>i'l'."'»Me latit,..le of
.|.|;li.»ti"n. M,inMr,l, In 1,1, „„t„, on the Ore-
pnau .saerajnentary (,,. 147, e,l. Paris, IU4/)
iu.t,n< Ak" ...nl, ex,,h,in.s It ns o,|»lvilent to
Ant,|;h,marl».i • but « relVrenco to Agobnr,!
mil shevv (hat he in.,,lie, a tliree„i,l euumer t „,.
o.tWM;#,V,,H vi.. the "Mi"d" th
"LoctiomuT, au.l tho " Autiphonary." Aiobnrd
w. «r<hl..8ho,, of i.you,, A.... 814-840 This
itnmyrc.er to the au,ipho„„ry or ^ S
.m.t ue, a, I)uoauK„ h, v. interprets it, .d
b.i^:,wm,^rHm, a book which would in hule the
.nmoroll,e..», «ince the canon orders that par Ih
pr.,t» w,.r« to be provided with one on th fr
i|.|«m>tn„a.t, M ,>,>r i,inonmti,un ctixm ip,is divinl
•Jo.,) On the other hand, the treatise of
.«>llea iu .unm MSS. LiL Oj/icMis
OFFICIUM AD MISSAM. it uarll'lf
tho n, ,„,t in tho Mo^arabic liturgy. It was
pn .ably once current throughout the vh" le I
Oa lean family of liturgies, if ,,„t more widelv
«t> llur, though JIubillon «fc Z.- Tawif
p. J'O gives " Antiphnna " as the corresnoX ' '
'""' i" the (iaillum liturgy, ret th s To„ I !
?e-ral nan,e, like our "^Anthem " "nd the
'ml^n^^n. ,U,ciu>n mmae, or sin/ply ol,'„7n
.|i.n.l (,.r the introit in the ancient o/fiTbrks
th..m„,,„,le,y of S. (iernmnus n I'ratis at Paris
'■"' Piirtie, pp, ir,H-l,io, Jtc), i„ the 1-^tirh
«o, arun.and york,'and also, acclrdinf
i'aU(u..l..s .0 //„„„. fyr. Mm;,, torn, i ,,2^2?
L'-'- l!i. H.j
OIL, HOLY. Tho lator Greeks .rl..,. .!,•
"«™ee,,„eiallyt»oiltharisriide?d% "
m s la the tollowini? nstances- PvimI , e ^ Vl
P" H. Wo, records'two cur s" S ,e 1^87
a hill haunt;;V;?;,,, S^;' -|p-^|«' with i'
said to have cured «n i„ t''" ^" ^'- ^-y""^ '»
.Motaphr.i Wigno, Sr Jr't 9 n"'% "'T"
f 'oh MKiv;:^^.'{^y'7r:ir
"mong ther gifts f^.„, The "L f ,'1^^': ^J
;ai';r:tinuiriu;e;"^St.!z'"^ " '"-'
'|ualieumv.e lan^uore vfl t I ""I""'"tur,
Plenun, ^ecuperaft^'^nu: e, "• ^r':.'''^>
i he ampulla of Monza.Hgured in V,d ? ,, -«
Oil of the FIoly PLAri-q en w i
f'ora Paulinus PetricoWus a";7^1m ■ ''""■°
.»n of ,,„ L.„i, „,„i.,: „,, ji»™ ;;. " 1 "• •■•
holvMl" "'' "'■ "'* ''""!'' that burned in the
Bp-akin. if Ih/Llv oTS: "^ ,^"'-""""«.
theiampwhiehhadW' aoda Hi'h"'''l"f
that time fof Mis buri ., "''"' "*
night; out^f which '.-e . ;™ "'^™ ^''-V and
it in order again ■ ' (c 18 . n "I"'?; ''"'' ^«»
"• iu Prolegom.). ^ ** ' """'""'• J^"«. t"""-'
ft *|}i
1484
OIL, HOLY
OIL, HOLY
Oil ok niE Saints.— Thoo(l<,ret of Cvrus,
A.D. 4'2;), thought thnt he heiiid im evil spirit
ndilressing him one nii;ht, who aiiimig other
things siiiil, " He Bssiiicil thiit I shouhi lim^f ngi>
hiive i-hot thee down, ha.l 1 not seen i> Imwi vi'
miu'tyra with James (the imcetio of Nimiizii,
who was Htill living) guarding thee." The
narrator exi)lains, "1 understood that ho ealled
B band of niartvi's the nni|pullu of the oil ni
the martyrs wliieh, containing the hlessing
{fvKoyiay) gathered from many martyrs, hung
be<iiilB my bed " (//iatvrii lielijuisa, lil). The oil
of the martyrs or saints was of tive kinds: (I)
That which was su|i|io«ed to exude from their
relics ; (L') that which (lowed miraculously from
their tombs; (.i) that which hud aciiuired virtue
ft-om contact with, or nearness to, their relics or
tombs; (4) oil that distilled from their icons;
(.■i) oil ficiin the lamps which burnt beibre their
images or shrines.
(1) In the Life of John the Almoner, by
I.eontius of Cyprus, A.D. 39U, we are told that
"n sHcet, hfallli-giviiig unguent flowed from
his precious lelcs" (c. 5-*), and the author adds
thnt in Cyprus the same grace was given to
many saints, " the sweetness of unguents flowing
from their jirecious relics as from fountains "
(c. 05). Justinian is said by Procopius to have
been heale.l by oil that flowed from the relics
of several saints (/)«ylrt/i/. i. 7). Unguent (^lipo),
which Howed from the bones of Glyceria, a
martyr at Hernclea, had long run freely into
a brazen basin. When a silver one, which with-
out the knowledge of the donor had been used
for magical purposes, was substituteil, the oil
ceased to How (A.M. 68.1), nor did it run again
until the unpolluted vessel wa.s restored to its
place (Theophylact. Simoc. Historin, i. 11). St.
Myrops of Chios "collected the unguent {nvpa)
that Howed from the relics of the holy martyrs
and niiostlcs " buried at Kphesus, " and healed
the sick therewith." From this circumstance
she even received her name (Uolland, July IH,
ex S/ntixariis Oraecis),
(2) In the Life <f St. Sampson (§ 2.1 ; Surius,
June 27) we read that a healing oil used to flow
from his tomb on the anniversary of a miracle
performed by him. St. Uonitus'" ordered the
sick to be anointed with oil, which he had ordered
to be raised for a blessing out of the tomb of .St.
Peter at Clusina in Tuscany " ( Vifa S. Hun. vi. 2(j ;
Bolliiml. Jan. 15, p. 1074). A dying woman was
healed by the oil flowing from the tomb of St.
Elov (]'it>, ii. 51 ; Surius, Dec. 1). The church
of St. Mary trans Tiberium is said in the Acta
/?. (Jiiirini, 8 (Boll. Jun. 4), " fundere o'eura
fundatoris."
In the Kast, S.S. Andrew, Nicholas, Theodorus
Stnitelates (Goar, u.s. 4.")2), iiud above all Deme-
trius, were noted for this miracle. See especially
the Analccta de i'n:iuento scu Utco e S. Dcmotni
Tninulo, in the supplement to the works of
Simoon Metaphrastes (iii. Migue, Ser. Gi: IIG).
This substance was also called mcmwi. Thus
among the relics collected by Angilbertus at
Centule was some of " the manna of St. John the
Evangelist" (Scriptitm S. Angil. lo, in Hol-
land. Feb. torn. iii. lO.i). .See also J/.7W07. Basil.
May 8, St. Jcihn Ev. as cited by Dncnnge, Glos ,
Oraei; v. ,ud»/vo. Gregory of Tours speaks of it
as a dust, probably dust saturated with the sup-
posed oil: '-Cujus (S. Joan.) nunc sepulcrum
manna in mo.lum farinao hodiei|ue cruet it "
(iM- Mirac. i. ;10). lUit others speak ( f it ni
fluid (Due, (llimx. Lilt, in Manna).
(d) In the case of Demetrius, an I many iithirj
there is no ambiguity ; tne oil itself is »up|.,ni.j
to be a niiraculoiis product. Hut it is si.in.-
tmies doulitl'iil whether this is really meant.
For there wis n custom of placing oil in iir ii"ir
i\\') tombs of the saints in the hope that it wnull
derive virtue I'rom their rc^mains, or from th«
earth into which they were resolved. Tiiiii
Pnulinus of .N'ola, A.M. ilO.l, .says of the toml, (,f
St. Felix {Sattt. (5, 1. 88). that it was auuiritol
And again (.\a<. Id, 1. 59ii): —
" Ista hH|*rflcle» tabulae gemtno patet ore
l'rael)iii« liifusae »ul)Jecta lorainlna iiarUo,
Wuoe cilieriB nani'll vetilina u r>n\: reiKwui
twnclitlcat mnlicnns urcaiia epiriiua aura.'
From Paulinus Petricorius, quoted abovp
we learn that the jirai-tice was common in
the 5th century. The tomb of St. Martin
was especially famous for the oil that reieivej
virtue from it (Greg. Turon. de Mime. .S
Mint. i. 'i\ comp. ii. ,3.', 51; iii. 24; iv."
36; &c.). It is, we sui)pose, of oil thui
sanctified at the Memoria of St. Stephen that
St. Augustine speaks, when he relates the le-
c(jvery of a boy from npp.irent death ovi being
anointed " eju.sdem martyris oleo " (De Ciiit,
Dei, xxii. viii. 18). St. C'hrysostom: "N.,t the
bones of the martyrs only, but their toinli* and
colfins, pour forth abundant blessing. Take hi.lv
oil, and thou wilt never sutler the .>hipHi( » Jf
drunkeimess " (Hum. in Miirt. ii. 6d!i). A mae.
nate of Antioch, anointed with oil from tiie
tcmib of Kuthymius, was at once healc I (/.'u h'jm.
Vita, 127; Monum. Gr. Cotel. ii. 'Mt'.)).
(4) There was an icon oT the lile.ssed Virgin
at Constantino|)le in the 7th century, from whkh
oil was believed to flow continiiiillv. Of this
Arculfus, the French bishop who wVnt lo the
Holy Land in GilO, declared hini.selfto he nn eye-
witness (Adamnanus, de Locis S.indis. iii. 5).'
(5) Far more common are stories of iiding
by oil from a lamp burnt in honour of C'hri>t (r
the saints. The following examples are from the
East. The wounded hand of a Saracin km
healed by oil from a lamp before the icon u( 6t.
George (Mirac. S. Ocor,/. vi. 5.') ; Hell. A[n: '.')).
St. Cyrus and St. John "appeared to a |icr-
son sulTering from gout, and bade him take a
little oil in a small ampulla from the lainn that
burnt before the image of the Saviour" \n the
greater tetraj)yle at Alexandria, and anoint his
feet with it ( Vitie SS. Cijr. et Join. !( li ; Boll,
Jan. 31 : see also Vita E thi/mii, 147, in Cole-
lerii Muwim. Or. ii. 3:i.') ; Vita Incae Ju,
Combef. Aitctarium, ii. 1U12; Vita i:iuloi:iim i.
9, Boll. July 30).
Similar stories are found in the VVestern
writers. Thus Nicetius of Lyons, by menn< of
" the oil of the lamp which burnt daily at his
sepulchre, restored sight to the blind, drove
demons from bodies possessed, restored soumlness
to shrunken limbs," i;c. (Grtig. Tur. I/'St. Fr.mc.
iv. .')7). An epileptic was cured by oil fr.ni the
lamp that burnt night and day at the tomijof
St. Severin (7mnsl. .S'. .%-i-, Aiirt, Jean. Dis.-,
Boll. 8). It was revealed to a blind woninn, that
oil from the lamp of St. Genevieve woiilil
restore her sight, if the warden of the chi.rcli
Ott,
wro to anoint her
( 14). A week alter
who was healed in th(
the lamps at tomh,i sc
Mabillon, in Iii85, 1
tionat Milan (/ter l\
U)an " Inilex oleorun
Jlai;nu'i misit ad Theoi
l\i. bears the headin
S.inctorum Martyrum,
(]nieicunt." This he f
to his tract, De Cii/tu ,
mav be seen also in th
(if hninart, p. 01 !t, and
jiiitw of Jluratori, ii. I
above sixty saints, am
more as contributing
ihcrel oil (".Saucti Cor
.Sanctorum "). One en
from its sini;ularity, "t
(edit Snnctus I'etrus."
(iisquisition bearing on
Oil KitOM TICK Cm
BEALiNfl.— St. Chryso.s
ornaments of a church,
more honourable than tli
and this lamp than (you
(lify all know it, who, h
happy time anointed th
have dispelled diseases "
§6; vii. 37,)). From 1
from .my church lamp w
custom arose of setting
ofuking the oil that fi
(ngai;e the intercession 0;
We have an example in
Younger, who invited n
lo pray over a sick pi
hira with oil from the
that "in this maimer i
laymen who were harn
unoinling them with c
prie,<t.s"(n7.(, viii. 58, 59
practice is not extinct. In
cation " for the sick, prir
this rubric : " Ami ho ano
, from the lamp, saying thi
in? of the prayer is, " A |
of the sick with holy oil
instance in the West is 1
Tours (de Mirac. S. Mart.
pla?Me a person "went to'
look the oil of the lamps 1
arched root'," and anointed
»ith a good result.
OIL, RlTUAI, USl^S OP.
CiTKCHl'MKNS, Oleum Cat,
lawJunm — There was a a
«i early perio 1 of anointin
w ottener during their ,
"eiorcksed" or "hallowed
forms for the benediction 01
we found in most of the am
thanksgiving (eucharist) to
ot the mystic oil " is order
tHe .iposloHcal Constdutions,
Mai to anoint the poss,..;,
Inwr deliverance from the 11
«techumen,s, as unbaptized
f"l>Kcts, a similar rite wm
iMfa.s appropriate in their
OIL, USES OP
jm to snolnt h.T with it (.Uintc. /}. Oennf
who was. hoal,i,| „, tlio .n,no nmnnor Uhid ) Oi
the Umps „t tomb, «e., I,i„„r8, g,,ct. ix „ n-.y
JI«b,llo„ u. I,;8:. fou„,||„ a private 'c„ll..c-
,,,yt M,l,,n (He- H,a. Ap. •.'s'; J/,,,,. Hal. i
+)nn Influx <, ,.orum Mcn.nim q,m„ aregoriiH
is bear, tho hon.linjf, "N„ti(i,i ,lo „l«„ (,,"•)
S»netorum Mnrtvrum, qui I!otna« in corpor. r«.
(luiesuunt. Thi, ho printo.l in 170:. in Ann l
to h,s tract, Do OUtu /,/Hotonm S,nrt„nwl 'it
m«j; bo soon „ so in tho Act., AMynm fii.iera
nfbn,n«rt,p 01) an,l i„ tho AniU.ta A„J,r^
,M,M of Muraton „. 1S)1. It givo, tho name of
«bove «„ty 8„,nt,. and claim, many tlu-nsand
more a, contnbutin^r to the pro,lueti«n of the
,»crel 0,1 ( .■,«„c.ti Cornili et n.ulta milia (,«■)
Mnetorum ) 0„e entry do,orvo, to bo c ted
from lU smjjulanty, " Oleo (s«;) ,lo gedo ubi pr u,
..bt Snnctu, Potru,." Mm-alori («. ,)h'l" a
diiju.sition bearing on the present subieot
Oil fkom thk Ciuitcif Lami.8 {jskd in
BF.AU.o-bt. Chrysastom, ,pe„ki„g of the
ornament, of a chureh, ,«ys, « This table i, fa,
more honourable than that table (in yot.r house)
.nJ th., lamp than (your housohoM) lamp: and
u,y all know ,t, who having in faith and at a
Wy t.me anomtcl themselves with (its) oil
h»ve cbspolod diseases " (//„,„. 30 in S. Mat. Kv
b; VM. .t7,!). iTom this wo infer that oil
irom any church lamp was thus used, before the
mora arose of setting lights before icons, and
oft,.k,ng tho oil that fed them with a view to
.n«»se the intercession of tho saint represenTeJ
We have an example m the life of Nilus the
Voanger, who mvited a priest to his oratory
te"m this manner he healed monks ar^d
laymen who wore harassed by evil snirifV
.»..ting them with oil bv ^the hand of
pnests " ( I ,t„, viii. 58, 59 ; Boll. S^pt. 26). The
FKlice IS not extinct. In one "Ofllce of Sunplj!
»t,on • for he s ,.k printed by Goar, we have
.rubric: "And he anoints him with holy oil
, from the lamp, .saying this prayer." The head
mgof the prayer is, "A prayer on the unct^n
of he s.ck ,Wth holy oil " (Vao/. 8I2) An
nist«,K^ ,n the West is related by Gregory of
Tours (Je M,mc. S. Mart. i. 18). ^n a cattle
Pkne a person " went to tho holy basilla and
00 he 0,1 of the lamps which hung fom the
SSr:l."""'-^"->'-f|^_^-jI
OIL, RiTi'Ai, nsKs OP. rn Tup nir n„ ^.,
a ml,' If '"■'" " S'»«''al custom from
ftlr in ■ T'"''''^ catechumens onc^
Form, for the benediction or exor ism^ of th s oil
a« found in most of the ancient om^J.;,\?l
OIL, USES OP
14;>5
(2) Tirn Oil op Cimis.M (seo Chrism^ Tt,-.
fn In thl w"' t "" /" -'••"-'"» witH,!.;^,
Jam,, ,,„,;,.„, ,,^ usotopresbvter in g ner^ ■
o..'.:rro;'thVSh^'":'a i:^ tr -" <''" '^'
hnn ai^nting him^til^lilt l^:iJr^,X
0.1 was blessed for tlie ,iclc, not by the clergy
onlv b„t i.J ; "'^''' ""' "y the c erer
only, but ''/ l"ymon of great repute for sanctit^
It was oven done by wonien Thi.« Sf M '""""y-
;; H nnn who, having dr^'amt'^that's 7^:';^
»^o::,ifrr.rperi:;r"tvrof"^'^^"'^-*
that it was lawfur^r preb,trs'in"r^.*'";'
obtain the oil of the sick ft-ori ffl f "'■' *"
" they can be broutrht toiretbor ♦), u'^ '
(4) Oil m the Aonus DEr.-The Or^.
ci.ui:;7«;: joC uS '^:^^y i^}^^
thereof into the figure If ,rb,"''UrX7
■>■ 31). [AONL'S D«, Vol. I. p. 44.f Z sami
J !:l
y '
at : > ' Ai
ill
OIL, USES or
ffi «ay< (:i'.'), " Slmllili-r in »'il>urbuiii< civiln-
libus ;' ■ ''''in fiii'luut," whci't) (<•' "cern" |'»eu<lo-
iWcliin r.a.l^ '• oleo " (/>K Jiir. Ifjl. !'.»).
<r>) Oil., nil (■j.KMKNT IN HaI'1 i«>l. — Tur-
^1' ' of A'ornR in H|)aln, A.n. 447, lu n
ivh I ' 'her i>|>,iriiHh binlinpii, lilmiiH nn<l
tV|Miuiu>, s(,f illlig of till" n|)ocry|ilml IkhpIih rn-
ecivi'.l hy the 1'iisi.illiaiiiHta, rtiiya: " That t«
e<iii>i'iiilly ti) be trnti'd nnd di'ii'iitiMl in 1h« »o-
ctllcl ilij.i of fit. T/ioinaa, thiit it «ay» thi>t hi'
biijitizitit nut with water, IM th' iironrhini; nf
tliH l.diil liiri'i'tn, but with oil only, which |irni'-
ti(« tlioKU liiiiildi ijf ouis (ill t/it amtexl, liliri
caiiiinlii) <lo not admit, but which the
Miinichciins follow " (A'/ji'st. § T) ; iid ciilc. JCjnat.
XV. I.eun. M. l:t(». eil. Von. 174H).
Thi^ fiiet o( Miiniehtmn baptism in nil will
hardly In' doubti'd by those who are awnre that
the prni'tu'u wns nt lenitt not unknown nmon);
the orthodox Christiiins of I'er.^iu. Our autho-
rity for this ia the Monology of the Greek ihurc-h
in it.i account of the mnrtyrn Dadan, flobdelnas,
nnd Knsdon. (Lesson for Sept. '2'J ; Lib. Mens.
Venet. MM.)
(I)) Oil »n the Eccharistic Biikad.— For
many a);ea the oblates of the Ncntorians ami
Syrian Jacobites have been made with oil. Amon({
the former the preparation of the dough, which is
accompanied by jirayer, is the subject of rubrical
direction. It is to be made with " line flour and
salt aiiil olive oil, ami three drops of w-iter "
(Ojlicimn /Icn/ivntinnia Fermeuti; Martenc, (fcylnt.
F.ccl. i. iii. 7; sim. Badger, Sc^turians, ii. lt)2j
»ce aliio Le Ilrun, Kxpliintuin, Diss. li. 9).
(7) Oil, I.N Tiili Ko.NT. — From the second
century downwards, the bishop consecrated the
water of baptism by prayer, though the sacra-
ment was considered valiil without it. See
Baitism, § 42, Vol. I. p. 159. That no oil or
/uilpoK was at first used in this consecration, or
poured into the water after it, we may infer froni
the silence of the earlier writers. Our first
witness is I'seudo-Dionysius, who is generally
supposed to have written about S'.'O : " The chief
priist pours the ftvpov in lines forming a cross,
ntn the purifying font of baptism" {De Uur-
arcL "trcl. iv.'lit; comp. ii. 7). [Font, Bene-
diction OF, p. 080.]
The orders both of the East and West supply
internal evidence of the fact, that the consecra-
tion of the water was originally considered com-
plete without the infusion of the oil or chrism.
This was a later ceremony added to the several
ollices at various and uncertain periods.
(H) Oil in CiiuiiCii LAMre.— The lights of a
cliurcli were so costly that at an early period
some stated provision for them, beyond the volun-
tary olfenngs of the faithful, became necessary.
We mifth' k'i- tliis from a tradition of Kudocia,
the wi^" . i'heodosius the Younger. It is
said that "n ■•. f'-'^er Day going into the
church (t.; J: • .. . .1.,' to
■ <; ■.'•<.■, she
..-d t: t;.
,.• ■aI: rc>.
0* loi.
•venues
resurrectioii t
of oil to b* s
Call. Hist. S
to I'erpetuii.i
" From the
rate the holy
10,000 seitarii
.ghts " (Nicephorus
In a will ii . 'Ved
about 470, wi read :
■if tho.sc (estates afore-
namul) let oii be furnished to light perpetually
the tomb of the iurJ (Juiiiiii) Martin " (App. ad
Ojip. Greg.Tur. 1318). Caesarius of Aries, 502 :
" Let those who are able present wax tapers, or
oil to be put into the lamp " {Sh-m. 7G, § 2).
OLD TKSTAMKNT
The rnuncil of Hrarara, 572, illrected that a Ihirl
part of all the ordinary oblutiono of the p"iMi|i
should be spent " pro luminariia ecc lesiai. " (, „,,
.'). Oregory of Home, in tio.t, gnve land-, im i
"lil lings to the chiirih (d' .St. I'aul ,t Ij.ni ,
s '*> the proviso thnt all revenues thi-riiiviij
should bo upetit on Its lightu (K'jiiil. x\\. !•).
[W. K. S.J
OLIUANl'S, bishop of Aii.'a, in A-ia, m,,.
tvr under .Muiiinian ; loniinciiiiuated .Miiv 4
(llaHil, .if,nnl.; Boll. Achi .SW. Maii, j. r.H)'
Mav 2,'i (Itoll. Acta SS. Mali, vi. Mij; Mm- i
(Basil. Mcnul.) [C, hV
OLD TKSTAMENT (in Art). The nm-
ner in which the (tld 'I'est.inient was geii'ijillv
employed in early Cliristinn art indicates ii 1 1 inj, .
tion of the identity id' the revelatiipii i iintniiiH,)
in it with the fuller one made iu the .Smv '\\~..
tanient. The cycle of jiibjocts selected iVi.in ji
for pictorial represent ition, an 1 the innde jn « hi. h
they were Intermingled with sulijects tVoin the
fliisjiels, may be regarded as a visiljle e.xeniiiliii.
'■atiiin of Augustine's words, " N'lviim Ti'-ii.
nicntum in vetere latet. Vetiis Ti'staim'iitiun
in novo patet." From the almost lnninl!,.,,
wealth of persons and histories oll'criiii; -ii'iii-
selves to the pencil of the artist in the i.ller
books of the Bible, only th"^e, as a .iilf, me
chosen which the Christian conscinusup.s ri'Kanlf,|
as typical of the great redemptive acts of i)in<t
or of the Sacraments of the Church. In tic
Western church, where alone any large ri'iiiaiin
id' ecclesiastical art have been preserved tn in.
a rule was very speedily established in nra.ti e
rigidly defining not only what siiiijccts were >iiit.
able for employment iu religious art, but tluM rv
form and arrangement in which they weie t" le
represented. Hieratic types were iircscrihol Ir
each of these chief symbolic events, inmi wliidi,
when once defined and accejited bv the cliunh,
it was not pei-'iiisaible for an artist tu diverge.
So permanent was this fi>rniiilftte I tvpf. s'
unchanging the accessories, that a ver'v sinill
fragment of a fresco or a mosaic is fre'iiii'iitlv
sullicient to enable us to determine its siilject
with perfect certainty. Instead of havini; tlie
licence "quidlibet audendi," the eiclesi.TJtinl
artist was confined within trammels so due
that he became little more than th.' tnetli.inictl
reproducer of authorised designs, it is n i-dl?"
hei to repeat what has been nhi'.ilv wl
[Fresco, Vol. I. p)i. 69'i-70< , of il\.. trmta
character of early Chiistian i : ', A-ill w
BulBcient to indicate tlie subjects fri>m the 01 1
Testament which we liud pnrtiayel, and the
type commonly followed. We would premise
that we give art its widest meaning, inchi'lin^
paintings, mosaics, the bas-reliefs of 5aro(i)ihagi,
gilt glasses, ivories, lamps, &c.
(1) The Creation of Womnn. — The formation
of Eve out of the side of Adam was an earlr-
recognised and favourite symbol of the church,
the 8|)ouse of Chrict, jirnceeding from the pierced
side of the Second Adam (Tertull. (le Anim. c.
43). This is, however, only found represented
on a few sarcophagi, and that not with sufficient
clearness to render the identification unquestion-
able, though there can, we think, It liltic dftivt
of its correctness. The most remarkable ex-
ample is on the upper left-hand corner (th«
spectator's left) of a sarcophagus of the 4111
OLD TKHTAMKNT
HBlur;, ill«<;.>v«r«.| unler the Mnor nf 8t Pgiil'i
mimit tli« Willi. „(■ It , „„w ill th« Ut..|„ii
MiiiKUiii (A|i|,ell. A/miim;it.i „f i:„rl; r/.n,<„i„
A-t, N.p. r> ; Urownlnw aiH N»rtlin,tH, /.•„„„,
mt,:m. (.1. t\x. p. ;)()i J \VH»tw I, s,;tl,,. „f
the /itm.,,^. |,. ,M)). l„„„ „u,.g„„ „„„,|/r,j,/,
il«««n iii.tiiniM »,n„n({ th.. (ittv-iiv« i)nr™|,|,„,,i
in tin Lateimi Miini'iim. HciiLaiiiip* mir l.or I
wi«ll. the wiin ler.w„rkiii.-rn,l. An ivnry dltlie
4tli «uti.ry. given \,y (!„ri f T/u;. let. bipluch
T(jl. ii. |>. lUl i AKinoHiif, \u/;,^ ,,|. ,i|, N„ 1)'
n\>:nmU mim /.ik .'.ly th« . vn,i,tl„ii ..f KvJ
from A liiin a «. ■■ witt . llier miljectii from the
opniiiii{ clmiitcn of Uenfl»i»— the nmrjer of
(2; TV '■'iW— Few. uhjecti are more frequent
lo «i 'ly ( luM ot C'hrintjnn art. Our lirxt
ps!.!!- . li.iilly itnn.l on either «i<le of the tree
of kiDwIeilg", roimJ which the nerpent twinen
hi.|lnK thi'ir »hninc, noim'tiines witli tlieir h«ii,|H
nloni', »uiiietiiiie« with li){-h.avpit. A imnii
tiKiri-l hy Aitiiicniirt (Tvrnn C,uU% pi, xxiv
Xj. 2), rqre«i.ntii Kve HeMn^ f„r n veil At the
nidment thut she taken the futul fmit. On the
Ul,.r,in s.urnplm^uii ulrfn.ly refeiroil to the
jer|*nt ..ilers the apple in hia mouth. Om-
Unl, «« « hennllesf young man, presents Adam
Willi a bundle id' ears of corn, and Kve witli a
kmb, tliu emblems of their future lahoiira in
tilling the grrniwl and sidunins; wool. On the
celebrntel sarcoplmKUs of Junius Hassus (Hosio
p. 4,-i; Aringhl, vol. i. p. 277; Hottari, vol. i'
pi. I.I ; Axincourt, Aul/iliin; p|. ti, ai.a. ,5-11 •
Appell. p. 9 i I'arker, rhotunr. ■2997, Sculpture-
pi. xiii.) the serpent is absent; Adam ond Kve
turn thi'ir bucks to one another and to the tree
mil the emblems of labonr stand by their side'
By > sinjjular eccentricity, on a gilded glass
given by lluonarruoli (VotH, torn. i. (ig. 2, and
p. 8), Kve wears a necklace and bracelet of gohi
Martii{ny (p. 1(5, b) refers in explanation of this
toiiinie Uahbinical writings, which assert that
imme h,itely after her fatal ollcncc Kve was decked
with every variety of female dress and orna-
mentj. The subject is frequent in the catacomb
fresroes bnth of Home and Naples. (IJellermann
Uamilnm tu Neapel. pi. 5; Appell. no. 2,1)
The e.i|)ul8ion from Kden occurs on a sur-
copliagiis on the Lateran Museum (Fark.T
^^ilptw, pi. XV.; see oUo Bottari, Sculptur.' e
Mka. tav. ii.).
(^) .IV/ 1 .J Ci<m.— The sacrifice of the lamb
by Aim naturally ottered itself to Christian
U|«)l„t:y as prefiguring the death of the Lamb of
Oo.l,us well as the sacrifice of the Eucharist In
the latter reference Abel'c offerings, " munera
pueri tui justi Abel," occur in the can m of the
Jl.«. in connexion with the sacrifice of Abraham
anJ the broad and wine of Meichized.k. Tli"
•ubjcct 13 more frequent on S8rcopha,'i than
■Q wal decorations. We have, however, an
exarapleoi the latter in the mosaics of t ne
Banctuai-y of St. Vital's at Ravenna, where AM
tZLr^' f^' ''A''l'''erdlike, in a goat-skin,
Mding a lamb in his arms extended in nraver
Zh^Jn'"'!'"''.' I '"''''• "" *•>" other side- of
tha« inV" r"°'''u " """"""S b«ad and wine,
thus mdioating the spiritual identitv of the
S^l^wi:.-, tne Kc-al Presence in the Kucharist
[Mm.cs, p. 1322.] On some sarcophagi Cain and
AbvloUen apj-ear togfther, making their respec
UTe offenngs of a sheaf of corn or grapes and
or D TEBTAAIK.VT 1457
':.S;f;^d:p-,n:r^';;oX.r;^^
a N,,ah a, a type of re.l..ei..,,d huinaniTy'ii:
"'ittcd .0 the church by the water, of l,a„ i.m
Spin , he olive hranch of heavculy Jj t
repca cd con.,,„,„|y m „„ „„ ,,^^ .»';;"
Unishan «it (cf, IVrlull. ,/> il.,,L,„, «. y" {
h countless representations nf ,hU one cene e-
I'l' ted purely syinlHdicallv, with ,ut the s|i",l , 1 1
«;t..npt at hi,t„rl,.al accuracy, ev le .' tV.
Mri.ngholdit hal„„,hee„|.|y-C„ri,.iarmi.d
Is was one of ,h„ subjects' selected by St
Ai.l.ro.e fur the aloinmeut of his lla,ilica ,t
M,laij._^[M.t:*..o,VoM.p.090, ,,0. 10, |,ovb;
chifaVter''^''''''' f 'T.f ''''■~'^''" '•"'•''^»y'''''"'i«l
laiacter of early Christian art U evidenced by
the peipclual recurrence of this specially typical
'e it Abiahaii. It is one of the scene, which
this t) pc appears fr.un a passage from St. OreiforT
Nyssen ,,uot,.d in the se id Nicene council\Tt'
■^. , UM.e, OmcU. v.i. 7:10), ,b ribing n picture
in w) i r T *"' '"^^" '""'''"' "" *ithou tears
"Which the sacntice of Isaac was represented
u.t as we see it on the walls and ceilings and on
the arcophaiti of the catacombs. St. Au,,us ine
Hpeaks too of it as ..tot locis pictum •' (CWr
/<.« ^„. 1,1, xxii. c. 72). It is needless 1 ar
tic arise the variety of costume found in ,111,;. "t
exainides. In one instance Abraham k vested in
he high priestly robes of the Jewi.sh r tua
o tar., tav. clx,.). The substituted ram a,', a?
(tthich were regarde.l as a type of our Lord'.
hHm 8 sacrifice a)ipenrs in the mosaics of the
sunc u,ary of St. Vital's at Havenna, in Mn!
junc ion with the reception of the thr'ee anX
1 he lunette containing these subjects correspond^
\be ^nd"M",'r*^ i'^" •=""J"''"'J '""i"^'" of
Abel and Melchuedek. The eucharistic and
(«).VW,Au«/a-Asalre«dystated,theolferinz
of bread and wine made by the royal i.riest tf
the lather of the laithful, is one of the eu ha • t c
s.a,ject.s at St. Vital's. [Kuc.ARtST, p 626 ]
This subject ,s also the first of the serierof j
lestanient representations in the name of St!
Mary Major's at Kome. ***
froiP ^!r't~^^"' " "" ^^'^ Testament history
It. t ."" .""T^ illustrations have beei
fha icte. ';,f\r'''"" f"="''';- The sacramental
chai.itter ol the passage of the Red Sea, th«
g^^ mg of the manna, and the water flowing from
th '". ten ro,.k, having been so recognifed b"
om Lord and His apostles, these events naturally
00k the.r place among the lea<ling eucharistic
types, and are found perpetually fecurring in
every variety of Christian art "'-""■ng '"
('<) The first of these symbolical incidents in ,
llVl 'l^Tl- " """"'^ hi^sandals from his fee.
by the lathers as t;„ical of the duty of putt n1
away a 1 woildly thoughts and cares In approach?
ing to the Dinne Presence (cf. Ambros. de I^o
c. 4 ; Greg. Na^. Or. xlii. torn. i. p. 689). ThuS
H'tf
'1 m
1458
OLD TESTAMENT
one of the most frequent subjects in the catacomb
frescoes, and appears in enrly niuaaies, as at St.
Vital, Kaveuna, and St. Catherine. Mount Sinai.
(6) The I'asswjo nf the Red Sea. — We do not tiud
this siibJL'ot so frecjuently represented as we
might h.ive expected from its universal recogni-
tion as a typo of baptism. It is not found in
paintings, only on sarcophagi. We may instance
one from the Vatican cemeti'ry (Bottari, tav. xl. ;
Agincourt, Sculpture, pi. viii. no. 1). The sub-
ject is represented with far greater detail and a
larger number of figures on other sarcophagi
(Bosio, p. 591; Bottari, tav. cxciv. ; Millin,
Midi de la France, pi. Ixvii.). In the JIuseum
of Aix is one discovered at Aries, which in
addition to the Gatheriug of the Quails, and
the striking of the Kocl;, represents the Exodus
from Kgypt and the overthrow of Pharaoh
(Millin, K. s. pi. 9). Three sarcophagi at Aries,
two in the museum, and one at St. Trophimus,
also present the scene in detail, with the remark-
able addition of the pillar of tire going before the
Israelites.
(e) Moses striking the Rock. — This subject, so
distinctly typifying the waters 'd' baptism and
the supplies of spiritual g ace and strength
flowing from the smitten mtk, "which was
Christ " (1 Cor. x. 4), meets us perpetually.
It is seen coustimtly in the catacomb frescoes,
and is seldom absent from the sarcophngi, where
the thirsty crowd, generally wanting in the
pictures, are eagerly drinking of the copious
streams which are gushing from the rock struck
by the miraculous rod. In close connexion with
this subject there is almost always found on the
sarcophagi a group of persons in Hat caps, who
seize an old and bearded man carrying a rod by
either arm, and lead him off as a prisoner (Bosio,
103, '285, 287, 295, 425). This has been usually
identified with the apprehension of St. Peter.
Martign) considers that it is intended for the
rel'Lllion of the Israelites, which preceded the
miraculous gift of water (Exod. xvii. 4). Pro-
bably there is an intentional combination of the
two scenes, thus evidencing the complete identi-
fication of the two revelations in the mind of
the early Christians, by whom Peter was re-
garded as the antitype of Moses, "the leader of
the new Israel," as Prudcntius calls him. This
is also iudic:ated by the marked resemblance the
figure of Jloses in this subject usually bears, in
the general look of his hair and beard and the
outline of his features, to the traditional type of
St. Peter, and is still more strikingly brought
out in some of the gilded glasses representing
the striking of the Rock, where not only is the
resemblance unmistakable, but all doubt is re-
moved by the name Pktrcs being superscribed.
(See Brownlow and Northcote, Rot". Sutt. fig. 33,
p. 287 ; pi. xvii. no. 2 ; pp. 248, 2il5, 287, 303.)
((/) TIte Mtximx and the Qu.tils. — The manna,
as a symbol of the Living Bread that came
down, might have been expected to appear
more iVeiiueiitly than it does. Only one iudu-
bilable example is fouul among the catacomb
pictures. This was discovered in 1863 in the
nemeterv of St. Cvriaca, and was described by
Dp Rns^^i (IhilMi'n::, Oct. lHfi3, p. 7(! ; see
JIan.va, p. 10f<4). Dr. Appill cites annther
exainide from the snrcopliagus of the abbess
Euseliius in the museum at Marseilles, figured
by Millin (pi. Iviii. uo. 2). He also nmotions
OLD TESTAMENT,
one example of the quails from the Aries
sarcophagus in the museum at Aix, alreadv
spoken of. It is not at all improbable tint
the same combination of Old and New Te»t,i.
ment symbolism spoken of in connexion witli
the strikmg of the rock has place also in tiiis
allied miracle, and that a large number of tlic
])ictures usually identified with the multiiilic-i-
tion of the loaves and fishes in its closing sc^ue
the gathering of the fragments, have also, as
Martigny suggests (following Bosio's l",i.l) a
reference to the gathering of the manna in
baskets. The venerable bearded personage ro.
))resented has more resemblance to the type of
Moses than that of Christ (Bosio, p. 251).'
(e) I'he giving/ of the Tables of the Law. — This
subject is found in juxtaposition with that cif
striking the rock on a very large nuinbor of the
sarcophagi. Jloses usually stands with his
right foot on a rock, s;- bolizing Mount Sinai
and receives the tables irom a hand emerging
from a cloud (Bosio, pp. 363, 367, 589 ; Bottari,
tav. xxvii.).
(8) The Grapes of Eshcol. — Dr. Appel! men-
tions that a sarcophagus in the uui ouni at
Marseilles, traditionally said to have coutaineii
thp bodies of two of St. Ursula's virgins, boars
on its cover the parallel subjects of the twc
Israelite spies bearing a large bunch of gia|ies
on a staff, and the miracle of turning the wale
into wine at Cana (Millin, u. s. p. lix. no, 3 ; Dr
Piper, De Caumont, Bullet. Munwncnt. vol
xixi. pp. 553-559),
(9) David. — Singularly enough, this remark
able type of Christ is only known to aj.pearonc
in the whole range of Christian art. This is i.-
a fresco filling one of the compartments of t*
ceiling of a cubiculum in the catacomb c! Ci
listus (Bosio, p. 239 ; Bottari, tav. Ixiii. ; ArinsL
i. 54). In his right hand the youth v.iel.ls 'l
l(paded sling, and with his left raises tlie f'oKl i
his short girdled tunic, bearing a supply o.
stones.
(10) The Ascension of Elijah. — This subject, at
once a type of our Lord's ascensiipn (Greg, JIagn.
in Ecang. Horn. xxix. c. 6), and a proof of tlie
rapture into heaven of the glorified bodies ot'the
living saints (Iren. lib. v. c. 5), was a siieiiil
favourite with the early Christians, who Je-
lighted to have it sculptured on their sarcophagi
and painted in their burial vaults. £lij.ih is
usually pourtrayed standing in a four-hmse
chariot, an almost exact reproduction of' the
triumphal cars of the Roman emperors earvej
on their arches and stamped on their coins. With
his right hand he delivers his mantle to Klijiih.
Attendant figures of a diminutive size stand fur
the sons of the prophets, watching the iprophet's
ascent. In some instances the Jordan [p. 880]
is por.soniHed by a river-god, with a crown li
rushes, leaning on his arm (Appell, p. 34'), The
finest example is on a sarcophagus in the Laternn
Museum, figured by Brownlow and Northcotc
(fig. 30, p. 2,'iO), and Dr. Appell (JA.womnfs f/
Karlij C'Vistian Art, p. 22) ; see also Bosio, |i|i.
73, 77, 161, 257 ; Aringhi, torn. i. pp. 305, 3o9,
42,'; Bottari, tav. lib; Allegranza, Sf.'ie>jaim^
torn. V, ; I'errct, torn. iv. pi. xvi. nn. 21.
(U) Kze'siei's Vision of the Valley of Dm
Bones. — Striking as the symbolical force of this
sufijeot is as a foreshadowing of the Hesurrcetinn,
it is of rare occurrence in early Christian art.
367,689; BotUii,
OLD TESTAMENT
It npp™r3 on a few sarcophagi, and is always
wp;>ented m the same ma..n,.r. The „3t
Mnns erect h<,lj,„g his roll.extendinrh Th
h,,Di toward, a group of two naked men stand
jng up .no whom the spirit of life has j ,t
been breathed, and a third, still inanin/a e
extended on the ground, by who.e side are two
himian heads one a mere skull, the other par
tiallv covered with flesh. (Bottari, tav. xxxvti
c:,uiv., cicy. ; Agincourt, Sculpt. p|. viii no 3 •'
toic, pp. 95, 425 ; Parker, PlitZ. 29 'i ) '
(12) i>.«,W.-Daniel in'the Jon' ll' dis-
pute-lor requency of representation with Moses
blnkmg the lioek, and the History of Jonah
t meets the eye everywhere, and kiways con'
forms to he same general type, with many
m,nor modihcafons. The pro ,het is nlm,"t
»lw.uj entirely naked, standing, with his hand,
ei ended m prayer, between two lions. Hab-
akkuk, according to the apocryphal addition
It by- with the hand which has conveyed'
him through the air sometimes still grasping his
hair. and oilers the prophet a basketful of round
read ca.es, decussated, exactly resembling our
"hot cross buns " (Bosio, 155, 285). A fish i.
sometnnes added, in evident allusion to Christ
as the lood of the soul, as in the very cu';,
esisn, rom a sarcophagus at Brescia, given
by Dr Appell (p. 31). In the earliest 'known
lample >n the cemetery of Domitilla (Brown-
ow and iNorthcote, p. 73, fig. H). Daniel is
clothed m a short tunic ; but this is so exce,
uonal that Le Blant {Insariptions ChrgUenncs *
Gaul torn. 1. p. 493) ,s only able to produce five
similar examples, and all of these of comi.ara
tlJ-ey late date. Sometimes he wears a c 'n Tu"
Bo tan, tav. cxcy.). The apocryphal story of
lM,de.st,uction of the dragon with balls of pitch
mJ hair I.S also sometimes depicted on sarcophagi.
Ihere IS an example from the Vatican ceme-
tery (Bosio, p. 57; Bottari, tav. xix. j IW
«o^r 29.-0) The woodcut given Du'rut:
p. 0,9] (rom this sarcophagus ren,lers descrip
t.on needless The position of the serpent
™.ng round a tree .sets historical truth a
dehance It IS found on a sarcopbagu.s Z
^erona Mallei, Ve,: Illust. ,,ars iii. ,. 54?and
on one ,„ the mijseum at irles, an' oa a ' It
g.»s published by Garrucci ( VctH, iii. 13), where
Ur,,, s.ands behind the prophet who tu rns o
him tor succour before otfering the food to the
dragon who is issuing from a cavern.
) 11,0 n,-co Children in the Furnace.-
T ..another constantly recurring representa-
U. Not so f.-o,iuent is the preliminary scene
We itr/'"'f'"' '"Z^'"-'*''''' ""^ GoldTn
comb ot M. Callistus (Bottari, tav. Ixxviii V
Jasa..cophagusfr„mSheVktican™^^^^^^^
(Iteio b.i) in connexion with the furnace scene
^tliJ-^VT'"''- '^'"^ •"■ the yo<.th
«i-^ alieady m the lui-.»ace ; one of them is b,.!,,
"nllScer ' a1' '')l " ""'"S nushed foTw:,' ^ ;■
«iii ot Ood, sunds m the centre. It al.so occui-s
Tbo io pl^f:"! '"" ^^'"^^"y "f *"i«""
™ ' at Millrlrn ' ^'"■'^'"'^'■^'8"= "t St. An.-
OLD TESTAMENT H59
subject of the furnace they also wear the bonnet
and sometimes t.'ousers, and stand e.-ect with
, M'., «ln.., cxcv., clxx.vvi. 6 ; Bosio, pp. 63 129
n.e furnace is sometimes wanting inVdfh:
'P. 40,1, 49j) There is one examide in which
feiiMflU",fr:;.,ii:-,»s^
olive branch of peace in her mouth. ^ " ^'
,/,-^ {"'wA.— As a type of our Lord's liesni-.
dSch, ^Mt^^V" '^^ ^^'■™l'''«Si. °» lamps,
Th.L ' ^ .glasses, and sepulchral slabs
Three scenes .n bis history are of constant re ur-'
rence, somet mes fo.-m,ng distinct pictu s as in
the cemeteries of Callist.is (Bcsio p. 24) anS
Marcell nus (un 177 ^^J^^ J- '^ . ' "
e.,.\.....;.. yt.^[h '^«'^). sometimes th.ough
exigencies of space ingeni^u::^; e^l^.Th ^o
one compendious scene (Bosiof pp 289 46 n
a) Jonah being cast intoVbe se'a a^^d swa'llS
up by the sea monster; (b) being vomited forth-
"t r of tlr r^'"'"" ^'^ " '' "» ™l'"-il'le n 0?-
na^ture, covered jvith 'dependent .^vdii '" ^^ .?
oT I 'Vu ^l'- "'""'"S I'ranchcs coy r a
ine h;,!?]';'**" ""^"^ '^^ P'-"l'^«' liessupp'rt!
'ug himself on one arm, with an as„ict of
chagnn. One of the most spirited 're , re-
en atmns of the history is on 'a sarcopha'^us
in theLteran Museum, from the crypt of St
Peters (Bosio, p. 103; Aringhi, yol.^ p a^i
SSri5^'-,'''"-'^l^P'="'P-19;Lker:
I notugr. J90j). In a sarcophagus from St
Lo en^o (Bosio, p. 411) the hUtories of Inah
and .Noah are combined, and the dove is con-
yeniently perched on the prow of the ship
(1,0) Job.~3nb, seated on a heap of ashes
ZIW^T^^^^^' )"'^'*"' ^y^'' »VieLds and re!
proached by his wife, is found on Christian art
monuments with some degree of frequency t
appears m the catacomb f.-escoes (Bosio, p.^307
tad uV'":;-? ' ^'•'■'^'' •■""• '•- P'- -v.; Botl
tan, tav xci.) and on sarcophagi, though niore
frequently i„ southern Fralce than ifl 2
rhere are examples in the Museum of Aries ani
Lyons (M,ll,n«. .. pi. xlvii. l). The best repre-
■ entafon of the scene is on the tomb of Junius
tier) In a fresco given by Bottari (tay. xci )
and Bosio (p. 307), .lob holds a potsherd with
which he IS scraping his leg.
.„P? K -S""/" "'«'— As a type of the church perse-
cuted by the two older forms of religion-the
Pagan and the Jewish-the history ot'Susann,
^ found on sarcophagi, but only n,rely. t is
mo e frequent on those of Kn.n/. th,m in 1 1. !v!
i ic mode of re,,resentation is always the same
.Susanna, veiled, ,s standing .as an orantebetNy^a
he two elders. An additional symbolism U
whero » ° ?""'.,'''^ "■' *™'"=1' monuments,
where a serpent coiled round a tree is dashing bii
93
Hi
.;:■,'!
::;i
1460
OLD TESTAMENT
OLIVE
tongue at some doves among its branches (Bosio,
p. 83, no. 4; Bottari, tav. xxxii., Ixxxi.; Buonnr-
ruoti, Vetri, p. 1 ; Millin, «. s. pi. Ixv. 5, Ixvi. 8,
Ixvii. 4). An allegorical picture given by
Perret (vol. i. pt. Ixxviii.) repre-sents the stury
unJer the image of a liirab between two wiM
beasts, inteuded for wolves. The application is
made certain by the words " Sl'S.\nna " and
" Sk.n'iorks " above them. [Cni'ucii, p. 389.]
(17) TMas. — The fish caught by Tobias,
whose gall drove away the evil spirit and cured
blindness, was regarded by the early Cluistiiins
as a di.-tinct type of Christ (cf. August, tk'nii. iv.
do I'ctr. ft Paul. ; Optat. lib. iii.). In a catacomb
fresco we see him starting on his journey with
the augtd for his guide (.\gincourt, Pcinture,
cl. vii. II. 3). The most freciuent subject is his
catching the fish. Once m the vault of a cubi-
culum of St. CiiUistus he is depicted quite naked,
carrying the fish by a hook in his right hand,
and his traveller's staff in his left (Bottari, tav.
Ixv. ; Bcisio, p. 243 ; Macaiii Haijioijlijpta, p.
tb). He is also naked, save a cincture, in
another fresco (I'erret, vol. iii. pi. xxvi.), in
which he presents the fish to the angel.
More generally, as on the gilt glasses, he
is clothed in a short tunic, and has his right
hand down the fish's throat (Buonarrnoti,
tav. ii. no. 2; Perret, vol. iv. pi. xxv. no.
33 ; Garruici, Vetri, iii. ; Hmjioi/lypt. p. 7(5).
A fresco from the cemetery of Priscilla, badly
drawn and misunderstood by Bosio (p. 474), is
decided by Giirrucci {Haijioyljipt. p. 76, note 2) to
represent Tobias carrying the heart, liver, and
giill of the fish, with his dog running before him.
On a sarcophagus at Verona (Maffei, pars iii.
p. 54) the dog is depicted fawning on old Tobit
on his son's return.
This list includes all the subjects from the
Old Testament embraced in the ordinary cycle
of early Christian art. A few isolated subjects
may be found here and there, not enumerated
above, chiefly on ivories and other minor works
of art, but they are quite exceptional, and it
does not fall within the purpose of this article
to dwell upon them. It will be seen that the
leading principle of early Christian art is the
unity of the two covenants, and the interpreta-
tion of the Old Testament by the New, and the
exhibition of the New as the fulfilment of the
Old. This principle had its most complete
development in the system of parallelism, by
■which Jype and antitype were placed in such
immediate juxtaposition that the eye could
embrace both at once and observe their corre-
spondence. It was not an unfrequent practice to
devote one wall of the nave of a church to the
Old Testament, and the opposite wall to the
New. This is specially recommended in the
letter of Nilus to Olympiodorus cited in the acts
of the fourth session of the second Nicene
council (Labbe, CancU, vii. 749). "Novi et
Veteris Testsmenti historiis hinc inde parietos
templi repl(M'i doctissimi pictoris opera velim,"
the object being, as there stated, that the un-
learned who were unable to read the Holy
Scriptures might be instructed bv the sight, .am!
be excited to emulate the devotion and noble
deeds thus depicted. The legates of ])ope
Hadrian I. at the same council acknowledged
that this was the received custom, nnd mentioned
I a basilica erected by a former pope John in
j which it was adopted, referring particularly to
the pictures on opposite walls of the esnnl-
; sion of Ailam from Pai adise, and the admission
of the penitent thief (Labbe, ibid. 7,"jO). The
basilicas erected by I'aulinus at Nula con-
tained the one subjects from the Old, the other
from the New Testament. [Fni.sc'O, p. 701.]
In the same article is a list of the twenty-one
' scriptural paintings, all but four taken Aunithe
Old Testament.with which St. Ambrose decorated
I his basilica at Milan {ibd. p. 700). We h.ive a
reniark.able example of the same principle of
arrangement in Kngland in the churches erettel
by Benedict Biscop at the end of tlie 7th century
at Wearmouth and Jarrow. At St. Peter's, Wear-
mouth, the south wall was occupied with scenes
from gospel history, the north witli corresponding
subjects from the ajiocalypse. At St. Paul's,
Jarrow, the parallelism between the Old and
New Testament was developed on the opposite
walls, Isa.ac carrying tlie wood for his sacrifice,
answering to our Lord bearing His cress, and
the Brazen Serpent to the Crucifixion (Beda, Yit,
Abbiitt. c. ,5, cc. 5, 88).
The very remarkable scenes of mosaic pictures
from the Old Testament in the basilica of St.
Mary Major's at Rome, stand completely isolated,
and form a class by themselves. They are
simply a series of scenes from the sacred narra-
tive treated purely historically, without the
slightest hint of symbolism. These pictures,
which begin with the interview between Abra-
ham and Melchizedek, ami carry on the historv
through the lives of the succeeding ])atriarchs to
the times of Moses and Joshua tu the Ijattle of
Bethhoron, have been described in an earlier
article, to which the reader may be referred
(Mosaics, p. 1327).
We shall not here enter on the very interest-
ing series of Old Testament pictures contained
in early Greek MSS., such as that in the
Imperial Library at Vienna (Agincourt, Peinhri,
pi. xix.) and the Book of Joshua m the Vatican
{ibid. pi. xxviii.), which have been treated of in
the article MiNlATUKE.
Authorities. — Appell (Dr.), Monuments of
f.'iirli/ Christian Art ; Aringhi, Homa Sotteiraneii ;
Bosio, Homa Sotterranea ; Bottari, Sculture e
Pitture ; Buonarruoti, Osscrvazinni ; Burgon,
Letters from Pome; Garrucci, Arti Cristiane;
Vetri ornati ; Macarius, HaiiimjUjpta, ed. Gar-
rucci ; Martigny, Dictionnaire di'S Antiquity's
Chr€tienncs ; Millin, Voi/wies ; Muuter, SinMder
der Alten Christen; Parker (J. H.), .4rc/i 'cofci/j
of Pome, Catacombs, Tombs, Mosaics; Perret,
Les Catncomhes de Pome ; De Rossi, Poma Sotter-
ranea; Seroux d'Agincourt, L'Histoire del' Art;
St. John Tyrwhitt, Art Teaching of the Primitke
Church. U" v.]
OLIVE. This tree appears to be intended
among those which surround the mystic Orpheus,
or Orpheus-Shepherd. Bottari, tav. Ixxviii.
Also in tav. cxviii. and tav. cxxv. it accompanies
the Good Shepherd ; at least the trees repre-
sented 8re very like young olives or willows, and
in cxxv. the olive is clearly drawn. Less atten-
tion seems to have been paid to St. I'aul's
allegory of the olive-tree of the church than
might have been expected. The olive-branch ii
borne by Noah's dove'* [Dove], and the sepui-
OLYMPAS
chral dove of pence constantly bears it. Sec a
well-marked biiinch in inscription 91 at p. 60,
vol. i. of De l{(i>.si's /nscript. Chrlstiunac Urbi's
Hoiimc. See Citoss, Vol. 1. p. 497, for the olive-
wreath with the palm. That no certain repre-
sentation, and only one problematical sketch
of a palm exists in the Utrecht Psalter, seems to
disconnect that wonderful document altogether
from Alexandria and Egypt. Trees and olive-
crowns occur on some of the mixed or Gentile
ornaments of the sarcophagi. See, however
Aringhi, i. 311, where a well-carved olive-crown
is combined with the monogram ; also Parker
Phot. ;i9:i0, from Lateran Museum. The writer
can Hnil no reference in Art to Zeehariah's vision
of the two olive-trees and candlestick. The
Tine and palm are generally associated with the
Mount of Olives. The great difficulty of repre-
senting an olive-tree so as to be easily recognized
for what it is may be one reason why it is so
seldom attempted. For 12th-century Bv^antine
olive, see Kuskin's Stones of Venice, vol. iii. p.
17". and plate iv. vol. iii.
.'r. jample is given in the annexed wood-
tnt ui olive branches on a sepulchral slab
from Aringhi, Ji. S. t. ii. p. 644. He gives
Oli-eBnuchM. From . 8«imIoh»l 8to» 4rln«bl, U. p. «H
ranous reasons for the symbolic use of the tree
tut they are rather natural or secular than
Scriptural; as for example, its fruitfulness, per-
mneut leafage, &c. He does not montioi; any
representations of the whole tree, only of its
branches, as borne by Noah'.s dove, or the senul-
cnral dove signifying flight into Rest. There is
anolive-tree on the celebrated casket of Brescia,
(ttestwood, A«r(v Christian S.ulptnres and Io„rn
Shepherd (Bottan, cxiii. cxvi. oxviii. cxxii., all
bom the catacombs of SS. ilarcellinus and
Poter) are mtended for olives, and that thev
nm- involve allusion to the Hebrew and Gentile
"""■'•■''• [R. St. J. T.]
OLYMPAS, mentioned by St. Paul (Rom.
ly. 10)1 conimemoiated Nov. 10. fBasil
ilc.0^., Col. Byzant.; Daniel, Cod. LitSt.
'*••' [C.H.]
OLYMPIAS fl), martyr, with Maximins
n«tlom;m, at Curdula, in Persia, a.d. 2:,1 ; Z^l
memorated April lo. (Be.). Mart; Usua .
*f .; \'ct. Horn. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Ap. ij
••"'■^ [C. H.]
Hononus; commemorated July 25. (n.isil.
*«»/.; Dame; Coil Liturg. iy. 264.) [C HJ
OMOPHORIOX 14G1
V,•.?^T■'^^^F n' "■■"'y- commemorated on the
V lu Latina, at Rome, July 20. (U,u„d. Malt)
at?eSl'^""!'''''«"P-'«''thn'tsoml
surv ve in H^'' ■'"'"-''f """%'•'' ''«'">enism w.uld
^un n e in the church. Jn fact thev did survive
and none more vigorously than tl/e ob.erva i ,
of omens and portents, 'which Christ' ntyh"
never been able to extinsuish (' . ^ »
laments (//„,„. ,„ Qalat. Tl p 669 nT"""
U 1 stmns by ethnic .superstitions, .such as fore-
ca..ts from chance sounds or ex,,ressions («a«-
fiom her signs (ffi^^„Aa). And acain r ■ /
SnVt'- ;1''""""' "• ^^^> '•« inveigrTt : 3;
against certain superstitious prac ices of his
nne, and among them agains? ome'I f, t
sa N when a man first leaves his door, he
meets one who has but one eye, or is Ian he
reckons this ominous of evil.^ This is "n of
the pomps of Satan; for it is not the m e im
hAk-t^wiinJl^^^Sj^/^tih
stigmatises similar superstitions. An omen i
01 tne body. If, when two friends are walkimr
arm in arm, a stone, or a dog or a child .^.^^
to come between th^m, they's't mp h 'stote t
.pieces as a divider of their friendship „.
hey even beat the dog or the innocent ch d f" „'
he same superstition. A man returns to b d
If he has sneezed while putting on his shoes • he
return t„ ^is house if he has ftumbled on g^ing
future eviTif the ,1 t'' ''"' »PPr<^hensio'n „'f
less wil K '^«/'*<» have gnawed his clothes ; ■
less wise than Cato, who, when the rats gnawed
his boot,s said that it was no marvel, but if he
boots had gnawed the rats it migh have ben
thought a portent. A kindred superstition is le
observation of lucky and unlucky days orTeasns
against which the same father (^ic/.n-i.^;"
ChLtian. '"^ ' ■" ""'''^ ""^"^^'■y "^ »
SuBvrS oT, Hi. i? ^"'"J"* "■■''" P— -.
(Bingham's Antiquities, xvi. v. 8.) rc ]
OMOPHORIOX (if.o<p.ip,or. i^6.popo,\ The
omophorion, as its name implies, is an art ck of
dress worn o^•^r the shoulders; and thus we (ind
It .^8 a part „f the ordinary female dress. Th
Palladius tell, of one Taor, a virgin, who never
w ishcl for a new dress, or omophorion, or .andals
(f/ist.Laus,a,-a, c. lliS; Patr. Gr. xxxiy. 12:m
1 he church at Balchernae was said to possess the
omophoi'ion of the Virgin Mary (Leo Gramnia-
ticus, Chro„o:,r.phia, p. 241, edi Bekker)
In Its ecclesiastical sense, the word is u.^^ed to
describe an ornament worn by patriarchs, and
also by bishops generally in theVireek ch n' h
This consists of a long band of woollen material
falling before and behind to the kne,-, nr lower
and on it are embroidered cros.ses. There seems
I.ttle doubt that it has been a recogmsed veT-
ment since the 6th century at latest. Thus
sidore of Pelusium, writing'early in that cZ
tury, after speaking of the ieSrr, worn by
6 B a '
1 ! i
^^'.m
1 : -''
' 'rt ^^^^1
1 i^
t>\l tfi^inHl^^B
piiitutii:
ilHJ
-fffN
1462
OMOPHORION
dencons, goes on to dwell on the woollen omo-
phoi'iun worn by bishops, the niateriiil being
nieiint to suggi'st the notion of the lost sheep
borne on the shoulders of the Good Shepherd.
Therefore it is, he adds, that when in the service
the boolc of the gospels is opened, the bishop
irys aside his omophorion as in the presence of
the chief Shepherd Himself {ICpUt. lib. i. Kii! ;
Patr. Or. Ixxviii. 272). These words of Isidore
are copied almost verbatim by Gernianus,' pa-
triarch of Constantinople in the 8th century
(Hist. Ecctes. ft Mi/stica Tlieuria ; Patr. Or,
xcviii. 39G ; cf. also Symeon Thessal. de Sacra
Litunjia, c. 8'2, i6. civ. 2iiO). Another early
exaiiijile may be drawn from the life of Chryso-
stom by Palladius (c. 6; I'ntrol. Or. xlvii. 23),
where Theophilus of Alexandria is accused of ill-
treating a raonis' named Ammonius, in that he
ivetKe't , , . , Th uiiO<piii)iov iv t^ rpaxl\K!f
orVfi'ais Xffxri, and then beat him about the
head.
Again, at the third general council of Constan-
tinoi)le (A. I). liSO), in its eighth Actio, in which
the heretic Macarius, bishoj) of Antioch, was on
his trial, his views were at length received with
cries of " Anathema ! rightly let him be deposed
from his bishopric, let him be stripped of the
omophorion that encircles him " (Labbe, vi. 7.">9).
At the fourth general council of Constantinople
(a.d. 870) the rule is laid down as to the wearing
of the omophorion at the proper time and place
by those qnalitied to wear it (tou? dpiaSfDrat
ufioipopui' 4TriaK6vavs : CHn. 14, Labbe, viii. 1376).,
In the Byzantine historians, the omophorion
is frequently referred to. One example will
ButHce : — Cedrenus (under twenty-first year of
Constantine) tells us how Paul, patriarch of
Constantinople, was strangled by the Arians with
his own omophorion (vol. i. ,'29, ed. IJeliker).
A confiiniation of our statement as to the
early use of the omophorion, may be derived
from the fact that in the still existing ancient
mosaics in the church of St. Sophia at Con-
stantinople, said to be of the 6th century, are
figures of 4th century bishops wearing white
vestments with omophoria, on which are coloured
crosses (Marriott, Vestiwiuin Uiristiunum,
p. Ixxv.).
This being the case, we may at once dismiss
the story told by Luitprand (liclatio de Lei/atime
Cvnstiint. c. 62 ; Patrol, cxxxvi. 934), to the
effect that even the patriarch of Constantinoi)le
only wore the omophorion (here called pallium)
by permission of the pope i" soimus, immo vide-
nius, Constantinopolitanum cpiscopum pallio non
• Diicangie («. ».) states thnt Ijennanns distinguishes
Ix-twecn the oniciphcirlon wcirn by ii pairiatch or meirci-
pulit.in and that worn hy an ordinary b'shnp. Tje
Uf'-ek of tlu* passage is ci rtainly sonii'what peculiar, and
may perhap- be corrupt, but it sei'nis hardly possllile
to deduce the iibvtve iiitiTeiice from it;— to b)jLto<^npioi/
i(TT\ TOU dpYtfpeojs Kara rf)i' (TToAi]!' roO 'Xapiiiv ^fTrcp
iittopt/w 01 ec fo^ui ap-^ifpt'L^ {Tov&apioi^ ^aKpoiv rby
tvm'V^LOV uijLLO^ TrfitiTiOeVTe^ Kara tov ^'vyof rCiv tVroXwr
ToO XpifTToO. I'd £; a)^0(/»6pt0M & TTtpi^tP\yjTni 6 inU
ITjeOTros 6t]Aoi ti)V toO npi^arov 'opav .... Suroly the
apxicp^iit Niercly nu-ans a prelate (of whatever kind), as
opp'.scd to tlic pii. .St (ij^jsiis), whisc special vestini nts
— silcliurloii, peilirachelion, gtrdl>*. and phmoUon—
Gemiaiiushad Just mcntionid ; and then adils to these an
ornament b' longing to tht* higher rank (d the ministry,
With which be connects a double syinbulism.
ORANCSE, COUNCILS OP
nti, nisi sancti patris nostri pormissn,"), bnt ttint
by means of bribes leave was obtained from ths
Koman usurper Albericus, in whose hands the
then pope, .John XI. (o/j. A.D. 93ti), completely
was, for the patriarch and his successors to wear
this ornament, without any further permission
being necessary. Hence, add? I.uitprand, the
custom of wearing the pnllium spread from the
patriarch of Constantinople to the bishops of the
eastern church generally.
Into the question whether the omophorinn
properly belonged to a prelate of the rank of a
patriarch or metropolitan, or merely marked the
episcopal order, it is not our purpose to enter.
The evidence we have brought forward seems
to us to lead strongly to the latter conclu.sion.
The point is discussed at length by Gnar (Ew;ho-
loijion, p. 312); reference may also be made to
Ducange's Gtossariwn Qraecum, s. v. di/to()>ii,)ioi/,
[K. S.l'
0NESIMU8 (1), disciple of St. Paid
(Philem.); commemorated Feb. 15 (nasil.
Menol. ; Cal. Acthiop. ; Daniel, Cocf, Liturn iv'
2,'->3); Feb. 16 (Bed. Mart; Vet. Rom. Mart.';
Boll. Acta S!^. Feb. ii. 855).
(2) Martyr at Pi teoli; commemorated May 10
(Biirfl. Menol.) ; July 31 (Boll. Acta SS. Jul ii.
175).
(3) Thaumaturgns, martyr at Caesares ia
Palestine, under Diocletian ; commemorated
July 14. (Basil. Menol; Boll. Acta SS. Jul.
iii. 648.) [C. H.]
OXESIPHORUS (2 Tim i. 16), martyr with
Porphyrins ; commemorated July 16 (Basil.
jMcnol.); Sept. 6 (Boll. Acta SS. Sept. ;;. 6ti2);
Nov. 9 (^Cal. Pyzant. ; Daniel, Cod. Litttrg. iv.
274) ; Dec. 9 (Ba.sil. Menol.) [C' H,]
ONESTREFELD,
TELD, p. 1379.]
council of. [Nestbe-
ONOKOITES. [Calumnies, p. 261.]
ONUPHRIUS, Egyptian anchoret, "our
holv father," commemorated June 12 (Basil.
Mr'nol. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jun. ii. 527) ; Onyi'|!rius
(Cal. Byzant.; Daniel, Cod. Litunj. iv. 261).
[C. H.]
0NYPHRIU8, anchoret with Tryphon,
commemorated Jan. 24. (Cal. Armcn.)
[C. H.]
OPTATUS (1), one of the eighteen martyri
of Saragossa, commemorated April 16. (UsuarJ.
Mart.)
(2) Bishop, with presbyters Sanctinns and
Memorius; commemorated .;t Auxerre, Aug. 31.
(Usuard. Mart. ; Jlieron. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS,
Aug. vi. 68l».) ^ [C. H.]
OR, martyr with Orepses, priests; com-
memorated A'lg. 23. (Basil. Menol.) [C. H.j
ORACLES. [Paganism.]
ORANGE, COUNCILS OP (Arausioaka
Concilia). Two councils are recorded ; the
first as ridrdivatnd for its thirty canons on
ecclesiastical discipline, as the second is for it!
twenty-five decrees on dogma. The first hid
St. Hilary of Aries for its president, wai
attended by St. Eucherius of Lyons on behilf
ORANTI
ofhis.uffrag«n,, by fourteen other bishops and
he representative of a fifteenth who T„ Tb Jnt
but no .eo, are given. It met Nov. H 44? , '
lirst canon is reniarlrni,!,. „ ■ . "
byters, if a bish.rcan ot he ilLTT'"^ ^"'■"
chri,n> and bene'diCr l.e -etfc'' I^Ti'''^
itate desiring to be Catholi,rT ? '^-'"S
iD tl>e I'senlwsilo.ia„ ',i..f r"i'"''"^''
«rdainsthatnobod/th^t li ' ■ ."'"'" "'•'*'
baptize should evir set ZfT^^^T' '"
DoUtful readings Lke tl^e r.T '"* "= "'^'"■
objure, but they::r,^^:irn:;;;;:sttM:
r';?!!::],/!il:l"'^''"ho„butthe,,ri:st;"^';;:
ORAXTI
1J63
tion uTfK .K ' ''•"■'• '" » st'-'n'iinit l>osi.
lion, with the arms exteii.li.,1 i„ * '
inetnorMJ pictures of the
dead. The eel ^,, ::' ^S l^;!"""^ "*■ "'"'
Thrason-somewh t nlnV r '^""""""'^ and
tion, though grotesn'u.dy ill-draan. i,
i^''i:^^ri-">f"'^'^--^pK^j^
'■»<u, also ir lloftari, tnv IHO rui,
iire on tav 1 70 ihi „„ , , ,v '■""• Others
from iJ .i ;■ ''""''^''""?'''' '■■ I>P. 7(3 79
'lom bb. Marcellinusand I'oter • fr„n, M. * '
/ere.ia " ; andThrirjxTtl^;'! KTlVlf '"''■ ■>75-..', 17r,l-2 ml ,'?77*^'' Photographs 467.
En
fifth furbids those who have 7.V '"""'*• '''''«
to given up. Thesi^^Sh^::^:'^!^;::^,^
niittedin church. The wordTof'/^'Ji^' """'"■
..: "a^entibu, quaecun; i;';,"!^ it ^.f l"""'
!<:m,h": and the next tlire, ■ '
"cum capsa et ealix 0, „ ^ esV- 'e?' .' ■
tione eucharistiae corseerandu." i. ! \!t ^'''T'
by llabillon "obscur ssimus^'VA ^^v"^ '""^'^
i. 5, 19), though its T.* * ■ (•P^-^'i"'-!;- Oull.
o.r' Sarum Ms,^" ?£''""•* ',» ""/.f PJ"? with
Cau,o, eighteen n net^Mn ' "^1 ^'^- "" »> 2).
th.t...atment ow 'I""' ""'' **«"ty relate to
catechumens. Canon twenty-
^^'Zlt^^^^^^"^'^'^'
oneUUire<,ted aj^™"™^"'- l-anon tweut
third. Cauontwdfl'/^^/'^hops ordaining a
married men deaco^' , " ''''■"'Js the orduinine
'■■''"-■ '.hey will undertake
Canon twenty-six
_ ft,,, , —•""*•' me oruuining
to live no longer at,'"?' 'hey will undertake
- ~uch.
Canoirtw^.""''*''' ".nder any cir-
lorbids the ordaining \
cumstances. Canon tw,, -"j tn-
the profession of widoV^''^^!" indicates how
Canon twenty-eight direci^'' " '" be made,
relinquishing their vow c"* *" °^ either sex
treated as offenders, and sur*^'''/ shall be
ance. Canon twenty-nine dec'i**"' '° due pen-
by all, absent or present, of t.*he observance
have been made; and also that*^^"""' which
separate without fixing where the r.'J?'^^ shall
The last canon enacts that bishopsV'*°"ieet.
from discharging their episcopal dutP""*ated
any physical ailment, shall not delegatl?''»"gh
presbyters, but get another bishop to uif'" *<>
them (Mansi, vi. 4, 33-52). The seconcja^e
»-», July i, liad St. Caesarius of Aries h^- I
president, and was attended by thirteen ot»
bishops, but no sees are given. And though J
toes are purely dogmatic, eight lay notable,
sac of them m turn: "consensi et subscripsi,"
like the bisnops. St Caesarius calls them •' con-
stitutionem iiostram," in subscribing first. But
Jt would be difHcult to point out one that is not
borrowed word for word from St. Augustine, or
from hose who followed him in controv;:rsy
«ith the Pelagians or semi-Pelagians, aga nst
wh se various errors they are directl^d.^ The
nrst eight, fi.r instance, form eight consecutive
dogmas in the work of Gennadiu. (Dc J^ccl
t^v/rW •"'^ »'"'•"'""*''' "-t«S
tw Bty.first,aud nine-tenths of the twenty-fifth
«ork (c. 46-51). fhe Sentences of Prosper or
«c"pts by him from the writings of St. A^ng'n !
flnd^'!t*^"v ''"*" '^'^l"^" *''''•'' hear this name,
ret,e, r. '^^^''"'""y <'''">"• *» the catacomi,
female forms m the Eastern attitude of prayer.
I«'ur but de"r;.tr;;,'r r^ • "" "'■"' '""" ■""'■'■■'
'^tc^ Jansla • o'r r ,^'" "= 1" """=' ^vaient
la glo"e donJ el'^ " ■"^"'"' """^Soriquement
rPARAMs. 1 ^ J'-ui'^^aiont dans le ciel,"
Virgin V^- ancr "Vp"*'"'"' °^'^' '^1''-'"'
ments For the V '^^"gi'"'. with com-
Jfr. Hema::'s'":r ,"^;'^,';;^^''"'^^' ^
he can find a?tr c« .T '' '': '^> '"^y^ *hat
fce,:^"t ?:?• ^''\«k pribaSt,^" ::
_ -nolo. Mirtljfiiy.
For male Oranti,
ii. p. 259. Birds, Ariugni, S. 8. t. i. p. 606
branch, and typicahtimes bearing the olive-
are in these and othbe Hight away in ro«t
youthiul figures. Foi'stances added to the
posed " companion " to , Orante, as a suii-
Evidence of t/ie Catacomh'Sooii Shepherd, see
references to Dr. Northcote 12, 13, 17, with
Martigny quotes (Tertulhliosio.
ie Oral, xiii.)
■J 4i4
■ft
■'ii
1464
ORARIUM
thnt the Pagnn custom in pi«ycr wns to vni.'e
biitli hands to heiivon, " diiiiliccs nd sidura
ualinas ; " but Christians only extended the
hands — " N'e ipsis quidem nianibus sublimius
eiatis, sed temperate ac ]>nibe clatis " (see
woodcut, p. 146d). [Prayer.]
OP.ARIUM. (1) Besides its technical meaning
of a stole, this word is used in the literal sense of
a handlcerchief, primarily, as the derivation
shews, to wipe the face. Jerome, writing to
Nepotianus, and dwelling on the proper mean
to be shewn in dress, observes, "ridiculum et
l)liMmm dedecoris est, referto marsupio, quod
Biidarium orariumque non hnbeas gloriari "
(J-^/Ast. 52, § 9, vol. i. 204). Ambrose uses the
wiird for the napkin bound about the face of
l.azarus (ile A'xccssii Fratrix stii Suti/ri, ii. 78 ;
J'atrol. xvi. 199ti). For further references, see
Greg. Turon. {Hist. Franc, vi. 17; de Gloria
M.rtirum, i. 9:< ; Patrol. Ixxi. 389, 787); Pru-
dentius (I'eristvph. i. 8d). See also Ducange,
Olos^arium, s. v. [K. S.]
(2) See SroLS.
ORATION (Funeral). [Funeral Oration ;
OUSt^JUIKS.]
ORATIO MISSAE. A part of the Moz-
arabic liturgy, following next after the oti'ertory,
which, though called Onttio, is not, strictly
speaking, a prayer, for it is generally cast in the
form of a short address or exhortation to the
pcojile, reminding them of the particular person
or fact commemorated on the day. It is there-
fore one of the variable parts. Sometimes it is
called .simply "oratio." In the Gallican aacra-
nieiitaries it is sometimes called " Praefatio
Jlissae " (which must not be confounded with the
Preface, commonly so designated), sometimes
*' Missa." It is a feature peculiar to this family
of liturgies. [C. E. H.]
ORATORIUM (1). A stool, or possibly a
cushion, on which to kneel at prayer, is so
called in the earliest Ordo Romanus, supposed
to have been compiled about 730. Thus, " The
fourth in the choir precedes the pontitf, that he
may set the eratorium before the altar" (§ 8 ; ''esoyteis, and a house built over it in
Mus. Ital. ii. 8 ; compare § 34 ; p. 22 ; § 35 was a secret descent to it. Theodorct sav
ORATORIUM
is confirmed by the fact that a supposed frng.
ment of the true cross was put in the confession
of the third. Several "(iratoria"of the Siiime
mnterials, dedicated to SS. Thomas, Apnlliniiiis,
Sosius, .John the baptist, .John the Kvangclist,
and to the Hidy Cross, are said to have boeo
given by Symmachus, a.d. 498, to the basilicas
iif St. Andrew and St. Peter. They all had cuu-
fissions, and in the confession of the la.st was
also "lignum Domini" (Airf. n. 62). Now here,
we appear to have the description of a inini:iture
chapel, i.e. of a shrine or tabernacle .it wliich
the people were invited to pray, on the same
grounds as in a larger oratory, viz. its dedica-
tion, and possession of relics. Such largir
oratories, with the entire bodies of martyrs or
others under their confessio, were fri'iiucnt ia
the large churches of Home [see (3) below];
ai.d the small fabrics of precious metal of wlw:h
we have now treated, appear to have been iiaJe
in imitation of them.
(3). Oratariolum, Oratoriolus, Oramhim,
oIko! tUKTijpiOS, (VKT'l]ptOV, IfpoCTtUKT^p/ol/.
I. The Greek historians, thoiic'li tommonly
using 4KK\riaia, often gave tb'jse desn-iiitifc
names to churches. Thus EuscUus (}/ist. x..i;
comp. de Liud. Constant. 17) «>.vs that, nhtu
peace was given to the chu^'". "ther< were
feasts of dedication in ever-,^'*)'. a»'' consecra-
tions of newly-built oratoi;'* (^po<rfvien,pM,j,
and that the emperor ador;','/''.'' '^'ty. ".lined alter
him
Const
stant
to
church
(ibid.).
torium
(tuKTTjpi'ois) (deVila
n " with many orator; ,/.7«'-y''"5M<"''''''
nst.uLi»). Socre/y^**;^-;-/^^' ',''''', Con-
ntine ordered " ar'"*"? (°''""',^'^"^p,„.)
be built under ;■'''■"" f oak, and " anoiher
■ (iTeooj •""^'J'^'O'') ■•»' Heliopolis
We are "**''"® ^''"* ""^ ''""o ""»•
• wn.. e' "*'''^' *" (JltT'fipiOV, &C., WCle,
w'"*,.'idi with full privileges.
to denote a c' ■ •■ r . »
II, A
over the
.loria" or sepulchral chapel built
iftius or some relic of an omiaent
Christian'' '' ""='''■ ''* ""'y *" Pi^rpt'tuate hii
•^'^ ^ flo him honour, but at the same tim«
"*"!''''' prayer, was called an oratory. The
foil' "
Mus.
23 ; App, § 8 ; p. 35).
(2), We are told by Anastasius Bi'g
thecarius, a,d, 870, who may be takeq^y,
good witness to things existing in lj,t of
though we cannot depend on his ar 4gi^
their origin, that Hilary of Rome, y of the
made three " oratories " in the bapt'john the
basilica of Constantine, dedicated tj the Holy
Bnptist, St. John the Ev.ingelistnd precious
Cross severally, " all of silyy of the Holy
stones," and that "in the where he placed
Cross he made a CONFiiSSti a golden cross
the wood of the Lord,,unds." All three
gemmed, weighing 2(b former of brass with
oratories had gates, tlgento clusas), the last
silver locks or boltitug Po, ,. n. 47). The
of "purest silver lit and evangelist also had
oratories of the '"are not told what was in
confessions, bu'assume, however, from the
them. We 'the confession, that they con-
flg are examples both from the East and
Sozomeu {Hist. ix. 2) tells us that an
Tory (o?Kos fiKriiptos) was constructed umlsr
ound, so as fo enclose the remains of certain
which
says that
they built many enclosures for prayer (n-TiKoiii
€i)/cT7;()(ous) to Marcian"(y/is<.ii;e/i';/. inMaiciii.),
They placed the abbat Thom.as in a turab, and
"built a small oratory over hiin " (John Muschus,
Prat. Spirit. 88). The foregoing, it will be
observed, are instances in which the oratory has
no immediate connexion with a church,
HI, Many, however, tielonging to the last cen-
tury of our period, were so connected, being built
either (1) within, or (2) on to the church itself,
or (3) in close proximity to it.
(1) John VII. A.D. 705, "made an oratory of
the holy mother of God inside the church of the
blessed apostle Peter " (Anast. Bil'lioth. Vltae
Pont. n. 87), before the altar, in \> lioh oratory
he was himself buried. Gregory HI., A.D. 7;il,
"made an oratory within the same basilica, by
the principal arch on the men's side," in which
he deposited relics {ibid. n. 91). The same pope
enlarged a basilica " in which there were pre-
viously diaconia and a small oratory " (iW.).
ordiniiry u« relics of those saints; and this la the life of Hadrian, 772, we read that he
tained sup-
ORATORIUM
«ma.Ie id the chui-ch of the blesserl Petei-
throui^h the .several (initories, silver oanisini'
twelve in number" {ibij. „. it7). In that ot'
U 111. 7y5, nu'nliim is ma.ie of " the oratory
,fSt. Stephen in St. I'eter, which h called the
Greater (I'W. !I8).
For small .slirines or tabernacles within a
cliui-ch, also called oratories, see (2).
(:') Many oratories were built against churches
«ith an entrance into then,, or placed within
UiMinsrs (as iiori'hes, vestries, baptisteries) con-
neoted with churches. These were the early
form ot the side-chapel ami chantry, afterwards
so comaicm (see Muratori, Dissert, xvii in S
Paulini I'ueiwuu). Ana-tasius Bibliothecarius
tells Us fliat fteritius 1., a.d. ti87, restored all the
culiiiula round (In circuit u) the basilica of the
blessed apostle St. I'aul " (Vit„e I'ont. n S.'.)
ind those attached " circum^iuaiiue " to St'
iVtei-'s (i'.ii/.). That by '• cubicula " we are to
uii.lerstand o.atories is evident from the same
auth.irs account of Symmachus, a.d. 498 • in
which, after enumeratinit several "oratories"
built by him, he iniinediately ad.ls, "All which
oii'acWa he built up complete from the founda-
ti.in ' (i/W. n. bl). St. hiuliuus, too, a d ;j9i
added "cubicula" to his church at Nola,'"iuI
serted in the lonjjer walls of the basilica "(£"/.«<
a2 § li). which were intended, as he expressly
says (iW.), for the private use of persons '• prav-
ing or meditating oa the law of the Lord " (I's
i. ■-'), as well as for memorials of the departed
Usewhere (rwina, 27, I. 396 ; comp. 19, 1. 478)"
he speaks of them ; and of those whom the desire
to pray had attriu.ted to them. Tiiat these ora-
tories o|)ened into the church, appears from the
tact that a thief, who had concealed himself in
one of them, escaped when the door of the church
was unlocked in the mornini; {I'oeim 19, 1 480)
(.i) There is also fre.nient mention of oratories
near a church, and belonging to it, but not part
of the same structure. Such appears to have
been one at fours in the 6th century, viz » Ora
torium atrii boati JIartini." (Greg. Tur. 'de Olor
ik,-t:irum 15.) At Home in the 8th there was
an oratory of St. I eo, "secus fores introitus
banocae Petronillae." (Anast. liiblioth. Vitae
ont. n. m.) dheodore, a.d. 6+2, built one
Cons portam beati I'auli Apostoli " (A,,/, n
'il I his uosit.on appears to have been common
at Kome; lor the earliest Ordo liomanus. in giv-
ui? directions for striking the light on Maundy
Ihursday [see Lights, Ci-ukmoxiai, L'SK of 8 v 1
orlcrs It to be done "in a place outside the
l>as.l.ca ; but if they have no oratory there, then
tliey strike ,t ,n the doorway there." (8 32-
J/us. lal. ii. 21.) yv '^^,
IV. The name of "Oratmy" was given to
difierent parts of the interior of a church. Thus
ma a>vofTh,>odosius,the nave is called "tl,e
p»,des oratory" (.i,r-f,p,o^ „;; ^^„- j;^^^
fheod et \ alentin. Cu^'ex T.emlos. ix. 45 ; tan.
:1 ,"^\^'""1""-'^ the expression Tii- ..!«T*ip,ov
a™, denoting a part, expressly distinguished
n^th bema and the narthex («,</. 1.%; „
3'H) in the West, th. word has been used to
d^otethechoirofachurch. A bishop of A?a^:
tionlf'tr"^™^;^;^'r-|''">-Y^u-
"n-.! ,■ '.' P'"ts Of a new church,
oratormm scilicet (,uod chorum vocitant
Mimjue pontiHcalem" &c. (L )Zui,-
C^'n. 34; ilabiU. A^k Vet. 312; ed. 1723"
ORATORIUM
14(35
I ... ^' ^^\^'''"y monastery, whether of men or
women, had its oratory. Thus St. Augustii e
writing in 423 to women: "Let no "H ^i
toe oratory anything but that for which it was
('.put. 211,, ui Sa.K-tuDun. & 71 Sim In »►,.
^e.,n,a aU *Mo, J>a, a.laptll from hi 8 3
the Last: "lie who at terce, sext, or none, ha,
"t come to prayer before the psalm whi,.h has
b.3Kun IS over, does not venture to enter f„rt ler
nto the oratory " (/>, Co „,A fnsf. iii. 7 „
the rule of M Benedict, a.d. 530, the word
(2) The oratories in monasteries of women
nt"of''[';"*-th'""^"' *" "'^■■" ""'" ''"' '4 -
to have spread somewhat slowly They were
publicly professed in church, and attemiel i?
■ogularly inabody,a part, spoken of as enc ole I
eing assigned to them. Th'ese facts are po^d'
by the to lowing testimonies. St. Basil, Aiti„Z
';\^rri9.'i^;^i'''^^^'"''™'»''^«
Je.ome when describing (in 404) the lite of tho.se
m the house founded by I'aula, says that "only
by the ii I ? 7- t^'^"^' «" <"" *" the church^
h„V t ^^ ^'s^^-bere, in 414, he implies
hat members of a female community went "ad
rolenf^ri, ""'^"^-^ ''""' •>« "knew sotSe
who kept at home on festivals because of the
concourse of the people" and its attendant evils
(% l.JO, aj ^emetr. § 19). On the other hand.
L; K^ . " '-?""'' ""^ "•''"I'v fruni his hand),
though not conhned to their house <Ej>i,t. 211
ad Sanclm. § lo), had a priest who\ileb ated
m:nrnr(r7r''°*''^''^'''"'-^'^'>''''^"^-''-
(3) The houses of charity so numerous in
he early church [Hoshtal-s] were all under
the management of the clergy or attached to
monasteries: and there is evidence that me
and a probability that many, of them had h" >
own oratories. For example, it is recorded of
ment ;' V^' ?'' ''"'' ^' ^^^'^ certain orn.a-
ments to the "oratory of the holy mother 01
Uod ,n the xenodochium at Kirmi '' (Ana.st B
in fh,. ""';."■ "" P,P- '''' «)' '" the or orio^
ev la h. t" .? .^'-'""J-hia at Rome, dedicated
sev jially to St. Lucy, St. Cyrus, and SS. Cosmas
and Damian (M. 139). ani to' " the orato y^nf
St I eregrine which is placed in the hospital of .
the Lord at Naumachia " (1,11/.).
VL (1) Chapels under the name of oratories
were often attached to episcopal palaces. 1 ,.
in the L,fe 0/ John the Almonrr by Leontius
c 38), we read, " Ka.dt missas in onfto su; "
Kosweyd 199. Gregory the Great savs of
UssiusofXarni,th.at a little before his death
m episcopii oratorio missas fcit" (Horn 37
* f -;"/•)• «'«S«'-y of Tours, 573. cf,„tJd'
butt r nV''v'''T"*'=";' *hich had beeuth3
buttery of his palace, for an oratory, and
removed to it relics nf S.S Martin Sin,,-.
and Julian (.«(;^o.6W.20Tu\r"S
domumecclesiasti™m urbis Turonicae " (I'lC
ILl'i}.. '^^"l"' .' h«»J<"'«, 642, " fecit oratorium
- ',ij '.Jii
'iH'iJl .'•'•
i» .if>j'ii
;'''l!i;l
"if i
sill
i .»'■ '4'"
h...,»n «• . ■ ; ' -' '>-■> 'I' oratorium
ftnast ni 7, "r? t'*^"'"""' Lateranense"
(Anast. Biblioth. \,tM Pont. n. 74), ,>., ia the
■ I m
1406
ORATORIUM
ORDEAL
t (
paliice which Constantine was snid to hnvc givpn
to the see in the time of Melchiaile8(Lnbbe, Omc.
i. 15(0). See also Liber DiuruM Horn. J'untif.
V. XO.
(2) Oratories (= domestic chapels) were
common in it lu'nr the houses of the wealthy.
I'ty a law of .lostinian they wore to be ilevoted
to jirayev alone, " We forbid to all the inhabitants
of this groat uity, and mui'h more t" all others
under onr rule, to have oratories («ii«r>)pioui
ofKuus) in their houses, and to celi'hiate the
sacred mysteries therein. . . . but if any
Blm|ply think it right to have sacred chambers in
their houses for the sake of prayer only, and
nothing whatever pertaining to the sa'ired
liturgy be jierformed there, we permit this to
them " (.\W//. 57). Compare the Carlovingian
law : " He who has an oratory in his house m ly
pray there. But let him not presume to cele-
brate the sacred masses therein without the
license of the bishop of the place." The punish-
ment was to I e the confiscation of the house and
escommunication (Cufiit. lituj. Fran-, v. 38;!;
comj). v. 102, ami Cuiiil. ImiUhcim. 820, c. H, &c.).
The council in I'rullo, 601, orders the clergy who
serve in oratories in a house, to do it under the
rule of the bishoji (can. 31). Another canon
(5H) says, " Let nut baptism be on any account
celebrated in an oratory within a house." In the
M'est, the council of Agde, 505 (can. '21), orders
that " ii any of the clergy chose to celebi-ate or
attend masses on festivals (Easter, Christmas,
&e., had been named) in the oratories (unless the
bishop order or permit it), they be driven from
connnunion.'' A canon of Theodulfof Orleans,
707, shews that this rule had been relaxed by
time : " Let ni>t yie priests on any account
celebrate masses in the oratories, except with
such precaution before the second hour that the
peo|ile be not vithdrawn from the public cele-
brations " (can. 4l> ; Labbe, Cunc. vii. 1147). In
another injunction of the same bishop the rule is
exton led to suburban monasteries and churches,
aud the early celebration permitted is to be
" foribus reseiatis " {Additio altera, Labbe, u. s.
1857), whiuh here can only mean with doors
closed (com p. ressirrt^.
(:i) Such oratories (often on the homesteads,
or attached to the houses of the wealthy) were
often unconsecrated, and still more frequently
served by priests not submissive to authority.
So early as 541 the fourth council of Orleans had
to forbid the domiui praediorum to " introduce
Strang* clerks against the wish of the bishop"
of the diocese to serve " in the oratories "
(can. 7). The council of Chalons, about 650,
states that the clergy who served the "oratories
in the vills of the powerful " were not allowed
by their patrons to submit to the archdeacons
(can. 14). The co\incll of Paris, 829 (1. 47),
complains that masses were wont to be celebrated
in gar lens and houses, or at least In " aediculae,"
which they built near their houses." These are
contnisteil with "the basilicas dedicated to God,"
which their builders had forsaken. Presbyters
were " compelled " to celebrate In them, and alt
this " In deliance of eplscoi)al authority." Such
an .abuse naturally tended to degr.ide both the
character and the position of the clergy. Agobard
tells us that the " domestici sacerdotes" were
employe I as huntsmen and butlers, and in
various other servile capacities (Z)e I'rivilojio et
Jure Siicerdotii, 1 1 ). To avert such evils, massi'i
were absolutely forbidden by numy authnritiea
in all but dedicated churches, as in the h'jriru-
tinm of Kcgbrlht, 740 (can. 52) ; by ('harlcnmjjiw
in 7')0 {Capit. I. 14), and In 780 (Cn/iit. iji. yj.
by Theodulf of Orleans, 707 (Criy/iY. 11); by «
council ol bishops held at some unknown pUie
in France, 8ip2 (can. 0; Labbe, tWic. vii. 117!)) •
by the council of Chilims - sur - .Samie, f)l,)
(can. 49); anl by the council of Aix, In 810. ,Scb
also Jonas of Orleans, 821 (/)i.s<(<. /.(uc. 11, ia
Spicil. llacli, i. :l,'l), who speaks of the unconsi-
crated " ae liculae " of the rich In terms which
the council of Paris seems to have borruwed. We
must supi)ose, however, that during tlie piy.
valence of heresy a breach of this rule wnnl.l
have been justified in the West, as we knnw that
It was in the Kast. Thus, Theodore Studita savs
(Ejiist. i. 40, aJ i\Vi«<.T.), that in that case it
was lawful " even to perform the liturgy in aa
oratory."
Another check was the law that all who built
oratoria for more than private prayer shuuM
endow them. Gregory I. directed that an
oratory built by a nobleman at Kirinl should he
consecrated, provided that "no human b"dv had
been burled there," and that there was a suitable
endowment for the cardinal presbyter who was
to serve it (E,,ist. x. 1'2). He permttel '.he
consecration of another oratory outside the
walls of the same city, " percepta priniitus
donatione legitimii ;" but ordered that in tins
case the mass should not be publicly celebrated
at the consecration, and that a presbyter tar-
dinalis should not be appointud to serve it, nor
a baptistery built in connection with It (Kp.
vii. 72). Similarly, Zanhary of Rome, writing
to Pipin about 743 {Ejnst. vlli. 15). Aud these
restrictions are made conditions in the fonn of
mandate for consecration in the J.f-er l/iumus
(v. 4). Charlemagne enacted gencially, that
"those who had or wished to have a cousecratoj
oratory, should by the advice of the bishop make
a grant out of their property in that same
place "(A.D. 803, c. 21; Cipit. ito/. Fran,:, i.
401). See also Justinian, Xuvella, 123, § 18.
Much information on this subject ni.ay be found
in J. B. Gatticus, de Oratorivi homcsticis, ed. 2,
Rom. 1770 ; Josephus de Bonis, ile Uratorils
I'u'ilicis, and Fortunatus a Brixia, do Oratorm
Domcsticis, both printed by J. A. Asseniani
(Rome, 1766) as a supplement to the work of
Gatticus ; Z. B. Van tspen. Jus Eccl, Univ. ii. i.
V. 8; J. M. Cnvalieri, Comment, in Hit. Coiuir.
Decreta, v. 4, Venet. 1758; and many (dhers. But
it should be mentioned that these writers are
chiefly concerned with the later history and
rights of oratories. [VV. £. S.]
ORATORY. [Preachinq.]
ORDEAL. This article is limited to an
account of some of the more notable forms of a
superstition very prevalent among christian
nations, not only in the first eight centuries, but
long afterwards, viz., a belief that on the sub-
jection of an accused person to some extraordi-
nary physical test, supernatural intervention
might he nxpi'Ct.od for the ]i»i'pnse of makinj
known his guilt or his innocence. The pajjan
origin of one kind of ordeal is referred to under
Pa<ianism, Survival of. The following arc the
more remarkable forms under which it continued
ORDEAL
to OJl»t, «n.l flvon l,..ontn.) more widely disused
tSut imKHiiiMn Imd liici, oviirtlirown
Und.,r thu KumTul dui.omiimtiun of Judicium
I. Tha Jhwl, form cspecinlly provaI..„t
amo»K ..ulonm .utioiH. In tho y'.r a.i.. 500,
tho col., o law, prom.dg«t„d nt Lvou. by
OouJ,buM, tho Arm,, kinK of liur«„,ulv, and
known us t, u A,,. ,,.,,,, M/.,«:,velc.gal sanction
"""^ '""f"''..'"l. l!arb„ro«s as w.ra the
t.m,.>, ho i.roHn. do of tho ...mutniont relatin^f to
tho «ul,|..ot impliuH n »ensa that such a law
«.|uuvs»un,.,ju,stilic.,tiun, and this is found ii>
the all,x„d la.t that the morality of tho com-
Diumty.Hutsolowanchbthatit is a common
practo),, lor ,nd,v.dm.ls to ollor evidence on oath
v/ith rr«|H.ct to matters of which they have no
MrtHUi knowlodKu.or even knowingly to perjure
th,Mn».dves. It is nccrdinsly enacted (with
reftrrnco apparently to an already existing insti-
tutiou ana lo^ous in some respects' to the l^Klish
JrM ul n aler period) that whenever a «iuso
of .li.put,. shall have risen, and the party agninst
w om judKn.en ,s ^iven shall still deny his
obhKution to what is demanded of him or his
comin^ion „1 the alleged ol'ence, by a sacra-
n,ent.d oath" (iwr.wwator.m M„,.Ui ne rw./a-
«-■,(), the dispute shall bo thus decided: if the
p«rt,v on the side of bin, to whom tho sacramen-
tal lonn ol o.th has been pn.llered, shall refuse
to make sacramental attestation (,ujliu'rU surra-
m'nia „,.s.y,„;), but, confident in the risht-
uhifssof his cause, shall declare themselves able
to co„v„„;e h.s ant^Konist by arms, and those of
he ,|,os, „ partv reluso to yield, it sHmII be
law ul to deude tl.o dispute by combat ("pug!
mvU locntia non „e«etur." It is, however-
cpured that one of the witnesses, of those who
Iw^l .loine prepared to make sacramental attesta-
St ■!',)". "■ ">"'\""M" Oeo judicante con-
flsa )l .t being riKht, the law goes on to say,
ha, I a„y man u,.h«.itatinKly allirms his know-
H'«of a matter in dispute, and pro.lers h^s
.cn,m«„ tal oath in attestation, he should not
the :' ;V''"'h '■'; 'f '• '^'"■"' '^ "-e witness „„
e » do which ha, ollerod to take the oath
tois partiH «,„„,, ua„ „btulerit sacramen-
1 1 /'" ""'I'"-'""'- »" the witnesses who had
olh'iiHl to do the same are re,,uired forthwith to
pay » ,ne of ;J00 .hillings; but if ho who
ecm., to take the oath ^hiuld be sla n," :
party the v.ctor are to be indemnified, as t.)
",:■;' :it,rL"^i!?''-l.r"'M.o3s;ssioi:
ORDEAL
U67
f",l,. i,„.„i.7'r "■ "'" """" ""•"" possessions
(1'^ I.U'U tatibu, eju, novigil,li solutione nnrs
V,. «ns roddatur in.remnis."''cancia„i, ZZZ
rm Ui,s A ntu/tuie, i v. iiO, 20). '
LomU, Is a similar recognition was extended to
.t by l..Kisl,,t,„„ The code of Kotharis (a.d
W.) ki ,. o( the latter nation, opposed it as one
d ti, ,rr"'"'"'"" '" '"P'^'' another, i,'
vit.lfe .'f ;'"■' "'»V''^'"«'"K the aoousa i n
"fif. 'imid est mnxa •'), should be comiTelle I
^nmko good his charge in single figh'- J
Pe^ve,.av,..it,ctdixerit.eprob;„.e posse, tunc
per Campionem caussa, id est per pugnnm ad
OcijmUaum decernatur" (Oaneiani i 7<V^ Tho
character of Luitprand, ^^ho"; ' 'o . , h
Lombari 8 a.d. 713_7'ti i. ;ii, . \ , , *"*
-peHority to thil'sJpttrti,;""'^: //tb';?
'■though theirs is n.,t..riously the l,,st eV ,.„,? „'
'"t confesses his inability to repe 1 an " „ " uI
law "sanctioned by the custom of the ra' The
utmost he could do was to dire.t that th party
defeated m conflict should not therewith oeMg
whole substance, but be allowed to make a ™m.
position,-' s,cut antea fuerit lex comlmenTl
QujH mcerti sumus ,le >,/,W« /'ri, tZ^"»
aud,v,mus per pugnam sine jnsta ca'ssa suam
caussam perdere. Sed propter cons.'etud nem
gontis nostrae Longobardo^um legem im am
The advance of education and general en-
1 ghtenment under Charles and his^so, LvM,
- oms to have in no way checked thi s, ner:
stitiou, practice. In the year 809 at Ihe
council of Aachen, the same Ide of pr'ovL his
mnocence IS co,,ceded to a criminal foln g'^ilty
of a capital ollence (I'erfz !,•„, i i«;Vi ^
distinct arUcle (an, L;':^&,^i::;^;
t e ;ali,'tV'"r''''i' "■""'•" to call in'.ue.! i^"^
tne ^aill,ty of such a test, '■ ut omnes in.li,.in
Oe, credant absque dubitatione " (" " Z 157)
accuTjrofTheft /'^r- ''' p'-its thoVe-
coUe t witlAh ■ ""'■'""' *''«''■ honour in a
et"t:tV"?B ::,rr782") '%t '""^r ■'^^•"*°
betwe.cltsB^:j^t„2v^^:-:;':?
Lew ,s the P,ous, of which a minute descrLion
-s given by Ermoldus Nigellus (book TXoZ
met^'w th^"^ ''" *'''-"r' '"'"''''« '"Stance to be
met with at our period.
The voice of the most enlightened churchmen
was not unfrequentlv, though vainlv ,„^ ?
against this kind of ord'eal, " Pur^a kn ••;^^, f^'^
foz-mal proof of innocence/is de'fil'e "by "e^Ie!
siast cal wnters as of two kinds, "ca,fonica»
and "vulgaris "-the former being by "sacra
mentum et juramentum," that is by sacramS
and simple oath, the latter by the duel hot or
cold water, &c.-method8 to^ whi.h A jlbJT
refers as devices of men, « hominum adinvfnti„ »
?r which '^•°°f ^'""tres denounces alak'w
, for which no .sanction can be claimed " nX
sane lone fulta lex " (Migno, PatTXluiCtl)
We learn from the former writer that A -itus
bishop of Vienne in the 0th century in a eon
vcrsation with king Gondebald, s f^.l con
demned the duel as a metho.l of d cidi,"gpJrsona
disputes. ,Migne, civ. 125 ) ""-''""« l"""™"'
But while the voice of the chu.ch appears to
have been generally raised against the duel as a
su.'; ;'■ ;"nh?' ;"'=''"'"'''•« test, inasmuch „
supeiioi physical powers, or skill in the use of
weapons, thus became the real criteri „ of ght
?^u e:rt'h^"''''T""' superstition of th fge
^e^t^:hn:;y°r^„-a.^S
of the earliest instances of this kind" is that
<'M.al by l,„t water, the trial of rdics bvA^ i'b io'
' •!
ii!
1*1
n
m
i
Wm
1«' ■!
m
mm
m
m
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m
• K
'^wlM
m
m
'' 'Jm
flfl
? .««
B
'• m
14C8
OUDEAL
I*'
rccnnluil by GrofinTy of Tours, of S.ni]ilii ins, n
Liuhop in thi! lirnt half of the 4tli ciaitniy.
Simpliciiis una iu:<'ii»eil of ikIuIIi'I'v. itml botli ho
on 1 tlui woni.in impljcBtml in thu charj;e vinili-
ciiteil thunisi'lvut by tiikini{ live loiil* in thu
fol Is of their niirmunts, lunl hoblinjj thum theru
for nearly an hour, their (jiirniunts renininini^
uninjureil (Ue Gloria Omf. c. 70 ; Mi^ne, hxi.
007). Among other ami niord common forms of
orileiil was —
II. V/.c (Mleal of Jfut or Cold IV.iii-r.— lioth of
these methods were siinetioneil by ecelesiustieiil
authority. Ainoni{ the foniiiUM' \vtcrca Kxur-
cisiainnii (see liuluze, U 'pit. llo']. FniHc. ii.
6:t',t ; llo\i.iuet, Scrijitrcs, iv. 5!t7), there is
given a form of exorcism useil on the empbjy-
ment of either test. In that of orJeal by hot
wati'r, the two parties in the dispute repaired to
the ueinhbouring church ; there thi'y knelt down,
while the priest recited a prescribed form of
jirayer. Mass was then celebrated, and the two
presented their alms and received the holy com-
munidn, having previously been solemnly adjured
if in any way participant in or cognizant of the
alleged crime not to communicate. Then mass
was performed, after which the priest pro-
ceeded to the apjiointed place of ordeal, bearing
with him the gospels and the cross; he then
chanted a short litany, and tinally jironounced
the following exorcism over the water before it
was heated : " 1 exorcise thee, thou creature
wati'r in the name of Ood the Father Omni-
potent, an<l in the name of Jesus Christ His
Son, our Lord, that thou mayest become exorcised
water, to put to flight all powers of the enemy
and every phantasm of the devil ; so that if this
man, now about to put his hand in thee, be inno-
cent of this fault of which he is accused, the
compassion ["pietas"] of Almighty God shall
deliver him. But if, which may God forbid, he
be guilty, and shall have dared presumptuously
to jiut his hand in thee, may the power of the
same Almighty One condescend to declare this
concerning him, so that all may fear and tremble
before the holy and glorious name of our Lord,
who lives and reigns ever One God throughout
all ages." When the water had been raised to boil-
ing heat, the accused recited the Lord's Prayer,
ma le the sign of the cross, and then drew from
the vessel containing the water a heavy stone,
previously placed therein by the presiding judge.
The severity of this form of ordeal seems to have
given it the preference in cases where the accused
was of the servile class. In the year 816, a capitu-
lary of Lewis the Pious <lirects that slaves accused
of homicide shall submit to this test, in order that
it may be made apparent whether they had
designedly slain their victims, or done so only
in .self-defence. If the slave's hand exhibited
marks of injury from the ordeal, he was to be
put to doatli (lialuze, i. 177 ; see also 1'.'51).
The method of procedure at the ordeal of cold
water was similar ; but here the dilficulty was
reversed ; for while, in the former method, it
consisted in escaping injury, in this it was
nlmo.st impossible to obtain a conviction. The
accused was only held guilty if he or she floated
on the surface, the element having boon pro-
viouslv adjured by the priest to refuse to receive
him or her if really criminal (non suscipiat te
aqua incredulum aut seductum). A deviation
from this method is recoided by Gregory of
OUDEAL
Tours, on an occasiim when a woman accused of
adultery was Hung into the Ithone, vilh licmu
stiiiiea f'tntciu'd ronml hi'.r imk; she, however
invoked the aid of St. Geui^sis, and was niiraeu.
bmsly borne along on the .surface (d' the current
and her iimiicence established (i/i- Glnrm Mnrt.
c. 711; Migne, Ixxi. 7itl)), ISut the furiner
method was uudoubtedly the more cenitnon
though in th' . , iuion of Le Urun (llist. rriliiue,
p. 407), it was not recognised by law befre tha
Uth century, when pope Kugenius II. gave his
sanction to its emjiloyment (Migms i:\xi x.'js,'i_7^_
Lewis the Pious, on the other bauil, in a capitj.
lary of Aachen of the year 8J9, , rdin^d it to be
discontinued (lialuze, i. 008), though nut, pro.
bably, with the view of nbcdishing a superstitious
jiractice (for other firms of ordeal were ^fi|l
resorted to), but, as Muratori has jioirit'd uu',
because it practically amounted to an evasion o'
justice.
III. Judicium Cruets, otherwise known as .'Vncf
ad Ci-ucum. — In this mode of ordeal, the accused
and his accuser lifted their arms to a hnri/mu,.!
position, so that the entire body of each repre-
sented the tigure of a cross. Then some ihaplers
from the Gospels, or a portion of the rhurch
services, were read aloud, and he who, from
fatigue, was first compelled to let fall his arms
was held to be clefeated. Hcrchenrad, bishop of
Paris in A.n. 771, having become involve 1 in a
disi)Ute with a monastic bodv, oliered to submit
the question at Lssue t^ this test, ai.l was
victorious (Muratori, LtsTt. in AnUi, Ital.
Medii Aevi, vol. iii.),
A capitulary cf Charles the Great of the year
799, directs that persons accused of perjury
shall "stand cross-fashion" ("stent ad crucom,"
Pertz, Leiiij. i. 37). Another of the year 80:i,
directs that if the prosecutor of a tVeeman who
is unable to pay a line, refuses to receive the
" sacramenta " of twelve men in evidence of
such inability, then the dispute shall lie .settled
either " by the cross" or by a duel fought with
clubs and shields (Ualuze, i. 397). Similarly,
in the year 800 a decree of the same emperi r
enjoins that in disputes respecting Imunlaiies,
" the will of God and the truth of the niatter"
shall be ascertained "judicio crucis " (i'jii/. i,
444). [Mortification, p. 1320.]
IV. The Ordeal of Hut Inm. — This cnnslstej
either in drawing a bar of iron from a I'urunce
with the naked hand, or in walking over heated
ploughshares with naked feet — mudes ileiinteil by
the expressions, "judicium calefacere," "juJi-
cium portare," where judi'vum is equal to fermm.
It is prescribed as a method of self-vinlication
from the charge of manslaughter in the coile of
Luitprand, king of the Lnmbai-ds, " et si nega-
verit ipsum occidi-se ad novem vomeres iguitos
ad Judicium Moi examinatos accedat " ((.'auoiani,
i. 102). A capitulary of Charles the Great, of the
yuar803, enacts in the case of a mau wh.i is accused
of having slain a neighbour in defence of his
own freedom, but denies the deeil, that he shall
pass over (accedat) nine fiery iilcughsliares,
to bo tosted "judicio Dei" (iialu::e, i. 389).
According to Milnian, this mode of ordeal was
especially reserved fur accuse! [!er3"ii3 ef rtiigw-'
rank; and he mentions as inlividuals by whom
it was undergone " one of Charlemagne's wives,
our own queen Kmma, the empress Cuaegunda
(iiii, CUristiaMty, bk. iii. c. 5).
ORDERS, HOLY.
ORDKIiS, HOLY
V, n.- <>nU„t nf S„;M.nn:, Fo„K-M wn,
(„:l..v..l that l,r..,„ a.„l ,h,.,,«,., «,1,„inist..r,.,l
«Mli .luu iiroMiil.,..! M,l,.miiiti..» to «„ hcumM
iWHin, wniil.l inCalliMy .l.nku him if h.. ku.,w-
iBKly jHTjiiml hiiiiMiir(Murnt(iri, m. ».).
Th,! nmst reina.kaMe an.l elahcrate protiMt
.S;Mn>t thii* M.,,er.,titi„u, In all its (on.,,, wan
umlmibuMly tliat contaiiif.l iu a treatise- bv
A,'..bar.l, bi«h«|) of l,y„n, („ tho 9th cfnturv,
who, ahout the year 8,10, composcl a trtmtisj
C'jiUri d.mm,h,lein upinionca imtaut.uin ilioin,
j-uha, i-ent.ik;,, i,j,u; vol ,i,/ui,, tel conjiictu
.1 m.n;m put.'jieri (Migi,,,, civ. a^O). This re-
m.nsliau.T ,,ro,lu,v,l no srv.ll etlect i„ its own
(lay ; ui.l I aJKnive (//«(, Nunmndy ami Kt.qt,md
I. M) asrr.bu., th« prohibition of tlio watcr-
or c-,,1 at the .synnd of Woriii.s, a.d. 1u7i1, to its
nuhieuce. Ai;obar,l relied mainlv on Scripture
or IS ar^innents H„ was, liowever, opposed
by Ilmemur, who m his manifesto (-/« mo,tio
LM.imH Ic't'ienja.) uphebl the system, espe-
cully the water-ord.al. He maintained, that
where laith was really present in the hearts of
Ihorf who conducted or submitted to these tests
the result was an infallible declaration of the
u-nie will; only doubt and vacillation would
d^pm-e It ot Its elHcacy (Migno, cxxvi. 171).
The belief had, indeed, taken too strong n
hohl of the church to be readily dispelled bv
m,.ie argument ; and in K n,i;land, nearly a ceu-
luiy later, we find the forms 11. and IV eferred
to au.l sanctioned with considerab'e rircumstan-
tiality The language, however, is calculated to
.uggest that either through fraud or connivance,
th«e tests had been often successfully evaded
anJ that the physi,:al injury likely to be susi
hnjeJ was but trilling (Un.mpton, aron/con;
L l7il '"' f'"'""/''' f' 8'6)- Kven so late a^
the nth century, these jiractices still prevailed
1° n7 "?V u'""' "^ ^^^•'"'"■^■■'' ^vhen writing
lo IliWebert, bishop of Mans, respecting an at-
usation brought against one Gislandus, a priest
«h7n„'„' Tr"{ '" Sive special instructions
! il„„ I ■ tV'^r'r f^^ts shall be resorted to
(M gn ,clxn. ,J7). Compare Missa (10), p. 1200
A:M.,nt,es. - Lebrun, m.toire ^ Jitl^,^ d'
P'<it„,Hcs snperst.U.uscs, p,r un I'.'^tro de I'Ora-
loire Riris, 170;.; Muratori. Dissert,, iode
^.. i« Dc> in A,,., J. rtaliac Medii Aooi, vol. iii •
Du tange, s. v. ; Ualuze, &o. [J. fl. m'j '
ORDERS, HOLY.
^"'iZgi"!' ^*" ""^ ^''«"'« ^<"»"/or the
(■i)Oruup«of grades of orders, p. 1474. , n,„^„„
'■'^^/"''^•''■^''-"•-'••■-t grades.
Itl. Fjterml Orgauizaticn of the Clerav • n , .«
{3)dio™,., pi,V? """""'• W metropolitans.
'3,'pur"'"^^'»'"'»-=-8-.zatlonof
t^»Hatoco^.:(S;titir^r^::::.^
ORDERS, HOLY
1409
of h!,hop, .na form.tlon of terrltorUl dlocMW,
IV. Mmittim to Or<ltrt : p uai
«. guallHi-atlonsfur:
1. I'ersonal, p. usj.
". Cl>li, p. u«3.
III. Kccli.si«»tlc«l, p. 1484,
IV. Literary, p. m„j
a.M,sle^„f te.,l„K qu.llflc.tlon.: e„„.ln.„o„.
(I.) Civil fltatini
1. "'•'-'relhellmeofronsuntinc: n, us9
». After the time of Const.„tl,„/,„ i,"';™ „,
(■..)Mam";'of,lf:".""'"""""- "•"'"'•
('') tonsure, p. 14111 v"J uruia,
Influence of nmnastlcl.'m ; tendency to Uvi, 1»
community, p. um ' '"" "'
(111.) Discipline' '^
A. Punishable oflencod
(«) Marriage after onllnatlon, (M marrM
r•J^ I, '"'-"""'"■n" "' clerks' wive., n. un
^ 'mir:«rr^';:;^t'd7''''^"' ""■>
^oir<rt'" r^ " --=
r;:^;<r;,tp."?4»^r'^''''"*"'--<>
(3j .Social life.
B. Punishments.
(I) Excommunication: (a; Temporary m
permanent, p. 1496 v">"}, \p}
f il n""'"','"'"" *'"" J'-KWdatlon, p. 1496.
(3) Deposition, p uag '^
(J) Other punlshmenta', p. 1497.
the earliest and most general Lati^T ■"
fim found in Tertull. £7lrt'lZt TV
Jiirerentiam inter ordinem et nb '
«t.tuit ecclesiae auctor ," usua 'with"""
o.cleLalis^.J:f|;l^,lg-^'>;t|^c.l;
Jfsignation of fhl „ • ' '''"* ''"' ">J'imry
™u.iipa;^yli':.s^r%a:L'"'\»
Ufa provincial town, o.\,^J^^{^^,^J^^
0/2; 0. lieiytiorum, Le Bas et V^^ 1 1
/«son>,^^„. ,,.U,^; ,„„.;, ;'j,.]^ "■ '^'"^ton
^i7^:^r^:fe'-i7.'^-i.:^i::
Corpus JunX^g.^iJi'^f 3"''r"''^' '">"'«
88 the end of the i/b I ^'■"' '" '"^e
Greats writing^o^^he'civ t\Li?r"e^ tt
ecclesiastica authorities „r a . '" ''"*
Llditl"n of '■•sacl-^ 1 "ordo'"""" "'""^^^ *'"'
tiauation of a civil i«e «T, V- V™'''-*' " '="°-
"" use, e.i/. jj if^a ffi;7./cA,,roj of
it.
1470
ORDERS, HOLY
tb« Romnn lenate, C I. No. '2715 ; /»^4 irvfiitni
of a iuei'tiii)( 111' thi!Uti'ii'ttl nrtiati, I.h IW I't
WaJJingtiiii, liiM-rifitiiiif iCAaU' Mi eiin; No.
161U.) But it bi'i:nim! mure c(inim()ii, ftiifiiiilly
in later tinica, tii use r r/i'Si in the |ilui'ul :
orJinui OL'i le«iu»li(^i, TiTtull. do L'.iimrt. Ciint.
0. IJ ; 0. aacri, |ir>jbiilily lirat in Ciinc. Idiiii.
A.D. 405, f. ;i ; S. (lioj{. M. .l/^ni/. lib. iiiii.
c. '25, p. 75iJ, //'///I. in AV.i/i./. lib. ii. hum. :i!»,
0. 6, p. 10 IH, ami frciiuditly Bltfrwnril«. (Km-
the Inter lostlictinn of the phnno to biBli(i|iii,
presbyturs, anil ilciiciins [iiml »ub-ileiKim«], sec
below.) In this «en«e "onlo" unil "orlinci"
well! uscil not of 'hiinh olliicri only, but (if.
K\~it>ui bi'low) of any " onliitu " of mi'ii or women
in till) church. S. IliiTon. in lUai. lib. v. c. 10,
18, npi'iiks of " (iili'li'9 " anil " latinhumcni " n>
forniinn two of the five " eii leaiae onlinos."
8. Ciri'k;. M. .l/.mi/. lib. xxnii. c. 'JO, p. lOii.'J, nays
that the churih consists of three orders, " con-
juKHlorum, viilelicet, continentium, ntque rec-
toruu) "; i.l. Hutu, in lUevh. lib. ii. horn. 4, c. 5,
p. l:)44, spi'al<« of the enme three onlers as
•' piaeiliinnliiiui, cimtincntiuin, nt<iue bonorum
conjununi," of. i6ii/. lib. ii. honi. 7, c. 3, p. K178;
10, niuih later, Hrabanus Maurus, de /unlit.
Cleric, lib. i. c. '2: " trea sunt onlines in eiclesia
laicorum, clericonim, et inonachorum." in
earlier times, Opt.atus, i/f Sthixin, Vumit. lib. ii.
c. 40, hail avoiileil the ambii^uous use of ordo by
the use of a lea.'i technical phrase; "nuatuor
gi'nera c^iiiituin in ccdesia, episcoporum, jiresby-
tcrorum, diaconorum, et lidelium ; " so in later
times, intermediate between the earlier phrase,
"ordo niiirtyrum, virginnm," ic, and the
subseipient " omnes nuirtyres, virginea," &c., is
" c'lorUH martyruni, virginuin," &c.
2. KKiwos, K\-nptKol, c'eriis, clerin. — (a)
K\i)po! is first found in the plural = ordines in
the sense spoken of in the precedinj; paragraph,
in 1 IVter V. .'), where Twf K\iipuy is eviilently
identical svith too iroiun'ou. Hence, even so
comp.iratively late as the beginning of the ."ith
century, laymen, as well as church olficers, are
gpoken of as constituting a K\iipot {\aiKbs
KKvpos, I'allad. Hist. Lms. c. 20, Migne, /'. G.
vol. .x.vxiv. 1059 = Aoi<!ii' TtivMO. <'"nc. Nicaen.
c. 5). I'robably its first use in the singular of
the collective body of church otRcers is in Clem.
Alex. (.'MIS dir. salv. c. 42, p. 948, ed. Pott.
(=Knseb. //. E. iii. 2:i), of St. John at Kphesus ;
Tertull. (fc Afonoi). c. 12. Afterwards fre'|ncnt
in both Orcek and Latin, e.'i. in the fathers,
S. Cvjir. Epist. 2, vol. ii. p. 224 ; S. Petr. Alex.
Epik. Canon, c. 10, S. Basil. Epist. 240 (192) ;
in canon law, e.g. Cone. Ulib. A.D. 300, c. 80 ;
1 Cone. Carth. c. 6 ; CoOc. Nitaen. c. 1, 14 ; in
the Cund. Apost. e.g. ii. 43 ; iu civil law, c.;/.
Cod. Justin, lib. i. tit. 3, c. 40 (.!!)), 9. Of the
clerical oMice in the abstract, probably first in
Origen, //')". ill Hi: rem. 11, c. .'J, vol. iii. p. 189.
In the plural of the clergy of dilVerent churches,
Hijipol. lief. Ilaeres. ix. 12, ed. Duucker, p. 400;
S. August. Enarr. in Pa. Ixvii. c. 19, vol. iv.
p. 824. Occasionally distinguished from ordo,
S. Greg. M. Ejiist. i. 58, 68 ; and also combined
with it, 1 Cone. Arelat. c. 13, "omnia aecde-
■iastiei ordinis clerus," Karlomanni, Capit.
J.ijtin. A.D. 743, § 1, tip. Pt-n^;, M. !!. G. I.e^nm,
vol. i. p. 18. The original meaning of wAfipos
in this sense, though mistaken by mediaeval
writers, hardly admits of dispute. The word
ORDKRS, nOLY
was the nrlinary llelleuintic deaignatinn nf ,
rank or i Uaa ; it is an uae.|(l) in non-inl,..
siaatical late Oreek, c.;/. Ipict. iH-n. i. IH, Jli
Luiian, lliiiii'it. c. 40; l,e Baa et WKiMinj{l"ii,
//i.icri/(</o/i,i, No. 1257 ; (2) in Judaeo-Chriitmn
tlreek, ..;/. Test. xli. I'atr. /.. n', 8; (Inc. Sih,!!,
vii. 138; (3) in early pafriatic tireek, ? /. S,
Iren. wir. II.,.,-. i. 27, I ; iii. 3, 3; Clem. Ahx,
.S'(ro»i. v. 1, p. 050, ed. Pott.; Kuseb. II. A', v I
(letter of the churchea of Vi Mine and I.Vdii.*).
There ia a trace, but not more than a tnuo, of
tlie uaeof the word in reference to the go,-ernuij[
boily of a ((loiTot, or (ireek relij:ions asaiMJatiiiii ;
but there ia no roipin in modern philology for the
i|uaint fancy of .leronie that the clergy d.rivj
their iidlective nanw from Deut. x. 9, xviii. 'J;
I'a. xvi. 5, Ixsiii. 20 : " pmpterea vncantur ileriri
vel quia de aorte I'omini vel quia ipse linuiinM!)
aora, id est, para dericoruin e.st" (S. Iloiiri,
Ep.st. 52 (2) 111/ .Vc/.o<. c. 5 ; cf. S. Ambn.s tit
A'ui/o Siieu. ii 17, vol. i. p. 420), or for thnt of
Augustine: "et cleros et clericoa hinc appelliitm
puto . . . quia Matthias aorte electus cat " (S.
August. Eni>,-r. in /'a. Ixvii. c, 19, vol. iv.
p. 824). The prevalence of these explanatiiiiii
in later times is probably due to their hiiviuij
beqn co|iied by Isidore of Seville, ih Er.les. i.j,
li. 1, 1, ami thence into most mediaeval text-
books. ('() KAijpiKut, clerici, pndiably first in
S. Cypr. Epaf. 40, c. '1, vol. ii. p, 334; A'/i.-f.
00, c. 2, vol. ii. p. 399 ; S. Alex. Alexiinlr.
Deposit. .-Irii (Migne, 1'. it. vol. xviii. 581, mil
in the Benedictine edition of S. Athannd. vol. i,
p. 313); Cod. Theodos. lib. xvi. tit. 2, 2 (a Idw
of Constantino in A.D. 319), which gives the
earliest definition of the worl, "qui diviiio
cultui ministeria religionis impenluut, id est,
qui clerici appellnutur "; S. August. I'.nitrr, i,\
I's Ixvii. c. 19, vol. iv. p. 824, whence proh.ililT
Isid. Ilispal. de Ecelfs. Of. ii. 1. I : "omnes .\\n
in ecdesiastici ministerii gradibus ordiniiti sunt
generaliter clerici noniinaufur." But .soiiietinn'S,
especially before /tAtipi/oiv had beccimoestiiblishi'J,
periphrases were used to designate the niinili'i|
of the KAiipoi, e.g. oi iv rif KK-hpv, Epist. (Jiii, :\\i.
Kuseb. Jf. E. V. 28; Cone Nicaen. c. 3; oi iv
Tif KXiipf) KaTapiSfiovinvoi, Cone. Chiilc. c. 2;
oi fV Tif KKiipip KaraKfydfifVoi, Cone, Trull, e. .!,
27 ; oi iv K\iiptf KaTti\tyfifvoi, Cone. Chide.
e. 3 ; oi in too K\ipou, Cone. Aneyr. c. 3 ; ul
Hirh KKvpov, S Petr. Alex. Serii,. de I'oenit. c. 10,
Pitra, .l"r. Eecl. Or. vol. i. p. 550.
3. Tci{i5, 7dyfia{= Latin ui-do; cf. Vitniv. \.'2\
Cone. Ancyr. A.D. '^14, c. 14; Cone. Neoi.T'S.
c. 1 ; Justin. Sovell. 0, c. 5, usually with a 'If-
fining epithet, r] UpariKij r. (rh iip. riyun),
Cone. Land. c. 3 ; Justin. Cd. tit. i. lib. :i. 47
(40) ; Socrnt, /A E. vi. 18, vii. 7 ; Sozom. //. i:. I
23; T| iKK\Ti(TiaTTiK^ T. Couc. Laod. c. 24; in:.
Chttlc. c. 6. Also used, like nlo and KA.i),'0!. uf
any class or rank of persons in the church, . .7.
of laymen, Cone. Nicaen. c. 5 ; Cone. Const.mtin.
c. ; of monks (nirKTjTuuO, Cone. Laod. c. 'J4; 'if
catechumens, Cone. Neocaes. c. 5; cf. the I'falliaii
fragment of Hippolytus in Gallaudi, vel. ii. p.
488, where the seven Btla ri-inaTa are prei'lifts,
apostles, martyrs, priests, ascetics, holy men,
just men.
4. /J.-ifloiit, r)r::djt.i, possibly used from th^ first
in a metaphorical sense, hut more prohaljly mth
refer'^nce to the platforms on which the wveral
ranks stood or sat in church ; first in 1 Tiio. iii.
OIIDKUH, HOLY
11; 8. ToD K\^i^ov, Epi.t. Synn,!. Snrllo. ai> S
Allmimn Aiiol. c. Ari,in. t\ ;t7, y„\ ^ ., J , .
■ol ii. J). 8; Conu. t'hfti,., c. yil'; /3. 'a],
R 0...K N,.„ ,/« 1....9. J/,„.n>.. „,,. MiK,,,.
u.tm. lib. i t,t. ;t 53 (6'.)i p. /„;^,„f„ ,.„n...
Eph... f. 1 ; tone. Siinlio. c. 5 ; Cone-. Chnl,. ,. ■> •
ipcnnntly of nil „r,l,.rs (Vorn re.i Icin iiiiwhiM.'
(om SarJic. c 10 b,,t „f the hiKh.r „r.l..r.'
only m S lla„ . /■;„,(. 3 „</ AmpUI,x;h. c. M.
^.^Mo.-, where tl....o „my ho a .in.ilw .li.tino
im. tfr,i</«- i, tilg,, sonu'timos u.ie,l in distino
tion from orth, 8. Leon. JI. Ay,,:,/, l («) vnl i
p. 593: "nee in pi-Mhyterntu, <iri<ln,' nee' in
imeomtnt „rJ,no, noc in 8uh»o(,.,entl officio
clericorum "; 4 Cone. Urno. a.d. (175, c. 7 : "nui
jrndiii jiim ectlosinstiiMis inprucnint, id est
Dmbyteri «hl,nte, ,ive lovitan " (a,., a, « rule to'
beHempte.l from eorporiil punishment) ; hut else-
whore "gra, u=. ordinun.," (■„„,, Tanrin. A.n.
401,0.8 or ",«crnt> gra.lu,," Cone. Horn. a.d.
.!•'' '• "'o"/ '^'"'•"'»t"» Kradus," (;„„. E,,,cl.
^""■•,Po-J.'." ''""^'""""""i oflinea cleri-
eorum, • S. i>,na. A>,V,<. ,«/ //,„^.;.. o. 7 j
of any (.f the ranks of the clerny.
5. Amnng „ther c.iuiviilent words which were
in use may be mentioned eyv^a, J„sti„. .\V;,W/.
3, 1; tone Nicnen. c. 8 („/. rdy^a); i(lu>ua.
Const. AiK..t. ,,. 28, viii. 1 ; Cone.'Nic^en C.T
Oirio. Trull, c. 7 ; aiia, Cone. Chalc. c. 2 j Cod '
u.l,„. lib , tit.,3 42(41),c.9;8acrihonore;
8(un-. folot. A.D. Gr>:i, f. 7. '
1 feveral collective names for the clerey are
ba»d upon the fact that a list or roll of the
clergy was kept in each church ; hence 0/ i„ t«
mi-V KaTap,efxo,'.^i(vo,, Cone. Chalc. c. 2- ol ii
KHf,f KaTa\,yif,,yo„ id. c. 3 J Conc. Trull, c. 3,
2; ; 0/ h TV Ka,6y, /{.Tafrf^.yo,, Cone. Nicnen. c
liull. c. II, .'4; ol iu Upt^TiKf HaraKoya,, id. c
5;mr.ly, Ka.o.,.o/, S. Cyrill. Hieros, pZU-cl.
y, j). 4; S. liasil. Xpist. 1 ,„/ Amphiloch.
c. 6, where, however, it is probably feminine
Ihoiish n>ter,,reted by I5»Uan,o„ Aa ZonaJas'
»3^nm,cul,ne (so Pitrn, Jur. £ccl. Or. vol. i!
11. INTER.VAL ORaANIZATtOK OP THE CleROY
O.C. Kra.les and divisions of order8).-It is clear
from the use of the designations Jl .poX<rrd,Z
Ihess. V. 12 , „; i,yo<,^.,vo. (Heb.^iii. 7717
i*). w itponyoi,p.fvoi (Clem. R. i. 2, 1 • Herm
''»• i, 0), and also from the use ot^pTmA
or . .„ the singular, which has been "poiTed o"u
D i I , f " '''^'!"'^"''» «•«« drawn in the earliest
p , ll^etween the governing body of a church
en „ '";"■•' """'"■"l ^^''"'' *"•« th" «'«-
t d o, l^^r'"™'"? *""'>'• ""J »«•«■ <■«' the
to? "■,'.'' '"" "'"" ^'^^'"«'' ^'"n-esponded
to the bitor distinction between clergy and Initv '
-questions of too great intricacy'iru: ?.'
«,aisoin;„;,y'tiL;';;:;r'l:i;;i^;:il;i
the ,L» " or women in the church. In
tie K^rixoyo,, or list of men.bers of each
OHDERS, HOLY 1471
' >'k nod l.oman as.n,ua,on., with whi.h th«
I y churches ha,, „„.,h in common, the, „..m!
Kionp. 4wi« a K\„p,„ ,,r ..„r,|„ -• , ^^^ „u,„i,,,. ,,/
va;ttrx,:^"vrv''«'^ ;•••''- "-'it^
>ariety which exists in the lists whi.h have
'ome ilown to u, make, it exfre.mdy dillicnlt to
them Theemmieration of orders in the Ai.,Ht^
Ii»l. It .jiecido, bishop, presbyters, deacoiii
ea.ler,,.,nger.,,,|oorkee,,'rs,deaco„e,.e.,wi low''
yKin'. orphans [Invmen] (C. A. ii. 2,V vi To'
^.butelsewhere there iilshorter^n/n'tU^
of ;: ■ '^''^ ''"'"■"■ty of determining which
of the classes thus enumerated eorreHp,,„,le,l to
he clergy of „ |„ter age i, increase,! by th fact
t at sonietime, the member, of the ,/ n" Jem
to have been regar.led as i.lentical with the 1^.
8ons whose names were inscribed on the rnZ l
word which was in ordinary use under h em'
pue, in referen,.e to fixed pavments and , IW-
»nce. of provision. (Cone. ^N.-aen.e. 3, o JTi
JAVV apparently = ibi.l. c. 1(5, <,/ i,\^ ,1]*
we.ft;.;ri,;zrr'^"'^-* "^ '^^ '-- -'^2
I k 1;""' ""^'U'li-'l III a common li.st with th«
church olficers, tho.se which survived l-st
were t oso of wi.lows and virgins Vh 7 ha
distinction between clergy „„,| l„ity begl to be
n>ore sharply drawn, these classes renm "e, for
onie time on the bor,ler-line ; and it i T nd !
c» ion of the conservative character of form of
publ.e prayer that the ancient enumeratl of
orders survived in the mis.al. long after t had
eeased to be reeognize.l in conciliar dec ees or by
ecclesiastieal writers. For example, i b^^hop
,vi«;.. f^' ' "■•-'""•'»" include bishops, pres-
i>ters, deacms, subdeacons, acolytes, exorcists
.eaders, doorkeepers, con/e.son, Lyins u^!^
the l,xe,l sum p«lJ by tlu- pei wtuiil cecum ■•,.,/■ i '
flxeo contribution of com or o.h J'p,;, ;'';,, "i;""
-loMK ,be Itonian r.o,.ul.ue, h fc^^l'^'^ntw: K,?m i':"
"canon uibbarlus." Cod. THeod. U^^Xt fX^i^
Majorlsn. ,(t. ?, c, 16, ed. Ilaenel, Xo,A rj,tit n Vi
Kuhn, kludt. u. bii.gerl. \e,fat,una dt, nL \ -l
to a fixed anowanee ,„ the ^U.r.^'^ :Ztt^.^'
I,,„t „ ..|„„!,,r connotatiw, can.e to attach itself uViZ
word xardAoyo, Is clear from Justin. V^l^^tV^
';!iir
I J I , \ i «1 !.. I
, llr "I'h
,. ■;[''■
'n, i
J
t ■»;«
'! !.'i;i»|
: n
' I 1.' *'
k ■" !7 r:
HP^lr^r-
1472
ORDERS, HOLY
I
nni all the people of God (fol. 108). But in the
nieiintime, though not uniformly throughout
Christendom, the distinction between those who
held otfioe and those who did not had become
sharply accentuated. Between them came those
who had taken monastic vows dua^Aoc T(f \ay
irapa roin hpariKovs irAjjcriafoi'TtJ, S. Dionys.
Areop. Epist. viii. ad Deinojihil. p. 599), the
rdyua tiiv airKT)Tuv, Cone. Laod. c. '2+, or rdyfia
rdv iji.ova(,6vT<av, S. Basil. Epist. Canun. ii. ad
Amp/iiloc/i. c. 19. Into this class were merged,
not only the ancient orders of widows and
virgins, but also that of deaconesses ; the former
became simple nuns, the latter were more
usually abbesses. Hence there came to be only
three orders or estates— the " ordo clericalis,"
the " or do monachorum," and the "ordo lai-
corum " (Hrabanus Maurus, de Instit. Cleric, lib.
i. c. 2 ; cf Hugo de S. Vict, de Sacram. lib. ii.
pars 3, c. 11). It may be added that the dis-
tinction between monks and clerks was ap-
parently always recognized in the West, e.g. S.
Hieron. Epist. r25 (4) ad Emticum, vol. i. p.
944, " ita vive in monasterio ut clericus esse
merearis," and usually in the Kast, e.g. S.
CyriU. Alexand. Epist. ad Episc. Lib. c. 4 ; S.
Athanas. Epist. ad Dracont. c. 9, vol. i. p. 211 ;
but not always in the East, e.g. Schol. in Nomo-
can. tit. 1, c. 31, ed. Ualle and Potl^, Athens,
185'2, vol. i. p. 71 ; Balsamon, in Cone. Carth.
c. 35, vol. i. p. 357, though elsewhere Balsamon
includes among clerks only those monks who had
receiveil episcopal ordination, in Cone. Carth.
c. 6, vol. i. p. 119; in Cone. Tiull. c. 77, vol. i.
p. 247.
But even if the term " orders " be limited, as
it will be limited in what follows, to the " ordo
clericalis " in its later sense, there is great diver-
sity of use in regard to the persons whom it
denotes. No two periods and no two churches
altogether agree as to the grades into which the
clergy were to be divided, or as to the offices
which created a difference of grade in distinction
from those which were merely differences of
function between persons of the same grade. A
complete account of this diversity of use would
be considerably beyond our present limits ; but
the following incomplete account will give the
leailing facts in regard to (1) the grades which
were at various times recognised, (2) the groups
into which those grades were divided.
(1) Grades of (/rci'rs (gradus ordinum, Cone.
Taurin. A.D. 401, c. 8).— 1. Bishops, presbyters,
deacons. — Without here entering into the ques-
tion of the primitive distinction between bishops
and presbyters [see Priest3, there is no
doubt that from the end of the 2nd century
these three grades were generally if not univer-
sally found, and even so late as the 4th century
they are sometimes treated as comprising all
the cl'.rgy ; e.g. in the synodical letter of the
council of_ Antioch in reference to Paul of Samo-
sata, Kuseb. Il.E.y'u. 30,"bishops, and presbyters,
and deacons, and the churches of God ; " so S.
CyriU. Hieros. Catech. lii, 22, p. 256, bishops,
presbyters, deacons [monks, virgins, laymen],
and even much Inter Suidas, p. 2120 c, defines
KKripus as th (riarrina riiv iiaKivwv KoX irptirfiv
ripaiv. (The later tendency to treat bishops as
not being a separate order, but as constituting
with presbyters the "onlo sacerdotum," Cone.
Trident, scss. xxiii. c. 2 ; Catech. Rum. ii. 7, 26,
ORDERS, HOLY
may be either a survival from the earllor time
in which, whatever may have been the distinc.
tion between them, bishops and pri'slivUrs
together formed the "ordo ecclfsiasticusl" or
an exaltation of the conception of the prii'sthnml •
the latter seems to be the view of a l.'ith umi.
tury pontifical in the library of St. G('iK'vii''ve
at Paris (Ii. B. 1. 50, fol. xiv.), " episcopatus non
est ordo sed sacurdotii culmen et apex .itiiiie
tronus dignitatis.") 2. The earliest a<lciitic.ii to
these three grades (there is no cortnin eviji-iue
of its primitive coexistence with them) iippu.irs
to have been that of readers. The four ym los
of bishop, presbyter, deacon, and r<'ader form the
nucleus of every organization in both luist ainl
West, and they are sometimes the only gralos
which are recognized, e.g. TertuU. de I'rit's, rijit.
Haeret. c. 41; Aiar. K.\itix(i>TOi, ap. Lai^arle,
Jnr. Eccl. Jieli'j. p. 74, Pitra, ./ur. Ewl. Or,
vol. i. p. 84 ; Cone. Sardic. c. 10 ; S. Greg. Naziaiu.
Orat. xlii. c. 11, p. 75G ; Cone. Kphes. Act i.
cap. 23. The only churches which have \i';».
served the order of bishops without retiiiniii»
that of readers are probably those of KnglanJ
and Abyssinia (Ludolf, Historia A, thinjiiui,
Append, pp. 306, 320). 3. The comiilcx cha-
racter of the duties of deacons ca\ise I them to
be diviiled, and a new order of assistant-di'ii'ons
{uitoitdKovoi, subdiaconi ; iJirTipfVoi, mini.stri)wa3
recognised ; among the earliest instances of
such a recognition are S. Cypr. Epist. 24, vol. ii.
p. 287; Const. Apost. viii. 11, 12, 20;'t'oni;.
lUib. c. .30; Neocaes. c. 10; Laod. c. 22.41;
Sozom. //. E. i. 23 ; Cod. Theodos. lib. xvi. tit. 2,
7. The five grades of bishop, presbyter, deacon,
subdeacon, and reader are apparently the only
grades recognized in S. Joann. Dnmasc. liial. c.
Manich. c. 3, vol. i. p. 431 ; S. Sym. Thessal.
de Sacr. Ordin. <•. 156, p. 138 (but id. de Da-im
Temp/o, c. 26, 27, 30, p. 275, omits subdeawns);
they became the ordinary grades of the Grooli,
Coptic, and Nestorian churches (see Martens, (/«
Ant. Eccl. Hit. lib. i. c. 8, 1 ; Denzinger, Hit.
Orient, vol. i. pp. 118, 122 ; but the Scholiast in
Kalle' and Potle's edition of the Councils, vol. i.
p. 71, states that the current practice agreoJ
with the Nomocanon in also recognizing the
order of singers ; the Copts and Nestorians also
subilivided the higher orders as mentioned behnv).
4. Sometimes the order of readers was subdivilcj
so as to make a separate order o( singers, .Justin.
Novell. 123, c. 19; Nomocanon, tit. i. c. 31; the
8ubdi»'ision has remained in the Syrian churohej,
both Jacobite and Maronite, who, however, also
subdivide the higher orders as mentioned bolow.
Sometimes when singers are recognized the oiiliT
of subdeacons is omitted, Const. Ajiost. viii. l",
and some MSS. of Can. Ajiost. 69. 5. Sometime!
doorkeepers were added as a sejiarate order, .lustiii.
Novell. 3 praef. ; but ibid. c. 1, «i 1, doorkeeiiera
are distinguished from clerks ; similarly in Const.
Apost. ii. 25 doorkeepers are mentioned, whercis
ibid. viii. 10, they are omitted ; so in the Nesto-
rian canons of the patriarch John, ciro. A.i>. l'i"\
ap. Ebedjesu, Tract, vi. cap. 6, can. 11. np. M.r,
Scriptt. Vett. vol. x. p. 117: "de omnibus onli-
nibus, sacerdotiim et clericornm atijue ostiari-
ornm." They are also mentioned in the umohi
of the Alexanvlrian church, wrongly attributed to
St. Athanasius, but are not recognized in the
later Alexandrian (Coptic) ordinals, nor in other
eastern churches, ti. SonietimesiuorastsaresdJeJ,
ORDERS, HOLY
the eight oivlors of bishop, presln-ter, ilencon, snb-
deacon, exoruist, remler, singer, doorkeeper, beinir
enuiner«tej, t'oiic. I.aod. o. 2i. 'i'hey are men"
tinneil ns members of the dents bv St. Cyprian,
t:yi.:t. liJ; but they are npparentlV excliiiie.l in
Const. Apnst. viii. 25, ami though sometimes
mcntioiied, e.g. by Greg, barhebraeus, Noniooaii.
c. 7, § 8, they never had any general reeognition
as a separate order in the ilast. (a) From this
list sometimes singers are omitted, Cod. Theodos
lib. lo, tit. li, 2+ (a law of Valens, Gratian, and
\aleiitiman m a.d. 1)77 = Cod. Justin, lib. 1,
tit. ;i, IJ, where some editions insert " aeoluthos,"
apiinst .M.S,S. authority, apparently to mnl<e the
list tally with the Inter Koman lists); so Nomo-
,'anoii, tit. 1, c. 31. (6) Sometimes doorkeepers
as well as singers are omitted, so apparently
C'oiu'. Antioi'h. A.D. 341, c. 10 (which is one of the
few recognitions of exorcists in Eastern canons)-
this is the ease even in some of those Western
orJinals which give a ritual for the ordination of
doorkeepers, viz. those which quote the decretal of
Zosimus (llinschius, Derret. I'sewln-hiJ. p. 5,')3)
in which only si.x orders are specified. 7. Some-
times M'lliitlisan added to the orders enumerated
above, S. l,'yprian. Epist. 28, 3; possibly Cod.
Theodos. lib. 16, tit. 2,c. 10; Jsid. Hispal. £'Jym.
7, 2, 2, but when this is the case singers are
commonly omitted. This is the earliest Koman
list, being lound in the 3rd century in the account
which Cornelius gives, ap. Euseb. //. E. vi. 43 •
it is not found in the East, nor until the 8th'
century is it commcm in the West, one of the rare
instances of its occurrence being in a Galilean
inscription of a.d. 517, given by Le Blant, la-
scn,4ms Chretiennes ,/e ia O.iule, No. 30- pro-
bably also iV,,-,,' No. 617, A.D. 445, assuming that
"sequentibus is a translation of i.KoKo6eoiS.
But It came at last to be the usual list of the
western canonists, e.g. Capit. Hadrian, c 72'
i™ °'"*r'^.'"'"-»'' '5'«'W. •-', vol. ii. p. 2«3; Alcuin!
* Dw. Op:, c. 34 ; Hraban of Mainz, de Clenc
hsUt. c. 4 (where, however, readers and singers
appear to be identified), and Hugh of St, Victor
de iacram. lib. ii. p. 3, c. 5, ap. Migne, P. L. vol!
clLTVi. p. 425. It was ad.ipted in later times
by the council of Trent, sm. xxiii. c. 2, with the
ejception that bishops and presbyters are clasaed
together as " sacenlotes." But Innocent III.,
though recognizing acolyths, excludes exorcists
and readers thus giving the six orders of bishop.
presbyter, deacon, sub.leacon, acolyth, and singer
which he reg,-,rds as the Christian counterpart of
he Levit.cal orders "pontitices, sacerdotes,
vitas, n,ithinaeos, janitores, et psaltas " (Innoc.
llUfe 6 lew .Mtnns Ministcr{o,\. 1, Migne P I
vol. ccxvii.p 77,5). 8. In some Oriental churcWs
there are grades which in the west either do not
.^ist orare not ranke,) as grades but ns func.i.ms :
Wc/icepisoo/). are distinctly ranked as co-or.li-
?h,l.'' Vp f\' S'"'^'"' "^ '^'"kB in Cone.
Chac. c. 2; Cod. Justin, lib. 1, tit. 3, 40 (39),
§ 9, Gennadius, Epi.t. Encycl. in Act. Cone
Comtau. A.D. 459, Mansi, vii. 911, I'itra, vol. ii.
18t, and among the Jacobite Syrians, the Ma-
Si "f'"'."'"™ have ase^parate form of
Geor of f;"-jho'-n'i=«"ri), and, according to
^eorge of Arbela, the Nestorians. (/,) p.no-
*^^.eare also ranked as a separate^rder in
f. ™f''»- Cf""-*. E. T. vol. ii. p. 321), among
U" Syrians both J.cobitt and Maron e^an ^
ORDERS, HOLY 1473
according to Ebedjesn, Tract, vi. c. 1, ap. Mai, '
fLT '" • "■ ''• '""• "'"""K the Nestorians
(but in regard to the eastern st.itus of both
chorei iscop, and periodeutae.see Denzinger, I!u„s
Or<c,Ua,u,ay.\. i. p,,. ui s,,,,.). (,;) .,.rA,Je„.vn,
aie leckoned as a separate order among the Copts,
Jacobites, ilaronites, and Nestorians. (,/) The
Copts also recognise an onler corresponding to
he archpresbj-tei-s or protopresbyters of the
Utin and Greek churches, whom they call l^u-
men, [vyovf.,yo,, properly uscl of abbats'or
aichimandrites, Denzinger, i. 1171. (,.) The
Nestorians recognise an order of ollicers to whom
they give the name &,•,/.„„,, who are a special
giale of singers, Denzinger, i. 124. 9 The
oriental churches also re,:ognise grades of the
episcopate ; the Cojits have bishops, archbishops
C- meti-i.politans), and a patriarch, for each of
whom there is a distinct Ibrm of ordination.
Denzinger, 1. lUi, ii. 33. the Jacobites and
t i.rchs; the Nestorians, .Acconling to Ebedjesu,
ha^e bishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs, but
according to George of Arbela there is properly
a distinction between patriarchs and ccLli^i
[CAT io,..Cf,, Vol. I. p. 321]. The western church
has also sometimes recognised differences of grade
in the episcopate. Isid. Hispal. Et,/m. vii h 2
recogn,,., bishops, archbishops, metropolitans;
and p,.triarchs Hrabanus Maurus identifies
archbishops and metropolitans, do Cleric, fnstit.
^Ji . , ^ "'""""'' "'' '!''■«»* n'aJe these
giades to be with "priests simply so called " ie
presbyters grades not of the episcopate but of
the pnesthood, Cateeh. Horn. 2, 7, 26. 10. From
the bth century it ap,,ears to hare become the
custom, especially in the Galilean churches, to
Z nf?h"° l'"-^'"" the privileges and immuni-
withn / 1 f.'^^' V ^''"'"S them the tonsnre
without a^lmitfing them to any special oiKce in
the church ; such persons were called clerki, but
Trlnt r' !' ''^ '■""""'''' ""'• hy the council of
lent that they were not an " ordo " (Catalani,
ad PoHbf. l{o,n. pars i. tit. iii.). U. Severa
other classes church officers ap'pear at various
t mes to hav-e been recognised as members of the
Hf 1 'wf 5"?. "'P'"*"-' ^°''- Tl>eodos. lib. xiii.
Tvi *■; (,^"t J''*''"g'"shed from clerici, Md. lib.
™,/i [^"'-'ATAK, DkCANI, FOSSAHII]: (6)
custodes m,rtynm mentioned apparently as co-
ordinate with deacons in the Liber Pontif. Vit
S SUvestr = S:,n<xU Oest. S. Sihestr. c. vii.
l\TJ\ u-^^^-J"'- «02,inthePseudo-Isidorian
rZu^' "'"^'^h'"'. p.. 450: (c) a^todes .aero-
rum, Isid. Hispal. de Dinn. Off. 2, 9 : (rf) vo,,.
«.r„, Ps.-lg„at. Epist. adInti<:ch.rn'Z
ol7"';/w'"""' '" ^'"^- ^'•""•'-- 77, vol. i.V
Lpiphan. Expos. Fid. c. 21, p. no4
It is possible that mystical reasons had some-
thing to do with the elimination of some of these
c asses from the list of grades which came u It .
nmtely to be received by theologians in the West •
the seven orders were the seven manifestations
.'( the work of the Holv Spirit. ..„. Yve- TfVhZ
tie, .s,.y» I hat - san.:ta eccjesia septiformis grat'iae
est munere decor,.ta ' (D. Ivon. Carnot. Se^. 2 n!
p. 203); so Hugh of .S. Victor: "septemsp.rU
tuamm oihconim gradus proinde in s„ucta
eoclesia secundum septifoimem gr.itiam distri-
hut. sunt" (Hugou. deS. Vict. rf. Sucralub
' (•
:ii^i
ij ■ -i
147-4
ORDEUS, HOLY
ii. piii'g 3, c. 5). But Innocent III. de Sacro
Altiiris Minister, lib. i. c, 1, Migrio, I'. L. vol.
cixvii. p. 775, fimls an equMJly valid mystical
reason tor «ur orders, " seuaiius cnini nunierus
est |)erfectu.s ;" and still later canonists agree
with Isidore in reclcouing nine, adding clerlis and
bihops to the seven grade.s which were ordinarily
received by theologians (Catalaui, note to the
I'untificale Jioinanuin, pars 1, tit. 2); so in the
Marouite pontifical, Moriu, de Sacr, VrJin. pars
ii. p. 4(ii>). Alcuin (Albinus Klaccus) reckons
eight orders, by making bishops distinct I'roni
presbyters, assigning the mj'stical reason that
the gates of the temple in Kzokiel's vision had
each eight steps (Albin. Fhicc. ilc Dioin. Ojf.
3.) ; Ezek. x\. M, 34, 37). The same number,
without the reason, is given by Hralianus
JIaurus, d<i Inslit. Cleric. 1, 4, and in St. Duu-
stnn's and the Jumicges pontificals.
(J) Groups of Grades of (>rders. — The several
ordines tended to combine into groups ; but the
groups varied widely* under difl'erent circum-
stances.
1 . Sometimes the bishop was regarded as stand-
ing apart from the other olHcers of the church.
This distinction, which is important in relation
to the history of the episcopate, shews itself from
the fourth century onwards in the restriction of
the use of K\^poi and K\riptKol to those who
were not bishops. This may not have been uni-
versally or invariably the case, as many passages,
e.i/. in the ApostoHati Canons, may be interpreted
in either way; but the following instances are
clear: in the Canon Law, Cone. Ephes. c. 6,
ft /iiv iirirrKonoi (lev f) xKiipiKol; Cone. Chalc.
C. 3, n^ diriaKoitov, /u^ K\ripiK6v ; 1 Cone. Carth.
0. 9, 11 ; Cone. Trull, c. 17; in the C'ivil Liiw,
Cod. Theodos. l(i, 2, 11 (a.D. 3.'>4), antistitcs
et clerici ; id. 16, 2, 32 (a.D. 398) ; episcopi et
clerici ; Cod. Justin, lib. 1, tit. 3, 39 (38), roiis
iirtaxiwov! t) Tuiit KKripiKois', id. Nomll. 6, c. 8
(A.D. j35), 123, c. 6; in the Fathers, e.g. S.
Cvrill. Alex. Fpist. 1, x. p. 4; id. £p. 2, x. p.
20 ; S. Leon. M. Epist. 167, 1, i. p. 1420 ; Theo-
doret, //. A'. 2, 7, p. 851 ; in inscriptions, e.(j. at
Corycus in Cilicia, 8fO<pi\((rT<iTov iirt(TK6irov
Ktt\ [toD tv]ayov[^s K^Kiipov ; Le IJas et Wadding-
ton, Inscriptions d'Asie Mitieure, No. 1421 =
C. I. G. 8619; so in Suid. p. 2120, c. K\ripos th
aiaiitfia riv iiaKivwv koI itptafiuTipttiv.
2. Sometimes the higher orders, both collec-
tively and in the abstract, are designated by words
connoting sacredness or priesthood ; UpaTuov,
Cone, Antioch. A.D. 341, c. 3 ; tX tis irp. )) SioK. J)
SAaij Toif Toil ifpaTtiou tis, S. Athauas. Epist,
Enc'icl. 1, i. p. 88 ; id. Epist. ad Sufn. i. p. 769, t<?
J«pOT€i(x' Kal T<f Aacp T^i iitb ai. S. Basil. Epist.
198 (-"*)> 'i'- P- -89. ':«paT«/a, Cod. Just. lib.
1, tit. 3, 53 (52), A.D. 53;: ; id. Novell. 6, c. 7.
'Upvavvri, S. Kpiphan. adv. Ilaer. 2, 1, 48, 9, i. p.
410; Sozomen, /I.E. ii. 34; {J. Basil. Epist. 188
(Canonic. 1), § 14, iii. p. 27.') — all in the abstract
oftheollice; in the concrete, S. Maxim. Conf.
Epist. 21, ap. Jligne, /'. G. xci. p. 604. 'lepoTiKo/,
Cone. Luod. c. 24, 27 ; S. Basil. Epist. 217 (264)
iii. p. 365 = T^ UpaTiKiiV irA^^ia'MOi ''•• Epist.
2 to (192), § 3, iii. p. 370. So Cod. Theodos. lib.
xvi. tit. ii. 44: " quicmiiiue cujuscunijue gradus
Bacerdotio fulciuntur vel clerical us honore ceti-
sentur." The distinction between various grades
of orders which was thus created was by no
means uniform, (i.) In the East — a. Sometimes
ORDERS, HOLY
bisho])g and presbyters were classed together in
distinction to deacons and other clerks, cy.
Auct. Vit. Spiriilionis np, liaenel, Corp. I.cj.nntii
■Jutin. lat. p. 2(l9, "omnibiK oui sunt ]iaitiiira
ccch'siasticarum, sacerdotibus u. luam et dia-
coiiis." C'mI. Justin, lib. i. tit. i, 10 (l.nv of
Arcadius and Himorius, A.D. 398), '' sacerJntes
I't ministri " ; S. Sym. Thessal. de Divino 'rcn.plo,
c. 26, 27, p. 275. b. Sometimes deacons wore in-
eluded among those who had sacred or priestlv
rank, e.tj. Cone. Laod, c. 24 ; UpaTiKovs oij
vpf(T$vTipwy fus SiaK6vav ; S. Basil. Epist. 217
(264), vol. ii, p. 365. c. Sometimes siilnlmcons
appear to have been also includeil, e.g. Cone. Au-
tioch. A.D. 341, c. 3 ; by implication, S. liiiiphan.
E.cpos. fid. c. 21, vol. i. p. 11114; soacconlingto
BalsamoD, who may, however, be simply stating
the practice of his own day, Cone. Trull, c. 77,
which makes the tripartite division lepaTiKoi/s ^
it\ripiKovs t) iffKTjTcii. But in the East as in the
West subdeacons were for several centuries on
the border-line; they had sometimes the privi-
leges of the higher, sometimes thoseof llieluwer,
division of the clergy, (ii.) In the West a dis-
tinction w.ts ultimately drawn between "onliues"
and "sacri ordines " ; the latter were for some
timte regarded as consisting of bishops, presby-
ters, and deacons, but the earliest caimnioil re-
striction of the phrase to these three orders is
probably Cone. Benevent. A.D. 1091 (Manai, vol.
XI. p, 738), which is the authority quoted by
Gratian, pars i. dist. 60, 4. But the earlier use
of "sacri ordines" for all classes of cluuch
officers is occasionally found even after the limi-
tation had become ordinarily fixed, {e.g. in a
Reims pontifical, no. 179 (162), fol. In',), "sacri
ordines" are distinguished not from minor
orders but from the orders of virgins
or widows). The modern inclusion of the sub-
diaconate among " holy orders " dates from
the 12th century. It is expressly e.'[clu(ied
by Hugh of St. Victor, de Sacrum, lib. ii. pars 3,
c. 13. Peter the Singer, A.D. 1197, speaks of
the inclusion as a recent institution I'cri. Ahbrev,
c. 60 ; Migne, P. L. vol. ccv, 18t, and about the
same time Innocent III, says that " hoilie " a
subdeacon is in holy orders and may be elected
bishop (i,'/5is<, X. 164; Migne, P. L. vol. ccif.
1257); Uurand {Rationale, ii. c. 8), ascribes the
inclusion to Innocent III. himself. (Cf. Moiin,
de Sacr. Ordm. para iii. exercit. 12, c. 5 ; Mar-
tene, de Ant. Eccl. Sit. lib. i, c. 8, .irt. 2.)
Earlier traces of this elevation of the subdia-
conate are S. August. Serm. 356, de Viversis, c. -',
vol. V. p. 1575 ; Can. Eccles. Af' .c. c. 25 ; Cooc
Gerund, a.d. 583, c, 1 ; 2 Co'.c, Tolet. a.d. 531,
c. 3 ; on the other ha.d in most Oriental
churches subdeacons still retain their piimitire
place, and do not enter into the sanctuary.
3. Sometimes bishops, presbyters, ami dencons
were classed together, without express rel'erence
to their sacred or priestly character, as forining
a higher class of clergy ; the existence of this
distinction in early tinu^s is made apparent, with-
out being expressly stated, by dilleremes in dis-
cipline, e.g. in Can. Apost. 42, 43, 54,55; after-
wards It came to be commonly expressed, e.f
1 Cone. Matiscon. A.D. 581, c. 11 ; Episcopi, pres-
byteri, vel universi honoratiores clerici; Joann,
Diac. ]'it. S. Greg. M. i. 31; hence 'Mnferiores
clerici," Cod. Eccles. Afric. c. 28; "inferiorii
ordiuis clerici," S. Augustin. Epist. 43 (ltj2),u
ORDERS, HOLY
ORDERS, HOLY 1475
[ probably St. Rasil as Sf nv„„ v •
'7- ^■v UI deacons who hail iw.vn.. i
■"'■ntion d I'n'tho ' , ' '""^''"'""""to is „„
grades i„ cC. Sard," riTa;;"; ."' """""'■^
"ow nncossary amom/"the . ■.''' "V* «"■»
"hewing nri;';S ti:""'," '"■'/'■"■-•tant as
C^ed^^^oS,;9«
probably be considered L c 1 ^.L t,7„ '""^'
vajling tendeiiiv a= '^•^"^'•Pi'O'is to a pre-
Kpistl«,,~ .mt/;,':";;'y «« the I'astoral
as an i. ducemont to "^ «''"/i«''^i» held o„t
,u..„„. ,(1 Tim. iii.T3Wnd ' '' 'h« office well"
""°'°' ■""■'"" 'F5^^w5Be?:a
re-enacting te\tendp,l ;f « n \ ,'-'"'"' <^- -. m
ing of the'diffiofGreet of th^"*^ "'"'"'■
probably best e.^pressed by „"/, ^''TTI'
"ne qn.s nuper assmnptus de vita id ' '
satione Gentili. accn, ♦„ \..J1\ '"^ ™"^"r
8: Alcuia (Albinus Flaccus), de D!nn. O/f. c
5U,«r,onty«.- ,nleri»rity is omitted, but bis 1, ,
presbyters and deacons specially ennniemtd'
Ana the other orders are snmmed iip as "cleric ''
f,y. Can. Apost. 4, 8, IB; Cone. Nicaen c '^
Antiocl, c. 2, 3 Chalc. c. 6,' 3 Carth 95. will
of Perpetuus of Tour.,, ad. 47+, in b'^c'hery
Sp,c,lv:i,,,m, yol .„.;,. 303; Karlo„,,„,„i aZu
;..//,,. A.a 740, ap. Pert^, M. G H. /.rju^^^.
. p. 18. The jme was afterwards drawn at sub
descons (oue of the earliest instances of w 1 cdi is
m the Le;/es Wuiyothorum, lib. ii. tit I c isl
but ,t was not until the 13th cen.urv ihat the
abJ,aconate was or.linarily ranged anion^
"majores onl.nes ;" from that time "" "crl
oriimes are.denical with "majores ordineT
„.,,,„w .„..uu.,ucai witn "majores ordines "
«a moluded bishops, presbyter,,, deacons, and
subdeacons, "minores ordines » inclu C
,eoyt s exorcsts, readers, and doorkee, s*^
0/»r4Ts._rhere <s no evidence of the ^xhCZl
... the earnest period of any rule against the
appcntment of a layman to any offlce^^wha ever
.n the church, sti 1 less is there any evidence L
shew that a clerk who had beguiHn Hover
grade had to pass by any relular stens of
^ontoahigher/The're afe i^stat^ ( J
B.r ^i.t; oitiTthe";^" 'r'^'-'
•■- I I. I ^ , J' '" the examples e yen
^ «h,ch place may be added the ca,,e of Pauli-
..anus ,„ S. Hieron. .E>,s«. 82 (02), voL i p
518; the cases mentioned in S. Leon. M. Eph
U,adAmst,s. c. 6, vol. i. p. rm ; S. oC
Magn. E/nst. ix. 109, vol. ii. n 1014 tL ^'
olSt Caesarius of Aries, ^.^.TMigVT
vol Ixv,, 1005: the very late n anc^ of a
"»W"", Siuha M^r, e,l. Hniicoch ,.%o .
;autius e.va,ni 'tur c 1'^.,.,'"'?;^':;°' ""''^•J-m
Oionysius Kxiguus but litr i ^ ? '" '^"^'•■'
slighllydiirerc^nt'iew? K in the"' "''"'!:
the same century therp »r 1 r ''''""'' o*^
tendency was probably fostered bv /hi ■. . ^
■n regard toappointments ' ut i^l * "."' '""^
Jeferantur," ModestTn Tn the^Si, 'o '':;"";?
quoting a letter of Antoninus Ph.si"i' f' '''
honorum non Dromi„„n f! 1. ' g^^n^nrum
cn-tus huic r i aShib tTest ""^"ir T\ '"'' ""^^
Dii). 50, 4, 14. S .5 T^. ti ^"""''■•« "» 'n the
^'(^^o,4,i4,§5:-i^;;;;,— ^Xlti"fiS
being elected to a bfr ■"'.* <'X"A«^t,«,(/)
?i.!''"y'..?/'.« vol. i, : VotiusC ,»1;"';:' I T,*^'- "• f-.|0'4, writing to Brunhiwfcf t'dt'
84
!;^j':!'^',ff'^voi. i.;-photius^ ,;-;
Ci„%a IT'l^'"'' ^-^^ had neve;
P™tius, ,U i\J ?''r"st"A"'"""f- *"
. .Y/^" c-^ ; ot. Augustine,
1476
ORDERS, HOLY
^-
1-: ■' iv -
■jr 4,.» • ■
tiona, i.e. a person was aJraittcil to successive
grades on the same day or at short intervals,
liarly instances of this practice are that of
WiilCad, in whose favour Charles the Ualil wmte,
F/)ist. C iroti li. in Cunc. Siuasion. A.D. SiJii ;
Mnnsi, vol. xv. p. 708, ami that of a bishop of
Salerno mentioned by Leo Jlnrsicauiis, Chron.
Casin. ii. 118; lligne, P. L. vol. clxxiii. One
e lition of tiie Komnn pontitical (that which was
published by Albertus Castellnnus at Venice in
IJiiO and dedicated to Leo X.) makes provision
for the case of a pope who was elected cither as
a layman or in minor orders, "aci:ipiet primam
tousurani ct minores ordines, ut alii inferiores,"
with this dill'erence, that he is to be vested from
the first in mitre an 1 rochet, and to receive the
instruments of the several orders at his fal Istocd.
Hut even when grades were not accunuilateil, it
was not until the 8th century that ordinations
ptf/' .'■itlt'iin be^jan to be considered invalid or to be
punished by deposition.
One of the earliest instances is in the Frank-
fort capitulary of a.d. 78i), which deposes a
bishop (iaerbod, who admits that he had not
been ordained presbyter or deacon (Capit. Kran-
tofurt. § 10, ap. I'ertz, M. H. G. Lejuin, vol. i.
p. 7,1). Of later instances the mediaeval
aanonists furnish an abundant crop, c.(j. Inno-
Leut III. Epist. vii. I'JJ. A presbyter who has
not Ijcen ordained deacon is allowed to retain his
rrders, but has to go through the ceremony of
' "ing ordained deacon, iil. Epist. viii. 118; a
iieacon who does not know whether he received
r,mor orders or not, is required to receive them
" ad cautelam," id. Epist. x. 14G ; a deacon who
has knowingly passed over the subdiaconate is
sent to a monastery for a time.
The question what grades were necessary re-
solves itseif into two questions— (i.) what was the
first grade, (ii.) what were the necessary subsc-
ijuent grades, (i.) The inference to be drawn
from recorded historical examples is that, as a
rule, those who dedicated themselves to thi
service of the church began as readers. An in-
dication of this is found as early as the time of
Cyprian (Epist. 33, vol. ii. p. 319, of the ordina-
tion of Aurelius ; but the use of " placuit "
ghe-.vs at the same time that there was no exist-
ing rule on the stibject). In the following
century Basil (according to S. Greg. Nazianz.
Omt. 4:!, c. 27, vol i. p. 792) and Chrysostom
(accor ling to Socrat. //. E. vii. 3 ; Pallad. V^it.
S. Chri/s. c. 5) both began as readers. In the
6th century there are the instances of Felix of
Nola (I'auiin. I'ocm. XV. de S. Eclia;, v. 108;
Migne, P. L. vol. Ixi. 470), and of John of
ChiUons (.Sidon. ApoUin. Epist. iv. 2,'(). The
same inference as to the custom of beginning as
readers follows (I) from the constant practice of
the Greek church ; (2) froip the earliest papal
decretals on the subject, those of Siricius,
Zosimus, and Gelasius, which are quoted below ;
(3) from Cone. Milev. A.D. 416 (cf. S. August.
Epist. 63 (240), vol. ii. p. 231), 2 Cone. Nicnen.
c. 14. The earliest indication of the practice
of beginning as a doorkeeper is probably that
which is inlicatcd by Pauliaus of Nola Epist. 1
(6) "d Sevfr. c. 11 ; Migne, P. L. vol. Ixi. 168
(although this may shew rather his own humility,
■than the prevalence of a custom) ; but in the
9th century the rule was laid down which has
been the rule of Western canon law ever since
ORDERS, HOLY
that every clerk must pass through that gratis
(Silvest. Eptst. c. 7; Caii Epi^t. c. 0; |ji)th
adopted by the Pseudo-Isidore from the Liljtr
Piintijicitlis, see below). Martin of Tours begun
as an exor(^ist (Sulp. Sever. Vit. S. Murtin.
c. 5), and Greg<jry the Great speaks of a nicinlt
■who began as a subdeacon (ICpist. 13, 28, vul. ii,
p. 1237).
It must also be noted that there was a counter
tendency to that which ultimately prevailed ; it
was probably not until the clerical ollice became
a regular profession that iiromcjtion I'rom une
grade to another became an ordinary rule ; persons
who were well fitted for particular ollices simie-
times remained in them to the end of their lives.
Ambrose ((/« Offiu. Minislr. i. 44) writes ns
though division of labour were recogni,!eil in
the church, and as though it were a function of
the bishop to find out the ollice for which eneh
person was best qualified. As instances of the
prevalence of this view we find an acolyte of
eighty-five years of age (l.e Blant, Inscriptma
Clin'tiennes de la Giiu'c, no. 30) a deacon of
fifty-eight (ihld. no. 430), a subdeacon of thirty-
two (!Je Kossi, In.icr. Christianae Urhis ICoiiiaruic,
nd. 743, A.D. 448).
(ii.) The definition of the particular grades
through which a clerk must pass, iuid of the
time which he must spend in each grade, belongs
to the jieriod of the Isidorian a-id Pseudo-lsi-
dorian d>.cretals. The uncertainty which [ire-
vailed, even after those decretals had been for-
mally incorporated into canon law, is shewn by
the great variety of readings which exist in the
various MSS. of the decretals. 1. The earliest
of them is probably that of Siricius, Epist. ad
Euiner. c. 10 (= Gratian, Decrct. i. dist. 77, c. 3 ;
Ivo Carnot, Docret. G, c. 91), which, according to
the text given by Hinschius, Dccret. Pscmlo-lsid.
p. 520, allows a person to be onlainod reailer in
early youth; theu from puberty until thirty years
of age he is to be acolyte or subdeacon ; live
years afterwards he is to be deacon, but no
definite period is prescribed before he can be-
come i)resbyter or bishop; if, however, n person
is not ordained in early youth, he must be reader
or exorcist for two years after his ba|)ti8m,
acolyte, and subdeacon tor five years in all;
there is no other prescription of time ; but other
texts give an interval of five years between
a deacon and a presbyter, ai\d of ten years
between a presbyter nud a bishop. 2. The
decretal of Zosimus, which is probably next in
order of antiquity {Epist. ud llcsijch. c. 3 =
Gratian, Dccret. i. dist. 77, c. 2 ; Sligne, P. L
vol. XX. p. 672 ; Hinschius, p. 5.")3) provides that
if any one has been ordained in infancy he must
remain as a reader until he is twenty years of
age ; if he is ordained later in lite, he must be
either reader or exorcist for five years after
baptism ; in any case he must be either acolyte
(Egbert's Pontifical has " cntholicus ') or sub-
deacon for four years, and deacon for five years.
No other limits are prescribe. . This rule seems
to have been widely recognized after the dth
century, since it is found in the Gelasian sacra-
mentary, and in the pontificals of Kgbeit, St
I)unstan, Jumieges, Noyon, Cahors, Viitii.ui.ip.
Muratoi-i. 3. The Liber Ponlificalis suifliei
the canon law with two other decretals: (l)iii
the Vitt Caii (= Caii Epist. c. 6; Gratian,
Dea-ct. i. dist. 77, c. 1| Migne, P. L.vol.r,
«•)■= arc not to receive
ORDERS, HOLY
190; Hinschius, p. 218) Caiua is sai.l to hnve
Uii down a rule that a bishop must have jinsseil
(hrough the seven orders of Uoorkoeper, reader,
esprcist, acolyte, subdeacon, deacon and pres-
byter; (2) in the Vita Sikest. j). 35 (Mii'ne
1'. I,, vol. viii. 802, and v.d. cxxvii. 15U,
Hinschius, p. 450, whose text is followed here),
thst pope is said to have established the rule
that a bishop must have been first doorkeeper,
then nadcr, and then exorcist for whatever time
hit bishop may have determined ; then acolvte
fi,r live years, subdeacon five years, custosmarti/-
nm (ive years [deacon five years, in some JISS.],
presbyter three years.
But it would be diflicult to shew that the
intervals thus prescribed were even generally
observed. No doubt the rule came to jirevail
that the conferring of each of the lower grades
must precede the conferring any of the higher •
but the ideal of the decretals, according to
which a clerk must remain long enough in each
grade to prove his efliciency in it, was probably
sebloni realised, except in the case of those who
were devoted to the service of the church
from infancy. In the case of those who
siiught admission to holy orders in later life, the
only interval of time which maintained itself
throughout, and from which a dispensation was
very rarely given, was tliat of a year between
the lirst admission to orders and the pi-esbyterate.
The S:irum Pontificnl bewails the degeneracy of
the times which left so short an interval between
the "st.itus laicalis " and the "status prcsby-
terii supremus " (ap. Maskell, J/on. liitual. vol.
I iii. p. 158) ; but it is probaljly the case that the
adoption of this particular interval was due to
the custom which grew up in some parts of
Spain and Gaul in the 6th century of requiring
nu " annua conversio," i.e. a year's seclusion
I'lom secular life before admission to major
urders (» Cone. Arclat. A.D. 524, c. 2 ; 3 Cone
Aurel. A.D. 5:i8, c. 6 ; 5 Cone. Aurel. A.n. 549,'
c 9); this .ngain was connected with, and per-
haps grew out of, the rule that a monlt nniit
B|«:iid a year in minor orders and the diaconate
before being ordained presbytei- (S. Gelas. Episi
9,i(lEpM. Lucan. c. 2 ; Gr.atian, Decnt. i. dist
77, c. 9; Hinschius, p. tiSO). At first this vear
was divided into definite periods ; Gel.isius
directs that a person must spend three months
lu each of the four ollices of reader (or " nota-
rius" or "defensor"), acolyte, subdeacon, and
deacon (iljid.). Ijut afterwards the conferring of
minor orders became a mere form and a clerk
could pass through all grades up to the diaconate
on one and the same day (but according to
lloman canonists, only the pope could grant a
dispensation for accumulating major orders on
the same day; see Catalan!, aU'l'untif. Rom.
pars I, tit. 2, §§ 4, H). ■'
In the East the primitive custom of appoint-
ing a layman to any church olfice lingered
longer; the custom of interstitit is almost
unknown. The limitations are rather limita-
lons of age than of interval ; for example
>.bed Jesu, had. vi. c. 4, 2 ; ap. Mai. Sa-ipit. I Itt.
:W Coll. vol. I. p. ] 12, lays down the rule that
."-•)>3 arc not to receive imposition of hands, but
are only to be appointed readers ; when they have
wched adolescence theymay become subleacons;
he age of eighteen they may become deacons
" 'f'nty-five presbyters ; but even after a suc-
ORDERS, HOLY
1477
cession of grades had become established a
^r:^"rt!'-ri^:r'-r:^!;
thentua in Den.inger. m. OnW,^ vol ii.^ .
i-i)- J his IS in conformity with the later
Wostern practice, which allowed a lavman tie
appointed o any odice whatever, but' c p. Id
him to go through the ordinatio'n ceromo of
nl the lower grades. (See above for the case of
n layman elected pope.)
III. KXT.;«.NAI.0K„AN,8ATI0N0FTm-. ClkROV
-In apostolic and sub-apoat.dic times ther. is
no evidence of the existence of any oth r ha
abo e fcach church has its ollicers, but each
church was independent and complete in its! f
and another ; there was an interchange of
letters and of hospitality ; but there doe^s not
appear to have been any organized co„,bin„t"?n
nation of the olhcers of one church to the officers
of another. IJut in the course of the 2, d
century beg n to appear the outline of a
)stem which has done more than anvthing else
"/stTa l'';h"'r""'"V"^""->' "•■ ^'''-tei^om
1 irst of all the clergy of neighbouring churches
and ultimately the clergy of'the groa'ter part of
the Chri.stian world, came to be associated in a
single organization.
Into the causes which produced a tendency to
el but 'tb'' T '° '^ ul""""' '"-n-e t^
enter, but the shape which the organization
ook cannot be understood without a^efereVce
to the influences which produ ed it. Th"se
influences flowed chiefly from the systemTf
adminis ration which prevailed in the en^i,'
Just as the internal organization of the chu h
reflected the main features of the civil pol t
and religious associations of the time, so did its
extern..! organization follow the lines which
were already marked in conten.porary life
cially! '" """ '" **'' '■""'"^•'°» "^I'«^'» ^'I'o-
(1.) Every year deputies (.r.VtSpo,, hnat!) from
the severa owns of a province met together h,
obi'ecr'T?K '""""' (""""*"' «»'«•■.•»,«). The
objects of these councils were various and their
frol'" ^'nj'- '^''"^y '"*'• " ««'"'"on fund
from .vhich they could build temples or erect
tatues ; they decided as to thr • -.nes of the
territories of citie«; they had tn. right of com!
mumcating directly with the emperor in regar
to the civil and judicial administration of^?he
province from them came the first beginnings
oecclesmstioal organization in similaf a em
b les or " councils " of the clergy. Such coun-
c|ls began in Greece and Asia Alinor, whei-e h^
evil councils are known to have oeen exc n!
t.onalIyactive(Tertull.</<..y.,„„.c. 13, "agmtur
per Graecias ilia certis in locis oncH a e"
umyersis eccesiis ; " cf. Kuseb. If. ^T U
quoting probably Apollinaris of Hierapolis : r^!.
Kara ry Aala. ..ari,. ^aa^,,, J „„^^„^ -
IuI.xHaI "I '■/'in''^- ■•'gainst the Jlontanistsl
a^uyjKe6.rwy)i "n the time of Cyprian th.y were
begmningfo be a regular institution in N^r h
Africa, and from that time o.uvards fhey became
permanent, factors in church historv [JeVo'Z
Cii^ Vol. I. p. 473 s<,q.]. Their imUance in
5 C 2
r "f t| i
if)'*
1478
ORDEliS, HOLY
regard to the organizntion of the clergy is that,
following the exftinjile of the civil councils, the
eccleaianticnl councils kept to the lines marl^ed
out by the civil government, anil that conse-
quently instead of the organization for eccle-
siastical purposes being determined by projimity
of place or similarity of origin, it was determined
by the lines of demarcation of the Roman ',>rn-
vinces. Those provinces became ecclesia»tic8l
units, and their chief cities became centres of
ecclesiastical ndminjatration. (Kor the facts in
relation to the civil councils, see Marquardt,
Jiiiinisc/ui StMitsi'crwaltung, bd. i. pp. 3t)o-377 ;
id. in ICphenuiris Epiijraphica, 1872, pp. 200-
214; Duruy, Histoire des Jlomiins, vol. v. pp.
213-219; KusteideCoulanges, /^is<oirflc/es fnsti-
titlinnii Politiiiues de I'Aucicnne Fiance, vol. i. p.
107 sqq.)
(2.) In the civil councils the president was nn
oflicer whose functions were to n great extent
religious, and who bore the name of Swcrdos
proi-inckte (Cod. Theodoa. 12, 1, 46, 75, 174),
or apvifp*"' (f. A G. 3487, and elsewhere). To
him the other priests of the province were sub-
ordinate, and in some cases he appointed them,
(.lulian, Kpist. 49, (i:) ; Kunap. .I?, ed. Boisson.
cf. .Marijuardt, 1. c. p. ;}ti8). When the eccle-
siastical councils came to be established, their
president not only received the same or an
equivalent name, ipx'^P^*^^) &px'"'<'''''"''<">
suiiiinns saccnlos, but he was also invested with
the right of confirming both the appointment
and in certain cases the acts of the other bishops
of the province. In the Kast this olHce fell to
the bishop of the metropolis, who was hence also
called i TTJj fi'tiTpoir6\fai or nxctropotitanus ;
but in Africa, and probably also at first in Gaul
and Spain, it fell to the bishop who was senior
in date of appointnier.t [see Prlmatk].
(3.) Within the limits of the great provinces
were smaller organizations. The provinces wer;
subdivided into districts, partly for fiscal, partly
for couimercinl, but chiefly for judicial purposes.
These were linown as conccntun, cunventus juri-
(iici, juris lictionei', 5ioiif^ir«ij (a use of the word
which must be kept distinct from its Jise to
denote the larger divisions of the empire under
Diocletian). Kach of them had its centre of
administration, its " county -town " with its
basilica or " county-hall." It was in these
centres that Christian communities were first
formed, and the area of the juridical conrentu$
or " diocese " became naturally the area of the
ecilesiastical organization. The jurisdiction of
the bishop and presbyters was concurrent with
that of the civil authority, and the seat of juris-
diction, which was also the place of meeting,
was under the Christian emperors, the htsilica of
the civil magistrate. At first of course there
were many districts in which the Christian com-
numity was not large enough to warrant the
formation of any organization ; where this was
the case, n neighbouring bisho]) was charged
with the oversight of such communities, until in
pniicss of time, and usually through the inter-
vention of the provincial council, they were
large enough to have bishops of their own ; but
even in the sth and tith centuries the sphere
of a bishop's jnrisd-ction is sometimes spoken of
in the plural. Sulp. Sever. Dial. 2, 3, " dum
dioceses visitat ;" cf. Sidon. Apollinar. Epist.
7, 6, p. 183 ; 4 Cone. Tolet. a.d. 033, c. 36.
0RDEK8, HOLV
(Kor an account of the civil conventus or diocesM.
see Marquardt, litim. Stmtsv. Bd. i. p. 341 ; the
early history of ecclesiastical dioceses has yet to
be written.)
Such were the three chief respects in which
the ecclesiastical organization followed the linej
of the civil organization ; in the association of
churches according to provinces, in the fdrmn.
tion of an intra-provincial hierarchy with a
metropolitan or primate at its head, and in the
recognition of the bishop of a city as hiivin»
jurisdiction over the district of which the city
was the centre, the church adapted but did not
materially transform leading elements of cou.
temporary civil life.
How close the correspondence was l>etwecn the
ecclesiastical and the civil organization can be
shewn from many instances in both east and west.
The most interesting case in the west is that of
Gaul. According to the Notitia Provinciarun et
Dignitatum (circ. A.D. 400), Gaul was divided
into two civil dioceses : (1) D. Galliarum ; (2) U.
Viennensis. The former was subdivided into ten
provinces, viz. Belgicn nrima et secunda, Ger-
mania prima et secundi Maxima Sequanorum
Iiugdunensis prima, secumla, tertia, quiirta ( = L.
Senonia), Alpes Graiae et Poeninae. (The Veronese
MS., which gives the division under Diocletian,
divides Lugdunensis into two instead of four
divisions, thus shewing that the suklivision tcoK
place in the 4th century ; cf. Momnisen,
Abliandluiigen der Berlin. Academ. 1862, p. 492.)
The latter was subdivided into seven provinces,
viz. Viennensis, Narbonens-s prima et secunda,
Novem Populi, Aquitania prima et secnnJa,
Alpes maritimae. Not only was the civil metro-
polis of each province an episcopal see, but
in all cases except two (Klusa and Kbrodunum)
the sen has remained until modern times, and in
almost all cases the metropolitan character of
the see has also remained, the bishops being stvled
art'Abishops to the present day. For example,
the metropolis of Belgica Prima was Augusta
Treverorum = Trier, a bishop of which see was
present it 1 Cone. Arelat. in 314 ; that of lielgica
Secunda was Durocortorum Remorum = Reim8,a
bishop of which see was also present at 1 Cone.
Arelat. ;that of Germania Prima was Moguntiaoom
= Mainz! that of Germania Secunda, ColoniaAg-
rippina = Kbln ; that of Maxima Sequanorum, Vc-
sontio=:Besan(,on, of which see a bishop existed
as early as the time of St. Irenaeus. It is also
remarkable that of the towns (civitates) which
are mentioned in each province as being towns
of importance, almost every one had a bishop.
For example in the Provincia Viennensis twelve
such towns are mentioned (besides the metro-
polis Vienna), viz. civitasGenavensinm = GeneTa,
civ. Grntianopolis = Grenoble, civ. Deensium (::
Ad Denm Vocontiorum of the Peutinger Tabb
= civ. Dea Vocontiorum of the Jerusalem Itiner-
ary) = Die, civ. Valentinorum = Valence, civ.
Tricastinorum ( = Senoniago of the Peutinger
Table) = S. Piml-trois-Chnteaux : civ.Vasisuiium
( = Vaaio of Pliny) = Vaison, civ. Arausiconim
( = Arusione of the Peutinger Table) = Orange,
civ. C'abellicorum = Cavaillon (for the name of
this town there is a various readmg in the Noti-
tia, viz. civ. CarpentoratensiumrrCarpentrss, of
which a bishop is mentioned in 483), civ. Aven-
uicorum ( = Avennione of the Peutinger Table)=
Avignon ; civ. Arelatensium (in some 1IS&
ORDERS, HOLY
mrtrop. civ.Arael«t<.n,is = AreIntoof tha Peutin-
|«rTa)e) = Arlt.s,civ.M,wili...i»iiim = Mar.vcill,.,
CIV. Albcnsium ("nunc Vivaria ")= Viviora'
bery on. of these towu.s ha,I „ bishop in I;,„„an
t,rae« The same was the case, with harJlv an
ciceptmn, in the other provinces. Kr.nce 'pre-
serves in Its bishoprics to the present day the
outhnes of the Koman a.lministintion. On the
other haudKnglan,! i.s an example of a com.trv
in «hioh, the Koman organization bavin? almost
entirely passed a^vay before the (inal orRaniza-
i.m of he church begun, the dioceses were for
he mo't P.";t forme, out of the .Sa.xon kingdoms
(seoStubhs, OmstitHUunal Historii, vol i p •>'MV
aad similarly in Ireland, "the spiritual j.i'rlsdic-
iion of the bishop was cocvteuMvo with the
tempo-si sway of the chieftain " (Keeves Jo
ck.miu,i! Antiquities of />«„•„, Comur', uud
Dromore, p. ,303). '
Within the skeleton thus furnished several
her tendencies operated which arose within the
church itself.
I. There arose a tendency to attach a clerk to
» particular church, and to give local limits to
the eiercise of his functions. In the earliest nees
here is presumptive evidence tliat a member of
\T t T, ''''•"'"'' ™''s''* '■'•''«'y p-'sa to
.nother. It did not of course follow that he
thereby became a meml..r of the ordo „f the other
diirch. But the fact of his holding olHce else-
where was recognised, and he enjoved a certain
piecedence. Sometimes also he wis placed on
1 e clergy-roll, and he might thus be on the roll
of several churches at once. An ambitious or a
dis.iirected clerk was able in this way to pass
ea,, y from a narrower to a wider sphere, oi to
nd himself 01 the supervision of a too ..;<,/«,„"
superior. But this came at last to be prohibited
..cept with the full consent of all who'^were ot
erud. The final prohibition was indeed the
reMiltof a long struggle, nor is there any en-
actment of canon law, except tho.se relating to
marrmge, which required to be so frequentlv
jepeated. The earlie,st existing enactinen n
the east 1, Cone. Nicaen. c. 16 (which however
refers to an earlier canon, possibly that which is
reserved in Cm. Apost. 15), ^;hich j'rovid
T Tn T*"" '^ "" *''« ^•'"'•gy-roll of any
church shall leave it under pen.ulty of ex-om-
munication; and that any irlination p one
n "^r. "'"'■'' ^^'"' '' °" the roll of another
urc , without the consent of his p, ,per bishop
1 be mval d.^^ These enactinen;s\vere ?«:
ORDERS, HOLY 1479
in M4(?)(C„nc. Valent. c. 6), at Aries in 524
C4 tone. Are at. c^ 4), at Clermont in 5:i5 (Cone.
• o), at Aries in 554 (5 Cone. Ardiit. c 7) at
«raga in 5.i:) (2 Conc/lirac. c. 8), at "ivied^o n
Unc Cabillon. c. ,)), at Tofcdo again in «8;t
(1.1 Cone, rolet.c. 11); and they were sanctioned
by a ea,„tnlary of I'ippin in 7.5:i (Capit. V -rn „ «
d I'lox, e. 1.', ap. I'ertz, 1, 20). In Kngland they
w.re recognued by the Legatine ^Synod J
787, c. 'J (Haddan and Stobbs, vol. iii. p. 447)
into' 'if .''''; ^^% "''l'^- ^'''-''-w'"'''' they passed
S. V c . do &,cram. ■>, :i, 22), nor has there been
'.y rions subseijiient attempt to destroy th. re-
■ition of lord and vassal which they established
between a bishop and the other member, of- th
ordu ecclesiasticus.
course of the 3rd cenlary, and which ran
P'n ,,as,u with that which has just been de-
scribed took the double form ol' giving loc'l
im •;• he" '^'"t'L''^ ^""■"•'""' "f-'bTclfnati g
him either to the provincial couu.il, or to a
»"ngle superior. („) Probably the fir t exprest
ett'n'Th." ""V'""' '"""•^"- '^ '» "h
P.h ™- t"""", '•'gH'tian bishops, Hesycliius,
U,hom,us, Hieodorus, and Phileas,'to Mcdetius
01 Alexandria, dad Hm 1 ,..i ■ , "^
ib-
, . . . ...v,^v <;ii.ii:(,in(;nts were ri>.
;;;«ted with adlitions, by 1 Cone. Anti ch c- 3
tone. h,irJ,c. c. 1 5, Cone. Chalc. e. 10, after which
Im u- ? In ,''*'* *^"'" *'^" centuries and a
If when t eTrullan Council recognised the fact
01 the non-observance of the earlier >.,., . j
repeated them (e. 17). In Af i'aTm fr^gZ'
^ons were made by the councils of Carthage and
were meorporated in the African code (fcon"
^ems'tohall *^ ^'■•"Sgleto evade them
eems to have been st.onger in Gaul and Siwin •
the 5th nn^'dtk . ■ ^'^•" "•*■' it:'! times in
he 7th . '^'^"'"'•les, and three times in
tu. cT/"'rA f' """'^^ '" -^+1 (<>""
c l" ,t T ' ".' \'^''' '" *•'' (2 Cone. Arelat.
'; 1.U at Tours in 46i (1 Cone. Turon c q\ It
V«»nes ,0 465 (Cone. vU.c. 10),"" VaLh
M- ,,. . „ -....lu vuisioD at Verona ii\
afloi, Opusc. Ecck-3. ii n '>\-\ ... i ' ,'
li^hed by^.it,.a, ^u"" ^X a^^'.^ti 7"
A few years later the council of Antioch ex
-ressly limits the exercise of a bish ? "..tej
'0 ha own province or ^irap^Ia (Jliic i mil
passibly be used as in Cone. A^caen. . , t 2
2""); he could not for the future pass il
another province for the purpose of mak n"
ordinations, except on the written iuvitatiou of
onattmeut (c 2 a^ATirouj « i^^oKoirovs irko
rt'l^Kai' .'^"^«!-'r<Ti X^.poroW«.sl
22" «^^«'S 0'«o..oM/a.j 4HKK„a,a<rrmars) but
outsnie the Roman organization Uu toJj Baoac
^1 h""'^- J" "J"^* P"''» "f thrW'esf ,^
oer h^ TT^'' °'^r""" "'g^-i^atioa we e
w e'stm 11 K 1 T«.bi-^hop to another
Gaul a r K '^'"^^^' '''«"'"'• ^^''"•«. «8 in
^<<ul at the beginning of the 4th centurv
here wa, a bishop for every c.W/a,,i"o?h >
centre of every circle of civil jurisdiction t
was provided that each bishop Should be "U
fined to his own circle, and should not exercise
Ir U"I 0° s'lV'-^'^f '1!^ "^'Shl-o- (1 Co?c
a\U,^ ■ *• "■ ^^< "' """us episeopus
almra episcopum eonoulcet," 1 Turon a d 4ei
c. 9, excomn,unicates those" who tr Ssgr' ss the
Hermmos a patribus constitutes; " VLgd
A-D. 017, c. 5 ; 1 Arvern. a.d. 535, o. 10) But
on the other hand, as a proof of ho intintte
T^^r^'T" '^"." ""'l -«"«--'ica o!
g.inuation, where, as in Ireland, the imnerial
^ptem of administration did not piUa the
bishops preserved their original status fh
were the officers not of disfdc ts ' ut "f'sin2
congregations; they moved about almost^is
1"*:
iU.;
14S0
ORDKRP, HOLY
t'.iey iili'Msu.l ; dioct'si's in tlio (ir liinry sniise JiJ
n<it exist until tlie syn'xl o( ll.itli-lli'isiiil in
1141 (sfH Ui't'Vc^s, I-'<:rlfsi(iiiticiil Aiitiiuities of
Jlirwit, Cointor, ttiut Drmniivc, apficml. pp, lll.">,
Viil). ('>) It is iilso iiidbiiblfl tint in tlio earliost
tiinos, .1 (jisliop or a ooniniunity liml tlio powor
of appoint iui; nny b.iptizeil piTson to oHiie with-
out I'cjianl to the place of his baptism or to his
b^inj; already on the clergyroll of another
church. Hut while on the one hanil, as we
have already seen, the councils gradually came
to prohibit a member of one cliurch from tiiking
oIKce in another, on the other hand they re-
strained bishops from ordaining such persons,
partly by makiui,; suih oriiinations null, and
putly by subjecting otfendirg bishops to the
IKMialty of suspension and excommunication.
('•) It is also [irobable that in the earliest
times each bishop was imlependent of his col-
leajjucs ; the several shepherds of the flock
of (Jlu'ist were amenable, not to nny earthly
superior but to Christ Himself: "singulis pas-
t ribus portio sit adsciipta, quam regat uu-
us(|ulsi(ue et gubernet, ratinnem sui actus
Domiuo redditurus " (St. Cvprian, JJpist. !>5,
di Cornel, c. 11, vol. ii. p. 821). Hut in the
course of the 4th century there grew up the
tendency, which was probably reflected from
the great contemporary develoijmeut of tdie
hierarchical system in the empire, to suborili-
nate bishop to bishop and church to church.
The details of this subordination giew r)ut of
the e.iitension to the ecclesiastical sphere of the
civil system of provincial councils and jiro-
rincial high priests; but the spirit which led
to that extension grew up within the church
itself.
3 A third tendency, which arose in the East
from the gradual decay of the population, and
in the West from the necessity of consolidating
an organization, which had interwoven itself
with the civil administration, aud round which
a complex growth of material interests had
clustered, was the ten 'ncy to limit the number
of towns in which bishops were appointoil. The
number of bishops in early times, in both East
and West, was very large. From the small
province of Asia Froconsularis, which formed
but a tenth part of the Dioecesis Asiana, thirty-
two bishops were present at the council of
Ephesus in 4'il. In the provinces which made
up the Dioecesis Africae, 470 bishoprics are
known by name before the Vandal invasion ; and
possibly there may have been some truth in the
retort of Petilianus to the reproach of Alypius,
that the Donatists had bishops in villages and ou
estates, " imnio vero ubi habes sane et sine
populis habes " {Cotlnt. Carthig. I. 181, ap. Gal-
ianili Bihl. Patr. vol. v. p. 6 JO; for the de-
t i's here given in respect to Africa, cf. Gams,
Scries Epiacoporum, p. 463 ; Kuhn, Stddt. u.
biirgerl. Vcrfassuiuj dca' RSm, Reichs, Bd. ii.
p. 4:i6). In Ireland the number of bishops
cannot be certainly ascertained, but must have
bi-en large; the Annals of </i« Four Masters,
ad ann. 493, speak of St. Patrick as having
ordained 700 bish.ips and .SOOO priests; ami
Aengus the Culdee, in the 9th century, speaks
of no less than 141 places in the island, in each
of which there were or had been seven cimtem-
p'lrarv bishops (Todd, St. Patrick, pp. 32, S.'j ;
tieevos, L'cc:i:siaitiMl Anti^]U.ties of Down,
ORDERS, HOI-Y
Cmnor, unit Droiwirc, npp. A, ,). 123 sqq. wh.re
several other references nie given). In the Kii.it
no doubt the gradual diminution in the nninljiT
of bishoprics arose from the decay of the p(i|iii|ii.
tioa, but in the West it svas the result of |iiiliov.
The power of the bishops was thereby increiise'l.
This is expressly stated by Leo the Great, wlio
contends that bishops should not be appdiulcl
"in quibuslibet locis ni'(|ue in iiuihuslibut cus.
tellis . . . . ne quod sanctorum I'atrum divinitua
inspirata decreta vetuerunt vuulis et [osscs.
sionibus vul obscuris et solitariis niuuii'lpiis
tribuatur sacerdotale fastigium et honor c>;i
debeut excellentiora oommitti, ipsa sui nuniem.
sitate vilescat" (8. Leon. Magn. /'p. 12, c, 1.',
I. p. Gi)7). In the century that followol
the conversion of Chlodwig, u dilVereut policy
was no doubt followed within the Knuikisli
domain. A large number of new bishopilo
then, for the first time, appear in lii^torv,
and the lines of the Roman organization
are broken. IJut this foundation of new sea
lasted only for a time. There is no recnr'l of
any new foundation between that of Monlpi'llicr
in 585-»md St. lirieux in 848. On the contrary,
U became necessary to re-enact the provision of
the civil law : " ut episcopi debeaut per sin-
gulas civitates esse" (Pippiui C'ci/«. IVni. A.D,
7.')'>, cf. I'ertz, i. p. 24); but this does nnt
appear to liavo amounted to more than tlir
allirmation of a principle, nnJ was niodifieJ Ijy
the C'lptt. Fr naifurt. A.D. 794, c. 22, which
re|>cated the .Sardioan canon. The e.xigoncieb uf
the case were met by the combination with the
existing system of an order of bishops, who were
not lied ton particular city. Such an order had
existed in the c/wrcpiscopi of the East, anJ
under that name it was revived in France,
These chorepiscopi went from parish to parish,
performing especially such episcopal acts as con-
firmation, and the consecration of the chriMn
and admission to minor orders; but they Jo not
seem to have had either jurisdiction or power of
ordaining presbyters (Hrabaui Mauri di Instil,
Cler. i. 5 ; ordinati sunt chorepiscopi projiter
pauperum. curam qui in agris et villis consis-
tunt, ne eis solatium confirmationis decsset;
I'ippini Capit. Vermer. A.D. 753, c. 14; I'citz,
i. p. 22, where they are probably meant by
" episcopis ambulnntibus per patrias"). lint
they were found tc give rise to many difficulties,
and in the 9th century a determined .ind ulti-
mately successful attempt was made to aljoli.'h
them. (The history of the struggle, which is
of especial interest in connexion with the origin
of the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, will be IbunJ
on Weizsiicker, Ar Kampf tjejen den Chorcpii-
copat des fran':i.schen Reichs im neunten Jalir-
hundert, Tubingen, 1859 ; see also an article by
the same writer in von Sybel's IHstrischi
Zeitschrift for ISsiO, pp. 42 sqq., and by van
Noorden in the same journal for 18ii2, pp.
311 sqq.) A new form of organization had been
gradually devjloping itself diuring the two pre-
vious centuries, and it now becaitie loth ex-
tended and firmly established. The old Roman
organisation still to n great extent survived,
The old Roman civitates were still bishops' sees;
the limits of the old Kom.in conventas were still
for the most part the limits of the jurisJictioD
of the bishops of those sees. But the im|Kirt-
ante of those towus iu relation to their neigh-
OUDKUH, HOLY
MUH hii'l In miiny cn*m kitioiwIv diininishoil ;
ml till' ilUli'ictn (if whli'li fhi'/ \v«ii: til.' centres
wiTi' I'lill, lint cif //.i/,(/ti', liiit lit' ^:hl■i^u iriH who
r»,iiiri'l cliTi'v, mil ot' rii-rsy who reiiuiivl
lil|»'i'vi«liill. Hen™ till" (liiH'i'ses were siili-
(l|vii|i"l, nut iiM they w()i li| hiive lieon in enrlier
limcH iiil.n lii'W (lliiceseH, liiit into clislrietH in
ouch 111' ttlileli iin areli|iMisl)ytei' Im I n timliliel
jlirlMlli'lii'liiivei' tli:' presliyteiH iirvl uther I'leix'y.
[Aiiriii'Ui;siivn:iw, Vul. I, p. i.jii; it, „,ay |„.
iiiMi'l tliul the iileii priiliiiiily oiune frniii the
IJHteni (ihiM'ch, where we finj tho tiini.'tiuns nf
ari'h|iri".liyli'i' (= irpwTonpt(t0iTfi)nx) uiiiteil
with these iiC n irtpniSfUTTu, oi' itinerniit bishiip,
O.r/MJ fmM'.llrnw, No. m-l'i, nt Abriistiilii in
rhrvgiii.] Tliin \vnH unppliMnented by oeeii-
jiira.illy iieni|iin{ tlio eeele^iastical oHii'er who
itoiiil ill the ciiwest personal relation to the
l)i*hii|i, viz. the arehileiieon, hs a special ilelijjafe
til eiiipiii'e into the con lition of the cleri>y ami
ini'inlii's on the hiHliop'n behalf. Not only ilM
inch II ileleijiition become in time n di'li-'intio
;myv(i'i, but iiIno in the case of some l.irge
JloiYsiis, neveriil of the (llitricts iimlcr the
jinii'llitiiin ot an nrchpreiihyter wm-e united
tii;;i!thiT iiml jihu'oil peimiineutly umlei- the
jiirlMlictiun of nn nrchdeacon. The iletaileil
aii'iiiiul. of this la«t arrnngonient falls oiitsiilc
our lliiiil'i; but It is necessary to mention it as
liinniiii! the last Inipiu'tant link in the series
of chillitji'H by which tho simple system of the
siiily church was triinslorined into the elaborate
dioci'siiii orijanization of mediaeval and modern
tliiii's. (.See \Viiit2, />OHtnrhe VerfussHntaqcs-
ch!M; ltd. iii. p. ;l(J4; Or(!a, Ks3<ii history j,ie
tnr !<■» AivliilHirui in tho mhliofheqiw dii CEcole
del r/wrto, ;i"" scrio, t. il. pp. 39, 215;
Ki'tthiny, Kirchcnijoschichto DeutschUuds, Bd. ii.
)i. Ill 1 1.)
IV. AtiMISHlo.S TO 0HI7ERS.-1. Qwtlifinations :
— Thn f;iot that in tho h'rst ni;es of the church
« iieniiin Win almost invariably appointed to
oiliiii ill the city in which he lived, and by tho
coiiiimnity amon)( which he had been baptized,
pipventi'd tliu nece-sity of minute enactments
in r(i,'iird to qiialillcations for orders. It was
mmii ft matter of cuminon understnndini; than of
i eccleniiistical rule that no one should be ap-
I imintRil wild had lioen known to lend an immoral
life, or whi.se fitness for olHce had not been
^ Hi.i;i'rtiiiiiii 1 by exiiorience. The election was
I pnicUiially free, 'Uie asoembly which made it
i Win nut liMiind by any rcKulations except those
whiiih it laid down for itself. The points which
; wi'io liiiikiM at were the internal qualifications
of chiiiiuter rather than the external qimlifica-
' tions of Hire „,. status. Upon these internal
;iualliicationH all tho earliest exhortations turn.
Ihi! I'list.iral Kplstles, 1 Tim. ill. 1-12; Titus i.
«-'J. mention no others; tho almost contem-
porary n|,i,tle of I'olycarp to the Philippians
c. .),(!, exhort that deacons be " blameless, not
•lamloriirH, not double-tongued, not fond of
moii'iy, temiK'ratn in all things, compassionate,
Mieliil, wnlkin^f In the truth of the Lord ; " the
t.l(iiii™tines. 0,1. Kpist. Clem, ad .Jacob, c. 2,
«n<l tho oiirliur books of the Apog'.olic Consti-
tutinns, cvy. il. I „,q., ,|i,.ect that a bishop.
It the timo of his ordination, shall be tested
f ti) his having brought up his children
u tho admonition of tho Lord, whether he
i» blameloBt In regard to the needs of this
OliDKKS, HOLY
1481
life, (riven to hospitality, an I apt to minister;
tlie iiidinances of element (Aiar.KArj^., I.a,Mrde,
Juris ICc-l. /Mi'/, p. 74 .s(|(|. ; I'iira, Jiu\ Kcrl.
Or. vol. i. p. 77 si|i].) direct that te.tinionv
shall bo given wliether he 'have a good report
fiiiin the heathen, whether he be witliout lault,
I'lind of the poor, sober, n.t a drunkarl, not a
fornicator, not overreaching or abusive, or a
respecter of persons, or tlio liku : it were well
that he were wifeless, but if not, let him be lh«
husband of one wife, capable of discipline, abia
to interpret tho scriptures; and, even if uu-
learned, gentle, and abounding in love towards
all." lint this free right of election caiiia
gradually to be restricted. With the inciease in
the number of churches, with tlio loosening of
the bands ol' close fellowship, wiiich had leiuiid
together the members of thechuridies in the face
of the common danger of poisecuiion, and with
the multiplicution of the links which bound one
church to another, the original system was
found to bo too indefinite. The ci'iiimunities
won too large and too scattered to know the
habits and character of each individual member,
and the functions which their oHicers had to
fullil became too important and too complicateil
to be entrusted to any one without clo.se in-
quiry. Stress began to be iaid upon tho necessity
of examination before appointment, and definite
rules had to bo agreed upon. With the existence
of such an examination tho inhaliitunts of the
Koman municipalities were already familiar, and
it is probable that the ecclesiastical communities
followed in this as in other details of their
organization the analogy of the civil communi-
ties. No one could be elected to the civil
"Ordo" without being previously examined as
to his possession of certain qualifications: he
must be free-born, of a. certaiu age, unconvicted
of any crime, and posses.scd of sutlicient property
to discharge the duties or his odice. The
examination into the.se qualifications imme-
diately preceded the election, and the duty of
making it fell on the presiding officer (see
Marquardt, Riimische Stitalsverwaltwiit, lid. i.
p. 497); the chief authorities are the Lex Julia
Municipalis, Corp. /nscr. Lat. No. 2U6. and the
Lex Miilacitana, a bronze found at Malaga iu
1851, which gives more minute details than were
previously known, and which has been published
by Mommsen in the AbhaipUunycn tJer kon. Siichs.
(icseUsch. der Wissensrhaft, IJd. 3, and, in a
separate treatise, Vie StaJtrechto der Utteinischen
Oemeinden S'dpensn u. Malaca, Leipzig, 1H55;
also by Giraud, Paris, 1866 and 18(i8; in the
Corp. InscT. Lat. ii. 1904, and by Orelli-Henzen,
No. 74'21). In tho same way the possession of
certain positive qualifications and the absence of
certain disqualifications were made conditions
precedent to the admission to the " Ordo eccle-
siasticus," and the presiding officer was charged
with the duty of seeing that such conditions
were fulfilled. But it is obvious that under
such an arrangement the qualifications insi.«ted
upon must be such as to admit of an external
test; and it was natural that, when once
external tests began to be imposed, they should
tend to become more complex and more rigid.
The earliest of such tests arose out of the early
controversies as to the marriage of the clergy.
The only impediments to admission to orders
which are expressly mentioned iu the Apostolical
,1
1'.'
t ' ;s:.^
1482
ORDERS, HOI.Y
canons are digamy, and marriage with two
•isterH, or with a niece, or with one who was nut
a virgin (l^ 17, 18, lU). In Hubaeijuent Uata
of qutliMcatiimit and diMqualitiuatiou:^ liuch ini-
]Mjdini<Mit.H occupy »o large a jilace that tlie lists
thcmselvMH I'urni.nh the best (.(jntcin|)0 .ary evi-
dence of the state of feeling on the uabject.
Tlirue such lists in three successive centuries
may be t.iken as typical, and, for the sal«e of
more exact coniijarison will best be given in their
original form. 1. In the (ith century the rules
of admission to orders were settled by the civil
law. Justinian (AodcW. 12:1, c. 12) enacts as
follows: — K\ripiicoi/s oi/K HWuis x^P"'"'"'*'''*'"
auyx'Jl>puv^'■fy •' f^h 7P<i(U^OTO Ifuacri koI op6^v
Tttartv Koi ^loK affivhi' ^X"""'' '««' ""'^ iraAAowV
ouSi <pu(Tiitovt laxoy fl Ixovat waiSas iW' t)
<ra><pp6na)s ^loCvTas t) yafitTi)y y6fitfioy Ka\ aurV
fxlav Kal Ttpaniiv iaxi)KiTa^ Kal uriit x^P"*' M*)'^
iia^tvx^'^i"^" i^f^pit. (Compare the disqualiii-
cations mentioned by S. Greg. M. Spist. 4, '26,
aj. JaiMnr. vol. ii. p. 70+ ; id. E^jiit. 2, .'17, ad
Joann. vol. ii. p. 600). 2. A century later than
Justinian, the fourth council of Toledo, a. D. 63.'1,
which was held under Isidore of Seville, sums
up as follows the canonical disqualiHcations
which were recognised in the West at that
time : " Qui in aliquo crimine detect! sunt, qui
scelera aliqua per publicam poenitentiam ad-
misisse confoosi sunt, qui in haeresim lapsi sunt,
qui in haeresi baptizati aut rebaptiza'.i esse
noscuntur, qui semetipsos abscideruut aut
natur.ili defectu membrorum aut decisione
aliquid minus habere no.scuntur, qui secundae
iixorls conjunctionem sortiti sunt, aut numerosa
conjugia frequentaverunt, qui viduara autmarito
relictiim duxerunt, aut corruptarum mariti
fuerunt, qui concubinas ad fornicationes habue-
vunt, qui servili condition! obnoxii sunt, qui
ignoti sunt, qui ueophyti sunt, vel laici sunt,
qui saeculari niilitiae dediti sunt, qui curiae
nexibus obligati sunt, qui inscii literaruiu sunt,
qui uondum ad triginta annos pervenerunt, qui
jicr gradus ecclesiasticos non accesserunt, qui
ainbitu honorcm quaerunt, qui munehbus
honorem obtinere moliuntur, qui a decessoribus
in sacerdotium eliguntur." (The last few phrases
evidently apply not to all clerks, but only to
presbyters or bishops.) 3. A century later
(circ. A.D. 7.i0), Egbert of York gives a similar
list, but with important additions and omis-
sions: " Hujusmodi tunc ordinatio episcopi, pres-
bitori vel diacoui rata esse dicitur ; si nuUo gravi
facinore probatur infectus, si secundam non
hiibuit fuxorem] nee a miU'ito reliotam ; si poeni-
tentiam publictim non gessit nee uUa corporis
jiarto vitiatus apparet : si servilis aut ex origine
non est conditionis obnoxius ; si curiae probatur
nexibus absoiutus, si adsecutusest litteras; hunc
elegimus ad sacerdotium promoveri. Pro his
vero criuiinibus nullum licel) ordinarised promo-
tes quosque dicimus deponendos ; idola scilicet
adorantes ; per aru8])ices [et divines atquo] in-
cantatores captives se diabolo tradentes ; tidem
Buam false testimonio expugnantee ; homicidiis
vet fornicationibus contauiinatos; furta perpe
trantes ; sacrum veritatis nomen perjurii te-
merilate violantes." (Egberti Kborae. Dial. c. 15,
ap. Hiiddan and Stubbs, Councils, vol. iii. p. 402;
Wilkins, Concilia, vel. i. p. 85.)
We proceed to give in detail the various
qaaliticatiuus and disqualiticatiouB for orders
ORDERS, HOLY
which were laid down between the 4th an 1 the
Hth centuries, grouping them as — I. I'ersoual. II,
Civil; 111. Ecclesiastical; IV. Literary.
1 PeranniU (JuMiJicatiom, — 1. A cUrk must
br sound of limb. Cone. Kom. A.l). 4iir), c. :i ;
i Cone. Aurel. A.l). t.lS, c, tj ; -t Com;. Tnlpt,
c. 19; especially he must not have inutil.itud
himself with a view to living in chastity, I'lmo.
Nicaen. c. 1 (cf. Socrat. //.,/>'. 2, ii(i ; theodur.
//. A'. 2, 24) ; Can. Apost. c. 22 ; 2 Cone. Arcliit.
c. 7. At the same time it was hell in early
times that the Levitical regulations (Lcvit. xxi.
17 sqq.) did not strictly apply to the Cliristiim
church, ami when the monk Amuionius tried to
dis(iualify himself for ordination by cutting oi''
his ear his mutilation was held to bo mi bur
(I'allad. Jlist. Lausiac. c. 12, Migne, P. 0. vdl.
xxxiv. 10.;2; So^omen, //. E. 0, :iO) ; but when
in later times tlK Levitical analogy was strictly
applied, the loss of any part of any member win
belli to be a disqiialilication, and Innment III.
{Epiat. X. 124) gives a special dispensiitinn to
one whose linger had been cut oil against hi)
will (the canonists based their rule on a pseudo-
decretal of Innocent I. Hinschius, p. .'>:!;) ; Kegino
Prumiens. J(j Ecdcs. Discipl. lib. i. 410 ; liurchiinl,
lih. ii. e. 14; Migne, P. L. vol. cxxxii. p. 27:i).
Some later Koman i>ontilicals (quoted by Cata-
lani, ad Po.Jif. Horn. p. 1, tit. 2) require the
examiners to feel (palpare), as well as liiligeutiy
to observe the persons of candidates, and even
to require them to take off their shoes, lest
there should be a deformity in their feet.
2. (1) A presbyter must be at least thirty years
of age. This rule, which was based on a refer-
ence te the age at which our Lord began his
ministry, was first laid down by Cone. Neoenes.
A. D. 314, 0. 1' ; but it does not appear to have
been universally accepted, inasmuch as .lerome
has to defend upon general grounds the ordina-
tion of his brother, Paulinianus, at that age (S.
Hieron. Epist. 82 (02) ad XheupK. vol. i. p. 518).
But it was recognised by a Syrian council, A.u.
405 (?), c. 24 (Mansi, vol. vii. 1181), by several
Western councils, 4 Cone. Arelat. a.d. bH, c. 1,
3 Cone. Aurel. a.d. 538, c, 0, 4 Cone. Tolet. a.d.
633, 0. 20, and by the TruUan council, e. 14. It
is also recognised in the civil law, Justin. ^Vore;/.
123, c. 13, and in the Cnrolingian capitularies,
Capit. FrancofuH. a.d. 794, c. 49 aji. I'ertz,
M. H. G. Leguin, vel. i. p. 75. Bishops were
sometimes ordained at an earlier age, but until
the 8th century there is probably no instiiuee of
such an ordination of a presbyter. The iiistiinces
even then belong to the outlying provinces
of Christendom. Bede, in his history of the
monastery of Wearmouth (Jligne, P. L. vol,
xciv. 729), clearly implies that Ceolfrid was
ordained presbyter at the age of twenty-seven ;
and pope Zachary gives permission to Boniface,
"the apostle of Germany," in 751, to ordain
presbyters, in cases of emergency, at the age of
twonty-five (S. Zachar. Epist. 13, ap. Mi;;ne,
P. L vol. Ixxxix. 952 ; Gratian, pars i. dist. 78,
c. 5). On the ether hand,- some canonist!
allowed of no exception to the rule which made
thirty the minimum age, Burchard. Wormat.
Jkcret. ii. c. 9, Ivon. Carnot. Dccret. vi. c. 30,
Paiwnn. iii. 29 ; so tne Cone. Meliit. a.d. lOsa,
c. 4. But the rule was ultimately relaxed, and
the council of R.avenna, A.o. 1314, c. 2, lixed the
age at twenty-live ; so Stat. Eocks, Cadurc, et
OKDICRS, ilOLY
JtHth. «|.. Martone et Diirsn,!, Anecl vol lv
p. 7lrt, ami the moilnn liomaii |K.i,ti/i,«| 'ti„;
NeUoriim candiis tif Kbcjjusu «Uo ,ill,.w onlin ,.
MlKUi to the preshyteriito at the age „f tweiitv
fir. (Tract, vi. c. 4, can. 2, np. Mai, ,ScnU V t
vol. I. p. 1 hi). (..)Tho »Ke of lleaJ,.; w«,
onifinally lue.l at twenty-/ive ; «o Ccl. KclIch
Afric. c. lii(liut oiiB veriion of 3 V.unc Caith
c. 4, which is ill other mjiects iJcntinil with
thii canun, aJds the proviso, » ,ii,i prin,,,,,,
divinij .I. iiptuna inntructi vel ah iiilantia enKliti
propter 'i.l.-i j)role8i(ionc^.iii vel artsertioiiein "J • »„
with the (ialli.an aiij SManish comuils, (.'one
>g«th. A.D. 50li, c. l(i, 4 Cone. Arelat. ,;. 1 (but
tha vigorous bishop Caesarius, who i,re»i.le,l at
thiifouucil and siibsorihea its acts, is said by his
biogr^iphers never to have ordained a deacon
umier thirty, \ it. S. Cucsur. Are/at 1 4)
Mi|ne, P. I. vol Ixvii. 10J2), 4 Cono. Tolet!
c.20| so also with the Trullan council o U
and in the civil law, Justin. Amtell. 1"! c It
(the later Homan use (ixed it at twentv-four
I'ontihc. Roman, p. 1, tit. 2, 'J). (3j The a^J
of a subdeacun docs not appear to have been (iie I
bv any canon in the West earlier than ■^ OVmii^
Tolet. A.D. 5;il c. 1 (where, however, it is onlv
an inference that the age mentio' .1 applies to
^1 .uyeacons), and in the |.;ast , arlier than
Cone. Tnill. A.D. 092, c. 15 ; in both cases the
agemcntuincd is twenty. Justinian (ixed it at
twenty-hve (.\uvcU.VZ.i, c. l:t), but the later
civil hiw agrees with the canon law (Leo Con.tit
lb and 75). But it is clear that there was in
subsqueut times considerable variety of usaL'e
Hugh of bt. Victor, </» Sacrum. L', .1, 21 makes
fourteen the limit ; the council of MelH i'n 1UH<)
c.4,M,'.n.si, x.x.7:i:i, makes fourteen or fifteen'
In the (iesta Abbat. S. Trudon. lib. viii c "'
Migne, P. L d.vxiii. p. 113, Itudolph be'comes
.ubJeacon at eighteen, which is the age fixed
by tlie statutes of Cahors and Uodeis i„ l^yV
5lart.ae and Durand, ^n.vJ. vol. iv. p. Mh
Ju.. counci of Havenna, A.D. l.)14, c. a, Mansi
v«'.x..v.5H7, makes sixteen the limit; but the
a^^most contemporaneous Cono. Vienn.' under
Cement V. m 1311, makes twenty-two, and h
age Kas adopted by the council of Trent anl
remauu in the present Roman ordinal. U) There
IS no canonical limit of ago for minor orders.
The civil law hxes the minimum age for a reader
at eighteen (Justin. Novell. 12;), c. l;i), bVt tt
dear that ordination might 'canonical? Le
place a a much earlier age. There had alremlv
arisen m the West, and there soon afterwa 2
arose in the East, the custom of TdZlit
eh, dren to the service of the church i„th?
^r est y..ars; hence the text of the Nomocai^on
vai TTrl^:^ ■■'«"'''"''" "f J"^"'" "
var s ,„ g J jjjj,;, ^^j^^^,_^ ^1^^ ,
yhteen,and twenty; and the Sr.hulU<st X'
finds ,t impossible to reconcile any of ihet'
ead'ng' «-.th the practice of his day „hi^,
i of"'"' TrVn*'"^ '^^•'"'"''^ "* "'" "k« "
M^5:%neJ^i!:r:'.f-i?/;i:::f-
the canonists, Gratian, pars i dist 77 ^ 1. ^
ORDERS, HOLY 1483
ara-ian, pa.-, i. dut. 77, 2) direct, that " if any
ministry of the church, let him remain amZ
eh:::Sr\^^;r^;o*:TCA/"":?
third council of cCth^e-c: 10 'a:,t'V«:
the second council of Toledo in 5H!., ... . ,rovX
for the case of reader, marryini whe th v
attain to puberty; and the fact of early rdina^
turns ,s proved by historical example,/; .S|.'
buli. ; and an extant inscription at Viviera
to .reader who died at the^g« of thiiC
a )• Le Want, /,>.scnpti„„s ChMi.nms de U
(.,,.</., N„. 484. The later mediaeval .uac ice^
wnich was adopted by the council of Trent
rven" """" *'"' """"" ^'■"'« ">« »8e of
admission of slaves to orders both the canon and
he civil law varied at diiferent times: in the
Ks the only early regulation is Can. Af>,,t. H2,
which allows slaves to be ordained only when
they have been manumitted; this agree^s luh
that of Co, ■ . '"' *'" ""■"''*' regulation la
tnat ol Couc. lluber. a.d. 305, c. 8, which dis-
allows the ordination even of a freedma whose
^ .o««,wasm,,c.,,;,,/o,. but 1 C:ono. Tolet. a.d!
4 », t. 10 allows .uch Dr,lination with the
.atrons consent. In the Hfth century Leo the
h ; .""■;['"« *" "'« ^'"^^V» "<■ Campania
objects to the ordination of slaves as inconssteni
with the dignity of the clerical of.ice? but s «t
the same time a witness to the occurrence of
.uch ordinations. ' (S. l,™n. M. A>,-.^ 4 (3) ai
/.>,..<. Cuyan. J. p. 612; for the meaning of
original,," of St. August, do Cant. J)e,, 1,?, 1,
.^nditionem debent genitali solo propter agr
culturain subdominio possessorum.") In (iaul it
would appear that ordination was at one tim
A.D. oil, c. 8, enacts that if a bishop knowingly
orlains a slave without the consent of his
master he must pay "duplex .atisfactio ;" if he
ha. done It ignorantly, then those who "testim"!
n urn perhibent aut eum .upplicaverint or, inari "
fmulv tf»? »"eh satisfaction; (this seems to
mply that part of the "testimonium" which
was required before ordination was that the
candidate wa. free.) In « council held i„ he
.ame city a quarter of a century later, there i^
« dehnite exclusion of both slaves and erfs
o'bi ::t r •""■:'"? "»'""«'-'i>'« -n-i.tio ibu^
obl.gatu.H ju.,ta statuta .sedis apostoli.ae ad
honores eccles.asticos admittatur, nisi prius aut
testaniento aut per tabula, legi ime constiterVt
absolutum (3 Cone. Aurel. a.d. 638, c. 26 bu
eleven years later thi.s rule was rJlaxed, 'and a
Uaye might be ordained with his master's con!
^ent. or, if ordained without such .on nt, »i
qui ordinatus est, benedictione servata, hone turn
oidin domino suo impendi.t obsequiu n," ,<, he
m.ght lontinue to be a clerk withoit ceaJingto be
a, lave; ,t i,. however, aho provided .u the
bishop might, if the master preferred, g v him
two slave. ,n pla-,. of the one who hid be™
ordained (5 Cone. Anrel. a.d. ,549, c. 6). I„ l,e"
lan.l the cancns of St Pntri,!,- ih- h " ''*
i,..i I ti " "' '^'" rniritk, which are iiro-
bubly at least a century later than the fortji^
li
I' r. - ' I I r
'I I
1484
OIIDICUM, HOLY
cniinciU, cluorly Imply thiit n rl.'rlj niii[ht b« »
•liive ; ('. 7 |iruvlil«it I'nr thu uxc'diiiiiiuiiii'iitliiit o(
a clerk who i« iii'ijlini'iit In iMiiiiiinf to |irayiT« :
" niai fiiitii JII150 servitntia «lt ilftciitu!)." Hut
in i;n)i!lairl Kiibert of York, nlmut this siinn'
j)eiiol, L'xiiros^ly ilisnllowi tin- onliniitlon of
»l«vi!ii, at least to thi' diaconatii (KijbortI Kborne.
Jiiitl. 0. 15, ftp Hail Ian anil Stiiljlm, Co'tn^Mn, i(r.
ill. p. 40'J). Tho C'arolinnian rule \va« e(|imlly
•trict; if tt slave wiv) orlainud withnut lir'-t
olitiininij his liberty h" nui-.t Icmn his nr.lors nn\
go back to his master (C'a|]it. Hlul"\viii 1.
A'liiiMijran. i{cnfral. A.t>. «17, c. li, ap. IVrtz, i.
p. 'JOT, cf. Capit. Francofiiit. A.l>. 7S»K e. ;Vl;
I'ert^, vii. p. 79 ; Capit. Ticin. a.d. 801, c. 2'J ;
Pertz, i. p. 811).
•.'. 'I'liu privile((i'.. no'l IMMIJNITIK9 [p. 82J]
wliich Ci)nstautiiii! at lirst coiireiri''! upon the
cU'ixy CiiUHfil so miuiy rich men to seek ret"iii;i!
fi-duitho biirilensot'tiixation by takiiiijollico in the
church that it spculily became necessary to enact
that no person whose fortune placcl him in the
rank if those upon whom tlie weii;htof public bur-
dens fell ahouUl be alloweil to become a clerk ;
the lirst law on the subject has not been pre-
served, but the continuation of It which onicts
th:it it shall not be retrospect Ivu is found in
Cod. TheoJos. 10, 2, 3, A.u. .t'iK. It was re-
enacted by Constantius in Ml, Cod. Theodos. 8,
4, 7 = Cod. Justin, 1, ;t, 4; audn^ain, in citecty
by Honorius and .\rcadius in 31>8, Cu.l. 'I'heodos.
lt>, •-'. :i'J ; lifty years later a law of Theodosius
and V:ileutiniiin allowed ordiiinej persons who
were liable to municipal duties to discharge
those duties by deputy, Cod. Justin. 1, It, 21;
but Justinian found it necessary abs.dutely to
prohiliit the ordination of such persons : flscr-
Ta{«wT7)i' iTriaKtwov t) ttptcr&'ntpov rov \oiiri)V
711/e.rfloi (Cod. Justin. 1, H, 5:t (.')'2);
nls
id. A' veil. t>, 0. 4 ; 12:1, c. 15). The necessity for
such a provision appears even from ecclesiastical
writers, c.j. Uasil speaks of Tif 7r\(iaT'»u
<p60'v t'i! arparoKoyias flfiromvvTwv iauroi
rfj !iirr)t>«Ti(f (S. liasil, Epist. .54 (181); Migue
J'. G. ;!-', 400; of. Jonua. Diac. Vit. S. Gret/w.
St. 2, l.'i, vol. i. p. 49); and tho rule itself was
acceiJted, c.ij., by Gre>;ory the Great, Epist. 4,
2ii, ad Jwliiir, vol. ii. p. 704, " videndum ne
obuoxius curiae [1.0. liable to servo on a
municipal senate] compellatm post sacrum
ordinem aJ actionem publicaiu rodire "; and by
4 Cone. Tolet. A.D. 6.J;i, c. 19 ; Ejjbert. Eborac.
Dial. a. 1.5. The Fraukish kings enacted that
no I'reeman should be ordained without the pcr-
missii n of the king or his ollicer : 1 Cone. Aurel.
A.n. 511 (shortly before the death of Chlodwig),
c. 4, enacts " ut nuUus saeeularium aj clericatus
otlicium praesumatur nisi aut cum regis jussione
aut cum judicis voluntate"; in the following
century another Kranki.-.h council, Cone. Kemens.
circ. A.D. 1)25, repeats the enactment; and
among the Frmnlao Marculphi is a letter from
a king giving such a permission (^Formulcm
Marcu/p':i, 1.19, ap. Migne, P. L. vol. Ixxzvii.
p. 712). Several instances are fouml in thi
biographies of the sauio century, o.'i. Sulpice of
Bourgcs (iVodt. in .S. suipit. 0. 8 ; Migne, P. L.
vol. ixxx. p. 5771; Ouen of Kouen (Vit. S.
Audii'ii. ap. Sur. i \\i^'.). Charles the Great
found it ueces ary agnin to renew the enactment
(Capit. duple- iu Tnw.d, Villa, A.D, 805, c. 15;
0KUER8, HOLY
Porti, 1, p. 1.14) I but It ii Dot found out of th«
rranklsh di>niHln,
111. Kixle iia>iliiiil QU'ilitiniliiinf. — 1. Bnptiim.
It was so invariably assumed that any mii' ivho
was advamrd to ollice iu the church had nlrpaijv
been made a member of the church by bii|itiiin
that the enactment of a canon on the Hiilijptf
was unneiessary. At Alexandria a caterhmu,,)
might be a reader or singer, but tho custiim ii
mentioned as exceptional by Socrates, 11. H ;,
2.', and, moreover, readers and singers were
sometimes not reckoneil in the cter :h at all. In
the middle of the :tril century Cornelius ot' Home
expresses a iloubt whether clinic baptism »iii
siillicient in the case of Novatian, inasmurh nj it
had not been followed by ('onlirniatiou (Kmeb.
//. /i. U, 4.1) ; and early in the following (oiiturv
the council of Neocnesarea, c. 12, is disiioseii,
cx<-ept in special cases («i n^ rdxa 81a t^ |UiTi
Toi<Ta aiiToD [i.o., of the baptized person] o-toi/J)i»
Kal irtiTTii' Kal Siii an&viv txvOfiiirtui'), to dij.
allosv altogether the orlination of those wlm hal
re<'oived clinic baptism. But the non-renewal
of the cnai^tment (except in 6 Cone. I'arij, a.ii.
829, c. 8, Mansi, 14, 542, which extends it to all
irregular baptisms) makes it probable that it
svas construed rather in the spirit of iti ei.
ceptiona than in that of its main pnivision.
Tho case of a presbyter being ordained before
being baptized was so rare that no provision ii
made for it in any canon of the lirst eight
centuries. The general case of uniiilain er
defective baptism is sometimes metitioncJ in
ecclesiastical writers, e.ij. S. Uiouys. Alvsani
Ep. ad Xijatnin np. Kuseb. //. E. 7, 9 ; S Leon.
Mftgn. Ep. Uii (.'15) ad Scim. liarenn. p. 1407 ;ii
Ep. 07 (2) ad Hmtic. Sarlxm. c. 17, Irt, ]i. 14:'7;
but the special case of an unbaptized presbyter
is first mentioned in Ab|). Theoilore's IVnitentml
at the end of the 8th century, who nppiirently
deals with two contingencies: a. If tiie pres-
bvter has been ordained through ignor.ince on
the part of his ordaincr that he has not been
bai>tized, the ordination s invalid, the h.iptisms
performed by the supposed presbytei nn' also
invalid, ami he himself must be baptizel, but
':aiinot be reordaiued (Pocnit. 1, 9, 12 ; Ha.lilao
and Stubbs, Co'M 'lYs, vol. iii.). b. If aim'sbyter
is ordained 111 ler the belief that he li.ia been
baiitized, an 1 hen discovers that he hits not, he
may be be 1 baptized and reordaini^ I, but
persons baptized by him must be relaptizeJ
(id. 2, 2, l.'i). In the following century a
capitulary of Pippin, which mentions a similar
case, does not specify what is to be flone with
the presbyter, but allows his baptisms provided
that the Holy Trinity was invoked at the time
(Cupit. Compcndiense, A.D. 757, c. 12; Pertz,
£('i/uin, vol. i. p. 28). As the iiii]"'Sition ol
hands was an integral part of bapti-in, it must
be held to be implied in the general regnlalionj
as to baptism ; the explicit mention of it as a
condition of ordination is much later. (But iti!
sometimes supposed to be meant iu Cone. Xicaen.
c. 8, which requires returning Cathari to be
X(ipi>9frovfitvovf ; so Hefele ad toe. and I'ataUni
ad Pontific. Roman, p. 1. tit. 2, 3; but Gratian,
», I, 7, ami others undeistaiid uriliuut.oU, cot
conili'mation, to be meant.)
2. There was a further rule that ordination
was not to follow too closely upon ba|)tism ; the
Pauline u.'\ vei<t>uTov (1 Tim. iii, 7) eipresiei
mm-
ORDKUS, Ik)l,V
b(ith thf or lirmry tuU' nii I the or liimry prnctic «,
Durinji; th« mrly )inuh oI' Clirntiaiiitv it wr»
olivjoinly iin|M)rtiiut thiit liel'ore n perion wua
fclviimml to oMiiu ill n church, nixt e»|woinlly to
til (illic« which involvcl dim ijilinary control,
lulHtieiit opportunity ihould lie niven for thn
oUcrviition ami teHtinjf of his chiiriutcr. The
lealint; e/irly canon on the milijcct is thiit of the
cmiiuil of Nicneii, c. 'J, which rcfcr» to an othcr-
wix! unknown eiiriicr iiiiion (porhnpi thnt which
is fnilioclicil ill Cnn. Apodt. HO), imd «pcakii nf its
h.ivint; bi'i'n frcnunntly hrokcn. The drift of
tlic canon i« clear, althoii>;h there la some donljt
as to the exact iiiter|iietation of the text.
Kulinua, //. K. '2, 0, aiiniH it up thus, "no c|uia
nupi'r BiHUinptua de vita vcl conversatione
Gintili, occepto baptisino, ante.niuni cautiua
axiiminotur, dericua liat "; ao also the later
canonista, *.'/. (Iratian, 1, diat. 48 (aee llefelc,
Council.i, K. T. vol. i.). It waa reiientud in ctlict
in the same century hy Cone. I.aod. c. 3 ; but
although it continued to be valid, «a la aoen from
(.■1. S. Leon. M. L'/Mt. l->, c. 4, i. p. (Ki.l, 4
Cone. Tulet. c. 19, yet the neceaaity for it imuti-
cally ceiiaed to exiat when the 'great mass of
the puiiulation came to be of Christian parent-
age and to have received baiitisin in infancy,
(iieftery the (Ireat interprets the Pauline in-
jumtion an having in his time a diU'ereiit menn-
iiii; friim that which it had in the earlier ages
of the church ; he applies it not to (irst onliua-
tieii, but to aub8ei|uent promotion, and para-
phrssea it by " ordinate ergo ail ordines acce.len-
dura Pit " (3. Greg. M. JS/jist. ix. IDij, vol ii.
p. 10(>'j). Hut two centuries after the council
of .Ni<aea the spirit of the canon waa revived in
a Kither form in Spain and Gaul. A period of
probation was impnse.l before even one who had
lii-.n a Christian all his life could be admitted,
if not to minor ordera, at least to the diaconate.
4 Cone. Arelat. a.d. 524, c. 2, 3 Cone. Aurtl.
A.n. 518, <■. 0, 5 Cone. Aurel. a.d. 549, . •!,
enact that lui I. ne is to be ordained "nisi post
annudin conversionein," i.e. except after a vcnr's
withlrawal from secular pursuits and devotion
to a rclii!iou3 life. :i Cone. Ilrac. a.d. .'k;.!, c. 20,
en.icts, what is not expressly stated ■ the Oal-
lican canons, that this year iato be sjif it in minor
oriers " [niai] ... in ollicio lectomti vel sub-
(liaconati disciiiliiiani eccdesiasticani discat." Hut
there is no ' vidence of the .'sistenre of these
regulatiout outside the limits , TGaiil and Spain,
and their absence from the list of disqualifica-
tions ia 4 Couc. Tolet. c. 19 (see above) is pre-
sumptive evidence of their not having been
permanent even within those limits.
3. It waa an early and apparently a universal
rule that no one who had ever 'forfeited his
position as a full member of the church, by ' pro-
fessing penitence,' shoi.ld be admitted to otiice.
lietore the age of councils the rule is mentioned
by Origen (,;. Ct/s. 3, c. ol, i. p. 482, ed. Delarue),
and Augustine gives the reason for it, " ne
forsitan etiam detectis criminibus spe honoris
ecilesiastici animus intumescens superbe ageret
poenitentiam, severissime placuit ut post actani
OnDKH.S, HOLY
148S
Ilinachiiia, p. :,■>■>■ Mi^,„,, p. j,. ,.„). ,i||. 1,4;
.0 Rl.o the (Jallican rule, C.nc. Agath. A.D. f,(i().
c. 4,1 ; Kpaon a.d. 517, c. 3 ; 4 Arelat, A.D. 524
''■■ I ' i'\"'',''.'- ^-^^ °'"*' *=• " • "> '''■"• th«' African
rule, «,ij. /u-cle^. Anli,/. c. (iH ; ,„ also the earl,
„""V. !''"'' ,'1""""K 'he decretal of /.osiinui.
lontil. Kcgb. 8. Uunatan, Noviom., Hacram!
Oeiaa. liut the .Spanish rule admitted of ex-
ceptiona. 1 Con,. Tolet. A.D. 4M, c. 2, make,
the proviso " nisi tantum[»i] necc.itaa aut u.us
exegerit inter oatiarioi ileputetiir vel inter
lectores '; and two later councils. Cone. Gerund
A.D. 517, c. 1), 4 Cone. Tolet. A.D. ti;t3. c. 54.
allow the or.liiintion of persona who made a
general profession of penitence in extreme sick-
ness, "nulla manifesta acelera confiteiites sej
tniitum peccal(.re8 te praedicantes," and who
afterwards recovered. (At the same time there
IS a treatise of Catalani, priiitcil as a note to 10
Cone, lolet. in his edition of De Aguirre't
Oiitril,,, ni.y,.miai; vid. iv. pp. li}3-l<J4, " lJ«
•liscip ina antniuae ecdesiae speciatim Hispanicaa
circa lapsoa in peccatum carnis post baptiamum
n« ordinentur neo adminiatrcut ordines jam
susceptos.") "'
4. It waa enacted, with n frequency which
indicates that the rule was often broken, that no
one should be ordained out of the church to
which he belonged (i.e. probably, the church in
which he had been baptized, but theciuestion is
not easy of determination: see the discussion of
It in Hallier tlu &iaria Electimibus, pp. U05
Hipp), or j.roinoteil to a higher grade out of th«
church in which he waa first ordained. Viola-
tiona ot this rule rendered the ordination invalid
(iKupat farat i, x«ipoToi'/o), according to Cone.
Nic.-ien. c li); Antioch. c. 24; Sardic. c. 15,2
Arelat . I.M, 0. 13 ; 5 Arelat. A.D. 554, c. 7 ;
on. A.I . 4G1, c. 9, 10 (which, however, has
proviso, " nisi satisfactione quae ad iiacem
pertinent comjionantur "). Cone. Chalc. c. 10
excommunicates both the ordaining bishop and
trie ordained clerk until the latter returns to
his own church ; 5 Cone. Aurel. A.D. 549, e. 6
suspends the ordaining bishop lor three months'
and the ordained clerk during the ),h mnv „f
lie criminp dar;jnQK|lj
popnite
nemo sit
clencus ut desperatione temporalis altitudinis
niedicina major et verier esset humilitatia " (S.
Augustin. Epst 185 (50), c. 10, ii. p. 812). The
iloman rule admitted of no exceptions: Cone.
Lorn. A.D. 4fi5, c. 3; S. Siric. £jjUt. 1, c. 14;
his proper bishop. The rule i"s al. n,|, but
without any express penalty for tlie vii.litii'm of
It, in Africa, 3 Cone. Carth. c. 21, 44 = Cod
Lccles. Afric. c. ,54; in Gaul, Cone Arausic!
A.D. 441, 0. 8 ; Venet. A.D. 4t)5, e. M ; Arvern
A.D. 53.5, c. 11 ; in Spain, Cone, lllib. a.d. .1115
c. 24; Valent. a.d, 524 (,54«), c. 6; 1.: Urae!
A.n. 5b3, 0. 8; in the Capit, Hadrian, a.d. 785,
c. 18; and in the (.'arolingian capitularies, e g
Karoli Magiii Cipit. A.D. 779, c. 2 ; Cai.it. in
Papis, A.D. 789, c. 3; Pertz, i. p. 7 The
regulation probably arose in the tirst instance
from the desirability of a man's being ordained
among those who could bear witness to i„a
innocency of life and soundness in the faith (so
expressly Omc. lllib. c. 24), but it was kept ap
in later times chieHy in the interests of eecle-
sinstical organization. (Kor the origin of the
system of dimissory letters, see DiMlssouv
Lettkrs, Vol. I. p. 558.)
5. ihe rcguiiilioiis in regard to the m.irriage
of candidates for orders were governeii by the
lauline injunction, ymSs yuuaiKbs 4;'Sp«s (1 Tim.
lii. 2, 12; Tit. i. 6). As to tlie interpretation of
that injunction, there njipears to have b. -n a con-
sensus of opiniou ; it excluded those who, having
-.^ ii'
'"S
ifMi''
1486
ORDERS, HOLY
I
lost one wife, had married another. But two
questions arose : firstly, whether the rule applied
in the case in which the first wife had been
married before baptism ; secondly, whether the
rule applied to others than presbyters and
deacons. On these questions there were varietiesof
opinion ; as to the first, the Eastern rule seems to
have been that only marriages after baptism were
to be reckoned ; so Can. Apost. 17, iSuirl yinof
o-u/iirAaKcU ;u«tA tJ) piitriafia, Cone. Trull, c.
3 J cf. Balsam, ad loc. This limitation of the rale.
is defended at length by .lerome, £p. 69 {S:i) ad
Oee m. i. p. 411, but herein Jerome stands almost
alone among Western writers. (At thp same
time it may be noted that Jerome's general view of
digamy was of the strictest ; cf. Epiat. 123 (11),
c. 6, i. p. 90+). Tne Western rule rigidly ex-
cluded from the priesthood all who had married
a second wife, whether the first marriage had
taken place before or after baptism ; so S.
Ambros. de Ojf. Ministr. i. 50, ii. p. 66 ; S.
Augustin. de Bono Conjuji. c. 18; Migne, 6, p.
p. 387 ; S. Leon. £pist. 6, c. 3, vol. i. p. 617 ;
Innocent. I. tJpist. ai yict'/ric. Hinsehius, p.
630 ; Migne, P. L. vol. x.x. 474 ; Zosim. £pist.
ad Ilcsych. Hinsehius, p. 553, quoted (some-
times as a decretal of Innocent 1.) in the ponti-
ficals of Kcgbert, St. Dunstan, Cahors, JumicSgos,
Vatic, ap. Muratori, and in the Gelasian sacra-
mentary ; and the later canonists, e. 1. Gratian, 1,
dist. 26, 3 ; U. Ivon. Decret. i. 292. (It is pro-
bable that the exceptions mentioned by TertuU.
de Exiwrt. Cast. c. 7 [iMontanist], and Hippol.
Pi'iilosophum, 9, 12, refer to violations not of the
rule in general, but of this stricter inter))retation
of it. ) The attempt to extend the rule to all clerks
was not altogether successful, and the fluctua-
tions of o(iinion which are marked in the succes-
sive enactments are worthy of study. The
following are the more important enactments
which bear upon the adiiussion of married persons
to orders ; for a more general account of the
regulations which aUected persons already in
orders, see CELiiiACir, Diqamv. (I) No one who
had married a second wife could become a clerk :
Can. Apost. 17; 1 Cone. Valen. A.D. 374 (?),
c. 1; Kom. a.d. 465, c. 2; Gerund. A.D. 517,
c. 8 (which excludes any one who, after the death
of his wife, " aliam cujuscunque conditionis cog-
noverit mulierem"); 4 Arelat. A.D. 524, c. 3
(which speaks of the necessity which had arisen
for imposing a severer penalty for the violation
of the rule) ; 3 Aurel. A.D. 5 iS, c. 6 ; Stat.
Eacles. Antiq. c. 69 ; 4 Tolet. A.D. 633, c. 19 ;
Kom. A.D. 743, c. 11 ; Poenit. Theod. i. 9, 10;
and in the civil law, Justin. Novell. 123, c. 12
(but apparently limited to presbyters and deacons
in id. Novell. 6, 5). (2) No one in a similar
case could be a deacon or presbyter : Origcn m
Luc. Horn. 17, iii. p. 953, ed. Delarue ; Justin.
Novell. 6, 5; 123, 14; Cone. Kpaon. A.D. 517,
0. 2. (3) No one who had married one who had
been herself married before, whether widow or
di'oorci*, could be ordained: Can. Apost. c. 17;
1 Cone. Valent. A.D. 374, c. 1 ; Kom. A.D. 46."),
c. 2 ; 3 Aurel. c. 6 , 4 Arelat. c. 3 ; Epaon. c. 2 ;
Stat. Ecclcs. Ant. c. 69 ; Cone. Kom. .\.i). 71'), 11 ;
Zonim. Eiiiit. ad Hai/ch. ; Puenit. Theod. i. 9, 10 ;
Ei{bert. Eborac. Dial. c. 15 ; Cone. Tiiill. c. 3.
(4) No one could bo ordained who hod married
two sisters (CMn. Apost. 19), or his niece (id.),
or an actress, or slave, or courtesan (id. 18. Cone.
ORDERS, HOLY
Trull, c. 3), or who had a concubine (Can. Apost.
19; 4 Cone. Tol. c. 19; Trull, c. 3; I'oenit.
Theod. i. 9, 6), or whose wife had been guiltv of
adultery (Cone. Neocaes. c. 8 ; cf. S. Basil. Ejiist.
Canon, iii. c. 69). (r)) The earliest positive pro.
hibition of the ordination of all married persons
is 2 Cone. Arelat. c. 2, "nssumi allc|uem ad
sacerdotium non posse in conjugii vinculo con-
stitutum nisi fuerit praemissa eonvorsio " [i.t'.
renunciation of manded and secular life], bvt the
date and authority of this council are both \ eiy
uncertain.
6. Some other ecclesiastical disqualifications
appear to have been of a local or tem|iuriiry
nature. (1) Can. Apost. 79, Cone. Arausic. a.d.
441, 3 Aurel. A.D. 518, c. 6, 1 1 Tolet. c. l:i,
enact that no one who had been possessed by an
ev^il spirit coulil be ordained (cf. the story tylj
by Gregory the Great in his life of .St. liiMieljct
of the youth who was exorcised by St. Ueiie.llct,
and told never to enter holy orders ; ou hij
attempting to do so, the evil spirit returned ; St.
Greg. Dial. 2, c. 16 ; Migne, P. L. vol. Ixvi. p.
164). (2) 1 Cone. Garth, c. 8 enacts that no
one can be ordained until he has rendered his
accounts as procurator, actor, or tutor pujiiU
loruin, in order to secure his entire disen-
tanglement from secular business. (;i) T)ie
titatuta Kcclesiae Antiqua e.\clude "seditioiiarios,
usuarios, et injui'iarum suiirum ultores " (cf. St.
Basil, Epi.'it. 188 [canonica prima], c. 14, p. Ti'o).
(4) In England the Dialogue of Egbert gi ,es an
indication of the mixed character of the English
church in the middle of the 8th century Ijv
expressly excluding " idola adorantes, per arus-
pices [et divinos atque] incantatores ciiptivos se
diabolo tradentes " (EgLiert. Eborac. Dlit. c. 15;
Haddan and Stubbs, iii. 402 ; Wilkins, i. 82).
(5) Illegitimacy was first made a bar by the
synod of Meaux, A.D. 845, c. 64, but even then
there was the exception, " nisi ecdesiae utilit.is
vel necessitas vel merltorum praerogative aliter
exegerit" ; but the question was an open one tor
some time afterwards, as is shewn by the ilis-
cussion between Koscelin and Theobald d'Ks-
tampes, whether the son of a priest, as being
necessarily boni " ex lapsu carnis," cuuKl be
ordained (Theobald's argument against the ex-
clusion of such persons is given in D'.\cherv,
Sfiicileijiitm, vol. iii. p. 448). In the tast a
canon of Nicephorus, sometimes printed as ,an
addition to the canons of Chalcedun, I'itra,
Spicileg. Solesin. vol. iv. 465, id. .fur. Kcd. Hr.
vol. i. p. 530, vol. ii. p. 32-i, expressly allows
the ordination of the oifspring of concubinage,
digamy, or even fornication ; but the Western
rule was severer, and it I'urther ranked as Mi'i,i-
timate the children of heretit^s and slaves (cf.
Catalanidii Pontif. Hainan, p. l,tit. 2. !,§§.'). 18),
7. Of later regulations, the most ini|iortiint
was that which required every candidate lor
orders to have a fixed source of income, or title.'
• The me.inini? of the word titulus. like tluiiof canm,
iu its ccclesiaBiical sense, has been so often nilsjnjcr.
mood tint It is advisable to mcnttoti the chl^l facl.^ln
regard to Us use It Is a ti'chnleul terra uf licmian law
where, from its original u«i' In ri'lmlon lo t i.xalile ri'«l
pr.iperty. It ciine to be used of tax.ible pi-opnity, ami o(
property yielding revenue. In Roneral : OkI. '^lle.^llJ^. lib
xl. tit. ?«. 1 =: Hid. ,ri!Ktin. llli. X. tit. 311. I (a U»- if
A.i). atia;, " in axUin Malu « m dOtitm niuiio ul »,i[\ez-
ORDERS, HOLY
In the earliest period, when each church hail its
OWE bishop, and parish was svnnnvinoua with
diocese, appointment to otiice was, from the
nature of the case, appointment to a particular
olKce in a particular church. 'I'his primitive
practice of appointments seems to have been first
departed from in the 5th century ; but the de-
parture from it was strongly condemned by the
council of Chalcedon, o. 6, which enacted that
the ordmation of those who were o»oAi5tmi
Xnporomunivous and not ISixas dv (KK\riala
riKfcs It Kuinns fl ^l.apTvpt<f, fi novaffrrjptifi should
be invalid. For three centuries after the enact-
ment of this canon there appears to be no neces-
.Ity for re-enacting it ; but it reappears in the
Dialogue of Kgbert, c. 9 (Haddan and Stubbs,
Cwxils, &c. vol. iii.) and in the Carolingian
Capitularies, e.g. Karoli Capit. Ecclcs. A.D. 789
c. 25 ; Pertz, vol. i. 58 ; Caj)!!. Francofurt. a.d!
794, c. 28, ap. Pertz, vol. i. p. 74, " ut non
absolute ordinentur," Capit. Excerpt, a.d. 806,
c. 7, Pertz, vol. i. 147. In the meantime it had
become the custom at all ordinations to major
orders to designate the particular church which
the ordinand was to serve, and from which he
w«9 to derive his income. This is the case in the
Pontificals of Ecgbert, St. Dunstan, Vatican ap.
Muratori, Rodrad, Rouen, Reims, Noyon, Ratold,
and the Gelasian Sacrameutary (but the omission
in the Missale Francorum and the Cod. Maf-
feianus is to be noted). But there does not
appear to be any direct canonical requirement of
a titulus earlier than the end of the llth
oentury : Cone. Placent. A.D. 1095, c. 15, '< decer-
nlmns ut sine titulo facta ordinatio irrita hnbea-
tur"; at the same time Urban II., under whom
this council was held, in writing to the bishop
ofToul, leaves it to his discretion to allow such
ordinations or not (Append, ad Epist. Urban!
Papac II. No. xvii. ap. Slansi, vol. xx. 67(1).
IV', Litmrnj Qmlijications.—lt both follows
from and confirms the general view of the nature
of the clerical olfice in the primitive church that
lileriiry qualifications were viewed as subordinate
and non-essential. The Pastoral Epistles require
dnmprotinuaurgeatnrln quo altcnim perpcram fecerit
debitorem," where Ciijarlu9,a(i loc. C<«i. .UM'm., exiilalns
tie word! in italics. "In eodem tit. puu In uuro vcl In
atgento et In eodcm modo Id est eadom quantitate " ■ Cod
Theodos. lib. xii. tit. 9, 3 = C0.I. Justin, lib. x. tit. 73 3:'
lb.xl. tit U, 5 (« law of A.M. 399), "sclai,tj„dla.» nihil
8ltl ex prlvatac ret can„no vel eo quod ex lUUm tltulis
Megenni ad necessitates alias tnmsferre licere"- c.«1
^.ri";.'"'- fl'- "'• ''• '"' "P"' "n'vmus," l.e. dUtrictJ
yielding laxal.le revenues; ibid. lib. xl. tit. 2 4 tit 12
2,'annon«rlu»tiiulufl,"l.e.adl8trlctyl,ldlngt«xat,I,.corn'
Wnli <l"<J.llb.xi.tlt.I,36,"canoidcltllull." H.ncethe
Zll^\ ^•'"'■^''"'"><^" of the di»trlct». I.e. parishes
nto ,hlcb R„n,e was divLled for e™io.la«iic.l purposes,
and each of which had Us proper revenues: e.g. |« v
Z^' •'■ ''• "''"i " ''"''°' '" """« Roniaconatltultquasi
ntrr'. ■"""'"""" '' P<«n"^nti«n, multorum
qui convertebautur ex pag„nU et propter scpulturas
TtX: '';,""■"■ 'if •''■ *'™"'"' p- «' '■"• ^- '-"^
p. W. Hence the mediaeval meaning of ecclesiastical
tame,e.g.3Conc.Uteran. A.D. 1,79. c. 5. "Kpt!,pus
IiIm™?, """ ""'" '""'" ^^ '"'° "fo-saaria vltae per-
clptat m diacotmra vel preebyterum ordlnaviTl t ": .Synod
v«dl uui.;,f' ■ \ 'C '^•^■'''"' '" "^"^ o^""-^ P'""^
« M«l r ''obea„'»»fflclenton.'i8aruu. rontlflcal
l^^V '.'"".l- ?'• '"'• '"• P- "»• "N"""^ »in« vert,
tltiUo vel cigua litulu, »d non Utulum eat redactus,"
ORDERS, HOLY 1487
that a bishop shall be » apt to teach " {B,iaKriK6s,
A i"",'l,'; ' '"^'"^ '"" pRi-ai.hrased in Const.
Apost._7, JI, into 5vvan4i>ovs SiUaKtcy rby K6yoy
rvstva-fffuas), but early Christian literatur*
dis ,nc ly contemplates the existence of an un-
lettered bishop (Amr. KAlJ^. 16 (18), ,ra.5f,'as
^iiToxos Suyd^.yos tA? ypa^h iptxr,y(if,y • ,/
5_« aypi^^aros, wpab, imipxwy koX t/; l^yinr,
(IS irdyras Tr^pKra^vhu,). For the first four
centuries there are no conciliar or other reeula
tions requiring knowledge of letters as a qiialifi.
cation for orders ; and Jerome expressly mentions
that, m his time, "judlcio Domini et po),ulorum
suHragio in sacerdotiura simplices [,■.<,•. illiterate
persons] ehgi; saltem illud habeant ut postuuam
sacerdotos lue:-int ordlnati discant legem Oei ut
po,ssint docere quod didicerint et augeant scien-
t.am magis quam opes " (S. Hieron. Vom,mnt. m
A^ac, c. 2, V. 11, vi. p. 761). But in the 5th
century the altered position of the clergy in
relerence to the laity, the formation of a liturgy,
and the growing tendency to lay stress on tbr'
mulae, rendered it necessary to lay a stress
which had not been 1 ud before on the posses..ion
of certain rudiments of education. A Syrian
synod in 405 (?) (Mansi, vii. 1181), c. 26, enact*
that not even a subdeacon is to be ordafned untU
he is not oiily otherwise instructed In doctrine,
but can say the Psalter ; and the Roman council of
460 (.»), o.d, enacts that "Inscii quoque litterarum
R.^W fl"?"* T""" "'''"'"" "»" audeant."
fh^L f .K ?y«"-«stablished enactment., are
those of the civil law. Justin. Novell. 6, 4, a.d
o3o enacts that clerks must be ^p„V,:^T«;
4maTi,p^ay(s at any rate presbyters and deacons-
From the 7th century onwards, and in the later
canonists, knowledge of letters, the degree and
kind, however rarely specified, is made an indis-
pensable qtiuhhcation: 4 Cone. Tolet. a.d. 633,
c. 1. , 8 Cone. Tolet. a.d. 653, 0. 8, which
spec.fies the requisite knowledge to be that of
totura psalteriura vel canticorum usuallum et
hjmnoruni sive baptizandi supplementum -; in
Eng and, ),al. Egbert. Eborac. c' 15 ; among'the
/« p 9o; in the Frnnklsh kingdom, Capit.
Francoturt A.D. 794, c. 2(., IVrtz, i 73; in the
canonists, Gratian. p. 1, dist. 24, c! 5 = I) Un
Carnot. i'a«^,™ 3 c. 21 = ejusd. Secret, i
t. 21; Burchard Woimat. Decvet. 2, 18 Tha
further regulations, themselves also compara-
tnely rare, which speclMlly apply to the h gher
edge 01 letters which was requisite lor admission
to the ower orders must at first h.ve beea
extreme y small. 2 Cone. Aurel. a.d. 53:1 c 16
enacts that no one can be oi-dained j.iesby'ter o^
nesciat. Cone. Nnrbon. a.d. 589 enacts that
no bishop is to ordain an illiterate person pres-
byter or deacon; if such persons have been
already ordained, they must be compelled to
learn i if any one will not learn, he must lose
his stipend. If he is still obstinate, h" mu.°t
Be u-legHted to a monastery "quia non imtest
ae ificare populnm." Grego'ry ?he oZ, lu
the same time, objects to Rustlcus, a .leac^n who
was candidate for the bishopric of Ancona, tiat
he was reported not to know the Psalter an]
-uggesU tkt the bishop to whom he is ^^iUng
1488
0UDKU8, HOLY
ihouM finil out " qiiantos psnlmos minus tpnont"
(H. Greg. Mngn. J^Jfiiat. U, 11, vol. ii. p. I'iUH).
No doubt (Jiegory'.s jiei-sonRl iiiduemn liiil
much to rttis« the oviiinnry stnudnrd of attiiiii-
nicnt; and two centuries alter his time his own
works were ranked with the Gospels, the Kpistles,
and the apostolical canons, as constituting the
proper objects of a priest's study: Cone. Mogunt.
A.i>. SH,'prael'. ; 3 (Jonc. Turon. A.D. 81'), c. 3;
'2. Cone. Ciibillon. A.D. 81:1, c. 1, and elsewhere.
So also a knowledge of the calendar was required,
e. (/. by Hincmar, Cipit. Syw-d. c. 8, A. P. 8r>'.i.
How much knowledge of Scripture was required
in the SHh century is shewn by the selection of
passages wliich was framed, in order that can-
dllates might learn it by heart, by Prudentius
of 'I'royes (S. Prudent. Tree. Florilrgiwn, ap.
Trombelli Vet. I'atr. 0pp. BonoD. 1753, from a
MS. furnished by Uianchini).
In the Kiist the standard of attainment seems
to have fallen very low. 2 Cone. Nicacn. A.D.
787, c. 2, found it necessary to make an explicit
resjubition that every one who was advanced to
the ollUe of a bishop'must know the psalter and
be able to read the Scriptures and the canons.
Still later, the Nestorian canons of Ebedjesu
(Tract, vi. c. 4, can. 3, ap. Mai Script. Veit. vol.
x. p. I'i) enact that no one must be ordained
ct<v deacon who docs not know the lessons and
epistles, but a country deacon may in cases ofi
emergency be allowed who knows only some .,i
the psalter. Tiie implication is that in neither
case was it required that he should be able to
read, but only fh.it he should know the pro-
scribed porti(ms by heart.
2. Mml' ()/ TeMmj UwtVjications. Examination.
It has already been pointed out that the ecclesi-
astical followed the analogy of the civil organiza-
tion in requiring definite qualifications in its
oiKcers ; it is also probable that the same analogy
was foUoweil in regard to the mode of testing
those qualitiiations. At the time of election to
olHcc, either before votes were recorded or before
the election was declared, the returning otTiceruf
an ecclesiastical as of a civil community enquired
vii\t vmr whether the necessary conditions had
bein fullilled. This enquiry was made not of the
)ierson elected, but of those who voted for him,
or who presented him for admission. It was an
enquiry almost entirely into moral fitness. The
renson'which t'yprian gives for making ecclesias-
tical ajqiointments in the common assembly of
the church is that " in the presence of the people
the crimes of the bad and the merits of the good
may alike be disclosed, and that the ordination
may be regular and legitimate which has been
testcl by the vote and judgment of all" ("omnium
sullragio et judicio examinata," S. Cyprian, Kpist.
68, It, v(d." i. p. 102<)). In another passage,
Cyprian appears to distinguish between the testi-
mony which was given by the clergy and the
vote which was given bv'the people (id. inter
/;/).>«. S. Cornel. 10 vol. i. p. 770). This testi-
mony is distinctly described by Basil as the result
of previous enquiry and examination {Epist. 54
(181) aJ t'Aorcpisc. Migne, P. 0. vol. xixii. 400);
and the giving of it forined a feature iii aliuusl uU
rituals of ordination. But whereas in the earliest
period the enquiry of the bishop was addressed to
and the testimony given by the whole body of the
clerjy of a church, in the ensuing period two
or more deacons presented and bore testimony to
ORDEHS, IlOl.y
A deacon, two or more presbyters to a presbyter.
Afterwards the practice which was peculiar to
Home in the time of .lercmie (S. llieron. /.'/.isf.
14(i (85) («/ ICvamj.) became almost universul in
the West. The clergy were represented by the
archdeacon who, as the chief oIKcer of the cxtcriml
discipline and activity of the church, wouM be -
most likely to be cognisant of tl.o current nqm.
tation of any of its members. (The cNcepticms to
this practice are comparatively few in the Wist;
the Salzburg and Cambrai pontificals and Cddn
Malleianus direct a presbyter to be presented Ijy
two presbyters, and the bishop's (piestions are
addressed to the bystanders, which n.ny nn'iiii of
nil the clergy in the sanctuary.^ So inqidrtiint
was this function of the archdeacon that lliilsn-
mon (HalliJ and I'otle, tuvray. Kav. vol. iv. p. Itiii)
expresses a doubt whether a deacon could be er-
dained without it. But this public exnniiimtiin
teniled to become a mere form, and was fouinl to
be insulHcient. Popular testimony was apt U he
partial. The bishop himself was required tci tiilie
more active steps to ascertn'ti that the or'liiined
was worthy. Chrysostom (//om. in ;wni'). tie ilec.
mill, talent., Op. ed. Migne, vol. iii. p. 2:t)warns his
fellow bishops that this is one of the things I'er
which they will have to give an account, .lu.stiniaii
(Aoiell. I'M, c. 1) speaks of the scandal which hml
arisen from derlts having been ordained without
due examination. The third council of Cnrthii^n,
c. 22, and the third of Braga, A.D. 572, c. IS, hoth
lay stress on such examination in addition to the
requirement of testimony (" oportet non per
gratiam muncrum sed per diligentiin priiis
discussionein, delude per multorum testimcnimii
clericos ordinare "). In order that such uii ex-
amination might be more ell'ective, Gregory the
Great advised Adeodatus to associate with hiii,-
self " graves expertosque viros " {K/iist. iii. 4',i,
vol. ii. p. tJtJO) ; and this became ultiniiitel_v the
general practice throughout the West. Ti.e
mediaeval rule was based by the canonists (Grntian,
pars 1, dist. 24, c. 5; Ivo Carnot. I'an'i-m. M, e,
21, Decret. 0, c. 21 ; Burchard Wormat. 2, c. 1)
on a canon of an otherwise unknown cniiuil
(Cone. Nnnnetense, al. Manetense, said to have
been held in A.D. 895, in the pontificate of For-
mosus), which, as it to a great extent govonis the
modern Koman, and also the English, pimtiie,
may be quoted here: " (Juando episcopus or.liiin.
tiones facere disponit omnes qui ad snerimi iiiin-
isterium acceilere volunt feria quavta ar.te ipsnni
ordinationem cvocandi sunt ad civitatem una iiim
[archijpresbvteris (|ui eos repraesentare del.ent;
et tunc episcopus a latere suo eligore debet sa.er-
dotes et alios prudentes viros gnaros divin.ie legij
et exercitatos in ecclesiasticis sanctionibus qui
ordinandorum vitam, genus, patriiini, aotiitem,
institutionem, locum ubi educnti sunt, si bene
sunt literati, si instructi in lege Domini, ihlipMi-
ter investigent; ante omnia si fidem cntholieani
firmiter teneant et verbis simplicibus asserere
queant . . . Ita per tres continuos dies diligenter
examinentur et sic sabbato qui probati invcuti
sunt episcoporepnip^eiitentur." This eiamin.iti™
was in come dioceso supplemented, in tho case of
a presbyter, by a farther public eianunation st
the time of ordination in regard to his willing-
ness to be ordaineil, and to be obedient to hn
bishop (so the Mainz and Soissons pontificali,
published hy Martene ; one of the Corbey ponti-
ticals, published by Morin: and Hittorp, Unh
ORDKUH, IlOr.Y
Jlominns, p. O.'i) ; the former of thi'se riupstions of
eiamiimtiuii was probably inti'iiilcd to gimnl
jgsiiist the onlin 4ions of persons aijiiinst thi'ir
will (nsin the casi. of Piiulinus, S. Hiuron. IC/iitit.
61, DO, vol. i. p. 241, or of Uassiiimm, Acta Cjiic
Cto. xi- ap. Mnnai, vol. vii. p. 278), the lattT to
secure the often contested rights of bishops over
pjrochinl clergy [I'AUisii],
There was a further tost, which was, however,
rather negative than positive, in the ajipeal to
the i)co|ile at the time of orilination. It is pro-
bable [see OiiDiNATiON] that originally all ap-
pointments to ecclesiastical o'ficu were made by
po|)iilar election ; subsequently names wore pro-
pose^l bythe clergy or by the bishop, and although
the form of a popular election still remained, yet
the part of the [leople was confined to the exclama-
tion SJior, " dignus est " ; ultimately that which
survived was the appeal of the bishop to the
people that, if any one Icnew any reason why the
person elected should not be ordained, he should
come forth and declare it. A novel of Justinian
(So'dl. I'.':), c. U, and, in effect, l;t7, c. 3) regu-
lates the ]iroccdure in case of an objection appear-
ing ; but the canon law appears only to jn'ovide
for the general case of a bishop knowingly, or
after warning, ordaining an unijualified person
(f.^. 3 Cone. Aurel. a.d. 5.18, c. (i). It is pro-
bable that a person who made an obj , ion which
he did not succeed in subsi ' \g was liniilo
to the penalty of excom. ■ , ,,n which fol-
loweJ all false accusatior , ' ■:■'■„ (Cone, lllib.
c. 75, Agath. c. 31), and aIjo tnat an objector
must himself be a faithful member of the church
and of irreproachable character (3 Cone. Oarth.
c. 8; Cone. Chalc. c. 21); hence the clause, which
still remains in the Roman pontifical, in the ap-
peal of the bishop to the people, " si quis &c. . .
xenm meinor sit condUionis suae." Uut that
the checks thus imposed on groundless accusations
were not intended to crush enquiry is shewn by
the fact that, when the extension of the area of
dioceses, and the multiplication of parishes within
the limits of a single diocese, n:ade the appeal to
the people in the cathedral church at the time
of ordination less effective than it had originally
been, an additional test was imposed by making
a previous appeal to the peoi)Ie of tho parish in
which the ordinand lived.
Ultimately there were four, and in some cases
five, tests which every ordinand had to satisfy.
1. He must have the testimony of the presbvter
of his parish. This was originally given vim
toceii the time of ordination, and the presbyter
or archpresbyter presented the ordinand per-
sonally to the bishop ("qui eog repraesentare
debent," in the Cone. Nannet. quoted above) ;
afterwards it was given in writing, and the
archdeacon presented and bore testimony to all
ordioanJs alike, both those of whom he had per-
sonal knowledge and those who had the testi-
mony of other presbyters. 2. He must pro.luce
evidence that his intention had been publicly
declared in the parish in which he lived, and
that no objector had come forward. 3. He must
not have been objected to, or, if obiected to.
miist have been cleared from the objection at
the time of ordination. 4. He must have been
personally ♦ested by the bishop, assisted by
other competent persons. (It is possible that
the testimony of the archdeacon in the modern
Mgliah ordinal may partly refer to this exami-
ORDEnS, HOLY
1189
nation ; but the fact that the Cono. Nannet.,
which forms tiic canonical authority for tha
practi. e, does not mention the archdeacon, shews
that (.ugiually the examination by the bishop
and the enquiry by the archdeacon were distinct.
I he earliest menti,)n of the archdeacon in con-
nexron with this examination is in late pontificals :
e.g. Cod. Vat. No. 474 i.) 5. The public exa-
mination by the bishop, which forms part of the
modern Kuglish ordinal, is an extension, appa-
rently without early precedent, of the esaminn-
tion mentioned above, into an ordinand's will-
ingness to be ordained and to <djey hi^ diocesan.
In the Homan pontifical it follows, ordination,
and IS treated not as an examination, but as a
contract {Vont'f. Ilim. jiais i. tit. 12, §§ 2[), 30).
V. Civil Status, Mannku of Liki;,' and
DisciPi.i.NK ov Pkilsons in Hoi.y OKDlcas.—
(i.) Cml Status: 1. In the prc-ConstnUunian
period of churi'h history the officers of the church
had, of course, no distinct civil status. They were
liable to the same burdens as all other citizens,
whether Christian or pagan; they had to take
their places among the dcmrioncs, to act as
trustees, and to serve in the army. Nor is there
any strong presumption that the discharge of
such tiiiictions, except where it involved the
recognition of the .State religion, wag exception-
ally ilistasteful. The sentiment of the incom-
patibility of church ofliccs with active civil life
hrst api.eais in Xorth Africa. In the busy com-
niercial towns of that thriving district the
Christian comuiunities were numerous, and the
work which devolved ujion their officers was
consequently considerable. At the same time
such ollicers were among the most intelligent and
most truitworthv citizens. They were conse-
quently in demand for civil offices of trust. Hut
when thus "saeculo obstricti " (Tertull. do
Prm'cript. L,crd. c. 41) their attention was
liable to be distracted, and the administration of
ecclesiastical nflaiis to anlfer. Such employ-
ments, so far as they were voluntarily under-
taken and not imposed by the civil power, were
therefore discouraged. In addition to this, the
analogy between the Christian ministry and the
Jewish priesthood was beginning to assert itself
in jiractice, and the frequent outbreaks of perse-
cution made the antithesis between the church
and the world exceptionally strong. The writings
ot Cyprian contain freiiuent protests i.^ .inst the
combination of church office with civil life: he
inveighs against commercial bishops {De Lapsis,
c. ti): he claims for ohurch officers that they
ought "nonnisi altari et sacrificiis dcservire et
precibus atque oratiimibus vacare " (A>si!. 68
(1), vol. ii. p. 397); a,„) consequcntiv since
(leminms Victor iiad named Faustinus,"a pres-
byter, as his executor, he inflicts upon the former
a posthumous punishment, "non est quod pro
dorinitione ejus apud vos flat oblatio aut depre-
cntio aliqua nomine ejus in ecclesia freouen-
tetur"(i'.W.). '
2, Hut from the time of the recognition of
Christianity by the Kmpire, several powerful
causes c..ntributed to foster the nFigoent tendency
to separate church olHcera into a class distinct,
b<.th civilly and socially, from the ordinary mem-
bers of the Christian coinniunities.
((() The first vt these causes was the conces-
sion to clerks of the immunities from public
burdens which ha 1 been enjoyed by certain
i:
»f m\
^m
i
■ • •ill 11
^
r. H'liU^
1
'«
1
y^fW
1
1490
ORDERS, HOLY
classes (if hcatheu priests, and which cnotinued
to bo enjoycii by some of the liberal profeasious.
[iMMUNil'llB, Vol. 1. p. 8«'2.]
lint Although the existence of these immu-
nitit'S operatetl powerfully to ^ive clerks a dis-
tinct status, nud although the enactment of
frequent safeg - rds against their abuse shews
that tliey ws; largely acted upon, and al-
though, moreo-jr, it was uulikely that anyone
who '.'ould claim exemption from public bunlens
would voluntarily undertake then), still it is
clear that the concession did not act as a prohi-
bition, and that church officers were still en-
tangled with civil affairs and engaged in com-
mercial pursuits. There is a wide dill'erence
between exemption from, and ineligibility for,
the discharge of civil functions: the empire
granted the former, the church came to impose
the latter. But it was not until the Council of
Chalcedon that the olding of civil oHice, or the
administration of secular business, became an
offence against ecclesiastical law ; and it was not
until eighty years after that council that the
civil law finally prohibited any of the higher
municipal oflicers from being elected presbyters
or bishops (Cod. Justin, i. 3, 53 (52), A.D. 532 ;
cf. also Justin. Novell. 123, c. 15).
(6) A second important and concurrent cause
was that clerks came to be in certain cases
eieniiitcd from the jurisdiction of the ordinary
courts of law. The granting of this exemption
was of itself a recognition of clerkj as a distinct
class, and the continued existence of it naturally
tended to increase the class feeling. The date
of the earliest concession is not certain : Haenel,
Corpus Le;ium ante Justiniivium latarum, p. 204,
gathers from Sozom. //. E. i. 9, Niceph. Call,
//. E. vii. 40, S. Ambros. Epist. ii. 13, that it was
made by Constantine about a.d. 331. But it is
not clear that either Constantine or his imme-
diate successors did more than recognise the
validity of church discipline ; i.e. of the voluntary
jurisdiction to which the members of Christian
societies h!\d submitted themselves.
(c) A third cause was that after the time of
Constantine the funds of the chu»ches no longer
consisted wholly of voluntary and temporary
offerings. The churches could inherit and hold
property (law of Constantine in 321, Cod.
Theodos. xvi. 2, 4). The provincial governors
were required to furnish annual provision not
only to clerks but also to widows and virgins on
the c'nuri'h-roll (Inc. Auct. de Constant, np.
Haenel, Citrpus Leijum ante .htstin. Int. p. 190 ;
the regulation was repealed by Julian but
restored by his successor, Sozom. H. E. v. 5 ;
Theodoret. iv. 4). A fixed proportion of the land
revenues of every city was assigned to the
churches and clergy (Sozom. H. £. i. 8; Niceph.
Call. vii. 40 : cf. Euseb. //. E. x. 6 , Vit. CtMxt,
\\. 28). The rich endowments of pagan temples
were transferred in some cases to the newly-
recognised religion : for example, Constantine
g.ive the church of ^.lexnudria the reveuuea of
the temple of the Sun (Sozom. v. 7) ; nnd Theo-
dosius gnve the same church the wealth of the
temple kT Sorftpis (id. v. 10). It is true tliat
these endowmentd did not in the fourth century
reiich all the clergy: for exiimple, Basil speaks
if his clergy as gaining their livelihood by
Bedentary liui licrafts (t(Js iSjja'ns twv TexvUv,
£j)ist. 198 (263)), and of a fellow-presbyter,
ORDERS, HOLY
before his elevation to the episcopate, as working
for him {xdni/tt oi fitrplas rifuv 6ln,pcTu;^ »pij
rhv ^iof, Epist. 36 (228)). But the fact of
church oilicers being raised, esjiecially in tht
great centres of population, such as Constnnti'
nople and Alexandria, above the necessity of
work, and of their being thus withdrawn from '
some of the most intimate associations of ordiimry
life, must have coutributed, probably more than
any other single cause, to isolate them from the
rest of the community.
The result of these and other co-operatinit
influences was that by the close of tlie fifth
century tho officers of the Christian church
enjoyed a unique position among the citi/.em of
the Empire. Exempt, to a great extent, from
public burdens, fenced round with special privi-
leges even in civil procedure, ami endowed with
revenues which the State had given them special
facilities for holding, they became not merely
civilly distinct, I'ut the most powerful class ia
the civilised woiUl. In the East their status
remained practically what the early cniperors
had made it until the final fall of the Kastern
empire. But in the West, it was not maintained
without a struggle. For example, the law of
Valens and Valentinian (Cod. Theodos. xvi. 2,
23) hail recognised the jurisdiction of local
synods in all ecclesiastical causes : this enact-
ment was repeated, though without its subse-
quent extensions, in the Visigothic Code ; but it
is clear from the " interpretatio," and from all
the " epitomes," that it was understood to apply
only to disputes " inter clericos " (cf. the texti
in Haenel, Lex Romana Visigothorum, p. 246).
Even when under the Carolingians the Kastern
canon law began to be recognised in the West,
and to be quoted in Caiiitularies, it is extremely
doubtful whether such a recognition nmnuuted
to a re-enactment, and whether the claims of
clerks to such a separate civil status as inrolvcd
separate ecclesiastical jurisdiction were ever
allowed. (For the discussion of the question see
Dove, de jwisdictionis eccleaiastinae apud Iknnanot
Gallosinn: proijresm, Berlin, 1855; Boretius, dti
Capittilarien im Lanfjobardenreich, Halle, 1864;
Sofim, din (]cistl\c,he Oerichtsbarkeit im friinkisiihen
Itcich, in the Zcitschrift f, Kirchenrccitt, vol. ix,
pp. 193 sqq.)
(ii.) Manner of Life. — ^The distinction between
clergy and laity was of slow growth, and the
result of many co-operating causes. Even in
divine service it wag not strongly defined: in
social life it hardly existed at all. Like the suc-
cessors of the non-juring bishops in the eighteenth
century, or like the earlier preachers of the
Wesleyan Methodists, the officers of the early
Christian communities worked at trades, kept
shops, tcok part in mnnicipal aflairs, and wore
the dress of ordinary citizens. (See, for e.Tamplei,
I'unk, Handel und Qewerbe im Christl. Alterthvm,
in the Theot. Qmrtalschrift, vol. Iviii. 1876, pp.
371 sqq.; COMMKHOK, Vol. I. p. 411.) There
was no sense of incongruity in their doing so.
The Apostolical Constitutions repeat with em-
phasis the apostolical injunction, " That if anjr
man wuuM not work, neither shonU he cat '
(2 Thess. lii. 10), and appeal to the example of
the Apostles themselves as fishermen, tent-
makers, and tillers of the ground. But since
every church was, as every Jewish synagogue
had come to be after the virtual fusion of «Ji>»>
ORDERS, HOLY
gogtiM and synedria, a court of discipline ; and
siuc" the chief function of the olFicers of the
church, 118 olFiocrs of discipline, was to miiintniu
•Dthe Christian churches n higher standard of
morality than prevailed in the lieathen world,
there WHS from the first the feeling that those
ifhii judged others should, in the respects of
which they took judicial cognizance, themselves
be blameless. The apostolic admonition to
llmothy was of universal application, " Be thou
an eiainjile of the believers, in word, in couver-
sitinu, in charity, in spirit, in faith, in purity "
(1 Tiin. iv. 12). If a church officer failed in thc'Se
respects, it was competent for the church of
which lie was an officer to remove him. (This
ia clearly implied in €!.?m. Rom. i. 44.) But
this was ohviously an inconvenient form of pro-
cedure, es|)ecially when the list of oll'ences was
unilefinea; and it was gradually supplanted by
the elaborate system of synods, provincial,
diocesan, and (Ecumenical, which has been
described above. The general regulations which
these synods laid down, present, as far as they
have been preserved, an accurate picture not
only of the ideal but also of the actual state of
the' clergy in various parts of Christemlora.
They are in some cases extremely minute. They
probably grew in most instances out of individual
cases which arose, the decisions in such cases
being framed as general rules for future guidance.
They were for the most part only valid in the
province or diocese in which they were framed ;
ami valuable as tliey are in enabling us to arrive
at the state of opinion at a particular time in a
particular country, they must not be regarded
as bavin? had, at least in the first insta.ice, the
character of general laws, in later times, when
a large number of these decisions and regula-
tions were collected together by Dionysius
Esiguus, Ferrandus, and others; r.nd in still
later times, when these earlier collections were
amalgamated with other elements into a corpus
of canon law, the decisions of local councils
received an authority which they had aot at
first possessed : but for the purposes of church
history and church antiquities, it is of great
importance to bear in mind in each case the
circumstances of their origin and the limits of
their validity. If these necessary limitations
be borne in mind, it will be found that duriug
the first four centuries the ecclesiastical regula-
tions which affected the social life of church
officers were comjiaratively few in number. In
the East the most important of such regulations
were that clerks should not take usury (Cone.
Nicaen. c. 17, Laod. c. 4, Can. jVpost. 44); that
they should not be present at the immoral
masquerades of banquets or marritges (Laod. c.
54); that they should not bathe with women
(UoJ, c. 30) ; that they should not dine at club
dmners ("i/^iriij-ia in nv^fioKys, Laod. c. 55); or
enter a tavern except on a journey (Laod. c. 24,
Can. Apost. 54). ii; North Africa the regula-
tions are mainly to the same effect : clerks must
not taks usury (1 Cartii. c. 1,3 ; 3 Carth. c. 18/ :
or JO to f-vcrns (.3 Carth. e. 27, = Cod. Eccies.
Alric. c. 40); nor may even their sons exhibit
or witness secular games (3 Carth. c. 1 1) (The
minnte regulations of the Statt. Eccl. Antiq.,
frequently cited as 4 Cone. Carth., especially c.
*a-b3, almost certainly belong to a Inter period.)
tn Uaul and Spain the enactments against taking
OHRIOT. ANT VOL. II.
ORDERS, HOLY
149i
usury are found :n four councils of this period—
Illib. c. 20; 1 Arelat. c. 12 ; 2 Arelat. c. 14; t
I'uron. c. 13. The fact that clerks had not yet
ceased to trade is indicated by the eiiactmcnt that
bishoj/s, i)resbyter8, and deacons were n<it to tia.le
out of their provinces nor go about the country
in search of the most profitable markets (;ilib. c.
18). But although the regulations weru neither
numerous nor stringent, there is no doubt that
by the end of the fifth century the oflicers of
the church, throughout the greater jiart of
Christendom, had become a class socdally as well
as civilly distinct from its ordinary members.
The theory of the church was more conservative
than its practice. The form of the jirimitive
"canon," or church-roll, still remained. The
various ranks still shaded oil' into one another.
The "order" of the laity still held its i)lace
side by side by the "orders" of presbvters,
deacons, readers, and widows. But the 'later
concejition of the clergy had been formed, and
was beginning to express itself. The social dis-
tinction between church officers and ordinary
tnembers was accentuated by two circumstances,
which, though slight in themso'.ves, and in the
first instance rather effects than causes, helped
materially to increase it : the one was the adop-
tion of a peculiar dress, the other wan the
adoption of a peculiar mode of wearing the hair
(u) The first of these had shewn it.self at th
beginning of the fifth century, but only in tl
form of a tendency to wear garments #f a more
sober hue than was customary. Jerome dis-
courages it: "vestes pullas aeque devita ut
Candidas" (S. Hieron. Epist. 52 (2) ad Acput.
§ 9). It was succeeded by a tendency to preserve
the older forms of dress, instead of following the
changes of fashicn ; and ultimately, chiefiy under
the induence of the monasteries and the canonical
rule, the "habitus laicorum" (Pippin. Capit.
Suession. § 3, A.D. 7-'4 ; I'ertz, Lcyum, i n. 21)
was absolutely forbidden [sec Dribs, Vol." I. p.
582]. (/() The second mark of distinction was
slow in its growth, but strong in its influence.
At first all that was insisted upon was that the
hair should not be worn long or elaborately
dressed; consequently the earlier references to
the subject— e.^. Sidon. Apollin. Epi^t. viii. 9 ;
Arator, Epist. ad Parthcn. 69, 70, ap. Migne,
Patr. Lat. vnl. Ixviii. 251— ao not prove that what
was afterwards known us the tonsuri: actually
existed. But in the latter part of the sixth
century the tonsure appears to have become
definitely established as a mark of s'-oaration
between clergy and laity: this is clear from
Grej,. Turon. Lib. de Ghrui Cunfessor. ■- 32 p 92 •
id. Vit. Patr. c. 17, p. 1233; and from the fact
that Gregory the Great defends its use on acrip-
tural grounds {Reg. Pastoral, pars 2, c. 7; ;d.
Epist. lib. i. 25, p. 514, quoting Ezek. xliv. 20:
but it may be remarked, as an indication of the
later oris;in of the practice, that .Jerome in
writing upon that passage f Ezekicl makes no
mention of it, the words which are found in
most editions being confessedlv interpolated:
S. llieron. in I^zech. lib. xiii. c. 44J vol. v.'p. 547).
In the meantimo the inner life and discipline
of the class which was thus being formed was
largely influenced by the growth and wide exten-
sion of monasticism. This influence is especially
shewn in the tendency to live in community.
This tendency to live in comr mity has some-
85
h t: .
Uii
I t^- 'il'' !
14',t2
ORDERS, HOLY
times been traced to much earlier times. But
although there are indications that in vrimitive
times all who were on the church-roll, whether
as ulKcers, widows, virgins, or poor, shared a
common I'ur.d ami a common meal ; there are no
indications tlip', they lived together, until in the
fourth century church otiicers began to form a
distinct class. The system which afterwards
prevailed appears to have originated with Luse-
bius of Vercelli, t 371, who " g.ithered together
all the clerks into the fold of n single habitation,
that those whose purpose in religion was one
and undivided might have a common life and a
common refection" (S. Maxim. Scrm. 23, ap.
Muratori, Anocd. Lit. vol. iv., Wigne, Patr. Lat.
vol. Ivii.; see also S. Ambros. Epist. Ixui. c. 6b,
82, vol. ii. pars 1, p. 1038 ; I's.-Ambros. Senn.
56, vol. ii. pars 2, p. 468, ascribed, perhaps
correctl'- to S. Maxinuis, ap. Muratori, t. c, and
Migne, vol. Ivii. p. 886); and probably from the
e:-nple thus set by Eusebius and strongly
approveil by Ambrose, it was established by
Augustine in his own diocese in North Africa,
expres.sly on the monastic principle of the re-
nunciation of private property by those who
thus lived together, and who are hence called
" monasteriuin cleric(U-um " (S. Augustin. Seitn.
355 = de divers. 49, Op. ed. Mii^ne, Patr. Lat.,
vol. V. p. 1570; see also the following sernioi>).
I^ the course of the ne.\t three centuries it
seems to have become the prevailing system of
clerical^ife throughout the greater part ol the
West. The city clergy lived together under the
eve of the bishop; they dined at a common
table ; they even slept together in a common
chamber (4 Cone. Tolet. a.d. 633, c. 23, makes
special provision for the case of aged or inhrm
bishops, priests, or deacons, who required separate
cells). The country presbyters in the same way
were each at the head of a " doinus ecclesiae,"
in which, as the tendency grew up to dedicate
boys to the service of the church in their earliest
years, they educated such boys and trained them
for the higher orde- s. Those who so lived
together, whether in the cathedral city or in
the country parishes, appear to have been called
" canonici," and to have had their definite por-
tions of the offerings which were made to their
respective churches. Occasionally we fin I that
a special endowment was made for the support
of their common table (S. Greg. Turon. //. F.
X. 16, p. 535 of Baudin, bp. of Tours in the
time of Clothair I., "hie instituit mensam
canonicorum;" cf. the will of a bishop of Le
Mans circ. A.D. 615, ap. Mabillon, VM. Anat.
i. 254). But a« the system became general, it
was found that neither the ecclesiastical canons
nor the personal control of the bishop were
sufficient to prevent a laxity of life among those
who thus lived together; the "canonici" con-
trasted unfavourably with the monks who lived
under the stern nfjime of St. Benedict. Con-
sequently it was found advisable to frame a rule
of life for " canonici " as well as for monks, and
from the middle of the eighth century almost all
Western clergy became "cinonici regularef "
[see Canonici, Vol. I. p. 282 ; to which may be
added the important dissertation of Muratori,
(fc Cnnonicis, in his Antvi^it. Ital. vol. v. p.
183 sqq. ; and a note to one of the canons of
the Kn.;lish Legatine Synods in Haddan and
Stubbs, vol. i. p. 461, which however admits of
ORDERS, HOLY
some question]. The ideal of this canonical life,
or "vita communis," is found not only in the
formal rules of Chrodegang (Mansi, vol. xiv.
313, Migne, Patr. Lat. vol. Ixxiix. lO'JT; anl iu
its longer form, Harzheim, Coiu:d. (Vc; m. vol.i, 96;
U'Achery, .Spicilejiwn, vol. i. 56,'>), or of A;;ia.
larius (Harzheim, t. c, Migne, I'utr. I.at. vul.
cv. 815), but also in the letter of Pope L'vban in
the Pseudo-lsidorian additions to tlie DiicreLMs
(llinschius, p. 143). liut unfortunately it has iti
darker side : the penitential books of the eighth
and ninth centuries, even if it be allowed that
Sv-nie of the otl'ences there mentione 1 are rather
imaginary than actual, shew that at any rate in
Northern Europe the star iard of clerical life
had been rather lowered liian raised by its Jig.
sociition from the common life of tlic Christian
worlil.
(iii.) Discipline. — There is no evidence of the
existence in the earliest period of any 9|)eoial
discipline for church officers. The distinction
between the law of life which was current
am ..g the mass of men, and that which was
binning on Christians, existed for all members of
the church alike ; and although exceptional
qualities were required in a church ollicer, what-
ever might lawfully be done by any Christian
might also lawfully be done by hiui, Neither
in the Pastoral Epistles, nor in any other of the
earliest records of ecclesiastical organization, is
there any trace of the exceptional rules for
church olBcers which distinguish later canons.
But the exercise of the ordinary discipline is
surrounded in their case with special safcguardsi
" Against an elder receive not an accusation
but before one or two witnesses" (1 Tim. v. 9).
But with the gradual sepai'ation of church
officers from the rest of the community there
came also to be rules of discipline which were
specially applicable to them. These rules may
be conveniently considered under two heaiis;
A. Punishable offences; B. Punishments. On
most points separate articles will be fo\uid else-
where, and therefore what is given here will
chiefly be by way of summary.
A. Punishable offences may be divided into
three classes:— (1) Offences relating to marriage
and sexual morality, (2) offences Ming to
ecclesiastical organization and div. - service,
(3) offences relating to social life.
(1) Offences relating to Marriage and SemA
Morality. — It is especially important to bear in
mind, in the case of these"off'ences, what has been
said above as to the originally local and tempo-
rary character of most of the regulations which
exist. The drift of opinion in favour of celibacy
was by no means uniform in either its direction
or its' rate of motion, (a) In regard to the
marriage of ordained persons, the following are
the chief disciplinary regulations :— Cone. Ancyr.
0. 10, enacts that deacons who marry after
ordination without having expressly stipulated
for liberty to do so at the time of the - ordma-
tion are to be deposed ; Cone. Neoc. c ., enscts
that a presbyter who marries after ordination ii
to be deposed ; the Apostolics! Canons go farther,
and say that no clerk can marry after ordination,
except readers and singers only (C. A. 26); the
Apostolical Constitutions, vi. 17, extend the et-
ception to subdeacons (i^nP^Tas) and door-
keepers (but, on the other hnd, Cone, thalc.c.
14, speaks of the exception of readers nndsingen
ORDERS, HOLY
M a custom of some provinci-a, itrapxia', only).
These enactments were confirmecl by the civil
law. A law of Justininn in 5;i0 (Cod. Justin, i.
b, 45) goes 80 far as to malte tlie chiMren of such
marriages, including those of subdeacons, illegi-
tinmte; and a novel of the same emperor (Xuvell.
123, c. 14) subjects the offending clerk to a
farther civil penalty (but this penalty was after-
wards modified, on the ground of its being too
severe, by the Emperor Leo, Omst. 79 in Corp.
Jur. Civ. iii. p. 814). The lending Western canon
on the subject is 8 Cone. Tolet. a.d. 653, c. 7,
which enacts that anyone who after ordination
either marries or becomes a layman must be
deprived of his dignity and secluded for the rest
of iiis life in a monastery; but the existence of
an earlier Western canon is indicated by 2 Cone.
Aurel. A.D. 533, c. 8, which enacts that a der.con
who marries in captivity is to be deposed upon
his return : 9 Cone. Tolet. a.d. 655, c. 10, maltes
the children of such marriiiges slaves of th2
church of which their fathers were officers.
(6) If a person was ordained who was already
married, the Apostolical Canons, c. 5, forbid him
to put away his wife (vpatpi^fi (v\a0(las} ; and
Cone. Gangr. c. 4, anathematizes those who
refuted to receive the communion from a married
presbyter. But Epiphanius, ii. .59, +, speaks of a
canon to the opposite eft'ect, which, however, h"
admits not to be observed : Sooratec , H. E. v. "^i'i,
notes, on the other hand, that although there
was no positive enactment, many clergy did
abstain from their wives, and that in T'lessaly a
clerk was excommunicated who did not an
abstain. A distinction in this re: i ■'ct was after-
wards drawn in the East, which with some
modifications has remained until modern times,
between presbyters and bishops. Justinian
enacted in 531 that no person could be made
bishop who did not practise married continence
(Cod. Justin, i. 3, 48, of. Cone. Trull, xii. 13;
and see CklibaCY, Vol. I. p. 324). In the West,
Cimc. lllib. A.D. 313, commands all married
clerks to abstain and not to beget children under
pain of deprivation ; so also the doubtful addi-
tion to 1 Cone. Arelat. c. 29; 2 Caith. c. 3 =
Cod. Eccles. Afric. c. 2, gives the prohibition
without specifying a penalty: 5 Carth. c. 3 =
Cod. Eccles. Afric. c. 25, makes the enactment
applv to subdeacons and upwards, but not to
inferior clerks: 1 Tolet. a.d. 398, assigns tht'
milder penalty of non-promotion; so iilso'l
Turon. a.d. 441, c. 2 ; but 1 Araus. A.D. 441,
c. 23, Agath. a.d. 506, c. 9, Arvern. A.D. 535,
c. 13, revert to the penalty of deposition in the
case of priests and deacons : Gerund. A.D. 517,
c. 6, 3 Aurel. a.d. 538, c. 2, 5 Aurel. A.D. 549,
c. 4 (but not 4 Aurel. A.D. 541, c. 17), Autissiod.
A.D. 578, c. 20, and apparently 2 Matisc. A.D.
581, c. U, 3 Lugd. A.D. 583, c. 1 (all Gallican
councils, and all belonging to the century which
succeeded the baptism of Chlodwig), include
subdeacons in the same penalty. This inclusion
of subdeacons is also mentioned by Leo the
Great (JJpisi. 167 ad Rustic, c. 3; Ei^ist. 14 ad
Am^tt!. c. 3), and its adnpti.-.n in fiau! s<=pms to
be due to Roman influence, as Gregory the Great
(i?/)i^<. i. 44, vol. ii. p. 538) speaks of it as a
"mos Romanus" which had recently been
imposed on Sicily. The Decretals follow in vhe
lame track (S. Siric. ad Eumer. c. 7, Hinschius,
P- 521; S. Innocent I. ad Victor ic. c. 9, ad
ORDERS, HOLY
1493
Exsujier. c. 1, ad Maxim, et Sever., Hinschius,
pp. 530, 531, 544): so also, with strong emphaEJi
upon the enactment, in the I'seuilo-Isidorian
Epist. Ctetrwnt. ii. c. 46, Hinschius, p. 48. 2
Cone. Turon. a.d. 567, c. 19, throws upon tho
rural arch-pre-byters (i.e. the later rural deans)
the duty of seeing that the other clergy of their
districts observe the rule: in case of a breach of
it, not only is the offender himself to be sus-
pended, but the arch-presbyter who has neglected
to guard against « breach of it is himself to be
secluiled, and fed on bread and water lor a
month, (c) In cases where marri.ige wng
allowed, digamy in any of its forms was strictly
prohibited. In the East the Apost(dical Canons
(c. 17-19) refuse to allow anyone who has
married (1) two wives alter baptism, (2) a
widow or divorci!e, to be on the clergy list (cf.
Const. Apost. vi. 17 ; Justin. Novell, vi. c' 5). But
the regulations seem to have fallen into disuse,
inasmuch as at the time of the Trullan Council
special legislation had again become necessary,
and the analogy of the Wektern church w.-ig
expressly fullowed (Cone. Trull, c. 2). In the
West there were numerous enactments on the
subject :—(i.) 1 Cone. Valent. A.D. 374, c. 1, dis-
allows digamists for the future, but does not
interf'.'re with those who were already ordained:
1 Tol. A.I). 398, c. 4, degrades a digamous sub-
deacon to the rank of a reader or doorkeeper,
and deposes a trigan.ist: ^raus. a.d. 441, c. 25,
will not allow a digamist to rise higher than the
subdiiiconate : Agath. ,a.d. 506, c. 1, will not
allow a digamous presbyter or deacon to exercise
his functions ; so Epaon. a.d. 517, c. 2. (ii.) The
wife cf anyone who is allowed to marry must be
a virgin. 1 Cone. Tolet. A.D. 398, c. 3, enacts
that a reader who marries a widow cannot rise
higher than the subdiaconate : 1 Turon. a.d.
461, 0, 4, enacts that he must in such a case hold
the lowest place on the clergy list : Agath. a.d.
506, 0. 1, in compassion to those presbyters and
deacons who had broken the rule, does not
depose them from their oH:ce, but will not allo\7
them to minister; but 2 Hispal. a.d. 619, c. 4,
deposes deacons in a similar ca>.e without hop(3
of restoration: 4 Tolet. a.d. 633, c. 44, orders
clerks who have so ofl'ended to be separated from
their wives. So also in the Decretals: S. Siric.
ad Eumcr. c. 11, Hinschius, p. 522 ; S. Innocent.
ad Victoric. c. 4, ad Felic. c. 2, ad Ruf. et Euscb.
c. 1, Hinschius, pp. 530, 533, 549. That it
became not only the law but the usage in the
We.<t is a fair inference from the fact that the
pseudo-Isidore does not even mention it in the
spurious part of his collection, (d) Sexual im-
morality was at all times punished severelv ;
but the canons are few in number, because the
gravity of the otlence was so universally recog-
nised as to render the repetition of po.sitive
enactments unnecessary : the leading Eastern
canons are Cone. Neoc. c. 1, Can. Apost. 25 ; but
Cone. Trull, c. 4, is a remarkable indication of
later Eastern usage, inasmuch as it seems to
imp'y that a lesser punishment than deposition
had come to be the rule when the woman with
whom a clerk committed sin was other than a
nun. The earliest Western canon is that of
Elvira, c. 19, which inflicts on adulterous bishops,
presbyters, and deacons the severe penalty of
perpetual excommunication: much later, the
Carolingian Capitularies punisn <»n oti'endiue
6D2
!■"■:)» *f
•■J.' ii-n
- s<-
-' -' i» i
1494
OnDERS, HOLY
presbyter with scourging and two yenr«' im-
prisuument on bread and water (P'.arlomauni
Cupit. A.D. 74'J, c. G; Pcrtz, vol. i. p. 18); but
the British ehurthes were more lenimt. In the
(ixth century jiu oll'onding presbyter ur deacon
Tias punished with three years' penitence ((iildae
prai'f, de pwnit. o. 1 ; Ha.ldan and Stnbbs, vol. i.
p. \Vi). Theodore's Penitential, i. 9, 1, revives
the Apostolical Canon which deposes but does
nut eiconiniunicate a clerk; cf. I'oenit. Egb. v.
1-'J2, lladdan and Stubbs, vol. iii, p. 418. (e)
lu some cases the purity of the clerical order
was further guarded by punishing clerks for the
incontinence of their wives : Cone. Illib. c. ()5,
enacts thiit a clerk must put away an olfending
wife or be himself perpetually excommunicated;
Keoc. c. 8, enacts that he must either put her
away or cease to exercise his ofHce ; 1 Tolet. c. 7,
empowers clerks to iraprisin their erring wives,
and to reduce them to penitence by salutary
fasting. See also the canon of Photius in
reference to presbyters and deacons whose wives
had been abused by barbarians, ap. Mai, Scriptt.
Veii. vol. i. p. 364.
(2) Offences relating to Ecclesiastical Organiza-
tion and Divine Service. — These may be divided
according as they are connected with (a) the
growth of the diocesan system, (ft) the grow th of
the parochial system, (o) the establishment of
ecclesiastical courts, (d) ordination, (<-') divine
service.
(ci) It was not without a struggle that dioceses,
iu the modern sense of the term, were formed,
and that the church ofticers of a particular
district or province came to be regarded as an
organic unity. The former of these results was
cliieHy due, as has been pointed out above, to the
establishment of the system of synods; the latter
was chiefly due to the regulations that a clerk
could not be on the roll of two churches at
once, and that he could not be transferred from
the roll of one church to the roll of another
without the consent of his former superior. The
earliest enactment to this effect is Cone. Nicaen.
c. 16, which laid down the rule that if any
bishop appointed to office in his own church a
clerk belonging to another church, the appoint-
ment (xfipoToi'/o) should be invalid. But the
fact that the rule required to be re-enacted
again and again shews that it did not easily
establish itself: a few years after the Council of
Kicaea, the Council of Antioch (c. 3) repeated it,
with the addition that the bishop who received
another's clerk against his will should be liable
to be punished by the synod: Can. Apost. 15
punishes a bishop "iu a simiiar case with excotn-
niunication ; so Cone. Chalc. c. 20. Later on in
the East, Cone. Trull, c. 17, after reciting the
frequency of violations of the rule, enacts that
for the future no bishop shall receive another's
clerk without a dimissory le' r under pain of
deprivation. Still later the /. ostorian synod of
Patriarch John (Ebedjesu, Tract, vi. cap. 6, can.
8, ap. Mai, Scriptt. Vett. vol. %. p. 1 16) punishes
clerks who so passed from one diocese to another
with a veav's snapension, and subsequent degra-
dation to the lowest place in their order. In
the West, 1 Cone. Arelat. c. 21, deposes pres-
byters and deacons who transfer themselves to
another church : 1 Tolet. c. 12, excommunicates
them, unless they are refugees from a heretical
to an orthodox church; Milev. c. 15 = Cod.
ORDERS, HOLY
Eccl. Afric. c. 90 (which probably arose out of
the case of Timotheus, who had been a realcr
of Augustine's, but was promoted to the siih.
diacouate at Subsana, S. August. EiM. 03 ('.i-lU),
Op. vol. ii. p. 231), enacted that no one slmul,!
abandon the church iu which he had hicn
ordained reader : Valent. o. 5, excommunicato
and deposes presbyters and deacons who do nut
adhere to the place assigne o them by the
bishop who ordained them ; 2 His|)al. c. 3, dcali
with the case of a clerk who, having been ihlj.
cated to the service of the church at Italica,
near Seville, had fled to Cordova, and rigardg
such clerks as being on the footing of "culcmi
agrorum :" 1 Turou. c. 11, 2 Arelat. c. 13, .S7ii((.
Eccl. Antiii- c. 27, allow a clerk to migrate with
the consent of his bishop: so Cone, llertl'orj,
c. 3, ap. Haildan and Stubbs, vol. iii. p. Utl.
(4) .'; was apparently an early, if not a
primitive rule, that the presbyters and deaconi
of a church could not ordinarily act without the
bishop of that church. In the next stage of
organization it was enacted that a inesliytcr or
deacon could not detach himself from the church
of which he was presbyter or deacon and set up
an altar of his own (Cone. Antioch. c. 5). The
next step was to provide for the cases in which
monasteries or other ecclesiastical institutidiij
were established in a city of which there was a
tishop : Cone, Chalc. c. 8, following what it
states to be an older tradition, subjects all such
institutions to the bishop of the city ; Trull, c
31, 2 Nicaen. c. 10, do the same for private
chapels. In the West, 4 Aurel. A.D. 541, c. 7,
requires the clerks of "oratoria doniini jjrae-
dioruiu " to have the consent of the bishop ; but
the Capitul:iries, by repeating the rule that
"all presbyters who are in a diocese (parochia)
must be under the jurisdiction (potcstas) of the
bishop of that diocese, and must not baptize or
celebrate mass without his sanction," seem to
imply that the rule had been broken (I'ipjiini
Cajiit. Vem. dupl. c. 8 ; Pertz, vol. i. p. 26). The
regulation that a presbyter could only celebrate
the Eucharist iu a place consecrated by the
bishop is first found in 2 Cone. Carth. c. 9 ; but
it does not api)ear to have been universally
recognised, since it required re-enactment at s
late date, viz. in the Liber Pontificalis, Vit.
Siric. c. 2 = Decrd '<iin(Kl. Silvestr. c. 9, in the
Pseudo-Isidori.m decretals, Hinschius, p. 4501;
cf. Atton. II. Vercell. Capit. c. 7, ap. D'Achery,
Spicilegium, vol. i. p. 403.
((0 A third class of offences consists of those
which grew out of the jurisdiction of ecclesi-
astical courts. The exercise of discipline by the
church in ecclesiastical matters must be dis-
tinguished from its exercise of jurisdiction in
civil or criminal matters. The former was in-
herent in the original constitution of the
Christian communities ; the latter was of the
nature of voluntary contract. The history of
both is intricate, and has yet to be fully written;
it must be sufficient to mention here that while
the State constantly recognised the ecclesiastical
courts as courts of arbitration, and was ready to
enforce their sentences when both parties had
agreed to be bound by those sentences, the
church on its part endeavoured in the West t«
compel clerks to resort in all cases to its own
courts rather than to the ordinary civil oourti
This is seen especially in 3 Cone. Carth. c. 9 a
ORDERS, HOLY
Coil, Knol, Afrlo. o. 15, which ile|io8Pii rlcrks who
rimirt to Hi'ciilar tribunals in ciiminal rnsi'a, and
oomlemnj thorn lo lose their cause in civil cases:
10 in elFuct, Conu. Milcv. c. 19 = Ceil. Kccles,
Afric. 0, 104, Agath. c. 8, 3 'i\>\. c. 13; an.l iii
thu ('a|iitularics, I'ippini Gtpit. Vcni. ditpl. c
18, Pert/., vol. i. p. '2ii. In nddition to, an.l also
In (lintinction from, both forms of juilicial autho-
rity, the bishops camo to have an imlepenJent
tn.| c«tra-jii.licial authority, which also was
ent'orci'il by occlesiastical |)enalties. Cone. Agath.
c, 2, cuiacts that clerks who ncglecteil their iluty
wiiri! to lio corrected by their hishop; if they
jwrtinai'iously disregarded such correction, they
wi're to bo struck off the roll and deprived of
their pay. Forty years later. Cone. Valent. c.
(I, HiiHiieiids and excommunicates clerks in sindlar
ciriiiiiiiittances ; still later in the same century
I'diic. .Sarh. c. 10, renews the enactment. It is
not cli'ar that any of these enactments apply to
prpuliyters, but it is probable th.it they so
ltron;<thened the position of the bishops of the
W'lKt lu to lead them to claim a similar juris-
diction over jiresbyters. 2 Cone. Hispal. A. I).
819, c. 0, held under Isidore of Seville, restores
a primhytcr who had been deposed by the sole
authority of his bishop, and refers to " priscorum
putruin synodalem sententiam" to shew that
"«|iliic(ipu« saoerdotibus ac ministris [i.«.,
doai'onnj S(j1us honorem dare potest, auferre
luhm lion potest:" cf. Slatt. Ecd. Ant. c. 23.
(d) (ijjrncea rclatimj to < 'rdimtion.—The
olUmoos which consisted in or.lination out of the
proper cliocese have been mentioned above under
('/), The chief other ollence was ordination for
monay, i.o. simony. This was prohibited in the
Emit by the Apostolical Canons, c. 28, under
pcimlty of excommunication of both ordainer
and ordnineil, by Cone. Chalc. c. 2, Trull, c. 22
2 Nidiien. c. S : in the West by 2 Aurel. A n'
6.1.), (!. 4 i Tolet. A.n. 038, c. 4 ; Cabill. a.d. 65o!
0, 10 : 4 Urac. a.d. 675, c. 8. (Of its prevalence
in h'aiiee at this period there are many indica-
ti'ini hcsliles the rejietition of conciliar enact-
ments, <:,i. in tho Life of S. Eligius, lib. ii. c. 1
ip. D'Achery, Spioii vol. ii. p. 90, and in the Life'
of .S. Koninmis, ap. Martene et Durand, Ancril.
vol, iv. p. lO.H.) It was also prohibited by the
civil law ! a law of Leo and Anthemius, in 469
((!od. .lust, 1, 3, 31), punishes it with civil " in-
fainiii"as well as loss of the office; a law of
Olyceiius and Leo(llaenel, Corpus Lequm onto
Jmt. lat. I2l'6, p. 260, from Cod. Vat. Reg.
19(17) inentiims and reprehends the practice of
giving notes of hand to be paid out of the pro-
c»C|l» of the office ; cf. Justin. Novell. 56 and
12.i, e. K), for tho practice, which had grown up
but which tended to be simoniacal, of giving
prMents to the clergy of a church at the time
of orilinntion,
(«) offmcet relating to Divine Service and the
M"l''>ns rjfe.—i. The Apostolical Constitutions
(2, ■>!)) enjoin all the faithful, laity as well as
derfjy, to go to church twice every day, and the
A|«i«tolical ('anons (c. 8) and Cone. Antioch. (c. 2)
•nact that clerks, if present, must communicate ;
out It appears from th" civil law th.it clerks
we rather negligent in this respect (Cod.
Ju.in. 1,3,42(41), 10; 1,3,52(51)); and a
entury and a half later the Trullan Council
thought It sufficient to punish a clerk or layman
wHii, not bemg hindered from attending, absented
ORDERS, HOLY 1496
himself from divine service for three successive
bun lays. The .Sjiaiii.sh rule, m given in 1 Cone
lolet. c. ;^, was that any clerk who was in the
neighbourhood of a church must go to the cUvily
•acrihce. The Oallican rule, as given in Cone.
Venet. A.D. 465(?), c. 14, punished with seven
days excommunication clerks who were without
good excuse absent from the morning otiice.
I he Irish rule, as given in the Canons of St.
I atrick, c. 7, was that a clerk who did not iro
mormngan.l evening "ad collect.is," was to be
cxcommuninite.l, unless he were iletaineil by the
obligHtione of servitude ("Jugo scrvitutia "). The
North African rule was, that unless a clerk were
present at vesjjers he should lose his pay (Statt
Mas. Aniii. c. 49). ii. The regulations which
relate to the conduct of divine service are not
numerous. The Apostolical Cancms (c. 3) dei.ose
a bishop or presbyter who offers upon the altar
milk or honey, or birds or vegetables; or (c. 59 .
a clerk who reads pseudej.igrapha as though
they were sacred books; 3 Cone. Brae. A.i>. 572
c.lO, excommunicates priests who celebrate mass
without a stole on both shoulders; 13 Tolet.
A.D. 683, c. 7, deposes clerks who in iiique or
quarrel strip the altar of its vestments or put
out the church lights; Cone. Rom. a.d. 743, c.
Id, under Pope Zachary, excommunicates bishops
presbyters, and deacons who celebrate mass with
a stall or with covered head; the Nestori.-in
canons of Lbedjesu (7V„c«. vi. can. 6, c. 2) punish
a clerk who officiates without his boots, iii. It
was enacted that clerks must not join in divine
service with deposed clerks, or heretics, or Jews
(Can. Apost. o. 11, 45, 6,5) ; or fast <m the Lord's
day (.A. c. 64); or fail to keep Lent (i4. c. 69): or
eat flesh with the blood in it (16. c. 63).
(3) The enactments which related to the
social life of the clergy during the first four
centuries have been for the most part mentioned
above under (ii.). The following belong to later
centuries :-ln the Kast the Trullan Council
made a series of en.actments which, being for the
most part repetitions of earlier en.actments,
shew that such earlier enactments had fallen
into neglect. It provided that clerks should
not be the lessors of taverns, c. 9; that thev
should not take usury, c. 10 ; tli.at they should
not wear unbecoming dress, c. 27 ; that they
should not play with dice, c. 50 ; nor be con-
cerned in stage-plays and stage-.lancin.', c. 50 •
nor keep brothels, c. 86. In North Africa it
was enacted that they should wear a becomine
.Iress (,9tart. JUccles. Antii. c. 45); that they
should not waste time in walking about the
streets (ib. c. 47); ■ ui that they should not
sing songs at a banquet (16. c. 62): on the other
hand, they were quite at liberty to procure their
livelihood by handicraft or agriculture (Ib. c.
51-53). In the provincial councils of Gaul and
Spain It was enacted that clerks who were
engaged in trade must not sell dearer than other
people (Cone. Tarrac. a.d. 516, c. 1), (,r drive
hard bargains (3 Cone. Aurel. a.d. 538 e 2'')-
that clerks must not live with secular 'persoL?
without the permission of the bishop (2 Cone
Aurel. A.D. 533, c. 0); that they must not fre-
quent banquets at which love-songs were sunt
(Cone. Venet. A.n. 465, c. 11 ; Agath. a.d. 506, c.
39) ; nor sing or dance at banquets (Cone. Autis-
siod. a.d. 578(?), c. 40); nor be drunk (Cone.
Venet. c. 13, Agath. 0. 41) ; nor bear arms (Cone.
iiilii
' f'"«V'(Hl
li
5
t
1
*li«
r
■11
3?
,,.ai 1
1490
0RDKR9, HOLY
Herd. A.D. 523, 0. 1) ; nor keep hunting dog« or
hawks (Cone. Epnon. a.d. 517, c. 4: cf. Cone.
Forojul. A.D. 7U8, c. 6 ; Capit. (ieni'rale, A.D. 789,
C.15, IVrtz, vol. i. p. C«, which acMs " j«at«r» " to
the list of pinliibitious ; Hettonit Uasil. Ciipit. U).
In Irelnu.l almost the only social renulatiou
which is contained in the Canons of St. I'atrick is
that if a clerk becomes surety for a " gentile,"
anl "nuod mirum non est," if the gentile cheats
tlie clerk, the clerk must pay his boml, or if he
tiw'hts the gentile instead, must be cxcommum-
cated (Can. S. I'atric. o. 8); the later collection
of Irish canons repeats the ena<ainent8 of the
SMt. E'r.lea. Anti'/. (see Waaserschleben, i/i'tf
Iriii-he A'ii«oHC)is(imi/i/uHi;, p. 3a, iic). In Eng-
land the penitentials of Bede, Egbert, and
Theodore combine to allord conclusive evideme
that the chief social oll'ence against which pro-
rision had to be made was drunkenness ; there
is, perhaps, no more deg'-ading picture of the
at ite of the clergy at any period of the history
of the church than that which these penitentials
present (-■.;/., I'oenit. Theodor. i. 1, 4, ap. Wasser-
schleben, Bmsordnunij der ahemlt. Kirch, p. 182
»4ij., and Haddan and Stubhs, vol. i.).
11. The punishments by which the observance
of disciplinary rules was enforced were various;
the most important were the several forms of ex-
communication, degradation, and deposition.
(1) £xcoinmunication.—{a) Temporary; The
simplest mode of enforcing obedience was to
suspend a clerk from all the privileges of church
membership so long aa he was recalcitrant
(i.(popi(((T$ai, Can. Apost. pansim ; iKoiv<ivr}Tos
that, Cone. Nicaen. c. 1(5 ; "acommunione alienus
haberi," 2 Cone. Arelat. c. 3, 1 Turou. c. 3).
Tills did not in early times imply more than
that the ott'ending clerk could not remain with
the faithful to participate in the communion,
aud that he consequently lost his share in the
orierings. It was a corollary of this sentence
that he could not exercise his office (hence
Mabillon, Mus. Ital. vol. ii. p. 7, explains the
phrase " archiparaphonista [)'.«., archicantor] a
poutifice excommunicabitur," by " ab officio sus-
pendetur "). Sometimes the period during which
a clerk should remain excommunicated was ex-
pressed in the canon : e.g. a year (Cone. Epaou.
A.D. 517, c. 15 ; 2 Turon. A.D. 567, c. 19; Narbon.
A.D. 589, c. 10); three months (11 Tolet. A.D.
675, c. 8). But more commonly the time was
not specified, it being understood that submission
would be followed by re-admission to full status.
The Apostolical Canons, however, contain a
stipulation that the bishop who re-admits a clerk
must be the same bishop, if still living, who had
excommunicated him (C. A. 28, where Balsamon
aids that even if the bishop had died, his place
in this respect could only be taken by his suc-
cessor, or the metropolitan, or the patriarch).
In time, and especially in the West, this form of
punishment became more severe than it had
originally been. A canon of the fifth (?) century,
which claims for itself the authority of earlier
canons, separates an excommunicated clerk not
only from communion but also from all Christian
society (" a totius populi coUoquio atque con-
vivio ") until he submits : so also in the Canons
of St. Patrick, c. 28 ; and even more stringently
in the Capitularies (Pippini Capit. Vem. dupl.
A.D. 755, c. 9, Pertz, vol. i. p. 26 = Cone. Vern.,
Mansi, xii. 577 ; Cap't. Tidn. A.D. 801, c. 17,
ORDERS, HOLY
Pertz, vol. I. p. 85). (6) Periiuimtnt : For mm*
oU'ences a clerk was permanently ejected liom
church membership (/((«0<i<rOat ri\tnv Kal
iytii9at •!( fuTdnoicw, Cone. Neoc. c. 1 ; jilirrt-
abai V(c T^j t'KK\»)(r(oi, Laod. c. 38 ; irai'Tdirurrii/
/KKc)irT«crfloi T7)t «ICK\7)fi(at, Can. Apost. JH),
This involved comjdete loss of status ; re-adims-
nion was only possible through the docjr nf
formal and public penitence. Even this w»» in
soMJC cases N'oied (henoe 1 Cone. Aruus. A.D,
441, c. 4, " 1 oeniteutiim desiderantibus ileriiiii
non neganduui "), and in the earliest of Wi-stiTti
provincial councils the door was shut by cxpros!
eiiactnitiit of the canon itself ("nee in llni.
[sc. in articulo mortis] accipcre coniniuiuoiuMii,"
Cone, lllib. c. 2, 19 : but it may bo noted that
this severe forn> of sentence does not aiipear to
i. ive been repeated by later councils).
(2) Suspi'ni.ii)n awl Dojralatiun. — Of these
there were several forms and degrees: (ii) g
presbyter might be suspended from the function
of oU'erini' the Kucharistic sacrificf. but not
from oth«r functions (Cone. Neoc. c, 1); ('.) a
clerk might be suspended from the exercise of
the functions of his office, but retain Ids rank
(Cone. Agath. a.d. 506, c. 43; Epaon. A.D. 517,
c. 2 ; Trull, c. 2t) : so also S. Basil, h'pist. ii. ud
Amphiluch. c. 27, id. Epist. iii. ad AmphiUich. c.
70); (c) a clerk nught lose his seniority and
be placed last on the clergy roll (1 Cone. Turon.
A.D. 461, c. 4 ; Trull, c. 7 ; 2 Nicaen. c. 5) ; (./) a
clerk might be degraded to a lower onlor (I
Cone. Tolet. c. 4) ; (e) a clerk might bo cut oif
from the hope of jjroinotion (Cone. Tuurun. a.d.
401, c. 8j 1 Tolet. c. 1 ; 1 Araus. c. 24; Andegav.
A.D. 461, 0. 2 ; Herd. c. K 5 ; Stutt. Ecd. Ant. c.
54; BO also S. Basil, Epiat. iii. ad Ampliilin-h. c.
69) ; (/) a clerk might be deprived of his stipond
(3 Cone. Aurel. A.D. 538, c. 7 ; Narb. A.D. 589, c.
11, 13). (This, which was probably one of the
chief effects of excommunication in early times,
was retained as a separate and minor i)unish-
ment, when excommunication came to carry
with it greater penaltie.^.)
(3) Deposition. — This wa-t sometimes more anj
sometimes less than excommunication. In the
earliest times it does not seem to have involved
more than the reducing of an officer to the ranks
in the army. This is implied in the phrases by
which deposition is designated : irfiraOo-eoi rfis
rd^fus, Cone. Ancyr. c. 10, 14; KaBaipuadai riis
Tiieus, lyeoc. 1 ; icafl. toC KKipou, Nicaen. c. 17 ;
Ko9. T7)i \eiTOupyias, 1 Antioch. c. 3 ; Koeoifjewto
absolutely, Ephes. c. 4, Can. Apost. /wss/m ;
iKiriirrtii' rov /3o8;uou, Ephes. c. 2, Chalc. c. 27 j
iAAdrpioj Tiji iffos (hcu, Chalc. c. 2 ; ?{« toD
Khiipov Kaei(TTa(reai, Cod. Justin. 1, 3, 40 (39),
10; "amoveri," Cone, lllib. c. 30; "ab online
eleri amoveri," 1 Arelat. c. 13; " dcgradari,"
Cone. lllib. c. 20 ; " ab officio degradari," StM.
Eccl. Ant. e. 56 ; " deponi," lllib. c. 51 ; " a clero
deponi," Statt. Ea:l. Ant. c. 68; "ab eccleaiastico
removeri officio," Cod. Eccl. Afric. c. 25 ; " locum
amittere," 2 Cone. Carth. c. 8; "ab impnsits
officio repelli," 1 Araus. c. 16; "honore proprio
privari," Milev. c. 19. The person so removed
from office was for the future a layman: his
place in church was no longer on the raised
steps or seats; he had no longer a voice in
the administration of discipline ; and he had
no longer the larger share of the offerings
which fell to the several grades of officers. ThU
■■rs of his lost
H
0IIDER8, HOLY
ll lometlmM pxiiri'mly itatod: o.i/., Justin, ffotell.
n. b, rh \<nwbii i'Ikvttji /(Ttui; S. Ilimil, li/iial. i,
ad Aini>hiliich. c. 3, (ji rhy KaiKuiv inuirOtls
riroy; lone. Trull, c. 21, iv rf tSiv KaiKutv
iititouiitintnSiitf ; 'A I'onc. Aurel. A.t). 'I'M, c. '1,
"laics ciiiiiniuiiinne cdiitcntus nb dllitiii depd-
nalur;" 2 Turoii. A.l>. 607, c, 19, "(iuimsitus nb
onini ollicio cleiii-iili iiitei' laiecu se dbneiviiie
cogiioscnt " (but with permission ti) sit anKiiig
the reailiTS in the chciir). There is no trace uf
the rcc'itiiiti'in in early canon law of theopiniun
which afterwards caiiio to prevail, that a person so
depmed was still inpu-ne what he Ijail been before ;
ind that the repeal of the sentence id' deposition
would restore him at one c to nil the privileges and
powers of his lost place. On the contrary, even
10 late as the seventh century, and even in cases
where tlie deponiticin was found to be unjust, ro-
orJination wan iieiiessary (" non potest esse quod
fuerat uisi K''" '"' aniisscps rc'ci]iiat coram altario,"
4 Cone. Tidet. A.r>. 6.13, r. 28). One of the
earliest instances of the later opinion is in the
Cifit VirncHHi: of i'ippin, A.I). 753, I'ertz, vol. i.
p. 23, which allows a degraded presbyter to
baptize in cases of extreme emcrjjency. Tin-
adJitiiin of excommunication to deposition was
Id early times a separate and cumulative punisii-
Kient; the Apostolical Canons, c. 24, maintain
th«t the former is sutliiicnt without the latter,
eveu in lases of theft or li*'rjury, on tin' ({round
that a man must not be i)unished twiia for the
jame olli-nce. They allow them to be combine I
only in the case of simony (c. 28 ; the interpre-
tation of c. 64, which apparently visits with the
game double punishment those who associate
with Jews and heretics, is not certaia: cf.
BaUamon and Zonaraa ad Im:).
(4) Other Pumahments.~-((i) In the sixth
century, when the practice of appointing very
young persons to minor orders began to prevail,
it was sometimes enacted that "juniorea clerici "
who transgressed the canons should be whijiped
(Cone. Kpacm. a.d. 517, c. 15 ; 1 Matisc. a.d. 581,
c. 8; Narbon. A.D. 589, c. 13 ; 1 1 Tolet. A.u. 675,
c. 8). The fourth Council of Uraga, which ia of
the same date as the la.st-mcntioned council, goes
«o far as to allow presbyters to be scourged for
grave ofl'ences, but discourages the imictice
which some bishops seem to have had of beating
their clergy themselves. So also in the following
century a presbyter who commits a sin of the
flesh is t(i be scourged, " Hagellatus et scorti-
catus," before being imjirisoned (Karlonmn.
Capit. A.I). 742, c. 6; Pertz, vol. i. p. 17). The
civil law recognises the same mode of punish-
ment for clerks below the grade of deacons
(Juii»in, NmvU. 123, c. 20; cf. Cod. 1, 3, 8). (6)
When the nKjnastic system began to prevail,
clerks were sometimes punished by being secluded
in s monastery: e.g., Cone. Epaon. A.D. 517, c.
22; ■! Aurel. a.d. 538, c. 7 ; 4 Tol. a.d. 633, c.
29, 45 ; 8 Tol. a.d. 653, c. 7. So also in the
civil law : Justin. Xovell. c. 1 1, substitutes this
punishment for that of banishment, which had
been imposed nearly a century and a half earlier
by a law of Arcadius and Honorius (Cod. Theodos.
ivi. 2, .S5). it was somotimes further enacted
that clerks who were thus secluded should be
cunimed in solitary cells and fed on bread and
water (2 Cone. Turon. A.D. 567, c. 19 ; 1 Matisc.
A.D. 581, c. 8), and that thev should be subject
to the abbat (Narbon. a.d. 589, c. 6). [E. H.]
ORDINAL
1497
ORDERS (Mo.sASTiu). [Monastkry, p.
1229.] *■ ' *^
ORDINAL. It is proposed in tlio present
8rti( le to give a briof tt. foiiiit uf the books which
contain the early forma of ordination in both
Kast and West. There is no nmiciit term fur
such books. The most usual Western term il
J'mtijicdle ; but on the one hand, the word iloei
not appear until the close of the mi Idlo agei,
and on the other hand, it is too wide for the
present |>urpoao, inasmuidi as the b<ioks so desig-
nated contain not (july forms of ordination, but
also forms for all otlh'es, e.i/. the consideration of
churches, in which the presence of a bishop had
come to be required. For I'lmtijiattc .Sicard of
Cremona in the 12th century (Mai, .Ny-ic. lioin.
V(d. vi. p. 583, Migue, i'atr. I.at. vol. ccxv.)
substitutes MitraU; but this latter word d(jes not
seem to have obtaineil general currr. .y. OnliniUe
was in earlier use, but with a dillerent meaning.
Kalph Higden (/V/a«;/i;-onii;on, lib. 7, c. 3)8peak«
of a " librum ordinalem ecclesiastici olliiii (|uera
consnetuilinariuiri voi.int," as belonging to
Osmunit of Salisbury circ. a.d. 1077 ; but in
the Ueata Aijbatum S. Albitni, ed. Kiliy, p. 58,
" ordinalibus, consuctudinariis, misanlibus " are
enumerated separately among the books given
to the abbey by abbat I'aul, a.d. 1077-1093; an
wn/iViunus Wier or ordinnrium is mentioned in a
charter of St. Wulfrin's church at Abbeville in
a.d. 1208 ; it was .» book of directions, specify-
ing "quid et quando et quoinodo cantanlum sit
vel legendum, chorus regendus, campanao pul-
sandae, luminare nccen lenduin,"&c. But it liai
b.'en supposed that there were dillerent oidimtria
for the several classes of ministers, and that the
ordimrium episcopate was the same os the
pontificate. In tli- absence, therefore, of any
precise ancient term, the information in question
has been placed under the present heading, as
being more expressive than any other to modern
English readers.
1. Western Ordinala.— It is not possible in
the present state of knowledge to lay down
many general propositions in respect to early
Western ordinals. The earlier WSS. of those
which are known to exist do not npi)ear to have
been carefully examined by any scholar of
eminence since the time of Muratori, and some
of those which have been jiublished, and which
are mentioned below as belonring to a certain
date, are found on examination to be composite
MSS., 1.8. MSS. of clearly distinguishable and
sometimes widely separated dates, which have
accidentally been bound up together. Con-
•equently, almost all facts in relation to ordina-
tion which are assigned to certain dates on the
authority of printea editions of the several MSS.
are liable to correction. It is, moreover
probable that many MSS. remain still unex-
amined, and that much light may be thrown u|ion
early ecclesiastical usages by fresh discoveries.
The following accounts will be confined to tho«e
which have been printed : nor even in the case
of those which have been spec lally examined for
the purposes of this work will there be any dis-
cussion, which must necessarily be elaborate
and leiurHiy.. of their origin r.r aiipr.-.ximste
date. But even with this limitation it is clear
that the printed ordinals belong to several dis-
tinct types, and that the type which ultimately
survived, and which, being retained in the
r
t
I 'i Mil
'It
1 V, •.'iV'^*
i*^
i MH^^^^^^I
i A-M \ l^^l
?
1
ir
1 L"^ ■) ' • ilil fa \ fc8^^^M
f
' yHnMaBliH
■
i^^^^^H
i^
^H^H
' ^^M^^l
I
"^ P^shHI
i.'
•^B
^V
'■>:.
. f^-f-^4^K^H
r"'
, l^-' ti '"^ f^^§^^^|
Bl
^^^^nii^^;,yM^Hra|^^B
1498
OllDINAL
ni'liu'val icrvlcii - biiuk«, hai com« Jown to j
lno.l4M'ii tiiii'H ill the Kmniiu aii'l Aiij{I1i!Aii
or liiiitlii, W'U lint the earlicit (Vdn of thutu whiuh
■till I'L'ijKiiii.
1. Aiiii>ii)( the cnrliftt iif the ri'iniiinlnK typo
ii that wliic'li ia |iriiit«<l by M<il>ill<>ii (Mu.seiiin
/ti/i.rii/1, vol. ii. 85) «« (JrJij Jiiiimmn.i vi'ii. It
contiiiin ulicirt rormn for the onliintiuii (if (lon-
lytt!!i, 9iili>liMi>'(ins, cli'itiidut iiirl v^-'hyti'm, ami a
loii^i'r fnriii fur the oivliimtiini ( n bislini).
•i. AmitliiT type of K''''i»t iiiliiiuity, but
whi'tli^^r ciirliiT «r later tlum the preceilinn is
nut ;it i>i'i':<Hiit clear, ia thut which wiih hint
liriiited bv llittnrii, tin /'ii'iit ■. CiMoliaw
Kiyk\iiiie o'lliriii, (J.ilotjne, 1508, p. 88, col. 1 and
piirt iif cnl, J. Thia i« distiiictivcly Uniniiii, an in
shewu by the (lircctioii that the pnjie iiiid clergy
are to jjo in procoaaiou frinii the cliurcli of St.
A.lri:iii to that of St. Marin in I'rae.tepe. It is
important, a.s »<'par:itini{ election fioni ailinission
to oilice (/.t'. or liiiiition in its later sense) by an
interval of two ilays. It gives no form of either
prayer or beneiliction, ami it is oontineil to pres-
byters and .leaeons. It was printed aijaiii by
Miibilbpii from a St. Gall MS. (.I/us. Itul. vol. ii.)
as I Into liiiminm \t. and by Martene (ifo Anti).
Ec-l, Hit, Vol. ii.) I'rom a MS. of the Henedictiiie
Abbey of the Trinity at Vendonie, also as Onln
u. \ both tliese editors add to what llittorp had
published an order for the benediction of a
bishop ; and Mabillon, not Martene, gives m\
order respecting the four seasons, whicii is not
in accordance with the preceding part of the
MS., and is probably a remnant of a distinct
rite ; this lust part is also printed from MSS. at
Zurich anil Einsiedeln by Oerbert (J/onmn.
Litiir.j. Alein'inn. vol. ii. MS ; cf. id. Litwij.
Alriiiiinii. ilini lis. V. c. 4, vol. ii. 494).
:}. Another type of great antiiiuity, and one
which is possibly earlier than either of the two
prece lini;, is that which occurs as a preface or
preliminary rubric to the ritual of the ordination
of deacons and presbyters in some of the later
ordinals (for which see below), viz. Sacram.
Gelas. i. c. 20, Missale Francornni, Cod. Mail', ap.
Muratori, I'ontif. Eogb. S. Uunst. Rodra I, Cata-
lani, "/•'/. ii. It is remarkable as giving no
forms of benediction, nor any mention of vest-
ments, and for the retention of the primitive
custom of making the oblations to the bishop
himself at the tucharist, and receiving them
back from liim when consecrated.
4. The older MSS. of the sacramentaries con-
tain jirayers which might have been combined
with any of the rituals hitherto mentioned.
(a) Tliat which is known as the Leonine
Sacrameutary contains prayers without rubrical
directions, to be used in (1) the consecration of
a bishop, (2) the benediction of a deacon, (3) the
consecration of a presbyter. The Veronese MS.
which contains the sacramentary is assigned to
the loth century. The authorship of the sacra-
mentary is absolutely uncertain ; various con-
jectures will be found (1) in the preface to the
original edition of the work by Bianchini in his
edition of Anastasius, vol, iv. Rome, 1735 (whose
ascription of it to Leo the Great was withdrawn
l.iti'r in life according to Oevbert, Vet. Litarj.
Aleiii. vol. i. p. 80); (2) in Muratori's Disscrtn-
tio de Rebus liturgicis, c. iii. prefixed to his edition
of it in his L>tur/}ia JXomani Vetus, vol. i. The
text will be foand not only in the above-mea-
ORDINAL
tioned volumes of Uianchinl and Muratnrl, but
also in the Itallerini edition of St. Lim M. ,^1.
ii. p. no ai|i|. (reprinted in Migne, I'atr. Ut.
vol. Ix. p. ll:l ••|i|.).
CO The older MSS. of that which is knnwim
the (Irngorian Sacramentary also contain |ir;iviiri
witliout a ritual, to lie used at the oriliu:ili.in li
bishops, pre.iiiyters, ami deaious. Tiie ihii.f ^f
these older MSS. are (1) one In the lrii|i(iriM
Library at Vienna (No. 1815. 5; fonm rl\ Tli,.,)|,
UD), whii'li is described by Lamberim (//;»,/
C'l^iiic. t. ii. c. 5, p. 2'JU) (who 8ini|iiim'i|, but
wrongly, that it was the copy whicli ll.iliiinl.
inesented to Charles the (ireat), iiii I by lltnii
(t'oiW. .1AS.V. 7%ft. II. I', t. i. pars iii. ]..":;i :\2)-
(2) a Vatican colex, whirh, with a loll.iiji.n i,(
(.1) a codex in the Ottoboni Library, was iJiiritcit
by Muratori (Ait. A'o'ii. IV.. vol. ii), in which
edition the several prayers will be tuuiul on
pp. 8H2, 1)18, lOlll.
(c) The .MS. which was published by Carilinal
Toinasi in lli8() from a MS. of (iueen I'lirjstinj
of Sweden, anil which since, though ifj aserip.
tion to Gelanius is genera! Iv repudiated, li:is bei'ii
known as the (Jelasian i. rainentary, ii ntaiiis
two sets of ilirections an i prayers (/ irliria-
tions : the one (lib. i. c, 2ii-23) corresiiiiils tu
some extent with the Leonine Sacranientarv,
the other (lib. i. c. 95-99) with the onlina'ls
mentioned below. The text will be fuunil in
Tomasi (reprinted in Daniel, Cudfx I.itHr;jms,
vol. i. p. 2ii8), ill Muratori {Limi-.j. Jloin. I'.l
vol. ii.) J and in Migne, I'atr. Lat. vol. Isjiv.
5. The ty]ie which ultimately previiileil ani
which, after tlio analogy of the sacraineiitary to
which it is usually appended, may be c.alUi.l the
Gregorian, is more elaliorate, and tliercfort
probably later than the types mentioned abme.
The most important of the MSS. which hive
been published, and which can therefore h
compared together without great dilhciilty, iirc
the following: (1) ilissale Francunm : a y\S.
found by Morin in tho library of A. IVtau »t
Paris, afterwards bought by queen Christina (t
Sweden, and now in the Vatican. It is sii|ip«>eJ
bv Morin, on internal evidence, to have h-n
written for the use of the church of ruitifrs,
and is ascribed by him to the Gth century,
between A.D. 511 and 560. Mabillon, who first
gave it the name by which it is now known,
thinks that it represents the prevalent Frimkiih
ritual, but ascribes it to the 7th century;
either date places it earlier than the MS. of
any existing Western ordinal, although ths type
which it embodies is probably later than several
of those which have been meutioned .ibnve. It
contains the ritual for the ordination of door-
keeper, acolyte, reader, exorcist, subdeaccn,
deacon, presbyter, bishop, virgin and widow.
The text is given in Morin, de Sao'is Ecdesiie
Ordimitionibm, p. 261 ; Mabillon, JMur;). Gall.
lib. iii. p. 301; Muratori, f.ituri/ia Romim
Vetus, vol. iii. p. 439. (2) Cidex Remnsis ; a
MS. formerly belonging to the abbey of St.
Remigius at Reims, piinted by Morin, p. 290.
(3) Codex 8. Eliijii: a MS. probably of the 9th
century, once in the abbey of Corbey ; in
Morin's time in the library of St. Gerinain-aus-
Pr^s, now in the liibliothtque Nationale at
Paris (No. 12,051). This MS. forms the ba,«8of
Menard's text (Paris, 1642), and also of the
Benedictine text (S. Greg. M. Op. vol. it.), of
ORDINAL
th« Or«((i"''''n Sncrniii iil«ry j tho jwirtlcin whioh
ooiitaiiis till! "i-iliiml U iiriiite I by Morln, p. •ill) ;
for »ii Hir.puiit (if iu ii«t« iiifi' Mijimnl'* [infrti h,
lai Muiiitnri ilu h'<'iitii I.itur/. o, v. iu hi*
Lititri. Him. IV<. vnI. i. p. Uu. (4) l',intiJ\c<Uo
]iii'"rti: whii'h i(|iii'«enU tli« fciiiflisli uhc,
nrnbubly «if tli" Mtli > .iitury, nn\ was |piilpli»h(Ml
friim » Hurin MS. nl tin' Idtli ci'iitiuy by tho
Surti'Bj Mdcii'ty in IM,-);) (,. liteil by Mr. (irciMi.
woll). (5) CWux llijiliiiili ! n Ms. fnnnoily
bflfinKiiiX til tlio Hblicy nt' Corboy, dati'.l A.O.
85;l, 111 I iiiiw ill tlie lliblicptlu\|ii() Niiti..rmlo ftt
Pari* (.N"- l-,0:)()); it ii) conipildl witli (^icnt
c«ri', mill iti (MiiiiiiliT ((ivi-'« I'viilciicH in bin
prefiicu 111' b.iviiiiij iiua»('»m."l a critical ipii-it,
wliioh wiw in «i|viiMf« of his time, unit whiih
ffires th« MS. i\ hi^h vuliie; it in (irintel by
Morin, [1. '.'7H. (Ij) C dicen Vdtiatni : nmny
MSS. lire nii'iitiout' I in the ciitiil"|i;ui'n, bnt only
three me known in hiivi; been imbli.slieil, (n) una
of no ii|ieci/ie,| iliite by linirii in S. dreg. M. Op.
vol. vii. Kiinie, l.'>!t:l, hihI ngiiin by Mniiu, p. 'il'i j
(i) one of tlio lntli centnry by Mnriitiiri, l.U.
Rum. Vii. vol. iii. \i. 'JO; (. ) imu iif mucb Inter
date by (.'iitiilimi, I'viUiJiculo Uummim, niipeml. mi
p. 1, tit. IJ, (M-J. iii. (7) l'->iUiJhi/o .S'. I.hm-
itani: iiii LiiijiiHli MS. nf the tdtb century, unw
in the IlibliiitliNine Niitioniile at I'arls, imbliiiheil
by Miirteiie, (ml. iii. (8) Cik/cx C'uloniensis : of
the 9tli century, now in tlio C'atheilriil Library
at Cologne (.Vn. cxj.wii.), which furine.l the banin
of the eilitiun of l'aiiieliu», JUissdle S.S. I'atrum
latimrum, sive J.itun/icun Latinwn, C'olngne,
1571. (9) CmU'x Ocimwitcnsis or LanaUtcHsiti :
^ MS. ftscribcil by Montfanciiu to the 7th or 8th
century, n|i|iarently of Knglish orifjin, afterwanls
belongiiii; tn tho il'iimstcriuiit L'lnitlctensn (i...
Llin Alet, near St. Male, iu Urittany); of. Mabil-
\on, Ann. Uriwdirt. toni. iv. p. 4(31, afterwanls
belongiui; to the abbey of Juniiu|;eH, but now in
the jiublic library at Kouen (No. A 27) ; pnb-
liihcil by Miirtene together with the PmUif. S.
Dumt; with which it agrees almost entirely ;
lee Gage, /Ir ■^picofoi/iVi, vol. xxv. p. 2:i."), who
gives iin account of it, and a,scribes it at the
earliest to the end of the loth century.
(10) Ciidci Ilntomnijensis : commonly known as
archbishop Uobert's pontitical ; now at Rouen,
but of iCnglish origin ; sometimes ascribed to
the 8th century, but supposed by Gage, Archtwo-
lojia, vol. x.\iv., to have been written for
Aethelgar, archbishop of Canterbury, A.D. 989 ;
lee Frere, //iWioMA/iie Jn la ViUe de Jfouen,
p. 50; published by Morin, p. 282. (U) Codi'x
Getlonemis : ascribed to the 8th century ; for-
merly belonging to the Benedictine abbey of St.
Guillcm du Desert, afterwards to St. Germain-
au.\-Pr^s at I'aris, but now in the Bibliotli6iiue
Natiiinale (No. 12,048) ; published by Martene,
Oii. iv. (12) Cudex Ratotdi: so called because
of its mention of the abbat Ratold, t98G ; for-
merly at Corbey, but now in the Bibliothf^que
Nationale (No. 12,052); published by Morin,
p. 298. (13) Codices Xoviodunenses : i.e. of
Noyon in Picardy ; («) three MSS. ascribed to
the 8th century and published by Martene, (ird.
iv.; (6) a MS. sometimes known as Cud,'x Rad-
6««ssiTih=.-! J.-, the 9th cfutury and published
by Martene, Ord. vi. ; (o) a MS. of the 13th
century, published by Martene, Ord. xv.
(14) Cudex Siu'smnensis : a Soissons MS. of the
Uth century, published by Martene, Ord. vii.
OIIDIVAL
1499
h| ij'""^
(15) Cniea Ciiturkenalu, I.e. of Cnhnra : wcribed
to th« Hth century, and publiithed by .Mardne,
Ord. V. (Ill) Coii'j: tliaiiiUiiiiti : fiirnierly at
Beitau(;oii, but now at Tours (Moiitl'iiiicon, vol. li.
p. 1274); it i.s ascribed to the Utii century, and
IS publiHhed by Martene, Urd. x. (17) tUuei
//.'■ ■■ >uc< ; two MSS. formerly bcloin;jiig to the
abbey of Le liec, in Noriioindy ; both of the
12th century; published by Martene, i/n/. xl.
xii. (IH) O'dvx AViioii. im .■ a Schh .M.S. of the
time of Louis the I'ious; published bv Morin,
11.204. (19) ('(hJcx lIMivw.insia : a ileauvai»
Ms., written about a.h. 1000 mid publishewl by
Moiin, p. ;i27. (20) C^k-x .v. Virt„r,s: a MS.
of the 12th century, formerly belonging to the
abbey of St. Victor at I'nri.i; pulilislied by
Morid, p. 320. (21) CV/icrs .I/,,,/,,,,/,,., ,• (,i) «
Maiiu Ms. of the l.tth century, now in tho
r.ibliotliei|uu Nationale at I'aiis; published by
Martene "• (, xvi. ; (h) a. Maiiu MS. ascribed by
Morii. .1 l',c s me period, but ditlerini; from the
forii ir in inic,,nut imrticulars ; partly iiub-
d by
lis
ijen in ;
cen \irv
(23) .■■
MS., tV
lished \.-j
Miiriii,
Sal /.bur
iiubliihi
.r itaif .
331). (22) Vudix SaUaimr.
MS. ascribed to the Uth
by Martene, Ord. viii.
ii<»; an early and important
■'-•■i, • ; of which is not known; pub-
. iuratori, vol iii. p. 45. (J4) Cvdea
Oaictanm : a. MS. which agrees in many points
with the preceding ; sujiposed by .Morin to be an
Italian, not Koman, ordinal of about the 10th
century, and published by him, p. 313.
(2.''i) Cmkx /.amlu/Ji : so called from it, having
belonged to a bishop of Capua of that name in
the 9th century ; published by Catalani, I'vittlfl.
calc Jtimuumm, append, ad p. i. tit. 12, (ml. i.
(2H> Cudrx liitrmiis: a MS. probably of the
l.'tth century, giving the use of the joint diocese
of Bari and Canusium ; published by Catalani,
ihid. "rd. ii. (27) /;n<//ii(/i Ordinals Maskell'a
Monuinentit liitwMin, vol. iii. contains an edition
of the ordinal according to the use of Sarura
from a Cambridge MS. of the l.^.th century
(according to Maskell, ibid. vol. i. p. 1, but of the
13th century according to the Cambridge cata-
logue. No. 1347) with a collation of the Win-
chester Pontifical (also at Canib. Univ. Library,
No. 921) of the ]2th century, the Bangor J'vnti.
fical (at Bangor) of the 14t{i centurv, and bishop
Lacey's Lxeter Pontipcal of the 14(h century
(since published separately by .Mr. Barnes
Exeter, 1847). The only other Knglish ordinals
which are known to the present writer to have
been publ shed are (1) Cardinal Bainbridge's
York Puntijical, in the Cambridge University
Library, which was edited by Dr. Henderson for
the Surtees Society in 1875; (2) a Sarum Pon-
'[tral of thu 11th century in the British
.Museum (Tiberius, c. i.), published by Mr.
Chambers, Divine Wors/up in En'/land in tha
XII [. XIV. and XIX. Centuries, London, 1878.
Of unpublished and uncollated Pontificals
there are many ; some are mentioned in the list
given by Zaccaria, Dihliotheca Ritmilis, vol. i.
p. 164; but the catalogues of most great
libraries supply instances of others. The most
important of unpublished Enirlish Pontificals is
pi'obaUy tiiat wiiich is contained in Leofric's
Exeter Missal in the Bodleian Library, a MS. of
various dates, one part of it containiiie the date
A.D. 9ff9.
II. £astem Ordinals : I Ores*.— The earlwok
' .!' "'I
. 1'
'4h|
'*i"i.--,
' "" 'In;
1500
ORDINAL
Greek ordinal, the date of which is extremely
obscure, but wliieh probably represeuts a primi-
tive type, is that which is contained in the
eighth book of the Apostolical Cunstitutiona, and
which prescribes the ritual for the ordination of
bishops, presbyters, deacons, deaconesses, sub-
deacons, and readers. (The best modern texts
are tliuse of Lagarde, Const. Apost. Leipzig,
18ti2, and of Pitra, Jur. Kcci. Qraecorum Hist,
et Mun. vol. i. pp. 45-75.)
ii. Next in importance is the ritual which is
given, interwoven with a mystical explanation,
by St. Uionysius Areopiigita de ecolcsiastica
Hierarchiii, c.'v., which should be compared with
ths scholia of St. Maximus, and the paraphrase
of George Pachymeres, both of which are
usually printed with it. (The text will be
found in Migne, Patr. Graec. vol. ii. ; and Moriu,
de Sacr. Urdin. p. 52.)
iii. The later ordinals seem to have taken
their final shape in the course of the 8th and
9th centuries; they have not yet been
thoroughly investigated, but the differences
between the MSS. which have hitherto been
collated are considerably less than those which
are found between the Pontificals of the
Gregorian type in the Western church. The
chief MSS. are the following: (1) Codex Bar-
berini, of the 9th centu'-y, formerly in St.
Mark's Library at Florence ; printed by Morin,
vol. i. p. 61 ; J. A. Asseman, Cud. Liturg. Eccles.
Univ. vol. xi. p. 103. (2) Codex Jiessanon: of
the 10th century, given by a Cretan presbyter to
cardinal Julian at the council of Florence; after-
wards in i)osscs3ion of cardinal Bessarion, who
gave it to the monastery of Crypta Ferrata, near
Rome, of which he was abbat ; printed by Morin,
i. p. 74, J. A. Asseman, vol. xi. p. 125. (3) Codex
Pars : not earlier than the 14th century ; in
the Biblioth^que Nationale; printed by Morin,
vol. i. p. 8:5 ; J. A. Asseman, vol. xi. p. 147.
(4) Codex S. Andr. Valt. : of uncertain date, in
the librarv of the church of St. Andrea Val-
lensis at Kome; printed by Morin, vol. i. p. 91,
J. A. Asseman, vol. xi. p. 166. (5) Codices
Vat. : one of the 12th century, containing the
offices for the ordination of reader, singer, sub-
deacon, deacon, deaconess, the other containing
those for presbyter, bishop, abbat; printed by
Morin, vol. i. p. QT, J. A. Asseman, vol. xi.
p. 179. (6) Codex Leo Altai. ; of much more
recent date, and possibly more Syrian than
G'-eek ; printed bv Morin, vol. i. p. 104, J. A.
Asseman, vol. xi. p. 196. The other editions of
the ordinals are less precise in stating the 'ISS.
authorities upon which they are based ; the chief
of them are Habert's 'ApX'*P<«TiK<ii', Liber
Pontificalis Ecol. Oraecae, Paris, 164b, . id Gear's
nuyo\6yiov, siva Rituale Qraecorum, Paris,
1647 (the notes to which are valuable), A con-
venient edition for general reference, but useless
for scientific inquiry, is that which is contained
in Daniel's Codex Liturgicus, vol. iv. fasc. ii.
Leipzig, 185:!,
iv. Coptic. —The Coptic ordinal, which may be
presumed to retain the chief traditions of the
later church of Alexandria, was first published in
its present for; by Gabriel, sou of Tarik,
patriarch of Alexandria, in 1141. It has been
printed in the West from several different MSS.
which do not materially di"' " : (1) The greater
part of it was firit transi-ted into Latin by
ORDINAL
father Kircher, from a MS. which was sent to
the Propaganda, and published by Bartold Nihu-
lius at Cologne in 1653, in the XvumKri. <'f Leo
Allatius ; this was reprinted by Morin, dc, Smr.
Ordin. (2) The offices for the ordination of a
bishop, metropolitan, and patriarch, which had
been omitted by Kircher, were jirintcd by
IJenaudot, Liturg. Oriental, vol. i. from a Paris ^
MS. and the office for a patriarch also from
Ebnassal, Epitome Canonuin, a.d. 1239, and from
Abulbireat Lampas tenebraruin, saec. xiv. (3) A
later version from other Paris MSS. is given by
Vansleb, Histoire de I'Eglise d'Alexamiric, Paris,
1677, p. 4, sect. 2. (4) J. S. Asseman translated
the offices for a reader, subdeacon, deacon, pres-
byter, and bishop from a Vatican MS., and pub-
lished them in his Dissertazione dell ' wizivnc dei
Copti, &c. 1733, which vas reprinted by Mai,
Script. Vet. vol. v. pars ii. § 5. An orthodox
Copt, Raphael Tuki, published in 1761, unJet
the auspices of the Propaganda, an edition of
both the euchologion and the pontifical from
MSS. which he found at Rome ; a Latin version
of this is published, with a collation of other
editions, in Denzinger, Bitus Orientalium, vol. ii,
Wurtzburg, 1864.
iii. Jacobite. — The ordinal of the Jacobite
Syrians, which probably retains the main features
of that of the church of Antioch, is said to have
been arranged by Michael the Great about
A.D. 1190. It has been published in three forms,
between which there are considerable dill'crences,
(1) By Morin in Syriac and Latin ; (2) by Heuau-
dot, Perp^tuittl'de la Foi de I'Eglise Catholi':w: from
a MS. in the Grand Ducal Library at Florence.
(3) It is also found as a collation with the Xes-
torian ordinal in J. S. Asseman, Bihiiotheca
Orientalis, vol. iii. p. 2. Probably older tlian
any of these ordinals in their present form are
the canonical directions which are given by
Gregory Abulfaradsch (Bar-Hebraeus), who in
the 13th century formed a collection of canons,
a Latin version of which by J. A. Asseman is
published in Mai, Script. Vett. Nw. Coll. vol. i.
pars ii.
iv. Maronite.- The Maronite ordinal so nearly
resembles the Jacobite ordinal as to have been
sometimes identified with it. It was first
printed by Morin, but imperfectly, inasmuch as
the MS. which he used was a Diaconicon and not
a full Pontifical. It has since been fully printed
(1) by J. A. Asseman, Cod. Liturg. vol. ix. x,
from a collation of ancient MSS. supplied by s
Maronite patriarch; (2) by Denzinger, Ititm
Orientalium, vol. ii., who has reprinteil Afiseman's
text, with the addition of a collation of some
important materials which had been left in MS.
by Renaudot.
V. Nestorian. — The Nestorinn ordinal ascribes
to itself a higher antiquity than any of the
other Oriental ordinals. It b'.irs the names of
the patriarchs Marabas I. t.'>52, and Jeaujab
t660 of Cyprian, bishop of Nisibis, fl. 767, and of
Gabriel, metropolitan of Bussorah, circ. 884. It
has been printed (1) by Morin from a Vatican
MS. in both Syriao and Latin, the Latin version
being however to some extent untrustworthy;
/n\ 1^.. j^ g_ Asaeman. Bihiiotheca ftri.'uf'ilis. vol.
iii. p. 2, from the same and other Vatican MSS.,
but with an amended Latin version ; (3) by J. A.
Asseman, Cud. Liturg. vol. xiii. ; (4) by (•■ i.
Badger, The Nestorians and titeir Kituak,
ORDINARY O
!'■
ORDINARY OF THE MASS
london, 1852, from MSS. which differ in many,
but comparatively unimportant, points from
those which were used by the two Assemans;
(5) by Dcnzinger, liitus Orientaliuin, vol. ii., who
has reprinted both the text of the Assemans and
that of Badger. [E. H.]
OBDINABY OF THE MASS. The defi-
nition of orUinarium (-I'us) is liber contineni oidi-
^(m Jivini ojficii. In I'efereuce to the Mass this
would imply the fixed frameworii of the service
into which the variable parts, proper to the day
or season, are fitted, and by popular usage is
tiiiien to mean the whole of the service, except
the canon. [C. E. H.]
ORDINATION.
I. Xamesfor ordination :
1. Wurda denoting appointment or election, p. 1601.
il. WnrJs denciting prumotiun, p. 1602.
lii. Words denoting niemb Tsliip of tlie clerui, p. 1602.
iv. Wurdd dinuting adniisslun to of9ce, p. 1602,
II. .\ature of ordinatinn:
(1) Contemporary modeaof civil appointment, p. 1603.
(a) By the ptopk-. (b) By the senate, (c) By
the sovereign.
(2) Corresponding modes of ecclesiastical appoint-
ment, p. 1603.
(o) By tlie laity, (b) By the clergy, (c) By
the bishop.
(3) Ultimate elements of ordination, p. 1604.
1. KUctiun:
(a) Of presbyters, (b) Of deacons, (c) Of
subdeacons. (d) Of readers.
II. Testimony, p. 1606 :
(a) Of clergy, (b) Of laity.
III. Declaration of dection, p. 1607.
Rites of ordination :
ORDINATION
1601
3. Reader, p. 1609.
4. Kzorcist, p. 1609.
6. Subdeacon, p. 1610.
8. Presbyter, 1612.
III.
I. In gi niral,
(a) frayer, p. 1508. (b) Delivery of insignia, p.
1509.
II. In special.
1. Ustiarius, p. 1603.
3. Singer, p. 1609.
6. Acolyte, p. 1510.
>. Deacon, p. 1611.
9. Other officers, p. 1615.
IV. Time and place qf ordination :
I. Time :
(1) Season, p. 1618. (2) Day of week, p. 1517,
(3) Relation to divine service, p. 1617.
II. Place, p. 1617.
V. Minister qf ordination :
I Of I'resbyters, p. 1618.
II, Of Deacons, p. 1619.
III. Of .Minor Orders, p. I5l(.
Iv. Of Clerks, p. 1620.
VI, Re-ordinatinn, p. 1620,
VII. Literature, p. 1620.
I. Niimea for Ordination.
The Greek and Latin words which were used to
eipre.ss either the whole or part of the series of
processes which in English are commonly
grouped together under the word ordination,
are so numerous and so significant as to throw
considerable light upon the conception which
was entertained as to the nature of the pro-
cesses ...eni.srlvpR, It is therefore necessary to
treat of them with some minuteness of detail,
i. Some of them are words which were in ordi-
nary use to denote civil elections or appoint-
ments; ii. Others are ordinary words for pro-
motion to dignity, iii. Others express only the
tact thai a person was ranked in the K\rjpos or
onto; IT. Others connote a special sacredness in
the office itself, and the perfi.rmance of sacred
rites in admission to it.
i. Words denoting appointment or election:
(1) x^tpoTovfTv (xf'porovia): this word
IS used (d) in the New Testament, Acts xiv.
23, xf'POTOifliaavrn Si ainoTs /car' iKKK^iriav
itpta^vTipovs : 2 Cor. viii. 19 (of Titu,s), xfipo-
Toi/jjflels vvA T&v iKKKricriwv ; ((,) jn sub-
apostolic Greek, St. Iguat. ad PhiM. c. 10 •
(c) in the Clementines, Clement. JCjjist. ad
Jacob, c. 2; (rf) in the Apostolical Constitu-
tions, e.g. 2, 2, 27 ; 7, 46 ; and the Apostolical
Canons, e.ij. 2, 3tJ ; (e) in the Canon Law, e q
Unc. Aucyr. .\.d. 314, c. 13: xNcocaes. a.d. 315
0. 3 : Nicaen. A.D. 325, c. 10, 19 : Antioch, a.d.
341, c. 2; (/) in the Civil Law, e Cod.
Justin. 1, 3, 42 (41), § 9 ; Novell. J. ui,t. 6,
c. 4. Its meaning was originally " to elect," but
It came afterwards to mean, even in classical
Greek, simply " to appoint to office," without
Itself indicating the particular mode of appoint-
ment (cf. Schijmann, de Coinitiis, p. 122). That
the latter was its ordinary meaning in Hellenistic
Greek, and consetiueutly in the ,t ages of
church history, is clear from a largu number of
instances; e.g. in Josephus, Ant. 6, 13, 9, it is
used of the appointment of David as king by
God, id. li, 2, 2, of the appointment of Jon.i.
than_ as high priest by Alexander : in Philo,
2, 70, It )s used of the appointment of Joseph
as governor by Pharaoh: in Lucian, de morte
leregnm, c. 41, of the appointment of am-
bassadors : in inscriptions, e.g. Le Bas et Wad-
dington, No. 42, of the appointment of municipal
officers; and so also of civil appointments in
ecclesiastical writers, e.g. in Sozomen, //. E. 7
24, of the appointment of Arcadius as Augustus'
by Theodosius; in Isidore of Pelusium, Epist.
2, 264, of the appointment of military officers.
In later times a new connotation appears, of
which there is na_earlv trace ; it was used of
the stretching out of the bishop's hands in the
rite of imposition of hands. But the 12th
century canonist who affirms this to be the
contemporary meaning, admits also that the
word was used in earlier times in reference to
election (Zonaras, ad Can. Apost. 1). About a
century later the earlier meaning so completely
passed away, that Balsamon in his commentary
on the same passage of the Apostolical Canons,
contradicts Zonaras by denying its existence,
(tor the ultimate identification of xf'porovelv
and xfipoecTfiv, see below.) (2), Kaet(rTdv(iv
VtoTdo-Toirii) : this is the most common word.
It is first found in Clem. R. 1, 42 (of the
Apostles), KaeioTavov tAi irapxas aiTwu ....
fij ^>rio-«(iiroui /col S., and it is afterwards found
in all classes of ecclesiastical literature: ea
Clement, ffm. 3, 64: Amr. KA^-- 17; St.
Iren. adv. Ilaer. 3, 2, 3 : Cone. Ancyr. c. 10, 18
Nicaen. c. 4, Sardic. c. 11, 15, Laod. c. U
Chalc. c. 2 : Const, Apost, 2, 1 : Euseb. // E
2, 1: Socrat, H. E. 1, 9: S, Athanas. Hist.
Arujn. c. 75, p. 308. It is the ordinary classical
and ilelleaislio word for appointment, without
any religious or ecclosiasticnl connotation. (3^ '
wpoxfiplit(r$at (^rpoxfipitns): e.g. Const.
Apost. 6, 23, ,ii Upwtriynv. id. 7, 31, ivt<TK6irovi
Kal vp«TPvTfpovs Kal Smicrfcous : Cone. Nicaen.
|,,iil
1
1602
ORDINATION
ORDINATION
0. 10; Socrat. //. E. 1, 9; 2, ^•, 7, 2 ;
Euseb. //. E. 2, 1 : Cod. Justin. 1, 3, 48 (47).
The wiu'il is common in Inter classical Greek
in the sense of " to elect," e.g. Polyb. 3, 97,
2: 6, 58, 4. Lucian, I'oxdr. c. 10; anil this is
Konietinies its meaning in ecclesiastical Greek :
but its more usual me.ming in ecclesiastical
Greek is " to ])roi)Ose a name for election," as is
clearly shewn, e.i/. by Socrat. //. ^.1,9: irpoxei-
pl^Kjeai 1) vito^dWeii' iv6uaTa (in the synodical
letter of the council of Nicaea), id. 2, 6, where
it is co-onlinateii with <nrevSeiv = " favere": in
later Grri'k this became its orilinary meaning,
c.(i. Nicetas Pajihlag. Vit. S. tgnat. Constant, ap,
Migne, P. (}. vol. cv. 501, says "many having
been i)roi)oseil for election {irpoxapi^onevuv'),
but some having failed of their object for one
reason, some for another " : cf. the notes of
H. Valois to Kiiseb. Vit. Constant, iii. c. ()-', and
of Hase to Leo Diaconus, Hist. vi. 6. An instance
of its use in this sense in secular Greek occurs
ir. an in^criI)tion at Corycus in Cilicia, ap. Le
Bas et VVaddingtnn, No. 1421. (4) irpoj3ct\-
A«cr0oi: e.g. Cone. Chalc. c. 2; Socrat. //. E.
2, 37, 42 ; 5, 8, 21 : 6, 11 : in its classical sense
of " to propose a name for election," and hence
almost identical with irpoxeipif<c9ai. (.^)
Spi^fffOai: 1 Cone. Antioch. c. 17: probably
from its use in the New Tesi.^ii.ent, e.g. Acts,
17, .U. (6) cunstituere : e.g. St. Cypr. Epist.
24: 49: 65, 3: in clerico ministerio constitiii,
id. 60 ; probably, as in classical Latin, e.g.
Cic. pro Deiot. c. 9, Suet. Tib. c. 65, e(|uivaleut
to KaBitnavdV, and equally colourless in its
meaning : but co-ordinated with cligere in S.
Hicron. Diid. c. Lucif. c. 9.
ii. Words implying promotion to dignity : (1)
irpof\df7v : Const. Apo.st. 6, 17; Cone. Trull, c.
6. (2) itpadyeaBai: Cone. Ancyr. c. 12, Nicaen.
c. 1, I.aod. c. 26, Trull, c. 6. (H) livaPaivfiv :
Cod. Justin. 1, 3, .-.3 (52): cf. Socrat. H. E. 1, 9,
irpoaai/affalvetv €i$ t))i/tiju()i/. {4) promoreri : ad
clerum, Cone. Illib. A.D. 30,5, c. 80; ad ordines,
3 Cone. Aurel. A.l>. 538, c. 6. (5) cunscendere :
ad gralum presbyterii. Cod. Lugd. 269, ap.
Haeuel Corp. Legum ante Justin, tat. p. 238.
{6) pracsumi, provehi, pracferri ; I Cone. Aurel.
A.D. 511, c. 4; Cassian, Collat. 4, 1, ap. Migne,
P. L. vol. xMk. 585.
iii. Wonis implying place in the xKripor, or
ordo : (1) K\vpofJaeai : S. Iren. ,3, 2,3; Euseb.
ff. E. 5, 28 ; Socrat. H. E. 1, 8. (2) iv xKiipv
TctTTCfl-flai, kotot(£tt«(t9oi, Const. Apost. 8, 3 ;
Cone. Trull, c. 38. (3) ipapieiitTaBai : rf rdy-
fiartTwv UpaTtKwv S. Basil. Epist. 54 (181), ap.
Migne, I'. G. xxxii. 400. (i) KaTa\4yf(r0ai : i. e.
to be assigned a place i ihe KardKoyos (Cone.
Chalc. c. 7 ; cf. 1 Tim. v. 9). (5) ordinnre (ordi-
natio): found in almost all writers from Tertul-
lian onwards : e. g. TertuU. de Praescr. Haerct.
c. 41 ; Clement. Recogn. 3, 65 ; 6, 15 ; S. Cypr.
Epist. 33; 68, 3; S. Ambros. Epist. 63, 65;
Cone. Illib. A.D. 305, c. 30 ; 1 Arelat. A.D. 314,
c. 2 ; 1 Carth. c. 8 ; 1 Tolet. c. 2 ; and the Civil
Law, passim. The earlier classical meaning of
the word had already been narrowed iii its civil
use, from administration in general to the ap-
pointment of magistrati-s: n. ;,■. Suft. D-.ttn. c. 4 ;
Vesp'is. c. 23 ; so, as late as Carolingian times,
e. g. in the Capit. Langobard. A.n. 782, § 2, ap.
Pertz, Legum, vol. i. p. 42. The secular use
which comes nearest its ecclesiastical use is in
the army, where "ordinati" =^ "qui ordinen
adepti sunt, id est, centuriones facti " (t'o/jio
Iiiscr. Lilt. ed. Mommsen, vol. iii. no. 8:>ii). |{
was used of the appointment, not only of clem-
but also of monks and abbats ; e. g. I'm-nit,
Theod. 2, 3, 3, iu Haddau and Stubbs, Councils
(Jr., vol. iii.
iv. Words denoting admission to office, aiH
especially to sacred office. (1) x^'fiodfjfl,
(x«ipo9((ria) : first found in Clem. Alex. Pnnl. \
5, p. 104, ed. Pott ; and Origen in Mattli. vol. iij,
p. 660, ed. Delarue, of Christ puttini; His lian'Is
on the young children : so, also, in a general
sense, in Dnctrin. Onent. c. 32, ap. C'lMn. .41es.
ed. Pott, p. 964. Its earliest uses in reference
to the clergy are probably Conu. ^'eo(■aes. c. 9
Nicaen, c. 8, 10, 1 Antioch. c. 17, Const,
Apost. 2j 32 ; frequently afterwards, liut it is
dilhcult to determine accurately the time at
which x(ipo9fT(i(T0ai came into general use in
reference to ordination, because the to.\ts of the
MSS., especially of writers and councils of the
4th century, vary so much between X'lpo'rmi
and xf'PoS"''" as to make the determination ot
the reading, in the present state of critieism as
applied to patristic Greek, a matter of great un-
certainty. Instances of such variations will 1<
found in the WS.S. of Cone. Antioch. c. '.'1 ; St.
Basil, Epist 217 (3) ad Amphilo h. c. 51, p.
325 ; Cone. Chalc. c. 15. No doubt, after \(ifo-
Qtala was once introduced, xf'P"TOi/m tendeil to
be identiiied with it, as is clear from a eom-
parison of Isidore of Pelusium, Kpist. 1, 2ii with
id. Epist. 2, 71, where the two words ,irc useJ
interchangeably of the same person in referem*
to the same thing. That the earlier meaning of
XfipoTOvia still survived, is clear from its use a
few years afterwards in Theodoret ; e. ;/. i>aKst.
in 3 Keg. c. 8, int. 27, of God's appointment ol
Solomon ; id. tn Epist. ad Rom. c. 4, v. 17, of the
appointment of Abraham as iraripa nainm;
but that the original distinction between the
words was afterwards completely lost, is shewn
by the somewhat clumsy attempt if Symeon ot
Thessalonica to invent a new one {de Sacr. t/min.
c. I.'i6, p. 138). It need hardly be pointed out
that the identification of the two words is of great
significance in regard to the history of the con-
ception of ordination. (2) iepatrflai (.Sozom,
//. E. 1, 23), or iepou<r9oi, whence the designa-
tion of those who are in major orders as oi
ifptv/xivot (sometimes written iepd'nevm) ; e. j,
Justin. Nov. 3, 2, 1 ; Socr.at. U. E. 1, II. The
use of the word in the sense " to be ordained,"
as well as in its classical sense, " to serre as
a priest," is maile certain by its use in the
active in an inscription ap. kichter, Griech. u.
Lat. Inschriften, ed. Krancke, p. 134, cf. ib.
p. 138.
(3) consecrari (consecratio) : S. Ambros. Epist.
63, S) 59, vol. ii. p. 1037, of Aaron and Eleazar,
probably as a translation of ayia(iw ; of Chris-
tian bishops, presbyters, and deacons, S. Leon,
Mngn, Epist. 6 (4), c. 6, vol. i. p. 620; of an
abbess, Poenit. Theod. 2, 3, 4, ed. Haddan and
.Stnbbs; of a virgin, ib. 2, 3, 8; Cnt. Eccki.
Afric. 0. 16; Statt. Eccl. Ant. c. U. (+) hme-
dial (benedictio) : levitica, Couc. Araus. A,P, -Wl,
c. 23; 5 Cone. Aurel. A.r>. 549, c. ri ; Cone.
Autissiod. A.D. 578, c. 20, 2 Cone. Caesaraugust.
A.n. 592, c. 1 ; of a widow or virgin, Poenit.
Theod. 2, 3, 7.
ORDINATION
II. Nature of Ordination.
It is evident, frcm the foregoing eniimerntion
cf facts, that most of the phrases which were
in use in the earlier period to denote appoint-
Bcnt to office in the church, were 8lso in use to
denote appointment to otlice, or promotion to
dignity, in the empire. It may reasonably be
interred that they had in the former case mean-
ings analogous to those which they had in the
latter; and since the evidence which exists in
regard to the former is abundant, whereas that
which eiists in regard to the latter is scanty,
the one may fairly be used to throw light upon
the other. In the absence of any convenient
manual to which reference could be made, it is
necessary to mention here the leading facts
which have been established in regard to it.
1. The most common mode of appointment to
office in the earlier empire, as under the republic
was that cf popular election. The form of such
sn election was preserved long after the sub-
stance had disappeared ; and it was preserved in
the provinces after it had practically ceased to
ejistat Home. In the case of two provincial
towns of Baetica, Salpensa and Malaca, bronze
tablets containing the original regulations for
election have been preserved. They are espe-
cially important in relation to the present sub-
ject, as shewing (1) the conditions which were
imposed as to the eligibility of candidates, (2)
the importance of the presiding officer. That
officer had the function of examining the can-
didates in set form, before votes were recorded :
he could refuse to take account of votes which"
were given for a candidate who did not satisf"
him: he couid, in default of other candidates,
himself nominate candidates, and declare them'
to be d'lly elected : and, as at Rome, the "lection
,.as only complete when he formally announced
it (renunciavit). Hence, an olHcer who was
r'ally elected by popular vote was technically
ssi 1 to be made (creatus) by the presiding officer.
(See on the whole subject, Mommsen, Die Stadt-
rtchte der litinischen Qcmeinlen Salpensa und
Mdact, Leipzig, 18.55, and also in the Ahhand-
Imim der KSni'j. Sachs. Oesellsch. dor Wissensch.
bd. 3 ; Marquardt, liSmische Staatsverwaltung',
M. 1, pp. 464-474, where relerences will be
fonnl to a large number of other authorities.)
2. Gradually free election by the people, sub-
icct only to the veto of the presiding officer in
the case of legal ineligibility on the part of a
oanJiJate, was superseded b'y election by the
senate, subject only to a formal approval on the
part of the peeple. This became the case at
Korae so early as the time of Tiberius (Tacit
Am. 1. 15) and by the 4th century had become
he prevailmg, though not the universal, rule
throughout the empire (Ulpian. l)i„. 4, 1 3 4-
Wrw... 11, ,30,53:12,6,20; dJ.j'us'.
l',."] I i ; ^^'i^' '""''« popular election
mvalid; but from Cod. Tlwod. 12, 5, 1 it mav
be gathered that popular election was still the
rule ,n Afnca, since the magistrates are cautioned
to procure the election of suitable persons: thi,s
^,,^. to be niferrcd from Kenier, inscriptions
iAiK'ne, no. 4070, where a municipal oilicer
-pecialy mentions his election by the Ordo, as
ourt ,t were exceptional). The continuance
I the formal appe.il to the peonle is shewn so
l«te « the end of tht 3rd centSry', in the account !
ORDINATION
1503
tuc}' '^'I'r 1J^' '"'"=''"■ '^"-•'"'» (^'"Pi"^-
JMK. I). oi course under the imperial
regime the part which the .enate played in the.
actual selection of candidates tenied to become-
no more free than the part of the people ;b^?
the important fact is that the form' of .lection
e -e 'aC rT"'"."' ""''' '""^ t""««. and that
e en after the disintegration cf the empire the
greater c.vil appointments were made, not
directly by con.stitutive nomination, but in-
directly through the form of " comUrfLi^"
cf the le ters of Theodoric to the senate, ap.
Cassiodor. lamr. e.g. lib. 5, Kpp. 22 41)
3. From the earliest times the chief offi'cers of
state bad possessed and exercised the riirht
which inust be carefully distingu.shed from\he
ight of comnie, ^tlo, of nominating certain of
their subordinat, . ithout the necessity of even
a formal submission of the names to either tha
senate or the peop'.e. The right had been
jealously guarded, and in some cases restricted,
but It had never passed away, and the emperors
were able to make, especially in t.ie provinces, a
large number of direct appointments without
violating any constitutional forms. ,t is re-
corded among the many virtues cf Alexander
Severus that he voluntarilv limited his own
privilege in this respect by consulting the people
efore making any important provincial appoint-
ment, hortans populum ut si quis quid haberet
cnminis probaret manifestis rebus ;" and it is
mteresting to note that, although himself a
heathen, he adduces as a reason for the course
which he pursued the example of appointmente
A ^^"^l'^'' -church (Lamprid. Alex. Sever.
n. 45. On the general question of appointment
by superior of hcers, see Mommsen, JiOmisches
g,,,,to-ecA<, bd. I. pp. 181-192, bd. ii. pp. 8<30-
The facts which exist in reference to early
ecclesiastical appointments corroborate in a
striking manner the general presumption that,
since the same words were used for them as for
civil appointments, the same modes of appoint-
ment prevailed. "
1. Of the existence of appointment by popular
election some proofs have been given elsewhere
Bishop, Vol. I. p. 213; KlJiio.v, p! 599 1
fhlVl' .'"'''« R"™a" m-Jnicipalities, so also in
the Christian churches, popni„r election, though
a condition of appointment, did not of itself con-
stitute appointment. Just as a civil appoint-
ment was not valid until the officer who
presided at the election had accepted and de-
clared It, so it was also in the c.su of ecclesi-
astical appointments. " The seven " were chosen
by the church, but they were appointed by the
apostles; the w;ord used of the former is
J'H^Zl"' l*""'.'"""' *«^'"^'^<r<'Mev (Acts
ft 3, 5). This distinction, w;;ich has been
often Ignored, is of great significance. Nor
IS It the only point of analogy between civil
and ecclesiastical elections. Just as, on the
one hand, popular elections were not con-
stitutive, so, on the other hand, they were
not absolutely free. Cheeks of two kinds
^''.".V''!t^^^, '=°"'''''°"' *^"« imposed on the
eligibility of candidates, and means wore taken
to ascertain that these conditions were com-
plied w,th ; (2) the approval of other pers«ns™r
bodies was required to make the election valid.
The operation of the former of these check.
-' UvW-
, i '
1504
ORDINATION
IH
Hii
H
B^n
1
^^H
Ml
resulteil in the grnduiil establishment of a com-
pliciiteil series of quiilificntions, nnil of ft system
of examination, with a view to test ((ualifica-
tions. [OiiDKRS, Hoi.y; iv. Quaii; tiuns fur:
EximiiHiti>n for.'] The operation of the second
check was shewn in the gradual narrowing of the
function of the laity from election to express o.
tacit approval. Just as in the empire, the senate
at Kome, or the curia in a municipality, came to
interfere in popular elections, and ultimately to
render them nugatory ; so piri pissu in the
church, appointment by el. -tion passeil into
appointment by co-optation, and ultimately into
appointment by nomination of either the bishop
or the civil power.
2. The second m^Je of appointment which
existed in the empire thus tended to become
the prevailing mode in the church. It had no
doubt existed in the earliest times, for Clement of
Rome speaks of the successors of the apostles as
having been appointed by other distinguished
men wi*h the consent of the whole church (u^'
iTfoau iWoyiiioii' avSpav avi>fvSoxir!(rd(Tris rris
iKKWiria'! xfllo-rjj, Epist. 1 ad Cor. c. 44) ; but
its employment seems to have been local and
limited. The function which Cyprian assigns to
the African and Spanish clergy in ecclesiastical
appointments, is that of consenting or giving
testimony, not that of nominating or appointing
(cf. espeiHUy Epist. 68, 3, i. p. li^'iB, which is
important because it expressly f.pplies to the
Appointment of deacons as well ai of bishops) ;
and it is clear from the ease of Cornelius that
this was the case also at Rome (id. Epist. 10,
i. p. 770). But in the 4th centur • it is clear from
the sy nodical letter of the council of Nicaea to the
church of Alexandria, that in that church the
right of the people to elect was limited by the
right of the clergy to propose names (irpox«ipj-
Ctn-tfoi f) iiro^dWdv oi/dfioTo). The council
punishes the Melitian clergy (who had sup-
ported Arius) by depriving them of th~t ^ht,
but allows them to succeed to the \.ic oies
caused by death among the orthodox clerg
provided that they are found worthy, that ttie
people elect them, and that the bishop of Alex-
andria votes for them and confirms the election
(Socrat. H. E. 1, 9 ; Sozom. //. £. 1, 24). It
was probablv this right of proposing names for
election which in the case of the clergy of the
Christian churches, as beyond question in the
case of the Roman municipalities, resulted in
the virtual election by the clergy, subject only
to approval, by acclamation or by silence, o". the
part of the people. The fourth canon of the
same council has sometimes been interpreted as
being a formal substitution of co-optation for
popular election in the case of bishops (cf. Hefele,
Councils, E. T. vol . i. p. 384 ; Van Espen, Jws Eccles.
p. 1 tit. 13, n. 10) ; and in the course of the next
quarter of a century the council of Uodicaea
(c. 13) expressly enacted that the elections of
those who are to be appointed to the priesthood
(by which Zonaras and Balsamon understand the
presbyterate, Aristenus the episcopate) are not
to be" entrusted to populai' assemblies (toT;
g^Xois)' At the beginning of the following
century, Theophilus of Alexandria gives the
election to the clergy (iiav ih Iffiarnov), the
approval of the candidates (5o/(i,u(£C«ii') and their
formal appointment (x»ipoToi'«T>') to the bishop.
The part of the people consists, as in later times,
ORDINATION
only in their bearing public testimony at tfie
time of appointment (S. Theophil. Al.>xi\nilr.
can. 0; Migne, P. 0. vol. Ixv. 41)). Ihe
existence of this mode of election at the tii;ie
probably somewhct later, when the eii;hth book
of the Apostolical Constitutions was written, is
clear from the mention of a prcsljyter us having
been advanced to his rank " by the vote ami
decision (i|"'i^v ""' xpian) of the whole clems"
(Ccjunt. Apost. viii. 15 ; cf. the expression in ths
same book, c. 4, " noniinated and appiovej,"
ovoitaaBivTot (col hpiaav. i).
3. The third mode of appointment which ex.
isted in the empire existed r.lso iu the churcli,
but to a more limited extent. Sonic oilictn
were appointed by the mere uomiimtion of a
superior officer. An archdeacon was iiiipoiuted by
bishop, a singer by a presbyter. liut ihe num.
ber of such officers was small; the original .le.
mocratical constitution of the clmrch shewed
itself in the jealous limitation of such appoint-
ments. In all but a few cases the nominationj
were in the form of a "commendatio;" they
were subject to the approval of either the clergy
or the people, or both. And just as under
t. ■ ■ e, this form of nomination was
freci .-ul!y in the form of a letter or a speech,
settitis forth the virtues of the person to
be appointed, so it was also in the church, .h
interesting example of such a speech is that
which Sidonius Apollinaris made at the olertion
of a bishop of Bourges, and which lie has himself
recorded. It concludes by giving the form of
nomination : " In nominf Patris et Kilii tt Spiii-
tus Sancti Simplicius est quem [jrovinciae nostrac
metropolitanum civitatis vcstraesumiinini sarer-
dotem fieri debere pronuntio," and liy asking ths
people to signify their assent. (Sidon. Apollin.
Epist. 7. 9, p. 190.)
As the organisation of the Roman empire
became gradually weaker, while that of the
church grew stronger and more centralized; as
the power and importance of the episcopate in-
creased and that of the presbyterate diminished;
and as, moreover, a new group of ideas chisteied
round the primitive conception of the clerical
office, the whole system of appointments toollii'e
underwent significant modificiitions. But in the
altered types which tended to jirevail in the
East and West respectively, the old elements
were still present, though in varying degrees,
and these elements have been so I'ar ignored and
overlaid in subsequent times, that it is important
to shew in detail the extent to which they once
existed.
i. There was always, in the case at least of
those which had been from the besrinning the
chief grades of ecclesiastical office, viz. those of
bishop, presbyter, deacon, and reader, either the
reality or the semblance of an election. To afe»
offices, e.g. those of archpresbyter, .irchdeacon,
acolyte, and doorkeeper, the bishop could probably
appoint propria motw. But in the other cases he
e officer of the oommimily.
■ i,f the returning officer »t
•■ : ' the empir?: He had
■in.'orthy candidates, in
.,' proposing Ciindidates,
and in all cases the right of rcnioictad'i or deciv
ration of election. But the church, i.e. either
the clergy and laity acting together, or the
clergy alone, or the laity alone has always exer-
was only the exec
He was in the no^
an ele.-tinn to < -
the right of reji
certain cases the r
ORDINATION
died on the one hanil the right of presenting
jmsons for Hp|ioinfnie;it, oo the other the riijht
of veto. Both tliese riijhts are survivals of the
older right of election by direct vote. That older
right was grnduallv limited ami nullified by the
operation of ii regulation which had been intro-
duced as a safeguaid. In the course of the 4th
century it had become the rule that ro ecclesias-
tical election was -.alid unless the bishop or
bishops had voted with the majority.* In the
election of a bishop the votes of at least three
neighbouring bishops were required ; in the
election of a preshyt.^.' the vote of the bishop of
the church in which the election took place was
sufficient. (That this is the true interpretation of
the iecond apostolical canon is admitted by both
Zonuras and Aristenus, who explain x^'poTouf'iv
by ^ri<l>i((ti'. Balsamon's view, which is based
OB the later practice, is contradicted not only by
historical facts, but by his own interpretation of
Cone. Liiod. c. i;!, which he makes to refer to
presbyters as well as to > ;3liops.) It is easy to
see how this regulation operated in course of
time to throw the election practically into the
hands of the bi.ihops ; the bishops came thus to
fulfil a double function, they both elected, sub-
ject, as will be shewn below, to testimony and
to ?eto, and admitted to office. But it is impor-
tant to note that between these two functions
there was a recognised diiference. In two of the
oldest Western ordinals the election, as repre-
sented by the summons to objectors to come
forward, and the " advocatio " or call to office,
take place on Wednesday and Friday, the impo-
sition of hands and the benediction take place on
the following Saturday. (Hittorp, Ord. Rom. i.
p. 88; Mabillon, Ord. Sam. ix. p. 90.) In later
ordinals the separate elements are combined in
a single service ; but even in them there is a
clear distinction between the declaration of elec-
tion ("eligimus" &c., see below) and the subse-
quent " benedictio " or " consecratio."
But since election, except in the case of bishops
(for which see BiSlioi', Vol. I. pp. 21,3, sqq.), be-
came in later times a mrre form, it will be ad-
visable here to shew briefly the extent to which it
Misted. For this purpose we shall take the
unimpeachable testimony of the ordinals of both
the Ea-tern and Western churches, in preference
to collecting historical examples, or citing more
or less rhetorical passages from ecclesiastical
writers.
(o) Election of Presbi/ters.—ln almost all
Western ordinals the bishop begins the oflice for
the ordination of presbyters by announcing the
fact of their election to the people : " By the
help of our Lord God, and our Saviour Jesus
Christ, we elect N. to the order of the presby-
terate. . . ." (Cod. Vat. ap. Murat. vol. iii.
p. 31 ; Pontif Ecgb. S. Dunst. Noviom. Caturic.
Suession. S. Elig. Becc. Corb. ,. ; Hittorp, Ord.
Ban. Vet. ii. p. 91 ; Catalani, Ord. ii.)' That
this formula was regaided, even until compara-
• The principle which this Involvi^s was known to the
dvll law, which may possibly Imvi- Iv.rrowed !t from the
Chrisiiau practice : Julian enact ■(! thai no one should
become a public teacher or a physician withoii* a "du-
wetum curiallum.oj/dmorum amspirantecontUio." Cod.
nwdoi. 13. 3. B = Cod. Justin. 10. 52. 7.
' For an accouni of the ordinals and other authorities
which are thus deslpiated here and throu»uom the
pnwnt article, see Ohdihai..
ORDINATION
1505
I tively recent times, as the declaration of an
actual election, is shewn by the fact, that when a
presbyter was appointed by the pope's mandate
it was omitted. [Cueretnoniale Aiiihrosianum,
published by order of S. Carl.i Borromeo, p. 69,
ed. Milan, 1619.) The lattn- Knglish ordinals
are more explicit than other Western ordinals
in recognising the two factors of the clecioral
body, " electi sunt a nobis et ricncis liuic sinctaa
seili famuimtibua" (Sarum, Kxeter, and Win-
chester ordinals in Maskell, Mon. Hit. vol. iii,
pp. 155, 100); and this explicit recognition is
preserved in the modern Roman pontifical, where
the bishop addresses the presbyters-elect as
" quos ad nostrum adjutorium fnitrnm no!<trurum
arbitrium oonsecrandos elegit " (I'ontrf. Kom. p.
1, tit. 12, § 5y. No doubt election became a
fiction ; how or when it began to become so is
uncertain. Historical references to it occasionally
appear in comparatively late writers, e.i/. Venan-
tins Fortunatus (?) in the Life of Medard of
Noyon (c. 3, Migne, P. L. vol. Ixxxviii. ji. 536)
says " presbyterii ofticiura electus excejiit, pro-
batus obtinuit," and it is clear that it was the
rule at the time when the Liber Diurnus was
compiled, inasmuch as that book contains a for-
mula for a papal precept requiring a bishop to
proceed to the ordination of a presbyter without
election ("sine suffragatione;" Lib. fJiurn. Jiom.
Pontif. c. 5, tit. 1, ed. Gamier, p. 91). In the
subse(|uent address to the peojile, asking for
their prayers the election is attributed to the
grace of God, the assumption being maile, .is e.ij.
in Acts i. 24, 26, that election is an indication
not so much of human choice as of the divine
will ; 80 Saciam. Leon. Pimtif. Ecgb.; Catalani,
Ord. i. In the later Eastern ordinals this is
almost the only trace of election which has sur-
vived ; e.g. in the Maronite ordinal, according to
Asseman and Renaudot, ap. Denzinger ii. ji. 151 ;
in the Nestorian, according to both Asseman and
Badger, ap. Denzinger, ii. p. 236, 267 ; in the
Coptic, according to Kircher and Vansleb (but
not according to Asseman) ap. Denzinger ii. p.
12. But that this is only part of the earlier
Eastern practice is shewn by the fact that the
eighth book of the Apostolical Constitutions (c.
15), which is peculiarly Eastern in its character,
speaks of a presbyteri in the formula for bis
ordination, as having been elected by the vote of
the whole clergy.
(6) Election of Deacons. In the earliest ordinal
of the Gregorian type, the Missale Francorum,
the deacons are expressly stated to be elected by
the clergy, and the asisent of the people is re-
quested. The election is claimed as a special
privilege of the " sacerdotes," " ut the bishop
desires to kno.v whether the peoy j judge the or-
dinand to be worthy : " et si vestra a-, m,! meam
concordat electio, testimonium quod ■ i''i voci-
bus adprobate." After the prayer whie;, .ullows,
the bishop adds "commune vo'tnm [the word in
its mediaeval sense is equivalent to the Greek
yiiri<pos, the English 'vote;' see Ducange, s.v.] com-
munis prosequatur oratio." In almo.st all the
later westorn ordinals, the bishop begins the othce
for the ordination of deacons with the same for-
muli , mutatis mutandis, as in the case of presby-
ters, declaring their election; noe.i/. Cod. V'at. ap.
Muratori, Pontif. S. Dunst. Noviom. Caturic
Suession. Becc. S. Elig. Hittorp Ord. Jiom. ii.p.91;
so also in tne modern Pontif. Rora. p. i. tit. ii. § 3,
'J
■ - li
1
*fi'i
i
i '
V,
rr
1506
OUDINATION
And nlthcjfih in that 'lucliiration of election the
co-oj)uratiou ot' the church is not expressly iner-
tioniiii, it is cltnrly iuiplioJ in the furmulii which
follow.^ it, as it follows Iho corresponding" 'laelara-
tion in the Missiile Francoruin, '■'■ cuinnv.'U! iotuin
communis oratio prosequatur " (so Cc. 1. MatT.,
Pont, livifh. S. Uunst. Xoviom. C'aturic. Miession.
Becc. Mogunt. Corb. i., Hittc.-.'p Ord. I'v/n. ii. ;
Catalani, Ord. ii. iii. and in tiie modern I'ontif.
Eoni. p. i. tit. ii. § 5).
(<•) Kkvtiun of SiMca:ons. It is not certain
whether during the first nine centuries sub-
deacons wero elected in the .same way a-^ pr<i.liy-
ters and deacons, or whether they were, a--
subordinate olPicers of the church, appointed ■ ;•
the bishop. The doubt is chiefly caused by tiie
variety of reading in the earliest Western ordinals
in the general formula of declar.ition of election
vhich has been already mentioned. Some of
1.|-itm insert the word "subdi^ onii," others
omit it. Thf; inn'r-it'ti of the word can be
easily acuoun'fti ;m, at the period to which
most of the oMr...'.i:. boloriv. by the struggle of
the subdiaconate ■. / ';; rank' I uinun? mnji' or-
ders; the omission is dillkul; to cx|dain if sub-
deaooiis, lilse deaooi;s n-oA jH-usliyters, had been
elected from the begi:'Q.-^. it luay be added
that the modeni liouian Purl.fical spe.'.its of them
in the Iita!>y which pi..'esuus this oidination as.
«'electoa" (p. i. tit. I'l, § 7).
(d) Eleciinn of ::cad<i!a. The most remarkable
e.tample of the conservat ion of the primitive prac-
tice of election is in the case ot readers. All the
ancient Western ordin;ils mention it, and almost
all refei- tiie election, not to the bishop, but to the
" fratres,'' i'.*;. probably to the body of the clergy,
" eligunt te fr:itres tui ut sis lector in domo Uei
tui," so Misc. Francorum, Sacram. Gelas. c. 96,
Cod. Vat. ap. Jiurat. Cod. Maff. Pontif. Ecjb. S.
Dunst. Noviom. Caturic. Bisunt. Becc. 11 n at. ;
English ordinals ap. Maskell ; Catalani, C »J, i.
(corrupted to " diligunt " in id. Ord. ii. iii.)
Hittorp Ord. Rom. ii. p. 89 (.so also the Cambray
Pontifical and one Noyon Pontifical) has " eleg-
erunt," which is important as making it clear
that the bishop's office was rather ministerial
than co-operative.
ii. There was always the tcstitiumy of the
church to the fitness of the candidate. It was
necessary to have, not merely " suftiagia," but
•' testimonia." This had been insisted upon from
the earliest times. The pastoral Epistles require
a bishop to have " a good report of them which
are witliout " (1 Tim. iii. 7 ; see S. Chrysost. ad
loc.) Cyprian speaks of Cornelius as having been
made bishop " de clericorum paenc omnium tes-
timonio," as well as " de plebe quae tunc adfuit
sulfragio" (S. Cypr. Epist. 10. i. p. 770); and
he apologises for having ordained Aurelius as a
reader in his retirement on the ground of excep-
tional merit, " exspectanda non sunt testimonia
huniana cum praecedunt divina sulFragia " (id.
Epist. nX ii. p. S20). The eighth book of the
Apostolical Cunstitutiona enacts, that after a per-
son has been elected bisho^ - \d presented for
ordin.ition, and formally idi ' : d as being the
person elected, the further .. - n must be put
" whether he is attested t ■ a ^ 'jeing worthy "
(Cons-. Apost. 8, 4). So also Leo the Great lays
down the rule, "exspectarenturcerte votacivium,
testiniinia populorum ; qtiaereretur hor.oratorum
arbitriuia, electio clericorum " (S. Leon. Magu.
ORDINATION
Ep!st. 10. a J Epis\ per pron. Vienn. i. p. 037^
cf. i''id. p. (>'i9). And it was one of thi- r-.i.ci,,,.,.
tions against Chrysostom at the syni- i '.', the ()sr,
that he had ordaineil persons ' '^ithiiiit tcjti-
mony " (oyuopTi'/pois Phot. /j'i';'. cud. .'ii. p. 17),
The Statuta Ecclesiae Antiqua, ■. 22. )i ji.ire the
"civium conniventiaettestimoi'inm.' a id .J Cone.
Brae. A.D. 572, c. 3, requires " •.lultorum tc-ti-
moniuni."
The ordinals conti.iued the i'i.;i!lis'e roquirf.
ment, and through i.hem it has descenied to
modern times. It is nlmost al .i^-s twofold,
being a ri-quireinent of the separate testimony
of the clsigy and of the peopn- ; and since eiich of
these reij uvenents had its own forn), it v.ill be
conveniei.r tc describe thetn separatily
(a) Testimu'ii/ of the Ci'-.i7. — The Grec;
ordinal is ajiirent); the only .ine which has
J reserved the primitive custom of askiiis: foy
the viva ro-c testimow of tiic -.?sem.' led cicrgv,
The Western ordir i j v. I'l- fram?' ' in ttitir
present form after Un an.hleacon h\' Ijeconie
the officer who stood ut thv iiead uf tin; clergy
and next to the bishop. Consequently the voit*
of the clergy is expressed through the arch-
deacon. When he comes forward in the name
of the church (" postulat aancta mater ecclesia
Catholica ut hunc praesenlnn [subdiaconum] ad
onus [diaconii] ordinetis"), the bishop asks
" scisne ilium dignura esse ^ " to which the arch-
deacon replies, "quantu.n humana fiajjilitas
nosse sinit, et scio et testui.or ipsum dignum
esse ad hujus onus officii." liiis is the formula
(1) in the case of presbyters ..id deacons (Cod,
MalT. ap. Murat. vol. iii. p. 6'2 ; Pontif S. Dunst.
Corb. i. Mogunt. ; English ordin ils ap. Alasliell;
Catalani, Ord. ii. iii. and in the inodern Roman
1 ontifical, p. 1. tit. 12, § A): but in Hittorp
Ord. Rom. ii. p. 93, the enquiry is made of the
presbyters who present the candidate. (2) In
the case of subdeacons the corresjionding formula
does not appear in the existing ordinals (unless
it be implied in the general formula which is
given in Hittorp Ord. Horn. ii. p. 88), and its
disappearance tends to confirm the doubt which
has been expressed above, whethei' subdeacons
were elected by the church and not rather
appointed by the bishop. (3) In the case of
readers and other minor orders, llittorp's
Ordo Somanus, ii. p. 88, preserves a formula
which resembles that of the modern English
ordinal : the bishop says, " vide ut natura,
scientia, et moribua tales per te introducantur,
immo per nos tales in domo Domini orJinentur
personae per quas diabolus pellatur et derus
Domino nostro multiplicetur."
In later times the testimony of the clergy,signi-
fied through the archdeacon, had to be sup]ile-
mented by the testimony of the parish priest and
the schoolmaster of the candidate. The former was
sufficient as long as the person to be appointed
were members of the churcl-
the ordination took place,
under the eye of the archde •
But after the area of
extended, and yc w"'
of parisli priests (2 '
the testimony of i.; ;».'
haps originally in u s
addition to, that of h- ;
regulation required 'v '
master of the school : ■. .
I'^e city in which
' been trained
he diaconium,
-ses had become
rusted to the care
lis. A.n. 52fi, c. i),
'.as required, per-
of, but afterwards in
ideacon. A still later
h'l' testimony of the
J ' . ' candidate hti
ORDINATION
betn edncated. (Both these requirements are
retained in the modem Komnn I'nntifioal, p. 1,
tit. 2, § 4, following Cone. Trident. Sess. xxiii'
c5.)
(b) 'lestimonn of the Zaity.—rhe Western ordi-
unb agree in requiring the testimony of the laity
1 1 ihi'titnessof anyone who is appointed presbvter
,,.-,!.MCon. The primitive rule seems to have been
•1 ."oriault the laity three days before the
•tv.'W'nlmcnt was consummated by admission to
ji^cs; 80 Mabillon, Ordo ix. ap. Mus. Ital. vol.
!i. ;.. 90; Hittorp, Ord. Rom. i. p. 88. But the
later, and perhaps also occasionally the earlier,
practice was to require the testimony to be
given at the time of admission. The testimony
w»; sometimes positive and sometimes negative.
hi thi earliest of the later ordinals, the Missale
FrMicoi-vin (so Hittorp Ord. Horn, ii.) the bishop
char<,'(S the people not to be silent, but to say
cpetdy what they think about the actions,
oharactor, and merits of those who are to be
.•fdained presbyters, and requires them " elec-
tionem vostram publica voce profiteri." (It is
remarkable that the same formula, with but
ORDINATION
1507
slight changes of phrase, is preserved in the
modern Roman pontifical, p. 1, tit. 12, § 4.) Nor
does he proceed with the ordination until the
testimony has been given : (it may be inferred
from the analogous form at the ordination of
bishops that the answer was e.\pressed by
"Dignus"). but the majority of ordinals
require only negative testimony : they prescrib;
that an appeal shall be made to the people at
the time of the declaration of election, and in
continuation of the formula " By the help of our
Lord God. . . ." (see above, under " Election of
Presbyters.") " If anyone has anything against
these men, let him in God's name, and for God's
sake, come forth with boldness and say it." This
is the prescribed form in the case of presbyters
and deacons, in Cod. Vat. ap. Murat. ; Pontif.
Ecgb. St. Dunst. Noviom. Caturic. Suession!
Becc. Mogunt. ; Catalani, Ord. ii. iii., English
orlinals ap. Maskell. In the case of readers,
whnse office, as being in primitive times the first
step above the laity, had to be guarded with
special care, the ordinals enact that the bishop
is to address the people, " setting forth their
faith and life ;" so Sacram. Gelas., Cod. Vat. ap
Murat., Cud. Half., Pontif. Ecgb. Rem. Rodrad.,
Catalani, Ord. ii.
In later times it became a nile of the Western
church that this testimony of the people should
be asked for, not only at the time, anil in
the church of ordination, but also in the
church in which the ordained resided, and that
the parish priest should testify to having so
aske 1 for it. But the rule was not embodied in
a canon earlier than the council of Trent, sess.
2.3, c. 5, and the fourth (provincial) council of
tlilan under St. Carlo Borromeo.
iii. There was also a declaration of appoint-
ment, corresponding to the civil renunciatio.
In the Western church this was almost the onlv
relic of the primitive election, and the form o"f
dalaration has been given above as an indica-
tion of the existence of election. But all the
f:astern churches agree in giving considerable
prominence to this element in ordination. 1
They all have a formula corresponding to the
IT"^ f°™»'». " liy tl'e help of our Lord
>«w . ■ . but different in its form, inasmuch
CHRIST. ANT.— VOL. II.
as what in the one is regarded as the act of the
church, IS m the other regarded as the act of
aivine grace : r> e.ia x^pij r, ni.roTt tA i,r(».,,«
O€pajr,i,ouo-a Kal tA iKK^l^royra i.awKr,poVaa irpt,.
X"pKfra, ThvSuva rhv 0fo0,A,VTuTo;. [Sii7o.
I'OI'jf.i np„T0vr,poy. The primitive character of
„nL T f " ^'".'"^ ^i' '*" '"''"« <■'"""". with
unimportant variations, not only in all M.SS. of
the Greek ordinals, but also in all Oriental
ordinals, for both presbyters and deacons. 2 411
except the Greek ordinals have a much m"ore
elaborate formula, by whi.:h not only the appoint-
ment but also the admission of the newlv
ordained person is said to be comi.lete. The
Coptic formula in the ordination of a presbyter
may be taken as typical. The bishop says.
We call thee into the holy church of God-"
the archdeacon thereupon makes proclamation,
N. presbyter at the holy altar of the holy
catholic and apostolic church of God of the
Christian city M. ;" the bishop confirms the
archdeacons words: "We call thee, N., pres-
Iffb v)l "'■'"•^^'fi'' holy altar, in the name
of the I-ather and of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghost. • This is, with unimportant varia-
tions, the formula for both presbyters and
deacons, among Copts, Jacobites, Maronites, and
Nestorians, (for the rituals in detail, see Denzin-
ger vo 11. pp. 9 ,3, 67, 71, 73, 8.), 91, 127,
^•i2). It is remarkable that the Greek ordinals
preser^-e no trace of it ; but it is important to
note, that a trace of it e.xist3 in Hittorp, Ord.
fom.t., Mabillon, Ord. Horn, ix., where, aft*r
describing the consultation of the laity three
days before final admission to office, it is
said that the ordinands are called up, from the
lower level of the laity to the raised floor of the
sanctuary (" advocantur sursum et statuuntur
in sinistra parte altaris, usque dnm pontifei
missam compleat "). r ^
What, if any thing, besides this public declara-
tion ot appointment, was necessary in the
earliest period to constitute the person appointed
a church ofhcer, is not always clear. Under the
civil regime, which was reflected in so many
ways upon the ecclesiastical organization, renw,.
CK,tm was followed, either iramediatelv or after a
defined interval by performance of the duties of
the office. A Roman consul desiqn Uus dressed
hiraselt in his official dress, went in state to the
Upitol took his seat on the curule chair, and
held a formal meeting of the senate; by doing
this he became consul de facto ; the whole pro-
cess was a usurp„tio juris ; the ceremonies and
forms with which it was accompanied were no
more of the essence of the process than were its
accompanying festivities of the essence of a
Roman consensual marriage (Mommsen, I/omi-
sc/^, Stmtsrecht, Bd. i. p. 50H). In a similar wav I
in the early church the declaration of ai.point-
ment to otfice was followed by the public per-
formance of the duties of that oflic Even to
the present day, in the chief Westen. ituals the
newly-ordamed deacon performs the deacon's
function of reading the Gospel ; in the lioman
ritual the presbyter not only takes his place in
the presbytery, but is" concelebrant" with the
bishop, ,.e., he is associated with him in the
celebration of the eucharist : in the Greek ritual
the reader performs his prop^- function of
reading, and the subdeacon, who in early times
was a kind of under-servant, washes the bishop'i
96
im
■ 'Mi
fit'-'
> 'h
'd¥f*-^
1608
ORDINATION
'11
hands. Uut between the rtrnwici itio ami this j
first |Hil)lio peiformiime ot' iluties, oertiiin cere- I
mollies eame to intervene. To these ceremonies
the cimonists ami tlieoloninns of the miilille iiges
Sttnihed i;rei»t ini|iortiince, an'l the cnnoiiists luul
theolnniiins ol' hiter tiiiua have tor the most part
assume I them to he essential. Hut in the perioil
with whiih the iiresent \vorl< mainly ileals, they
held a very dithnent place I'roiu that which has
since been assigned to them.
III. I'ites of Onliruition.
The ceremonies which were interjiosed between
appointment to otiice and the usurputlo juris, or
public entrance upon otiice, were mainly of two
kill Is— (ii) praver, accompanied in most cases by
imposition of hands; (6), the foi-maldelivery of
the insignia and instrunn^nts of otiice. (n) It
was both natural and tilting that any appoint-
ment should be accompanied by prayer, and
prayer accordingly is found to accomimny almost
all appointments from the earliest beginning of
ecclesiastical records. The signiticance of the rite
is clearly expressed by St. Augustine: "quid
aliud est mauuum impositio <iuam oratio super
hominem " (ifc ba/it. r. Duiuit. A, lli) ; and oven
( the ultra-mysticism of Iiionysius Areopagita
1 finds no otlier meaning in it than that of fatherly
I ghidtering and subjection to God (Dc Ecdca.
I Ilier. 5, 3, X). But there had been from the;
first a connexion between the imposition of
hands and the xop'^MHTo, or "spiritual gifts;"
and under the influence of the sacerdotal ideas
of the 4th century this connexion became so
strong that liasil, speaking of some schismatics,
says ; itapk riiv iraTtpaiv iax^v rit x«'f "Toi/foj
Kol Sitk T^i iiriBfaias riuv xeipw" a"T«»' (Ixov
rh xiptaiia rh irvfvuartKSv (S. Ba.sil, A'pist. <iJ
Amphiloch. 188 (canonica i.) vol. iv. p. 270).
1 This led to a restriction of the rite of imposition
(of hands to the higher orders of clergy. It
ceased to be part of the ceremony of admitting
deaconesses (hence the great variety of interpre-
tations of Cone. Nicaen. c. 19; cf. Van Kspen and
Hefcle, (id I'jc), or subdeacons (except among the
Armenians), or readers (except among the
Nestorians). And at last, in tlic I2th cen-
tury, the theory of the connexion of the rite
ilwitb the gift of the Holy Ghost was so firmly
' impressed upon Western Christendom, that some
ordinals jiut into the bishop's mouth at the time
I of imposition the words which have been retained
ilinthe English ordinal, " Receive the Holy Ghost ;"
(see below in the account of the ritual of the
''ordination of a presbyter ; for a long series of
patristic references see Morin, pars iii. p. 141).
(6) The history of the rites of delivering to
tlie persons ordained the insignia and instru-
ments of their office is less char, but thei' origin
is obvious. 1. The ceremony of admission to
office was followed by the performance of the
duties of the otiice. It was natural that the
presiding officer should formally deliver to the
newly ordained person the I.\srRUMt;NrA[p. 862]
of such a performance. A reader had to read : the
book was delivered to him, and he read. A sub-
deseon hsd to wssh the bishop's hands: a pitcher
and towel were delivered to him. A deacon had,
in southern countries, to drive away insects from
the oblations upon the altar : a fan was delivered
to him. fFLAHi;Ll,rM.] The delivery r( the
1 euijhAristic vessels to a presbyter is probaoly of
ORDINATION
late date ; it li not found in the oldest Western
ordinals (see below, (h-iliiiatinii •f /'cs'nyf, rj,
§ 1-); and it was probably limitud in the tiiHtt
instance to the cases in which a pri'sbytcr win
ordained, not to pr.'sliyterial rank in the cathe-
dral, but to take cliarge of an outlying ilmivh;
it was thus part of the ceremonies not so ihikH ,
of ordination as of institution or induct ion. Hut
it must be noted, that almost all writers on the
8nl>iect call attention to the much sinalhr utrcss
which was laid upon these rites in the KasI thiin
in the West. In the latter the <ipinioii ciinu- to
prevail in the schools, that the pliysiial contact
of the instruments by the ordinan 1 was (,r iha
essence of the sacrament (S. Thoni. Ai). ^'i/miiui,
pars iii. qu. 114, art. 5) ; whereas in the ."ormer
(i() the instruments were delivered iil'ter the
ordination was finished, (')) no fornmla nf
delivery was prescribed (see Catahini, ri.( /'imd/.
limn. p. i. tit. 5, § !i ; Morin, rfi' Nucc. (/,((in,
pars iii. e.icrc. ii.). 2. The delivery of vest.
ments is sometimes traced back hislcjrically to
the time of Gregory Nazianzen, who says thnt
when ordaine<l bishop he was vested by his
orlainers in a long tunic or alb (ihv iia'hr.fi\)
and a mitre (tV (c'Sap'"! S. (!reg. Naziniu.
Ornt. X. in scipsum, vol. i. p. 241). I'.ut the
extreme scantiness of subsecjuent allusions to
such a rite, and the absence of any mention of it,
not only in the Apostolical Constitiitidns, but
also in Dionysius Areopagita, tend to shew thnt,
even if it existed, little stress was laid upon it,
Its significance was originally the same as thm
of the vesting of one who was newly baptized.
Nor was it theonly point of close analogy between
the ceremonies of baptism and those of onliiis.
tion. The vesting in vestments, which becnme
so important a part of the ordination ceremony
ill both East and West, and of whirh the iletnili
will be found below, is apparently of much Intel
origin. The first certain mention of it is in 4
Cone. Tolet. A.n. 63:5, c. 2H, and it is nbscnt
from several of the most ancient Western
ordinals. It grew up with the growth of n dis-
tinction between clerical and lay d ess ; its use
can be traced in several instances o the influ-
ence of the regular upon the secular clergy ; and
its significance was determined by the niystiml
ideas which gradually attached themselves to
the vestments which were worn at the celebrn-
tion of the eucharist.
We now proceed to give an outline of the
ritual which was observed in both the election
on appointment and the admission of the several
orders below the order of bishoi) [for which see
vol. i. p. 22 1]. It has been necessary to njipend in
the case of the Western rituals, the precise evi-
dence which exists for the antiquity of the several
rites : for in no department of (Christian snti-
quities has there been a stronger tendency to
assume that rites which prevailed in the 13th
century prevailed also in the 8th, and that rites
which prevailed in the 8th century are part of
primitive Christianity. In the case of the
Eastern rituals, references only are given to the
authorities in which they will bo found, because
i» the present state of knowledse on the s''>icct
it is impossible to determine with even . . -xi-
mate accuracy which of the several rites ar*
ancient, and which are of later giowth.
1. ( I8TIAR1U8. Western Rites — (Statt. Eccl.
Ant. c. 9 ; Sacram. Gelas. i. 95 , Amalariui, A
ORDWATIOK
M Off. lib. I. 7 I nil W,.«t(.in „i-.|innl, of the
Or«K"i'lnn typo i but imt Mabill,.ii, 'n/. viii, ix.)
ThB iimjnrity of (ir-linnU diri'ct th/it the cim.li-
ilttcihiill Ihi iritniitcl by {lie «iilhleni;,.n in hia
Jutii') (»" SiKTiuii, Cii'lin.,"hiif ii„t Aiii;lii-.\„nimn
urliimln, cxci'iit tho Hoiicn I'tuitiHciil, n„r
('iiliiliiiil, Ord. I,, nor the Ciimbnii ami Mninz
I'liiililiciijii). At till. itni{t:"sti„M (if the nrch-
i|c«i'oii(n(it inentiumMl in •'ataliini, (>r(/. i.) the
Ijjilinp ii t" Kivi! t(i the ciimli.liite the Jievs of the
ihurrli (.Smriiin. (Jelin., V>«\. Vnt. ny. Ahirat.,
riiiitif Ki'i^b. H. Duniit. Ni.vli.ni. ('ntiirio. Sin's-
ii.>ii,ltiHiiiit. licMi. «.lil" fi-cni thu altiir ") saylni;
"*! lilt nit oni) who ig to j;ivi. ncroiint to God'
fur till' thin({» which nre o|n!nc.| liv theae Iteva."
The li'iiiiin (I'ontif. Curb. licm. IIm'^II,,,,!. IJisunt.,
St, iW^. lliicc), or the orch.ii'iiciMi (Coil. Mart'!,'
I'imtil', Yxth. 8, Dunat. l.isuut., Kn^lish onlinala
III, Mimki'll) ilelivora to him the ibior of the
ihiirrli(llMai» not mentiouoil by .Sacram. Golna.,
linr la CihI. Vat. ap. Mnrat.; but tho Soissona
rmitiliriil, the ('ml. Hadboil., ami a Tours I'onti-
lial mi'nliiineil by Martene, vol, ii, p. 18, not only
inoiitiiin it, but ailil a formula, apparently bor-
rowi'il friiin the deacription of the olfiee of the
i)il,iuiiJi in laid, lliajj. rf,. i,Vt/_ ()if_ ,;_ j^
llmliHn, Maur. de fustlt. Clci-i,: i. l'_>, to" the
rfiiit that the power ia themby delivered of
iilmittinK the good and rejecting the bail). A
pl'iiiiii and form of benediction usually follow
wilhiiiit imv rubrio aa to the point of the service
Hi whiih thiiy are to be used. In Cod. lindbod.
ihi'V m placed before the delivery of the keys
whirh in probably their in'ojier place. Some of
the liitiir onlinala, iv/, those of Mainz and Cam-
Imii (mil! nlao the I'ontif Koman ) add, that after
tiiiichinif tho koya tho oHtiariua is to go and ring
tW Ml, When bidls came into general use in
ciiirehi!!, It naturally became the duty of the
oitiarlui to attend to them, for the preface
whifh |iriibably belongs to an earlier time, im-
|ili(« that it w«i hia duty to mark the " distinc-
l^'iii'm iiTtarum horarum, ad invocamlum
niiiiiiiii iJiimlni," i'. e. th. canonical hours of
prAvtr,
i. liKADKR. I. Weitern Rites (Statt. Eccl
Antii], c, 8 J .Sacram. Oelns. i. 96. Isid. Hispnl"
A AW, Off. il. ) 1 ; Hrab. Maur. * In tit. Cleric.
I. 11 1 ami all ordinala of the Gregorian type )
rill' lii»linp It to make an address to the people
•-■tlin,( forth the faith, and life, and ability of the
|««iii iirilaincd ; ho ig then to deliver him the
«l< out of which he will have to read (so CikI
^«l. up, Murnt,, Codd. MaflT. liem. Itodrad. et al •"
"'"'limn aplcimi divinorum ; " Isid. Hisp.'
Alimi, Haec. Hrab. Maur.: "codicem Esaiae
inhi'tne;" Cod. Rntold. : " lectionnrium : "
l">it. Miigutit, Lngliah ordinals : " lectionarium
jiMliirtmrum;" Cod. Colbert. = Martene, hrd
«i..,.aying, "Take, and be a reader of the
\..r, ofOod.deatined, ifthou fulfil thine office
l»ithlully and usefully, to have part with those
»h" have mlnUtor^d tho Word of God " (so all
'"'I,, omitted III ilisanle Franc, onl , ). The
>;<tiop thuM makeg the declaration ..!' -otion
(;'|.ronuntlatio," Cod. Maa;, " elect',. ■ ..■n,m "
■;'". "'rant.): "Jliy brethren t .ct thee'"
III •,"','*'•« ^""'''■- f'^mfwo. Xoviom.,
i f ^:"r'.' "",' ""'«"'^^ thy office and |
m! V '?"' " "'''"'"i^'ivothee nbnnbnt'
«w« (M almoit all Codd., omitted in Pontif.
ORDINATION
1509
Rndlml Suession Salisb., H„ng„r., Sarum.).
Ihen tollowH in all ordinals a praver for God'i
blessing on the newly-onlained rca.ler
II. /-■««<,.,„ /,',(,..^._i. ,,■,,,,,,„ Thi.,\p„,ti,lic«l
oust, utions (V,.,, c. 21) direct that a reader
shall be ordained (i,poxfi(,iaai) by imposition
ol hnn, la, with a prayer that God will give him
he H.dy Spirit, the Spirit of I'mphi'v. Tho
Intur Greek rituals will be found i„ the Ku-
ehologium ed. Goar, p. -y.a, ed. Daniel, v,d .v
p. j47 ; Codd. Uessar. liarber. Paris. Vat, Allat
ed, Morin, p. 71 sip,., ed. J. A. Asseman, vol. xi.
p. 120 8ip|. ; Sym. Thessal. Je iMr. Dniin. c 1,58
ip. Migne, P. G. vol. civ. p. ;)«l).
2. The Coptic are found in the Apostolical
Constitutions in Coptic, ed. Tattam c. ;i5 ;
Morin p 505 ; Mai, Script. Vet. vol. v. pars ii.
p. m ; Denzinger, vol. ii. p. 2) ; tlie ,l„mlH:e
ID Greg, liarhebracus, Numucim. viii. 8; lien-
'""^•'■' 7"'- ."■ V- 'i^ ; the Mnrmitc in Morin,
p..i«»; .1. A. Asaeman, vol. ix, p. 20; DenzinuiT.
vol. 11. p. 115; the Xcstorlan in Morin, p. 442-
J. S. Aaseman, vol. iii. pars ii. p. 79.1 ; J A
Aaacman, vol. xiii. p. 1 ; Denzinger, vol. ii. p 2>7
with a collation of the rituals given by Hadger,'
8. kmm. I. Western /'i<«s.-(Statt. Eccl.
Ant. c. 10; Cod. Maffi, Pontif Ecgb. S. l)un.<t
Uturic. Rotom.; Catalani, Ord. ii.; Hittorp. (ml.
/p.; Isid Hisp. de Keel. Of. 2, 12; Hraban.
Maur. de Inst. Cler. 1, 11 ; but omitted from
many ordinals.) "A psalmist-/. ,■. a singer-
niter having been instructed by the archdeacon,
can undertake the office of singing without the
cognizance of the bishop, at the sole bidding of
a presbyter, the presbyter saying to him, 'See
that what thou singest with thy mouth thou
be levcst with thine heart, and that what thou
behevest m thine heart thou approvest in deed '"
(In addition to this form, the pontificals "of
Ecgbertand St. Dunstan insert the words "sive
psalmistarum " in the preface to the benediction
ot a reader, from which it may, perhaps, be in-
lerred that when a singer was ordained bv a
bishop, the same form was used as for a reader
as was the caje in the Greek church )
II. Eastern Rites.— \. Greek. (In most MSS.
of the later Greek ordinals there is no distinction
between the ordin.^ition of a singer and that of
a reader ; but there is a separate ritual in Cod.
rr'J^^S'^^'^ i^ '""""'^ '" Vnnsleb, Hist, de
I Anlise d Alexandric, p. 4, sect. 2, c. 7, Denzinger,
vol. .1. p 03 : not in Kircher, Morin, or Asaeman :
the Jacvlnte in Kenaudot, ap. Denzinger, vol. ii.
bb, not in Morin ; the Maronitem Morin. p :;84 •
'?;i^"nT"' J"'' '='• f- 231 ; Denzinger, vol. ii!
p. im The ^estorUlns have no special ritual
tor the ordination of a singer.
4. Exorcist. Western Rites.— (Sim. Eccl
Antiq. c. 7 ; Sacram. Gelas. i. c. i)t>, and all
"I ,lL°^ ^^^ Gregorian type ; Isid. Hisp. de
hcd. Off. 2, 1,S ; Hraban. Maur. de Inst. Cler. T
10; Amalarius, de Keel. Off. 1, 9.) Some
ord 1 nan d>e"t th"t thr h^chi^r -m-
mitre on his head, shall declare the duties of an
exorcist (so Cod. MafV. ; Pontif. Mogunt. Winton
Sarum. txon.). All ordinals direct that the
person ordained shall receive from the bishop
a book of exorcisms, the bishop s.iying, " T-,ke
and commit to memory, and have power of
5 £ 2
!fi ^.
1510
ORDINATION
iiupusition of haniU upon ono po««««ieil, whether
Ciltechumen or Imptizml." A i viifnce nmi prnver
for (jiicl's blessing on the cxdii mt follow. (The
iSoissons pontin'nl mnkiiB tliii \)ri- ■ > ■'""^'
of tho liook, which is probab'} u'V ',\.\t ovh ,
6. AcoLYTK. W'catci-n / '. ' .Sifntt. : ' > iiti<|.
0. 6 ; Sacrum. Oi'las. i. ' .v>, ii" ' •'■' ■ .n, mIb of
the lirokcoiiiiu type; Mabuion, On/. Jioin. viil.
in .Uns. Ual. vol. il. p. t'.% ivpriutea in MiKm-,
P. L. vol. Ixiviii. p. '''.•!>.) The nmient ritual
whioh i> i;iven by Miibillon directs only (1) that
the cliTk shall ill' v t,- 1 in a chasuble and stole;
(J) that the bishop sliall (lut a bag over the
chasuble (i'. c. a bag for receiving and carrying
the inuliiiribtic otiiirings); (I!) and that the
bishop shall pray, " Uv the intercession of tlie
blenscd, and glorious, and ever-virgin Mary, and
the blessed apostle I'eter, may (ii'd save, and
guard, and protect thee. Amen.' The ritual
of nl' ilier ordinals is as fidlows : — 1. The
bishop, i.ltiing mitred in his chair, is to mention
the dut Cj of an acolyte (so Cod. Malf., I'cnt.
Mogiint., and English ordinals ap. Maskell, except
Poit. I'.an^or. ;'but the majority of ordinals
m- 1 1 direct that the bishop (or archd-'acon,
il. siii. Kranc.) shall previously instruit the
person ordained in his duties. 2. The arch-
deacn j^Sacram. (Jelas., Statt. Eccl. Ant., Cod.
Vat. ap. Murat., Missale Kranc, I'ontif. Ecgb. 8.
Duust. Corb. i. I'.o.irad. Kotom. liem. ; see aisp
Amalarius, de Eccl. Ojf. '-', 10) or the bishop (Coil.
Mad'., Cod. Turon. ap. Marteue, vol. ii. p. 19,
Pontif Bisunt. Cniuerac, Mogunt., English ovdi-
naU np. Maskell, Catalani, Ord. i.) is to delner
to him a csmllestick and cimdle. Some ordinals
gii-e no form of words (so Sacram. Gelas., Cod.
V.it. ap. Murat., >':isale Kranc, Pontif. Rotoni.
Rem. Kodrad. Kcgb. S. Dunst.). Others give the
form, "Take the caudb'itick and cai\llo, and
know that thou art charged with lighting the
liglits of the church " (so Cod. Malf., Pont. Hisunt.
Moguut., English ordinals ip. Maskell). Others
give the form, " Take this bearer (gestatorii. n)
of light that by it ye may i, ive power *n chase
away the darkness of the adversaries, and faith-
fully to find the true light which lighteth every
mail that cometh into t! world" (S' Pontif.
Corb. i. Ratold. Suession.). '■ furth. irection
is sometimes given that the ■ Liiop is to say the
words, the archdeacon to deliver the candlestick
(so Pontif. Salisb. Cam.rac). 3. The acolyte is
then to receive an empty pitcher i'r- i the bishop
(so Pontif. Bisunt. Caraer... Mogunt. Exon.
Winton.), or from the archdeacon f "ontif. Sarura. :
other ordinals do not say from whom — e. g. Cod.
Vat. ap. Murat., Cod. Mart'., I'ontif. Ecgb. S. Dunst.
Noviom. Becc, Catal. Ord. i.) with the words,
" Receive this pitcher to pour out wine at th ■
Eucharist of the Blood of Christ " (so Sacr
Gelas., Cod. Vat. ap. Murat., Missal. Franc, IV.-
Ecgb. Corb i. Rem. S. Dunst. Ratold. Novi(
":i:id wair" is added in Cod. Malf., Pi r
Salisb. Engliahordinalsap. Mask., and sometii.n s
in the following prayer, though not in this ad-
dress, e. g. Catalan!, Ord. i.). 4. A preface
follows in many ordinals (not in Cod. Vat. np.
Murat., nor in lontif. Ecgb. S. Dunst. Ratold.
Koviom. Salisb. Bisunt.), and a prayer fjr bless-
ing in all (except Sacram. Gelas.) ; but the forms
of prayer vary, some ordinals giving one prayer
(so Missale Franc), some two (so e. g. Pontif.
Ecgb. S. Dunst. Ratold. Noviom.), some three
ORDINATION
(so «. ;/. Cod. Malf., Pontif. Mogunt., and Engliih
ordinals ap. Mask.1
0. SuiiDK.vcDN ', WMcm Rites. — Statt. Kaj,
Antiii. c 5; Sacram. Gelas. i c, tif'., uni) jlj
ordinals of tlie (Iregoriiiu tyjio ; Isidor. lli-|i.
de l)ii\ Off. '-', 1(1; Amalarius, 1, 11; Hrjb!
Maur. 1,8; Mabillon, Ordo limn. viii. in .l/uj,
ltd. vol. ii. p. H."), re|)rinted in Migiio, I'. |,.
vol. Ixxviii. p. lOiil). The ancient rilunl ^dvon
by Miiliillon <lirects that the person t(i he
ordained shall bo brougiit forward (iipp. iciiilv
vested in a ch.isuble) and that he sirill swtir
on the H(dy Gosjjcls that ho is md guilty ot'nnv
of the four 'lasses <d' carnal lins (i.e. soduniv,
■ ' . iganiy, sin w th a i-oiisi'i^raltij
viigin); w.'ien he has .' me so tie ■ircliiK';n'i>n cr
the bishop shall i;'*'e him the holy cup, an I siiy
over him the saim' prayer «.s over aniicolyte (.«!
above). The ritual of the later ordiuals is as
follows: 1. Tlio bishop, sitting mitred in hi.t
chair, declares the duties of subileiicona ((JoJ.
Malf. and English ordinals ap. Maskell, eicept
Pontif. Winlou., which directs that the camli-
date shall |)i'eviously have 'oeen instructed in hii
duties by the bishop; not iu the majority of
ordinals). 2. The bishop shall deliver te the
person to be ordained an empty |)aten anu
chalice. 3. The archdeacon .h.ill deliver to hini
an empty (Pontif. Sarura .says "full") pitihcr,
a basin, and a towel. 4. The bishop shall say,
" See of what the ministry is delivered to
tl "e ; if hitherto thou hast been tai-dy at c urch,
h- iiceforth thou mu-st be busy ; if hitherto
sleepy, henceforth thou must be •" , fnl; if
hitherto drunken, hcncef irth thou niualue sober;
if hitherto immodest, henceforth thou must b«
chaste. . . ." (This address is not found la
Sacram. Gelas., Cod. Vat. np. Murat.; in Cat.i-
lani Ord. i. it is in later writing; it is plai-l
before the delivery of the chalice and pulcu m
Missal. Franc, Pontif. Rodrad. Rem. Senon.
Ratold. Ecgb. Novi in. ; it is placed nfUr the
delivery, but without any express rubric (r to
the point at which it shovld be spoken, in tod.
Mull'., Pontif. S Klig. Rotoni. S. Dunst. Ha.lW.
S sb. Bisunt. Becc. Camerac ; it is expressly
I ed after the delivery in Pontif. Megunt.)
Then follow" a preface and prayer nf bene-
diction (so all ordinals, except Pontif. Riul-
bod., which places these before the delivery of
the paten and chalice). Three other rites art
sometimes found ; (a) the bishop gives the suh-
de.->..'ou a maniple; ^ i^'od. Matf., which gives the
formula of delivery, "Take the maniple, by
which is designated the fruit of p-ood wor': ;" so.
with a i'lTerent formula, Puiitit'. Sue»>.un. ; so
als ■ iiiiout a formula, Pont. Eegl,. and the
liitei liiiglish ordinals, but not the ini' meJiate
Engli ordinals, viz. the Rouen, St. Ituustan's,
an' Winchester Pontificiii-: (b) the bishr;'
ve^ he subdencon in a tui.u: 'Pontif, Cimer
M. -t. ; Catalan! Ord. u. ; English orJiii.
ap. Ma-kell, except the Wiu'hester PontiHu'ii;
in the Exeter Pontifical only • subdeacon who
is to read the epistle is vested in .i tunic; (c)
the bishop delivers to the subde-icon 'he book of
the Epistles ; the earliest mentiol of mis is in an
Aries Pontifioai of the l.Sth c.-^nt-ry (Marteni
de Anti'i. Keel. Sit. vol. ii. p. 20), nor is it fouod
in any of ;he sacramentaries orordinals to which
reference has been made in this article.
II. Eastern Rites —1. Qreek. The Apostulied
OHDINATIOV
Cmit-Mioni (via. c. 20),lirH,;t tluif in oivlrtinloff
t ,ub.li'm:on th« l.l»l,„|. shiill l,-,v hb h,in.l.H up,m
bim, m.,1 pray that Ou.l will g,ve hi,,, ^,.y„,„
worthily to haii,!!,. thi, ..ii,li,iri,fic v-wis. Tlie
diredi.ms ol tlid later (limk rituals uru fo l.«
fouml ill the Kiicholoi^iiiini (,.i|. Ociir p 24+
«l Daiiu'l vol iv ,,. 5,„, CM. IJe,Ha!
I n-r. PaiiH. Vat. All it. e,|. M„riu, ,,. 71 „,,„
,), A. Assemao, vol. xi. ,,. |1h m,,, . Sy.n
Tlic.-i.al. Jd Siici: Oiiiin. c. 1(J2, ai>. MiKni), P q'
vul. i;lv. p. '11)7). o I • •
2 The Cojjtio in Morin, p. ,^0,-,, J. A. A».Heman
ip, .Mai, vol V. par.s ij. ,,. l'IOj IVn/intrfr, vol. ii,
p. I; the J.iciAite 111 (iiej;. Ilarhi'l)iM,.iis, vii 8
up. Mai, vol. x. pais ii. ,,. .v.- ; l)ei,/,in,i;..r, vol' ,
ii, pp. «7, 7il; the ilumnite in Morin, p H9J • '
J. A. Assuman, vol. ix. p. .it ; iJeuzinKcr, vol. iil
p, 1J!| the NeKtiiriin in .Morin, p. 444- J S
Ausin.ii, vol. iii. pais ii. p. «(ii ; J. a. Amnion'
vol. nil. p. 9 ; Donzinger, vol.il. n,,. o,_.y 20t
T. 1)i;a<.h).n. I. We,tcni JiUe.H-(&icnu!. Leon
eil. Jliiratoii, /,iY. AW. Vet. vol. i. p. G8(! ivl
lliilliTin. p. Ill; Saoiain. fln.jror., Co 1,1. Vat i
Whiibon. ap. Miiratori, vol. ii. p. luiiii- th^.J
two sncramentiirics contain pn.faue ami pravera
only, wlthoi' rubrical direotions, nii.l l.oth nL'rec. •
Sacrain, (iel.i, . 1. e. 20, 22, has ,1 short ritual
>nJ piayiT., wMch I'oiTesponil w,th tho.,. of the
other two sncrainentaries ; Saerain. Oelas 1 c
,,i, has a short canon, = Statt. Eccl. Ant. c.'.S-
the t'ui; ritual is fouml in the other ordinals of the
Orecorian tyi)e,e.<j. Co,l. U,,,. ed. Morin, (& tiacr
OrJ. pi- ii. p. 2<J')| Col. Vat. ii. cd. Murat'
vol, ill. 1 ! ; Cod. Mair. ihid. p. 5.-5 1 .md in the
eJitiona oi Munanl, p. 2:i,'-., lienedict. p. 223 =
JligDc, R 1. ixxvii.. p. 221 ; another ritual
13 given in Man, Mn.-i. It,,!, vol. ii. p 85)
1. The oM,:3t iiuial i.s probally th.it which oc-
curs ns n prelnniu . ' rubric in Sacram. Oolas i
c. 20, Missale Kv „ Cod. MalK, Pontif. Eceb'
S.Uunst. Rod, .., O.talani nnl. ii. Hitlori..'
Oni. I.; It 18 III entire ban ■■
customs, and tlie ceremom
follow it must he regardei
ol'it. (This is rendered almost, ^,„
of the rubric in tho Kouen I'outiii.il ) The
hhhop declares the election in the form given
below; then follows a litMuy; when- it is con-
c u-lej.all rise from their knees, and the persons
elected go up to the bishop's .hair; the bishm.
givesablessinj:upon th,-iro(Hce; thov then c!.
down, aud staud in the proper plaa; .,f their
ordBr("hac,3c. Iitania,e.xpletnascenduntii., sedem
pontiheis et benedicit eos ad quod vocati sunt et
descenJunt et stant in or.line suo ") After
waH.s the newly ordained d- a- -us are to civo
henole,-ing8(sc. ofbread an I wine) into the
taiJ ot the bishop, and to receive them back
r m hira consecrated. (This important relic of
te pnraitiyo communion i.^ ij-ivon in Pomif. S.
Dunst., Cod. Mall., and Catalani Onl. ii. in the
case of deacons; .see below for ,ts place in the
oHination of presbyters.) ii. A probably less
ancient tual i, that of Mabillon's 0,1 viii
T;ie suWeacon wlio is to be promoted to the
laconate stands, vested in a chasuble, a white
tame, sc. dalmatic, md holdine a stoU ;„ 1,:.: I
:;";'; "^' '"« '*'''1» of the altar; after the '
pstle « h.sti,'. fromlTim.'iii.8)a„ i
egradii., he is divested of the chasuble, and '
e biBhop having said a pretV, e. a litanv is sai 1
»llben:,p,-o.trat,.. After th. litany the biX^
ORDfN.VTlOV
li511
ly with primitive
' 1 prayers which
iter expansions
rtain liv the form
Ki»»'9 the bishop and priestH, and veitel in hit
, ; -'Iniatic stand, at the bishop's right haM
j ".he lat,.r ordinals, with tho eiception o
ftUoM., combine in one service the dc, laration of
election and the admission to o.bce, bu t ,h„
a ne tun. preserve a clear distiiict'ionbetwee^^^
thill, (a.) ;te-/„,-//w« of /:/cct,.n.~H.ytt,xl
dinal, p,-eserve the form of presentation by «
archdeacon: "(Jur holy mother the Cathol ,-
church demands that thou shouldest ordaU h '
present aubdeacon to the burden of the di,
'■"nate;" the bishop a.sK"l.ost thou know Im
to be worthy ■ the ar.hdca.on rejdi.-s, ■• A, f,^
«« human liailty allows, I both know aid teat ly
then the bishop .says, " Uy the help of our Loi'd
Ood and our .Saviour Jesus Christ we elect tl i,
person to the order of the diaconate." This a
Katold, and in the modern I'oi.tif. Kom. ; I'ontif
Va . ap urat. K.-gb. Xoviom. Cntu . Hecc;
IWrad. Kutom. Kern. Senon. omit the form
presentation but give that of election;
the Main, and ater KuK'lish pontificals (excep
loiitit. Ungor) give this form at the beginning
of the ritua of a general ordination, and^app r?
ferent. Ihe Winchester Pontilical introduces
an address to the ordinauds betwcn the presenta-
tion and the election, (b.) MUi...,„n <oV"._
(The onler of the several ceremonies ia „,Tt cer-
tain ; that of Cod. .Mali:, hi.d, is almost identical
w. h that of the n,oden. I'ontif. I;,.,,., w,"l be
followed here.) 1. The bishop, stai. Iing,'addreses
the people, "Let the common vote be followed
by a common prayer . . . ;" this allresa is said
Pet«v Uotom. liem. Hntidd. .S. Dunst. Xovioui
liecc. to be "ad .onsummandum diaconum" (or
"diaconatus oili.um"); it is more common y
placed, but with, It any rubrical dire, tions, after
he prayer -d benediction; but the Cambral
lontUical «„! the modern Koman PontiH,"
agree with the Cod. Mali'.; the Main. P„„t„ !l
places ,t alter the first imposition of hands; the
later i.ughsh pontilicals, except Pontif. Wilton
omi It. 2. The preface follows, ,-... a "wt
bidding; prayer "which ia nearly the same i„
all ordinals, but which in Sacram. Leon. G.
Codd. Vat. et al., ia broken up into a preface ai»i
diS"" f, ?'" '''"""" ''" P^^y"'- "( bene-
diction. 'Adesto quaesumus omnipoteng Ileus
honorum dator, or-linum distributor, oIKciorumI
que dispositor . . . super hos famuios tuos quae-
sumus, Domine, placatua iuten.le ; quos tuis
smris aervituros in oincium diaconii suppH.iter
de,licamus . . . em.tte in eos, quiesumus!
Uomine, Spiritum Sanctum quo in opus mil „
te^ , (ideliter exequendi uiunere septiformis ti, ,0
gratiae roborentur . . ." This prayer ia Ibund
wi h slight variations in S«, ..-.m. Leon. Geka
and all Cod, . of Sacram. G.-e«..r, inclu.ling Cod,
Othobon, Vmdob. and in all th,. ordinals. 4
Ihebisl p lays hia hand upon the deacon's head.
^" ■ . '- " ■■'~~t' does I.,, a alone, no mention being
' c priests in Missale Francorum, Pontif.
' b 1 i„ Kat,dd. Ecgb. S. Dunst. Radbod.
S .sburg, llisunt. (^) The bi.shop alone laya his
;,',', hTK.'t"™" J ^'^^' ''"* '^^ "'her priests
touch the bishop's hand, or touch the deacon's
.1'!
nlKV
("'
i
1«12
OUDINATION
huml ntnt the bithop't hnml. in »«frnin. ndftt. 1.
c. Its, I'oiitiC. licitdin. ('«tur. Ik-cc. NnvKim. i.
ii.j tf. iilio Amnliiriiu 2, IJ, iJunuilun, 7i'.i(i()ii/i/. i
2, 9, 14. (>) The l)i«hin( liiy« M/i hnnls on
the (loMiin'i! hfii.l in Oul. Miill'., I'until' r.('«l).
S. Dmitt. iNdvi.i.ii. MiiK"'>t. (S) The i«.iiit . if the :
iorvice lit whiih thin iit to he 'loiip in not K|w(itieil
ill Siiiinm. (iehm., Missnle Kiiim'.. I'lmtit'. liotoni.
liiiii. ItiitoM. Cntiir. Siiliifliin Itisuiit. Met'.'.
Riilbo.l. N(ivii>m. i. ii. (•) It i ■.>•» phue nt the
ntteriiiice of the w<iril» "cniitte in eos ..." in
the pniver of liiMie.liotion, in C'oil. Mnir. (f ) It
ti\keit |jl.ii I' before the prefnce, lunl the bi)ihii|i in
l»ylnj{ on liia Imnls snys, "Spirits Sanctua
suiwiveniet in te et virtus Altinsiiiii sine neccuto
luatoilint te in nomine Doniliie," in ('oi\. Mogunt.
only ; or hemivs "Aitiipe Spiritiini Siinctiini," in
fhu later Kiisiish onlinals up. Maakill (but not
the Winchester I'ontilical) nn.l Borne Inter French
onlinals up. Mnrtene, ii. p. 'Jl, no authority beini;
earlier tliim the liith centiiry. (i?) It takes place
after the vesting in the stole ami before the pre-
face, in Pontif. Kcgb. S. Ounst. ■'■ The bishop
vests the deacon with a stole upon his left
shouhler ; this ceremony is, however, not men-
tioned, either expressly or by implication, in the
niajoritv of early ordinals, viz. in Sac'ram. Oelas.,
MissaleKranc.Cod. Vat. np. .Miiriit., I'ontif. Hem.
KoJrad. Senon. Noviom. i. Uailbod. ; its place in
the ritual is (o) aometimes at the beginning,
I'l.iitif. tcgb. S. Diinst. ; (3) sometimes after
the bene diction, Pontif. Kotom. Caturic. liecc.
Noviom. ii. Wogiint. Knglish ordinals np. Mask.;
(>■) sometimes not specified, Pontif. Corb. Katold.
iJisiint. The fornuilne with which it was accom-
p.uile 1 varv : (a) " Heceive a white stole from
the hand of the Lord ..." (.'odd. Mall'., Pont.
M.igunt. (as an alternative form) ; (3) " Keceive
the vokc of the Lord, for His yoke is easy and
His "burden light," Cod. Suession. ; (7) " Uy
this sign we humbly impose on thee the office of
a deacon, that thou mnyest be a support ol the
divine table, as it were a pillar of its ccdiimns,
nnl that thou mayest serve blamelessly as a
herald of the Heavenly King," Pontif. Corb.
Katold. Bisunt. Winton. ; (S) "Keoeivethe stole,
fulfil thy ministry, for GoJ is able to give thee
nn Increase of grace," Pontif. Salisburg. C'nmerac.
Noviom. ii. Mogunt. ; in Knglish ordinals ap.
Mftskell, " In the name of the Holy Trinity
reix'ive the stole of immortality, fulfil," &c. ; (t)
a much longer form is given in Pontif. S. Dunst.
Cntur. Becc. and Winton, " In the name of the
Holy Trinity and One God, receive the stole
which the Lord has prepared for thy receiving
through the service of our humility and through
our hands, by which thou mayest know that the
burden of the Lord God is laid on thy shoulders,
an 1 that thou art bound to humility and to the
n Iministration of the church, and by which thy
brethren may learn that thou hast been ordained
a minister of God . . . ;" (C) no form is given
in Pontif. Ecgb. 6. The bishop delivers a book
of the Gospels to the deacon, with the words
" Pieceive the power of reading the Gospel in the
church of God, as well for the living as for the
dead " (Cod. Mart"., Pontif. Radbod. Suession. Becc.
Catalan! OrJ. ii., later English ordinals .-ip.
Mask.), or with the words " Receive this volume
of the Gospels, and read and understand, and
deliver to others, and do thou fulKl it in deed "
(Pontif. Ecgb. S. Dunst. Becc.) This ceremony
OIUJINATION
Id not found in Sncrain. UeUi. or in any up th«
early or liimU except that of Kcgbert. Mimm*,
vol.'ii. p. '.'I, naMt tliHt It was fur a lon^ tiin«
peculiar to the Knjjlinh church. 7. The liijiuip
veits the deacon in a dnlinatic, iayiii^, "'IV
Lord clothe thee with u vestment of »alviitM.u,iiiiJ
wrap thue in a cannent of gladness, thiiiii,(|)
.lesua Christ our L.ird," Cod. Mall' , I'uiil/f ^i«ll,l^.
Saruin. Bangor. This (ereinony is not timiil in
any early ordinal ; the Bi'«ftni,on l'iint;iin|
limits its use to those who i(u>iie to bo iniiuiiej
from moiinsteriei. ; nml Martene, vol. ii. |,. i^,
says that it was not used 111 the case of in.iihin
until aliout the IJth century. The llain;iiriuij
Exeter I'ontiiicals limit its use to the ilfiunn
who was about to rend the Gospel, s. Th«
bisho)! kisses the new deacon. Cod. .Mull'., I'lutif.
Salisburg. Bisunt. 9. The hands of the il™ nn
are anointed with the hcdy oil and chrisin, iinj
with n benediction ; this rite is only luuii I in
Knglish or Norman ordinals, viz., Pontil'. l.iijb,
S. Dunst. I!ec( . Rotoni., but not in tlje inter
Knglish ordinals, ed. Maskell. 10. Thi' newly
ordained deacon, or if there be more than ime,
either (me apjiointed by the bishop (Knijlisli
ordinals), or the last ordained (Pontif Mu^iuit.)
reads the Gosiiel : this custom is not niuntiniieil
by any ordinals except those just specilie I, but Iti
early existence is not only in acconlaute with
the analogy of other ordination rituiils, liut ii
also imlicatud l<y iti mention in Miibillun's
Ordo ix.
II. Eastern Rites. — 1. Qnek. The Apo-
stolical Constitutions (viii. c. IB) direct tliat
in ordaining a deacon the bishop shall lay his
hands upon him in the presence of thi' > mle
preshytcrv and the deacons, and shall pray thit
God will lift uj) the light of His counleniiuie
ui)on His servant who is ordaineil (irpoxdfiifii-
jitvov) to the diaconate, nnd grant that nilDhipr-
ing acceptably in his ollice he may be (itemed
worthy of a higher degree. Another rltu:il is
given in S. Dionys. Areop. do Eccl. Ilierard. 5,
2, p. 236. The later rituals are to be liiunl in
the Kuchologium, ed. Gear, p. 249, ed. Dauiel,
vid. iv. p. 5.')2 ; Codd. Bessar. Barber. Paris. Vat.
Allat. ed. Morin, p. 08 sqq., ed. J. A. A.ssinian,
vol. xi. pp. Ill sqq. ; Sym. Thessal. c/f S^vr,
Ordin. c. 109, ap. Migne, P. G. vol. civ. pp. oTl
sqq.
• 2. The Coptw. forms are found in Morin, p. .iOB;
.1. A. Asseman, ap. Mai, vol. v. pars ii. p. '.'12 ;
Denzinger, vol. ii. p. 7 ; the Jiwvbite in Morin,
p. 479, Gregory Bnrhebr. ap. Mai, vol. x. pars II.
p. 48; Denzinger, vol. ii. p. 82; the Miiruiiitca
Morin, p. 390; .1. A. Asseman, vol. ix. p. 54 j
Renaudot ap. Denzinger, vol. ii. p. 128; the
Xestorian in Morin, p. 44.') ; J. S. Asseman, vol.
ill. pars ii. p. 8t10 ; J. A. Asseman, vol. liii.
p. 12 ; Denzinger, vol. ii. p. 229 ; Badger, vol. II.
p. ,T25.
8. Pbksbytkr. I. Western Rites.— {Sncrm.
Leon. ed. Muratori, Lit. Horn. Vet. vol. 1. p. 687,
ed. Ballerln. p. 113, and Sacram. Gregor. CoiU
Vat. i. Othobon. ap. Muiatori, vol. ii. p. 1064,
contain prayers only, without a ritual ; Sacram.
Gelas. i. c. 20 contains a short ritual and
pravcrs, id. c. 9.') a canon ^ -Ststt- K.rcl. Xnl
c. 3; the fi 1! ritual is found in all other
ordinals of tl iregorian type, e.g. Ood. Vat.
ap. Murat. vol iii. p. 30, Cod. Rem, ap. Morin,
p. 290, and in the editions of Menard, p. 23",
OnDIVATION
B«B«l.et. p. 224 = MiKn.,, 1', L. vul. Uiviil. p.
3:!4| other ritiml. „f,. ^n-wi iii Muliill,,,,. .\|,„
"*'•;"'•"• ,«•,,,«'*- »'»-■ '<'tt"'-|'. Onl. A,,,,.,
pp. ««, U.I.) 1. Iho eiirliMt ritual which hiii
bwn pri!«.n(.a nthiit whj.h, (W iiieiitjc,ii..,| «h.)ve
iu th" «L.<)uiit ..(' the or.|]imti.)ii ul' n deiiccm \»
jivcn Hn H pn'limiimrv rubric in thir MId'aIh
Jruiicoruin, SHcnuu (JcIm., im,! other e«rlv
orduml.H. The (irliimn.U iiro prcni'iittxl to the
bi.hu|Mvho, ,ilter nneiviu^ the teitimony of th«
pr«««iiter, .l.!,l»rv» the ele.tion in the form
liven below, " Uy the help of „„r L„r.| (Jo,l"
Ac. A litaiiy is then aiiid ; when it ia liniihed
«h rue, ail I the (.ersons elected g„ up to the
ouli.|i's ehair; the bishop ^ives n blc»siii({ upon
their .,ihce ; they then i;o down nod stand in the
proper place id their order. The ^uHpel is then
real, mil afterwards the newly-ordainei* |ire»-
byters ij.ve their olll.rin«.s (hc. of bread and wine)
into the hand of the bi»hop, and receive them
b»./i lioni hiin consecrated. (This last impor-
tant rite IS found in I'ontif. ('„rb. .Suession
Uiiieiac, Cod. Mali:, Catalani, Urd. ,,. ; „ee below,
i lb.) II. Mabillon's U,clo Hoimnui viii. gives
tlie 1..;! wiii^ directions : "The archdeacon hold-
ing him leads him to the steps of the altar
divests hiin of the dalmatic, and so vests him in
1 chasuble, and leads him again to the bishop
Aii.1 th.Te, .saying over him another prayer he
conseciiites him jiresbyter, giving a kiss to 'the
buhop or to the other priests, and stands in the
rsuls ul presbyters, and Altduia is said, or
the tract and gospel." lii. The majority of
orfiiiials combine in one service, as in the case
of (leacon.s, the declaration of election nn.l the
sJmission to ollice.
a J)d.,raU,m „f Election! 1. Two deacons
eonJuct the ordinand, vested as a deacon, to the
presbyters; then two presbyters receive and con-
lii'tnnn to the bishop's chair ((.'od. Matf., I'ontif
Sslisb Oimerac; but instead of presentation!
the .M;iiiiz I'onti/icals reijuire the ordiuands to
be suininoued, '' Let those who arc to be ordained
presbyters to the title of St. \. come forward •"
the Uesanon I'ontilical a.lds the name of the
priest who witnesses to and presents him)
J\i 'I''!'.',"" (*^''"'^' ^'»"') or the archdeacon
(Pontif. S. Llig. Uatold. .S. Dunst. Suession. Sal is-
burg.Noviom. Mo-unt.) or the priest who presents
(OoJ. Uisunt.) addresses the bishop, "Our holy
mother, the catholic church, demands that thou
shoulcUt ordain this present deacon to the
burJen of the presbyterate." The bishop asks,
Uost thou know him to be worthy ' " The
presenter replie,, "As far as human frailty
allows,! both know and testify that he is worthy
of the burden of this ollice" (I'ontif. Mogunt.
S. Dunst. S. Llig. Catalani, Ord. ii. iii. ; Hittorp,
fM\'t''i' ■ \^^''»'>^- ''Pixt. 146 (85); but
Cod. Mad. uses the plural, -lilis attestantibus ").
A. ihe bishop then a.ldresses the people, ami
uks their testimony. Sacram. Oelas., Pontif.
fiodrad. Uotom. Senon. Kcgb. Caturic. simply say
"data omtione ;" but I'ontif. Kem. Noviom. Vat
ap. Murat. add the form of address, which con-
cuJes by asking the peo,de openly to give
eMi, ,T"^' ^"'^^'" cleetionem vestram
debris PMhhc, VO.C pr.-.fiter, ••). Appar.ativ
m the place of this address to the people, the
M burg, Soissons, Carabrai, and Maini ponti-
hc^have a public examination of theordinan I :
JA«t thou wish to, receive the degree of the
OIIDIXATIOV
1813
presbyterat* In the „„,n. of the Lord? Do.»
m,L . ' "'. '". '" '^"" "" "•''•-•. "■"' humn
Oost thou wish to bo obediwit to thv bisi:,^ to
whose diocese thou art to be ordained, ii, all
•latiitei/ (Col. Mall, is singular in havim? nn
.nention of either the address' or thi tZn"
4. The bishop then makes the dedamtion
ofeI,vt,on:.Mtythehel,,ofourLord( n^^^^
our hayiour Jesu. Christ we elect this ,,..,»on o
the m-der of the |,resbvterate. If any ,L ha^
nnvthing against him, in (iod's beha ''f:
o -..akele himcomol„ddlyf„,.thanl,,ay t
di?i;n'"''rrh '■•'"•.''''.'''"' ';'■ """""I •"■•-- ™"-
dition. (Ihe retention of this form "si qui."
. . . after the re.juest for .lirect testimony, i,
probably a n.|.c of the earlier practice, which 1
fmrnd ,n Mabillon, On/„ ix., wliere th • fo m i,
appended, not to the de.laration of election, bu!
vot^e" u'rn '''"'; r'"'*'^'= "'-'^' ""' common
vote be followed ly a common prayer"
whereupon a litany is said (so Cod. Mart) " * '
B. I he bishop lays his hand (both hands, I'ontif
Mogunt ) upon the head of the ordinand „i"l al
the presbyters who are present place the r hand
near the hands of the bishop (so'all Codd ex p
Joit /;".%r"fl'"'; ^•"^•'' ™P'i^»that they
that tr^ \u'^"y^\ ("> ^"""^ ordinals direct
ht while this ,s being done the prayer,
lollowing shall bo said (Cod. Mart'.). (/,) Vhe
» y ""ThrH';""c^T'*^ fh«t the blho/shal
»fty, 'The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee and
may the powero the Highest keep 'thee without
1 iri-ct ^hJl '"",^"K''»h ordinals «p. Maskell
; irea that the bishop shall say noth ng. Ul) A
M " :"^1'^""*'«"'' "l uncertain^late. .i.^itJiy
Morin Ob ^.u:r. Ordin. pars ii. p. 340 (cf tl
E '"• ^^^f} '">'' *'"'' '" «ome%hurches the
bishop sa.,1, " Heceive the Holy Ghost ; whose!
pever sii^ ye remit," &c. This is add d In the
txeter Uangor, and S„rum pontificals as a
separate rite immediately before the ,.ost-com
munion. It is found also in Catalani "r™
where ,t is ,daced after the delivery of the
mten and chaiice, and where the woris a e in
the plural. It is found also in the same place
Cod M,^\'''''-"'u ''■'"''• '" ">" ""rgro' the
Cod. Mart,, where the words are first given in the
».ngular, and then in the plural (",,1, ,1," ,•,'
facto a'i ultimum dicat in genekli', Acciple '•
Th. 1 S ',"?*'"" "^ ^^'^ rite is found n
the earlier English ordinals, or in any "l „a"
earlier than the l-th century, or in aify the
great lifirgioal writers of the middle aee
Hu.f orst"v-'r" i'''""'^ '^" -^f ^hanre ,'0;
Hug,, of St. v-ictor. Nor was there anv can. ni-
ireiit. 7. The prayers which follow are alike
with only verbal yariations, in all or,nnals
taries). 8. The bishop then says the prefa.'e for
"consummatio nreshweri "\ «[„> ' ""(.or
common prayer; brethren, 'that these Vho "are
elected lor the help and advantage of yow
.alvation may receive the benediction of ^Z
olTow?"t- VV'V''''^ P'"^" of benedict on
follows, Sanctifacationum omnium Auctor oajus
1514
ORDiyATION
ii
veri\ consecrntio, cujus plena benedictio est : tu,
Domine, super hos fnmiiliis tuos quos ^resbyterii
honore deilicamus manum tuae beneilictionis in-
fuiide . . ." (Sacrnm. Gelas., Cod. Vat. ap. Murat.,
Ponrif. Kcgb. Hem. Novioin. S. Duust. Catur.
Rotom. ICatold. VViiiton. Mogunt ; the benediction
is found without the preface in Cod. Matf. and
in the Bcsan.on, Sarum, and Exeter Pontificals.)
Both forms are platod (1) as here, immediately
after the prayer of consecration, in the earliest
ordinals, i.e. Missale Franc, Cod. Vat. ap. JIurat.,
Pontif. Ecgb. Kem. Noviom. ; (2) after the vesting
in the chasuble and before the anointing of the
hauls, Pontif. Camerac. Noviom. ii. Jlogunt. ; and
without the preface, Cod. Maff. ; (3) after both
the vesting and the nnointin?, ioutif. S. Uunst.
Catur. liecc. Some ordinals omit the mention of
either form, so Pontif. S. Elig. Radbod. liodrad.
Thuan. and .ri; cram. Leon.
y. T e L!;;!iop tlien turns the stole, which
has hitherto been worn over th« left shoulder
only, over the right shoi'.lder, saying, " Receive
the yoke of the Lcid, for His yoke is easy,
and His burden light" (Pontif. Maff. Salisb.
Camerac. Mogv.ut , English ordinr-ls ap. Mask.) ;
in Pontif. Ecf'j. this rite takes place apparently
at the begiu'.ing of the ritual, or as in Pontif. S.
Dunst. Cat'.r'c. Rotom. before the prayer of con-
secration. The formula in Pontif Ecgb. S. Dunst.
is, " The Lord put the stole of justice round thy
neck, and the Lord keep thy mind from all taint
of siu." In MabiUon, Vrd. ix., after the benedic-
tion, the archdeacon takes the stoles from the
tomb of St. Peter, where they had been placed the
day before, and vests the new presbyters in them.
Many of the earliest ordinals omit the mention
of this rite ; sc. Sacram. Gelas., Missale Franc,
Codd. Vat. ap. Murat. S. Elig. Rodrad. Rem. ;
Maskell, Miii. Kit. vol. iii. p. 208, thinks that it
was a remnant of the primitive use of the British
church, and that it was thence introduced into
France and other countries.
10. The bishop then vests the presbyter in the
chasuble ; this rite is omitted in Sacram. Gelas.,
Mi.isale Franc, Pontif. Rndrad. Radbod., but
the mention of it in both Mabillon's ancient
ordinals {Oni. viii. ix.) as well as in the ordinals
mentioned below, leaves little doubt as to its
anti(iuity. Some ordinals, as has been just men-
tioned, place it before the " consummatio presby-
teri ; ' and its place in relation to the anointing
of the hands also varies, most ordinals placing it
in the order which is followed here ; but Pontif.
S. Dunst. Rotom. Caturic. l3ecc. place it before
the anointinp. The formulae with which the rite
was accompanied vary; o. Pontif. Bisunt. "The
Lord clothe thee with the garment of innocency;"
b. Pontif Suess. Salisb. Mogunt. Sarum. "Receive
the pri(.'8tly vestment by which is betokened
charity ; God is alle '.o give thee an increase of
grace ;" c. Cod. Maff., Pontif. Exo.i., combine the
two preceding formulae, Pontif. Camerac. gives
them as alternatives; d. Cod. Vat. ap. Murat.,
Pontif S. Elig. Rem. Rotom. S. Dunst. Noviom.
Becc. Thuan. "The benediction of God, the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Ghost, descend upon thee,
and mayest thou be blessed in the order of the
priesthood, and mayest thou offer nleasingvictims
to Almighty Goa for the sins an l ollonces of the
people." (This form of benedii ion is elsewhere
placed at to end of the rituai, .-^fore the kiss of
peace ; so i-.'ou. Maff., Pontif. Can. ic. Suess.
ORDINATION
Salisburg. Winton. ; its use at this point sf rveg to
shew that at one time the vesting in the chasuble
was the last of the rites of (jrdination.)
11. The bishop then anoints the presbvter's
hands with the chrism, or oil and chrism, ur oil
of the catechumens, with a prayer that " wliat-
soever they blessed might be blessed, wliatsuev-r
they sanctified might remain sandified." («.) '
This rite is found in almost all ordinals ; hut nnt
in Sacram. Lenn.or inCodd. Vat.Othob.nf Sacran
Gregor. or in Pontif. Rodrad ; it is meiitionfij l,v
two French liturgical writers of the 'Jth cen'.
tury, Amalarius of Metz, t8.'i7, de Keel. Oji: 2, 13
and Theodulphus of Orleans 1821, C'ljrit. ad
Prcsb. i., Migne, P. L. vol. cv. p. 19:1 ; tho curliest
canonist who speaks of it is Burchard of Worms
(tl025), Deeret. xx. e. 55, Migne, P. L. vol. csl.
p. G29, but the rc'Ognised body of caiiun lajy
distinctly disallows it, quoting a response ot'iiope
Nicholas L to the archbishop of Pwurges in ■?H
who says that it is not a custom of the Uoman
church and that he has never heard of its being
practised in the Christian church (Gratian, Deeret.
23, c. 12, Migne, P. L. vol. dxxxvii. p. 1;!4, Ivo.
Carnot. Decret. 6. 121); this must be h'^ld
conclusive, at any rate as to its not being a ge-
neral practice in the 9th century ; but afterwards
it no doubt became general, for Innocent HI. in-
sists upon it, and objects to the Greeks for their
omission of it (Innocent III. Epist. lib. 7. 121 ;
Migne, P. L. vol. ccv. 407). It is important to
note that even the Pseudo-Isidorian authorities for
the rite {Epist. Anacleti, o. 18, aj). Hinsthius
Decretales Pseudo-fsidorianne, p. 75 ; Ei^ist. Cle-
ment, iii. c. 58, ibid. p. 53, to which may be
added the spurious Comment, in iii). I. li.hjwn,
ascribed to Gregory the Great, lib. 4, c. 5 ; Migne,
P. L. vol. Ixxix. 278) refer only to bi»hops; at
the same time they clearly shew that the origin
of the rite was the growing tendency to institute
an analogy of ceremonies between the Old and
the New Testament. (6.) Several ordinuls direct
that the hands shall be blessed before being
anointed, and give a form of benediction for the
purpose ; Pontif. Ratold. S. Elig. Rotom. Caturic.
Becc. (c.) The Muinz Pontifical directs that
while the rite of anointing is going on the hymn
" Veni Sancte opiritus " shall be sung, and also,
if the number of persons ordained require it, the
hymn " Veni Creator ;" in the Soissons Pontifical
the hymn " Veni Creator " is apparently sung
immediately after the anointing ; and in the
English ordinals ap. Maskell, except the Win-
chester Pontifical, immediately before it. There
is no mention of either hymn in other onlinals.
(rf.) In addition to the anointing of the hands, a
group of English and Norman pontificals direct
the anointing of the head ; so Pontif Ecsjb. S.
Dunst. Caturic. Rotom. Becc, but not elsewhere.
12. The anointing is followed by the delivery
of the " patenam cum oblatis et calicem cum
vino " (Pontif. Mogunt. has " calicem pro Sacra-
mento praeparatum, superposita hostia ' ) with
the words " Receive power to offer sairitioe to
God and to celebrate mass, as well for the living
as for the dead ;" so Cod. Maff., Pontif Kadbod.
Salisb. Bisunt. Camerac. Mogunt., English ordinals
ap. Maskell, Catalani Ord. ii. : but there is no
mention of the rite in the oldest ordinals e.if. in
Missa'e Franc, Pontif Rem. Ecgb., Cod. Vat. ap.
Murat.; nor in Isidore or Amalarius; nor is it
implied in 4 Cone. ToL c, 27. It probably ar«a
ORDINATION
from the practice of which a recoi-d is presorred
in the directions which nre given in Mabillon's
Ordo JX. lor the oraination of a parish priest at
Rome. Alter the conclusion of the whole service
("eipletis omnibus, missa rite completa") the
pope is to give to the new presbyter the pi-iestlv
vestments, and the instruments of the mass
^old or silver, wine, corn, and oil, with which
a procession is made to his parish, both the
pope ami the people aceompanving him
13, One ordinal. Cod. 51al!-.,"directs that if the
pmbyter IS a " presbyter cardinalis," i.e. a parish
priest, the pope .hall give him a ring, saying,
"To the honour of our Lord Jesus Christ and
tue Apostles ]>eter and Paul, we commit to you
tlie church iV, with its clergy and people ;" this
isprobr.My the earliest form of institution
U. The benediction follows in Codd. Matf &c •
see above § lu ; the Sarum, l-.xeter, and Bangor
Pontihcah place it at the end of the whole olHce
alter the communion ; the Winchester Pontifical
places it here.
15. The newly-ordained presbyter then gives
the kiss ot peace to the bishop, and to all the
clergy who are present, Codd. Malf. Suession
Camerac. ; the Mainz Pontif. places this rite
before the benediction, and directs that the
bisliop shall go round to each of the newly-
ordained presbyters, saying, " Pax tibi, frater,
ora pro me : the hnglish ordinals, except Pontif!
ttintoa., also place it immediately before the
b«neJiction, but transfer both rites to the Dost-
communion ollice. *^
16. The communion office then proceeds- a
deacon reads the Gospel: the newly-ordained
presbyters make their offerings to the bishop
and receive them back from him consecrated'
so Pontif. Suession. Camerac, Cod. Mail' an
Muratori, vol. iii. p. 50, directs this generally in
the case of both presbyter and deacon, but ibkl
p.M, where the riti-al is of cardinal presbyters'
m the later roman sense, it directs specialh- that
they shall ofl.r two lighted tapers, two loaves
and two bott'.s (amphorae) of wine, and omits
th.- clause wiiich follows in the earlier rubric
• et f.^. CO consecratas accipiant." Mabillon's
(Wo I.T. ,.T u that from these oblations the
nov.tii pr..,yteri" shall communicate for
,!lin „'r*h"^ ■'^'!'. "^^^ •'''" '^ "" important
elic of the primitive communion, in which the
read and wme were offered to the bishop, then
Messed by him, and then distributed. The rite
tself fel into disuse, but one of its effects
^.rvivedinthe rule which is mentioned in the
Soissons Pontihcal, and which prevailed in sonio
oioceses, that a uresbyter should keep the bread
w ich was consecrated at the time of his
eiyday. The rite probably survived also in
he i-ubric of the later ordinals, that the newly
from the hands of the consecrating bishop.
17. A still more important relic of the primi-
communion survived, and pcssibly survives
ev"n,^ '^""■^t''•■" inthi'scelehratio, h"
w h^t"h t'h'^ Prefbyters were "concelebrant "
with the bishop. The only other instance of the
"y Innocent III., .fe N,,,,.,,™.,,//,, c. 25,
e b W^; h ;7'' "'r""- ^^■'' «<■ the cardina
W, and It is to be noted that the significance
ORDINATION
1516
rs'ts*''!,^ "nT"' TP'''=.'='«t«J by mediaeval canon-
'sts, e,/., Durandus in iv. SoU. dist. 13 ,,» 3
who, ,n apite of the statement of Innoce; ' II ,
denied its existence. The elements of the
historical consideration of the .,uestion will be
oundinMorin </„.&... On,„. ,„„ iii";!!,'
»,^p.^ 158, Catalani m Pontif. Jiuiu. p. 1, tit. 12,
II- ■Ecistcm mv3.~l. Orec/i. i. The rite wbi.h
1 ilh^'. jm ^''^^."-'""-> coi;:ti'tuti:?s'
simply ttiis : In ordaining a iire»bvt,T ( 1 1,;..],..,.
put thy hand upon his head. 'the ^r^'btety
he deacons standing by thee, a'nd in praytng
say, . . . (then follows a prayer that he who
"by the vote and election of ail the c eigy haa
be n advance,! to the presbyterate " may 1 e il ed
with the spirit of grace and counsel \ h his
prayer the ritual ends), ii. I^ionysius Aieooa!
MnVt\'''', "'•''■"""'' "''^■'J« both Inees
before the holy altar, and has the han.l of the
sc"atd i;nb''\'"'''''["^ "> thiswa isc'n!
^hlct^mle'^L'/^rtie^frJi'^'^^'-'-'^-'l^
^.i.A^....^,,.c..«o."^"T;in,^;rin'rh7rs':
of deacons, follows the sign of the cross "he
acred pro,:!amation of election (,a.dpl,r,Z a,tl
the consummating salutation. iii The • ter
g' a"r ';">'. ''%^r' T "■," '^-hologfum 1
^oai, p. ^i)2; ed. Daniel, vol. iv. p. 55ti • Codd
Bessar. Barber. Paris. Vat. Allat.'^ed?Mo'rin p'
>'^, s.iq. ; ed. J. A. Assenmn. vol. xi. p. 108 snn
pfG:,!oK:f8.r-'^'""-^-^^^''^-^*
507 J A. Asseman ap. Mai, vol. v. pars ii p
Woiin p 482 ; Renaudot ap. Denzinger, vol. ii.
p. 71 ; Greg. Barhebr. vii. 5, .ap. Mai vol x
pars n. p. 48; the Maronito in'Worin p.'404. j"
A^ As.s-eman vol. ix. p. 112 ; Denzinger,'^>-„1 1i J
U8 ; the .\estorum iu Morin, p. 452 • j S A«p
xiii. p 12 , Denzinger, vol. ii. p. 233.
9. OrnKROH,„,;[is a.nd OFi.icHiis.-Otherrites
of 01 J.natiou, which it has not been thought nes-
ary to give u, detail here, will be foun I as fo -
lows:-!. Amur.-I. UUn: Cod. Mafl at
a' cLir n ' *'"''"• PP- 7'' «2. 103, 117.
par.spp. 91b. II. AmiKss.— 1. /.„<,>i.. Cod Miff
ap. Muratori ,01. iii. p. loO; Hitto -p p. us"
2. Jacub,U: Greg. Barhebr. N.nn.can ^^ m*;
Sonpt. \et. X. 51 ; Denzinger, ii. 71. IirAuai
"KACON (not in Western 'ordinals).-! S"
^oai, p. ja4. 2. Con<tc ; Morin n "iiiB
Mor^Tlo^'tT^- ''■ ^- ^-'^
, .' P- *"/' J. A. Asseman, vol. ix nn
°""*-.-°: Asseman, vol. iii. 2, 842- Den.
zmgeiMi. 257. IV. Akc.,-P«,.:shv'i,.:« ('n„t in
Western ordmals)._l. Greek: Moil,,, p 13
fron. Cod. Leo Allat., so also Goar p^. 287
Ixxxvi ■ 70 V .. •■"■ '"=™'a». v-ol. ix. pp.
man, vol. ix. pp. Ixxxvii.' 204, •221, 2iM)en
^".ger. li. 178, 184. 3. AcHoriat-'j.l
.im
!: "fcsr'
ir, d
p
n4
1516
ORDINATION
I
u
ii
Asseiiiau, iii. 2, 3I!5 ; J. A. A»8cinan, xiii. 210 ;
DeiuiiiKer, ii. 200. VI. Clkiik (i.e. the lirat
toiisiiru). — 1. J.ntin: Uouen Pontifical iiml L'oii.
liatol Ii n|>. Alurin, ami J. A. Assemiiii ; .Snl/.bui');.
Bee. Mainz ijontilitals, ap. Maiteni' ; Knglisli
pontKicals, ap. Maslfell, iii. p. 144 ; Sacrani.
Grf)fca'. ail. Miirat. ii. p. 78:!. 2. Gireu : CoJ.
Barbi'i-ini, up. Mdiin, p. yi. VII. Di;.m:oni:.ss.—
1. Ltttiii: Siid-ani. Grugor. eii. Murat. ii. ji. 918.
2. Gtvek: Ciinst. Apost. viii. 18; Morin, \\\). ()9,
99 i Guar, p. 202. 3. ./acobito : Grt'g. Barhebr.
vii. 7, ap. iVIai .\. 51 ; Denzinger, ii. 71. 4. Ncs-
tricin: J. A. Assi'inan, vol. xiii. p. 218; Den-
zinger, ii. 201. \1II. Monk. — 1. I.atm: CoJ.
Jlall. ap. Muratori, iii. lul ; Hittorp, p. l:!7.
2. Urcck: Morln, p. 72; Goar, pp. 408, 47;i.
3. .Inciibitc: Greg. Barhebr. ap. Mai, x. 00.
4. AestoriiM ; J. S. Asseman, iii. 2, OnO. IX. NuN.
— 1. Latin: Saer. Gelas. ap. Murat. ii. 222;
Sncr. Gregiir. iil. ii. 780; Cod. Mail', iil. iii.
lu;! ; Missiile Kraneorum, id. iii. 400 ; Hittorp,
pp. 141, 148. X. I'KHlOUEUTliS — 1. JtCdlitO
same as lor t'horeiiisLopus, see above). 2. ilaro-
nitc : J. A. Asseman, vol. ix. pp. lxx.\iy. 107;
Denzinger, ii. 105. A. Acnturian (same as for
Chore|>iscopus, see above). XI. VVlDOW. — 1.
J.jtiii : Saer. Gelas. ap. Muratori, ii. 380 ; '"od.
Mad', id. iii. 107 ; Missale Franeorum, id. iii.
404: Missale Gallieum, id. iii. 607; Hittorp,
p. 149. ;
IV. Time and place of Ordination.
I. TiMi; OK OiSDiN.viio.N.— (1) Seasunof Orili-
tuition. : There is no evidenee of the existence in
the earliest period of any (ixed rule as to the
season of the year at which aiipointnients to
ecclesiastical olllce might take i)lace, and there
is strong reason to believe that entrance upon
ollice followed immediately upon appointment.
The nun-existence of any such rule is rendered
almost certain (") by the fact that when in the
Western church in later times a rule was laid
down it became necessa.'y to invent an early
authority (the decretal of Gelasius) in order to
support it ; (6) by the fact that in the Greek
church, even to the present day, ordinations
may take place at any time (except that in Lent
they are limited to i^aturdays and Sumlays).
Several limitations of the season of ordination
gradually arose in the Western church, and the
rule which ultimately became established by the
canon law was neither the earliest nor the only
one.
1. Zeno of Verona (t 380) speaks of Easter
(i.e. probably Kaster Day and Easter Eve) as
being a special time for the promotion of clerks
(ministri), and the reconciliation of penitents (S.
Zenon. Venm. lib. 2, tract 50, ap. Migne, P. L.
vol. xi. p. 5O0).
2. Leo the Great (Epist. ix. (xi.) ad Diosc.
AUx.nul. vol. i. p. 028) has a passage which has
given rise to some controversy. He says that
ordinatiinis to the priesthood or the diaconate
ought not to take place on any chance day, but
" post diem sabbati ejus noclis ([uae in prima sab-
bati.slucescit : " (•() According to one view, these
Words are to be understood as allowing ordina-
liuUB .■Illy at i;asti:r(;.f. on Easier Eve and Enster-
Dav). In support of this view is the fact, that Leo
onlV allowed baptisms to be celebrated at Eastor
and" I'entecost (I pint. xvi. c. 3, i. p. 719).
(6) According to another view, the words allow
ORDINATION
ordinations on Saturday night, or on the ninmlng
of any Lord's Day. This view is remlered alinont
certain by another passage, in which Leo, writ-
ing to Anastasius of Thessalonica, objects to the
jiractice of limiting the restriction to the Luril's
Day to the ordination (d' bishops, and of (■rluining
presbyters and deacons on any day {h'/tUt. vi,
(iv.) i. p. Old). A further cnrmboratiun ol thij
view is the complaint which, in writinir to the
emperor Marcian, he makes against Anatnlius ; it
is, that the latter had ordained a jires' yter on a
Friday; but nothing whatever is said iilmut the
limitation of ordinations to a particulur .season.
(Epist. iii. ad Marcian. Imp. i. p. ll«,'i On the
whole question see the notes of l^uesnel, and the
Ballerini to the passage of Leii lirst quoted
above ; and also t^uesnel, Dissert, vi. ■'(■ jij'iuio
sahbati, reju'lnted by the Ballerini in their i-lition
of Loo, vol. ii. p. 1009, and by Migne, 1'. L. vol.
Iv. p. 027.)
3. The ordinary practice of the oishiips of
Home, which however does not a]ipear to have
been erected into a rule, and which pmljablr
grew up in the period intervening between Leo the
Great and the establishment of the four seasons,
was to hidd ordiinitions in December (see Ana-
stasius ISibliothecarius, Liber Puutifinilis, passim,
but especially Bianchini's ed. vol. iii. § 72;
Amalarius de Div. Off. 2, 1 ; but Mabilhjii, J/us.
Hal. vol. ii. p. ciii, Catalani, Cum. m I'uniif.
Hum. [lars i. tit. ii. § 12, mention various excep.
tions to the practice).
4. Out of the rule or usage that both
ordainers and onlained must fast at the time of
ordination, arose the usage which appears to
have become a rule in the course (d'the Hth cen-
tury, that ordinations must iake place at the
Ember seasons, i.e. at the fasts in the lirst,
fourth, .seventh, and tenth months. The rule is
given in the majority of ordiniils in the furai
"mensis primi, ijuarti, septimi, decimi, ■■ialiha-
torum die in xii. lectionibus ; " so Sacrani. <leli\s.,
Pontif. Kem. S. Dunst. Kodrad. Vat. aj). .Murat.
Elsewhere the particular weeks are specilieJ, as
being the first week of the lirst month, the
second of the fourth, the third of the si'vi'nth,
the fotirth of the tenth; sol'ontif Egb., Hraban.
Maur. de Instit. Cier. ii. 24 ; Cone. Mogunt.
A.n. 813, c. 34, quoted as an authority by
Gratian, hist. 76, c. 2 ; Mabillon's Onh i.<, agrees
with the preceding, except that it speeities the
Saturilay before Christmas ; so Amalari us, de A'c.i
Off'. 2, 1. But although it became custouLiry
to speak of four seasons only, it is clear thatorJi-
nations in Lent were not limited to a single
Saturday. In probably the oldest existing MS.
which contains the rule (Fragm. Cod. Vat, ap.
Murator Lit. Horn. Vet. vol. iii. p. 17) any
time "a .[ainquagesima incipiente iiS(|ue quinto
decimo die ante pascha," appears to be allowej ;
and the I'seudo-Isidorian decrota', ujion which
subsequent usage made the lulf to rest, specilies
the Saturdays at the beginning and iutheuii'Wle
of Lent (S, Gelas. i. Epist. ix. ad i:pisc. / er Lmiii.
c, 13 = Uecrct. General, ap. Hinschius, Demt
Pseudu-Inid. p. 652; cf. Gratian, Diat. 7o. 7;
D. Ivon. Carnot, Decret. 6, 74). It is, how-
ever, d-ar, that .-v:-,n afta>r the general reoei-
tion of this decretal there was aoino variety
of usage ; nnd the rule which ultimately pre-
vailed, and which is 'vcdgnisod in the nioileni
Human Pontifical, appears to combine the rule
ORDINATION
of the four soasons with the earlier rule of
hoMiiif? orilinntiiiiis at Knster.
The earliest certain instaiiep uf the observance
of the four seMsons as times of onlinaUon, is in
Piiul the Deacon's account of Chrodegang of
Metz (lire. 7li«) as having ordained presbyters,
••as is the custom of the lioman church, on the
Satiirilays at the four seasons " (I'aul. Diaoon.
de OrJtn- h'jiisc. Mctcm. nj). iligni!, 1'. L. vol. xcv.
11.710) ; but they had beeji previously recognised
by the Konian founcil of 74,1, c. 11, under pope
Zaoh;iry ; and not long afterwards the Krankish
Ciipitularies g.'ive thcni a civil sanction (Statt.
Rhispnu. et Krising. a.d. 79!i, c. 7, ap. Pertz
Leijuin, vol. i. ]i. 7y).
It may be convenient to add, that the modern
Roni;in rule allows (a) the tonsure to be conferred
litany time, ('») minor orders on any Sunday or
double festival, ((,■) major orders at the times
•tated in the above-mentioned decretal of Alex-
amler Hi.
(•2) Ji'V/ of animation.— It may be gathered
from what has been said above, that even before
or.lination came to be restricted to certain
«ea.sons of the year they were limited in the
Western church to a certain day of the week.
It is antecedently probable that the more impor-
tflnt appointments and admissions to church
olliees would take jilace on Sundays, and there is
therefore I'eason to suppose that the Oreek
practice, to wliich Leo the Great (see above)
bears witness, of ordaining bishops <m Sundavs,
is primitive. It is dilticnlt to trace the origin
of a similar limitation in the case of preslivters
and deacons. Hut it is in entire harmoay with
the general view of the nature of onlination
which has been given above, that the evening of
Saturday rather than Sunday should have been
the customary time. The iierfonnance of the
sacred functions to which they were called im-
mediately succeeded their apirointment and re-
cognition. If the functions themselves were
performed early on Sumlay morning, the ap-
pointment an 1 recognition of the ofMcers would
naturally take jilace on Saturday evening. Hence
the Western rule, which is embodied in the
Gelasian expression "die Sabbati circa vespe-
ram."
(3) I'lice of Ordinations in Divine Sei-vice.—
Inasmuch as admissions to ecclesiastical otKce in
primitive times consisted in a public recognition
of the ilticer who had been elected or appointed,
followed by a perfontiance of the duties of his
office, it was natural that such admissions should
take place under circumstances which admitted
of such purt'uimance.
In the \Vestein church it seems to have been
customary that admissions to major orders should
take place during divine service ; but not even
the i'seudo-lsidoriaa decretals give any authority
for the custom, and according to Hallier, (/t
&«•. Elect, p. 9U9, later i^iiionists sometimes
inserted the words " intra missam " into a k-tter
ofthe I'seudo-Anaclctus in order to obtain the
appearance of such authority. The custom is,
however, assumed by the ordinals, all of which
(but not the Missal. Franc.) direct that the decla-
ration of election to major onlers shall be made
uaracaiatciy alter tiie introit (,- postc.unm Anti-
pnonam au Introitum dixerint"); so Sacram
Gelas.Ood, Vat ap. Murat., Pontif. U«m. Ratold"
a. uunst. S. Llig. Souon. Koviom. Cuturi".
ORDINATION
1617
halisb. I.otnm. The jdace of the ceremonies of ad-
mission IS less precisely defined : (I) Tlie iddest
rubric (see above, Or.liwUiun of Decern i )
appears to make the benediction fidlow immedi-
ately upon the litany which follows the declara-
tion ol election. CJ) Mnbillon's Ordo. viii. and
almost all onjinals pla,e the ceremimies ot ordi-
nation between the ej.istic and gospel, i,,fore
the Alleluia or Tract. (:l) The Sarum I'ontilical
expressly places the ordination of siilideaeons
before the epistle, which tlie new sulideacon
re^ls. (4) The I'ontif liatold. CMsannt are
apparently alone in pla.'ing all (u-dinations before
the epistle. The majority of ordinals give no
directions as to the time of admission to minor
orders. The I'ontif. S. Klig. places tliem " p„.,t
comniunionem,"the Sarum Pontifical during the
lessons, before the mass proper begins.
In the Greek church there are earlv indications
that the celebration of the Kucharist immediately
tollowed a.lmiasion to major orders,,;, ./. ('lenient
Reco,jn.li, 15; Dionys. Areop. ifc Ecci. lUvr. (j, 3!
j; nlthough even so late as the beginning
of the 9th century it is not spoken of as
though It were a universal rule ; e. ,/. by
11 „er'"r\ '^""'- ^y"*'- ''b- % 101.' But
all MSS. ot the ordinals agree in making ordina-
tions to the lectorate and subdiaconate take
place outside the Uturgy, ami in making ordi-
nations to major orders take [dace at a detinite
point in the liturgy. The ordination of deacons
IS placed after the oblation an.' the opening of
the iloors ; that of presbyters af er the cherubic
hymn.
In the other Eastern churches there is less
unitormity of usage. The Nestorian Ordinal
expressly provides for the case of orlinatious
(except those of bishops) which arc not accom-
panied by a celebration of the Liturgy The
Coptic ordinal jilaces all ordinations, except
to the episcopate, immediately before the preface
ot the anaphora. The Jacobite and Manmite
ordinals place ordinations after the consecra-
tion ot ttie elements. (For a more precise
account see T-enzinger, liitt^ Urivntalium, v-l. i
p. 144.)
11. Place of Ordinatio.v.— There docs not
appear to have been in the euriiest times any
rule as to the jilace in which ordination, in
the sense of appointment, might be made
l-rom the nature of the ease, when appoint-
ments were made by popular siiflr.ige, they
were made in a popular assemblv; hence
Origen (Jlwn. m Icvit. 6, c. .i, vol "ii n ■>!«)
argues from the public appointments of priestg
by Moses, bv.t when thev were made by the
bishop or the Ordo, they wore necesaarilv, in
some cases, made under circumstances whicii did
not adni.t of the gathering of an assembly in a
dehnite place. As, for example, when, with the
tacit consent of tlie people ami the other mem •
bers of the Un/o, €■. prian, and those who were
with him. ajipoiiited Aurelius and t'clerinus fS
Cypr. Ejmt. 3.!, 34, vol. ii. p. ;i20, 3>>4) The
stress which Cyprian elsewhere lays on the
necessity of ordinations being made in public fid
i;;«i!. fi8, ,) vol i. p. 1026 = Syno,lal letter ofthe
^.mcd ot (arthagP to th. clergy and people in
Spain), shews that t..e freedom which evi.sted as
to the place of appointment was in d.tn<'er of
■img abused, but it shews also that such freedom
existed. The only coaciliar regulation on tho
t !
■i
\?
<l.ia
1618
ORDINATION
subject, whii'h in found in the first five centuries,
is timt ot' till! (.'line. I.RiiJ. c. 5, which eniicta that
X«if(iT(icia; (i.<'. iippnintnients, aecdnlini; to hotli
Balsiiiuon and ZcmarMs) should not tiike i)lnco in
the pi'i'seuie of iK^Joti/uei/oi (prol). = cntechumons,
but acionlintj to Ilefide, Omncils, K. T. vol. ii.
p. ym .:.- th« cius8 of punilonts so niimwl. See vol.
i. p. 151, AlJDlKNiiOS). Tiiu loasou for this rule
was, that the faults of persons woi-e freely can-
vassed on such occasions ; and tliat it was
inexpedient that any, except full members of the
ohiirch, should lake part in the election. Wlu'n
special ljuildiui;s came to be set apart for
assembly and worship, ordination naturally took
place in them; and <jrei;ory Nuzianzen is
indignant because the ordination of Maximns the
Cynic, whioli was begun in a church, was
finished in a private house (S. Gvi'ft. Nazianz.
Poi-m.Jc i:it. sua v. 9ii9 ; cf. (irei;. I'resb. Vit. 6'.
Orntj. Saziatiz. Mijjue, P. G. vol. xxxv. p. Wl).
But the point was not '/lie saoredness of a church,
but its publicity ; even Theophilus of Alexandria
does not do more than insist that ordinations
shall not bo mule in secret (AaOjiaiais), and
that when the church is at peace they shall cou-
BBiiueiitly be made in church (S. Theophil. Alex,
can. 7, ap. I'itra, i. 04K).
The earliest regulation as to ordinations in
the sense of admission to othoe, and the earliest
positive enactment as to ordinations in any
sense, is that of the civil law. Justinian (.Voi;W/.
6, c. i. 9, and c. 4, a.d. 5:i5) enacts that admis-
sions to ecclesiastical office must take place in
the presence of all the people as a guarantee of
the purity of the election. The al)sence of an
earlier regulation, whether ecclesiastical or civil,
is short n by the fact that the later canonists wore
compelled to invent one; i.e. they inserted the
wonl munih'ste in Cone. Chalc. c. 6 (Giatian,
DccrH. 1, Uist. 70; [). Ivon. Carnot. Pnnorm. .),
27). Of the very doubtful Syrian council, which
is sometimes assigned to A.n. 405, and of which
the canims are printed by Mansi, vol. vii. 1181,
no account neod be taken. When ordinations
came to take place in a church, it was natural
that they should, as a rule, take place in the
cathedral' church. At the same time there has
never been any rule limiting them to the
cathedral church.
lu later times, when the ceremonies of admis-
sion to holy orders were interwoven with the
liturgv, it was enacted that they sliould take
place, not merely in a church, but before the
altar. There 19 a probability that this had
come to be the rule in the early part of the 7th
century, inasmuch us 4 Cone. T'oiet. A.D. (333, c.
2H, in jMoviding for the readmission to office of
a clerk who had Im^d unjustly deposed, provides
that the ceremoui.. of his original ordination
shall be repeated, and this is to take place
" coram altario." But the first direct enactment
to this effect is that of the ordinals, which nro
probably at least a century later.
The rule of themodern Uoman Pontifical is, that
the tonsure and minor orders may be conferred in
anv place whatever ('• quocum|ue loco," " ubi-
r,,;-,-..;;;.-.," i'nntit. Ron pars 1. tit. '1. §S n, U);
but the ritual assumes throughout that the
ph'.ce will be a church. Ordinatioua to holy
orders must take place either in ttie cathedral,
or, if any other place in the diocese, in the
•* ecclcsia digaior '" of the place (i6. § 22).
ORDIVATION
V. Minister of Orliniiion,
In the earliest period of church hi.^tory when,
as has been shewn above, the impculant I'leineiii
iu ordination was not the act of adinis.iiin to
office but the act of appoint aieut to it, the
<|uestion as to who cmild i>rdaiu is practicativ
iilentical with the ([uestion which has been
alreaily answered, as to who could take pint in
an appointment. The presumption is thiu, at
least in the three primitive offices of pre>hvter,
deacon, and reader, the whole church acted
together. There was always a noininafinn, an
election, an approval, and a declaration oi' (.|go.
tion. The two latter of these f'uiuainns, in ijie
church as in the empire, devolveil on the' pre-
siding officer, who, in the church, as al^u in the
empire, friHiuently added to them the f'uither
function of uomination or "conimendafio." Hut
when, in course 'jf tiuu>, a church ce.ised fe be
a complete, self-coutained anil (uganic unitv,
and had outlying churches de|iendent upim it,
or was itself merged in a larger organlzatiim,
and when greater importance came to hi
attached to the recognition by a church of its
uewly-appointed officer, and to the prayer lor
blessing upon his office, thuro grew up an
abundant crop of questions, partly as to the
limits of the rights of dependent churches t*
make appointments without reference to the
mother church, and partly as to the limits of
the rights of indepeudent cliurches to ac: with-
out reference to the general coni'eder.itiun of
churches, and partly ,vs to the unify or the
plurality of the channels through wliicli divine
grace flowed, some of which iiuestions are still
unsolved, and many of which have, at various
times, been the cause not only oi' tlieuhn;ic;il
ccmtroveray but of political disturbance. It is,
of course, impossible here to do more ihan imli-
cate the chief facts which must be taken into
consideratiim in any general view of I lie subject;
and, for the sake of clearness, the word unliiiner
will bo used in its narrower sense of one who
can admit to ecclesiastical office, whether the
person admitted be appointed by himself or by
others.
1. Ordainera of Presbyters. — i. The earliest
evidence is presumably that of 1 Tim. iv. U,
where the giving of the "gift" (xti()iiT,ua) to
Timothy, is said to have been accompanieil with
(/ufTd) the "laying on of hands of' the; pres-
iiytery." But the evidence is ambiguor.s, inns-
much as it is uncertain (1) what was the precise
office which Timothy filled ; (2) whetlier ths
presbytery acted alone, or whether the prcsrnce
of an ajHistlo or other president is assumeil,
though it is not mentioned, ii. Early patristic
evidence is for the most part ambiguous, on
account of the ambiguity of the terms em-
ployed; «.;/. in Kirmilian's letter to Cvprian
(S.' Cyprian. Epist. 7r), 7, vol. i. p. 1161),
" majores natu qui et baptizaiidi et mauum im-
ponendi et ordinandi possident poti.statem,"
where manum imponendi may possibly refer
only to confirmation after baptisni, and ordi-
nandi only to election, iii. That the bishop and
presbyters acted together is rendered pnibsble,
partlv by the general charncter of the rel.itioos
between bishops and proabyters [PRiwrj. and
partly hy the fact that tlie Western church,
which ia many similar respects has been more
ORDINATION
onservative of nncient usages than tho Eastern,
n«8 to this Jiiy retained the co-i)periitioii of
bishops and presbyters in the cercraiiBy of im-
position oC hands (see above : Orjimtwn of
Presbijter^). iv. That the bishop could in certain
cases act alone, is n pr(d)ahle but not n proved
hypothesis. Its probability chielly nris(w t'roiii
th" fict that in the i'posicdical Constilutious,
and in all eastern ordinals, thoufrh the clergy]
ami especially the archdeacon, as tho rejire-
sentative of tho olor(jy, have a place in the
rilu.il, the bishop alone imposes his bauds.
T. Whether presbyters could act alone is a
keenly disijuted, but as yet unsolved question :
(a) The case of Isohyras, who was ordained
presbyter by the presbyter Colluthus of Alexan-
dria, and whose oriliuation was subseciuently
disallowed, would hardly have been possible if the
point had previously been ruled in the negative
by competent authurity. (For the detail of the
controversy, see the letter of the Mareotic
clergy to the syno.l of Tyre, np. S. Athanas.
Apol. c. Arum. c. 75, vol. i. p. Ih'i): (6) Tlie
early canon (Cone. Ancyr. c. 14) which forbi.ls
chorepisco])! to orilain (xtiporovfrv) presbyters
or deacons, also forbids city presbyters to do so
except by commission from the bishop; assum-
ing thi.t ordination is here used in its later
sense, the canon is a clear admission that pres-
byters are disqualified from ordaining pres-
bytery not by any defect inherent iu their ollice,
but on the i^round which is a.ssigned by the
Apostclical^C'onstitutions, of church order (aifrTj
"^if iiTTi To£is ^KKKiiaiaa-riK^ Ka\ apuovla. C. A.
3, 11). It is interesting to compare with this the
statement of the great antiquarian and canonist
of the West in tho seventh century: "sola
propter au.itoritatem sumrao sacerdoti ordinatio
et consccratio rcservata est, ne a multis ocdesiae
disciplina vendicata coucordiam solveret, scan-
d,ila generaret " (Isidor. Hispal. do Keel. Ojf.
2, 7); ( ) III later times presbyters were no
dn"l)t disqualified, and so far did the notion of
th ir disqualification go, that 2 Cone. Hispal.
A.D. 619, c. .■), disallows the ordination of certain
presbyters u[)on whoin a bishop had laid his
hands, but to whom, at the same time, a pres-
byter and not the bishop had given the bene-
diction. In this respect even the di.-pensing
jwwer of the pope was regarded as being
limited: he could commission a presbyter to
confer minor but not major orders, "(jui habent
iraraedialam relationem ad corpus Christi " (.St
Thim. Aquin. m IV. Sent. dist. 25, qu. 1, art. 1
= Sumnu Theot. supjil. in p. iii. qu. ;!8, art. 1).
vi. Tl e question of the right of chorepiscopi to
ordain presbyters is also one of great diliicultv :
(a) In the fourth century choreid.scopi are
found only in the East, and were probabl,- no
more than the parish priests of rural parishes-
tliey were the first attempt at ecclesiastical
organization in the direction which afterwards
resulted in the parochial system; their riyhts
in respect of ordination, which may, however
m this case mean only ttpp.dntment, are strictly
defined by Cone. Ancyr. A.l>. 314, c. 8, 1 (Ame
Antioch. A.I., ;141, c, 10, which give them an
•-•ngin,ii ng;\\. „; unimning readers, subdeacons,
and e.xoioi.ts, but only a dejiuted right of
ordiuni.ig presbyters and deacons. (6) The
origin and status of the French chorepiscopi of
tAe 8th and 9th centuries is much more ob- '
ORDINATION
1619
scure; and the question of their ri-ht to
ord.iiu was pnd.aldy the chief cause of th«
forgery „f tiw I'seudo - Isidu.ian .lecrHals.
Ihe genuine writings of Isidore (do Kcd. Off.
I'b. 2, 0) repeat the rule ,f the council
ol Aucyra, and allow chorepiscopi to ordain
presbyters with the consent .d' the citv bishop
on whom they depend. liut in the 9th
century there njqie.irs to have been on the
one Hand a claim on the part ,d' certain
chorejjiscopi to dispense with tlie necessity of
such consent, and on the other band a conten-
tion that not even with such cnscait could they
<u-dain either presbyters or de.icons. The con-
troversy i., one of great interest, b(.c;iiise it
mvolves the whole question of the validity of
uoii-episeopal ordination ; but the points' in-
volved are too intricate, and the literature too
extensive, to be more than mentioned here. (The
e euients of the controversy will be foun.l in
the spurious letters of Oamasus, do vanu corqn-
sooporim supcntMmc vitanda, np. Hinschius
I oon-t. /■so',h-h,dor. p. 5li9, of I.eo the Great,
•Old. p. r,-28 (printed also among St. I.eo's works
a.s hjHst. m, ad Gnimniac et GaUiac Episc, on
which see (^uesnel's dissertation, which is re-
printed by both the liallerini and Migi.e), and
of .oin III. ibid. p. 71.'-,; in the loiter of
Leo III. in answer to Charles the Great's mission
of Arno of Salzburg, ap. Caroli Magn. Capit.
tit. IV. ed. Mansi, xiii.p. lO.IB; in the treatise of
Hrabanua Maurus, Opnsc. ii. ed. Migne, /'. L
TO. ex. p. 119,-), Labbe, Concil. Appen.I. ad
vol viii. ; in the letter of Niidiolas I. to the
archbishop of Bourgos (S. Nicd. Kjmt. append.
1- ep. 19, I, ap. Mansi, vol. xv. .iliO, Align,., vol
cxix. p. 884); and in a numb.^r of .syno'dical"
decrees or capitularies, the moM import.mt of
whKth IS thai of the council of Meaux, A n 845
c. 44 (M.insi, vol. xiv. p. 8Ji»,. The controversy
has been reviewed by most writers on the clerical
olfice, e.<j. by Morin, do ■S.ut. Ordia. i.ars iii.
exercit. 4, and by Natelis Alexander, Append, ad
diss, do Episeop. super Presb. Emim-ntia. The
best account of its history is in Weizsiicker,
IJer Kampf yejcn don Cltoropifeopnt des fran-
hsehcn lieichs, Tiibinsen, 1859. The ultimate
result of the controversy was, that in the
\»'estern church chorepiscopi ceased to exist
except in name, and that the city bishops finally
e.stablished their claim to bo the sole channel
tlir..uj;h which tho spiritual status of presb vters
could be conferred.
2. Ordaiiwrs cf D<vc<m.<i.—Whnt has been said
above as to the competency of others than
bishops to ordain presbyters, ajjplies also, foi the
most part, to the case o( deacons. The special
closeness of the connexion between the episco-
pate and the dinconate gave an especially strong
claim to the former to admit tho latter to office.
The case of Kelici.ssinius, who was made ("coiw
stituit ') deacon by Novatus (S. Cvprian, E.n,t.
49 vol. 1. p. TiS), shews that the 'appointment,
which, from the peculiar circumsiames of the
case, may be held to include the admission, of a
deacon by a presbyter, though viewed with great
disfavour, was not regardp.i -„, invali,! ; but tha
whole tendency of ecclesiastical discipline was
ojiposcl to such ordinations, and mediaeval
canonists held that not even a papal dispensation
could authorise them,
a. Ordttincra of Minor Orders.— i. The right
1 v
J
^- ;!-!
■ ' ^
"»^
1620
OUPINATIOX
of oily oi- (liocesaa bishop* to ailmif to minor
orilurs is lui lis|iiili!il. ii. Tiiat (■liiM-i>iiiM-ii|ii
could ailmit as wcli as apiidint to miiiov ■n\icis,
is a |ii-obiil)lo ini'eriiuctf f: um Cone. Aiicyr. <•. 1 t.
oml Cmc. AiitincI). o. 10. It was allowoil in *lo>
liitei' controviirsios ti> wliieh rufc'reni'e lias linen
male aliovo. iii. Tliiit prcsliytors ciui ailmit
to minor onK'i-s ot' tlu'ir own iulmo nioiiou
is nnifcpi-Mily ilenio 1 ; loil tliMt thi'V ran do so
by commission is as unil'ormly assorted; e. ;/.
by Oola.-.ius, I-Jpist. mi JCpis:. iM-iti. i: 8 =:
Docivt. (Iciu'ritl. ap. Hinschius, p. O.')! ; see S.
'i'liom. .-Vqiiiu. Skiiiihi, suppl. in p. iii. iju. 'M,
art. 1, and llallier, de Sicr. KU'cl. ct Onlin. p.
5ij8. iv. Ahbats, provided (<i) that t'ley nre
preslivtiM-s; (6) that they have received episcopal
beiie.llilion as ahliats, can ordain readers in tlieir
own alilioy aecording to 2 Cone. Nicaen. c. 14— a
rei;iilati"ii whicli was adopted in VVVsteru canon
law. (Gratian, Dvci-et. p. i. Jist. 'iO, c. 1 ; Ivo,
Ihvrct. p. ."', c. :!7(5, 1 ; see nlsu Innocent 111.
Kpht. ann. xiii. 1'27, Mi„'ue, \\ h. vol. ccivi. ;!14.)
4. Ordtiinon uf C/t'/A'S.— The Ai)ostolicul Con-
stitntions, dealing probal-'y with the period in
which each church was cviiplete in it.selt', do not
allow jiresbyters to ordain even clerks (C. A. 3,
20) lint in the West, when the parochial
system estaldished itself, and the rectors of rural
parishes came to have a sphere of work and
nutiioritv which was in many respects inde-
pendent of the bishop, presbyters stood iu a very
diH'erent relation to the lowei onlers of clergy.
In the 7th century they were not only allowed
to admit clerks, but encouraj;ed to do so (Cone.
Emerit. A.D. ()(5ii, c. 18); and almost all the
or linal, of the Gregorian type agree with Statt.
E •!. A^it. c. U) iu enacting that a singer may
enter upon liis olfice "absque scientia cpiscopi,
sola jussione presbyteri."
VI. Rc-ordination,
It is probable that in the earliest period each
church defined for itself, in individual cases, the
conditions mion which a pcrsmi who had for-
feite.l his office should be restored to it, or upon
which the ollicer of another church should have
his status recognised. It is alsj probable that,
although the honorary rank which was Ife-
queutly given sometimes became substantive, the
state of things which is forbidden by Can. Ajtost.
c. OH, once actually existeu, and that an oHicer
of one church who sought otHce in another had
to undergo a second election and a second ad-
mission to olfice. When the age of councils
be'4an, the rules which were laid down, either
for a group of churches or for the catholic
church throughout the world, ordinarily speci-
lled the penalty «-hic'' was incurred by a viola-
tion of then-, The chief of these penalties were,
a dec!ar".;ion of invalidity {ittvpoi Icrrw f) x^'P"'
TO"'. ), and a TK>{u\,-^..iC.'.' to ce ,se from olfice
(ir(Travir9a> i Toi/iiros tov K\i)0ov, KaOaipfiirew).
The offences to which they were alfixed were
chielly, (<i) violation of rules of ecclesiastical
ori;anisation, by having been ordained out of the
proper church, or by other than the proper
DI311 p ; (.'j; strrKMiin'n ...t.u...>.. . ^ ) ■•^■•' '
while in a state of lap.se or heresy. [For a de-
tailed account of the several olVencrs, see Okdehs,
Holy: Qftnlitica'ions fur: D!scii>lin- of."] A
person who was so deposed, or ihosc ordination
was $0 declared to be null, cnii not become a
ORDINATION
church officer again without again going thro«nl(
the processes whicli he had gone tlirou^li iii.'om-
pletely iu the first iiislance : tor example, Cmc.
.Nicaen. c. H enacts that retiiniiu'.; Catliari shall
receive imposition of bauds! id v.. til enacts
that returning I'aulianists lansi he Imth re-
baptiiied and re-eleeted (oeaSujrTio-fltVrfv x'lpo-'
T0i/«(iT9.»'(Tav). This continued to be the piaelice
of the church. For example, when some of the
Arian clergy wished to return to ihe CMthnlio
faith, it was enacted that tliey might he ad-
mitted to ollico hy the bishop " cum iin|«isit:ie
manus benedictione " (1 Cone. Auiel. .x.n. ,511,
c. 10; Cone. Caesaiaug. A.n. .IHJ, c. 1): so in
the following century, of those who wi're or-
dained "a Scottoruin vel liritonuin episeepij,"
who held schismatical views on the ((lies' ions of
tonsure and Easter (I'oenit. Theodor. ii. it. 1, a]).
Iladdau and Stubbs, vid. iii.): and so also in the
following century, of thos> who w<^re onlainod
by '■' epi.scopi ambulauti.-. " (Pippin, Ci/^it. \\r-
i/iir. A. I). 753, § 14, ap. Pertz, /.ci/Hm, vol. i,
p. 23) ; and for those who had been nnjnstly
(legradod 4 Cone. Tolet. A.ii. ()33, c. 'J.s, pre-
scribes the ritual of reordiuation.
lUit early in the history of the chin-eli. there
had resulted from the Doiiatist (oiitroversy a
belief in the minds of many theologians that the
grace which was conferred at orlinatien, like
that which was coiitcrred at haiitisni, was in-
alienable; and that, in sjiite of lapse, the ene ns
well as the other remained till deaMi, anl
might, moreover, be communicated to ethei-s.
This belief is expressed with some emphasis
by St. Augustine: ty/. do llnptisino c. Ih.init. i.
1, vol. i\. p. 101); contrii K;'int. Phinm. ii. 'J:^,
vol. ix. p. 70, and is either stated or imi)lied in
Cod. Ecclef. Afric. i. '.>7 (on which see Sehelstrat
ap. Van Espen, in loc.) ; id. c. 48 ; .') (.'one. Carth.
c. 11 ; and it was again strongly .a.sserted hy
(iregory the Oreat, Epixt, ii. 40 'id Jvmx
Ravenn. ; see also S. Leo Magn. Epiat. 18 (14)
(!(? JiiniKr. p. 731. An isolateil but important
factor in the discussion is the existei.ee of a
Galatian inscription of A.D. 401, Corpus Tuscr.
Grace. No 9259, which gives a record of one
who was t'rioe presbyter (!lt yivdufvos irpia^i-
TfpOS).
VII. Literature.
The literature of ordination is extensive, bnt
the following will be foumi to he the most
important references : 1. The early authoriticj
and ordinals, for which see Okdikal. '. The
early mediaeval antiquarianf, Isidore of Seville
(de Ea'hsiasticis "jWi'iVs), Albinos Klacciis (Alcuin)
(lie Dviiiis Ojfieiis), Amalarins (ite Ea-lesias-
ticis Offlciis), Hrabanus Mauriis ((?'• InsUMicme
Clericorutn) (which four treatises, with othen,
will be found printeil together in Hittnrp. ife
Dirinis CathoUcae Ecclcsiae OlH™^, Cologne,
1568). 3. The French liturgical writers of
the 17th century: Ha'lier {d« Sacris Ehiitf
nihua et Ordinationihus). Paris, It!'!!); Morin ((fe
»SiiC'-»s Ecclisiae ( )rJiiuitioni!"tK), Paris, Vibb;
Thomassin {Ancienne et .Vone. ''<• /tisrinline dt
CEllisc'. ed. !, Paris. 1''77 ; Mnrtene (de Ant'm
Ecclesiae Sitil)'(s), ed. i. Uouen, 1700 (quoted
above from the Bassano edition of 17.''8), to
which may be added Catalani's notes to his eiii-
tion of the P>mt>Jie^ilc /loinavtin, Uonie, 17:' 1
(reprinted at Paris in 1851).
I
i
ORDO
[For QualifcntidnH for Ordination, Exnmim-
fyn (in the liitiT npiiac), latcrpiUs U'tuven
Orailes cf drJcra (liitcrstitiu), Title, see under
ObbkIW, HoiA'.] [k. h.]
ORDO. A (liieofory fnr the duo perfnrnmiico
of »ny >^.iciril rite. An onlo inight (I ) nmtain
directions only, or ('-') it might give the iiriiy<'rs
lino. [I,miit(iic-\r. Hooks, p. inOH.]
For -I'vcral conturics th.- iiniycrs in the saorn-
lticTilaries\vei-iMiiitai:i'>nip«nie.|liy!iiillioii,Mitclirei!-
tlon» lor llieir propel- use. Thi- rubrics In the litur-
jrieii of St. .lames and .St. Mark are vcrv few and
lirii'f conipared with those of the present fireek
office. The same dillevence is observalde when Wii
ciraiinretheOelasianSaiTnmentnryand the earlier
copies of the (Jri",'(irian with the Inter ciipics id'
the hitter; and so aijain when we oninparo the
old riallicnii missals, disused from the Hth cen-
tury, with the Ilispano-tinthic, whieh whs in use,
jnri uii'lcrgoini; chani;es, down to the end of the
eleventh. Tliis jiaiioity of directions woiil.l
caii.w ;;rent inconvenience, especially when ci'vo-
monies were multiplied to the degree of which
St. Anijnstine complains (Kp. ,'i,'i, mljan<ii r. lit,
§,')5), and a supplementary hook (d' instrui-tions
in coreinonini would he found equnllv necessary
with that from whieh the prayer.s were learnt.
In the \Vest this want was met. by the compiU-
tion of a hook to whieh, before limg, the con-
vention:il n.ime of Ordn attneheii itself. In
Gaul, in the 8th century, each priest was
icquireJ tnde.seribe his own practice in writing,
anJ to present this"lihi'llus ordini.s" to the hishifp
in lent for his approbation, " riitionem et or-
(linem ininisterii .sui, sive de baptisnio, sive de fide
citholica, sive lie precibus et online mis.sarum "
(C>ipit. Knrlomnnni, A.n. 7+2, in li.iluz. Cnpit.
Reij. Fi-mc. i. S2+). In the same age, about
7')'i, as it is supposed, appearei the '" libnllns
oHiiiis Rimiani," or "Onlo Romanns," a diree-
t'lrv for the use of the bishops of Kiimo and its
subnrbicnrian dioceses (Oni. Horn. i. § '28 ; >fu.?.
/((if. ii. 17) in the first instance, but which bc-
cime, in time, so far as it could, a cuide to all the
iniests who u.sed the Roman olHco.s. Mnbillon
has printed three libelli ile Missa Pontificnii
(Ord. i. ii. iii. u. s. 1-60). which may bo called
three edilion<,ditferin«t little in age, of the same
directory; two otheis, de Missa E/iiscnp'ili(r. vi.
61-70), which, tVom the celebrant being called
epi.scopus .n freiiuently as pontife.x and from
other ia lications, appear to he inteuled for the
use of anv bishop; one "Ordo.Scrutinii ndelectos,
nualiter.lel)ei\tcolebrari"(vii. 77-8 1); and two
coiiceiuir'"' the ordination of the clergv (viii. ix.
35-9+)[Oniii.,-vi,]: all of which were, in the judg-
ment of the edii.r, " written before the 9th m-
Mth century "(Cimwoiit, Prnen.iy.). One of the
libelli de Afiss i Episcnpnliahove-meat'umi'd, speaks
of the strictly Roman book from which it was
derived ni, nomnmts Ordo (O. vi. 8, p. 7,3); and
under this name a directory authorised bv
Rome was adopted in (3aul tow.irds the end
of the 8th centurv : " Uausquaqna pro«bvter
mis^am ordine Romano cum snndaliis celebrct "
{UjiituhriaRrg, Franc, v. 371). Penitents were
^5-: iin;oiieili"i, "siciit in sacrainentario, et in
Unhne Romano, eontinetur " (iWrf. vii, 202, and
U-KWJ Imci Ling. i. .3.'-)), Amalarius of Metz,
about 82ii, wroti. n commentary on parts of Drdn
u. (JfM. Hal. ii. 42-51) nnd«r the title of
ORDO
1.^21
Eglofrae In Ordinem Komanum," first printed
bv 11,1 n7.e («,/„Y. Jie,. fy a, i.i,-,..'); ,|„,„ fcy
MaluUm. («, s. p. .HO), in the body of which he
a so nam™ the libellus absolutely " l!„man«,,
'I'lo. He also frei|uently refers to this, and to
the apparently earlier form of it, Orh i (u .1
;_--H») 111 his work />e E,xl,;i„st:ris imdis,
there it is " Idbellus Romnnus" (I. 17 . iij ..7)
•• Libellus Romaiii Ordinis " (i. ;(ii). or " | ibcUiis
qui contmet Romanum Ordinem" (i Ji) u
his treatise, /V Antiphm^ri,,, U, „g;,in cail.. it
"imply " Komanus Ordo " (c. ,V2). There also he
i-ecogi.izos the existence of more than one such
. M-eetory: " Scripta quae ,:i,nti„ent ,,er diverse,
libellos t^rdinem R.-uuanuin " (ihid.).
That the Ordo Romanus was later than the
sacrnmentary, and ancillary to it, is evident
Irom a reference to the latter in Ordn i. On
Wednesday in holy week the bishop 'Mi,,it „ra-
tii.nes solemnes, sicut in sacramentoriim (libro^
continetnr " (0. 28, p. 19). ll„t at length many
ot the directions of the Ordo were incorporated
with Uie sacramentary, and thus became " ru-
brics Compare, for example, the rnbricg
peculiar to Codex Kliginnu,, from which M.nnrd
prints {0pp. .S. Greg. torn. iii. 02, (U, Wednes-
day in holy week; ti.l, Maundy Thursday, &c.)
with Ord. Itom. i. § 28, .30, &c. The earliest
Ordivwas at least rewritten after the time of
t.harlemague, whom it thus mentions : " Sahbato
tempore Adriani institutnin est, ut flecteretur
pro Carolo rege " (24, coiiip. § 28). Usher sup-
poses that It was origin.ally compiled about 7^0
(Cave, //,,,«. Lit. in v. Ord, Horn.).
1 ^'^^ n"."','!'''' "*' •"■">''''"■ *^'*'' '*« rubrics, was
also calle<l Ordo. Thus in the Besannon sacra-
metitary of the 7th century, " li.cipit Ordo
Uaptismi • {Mm. Ital. i. ;)23); in a Roman
sncramentary of the 9th, "Ordo vero oualiter
catacizantur (v,„) est ita" (C«/. GMm. in
Marten. Ant. EcH. Kit. i. i. 18 ; Ord. fi); "Ordo
ad infirmum caticuminum (.w;) faciendum vel
bapfuandum (ibid. Ord. 7); " Incipit Ordo ad
poenitentiam dnndam " (/.>,■„,/. cod. u. s. i. yi. 7 .
Ord. 6), etc. Ratio was sometimes used in the
same sense ;as^ " Tacipit Ratio ,■.,1 dandam poeni-
tentiam (,W. 1 yi. 3, Ord. 2; sim. Urd. 10),
Ratio qua Iter Domus Dei consecrandns est"
(Pontificale tcgberhti, 26 ; ed. Surtees Soc )
Literature.--l„ 1.561,George Civssaiider j.rinted
at C.dogne four ancient "Libelli Ordinis Ro-
mam; A. "Ordo Proce.ssionis ad Kcclesiam siye
MLssam secundum Romanes;" Ii. "Ordo Pro
cessionisquando Kpiscopus fesfivis diebus Missam
celebiv.re yoluerit," &c. ; C. " In nomine Domini
mcipit Liber de Romano Ordine. qualiter celo-
branilnm sit Olficium Missae ; " D. " Luipit Ordo
tcclcsi isticus Romanae Kcclesiae, yel qualiter
Mi.ssa celebratur." In l.JtiS, Melchior Hittorp
reprinted these at Cologne in his collection of
tracts, Po Dmms Eccl. Oath. Ofliciis, in the order,
as comi>ared with that of Cassander, A B I) C
ro these he added a yery long "Ordo Romanus
Antiquus de reliquis Ann! totiusOinciis ac Miuis-
teriis compiled from several "libelli ordinis "of
very 'Merent dates, as it appears, probably by
,"" ■" ,"'" i "" '■ •'•■•I'J, wnicr. vv.i.s re-
published from another MS. with considerable
variations by Mart in Gerhert.JfonKff!. V,i l.i'ur.
♦ K u ^'".J;*'"''' "f <^«-^«''<l^T reappeared in
the Mus. Itat. of Mablllon, with two others
!
it .
ft
^m^^l
W&tttM
'^V^^^^l
f#^^^B
__L^l_lSiiy3^^flBaH^II
^B^^^I^n^^^^^^T^^vis^^^^l
I^^^^Hr "i^^^^^^l
^^r «^lt4a
H^^^^H
1622
OREMFS
lif
Hl
within our time, if we mistake not, nnd mnny
later. His m-der is tiiat c)f the iipparent dates ; I)
(iniioli enlai){(.(l); A ; C ; iv. ■' I i:ii;ineiituni Vet.
Ord. Honi. Aliss;i rcjutiticiili " (coniplete at the
end of Amaliuiiis, Kiilui/ae, lialuz. Cap. lieil. Fr.
ii. I:i6 ■ ; whi'ine Mahill. «. s. h'S and 01); v.
"Ordo lium. u. s. du Missa Kpisciipiili (primus);"
B. L. A. Muiatori has trauscrilied the earliest
of these (Mabill. i. Cass. D) into his Litnniia
HomiiM Vetits (torn. ii. p. 97'i) from Mabillon.
Gorbnit iilso gives D (the first part of Mah. i.)
in his Munuin. u. s. p. 144, from a MS. of the
9th century. [W. E. S.]
OIIKMUS (jS(T\6wn(v). This is the signal,
or iuvitiitiun, to the people to join in spirit
in tlie jir.iyer wliich is to follow. In the
West, except in Sjmin and i)erh:ips Gaul, both
the invitation and the prayer were uttered
by the priest, wlio was said respectively ura-
tioncin imlicere and dare. In the tast it
beloiiv;ed to the deacon's office to '• bid " the
prayers ; and the earlier and full form, of
which the Clementine Liturgy and that of St.
.James give several e.xample3, consisted in the
dcac^on announcing the topics of prayer to the
people clause l)y clause, while they res[)onded
Kilpie i\4rt(T0f, or some corresponding ejacula-
tion, at the close of which the priest summed up
the petitions in a collect. It is possibly a traoe
of a similar custom that we find in the Gelasian
Sacrameutary for certain days (e.g. lib. i. 41,
Ordo do ferii vi. passiune Domini) such directions
as these : " Sacerdos dicit Oreinus, et adnuntiat
diacouus Ftectamus genua. Et post jiaululum
dicit J.ovatc. Et dat orationem." Similarly,
Ordo liomanua 1. (Mabillon, Mua. Ital, torn. ii.
p. '22, &c.). That in Africa the priest bade the
prayers may be inferred from St. Aug. Kp. 217,
ad Vitalem, § 2 (Migne, toni. ii. 978), where he
says ''quiindo audis sacerdotem Dei ad altare
exhortantem pupulum L)ei orare pro incredulis,"
&c. In Spain and Gaul it appears that the
deacon gave tlie invitation, while the priest pro-
nounced the prayer (cf. Isid. Hispal. de Eccles,
Off. lib. ii. cap. 8 : " Ipsi (sc. diaconi) clara voce
in modum pracconis admonent cunctos, sive in
orando, sive in llectendo genua, .sive in psallen-
do, sive in loctionibus audiendo"; and immediately
afterwards "illi (sacerdoti) orare, huic (diacono)
psallerc mandatur." The sermon attributed to
Caosaritis of Aries, among the Sermmxes Supposit.
of St. Augustine, tom. v. app. i^erm. '286, §§ 1, 7,
suggest . the same conclusion. [Praeco ; Pros-
PHOSKSIS.]
In the present Mnzarabic Liturgy, "Oremus"
is only said twice, viz. before the " Agyos," and
before the Capituluin, which introituces the
Lord's Prayer.
It is worth while to notice the occurrence of
the word in the Koman Missal, just before the
offertory, where no spoken prayer follows it.
This probably marks the place of some variable
praver, answerinsr (it may be) to the .\mbrosi an
Oratio sitj^r sindvnem, which has become
disused. (See Pseudo-Alcuin d' IHv. Off. cap. ' de
Celebratione Missae,' and Amal. de Eccles. Off.
lib. 111. cap. lit.)
The ordinary use of the word in any of the
offices is to mark the beginning of a set prayer,
to be said by the priest aloud, in which the
people only concur by the concluding "Amen,"
ORGAN
in contradistinction to some other form of prnvtr
e.ij. by versicles and responses, or some otiiei'aci
of worship.
Autlvirities. — Bona, lior. Litunj. lib. ii. em
V. § 11; Du Cange, s.v. j Zaccaria, Onmn tatirun
Ritmle, ».v. [0. E. II,]
0UENTIU8 (1), martyr, with six br .then,
soldiers, under Galerius ; commemorate 1 .luiii' ■.'4
(Basil. Minol. ; Act i. SS. Jun. iv. 859.)
[•'• n,]
(2) " Of the number of the ancient confussdn,"
with Sccundus, at Antioch, Nov. 15. (Wright'i
Ant. Syr. Mart.).
0REP8ES, probyter, martyr with Or; com-
memorated Aug. 2U. (Basil. Mcnol.) [C. H.]
ORESTES (1), martyr, under DiocletisD;
commemorated Nov. 9. (Basil. Menol.)
(2) Martyr with Eustratius and others ; cnm-
memorated Dec. 13. (Basil. Menol. ; IMnii'l,
Cod. Litwy. iv. 277.) [C. H.]
ORGAN. The name "'organum" wiis at
first not restricted to a particular instrument,
but appears to have nearly (jeconie so bv St.
Augustine's time. (Commenting on Psalm cl. he
says: "Nam cum organum vocabulum gr.iecura
sit, ut dixi, generale omnibus musicis instrn-
mentis, hoc cui folios adhibentur alio Oiiieci
nomine appellant. Ut autem organum diciitur,
magis Latina et ea vulgaris est coiisuetuJo."
And — "Quamvis jam obtiuuerit consuetu.lo iit
organa proprie dicantur ea quae intlantiir lb|.
libus." So from his enarr. on Psalm Ivi,
(our 57th), "non solum illud organum diutur
quod grande est et intlatur follibus, sed quic-
quid aptatur ad cantilenam," we also ifiirn
that organs were of considerable size. In the
same comment he applies the term "organum"
to the cithara and the psalterium.
For a full account of the history of thii
instrument the reader must be ret'erred to Dr.
Rirabnult's portion of Hopkins and liinibault's
excellent work on this subject. There it it
conclusively proved that the first epoch which
distinguishes the antique organ from the meJI-
aeval one, viz., the invention of the keybonrii,
is very nearly synchronous with that which dii-
tinguishes antique from mediaeval musio, the
invention of the stave, being about the eud i;f
the nth century. Up to this time it would
appear that organs only diti'ered in .size .mJ
number of pipes, and in the appliances tor sup-
plying wind. The article " Hydraula" in Smith's
Diet. Greek and Bom. Antiij. gives the ea^lie^t
form of it.
Athenaeus says that it was invented by Ctesi-
bins, of Alexandria, from a contrivance applied
to a clepsydra, in order to announce the houn
at night. This contrivance is attributed to
Plato, but it .seems very doubttul, bec.iuse it It
only said of him as a tradition {KiyfTou), and
Aristoxenus was not acquainted with the thing;
he, being not far removed from Plato's liale, .ind
professedly writing on music, would be likely to
have known of such an invention of Plato'* (if
it were so). The organ oi' Ctesibius i» ui u/Urii
much later (Athen. Deipn. iv. 2:!).
The organ is simply a development of the
Syrinx or Pande«a pipe, and in its e«rliir«t form
consisted of a sm^ box into the top of »Uek t
ORGAN
row of pljiei WM Innflrtpd ; the wind was uipplied
frmn tlin |m'i rniinei's iiKnith by nicniis of a tube
«t mw mill I mill any |i||>,. was tiimle to sminj by
ini'«n» i.f ilrawiii){ a sllilo which wmiia opon
the h(.l<) ill which the pipe was plncod ; the sliile
Wiij; |Mi»hc(l in ai;aiii, the hole was clnscil, nnd
thi' i:miiiiiuiiicnti(iii between the pijie ami the box
Willie thiii4 (!iit oli; the siMMvl imme.iiately ceased.
In miiiliTii .ir){8ii9, for those ulidea have beeii
liilwtitiitcil valves or pallets.
Tlie liiMt object Keeiiied to be to nngnient the
imiiil, by multiplying the number of pipes
which would bi. in unisoi> with each other-
anil Ctuniliiun lias the reputation of having
iiiv<ntci|, or reiiilcred practicable, the perforated
iliilii, which enabled the performer to have the
I,i|.«H more umler <oinmaii,i. This will be best
uiiilerttoml by the following Hgurc, which repre
NNti the holei iii which the pijies stand.
OKOAN
1528
[Thii would be now technically called an
orzaii of three atoin.]
Lich of the aliiles mentioned before would
cover one of the vertical columns in the above
(inure, and Ctcsibius's slides would cover one of
the hnriziintal rows; the modern analogue of
the latter is the " register " or " stop." If three
c»ril» be taken pierced with holes exactlv as in
the h({iiie, and the one be kept wlioje, and the
others divided into aections containing respec-
tively a vertical column and a horizontal row so
ai ti. l« movable, nnd the three be idaced over
mh other, the action will be clearly seen.
The incre.ue in the number of pi'pes required
all.) artihclal methcKls for supplying wind ; the
bellow, was adojited, and bv the 'time of the
einiien.r .(ulian the Apostate had become so
l«r({e «» to be made of a bull's hide. This
appcara from an epigram of his :
'AA*' uir!> Tavp.i,)5 irpoSopwi/ oir^Atryyo? a>)T>)t
Unn the organ became a complicated instrument
iertulllan (lii Animd. xiv.) uses it as a similitude
or the many members composing one bodv
Speda portentlssimam Archiraedi's munificen-
iBiti, orgaijum hydrolicum dico, tot membra
tot pint,.,, lot compagineii, tot itinera vocum'
compenilia sonornm, tot commercia modorum'
ot BoIeK tibiarum, et una moles erunt omnia."
II would .cem from this that the orean was
mT'Tr ? \° '"' P'''^^'' '" the various
mode., Dorian. Lydian, &c., and thus supplied
with p,,^, all the sounds of the complete
It? '.k""."""^'" ^''' ^' un^lerLod
to .elude the "Genera," we shonl.l have an
«r|[no a compass of three octaves and a
iMie, with some quarter-tones in ir ; but it
nm be much smaller than this. T),e " com-
p.nd,a,o„orum" would appear to be slides, to
u off the wind altogether, or from .some of the
tm, of pipes, ,.e. our modern "stops" rthe
homontal row, in the flsure piven »V..Ll.V";J
"I. iiiNBra vocum " would probablv be the row
olm> belonging to the aame note (the vertical
Minmoa Ir, the figure). ^ »"uca.
^T .«: "''«"°"'"' "'"' "' ^'°8u:ae aonent,
''■■WT. ANT,— VOU U.
sed ut Hiversltnta concordissima consonent, sicut
o dinantur ,u organ,, " Thus the organ vo I
he 1 U led ,„ „ whide combination of di.Iercnt
ical instruments.
; 'c Wind was supplied either directly from «
bviiw ';'■'■;'' '/ '"""'('" """" '■"»<>» worked
bj the weight of a man standing on it), con-
stitutnig a "i,neum,itic" or-ai, ■ or t ,V \c , I
nvnnthebCloUwassul^cctid't;,:; ;
».re to steady its supply, constituting an -hv.
diaul|c"org,-,n. The latter sort was at fir't
considered the better, but afterwards U w^
aujierseded by the other. ' it. wda
Vos^sius (,/« JV,„„/,„„ c.tntH) savs that the
use of hydraulic organs had ceasedat ho time
of Cassiixiorus (.ith century), and this at,,
ci ed as meniion ng organs as in co„,n,„n use
He gives the (ollowing quotation from Claudian :
•• Vel qm, magna IhvI dctru.lens mi.rmura tactu,
Innuui, ras voces segelis niodiiiatur aheiiae
Jntonut .rraoil digiu, ,.e.,itusquc traball '
Vecte liborantcs In airmina concltut undas."
From this it appears that the pines were
durrbJ^',"""^' "'\!"T'^ "'"^ ">e iound p o!
Uuced by drawing the slides. ^
This pi-iictice was continued as late as the
.me of St. Dunstan; the pipes are the^
Vcssiu.s tells us that the barbarians tried un-
u cessfully to make hydraulic organs, and so
us ally they were made pneumatic, with leather
bellows, but that the lydrnulic oies «er till
considered superior. Jle quotes Cassio loru '
de.cr,ptionofone: "organumest qua.i tur"is
quaedam diversis fistulis fabricatn, quibus (I tu
'.'l.um vox copiosissinia destinatur fva" W
dis.inetur]; et ut earn modulatio decora com-
ponat, linguis quibusdam ligneis ab in erimi
imrte construitur, quas discijdinabiliter n g
trorum digit repnmentes, grandisonan" elfi.
ciunt et suavissimam cantileuam "
There is a yerv singular poem representine
r4thTr; ^^"^"'■•"» 'Porphyrins Optathin if
bert. One thing seems to be clear fr,.„ this
bT'of t'h '^' '""8"' '"'"'""'^ 'hereiore the
ba s of the organ, was at the performer's right
hand, precisely contrary to ourVresent arr^mVe.
ment, but analogous to that of the harp so far
Ihis airangement was probably adopted as
orresponding to that of the strings of the lyre
appears from the latter part of this poem
^at the pipes were made of bronze, and arra'^ge"
X \ " '5'""l'-«"g">ar (""rm, as in the figure
given above, and these appear to have bee"
shut the ho es ,n which the pipr , were placed •
the wind being supplied by a number of 'youths
each in charge of a bellows. ^
A representation preserved in Gori's Thesaurus
Dpt^forum (sa d to be from a MS. of the ti^
of Charlemagne) seems to agree with this ver'
V..II, Kmg Oavid on « throne, playing a lyre'
s accompanied by three men on a trumpet a
sort of violin or barbitc and a set of bel s /or
perhaps cymbal.,); ~nd ..-her off is a pneu'
matic organ, with the 'e; '.rmer (seated at the
extreme right, in the t.io.ircular part of the
97
■■■ I :
i
1
-
un <iji
I
1B24
ORGAN
drawing) working the slides, suil another blowing
the bullows. It woul 1 suein most probuble that
the kinR i» viewing one enJ of the •rjjan, no ut
to 801! both the organist ami the bellows-blower,
they beinu on n|i|iosite sides of the instruineui.
This would (lilt the longest, i.e. the buss, iii|ics op-
posite the orgiinist's right hand. (See cut No. 1.)
At this end of the organ apiiear to be two
other slides, and these would seem ii. >st pro-
bably to bo registers or stops, runniui; under a
rank of pipes such as that shown in the draw-
ing ; there would, therefore, be another similar
ORGAN
autbor, quoted in Hawkins, llist. of ifusi,; p,
iiDH), and «u hydraulic one wa.s rurteil nt An-
la-Chapelle in 8J0, for Louis t .: I'l us, by nw
Oeorge, or rather (Jregory, a V '..etiuu, lU't.r the
Greek manner (Vossius.Ui' J'tjenuitum Cmiu); i,ut
though the writers of that nge hud praisiil (ire-
gory'sund''rtaking,theydid notsay wnctln i wui
« success. An organ was also sent to <'hurb:ii]a)(nB,
by the Caliph Har uu Alraschid, and v. ,,s probiil.ly
placed in one of lue churches of An-la-Chapfile.
S. Aldhelm (ifc /nude I in/inum) is quut.a in
proof that the external pipes of organs lu banoo
Ho. I. Orgsn. From Oori't nrnmrnu thplf^on*^
rank behind these ; thiS 'rgan would be of two
stops, unless some more were understood. The
dlides worked 'y the performer would run trans-
versely to the ranks of pipes, and each slide
would open two (or perhaps more) pipes of the
same sound. The performer seems to be pulling
one slide out and pushing another in, thus pass-
ing from one note of his tune to the following
note. He had, previously to his performance, it
would seem, gone to the bass end of the instru-
ment, and drawn out two stops.
The use of organs in churches is, on the autho-
rity of Platinu and others, ascribed to pope
Vitalian (658-672); but Lorinus gives it a
higher antiquity. " .lulianus, unus de auctoribus
catenae in Job multo antiquinr Vitaliano et
Gregorio raagno, ait cum pietate organa usurpari
posse, et jam in templis usnm illorura fuisse
cum scriboret." " In Concilio Ooloniensi praecipi-
tur sic adhiberi organorum in templis melodiam,
ut non lasciviam magis quam dcvotionem excitet,
et ut praeter hymnos divinos canticaque spiri-
tualia, quidquam resonet ac repraesentet. Ponti-
fex in Capella, et graves quidam relligiosi, eornm
abstinent usu." But in England the contrary
practice obtained, as the monastic churches were
gcncrtily provided with orjjsns, as appears from
the account of the death of king Edgar (Sir H.
Spelman, Glossan/, s. v. Organ) : but it does not
appear that they were in use in any other
churches. (Compare Music, p. 1346.)
In 797 an organ was sent to king Pepin, by
the emperor Constantine (tract by an unknown
times were gilded. The quotation hitherto given
consists of the last three lines of the following
extract : —
"Si vero quleqnnra chordarum respult odas
Et potior* cuplt quam pulset pcctliK! chordas
IJuis I'nalnitsla plus psallebat cantibus ollra,
Ac mentem magiio gesiit moduluniine pascl
Et caiitu graclli refugil conu-nlus ailisae,
Maxima mlllenis auscuitans urfum flabiis,
JIulcoat auilitum vento>l« follibus isle,
yuaniUbet auralis ftilgescaiit caetcra capsis."
It appears to the writer of this article thsl
the contrary is rather prov.-d— that the beautiful
appearance arising from gilding, &c., refers to
other instruments, and that the organ had to
appeal for its adoption to considerations of sound
only, and had the disadvantage of an unpleasini!
appearance. Certainly the representations of it
are not very attractive to the sight. But this
passage does prove that organs in the 7th and
8th centuries were large, although "miHem'
must be considered somewhat indefinite. So M.
Augustine, " quod grande est " above. Not much
later than our period an organ was erected at
Winchester, with fourteen bellows and 400 pipes,
40 to each key. This also had the " lyric semi-
tone," and it would seem most probable that i«
compass wa« ^
It was blown by 70 (?) men, and played on by
iSUiiiifjlifiJjJ
[ht. of J/risiV, p.
reitml Bt An.
,f I'l us, by iiii)
■..ftiiiii, aftiT the
ittuin t'intu) ; hut
IiikI )ir»lHi''l (ire-
my wiMithi I wiii
t tiil'hivi'li:iiiai(ne,
Rliil w.iii iiriiliiilily
r Aix-lii-OhnpullB,
lunt) is quoti'il in
bion hithprto gires
I of the following
I renpult odas
t ppctlnp chordas
kl caniibuA o[lm,
ixluluniine paacl
I'litua aili'sse,
urganu flubris,
illibim isle,
I c»tt«r» capsia."
f this article tli«t
—that the beautiful
iing, &c., refers to
the organ had to
siderations of sound
^e of an unpleasing
epresentations of it
le sight. But this
ins in the 7th and
though "millenij"
t indefinite. So SI.
; " above. Not much
gan was erected at
Hows and 400 pipes,
ad the " lyric semi-
)st probable that its
ORGAN
two monki: "Kt rogit alphnbetnm rectrir
ntirrjuo mum," which ap|iareiitly rn.an» that
one niaiiaged the ilidim thut rnu»i..d th« pii|,:i to
jpcali, and the other marisged the rank* of pi(„.j
to be used ; in modern parliince, one jdaying nn
the keyboard, the other shifling the utopK ; .mly
the»e were later improvements (ao« Wolstnu's
poen, quoted in Hojikins and Kimbault, p. l(i);
or it might pnasibly mean that the set of slides
wai distributed between these two men to
manaic the one, perhaps, taking the lower
portion, and the other the ujipor, making, in
Ikt, a duet performance, which might be a
ORGAN
1626
»n Hopklnn and Riml.aulf» Book on the Oriran
p. 18." (See cut No. ,|.) '
Jt is there dea.ribed nn n pnenmatin nrean •
but the writer cannot help thinkiuK that th^
cylinders m tlie basement nie inlmded to hold
water, an.I tlm.i make it an hydraulic orRan.
Ihe smaller of these contains eight i ,„«,.
apparently arranged in two tetrachords, to
each of wlu.h IS us.signed an organist ; which
somewhat bears out the 8uppo,iti„a of a duet
pcrtormance menti.med just almve; the most
jdausib)« 8upp.«iti, , for the compass ieema to
«o. a. Om»u, trum Ulredit emUa. Wartmgd^ faoinMli.
<l^ Atitlo-Sm.Tii and trials MiS.
. >l I'S
I. S. Onmn. Frnm US. P«lter of Eadwloe, to Trinllr CWtgt Ubmry.
«ry considerable advantage in accompanying
the plain-song, when we remember that every
sound produced involved the drawing of a slide
«nd pushing it in again.
The accompanying engraving (No. 2> from the
Utrecht psalter represents an organ of the 8th
century ; a better and larger instrument is rcpre-
«oted in an Anglo-Saxon MS. now in the Library
of Trinity College, Cambridge, and is engraved
■■■'I
• The earliest known representation of this instrument
seems to be that oti the south has-rellef of the iied^stal of
the obelisk of Thotbmes, still sUndlng in the Atmeldan
or Hippodrome of Oonstantinople. It dates from a.d.
390. See Texler and PuUan, Bytantine Architeeturt,
P" "• (R. St. J. T.l
5 F3
"II .J
*>.
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)
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Sciences
Corporation
23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580
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1626
OBIENS
the synemmenon and diernymenon tetrnchords.
The other has ten pipes, which might be
imagined to be —
^=^^
B=r
If this be true, the bass pipes had got placed at
the performer's left hand, as we liave got them
now. It is not at all evident how these men
were conceived as playing; they are placed
behind the organ, and of course the slides they
had to manipulate are out of sight ; possibly
the artist may be representing them as about to
commence, and giving directions to their four
bellows-blowers to give them plenty of wind to
start with. [J- 14- ^■']
ORIENS, bishop of Ansciura, commemorated
May 1. (Usuai-d. Mart.); Orientius {Ilieron.
Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mai. i. 61.) [C. H.]
ORIENTATIOV. A term applied to the
situation of churches, with the sanctuary, or part
containing the altar, towards the east.
One of the earliest traces of orientation is found
in the Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 57), " And first
let the house be oblong, turned to\cards the
east, the pastophoria on either si'le towards
the east." It is asserted, indeed, by Mabillon (de*
Zituryia Oatlicana, i. 8), when speaking of the
ancient churches, that " they all used to end in
an apsis or bow, and used to look towards the
east." This statement, however, needs some
qualification. For the church of Antioch is
described by Socrates {Hist. Ecd. lib. v. cap. 22),
who says that " it had its position inverted ; for
its altar looks not towards the East, but towards
the West." Paulinus speaks of the orientation
of a church, not as the universal or obligatory
usage, but only as "morem usitatiorem." On
the whole, it appears that the eastern position
of the altar was the rule, but that there were
exceptions to it from very early times. For the
origin of this usage, see Kast, p. r)86.
In the attempt to form an opinion upon the
subject we must not lose sight of the fact that
others besides Christians have had a rule of the
kind. There is an elaborate discussion of the
point in the Lexicon Uniivrsilo of Hofmann
(s. V. Occidens). He shews, upon the authority
of Josephus, that both in the tabernacle and
in the temple the arrangements of the struc-
ture were such as to cause the Jcwi.sh wor-
shippers to face, not towards the east, but to-
warils the west, in the functions of religion.
Waimonides (On Prai/er, cap. xi. 1, 2) tracs the
usage to a still higher antiquity, finding
evidence in Scripture itself that such was the
position adopted by Abraham upon Mount
Moriah — a position which amongst the Jews
was not confined to tabernacle and teniple, but
extended likewise to synagogue and jirayer-
house. He adds a reason of the usage — that
inasmuch as the gentile heathen faced toward
the east, it was proiier that the people of God
should adopt the opposite position. Under this
head the following passage from a vision of
Ezekiel is relevant : " And he brought mo into
the inner court of the Lord's house, an 1, behold,
at the door of the temple of the Lord, between
the porch and the altar, were about five and
ORLEANS, COUNCILS OP '
twenty men, with their backs toward the
temple of the Lord and their faces toward the
east ; and they worshipped the sun toward the
east " (Kzek. viii. 1 U). There is some dilficultjr
in harmonizing the statements of Vitruvius and
other pagan writers of authorit) as to the
orientation of the altar, the sacreil image, and'
the worshipper in the temples of the heathen.
But the following passage of Clement of Ali'i-
andria may perhaps be taken as giving a cli;ar
and accurate account of their usage; "The must
ancient temples (of the pagans) looked towards
the west (i.e. had their entrance towarls the
west), that those who stood with their fa( e to-
wards the image might be taught to turn towanls
the east " {Slnim. vii. 7, § 43). Hence tlie
practice of orientating a church mav lie, in its
origin, one of those many customs which Chris-
tianity found current in the pagan world, niii
which by a wise economy it took up and turned
to its own purjjose. A long discourse on the
entire subject will be found by those who wish
to pursue it farther in the Annals of carilinal
Baronius (Ann. 68, c. 105). [H. T. A.]
ORION, martyr, commemorated at Alex-
andria, Aug. 16. (Wright's Ant. Si/r. Mart, in
./oum. Sac. Lit. 1866, 428 ; Hieron. Mart. ; Boll.
Acta SS. iii. 289.) [C. H.]
ORLEANS, COUNCILS OP (Aireua-
NENSiA Concilia). (1) a.d. 511, by order of
Clovis; on the tenth day of the fifth month
according to some MSS. which the lest mnke
July (shewing that the Gallicaii year began
then in March), as the authors of L Art
<le v^rif. les Dates observe, presided over by
Cyprian, metropcditan of Bordeaux, who sub-
scribed first, with thirty-one bishops, all of whos«
sees are given, after him, the bishop of Orleans
as low down as last hut two. The Isidorian
collection, bowevei-, may be thought to discredit
this order. The number of canons passed was
likewise thirty-one; " dont quelquos uns," say
the same authorities, " entreprennent sur la
jurisdiction civile. Tel est le quatrieme qui
ordonne que les fils, les petits-fils, et les arriere-
petits-fils de ceux qui ont vecu dans la cleri-
cature, demeureront sous le pouvoir et la
jurisdiction de I'tSveque. Les piies de I'assora-
blee dans le cinquieme reconnaissent que tontes
lee (!glises tiennent du Roi les fonds dont elles
sont dotiSes ; c'est 14, ai Ton croit un modeine, le
fondement de la K^gale. On ne pouvait guJre
la tirer de plus loin." In the earlier part of
the fourth, which they inadvertently call the
sixth canon, it is ordained that no secular person
shall be taken for any clerical office, except by
command of the king or with consent of the
judge. Of the rest, tlio first three prescribe
rules for dilferent jicrsons who have taken
sanctuary. By the eighth, any bishop knowingly
ordaining a slave unknown to his master is
mulcted to his master of twice his price. By
the ninth, a deacon or presbyter committing a
capital crime, is to be removed from his office and
from communion. By the sixteenth, bishops are
bound to relieve the poor, sick, and disabled, to
the utmost «d' tiiL-ir power. By the nghtcrnife,
no brother may marry the widow of his deceasti
brother. By the nineteenth, monks are to ob*y
their abbat, and abbats the bishops. The twenlv-
sixth says: "cum ad celebrandas missaa in
ORLEANS, COUNCILS OP
Dei nomine convenitur, populus non ante discedat |
quim missae Bolenuitaa oompleatur; et, ubi
episc.-ipus fuerit, benedictionem accipiat sacer-
dotis." The twenty-seventh : " rogationes, id
tst, litaniiis ante ascensionem Domini ab omnibus
ecclesiis placuit celebrari ; ita ut praemissum
triciuaiium jejunium in Dominicae ascensionis
I'eitivitate solvatur." . . The last: " episcopua,
ii intinnitate non fuerit impeditus, ecolesiae cui
proiimus fuerit die Dominico deesse non liccat."
A short letter from these bishops to the king is
preserved, begging him to confirm what thev
had decreed, If it met with his approval. Many
more canons are given to this council by llur-
chard and others. (Mansi, viii. 347-72.)
(2) A.D. 533, or 636 according to Mansi, June
2.1; by order of the kings of France, when
twenty-one cinons on discipline were passed, to
which Honoratus, bishop of Bourges, subscribed
first, Leontius, bishop of Orleans, second, with
twenty-four bishops and (ive representatives of
absent bishops after them. As regards their
matter, the seven first relate to bishops, metro-
politans, and councils ; the eighth aud ninth to
deacons and presbytei-s ; the tenth and eleventh
to marriage. By the thirteenth, abbats, guar-
dians of shrines (martyrarii), recluses, and
presbyters, are inhibited from giving letters of
peace (epi4olia : which is, however, the correc-
tion of Ou Cange, for apostolia, which he cannot
explain). "Presbyter, vel diaconus sine Uteris,"
says the sixteenth, " vel si baptizandi ordiuem
nesciat, nuliatenus ordinetur." Tlie seventeenth
and eighteenth are directed against deaconesses,
of whom no more are to be ordained. By the
aineteenth, Jews and Christians may not inter-
marry. By the twentieth. Catholics who go
back to id(datry, or partake of moats offered to
idols, are to be excluded from church-assemblies.
By the twenty-first, abbats refusing to obey
bishop? are to be excluded from communion.
This c mncil is not given in the Isidorian col-
lection. (Mansi, viii. 835^0.)
(3) ...D. 538, May 7, the preface to which
leeras hardly consistent with so short an interval
betwee.i this and the last council ; and this, on
the othe- hand, is given in the Isidorian collec-
tion. It \vas attended by nineteen- bishops, of
whom the •netropolitan of Lyons subscribed
first, aud the bishop of Orleans last, and by the
representatives of seven absent bishops. Thirty-
three canons on discipline were passed, most of
them testifying to a general neglect of the canons
from the metropolitan downwards, and some of
them not easy to understand. [Communion
HOLV, p. 419.] The thirtieth forbids Jews to
mix with Christians from Maundy Thursday
till Easter Monday. The thirty-first threatens
the civil judge with excommunication who
permits heretics to rebaptize Catholics with
impunity, because, say the bishops, " It is cer-
tain^ that we have Catholic kings." (Mansi, ix.
(4) A.D. 541, when the metropolitan of Bor-
deaux presided anc subscribed first of thirty-
ei,?ht bishops, the last being the bishop of
Orleans, and the twelve following him the
representatives of absent bishops. Ihirty-eight
canons were passed ; but it is to be observed
that neither this nor the next council is included
in the Isidorian collection. The first and
•wad canons relate to Easter. The fifteenth
ORPHANAGE
1527
and sixteenth shew that paganism was not
yet extinct in France; the seventeenth that
there were priests aud deacons who were married
men though it. prohibits their living as such •
the twentieth decrees :" Ut nullns saecularium
personarum, praetermisso pontil.ce, seu prae-
posito ecclesLie, quemquam clericorum pro sui
potestate coustringere, discutero audeat. vel
damnare . . ." The twenty-seventh renew, the
tenth canon of the preceding council of OrWans
three years before," and likewise the thirtieth
of that of hpaune a.d. 517, against incestuous
marriages. (Mansi, ix. 111-22).
r^S'lK''-^- ^,*^' ^'^- -**' convened by king
Childebert, when, according to some manuscripts,
the bishop of Lyons, according to others, the
bishop ol Aries subscribed first, and the other
second ; lorty-eight more bishops luid twentv-
one representatives of absent bishops complete
the list ; but the bishop of Orleans was
not ainong them, having been unjustly ban-
ished, though he was restored here. Twenty-
iour canons were pa3,sed, the first of which is
somewhat alter date, directed against the fol-
lowers of Lutyches and Nestorins. The second
ordains "Ut nullus sacerdotum quemquam
rectae fidei homiuem pro parvis et levibus causis
a commuuione suspendat . . ."; the ninth,
Julius ex laicis absque anni couversione pi-ae-
missa episcopus ordinetur. . .", and the twelfth,
iNulli viventi episcopo alius superponatur aut
superordinetur episcopus; nisi forsitan in ejus
locum, quem capitalis culpa dejecerit." The
fifteenth relates to a hospice (xenodochium)
founded at Lyons by the king aud his consort
(Mansi. IX. 127-40).
(6) A.D. 638, " ou environ," say tiie authors of
L Artde vfnj. Ics Dates, but it is variously fixed,
and the sole authority for it is a vague statement
by Audoenua, archbishop of Kouen,'in his Life of
bt. i,ligm8, to the etiect that an un-named heretic
was confuted in a meeting of bishops at Orleans,
due to the exertions of that saint previously
to his being made bishop. It can hardly pasi,
therefore, for a sixth council. (Mansi, x. 7,^9-62.)
[K. S. Ff.l'
ORNATURA. A kind of fringe going round
the edge of a robe, .sometimes woven of gold
thread and sewn on. It is mentioned byCaesarins
ofArles, among the things which he forbids to
be introduced into convents, "plumaria et
acupictura et omne polymitum vel stragula, sive
m'^?."™^ J'^^'-'- '"^ '■'■'•?•«• 42; Patrol. Ixvii.
nib ; cf. Recap, c. 11, ib. 1118). See Ducange,
Wussanum, s. v. ro on
ORONTIUS martyr with Vineentius and
Victor, at Lmbrun; commemorated June 22
(Usuard. Mart.) fC H 1 *
ORPHANAGE (ip^vorpoptToy, orphano.
trophmm). l-rom the very first the duty of
assisting the orphan, among the other classes of
destitute and helpless persons, was recognised as
incumbent on the Christian. St. Ignatius (£p.
ad. hmyrn cap. vi.) mentions it as one of the
marks of the liBfuvodoi t' -it " ^^-„ - x "
'- ■■---it-uoi I ..« thry citrc not tor
the widow, the orphan, or the distressed."
Again and again in the Apostolical Constitutions
cxtiortations are given concerning them to the
bishop to protect them, to individual Christians
to remember them in their charity and, if jk...
1528
ORTHRON
iible, to adopt them. The wny in which they
are eDumerHted in the Clementine Liturgy in the
Deacon's Litany, along with " Iteailurs, singers,
virgins and widows," suggests that perhaps there
may have been some sort of formal " cliurch roll "
kept of them, and it is obviims that so long as
the church was a proscribed and perseruted reli-
gious body, her pi-ovision for thiMn could not
have gone beyond some such institution as this.
With the time of Constantine came endowments
for this and similar piirposes, which he ftirmally
permitted, and himself sot the example of giving.
(l:;u»eb. //. E. x. 6, and Vit. Const, iv. 28). It
was looked upon as a fitting duty for a cleric to
undertake the guardianship of orphans, and in
managing their uHairs even to mingle in secular
business (^Conc. Chtilced. o. 3). Clerics seem
commonly to have been at the head of orphan-
ages and hospitals (Zonaras in can. 8, Cunc. Ckal-
ced.). At Constantinople the orphanotrophus,
who was necessarily a priest, and who was a
public guardian of the orphans, wiw an oflioial of
high rank. [Hosi'ITAlS.]
By a Krankish capitulary (C(me. Qcrm. ii. 29)
immunities are granted to orphanages expressly,
along with other charitable foundations ; sliewing
that by the beginning of the 9th century such
institutions were widely recognised.
Both at Rome and Constantinople orphans
from the orphanage were employed as choristers |
BO that in some Greek rituals (see Goar, p. it.59)
the word 6iKpavot is used for "choir-boys," and
at Rome (see Anast. Biblioth. t'« Vitt Sergii /A.)
the orphanotrophium came to be used na the
Schola Cantorum. [C. E. H.]
ORTHRON. [HouBS of Prayer, p. 794.]
ORUy (?), bishop, martyr, commemorated
Sept. 14, with the presbyter Serapion. (Wright's
Ant. Sur. Mart, in JounuU of Sac. LU. 18(56,
429.) [C. H.]
OSCENSE CONCILIUM. [Huesca, Coun-
cil OF.]
OSCULATORIUM. [Kiss, p. 903.]
08EA (Hosea), prophet, commemorated with
Haggai, July 4. (Usuard, Mart, ; Vet. Rom.
Mart; Boll. Acta SS. .lul. ii. 5); Oct. 17
(Basil. Menol.) ; Fob. 21 (Cu/. i'M.op.) [C. H.]
OSTIANU."-, presbyter and confessor in
Vivarois; commemorated Juno 30. (Usuard.
Mart. ; BolL Acia SS. Jun. v. 578.) [C. H.]
08TIARIU8 (Buouphs, wuAcspii, «<rrfopioj).
It is argued by Bingnam {Antuj. iii. 6) that the
order of ostiarii was introduced at Rom« in a time
of persecution, tho earliest mention of them being
in a letter of (.'ornelius, bishop of Rome, in
the 3rd century (It^useb. Iliat. vi. 43). The order
has been laid aside in the Greek church from
the time of the Trullan council (A.n. 692). But
whatever may have boon the date of the intro-
duction of the ostiarius as a functionary of the
church, the word was certainly used in a very
similar sense in pagan times. For not only was
there an ostiarius (thn modern concierge) at
the entrance of a private house under the Roman
empire ; but while tho basilica whs still a court
of justice it had an ollicer (ostiarius) whose
duty it was to regulate the approach of the
OSTIARIUS
litigants to the judge, and who^e name still
survives in the French term huisnier, and ths
English uther, applied to officials who arc charged
with similar duties. (See Hofmann, Lex Cnw,
I. V.) [('ompare Doorkeei'er.]
The definition of his duties given by Charle-
magne (Frngm. cfe Jiitib. Vet. Eccl.} is as follows :
" Ostiarius ab ostio ecclesiae dicitur, quod its
debet praevidere, ne uUo niodo paganus ingre-
diatur ecclesiam, quia suo introitn pollult earn.
Debet etiam custodire ea quae intra ecclesiam
sunt, ut salva sint." The first duty then of the
ostiarius was to keep the door of the church,
but only that one through which the men
entered. The door through which the women
passed was kept by a deaconess {Constit. Apost,
ii. 61, quoted by Mede, 0pp. p. 327). The
object of this guardianship was to prevent
the entry of improper persons. Martene observes
from St. Augustine that the ostiarii of the
Donatists would admit no one to their churches
till they had enquired of him to which com-
munion {sc. orthodox or Donatist) he belonged
(de Eccl. Sit. i. viii. 8, 10). In the ancient
Roman church a custom prevailed of the
ostiarius asking every one for a certificate of
faith (libellum fidei) before admitting him into
St. Peter's. To the great church of Constanti-
nople there were attached no fewer than seventy-
five ostiarii (Suicer, Vwaurtis, 1417).
In the fragment of the letter of pope Cor-
nelius to Fabius of Antioch, the Ostiarii are
spoken of with exorcists and lectors as amount-
ing to fifty-two. (Migne, p. 743.)
The ostiarii were termed an orJo, the word
used of their appointment was ordiwire; and
this " ordination " was solemnly performed Kt
the bishop, with a service which appears to havj
been substantially the same in all the ancient
Rituals and Pontificals. See Ordination, III,
ii. 1, p. 1510.
Rv the synod of Laodicea (cent. 4) the ostiarii
were forbidilen, in common with all other clerics,
to enter a ])ublic house (can. 24). From another
canon (22) of the same council, it might be in-
ferred that the duties of the ostiarius were at
times performed by other oi-ders. " The minister
(subdeacon : Hefele) may not leave his place at
the door." [See Doorkeepebs, p. 574.]
[H. T. A.]
OSTIARIUS (Monastic), the port'!, of the
monastery ; sometimes called "janitor," or " por-
tarius."
The gatekeeper or doorkeeper was an im-
portant personage in the monastery, entrusted as
he was with the twofold responsibility of keeping
the monks from going out, unless with the
abbat's permission, and of allowing strangers to
come in. Being thus the medium of cummuni-
cation between the monastery and the world out-
side, it was imperative that he should be s man
of trustworthiness and discrimination. The very
lowliness, in one sense, of the office made it all
the more honourable among those whose prot'essed
aim and object in life was self-abasement (Rufiu.
Hist. Monach. c. 17).
Tho importance of keeping the membsvsnf the
monastery within its walls was admitted gene-
rally, in accordance with the old Benedictine rule
that eacn monastery ought, if possible, to hafe
its garden, mill, bakery, supply of water, and
OSTIARIUS
Becessarv trades within its precincts (Bened.
Seii. c. 66). Only one way of egress was per-
mitted, or at moat two. Mut;h de|wndcd on tlie
porter being di^crl.•et (Bened. Seg. c. 6ij). He was
to be a man not only advanced iii years but grave
»nd sedate in oliaracter, dead to the world • with
a younger and more nimble monk to carry nies-
ssgea for him if necessary (/').). By the rule of
Magister there were to be two porters, both aged
men, one to relieve the other (ite/. Ma;, c. xcv.).
In the Thebaid in such esteem was the office held
that the porter was to be a presbyter (Pallad.
Hist. I'dis. c. lx.\i.). .Sometime.^, in earlier davsj
when visitors were not so numerous, the porter
had also the superintendence of the guest-cham-
ber (hospitium) and of the outer cloisters, as
well as of the abbat's kitchen. (Martene, h'ca
Ben. Comm. c. 66.) "'
Sometimes, indeed, the porter was promoted
to be abbat (JIartene, «. «.). Benedict gives an
especial emphasis to the chapter in his rijle (" \)e
0-tiario"), by ordering it to be read aloud
repeatedly, that ignorance might never be
pleaded for its infraction.
The porter's cell was to be close to the gate-
way (76.). He was to inspect all comers through
a small barred window or grating in the door,
bidding those whom he thought worthy to wait
within the door, and the rest without, till he
could learn the abbat's pleasure. Kverv night
at the hour of compline he was to take his
keys to the abbat or prior. When called awav
to chapel, to refectory, or to lection, he was
to leave the gate locked, neither ingress nor
effress being allowed at those times. It was part
of his duty to distri' ute the broken meat and
other scraps of food after meals to the mendi-
cants waiting outside the door, and to see that
the horses, dogs, &c., of strangers were dulv
attended to. (76.) ^
Benedict speaks of visitors knocking at
♦ht. door or crying out to be let in. Some
ntators have imagined that he speaks
ly of the rich and the poor (/'..).
.ection that the porter is to reply " Deo
O.Uias," or " Benedic," has been similarly ex-
plained as meant for these two classes re-
spectively. Another reading is <-' Bened icat "
"Benedic " or " Benedicat " is supposed to be in-
tended for a priest-jmrter, " Deo Gratias " for a
layman; or the latter to be used on first hearing
the knock or cry, the former on accosting the
applicant (/6. ; cf. Augustiu. Enarmt. in Pss.
ciuii.). Anyhow, this curious trait of monastic
manners recalls the primitive salutation of Boaz
an I his reapers in the story of Ruth in the Old
Testament. The words were to be spoken eentlv.
reverently, affectionately.
It was one of the laxit'ies of later ages that this
important ollice was not unfrequent'ly delegated
toa lay-brother, technically styled a " conversus "
or sometimes to a mere layman. Even so strict
«n order as the Cistercians allowed one of the
two porters in their larger abbeys to be a lay-
brnther. (Martene, u. s.)
There was an otficial in nunneries whose duties
correspcmded very closely with those of the
Mtmrms." It. was specially enacted in the
anonymous Rule, ascribed by some to Columba,
that the "ostiaria" or porteress should be not
only aged and discreet, but not given to eos-
•ippiDg. (%. Cujundam, 0. iii.) [I. G. S ]
PADEBBORX, COUNCILS OP 1529
OSWALD king of Northumbria, martyr-
commemorated Aug. 5. (Usuard. Mart. ; ^\\.
Acta SS. Aug. ii. 83.) cq h ■.
OTHONE (iWw,). [SfOLB.]
PACHOMIITS (1), martyr with Papvrinus ;
commemorated Jan. 13. (Cal. B.zant. ; Bo I
Acta SS. Jan. i. 767.) r(j ^ 1
(8) Commemorated May 9. (^Cal. Et:.hp.)
rat^H J'",??n*' ''''^' '" ^(^-"P* ' eotmneml
Tf oo^«*.(':''""''- ^'""'- ^^^- Mart. ; Boll.
iTt °^:- ^T'!- '"■ 259)- Pachomius i^
briefly mentioned m Basil. Menol. May 6 as
founder of the solitary life. Some Greek^ MSs!
M Jurrn and Mi an mention a Pachomiu, under
(boll. Acta SS. Mai. ii. 104.) pc h -i
(4) Bishop, commemorated with bishop BarthTi-
lomew, Dec.7. {Cal. Ethiop.) [C H.]
rated Mai^ 9. ( Vet. Mom. Mart. ; Boll. Ada SS.
Mart. „. 4.) ^^, „ ^
PACIFICAE. (1) The aame by which the
.TTh/w^r^p- '"'"^ '"'' '""''•'"''y '-■-own
m the West, as containing prayers for peace
Ne. e^,,fc^ a. int. p. a«o'). Lmp. 1-.^
(^) "Letters of peace" (.,>„„«al ^«o-ToAal.
ep,stola^ p^.ficae) The coun-1 of Chalcedon
(c. XI.) ordered that those who were poor and
needed assistance should travel with certificates
founded on investigation, or with letters of peace
from the church (^.tA S<,«.^a<r/o, ir^^roK'm,
elToui/ (tprtviKoii ^KKKrictaa-TiKoTs uS^ois) The
context seems to indicate that this canon' refers
to the clergy. Similarly the council of Antioch
(c. vii.) desires that no one should entertain
strangers without letters of peace (.,W,«c5.)
Zonaras, commenting on the Uth cmoa of
Ualcedon, says (p. 104) that «-p^.«al in^aroKal
are those which are given to bishops by their
metropo itans, and to metropolitans by their
patrmrchs when they have occasion to go to the
court of the emperor', and also those which are
given by their own bisho,,s to clerics who wish
the roll of the clergy there, in accordance with
the 17th canon oi the Trullan council. The
term used in this canon is, however, dToA„T,«al. '
dimissory. SeeCoMMUNDATOKy Lkttkrs' nimC
SOBY LtTTEifS. (Suicer's msaurus, s.v. EipnoiKd.)
PACRATUS. [Pancbatius.] ^'^'■^
PADERBORN, COUNCILS OF (1) v d
! V"' the "inth year of king Charles, when
numbers of the conquered Saxons were baptize 1
pledging themselves to remain true to their prol
(e.ssiou. Three Saracen princes arrived likewise
from Spain to make their submission. (Mansi
x.i 889-892. and Hartzheim, Cone. G.Tm^S)
(8) Or Lipstadt (f.ippiense CvneiUum), a.d
7B0, when the Saxon churches received their
'I
1330
PADUmUS
organisation, and the sees of Minden, HaUiersted,
Ferden, Miinsfer and Padcrborn itself were
fonndeii. (Unrtzlieim, 16. 243.)
(3) A.D. 182, ou the same matters: but of
which uo records exist. (Hartzheim, »6. 245.)
(4) A.D. 785, attended by all the bisliops of
tlic nfcwly made sees; when the Saxou laws
iu tlieir amended form were sanctioned.
(Hartzheim, 16.) [E- S. I'l-]
PADUINUS, abbat of Le Mans, cir. A.D.
590 ; commemorated Nov. 15. (Mabill. Acta SS.
V. S. B. saec. i. 256, ed. 1733, from a MS. of the
churcli of St. Paduin iu the diocese of Le Mans.)
[C. H.]
PAENULA. 1. £'<.vmo/of/;/. — Although it
would seem that this word is not used at all in
ecclesiastical Latin* as the name of a Christian
vestment, still the corresponding Greelt word,
variously spelt, is the recognised name in the
Greek church for the vestment known in the
west as a chasuble [Casula], and the same
thing is denoted in the Syrian churches by a
word directly formed from the Greek. More-
over, although the word paentUa is not used in
this way, yet apparently the piwnula itself
resembled in shape, even if it was not quite
identical with, the castila and ptaneta. We shall
therefore briefly discuss in our article th* history
of the Latin word itself.
It first, however, becomes a question whether
the Latin word is derived from the Greek, or the
Greek from the Latin, or whether both are to be
referred for their origin to a third language,a8 the
Phoenician. The absence of any very satisfactory
derivation in either Greek or Latin would be,
as fur as it goes, in favour of the third view,
were anything reasonable forthcoming. We do,
indeed, find in Hebrew \)'^B, for a kind of
outer garment {TaU.Jer., Kelim, c. 29 ; cited
by liuxtorf, Lexicon Cnalddicum, col. 1742), but
this is most probably merely a reproduction of
P Ilium; aud in any case there is no evidence to
justify us in including it in the list of words
that fiassed from Phoenician into Greek and
thence into Latin.
It has been very commonly asserted, with
reference to St. Paul's use of the word in 2 Tim.
iv. 1.!, a passage to which we shall refer at length
presently, that it is to be taken as one of the
many Latin words occurring in the New Testa-
ment. This view seems to us to be entirely un-
tenable, from the fact that the Greek word can
be traced back nearly to the time of Alexander
■ • We find In Isidore of SnvlUe (firig. six. 24 ; PatTd.
Ixxxil. 0.11), " I'enulaest pallium [here evldenilya mere
(ifiicral ttrtu for an outer garmont, lilte iii.iri.ov] cum
fimbriii lungls ;" bu! here the worJ is of course not used
by liim as an cccleBiastical tenn, but merely in its ordinary
eensf . Also in an old Latin version of the letter of tlie
Patriarch Nicepliorus cited below, which is given by
Har.inius {AnnaUt, ad ann. flll), Wf find ^awdUov reu-
dcrid by penula. The translator (probably Anastasius
Hililiotheiurius) was doubtli-ss influenced by the simi-
larity of the word, but the Instance cannot be suppiscd
{.. sfr.rd thp liaai support to tlie belief that thf paenula
was I he name of an caleslastical vvstment in the West-
em Cliureh. Bintirim (llenkui. Iv. 1. 208) remarks that
' the planeta was also called paenuta by tlie anclenis,"
but he gives no evidence for this assertion, and it dOes
nut seem very likely that any is adducibie..
PAENULA
the Great, a period at which it cannot be fancied
that Greek adopted any words from Latin. The
word occurs in a fragment of the fphujeim m
2'auria of Rhinthon, a writer of comedies, or
rather burlesque tragedies, in the time of
Ptolemy I. As this seems the earliest adducibie
instance of the use of the word, we shall cite'
the passage with its context from the Onuimi-
ticon of Julius Pollux (vii. 60; p. 288, ed.
Bekker); ^ !J paMr] Snoi6y ti t^ koA.oum«'h»
<patv6K'p • tIhuv Si iffrlv, 4i ;ut) irepitpx^M*'*
Kpijras fl nifiaas, Aio-xuAoi 'f>«» '
Kol alirhs Si 6 <paiv6\r)s tariv iv 'Viviunt
'\<piytvflif rjj iv Tadpots,
ixu(Ta lta^vay <ltaiv6Kav xanapTua*
It will be observed that the citation is in
Doric Greek, Uhinthon being a native of either
Tarentum or Syracuse.'"
The word ^aivifArji continued to exist in
Greek in its ordinary sense, quite ajiart from
Christianity. It occurs in the digest of Epictetuj
given by Arrian (lib. iv. c. 8; vol. i. p. 637, ed.
Schweighaeuser). Again, we find in the Oneiro-
critica of Artemidorus, a work written about
the time of Antoninus Pius, that the 6 \(y6ii(yot
ipaiv6\ris is associated with the x^fM"5 or
HavSias as to its significance in dreams (lib. ii,
c. 3; p. 135, ed. Reitf). About the same time,
or a little later, Athenaeus uses the word :— 06
ai) tl & Kal rbc Katvdv Kol ovBfira if XP*'? yo'i-
luvov ipaiv6\Tiv, cJprjToi yap, 3i ^t\TiixT(, xai
i <paiv6\ii}s, tliriiv, " IIoi AeuKe, SAs juoi riv
SxpiffToi/ <paiv6\vv " (Deipn. lib. iii. c. 5).
We shall next cite from the Greek lexico-
graphers. Here, it will be observed, we meet
with a diversity both in form and meaning ; for,
besides its use for an outer garment, it is also
stated to mean a roll of parchment, and a case or
coft'er. Whether this dilierence is to be ex-
plained by assuming the existence of two origin-
ally distinct words, <f>aiv6\T)i and tpaiXAvriSfioei
not appear, nor docs it matter for our present
purpose.^' As far as we are concerned, there can
be no doubt from the spelling consistently found
in the above cited examples, and from the un-
varying form of the Latin, that the original and
proper spelling of our word is ipaiv6\ris ; the
other spelling being either that of another word,
or a nitre metathesis for the former. It will be
observed that the lexicographers give some sup-
port to the former hypothesis. Thus Hesychius
gives <paiK6vns- t) AiiTopiov [liy. fi'AijTcipioi'J
Htfippdivov, i) y\w(ra6Koiiov : anA <l>aiv6\a- 'ro
iSipafftia, oUtus [tiere probably the name of Khinr
thou has dropped out before the citation from
him] (x'^xf^ leatviiv <l>aiv6\avA Suidas gives three
b TertuUlan assirts (.Apdl. c. 6) that tlie I^edae-
monians invented the paenuta, so as to be able to mjoy
the public gamns in cold weather. Tljis statement,
though probably not worth much, is inten sting as (on-
necting with a Dorian people a word which first metU
UB ill a Dorian poet.
• Some have connected the formrr with if.aiVofim (t. g.
mym. Magn. [irapo to i^mVeaeai o^oi'], Salniasius [n^'le
In Spartlan.. I'n/ra, "translucens et pi'ilucida tuiiird"),
Suidas f. V. ; and it may be added that wi- have i/kutoXij
In Sappho f«iTir<p« viyra ((w'peit, oaa. ^awaKit idKiiat
oiiios]), deriving the latter from *<AAo?.
i It may b.- nut. d here, tb.'t we tind tlic word in another
passage of Hesyclilus : ofi(f)H'i>"'0>'« ' X'™™' 'I '(k*^"'""'
« !i
PAENULA
ftrmi, <t>aL\iivT,r tlKufThv rofidptov ixtn^piXvov
mos, ol Ji naKaioX ^(perrrpiSa: aiij Afvi^Aris-
•p^Moi't^ "0^. Similarly, the J-:tym;lo,!ic,m
MmjHwn (iuhncs ipt\6i>ris in almost the 'same
words as the first of the above three, imi
ipaiyiWs niso as Suidns had done. It is perhaps
worth noting, that while apelliugs in whioh the
r precedes the A are always defined in the sense
of garment, those in which the A precedes the
,. have either no mention of garment, or have
it at the end, as if a subsequent addition.
It is ot course quite possible lo assume the
existence of two originally distinct words, and
yet eiplam each as the name of some kind of
garment (so Salniasius, /. c). In any case, how-
ever, tne latter spelling, as well as the former
T.ith various modifications of the vowels occurs
for the Greek name of the Christian vestment
Again, passing this point, it seems doubtful"
whether the worj j, ^ ^a,^i^^, ^^ ,. ^„,^^^
ThelineofRhinthonmakesittneteminine.andthe
Utin, it is true, is feminine [but the termination
in,i would naturally be replaced by one in a,
which would be feminine, if th.re were no special
rcMon for making it masculine; so, e.g. x<ip^vs
KoxAi'ar, yttva-diras, all musculine, are replaced
by the feminine c/iarta, cochlea, ./ausapal but our
ater Greek citations make it masculine.
Whether there is a misreading in Rhinthon for
Miyiy, vhich misreailing has been reproduced
ID Hesychius or whether the old termination
was in 7,, and the later one in ,j, it is impos-
sible to say. As regards the variation in
spelhDgof the first syllable between a< and*
we can hardly doubt that the c is a mere cor-
ruption, especially when the Latin spelling is
considered, where, whether we write the diph-
thong ae or the vowel e, the first syllable is uni-
formly long.
2. Use of the word in /.atin.—We shall next,
before considering the Christian usage of the
word, evamine its use in Latin. Here we find it
freely used from the time of Flautus onwards, to
iDdica e a warin, heavy outer garment, for
travelling or cold weather. This covered the
whole person, having merely a hole for the head to
pass thiongh; and thus it did not requ.Ve sleeves,
ut Ml over the arms The general impression
left from a considerable series of passages (see
Forcellini, s v.) n that the garment was one I
which would not be worn by a person in the '
higher ranks of life, save under the special cir-
cumstances given above, though it would be
wore as an ordinary dress by slaves and the like.
Our ear lest instance is from Plautus (MusteU„ri ,
IV. 2. 74) where a slave is told that it is only
his paenula hat saves his back from a beating.
Usilering the source whence Plautus's come-
.es were drawn the fact that the Latin word is
hrst traced to him is not without significance
Our next trace is found in one of the ftagments
oft e Satires of Lucilius (lib. xv. frag. 6; dted
^.Iso the two following instances, by Nonius
S: :f; Tp^- '" '"«' "f *•>« fa'rces'(>X^
m,m,e) of Pomponius Bononiensis, one cha-
fer bids another, "paenulam in cap'ut induce.
PAENULA
1531
fa Albtru's note, in Uk., «„d Sulcer .. v.
hn„ """«'• /«fi-'"ing presumably to the
hood with which the paenula, like most other
similar dresses, was furnished [IIooi.l Varro
again is ated, « non quaerenda est homini, qu°
habet virtutem, paenula in imbri." ^
Ja Cicero the word is u.se.l several times. In
his speech pro J/,/,,,.,. (,,. ,0; ef. c. 20), he tell"
how AIilo, when on his way from n„me in a c !
nage having his wife with him, „n,l wearing a
^m/a U.aen.,.t.s), on being attacked, sp L*
tiom the carnage and casts aside his pi;J,
M wou d only fetter his arms. In his s eech
P»'o fc .0 (c. 38), he speaks of the i»e,.ni:}7"\
garment worn by mule-drivers. Cicero al.,o u.es
the phrases scxndcre paenulam, atti.igere paenulam
aU-njus, to indicate respectively ovcM-uigen^
cmhty, and . taking a man by the button-hoL"
til. t the paenuia was a warm, heavy L-arinent
a.dthu, Horace (i;p,i<. j. n. .8)speaL'j:rngi;
of .t ns a thing which no one would dream^f
paring m hot weather. It was generally made
o(^yooHp„enulagaumpina: Martial, Api./. xiv!
'.. 1.0). Martial (v. 27) eoaUa.tZaenulatus wi h
iT i % ■■"''^■■'•'"K a lower rank in society.
Juvenal (Sat. v. 79) makes the parasite when
on his way to dinner with his patro'n on a s'torm;
night, complain of his dripping ,,a,n,la. It
seems also to have been used as a soldier' over-
coat (Suetonius, OalOa, c. 6 ; Terfullian, deCol.
tlL^\^' " *"-''^'«"i'>K. indeed, the paenula
b Mi^h/ "" 1 " ""■? ^^' P^'P'^' of a blanket
\Lxvtn "* " "'""'' ''y ''"y ^^"«'=''' ^>'»'-
The I/istoriae Aufjustae Scriptores furnish us
vvith several instances of an interesting kind
Simrtianus tells of Hadrian that, when tribune
he lo«t his paenula, which he took as an omen
of h„ future imperial dignity, since tril.unes
wore apaonut., to keep off the rain, but emperors
never (c. 3, where see the notes of Saltnasius and
U.saubon). Again, Umpridius mentions that
Commodus (c l(i), after tlie death of a certafa
gladiator, ordered the senators' to come to the
spectacle, not in the toga, which was white, but
L .mt^r '''''"^i'^ "f- "^ " ^'''«' Ji^-k-ooloired.
Uinpr.lius remarks that this was "contra con-
uetudinem," that is, doubtless the w™ "nHf
Indeel ff^V' T''!: ""''" ^1""='»' condiUons.
Indeed of this a further proof is given bv Lam^
pridius, in the life of Alexander Seve.us c. iT)
en«M .. ^' '"'''":'■ S"^'*^ ^I'^^'^'l permission to
senators to wear the pamnla in Rome, as a ,,ro^
tecfon against cold, but did not extend this pe> '
mission to matrons, who were only allowed to
toM:" V7\T'- '''>'' "-'' -^ '"' «- - 5
above f *•" '■""'"■'' "'"Spartianus given
mit n/" 7* ■""-■ '"'K"'' Alexander to be ,,er.
nitting the wearing of this dress as a w irm
cloak at the discretion of the wearer, wherla"
before it needed bad weather to justily Us use
and was thought to be a kind of undresVso that
emperors never used it. Lampridius, in his life
of Diadumenus, the poor little son of Macrinul
' Seneca (.Vat. Quant, iv. 6) seems to dls,|nK„i,I, the
^nula .rem ,he .c.rtea. .,„t ,1,1s probably o "ly 1 ,e!
that w.Hil w,iB th" onlinary nmteri.,1 '"y u"pue»
' [t seems deslrahl,. u. suhsti.ute lenatorw for ,b«.
taUjru, ilie reading of the 113S '^
"•- }l{
J ;
ii.
1632
PAENULA
who was Anguitui before he was ten roars oM,
tells (o. 2) how, on the chilil'i assumption of the
name Antoninus, the father hal prepuri'il for dis-
tribution to the people " paenulas colorls rosei "
[here probably eiiuivalent to risnei ; of. Trebell.
Vit. Ctdwiii, c. 14], which were to be called
Antoniitian'ie,
We pass over here a passage of Tertullian, till
we have spoken of the use of the word by St.
Paul, and shall next refer to a law in the Theo-
dosian code, published in A.D. 38.i, as to the
dress to be worn by senators and others. In this
senators are forbidilen to asaumo the warlike
garb of the ddami/s, but are ordereil to wear the
peaceful dress of folMiim and pacnitla. It is
added that olficials " per quos statuta complentur
ao necessaria peragunfur " are also to use the
paenula. Penalties are provided in case of dis-
obedience (i^ixi. T/iC'dos. lib. xiv. tit. 10,1. 1,
where see Gothofredus's note).
3. Use of the wordbi/ St. Pitul. — We must now
consider the use of the word by St. Paul (2 Tim.
iv. 1.!), "The cloke that I left at Troas with
Carpus, when thou comest, bring with thee, and
the books, but especially the parchments." The
word here translated " cloke " by the E. V. is
found variously spelt in the MS.S. as (t)tK6vrtt,
tpai\6vns, <pat\<ivris, aud <p(Kuvris, the first being
undoubtedly the true reading. It will be ob-
served that in all these cases the A precedes the v.
The old Latin version (Sabatier, in loc. ; cf. al^o
Tertullian, </« Orat. 15 ; do Cor. Mil. 8) and the
Vulgate remler the word by paenuta, evidently
thinking it the siime word ; but the Peshito trans-
lates it by tsio £^.iv2 (fi casn for books).ar
Again, Chrysostom {Horn, in l'>c. ; vol. xi. p. 780,
ed. Gaume) mentions this view, " by <(>(\6vi]s
here he means the outer garment (IixAtiov). But
, some think it means the case {yKii>ira6K0nov)
where the books lay." Jerome, too (Epist. 36
ad Damasum, § 13, vol. i. 167), says, " volumen
Hebraeum replico, quod Paulus ^tK6vrjv juxta
quosilam vocat." It is impossible, however, to
speak here with any great degree of certainty.
The only independent evidence, apart, that is,
from this jiassage, for the meaning ot " case,"
is apparently that of the Greek lexicographers,
but jHissibly these have only cited Chrysostom.
Then, too, it may be said that the notion of the
" case " may have been suggested merely by the
context, still, it might have been thought, if the
word were merely the name of a well-known
garment, it would be a somewhat unlikely mis-
take for a translator to make. Further, the
rendering of the Peshito is the more worthy of
notice, seeing that in ecclesiastical Syriac the
. / • ?• \
word "phaino" I | i ^os j has been directly
derived from the Greek as the name of the vest-
ment.
If we assume that the apostle is using the
word in the sense of a garment, then increased
point will be given to the urgent wish (v. 21)
that Timothy should come before winter, the
aged apostle feeling the need of extra warm pro-
« Another very Important version, the Memphltic, Is
practically of no avail to us here, Inasmuch iis it merely
repriKlucea the Grwk word, Q!id there Is no independent
eTldence ai to the sense in which it uses it.
PAENULA
tectlon against the cold. Here the matter mi^Jit
have been allowed to rest, as one incapule'of
positive srdution, seeing that there is miah In fe,
said for either view, were it not th:it «„m„
writers (Cardinal Bona [/{er. I.itunj. i. 24'H] n^.j
others) have gravely argued that the npost'le
here desires Timothy to bring the chasubl,? he
had left behind him. We have seen that thtre
is a respectable amount of evidence for ex|,l,iiniiij
the word as not meaning a garment at all, Ijnt
waiving this, positively the only direct evijencj
for the above theory is' that this word in a modi.
tied spelling {<patif6\iov, &c.) is the tvihmcal
Greek word for a chasuble. Chrysostom, how-
ever, took it for an ordinary outer garment- m\
this is significant, when taken in connexion'wiih
the so-called Liturgy of St. Chrysostom, where
the word ^aw6\iov occurs for the ecclesi,isiical
vestment, shewing, as it does, that at the end of
the 4th century the word had not been restrictfj
into itf special eucharistic meaning, otherwi^e
St. Chrysostom would hardly have ej|)resse.i
himself as he does. Again, nearlv two hundrtj
years before the time of St. Ciirysostom, we
find Tertullian shewing very distinctly the views
of his time {do Oratione, c ''■> lU h^is been
si)eaking of certain practices as bebiuLjing to
superstition rather than to religion, ami thus
mentions th.it it was the custom of sonii' to lav
aside their /ki<;/iu^ before engaging in prayer, is
the heathen did in their idol temples, li'ut for
this there is no authority, " unless," he adls
ironically, " anyone thinks that Paul, fnrm hav-
ing engaged in prayei at the house of Carpus,
had thus left his paenula behind him. (ii,d, I
suppose, does not hear men clad in a }m-nuh,
Who yet heard effectually the three saljits in the
furnace of the king of Babylon, as tliey graved
in their sarabarae and turbans." Tertulliiu here
laughs at the idea of St. Paul's havin^' taken oif
hk paenula to pray. The notion of this gavmeut
having been one speci.illy put on for the eucha-
ristic service is evidently utterly foiei,'n to the
sense of the passage, the gist of Tertullian's
remark is merely, " What a foolish notion it is
of these people to think it unseemly to go to
church in a paenula!" He could hardly have
spoken in this way, had he thougiit, or had
people generally in his time thought, that St.
Paul's pitenula was really a sacrificial vestnienl.'
It may be added here that in a comnientarv on
the 2nd Epistle to Timothy appended to the
works of Jerome, but apparently spurious, the
theory is broached that this paenula was an
offering from some convert, which was to be
sold for the apostle's benefit {Cunim. in h; vol.
xi. 429). This too is utterly foreign to any
notion of a chasuble. Of course the spuriousness
or genuineness of this document makes little
matter to our ])resent purpose, which is to show
the general way in which the passage was
anciently understood.
Again, as regards the identity of the term
with the word in later Greek,' this of itself
will not count for much, when we consider «f
how many other vestments this might be said,
garment of the deai
k It is amazinn to find that Sala, the nlilor orCanllnil
Bona, can gravely renmik (vol. II. 238, ed. Tnrin, IH»>
" fuiTunt itaque Tertulllani aevo i|Ui Paul! penuUm ori-
tioiiia vestem seu sacriHcalem putarent." Comment on
such perversity is superfluous.
I I
PAENULA
whPiB yet the n.e wu certainlf not Idcn-
ticiil, the word caau/a itaelt' beini: a very
maiketl in.tance; and further, it doea not seem
that there is a certain ca»o of the use of the
l«rin in it» technical sense before the t,me of
GermanuB, patriarch of Constantinople in the 8th
eenturj-. In the absence of direct evidence for
the earljr use ot the word In its special sense, the
totlmony denvable from liturgies of uncertain
dst« cannot It is evident, be allowed to count
frr much If, on so feeble a case as the above
K,me are disposed to believe that St. Paul refers
io his chasuble, we must allow that their credu-
lity hiw been developed at the expense of their
judgment.
4. ecclesiastical use of the word—The name
of the vestment appears in later Greek under
rarious spellings, ,pmi>6\io,>, ^,^6\ioy. 4„v,i\,oy,
^K6noy, <p,\,^,,oy, <t>aiU„,o„, &c. Krom this
has been formed, as we have already remarked the
ordinary Syrinc term for the vestment, phaino.
[We mav take this opportunity of remarking
tliat perhap? in Syriao too, as well as in Greek
the word was not strictly conHned to iti techi
nittil ecclesmstical sense. We find it in one ot
the poems of Lphraem Syrus, used metaphorically
Ml . nJ'^n 'n''?' '"'' ' 'therewith we are
clothed (b.ckell, a Ephraemi Car,n!na Msibena,
""• ^^>- . "«","'«)«'« i» represented as saying
of the Saviour, "as at the wedding feast He
changed water into wine, so has He changed the
garment of the dead (^jXo;^, j^lxa) into
life."] In Sclavonic the Greek word occurs as
phelom. In the Arabic vei-sions of the Coptic
liturgies the name for this vestment is generally
d^nm,_ a word familiar to us from Kastern
hooks ot travels, and perhaps sometimes also
Ulum (Kenaudot, litmi. Orient. Colt i 161
162 ed. Francof. 1847), though the formei!
word appears to be used sometimes in the sense
of an alb, and the latter probably stands as a
rule lor something akin to an amice. In the
Armenian church the eucharistic vestment now
IS to all intents and purposes a cope, save that
It ha> no hood. Its native name is shoocAar
(fortescue, Ar„wnian C/iurch, p. 13+) The
Armenians are attacked by Isaac, catholicos ot
Armenia in the l2th century, in thesecond of
two bitter invectives, in that they do not use the
fk r'T' """V,"/ '"' 'l''*'"'«"<'n of vestments in
the tuchanst ' (Oral. 2, § 25 ; J'atrol. Gr. c«xii.
We have previously remarked that there is
no certain direct mention of the^,v<(W before
time of Gernvnus. We do not mean by this
t at there is no evidence for the use ot' this
mtmen in the Greek church before that tim
foMve shall presently mention .some art-remains
th Hk i^."'"* " "'.* ""^'^ earlier period, but
th. th literary notices are not trustworthy Ur.
the f of irr"" P^f "*•'"' '■ntiquity from
"elife of bt. Marcian,J priest and oeconomus oi
PAENULA
IfiSS
^fa Sanctorum, Jan., vol. I. p. aia.
lo'hlr'l^r.'' (S."'"""'"°^P'«>- who is said
phrastes (ob. after 975 ad/ A<r,M» Vk
Phylact Simocatta, writing";ll/?^^'"u,7'';t';:
cenury says(^^<.vii.6;V •^«'>, d Bekker)
hat aler the death of John, pat i"ch 3
lSrc'h'''roul.trtt^.''^ ^-^ --'/ '"•
arcrof^vl T'Z *" ,<^^™»"'» ("Ppointed pafri.
xcMii. 394) the ungirdled phelonion a.s meta^
phorical of Christ bearing His cross. Ki"m a
remark a few linos lower down, in which he
compares it to the purple robe pu on oii^I-ord
infer hat this was the colour of the veXiTnt^
A century later, Nicephorus (patriarch tf Con.
stantinople, 806-815 a'.d., when he was deposed)
when writing to pope Leo III., sends as a prteni
a pectoral cross, a seamless white stic/,aron^^\
ch stnut-coloured phenolion> (ar^xdp.o. 7oZ
l<al<pa,y6Moy ndara.oy S^^a^a), and an epitZ
ohehon and enoAirion (Patrol. Gr.o. 200) ^
rfor'the wlo •"'^^'''"■° P''='"'*' "^t^'» dress
(foi the West IS not now in question, for there
the corresponding vestment appears first i!
planeta and then as casula), weT.; refei firs
to mosaics existing in the vault of ti.e church of
St. George at Thessalonica. These have been
figured from coloured drawings taken on th^
.pot, in Texier and Pullan's ByLttArcMe,'.
tosho;\haethV^":ur":i:tfrb;'-Sat
1 th.T'f K*""""? "i'^ ""' ^'»y •••' Thessalonica.
In the first three of these, at any rate, the fisurel
"le clad in what seems to be a *a .A„7of ^
j;tf \°T'-P"»'' '^"'''•"•. 0nefigtr™4t"
Phi ip, bishop and martyr, and another'a p 1
.uZ ^"T""'' ''"' *••"•« "« "■"o. with but
slight diHerences of enrb th.. L. ii i
wasinlbpl.f™.'"'" »"-'■« aids specially used
the 11 ™"'"y ""'■'' ^y '"vnien. Among
the surviving mosaics of the huich of .St
be'fTheBt?"':"*'"""'^ »'•« -"- •"■"-■'■'' to
hUK ^. '""'""">' I'epresenting 4th century
pheml,a, with omophoria (Marriott, p. hxv )
As an example of a dilferent type, we ma reV;,
» This too is Hefele's view (op. cit p 106)
at thJs'tirr'^"""^'"'"" '" "■"•«« 'Vidence that
' r. '
1884
PAGANISM
phenoliiin, but whether we are to view this an |
p«preiieiitini{ tliu eveiy-diiy Jro«« or tlio ilrcss of
official ministration, thero is not(,in|? to shew.
Tli« I'urm aaid on the putliii)( on of the
f>lu:nuliim before celubratInK the Kuchnrist runs,
D the Liturgy of St, Chrysostntn, 0/ Upti^ aou,
Ki'pX) ivivaiivrai itKaioavin)v, koX ol iiiriof aou
iiyaWiian iyoAAidiroFTai, nivTOTt, vvv , . .
(Goar, J-JucJiulinjiun, p. 60). The woril pheiwlion
U also used ill the Oreeli church »» the name of
the special vestment of 11 " render," who, on being
jniido ft sub-deaion, has it replaced by the
itiohiii-ion (i7). 'jau, 244.) A plutmliun wits also
worn ft* a special privilege by the urchdeacnu of
the cUigy ftttached to the palace of ConMftnti-
nople, oil the Siindfty of the Adoration of the
Cross (see the article), but only on that one occa-
sion (('(iiliiiiis Ciiriipa. ta, c. 9).
5. Literature. — Kor the raateriiils of the fore-
going ftrtide, we are largely indebted to the
various lexicons cited, especially Duiange, Qlos-
sariuin Onuviiin, a. vv. ; Suicer, Thesaui-us Ecole-
tiistiais, and Forcelliui. The examples in the
last are given in chronologicftl order by Marriott
(^Vestitiriiim C/triatianum, App. C). Kefereuce
may further be made to Hefele's learned and
temperate essay, Die litunjiavhen Oeutiiuler, in
his Ilcitrii/e zur Kiic/iemjeschic/Ue, Archaotoj/ie
Uiul Lituri/i/:, vol. ii. pp. 195, sqq. See also
Wolf, Cunie Philol. [in 2 Tim. iv. 1:0; Masius,
IHss. lie J\illio Pauii, Hafnifte, lii98; Bartho-
linus da Paeitula, in Graevius, Anti/. Horn. vi.
1107, sqc). ; Ferrarius de He Venliarii, ib. vi.
682, sq.i. [K. S.]
PAGANISM (in Ciihistian Art). In a
former article [Kkksco] atteption has been
called to the intimate connexion between early
Christian art and that of the pagan community
in which tlie church arose, and from which its
first members were gnthered. It will be un-
necessary to repeat what has been there said
of the absence of any strict line of demarcation
between the .system of ilecoration adopted by the
adherents of the new faith, and those to which
they had been accustomed as members of a
heathen society, and the rarity of anything in
their earliest pictorial and sculptural repre-
sentations distinctive of the religion they had
embraced, which rendered primitive Christian art
little mnv" than the continuation of that which
they found already existing, purilied and elevated
by the influences of their new faith.
In the same article reference has been made
to the manner in which distinctly mythological
personages were pressed into the service of the
church, and, a new spirit being breathed into old
forms, objects, persons, and scenes, to which the
mind was familiarised in connexion with pagan
myths, were made the channels of conveying to
the initiated the higher truths of which they
became the symbols, and "all that was true
and bi'Hutiful in the old legends found its ful-
filment in Christ, and was but a symbol of
His life and work." — (Karrar.)
It remains now briefly to shew how this
principle was carried out in detail, and mytho-
logical types and classical forms were made the
exponents of Christian doctrine.
We have at the outset to distinguish
between (1) that class of subjects which con-
tained a fundamental religious idea common
PAGANISM
to Vnganlsift and Christianity, which, illmir
shadi'wcd forth in the <ine, received its tuf|
development in the other; and ('.') thii<ii n,
which the resemblance Is merely fnrniiil j^j
external, the mythologiiftl rupre^entatiom jm,.
plying a vehicle for Christian idea-i. Tn tlie^o
we may add (.1) the itlll more abumlant ihm m
whi<h cift'-sicftl forms and i leas are used siipi,lv
as ornftinental accessories, without any symbuliul
reference.
I. The first class In which a luhject from
pagan mythology is used typically to dpnut
some Christian truth is a very small one. The
deep-seated foulness of the myths of cl.issiiil
antiquity, on which the e:irly Christian writcrj
were never weary of enlftrging, caused a n.iiiiral
revulsion of the Christian miml from them, mi,!
rendered them, generally through their ;is,iiii,i.
tiona, quite unsuited for conveying saerel truths.
(I) The only subject borrowed from I'lijnri
mythology which gained any general aice|]taiue
in Christian nrt, is that of Orplicus taniini; the
wild animals by the notes of his lyre. Alrniut
from the beginning, the power of Orpheus in
suhiluing the ferocity of savage beasts anj
gathering them round him in mutual h.irmonr,
v.as regarded as typical of the Hll-eonqueriiig
influence of Christ's Gospel in taming the fip-rce
passions of the human henrt, nnd uniting w,ir.
ring and discordant tribes in one comnmn hom.iijo
to their universally-acknowleilged Master. (1)9
Ko-si, Rum. Svtt. ii. p. :i.'>7, c. 14.) The mvih
of Orpheus was thus regariled as anadinnbntion
of the words of Christ (.lolin xii. ;!2), "I, ill he
lifted up from the earth, will draw all men unto
me," and a parallel to the well-known prnphodos
of Isaiah, in which the same syniholism is
adopted (Is. xi. 6-9, Ixv. 25). In tjiis releri'me
the Orphic myth is not unfre(|Uently alluili-il to
by the writers of the early church (Clem. .\\n-
andr. Cohort, ad Gentes, c. 1 ; Kuseb. do Iml.
Constant, c. xiv. ; Greg. Nys.s. ii J/cxicm. 0. 7;
Chrysost. Homit. xii. c. ii., Genes, ffumil. xsiii.
in c. vi. ; Ilmnit. xix. in c. ix. ; Cassiod. m I't
xii. ; cf. Lactant. fnst. vii. 24). Ori'heuj is
still more often alluded to by the Fathers, ail
the writings a.soribed to him, in cnninn.n with
the Sibylline verses, quoted asiilfordingtestimi'ny
to the unity of God and other points of Chris-
tian truth (Theophil. Autol. iii. 2; Just. .Mint.
Cohort, ad Grace, c. 15. dc Monarch, c. 2; Cltni.
Alexftndr. Strom, v. 12, 14; Lactant Instil. \.
5, 6 ; Aug. Contr. Famt. xiii. 1,'). iic.) We mi-
not, therefore, be surprised that he shonlJ
become a favourite suhject of early (.'hri-tisn
nrt. The most remarkable representatidu if
Orpheus is that from the ceilii»g of a cubiculum
in the cemetery of St. Callistus, of whicli a
woodcut is given. Vol. 1. p. 696 (IWsio. p. :':'!i;
Bottari, ii. tav. Ixiii. ; Aringhi, i. .547 ; Gurruai,
Pittitre, tav. 25 ; I'erret, i. |)i. xxxiv. bis, p. :V>).
The. subject occupies the central octagnnal |i;uiel
of the ceiling, the surrounding panels conlaiiiio?
alternately landscapes and scenes frnm the OM
and New Testaments. Orpheus disphiys the
hieratic type of a youn? man in a high l'hryi:iin
bonnet, and loose frock, his legs clothed with
anantjrides. embroidered with a chlami/s. He «ilJ
among trees, holds his lyre in iiis Iri't hanl. "'ril
beats time with his right f"ot. A lii'U, tis;«r,
horse, peaccjck, and other l)irds and beasts stiiiJ
round him. An arcosolium from the same
PAGANISM
emettTj prMpnt* fho aiime iuhjert with vtry
ilijht rniiiitionn (Bo«io, 2br, ; Ariiighi, i. &tj j •
Eotisii, ii. tiiv. 1x1. ; Oarrueci, J'itture, tav .'lo'
IVrret, vol. I. ,,1 xi. p. 3o). The .ubjixt ha«
bMD unly onco found in marble; un a »ar-
oipliaitus diaciivercil at Oatia, the coireHnon,!-
iD|5 panH containing Tobiai, or a /i^hernian
(Xorthoole, |)1. XX. ; Marti){ny, gtiA i,,;^. (•,.,„„
ViKimti). It ociurs also on n lami) (IVrrct
ral.iv pi. xvii. No. 1, ,,. ns), „„,| „„ „ ;„'
given by Miimachi (Ori;/. iii. 81, note '), fr„ni
Ihe Musfo Vettori, and others H|)eci(i,.d hy
Pip«r (ili/tholni/u und Symholik. i. 12;J). N,,
ejampieof the subject ia iound in mosaic or in
DiiDJatures.
(2) Tlie Sirent were introduced into Christian
typology as cmblpniB of temptations to sensual
iiirlulgrnce. to which the man of God, symbolised
by Ulynses, was exposed as he traversed the
wareiof the troublesome world on his way to the
ihore of everlasting rest (Maxim. Turin. lUmiU i
ie toss, et cruce iJomim ; llippolyt. rhUmmihm
viii. 1), and which he was enabled to overcome
by the cross of Christ, 'is Ulyises fastened him-
lelf tothe mast. One such re|)resenlBticin onlv
has Clime down to us, and that not certainly
Christian U i.s a fragment of a sarcophagus
discovered by De Rossi in the cemetery of St
CslliJlus, assigned to the .Srd century, an(i
described by him (Hulletino, 1863, p. 35 ;' Horn.,
&.«. i. tav. XIX. p. .5^ Mnrtigny, Uictioim. art.
llysse; Northcote, pp. 231i, 2<J8). L'lvsses sits
wfeping in his vessel with two companions
The three sirens stand around, in the form
de«crihe,l by Isidore (Ori.j. xi. 3, 30), half woman,
half bird, with wings and claws ; one holdine
sirre, one a flute, and the third singing from a
roll of music. The cruciform arrangement of
the monogram Tijranio sugitesls, but does not
prove, the Christian origin of thu sculpture.
(3) The Hermes Kriophoru.s of pagan art
certainly supplied the original type of the Go<,(l
Sicpherdm its countless repetitions. [SllKPiiKFiD
Good.] The ti/rmx, or Pandean pipes, which is
one of the most frequent accessories of the H<'ure
m Christian as in pagan art, was regarded as
tvpilying the music of the Gospel, which recalls
the wanderers and guides the sheep in the ritrht
way. (See the quotations given by Garrucci.
It I P;,"'^-^ .^^^ ^''"^ "<' *'»'■'" "»' ti"^ Good
bhcphtrd, ns of other representations of Christ
apFar often to be borrowed from those of the
youn? beardless Apollo (Piper, «. s. pn 79
100-105; Munter, Simbilder, i. 64, ii. 7 ; Kaoul-
iwcnette, Ta'ilcaudes Calacombe.^, p. 161 If.)
II. As examples of the second class of subjects
where pagan mythology only supplies the form
of the representation as a vehicle for Christian
weas, and the resemblance is external onlv
he most remarkable are Hercules carrying off
he apples of the Hesperides, and the chariot of
hebunGnd.as respectively furnishing formal
type.0 the fall, and of the ascent of Eli pVh. The
esemblance between the Hercules subject and
IM'"".'"".'^'''""''" 'o" "triking to allow
y oubt tha the one was borrowed from th^
Lt/^u'- ^^ '^•^- ^""'her part of the
Mme myth, Hercules feeding the fabled dracon
ft,',"' CTl poppy-seed, appears to have
t .tl*'"ir"''' ^<"- *''« representation of
Ln"^ T." ''"^y °f »""'«' killing the
Jragon at Babylon (see woodcut, Vol. I. p 579/
PAGANISM
1635
Kqually marked la the resemblance between thi
hrehorsed chariot in which Klijnh is represented
ascMiding to heaven, and the' ordiiia y ropre.
entat.on, „t Apo lo, or Phoebu,, as the fsun \iU
'U his rising. In the absence of distinctive
which of the two Kul.je. ts is intended. Thi.
ditliculty ia aometimea increased by the intro-
<l..c.io„ of the Jorian as a river god, wi h hi,
urn, ,„ the Scriptural event (Piper, u. iZ^Z
1'). Ihe correspondence of the iwo has also
been conlirnied by the accidental rcsc,„l,|,„;.,
Cann. J'as.h. lib i. y. 184). This sv„ l.olica
representation of the Jordan by a rive|-g, wUh
hi. urn occur, also elsewhere. Tlicu ire
emnrabe instances in the mosaic, of tin. b. ;!
tis 1 ol Christ >n the baptisteries at llavenna. ^
ill. Little need be aaid upon the use of oma-
mental accessoriea, derived from hcati.en art.
•uch as tciH,/6'J .jcnii, victories, un,,jd (cnuiUs
inT'r "".'""'• '' woul.l be-'nisapZd
done J ^«'' '"^'T'"' ■" '"«• '""'" «'""'t nie.
J ne, to aihx an allegorical meaning to ea.^h of
laZ::^'T' *» .'""■»'''"-'''''■> o.' which maf^
•a isfactorily attributed to th, (amy of the
pamter or scul|,tor, who being perhaps still «
man, and certainly „„e whC /,„d 1,'..,.; " h^
-r uciples and practice of his ait in pagan
U, ois ,,und It inpossible to divest hims'elf of
.ts traditions, and satisfied both himself and hi.
es" '.TlK. ^ ;"'^«'"'i"K everytbin, that wa.
e sentially profane, or which could give rise to
an impure imagination. As liaoiil-Kochette ha.
remarked (7abL-au, &c., p. 214). •• it is 1 cau^
bj^ck to the traditions of paganism, so that in
the execution of subjects drawn from Ho v
habi't r ♦,'"''', ''"H ^y "'" l-'i"-' <"ne^
habit, reproduced a large number of the details
of profane art, es,,ecially in costume, furniture
ornament, and architecture, which v 1", ?!
ferent m themselves, and to which thev had be n
80 long aicustomed." Thus, i„ the" „o ds of
cent nature belonging to ancient art, though
mr/'-l"':',"''^ ^'"' ""' »''' i'l-la rv, long
ration, and that with so little individuality of
character that in many cases by nothin," ' \e
occurrence in some part of the <lesi,n : ^e
decidedly Christian symbol, its non-pa-ja,. oiigln
can be ascertained (Kaoul-Kochette: r„S
desa,taco,,^,es,pi,. 120-122; Pelliccia ,/c 6V,w"<
177q V :/"'"• ')'• ''I'- 230-234, ed. Xeapol.
1779; ^orthcoto, Horn. Sott. p. 1 96). Therria
not one ot these decorative forms of ..uch fro^
quent occurrence in early Christian art as the
Nme, together with scenes connected with its
cultivation and the ingathering of the g ap e.
The examples are too common to particularize •
but we may refer to the very love y vine f the
Callistine catacomb, "of an r.ntique style of
fl f^i! I '-.P- '^^^^'' ""J tfie vintage scenes
from the baptistery of St. Costanza [JJosA,^
t?e w'- '• '''f\ '" ''"» «■* '"''■« - '-'»"-^f
ornam/.'V"'''"'' " ^'T^>' '"'"ventional mode of
onamentntion was adopted by Christians, and
clothed with a religious signification, full of
T it
1C30
PAOANISM
PAfiANISM
■|ili'ilii.il tpni'liing ' ' th« initinlrd, of Thrlit
thv "Trill' Villi-," siul buliuvvra km tVuitl'ul
•' brKiiihi'i " in Him.
W« linvo yi't til •p«iil( of the cmpi in whirh
diri'ct ynunn siib|fietii niTiir, to which it is ililf'i-
ciilt if nnt lni|HiHiiibli> to iiitnign anjr enateric
t'hiinlinn nicnning. The fact that thi'»e «n)
fiiiinil t-ntiri'lynn KHrciiplin^i an<l k>I''*'I <lrliiklng
glimiii'ii, never in ninHiiicK nr the wiill-|ii«intin(;i of
thr i:iit;i<jonilis, •iif;)(OHtH the |ir»ba)j|u lonrliition
thiit the i.rtlrli'ii on whii'h they occur are ol
heathen oritjin, ami wen- used by Chriitians from
the almeiu c, in the early (lorioil of tha church, of
artiittH of their own faith capable of fabricating
tlieni. Thii niiiHt hnve been especially the cute
with ^arc«phagi. Those who ncciled them were
coinpelleit to renort to heathen iculptora' worlc-
ahopH, and to content thamaulveii with Kulecting
tho^a which ilid the leant violence to the new
fnitli. In this way we may account for the
occurrence of pagan larcophagi in Chriatian
burial-placed. "We have abundant evidence,"
writes I'mfajaor Wcatwood (Parker, Arc/uieo-
ioi/i/ of J\\mie ; 'J'oinha, p. 39), "not only that
pagan aarcophagi were uxeil for the burial of
Chriatians, but also that lubjecta of a pnatoral
or pagan charaotor were adopted on the sarco-
phagi of the earlier Christiana, to which aymbo-
liial meaningsi were attached, whereby in the
minds of the uninitiated their Christian destina-
tion would never be suspected. In the wordai of
Mabillon (//<t. Ital. § 10, p. 81), "Sic profanis
tumulia Christian! non raro quasi propriia uai
aunt.'" As vxam|>lca, we may name one found
in the cemetery of St. Agnes, bearing the epitaph
of a Christian virgin named Aurelia Agapetilla,
designated " ancilla Dei," which is ornamented
with a figure of liacchua, surrounded with naked
Cupiils, and the genii of the seasons (Uoldetti,
p. 466), and two given by Millin ( Voyage au
Midi tic la Frivtce, iii. l.")6, 1.58, pi. xxvi. 4,
xxxvii. .S), on one of which is carved the Forge
of Vulcan. On another, given by Northcote
(p. 2tjl), Cupid and Psyche are represented aide
by side with a Go(«l Shepherd, who is overturning
a basket of fruit. The conversion of ancient
carved marbles into articles for the use of the
Christian church, such aa fonts, ho'y water
basins, alms-boxes, which at one time largely
prevailed, has proved rather iriale.^iding from its
having been supposed that their present uae
was necessarily contemporaneous with their first
execution.
Some of the gilded glasses extracted from the
catacumbs bear scenes from pagan mythology,
and the rigures of heathen deitiet, Hercules,
Minerva, Achilles, Serapis, &c. On others are
depicted subjects which are incapable of a Chris-
tian interpretation, and which it is difficult to
conceive could have been executed by a Christian
artist. One, given by Perret (iv. pi. ixx. no. 82),
represents a naked female waited on by winged
genii, one of whom holds a mirror. Others have
the genius of death winged, either leaning on an
inverted torch (Garrucci, 201, 5; Buonarruoti,
xxviii. 2), or arrested in full career by the meta
or goal, indicating the end of life {ibid.). The pro-
nounced pagan character of these glasses renders
it difficult tu assii;n Ihcm ;. Christiita Oiigin, anil
though both Garrucci and WLseman are of opinion
that this art was confined to the Christians alone,
they bring forward no grounds for this view,
which is prinui fnrir liiiprobabli', such a« tn fdrljH
us to rcg.iril tliein is the work of pagan nrtiiti
for the use of their Cii-roliginnists.
The very curious wall-puinllngs of a derMi'dlr
pagan character, in tliecenieliry of Praetntiil-H
first published by Hotlarl (tciii. il. prefare, n. r.
jip. 1SI2, 218) and given by Perret (vid. I, n].
iix.-lxxiv.) and by Parker (Mr< Adt'n/o/i/ o/' /.i,,^,
f'lidnvmi/u), to which a Christian origin wm
assigned by liamilKochette and other wriliri
are now proved to belong to one of the (iui.stjc
sects. The sepulchral chamber they ileiDriiln j,
that of Vinccntius, a priest of a deity imnnij
.Sabasi^ or .Sabasus, and his wife Vihia, who*
death preceded his own. They embrace liriir
scenes: — (1) Alirrptio I'AiVs, the soul of Vilna
carried off by Pluto in his iiuadrijja, ninl the
(fewvnii'o, her descent to Hades. ('J) Her jnli;.
ment heforethe throne of Pluto (A>ij;«it^r),|„,|,t,,j
with hia wife Abracura (iPfih xoipn), the Dme
Kates (yata IHvint). Vibia is intnidiiccd hv
Mercury, and accompanied by Alcestis. (.'()
Indiulio VUiicn, her introduction to the mv»tic
banquet by the Ani/rlus hunif, a youth crnwnfj
with Howers, and her taking her place with the
other guests at a aigma-shaped inh\w (lli'iii^nm
judicii) jmlicuti). (4) The flineral banquet gjvon
by VIncentius in her honour to the prie>ts of
Sebasitis (sf/)<c[m] pii sacerdott »). The pagan
character of the whole is so pronounced that it
is dillicult to understan4 how these iiaintini;!
could have been supjioscd to have a Christian
origin.
(Piper. Miithologie und SymhoUk der ChrUtMn
Kunst ; Miinter, Sinnbildcr ; Macnrius, //o,/i^
ijlypta ; Garrucci, Arti Cristiane ; Ranul-
Kochette, Ta'ileau dis C'alacombes ; Perret, /,«
Catacomlies ; l)e Kossi, Homa S<jtterranc(i ; Bullfl.
tino ; Northcote and Brownlow, Jtoma Slitter
tranea ; Parker, Archaeology of Rome.
SAKC»PlIAaU8.]
PAGANISM. SURVIVAL OF. Enquiry
in connexion with this subject may be »im|]li-
fied by treating it under three henJM (I.)
Piiijanism as a fnrm of public tcorsMp supporM,
recognised, or tolerated by the ciiil ptncer. (II.)
As a popular belief existing in open covtratentiiM
of slate authority and in avoieed ant'ujonim Id
Chrisliinity. (III.) As intencorcn with the rtlt-
glon, discipline, and ceremoniid of Christian cm-
munities, or diacemihh' in their everyday life ami
practice. [For pogan influeLocs on education, see
Schools.]
Some of the principal facts relating to(I.) are
given under Idolatry, but it will be of service
here to pass under review, somewhat more gene-
rally, the influences that successively dctemiineJ
the relations of paganism to the ruling poner
under the empire — a part of the subject inti-
mately connected with (II.) and (111.).
(I.) The earliest sentiments of pagnnium
with respect to Christianity appear to hare
been those of indiU'erent tolerance. When,
however, the true character of ChristisDity
began to be better understood, as th.it of an
avowedly aggressive and intolerant creed—
oggresiive, that is to say, in that all other beliefs
were regarded by its Cnllnvfers as hostile, and
intolerant in that it professedly aimed at the
overthrow of all other religions — the attitude of
tiid civil power altogether changed. [MABim.]
[Toiin;
[E- v.]
PAQAKISK
The rnnvflrildn nf (;..ntt«Mtine nnl the «illct of
)lil.n((»WnlM.r 28, :)13), e.t.Mnlinn stiu.- r™,,^,,!.
turn to Christiiiiiity, nmUTJiilly iii.»lirii-.| nil the
pn-»ii»tiiiK conilitiuiu of pii({niiiMii, which fn,m
thi« liiiw |.r«H.'nt» itirlf under « .liH'cieut a«|H.(t
i Mii.i.l.'r»M.! ilim.rsiico j« r|„„ now .li«coiuil)U
ll ih* c.n.litioiw iiniliT which it conlinu.'.l to
Milt in the Kant and thoiie whioh xurioiind«<l
it In th« Wi.»t— « (liHtinclion of no little import.
U(y In the Inter history of i)B(5«ui«iii, iind one to
nhnii we Hhnll have iKca«ion «K/iin to refer.
Tlie e.!ict of Mil m • niarkit tli« iBiiugurution
of tlu! iinmi/ilo (/ univeriiil lolfrnlinn ; everyone
w« thereby iwrniitte<l jputilicly to (irofess wlmt-
»v»r nU^iiia he ohone. It gn\'e to the (.'hriatlHni
u<l to all alike, "ot ChristianlHct onniibuH," full
isd o|ien freedom, " |>otentaU'm liberam et
iperlam," "(.ec|ueiidi reli;(lonem ((uam qulmiue
»(ilui.'..«a " (Ku«eb. //iat. Kctilc: x. r>). (Jon-
KMtine, though protecting Christianity, at
the wrue time maiutaiiiuij the priests of the
incieot rellKlon in the enjoyment of their
coitomary privileges (Cod. II,oh1. XII. i '21
i,t>. 3:).'); XII. V. 2, A.D. 3,17; Haenel, 120+,'
1278). When his palace wan etrucik by light-
ling, he sent to consult the pagan uugurs ;
ke hiiKwIf continued to be Aaluteil by the
title and represented in the atthe of I'ontifex
Maiimu»(Mionnet, if«U.,i//«j ronuunes, ti 2.16);
tD(l lh« .statement of Zosimus (iv. ;i(J), that the
lime honnur wiui accepted by his succenNom
onlil the lime of (jratiaii, proves that the title
(till oaniiMl with it, in the eyes of manv, n cer-
tain sniirimt of prestige. Other facts jmint with
equal force to the tenacity with which the forms
ind ftohiuns of paganism continued to (wrvade
official and ceremonial observance. A panegyric
•lidressed to Oonstantiue in the year 321, by
Nuarius, is full of allusions to the pagan mytho-
logy. A law enacted in the same year, while
condemning magical rites, nevertheless giv««
direct lanction to the use of charms and incanta-
tions against snow or hail {Cod. Theod. IX. xvi
3; Haenel, p. 868). In the year 331, a date"
which has been assigned ns marking the decisive
overthrow of pagan worship (Beugnot, Jliat. de
Ji VeslriKtm da Pcuj. i. 176), from the fact that
ituitnessed the almost complete destruction of
the temples in Africa, we find Aniciua Faulinus,
the prelect of Home, restoring the temple of
Concord (Gruter, Ii.ao. totut OiIm Konumi, i
lOw). CoLstantine, after his death, received the"
honours of apotheosis and the appellation of
''Divu9"(Kutropiu8, X. 10).
A politic regard for popular feeling, as asso-
cuted with time-hallowed observances, appears
to have led the civil authorities still to sanction
or permit many of the traditional IbrniHlities
«nd solemnities of paganism, but in the mean-
time public sentiment itself was undergoine
a great change. Of this a remarkable proof
18 stTorded in the fact that the tombs of the dead
(»hich among purely pagan communities were
»l»-ay8 regarded with superstitious veneration
and invested with a peculiar sanctity) now
began to be frequently plundered and desecrated.
Ihe symbols and adornments of these structures
PAOANISM
1537
Jnl^'hnrll" '■" "°' ""^""^ to US «, a slate docn-
J^?^ of B thZ' T "H"' """*"" '-'="""• »» "•«
which reflected the ancient rellgi.Mi, bcOief.
«l'l*"r to have e,c|,H „t once the co„,..n,pt an
^"l;f'l> T ol the Christians, who eonreii ,| ,h.
materials t„ the commonest use,, even ,.„r ving
h,.m away for Iniilding purposes. An e.l hTof
C..n.t.„ti,.. II, pro,„ulg'ate,'l ..n. :ho, aVtl
o^ni ;;r ';•" f^ ■"' ""• *■ •'"■"''■'"• ''*••'■"" ">"
-ognisanc ,. the proprietor, .hall be rondcinned
Haenel, p 874). A subsequent law presc 1, d
h* runishment of death; but i„ .he'v,.ar'l49
!>«:ition"r,lni. '''"""' "''''«"'•'''"■''''' '"«-
br'a't'^'^'l'." """."I'P'-''" ns largely .lictafed
bratwol„ldieg„id:(|) forth. r,.,po„sil„litie«
nv.dved in the prof..„i„„ of the ChHstian faith
I'y the st„te, (.') for the f,.ellni;s of ,he Christian
jn«,|..rity among the people ; w'h,.,, „„ the U W
ha. I t,,re is ample evidence, especially in the
wa still r, '""''7', ^"' "•" P^'J'>'"i^'«-"f what
was still a powerful minontv often caused sue
essive enactments to remain alnict a dead
hat f,^ aiengthoned perioil, rei.ressi,'e legis-
lation was virtually inojH-raUrg. Thus, in th«
mal'iv f ;f"r,""'' """ '■"*^'"' ""="«- -•« ""•■
rT !.b I ;'"""" o"' ""PO"'!'!". "'.crificlo.
rum amleatur insania " (Cud. Theod. XVI. j 2 •
Haenel, p. 16J2). The proof, however that
Mich SMcr.tices were still publicly oflered is so
controverl.ble that I.abaltie co^nject.ires tha^
relercnce ,. here infende,! only to private sacri-
• ces and the magical rites wiih which they we,^
frequently associateil. I(„t ,uch an hvp.^hesiS
.s rendered highly improbable by the lilnju:^:
of an edict promulgated in mL which while
directing that the temples WMo,/* i/,." '^/i
hall be permitted to remain uninjured, distinctly
■mp les that those within the city i.recincts wcr.
marked out fur destruction, and%'ven the rrser!
vat on in favour ot the former is justified solelr
on the ground that the public games and cJ-
ceases had originated with the worship that wa.
associated with certain temples, and that it wa.
not htting that those shouM be overthrown
floin whence the Koman people derived the
celebration of ancient festivities" (Cod. Theod,
AVI, I. 2, .5; Haenel, p. 1612).
A similar difficulty attaches to two enact-
2,"o1.V''r'"l°'?!"« *" ''^'""8 '^ *•>« y""-' 353
and Aoh, forbidding sacrifices of every kind under
penalty of death , for here again Beu^gnot prove,;
fron. the evidence of inscriptions, that through'
out the reign of Constantius II. the temples were
o|;en and sacrifice, offered, not only in Rome,
but throughout the Western empire. Of thi.
contradiction, Beugnot can find no other expla-
nation than that aflorded by the supposition of
Labastie, that the above laws, though probably
drawn up during the reign of Constantius, re-
mained unpromulgated, and, being subsequently
found by rheodosius among the state papers,
lates '"' ^ '" *''^ ''~*' *'*'' conjectural
n6l'srt4V"' ?'FS r""''"" (361-36.3), Jovian
(.lb3-3f,4) ami of Valentinian in the West (364-
37,)), and Valens in the East (364-378), the state
theory npponra to h.,v. h..n that of general
olerance «nd strict impartiality with respect
to religious belief (Gieseler, Kirchenqeschiehte. I.
11. i\, ^2); but we have evidence that the im-
perial power still cherished a certain sympathy
r\
• t ',1
• .ii!,
'■; fi
y-i'Uff
I).. MSJf
1%
lit'*
rh
1538
PAGANISM
with many pag«n practices [Macic, VI. 2). The
coins and iredals of the period beiir the Hgures
of many of the pagan deities, especially those of
Egypt (lieugnot, i. 271, 272). It is stated by
Anastasius Hibliothecarius that in the reign of
Valentinian, an emperor whose Arian sympathies
diviiled and weal-ened the Christian party, pa-
ganism assumed so aggressive a demeanour that
the clergy were afraid to enter the churches or
the public baths— "neque in ccclesias n»que in
balnea haberent introitum" ( IVto i?on». I'ontif.;
Migne, hiitrol. cxxviii. 31). It is, however, not
a little remarkable that an edict of the same
emperor, of the year 3ij8 (Cad. Theod. XVI. ii.
18) presents us, for the first time, with the
teim " pagani " as applied to the adherents of
the old religion. At Home, we have abundant
evidence that this party was still powerful.
I'rudentius {cont. Syminanli. i. v. 545) can con-
gratulate only six families of senatorial rank
on having embraced the new faith (the Anicii,
the t'robi, the Paulini, the Bassi, the Olybrii,
and the Gracchi), and Augustine {Conf. viii. 2)
distinctly implies that in the time of Simpli-
cianus, the teacher of St. Ambrose, the majority
of the Roman nobility were strongly opposed to
Christianity. Even Gratian (:i()7-383) appears
to have proclaimed almost perfect liberty of con-
science, except with regard to some minor sects,
whose tenets were supposed to involve obliga-
tions incompatible with filelity to the stiite
(Soz. //. E. vii. 1 ; Migne, f<cries Graeca, Ixvii.
1418). But in the year 382 he ordered that
the statue of Victory, " custos imperii virgo,"
should be removed from the Curia ; he also
forbade the offering of the " hostiae consulta-
toriae" (Coil. T/teod. XVI. x. 7), nnd refused,
for himself, the title of Pontifex Maximus. It
is eviilent from the language of Zosimus (iv.
36) that this last act was interpreted by the
pagan party itself as a formal renunciation of
the ancient union between the supreme spiritual
and the supreme temporal power, and as inti-
mating the imperial repudiation of all claims of
paganism on the latter.
The enactments of Theodosius (378-395) may
be considered to mark the real commencement
of the downfall of paganism, but their influence
was still almost entirely limited to the East.
The emperor had the sagacity to perceive how
largely unity in religion might be made to
conduce to the object towards which his whole
policy was directed — the establishment of the
unity of the empire. " We will," says the edict
of April 27, 380, "that all the nations subject
to our sway be of that religion which the divine
apostle Peter (as the faith introduced by him
and preserved to the present time declares)
handed down to the Romans" (0>/. Tlicod. XVI.
i. 2; Haenel, p. 1476). A law of the yciir 381
(i6. X\'l. vii. 1) enacted that those who had
relapsed into paganism should forfeit the right
to dispose of their property by will ; this enact-
ment was confirmed two years later (i/. XVI.
vii. 2), in the year 385 the inspection of
entrails ami all magical rites were forbidden
under pain of death ; a law of February .'>91, pro-
mulsatel in the first instance at Miiar forbade
sacrilico to i lols, or even to enter the temples
(i6. XVI. X. 10; Zosiinus, IV. x.txiii. 8); while
the same law, as promulgated at (.'onstantinople
in tlie November of the followinjj year, visited
PAGANISM
Buch practices with the penalty of death (Cxi
JVieod. XVI. X. 12 ; see also Iix)I,atuv). It jj
stated by Theodoret (Eccl. Hist. v. 20 ; Jliitn^
Series Graeca, Ixxiii. 1055) that Theodosius slw
decreed the demolition of the temples, but r.o
such law is extant, and the assertion must at
least be looked upon as of doubtful autliuiitv.
We have it, however, on the authority 'iif
Libanius that th-> prefect Cynegius was in-
structed to close the temples in Egypt, wheri>
both the Greek and the Egyptian woiship still
numbered many adherents (Urat. pro Janulii
p. 194). ^ '
The distinction, above referred to, between
East and West now becomes of primary im-
portance. Generally speaking, the eviJeme
would seem to shew that legislntien wiiicli
was severely enforced in the former ilivision of
the empire was practically inoperative in the
latter. In the East, paganism, being imidenti-
fied with any political party, and iiossessing no
influence over the executive power, was in-
capable of any organised resistance. Instances
indeed, are to be found, even so late as the oth
century, of pagans occupying posts of high
office — as, for example, that of Optatus, who
was prefect of Constantinople in the year 404
(Socrates, //. i?. vi. 18 ; Migne, ferics Grueca,
Ixvii. 337); but these are of rare occurrence
and whatever influence the pagan party still
possessed was mainly limited to the schools.
Hence, even so early as the conimememcnl
of the 4th century, Lncian, the celebrated
teacher of Antioch, who suffered martvrdom
under Maximin, affirms that " whole cities and
the greater part of the world " are already of
the Christian faith (iMilman, Jfist. of dr. ii.
276), a statement which, the evidence alrcaJr
adduced shews, could have been even approii-
mately true only with reference to the Kastern
provinces. In the West, on the other hand, and
especially in Rome, where the hereditary dig-
nities and offices, and the whole historical asso-
ciations of the city, were closely interwoven
with the ancient religion, paganism maintained
its ground with remarkable tenacity. Theodosius
himself evidently recognized this brnad distino-
tion ; for though he is accused by Zosimus (t.
38) of persecuting the ancient ritual, he nnither
closed the temples nor proscribed the pontilTsin
the West. Finlay {Greeks under the Eii.pirt,
p. 160) considers that the attachment of the
Roman aristocracy to paganism proved the ruin
of the Latin provinces ; while those of the East
were saved by the unity of their religious faith.
At the commencement of the reign of Ilonorioj
(395-423), temples to Jupiter, Mercury, Saturn,
the Mater Deftm, ApoDo, Diana, Minerva, Spes
and Fortuna, and Concord, were still standing in
Rome, and many of the old religious cercraonin
and festivals continued to be observed. An
edict of the year 399, promulgated at Ravenna,
while forbidding the pagan worship, prohibited
the destruction of the temples ; it was the im-
perial pleasure, it stated, that edifices which
gave so much adornment to the public thorough-
fares should be preserved — "publicorura operum
orn:!msnta serviiri " (fii.;. T.heod. XVI. i. 1.')).
It is not accordingly until the year 4(i8 that
paganism can be regarded as having beea
rigorously stippressed in the West. In th«
December of that jrear an edict of Honoriui)
PAOANISM
iddressed to Curtiu,, prefect of Italv, forbade
.1 WmeNts ("annonae") to the maintonanee
,f the ancent worship, eujuineJ that nil i.na^re,
mthe ""'I'es .f any still remained, shouldT
removed, and that the temples then.selve, should
b. converted o secular u.es and the altars
destroyed (>h. XVI. x. 20).
In Africa this legislation aj)pears to have
been put .n force w.the,ception'al severity, ami
f ree out of the hve edicts directed in the eicn
of Honor, us agamst paganism relate to that
province. Augustine (de Cio. Del, xviii hi\
testifies to the actual execution, by the imperia
officers, Gaudentius and Jovius, of these ena,'
jnents: p.igan priests who had failed to quit
Carthage by a cer ain day, were oompellod to
retire to the.r native towns or villa?,..;, and all
property devoted to the support of' the pagan
worship was confiscated. *
The testimony of contemporary writers to the
genera overthrow of paganism now becomes
ciplicit and unanimous. 2eno, bishop of Verona
tai,»rds the close of the 4th cent.^rv, s, aks
of "nearly the whole world" as alread^ c'h?is
t,aa(<,i Cor. I. vii. 29; Migne, xi%u4):
Jerome wrung a few years later (a.d. 40.t)
|»y., "the golden Capitol is dishonoured ; all the
temples of Rome stand begrimed with smoke
and covered with cobwebs; the city is stirred
oits oundations, and the populace stream p^t
he half-demolished shrines on their way J^l
tombs of the martyrs " (/>H cvii.). Augustine
m Africa, declares that God has willed the over!
throw of Gentile superstition, and that He has
already to a cront <.^>„„( .' i . . .. """
PAGANISM
U3d
, , - ""j'>=ioiiuon, and that He has
already a great extent completed His p,i?!
Fse. "e behold," he says, in one of' h s
epistles, "the temples, some' fallen into rui,
fxagjera lon, that the temples had been so
uterly destroyed, that their%-ery fashion had
vied from memory, and men no longer knew
:[ '," ~"'"-««t «■> »ltnr, while their mnteS
haJ been consecrated by being used for h'
«s of the martyrs {Sermo do Mart,.. .- jL ,/
M«nism is virtu:n;^e^"nti.r;roV :i
thesecurity' f th tmUf "i" t'''"'''f »»
kind ore the n,,W* T f? . ' ■'"'t«n™s of this
Ihekalmlsof' n '^"*"'"''' ""'' rejoicings on
^-ned\TjUxtro7TuK7i;!';j;;S
c'iRisr. ANT—vou II. <-nry8olora»,
I bi'hnp of Ilavenna in ilfi 'Pk» e
Mm 6 01 '"•ff. "'-" '■"'•'•''"■^ out (Migne,
all peiflms fo.mTsifcHH ngtccoX"tVth\*
rites paganism shall be put to 3 mark
n%h:'"c„i'tr"* k' ''r'^'^-« ''S'^""-
j"ncti:;w:;!ht2:a:;d:n^^x-'-
Italy against ^he,u,p';^'o^th:"''"''' '"
reliirinn /■/Ao» J i °"l'l'""eis oj the ancic .;
282). *''■"*■'• * 'P«i?""'»'»«,
On the whole, the commencement of the fi»n
the schools of Athens b7justinhn in h '"' "'
529 marks the formate fi'S 'o"f* he -"old
philosophy, between which 'and Christian doc
trine it had at one time seemed Dossihle fK ?
reconciliation might be etleild. •^Fh Je t u."
ip:illothTt''h^ l'" '"■"•' *'■»« "' -^ tern 1 ' o"
reIfgiou'sW:'"=''""P""''"« "•«-'"'-" in the
'» avowed a,U.,^on,s,n IchHstantK^^^
Oreek or Roman mytholoev f ii\ «1 th "r'*"*
orreutonic or othe.^ baSus^^it'ns':^ "''«'""
traced almost exclusi • l i ^Lt'i^c^ " *" '"
SsS:tiii:"'r3\£=
;Jin?^l^\h^~^f-:-t
r:a^d;:^^^"'"«-^--'HiiHc;?,r;
Bie called villagers or genti e« " "„. ■ i ."
xxxi i). Similarly I'rudentius (contra sZ
98
$
r
_, If* -.
1540
PAGANISM
of Muhometanism, there are not a few instancsn
of its temporary disappearance in comparatively
limited districts, through the relapse of the
population into paganism. Generally speaking
the following conclusions are probably souml :
(1) That where a break in the recorded epis-
copal suci'cssion presents itself, paganism re-
gained the ascendancy during the period repre-
sented by this vacancy. "If," says Gregory of
Tours, when referring to the succession in his
own diocese, " any one should inquire why only
one bishop, namely, Litfcrius, is to be found
in the period extending from the death of
bishop Gatianus to St. Martin, let him knoW
that, owini/ to the resistance of the pixi/uns, the
city of Tours was long deprived of all priestly
benediction " {/fist. Fr. i. 43). (•>) That where,
in the history of a community or of a city, we
find no trace of a bishopric or of a monastery,
paganism probably continued to hold its ground.
The language of St. Augustine, who speaks
of the faith as " toto terrarum orbe diiiusa,
exceptis Homanis et adhuc paucis Ociiden-
talibus," points to a distinction which may be
regarded as valid during the greater part of
our period. In the Oth century the pagan party
in the Kiist (the iraJSf j 'EAX^i'ao', as they were
termed) became subject to persecutions scarcely
less cruel than those which the Christians
encountered under Diocletian. John Malalas
[Chrunotintphia ; Migne (S. G.), xcvii.449] state's
that in the year 561 there was a great persecu-
tion (Siucyiuis 'E\\-l)viDV /if 70s), and that the
property of many adherents of paganism was
conliscated ; while a 'decree forbade them to
exevcise their political rights as citizens. He
also tells how certain gamblers (rii/fi rii
Kumariiv) who had been guilty of blasphemy
(0Ka(T<prifila$ Sfwah iamovs ir(pi^\6vr(i) were
sentenced to have their hands and feet cut off,
and in this state were paraded naked on camels
through the streets of Constantinople, while
their books and the images of their gods were
burnt at the C'ynegium.
In the Italian prefecture, on the other hand,
where the presence of the barbarinn conqueror
(still either png:in or Arinn) secured for the
Hom:m paganism a certain toleration, the ancient
religion was long cherished and its rites prac-
tised. At Rome it found support iu the political
traditions and associations of the aristocratic
party, and in the rural districts of Italy was
protected by a genuine, though bigoted, devotion
to the national worship. Kven Christian his-
torians a Imit that in these latter regions idolatry
still reigned in the 4th century, and that the
work of evangelization was attended with con-
siderable peril. In the mount;iinous distiics of
the north, Saturn and Diana continued to receive
the homage of the pe<'\santry, and the Krst
preachers of Christianity encountered a martyr's
fate (lieugnot, i. 284). The inhabitants of the
valleys of Piedmont stubbornly defended the
faith of their ancestors ; Valens and Valentlnian
were saluted by the Venetians as the " divini
patres " (Muratori, i. 264, no. 4). At Turin and
Brescello, statues were erected to Julian (Mar-
mor '. I'diir'iHen. i. 249). At Milan, where the
influence of St. Ambrose was paramount pagan-
ism almost disappeared; but a tractate of
Maximus of Turin (Migne, Pat ol. Ivii. 721),
written nearly half a century later, " Contra
PAGANISM
Pnganos," proves the extent to which it )ire.
vailed in the surrounding districts. Etruris,
which Christian historians have represcutid aj
completely converted during the reign i.t' (.on.
stantine, appears by the testimony of Ammianui
Warccllinus (b. xxvii. c. 3) and that of Zdsimus
(v. xli.) to have been a stronghold of the ait.nf
divination in their time, and to have iiu|.hli(.(i
all Italy with diviners. At Florence, distin-
guished by its worship of Mars, a tradition
prevailed that if the statue of that deity were
dishonoured evil would befall the city (Villimi
i. Ix.); anil, out of deference to superstitious
feeling, the statue was placed on the banii of the
Arno, where it long continued to receive the
homage of the citizens. At Volatena the
pagan worship, protected by the powerful family
of the Caecinae, maintained its ground, ami was
professed with impunity (Kutilius Num it. i. v.
4&.'i). In the central portion of the peninsula
the evidence of inscriptions and of iiagim
writers reveals the existence of the pagan
element at Sestinum, Kiniini, Spoleto, Alba
Ostia, Praenijste, in;. (Symmachus, hpist. i. 4;) •
Animian. Marc. b. xix. c. 10; Macrobius, Sit. i,
2.1). The south, owing in a great measure to
the inaccessible nature of the country, long re-
mained pagan. Kaplcs w.as distinguished by its
adherence to the national faith (Benevent. Ant.
I'/ics. i. 118). The insularity of Sicily exercised
a similar influence, and inscriptions at l)re-
panum and Marsala shew that these cities were
still unchristianized so late as the reign of
Valens and Valentinian (Sicilifje hiscript. Cullect,
pp. 27, :i6). Beugnot (i. 289) considers that
paganism continued to be dominant in the island
until supplanted towards the end of the 5th
century by the worship of the Virgin, which,
after the third general council at Ephesus, was
largelv introduced (Cronoloijiu unio. cfc/Ai SicHia,
p. 6(11).
The islands of the Western Mediterranean
long remained altogether pagan. Rutilius (i. v.
375) speaks of the worship of Osiris as pre-
vailing in Klba, while that of Hercules apiiears
to have predominated in Sardinia (Graevius,
I'/icsiiiir. XV. 58).
In the province of Africa, where the intimate
relations with Rome gave rise to a similar state
of religious feeling, a spirit of indilTorcnce seems
long to have tolerated the ancient worship of
the couutry. The deities to whom special
reverence was paid were the Tyrian goJ,
Melcarth (identified by some writers with the
Libyan Hercules), together with Saturn ami
Celeste. Salvian (de Gub. Dei, Migne, liii. 178)
represents even Christians of his time as uniting
with pagans in ceremonies instituted in honour
of this goddess. In Mauritania and NuniiJin,
we meet with other names, probably those of
the legendary heroes of the countrj At I'tica,
Apollo ; at Carthage, Ceres and Proserpine, were
principally worshipped. But the most notice-
able feature of these provinces, and one which
long survived the open worship of pagan deities,
was the devotion of the people to superstitious
aits, such as magic, sortilegy, augury, &c. At
the same time paganism itself ciliilited S W'i
front — a fact partly attributable to interrouree
with Rome, partly to the Donntist schism,
whereby the influence of the Christian party
was seriously impaired. The spirit of thi
PAGANISM
Donatists is illustrated by their nimiratinn of
the character ami pi.Iicy of Julian, who thev
asserted, was the only emperor who hi'd ex
hibited the impartiality that became the civil
power (August. Cf.nt. Apist. Farm. i. 12- Miene
iliii. 47). But even so late as the year 40«'
we find the pagan party at Calama, in Numidia',
celebrating the kalends of June, "contra recen-
tissimas leges ; ' " tam insolent! usu " savs
Augustine, " ut quod nee Juliani temporibus fa'u-
turn est. They finally betook themselves to
piunlenng a neighbouring church, and mur-
dered a monk-conduct which Augustine admits
a].|ieared to have the secret sympathy of the
principal inhabitants of the place CAWsi Ql .
Migne, xx.xiii. 8I(i-7). v. Z' "■ t.i ,
In Spain the resistance to Christianity appears
to have been feeble. The absence of a distinct
national religion probably favoured the introduc-
tion of the new faith, the previously existing wor-
ship having included the deities of diHerent lands
the gnds of the capitol together with those of
Phoenicia, Greece, and Carthage. We find, however
eviJeuce of a strong Roman element.'' From the
ivign of Constantiae to that of Valentinian, the
list of the magistrates of the province is notice-
able, as presenting us with the names of families
distinguished by their adherence to pac^anism
Masdeu V-. .^,07). St I'acian, bishop of 'CZ
lona, who died towards the end of the 4th cen
tury, declares that many of the inhabitants of
his diocese are still given ♦o idolatry (Miene
1111. 1084); and Macrobius speaks of the Occi-
tanl, a people near Cadiz, as worshipping in the
same century, " cum maxima relligione,"' a statue
of Stars, whom they adore.l under the name of
.\eton(i.ix). Ueugnot, who diHers from Mas-
doiiand Milmanon this question, considers the
^ar y conversion of the province to have been
ittle more than nominal, and calls attention to
the articles of the council of Elvira as indi-
atmg the existence of many pagan usages an<l,
at b«t,^,ut a very impure form of Christianity
In the Gauls, the language of St. Jerome,
"Oallia monstra non habuit," implving X
abs nee of idolatry, must be understood as
applicable only to the southern portion of Trans-
allime Gaul ; and even in this region, where
Koman institutions and Roman civilization long
held their ground after they had been over-
t rown on the parent soil, the ancient faith was
cheiished with remarkable tenacity. n BriU
an^he place of these traditions w^as suppl ed
by Uruidism and in the north-east by Teu onic
fagaiusm. St. Martin, in the 4th^ centurv
wears to have been the first whose effort Tt
-ccess. "Before his arrival," savs Sulidcius
^ eras "none, or scarcely any, worship,, the
triieOod; where he overthrew temjdes, ho im!
mliately erected monasteries or churches "
(%ne, P„<../. „. i„^. Gregory of Tou's,
P-^' .MSM
1541
mimm
Ciirt.il,n f.,1,1. I , '^'^''^''"'e 'he Biippressiun of tbe
I "' hi^lif--' "f .Sim,dicius, bishop of \utun n„r
r^onh:^-^;i^t:i;^uK:i^lf
destruction of a statu,. „f in '"'"""<^» the
by the inhabitan s , "l" in Tir;"'"'^';"'
of the 6th century (/y^l^'^^rti-^/yr:;^!
court ri.'" ^''V'r,'''^''' ^"""'' '»>'" ' '
•.abeba^r•.^.:^':^/,„;^^;:^;^,'i:^^■■'';r
MercurJ,rrAHi;:tl,e;;t£e^in';;;r;;;;
SSe,-^.r^:'l-S^)-Tht'^-'
p|rq|:pid:^-j-x:fc-ti
^t^lXn^h^co^^-rLt:
p^r^o-ter-arr^-ir
tices more prevalent subsequent to the in riiuc
t on and partial acceptance of Chr "t anif "
convert Clovis, as referring to the obTects ot^h
^rcnrii"(Mansi,'^:^ te^S-^'^:!
sign appears to have been' simply todemde
under classical names, the Teutonic deitesfo.'
a form of abjuration drawn up for the pl,,Ie ii
IldeToTn."^"'^'''"'^^ ">' "-- "Tier
In England where Celtic Christianity was
»h T;/"^. |he native population, in," K
he dilferent kingdoms were indebted for their
e,«ngelizat,on each to a diHerent source; and the
work of conversion to even nominal Christian fv
was not completed until nearly a cen.n.l^v ^
the time of the landing of A.Ju^tin " K f.t 'aZ
t sex relapsed into paganism. Alercia, under
1 enda, remained pagan until 6;).3. hede sta «
ha up to the time of Wilfrid's mission in "s'
all m the province of the South SaxoiHwerd
S"ri2V •""' "' f«'thof Goa"(S!
ev.'»ngBii2.,i.3 „f northein Europe to <.!,/,„.„"
as a centre of their operations, d'lttrt, where
tZ ^^^ ,?T^ '" «'<''«»ion to the Saxons
Irt T "^ "J^born, -like Boniface's -^Zl
tery at f ulda, was erected among ,. „i Zi
ft Q -i
',U
8' ^^
m H <*, iT'r
si 1 A* nA'
11 f * *. »'lfJ!
|l' - t*> !
1.-.42
PAGANISM
nitii'i'lv lii'nthiMi )io|iiili\f,i(m, Tlio proviaions
of the Ciiituliiry of riilorlii'in, a.i>. 785
(do I'arti iim .Sir.m nc), bum- witiuss to this
fait ; and It it inferred by IJeuK'""* thnt the
stiiii^ciit oharactur id' tln'so I'miitmcMts, when
emnimroil with Iho milder lenialiitiim ridnting to
mniilar «H|ier»titii>n» in flnul, proves the more
stiibhorn adhereni^o of the Siuons to their
national faith. It may bo observed that these
provisions were again promnljjated asUto as the
yenr 10i)5, by Conrail 11. n^ninat the pagan
)irBi.tice» of tho Wends.
111. I'dHimimn (i) ci* interwoven loi'M ihe reli-
gions rites, discij}liiui, ami crrvminittt of Chris-
tianity ; or (ii) (IS tiiscernihle in t/io ererji ihvj life
and pra-tices r.f profcssedli/ Christian cmnmunities.
This pnrt of tlio subject l)elonj;» nininly to tlie
period distiiii(uished liy lWut;not as the tliiril ancl
concluding stage of the full of pagmiism in the
West, commencing with tlio reign of Viilontininn
111. and terminating with that o( Charles the
Great. After tho lall of Homo before Alaric, in
410, tho Bftitnde of tlie slate in relation to
jiaganism was little altered; bnt great conces-
sions appear to have been male by tho church
with the design of faeilitating the work of con-
version. The policy which dictated these con-
cessions may be referred to a threefold senti-
ment:— (1) the desire to mitigate the resent-
ment of those who assorted that the fall 6f
Home was attributablo to the neglect of the
worship of her ancient gods ; ('J) to a sense of
the common danger to Christianity and pagan
civilization alike, presented in the triumph of
the barbaric invader; (It) to a belief in the
approaching cud id' the world— an event which,
as we learn from TertuUian (Apol. ■i'i) and other
writers, was believed liy the Christians them-
selves to be destined to follow on the fill of
Komc, and which rendered tliem doubly anxious
to waive such points of dill'ereuce as, although
of small doctrinal iiuporlance, still constituted
serious obstacles to pagan conversion.
(i) The observation of Chrysostom, that the
devil, " tinding himself unable to win the tlhria-
tians to idolatry, took a round-abiuit Wiiy to
feduce them," points to the existence of iiiiny
]>a!fan practices iinong Christians even in that
fither's time; but a l.irge uuinber of usages in
the ritual and observances of llie church cannot
be traced farther back than the ."ith century.
The language of souui of the fathers seems, it
is true, often to imply a spirit of unsparing
e.vt rmination ; but it is certain that a much
liir^er amount of coinpromisu actually prevailed
than theory countcn mce I. Among the Teutonic
nations especially, there was a disposition on the
)iart of the earliest ovangelisers to be satistied —
lit least in the lirst instance— with a series of
conversions littlo more genuine than those
ell'.M'tel in India and ("I'vlon in tho l;'ith century
liv Francis Xavior and tho .Icsuita ; and even
wlieie more real results were gained, it was
oft.n fiiund expedient to leave miiny distinctly
pajjim usages uiicluilleni{eil for a time. It is
jieriiaps in harnv.ny with the distinction above
in li<'at(> I, AS ohservahle in tlie ('hristian policy
)irior and subseijuent to a.d. 41i', that the line
<if conduct authorised by (Jregory the (Sreat in
his instructions to Melliius [iDOLArKV, p. Hll],
and that recommended by bisliop Daniel to Ho:ii-
face in I'.'unkland {Jipint. xiv. ; Miguc, Ixxiix.
PAGANISM
707-7 10), is in strong contrast to that nlreidy
referred to as pursued by St. Martin in Gaul.
Heathen temples with their surrounding pre-
cincts were often permitted to stand uninjiire<j
the idols being removed, and the buildings con.
secrated to Cliristian uses ; while minor obscrv.
anccs were suil'ered, cither by connivance 'or
tjicit assent, to continue, whicli, with the Inpse
of time, were regarded as having gained tiie
direct sanction of the church.
Among the I.atiu races, the worship of Mithra,
the Sun-g"d, appears to have survived thiit of
nearly all the other gods of the Koman mytho-
logy. M. G.iston Hoissier (//<i Jieliijim raniaitie,
ii. 417) considers that, at the time of the fiill of
the en!_ e, paganism, as it existed in llalv,
recognised scarcely any other deity. rii|,e I.Jo
tlie Great states that many Christians in his lime
adored the rising sun from lofty heights, " parlira
vitio ignorantiae, jmrtim pnganitatis spiritu;"
and that some Christians did this under so mis-
taken a notion of religion, that even when
ascending the steps of St. Peter's at Hume they
were wont to turn and make their obeis.ime to
the sun (Migne, I'lUrol. liv. U4). M.iximus of
Turin reproaches those whom he addresses with
culpable indiHerence to idolatry as practised by
others. He says that if their attontiim wimc
drawn to an idol, they would say it wns no con-
cern of theirs, "causa mea non est, non me
tangit" (Migne, Ivii. GIO). I'opc Gregoiy,
writing to queen lirunehaut, urges In r to put j
stop to idolatry and the worship of trees; fur
he hears, he says, that Cliristians who go to
churcli still worship daemons {ibid. Ixxvii. S.lil).
Agila, ambassador from the Gothic nimiarch
l.euvichildus to king Chilperic, infirmeil Gre-
gory of Toura that his people held the worship
of idols to bo perfectly compatible with that
of the God of the C!liristians (Hist. Frunc. v.
44; Migne, Ixxi. 'J'ltj). Grimm indeed oliservps
that both among the Anglo-Saxons anJ the
Northmen the same idea prevailed (Deutsche
MJIwl. p 7): and ISede (//is<. /.Vc7. ii. l."i) states
that Uedwald, king of Kast Anglia, had in the
same temple an altar on which to otl'er Chiisti™
sacrifice, and another, a smaller one, en which
to oiler victims to devils. The canon of the
council of Klvira (A.n. il'i.')) forbidding nil who
have received baptism, and are of years of dis-
cretion, to enter a temple in order to participate
in idolatrous worship, under penalty of being
refused the sacrament of communion nt death,
is, however, sulRcient proof that the action of
the church was very early direc;ed against such
gross misconceptions, which appear to have heen,
for the most part, contincd to senii-barUious
nations.
A more interesting and instructive inquiry is
that which relates to those pagan elements
which became permanently interwoven with
Christian belief and practice, and were even
defended by many of tho great teachers of the
church. The controversy lietween .lerome and j
Vigilantius, an 1 that between Augustine and the
Manichaean Kaustus, oft'er valuable illustrati'in
of this portion of the subject. Vigilantius at-
tacked tlie adoration of saints, the veiierati'O
paid to martyrs and their relics, and t'le custom
of placing lamps before their shrines. F.nnstM
declared th it the Christians had really in no
way abandoned the pagan mode of life. They
PAGANISM
hnd mfr<-ly auhstitnteil tlieir Ai»nnnp f„r the
Pagiia sneiifioea; thdr mnilyrs f„r i,li,ls- t)i,.v
Itill iippeaflLMl tlie .sha.los „f tli« ,|,.iv| ,vith win,,
ami m«it off.Tin(cs, an.l celrbrntcd .iln,,,, ,vi,k
th« imgana tho nncient (v^U\ ,|„y,_,hp K.,|,,,„|,
»ud the SoUtitiae. It appoars „n,|,„.sti„n„t,|e
that both Jerome and Augustin.! a.liiiitte.l tho
pajjan on^m of these customs, b„t n.ninfaii.,.,1
their utility, and especially riiidirnted their
retention on the ground of ex,e.lien.y; but
both Augustine .iid Theodoret disclaimed the
notion that it was the deslfri, „f the church in
any way to Jeiji/ tho martyrs, whom it honoured
ami revered aolely as instruments of the divine
power. (Milman, ffist. of christi.mihj, bk iij
C. 11.; hk. IV. c. il.: Neander. C,,i<,o/, History
PAGANISM
lo43
p. ,, uj. .V. c 1 ; iNcander, Cu-cli History
(m Clark scenes), ill 4,'i2-H; Gieaeler, Ki,vluii.
gcscli. (ed. 184o), i. n. ;!,);!-5,)
.J.M\,'^\T'""" "'" '^'""" (A'/;-c/,r„/,.,,o',. i.
520-7) that the veneration of nuirtyrs and their
relics (trom whence he derives the invocation of
Siiints) IS to be traced to the hero-worshii. of
pre-(.hnsti,%n times; Neander, on the other
hand, claims for the celebration of the mem<.rv
of the great lights of the church "a purely
Christian root," but holds that it received a
dillerent character by becoming "estranged and
diverted from the original Christian spirit "(us
111.448) Ihe earliest instance of the practice
IS probably the celebration of the anniversary of
Polycarp 8 passion at Smyrna (Kuinart, Act. sine.
UaH:,r. pp. 'Ah, 4,i). The dove which, it was
said, had been seen to rise from the tnnrtyr's
bdy 18 compared by Baur to the mounting caKle
which proclaimed the aj.otheosis of the lionian
emperors. fertullian (,/,, Co,-, c. ,)) speaks of
"ohUtiones pro defun<:tis, ],ro nataliciis' annua
die; ana Cyprian (A>. 34) of the "martvrum
paisionea and their " nnnivcrsnrin comm'eiro-
ratio See, on the whole subject, Martvh,
p. 1127; Patiio.v Saint; Kki.ics
The worship of Mary, as [iractised oy the
Col yridians IS looked upon by Neauder («. ,.
■11. 4,.8) as directly traceable to that of Ceres
Ibis seut, which was represented by a number
of women who omigrate.l from Thrace and settled
in Arabia, were wont, on a certain day, to carry
about in cars (J,^p„,), similar to those used in
pagan processions cakes or wafers consecrated
the Virgin, which they Hrst presented as
oifenngs, and suhse,,uently ate. This practice
Neander derives from the customary cake-olVr-
T V^" '"'"*''"' '■*'"* "'■ '•>« harvest, the
ohave been not uncommon under the prete.vt
of a semi-religious observance, though fre-
quently condemned by the Kath, "I Lv!"
.ays bt. Ambrose, "a grave co, laint atain^t
you brethren. 1 speak of those who ITh
celebrants along with us of Christ's birth
Z 'iT ""' M""'' "f *•'« Gentiles nd,afte;
'^'wi^"ll^^'7s^'»?--■-a:^
qqq, A '. Koerm. vii. ; Migiie, .iv i.
£ of Caith,'"'' /'"'•" '■"'^^"^■'■"S t^e Chris:
lans of Carthage for joining in likp fe^tiva'-
^l^;"""" th^^pag^n party "as asking, "vyty'
'Ssw::h?;:":'':,di''-„«"'''"'?''"\*^'' '•'>''-
« I- 1-. ., .V !. /,). A .liscourse of IVtrus Ch.
■l'.|.'"». bisho,, of Kaveniu. in the y^r 4 1 ."
deuv 1,!/ ;''?.•'''/" "r"'l">»" tl.-n..selves by
"'".^Mig the allmities of si.ch cdebrafiouH to
Pngan i.ra.tices. They id,.„,|,„| fi,,l .i ,
VH"- of the K«K.nds -f,!: 1 'V ■'■'': "■'•■
|-le;d- reioicing, no; an :ri:d::n ".":;,;;::
W""i. i.i.) Migne, , (;ii) i>, p , :
l"g.m customs as '• a tulterou,,' a, ^ ,' '
the ;;•' f,. ;'"''"■ "^ ""^ •^"""■lencemeut of
tie jea from .January to Kaster is asserted lv
iotigi.ot to have been the result of th • .h, k'
: 2 r 1 m'/' the second .ouncil of Tour
Hefee'ii o- I'T""^'" ("""si, i.v. 8-1,5;
:r!^,itr/S.:^,--it"if"f
"Conf.n I'..,,,,.,- ',.''•''-)■ "'''is in a horn y
>^oniia I a^nnicos Lrrore^ " hmv n,,.. l •
to reioice at the etei.arb'.n, :; f^ h'^^a It':"
who do not here loathe the unlnvfu feaTt />
the pagans? U„„ shall thev sing with am.
the DraisesoffJnH in „t i ,;l .*'.." ""-'
these t^adrtioL.'*^" "■'*"«'' *°*''«t--ty of
In Christian ritual itself not a few observnnr.,
have been referred with co, er,,b7e p.o" , i t"
to a pagan origin. The custom of facing the
Pe^i':nT."t '•'' '"'•"■"' "' '''" '■"' '"^tanceVom
leisian notions of sun worship (see svpra 1,1?
appears to have been borrowed from Greek an 1
wHh Mr m" '"'■ "'' ^"'''' '^"»''. i'- 777
;:^Ms"^aiiz:;:::t j%:^L;t^"
Jh^tri'^!;:!?''^'"""^^'^'^^^"-''^'^^
1 OP " V P- ^^^- '"•■'■'•''«' 'n commenting on the
W r*'"r """ '"•' «* '•'""" f«Iieis^divae"
J:^i^into"rS;t;:^j!;:jt'«^n."^
of the true baptism pi^laiLTby t "e ;r<; tt?
tpitaphia, • 0.- funeral orations oyer the de„'
ot the bathers, arc distinctly traceable to rJ, „
precclent. [Kunkrai, S,;hm«,™!i ^^
Among those observances which H!.»in». • u
Roman Catholic ritual from irant'Es-
tant a large number are undoubtedly of pap-an
I celebrated Letter from Rome was especially de-
1544
PAGANISM
signel to point out. The use of incense is con-
demned by Tertullinn and othtr early writers ns
n pagiin practice [I.vcessk]. We lenrn from
dirterent writers (Origen, cont. C'ela. viii. 17 ;
Win. Kelix, Octav. c. 10; Arnobius, bit. vi.) thnt
the absence of images in their churches was
niiiile a reproach by paganism ogainst the Chris-
tians, and Augustine e.\pressly states that the
introduction of these visible objects of adoration
was regarded as unlawful in his day, and f [icnks
of the adoration paid to them as a kind of in-
sanity (ad Ps. cxiii.; Migne, xxxvii. 1183-1185).
The earliest mention of pictures ia churches has
reference to the 4th century, and their introduc-
tion is expressly forbidden by the 88th canon of
the council of tlvira, A.D. 324. Ejiiphanius, in
the same century, tells us (ap. Jerome, Jipist.
51 ; Migne, J'atrol. xxii. 253) that he felt it to
be his duty to destroy a hanging " velum tinc-
tum atrjue depictum," which he found suspended
in a church in Palestine, representing Christ or
one of the saints. Theodoretu.s Cvrensis (Graec.
Ajfect. Curatio, Migne (S. G.), Ixxxiii. 022) refers
■with express approval to the practice, prevalent
in his day, of suspending votive offerings (iva-
(Hlficna) in the churches over the tombs of the
martyrs, on escape from danger or recovery from
sickness ; similarly, those who were childless
presented such offerings in the hope of being
blessed with offspring ; those already parents, to
secure the divine blessing on their children. i
The little chapels with images of the Virgin
that so frequently meet the eye of the tourist in
Southern Germany or Italy cannot but recall to
recollection the "Compitales" or deities who
presided over cross-roads, and whose statues and
shrines adorned the points of junction. The
nsylum afforded by pagan temples to fugitives
iVom justice or from their foes offers perhaps too
vague and general a resemblance to the right of
sanctuary to be regarded as necessarily the
origin of the latter, which may with equal or
greater probability be referred to Jewish prece-
dent.s.
(ii) Among the vestiges of pagan belief dis-
cernible in the everyday life and practice of
Christian communities may be included many
observances of a harmless character and little
moral significance. The Roman custom of pre-
senting gifts at the commencement of the new
year is still observed, and the expression of
good wishes on the same occasion is alike a
)iagim and a Christian usage (Ovid, Fasti, i.
175). The use of bridecakes at weddings (the
Roman confarreatio), the palatine btiy and oak
on our coinage, the names of the months, which
even the decree ot Chiules the Great could not
jiermanently alter, all distinctly recall a like
origin.
Of such customs, one, the " strenae " (modern
"dtiennes") degenerated into a serious abuse,
which the ch.irch did its best to suppress.
[Ni;w VKAn's Gifts, p. ISSl.]
As proof that the great majority of the super-
stitions of the age were a direct inheritance
from paganism, we may cite the following illus-
tr-itinn. Amid the 1. ;s of much that the ancient
astronomers had bequeathed to posterity, the
di^cuvt^i'v of (lie re;i! cause of eclipses ajipears to
hare been faithfully in-oserved ; and in his
Anturat History, Pliny fakes occasion to extol
this triumph of science over superstition, and
PAGANISM
warmly urges philo-nphers to like achievement.!.
As his writings cuntiuued to be stuiiied tlirnuifh.
out the greater part of the middle ages, tliii
philosophical solution of a constantly rccurriuu
phenomenon was never lost sight of by the e,\\.
cated few, and hence the teachers of the cliunh
are frequently to be found rebuking the viiUar
superstition which led the common pcoiile'to
assemble and utter cries on the occasion of a
lunar or solar eclipse, in order to prevent tlie
moon or sun from being totally devoured.
Discourses directly levelled against this practice
are to be found in the writings of Maxirniis ot'
Turin (Migne, vii. 337), and of Kabaiuis Miuims
(Opera, ed. Colv. v. 606), with which coiniiare
Tacitus {Annal. i. 28). On the other h;mil, as
Pliny expressly states that earthquakes portend
calamity {llist. Nat. ii. 81-86) so the Kaiheis
shared this belief with the multitude. ,St.
Ambrose declares that the death of Tliiiwlnsins
w.is foretold by earthquakes, by " mountains of
rain and an unwonted darkening of the skv"
(Migne, xvi. 1386). The pages of Gregory'of
Tours are in this respect as suiierstitiuus as
those of Livy. Four suns portended a great
defeat in Auvergne (^Hist. Franc, iv. 31); MuoJ
flowed from broken bread (I'Mrf. v. 34) ; it niinwl
blood near Paris until men threw aside their
stained garments in horror (i6. vi. 14); a bright
body resembling a lofty be.icon appeared in the
heavens to foretell the death of Gondcbald (vii.
11). (See also de Mirac. St. Martin, Bouquet
Script, ii. 469.) The belief in astrology [As-
TR0I,0GKRS]. which Pliny (Aat. Hist. ii. 5) uoticej
as fast gaining ground in his time, could never
be entirely eradicated throughout the period
here treated.
It must nevertheless be admitted that the
voice of the church was generally strongly pro-
nounced against the more childish and irrational
forms of the belief in omens. "Thou seest,"
says St. Basil, " how wrong a thing it is to
look for omens ; yet many Christians deem it no
harm (A5ie(</)opov) to listen lor sounds and to give
heed to signs " (Commeid. in Isai. c. ii. ; Jligne,
Series Graeca, xxx. 247). He instances such
trivial circumstances as striking one's foot
against some object on leaving the house, or
finding one's garment caught, and admonishes
Christians rather to take note of the prool's of
divine wisdom and goodness exhibited in the
natural world. St. Chrysostora refers to the
belief that to meet a cripple or a one-eyed person,
when starting on a journey, was a bad omen
(Horn, ai Pup. Antioch.) ; St. Eligius, in the 7th
century, enumerates a large number of similar
superstitions, such as the belief that to alhjiv
one's flocks to pass by hollow trees or near pits
gave them over to the power of evil spirits. He
dissuades women from wearing amber about their
necks, and from invoking Minerva, and rebukes
the folly of hesitating to set about new under-
takings at the time of full moon (Miene, Ixxivii,
528)..
Trial by the ordeal of heated iron [ORnEAi]
was probably a survival of the custom adverted
to in the lines —
" . . . . et medium, fretl pletate, per ignem
Cullores oiulta piemimus vestigia |ininii."
(Verg. Aen. xi. tST, 79^)
The following Indiculm Superstitionum et
Paganiaruin, or list of superstitions and pagan
PAGANISM
observance comlunined at the council .,f Lest in™ ■)
,n the year ,4.) i, ,„.„(,ably a fairlv con,,"..;,
imeration ot the in-.i,.ti,.„. ," . '."*^
PAGANISM
1545
'■ '',"■ )"-""iuiy a tail- V coninlete
..umerat,o„ ., the ,,n,otice, p.-ovalJut a '
tnne, wh.ch the church conc/emne.i either s
p.gaD or Chnst,,u, ,si,,,frstitio„s or „. abusL
connected with reiijri„us worship
(1) » IX. sacrile.i,, a,l sepulchra mort„or,>m "
(2)' Desacrilc^-io su,,er defunctos, id est, "d-
,,m. The l,rst nrt.cle appears to have re/Jrei ce
he desecration of tomb, in the .e.rchT^-
hidden treasure, and to unlawful rites over the
places of mterment; the secona to paean ob!
.ervance, such as drinking and rio.ous banquet-
ing, and tW.ng i„,o the fire whatever^ h„
deceased had been accustomed to hold most dear
(cf Mans, XM 3i0). (3) » De spurcalibus n
Februanu. It was a common j.racfice amone
eu ..„,c nations to celebrate the lengthenir o^'
the days >n Pebruary by feasts at wbi.^h .,?:-,^
wcreollered. These feasts were called "S ur
aha andm Holland and Lower Germany the
month of rehruary is still known as " SporkeN
raaend (Hefele, tWw«,/..,cA. iii. 506) 74)
Deca.snl,s,,dest, fanis." Probably small temple.
n, country d,stnch,constructedofw„od,andTften
converted to purposes of debauchery. (5) "Z
sacnlegiis per ecclesias " H<.foT„ v y ^'e
.atut/ofsU„nifi.c;(Ma„!l S -^"S.l!
>ng the introduction of seculars and y.'unl
vomen into the churches as singers and alL"hf
ho. hng of leasts within the walls. (6) '• Desici!
STlvarum, quae nimidas vocant." Here Wur, f
.. ', '" v'Ajixix. aiu) explains "ouasi
hymi.harum sacra." Kckhard, however, thik,^
"",' »'^ ''f ■','""■' « "'■'^"-'^ to sacrifices at
which nine headsof horses wereoffered, and p efer
to read """'"hedas." A capitulary of Char sth'
Great, of he year 794, directs that "sacred"
groves and trees shall be hewn down. (7) " De L
quaefacunt super petras." To offer sacrifices on
cks was a frequent practice, and is forbi^lden
numerous synods ; St. Eligius, we are told b"
. Audoen ( ,ia, ii. 15) enjdned, " Nullus
U,ri.t,anus ad fans, vel ad petras, vel ad
foutes, vel ad arbores vnfi - j.
-.at." (8) "De'^cHaCrrtd'j;-:';:
On the occurrence of the names of ^o s of "^e
R..niaa mythology as objects of vener.ton
mong the Germans, see observation "ni°
» may, however, con^pare Tacitus (Oerm. c 9 "
All' •"''"''•'''' f "g'^t"Hs"'[seeUoA:
M. Dummler, pp. 719 f},-, /in" 1. r ^
writiciorum." OirerinJs"to thl ^ * I'T^"'
'l»'ve enactments Had reE t„ n ' "" """' '" ""^
taace-s labours «^ectfly ^ri ' r'''^'"' '" *""="
bus '• ';,V''7'>'"-S"<'- (•-') "De incantatiunii
bv ihe n,^ ■""'"" "'■ -'J^tic sentences uttered
ON the pretenders to maeic rI•^Wlll "'■'^".^
to d ev nr/'' ^"l-'^'-'Ki-^-" The "divini " 1 re
told events from signs over vhich th,.v i, 1
control; the "sortile<ri >• W ""•", V^'T had no
they canied wit I c'^'' e ^ "ti '^"'1 ''^''^
[SORTILEQVI. "Au 2i„^' ■' ""'' '"'""■»
-i.ne,obLani^'^S^';^nnO)"(?!S
Oe igne tricato de ligno, id est, nodfy ."' - ko2.
fictio^ ■'■'".• ^°'|'«''") was'fire produced bv
•t e ' "^'ijr •"••''^/o possess 'mystenoul
p-ft^^'i^^rr^St^^f-,^:,:
-l-ially condetn^d by" 1 ni f irit'ire gT^
manic council of a n Si9 /\i ■ '. '
^|5terlm.Z>cn.l^;:f..^^A^r "564^0^
«worn o^^r^hrhVad^ttytlTarVf^r^rt
alout by different currents, while that of fh!
was w fhh.n !• ' °^ "^^'"^ the knowledge
punished by thein^flf^Ksle'^ai:^^ 'm^
Fckhrd rff"' """^ ''"'' "°^""' -n,:tae jlariie .•
tcKnnrd (/ferum /^'an^ blr Tviii \ ,. j ""■";•
Btrn " 11 1, 1 1 ^ '"»'-. OK. XXIII.; reads " neten.
stro, bedstraw," and un.lerstanJs bv " b, .i h^
fariunt Jovi vel Mefcm-io " "^ <! > ''"' ''"'"'
:SLJt"^Jhr^r?'°'^^---^
e tr Thunaec m '"^ "*'"'■ ""■' '"'"then Ms:
M. Wigius (bd. Ixxxvii ^9«^ 11.,'' "
MaurusrOecra V «c»-V i' ^' ""'^ Rabanus
-PPo^dthatbythl^dl^'nTrltlSThe'lir
'r. ,,
1546
PAGANISM
VfM assintcil in escnping from bi'iDg nltogether
dovouitfil. (22) " i)e tumpostatibus et cnruibuM
et cocb'is." Kcfurrin^; a|i|)«ri;utly to the belief
in " weathar-makei-s," ami to nuperstitidna prnc-
tlsoil with ilrinkiDg vesgeU aiiJ sjioons. (Jii)
" l)tf siilels ciicil villas." Hefele observes thiit a
treneh round i» house wan siiiiposeil to be n pro-
teetiim iigaiiist witehes ; the itnnotator in Miitne
(Uxxix. 810) supposes that iil.iisiou is tlenigneil
to superstitious rites observed on the occasion of
miikiui; such trenches, ('J4) " De pagnno cursu
queni yrias noniimint soissis pannis vul calcia-
tnentis!" Eckhard here vends, " Scyriius," from
Ecy = Sou = Schuh. There is probably allusion
intended to a pagan custom (d' running about on
the first of January with torn jjaiuients and shoes.
(Jj) " De eo, quod sibi siinctos lini^unt quoslibot
mortuos." Much as the (iernians ascribed at
pleasure a place in their Walhalla to departed
heroes, so they appear to have assumed the
right to canonise departed Christians. This as-
8uni|itiiin we finit again forbidden at the council
of Kraukfort in the year 704. (20) "De aimul-
acro de cousparsa farina." On certain days the
Germans were accustomed to make honey cakes
representing figures of their gods. Hefele states
that in Westphalia the cakes made at the time
of Carnival are still known ns " Heidcnwecke."
('27) " De simulacris de pannis factis." Little
figures of the gods cut from mandrake and thpn
dressed up in rags. ('28) " De simulacro quod
per cauipos portant." A ceremony probably
resembling the Latin Aiiilxinalia. ('29) " De
ligneis pedibus vel manibus pagnno ritu." The
custom of ollering in the churches wooden models
of feet and hands by those who, in answer to
their prayers, had been cured of any allection of
those parts. TheodoretusCyreusis («. s.) speaks
of tlift custom of ortering gold and silver eyes,
feet, and hands, though without condemning the
practice. (MO) '• De eo quod credunt quia
feininae luuam commendent, quod possint corJa
lumiuum tollere juxta paganos." Here some
rea 1 " comcdant," and consider that allusion is
designed to a belief similar to that referred to
in Tibullus, " Hanc ego de coelo dueentem sidera
vidi." Maximus of Turin, in his 101st homily
(Migne, Ivii. ;i:i7), remonstrates with those "qui
putarent lunam de coelo magorum carminibus
posse deduci," and implores them that, putting
aside this pagan error, " praetermisso errore
gentili," they will accept a view more consonant
with Christian enlightenment.
Similarly', a capitulary of Charles the Great,
of the year 7ii8, i-e(iHire3 " ut populus Dei
pagnnias non faciat," and enumerates as "spur-
citiae gentilitatis" profane sacrifices to the dead,
Bortilegy and divining, phylacteries, auguries,
incantations, and olleriugs of victims, which last,
it states, " foolisli men are wont to otl'er close to
churches, in pagan fashion, in the name of the
holy martyrs and confessors of the Loi-d " (I'erta,
L''ij(i. i. 3:i).
Features of a more general character, pointing
to a low conception of Christian morality, such
as the settlement of disputes by duelling,
authorised by the code of Gondehald, king of
Bur2'"idy in the (3th century (see Okdeai,), the
avenging of murder by murder, as recorded on
the part of bishop Gewelib in the 8th century, and
facts of a like nature, are often more justly to
be regarded as distinct traditions of pag inisra
PALLIUM
than merely as evidence of a corrupt or imptr.
feet Christianity.
Authorities: — Baur, F. C, (IcKlwlite (Ur
christlichen Kirohe, \t>\. I. (ed. 18ii;i); 1), ugno'
A., Histuiro tie la Destructim ii» J'H'/itiiiamei.'H
Occident, 2 vols., Paris, W.ib; Ulunt, Ul^v. J. J,
Vestii/e-t vf Ancient Manners unit Cttatums di^J.
verahle in Modern ftal;/ andSiuili/, 1H2,1 ; Umssier
0., La Jielijivn roiwtinc d'Awittstc wt.c Antouint
2 vols., 1874 ; Grimm, Jacob, Dmttschu M'/ViUuiie
18ti); Kellner, i/ellenisnins uiul Chri-U-ntlium
Kbln, 18(i0 ; l.asaulx, l)er Untoiijanij cAs lUMciui-
mus, Miinchen, 18.'>4; Mnrang<iui, JJclle Cue ■jm-
tilesche e profaiv trasportate ad Uw end Orwimento
delta Chiesa, Uoma, 1844; Middloton, CiniK'n
Letter /ruin llunie ; Gieseler; Gibbon; Miliii:,n>
Neander; &c. [J. H. JI.]
PAINTING. [Fresco ( Miniatuuk.]
PALLA ALTARIS. [Altar Ciotii.]
PALLADIU8, anchoret in Syria, 4th cen-
tury ; commemorated Jan. 28. (C'u/, liiiiml ■
Uoll. Acta SS. Jan. ii. 841.) [o. U.]
PALLAIRE,POLAIRE,POOLIRE. When
books were few in the ancient Celtic church,
and required careful preservation in atonnipauv
ing their owners from place to place, ther
appear to have been deposited iu leatliom satchels
or wallets which could be attached to the hack
by thimgs in trai-elling, and hung upon pegs oii
the wall (Todd, Oblti Ch. Cn. DiM. p. lx.\i.)\vlieii
a house was reached. For these tli'j two dis-
tinctive names of Polaire (I'ullaire, J'mtiiv) anj
Tiag (ticujixa) were used, apparently accnrdini; to
the size. The former was comparatively small,
often a case for manuscripts or lur only one
book, like the case in which the Bwk uf AnMjh
now lies, and which is very richly eniljosseJ anJ
covered with figures and the usual Irish inter-
lacing patterus. The latter was ol' co.irser
material (as of sealskins, Colgau, Tr. Tliaum.
80, c. 93, 130, c. 9, calling it sia'ii/iu anJ
pera) and of greater capacity, a wallet to holj
not only several books, but relics also auj sacreJ
utensils. Evidently the writer of the Trijmrtite
Life of St. I utriO't (Colgau, I'r. Thvim. 121,
c. 38) is in error when he says St. I'atriek left
at the church he had newly fouuflod at Keilline,
■• libros, uni cum scriuio in quo SS. Petri et
I'auli relicpiiae asscruabantur, et tabulis Iu
quibus scribere solebat vulgo Pallairo n|ipel-
latis " (Reeves, S. Adannan. l.viii. n. ', 115-11",
3o9 ; I'etrie, Round /bice.s of Iretund, 3:ii-:J40 ;
O'Curry, Led. Man. ami Ctist. Anc. hisk, i.
pp, ccclvii,-viii., iii. 113-U7). [J. 0.]
PALLIUM. We find this word in a great
variety of uses in ecclesiastical Latin. Before
proceeding to these, however, we shall first note
its cliissical acceptance as equivalent to ipuiniiy,
a term for an outer article of dress similnr to,
hut not the same as, the tuja.' We may describe
it as being, to all intents and purposes, a s.piare
or oblong blanket ; for though it was occa-
sionally fouuil of linen and other materials, wool
was by far the most common. These blanketi
• It sliouUl be rememlwrfd that In contra IstlncUooW
the fialUum, the loga was in some sense rouud, piTwpi
making a segment of a circle.
PALLIUJr
»»re,a» a rule, nrnnufiirture.l in thoir ,mt,„.„i
•tate, «„,!,,,. ere u.mllywhi.,.rth:S
col.ur of th« raw nmteriul, though .u,„e S
dyed into 8i)iH:iaI tints. """lewiiics
Such «„ nrtido of iircs, ,vouM, of course be
moonv.n,eut .f the wear.,- h«,| to run o to'e,,!
g,.ge m «,.t,ve work, an.l therefore he wo.
t rmv , oyer h.» shouhler,. Thu. we fi„ "„
of i'au.u,. ehar„,.ter,, a parasite, sayin,' CV
Ua, ^. I. 12): "Conjiuam in ■■ollun, imiliun,
pnrao ,-.v me hanc re,n ut an.liat," that iV I w i
throw Uck m,-;^../m.. to be abi; to , ' ;,! J
with the news. Aceonliiigly, in the n,.vi ^
0.n ho is observe;! con.[;,^.':„!t^ .Jj-^
(cf. also Terence, /'A„r»,/o.v. 4^ l„ '
i:sfisi'.'''\v;"''"r '"'^'"^« ^- >' -■ .11."
by St. Isidore (ht/fmul. xix. 24. !)• " /'„//.„ 1
,no ministrantium „.a,,ulae contemn tr" ,!
dum mmistrant expediti discurrnnt." P /t '
'hiqui.l fncturuses nni,pn,l„ :,. i. "';"»•
d
li- I c V -1"^""^' oisiurraiit." 'aiitiis-
'h. quid facturuses „,n,en,|e in humeris ,,„ i Z
etpurgat ,,„„ntem vafet, tuorum pedun "l
cias. Dictum aut,,„ ^j„//,„„, a yWWis' , „
pnus super indumenta JellMu vet" r^ ute Un "
Wore treats as\hen"„;\;:Lahln"tt[
which was exceptional. ••■•"■gs Wat
Besides this special sense of the word Ba//„«,
he;*,«n/« ,3;, cum fmhriis Lji, (S 4 • the'
kcemt,,p fimhriatim(ib.)- and the .,;'/ ,
p. puerile (^ 16). ^ ''' *" ' ""^ /"•'"''c^<'<
A third use of the worl in t>„i • .• r .
to designate the coarse ^ ,1 Xent'of'''''' ,'^
^J of others who affected to'in"," ' th 'a "'t'e" 'i'
tie of mon.t,c life. Thus pope ^Z^^,
".L'ti^tiii^;i,^^t;;-i^-/«i"«
tity not rightly theirs (^0/^4 \dF T"
HXarh. c. 2; Patrol 1 43/' S ' ™- ^ "'"'
Mvs to an unworthy monl,^M^''''"°' "•^''"
^.232). T„takladi^;;f -V'xlSe-
when tulgentius became bishoo of H?, '^l '
retained his f.,rmer monast e h.^'^' u'
dign tv by the Romnn » " mail, ot increased
The discussion on the hi^tnn. „V.u- ^ bestowed.
^eUil will be found :nt"ea?tK ';P '"
liiisiness here is merelu *„ a ., , ™' "^ °">"
M*u before and behind Th?' ""' *"■■"'«'
f-fore, presented. wotd\,ttto?rS
IW* band haa Jong been made of vyhite woo),
PALLIUM 1547
ornamented with dark cro«»,.«i> i. • .1. ,
""ted that tlie w „ 1 '..r '.'l n'^' " "'"•^- b"
'""B •-,„ rurnis ed .V t,.e''t';.V%"'';' •"»'
'■'•'"■ed ,n the convent o fst A , . ^ ''"'' '"•"
the Life of (Jreiio • h ■: ; f "'" "' ''"""•• '"
the Oeacon.reti ice ':";?; ^"T"' ''>' •'"'"'
the tianshltion r i I y';Vh '"'r'"""^
">eing "/„«,,„ candenf . , .>^ '" T," '""'""' ««
VVhether'this relce i : 1"'""' <"^ i^' «")•
in'licating„;irr;, !''/•'''' " ".' ''" '"^^•" <«
„ 4 " ""Hrence in Oreirorv s (im.. 1
not ai.pear, probably the latter ^ ' ''"'*
A little further on d- Hi\ .!,'„
minutely describing ^ the ^nc'cT', ■':"''' "i
f reirorv snv» „<■ .1 ancient picture of
."i-er st;,„,.!:hnm i:!:!^^"^^:^ Tr
sursum per sinisti-mn K "e.lucto; demde
'l'^^l™»ito,%Vu ' " "r" al'l'""""' '"'*' ''■'■«"'"
humerum ve,Z, '?, , ""'■™ '"I"''' "undem
medium corZrs. 1 r? T''''''"''""'' """ l-'"
' the (;reek omonhoHon t) ■' . '-"^ similar to
Marriott's IV.v<i„Wum 6v„././' "t '"' " "»
may he infer er<'„,\lX';- ^"'■"'"- "
between the a.e of hi nl,, '«"S""Ke that
/^"//m,« had urn erln a*^^ h7 T^ '''' """• """
VVe niay gather a^i: i ,n" it^^^Z': u' '*'"'"•
like in the 9th century fV VI ^ '''"'" "''''
An,alarius(,//^cv. t" /".■" the notice bv
assumed, or waa assuminit its lafer it. '""''h'^''
trations of the varvin , 1' '"'"^hape. IHus-
'liireient epochs a, ^'"«i,'l'l"l:'= "l^^'l""i»n at
Thus we ha^e the anfourGth T""''' ''"'^■
the church of St V tTs «»!■„'' 'vr,',''''''^ '"
we may refer to the figure of F.ber f T "''^■'
(I'lote 42); for the 11th to i t ' ^'''''^
ins St. Clement of K .'le j"a r^/"'??"'-
picture of Dunstan f,„.„ U late 4cl), and to a
Museum (I'late I4 ' De I' ^^t '"• ""' J"'"»'>
AW«,.,?oto.;tatloi^^lhr''' »*"" '^'^"'■"' "' hi.
the Koman atao^^b^r,?."'-'/''^'''''''' ''•»"'
I'lates 30. 31) Her» ^ '""'' ''-^ '^'«"i«tt,
prelates (. 7. Xystu/ an I r "P-'-^^^"'" ' ^■"■1/
Home), weaLg It,^"^^'''"'-'^ bishops of
o'w./[8n,u.o'pi^rg'^erthH;^^'^ «? ^r!"?«
so covered, holds the book of ♦h ' l:'^""^'
must be consi,iere,l doub"f„l h '^'^^^^'- "
these are to be cons Mere I n I '"'?■• '"'"' <■"
meieor«n„. " ''''"''"^"'"' ""stances of yx,//,,, „,
We shall now mention very brieflv n f ■
-. 'Xre,i,rs'% ;;r[- ^"' ^— -^ «-.
"alie, 1. 10,, cit..,l rMartiK y" ^."""T^ ( '"^"'^^ ^»
Mil..!,, 0.. his »,uc,,,i,„^„,, i„ ^.u:^ ih" ';;! '''■'■'■qi of
■> "Invle cro«8. Tto sai.u 1 , 11. , ^"""n h„s but
to b.|ow. Kavenna niowlo we have referred
m
*
f .!*
'hi^ 1: ::;:ji;*aSr "'"'"" '°»'"' "-h-^rs, wheth«
M?-
1543
PALLIUM
t <'|)Ui'(i|iiia
uil)iH [i.e.
|.isni|Hi |7,'7.
Mriul of Mnrctii, biahnp df linmc (oti. 330 A.n.)<
tliiiiixh It in |M)»»ilili' thiit thi! lul'cri'iiri" ia of n
dill'iTeiit kiii.l— "liic conslituit nt
Oiitii'nHiii, <|iii c'onai'cint t'i)im.'(i|iimi
KiiiMi'J, |Millio nti'i-i'tur, ct iiIjoihIi'IH ci
cpiscLiiiisJ uiliis Kiinin ciiiisccniri'tui" (\itio
I'lmtif. l:i). It will lpc> (ilisiTvi'il timt wo hivvu
hi^i'i' L;i>t tho I'ltue III' a biHliup, iml an nrithliliihii|i ;
hut tho lioumir innynt liiHt Imvc boon ijivon with
iiitliiT MKPie liititmlo, fur wu fiml (Jn'^ory tho
tiroiit bi'8towiii)( tho pnlliKin on ,Syiij;iiiiii, birthoji
of Autiin. It ia to be noted thiit in tlic letl.'r
ill which (iiet;oiy 8et« this forth, hn distinctly
ci(ll') iittention to the pormiasion of the emperor
— "serenissinii doniini iniperiitoris [Maurice]
. . . )inini\ voluntiw cut, ct oonceili hoc oinnino
desidernt" (/.piat. lib. ii. 11; cf. ib. 108: vol.
iii. il,!i!, ll>l;t).
Siiving tho rather doubtful case of tho bishop
of Ustia, the earliest instance of tho bestowal of
the iKilltnni is that granted liy Syininauhus (ob.
514 A.D.) to Theodore, archbishop and metropo-
litan of I^urcacus in I'annoiiin (h'/iist. I'J ;
Piilivt, Ixii. 7'2). In this case no mention is
made of the imperial authority. On the other
hand we have a letter written by pojio Vi^;ilius
in .'jl.i A. II. to Auxanius, archbishop of Aries, in
which he defers grantiui; the fiiilliitm till the
pleasure cif the emjieror shall ha"e been ascer-
tained. In a subsecpient letter, written tw<>
years later, the imperial sanction having been
given (" pro gloriosissimi lilii nostri regis ('hil.le-
berti I'hristiani devotione mandatis "), the honour
is granted (K/ip. ti, 7; I'atrol. Uix, W). Other
instances are those of Caesarius, archbishop of
Aries, on whom the piiltium was bestowed by
Syinmachus { Vita Cws. lib. i. 'iO ; Patrol. Ixvii.
lOIti), and Virgiliua, also of Aries, to whom it
was granted by Gregory the Great {Kpist. lib. v.
6.1; y'd^v/. Ixxvii. 782). Into the famous dis-
pute as to tho rescript of V'alentiniun in con-
nexion with the pattvim of the bishops of
Ilaveiina, it is not our intention to enter.
In several of these cases tho recipient had
been some time in possession of his see on
receiving the pallmm, which thus became an
exceptional distinction, conferred when the
Roman see wished to bestow such. As this was
one of the countless ways which went to the
buililing up of the papal power, we need feel no
•urjirise at the new phase of things which meets
us in the Sth century. The pulliiiin is now no
longer an exceptional honour, granted to this or
that archbishop, but a badge, the occeptance
of which implied the acknowledgment by
the wearer of the supremacy of the apostolic
gee. Thus we find in a letter written by
St. Boniface in 7+5 A.D. to Cuthbert, arch-
bishop of Canterbury, the declaration on
his part of willingness to obey tho see of
Rome, and that " metropolitanos pallia ab ilia
sede quaerere " (Epist. (i;j ; I'atrol. Ixxxix. 76:S).
Indeed we lind from some letters of pope Zacha-
rias to lioniface (74H A.D.) that the latter had
ah'eady made application (or p^ttlit for several of
the metropolitans under him. (!^'pp. 5, (i ; ih, 9-.').)
One step moro alone remains. I'ope Nicholas
I., in his jtt'.iptinsa <id consuttii Buljarorum (Stiti
A. P.). orders (c. 7-5; ! abbe, viii, 5+1) that no
ari^hbishop may be enthroned or may consecrate
the eucharist till he shall have received the
pallium from the liomau see.
PALM
Another point may be briefly touched upon
namely, the i|oestion of the /»i//iii;;i 'inl/i, .inmH
as distini t from the jxiiliHin Itiiiiuiitiiin. It Hm
been seen that under whatever conditiMm thj
palliu'ii was be»t<iwed, it distinctly tdcik the Uitm
of a gift voU( hsalVd at the will of the lininan
see. This being tho case, it is nut easy U
understand the order of the cminill i.f Mao.n
(5H1 A.D.) that no archbishop shall prcsuini' to
say mass aiiu: paltio (can. ti ; Labile, v. lli'iM). j,,
sujipose that this means that an hliislici|H are
prohibited from celebrating mass till tlnir iinai.
tion is, as it were, ratified iiy Kiune, is, n iisi Inr-
ing time and place, an anachronism, and the
language of the canon taken /xu- so wouM Ufwt
lead to such a conclusion. Ileneo niaiiy have
held (,'.i/, Ilefele, infra, p. 217), ainl it wmuIJ
seem with much justice, that this (ialliran iisi' ii
distinct from, and exists side by slile nith, (f,,
special pajial pilliuin ; that it was simply ii iiinrk
of archiepiscopal rank, which was to he s|Hriiilly
worn at mass, just as each other order wi.iiLl b«
required to wear its own peculiar b,i.li;i.. \
possible illustration of this may he fniMd in g
fragment, edited by Marteno and Uurand, which
dwells on the vestments in use in the (iiillii:aii
church, including the iialtiuin (//it's, Ainj.J, y
99; cited by Marriott, p. 204).
I.itcratun: — For further details on thu whole
subject reference may bo made to llel, le, lii^
LitHrijiaohon (jewiiiulcr (in his Iicitril/t' m A'lV.
c/iciujoschicMc, Archdijhhjie und Lititri/i/;, \m1.
ii.|.p.
214 sqij.); Marriott's Vestiariuin Chrt^nni
Aiip. K, &c. ; Uuinart, Di.isertdio do J'alliin A • l,i'.
cpiicoporuin (in Ouvrajeipo.it/iUiiies de J. M.i'.iihn
et do Thiarri /I'limn;-*, I'aris, 1724); Thoina.«imij
do Jicncfciis, part 2, lib. 2, c. M'.i, I'aris, MSS;
Papebroch da forma pallii medio <ur.i iwtt.ila
(in the separately published I'ref,(ccs, kr. ul' the
Acta Sanctorum, Venice, 1749); Vespasjaiii (i«
Sacri Pallii Uriginc, Roma, 1856. [U. S.]
PALM. The great beauty of the (l,it(-|ialrn
in nil stages of growth, and under all ciitum-
Btances of background and associatinii, hns
made it, like the vine or the coru-ear.s, oiii' of
the natural symbols of Divine blessiii:;. The
righteous shall flourish as a palm-tree (I's. .ui.
l;l) may be taken as a lypically Eastern use of
tho tree as an emblem.
As may be supjiosed, the palm branch is found
most frequently in sepulchral nionuimiits and
inscriptions, and is frequently added to the
monogram or chrisma as an emblem of the vic-
tory of the faith (Bnsio, p. 4:)t), ami .Martigiiv's
Woodcuts, p. 498). In Bottari, pi. xxii. (.\riiij;hi,
vol. i. p. 289), it is beautifully used as a pillar to
divide the surface of a sarcophagus into cum-
partments or panels. Also Aringhi, i. pp. •!%,
297, 301 (where the fruit is indicate i, see infra),
and, perhaps, at p. .'!07. At p. :i21 the heals of
two apostles, prooably St. I'eter and .St. I'nul,
are ornamented each with the whole crown or
foliage of a palm. It is unquestionably the sign
of martyrdom in the widest sense of the word—
that of persistent testimony borne to Christ, and
consummated by death. It is admitted on all
hands, that, though the palm accompanies the
martyr, it does not indio-ite that the Kenrpr
actually suffered violent death in will and deed
(see Kev. vii. 9, and Gre>,'ory the Great m ICzeck
bk. ii. horn, xvii., where the palm branches an
"1' m used with the
«">'>e he was ,, spec
'"'"■rection. It seems s
Pk-^mx conveved iJcs
::™"' the painter or c,!r
f" l-oth into his work
^"f, see Bottari, t. c^.
^*l to contain 'the b
t""!!K ii. 04- rfo„n,! ;„
I llll'^' Good Shepherd
"""'•, iiesco from the (
PALM
ipoken of grnvrAllv aa w„^™/. ■ , ,
|-.rk,.r, )%,t. L-Mi), />w',/r •.""•''■'" i
Uteniu Museimi, ii„. 21, ,Ja onvi !, "'""'
l«.i;ii.,,l,Hl'n:'4ni.''-''"'-'*'^. «'"J ^7, no.
The iPiilin vT palm limn.'k ».
inChri„i„„ n.iai'»^ rwal''''''",'^^''^"'''''^
lininc .Niiova, w hero n Jmiw „.. " "' '"• •A "'•-
above the .„l„„,n,, of U . ,v I, ■"^, ""' """
.|.o.| with ,..a,let a,„| l,onri„7;,„.T ''/''""";''
liieir hamis liniMl with H,.. ...,. i ""■"" '"
-r, .,,,uat..,i .,,. ,uu, V th" :,.;:;'";'■■• ,''"'"•>;
f»';'. in»,,i„«r;/m ,,.;,,,./,'• ;:-^^^
barbaric earr.nu's, fxartly „s i„ nat.m' 7„ i ,
pmity «n,l brilliancy „f th" n/ ,' ""'"'"
The Augustan fr...„.ne,»f the J)nr- ,''"'''«'"'' I' h").
(IVker, n.lu:,n,,,n., no U "• ; A';''''"' ' '"•»
pilm tree «,|n.irablv drawn fr„n,; ,"''''" "
graphic ,„„l oxa..t r,...n,ll"ncri'ilr"' *^'"'
m.micj in St. ('..,.ili„', ' ,, " '» '^"""' ""
(Vm,.„n,in,,„ian.,;l, '':'"''■ "'"', «-'^-
pirturein ^^u^.hi, tav. i Th " ."'''■™'''"'"
^vmbol of the resurrocti. .n I ,, h':"''' ":\"
a certain n/„v on its nam„ r I»'''>"1'», with
(-woodcut). i^'«rtig„y,,:;;':;,„,\---;.
PALM SUNDAY ir,49
I f'"- tho pnlni, of th.. Knihv r., din . , .
0^ the occupa^ntrra^'r;;; ;!.";,;;:">■"'-
I'ALMAHK CONCir nrw f"' ''*'' "'• "^'^
«nrd'lK!,S2-;;-^yrwithhi.wIft
."..rate, M,., .0 (Uod. ^Vw^.^Arr
PALM SIIN'DAY r<5 ., '^*^'' "J
'^•■''■'"•'rtcd in the Fast ,11 p\'"*'^*') «»•
»-'^v. for it I, iw ;!o „ , ,i '■'^'" ""• ■■"' ^"n-
K'''l'.vmluH,who;ir; '':■'';'.';' t''"lilu of
!'"'-"» '"■-• ir, nn il o . ' " l'r"'"^«i"n with
"» if I'Hi.n Sun,J w L '"" ^""^^ "t"^^"'"
"nM.tio„, no u»o ,.a In braf'T'''''^' ''"' ''«
""■■•"'y explain, that' " t ,o " iT "'! ^ "«
"» account of the cvoot rV {•' ''■''•''r'U.d "
wntcr who refers t.> tl,n r '. •" '"-' ""' '-'"'n
Adl.cln, fA..,. OU) I, , ,*:""" '•' :""'-'""'On.an
VJ" ('#>■,•,; which Mab ;,„ fri^n fh "".'""■^'-•'•'i''
« :PI"'.:»'s to have been wi. !„ „ "..'^:, ':'"""''",
> Anwlo, Biiuui, Uf. Mil.
S- rt„r'? ij:,r^ait or st. ,>.,
'•"'"■rection. it se«nr«im, I P "'•'''/'■ "^ the
P^-ni, eonveved U 8 ^Vh '^*^'' """>«
»™ to the painter or crvcr „ ', °''J"''» «'
r« l-oth into hia work ;.•""''.["' ■""-ally
•^"'l*. see BnttaH, TccWii ' "^' '^"''" ""
f"*' to contain the b'V„7 '''''''' ""P"
■ MM » church), liottari , "'"/'-"'" "f St
!"^ "-e Good ShcX" ,wV'' •'■'•'• '•■'^'- <=<•■"
'«"«•, '«,co from' ; Viiixtin '"'• "• »'''
v,aliixtine cemetery.
"' tt "Utania, e .m •"^''' *'"*'' "I'™''
was observed i„ „ n^' "'^^ ^^- ^"^ order
describe, a procesi.m .»•?" """mslery. U
"l-ly less t an JI Ml'l,^, '" """''"''^ " P^""
(^•'' 812) .pe4s S : b."'''"r'-. ^'■'"''"■i""
;;tdoe,„^sa;i:':;:.::;;i;::;''^^"^-ned,
aeiLtnr"th:eCr'"V'' '"^^'r
^•">ce. For there no ^„ " ""'>' "<' '''" Pro!-
custom in the earlier Torn s T;'!''". '", ""-^ '"^h
(ice especially r; -fo i Tn u*^ "V! '^"•''" ^''""'"«t«
"or in' the early s. ,. fa. u.of' ^'"'' "' ^^' ■^''),
;'» not even icolwar^'r ''"''' "^ "'"'h
""•anchcor lloweXo J/^ Z'';:';';'''''' "'' "'«
sg'ven in the Jlesan on ,■ , . ' i/ ,''*' '""""8
&'-i!'S"2.r[:;::;^<«^(^'U^:
S^^sr:b:HSv-T-
'"^SSi^E?---
b'"tattheirma ins r r """'"« "'« "'^cks
'•a'."^while"h:;' ;;,4"t:';;; "i" ''"^ '•■'•'•^^ "f
procession („.,v„_,x"*'"^«y'-'' tcing su„g ,
f-e a litanv (A^t?) accoH '^'r'"' "'"^ """« ■"""t
emperor .nust walk w hi. '"''"'"' ""'' "'«
ff • M. 4). The lamp d L iLllTu""" " (""
a l)urning torch • a , ,„. ■ ""' "'" *^av with
.f"'h^>vs, f hen c:me\h:So ;:","« ?''^' »^''-^'-''
'n.? 'cons; and some of-n '','"■"-"*" ^="•"•-
.' e"i (C<.//«. ,/5"= '„,;«'?"»''« walk afti,
"'"""»'"" is su„c/whkh s^n f ("-".session an
composed bv the en , TK ""'..'," ''"^^ l-een
i! it
Ilr
1650
f4MPHAL0
"Comi forth ye n#*rtlWi *m> , ih i. '• **
ptiiple ; lu<ik upon tlw i»*if#4«m ..i b«ave«. ">»
go«u«l lomea aa B liK"»« «l'^'''vi«t." The in-,
camion eu.lc'l, ii>«t'ni" •*» l«aum<^l, but tlia pHli.nn
(floia) «re reMW*^* VAawujili tlie aervi.e (<)..,.r,
74.')). l'riif«i« ««*«1 •* ■'"' -I'stiilmIMn ot tli"
p«lm« belou «h* l«r.««-*.n ., 'Y l« «;••'' '"j'"'
kucliol(.giona**>. [W. b.S.J
PAMrilAI-O ^ FAMrHAMKKUH.
EKpvtiui. aul.liurs, m«vtr' I /I, .'-"Jon i.i' l--*
Maxiniiftu ; cnniin.movMca May It <\*» 1- '«<'"
5X Miii. iv. 'i.'*, Ironi tha Greek fiuti'.,^ [L. U.J
PAJIl'imAJH (1), martyr under Dlmletinn ;
eom.ut.n.or..t«.l Feb. 16 {/liermi. .^^•»^. with
Vftlen», .hueon, iiU'l othera ; Wright » bunun
Hart, with rmnphiUis, «t (^aea. I'al.; (■!■
JIuiaut.; Diiniel, OkI. J..tur,j. iv. 'i'M); June 1.
(ll.imrJ. Mirt. prohliyter, umrtyr at Cae^area,
under Maximinua, hi» Life hy Kusehiua of ta«-
•nrea ; Vet. Hum. Mart. ; Waud. j Uoll. Acta bb.
Jun. i. Hi.)
(2) Martyr at Rome ; mmmenioiatcd Sept. 21.
(Uauard. Mart. ; Boll. Acta .Vi'. Sept. vi. 238.)
(8) Martyr iin'ler Maxmiinuii commemorated
Nov. 5. Cliasil. Menoi.) [*-'• »•]
rAMPlHl'S, martyr at Caesarea in Pales-
tine, with I'a.nphilus; ccmiueni :>ra.ed Feb. !•!.
(Wright, Auct. Syr. Hart.; Uasil. JW. with
Valeua, i' ) L^- ""J
ii PA> TA (Uavayla). One of the ordinary
titles oj 1 blessed Viri^in in the Pircelt uhuruh.
It pfobablv came into u.-.e some time in the 7th
century In the discussions about the won
etor6Ko,, in tha .'■)th century, she is styled
t) kyia itipetvot. So too in the sermon ol nn
unoertnin author, I'seudo-Chryso.Ht. Mom. (fc
Uiisatorc, p. 416 (Migne, tom. vi. 410), which
is probably assignable to the 6th century, she
is still onlv V a7(a, ns in the words (xofity rjif
S4(riroii/an vnii' tV »tor6Koi>, tV aY'"" »"»«?■
fl.i'oi' Mapiav. But in the letter of Soohronius,
pntrianh of Jerusalem, read at the sixth general
council, C. Constant. III. A.d. 680 (Hnrdoum,
tom. iii. col. 1J68), the title iravayla occurs
several times. It is true that the same epithet
is found repeatedly in a set of eleven prayers to
the Virgin, in Greek, attiibuted to St. t.|diiem
(Up. Or. iii. pp. 5+..', &c.'i. •-ut the wholj cast
of these prayers obviously telongs to a time tar
later than that of St. Kphrem.
There is also a monastic ceremony called
Panagia, at which a triangular shaped piece ot
blessed bread is elevated, and partalten of, after
8 meal with cert:<in prayers, by all present; :>nd
a cup of wine is iiltewise distributed to all with
a thanlfsgiving and special invocation of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, whence tlie name of the
ceremony is said to be derived (Du Cange Or.
Gloss, s. V. and Ssmeon of Ttess.il. quoted by
Goar, A'U'W. pp.'867. StiS). \"Viugh in this
exact shaiie the ceremony beloni • a time later
than our limits, it is very likely ■ ■>>■. ■' some
primitive observance, some .v-m'-
original institution, into which ■.
ficance has beoovfre imp'rtpd. \
PANCUATIUS (1), bishop of 7!t^t.,;, . -.j.i. .,
taid to have been a disciple ot t"., Petti. il.<1
PAl'HVUTHH
to have sww "Of Uifi ; commemorated Fi^h, 9
(Basil. Mrnitl) 4li. H (lf<""n. .Mart.; I'.imrl,
J||„^l i IVI. h;,m. M'irt. ; « 11 A.'ta .S.s'. A|., i,
•J.IT); .luly » (Cat. lli/ ant . Daaiel. Cut. I.an.j,
iv. iil'i;. [''■ "J
(3) Youth, liehesiled under iHocictian; mm-
mini r ited at Uoiiie ou the Via .\urclia, Mi*! J
lllur,,,, Mart.; B.-.l, Wand., L'luai-il. .\li,1.;
\\t. Uma. Uart. ; Boll. A<ta .S'.V. Mai. iii. i:|.
In tlio Sacraiiientary of <iregory the imlal' .f
rancratius is observed "" May IJ, and li.- n
named in the cidlect. h. .■" Siicraui.Miljiry .,f
Oelasius he is cniiiiiiemorateil on the s.uiih .lay,
with Ncrena and Achilleus, but ouly tli.w la,i
two »re nanieil iu the collects. (Murat. /.,/.»•;.
Hm. y«t. I. 64a, ii. 84.) [C ll.J
PANEOYRICON (,nayriyupmii>). Om ,f
the C)reel« oilice-booltj, conlainnn •' lieitliin. '
appropriate to the various festivals, coII.hI,'! .,i,i
of the writings of approved authors geinriilly
r rding the acta and virtues of tlie vnm.,
whence its name. It is therefore nut uiilik.- lh<
Western " l.egenda." There is no autlMiii/il
collection, therefore the boolt is Dot piiiit.!;
but dillerent copies are fiuind in niauiisin|.t in
dlllereiit churches, varying con.-idirably iu tii?ir
contents according to th» diligence or piuty (,f
the collector. [tl. t. H.]
PANNUTIA (Pannucka). This Is a naiin
for a gaviiient covered with patches (ihukI). iiiij
is so used by Isidore (Etijia. xix. iJj intfi.
Ixxxii. 687), "quod sit diversis pauuis olisitu"
[H..S.]
PANSOPHU'B, martyr at Al.v\nndri,i iinl.r
Occius; commemorated Jan. 15 (Cat. /•'/ iii' ;
Boll. Acta S3. Jan. i. 910); Jan. IH (li»<il.
MemA.). [L'. H.]
PANTAENUS, commemorated at .Vjix.in-
dria July 7. (Usuard., Wand., Vet. Hum. .Vi(.;
Boll. Acta SS. Jul. ii. 457.) [C. H.j
PANTALEON (1), martyr under Mini-
miau; commemorated July 28 (Ilurun. .V rl.;
L'suard., Wand., Vet. Kum. Mart. ; Kh.rus, a|i.
Bed. Mat.); celebrated by the Gnikj uiiJtr
the name of Panteleemon, martyr aii^l pliysiiimi,
the uumerreiiarv, July '27 (Basil. Mcul.; (1/.
Ih/icmt. ; iU,\\. Acta SS. Jul. vi. 1)97 ; UaLiJ,
Cud. LitM-il. iv. '21)4) ; Oct. 10 {Cat. Arme.i.).
(2) One of the nine national saints of Ktlii..|«;
commemorated Oct. 3 (C'lW. Etltiup.). [C. II.]
:he
s-„'ni-
PANTHBRIUS, martyr in Thrace uuift
Diocletian; oommemorat I Aug 23. {lia>il.
MawL) i^- "■]
PAPA. [Pope.]
PAPA8 (1), martyr at Laranda in I.yoa.niis
under Maximian ; commemorated Mar. HJ in tin
Human Martyrology. (Boll. .Ictci S^. Mar. 11.
(2) Egyptian martyr with Sabriuus un-lcr
ni icletian ; commemorated Mar. 16. (Dauifl,
.■U.Liturg. iv. 255.) [^•"J
PVPHNl'TIUS, holy martyr, mvw'~~' ,
rated by i Oreeks Ap. 19. (Cat. //;/.."(■; j
I Boll. Acta ,IS. Ap. ii. 623.) [L. HJ
TAITAS
PAPIAS (1), .ol,|i„. ,„„t „„,,
M ; ... .1,0 li„l, Jiar^ Nov 20 ) '
(«) M»rtyr u. • ,,ynt with Virtnrin.,. nn,|
Kcur. M I'.pj.iu.. -^ ^^- *• ""* "»'"''
(S) M.rtyr with Diodora. ,nrt CUudi.nu,
Mn,,,( the ,«,n« emn|,.,.i.,„, ,„. M„r.V ,.,,,"
hue tha Kntiidn Msrtyrolnev suJ ,1 u .
l.n,ll.l» (Feb. iii. .1U7; on F«l, 2a ' "
(4) I)i-hop of jliorapnli., fri,,, j „f ,.„,
A/a .SW. Kcb. iii. 28:..) ' '' ' """•
(8) (f'APAs, l>AP..,-g), martyr with Chre.tu.
(6) M.rtyr with Peregrin,,, ,nd other. •
aramcnoratea July 7. (baaii. JfenJ.) '
PAriXirifl, blihop and m»rtvr in A^/i "'■'
_. . y^M. per.acut1on , cS,.';.; afej^o'v"
PAPIRIUS, dearnn, inartvr mUk !,• "'
PAPPIU8. [Pai'us(2).]
danu and nurse, to the ,i'i Donv°"'"l,''' "":"■
relieved from the aln» of he^^^ri'th^T .""-'y
Untur ad curanda debilii.m „„ ^ ' '''•'f"-
(C./. 7-W/. lib. ,vi Tit Va^'" """P'"-""
t;.. i. 1 „ 4 1 '••.'"*," graji' !c account of
-vi&' '';'t;fc''- '^/^^"-'^
^ ; ^- ,">out any enrolment into a
theTheodosil^n oodV hal'th?^! '"'"""l, '^ '"^^^ "^
ranked among th L deri.i -• V^'"''"'''"" " ''''"
orJiDatecp/city Thy we're to h*" V'"^ *"''■
IH« poorer classes and th.T! ^° '"' '='"'^«'' ''">•>
hibi i„n against In '/" 7'"" "P"»» I'ro-
^^ri^el from ^opaaiLJealpZlur^ r'^'l't'
'ourajje with which they hazflrr, T'^" ,""" "">
^-f plague ...dSJrsri^r,;::^/"
|!|be.^phita"^Jt^:;«^"^«:;''^^stj
»•'--'• notes, Xieel,h. ff. Km^'^'^^ "^
rARADOLAVI 1651
K^v-.-topbyi^irii^nciS'i^r::,!;;^^'
'■'"•; "'.«'"' -M'^.l aUHo they r , 1 y V*
and |«.rfor„,ed little, If «.ri„,,u. ',:'"' ' *""''••
"" refutation ([,„ ,.;„' '';",'> I"';'!'" 1 '"■"'l»
i'. :•). Hone er .r.X'nr.h '■ "'"?'"""• «'•
'f thi. ordep. to,, , , ,„ ' ,K '"i'*'"""' ''"n'"^*
an I the parabol«„i mr ^, nVV'""''^'
turbulent h,.,|y, taLT« , '""""' •"<»
i-t in all reh ioiiT'i^n^r;::,:"!,.!;"::"""*
»u.. „■ their' bi.h„p:7h,"';^'-:i,7;;;i'-;< the
!;ltd"-^,r;t ni£rf--
i«veAi.„a;:dri,'zr »",'"■"':"•■'"
'y whieh their vi!:;:„ri;t";;^a
'7 which their
In cousenuonco of thi« ,u,tt,
'".""'1 an edi.t lX[.erl„ Z' """"'""i"»
Proreotof thepretoriun.4t .'rTn^/'*
'■"'noving thi« turbulent bo^lv f^l \t \'''
fitv of tho bish.,1. a,, , I ^ ,' ""■ """">-
under the pn.'^^; ^ |„^7';« \l"'» <'"'-tly
'lisuiissing them for e » . " l'"*^"'" °'
number wa,tthetn,""'T'^ *>>■ ''""t^-- Tha
they wore Vo b, sd er.V.'"" '","""•' "' '^'«- ""J
their ol„tre ,er. US „ " '"'"""■" ^''-^'l by
Jation of w t, -s .T'"'""' ""^ *'"■'■• "'timi-
;.«i,-byanSt:::'a^S-;;,^-;.<ea
the law curts at all aL ;.. i ■ "t'''n'l,ng
<"• legal business ?h'y n iih""' """'''"'"t
transacted for Ihe.n , /,he,> • 'sT" .r-^ '" '"'
t,>rney. Thev wer.. , -^ '"• '"" at-
attending, a/a 12 t"b" '""''""""' fr"-"
and appearing on aSVbMrn^*""" ■""' "•"•"•»
'iisturbers of the ue«L' ,• k •'™«'U''n., „ being
■nea.ure pr ,ve I elee ll',^ the ,.om,nu„ity. ThiS
clerical pa, y ''^'". '"*fly d'»t«stef„l t„ the
-ce with'lf fe:L'mS'»;,,;:'':'- '■"'"-
trn«ne;:ir",^£ -=n =S
Hii«i from ho^ewi;,?;! ,''''' ™"''^ «■«'■'■■ "> b«
who were kn„wn to („; 1 1^ ^. ""' l"'^''«' », or
the .si.::. 'Ivir n^vtf: 'tV'^'"™^^°^
s"n,ewn„t raise I Tho" w . ' '"'"" "■"«
any class, ex reptin. the ""S^' '"' ""'"'"'' <■'"■»
riales." Atthes?,f„ honorati '• n„j ..,.„.
thei..op,:j:rrr,'^- ;;•;-'-- p.ohibi,ing
on public occ;,.,.,„s whV. ' • ' , '■""'■t''- and
«• '-leg. 42, 4.i vol vi Tlo i'^'^'^'- ''l"^-
notes). Wj find the? ' ■ ^ *'"' ""thofVeds
o^niyf:;att^t,';{?::;r'■'-."hoay
at the " Ij,f.. ■' • ■"-'" of violence
wh.^e si. h. i^Tr; •" '•'•"-■^•'■^' 449 ;.;;
, of the brurnw.::, -a^^^"','!'::-' "\''>^' tools
; to support iiis measures /I .hi"'" ""'■'"'"n'Cntu
reputation of the ,a ,'^ "' ""■ -"''>• '^he
cdass, formidable to'theS'r." '''""^™'"
ever useful when resti-^etirj.h'^" "."''"''*' '"'*-
I appropriate dutiea:V':S:^'S;';^;-e
'^4
^:' !l
'MM
•
i
L
uwi- 1 '.J •:■ J saHH^D^H
1.'52
PARACLETICE
tion of Justinian, which confirinn the prohibi-
tion to thi.'ii' n|ipeiiiing ns a boJy oii public
occiraions. {Cud. Jiintrn. lib. i. tit. iii. ifc ICptsc.
et Cicrio. leg. 18; biiiterim, Dcn'miiMijIieUin,
vi. 3, 'Jti H. ; liingham, Oriijines, bk. iii. ch. i.t.
§ 1-4 ; Gothofica. Aniwtut. in Cod. Tlioud. vu\. vi.
V. 82 : Baronius, Append, ad torn. v. p. 691.)
[K. v.]
PARACLETICE (nopa(cA>)Ti(c)), /Si/SA.ljf
iro()o/c\7;TiK((»'). One of the principal nud most
necessary of the Greek oHice-books. It is
ai rangeil on the principle of the OctoSchos, but
extended so as tn contain the Tiopiiria of the
whole Ferial office for the year. By some
writers it is attributed to Joseph of the Studium
(died A.D. 88:!); by others to another Joseph,
surnamed Melodus (see Leo AUut. de Libria
Ecdca. Grace, p. 28:i). Two derivations are
given for the name : viz. either quasi conso-
latorius, because its contents tend to the con-
solation of the penitent ; or quasi invitatoriuSf
because they largely consist of invocations.
The course of the Ferial office depends not so
much upon the season of the year as upon the
Tones (^x<")) of which there are eight, arranged
to follow one another in regular sequence, begin-
ning with the week after Easter week, after
which they recur again, and so on. Each Tone
has its own Troparia, and governs the service at
all the Hours for its week. Thus the entire M
of variations of the service is finished in a period
of eight weeks. There are proper tables to shew
how the.>ie periods of eight weeks, with their
Tones, fall in dillerent years, according to the
date of Easter. By referring to these tables
the proper Tune for the week in which any
given day falls may be found ; and then the
paiacleticfe gives the proper Troparia for the
different offices of the day. [C. E. H.]
PARADISE (itapdSfiffot, from a Persian
word moaning a park or pleasure-ground) is
used (1) in i iscriptions to designcte the place in
which the dead in Christ wait th"- final judg-
ment. It is said (Martigny, Diet, p. 577, 2nd
ed.) not to occur earlier than the end of the
4th century, when (a.d. 382) it is found in the
epitaph of Theodora (De Rossi, BommSutt. i. 141,
No. 317). But, without the actual use of the
word " Paradise," the dwelling of a soul in bliss
is often indicated by pictures or symbols of the
last resting-places of the faithful. An arcoso-
lium of the cemetery of Cyriaca shews an oranii
standing between two figures, who draw back the
curtains on each siile ; this is supposed to typify
the entrMnce of a soul into the rest of paradise
(Ue Rossi, ISulld. 1863, p. 76). A painting in
the cemetery of I'etrnnilla (Martigny, p. 639) is
thought to represent the reception of a soul into
Paradise by I'etronilla. The soul admitted to
the joys of Paradise is sometimes represented as
a female figure standing between two trees in an
attitude i'^ contemplation (Perret, Catacomhes, v.
pi. v. ; Ue Kossi, Jionui Suit. i. 95), often accom-
panied by the words IS PACE. This inscription
appears in the representation of Dionysas (said to
be of the 3rd century) in the cemetery of Soter
(De ii.iBsi, riuina .^oii. iii. tav. i.), whore the de-
parted appears in the midst of a garden full of
fruits and flowers, where birds seem to flit from
braii.;h to branch. On some sarcophaguses (as in
Bottari, SctUtwe, xii. ; Millin, Midi de la Franco,
PARALYTIC MAN
Ixv. Ixviii.) trees or vines form columns sena-
rating the dillerent groups; these are thmitht
by some to typify Paradise. Occasionally the
promised land is typified by the two spies i).Mriin>
a great bunch of grapes between them im a n.ilc
(.Millin, lix. 3; G.urncci, Vctri, ii. 9). .^ni
again the soul is typilied by a bird sittiiii; I'l, n
tree (Lupi, Scvcraa A/iiYnp/u'iwi, tav. xvii. p. l.j;)
or in the midst of flowers. See the epitaph uf
Sabinianus (Martigny, p. 576). The fiowns an I
leaves, which often enclose representations „t' the
Lord in glory, as in some of the ancient niosiics
of Rome and Ravenna, are thought to rtlVi- t.i
Parailise [Mosaics, p. 1337] ; and lii;ui'ns of
saints in basilic.is are frequently placed in the
midst of a Paradise imlicated in the same mann r.
The same kind of symbolism is found in p)\e\
glass (Buonarroti, Osscnaziono suprn (iv'ini
Frammcnti di I'e/ro, x'"ii! xxi. ; Garrucii, i\. h).
The rich dross in which many female liguiiN mo
represented on sepulchral monuments is fhiiui;hl
by many to indicate the "splendour of ParaliM. "
(Tpt;<())) rou irapaSdirov) of which the lituiijies
speak. The banquets which are so often npre-
sented on tlie walls of sepulchral chambers arc
also very commonly supposecl to typify I'araii-
siacal joys (Polidnri, Conviti Effiipnti, in the Milan
AmicQ cattolico) (Martigny, Diet, dcs Aiitiq. chre't,
8. T. Paradis),
(2) The word Paradise is sometimes used to
designate the quadrangular space enclosed b7 a
cloister, often used as a burial-ground. Omif.
Nautuex, p. 1379. \{:]
PARAGAUDA, PARAGAUDIS (wpi..
yavhis). This is a species of ornamental frin,'e
attached to a dress. We find in the Theoilosiaii
Code (lib. X. tit. 21, 1. 1) a law of Valens \\x'>-
hibiting the use of ■' auratae ac sericae parai;au(l.ie
auro intextae " to private persons. A law rf
Theodosius the Great (ib. 1. 2) repeats the \m.
hibition in stronger terms. The word is also
used, by a natural extension, for the ilres.* so
ornamented (see Qothofredus's note in Inc.). .\s
there is no s/iecial Christian connexion of the
word, it is needless to give further instance!.
It is apparently oriental, but the derivatiun u
unknown. [11. S.]
PARALYTIC MAN. Two euros of the
palsy (besides that of thecer..^urion's servnntj.ire
circumstantially narrated in the gospels— one of
the sutl'erers at the Pool of Bethosda (John v.
2-17), the other of him whom his friends lowerej
through the roof in the crowded assembly of
Capernaum (Matt. ix. 1-8 ; Mark v. 21 ; Lute
viii. 40, V. 17-26). The former is by far the
more frequently represented— almost always in
the act of carrying away his bed, or "that
whereon he lay," which is sometimes a Greek
couch, sometimes a somewhat modern _stump-
bedstead. See Kohault de Fleury, UEcaaiilf,
pi. li. figs. 1-5, Bottari, tav. xx.xix., and ISk- j
TilF.SDA, p. 201, for a cut from a Vatican sarco-
phagus. See also Uohault de Fleury, pi. Iii. for
many varieties of the grabatum, two from ivoriei
at Ravenna and at Cluny. A scribe or apostle is
sometimes pi'esciit (Bottari, s^xi). Thf "(..rr
paralytic sull'erer is seen as lowered throu)?h the
roof by cords in a sarcophagus photographed by
Mr. Parker (2906), and engraved in Bottari, i.
pi. 39. See Westwood, E'lrly Christian Scul^turti,
P.4BAM0NUS and
wius; commemorated ^
PARAMENTA
p. M. But the mo8t graphic an.l CToolJent rcnro-
«ntnt,on ,s m the u,,,,er course of n,osn" i7s
Apolhn.re Nuova at Kavenna (Rohnult de Kl ,rv"
L'Kmn.„h, pi xlui.). De Kleury cives '1'
other examples from 9th and llth cent .r^x.^l
no.. 510 and 70 in the i^W-aai;,!:. Z'S, '""■
PARAMENTA. A general Jo^^^^H^
omaments, or decorations ; from p-.r,,?. ^ ?
Biiglit he applieil to the tanp»f,.„ ,„i.L l- , "
church l.a,lorDed forafeativT t^o h! '""''' "
of .he al.a,.; to the J::^^V^^Z^^
(,n a s.,11 narrower sense) to the orpl ^eys' or
app.m.|s, of a restment. The authoritie fo ' it
use all seem to be late. fc F H n
PARAMOVARrUS, anecclesiaaticai offici'.l
the nature ot whose Jutieq «„„„,o * l ° .'='■"'
difeeut at different trm 7 n rpT e ? C """'^
occurs but rareU', and iCJlTvlJ- """"''
-.-' of the pa'ssagi 'lZ:\TCJ\:
council orChalcedon;whe;er?.trm^::iu\''.':
"eclicu. " (church advocate) as on". T*k ""''
ordinate officers of the Si, °k "* *''' ''"''-
sometimes the object of a sinioni"''. ^^ '^'^
I».hK passage It is conside ed "b"' th^f ";
luthorities to meana "villi,.,, " I ., *"='*■
™,ea the estates o^fa'tate^-^fitSo
mi Ju. CL; torn.';, p'if Su'i^- '■ '"1"''"''
It is also explained in iht ' '"-'"' '"■■ "<"'■)
GothotVed in ilis'Tnao-^atiot Ta^ ,r7th^-
Ju.t,nmn code (</. i;/a.c. .« C/rnc^ 1 46 ,e,^ "i^'
where the p<i,-aw/ianV are a.^so,.i ,J^ i ' f, ?^'
«n«/oc^,-, ptochotrophi, ZsocomlT ^f' • ""^
irators of church propX D.fr" "" '"^'"'"'^■
o'kerhand, conside^rs^ t^X^^^f' ""the
l»»-er grade, identical with t at of fhi ""' ^'^
mriM in tiie Western oh.JT "^ '^'"«"'-
ligh.ing the end es onetinl ' Tl'"""^ ''''^
L, L other '^i^^:Z'''%^'^r '''
»^ed in this inLior senTe fn tr^w""'"
".ediaeval times (Bingliam Or", P ,^'f' '"
:^,f.H,BeveWki£::^i!l^ti,?
^Sn=SaC^-^_^,^2
ly Hittorp, and bv M. I, II Z'" P^^^'^^^d
'»">.". Th four pi^ncfnt'' *'"''""' ^'"'•
C".lorum at Home were n""^?"" "'« ^chola
T»e first in number of ,h» T*" P«™l'h"nistae.
»>ed the anth m Vt w!/Pr■•«,'•■h'''ae)pre-
f"'l>. who was called !r h ''u'^ "^ ""^
'"P the pope inlbrmed of anyVTJ'^'T''' *»
, "raedthec'hoir.what an h ^ '""■ "'•'" "^"n-
L^™^,. E.„"°''.?°J^* were sometimes r„l!ed
' • -- =^v'"-"iiscac. (-^, £ jj^'
PARA8CEUB. [Good FkidatI ' '
PABASCEVE. „,artyr .t Rome under
P-ARIS, COUNCILS OP I653
Antom.., commemorated J„„ 20. ^ (c.,.
«'- called .6/ /L t. "h' '''■'''' '''""^"'"■'.
Offerings were i'ec^i • . '.^ J"'™"^" "•'""' the
o;.tof,hemf„rtle K,la,'."';"" ^ '"'"'«
!,'• 2-'). [Pm)TH|.:s,sl „, ('^'»ff'>'«m, viii,
s"bdiaco„us dat aco vfo et^l "''• " ^'"^'""^
PnratoHo quodam s r , ' ''"P"""""- liber in
[DlACONICQM.] ''• ^"P^- <=C- «/, 68.
PARENTS. [Family.] ^'^' "^'-^
R'niini, published at Xice „^ "V™"'^'"^'^'' at
^•'tantinople, from whi l^'.t":' ^f !.'«r'"«'J "^ Con-
had been eilmin.ited w..r.nn Homoonsios"
letter addressed 'the Fn ;""'"' '" " ^^'^oJ'-'al
" the nth Kragm of 8t ?;?• "'"' ^''^'^'^'^
357-:)59.) *" • "* ^'- "''ary. (Mansi, iii.
whosutmSt^'''i,/^'>' a' "^^'^ Saf?;-,racus,
Wshop of ,,,.is, being ctit:r„f;' •"'■'"'"'^ «"
iikl'the fo;.m'J'„;VwhL""/'''''^'''*^ '"■p«'«g'-»« r.,
all relating ch.'.chd'"' 'r"""''^^™ Passed
them re-enactment ./r'^""' ""'' "'"^' "^
^ays, "Let no bTsh ' be^;,. * 1^^^^' ^^'"'='>
willoftheciti.ens bnt h- 7'^ ""'"■"''* the
«;-ted with .un:stiicrorL"'"''r''«^»
'^^'''■Sy. Neither let an" ee be fill ^'°^t "'"'
l'"«erof the prince noranlL* . '^ "I' ''/ the
against the will of the bM*^ ? u ''*^«t^««^''''-.
or his suffragans " sL nt '' "'^*'"' tn^tropolis
this councirby Gr,th„ „n^ ""T' "'" S"'«" to
Mansi shews, "emb'drn le' „f tT' """i:''' »»
tollowmg centuries. (/6. 752.) "'""' ""'*
ChSlest"con5i;r?f ThTi' '""^''''P "^
Promotus to the see of rh.i.„ cnsecratioa of
by Aegidiu.s, bishoro Rhe 'r '^" '" '' '""'''*'
called upon in the a m n ?.; "'^"'""■^ thevetori
;''-a^v his nominee. T^eco ' .V7'"=''' '° '^"h-
''tter to king Si.ebo W "''.? ;'"'''''«-^-^'^ «
•nterpose in hi faC;. ' ^imVlvlf °°' *"
Ro"en,^as .SsJd t ^r'^-];'?'-'" '''■^'"'P «'
encouraged the revolt nfh-^ <-h>lperic of having
the bishV .lenied. ''Krt;*H::t'r'="'*'^''icf
whom was Gregory of Tn,n.c.\. "i'^hops, among
hi^ -leCence. But n the "7 h' ^"''""' ^'"'^
to become his own aceS "I'"^ ''''° ''''''"'=«'l
f';rcibly, thrown into ^ri ' T^ «"ied ofT
(/J. 875-880.) '^ '''"°' """l then exiled.
yet^'Lt^th'LVstrtf h?"t™'"« ''"" had
xeventy-nme bish, n .,n 1 ' ^'V! '"•"""''e'l >>/
a ooun.il of RhdZ ;;;!.„!:::!", f"«J general il
'i'!|""-es to its having h',:,;;.'- ^f'* preface
t-'lotaire, who contiVmed i " """"""r*^ ''y king
a ■^peei.-.l edict. Thev w 'I rlV""". ^"""^"ds if
Hi-iplinary. By the s^eco, d„ ' """ '" ?"'''". «»
choo.orhave^onech:::;!;:i-:;;:v;nay
■ '> 'S ;;«
1554
PARISH
Mm
i'rtJiHHIBMI
|h1
SHM
H
Hi
I
his lifetime, unless he should have become, for
some leasoDjinciipable of admiiiistfrini^hisdiocese.
r.y the third all manumitted slaves (liberti) are
to be defended by priests, and not reduced again
to their former state. And by the iirteenth no
Jew may hold or apply for any public ottice
giving him power over Christians. Any Jew
ende;ivouring to compass this is to receive
baptism at the hands of the bishop of the place,
with all his family. The rest are less new, than
old cinons revived. (Mansi, x. 5:t9-54(!.) Ten
more canons (Mansi makes them fifteen) are pre-
serve 1 of a nameless council (Delaland, Hupiil.
ad Sirmoml, p. 62, has invented a name for it),
by the rirst of which these rifteen are conHrmed,
Bs hoint; in no way contrary to the Catholic
faith nr^church law, while by the eighth priests
and deacons are forbidden, un ler pain of depri-
vation, ever to marry, (/i. .')4(;-.'i48.)
(7) A.D. 6:i8. When the exemption of the
abbry of St. Denis is stated to have been renewed,
" in imiversali nostri synodo Parisiis congreg.ata,"
as king Dagobert, who subscribes first, is made
to say. But if so, why should it have formed
the subject of a grant afterwards, A.D. 658, by
bishop Landeric? (Mansi, x. 659 and xi. 61.)
' [K. S. Kf.]
PARISH. I. Names /or.— The Greek word
TopoiKia, from which the Knglish parish is de-
rived, thrnugh the Latin paroccia, parochin, tke
Korniau-French paroissa (Lois de Guillaume le
Conquerant, 1), and the early English paroche,
parvs/w, parcsclie (Stratmaun, s. v.), appears
to have ha.l two meanings. (I) In Greek
inscriptiims it is not uncommon to find the
inhabitants of a town divided into those
who have and those who have not full civil
rights, and described collectively as o1 rt iroAiVoi
Kol 01 irapoiKot ndi'res, cij. Cor/ms Tnscr. Gr.
Ko. 16;U at Thespiae, No. 2906 at I'riene,
No. .'iO-Ht at Teos, No. 3.595 at Ilium Novum ;
hence, in tlie first use of the term and its cog-
nate terms in Biblical and ecclesiastical Greek,
they are found in this literal sense of a " so-
journer " and " sojourning," e.i/. in the LX.X. Exod.
ii. 21 \ Deut. v. i-t; 2 Kings viii. 1, in the N. T.
Acts vii. 29 ; Epiies. ii. 19 \ Heb. xi. 9 ; in I'liilo,
e.q. vol. i. pp. 161, 511, ed. Mangey ; in Josejilius,
c'-q. Aiifl. Jml. viii. 2, 9. It is probable that the
term came thus to be ordinarily applied to the
colonies of Jews in the great cities of the East,
who were not absorbed in the ordinary citizens,
but kept their nationality di.stinct ; e.fi. at Cyrene,
where .Strabo ap. Joseph. Antt. Jml. xiv. 7, 2,
says that there were four divisions of the popu-
'ntion— citizens, fanners, ixtroiKoi, and Jews.
It was probably continued or adopted by the
colonies of Christians in the same cities, who
stood in a similar relation to the rest of the
population : henco, in Clem. Horn. i. c. 1, the
church of Home describes itself as fi «K(cXT)(rio
ToO &(ov V vaooiKovna [Piujurj"], so Tolyc. ml
Philipp. 1 ; Martiir. Puli/c. 1. With this mingled
the metaphorical sense of the word in which
this "sojourning" upon earth was contrasted
with the' "abiding city" in heaven, i?.//. 1 I'et.
i. 17 ; Clem. Uom. ii. c. 5 ; Curpus /user. Graco.
Ko. H+74, y6«.i.
(2) It was useil. in a sense winch contnuied
its earliiHT sense of " dwelling near a city," as
equivalent to a rural commune or a detached
suburb. This nteaning is rare, and tlu- editors
PARISH
of the Corptis Inscr. Oraec. treat the nse of
ripoiitos in the sense of " colonus," as a prw.f
that the inscription on which it occurs. No. 8650,
is not earlier than the 4th century, A.n. !n th»
later civil law rrapotKia was applied to villiim
or peasant-farmers ; e.g. in the Pmctica, tit. 1.%
c. 2, ap. Von Lingenthal, Jus Gvaeco-Ruminvm,
pars i. p. 42.
In the ecclesiastical use of the words thes*
two meanings were confounded— the former
meaning predominates in the earlier pcri.iil, the
hitter in the later; nor docs the cdiii'usion
disappear until far on in the middle ages ; i.e.
irapoiida, paroecia were used (i.) of the wliolj
colony of Christians in a given city or district,
i.e. of the "diwcese," in its modern s<-iise of
the district over which a bishop came to
have jurisdiction ; (ii.) of the rural or suliurban
communities which were more or less depen-
dent on another church —i.e. of the "imiish"
in its modern sense. Between these two uses
of the words it is not always easy to iliitiii-
guish. The following must be taken .is being
only an approximate classification nf some
leading instances:— i. = the modern "diocese":
S. Iren. Ep. ad Florin, ap. Euseb. II. /,'. v. 20;
Apollon. Ephes. ap. Euseb.//. E.w 18; Alexand.
Alexandrin. Ep. ap. Theodoret. //. /;'. i. 3;
Cone. Ancyr. c. 18; Nicaen. c. 16 ; Const. Apost.
ii. 1 ; viii.' 10 ; St. Cyrill. Hierosol. Cttah. xiv.
21; St. Athanas. AimI. c. Arian, c. 49, vi.l. i.
p. 131, id. Hist. AriLin. c. 17, vol. i. ]i. 'J 7 9, id.
Tom. ad Antinch. vol. i. p. 616; St. Greg. M.
Ep. vi. 1 1 ; xiv. 7 ; in Galilean documents from
the 6th century onwards — c'.i/. in the instrument
of f<iundation of the abbey of .St. Mesmin ap.
D'Achery, Spicilcj. vol. iii. p. 307 ; in Knghuiil,
Cone. Clovesh. c. 3, Cone. Cealcyth. c. 3 ; in the
(irobably genuine writings of popes — c../. Kpit.
Hadrian. Can. Ap)st. 40, Hormisd. Ep. 117, ad
Episc. Jfispan. c. 3 ; in the Carolingian Capitu-
laries — c.y. Karhnnanni Capit, A.D. 742, c. 3,
Pippini Capit. Mission, c. iv. 1, Capit. Vcm. c.3,
Karoli M. Capit. General. A.D. 769, c. 8; in the
Liber I'ontificalis, Vit. S. Sixti, p. 8; in the
I'seudo-lsidorian decretals— c.i/. Epist. Clvm. i. c.
36, 70, Epid. Catixt. ii. c. 13, Epist. IakH. c. 5;
and even in the 12th century— c.-;. /c;;ra(Ij S.
Jlujon. Lincoln, ap. Giraldus Caniijrensis, ed.
Dimock, vol. vii. p. 176. So far did this wider
sense u\' puroecia prevail that a distinction some-
times a])pear8 between the pdi-occi'ii of a simple
bishop, and the ((/otvsis or promxda of a metro-
politan — e.g. S. Bonifac. Wogunt. Epist. 49, d
Ztto/iariam, A.D. 742, Migne, I'atr. Lat. vol. hnn.
714, "tres ordinavimns epi-scopos et ]irnyiniiam
in tres parochias discrevinius; so S. Znihitr.
Epist. 3, ad Hurchml, Migne, vol. hsxix. 822.
ii. It = the moilern " parish " : S. H.isil. F.pisL
240 (192) ; Const. Apost. ii. 58 ; Cono. Ch.ilc.
c. 17 ; 3 Cone. Tolet. c. ix. 20, Emerit. c. l^,
2 Hispal. c. 2, Agath. c. 21, Item. c. 19,Caljilloii,
c. 5; Sidon. Apollin. Epist. vii. 'J, p. l»:i;S.
Greg. M. Epist. i. 16; Vit. S. Eli<l. ii. 2,^, ap.
D'Acherv, Spied, vol. ii. ; in the I'seiidivlsi.lo-
rian ilecretals, Epist. Clem. iii. c. 70 (from
Lulli Epist. ad Pontif. Max. in S. BoiiiUo. A;m(.
U" p. 2i"'>); !lir..mar U«m. Cipii. S'imi *,
c. r, ed. Sirmond. p. 732, Migne, 1". I. vel. cut.
p. 795. Conversely dioecesis is frequently "sMi
probaldy by a survival of one of its claisinl
uses (fn- which see Ma'-qunrdt, Pvnuscke StMtf
PARISH
m<^!i^^ng, Bd. 1. p. 5) a, equivalent to the - " ^"^^^^^ ^^^^
16, p. 283 ; &. Greg. Turon. //. F iv 1 4 n 1 lo
W.vi 38, p. 315, use, " parochiU"" an/" d „.'
ceses synonymous y in thp ».mo u .
Cone. Agath. L. 506^ c 54 Tar , "con f „" f^'
c. 8, 4 Aurel. a.d. 541. c 3S '7^ ' J^'
c. •-' 4 Tolet. A.D. 633 c 34' 36 Th""- ^^'^'
,..s,(.na the concu'r^en^'abtce'of'thru:!
dparoeoaUs especially found in Italv-.r
giTenbyMuratori,^„(<,J 7,,;"^„'P which are 'bursar." (2.) In Whif •"' ?""""'Mor, or
>o,-Jdoes not^pperl 'tur Tntir'tT ' '"«' -itinerant h"l";;!\.^'A"^?> ^^e »y.s,em of
tz.iox'' '"""'"' ~"°'" '"'p-*'-? the ci':
example of the ecclesfUi!..! • """^"sting
«mall Syrian tLn fn jTe 4" "'f"''"''"" "' »
is afforded hv an n.,.l- .• '^'"'"'•y. a.d. .■i54,
in Batanea,Trin?el n r^'r "' '^['J"' (''^'-"t
Ittsor. Grace Nn 8nm\ 1 ^^^^ (= Corpus
listed of tTo ?;«;'; te'rl" ^To^f "'h '^'"•^^ <-^"-
archimandrite of tjfe l^ari, °*^ '''^"' "«« «l»o
doaoona, one of who™^'i.^"""'"'fy' «,'"' two
(The medmeval spelling parochia, which is
.constant var.ant for paroecia, seems to have
.risen from a derivation froi the cksS
p:te, which has been revived in modern
times by Baur, iiberder Urspruna des FnSllTl
p. 78, but is altogether untfuabfe ) ^'P"""'^'"*'
ii Orirjin of Parishes—The origin of parishes
me modern sense of the word, is to fe found
mthe suburban and rural organization of the
Koman empire. In the more ciWlized countrie
f that empire each importan' ..ily had ads
trict surrounding t, within . >K A
.rate, might exer'cise jurisdiction' f^^rsri
Fiacc. m Grornat Vett. ej Uch mannf p 135.
krrUormm, Digest, 50, 16 2Hq K H » % '
tion to these large cities w th ik ■^■■'' "'''''■
te-ritory and thf^ dSd:;^^:"^ htf
1878). By the end of the 3rd centurJ Oh.i\-
«.%• had penetrated to the maToritTof tT
luburban and rural OTit&mz«t\ZT I ■
had to be made fot^hem in Jr - " ^
f^. The pro^i^iorv'aVeS^ cSltlf 1
.fent times and in different count- ^s'/,;]
«Pr„tr"'''"'^----<'f-nre;rrer
quiHier«,i;i;mam^'tenef^ ZT"" ''' '^'^^^P'
^&d:Th£;6r^H~^
intenJed by rural h; K^' ^ ^^° ""''•« »"?««-
i'inerant b shops '„^lx"P'', X7"''^«<"ro,,^r
Aal'och,c. 10- S ru.il %^ ^eocaes. c. 13;
««trove'rsy to 'which tit'f- '* ('.«!)• The'
and from the rau/ts which w" V'""' "'■^'-'''
both sides in the courl of Th r>""'"l'" ""' •"»
versy, that bish,; of ull rank wet""' • ' '^","'"-
Pointed, wherever a VhJ- I- '* '"-''"'anly aii-
but at 'the same thne'^K''" <=""""''"'*)• exi.sted ;
system which aTterwa.Jsoalnl'"'" *™"" "^ »''«
prevail, e.g. in St I^l,, , " ' T'" K^'x-rally to
he spea'ks^;ra "castellum " ^' 'l" 'i"^' ^^'■^'•«
m,n,r;„» j-^_ . <=a8teilum which formed an
lUl
outlying dependencv or,"? l^"'^ ''"""'^^d »'
"anfea'ibi S.^^ istpu^ foit '"',""'''"
cum contigua sibi redone,,? '■ '^'' "'""
nensis ecclesiae per i febat - r^rr'T ,"'PP°'
round Alexandria TmI ' ^ ^^. '" t*"* ^''''''''^t
were entrusted :,'p"X"eT ^"^r' 'I':: ''"''*^'"'
mtendeace of the bisho/ IrAlLatSr a " '"^r
nasius mentions upwards of ;»nu?- "^f'"-
also speaks of theSop Mu L tb " '''^^^' "'"'
^'Vv). The dispute wkh Is ch v^r! "i^'!^"''^''-
pies a prominent nla^e in l.i» i "" ' "'"'-
the Arians, seems to h"- ^^''-o^ersy with
attempt of IschTias to b T'"" ,""* "^ 'ho
bishop' of „ne"?ih: Wl UgTs whTcl';:!'""""^"
resistH on the ground of if! 'i • ^^""".'a^'us
and Spa^nll'clilt" n'cer„Svh^^^ ."l '»"'
anity spread, and the eSltedvi „'''"'''•
with which it found it,.l." • o'ganization
growth and consolidation 'of Tk ''■''' ''^•^ '" '^e
has since become permanent in T^V'''^'''
church. It is DrobablBTh * ■ ^ "'^ V^^tern
it did not penetCte to th. '"* ^^"'^ ^"""t"^"
and that thev did n,>t „• ^^ ■ "" '"" towns,
bishops. The ei)i^,.n„o*„ i 1 \ ^ number of
portaiit. itsd,-^: ;'w:,;:^^;™"?'' •"-•« '«.
creating a bishop, as^in'.^i^j* tt'e?;""^ '^
new community. Presbvte^^nd d™*,!"^
<1e{ached voiii the staff "of n,„ ■; "t ^^cro
deputed -: serve Ulntr; Chi cht^ '""r^''' ■""*
89 .
1566
PARISH
roll of the city clergy. They received their al-
lowances, as before, Ircim the oommon fuiul. Thev
ccruld be recnlleil by the biahnp, and re-attached
to the i;ity church (so late as Cimo. Knierit. a.d.
666, c. 12). Hut gradually they became fixed
in their several dintricts, or " iinrneciae." As
such they were at first called ' cardinalcs,"* a
term which was also a|n>liod to the permanent
chaplains of endowed oratories (c.ij. bv S. Greg.
M. L'pist. xii. 11), and was ultimately superseded
in the case of almost all iiarishes, except the
Roman titiUi, by the terms Jiuccsani, e.g. Cone.
Agath. c, 'I'i ; Tarracon. c. Ill, parochitani, paroc-
ciani, ixxrochidles, Cone, ICinerit. c. 18; 3 Tolet.
c. 4 ; 7 Tolet. c. 4 ; 9 Tolet, c. 2 ; locates, 3 Tnlet.
c. 20; fvntstici, Can, Martin, lirac. c. 15 (trans-
lating the iirtxiipioi wpta^vrfpoi of Cone. Neocaes.
<:. IM).
Such is in outline the liistory of the origin of
the parochial system. VVIicn it finally came to
prevail, it temb I to absorb into itself the other
systems upon which l!hri»lian communities had
been organized, and, altliough only after struggles
whicli stretch far into tlio middle ages, and not
without the co-operation of the civil power for
the jiurposes of pcditical convenience, to spread
the network of its elaborate organization over
the whole of Western Cliristendom. But it will
be noted that the history which has been given
takes account only of rural or suburban districts,
and of towns which were included in such dis-
tricts, It is necessary to cxjilain briefly the
extension of the system — i. to episcopal cities ;
ii, to privately founded churches.
(i.) In the larger cities, some kind of subdivi-
sion soon became necessary, not only because
a single building became too small for wor-
ship, i)Ut also because o single organization
became too cumbrous to discharge effectively
the various functions of disciiiline and of
charity whicn the church assumed to itself.
But instead of subdividing the church into
separate communities, each complete in itself,
the theory of the unity of the church was pre-
served by ossigning to each community one or
more presbyters, and regarding those presbyters
BS forming collectively a single crvviSpiov, or
consiliHin, under the presidency of a single bishop.
This was the case at Alexandria; each district
and quarter (Aaiipii) of the city had its own
church and its own presbyter (S. Kpiphan. adv.
Nacres. <J8, 4 ; 69, 1 ; S, zom. }/. E. i. 1,5). This
was also the case at Konn. The eorliest certain
evidence which wo po.ssess on the point is the
letter of Cornelius in Kuscb. H. E. vi. 43, which
says that there were at that time forty-six pres-
byters at Rome. A few years later Optatus (cfe
Schism. Donat. ii, 4) mentions that there were
more than forty basilicas ; it is inferred that
• That eardinalii In this use, which was transferred
from cortiln civil oiTlcos uncU^r llie empire, moans •' fixed "
is rightly nmlnUlned by Oothofred, ad Cod. Thatdns.
12, 6, 7, IkTckIng, fiotiiia iJign. Orient, c. B, 2, vol. 1.
pp. 34, 20S ; it Is sliewn, e.g. \>y a letter of pope Zachary
to Pippin (A,>ts(. s, c. IB, MiKnrs P. h. vol. Ixxxlx. 93.">)
who will not allow a " presbyter cardinalis" to be
appointed on a piliuta eslate, but rules that whenever
masres are required in private oratorios a presbytormust
be speciully askfil fur from the binhop. 1 lie other late
Latin meaning of "cardinalis " (t'.e. praccipuus, accord-
Ing to Serv. ad Vlrg. .,4(n. I, 135), Is loss applicable to
tither Its civil or Its ccclcsloatlcal use.
PARISH
there was one presbyter for each basilica, and
probably a larger number for the bishop'.s h,iai.
lica. The Liber Puntijicatis is of less authuritT
as to the early period, but is more ijrocisi- in it,
details. The earliest account which it i;ivoi; [.
that St. Kvaristus assigned churches and their
revenues in Rome to presbyters (« titulos in \iibi
Roma divisit presbyteris." Vit. S. Kruriff. ,,
6). The next account is that St. I)i.invsiui
assigned churches to presbyters, and instituted
cemeteries and parishes (the text is partly uri-
certain : Bianchini reads " parochias diuceses
instituit," but probably the second of these
words is a gloss of the first, as parochia w.is n
comparatively rare word in Italy, and also aj
Hincmar of Rheims Opusc. in caus. J/incm. Livi-
dun. c. 15 ap, Migne, Putr. Lit. vol. cxxvi. 330
and the I'seudo-lsidore, Epist. ii. lliuw/s. c. 3'
Hinschius, p. 196, evidently read "iiarochias"
only). A few years afterwards, pope Maroiljus is
said by the Siime authority to have institutcj
twenty-five "tituli" at Rome, "quasi dioceses
propter baptismum et poenitontiam multorum
qui convertebantur e paganis " ( Vit. S. Mnnvlt. p.
31). It may be inferred from these three accounts
that in the first instance the presbyters of the
several Roman churches had no s]iecial district
assigned to them, and that probably tliey were
not even attached to any particuhar church.
After the time of pope Dionysius, each church
had its own clergy, its own projier district, and
its own revenues. The presbyters, deacon, and
sub-deacon of each church wore " cardinales,"
i.e. fixed to the given church ; but collectively,
as at Alexandria, they formed a single body,
which, by corporate continuity, with changes of
detail but not of principle, remains to this dar
as the "collegium sanctae Romanae ecclesiae
cardinalium."
But the questions of the relation of iktse
" tituli," " parochiae," or " dioceses," to the
" regiones " into which the city was also divided
for ecclesiastical purposes, and also of the degree
to which they were analogous to the parishes of
other parts of Christendom, are questions which
do not seem to admit, upon extant evidence, of
any certain answer (some help towards the solu-
tion of the first of these questions will be found
in the treatises of the learned 16th-century
antiquary, Onuphrio Panvino, ap. Mai, Spicile-
giitm Eomanum, vol. vi., and In Mabillon, Mm.
Itdl. vol. ii. Camin. praev. in Ord. Rom. c, 3).
(2) Co-ordinate with the normal formation of
Christian communities by the aggi'ogatlonof the
Christians of a city or district, and their organi-
zation, whether under presbyters or bisliops,
was the custom of erecting places of worship
upon the estates of landed proprietors. In the
first instance there appears to hive been no
restriction upon the erection of such places of
worship ; the civil law, for fiscal reasons,
required the officers of such churches to be
taken from the estate (law of Arcadius and
Honorius, A.D. 398, Cod. Thcodo's. 16, 2, .33=
Cod. Justin. 1, 3, 11), but otherwise until the
middle of the 6th century left them practically
free. It is not clear whether Cone. Chalced.
c. 4, which forbids the erection of p.ovMTi\ftoi
% (bKiiipdOV oIkov without the conscM of ir.i
bishop of the city, refers to these churches; if,
as appears most probable from the general tenor
of the canon, it does not refer to them, thi
PARISH
jirllest rMtrictinn upon tho!,. «. i-
Jo.f„, Novell. 67, circ. A.D 40 wmT ''"'• *>'
both the consent „f the LhoJ a/f J;''"'^"?
.gam.t the multi,,lic«ti„n ofheml^, *f eg"ard
•nd a sufficient endowment Jn fhw '""■''''"'
.re few traces of then/until the R,l^''* *''"«
from that time onwards thev h. "" '^«"tu'-y ;
Id some cases th" w ^J t?r7 T""'"'
chapels," erected for the mn? -^ f"'''»'«
owners of country estates .T^^'" "^ ""^
wa, made that aitho ^h ^Ji^f^V^/ ■''«"'»"""
for the sake of convefieace r"'nrV ."''«'"
tionem fa.iliae ") be pTZLrTl,"''''-
ordinary days, yet on the greater fe.H. , ""
must be had to the church of tL"[' "■'''"•*
dty (Cone. Agath. A.aTo6, c ai'"! /' *''
A.D. 535, c. 1)) In nth^- , ' ^ -Arvern.
have had dist/icts as igtV^rthe:" "P/'" '"
have become country She»- h "^^ "" *"
potentum domib'us i-'a'ndrsi !fs'>':'^^'- >-
mo aut habet aut postilf' A ^V" "> »gro
and 9 Cone. Toiet. a^d 655 c o"/ ^''=•'=r '"
ease of « eccle.siae parochiaL " ^ ,''.''?'\^^'"> *'»=
founded by private peri ";'"<='' '"•^e been
which were mainly insiCt^H , ^''^'«'° P»ints
Wh classes of priv^,terfol;''r .'° "^ard to
(.) That they should be'„derl't''h''" ""^
tMl; and (2) That the,r «k ij ! bishop's con-
.nJo'wed. The former of th'' ^^ »umciently
appears first in 1 Conc.''LrerA'n""M ?'"'""','''>'
the latter was enacted byTc„n; A '',"• ^^ '
within his "eastelhlm," ^^Hh^, , r -T'^^
-,t consecrated in bono, r ofst Pett'''^*"
SoV^^^f I? ;t '^^""^ of ^e-o a„„t^
g.ren, namely a farm Ch'T, ^ll''''-'^^"* »
"ke of oxen, two ro v^ f '' homestead, a
H fifleen h'elrofXe'p rn^tZ"'' "' ■^"^^'•' "
niMts of a farm. Bnt?h'» r P''"P"" '""P'^-
i» early times chmli ^'TfT '^'"^ "hich
-""try districts! wtlutiTfV'"' ^"'""^^'^ '"^
risMsofanyoth^rchuroh T'^l"^^ ^'^^ '^e
"ken the greater part of th rl'-^"-^' "'t'-'^t«J
came to be covered wUhth *-,'"'^t'«"^^ea West
diocesan but dso na™ hi*^ '''^'':"^ ''^ "«' only
» eountrv dist °ct har h •"■g''"i^»ti"n. After
P™h, and e peciaS' ater Th'"'"'^'' """ "
life and fees by he neonl. r' r^"'"' "f"
t«the church of fhi^^*^ .''/""•■'• « district
^ernotofvounta^/oT'? ^''t ''^'^''""' «
»%«on- the fundain :rf' ^"^ "^ '"'B"'
«">in the limits or on the h„, """'l ^''"''^h
parish tended to bo IV a i^ '"''"" "^ «"ch a
P«l* Zacharv, writin/ f P-'"'- "''^ "^'-'f"-""'--
"11 not alio V churfhes nr"'""' "'"■ ^•''- ^^l,
k«^e,even when endowp , [ ''!■'■"'« ^'"''t'" 'o
Ji«al presbvte ,." thTf-K '^ ^*'"" °' "^'-
'■V™ without The usual I"*" " *° "=»"»«'•«*«
'"^ a priest to porfoL " ""'''"' ""<' *"
ri«ires (S. Zachar^nk7 T'Tn "" °<=™^''™
apitularies allow tha '..v. .• . ^'arolingian
wlr.t»,.p- "^. •"6 erection of rhurchc- hr
, '■''''l>eva«ca'remit„"''' '"r"'. "^ "•« bishop.
PARISH
1557
«^r'::.VM^;;!:;^^^'^- Mog„nt. ....
Pertz, i. 254- A,, • • }^ "'"t'lar. Oipit. c 6
«-^99,-T;;t'fe;:;;,^?','i''-2,4'Cp^.':
revenues of a pari h vV . '"' '•''■'itory and
i" cases of nece " t, \^,'''' "■■" ""'x """wable
"etion of the biX^ I CP'u'i''' '^'^ 'i'^'
JurlliiiS'^thi'''^^""' ^^^<^— The
t).e Privatel^.fc, n r,"";: .P'-o-i^hes «nd over
^•Ithin or without Lti"nH;of"''''-''L *''''*'■"
"■■thin tht district ove" I ?""'"''' "■ere
authority was u Lf . '''"'■'' « bishop-,
waa not^s^allished w ]; T"™"^ »° «-^<«'>^l-
n early times St r*td' "•""^^V^"*^^'"'
to detach them.'elves from *h f™";' ">« '''-'''t
they were presbyters Tnl! '^'"'^ "^ ""i^h
where they pleased Vo,/" ''' "P »!">"
partly by t'heMom.tnce of th?}^* "^ ""*'"-■''
f^^r organization, and nartlv hV .K """" '"'"""^t
necessity f„r preservinlir ^•*'" "''erpowering
A presbj-ter who set Vn ""' •' "^ ""^ ^•*""-''''
consent of his bishop ta?.Zfr ^"''"'" "'«
cated; and if this sr,,-,'' r' -^f'"' "*^"'""'»ni-
the Christinn . reparation from the rest of
vyiiiisiian oommun tv ft.;i„j » . ot
resort was had, nrobabl/ / !u '" '^'*'"' ^im,
ecclesiastical hi t^ry to the ''"* '™^ "
"■•"> (Cone. AntiocZ'iV^^fT^'-f the secular
^- 31 ; 2 Cone, earth. 5? 'Th.^V^""' ^f"^"*-
from tlie first, seems tn hi *''^'"'>' ""hich,
pretations of 'the Te,atiors 0^^''"''? "" '"""-
church to '>ubscq„entlv.Z..L ""^'""^ ^''^
the same city, and to suHk communities in
n.>unities,was^thattheoffiS*? °^ "■"'•"' ^""'-
ties were still part of th. "V'^ose communi-
'ion. The coZ'l^^^TtCVh^'"'^ '"^''"'■^-
"ot only of those pr^sb vtl^ i "^ ^^' '''"•'"^J
the ordinary admfnfstra 1 ^''".''^''"t^'l him in
but of all presbytrwho werein'^h"''" "''^"^''^
dicnon. In cour»B „<• »• ° "e same uris-
tion between the,e two .r- "" ^"^'' " ''i^tinC
formed, and in the mU,l "aTs fh^'""''-?" "-
the cathedral came to as, m,!^.? Presbyters of
which had onS^brn!";* ''"'?'/'>« f""ctions
ters of the diocese b.,f 1?^ -"^ *° "" '''« P'esby-
of the bishop hTmserffirf'" T' ""''' 'hofe
and 9th center "the extra 11 '/'', "' ""« 8'h
of a diocese were n„t onlta^n . J!"' P^^^yters
b7 penalties to .s.l^tTh! ttZ\^''' ™"''^"'"'
his concilium, at leistnn •^' "' ""enibers of
(Pippini C«A IW An ^L'^'"' " y-"
M- H. G., vol. i. r> '"b-'id'r ^^\ '■ ^' P"t^.
"7.-24, Bene!]'ich,s tt^'a^-T'^''': ^•''•
The organization of tho • ' ^^'*- '• '-• "^O)-
sufficed for all the cl r' o ^^k''";.'^'' "''^'^a^
tricts which were atT/L/ '•''"'"'^' "■• ^is"
Population increased : til "■'• '^'"■" *''«
'ncrea.se in the number of r ^''''esponding
cathedral dergv were or<rani /'''"' '''^ ""•«-
t'>e original tvpe was n« "^ 'f'""'''**'^ but
stood at the heidof two'^, '"'^"'- .^^' bishop
which was »he clnT '"San-^ations, each of
Parallel with the ^n "';''"'' "*" "'« other
became kn'own in ZZ thrr.:,/''^ /"™" '
the cathedral, the latter asihrT/^'. ""■ ''*^"' "^
rural dean. Parallelwith hV fw?"'" ""'"'""or
''•e diocese With di«erS,trinX:clfi2
6 H 2
" mall
m
* /'. '
■JiMt 4(iriJ«yii
1558
PARISH
in the one case the archpresbyter ami in the
other the archJeaoou succee.leil in establishing
his claim.
Ciinversely, the bishop was thcuretically an
integral part of the parishes which came to be
detached from the church iu which he personally
presided. The parish presbyter had not at lirst,
as he came practically to have in later times, the
full powers of the ministry in his parish. In
Rome the presbyters of the several tituH hi>.d not
even the power of consecrating the eucharist ;
the consecrated bread was sent round to them
avery Sunday from the bishop's church (S. Inno-
cent.' £pist. ad Decent, c. ."> ; Liber Pontificalis,
Vit. S. Melchiad. p. 33) : there is a trace of an
attempt having been made to make this the rule
for all presbyters (cf. Liber Pontif. Vit. S. Siric.
p. 5.5), but Innocent, /. c, expressly disallows the
practice in regard to parishes which were remote
from the bishop's church, on the ground that
" non longe portanda sunt sacramenta," and that
presbyters have the right of consecration. In
regard to baptism, the co-operation of the bishop
became necessary in two respects, (a) the parish
presbyter could only use chrism which the
bishop had consecrated, and for which he had to
send to the bishop once a year ; (6) the baptism
was incomplete until, as in baptisms in the
bishop's own church, the bishop had imposed his
hands (see PuiiST, 111. Functkms of, (2) ii.).' In
regard to discipline, the probability is that in the
earliest period neither a bishop nor a presbyter
could act alone, and that the rule of the Jewish
synedria which required an ecclesiastical court
to consist of at least three members was ordi-
narily observed. Some details of the long
struggle between bishops and presbyters for the
right of the latter to act alone are given else-
where (Primt, III. Functions o/, (1) c). This
struggle was bv no means ended within the
period of which' the present work takes cogni-
zance, and its later history can only be considered
in connexion with the general history of tne
relations of the Roman see to the Western
church in the post-Carolingian perioi. It may,
however, bo mentioned here that an interesting
survival of the earlier theory is found in the
council of Rouen in a.d. «50, p. 16, which clearly
implies that the bishop's ordinary visitation of a
parish was conceived as the holding of a court in
which the local presbyters were his assessors;
the purport of the canon is that minor ecclesias-
tical causes should be determined by the local
presbyters before the visitation, and that the
graver causes only should be reserved for the
more solemn court in which the bishop himself
presided.
It is impossible, within the limits of the pre-
sent work, to enter in detail into the intricate
question of the precise periods at which, in the
several parts of Christendom, the authority of
the bishop of the principal church of a district
came to extend over all the towns and villages
■which were included in that district. Tliat
authority was not established without many
struggles, and its nature seems to have varied as
widely as the extent to which it was recognized.
But 'it came at length t.T mnsist in three prin-
cipal particulars. (1) The appointments of
clerks to parochial or other churches were sub-
ject to the bishop's approval. V-) lleiks so
•ppointed were subject to the bishop's ju'risdic-
PAR18H
tion, which was exercised partly in the coorw of
annual visitations of the several parishes, partly
by requiring clerks to repair periodically to th«
bishop's church for tlie purpose of being exam|r.«i\
(3) The bishop had the sole right of consecrating
churches and altars.
1. I'he Inij/tt of Approval. — In the earliest
period, when tlie clerks of rural churches were
only temporarily detached from the city churc!i,
the question of the necessity of tlie bishop's
approval could hardly arise, inasmuch as that
approval had already been given in the fact u!
their original ordination. After the first permi-
nent organization of the church, the right of
presbyters to detach themselves from the bishop's
church, and form communities for themsilvcj,
was, as has been pointed out above, S|iewllW
crushed. The practical dilTiculty began whii
the fi undation of places of worship by privnte
persons on their own estates, or in rural districts
which were not as yet recognized as forming part
of the " territorium " of a city. Tlmse who
founded such places of worship claimed the riijht
to appoint anyone whom they pleased to otliiiiite
in them without interference on the part of s
neighbouring bishop. But the civil law inter-
fered, in this as in other cases, in the interests of
orthodoxy. A law of Arcadius and Honnriiis in
A.D. 404, the yearofChrysostom's second banish-
ment, forbids " nova ac tumultuosa conventicula
extra ecclesiam " {Cod. Theodos. 16, 2, 37 = Co/.
Justin. 1, 3, 15). In the following century .liis-
tinian {Novell. 57, c. 2, a.d. 537) forbade founderj
of churches from appointing anyone whom they
pleased to serve them, without the consent of
the bishop. Another Novel (123, c. IS) throws
a similar enactment into a positive form by pm-
viding that founders of churches may nominate
clerks for them, subject only to the clerks bfin;
found worthy; but the immediate result ofthfsj
rules appears to have been an attempt, whiih
was also checked, to dispense with clerks alto-
gether in such places (.Instin. Novell. 12.3, c.3i,
131, c. 8). About the same time similar nilei
were enacted by a Western council. 4 Omc. Anrd.
A.D. 541, c. 7, will not allow " peregrin! derici "
to be appointed to oratories without tlie ccnient
of the bishop of the "territorium." Still later
in the East Cone. Trull, c. 31,2 Cone. Nicaen.c. 11,
forbade clerks from serving chapels or oratorin
without the consent of the bishop, under pen.iltr
of deposition. But the question was not settled
in the West until the Carolingian period, when
it is clear that a determined struggle took plate
between bishops and founders. The Capituhiriei
re-enact the rule that no layman could either
appoint or eject a presbyter with a frequenn ,
which shews that it was frequently broken, cj.
Karoli M. Capit. de Presbyt. c. 2, Pertz, vol. i.
p. 161; id. Excerpt. Can. c. 2, Pertz, i. 1*?]
Hlndowici, Ca/nt. Aquisgran. A.D. 817, c. 9, Perti
i. 207 ; Capit. Wormat. A.D. 829, c. 1, Fertz.i. l
350 (which places laymen who disregard the ni!
under the ban of the empire, so also Karoli II. I
Edictwn Pistense, A.D. 861, c. 2, Pertz, i. 485),
The bishops in the petition, out of whiih tke
Capitubiries of Worms resulted, complamthitj
the emperor himself had encouraged the practite I
in regard to the clergy of his own palace {Cm>U. j
• -ormat. Petitio, c. 12, Pertz, i. 340). The w«i
alleged against absolute freedom of appomtmeilf
on the part of laymen is that the " acephali,
PARISH
if. clerks who owned .illegiunce to no bishop
were olten not reputulile iiersona (Hludowir 2
Cm^t. mn 1., AD 850, c. LS, 1-erti!, i. 399,
id. Ujiivent. Ticm. II. a.d. 855, I'eitz, i. 431
The geueral enactments will be found «1b„ in
Benedict. Levit. Capit. lib. i, 43, «? 9^ y^^
213! Ausegisi, Capit. lib. i. 84, 141). ()'„ the
other hand the enactment was made, i.robablv as
the result ot a conij)ioniise, that a bishon was
bound to approve a clerk whom a layman „re-
Muted for approval ejccept in case of evident
scandal (Hludowio. et Hlothar. CunstU. Wornmt
ie persona aacerdotali, c. 15, 1'ertz, vol. i. ,, 337)'
2 T/ie Sight of Visitation atui Discipline.-U is
probabl« that when the churches of great cities
founded branch cnurchea in their suburbs the
bishop of the city church periodically visited
iuch churches for disciplinary and other purposes
This was at any rate the case at Alexandria at
the beginnmg of the 4th century. The bisho,,
made his circuit (,r.p,oJ/a), and it was in the
course of one of these circuits that Ischyras was
presented to the bishop by the presbyters of the
Jlareotic churches as an olfender against the
ecclesiastical canons (S. Atlianas. Apul. c Arian
c. 63, 85, vol. i pp. 143, 158). The'^e.istencrof
the same practice m the 4th century in the
West IS shewn, e.y. by. Cone. Turon. A.D. 397 c 2
which, m deciding a dispute between the bishops'
of Aries and Vienne, decides that each of them is
to "visit those churches which are shewn to be
adjacent to their respective cities." But there is
a remarkable absence of conciliar enactments
,nr, I^^ "century, when 4 Cone. Tolet
lD.633,c. 3b, recites that bishops ought to visit
the parishes within their diocese every year and
in enacting that they may do so by deputy
mentions as the purpose of such visitation an
enquiry into the revenues of churches, their state
of repair, and the manner of life of their ministers
But It IS clear from a canon which was enacted
at the same place thirteen years later that th-
bishop not merely enquired into the revenues of
parishes, but claimed a portion of them (7 Cone
Tolet. A.D. 646, c 4). In other words, the bishop
ippears to have claimed the same rights over the
revenues of dependent churches which he pos-
lessed over the revenues of the city church. The
imitation of the bishop's claims in this respect
orms the subject of many canons and capitu-
anes, even after it had become an estab-
li-'hed rule that he had no claim to the
revenues. Enactments were also made for the
purpose of limiting his claim to dues and offer-
ings on t he sc,a;e of the expenses of the visitation,
.?. Karoh M. Cxpit. Lan,/obar<l. c. 5. Pert/ vol
^P^nO; Karoli II. Syn^ ap. To/^^'a d 844 c"
4, Pertz, 1. 379 (which, in addition to fixingthe
precise amount of produce -wine, fowls, egg"!
Ac-which IS to be ortered, rules that if a bishop
jmts a parish more than once year he is not
to claim his dues more than once)ril udowic 2
!r/^%"'' .°* ^''firmation became finally
parated from baptism, its administration was
.^ed to the purposes for which the visitatTon
was made, and is sometimes spoken of as a prin-
cipal purpose, eg. Karlomanni! Cpitut. a.d. n"
™n'„L ■"; '• ^- ^'' "quandocunque jure
Cuomo,, episc'opus circumeat parrochiara poptl,
<i conhrmandos;" but the burden which ^his
entailed on bishops was probably one !f he chi
PARISH
1559
tw?tr':;Sf';;,::;rrTV^'' ■<'"«''- of
'^i^HMHrilbr;^;^!"^;:^"^.^''-!^
which was crushed bv »h.. 1 ■ ■ .' ■*' ^^
decretals. The righ; .'f\il ,., ,rt"a,';'"''''"'
poses excent tlii« ..e "'"""'on, tor ail pur-
exercised hTlei 4 cVn "'."",':"' ""«'" "^^
the bishop depute any ,;. I'V '• ^'^' ""»"■»
c. 4, Kan,li Al. Capit. General, a.d. 769 ctu'
altai?vesse s 1„ . ' "'f '^"'<""« ecc/esiae,
^.e5|rtrsn£---K
^:^-i';:VwiiLinttr;';.''i6^'-^
ex^L/rftrcS„; •''^""p --to
bishop's jurisdiction attached to him^ot as so\l
judge, but as president of the presbyter! .
"ever to have 'wholly faded aw.-fy^'"^' "™»
Altars -It f^ °{ i^'"^''t'^'J Churches and
fhTl \ ''*"' *" '"'^« been an early custorn
P..i.h,. did ... ;, a,.. .o„S '.C. i'S. .1
,.,K /• ^i .' "^i '^- ^^> deposes a presbvtfr
con elites a ^f ""/"''"' """' interd'S"
consec ates a church or an altar. And in thp
following century the canons of sV P • ,
enact for the chutes of Teland 'thai "'"/anj
pi^sbyter has bui t a church let him no oS
(so. the Hucharist) until he brings his bishon to
consecrate it, for thus is it seemly' Van. Sn^
vegard to offeri,?^ the^fu'cL;! b^r JlJi .l"
him not to offer it, unless under ^pressu"e?f
rliTj'7"'^'"''^' in aconsecr^a rplace
The earliest enactment to this effect is of douC\'l
date res ing only „n the authority of the Liber
Pontificalia and the Pseudo-Isidore (Lib Poitif
, 9 an Hln^T- ''• ^ i G<^.i. Synod. S.Silvester, t
I ,9- ai • Hinschius, p. 450). The other enactme Us
11 7?:"T4:Pert^; !^r/^'^32^r- fr^-
a.d. 85b, c. 14, Pertz., vol. i. p. 440. and no«f
Carohngian,..^. Atton. VercelL cj^ * 7 C
DAchery, Spicilegium, voL i. p. 403 By "^
senes of enactments which wer'e certainly i.J
».'■!.
; 'it
. i ^»%
■* 'It
'It
~ . ?m
1560
PARISH
esrlior than the preceiling, it wo* proviiled that
if a presbyter oll'cred the eucharint, as he niinht
ilo ill cases nf urgency, outsiile a ciinsecnitcil
huihliiif;, he »hi>ul.l only do so upon a iiortiihlf
altar which a hisliop had |irevii>u«ly consecrated
(Kiiroli M. Cipit. UcMi-ul. A.o. 709, c. 14; (-'one.
Palis, A.D. 8J9, c. 47 ; Hiiicinar Iteniens. Cn/'i/.
A.D. a50, c. 3; Migue, I'utr. Lat. vol. cxxiv.
794).
iv. Internal Or(jnnizati(m of Parishes. — (a) The
evi leiice which e\UU as to the earliest organiza-
tion oi" parishes is not sulHcient to enable us to
frame many general statements respecting it.
If the instance of the Katunean town, which has
been mentioned above, is to be regarded as typical,
it would seem as though the principle of the
Jewish synedria had been preserved in the Kast,
and that in encli parish there were at least two
presbyters to form with the rural bishop a court
for the administration of discipline, and two
deacons for the dis|)ensing of the church funds
to those who were upon the roll. In the West
the statement of Ambrosiaster is clearly to the
same ellect : " alicjuantos prcsbyteros (oportet
esse) ut biiii sint per ecclesias et unus in civitate
ejiiscopus " (Coinin. in Epist. 1 ud Timoth. c. iii. 12,
ap. S. Ambros. Op. vol. ii. p. 29,'j). In Rome
eacli titalas had at least one presbyter, and
ultimately also one deacon and one sub-de.icon ;
but the precise relations of deacons to the tituli
in early times are extremely obscure. In Gaul
and Sjiain a single presbyter or a single deacon
was sometimes put in charge of a parish, and
sometimes a presbyter and a deacon took charge
on alternate weeks (Cone. Tarracon. A.o. 516,
c. 7). That a deacon might be " rector " of a
jiarish is clear from many instances — e.ij. Cone,
lllib. c. 77, " diaconus regona plebem," S. Greg.
Turcm. de Gloria Confcssur, c. 30, p. 918, of a
deacon who " rcxit ecclesiam vici," at Issiore,
near Clermont; but if he alone baptized, the
baptism was not complete without the subse-
quent benediction of the bishop (Cone. lllib. c.
77 : the rule was afterwards extended to bap-
tisms by presbyters); and 1 Cone. Arel(>^ c. 15,
disallowed the practice which had grown up of
deacons oOeriug the eucharist. But the practice
of entrusting parishes to deacons was ultimately
forbidden, though apparently not until the 9th
century (Hludowio. et Hlothar. Gipit. Eaclea.
A.D. 825, c. 1, Pertz, vol. i. p. 250). There are
indications that laymen were sometimes placed
in charge of parishes. Cone. Cabillon, A.D. 650,
c. 5, enacts that " saeculares qui necdum sunt
ad clericatum conversi" are not to be entrusted
with the government (" regendum ") of either
parishes or the property of parishes; Cone. Rem.
A.D. 625, c. 19, disallows the appointment of
aichpresbyters who are not clerks ; and among
the Culdees of the British Islands lay parsons
of parishes, though discouraged by the disal-
lowance of some of the emoluments of the
office, are not forbidden (Reeves, Prose Rule
of the C4i De, p. 94). The question of
the appointment of monks to the charge of
parishes, which was ktenly contested in the
middle ages, belongs to a later period. Such
appointments are allowed by Cone. Mogunt.
A.D. 847, 0. 14, with thn proviso that the monk
is to save his \'ow of poverty by giving up the
revenues of a jiarish to the bishop or his deputy.
But the general rule, which required the ecclc-
PARISH
siastical head of a parish to be a pri>?hvfi.r,
though broken siilHciently to flh(..v that it win
not absolute, was no doubt ordinarily nhscrvc],
Kvery parish came to have its priest. If tlu-ri!
were several churches within a ]mri»li (by wlijih,
as will be pointed out bidow, must not ln' unil»r.
stood in ]ire-mediaev«l times a district \jiih
delinite boundaries) each of these chunlii'* waj
required to have its own jiresbyter. Two or
more churches coulil not be committed tn tha
same presbyter, unless the revenues (d' thn ?ini;!e
churches were insullicient for his support (Cuno.
Knierit. A.D. 6«6, c. 19; 16 Cone. T.ih>t, a.i>.
69:1, c. 5 ; Cone. Paris, A.D. 829, c. 49 ; Ilhidnviic,
Ciipit. AiptiHi/nm. A.D. 817, c. 9, Pert?., vol. i.
p. 207 ; Ansegisi, Ctpit. lib. i. 8l!, Pertz, vol. i,
p. 28,'t). But" Hlothar. 1. Cunntit. P^ipiem a,|.,
832, c. 1, absolutely disallows the cnniiiissiMii nf
more than one church to one presliyior, anl
enacts that unless a poor church is shinvn to lie
necessary, it is to be destroyed ; if, on the c.iii-
trary, it is shewn to be necessary, it is to he
endowed with lands by the state. It is im|«ir-
tant to note that in the expressions which are
constantly used in reference to the pcclosiusiital
head of a parish, whether presbyters or others,
the sacerdotal idea is almost always in the back-
ground. He is not so much the "sacerdns" as
the " rector ;" he is said " plebi praeesse ;" he
is sent — not to administer the sacraments, hut
"ad regendum" (e.g. 9 Cone. Tolet. e. 2; 11
Tolef. c. 3 ; Pippin. Cixpit. Eccks. iv. A.n. 789,
c. 81 ; so also when a parish presbyter resigns
his office he is said " ab online et titiilo et re/i-
mine ptehis se exuere," Cimc. Rem, A.D. 874, c. 1 ;
Migne, P. L. vol. cxxv. 796).
(b) It does not appear that any other officers
were regarded as necessary to parochial (iri;ani-
zation. In regard to the earlier period there is
no evidence except that which has been given
above. But there grew up a feeling against
presbyters oft'ering the encharist without the
assistance of other clerks ; and it came to Ije
enacted in the West that parish presbyters should
both have such clerks, and should take them
into their houses in order to train them for the
service of the church (2 Cone. Vaison, A.D. 529,
c. 1, which speaks of this as being a commciu
custom in Italy ; Cone. Emerit. A.D. 666, c. IS),
These " clerici parochiani " varied in numher
under dift'erent circumstances, and their duties
were the ordinary duties of clerks in diviiie
service. They survive in the modern " parish
clerk."
(c) The question of the mode in which the
presbyter or other chief officer of a p.irish ivas
appointed in early times is one upon which only
scanty evidence exists. It is prob.-ible upm
general grounds that such appointments did not
form an exception to the general rule, which at
first required an election by the peojile and an
approval by the bishop,' and which afterwards
allowed the clergy or the bishop to nominal'-,
and the people merely to approve. Hut the
endowment of parishes by private jiersons, and
the interweaving of the parochial with thf
canonical and monastic system, so far overlaid
the primitive jiractice that there was in the
ndddle nees only a small proportion of parishes
in which the people had any real sharu in either
the election or the approval of their parish priest.
The (luestion of patronage, bo far as it falli
PARLOUR
within tl," limit, of the present Work, I, ,li,.
ODTlje ii,nit, of paHHh,., „.,„ prnbahlv in
.Imnsl n 1 o,.,.,c>. ,x,.,l by the previously e.vi.fi, ^
.rK-.n,:.i .on Where the lio„„„> or.m„i.:.t ,^
pr.v,ne.i, the pan.h wa, tl,e /,„v»,,,",.,W„, ,
caitelkm, with .ta sn-roimdina t,;rit„rmm
Wh,.r.,a. in Knglan.l, the Ko„„n' o';?.! In
had been almost completely swept ,,w,,v, the
p.r..h VV.H ,Je«t.™l with the town.ship ;, th
e.l.t.,.|.,lb-22 H„t in,U„rsoproporti,nof
c«,«, It ■« prnbable that these limits were no
,.«„.sely , el,„e.l until the legal enforcement of
tithes n.n.lerea sueh « .leliniti.m necessHry N„r
«,«.tunt,U mu,h later period that parishes
came necessarily to adjoin end, other; between
panshcH, lis bi!tween tnwn»M„„ /•' .
., , •■ 'J'"" fiiiiioiner; between
parHlwH ns between townships, were frequently
tracts „l more or less unsettled or common land
on winch chapels might be erected withou'
rencliiiiit on any parochial rights. It is nr ,
able that, in England, the fiL pardllU' f
the whole conn ry into parochial districts was
not etiected until the era of the poor-laws.
PARLOUR. [Salutatorium.] ^^^' "'^
PAUMEVAS, one of the seven deacons
»„n,m,™ora ted at Philippj, ,,«„. ,3 (VsTZ:
Antktr., ict. Horn. Afurt. ; i\i,U Arfn (.V i„ ■■
«.^), Mar. H (Uasil. mJ^I j^^^J^i
B,j,mt; Daniel, Cod. liturj.iy.2til). ^
PARMEVIUS, presbyter and marty^r";- c"^
memorated at Cordula, April 22 (Jied . Wan™
Uuard. Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart.). [a H.]
PAKOCHrA. [DiocESE, Pauis...]
PAROCHIAL CLERGY. [Orders, Holt.]
22(SS.)""''' comt^emorated Jan.
«hat the purpose of these pastophoria was is i
PASCHA MEDIUM 1661
ti;e"itH-::^';::.*j:''--.»-first.,vuit,b,
" liishooH and „rie IIT I ' I'lovlde tli.it
'>'rt^^.i.n":;a!r!;^:;^;;:r(;;-Ht,ohim)
the church." .(olinson iri,... C '"■ ''"'"
.m.peri„itheho,;r^/tri.,!'c';:;i:;r;r ''"'?'
I was not Identical with the r.l ■ '^'""■'"■'
! '--^"r of the infection which the 'r'"'''""''"'"''' ''"•
'"•"•ff- Tbe next of thVxc ,•*/'''■■■' '"'*'''"
j"inj, that though the^liisit;' :':, ;:;;„f > ""-
the bench of priests in cbnrch, yet „ tl^ K '"'"
he must remember that he is tmt „ I """!
the jiriests. That the ,^ f ? ^""'' '*-'"••■ "'
priests dwelling oJ her ."■ '''"'"'l' '"'J
"i.t-co.nZt!:5te';:H:h'i:'''5'''"''
n-ay he seen from thJpnges' ,V //;:;''^''''V
h«uJamXi;;j^',:;;':ii'-"hisbi,,o,>..
i.ved according to^postoli!;. ;,,l I ^ IT' Y,
J-rntrrs in Eremo, Sermo xiv ne t h I ^ ■ ^"^
nlso .*«. senno ;. about'the middt)''^«'"'""«'
of the sarly centuries r^'T.'""" '" t^o writers
^t:!]gSt'''^^-'''^-"-S.o":irt:
rt^^;:iS'>,l,r^'-'"-"^-
person be ^17:1^^1 9^^^^ ^^^ -
uus, ./„„•, p„„,,;^,,^ p,^^^'' (Antonius Augu^ti-
latlrliSrs'u^h''"'^!^^"'""--'^-'') i' in
penalty for breakin<^int^'*T\ ^" tngland the
" p..t next inder ? ' '"""''' "^"'« '"'^hop
tu.ie, to th pe^a tv'for L"''f;''''"''>' '" '""g"'-
PARTHENIUS and r„l CH. T. A.]
■nartyrs at Rome under Deciu "•""■"'' '"''''''^''
February H (lied W., '7 ? ' '=""''"«'n'>'-ated
Calooerul mJ 19 (Sd W^r^.T/"''
Mart.; F orus nn n, 1 «r \. , ' ' "• ^^o"*.
^«'-^.; Boll. ^,,, SS. Mai /v. 26). ^^ [^'^j'
PARTICLES. [Fraction.]
PARURA. [Alb.]
- the VVedne^d^;^i^^f ; - J;™ P-c,UH.
pa ehalis hebdl'ad^^.^^'X-f, ^'^J""^ '^-^^
H'ttorp. 300). Si™i,aHy,S^b:nus''Ma;;s,hi-
ill
,- < . (-1.
If
' '■ b'im
^.;i:A.-.-<-a
'-^m
1S62
PASCHA I'ETITUM
dliciule (tnttU. Cler. ii. 34), nnd Amalnriui (*
Ord. Antiph. 32). [W. E. S.]
PASCIIA PETITUM. Tliin was a mime
given, but not (,'<'niTBlly, tii .'ill' Suii'lay in jiarts
whore the creeil wiis Jeliverert ti) the icinipetentes
on thiit (lay : " Uiversis Vdcahulis (iistintjiiitur ;
id est, dies [mlinarum itive tloruin, atipie raiiuiruin,
oianna, l'<iachii J'vtitum, aino ciitni>etentium, et
ca|)iti.lavium " (Onio Hum. in Hittorp 40 ; simi-
larly in the edition of this Ordo, dilfering in many
resiiecta, printed by Oerbert in M'inwn. Vet.
Liturg. Alem. iii. 185). [Tbaditio Svmiioli.]
PA8C1IAE CLAU8UM (Pascha Clausa,
Pasoiia Clausum, Ci.aihula I'asokak). Most
modern writers (as Mabillon, Lituiijia Uallicnm,
14« ; Gerl)ert, L\t. Alem. Vis/, x. iv. 2 ; Kuinart
in Grej;. Turon. flist. h'lam:. ii. 44 ; Uu Cange
in V.) identify this with the first Sunday after
Easter (Low Sunday, Uies Dominicua post All)a3,
Dominica in Albis depositis, yuasimodo), but
early authorities, whom they do not notice, and
certain facts bearing on the iiuesticm, prove that
it was a name given to Saturday in the Easter
week. Only the Macri {Hieiolexiton in v.)
within our reading have stated this correctly,
and they give no authority. Others have been
probably misled by the fact that Low Sunda,y is
now called Pivtue dose in France, to which 'and
the neighbouring province of Metz the use of
the term I'ascha c'amiim was, so far as appears,
confined. It was natural that the name should
be transferred when the Saturday ceased to be
marked by any special observance, i.e. when the
great baptisms of Easter ceased.
Amalarius, A.D. 812, says expressly: " Septua-
gesima perficitur in Sabbato quod vocatur
Clau.sum I'ascha " (De Oi;l. Aidiph. 32). Alcuin,
about the same time or earlier : " Videtur
Septuage.simus dici posse dies propter decern
hebdonuidaa quae sunt ab ipso die usque clausum
Pascha in quo alba t(dluntur vestimenta a nuper
baptizatis " {Kpiit. ad Car. Mai/n. Hittorp. 300).
Rabanus Maurus (Instit. Cler. ii. 34) echoes the
words of Alcuin. But the nowly-baptized laid
aside their white dress with ceremony, not on the
Sunday, but on the Saturday. Thus Amalarius :
" De Sabljato . . . Hodie revertuntur ad fontes,
ut exuant se albis " {De Ord. Antiph. 51).
That tiie Clausum Paschae was a great feast
in France might be inferred from the fore-
going notices; as also from the facts that
Gregory of Tours treats it as a well-known note
of time: " Eo anno post Clausum Pascha tarn
immensa cum gnindine pluvia fuit," &c. {Hist.
Franc, ix. 44), and from the almost absolute use
of the word " clausum " alone, as when the same
author siiys of some persons baptized at Rions :
"Nullus ad clausum pertingere potuit vivus"
(Glor. Cunf. 48). [W. E. S.]
PASCHAL EPISTLES were letters writ-
ten bv p.itriarchs and archbishops to the bishops
within their jurisdiction, and in the case of the
pope of Alexandria to the bishop of Rome, if not
to other patriarchs, containing a notice of the
day on which the next Easter should be kept.
They were also called " Festal Epistles " (Euseb.
Jliat. Eccles. vii. 20, 21, iopraarMoX tirtaroKal),
or " Festal Writs " (I'lirf. 22, iofir. ypaipal), from
their conneiioa with the great feast of Easter
PASCHAL EPISTLES
(Eus. u. (. 20). At Alexandria they were flnt
delivereil as homilies, being al'terwird* put iiitu
the form of an epistle, and so sent to the c.ini.
provincial bishops. Hence they are s<>iiii'iii,jn
called " Homilies " or " Discourses." Thi'v *rr»,
carried by a special messenger (!ia«U|uiirTj)i,
Synesius begs a loriespondent to treat his il,,,.
sengur kindly coming and going, ami to |>iiivij«
him means of proceeding b(jth ways (A'/i. 1:1).
V'/k' ojfice vf the Uia/to/) uf AtixunJiin.—h is
asserted by liaronius {Antuil. Vv vtca. al unii.
32.')), Hiuius (l.abbe, Coiic. ii. 01)), l)u|iin (Wi.
lioth. Kc Us. under Cyril. Alrx.), and m;in/
others, that the bishops of Alexamlri wiiv cj.
pressly requested and authorized Ly .!ic first
council of Nicaea to give annual notice tn the
whole church, through the incumbents o( the
principal sees, of the day on which the eiiMiiuji
Easter wjis to be celebrated. That tin' |iii|>(. y'
Alexandria did at one time give such nntin: to
the bishop of Kome as well as to those ol' K({yiit
is not to be disputed, but it may well be doiili'tc^l
whether he iliil so in pursuance of any duriB v!
that council, and, again, whether he truu-^uiittej
a similar ni>tice to the other patriarclis ut the
East. If ive are to be guided by the eviilmto
still extant, we shall rather infer that the ruj-
toni, whatever its extent, arose from the volun-
tary det'treuce paid by other churches to that of
Alexandria in a (juestion of mathematical seitnce.
No formal proof of the alleged con<'iliai' saodiuD
or decree has, to my knowledge, ever been
attempted, and the only document that 1 tan
meet with which ascri^ies it to an;/ oeciiinenieal
ynod appears to me of very doubtful weiijht.
This is the I'ruloi/Ha S. Cyrilli de h\-sti Vmd.
Hatione, which is found in I.atin only, and in a
single MS., seemingly of the itth century. It was
first printed by the Jesuit Aegid. Buchoiius al'tiT
his Cumiiunt. in Can. Pasch. 1 ictorii Ai;uit. Antv.
1633 {I'rulug. u. s. or Epist. 87, § J ; i'///). (.yr.
Al. X. 38:1 ; Migne, Ixxvii.). Hut inoie, [hi.
haps, has been built on a statineut of Lto the
Great, who however (Epist. 94, c. 1) speaks
only of "the holy fathers" in general. If
the council made that arrangement, we should
reasonably look for some nienticjn of the fact
in the paschal epistles of the bishops of Alex-
andria, of which a large number are ejlanl,
especially in those of Athanasius, who «s
himself at Nicaea, and, becoming bishop of Alei-
andria within a year of the conclusion of tht
council, must have been the first to act on its
decree. Yet neither in his first festal epistle
nor in any subsequent one does he make any
mention of it. Those of Theophilus are eiiu.dly
silent, and so are the festal homilies of Cyril.
Twice also within a century of the couuiil of
Nicaea we find bishops of Rome consulting th»s«
of Milan and Carthage, as will be seen pnseutly,
wben in doubt as to the right day. We ub^rrvs
also that Leo, in the epistle above mentioned,
begged the emperor to help him by applyiag to
" the Egyptians, or to any others who were re-
ported to have certain knowledge of this kinJ of
calculation " {Epist. 94). Martian wrote to
Proterius of Alexandria, who in a long reply
justified the calculation which Leo doubleJ
(inter 0pp. Leon. p. 203). The pope suhiuiUti,
and thanked the emperor for his interposition
{Ep. 108) ; but it is remarkable th.it in his pas-
chal letter to the bishops of Gaul aud Spain ki
PASCHAL EnSTLES
dnM not mention Protoiiu,'., but t..||, »»,„„ „ri.,
.ppli.atlon to tho t.mi,Pn,r " , , , ^ •f"'''
tbi. p.'ri,Kl, then, it „,,,,o,„., cTuiC/h ?'.f'
bi.h..,« of Al,.x,,n.lrla wer at h, .;,/''''
•nthclty to H.ttlo fho,l«y f„r th;. wh L "I"
,k, 1 m -uch ,,u.,,,M«n, is dear from ,o,„e of th!
testimonies alrcm y aWeenl s»,. »l rv
B...onii^«W,.,. ,,248, and lit,,//! '7 Via '
Mdh„hof Publication in various Cmntrie,-.
ii.ht.o.the.„,o.i::g';e:;;;i,.-;-,^:^-
tell! lis that t.'ionysius. bishon nf ai , .
.a ^7 wrote .e^veral XSr'lotl ir^'S'
m 20-2'J) ,n one of which he "set for ha
cnon for e.ght year,,, and proved that it is
never r,ght to celebrate the fea«t of Kaste" exco,
•fter the verna) equinox " Cu . 20^ /''^'-"r;
L^^'^^;''v'^"\'^'''i--th?;b,^h:r:f
Rome; "lovnmg the observance of trster
Sumay, w. h.-e decreed that it be kept by „»
on the ,a,.e day and the same tin,e thro ,Zut
thewholeworld and that thou addreJr ftt "
to all nccoruing to the custom " (can U rll
coun,..l of Nicaea, held ,n 32:,/rt'4 vvith
celebra.ed,o„ one and^rLl\rT/,':r"Jl^e I 1^^^^
PASCHAL EPISTLH8 1663
*'rfuii;i:,:;':!rThV''""'"^*-'''-k
prccribo by Ht^r??,' h *" "'"^ '«'"rehand
-rvation ..^ ^e ,aic^„i '"; ^■""""l, *'> 'he ob-
Ca»«lan, 4/4 1 , 11^1'" .'.■"" " <'/'"'• M).
"f Alex'and-rt; tT'^y JV'' r/'.l''^''';''"''
ment a extant In 1 ... ^ T ■ ^'- A frag-
«b Alexandrinao e tie iae a„^ '"; ''"'"'"" 'l"'«i
time res.:riptum e,t "(vZ ? /,". ''""tifJini
The councifof Orl'an. ^^i?' H '"' ^.'^l'^'™') " '>
of the feast «houI r'..l\'i^".7;':'^ ''"' ""^, ''^
••■hurch by the '-ishop/' „-' 1' f '''"'' "
arose, the metrn„„li.L u 'f?'- " any doubt
apostolic see^'Mr.r''.' "'"""" " '^a
At i'-Ka,:ia':'ut'it,?;d'l'^I;fiV?."; ^^
was reso ved that befom .K. ^'"^.•, !•>. S.l, it
x;^:ti™:?;«"^'t^^^
church (/.>,. Constant. «rf "l,v„ %?J P^^'^l^yters before the"lphln'v t"o'^"'1 .u"''
?™--4>,); but wo cannot. ^^^^e^/aldl^llSrHlfo^- 1^''^ ''''^^^^^^^^
^P the duty Gre™;S^:!^«^?;"r::« '^I^nt-Ut
for the uLstruction of all others Sf *"''''/"' "f Sar,!it,ia, says that i^^ ^' *""''"?»
«.y«. "even alter ."1 "ir."'..,^'- Ambrose | the island for the b.l,,, T * 7"*'"" "^
nd their me.ss:n. .s'^ ll ^L »''«'"-'-«'■
f„. .k ■ ." . »'»'"iuiar aai
for the uistruction of all others vjf -—,.'—■
mt. "even alter til 1 .' • '' Ambrose
fmtians and ,h„ *j'^ .™''-'>''«tions of the
'WA ""'* "<* decision of the church
in Africa' demed "tui fb! '='"""•''' "^ "iPP"
^ter should It r::^\ti:TTA:v:
c;;;^!.tnn'""l.n.«' «'-~
>. tan. /; Cocfc.<r ^/rii;. 7;jv hnf ■•»
often wont to anse airthe K k'"*"''"', ^^'"^^ '»
vince of Africa sho"?iKl'!.b':';Pf»^ *''.'' P'"'
or send their me^nrsT ask Zr *'''""''^"
notice of the day on which f hi ".^J'"*"
would be celebrated- and th„f k".* ^-'*'""
Spain did not rereivn iVT . ""^ church of
H'tbllt'^^Harthr-'^r^"'^ '^-"-^
the rn'ovablffeS Wi ^ ^if rme"' '"l''^^ "'
an end to the paschal epLtTesTf T' P"*
patriarchs ; but created a h.ik u I''* ^reat
accuracy could be question^ *I "1""" ">«''
rorwhi^h they,l:|l^fhTda'rrTve^ '"^^ ^-^
71»ic oj the 'Announcement _Th.l c * 1 ^ .
of Alexandria were prracherL ? ^ ''^"'''''^
previous Easter, and then ,l- ^ f"'' "" ^^«
Atraceofthetime'is'£V'rr,.;:/ir'^-
i> ^^''^Zr^ *l!'' """« -«"- I &"*.''cy;ir. ^fl^h'^ """"^ -nd glainess "'(t'l4{
«>.«.ou3 s,no, that ^^ objection | (y.'^.^, .^.^/.P^^^^^^^^^^^
this was settloH ♦,.,„!■ l Vi^ap. *!;. When
Rome, writing to Anvlr ' innocent of
that he n "t E^^""''""'- "P--^^^" his opinion
March 2 t, »''".h'' celebrated on
r.m-. ,r''. *"'• Apr.), adding. " It will he
'i^Uhe likelindJ"^ brothe? and partner,
[coDsacerioib ;T?f cn^M ""I '"""''^v.prie.sts'
Iff:
ill
V,
p>?«:
'■"A
15(14
PASCHAL TAPKR
iiii:
Ciianlnn trili ui thnt tho ppintln wm laiiui>d
fViim Alp«anilrl«"nfti'r tht? ilny of thi- KplphHiiy "
O't-llnt. X. '.'). I il» Hut think that wc rim inCiT s
nxi' I tinii' (Viiiii tho I'xtnnt i'>mii|iliH, iiipI hn nmy
h»vi' lii'i'ii iniiliMl by the ciutiiiiH of thii Wi'st. Ill
the VVi'>t Iho n riiiiiil (if Oili'iiin, in .'i-tl, nidiTu the
niitici' to !»■ i{ivi'n in ihiinh by th« lii»hii|i "nn
thi' iliiy (if thi? Kpiphmiii-it " (rnii, 1). Thf iinuii-
cll (if liriiL;!!. •'•7'.', (lii'OL'ts th)- liishdjm iiiid thciithcr
clergy, " oiiili in his own ohiin^h, to niinoiiiK i' it
to the |ii.'ii|ilc' on tho nppnuK hiiiij diiy ftf the
Loril's Nativity, thnt no niic iiiis^ht bo ignorant
of thi) boi;inninj{ of Lent" (inn. D). Th« Kpi-
phi\ny U al^d lixod ns the time by tho council of
Aiixcrri', r>7H (cnn. 'J).
(Ml the suhji'it of thin nrticln, «ee the rrnleja-
rnciM to tho edition of the I'ttichiil Homilies of
Cyril Alex, piililished nt Antwerp, lUlH, by An-
tonius Salmiitiii; Riven nlso by Migne, '^y)/(. Cyr.
A. X. ;til-1- ; tho Intrinhution to the l-'e»liil kjiistUa
of St. Ath iniiius, trnnslnted from the Syrinc, Oxf
\H!ii ; Jonn. viin dor Hniigen, Obnervaliinca in
Wti'riiin I' itru.n d Vnntifirum I'roloijoa et E/ii-
ito/na /'(isc'idVj, Amstel. 17:14; Hnbert, 'Apxn-
foTiKiii', Lihur J'lMtiJiciilia Heel, U
'ar. 104;).
h-tiri:. p. 7I'J,
[W. t. S.]
PASCHAL TAPKR. Thin wnrni large taper,
whi(;li among the other cepMiionies of Kiiater
Eve ("sabbntiim sanctum") was soleiulily
blessed before the altar, at Komo by the arch-
deacon, in Spain by two deacons, then lighted
from the newly-struck nnj blessed (ire, and
carri(!d in iirocession before the catechumens to
the font. It was afterwards placed before the
altar, and was to burn incessantly until after
the solemn mass, or tho second Vespers, or the
Coniiiline service, of Easter Day, according to
diH'i'rcnt ritimls: that of Soisaons re(|uire8 it to
burn for four consecutive days (Martcne de
Ant, EfC'i'S. Hit. lib. iv. cap. 24). The symbolism
is obvious. In its origin the paschal taper was
a special observance of the general custom which,
through East and West alike, celebrated that
night "much to be observed" by a bright
illumination, changing the darkness into light.
[See EA.sn;i{, ('eiikmoniks ok. Vol. 1. p. r)95.] The
twofold reference to the new rising of the .Sun of
Kigliteou>ness from the darkness of the tomb, and
to the illumihation of the newly-baptized, is
constantly recalled to mind in the oilice of the
Bciieiliitio Ci'ivi. In the procession of the
neophytes, and when the taper precedes the pope,
as (according to the old Ordo Ronianus) it shouhl
do during the whole paschal week, it is taken to
represent the pillar of fire whioh led Israel
through the i{ed Sea.
The in.stitution of the paschal taper has been
commonly attributed to pope Zosimus (A.D. 417)
on the strength of the notice in the life of him
in the Liber I'untijicalis, " per parochias concessa
licentia cereosbenedici," or, according to another
version, " per parochias concessit ut cereos
benedicerent ;" but it was pointed out by I5ar-
onius (^Aniiiil. in ann. 418) that this really im-
plies the extension to the parish churches of
a custom already existing in (probably) the
great basilicas. The hymn of Prudentius,
"Inventor rutili," commonly sung during the
office of the benediction of the taper, cannot be
railed on as an argument for the antiquity of the
rite, for it is in truth only an excerpt of forty
PASSION SUNDAY
lines from n much longer hymn, which aornnlin»
to tho bent riialing is inscribed wl lii.yntum
twerrfw, not <;.• leivu j),is<:h,iii, and which. li..in.
No. V. of the Citficmi-rinun hymns wc< ( l,.„|y
intended for daily use at the Vcpcr >.rvloi|
when the can lies used to be N(diiiniilv li^tl»l
It is possibly, however, alluded to by St. Aiikl^
tine (/V C;,'. Dei, xv. '.'J) where (lu sa>.. "i,
laude (|u.idam cc'rei breviter versibus, di'i,"J((.,
where " cerei," and not •' creatoris," necm., i,, t^
the true rialing. Ennodius, bishop „{ Ticm
(died 5'Jl), has left two forms of //(•»i../;v„, <,,,
from an expression in one of whii^h it is iiilcirwl
that the practice of preserving partidis n( th«
wax of the taper as charms h;! ahdidv irrown
u|i by that time, flregory tho (Iri'.it (/., ,4 ,i
.lit) and can. 9, C. Tidet. I'V. both spe ik , harly
of the paschal taper ; various customs ^(tvv
U|) rounil the rite in later times, such ms tluitnf
making five h(des in the taper, or attaching Hr,
grains of incense to it, of stamping up m ft tlis
(late, tho inliction of tho current yeir. i,r the
letters A and CI, or of fastening to it' iiisi ii|,iii,nj
of various kinds, of which ojainplcs m ly Ij,. »e«a
In Martcne (k. s.). (See the various ntuiL^aoJ
commentaries on the ollico in S ibbutu H n Id jqI
Mabillou Je /.it. Oall. p. 141.) [('. t;,'l|.l
PA8CHASIA, virgin martyr at Mvi» in
Burgundy, under Aiireliiiaj c(iiniiic rat(v|
,Ian 9 according to the ancient calciilars ,,f St,
Uenignua at Divio. (Doll. Acta US. .Ian. i. .Viii)
[C. 11.]
PA8CHASIU8 (1), bishop of Vieiin,., con-
feasor, cir. A.D. 3l:t ; commemorated Kdi, 2t
( Vet. Horn. Mart. ; Boil. Aeta iX Kb. iii. '290.)
(2) African martyr in the Vandalic p( isccn.
tiou ; commemorated Nov. 12 (VV*. Hum. Mirty
Nov. 13 (Usuard. Hurt.). [C. H.]'
PASICRATE9, martyr with Valeiitinus at
Dorostoliim in Macedonia ; coniinenioratt I Ap.
24 (Basil. J/t-no/.) ; Passicrates, at Iiuri.st.irura
in Moesia, May 25 (Usuard. Mirt.) ; 1'asici;atm
or 1'oLiciiATK.s, May 25, from the Latin aod
Greek menolugies (Boll. Acta S3. Mai. vi. L':l).
[C, H.]
PA88IONALE. [MAnTvnoLOov.]
PASSION, RELICS OP. [Itm.ics.]
PASSION, REPRESENTATIONS OF.
[Crucifix.]
PASSION SUNDAY. The fifth Sun^Uy in
Lent has from ancient times beunciilled /luniim
Piissiu7iis or do Passione Domini, liecauso rrura it
begins the more special comineinoration of the
sutl'ering of Christ. An Anglo-S.-ixun Imniily
(Aelfric's I/uinilios, ii. 224 f.) for the lifth Sun-
day in Lent oonimonees by stating that from
that day until Easter the time is desii;nate(i
Christ's Piission'tiile (VVheatley on the Cumm
Prayer, ed. Corrie, p. 241, n. 6). la t"l{cii of
sadness the Gloria Patri is generally oniitti^i at
this season in reaponsories, invitatories, aii.l in-
troits. The charaeter of the sea.son is striJiiDglr
shewn in the Mozarabio Mass for the day. In
mo lern times, in England at least, the name
" I'assion-Week " is commonly given to Hou
Week. [C]
rASTOI'IfOKIUM
n:t"!), «u,l K„norHlly ,„ d„,i^„„t, ,h, chamber.
iui.'<c,l to tho tahornnclo „r t..n.i.l« fn.. fh
hafiitiition of tiu pri..st»,in,i,.i ' ', ' *'"'
for the roc..nti,.n „Cth ,( ", ''' """'"''"■». •"'
28;«vlii. 12;ychr\,xrii -u'l'Vi'f^''
Th. Vul«,.te ran, „rin,{ U u.u.l y *x*/r.yr;omo
!:i":rr;::;^:'^;i;:irr"^'"'^-'
Tf'trv or tio-.«u, V I. '"•'' ' «"'»"litiie» »
rz.;r«-.':.'».,rrr"d<,'9'
.e«»e in which the word i; u«ed in fh„ a "'"
.olicl C„n.stitution,, where aft the ,„hMri
communiciitB.1 in both kin,i« tl,„ ""'
directed to take what w«,7. V , "-■""■- *"''
.he " ,«taphorium ■• (Z cl , '" lit'''^- " ?'"
Bmterim, DenhwUrdh. ii. 2 14S.'« ,t "'
C«. ^,.«ocA, p. 186), • "' Sol'^Urate,
PASTOR (I), with hi, brother Juatu, vouf h
(2)Aud Basileus, commemorated Deo 25 In
theWentaryof Leo(Murat.zll!.':
[C. H.]
(£Tn)t'£f (') When St. P„„
he scorns to desS „ "/ """^T' "shepherds,"
theover»ight"ofthefl„r; . *''T '^'"' '°«k
"Kioa. Bu, /"r^^J '•'''"'"':'; whatever desig.
" ^e the 2 le.t^'.Tthr c^a^'^ 'r- '«> '°
'P"Bir.po,\r. warned (1 Pe"' "^T •/«;;l''•
«hepllerJs" ,o the flock of rJ '^^ '° ''«
"shepherd and b shon" L ' *''*", ** ^'"''^t '■"
2^)- A„d the iSlrd >rt„""': P-^^'V''
">«.m«»t part this vagueness -it h •'"''!^/'""
ninsteroftherbnr,.!. •! ' " "e^'gnated a
S»verni„g aZck J,jr;'''''':1,''» K"'J'»g ""d
« hishop- hence in lateVr'*"^" designated
c-e to'mean he dign tv ofTh- :P«»'°«"'"^ "
^nd"p«8to,are» to «erc,se ?b„ <■ "^ .•'" »''''"*'
Wop .■ abbat (Duc:nge?;«T °"'"""' °*' ^
PASTORAL STAFF. (p,,,„, ^,,,^,„^
PASTORAL STAFF .^65
inn won! has uiiiim»d a mul(i»i„i.. / i-
P«rtly. „„ d.M.bt. Oom n"l Z ' ' "' C'""""'
'•'.'«/,..,.„, J,:;^^ ' ^^-' ^""'"'.■... c.„;^,„.„,
^u;H/,.,^J, «,c. ■'^ ' "V""". t"''^^ucc,i, j/u/>,^,,,
Mignc ( All. Orf>,r . ,» r II ■
-noKra^h of iWrt?! ■;;.;,'' I^l^f, '';'""-•
wor,| ,:„mlmt., to the Iri.h ,„i ' "'"* "'*
|ti.ne of the M.rov ngiin,^ '"'-.""an,., i,. tli.
I "";« I.rohahle than it'c" Inexio ^ wilh'"';'''""
«n.| .aMiriJA,, a curved .tart" ^ *'*'*"•'
ti-mrur?;; Ka.v:''*"^ "•""'• '" "•• -"-
havI'Mr^.'""'"*^^ "^ '-'■''**• '' eontroverfd W,
f-nnn'may beuaced to l'"' .'^"""' "^ "'""•
"'Her. .ug^t 'r and't'h'Ht:;; nr.t'' t,"""!
observe,, (//iro/M., v Uhi ,k V ,*'"«■■'
WM called orocco, fLiul ■'""''"'"' ""'*
u«o that w,.Z bof ft ^, : il ""'"'^ '■'""' ""»
, The „,o,,t «nci;tcltr, '';';'? "' *''^'"«-
learned writer to hnvl K <*"') "I'P-'nr. "ays a
those of Z!:;,"'';;;,''"^"'""'^^ shorter Ln
bi«hnp „f Coh,Jnf wh /''» "^^'-S-verinu.,
«erve.'l him w*^. 'walkint'": L't ?! ^'"^ *'">
"r of jLri" ict , n*^. i^.K "" '^■'"'"•' "f ''"ty
shopherd'a ditv „f'» r"'^""". " ''"''''"'ned the
(usafi^mof ^trt?;'i"«.*':'' ""^^ "^ «"'! or
»ibility of a ru er lUh%h''^'r'^ '''•' "^''""-
oombin'ed in on of the e„r eTt" l"!r ""T '" '^
on the 8ubiect-th« ir /''" "'"horitics
Seville (A D .rG^filfirT*" "^ ^^' ^''^'>'= "f
the shepherd's crook »!»K *■'"' '" f"'"' *»
wandor,ccptreXh T P^'t'^type of the
terial om;P*rm''';''er';"eY,Tv '"■'' "'^'";""-
unhesitatinelv assit^n, ;» ■ ^ ^'"'''Vpla) thus
minister, of ^.he fuJh T^'";.''.'^'-'^"''^'' ">«
and their dutv i» fn r / .u"""^ .•'hoi,l,..rd.s,
namely, the c'h'ur 'h/ hettr 1 1' "' *'""•
a staff or rod " "e'eiore to them is given
arrived a'tthe'lottt* or he'm'at";' iP' ""■"
an adoption with a nTw . J '^'"''Sy «"' I'm
-age colder ttn Ch 13^^17'' ^H"'''"''r
tures and coini of lf„ii„ ^ . • '"e sculp-
the augurs "rant ur/r"''"' '^'"'- "' '^at
neied fieure frnm »„ i/ u'vination. The an-
«■.... £".,"s :..';.'~:j ■r.""r -'"
II
'!■'•
«. "*«
;: I'.f
. •■ 1) 'if's; If ill
!■
15C6
TASTORAL STAFF
PASTORAL STAFF
louvain, 1871). The form of the lituus might , shews that there is rmson to think that popes
in some degree account for this. On the other did bear the pastoral stnd" up to the 11th cintuiT
side, however, it ought, perhaps, to be noticed and he gives a figure of Gregory the (Ircat
that the lituus had to be borne in the right ] bearing a staff from a miniature of the l.'th
century. This figure we reproduce here (Ciiiiier
Caract&istiques des Saints, p. 298),
Utmu, (Fran SmiKi'i i>ic<. i^ Ot. md Moab JtUq.)
hand, whilst the handling of the pastoral staff
does not appear to have been so restricted. In
extant representations the pastoral staff is held
sometimes in the right and sometimes in the
left hand. Such a variation, however, will
hardly be thought sufficient to negative the
possibility of the hypothesis — which has the
authority of Mosheim {fnstit. Eccl. Hist. pt. ii.
chap, iv.) — that the pastoral staff is one of those
many things which with but slight alterations
the early Christians felt at libej'ty to adopt from
paganism as being accepted symbols of piety
and reverence.
According to another theory of its origin, the
pastoral staff is a survival in the case of bishops
of what was once to be seen in the hands of all.
It is, in fact, the episcopal walking-sticlt.
Thomassin, Grancolas, and other liturgists of
modern times, have vindicated an origin of this
kind for the staff. According to them it is no
other than the crutch or staff (sustentaculum,
redimtoriuiii) which at first was permitted to
the aged and infirm, and which afterwards be-
came general as a support while standing in
church. When seats were introduced into choirs,
the rcdinatorium was doomed to disappear, and
(according to these writers) survived in the
hand of prelates alone as emblems of honour.
The flaw in this theory appears to be that the
reclinatorium certainly remained in general use
long after the date at which we can trace the
pastoral staff.
We now reach the question by whom the pas-
toral staff was used.
(o) Pope. — It is commonly said that the pope
never carried a pastoral staff. The reason as-
signed for this custom cannot be better given
than in the words of Innocent III. " The Koman
pontiff does not use the pastoral staff, because
St. Peter the Apostle sent his staff to Eucharius,
the first bishop of Treves, whom he appointed
with Valerius and Matemus to preach the
Gospel to the German race. He was succeeded
in his bishopric by Matemus, who was raised
from the dead by the staff of St. Peter. The
•taff is down to the present day preserved with
great veneration by the church at TrJ-ves." (De
Sacro Altaris Mi/st'Tio, lib. i. cap. fi'i.) It is
garcastically observed by Cahier. a .Tesuit writer,
that St. Peter must have repeatrd more than once
the sacrifice of his pastoral staff, for several places
claim to have it. The same writer, however.
Ongory the QiMt (From Cahier.)
Barrault indeed says (p. 25) that the por.
trayal of St. Gregory with a staff proves onlv
the ignorance of the illuminator in the 13th
century. Perhaps however, this is not quite liilr.
It may shew that the present question was in
debate in the 13th century, and the plate hel'ore
us may be the record of the view which tlie
illuminator took in the controversy.
Another representation of Gregory the Orrat
with a staff (though it is of a dili'erent sliafie,
being surmounted with a cross) is publislioii by
the Arundel Society. This singular nionument,
says Mr. Marriott ( Vestinrium Christiamm. p.
237), is assigned by antiquaries to the year 7i«l
or thereiibouts. The figure is easily acce.s.sihle
in Mr. Marriott's work, and therefore need not it
reproduced here.
A third figure of Gregory the Great with a
Staff is that which was given to the brothers
OMfrory the QntA. (From Maori JTiirolu.)
Magri for the Hierolexicon (p. 65, ed. Romas,
1677). and whtch is believed to be conteraponi;; j
with St. Gregory himself.
PASTORAL STAFF
Migne (THct. de rOrfevrerie s v r,.^, ^
demes that the popes {ver J^ed the' past" I
.Ufl properly so called; but he adrnfts tha
they had a bat,,,,, which was straight as a
.oeptre Th,s however, would hardly diireren"
tiate It from the pastoral staff proper S
r ""' .f ^t'-i'^'t'^ to a particular 'shape
Baronius, it may be mentioned, conclude, th«;
the staff is to a bishop what a Znf.^ *
ting. It should be bo';n:t mi^ ^vVh*;:
WTjters contend that the none hnro „ * i
staff, they do not pr«bab,;?;te^rto\ ^^1"
the staff was a ways curveH !.•..„, • V ,
(BeUtur^i,, p. H5:j^ shTrtllat th^^ft-.;" tel
words of innocent III, i„ which he islnder-
Btood to disclaim the pastoral staff for the none
are to be understood as disclaiming only"^ the
curved staff of ordinary bishops. ^ By \o2
wnters (eg. Martin and Barrault) a d stinctr„
.drajvn between the cambuta. the cr ok or T
8haH staff as the symbol of the pastoral office
andthefcrulaorsceptre-likestaff which betokened
sovereign authority. Such writers in the Roman
Catholic interest are not unwilline to admit fh.V
thepope carried the ferula, whilsfdenyrng ha*
he had the cambuta. It would obviously^e a
great gain to their position if it could beVewn
that from the earliest days the symbol of t^
pastoral care had not been associated with the
person of the pope, whilst the emblem of
rn3 eiatTctrs:Ve':'' 'T' ^^'
the other had been withXT^ptsis^fthfvTry'
.jrmbolism pointedly affirmed as attaching to hi7
In judging, however, of this vexed question'
this point IS not to be foreotten ♦h„f J„ j .'
«nd any trace of the dispoflli^n^io' r pud at th
pastoral staff for the poj^ until about the I'-th
century, which is at least a suspicious epoch on
.question which in no indirect way conceresthe
glorification of the temporal sovereignty
W B,shops.-On the early use of the staff bv
Mth^^Vaffi^i.^i'^VT i^:^^i «'^-
The earliest mention of^it gi en bv T Hi
(i(onun>.m.Ui. 273) as form'ing"a p'art of th
rite of consecration of a bishou i, fhl
quotedabovefromlsidoreofsSV^.^^^^^^^^^^^^
In the early part of the 5th centurv ther.
seems no reason to doubt sav» = ^
writer, that St. Patrick toikw^thhrt'':*"*
land, when he went to preach The r.l,.^'"*"
the pastoral staff whic^ f erwa .d^fime"''
famous under the name of the ?t,ff ^ / '"
(Arck,eologia, xvii. 36) -^ "^ '^''»'
^.frTda^n^irrwirgt^
was addressed b'/pope CoelelLe (..'f 4.>3!t''32)
in the snirit, hnt .„ th" 1 <" "[.^'-''-'Pture not
«pt. in q.;es"tt wie gl^'n wUh ''' '•" "'"■
h«in|? kept in ,nrJ, .V f- ,"" * ^'""^ *"
PASTORAL STAFF 1567
teachers nn.llKru ''^'"ngs t" pastors and
teachers, and which corrects the sheep which have
I 469-54%,'if^ittrrC™:^^ "^'^^ "f A^'- C--^-
is made of Th J^tffiLff b' " ?",''''' ""^°"''"
investiture taking place at "th'e" tl s 'o"f Z
a.!:^r-t:}::Ki--(---.?t
The carrying of the crosier before a metSi-
difficulties when V ',° '**" ^''"''s arose
vorrtrt'iiiotdTh: t z z'^'-'v
(t) AblHits and Abbesses.— The nroof ♦),„* •
K:h!:£:^it:F^H-=-»^
byTheldor: .Tun t^ '^T '^'=" '^^"«»
the use of epis^pd^insSia'^Th^^LV^f
mitre, the rin? and nth«™ ^'''^*^'' ""«
never the sUff^' Thl M T 'P''^i«ed, but
G'"//, who lived in the ^" 1 **"* ''-'•/^ "/ ^'•
f>ry Tve hive fK- "'y P"* o*^ that een-
stal'of limbn'. "oJi'°"t f '^ "'""'*'■'»•
quern vulgo Cambott„^"'voeant"t? 'P"'""'
pm.iegeof^btL^toSedTalbetr''"
ploved on th.!! ^ • ' °^ ^^^ "tual em-
centfonof.h ""'as.'™' i but with the ex-
to's':; 1-uH\Z2ijtr'''' '* ^ "«' -^
falls strict y wIthrtL 1 •/"/ ""' "*' ^^em
in this w^rfc s velal T °^ *'■"« embraced
tainly to a periodTo""' m'uTh'l^ier'f '".Ifd T
invest ture with the =»„«•• ""^r, jnd the
tioned in them as to K To Z^'T'^'' '"^"-
the usage was already^^ge^netl t^T 'I'l
Ztii-i^«::!r^™S'^'^^'S
Had this distin^S^l^^^X;-; -;•■»* '"^'J^
ot^^sn-,--^at^.^
H!r-
iil
r'lf
t.'V
:^■?
Eli. jl^jasia
mi
1568
PASTORAL STAI'F
properly called a pastoral staff. Hofmnnn, how-
ever (Lex. Univ. 8. V. Baculus), quotes Fhilo-
str.itus OS an authority for the use of it by
priests in the East. But in the Ea.stern church
there is always a risk of mistiiliing for an
ollicial baton tne ordinary sub-axillary staff
which even laymen carried to church.
ShiifK. — Owing to the entire absence of primi-
tive representations, there is no absolute proof
that the earliest form of the staff was that of
a crook (we know, indeed, that in some cases
they terminated in a globe or a cros.s) ; but, as
Pugin observes, the crook form is exceedingly
ancient, and as we have seen above in the case
of the lituHs, was not unknown amongst the
emblems of religion, even in pre-l'hhstian times.
The Catacombs furnish no evidence on the
AnuchioiL (From BnonanotL)
stitject. There is indeed a figure of Amachius
bearing a curved staff' (Buonarroti, Vet. Ant.
pi. xviii. p. 128), which might be taken for an
example of it, but whi^h is more probably a
picture of the augur's rod. The earliest forms
8t John with PMlonl StelT (Bamnlt.)
of the Staff' cited by BarrauU are those put in
the hands of two figures of St. John the
Apostle, from a MS. in the British Museum,
which (he says, on the authority of the cus-
PASTORAL STAFF
todians of MSS. in that institution) is a cmn- of
a Spanish MS. that belongs to the era ol'th
Goths. If that be so, it need hardly l,e <ajj
that the representations (which we iMii;ra-
here) are of immense interest and importuin; j!
showing the development of the stall at .sc, aj..
tant an epoch.
The second of these figures gives an e.xamnl,
of the foliated cross. It will be oliservcd th.it
this staff could not be intended for use a, .
reclinatvrium, because it is the full hcii-ht f
St John with Croo. (BarraulL)
the man himself. Similar representations are
found elsewhere— in a MS. of the abber of
Klnon, which is conjectured to belong tii' tlie
latter part of the 7th century ; in the stalT of
Montreuil-sur-mer (fig. U), which local t:a-
Fro. lA.
ditlon assigns to the abbess St. Austrphertlu
(temp. Clovis II.), and in the ancient carvini; in
the outer wall of the Church of St. Thomas, at
Strasbursf, which is bslieved tv brl'-rig t" tk
first half of the 9th century. The extreme
antiquity alleged for these monuments will not,
perhaps, be accepted with the same cnnfidonce
in all the several cases, but the details of the
PASTORAL STAFF
Strnsbnrg c«rving cnrrr upon the fa.e of it the
conv„t,nn thnt the .l«te (H.i„) ,|„i,„,., .;/' «
(Bnmult p. 22) is not far from the truth
lmU.)ie,„lently of the few ...onunients thnt
have survived, we find thnt n writer nfih! ,
ofCh,ule., the linld (died^rirV; ut ve":
then spealc of the curved stnflr n. „« »• ■
(Jbil'lon, Acta SS. ^n:'^.r^XTl\
In the case of the curved staff we can distin-
gu..n three constituent parts-the po"nt. the |
PASTORAL STAFF 1569
Ketnigius is an example of earlv woric in
tine';?. "Tr ''''"' ■^"-'""'"' ''tnff '/st lueu,"
tine (wh,,:h Gavantus thinks is at Vnlentif in
Sl.am,wh,leliaronius (in anno 5"!) pt , jt "
Sard.nm) ,s made of ivory. Besides u^di^o^"
C«rrta« OB the Chnroh of at m,._ _ .
rod, and the crook or volute The n e t™"""! t)
these several parts was embodied in ilTv I "if ^'^ '^"P'^' ""»de for interment w!*), . a.
which appears on the staff of St Satui 'at "*"/' °' V-^'^^P- . ''■*''<' deceased
..„. =.,c,„, pans was embodied in the line
wh,ch^ ap^pears on the staff of St. Satu^inu! at
I " Cuna tram, juo, virga regit, par, ultima pu„gil."
.tlheln'' \?'' '^fV^?^-'' be*^ a staff curved
t the top; Maronite bis;.,..,s a staff surmounted
by. globe and cross (whicn, it may beXerved
.. also t e form of the staff in the figure of
Gregory the Great that is eneiaved wjfh !k-
mide, the globe alone is fou'nd in an AnJ 0!
axon MS. of the 9th century engraved by ¥r
Rotk); and Greek b shnna o»r,.„ . „f„a- .•_ .,^^^- "^-
theVfrShSe'JlUa^l*^ ''' ''t\''
either did it indiscrim naU y wt h^." ^^'^^"
n this article that the pasr^rauSTarnot^In
thu respect reeulated iw t\,„i '^ -^" was not in
which hL to beTld nVhe ; gted the"'"'"^
common usaee in Utor , "s"''^"*!' i he moat
i3 for a brsho^p'to hold his S"?*"*!""? f '""«''
S'^t^ift^ '"*'«'- o^tnS
liiarodwasofwn"^ ".r/ ::^"'''''^=. ^^^ whilst
'he rod was of n,„;;j »r "'" "'*' *"•''* whilst
the.h.peTara^,t r "^Pf P"'' ^''«»'er in
P«cio rmaterial Iv * '''''"''• *"" °'' "'»<'«
handror in regard to thVvnlf'r^^ "' ">« '«<*
ticui^r directfon " ^°'"'* ''''^"'« ""ypar-
It remains only to add that as the givinir of th.
staff was a ceremnnlal of invr-'" -r^ ? ""
was the tokeVof ^ZiLrcn^td'thr?!" t "
of it was that of deposit „; '\}'''!h^r''L°f
conncii of Toledo Ccent 7\ ;w„.^ . • '^'"^'»
iu the restoration- P4r/th"or{«t
E.ii«i
.1* Ml i
1570
PAT A PIUS
I
bn( iiltis ahould bo pliiouil in bin htind (can. 28).
SecThdiiinHsin, Diaciplina, iit. 2, lib. i. c. LM, s. 7.
AtUhiirities. — Alliorti do S(wris IJtcnsililiiis ;
Kraai r Jti lAturijiia ; Mnrtigny, Dictionmiire
dci Anti'iHitiis chri'licnneH ; Lc Baton pastoral,
]mr I'Abbc' liiirrault and Arthur Miirtin, S.J.,
extrnit dii tonn> iv. doH Mdlirii^ex d'Archeolugie,
I'nris, 185t) (the ini)«t einbonito treatise on
the subject ; Ciihier, S.J., //<■* Caract^risttciuas
dea HaiiUs, Art, Crusso; Miirtcne de Eccleaiae
PATEN
memorated Pec. 9 (Basil. Meno!.); Dec. 8 (Col,
Ih/iant. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturij. iv. '27(1 ; Sinius^
De Proh. Hist. iSS. Dec. 190, ed. 1618). [C. H.f
PATKN (Latin, pat-na ; Greek, SiVkos). Th«
wide and shallow vessel in which the bruiij (oj
the Kucharist is placed and conseerntcil. -
I'atens must have been in use from the oarlieat
time, when any formal ritual was estiililishcd
and DO doubt, as was the cote with the chalice, the
An AbbM blaning hli Monti. Fnin ^B. ofUit Abbejr oTEInon. (Bamitilt.)
Sitihus : Thomaiiin, DiaoifAim de I'Ajlise ; Hof-
munn, Lt'xinon llniveraalis ; Du Cange, <J/us-
»ariuin ; Magri (Kratres), Hkrolexicon.
[H.T.A.]
In the CiKtic Chnreh.—The staff of the fcishop
and also, at a later date, of the abbat, was the
itachal or Bachuil, and Cambata of the Latinised
Celtic! church, which freijuently appear:) in the
legends if hor aainU Thus St. Kentigern and
St. Coiumba ccchaiii'^rd their staves at parting
on the biiiks of the Mdendinor ( Vita S. Kent,
c. 4i>). "'"' ^'^^ ^'"' "'"' "" i"i<'ther occasion
gav bis .talf (Mor I'l chall) to Scanlann, prince
of O'.'.snry (( '^Igan, 2K Thaim. 433). The
Eaclia!' u'lor o» St. Molor is preserved at Inverary
Castli'. Art;yli'shiri', ami the tJuigrichofSt. Fillan
has iatclv l)een returnod from Canada and placed
in the Auti'iuarian Museum, Edinburgh, The
fit.ives or croziers of St. Mun, St. Fergus, and St.
Donnan, ii!>e» having been preserved at Kilmure,
Argyli'sliire, at St. Fergus, and at Auchterless,
both in Aberileenshire, and used (certainly the
last) for superstiti'ius purposes, are lost with
that of St. Serf, ami with the IJachall Isa of
St. Patrick, llut though the Quigrich of St.
Fillan is rich in design and workmanship (Wilson,
Pr'hist. Ann. Scot. <>64 sq,; Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot.
xi\. rJ'2 sq.) and the Hachal mor of St. MoK'C
beurs tracei of a metal covering, the original
staves of the saints appear to have been of the
plainest description, without a volute and having
only a sliiihtly curved head ; while it is only
the'viMicration of later ages which ha.s ornamented
them with the precious metals and jewels, and
carvings of eliborate design. Many of these
Staves have been carefully preserved, or in later
days found, ih Ireland, and are to be met with in
public Mucl private collections of antiquities,
some pliiiu but others richly decorated {Proc.
£0;/. fr. Aciid, viii, SM; J'roc. Soc. Ant. Scot.
ii. 12 sq. xi. no ; .loyi'o, /nsA Names of Places,
2nd ser. 182-3; Keeves, St. Adamnm, 366-7;
Killeu, Ch. Hist. Ir. i. 118 sq. ; Pctrie, Bmtnd
Tvicrs, pass.). [J- G']
PATAPIUS, " our father," ascetic of Con-
•tttutiuoplc, native of Thebes in Egypt ; com-
primitive paten differed in little or nothint; from
a vessel of domestic use ; and until the primitive
practice of employing the cakes of bread hrdujrlit
as oblations by the congregation was siqwrstied
by that of using wafers made expnssly. patens
were often of large size. Such were tlie (jiitens
weighing from twenty to thirty pounds eatii
which are mentioned in the Liber I'ontiiiciilia ai
given by various popes in the 4th, lith, 7tii, anil
8th centuries (w. Lives of popes Mark, Hormisdas,
Sergius and Gregory III.).
According to IJoua {Rcrum Litiirijicunm
I. XXV. 3) these large patens were ministerialcs,
and were not used by the priest celebrating, kt
only in distribution to the people.
Patenae chrisntalea are also mentioned wliich,
according to Bona, were " ad usu.n baptismatii
et confirmationis," but very little would appw
to be known as to their use.
It is obvious from what hai been spid abovi
that patens in the larger churches wore in tlie
earlier ages often of great size. Komiin silver
was extremely massive, but patens weigliin;
25 lbs. must have been of very censiilerable
dimensions. A modem circular salver 1.') incliei
in diameter may weigh about 5 lbs., and the size
of those weighing 20 and 25 lbs. may thence be
roughly inferred to have been not less than 2 feet
to 2i feet in diameter, if circular, and very pro-
bably much more. If the material were goU.tht
size would of course be much smaller. Manr,
doubtless, were much less. The goldeu paten (if
it be one) found at Gourdon measures about 'i\
inches by 5J inches, and the circular paten t'ouod
in Siberia measures 7 inches in diameter.
Patens were probably usually circular; twosii
formed are shewn on an altar in a mosaic in S.
Vitale in Ravenna, the building of which church
was commenced in A.D. 547. In S. Apollinsre ad
Classem, near the same city, a building of abort
the same date, two objects, which it wouU seem
are intended for patens, are of a sexfoil shape
(Webb, Cnniinmtal £oclesiolo<m, p. 440). One
octagonal in form is said in the JaIht Fontijiaiiii
to have been given by pope Gregory IV,(A.P.
827-844) to the church of S. Maria in Via Lata
in Rome ; mention is made in the ssme work •!
PATEN
t covered paten of (fold weighing 25 lbs. which
p(i|*Lci> 111. K»vc to the church of St. I't-tn-
That of (f"iinl(.ii 18 oblong in form, from whiih
(act it has been doubted whether it was really a
paten.
The material was moat commonly silver but
notunfrequently gold ; c,,/. the iSyzantine cmlieror
Michael sent to iioi)e Nicdiolas 1. " I'atenani ex
auro purissimo cum divorsis liipidibus pretiosis
alhis, prasinis et hyacirithinis " (Lib. l'u.,tit in
ciU Xic/'oliii). I'ope Zepherinus (a.d. i!U3-'jJl)
is saiil in the JaIi. J'tmtii. to have ordered tiiat
patens of gla.ss should be borne before the priests
m the cliurihi's when masses were celebrated I
They were not unfrequently formed of this i
material. (Jregory id"rours((/f ilinic. S. Mnrtini
lib. 4, c. 10) mentions a ,,aten of a saimhire'
colour, which doubtless was of glass; and the
■•saorocatino" at Genoa of green gla^s, which,
through the middle ages was suppased to be an
emerald, may very possibly have been a paten ■
it is he-xagonal. Cav. de Uossi has given en-
parings {IhU. di ArcA. Crist. 1864, p. go fig
5) of fragments found at Cologne of a glass vessel
almost a foot in diameter which he believes • ,
have served as a jiaten ; and another almost enti.'e
eiists in the tllade collection in the IJrftish
Museum (Cut. of SiaJe Colt. ]). 50), which was
I originally abnut 10 inches in diameter ; this wa*
also found at Cologne, and may perhaps be
; assigned to the 4th or 6th century ; the decora-
tion of these vessels is described below. Jn the
treasury of St. Mark at Venice are two or three
shillow basins of glass, which have probablr
I been used as patens ; they arc, however, possiblr
I later in date than the period embraced by this
work. Other materials ware sometimes used •
ID the same treasury is a Byzantine paten of
alabaster about 13J inches in diameter, and
Mveral shallow vesels, probably once used as
patens, of apte, sardonyx, or other semi-precious
I stones, handsomely moimted in silver gilt with
i^nserted gems. It is impossible to affix precise
dates to most of these, but if thev do not betene
to the period treated of in these volumes, we eaii
no doubt form from them correct ideas as to the
I forms, sizes, and decorations of patens durin?
I some centuries antecedent to a.d. 1.04, about
I which time they were probably brought from
I Constantinople to Venice with the other ppoil
Icrurders'' **"** "'*' *** *"''*" ^^ *'^°
As the vessels used in the earliest times as
Ip. ens were either actually such a^ had Terve^
I omestic uses nr, as in the case of chalices wire
Ifomed upon the same models, and ^ the
im heTr/'T"''" "««» undoubtedly were
I enis!-;V:^''"'"f"""g their do^mest c
lutensils w,th crosses and other religious symbols
1 1 's often a matter of much diffioultv to dis
jtinguish between vessels which were and \vbll
I.J. not intended to be used exd^re"^ if e
Of ""'"• '^'"" '" has been doub ed
Ct I'l***" "^"^^^ foun-l «t Gourdon
terr--'- H^"^S2i^r i;:
Fount IS its form, there being, he thinks no
Instance known of a paten thus^haped 7s how-
b„f„^?..r."''''>^''y no Leans incon
PATEN
1571
almve, of an octagonal paten, the objVrtion does
not seem decisive. We have but few m , J
early patens, and it seems m.ite „,ss 1 ' ,V'f
some may hare had this .dd g /!;',; ,"
uncommon in Koman silver vossek '.. *
examples, probably of the Ml c ^urv n'""'!"
Been in the British Museum, an 1 . .' i , ', ^' , ^f
Unx ,s an earlier instance, hi favon ' Ke
su,.position that it was nc lallv a .V""' ■'. *'"'
be remarked that it w„" S w ";' i.^'l^^
(f. CiiAUCK),. and that the cent V ha "
Dilice
cross
purposes of domestic lile."'';;:;!';:^':^-^
decorated, we may learn from the passage in the
LxberJ'onUf., where w. are t,dd that ,mne Ser-
g.us (A.B. 687-701) gave to the Vatica,! li:.n"a
patenam aureaii. majorem habentem gemmas
part If it Tv. '^""l"^ ^'*-^ •="'"» "'■the earlier
rullolder Th^ r"*"?' ''"* •"«>• P^haps be
still older. The octagonal paten allided to ibove
Fates bond to Flherl»
.cr'sfiL,<^i"7;i.%"'i'r "' ''"^'^
"went, and as we have an instance as mentifinoH I -u " " '',"""" °"''"" '" tne oifter cut
CHKIST. ANT.-voL. II. ' '"^"''"•'ed I g'H, and was found in one of the Ber
r*r7'Sc? '" '!;^ ''*"*"' ^'''^ *'"' head ofou,
i-ord, having on the one side the head of St
Marj. and on the other that of pope G^rrglr"/,?;
il*"!^**!" 'l'^'^'! !" the other cut is of silver
100
'< ■\f'>vu
'' ;■"!«
1572
PATEN
i.
in Sibcrin, in tho year 18i37 ; it weighs nbout a
pound mill a hixlf, ami monsiires nbniit <> inches
Jn dintni'tor. <-'nv. de Itossi (lluU.di Ant. Crist.
1871, II. Vo'S) is of opinion thiit it i» of Uyzan-
tinc oiiijin, and dates jirobably from about the
7th century. .
Tke pfttcn of alabaster mentioned above has m
the centre a medallion with a half-length (igure
of our Lord in duiaimntt enamel ; on another, also
in the treasury of St. Mark's (of ajjate or sar-
donyx ?) is a similar medallion, with the worda,
A(i/3tT» ipiiytrt ToOrb ^lnv i(n\ rb auma. These
may perhaps be assigned to the 10th or Uth
century. r i.. u
The paten of glass found at Cologne, of which
only fragments remain, was of clear uncolouretl
glass ornamented by three concentric circles of
medallions of blue transparent glass of varying
diniensloiiB. The larger of these are decorated
with figures, the smaller with rosettes, all exe-
cuted by the application of gold leaf, which has
been removed except where required to form the
figures, which were then completed by a few
lines marking out the features, folds of drapery,
and other details. The subjects ot' these medal-
OlMB P»ten ftmnd Kt OoIoglM.
lions are chiefly Biblical— Adam and Eve, the
storv of Jonah, that of Danie', the sacrifice of
Isaac, &c. In most cases only one figure is to be
found in each medallion. The centre was pro-
bably occupied by a figure of the Good iihepherd,
symbolizing our Lord.
The paten of glass mentioned above fs being in
the Slade collection in the British Museum is
decorated with gold leaf by the same method, and
with enamelling in blue, green, and red ; but the
subjects are not in medallions, but arranged, as
will be seen in the woodcut, in eight compart-
ments, divided by slender columns. The subjects
of these are — Jonah coming out of the whale, and
in the background, reclining under the gourd,
Jonah thrown overboard ; the paralytic man
carrying his bed ; the Nativity ; '.he sacrifice of
Isaac, r.r y.:irhap3. Tv.nve prohshly, the baptism of
our Lord ; the three Hebrew vouths in the
furnace ; and Daniel in the lions* den. Of the
centre, small fragments only remain, but on
them may be distinguished a figure of an animal,
appa/entlj a sheep, and the letters BO . . .
PATEN
DULCI. The subject was, there can \>c ^
doubt, the (Jood Shepherd.
Another vessel of glass, which may very pro.
baldy have served as a paten, is in ttic iMilleiiiun
of M. Iliisilcwaky at I'aris. It lias lutii lijju.nj
and describeil twice in Cav. de liiwsi's lliilidtm
(1874, p. 15;t ; 1877, p. 77), and wjll *.,. tri.at(,j
of a third tiii.u in the same puliluatioii. 1|
would appear to be y iiu hcs in iliaimaer, jm
is a shallow dish. l)e Hossi docs imt ralliti
p.iten, but a " piatto " ; the cciilr;:! sulii'ii,
Almihani about to sacrilice Isaac:, sictns, ho*.
ever, one very appropriate to a patcii. liniinii
the central subject are the foUiiwiiis; subjecti;
♦he history of ,)onah; thf tiMiiptatiun nf
Adam ; the raising of Lazarus ; a tjuur,
striking a tree, whence issues watiT; Daunl
in the lions' den; the thriic llilnfw yojilu
in the furnace; and Susanna an I the eMm.
The subjects are accompanied by insoriiitinni,
which contain many irregularities, c../, Abrahan
occurs in place of Adain, and that attachfil to
the figure striking the tree reads, ■• FhIiui
virga perculit." The lines of the i'ii,'raviiii;«r(
scratchy and irregular and appueiitly lionc witi)
a diamond point. The art is of the lowest
order, but Cav. de Uossi thinks that the .!«»
may be circa a.d. 400 ("tra II i|imrto i- il
quinto secolo "). It was found in IVIgor,
the ancient Doclea, in Uilmatia.
Occasionally patens bore inscriptions oomme.
morating the donor, or containiiii; mention ol
the church to which they bclongeJ. (Jne of
silver, of the 5th or 6th century, uhick
belonged to the Vatican liasilica, has b«j
illustrated by Fontanini {Dixrus Arijntm j
votivus reterum C/triatMHontm, I'.omai!, 17:'ii).
As ancient examples of pitens are so umoin.
mon, it is desirable in illustration of the subject I
Ifor; Ourlng,
Anfabtahop MkbnUnj II
to mention examples in which they «te npfrl
sented in works of art of early date. Repi«»|
thore can )>e
PATKU
Ution. in Mrly nrt of litur«i,.„l „r ritunl a,t,
in which the celebmti,,!. u' ihf iu.ha.i. .
re,,™.„te.i. One „f the.., that i, I'" 1,,. i
ch,«e,l..k ., reproctci a., if o,li,i„tinK "t an '
. ta , .:. a >n,«,uc ,„ the chunh „( S. A,»,lli,„ " I
atl«».ei,,atK«ve„„„,|,a, 1„.,.„ alrnulvLlverted '
to. On the imliott.. of th.. hitrh alc.r <,f l^
Ambrngio at Mila,, in the l-a,,,! „th ,h the
«.nt .» represento.! «t the altar, „« , a^en ,^ all
,,»hew„, but four small r„„„;i cak V^ha,
or er, and marked with two lin.s crossing Zh
her Ih« monument .late.- from a. o. «:.5. h,
the 1 ubl.c Library at Frankfort on the Main is
pr™.rved a piece of carve.l ivory formed like the
half Ola diptych, which ,.robal,ly once form.,!
part the binding of som'e servic^. Zk, Cnt
pjir of which he annexed cut, representing an
arohlmhop celebratini; nmss, is t.dcen. The carver
may be supposed to have intendcl to renrosent a
paten about fa inches in diameter This carv in,,
i. probably of the 9th century ^'"^
The last example to be n.,ticed is, although of
.arlydate, not within the limit of this worklbut
lome mention of it should be :na<le It is th!
group which forms part of the emUey^f
the dalmatic called that of pope Leo Hi hi
A.r) 12(10, and is of Byzantine work. In this our
Lo d IS represented as standini; behind an altar
.nd extending to one of His apostles, with l" s
right hand, a loaf or cake of bread circiila ;„
other, while he holds another similar cake in his
left hand. On the altar stan,ls a paten, a circular
vessel with upright sides, and less shalW tha„
patens would acem to have usually been • in nro
T^rl:*t\o'^'''V' '*" '^""-t" wo". J .Lm
to be about 12 inches, and its .lepth about 4
inches. In it are two small circles, andt wo cake,
each composed of four circles of the sireof the
Wer ones. The best engravings of this "aimat*
TeJes *""'" '" "" ^''''''"^'^" ^'* ^^
[A. N.]
PATRIAHCH 1673
rfe'isT'"'"'^'" • ^•'"■""' f^. the. usual
'''''"'« '" }l'X<»rr,s narpii,,, and that .,f .,„nio
Mb^. narp.dpxo') i the same title scmm also to
tiibp itM..|f, I Chron. x,vvii. ..Jii. Il„„. ,.,,r t|,g
tnbal organization Mirvivd the dispeisio, is , t
clear; but as the same title is found unlVi- he
empire to designate the heads of .lew si co ,„ „!
nit.es or confederations of coni.i.u, i Vs ,
probable that the later use was a ooiit n ,a i, r
of the earlier. The first mention ol' these 1 ,?
yrarp.dpxai ,s probably in a letter ot Hadrian
quoted by Vopi>cus ( C.Y. Saturnin. ,:. ^ ""'
are a so mentioned by Origen (Co,,,,,., in pJm
tyril of .leiusalem (Cile./,. 12, 17) but im Z
p.-.>t,cularly by KpipVanius (i. ;iO , ' 1 ,,': "
dS "'n ""•' "'"? ^"' """ '•'■-■-'-■.11 :
Uw-T,; ^'7.;™ ?'»°,":«ntioned in the civil
law— tf.,/. t'(l. T/ieudos. 10, 8, 1 2 II I :• i,,t
trornCo,. TWo.,. 16. 8 29,''and ' 'fh o b, : '
A,<«,.,to, op. vol. iv. p. ;t2, ed. Schnhe. Migne
P. 0. vol. Ixxxiii. 61, it appears that in the (irst
end (On these .Jewish patriarchs. «ee Gntho-
fiedus. aj rod mod,..', I. cc; W,;sseli„g <fe
nn;t'^^:;:;;"r'^;i^"{d^^K
^"'""" Z' '"«"<"', J«nao, 1762 : Zoinius de
Patnarcmnm .hui.,eorum aura coroZl' re!
pimted in Ugolini's 7y,«a«,„,, vol. xx^) ' "
Ihe title seems to have been in use in the
the Jews. The earliest references to it are
vague ; nor is it clear in what .ense it was us 1
or to whom it was restricted. Basil (^,°7
109, vol .V. p. 258), writing to Gregory Ci-
anzen about the ,lnnr.n„ ni.......... . ^ ' "''^'
PATER. [Fatheb.]
PATEBMUTHIUS, martyr under Julian-
="sxn./A.' <"■"'■ "-ttB"
LC. H.J
PATIANU8, bishop in the time of Theo-
(trkXr,"""''^" •* Barcelona Ji;^
[L. H.J
r!ii W ^ of '^ ^'^'^- ' Usuard. Mart. Auct ■
Boll. Acta SS. Sept. iii. 791). [C H.j '
^to tfe Chrifir'i;' 't ^"* ^''"^ introduced
mio tae thnstian church from the later orifani
zation of the Jews tr >-„-/-•!. • ^. '""" organi-
WTDiA wlT n Zfi A-- -^"'^^"^^"^^ times the
TlTr i 1 f- '"""J'^'^'on of the tribe (eo
ictjl these .ubdivisions was narpdpvns (ea
Hhroa. „.n. 20, where .ome MSS. U^iK^rfv-
anzen about th;Xa;;;na?v::r;^:S '^^^r
Je,p.s.ng his presbyter and his chorepiscopus, he
had invested himself with the name and d eg
^eanfr*"""''"*''' ^^ ^'^''^ ""'»t probably be
meant the episcopate. Gregory of Nvssa (Orat
fun.br. <n Met. Antiooh., Migne, P. (IZl xl "
85,1) uses It .n a rhetorical passage of a I he
bishops who vere assembled 'at the council of
Constantinople. Gregory Na.ian^en (Wr," li
f;..ll I. T"" '° """ 't as a term special iy
apphcable to senior bishops, ,rp,^fi,r4pL tJ
cTntmed bv r" " '-^"''Pr"' " "- -^ich .s
But whether It was at any time applied, except
metaphorically, to all bishops is y,ty dmfbtful
who"tu dZ r^'^-^'r""^ ?P"«'l to •'''hops'
wtio would not have been ca ed patriarchs in
either of the technical senses which he word
came ultimately to bear. ^
(1) In its most important use the title ha»
been confined to the bishops of the tive sees of
Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and
Jerusalem This use grew out of the geienil
endency to frame the higher organizaf.^n of
the church on the lines which were fu.ni"hed
hLo 'T';"- u ^^' g'-oJotions of rank between
bishop and bishop, which corresponded to the
gradations of rank between ci.y a'nd city of the
same province came to exist between wetropoli!
and metropolis of the greater divisions 7'he
empire. A the time of the council of N dea
the great division, of tl , East were the hZ
5 13
II
' ' >lr
I I
-.li.'l
1 -i Mil
. ill
> I'
i»
)
"T^^^^H
'Ciiiill
i
jfij^^^HB
J^'^
' m
1574
rATlUAliCII
'i
^ ■'■ •"%}■■'
(/loc. (■«■«, OiidiH, rnnliiit, AHinnn. Thrnclnc (this
apiuMirs from th.- Vcii>iu'»o MS. whii'h h \m\<-
lishwl by Mmnniscn, /IVmhiWiiii;; </. H(rlin.
Av'i'Iniilr, IHl'i'J, (I. •*'•"). Ka.'h of the ■■ iU,»r,\ifii
wns iliviili'd into jirovinci's (/Tro()v(oi), lunl euoh
iMovincc liiiil oiii' »!■ looii' nwlro|ioli» ((•.;/. in tho
]iiovin.i' of A.-.iii, KplvMis Sfti-dcs, Hmyriiu, nnil
ri'VUMnuini wcic nil ialli'(l ^7|T0()iriiA»it ; thf
n'li'iunii'S in proof aio sivin in Mnrcinnrdt,
JiimisriH' ,SUuitsivn:;illun<i, Hil. i. 1'. ISO).
K);vpt WBK (it this tinif part of the diixvcms
Vricntis, Imt th.! sixth canon of the connril
Mitiripatos the liiti'r oivil orL'ani/.ation liy roi'ofi-
ni7.iiin it HS an inlopondcnt I'ccli'siasticnlilivislon,
nud snbjocting to tho hi-liop of Aloxamlrin not
<mlv tlii! bishops of Ks-ypt, but also Ihosu of
I'ontapolis nn.l l.ibn. There wore thus In the
Last rtve great confederntions of churihpa, each
of which was independent of the other ; in the
Wnst the sec of Home stoo.l fthme in its supre-
macy. In the foUowins century the council of
Clhalcedon, c. 2», to»k nwny the ecclesiastical
independence of the <U>v<wm of I'ontus, Asin, and
Thrace, and subjected them to the see of Con-
stantinople, thus reducing the number of .sees of
the highest rank to Rome, Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch, with which the see of
Jerusalem was reckoned, cxtm ordint'in. This
action of the council of Chalcedon was visor.msly
protested against by the Roman delegates, Leo
the Great rejected it, and the '28th canon is not
inserted in the authorized Latin versions of the
acts of the council (see the Actio SejUuleinma of
the council in Mausi, vol. iv. p. ;i79 ; S. Leon.
M. KpUt. 94 (.15), vol. i. p. 1198 d; A>is<. 119
(SVJ), vol. i. p. 1'21.">). . > »• ,
But it is remarkable that although the titln
"patriarch " was n<it unfrequently given to the
bisliop.s of these sees in contemporary extra-
conciliar literature, and became in later times
th.'ir ordinary ollicial appellation, it does not
occur in the canons of any of the councils of the
fir.-t eis;ht centuries ; nor is it confined cxchi-
sivelv To them until the time, probably the 9th
century, at which earliest Aotitiae were com-
piled. ' In extra-conciliar literature, it is given
(a) to the bishop of Home, e.g. by Cyril of
Alexandria, Ifomil. Divers. 11, ap. Mignc, Patrol.
Graec. vol. Ixxvii. 104O, by the emperor Theo-
dosius, Epist. nJ Oall. I'hcid. ap. S. Leon. M.
Epist. 63, vol. i. p. 989, and by Justinian
Contra Monopliysilas, ap. Mai, Script. Vet. vol.
vli. p. 304 ; in later times, Hiabnuus Maurus
addresses the pope as " primus pntriarcha per
orbem," Conimendatio Pupae prcKxed to the
treatise J)e Laudibus S. Crucis, ap. Migne, Tatr.
Lat. vol. cvii. 139. (b) It is given to the bishop
of Constantinople in the civil law, e.g. Justin.
A'oiv?/. 3; but the assumption of the title
" Oecumenical Patriarch " (4 oi\ou|t»«fmbi warpi-
ipxvs, perhaps first by Mennas in a synodicnl
letter of the council of Constantinople in 536,
Mansi, vol. viii. p. 959, and frequently after-
ward, e.g. C. I. 0. No. StiSo), raised a strong
protest in the West (S. Greg. M. Epist. 5, 43,
p. 773 ; Pelag. II. Decret. adUniversos Episnopos.
ap. Hinschius, p. 721). and even before the final
sepnraiiou of the Eastern and Western ehurrhes
led to the omission of the name of Constanti-
nople from the list of " primac sedes " (see e.g.
the Praefatio Xicaeiii Cncilii in Quesnel's Codex
Canon. Eoclea. printed in the Ballerini edition of
rATniARCii
S. Leo M. vol. iii. p. '."2) the P»cMidn-|sid..rlnn
(h-cretnls, Anaclrt. E/M. 3, ap. Ilinsihiiis, p.
8'2 ; hence in llliicuiar Kemens. O/m.vc. ht (WnM
llinamr. /,.m./im. c. 16, ap. Migtie, I'alir.l. l.jt.
v>d. cxxvi. 334 ; see also Cacciari, Excrcit. m N.
/coll M. O/icni de Enti/i-hinn. Ilitax*. lili. '2,
c. 4, in the Hallerini edition of St. Leo, vid.' ii.
p. 471, and Mii;ne, I'ntr. Lat. vid. Iv. ij.M).
(r) It is given to the bisli(H> of Alexniiilrin. i'. i.
by .Uistinian contra Mimnji''}isit:is, ap. Mni,
Sfript. let. vid. vii. p. 309, and by (ire(;i,iy the
Cireat, E/Mt. 5, 43, ]t. 770 ; for the Inter history
of this patriarchate, see Neale, Ilidori/ >,/ the
lliiUj Eastern C/iurch, Patrinrchata of Vnmtm-
tiiiople; Ki'naudot, litimj, Orientil, vol. i. ;
Vansleb, llistoire de I'Eglise d'A!oxiimlrie ; lien-
zini;er, liitns (Iricntalium. (d) It is irjveii to
the bishop of Antioch, e.g. by Gregory tlie
Great, Epist. i. '2(5, ]>. 510, and in nn iiiUiistin);
inscription of the 7th century, now at ((.vCrrJ,
Corpus Inner. Oraeo. No. 8987, in wliich
Macarius is called Trorpulpx'?' Tf)! nfyi\-i)S 9«oD
»r(l\«i»» "AiTiax'Iaj Kol wivrit ivaroKiis, i.e. (if
the I>i>ecesia Orientis. Kor the .lacol.ite
Patriarchs who claim to continue the succession
of the patriarchate of Antioch, see l)euziiii;or,
yii<M3 Oriintidiiim ; Gregor. Barhebr. Aomiwan.
7, 3, ap. Mai, Sript. Vet. vol. x. pars J; and
the posthumous fragment of Neale's llisl.^ri/ «/
the Holy Eastern Citurch, edited by G. Williams.
((•) It is given to the bishop of .(crusaleni, e.g.
in Justin. Epist. ad Episcop. Constantin. dejcntcs,
A.n. 536, ap. Mansi, vol. ix. 178.
('2) The title was also given to the bishop ot
the metropolis of a civil dioeeesis ; i.e. of ,i
division ot the empire consisting of several
jirovinces. In Cone. Chalc. c, 9, such a bishop
is called f^apxos i but (a) Justin. (A'«n//. l.'.'i, c.
'22), in referring to this canon, speaks of tlie same
officer as a i)atriarch ; (6) an ancient .Hwlim
on the same canon ap. Pitra (./«r. Erel. tfriicc.
vol. ii. p. 645) says, t^apxov SiomV".'' "At'i
rhv irarpidpxv indarris fSioiK^crtoir, and Zonanis
ad toe. ap. Migne, Pair. Qr. vol. cxxxvii. y. 420,
also mentions this interpretation; (c) Kvagvius,
//. E. 3, 0, p. 340, probably following the ion-
temporary writer Zacharias Rhetor, speaks of tlie
right of wliich c. 28 of the same iouniil
deprived Kphesus, and which Timotlieus Aelurus
temporarily restored to it, as t!) Trarpiapxinin'
SIkoiov. It was hence sometimes given to i\uy
metropolitan who had other metropolitans under
him ; e. g. to the bishop of Thcssal.micii, as
head of the vicariate of Macedonia, 'I'heodonis
Lector, p. 586, ed. Vales, ap. Migne, Putr. Gr.
vol. Ixxxviii. 217 (the status, although not the
title, is recognised by S. Leo M. Epist. 6 {-ijod
Anastas. Thessalon. vol. i. p. 621 ; Theophanes,
C/iron. p. 139, quoting this passage, and kuowin;
only the later use of the title, thinks this Ufc of
it to be erroneous) ; to the bishop of Theopolis
(Prusa) in the acts of the council of Constan-
tinople in A.D. 536, ap. Mansi, vol ix. pp. 191,
•206 ; to the bishop of Bourges (as having
beneath him not only his own proper province of
Aquitania Prima, but also Narhononsis with its
metropolis Narbonne, and Aquitania Secumia
with its capita! Bordeaux), Nieol. I. Kvist. 19 oJ
liudo'.ph. llituric. A.D. 864, ap. Mansi. vol. .u.
p. 3^0, = Epist. 6'i ap. Migne, Patr. Ijit. vol.
cxix. 884; Desider. Cadurc. Epist. 12 ad Sulfit.
Bituric. ap. Canisii Thexturaa, vol. i. p. 64; to
the hi.-hnp of I,y„„«, •,> (■„,„. Ji,,,i,j, ^ J, f^„.
tini./., S. (in.;{, Tiiivm. //. ,; :,, ■,,' ,.,.''
V.Mi.'iali. r.i„l„j,h. nuin.il,l. l.M.ulnn, „„ 'mi,,,,,.'
IV. 1...... v,,i wxx.ix. ,0.,. liit i,s ;!:„""; •
..'US,. WW iiltnimtcly suiMM-cl,.,! i„ d,,, w,.«t l,v
the us,, (,( th.i lillu "piinidt,. " [I'ltiMATl-f
The hvo titles „r« i,|,.,.li(i,.,| in th« I'm.|.,|u.'
l.si.l..il,in ilecioliils, e. ,j. Cli.Mient. A>/m<. i c "H •
Amu let. Ay<«f<. il. c. aO, /•/„■,,/. ijj ^ ' .,„ .'
2e)ili.iln. A'/;/.v<. 2 ; Amilc. Euist. c. ;j ' ' ' '
(.\ p.u.saj;e of S„cii„te,,, // E. ,5, i. seom, to
p,m|lt.a.iMr,l,,sc..,ftl,...itl... I„ Ms „™„„nt
ollhec..un<ilott„n,slHi,tlnn|,|,. in a.d. ;iHI he ii(,t
only .siiys that it cmstitute.l paliiaichs, but iLso
giVM their imnie.s : «ix „f ih,.,,, ,„.,, nietr,.|,„li
lnM», l.ut „ne „f them, (ire^oi-y „f \v,,,s,, i. ,,„,
"■'•" " t''"'"'"*""- " '"''v Im' intf.n-e,l lV,„n
tins, and Ircni a r(,ni|,arl»(,ii with the .simihie
«::•„„,,( in t«/. ;//„.«/„,, „i, I, .J; ,s„2,„n. //. A'.
7,iMhMt theihgnity thn.s .■„nfein.,l was ton,-
IvTary aiul person.-.l, giving; a M.],r,.ina.T to the
|).irhnil,M- hi.sh.ip.s name,! which dhl not attach
to I leir .see.s, an.l which had reference priniarilv
to the current eontr„ver.sy. ]i„t the fe.xt „f tl,;
ptesige IS not certain ; some old versions of it
(^-/. III Cassiodorus, llhp. rri,mt. (I, 1.1, Mii'iic'
h.r.Lat vol. Ixix. 112^^|.e;,lv,sent^J|;S'^:^
Nvs*. as having heen transferred to Caesarea, in
whu„ ea.se the word may perhaps be takeu ai.
equivalent to metropolitan.)
Outside the limits of the Oitholio church of
tholioman organization, it was the title of the
Eind. 41 (,',.() „d Ahrcell. vol. i. „ ]89 .,„
Wii'uo, 'atr. hat. vol. xxii. 47.1; it was ndo„ted'
as the designation of their chief bishop by the
Vandals, \ ,et. Vitens. ,fe Pcrscc. \a,Ll2 5
p. .. i It app,.ar8 to h„ve been similarly a.lo./ted
umler he Lonil.ard kings of Italy, ,4d hence
the bi.^hops ot Aquilein, and afterwards of New
Aquileia (Gnulo), were called patriarchs, P„ul.
V,rif.f ^/''i''"*'"-'/- 2, 10, ap. Migne,
P ti .at. vol. xcv. 487; on the e patriarchates
sect'.;/. liaronius, vol. xii. ad ann. 729; U.helli
l^ aaedrtalmyol. viii. ,,. o, vol. ix! p. 19
the patriarchate of Grado was transferred I J
\eiii,e in 14.1. For other patriarchates which
have existed or 8t.ll exist both in Kastern Kurone
and III Asi,., hut which fall without tiie limit
^o», .Neale, Ihstori, of tlui Holy Eastern Church •
Conziuger, RU,.. Orientalium ii>^^,,, KirZk,
Qmrapheu. Statistik, Regeusburg, 1864; SiU
bern„gl, Verfasmn,j u. ,je,jenuartLr liktand
"'"•■' [E. H.]
PATItO.V
1675
PATRICIA, martyr with her husband
M e ouius, a presbyter, and her daughter
K V 7""™"™t«'' at Nieomedia March
Id (1 ed. Wand., Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Rom
ot:^thef,f ■'■"'■ ''^'- *■"■• ^'"^ day the"
u, the fol owing :-Matricia; Patricia and
he, husband Zeddo a pre.sbyter; at Nicomedh.!
M edomus a presbyter, his wife Matrici., and
Modesta daughter of presbyter Cion : Mae.,!:,nus
a>ia Patricia. • ro u -T
PATKICIU8 (1), bishop and confessor-
(3) liishop ,jf Prnga .. |,„, „ , ...
PATItlMONIirM rKTItl. [Pope.J
PATKINI. [Si-o.Nsoiw.]
I'ATItOJtAH, nieiiti.me.l by St Paul n> ^
«v.. 14); c„i,„„,.n..rated Nov. Itklrl^'^:
PATKOCr.UH, martvr ,.f T ''*'";•'
he bishop the person whom th.^tM^ ",.'„'
the bishop hiK the ri^ht of ..,,.; • • '^['■.' '"' ■
order to Lertainw^'whtTS^'"'"
qmsite con.litions, and of dec „r n I I .'''-'"
to be complete. The person s^.le.^ ."'"."''^'■""n
i;> the jidst of t.rr rs'^' whirt::!
lying districts came to ha.; ch 1 h.T .'.;"*■
iMiu.in v^nristian communities »h.if .»,.
city, and in such ca.scs were as mTh \ 7
the urisdiction of tho bishop of T^t Tit
estates upon which they were built «,„.! \ ,
the jurisdiction of the'mrnlS mgltr t; *
i he owners of the estates consequen^lfe aTm^i
an absolute contio over tliorr. v j i^'-nmm
=rw^h^-hHS^-;hf^^^
the subjcet. Probably in'tLT Intt^Ts otoHh':
{«
''\H
i. :
•ili
1 ' .
t-f--
1576
PATRON
m
-A:
Ml
il(ix belii'f, Jintinlnn eimcted on the one hrtnil
thiit uo ihiircli or oratory shoiilil be erecti'd
without the consent of the bishop or without a
suthciciit I'n'lowinent (Aooe//. t)7), and on the
other hnnd thiit the foundert of uhurchea nhoiild
not appoint olerkH to miniiiter in a church with-
out first presiMitini; them to the bishop for ex-
Hiuinatiim (.VouW/. Ul, c. 2). Almost the only
other eastern regulation is that of the Trullaii
I'ouncil, wliich virtually repeats the second of
these rei;ulntions, and in doing so shews by
implication tlint it had come to be disregarded
(Cijiu). Trnll. c. 'A\). [Oratokium.]
in the West the canons of Spanish and Galil-
ean councils shew that the respective rights
of the owners of estates and the bishops of
neighbouring cities were subjects of frequent
dispute. The earliest regulation is that of the
first council of Orange (1 Cunc. Armsio. A.D.
4+1, 0. 1(1) which enacts that if a bishop has
built a church upon an estate belonging to him
which lies witliinthe territory of another bishop,
he shall have the right of nominating clerks for
that church, but that the actual appointment of
such clerks, and also the dedication of the
church, shall rest with the bishop of the terri-
tory. This enactment implies that in a similar
case a layman had no absolute right of nomina-
tion, but that the bishop within whose territory
the church was built could either accept or re-
fuse the clerks whom the founder wished to
appoint. A century Inter, within the Krankish
domain, and after Teutonic concejitions of the
rights of the owners of land had entered
with the Franks into CJaul, the fourth Council of
Orleans pas.sed a series of enactments, the tenor
of which shews that the owners of estates upon
which churches were built claimed large powers
over such churches: it enacts that those who
build them are to endow them with sufficient
lands, and appoint a sufficient number of clerks ;
that they are not to appoint such clerks against
the will of the bishop " »d quem territorii '\\i-
eius privilegium noscitur pertinere ; " and that
the clerks, when appointed, are to be amenable to
ecclesiastical discipline, and noi, to be impeded
bv the owner of the estate or his agents in the
discharge of their ecclesiastical duties (4 Cone.
Aureiian. A.D. 541, c. 7, 26, 33). But in the
7th century the council of Chiilons-sur-Saone
makes it clear that the owners of such estates
hud again asserted a right both to appoint and
to govern their clerks, independently of the
bishop, and enacts that this usage is to be re-
formed, so as to give both the ordination of clerks
and the disposal of the revenues of oratories to
tlie bisliop {Cone. Cabill. A.D. 650, c. 14). None
of these or any other Galilean canons deal ex-
pressly with the case of ordinary parish churches ;
and tills must probably be taken as negative
evidence in favour of the supposition that the
primitive usage had not been altered. There is,
however, a Spanish canon which gives to the
builder, and apparently to the restorer, of a
parish church the right of presenting clerks to
the bishop for ordination, and disallows any or-
diuation which is made by the bishop to such a
church iu deliauce of the founder's uomiuatiou
(9 Cone. Tolet. AD. 655, c. 2); but the absence
of any mention of heirs in this canon, coupled
with the express mention of them in the pre-
ceding canon, establishes a presumption that the
PATRON
right (if nomination was persona! to the fonmhr,
and did not ile-cenil to his heirs. With the ex-
ception of this canon, tlicre is no evidence of tht
recognition in the Western church bel'ore Caro-
lingiau times, of any right on the part lithiT
of a founder or of any other person to noiiiiji;it%
clerks to a parish church ; (tiie instance ijimied
in the cau<in law,(iratian, Ik'iri-t. pars ii, cau>. 16,
quaest. 1, 31, and uscribeil t^ popB I'tilagius, ii
clearly of inudi later date).
The policy of the popes from Ihe time of flreg.oy
the Great was even more deciilcdiy in the same
direction. That i)"pe, writing to Felix of Mcs^ina,
requests him to consecrate a church whi<h lint
been built upon private property, if he limls that it
has been sullicienlly endoweil, but exprcsslydiuiei
to the founder uuy rights, except the right of aJuiis-
sion to service, "which is due to all C'hristiins
in common " (S. Greg. M. Kpiat. ii. 5, ad Fitie.
Messan.). This letter, which was afterwaidj
ascribed to Gelasius {Append, ad Epiat. (k'lasn
J'apae, ap. Mausi, vol. viii. 133, Migne, 1'. I,, vol,
lix. 148), became the basis of the canon lav on
the subject ((jlratiau, Vertct. pars ii. cans. 16,
quaest. 7, 26), and its substance is embodied ia
the form of petition which is given in the j.iImt
Uiurnus for the consecration of an oratory (c. ,1,
3, p. 92, ap. Migne, P. L. vol. cv. 88). In order
still further to secure churches erected on pri-
vate estates from interference on the part ol the
owners of the estates, and to prevent, as it wore
by anticipation, the abuses to which the later
system of patronage gave rise, Gregory, nlthimgh
he required an endowment for such chimhia,
declined to allow jiresbytcrs to be permaiienlly
appointed to them ; they were to be served ]>y
presbyters sent by the iiishop from time to time
(S. Greg. M. Epist. ii. 12 ad CiaU/r. Arimin., ii,
70 et xii. 12 aj I'assiv. Firman., ix. 84 ad lienen.
I'undarit., cf. Mabillon, Comm. Praec. in Oid,
Bum. in Mus. hat. vol. ii. p. 19 ; the rule is aUo
found in a fragment printed by Holstt.;, CM,
Rom.voX. i. p. 234, and Migne, P. L. vol. lxix.414,
and ascribed, without sufficient ground, to jiope
Pelagiuj). And a century and a-half afterwards,
immediately before the great change which we
are about to describe, pope Zachary lays down
a similar rule in almost identical terms : (S.
Zachar. Epist. 8 ad Pippin, c. 15, ap. iligne,
P. L. Ixxxix. 935, xcviii. 87, Codex Carolinus ed.
JaffiS, p. 26 ; in contrast to this may be noted the
later policy which disallows "presbyterns con-
ductitios " where a church has funds enough to
have " proprium sacerdotem : " Cone, lieincns. c
9, sub Innocent. II. A.D. 1131, ap. Mansi, vol.
xxi. 460).
But although these earlier relations of found-
ers or owners of churches to the clergy cannot
properly be passed over, they are essentially dis-
tinct from, although they have often been con-
fused with, the later system of patronage. That
system is an outgrowth of feudalism. Both the
name and the thing belong to the Krankish
domain, and to the period of the Carolingiiins.
At that period the church had become the greatest
landowner in Gaul : it has been computed that a
third of all the real property in Gaul belonged
to it : (for some particulars, ace e.ij. iioth,
GcschicUe des Heneficialwesins, p. 248 sqq.
Erlangen, 18.i0). From time to time Isyraen
had been allowed to have the usufruct of
some of these lands, o& condition of payinff
VATUOS
iB.nmmlrHntto thH ,hi,r.l,.« to whi.h tlu-v
H..r«lly I. n„K,H| „ ,h« „„„,,,,„, ,. _,,.^ y
Churle* Miirtnl himI Ins m,iiH(|{„ih. ,, .11^, I
.p|*n 111 v., cmnlmtH tin. cnmu.n view wlilrh i«
M.rtel hin,K.lh see H,.«,.l i„ von . Sybil', j^J
came :iliiio«t » nccciiMty of stnte. lu a ciioitn
l.rvof A.n.74;. (6W/.;. /.VV„..,.p. Peru, M '(,'
(fc,.WcT p. m 1) ,t .HomRtcl tliat.om« ,,«„ of
the church ltt>„l8»hnll be for a time appropriate,
to the crown as an assistance to the army ("at
>ab prnario ■•l censu ali,|uam partem ec.lesiali.
pe,unme m adjutonun, exercitns nostra cum
m-lulpM. ,a Deialiqna-ito ten.pore retineamus ").
The hm.ls so appropriate,! were «.s„i„„,,,j „,
"be>,el,c,„, ..as revocable anj cou.litional
grants to ,n,i<yi,lu«I soMi.rs. The system of
.,.|,r„pn«t,on soon became general an,l the ai.-
proprmtions when general also tended to become
pern,ano„t Not long after his conquest of the
Lcmbnr,I.H, (.harlos the Great conHr.neJ previous
benehcary grants of church lands, reservTr
only to the king hi.Dself the right of recall! e
them (0,;../. Lan.,obard. A.D. 779. c 14 „ f
!"!;''-^\ "^ ?,'""" '-enue w'as'-rese'rve'd"
to the church: m the capitulary of 743 it »„,
h..datone"solidus"foreac^h « c^iatl C
homestead: afterwards it became a fixed propor-
lon of the produce, usually a ninth or a tenth
(whence the later system of -tithes"). The holder
of such a benefice was entitled scnir jj^tl
or patronus. The n.odern " patron " o a d urch
liymg thus preserves the name as well as some
the functions of a feudal " lord.' fThe id en
..ty of _ " patroniis " with '. dominus " and"
senior in thia sense is shewn (1) by the conver
t.b .tyof "dominus" and "patronus" In the
cinl law ..,;. in the text and title of a law
Valentinian and Valens in a.d 3G5 AJ
7Wo. 5 1 11 , (o) ,y lat;r statienta
1. lit. 10 ed. Ballerini, p. 28, ed. Migne P. L vol '
cnxvi. 165, "pcUronus, sive ut usitatius a multi.
Kiamhi ur, sen or es ": this use of patronus has
tended modern times in thr Italian w'ot
(J\IT ""f '""^ ^'^°'' *•>« e'=«Ie»i8stical duties
for th performance of which the lands had
originally been intended to provide were regarded
as snl,o„i,nate to the general privileges of the
own«rsh., „f and. The lesser lords fol owed in
he «ake „t t e king. J„,t as the latte da me3
upreme right of nominating to bishoprics and
ablieys fsee r n Rnt*i """'"jjrica ana
^euM^ Reichs.erfassung Bd ' ii 194 Ui.H'
n? 'r ^"'''?\"^' f- ^'>^Wc«, M iii "m
PATRON
1577
''nir:rfc^lrrv"^"'^"">'"'-t'«
•♦rung hat n,'i '".,'""''■■■"■>■ ''»'' »""■">'"' «o
quet^yof the enactmeii;. i^'^be y' It'Tf
tiie 'Jth century, aaainst the I, r,.,.ti / '. "'
;.itherui,.mmr!;:ni51;;y^^Li!;ri7:r
A-D. 813. c 29 '^i ... 11 • ' . "*• ^"fl»nt.
Conc.Are,al/!:uf'H'3' ^^T\ ^"'- j'v. 72, 6
xiv W- F_ »•"• o»i», c. 4, 5, np. Mans , vol
XIV. o^J Excerpt. Canon. 2 np. Pertz, vol. i 189
•> n '^, ;. ^"" ''""""•'« np. rertz vol i two
-J Cone. Cabill. a.d. 813 „ L.^^r -r
-quiC-'diir '•""•"° ".'^--t a'*bii;;°'bj
:{£f^^i'ruh-'snc'-r;j
""S^::nh^S!^"r--'"-
They began to cUim »?''"'""?"'* °'' '••'"'<''•
which wei^ left ,0 the T "I '^"'' '■"''^''
alienation of their lands In '■"'•''"'' "!'" '^'^
-pported by llJntte.'^cSs" ttVTe'l
directed the bishrmi, «„ j . '^""""s tne (.real
presbyteil shouMPay'°foftbI> ch ^k"' "•"""«
lords rcWi d. pS , r''^''^ churches to their
quern honorem pies'bvteri nrn f'T' ..P'-""i'''^ant
tribuant ;» and^Iewis the?" '"'l:"" '*'-''"•'"''>"'
the amoint of 2 vhi.h '' '?'^^'"' 'f^^'Oing
^i«ht holdfree, „tt d hati^'th'' 'J'";'^"'"
they should pa; "delitum ser,/ ^ '"" ■""'"'
printed as hia in n>A u """'™fi <" Alainz, and
P mtea as h.s m DAchery, Spicileyium, i. 508).
1';
.:;■ .-1
Hi |«
E^TSFT
mik '..l^
1678
PATRON
1^^
Lfttcr iD tlu' 9th century Hincmnr of Rhfimi Is
miH'uiiilly ilHtiii|i;iiis)iiiil I'or thu utmiil whiih li<'
nimli! iii^aiimt it : li. Bxpn'im'ii hi* ili'termiiiiitiim
in every cane to make ini|iilry, nii'l in ni> cuae to
ordftin a ilerii on the iire.ieiitatinn of a piitroii,
if the cleric haa giveD a xiii^le penny tor hia
preneutatioii (Hincninr, Heniens. Ejiist. 4M, mI
Teu.Mf. t'omit. np. Minne, Patrol. l.at. vol. cxxvi.
264; ill. Cii/iit. m .S'vwk/ Iteiiuna. A.n. M74, c. '>,
np. Mijiue, I'atrol, l.at. vol. cxxv. HUD).
The ►y^tciii of |i«tronaKB whieh thiiH grew out
of the introiliKlion liy the (_'arolini;ian.H of tlie
system of ({ranting church lamU as Hefft w«asup-
p'orteil liy two other circuin^tanceii, which al.^o
reMilteil from the Krniikish rule.
(1) A freeman who built a church upon hIa
own liuil liail nn ahnost absolute right of pro-
perty i)' it. In ilirect opposition to ttio lionian
rule, aic.inling to which, as hn.i been shewu
above, the foumler of a ilmich hinl no »|]Ocial
rights wliatever in tho church which ho had
built, but in full accordance with the spirit of
Franki.-.li jurisprudence, Charles the Great en-
acted that such 1 church might be assitrned and
sold ; " de ecdesiis quae ab ingcnuis hominibus
conatruuutur licet' CB» tra<lere, ven lere, tautum
modo ut ccclesia non destruatur sed seiviuntur
cotidie honorea " (Cd/"'- Fnincnfiirt. A.D. 7di,
c. 54, Pertz, vol. 1. 75). Accordingly the gift of
a church to a m(Uuistory or a bishop was accom-
panied with the same forms as the gift of any
other real property (»eo Kettiierg, Kircheni/,
Dcutsch. vol. ii. 017). This right of ownership
carried with it the right of appointment of its
ministers, subject, however, to the approval of
thu bishop; the right was not personal, but
descended with the estate, and if the estate were
divided, and disputes arose as to the right of
app<iintnieiit, the bishop could not interfere other-
wise than by s\ispending the services of tho church
until tlie joint owners or co-heirs had agreed
to present to him a single presbyter (2 Cone.
Cahillon. A.D. 813, c. 26, ap. Mnnsi' vol. liv. 98 ;
so in elfect Coitc. Trihw. A.D. 895, c. 32; for
some questions arising from this rule of joint
patronage see Hinschius, in the Zcitschrift fiir
Kirchenredit, vol. vii. pp. 1 sqq.). At first, pro-
vision was made that the foundation of such
churches should not interfere with the rights of i
previously existing churches to tithes and other
dues (KaVoli M. dipit. ad Sah. A.D. 80.3, c. 3,
Pertz, vol. i. 124, and Excerpt. Can. c. 19, Pertz,
vol. i. 190; Cone. Moijunt. a.d. 813, c. 41;
Hludowici et Hlotharii Capit. c. 6, Pertz, vol. i.
254 ; Ansegiai Capit. lib. ii. 45, Pertz, vol. 1.
299); but in time the distinction between these
privately-founded churches and parish churches
proper was broken down, and the original rights
of owners in the one case became indistinguish-
able from the usurped rights of feudal lords in
the other.
(2) All holding of land under the Frankish
rule involved military s(>rvice. The full righta
of a freeman could only be claimed by one who
could defend those rights by arms. In some
instances it would appear that clerks did not
hesitate to taite the field (e.g. Annnles S. Amaruil,
A.D. 712, Pertz, M. H. G. Scriptontm, vol. i. 6 ;
Kinhardi, Anmiles, A.u. 753, iZiirf. vol. i. 139 ;
Ruodolfi Fuldens, Annates, a.d. 844, ihid, vol. i.
.S64); but there was a strong feeling agaih-t
their doing so, and enactments were passed to
PATUON SAINTS
prohibit it, 0.IJ. Karlomanni C<ipi'<. a.d. 742
c. 2; IVrtz, /.((/uni, vol. 1. 16; Plppinl, Cij.,!'.
Veriiwr. a.d. 75:1, c. 16, ihid, vid. i. 2J ; Kiroll"
M. Cii/iit. (lemml, A.D. 7flU, c 1, t/jid. vol. j. ij
ami diJil. Ecclcsiast. a.d, 7HU, c. Bd, iW. v,,|,"j',
64. It was, in other respects, dc»iiali!» for
chirks to avoid .houm^ of Iho pejsonni liij|.|..n)
which attached to freemen, and it nut iniie.
quently became necessary to prcjteet tluir prni.
leges and their lands against usur|pation. r„n.
Be>inently those churches and monasteries which
were large landowners frequently put tlieniMivi-s
under the protection of a neiglibouriii); secular
lord. The common name for the tie whiih tlinj
came to exist was "advocatia," but wilh tins
"patrocinium " is intercliangealile (nn tliis iniint
see Waitz, Dcntsrhe llci han'r/dsaiin'/, l!|. ij,
450, iii. .'(21). The powers of the "advo.alin,''
or " patronus " in this sense, came ui time to
be considerable [Advocatk of tiik Cm iit'll
Vol. I. p. :i:l], especially in relation to nlil.ovs'
and in the co\irse of the middle ages, tliou^'ii'ij
far from the peri n I emliraced in the iirexnt
work as not to admit of being stated in detiiil
here, included the right of presentation. In mir
own country this system prevailed to so i;ri'.it,iii
extent that the word "advocatia," under iii
modern form of "advowson," has come tube
synonymous with the right of preseiitatiiin.
(Of earlier books on the suljjuct the be>t iireF.
de Koye, ad Titnlum C: J 're I'atrunUns, Anjuu
10»i7, and a slojrt treatise, by the jurist (i. ],.
Uoehmcr, de Advocntiite Keclesitiiiti:ae cum Jure
PidruH'ttus Nexu, (JUttiugen, 17,">7. Of ni'irc
recent books, the best are l.ippert, Wrsuch einer
historisc/i-doijmatisclien Kiitwicke iing dur lAri
vom I'utromUe, fliesson, 18;J9 ; Kaim, Iiita Kinh-n-
patronatrecM nac/i seintr /-.'ntstf/mwi, EuVjcicht-
ium;, und heutujen Stcllumi in Stinh; Lnyat
1 theil, 184.1, 2 Theil, IStiO. Keferenc..' may
also be made to Kettberg, Kiichcivjc»Jiickte
Deulschlands, Bd. ii. p|i. 16 sqi|.; to VV'.ihor,
Lehrbmh des KirchenreM)i. ed. 12, Uodd, ls.i6,
pp. 457 sqq.; and to Hin.^chius's artii l- u
the Zeitschrift fiir Kic/wnrecht, vol. vii., which
haa been quoted above). [E. H.j
PATRON SAINTS. For the gener.d ^L,-
trine of the intiuence of glorified .saints ■ * -r
human affairs, see the DiCT. OP CiiH. HlOJ \c.
What is here given relates simply to the !ii,il
practice of Christians in adopting sai , as
patrons whether of pl.aces or persons.
I. Nomcn'Mture. — A martyr suppusej to
have a special interest in a place and its inhabi-
tants waa called their patron Hrst in the latter
half of the 4th century. St. Ambrose is pro-
bably the earliest extant witness to the usase,
when, in 386, he calls Oervasius and Protasiuj
the " patrons " of the orthodox at Milan (/.)i«r.
xxii. 11). Somewhat later he saya of dcparttd
kings and martyrs, " llli Hunt supphces, hi
patroni " (Expos, in Ev. S. l.uc. i. 12).
Paulinua of Nola frequently gives the title to
Felix, to whom hia church waa dedicated, and
under whose peculiar protection he believed
himself and hia people to live. Thus, writing in
395 {Carm. ii. in S. Fel. 26)—
"0 felix Felice tuo tlW praesiile Nola,
Incllta cive sacro, caeleati Hnn:i. patrono."
Similarly Carm. in S. F. iii. 105 ; v. 316, vi. 5i
PATHoy SAINTS
Ktf Mpe.i«lly i„ th« Inter N„t„litm, which «.„l.
to th« y. «r 4(m. Tho u.,^„ wii. . I.T . ""^^
dent...., whM.« hyin„H, /,« r«r,«,. „, . 7ri,.
.,m« time «.ter 4.:, (He« //y„.r .! w j 'u?
liii. lin. lilt.). .Sf. Aiiifinti 1.. I„. '. '^•''
other, mu. h,vu i.,a,l.. hi.n .u,nili„r . , X^,
hei pi-«k» (it niii ,i,|ii,L' the (l,.,,,l ,, .1 '
ne»r «hn,n they ,„■,. I,i,ri,.| .. . ,'"' '" "'« »'">"»
Wedn.l tho wnnl u„.,| ,iU,l|,telv in .hi 1 ",
S^'%!"S5,.;r'J? F'"-'-
l;ii. 14). lly'the y,.nr 4^1 Th ^?,"T '■
^a'''". the iiMi^e must have l,ee,, >K "' ui
-u^i.h.,(..,,a,.. Mi«,.:.^::::;^;-fr
th.toc.:„rr..di„hLii,w;:;^irS'<;^ -;•"'»
I. I.l). Ihe L'urr.'ntva ro ,«./,„„„,■,•
Mri-i.rt.ii.,1 ..,»,„, i,.„„??'S"*;; '*-■
Similarly tho littlo town 'of Abei'ir''.';,^'?:
Prudent! IIS, the Kiimi ma nro »h . . '' "'"•
ofai.w;,...e(ir';;:^^;"»!-^."j.^i"
not occur II the veiv Ion,, „ ," , "^'^ '''*'
church, I'nulinua »f No"„ ™lt s\ J^ "' "''•""'
im(£imt. v. 15 vviii ^ ^'""*^"""'"'-
In Lucmn's account of th« rlic„ ' ^ ^'
wv. . f St. Stephen; he i:s:rL'''''^
Steph«nus"(/,V/ft'„/.v/ qj a • J' "Jominii.t
Aug.). The lilii," 'Z reValTts s'T' ''• "*' ^'^''''
cJl thcniselv,.. •' the lorils of h ".'" "..^"'""
7), mi two „f then, are ,ll ''l"™ <•*'''•
ajUnil ..,, r.,Z ?^odS '"V^"'^;
Mint bi'ine i!^. ,v,;>i„, (K„ ,„. >.«^> *y. the
Si'-' "■•■il-'o";;;™'!,:
Alcuinof St.phen Cr',T,^>. qi " , P*"""- Thus
Similarly HiiiZ^a^d Abbi "^ ^'""' ^- '"'^P'^-^
^Kr^nttsirtK-r^"-'
into the conventional use of anv^'*';' °"' *■»"
d^oto the tutelary li"„: ff rpColT'' *°
T^ were "champion," or "patrons" T "•
"Toi, t'hrvs. Ilom rh, <f<? » P*yns (jrpo<r-
§7X "mlvocates-'V, • i ^'"•"''^ «< /Vo»doc»,
^m)^>t:rr::f^;^:^{!;.?'::yii^v^-
S*Sp::.t^''^];f'-?^)r"S;f
PATHON SAINTS I679
--titute tL\;. i;^:^:'';^^^ -"^h to
K'-Ht a patron "l-.y",/^^ ''!"' "'""''"^^'' •"
=:-i~ii:i^:=S=H:ff'!'-^;:i
runiain., rai.,e,l the ^,e V ' V " ^ " ' """"
^'..^np-l no H|,«ht bunlen ,f r ^ ,ao " Vv h't
mtrona, ami ,|i,i not know t '• V /' ' " *""*
1" the course „f tin,, h '''''"''■ '*"■ •')•
patron. ■ • „ ,""•;. tL ' VT- ''1"''""" ' "^""'' »
i^U'ltaihurcHt A in.a't::'';^ '•"'-!'•'"".
"' «t. .John the Kai ti. . u "• '" '"'"""'
i"tercx.^sorforher h, u'n i^'i '1"'''''" ''« «"
! p. Hcl yearly ^"" '' "V' ^'"I'l'""." She
tl.r.,„^-h hi rayetftlev :;•.'? k"™'"''"' »>""
C'hri.t both . ,, le „ T"," '"'"^ ""• '"'' "<■
might go." '.k",^\?";' :''^''r'' '■'"' "'^T
i"»^^ke It. John in^il th ^^ ^'^' ^^"^' '"'>-"'" »»
Warnfriilus r «", ' Un, T'T" <'"""'"»
Such freed,./ of Vh '""'• ^'"'- '• ^"J)-
has been r t ictL t"!!.;'! '^ '"-"•*;. "^-"
when a ,,uhlic ,1 ,{ t '"'"'? "^ """»'•
must have bee. tK ?<■ "-' '■'''' teil. He
pi-.-rr^oni'-^ho ^. ,r,!r':" "S^"-
bur ed there " or wt,,. u ^ '"'''" '"'"xi
and v^as.dti en of i '.'"'""« """' "'" P''"'*
H<>.no wondert'u y„v ' '. 7 ■""" r*"' •""* " '"
p-piei.theTr i;:Lrne:d '<r ''■"' "■«
111. I'atiims of Plarrt ^ 1
expressly declared by «,7 ''"' """'^ "f*
heen the "patrl "^,^™^., ""•""•'' "' have
name is not \jive, I v .„ 7 * "" '''"'■""• ''he
enumerated by hh, ■VL"t?"r '" "'Z """'»
and Spain (I c" ^^v h^» "'.'r "*^ ^'"'•'^a
which he as.si,M,Vto Th • "" '^""'•■''"''»
wore so regardc in ,„Tk '"''"" **"" they
V. 14,5) three ,.' fh "*'''''' »""'"i (^^ C<'r.
1^0 tauKht that St. Peter „nd St l'."' /"'•"'""•
special i Htrons of Romr"^',' 8o'"s 7'' ''"'
pare what he says of St r , ' § ^ ' "='""■
Genesius wa.s th7«nurd „^ '!"7' f' § *>•
"( his birth there- its nl? 1 '''"' ^>' "Kht
death." (Auct. lie I'aC"'r^' "T^f "'" *"'
interOpp. Paulini Nol a7<; I 71' "''''''• ^' J'^-
tells us that, whle sain^^ ^h ''. f^'\ ^'^"'n
and imitated throuZu the""!'' 'I ''""""'•«<'
certain places thev af« h ,'''""■'''• " /et in
amon, tVeir "JK^i^t^Itt a"""* '''""'"'''y
veneration, because some „ne "Z the"'" T""^
commonly dwelt there, oTbecause of "Jh """«
sence of his sacred relics whi.h h f ""* P""*"
to «uch or such inhablu'nt? 'a'::;^".^'""
then proceeds to name seveml I 7"'""- He
, cities and re^rinn, "? V !• ^''^ ''""'""^ "^
the Theban leii n 'the f'^''''"/ " "^ """n 5
Alps ; Hn.r/TA,f'lf,J\) ^t^""'-
St. )e,>y,a„d St. Germain of iS R™'"" '
of Champagne, the people of which ^hJlTpT
"'■Jl
'I'
..IS -
•■•■rfc"
''tn
\^ii
1580
PATRON SAINT8
vince " hastened to the city of Rheims, offering I
their vows there as if to a present patron. Thus
hath the divine goodness provided for the whole
world by giving to the several provinces or
peoples a special patron in whom to rejoice "
(Hum. de Aat. Willibrordi, 1). In the age of
Alcuin, we observe, certain honours were claimed
for a martyr in every church, though special
honours were paid to him, and special trust
reposed in him in those places of which he was
the patron, but at first the honours paid to
them and other saints were entirely local. A
curious illustration of this occurred when Julian
separated Constantia from Gaza, of which it was
a suburb. As a consequence, says Sozomen
{Hist. Kcct. V. 3), "each has its bishop and
clergy by itself, and its celebrations of martyrs
and memorials of the bishops who have belonged
to it."
The saints protected the church dedicated
with their relics :
" Ita 8Uis meriils jam tecta sacrala tnetnr,
Ut procul effugiat lioslts »b aede Bmra."
(Alcuin, Conn. 3S ad Oral. S. Andr.)
Similarly Carmina 42, 77-79, 8.5, 95, 98, 115.
They afforded a general protection to the
people who worshipped in their churches : ,
"Martyria egregil Quintlnl altare Iriumphls
Hoc fulget, pupulo bic qui ferat auxilium."
(Id. Cam. 64 ad Ar. S. Qu.)
" A<\juvat bic nos
"Cujus bonore sacro cuiiAtant haec tenipla dicata."
(Id. Carm. 83 ad AccJ. S. PetH.)
Specimens of the Dedication-formulae of
churches {e.ij. " in honorem S. Joannis Bap-
tistae") may be seen under Inscriptions, p.
848.
IV. The Angela Patrom.— When St. Michael,
St. Gabriel, and St. Raphael were first chosen
by authority as patrons of a church or oratory,
we are unable to say. A church dedicated to St.
Michael was built at Ravenna in 545. (Ciam-
pini, Vet. Monwn. ii. t:iv. xvii. in vol. i. p. 87).
The Besanc,on Sacramentary, a Gallican book
modified by Roman influence, of which the MS.
belongs to the 7th century, gives a " missa in
honore Sancti Michahel," which was evidently
used on his day in oratories, &c., named after
him, or possibly, as the Galileans of that age had
very few saints' days, on the anniversary of their
opening whenever it was (" in honore bcati arch-
sngeli Michahelis dedicata nomini Tuo loca,"
Mus. Ital. i, 356). There is no similar mass in
any other Gallican missal, but we find examples
in all the old Roman sacramentaries, to which we
infer from the Besan(,on that thoy belonged at
an early period. The Gelasian assigns to iii. kal.
Oct. " Orationes in Sancti Archangeli Michaelis "
(Liturgii J\om. Vet. Murat. i. 669), which con-
tain no reference to the dedication of the church ;
but the so-called Leonian gives five niissae for
pridie kal. Oct., under the heading, " Natale
Basilicae Angeli in Salaria," of which two
(i. IT ) alhidp to his being the patrfm of the
church (Murat. ". s. 407). The early copies of
the Gregorian all have such a mass (iii. kal.
Oct.), and they all by the title (Dedicatio Basi-
licae S. Michaelis, jifur. S. Angeli) intimate that
PATRON SAINTS
St. Michael was the patron of the church in
which it was to be used (see Rocoa's copy in Opp,
Greg. M. V. 151, Antv. 1615 ; Pamelius, Rituals
SS. PP. ii. 345; Murat. «. s. ii. 125; Menard in
0pp. Greg. ed. Ben. iii. 135). Among the poems
of Alcuin are two on churches dedicated to Um
(29, 168), three on altars of St. Michael (H7, 64,
77), and a sixth (186) 'ad aram sanctorum
archangelorum," i.e., as the verses shew, of
Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael.
V. Patrons of Classes. — In the middle agei
every trade and profession had its patron, and
every disease a saint especially gifted for its
cure. The germ of *his^ distribution of orticei
appears even from the very introduction of
saint-worship. Thus Justina, persecuted by the
magician Cyprian, " implores the \irgin Mary to
aid a virgin in peril " (Greg. Naz. Jlom. '24 in
Ci/pr. § 11). St. Agnes is addressed by Pruden-
tius (Z)e Coron. 14, in fine) as the especial
patroness of female chastity. St. Nicetius, the
patron of Lyons, was the especial friend of
prisoners (Greg. Turon. Vitae I'atrum, viii. 7).
St. Sigismund cured the ague (Greg. 'I'uron.
de Qlor. Mart. 75). In the Hesanvnn llissal
found at Bobio, belonging to the 7th century, ig
a mass of St. Sigismund, " pro frigorilicis "
(Mabillon, Musae. Ital. i. 344). Phooas was
the patron of sailors (Aster. Amas. IJiicom. in
Phoc. 5 in Combefis, Aiictar. i. ISO, par. 1680).
Sailors at their mess would by turns deposit in
money the cost of a meal as the share of Phocas,
and when they arrived in port distribute it to
the needy in his name (ibid.).
\'I. Oood Offices expected from Patron Saints.
—(1) That most frequently assigned to them was
one, the fulfilment of which was least open to
dispute. They seconded the prayers of their vota-
ries, and thus often led to their accomplishment,
where without such aid they would have failed.
St. Basil called them 8eii(r<oi)i (Tvvtpyol (Horn.
xix. 8, xxiii. 7). Leo of Rome exhorts his people
to keep vigil in St. Peter's, " who will deij;n by
his prayers to assist our supplications and fiistiiigs
and almsgivings " {Serin, xi. 4). Gregory 1. calls
patron saints "adjutores orationis" (fn. Kvang.
ii.. Born, 32, § 8 ; comp. Bas. above). In fact
the constant hope and request of their clieuti
might be expressed in the words of Alcuin,
" Iste preceH nortras adiuvet, opto, suls."
(Carm. 61 ad Aram, S. Jotmn. Bapt.)
Similarly Carrn. 28 ad Sepulcr. Ammdil
" Adjuvat iste preces populi ; " and Carm.
47 ad Aram SS. Greg, et Hieron.
(2) There was no danger or difficulty in which
their aid was not invoked with success. " Letui
keep vigil," says Leo, " in the church of the
blessed apostle Peter, by whose merits aiding us,
we may obtain release from all tribulations"
Serm. 84, § 2 ; comp. 81, § 2). Some of the in-
stances in Paulinus are, even hy his own confes-
sion, calculated to raise a smile rather than to
edify. For example, a rustic who had lost two
oxen by theft, instead of pursuing the robbers,
flies at once to the church of St. Felix, whom
he declares responsible for their restoration {Jk
8. Fd. Cr,rm. vi, 29! I).
(3) The martyrs were the especial protecton
of those who were named after them. Tho!
Theodoret says that Christians "make a point of
giving the appellatioas of the martyrs to their
PATRON SAINTS
ciildren, by that means procuring safety and
jiuu-dianship for them " (cVuec. Ag. Cur. Disp.
(4) The active assistance in battle of some Ions
depirted hrro was the subject of many a Greek
and Komai, myth. Among the semi-converts
of the 4th century, there could not fail to be
many on -vhom these romantic traditions had
made a deop impression, and we cannot be sur
prised at thoir sju-edy reproduction under a
Christian guise. The patron martyr was re
garded as a faithful ally, both in aggression
and defence of those who served him well Jt
is, in shgrt, in the heathen myth that we
discover the germ of the mediaeval romance
which culminated in the conversion of the apes
ties into knight-errants. Theodoret relates
that on the night before the battle in which
Theodosius overthrew Kugenius, a.d. 394 St
John and St. I'hilip appeared to hiiii '" in white
garments and riding on white horses" and
told him that they had been "sent as his allies
an champions (JiUt. y. 24). St. Ambrose
had promised that he would often visit Florence
After his death in 397 "he was frequentiv
seen praying at the altar in the Ambrosian
basdica which he had himself built there"
and «hen the city was besieged by Radagaisus
in 40^ he appeared to a citizen of the place
and A.re old its safety. The ne.xt day Stilicho
came to its relief ( I Vta A,r^ros. a Paulino conscr!
50). During the war with the Goths, a.d 410
the Romans refused to repair a weak part of thJ
city wail, " alhrming that Peter the apostle had
promised hem that the guardianship of that
place should be his care. For the Romans reve-
rence and worship this apostle above all "
rocopius <k Bella Oothico, i. 23; ed. Nieb. ii
that when Nola was besieged, St. Felix it,
I fro Mart. XVI.). Leo of Home, 440. asks
jtnujnphan.ly, "Quis hanc urbem' refo m .vi
Mliil Quis a capt.vitate eruit? Quis a caede
Nelendit? I.udus Ciicensium, an cu m st^„
to™m.'-;(&„„. 81, § 1). Ve'nantiu ;a a 56T
[ »p of St. I'eter and St. Paul (Poem. iji. yd. lej
i "AfiKfehoaiiliduopropHgnaculapraesimt."
Apart of tho poem from which we quote, including
this c aim ot protection, is said to have been in?
Tn ^' 'r' *f„ 1?'- ™ 'he walls of his church
at (.lastonbury (Bolland. Feb. torn. i. n 906^^
Compare Rklics. P" "''-'•
(5) But more alien still from the spirit anH
a of the Gospel was the dependence faced on
epatron from protection frotn the consequences
™,even at the day of judgment. We finS even
|iieemc(l,ofthis dependence at the earliest norin.j
Itld to the ''"«'""=' ry ^' P»rtially
I- ""™ to the imnrnnor lirpnco i^-H k ^t/
Itm. ■ 'f™.°°' acquainted with any book that
PAUL
1581
'•.v« Mary z^'i^virtci mfr'
printed in Gibson, u. i ■ C,«,,», '«?'/**"
Oxf. lG3fi • ""^"''"^' ^-^ fatromge of Au.jeh,
[W. E. S.]
PAUL, Apostle ; Festivals of, etc
(1) tKSTivAL OP St. Peter and St Papt
See Peter, Apostle, Festivals o^ n ^
rat<^ of St. Paul on' J^^^o^/' '^
{■-) l-cstival of Coni-ersion of St Paul Tl,„
St Paul «, *r u V *^ commemoration on
r o, . *"* commemoration of St Pa„I ,1
we have spoken as tendintr tr. ;t„ y.^njcn
b.ing „ .f. .M.. S'Sf .':. ■ ,s™""
tme for this festival, an apneal whirh ff^t'
stantiated, would giVe a le'ddedTy ' aJw'd'at
the ZT!'" ?""°" "« those giVen by
the Benedictine editors as 278 'ITi (P, J
x«viii. 1268), and also ,89 of ihose '"eS b1
them as spurious (ib. xxx\x SOPS'* '/J^""'" by
the first of these, wh le?t Is true^h ^M'^^'^
version of St. P^ul is dtu In.t ' *''« «»»■
pan of the Acts containing that hstoX"!"'"
etThfh 'T' 'T''^ ^'^ in t* 7, S
yet the heading which connects the sermon with'
r f" :
> r-^ij
1582
PAUL
vocatione apostuli Pauli et commendatione
orationia dominicae," and it seems to have been
one ot' those made for the paschal season, when
the Acts was regularly read. It may be added
that the Calendnriwii CurthHi/incnso makes no
mention of this festival, a weighty argument
against its celebration in Africa in Augustine's
time.
Kot unnaturally, in the course of time, when
the festival was actually established, the subject
matter of the sermon led to its receiving its
later title. Thus Florus {Expos, in Epp. I'auti ;
1 Cor. iii., 1 Thess. iv., 1 Tim. i. ; Patrol, ciix.
324, &ic.) invariably cites it as Sermo de Cmivtr-
aioiie Apostuli Pauli. Assuming the authorship
of this expositio to be established, the above is
the earliest allusion we are acquainted with to the
existence of the festival, bringing it to about the
middle of the 9th century.
The second sermon is. entitled in some MSS., it
is true, in Coni-eisione S. Pauli, but Florus
always cites it merely de Paulo Apustulo (pp. cit. ;
Rom.' i. viii. ix. ; Phil. ii.). The thi-d sermon is
merely a cento made up from other sermons of
St. Augustine.
No homily for the day is found in the works
of Leo, Maximus of Turin, Bode, &c. The festival
is given, however, in some forms of the Gre-
gorian Sacrameutary (col. 22, ed. Menard),
where the service includes a 'solemn' benediction.
On the other hand, however, Pameliua obelizes it,
and the Cud. l!eg. Succuie (Vat. 1275) of the
Benedictine edition omits it altogether. This
MS. is, however, of about the date 000 A.D., and.
Menard's 0>d. l/uiOitcrictnsis i., a century earlier,
gives the fesLVnl, but puts it after the com-
memorations on the same day of SS. Emeren-
tianus and Macharius. It may be noted that
the festival is altogether wanting in the Gre-
gorian antiphouary. Almost identical with the
form in the Gregcjrian Sacrameutary is that in
the Ambrosian, the only differences being that
the latter has a prayer super sindotu-m, and that
the benediction is shorter. In the Coincs
Hieronymi it is entirely absent, Jan 25 being
merely recognised as the Natakoi Macharius and
Emerentianus. Taking then into account the
reference of Florus, and assuming the date of
the Cod. Thiodericensis to be rightly given, it
will follow that the festival was existing at the
beginning of the 9th century, but its absence
ft'ora MSS, of the sacramentary of a later date
will suggest that it came but slowly into recog-
nition. Thus there is no allusion to it in the
capitulare of Ahyto, bishop of Basle early in the
9th century.
On turning to the martyrologies, we find in
the Hart. Hieronymi for Jan. 25, after the entry
«' Nicomediae, Biti," the further notice, " Romae,
Translatio Sancti Pauli Apostoli " {Patrol, xxx.
455), a suggestion, it would seem, of a different
kind of origin for the festival. The metrical
martyrology of Bede gives a notice of the day,
" Octavas merito gaudet i onversio Pauli " {Patrol.
xciv. 60;!). This, however, is wanting in some
MSS., and may be summarily dismissed as an
interpolation. Moreover, in the ordinary martyr-
o!o"V of Bed'-', in its true text nx mlited by
Henschenius, there is no mention of the conver-
sion of St. Paul, though this occurs among the
additions of the late texts (ActuSanalori(m,itU\rch,
tol. ii. p. xi.)' "^'^^ martyrology of Kabanus
PAULA
Maurus mentions, on Jan. 25, both the trans-
lation and conversion {Patrol, ex, 1130); see also
Notker {Patrol, cxxxi, lO.'ig). Wandiilbert, in
the 9th century, commemorates the (.!stiv,i',
"Octavo ex Saulo* conversum gloria I'nuluni"
{Patrol, cxxi. 587). Some 9th-rentury cijeadiirs,
however, do not recognise the festival (soe, e.g.^
the Kal. Floriaccnsc, in Marteuc and liur.icd,
Ampl. Coll. vi. 650). We may perhiips ii|i|iioii.
mate to the date of the introductimi ot' this
fe>tival into Englaud by noting thiit, while tlnTe
is no mention of it iu the ]ioutitical of Egij'Tt,
archbishop of York (732-766 A. D.), yet it isgivfn
in tlie sacrameutary of Leot'ric (bishop of li.xcter,
1050-1072 A.D.). The MS. of thi.s, howevei,
now in the Bodleian Library, is of tiie luth
century {Surtees Society's Publications, vol, hj.
p. xi.).
(3) Apocryphal Literature. — Of a|inciT[ihal
works connected with the mime of St. I'.iurtlipre
is a considerable quantity. There are Acts .,f
Peter and Paul, published by Tischeiuiorf (.4-/-i
Apostolorwn Apocrypha, pp. 1. sqq ; cf. \i. xiv),
There are also Acts of Paul and Thecia (i'.. p. 4(ij
cf. p. xxi.) referred to as early as Tertullian (ilt
Paptisino, c. 57). A Syriac version of this hai
been published by Dr. Wright {Apovrijiilmi .kit
of the Apostles).
Two spurious letters exist in Avmeni.iD, one
purporting to be frc" the Corinthian chiuch to
St. Paul, and the other the apostle's answer. A
Liitin translation of these is given in Kiibritins
{Codex Pseud. Vet. Ted. iii, 667, sq.i.). .{t
English translation by Lord Byron is also given
iu Moore's Life of Byron. We have also a spu-
rious letter to the church of Laodicea, in Latin
(for which see Lightfoot's Colossians, ed. 2, pp,
281, sqq,), and a series of letters in Latin,
forming a correspondence between St. Paul anj
Seneca. These are given by Fabricius {op. (.
i, 871; cf. Jerome de Viris illustr. 12; .\iig,
Ep. 153 ad Macedonium, § 1-t ; reference may
also be made to the essay in L.ightfoot'8 Philiji-
plans).
Further, we have an Apocalypse of Paul, (ihl
edited by Tischendorf {Apocali/pses yl/wcrv/'te,
pp, 34, sqq,) from a Greek MS, in the Amkro
sian Library. A Syriac text also exists, of whicii
an English translation has been puhlishej (ii.
p. xvii,). [K. S.]
PAUL, ST. (IN Art). [Pcter,]
PAULA (1), martyr at Byzantium umliT
Aurelian, with her husband Lucianus and thiir
children Claudius, Hypatius, Paulus, Dionysinii
commemorated Jan, 19 {Cal. Bijzant.). Basil
Menol. places her under Jan. 3, naming tki
children as above, but the husband Lucillianu!,
and attributing the martydom to tlie reign of
Aurelian, The Cal. Byzant. has Paula and b(r
children (who are not named) and her husbiDJ
Lucillianus under June 3, In ffieroti. ifart. i
Paula v/ith numerous others at Rome occm
under June 3,
(2) Domitio; commemorated at Betlileii«B
Jan, 26 {Hieron. Mart.) ; Jan, 27 (Usuard. Mttrt.;
Vet. Bom. Mart.).
(3) Virgin martyr at the city of Malaca in
• The reading of the MSS. for the mistaken ri»liiiji< |
the earlier editluns, toeclo.
Spain ;
Mart.).
PAULINA
commemoratsd June
mistaken rctdlii(i<
(4) Commemorated with Sabit,u8, Maximus,
»nd others at Uamascus July 20 (Usuard Mart )
This name occurs as Paulus in Ilieron. Mart.
[C. H.]
PAULINA, martyr with her parents
Artemius and Candida at Rome; commeniorated
Jun. 6 (Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart.).
[C. H.]
PAULINUS (1), martyr with Heraclius and
othirs at Athens; commemorated May 15
(Basil. Mcnol.). ■'
(2) Martyr with Felicissimus, Eraclius, ai.d
otliers m Ltruria ; commemorated May 26
(Hieron. Mart. ; Usuard. Mart.),
(8) Bishop of Nola confessor; commemorated
June 22 (Usuard., Wand., Hieron. Mart. • Vet
Rom. Mart. ; Florus, Mart. ap. Bed.). '
(4) Martyr ; commemorated Aus S^i
(Wright, Syr. Mart.). ^' °
(6) Bishop of Triyes under Constantius, con-
fessor; natalis Aug. 31 (Usuard. Mart. ; Boll
Aiita SS. Aug. vi. 668) ; depositio Sept. 4 (Hieron
Uart.).
^?^,*!u'^"7'*i '"""'■ °*^«": commemorated
Sept. 7 (Wright, Syr. Mart.).
1 i^l^.'^n''/'! J"!'' •=""'■««"»•! commemorated
in Britam Oct. 10 (Usuard. Mart. ; Bed. Mart )
[C. H.]'
PAULUS (1), the first hermit in Thebais •
commera. Jan. 10 (Usuard., Wand., Mart ■ Vet
SmMart ; Bed., NotK. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i'
602); with Johannes the Calybite Jan. 15 (Cal
Bi/iant. ; Dan. Codex Litunj. iv. 251). '
(3) Martyr with Pausirion and Theodotion at
Cleopatris m i,gypt under Diocletian; com-
T&iTim) ^* ^^"'-^y"""*--' l^o"' ^cfa
(3) Bishop of Trois Chateaux ; commemorated
Feb. 1 (Usuard. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Feb. i.
(4) Martyr with Cyrillu., Eugenius. and
others; commemorated in Asia • Mar. 20
Jto iU Si)'' ' ^^'^' ^'"^' ' ''*""• ^°^ ^^■
(5) Bishop of Narbonne, confessor; com-
n,emoiated JIar. 22 {Hieron. Mart. ; Vet. liom.
it ili. 3?ir '^' ' ^'"'^' ' """• ^''^ ^^'
(8) Commemorated with Isidorus, monks at
Corduba, Ap. 17 (Usuard. Mart.).
(7) Martyr with Petras, Andreaa, Dionysia ;
wZITTT'^ "' Lnmpsacus May 15
(Uinard. Mart. ; Hieron. Mart.).
(8) Commemorated at Nevers with Heraclius
xitt ^^' ^"^'^- ^'"''- ' ^'""^ '
hi.i!,l^r'''-^'"'"' """"nemorated at Autun with
Wop lieyerianus June 1 (Usuard. Mart.).
„ (10) Bishop of Constantinople, martyr und.^-
toustautius ; commemorated June 7 (Usuard '
l:V;rii.T?'^''-^-^-*-'Boi'i:
PAVEMENT 1583
18 (Usuard : at Tomi ; commemorated June 20 (Hieron
M,rt. ; Usuard. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jun i^.
Juii^'!?.'^'"*^'"''"' ^"^ '''°*''" •'"annes under
Julian; commemorated at Home June 28
(Huron. Mart.; Bed. Afart.; Usuard. XVV).
(13) Deaoon and martyr ; commemorated at
Corduba July 20 (Usuard. Mart.). U„ 'er thil
I day occur in Hieron. Mart. Paulus at Corinth
and Paulus (Paula in Usuard.) of Uanlcus
A^'iuwS.tr^^sr '"--'--^'^'
D.mo) Cod. Liturj,. iy. 267, 27,')). Undor^C s'
a I aulus occurs for Africa in Hieron. Mart
(16) Patriarch of Constantinople; com-
memorated Oct. 3 (Ca/. £Mibp.).
(17) Commemorated with Paulina Dec. 5 (Co/.
fhtf-^- ° ^'^°". ^W«'-'- » i^anlus occurs fo;
this day, with many other,, but uo Paulina.
rc H 1
PAUSIACUS, bishop of Synnada in the 7th
Bol "I; '■'-•"^niorated Ma/l3 (Basil, iw.
Boll. Acta y. Mai, iii. 240). [o. H.]
''A^JV^'o "'^'■*7'" ""der Hadrian;
-•■ated Ap. 8. (Basil, Menol.). [C. H.]
Theodot. under Diocletian; commemorated
Jan. 24 (Basil, Menol. ; Cal. Byzant). [C. H.]
PAVEMENT. Although scarcely to be in-
c uded among Christian antiquities, the plat^o m
or pavement on which Roman governors Tf
provinces and other like officials were accustomed
to place their chairs when sitting in judgn^nt
comes under our notice on one occasi„;^ of"ueh
can hardly be omitted. It must be almost need-
less to say that the occasion referred to is that in
which our Lord was brought before Pilate-" „
the place called the Pavement " UU T6itolxf,7
l^^vo. Me6.rp.ro., St. John xix.Vu It appears"
that It w,^ the practice for Roman ofHcfairof
sti^u. T *° '"T '"'•''' » P"^--^""-"' to be con-
st! ucted as an adjunct to a praetorium wherever
one was established. Suetonius (in Vita X!
Ou...) says that it was related of Julius Caesar
that m his expeditions he carried with him pave'
t"TelIa?re '' ""?. *--'«t«d ("'" expe^^" ' bu
tessellnta et sectilm pavimenta ..ircumtulisse ").
Casaubon remarks upon this passage, that what
he carried with him were probably the materials
A representation in art of such a pavement may
be found on the top of the reliquary of car^ei
nory [Reuquary] preserved in the Biblfotlca
Quiriniana at Brescia, in the subject of ChrT,?
brought before Pilate, the seat if the latter
being paced on a slightly raised plajform ^r
' .^^!^ is prohabfy of the 4th rmUiiy.
The pavements of churches were in the earlier
• -.If
T-^
1584
PAVEMENT
examples of thp fdrincr ia probably thepnvcmpnt
jn the bnsilioft of Kcparntuii, near Orleansville,
in AltJfii'i". probably circa A.n. 325. (See
wooilcut.) The two kinds of work were
occasionally mixed, as in the pavement of the
chapel of St. Ale.rander, on the Via Latina,
• few miles from Rome, discovered about
.}k
ritvflnunt of BmIUos at lUiMmitiia.
twenty years ago. In this instance slabs 'of
marlile eneloic squares of coarse mosaic of white
marble, in which were a sort of quatrefoils,
roughly formed by tesserae of dark stone. This
pavement probably dated from the 5th or 6th
century. One of very similar character, and
probably of the same date, was discovered in
1858, when the original level of the north aisle
of the choir of S. Lorcnzo-fuor-le-Mura, at
K( me, was reached by excavation. The pavement
of the earlier church of San Clemente, at Rome,
was 'onnd to consist of slabs of marble arranged
in a somewhat simple pattern. The churches of
St. Sophia and St. John Studios, at Conf.tanti-
nople, both retain portions of their original
pavements : large slabs of marble, circular or
quadrangular, are enclosed by bands of inter-
lacing ornament, chiefly executed in strips of
marble, bnt in |>art in mosaic (i-. Salzenberg,
Buiidcnhnak' Cimstdntinopcls, &c.). A good,
though small, example of asectile pavement will
be found in the triforium of the cathedral of
Aix-la-Chapellc, being no doubt a portion of
that brought by Charles the Great from Rome or
Ravenna.
Mosaic pavements not unfrequently contained
inscriptions recording th« namei> of the donors.
The remains of such an inscription were found in
the ruins of the basilica of Reparatus mentioned
above. In this occurs the names of Pa<Uus,
PomponiuB, Rusticus, and Adeodatus with the
additionH "votum solvit," " voti comp." &c.
The pavement is one of considerable elegance;
it is divided into compartments, in which are
figures of slaga, goats, shtr-;;, &C. Aii erigrftvifig
will bo found In Lea Oirrelages e\naUl^s. by
M. Am^, pp. 15-28, borrowed from that given
in the report of the Commission Scientilique
PAX
de I'Alg^rie (Beaux-Arts, I. i. pi. liii.). Anuthw
instance of a pavement provided by ths
contributions of the members of the chiirci is
afforded by a recent discovery iit Olvmi.ia
mentioned in a letter printed in the Tl„cs if
April 16, 1877. It is there stated that the
ruins of a large Byzantine church, " iiJ-rhaps aj
early as the 5th century, had boen IoudI. '
The pavement of this church was dirmej of
large marble slabs, on one of which, in tt;
centre of the nave, was inscribed, "Kviiats
a most discreet Anagnostes, who for tlu- sshai
tion of his Eoul ornamented the pavement.'
In the crypt of the catheilral of Veiona are
remains of a tesselated pavement of elciai.i
design, probably not later in date than tljc ,ith
century (v. engraving in Museum Vcioncnse h.
Maffei, p. ccviii.). In the compartments of thii
are inscriptions containing the names of the
contributors to the work and stating the qusn.
tities paid for by each, as " Eusebia cura suij
te.s<allavit P. CXX."
Another remarkable instance of nn eariT
pavement is that of the church of Dcdaiiioultt!,
in Jlingrelia (2'A« Crimea, &c. by (.'apt. Tel'er
p. 12.3), which is attributed to the 6th century.
In this instance forty small circular slabs are lit
into the floor near the south entraiKt, and are
asserted to be placed over the heads of the
"Syioi TfiT<rapdKoi>ra," the forty saints martTrei
in Armenia, in the time of Licinius, by bfinij
exposed to the rigour of a winter frost in i
marsh.
Nor were pavements made use of for racmoriilj
only, for Gregory of Nyssa (in Theod. Orm. ih)
says, " Nor do the walls alone of this teraiile
read us lessons of piety, lor the very pareraent,
m its mosaics like a flowery mead, promotes out
instruction." That few examples have rcnuineii
to our time will not appear surprising, when it ij i
remembered that the pavement is the part of the
church of all the most exposed to injury.
One example of a tesseb'ted pavement require)
mention as being one of the few instances of tlii
occurrence of Christian symbols in Roman
remains in England ; the pavement discover*!
at Frampton in Dorsetshire, an engraving of
which has been given by Lysons {jRcliijmit
Britannae-Somanae). The ruins in which it |
was discovered were apparently those of a villi;
it covereil the floor of an apartment of a squjn
form with a semicircular projection or a]i.-(
from one side. In a compartment occu]'yini; tni
centrol part of the arc of the apse remaiceJ
the two handles with portions of the li|) of i
vase which if complete would probably hare
borne the form of the vases or chalices cHa I
found in early Christian art (v. Chaucf,);
while in the centre of the chord of the semiclriit
was the labarum forming the centre of a ban! |
of foliage ; immediately, however, beyond tki)
band was one which ran round the room, aid I
was decorated with tigures of dolphins. In ihi I
centre of this band and in contact with itnj
labarum was a large head of Neptune, while 1 1
figure of Cupid occnpied a like position oil
another side. It is difficult to form a satisfit' f
tory concdusion as to the destination oftliiil
apai'tmenl ia visw of this reiiiitrkRMeei-'lc'vi'i'i
of Pagan deities and Christian symbols,
[A.K1
PAX. [Kiss, p. 903.]
PAX VOBISCUM
PAX VOBISCUM. [DoM.Nus VoBiscaM.]
PEACE, KISS OF. [Kios.]
PEACOCK. See Lamps, p. 921. The pea-
cock was a favourite ornament from the'^l.t
oen nryj .t .8 found, with other birds, at P, '.
.noli (see new frescoes in the South Kensin^. m
Museum, nos. 1270-7;i). «t PompeiranrHe? ^i"
l«nemn, a... repeatedly in the Jewish catacombs
nos Ob 5b2). Martigny says it was a symbol
of the Kesurrecfon from the annual u.oj tinj
(^f"•..!^'-•i^•«l2)':•ML"crit^
Chmt. 1, HI. p 92) says there is neither author v
for. nor objection to, the symbolism, a v ew n
w >eh we concur ; and Martigny quotas a sentn e
from one of St Anthony of Padua's sermons
15 post Tnn.) which compares our bodv CT Jm
ptSt;.''''^"'-'^--"'-'^w?tr;4'
St. Augustine {de Civit. Dei I r,i „ • x
.peaks of this bird as an emblem of imrn'o";
tality, from the opinion of his time that its flesh
was in part or entirely incorruptible. For Ms
or whatever reason it is made in the cemeteries
Uv. Kiii." me the V^fand ^he'S.f S eK"
Lr The 1 '^' "P""'"^y °^ heathenTo:
ration The fact is, as any draughtsman win
see, he peacock with outspread tail is spLr^lv
adapted to on.ament circular vaultings an'd Mali
beneath them, as in Aringhi, V?. I co" ."."p
59. Its radiating plumes make it a geome'
trical centre for circles or curves of H
ration, and it is equally well'sui ed to IT;
centre of colour. It was probablv one nf tt.
earliest ornaments adopted b'y Chrttian L.nters'
bu tit may have been one of the latest invested
with sacred meaning. mvestea
The writer cannot find it in Oarrucci's Vetri
but u seems to have been particularly in favou;
« a fresco subject for walls or roofVi^ament
Martigny gives an example from the 06^. „f
SS. Marcellinus and Peter (see woodcut) of a
PECTORAL CROSS 1686
the casks „,. iS •'.'" '"^ ^"nmtien that
mat It u but rarely found in sci.lrture tJ^
peac_ocks are found with a verse on the epitanh
of the priest Komanus in the Mus,ip u? H^
at Lyons, and this ornament*^ f^tuen % te" ■
V.ntV^ILK''"' ^y^''"'"'^ -ulptu're :'
M T»M <-7;^'"' ^'"^^ of Venice, v<d. i p 235
only f un1fc::^'-f:'' * '" «"«'«) -ys "^e^has'
y lounu It th.-ee iimes on monument' and
, Martigny only knows two examples in Rome
P 001;. there is one on an enri ^e *i,„ '
P agus of Junius Bassus" ("^tTari," t.t rT)"
There are t Jn r»*i ^-'"•'"vmgian ornament,
tifullv IL y.^" 'conventionally hut beau-
Ufully arranged in an evangeliary of Charle
magne's (Ua.tard, vol. ii. pi. 2). [^. st J T 3
li
PEARL. [Makqarita, p. 1090.]
F<»0'ck. From Martigny.
P«acock with eircniar tr»in Wi»rl a .
f « g'obe, ,vith the remrfc tlTl'"""""»
"evidently " means tn 1?,^ ■• "' ,*''* "^ist
•««1 rising above fh. I^^i'^^ **•« "'"nged
tion. There is » sil""'' "*^" ^^^ ""»"««-
w » similar painting in St. Agne
PECTORAL CROSS (Greek, iy,6K..oy
miracuio^e futura demonstra'ba , ii n^
am dteU^r""!^^^^ "'™''"« -^^
of Tours! ^^' "^""^ " "^^-^ ^y Gregory
The earliest account of the tiont„,.i
librarian an "' Aimstasius, the
rpH ?..■•' £'^"'=™ <:•"« Pretioso ligno vel ourn
to^tT l""?-*"* I"- *""=«' "« «»« by thP pope
Gregory of Tours relates that he once put out
Apostles, and St.'MartL''" "^ '^' ^ ''«'"' *"«
nor Thomas Aquinas includes the pectoral cro«
amongst the offlci„l vestments of . bishop yet U
appears that, though it was not . parVof L.
»
1
'^ ll a
■li 'I'd
: t
''U ' *!-
1586
PECT05ALE
\>^
exclusivt'ly episcopal vesture, bishops were in the
habit iif wiiiring a pectoral cross in the time of
Dunm lus. Theprayers which are usually recited
on puttiii),' the cross upon the breast are not
anterior to the 14th century, at which date the
pectoral cross seems firi^t to have taken rank
amongst episcopal ornaments.
Pugin {Qldssari/) observes that the ^^ctoral
cross is now considered an emblem of jurisdic-
tion, hence when a bishop enters the diocese of
another he wears the cross concealed.
[H. T. A.]
PECTORAT-E, PECTORALI8. These
words are used in a variety of senses to describe
things worn on or covering the breast. We may
mention, for example, (1) the band or fillet en-
circling the breast of women. See e. g. Jer. ii.
32, where the Hebrew W'Wp (rrrriBoitanis,
LXX) is rendered by Jerome '/«»<"'" i^ector ilis ;
cf. also Isa. iii. 24(Vg.); (2) its use as equivalent
to li'atiomle (see the article), but no instances
occur of this sulficiently earl^ for our purpose ;
(3) Gregory the Great, in one of his letters, uses
liectoralis [a/, jiectorale] simply for a great-coat,
which he sends as a present to Ecclesius, bishop
of Clusium, who, having no winter coat, suffers
from the cold (Epist. xii. 47; Patrol. Uxvii.
1251). fRvS.]
PEDILAVnJM. [Maundy Thursday.]
PEDULES. [Shoes.]
PEDUM. [Pastoral Staff.]
PEGASinS, martyr with Acindynns and
others in Persia under Sapor ; commemorated
Nov. 2 (Basil, Menol. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv.
273). [C- H.]
PELAGIA (1), " holy martyr " under Dio-
cletian ; commemorated May 4 (Ca/. Bytant. j
Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 258).
(8) Martyr at Antiooh ; commemorated June
e (Basil, Menol.).
(3) Martyr with Januarius at Nicopolis in
Armenia; commemorated July 11 (^Hieron.
Mart. ; Usuard, Wand. ; Florus, Mart. ap. Bed.).
(4) Martyr of Tarsus under Diocletian; com-
memorated Oct. 7 (Basil, Menol.).
(6) Virgin mavtyr at Antioch under Nume-
rian ; commemorated Oct. 8 (Basil, Menol.) ;
with the virgins Klecta and Barbara (Co/.
Armcn.); with different companions {Ilieron.
Mart); "our mother" (,Cal. Jiyzant.); 6<rla
nilTiip Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 270.
(6) Quondam meretrix of Antioch, died a nun
at Rome ; commemorated Oct.;8 (Basil, Menol. ;
Usuard, Mart. ; Wright, Syr. Mart.).
(7) Peccatrix, martyr at Antioch with Bero-
nlcus and forty-nine others ; commemorated Oct.
19 (Hieron. Mart. ; Vet. Rom. Mart. ; Usuard,
Wand., Mart.). [C. H.]
PELEU8, bishop, martyr with Nilus, bishop
in Egypt ; commenioratBd Sept. 19 (Basil. Menol.
Usuard, Mart. ; Vet. Rom. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Sept. vi. 21); mentioned again by Usuard under
Feb. 20 [C- H.]
PENITENCE
PELEU8IU8 or PELUSIUS, presbyter,
martyr at Alexandria ; commemorated X\). 7
{Hie on. Mart.; Usuard, Marl.; Boll. Act^i SS.
Ap. i. 659 ; Wright, Syr. Mart.). [C. H.]
PELICAN. The pelican is somotiini's usej
aa a Christian symbol, in consequi^nce of the
myth which relates that whin a serpent h,i«
bitten her young, she tears of en her bri;ii»t and
revives her brood with her own blood. The
application of this symbol to the Saviour, who
gave His own blood for perishing man, wpj
readilv made (Alt, Die Heiligenhilder, p. Sij).
[C]
PELUSIOTAE. [Pmu^ARCAK.]
PENITENCE. The penitential discipline,
in its original conception, required a delin(iuent
to paso through three stages, beginning with n
confessionof his guilt [ExoMOLOQESis], and ending
with absolution, and a restoration to his forfeittj
privileges [Reco.nciliation]. The intermediate
stage of penance is treated in this article in the
following order : —
I. Names. Obioin and Deveix. iient, p. less.
II. Pbiob 10 THE Spread of the Novatiah Hebwi,
1. Duration qf penance, p. 1589.
2. Bites and uiaget, p. IS90.
IIL The Penitential Stations, p. 1691
1. rA« Jtoumerj, p. 1691.
1. Their position In the church.
11. Duration and mode of penance.
a. The Bearert, p. 1692.
I. Their position.
3. The KneeUrt, p. 1693.
1. Their pofitlon.
U. Rites and prayers,
til. Dress.
Iv. Penitential exercises.
4. The Byilandert, p. 1695.
1. Their position.
IV. Fboh the uidulb of the tTH Centdbi to m
9th.
1. /n the Halt, p. IS96. ,
2. In the Wett, p. 159T.
I. Public penitence.
II. Private penlienoe.
v. Sins and Penalties.
1, Sint tubjecting to penance, p. 1699.
1. Open.
II. Secret.
a. Penaltiet, p. 1601.
I. Whether exclusively spirltnal.
tl. Persuns on whom inflicted.
Ul. Uniformity of.
Iv. Alleviation of.
a. By repentance.
6. By cunfession.
e. By Intercession.
3. PeniUnce'denied, p. 1603.
1. Sometimes to the first commission of mor-
talia delicta.
U. Generally to the repelltlun of ddicta once
expiated.
III. Sometimes till the hour of death.
4. Penitence of the tick, p. 1606.
6. Seaton of penitence, p. 16«6.
6. Xiniiter ofpenite'e, p. 16U6.
1. Penitence qf clergy, p. 1607.
I. Names. Orioin and Detei/jphsbi.
The original meaning of the Latin word pooit-
tejUia, with its Greek equivalent ixtTivoui, wii
PENITENCE
I Cbntdbi to m
wMntnnce-implying change of heart, contrition
and amendment. In this sense it was frequentlv
ujed by early ecclesiastical writers. The transi
tlon troin this meaning to that of penitential
diicipline IS not dithcult to trace. Along with
theinwarJ feeling of contrition, there came to be
combined, m the theological idea of repentance '
ao outward act of self-abasement. Gradunllv '
the outward act wa-. aocei)ted as a sign of the '
inward sorrow, and nltimatelv took the place of '
it. Isidore (ii. 16 * /V«*.«W;„s), f„5l„„.ing '
Augnstme (Ep .-54), derives the word from the '
penal id..a underlying penitence : " Poenitentia '
„oraen.,un,p„tapoena." In Raban. Maur. /«,,</< |
n. 29. the derivation ,s : " A punitione poenitentia '
Domen accepit, qnasi punitentia, diim ipse homo
punit poenitendo, cumd male admisit " The
author of the de iv,n , t f,(lsa Poonit. c ij) which
bears the name of Augustine, slightly varies the
etymology : " I'oenitere est poenam tenerp ut
semper puniat in se ulsciscendo quod commisit
peccando. This explanation is adopted by Peter
Loral-ard (sentent. iv. diat. U), and by Gratian
(,jl'o,nU.d,st. 3), and is the accepted etymology
of the Roman canonists (Morinusyocnifenf i n
The Latin word in universal use to express
penitential discipline in all its stages and decrees
was poenitentia, with its corresponding concrete
noun iwenitens, a penitent, and the verb poeni-
tsrMo do penance In (.'yprian and in the Cone
Ehkr the noun is generally used with some
adjective, as '-agere, facere poenitentiam plenam
veram. legitiinam." At a later date, poenitentTa
wa. employed as equivalent to the discipline of
the ,W.rs the third and principal station of
«nance (1 O^c Tolet. c 2 ; Conc\at/,. c. 60
felLv, 111. ^;,. vii.) In the Latin penitentials thj
verb IS used by itself absolutely 2. Exomolo
gesis. A Greek word adopted by Tert,"lian
U'ocnit. c. 9), and used by Cyprian^aud l>a In
and occasionally later. 3. Abstinere, commun one
PENITENCE 1587
privan communionem non accipere. The
ightest form of censure, consisting in rejection
from partoicipation in the sacred element's ?o°a
per»d; a frequent formula in the Latin councils
4. Segregatio, separatio; the translation of the
Gmkafop,<r,,6s. 5. Flere. andire, substrari con
mtere-the terms of the four stations. '
Ihe G- '- equivalent of poenitentia is
u"<i.„,a. : ,s word retained for the most nart
.|so,gin„, „ i„, ^, , ^, ^-most^part
Zlr^ r^ "='"'>■ *'"' penitential course
see C««c. Laod,c. c. 1!,) ; in another place (c "')
to express the principal station of the \^ol(.
mm.. In the latter instance it preciselv
^responds with a similar use of th^La? n
P««nitentm. In the later Greek rituals u.rrf!
.^ a prostration. In the penitentilri^cXlr t'o"
Joh the l-aster, at the end of the "Ordo " the
penitent ,s instructed to say the tri.,agion ei^ht
little before it is directed that women ,x
::?lsr ::^r»--'a''or£
word employed^bV allTU' ^::!^Lt
«ginfy the course of discipline. It occurs nthi!
»o„. V(Z:'il'''r ul'- u'^tT' "'" °' '""^
fwrn the faithfnl / signihes separation
:^^:tnr;^r£r--^-"-^■lt:^:
I depended V^ihrtL^^le ''at
(Gregory Thamnat. EpTu. lS,[7[ '^'"'r'-
Conn. Anc/r &c I ^ i ' j "' ^' ''P^'''^'-- ;
P^nitential'centr otanTA"] n"'" .^''^
siastical enalty (Ifas 1 ij/e"; "n*". s" ^"''^
I end 'is c^njd ;.5 L rL':""r" ""^ "^ »"
' the c „of".',;te?'r;" \ P""""^ "«.ordi„g"t;
Goar, p. 678) ^"'^ "^"^^ {J^ucholo^ion,
si.ie the means of divin grac • TCt :h"'V''"-
command laid upon her, alrau'tht v I) . .Vto'
-ni':!?i;,s:tt'rs::^f^^r
^whi^^Sir^^X^r-^r--"
the catnolic chu?ch 7the J»r ' ' """T'*' '"
who was expelled from K i*^ """'' *""" ^e
bodro'lirt""'^' '•^ Him in\t4 N
oony ot heretics ever venture! t,. -,i • .:.
among the Jews at thp PK, I- ^ '" ^"^'^^
recogn'ised by ^f f^ "^Z:':;^ "t T
discipline. It was a disSf; ^irl^ ^.J^^'^^
before the^ cof-greglS « '^C'yTZTt
101
15P8
PENITENCE
PENITENCE
theruil together." Its efTect wfts In expose the I
deli:i(iuent to some buJily murfiriciitimi : " Dcli-
vereH unto Satan fur the deal ruction of the i
flesh." Its object was his amomlnient : "That ]
the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord."
And its result, his ultinmte restoration, on his
repentance, to the fellowship of the church ('2
Cor. ii. 6, 7). Many of the fathers saw in this
expression — "delivered unto Satan fur the de-
struction of the flesh," a sanction for the
austerities of penance (Oriijen, •(> l.eoit. Ilnm.
xiv. 4; Faeian, I'uraen. ad I'oeiiit. c. 18; basil,
c. 7 ; Ambrose, do I'ucnil. i. 13 ; .Vugust. de Fi'i.
et '>PI'- c. 2l5). The references to ecclesiastical
discipline in the earliest writers are naturally
rare and fragmentary. The orijauization of the
church was no less inconijilete in this than in
other matters. Clemens Uonian. ( /'p. ad Cur.
c. 57, ed. Jacobson) has the following passage :
&u(ii>JV ?(TT(;' l>n'iv iv tw iruiavicfi tiiv Xpierrou
fiiKfious not iWoyt/iovs tipedrivai, Ii KaO' iitf-
pox^i' SoKovfTai ixpupdrifai ix riji (KvtSos
aiiTou. The reference of this to some simple
form of iliscipline is unmistakable. The ahe/j-
herd of Hernias, which is probably a generation
later than the Clementine Kpistles, speaks clearly
and fully at the beginning of the 2nd century
of the practice of sei}arating an oll'ender :
(Herm. Pastor, vis. iii. 5 ; see I'M. Similitud.
vii.) An evidence for the existence of peni-
tential discipline in these early times, which
is, perhaps, stronger than any isolated passage,
is the universal tradition of the church. The
origin of Montanism is dated by Epiphanius
in one place {Ilaeres. li. 'i'^) as far back as a.d.
12'j. Other authorities rix it about A.D. 150
([{obertson, C/i. Hist. i. 5). That is to say, Mon-
tanus was only one generation removed from
the apostle St. John. He separated from the
church chieHy on the ground of the claims of
the church with regard to discipline. In other
words, discipline was so widely prevalent, and so
firmly established, as to create a schism within
a generation of the last of the apostles. The
inference from this is well drawn out by Thorn-
dike (Laws of the Cfiur, h, iii. x. 2 ; W'urks, Lib.
of Anglo-Cath. Theol. vol. iv. pt. 1). After
Montanus there can no longer be any question
on the discipline of penance being part of the
regular organisation of the church. In the
aarly age« the necessity for church censures
must have been comparatively rare. As the
need arose, the bishops with their priests dealt
with. each case in some simple manner, after the
model, no doubt, laid down by St. Paul. The
treatment of those who lapsed during the Decian
persecution gave the first impulse to a more
iiystema:tic and uniform organization. Crimes
were classified, penalties promulgated, and the
duration of penance was defined. The corre-
spondence lietween the Roman and Africau
churches, which appears in the epistles of
. Cyprian, gives some insight into the method in
> which a degree of uniformity was gained. Local
needs and circumstances, no doubt, had their in-
. duence.on the decisions o^ the early synods. The
system, in; the West does not appear to have
been so rigidly defined as in the Kast. The
jcanonical epistles of Grejory Thaumaturgus,
b.isil, and his brother Gregory of Nyssa, were
;8t once the expression and the support of this
more inflexible ri^'idity. Under their influence
the elaborate system of the penitential stctioni
took its rise. These stations were tukon iiilu
the canonical code, but they never spjiuBr
to havo entered into the practical alniniijira.
tion of the Western cliscipline. Tlie a.-j
4th, and the begini\ing of the oth ceiitiirie< may
be regarded within gunoral limits as thir ti.)uri«h.
ing period of tbe penitential sy^tl■ol. It y/^,
then complete and regular, and at the jame
time had not ceased t» be sustained bv the ^rai
and belief of the church. The extent to wh th
it entered into the routine of Cliristiiin Uin.
lation, is manifest from the space whuh pfiij.
tential directions occupy in the writings c-f that
period. The austerities were genuine anii n.
luntary, endured frojn a firm n.uvi. tinn that
only by such endurance could sin lie csijiated.
" 1 have known many," says Ambrose (li. I'mi.
tcii. i. lii), speaking as of fnits wliiih hit I totne
under his personal knowledge, "who have I'ur.
rowed their cheeks with ( itinuons tciirs, uhu
have laid themselves in the dust for all tolrtsj
upon, and whose faces, thin oiid palli(| Omu
tasting, have presented the appearanrv i,f livini-
ghosts." With the beginning ot the Dth len-
tury the framework of the system was still un-
altered, but the substance id' it was niniJh-
decaying, more rapidly in the Kast than in the
West. Through the 7th century puhlic rjciij.
tence was all but dead. It revived f"r a finit
under the ecclesiastical rule of the Ciirulingian
princes, but the real life of penitence resnW
in the private system administered through the
penitentials. Milman {Zat. Chris! ian. i'u^ h),'m
a passage on the power accruing to the cler?"
through ecclesiastical disciplini', tlius suras m
the value of the system foun led on the peni-
tentials : " However severe, monastic, uii-thris.
tian, as enjoining self-torture ; degrailing to
human nature, as substituting ccrenionial ob-
servance for the spirit of religion ; and resting
in outward forms which might be counted and
calculated ; yet .is enforcing, it might be, a rude
and harsh discipline, it was stiU a moral and
religious discipline. It may have been a low,
timid, dependent virtue to which it comfjelled
the believer, yet still virtue. It was a per-
petual proclamation of the holiness ami niercv
of the Gospel. It was a constant preaching, it
might be, of an unenlightened, superstition!
Christianity, yet still of Christianity."
II. Prior to the Spread op tiik Novaiias
Herksv.
The chief characteristics of discipline pricrtc
the spread of the Novatian heresy, as comparnl
with those which afterwards prevailed, were tki
shortness and mildness of the censures, and the
simpler forms by which the system was ndrainis-
tered. The Stations of Penitents had not vet
been elaborated. The earlier censures no doubl
corresponded with those imposed at'tenvnrds it
_• stations, but the technical names of tlie
stations, and the systematic division of penitenlt
connected with them, are of later date. In the
first three centuries there apjiear three distinctly
marked degrees of censure — (1) exclusion from
participation in the elements, (2) exclusion from
the sight of the sacrament and from the eucbi-
ristic prayers, (3) exclusion iVoni the ohurca
altogether, that is to say, excision from the bod)-
of the faithful, and excommunication, although
PENITEVCE
IP TIIH XoVAIIiS
thi< latter tern w», not yet in me. An ex-
»niin«tum of tho principnl »„urc,..s „f i„,-„ "
tion /,.r that period will »,.,.,•« to show aX"
the nature of these penalties. The .4^5
lamn. employ four terms to express church
ensure- I i^oplCrnea., separation, which
,,,pl„s equally to clerKV and laifv • 2 T„
»./^,<»<.,, deposition, which was eonfini.i to' the"
cleruT; 3, a^nplQ^ea. Kal ^ae^lp^aOai, whi, h
was also peculiar to the cleryv ; 4, rni /kI^J^I
MK,.ea„ excision fron,' the^'church, to
wh„h all were s,.b,ect. The severity „f th s !
last sentence was still more increased in tw„ '
cnuns(cc.27, 28), which direct that V nr ^t ^
m,n,stermg „. holy thin,., after depo iVio,
MHums there .s no record of anv organised '
.yst™, but only the n.ention of lighter an '
<re,»rht,er censures. In Apost. C,.n,t. \\. lo, after
.ome general directions that the bishop 'shall
encuuraKeand not repel penitents, there is civen
he mode of treating a deli„,|u..„t. He was to
be ejected from the church,' and the deacons
meantime were to visit him o., i •>^'ii."oa
with him and if he aT.lL^Tc.lt^itrtrtet
come to the bishop and intercede for him the
V I "''? T '" """^ him to enteT' the i
church, and when satisfied of his earnestness
reinstate h.m after a penance of a few weeks''
fasting. In further direction, ;„ ♦K„
chapter, the bishop was toti'e' he'' enUe":::
the holy communion for a period, the ieng h of
which was to be adjusted to his offence^ and
afterwards receive him as a father wClld a
repentan son. For ordinary purposes of disci!
pl,ne,an, for ight oHences, this was the censure
.tnpoyed. The heavier penaltv given Tn the
Co* <,(H<ionj corresponds with the ev.i.ion fi
the church of the Canons. Here i^ e WdenH
the germ of the system of staees of nenl^ ^
which was afterwards the law of th/ ., u'
Tertullian refers only to one de'/ of c'T''-
...re, and that, aa fnight be expected fro^'
his character and writings, a seme one "
t.ke. no note of the ^mple re ction fr„ '
commnubn which was th„ L '^ """^
dress and food-to lie n Zt i^k ^""'"" "^
We his body in fiithJ '^"^^'^"^^ and ashes, to
his spirit vHthl^ garments, to cast down
fortherest to!,. • I" ^* '"'"' committed;
drink to tit "„T :"P'« 'I'T, for meat and
'oul's sakelL the m ♦' ^'^h% but for the
P^verby f;ss toLT » P"* "''" *° ^'■"ish
■I'vandniX unto the?' ''I T'^^^""^ »" "««"
himself „pfn\lf'^^„^Xh.s Go'I; to throw
«nd to fall "h;- " ;- ^ ""^ ""^ Presbvters.
PENITEVCE 15P9
wiyinreic„th:'';:;:;^''j::r''T'»h'''r
K.a.harist,and not oL th ' " ^ , I':"" "i'
escisinn from the church * "'ntence of
riie decrees of the council of Klvira, circ i n
I'/T various minor offences the „ ""*""■
' performed The h penance were
" exomologesis "of 'IVrtull 1 „ P'r"'"""" """l
mode of carrvin.ro.tfK "' ^-^P""'""- The
I fined It ^7 "^ u '.h" P^iinte was not de-
I canoteJlLX^rifi'm ' ''V'"t' ''^ <■"'' ""'•
according toTh^' ':i;:L't;d''a::t' rlS 't^''^^'''
practice in that iirovinn„ ""-^'erities then in
i of two degrees-lone '» 1 *"" P''"''""™ »"»
the end of's^m^ y a ''"L otr""',"'"" "'
end of life A fhi/i ' '"" ""'X "* 'he
Con.. ^7.t..^was tLrTerr?'"^'*';' 'y^'--
church. It waT reserved for r^'"" *^'''"" '^'
'aa retaining imares^n'a h us t '/iT "''""
tumacy (c. 20') or a v.l„, .". ^.C*;- ^I), or con-
of life^(c\ 62?' In e ieThelft" "f'"""^ """''-
absolutelycutofr"ne •»„«„• ".''"„*"■' '" ^«
of which may be eit'heJ Vl f '"='"'">-," the force
ecc,es,astiX,^u ehe 1 toV' 'l'"" \" '*"'
and social intercourse wih Ch,^,! "'''"' "^''
he was to be cut off L^Tl * ^""*"'' "'■ 'fiat
This last interprltlor. Y " '^''P'' "^ '"»'"•»■
remarkable haSsexhi';; 71"^'^ ""'> ^^e
father,. Of the r e Itv n '^ ^^ ""' '^l'""'^*'
fourteen specify of^^Lrr whTh"' ""'"" "''''»
cation was to be finnl ' ^ i'''' e^omnmni-
communionlm.--. On a "^ '" '""V'''""''^"' "'^^
authorities thlre anneavfT''' :'' *^''' '^a'ly
close of the 3rd c?nturv thr'' r'" "P '" '^e
siastical censures-l reierf innr '^''""'' '"'^'^'''-
for a fixed period • 2 ril ^'T Participation
and the prayers of Ih^f-rr '"'"" «'""'nunion
certain deS "cts „. np^^'^"'',.'''^^*''"' '^'^h
strictly so-caedse^ "';*'''' '" P^"itence
whether final or with fb°? ^'°'" *''« '='""''-b.
offender might be readmit^ 7"'°''"'« ">»' the
tence,this;iLtprml:^^
1. duration of Penance —Th^ a \-
penitence in the earliest .f' duration of
Apost. Co..^ii. 16 pe™f/r;';.""=«rtain. The
stored after tw; or thre^ o^ delinquent to be re-
of fasting. That the n.',/""' "V'^'" ^«eks
- 8^_jn8tJhejeriod was short, and did
received one. ChieBv „., . * """re geuerully
these canons U^I^Vol.T^T "' "" """""ri'y of
endeavours to p„ ve fha, L" i'""'^' ^"'''"^ ('»'»)
hew prior to the' conVmult on ofTov . '^T ""'' '>^«°
the age of Cyprian. """"' "^ -^o*""^ 'n feet before
6 K 2
am 'J
> '^'-
1590
PENITENCE
PENITENCE
i" '
'I '
not approach the ten, fifteen, or twenty yean !
which were inllicteii for graver olfencen after
the 4th centviry, is rendered pnibaljl • from
the nbiencn of any mention of Ion;; periods of
exclusion in the writings of Tertiilljan. The
same inferenc" may be drawn from the alienee I
of the Apoatid'Cil ''mom. The allix no perioil I
whatever to their penalties." The teaching
of Montanus and his great convert, Tertul-
lian, who seceded frnm the church (lartly on ac-
count of her laxity, had the natural eti'ect of
rendering the (iithr)!ic discipline more severe.
Still, in Africa under Cyprian, and in Uonie
under Cornelius, it does not appear that a sen-
tence often exceeded one or two years. The
dnmand of the lapsed to he ailmitted without
penitence, and the curtailment or remission of
the period of exclusion by a commendatory letter
from a martyr, are clear indications that the
sentences were not long. In one instance there
are the materials for determining the actual
length. In a synod held under Cyprian, in A.t).
251, after liiwter certainly, and most probably
in the summer, it was resolved among other
matters that those of the lapsed who had even
ga<"ririced should be admitted after a term of
penance. Cyprian foreseeing signs of the renewal
of persecution, directed through another synod
on the Ides of May of the following year
(£/). lix. 12) that these lapsi should be at
once re-admitted {Ep. Ivii.). Their i)enitence
therefore had not exceeded nine months. It
is true that they were reconciled under
circumstances of particular urgency ; but one
or two centuries later, an idolater would not
have been admitted in less than several years,
under any circumstances. In general it may be
stated, that up to the time of Montanus the
duration of penitence was very short ; after Ter-
tullian it became longer ; but frequently in
urgent cases it was curtailed, both by councils
and bishops, and in some instances remitted
entirely. The contrast between this leniency in
the African and Roman churches and the crush-
ing severity of the Spanish fathers at Elvira,
about a generation later, shews that the system
of discipline was not yet organised on a uniform
basis.
2. jiitesand Usages. — Although in the earliest
ages the term of penance was short, and part of
it was frequently remitted, there was greater
strictness than afterwards prevailed in granting
it. No one waa admitted who did not beg
admission from the bishop, with all the out-
ward signs of deep contrition. From the time of
Novatus onwards admission was easier, for when
penitence was known to involve long years of
public humiliation, less scruple was shewn in
opening its privileges to all who were content to
submit to it. After the 4th century it came to
be laid down that penitence was to be denied to
none who sought it. Innocent I. A.D. 402-417
{Ep. XXV. init. ; Labb. Cone. ii. 1288), declared
that he held it to be an act of impiety to refuse
imposition of hands; an opinion upheld by
Celestine I. A.D. 422-432 (Ep. ii. ad Episo. Oall.
'' There Is one exception to this statement: o. 23
Inflicts ia eiioluslon of thr--6 years (.n li-.ymfn -ho
mutilate tbemselves. Morinus Iv. 9, without giving any
detiulie reasons, regards the words In) rpi'a t» an inter.
polatioB.
c. 2; Labb. Cone. ii. li)20). Siiniliir re«"liiiif,ni
were passed by some of the Kraiil<ish cwinaU
(Cone. Anilei'iv. A.I). 4.^.1, c. 12; dmr. A';«m,
A.n. .'il7, c. lit)). Hut in e.irlier times ppi Af^tn
was regarded more in the light of a privili'i;i. jijj
C'iiices:<ion than id' a right, and more iniitiiniwu
used in grantjni;the ])rivilcge, from thr'l'ni t thnt
it was adminlRteied "nee only ; if the pe;iitcnl
afterwards relnpsed, there was no door by which
he could refuvn.
The earlient records exhibit the dellnqii>ni
outside the door ot' the church, d "thcd in .s^i^.
cloth, and with a.ihcs upon hiR head, aslinig tht
womhippers as they entered the church In Jm.
plore (iod on his belmlt'. and make intiTiejjioii
for him with the bishops and prcsiiyters and th«
whole congregation. In the .■l/iosf. ''.■«?(, jj. nj^
already cited, it is ■'irccteil that the oilendor iito
be kept outside thr hiirch, and detained then
till he has given evidence of genuiiu' reppntanci,
The length of the exclusion icsli'd alisululelr
with the bishop. He too was the soh- ju'li;e of
the sincerity of the rc|eoitancc. The Ininiityof
the repentant man wlio was sei King the jieacecf
the church was outside tlie door(Tert. </. /'riifn;.
.3) ; there, in his remorse, he threw himself in
the dust before the feet of the priests (Tert. dt
Poenit. c. 9), and before the brethren (iiV/. e. lu),
with weeping and supplications for mercv. Hii
self-abasement was a request to be admittei to
the grace of penitence ; it was the first act of th(
repenting sinner, begging his repentance might
be accepted. The behaviour which berils tfi(
repenting sinner is drawn out by Cyprian, in
language which there is no reason to supiKisp :i
not to be accepted literally (de Laps. c. i\);
" Men must pray, and entreat with incriMisJ
continuance ; pass the days in mournini;, and
the nights in vigils and weeping ; employ their
whole time in tears and lamentations; lit
stretched on the ground ; prostrate thcra^elvei
among ashes, sackcloth, and dust ; after Chiiit'i
raiment lost, wish for no garment besioe ; alter
the devil's feast, must voluntarily fast; give
themselves to righteous works, whereby sins are
cleansed ; apply themselves to frequent iilms-
giving, whereby so .i are freed from death."
Compare Eusebius, //. E. v. 28. The neit
stage was, that the bishop, satisfied of t)ii
man's repentance, and yielding to the inter-
cessions addressed to him, sent the deacon to
bring him into the church {Aput. Coiist. ii.
16), and solemnly laid his aands upon hi)
head, and admitted him to penitence. Whether
his public confession, which had necessarily
been uttered during his abasement outsije,
was repeated now, or at some later staee.
or was spoken again and again at diliereni
stages, there is no evidence clearly to sliew,
[ExoMOLOOESis, p. 6+4.] What is certain is,
that an open acknowledgment of guilt wji
required at the beginning of penitence, ris
imposition of hands, as in coiiHrination and
ordination, was invariably liccompanieJ witli
prayers, the form of which no doubt varied
in different churches. One example is given
in Apost. Const, viii. 9, of what date ii
uncertain; and such forms of prayer aw
found in all the penitential rituals of till
9th and following centuries. At the time J
imposition of han Is, the bishop assigned to tbi
delinquent his term and degree of pvnance ui
PENITRVCR
thtnrcAirth, *».! nnfil he wb« reionciled ho be-
own,, ft i»Miit»uit, pnipvrly »„ eflllfd. At'ter iHh
»rf..nn«ua. «t th« various «,:t, „f,M.„triti»„, the
futiUKs ttu.l 8cll-,nortih,.atioi„, th.- |.t.i.iti.nt wag
r.cwv..,l l«ick into th« chinch. And thin iccon
Uon in th,. hr.t thrc .cnturie, took oln'e
,mmedmt,dy nftcr the .y„„ ln«ion of the pcnanc-
.n<l csmcl with it all the privileges „f full
communion. Phis nppears to h«ve heen the un-
doui,t,Ml use of Cypriiin, and of ths Koman and
Alricaii buho|)» ot his age.
111. TiiK Pkmtkntial Stations.
After the close of the :)rd century, diH<ipli„,.
Iwcainc more systematic and more rii;id Th
Noviitinn controversies had had a twofold
eliHt ou the Cathcdic system. On the one
bui, penitence was very rarely ,lenied to anv
olimder; on the other, its duration was
on«er, ami Its austerities sharper. It came to
be regarded less and less in the liuht .d'n privi-
lei:.., and more exclusively ns a penalty_a wiapor
11, the hands ot the rulers of the church, to
puunh her cnniinals. In the earliest ams ami
belore the zeal of Christians w.«, cooled by
the iiitlu., 01 the mixed multitude which the
jei>ation of the persecuti.u.s intro.luced, the
listings and mortifications of a repentant sinner
were voluntary lor the most part, the natural
expression of mward grief. There was no (ixed
time lor their continuance ; this wa, .letermine,
My by the earnestness of the repentance, and
he d.oretion of the bishop. Hut I'low pe, en e |
became a penal sentence, which was to be workad
the statinni hort
PEVrTKVCB
ir,9i
- " |iroinliient place: and thui,
Uod.cea, Neocaesaren. Nicaei. Thev ha ,>,"„
Iwcome a recoirnised and .ot.,., • "
wh o^^tht i^nit:;;^;;'::^:^:::;:'^
examination, stands convicte I of 1 I
»'n, that he has made an I, ,ei '„ -kSi^"
nieiit ot t, whether bel„n. ,1 '.,"'""""'«''!?-
presbytery or the wh, ' "*"''' '"■ '*"
substiati being thus omitted, iinsil fc L i n
the same way curt lil^ iK. . . ^ -• '"
.tations. The East was their birthplace. In
the councils of Neocaesarea, a.d 8U o ■
and AiKvra, A.D. 814, cc. 20 •>! 05 , '(• '
U made to the i,p,„^4ya, ffae^l "of ,! mmT
provuii; that there were certain stage "h ch
«re so well known and well established in he
..rch hat 1 was not necessary to define
ihm. Ihe earliest mention of then, by distin t
n;une, ,s in the last ch.ipter (c in f th„
Cmom-al Euktlc of Greiorv TK . ^
TH- >^'iegoiy Ihaumaturirus
This canon ,s commonly reganled as of a
somewha later date than the rest of" the
V^ r, bu ,t expresses the view of a per od
sWly subsequent to that of Gregory
whnt was then believed to haye been the
jom-sc of discipline in Gregory'J age The
th's. Hetus est extra portnm Oratnrii X
-t ;rr;;; -tf rr?^^^-^'
port.™ i" .Varthece lb on;rtet u,!,"n''* '""•"
^^ t,.techuinenis non egrediatur." !„ the
out by certain appointed stnges-so many years I years „,n'''""'.\ *-'"''"" '^'^'i-'iuents, after two
be passed in one stage under certain cond ta'e.rhti "'^"»"''»'■•»ti," to leap over the
tons, so many more in another with a relaxa i,,n ^ h« "coiia"stentes."and be received to .^fll
the conditions, the later stage not ?o h beg ," ™'""""''»"- Analogous instances Tec ,, ,;.]
till the earlier was completed; and so ste.^bv ^ '"""""»•. '••9 ; Unsil, cc. l;i. (Jl, 7:5 8^ 81 ft'
..ep, t e outcast was restored to' full'comm ,'.' aralT"fo"lh"" ™"' ""•' »" "^'^-'lef^as'-sen
The stages were the well-k, „ p,,,;,,,,^,^,- : jfl^^,^ ;;'~- ""-the ,,,,,,,. .,l\
chnroranr..:Vt;"etnrtr\:" 't '■"''''
' *""^*i,r, a strict adnerptipo fn tv,^ r
consecutive stations was decree for a H "
severity. ° "ubmiss.on to this ideal
This ]Z ?I,e""/':"^' ^•""^^' -^"--cAalo^,,.,.
penite t'wiL' oS iTis ^T'.- "'''^•'' '^o
from the mouS and « ' "^''""Soished
which referencrh^atad Z'nVad';i„%h':
of^Th "U^,t -'r T""''--- ''' ^'^
whose penltrnT Z I^.^^XlJ ^^T
thing itself'was ?requen'tly"imn,itf ^ ./I^A ">"
.'
im
■V.
*/
:'b
fl."!
im
f:
'! !
same
1692
PKNITENCE
;.
fpiitti*, when evrtalii robbi'ii are halil to h<> un-
deai>rving even nt' hanrinii ; that in tu uny, they
Wi'rr not to be alliiwcd inniilr the liuiMiiiK- 'I'lie
only Ktation ttu'ii ii'iiiainiiiu tiir them woiiKl be
ftninni^ the inintrnfrH. IWinil iiitVniU«'t>H tht>
■tiiliiin by aniniilar imraphiaau. " IVIy^nmists,"
he »n\» (v. 811), '• an- imt to be ri'ci'ivcil Uir three
yiir* ; " and a nhi'Tt time al'terwiinlii neiitenceii
uthor <'ul|irits to bu cjecteil for thKi; yenm, ami
iu ench ciuie ailila, " tfv thfy are to bo A' mrrs
tor two, kni't'lers for tin ,"&«. The terms "to
be ejected," and " not to be i , eived," niKiiify
•oine utane bebiw that of hairer.-,, whioh < an only
bu anioni; the inuumrrn. In many of his lanons
(ce. '.'2, Titi, r)7, 5H, M). (. », (!(), Ti), the station
U mentioned directly, and by name. Hut thlH
is not the case In the i'anotiiial Kjiistb' of (ireijory
of Ny«Ha. He reniiirl<» that there is a canon of
that Rurt that haldtual fornicators are to lie cx-
))elK'd for three years altoj;ether frosi prayer,
and al'terwnrd» i'l' henrcru fi>r three yearn. &c.
The being expelled from prayer is an indirect
way of describing the lowe^t station.
i. i'hfir I'linitiim. — In the aiipointment of the
ancient rhurches there was an open area or
space set apart in front of the door. All who
entered the church necessarily came through this
area or approach. This was the place assigned
to the muamcis, and beycpud it they wer^ for-
bidden to pass. The removal of delincincnts
outside the verv doors of the church was a prac-
tice as (dd as lertuUian, who states (dc I'uili' it.
c. 4) that for certain monstrous crimes the crimi-
Hiil was not allowed to cross the thresh(dd of
any )iart of the sacred building. At a later period
(.'hry>(>stom warns (Jlvm. xvu. in Matt.) some of
his hearers, that if they continue contumacious
they shall be jirohibited from entering even the
porch, as adulterers and murderers are iirevenied.
Morinus is disposed to think that ejection from
the building and exposure to the elements is the
interpretation of the disputed c. 17 of Curie.
Aiicyr. which sentences those guilty of unnatural
crimes to pray tls robs x«'M'«C"M"''""i inter
hyrmiintes.
ii. Dtirntion and Mode of Penance. — The
m'lunwrs being jdaced outside the very doors of
the church, ( ould take no part in what was g(dng
on inside. They were cut off from all sacred
lites whatever. They could hear neither the
reading of the Scripture nor the preaching ; still
less could they join in the prayers or in the
sacred mysteries. So far as public worship was
concerned, they were to all intents and purjioses
aliens from the church. There remained to them
only their personal devotions, and their hopes by
earnestness of rejientance and amendment of life
to obtain a mitigation of their sentence. Still
there were certain duties attached, not exclu-
siv ely to this station, but to a state of penance
generally, and which would be more rigorously
enforced in this station whenever it Wiis occu-
pied, by the performance of which the penitent
was led to expect that he might make a favour-
able impression on the church from which he
had been expelled. The foremost of these was
an open and frequent acknowledgment of his
guilt. And this aclf-abttsciiicrit, as Aiobfose
points out (Pocnit. ii. 10), was not inHicted
merely for the humiliation of the offender, but
as proof and fruit of his contrition. If par-
don, he says, has to be obtained from one
PKNITEXCB
In secular power, vou gn about, and ninvui
anci supplicate people, and cast yourself at lli»j/
feet, ami kiss their very footsteps, and lir.uir
forward your iuuijcent children to pbul luf
their KUilty parent ; and need you be n.^ii,ii]„)
to use the same earnestiiesM in beHeerhmif th«
church to interciib' to (iod for you? (See I'«(i«ii
I'araen. ad I'wiiil, c. <>.) The dress of the iiiifiini.-r
was to correspond with his language an I piuj.
tion. I hern were no special regulations allottini;
a distiu(;ltve garb to him, but whatever dreu
was hel 1 to be suitable to severe peuniice
must be hebl to apply to the station in which
the great' It severity was exercised. For a Inllor
account of the penitential dress see beluw. iiii lur
the section A'/Kc (<■;•«, p. I.")ti;t. It reniniii' to
point out the boiijth of time fnr which dejin.
(|uent8 were remitted to thir lowest dipth i.f
|)eiiitence. Hasil, c. 5>y, assigns twenlv venrs
to a murderer, four of which are to be nw'uf
the miiunii'rs. For the same crime the (nl,. (,f
(iregory of Nyssa places the murderer for nine
years in the lowest station. F'or manslaiinhtor,
(basil, cc. 5H, b'J), two of the eleven yems i.f
exclusion are to be among the hwh/'ikts; fur
adultery, four out of filteen ; for uncleanness, two
out of seven. (Jne canon (c. T.\) sentiiurs an
apostate to spend the remainder of his life t
tnounwr.
•1. Hkarkhs, audientcs, iKpoci/td/oi.— The
notices of this second station are scanty. Tvn'
is no express mention of any rites or Hustenti.s
peculiar to it, nor of any ceremony by whirhthe
penitent was promoted to it from the »tai;e lulnw.
With many of the Latin Fathers — Tertullinn,
Cyprian, Augustine — the " audientes " were the
catechumens, and these w riters do not use the terra
at all to express a penitential station. In t'nct,
it is doubtful if the station itself ever ohtniin'i
a general use in the Western church. It was
unknown in Africa ; it is not mentioned hr
Ambrose as part of the Italian system ; it is
altogether omitted in the Collcclio Cciii'm. of
Martin of Braga, and therefore presuninbly wiu
not in use in Spain. The only precise and direct
reference to the hearer.^ among Latin writers it
to be found in one of the letters of pope Kelii
III. A.D. 48d-49:-' (Ep. vii. ad Ppisc. fninn.
Labbc, Cont'. iv. 1075), who decrees that these
who submitted to a second baptism should
undergo the same penalty which c. 1 1 of Cunc.
jYitot'n. laid upon the lapsed, that is to sny, three
years among the /learers, &c. In the tjist the
station was a recognised part of the orgnni^ation
of discipline from the beginning of the 4th
century (Gregory Thaumat. c. 11 ; Basil, cc.
22, 56, 75, &c. ; Gregory Nyss. c. 3 ; C nc.
Ancyr. cc. 4, 6, 9 ; Cunc. Aicacn. cc. 11, 12;
Apost. Const, viii. 5).
i. T/tcirPosition. — The c. 11 of Gregory Thamiiat
places the hearer within the door in the narthei
of the church. His position, strictly 8|ieakiiig,
was in the porch (irpoTfilAaioc, irpiBvpov, Trp6mot),
but this could not always be enforced in prac-
tice. The object of this station was, that he
should be a listener to the Scriptures and the
sermon. In some buildings he might be able to
hear while standing ir. the vestibule; hut, :» a
rule his place must have been assigned within
the building at the lowest end of the church.
Inside the church was the position as interpreted
by the Greek canonists (Balsamon in can. 11, 12,
PENITKNCB
riAi'iENCE
16!)3
HTn,,.,,,,,,,,!,... AW,'.. ^W;,. ..!i;:'^;, t'-^' I ";«J-f"r. tH
0^ but he .I,.l n„t „, y.,, receive. any im,,.„i i ,
ll,«u«a,|„MtM withi,, the «nll,.,f th' Kh'
r t" """"/•"'""« with .),.„•,. an.l h, r tk. •
tnJ hi'iilh.in, bikI the (rat orl.r nf,.„t , ,"""'•
for»,«in»tn,n,«.Mhe,e,.|l '';:'':;;X^^^^^^
Mter t.. Ii,t..i, t., th., .S,..j|,ture; w , r ,K
^t|.ch„Khtohoeir'^l;-t;[-
3. KNKKu;ij.(,„Wr„,'.', iWoW,rT<,.r„)._Thi,
w»» the th.r.l 8,ul ,,rin,.i,,„l .tati,.,. ju the
intern .pt,.,„ ; ,n the VV,..,er„, it w.. „, t „ ,?y
b«.i the only mie, »ith the exoej.tion iJrha, ,
of the ,.«,,.,(,.„,.,. When the 'u,i ' '' Ht^r,'
.,.»k of |,e>,,teme it in the ,.,„iti.„. J"" "e
p.nanreol he /v.,.,./.,., that thJy have in their
e»rher -M,., ..„t„r„| little into the pr«et d
.d,n,„,..,,.tu,„ .,r the .li,,.i,,line of the Vest Thi
Utm version, by ()iony,iu, Kxi.,,,, „■,,,''!
M.rt , of l,ra,a of the .^nonn of T ' ^^a a Z
Uto o.orUrn,r,, an,l M^r«^„ ^V J.S'j
••.ubj»,v„„t ,„t,.r poenitente,." ,t therefore
uenera T. \vh,.n »k. i . . "•
''"" of b.m.U .,,1 "'*!'""T with ]ni|M„i.
"f the "i.,:f*z;' ^jn%h:.f ^h''*' ' '
i-^i.:s^:r^he''t:r^v'""
"■■"X-- yto,;rtc;;'::'":7"'' !:!,"•
«-"B penamv; that the (I.d . 1^, ""^T,
shew them the wnv nf , . - '""'''
th.^rcontriti„„-a:r!.olS""T%""'r:''"*
under their leet " &,■ wT """"ciiv^^n
'inishe,!. the ,lea,m, ba,'le fh '''"•'■'" "' «
hoa,|, tJ reee ve he ifi h^" ; " •.'^ '"'^vth.ir
3 'w, c;,,.,/!::rr,r-,^^/"^'r''.""'«-'^ The
rites, in the.asLofnof,,,.", i" ,'•"' ''"■'■''''' '*'"9
place "ante nT-ilr";'"' '''■'',"''•''■'''"■ »" '"''o
i.connt of thi"is.alf ?."■''" "'"' "'"'!''"
u ilistini-t iofi„.„ ...'l. '^"""- "■ ■<!. Ihere
wu em|i|..ve( n the VVe^t ,).,>., lu"® i '"'I't'not referencn t,.f hi ^ ."•."• •''• Ihere
' "',•'■ ""erred not to the four station,
M,n In this station also was i.erfortne'l
he e^,molo,esis of the earlier father , a nMe
this .t»ti»nisi J i:^^^^^^^^^^
pC'nitcHU,. I'leimmently mrdvoia,
J'J'f''^'"''''"'—'^^^ [HMitionof the penitent
or the kneeei; 9 stated hi n.. """ Fi-niient,
•-he door of th J^hurth so /^rj '" ''^' ^'"^in
111 can. 11 I'. r„„„ '.""'""''s a"u ualsanion
"to extend below the amhl *k ™ Sreat
tlirust lower stin ' ^* P""t«»ts were
.tin?tideiL^,;r"-'" *'■« *^° '--
'be church ; a 'r«^lTh?'''''''f, ">« <=«'« "f
'!>' building, as CoTThev^ could „ot enter
tl>e resdin/ind p«a hin^ ^rTj*^ ""'^ '"'«" *»
the .t«?e of CKthTv ""^ "'^ ^"^' >"»* in
»«« pari, though a . errL ' T'? --ecognised
'i«n Cold. In the firc7 1^ f"""'^ "'^ "'^ ^'^ris-
f'«l«"t, if no constttP'"' *^'^ "°d«rwent
n. o ,'. ._' constant, imnositinn o<" i— i.i-
t«'"^oelo'br;iminitte;e;i t''' % "' °'-dc«"peni:
»f the ancie,™ ano , whi h'""' '"• ""^ ''"'"'
Pfoweds to explaTn tLr /k "'^P'"'"'' "' ''
fe'iuently resor to in • -^^ ''""''""* should
i resort to impositjou of hands. And
•ull of mere he '"V""' '*"' ' '•«•""«'"'. i»
-..r«;n:;^he':,.;e2K;S:;:^;^-
ham, Anti'/. XIV v ri , i^^- ^""S"
whether these nranTs'whiUu'' "" ''"'■•*""''
port of the Kns era 01 i',.r, "•' "" ""J'-uf-t^i
West, but e 1 1^1 . rihT''* '" "''*'"' '" '*""
in^»u,bra„ehe::;;tKh::::n:c^'r^T
"in the Western chb '." " '^""""' '^''"^'-•h.
offered the prayers suitahl.' ' ^^ "'^"' '"= ''«»
"11 was leijuired to wear this «rrr7' ^'"^•'""
under sentence, or only dur L h "!?'«■'>"''
tration in the chnr, h / '^ *"' P"'^''^ Pros-
. ■■■-''.
1594
PENITENCE
I ^
v''
■■;>
i
- i
I i
Ml
upon her head. And so Jerome (Ep. 30 ad
Ocean.) describes the garb of F«bioh\. while doing
penniioe in tlie Lateran church in presence of the
clergy and peojile of Koine, with a garment of
sacltclotl), with her hair dishevelled, and her face
and hands unwashed. So Gregory of Toura
(//isi. viii. 20), depicts the penance of bishop
Ursicinus. It was one of the decrees of the
council of Agde(,\.D. 500, c. 15), that an offender,
from the beginning of his penance, should wear
"ciliciiim," as was the custom throughout
the church ; and that if he had neglected to
change his dress, he should not lie admitted
among the penitents. The "ficut ubique consti-
tutum est " of c. 15. Cun. Aijath. is illustrated
by Tertullian de I'wtic't. c. 5 ; Cyprian dti Laps.
c. 19 ; t'aesnrius Arelat. JIum. i. ; i' (one. 'TuM.
c. r_', and by the subsequent directions of the
rituals of the 8th and 9th centuries. The sordid
garb of penance was to be worn as long as the
exclusion continued (Pacian, Paraen. ad Pocnit.
c. 19). Another austerity, cnjoine.' by c. 15,
Cone. Ai/at/t. was cutting off the hair — a direction
also found in 1 Cone. Barcinon. A.D. 540, c. 6, and
3 Cone. Tolet. A.D. 589, c. 12. A man was to
shave his Head ; a woman to wear a veil. This
veil was the general dress of a female penitent
(Optatus ii. in Jin.). Ambrose (Viiy. laps. c. 8)
had ordered his penitent virgin to cut off that
hair which before she had used as a blandish-
ment. The shaving the head gave place, at a
later date, to the opposite practice of neglecting
tie hair and the beard, and suHering it to grow
long and heavy, as a symbol of the weight of
sin resting on the penitent's head (Isidore de
EccUs. Oif. ii. It)).
iv. Penitential Exercises. —In addition to the
public submission to the appointed course of
discipline — the prostration in the church, the
open coni'ession, the penitential dress, the rejec-
tion from the Kucharistic service — certain special
acts of self-mortitication were required from the
penitent. In the earlier ages, and when zeal was
warmer, these acts of contrition were left to the
conscience of the contrite sinner. All that was
absolutely demanded of him by ecclesiastical
usage was obedience to the rites of the public
censure. Still it was thought becoming, and a
suitable toi^en of sincerity, that the private life
should be in accordance with the public profes-
sion. So Pacian {Paraen. ad PoeMt. c. 19),
speaks of it as a daily duty of a penitent to weep
in sight of the church, to mourn a lost life in
sordid garb, to fa^t, to pray, to fall prostrate, to
refuse luxury, to hold the poor man by the hand,
to entreat the prayers of the widows, to fall
dov n before the priests, to essay all rather than
to perish. But, as will be seen when a later
period is reached, these private acts of penance
came more and more to be added on to the
public discipline, till, ultimately, they u^'Tped
its place. A still later stage will shew these
acts redeemable bv money payments. The chief
of these penitential exercises was fasting, borne
sometimes as a self-imposed austerity, ."•■ome-
times as an additional penalty inflic. ■: by
authority. At a later date these special fastings
were an invariable accompaniment of the cen-
sures of private penance, in the 4th and ith
centuries, if not invariable, they were always
expected (Ambrose, m/ Virij.laps.y J; de Pocnit.
ii. 10 ; Caesar. Arelat. Horn, i.) Sozomen, con-
PENITENCB
tinning his account (//. E. vii. 16) of the prac.
tices of the Western church, stati-s thnt, in
addition to the public formalities, the pen tept
voluntarily exercised himself in fastings, anj iu
abstinence from meat .iiul Worn the bath, ur in
other mortifications which had been courtnanileil
him. These austerities wore usuallv assi'^iipj
as Sozomen relates, by the peniteiitiarv ; Imt as
that ollice was altogether abidishcd in the time
of Nectarius, the more general practice ii, tl.»
church must have been that the bishoii, di-prifst
under whose ministrations the iteliiM|uent urJi.
narily liveil, allotted them. Hy the end of the
5th century, special penitLMitiiil fastings were thf
common practice (Felix 111. Eji. 7). tuwanlsthe
middle of the following century, othir nstric-
tions were added. The first council of llarii'luua
A.D. 540 (cc. 0, 7), not only orders penitents to
pass their time iu prayer and (astitii;. with a
shaven head and a religious dress, but also for-
bids them to be present at banquets or to take a
part in public allairs, but to lead a I'ruijal litV in
their own homes. The length to which thtse
do- rivations and macerations were carried may
be gathered from what is told of a visit to
the penitential cells of a nionastei'v In ,Iohn
Climacus in the Gth century (apud .Moiin.Vi. 11),
After relating the laborious penance of the
prisoners, he adds, " What I saw and heard
among them filled me with despair, when i
compare my easy ways with the rigour o^ those
saints, and consider what the aspect of the
place, and of their whole dwelling was, how
dark, and foetid, and sordid, and squalid," &c. In
addition to fastiug and abstinence fVdm the
ordinary enjoyments and luxuries of life, there
were two other restrictions laid upnn iieniteuff
one of which cut them off from marriage, or, if
they were married, from conjugal interc. jise;
the other, from the profession of arn)s or anv
other secular calling. These two restrictions
were curiously confined, both as to the date and
the part, of the church in which they vvre In
force. In the first place, they are not met with
in any of the authorities prior to the conversion
of the empire. Neither Tertulli;'n, nor Cy|irian.
nor Pacian, nor the councils of Elvira or .\rles,
make any reference to penitents being ejoluded
from marriage or marriage-riglits, or from bear-
ing arms, or carrying on business, or tuking any
part in public alTairs. So, with regard to the
restrictions on public or professional life. Chris-
tians were undi .btedly prohibited from uniler-
taking certain public ollices (Co:.c. Elibcr. c. ori'
1 Cone. Ai-elat. c. 7), not because they Wtre
penitents, i,jt because of the taint of iaolatry
attaching to the olHces in question. What hat
been said wiih regard to the absence of these
rectrictions in the West in the first three cen-
turies, applies to the Kastern church abso-
lutely. Neither celibacy, nor retirement from
secular life, was ever imposed in connesion
with public penance in the Kast. Such pro-
hibitions were frequently laid upon the clergy,
but upon the clergy alone {Con. Apust. co. 81,
82 ; Cone. Chaleed. c. 3). C'oinii?g to the
Western usage, the Latin fathers no doubt
counsel seclusion and continence during tht
'.<:\i of penance (for example, Anibrosc *
Pwnitent. ii. 10), but they do not luaiie them
obligatoTv The earliest decision on the sulject
18 in a letter {hp. i, 5) of pope Siriciui, A.U
PENITENCE
384-398 in reply to Himerius, bishop of Tam-
gona Ubb. C.>wn. l.,17), which prohibit p"
t.o,,«,fon m the elements, although it sanctb"
comnmnion ... prayer to those who, alter the r
penance, had retun.ed to military life and cc .
rarted a second marriage. There wa» alwaya a
tende.,cy .n such restrictions to increLe^ i*
5e.er.ty Accord.ngly the 2 Cone. Are^\ "
443, c. Jl casta out altogether fro.n the doors
of the church a penitent who, during his
pen«,Ke or after»-8.-ds e..tered upon marr.Le «
second t.ino. And 3 Cuiw. Aurelkin. a n ^'T
25, pr, hibits a penitent from resuminr«rmt o';
«!cular pursu.ts under penalty of being denied
com.»,u.,.on to the hour of death. Still seve vr
,s a decree of •> Cmc. Iiurci,u.n. aTLs Tl
wh.ch places marriage du.-ing penance on the
.ame foot.ng as the marriage of a nun „n i
orders both to be utterly e.pe led from Th
AreM c. 22 ; 3 Cow. Aureliun. c. 24) forbade
marned people even to be received as peni e,?ts
The lates ca.ion apfx, nting these restr ctio.'s t
the one of Uarcelona just quoted. These s, ecia
penalt.es n,ay therefore be'said to have be n,
u»e through the 5th and (Jth <u,.,.turies. and on v
.n the Western church. They wil reappear
later .n co„,,e.x.on with the Western disc^ ne •
DO longer, however, as an ordinary pa'r of
pubhc penance but rather as special punish
ments tor spec.a great crin.es. It is „f„" fot
hat th.s ..scpline strictly enforced wouM n„t
onlj lay a heavv burden on those who subm t?ed
to .t, out would also lead to great pr^t'cal
.nconven.ence. The ,.umber of penitents a tht
t.n.<. was very large, a,.d if they were to be e.
clnde,!, not only during their pe.fance but for the"
rcma...der of their lives, both froi^i "„rv •
.ms .,,..1 from all secular' pursuits their" nl^n!
of l.veiihood would be cut off tI,„ '"^ans
of the case led to a .pte^of disp'ttrnTut;^
which much l.ght is thrown in one nf K
jp.stles of p,^e Leo I. a.d. 440-4iilrEl\^
Ub. Con.: .... 1408, where both the que tions
and replies are g ven). Ho is writ;n„ •
J:- questions p„? to him by Ku uf 'bishT^'r
.V.rbon,.e. In reply to L.terrog 10 a^k fo-T
pe^tents who pli, in a la^tsui't" "i^Z
n 1'. Leo -mswers, that a man who is seek
mg pardon for spiritual wrone must 11
tlJ%l ""' ""' 'l""^"""' with%egard to
trade and bus.ness, he decrees thnf nltl, u ,,
[y "" "P"! to 8 penitent ; but that if hp
with ».,„ 1 ""• -''"u this .8 in accordance
cnScelv be are?" '"iT '"''^'' ^^'"'^h
tionwithsin andit m" T'"""" ™"t«n'">a.
PENITENCE 1695
':n^^n!:;u:!!;:^rs."r'^^»"^-
With respect to conti. enc. ;' '■'''?' '™''-
ca.ions cited above i..s s'p^i ,', '"".""'■' '" ">«
trol, both during ne. an.' Vr"/"''* »^"'-'^"»-
8trict..ess I-eo (X ?nt" "''' "'.'f "^'" ''»• This
rehix, and allow a ma 'i ",,';„ i^ 'T^'^ '■""'"
wife, when his penan:: Iv ' ThirT". '" •"?
Leo .s cited with aunrov»l \ *k ''''"«'"n "f
of Toledo (A.n. 03^0 «? wh" re 'th'"'' r""""'
cat.ne with then v,„* ■ '^"'"' ^.id com.nuni-
being' disn'3sed"b'ef re t'he'S ""'/' "■"' '""
in the earlier GreeL ,.L 'juehar.stic service.
frequently expressed hvZ ""•' '""'"" '" """•«
olfendor had exniat^,) K "'' '''^^"' an
an.ong the /„„ 1^' ,'e milt ""'•'" ""'^"^«
P,'«.ver. This com.^u.Lrt'o whi.Ttt"^.'" '°
sistentes" were ii,ln,i»t i '""""" the "con-
than the ^^ t'^ T^^ ^ H"'''''
P-avers. All the other rte of L ^"^''''"•■^tio
and m..re particnlarlv r„,l . ^ sacrament,
Among the' pr^hi j' t TwlU'-thT /7';'''^-'
oblations. The Cmir /r, r "* "^ bringing
7, «, 9, 16, 24 fcifthi '7"";^^^ ('^'•- '' ^'
the expre,,sio. -'let them 1 e '"""""'" ''J'
Kucharist without „bi: "on " TT",' "' "'«
'Pops. >co>yu..r,adr..a.yZe c^T/ % T""
language. 's"eT,so'''Keli'rV:'ti t ^T,"'"'
m union in praver with . ^A '' ^- ^om-
makinganobConCtt": /'''; P''"""''^^ "^
rejection from act.ml narti. . '' '*"t'""ount to
pear, to have bc:en th ex '- " Tt. ^"' 'I^J^^P'
of the apostolic ca.'onsaMth?"^'^^'''''"
Cyprian and of the ciumik of ' • "*''?"'' "^
The consistentes compnsed \» i''." ''"'^ ^^''^=-
classe-s of penitents 'iTh '■' '''S'''^« and
their wav unfh?.! ., 'hose who had worked
stages i"5.hosrut,r' "' """' "' ""= '"^ r
them from part cipatTon '"h"'' T'^' "^^'•"''^'J
ortence was a ligh ^n ' as h b'' ''^'^"'^ "^eir
habitants of cities alLnt .I'"*" "^ *he in-
church forthree Sundays o/o/'''''T.''''' *■'»»
/»r. cc. 21, 79- T or. ] ''^f' "hlers (Cono.
11), or becau e tl,; oflSde^ fff '''■• ='' '^' '' «'
his crime and obtained a rem"- °^""' '°"^''""' '
Gregory Thau.nat. c l^ 7 n? T^"'"'
tpnts, who, after recm . l7^? ' "^ 'J?: ' i*™'--
■!'l)!
ae:ii~|;ifn,'hadresu,ned
who by a decree of p"i Siri ' "■"""•"«'*' '-"i
(/i>. i. 5), were to h.T '"'"•'"''• A.n. 384-398
these clas Lr he second wT'^J""'"'^''"''-''"- Of
bably the greater par? o'fth ^T"'^^^'"^ P^""
strict sense plitent /h/ h*^ .'''''■'" ''""»
optional case' The fikt wo, "/;;' ^"'^ "" «-
proper. They were admi 1.7 *^' '"nskientes
munion with tL f.t S' vitrTh""'''"' '"'" ^•'""-
the right of .nakin- oWatiu, s4^r ""''""■"" "^
elements. Whetherornot b ' '"e.v.ng the
all penitential e^^erdses the l^ ""'" ""'"'" *™
shew. Whatever disThil . •" '1" '''''""■' to
'narriage, and lrms"S m'n"" ."'""" "^
t-ae. were imposed ;p:;:'itC!'^:„£:;;^
, ' ■
fMli
1696
PENITEXOE
i
laid iilso upon these, although it is most probable
they were spared the humiliation of a penitential
dress, and of public imposition of hands.
i. Their pusitiun. — The position of the consist-
entes was above the anibo with the rest of the
congregation. This may be taken as a matter of
course. It is nowhere expressly so stated, but as
all those below the ambo, catechumens, penitents,
energumens, were dismissed before the beginning
of the eiicharisti: service, and the cimsistent.s were
permitted to remain, it is natural to conidu.ie
that their position in church would be above
those who were dismissed. But whether they
mixed indiscriminately with the faithful, or were
-et apart by themselves, is not so clear. Basil
uecrees (c. 4) with regard to some who had con-
tracted a thir 1 marriage, that after so many years
among the Ifemers and Co-slandfrs, they were
to be restored to the pi -xc of communion (rr?
r6ir'j> T^s Kotvaeias), which wjuld seem to imply
that the actuiil communicant occupied a distinct
place in the church ; and bearing in mind the
orderly arrangement of an ancient Christian con-
gregation, the men on one side, and the women
on "the other, the monks, the virgins, and the
sacred widows, in the front, it seems more likely
that the penitents, even when they had reached
the highest station, had a separate locality in.the
church.
IV. Fkom the seventh Centcry to the ninth.
1. In the East. With the beginning of the
5th century, the Eastern system entered upon
a new stage. The abrogation of the office of the
Pexitkn riARV priest, which took place some time
during the episcopncy of Nectarius at Constanti-
nople, A.D. 381-,39T, may be taken as the point of
departure from the earlier practice. The reason
and the circumstances of the removal of this
church ollicer are given in Sozomen, //. E. vii. 16 ;
Socrates, If. E. v. 19. The changes which may be
traced to this act of Nectarius are — l.The removal
of the presbyter whose office it was to superinteiid
confession and penance. 2. The decline of the
custom, which dated from the earliest ages, of
acknowledgiiis' certain crimes openly before the
congregation, the supervision of which had been
one of"the duties of the penitentiary. 3. The
selection by the penitent of his acts of penance,
instead of their assignment by the penitentiary.
4. The gradual cessation of public penance
for secret crimes. 5. The cessation of the
public rites of daily imposition of hands and
prayers (or the penitents, which were the
chiif ceremonies in the ritual of the station
of the vnoTrivTovTfS. Of these changes, the
first four followed os a matter of course from
the abolition of the penitentiary's office. The
public imposition and prayer did not long sur-
vive ; they may be said to have ceased with the
termination ofthe observance of the stations, and
they farmed no part ofthe Eastern discipline at
the' close of the ."jth century. The solemnities
observed towaril- the hneelrrs, who comprised the
great body of those who were undergoing public
penance, consisted of two parts; the first, the
laying on of hands and the prayers ; the second,
the formal dismi ,!.:\\ from the ohurch. Th? Utter
of these continue I in force after the former had
fallen into rlisuse. Moriiius (/'oen/tcni. vi. 22) dis-
covers a mention of this solemn dismissal in the
£<xil. JiJi/diiyoi/., c. U, of St. Maximus, who wrote
PENITENCE
in the 7th century. The disappearance of all the
solemnities peculiar to the stations is coincident
with the omission of any nientinu of the stHDuns
from the canons of councils. The one e.vcc ption
to this statement is Cone, in Trull, c. 87, which
sentenced an adulterer to be a iluurncr one year,
a Hcurer two, &c., &c. Martene (cfe Rii. Anlii. i.
6) suggests that this canon points to the existence
of the stations in the 7th century. Morinus, with
more reason, regards it rather in the light of an
historical reference by the fathers inTrnilo, than
of a canon on existing discipline. The absence of
any reference to the rites and solemnities of peni-
tents is equally marked in the Greek litun;ips,
as in the canons already cited. Those of Uasil
a!id Chrysostom area'togetlier silent with ng.-.id
to them. So are the liturgical writings of \h-T-
manus, patriarch of Constantinople, about a.d.
720. The Syriac liturgies of Antioi h and the
Nestorians, in common with all the oriental litur-
gies, mention the ritual of the catechumens, but
not that of the penitents. Equally silent is that
of St. Mark, which is said to have been used by
the churches of Jerusalem and Alexandria. The
liturgy of St. James has one direction which
may refer to the dismissal of penitents. After
the readiiiL of the Gospel, the deacon is to say,
Let none of the catechumens, none who are yet
unmitiated, none who are unable to pray with us,
be present at the mysteries. It is not inipmbable
that the expression " those who are not able to
pray with us," may refer to delinquents umler-
going penance, but they are not mentiiuiel by
name. The same direction occurs in the Abys-
sinian liturgy (Morinus, Pucnitcnt. vi. 22). in the
age ofthe compilation of these liturgies, tlie old
peoitential rites of public prayer and inipu-ition
of hands, and to a great extent of solemn dismissal,
had apparently vanished. In the time of the
Greek canonist Balsamon, the 12th century, every
vestige of them had completely departed, and they
are spoken of in c. 19, Cone. Laodic, as customs of
the early ages. It is ditficult to determine with
any fulness the penitential rites which took their
place. The chief source of information is the
Penitential book which bears the name of John
the Faster, who succeeded to the patria:-ch.ite of
Constantinople, A.D. 585. The Penitential is pub-
lished in the Appendix (pp. 615-()-14) of the great
work of Morinus, together with the Comnurinm
of John the Monk, who in the title i ■ called adis- .
ciple of Basil, which can mean no more than that
the treatise contains some of the traditionary
teaching of Basil, or carries on his system. If
date commonly assigned to these books coulJ
be depended upon, there would be no ditliculty
in sketching the outline of the penitential system
in the East, in the 6th and following centuries.
But the books manifestly contain much later
additions, and modern criticism has not yet deter-
mined how much is genuine, and how much
spurious (Wasserschloben, Via Itusonlnmjen
iter •ibervll(indisc)ien Kirchr, p. 4, note). There il
little doubt that .lohn left behind him a collection
of penitential canons, which for some ages had
wide authority in the Eastern church. Nice-
phorus Chartophylax {Ep. nd T/icud. Monich.)
writing .".bout the year 800. testifies to thf
general reception of the canons. A council of
Constantinople, held under Alexius Comuienui
about A.D. 1085, replying to certain questiouB of
some monks, condemns (quest. 1 1), the canonic*.
PENITENCE
.jrstem of the Faster for having destroyed manv
.ou!s by excessive indulgence. The book api„.ars
to have passed through the same history as some
of the more familiar Penitentials of the West
In its present form it probably contains most of
the original instructions of John, but with so
much ot accretion that it is unsafe to rely uuon
it in matters of detail. The use and encouracre-
nient ot inmute secret confession are unquestio'n-
ab e, 1 the Penitential is to be accepted as
authentic in any shape. To stimulate confession
the priest vvas instructed to examine the delin-'
quKiit m the utmost detail. Then there followed
the delivery of the sentence, consisting mainly of
fastings, and continuing sometimes for a number
of yeais. Lastly, there came the singular practice
which may be ,lated from this age, and which
contiimeJ peculiar to the Eastern discipline of
grarting a preliminary absolution iminediatelv
alter the conlession, and after the imposition
of penance, Ijut deferring full restoration to
communion till the completion of the penance
however long or short it might be. The only'
vestige of the public penitence r.maining was the
retirement of the p.nit«,t (anh r„C .aoC) from
the choir of the church into the narthex while
the Mass was being c.lebrated. He was under
instructions to retire at the same time with the
catechumens, but he was not, like them, solemnly
dismissed, although his retirement was doubtless
.remnant of the old rite of formal dismissal.
Reference to th,s practice of the penitent retiring
IS maJe in a W6 of .Simeon of Thessalonica, /„
W. LUur,j., about a.d. 1000, published by
Moriiius, .Appendix, p. 470. The order of conduct-
ing the confession in the Greek Penitential was
this: hrst, the confession, accompanied bva cei cam
ritual of posture and prayer, then a minute inter-
rogation of the delinquent then a short precatory
absolution, and afterwards the nssignn^.^nt of i
penance to be j-erformed without any public cere-
monial. LseeL.xo.MOLOGissis, Vol. I. p: 6501 The
sentence sometimes extended to ten or fifteen
years; the e,r,W^,a (or penitential exercises) were
chiefly ™n fined to restrictions on matters of food
anddrmk [See BAsrma, Vol. I. p. 663.] As, how-
ever tlie ^T.W^ia were precise and elaborate and
sometimes of long duration, and, on certain festi- I
vals, might l.e omitted entirely, it was cu tomlt^
to a .ign them m writing. Slaves and servants
of all .la.«es were to receive only half the nenance
mi»sed „p„n heir masters. The ritual dfscrtbed
rathe Penitentials was the model for the practice
f penitence ,n the East throughout the mTdd e
ages(U.o^Allatius Conscn. J,ccl. Onen.cu,J'cZ
2. liV THE West.
ov!Mhe''i:£r'"'T~T''' •''""'«^" ^'"•='> «""«
, " '"^."'™ '^'sc'pl'ne in the 5th century
W uTu" r'''"S their appearance in the
\ est B„ when the change came the .ame general
o?b d ' nr'- ''^ "'/"' •"■ P"'''''^ ™Sn
; ,n . T'^" '^^ ^""^^ «'"' '"'o™" dis-
missal before the eucharistic service, fell into
tetial ritual m any of the early Latin liturgie
i"2:r,;^b::^iti^r^.-riT""'''- *^'
rENITENCE
1597
■"ent of penitent, came to an end about I!^!
IJ-A^^" change, dati.ig from about that
period, and co ncident with the introdn o , of
[ 'he Penitentials, was the de.inition of th e li^.
tinction between public an,l private p, nance
oereseiveu tor notorious olie'nlpra l,..« n,„» e
secret sins private penance s'lm'ed'^'.N'.^'tl:?
date can be ixod as to the time in whic^i „ uMio
the giadua decline of primitive church order
iu the English church it had disappeared alto:
gether before the close of the 7 h c nti rv
UnVrctrt'T '"' '^' PO'-iteiitial o. ' o lo '
(A o. 009-b9ii, L xiii. 4), which states ti.,, re on!
cil.ation was not to be publicly granted ir ht
extt'r' T"" Public' penancrw:;''.o':''„'
existence. Even as early as the 6th ce-iturv
pX d^"-"r"'' \"'^ "'^^'' "" inroad on th^
public discipline; there is a canon of 1 Cone
J/.s<,S6v„ A.D 581, c. IH, which dei.rivos certrn
sy em of / ''"'''" ^'"'""''- '"the stricter
Uself wIiJT" T^"'"'' ""^ d-'Privatiou
^cptm. AD. 743, which he states to have been
X™pl.ateir'"/-"''"'''''^' ''■"* -'''''"-'"
sTioub/ho I -u """^ . spontaneously confessed
shoud be dealt with privately ; if he was
openly convicted, or made a pub i,. co, l-ss on
hen he was to pass through penance p,^,!;'
canon ^'^it'^Y' '^' '^^-^-K acoorj, to th"^
canons. This decree, which does not ai.near
,nr,"t!d^' four extant canons of Lest n.^ 'wa^
, lancs, y. 5. ; and taken with other indirect indi.
I cations of the decay of public discipline Tt maJ
o'f thf WestTr^T'"' V-^ S"'-' P-S
I oi tne West at the close of ♦ho stK ,'
Thus the 2 Cone, i^ J«" A D. 813, 3 i^uTd
, attention to the distinction which .ughi tbJ
i p« . 'TT:^ '""r 'T' P"'^'''-' -' - va e
the r, •/ / '"•*''' '"^'^ y'"' »"'' repeated in
(Labb. Cone. V li. 149), and in Cone. Mo.unt ad
\ 8+7, c. 31, under Kaban. Maur. Whei ot ne /l,^
custom became general that some "m "ht t
exempt from public penitence, there naturallv
naa no claim to exemption. In different -.J
uir'thr'^r ""' ^"V''-^ hishirrnsiS
upon the observance of the cHnnna t;,
852 (Labb. Cone. viii. 585), to the clerirv of /hi
diocese of Kheims, was one to the ef?«f ,h.t if
m defiance of clerical admonition, a no on^us
criminal refused to submit to pubLc penance
resort was to be had to the extreme ceCrToi
excommunication. Hincmar allows a ,,mnal
fifteen days' grace, after which, if he n ?
refuses submission, he is to be excommu
cated. 1. England {-Vh.oA. PenUent I Tl)
public penitence was in abeyau-e «= p-.... '•,.•'
close of the 7th century." In !.>«„,'.,. i'
bi.hop of Orleans (./. /„.,^:z:iX^\^^^^^^^^^^^
at the beginning of the Sth century, states th»t
a public peni^tent was scarcely eveT's'en „ thi
churches, and that the vigour of the and S
1
,< '.'i
1698
PENITENCE
diicipline WM nlinnst dnud. It is not, however,
to be supiioaeil thiit the iirimitive system was
quite |r<iiie. I'\il>li(: |ieiiiteiits w<^re still to be
»een, who wore Hi'piuntiMl from the fHithful in
dress, and by their position in the congrega-
tion. An eviili'Mce of their existence is to be
found. in the laws passed for their protection.
It was a criminal ollenco in a priest or layman
to compel a public penitent to eat flesh or drink
yt'me(Cii/iitiil(ii: i. 1,')7); to slay him was a crime
of »pe<ial onormity (i.iW. iv. IS). The 9th
century witnessed some revival of the old dis-
cipline. The r){ani«ntion of the stations be-
came a^ain, in a modilied form, the rule of the
church (see Mnrtene, do Hit. 1. vi. art. 4). The
C'oMc. Viinmit., A,l>. HiiH, c. ;iO, apindnted a
penitent to pray for a certain time outside the
church dcKjis; at the eml of that period he was
to lie solemnly introduced, but still separated
from the faithi'ul, and be placed in a conspicuous
corner id' the church, and there to stand, unless
he had special permission to sit (Cone. Mui/unt.
A.D. 888, c. Hi) ; afterwards he was jrmitted to
mix with the congregation, but reception of the
elements came later (Cniiitular. T. liib). If the
third stage of non-participation was prolonged,
communion was granted on Christmas Day and
Easter. Detail ;d directions for dealing with par-
ticular deliiKiucnts will be found in the jiastoral
letters of (Hipe Nicholas 1. A.n. 8o8-8(J7 ; £p.
xvii. lul /.irul. Kiiisc. ; Labb. Cunc. viii. .j03 ; Ep.
x\\y. (id lliiiciwir.; ihid. p, .'il3; Cotu:. Nanne-
tens. A.n. 89.5, o. 17. In the matter of dress it
does not appear that any change was made from
the penitential garb in use in the earlier cen-
turies. In some provinces it was the custom for
the hair and beanl to be shaven, in others to be
neglected and suffered to grow long. All the
penitentials and rituals to which an "ordo"is
attached, speak of hair-cloth and ashes as ap-
propriate to the time of penance. A penitent
was also to go ba' foot, as i\ppears from the Ep.
ivii. lid lUvul. . im: of Nicolas I. just cited,
which makes an exce|)tional concession in favour
of an individurl ollender to wear boots or
sandals. Cimo, Tiilmr. c. I'i.'j, forbad also the use
of linen. In addition to these austerities, a rigid
and long-continued system of fasting was imposed.
Gregory III. ( S.M. 7;)1-741, Ep. i. 7; Labb. O.nc.
vi. l+{>9) decid '■, in reply to a question of
Boniface, that a parricide should be denied com-
munion till death, should fast the second, fourth,
and sixth days of each week, and abstain from
flesh and wine as long as he lived. A man who
murdered his own son was enjoined by Nicolas I.
{Kp. xvii. ad. Ilivul. Episc.) to abstain from
flesh all the days of his life, for seven years to
drink wine only on Sundays and festivals, and
the remaining five years of his penance four
days a week. He was allowed intercourse with
his wife, but forbidden to bear arras except
against the pagans, and if he had occasion to
travel he must go on foot. Another criminal
was ordered by the sama pontitl' (_Ep. ad
Hiniyiivir.) to fast till evening all the years of
bis nenanc", except at Easter and on the fes-
tivals ; an exemptiim extended in another case
to the fifty days from Easter till Pentecost.
These disabilities and austerities are enforced
with some variety in the councils of that period
(Cone. I urnuit. <■<:. 2d, JtO, M ; ('one. Trihnr.
0(1. &6, 58), MorinuB sums up the penalties
PENITENCE
inflicted after the beginning of the 7th century,
as distinguished from those of an earlier ■lute,
un.ler four headings. 1. Those which iiimiui
dress and habi' including the obligation to ^o
with bai-e feci,, and to wear no linen ami to
travel on foot. 2. The observance of spcfiiied
days and modes of fasting 3. Cor|iond iniiush-
ment. +. Exile. [See CoRl-ciiAl. I'I'mshmlnt,
ExiLK, Kasti.no, Ki.aokli.ation.] To tills may
be added a filth of incarceration, or .Si'Cl.L'sio.v
in a monastery, involving, of conroe, an aban-
donment of secular life. An ancient MS.
from Beauvals (Martene dc Kit. i. li) gives
an account of rites of nublic penance, which
can hardly be later than the 9th centurv.
It is interesting to note in it the vesti;;es iil' the
old ritual, the detention without the duur, the
imposition of hands, and the solemn disniistnl.
" At the beginning of Lent, all ileliiii]ui>nts
undergoing, or about to undergo, public poiiimoe,
should present themselves to the bishop hefnre
the door of the church, clothed in sackcloth,
with baro feet and down:".st looks. Thire the
penitentiarv priest should be present to exaniiiie
their cases, and impose penance accordinir to the
appointed grades. The bis'- o> hr .,] thui
bring them into the church, , ' jiostrntiiig
himself on the ground, togethei -.ith all the
clergy, should sing the seven penitential Psidms;
afterwards rising from prayer, he shoidd luy his
hands upon them in accordance with the ciiiioiis,
and sprinkle them with holy water and jilace
ashes upon them, and cover thidr hemls with
sackcloth, and with groans and sighs announce
to them that as Adam was cast out from
Paradise, so must they be cast out from the
church. He was then to order the deaooii to
conduct them outside the door, the clergy
foilowing them, and saying the sentence, 'In
the sweat of thy face,' &c., and the bishup
shall close the door upon them ; and so they
remain outside till t' Coena Domini." A Nwon
, MS. of the 9th c if y gives a short "urdo"
for public penance, whi'' is repeated by the
Fseudo-Alcuin, and man) iituals of a later Jat:'.
"Take the penitent on the fourth day in the
morning in Capita Quaclragesimae, and eover
him with sackcloth, and shut him uji till Coena
Domini." The same codex contains a form for
the benediction of ashes, with the direction that
V. hen the ashes are laid on the head of the
penitent, the priest is to say, "In the name
of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, remember
that thou art dust, and that to dust thou shalt
return."
ii. Private J'enitence. — The whole system dis-
closed by the penitentials points to the preva-
lence of private penance. In the Greek peni-
tentials the delinquent makes a private acknow-
ledgment of his sins to the jniest, he is
questioned in private, and the various rites and
ceremonies which precede final reconciliation
are also private. The Latin, no less than the
Greek, penitentials are entirely silent on the
essential elements of public discipline. Their
contents bear out the statement of Thcodo
{Penitent. I. xiii. 4) that public penance uid nu.
exist in the province for the discipline of which
he iniblished his book. The clergy had sulticient
hold upon the consciences of their flock to
compel them to submit to many severe acli of
selt'-abasement and self-denial for their sins. Bat
dy was reposing i
PKNITENOE
. . , PRNITKXCK IKUQ
the converts of the inJependent northern races ! a?es (So, // P .- , ..
jhrunk from the open humiliation of appearing cTnos to InLfh' • '''\ " '^'•■" ^^^ l'^"i'^'nt
ijtic ornaments of a free man la... „,,ub me
^'IVT'l^r'^^^ '.!?r'^'?" «f the p;nance ! heart. After
mtion ot appearing comes to confess his sinVth \ ^ l'^»"i'nt
a shaven hea.l, and , wait a little li 1 he hT . 'T"'' " '" ''*'' ''^
and the character- f„r n,„vt" an if ^ ^ '"'"'"' '"'" '''» ^""'"'"•t
>n laid aside. The sh ould^sl^. ?he ,,5' ''"' !'," '■''""'''"' ^^o pri..st
tion of the penance! hear TL, .u '''"y^'" "'"^ '"""wed in his
on the one s,de, and its performance on the .'details ofi the r ,^ ^^""' "' S"""
other, was, a, ,t were, a secret one between the '■ lln,-!;, .1 ^"'^'"^ *" >'»
delin.,uent and his priest or bishop. ThTrh nrlh I tie f '''■ .*''' "''"' »«
.ssuch, took no part in the matt'er. The n^re' ^ " r'"'"" '"'
of the sms censured varied from some trivial i follow
carelessness up to ' -'^' • 'omnv
Hut each
crimes, iiut each offender was alike subjected
to penance whether his offence was labour.ne
on the Lords Vay (T/ieod. Penitent. 1. xi. 1) ,*
murder {Vjid. I. iv. 2) or heresy (i/W 1 v 9)
For the first of these offences the censure was
seren days penance ; for the two last ten years
But m either case the delinquent became a
penitent. Ihe sentence was passed bv the
bbhop or the priest, or even by a deacon, but
there wns no open or public rite connected with
It. Fasting and abstinence were the usual
penalties, and these were generally expressed in
the discip mary canons of all the penitentials
Irish, Anglo-Saxon, or Krankish. To these the
Irish books esi..cially added Exilk from the
native land for a fixed period, alms to the poor
and the emancipation of a certain number of
servi or ancillae, and in the case of bodilv
injuries satisfaction to the parents or friends
{Pwmtent. Vmnmc, VVasserschleben, pp 108
224). As discipline decayed, the notion of
REDEMmoNS liegan to be accepted, and other
and easier penalties were introduced, such as the
iinging of so many psalms, the payment of so
manv soli.ii to the poor, so many strokes of
8 rod, or genuflexions {Beda Poe'nitent. xi r
Cumniean, Poenitent. " de divite vel potente
quomoJo se redimit pro criminalibus cul-
pis, Wasserschleben, p. 464). Both Beda and
Cummean give their sanction to the employment
of a substitute by any one who was unable to
«ay his psalms, an evasion which sounds perhaps
the lowest depths to which the rigour of the
prinnt,v» system had sunk. In most of the
penitential books the quadragesimal season of
the year and the legitimae feriae of the week
were p^eriods when more severe abstinence was
imposed, hee below, Season of Penitence. On
certain days the penitent was free from his
pumshnient ; these are stated by Cummean at
the conch.s„,n of his prologue, to be all Sun-
days Christmas, Epiphany, E«ter, Pentecost,
St. John Baptist, St. Mary Ever-virgin, the
U-e!ve Apostles, and St. Martin, be-.aus; hi
bodv was reposing in that province. Several of
h Fraukish penitentials have attached to them
a ratio or"ordo ad dandam poenitentiam "
The, are doubtless of a later age than the body ;f
the canones to which they are appended. They are
apparently „f a sufficiently early date to th^o v
me i,hton the system of private penanc i^
the 8th century. The Penitential. Psettdo-
W, the text of which belongs to the ^
W'stnt'""'^ ?'■°"^"^ "Quomodo peni-
lentes sunt suscipiendi s ve reconciliandi "
fct'f-' P- 3«0)- in it thl" Sis
w , " ""'■ °^ '*" wesks with the peni-
tent .nd even with cries and tears to Ln in
PPl'-'t.on with him. In this latter difection
there is a trace of the custom of the Jar) es
IS
further
imjiosed and on
''« used either for
■ . 1, "^,"P''*'''S or the relief of
, .„ o. , .onow "oratimesMiT:' T '^' ""■■'^' ^hen
horrible and unnatural ; and, finalh he '"u^T^
pany the ^mposifVon' of h:l""%V "'-■™r
- also published by Martene (,,,. ]^ri"t
cord^f af rm=:': ;:r r^^
p=:aS:K^i"^^-^?5-^
.-norhis^rCH^V?
afterTh^h'tT "' '■'""' ^^ -fessL "of ^
S^o^:rs;:^dS^-s
aeaerit). The priest is to suffer him to lie th..r«
for a time, and then raise him and ass'n hi
V. Sins and Penalties.
_ 1. Sins scnJEcrriNo to Penavce.
the'd r* ^'"f— Only mortalia delicta exposed
the delinquent to penitence in the earlv 3^,
Lesser oHences were punished by the reiectioif of
oblations and the refusal of the ele^nts i h„W
communion. The faults and defe ™of da ilv Hf-
Pmei. Penitence, strictly so-called which n
apparent exceptions to this stateme it wiH
period, the cll^lg^^L^ ' ^^ ^ X
enunierat on of those whi,.l. ij ■ "®
expiated by penanJet^e rj:l,th-ror:"fiei
than in the canons of councils. TertulC
1600
PENITENCE
PENITKNCB
in his tract l)e Piuiicit, c. 19, v,,..,;h repre-
sents the most rigi'l notions of .ivl age, yet
admits that some sins were mii'ters of daily
cc.ciirrence to which all were suliject, and which
consequently neede.l no pcnmici'. Among sooh
he ri'ckons anger and quarrelliin;;, and a rohh
oath and a failure to keep an engagement, and
an untruth toM from modesty or necessity. But
the three capital crimes he arrangis on a level
above all others (ibid. c. 12). aud endeavours to
prove, in accordance with the tenets of Montanisni,
that the church had no power to abscdve them,
as, he infers, she claimed to do through penance.
Nearly all the references to penitence' in Cyprian
are in connexion with the lapsed, that is to say,
idolatry. Although there are two passages
which intimate that pena n e was allotted in the
African church to less heinous sins. In Kp. xvi, 'i
he c(Midenins the laxity with which the eucharist
was granted to the Lvpsed, whereas in lesser sir.s
(niinoribus peccatis), -ii.fer;* do penance for an
appointed time, and, acx Tiling to the rules of
discipline, come to r-.ij.'t-ssio'i, &c. In *he fol-
lowing, Ej). xvii., he speaks cgain of jt^iuwii.-e
being done for an appointed time for le'iser
offences which are not committed againsi i'oi,
contrasting, that is, such oD'ences with idolatry,
which is directly against ihe majesty of Ooii
But the general rule of the church was thiit
public penance was restricted to morfal tins.
So it ii stated bv Pacian in his tre.'.tiso oi'
penance, which manifestly reflect-s th; teaching
(if Cyprian. Other sins he considers {Pumcn. a'i
Pornit. c. 9) may be cured by the compensation
of '.lod work.s, but idolatry, murder, adultery
are ■ ■ lital crimes. Augustine cloarly lays down
that only the gravest sins were visited \y public
penance There are some sins, he says (dtf tut ct
op. c. '2t)}, :o great as to deserve to be punished
by escomnii.ni 'ation ; others which need not the
iuHiction of '.hat humiliation of penance which
is imposed upi n those who are properly called
penitents in the ohiirch ; a third class, again,
from which none c;-,n ,'scape, for which our Lord
has left us a remedy \n the daily prayer, " for-
give us our trespasses." This distinction of light
8in.s, for the cure of which daily prayer is suffi-
cient, occurs again and again in his writings
(Enciridion. c. 71; ffom. xxvii. t. 10, p. 177;
Haul. cxix. (/■• Temp. c. 8; Ep. Ixxxix. ail Hilnr.
quaest. I; Ep. cviii. ad ScUuian., cited by
Bingham). He tells the catechumens ((fc/Synj6o/,
ai Catechumen, i. 7) that those who are seen
doing penance have been guilty of adultery or
some such grievous act. He distinguishes be-
tween peccatuin and crimen, the former, sinful-
ness from which none is free, the latter, an act
of grievous sin (Tract. Ixi. m Joan. t. 9, p. 126 ;
De Civ. D.i, xxi. 27 ; de Symbol, i. 7). Ambrose
(de Poenit. ii. 10) confines penance to graviora
delicta. The canonical epistle of Gregory of
Nyssa is an elaborate treatise on the nature of
crime and of the ecclesiastical discipline suitable
to it. Like the Latin fathers, he starts with
murder, idolatry, and uncleanness as the three
mortal sins, but he bases his classification, not on
the decision of the apostolic council (.\ct3xv. 28,
29), but on the threefold division of the faculties
of the soul, tne rational, the irascible, and the
concupiscible ; and all sins punishable by penance
he ranks under one of these three headings.
Under the first are reckoned idolatry and apo-
stasy, either of which, if committed wilfully and
through instability of faith, must lie expiiitril u
a life-long exclusion ; if under fear or cmnnul-
sion, then a nine years' penance is suilicifnt.
Umler the second heading he imludes luliiltcry,
which involves the ciisgrace or injury of aimther
and simple Cicleanness, the fornicr ('riuie r^iiuir-
ing double il'.' penalty of the bitter. 'I'u the
irascible facuky he assigns murder, with tiie
dissinction of voluntary and involuntiuy hoini.
ciiic. He then discusses covotousiK ..t, winch, 'n
the language if St. I'aul, he culls a spi'ijej ,j'
idolatry, and which he says spiings './■oni a cou,-
binntion of all tliuse faculties, luit fhe censure ol
which, he adds, h.os been oveil ..>l;ii| bv the
fathers before him. >'.''the brauia.'s . ■' I'ov'.'tous-
ness he considers r( MhTy with vi.'l. ;!'■■• ami the
spoiling of graves for the sake of t!ie cliithes anil
ornaments contained in them, to be the orl.
ollences requiring public penance. S't,;!,! the:-,
imd till" robbery of ton.listones were niuiked I..
no ecci oiastical censure. He declines to atta"':
a penci*y to usury and extortion, on the grou; i
that thi' ancient canons have not done so. lit
u ury, iiowever, he must have meant usiirv by a
i.T.ini'.is ; in th" ., ise of a clergyman it ha^i been
(l;.:l!i>ctly cononrmied by Cunc. Niaien. c. 17.
riiB thiee capitalia delicta are the principal
-L iccts of Ha'iil's canons. He has, in addition,
'.'ne on pci jury (c. 64), another on robbery
(c. 61), a \'l another on rape (c. 30) ; each of
which might, without any violence, be brought
under the heading of one of the three funda-
mental sins. The councils of Klvira, Ancyra,
Neocaesarea impose penance on tliese three
mortal sins only. In Cunc. Etihcr. cc. 7:!, 75,
the crime of an informer was held to involve
mui'der, and was punished accordingly. And in
the same light, to judg« from the extreme
penalty attached to it, it was regarded by
1 Oinc. Arelat. c 14. In course of time, anil
apparently ton • * the close of the 4th century,
the number of „ius for which public penance
was exacted began to be enlarged. As in the
case of covetousness, in the passage just quoted,
Gregory of Nyssa states that it hal been over-
looked by the ancient fathers, and that therefore
he adds it to the list of delicta. Basil (c. 3u) snvs
the same of rape, and of polygamy (c. 8il), that
he had no an''ient canons to guide him, and that
he made them penal by his own judgment. Still
these and similar additions did not materially
alter the definition of ecclesiastical crimes, and
as long as public penance was in force, the de-
scription of 1 Cone. Totet. a.d. 398, c. 2, held
good : " that a penitent was one who either on
account of murder or various crimes and most
heinous sins was doing public penance." Ks-
communication for small faults was strictly for-
bidden by Cone. Aijath. A.D. 506, c. 3. The
5 Cone. Aurelian. a.d. 549, c. 2, and 2 Cunc.
Arvei-n. A.D. 549, c. 2, laid a like prohibition on
suspension from communion for light causes ; an
oli'ender was to be suspended only on those
grounds which the ancient fathers had decreed.
As the boundaries of the church were enlarged
an;'. : r relations with the state became cl""r.
th ' ;■;• (/"siastical was framed more in accor.,'.
wi' >": civil law. Thus the 2 Cunc. Tur
.' .h. ,"• :, c. 20, inflicted long penance un
abduction of a sacred virgin, on the ground ti..
the Roman law had made it a capital crime
And the spnili
be punished h'
633, c. 46, bee
1,1 l"j 4iuvi!vt;i
w amp iMi ajii
j'U'ishable bv ,
I >e espiated
J; :.ik,e held bv j
u-,.init by Grig
.('^iMi'i , J\rmu,i
>)!ni , admiiii,,!
list oi'iiiorf'sl si
The following
Archbishop's f
crimlna." " Ni,
cundiiin canone
in-'dia, fnrnicat
pi'ie, tristi'ia s
vies, saurilet;i'irii
et hoc ma.-.imii
.•fr;vr.;i;Vii, ;j ,
t'fiuni, fill 'ir
ui.iktns adaidun,
Duid'id, porjuri
"de ininoribus
between minora
together arbitrar
plcte account of t
penitence must
boiik,s themselves,
ii. Stcret Sins.
«o long as public ]
eecret and notorio
was required for
when public confei
as a matter of cou
should be public t
in the first four eei
once they had bei
were treated in at
were detected. Tl
if the offence was
penance was lighte,
Allnitition of), bul
penance. Many of
canons could only h
of them ; for instn
Cnc. Either, c. 76 ;
rerj- exception whi,
allowed in the Case i
that open penance v
»■»« unknown to he:
espressly a secret o
disclosure, not beca
•are her from her
lipistle of Leo to thi
I'lx. ; Labb. Cone, ii
regarded as marking
practice of open coni
out on the suppositi
was open or secret, t
Jlonnus gives some
'je admission of seci
ere sentences.
'>ishop of Braga,
; Wed in the teni
''», confessing that h
cation. The crime w,
and the confession spr
;«"'Ced by the council i
Jlorinus. V. 11, where
we detailed at length.
PENITEKOE
And the spnilinor of irrnFiaa hv „i„_
mc.4.i^ because .uch .JJi^.i^'tiuiM
i.„.nM by Gregory tl -.•<.,.=„ X H ,1^ /' '■^'■
)i.tolm.,rt.l s,„»l„,, :^^",r. •'''';" "'«
The fullowin^ ^'M,me„ ■ , "t Sn"i "Tk'-
A«hbi-h„p-s Penitentinl, c. 1 " de ,. ' , 'r"
crinilim." "Nunc io-iti r ..„•..• ^pitnlm
cundu.n canon" e t 'aVn '"'p.'" '^'■''"'"" »'-
ir-^lin, n.nneatio.' ^'";J'""V"'''''''"•
^.. tri.tinas™„.,,„,V™' -™K;^m-
m.8 »a.nlep..r.,, id ,,,t sacrnrum rerun f,'^""
et hofi ma.Minui), ,vt .'urtum v„l ■ j V '
-:;-^-. ^d «»t au,pir":;' .;^U : :^
•'dt iniiiorjbus peccatis " hnf tu I ''r' ■•'cats
between ,nMor. a'nd "c^,,/- ' „*, S'if'","
together arbitrary an/unn,oa,"ng Thl om
plete iHcount o. the sin. „.hich required formal
peu,t.„ce must be sought in the peni tentia
books themselves. i'>-'"ieiiiuu
ii. Srcret Sins. -So distinction was made
10 long as public penitence was in force^ntw!
.ecret and notorious crimes Thl 1 *"''^°«"
^as required for each In th! r '""""y
when p blio confessirn^was ^^^^1 'f.^Hred'
ZutSin:rfc.e--srr
in the first four centuries ha see sins" "I^f^
once they had become known t„ the chuth'
were treated n any other wnv ft,„„ •=nu'ch,
were detertpH Tkl i l^ ^ '""" *'"» wh ch
,f tL .r ^* ""'y J's'inction was that
If the oirence was spontaneously confessed tbo
penance was lighter (see below PknaltTs iv
0«. ^/.6c,-. c. 76 ; Basil, Jip, ,^ gcT; ""-t,;^ '
very exception which Basil (c ■Mr',!,' ^^^
was open or secret Th» „ ' *'''"'" 'he sin
Morinu,, g res some Lr"""'' *"" *''« "o^^-
«;^^on"" ThT'fr^m? '^ '"? "^^^ K-'ty of fof.^
f^- detailed at length " ""^ °"""- '"^""«^«»
PENITENCE 1601
3- Pkn\ltie8.
;->y be divid;d'into''[h,:rd:";::'™' •'""^'V""'
'i-cni the church- ij'"'^ "'■«"'"» : i. excision
»'i-om communion ' Th» L ."'" '■ '"■ '"'•^^o^'m
nil the austerti"; and 1 !" •"' ♦'"'«'■• ""lu'lea
the penitentia sv-.tZ ''t"'"''^"- '"'1"'«c.1 by
I ti"n of them a4 en su> l''"V,""V'""' ''"™-
I'hebodyofthi;:^ e -^l^llil^'f'^-^^^^^^^^
sion of the cninlv„ ,1, l *" 'he coiiver-
' inters :;,:^'^^^vSu'Tk"''''''^^'''-'»
I a'«l her censures nm h^ 1 "' '","'"'""•''•
si'iritual. "The we !,„ t ''"■'' '•'"^'I'Mvely
nnd contumacious aTri^-e,:-"'' "'",'"•""''
Ip'l' -rls:- ""?^?^
heathen emperoi-a to . k i ,"'''''>' ^o the
1" answer fosueh„n'«, **":■''• ^'''^'l'"""-
cmmandcd the Tudgment w'h "f ";"' ^''"■'■'"'"
of Snmosatn to be e12 ' lb ' V '''^T'' *■""'
being confined t" 2XTtZ' I''''''"'''''
he house and church of his so u^"'", "P
(l»te the bishons sfill \L , , '^' " l"fer
the power of ThVmiSte'w '^ """" '"
censures failed to main « . ' i "" 'P"-'t"Bl
able part of the .. l • ^'■"",'' "" ln<-o"si'JerI
bodied in the TheoH "f."^?' legislation em-
period in tt TaptuZi ^'^'^'.""'^ "' ^ '"'"
kings, had for it oMect the n '^ ^'""'"'Kian
discipline of the church '''L k"'"'""'"'^'" °'' the
the natural rights of m J "' "'"^ ^'^ '"-"^d
by spiritual censure, T ^^'^ ""' '""^hed
;|id 'not ioseTirru'tho^trrr"L'f;''-crr"--"'
of the Chris?,""''''^:;'e:o,r;.r"'"''"'- '^"^
others heretics, and anoTh!,. " I'«»'tent,
this did not loosen fb. J . "" "l"«tate, l,„t
to their im S" I'u ho^r 5''^'"^;;;:|i *''-^"-h
other disabilities nffi.Mm„ ^' • " respect to
mention ot any direct if,''"?"*"*'' "•"--' '» •'•o
The 1 Co,.. ZenlVuT'A "l""'"'' ^''*''-
penitents dying suddenly ,n the fiebl"'' **"*'
journey before tho „„■ \ , , '"^'d or on a
them ^ight'b: buriL" w tra '" ^"^'''' *°
they were leading sallsfac^o. 1!:™';^"'™ '^
tion denying Christian burial to /he ^.r,'"'""
Clous and imnenitp.,, Ti, "" ^ontuma-
memoration after tthwoSrfT. ''' ?">' '^"'"-
rcfusal of the rites of burTaT ""^ '^"'""* "">
christ;ar::rrsntj:^ 'Sr-^" H>ti.ed
church. Over Jews Lh ,1 '"'""■' "'' ">e
jurisdiction of cou«e did n . '" ""'^''^^ ^e,
chumens who were^ it ' „» *'""'^- Cate-
never became penTte^ts If f h'" " ""'^'"^ '""«-
an ecclesiastical crimethev w '^' T'^ ^""^y of
lower class of ZT It' ZT/'T'^'" "
were dealt with on a differe, tr .^' "'"'Sy
rest of the communitv /see I '^^ *° tl"*
women as upon men Bin^h " "'^'"'">' "Pon
■fi'ijil
|l.i
),'■'
•hi?
.. ' 'Ml
'- -i 1
1602
PENITENCE
were not expnsod to open poniince for the first
three centuries. Hut no such exein|ition nppenra
in Tertiillinii cir Cyprian; and in the Spanish
church at any rate, women were sentenceil to
penance. Oirm. AVi'Vr. c. 5 decrees that a mis-
tress beating her shive to death shall be restored
at the end of five years "acta lej^itimik poeni-
tentii;" and c. 14. in the caw' of a fallen virgin,
makes a limad distinction between her exclusion
with or without penance (compare /ftw/. cc. H,
10, 12, Hi, <):t, fi')-, Con: Aiiiu/r. c. 21). The
itatement of Hasil (c. M) that the fathers had
decreed that an iidulteress should not be com-
pelled to publish her crime, could hardly have
been inserted if public penitence of women had
not been the rule— as in the 4th century there
can be little doubt it was the rule. The peni-
tential exercises of Fabiola were commended by
Jerome (/i>. 'W, JCjn'taplt. FMol.) not because
she was a wcmian, but because they were under-
taken spontaneously. A woman submitting to
penance was no special object of commendation.
(See the instructions given by Ambrose ad 1 1V7.
laps.) The 3 Cmw. Tutct c. 12 gives directions
for the penitential dress of a woman. A man
under penance was to shave his head, a woman
to wear a veil. Female penance must have been
80 common as to require regulating where the
rule prevailed that a married woman could not
beciime a penitent without her husband's ccyisent
(2 June. Arctat. c. 22). (For special female
del nquencies, see T\ieoAox. P'icnitential. I. xiv.
"de poenitentia nubentium;" Kgbert, i'otfni-
tentiid. c. 7, " de machina mulierem.")
Neither wealth nor olfice was allowed to
exemiit a delinquent from the censure of the
church. Under the heathen empire the mere
acceptance of certain magistracies, inasmuch as
they involved their holders in idolatrous cere-
monials, was an ecclesiastical offence (^Conc.
Either, cc. 2, 3 ; compare the note of Gothofred
on Cod. T/iCod.XV. v. "de spectaculis"). By
1 Cone. Arclat. A.n. 3U, c. 7, all Christian
governors of provinces were ordered to take
with them commendatory letters, and bring
themselves into communication with the bishop,
BO that if they transgressed against discipline
there might be no difficulty in expelling them
from communion. Although in the 4th and
5th centuries no consideration of rank checked
the great bishops from censuring offenders in
high places, as, for instance, the condemnation
of Andronicus, governor of Ptolemais, by Sy-
nesius (A>. 58), and the governor of Libya by
Athanasius (Basil, Ep. 47), and the famous
expulsion of Theodosius from communion bv
Ambrose (Bingham, Antiq. XVI. iii. 4), yet m
practice the right was rarely exercised. (For
reasons for this forbearance see Barrow, Of the
Pope's Supremacy, p. 12.) The age at which a
young person came under the discipline of
penance is nowhere defined. It is not likely
that the church would excommunicate a boy or
a girl. A Roman synod under Felix III. (a.d.
487, c. 4) decided that boys who had been bap-
tized by the Arians should remain a short time
only under the imposition of hands, and then be
restored ; for it was not reasonable that their
penitence shr.uM be proinngei. The Con:
A'leith. c. 15 exempted the young from severe
penance because of the weakness of youth. In
the discipline of a monastery a delinquent under
PENITENCE
age was fl( gged (Macar. Jiej. c. 1.') ; Benedict,
/I'B;/- c. 70; (iregor. Ep. ix. Otl. quntel by
Bingham). And probably in the chnich at Inrgi
the weapon of penance was used only against
those who had passed their minority.
iii. Umformitij of. — It is laid down in the
Apostolieat Con4d'Uion'< (ii. 48), that grpiij care
and discretion were to be e.\ercised in treating
offenders ; some were to be dealt with by threats,
some by terrors, some Ipy being urged to almj.
giving, some to fasting, iind some by ejection
from the church. And lor along time mi duubt
this discretion was vested in the bishop, assisted
perhaps by his presbytery. As the chui. h |{rew,
and intercourse increasetl betwe mi her different
branches, a more uniform scale of penalties was
adopted. The frequent communication* which
passed between Home and .Vfrica, tnices ol which
are preserved in Cyprian's epistles, are the first
important eHorts after uniformity of discipline.
The decisions of the councils of the succeeiling
age were a further advance in the same direc-
tion. Nearly all the twenty-five canons of Ancyra
and the eighty-one of Elvira treat of the penal-
ties suitable to ecclesiastical crimes. The same
may be said of the twenty-two canons of the
first council of Aries, and (0 a certain extent of
the canons of the Apostles, These various
judgments of the assembled fathers represent,
in fact, so many penitential codes, whose decrees
would be the model, if not the rule, tor the
administration of discipline thronshnut the
church. The appointment of the Pi;SfTi;.\TiAUY
officer in the dioceses of the Greek church would
also tend to produce a uniform standard of
penalties. The treatise which more perhaps
even than the decrees of councils heljied to estab-
lish a system in the East was the epistle of
Basil. For many ages this canonical letter
of Basil was the standard which governed the
discipline of the East. Hardly less authoritative
was the epistle of his brother Gregory of
Nyssa. The decisions of the popes on (juestions
referred to them were a further contribution to
a body of penitential law ; for example, Syric,
Ep. i. 3, 5, 6 ; Innocent, Epp. i. 7 ; ii, IJ, 13;
iii. 2 ; Leo, E/i. Ixxix. 4, 5, 6 ; Feli.i III.
Ep. vii. ; Nicolas, Ep. ud Rkol. The Penitential
books were an additional attempt to codify the
law. Originating either from famous monas-
teries, or embodying the decisions of great pre-
lates, they spread far and wide through France
and England, and in a less degree through all
the churches of the West in the 7th and 8th
centuries. The 3 Cone. Tolet. c. U in the Sth
century, and the Cone. Mojunt. c. 31 in the 9th,
alike complain of the difficulty of maintaining
penance at the true canonical standard. The
penitentials were no doubt designed to meet the
difficulty. The princijile laid down by Cone,
Mo(junt. was, "lat penalties were to be based on
the ancient canons, or the atithority of scripture,
or the custom of the church. The penitentials
in themselves possessed no canonical authority.
and their multiplication was in some instances
regarded with jealousy. " Their errors," said the
bishops in 2 Cono. Cahilon. A.n. 813, c. S8, "are
certain, and their authors uncertain." With
the growth of the papal power and the ocntraH-
zation of ecclesiastical jurisdiction at Home, dis-
cipline tended to become more and more ani-
form.
PENITENCE
It. Alleviation of—
a. Pu n-iK-nt„me. — Although the church
.ime,l at uniformity of (li.,(i|,line, the same
|*n«lty WHS not bIwovs impose,! on tho same
crime ; or if the penalty was originnllv the same
It »M not rar vil out alike In all cnHes. There
woul.l bo piactiial dilliculties in the wn\' of
jimstin? on the conipletion of a merely si.iritunl
lentence extendlnic over twenty or tweiitv-Hve
year«. Hut in addition to the necessities o'f the
one » mitigation of the penaltv was openly
gruntea n certain instances. The t.rst erouiul
of relaxation was earnestness of repentance over
(ind above the formal submisalou to censure
ftni-. /l«.-yr. c 5 orders the bishop to examine
the present and past life of n penitent and shew
clemency accordingly. By Cone. Lnmik. c 2
rerseverance and prayer and confession, and a
total abandonment of evil habits, were allowed
to move the rulers of the church to pity rsee
dnv. m InUt. c. 102). Cone. NU-„'n c 1''
decided that a delinquent who proved his amend"
roent by fear and Vears, and submission and good
works, and labour and dress, shoul.l, after hUnn-
pointed time among the J/airers, join in com-
niuiiion of prayer ; that is to say, the laborious
ftation of /in^cferi might be omitted; those, on
the other hand, who thought it sufficient to
shew their repentance by merely coming to the
church door, were to complete their full sentence
The 4 Cone. Cartlmj. c. 75 speaks to the si.me
effect on " negligentiores poenitentes." Basil
(c 74) considers it an act of duty that those
who have the power of binding and loosin.^
should remit part of the penalty of the earnest
and diligent. The same sentiment which appenrs
several times in the ei)istle of Gregory of N yssa
regulated the administration of discipliiu'
throughout the church (Innocent I Ep i 7 •
Leo, Kp. Ixxix. 6 ; Cone. V. rinat. c. 75) ' '
6. % con/m.-,,...— One who spontaneously
confessed his crime was generally treated more
leniently than after detection. Cone. FMher
c. 76 made a wide distinction in the case of a
deacon who allowed himself to be ordained after
the commission of mortal sin. If he made a
vol , tary confession, he might be reinstated at
the end of two years, but if others convicted
hiiti, he was to do penance for five years, and
then be restored to lay communion only. In
JIartm Bracar. (Collect. Cone. c. i5), a priest con-
fessing under similar circumstances might re-
tain the name of priest, but not celebrate : if he
was convic'ted, even the name was to be taken
tromhim. GregoryThaumaturgus(£>,,cc 18 19)
with reference to robberies which had occu'rred
during the confusion arising from a Gothic
invasion, made the station of a delinquent depend
upon the manner in which the theft was re-
vealed, whether by conviction or by confession
and estitution Basil (c. 61) diminished the
^^nalty of a hief who confessed by one-hnlf
The same authority, at the beginning of his
STf r^"'"' i". «P°"t«"«0'" confession and
pe of time and ignorance an equal po^n in
allenatmg penance. (See Ambrose, IVn;. lap,.
; ^ I'^./wnt'"**. ii. 8; Prosper, \it Con-
^Pkt.\\.^ In some flagrant i;st„n;.es"s
"•' tno cas^ o. an adulterous clerk ( 3 Cvnc
A.ret.K.^. 538, c. 7), confession was of^o ^^Zi
c By mtercmioj.._The accounts of public
CHRIST. AST. — VOL. II, '
PENITENCE
1603
qnently represent the delinquent implorins the
congregation and the widows and the virgins
and the cli.rgy to intercede with the blsho,, f„r
him. Ami when the length of penalties wa.
undetermined by ,an.m, and rested practically
^vlth the imlividual bishop, such intercessions
were a recognised channel by which to obtain a
mitigation ol penance. With the elaboration of
the system which began with the 4th century
these intercessions are rarely heard of, althoueh
Augustine mentions incidentally (Kp. liy „(/
M<t,cd.,n.y, 93), a custom .,f magistrates inter-
ceding with the church for ollenders. In Africa
a practice arose, which quickly became abused
ot granting alleviation of penance to the interl
cession of martyrs, that is to say, of Christians
m prison exjiecting death during persecution.
[LiDKl.i.i, p. 981.] * '
3. Pekitence DENIEn.
nl'ufn'^rr' *" "" •?'■'' Cmnmimon of mortalia
YWiaa.-Ihe grace of jwnitence appears to have
been withhe d from certiiin delinquents in the
early centuries, not because the church had any
doubt about her authority to grant it, but on
he ground that the power of binding was vested
nth the same sanction as that of loosing, and
hat to open the door with equal readinfls to
nil great criminals alike would only brina dis-
cipline into contempt. This seems the probable
explanation of the undoubted erti^ct of some of
!e TJ\^ decisions. Cyprian has left it on
record (A>. Iv. c. 17) that among his predeces-
sors some entirely closed the plLe of' penance
against ailulterers, and by implication against he
other two mortal sins which were of a still
graver character; but he adds that in doing so
Mow tar this exclusiveness was followed in
other provinces is one of the many vexed ques-
tions ot the primitive discipline. See Albaspin.
Ober,,at I. y,i. 20 ; Bona, Jier. Litun,. I. xvii"^! i
Pur v^ ,f "''■'"■ t«»'™ony of Tertullian (%
Pud^it c. 1), pope Zephyrinus, a.d. '>()2-o 8
griinted penance to the sins of unclearness and
fornication, and Tertullian founds upon this a
charge of inconsistency against the bishop be-
cause he was not equnlly indulgent to m'urder
and idolatry. Morinus (ix. 20) holds that tho
evidence of Tertullian i"i> this'treaUse on he"
usage of the Roman church is not worthy of
credence. Martene (rf. mt. i. 6), on the con-
rary cites him as a trustworthy witness.
It the ordinary reading of " nee in fine "
in many of the canons of Elvira is to be
accepted there can be no doubt that penitence
was denied in Spain to idolatry and to' murSer
(see for mstances cc. 1, 6, 63, 73, 75). With
regard to moechia the decisions were more
lenient (cc. 13, 14, 31, 69, 72) ; except in aggri!
yated cases (CO 12, 66, 71), when commufi„„
^yas refused absolutely. It may be well to
enumerate the exact crimes for which com.
munion was !enied by the council of Elvira
eyen at d.itl. . idolatry in an idol temple after
baptism (c.^>:. baptised flamensacrificfngagata
1 -n'' ■' 1, '. ";'"'''-"0' after penance (cc. 3, 47) •
killing by witchcraft (c. 6); if a woman deserted
her husband without cause and re-married (c.8) •
parents selling a child for prostitution (c. 12) *
dedicated vjrgins becoming prostitutes fc. 13) 5'
102
m
:. m
1604
PENITENCE
betrothal of n ilnughter to bu Idol piieit (c. 17");
adultery by clcr^jy — on account of the scbihImI
(c. 19) ;' nmrdiTby n wnmnn of her child horn in
alultory (c OH); clergy retaining » iulterom
wives (c. 65); unnatural crimes (c. 71) ; aggra-
vated ailultery (ce. 04, 7'J, 79) ; giving; iiifcrma-
tiim which lends to a Christian being put to
death (c. 73) j malicious charges against the
clergy (c. 76). These decisions appear to have
had at the most only a provinciiil authority,
and not to have governed the general discipliin'
of the church. Kur the Cone. Anci/r. (co. 9, 1'';,
which was contemporary with Cone. I'tibet-. or
only a few years later, granted penance to i >' 1)
of the three niortalia delicta even in their most
aggravated forms. And, indeed, throughout the
Kastern church, with the exception ol a decision
of Cu'ic. Siinlw. c, 2, which rierts certain
fraudulent bishops from even lay communion
at death, there does not appear any trace of the
refusal of the rites of penance for the first com-
mission of any sin sincerely n] ented of. Nor
does any trace of such severity i ' ir later than
the C'o/ic. EWx-r. in the West.
ii. Qcneratlfi tn a Jicpitinon nj S%n once erpi-
otcd. — The refusal of pcnan .e a second time was
one of the unwritten enno i;i i. the early disci-
pline. No council passed a decree against its
repetition, but in practice its re' isal was almost
universal from the very beginning. Hennas
(Pastor, Mandat. ii. 4), considering whether an
adulterous wife ought to be received by her hus-
band, determined that she should be taken back,
but not often, for to be servants of God there is
but one penitence (compare Id. Similit, iii. 9). This
decision of Hernias is cited and approved by
Clem. Alexand. (Strom, ii. 13, p. 459, ed. Oxon.).
The language of TertuUian is very explicit (Jo
Pudicii. c. 7); "God hath jilaced in the poii h a
second repentance, which may open to those who
knock, but now for once only, because now for
the second time, but never again." The " first
repentance " which he had in his mind was
baptism. A little later (ihid. c. 9), he speaks of
the "second and only remaining repentance."
A passage in Oi-igen (Horn. xv. in c. 25 Levit.)
gives a clear account of the general practice.
" In graver sins the peace of repentance is
granted but once only, or seldom ; but those
common sins which men frequently commit,
always admit of repentance, and are redeemed at
once." The words " or seldom " are generally
regarded as a later interpolation; the date of
their insertion probably joinciding with the
growth of greater laxity in thj Eastern church.
There appears some reason for believing that
Chrysostom did not hesitate to grant penitence
more than once. Soorates (//. E. vi. 21) states
that he taught that though a synod of bishops
had decreed that relapsed penitents should not
be readmiHed, he was willing to receive them a
thousand times. On the accuracy f( this state-
ment with reference to Chi-ysostom see Morinus,
V. 37. At the beginning oi the 6tli century the
privilege of freque'it. penance was taken away
from the Massalia i li'.ietlcs by a synod of Con-
stantinople, A.D. -iijy or 427, under Sisinnius,
one of Chrysostoni'a successors, because it had
been so often abused. Kroni tliis Uinghani con-
cludes (Aidiq. XVIII. Iv. 7) that a repetition of
penance was not unknown in the metropolitan
proTtnce. The relaxation of the early rigour
PENITENCE
may be partly attributable to the eicpssive Inniflh
of the sentences ini|Hised in the Kantcrn ihiin h
after the 3rd century. If a delinquent hnl ,,
penii ne for fifteen or twenty years, anl n«i
willinff to 'insj through the or<leal a secmi.l ,mf
it \. ' . ' ■; 1 i'lhi 1. ,io»»ible to reject iiirn. |n
th( UiiSu I'hur, li . discipline of a'sniijli)
•. i.nnci sti."",vr!i! longer The Omr. KiiKr,
vhic'' v.-.-, so severe in refusing reciinciliniion
even once was not lilody to grant it n ipniij
time (cc. .1, 7, 74 ; I'acian, Kp. iii. cuntr. Iscnx.
pron. c. 27). They are rightly n-proved, »nyj
Ambrose (da Poeititent. ii. 10), who thiuk thit
penance can be performed often, for they wanton
against Christ. Augustine {Kp. clili. mI Mweiln.
c. 7) is a witness that even *]< ■ ' -Ince j„
the church was refus-'' .•■ icia|>.i,,ig |., litent.
The manner of dealing with such lapsers in the
Western church is laid down by pope .Siraju,
(Ep. i. tt'l Uitiier. c. 5); they were not to hsve
the benuht of a second penitence, but might he
present, without communicating, at the cdebrj.
tion, aud be allowed a vintkim at their death.
By 2 Cone. Arelat. A.d. 443, c. 21, a penitent
repeating his sin was to be cast out of the
church. By 1 Con-. Turon. a.d. 4iiO, c. 8, he
was ejected, not only from the church, but from
the siiiiety of the faithful (Cone. Vewt. a.d.
4U5, c. 3). By 'he 6th century jienitence began
to be conceded frequently. For the 3 Gmc.
Tolet. A.D. 589, c. 11, complains that in maiy
of the Spanish churches discipline was no longer
administered according to the canons, but aj
often as men sinned and a) .lied to t.ie priest, bo
often penauce was i anted. This abuse the coun-
cil checked. The disappearance of the early rule
ilates probably from the decline of |>ul)lic disci-
pline, and the substitution of a pri\ ate system by
which ft sinner obtained reconciliation as often as
he confessed his sin and submitted to penaiite.
iii. Till the Hour of Dctith.—The orJinnry
course of penance in the 4th and 5th centuriei
held an otl'ender in its trammels for half a lif -
time for certain mortal sins ; if the .tins wen
especially heinous, tie penalty extended overthe
wh> le life, hjwever long its duration This
severity was not confined to one province. In
.''liain the '^imc. Eliber. ■ 3, withheld conimu-
■1 till diT' 1 from a .verted flamir. who,
a '..lining u^im sacrificu,^, merely exhi !ed »
shew ; and ivU his life he was to be under canon-
ical penance. A consecrated virgin who hnJ
fallen was allowed communion at last only if she
had ' ; . a life-long penance (ibid. c. IH). '.'.
a la„er date the Cone. Her '. a.d. 523, c. 5, se..
tenced any of the inferioi' clergy wlio, after
penance, relapsed into the same sin, to exclusion
till death. In France a sin ' sentence was
passed by 1 Cone. Arelat. a. ;i4, c. li, on false
accusers of theiv
Jalentin. A.D. 37''
In the East the
attached this pen"
the Corn". Neocaesc
rethren; and by ('*'.
on lav^ers into idolatry.
. A . A.D. 314, c. ii,
to i: tural crime; and
2, dcci. -d that a woman
marrying two broti.ers was to be expelled till
the approach of death, and then only to be ad-
mitted on her assurance that should she recover
the marriage should be dissolved. And finally,
in Kome Felix ill., A.D. 483-4it2, decided in te.
Ji'om. c. 2, with regard to the African cicrgr,
who had sulFered themselves to be rehaptizcd in
the Vandal persecution, that thcj were to con-
PENITENCE
tin<i« amfer pi.tinnre nil the ,lny« nf thoir lifp ' , 10
ml not be pre.....t ,|„rin« the nrnv..,, ,<• u ' , *' ' 2. P««"H « .imil
PENITENCE
1605
j„, not be pre„.nt .|„rinu the prav-r, „f th,.
f., hful or even of the .■«to.hMmen,;„„<l be n!|-
li\r .IciToe, hsviiig i
.:. , . , ■■••■■ in. imena, nnd be mi-
ni. tM to Uy communion only «t death. (See
Anililine, III/,-. V„i,. viii, 3H ) *■
4. Pkmiknck ..f T.IK S.CK.-ThP ,i,.k un,,er
d..ni.lme m«y he ,),vi,|..,l into three oln„e,._
i tho»««ho for „,„„. itriev,.,,, ,.ri,ne h«,| been
,j„te,l irom the rhnnh an,l ,;.|| ,1,,, ^^l^^,
ont.,,1. her pale ; „ tho», ho were ro„.clo„, of
u„,i,..e,ted ..n and a«ke,l f„r penanee on their
.,<• l,eJ; ... those overtaken bv illness while
„n,ler«o.„,,f pnance With reitanl to the fir t
cImi, thei'e lee.ns little doubt that for aboot
the r.taoo year, the full ,,.„,;'„; ';^^^^^^^:^^
,« den.ed to the.n abnolutely. C'vprian (ft,
AD. ,114, c. 2.', at wh.ch M.ost of the Western
tliurches weie represented, ,1, reed that a.,,,,
tnte. who had not „„„ht peniten e in heal h
were to be debarred ,,„„, \t in illne,", „u| ,„
t ,y recove..ed, and had an opportunity of provin?
the.r «.ncenty. The denial of penance at b'„
h.,urofdeathtoth..ewhohadJon;;.nt , I-
WM cont.nued ,n tl-e case of condemned criminal,
for . loni; penod .„ France. In (J.rmany ?h .
v^^. repealed till Keb.'i.,?i,:'',--^-r:
Umrle> V . It o„c, not r;,pearthnt the refusal
recnnahat.on waa ne, ,..,sarily a refusal of „1
m^T.y "^.P"""''"''^-- '■"■• Innocent I. a.d
4U2-417 (V .„ ,W E.rn,^r.), states that the old
mt„,p the chuich, in the ea- ,f repentant
Wmi.„U at death was to grant .,^nX but i
deny commun.on. and . hat this was ' in order
on,„„tn,n a h.gh standard of disc. dui^ine
the t..ne, of pei-serution. aad that a.,, .ward,
. enpersee«t,„„s,..„„ I, both penance an. "^
ur,.„Mvorenm,.e,ledtothedyin^.«nd,l- ',
..:i.f forth was t, . law of the Catholi,' , , j
here., a say.n? of Cyprian (n,t Den. -iam r
I,.). Mui.,u„n sera est poenitentia si Mt vera "
.Vo„e the less the great African father de.ded
rommun,on to grievous sinners in their la't
. .ess, not l,„„.ever be..nuse he donbte 1 tt
elh,.a,y of death-hed repentance bu t, sin
oemv. After the close of the p rs ,tion,"
:" '^™."-i'.«tion was granted tl 1 dv n.
en seek.ng , whatever their previous earV r^
n the question was authoritntivelv set at
rest by a decree of ««.-. AV,v,.„. ,. j { rg"'
Ri-mvoiuATjox.] The treatn.enLf .i '• !
i'l« nf .l,.t n.. L "^^t""'"* of the second
..i.»nt sick, those whose sin had not been de-
t'cte,! or c nfessed till their last illness was
mUt' ^^-r.' '"^ Celestine I.. A.n. 4:22-
»t he knew of -. ,„. having denied pe. tence
^^4.^...4),not-i;t;£^;:-
, ""."^'3 >'«" motionless «. w«ll „. ,_.. u
S''ih.'v"LV'"'"'"."'!y ^^'""'^'<"' '■""•d «t,.y
"l.''t*;P'-."'^t- "«•-*« in all
A.M. .S98 c 7.1 h.l : '""* Cmw... C/jM,,,;.
farther it b.H '^"' "I"'*'' 'he concession even
~.1L "?;„"; *■'";:" """ •■•" ■ »"'»<-
whfch .„ „,r.„j,, toi'C ;' '''",•',"•■'";
<>ng.nally a penitent m,ce recon, iled7„rse, t
bck on recovery, not to his forme, posiL^ b
Nice ^,^%'^"""°f-«f ''•«/- 'The 0";,.
thethL^to}^:;s»;-f;;inti\i:.r/"
P< !'".. It was approved bv Kelix III (Fr> vii \
severity prevailed fv t'';''^;',"<es greater
down,^.^':XtJ;:c[b::^^-:j?^'*
ticipation in the holy mvstei-i, sh"ni7 •/!'"
recovered, return to';h"- I , n whicL h '
danger and necessity had ' *"'
lu n tirta.n Jjimponiantu,
Synesius
con-
i < L
jl-i
¥• '■■!
ii'jj
:
i
i
i
i
*i
5 L a
1006
rENITENCB
i\
Tho 4 ri/fi'. r,iil\iuj. A.n. nnfl.c. 7n, with ri>K«rd
to iiiiiitetn'e lH'iii|{ ijivtMi eviMi t<i oiin itiseiiitil'lB,
iniitlo It thudiity of thiisc whi> hn.l lii-iii witnesspn
of hi» cnntrili' n, to tnk.- iBru thiit if hu ri>-
CDverml he fiilnlli'd his ciuinDicnl |ii'Tmiicc, the
durntliin of whiih wiis to ri'«t with thi liscretion
of the inii'st. Uy I'-iV/. o. 7H, no tWk m«n who
h(i(l received his rutlium wiw to coiiiiidcr hl»
penitence Mtistied without iinpo»itioii of hnndu;
and HI this w«h one of the rites of the stili.ilrati,
it wimi I invcdve his hein({ remitted to thnt
itnti'in. The coinpletioii of iienniioe after a licit-
bed abioliition was for a l"ni[ time the general
rule (1 ('m(\ Aran.'! p. a.d. 441, c. 3; Oinc.
Kpain. A.n. 517, c. .')•))• The rule wa* to some
decree moditiecl by a decision of I Oni'. H.vciion.
A.B. ')4il, c M, that tlie length of a convalescent s
penance should depcml on the discretion of the
priest, but should in no cnse involve imposition
of hands. Krom th« 'ith century, and uji to tho
boijinnini? of the l'2th, severity towanls the sick
increased rather than diminished. An indication
of this is seen in 'A Cuiio. T»let. a.d. .IH'.t, c. 1'.',
which required sick penitents, equally with
th"«e in health, to shave their heads if they
were men, and if women wear a veil, and put on
haircloth or some other penitential dress. This
injunction, whii:h appears to have been c(uifirmed
bv 13 Cone. Toli-t. A.l). OH I, c. 2, and by lit
done. Tnlet. A.D. 08.'?, c 9, must manifestly have
depended on the nature of the sickness.
:.. SeMun of Penitence.— 'X\\e godly custom
that persons convicted of notorious crimes should
be put to open penance, was not contined to the
beginnini? of Lent in the primitive church,
liiniihnm (/Int.-/. XVIII. ii. 'i) says there is a
perfect silence in the more ancient writers about
it. Morinus (vii. lH) traces the origin of the
restriction to the qnadriigesimal seasons to the
7th century, when public penance had censed to
be exacted 'for secret sin. For the first half of
the 5th centiny Hibiry of Aries is a witness
( Vita, c. 13) that penitence was granted every
Sunday. The primitive custom appears to have
been to receive the penitent whenever he was
brought to the bishop. In the Greek chnrch
this custom WHS never restricted ; but in the
Latin the various pontilicnls and rituals of the
8th and 9th centuries disclose a practice of
re.serviug the penitential rites to the beginning
of Lent, whether the rirst Sunday or the
previous Wednesday. Even at that date peni-
tence was not exclusively confined to the Lenten
season. The aipnt jfjunii was held to be the
usual and moat api)ropriate time, but there was
no law of the church prohibiting the imposition
of a state of penance at any season of the year
if the case required it.
0. Minister of Penitimce. — In the administra-
tion the bishop had supreme if not exclusive
power. The statement, however, of Martene (*
Iiit. i. 6), that he alone received confession, and
he alone imposed penance, is too unqualified. For
it seems undoubted that the presbyters shared
the bishop's jurisdiction. Still, the power
resided in the bishop alone, if he saw fit to
exercise it. Cyprian frequently claimed and used
the sole right' "of discipline {I'^pp. xvii. xix. xxv.
xli. xlii. xlvi. &c.) and his presbyters acknow-
ledged his claim (Ep. CalJowit. ap. Cyprian,
xxiv.) T-e Apostolic il Constitutions, which deal
to largely with discipline, are addressed to the
ri-.NITENCE
bishop, He was to prenide over all, as onlruittd
with the potter of biniling ami loosing (/l^kii,
(.'on.i*. ii. IH); upon him the blame wai in Iw
laid if he ne^b ited to exercise his pciwiT {i><tl
c. l(»)i fi'i" h'' ■**" "'' '" **"' '''"'"^n '" »it iQ
judgment on ol' nders. [Ilisiioi', p. '.'df.] Hut
although Cypri.in and olhiri did not hetitatt Ui
vindicate their episiopal autliority, ti.ey fr«.
quently acted in conjumtlon with their pruljy.
ter» ,1 the dillii ulties disturbing the chureo,
Ki'vMii the earliest ages there are iivlirntioiis uf
this association of presbyters with their |]i»hop«,
.Some such association appears in the lenti'tice
issued by St. I'aul against the incestuniij (Jirin.
thian (1 Cor. v.). The excoimnunicntion
emanated from the apostle, but it was lo W
decreed by tho assemliled church, " whiu jra
are gathered together," at Corinth. The .iposllt
was present only in spirit to preside over tli'ir
assembly.
Ignatius, whose epistles shew the jtmI
authority possessed by presbyters in the 2n<i
century, refers (ud I'lulmlelp/t. c. H) to the ji«ni-
tent I "ining to tho bishcqi's consistory, tii
avvdipioi' rod iwi<rK6nou. The ('i>ni(i/M(iotij,
after speaking of the presbyters as the aJviier!
of the bishop, and the council and senate of the
I hurch, go on to say that the prenliyti'ia, anj
the deacons shall sit .n judgment with thi
bisho|( (Apost. Const, ii. '2H). Tcrtullian's
delinition of exomologeais (Pocnitent. c. H) cnir..
(irised submission and supplication to the (ires-
byters. Humiliation before the presliytcm ii
related of Natalia the confessor (Kuseb. //. /,'.
V. '28). In Cone, h'liber. c. 74, the " cnnvcntM
clericorum " is made the judge of the (.T.ivit;
of a perjurer's otl'ence. Cyprian has nuimroui
allusions (h'pp. itvi. xix. &r,) to the piesKyter!
uniting with the bishops in the administralii-n
of discipline. For himself, he said (A/), liv.),
from the beginning of his episcopacy he M
resolved to do nothing of his private judsinieot
without their concurrence. Cornelius siniilarlr
(Ep. xlix. ad Cyprian) would not decide the cnse
of the confessors who had sided with Novatian
till he had summoned his presbytery. The
councils which condemned Origen (I'araphil.
Apolog. ap. Phot. Cod. cxviii.), Novatian (Kuseb.
//. E. vi. 4;!). and Paul of Samosata (i'>«'. Tii.
28), were compo.sed of bishops and preslvten,
the last-mentioned synod containing (i'aioiu
also. The first step in the prosecution of Xi«Ib!
(Epiphan. /fieres. Ivii. 1), and of Arias (iW,
Ixix. 3) was to bring them before the presbvtorT.
Before Alexander, bishop of Alexamlria, issue!
his circular letter to the other bishops agjiiist
Arius, he had previously summoned the yreskr-
ters and deacons, not only to hear the letter, but
al.so to give their assent to the judgment (Co-
telcr, orf Const. Apo-t. viii. 28). On tlie f«-
demnation of Jovinian by Siricius (Ep. ii)>
. presbytery was summoned, and the jiresbyten
and d'eaco'ns were associated in the promuigatu j
of the sentence. Similar steps were tal<tn by |
Synesius (Ep. Ivii.) in excommunicatinj, Ad-
drouicus. The fourth Cone. Cartluiih c 2:), F"- I
hibited a bishop from hearing any cause ali'M
without the presence of hh clef};}"; '"••' ■'• -
nut clear whether the causes in view *en
clerical or lay. In many instances ' McleiMf
tical censures the laity appear t' "' t*''
present, not in any judicial capacity, bat as w* |
PENITENCE
BMMii. «mi tn alitnip the «i'ntiMu:« ai iuuinir from
(b« whiile bodv .if thf faithful.
Af(«r the cimviitloii of nn "(riMnlor, It rfsto.l
with •(»«« oim tu lie that thi- »(mtiMi(w wnt
Mrrlcl "lit. In aiirh iixMU- rilm aa im|«.iiti„ii
of haii<l< nnd n ii|wiiiil jiuiilitv In the i:hiiii h
lli»ri' rciiilil tie nil mu-d i,f »ii|H>iviiii()n. Thi'
MM would be dilliTPiit with thi- im re iiiivnt.-
diMbilitiej oMd /iiistfiitica. (i,ii,.iiillv a|ii>nkiiii{
th« •H|iorint('!idi'iice n-sti'd mlh I'ht! Iiiah.iii'
Thii li cli-ar iVmii the miin.'i„ii» iKUHUKri
rtferriiijt tn hi« .-iiithurity ov.t piMiiteiits ; and
furtlin I'vidiTitf ill the aiinie dire.tiun may l,e
ptheivi from the lawn forhiddiii({ n blahini to
recelvi. a iifnit.'i.t, without rrajiiinieiidHtion,
from »ii"ther dioi !■»(■. (Cm A/iont, i^. 1'2; Cmc
Kimen. c. 5; Con,: EIUku: ,•. .i.S • i Conc. Archi.
(. K).) It would have Utii iiniirnntiiable f.ir
the bi»li"|> to have loni{ maintniirnl this aiiini.
viiioii |)ir*iimlly. In tiie eiirli.st ajfeii, when
«Yfry member of a church wim known to the
bishop aud to each other, he probably ili,| «„ ;
th« wmurejtation would aiipply all needful
jTiJence of the perfoi-niaiice „( an orrin){ nieiii-
ker'a penalty. Hut as the iliowsea inerciwed in
lize.he miiat have found it necessary to delegate
his nuthority. In the East i( wiw traiisferre.l
to the l'u.NlTKNTl.\rt\- presbyter, appointed by
the hmhop, and aetiiif; for him. hi the Went
the duty of supervision appears to have been
committed to a great extent to the deacon
The A)mtulio Cvnstituiium (ii. KJ) appoint the
deacon to attend to an expelled member, and
keep him cut of the church, and afterwards
brin([ hiin to the bishop. 1„ the Oth century
rituals, this duty is lai.l, not on the deacons
([•nerallv, but on the archdeacon. He it was
who colb-.ted the penitents and admonished
them, and introduced them to the bishop
snd allerwards bore testimony that their
penance had been duly performed. Moriniis
(VI. 17) conjectures that, for at least 300
ye»r.< prior to the date of these rituals
these same duties fell to the charire of
the archdeacon. In the larger dioceses the
rural deans shared the duty ; and subsequently
u appears from the visitation articles of
Hincniar, it became om of the functions of the
parochial clergy.
The power of remitting the length or severity
of a sentence was one of the privileges of the
bijhop. He, said the council of Ancvra (c 5)
was to examine the life and conversation of the
pemtent, and increase or mitigate his penalty.
A similar power wa^ recognised by a succession
ol councils (Cone. Mcwn. c. 12; Cunc. Chalced.
i.D. 45 , c. lb ; Cum. Andegav. a.d. 453, c. 12 •
fr ^T /•I- ^^■'' '•• ^' * ^""<'- ^'"■^■'- A.D.'
S4I,c.8). As the number of penitents increased
inore discretion was vested in the presbyter, but
always with a refi.rence, and, if necessary, with
.n appeal to the bishop. Ii„sil, c. 74, gives the
po.er ot alleviating penance to those who have
Ihegi tof bmdmg and loosing; language which
was also used by Cone, m Trull, c. 102 I5v
4 Ccnc Aun-I. c. 28 ; 1 Com. Cabilon. c. 8, the
.acerdos was the judge who determined the
itent of penance. In 'the Eastern church, from
the time of the Decian persecution til] the
^isccpocy of iXectarius of Constantinople, the
penitentiary must have been the eiecutive
UMButer of diicipline.
PENrrj;\c:E
1007
7. A•H,^•,.,y. „/ r/,.,-,/v. The penitential ,llMd.
plineii. If allecte.1 the laitv wiw medicinal rather
than p..„al. J„ it, inalincut of the cl..,vv, the
("•nal ,d,.|,i..nt pred.,i,„i,Hf..d. N.,t only «„, a
deliii,,,K.nl , Ink v.,po»,.d t., the huinili ition of
« pub 10 censor.., but he tt,i« al»o dq,rive,l, Lni-
poinrily or abaolutoly, of his olli, ,., „,„| the rank
.Hid .inoluni.nt ot olli.... And the ,..„tence vwia
the more sever,., t hut in the .arly «g.., „ .h-
graile.l clerk was iiover reii,stat..,|. H,.,„.„ ^
chaig.. against a . lergyman »m,, r...|uir..,l t.. be
priiv... with l.gal f.uinalitv, is his guilt in-
v.dv,.,| not ..lily a moral stiun.a, but a 1.,,, of
privib.ge and i,i,.ai,s .,f |iv..|,h. This two-
fold elb.ct, the spiritual an.l th.. t.niporal, of an
ecclesiastical ceiiMire on the cK^rgv, nutun.llv
regiilatod the a.lministiation ..f di.s. iidin.. i,,.
wai-.ls th.m. Olio of the A;„.H„l.Jl r.,n.,n»
('. -4) liii I It .lown, that a bishop, priest or
deacon, lor certain crimes, was to he ,l,.,..,«.d
but not excommiiniciite.i, be.Muse the .S.rii't.irei
Hid said that a man was not to be puiiished
wice l^^.r the same oHe,i,,.„, The rule »a.
lei.eated by lia,il, cc. 3, :l.', 57. Still it
forth";." hTX"' *•"■ "!'v«0".g discipllnu
»oi the hist three centuries. In gem-ral »
clergyii.nn was .l.gra.le.i in ,,ases in which »
layman «as ex,..,mmuni. at..d. An.l where this
rule h..|d good a clergyiiiau was not sul.iecfed
to p,.i.,ten.e. Hut in the primitive ages it fie-
quently ..ccurr.d that ,.o dillerence Cvns inn.le
between th.. poimiue of clergy and laity Tha
l-jmlty fol ,wed the .nme'Lurse T if he
'lelinquent ha.l not been in order.-eje.tion
rom the chur.i,, and re.adnii-si.,8 by p.'nance.
(bee council ol Neocaesaiea, c. 1.) The Klvirnii
canons allord a still .dearer illustration 'of
cleri.al penance. A deacon confessing a pre-
or,liiiati.,n crime might receive communion at
the end of three y. ars, nctn loyitimn p..mhntid
(ton.,.. hUU'r. c. 70). For instances of pulli,;
penance, see the ac.ount given of .N„t„|ia
Luseb. //. /;. v. 28) , ami of the ,,resbyter Kelix
;yi.rian. A;., xxv. ,«/ C./don. ; A>. Sm^. ap.
tjprian. xxiv ); of Novatus (Id. Kp. lii. ;j); ,f
Irophimus (Id. A> Iv H); of bish.,p Fortuiutu,
Id. V Ixv.); and of bishop liasilides (Id. i:„.
Ixvii. 6) ^or did open .leri.al penance, which
was part of the stricter system' of a time of
}«rsecution, altogether cease with the close of
the 3rd century. The first council of Orange
AO" "no ^ '■"""»■«'' t'y the se.ond cuncil of
Aries c 29, determine that clergy should be
admitted to penance if they sought it. The
hrst council o Orleans, a.„. 511, c.'l2, mentions
a presbyter, " sub professione |M,enitenti8.» The
third council of Braga,A.D. 075, c. 4, threatened
ft clergyman with six months' subjecticn " legibi.a
poemtcntiae." (Soe also 1 Cone. Turin,, cc.l 5 •
Cone, \enet. c. 16; (W. A.jnth. cc. 8, 42
C.>nn.nerd. cc. 1, 5; 2 Cmc. Tolrt. c. 3 ; Z CoL-
Aurehan CO. 4, 8.) On the other hand a state!
ment of Pope Le„, 441-461, seems dirticuU to
reconcile with these author.ties. He lavs it
fi^"lio"8^^'"h• f'; "■■ ''• '"" ^''"""- ' L"''''' ('""'
.11. 1408) that It IS not in accordance with
ecclesiastical custom for a presbyter or .ieacon
to obtain he grace of penance by imposition of
„...,..^, i!„e explanation ,s that the " ecde-
siastica c.,nsuetudo " alleged by Leo was pre.
ht"th;"'^ " '^t '^"""'" '•"^'^•h- Another,
that the words of Leo were strictly con-ect, anj
u.
' ij
I
...
'^1
m
' 'i
1308 PENITEKTIAL BOOKS
that no presbyter or deacon as such was ever
subjected to penance, bei;ause he w^s first de-
graded and had ceased to be a clergyman. But
this explanation, while reconciling the pope's
language with canonical decisions, reduces it to
a mere truism. The privilege, or inability, in
whichever light it may be regarded, which as a
general rule protected the higher clergy from
open penance, was not extended to the lower
orders. The council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451,
decreed i-.i two canons (cc. 2, 8), that for pur-
poses of discipline monks were to be regarded
as laity ; a decision repeated by 1 Cone, Barciuon.
A.i>. 540, c, 10; Cone, m Tnul. c. 81 ; 2 Cont\
Nicaen. oc. 5, 13. For a further account of clerical
penalties, see Bisiicp, p. 22b; Deqradatios ;
Discii'LiNE ; Orders, Holv, p. 1492. [G. M.]
PENITENTIAL BOOKS : i.inEB Pobni-
TKNTIALI8 ; POENITENTIALE ; CONFESSIONALK ;
POKNITENTIALES CODICES, CODWELU, LiBELU ;
LeQES POKNITENTIUM ; PECCANTIUM Ji'DICIA.
The term is applied to collections of penitential
canons issued under the name an I with the
authority of some eminent coclesi istic, with a
view to establish a uniform rule for the admi-
nistration of discipline ; the bes;, known are the
Anglo-Saxon penitentials of the 7th and 8th
centuries.
The early iiistory of canons of discipline is
involved in .'ome obscurity. It is probable that
each bishop, with his presbytery, administered
the discipline of his diocese on certain general
principles which left the details to local regula-
tion. Afterwards, as individual bishops by
weight of character gained a reputation in the
church, their decisions on matters of discipline
obtained more or less the force of church law.
Hence the epistles of Basil and his brother
Gregory of Nyssa on penance were received as
of something like canouical authority, in this
view they may be regarded as the earliest peni-
tential books. Of these two sets of canonical
laws, that of Gregory i„ in the fonn of a letter
to I otoius, bishop of Melitino. It attempts to
trace the source of all sin to one of the three
faculties of the soul, which he designates the
rational, the concupiscible, and the irascible,
and for each a separate mode of treatment is to
be adopted , but there is no regulated scale of
penalties for different degrees of sin. The
jpistle of Basil contains more direct penal enact-
ments. It deals principally with the thvee
capital crimes of idolatry, murder, and fornica-
tion, and allots to each form of sin its nppro-
priete punisiiment. Although stamped with no
canonical authority, Basil's epistle evidently had
a wide inflaence on the administration of tne
discipline ■>' the Easttm church, and eventually
received \l;e synodical sanction of the council in
Trullo, A.r>. 692. Other rudimentary peniten-
tialc are to be found in the numerous decretals
of the Uoman bishops, although no one of these
deals systeinati'jally with the subject. After the
.3rd century the chief authority for the leyula-
ti<m of discipline was in the penitential canons
of the councils. In addition to the general
council of Nice, the Oriental councils of Anoyra,
A.n. 314, Neocaesarea, A.D. 314. Gangra, A.D.
36'2, and the various African co Kiln of the 4th
and t'th centuries, and the Span.^a and Frankish
from the 4th to th» 7th century, contain a
PENITENTIAIi BOOKS
copious legislation for the administration of
penance. The decrees of these councils had only
a provincial, or at most a national, force, and
there was no attempt to establish a urirers!i.l
code of penitential law. The nearest approatli
to systematizing the laws of discipline is in the
Codex Ecclesiae Africanae, emanating from
Carthage, A.D 419. The full developnient o)
the penitential system is usually attributed tg
Theodore, archbishop of Cinterbury, a.d. yiiS-
690. But recent investigations have estabiislnd
the genuineness of fragmentary British and
Irish penitentiuls, which indicate that the system
WHS flourishing in the Celtic churches in these
islands at a period anterior to Theodore. The
nature of the contents of the various penitentials
wherever there is any peculiarity to call foe
remark, will appear as the list proceeds; but in
general it may be said that they had one com-
mon characteriitic, varying little with the
nation for whose guidance they were compiled.
They maintain a complete silence on the dogma-
tical controversies which shook and disunited
the Eastern church ; in many of them there is
little or no reference to the ordinances of tin
church ; their whole purpose and strength ara
concentrated on the enforcement of practical
duties. Among the rude tribes of the north
and west, the outward profession of their newly-
acquired Christianity was by no means invariably
followed by an abandonment of the ferocious and
licentious passions of the old heavhcn life. It
was the object of the penitential book toallay.and
gradually to extirpate, the vices of heatheni: m.
The pictures which they disclose; especially of
the sins of the flesh, is a dark one. Hut the
public denunciation of these crimes and passions
in the church, and the determination of her
rulers to restrain them, was a step towards the
light. The drawing out a catalogue of dilTerent
vices, and appending a proportionate punishment
to each, no doubt fostered the notion tnat each
vice had its price, by the payment of which it
might be expiated, and so far tended to blunt the
moral sense of the iniquity of sin. On the other
hand, the church, by declaring that it was her
function to discover and punish vie because it
was vice and against God's law, brought home
to the people, in the only way these simple
races could understand, a belief in God's moral
government of the world. An undue multipli-
cation of the books was jealously watihed. In
the Gallic church, where, to judge from the
number of Frankish penitentials which survive,
their influence must have been widespread, the
council of Chdlons, a.d. 813 (c. M) passes upon
them a formal censure ; they are said to clash
with the authority of the canons ; their authors
are declared to be uncertain, but their errors
cer'sin.* The discipline of the peniteti ials was
• The decrees of the Gal'iian councils against peni'
tentlals are very severe. 'I'Lus the council of Ctiaiona,
A.D. 813, 0. 33 : " Modus enini pueniti'ntia« peaata siu
conHtentibut aut pet ontlqiionim inaiiiutioniui aiit pir
sanclaniPi scripiurarum aucturltAteni aut per ecclc-
siast'cam consiieiuiilnrm initwni dcbni, rrpudiatls ac
pen tus eliniliiatls libcll s, quos peiiitcniialcB vorani,
ql.rnitu aunt crrti rrrr.rr;;, iHartl al! t.iiri-a.'' O^SRirs
r- c. Moyttnt, A.I). 847, e. 31 ; Cone. I'arii, i.B. 8ffl
c. >t, I" the laltcr the bishops are orilirnl toburnlLe
penlten. j wherever thoy find thrra : [" Se ptr e«
uU rtuB gaoerdotes Iniperiti haminc;i diclpiatit."] i
PENITEVTIAL BOOKS
that of the doistcr, classifving sin, an.l piir-uinc
it into every detail ; the m.mastic rnle, lieine
HaxeJ, anil adapte.l to the ciinclltions c,f lite o(
nfree people. In the list which follows it will
be convenient to arrange the books under the
headings of the dilferent national churches in
which they were published.
I. British and Ikisu PEyiTESTiALs.
I. Excerpta qmcdam <le Libro Davidls — The
date of these fragmentary extracts from the
'I.iber -of David, Hshop of Minevia, the present
St. David s, lies between a.d. ,'),50 and (iOo (Had-
dan and Stubbs, Counrils rnd Jucl. Documents
i. 118). They consist of sixteen canons treating
of drnakenness, fornication, homicide, perjurv
rob''ery, usury ; and may be oonsiderud as the
cavliest penitential boot connected with the
British inlands.
2. Shmlits Aquilonatis liritannine.
3. Altera Sinodits Luci Vkiorine Two
lynods held under David, in the year StiO The
lirst contains seven penitential canons, the
seciind nine.
The locality of the synods was probably
Llanddewi Brcfi, in the neigh bcurho vl of Car-
digan (Ijaddan and Stubbs, i. 117). The state
of morals exhibited by these early canons was
degraded. The ' Liber Davidis ' opens with the
peuaity for excessive drinking among priests
nbout to minister in God's temple.
i Pc^mtcntiale r,>m,-,„'._This book was first
printed by VVasserschleben {Bussordnunncn &c
pp ins-llsi) from a comparison of the MSS.'
Cod. Sangall. No. 1.50, saec. ii ; Vindob. Theol
l8t. No 725, saec. ix ; San-erm. No. 121, saec
Till. ; and the Irish canons of the Cod. Paris No'
3182, saec. xi. xii. It is dillicult to idc'ntify the
Vmiiiaus, or Finian, whose name it bears Was-
serschleben conjectures the author to be the
Fmianus mentioned by the BoUandists (Acta SS
Mart 1. p. 391) who, born in Ireland in the year
451 , lived for some time in Gaul, i.hen went to
l\ales, to bishop David, wNcmce, in the end of the
5th century, he returned t„ liL-Lnnd, in order to
uphold the faith and discipl,,., which had
dedined since the death of St. I';i: .lok. l( this
fiiiian was a contemporary of D.ivi.i, he lived a
century h.ter, but even so he would be earlier
than (oluniban, which corrcsiionds with the
conclusion which would be drawn from a
comparison of this confessional book with that
0. Columban, wlwre the greater part of Kiniim's
^vork IS repoatH Wasserschleben divides the
boo< ,. .„ (,fty-three paragraphs. This peni-
ttntial onumerates the principal crimes of the
Tr^^ Y w' '•''""^'' ""''^^ St. Patrick, and
Z,V,- /"''■«/.., It shews the influence which
the cergy h.vl obtained in temporal matters
am^ong the Celtic nations. matters
J^IWfuth Gildae de Penitfntia.—The date of
PEXITENTIAL BOOKS 1609
the'^:r;7"J 7^^" P'-f' --ewhere before
penance to be found in any'othe ' ^ ' tZ "'
.ol^^rThe'tlTof^r-'"'""''^ "^^^^
the monaWo^ HTrhelfo''o7wh;::htt:l I'i'J
between the years 679 and 704, we e pTob- llv
7. Omones >V-«//«.'.-.-These canons area collec
whence they we. taken by Maite l^,!'. ^
•ib^;^ i'^i;u!!;^^t^'ir:^,:^"^« ;!«
">«t half of thi 7th cen '.' '"'' " P'-"'"''"/ 'he
.imibr feeling i, „pp„r,„t In aletf-rof bl.hop Kblx, of
.««. Anliq. ed. Ila8nime,ti.m. il, pt. 11. •> 87) ■ r" Vi i,„n
. ju ,c„. po,.„i,„„,„„, ,„ p„,.hyt,^„„^ i;;,:;;^
tpMua, ut,,„, .u, uhor«. ,t inter se dlscremntiii .t
i>^'li.g-nll lardltat.. nuUalenus el. valeant s2l,venlr^."T
first halfof the 7th century.
». Canones Bibc-nenscs.— These canon, .,.
antiquity, «„„,«, as a^Le'tly"^. .^SvS
ov';Thrch tvi" ^'"-^ ^'^^^'o- "'S
over Which ht. Patrick presided. The canon,
are interesting as specimrms of early penitS
rules, and as the sources from which l»f.!
Rations were derived. WasseT-sch ben (pp m'
Nasaseni s.mo £~,,;;:^^' , ^-SK
rsilmikabl t'.h"'"'""^ "/ ^'"*'" terminations
of ♦r^ II ' '■here are also traces of the use
"Poenitp V'"™"^"'".'"' ■'''' ^"^ "sample (c. 4)
Aiieum superpossitionis C. paalmi etc flee
i ■ srr"?ri"' '"• ''"'■"s^"'" <'*■ '=«"t^"a vi :
ione " A "■'"■""'r'"' decrevit." iy. " Oe iec
by one who'tuir "'''''' "' ^''"'''''' *" ^e made
proportion, from'^ fia'to^'a"' Ln^h' 7\t
ae^imi's dilutl'nt.'' '"" '^"'"'"^ ""P'^"'- - "«
n. Prankish Prnitentials.
thJlfh '"'?""" "^ the Frankish church from
the 4th century was regulated by the .i.rvZ?,
provincial councils, which are remaitl , ,1 „
disciplinsrv oannn» !t a-a- ,?."".""> '"'I ot
.K. r.™ ., . ,»,.i...„.r:..";:,.°i :r"S;;
:';'-'iJj,.„...,„„
-Hjj'in||P
illHyi
ii;
1610 PENlTExNTIAL BOOKS
wnrkt, whioh were ftt once drnwii >ip on the
hnnh of the li-at which WRS iMihlialii'il.
1. IWniU idVi/n CuiHinhimi. — This oivrlie.it
Frankisli )iiMiitontiRl was tlio wovl< ol' the Irish
IKimk Ci'lninlinu, Imrii in the lirst hiilf <if the
(5th I'cMitiirv, ill the iirovinre of Loinster. He
jiveil for Ko'ine time in the grout ii\oimstery of
Itnii'^iir, niicl then orossed to (ianl in tlie yenr
fiilO ; II few yenrs Inter he penetriiteil to Italy,
nnil fonoiled the monastery of Ho'.iliio nt the
font of the Apennines, where he tlieil, A.I). I'l.'i
[Dkt. «"iiit. Uiiwi. i. tlO,')]. Aniong his writins»
are two )iei\itenti»l hooks, one ' IteRiila
Oienoliiali.i,' (lesii;iHiteil in some MSS. ' Toeni-
tentiaU',' ' Key:nla frnlrnm llibernensiiim ;' in
others, ' Culnmlmni l.ilier ile (iiiotidianis poeni-
tentiis monachorum.' This work, framed im a
severe standard, eontains n rode of monastic
rules, and has no conrern with the general ad-
ministration (d' church discipline. It is reinark-
nhle for the frequency with which corporal
chiistisement occur.s among its penalties. iSix,
ten, or ev«Mi two hundred strokes might ho laid
on a inreless or olVending monk, (^(dnmhan's
other wiirk is entitled ' l.ilic de roenitontia,'
or 'de roeidtentinrnm niensnra taxanda.' 'I ho
work was iirst puldished liy the Minorite friar
Vleining, in the year llili", from a codex of the
mona.-tery of liohhio. This Cod. liobbiensis is
the only MS. of the penitential known to exist.
It consists of two parts, which can never have
been intended to form one consecutive set of
cnn( ns. Tin' tirst part cimtBins twelve chapters
on miscellaneous olVences, some of which are
also dealt with in part two, and not, in all cases,
carrying the same penally. The second part,
which is the true ),enitentiBl rule, begins with
the intrndnction, " Diversitas culparnin dlversi-
tsteni faiii poenitentiarum :" then I'ldlow* an
elal.ov..;.' comparison between bodily and
siiiritn;il .li.sor.lcrs. After the introduction ccmie
twelve sectiiMis <ni the " capitalia crimina " of the |
"ilericietnionachi;"cc l;!-'J,'i,on the "criinina"
of " laici ;" and the ren^iining cc. 25-^50
on the •' niinutae monachorum sanctiones." The
last chajvtcv of ("olnmhan (c. MO) is an injunction
laid upon the monks to confess before mass not
only actual olVcnces, hut thoughts and desires.
It is interesting as one of the earliest examples
of a jiractiie which was afterwards to be
stringently enlorccd npon the whole church.
In the introduction to the penitential,
Columban states that he has composed his worK
partly frmn his own discretiini, and partly frmn
the '" traditioiu's seniorum." Anumg these
" seuiores " must he placed Vinniaus, from whoso
Irish penitential t'olunihan has burrowed no less
than thirteen of his thirty sections', Compare
Com,„\ JWn. cc. 1, ■-', -1-9. II, 16, 20, '21. 21),
with riMni,..«. /'.«!«. 23, !2, 11, 22,18, 19, 20,
25, 2(5, 27. H, 9 17, .-.d, 22, «.
Columban's book which, from the name of its
author, has usually been regarded us an Irish
w.irk, Wasscrschleben nrononnces to be Kraiikish,
composcil after he had crossed to the continent.
The gronnds for deciding against its Irish origin
are certainly very .strong: — (1) Monkish rules
and penalties always emanated from the snperiors
cf clcisicis, vv fi'fVn •■'■m'> ens in hiirh r.ii(.horit_\ :
it is highly improbable that (jdnmbari wonld
have been allowed to publish n work of thi.'* im-
portance while he was occupying a subordinate
PENITKNTIAL BOOKS
position in the monastery at Uangor. (2) No
trace <d" C'olumban's canons is idjservalilo in
Thcodio'e, while, on the other hand, tliey rcirin
the basis of nnmerois undoubted l''ranliisli (.,1.
lections. (.'!) C. 2.'i forbids cummuuiiatiiig «)ih
the heretical sect of the Ucnosinci.'' win. wen.
sjiread over <iaul and Italy, but were uuknuwn
in the Itiitish Isles. (1) The »i rangcuii'iit ,.(
the materials shews an independent undcrliikiiii;,
At the head of the <'apitalia crininm. Ccdiniiljiin
places homicide; afterwards lollnw roniii!\li„ii,
perjury, &c., and this order was adiipti'ii l.y
most of the Krankish peiiiteutials ; whi'i-ciis tiii,s«
which rest npon Theodore's work bei,-io with
ilrunkenuesB. This arraugenuMit was pr..liiil,ly
duo to the prominence which these vaiimu
vices and crin\es attained among the reKpiiiiv,.
raiies. With the inhabitants id" the llrilisli |slo«
drunkemiess was the prevailing sin-- with tht
Gernnm tribes, murder, and crimes (d' vi,.li.|ic,>.
2. In idosc connexion with Coluiulian's work,
Wasscrschleben {Jlimuitlmmn'u, pp. ;iiiO-421))
has \irinted eight anonymous pcnitenlials, all of
which show a l'"rankish origin.
(a) I'liniitciitiak l'KCuJi)-Ji<miitiinm. — -Tliis wn-
first published by Ihd'dgar, bishop cd' Cinnliray,
in the iith century, and nuiy be fuinel in
Cauisins, l.citiuiK's, ed. liasi\age, ii. 2. llalitdar
styles it tho Koman penitential, nod sliites, in
hi's jireface, that it is one " ipiem de scrinio
K.itnauae ecidesiae adsun)psinu,s " It is bI^o
]n-inted at length by Morions (do ^unnwieiit.
J'urnilcnt. tt'iipeudix, pp. 5(J;)-'il>S). VVassor-
schhdien (/(Tissorc/imio/cii, &c. p. ."iH) is disiKiswl
to doubt this statenuMit of llnlitgar with rci;aril
to the Uoninn archives, and nddu<'i'- sevrrnl
reasons for believing it tc be an entirely Kniiikish
work. (I) Use is made f (iildas (I's. llnr.i. is,
l-.-) ; GihI. 0, 12, 21-24. (2) Undoubted reftr-
ence is ouide to the (lallic council of Auserre,
A.iK ^flS (Co)w. Auih. cc. 1,M, 4; rs,-lt<in\. vi.
;i, 4, ."i). (:i) A considerable part of the Iwek is
[ borrowed immediately from Columban, :uiil it is
itself tho source of several chM|.ters of the
Merseburg Penitential (JAvs. 47-51 • l'.«,-l!oni.
I iii. 4 ; vi. >% 9, 10).
(b) I'DcniUiUhk Ihi'Krtcnso. — I'irst published
by iVaiteneand Durand {Amjit. ('nil. vcd, vii. cnl,
;.t7) from a MS. from th.' mmin^i 'ry of St,
Hubert at Andiiin in the Ardeniu.i. The full
title is, 'In nomine sanctae Trinitatis iiM-iimmt
judicia sacenlcd.alla de diversis criminihiu n
canonica anctoritate sumpta.' It coiiliiiiis i,
number of decree-, strung together withinit any
connexion or rubrical arrnngeinent.
(c) I'M'iiitfHtuile J/ccJX'dii /•./««('. —This Kni-
tential is a long treatise, comprising 149 sw
tions, and is cniclly interestin ■ from the nn-
merous references to herdhen \ iners nml I'lis-
ti-ms ; c, 22 denounces those who seek ausniies
by buds or any other evil ilevices; c. '.'Ii, ilivi-
nation by sooth.snyers, because triey are th*
works ,if evil spirits; c. 2(! prohibits "sortes
.sanct(U'um," which are cimtrarv to iciisiin;c,
27 denounces ns sacrilege the ros.'rtinir to tiw,
or fountains, or "canctlli," or any other I'lafi!
exceiit to a church, in order to make a vow, ic
[I'AUANISM, SUHVIVAt. OF.]
K BoiiosuB. blsliop of &irUlc», A,n. .m, lieninl thp pt-
petuul virnihity of our l-ir.f8 niellier; .1 the tcneH i.
kU followers in the Vtb century lliile Is kiiuwa.
ll
PENITKNTIAL BOOKS
(J) Pi>fmt<!iiti,i!r JM,u'im.~Vr<,m n MS. <if tho
inimastiTy of IlnMii f tin- 7th >,r Hth ccntiirv.
It is hcmli'd "Jiidiciiis lincnitciitiiilis." It coi'i-
tsiii.i 47 npiliiins (III iiiiH('clliiii(.iiiiii (iD'ciicTs, and
coiicludi'H with two junjcis i\,r the |H'iiiti.|it.
(c) IWivlrntM; /'<(n.<w,iw!._Kroin u I'lir-i'sift,,
MS. of the Kth ociitm-y. It contiiinx Ul Bn;tloiiii
of thfl (irdiimiy chHriicti-r.
(f ) I'mnitontiiih Vindiilumrmi'. — Tliis is fr<iiii
tVlenim M.S. of tho Kith contiirv. It hiis n
ihort iiistnictioii, hondi'il " .Iiolicjuin imtnim n
lieiiilcntcs." Tho jrriMitiT mmihcr of it.s 102
scctitiii.t lire iduuticiil with those of the Merse-
burg hook.
(g) t'iKwtentinle Floriaccnua.—Vnm n Floury
codex, which wiis first priiitiil hy Mnitono (,/•
m. Anli<i. ii. til, «d, liotoinii^.) "\.x ijoivi'tONto
codicc Hormiriisi." It opons with n U<,w
"Oriio ivd dniidftin ixwiutcntiiiin," nooordini; to
whicli the jiricst In to ri'oi'ivo coii(o.sniiiim. 'I'l,,,
penitential iiropor is Htyicd " .l,olioii„ii imoni-
t»ntiaej"o! its 50 original conoiis only 10 are
utant.
(h) I'lKti'timtmk Snniinl/mnr.—Tnltfit fr.,n, «
SMiiill MS. of the !)th <:.'ntury. It is i„(in-
(iuced hy the sume " oido " as the iirccuilini;
Pocii. Kloriac. It fiortaiiis ll» short caiions
npnrly all of whinh are to he („xuiil uither in
the Mcrsehurjt or the rnrisian liooks.
All Ihd^e nnonyinoiis iieiiitoMtials, with tho
•Ke|iti"ii of those from Vienna and Mcisoliiirc
bear thi> mark of the 7th or, at latest, of the
first 'mlfi'f the Hth century. The " ratio " or
"ordo" appended to Pseud.-lioni., Mer,sol„iri;
Fliiiini'., San(;all. are, jierluips, of the Kith or 1 Ith
Cftitiirv (Wii.sser.sclilelien, llussonl. p. ,-,()). They
ircut tlin.nt;hoi,t of jirivate penance, consistin.'
chiellyot lasts on bread and water; ,.,n,etiine"s
the peimiice of exile, almsgiving', or psalin-
lingiii),' occurfl. In the I'sendo-Honinn and .St
Gall ccille.tions, there is a division of tho siih-
ject into chajiters .TCcordinj^ to the principal
cmres ; in the lemaiixler, the canons are stninic
together without any system whatever. Dilferent
from the Anj(lo-,Saxon practice is the ratio ap-
pended to the l'seiido.l;„nian and Mersebniir
dlection,-, in which tin aeon is permitted to
rcce,V( the penitent, at least if the iniest is not
ftcsent, or in a case of iicce.« ity.
;i. l\M;nt,-uU„k r«w/;„v„i,.--r|„, history of this
penitenlml is invidved in much ohs.'iirity and
the identification of the Cumnican (Cminioan
(mmn,Cninin,Comin) whose name it hears is
r.ules.,i,erplexing. The AHa SS. Ihhimcn,. xii
Jaiiimr. mention twenty-one Irish ecclesiasti.'.s
tn.it imnie, but no intimation is Riv.m of anv
01 them havinir „■ |,ten a penitential. In two
T^Vk'^I"'''' •'•'"'''''''•■''■ "l-nitontial
-. fnuH with the prefa.T, "Cnmmeani Ablatis
h .Sn,t,a ort.;' and IV,™ this it has gene-
«.lv been concluded that both Cnn.inean and his
«rk were of |,ish or .Scotch origin. Mono
(iiwlhn mul h.r^chnmjcn, p. 40f, cited by Was-
.eischlebei,) suHK«'sts that Columba, abbat of
Umin, „nc of h.s biosraphers, wnde the
prrface. Ihemer (/),>, u/.,/. S.,,.,,,,-, oHO)
ttrim, te.l ,t to a rnmmean, abbat of lona, who
died at the end of the (ith c 'p. ,,rv K .. -'T-rT,
("ic LUaiMdu-n J'iinitenti Mkhrr ,i,r An'„'f'
aecidedl) Hhich Cumuiean he considers to be the
PENITKNTIAL BOOKS 1011
Author of the treatise, renards it as the prin.
cipal »"i.r,:e of Theodore's I'enitential, ' and
rcinarks that Theodore', „«„ „f „, ,, „ ,;,Xr
piool ,,f the consideiafinn „„i„ycd by liish
teachers nr Kn,- land. Wa.scrschleb.n [p. .;2),
with more critical acteness. p„i„ts „ut that the
<™«nat,,o,oAld.Min.S^,tia^,rtus•^.l,, .■„!
.locates that Cnn,,,,,,,.,, „as not in b s ^o „
fo e"\" '"" '"■ """'',"""' '•'" ' ^- "" ""■'■'"
looks tor some ecdeshistic of that name who
lived on the contnient, and i.mls bin, in a Cum-
mean mentioned in A.U :«. m.,,-,,.,,.. 4 . ,.
.. 2t ; xuAnnal. Jleurd.rt. ii. p. ,HJ, a, | „
UKhelluB, /In! Snc-.t, iv. col. !..V,, ( ,„ " ,ho
-nii„rated to Italy, and died in Colnn Ion's
"."MHslery of Bobbio in the reit-n of tli m
i.rdk„,gl.uit,,ran,l, which.., tended fr„m a:",.
called .p. o-*",*^ "'"'■ t''i« ''""'mean is
: "I •<! " enisoopus ,„ the C/„v„./c. /,V,„,,,. ,,„„t,.j
;;i iKhe ns, a,nl the a^rcen t of the do of
lis death with the date which the interna
;nide„ce from the penitential bearing; his name
-;;;at,.r.,„,| |t,,i,h|yprM,abl,.\hat ;'
r ^ /" ■^'■""" '"■*""•" Wasserschlcb,.,! has
I 'iLshed {pp.4.iO-4i)l)a text tal:,,, fro„, the
dlowing M.SS.--C,„|. SanKall. .V.O, saec. ix •
> indob. Iheol. I,,M, .„u.c. X. ; KrisiuK. 4:1; VhuU
lerjjens. HH. Of these MSS. only the (ir t b s
II "" "."' ^'•■' '" '"' ''i'-'Vered of
winch thi.H,. are copies. As to the ,late it is
..-.^«tthatprcsnn,inKthistobethe;;;:;b.:nt
1, iifntial, ummean took his work from
n.oioio by name as the authority for the
ea.lici than Iheodore's death in A.I.. .190. Q,,
vilu? ;;'■,?''/''''"''''■''''*'''' the sinirce from
Kn .n.tprand There is „ cnrics assoeia-
t'nri of („,„„„.„„•., ,vork with the name of
.lerome the origin of which is of old dj In
Zrit7t""i ""• "T r- " '« ^^"^^
Z t\ ''' ■'"'■""l-- <] t'"^ Cod. Vindob. Theof
«<>• 7J,, sa.'c. IX. f,d. 40, is eontained an
'Inqnis.tio.S.IIieronin , p^nitentia,'' 1 ,we,l
y wo chapters from Theodore, almost the
tlie Whole, however, aiionynoois. This is nls6
fonnd under the title " Ilic, imi fa ,tiir " i^
"d. Merse), f,d. 2;i, and with the superscription
t,.,.' 1 '■''• •'' "'■" ^"""^ "<'"tiones poeni-
ten lales se,.,indn,n Ilieronvniiin.," which are
""■l-.l't-l ly liorrowed fro„, (•|imniean And t
H remarkable that Kgbert, in his preface ,,,
tions .lenmie in comnniv wiM, ""'•'"'
Tbf.,„l.,i.., „„ I »i -'"I'"') "'th Ausfiistine,
„,. ; ' ""'' """■"• '" «"thorities on the sub
J '^t of ,,emtence, bnt does not mention Cm-
mean ; he borrows, however. I,„»h {'T
< ..nimrnn and Theoiiore, and it is "not
probable that the worl- nf the on
l<n;;wn„h,m under th .,„e of l.rome.
ll>e 1 emtential is headed bya Ion;;introducti«
m t
:m
!:■■•
,nl«|5
im-
wa«
1612 TKNITKNTIAL BOOKS
com|)ri!iin|;(l) " Jc divamls crimiiiihus." (2) " De
ninilis pciuiiituhtiiK'," which prescribes the scnlu of
BCDurniii^, ii«iilin-»iri>;iii);. nnil nliii»(;iving, &o.
by which jd-wiiiico ccuilri be roilci'ined, bor-
rovveil a|p|iiir('iitly frimi Irish sniirces, see Cunmws
JJihi'rncitM'Milc ArixiH,\i, 1:19, Thi^ (■(ideot'dispeiisn-
tiiMis (Miiicluch'H with thi" dpeluratinn, whiih is also
fiJUiid ill till' Aii|H'ndix to lie lc'» Penitential (x. 8),
that he wh" dues not know his psalms and cannot
fast iiiiist limit out gome respectable man to do it
f r him, whom he must recompense either by
labour or money, (;i) " De divite vel potente,
quoniodii »« redimit pro criniiimlibus <nlpis." The
title of the trentiso is ' Exscarpsus de aliis
pliires poiMiitentiales et canones.'
4 I'licnilcniiitle /liiiiitittnuin.—'V\\\s penitential
was (irst jirinted, but not completely, by Martene
('/'/«'.s', .Vol), toin. iv. col. 22 -M), under the title
'l,il)ellus do remediis peccntorum,' which is a
variaticpti from that found in the MS. Wasscr-
tchlebenhas printed his edition (pp. 441-4G0)from
Cod. I'aris. IfeK. 31H1! (olim Higot. 89) fol. saec.
xi. pp. '2Hi! '2'J\K No name is attached to it, and
Wa.s.serschleben gives it the title Ilii/otiunHin, that
beint; the only MS. in which it is found. The same
MS. contains most of he Irish and British frag-
ments, and the compiler has evidently drawn
lart;<dy from Irish sources, lie quotes " ciinones
sapient iuMi et Gregorii '' (see supra, Ciinones Itiber-
noi.si'.i, p, liid',)), the Canones patrum, V^nniaus,
Theodore, the Frankish penitentinis, Cas-ian, and
the I I'Nc Siitcturuin, from which he adduces the
examples of the Abb.is I'astor, Moyses, Peritus,
Antoiiins. St. Syncletica, and others. This ele-
ment in the jienitential would lead to the con-
(liision that, like Columban and Cnmmean, the
nndior was one of the many Irish missionaries
whosc'ttleil in Krance. The work appears to have
been made use of by ('unimean, unless, as is not
improbalile, both were derived from a common
Bonri-e not yet dincovered. It is especially rich
in nniterial, and the writer has shewn unusual
originality in tlie arrangement of his matter.
5. I'tH-nitt'ntiith Viwli'hoiii nsrih. — This is another
anonymous penitential published by Wasser-
lichleben pp. (4!t:i -4!i7), from Cod. Vindob. Theol.
Lat. .No. T-T) (olim (iii7), 8vo. stte>-. ix. fol. 1-82.
It eontiiiiis jpart of Cnmmean's introduction, the
same part which is also found in Cod. Sangall.
67!'), ami is designated here " Praefatio Cummeani
Abbatis ill Scotia orti." Then follow the titles of
twenty-four cliajiters, borrowed from ("ummean,
Theodore, and \ inniaHS. Then the " Inquisitio
Sancti Ilieronymi do penitentia," mentioned
above ; after that the titles of seventeen more
chapters from the same sources as the earlier
ones, and concluding with "Interrogatt.Augustini
et respons. (Jregorii."
6. J'l/ciiiU'iiti'ile Henenne. — Another book based
on Ciimmenn, found in Cod. Paris, 1(>(»3 (olim
regius 4481) ; Kemens. 2il4) saec. viii. 8vo. fol.
1(14-138. It iu uii anonymous work of sixteen
chapters.
7. J'mnili'nti'ik XXXV. Caiiitulorum. — This is a
very systematic compilation of |ieniteiitial canons
published by Wusserschleben (pp. iillO-.^Jii) trom
the Cod. Viiididi. Jiir. can. No. Itti, 4to, .saec. x.
fol. '.'2-41, an.K'od. Sangnll. l.^jK, fol. 285-318,
The ivnik ;« li<i,iii|fit ,,n 'fheo'joi'e, C'unimeaii, and
the Krankish I'enitciitials connected with<.'olum-
ban, and the decisions of the two former aiithori-
tics, under the designation "J iidiiiuni Cuninieaiii,"
PENITENTIAL BOOKS
" .Tudicium Theodori," or "Judicium Canonicum "
are freiiuently cited in succession for the same
oH'ence. b'roiri the pre|ionderating u.se mail i/fCmn-
mean's work, and Irish and Anglo-Saxon siuroe/
and from the citation of a " .Indicium Sri,t„rui];''
it is a probable conjecture that the peiiitentiiil w'^
compiled by some Scotch missionarv. Tifc tvoiitise
appears to have had a wide circulation, i',,r |„|.,j
excerpts from it appear in a MS. of the .Austrian
Cistercian Monastery of Holy Cross, siiec. x. in
the Cod. Valicell. saec. xiii. in the so-called O/l.
lectio Savinkma, and in the ColUxti.j Amelmi
Luccna (Wasserschleben, Bcitmije Z'lr Ocic/iichU
tier vortjratianiscken KirchenreontsinMkn. ud 'U
Anolo-Saxon Penitrntiam.
1. Poenitentktte TheudoH. — The treatise wnich
bears the name of Theodore is the must iniiiortaiit
of the penitential books, but it is only within the
last few years that a genuine text iif tlie wurk
has been published. Whether Theodore was lijm.
self the author of the book, and what it was mi.
whether any set of canons existed winch coulj
be proved to be drawn up under tlie authnrity
of the great archbishop — these till quite recently
\i'ere open questions. This obscurity is the more
remarkable as there was a unanimity of tradiiion
for many centuries that Theodore's was the lirst
Anglo-Saxon Penitential, and it long had a «iJe.
spread influence in England, and was long the
source and model of the penitential reirulatimij
in France and Germany. This iiiflmiiice was
partly due to the nature of the work itself, awj
partly to the learning and coininamliiig iliar.itter
of Theodore, whose primacy, cxtendiiij; I'lnni a.d.
609 to 090, was a memorable one in tlie English
church. The evidence for the belief that a Peni-
tential did emanate from Theodore is as fillmvs;
(1) Egbert, who was consecrated bishop ii,.t later
than A.D. 733, and who must have been born (Mise.
quently soon after Theodore's death, twice in his
undoubted Penitential quotes Theuduni li.-name'
in the preface he speaks of him in conipaiiy nith
Augustine, Gregory, and other Fathers, as one o(
the great authorities on penitence ; and in the
body of his work (v. ii.) he takes a laiioii almost
verbatim from Theodore's treatise, with the intro-
duction "Teodorus dixit." The Liher I'mdikdis
(ed. Vignol. Horn. 1724, tom. i. p. 27(i) which
was first published in the second half of the 8tD
century, states, " Theodorus Archiepiscopus pec-
cantium judicia, quantos scilicet aniios pro iino-
quoijue peccatoquis poenitere debeat, niirabihet
discreta consideratioue descripsit." identical tes-
timony is given by Paul VV'arnet'rid (I'aulus
Diaconus) cited by Wasserschleben, p. Ij, (3)
The Cixlex Canomim Ilibernkorum, the dateol
one MS. of which lies between a.d. 7ij:l ami 79i)
(Haddan and Stubbs, iii. 174), quotes the werl; by
name, as do also many of the French penitentials
and collections of canons. (4) It is spuken of
by Kabanus Maurns {De jiulic. pocnit. laionm,
c. 0; opp. Colon. 1020, tom. vi. p. 119) as "Pofni-
tentiftlisquem Theodorus constituit." .\ihI l!i';;ino
of Priim, in his Visitation Instrnctimis requires
the ecclesiastics under his Juris lictimi to he |iro-
vided with a copy of either the lioiiiaii I'eiiitentisl,
or Theodore's cr Bi:de s. On the otiier iinnii (1)
Theodore's contemporaries are silent ; Ueilo, who
speaks fully of the archbishop's activity in the
English church, has not a single relercnce t«
Ms
PEXITEXTIAL BOOKS
Theodore's Penitontinl, cither in his own treatise
or m h.s History ; (li) hy the twelfth century the
work was unlinown, or CnrKntten, in Knglnud
IVfore comms to that which can now be con-
SJently accei.to,i as the authentie work ascrihej
,„ the 8th century to Theodore, it will clear the
ground to c,vo a hst of the imperfect or spurious
editions of the book that have been published
cl.lin A.D. lo.IH Sii» ntiiii :.. t.L . .•_
V\iVa . I.- o J " '"''•■" Pul-lished.
1 )In A.D. Kn! Spelmnn. in the rirst voU.me
of the Co,wil,„, published the headings of 7H ,.h„n
ter, under the title of " Poenitentiale The«,|ori
ArchiepBcopi. He took then, from „ Ms. of the
1.4irary of Corpus Chnsti College, Cambridge, and
expressly states that he was not pern.itted to
nm e a copy of he whole. This JIS. seen by
S,.elmnn, C U C C. 190, was published, with six
ch«|.ters at the beg.nniMg and twenty-two at the
end omitted by the Record Commission, AncUnt
Urns ,md InstttHtes of En,,t,iPd, p 277 senn
dited by Thorpe. The C. C. C. C. 190 MS w^^^
iBJien as the te.vt, and MSS. Cotton Vesp I) l",
CO. CO. 320, were cdlated with it tosuppiJ
Tanous readings In favour of this being the
original work th . is only the title, which is
comimratively nn.lorn and the authority of
%lman louuded on a glance at the MS. Against
this supposition are these fatal objectbms -c "0
Misists for the most part of canons from the second
Human council under Gregory II ad 721 • c 38
contains a long passage from a 'capituUry of
Chares the Great a.d. 780; in „li„o„t all the
chapters use .s made of the Cdlection of Canons
byHalitgar ot Cambray, circ. 829; there are
mimerous citations from the French councils of
Orleans, Agde, Chalons. The conclusion from this
evidence is that ,Spe man and Thoriie's Peiiitentia
IS .French compilation not earlier than the ninth
century. This edition was again published ly
&r M,.te/is,.«. Mayence, 1844), who also pub-
lished from a Ratisbon MS. a series of 193 canons '
un er the name 'Canones Gregoriani 'The full
...le iu the MSS. i. " Canono's Sancti GrL
Pa|vie urbis Romae," the origin of which head n"
IS doubtless to be found in the repli 'givei^ ^
A,,;ustine by Gregory on the eccesiast!-al Go-
vernment of tiiglaiid. These " Canones Greglrfi"
.re reprinted by VVasserschleben (pp. 1 6u? 80)
Theyconsist of a disorderly select on from the
genuine work of Iheodore.
(•-'.) D'Achery in the Srlcil,',,ium, vol. ix pub-
ished v^a 16. 9) 120 chapters from viriu^s'^ V
.an J _u, ,„ the title ''Capitnla Theodo i "
; II' '^:'>' "■"•'' "•■-published by Labbe and
Usart (0.„:,/ia, vi. 187,5), and again in ad
li2.!, m the new edition nf *i,. c • •/ "
^m), edited with the Z: of Bafcld'"; ('•
ten. when the ,20 original cafo,™ ^l^a
t» lt)8, of which however the last ^^„.,J„
^SSw ?-•--= -'St
PENITENTIAL BOOKS 1G13
^'JiSrJhTi; „l^:e''"*^^r '■"'•'---
book of the nL-^ "-scognised as the second
of Kavier have 1^ ' Penitential. The capitula
are fi-om sonr ™"r''"" *'"> Theodore, but
This seZt onTl-rti t " '*":■ '""' '•""^"■•y-
Pe It nthlt'The V''"^'' "" '""« >""'« "-r the
'.•ofessor of Lai in t'he L'^Ii-etitT"^^"?::
the introduction to his work Hi,. l",l "
tl t ri. , ' "" "'" <'<-''nonstratoil rm. I'l nX
that I heo( ore himself w,.„.„ "'-'-" (PP- lJ-.i7)
of the following MSS^^a^ \v , v- Yl '"*''" "'«
(Salisb 324^ fil'^^'"'-^'"^"''- "0.2195
WaiisD. AZi), fol. saec. ix. x. fol. 2-40 • (b) Cod
Vindob. lur. can no ^^^• a "^ ' ^ \» ) y^na.
\-U\- /-A; 1 .; "*'' ^"o- ""ec. viii. ix. f„I
1 10, (c) Cod. Snngerm no 940 /-„! qio\ ^l-
is an "apoeranhon, •' f .u .. ^ '" ^'^)= this
''l-ogiapnum ot the Cornns MH 'ion t
S"f.,Hf no"? 03 f' ''' ''""'' ''-'^ =
Paris, no. U55 f;,> r ,' 'nV'-"-'^ («> ^'o'''
;«87,sac.ix Via Cod ii "''"■'' ^"^'' ^"S.
saec ix -a \r rV • ^""K""'- ""• 3«G, 4to,
fo . 84; 'sSn^ "^"'Lr^^'-r- ''• **"• ^'""-■- '-•
' "^'l1-> W Cod. Sangerm. no nfil
Ih^ text was published by them in a d 8^1 '
C pus Chri^u" c'r "?•• ''''" *'»-■ "'"•"■y f
a n ;,ev : .tl?"'' /^^^-r-hleben bad *;>„;
I Jecisive or. this long-vexed question T' now
possess a substantially accurate text f Tk
; treatise which was kn^wn in the elwV L.' ,
iofTh^^Je?""''^"""— f^hePenitenii;!
I The exact date and name of the writer of fh«
. .sonit of the 1 arisi,»„ and the two Vieunii
!.' • '«■
"Jl^
1614 PENITENTIAL B00K8
MSS., the work is described ns "roenitcntialc
Theodori," or •' Canon Theodori de raticme poeni-
tcntiae et iliversis quaestiunibus." In another
Paria MS. (Cod. Santjernianens. 1315,')) it is called
" Libellus quern Theodorus archiepisco us de
diversis interrogationibua ad reniediuin tcmpe/-
avit poenitentium, de quaestionibns conjugionim
rap. xxvii." The full title of the original Is want-
ing altogether in the early Corpus MS., which has
lost its first folio; in the only MS. in which
it is entire, Vienna 2195, it stands thus —
TnAEFATIO
In Nomine Domini
Incipit Prakfatio liukixi Qukm Pater
tllkouorls diversis intekroo axtiiius ah
bemkdilim teml'icravit i'knitentiae. dls-
Cll'UI.fS UMUKENSIUM UniV1;U.S13 ANr.IXJRUM
OATllOLICIS I'ROl'RIAE ANIMARUM MeDICIS
SANAiilLKM SI i: LEX IN DOMINO CHRISTO
8ALUTEM.
This title is followed by a long preface,
writteii in luuticularly barbarous and corrupt
Latin. Keveitlieless it throws considerable lighr.
on the auth.yrsnip of the worlt. The treatibc-
purports to le a series of decisions on ecclesias-
tical discipline given by " vcnerabilis Anti.stes.
Theo'iiirus " in answer to the questions of the
priest Eoda, sunninied "Christianus." In it use
has a'.so been made of a " libellus Scotqrura,"
afterwards referred to (I. vii. 5), the author of
which is expressly stated to have been an eccle-
siastic. Of this Eoda, who submitted the ques-
tions to Theodore, nothing whatever is known ;
he cannot Le satisfactorily identified with bishop
HaeJdi mentioned at the end of the Penitential,
nor with any of the many persons of the age
who bore similar names. The identification of
the"dis,ipulus L'mbrensium," who is represented
as the editor of the treatise, is equally remote.
The designation signifies either that he was a
native of Xorthumbria who had been a disciple
of Theodore, or, more probably, an Knglishman
of southern birth who had studied under the
northern scliolars (Haddan and Stubbs, iii. 173).
The conclusion which is clear, and which can be
drawn from the preface, is that Theodore was
not the author of the Penitential in the sense of
having written it himself, but that it contains
his judgments, was drawn up under his personal
direction, was pulilished with his authority and
during his lifetime, and has always borue his
name. The priest Eoda is spoken of as " beate
memoriae," and was therefore dead before the
publication; but that Theodore himself was yet
living seems highly probable, from the verses,
first published by Kun^tulann, in which, at the
conclusion of the' Penitential, he commends his
soul to the prayers of bishop Hae.ldi.
Kor his decisions, ne.xt after Holy Scripture,
Theodore is iudelited to the current ecclesiastical
law, and particularly the C<jd>:x Cauonum of
bionysius Exiijuus. Conip. The<Al. pMuit.l. \.\,
wiih'Ci". Apost. 42; T. PMiiit. 1. ii. i>, with
Cone. Anci/r. c. 9 ; J'. Pooiil. 1. v. 10, with Cum.
^icaeii. cc. 11, 12 ; T. J'ocnit. I. xv. 4, with
Cunc. Aiic'ir. c. 23. In T. Poenit. I. v. 2, pope
Innocent Is quoted by name, with a reference to
a decision of his in Eii. ad Ljjiac. Mucedmi.
which is contained In the Dionysian codex.
There is further evidence that this collection of
PENITENTIAL BOOKS
canons was known in England in the 7th centurv '.
at the council of Hertford, A.n. G73, Thecj 've
brought forwi.rd certain " Canoues jiatnim " in
order to select those which were suitalde for the
needs of the Enjjlish ('hurch; and these "caiiuins"
In all probability were the ccdlectlon ofliiunv.
siua Exiguus. Traces of Theoilore's Cir''ek trnin-
ing are seen in ; is freciuent references toJiiLsiTa
Epistle to Aniphilochius. Five times he cpi.tos
Basil l)y name, in addition to many Itnliu-it
appeals to his decisions. (Conf Tlwud. J'ni. I. ii. "^
vili. 14, xiv. 3, H. vii. 3. xii. 6 ; liasil. Jij,. ,r.
.'jS, 18, 4, 9, 21.) A further evidence of KiutiTu
learning appears from his nu\iiy allusions to
Greek practices ; one chapter (II. viii.) coiitai:is
nothing else hut a comparison of the dillercnt
customs and o|iini(ms of the Greeks and lii'iiiaiis,
Justiuian's Novells are another Eastern sunrci. i,n
which he drew. (Conf T/wod, Pin. II. iii. T^
11, 12, 21, 23, 32 ; A'orcll. Justin, exl., xxxiv. lu,
XX. 5, 7, 6.) Theodore must also have bee]i c(in-
versant with the livitish and Scotch sour.cs
of ecclesiastical law. TItcod. Pen. I. ii. 1 Is ai>jia.
rently taken from the Liber Pavidis, c. 6 ; T/uml,
Pen. I. ii. 7 from the Sinodus Luci ]'ietoriite,
c. 8. T/ieod. Pen. I. II. 16 Imposes fifteen yo;us
pi-nance on incest, but adds that according to
another standard life-long exile has been allcittcj ;
this l.i in reference to the Sinml, Lite. Vic. c. 6,
which inflicts exile on Incest. The one canon of
Theodore which sanctions commutation of pen-
ance ('.. vii. 5) is also founded on a (Vliic
authority; it comes from that same "lilirllus
S.;otorum " trf which allusion was made in tiie
preface. [Redewi'TIONs.]
2. .Judicium Clonent'S. — This fragment was
first printed by Kunstmann {PHe Lutelnisln
I I'mitentialhikher der Aniiclsac/iscn, pp. 176, 177)
from an Augsburg MS. no. I.'i3. With this
Wasserschleben has collated a 10th centnvy MS.
from the Austrian Cistercian convent of Il'ly
Cross. Kunstmann identifies this Clement with
Willibrord, one of the Anglo-Saxon missionarits
to Krisia, in A.l). 692. Willibrord is kimwu to
have borue the name of Clement from one of the
letters of Boniface to pope Stephen {Kp. W,
edit. .lalle). Haddan and Stubbs have priiitoJ
(Councils. SiC. iii. 226) the canons as a fr«t;m.Mil
illustrating the Anglo-Saxon sy.stem of peniti'iitiiil
discipline. Wasserschleben, however, without
giving bis reasons, appears to doubt whethiT
the Identiticatlcn can be authenticated, awl has
appended the "Judicium" to the Kranl,ish
penitential. It comprises twenty sections of no
special interest.
3. Poenitentiale 5ae(/t(c.— There is no cine to
the exac . date of this work. Bede died <in .Vsceii-
sion Day, A.D. 735, and assuming, as there is no
reason to doubt, that the treatise was writtra
by him, the date of it must be fixed in the mnly
part of the 8t,h century. The penitential was
lirst published in the Amplis'-imn CiJlivtv "f
Martene and Durand, vol. vii. col. 37, taken
from a MS. In the monastery of .St, Hub.rt ,it
Andain in the Ardennes. This edition is inoiiii-
plete, containing only the latter hnif :'f t'e
work. A later and 'more pevf'rt edition wi
printed by Wasserschlelien Jiass''rdiiwi(ic», .V''.
pp. 220-230) from a Vienna MS. no. IW, 8vii,
saec. viii. ix. vA. 17-22. collated ^^ifh t.;:
other codices, Krising. n... 3, and Uansh. n». i*
In this edition the chapters were first diviW
PENITENTIAL BOOKS
Into scntions It \s reprinted with various rea-J-
ingsfrom the i,s.,ue of Martonc a>.d DuranJ bv
H. ,lan and Stuhb, (^Councils, &c. pp. ;ij, .3;U)
h th,. form ,t may be acce,,ted with little he.U
t»t.,mas the ge„M.ne production of 13ede It
Wars the title, Inciit Ksscarpsum Do i,n
c apters. In addition to this authentic treatise
of Itede another ha. been printed beari ,.1
name It appears in several editions of h s
collected works under the heading "Liber
de remediis Peecatorum." It is pointed i,
he Conal,, „{ Spelmnn and VVi^lkins, the
former of whom appears to have had 'so n.e
doubt of Its authenticity, and to have omit ed
considerable portions of earlier editions. T| e
(I'bmtentialbucher, &c. nn U2 I7-,\ r..
Munich MS. of the llth'i^ntu'y C J Au.V
153) and adopted by WasserschleL in Xt
collection It bears the title "Penitentiale Psludo-
Baedae. Ha Idan and Stubbs regard it as a
compilation from two distinct works the
^T "'''''' ""'^ ">« Penitentid'of
•i. Poenitentmk E;6«-<.-._Several treatises have
PENITENTIAL BOOKS 1C15
heS".'"' '■'"'" " ''"^'"■'"' *'«• '" •«-■ •"-''"-ed
ofl.!."''r""°V*,'"' ''«"''f''"'i«'. « collection
I'H8), lhor,,B (.1„«V«< /.„,„, p. 3.j,;\,t '
aii'l in a tianslntl,,,, i., i..l., _ /„" '"'II-?*
. ui- 1 1 , ''. ^^ *<^' "I "causes nav
been published bearing the name of Egbert Th
iscovery of the authentic work involved' a no
esscomidicated investigation than was necessary
n the case of Theodore's Penitential. AmonJ
ami in a translation in John on VcZn!?'^^'
Haron. i. do 184-'''>ii „„ i ,. ' .^^'''^'''h ea.
tt,"ut The source from which these evcurnt.
,7/"^" '" >IS. Cotton. Nero, A. 1. Th. nfct
that they contain e.vtr.^^ta from the ca,, t ,lar es
« f Charles the Great is alone fatal to eir
clnin, to be regarded as Egbert's. '
. *. ^he/.ite/-c4' AVwJ,i5ytec„<„rumisnsorib»,I
;'i=;.."S,'iS;::."- "• '- -".""
l,.,.!,, ,,,,„.( Ej|„,_ i ,,,„„ „ » «J;.
to a^ubt ,U autKcntidty. it is, Imivn-.-r an tC
iL I . .T — "' "-'"^cuntti. Anion J'
he documents which, wholly or in oart 1 ,. -t
een attributed at various pe^riods to'"h "a 'h
bishop are —
1. In Wilkins's Concilia (i. pp. n3-U3) there
I. printed a work in five books in ^M
Inins Anglo-Saxon and Latin, un,ler h
LOoracensis. Th s is reprinted bv Thorpe in
the J/«n,»«o.« a J^clesi.,stica appended to t h
dmsiun. The first is named " Confessioiiale "
he remaining four " Poenitentiale." In ad, u '
to which, uuiler the title of ^,«,^,„,„ '.^ . '
gives a collection of thirty-five other canons t I
Anglo-Saxon and Latin, "a furthe/ ecfii n '
m of this work is given in Cooper's A.mcu.Ujc
Bh the lieiyoHon the Foe.leraXa}, the titk^
lora-
■tiug
"Poenitentialis Ecgi;e;ti aX ; "k
SIS, liber .V-".." The ground's for' re
the claim of any part of this to be acceptcil a.
the original work aro:-(n The first tK,.i ,
ofThorpe's"Poenit.ntiaVe^''\'r;"w hr£t
cxfcri'"", a translation of the tfrr, fnn .*l! ^ ■
«f.h hooks of the PenitentLl ^'-HXiVof
Canibrav, c re. i ;, "--■ {o\ ti <• ' ,",Sai of
the ■'Poenitnt:'e"-is'!; ^'"^/»"«.'> ''-k of
Theodore and Cun. eac n^T^^lPT""- ^'^
k com,,ose,l of e: trac4fiom Thl .''""'' t
•nuinp Ppni«„„K:i * ,f Z'^'"" Theodore, the
addi-
and Pocn.
E'l^:^'''l»^^^"t>andTr
tiims from the I'ocn
. ,""'" "e sujiposition that Egbert m^iv t,nv„
t™t») f '•' .r ™"""'' purporting to be ex-
:^::ti;r-^^rf''-'-^th/pe„it:;t;;:;.
if the (iim.-uL .■■•,;-'"^-"''"'" "' l''<i 'ii-st volume
archb.hop(Had,,^n;;;dSt,ib.::H;:^i4n)"
0. Ihe genuine Penitential was first printed
as an anonynious work by JIartene an,l D ™„d
{Am,n,s„nuf Collecti,,, s-\{. ell. 40-48) fr, in "he
"HicIi IJedes tract s found Thn in ?, , i t
researches of Wasserscblc'Ihartd" ::':;'
conclusion that this must be the origi, a work
Pl>. -J1--47, taken mainly from the C'oil. Viidob
m the following MSS. : Co,l. Erising. „o 3
nanshov. no. 73, Sangall. no. 677, \lt. ' > ,1'
no. 48j. The genuine Penitential is also to be
found in the Bodleian MS. 718, which eon,, dse,
our books; of these books thL first, con S
vei,ty-onec<,p,-<„/. which .re the li'rst t! ty!
iS^eiti of rhorj..., then the genuine work
hen certain confessional pravers of a r te •
he roniamiiig three books belong i.robab v tJ
he 10th centiiry. The first book coi clu.t Zith
the words .' nnis ]il,ri Poenitentialis Ec^'berhti
Archicpiscopi." Ha,,,,,, „„, yj^,^^^ ^^"ht
"..ted 1,1. 416-431) Wasserschleben's text
MaH""'""rr'''"»"'*'"'" ''■« ^^»''ai" -MS of
Martene and DuranJ, the Bodleian MS. 718 a,"d
the 1 out icale. Ihe identification of this edition
as Egberts rests on the ground that it contains
o re ercnoe to an.nhing of a later date, that it
■yited as his byiiabanus Maurus, a pupil of
Alcum, an,I that it is declarcil to be the wo'rk of
e archbishop by the compiler of the Bodleian
canioJ -n" r^ "1.'' ^"'* "'■ '»>« I'onifential
<^an,ot DC fixed with any accuracv. It was no
"e (lieit A.M. ,60, in the thirty-fourth year of
his ,.ontificate and he probably received t^ pall
The,,i;mis;;F';^L'w;;i;i,!"^^n:'is:::^X
Pemten lal cannot then bo drawn closer than
A.D. 734-766. The full title of the book wi?h
ome variation in the Bodleian MS., is ExscC
SLM Hi. CANO.VIUUS CAl'HOHCOHL-M PATKCM
i
i
' W
-I;
■^4
I 1
1 .' •
.. i^
i'
%
t
1616 PENITENTIAL BOOKS
PENITENTIARY
■i I
:H'
VEt Penitentiale ad remedium animarum
IX)MINI KAMUEHUTIII ARCillEnSCOi'l EUUKACAE
oivitatib.
Spanish Penitential,
In the Codex Vigilanus, or Alveldensis, in the
library of the ICscurinl (ff. 148, scr. 976) there
ia a penitential bonlc of Spanish oiigin, the
greater part of which consists of cicerpts from
Theodore, Cummean, and Frankish peiiitentials.
The substance of tlie boolc, therefore, contains
nothing noteworthy, but the spelling is remarlt-
able for the interchange of the letters b and v ;
for instance, prevent for priiebent, serharuluin,
obserfxiri, inehnibent, nobcrai, ahunculua, voberit,
valneaherit, and decanus for diaconus. There is
a trace of national customs in chapter 84 :
"Qui in saltatione Jemineum habitum gestiunt
et monstruose se fingunt et majaa et orcum et
pelam et his similia exercent, 1 ann. penit."
Majaa is probably connected with the majo,
maja, a boy or girl affectedly and shamelessly
dressed ; orcum, the vrm of the old Spanish
romance, the ogre or wild man of the woods ;
peliim signifies in Spanish a richly-dressed boy,
carried with dancing on a man's shoulders. See
Wasserschleben, p. 71.
Greek Penitentials.
A critical investigation into the history and
sources of the Greels penitential books has not
vet been made. Morinus (ile Sacramento Poeni-
tenliae, appendix, pp. 616-664) has published
two Greek books, one of which has the name of
John the Faster, Gregory's contemporary and
opponent at Constantinople. Morinus has
taken his edition from a 13th century MS. at
the " Wbliotheca Altempsiana" at Rome; he
professes himself unable to decide to what ex-
tent the MS. contains later interpolations into
the original work ; but he finds extracts in the
works of Harmenopulus and Matthew lilastares
of the 14th century, which profess to be taken
from John's Penitential, but which do not exist
in the Roman MS. The title of the edition of
Morinus is ' KKoKovBla koI rijij iv\ ilofioKo-
yovufvaiv avvraytLcra tnth ToD balov rarphs
ilfxiiv 'Iwavvov tov vrjo'Tf utoC.
The other book, which he has published as a
separate penitential, taken from a Vatican MS.
which he had not seen himself, is styled:
'Iwii'vov Movix"" ""^ AiaK6vov, fxaBv'oC tov
fiffiixou BaaiKtlov, oSrivos t) iiroi'vuia, Ttityov
iitaKoris, Kavovipiov, Siayopcvoc irtpl Tdfraif
XfitTOixfpws Toil/ TraOav, Kol rui/ rovrois itpos-
^Sptiiv innifiiaiv, itfpi t« t^i 07/aj KOivwvias,
fipailiifiicv ff Kol wofiiToiv Kal fvx<iii> Aiai'
(rvijnra6((Trarov,
In a IJition to these Morinus has published an
*AKo\ouflia rwv i^onoKoyoviifVuv, taken from a
10th century MS. from the Karberini Library in
Rome. He calls it a breviary or enchiridion of
a penitential. It comprises three headings: the
rite of making and receiving a confession, the
form of examining the penitent, and the manner
of giving absolution; it contains no list of
penalties for sins, but refers to an index, from
which Morinus infers that at the time when
this breviary wn-s in use there was well known in
the Kastern church some penitential book, in
which the penalties of sins were classified.
The methods unH contents of these Greek
books have little in common with the Ijitia
penitentials ; they bear a closer respnililunie to
the later "ordo" or " ratio" appended to 8imi«
of the Frankish books. Morinus has )jriiit.i>l tlie
Penitential of Joannes Jejuiiator and tU
Canonarium of Joannes Monachiis as (listinut
works. Whether they have any cliiits ti. be
considered as original and separate trcatisH, i,r
whether they are baseil on authentic bonks iii.t
yet discovered, or whether they are altnirpther
productions of centuries as late as the liitli .,r
even I'Jth, are (inestions which cannot be natij.
factorily determined, till some schoUr shall
examine the MSS. which survive in the Kastirn
church with the same coini)leteness ainl ililj.
gence which have been bestowed upon the nciii.
tential records in the monasteries and libimiej
of the West.
For the chief contents of this article the
writer is indebted to the very learned work (,f
Wasserschleben, i)ie llitssontntinijen der a'leuj,
landiachen Kirche, Hallo, IS.'il, ami to the
critii-al notes introducing the Anglo-.Sr.xnn
Penitentials published by Hadd.in and Stulibs
Councils and Ecclesiastical Ducutnents, vol ill
Oxford. 1871, [G. .\l,]'
PENITENTIARY. For our knowledge of
the office of the Penitentiary Priests, Prcsh'/'en
Pocnitcntiari, 0% M t^j luratolas nptaSinipoi,
we are indebted to the account which Socrates ( .'/
E. V. 19) and Sozomen (//. A', vii. 16) give of the
abolition of the office. The appointment dates
from the time of the Novntian schism. The
number of penitents, particularly of those ivtiii
had lapsed during the Decinn persecution, wLi
flocked to obtain absolution fron. the chiiirh.
gave a handle to the Novatian jiarty to detiuume
the system of Catholic discipline. I'enitents also
frequently made confession of sins before the
congregation which were unfit to be rcriipj
in public, and were a cause of scandal, Idth
to the bishop who published them and to iii:
congregation who listened to them. To obvii.te
these ditliculties, a special officer called the I'eiii.
tentiary was added to the ecclesiastical mil,
whose duty it was to determine what crimes wre
too scandalous for public acknowledgment, anj
particularly to decide what offences extluJeJ
the ofi'ender from partaking of the Holy t-'mn-
munion, and generally to superintend, under the
authoi'ity of the bishop, the administration of
discipline. The office was in force only till the
time of Nectarius, Chrysostom's predecessor In
the see of Constantinople. During his epis(;o|ia«
it was abolished, at least in that p.irt of the
church which acknowledged the jurisdiition of
Constantinople. The occasion which gave rise to
the abolition does not appear to have impliiated .
the Penitentiary personally. A certain lady of
rank, who was doing penance unjler his divettion,
afterwards confessed that she was at the same
time carrying on an intrigue with a deacon of
the church. The scandal catised a great out-
cry, and Nectarius, to prevent similiar disorder
for the future, formally abrogated the office.
This was in A.D. 391. There hangs some oh-
scnvity liver the question whether the «ffice was
at any time a universal one. Sozomen {H. t,.
vii. 16) implies that it existed throughout the
West, and was particularly held in esteen; in
the church of Rome. But the more general
PENSIONS
opinion «eem» to be, fr„m the absence of anv
mention ol the Penitentiary among Latin eccle-
.iuticil writers, that the otiice was cuni-aed
to the hastern church. Compare however,
Augusti, f/.m<. Arc/iuol. ix. 122. The chief interl
est .ttuching to the abolition of the olHce is the
bearing which it has on the Koman controversy
of auricular confession. Uuth Socrates and Sozo-
ineneJi.ressly state that upon the discontinuance
the „l ice, each one was to be allowed to partalie
of the holy mysteries as his own conscience
dictated, troni which it seems to follow, that
ihstover may have been the practice while the
Penitentiary Priest was one of the recognised
othcers »t the church, henceforth secret confession
WM (listimntenanced, and that there was to be
Dolhins approaching to compulsory confession
bef(,re Loming to the holy sacrament. To wealjen
the force o, this inference it has been suegested
that Sc.cnites and Sozonien were Novatians, or
at any rate wrote in the interest of the Novatian
patty ; but this suggestion has no foundation
K,r some account of the controversy, see Hooker!
&/. I'ul. VI. IV. 8 ; Bingham, Autiq. XVlu!
lii. 12.
Ducange quotes Anastasius Bibliothecarius for
the authority that pope Simplicius, a.d. 468-483
appomted an officer called Poeniteidiariui Ecclesuil
Hmime, with the duty of superintending the
penitents and hearing their confessions, and that
this IS the origin of the office in the church of
Rome. In modern times the chief of the Peui-
tentinries, ^%„«, Poenitentianus, is a high
ofcial m Rome, and one of the cardinals
The regular cathedral officer in the Roman
UthoLc church called the Penitentiary, is one of
Ike appointments of the council of Trent.
PEVSIONS. Certain .allowances'-^pei
rem very early times to have been granted
from ecclesiastical revenues to ecclesiastical
fersonages under certain circumstances, such as
to the clergy who were disabled by sickness or
old age, and to bishops who had been driven
rom their sees, or forced to resign them through
bodily infirmity. Thomassin ( Vet. et Nuv. E^t
,™I '"•• '■■'' "••^^' § ^^ ^"y" """ these were'
iisualy given m two ditferent forms, either
simply as ,an annual stipend, or by gran ing the
usufruc of lands belonging to tlie fhurchf the
e chiefly ,n the case of strangers who had
ht refuge in the diocese. K.ainples of both
The flrst recorded case of a pension granted
van tority is found in the «cts\f the^council
1 a [11' '•■•■ t^' i"''- '^)' ^here Domnus
bvhe R K T'^'^ f'-on'the see of Antioch
b th "Robbers' Meeting," was, at the request
p h,m from want, and that his claims might
be a cause of disturbance in futZ Tear
sianus and Stephen, who had both been un
PENSIONS
1C17
oanonically elected to ♦K °°'n •'^«n "»-
do ,JLn '^■'"'"'" ''"S-^ "> monasteries to
1»T, r "" ""-•""'"'^»^'^- he order, tl.at they
should receive a sullicieut allowance for their
burden "i?;." T'""" """ ^hey might not be a
bu.den to the houses into which they were
received. In another pi-, , /v,,/ i an k!
r'of Z '""'"'" "' h'- ' -h- ihc.' a !
Ifttc of the emperor, who ha,i ordered that the
bishops who h,,d bec.n expelled from tleir M,
those who had remained undisturbed, but adding
a special provision that they only meivesuli-
cient for their sustenance, tSat they ""re Ily
to be regarded a, guests, and that thev should
sho^lT "'^ ''!:"""" K'^'"' *''em which
should even approach to a partition of the see
Again a pension of forty pieces of ^;old (EpUt.
n. .>A) was assigned, on the ground of common
humanity, to Agathon, bishop of Lipara^who
had been deprived of his see bV canonical judg!
ment. When a certain Keli/, a deacon,\vho
had censed communion with the church from
.nistaking the intention of the fifth oecumenT-
t.al council «pph«d for readmission, Gregory
(Ap>st. 1,1. 14) entreats the bishop of Syracuse
either to restore him to the otiice ^f a dtacon o?
to al „w him a part of the sti,,end belonging to
t, adding that, in order to take himself a sifare
in the good work, he would add a small annual
allowance from the funds of the church of
Home. A bishop of Gaul (JCpist. :,i. 7) who wa
unable to perform his duties from painsTnTh'
head was to be persuaded to retire, but his
ma n enance provided from his church.
John the deacon, in his Lije of Gre<,ory the
Great, says that pensions were' allowed To
It^ when they were criven from their seef and
allotted to other bishops for maintenance-
second (,rf. ,v.;i9) when bishops retiring were
allowed to receive from their Lccessorsl lum
sufficient for their maintenance
An instance of the usufruct of church lands
being assigtied as a pension is recorded by
Gregory o Tours (//,-,<. Franc, ii. 36) in the
ca^e ot Luphrasius, bishop of Clermont in
Auvergne who a lotted to Quintianus, bishop of
Hodds in Aquitama, who had been driven IVom
h s see by the G,4hs, gifts of houses, fier
and vineyards; and the bishop of Lyons also
al otted to him certain possessioL of h'is d „ s^
which were situated in the province of Au-
viii. 20) that when Faustinus, bishop of Mx
had been deposed by the council of Lcon.ft
was also ordered that the bishops by whom he
had been ordained should each allow him an
annual pension of 109 auiei.
An instance of another kind of pension is
found in a letter of Hincmar of Rheims to pope
w-^ th.it Kothadus, bi.shop of Soissons. having
been obliged to relinqui.,h his s.e, he had pro?
that'all his'';';,"",^l'' "'" K""^ abbey; 'and
anoe i . 7 ^"*'"^'' •""* S'^^" him alssist-
ance in his calamity, partly fron, motive" of
pity a,.a partly that lie might not give anv
ur her trouble to the see, " uf molest ns^et.seT
t.o,^us ecclesiae cui praefuerat esse non decer-
Another class of pensions appears to hat..
. ffj
1618
PENTECOST
cxistcil in ennni-«ion with the imthedrnl c1erf?v.
The lliii-.l fdUiicil ot' OiliMin'., A.K. .''>:'8 (n. IH),
iBHves il (Mitiiiily to the ■':.,creti<m of tlie bish, |-
to iicrmit III- to refuse u ahnve in the ii'Viuiuus ot
the cathiMliiil to clergy wlio hml i"fL it tor
the imriioso of entering moniist^Tics or serving
other .hurchfts. On the <.tli.i- han^l, the
coiuuil of Merida, A.D. >m (o. 12), iMovides
thiit the bishop shall have tha right ot
leU'iiting hi« cathedral clergy from the iiarish
priests ' and deacons, and that such clergy
shall retain the revenues of their parishes on
coiiditinn of making an Hde(|uate alUnvame to
the pveslivter wlio has taken charge of the
parish, and' to the other clergy connected with
the chnri h. The stilieiid in siwh cases accruing
from the cathedral revenues heing described as
a gift from the bishop conditional on the good
beh.iviour of the reciiiient. 'riiomnssiii ( 1 et. et
^ov. Kcd. mcip. iii. 2, c. 29, § 22, 2:i) thinks
that the stipend derived in these a\>e» trom the
cathedral was called an allowance (pcnsio) n
order that such clergy might not be charged
with holding a plurality of benelices.
In these cases the allowance of pensions was
right and equitable. Abuses, however, ajipeiir
to have soon crept in, especially from the right
nssumc'd by the Krankish sovereigns of granting
pensions at their will settled on property heloiig-
iiu' to the church. On the representation ol Leo
llf. t nis evilwas checked by a capitulary of Charles
the (iieat {Addd. iii. c. i.) positively forbid.ling
any divisi.m or partition of the property of the
cliiirih. either in his own lifetime or by his
successors.
Another class of pensions, attended ulti-"tely
irith great evils, arose from the pn : . t
appointing bishops, under various cirti.i <■ ■'-'■■ •,
to at least titular possession of mov- :■ .•
one. • '■•
TEXTECOST. The word wei/TT) .fv. A ^in
Latin writers sometimes Quinquaiiesimn j "/as
useii in a twofold sense by the primitive church,
both for the whole period of fifty days between
Ea^ter and Whitsun Day, and als.. more strictly
for the single festival of Whitsun Day.
In the early church the whole of the fifty days
between Kasterand Whitsun Day was regarded m
one continuous ;estival. Thus Tcrtullian saya
that all the festival days of the heathen jiut
together will not make up the I'entecost of the
Christians, '• Kxcerpe singulas festivitates natio-
nuin tt in ordinem exsere; Pentecosteu implere
non poterunt " (rfe IdoMatr. c. 12), and speaks ot
Pent !cost as a very large space of time, •' latissi-
mum siiatium," a|>pointed by the church for the
administration of bnptisn. die Bnpt. c. 19). In
the same sense the canons of the council of
Antioch m Encaeniis, A.D. 341, speak of the
qxunta sepliinum pentccostcs, midio pcnterostca
(can. 20, Labh^, ii. 579). The Onlu liomanus
lays down that "Tempus Pentecostes inchoatur
a primo die resurrectionis et currit^ usque ad
diem (luinijuagesimum post Pascha," and the
Ajmt'liral Constitutions (lib. v. c. 20, ad fin.)
extend the term to the whole period as one
of festal joy (see Beverigg, l'a:ule t, torn. ii.
Anmitnt. 27 ; Cotelerius, r.itr. Apostnl. torn. i.
p. 4H(i). Basil the Great si.eaks of the seven
weeks, t'iS ifpSr revrfKovarn^ (rfc Sjirit. Sinct.^
c. 27). From the continuous festal character of
PENTECOST
the period, fasting and kneeling m prsyi>r wen
pvohiliite^l, as on Sundays. Tertulliaii says, '• Wi
'■'imit 11 iinh wfiil to fast or to worship kii-pjing
on the Lord's Hay, and we rejoice in tli.. mnia
immunity from Kaster Day to Pentecost ('IVrtull.
de Coron. Milit. c. 3). The same rule w»s l,i,i
down by the council of Nlcnen, A.D. li'Ji (cm.'.'d
Labbe, ii. '.VJ). Ambrose also describes x\k fiftj
days as each like a Sunday, when "jijiinium
nescit ecclesia." and which th*- traditimi "f th»
ancients ippoints to be regarded "iit Hi, ;v."
(Ambros in Lw: 1-h. vii. torn, ii \\. luiB>
In Sermon 01 (falsely attribute.l to him)
the same prohibition of fasting in I'eiff.Tut Ii
found; and in the Praefat.ttd Ps.lM it i> sjckeo
of as the Christian jululee, whiMi theddit .ifjij
is remitted, the handwriting against us liluttM
out, and all Christians rejoice with alh'lui.is. We
have also the authority of K|dphanius (/■>|<i|,
Fid. c. 22) for the cessation of fasting and iineel-
ing dining this pi'riod. Augustine spMks of
"dies illiHuimiuaginta post Pnsi ha usipie nl
Pcntecostem quibus non jejuuatur " (Epi4. 80),
though he el>ewhere speaks with some dduljt as
to whether the rule was universally oIjmtv*!
{Kpist. 119, (id Jiinnir. i\ 17). iMirini; lliij
period the nlU'lnia, which had been silent during
Lent, was heard abundantly in the seiviocs of
the church (August, ibid.). Isidore has n long
passage {he iifftc Eccl. lib. i. c. 112) on the mo.le
of observ'.ig the period, and the absence of ill
marks ot mourning. Cassian is also very full
on this subject {De Tnstitnt. lib. ii. c. H, 1«;
Coll.it. xxi. c. 8, c. 11, c. 20). Honorius Auju^.
todunus, in his Gemma Animae (lib, iii, c. I;W),
writes: "Tempus inter Pascha et Pcntocostsa
Quinqtiagesima nominatur quia a Sabhito quo
duo alleluia inchoantur usque ad SamtM
Pentecosteu quinquaginta dies cnm]'iilntitur
quibus alleluia in cantu frequentatur " (cf, \'ny.
ad Kuseb. Vit. Constant, lib. iv. c. 64; I'.iil-amon
in can. Nic. xx., apud Bevereg. Pandfd. Urn. i,
p. 84; Menloza, in Concil. Illiber. c. xvii, in
can. 4,S, apud Labbe, C'onciV. i. 1261).
Kiirlv in the 5th century an ordinance of the
youthful devotee Theodosius II. , A.D. 425,
doubtless emanating from his sister I'ulcheriii,
prohibited all stage-plays, Circensian gamfs.nnd
public spectacdes during the period of "(piinii'.ia-
gesima " on account of its great sanctity [Col,
T/teod. lib. XV. tit. v. do Si.iectacxilis, leg. 5
torn. V. p. 25:1). By a custom of the church
which was ancient in the time of St. Chrysostom
{Ilomil. Ixiii. [Ixvi.] cur in Pentccosk Ada
tei)iintur), and which is still retained inthcGiefk
church, the Acts of the Apostles were read
between Easter and Whitsun Day (August. Tnict
in Joann. F/. § 18 ; Serm. 315 ; (fe PracJi-l Sanct.
c. ii. § 4; Chrysost. Nomil. xxxiii. m Gen. Ii
In the church of Spain and Gaul the Apocalvpst
was commanded also to be read at this seasti
under pain of excommunication (Co?ici7. Wf/.if.
can. 16, Labbe, v. 1711). In a more restricte.i
.sense Pentecost stood for the festival of Whitsoi
Day alone. In this sense it closed the cycle «l
the Festivals of our Lord, semestre Dm^l
among which it held the third place, nfter Wet
and Christmas. The earliest occurrence of tiiH
word in this sense is in the forty-thinl rfW
of the council of Elvira, A.D. 305 (Labbe, i
975), which, referring to the erroneous ci.sliiil
prevailing in some churches of Spain of Mil I
PENTEC»,.iT
bratiDjf Ihe fortieth day after Eastnr Innteml
of th.' tiltieth, i>. AHcensii.n Dnv, nut IViiti-
cont, orilftinni that "jinta aurtoiitnt^m Siiii.-
turnrum riincti diem IVniccome.H coiebremiifl "
»»miiiK thiH.. who did not do thi:( that they
. uld bo rptjarded n» l)riii«in)f in n new heresy
(Hefele, Omncih, vol. i. ,,. 155, Clark's transi )
Tills canon R|,|.ear.H to have bien inetlec-
tual In . hocliing the irrcKularitv, and I'entero«t
centiiai. i to lie observed i)rfin»turely in the Span-
i*h clinrcii.^ The first of the cnon.s of ti.e tenth
,i.uncnofTidcdo,A.D.ti.')0,in»isi9onob»ervini;the
rigtit number of fifty days, wit .'.out which thev
rould not look for the fud girt of the Spirit
(Ubbe, vi, 411(1). Pentecost, as the anniversMry
of the .l™>nt of the Holy Spirit, the birthday
of the (.hurch of Christ, was observed as one of
the chief Christian festivals from a very early
time. It is mentioned by OrlRen (Cuntr. Cel's
lib. viii. p. 392), and, if we give any wei(;ht to
Ihe doubtful authority of the supposititious
wurk ascribed to Justin (i.'^utest. ad Ortlmkx
.Vo. 11:)), still earlier, by Ircnaeus. It la clearly
defined in fi^ii AftosMical Comtitutiona : "Al>er
ten days from the Ascension, whch, from the
fint Lord's Day is the fiftieth day, do ye keep a
ireat festival on that day the Lord .lesus sent
on ua the gift of the Holy Ohost " (lib. v. c. 20).
There is a sermon of Gregory Naziauzen's (de
Pevtmste Orat. xliv. torn. i. p. 712, in which he
cnlli it the "day of the Spirit "—rf/xijffoi' rhv
illiifm rov TrvdnaTos. Chrysostom designates
It nriTf6itohti rSiv iopruv (Uumit. ile Font. ii.
p. 469.) Augu.stine also mentions it as one of the
chief Christian -.v liversariea {CmUr. Faiist lib
iiiii. c. 12), an,, in his letter to Januarini
(bp. 54) speaks of it as one of the unwritten
orJinnnccs observed by the whole world, ap-
IxjinteJ oiin,r by the apostles (which was the
unfoun.led opinion of Kjiiiihanius, Ifaer. Ixxv.
§ 6) or by oecumenical councils. Among the
sermons of Leo the Great are three (5crm 75-77)
iPmtosto, an I four {Scnn. 78-81) de Jejunio
Imlecostes. It was regarded as a day of chief
obwrvance, of equal dignity with Kaster an.l
thnsimas, on which it was the duty of all
Ghristiiins to communicate, and that not in the
smsller country churches, but in the mother
churches of the cities (Comiil. A;jathens. a.d
306,can. 18, 31 ; Labbe, iy. 1386 ; Cmcil. Aurel. i.
A.n.511, can. 25; Labbe, iy. 1408). Eusebius
JesigD'ites it ((le lit. Constat.t. lib. iy. c 64)
l^tyl^V ioprii, ndi^(Tcnr',s Ka\ vauayla nfvrr,.
TJ?' J^,''<='='''l'™t'"n originallvlastedthewhole
"f the following week, to the Octave, to which
effect a decree was passed by the synod of Mentz,
*.n. 813. The vigil of Pentecost was one of the
chief seasons for the admini.stration of the sacra-
ment of baptism, second only to Easter Eve
These two were indeed the only times when bap-
tism was permitted in the Western church
except in the case of the ^ick (grabatarii). To
dded (Greg. Naz. Orat. xl. de Bapt.). In the
brae ot fertullian it is evident that baptism was
permitted during the whole of the fitly davs
which were known as Pentecost in its wid'er
«ns_e(Tertull.cfe2?„p«. c. 19); but subsequently |
iTof^^K f J' ,^r '■«"t"««'l to the actual
vigil of the festival (Bingham, Ori<j. XI. vi 7)
Jerome also speaks of Pentecost' being, like '
CHBIST. ANT.— VOU II t ' 1
PEREORIVUS 1(!19
(Hieron. n.mment. ,n /arh. ,w, g ; Eri^it. fxj.
»dJ:,mm-,rh § l,i ; |(A.T.,M, 69. Vol. L p. 16.')
J-aHtini; being prohibited by the earliest church
oMinances durmg the whole of the Pentecostal
rnod, nic uding the following week c^a led
fa.sts on Wedne.,day, and Krid„vs were ori»ri-
Uctave. Af^ierwards, when the Ember weekn
became fixed the week sncceediug Whitsun Day
was observed a. a time „f tastiu,. an I praVer
(Km.ikk 1 avs). Leo the fJreat, i„ hi, 1' • „Sl
the I entecostal l-ast on the Wednesday, Kridi.y
an.! Saturday (.^-m. 7:. 81). T ■ " io ' " f,!
'"ysda.efrom the timer Manier .; bi h p
"I Vienne, c. a.i,. 450, and ...tabli.Hhed by the
first council of Orleans, A.r,. 51,, were unaLpt!
able to the .Spani,,h church as violating the old
rules against fasting in yuin,,„agesima, „n
I'ENTECOSTAUfON. The n,.rv.oard.
p.o^ .ay, Neale (East. Ch. i„tr. p. 877) "is
to the weeks between Faster and All Saints'
Sunday what the TR.omo.v is to fho.se between
a t '""'%■ .'\\''"''';™" •""' *•''"'•''- ""d
rZX\ W" V^* ordinary ..mce-book of the
flreek church for that period of the year. [C]
PENULA. [Paencla.]
PEOPLE. [Laitv.]
PKPr'ZA or PUZA (in Phrygia), Nova-
^*^ '*r-"'°° r- ^•''- 37- aL ling to
Socrates (iv 28), at which it was agreed to keco
Ea.ster on the same day as the Jews^ Bu th7
PERA. This word seems to be used by
Cassian in an unusual sense for the sheepskin
which formed part of the monk's dress: "Lll^
ST* ?T ^'J°^'i "' P"" «PPellatur"(*
Cot-n^ /„»«,. 8; />a<™/. xlix. 74; cf cL.
^ . 3, a 150). Hence the word has found a
091). It can hardly be supposed that Cassian
uses the word in its ordinary Latin sense fi,ri?
■s not at all likely that the monks „S's.^h a
rule would be allowed to carry a wallet • Ga.et
(no'.^n loc.) suggests that pern is a transcriber's
error for pa.«./« -others would read ,l!phthera,
rtL^rX T^'^ ^""''^" "P''"'"'"' t° follow
7nclotes. Tb s. however, .seems decidedly feeble
It ._s perhap. just possible that the word may be
'^Bi pt'an. pp g .
PERPGRIXATIO. [Pilorimaob.]
or W^^^^^i^^ ^P- "'"*y' ^''h Hiereneus
or Irenaeus, an.l Hirenis ; commemorated at Thes-
salomca May 5 (Usuard. itfar^ ; v,t. Zn.
Mart); w.th Hereneus and Her;na (11^/
• We find m/ipa conJ..lned with ^nA-i™? In nuT
lav„acac. 83 (.Palrot. dr.. xxxlv, UfiS), b7t here th™
me^rg''"^ *" the word betag Med In the "rdln;,;?.
103
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PERFECTU8
(8) Bishop, martyr ; commemorated at Autnn
May 16 {Ilieron. Mart.; Usuard. Mart; Boll.
Acta SS. Mai. iii. 561).
(3) Martyr with Isaurus and others ; comme-
morated .July 6 (Basil, Mcnol.).
(4) Martyr with Lucianus and others ; comme-
morated July 7 (Basil, Meml. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Jul. ii. 457).
(6) Presbyter at Lyon ; commemorated July
88 (Usuard. Mart.; Boll. Acta S8. Jul. vi.
643).
(6) Martyr at Rome with Eusebius and others
under Cotnmodus ; commemorated Aug. 25
(Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Rom. Mart.). [C. H.]
PERPECrrUS, presbj-ter, martyr at Cor-
dova ; commemorated April 18 (Usuard. Mart.).
[C. H.]
PERGAM08, Supposed Synod of, a.d.
152, when seven bishops under Theodotus con-
demned the heretic C'olorbasius or, as Tertullian
calls him (Oe Praesc. c. 60), Colnrbasus. But
the only record of it is preserved in a work ou
heresies of doubtful authorship, and even more
doubtful credit (Mansi, i. 669). [E. S. Ff.]
PERGENTINU8, martyr with Laurentinus
at Arretium; commemorated June 3 (Usuard.
Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart. : BoU. Acta SS. Jun. i.
271). [C. H.]
PERIAPTA. [Phtlactket.]
PERICOPAE (vfptKowaC) are the fections
into which the Scriptures have been divided for
thp purpose of rending in public. See Lection,
LECTIONARr. [C]
PERIODEUTAE (wtpioitvrt^. AwisUnti
to bishops, with the duty of itinerating in coun-
try districts. The council of Laudicea, A.D. 320
(c. 57), enacts that no bishop shall be appointed
in villages or country districts, but only " perio-
deutae ; " but that those bishops already ap-
pointed shall perform no act without the autho-
rity of the bishop of the city (tow iiriffK6irov rnv
tv T^ iri^Ati). It does not appear that the dis-
charge of these functions implied admission to
the episcopal office, since at the council of Chal-
cedon (act, 4) Valentinus and Alexander sign
themselves " presbyter and neriodeutes." There
is no further information about the duties of
these officials, or as to the portion of episcopal
function they were permitted to discharge.
[Compare Chorepiscopus.] [P. 0.]
PERISTERIUM.
BisTic, p. 576.]
[ DOVB, THE E0CHA-
PERITRACHELION. [Stole.]
PERJURY. The Christian code, foHowing
the old Roman law set a special brand of infamy
on perjury {Cod. Theod. II. ix. 8). It was visited
with no less severity by the discipline of the
church. Chrysostom (Horn. xvii. in Matt.
p. 182; Horn. xxii. de Ira, t. i. p. 294) placed it
in the same category with mtirder and adultery.
By Basi! {ad Amphiioc. c. 64) a perjured person
was allotted eleven year's penance. The first
council uf Maicon, a.d. 581, c. 17, exacted that
he who instigated another to perjury should be
PERPETUA
debarred from communion for the remnindei of
his life, and that his accomplice shoiiKI (^
in..Apable for the future of giving testirminy.
The crime occupied a chapter in each of the
early Knglish peiiitentials. In the penitiMili:.! of
Theodore (1. vi.) it is declared (c. 1) thnt he
who commits [wrjury in a church shall do peiianie
eleven years ; but (c. 2) if under compnlsjiin
(the compulsion of his lord. Bed. Pvcnit, v. 1)
then only forthree quadragesimae. He who bre.iks
a vow taken at the hands of a Inyniiin ( 77i, . j,
Poetiit.l.vi.'i ; Ejbcrt. vl.7)is left unpunished In
the Greek canons. But if the vow had been tnken
at the handsof a bishop, priest, or ileai on, or on the
altar or a consecrated cross, the ijennnce for breiik-
ingitwasthree years, witharemlsslon of twoyenrs
if the cross was not consecrated {T/ieml. 1. vi. 4 •
Bed. v. " ; Egbert, vi. 2). The penance for
simple perjury was three years. By the peni-
tential of Bede, v. 4, the false witness was to be
punished according to the circumstances of the
case ; and one {iliid. c. 5) who had unwittingly
been guilty of perjury and afterwards confessed
his offence was to do penance a year. In the
Frankish penitential of Cummean, founded on
that of Theodore (Wasserschleben, Die llussnrd.
nungen der abemUiindischen Kirclie, p. 4()0, seqq,),
the punishment is graduated to the oii'enJer's
rank. A perjured layman {Pen. Cum. v. I) was
to do penance three years ; a cleric, five ; a sub-
deacon, six ; a deacon, seven ; a priest, ten ; and a
bishop, twelve. By another clause (c. 9), a false
witness is punished less severely, but on a corre-
sponding scale. In c. 4, a layman committing
perjury through covetousness was to sell all his
goods and dUtribute them to the poor and retire
to a monastery ; but if covetous .ess did not lead
to the crime, then for three years he was to live
ia exi'e, not bear arms, and fast on bread and
water, for two more abstain from wine and
flesh and give freedom to a slave, for two more
years distribute alms, and at the end (>f seven he
might be restored to communion.
The breaking of oaths which ough; never to
have been made was not a matter likely to come
under canonical supervision. There are, never-
theless, a few decisions of councils. Ihe Spanish
council of Lerida, A.D. 523, c. 7, decli:red that
any litigant binding himself by an lath to
remain at enmity with his adversary shouM on
account of his perjury abstain from communion
for a year, and hasten to be reconciled. The
lawfulness of breaking such oaths is discussed at
length by the eighth council of Toledo, A.n. 6.53,
c. 2. The council supposes one or two extreme
cases, such as a man having sworn to slay his
father, or com]xisB the pollution of a sacred
virgin, and resolves that it is far better ha
should break his oath than keep It. The
opinions of Ambrose, Augustine, Grei^ory, and
Isidore, are cited in support ; from the last of
whom several decisions are quoted (Isidor. ii. 31 ;
sent. 10, 22) to shew that sometimes it is better
to break an oath than observe it. [0. M.]
PERNOOTATIO. [Vioil.]
PERPETUA, martyr in Africa with Fellcitai,
A.D. 203 ; commemorated Feb. 2 (Basil, Menoi.);
Mar. 7 at Tuburbum in Mauritania {llierm.
Mart. ; Vet. Rom. Mart. ; Usuard. Wand.)| M»r,
7 at Carthage (Bed. Mart.) ; same day (HoU.
PEBSECUTIO
PERPETUUS
Acta SS. Mart. i. 633). The Sacramentary of
Oelanus commemorates the natale of Perpetua
iiiiJ Felicitas, who are named in the " secreta "
OD Mar. 7 (Murat. Lit, Kom. Vet. i. 642).
[C. H.]
PERPETUUS, bishop of Tours, 5th century
commemorated Ap. 8 (Usuard Mart. ; Vet limn
Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Ap. i. 748). [c. g -i '
PERSECUTION-. [Martyr.]
, ^^^fm^^^'^JJ^A- '"«'"' commemorated
June 2b (Usuard, Mart.). m jj t^
PERSIA, Nbstobian Synoiw in (Vi a n
499 under Babeus, patriarch of the Nestorians;
at which leave was given to all the clerey to
become "husbands of one wife" (Mansi, yiii.
(2) A.D. 544, under Abas I., Catholicos of the
Neetormns, which passed eleven canons and
asserted m the last of them that they had all
keen based on the faith of the 318 fathers, i.e.
the iNicene (Mansi, ix. 125). '
(8) A.D. 588, under lesujabius, patriarch of
he Nestorians, which passeli thirty^canon" and
declared m the first for receiving the N cene
other fathers besides repudiating the heresies of
Anus and Macedonius on the Trinity, and of
£u yches and Mane, on the Incarnation (lb.
''"^- [E. S. Ff.]
PERSONIFICATION (m Aet). The fashion
of epresentmg the virtues and moral feeCs
byhuman figure, i, one of great antiquity I^otl^
(i;«t 16, c. 4) tells us that "et spes et
oluntur ; and Christian poets in like manner
h.ve embodied the virtuef and vices in the"
Conflict "(/'^yoAom. r. 21), gives this warlike
representation of Faith . "" * " ""' w»"«e
" PlJ'"* P««' oampum dubia sub sorte dnelU
Popiatura Fides, agresti tnrblda vultu
Nttd. humeros. intoosa comas, exwrta lacertos.-
The middle ages are the period which is
tev s« hi r*"!- ''«"■■«»' '"«'. although
Mey are beyond the limits of this book it i«
o7t t^y ': <='*' '^' •=■"« °f the bront' gL
A d^a' Ph7n ''/'"-"-.""cuted in faso
"7 Anarea ttsano, because they Dreservo tho
^ '"rounded Vflsdi.!^ ''*^"'* °^ "•"• !">««
!^^%urS;!Si't:'-j:-^.haii.
[ tirch ^*'"°' t*" '""«'• with a lighted
I toSn £iturr;?eSv' •''"*' -
I "*• " ■ 'emale hgure in a MS.
PETER AND PAUL, SS. 1621
mandrake in he?' hVnd^' n. """i"" J"'"""? »
on either side of heV »h?i "r'''«^^<("'X'a;
(•E«x<v;<-/«) bows ' ■ tt"v2f tr^
, her and seems to kiss her fp»»^ r • x ^^^"'"'
Luoemis Antiq. lib. ifi. c. lO) ,a , that'h'7 ^'^l
an ancient lamp with fi„.,;<.. ^ ' ^^ '^""""^
I his opinion, KaTth Ind Ho~ dl-'':''^""."'"^' '■>
whatVes'probabi^ftis'rwtl^^^
18 Standing in the same «♦* t,,^ \ ^' ^°P«
-ame gestnre a the figure on th""" ""°? *h«
cited above. Such alWorL^fi «"«»ph»g"8
doubt more cormon 1^11^ 5.^*''^"''^ °'>
were in the earner age, ^b™"'^^''" ""^^
.ufficient grounds for fhinking that The?'""'
cttS .'Vnd\ha7th ""'"""' ■°*^* «"' «^"t
and he'r ace —11^' '"'*"'''"- S«'t"^».
represent the same'^Sfnthr"' r^'^"^"^ *°
later centuries (Martig^y "At< Z '7,*' '°; *'"«
.. V. Vertm et Vice^.^^' ^'"' ** ^,J ?6 H?
PERVIGILIAB. [Vigil.]
^1
feelinsroffhosewhohldh "■ *" *''* «'-»'«<'"l
apostfes to th7^:ii'''(^- -v'lr^fs^ 'o'""
stantine's vision of the twn f,L, y '' ^"''■
the acts of St Sylvester rl pT ''" '^^'^'^^'^ '»
Cons* torn ii ^fiftf k ^ P' ^^^hrmann * ^a«t.
pr^ tha™"a'?i,at\'imrr'' "P'"='-yP'>«'. *»• a
acquired a «« t^pe ''^^^/-S? ""^
eiamp es of this tradifCi . 'ailiest known
the gilded glas es of .?. /^P*'."" "^^^"^ '"
med/ls, theTc^'c VnTslrSS' 'a '^ 'T^'
in the early statues and stXKf St^'p *"
cori-espond in their main features to ♦!''
portra ture irivan h„ k- ™'^""' to the
Ca ^ ii 37/^* p7 ^^"'^Phorus Callistus
L taHand uLght ^uVw "Tk"^J''P"''^"'«<'
straight and lonir and hi/^k •' *"* ""^«
acterLd by ^t^^^Z^^'Z^'Zl^;
this tyj. in alntflhU . erpT^^^^t T
represent St. Peter, as well ^ S* p! 1""'^
suffering from baldness. S^me rare e^.m;, ""
on the other hand, assign to St Paul rK*''"''
well covered with hair. ' * •"'"'
ihe earliest rei)resentMion« of th. ♦
5 M 2 '
"■f ^h!
16:;
PETER AND PAUL, 88.
gmooth-faced young mBn, and St. Paul (iVd.
tav. vii. n. 5) where the usual type is mnintained.
In by far the larger number of examples the
two apostles are depicted together, I'ither in
bust {ibid. tav. x. xii. xiii. xiv; Buon.irr. tav. x.
xi.) [Glass, p. 731] or standing (Garrucci, tav.
ix. xi.) or seated (ibid. tav. xiv. xv. &c.). In an
example of this last attitude (ihid. tav. xv.
n. 1-5), the two apostles appear to be engaged
in a lively discussion, such as that recorded at
Antioch (Gal. ii. U). Each holds a codex, and
St. Peter presents his roll to his brother apostle
with a degree of eagerness in lieeping with the
ardency of his character. The two apostles
are in innumerable instances portrayed stand-
ing on either side of our I-ord, either in person
or symbolized by his monogram (ibid. tav. ivi.
n. 6), according to the custom spoken of St.
Augustin as prevailing in his day in Africa ((/«
Consms. Evangel. 1-10). [Phoenix.] In many
cases Christ is bestowing on His apostles the
crown of life (ibid. tav. xii. nn. 1-7). The
central place is not unfrequently occupied by a
female orante. We have instances of the Virgin (?)
{ibid. tav. ix. 6, 7), St. Agnes (ibid. tav. xxi.
1-3), St. Peregrina (ibid. n. 6). St. Lawrence
also fills the same place (Slid. tav. xx. n. 7 ;
Buonarr. tav. xvi. 2). Other saints are some-
times associated with them, e.g. St. Pastor and
St. Damas (ibid. tav. xxiii. n. 2), and St.' Philip,
St, Simon, and St. Thomas (ibid. tav. xxv. n. 6).
In the room of the central figure in some
instances we see a chaplet of victory (ibid. tav.
I. n. 2, 4 ; Perret, tom. iv. pi. ixi. 3), or a flower
(ibid. tav. X. nn. 6, 8), or several codices (ibid.
tav. xiii. nn. 2-6). St. Peter is once represented
seated, preaching to a standing female (ibi(.l. tav.
xvi. n. 2). Instead of the more usual pavlvs,
we sometimes find St. Paul designated by hi»
earlier name savlvs (ibid. tav. xi. n. 3 ; tav.
xvii. n. 7).
Neit to the gilded glasses the class of objects
on which the two apostles most frequently
occur are the sarcophagi and sepulchral slabs of
the catacombs. The engravings of Bosio,
Aringhi, Bottari, Garrucci, Perret, Maffei (Mm.
Veron. p. 484), AUegranza (Mon. Christ, di
Milano, tav. iv. vi.), Bugati (Mem. d\ S. Celse,
tav. 1), Millin (atlas, pi. xxxviii. lii. Ixiv. Ixix.),
Le Blant (Sfircophages d'Artes), may be referred
to for a large and instructive series of examples.
The type is almost invariable. Our Lord stands
on a hill, from which issue the four rivers of
Paradise; on one side St. Peter, with covered
hand, receives from Him a half-opened codex ;
on the other St. Paul bows in reverence (Bottari,
tar. xxv. ; Marangoni, Act. S. Vict. p. 42). A
(omewhat different arrangement appears in a
sarcophagus at St. Ai)ollinare in Classe, Ravenna.
Our Lord is seated, and gives a roll with His
right hand to St. Paul, while St. Peter holds
the key and oross on the left. Both apostles are
approaching Christ with hasty strides, their
garments flying behind them in the wind. A
sepulchral slab from the cemetery of St. Callistus,
commemorating a Christian named Asellus
(BolJetti, p. 193 j Perret, vol. v. pi. xi.), bears
the busts of the two apostles, rudely incised,
with the sacred monogram between them. The
hair and beard correspond to the usual type.
Another class of examples is found in the
mosaics of the basilicas, for which we may refer
PETER AND PAUL, S8.
to Ciampini's Vetera monumenta and our own
article on MosAlCfl. The frescoes of the catacombs
furnish few, if any, instances (Bokletti, ji, lU'
Bottari, tav. clxvi.). Examples of mosaic wjl|
be found in St. Sabina (Ciamp. tom. i. t.ib. xlviii.),
St. Agatha (tab. Ixvii.), St. Maria iti Co;,nie(liii
(tom. ii. tab. xxiii.), St. Lorenzo (tab. xxxviii.),
St. Praxedes (tab. xlvii.), St. Cecilia (tab. lii.),
the baptistery at Ravenna (ibiil. p. 234), ami ut
Capua (ibid. tab. liv.) ; the former basilica (jf the
Vatican (de ^acr. Aedific. tab. xiii.), and ihe
later mosaics of the side apses at St. Costanza
(ibid. tab. xxvii.). A bronze medallion found
in the cemetery of St. Callistus, engraved by
Boldetti (p. 192), and more faithfully by W
Rossi (Bulletino, 1864, Nov. Dec), preserved
in the Vatican Library, presents the hca^ls of the
two apostles embossed in a style of unusual
excellence [see woodcut, and MoaEV, p. 1307].
MedalUoa ol 88. iMter ud FanL (Hutlgn;.)
It is diflicult to point to an example ia which
the normal type is depicted with so much dig-
nity and beauty. This fine worl; of art i."; placed
by De' Rossi in the first hai' ^ 3rd century,
There was no invariable f > the position
of the two apostles wheu ited together.
In the earlier glasses ana '.her works of
art St. Peter generally occupies the right.
hand place, and St. Paal the left. In later
examples the order was frequently reversed, and
this disposition became the rule, especially is
the papal bulls (Mamachi, Orig. et Aniii.
Christidn, torn. v. p. 503). It is evident that no
dogmatic importance can be assigned to this
change of position.
On the identification of St. Peter with
Moses, in the scenes of the Striking of ihe
Rock and the Apprehension, the article Old
Testament in Art may be eonsulted, and
that on Sculpture for a description of the
existing statues of St. Peter. An onyx given by
Perret (tom. iv. pi. xvi. 85) represents the apostle
walking on the water and our Lord seizing his
hand to rescue him. The warning of his Denial
is a frequent subject on sarcophagi. There is a
very remarkable example on one of the ends ot
the magnificent sarcophagus of the 4th century
discovered in the Vatican (Bosio, 85, 87 ; Aringhi,
i. 317, 319), now preserved in the Lateran
Museum. In this and in some other exftUipK
the cock stands on the summit of a fluted pillar.
The washing of St. Peter's feet by Christ ii
found on a sarcophagus at Aries almost precisely
similar to one given by Bottari (Uv. iiiv)
PETER, ST., APOSTLE
(Millin, Atlas, Ijtiy. no. 4). Le Slant, Sarco-
Bkages, pi. ix. The raising of Tauitha [see that
beading] is sculptured on a few sarcophagi
There are examples at Fermo (de Minici's
Mmum. dk Fermo, p. 83) ; St. Maximin (Rostan.
Monum. icomjr. de I'Eglise de St. Max. fi? xii )
»nd Aries (Le Blant u. s. pi. ii. fig 2 p 4)
The delivery of the keys to St. Peter " appears
on a sarcophagus from the Vatican (Bottari
UT. Jtxi. v.), where the subject is well executed.'
Another example is found on sarcophagi in the
crypt of St. Maximin {Monum. de S. M. Mad
torn. i. p. 771), in the museum of Aries He
BInnt, «. s. pi. ii. fig. 1), and Ue' Rossi speaks
" «!'"";?■ ^"^^ ", "°, """ '° the cemetery
of St. I'nscilla. It also appears on a rase
of uncertain age, to which Bianchini assigns
a very early date {Not. m Anaatas. Vit S.
Urixm. n. 18), given by Bottari (tom. i" p"
18.1), and on the mosaic of St. Agatha in the
Subuna, A.D. 472 (Ciampini, Vet. Mon. tab.
iivn.). The apostle usually receives the keys
or key (in some instances there is but one)
in a fold of his garment with marks of the
greatest reverence. [Kevs, p. 900.1 The
apostle carries the keys as a svmbol of
juthority on a .sarcophagus at Verona (Maffei,
Ifus. Teron. p 484), in the mo.saic of the trium-
phal arch of the basilica of St. Paul (a d 441)
(Ciampini torn. i. tab. Ixviii.), and that of St.
Maria m Cosmedin at Ravenna (a.d. 553) where
he IS in the attitude of ofiering them at the
throne of the Lamb {ibid. tom. ii. tab. xxiii ) The
gword does not ajjpear as a symbol of St." Paul
till a comparatively late period. The earliest
Hample known to Martigny is in a mosaic
belonging to the tomb of Otho II. (d A D 983)
preserved in the crypt of St. Peter. [E. v.]
PETER, ST., APOSTLE 1623
Ih^Ail "'". """"^yji'^ can be traced back to
" ""' »<""» '=<"^<>°' "d gandiai die. amice, quid M ■
Ronmm p,.r omnem cursltam mantquc '
Fe«lus .poatollcl nobis redit hie dies trlumphi
Haull a^ue I'etrl nobllla cru..re." "^
PETER, ST., APOSTLE, Fkotivals op.
Several festivals connected with this apostle
have long been observed in the church, the com-
memoiation of the martyrdom, in which he is
associated with St. Paul, of his episcopate,
commemorated on two separate days, and of his
imprisonment.
(i.) Tub Festival op St. Petek and
St. Paul.
• Yfy nistoryof Festival-k joint festival
ofbt, Peter and St. Paul, primarily and espe-
crnlly connected with the Roman church, can bo
traced back to the 4th century after Christ
The discussion as to the whole question whether
St. Peter ever visited Rome, and if so for how
oog, and the evidence for Rome having been
he scene of his martyrdom, will be found at
eogth under the article Popk. It may suffice
here to remark that Eusebius {Hist. jJccles. ii
2.1 cites Dionysius of Corinth, who, ,„ a letter
to the Horn, n churc/,, speaU of Peter and Paul
having aught m Italy and having borne witness
he truth «BTa TO,/ alnh^ Ka,p6p. Eusebius
(mte) also cites the Roman presbyter Caius
« testify ng to Rome as the scene^f th se
posies- t„umphs-^A. Yin g,^^ ^^^^/ «
T*- iKKKnaiav. The same testimony "s also
P™ V Tertullian {contra Marc.7y.l-,Z
We have said that a festival in commemora-
Later on we find among the works of <!♦
Leo three homilies {ffom. 8l84- vol f n qoi
m.\^^i^eriui),\he first of ^hLh w'eils o^
the double commemoration, the second refers to
bt. Peter aloue (relegated to the appendix hv
Quesnell, as partly spurious Darflv. ^
cento from the works of Sf i ? J ? ■"*'*
is for the octaw'th:'tw • p" lirVhe'he'f
■ng. however, being perhaps S^tgaun^e'^t
Sanctorum . . . Apostolorum," After anothl:
.llegiMe line comes the ides of Jn fy m'I
other festival of apostle is known to L^»
line to St^Peter and St. Paul (/^a^ro/'xii looo^
The calendar of Bucherius whi-h M /"V?"
dilTerent forns of the Mn^ u- "*'";»''■'"
Florus, Usuard. &c "*■ ^'"•""y"'' Bede,
a worl'^Vf'dis'tl'n'' M ' '\' ^P"^'""'' Constitutions,
a work ot distinctly kastern origin, makes m
dom. Pearson (Anval. Cypr In ann klr '^'''''
it may be the date of the ^an LZ' T,l '^'"'\' I*""'
i.1 I
n '
sU
n
•••I
I
1624 PKTEB, ST., APOSTLE
16 ; J'atrol. Or. lixiri. 189), to the effect that a
Roman aenator named Festus, being aent to
Constantinople on political matters, exhorted
that " the commemoration of the chief of the
apostles,'' should be held with great honour and
reverence." Theodorus adds that the festival
had been Itept at Constantinople before, but now
received a 'i-eat additional splendour (iro\A(p
fr\iov riv^rffOi} rfii toioi)tiji rh ipaiiphv
TaDYiyiptas). This is put in the reign of Ana-
stasius 1,, who died A.D. 518.
What credit we are to assign to the remark of
Theodorus, that a festival of St. Peter and St.
Paul had been kept at Constantinople before the
time of Annstasius I., or indeed to his whole
story, it is impossible to say. The absence of
liny homily for a festival, afterwards so impor-
tant, in the genuine worlis of St. Chryiostom, is
conclusive against any general celebration of the
festival in the East in his day. We may talie
this opportunity of adding that in the older
editions of St. Chrysostom (e.g. Saville, vol, v.
p. 991) was contained a homily, (is robs
Kopv(palovs ruv (iiroo'TdXuc Tlirpov Kod IlaiiAai'
Kal rh auT»>' fxapripioy ^i'8o|(Jtotoi'. The
spuriousness of this is, however, palpable ; and
Montfaucon contemptuously rejecta it (vol. viii.
p. 7, in svuriis).
Binterim (Denkm. v. i. 884) cites as evidence
for the early celebration of this festival in
the East a discourse of Gregory of Nazianzum
and one of Gregory of Nyssa. As regards the
latter, first published by Gtetser (Ingoldstadt,
16M), it is sufficient to say that it appears to
be certainly the work of Maximus Planudes
(see J'atrol. Or. xliv. 35). The former, delivered
in A.D. 381 before the hundred and fifty bishops
in Con^tantinople, does not appear in the passage
cited to have anything to do with the subject
before us, but to be a bidding farewell to a cer-
tain church in Constiintinople— Xaiperc, hr6-
(TTaAoi, ii Ka\i) fitTOiKia, oi ipLol SiSaaxoKol t^s
inV! iSK^iafois, tl KoX nh ir6\\aKts ifuv
iravriyipiaa (Orat. 42, c. 26; Patrol, zxxri.
489, where see note).
In the Eastern church at the present day the
festival of St. Peter and St. Pau? is, save the
9wo chief festivals of St. John the Baptist, the
only one not immediately connected either with
our Lord or the Blessed Virgin, included in those
of the first rank. The entry for the day in the
Menaea is rwv ayiui' ivS6ioiv iraviu<t)4itui!V &iro-
<TT6^a>v Kal irpaiTQKopu^aiaiv TlfTpou Ka\ IlauXav,
aud in the Greek metrical Ephemerides prefixed
by Papebrooh to the Aota Sanctorum for May
(vol. i. p. xxxii.) is T\ri ivdrji (rrauphv nirpos
fUdSt, Hop d ITavAor. The festival of June 29
occurs also in the Ethiopic and Coptic calendars
(Ludolf, ad Hist. Aeth, Comm. p. 420). Besides
this, Ludolf also mentions, but in the Ethiopic
calendar only, festivals of Cephas and Saul on
September 'J'2, and of Peter and Paul on June
19° and July 8 ; but it is possible that these do
not all refer to the two apostles.
>> The reading of the text Is here <n>v Kopv^amv dwo-
OToAov IlfTpov Kal navAov. Fur this VateflluB aiiff-
g •sletl Twi' aVoo-ToAwr Kopv^iov. referring the title to
8t. Peter only. His second siiggtetlon, to alter diroir-dAov
into dirooToAwi', seems morn reasonable.
« In place of the Feter and Paul of the Ktliloplo
Cidendur, the Coptic calendar gives the Pal)-iarch J'lter.
PETEB, ST., APOSTLE
In the calendar of the Armenian church givjn
by A,5semani (liibl. Or. iii. 1, 645 sqi|.), we (inj
commemorations of St. Peter and St. Paul on
June 29 and December 27, the former jx-ihaus >
Western importation in addition to an .ihwjr
existing celebration. There is also a cmnmirinj.
ration of Peter and Paul, who are,' however
perhaps not the apostles, on June 1.
In connexion with the twofold nature of the
celebration in the Uoman church, a difficulty am
been needlessly raised on account of n notii.> in
the Microlo:ius (c. 42; Patrol, cli. 1009), where
in a discussion on the rule to be observed on the
concurrence of two festivals in one day, it is
said that one may be postponed to the followini;
day, "as the holy pope Gregory decided to
observe the feast of St. Paul after the feast of
St. Peter." Now in the Gregorian sacramenwrv
after the heading, iVi. ialendas Jutii. Satjij
Petri et ParUi, comes the heading, priJie
kalendas Julii. Aatalis Sancti I'auli. A sutS.
cient explanation is given by Menard, that
originally the pope celebrated mass twice
on the earlier day, once in the church of St,
Peter and then in that of St. Paul, the
latter service being afterwards transferred to
the following day. The hymn of Prudentius we
have already cited speaks of the two masses as
said in different churches on the siime dar
(Peristeph. xii, 57, sqq.).
Confirmation is also to be had from the Gela-
sian sacramentary, where three masses are givtn,
besides that for the vigil, one for St. Peter/.r pi-it,
one for St. Paul proprie, and one for both apus.
ties ; all three, however, being for June 29. The
presumption naturally is that a mass was speciaiiv
provided for the service in the church of each of
the apostles, and a third for use elsewhere on
that day. On the above grounds, and considering
too that in the service for June 29 in the Gre-
gorian sacramentary the names- of the two apos-
tles are equally dwelt on, it is but reasonable to
conclude that the special commemoration of St,
Paul, whether held on June 29, as in the Gelasian,
or on June 30, as in the Gregorian sacramentary,
was due to the desire to give that apostle an
equal share of honour, the other commemoration
having been held in the basilica of St, Peter.
2. Liturgical A'oticea. — At the risk of a certain
amount of repetition, it will be desirable now
briefly to review the information derived from our
chief extant liturgical monuments. Beginning
with those of the Roman church, we find in
the Leonine sacramentary a series of masses,
in which the one apostle enters as prominently
as the other. One of the last of these has the
heading. Item ad Sanctum Paulum, in which,
however, St. Peter is mentioned co-ordinately
v» ith St. Paul. To the sacramentary of Gelssius
we have already referred ; we may repeat here
that we have a mass for the vigil of the apostles
Peter and Paul. This is followed by three masses,
one for each apostle proprie, and one for a conjoint
celebration. A number of forms are also given
for the vespers, and a mass for the octave of the
festival (lib. ii. 29, sqq.; Pairo/. Ixxiv. ll«(i).
In the Gregorian sacramentary is a mass for the
vigil, for the festival (Xntalk Pi^triH Pmili'],
■> It may be noted that Menard's Cod. RodradI re«!i
Natale Sancti Pftri, iind his Cod. Rhemensis, A'nfali
Sancti Petii.proprie. The earlier ofthese MSS.,howew,
is not earlier tbau tiie time of Uharlenugne.
PETER, ST., APOSTLE
tnd on the followin? day j. » „.„. , ,.
the octave (coI.lU.erf. ilM llZ " T' ^"^
hen. that ii some MSS of thl V"" ^^ ""'"^
mentary there i, a twofold v J , S'r "'^'•«:
being in the night (ih. col. 404) & A '""""'^
«..iphonary,the viVil bear, th^; name f'^St Tter
only, and so too the festival of June 2q rlil T
by the nativity of St Paul „n ♦! ' '""""'^d
Into this point, however wi nln T} ''"y-
'irthe'f r- 'P^ ri-eiS"
but no commemoration of St P»nl f T "
for the following day " '"''"=«*«d
We pas, next to the Gallican church In th^
ancient lect onarv rrj>ft;n„„,.- '";*-"• "i tne
(«..iii.. * «„,,; ii£.4'„K- :• III".
Patrol. Ixxii. 208). The MS J„I • P' ■ '
lectionary is assigned by M,-,b L to fh"'"^ *''l'
centnrv, which afone w/uKe wthat t fS
w. ^observed m Gaul under the mToSS
ullirSe'r-S'' Ktl^nfntt'f'" '"^^*^
a homih'of Avu..; Kf.""'?'!^»frn?n'ent
PETER, ST., APOSTLE 1625
14-25. ^^ P^' *' Matins is Johu xxi.
(ii.) T„B Fe^ivauiopthe Cathbdba P^rx
1. f.arl!/ ffistiry of Festiral, w
from this joint celebration IfVK'T^'' P"'" "o"
another very ane Lnf 1 »• ,*''l'''"' "1'"^''''' to
Peteronlv \r ?„* 'f"T*' «h'^h regaris St.
much
of a homilv of A;itus bi»ho,rV u* ^•^^'"^
condidit " (no. 6 ; P,it,vl lii 9qa '"'^"'""se
church of T"".y te;:„^t;:^r^i!V"53^
clo^r wes^TuVfi^d •*""'r'=' '* '-«'h^
t. Charlemag, e th 'retl;;; «. eUer of Catulfus
occurred, or whft sno«i»i ""'S'ect may have
been for urgh.g such a ' !?" it' • """r"^ '"'^<'
!ible to say ^ "'' '* " I"'** ™po3.
Msbillon's Gothico-Oallir. ™- i
wfersto the 8th centnrv »• ""''.."'''''='' ^^
torum Petri at pZl^J^-^r' » ^""o Sane-
Mnii 1.5-1 q 4 • V" »"'' Matt. iv. !«
Tho^^ii^/Ltrr^ !,t ^•■"'•'='' "^ »'■•'-
Cor. li IQ and ' "'"'^""» ^mArostfmum gives 2
W; /'.W. xvi 733{';t„fV''V/. c 19, § 121,
tuW v.was also read! tr'A^r'/JlV'
ohmhlfifra tt'd''" '''^; As-regar^-lh«
ofhisept;paIe,„ trh": w°" '" ^^is latter-,;
'ay, of hi, confe sion of ('h, ! """i "'"'"'' ' 'i^tly
declaration in ansTer (Mat '1^ IB*"" '"r*""^
iS^5y,itCu;;^„^rr'"'^'-'^-
en^h::£ht::;i!;^^^^-ii-,^
history From about ?h^ ^^^^ *' *" '*' "^a^'y
we constantly find tldavsh'' ""'"7 ""^^"^ds
the Cathedra pIm 7 ^ """""S "i« name of
, "IthourhT X 'tthT ' ""' ^''^^'"'"■y 22
quentlyabsent. These are tn™" 'l'"^' ""fr^-
I and «resuppo,eftt;tm':;lrStX'''.'-^;'^'*
several episcopate,. That St Ppt»; ^ Tl'^""
bishopofAntifl-chisma!nt.;„ I ^^'" had been
Leo, ^ho connecL the aTost e'rrf'^"""^' ''^
way with the two churches f.«n« • i- 'P'""'
in Antiochena et Rom,! ^ ^'^V^' ™»gisterio
Onr earlier notices" hoJl. '' ^^^^,' "^- '^»"«>-ini).
'estival. It ha, then o'/' "" "??' "^ " »''nK'e
the cause of the twofold * '=°"''"lerod what is
where did the ftstivri „ • " '"I?""''''*''™' «»''
As regard, the trnoinf''^ '*'=•' "^ "^o-
the West, from th abse ice^f^anvT ^'"'^> ^Y
a festival in the East nn^ 1 ?7 *''*'=* "^ such
which it can be t^^ed „" /"s'JIn"'- T^ ^''^ "'
church. AsregardTthefnM ?"'*''^ '^""""i
, «aybe given It uITm PT'' *^^'° ""'wer,
one"^ Roman fest™ fh? '' *''** """« being
I branched out into two tilT '=°'"">«n'oratioS
l^-esh impetu^to" tL"' .ra'u'nlSrg1h^'™« "
bered that our ea° hW ll' """'* ''^ ^^"'«'»-
CatMra Won Feb ^rT'? "'"'?'' ''^ '^e
tion of Rome or Tntfo.'h *'!'"« '» no men-
in Gaul, where he fot.Va h^d "^"^^^er taat
exceptional importance there „? apparently an
reasonable groinds for *!,• ,' ^',^' *' "ny rate,
I <•-" in January 111 Vhifi''''' ""> '■^^'"•''
I the conclusion^ haVthe Rom ** ?'^u" P""" ">
: churches observed the fir ." """^ *''* ^""'^"n
and afterwardrboth f hi "■"' "" "^"^"«"t d-'vs,
embodied in the sai oa eV;''™''"?''';«*'°"« ^"^
of Rome and Anrch "re trthV't,"^"'''^"''
account for the twofnM „ attempt to
although a wcightvoItpK TT'""""- lastly,
of the festival'tv' be^d tZM"'"^^^'^^^
absence from imoortant LI ""^ ""=* of its
Gelasiau sacrament^ry ,tmT •''''"■''^"'•■''- ">e
____^|^^ '"" »n important point
un;^^r,o'rs„-ror„'f''!L':;"^rr^
,;\fl
ft ' M^'
; M
4!
1626 PETER, ST., APOSTLE
the other way is that the first notice of the
festival occurs in a Homan calendar, two centuries
before any other notice is found. This' fact,
comliiniHl with the it priori liltelihooj that a
featival which 8j)ecially brought into prominence
the idea of the primacy of I'eter should talte its
rise in the Itoman church, may perhaps justify
us in thus striliing the balance of probabilities.
If so, it must however be admitted that the
Roman church did not at first bring the matter
iuto such prominence as at a later time.
We must now enter into the evidence seriatim.
Our earliest mention of the festival is t^iat in
the liucherian calendar, where the entry is viii.
k I. Mart, .\atule Petri dn Cathedra {j'atrot.
Ixxiv. h77). This is a rather peculiar use of the
word natate, but it is obviously equivalent to
festivitiis. In the calendar of I'olomeus Silvius,
which belongs to a.d. 448, we find on Feb. U'J
the entry, JJepositio S. Petri et Pauli, followed
by the words, " cnra cognitio, ideo dicta, quia
tunc etsi fuerint vivorum parentum odia, tem-
pore obitus deponuntur " (see Acta Sanctorum ;
January, vol. i. p. xlv). The reference in
the latter sentence is doubtless to the heathen
rite of the feralia or parentalia, celebrated
in the latter part of February, to which we
must again refer, and this may be illus-
trated by the entry for the day in the
calendar of Furius Diouysius Philocnlus, which
carries us bacit a century earlier, Caristia
(hollar, Anakct. Vmdobou. i. 963). As to the
meaning of the foi-mer clause, the ISallerini, in
their notes on a sermon of St. Leo for the
festival of St. Peter and St. Paul, suggest (vol. i.
498) that there was a confusion in Silvius's
mind with the great festival of June 29, aided,
it is hinted, by his observing a festival of the
Catlw'lra Pi tri on Jan. 18. It is evident, how-
ever, that we {'annot speak here otherwise than
very d(>ubtf>illy. What evidence the Leonine
calendar might have afforded us, it is impossible
to say, as the early part of the sacramentary is
wanting. The festival is passed over, as has
been already mentioned, in the Gelasian sacra-
mentary. It is given in the Gregorian sacra-
mentary as edited by Mt'nard (col. 29), though
not in the text given by Muratori. In most
>ISS. of the Gregorian sacramentary, the heading
is merely Cathedra Sancti Petri ; the Cod. Katoldi
prefixes in Antiochia. Some editions give in
lioiiM. This irregularity tends to confirm us in
our notion, that the special ideas of Kome and
Antioch are not of the original essence of the
festival, but introduced as an afterthought.
In the Ambrosian liturgy there is no recogni-
tion of the festival; but in the Gallican church
it must have had a rather exceptional promi-
nence, as in Mabillon's Lectionarinm l.umriensa
not only are lections provided for the festival
itself, but for three Sundays recltoned from it.
It does not seem clear whether this Gallican
feast is to be placed in January or February.
The much greater prominence of the festival of
the latter month in the West generally would
favour the view that the latter is meant. More-
over, Mabillon's Gothico-Gallic missal gives us a
mass for the day, which fiillniM that for the
conversion of St. Paul, whicn fell on Jan. 25.
An(!ther argument may be oerived from the
order of the second council of Tours (A.D. 5tj7)
forbidding offermgs of food to the dead on this
PETER, ST., APOSTLE
festival. This order we shall cite at lcn|{th
|)re8ently. It will be remembered that we hav»
already referred to the heathen practice n.i pre-
vailing at the end of February. On the othe,
hand, Mabillon reminds us thnt forms aie imlv
given for two Sundays after the Ki)iphftnv, nnil
also that after forms for three Sunday.s fnHnwinf
the Cat'iah-a Petri come those for the Iwijimiine
of Lent. This is clearly in favour of the .Jnimari'
date. There is also independent evidence tha*.
in Gaul the feast of the Cathedra Petri fell in
January. Mabillon cites from a Afart. (id.
loiiense, " xv. Ital. Februarii, secundum i!,vlos
cathedra sancti Petri apostoli." It will thus \x
seen that there are reasonable grounds for think-
ing that the Gallican festival fell in Jnnimry
but of course the cas" -s not sulKciently strong
to be at all pressed.
Be the matti-r ns it may, the ninjoiity of
martyrologies and calendars recognise the two
festivals. Thus in the Mart. lUeroniimiwn have.
"xv. kal. Febr. Dedicatio cathedrae sancti Petri
apostoli, qua piimo Komae sedit " ; and " viii.
kal. Mart. Natalis cathedrae S. Petri npostuli,
qua (edit apud Antiochinm." The. ninitvinlogv
of Bede has the festival in February, liiit (mlv
some forms of it recognise thnt in Jiinunrv.
Both are given in such martyroloj,ies as those of
Usuard., Rabanus Maurus, Notker, &c. Wnndnl-
bert, on the other hand, gives only tlie festival
of Feb 22, his notice for which is {I'atrol,
cxxi. 590) :
" Octavoque Petri cathedra et doctrina coniscnt,
Urbs lueta Autloclii quo primum praosule veuit"
Binterim, speaking of ancient German calendars,
remarks {Denkw. v. 1-M31) that but few recog.
nise the festival of Jan. 18. It was not till
the time of poi>e Paul IV. (ob. A.n. l.'i.'iii) that
it was definitely and authoritatively estnlilished.
2. Liturgical Xoticcs. — We have seen thnt
nothing is to be looked for from Roman litnrgies
before the Gregorian, some forms of which
give a mass for the Cathedra Petri on Feb. 22.
The notion of the festival is made sullicientlv
plain by words occurring in the service. Thus
in the collect we read : " Petro, collatis clnvibns
regni caelestis, anima.'i ligandi atque solvendl
pontificium trndidisti "; or again in the Pre-
face : " Petrum apostolorum principeni oh con-
fessionem Unigeniti Filii Tni . . . cnelestliini
claustrorum praesulem custodemque fecisti,
divino ei jure concesso, ut ([une statuisset in
terris, servarentur in caclis."
Attention has been already called to the fact
that in Mabillon's I.ectionariwn I.uxovimse,
lections are provided both for the festival of the
Cathedra Petri and for three Sundays reckoned
from it, Pie Dominico post Cathedram sancti
Petri, &c. (Mabillon du Liturijia GalHiana,
lib. ii. 119; Patrol. Ixxii. 181)1 The epistle
and gospel for the festival are respectively
Acts xii. 1-17, Matt. xvi. 13-19, John xxi.
15-19 ; the leaf of the MS. which contained the
prophetical lection is wanting. The mass in the
Gothico-Gallic missal brings out very strongly
St. Peter's confession as its central idea {op. cit.
lib, iii, 220 ; P'-?.v.Z, Ixxii. 181).
In the Mozarabic missal, which has the one
commemoration in February, the prophetic
lection, the epistle and gospel are respectively
Isa. xxxii. 1-19 (with several omissi-ni),
PETEB, ST, AP08TLB
1 Peter v. 1-0, Matthew ivi n.on rD^t t
I«„v. 7,8) The »„„,e K„,peV"a/;^ 3% 2t
the .Sa.ra,neHianu,n IkSmnum and the cZ, If
P»n.e.usi the epistle, in these I«.t leinKW
,p.cti>-ely I Peter i. 3, 4, and Heb. v. 1 „ "* ""
... M,sceM„u^o,,s AotUos.~\\e have rlftrred
.bore to th|. order of the o.,uncil of Tour, in
oonne.mn w.th this festival ; we shall now d "
parto he rule ,rt .,„e»tion. After protr,ti ^
.g..n.t the heathen abuses connected with hf
fe.u,.i.«tecJthedLd::!-„i,^r;S;)i'r
mortuis offerunt et post n,is8„ redeun e, ad
domes proprms, ad gentilium reve.tuntur err're,
et post Corpus Domini sacratn, daemoni esc^'
Mcjunt (can. 22 ; l..bbe, v. 863). "
to have lasted on n the ehur.'h <"„, „ i =f<-'"»
.nd,i„the a>th ce„tt;^^v„t',:efer:•
" '" 'f) «/^%»« to indicate its lone continu"
mc,{IM.d.v.off,. 8,^; P.ur.l. ccii. 87) He
goes so far as to describe the institution of the
1 ? 'aa'v tTa*^";;'""""' devoured, 'h^prof
S!i ^1, 7^ 1 "' """ <="'*""' was so deeplv
ri.i^L''S.r^i;:^;r:^?h:''^''''!^^
which those abo„,.;abnh;^;"ie'^rnV7th:
itelfeven on the Christian rite, " unde ethm nb
J.epu|,yestun,hoc«ppe,,„tJn,esttwrr^-
t^it\srs^LT:e?i„Thrc^''-
.ooden chair which^s asLrteli"* t E v'it"
£xAiit^/;^i^„.--iS
(iii.) T.m Festival of S. PerRi ao Vm-
^ . CULA, ETC.
Both the Eastern and the Wp«tom „i, l
times, it will be oblr^"- u^"'*''*'' o*" "«'•''«
un» Jh. V 1 ""^'"^ed. cnn be meant to renre.
PETER, BT., APOSTLE 1627
rnS':h?t'" £ :r j;'-^ f-'* »"" "^-
it. The Westp, n < ", "t"" '^'' '" """""'■y 0'
assoeated with ?he h'"' *'"" \^ """« ^'en
«P»»tl. wUound "by Ne"™ thf h "'"'' ""•
is "tnid" 1*, ""PP?"*'' 'lite of this event, nothing
vrobaiil <i^ , ';P"niannus and Surius Ufe
proftatw Sanctorum Hhloriis, vol. iv Ui\ . ,Z
Vatrcan Library and elsewhere, but, so far n!
ermonT'' " ^^ ""' bee,; printed. The
missld in f^'; """^ ^y ^' ^•""■n^rily dis-
«nathe,e,,„„,/J^„S^;^^et^^^^^^
treastd^u; '='''""'• ''^'^'''-d '<> "e m/ we^L'
(fincnse, the calendar of Buchpiina .„j /^
Leonine and Gelaaian .acramentaWr' Not dlt:
1 -; I
chain I ^ ' " " «> as to form one
1628 PETER, RT., APOSTLE
It occur in the Oallican or Moznrnbic lituri^lfls.
The reference to the dedicittiun cf a church
■polcen of aliove occura 0.7. in the Mart.
Aieroni/mi, " Komne, dodicntiu primae eccleiine
a beato Pi'tri' eonitructae et consecratne "
(though sonii! forms add, "et ahsolutio ejus n
vineulis "), the Martyrology of Hede, in some of
It! forms {I'lUriii. iciv. 1193), KabnnuB Maui us
(ii. ex. 1160), &c. The metrloal martyrolo){y of
Bede, it may be noted, omits the festival
altogether.
That this church, whatever may be its real
history, either was originally built in memory of
8t. I'etcr's imprisonment, or soon became asso-
ciated with that idea, may be inferred c;/. from
the heading lor the day in the Gregorian sacra-
mentary ad Sanctum Petrum ad Vincula.
Wandftlbcrt, in his metrical martyrology, tells
OS, " Corcere Homa Petrum celebrat vini;lis(iue
re<luctum " (Patrol, oxii. 60(1). The ancient
ifart. Oii'loru-nse gives (U'Achery, SpicUeifium,
ziii. 408), " lioma ad vincula catenas Sancti
Petri osculandas." Similarly Usuard. {Acta
Sarutornm, .Inly, vol, vi. 399), Notiter (Patrol
oxxxi. 1129), &c. The last-named writer, after
uiealting of the church erected by St. Peter as
the tirst in Kurope, adds that in this were de-
posited the chains from the prison in .lerusalem.
It may be next asked what grounds \ye have
for judging whether it is the Herodian or the
Neronian imprisonment that is referred to. On
this, besides our citation from Wandalbeit and
Notker, we may appeal to the Gregorian sacra-
mental y(i(( loc. ;col. 117, ed. Menard), where the
reference in the words "Qui beatum Petrum
apostolum a rinculi) abioltttum illaesnm abire
fecisti " is unmistakable. The homily assigned
to Bede (lib. iii. 96, de Vinculia San':ti Petri;
Patrol, xciv. 498) is spurious. This dwells on
the chains brought from Jerusalem and the
church built in Home in their honour by pope
Alexander I. It seems pretty obvious therefore
that the writers who have spoken of the chains
■8 those of Nero have merely wished to
strengthen the Koman associations. It may be
Worth noting that, besides the church of 5. Pietro
in Viiicoli on the Ksquiline hill, there is also
one of >S. Pietro in Carcero on the Capitoline, the
latter clearly referring to St. Peter's imprison-
ment at Rome, and thus more or less disconnect-
ing the former from that event. This church is
mentioned in the Gregorian sacramentary, ai
edited by Pamelius, under the Monday after the
first Sunday in Lent, in a note of the station, ad
Sanctum Petrum ad Vincula. Durandus {/.'at.
Dk: Off.vii. 19) combines both reasons as causing
the festival. On the whole of the above ques-
tion, reference may be made to Papebroch in the
Acta Sanctorum (June, vol. vii. 410) ; also Mon-
sacrati, Dissertatio de Catenis S. Petri ad Btne-
dictum, xiv. 1750.
The familiar English name for this day is
Lammas, probably a corruption of the Anglo-
Saxon Hlaf-m'tease, i.e. Loaf-mass ; seeing that on
that day the Saxons offered an oblation of loaves
made from new com (see Bosworth's Anglo-
Saxon Dictionary, and Strattmann's Diet, of the Old
English I.aniuagc, s.v. ///a/; Wedgewood,Z)ib<.o/
Enijlish Ktymology, a. v. Lammasy Thus, in the
Sarum manual, the day is called Benedio'ia
novorum Fructuum. Some have chosen to con-
■ider Lammas as a corruption of Lamb-mass, on
PETKR'8 PENCE
the ground that lambs were offered at thistlmt ■
and it has been nicntione<l that tonanM i.(' f[,j
chapter of the cathedral of Vork forinoily inlil s
live lamb on Aug. 1. There iloes not howc -cr
seem to be much authority for this lattur Tinw
though it is certainly curious that we liml |
Welsh name for the day, Dijdddeijxcm mjn, Umb-
tithing day.
Besides the above three festivals, we fin^l in
the Ethiopic calendar a commemoration of St
Peter on July 31 (Lndolf, p. 424), with ihitHv
the entry, Peter the A)ii,iitle. Also, in thj
Armenian calendar (Assemani, I. c), is the m ticj
under May 24, "the Hnger of the holy npustle
Peter," of the reference in which 1 am quite
unaware,
A considerable amount of apocryphal litinituro
has been associated with tliu name of St. IVter. A
passing notice of it may bo given lieri' : I'ur ,ie.
tailed information concerning it, rilVri'mt niay
be made to the several articles in the Vidiunitru
of Christian Biography and Literature. Kuscbim
{Hist. Eccles. iii. 3) mentions as works iiilwly
ascribed to St. Peter, his Acts, Gospel, rrMuhinj
{K'fifiuyna), and Apocalypse. The Go»)iel uf I'lier
is also referred to by Origen {C'oinin. in Mitt.
xiii. 55), Eusebius {/list. Eccles. iii, 25 ; vi. 121
Jerome {de Viris lllwtr. c. 1), Thcuiloret
{Ilaeret. Fabul. Compcnd. ii. 2). The luat-nn,iied
identifies it with the gospel u.<ed by the
Nazarenes. The Gospel and Acts of I'eti'r wers
condemned as apocryphal by a council heU at
Home in the episcopate of Gelaaius, A.n. 494
{Patrol, lii. 175). Besides Eusebius (/. c.)an,i
Jerome (/. c), the Acts of Peter are rt'ferri'J to
by Isidore of Pelusium {l^pint. lib. ii. 99 ; I'atrii.
Or. Ixxviii. 544) ; and, according to Philnstrius
{Hacr. 88 ; Patrol, xii. 1200), Acts of IVtor wew
in use among the Manichaeans. Acts of I'eter
and Paul have been published by Tiscliemlurf
{Acta Apost. Apoc. pp. 1, sqq.), and also Acts of
Peter and Andrew {Aiocal. Apoc. pp. 101 sqq.).
The Preaching of Peter is cited by Clement 0?
Alexandria {Strom, vi. 5, 15, &c.), Origen
{Cotninent, in Joan. torn. xiii. c. 17), Jiic. Hi«
Apocalypse is cited by Clement {£cl. Proph. 41,
48, 49), and in the Muratoriau canon it is clasted
with the Apocalypse of St. John, though it is
added that some are opposed to its being rend in
the church. An apocalypse of Peter, distinct
from the above, existed in Arabic, of which
there are MSS. in the Bodleian and Vaticsn
Libraries (Tischendorf, Apocal. Apoc. p. ix).
In addition to the above, another work, the
TlfpioSot nirpov, is mentioned, e.g. by .lerome
{ado. Jovin. i. 262), and is obviously the ssme at
the Itinerarium Petri condemned at the Human
council under Gelasius. Jerome also speaks {de
'iV. ///. c. i.) of the Judicium Petri, and
Kufinus {Kxpos. Symb. Ap. 38) mentions, among
books not canonical, that " qui appellatur Dnae
Viae, vel Judicium Petri." The extant Iragraenti
of the above works have been coUectcj, with
full information concerning them, by Hilgvnteld
{Nuvum Te.4'imentum extra Canonem recepivm,
Fasc. 5).
Two Syro-Jacobite liturgies, bearing the name
of .St. Pster, are given by lienaiidft {LiUy.j.Or,
Coll. ii. 146, sqq., ed. Frankfort, 1847). [R. S.]
PETER'S PENCE {Denarius Petri, Rm-
feok, &C.). It is sufficiently intelligible that thi
PETER'S PENCE
nrenae. of th« .ee of R„me, derived orfdn.llr
,n.Hly.rom the patrimnny .,f the ,{,„„„„ f,Xl
rlc, -houl.1 Hive ,,roved in«de,,unte to the pa, |
requirBment. as the .upreme pon.iir eradu. v
...um-l th« .U|.e.vi.i„n of the whole .LiTh-a
funcfou ■■ivolviDK a costly expenditure in every
couDtry that aokaowledKed hi. »u,>remac/
Anums other eiped.ent. for meotiDK hi, ,|„ii:
cu ty the tnhute known under the name of
Peters lenoo w.ia »yMem«tically levied in Kng
land (though ofhin d,»,M,ted and withheld) unt^l
.bullshcd lu 1534 hy Henry VIII. Thi. wa, a
tax of one penny on every hearth collected' at
the t™. of St. Peter and St. I'nul (June ''Q)
According to the statement of Leo m '(u'
^D.795-H,«) thetaxwaainatitXby^^^
kiog of the Mercians, in the year 787 out .f
gratitude to Hadrian I for that' pontiff^ "ho
rfzation of h,s plnn of dividing the province of
Uotorbnrv and establishing a new arihbisho ,ric
lJ''tiu ("'"^'"" '">J Stubbs, C<«.«ca' i"
♦55 S ubbs, Cmst. Ifist. i. 220). Acconiin'g «
the tra .t.on pro^served in the Life of 0(ra(p. 29)
ascribed to Matthew Paris and printed by Vats
a ong with his edition of the J/istoria M„wrnf
that writer (1640)_a tradition ret!iled-^with
.mplihoations by Wal.ingham (oJa Ahblt^
itona^t. S. AWa,u^ ed. Kileyf i. 5)J)ttaft e
grant ns an acknowledgment of extensive im-
1!ITJ\F'T^'° l\' -^^vly.founded mo,^^.
tery of St. Alban's. The above Life of Offi, '
however to «o great an extent fabulous, that
this statement .s hardly entitled to any credit
A more trustworthy account of the origin of
hi tax ,s probably that given by William of
Mslmesbury who says that it was institutrd "n
the year 8o5 by king Ethelwulf, on his visit o
fr:.' £l"!:'ir"''' -«.■»' !» "turn for t
PRTnrrs 1020
land during hi, reign (Selden, Append, to Kadmer
p. m I Lantr. App. ed. Giles, So! x.). [J. U in
VH. Horn. Mart.; UoU. ^c<a ^6' M j. vii^ioj.'
PETRUS [For the Festival, of the Apostle
A:.a!:^^i^irff af ni.-urr^^'^'-l
the standard-boa er O,/ Z trV,""!'*'"'''*
A bsahnus. Balsamus. ^ cfr m. 'ra^. T a^r's'
(Usuard Sart. ; Florus, Mart. «p. He . Co/
WWBasil. W), A J;n:r;Jan!'/i'(;&
St^Bai!!'''"''' "^ ^''"'" '" Armenia, brother of
M.rtvr V '="'"'"f'""^''t«d J«n. 9 in the Koman
at«[^e"sirrrt"hi":r '^ '^°
Jan. I. SH8). The Cat. Armen. places Peter a. A
uiJaTir '""'°'" °^ ^^-'» '" ^™-^'
AfinSS-ii-ar^l'lSrr
(4) Martyr; commemorated Jan. 12 ((hi
B'^ant.). The name occurs on th"s day S
, .,, -. . . _.„ „^„ui. 111 reiurn tor the ,.v
honourabe reception previously accorded to his , ^f > ^^''^'ned Telokarics, martyr under
WD Alfred by Leo IV., who had also anointed the -^""'"""^ ! commemorated '- - -" -^ - "*'
latter kinir: " Homnm „ :» '".cu wie jfe-,^, . d„ii j .. ,,, ,
Jf.«a.. • Boli.XiriSrjan'ii.'aT'- ^'""'' '
(6) Martyr ; commemorated Jan. 22 (Cal
fv^an<.); a Petrus of Valentia occurs on thia
day in Hieron. Mart.). t""
(7) Jailer martyr with Awnias, presbyter
and seven soldiers, in Phrygia under Diocletian •
.irlf.rJ'T.;^"?''^"'*.'? Syria, comm-
!...„. I • ' <Ti> ■' """ "'™ anointed the
ater king: " Komam, composite regno ahlit-
ibique tributum, quod Angtia mI Mt
»noto Petro obtulit coram quartrUonrpla'
quiefaraanteafilium ejus ad se missum h;;^":
rihce susceperat. et regera inunierat" (Qcst
Ii,tmAngl.hk. ii. ed. Hardy, p. 152). "The
after Ae helwulfs return to England, by what
W calls a commendatory epistle, in wMeh
ae or. ereU three hundrjd maacuses to be sent I ^''' *'^'' ''"'™» anchorite in Syria • comm-
annus ly to Rome, one-third of which the pone T'^^^^ •''"^- ^7 {Cat. By^ant. ; &a °Tn
himse . was to have, the remainder to be equdlv ^"'"^ ^^- •''">• "• ^Vl). ^ ' ^''' ^^^
distributed between fli« «k. l » „. '""v ,a\ n ^ . ■
(8) Galata, anchorite near Antioch ; comme-
mor^ated Feb. 1 (^Menaea, BoW. Acta' SSvX.
(10) Twenty-firat patriarch of Alexandria-
S'T""^ Feb. 13 and Oct 29 (cS.'
(11) Chamberlain of Diocletian, martyr with
Dorotheus and Gorgonius, commemorated at
Nicomedia Mar. 12 {Hieron. Mart.; Usuard
f roe', w' ir.'^^f^ ^"- ^<"<"S5 ri
11. 106 ; Wright, Syr. Mart.).
(la) Martyr in Africa; commemorated Mar.
14 {Hwron. Mart. ; Usuard. MaH.).
(13) Deacon, martyr with Hermoganoa; com.
mcmoratcJ at Antioch Ap. 17 (y/i«-on MarT.
2^;u^dbet;;;^ti.;huX^W:^i:
Oee^al.0 Haddan and Stubbs, O^ndh, Hi
In northern Europe, this tax was not inati-
tnted until much later: in Denmark, in the
re.gnof Cnut; in Norway and Sweden by the
^rdinal-lj-gate Nicholas, in the years 115^
lo3 (Walter (F.), Kirchenrecht, sec. 198> Abou't
the same time the payment appears to have
b»n granted by Haraid, earl ot" Orkney! from
^'u-m, 111. ^00). ihe tribute appears to havo
fceen acknowledged as the pope's due by WilHam
the^ueror^ though irregularly paid in £
J !f ' ^'\ '*''"" '"'""■"on of the tax by kine Ine
s^^iTe^r^'fri^rn.;'^"''''-'^-™''
(14) Thaumatnrgui, « our holy father ; " oom.
memorated May 3 (Basil. Menol.).
•I;
m
.m
m.
ii '
J
1880
PHAINA
(10) Martyr with P>ulu>, AndrRS*, and »
virgin Dionyiiia ', commrmorateil at Lampaacut
May l'> (//iinm. Miirt. ; Kliiriis, iturt. 8|i. lied. ;
Uiuitrd. Mart.); May 18, I'utrus Lampaaicuus
and DiiinyHiua, inartyrt (CiU. Jtytant. ; iMiiiol,
Cud. Litunj. iv. 1^59 j Bull. Acta US. Mai. iii.
462).
(16) Exurciit, martyr with Marcellinus prei-
byter at liuinn ; cuiiiiiieini>rated Juno 2 (Usuard.
Waud. ; Vet. Kfin. Mart, j Huron. Mart.).
(17) Preabyter ; commeninratcd Juoe 7 at
Cordova, with Avcntius, iUeremiaa, and other>
(Uaunrd. Mart.).
(18) Athouittt, " holy father," anchorite of
Mount Athos ; commemorated June 12 (Daniel,
Cud. Litunj. iv. 2til ; lloll. Acta mn. Jun. ii.
635).
(19) " Our holy father " ; commomorated July
1 (Basil. Mtnul.).
(20) Martyr; commemorated at Philadelphia
In Arabia Aug. 1, with Cyrillua, Aquilo, and
others {llleron. Mart. \ Uiuard. Mart. ; Vet.
Som. Mart.).
(21) Martyr with Julianua and others at
Rome ; commemorated July 7 (Uauard. Mart. ;
Vet. Horn. Mart, with Juliana instead of Julia-
nua; Boll. Acta SS. (ul. ii. 187).
(28) Soldier, martyr with Marcellinus, tribune;
commemorated Aug. 27 at Tomi {Ilieron. Mart. ;
Uauard. Mart.); both names in the sacramentary
of Qelasiua for June 2, being named in the collect
and the "aecreta," but not in the post-com-
munion (Murat. Lit. Bom. Vet, i. 646).
(23) Bishop of the Capitolei, martyr ; comme-
morated Oct. 4 (Basil. Menol. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Oct. ii. 494).
(24) Martyr at Seville ; commemorated Oct. 8
(Usuard. Mart; Bolland. Acta SS. Oct. iv.
273).
(25) Martyr with Theodosius, Lucius, Marcns,
all soldiers of Christ, under Claudius ; comme-
morated at Rome on th« Via Salaria Oct. 25
(Usuard. Mart. ; Bed. Mart.).
(26) Of Alexandria, "holy martyr, our
father " ; commemorated Nov. 24 (Cal. Bijzant.) ;
Nov. 25 (Basil. Meru)l. ; Usuard., Wand.. Bed.
Mart. ; Vet. Rom. Mart.). In Uieron. Mart, a
Petrus occurs without place or designiition on
Nov. 25, and a Petrus commemorated at Alexan-
dria on Nov. 26.
(27) Martyr with Stephanus junior and
Andreas ; commemorated Nov. 28 (Basil.
Menol.).
(28) Martyr with Indes and Gorgonius ; com-
morated Dec. 28 (Basil. Menol.). [0. H.]
PHAIXA, one of eight virgins martyred with
Theodotus; commemorated May 18 (Basil.
Menol.). [C. H.]
PHANON. [Fanon: Maniple.]
PHANURIUS. martyr, honoured in Rhodes
and Crete; his miracles described by an anonymous
author of the 8th century, according to a Vatican
MS. ; commemorated May 27 (Boll. Acta SS.
Mai. Ti. 693). [C. H.]
PHILBAB
I IIARKNSE OONUiLIUM. [Whitdt.]
rHAUMACY. [Maqic]
PHAROS IN ART. [Lioiithouse.]
PIIAUOH, a term occunini; coatinusllf
among the papal giftn in the /.Hx-r I'untijm.i/is ,',{
Anastasius ami elsewhere, to desi^'iiale ilic |iir;«
ohnnduliera auspended by chainn, or tlic Alnivling
caucllesticlis In churches. " I'harus c.t iiwijm
lychni Hen candclabri vel lucernno j;eiius tinna-
latitie a I'haro Alexandrina i|uae cle iincte nnri.
l{aiitibus adinci'bat" (Alleserra, \ot. iu Anaa'at,
§ i;l, tin. 45). We find them constnirtcil ,'(
gold, silver, and brabs, ornamented witli linlphiaa
(§ (39), circular like crown (§ :i4), iu the shajw
of a cross (§ l;)70), of network (§ 415) revolving
(§ 42:1), From holding wax caiidleH they vfn
called ccreoitata (§§ 57, 19ii), and from the vup
or basin which »urroundod them }i/iar(x;ii,tf,an
{ibid. 136). Those in St. Peter's were i.iily
lighted four times h year, at Chriiitnias. tji.stcr,
the festival of SS. Peter and Paul (June Jil),
and the Natalia Fapae {ibid. 320). [t, V.j
PHASIC, martyr with his daughter, a nun;
commemorateu April 14 (Basil. Menul.).
[0. H.]
PHELONION. [Paenula.]
PHERBUTHA, sister of bishop Simeon,
martyr ; commemorated Ap. 5 (lianil. Mfiiul.).
The Bollandists assign Pherbutha or Tarbulj,
Persian martyr, to Ap. 22 from \'aticaii ami
Venetian MSS. (Acta SS. Ap. iii. 19). [C. H.]
PHIALA, the fountain, or laver, in tht
atrium, at the entrance of cliurches, .so cicsi;-
nated by Paulus Silentiarius in his dejcriptiuQ
of St. Sophia (ii. vers. 177) [C'antiiarl'S;
Fountain]. In Gear's Eua/ioloijium (j). 449)
we Hnd a prayer for the water of holy baptisra,
if Tp ipuiKrj ToO utaavKou rfls iKKKrialas,
P/iiala is used by Anastosius for a golden kisinor
cup-shaped lamp, rising from a cluster of por-
phyry columns in the middle of the font, in th«
Lateran baptistery, lighted up only at Kaster-
tidi, and burning balsam with an asbestos wick
(Anastns. Vit. S. Silveatri, § 30, lin. 51).
[E. v.]
PHILADELPHU8 (1), martyr ; cowmemo.
rated Feb. 8 (Basil. Menol.).
(2) Son of Vitalius, a praefect iu Italy, martyr
with his brothers Alphaeus and Cyrinus ; com-
memorated May 10 (Basil. Menol.). [C. H.]
PHILAGRIU8, bishop of Cyprus, martyr
with Marcianus bishop of Sicily and Pancratiui
bishop of Tauromenium, all disciples of th«
apostle Peter ; commiinorated Feb. 9 (Basil.
Menol. I Boll. Acta SS. Feb. ii. 277 "ex Jle-
naeis "). [G. H,]
PHILANTHES (Philanthus), martyr at
Amasia; commemorated Aug. 18 (Wright,
Syr. Mart.). [C H,]
PHILARETU8 ELEEM08YNARIUS,
native of Paphlagonia, under empress Irene;
commemorated Dec. 2 (Basil. Menol.). [C. H,]
PHILBAS, bishop of Thumis, martyr with
Philoromus and others, a.d. 304 ; commemorated
r»h. 4 ( Vet. R(,m. Mart. \ Ku»«b. n K .tU
10, M Mart. Au.t. ; SI. n,i. , L\l A tafi
Ftb. i. 46aj Rom. Mart.). [C H]
PHILIP
1631
rttol reb. 14 (lUml. Meml.).
(I) Martyr with tha de.«on Apollonlu. .t
Antinou. in KKpvti conunen.or«t«>l Mar. 8
(Liuard. i/,ir<.)i Dec. 4 (Ha.il. J/,„o,. .. „„,, °
b''/r V '^,';\'* <^'^- ^i'-'""- Dane!
Cod. Litunj. ir. 277). ' """""•
(5) Native of Rome martyr with Domnu.;
oominemuratod Mar. 28 (IJasil. Menol.).
(4) One of nine martyrs of Oyilcua- mm
m.m»r»te>l Ap. 29 (Itaa. Menol.).^ '
(ll)"AiK«tle," and hla c.impanioni- comm.
niorateil Nov. 22 (Cal. flywy.). ' "''"""••
(6) " Mile. " disciple of the apo.tle Paul ;
mnyr with Arohippu. at Choni near Laodicea
in Ihrygja; commemorated Nov. 23 tQ^n
Html.). ^^, ^^ •
PHILETAERU8. native of Nioomedia, .„n
rf Tat.auu, ex-praetect, martyr under Dioclc-
tiin; coiimiemorated May 19 /Baeil J/«J ,
Boll. Acta SS. Mai. iv, 312^ J^ari.if "^^ '
PHri.ETUS, eeuator, martyr with hii wife I
Ljrd.aaml his eons, under Hadrian; commemo- '
Mriifj87r""-'''^-'"""'^5?5-
PHILIBERTUS fFiL.DEBTUs), abbat In the
We of Henum ,n Gaul ; commemorated Aug. 20
(Usuard. Mart. ; Fioru., Mart, ap Bed ■ Lll
Ada SS. Aug. iv. m). ^ ^^^ 5°"-
W. Of the life of this apostle, beyond Xlis
U-Id us in the New .'estament, but iTttle s
nown, and in much of this theri is a co fusion
be ween the anostle and hi, namesake &«;
Cement of Akxandrm tell, u, {Strom, ul^^:
ated by husebins, Hist, f.ccli's iii 'inlX 1
Philip had children, and that h 'g. ^his ]aujh
Writ;? T::'h^^ »'- K^therrrom't'hS
wnter (,o. iv. 71) that Philip was not one of
those whose life', work wai crowned ht .
martyr's death All this i. possib cTnolh 'but
the remmk, of Polycrate, 8,!p«rently indfcate a
confus,„n between the two Vhilipa. ^ He ,"**l°
(.p. Kuseb. Ifist. Ecde,. iii, 31- cf v ^\ r
Philip as falling asleep at Hierajclli ; ^' 12^
M two daughters who remained virein, to oM
being thusseparated from the other two)? whT
after {, Ay(.f rv,i^ar, iroKntvaafiiyr,, lav at re,t'
Lfofir'"'A'u'''"'='' P'"''' ^^" their tnntand
S AcuT^fl''^!- O" ^o-nporing these notices
win Acts HI. 8, It can hardly be doubted that
we have somewhat varying forma of ♦r«,ii!-
to the persons there m'entl„Xmo're Cd!:,?;
^Pyt^^hT^ J%^^^
that he like n,.,.t of thn apostles. ha,l , o ,,,edal
«m individual oommemoraL.n til c.^.^ V • ,v
wnere ht. Philip is as a rule asso.ialed with St
.lames the Less on May 1 ar,. ♦»>« li. / ■
llie,:nu,ni, the me ri! , 1 mi, tr, w'?/';'.'''!''*
«".i the Gelasian, O.eg,"" n « 7^ "L '
sacramentarie.. In the Lt f th ' ^'"'"^""'"n
St Philip is eomme,ra^::;\:;[l^^t:'~
i ..tie. a7 ke'f " ''" """" '" '^' •'»
n intles at the beginn ng— '• A'.i/ M,,;: J„
emtate Hierapoli ^^rovinciae Asiao; : ;,„it^
1 hilippi ap.„toli." On April 22, St I'hi U
witrsrs:!"'' '"°"'" "" *'7 •• m c', •«»
with 8t. James, « mention of IIierai.ol|» beins
• r"th«T '"•"."Kl't i" (^'""•"'- "..'4.7, 4«?f
for the notices m Uede and elsewhere, where th.
m^u . .K '. ^''Jun'tion. reference may b«
to the Roman liturgies, nothing need here b^
added. We must note, however that TZ\^
eient Galilean forms published by Mat l,onLk;
w« he recognised in the Mozarahic fnissai '
On passing to the east, we no longer find the
two apostles associated. In the Uv, .•
Cn endar. St Philin (1 s^ 1 "J^""''"*
Sd thi'n"'"""""!:""""* ^'" N"vem.,e7T4
Oc fer 11 ThT" ••''""f ^'"""""""rated on
broch to the^o<a &,n,:t„rln for Mat i«
rl,^\ v*"* ^alandars of the Ethiopic and
Coptic churches also, November 14 i" thp Zt
n..m.r.i.J .„ N.„mb„ li* tI,. ''Si K;
rniiip, the Deacon and Apostle "
A certain amount of pseudonvmon. li#«,»*
-associated with the nrme of 6' Phil p but" it
a^^ ti;oft"h™>"^ ''"'* r^^"«'" whe?he'r"*he
apostle or the deacon is the person intendml w!
Act, ;f Phil,-:^ '" "J" «■"»"« the Onostica.
held ifR^^'TnX n'Tn";' '/. *•" ^-""'
of Silasiu,7/'«^?J^n/l"8'orl!'"- *'■* ^P[''^°P«t«
hrve-?een p^btlied 4''d; VrUit X'""^.^*^
Act, of the Apostles). Vhl, i,?d UeX' T*"^
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1632
PHILIPPA
St. Phi'iip, reference may be made to Hensche-
nius (Acta Sanctorum ; May, vol. i. pp. 7 sqq.),
Binterim {DcnkwUrJigkeiten der Christ-M/mli-
tc/wn Kin he, v. 1, pp. 365 sqq.). August!
{DeiikwUidigkeiten cms der Christlichen Archaologie
iii. pp. 201 sqq.), etc. [R. S.]
PHIIjIPPA, martyr with her son Theodo -us
at Perga in Pamphylia; commemorated Sep. 21
(Basil, Menol.). m. H.]
PHILIPP0P0LI8, gee Sardica, COUNCIL
OP.
PHILIPP0P0LI8 (Council of), a.r. 347-
8, was held at the town so called on the Maritza,
to the north-west of Adrianople. It was com-
posed of seceders from the council of Sardica ;
and as all the documents put out by them were
dated from that place, and believed "generally to
have emanated thence, they will be best con-
sidered under that head. The documents pecu-
liar to it are given in Mansi, iil. 125 et seq.
[E. 1 Ff.]
PHILIPPU8 (IX commemorated with Her-
mogenes, martyr, and othera, Jan. 24 (Cal.
By ant.).
(2) Bishop of Gortyna, in Crete, under the
Antouines; commemorated Ap. 11 (UsOard.
Mart. ; Vet. Som. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Ap. ii.
12) ; the V. R. M. mentions a bishop Philippius
at Gortyna also on Oct. 8, without period.
(8) One of the seven deacons of Act. vi. ;
natalis at Caesarea June 6 (Usuard. Mart. ; Vet.
Som. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. June 1, 618 ; Phi-
lippus, in Africa, for thii day in Uieron. Mart.) ;
Oct. 11 {Cat. Byiant; Basil. Menol.; Daniel,
C/d. Liturg. iv. 271).
(4) Martyr, with six brothers, under the
Antonines; commemorated July 10 (Usuard.
Mart. ; Bed. Mart. ; Hieron. Mart.).
(8) Commemorated at Alexandria with Zers,
Narseus, and ten infants, July 15 (Usuard.
Mart. ; Hieron. Mart. ; Boll. Acta. SS. Jul. iv.
27).
(6) Martyr with Strato and Eutychianus at
Nicomedia, under Aurelian ; commemorated
Aug. 17 (Basil. MenoL). Wright's Syr. Mart.
has Philippug and four others at Nicomedia
under Aug. 1.
(7) Bishop, previously a praefect, father of
St. Eugenia, virgin (Basil. Menol. Dec. 24);
martyr at Alexandria ; commemorated Sep. 13.
(Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Som. Mart. ; Acta SS.
Sep. iv. 52).
(8) Bishop, commemorated with Eusebius and
Hermes at Adrianople, Oct. 22 (Usuard., Wand.,
Hieron. Mart. ; Wright's <Si/r. Mart. ; Boll. Acta
88. Oct. 9, 545, from a FuldaMS. ; Mart. Som.).
The Marl. Som. and Acta SS. p. 523 assign this
day also to another Philippus, a bishop of
Firmum. [c. H.]
PHIIiO, bip?^op of Calpae, commemorated
with Hermogcnes, Menas, Philip, &c. Jan. 24
(Ca!. Suxant. : Boll. Acta SS. Jan. ii. 593).
[0. H.]
PHILOGONIUS, " our holy father," bishop,
fonuerly pleader, commemorated Dec. 21 (Basil.
PHILTRE
I Menol.) J Dec. 20 (Surias, De Prob. Hint T)«.
298). [0. n^'
PHILOLOGUS, one of the seventy ; com-
memorated Nov. 4 (Basil. Menol.). [c. H.]
PHIL0MENU8, of Lycaonia, martyr at
Ancyra under Aurelian ; commemorated Nov
29 (Basil. Menol.\ Mart. Som.); PiiiuiMi:.M.ri
(Cal. Byzant.). [(;_ y j
PHIL0MINU8, martyr at Heracles in
Thrace, with Clementinus and Theodijlius • com
memorated Nov. 14 (Usuard., Wand.; hieron
Mart. ; Mart. Som.). [(;. h j '
PHIL0NIDE8, bishop and martyr at
Curium in Cyprus, under Diocletian ;' com-
memorated Aug. 30 (Boll. Acta SS. Aug vi
544, " ex Graecis MSS."). [c H.] '
PHILONILLA, martyr with her sister
Zenais, both of Tarsus, relations of St Paul •
commemorated Oct. 11 (Basil. Meyiol.; Mart
Som.). (-(.jj-j-
PHIL0R0MTJ8, tribune, martyr with bishop
Phileas at Thmuis ; commemorated Feb. 4 ( Vet
Som. Mart. ; Mart. Som.) ; at Nicomedia Jan 8
(Wright, Auct. S:,r. Mart, in Joum. Sar Lif
1866, 423 ; Jan. 12 (Notker). [o. H.]
,^}^^^P^^^^^^ was, according to Jerome
(Eptst. 61 ad P,immach.), a name given by the
Origenists to those who believed in the resur-
rection of the same identical flesh and bones
which were buried. They also called such be-
lievers "pelusiotas, luteos, animales, caineos"
(Hieron. Epist. 65 ad I'amm. et Ocean.), as not
having attained to the things of the Spirit. The
word in)\ouiMa>Toi is explained by Jeiome him-
self (Comm. in Jerem. xxix. p, 407) to mean "in
iuto istius corporis constituti." As the nick-
name was Alexandrian, there may be some allu-
sion to Pelusium, the force of which is lost
(Bingham's Antiq. 1. ii. 17). [c]
PHILOTHEL [Monastery, p. 1219.]
PHIL0THEU8, martyr with Domninn.
and others under Maximinus ; commemorated
Nov. 5 (Basil. Mend. ; Mart. Som.). [C. H.]
PHILTRE. The early Christians fnlly
admitted the alleged power of magic to excite
love or hatred, though believing themselves to
be protected from its influence. Thus in the
Clementina Appion is made to say that, when
hopelessly enamoured in his youth, he " fell in
with a certain Egyptian thoroughly versed in
the arts of the Magi .... who freely taught
hia the charm (^irawSi^i'), by means of which
he was snccessftil " (Hotn. v. 3). Gregory
Nazianzen tells us that the legendary Cyprian
in his endeavours to corrupt Justina, employed
the services of a daemon "whose reward was
sacrifices and libations and that close relation
which is established through the blood and the
odour from the victims" (Orat. xxiv. § 10).
"Many women," says St. Chrysnatnm, "that
they may become attractive, employ incsnts-
tions and libations and philtres, and ten thoasand
other contrivanceii " (Horn. 24 in Ep. ad Son,
§4)
PHOENIX. It is not
trace the itory of the pho,
nect It with the Simureh t
reached Rome through Gr
•cconnt ii. 73). U i, ,
^ medal. „f Hadrian, i
ftn»,C«nst«n.s «nd Consta
It Heft, p 95, and tab. iii,
»«»W easily be adopted in
u^einb!.:r,.-,fth=Rc.sun
» Id connect it with the p
t«h.n on the Resurrection
»iere he quotes Ps. xoii.
■*»«. the tree, and the bin
PHLEGON
Faith in Christ was a sufficient shioU .„ • »
mch dart, of the wicked one- but Th.?? °'!
t.11. «. of an instance in whfcV thf Ji a.^,::
power of a sa.nt wa. o,,p„,ed to the^ A
woman of rank, whose husband waa nnfTi'.Kf i
to her con,pl«ined to Aphr^rhat hfhad
been "bew.tched by aome artifice of fflLfe -
The saint » by prayer destroyed the powe^^f ♦.;
.nchantment, and having hallowed ^a Ta" of oi
brought bv her, d recteil that *i,« u I ■' , ""
be anointed with it "'(1*^ ^1,^8^' """"'
Constantine, in 321 niRilo . i»„ •
wK "furnished witlV Z^'' X"iT --'.T
nded of having perverted chaste minds to lust '"
(Cod. IX. xvill. 4, /;<; J/a„Kl). yy- th° ■
.ppeared among professed' drisS T. "Z
period, a severe penance waa imposed. "Si a^I
pro amore venefic.um fecerit, et neminem perd
dent, tres annos poeniteat- iin„m ; ^
mMus. Ital. i. 392). The oM R^^^^' °''"'"-
n. . iis: ,"•"■)• ineold Koman poeniten.
to "SI ,|u,s pro amore maleficus si^ 1
mmineni perdiderit : ai laicu^ «* ^' ^- ^*
P<.niteat; si clericu^ annum uL^VS't"^
pane et aqua : si diaeonu. t..„. P"=niteat in
U et aVa; si'rrTa n "^^"2 •"
In the 9th centurv, biahon. >» »k ■ • . '*''■'•
inquired "if therl' wLTSy Han wr""""
fe.«d that she could by ce"^;:^".: of'^wircT
cr.fl and moantations change th^ ZiZ c
f«r«,o„ •■... soas to turn thef from* ZTed t°o
love or from love to hatred . . Haec t„lu
ommmodis ex parroechia eiiciatni'- /p • '
d^Dimpl. Sccl. k V. 46) "^ fw^t^^^j''
PH08TERIUS 1633
"Ilegory, all connect the Eastern and n u
■maginations with the cenLw?k x. , ^^^^
(2) Bishop of Sinope, martyr under Tr.l.„
commemorated July 14 Vusuard ^^* \f*-'*"'
Bed. Hart ■ Vet ffnl ^ J / . '• ^"CAS;
Boll. S '5I iuf7 6^9 V ^'"'S^'""-
Greek M8.) ; July 22 /dS ^r^ ?. Vatican
264)- Inlr M <<{ -s-ftUamel, Cod. Laura, iv.
.ndcUll 1/ '"""^ ^P'- 22 (Basil. k«<,/.
^' [C. H.]
raOCE commemorated with lren«,„. Oct. 7
■ [C. H.]
Md medal, nf H. 1 " '^P""*''**'! on coin.
Pi»^ cTns an" liT\ ^''""»"''' Antoninus
wonMcoanect it with f\'"''"!=*''""' ""*'"» "n"
-^'^.tUandU'iVliS^rtythS!
"■'~";/""'^-'-' «•'«-. <«.«.,.. rp.«M.,
a^rrr-^'jtance, it hears the
(Bottari, tav. ,x*^ /, ^^\""^ <"> the pnlm
"...rrection it -^ etn!,T '',^''«»»h and
(Clemens Romanu l^^ t ,;"*J? •'"''"'■™
«• 25). It is found in fho'^' "^C"'^""^'ans,
and Damianua at Rom. !.'"•'' "^^^S. Cosmas
Sott?;r.;^%.% ^/,^, f-h^eot^e'te
aTo:?;e"„f*''t\^olii£%h1'f """'t """ ^f"
cross, the latter w^Ih.' °™" ''«'»'"K ^i.
the palm-trees and phoenirthr^ ''^"^ '"" '
I-mb below as in ath 'miriilrj „U''
-m.nem. (,s«e Woodcut.) [R. gt. j. -f -i
PH0NA8CU8. [Pbecentor.]
« fS"%2.?iot"2nn-r ^
"exMenaeis-J. ^- ''*°- 1> 288,
^ [C. H.]
n:>;
. '("'I
::«
1634
PHOTAGOOIOA
PHOTAOOGICA (fpuTayayiitd) are ihort
Troparia, relerrin^ to God as giver of light)
useil iliiriiii; Lent in the Greek olBoes (Neale,
East. Ch. liitr. p. 924). ■ [C-]
PHOTIDKS, martyr; commemorated Mar.
20 Basil. Menol. ; UoU. Actn tiS. Mart. iii. 80).
[C. II.]
PHOTINA, Samaritan woman who conversed
with the Liird (St. .lohn iv.) ; commemorated
Maich 20 (liasil. Miiwl.; Uoll. Acta SS.
Mart. iil. 80). [0. H.]
PUOTIUS, martyr with Anicetus at Nico-
meiiia iin.lcr Diocloti.in ; commemorated Aug.
12 (lSn.sil. Afciwl. ; dil. Djzant. \ Daniel, Cud.
LiUtr.i. iv. 2D.'j ; AUirt. llm. PllOTlNCS ; Wright's
S,r. Afart. gives a Photiiis at Nicoraedia with
Archelaus and Cyrinus under Mar. 4), [C. H.]
PHYIiACTEKY. Any thing might be so
called to which a [irotective power, not due to
natural causes, was ascribed. Thus Gregory of
Rome in 60;i sends to king Adulovald " phylac-
teries, i.e. a cross with wood of the holy cross of
the Loril, and a lesson of the holy Gospel
inclosed in a Persian case " (Ef. Jiii. 7 ad
Theudel.). Gregory himself wore suspended
from his neck " phvlacteries of relics '' (.loan.
Diacon. in Vita Greg. iv. 80). [LlOATUBAB.]
But the term was chieHy applied to written
charms, and of these we propose to speak now.
The use of " phylacteries " is frequently con-
demned without explanation, as by the council
of Laodicea, probalily in 365, which forbids the
clergy to " make lat are called phylacteries,"
by Kpiphanius, 368 (Oe Fide, 24), by St. Eligius,
640 (/A' Rc:t. Cat/i. Cvnvers. 3, 5, 7), by the
C'lUDcil of Rome, 721 (can. 12), by Zachary of
Rome, 743 {Ep. 2 ad Jionif. § 6), in a law of
Cliarlemagiie, 769 (Capitutare, i. c. 6), in a peni-
tential of Angers (Morinus, de Sacram. Pocnit.
586), &c. But they are often described as
written documents. Thus Caesarius of Aries,
602 : " Phylacteria diabolica per characteras "
{Serin. 66, § 3 ; comp. § 5). Boniface in the
council of Leptines, 743: "Phylacteria, i.e.
gcriptura." " (can. 33; 0pp. Bonif. 142, ed.
Wiirdtw.). The Capitularies of the fVcruih
Kinjs : " Phylacteries or false writings " (vi. 72).
The name was not used among the Latins so
early as by the Greeks ; for St. Augustine, 397,
describes them without employing it ; " Liga-
turae atqne remedia . . . sive in praecantation-
ibus, sive in quibusdam notis quos characteras
vocant " (Da r^xtr. CMst. ii. 20, § 30). Neither
Isidore, who copies this sentence {Etymol. viii.
9 n. 30), nor Hincmar, who borrows it from
Isidore (A^ Dicort. Jl/oth. et Tetb. Resp. 15)
introduces the word, from which we may perhaps
infer that it was not even in their times very
familiar to all the Latins.
Written charms are condemned under the
name of phylacteries in the decree ascribed
variously to Gelasius and Hormisdas de Apocry-
phiii: "Phylacteria omnia quae non angelorum
(ut illi confingunt) sed daemonum magis arte
conscripta sunt, apocrypha" (Hard. Cone, ii.
642).
The name was without doubt borrowed
immediately from the Jews; and the general
restriction of its meaning in practice is due to
tliat circumstance. The Jewisli phylacteries
PILATE
(tephillin) were two pieces of pnrclimont, on
which were written four ti!.\ts of .Sciipture
(Exod. xlii. 1-10, n 16; Deut. v. .1-0; ly,
13-21). One of these was bound on the fore-
head, the other on the left arm at jirayj-r. Thev
were believed to avert evil from the wearer aiili
to procure blessings for him, owing tn tin,' name
of God (Shaddai, Almighty) being on them
(Bevcridge on Can. l.aod. 36; Pandect, i'l. ^%.
Schleusner, Lex. N. T. in v.)
The Jewish practice would also nnturallv
suggest the frequent use of the Scviiptuii's as
phylacteries. St. Chrysostom, after siieakingnf
the custom of the Jews, adds, that in like man-
ner " many women now su.spend the GcujipIj
from their necks " {Ilm. 72 m & Mutt. Kv. § 2)
and elsewhere " Do you not see how women nnil
little children hang the Gospels from their
necks for a great protection " (ifiuAaKTJi, limn.
xix. ad Antioch. § 4). St. Augustine mentidns j
practice of putting the Gospel on the head when
it ached. He says that men were so besotted
with ligaturae that he rejoiced when he fnund
this done ; not because they did it, but " becauw
the Gospel was preferred to ligaturae " (/n S.
Joan. Ev. Tract, vii. 12). This u.se of the Gos-
pels continued for many ages. Thus Nilus tht
Younger, who died in 1005, having met with ao
accident, " took out of his bosom the pliylactery
which he always carried there (this was a fold-
ing book, the treasure of the New Testament)
and put it to his eyes and lips and breast" (I'ld]
AiVi, ix. 63; Bolland. Sept. 26). In the West,
however, even this was distinctly pronounced
unlawful. St. Jerome commenting on the
Jewish practice : " Hoc apud nos superstitiosae
mulierculae in parvulis evangeliis, et in criicii
lignn, et istiusmodi rebus . . . usque hodic
factitant, culicem liquantes, et cainelum
glutientes " (Comm. in St. Matt. Ev. ir. 23).
St. Eligius (u. s.): " Gtsi dicatur, quod res
saucta sit et lectiones divinas coiitincat, quia
non est in eis remedium Christi, scd veuenum
diaboli." [Compare Liqaturak, p. 990.]
[W. E. S.]
PIATON, presbyter of Tournay; passio
Oct. 1 (Usuard. Mart.; Boll. Acta SS. Oct,
i. 22). [C. H.]
PICTAVIUM, COUNCIL OP. [Poitiers.]
PICTURES. [Fresco ! Imaou-s: Mosaics.]
PIENTIA, martyr with Nigasius in th»
Vexin ; commemorated Oct. 11 (Usuard. ^urf.;
Afart. Horn). [0. H]
PIGMENITJS, presbyter and martyr at
Rome ; commemorated March 24 (L'sunrd.
Mart.^ Vet. Horn. Mart.; Bed. Mart. AikL;
Mart. Horn.; Boll. Acta SS. Mart. iii. 481;
Mar. 18 (Wand.)). [0. H]
PILATE. Our Lord's appearance before
Pilate is almost the only scene of His passion,
except the denial by St. Peter, which is to be
found in the catacombs, on sarcophagi, or, indeed,
anywhere in very early Christian art. See
Bott.iri, t.iv. xiiv. wh-. r- Pi!;tt'.- is seste-l "ii s
curule chair (John xix. 13); sec also the
Laurentian MS., and Bottari, taw. xv. uii.
xxxiii. iiiv. Some expression of ansicty and
reluctance is generally given to Pilate, Mid in
PILGRIMAGE
joinMn.tance8 water i. being brought for hi,
l>»nd.. H,s action m washing them is fremiently
repr5.ented, and M Kohault de V'le, ry
(LE,,mg,h vol n. pi. I,„iii. j„,i^_) . "'J
probably 4th century, one from S» A.,„llSe
riLGRIMAGB 163B
probably 4th century, one from St. Ai
yellaCitta at Ravenna, the third (11th century)
from St. Urbaiio at Rome. He refers also to «
et century iyory in the Vatican. On" of the
Uteran sarcophagi was brought from the
Lbenan B«s,l,ca, commonly known as the
church of St. Maria Maggiore
The subject of our Lord before Pilate is twice
repeated on the lid of the magnificent ivory
ciuket in the Biblioteca Quirinian/i n» nJl ■•
OVe,t.ood, Early Ckn.tla'i dl^l^efar^Z:;
Carmwjs, p. 37). He stands before Pilate in a
group; and m another before Pilate alone, who
II in the act of washing his hands. [|{. St. J. T.]
PILGRIMAGE (Paregrinatio). A pilgrim
w,. one who travel ed from a motive of rfJZ
to any place considered sacred, because ,,fcu-
liarly associated with the memory of Christ or
any o th. saints. The growth o^f that f i„"'
towsrcis such places which led to pilgrimage!
\ f ' 7 c ^ ',"""' ?'■"'"'»« t» 'peak of the
chief resorts of early pilgrims, their immediate
motives, and other matters of interest cot
nected with them. °
V ^ ^^oi'i ^'"•^— Paula and Eustochium
writiag m 386, suppose that there had be n a
consUnt stream of pilgrims to Jerusalem from
he very infancy of the church: "It would b^
tedious now to run through every a<rp fZl ,i
tension of the Lord to'the prTse„'t Jrand
enumerate the bishops, the martyrs, th 'me
eloquent m ecclesiastical learning, who h^ve
come to Jerusalem, because they thought tha
S 'T" r--'"^' • -^» tty' ad "ad ;"e.1
Chmt in those places whence the Gospel had firs
Mone forth from the Cross " f^n 4(i inw /•
Hieronym. «</ Marcellam, § er'The'r "rdTf
rher visits is scanty; but it is probable that
hese writers were not mistaken, w'e mustexcent
from he holy places visited by thei. , redece
Adrian to that of c'oXK wT cot-e rb?:
zrt i Tirr'^'f byT^mpi^Vf
Cb L, wh lived ntlTf"^' '"•?'•". that
.^ears old when l's"e tea :;"" ""■ '"Y
Uk,a:^„ I. . • "x ""'' remained exponed
"""ghthe'mi'n':; whfch''L""'"" "oP^d that
true reason of he rrverl ''''^ .«,'"P'«yed "the
, »«uld in the ourse TtT I ^c"^ *° '^at place
' «•" -th^rrgfo' ztfrtr- ^^i"-''-
CUBIST. ANT.-voL II. themselves,
' """■ t" point it ont to others " r//,W ir...i ■■ ,n
his friend, A.n. 230, describ™ hiJ ^ . ^ngen,
I Holy Land as „ .. 1 l ? his own visit to the
JesuVand His di h'l "^'"l ''"^ f-tsteps of
^:^r; Kv/te'trT 1 '^-'^ -''-t
.i«ne.anctoruri.fc^:m'"STv;;:;'''--
S^^S:nai^-3^:t'tp
His feet have stood (PsS 7^ ,h'"'r,r''"''
bequeathed to posteri^a f uit ^;;;tr r''"'"l
derot on " fEuseb I'.v n ! "! "'"^ Pe'sonal
churches whkh she huiuT^' "'• ^^^ '" *«■"
the Nativity the of h' ?.' "* the Cave of
Ascensior"V43) Abol'tfi''"' """"' "^ "'"
visit of Helen a Lv.M ^ ^""^ "'"'" the
known, K h%r ;7in,is"rv' ""-
Bordeaux ti Jerusalem a h^' ^T"'^'"'^ f™'"
a di.rei.ent rouL^'orVh^t'brwMcrt"' "^
He was evidently a Tr ■ • ° ™"'*-
«"til he finds hts:if"o'«'r„ly'''f''"'' [':'
notes are rarely more fh ^ ^"'"°''' hi»
»tage, and disuLer^^He "gives" ur"''1 "'
list of sacred uln,.... i ^.^ "^ " '"n?
remark ofTnteres 0„'m "'"=" ^''h some
saw Tarsus, the b I'thp L o?'s[ p"'", ^.T''' '"'
of the house (Sare a m,t n . ""'' *''•= '""^
the widow suSr'E'Mah'Xr'V "'"''?
where he sacrificed, the bath ofc r""'^'
Caesarea, a certain prfng cdaimL n" " i "'
£/7S£i- :&'";'»">:
Jerusalem he saw thrnnnT . \ ^''"''"J »»
either side the^Vi^PtT \r:l ftf;"
s^-^SS'tiSF"*
of the Temptation, the n'ae where ^1 '"""'"='*
SHid to haiewrit'ten the bo^k o t:r"r
=::^trkrtirf"-''
eaiigae of the soldiers who k 1 ed T^'^'.u''^ "">
of Hezekiah. the polofSiE '"?: *^ •"'"»«
Caiaphas, and the pillar at wSour T ." °^
scourged, the site of ♦!, u Y ''O'''' Haa
-'•«'.;-./ U,: P^l.etSm'orPira^^St'^f
Antonini Placentinf/Lr^K^'f^ther'l:
in which the :jodv nf r ' •'' "« crypt
the church Ll.Iv biSlt Lr'K p'"" '"''''"
-'V Dwu there by Constantine.
104
If
m
.;, s,i«'
'4 A
M
1636
PILGRIMAGE
i
i
the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the scene of the
betrayal, the monnments of Hezekiah and
Isaiah, Mount Olivet and the new church
thereon, the Mount of Transfiguration, the grave
of Lazarus, the sycamore of Zacchaeus, the
fountain made wholesome by Elisha, where was
shewn him the vessel that held the salt, the
house of Kahab, the site of the pile of twelve
gtones from the Jordan, the place of our Lord's
baptism, the little hill whence Elijah was taken
up to heaven, the tomb of Rachel, Bethlehem,
and the church built there by Helen, the tombs
of Kzekiel, David, Solomon, &c., near it, the
spring at which Philip baptized the eunuch, the
place where Abraham dwelt under a terebinth
tree* (Gen. xviii. 4) and dug a well. In return-
ing home he notes all the stages, as before, but
only connects one with sacred history, viz.
Philippi, where Paul and Silas were imprisoned.
It will be observed that in this careful
enumeration of sacred objects and places there
is no mention of that which a few years later
was the chief attraction of pilgrims to Jeru-
salem, the supposed cross of Christ. This at
once disproves the later tradition of its having
been found by Helen [CROSS, finding OF, Vol. I.
p. 504; Holy Places, iii. Vol. I. p. 776]. Many
instances occur of pilgrims going to Jerusalem
" to adore the holy cross," see e.;/. the accounts
of John of Sochns (John Moachus, Pratum
Spirit. 180), Thalelaeus (i6. 91), Christopher
((6. 105), Theophilus and his two companions
Vita Macarii Rom. 3), the author of the Life of
EdthijiiMis ( Vita Euth. 136), &c.
Paula, the friend of Jerome, visited every
sacred place and object of which she. obtained
information. " Entering the sepulchre she
Icissed the stone of the resurrection, which the
angel had moved away from the door of the
tomb ; and licked with faithful mouth the very
place of the body in which the Lord had lain ;
as if being athirst she longed for water." "A
pillar was shewn to her, supporting the porch
of a church, stained with the Lord's blood,
at which He is said to have been bound and
: scourged. The place was shewn to her where
the Holy Ghost came down on above one hundred
: souls of believers." Having " entered Beth-
lehem, going into the cave of the Saviour, after
seeing the sacred lodging of the Virgin and the
stall . . . she solemnly affirmed in my presence
that she saw with the eyes of faith the babe
wrapped in swaddling clothes, the Lord wailing
in the manger, the Magi worshipping, the star
shining above, tha virgin mother, the careful
foster-father, the shepherds coming by night . . .
the infants slain, Herod raging, Joseph and
Mary fleeing into Egypt." "Thence she went
down to the tower Ader, i.e. of the flock, near
which Jacob fed his flocks, and the shepherds
watching by night were privileged to hear,
" Glory to God in the highest," &c. She saw
■ " the glittering cross of Mount Olivet, from
which the Saviour ascended to the Father . . .
entered the sepulchre of Lazarus, saw the house
' of Martha and Mary, and Bethphage," the spot
* "Juxtu ICDron Muns M&mbre atl r^ulicem cujus mi
Ula tercbintus, qua.) dirpt vocatur, id est, Ilex vel
'quercns, secus qnam permuUum temporis mansit
.Abraam " (Enarratio lAxvrutn Terrat Sanctae, Baluz.
JlUcai. by Mansi. 1, 341).
PILGRIMAGE
where Christ mounted the ass, the scene of the
parable of the good Samaritan, the sycamore of
Zacchaeus, the place where the blind man sinoii
by the wayside. She also travelled to many iilam
in Palestine of note in the history of tlie 0\,[
Testament, both before and after her visit to
Jerusalem ; and lastly went to Egypt, where ahe
would probably have remained among the
ascetics of the desert, " ni majus samitii -um
locorum retraxisset desiderium " (Hiercju. Eu
108 ad Eustock. 9-14). We have omitte;i much
of her tour, but given enough to show that
pilgrims were now directed to many holy places
which their guides did not profess themselves
able to identify when some sixty years Ijetore
the pilgrim of Bordeaux travelled over th<!
same ground. Paula sketched a similar route
for herself and her friend Marcella when the
latter should travel to the Holy Land (Paul, et
Eustoch. ad Marc. Ep. 46 inter Epp. Ilicron.
§ 12). Gaudentius of Brescia, A.D. 387, men-
tions a pilgrimage that he made to Jcrusaleni
but gives no particulars (2)e Ikdic. llasilicae in
Vc-t. Brix. Episc. Opusc. 340, Brix. 1738).
At this period and onward the notices of pil.
grimages to Jerusalem arc very frequent. For
thirty-seven years, Melania the elder, who died
in 410, exercised hospitality towards Christians
who came to that city " for their vow's sake,
both bishops, and monks and virgins, anil those
joined in marriage, towards persons both in
high position and those of private condition, . . .
inhabitants of Persia, and Britain, and all the
isles" (Pallad. Hist. Lans. 118). The Arabic
collection of canons, falsely ascribed to the
council of Nicaea, says, " Faithful sons of the
Church of God, when ye enter on a pilgrimage
to pray and visit the houses of God, the places
of His holiness, and the footsteps of His Christ,
load not your bodies with meat and drink," &c.
{Deer. Alia, 25 ; Hard. i. 520). Some eminent
names are preserved. Philorhomus, a friend of
St. Basil, " for a vow went twice on foot to
Jerusalem to do honour to the holy places"
(ibid. 113). Fabioia, who died in 399, sailed
thither from Rome, and for a time was the guest
and disciple of St. Jerome (Hier. Ep. 77 ad
Ocean. 7). A few years later Marana and Cyra
travelled from Beroea in Syria " to Aelia from a
desire to behold the sacred places of Christ's
BuH'erings " (Theodoret, Hist. Eclii]. 29). Peter,
who was known to Theodoret when the latter
was a child, is another example. In 421, Por-
phyriuc of Gaza, then a young man, was seized
with a " divine longing to adore the holy and
venerable places of God " at Jerusalem. Not
content with one visit, some five years later,
though in great sickness, he went there again,
and "non cessabat quotidie obire loca sancta,
innitens baculo" (Vita Porph. i. 4, auct. Marco
Diac.) About this time also, JIark, his bio-
grapher, happened to " sail out of Asia to
worship the holy places " (ibid. 5). The empress
Eudocia went as a pilgrim to Jerusalem in 438
(Socrat. Hist. Sect. vii. 47). She also spent
there the last ten or eleven years of her life,
and evinced her religious interest in the holy
citv by repairing its walls, foundinj monasteries,
and building the church of St. Stephen at the
place of his martyrdom (Evagr. Hist. Eccl. i.
21, 22). Licinius, bishop of Tours, A.D. 508,
" is said to have htea in the East and to hsn
PILGRIMAGE
Ti'iited the places of the «n!nt. .„j i t
to Mu,.z itself, a^dS,:: ii^iziz
m Mf;y ?--.,„„'• by^birffaft'rrard.
brthop of the monastery of Uumi im „„ ? •
562.rehbishop of Hraga,'" ^a^e? 'p"d vot«
to the tast to vis t the holv nln,.L ^^'K*
imbued himself with learning as tnK.' "•". "'
Inferior to no one of h s dT/" (W t'^T'*."-!.^
Hi.pal. i>. IVr. //'- 45).%!^ olhe'r «;'es
might be given ; but the details in each ca^e^.
.os^ntyand devoid of interest, and s„Tw7f
trit3 VusetT ,nS "^ ^"» ^^^
ofalh There is.one ^/aVllerCrveTwh:
n«ted Jerusalem in 690, the narrative of 'whose
vorsge .s of great importance both from is
Sch-^ish^ Ts::^„,™;rr"'^^-'
the guidance Jf Petera"Bur7n"liaf b^ b^h- h'
but living as a herm t in the Holv InL^ \u'
place,ofchiefre,igious,,.te,.:st£.rS,'and; !
nme months at Jerusalem. On his ret.nn k
"driven by stress of weather to '/>'"''"'"«.
parts of Britain" (Bede'SLtTs?^;;:
became a guest of Adamnanus tho ninth L,
of Hy, who took down from his nm.fh^'
.ccount of his pilgrimage, and a few Ars 'ater
presented it to kin? Alfre.) Ti, •>. ""."'"'^
some ejtracts are found in his W;./ ' ,
15-17); but the work itself is extanr^n';; ^''■
been printed by Gretser ngolst Iti'tof ''*!
Mabi Ion (Acta k i^^n/saec at From thi, ^
my earn that many new disco^eri; Tnd en!
hcations were alleged to have been made since
he day, of Paula, by which the faith of the
pilgrim was confirmed and rewarded The
ro,. was not then at Jerusalem, but its
;• the last supper (..'tU^r'tt'^^'hl: p^^pl^f
the city treat with immense veneration "?*k
'l-gc, the spear, the handk.rch ? ^X w h ch
the head of our Ix)rd was covered a linen ^V*k
woven by the blessed Virgin „„ JZu ^
the loose t::; 22"r xrSih'""?"'' '"
'hewn a natural Isin in he r 'k /J] of' n^"'
"".em the valley of Wamro h<. fo.mVfh '^'
'I -Warn and tlio th..„« a • . '"""'' tnusc
remains of he o^ 'f m!. P'"'"";=hs (10). The
"erein great remiestlT."*' ''''l"**''' "^^^•''"h
"ol«»ea and^:red'by 'aTh'ur'oh* 7in' T""
'V built near the plaL^fttr^aptlsm:
PILGRIMAGE 1 63 7
blpSaT^i'L^mT^"*' 'V''^'^' "" -
li»t with those given bXe'T "^k*'"' ''"''^•"
and spirit of each aI. 1 ?''T' ">»* *'•« '""'a
objec prop, sed to ft, ""'"'" "^ "">
stiiion hoeZe more .r""''"."°- ^o «»!>«'-
food, such as t cZd forTartn""'"'''' °'*
About the year 725 w7n, "',!"" «"PI''i«d-
St.. ...niface,'';YsiL'd%re''H'r'll'aV'%'''^"'
objects already mentionpH K ^ , "'^^s'dc»
which the infJnrwerelin C ""* P'""" '"
life, and where the iJL . ' "'" ''"'tored to
of the blessed V lin from r' '" !',''"= *'"> •""•/
found in the Chureh of this fT^^'"' "« «'»»
marking the Xes on w^""' 'k''.''.'''' '"■" •=»'""""
(Actsi.%)st H :„rwls told th ,'r u""^^''
could creep between f hi ? n ^''*' whoever
was free f 'om Ir ins " ( W ib^t^'"" ?""""
uncertain age fa ?elv V TT""" "'' '«'«'• ^ut
Wacentia, T.' ItlLXtX^T'''''' "'
what we must, however reluctlntv'T^"'''' "'
posture. For tn „,„;. "''"'=^«""y. deem mi-
-lace, we tWereadof f^^'i ''''"'''*'■''"'•'■» "»
been 'placed arthTl^a *ol*o rC^'f 'S'
was hmied " (S 18) of hlnL ■ **'""' "«
crucified (.-4.), of the a? »r ''"^" ;':''«'•« He was
was about to otr Isa ' mT ':t''^- i^^™'"*'"
Pilate affixed to the co^wW^htl' "•"' *''"^''
in his hand and kissed " x * *"""■ " ''«'''
as that on which St died"" thZrth" 'fr '''^''
seems to have been "",' """"?" tb« Ifnerar,
exhibited in Cvril's t^me i r.. '""^ "'"'" "'"t
He also saw the ted a^d the '"'" '"J'"''*^ ""-"y
spongia aquam bSuotdTtKlT ""'"
stone which the Lord bles«,1 J.l '•"P'''^'">y"-
likeness of the blessed Vi^'.in , t" ""'^P*'''" »
head-band, &c. (20) In tlie'r ^^^ K^'"'"*"'"''
been the house of jLe,\h"/'t *"'"'"'' >""»
which David andVtrcrkitls'Tju f«?r? T'*''
anointed, the crown of thwns f h! "'^ '''"'
many of the stones w th wh 'ch I'T'' """^
stoned (22). The tract i. .1. ^'fP'"'" was
describe it, '.refertumflh '11'" ',''" ^^^'I'-ndisfs
(^ro/03. in Mat „m ff m" P'""*, """ibus "
We d^not heai of th: k' '^'^.'"' °- '""■ 897).
sepulchre on EsLr Eve ir"'^ ^'^ '" ">« ^oli
to this day, un?n The'; ktT eX;." " ,^^1^''
mentioned by Bernird « if L^"., '' 's then
.visited JerusLemTn 8^0 i>*S f'T^^"
m Acta liened. iii. p. 2, HhT ^n !' * ^"'
h.m, an angel came down Vd"Shied th^^r '"
hanging over the sepulchre -^nf K-t '',""''*
the patriarch gives to th.hi't. "''^'"'' "si't
of the people that th.r ^T *"'^ '^e rest
themselL'irthcI; h iT.S'.^tth"^']* '■''
also were pointed out some rK- / l*"' f"'?'""
of which {-ormer ?r«ve "slirkl' "^ '■'''*'*"'^«
fou/rn^^Vbl:tfc ; ;trs?^''« '^h>'
place where the adulteress wl K f "PP"' *''«
and the words tl^^Bn wnTten h h?''' '"^"''"»*'
on marble (§ 13) '""' ^J' H"". engraved
long"li!Z-ri7o?"st^p7ff "l; "■"■"UfThout a
visit Rom^i wh re L re'nlr"' "" ^' ^'"^ '"
already oZ mat ^xl^^T^^"^'^ -'"'«
-hrinef and other VerrilroVst^'lCrd S
6 M 2
■::!.S
''.''.'IS
'Am
r[
mSi^^^
R<'<
i ^^^^^^^H
m"
y ffl^^^l
I
7 yv Fm^m^h^B^^B
4| , ^^^^^^1
w
ir't
1638
PILGRIMAGE
Paul, St, Lawrence, St. Cassiaii, St. Hippolytus,
St. Agnes, &c. («eo Prudentius de Coronis, hynm.
, 2, 9, 11, li, 14).
" InnumeroR cinerea SAnctorum Romnla In urbe
VidimuB." I I'rud. u, i, 11, 1. 1).
Hence, and from the greater t'ncility of reaching
it, Rome becanre ere long a more common resort
of Kuropean pilgrims than the Holy Land itself;
e. (]. Pnuliiius of Nola made an "annual journey"
thither {Ep. 43 ad Desid. 1 ; Ep. 95, Aug. nd
Paul. 6) " pro apostoloruni et mnrtyrum
vcneratione " {Ep. 45 ad Aw/. 1). He describes
himself as sijending the forenoon on one of these
vi.sits in the memoriae of the ajwatles and martyrs
(Ep 17 ad Sever. '2). Letters are extant, written
nt Rome in 449 to Theodosius the younger by
Galla Placidia, Vatcntinian, and his wife Kudoxia,
the emperor's daughter, expressions in which
show that the writers had gone to Rome from a
motive of religion, "to pay worship to the most
blessed apostle Peter "( C'unctV. C/tuleed. p. i. cc.
20-22, Hard. Cone. ii. 35-37). Galla, in a letter
written toPulcheria at the same time, says, " Vt
Komani freqquentihus concursionibus adacque
desideremus iiispicere, causa nobis est aniplec^
tendae religionis, ut terminus sauctorum nustris
exhibereinus praesentiam " {ibid. ; in Gi'eeli, ap.
Cotel. J/ont»-^. Gr. i. 62). Venantius, in his Lifeuf
St. Hemiijius, who died in 533, tells the story of a
young girl whose wealthy friends conducteil her
in sicl»ness from Toulouse "to the tomb of St.
Peter in the city of Rome with a very great
number of attendants and great devotion "
(rito, §6).
From the foregoing testimonies, we may perhaps
infer that during the first tivc centuries pilgrims
went to Rome chiefly, if not entirely, for the
feast of St. Peter and St. Paul. Compare even the
later Gregory the Great, Epi'st. vi. 19 ; Hutn. in
Ecainj. ii. 37, § 9. It is evident, however, tliat
visitors .'rom a great distance could not even at
that period, and much less could they in the
more trouliled times that followed, arrive at
Konie by a given day with anything like certainty.
Hence, alter the 7th century at least, we find
pilgrims Hocking thither at every part of the
year. 1 he first visit of St. Boniface was timed
by the season and the aSairs of his people ( Vita
auct. Willibaldo, v. 14). In his time great num-
bers went to Rome from England (hangyth ad
Bvnif. Ep. 30, ed. Wiirdtus.). The stream had
begun to flow about 653, when Benedict Biscop
paid his first visit to Rome (Bede, Hist. Alibat,
Wiremuth. § 2), to be soon followed by Wilfrid,
who had been his companion for part of the way.
In reference to the journey of the latter, Eddi
Stephani, his fViend, says expressly that " as
yet that load was untrodden by our nation"
(Vita Wdfr.^3).
The " limina apostolorum " were the first
objects visited by pilgrims and probabi) by all
religious travellers to Rome. Thus Sidonius of
himself, " Priusquam vel pomoeria contingcrem
triumphalibus apostolorum liminibus atlusus "
(Epp. i. 5), where he seems to refer to the shrine
on the Ostian Way.
III. Other Sfirinfs. — St. Chrysoatom says that
the burial-places of St. Peter and St. Paul, St. .John
•nd St. Thomas, alone among the apostles, were
known in his day (Ilmn- xxvi. in Ep. ad Heb. 2).
Of St. Tliomos, Gregory of Tours tells us tliat
PILGRIMAGE
" in that part of India in which he first reposed"
there was a church in which " by the virtue of
the apostle " a lamp burnt perpetually witli'mt
any renewal eitlier of oil or wick. Thither, he
says, " when his festival came, a great a'sseinbls^e
of the peoples gathered, and those from divarse
regions coming with vows and merchiuhiise "
(Mirae. i. 32). A story told by Socrates (Hut.
Eixl. iv. 18) seems to imply that Edessa, to w'lith
city his body, or a part of it, was translate i,
was equally frequented on that account. We
read little of the tomb of St. John at Ephesus,
but it is incidentally mentioned by John ilnschus
as visited witli other shrines by an ascitic of
the same name, who was wont to leave home
" for the distant deserts, or for Jerusak'm to
worship the holy cross and the holy jihices, or
for Mount Sinai to pray there, or for tlie nmrtvrs
at long distances from Jerusalem ; for tiie nld nian
was a great lover of martyrs, and would gn awav
at one time to St. John at E|>hesu3, at another
to St. Theodore at Euchaita, and again int,.
Isauria to St. Thecla at Seleucia, and again to
St. Sergius at Saphae, and journey one wliile to
one saint, and another to another" (I'rnt. Spirit.
180). In the East, the tomb of Thecla had many
visitors. In the West, St. Felix of Nola was mie
especially famous. If we may believe the poetital
account of Paulinus, multitudes fiocked tu it at
his festival from every part of Italy, even from
Rome itself (Poem. xiv. Nat. iii. 54-85). Per
haps, however, no shrine was so popular with
pilgrims in search of health as that of St. Martin
at Tours, where he was reported to have per-
formed numberless cures of which very many
are recorded by Gregory, 573, one of Ids suc-
cessors in the sec (De Mirae. S. Martini, libr. iv.).
I V. Mural Inseription,i hy Pilgi ims, — f he cata-
combs of Rome have preserved a great number
of these graffiti traced with a stilus or with
charcoal on the walls by the tombs of the most
illustrious martyrs. Many of the earliest, ascribed '
to the 2nd or 3rd century, " merely e.-sjiress the
names of the visitors ; but others otier {liuus
thoughts and touching prayers " (Martiguv,
Die', dea Antiij. ehre't. v. " Pelerinage ").
V. Motives to I'ilfiriiimje.— (1) Asftict A.— The
^rst rpsort of pilgrims was to the Holy Lanii ;
and their purpose, research, which tliey con-
ducted in a devout and reverential spirit. [See
before, § I.]
(2) VoKs. — If Eusebius is not merely speaking
after the notions of his day, Alexander, the
earliest pilgrim on record, combined research
with the fulfilment of a vow. Vows are
ascribed to Helena (Catwnum Aicaen. An').
Praef. Hard. C'otic. i. 525). Palladius, as cited
§ I., evidently supposes that all who received the
hospitality of Melania went to Jerusalem "hr
their vow's sake." Philorhomus and Kudocia,
mentioned before (ibid.), had both vowed a pil-
grimage ; the latter, if she should see her
daughter married (Socr. Hist. Ed. vii. 47).
Paulinus, describing his own visit to Rome,
speaks thus : " Ipsum temporis ante meiidiara
tu totis nostris quorum cura veneramus per apos-
tolorum et martyrum sacras memcrias con-
sumentes " (Ep. 17, § 2). Wilfrid.- !i53. has
made vows to visit Rome (Eddi Steph. in Vita
4), and long after him Canute, after such i
pilgrimage, says of himself, "Hanc quiilem pro-
fectionem jam olim devoveram " (Gul. Malmcsb.
PILGRUrAGE
ie m. Ocst. Scg. Angl. ii. n, f„i ., ,, , ,„ ,
1590). S., « nun in Klcloard n ak , a v «• a v"
.rehc of ht. Helen (M,<. /.W.s. Lme"\i fl
(:.) A,;,«,m -It i, probable th/tZZ^i
chumena .ought the Holy Lau,i f,.„m an Z\y
ba,.ti..oftheb.ho;v^;:!:;L.:t:;:ff:'i;
mtendeJ formerly to do thisat the stream" of the
Jordan; at which our Saviour i, rewTde l t^
have recm-ed the washing for an oxanpletot "
(Luseb. Uta Const, .v. 62). Kusebius (lo /Zis
Iidraw,s),,y, of " Bethabara beyond J.,Han
where John was bapti^ing " (St. John i 28)
"wherealso many of the brethren to ?h s Zy
are anxious to receive the washins"- <
Jerome paraphrases his words,' " desi'rin'o. To h„'
reborn there, are banti/e,l ;. fk ?^ . '"'
col. 182, ed. Vallars.). If PseudtAm 'h 1 '"h"''
he bHhop of Jerusalem that they might « rece ve
divine regeneration in the river Jordan " whlh
.a, permitted (Vita Basil. 4). See anther
nmvU, Prat Spirit. U8. The eve of the
tpiphany was the usual time for such L.V-
at which the people carried ^X^ftK--'
crated water to sprinkle their ships with it
Jordan, where the Lord was bantized X ■
now a church raised on 3tone„ie,^ an ! K 'M'
the church is now dry lai^d? Vhe e the r ^T''^^
baptized" (IIoJoep.Jic.n S. Wi 1 i„ r"^ '"""
Wessex ..n. 688, re^gkin^t ^l^!^ f,
confirmed and devotion inLm.!. '^k • " ^"^
the more fervent th p"aver tZi ^ "^'" ' """^
wa, it deemed, from whatever .' .»«^«Pt8ble
fervour might aris^ Peter tL ?■">'*' ^'''"*"
Palestine, that "eazinf on fh ^" "''"" ^""«''
witnessed the savin^rrt' • ' ^''^ **"»' ''^d
t^-eni worship rrtVtir,:tri'^*':
motions Siiriber^o'Tautt/ft'V"" '"^^
terms which shew !,„„ i • lV , ' Jerome in
PILGRIJIAGE 1G39
' STabre)',"rr;t sl't " ""'"""' "^ ^'-
-nHne the o^ni": tence of G,T't; "' '"" ""'
«'"-'icr of the iVorld i' ""." ""'■'■"''
and from Britain the court of h ■?"'■"«"'«"'
open." (A>,s, 58 arfV^^g r"" " ''?."''"y
"• »• § 10.) St. C-hrys^lm '"Vt •H'''; '""'"' "
fary to make a idlgri nas-e or" . f ""' "^''*»-
lands, or to under™ ll'^' *""'"' '" 'l'»ta'>t
tohaU the wil •W/r^' •''''"'' '"''■^! biitonly
§2). "Therei noSl'- '" ^>- «'' /'AiV.i
to make a long ,"?gr maT iT "" ""»' ""^
and woman, b^th when lih 1 ""• "'"'>' '"«"
■raining 'at h«I carer Goa' ^•''•";;'^'' ""^
earnestness and He w7l certat l '"■ S""'
prayers -(//,«„. iii. J^,^ J^""^' ^ K-ant our
^'.vssa, dissuading from thTnil„:- '^"^'^o'T of
Ood near .,',-• burwhere. ^Tu '^"'^ ""' "'"I"'
be with thee' the" Tf tlel'b ."''' ^"•' *'"
be found such thlt' tL r '".''"■""•le «f the soul
ani walk in thee " (^%S //"/ ""^", '" ''><"'
nev th^S'"s-^;l^-?"*'!''^ ^^"'-/^'--Tbere was,
theteachi;g'„rtTe thrr^ ffi'" "i'?"'"* '"
sometimes spoke as if Pi "* I'"""'' I'hev
Pitiatedat the shr nes of tr"" "'"''^ """"y P™"
whei.. [«eepI™rSA,;^'x:f"''>'"'''-^'-
oflj:t;?rr„St;S"i::r^^"-«-'-
■t necessarily gave Ij.l l ^"""' ^''""''l,
ages. Menwfrereadf totr«v''l "" *?. P"S'™-
obtain certainly a benefit wlfr^ ''""""^^ *"
not procure for them „ff' n,'' l""")'" ™uld
heaUh was the boon m l""""' ^'"' '"•^'toration of
nothing was supposed t ITT"""^! T^""' ' ^ut
the goodwill ?f ?he m^rtvr ^■^"'' '^' P^^'' '"
asked for children ^R-i^; ''"'"^' 'berefore,
-me for'suttL" bfs iS'/iV ''^''- '^'
or war (Greg. Tur. J/I^V^ 37 ) I", t'"*; .' ^
continuance of peace (,A,y. i tU' " ^"■' 'be
detect on of eui t anH J„i- 1- ^^ ^' '^"' *be
(Aug. £pist. fxxv ii 3) ^V^ r '"" "^ '"°"'-'*"<^«
souls' of'the d"p ted.^- To a' '■;„„'"T"""'" ''"
sented asking, in reference ♦„ ^.''° " "-ep"-
"Why should I nrltfu- *" " 1"""' fathei-,
why fast, why visi^ ^th^b'T' "J"^, ^'"' "'"'^
the'assur'ance^isXn » Us a b"', *''' ?""' ^
some thought to^-'for^i:/,;;^^ -^ J^hole-
bel-.eWerf„'mS?i'ifiT.rd"r^«^--^
With equal confi,r,;ce*menTndtrtiTrir-^^-
aaes as a meann of „Kt • • ""oertook pilgrim-
for themsXes Thu Ca^ '""*""' '"'"'>«"'
the threshold of the saints th^l' *^*1^<">t"ng
their help a^ain,* ♦!.„•' }l^ '''""''^ '""Plore
60, § 3).'^ CoVteT^i ''rul^"^*''''-
forgiveness; and this ILo fh« ^^ '"'"''* '"
asked for ik direct terns' /"'T?^ ''"gr.m
560, "in the Slat ve„, «• u- ■"■ ^othair, a.d.
thr^hold of St Cin wllh"'^"' '""?''* "^e
arrivingatTous atth^ I ^.T^ S"^"' ""^
unfolde'd all the 'c o'n'whl^^/ *,''« »f P-late,
and praved wi'h rr 7 '""' ''<'"« am'"",
confesso-r won d beL the^':"" ""'/o*''« "'''"'^'l
faults " (Oreg"'tey^^^ j^^^^^n ^1 J^"" ^■'•
GodforhiscSet'^Sri.^--.^;^
1 ■■
f'
ill
P
i
, -if '
■•.ill
/■fffl
1640
PILdUIMAGE
tin. iv. 135). In Enj(1nnil uIho, during the same
centiuy, we (iml pci-sonit planning a visit to
Knini.', " that there they niifjiit iibtain the parjnn
uf their sina " (C'angyth dj JJanif. K/i. :»0 inter
X/ip. Jlmif. ed. Wiircltw.). VVilfriil went to
Home, " abea[sc. sede A|ii)«t(illca](ininein nuMluni
umrulne solvenduni sihi credens " ( Vitu, § '■)).
Such voluntary penitents were known by their
liabit from tlie Gth century downwards, but I
cannot iliscover what its pecularities were.
Venantius Fortunatus, 5G0, relating an old tra-
dition, represents one whom he calls "righteous
and holy " as " going the round of very many
villages and cities in the winter season, wearing
the habit of a penitent, in search of the medicine
of his soul " ( Vita S. Maurilii, 24). I do not
take this as evidence of a practice much earlier
than the age of the writer.
(ti) I ciiitwc. — Pilgrimages voluntarily under-
taken in the hope of obtaining the pardon of sin,
naturally suggesteil the iin])ositifln of pilgrimage
as a public |)enanee. Morinus {lUi Siicram.
Punit. viii. 17, § 1) supposes that this custom diil
not begin before the 7th century ; but even if
Caesarius (m. s.) refers to voluntary pilgrimages
only, a jiassage in Gregory o^ Tours is sufficient
to prove it earlier, ife relates that, about the
year 5.19, *• a certain fratricide, bound wjth iron
rings for the enormity of his crime, was ordered
to make the circuit of the i)lacea of the saints
for seven years " (dv Gtur. Confcas. 87). The
penance here described was afterwards common
in the cases of aggravated murder, the rings
being made from the weapon with which the
crime had been committed : " Ipso decernente
pontilice, ex ipso gladio ferrei nexus conipo-
nautur, et collum peccatoris, venter atquebrachia,
strii^tim innectantur ex ipsis ferreis vinculis "
(Mime. SS. Fiuriiini et Fiorentii, Martene dc Ant.
£cd. Hit. i. vi. iv. 2 ; see also Baluze, Nut. in
Capit. nej. Franc, ii. 1198).
The earliest canons which prescribe pilgrimage |
as a penance do not, as we shall see, mention
the holy places ; but that they were visited by
the professed penitents may be shewn from
other documents. The Poenitcntinle of Theodore
of Canterbury, A.D. 688, condemns a bishop, for
certain sins, to be deposed, to be twenty-five
years in penance, to fast five on bread and water,
ond to " end the days of his life in pilgrimage "
(Morinus, u. s. vii. 15, § 1). Egbert, archbishop of
York, 732, of a homicide : " For we will that he
perform penance in a foreign land ten years "
I Poenitcntinle, i. p. i. 24). [KxiLE.] The mur-
derer of an ordained person was to " leave his
country and possessions and go to Rome to
the pope, and then do as the pope should
order him " {Pocnit. iv. 6). The council of
Chalons-sur-Saone, 813, while condemning pil-
grimages from wrong motives, yet declares that
the devotion of those who, having confessed
sin to their parish priest and received his
counsel to that effect, " desire to visit the thresh-
olds of the apostles or any of the saints, per-
severing in prayer, giving alma, amending their
life, and correcting their manners, is altogether
worthy of commendation" (can. 45). From
this century downwards, many great criminals
resorted to Rome to obtain mitigation of the
penance imposed by their own bishop. Nicholas
I., 8r>7, writing to a bishop with reference to
such a case, says : " Undique etenim venientes
PII.flRIMAOE
admodum plurimi, suorum facinorum jiniilif,,rf,
(|uautum dolorem inferaut pectciri nott-n. [.lu,'
singultu reminis(dmur quam lalanio scril.i ,'|,i,,af
Inter iiuos videlicet istum Wimarum ad »\,u>x,'.
lorum limina festinasse cognoscite." ' This iiuii
had murdered his three sons ; yet the i)„i,e
lightened his penance (Kpist. Nic. 1116 mi itilf.
liiilnim). We siie here (me of the niiuiy wavs Ju
which the action of the popes, ever n'luicn's to
keep up by exercise the authority which tii^v
hadacquired, tended to the destruction „f ,i'|
discipline. In such pilgrimages also we tr;iie
the origin of resenx-d canes, i.e. of the practicf
of referring some great sins to Uome fur abso-
lution.
VI. Letters of Cmnmcndatitm. — Pilgrims re-
ceived letters from their bishops, abbats, i.r „tln.r
superiors, to attest their bond Jiile cljaia^ tvr
sddn'ssed to the secular as well as ecch'.sinstinii
authorities. Forms of such letters are I'.vtaiit.
One runs thus: "Quatenus praeseus |>,initi.r
ille, non (ut plerisque nuis est) vacandi (ansa,
sed propter nomen Domini, itinera nr.lua ft
laboriosa parvipendens, ob lucrandani oniti m
limina sanctorum Apostolorum Domini I'ttii ot
I'auli adire cupiens," &c. (.Vlarculfi Formulm, ii.
49 ; Indiculuin (Icnerale ad Omncs l/'mliU).
Another says of the pilgrim ; " I'etiit nnhis ut
ad basilicam S. Petri jiatris vestri pro suis culuis
vel pro nostra stabilitate, valeat aniljularc ail
orationem. Propterca has literas cum aaluta-
tionc per ipsuni ad vos direximus ut in ariiure
Dei et S. Petri ipsum ad hospitium rocii)iatis,"
&c. (Funnnhe, Hignon. xv. Citpit. lioj. Fr. ii.
503, Chitrtn Tnictiirin). Such letters were
given to public penitents on whom a pilgrimage
was imposed. Thus in a third form the bishup
or abbat, after reciting the crime, adils : " Nnj
pro hac causa, secundum oonsuetuiiiiiem vel
canonicim institutionem, dijudicavinuis ut in
. 11]U ..
lege peregrinorum ipse praefatus vir aniiis tnl in
peregrinatione ambulare dcberet." He there-
fore begs them, as the penitent is only wamler-
ing " pro peccatis suis redimendis," to give him
shelter, fire, bread and water, " et jiostea sine
detentione liceat ei ad loca sanctorum festi-
nare " (Marculf. App. 10, Tractw-ia pro Iteum
peragendo). This shews conclusively how the
period of exile was expected to be sjjent.
Among the extant letters of Alcuin is one in
favour of a pilgrim friend addressed "aniieis
per diversas nominum dignitates." He calls it
"litterae precatoriae " (Ep. 210, Commnd. ad
Amic.). The bishops of Rome furnished pilgrim
penitents with similar letters for their return
home. The form in the Lilier Dtum'is Horn.
Pont, begins thus: "Praesentium latores pro
sua devotione liminibus beatorum principnm
apostolorum praesentati, petierunt ut, a nobis
relaxati, valeant ad propria remeare " (cap. vi.
tit. X. Item Tractoria).
yil. Other Encouragements and /Ti'^ps.— Hospi-
tality to pilgrims, both on the road and on their
arrival at the shrine, was inculcated as a sacred
duty. Men were reminded that what they ilU
unto them was done unto Christ (Car. M. 802,
Capit. i. 27), and that they might hope to find
that they had entertained angels unawares
(Cmtc. Aijmsgr. 789, ain. 75). The council now
quoted addressed a decree to all laymen nnd
clerks : " Hoc nobis competens et venerabile
videtur ut hospites, peregrini et pauperes sus-
riLGllIMAQR
Mption,.« MKiiliirc. H eanonjcn, i,..r l„c« ,liv«,..,
cl«nne,l « law tim " n„„e witlui. his ,l,,,„i„i „„
rich nr |..H,r, «),»ul,l vt-i.tiirt. f. ,|e„v h„si,it, I v
tol.ilKrim8| tlwit is," lie ,.x.,l«in„ '> ulT ^
. .Iter (ne, «„,i water, eith.r to ,,i|j;,-i.„, walkil
veller r -/,,/. .27). Of Clm.)„„,„«,K. „,,; •
.„ ,..s„.w..,l Kreat ,,ai„s o.. tl,ei,. e,.t..l-tai,n ^
«, that tl,,.,,; nmnbur ,...„,e,| (without uni-aHo,,.'
.be .:uu,,. «n,t burclc-nsonie „ot to the ,,ala,'e
only lM.t to the kin^.h,,,, ••(,•„§ ^j, ';/"
wa, .n accor.lance with the teachin/of Alouin
"Koeun, n.e>-,.e8 <u „,i,erorum juvanma. H
maxinie |M.ri.giinon„i, ,„cra aau.ti IVtri ,!rin
c,,,.« apuHtolorutn li„uuu petenti,,,,,, ,„,.„„
,,md d>v,n„m constat es», ,le,„e,.tian, " (/"
Ub aJ AnntlMrlum). llerar.l „f 'r„„, lr,„'
charges his prcahytors to " ji.vp ho«/lt„l .
of hkIoh-8, pilgrims," &o. (rap 18)
.J",,rr",'%i '''"'"'" '^•''•""'"^"t hostel, wore
er et,.,l for th,MV.Tptio„ of strangers, especl Iv
rei.siuus pil^nnis. Such a house was' ,1^^^
*.,i«/x/..™(",en.;idest Wusvenerabi
;|uo peregrin, suscip.ui.tur "; Capit. Re,. F,S
n. 2y) or /...pltu/e /..vv.,/n>,or„„/(hecause Ut
uee entertained ",,ereg.i„i et ,,a„peres, i
quibus specialiter Christ.is suscipitur " ; O J
Urol. Ulv. tit XXV ii. 10). "On the m„.„t f
Mr 1, says I'a la.l.us, " was a xenmlochiun, in
wh.ch the monks entertained any guest wh"
presented himself thivuighout the time of his
a^even if he wished to remain there two or
three ye,.,s {//.H. Lau,. 7). Claudhmhe mother
ofM. Wen,a "huiltaxe.,odochium a Alel
andna and settled lauds to serve for the recen
(uin of travellers " ( Vita Euam 10 . p ' "
■!ii!\ II .L ., V'"« ^juijen, la : Kogwev( .
n 4 '1' ^''"°""' *l>"beoau,; patriarch
00 , ,s said to have built several i„ 'the a mo
It. (Leuntms, VUa Joan. 49). There ai.peTr"
have been such an institution at Ko.„e „^ tie
rhoentur,;; for pope Martin, in his exile, a.d
b.4, speaking of the hosjdtality accorded at
"Xel^iSbS,!^;:,^-^^^" '■^ ^^"'
I m™ r^Liiii :S::;irs; 'z S
mund.si,nus et vina diversa dantur^rn sK
fionie, 742, cdeted'^^ft^qu'nt S of't^rt'o ^
"■onii^ Christi pi'„ • :!m'. feTadvet vTj;^-
SsVa.:; .'""«'"""" regio„ibuT';eni„P:^t^»
K^ Ln:;n"'':t'*"^'" '" •""'"' •"' "u^oeptioLn
council of Aachen <»1K „ j J '+^'4). Ihe
aatneu, 8lb, ordered canons to pro-
riLCJIUMAOR
1641
came there "((',:;:;; f't'l'I^P' »'"' !'".'."•'■"» who
w«''in .iSl 'i^/'f''"""'' '^■'■'■-'Thi*
'-i. Thus o:ri \:'-t/7^ «^;;7 --
""■■•ate. among the act, , f rh • J ' "' """■
;'»«nctorumpcM-..grimu.tu>n,e I ,"""",•'■'■■""'
'"••'•«" (.W Gii T "'".'"■ ""'"""'I'terab-
"7, §2).^ Anotl,;..' ^'estern"h'r'';\-"' § "* '
tl.« .luty at some length from' """ '■';,'"'•'''"'
"»i|'l« and w.ir.ls s^t I V " '•'""''" «"■
'*•'. § <- in A : h'„d"''" :"'s \^ •'"■'"•
'*••''■) The monks <,f Ku |a fn l^""' "''•
Charlemagne, say "o\ut '" M""""" to
coptio et L.,;t 'r^n eii^Snirr ';r;;' r'"-
««'l S'Hiindum regulam et sec, "' "^'''K'"'"-.
.»i. .1.. f... 'r ,i,v ,"„;'':'. s,"«g
psalms ngnif on tU..;,. ... / ".'•*'«-''".v, with
(Caj„t. aV^I X,e u' s V ":'- '""■•'^ "
Maundy (f it be thp ti.„.. <• * l ;, "" "^
of the fathe.-s and , f tr „i L, r ''"'''"'^ '"'»''
take place" (can 24 A , T^P^'IVK''.""''"'"]
TheseVterL;;;m'nief^,l^^.;^f):
our guests' feet "V tL .„,./! j '^^''''^r *" "''"h
IV /'.v.* >• *■ "? """-t. Ada.un. i. 4).
lA. I roterUon on the Jioad —].•,■,.,„
period pilgrims were put u^.;7h " "" .""'''y
m \m£S-f ,7i "',"" " ■■'••J' '->•'
Char emagne, w.'iting in 796 t/offa. kin^'nf f K^'
Mercans, promises safe - conduct to Fnlvu
pilgrims passing through l,i. !i ? •^'"''
"Touching pilgrims who ^,l« • . dominions :
threshold of' Hlessed .,1 .'■'^ «" *" *''«
God, and the he^.S Lr:S^t.:^^J7« °'
«. &rrr7ir '"""^'"'^'' " <^»'-?
intimated freedom Tom ev^rv'tT^V"" ""iT'
rave„e„ t„ the crown." C"h'e S ,':^';', {
u iUV-Uatfo":^/^ "^ .eHgionTbut'L*
pay the ai^Tn , ' .rt"h?nr""' ''', *''*'"
This, howiver, was L .J'T' '.''T'-"
having been gr'anted by ^i^t 7" • 'irj^T
■ng p-lgrims who tJel L ;L' sake oT'qS;
..' -tl,/!!!
' . SI
1642
PILGRIMAGE
that they take from them no tolls " (in .%««/.
Vernensi, 22). Two years later, at Meti, he
expressed this more I'uily : " That ye on no
account detain those who are on their way to
Home or elsewhere for the salte of OoJ at the
bridges and dams or on tlie ferry-boat, nor iiialte
any accusation against any pilgrim on account
of his Inggage, nor talte any toll of them " (^yn.
MH. 0. ti).
XI. Kiila '/ Pifuriinanc—The moral danger to
the pilgiini is obvious, and bad results were early
noticed, (iregory of Nyssa, A.l>. 'MO, urged
•gainst pilgrimage to the Holy l^nd that not
only was there no command for it, but pilgrims
sutl'ered a spiritual loss through it. He dwells
on the wicl<edness of those cities in the t^ist,
through which they had to pass, and asserts
that it iipuetriited into the lodgings and hostels
wliioh they were obliged to frequent, and asks
in a proverb, " How can one pass through the
smoke without smarting eyes?" (A' £tmt. Hicnm.
ii. 108.').) Nor does he deem Jerusalem itself
less wicked, or less full of danger. [See Holy
Placks, II. vol. i. p. 77,').] St. Jerome (ibid.),
A.D. 89;t, ^{ives similar testimony. Our country-
man, lioniface, bears witness to the existence of
the same evils in Europe. For, waiting to
Cuthhert of Canterbury, about 74:), he alleges
that the pilgrimage to Rome was almost certainly
fatal to female chastity : " They are ruined in
great part, few remaining chaste." "There are
very few cities in Lombanly, or France, or Gaul,
in which there is not an adulteress or prostitute
of the Knglish nation ; which is a scandal, and
the disgrace of the whole church." (Epist. ad
Oidh. 8.) He suggested that women should be
restrained by authority from making the pil-
grimage. In France the council of Chulons-sur-
Saone, 81li, denounced other evils of which pil-
grimages were the occasion : " A very great
error is committed by certain persons, who ill-
■ advisedly travel to Rome or Tours and certain
other places under the pretence of prayer.
There are presbyters and deacons and oiher
clerks, who living carelessly think themselves
\hereby cleansed from their sins, and entitled to
eturn to the exercise of their ministry, if they
'each the aforesaid places. There are also
jiymen, who tliink that they are sinning, or
have sinned, with impunity, because they
frequent those places for prayer. There are
also some of the powerful who, to gain revenue,
under pretence of the journey to Rome or Tours,
make a great gathering, o])pre88 many of the
poor, and atlect to do for the sake of their
devotions, or of a visit to the holy p'.aces, that
which they do in truth from covetousness alone.
There are also poor persons who undertake it
either merely to have a better plea for begging
(of whose number are they who, wandering to
all parts, falsely assert that they are going
there), or because they are so senseless as to
think themselves cleansed from their sins by the
mere sight of holy places " (can. 45).
XII. N'rineiKlature. — At a later period a pilgrim
to Rome was called " Romipeta"- or "Romeus "; in
Auvergne, "Romoneou"; in Provence, "Romieu ";
&c. (iJiicange) ; in France generally " Romier " —
names i;iven at length to all vagrants ; whence
probably the English verb " to roam." Similarly,
it is sai<l, a pilgrim to the Holy Land (Sancta
Terrsy was a "saunterer." Those who bad been
PI8CICULI
there, brought home branches of the p.ilm, md
were thence called " palmers," " palmniii," ■' m\.
mati," French, " paumiers "; and soinetimej in
France, " ramiers " (Qretaer de Sour. Pertm
ii. U).
On this iulject, Zaccaria (B:blio<trajihiii Sc/wt,,
iii. ix. 2, in Fleurv's Diaaipl. Pop. li,;, Vcn'
17H1) refers us to P. F. X. Mannliart *■ A„ii.
'/uifiitHns Chris'mnofum, § 5, n. 84 spii.|., Am?
Vindel. 1707 ; to his own Aimnii Sdnrtn-, ii. i'y[
4 (/)<■//' Anno ISiintn, Rom. 177.')) ; to IVlrui
Lazerus de Sacra Vtt. C/irixt. llimim /',-■».
l/rinatiune, Rom. 1774; and Jo. Stullinus, Vi,,.
diciac lieliiiime I'ervtfriniintium, Cohin. \\\\.\,
See also J. Oretser de Sarris et Hetuiio.ii.i p.rt.
Urinitionihns, Ingolst. 1600; A. A. lVlli,ia ,/«
CMst. Secies. I'ulitia, ii. 13 ; v. .''., § 'J, N,,|,|,|
1777 ; P. Molinaeus de J'erc:irinntionihi.i Sk,^.
stitiosia (with which is printed Ore^rdiy i,f
Nyssa's /,'/'• ''* £unl, Ifiirna.), Ilanov. Iil07'
T. M. Mamachus, Orii/. et Aittii/. d'lrint. torn, ii!
De I'emjr. Vet. Christ, in Palaest., Fior. I749.
J. H. Heidegger, Dissert, de Pernp: Iki^,
m specie Ilicroa., Horn. &o. [W. E. s.]
PILLAR SAINTS. [Mortificatio.n.]
PINNA8, Scythian martyr with Inrrns »nj
Rimas ; commemorated Jan. 20. (Basil. Mewil ■
Cat. Byzant.). [(;. h.] '
PINYTIIS, bishop of Gnossus in Crete ; com-
memorated Oct. 10 (Usuaid. Mart.; U'xrt
Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Oct. v. 9).
[C. H.]
PIONIUS, martyr at Smyrna; commemo-
rated Feb. 1 (Usuard. Mart, j Vet. Itom. iUiH ■
Boll. Acta SS. Feb. i. 40). [0, II.]"
PIONUS, presbyter and martyr with Metro-
dorus at Nicomedia ; commemorateil JIaivh 12
(Florus, Mart. ap. Bed.) ; Pion and Mctrodu.H, two
martyrs at Smyrna, occur on this day iu Hii'im.
Mart. [C. H,]
PI8AL18, PiSELIS, PlSKLI'M (Oiilliio, P(,ele\
or Pv'liAi.i':, the same as the Calkkactohhm. s
chamber in a monastery heated in winter, oitlin
by an open fireplace as at St. Gall, or wilh hot-
water pipes, which served as the comiiioQ room
of the brethren, for social intercourse. Its
usual place was under the dormitory on the
east side of the cloisters (" RegiuhoMus . . .
aedificavit primum dormitorium subtus autem
pisalem;" Act. Muretuis Motuist. p. 9, ap. l)u
Oange.) At St. Gall it had an outlet com-
municating with the fucessarium. Fives were
lighted in it from November 1. ".K cileniiii
Novembris coucedetur fratribus acce.ssui ipiis,
locus aptus fratribus designetur cujus refrii;io
hybernalis algoris et intempeiies levigatur"
(Cuncord. Seijuiar. S. Dunst. Cant. Mun. Angl. i.
xixiv.). Adelard {StattUa Curbeicns. c. 6),
speaks of the Piselum as only in tcuiporaiy u«e,
"piselo . . , tempore quando illo uti necesa
est " (ap. Du I'ange, suh voc.) Du Ciinge is in
error in identifying it with the wiirdrobe. At
St. Gall, the house of the novices and the
infirmary hiid each their 3ep.".r.'itn PisaHs for tlw
use of the inmates. [See Ciiuucii, Vol. 1, p.
383, MoNASTKRy.] [E. V.J
PISCICULL [Fjbh! IXQYC]
PISCINA
.:Ih™;,;«i'l.r*rm::ti°'. *'" '-"'• ^-
pucu), "Uic eit uiscl. „„i i„ i "'^ ''' UX""*!
lur\oput. lib* i'^r'-'p.'-'er ,'.;;:;:'»,;;?!•
i. w,.ich the mi„i,t«ri„;'^ Jii:rwtv: '^t: htfj
(Cyril. Hiero.. C.S J/^Wv 2 /•"''»''
(/«^«r.<. VW, rf Nov. Test, c i lOt . V^'^""'-
DenMrdijJteiten, IV. i. 112). '"' ' ^1^^%!'"'
W V.269) ^ '•' ^""i^"' ^"^
.orssr^:^7:tji^::if-Thoogni,
jne.„r«ted Aug. 21 (Ba«l"Ir:r ,' "^ 4;;:?
the »aine name, with no mention of thlfl- ,
occurs ou this day in Ilieron.Zrt [C^H ]''
PL.\CIDU8, tnartvr with r.,*- •
^ [C. 11.]
PLANETA
1643
Pl,AfiAL. The name civen »n fV^,,- .„ i
modes iul.led by St. Gregoi'rtn .1 f '," ""^
th. church ch/„„ \:lfixX^2" A "l'' '■"'■
Thefn™..werecalledAutl!;;iic\Vl'-,t^^--
and bor.) the names Dorian Phrv.ril t j'^'
a::ru:i"n'^\r,x.""'' '■'"-•'' -'»••■
0, on weelcU^y, th ; a o" oft ""^ I'"" '" ^
""ually, heard .un« h^armoni ."'.r' ''*''>''l'»
•ong in theTreble"andTr7K '' *'"' "'« '''»'»
tonality of Q; but on XV.)" ""'" '""'• '» 'h«
-«. M.t into the ..n„r;:i£—„.S»
...iheSSs\::it"S""^'" ;;•"'--"'•
ni-re extended comoosit, „"'"""'"'« '''"«"'».
b-th combine, , T X ilrth„"''" '," *"■' '"""'' '»
Lave largely ir^itat >d r'r""' """'r" ""'»i'i»>i»
"He «.>. the lovely ''til •:'''';'^>}'"'-''''
Beethoven's Fifth SvmnLn." x, J V/,c.</,„.„) .
<^»a>tett in G mho? w' *'""''■' '''"""'>■•«•
niwles or scales wi. L "*'^J , ^"^» <hang ng of
bv whom it il c,:^ ed "Tafli^ ":^ timeof Lcdidi
but although apparonHT.f''^'"'''"'' "'""'•)
W'uld seem to ha" I "■"''■'''^'''''''y him, it
ehurch c.on™ose„ trth/? • ''^'/''^''''^ ^y iU
Pl»«al mode's CO re" iin'^T "' "1"'"'""'= """«
very good e.a,n,.ie t ' "h °L*t" fl '"'"-"'•• ^
» the plain .ong t , „'' »" "V" '"'Z'- P"""''.
(Hynml Noted isW6\!*K«'"' ^'''' ^"^
are set in thp H,.., '.•-'' "^ "'■''' two stanzas
and Miiolyilian ranirin™ ..„' J""'"' '.""an,
the octaveil.!:'!/!^ 'k-T'S'^!::'"^., '^T^^
modes were called Hynodorian H„ '"* ^'"Sia'
placed a fourth below\'Z ^e^i^ve/rL"''^''
from A-a, B-b, C— c and iT i (' ""'K"'S
" fio.ll" or" tonic "wT'n, ~'' ' *»" their
JilTor .1 'from the Vrian ^'^'.''''^Jy'""'' •"«<!«
twined iu the'l,"*" r'ft«•'.itwasc„
<i'risionoftheoct8veinthe^TOi''' that the
thus ;— 'eapective cases were
Dorian.
-O^Q.
being respectively f! age / I. »'""*'
he. moJeswerJcalCdre 2^n iii" e'iTn^i
'X3^-f^:d?'^ """ - ^
fr»'eJ,but not re belted bv Th '""^'"' "'""
Cn.inor'i's Vlnimed toh''' -^ ^-""^ «"t''ori'ties,
^:S:^:cr-""K:^:^:;^h:
we have endetou^edn """''""'''' [P^'^'""-A]
the word under Xh *h7rl. ''''' '^''''"'y °?
vestment in the Greek churnh^"""'' '"P"'
the western church .in" ♦V* designated. In
century, this vestment hl^ \ ""' "'' *»>« 8th
known as ca/uM^bu^'o l^"""''""^' universally
of such a vestment arin,"' I!"-"'" ""^ '""""d
the word used is p L^^j" nL'""*'", »^t date,
«nd 0a..rfA,,, thf Cd is not r2 ";^°^'^""•
rueharistic meaning, and we shaH ' ' -*" '*'
instances in which it is f„.l .^ ' V'sently cite
laymen. '* '°'""' *"' » liws. worn hj
pite'f 'S* :" f "^ --"c that the
and P-pleT'the" amrdrrrr*" "" 1"*^"*'
merely in poinU of detafl aLd i^""^' "l"* "'
two latter words, wh le it f. ♦ '"T"'^'' *'"'
I'turgiologi^ts ab'sorutefy d Lr^J'"'' '"*"
Kabanus Mauruj infrn\L " . "'"^ them (e.g.
of time all iMnton^l^T^ ^^^ '" P™«S8
clear that at an Sri"'!. '".'''>•«' '' '»
iJea was conveyed by the .'„ »" ^ ^^ I ''"'■"•'"'
being a more costly,Vnd the . '?' *''«M'«e<a
<lfe»s, the latter term also beinT"'" I ^"""""ner
vincial or Popular name t"he''':^''''' " l'"-"-
expression paJnu/a "^ """"e general
anlX^tf-aL'tSm^'^r ''''I "' -»'«■
but references are mo fviTh /''.I ""= "*''^^'«).
something too costlvfLU ,"."'" J^'"'"''"- "
actually in use bv in » ° '*''""■' ""^ «»
earliest'instan'e'o Ve't^fThl "■"""• «"'
early in the 5th century cLlt """f. •"="'■•''
later than 417 or 418 ^.^o.. wh n d;-:;;." "^ f^'*
oreas c the EevDtiavi m^JC '"'-'■ribijig the
i^gyptiaa monks, mentions the
-. iudicte . -^nTlaZuet u.er^r« Jbi.
•I"
p »■
1(:44
PLAMETA
n^/»ri, or tht ihort clonk which thff won
ouviTiRg tht iicrk ami sliLu^li-n. "Tliin,"he
••y». " ih'-y avoiil at iimn the i"»t and thi" imlcn-
t*tii>Uin»M ii( viotu'liu anil '<irri "(.<■• ('■'iwihu/r*"'
f,„lil ^''. 1-7 i I'lttrui. jlix. 72). The e«»ii-
tcru «■ * hy CttsHian ii, It niny In' ri'niarkcn
fMauetiLa, •hich wr iimy anaiiinp tu bo a ■limiiiu-
tiv« of jiMiwtii. Ill likn iiiitiiiiiT, liii>l<iri) iif
Sevilli', two hiiiiilri'il )i'ui« Inter, in hii /I'u/i' I'or-
bl'la to hi» moiiku the im- of thu filiimtx : —
" iirarium, birroa, |iliuii'tn<, i«hi i'»t fu» uti, iu'i|iii'
Iniliiiiiiiiita vi'l ealcpaini-nta, >|uaH k*'"'*''"''''"'
cai'tiTa moiia.Ht«ria abiituntnr [i c. ilo not uhp J "
(AV/iiVu AluHichoruiit, c. I'J, § 'i; I'atrol. Iiixiii.
88 J).
Th« I'ldivta wnulil thui agipear to be a drosi
whuit' cii.Htlim-iis remU'rHd It unauitahlH fur thi'
u>e ot'iiim|>li.' iiionka, whoae iluty it wim to avoiil
luxury. It was ajijiarfntly a lull tlowiiiu rolii',
for C«H«iaii (jd*/ ni) loiitrastn it with tho im/n.i-
tttiii imlliiiluin which tha miinkii were to wnar.
With thin a^rKe* the iioticK Kivoii uh by iNiiloro
of tho ili'rivation of th« wonl. A« thi-re are
■oinu ilillioulties conni'iiteil with the |>aH8aK<'i we
give it at length. "Tho oasula." he »ay«, "is a
rube with a hooil, (lorireil as a iliiiiiiiutivo from
CiKii [a house], bemuse it covers the whole
pf raon — a tort of n'iiua' ure ciisd. Similar ii the
origin of iHciiMi -a sort of miniature cr/ln. I
may a U that the Greeks hoM that one of their
niiines for these robes, /itiiint'ic, is ileriveil frirm
their free ami Howing bonlers'" [sic et Orneei
jilanetas ilictos volunt, quia oris errautilius eva-
ganturj, Hence the term /j/uii('<<ir// stars; that
is, rovinj; stars ; stars which roll hero ami there
with a riivinj^ maze ami motion of their own "
(/v7,v»i. lib. xix. 24 ; J'atml. Ixxxii. «'.•!). On
this passage one or two remarks may be briefly
maile. After the ilerivation of cnsnlii has been
given us a " little house," follows tho mention of
the ji/fiiictii, introiluceil by the wonls ai: ei. Of
course, however, the derivation in tho latttr case
is on a totally ditJ'erent groove ; therefore the sic
points til a similarity not of thn derivation, but
of the thin){ itself That is to .say, Isidore
l.racticallv ideiitities the plancta with the casula.
V^ain the derivation »( pla>u't<t is of course from
the fireek, and as will be seen, Isidore distinctly
implies that the name planeta was actually given
to the dress by the Greeks. Excepting, however,
a remark of Itabanus Maurus, which we shall
presently quote, there does not appear to be any
further evidence forthcoming to shew that the
word planet I in ever used in Greek in that sense.
This init;ht tend to prove that the word passed
from Greek into Latin in its astronomical sense,
and that the then Latin word developed this new
mefiphovical meaning. Whether, however, the
ditti i.v is to be explained by .supposing that
et'jde. •♦ I'S'tge e;iisted to Isidore, that is not
foriheoii • o '" or v.'hether Lidore was mis-
led ii.t<: . ;„ ie, ant 'i- •:';iu Greek derivation,
does u ,1 'J.'
It I ;.s let 1 • .'-. . ■ lOmarked that tho ptaneta
seems ;i i. .n . 'jr. \ dress of a sc\!! . ^.lt costly
descrijiii.^ti, suit;.' It for men of rOi!,,. This can
be shev, - not on)y by the prohibitions to monks
>> Cf. Knnoriua Augustodunensis (Otmma Animae,
I. 201; ta'.rol. clxxil. 608): "Haec vesils [casula] ct
planeta, quod error sonat, vocatur, eo quod errabundus
Umbua ^uo utrluque in brochia sublcvatur,"
PLANKTA
we hare already citeil, but by direct lin-lin, .<,
In a Iif* of Kiilgiintiua (ob. A. a .MVI), by ,^„ ,,f
his dixciples, a dtscription l» given i.f ),ta
triumphal return to Carthage alter hi^ edb. j^
heavy atiirm of rain coming on, tbi ii.<fi/,i, [^^
\\\i'ir pianetaii to lorm a ahultur for Kuli;eiiiiu,_
- taiitum Ii les noliiliiiiu crevit, ut plmn'ii- „,),
super lieati«ii Kulgcniluiii gratauter e>|.,|„|^
repeliereut Imbres et novum taiieroaciili ^ >,t„
■rtlftosa carltate cumponerent " (i . 'Jli ; I',,t.'i4.
Ixv. I4ti). Ag.iiu, ill the well-known I <'|<i'.',..uM.
tlon of Gregory tho Great, with his faiiii'i »nil
mother, which is described by his bii'^rihhi-r
John the deacon, in the loth century, imt ugly
Gregory bimself, ^lU ecclesiastio, wears tht
pliiru'tii, but also his father Gordianus, a seuaiur.
The former wore »" planeta super dalniatiiam
castanea" (lib. iv. c. M4 ; l':tlriil. Uxv. Jlil);
and as to the latter, "Gordiani habitus la'-taiw
cidiirU plaueta est, sub planeta ilalni;ilii,i" (i;,
M.l). It may fairly be inferred Irmu hence
that, as late as the cud of the lith rentiiry at
any rate, the iiliineta, whatever its u.^e hv wile-
siiislics, whether for olticial use or nlhriwisi.
was also a dress which any gentleman nmjlit
fiirly use. In another passage of the >aiue
biogia|ihy (lib. ii. c. lit ; vp. cit. 104), th.' rrltr.
enco Is not i|uite clear. A certain perMin having
been excluded hy Gregory from loiiiinuiiiiii fur
adultery, sought the aid of sorcerer^, whu un-
dertook that the bishop's horse should tlirnvv him
'IS he rodu in procession. The jilan, how.rer,
viMs readily foiled by the bishop, lu I hi' iiarni-
live the expression occurs: " When the seneren
recognized the prelate, fj/j/imedi^uniHimci^yiu/j.
toruiwiiw pruirasiuniljiu." The mippnin, wliiitcvjr
its nature may have been, was, as we hari
shewn iu a previous article [Mami'I.k], a s|Hd:il
privilege of the chief ecclesiastics of tlie lininun
church in Gregory's time. The phimin wt h iv«
seen to be worn by laymen as well a> iliMici.
It seems to us, therefore, inipossilde tu iluliiu
the matter very exactly hero; we can imly
say that the two sets of people s|uTilitJ
were tho olHcials of high rank in stteu'l-
anco on the bishops of Home ; but whether
these are to be viewed as exclusively ileiial, i,r
formed of clerics and laics both, is ilimhiful.
Ducange (s. v. I'latwta) explains the two ilaniM
as deacons and subdeacor letpeciively; ui
Marriott (p. 202, n.) considi.,o tli.- okin ■ ui to
be presbyters and high officials, und In mfh
pulati to be deacons and f i.ii'"i'ji -is. W ■ '• ibt,
however, whether the c i..:r' i sulli. itut to
justify us in coming to a definite conclusiiin.
Thus far, we have seen that iu the lith cen-
tury the I'lttiietd was not an exclusively clerical
dress, either at Kome or in Nnrlfi Afria
Further, there appears to bo no allusiun what-
ever in the records of the first six ccnturiei
which points to the planeta as part ef the
ministerial garb of the Christian clerics. So far
as it was won by clerics, it was iu virtue of
their olticial rank, not their clerical protesioi,
the privilege being one shared with l.'iyinen.
The earliest instance in which the ///iinrfa It
referred to as something specially pertaining to
tha Christi.in miuistrv is in a lannn <>! 'he
fourth council of Toledo (63;t A.D.). Here it is
ordered that if a bishop, |)riest, or deacon shidl
have been unjustly deposed, and shall afterward)
be found Innocent, he is still not to reg.iB
PLANET1UU8
U» lout rnnk till h« ihull k... . ■ • . .
Itrnol hji'lK^ol th.it rnnk. Tl.l» i, i. ,,
ijimic, V. U14). A Ini.ir nutiif |,i,i ,,c „ i
n,.UMt.„,ltl.. ol..pt.r«v.r;;J;'\''.; .^
pl>in«lm vol . ttiiueriti, .,il|. i uibm " ^
pavM w. in ^r,.,t ,n«„,„re »„,,„r,M,|,,| tv
OKU 1, the twf> i.inN li..i.,„ .1 ■■ "
..I M «lMn|,,t,.ljr ,yi.„nyino,., (,«„ , ,.
H.,et.„.„o„.„^n „;::-/,-, H«„e 0-0.
h-'-'O ; nnocent 11. * .^^.,„ ,,/<f,,., ^,;, ^ ;^"^'
iVe m.iy cjill nttontlon here to«.lmilur .,.
.i.n of the u.« of the tern, „/„;",".?, "J -
w. have Hlrsmly r.ferre.l toH» oxisting in th« c,.
of th« pAenolum in tho Or.wk church l„ !„ /^ T
h ,e,,rte.B.l m »hape from the ,,rie,tly 2t7a
Uoubtful; hntu the matter fills ouUHoT, r
r/ ■; "" '52" r' p"""« "•« »"''iect wt "
(cf .V XIV. H; Patrol. Ixxviii. U7(/
/.i/miiurd.— |.'„r the matter nC .L r
.r.icle, we «re mainly in.lX d to Book r'T?'^
ongmateJ in a false reading of st 4 ^'""
C.»im. iv. iii. 4 • » III.:. ./ < '^"({ustine,
f-itf-"^it,:: i:LtatnXf:,1t•
^;..i;ro.^««i/,ua;^:ur'i^:i«;!:t^
•-- ™^' '?JiS' """ifT '*-^"-
[W. E. S.J
PLicat
VM
^nfl^^iS corn ^"'=^"'' '""*''" "f
(Basil. i/.,T- Ca/ ^^^"'"■•''l'"' ^"^- 1»
June 22Twri<rht «^ "'i/'"' '^'""a'ms) ;
Mart. • Hart. Rom • R, !i " , » ^"- -Him.
^^«.f-the-GSL>J£t|„^Jtti"^?'„J-
T """"'«<>< sub toe.) speaks of V*'^" , '
"armoream quam appellaba^nt rM, .*'"'"'r'
i"""",." InthL sen' if* ' """i^"""" P"'^*
inari.ion.iH „|„t»n 11 1 . *' ' " "'"l«lli«
'l"V"lion, it wa, iuHt,.nl,l r L-" '■•" "• (''"""
•h"ir mo'r., -^ U .tTn;7., '',' '^" 'I"'" ^-'l- "^
""-™n«l papal c."v„th?,k. """ '•""'""" '"'t'o
•he ^vorkof^SixtuYlVln.h""'"'?^ "?'•'■'"'"'"«.
•"•th cnturv tlol , i^r ';'"■'""■ '"'"' '•( the
"*"«clt Ilat.'„il„; ,,''''*:'' ^y Ann,,ta,i„,;_
'» ni«ntlon«l by I'ruduutlu, i ''''*'"'°
AJUIdIt ornando clara Ul„„u op^rl. "
I'triiteph. al. |»a.
chrXpuCedr\,''f '''''•''»'••' "f '"« -rul.
ranoan vault J^/""^'" ""'«"t.r, the .ubtcr-
c'^nu.t«,L rwhich .f . ?' •""■'■•"■"' '" "" """ihir
»'• St. IVter „T,d S, 7.''"r '!»■-••« the b.„,i.»,
lJ«mttsu«, A ,, '.Hn " ,^"' """•'•'« I'y pope
''•-•rl et vIm''UM^T±'''7u\ ''' ""•' >•«""
/^'''^v«^«n^was'i~'?^"r. ''"■'*" «» '•>«
name. t i. . rudeW ^^ ^ < "^gnated by that
-^".ved Sid : a. d :d«"'"^'''"""'-^ with
excavated with thirf. „ ""■ '"'"'• "" *''"«
with stucco o~nf P'".'" y-"<^^f'«'' "■•"'"'liu
. 'ura. 1. pi. 5 . jjo3,g^ j^p 178-187).
anrtiE^^; """^^"" '" '^'"•»™ with Eutici
otherwisVa .d VS'otho 'c'^ *''" ."""•»'■"<"'•
Horn.). * ^ °'"" companious; J/„rf.
[C. H.]
PLAYS. [Actors: Theatbe.]
Augustine addreiesii.s epistt to thr\ l*""
Hippo, to the clor»J ♦!, ' 1 1 "^ •^'""■'h at
laitvV"univer^ae*„th^" l'";'' ""'' *'"' ^^^ole
re.t::i'ro ki^j^jM^'iT'-'^ ^"'^"'-
chureh The sixthl'u^rof SrA-," -
parochiae^llae" ^""''^"' '"''>'' "'■> P'^'^bus
o'dinat^on of a iavian L^''""'''VS'''"^' '*"'
"dp t,l«i,. 1- 'f/^an from another diocese
ifiy
■^i.:i
1646
PLOTfNUS
and (c. 12) listens with npjirobntion to the cnm-
filaint oi' one of their number, thiit iiiiother
linhop was in the habit of holding visitations in
certain pnrishes of his diocese, "circuit plebes
mihi ftt.tributas." The second council of t'nr-
tlmge, A.I). M90 (c. 2(1), Cod. Keel. Afria. (cc.
98, 99), makes regulations for the nllotnient of
)mri8hes (plebes) to their proper dioceses. The
third council of Cnrthago, A. P. ;)97 (c. 20),
provides that no bishop shall interfere with
parishes out of his own diocese, " plebes alienae."
A council held nt Home, A.n. S'.'G {SynMl.
J!om. c. 1(>), speaks of the parishes under the
jurisdiction of the bishop, "subjoctis plebibus."
The council of Meaux, A.D. 8+.^ (c. 29), orders
that bishojis should visit the " plebes " under
their juri^Hiction. A Capitulary of Charle: the
Great (tit. v. c. 4) speaks of the presbyters in
charge of their respective plebes.
(3) Thoniassin (ifo E<xl. Disiip. Vet. ct Nov.
i. 2, c. .'), § H) thinks that the word was especially
applied to the great parish churches which were
in charge of nrchpresbyters, in which alone
baptism was administered, and which possessed
some jurisdiction over the inferior parishes.
Thus in the council held at Home, A.D. 826
{Synmi. Rom. c. 8), mention is made of the
"plebes baptismales." The first council ol
Pavia, A.l>. 850 (c. 6) speaks' of the- appointment
of penitentiaries by the bishops and nrchpres-
byters of " plebes ;" and (c. IH) speaks of nrch-
presbyters of " plebes'' who were to exercise a
certain authority, not only over the laity,
"vulgus," but over the presliyters of the
inferior parishes, "qui per minores titulos
habitant," and to have authority in their own
parishes as the bishop in the cathedral church,
"sicut ipse matrici praeest, ita arohipresbyter
praesit plebibus," yet in due submission to
episcopal authority. [P. O.]
PLOTINUS, martyr, with forty-nine others,
at Melitene; commemorated Nov. 21 (Wright,
Syr. Mart.). [t!- H.]
PLURALITIES (Plnnilitas beneficioriwi).—
The otbce of a clergyman is of such a nature as
to be for the most part incompatible with other
employment; nor is it po.ssible for one per.son
adequately to discharge duties in two churches.
Hence it has from ancient times been forbidden
that one man should hold ollice in different
places. The council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451)
ordered (c. 10) that no person should be borne
on the roll of two churches in respect of the
same oflice. Gregory the Great (Joannes Diac.
Vita Greg. ii. 54; Decretum, p. i. dist. Ixxxix.
c. 1) desired that one oflice in the church and
no more should be committed to one person ; tlie
members of Christ must subserve each its own
use. The sixteenth council of Toledo (A.D. 693)
ordered (o. 5) in the most emphatic manner that
more than one church should on no account be
committed to the charge of a single presbyter ;
and the second council of Nicaea (A.D. 787)
enjoined (c. l.")) that no clerk should hold pre-
ferment In two churches, for a man cannot
serve two masters. A main object of this canon,
as that of tbe r.-.iinci! of (;h.^lce.!on previously
quoted, was to compel clerks to remain in the
church were thev were first ordaiued (Walter,
Kirchenreiht, § 221, 9th ed. ; Van Espen, Jus
Eoclesiasticum, p. il. sec. iil. tit. 3). [C]
PNKUMA
PTJTTARCIIUS, martyr at Alexandria with
.Serenus and others ; commemorated Jmh' '.'8
(Usiiard. Mart.; Vet. Hum. Murt.^ Ii:,rnn,
Mart.). , [0. 11]
PLUVIALK. [Corn, p. 458.]
PNKUMA. This word is quite as fie(|i,i.nllv
as not met with in the form Nku.ma ; snm iiinj,
also in the fgrm Nkui'MA, which seems t,, |, im
to the orthography of rne\inia ; au^l in n^
form Neuma the origin seems to have Ij.in |,i,t
sight of anil the word considered to lie oi' tln>
first declension, as we find Neumw and Acumii.
It is applied to a musical passage, ccmsistijn; of
a number of notes, which were either siiuj; to
one syllabic, or to no words nt all, in that case
probably on the vowel a (ah). This a|i|ie:iis tii
have been used in the .lewish worship as ,i sub.
stitute for the instrumental perbiniiaiire «f
"Selah" (see DlAl"' .MA), or may have bei-n
considered » meaning of that obscure wonl. It
is also thought to be a technical meaniiii; nt' tlie
term " jubilaro" used in the translation iif tlie
I'salms, so llelethus (quoted by ,1. M. Ntale i/j
Sei/uontiis ad 11. A. IJaitiel l^pist. Crit.), "In
hujus tine neumatizamus, id est jubilamu>, ilmn
tinem protrnhimus et ei velut cauilam imiin.
gimus," and this was mystically referred to ilie
eternal rejoicing of the saints; " Solemus lonciun
notam post Alleluia super literam A iltinntare
quia gnudinni sanctorum in coelis inlerniinaliile
et inefliibile est;" and the absence of woii|» is
explained thus, " quia ignotus nobis est niuliis
laudandi Dcum in patria " (Neale, ut sh)).). Tht
Pneuma must have attained considerable mag-
nitude within the period of this dietinnnry,
because immediately afterwards Notker Jc-
veb)ped out of it the practice of sinjing
sequences (Neale); it would seem very iirolMble
that it had been found inconvenient fVuiii itj
length. A very similar jiroceediug has tua
place in the present century in oratorio music;
one seldom now meets with long florid pasMitis'
such as are to be found in songs, ami even in
choruses, in the works of Handel and lliiydu.
The first tone is generally quoted as a s|icd-
men of a short Pneuma of three notes : —
'-^-
§
Et in secula se - cu - lo -rum. A - meo.
The following Is given in Guide Aretinus (di
Modvrum I'orinulis apud Cousseinaker, vol. li.
pp. 78, &c.), in a " Communion " of the »t«iiJ
mode : —
--m^=^-
Et
se - cu - la, se - cu - lo •
-=*=z:^^*a;^%^
la Walter de Odyngtnn (Cnussemaker, i-
• Th.'se pneumata or paK'nges wore at a Wf 1^"^
called" divisions i" thus Slinkspere •• Some say Ibe Jil
makes sweet division " (Komm and Juliet, iil. 6).
POLLIO, martyr
rated Ap. 28 (Usuard.
POEMEN
pp. 218, &c.) occm-a tlie fi.Ilowine as an fn.l.
S'ri """"'"' W"""/! "'"Ivr the cishth
.unt bo - a . ti . tu . di-nek
Kcup-ma, . , ,
Some of considerable lemrth annear in tl,
^-'"■-/''f ■""»- /''•« L, uZ: n tat , ,
spokeu „bove under the nrtirle Mus.c tl m
pr.senls the appe.unncc of Khort-hand wr t t
a» 6.W to the iuvenfou of the stave; they a e put
with the iNoNANNKANE, or NoKACis one nota 1
mavbe mentioned, standing at the head of I
Pijrornticiy' toni; al.so i,? this MS i^i^j
made by a later hand nt the beiriuninV nf 1 i.
.ection .,, "Quarta vigliia vt^i^tTeo ■•"«;«
.ppbea w.th a notation, and apparently,":
Amangst other uses for Pneumatn one was to
nable tl,e chant to end satl,fa<;torily, ,„ that
here could be no doubt a» to the modi n whi h
It was ooinposed. r i d V -i
I, J. K, L.J
POEMEV, "our father," anchorite in The.
bails confessor; commemorated Auir 27 rri
Buxint. ; Basil. Menol. ; Daniel C^^'nlJ'F'^
m;Ma,t. Horn. ; Boll. Actaht 25)'- '''
POENITEi^TrA. [Pen,te.nck.] "^^^ "'^
POITIERS, SYNOD OP (PicTAVFNsr r ^
A.D 590, to adjudicate on a qulrd b.^^e^ %)
Z/ra^'"'"'^''''^''' ""'' »"-^e„aand he
abbes, ot the convent of St. Radeguntl the^f
lupenoi', when thev wpre tmik „ "^K""") meii
()Li, 955-908). '"'[^rs k/]''
POLIANUS. martyr in Africa under Deciu,
^jaenan; commemorated Sept. 10 (UsuaH
[C. H.]
POLIUS with Timotheus and Eutichius all
rZYuin,'"^^'. in Pannoniar eommemo-
ratea Ap, ^8 (Usuard. Mart. ; Ilieron. Mart.).
POLYAEVUSd), martyr with AcaL"nd
Menam or, disciple, and fellow-martyrsof PatH
B..'fcr"^"' ^"'"■"""'""'«'' ^'-"i*^
(2) Martyr with Hermas and Serapion • com
memorated Aug. 18 (Uasil. Mcnol.).^ [d HJ
P0LYEUCTU8 IC47
parallel rows of nicho. «,„ » 1
cemetery of Cy i^a inten t ° ^* """' '" "">
tall, niiddle-siied and sZ : 'T'''''^y ^"^
«"<^l' eolU are s;mJCfou, ^'""^'^ '".""K^
cTuo/tv'i/ li„o, SO that if ui I, "'"vated in a
mnst have been h 't t?r •"?■" "'"' "'«»>"'ly
, xviii.). Tracings fi"b'ck ^f n'i f'"'" /'''• »-^
"ever boon cxecut, I nl '"''"'" *'"" '"'ve
' 1'- 124 and tav. ,xw!i ) "'''^""""""^ '""'"'J {iJ.
™«S"rnnrtn:"of''''''r''r''''''''-y"
-mctime. undo? he Ir'as'lf '.'h '"' •»-
Christian cemeteries at 0,7,, .T./" ^ ""''•""
/^on.L.Uc'i'v.^i!',";;; ^'-■- (Ma-hl.
-uih orLrSsTRr" '' '^'"- »»•»
from the brickvarls L >l *°? "'""'""J
Tbey are Konerallv IrV . "■ ""''Khbonrhood.
the factory «^d of h. ''1."""' *'"•' ""'"« "f
with those\? the coutir-n' T\ """'""«»
mark would of cour.e ll . '" '"■^'-""-'ntioued
P«riod of buria A !'"T^fr'''^""«"f the
drawing of these .V T'."",""''''' ""'"hor of
in B;'><ictti (SS'S ;^t 7^ "V"""
m l-nbretti V /iismV T,'/ .P" '?.^^ "' ^^l-) "nd
:;'il
Asia).'' ^' '^'*'<^- ^'"•'•. PolycnrVus of
FeK^uSrd "iT'^r-' -"—ated
coSemoriH" a'"' 7^^ "."<'er Ma.imianus ;
Oct. 27 (Wright, 5," Sf ' -mmcjuo^ted
BaJ;KyScfa^' ^'''''•'' ""'^ "-'K of
ratoii Feb 17 (L fai-d'"""^''?'"".' "'"""'"'o-
Feb. iii. 5) ' '• ^'""- ; J^"ll- ^'ta 5-."?:
[C. H.]
I J^^Y^^:D«0V. This word is used bv
hv 1 „ "'"'" '"•■■'""K^'l in "'«« or four, or
I ^"•' '" ''« P'a'^eJ 'u tl.em. Three such
unS;S^y«, W "^ ^'•^'■■'-a. «-rishcd
rated at .Cl,t?„aj!n ,"'.«? •'^;' ' co.nmomo-
^^-Un,/oJ;''";,i',?-/g<^^^'-fht, Anrt. Syr.
Nicomedia(.W</.424). Jan sVt;. ' 'l""' ^2 at
(Basil. /I W., i,anilcJV "'''''■• ' "'""• ^
ofMolitm.Boh.'|^^^Ki:^--r
Mel^ana) ;'-m1J ife^f^^^/'^-- of
"'/aosarea in Capp^docia) • £ '9 "jj^''''''^
and Donatus in Mauri a2^r ^ V.ctorius
Acta SS. Mai. v -; , 1 ^""anens; Boll.
'"'• V. s, the same); Dec. 1»
I ; j.
XUii
: ■'.-If
1' )
1648
POLYGAMY
PONTTFEX
I I
I-
t ^, i
kh
I
«
(Basil. Menol; PoLVKUCTUS, martyr of Caesa-
rca).
(2) Confpssor with Timothcus ; commemorated
May 20 (Wright, Si/r. Hart.).
(3) Martyr at Caesarea in Cappadocia, with
Victurus, iJoiiatua, (juiutua ; conimiMnuratud
May 21 (Ilieron. Miirt.). Under Jan. 7, Ilicron.
Mart, has Pdlioctos and Candida at Metitana ;
Poliartus, FiUironiiia, Caudidiunuii, cLnewhere.
Under Keb. 14 the aani« Martyrnlogy has C'andi-
dianii.'i, I'oliarctua, Kiloroius, in Uracoiu. Flurus
under .Ian. 11 comniemorntes I'oliii. tiis, Caudi-
dianus, Kilotimus ; and on the same day the
Bollandittts hare I'ulycnetus, Candidianus, I'hilo-
romus (^Acta SS. Jan. i. 600). [€. H.]
POLYGAMY. [Makriaqe, ix. p. 1101.]
POLYMITIIS (PoLyMiTiiM, Poi-ymita Vks-
TI8). This, as the name implies, i» a garment
woven with various coloured threads. Thus
Isidore defines it (Eti/m. xix. 22 ; I'atrot. Ixxxii.
6tS0), " roli/mitn multi coloris. Polymitus enini
textiis muitorura colorura est." Caesarius of
Aries forbids to nuns the use of " plumaria et
acupictura et omne polyraitum " (/^fi/. u<< yirg.
42 ; J'atrol. Ixvii. 1116). Jerome (^llpist. 64 itJ
Fabiohm, c. 12 ; Patrol, xxii. 014) uses the word
in describing the Jewish priestly girdle. The
Word also occurs in the CitpitiUare dc Inuu/initms
of Charlemagne (i. 12 ; I'atml. xcviii. lo3li),
Where the " vestis polymita sive varia " is the
"coat" of Joseph, symbolising the church gath-
ered out of many nations. For further references,
iee Ducange's Utosaariuin, s. v. [K. S.]
POLYXEV A, virgin, sister of Xantippe, the
wife of Probus praefoct of Spain in the reign of
Claudius, disciples of St. Paul ; commemorated
Sept. 23 (Basil. Mcnot.). [C. H.]
POMP A. [Mauuiaqe, p. 1109.]
P0MPEIU8 (1) Martyr with Terentius
under Decius ; commemorated Ap. 10 {Mart.
Hum.) ; Daniel {Cud. Liturg. iv. 257) gives the
two names as one, POMI'KIUS Tkukntius, which
may be by a typical error omitting a comma
between them.
(8) Of Italy, martyr in Macedonia with Pere-
grinus and others under Trajan ; commemorated
July 7 (Basil. Menul. ; Mart. Rom.). [C. H.]
PONTIANUS (1) Martyr at Spoletum
under one of the Antonines ; commemorated Jan.
19 (Usuard. Mart.\ Vet. Rum. Mart.; Bed.
Mart. Auct.; Mart. Rum.); Jan. 14 (Notlfer,
Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i. 932, and some other Mar-
tyrologies).
(2) Deacon, martyr at Carthag* with St.
Cyprian ; commemorated Mar. 8 ( Vet. Rom.
Mart. ; Usuard. Mart., PoNTIUS).
(3) Martyr at Rome with Eusebius and others
under Comuiodius j commemorated Aug. 25
(Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Rom. Mart.).
(4) Pope and martyr under Maiiminus ; n.it.i!i?.
commemorated at Rome Nov. 20 (Usuard.,
Wan.l., Vet. Rom. Mart.) ; Oct. 29 (Florus ap.
Bed. Mart.) ; Aug. 13 {Hierun. Mart.).
(6) Martyr at Rome with Praetextatus, under
Maximinus; commemorated Doc. II (IJsunrd.
Mart, J Vet. Rum. Mart. ; Hicron. Mart.).
PONTIFEX. The derivation ef this w„r,l
by Varro, from pons and faccre, " iniiBminii ns"
he says, "the Roman pontiffs built thi- Tons
Sublicius and afterwards frciiuently restuii'il jt"
((fe /.in;/. Lat, v. H.3), may be compared «ith n
capitulary of Charles the (ircat which coimihri.ps
thus : " l)e pontibus vero vel reli(|iiis siiiiiliims
operibus que ccclesiastici per justam et (cil^iv.iin
emisncUuiinem cum reli(iuo populo facero Mmw "
(Pertz, J^ei/i). i. 1 1 1). Hichter, however, ci>nsi.ipn
the theory that its Christian use was ileiivoil
from the Roman emperors higlily imprnbiililo. m,\
inclines to regard it as a reminisieme (roiii the
Levitical service in the temple, cairyins; with it
the notion of a mediatorial ollice (/.riirhwh ./.
Kirchenreehts, p. 2ii4). In Christian lifi'iiitnn
the title first comes prominently bet'oic us. as
sarcastically applied by Tertullian to thi- hishin
of Rome ; "Audio etiani edictum esse pio)i«siti;iii,
et quidem peremptorium, Pontifex scilioit iii;i\i.
mus, quod est cpiscopus episcopornm, pli.i!,"
&c." {de Pudicitia, c. i.). Cyprian emplnvs Ian.
guage which suHiciently proves that suih yn-
eminence was unrecognized in the African iliunli
of his day: " neque cnim quisquam nostr\ini i')iis.
copum se esse episcopornm . . . quand.i liiilip.it
otnnis ejiiscopus pro licentia libertatis et (uites-
talis suae arbitrium propriiim " (Atlar. in (',« .
Carth. nnn. 256 ; Gieseler, I. i. 301). The ;uithnr
of the Life of Fnlgentius, speaking of tlie ri'turn
of the orthodox bishops to Africa, si\ys tliat Hi|.
deric, the Vandal monarch, " Cai'thagiuicnsi plrli
proprium donavit antistitem " (i.e. «. nn'tro]«iliian)
"cunctisque in locis ordinntiones;«n/i'/MiHi"(i,,'.
bishops) "fieri denientissima auctoritiitc mvliM.
vit " (Baronius, nnn. 522, c. x.). Tliis al.iif
suggests some doubt as to the gonHiiu'no>s (if the
39th canon of the African code, which cnji.ins Ih.il
" no primate shall be called a prince of piic-l*,
or pontirt'" [African Coi'nciib, p. 38], .Similavlr
the monies of Carthage in tHe year 52"), in « |*ii.
tion to Boniface, bishop of that city, aildipss him
not only as " npostolicn dignitate ]iiac(lilus,"
but also as "Christi venerandus I'imtija"
(Thomassin, cd. Bourassd, ii. 360). Hilnry if
Aries is styled "summiis Pontifex " liy Ku.'hpriiis,
bishop of Lyons (Migne, 1. 773). Aimstnsiui
first a4)plics the term to Pelagius I., of \\\\«st or-
dination in the year 555 he s:\ys, " et ordinav? nmt
eum pontificem " (Migne, Pativl. <'xxviii. Iii9).
Pelagius himself uses the title wlien speaking of
his predecessor, Leo the Great (Sirmonil, i. lUil).
There is, however, abundant evidence tiiat 1(11?
after the 6th century, especially in tlic laiiiiMff
of the civil legislator, the title continned to ht
applied to all bishops indiscriminately, it is (if
frequent occurrence in the Gothic and I,nnlll,1^lic
codes, and in the capitularies of Charles thoOrpst,
e.fj. " Ut unus(iui8que sacerdos cotiili.anis .I'Isist I
orationibiis pro poiitf/icc cujus guliern.itiii' rogi.
mine " (Pertz, Leijij. i. 87). In a capitulary cf
the council of Aachen (An. 803)metriipiilitansar(
designated as "summi pontifices." Segebmliisis
styled " totius Gothiae provinciac archipontifei"
(Uattia Clirialiaiui, .i. 108). In thi! iOth cer.-
tury, Bruno, primate of Cologne, is designatfJ
simply as " pontifex " (Pertz, Mon. Germ. Hit
V. 430), while in a charter of the year 902, eiven
by Bertha, queen of Hungary, the pope of Romi
PONTIFICAL
isstyli'd " Pontitex pontificum npostolicne sedis "
But in the year 1000 we fii„l the archbishop
of Arl.'9 designated as " P.mtifex summtis "
(Ducnnne, s.v.), and Lanfrnno, in the llth
century, is referred to by his biographer, Milo
Crisprnus, as "Primas et pontifex summus "
(Migne, ratrol. cl. 10). D'Aehery indeed, in a
note on the latter passage, states that these titles
were commonly given to bishops of distinguished
•«"• [J. B. M.]
PONTIFICAL (Zil,er Pmtificali, Pontifi-
cak, 'ApxKpaTiKdv), a book of offices peculiar to
a l)ishn|), lis those of ordination, confirmation
&c. Tlie later pontificals admitted offices'
common to priests and bishops, as e.g. that of
baptism, but with special directions 'for their
pcrfornmnce by the latter.
The early Sacramkntauy was also a pontifi-
cal. Thus the Gelasian gives the prayers said
by the bishop over public penitents on Ash-Wed-
Iie8<liiy and Mnuiicry Thursday (Liturff. Horn Vet
Murat. i. 50.5, 549) ; the forms of ordination of
>>ish"ps, priests, and all the inferior clerev
,,2, 518, 515, 619-629); the benediction of
nuns (ti;!H) ; of the holy oils and chrism (554) ■
(.! b,iiitism, as performed by the bishop on
Easter-eve and the eve of Whitsunday (568
591); the orders of confirmation (570, 597)'
and (if the dcilicaf ion of a church (609). '
The " Oiilo Komanus, qualiter Missa pontifi-
calls celebietur," probably compiled about 730
[Ordo]. m.iy be regarded as a partial pontifical
in Its earliest form. The first part ( Jfws. Ital
II. 3-10) describes a pontifical mass, but it gives
also directions for the especial services of Lent
and Holy Week as celebrated by a bishop, in-
c uding the making of holy oil, and chrism, and
the baptisms of Laster-eve (17-29), and for those
of fjister-day Whitsunday, St. Peter's day, and
Christmas (29). An appendix contains, with
many lurthw instructions, the method of makine
the Ag.nls Di:i. Such a directory was neces-
jary at a time when the sacramentarics, as
i.g. the Leomar, or Veronese Gelasian (Mur
B. s. 1. 294-4a'), were almost without rubrics"
The necessary parts of this Ordo were afterwards
transferred, sometimes, it seems, without anv
al eratmii, as in the Codex Eli.iianus, printed by
Menard (Opi,. Greg. M. iii. ; i. coll. 1-240) to
the sacranieiitaries as rubrics.
The (Jregorinn sai'ramentary, as edited by
Orimoald, who became abbat of St. Gall in 841
oinits the ordinal, and the offices of confirmation
and the dedication of a church (Menard, Praef
in S,cmm. Gn-g. xii. ; Pamelii Liturgicon, index
fer. Gn,n. ,, 390-394). This shews that some
offices assigned to bishops were already to be
I h 7 T'}'! '"'"'^' '■'■ '» " "pontifical."
It nmy be doubted also whether the Bcncdktionc,
Ep>^copaks C'snhjn^m Colonien. praecipui ^d
"'"' ""■"« '''■'f"-") originally belonged to this
sacramentary (Pamcl. 11:478).
It is probable that pontificals were in use at
Ir '" Sr' 1.!"'' -"tury before the'tln?:
.^f n ■ iih , >.oiimjy oeiore tne t me
f Gnmo.ld,'. though the name does not appear
to have been finally fixed at that period (1)
' Zaccaria (BiMioth. Kit. I. vl. 2) ««v«- " Int^r i ..il
PONTIFICAL 1(149
The earliest extant is probably that of Egbert
Nat na'l"'; "/ """'S '^'^ '''' '" '"''' "-^' t^e
exhibit the fu 1 contents of an early pontifical
we wil give the headings of the several offices
in this book, only premising that the extant copy
JvCr .?, r. ''r" '"'"*"" '" the lifetime of
f.gbeit Literis Saxonicis ab annis eir.iter 9.'-,0
cleganter smptum," said Martene in 1099 {De
the ordt;/-"- "'• '^^t- '• P- "•>• 't -">'«'"«
the ordinatio episcopi (with proper missa and
b nediction); confirmatio hominiim ab episcopo
d cenda (with bened ction.s) ; „rdo de sacr s oX.
mbus, quai er in Komana aeclesia ,,re,biteri.
diaconi, subdiaconi, vel ceteri ordines cleric, rum
benedicendi sunt (with missae); ratio n „!ite^
domus De, consecrandus e.st(with missae), which
.s preceded by a form to be used by the priest
{Pont of Egbert, p. 26 ; Surtees Soc. vol. xxvii.),
am followed by a "mi.sa in dedicatione ora-
chnr,.!,^''"'- "''.';""""*'"" '«r the dedication of a
church a missa "m dedicatione fontis," and the
r«thl"■^"''"' "'", ™n««^«'tio„e dmiterU"
(w th missa); reconciliatio altaris vel loci sacri,
with missa in reconciliatione ecclesie, and a propel
benediction. The second part (pp. M-IsTco"
sts ch.eriy of Episcopal benedictions, but other
Sunlav!;'"'"-. ^:- ^r," ('> benedictions for
bundays and other holidays (58-93) • f2^ for
occas onal use as at ordination,, ,„,e'r ^em
tionis, followed by the unction and prayers-
vtr.in?f ""^'''i"'^'"'*'' ^'^ abbatissae, benedfct o
o uc s oH?"!^'"' '=""l«"''ti'>. vi-J""'. consecratio
r??r»'n f !■ ** sanctimonialem benedicendam :
(5) benedictions of fruits bread, houses, bells
f),: lS^\^^^ JT""" '■'*'-■' ^""^ *l«"ndy Thursday
he Messing of the Paschal Lamb and other feasts
the blessing of incense on Easter eve ; (7) Bene-
butvriT'""'"'~r'^ «<! infirmum',ic;seret
butyri, et omnis pulmenti, ad sponsas benedictio
orationes ad libros benedicendoi, benedict ovti!
pro oculorum inhrmitate, orationes dicende cum
«doratur sancta crux ad palmas benedicemlas vd
rnmos. Several of the offices are given by Mar.
ene (,92 275 ; ii. 31, 188, 199, 214 246 285
n. 230) refers to the same century the pontifica
noTin The': ^^°«'"f *">-' "^ -Thbisho'^R^ert
now ,n the public library at Rouen, no. 27 It
edTn^h'' 'S™ *he episcopal benedictions pr!
ced ng the offices m the MS. A full account of
p lT8!r'f''Th''"'\'"^^^'"'''''^-'-''"i^.
pp. ll»-l,i(,. The extant copy seems to have
been written at tlie instance of Aethelglr
of Can erbury, 989. The Ordinationum S
are pnnted by Morinus, u. ,. 230-235; and
" h,s work De Sacram. Poenit. he 'gives
the absolut.0 dicenda ab episcopo super C-
fl; K.7" 1 ^his pontifical seems to have been only
l.ghty known to Martene, as he merely refers
to .t twice (ii. 163 ; iii. 88). The latter^wrter
ass,gns to the same age ("annorum 900 "Wh"
P"ntihcal formerly i,, the Abbey Jibrar> at
omm P„„,|flc«|,a celebrlor. sunt S. P^idll IM26 " t' iT ""' '■"=! ^»' '*'*»'" '-"«" " •cclamatlons at the
°«obt.l„„o|„f„r„,aH„n.b<mttl,ePon.l^cai„flW h h TT,l' »' » "l.hop ,re ascrIM to ZmZ
J.".. «d suspect that the .utecent I. a mlX "rl'l:^ iffx:^ «,7"™' """ "'«> ^ "^^ (M'«"e. ZZ'.
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1650
PONTIFICALIA
Jumi^geit, now no. 362 in the public library at
Rouen ; which is also described by Mr. Gage in
Ai-chacolo/M, vol. xxv. 244-250. He also gives
in extomu the order of the consecration of a
church, with proper missa and benediction
(•2.")l-274). Martene has transcribed from it,
ordo i\d catechumenura ex pai;ano faciendum
(i. 15); qualiter suscipere debeant poenitentes
cpiscopi vel presbyteri (275); ordo ad unguen-
duin infirraum (301); ordinationum ritus (ii.
37); benedictio monachorum (162), the same as
in BuneJ. Roberti(163) ; virginum (189) ; regum
(214); ecclesiarum (250); reconciliatio loci
sacri (285) ; benedictio scrinii (shrine) vel arcae
(300) ; formula excoramunicationis (322) ; ordo
ad energumenos adjuvandos(347); ordoadbene-
dicendum oleum infirmorum, oleum catechume-
norum et sanctum chrisma (iii. 88 ; the same as
in lion. liol).). Martene also describes (in 1699)
" Kcmensis archiraonasterii S. Ilemigii antiquum
pontificale ante annos 900 Uteris Longobardieis
exaratum, Tirpini archiepiscopi Remensis nomine
vulgo appellatum" (i. xxii). See offices cited
by Martene in i. 68 ; iii. 10.
The foregoing are, if I mistake not, the only
pontificals extant which are assigned to the
period ending with the death of Charlemagne.
It may be well, however, to mention some others
of note to which a less antiquity is ascribed,
(1) There is one which wa» given to a monastery
by Prudentius, bishop of Troye, who died in 861
(Zaccar. u.s. 169; Martene, i. 192,303, ii. 384,
iii. 133, 153). (2) A MS. described by Jos.
Hartzheim in his Catalogue of the Cathedral
library at Cologne, 1752, as "Pontificale Re-
nicnse," but probably English, as the following
petition which he cites from it appears to indi-
cate: — •' Ut reg.ile solium, videlicet Saxonum,
Merciorum, Nordanhurabrorumque sceptra, non
deserat " (Kgbert, Pont. pref. x.). (3) That of
Rheims "circa tempus Hincmari (845) exara-
tum" (Zacc. 167). (5), (6), (7), (8) Those of
Noyons (by Radbodus) (Mart. ii. 47, 260), Sens
(iii. 88), Poitiers (i. 68, 93; iii. 74, 101, 133,
153), and Cahors (i. 93 ; ii. 45, 262, 333), the
copies of which are of the 10th century. (9)
The pontifical of Dunstan of Canterbury, who
died in 988, is in the National Library at Paris,
no. 943. Martene gives from it the rites of
ordinaticm, which agree with those in the MS.
formerly at Jumifeges (ii. 37), the benedictio
monachorum (16:!), and the ordo qualiter domus
Dei consecranda est (255).
The Greeks and Orientals do not appear to
have put their episcopal offices into a separate
volume until long after the 9th century.
In the church of Rome CUment VIII., in 1596,
supplanted all the other pontificals of his obedi-
ence by a new edition of the Roman (Catalani,
Proieg. in I'untif. Horn. ii. 5). [W. E. S.]
PONTIFICALIA. [Bishop, p. 239.]
PONTIUS (1), deacon, martyr at Carthage
with St. Cyprian ; commemorated Mar. 8
(Usuard. Mut. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mart. i. 750 ;
Yet. Eoiii. Mirt., Pontianus).
(2) Martyr under '/aleriau; commemorated
Way 14 at Citnela, a city of Gaul (Usuard.
Mat. ; Mart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mai. iii.
272). [C. H.]
POOL OF BETHESDA. [Bethesdv.]
POOR, CARE OF
POOR, CARE OF. The care of the poor
was from the date of the Apostolic Cin^ny for-
raally entrusted to the bishop. This indeui was
but a detail of the very wide rule that tlie
bishop was to have the care of everything tl at
concerned the church. (irdi'Twi' TcSf ixKKriaiaiT-
TiKcS)' itpayiiiraiv 6 itriaKO-KO% ix^'''" '^V" <t>poii-
riSa. Can. Apost. xxxvii. Labbe, i. .34 ii.) The
argument of the fortieth canon is, that sin'e he
wao entrusted with the souls of men he ougl.t
certainly to be entrusted with money.
The comment of Zonaras on the forty-first of
the Apostolical Canons is, that the caro of the
poor was committed to the bishop, who had the
control of ecclesiastical property with this vimv;
but that the bishop was to make the distnl.ution
to the poor through the agency of the pricstsani
deacons, in order to avert from himself the sus-
picion of applying the funds to his own uses
(Bevereg. Pandect, torn. i. p. 29). A simila'
provision is made by the council of Gan.'rn (a.d.
325) which provides (can. 8) that no one shall
either give or receive offerings apart, fnm the
bishop or him whom the bishop appoints to make
distribution to the poor (4 i-nirfTaynivo! tij
oiKoyo/ilai' «i''iroitoi. Labbe, ii. 418 i').
Bishops are enjoined by the tenth canon of the
third council of Tours (a.d. 813) to have 'masi-
mam curam et solicitudinera circa paupercs;"
yet they are to dispense what is collected by the
churches, not indiscriminately, but " cauta cir-
cumspectione." In fulfilment of this duty they
are authorised by the following canon to pay
what is necessary out of the treasury of the
church in the presence of the presbyters anj
deacons (Labbe, tom. 7, p. 1262 d, e). The
same presence of witnesses (cum tostibus)
when the bishop makes these payments is insistej
on in the Capitula (cap. 12) of Charleraai;ne of
the year 813. The right of the poor to the
property of a bishopric was admitteil by John
the Almoner, patriarch of Alexandria, when
he founded a monastery and endowi'd it with
the revenues of the see. To justify such an
alienation, he pleaded that the " patrimony of
the poor " could not be better administered
than by being given to those who were devoted
to evangelic poverty. [Properi f OF the
CiiURCil, C. (4).]
Pope Gregory 8 answer to the first question of
Augustine of Canterbury is most explicit on the
subject of the poor. " It is the custom of the
apostolical see to deliver to ordained bishops pre-
cepts that of every oblation which is made there
ought to be four portions, one, to wit, for the
bishop and his household, on account of hospi-
tality and entertainment ; another for the clergy;
a third for the poor; a fourth for the repairing
of churches." (See Bede's Keel. Hist, of tin
Etujlish Xation, Gidley's transl. p. 65.)
By a later council (Cone. Aq'iisgran. c. 142,
A.D. 816) the obligation to care for the poor is
specially extended to canons. Canons might hove
their own private dwellings, yet they were to
maintain " intra claustra " an abode for the poop
and aged.
In the last of the eighty Arabic canons of the
council of Nicaea (a.d, 325) it is directed that in
every town there should be appointed an officer
(to this day at Rome called Procurator piu-
perum), whose duty it was to care for the poor.
lie might be either cleric or layman ; he wu h)
POOR, CARE OP
lire near the church, and, having the control of
funds, he was to provide not .mlv V!., ?? ,
but al., for tho.e Un were ^X^'" ^^: Z'l
who were nnproperly imj.risoned, he was L
obtain liberation: the nth.,.. '°
lielpel so that they wante ne th^r"'r'% '", ^'^
clothing. In France a si>, iar ^.,' ^"'"^ "',"
by the mth council ..f OrlTan/r an 207%"''^"'
Su.lay the ard.de,u.on or^t^-.e^n 6^
|K)Situs) was to Visit the prisons nn,l t„ ^' .
.he «.nts of ,,oor prisonei:'::"';; t /fu^''^
he churc^ Justinian ordered the sane „ be
done on Wednesday or Kriri-iv oIk
captives, too, the bishops n iKel^ S ''""i;
the '.slaves of the chu/ch " tty l^tht liberltf
make them a ijrant of mnno\, » '" "oeraie,
twonty shillin .^ (.„,,»;, "Ss^tuTer: n^^
.arl or plot of ground (^C.nc. A./d. 7). Other
those who nnght oppress them "defenden nau
peres eoclesiae de manu malornm judicmn "' It
was at the request of Meroveiis h Ik )■
Foictiers, that l?ing ChildebmTe 'dj t^thf
public .mpos s accoHing to their ancient distrU
bution, greatly to the relief of the noor of h .
diocese (Greg. Tur. Ifi^t. „. sO), "^When the
r„T t;""-"^,*'>'" '"»'' been at Poictiers pa, ed
on to Tours, they were resisted by GregorrhTm
self who at length obtained from the Inra
Ea,l»d,Cu^hbertofi:!ndi:Ltt£ath?
h distressed would betake themselv.f to his
body even after death. The concourse ha
urge iwouldbe troublesome to the mon Ts'tery
ad therefore ,t was for the advantage of th'
brethren hat he should be buried bf vond u!
precinct (Bede, Life). Nor was [only 'what
isthe f,.shion to call "the deserving poo. " tha
were fo be helped ; but if any one of^'hefaithfu
had wasted his property in drinking, and fca.tin^
n wickedness, still he was not to be d ^r "d'
hatever may have been the practical efl'c of
he church scare of the poor, in theory at least
.hea w.ysdisconraged idleness in the «b e-bodied
fh bishop was to give food and raiment so ff;
«.^ he could to those who needed thTm but t
was only to those "qui debilitate fad „tenon
Mn. lb, qii. fhomassin. part ii. liv. iv ch 5^
fw paramount did the claims of the ..
Wr in the eyes of ChHsuLs, h tT
ofVj\ "' '^.'•'^"•^•^« t» s^ll even the treasures
the church in order to provide relici "'k!
piSii
i'O^edn consequence (Sozoin. Hist. Ercl ,> V'.^
■■•- urc „i t|„. bishop (Von. Aurel. v.).
" appears that the clergy became Jn .
««M so poor as to need alms X) T ° '"""^
»M bound to supplysuch An ,. 1 P?""*""^''''
rtat was necessa?ron L of :r'"^"' '"'*''
0HEI8T. ANT.-voL V "•^"■nraun.ca- i
POPE
1651
p. .m). ^ ^*''- ''^- IJevereg, Pa>uicct. torn. ,.
/^"■•■gory of Tours relates thn* r, , . ,.
I'loasure in building maen f?cen i, Crodu, took
nishing them suinnfm!^? .t ' '""""^ ""'' <■">•-
"ho /ere p™.r to -""wfth' r"' "t'"^ '"''"'i''
them the whole .1 erfv ,""' ^' l"'<^sentcd
b-"g .nninta I W' "X"' w"' " l""' '""'^
I'wdon with God " Thp .^' "''""" '^"'- ''im
term ..atriaZi} toihe ,?' "T""'' "•''^"^^ 'he
->1 of the church iX:: fVr ."." '''
The fund for the relief of th" "''• '"• -2).
of by St. Grewrv tl^lr- .''",'"■ '^"' »!'«''•««
!■' the former of thpltwTuJ''''i '*''■ ''''''•>
authority f„r the uavl n, / !" '"•' ^'ves his
"ebt out' of th„tS;"Vh "ca,::'--;^ ■"-,
lOregoy ?he Great th'^/r'^'^ '"""'^ "^ St.
(defensio pauperunn is ''^"'r" "^ ""-' 1'"'"
a^ his duly (^"'"A ;;"J°"- "P- " bishop
of courtesy wefe even /n I, . "•"""""■^ '"''-•''
favour: « the nL „ , ^«, ^t^'n^'' in their
ehurch'are more to b, , "^ .*'l""'" "^ ">«
(Cone. C,„.M "v. s^loTgfi^'' "r.l'" "^'"
ri<Iiculedtheinvtaion'of;h -*' ""'' V^"^" "•'>"
-others were anrmaS^^C- :U^:;.r
can:n7thetuncirorjl-^;', T ^ *•"= ^"^
is enacted that poor persons a^Hh^'-"- '"'')' "
help, should be^vi^Tdrth'pActrj^'l'''^'''^
Sometimes a house <V,v fk ^'*',V*'-
poor was mintillned by pri -ari:, °"fi°' *'''
Such a house probably Ls"^ he " ."n'^'u"'-''-
m portu Romano situm " „f \- \ '''"^'""™
I seem from the lette „f Sf / "'""^ '' """''1
was the foundre"'\l'*,-,,tr %•''''' ''''''°'2
' Oceanum). The counc 1 of A x ?a d 81fi^ "'• "?
that canons should provide in ^h^ '"''""'"'*
^ecrpS"'"- r'' ^^^^ coiifja^i^r-^'-TL:
[H. T. A.]
of S^fi'ce.^''^ Meaningof thename. (B)Theory
RoMK.''- '■"'"' *•"' "" «"'^'o-Ai. SucoEssmK ^T
(.D^EWaence for the succsalon after bis time.
(II.)D.^^.O.MH«, OP XHE COKO.„,OK o, XH.
(i.) In relation to other churches, p. jsss
(".) in relation to the civil powe^. p leei.
(li.) Klection, ordination, and consecntinn. / x
(111.) Insignia of office, p. I66»,
0//,I2 P'"=»"°''^'V« »rKC,AtI.r CLAIMED K0« TH,
(I.) Claim to universal legislative authofltv in tlw.
(II.) CUim to authority over all bishoprics and
105
I I '|i
1652
POPE
bishops, as scon In the appointment, conflrma-
tlon, iirdlnatlim, cunwcratlon, anil translation of
bifhops; In the acceptance of tlii'lr rcslRiiutlona;
In the crfutiott of ticw blnlmprlcit, p. IHTl.
(III.) Claim to present to all bcneBcs, p. l«7(l.
(Iv.) Claim to temporal power: ( I ) patrlmonlum (
('J) political aoverelgiity, p. Itl76.
8e« Ai'i'i'iAL, Biaiiuf, CutNcii., Le(iatk,
(A) Poi'K * (dbbtis, pnp<t, fnther), a word Ae-
riveil from the Greek wttiriros, or -nd-ras, but
often erroneously ileriveil from the I.ntin, "pnter
pntriiin," e.y. Ailmn Scotns, in the 12th century,
says ; " Ipsos enim papas, id est, pa'res palium,
mos solet ecclcsiaations appcllare, et ut sic
vocarentur instituit " ('fe liijiaH. Tab. Sligne,
Patrol, cxcviii. :!94), a false etynology, that may
be explained by the fact that (5reek was origi-
nally the oliicial lani;uai;e of the church both in
the Knst an.l in the West ; but that the know-
ledge of it subsequently became almost extinct
among " the Latins " in mediaeval times. Wala-
frid Mrabo, who possessed some knowledge of
Greek, writing in the 9th century, compares the
word to that of " church " as one borrowed by
Teutonic races from the Greek in order to ex-
press a previously unfamiliar idea : " Kijrch a
Kurios, et papst a papa, quod cujusdain pater-
niiatis nomen est et clericonim congruit digni-
tati " (Migne, cxiv. 927).
The earliest ecclesiastical use of the word
appears to have been to denote the spiritual
relationship existing between a teacher of Chris-
tianity and the convert brought by his agency
into communion with a recognised Christian
body ; in many cases the convert assuined the
name of his spiritual father. At a later period
the term began to be restricted to bishops and
abbats. Severus, a deacon at Rome of the time
of JIarcellinus (a.d. 296-:i04), having received
permission from Marcellinus to open a double
tomb in the catacombs, speaks of having done
so — " jussu papae sui Marcellini " (De' Rossi,
Imc. i, p. cxv.). Subseciuently, as will be
shewn in the course of this article, the title was
limited to the bishop of Kome in the West and to
the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem,
and Constantinople in the East, and finally was
claimed by the pope of Kome exclusively, although
still the customary mode of addressing priests
in the Greek church.*"
The theory of the Papacy, as detined at the
coun('il of Florence, involves the assumptions :
(1) That Peter had been invested by Christ
Himself with a certain pre-eniinency among the
other apostles. (2) That he was the founder of
the church at Roma, and that the ins|)iiation
and authority especially vouchsafed to him had
been given in ecjual measure to his successors,
the bishops of that church. (3) That the bishop
• Throughout this article the dates placed after the
name of a bishop or pope of Rome denote the a.'^slgned
duriitlun of his ofBce. For reasons which will be ap-
pareiit in the course of the article, I have preferred to
use the term " bishop of Kume " up to the middle of the
6th century, and after that date to employ the term
'* pope."
■> MartlCTV (Dict.da Ant, chret.) soys that the Grrfks
employ the word to denote lioth hishnpa and priests, but
with u differHit accent and hiflexion, placing the accent,
when employing It with respect to a bishop, on the first
syllable) nhen speaking of a priest, on the second ; but
this IS doubtful.
POPE
of Rome might thus rightfully claim supremacT
over the whole Christian church and over all
Clnistian fathers and teachers. We h;ive to
inquire into the historical evidence for these
assumptions,
(I.) (i.) On the question of the suprenincy of
St. Peter among the .Apostles, and nf jiis jirecnce
in Koine, so far as it depends on .Sciiptural iiutho-
rity, see Pktku in Dicr. ov Tin; Uiiii.i;.
When we turn to the evidence allor leil liy un-
canonical writers, we lind that either I'uid mid
IV'ter are designated as joint foumlors of the
church in Itonie, or Peter assumes the fovemost
place, while Paul receives but slight notice, or Is
altogether unmentioned.
The earliest testimony is piobalily that of
Dionysius, bishop of Corinth. In a i'rai;m('nt of
the Catliolio epistles of this writer, [ircserved
by Kusebius (IC. 11. ii. 25), he expressly ivirrs to
Paul and Peter as teachers and founders of the
churches at Corinth and Kome, and also as having
suHereil martyrdom at the same time, licplying
to Soter (bishop of Rome, a.d. I(i8-177) and the
Roman clergy, who had addressed to the com.
niunity at Corinth a hortatory letter, he says:
Tavra ko! vfitis 5ict t^i toitoi/tt)s novOfnia!, TJji/
oirb ntrpoi/ Kol noijAou tpvTftav y(vri6u<raii
'PiaixattDV T« (col KopivBiuv cvvfKfpda-aTi. Ka\
7(ip Hfiipu Kol «ii T»)>' rifjifrifiav K6fivdov (pmd-
ffavTfs' VM«5 diiolais Si xal (Is tV 'IraKiav
6li6iTe SiSd^avrf!, inapripriirav koto rby atriiii
KUipiv (Kusebius, K. 11. ed. Heinichen, i. 180).
The main statements of Dionysius are sup.
ported by the independent testimony of two yet
earlier writers — that of Peter's martyrdom by
Clemens Komanus, and that of his teaching at
Rome by Ignatius. The language of the former
writer is explicit. "Let us," he says, "set
before us the holy apostles. Peter, through un-
just envy, endured not only one or two, but
many persecutions, and thus, having suffered
martyrdom, passed into his place of reward in
glory r" koI oCtoi iiaprvpiaai (iroptiBi) (i! rhv
6(j>(i\6ixevov Tvirov TTJr S(({r|j (Kyist. ad
Corinth, i. v. ; Hilgenfeld, Aor. Tost. cjI. Can.
Rec. i. 8; Migne, S. 0. i. 217).
The meaning of Ignatius is perhaps less free
from ambiguity, but the passage occurs in his
Epistle to the Romans, the genuineness of which
is generally admitted, and is supiwrted by the
Syriac version. Addressing " The churc li which
presides in the place of the region of the
Romans " ({Jtii irpoKaOrj-rat iv riirw x"?'""
'Punaiup), he says, " I teach you net as did
Peter and Paul ; they were apostles, 1 nin one
condemned ; they svere free, but I am, as yet, in
bonds :" tH'X ^^ ntVftoj koI riai'Aos SiaToirtro/ui
UfilV • ixtlVOI OirrfoTOAoi, iyul Si KOTclKfllTO! ■
iKf7voi i\ti9(poi, iyo) Si /ue'xP' >'ii' Sov\os
(Cureton, Corp. Ign. p. 47).
The event foreshadowed in John xxi. 18, 19,
may fairly be recognised in the above jmssage
from Clemens, a passage .strikingly confirmed by
that in the Muratorian (anon: "Lucas optime
Theophilo comprcndit, (juia sui praesentia ejus
singula gerebantur, sicuti et scmote passionera
Petri evidenter declarat" (see Westcott, Cunon
of the Neio Test. p. 499, ed. 1870). Here, though
the text is obviously corrupt, the meaning ii
• AUl i(>oiTi)(Toi'T« (Migne, S. G. xx.
Heinichen's note ad loc.
); but ta
POPE
nifficiently clear; viz. that Luke rpln«.i i
thoae event, of which he ,va ,„ ' ', ""'^
Peter IS n„ reeorje. by hi,,, jj j, „,,„ ; •^';
ofnotetliat, ns no tni,litl,„i ever n.siir,, ^ ^
ot^e^ ,,la,.e than R„n.e«, the :'.,;r:,f .,:;:/
niiirtyr.limi, every allusi,,,, tc, that event i, „1
indirect omfirmation of his vi 'It ^IVhe^Sal""
Irtnaeiis is the next writer ■it>..,. n- ' •
whose testimony is of a like tei'i r an."""'"!,''
of.heVn.ster„ church, he eaii'htlivV,;:!:
pose.| to have g,ven expression to n tni,liti,.n ' f
variance with the prevalent Chris?in,Mrf^
IS age. He speaks of Peter ai„l Pn,] „!
"preaehing the gospel and foun,li„tr the el ml
m Home" (^. 'P-^'f^V, .iayy^K^JS'^^^
«VM....r^.rV /«»A,^/a.),„n,| re„resents this
^ o«Mirring at about the same time that S
Matthew compose,! his gospel (.ul . //„,.,. i 7 "
A passage Ml the Latin version of the same
■greatest and most ancient church of unite s"
fame which the two most elorious n n Vi
Peter and Paul, founded aifd r^nS"!!'
"Dinximae et antajuissimae et omnibus cognitae
• gloriosissimis duobus apost.dis Petro et IWo
Somae fundatae et constitutae eedesiae " (.7, j
J j ed. Harvey, ii, 9). V". in.
Tlie language of Tertullinn, in hi.. enum»«
lion of the apostolic chur,:hes, is e"nm Iv defTfif
"How happy that chnrch,"'h Xdaimf ' t
.hich apostles poured forth their whot^eL.K'
with their blood; where Petershare tt p^t ^f
ofhis Lord, where Paul is crowned with fV, f ^
In he 4th century the passages are numerous
even in the most authoritative writ, r. ,. i, I'
corroborate the belief expressei.t hi /' '""''
.Uteinents, and wherein the I ho ,ric ofT-Z'"^
f Jbitually referred to as " Petri TJde ."'sneo
I ','« "'• "<^ ^•'="^"^0^ f^pisc. (Mansi, v. 1305V
ad Tlmdosmm Aug. (ib. vi. 14) • ( ■„„, il ri V
Mmtio ad Ma/c. (ib. vii 455V a nit™/'
P,(Thiel^p.*. So)n. /'in. rk-lT-rttu"-
.icpa^titi^x;;:^.^::^,^
■J one of universaf acceptance » ili p"^*!
»n>"^ Romae, dicunt homines . 1^ ll^'v
h;«.«..^chbCiU;b./rs-
p-:^?o^ina^;h3r:^;i!;,^;i„^;-;^-d
\H the first bishop, Linus- Peter fV, "'"Z
eienien, (Coteleriusf Wr^il^sS ')' """'''
I 1 he passage from Dionysiu, is not tb« i
I one which l.:usebius adduces in ,„n ,♦ r !?'>'
was certainly his own belief 'and tha of hf " '
|!™. 4i.uiples were aid- 'Ani i ""^ ''fore-
t« .« «.; lb, ;™i"' " '; '.'• ""»» ""1.
POPE
1653
siiffbrej martyrdom "•(//■ A' ii OSS , ,,
tinn to these extin.t. k ^^>- '" »'•' -
hands dowM a, , K . 'frT^'"' ^•"^•''^'"' "'^o
acceptance i.s„r;fsW,;'^;?;;;''-'-^ ''i»
""iniry as to his judgm '„? am ?>!""' S''"^"
;;■■•■'-•• 'n the (Virte-en '.hairo^th'^'"' "
hook he not only states that P ■ *'"' """«
but assigns the obiect of V ■"' ''•"'''■■' "'""e.
P-ated by a s, mewha d '''"t'-'meiit Is re-
of Jerusalem 3^18,- 1 -"'u"' ^•'>^'' ('''»'>"?
I'raesii es,"a,id,le.,...iiw .u . ' "" >''<-les ae
Magus at' lio e M ne '^''I v.ctory over Simon
themselves devoid of «T.^.' "j' ""* ""'j' '"
.<ory 0/ /'rf,,.'5 tr~Z T':'^''' ^'" "■'"''«
According to Uuiusth •"■'■'■''''*"" '« '''"'"*•
to be foLdr^'^ce^'J^r'S'n'jf this story is
-■•itings whicl, h'e^etect^dv ''l^ ^P«'''>>'
^-bionite or Jewish Thvi^, ^ olassifies (a) as
<'atholic or an Judai ''"" '""'•="' ^^^ 'he
«nostic Acta e tant Iv '""f '' ^>> ^'''•t"'"
these the fi -st are n^ ^ '" '^'"S""'"'-'-" Of
Clementine Hon inesre^rr "''?'"'*"' '>>' ^he
are considered obelon.t^^tK''' ^^"^''^^ ^^ich
the 2nd centurv 1,1 bv-he n * '"'''"'^ '""^ "^
nitions (ed. Ge • dorf iLr,' Clementine Recog-
to the period A^iXx *''^^.'| »''« "•«''''"v.|
the relative antiquity of th ♦^'"' "-^J'"^' *-
difference of op nio '^1 t, h t T." "'""*'■«'' ^""^"
be little doubt'^ha one of'tb"' *^'";'' W™^^ to
the other, ami that th! . ..^™ " ''*""'' A-fm
upon yet earllMtt tn^n fth" k""'^^
The Cathoic' or Li w ,■
mainly represented by ti'enJ^ n"'"'^''' "'^
1837-8 ; Tisit iorf'"/ 1;' '';'f- ' "-"^ "'
fere'^tl-e^en LVa fnoT "'""* j" *''- ^ff-
a period anteri 'r to the ^T"""! '" '''='''"« '»
«• «• pp. 52^). It sta.,h hr"*"''^ (^''P^'"^.
connexion with tw,^„., I ' 7^^"'er, in close
npafc. nol^ko^ nVa kL'"""''"^?"'''" «"*«"'
in the opinion of Unsius "'^?"r."t'""'' ^^''^^
atmosphere of the 'C cent^ f "' Of%'h"^'':;-'
former s referred tn 1,. ^ .'"v- "( these the
3), an,, appea^tn!.; n'fSli'^flv'^'r^si-^
have l)een held in KiA I ' "^' b8-73) to
tohave been regarf,ltr ■"''•' ''^'•'^•''''"''
authority. Bv l?,?! • ^ T'''^ "' "^^ canonical
O'ls ;. • ■ ^ '^'"scbius, however (F ir ■■■
the iistle^'of^i ttftl" 1 "«■--.
^;_«e.^^roh^^, -c^-'. p.MrVh*:
r-)andCi.™..^J.;--)-^^^^^^^^^^
6 2
•) :
\1
:<(!!ti
> i'i
1^
''^1
:'il
^1 I,
in54
POPE
relation of the latter treatise, the K^ipvyfia,
which exists only in fragments (Hilgenfcld, u. a.
iv. 52-67), to the former is not clearly ascer-
tainable, but both expressly contrai "no a still
earlier tradition, said to hare talien it^ orii^in in
Galat. ii. U-17, of a permanent hostility between
the two ajmstles. The npd^nt llirpau Koi
nouAou, which must be regarded as essentially
a compilation from these two earlier treatises,
is explicit in its language on this point : " We
have believed, and do believe, that even as God
separates not the two great lights which he has
made " (the sun and the moon), " even so He
permits not you to separate I'eter from I'aul or
Paul from Peter " (Tischcndorf, u. s. c. 5).
The theory which Lipsius has endeavoured to
establish — that all the extant sources of the
Petrine legend may be traced back to a yet older
Ebionite version of the Arta S. Petri as to their
common and sole origin, and that this Judaistic
treatise forms accordingly the sole basis for the
tradition of St. Peter's presence in Korae — has
been disputed by many eminent scholars, among
whom Hilgenfeld (see /iclsc/irift fiir ujim-n-
sohaftliche ThcolOijie, 1872-1878) has given a
full discussion of the question. Any attempt to
summarize these arguments is beyoncl the scope
of the present article; and equally so is any
examination of the startling theory of Lipsius,
that the passage above referred to in the Epistle
to the Galatians became the origin of "eine
imraer welter ausgesponnene Sagenbildung,"
which found a natural conclusion in the tradition
of a final and decisive contest between the true
and the false apostle at Rome.
Against the theory of the two apostles' joint
residence and labours, the fact that none of the
epistles written by Paul from Rome (Ephesians,
Colossians, Philippians, and Philemon), though
conveying many salutations, contain any allusion
to Peter, p.jsents an argument of no great
weight, especially if we assume, as certain evi-
dence suggests, that their labours were bestowed
on two distinct churches. If, therefore, it be
proposed to assign Peter's arrival in Rome to a
date subsequent to that of Paul, and also to the
composition of the epistles written by the latter
during his first imprisonment (at the same time
accepting the various statements with respect
to Paul's second imprisonment, and a renewal of
his labours in the West during an interval ol
some years), the evidence in favour of such a
theory is strong, if not conclusive. The allusion
to Silvanus, the friend of St. Paul, in the first
epistle of Peter (v. 12), and that to Paul himself
in the second (iii. 15), admit of a far more natural
interpretation when understood as written from
Rome, at a time when the two apostles were
labouring there contemporaneously, if not con-
jointly, in connexion, however, with two distinct
communities ; the labours of Peter being be-
stowed on a Judaizing church, those of Paul on
a church composed exclusively of Gentiles. Even
the tradition respecting Simon Magus, amid
much that is pure invention, probably points to
a r»al attempt at the introduction of heretical
doctrine. He is said to have been a supporter of
the heresy of the Patripftssians, and the church
of Rome,' from the earliest times of which we
have authentic record, is distinguished by its
nncompromising opposition to heterodoxy in
erery shape.
POPE
(II.) The evidittce for the tucceisivn frtm tht
thru! of at, I't'tcr. — The difficulty which aita :hesto
a belief in the tradition concerning Peter exteiuij
also to that respecting his earliest siui ins( r»,
According to the lists accepted ns autljoritn ne
by the IJomish church, the succession was pre.
served unbrolten, the duration of each liishi.p'i
tenure of ollicc being accurately known td us, ii„t
only in years, but even in months and iliiv:,. (in
the other hand, a critical investigation of tnis«
lists, and a compari.'Km of them with other mij
curlier sources of information, disclose consiiier.
able discreimncies with respect not only to the
periods of ollice, but also to the simple order oi'
succession.
The original sources for the chronology of th,
bishops of Rome during the first three i.eiituri»i
may be divided into two classes :
(A.) The Greek or Eastern lists.
(B.) The Latin or Western lists.
This classification is not indeed altogothcr free
from objection, for the lists in the lirst olaa
were undoubtedly derived from liomaii soiintj
while those in the second class were, in all (iro.
bability, originally drawn up in Greek, which,
up to the middle of the 3rd century, was tlx
official language of the Roman church. It is,
however, to be observed that the Greek .ists are
distinguished by certain points of (lill'erenif,
which appear to indicate that they were tran-
scribed from those of the west prior to the time
when the oHicial lists of the Roman church were
adopted in their final form.
In the following summary of the main facte
concerning these different sources, and the omi.
elusions that have been drawn from them, th«
Roman episcopal succession will be more easily
considered if divided into two portions : (o)
that extending from Peter to Urban (emliin
A.D. 230) ; (3) that from Pontianus to Libcriuj
(a.d. 230-352). After the time of Liberius no
difficulties present themselves that here tall for
discussion, and for the purpose of the present
article it will be sufiicient to limit our considera-
tion almost entirely to the earlier of the fore-
going divisions.
(A.) The first list of which we have any
knowledge is that which was known to He^ie-
sippus, who in his visits to the apostolic cliurches
collected information concerning the succession
of the bishops from the time of the Apostles,
with the design of thereby establishing the evi-
dence of an unimpeachable tradition of Christian
doctrine. His statement with respect to Kcnie
is, that during his residence in that city he male
out a list of the episcopal succession down to tlw
time of Anicetus, — ytv6fifvos Si iv 'Vi)i.ri, 5ia-
ioxh" iitoiitadfi^v M^XP'J 'Avi/c^tou (Kusebins,
//. E. iv. 22 ; the conjectural reading of Savile,
of !ioTpi/3V for SioSoxV) 's rejected by the best
authorities ; see Heinichen's note ad loc.). Thi!
list is no longer extant, but we learn frim
Eusebius that, according to Hegesippus, Anlcetoi
was the immediate predecessor of Soter,- a state-
ment, as we shall hereafter see, of consideraUe
importance, inasmuch as the early Latin listi
uniformly place Anicetus before Pius, and Piu
before Soter.
The list contained in Irenaeus (ado. Haer. bk.
iii./c. 3) represents Peter and Paul as the joint I
founders of the church at Rome, and thcr, it ii
added, " Lino episcopatum administrandae eecii-
iIm tradiderun
names, as preat
M follows : —
oi iwio
1. AlKOf.
2. 'AviyKkilTOi
1. KAi)/iij«.
i. Ei'ftpctrrof.
5. AA«fa(^pof.
6. SVUTOK.
1.
>Ae'iri^opof,
Pelriis .
l.iniiM .
Lfnus ,
Cliniens
KimroBto
Alexandi
XeRtos
I'elespho
Hyglrios
Plus .
Mkltos
Soter .
Aitrlplnoe
Kleuterrlc
Ik'Ctor ,
Zephrinos
L'ailstatos
Urbmua
I'uniianus
Aiiteits
Kablaiius
Cornelius
Lucius
Steplianus
Xestos
I)iony»iu«
Felix .
[Kuiychlan
Qaius ,
chronologj- of the
Bt three ceiituriii
of the main facti
rces, and the em-
n from them, tin
ill be more easilv
wo portions; (a)
;o Urban (emling
;iaDU9 to Liberiui
me of Liberius no
that here call for
se of the present
[nit our considers-
irlier of the fore-
ch we have any
known to He^e-
apostolic ehurthn
ing the succession
! of the Apcstles,
iftblishing the evi-
dition of Christian
1 respect to Hem
that city he male
ession down to the
Si iv "VwiiTi, !«•
'iK^Tou (Euscbius,
reading of Savile,
>jected by the best
lotc ad loc.). Thi!
t we learn from
gesippus, Anicetn!
of Soter, - astate-
se, of consiileral'li
early Latin lisu
5re Pius, and Piui
ius (ado. Hcier. n
Paul as the jmni
ne, and they, it ii
ninistraudae eccle- 1
POPE
dM trAdiderunt " (ed. Harvey, ii lo^ ti,«
ot air<iirToAot IWrpov koX OaOAoj.
iir' airoffi^Awf.
1. Airof,
POPE
le.'is
3. *\v9yK\^ro^.
4. Et>ipf<rro(.
ft. AA(fa>^/>of.
6. Btlirrof.
vnv,
9. iiro«.
10. Aft'iTTjro?.
1. T.A«(r0opof. U Mi I 13.' 'E^SfptK.
at Konu. i„ the time „f 'l k ''""""'""^^'^^''l"'"!
porary of lro„ae,r '^''-'''""•"•"». the oonten,-
-ten the7.^~'?ff '7' -louble list.
conta ned not in fh„ „ ■ ""•' '^''"ner i«
the Armen".; t 1 :tir'"," '^^ 'TT' ''"t in
to Guiua tho l„.f k u , ' "t-^'i'ls from I'eter
persecution, anSncfeh^;'^^'™ *,'"' '''""'^""»
. »im inciudea the periods of o(Hce :—
iHi-Hui. Year.
Oall fll.
NiTonls xll.
Titl i.
Itouiltlanl vll.
I>oniltiiini xlill
'I'rajiiiil vl.
Trajani xvll.
AUriaril vlii.
•Adrliinl xvill.
Antoirlnl i.
Anloniril xv,
Marcl nil.
Muni xlll,
Murci xlll.
Comrn.idl vll.
Bcvcrl vll.
Caracal lac II.
KlaK"lw!l I
Alcxundnl vll.
Ooidlunl 1.
Qordlani 1.
I'blllppi III.
Wdllppl vll.
J^llippi vll.
Oalll IL
Galllenl vlll.
Aunlianl I.
Prohl II.
Probi II.
Here, among the more important inaccuracies
w,ll be noted the insertion of the name of S
a.st«ellth m succession; the repetition of the
Z:f, '-'"r/" *>>« second pLe nst^a,! „f
h t of Aneno etus; the omission of the name of
Intych.anus m the twenty-sixth nWe Th
Jurat™ of Peter's episcopal, it wiirbc notiJed
Js^^.von as twenty instead of five-and-tv^lnt;
e.lnb,ts the chief points of difference between
Petrus [ann. xxv.] .
I'lnus, ann. xll. [ahrml. xl'lH.i * '
Anencletus ann. xll. [CAron. xllM \
Clemens, ann. villi. J '
fyarestus, ann. vlll. .''■'■
AIixandiT, ann. x. • • • •
I'lesphorus + annoxl.mo. .
Hyginus, ann. Illl. . . ' • • •
Piiis.f anno XV. mo. . ' ' ' '
Anicetus, ann. xl. • ■ . .
.Sot...r. ann yji,
hleutlierlu.s ann. xlil. [CTi^n.'xvl "
'^phyriims, ann. xvlil. [cKrnn. x 1 1"
UlllsiuB, ,,nn. V. [cVin^. vIllT . ••'•
Urbanu8,ann.viil.tr;A,„ft villi] '
certain allinTtv is undl Tf "^ ^■■''""- "ere a
tion from C emen, to So '' ".l'" "•" «"'""«••«-
divergence is that n the A" *^' ""'-^ P""" "^
is assigned to th« 1- ^^'•'""«<"' » .vear more
allowed in the A' iT'T't^,"^ "V^*"^ ">'«' "
ditferences in the kni fo^, """,'" I"""''' ""e
occur after Eleuthern, , ^ T "'"' "'"^^ that
beyond -loubt that th tw^C *" ^^T '' "''"''»'
entirely distinct sourcer Th« ""'."^''r"^ f^m
yearsofthetwo,•^ea]ttrr":;^Snt!
DATB oy TEBMrN ATlOK OF OFj.ce.
Imperial year. ^ p
%
Titl II.
Iioinitlanl xll.
Trajani III. (;?, Ill J
Trujanl xll.
AdrlanI ill.
Adrlani xli.
Autonini i.
Aurelll vlll.
Aurelll xvll.
Cotnmoill X.
Sever! vlll. [? villi.].
^-^lgaball I. •■
AlexanJri 1.
92 (91).
99 (100).
108.
118.
128 (127).
138 (137).
142.
157(156).
I6S (107).
176(176).
I SB.
200.
ai8(217).
S32 (221).
230.
'ii
rii
-I
- '•s Alii
m
111
_'
^ F l^^H
't r G^^H
, • (1.
iK ^^1
iK i,
s^^HI
• ' . ,Ur-
,.y.
,c^jBI
•I'ii
l|^H
■ < 1 .ii.riiiife
mH
]6fi6
POPE
The vernlon of the C/irunicon bjr Jerome, which
in now KiMicrnlly n(imitt(>(l to b« iniii^h iiiori- thnii
H iiiiTe trannintion, i^xhlliitn evnti in thv lint ot'
till) Koiniiii bi-^hopH ('oimiilcrnblo lU'VJHtiuiis. The
only two ilnti'S which I'xmtly n){i'i'i>, i.o, nre th«
■ninu ill the iintrinrchiil iiikI the ('hriatinii ('run,
all I iiUii ill the iiii|iiM'iiil yeiir, nii' thom- givvii
iiiilcr Aiii'iii'lotiia iiii>l under Anti'ioaitiul Fiibinn ;
tliu iinpi'iiiil yi'iim Brc, in iVt, iliTiveil from thn
2.'^'c'/l^1il(.^^■ lit llmtiir}).
(II.) AiiiciuK the Liitin lints in the CatnU),in»
J.ihcriinu.i, cniitnineil In thp ('oin|iilnti<in of thu
clii'oniili'r of the your Mii, iiiid cxti'iiilini; to the
hishoprii of Libcriiiii. It him been c.llteil by
Monimscii (Ah/ianJIuniifH idr pliildmi-hiator.
CI ISM iliT liliniil. siii-'A". (h'lifll chiift Jit VVVs-
s.'/moAdyV.H, v<il. i. (1851)), pi). :)H2-5, aih\
6'H-,),U> whom we nre iii(l«bte(l for the first
correct text, nnil also for orl(»iniil research with
respect to its sources nn<l conipilatioii. The
C'jhilojus l.ikTMnuH is the molt luicient source
of the /,i'.r I'ontijiriilis, ami, accordinjf to
Moininsen, is in turn derived from a yet (dder
list, that ori);inally contaliied in the Chronkun
of Hipp(dytiis, bishop of I'ortus, a work to which
the chronicler of the year ;t54- is to be found
hnving recourse in other portions of his treatise.
In the Chronicon of llippolytus the list itself ii
no loni;er extant, but the heading, " Nomiim
Kpiscoporiiin Komae ct ijuis quotannis praefuit,"
is alone preserved. A comparison of the CiiUi-
lii/HS yiVvri'di/us with that j;ivcn by Auj^ustine
(/pint. .S3; Migne, xxxiii. 19.'>) and that in
Optntus (</i' ■ScAi'.sHi. tJoiuit. ii. 3) seems conclu-
sively to prove that all three lists preserve
e.<seiitially the same tradition, the main discre-
pancies being (1) that neither Augustine nor
li|)tntus inalce.s mention of "Clctus;" (3) that
the (',(<((/(, /H,s f.iberutmis (as known to us from
cxijitini; MSS.) omits the names of Anicetus,
Kleutherus, and Zephyrinus ; while (.'!) In Optatus
the name of Alexander is (by a palpable blunder)
left out before that of Sixtus and put in the
place of that of Kleutherus.
The omissions in the Catitloijus T.iherianus are,
however, clearly shewn to be owing to careless-
ness on the part of transcribers or some such
cause, by corresp<mding gaps in the consular
date.s between Telesphorus and Hyginus, Pius
and Soter, and Soter and Victor: and this evi-
dence, taken in conjunction with the fact that
the Ciitalo'ius J'eticiimus (the oldest existing
version of the Liber I'ontijicalis) which was
undoubtedly derived from the Cutalixjua Libo-
riiinus, contains missing names, sufficiently jus-
tifies the conclusion of Mommsen that they
originally existed in the latter list.
On comparing the following lists with those
bet'ore given, we see that the lists from Augus-
tine and (Iptatus support the Kastern omission of
C'letus. In the opinion of Lipsius, these two
writers have preserved to us a more ancient form
of the Western tradition, and it would conse-
quently appear to be a legitimate conclusion that
the insertion of Cletus in the Cataloj/us /.ibci-itmiLS
is an interpolation ; Clctus and Anacletus, in all
probability, representing one and the same per-
S'ln. Of thi-i, the statement of the author of the
treatise against the Theo<!otians, who wrote in
Rome during the episcopate of Xephyrinus, that
Victor was the thirteenth bishop iiri) Hfrpov
(EusebiuR, //. E. v. 28) sfTords a strong curru-
ropE
bnratlon. .Similarly, .Jerome, while rofTrinido
a dillerence of Ira lition with respect lo t' f'.tt
(d' siicceision, knows nothing whotevir of
"t'letin; " — " Cleiiieiis, de quo apostnlii, I'liiilm
ad l'hilip|M.'ines scribens, ait, ' (Juii! Dlinirni, ,.t
caeleris <nop.ri\torili«« mels <|Uoriini ikmiiiiii
siriptii sunt in liliro vitae ' (I'hil. Iv. ;i), .|iinitu,
post 1'' truiii lioniae e|i|Hciipus : Hl>|iili|i.ni siiim.
dun l.iMiin fiiit, tertlun Aiiacli'tun, tanietil 'li'i'iiiie
l.atiiior- M secundum post I'etruin Hp<i»(i>luin
pulent li.i>»e Clementein " (ite \ irii /il,„t
c. XV.; Migne, xxlii. H.St). On theolhiT hiiii.l
Aiigu-tine anil Optatun dKl'er from ttif b«t.in
lints in placing Anicetus before Tins wlnlp im
chronicler of thu year Ubi altogellifr i,iint«
Anicetui,
Ciilaliig
l.iberiun.
Augtutiniu.
'(pill (hi.
I'larus.
IVlnii
I'cln*.
Miiun.
l.lrius.
litllMS.
Cieniins.
t'leiuons
CU'.iH'Tlh.
Cli-lun.
— ._
Anitclltus.
Aniielelui
Anaco I11H,
Arl»tun.
Kvurl»tiin.
Kvurii.iiiii.
Alexander.
Alexiimlur,
Sixtus.
Klxllln.
IHIxlu».
Telesforus.
'I'lieledphurui,
TeliNitliorua
IIlKiioin.
■kIiiub.
lliliiiiN.
AnicUus].
>lus.
Anicetus.
riun.
Aauilun.
I'lus.
tkiter.
Soter.
Suter.
Alcxmiiler.
[KleuUier].
Vlcior.
KleuHmru*.
VI tor
Victor.
rZypherliiusJ.
Cullxtus.
Z M.'-iiiiig,
Zyiiherliiua.
(ji,...iiin.
CallxlUH.
Url>.iii<tn.
Ur...inuB.
Urkmim,
runtiunuK.
I'unttni.us.
r<>ntliiiiuii.
Anllierus,
AntliiTus.
Antlienn.
Fubius.
KubiuiiiiB.
KubLiTiiis.
Cuiiullus.
Cornelius.
C'linieliiij,
LuctUH.
Lucius.
l.llCllld,
Nteir.inus.
Slepliiiuut.
Ste|ilmnui
(ilxtus.
Xystua.
Slxliu.
DIoiiislus.
lilonyslus.
lllullVflluS.
Kellx.
Kellx.
Felix.
Kui.vcblaniis.
Kutyclilanus.
UulUB.
Oulus.
.
Murci'llinun.
Murcelllnus.
Marc lliiiuj.
Murcellus.
Jl.ircellua.
Miireilliis.
Kuseblun.
KuieblUB.
Kuneliltis.
Mlltiiidea.
MlUlmlea.
Miltui.tm.
SI 1 venter.
Sylvester.
Sylvesler.
M.ireuB.
Murcus.
Marcus.
Julius.
.Julius.
Jullim,
Llb<'rlus.
Llberiua.
l.lbi-rlua.
The following table (p. U'lbl) alI'oi(l.s n com-
parative view of four lists which appear, lieyuiid
all reasonable doiilit, to have been in eii>teiup(n
the 4th century, with such cnienilullena as, in
the opinion of l.ipsiua and other critics, are enllej
for and justilied by the conclusions derived Inni
a critical study of the texts. These llsti are m
follows: (1) The Catulmjus Lihcriunm ; (2) The
list in the Chronicon of Kusebius ; (.■)) That J^
rived from his JMlcsiastiatl llisturi/ ; (4) Thtl
used by Jerome. Of these, (1) and (2) .i|iiiear to
be derived from independent sources, Mliile (:>)
and (4) shew unmistakable signs of a comuion
origin.*
• A firth anil a sixth lint, the tormor of no ln'!i'|Midriil j
value, and the latter {the Leonine) of die time el l,fu ibi ,
Great, compiled from WnU (I) and (a), m.cy »l« !!■•■ »»• j
suited in Lipsius (ChrotuOoj/u, &c,, pp. 28->e>
POPE
POPE
1857
Pirtpim,
Cli-inciiH,
Ariiii'iitua,
Arl'ttim,
All'KlilKllT,
•Slitun,
Ti>li'.|>|i(,rii,, 1 1
INK,
I'Imh.'
Anio'luB,
■Siirir.
KlcuihiTiiii,
_Vlrt..r,
Z pliyrliniii,
('(lliXtllN,
UlIlllllUM,
f'i'tru«,
I'liiiin,
•'IllUPI,
t'li'llhin,
Kviir.KMu,
Ali'XiiriiliT,
X.y«iii«,
T"lin|iliiiriiii, II
IIIkIiiiih,
I'llIN,
Ariiiviui,
S<)Ut,
KlcuthiTun
Vli-h.r.
55 I'liyrlnun, ij
(.'llllintlla, g
tirbuiiuii, 9
*
19
II
H
10
I'i
Piilrim,
Mnim,
AllHllll.tUK,
Cli'in iiH,
Kv.inMluii,
'll''Xi[niler.
Xyntiiii,
•r.'iiiiu", II
■<:»>'
■lyKl'iuit,
I'm ,
AlKllllll,
S r,
•■•I' iitliMrun
Vl''i"r,
ZipliyilmiD, iH
• ■'"IIIniuh, b
IVlrin,
l.lniiJi,
l^li'llW,
'^lilli'lJH,
KvntcHMiji,
Ali'UnihliT,
IVl. «|.li.irii«, 1 1
M yi'trii.
>' .,
a ..
* M
II „
lUi'l'UM.
"yK mm,
I'lllH,
Aiilcitui,
Klciitli-rin,
yiitoi,
Z I'livriiMn,
'■'illliitim,
''rbmiim,
'» (111) yarn.
1 1 yt'iir«i.
« (») y.ir«.
m yi'iiiK.
l»(ir.),v,.ur«.
iHycuid.
e
9
dl8.;,-..,,anc„.s l,e.w..,.„ ,,),, .|i,,i,,,,„, L, ^ ^^
i.n,,os„il,l„ h..,o t,. ..,,., Ue . ,'■' f nr'""! " '"
th«t ,vl,i..|, rol.tcH •„,„",. V ""^'^
duratini, .,f tlH. o|,iM.., ml .,/'"." /"■'' *''"
On lefcniiiK l., t „ ,| ! ' , , ' '"* "'"' f^""^'""».
/■•( /; K '""'>- III KM! llstn iibovy c veil rtli»
trauscnptiui), as follows: '
Oni/i'w/ Lattn Litt
IIlgliidK, aim. nil.
I'iin, mil], xvl. (^:u8cl,. XV )
Anioftus, uiiii. xli. (EuMb, il.).
(a) HIkIiiub, arm. ||||.
AniutUH, anil. xll.
I'lUH, anil. xvl.
(»■) Hlgliiua .... [aiin. ||||.]
■«.i.K^xll.A„lc„.u. („«,«, ,„„,,^,„)
I'ius, aiiij. xvl.
I
Higinua, anil. xll.
Anlwlus, ann. iiil.
Pius iinii, xvl.
I
HIglnus, ann. xU.
[AiilcetuH],
Plus, ann. xx.
"» ie>{ai(is tiie relative duratinn nf •;,„ »
' Thcdiratlon of Plu,'8 tenure of oi^^Z^^Z^.^ ,,
"llh Il„ III., m^ tu- """ '' *■''" »« ^'"•'"«™
'■ -HI'; Kii.sc.liim, //,.,./ #/,„* i„ , '""""er.
MiKn«, ,W,, <,■,;„.', XX ii- • i ^■•,^^'
'»i! ti. th.. <-ii/,j/„„,// ;'"'"'" "'■''"'■''-
I'li roKarde,!, hnwC '''/^';, ^V"''l"iK'"", "my
i"-"nr uiat it\., ;;;,'''[''";« '■""•••"^'v;
or IM! I u^ ■ ""iKn""! Id the ve.ir l^',
TK,:;;;' If '="■*-•"»
.r"i;;it;,,'rhr;£'ri •■'''■ "" '- '•'
Alexander. Op ceH^in "• ?'''""" """ "^
'-■m.ti.in in acee, tin^ Vh ' ''T'"' '''•'"■^'"'^ for
shall have 3 'tol'k al'Th' '>'""""."' ""^
"■•tide J hut while aH,' \^' '""<' "f this
extent h» .,ylZr< T ^^ """'■■ '""'""
sity for ;.h^rtil "■^'''' ■;"««■-"' "'« '"•■«»-
cannot 1^^" j 'a ' ""7 ^' ■^''''' ''''•" ^'"'7
tli« hi.toriXx ence of th""-^ *" invalidnt;
names ni^e re«„r led as 1 '-^fcters whose
.iates.cessors."^^^.:^-:i.^':l;!:Y~
■'III
fil
'if
l.-l.lll
ill-- _
■-.-»■
16fiR
POPE
If fi
"urn thode of mi>n who occupliiil n conii|iicunnii
poHliliui in the ihunli nt lt<imi! in llie lir»t lunl
•ecund ((r'n«riitiiin» nl'tor thu uihisIIii*. l.inin,
refi'irwl lu in J Tim. iv. 'Jl as Bincunf (lie liiclu
of I'linl'i iVIi'ti'la during liit iniiiriscjnnii'ut,
beliiiii;H to thi' Inrinfr, anil Anrnclntn*, or Cletu*,
AiinliH (ir Kviiri'ntns, to the lattiT ({fni'iiitiiin. "
(II.) lti;vr.i.i)i'Mi;Mi' mk tiik ("onv.i'hon
OF TIIK Okkick ; ( 1) m irliition to other churo/ita;
(2) III ntiitiitn ti> thil einiV jmii-er.
(i) In ivlatiiin to uthtr cAwnAi'f.
It will imw li« (il'mfrvice to notice noma of the
prin(i|Mil I'm tH which illiistnite thi' ^iiiliiiil iir-
ccptanci' liy tlw church at lar^e "f thu thoory of
the Itmnnn ^nprl■limcy ; and hcri' it lauimt hut he
looked ii|i(in lis of peculinr ■.ii{nilicnncc, that in the
earliest times the histi>ry of the church at Kmiie
•ppearH involved in the Rreiitest obnourity. From
the date of .St. raul's Kpi-tle to the Komans (A.l>.
5H) ii[i to the episcoiiBte id" Victor(A.I). lO.I-'JO'J),
Its nniials are n hinnk, sure when nonio incidental
allusiim in the cuntrovewiee of the time reveiiln
an occiisiimal fact.
The Rrowinu importance of the bishopric in
however ( dearly shown hy the snyinij of the
emperor Decius, preserved by Cyprian, to the
elliict that he would fooner hear id' the ajipear-
«nco of a rival to his throne, than of the tippidnt-
nient of a new bishop to the Komiin see
(/./li^t. (id Ant'inian.; Mii^ne, iii. 774). The
theory i-et forth by Cyprian himself of the
essential unity of the church, may perhaps
justly he regarded ax tendinjf to support that of
the primal y of the bishop of Home. He speaks,
for example (Kpist. hb, ad Coinelium), of the
" chair of Peter," and " the principal church of
Rome, from whence the priesily unity derived its
origin " -" ad I'ctri cathedram atque ad ecclesiam
principalem, unde unitaa sacerdotalis exorta est,
.... litteras ferre." This language, however,
when compareil with other passages (/i'/7'. 7,
5J, ;>7, 72 ; Kpist. ad Q. de Ilaet-etlcia Jiu/jtUnulis ;
do tnitiito AVc/ci. c. 4) seems, at most, only to
prove that he regarded the bishop of Rome as
" primus inter )iares ; " he speaks for example
{i:pst. .'I'J) of pope Cornelius as "collcga noster,"
and distinctly atlirms that the other apostles
were invested with an equal share of honour and
power with I'etcr,— " pari consortio praediti et
honoris et potestatis " (ifo Unitate,t c. 4). The
phraserdugy of the bishops of lome themselves,
when addressing other bishops, is confirmatory of
this view. In the 4th, and earlier part of the
5th, century we find "Julius . . . fiatribus "
(Mansi, ii. 1211); " Liberius fiatri Eusebio " (ili.
204, 207, 209) ; " Liberius episc. dil. fratri Eu-
gebio " (iV). 2(l.^) ; " di|. fratribus et coepiscopis
nostris Liberius urbis Romae episcopus " (i'l. iii.
208) ; "Zosimus episcopus urbis Romae Hesychio
episcopo Salonitano, " " Leo episcopus urbis
Romae," " Kelix episo. a. ecclesiae cath. urbis
Romae Acacio," "Gelasius Romanae ecclesiae
episcopus," &c. In the.se latter quotations the
limitation implied in the addition " urbis Romae "
is of no small significance.
With the fourth century, the evidence that
« The pimnges In this chnpter which assign to Peter s
lupri'iiittcy iiiiioiiK Uie otiiir ti|>osiIes do nut occur (n tbe
earlier M.'iS., and are attributed by Oloseler (A'lriAen-
guch. I. 364) to Romish transi ribers ; It Is certain that
they Involve tbe writer In a contradiction utUimseff,
roPB
faToum the Roman theory becomes more aknn.
dant and more decisiv.'. Much of it, huw>v(.f
relates to the technical questinn of Jiirisdnliuil
and will be found under AlTKAl, ; iiiiu h, aj;nii|
to thixe relations of the bishop of U>'i|iii> In t |J
general episcopate, which it has In en ("uiiil ii|„r,,
ciinvenieut to treat in the fourth divisii.n ui \\ff
present article; our en.|uiry here will ntntt.
quently be limited to ascertaining the ext. it to
which the authority of thu bisln.p i.f linm,. (,„j
admitted by the cnurih at large in cdiunni,,,,
with the definition of doctrine and the iimju.
twiiance of discipline.
At the council of Nicaea the first sigiintiirei
are those of llosius, Vitn, and Vimentiiis, thnls|.
ter two being further described as " prr,^|,v|,|.|
IJomnni," siilscrilMiig " pro venenibili vin, "hin,,
et episcopo no.>tro sum to Silve.^tro ;" nnd, if k
were possibli' to accept the stateinciit id (;.lii,ji„
Ilipsius himself (the eminent bishop of (',,ivhil,||
and president of the council) was really the h.^ni,.
of Sylvester on this occasimi : iwix'^i' tJik riiiror
ToC T^t /*«>((TTT)i 'Viinrtt iiticrKiitiiv (\\nM\,\i
•i!*2 ; (lelasiiis, Jlint. C'oni: A'ickc/h', i'.. ii. (jo;,)
This theory indeed is still accepted by (';ithiili.
writers (Kefele, fo/lciVii7i//csi A. i. 2i'-.;,S; vi-ii
Schiilte, Cuiti-iUiui, p. (i.'i), but is rejecteil by Mi|.
man, (Jreonwood, Robertson, and idliers, Im the
ground of apparent interpolation and ciinriuinn;
for at the council of Sardica, eighti'en years Uttr
(A.l>. .'UH) we find the suliscriptions of Hnsiu,
and Vicentius appearing in the same places, Imt
without any addition to indicate that tiiey
attended in a legatine capacity Irnm limne.''
The allegeil canons of the council of .Sarilitn
undoubtedly conferred im Julius, bishop id' Ifoim.,
the power of hearing appeals ; but the fact thnt
the canons appear to have been unkiiuwn to the
church fjr many years after ((Jreeuwood, i. l.Vi),
anil that when adduced byZosiinus {,\.li. 417-8)
their authority was denied by the African bishiipi
(Milman, l.nt. C/iri-itidnlti/, bk. ii. c. 4), ji
strongly against their genuineness (llicseler 1. ii,
l'J9). And even if their genuineiu'ss weie ulmjt-
ted, it is still most piobable (though wo tiiid
Sozomen and Socrates in the fidluwing centiirr
rejiresenting their scope as general) that thi-V
implied a departure from the rule nt'the chunti,
and were designed to have ell'ect during thi
episcopate of Julius only ( llaur, Christlk/ie Kirck,
ii. 24.5).
With respect both to Sylvester and tn dulius
we have, moreover, other evidence which dis-
tinctly contravenes a contrary a-suuiptinn. .\
letter addressed to the former by the couiuil nl
Nicaea, asks for a confirmation of the cciincirs
decision by n si/nod of alt the his/idja nf Kuim:
" episcopos totius vestrae apostidicae urijis in
unum convenire, vestrumque habere cnnciliiim
. . . . ut firmetur nostra sanctimonia " (.Mansi.
ii. 719) ; and siinilarly Julius, when he summuncd
the accusers of Athanasius to Rome, and was met
by the demand why he assumed to write nlnne, re-
plied that the views he upheld were not his alone,
I" An ttdilltloiial proof of a certain l.ini|)crlni! with the
text Is fuinlslied by the statement nf the /,i7W//n .Vynni.
icut, which gives a thlnl version of the Itmctinn lllird by
VIlo nnd Vinccntlus. iw tlmi. nf tin. nrptiulfnti nf lit
(■'(luncil : ^? liripifov irpoita9tfd/i«i/oi, Bi'riui' itai Bull"
Tto« ffpfiTflui*poi, Toi/ roirov ewtxavTe^ IiA^fo-Tpou m
nanira 'Pufiiii kqX tov dia^dxov avToi) lovAioe " (Maiul,
U. 747).
POPE
•' ■•■-•'^^-•r '•■--". H;;i:::;r',rr
.m>n m^hl. r.K'-n.tu. e,,i.cop„run, ,.r.p.i '• ™i;
Ev..n »o !»,,. n, ,ho .i,„n „f I„„.„,„„j , ,..
«tnm, wh..„ ,.„lr..,>t„.« ,h.. lnt.,r,,o,iti, of .T
R.,n,«n ,-n„„ I a^^.i„st, h„ rival T „.„,,.; , "
lti»h0HHV.r,M„l..„i.|,|„ th«k, „„l,,„|„„i,
:;;:;l;\^;::;.;i':;:^:;:,;j:^'""-''.i/-;^ttr
|Unjlin,^ .h. fourth o.MUury7:l,:tTS
e Uk,.. o,.c.„„„n t.. ..nfnr,..., l,y VHri„„.„, u, ' l^'
U^oj,„l,nal ,,ow..r, from tie mil tnr^ po t r
Md from ,lo,m..t..: nil.., „n,| ,i,„,| Jj''''''
Tcaipresbyfri, .in^uli «r..hi,E ' 'h i!" ^ I
W^), but, rcmarlcBblv ciiouifh, makes no rJ
•lire t„ the bisho], .,f Home "•''''
I"28), thus entirely iZ ■ n^ fhTlV '""•. '"•
Paul intho West WriZ-?„, ">''""'" '" «*•
-^irUo.neo^.rtCS'is'l^SjIVXh
u.hit'r'::;::^^!:^:,:^'-^-un,,
transitu meruit isfa smcent.im .„ 1 '" '"
-t»n,,„e Sau-lereJ-'TS iii'lo 4^ """'"-
"M, I'y this time J„ 1 V '""" '"PWniacy
fquiieia (which seo ^sn^t ' i , ';"^"'' "''
Human ,\U,,,..e) a, nn- i • "";'U''e'l >u the
i-'«i'o,i,.„oi^;::;;5-:^'-'^H5' immediate
•"0~£l>f, ill thetlmrnf'7 1 •'•'•■;• ill -urica,
inl^pendV e „f he ° .^"■^''""«(*-f. '"7-8), the
l.v i'. c n W, ion T:^"' " "'"•''y '""^'"eJ
-'»".. oorra;:ea.r;;^:?;;St;
POPR
1659
•'""'"; but |„ the V. r 1 ■•'"', '"." *'•• 'i'"»
[•"'•t'.«K.w,,ta^!;:'i, <„:;;:;, ;"^ -ion
^'' .'o^b ;:';:;^i :':;''-"•• '■•• '- en.
i''«ro^^uive,i;.,^t.;;';'''r;' '''••'''•'''"•
<^i"tl».i. A, already »t,.i,';' ''""'"' "'""•
«.t of L,„, w, "i I ' "l;"" «•' virhullv th«
■i«'ived,v,:mt':::;; ;: "^"".iin e,.,„
■i"t'"'^" - .he wL:: !';:;;.;!":! ii^'<«
eorleHias eura tio»tru ,li,|en I . , ■ '"'' '""""
«'"r,Ut,|Ua,„vi»S„",, I ■',"'•'' ';'M'™e,,oU.
'i"t Miultiou,. „n"o ' , """""'"^'"■'•idote.
'hciUKh, after th,- invasion ,.c r.
political power had laor , ' """•""''i''. th.
i"t<- l.eo\ hand. .L ' . "'"'"■*' '""'idHtelr
''•;■- i» .:;,!;;;' x«i;:i;!ftr"'''!''« ^•''•-
"""I'm. .|U,.,. t„.n n *"'" ""'"Tdinato:
i--"i.>.i.m;::.„5 "rur':""""'r' •
I 'I'""" xoli" pote.staliH " (I), \ , ""■'■ '■'•liKionii
;•■ "); "Civ'i,„» . rdo 1 . r"""'' ''""'• ''•'•"•
'■eati |'„tri «e,k.,M ,1 ," "', .'^"«"' I'"'' ""'•am
> «t notwithstanding t e 'u ,li M' •'"■ -■;">•
tion claimed by 1 eo it .,..., ""H iiifcj |nri«ilic.
h« regarded Z w;:":i'''," •'''''■ """ "^■'"'
cHract^r.tobe'je^d::^;^:':;;;^'"/^
dioceso on y whi.n ., • • "'"' ''"' liiaiiao
hi» nar„c and hi^u'hor U ^''""■'"' ""' ^'•''^^
Kuccessors •• (Gree"w ,od r ,/7';i '"'"■'"■'' ''>' '''»
I , tender Hillry IT^ii^^f ;/'';''•'. i^;'7).
claims ratiliod l,y he djl^ VvT"''"' *''•
«"-•'■« pressed still more ,^, "^ ^ "l"ntlnian
P-in-iandhiscZa, ',:;:;;;:"{'« 'ho
bishops embodies little less .^"^'""'•=
'•nly to nniven.tl, b al o to '" " ,''•■"'" "'"
Intive authority n L t \ """"''/"'<'? iegig.
How snccessfullv these cl„;,v,
"•"y be seen when lo c mpa leThe Tf '"'''"^!
Avitus of Vienne nf *», ' '■ini;uage of
e-thiy tnbu':iK„te'';rarh''"'''^'^ *" "^
"»ly by God- he aI..!^^.* ^'■' '""'"-■ 'I'li,'e4
""iversil char'nct:..'''r.;^'.^''"^"y '-Pli's the
" At si l'a,,a UrbiV vnL'. ■ ""^ '■■|'i«-'|mey :
1
( V
r
-• fi
■ '''
- *. -
', jj
lu
.' n. jiwli
' 1 V I. •
It
P^P
1^
1
!,i
I 1 l' 'ui
fi4f*
. '■•. -iiiti^
1600
POPE
ifi<
n.' *>;
effort maJo to iacliiJe the East (which hml never
acoepte.! the ilocroe of Vnlontinian 111.) in the
enunciation of thu foregoing theory ; and the
form of eonl'easion subscjibeil by John, the
patiiarch of C'onstantinoiile, on the return of the
Eastern cliurch to orthodoxy, although evasive
in expression, was regdnleil as recording a signal
victory for Uonie : " Sanctissimas Dei ecele>ias,
id est, superiorio vestrae et novellae illius
Koniae, unain esse accipio; illani sedem apostoli
Petri et istins augustae oivitatis unnin esse
delinio " (i6. Ixiv. +4+). We tind accordingly
John I. (A.I). 5J:i-lj) refusing to h(dd intercourse
with lipiphaiiius, the patriarch of Constantinople,
until his right to take precedence hnd been re-
cognized : irptiTpaiT()s virh ' Eirtipavlou toC irarpt-
dpx°" "" KaTf8f(aT0 t'oii irpofKiBiafV toC
'EiTK^arfou i 'Pwfiiii (Theophanes, Chninoiirap/iia,
Corp. l[,st. liiizunt. XXVI. i. 2t)l). In the same
spirit I'el.igius 11. (.\.D. 578-90), while denoun-
cing; the assunijition by John of Constantinople
of the title of " oecumenical patriarch," asserted
in the most unequivocal language the universal
primacy of the see of Rome : " cum generalium
gyuodorum convocandi auctoritas apostolicae sedi
beali Petri singular! privilegio sit tradita"
(Migne, Ixxii. 739).
John, however, so far from discontinuing the
title, again subscribed himself thus in the letters
in which he .acknowledged the formal notifica-
tion of the accession of Gregory the Great. This
drew from Gregory (a.D. 590-604) a still more
emphatic conilemnation of what he designated
as ''a haughty and damnable distinction;"
"moreover," he adds, "it is known to all that
the apostle Peter is the v/tief of the universal
church. Paul, Andrew, John — what were they
other than chiefs of particular churches?"
(Migne, Ixxvii. 74;i).
The remarkable extension given by Gregory
tlie Great to the power of the pontiticate will be
noticed under the two divisions with which it is
most closely as.sociated ; (1), the relations of
Rome to the episcopal order; (2), the extension
of the church's patrimonium. In the West we
have evidence that important exceptions con-
tinued to exist to the recognition of the pope as
universal metropolitan. In Spain, it is observed
by Baxnianu {I'otitik Jer Pdpstc, i. 110), that the
only instance of Gregory's assertion of such juris-
diction (.see iufra, p. 1673) was at Malag.i, where
the imperial government still held its ground.
In support of the conclusion to which this fact
plainly points, it may be noted that the language
of Gregory's illustrious contemporary, Isidore of
Seville, is singularly wanting in any such recog-
nition of the Komau prerogatives as the papal
assumptions of the preceding century might
appear to demand. Isidore admits indeed (ad
Eujen. Efiisc. Tdet. ; Migne, Ixxxiii. 574), that
the " potestas " and "dignitas" conferred on
Peter, and transmitted from him to all bish'ws,
were given " sjiecialius Romano antistiti ;" but in
a more formal treatise (dtf Dfiiciis Eccl, ii. v. 5)
ho expressly allirms that all bishops are to be
regarded as equal, just as the other apostles were
equ.il to St. Peter, "siquidem et caetori apo-
stol"rnm cuni IVtro /'•"' ''onwirii.'fn hnar.ris et
potestutis elfecti sunt . . . quibus decedentibus
successerunt episcopi, qui sunt constituti per
totum munilum in sedibus npostolorum." Simi-
larly in his Oriy^nes (VII. xi.) he assigns " sedes
POPE
apostolicae " to patriarchs, archbishops, and
bishojis alike: " Patriarcha Graeca liiij;i,ii sum-
mus pater, quia primum, id est a|i(i'.ti'!icuia
tenet locum "... Archiepiscopus .Gra.'ic >uin.
mus opiscoporum, tenet enim viceni ajjostoli.
cum," &c.
Among those Western nations which wer«
indebted for their conversion to the direct ;is;.'ii.'v
of Rome, we perceive, however, an inciea-i'.l anil
not unnatural disposition to acknowledge a fiiial
rather than a fraternal relation to thi' parent
see; while after Gregory's death, the cmuse of
events — the subjugation of Syria and Ki;,-|it |)r
the Saracen.s, with the involved lo.ss of .Jcru^ali'm
to Christendom, and the extinction v\' the
churches of Antioch and Alexandria — powoilullT
contributed to the establishment of the ]:m,i[
autocracy. In England, from the tiim^ uf the
council of Whitby (a.D. 664), the (lifpnian
traditions, as enforced by Augustine, Th.N.iliinu
Wilt'rid, and others, were readily iicfptnl,
though a strong spirit of resistance to the
Roman claims to immediate jurisdiction is from
time to time discernible. The British church
appears to have almost refused to rei;avj the
English churches as Christian (liede, E. II. ii. ;;0),
The representatives of the English church taxtd
their antagonists, in return, with spuniini; "in
tyrannous pertinacity the tradition of the
Roman church" (see letter of AMhelm to
to Geraint ; Bright, Karly KniiUsli Church
Hist. pp. 419-423). Krom England thi^ teath-
ing was in turn ditl'used over Franklanl. In
this latter country, however, more than one
important change in the relations to the iiai^aov
is to be noted. Krom the time of Cacsa.ius of
Aries (A.D. MO) the churches in Aquitaiiia and
Burgundy, converted from Arianism to (.'atho-
licisni, appear to have assumed towards the
Roman see an attitude of un()uestioning deference.
Of this the frequont acceptance of the pallium
{infra, p, 1673), as well as other evidence, is siiifi.
cient proof. But in Neustria and Austrasia,
among the purely Prankish popul.ition, this was
not equally the case. The Merovingian kings
usurped the popular rights in appointing lii^hnps
to vacant sees (Guizot, Essais, pp. 192-:)); .and
the relations which the genius of Gre;;ory the
Great succeeded in establishing (.Mansi, \. 34,
293 ; Sirmond, i. 420, 454, 456) were not sus-
tained. After the death of queen Bruuchaiit the
intercourse with Rome appears to have tonio to
an end. The council of Paris (a.d. 61.'i). whith
restored the canonical form of episcopal elec-
tions, makes no reference to the p.apal authnrity.
Guizot observes that from the death of Orejory
the Great to the time of Gregory II. (a.d. S04-
715), not a single document exists which can be
cited as proof of intercommunication betwciD
the rulers of Krankish Gaul and the |ia|iacy
(Civil, en France, ii. 235). It was the great
result of the mission of St. Boniface that it
restored the spirit of allegiance to Konie in yet
more than its original force ; and the principle
which he distinctly enunciated of the duty of
referring all ditiiculties of an important character
to the see of Rome for solution, marks an jII-
important ■-rn
Europe
' eodem modo quo nos Romana ecclesia onlinatoj
cum Sacramento constrinxit, ut si sacerdotes vel
plobes a lege Dei devias-e viderim et corrifere
non potuerira, fideliter semper Sedi ApostolicM
POPE
de conigeriilis populis apud eos im, ■'. ^
At tnis point we enter iinrm *i,
ment of a remarkable fusi.m If ™'"'"''"'-''-
tical anJ ecclesiasti al a'Zt^l^''" ''■^'"'"■
which nmy be reserved for ft fh"""' '"^'l''"'^''
until towards the clo.s of the out n"' T'"""'
the development of the c n, en ion "f'tr "*"'« '"
tions of the State to the n„lv""- "''"■
under Constan.ine he G eft ,i '',";""'■""'"'>'
were h,r,-ely determinedly moti" TT"
Wem,dC'o„sta,.tius,whose'e^^^';^.'^;;:7-
tianity wa.s extremely defective „, ■ V
belief that the whole State .^7 ' "'""'"S his
■I Ik 11 !■ , ..^'''<i was more etfeetnill,.
sided by "reliiTion" than bv nil th '•"':'-'"■'">
endeavours of his subieets and i.l '"''"''•'' ""''
his anxious desire " tTreb;i^^ <lec lanng ,t to be
bv the faith." (C« S ,T ''""'•*" '"-' '^•^•■>"^'»
Hiiuel, p. UOOO sUhrt V I "'f' ' •"• 'l' ' "'■
the edii, already que^.l ':'""»■"" '"•' -.
heaven as ehiefly to be «;£ bv th > Th'"".'' "'
"I'aith and rel k'ion " A .-^ *- ^^'''^'I'm
(XovMw n 4j\ ?L .^""'•'''ng **> Godefroy
8im,.lv the body of nl /"""' "'!'' '^"^"^'^'^
ecclesiae" or ^oZ,^/! E>'' < P'-i'-i'-gi*
were respectively temed In 7^^^"^/ "' /''^>'
East).coi,ferreduponChri' L*' ^^"'^ ""'' '^e
organisation by the StalL'"""^ *" " recognised
In such a compact with the new reli<r!„n ♦!
emperors, with whatever admixture of h' f '
motives, undoubtedly saw thdr ovn vf^",
pin; ;.nd in like mJnner t he b shol o^t '""'
in their ellorts to assert the . • .*'P? "^ ''"'"f,
the whole church di ce rne I J"":!'''"^'i<"» "ver
in a coalition ^ilh X t" '"" " "'''""'"^''
advantage was no , however' 'b 1"'""'; '^■^'
out a corresponding Tos, of ind/ ?"* '"""■
ecclesiastical freedonl ' Th ,'°"^'''«°'l,^°c« and
tian emperors "s?,"; an nhl ' "f "''^ ^''"^-
Consfautine to Leo he .Xln \ ""■""'' " ^'•'"»
absolute subordination'o th? •' •T"","'^'^' ""^
temporal author TU '^P"'"'"'! to the
fact, ofeccledisti,-,! ,; . "7'— »" the details, in
are preseril w h he -- '^ '■''°'* ''''^'■'''''•
portio thelne i^ Uh''-'';.'''''^^"^ ''"^^ '"'-ge »
«hurch4dth state' te •^"''t ''"'h the
P-i'ial court to Rn;„J. IT" »' '"'"'« '™-
t«utiHcate- of Innocent 1 Th„ r'"'\ I"'"''' "'^
Valentiniaa III. was^n «n„, '^^'^bleness of
-^W by the vigoui „/";;'"^ '"«''^"™ «°">P«-
Soiongos the Western'etnpire continued to
POPE
m
1661
P-ver; but The ^'n ^l^''-;"- ^/^e temporal
s'on came to an cud !!,„.' ^es ern succes-
of the p..pes toward h„"''''^'''°'' '^"""'"^-^v
were charkcterhJd bv !''l,r''"'"" "*' »*'« '^"=-'
l-arison of the letters of r ^ ") '""'-'■ ^ ^"■"-
those of I.eo 1 lus ft ^^''^^Vi-'^*'^-'^^^^'''"
I latter pontiff inv H. ! i. '^"''-''■'-'»"- 'I'he
with great ieferencelV;'''.'-'"'-'^* *'"= «'"l'"'«r
' P.'i^it'nianner Ih^tnV I u''t"™'^'''" "'"■^' '^^-
tion to the church T t P','"»«'""'e m rela-
wuh reference to the ,"m"'"' "• ^' ^^'■'"'«.
council at Kom .* fer-nu" :"'/' ■'' ^'"^'^'-'^
(Mansi, vi on -to .,„""!'""'' ^-'^tra concedd "
a>i™u.ing^ihe'i;r',:?^tSv^:ft'S^^''^''
t-e of Sym'm^ch: ' (lo ToS-'.un'"^'- ''^
bolJ," An quia imperator es con r!V "'"""^
potesfatem.^" (Thiel iWff!^ ",""""-''■''
Durinir n,„ „ ,' ^'^'- ^O'"- P^nt. p. 7ii,J )
Hai; T.1*4;^!^,^;{'-;V o the Gothic piwer in^
;yero restricted 1^1* l'^:! ^n to. V" """"'''
t'.e ,,apal elections (see I H ii " n ''?^^f'
TheodorictheGreit i,,,lll , • '''''•'^'"'n ").
lil^erty of reli,!;:: ''jS.fr- k'Ti'''' ™"''''<'"'
perare uon possumus ml' ""''g'"""" 'm-
relations of the Greek Z. ' , ' '^'•>- "le
sovereigns are howetrTstr T'^ ''" ''"""°
Greenwood (CuM l^./.^,'' ". sS":"'.!"?'-"' "^
moment to the iirocres« Jf" ? ? o*^ some
imperial poliUeinglect^P^P^l V^""'>''" '^«
with the pope in o,^ler t '""''"■'''* "" "'"»"«
scheme f„|. tU'i'-Lrit^Uon Sv ""7 /" '{«
^l?;stirdS:sr-^^=-
to Italy. lu the ve r 530 ^'T" "" '^'^ '''""^
-leciaril Constant nople to' L ''' "' •'"^'""""
the churches "(T » .^ supreme over all
"■ 24, ed. Kriegel v 2^^ l,.. -o. "' '• '"•
of the e.xnedition nf R»i ' '" "^'^■*' "» the eve
made by S em.eror t""'!"'' ? *"'''=''^'«"'' "as
John ][ on hT de bv r' "'' ^["•P^'thios of
-herein, after a.Idr:s:in'g^hV;ri ff ^.'s"*''
of the-'East to th R L sh t^W^" "'^^''^'
sacerdotes ««,tm7o ,°"/',. '!''' '''^oiue omnps
etunire sed veTt™ ' ''/.'"^^^ '"''J'^'^^"
('^■■titi..o^:irs^:f:7[T-^'"-"
Thflw^'rtll'etr'aftf^r-^-™
'or a like commission bv'rh . 'l"* "^.^g-'Petus
""liortanceoftheuanalnR^r' > "^ growing
civil power AfterTh • '.'° '*'"'""> to the
hoen Lto ed in ull'bv'T'"" '''^?'"'"^>' '"^'1
audNarse,s, the exarchs of R "'''"' "^ ^^"'"""^
the a>.thnri...|;J. ."'-''? ?(^ Ravenna succeeded to
Ostrogoth •■.nd'The"''""";' 7 ""> ''"'^-s of the
-aitfdth;i;:i£„i:^',^t""Er?'""^jf
^^b- aSh^,S;:::ri^e'secoiii^
-^ of Vilnius (...l^^-Xl-^-^tS
m
W-^\
F ■ ■ HUt*
?fl?
•)!
U62
POPE
pletdv the popes were now at the merey of the
eni|ieior. Yet, notwithstamling, the Komiin see
still represented the highest and most inHuential
authority among the Itnliims themselves, and
the Pragmatic Sanction of Justinian (a.d. 5"i4),
which fixed the civil organiz.ition of Italy, whs
issued at the request of Vigilius (Gibbon, c. xliii.).
With the establishment of the Lombard su-
premacy, that of the Byzantine court was again
reduced to little more than a shadow ; and it
may be regarded as tlie key to much of the state
policy of Gregory the Great, that his chief aim
was to extricate the papacy from the dangers by
which it was menaced by these two powers. His
aversion from the conquerors did not ))revent
him from gaining over Agilulph, the king of the
Lombards, to the Catholic as opposed to the
Arian interest (Paiilus Diac. bk.vi. cc. 9 and 10).
And though he continued to profess allegiance to
the emperor, there can be no question that his
eympathies with the empire were to a great
extent estranged by the assumption by his rival
8t Constantinople of the title of " oecumenical
patriarch." The relations which this pope
sought to establish both with Frankland and
with England stand in very close connexion
with those existing between the pajiacy.and the
Lombard and Byzantine courts (Baur, (lesch.
d. Kirche, ii. 251 ; Baxmann, Folitik d. Fdpste,
i. 26).
The decrees of the Quinisext council (A.D. 691),
of which the thirty-sixth canon was an endeavour
to revive that theory of episcopal pre-eminence
which regarded it as resting solely on a political
foundation, and the efforts of Justinian U. to
thrust them on the acceptance of the West, mark
the last stage of interference on the part of the
Eastern emperors with the papal power. In the
pontificate of Gregory IL (a.d, 715-731) the
dispute concerning image worship completed the
Tuptu re between East and West; the estates of
the Roman see in Sicily and Calabria were confis-
cated by the emperor Leo ; and although Gregory
continued to profess a nominal alioglance to the
emperor, it would appear that it was mainly
from motives dictated by yet stronger feelings
of animosity to the Lombards that he and his
Buccessors, to use the somewhat exaggerated
expression of Gibbon (c. xlix.) "spared the relics
of the Byzantine dominion "(Greenwood, ii. 481).
Nothing, however, could exceed in plainness the
terms in which Gregory repudiated the right of
the emperor to interfere in questions of dogma,
and maintained that the spheres of the imperial
and papal authority were entirely distinct :
"Scis imperat(U', sanctae ecclesiae dogmata non
Imperatorum esse, sed pontificum, quae tuto dog-
mat i/,ari debent, Idcirco ecclesiis praepositi
Bunl pontifices a ret piiblicae negotiis abstincntes,
et impcratores ergo similiter ab ecclesiasticis
abstineant, et quae sibi commissa sunt, capes-
Bant " (Mansi, xii. 960). The significance of this
passage is enhanced when we consider that it is
from the pen of one whom Gibbon styles " the
founder of the papal monarchy."
it is, however, to the relations of the see of
Rome to the Lombard power that we must refer
that alliance with tiie Fiaukish niunarch which
paved the way for the assertion of that very
Solitical power which Gregory 11. professed to
isclaim. " Placed between a heretic and a
robber ' (to use the expression of Bryce), the
POPE
Roman pontiff fled for assistance to the Frrinlt,
and the appeal of Gregory IIL to Charles Jl irtel
for aid against the Lombards marks the ci'm-
mencement of that new conjunction whiuh resulted
in the claims of mediaeval popedom. The title of
'• papa universalis " which Gr^fory 1. hai de-
nounced as blasphemous, w?.- clainu'd by liis suo
cessors in the 8th century, and the aspiration to
political influence which Gregory 11. disavowi'd,
grew, in the middle ages, into an assertion of
political supremacy.
Other circumstances favoured these results.
The Orbis Christiattus no longer coinci;led with
the Orbis Rom mm, and the want of a boudol'unii.n
between ihe nations of the West was laiiifnily
felt. This want the papacy could in a great
measure supply; and the celibacy of the im<iis,
and the elective character still i)reser\-od by
their ofHce, served to diminish the jealousy with
which a liae of hereditary rulers migiit have
been regarded.
Under these circumstances, the aiipeannce of
Boniface in Frankland as the papal leg.ite was
attended with signal success, and was productive
of results which can hardly be over-estimated ia
their importance. The " familiar " relations
which this prelate had already entered into with
Rome, the oath whereby he bound himself to
perpetual fidelity to the supreme pout ill' (Sir-
m(md, i. 512), and the strenuous manner in
which he upheld the theory of the Caiholic
unity, the duty of subjection on the part of the
whole clergy to the successor of St. I'eter, and
the superiority of the pope to all earthly tribu-
nals (" quia cunctos ipse judicaturus a nemine
est judicandus") constitute a crisis in European
history. (See Hefele, Concilknijesc/i. iii. 553-!;
Labbe and Cossart, iii. 1925 ; Greenwood, Cath,
Petri, ii. 361-71).
The mainf lets in relation to the compact with
Pippin and Charles are stated elsewhere (sot IV,
iv. "Political Sovereignty"). It will be surli-
cient here to observe, that although the elective
character of the papal office was preserved, the
validity of each election, at least throughout the
reign of Charles the Great, was entirely dejien-
<lent on the sanction of the Frankish monarch,
to whom the pope acknowledged a kind of feudal
relation. We find, for instance, that when I.eo
lU. announced his election to Charles, th Utter,
in reply, expressed his pleasure at receiving the
assurance of humble obedience and the pledge
of fidelity to the throne offered by the pontilf,
" gavisi sumus seu in electionis unanimitatc, seu
in humilitatis vestrae obedientia et in promis-
sionis ad nos fidelitate " {Carolina, ed. jafte, p.
354).
It is, however, at least questionable, whether
the coronation of Charles at Rome (an event but
imperfectly understood and very vari usly inter-
preted) was not, to a great extent, a skilful re-
adjustment of the mutual relations of the empire
and. the papacy. As the pope required the con-
sent of the emperor, before his election could be
regarded as valid, so the emperor henceforth re-
ceived the formal award of his crown from the
pope.
Though the power of the Franki.ih cpiscr.pr.:c
largely increased with the decline «( the Caro-
lingian dynasty, the papal and the n yal supre-
macy were still held to be inuxtricaiily linked
together. Thomassin quotes, in proof of this, the
,<kH
POPE
language of the fourth council of Tours C* n
849),ad ressed to N,„uenoe. duke of Armo^W™
who, at the same tmie that he revolted from ht'
alegmnce to Charles the Bald, sought to ruder
themetropohtaa of his province iudepeud ut of
Rome: ''omuem laesisti Christianitatem dum
V,.ar,um I. Petri a,,o.stolicum, cui ded" Ueu"
prnnatum >„ omni orbe terrarum sprevisti"'
(»,rm,.nd, „,. 70) Similarly, Lewis the Ger-
man, wiien he sought to brine over fh» , i
of Chiersy to his^ide in !>if Tome t "w "hi'
bro her Charles, received for reply that thev
«)uld never desert one who had been inaugurated
so solemnly by the Frankish bishops, "quemque
sane a bedes Apostulica, mater nostr«ri tteWs
apusto hcMs ut regem honorare studuit ^t confir
mare" {.Sirmond, iii. 12;)) ujunr-
In the memorable struggle between Nicholas
I. auJ Hmcmar (arisiug out .f the divorce of
queen Thcutberga by her husband, LothaTr II
th »e theories were asserted by pope Niohol s
w, h unanswerahle force agaiLt*^ t'he F.en h
kshops. He maintained that even the impS
dign,ty and power were the gift of thehoTv see
and in the sequel Hincmar was comDeU L'
restore Rothrad to the see of SoLon"'and L^
an- to receive back his consort. In ..'unport of
h>s simultaneous exercise of the papal preroea-
wlVnVv r?' ""^ '" '^' «<^='esiastfcal domain
we fad .Nicholas appealing to the False Decretal,'
.CO lee tion o spurious pontifical decrees which
It w s a leged had been compiled by Isidore of
Seville, but of which the Roman archives pre.
::t ;:» rs's'sTo ''r "''t'='"-"-« ^"^^•^^^^
to tne years 8^9-840, when thev were hivf^i i
to hght at Mentz. In these the^ol egi latf e
tive authority. Infallibility was the neT „evi"
title s,ep, if infallibility was not alre^y in the
rfhis successors" (Zat. Christianity, bk v. c 1)
-i:i,i;i
POPE
1663
III. DiSnxCTIVE FEATCHE8 OP THE OmCB,
to the Roman pontiff. n the E^st !""""""■
of a "lector" as '' papa " << n f^' ^"'"''8
Wop of Vienne writW tn .t"""^'."^'''*"'-
Hierosolymitano. Kxercet ■ ,nlt i\ P«P«e
^^ta.l^'thr^r''"^^^-"-"^
yeai 222 .!' us teT t"''^ r'""^'' "> the
uirnrutae Annaies, Jligue, 5. 0. cii.
Ctesiphon. but thi, s r''"^"^u^'''^"^'''' "-^J
bishop was suie; " pi^ "ufh > '"'" ""''.i"'^"-
"cha," but n-ever •< ,4'j";'?,' '''''holicus, et Patri-
m.t^- £rfi^^"^l;f- '^om the testi-
throughout our pe.^^" ,/;;'r' "' '''''^' "'"'
-Hly restricted /o its m tu u /"L":l "^^
employment, however it 1 ''* ■"^'"•''
confined at an ea ly p ^i d Tl^T '" ''^^-^ '"^«'>
ation to the do... ,'f , '^"'""l"'- 't» limit-
'"encing. p^b.^bTy, i"/ tt^Utlf" f ""'""' '-••^'»-
we should natumlly exnect „ ■^' 1""^' <"•
munities more directiv n i' V^ ">? com-
the Roman sel'Tbe^.^^f ^'^ '^^ '"riuence "f
both of the .. bishop' of'Roe°',^JfT T^''
of Rome," but, acwrdine to ThnJ^I ''"'''
thetimeof Aeanetus rin ° ^2? «'""' ""«'
title of « panf "'^to^b . ■ ^^~*'^' '^''^""^^ the
oidi„uturr'..Papa/^r ^^'T- ;^g'''l'^'"» l'"pa
rex " &,. tu "^ ' '*""'"' iJomanoscribeus
'ex, S.C. {Bremar. cc. 18 21 9'^\ "'-uueus
parts of the West fh» .m ' . ^' ^° "'her
the^-oyal preseuce th'' ''"'''''"''• ^" •^""^''''8
"S.i, P^^sence, the messenger exclaimeH
nent tu"e 'sfr'' *'*^ ^""^ '/>'^'" '« emU
Sthe'kin:';e:L'"'"v "•'"l-r"'"!" To
adiiati urbem^ ut li. «""'"''^ Turonicam'
deferas?" It isdiS l^"" ""f' '"'"'«"'
from this passage St" thVime r;'^-'^"'^
were styled "sedes apostolicae ""1 the i th "'"
tury, and their bishops ''paple" si T"
S:7e'ar1o8 !f'r?Ahe S^ bistpsla"
"=o£r"':rr»fi-^£rit/-
^^.:^is:ihii-^ 5 ?si
fourth fA.D. 54.11 iin.l fie.\, t _ ^ • '*•'*')>
;; o,i.. A:? .fiii . «2rS'
'~ *:ii
166*
POPE
''If H
Felix, bisliop of Nantes : " Domino snncto et ]
apostolicii si.'de diguisaimo pntri, Felici p:ipne "
(_Mis<: lii. 4 ; Mignc, Ixxxviii, 119) ; and writing
to Eaphronius, bishop of Tours, inscribes the ,
letter " Domino sancto .... papae " (Jb. iii. 1 ; •
Wigne, Ixxxviii. 115). !
It is supposed by Thomassin and by Phillips
{Kii-hciireM, V. G03) that, with the eml of the :
6th century the title began to be entirely j
restricted to the pope of Home, who was now |
generally recognised as " pnter patrum." We
fM, however, that at the sixth general council, ,
that of Constantinople in the year ti80, Honorius
is referred l;o as "papa antiquae Komae," and
Cyrus as "papa .Alexandrine" (Mansi, xi. 214), |
The following titles assumed by, or given to, pope j
Agatho, in the Acts of the same council, appear |
to indicate that such titles were largely en- ,
hanced, at discretion, by the use of adjectives, or I
a more amplified description : " episcopus servus i
servorum Dei;" "episcopus snnctae Dei catho- I
licae atquc apostolicae ecclesiao urbis Komae ; " 1
" sauctus nujier oidinatus papa in apostollca sede |
antiiiuae Komae;" " sanctissimus et beatissimiis i
archiepiscopus antiquae Komae;" " sanctissimus
et beatissimus papa;" "sanctissimus papa;"
" orthodoxus papa " (i6. xi. 202, 209, 285, 298,
322, .-130, 346).
In the 9th century the dissociation of the
title from ordinary episcopal dignity is attested
by the fact that we find Gregory IV. (A.D. 827-
A) reproving the Prankish bishops for audresa-
;ng him by the incongruous titles of "frater"
.rid " papa;" when it would, he says, have been
More (itting to have shewn simply the reverence
due to a father: "Romano pontiHci scribenter,
coiitrariis eum in praefatione nominibus appel-
lastis, fratrem videlicet et papam ; dum con-
gruentius esset solam ei paternam reverentiam
exhibere " (Migne, civ. 207).
The use of this title in addressing any other
ecclesiastical dignitary than the pope of Rome
was formally forbidden by Gregory VII. in the
council of Rome of the year 1073 : " ut papae
nonien unicum sit in toto orbe Christiano, nee
licoat alicui se ipsum vel alium eo nomine ap-
pellare " (Gieseler, Kirchengesch. i. ii. 405, with
note).
Pon'ifex maximm and pontifex summtis. [See
PONTIFj;X.]
Episcopus universalis or oecumenicus. — This
title first assumes significance in the time of
Pelagius II. (A.D. 578-590), who, as we have
already seen, strenuously denounced its assump-
tion by John the patriarch, and at the same
time disclaimed it for himself (Baronius, ad ann.
687). His remonstrance appears to have pro-
duced no effect on John, for we find his successor,
Gregory the Great, repeating both the remon-
strance and the disclaimer. According to
Gregory, the council of Chalcedon had already
distinctly affirmed the exclusive right of the
Roman pontiff to this title, but no pope had
hitherto assumed to himself this "audacious
name," lest such an assumption should seem to
involve the denial of the title to his episcopal
brethren ; " Numquid non, sicut vestra frater-
nitas novit, per venerandum Chalcedonense con-
cilium hujus apostolicae sedis antistiU'S ....
universales oblato honore vocati sunt. Sed tnmen
niillus unquam tali vocabulo appellari voluit,
nullus sibi hoc temerarium nomen arripuit, ne
POPE
si sibl in pontifieatus gradu gloriam sinjtn-
laritatis arriperet, banc omnibus fratrilnis d. le-
gasse videretur" (Hpist. v. 18; Miijni!, Ixxvii.
7+3). Authorities, however, concur in- hoMmg
Grntjory mistalien in his supposition that the
title had been sanctioned by the council of
Chalcedon (Gieseler 1. ii. 228; Het'ele, ConriU-n-
ijcsch. ii. 325; Schatt", p. S')2); Leo was ( nly
styled oiKDu/XfViKhs ipx'firiffKo-iros in an iioi:u-a-
tion preferred against Dioscurus by two diM.ons
of Alexandria (Mansi, vi. I(lli6, 1(112); and thiit
he himself assumed the title in his corrcspmid.
ence is a statement that probably rests ii|i..n a
forgery (see (Jieseler, ii. s.). Uoniface II. (\,o,
530-2) appears to have been thus sfybvl by
Stephen, metropolitan of Thessily; and boni-
face 111. (a. I). tiu6), who according to Anista-
sins (Muratori, Script, ill. i. 135) ohtainod from
the emperor I'hocas a decree entitling the .see of
St. Peter to rank as " caput omnium euclesi-
aruni," is said to have openly assumed the title.
Gieseler (1. ii. 488) refers its earliest appeaiMnco
OS self-assumed to the Liber Viitrnus, whiuli ap-
peared A.D. 682-5; and Leo II. (a.d. 6H2) wi's
saluted as " papa oecumenicus " by the e'npcror
(Mansi, xi. 713). After the 7th century its
occurrence is not unfrequent. It is given by
the Roman senate to Stephen IV. in the 8th
century (Mansi, xii. 625); to the same i«iiitiff
by the Lateran council of the year 769 (i'>. xii,
713); and to Leo III. by a synod held in K(ime
in 799 Uh. xiii. 1071). It was used by Charles
the Bald in addressing John VIII, in the year
876, on the occasion of that monarch's receiving
the imperial dignity from the latter, hi the
proposals of the commissioner,? presented to
Lewis the Pious (A.D. 825) the pope is refevveJ
to as he " who, by apostolical authority and the
reverential deference of the world, is exalteil to
the universality" (Baronius, ad ann. 8J5),
Hnllam, however {Middle A(;es, c. vii, pt. 1),
quotes Gratian {Dccretum, ed, 1591, p. ;i(l3):
" Nee etiam Romanus pontifex universalis appcU
latnr," and says that a distinction is maile by
the canonists between "universalis eccle-iac
episcopus " and " episcopns universalis ;" " that
is, the po])e has no immediate jurisdiction in the
diocese of other bishops, though he can correct
them for the undue oxerci.^e of their own."
Apostollcvs [sec Apostoi.icus].— The latest of
the episcopal titles claimed exclusively by the
pope. Charles Martel, in the 8th century, when
reciimmending BoniSuce to the Frankish bishops,
addresses them as " domini et ai)ostoliei in
Christo patres episcopi " (Migne, Ixxxix. 099).
To the evidence of Ruj)ertus Tuitiensis (quoted
in ApostolicL'S) may be ad<led that of .\ilnm
Scotus, who, speaking of th? pope, says, "Ipsi
quippe sunt principales, et maximi sedis apo-
stolieue in ecclesia Romana successores ; nude et
ipsos specialiter apostolicos sancta ecclesia voeare
consuevit" (de Tripart. I'ak; Migne, cxviii,
394),
Serrus servorum Dei. — ^This title was not
originally restricted to »' i bisho)) of Rome.
Augustine (Epist. 217, iid ViMein) s^iperscribes
a letter "August, episc, servus Christi et per
ips im servus servorum ipsius." Kuigoi.tius
{Kpist. 5) stvles himself " servorum Christi
i famulus " (Gieseler, I, ii,'2U). Its earliest use
as assumed bv the Roman p(mtitls appears to
have been by Leo the Great, who so styles him-
POPE
islf in n leUer aJdresseJ to the em..„,.„,.
Theo,l„.sius II. (Mi^nc, Patrol, cv 23) ' t ■
.aoptcl again by Oregon- the Great, with the
des,!-.., probably, o contrasting his own humility
with the arrog;int assmnj.tion of the title f
..universalis;; by Joh„ ot'con.tantinopi " , ,
a M. iJi.ic. II. 1). His contemi.orarv Oi.lie • „f
Cahors,refu,se,l to permit himself „Ve,c re ,ed
y nnv other t.tle. lu the 9th century tbega„
to e Innue. lo the ,,npe. Leo 111. Lbi,u„T
<tves h nusell " ep.seopus, servus nervorum Uei ^'
(Jiitie, tii.oimu, p. 3;JtJ, et passim).
Clim,ier.-TU„ use of this title npnears to
date .ro,u the mi, Idle of the 8th centu f "one
Hadrmn was styled « clavicuiarius regni coe
orun, (Mans,, ..„ 8.'H ; xvii. 130-1) in «
deJ,c«t,»i-y poen> addressed in the thirty-seventh
yoar ol the re.gn of Charles the Greal to Ut
m.iuarch, the same pontil!' writes, " Polljci/p
sacra dona davigon aulae Petri" (Maassen
(ii.) Election. This, as is generally'nllowed by
eoc ferns .cal writers, was, i„ the .arliest times^
by the clergy and laity of the church of Tme
conjcntly with the b.shops of the neighbouring
d,oceses and m no way dirtered ft-„m that
observed in election to other bishoprics, riiisiiop-
"^'t;,7"' '? 't' "^"t'T "^P°P« Cornelius
{A.D. ,)1) St. Cyprian tells us that he was
raised to the dignity « by the diyine decree. Z
testimony of nearly all the clergy, the assent „f
the people, and by the college [LTcwhal
(•o..i,KUKSJ of venerable priests, a.'l by^gooT^n.'
VaLtinian II. i„^a l'ett"r re'spe^ctin'gteTeS
01 Siricms (A.D. 385), says : '' We hold f» *„ "
the light of the Ro,/an people Thlt t' y' sho°uW
njoy ooucord and elect the best man for bishop "
disputed election of Boniface I. (a.d. 418) it was
a ege a. decisive in his favour that he had Deen
.le ted by the Roman clergy, "amid the accla-
mations of the people and the chief men of the
city and that 70 priests had subscribed the a.t
t^". too^r""'' "' "'"^ ^'-"^^^
The method oliseryed was consequently the
auie as that observed in other episcopal efect^ons ■
u ahnost as soon as the see of Rome rises inL'
istoriea importance- from the time, that i to
say, of Constantine the Great, we Hnd thL ti:
.ct..foonsecration was always deferred uti h!
?! ' 1r "^'^^ P"'"''" 'Choice by the mneror
r y the eiavch of Ravenna) had been r'Sd
In he manner in which this imperial pre" ealke
I Z''l'"''^^^~'^'=<^ovdmg as it was i ivolfed L
e bishop, restricted to a mere formality by
, ''^Peror, or enforced in a spirit whiih vLn
ally destroyed the freedom of the election 1'
"eprosented with valuable evideS e w h re-eTt
i ';l!? ''"'"°" "' *"« P«P-y throughout
POPE
1665
toli^riV' (Twon?u, P"'"""'" ^""'" -'--Jere
spurious. Thecrer;;:nT' ''? "'"^ ■''-) "^^
aLther bisC u^;i-'l^: -- to accept
o.;it:*!':^SlJ'^^-'^>S"n.'onance„fthe
tor its pos, .ssinn X '^srceness of the contests
'-f faction to gain ir'Vx,^°i t'" "," ^MH^Iient
that marked fhe c^nte s tw eV"r •'" '""''!
iMmasus (a.d 3C6-3HiT„ iTr '"-^"""is and
cius (A.... 38U'9)Sle,"' h ''"""^ ""'' ''*'"-
^neLr'(tir~^^?^n:jt
-™^^^^£~--;^-^
clerey shonl.l .,-„ i "^ '"'' Roman
(Hat^'nius n.P"4T9? '"xhTl^ V' ''"'^^
emanating from a seculnr "'; ''">^«^*''-. as
hehi by the canoni ts fn K i T' ''"'' "'''' '*''«°
wit Sinrt mark ''""tt r>""-"- -'-
-thepont^ir-r^^SstnSt^r
time when ealousy of tba ..7, i *''*'-*3V a
nople almosi absorbed hat o7 hT "',^'""-^t""ti.
represented by n,\l^ ^ '^^'^''' I'""'"'' ^
aotnally invok^ne th "'-".'"'V ""^ ^^'' P"P«
monarch. In y"ei of the l"'r'''^"™u °^ *''»*
follow his own decease Si^ i"" "'"' """'''
Basilius, the prefect of Ol„P'""' '•'-'1»^'»ted
such election, S it sio ,m' "'", '" ^^""'^*'°''
his auspices and f L "'"'"'' .b<^ 'inducted under
-bject'^hir iije yfsrn" X^V'^'^fi'""' •>«
977'> T,> »kj °"P'"^'^'!'on (Hardouin. Cona ii
th e'ia^ o" ^Sci 's"S::'^"'*^^ = ""''- -
right of confirming^ he elecUonT/thr^''^' '"^
-the Roman cler|y beincr fh, ^^ "T P"!^
acknowledge the author v^nf, ':"">P''"«'I to
On the san^ occasio '^ y,^7,,tncV""""^''-
mulgated iirohibitino- fV.„ "'"'nance was pro-
funds to dect in erC^W ^t'on of church
poses. '«neering or other party pur-
The elections of Gplnaii.o «„j •
were conducted in due f ,rm ? ^""^'•'''""' "•
n.er pontiff refused i„th/r! """ t^e for-
notify his election t'fh« ""/.^"t instance, to
nople^^acco^li g"t"o custoXr-'"' "*; ' '""f'-ti-
of Symmachus anothe? j-s.. ,> ^ '='^'^*'<"'
ensued between his party and tha;"n/r ™"'''*
and the arbitration'^'o'/^thr^'e yilM f:"'-:"""''
personofTheodoiicfh. Pvl * Power, m the
'i'heodoric apnea™ to h„? ' *'"'/^'"" ""'"'^^d.
With conveni ,n"asrembW%fT"*r' """"^'^
499) which he l.ft freeT Ll *''\^''«'W (a.d.
might be deemed nee a'; , trund r the"' '""'
dency of Symmachii, th/e ii • *"'' l""""-
p™.. „iii'pu'Ln '.Sirs?
A as rendered liable to degradation «n i „ '
mun cation ■ /■9^ ti, ""^S'^uunon and, excom-
on at^rp^^s'of iu^f^rf"?!,? 1:^1^:^^?^
toanyperso„^';-'r>JrK:tS
1668
POPE
POPE
divulge any attoinpts nt clectnrnl intrigues and
malpractices (Bamnius, at{ tmn, 499).
In the ilillic\ilties which involve the histiiry of
the Si/nodus I'alimris (a.d. nO'i) two poirts in
relation to our subject may be regarded as
Butiiciently ascertained : (1) That the synod
repertleil the enactment of Odoa(^er ; (.!) That it
did this siili'lv in order to repudiate the precedent
thaieby estaljlished for civil interposition, for the
law conciuning the alienation of church property
was f'"rthwitli re-enacted in all its details by the
same synod (Haruonin, ii. 9'(5).
The elections of Hormisdas and John I. present
no particular feature ; bi t after the latter had
died ill conlinenient, a victim to the displeasure
of Theodoric, that monarch assumed to himself
the right of both nominating and appointing
Felix IV. (or III.). This invasion of their privi-
lege called forth energetioremonstrance alike from
clergy and i)eople ; and Theodoric was ultimately
prevailed upon to decree, that in all future
elections the choice should rest with them,
though he still reserved to himself the royal
right of pronouncing upon such choice before
the act of consecration (Cassiodorus, Varhr. viii.
15).
The elections of Boniface II., John II. and
Agapetus, conducted under Gothic auspices,
mark another period of open and shameless
bribery ; aud almost the last act of the expiring
Roman senate was to issue a decree (ann. .')32)
declaring that any person convicted of giving or
promising a reward for the purpose of bringing
about the election of a candidate, should forfeit
the right of suH'rage, while the bribe was made
recoverable by action against the receiver (ibid.
ix. 15). This decree was subsequently ratified
by a rescript from Havenua, which extended its
operation to all the metropolitan sees of Italy ;
and Athalaric, th3 successor of Theodoric, gave
order that " the laudable decree of the most
noble senate " should be engraved on marble and
placed in the vestibule of St. Peter's (i6. ix. IS).'
The right of a pope to influence in any degree
the election of his successor appears to have
formed a subject of deliberation at the synod of
499 (see Greenwood, Cath. Petri, ii. 69). In
princi]i!e, however, such interference had been
virtually condemned by Hilary, who had for-
bidden the bishops of Tarraconensis to nominate
their successors (Thiel, i. 167). The theory was
now revived by Boniface II., who obtained from
a synod in the year 530 a decree empowering
him to appoint a successor, and actually nomi-
nated a deacon, Vigilius, who was afterwards
pope. But a second synod reversed the decree
(" quia contra canones fnerat hoc factum ") ,
and Boniface himself publicly committed the
writing to the flames, — in the language of Anas-
tftsius, " reum se confessus mnjestatis ' (Murat.
Scrpt. I. ii. p. 127.)
The restoration of the imperial authority in
Italy was followed by renewed interference with
the papai elections. A law of Justinian (AoceWue,
' This dicroe may be recarded as ri'talning Its validity
nntii the time wht-n tiir ptti.ni rk-otloiis b*rc;trrie ve=ted
ill the Oiil'ego ot CirdlnuU. Bll^onlu^, and most of the
Ciiihulic writers since his ilme, have itoiiKlit, sonienbat
dl^ingenuiusly, to give a diffprent a^^pict lo this undeni-
able Intervention of ilie secular power (see Aniud. 533 ;
Phmips, Kirchtnrtcht, v. 748).
cxxiii. c. 25) shews that bishops were required
to maintain a resident agent or sc-iitiirv
at the residence of their metrupulitaii ; the
metropolitan, again, at the residence »( hii
patriarch. The growing dependence of the
Homan see on the cmp.>ror is prcliably in.lioated
by the fact, that Agapetus (a.u. ■'j;i.')-i;) was the
first pope >vho maintained an apocrisiarii s pcj.
inanently at the tastern court (TlidiniiS'.iu, '^il.
Bourasse, i. 141). From ♦his time the iiilliieuoe
exerted by that court over the papal ili'Ltiuni
may be inferred fr(;m the number of ape crjjiarii
(tvy. Pelagiusl., Gregory I., Sabinian, Honif.ico 111.
Martin I.) who succeeded to the papal tluiriie.
The illegal deposition aud murder of .Svlverini
(A.I). 6;l6-7) was followed by the uncanmiiial
election of Vigilius, at the dictation of Bolisariua
who, however, according to Libeiatus, con-
descended to observe the usual formalitifs:
" C'onvocatis presbyteris et diaconibus et dericis,
mandavit eis ut alium sibi Papam eligeient'
(Migne, Ixviii. 1040). But the election, to quot«
the language of Greenwood (ii. 146), " by ererr
known rule of c^non law was void from the
beginning." Pelagiii; 1. (a.d. 555-60) the sno-
cesser to Vigilius, \ installed without even
these formalities, and his unpopularity was such
that only two bishops and a single presbyter
could be found to olficiate at his consecration
(Greenwood, ii. 162). It is not until the year
578, when the Lombard invasion had paialysed
the power of the Byzantine court for inter-
ference, that we again m3et with a reilly imie.
pendent election, — that of Pelagius II.
The successor of Pelagius, Gregory the Great,
was summoned to the papal chair by the unani-
mous and spontaneous voice of the eleotors;
" (y'lerus, senatus, populusque Uomanus sibi con-
corditer pontificem delcgeruHt " (iiY.i a M,
Diao. bk. i. c. 39). For nearly thrie quarters of
a century from his time, no election calls for
particular comment, if wa except, jierhaps, th«t
of Eugenius I. (a.d. 654) whose installation at
the dictation of the imperial power during the
lifetime of his predecessor, was in open disregard
of the canonical requirements. The changes
that mark the relations of the papacy and the
empire during this period, are, however, impor-
tant. In the first instance, the emjieior is to be
seen endeavouring to retain his control over the
Roman see by delegating his authority to the
exarchs of Ravenna, — the course adopted by
Heraclius in 639. The exarchs appear to hav«
sympathised with the see of R.ivennii in its
endeavours to e.stablish " autocephaly," and
rendered themselves obnoxious to the Roman
pontiffs by an arbitrary exercise of their powers.
At the earnest entreaty of pope Agatho, Constan-
tine Pogonatus, in the year 682, reassumed these
powers to himself, and finally, on the succession
of Benedict II. in the year 684, in consideration
of the great expense and delay (sumetimM
extending to a twelvemonth) involved in refer-
ring each election to Constantinople, consented
altogether to forego his right of sanction;
from this time nothing more was required than
a formal notification from Rome, while the act
of consecration no longer awaited the imptriai
sanction. Baronius speaks enthusiastically of
this concession : " Restituta Roniaua ecdesia In
pristinam libertatem ;" and the election of
John V. in th« year 685, is regarded by man;
(See
fOPE
canonists ns the first roally free election
Philli(is, Kircuenrecht, v. 758 )
The number of Greeks ..r Syrians who appear
asBenecl.cts s,>ec.r^„rs clearly prove, however
that the influence of the exarchs was still potent'
Constantmes concession hn,l been made, more-
over, <m tke condUion that the claclim u;,s
unanmous-aml the contents that preceded the
687), placed the newly.„c,,uired freedom again
m jeopardy. In the former case the "n.ilitia"
and he clergy of Rome supported diuerent can-
Jidates ; ,n the latter the interference of the
exarch „fhavemm was solicited, and his support
gained by a bribe of one hundred pounds of Jold
It w.is not consequently, until the outbreak of
the iconoclastic controversy, and the loss of the
exarchate, that the prerogatives of the Eastern
emperor in relation to the papacy eame delini-
» L,V?,"l'° J^' '"■'* J'"f"^ ^^ho solicited
the imperial confti-mation of his election was
Gregnry III (a.d 7H1-41); and the acts of the
Lateran synod of 709 exhibit for the first time
the discontinuance of the imperial vear in the
official reeoivis of the proceedings of the Western
xiil'TOS-"/) ' ^"^"^'J'"'^- "i- «5; Jlansi,
The Lombard kings appear to have attempted
Rome Itself the growins importance of the influ-
ence w-ielded by the pontiff invested his office
withacorresponding value in the eyes of Doliticl
fi'un 7 ? 'rf'^ -«t^"ation'of Con's'tan;;;''
■A,;1I Vr. ^'""'1'''^*'"' intervention of
eaimednobihty, marks another innovation on
tne canonical method of procedure. Strictlv
speaking Constantine was not a lavman, for the
bishop of Praeneste previously to adm t him to
pries -s orders,-', ut orationem clericatus ™dem
Constantino tribuerit " (Anastasius, .cvi. 8), an"
he same bishop consecrated him deacon and sub-
deacon,-" subdiaconus ntque diaconns ab code"
episcopomoratoriosanctiJ,aurentii,intraeundem
pa riarchmm, contra sanctorbm canonum instN
tuta consecratus est" (ib. xcvi. 10). As how
erer, these offices had not been filled fir the
period required by the canons, the clergy of
Rome refused to recognise the Validity 7^„.
tines orders, n addition to which he co^M
ny claim to be "diaconus forensis," instead of
^ aconns caulinalis •' (Phillips, J^i'rohenrecZ, v
M). After he had been deposed „nd blinded
evas brought before the Lateran synod of 769
a.ke<l how he had dared, being only a lav-
man, to occupy the papal chair, " cur praesumn^
■»et apostolicam sedem laiks eriZZyt
Z ^T- r!: *^^- "« "PP^"" noTto have
dared to refer to his own uncanonical admission
"f "\';"t pleaded in defence the precedents
£e?both"'f"'"'/ '^r""" -'' theCpTf
ftapies, both of whom had been consecrated to
he^respcctive offices while still on riaymcn
nn '«/"""g'y enacted by the synod^Thai
one should be eligible to the papal dignity
(iJ Jcvi 4? . Sf f " o ''°"'''^"" "'• premier »
of i dec^: 'ttrtt/7"! " -''-q-t ^clause
time eielS <• ^°, '""y """'« "' the same
e«ti„n, / '^""" "" ■■^«1 inriuence in papal
POPE
1667
by'trclS; mef!i ' '^'"'i"" •""' »'«" -"<»•
0^een:vood"'(I,AS">.K'1?rn' t"!" ''^' '
j^;pulo^oma„„electusest^^iiS.:^S:
iii^it:i;itr;;»!'^:i^i/r!;/!^"»
of that of Paschal I (k n si-KV , ^' ""•*
cunctis 3acerdotibus^seu'ir,ri;' ""'"'' ^
c ero, nee non et "ptiniati'b ^ v 1 runctrnomli^o
Komano in sedem apostolicam Pontiftv ^."^ '
est"r/A III i '2i\\ "-•'" 'ontifex elevatus
Thomassin, II. ii. yHf/) ' *'""'""' ('<*
syZ A nT,? ' 'H' ^"P' "'"''''"'• "' « Lateran
the h:,m V ' "'*''• '"'"' *° t!harles the Great
the right of appointing to the see of R„n,e tZT
ther with that of investiture to all ecc lesi^'ticli
~ch claimed, waAh\*Il*t;lK
gatue of confirming each papal election. Phill ^
i^'rchcnrecht, v. 763) and Thomassin (I n 2M
concur in their belief that throughout^ i, rule
K in^dTe'cScte *-^- *'-*'- -'
to Ihristendom as the bestower of *k« ■ '"';
e'lStst t?;-'^' 'r. BOoJinlted-'a
doubtfn, Jd conflictlSln this' annT U.^
etions became one of the chief cauTes of thi
strife between emperor and pone in thp m ui
ages (see Phillips,'AVo^,„ J^ ° ^^-f ^"'\^^^.
on the election of Hadrian FI J= ^?^. , '
Anastasius that the "mlssi " oTthr ''^ ^^
(Lewis II.) were in Rom I a ^* emperor
thnt thL . """"'' «"'' were indienant
that they were not invited to be present «ft^.
ceremony and take part therein ml
they were a.ssured tLt the or^^;si„n w rC
designed as a slight on the emperor ("AuUt
causa contemptus "), but in ordp,- »k„. -^"Susti
dent might b'e atforid to\o ptaded rfuTut
occasions, for the presence of th'e imperial entZ
ri\ PnT';'','. '""' (^''K""' <="viii. 1382) ^
(a) Q'lahjications.— These thi-ni,™l. .
period appear to have beeridenUc: ft thZ
<^|Jhe^ep^oH_offic^g^ally, viz., Q)tZl
' " Httdrlanus autem Papa cum unlverno .im^ . "TT
I. l.'.Hl. 23, MIgne. Patrol, dixx^i', ^3^""'^;,,''f «"""'
taken fiom the a,ronica of Si JL,„, nZ~J f^
.106
1 1
m
Mi/ ;?f
i;"if
1668
POPE
i
i
:
11' I'
the elected should be fifty years of nge; (2) that
ne shnuia be one of the derjjy of the chuich over
which he was called to preside; (:!) that he
ihould have been duly and i-et[ulaily admitted
to the subordinate oilices of deacon and presbyter
(see BlSllOl', p. 120). No instance of translation
from another see occurs within our period, the
earliest having been that of Kormnsus, who was
translated, in the year «itl, from the bishopric
of I'ortus (Bower, Jfistor;/ of tlte Pofies, v. tj6).
The absence of information respecting the exact
ago of each pontiff at the time of his election, a
fact attributable to the obscure origin of the
majority, does not enable us to determine how
far the limitation with respect to age was
ailhered to. Gregory the Great was probably
about forty-six at the time of his accession ; Leo
the Great was just fifty ; Damasus, I'elagius I.,
Pelagius II., and Sergius I. were cousidorably
above the latter age. that prior admission to the
priestly olBce was looked upon as indispensable
mav be inferred from the fact referred to above,
that even in the case of the forced and irregular
promotion of Constantine, in 71)7, it was deemed
necessary that he should tirst go through the
forms of admission to the diaconate and to the
priestly office. The precedents jileaded by Con-
stantine snlliciently prove thiit no exception
existed in favour of the Roman see. Nationality
was not regarded, and seven of the bishops of
Rome in the first three centuries were of Greek
extraction ; while the fact that from A.D. GS7-
7G7 three were Greeks, four Syrians, and only
one a Roman, indicates the influence exerted at
this period over the elections by the exarchs of
Ravenna.
(j3) Tlie Elector!.— Ihesd were originallv the
neighbouring bishops, in conjunction with the
cleigy and laity of the church of Rome. Such at
least is the tenor of the evidence aflbrded by a
letter of St. Cyprian {Epist. 52) concerning the
election of Cornelius (A.D. 251), and his state-
ment is appealed to by the canonists as satisfac-
tory proof of the due observance of the canonical
forms as soon as v have any information re-
specting these elections : " Factus est Cornelius
episcopus de Dei et Christi ejus judicio, de cleri-
corum paene omnium testinionio, de plebi-s, quae
tunc afiuit, suftragio, et de sacerdotum anti-
quorum et bonorum virorum collegio" (Gratian,
Jlecrct. II. causa vii. qu. 1, c. 5). From the 6th
to the 8th century it would appear that (1) the
whole body of the clergy, (2) the magistrates
("judices") 88 representatives of the " opti-
mates," (3) the militia (" schola " or " generalitas
militiae," who really represented the civic class,
while the " civium universitas " remained in the
background) made up the component elements of
the electoral body (Zi6. Diur. II. i.-vii.). In the
year 709, we find Stephen III. (IV.) presiding at
a synod, which refers in one of its decrees to the
papal elections as being made by the " proceres et
primates ecclesiae" (Gratian, Oecret.l. Ixxix. 5).
In this body Thomassin considers we may recog-
nise the college of cardinals," but the formal
- According U> Milmitn (io<. Chriituiniti/. bk.i. c 1).
the bishops of the actjuoent towns, Osua, TIbur, Portns,
JK!., were " the Initiatory college of cardinals " ; but this
t«nn, when It firat comes under onr notice, seems to have
tnclud>!d only the presbyters and deacons of the Roman
Cbnrcb (see CABOiNAt, itta).
POPE
decree for the election of the pope by this body wm
not promulgated until A.D. 1059, when ilie socuni
Lateran council decided that from that tiiin! the
choice, " juilicium," should rest with'thc caiijinal
bishops, while the cardinal priests and dtaiom,
the laity and the emperor, should be con.suhej
only for their assent (I'liillips, Kirdu;nreM,i.
792-790; Gratian, I. dist. xxiii. 1).
(7) Method of I'lociduru. — The order ol the
proceedings as prescribed in the I.ihcr Ditimits
(Migne, Patrol, cv.) is supposeil by the tilitoij
to be deriveil from that observed at fciiir jiajml
elections, vi^., that of Boniface V. (A.D. tjl8), ot'
Leo II. (A.n. 682), of Couon (A.D. OS'i), and iii
Gregory II. (A.D. 715).
(1) Immediately on the pope's decease, a Ict'.cr
("nuntius") was despatched to the exiirth at
Ravenna, conveying a formal announcement ot
the event. Originally this letter purjiortcil to
be written in the name of the whole body of the
clergy; but from the time of Pelagius II. (/,iJ.
Diur. II. i.) it appears to have been writtin in
the names of the archpresbytcr, the arclideacon,
and the " primicerius " or chief notary. (J) Alter
the funeral rites, and a solemn three days' ta.>t,
during which time the electors were enjdiniil tn
supplicate the divine direction in their new
choice, the clergy, "optimates," and '• pofulus"
assembled and gave their votes, and tlie decree
was drawn up and received their signiiturcs.
(3) The election was then announced by a depu-
tation to Constantinople, and awaited the im-
perial sanction." (4) It was similarly announced
to the exarch at Ravenna, and his c»nHvraiition
besought ; if, as at certain periods was the case,
this authority was not vested in his oIKce, he
was desired to use his influence in obtaining the
sanction of the emperor. From the time of
Honorius (A.D. 626-38), however, Gregorovius
(Geach, der 6tadt Horn, ii. 124) considers that
the Liber IHurnus shews that although the elec-
tion was also notified to the imperial court, the
greater importance was attached to the consent
of the exarch. (5) Letters were also sent to the
judges, the archbishop, and the apocrisiarius at
Ravenna, and to the '• patricius," the patriarch.
and the aiwcri.siarius at Constantinople ; nnJ the
decree (" decretales paginae ") was deposited in
the archives of the Vatican. ('3) When the
confirmation of the election nad been received.
the new pope was conducted to St. Peter's,— "aJ
confessionem sancti Petri." (7) On arriving
there he made a public confession of faith before
the relics (" corpus ") of the apostle. (8) .\fter
receiving consecration and ordination," he re-
peated this confesjion. (9) Finally, he delivered
a sermon in the city, copies of which were sent
to all the churches.
Somewhat as the day of martyrdom was
spoken of as the birthday of the martyr, in the
community to which he belonged, so the day of
their election to the papal office was described br
the popes as " dies natalitius." Thus 1^
» It appears to have been also the cusiom for the em-
perors to notify their accession to the papal court «l
Rome (scL- Thifi, Fjnit. Rom. Pent ). ^n.'-)-
o MeiiHrd, In his notes on the I.iitr .Sdciammloni*
of Gregory the Great ( Mlgne. Ixxvill. 617), quotes Irom
on ancient MS. at Curb^y, to which however lie umlgin
no date, »n order of ordination in which i>art! ore lew
ally assigned to the bishops of AIIm, Porliis. and Oitii
IV. Prerooativ
POPE
M«|?nu», preaching on the nnnlversdrv of his
Kce*ion, »»yH,-" Hlj erg,, hiinc .servitutia nos-
in^mtaU,umdian, illi n.oiilMinus h(,c fe,tu.n
fuju, jmtroein.o sedis ipsius men.imu. es.e con'
wrto (!>erm. iv. c. 41 ; Mian,.. ra,rol. liv. 10)
The oeremony of fi,„t.ki.Mn«, of which the
Mrhest mention is on the iuatallathm nC Valen-
tmcA.D.8J7, took place on .h« formal in.luc i.?n
of the new pontilf into the Uteran as its no,.
lessor. r""
m. In,i,,niaoflhe o/iice.~Tbe distinguishing
iosigiim probably belonged to n ,*nod later than
..n.«00, although .. trndi.ioi/is piUdrved !
Almoin (//„t. franc, i. 24; Migne/cxxix. ml)
th«t the em|«ror Anastasins sent a g.dd crown
adorned with genjs, to Clovls, king ofthe Franks
«nd that he, at the suggestion .,f St. Remy, sent
,t to the pope. Kocca (</,- Tiarne pJlific^l
Oruimc, The,, pp. 7, 8) considers that the allusion
Id the spurious donation of CVmstantine to the
'Miadema,videicetcoronam capitis nostri," proves
tl,«t(hep„pehad already a.siumed a c'-o^n as
distmguished from the ordinary episcopal mitre
The .Town was designed to symbolize the tem^
poral power. Innocent III. sayg "in ,!„_ "
ipintua mm contulit mihi mitram, in sifnum
tempoialmm dedit mihi coronam; mitram pro
lacerdotio, coronam pro regno" (Serm. iii '
igiie, ccxvii. «6.5). The earliest ret^nc ' ;<;
he double crown occurs, according to Richter
(K,rchen,echt,y,.2in) in the vear 1297 rthl
pontificate of Boniface VIII. ; according to PhiUip,
ckmt. Mute alters p. 38) assigns the earliest
mendon of the triple crown to the time of
Clement V. (a.D. 130.i-14V Phillin. Lt ,■
th»„ that oV Urban V k. IZT^y^'^t:
mht pastoral staff ("pedum lectum ") su"!
mounte. by the cross, is probably referred to as
he ' foiula pastoralis" in the account of the
deposition of Benedict V. in the 11th century
,f ' fT.f ""• J- ^26), and cannot be traced
.rther back than this. The cross was bornrbv
the pope m common with all the other bishops •
the pallium [Pallium] in common with oX;
metiopol.fc.ns, out the pope claimed the exrlu'
POPE
1660
IV. Prerogatives specially claimed tor
THE Office.
i. Oaim to universal authority in the church
^^mfically asserted iX) in the gr^ntt of
,JII ' °'^* ""'^•"•sal jurisdiction and of
^e ml powers, as prerogatives of the Roman
poutiir almost necessarilv involved his rishTto
Mempt, under circumstances of an exce7tionaI
^T^ets:r:«aTr'pt.iSrrhe
y^!^nance of the canons.— The power to
grant these .s justly described bv Tho^Zt L L
^^^IZ"":: ^t"^ «io?ular. for, h^
.11 .*■ ■ * ^'"^'' -Oiscip. II. ii . 27 R J4.\
of remitti^, » i°P '""^ POM«.sed the power
remitting at plewure the obiigationrim- |
pose.1 by s canon of the church • and if in .»
exceptional emergency a bishop' or 'loc„ "»/„ J
inis writei with respect to the conditions under
ex-ici^e bv Z R *^"*''"''' ''••■^«'«P»'»nt of its
exeicise by the Roman pontiff.
epscoDi o, 1 r '»""V"''""1"« loeis duo essent
inult s collefis so a " Tk« • » '-•••i mnj
40?; «. 1- !^* *""^ "'^ Anastasius I. (a.d. 39*2
401) application was made to that pontiff bvthi
tlonrthnrat'.' t'lt; rrf ''^^
been decreed, at a'cSi^- he'.'d t^a'cS
un?i *,'"' ^"«i'.di«P«ns'.tion should bl granted
unless under conditions that afforded a pfospect
saL'tlritls't*: be'ZVth :'the"' T ">*
attribute autocratical authoritio th« L 1" ""*.
btTaim\"d\ftS'^ '""'" '^^^^^^^^^
coepiscopos nostros, ,< m„^.w .d Jdema^
Symmachus vindicates a similar exercise of tK.
5 P 2
1670
POPE
lU obsarvRiicc wm likoljr to bo nttcndecl with
di'trimcnt to the church, it being the (lesion of
all lawH thiit thoy should bcnelit, not injurs"
CPhiel, JCpiat. Kom. Pont. p. «57).
The doctrine of expedionry, as thus laid down,
»nd dcpcndinif on the discretion of the iionlirt,
is illustinti'd in the policy of Boniface 1. (A.D.
418-'."2). On the one hand he refused to permit
Pntroclus, bishop of Aries, to c.ssume the func-
tions of a motro[)olitan in another diocese by
ordaining a successor to a vacant l)i«hopric
"contra'pntruin rogulas," quod nequnTiam pos-
(umus forre patientor, quia conveuit noH piiter-
narum snnctionum dillgentes esse custodcs "
{Epx-st. 12); on the other, in the permission
which he accorded to I'erigenes to assume the
bishopric of Corinth, he appears directly to have
departed from adherence to canonical law
(Coi'stant, ed. Schoenemiinn, p. 72a).
A certain dispensing authority is undoubtedly
implied in the permission accorded l)y Celestine
I. (A.D. 422) to the Nestorlans, to be received
again into the church (A. pp. 871-0).
The language of Leo I. is distinctly that of
one who assumes to be the censor of the whole
church, and bound to interfere, "quoties nliqua
contra instltuta canonum et eccleslasticam disci-
pllnam pniesumpta vol commissa cognoscimus "
(Praef. in Dccret.); and he asserts that com-
pliance with the canonical discipline is an
essential condition of communion (can. 5); yet,
notwithstanding we have a conspicuous Instance
of the exercise of the dispensing power by this
pontiff. In a letter to Klavianus, bishop of Con-
•tantinoplc (Mansi, t. 136,5, 1406), he condemns
the heresy of Elutyches, but at the .«ame time
enjoins that the latter should be restored to
communion, and to the administration of his
monastery, on abjuration of his errors, " sedis
enim apostolicao moderatio banc temperantiam
•ervat, ut et severius agat cum obdurntis et
Toniara cupiat praestare correctls." In a letter
to the emperor Maroianus he severely condemns
the presumption of his rival Anatolius, bishop
of Constantinople, in ordaining a bishop to the
church of Antioch, " contra instituta canonum ; "
and says that his opposition to this measure
has been withdrawn solely f^'om a desire to
restore the faith and from a love of peace, " quod
nos amore reparandae ildei et pads studio
retractare cessavimus " (^Epist. civ. ; Migne, liv.
1153).
Thomassin considers that a yet earlier exe.--
cise of the dispensing pftwer in the East is to be
found in the action of Damasus in relation to
FlavianuB, bishop of Antioch. On this occasion
Theophilus, of Alexandria, is represented by
Socrates, the historian, as having sent a messenger
to Damasus to suggest that it would be for the
welfare of the church if, in order io bring about
concord among the laity, he would condone the
offence of Fiaviamu (Soc. H. E. v. 15) — Auffi-
rtXelv tlwiiv !i' 6n6potaf rov AaoC, irapiStiv
rh (peitrca/ *\a0iay6v wKitiiniKiiiM (Migne,
B. a. IxTii. 281).
In the time of Leo's successor, Hilary, the
prevalence of grare irregularities in Spain, in the
appointment of bishops to Tscaut sees, and in
their remoral from one diocese to another,
rendered it advisable to appeal to Rome. Hilary
granted a general dispensation with respect to
•ppoiDtments which had already taken place,
POPB
but forbade similar disregard of the rannnn ||
future, " ut nihil I'elnceps contra pracrepi, hi'atl
Apostoli, nihil contra Nicacnonim (ainnum
constitutum tentetur" (Thiol, p. lUli).
Oelasius, at the time when the Ciothii- iiivii,ion
had deprived Italy of half its clergy, yiiMi.lto
Impei-ativo necessity, ami dispciiseil with |ij
observance of the canonical periiMJs with '■i'-|i«t
to ordination (Ilardouln, Cunc. ii. 8S)7).
U]) to this periml, the evidence semis tiiirlv
in harmony with the view of 'l'hom^s^ill, Ihit
dispensations were presumed to be in coiil'iTinity
with the precept of Augustine, that Ihi' viciil df
the church, not the interest of imlivi Inn'!!,
should be consulted in the exevrisu (,(' tin. !,,.
pensing jiower, the conditions being (1) thiit the
matter in question should be of jirlnmrv inii(;iii.
tude in relation to iho church; (2) th;it the
good accruini': should bo clearly ilisccrriible,
either in the avoidance of some evil to whidi the
oliiemmce of the canon might all'onl llllllli^^ion,
or in the gain of benefits which might otiKMwisc
be lost; (3) that such dispensations shouM have
ert'ect only with respect to past Irretfuliuitics,
and not be construed into precedents in the
future. In the language of pope Martin I,,
" Canones ccclesiasticos solvere non jiossunius qui
dofensores et imsto'Ies canonum suinua, noa
transgr''S8ores."
With the advance of the 7th century, hnwpver,
and especially in the contact with Tcutcmism,
we find the papal dispensation solicltcil and con-
ferred in connerion with irregularities iif a kind
that afforded precedents for some of Die wmst
abuses of mediaeval times — the appvopriiitinn of
revenues of bishoprics, monasteries, nwA cures
for secular purposes. The extent to which
this abus" had grown under Charles Maitcl,
in Krankland, rendered hopeless the etfurts of
Boniface towards obtaining satisfactoiy icstiln-
tion, and he accordingly obtaine<l from ['0|i«
Zacharias permission to forego the duty of
demanding full reparation to the churches and
monasteries. The pcmtiff himself, indeed,
appears to have partially condoned the>ie spolia-
tions, on the consideration that they had been
made in behalf of the Christian state in its
struggles against the pagan and the intidel— the
Saxon and the Saracen (X^t. x. ; Migne, liiiii.
941).
Other facts relating to the same period seem
to indicntethat this prerogative had already grown
into an abuse. We find, for example, a Krankish
noble pleading the papal indulgence for an un-
lawful marriage, an irregularity dlHciing in
character from those of the kind which the
instructions of Gregory the Great to Augustine
might be held to condone, where the marriage
tie had been contracted while the parties were
still pagans, " in quibus se per ignorautiam ante
lavacrum baptismatis astrinxerunt " (Epkt. xi.
64; Migne, Ixxvii. 1190). Certain of the clergy,
again, alleged that notwithstanding that they
ied immoral lives they had received the papal
licence to continue to perform their sacred
functions, "revenientes ab apostolica sedc dicunt
se Romanum pontificem licentlam dedisse minis-
tfrhim episcr.p.-.!e in .-icclcsi.i miiiistv.ire." Boni-
face appears to have treated these representations
as mendacious, " quia Apostolicam sedem nequa-
quani contra decreti canonum audlvimus judi-
casse " (£pwt. 49 j i6. Ixxiii. 747) ; but the men
POPE
M th«t they were alleged point, to « wMer
«,! !«.. ,le.en«.ble e,e,ci»„ „'f the .^Zlnl
POPB
1671
|)0
B.M,i(«LO himself reooivo.! from /^.ch«ri,„ n»r.
Maint, but the co„cos«ion '::;', r^itt
..|.r.« h,„,tat>«„ tu hi„ ,.«,o, "pru4«tThu,
dunu, Min.timew«,p„r.,np,!,r;,Sir
1. cmtrury toovery e.;cle8iaH,i,.ul rule " '
JZ T /:' """-'' """ ^•"-•''"■•ias was „„t
p«w«r, to Ikinifaoe, " qua "nnm ■ ''"'"-■"■^"'B
ca:.unhu, devmre nulla ratioia- pat aris .acrum
DiiUistMiiim traofare " (,7,. |,.,xj, ,/^„ »"i-rum
thHe,i.in,a.e fu„etio;:\l'r ;l^;; tn; r^
jxiwcra of this ile.scri|>tion for "th,. k ,. '-"'®
the won.,, of the cathilio an,i Ipo/t . o I'ur^h "'•
(Har.lou„,, V. 7,iO). And at the th rd „u„,il
onetowhUtheo;ii;re;;;.'!"L^t:;:;::
r.«,ur.e m the,r appeal, to Ro„,. (Migne' 'c!!.,"!
('.'.) To confer privileges.
;«™./Rto._rhe exercise of this preroeative
m^v certainly be traced farther back tS the
penod assigned by Oui.ot and other wWters „s
that of IS earliest use (see Uishop d 2r2.
Guizot Hist, do la Civ. en France, Tl 1% 4 '
he 8th century. Before the time of GregorvT'
his |,.cdecessors appear to have warne<l mfmlrs
■■;uld derive support from tfteor ,'innl charic er
c< .uoh societies as lay communities The h, rd
pressure of the " jugum clericorum "would
api*ar indsed to have frequently induced tb^p
aocicties to place themselves Id r he Sro
^ction of a bishop „f a different dioese C
Gieseler, htrchcnqesch. I ii 49=1^ u j ^
tH- be,,n habitllly to L^ll ^I'lfZ
quarter from whence they were likelv fn ,„
the mo,t etfectual nrotecti, n • „n i ^A ''^''^"''
«hhat nf «f Ti. •' f^ "* ™ l^uminosus.
Si X 485^ f'/r .'Vr"^^^ """'rol
Sefn "■' ■'*" «28, Honorius I. conferred
l« ^-ine, p. 157;. The abbey at Fulda,
l"'imi lM»te.:,io;,7^h "' r,; ''•'■"^"y '""'"r th.
'■'ty ot' the bish, I, /.I '•'''"""" "' "i" ""tl.o-
OHrliost instance on record o..' rs ,^."^- TT^«
m ss„n with ri.si.u,.t . """""Uecd a like per-
airaiiirement^ u,i.:,.», i-ouudi to these
(Sirmtn^" ' 2T f 7^ ""aiiimously ,.,nted
these f„,.'m„,itie, earfy prove . IT'" "^''''''''^
attached, at that tiZ .n"^ I ■ " ™l""'nnce
canonical oblig.rtious"*' """'' '''''""•'"™'' ^''"^
others, of'^w'^lt h wet' Z'T^'f' """
«<aadex;reme.y^f;„:-"to;^
tho^"ouZf„;'^::r:;° thvp*-"!-' omce,
fhomass n (II. ii cc 1 tfii „ ^'""•^ "="«« by
by the seo of P„„ '"V""" *"« 'uHy recogmz«d
.I'essed " tie hT^'of'Tr '^^ V'"""" ""l-
Hilary, in whict„?^fcIm"Sr'thl7sT
tney have remm-ao »^ .u . ' assert tnat
;ef ium •TrhieV^i^^.TpT' rs^^^'r
last expression probably indi^tes thl ^" 1 ^u "
see, its dectlrw^Trortil trr '''?™">"«
waa\:th'^clLe';:nT xeT ited^te""" '"l. "
to resort to the singul^ hTpl'ht^L Tf 'hi
i7-»cr of the metropolitan was h.U k u-
changed method of kdministr .t io' " ,'""''^*
perative.y«ecessar;tth:*irdin:^^«;!'C
'! !';
ii'
r
I
'I'M
1673
POPE
(lon> of p«»rlnrrht ami nietri)p«lltiin», the growth
of hureHj- mill schism, nnil lh« iIimiIIiim of ili«-
oljiline (tMiilli|w, h'irchtnrecht, V. ;il4-« i Uoii»«el,
NUt. I'untif. Jui-iii. 11. IJ; /accnria, y4nti-
Fehronim, ii. 4).
The qiie»tinn will Klmit of being more con-
cisely iQvei.tiKiitu'1, if conniilered im it preientii
itself in relation (1) to the \'n»t; ('i), to the
West; (:l), to imunn rommunitin.
(1.) /»» t'<e K'tat. Kvcn here it Is alleKoil
(Phillii)s, lA. v. :il'J) that the pii|i«l Huthority in
elections to hishoprics was reconnizeil, nml that
the piilriiirohs of Antioch and Aleiandriii exer-
cised merely delegated powers. In support of
this view, Phillips quotes i> letter from Danmsus
(A.D. :itlO -84) to I'nulinus, bishop of Antineh.
But the liiii|;n:ij!e of this letter (respecting the
genuineness of which some doubt may he felt)
implies, at most, only a general supremacy, of
an honorary character, conceded to the bishop
of Rome. If, inileed, we remember that the
authority of Damaaus was disputed jn Rome
itself by his brother bishoi«, it seems scarcely
necessaiv to enquire whether it was recognized
in the b'ast. Tlie evidence cited under 11. (a)
will serve in some measure to prove the \,^-
ioiuidness ot' such a theory j while in relation
to the decree of Valentinian III. (A.D. 45,')) it is
to be observed that after the political severance
of the two divisions of the empire in A.D. 4:18,
thi< coulil have had no legal force in the East,
unless by the consent of the eastern cmpiror,
which WHS never granted (Gibbon, v. 279 ;
Greenwood, Ottheilni l\ tri, i. 459).
A letter of Innocent I. (A.D. 40'.'-17) to
Alexander, bishop of Antioch, which may
reasonably be accepted as genuine, seems, how-
ever, alm'ost decisive.* Here, alter distinctly
interpreting the sixth canon of the council of
Nicaea as recognizing the right of the bishop
of Antioch to ordain metropolitans for the whole
of the Eastern diocese, Innocent goes on to say :
" Itaque arbitramnr, frater carissime, ut sicut
metropolitanos auctoritnte ordines »ingulari, sic
et caeteros non sine permissu conscientiaque tua
giuaa episcopos procreari. In quibus hunc
modum recte servabis, ut longi positos litteris
datis ordiniiri censeas ab his, qui nunc eos sua
tantum ordiniint arliitrntu; vicinos autem, si
fti'Stimas, ail manui impositionera tuae gratiae
statuas pervenire " (Migne, Patrol, xx. 547-9).
Of his own authority in relation to such ordina-
tions, Innoceut says nothing; but, as 'Ihomassin
(II. ii. 8, § :0 points out, after intiipreting the
language of the council of Nicaea in the sense
aliove de^^cribed, holds th.it as rcg;irds the bishops
of theditlerent provinces included in the Eastern
diocese. th')se in the provinces nearer to Antioch
were to be summoned to the metropolis to
receive orilination at the hands of its bishop,
while those in the more remote provinces were
to receive ordinition from their respectivi-
metropolitans, their elections being confirmed
by the bishop of Antioch.
Finallv. we have satisfactory proof with
respect to the earliest consecration of an eastern
biihop by the pope. Agapetus, in a letter to
p Tlie letter i» comatncd both In the collection of
nionystus Exigu is and in the P'Vtctio mtjuw ■ : see
Maussen, (letchicMt der ^iMiim du eanonucAot heckt$,
1. 346, n. 17.
POPI!
Peter, bishop of .lerusalem, after referr'ng to
his own conseciiilion (Mar. VA, A.l>, fiiMl i,f
Mennas, jiatrianh of Constantinople (l.iberutiu,
c. 21; Migne, Ixviii. iD-'ilt), c^pr^^sly »ivei
that "since the time of the apostle IVti r, lh»
Eastern church hus never received a bishii|j at
the hands of the pope" (Haidouin, ii. 'JiUli.
(2.) [n tUe \\<:it. — Here the evidence, llvuifh
conllicting, Is such that it Is not diiriciili |.i
arrive at a sati.l'actory conclusion. Thinvw
of Thomiissin, thit the method above recni-iiiji!.!
bv ,'nnocent as the canonical n)o<io of pruculure
in the East, may be supposed to have mrre.
sponded to that in force \n the West, is in the
highest degree probable. The claim alrmidy
referred to (»M;mi, p. ltJ.'>9) as put furtli i,y
Inniicent, of the oriitiiial foundation of all thij
l.ishoi)rics of llie West by St. Peter aji.l )ii,
successors, points to a theoretical supremacy nf
Rome over the entire episcopate. With ri'spcct
to the suburbicarian bishops (Suiu;nhiCAUii),
their orilination was, of course, directly suliJMl
to the pa|ial approval as to that of their i.ii|]ii.ni9
metropolitan. The papal sanction was alio
necessary throughout the Roman patrinrclisie.
Of this a letter written by Celestinc Iq
A.D. 4-'9, to the bishops of Calabria and Apiilin,
aHbrds direct evidence. He here expresses hit
surprise that the churches of those diJtriili,
after electing lai/mi-n to the episcopal oiKte,
should venture to look for his confirinnli' n of
such elections — "de nobis pessime senticntps
quos credunt hoc posse facere " (Migne, PatnL
1. 430).
In the theory above indicated by Thomiissin
(who appears, however, scarcely to have npijre-
headed its full significance), we have thi; Key
to much of the subsequent history of the oi-
tension of the papal authority over the whole
episcopate. Towards the close of the 4lh
century we are able, for the first time, to trnot
with any certainty the presence of metro|iollti\n
bishops in the VVcU. The importance of ihii
fact in relation to our whole enquiry is ciin-
siderable ; for, as will be seen, it compels thost
who assert th \i the papal prerogatives *ere
admitted and zeroised at a much earlier I'Ti.xi,
to have recourse to the singular hypothesis that
during the time when the evidence lor a j-oncral
recognition of the authority of the Ijishup of
Rome is especially defective, that authority wai
most directly exerted.
At the same time, it is not to be denied thjt
the bishop of Rome claimed a certain nnmiiiiJ
authority over all patriarchs and metropnlitaiis,
and their elections would appear to have Wen
usually notified to the Roman see, not, however,
in order to obtain the ratification .lecessnry to
validity, but as a spontaneous recognition of the
honorary primacy of its bishop. Df this tilmost
conclusive evidence is afforded in two letten
addressed by Leo the Great (A.D. 444) to the
bishops of Illyricum. Here, after clnimini; to
have authority, derived from St. Peter, over all
churches {si:pra, p. 16,")9), he formally n|)i).>iiiti
Anastasius, metropolitan of Thessaloma, hi!
delegate to consecrate metropolitans in lllyriiiim,
aiiu Tn n"r.-.'cnc syi:v'i3 (:^ino5f, \. f ,■ .••.■"
cum, however, over which the jurisdiction of
the metropolitan see of Thcssalonica was thui
extended, was included in the Uomnr ratri-
archate ; it accordingly teems reasonable to infer
POPE
with Th..ni««in th«t in othar prnvin.M n„«
incl,.M th.r...„, th« „uth.-r.ty i th" L..
Jim ly or l.y ,|,.l.,»5,.ti„n,-.. ,,„,l e,„.j.ct«^ Un
The ..«ila..t m.t«.ue timt ,,„i..i. to « m«r«
general re.»Kn.t.»n „f thi. autLritv, i, u,.ZZ
th.t cont«.„.;,i ,„ th„ ,„.,u.,ble of "V .tT« X
4ba), .ol„itiin{ hi« ™ntiri.,„ti,.i. .,r the »„cam.'i,
bounnK l.i«h„,.nc to th«t oC lla.v..l, „« f„,l
implyniK that thoir «,,,«.«1 i. not ,im,,|y .(iaaU,
by . »en,fl of the i,n,,on«n.x. att«'h«,l t. the
nulla exstarct ne«..,ita, e.Tle,iH»ticae ,li,cipl„. "
eij«tea-lu,n a.vora noli, f„„«t .ll,„| prIviLiu ,'
U, ve,trae (M«n i, vii. o;!4). inLmuch a^
huwev.r ll.lary, ,„ hi, reply, take.„cc„.io„ ^
rebuke th..m „r ordaining li.hu,,, t.. dilferent
,oe. without obtaining the a.vn.tion of An'auTu
lhe.rmetropo itan, it i. evident that .„ > "a
delegated authority wa» all that wa<. at tM me
M.erted y the pope (Thiel. y.>..Y. y^.'n ;w
. 160) In Hupport of this view wc may re.lr
U, the language of Gregory the (Jreat, at^a ye[
T ^^"f'.l" ""■^""' "'■•""'-•ti"n» to hi* legate
when the latter m^ about to ,«t out for S,« ,
Here .t „ clearly in.plied that hi, juri,dii on
d.J not ord.uar. y extend to bishop, L that ,vo.
V nee for ,u referring to a cert.in b„bop named
Mepheu (.regory ,ay. that " iuasnuuhL S e-
pnen had ,u'U/,er a ,uc tro/,ulilan mr „ ,,atn„rZ'
a certam nmttor in dispute must consequently
'belong to the apostolic chair, m the heJi of hU
the churche, and be decided by it " (AW. ^,„
45; Migne, Ixxvii. 1254). v y'^^i- i.ii,
Generally speaking, however, the evidence
exhibits t le authority of the pofle a« ail, ., dng
from the time of Leo the Great, towards t at".'
a univeiMl metropolitan in the West ; „ id a^ain
at a period later than th.vt which ^o are 'he"'
called upon to treat, from that of a univer",!
metropolitan to an immediate and ordinary jur
diction over 'he whole episcopate. Amoni the
mean, who- oy this great exte„„on of the papa
l«wer was brought about, the encouragemTn
men to the practice of appealing toTome
AiPKAl.] must be regarded as the most eflectual
It will indeed be found that nearly all the pw-
^^fl'if'tfti'^''" P""^' -'''^'' '-on^",
are ivont to cite in support of the Florentine
canon (.«^,.„, p. ,652) represent, in reality ex!
ceptional cases which, viewed in their prope
In no relation were appeals to Rome more
frequent than in connexion with ./,c.<«>„?anT.n
these cases the pontiff nearly always ap^^^rs Z
e defender of popular right, and of cScM
|teph„e against laxity or%yrannv „n the ' ?
plainest language that the wishes of the laitv
and the concurrence of th. „t..,*:_- u.\* ""'■y
POPE
1073
andtheconcurr;ncyjfth;;i;et::g"birp;'^:^
essential t „,- ,
„,i . .^ . '"a bisnopnc, -"\nll,i
miosnnt u inter episcopo, habeant ,r qui n "
£ 167 tr''"-''^ »Pl«''''>...s suntexJetitT"
OU 10 I«! *^"',' ''^: ^*^"> 'I'homassin
lu. u. 10, i 4) considers that among the distin-
guishing Mcellonce. of Gregory the G«.,.
I '•' "I'm (FU'ciitti « even w th n #1.- i>
P'-"vince, , |„i,n, ,,„,i^| „ ,!",,*"7'" "'" '""'""'
in'l«ed to have been th on;i.l :' "'''"■"
l-reserve to every .hulch i , r I ''"■1 .""". '"
-n .uch o.ca,i.„, Wh 7t" "'"' 'r-'""'
'•lignc, xxvii l-2'2't\ r., l X '• '''i
( lita iii 7. M ' ' ^tii'li^'ssimc ordiuavit"
V ' "", 111. 7 ; Migne, Ixxv. BO),
«ut notwithstanding Greuorv'. cr»n.,in . « j
»| lority of the IJonian see. of thi«
I .ve unaeniable evidence in the fre, uencv
tion to Uaesar us of Aries hv «„.,,. u P^'^'ita-
year 513 (Jalle, no 477?%, ^^"""1^'"'^',"' the
Arle, h>, V 1- \ ^'* "C metropid tan of
Aries by Vig.l.u, (a,,,. 537-555) and t« »h«
same dignitary by Pelagiu, II. L 57s Vm
Gregory assigns the fact of its bestowal bv u
to have bet"bestLd"^on'Z'":.,etr,:!:'?r
Ai-^stodu^um ':i; ^'w:;jx::x^^
of Salona in Dalmatia (*. ix lti,;V nf Z- ''
■ustiniana in lllvricum ( 4 nS- , „';!
?"ni, V, ""* metropolitan of Nicopolig k
ovrncuse, and Panormus in Sicily (,v,. j 7 ,0'
lnn-'f*°fu? ^^' met^'Politan of Ravenna
Boniface IV. (a.d. 608-615) sends if *„ vi "
metropolitan of Aries, and writiL to Tirn!?""''
kingoftheFranks.spe'akslflhe^fal-ettum"
»n . I:.';, "'"""'"s '• (A.D. 625-628) refuse,
the .»!" "> "yP^"'-'- hishop of Nicopol L unt
accu a oL'fh ' .'"'^LP"Vd himself from the
I!
i' *
' 15
1674
POPE
death (Mansi, i. 681) ; he promises it to the
bishop of Grada (Jatle, p. 157); sends it to
Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury, and to
Paulinus, archbishop of ITork (Mansi, x. 680);
and decrees that metropolitans using it in the
streets or " in litauiis " shall be deprived of the
right to wear it (i6. i. 585).
The theory that the acceptance of the pallium
did not involve any special profession of allegi-
ance to the pope of Rome (Thomassin, II. ii. 45,
§ 10 ; Greenwood, Cath. Petri, ii. 220), can
hardly be looked upon as valid after the 7th
century. Gregory himself, it is true, appe"rs to
have considered that its bestowal must be pre-
ceded by the express wish and personal applica-
tion of the receiver, and also be sanctioned by
tha consent of the reigning prince (Migne, Ixxvii.
781). So early however as the year 581, a canon
of the first council of M4con forbids metropo-
litans to celebrate mass without it, ■' ut archi-
episcopus sine pallio missas dicere non praesuniat "
(Sirmond, i. 371); and we find that its bestowal
on T'lpin, archbishop of Rheims, in the year 772,
was understood to entitle him to appeal to the pope
from the authority of a local synod (Klodoard,
Hint, lieiiiens. bk. ii. c. 17).
(3.) The question of the significance to be
attached to its bestowal will be further illustrated
by the following evidence for the papal authority
over bishops and bishoprics (3) in pagan lands.
In this relation the evidence is far more plainly
favourable to the theory of Roman supremacy.
Jl bishop sent from Rome to evangelize a heathen
community was directly accountable to the pope.
He was known as " episcopus consecratus in sorte
praedicationis," as IJoniface was styled by Gre-
gory 11. (Epist. 5 ; Migne, Ixxiiz. 503), a relation
compared by Phillips to that which Titus, when
in Crete, bore to St. Paul, — and was empowered
both to create new bishoprics as occasion might
arise, and to ordain those who might be elected
to fill them. When the district in which he
laboured had been, to a certain extent, brought
under ecclesiastical organization, if the distance
precluded a special journey to Rome, his ordina-
tion was delegated to another bishop. Of this
an instance occurs in connexion with the arch-
bishoprics of York and Canterbury in the time
of Honorius, who empowered the surviving
archbishop to ordain a successor on a va-
cancy occurring in either see (Uede, H. E.
ii. 18).
It would appear, however, to be beyond doubt
that in pagan lands such powers were only
delegated for a time by the Roman pontiff, and
were resumable at pleasure. Of this, strong
presumptive evidence is afibrded in the 28th
canon of the council of Chalcedon, already quoted
(supni, p. 1664). The endeavour here made to
claim for the see of Constantinople rights precisely
corresponding (Xaa vptafifTa) to those of the see
of Rome, involves the assertion of the right of
the bishop of Constantinople to ordain, not merely
the metropolitans of P<intu8, Asia, and Thrace,
but also the bishops " in sorte praedicationis "
among the pagan communities still existing in
those provinces. In St Kal roi/s tv roXs /3op/3api-
Kois iiriaK6irous r&v Tfiottprmivuv SioiK^treaic
(Mansi, vii. 427). The proviso in this latter
clause would seem to have been designed to
complete the parallelism between the jurisdic-
tion of the primate of Constantinople and that
POPE
of the Roman pontiff, an attempt which was met
by the indignant repudiation of Leo.
Among such communities themsclvps the
theory that prevailed appears to have varied
with the particular conditi<ms and circunistaiices.
At first, the papal claims would be received with
ready assent, such as a sense of filial gratitude
would naturally dictate. When, however eccle-
siastical power became associated with ijnliiical
power, there arose a spirit of greater in.ltpen-
dence, like that from time to time exhiljitej
among those nations of the West whose conver-
sion belonged to a much earlier period. We
learn, for example, from 13ede (//. E. iii. ^ll) that
Wighard was sent to Rome to receive his cmise-
cration as archbishop of Canterbury at the hands
of pope L)eusdedit, "to the end that hf niigst
ordain catholic priests for the churches of the
English nation throughout all Britain ; " arch-
bishop Theodore, again, was ordained at Kome
by Vitalian (i6. iv. 1). Vet notwithstanding, only
a kvi years after the ordination of Thecdore we
find Alfrid, Icing of Ncrthumbria, refusing to
recognise the right of Wilfrid to the bishopric of
York, though the election of the latter had
twice been confirmed bv popes Agatho and
John V. " I will not," said the monarch, '-alter
one word of a sentence issued by myself, the
archbishop, and all the dignitaries of "the land,
for a writing coming, as ye say, from the apo-
stolic chair " (Milman, Lat. Christianitij, bk. iy.
c. 4).
Again the tone of English eccleniasticism
changes, and within little more than half a cen-
tury Boniface, in Krankland, announces to
Cuthbert, in terras already referred to (su/jT''
p. 16G0) a full recognition, on the part of the
Frankish bishops and their metropolitans, of the
supreme and final authority of the pope— "De-
crevimus . . . subjectionem Romanao cccleslae
fine tonus vitae nostrae velle servare ; sancto
Petro et vicario ejus velle subjii'i ; . . . metro-
politanoa pallia ah ilia sede quaerere et per omnia
praecepta sancti Petri canonice sequi desidciare,
ut inter oves sibi conimendatas numeremur"
{Epist. 63 ; Migne, Ixxxix. 763). But it is evi-
dent that this deferential spirit was succeeded
by something approaching to insubordination;
for, a few years after, Boniface writes to entreat
the indulgence of pope Zachary for the non-ful-
filment of the above engngements, esiiecialljr
"de palliis a Romana ecclesia petcndis," "quia
quod promiscrunt tardantes non iinpleverunt, et
adhuc differtur et ventilatur " {Epist. 75 ; Migne,
Ixxxix. 778). " How difficult it was to overcome
the repugnance of the Teutonic prelates, is mani-
fest in the fact that St. Lull, the especial disciple
of St. Boniface, in whose favour the latter eser-
cisod the exceptional privilege accorded him of
nominating a successor to the primatial see of
Mainz, though appointed in 754, had not yet
sought the pallium in 772, when Adrian 1. wrote
to Tilpin of Rheims, ordering him to investigate
the doctrine and virtues of Lull, and, if the re-
sult was satisfactory, to give him a certificate.
on the strength of which the pallium would be
sent to him. It was evident that some additional
inducements were necessary to overcome this
averBion and to bind th.! hierardiy lu the lhroD«
of St. Peter " (Lea, H. G. Studies in Church Ha-
tory, p. 138). Thomassin, indeed, is of opinion
that the oath administered by Boniface ww m
POPE
mtireli/ exceptional measure inatili^A x.
to a certain extent, by ZJ^le'f^f' . '"^*''*''
which ecclesiastical di dpliuf had IT '"'-
Franlcland; and he maintai, s HI H li s,,'"
«,§7)that throughout the "Ln „f rh 'i ^ u '
Great there is no trace of «ny1"th oAh t' ""
taicen either by Frankish \^ , '""'"-'■"^*
cepted only in con unctinn wjfk i.^ ""'
view, that [he aoceptVnJe"of ti^^'iiit/f?"": I
involve any acltnowledRnient of » L ^ "'" '
Rome, for both the biioD? 'f R """"" '»
Met. 'received that 3 „ ^f "^f ^ ""J "f
Hadrian I. (M«n«i, ,ii. 834 ; xiii soo^ ''?!"^^ "'^
other hand, throughout Charle '; reii; if "^'
dent that tne papal pretoni:; '7"k ..'kirnd
^sumed a very modest guise, and wer" littu
more than honorary in character ■ thTZ.,-
established between the papacy and thl I ^u
monarchy secured to the latter full *^^""'"»'>
theehurchwithinitsownSitVanTweS
LeidraJus, metropolitan of Lyons Jl,„l *^* '^"''
to Charles implying that hi :Ul L7„t t^
h,s episcopal dignity had been due'Tt ^ to the
monarch himself, "ad retrimnn "^"^'f'y to the
dunensis destinar^ voJit'^-'^^^r'^r SuS'
In the year 877, pope John VlJl at tbo" ^;
of Ravenna, ordered that al Jif ?^'°"'*
.hould be deprived of their sees who/'i'' "'
Wlyfor the pallium within th,! J" ^.'l, *«,
ooDsecrat on— " a resulition " ? """"'"» of
met with little l«^r~' th^ ^*"'- " ''^''^
.ttem,.s"(«W.w;XI,S.r8T''''^
yts, that the resil^il^itio': 0?^ VJI :":i
of tar too dubious a chlracter and?"'"'''''''^' "'"''
accepted as in any de" ree fpn'l <"" '"'"'^ '" ''«
this general fact/ A 1 e ^ ftss'ed 'b:1""',*
m45S. to Uusticus, bishop of Niubonl ^^
intimated his wish to seelc ."L„ . ^' *'"' •"«
oopatusiaboribul,"onrccountof hrn*"' "'' ^'''»-
.t the religious onndUion of his H '^"'^""'-""'y
nothing mire than , at L o on h "'' ^"''■^''
the papal l^tVo™ i^J' ^^4*1?^ ^°'-
"".ssion had been withheld %?♦!?' " ''"*
•yD«l, and that of W uilo ' Zh K P'r'"""'
-iioiting the intervrnt ^of^ktSaTl'' „'"^'
cure the deposition of Herimann hi'^ '"'°'
53, § 1 2 aZ I ,;!'"'? ^'-''^'^■'- ^-i-^p'- n. ii.
'o.^aneeandauijSaSertL-ho';;
POPE
1675
"i. • C7aim top^,e„< to all benefices
whitir^i^tit C\«^-" p°-"f.
"»"' the 12th cenUry"fS ^-n .'unknown'
""■ .<=■ 10), i, certainfy not to t"'"'""''' ''''•
within our period. The nr,"!„ i * ^ • "'^^"Snized
canonists are for th» „ I""cedents cited by the
stances of th^ exertion "T' P.'"'' ""•■<"' '■•""' 'n-
within the R^n "^ ilr'Tr.!;.' "' "1"""'''^
'""feed upon as cases wheTei'n h^ ,""'^' '" *■*
pope was sought and given wih f''"' "' *''«
«n either side that it p!rtoVof .'h ' "V °""'°''
command. F'-'iook ot the nature of a
We iintl, for example, Innorent r ■ .
Marcaaus, bishop of Nais"us in ;,'"^.'^>'«'*n8
appomt to offices in the church .i"^'''''"'"' '°
and deacons whom his predeceTor 5tl"''-^''yt«'-''
to his sentence and degrad ition k ^ "'"'' ''"'"
to such offices— "pnl,!-^' '""' ™nsecriited
(Coustant':^:^. ScW eXn' t sT^'^'T """^ "
be observed, hosvever thT'ff: ?: ' '^ '»
exercised relates Corn ,. ^ authority here
of lUyricum, om.'L^ h " """"" ""-' P™^'"^'"
r)«m.4us, Rome had n'.?'"""'^ ^^' t™e of
consequently fails as proof of hr '"""'"=«
apWication(seeU(iuilta:^S:t
wht^K:;rng?n1hr '^'l^' ^^ Celestmel.
and laity of Co,f« 1.- ^f '' ^^^ '" ">e clergy
bishops or priests wh-v?'*' '"J"'°^ "'at all
or exLmmS ef X if 'k'"""^ Y '^«1'--1
possessing th^r ben.nl ".^"'^''^ »' «*'»
"apertefedisnlstnfesatTt "°^. .P"vileges-
sive episcopum she T ''"'■''""^'«. n"ll"m
aliqna' ChriSum; qi 7 v' f" f'™';'"'"°«
similibus . . . vel loc,? ^''''""o vel ejus
Jejecti sunt, vel eiectum vp". '-'"'"■"•""■one
v'deri •■ (Co;stan,^';t^l6!l"r'H r't"™
years later, appears a^ l , f '''^ C'''-'"'. -"ome
Anatolius, bishop of f'nn fT"","*^ ^"'^^en
archdeacon S w, T K T'''"' ""^ "'«
pnvodofhisolfirp\ . ""^ '"''"'«'• had de-
pietati vostL'ti„^'Vf:-^"»«'^-"'i"'^'» tamea
/■a^roUiv USfiTrf ' P^^sumo " (Mi„ne,
and the argumiat of'Vhilf '"^^i-^"' '■'""•'"^■^■-
490) that, fo ouote tL *" ('"'•«^<'»'-«<.-'i«, v
Salisbury,'" theCuests of' th""^" "^ ^"''" "'
dates," involves th^ It I ^" P°P' ^'^ '"«"-
thesWusot'irenanacvtn/rf;: "^ •^""'"""'■'K
centuries. '^ ^''^ '" *''" ^'^ and the 12tfi
ac nostra praecenta " '3",.*'tatuta canonum
bishops to depr ve'^l im o? th« f'T'' '^'" "'^'^
va i( as a ffpnoi.-,! .- PP" '^''"-•''9), are a-
they occnrSn thf f?""'' 'l^™' '^' *'''"' "'«t
this period such a„»b ?""• ''""''''''' *''cre, at
1G76
POPE
' Id all but the last of the foregolnf; in-
stances, it will be seen that the occasion for
the papal interference arose out of an excep-
tional position of affairs, and thus turns very
much upon the fundamental question of appel-
late jurisdiction [Appkal, p. 130], Other
instances, cited by Phillips and Thomasain,
belonging to the pontificate of Gregory the
Great, exhibit again the following iinportant
qualifying conditions: (o)that they occur
within the diocese over which the Koman pontiff
claimed metropolitan rights; (/3) that Grcgury
himself appears, where practicable, to have first
consulted the bishop of the district ; (>) that
they occur at a period when political circum-
stances might warrant an occasional extraordi-
nary exertion of the papal influence. For
example, when Gregory bestows the monastery
of St. Theodorus at Me'ssana on Paulinus, bishop
of Taurinae. he first consulted with the metro-
politan of the district, Felix, bishop of
Messana, to whom he writes: "quod etiam
te voluisse, jam ejus [sc. Paulini] relatione
didicimus " (A>is«. bk. i. 41 ; Migne, Iixvil.
628); while, when writing to Felix, a sub-
deacon, with reference to the same, transaction,
he says: — "quam rem venerabili Fel^.ci ejusdem
civitatis episcopo nos significasse cognosce, j..
praeter suatn notitiam in dioecesi aibi commissa,
ordimtuni quippiam contristetttr " {Kjiist. i. 42 ;
ih. Ixxvii. 529). With reference to the ordina-
tion of Paulinus himself to the bishopnc of
Lipara, Gregory writes to Paulinus, to say that
he lias already expressed his wish in the matter
to Maximianus, the metropolitan: " Maximiano
fratri et coepiscopo scripsimus ut fraternitatem
tuam ecclesiae Liparitanae ex nostra auctoritate
praeesse constituat " {Epist. ii. 17; t6. Ixxvii.
580). Similarly, when recommending a deacon
as a proper recipient of a stipend, he writes to
the same Maximianus : "sive ut offlcium diaco-
natus expleat, seu certe ut sola ejusdem officii
pro sustentanda paupertate sua commoda conse-
quatur, in taae fratemitatis volumus hoc pendere
judicio " {Epist. iv. 14 ; ib, Ixxvii. 695).
But to whatever point we may assume the
papal authority to have advanced in this respect,
with the age of (Gregory, it may be regarded as
certain that it was not only held in check, but
almost entirely set aside, by political events
after his time. Neither in England, nor in
Fraukhind under the Merovingian and Carolin-
gian dynasties (save for a brief period following
the arrival of IJonil'ace), was there any disposi-
tion to admit the assertion of these claims ; and
it is not until nearly the close of the I'.'th
century that the appearance of" epistolae moni--
toriiie," " praeceptoriae," and " executoriae "
indicate that such powers were asserted and
enforced.
(iv.) CMm to temporal power.
(1) Patnmonium.—the foundation of the
church 01 St. John Lateran by Constantine the
Great, is probably the only foundation of the
kind in Home which can 'be attributed with
much probability to that monarch. At the
same time he bestowed upon the bishop of Rome
fur a residence, that portloc of the Tatwan
palace [Lateran] which was known as the
" domus Faustae " (Gregorovius, Oesch. d. Stadt
£om, i. 87), and here the first Lateran synod
was held, in the year 313. It was in the same
POPE
reign that the church acquired the right of pos-
sessing estiites, and receiving bequests of liinded
property from individuals. The revenues thuj
obtained were always supposed to be devoted to
charitable purposes, a law of Constantine of the
year 326 pronouncing it fit that "the iioor
should be sustained by the riches of the churihes"
(Cod. T/teod. xii. i. 6). Under this plea tht church
at Rome soon acquired wides])re!id pnssesjijAs;
and in the year 432 we find Celestine, the bishop,
writing to Theodosiua 11., and entreating hii
protection for certain estates of the see in Asia,
which a lady named Proba, the represeiit;itivc uf
an ancient house, had bequeathed tor the main,
tenance of " the clergy, the poor, and ceitaia
monasteries " (Constant, eil. Schoen. p. 879),
Long before the time of Gregory the Gieat, the
" patrimonium Petri, ' as it was tennej, waj
represented by large estates in Southern Italy,
Sicily, Corsica, Africa, am' Dalmatia. "Ever
since the extinction of the Westcirn empire had
emancipated the ecclesiastical potentate liora
secular control, the first and most abiding
object of his s-^hemes and prayers had been the
acquisition of territorial wealth in the neigh-
bourhood of his capital. He had, imleed, a sort
of justification — for Rome, a. city with neither
trade nor industry, was crowded with poor, for
whom it devolved on the bishop to provide"
(Bryce, No/y Homan Empire, p. 42). In pur-
suance of this theory, we find Gregory himself
speaking of such property as "res paupenira"
(Migne, Ixxvii. 834) ; his allusions to it are
frequent. He refers, for instance, to lands in
Gaul, " patrimoniolum ecclesiae nostrae ([uae
illic constitutum est" (Letter to Briinichild,
Migne, Ixxvii. 836); in Sicily ne.ir Cataua {ib.
Ixxvii, 593), but these latter appear to have
been wrested from the church by Leo the
Isnurian, A.D. 730 (Le tiuien, i, 97) ; in Saidmia
(Migne, Ixxvii, 926), in the Cottian .\lps, in
lllyricum, and in the cities " of Otranto, flalli-
poii, perhaps Norcia, Nepi, Cuma, Capua, Cor-
sealano, Naples, Palermo, and Syracuse '
(Milm.tn, Lht. Christianity, ii. 115).
The "donatio patrimonii Alpium Cottiae,"
presented to the Roman see in 703, by Arijierl,
king of the Lombards, was wrested Inim its
possession by Luitprand, who, however, moved
by the remonstrances of Gregory II., .igain
restored the territory (Annst. Greg. II. ; Mura-
tori. Script. HI. i. 154). After this time no fur-
ther reference to this patrimony is di>coverahle|
and it appears to have been finally lost to
Rome in the troubles that marked the second
quarter of the 8th century.
(2) Political aovereiunty. The commencement
of the political authority of the Kdman pontiff
is perhaps to be discerned in the discharge of
certain civic duties, with which, like the bishops
of other important cities, he was entrusted on
behalf of the imp<Mial power (I'hillips, A'nc'm-
recht, iii. 37). These functions dait back sj
far as the 4th century. The supreme civil
authority of the city appears, however, to have
been wielded by the prefect, and at a later
period by the "dux " or duke of Rome. The
hi-triniiing of a really independent nuthovity hai
been referred (Sugeiiheim, Entste ««</ uiui Hw-
bildun,} des Kircl,enstaates, p. 9) to the occaiioo
when Peter the " dux " having been driven from
the city, in the pontificate of Gregory U., it i«
POPE
.apposed that a kind of repuMic was formed,
with the pope as chief administrator. This
conjecture, however, is wanting in any real
liistoiioal basis (Gregorovius, ii. 258), and the
commencemeut of the "States of the Church "
is more correctly referred to the year 727
when, according to Anastasius, Luitprand, after
he had talfen and plundered the town of Sutri
the possession of the emperor, offered it, at the'
request of Gregory II., as a gift to the apostles
Peter and Paul (Muratori, Scri/jt. III. i. 157)
The real "d(jnatio" dates from the year 754
when Pepin le liref, at a council held at Quiercv'
bestnwed upon Stephen 111. the territory which
he had wrested fr^m the Lombards, consistine
of Ravenna and the Pentapolis, a tract of coun-
try to tlie east of the Apennines, stretching
northwards from Ancona and the city of Comi-
clum. According to Anastasius, Desiderius, the
vanquished Lombard monarch, had already
vowed to present this territory to the Roman
pontifl (A III. 1. 171; Jaffe, Jiegest. B. I'ont.
193-4).
The munificence of Pepin was rivalled by that
of his son. When, in the year "74, Charles
(w.-o was then little mor- i thirty years of
age) visited Kome, the t of his father
was made the ground f , ,-,g a yet larger
grant. It is difficult t ... Hadrian on this
occasion of deliberate falsification of the deed
conveying Pepin's grant, for when read by that
pontiff to the monarch it was found to include
territories before unheard of as part of the
orijiiMl :,ift. "Some of these," says Green-
wood, " had never belonged to the exarchate of
Ravenna, as it existed under the Greek dynasty
nor hud ever been comprised within it at any
time since the Lombard invasion of 568 Of
this deed, as read by the pope, Charleiiiiigne
himself was entirely ignorant." The territory
oonceded by Charles, "per designationem con-
finiura, was marked, according to Anastasius,
hyaline commencing at the port of Luna and
tiking m Corsica, then passing on to Surianum,
Mons Bardonus, and Vercetum, from thence to
rama, Reggio, Mantua, Monselice. t.ikinginthe
who e exarchate of Ravenna (sicut antiquitus
erat) together with the provinces of Venetia
auJ HLstria, and the duchies of Spolato and
Bencventum (Muratori, &n><. IIL i 186) "It
should be observed," continues Greenwood,
that Spoleto and Beueventum had been in fact
all along integral portions of the Lombard
tiiigJom ; moreover, it, is known that Pippin
did not dismember that kingdom in favour of
the pope, and that those duchies were not com-
prised in the surrenders which Pippin extorted
from Aistulph in pursuance of the treaties of
Me uted by Charlemagne, at the request of
Hadrum, was in fact, an entirely neu> grant,
comprising indeed much of the older claim, but
iteiding It to at least double the area stipu-
i 4U H'"rfV''"i; '''""'"''0" (.Cath. Petri,
I1.414; Hefele, Conailimgeach. iii. 541).
..„?!' "f'hese successive donations arose the
TJ ^% ?'''^'T "*■ ^""■"■♦■■"•■Hne," first
a ieged as a fact in a letter of Hadrian to Con-
^.^"""V'.-'i 'j-f"'. 26th Oct. 785 (Mansi, xii.
105« ; x„i. 527). According to this fabrication,
^nstantme the Great, on being cured of the
leprosy by the intercession of pope Sylvester,
P0RPHYRIU8 1677
determined, on the fourth day from his baptism
to quit Rome and found a new capital on the
Bosporus, in order that the supreme ecclesias-
tical power of the West might have free scope,
and no longer be overshadowed by the presence
ot the imperial authority. He accordingly not
only made over to Sylvester the Latenin palace,
but also invested him with the diadem, the
phrygium, the collar, nnd the iiurple cloak, "et
omnia imperialia indutiimenta." The clerev of
Lome were to be attire.l in similar fashion.
Finally, Rome itself, together with all the pro-
vinces of Italy and the West, were presented to
Sylvester as "universal pope"-"ubi enim
princi].atus sacerdotum et Chri^tianae i. li^ionis
caput ab imperatore coelesti constitutum' est
justum non est ut illic imperator terrenus
habe..tpotestatem"(Gratian, Corp. Juris Can.
Uist. xcvi. cc. 13, 14).
V.Tla'in''7h''M!'f * '^''■■'"'^°g«d by Cusanus and
V..lla in the 15th century) having long been
abandoned as spurious by the chief authorities
n the Romish church itself (Di.llinger, Papst-
fabetn, pp. 52-U.'), it will be unnecessary here to
adduce the data (or such a conclusion.
^uM.,nfc.-Historie3: Gibbon, Baur,Neander.
Giese er, M.lman, Robertson, Bingham ; ThomasI
Phll,ps(G) iir.,.cAp„,<,oA<,vol. v.; Greenwood
Cathedra fetr,, vols. i. and ii. ; von Schulte
p- ..V-'' ..?(""' ^°P^*' «"'•' Bisr/,Sfe, 1871;
Kichter (A. L.), Lehrbuch d. kath. u. proi. K.r.
chenreMs, 1874; Du Pin de Antiq. Ecclesia^
/>.sc/,/ma • Baxmann (R.), Lie Politik dcr Papste,
vol. I. 1868; Lipsius (R. A.), Petrus-Sage^nd
Chronology der PUmischen BischSfe ; Constant
7Q«"''?l- •f'"^''^"'?"' ^""^^^o^m Eptstolae,
\lon ' ,.r!f ' f/"-'<''«« l^omanorum Pontificontm,
1867 ; Wiltsch, Kirchlkhe Geographie and Sta.
u ,',' ^^*^ ' '■'"■ councils, Mansi, Sirmoiid, and
"**^''*- [J. B. M.]
PORCH. [Narthex.]
PORCH [compare Narthex], Dr. Neala
(Eastern Ch Jntrod. p. 215) silp of Eastern
^^Zn"' 'hat "the .poaiiA^, o. porch, i"
usually, where >t exists at all, at tn,. west end.
and reaches trom the north to the south of the
narthex : it is sometimes a lean-to against the
west end of the narlhex, but oftener it forns
wi h the narthex one lean-to agaiust the west
end of the nave . . . Occasionally . . the ^poai.
A.o^ though at the west end, is simply like an
tnghsh porch ; and sometimes there are north
and south porches. The north, south, and
west sides are open between the piers on which
the irpoai;Aioi' is supported ; the east side . . is
usually adorned with mosaics or frescoes, usually
of infernal punishments. Commonly the ,„oaJ.
Aio./ opens with three doors into the narthex
Against the east side there is a seat of marble*
or stone, or— in poor churches— of wood." [0.]
P0RPHYRIU8 (1), reader, martyr at
?ei^To7B:;i.^^:r/)':'"'"p-' — --t«^
(8) Slave of the martyr Pamphius, martvf
Koh ir.r-," ?,"'' Theodulus; commemorated
Feb. 16 (Basil. Menol. ; Afart. Som.).
(3) Bishop of Gaza ; commemorated Feb. 28
and Mar. 2 (Basil. Menol.) ; Feb. 26, holy father
ii
1
1
f
1
I
i
Ii
' W if r
1678 P(>RRECTIO VA80EUM
and confessor (Cal. Byzant. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturf}.
iv. 254 i Mart. Sont. ; Boll. Acta SS. Feb. iii.
643).
(4) Slave of "ineaiphorus (2 Tim. W. 19) and
martyr with h; , ; commemorated July 16 (Basil.
Meniil.) ; Nov. y {Cat. Dyzant.).
(6) Man of God, instructor of the martyr
Agapitus ; commemorated Aug. 20 ( Vet. Bum.
Mart. ; Usuard. Mart, PoRl'illRlus ; Mart. Rom. ;
Boll. Acta as. Aug. iv. 26).
(6) MartVT under Julian ; commemorated
Sept. 15 (Basil, Menol. ; Mart. Horn. ; Boll.
Acta SS. Sept. v. 37).
(7) Of Ephesus, martyr under Aurelian ; com-
memorated Nov. 4 'iasil. Menol. ; Mart, jiom.);
s Porphyrius occu.s with others in Africa in
Hieron. Mart. [C. H.]
POKRECTIO VASORUM. [Instrumenta,
p. 802 ; Ordination, p. 1508].
PORTER. [OsTiARius.]
PORTICUS. [Narthex.]
PORTRAITS. It is probable that very
many of the Oranti, or praying figures in the
catacombs, both male and female, may be
portraits or memorial figures of the dead.
Such representations were quite in accordance
with Roman family habits of sepulchral observ-
ance, and respect for ancestors passed away ;
and would be, in fact, a kind of Chi-istian
" Imagines." Those of Probus and Proba (see
woodcut) are beautiful and pathetic in a high
degree. Two medallion portraits, one of which,
to judge by the engraving, must have been a
marked likeness of considerable merit, occur in
the cem';tery of St. Priscilla (see Bottari, taw.
clx. olxi.). Both the medallions appear io be
Probns uid Prolw. (Bottui, Uv. xvU.)
of military men, and Bottari mentions a con-
jecture that seventy-two soldiers martyred
under Numerianus, with Claudius their tribune,
may have been buried in that spot. They
leem to be of the same rather early date, as their
proportions are relatively good, and small
loculi have been cut through the pictures into
the wall.
Many figures in the mosaics are undoubtedly
portraits, aa those of Justinian and Theodora in
POTTERY
the cnurch of St. Vitale at Ravenna. (Set
Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist, of Paintiwi in
Italy, i. 27, and Gaily Knight's Italian Arcliicec-
ture, where the colours of the mosaic are beauti-
fully given ; aU i Ricci's series of photographs,
and the copies at South Kensington.) The iimrked
countenances of many saints of the Kiistern
church in all mosaics, and, indeed, on many oups
and glasses, can hardly be ideals. (See liuonanoti,
Osservaiione, &c., x,-xiii.) [R. St. J. T.l
POSSESSED. [Demoniacs; Exoitcissi.]
POSTURES OF DEVOTION. [Gesu-
flexion; Prayer.]
lOTAMIA, martyr with Julius at the city
of Tlingora; commemc-ated Dec. 5 (Lsuard.
Mart. ; Mart. R m.). [C. H.]
POTAMIAENA, martyr at Alexandrin with
Plutarchus and others ; commemorated June 'J8.
(Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Horn. Mart., Potamioena ;
Mart. Rom.; Hieron. Mart., Potamina; Boll.
Acta SS. Jun. ii. 6, distinguishes her from a
virgin of Alexandria of the same name comme-
morated on June 7.) [C. H.]
POTAMIUS, martyr with Nemesius in
Cyprus ; commemorated Feb. 20 (L'suard.
Mart. ; Mart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Feb. iii. 173).
[c. H.;,
POTENTIANA, virgin martyr at Rome;
cor.imemorated May 19 (Usuard. Mart. ; Vet.
Rom. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mai. iv.
296). [C. H.]
POTENTIANUS, martyr with bishop Sa-
binianus at Sens ; commemorated Deo. 31
(Usuard., Wand. Mart.). [C. H.]
P0TITU8, martyr under one of the Anto-
niues ; commemorated Jan. 3 (Florus, ap. Bed.
Mart.) ; Jan. 13 {Mart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Jan. i. 754). [C, H.]
POTTERY. The greater part of the ohjetts
made of clay, which bear Christian Jevices.
symbols, or inscriptions, will be found under
Laups ; but there are also some others, for the
description of which a few words may sutiiie.
There is a class of small flat, circular, terra-
cotta bottles, with two handles attudied to the
body a little below the neck, the short neck
rising a little above them, which appear to have
keen designed for holding holy oil. On all of
them, either on one side or on both, a standing
figure is represented between two animals,
sometimes very rudely modelled, but which
appear in every case to have been intended for
camels. Some of these, probably the greater
number, are uninscribed ; but a few bear the
name of Menas, who died a martyr for the faith
in the persecution under Galerius Mnsimious
or Maximianus at Alexandria (see Garrucci's
remarks in Archaeoloyia, vol. xliv. p. .'^23, on the
confusion of the two saints of the same name).
To this saint, as it seems most )ir«bable, this
whole class of ampullae or chrismaria belongs,
which were in all likeliliood made exclusively in
Egypt as memorials of pilgrimage to his tomb
(which was nine miles distant from Alexandria)
and to hold oil brought from it. They are sup-
posed by M, de Rossi to have been manufactured
POTTERY
In tho 6th and 7th centuries. They may be
arranged chronologically as follows :
(1) On one side the inscription EVAO II TIA
TdYII AHOY M II HNA. in four lines on the
bodyof the cruse, followed by a small rude cross
of four nearly equal limbs: below in another line
three pellets, all enclosed in a circle, and this
igain in n wreath. On the other side a draped
figure with extended arms, an orante (details of
drapery, &c., obscure) ; below each arm a very
rudely designed animal, on each side of the head
a cross as before, all inclosed in a circle, sur-
rounded by a circle of beads, and that again
inclosed m a circle. Height (when perfect)
about 4 inches; diameter of body, 2f inches
Figured and described from an example found at
Aries, in De Rossi's Bullett. di Arch. Crist, for
1869, pp. 20, HI, 32. De Rossi (u. ,.) notes that
other specimens occur in museums (public or
private) in I'aris, Rome, London, and also in Mout-
auban (found at Memphis) as well as Marseilles
Ai^ and Turin (also found in Kgypt). Anothe^
in theHalles Museum at Brussels, of -ale yellow
clay, has TOY APIOY MHNA only, as it
r^D ''"^' » A^n*"* '^«»''"Pti'>n is defeciive
(De Rossi, Bull. 1872, pp. 25-80).
. (2) On both sides an oranto aa before, but
with distinct circular nimbus (no crosses near
the neck), dressed in military costume; the
cloak {iHibidaTtwntii.m)\i buckled round the right
shoulder, and the cuirass comes down nearly to
the knees. A rude animal (a camel) is on
POTTERY
1679
eiiyOU.cre8eofBt.Mena>. (D»Bo«l.)
•Hher side his body. Aoros. the body of the
<='^^^ ^ the rec k of the figure, O AnOC
fI!",-"?''!',,* ""J"'* '""■ primarily for the bread In the
wThft, • ^" '"' ""'"™ -""tr'buted after It to the
Dlewlngs (De Rossi), and occun not only on these
W^cArumaria, but on one of those metal ones nr^
KiI.'Jff I 'ni>iAriUNtsi.:)TOnOL)N onwhich
MHNAC (MHN ligated) in one line. Diameter
o^ body 01 cruse, nearly 4J inches; the height
must have been fully 6 inches. Figured and
described by De Kossi, Bull. 1889, pp. li, 4^^
se"um ) ^'''^'""^"''- ('" "'« Florence Mu-
(3) A nimbed orante, nearly as in No. 2 (with-
out crosses); very rude camels on either side, but
m p ace of tireek inscription s. Ji. (i.e. S. Menas)
on either side of the neck (tl,e 8 I, cleaisthe M a
"i:,*;!'' "■•"■'>• Z'''^-' "ve^se has a Maltese c^os
mclosed in a circle or wreath of palm branches;
neiletf "it" "'t^^'^.^^ « ^^^' ^ «hich thr ^
pellets alternate with one larlevcorn, there
being twelve pellets and four barleycorns. W
Height, ai inches ; diameter of b.Kly, £1 inchel
Kmnd in Lower Egypt; formerly fn' the All^
?X ?'''•''-■»'«'>• (See below, under No. 4 )
frL 'ai the same adjuncts. Three specimens
from Alexandria in the Florence Musium rDe
ale yellowish clay, diameter of body about 3
inches, height nearly 4 inches , both from
Lower hgypt (Allemant, Colkct d'AnJuZ
^'/;><. part of Nos. 520-531, p. 85 Tnd
well IT/" *''•' '"1''^'^''°" »'■ the wi'iter, as
"f\ ^r • *" •'"'? ^''"' '■''""'' '° the cemetery
cnll».;'^'"''« "'.^^'•^^' n°^ '^ the Le Noi«
.11 tion .s figured in Perret, Cataco,n>„., voL
•ir. pi. XX. n. b. The ampullae with full in-
acriptions would (as De R^ossi observes) natu-
fn cLr " '"'I'f *"'^''"*' *hoso with shorter
nscript.ons would come next, and those with no
inscription would be latest of all, the tyne
Jr'^^-,*u *" ^^""""^ '"'°»'" (^«''- 1872, p. 30)
{o) Ihere remains another c.xami.- . of this
ease which entirely, resembles no. 3 on the
side bearing the figure of Menas, except that it
has two crosses in place of s. J,. ; but the rever e
has a monogram plainly reading nETPOY
incosed within a circle, and this again with °I
circle of scroll-work. Clay of a yellowish
colour Height, 3J inches ; "diameter If brdj!^
2J mches. Preserved in the College of the
Barnabite Father, in Moncalieri, nfar Turin
(De Rossi, Bull. 1872, p. 26. tnv. ii. no.. 4 and 51
De Rossi, while fully admittaig that this
figY« between camels must be iflnas, hinks
with great probability that the Poter of ?he
reverses St. Peter, bishop of Alexandria a^s^
Di„M ^^'' ''u° ^'"^ '" *''e persecutions of
Diocletian. His cen^etery near Alexandria is
of thr?lth 1 ■" "•'""'? Epiph«.ius, a writer
the nth century, m close conneiicn with the
lips 18:.?' ^r*; •*'•"^' (PP- '' 6' «''• Dressel!
Lips. 1843) It IS just possible, however, that
Peter may be the potter's name."
8 nee most of the above was In type, Mr Franks
h«. klrjdly called the writer's «ttentlo„ iT. paper In the
^rchaeokgia, vol. xllv. by Mr. A. Ncsbltt -On a B^k of
Carved Ivory of the Sixth Century," reDresen^ln^ fh«
in the^ mui; Mustm iuVh^tIt,:; '::; ;:Ser,™
were all found In Ef ypt ; eleven ar wise, Ibed, elah* ar^
not«>. They more or less resemble those which ha "
been mentioned above, s<,me, l„Uee,l, are nxa tiy Hto
n^. 3 (above). Two of tbrm have profllo heads of li
:,.i5r
TTT
-rrn^
1680
POTTERY
The caineli. which are the invariable con-
comitants of Menas, were migjiiesteJ by M. de
Rossi ti) be reminiscences of the desert of Libya,
of which Menp, was governor during his life,
and regarded as the protector after his death.
But the Acts of St. Menas say that he, before
undergoing martyrdom, ordered that his body
should be placed after his death on camels, and
that the beasts should be left free, and " that
they would see the glory of God manifest," i.e. by
their bearing it to the spot where God willed
that his sanctuary should be erected (Garrucci,
u. s.).
There are in the British M"seum a few other
flasks bearing different types and of dilVerent
forms, which "cre probably used for the same
purpose.
(1) Ampulla without handles. On one side three
arc..,s with coronae hanging from them : cross
and two branches above them j below (retrograde)
KT €A€H con ; below the inscription a
rude bird. On the other side the same types
with a contiuuation of the inscription (also
retrograde) TH CIONKET {i.e. Kipit, iKirj-
aov T^ 'iiovKir, a woman's name). Height
between 3 and 4 inches. From Kgypt.
The following small ampullae have two small
perforated handles:
(2) Greek cross on both sides impressed with
concentric circles ; similar marltings in the two
upper compartments on both sides of the body ;
circles round the neck.
(3) Greek cross on both sides ; rays between
the limbs ; extremities of limbs forked. Recently
brought from Kgypt by the Rev. O. J. Chester.
(4) Figure (of a saint) at full length, holding
long cross in left hand, and grasping snake by
the head with the other; the same types on
both sides. This and the preceding are narrower
in form than no. (2).
Other kinds of fictile vessels, bearing marks
of Christianity, occur but rarely. There is an
amphora, found in the cemetery of St. Cyriaca,
now in the Lateran Museum, which is stamped
in intaglio upon the neck with I &''^^q
(De Rossi, Bvil. Arch. Crist. 1872, p. 12).=
A few Christian stamps on brick and tile are
now to be mentioned. A fragment of brick
found in Rome has XMT KACCIOY stamped
upon it in a circular form, and in the centre
the usual chrisma ()P") rudely drawn within a
Menas (!) with curly hair. The other variations need
hardly be mentioned here. In the same paper (pp. 322,
823) are remarks relating to these flasks by Padre Gar-
rucci in a letter to Mr. Neebltt. One Is figured In the
Semit Anheologiijut, vol. 1. (1844), p. 405, and others In
ft recent volume of the same work, not seen by the
wrlicr. The Museum has acquired other flasks of St.
Menas since 1676; among them Is a Urge example
(from Egypt) which may possibly be Intended for some
other saint. It shews a naked figure with nimbus
between two bulls and two other animals, perhaps
meant for bears.
' A piece of a handle of a wine amphora found at
BlnchciK-r, now preserved in the Museum ai Ncwoasiic,
baa the potter's name V R F I enclosed In an oblung
label, a Greek croea (approaching the Maltese) being
Inserted between R and f. Ur. Bruce {Homan Wall,
p. 4 1 1 , 3rd ed.) is unwilling to recognise it a* a Christian
VjBbvI, probably rightly.
POTTERY
circle. Cassius is doubtless the master of ths
brick-kiln. X.M.f, as De Rossi gives reasons
for thinking, may stand for Xpio-rJii, Mixa^A,
ra/3pirjA {hull. 1870, pp. 7-31, trfv. iii. 11. •<).
A fragment of tile, found at I'iacenza, has the
same clirisma, also very rude, acoomimuicd ky
some scarcely legible marks, which may perhopi
form the word NIKA (Ue Rossi, u. s. p. ;i2,
tav. ii. n. 2). A bricic found in the Hcmsn
catacombs in 1849 has a stamp bearing two con-
centric circles. Within the outer circlo is tiie
word CLAVDIANA (the r'lnie of the owner
of the manufactory); acco ,panied by an ivy.
leaf: within tlie inner circle is the chrisma
of the ordinary fornr (Perret, CatucunJics, t. iv.
pi. XX. n. 13, and t. vi. p. 119). But it is in
Spain perhaps mors especially that tiles ar,u
bricks stamped with Christian inscriptions have
been found ; they have been collected by Hiib-
ner (/'tscr. Hisp. C/irist. pp. 6">, OG). Some are
not , 'together intelligible ; the more remarkable
of the others are as follows : (1) Bracari vi |
VAS CUM TVI8 (in two lines) ; between them
A -& u (Hiibner, n. 193, who mentions .hat
many examples of this tile have been found in
various parts of Hispania Baetica). (J) Clirisnia
with loop to left; followed by ciiioNi vivas
(retrograde) (n. 19(j). (3) Alpha and Omega
(fl), chrisma between them in one line in a line
below Felix Asklla. This form of the Omega,
if correctly given, is perhaps unique in this
connexion' (n. 197). Others have Sl>« in Dto
and the chrisma (n. 203, 6). Tiles of the same
general character, some of early date, some of
Ostrogothic times have been met with in Italy
(De Rossi, Hull. Arch. Crist. 1872, p. 12).
Fragments of tiles found in Strasbc -irg in a tomb
were stamped with a label inclosing the inscrip-
tion ARliOASTlS KP8 FICKT (fecit). He died about
679 A.D., and was evidently in possession of the
manufacture of these tiles (Le Blant, Inscr.
chret. de la Oaule, n. 350, pi. 39, n. 23.!).
On a vase, probably a cup, of red clay, found
between Saint- l-^ger-sur-Uheune and Chagny are
scratched three Latin crosses, two of 1 with
a rude heart-shaped figure at the bast, ,inJ the
third surrounded by a like tigure ; on the up|*r
rim is inscribed in retrograde and inverted letters
the potter's name i>is'i'il.l,vs, which occurs oa
other examples of Gaulish pottery ; also, both
near it and near the crosses, the letters zvy (in
various combinations), which have not been ex-
plained. Supposed to belong " aux premiers tempi
du chriitianisme." Shape nearly cylindrical,
slightly Increasing above ; no handles. Height
said to be 0-138; breadth, 0-009 [0-030?]. (U
Blant, u. ». n. 6, pi. 1, n. 2.) Remains of tile
and also of pottery have been found in Christian
tombs in Gaul,"* belonging in some cases to vases
too large to have been placed there wh( .vhole,
i Ferret (Cotacowlxi de Rome, vol. iv. pi. III. and pi,
vl.) figures many pieces of pottery, which (as heju«tlj
remarks) would be ol little interest, were they not foond
In the catacomba (the exact localities are not given):
among them are jugs (two forms), open cups titbonl
hftr..1l»s rs ithsr plain or with protuberani-""), "ini otlw
with loops for suspension ; also long pointed ampbom
others with swelling bodies and flat bottoms. tocnW
In vol. vl. pp. 1U9, 1 10. As they are the ordinary Roou
pottery of the period no more need be said atouttlw).
See also Guenehault, Diet. lamogr. «. v. '• Vuol'
POVERTY, VOWS OP
m .»hici. are acratched the proper name, of the
poraoii. InirieJ,' acco.nimnied .oinetimes by tlie
cro«* or .■hrisma, or the symbol, oocur alone. (See
V "h ;„; '• '•'• '^' '"^ '»' '""-^ ^-'o which
M. -e Want supposes to be of the 4th century
(n. 1;m) has viv^s in deo, followed by a palm
Kratched on a piece of glazed red pottery of
ctoic times (hamian ware) ; and the Louvre ha.
.im.lar iragments with Greek Christian inscrip-
Uon. drawn with the ,«.i„t. A terracotta
weight (n. 160) has v.iavB, with palm and chrisma
engraved on its sides.
It may be added that on fragment, of Kgyptian
pot.ry a few Greek Christian inscriptions ar-
written in ink, containing verses from tl e
Gospels and from the hymn trisagion, whi.'h
were perhaps used as charms. They are iiro-
biblyof the 7th or 8th century. (Ubckh C / O
No.. 9060-9063). ' ^ [C.B]
POVERTY VOWS OF. In order to arrive
at a correct and philosophical view of this wide
lubject. It must be remembered that the self-
imposition ot poverty i, not exclusively, is not
(it might be said) even principally Christian
As an exainiile of it in Greek paganism it will
b« enough to cite the case of Crates, the wealthy
Theban, casting away a mass of gold when he
went to live the life of philosophy at Athens
In the ancient religion of India it is generally
understood that voluntary po^ertv occurs ; but
to remove all vagueness and doGb. apon the
labject one or two authoritie. may be con-
Teniently presented here.
In the code of Menu, then, which is of
inpreme obligation, we find this direction la.d
down for the man who would make progreEs in
religion •■-■'trom devout Brahmins lit him
receive alms to support li<e " {Institutes of
am ch. VI. 27, Calcutta, 1794). At a later
period we meet with the same ideas in a still
more precise form in the Institutes of Akbar
where one of the five subdivisions of the state
ailed Jowg Sumpergeyat is Appergerreh, "not
holding any worldly posses.ions, but considering
hem as the cause of every kind of unhappiness."
(Inntitn es of Akber, translated from the Persian
by F.Gla- win. Calcutta, 1786, vol. iii. p. UO.)
And finally, in our own century, the devout
Hmdu who professes penance i. thu, described
-/ Mill :— " Reimiring to a forest . . . and
taving all property and all worldly duties
behm,| him, he is there directed to live on pure
tooj, on certain herbs, root., and fruit, which he
mv collect in the forest, to wear a black ante-
h..n of h s head his beard, and hi. nails to grow
^^^^^r^f\r"(HisUn-y of British India, bk. 2, ch.
6), It will be observed that these are phrase.
w ich might be exactly applied to the life of
many a Christian hermit.
In the history of monastici.m the vow of
con tuted profession (religionis profe.sio)-
m itas). The vow is divided by canonists into
tM clnsscs: (1) eimplei, (2) solenne The
•*'«n vow is that maie with certain approved
CHnbDer.u.Tn.'iM). '" ""^ "'«'"'"• ' "'"«
POVERTY, VOWS OP 1681
fi^rmalitie. i„ a religious body; when these for-
wa. probably under a vow of this latter kind fif
under any at all) that the early ascetae prac-
Itrkh^d'that i'l """f'^ """" -- o^tte
sMmn kind that the religious Orders have in
•ubsequent times undertaken that life fSee
Aquinas, Sumina. Serumla AvumC n HS . .
Caftan, C.«^„..) A.uinXre's ^thaf'e e"n'
from hi^ vn ""?" ' '"''•"P ••« '" ""t "l-'-lved
„„»K„ /u" "^ P"''"*y- "« ""gilt to have
tne dispenser of common proj.erty (,/,. q. gg'
fliJfl*. '=""' J""',«^e''. trace the fact of a self-in-
flicted poverty, long before we have any sat °.
fe'tory evidence of a vou, to undergo H^ TheJe
, u no occasion to seek the prototype of such^
■ fe m that disdain of material thi I'lgs wh h i^
f^rm. r^"v " """""^ » oharacteristic of mo t
form, of religion, thought, and which as we
have seen above, foun.l expression in the 1 rah
n.am.m of ancient I„,lia, and the polvthei m of
Thed imatr* "J*""/','" ™odern'chris.i™t;
. o doubt ?n t^ ";f "f.the system is to be found
when we' Z '"^"""i"' <"""•«" himself; but
wnen we are considerinf it as a feature iA ♦),«
asceticism which is specifically Christian it ^^
enough to notice that the ger^ of '^as'readv
from the first, both in the life our I.ord HimS
ut'::;,rher *"*' v^^' ^^^ Test«rnf
.'ust as there were word, in Scripture which
wefe";t/.'VhTcf""'"^-""*''''*'""'«'S
were wore, which seemed to imply that cos-
ChH.Tian*nfe" T " "'"• »' '«"»* 'hindranerto
Ch i.t an life. It was inevitable that "Go and
so all that thou hast "should be taken in the
full severity of the letter
tioraVTo'tl" "'' "''"*'°" "' *'"' ^"<=d q"«-
t.on as to the origin and name of the early
Uionites It seems certain that they made a pro^
fession of poverty, esteeming the Jorld and' In
Mr teT."'"' ".' ''"' P'°''«'-'y "f s;tan(see
cent. ^ part n. ch. v. .. 2)
In the middle of the first century of the
SsTbt-; Z.'^l.lT' ii^T)?,'i° i-i'y
peutae divested th;m;ely;sVf\h\i;^;e,I*^^^
fore withdrawing into the wilderness^ The Greek
tended"" ''"^^"*' *''"* *•"' ««» probably Tj^
tended as an imitation of the practice of the fiirt
lam the price at the Apostles' feet. The snirit
waTL ?a/^ ^^^?'' '? "•* **^ cf-ntury, who
wa. so far a devotee of poverty that he lent
■• xiriLtTh'eTr 'T''' (^^'"'- ""^^^^
1- XI.) i5ut the life of poverty, say. the GreeV
historian ju.t now quoted, wai'cai^fed to " he
summit of exactne,. and perfection " by Antony
«h century a/e 3rdt" ^'Ct^r^^'tf
So^omen-s JCclesiastical Bistort
St rUnr.-"l'T'x^ "'"^'"y ^^ ««=h the time of
hL . "* "' ^""'*- 'be founder of the cele-
brhted monn.tic rule that bear. hi. name Th^
formal yow of poverty was one of the three vowt
I that were exacted of all po.tul.nt. for the oXr!
mm
tfl
!i
; Ir
1682 POVERTY, VOWS OP
the other two vowi being those of chastity and
obodieucc.
It is important to notice that wo can find no
trace of the foi-mal vow of poverty earlier • than
the Ik'nedictiui! rule. It appears from the
Novellao of Justinian that in his times the profes-
oion of relis;ious life was not accompanied by
any particular solemnity. Even in the monas-
teries of earlier days, sucli as St. Antony's for
example, there was no formula of profession.
It is obvious, however, that poverty is an essen-
tial fi!iiturc of the monastic life. And this per-
haps may be some explanation of a fact which
might otherwise occasion some surprise — that in
the fonnula of profession St. Henedict makes no
exjiress mention of the poverty. The novice is
indeed asked three questions, which no doubt,
are meant severally to correspond with the
poverty, the chastity, and the obeilience; but
the stern demand of absolute poverty is at least
very mildly phrased ; it is in fact simply the
question that is put throughout Christendom to
every candidate for baptism, " Vultis abrenuntiare
saeculo huic, et pompis ejus ? " (Martene de
ifonach. Sit. v. 4, vol. iv. p. 22,-(, fol. 1764).
The rule, however (cap. 33), describes the con-
dition with great minuteness of detail — no pro-
perty, not even book, nor paper, nor pen, nothing
at all, was the professed to have.
Precautions were always taken against incon-
siderate entrance into the monastic life. And it
was the concern of princes as well as of pastors
to secure the existence of proper safeguards
against hasty renunciation of all title to posses-
sion. We are not therefore surprised to find
that simultaneously with the very rise of formal
profession the emperor Justinian regulates ad-
mission by a decree (Nov. 5). Laymen were to
make a novitiate of three years. [NoviCK.]
We find St. Gregory distinctly enjoining po-
verty on Augustine of Canterbury : " But be-
cause you, my brother, having been instructed
in the rules of the monastery, ought not to
live apart from your clergy in the church of
the Ens;lish, which by the aid of God was but
lately brought to the faith, you ought to insti-
tute that conversation which was our fathers' in
the beginning of the early church ; among whom
none of them said that anything was his own
of those things which they possessed, but all
things were common to them " (Bede's Eccl.
Hist. i. 27 ; Gidley's transl. p. 65).
Amongst the examples of the life of poverty
we may cite some famous names, St. Anthony,
whose life was written by St. Athanasius, has
perhaps the right to stand first. St. Olympia had
the distinction of being ur ' 'r the guidance of
St. Chrysostom (see Sozomt Hist. Eccl. riii. 9),
There are the pupils and friends of St. Jerome —
Fabiola, Paula, Eustochium, and others. A little
later we have ..)ohn the patriarch of Alexandria
(a.d. 616), surnamed Eleemosynarius. Other ex-
amples collected by Zoeckler(A'n<iscA« Gescliichta
der Askosc, 1863) are more or less grotesque:
Bisarion the abbot, who covered a corpse with his
cloak, gave his coat to a beggar and went stark
naked himself; Eleeraon, who sold every one of
• The so-called rale of Caesarlus of Aries, who Is
■lightly earlier than St. BeneOlct, is ascribed by Cave to
Tetrailius, whom he makes exactly conteniporury with
StfieDedlct {HM. Lit. 1. p. 513).
PRAEP0SITU8
Ml book), and himself performed the office of i
midwife to a poor woman in the vi stibiili! of a
church ; Macariu.s, who was so indilli'riMit to
worldly possessions that he helped the thief tfl
complete the plunder of ' ■« dwelling; I'anibo,
who at once distributed a .ongst the poor ths
three hundred pounds of silver with which alaily
presented him ; and Agatho, who so (iiondej
possession that he would not even rcciivethe
solit.iry piece of gold that was ollered him I'nr
distribution to the poor, [H. T. A.]
PRAEBENDA. A word prob.nbly derived
from the daily rations issued to soWien
(Thomassin, Vol. et Xov. Keel. Piicip. iji. 2^
c. 1 § 1), and signifying the portions of tiiwL
raiment, or money, allowed to a monk or cleric.
Gregory the Great, writing to Paschasiiis, bishop
of Naples (Ep ii'. 9), .speaks of a hun Irud solldi
which were to be paid to the clergy. These
allowances were distinct from the hcnelice
[Propkbtv of the Chuuch]. A Caiiitnlarvof
Charles the Great (^Addit. iii. c. 111!) provides
that canons who have benefices should not claim
a share in the allowances allotted to their poorer
brethren, "stipendia fratrum unde imuperiorei
vitam sustment nequaquam assuniant." Those
who olTended against this st.itute were to he
deprived of both prebend and benefice, " utvisqne
careant et beneficio et praebenda," and to
forfeit any ecclesiastical preferment thev might
happen to hold. The same monarch (.Sirmondi,
Cone. Oall. ill. p. 637) complains that certain of
the clergy neglected their parishes in order t«
hold a prebend in the monastery of Monte F.ilco,
The development of the prebendal system be-
longs to a period beyond our present limits.
[P. 0.1
PRAECENTOR, [Precentor.]
PRAECO, As it was the duty of the descou
at certain points of the liturgy to proclaim t«
the people the subjects to be priiyed for, and
generally to direct them by his voice in the per-
formance of their acts of worship, he sometimei
received the name of x^pvf, or praeco, the herald
orproclaiui"r[Di M'ON,p,529f,] Synesius (Apiji,
67, p, 209, Migue) calls the deacons l(poi<i}pm(i;
and the word KripirTtiv is used of the deacon's pro-
clamations, as " (CTtpuTT^Tft), (U^ Tis TaJi/ airiirTBi' "
(Constt. Apost. viii. 5). [Prosphonesis.] (Bing-
ham's Anti-i. II. Jtx. 10.) [P. 0.]
PRAEFATIO, [Preface,]
PRAEFICAE. [MouKNiNQ.]
PRAEJECTUS, bishop and martyr «t
Auvergne with Amarinus ; commemorated Jan,
25 (Usuard. Mart. ; Bed, Mart., Projkotus;
Boll. Acta SS. Jan. ii, 628). [C. H.]
PRAEPEDIGNA, martyr with her husband
Claudius and Maximus at Ostia under Diocletian;
commemorated Feb, 18 (Usuard, Mart. ; I'd.
ii!om. Mart, at Rome ; Mart. Rom.). [C. H.]
PRAEP08ITU8 (Eng. Provost, Fr. Pretit,
Germ. Prcbst}. The word pr'-qwyit-i!: )• sppHed
(1) like the kindred Greek words, itpoiiniis,
wpoiardtitvos, wpoffrks, and irp6(ipos, both to
bishops and to presbyters [Bishop, p. 209];
(2) to the person who presides over a bodyol
canoDs [Canonici] ; (3) to the second Id coH'
PRAESANCTI
PRAE8IDIU8.
PRAE8AN0TIFIED
in«n.I under the abbat in « monastery, the prior
damtrahs, n„,l t„ the head of a fub„r,lhiX
hou.c or pr>„ry [Pr,ok]. It i, also appli, (4)
tothut .number of a chapter who takeL chnrge
of the admiuistration of the' capitular estate,
(5) to the bailiff or steward who mlnnK " an
estate, and H) to the Advocatus to" f^ a"
(Dueanges GlXMSAElf, ,.r.) Comjmre l-Rwo*^;
PRAESANCTIFIED. IPnysAmuFi^o:]
PRAYER
1688
PEAESIDIUS. [PBr:8iDius.]
PRAETEXTATU8, martyr with Pontianu,
Rome under Maximmus , commemorated Dec.
11 (Usuard. Mart. ; Vet. Ii,„,. Mart. ; Mart.
Rm.). |.(,_ jj .J
PBAGMATIU8, bishop of Autun ; comme-
L^. H.J
I Po'!?^?^?;^''"^''* ' commemorated at Rome
July 21 (Bed. Mart. ; U.uard. Mart. ; Vet. Zn
Mart.iJ/^eron. Mart, j A'ul. Antiquisl Patr Ut
If)- One y the earliest churches of Rome
wu dedicated to her (Ciamp. Vet. Man. ii. U3
2); her figure adorned church doors and was
represented with a lampas ardens. (/6. i. 27. 2 )
PRAYER. It is unnecessary to say that the
.mportanee of prayer as a means of^spir tual
growth <s everywhere insisted on by Cl.r, ,"an
tiat G.Ki will have us worship Him in sec-et
as well as in the assembly of the h.».K, '
Wge. too (De Orat. c. 3l),"insts at'Th"
utward accompaniments of prayer are not in
.fcnt, ibr the gestures are'e^res.iv as weH
nJ' ■ !■ '• ^^^' •"* describes how the
Chmt,an m h,s prayer closes, so far as may be
the avenues of sense, and abstracts himself Lm
rMVLR. o„ forms of prayer, see LiTCBaiCAL
prayer. Whence as's^mb e Sultf;"":;::
Mac6«n,l„„i* jj ^ .' '• ^"^ Teacher of
I dn ^"'"'"?"'"='""^'»«^e individual.
[ w common, prayer. I am not to prar to "m
Ara „c canons which bear lul nam ^f H i.K^f,!
A',^f' r 'P"^" ^^'"' «J- Lagarde, p a.j -
evening, and at cock-crow Anrl if if v •
s b e bv reason nf „„i • " "* impon-
and Felix Jnr ;.,.. iiiait)i8 baturnmus
386-7) ' '" K""iait, pp.
^f^S-ta-Sr^^was
the abominations :' tfe StC orTl m: tine
Godrti'r'f' '7^'"'" •>''«'- ~ tf
6l7§2). ^ of judgment? (^p„,i. Co„.«. n,
added ?hat the sp^ace':!:; s't to'?h 'istlr.'
or sitting' US Colt. T^tTs' TP'
tullian de Exhort. Cast, c 11) ^ WithM"'
were prob,.bly the ascetic . The slies tZ
if the seatJ wefe no't suifiLn forTf^"'
stand, children stood bTsidoM";;;"' "i:; *?
women not yet purified after chiidbinh took
their place among the catechumens. "^
107
t '( ;■'
I iM
1! .' f
1. ^'rS^f^^^^^l
liill
1
1084
PEAYEB
Men and Wnmen were ilesirml to ro to church I
in seemly dress, with »imi>le nnd unatlectcd mien, ]
pure in body and In heart, fit to pray to Oiid
(Clem. Alex. J'aedag. iii. U, p. 3U0, Potter).
The women coivcred their heads in churcli, Re-
cording to the aiKMtolio precept (1 Cor. xi. '>) i
the men bared their hendn.as bondsmen of Christ,
while in Judaism and heathendom alike men
praycil with coverwi head, as a sign of freedom.
[Hkad, CovkkiN(J ok.] Devotional quiet was
nmiutained during the service ; the deacon was to
prevent whispering, or sleeping, or laughlni;, "r
beckoning (Apuat. Coiutt. ii. 57, § 8). And tiiM
direction was not, it api'ears, superfluous} tor
Origen (In Exodl horn. 12, § 2) complains that
there were some who, while scripture was read,
withdiew into corners and amused themselves
With worldly convers«tion, even turning their
backs upon the reader. Strangers who brought
commendatory letters from another diocese were
conducted by the deacon to their proper place;
& foreign presbyter sat among the presbyteri, a
foreign deacon among tho deacons ; a bishop was
received with honour by the bishop of the place
{Ap. Constt. ii. 58).
The hours of prayer, afterwards Observed only
by the clergy, were originally intended to be ob-
»erve<l so far as practicable by the laity also. There
is nothing in the passage above quoted from the
Apostutioil ConHtitutions (viii. 3+) to limit the
observance of the hours to the clergy ; and even
at a later period efforts were made to induce the
laity to attend at the hours of prayer, as well as
at the Eucharistic service, at lea.st on festivals.
Thus a capitulare of the year 801 (quoted by
Van Espen de Horia Can. pt. i. c. iii. § 2) says :
" It was ordered not merely that clerics should
perform the oflnces at meet times, but also that
they should ring bells to rouse the people to
pray." And Theodulph of Orleans (fiapit. fd
I'resb. 23, 24) begs those who can "do no more „.
least to pray twice a day, morning and evening, in
the church, if a church is near, it not, wherever
they may chance to be when the time comes.
On the sabbath (Saturday) he enjoins all Chris-
■tians to come to church with lights [for the
service of the eve], to come to the vigils or matin
otlice and again with their oblations to the mass
[on Sundav]. See HOURS OF Pbayer; Lituk-
QicAL Books ; Litukoy ; Office, thk Uivink.
Puttirea of Prayer.— It waa the custom in
the earliest times of Christianity to pray stand-
ing, with the hands extended and slightly
raised towards heaven, and with the face
turned towards the east. Exceptions may no
doubt be cited even from the New Testament,
but that this was the most common attitude is
evident from the testimony of primitive monu-
ments. Frescoes, sarcophagi, sepulchral monu-
ments, ancient glass, mosaics in the easiest
basilicas, above all the Roman catacombs, exhibit
the faithful, more especially women, praying in
this attitude [Oranti]. Many of thes* female
figures are richlv dressed, and, as though weaned
with the length of their prayers, have the>r
arms supiKuted oh either side by meu, Vvhu t.>
judge from their dress were servants ; a pro-
bable allusion to the support which Moses
received from Aaron and Hur, and a possible
hint not of their weariness, but of their
-lengthened devotions. The presence of serving
PREAOtimO
men may, like the rich dress, also Indt'stt th*
|i»aition in life of the deceased, tlmuHh the riili
dr«»s may also have had a religioiw signifiisntt
[Pakadisk], Tertulllan (Apito'/et. xxx.) ..«|,1|.
citly declmoa this to have been the Christian Mti-
tud'e of piaviT — " illuo snsiiicientes (in cooliim)
Cliristiani inaulbns expansis quia iiinncuis, lapjtj
nudi)<|uianon«rubescimus" — though thisdi!scri|i.
tiou il(ies not exclude kneeling nor involve tiiru.
ing to the east, while it adds the bare hssd to
the prcvinus description.
Thi-Tu is abundant evidence from anolnnt ^rt
and ancient literature to shew th»t the raising the
hands toward heaven was »u ordinary nttltiije
of prayer among the Egyptians, Etruscans, nai
Uomans; but Tertulllan (Jt: Orat. xi.) attailma
liilTerciit motive to the Christian elivatiim of
the hands to any that could hav. untcreil into
tlie mind of a pagan. Contrasting the vatn
elevation with the expansion of the hanHi h«
says: "nos vero nnn attidlimus taiitum sed ex-
paudimus, e dominica pissione mudul^ntei."
The same desire to imitate the position of onr
Lord upon the cross is related in Kuinart {Avta
Martyr. Sine. p. 235) of Montanus, and in I'suard
(Martyrol. xii. Kai. Fcb.)o( Fructuosus, Auguriui,
and Eulogius. Pagan may readily be distinguished
from Christian orante on ancient monuments, th»
pagan figures raising the hands vertically with
the elbow forming a right anijle, the Christian
extending the arm* horizontally, exriressing,
according to Tertulllan {do Orat. xiii.) more
humility and self-control ; " ne ipsis quidem
manibus sublifnius elatis, sed temperate ac pmbe
elatis." In the early church the catechumens aa
well as the faithful prayed standing, but whereat
the latter raised the eyes to heaven, the former
bent them towards the earth, to indicate that
they had not yet acquired by bajitism the right
of sons to raise their eyes to the Father i>
heaven.
For the prevalence of the attitude of kneeling
in the early church, see Gknuflexion, (Mar-
ti gny. Diet, des Antiq. chr^. s. v. Priire, Atti-
tudes de.) [V.- C. H.]
FP VYER, THE LOED'S. [Lord'i
Praykr.]
PREACHING. Kltpvyna, praedicatio; }i-
ScuTHaKia, docirina, initructio, mstitntio. Sormons
were known as Aiiihiai, tractatus, homilies ; Xiyoi,
termones, sermons. Preachers were 8l8(iffKaAll^
trMtiitorea, doctors, or expositors. [Homily and
HOMILIARIUM.]
I. In the first place we find our Lord applying
to Himself the prophecy of Is. Ixi. 1, "He hath
aaointed me to preach the gospel to the poor"
(Luke iv. 18) ; and giving an exjiress commission
to preach to the Twelve (St. Lnke ix. 2), and it
would seem to the Seventy (St. Luke x. 9). To
the former it was repeated with great solemnity
immediately before the Ascension (St. Jl.irk m
15); and we find St. Paul (1 Cor. i. 17) claim-
ing with considerable emphasis this function
of preaching (Ou yiif MaTuXi fit Xpiirrhs ^»-
■ri(fiy, AAA' tvayyt\i(t<reai) as peculiarly bclong-
ir,- to him. Very naturally, ther^f' re, and for
an''obvious reason, the preaching of the Apoitlei
is described by the term, «uo77»A(f«ir««<; »m
fvayy4\ior (in the singular) means not only
the record of the life and teaching of Christ, bat
also the oommunication by preaching of th«
PBEACHINO
kiwwleijtt of the IiunrMntion. See St. Luke Hi
IN, iv. 18i Actt V. 42 ; «al. i. 11. Tlii. mu^e
,. Keiienilly amjiiwd to the prearhing of our
Liird and Hii «iMi«tleii, and it is gom-rally true
of tliom i but tlim- is apparent ly "ue exception
It least in Art» vlii. 4, even in the very tint
yerloil of the apreaii of the gospil.
II. At a somewhat Inter staifo of the primitive
church, when conKrej<ntion8 had b.H'n formed in
various places, we learn from the epistles of .St.
Paul that those to whom extraordinary spiritual
gifts had been committed, were in the hahit of
preaching andexpoimding in the public assemblies
of Christians. Sue 1 Cor. xiv. ;tl (wlipre, how-
»ver, it is to be noticed that the word tvayyt\l(u
ii not employed). Certain rules are laid down
there for these " preachings." Jt does not, how-
tver, appear under what further limits or restric-
tiimi this custom of general ministration was
permitted; and as these extraordinary endow-
meuHdied out in or shortly after the apostol/.-
«ge, this " ministry of gifu " was speedily re-
placed by one devolving on the natural deposi-
Uries, the clergy. Hilary's comment on the
Kpistles (in the works of St. Ambrose) states
this (leriiiltely, but it is not clear whether ujion
•uy kind of authority, or as a mere theory : Ut
creacerct plebs et "multiplicaretur, omnibus
inter initift concessum et evangeli^are et bai>ti-
ure, et Scripturas in ecclesiii explanare. At ubi
autein iminia loca circumplexa est ecclesia, con-
venlicula coiistituta sunt, et rectores et caetera
olfitin ill ecclesiis sunt ordinata, ut nullus de
cleroauderet,(iui ordinatusnon esset, praesumere
ctficium, quod sciret non sibi creditura vel con-
cessum " (Cmn. m Kpliea. iv.).
III. Women, however, were never permitted
in the church to assume the character of public
jireachers; neither in the n(x)stolic age, as we
learn from I Cor. xiv. ,S4, 35 ; 1 Tim. ii. 11, 12 ; nor
al'ferwards was this ever permitted in any case.
The fourth council of Carthage (can. 99) expressly
declares this: "Mulier quamvis docta et sam ta,
viros ill conventu docere nun praesumat." To the
fiinie eHect the AjxistuiiaU Cvnstitutions (lib. iii.
cap. 9). The allowing of women to preach was,"
however, a mark of many heretical sects. Thus
Tertullian ; " Ipsae mulieres haereticae quam pro-
races, quae aiideant docere " (De PrMscnpt. cap.
41). And the Montauists even made this a leading
principle of their sect, and its two prophetesses,
Prisciliaand Maximilla, were quite as prominent
in the teaching of their followers as Montanus
himself.
IV. Among the Catholics, however, preaching
was 111 the earliest age esiwcially the duty of
the bishop. Justin Martyr {Apol. i. c. 67)
describes the pre-iding brother (wpot^rcis) as
exhorting the assembly. St. Chrysostom, com-
menting on the phrase used by St. Paul
".* bishop must be apt to teach " (MaKTHcrf,-),'
refers to this as especially required of the
bishop (Horn X. in 1 Tim. iii.), and declares
m another place that " he who was without
he p<mer ol preaching ought to be far
(KSros .;,a<r^-aA,if,,>f). Similarly Cyril of
Alexandria speak-s of the episcopal office as
? 'T, »'5?5t«A"(>>' (/./'. ad Monach. in Cone.
^/>t».). The same phrase was used by the
*xtli general council in degrading Macarius,
Uop of Aiitioch, for heresy. It was under:
PREACHING
1685
stood that a hishop undertook to prweh as on*
"t the distinctive .liitiea of his office : and St.
Ambrose complains that he, although unlearned
in the,, ogy ami unprepared, *m,s obliged to
undertake ,t: "Cum jam e|)„^,.,.„ „„„ ,,.^„i„,„
otheiun. docendi, ,,,»„! n„l,i, refugientibiia im-
poeuit sacerdotii necessitud Jgn rartui
de tribu.mlibu. atque adniiniatrationis infulis ad
«i.cerdotimn, diuere vos coepi ,,,u«| i,„e „«„
dulid. Itaque factum est. i.t pHus docere in-
ci|«!rom, quam dis.ere. Diacendum est igitur
"','" ,""'"' .f /'<"■'"''>"". 'l->"iii.im non vn.nvl
ante discere (/v Oifir. iUni.t. i ). And St.
Chrysostom de^^elopes the same i.U-a at length,
and with great beauty, in the fourth bonk ot' hii
treatise I>e .^cercloliu. St. Angustiiio, when
.tl"."*"' lu '''"H"' *'"' ■"*"'"' »'' 'he auditor,
standing throughout the sermon, which he
the attention of the mind, so that theV
should rather ait, say,, " Ai.tistites sedentes
loqiiuntur ad jxipulum " (/>« Hud. Calech.
0. 19) Ihe passage is interesting on another
ground, since we lean, from it that in the pro-
vince of Alrica the custom was for the preacher
to sit and the people to stand : whilst in some
other churches both preachers and people used
to sit. '^ '
In the African churches it would seem, from
this and other passages, that the duty of preach-
ing was reserved wholly to the bishop ; and to
this fact we must r.fer the frequent use of such
phrases as me fravt.mte and traclante Epi,copo
in the Kpistles of St. Cyprian (Epp. 52, 56, 83).
It was for centuries altogether unknown in
these churches thi.t any but bishoi.s should
preach ; and Possidiiis, in his life of St. Au<m-
<m«, relates that when Valerius, the hishop of
the diocese, was induced by Augustine's remark-
able powers to allow him to preach frequently
before him, he introduced a taarked departure
from the customs of the province : ( Vit. Aug.
cap. f) ). But the examjde once given was
afterwards followed, and it became more usual
for presbyters to preach by Ii, nee from the
bishop, "postea bono praecedente exemplo,
accepta ab episcoi)i8 potestate, presbyteri non-
nulli coram episcopis populo tractare coepe-
runt verbum Dei" {ibid.). But in the Eastern
Churches presbyters were more generally
permitted to preach; for the same author
intimates that it was from their example
Valerius derived the idea, and disregarded
accordingly the outcry made against him.
M. .Jerome was so jealous of the rights of pres-
byters, that we need not be surprised to find
him stigmatizing the refusing to them the pri-
vilege to preach in the presence of bishops as
a very bad custom in certain churches."
Ihe ecclesListical historians have some scat-
tered notices up«m the subject. Socwtes
(lib. V. c. 22) asserts that at Alexandria pres-
byters were not permitted to preach ; and thnt
this restriction began from the time when (the
presbyter) Arius troubled the church bv his
novel speculations respecting the Inoarnatinn :
which has somewhat the air of a theorv in^
vented ex post facto to account for the custom.
But he records in another place (vii. 2) in his
notices of Atticus, bishop of Constantinople,
that the latter constantly preached while vet a
presbyter. And almost the entire career' is a
5 Q 2
\n
1686
PREACHlNa
iircaiher of St. John Ohrysontnm Is compriieJ
III lliB li-.teen ji'iira whi<'li iiiti-rvi'iied Iwtwfcn
hli nrillniitiim a< cIubooii niul hit cleviition to tli«
•liiicniml tlirono of Coii«ti\ntiiioiile. To tlii»
pcriml, miionjfst many othiT "f lii« works, mu»t
iMi r.fi>rre<l the or»ti'm» on the nartyr llnliylm.
The lerinon thiit he prenchwl U^('<r\' thn hiiihnp
ami n ' ii'gf eoiinrt'niition on the oi raslon of hi*
onlirmtion b» [iii'tibytor ia still p%tiiiit-, rimI it
neciU only to mention the cdvlir Ued oration*
On the l^ictiufn, a* MWn^ likewise within the
time of hi« i)roal>yternto.
Similar instanipa from otiier churrhe* might
easily be acMii'ii'il; ami there is notl.ini< to shew
that they were in any re»)>e( t exception*. The
power ami the duty of preaching were primarily
in the bishop; but he migtit and usually did
autliorize presbyters who were uapalile of dis-
charging it to do so.
A case is recorded by Paulinus in his Ciirmen
dc VUii Fvlicis of this Felix being appointed by
guiutus, as the newly-elected bishop of Nola,
to preach there : " Krgo sub hoc coram Felice
antistite vixit I'resbytero, et crevit mcritis, qui
erescere sede noluit [he had refused to be him-
«eli' chosen bishop]. Ipse ilium tamiuam minor
omnia (juintus observabat, et os linguani Feliiris
haliebat. lllo gregera ollicio, FefU sermone
re-ebat."
V. The case was somewhat different with
regard to deacons. Tlie power of preaching was
not, in the earliest times, committed to them ;
and where the terms Kripv(TiTtty and K^ouy^o are
applied to them, and the deacon ij called Kipv^
(or I'jl.iKCo), it is to be understood of his calling
the congregation to prayer, giving notice of the
various stages of the service and such like. It
was noted as a thing unusual even among
the Arians that Leontius, the (Arian) bishop
of Antioch, permitted Aetiuc, a deacon, to
preach publicly in the church (Philostorg.
Illst. lib. iii. c. 17). Yet great numbers of
sermons and similar discourses arc extant from
the pen of tphrem Syrus of Kdessa (<1. A.D. 399),
who was never more than a deacon ; and we must
apparently conclude that these were preached,
and that we have here another exception to the
ordinary rule. The dm. in Eji/ies. already
quoted, asserts positively "nunc nc<iue diaconi
in populo praedicant." At a later period in the
West, the council of Vaison (a.d. 529) gave per-
mission in a canon to deacons to read "the
homilies of the holy fathers," when the priest
was prevented by sickness from preaching
(can. 2). And it is said of Caesarius of Aries in
his Life that when himself unable to preach
through sickness and age, he appointed not only
presbyters but also deacons to do so. But the
crmtext shews (cap. 28) that they were merely
to read discourses or homilies " Ambrosii, Augus-
tini, seu parvitatis meae vel quorumcunque Doc-
torum Catholicorum."
It may, however, safely be said that deacons
were as a rule confined to reading, and were not
Buft'ered to preach ; and that this rule was not
broken through except in rare and unfrequent
instances.
VI. It would seem that monks or other lay-
men were sometimes permitted to preach. Euse-
bius (Hist. lib. vi. c. 19) relates the well-known
case of Origen, who, while a layman, was re^
quested by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, to | ing as a duty of the clergy :
niEACUINO
preach before hini ; and Alexander defended ihli,
when challengeil, a* a well-known practice when
a layman was well qualified to preai h. In 4 linij
so, he quotes tlie instances, otherwise unknown 'o
us, of Knelpis at l.arandae, hidden to pn^ac li by tin
bishop Neon; of i'aiilinusat Iconinm, andol TIum-
dorus at SyiMiala. This Creeilom does not iipjiear,
however, to liavo existed In the West. \Vi. tiivl
pope Leo, in an epistle to Maximus, b'shop o(
Antioch, telling liiin tliat monks or otiier isvinm,
however learned, should not be allowed to mum
the right of teaching or preaching, but ipnly tlie
priests of the Lord (A'/'. tJO or 02). Hut tins
very <aution would seem to shew the exist.n,',
of such a practice ; and doubtless monks iit all
eVi-nts, who were cajiable of preaching mil (■».
pounding Scripture, would luibltually (In so in
their own conniiunities. With respect to ihii
practice, nevertheless, .St. Jerome writes ; " Mmia.
chus non docentis, seil pl8ni;cnlls, habetoilicium"
(A/). 5.5 ad RijMr.), and i the epistle to Helio-
dorus, "Alia moiuichoruti est causa, ulia deri-
coruni : (lerici pascunt oves, ego pascnr."
Vll. It was not at all uncommon in lar?e
churdies having many clergy, or at times wlun
bishops were assembled, to have several seniinni
preacheil one after another, in tlie same asscMihly ;
the bishop, if tin re were one present, or tin
person of greatest dignity, coming last. We Hiil
in the so-called Apostolical Constitutv.m tlis
following rule, which no douht represents the
practice of the iicriod when it was written:
" When the gospel ia read, let the presliyters one
by one, but not all, speak the word of exhorta-
tion to the people, and last of all the bishop, whoij
the governor or pilot of the ship" (lib. ii. c. .'i7).
And it Is clear from various allusions in the dis.
courses of St. John Chrysostom, preached hyhira
at Antioch while still a presbyter, that the
bishop was to preach after him, as when he says;
" It is now time for me to keep silence, that our
master may have time to speak " (//«m. 2, Ji!
IVc/ji.s Enai. torn. iii). .St. Jerome, writing '.o
Pammachius, mentions an instance when tjo
bishops, Epiphanius and John, bishop of Jcrufa-
lem, had preached one after the other in the
church at Jerusalem (A>. CI; cap. 4).
There are many decrees of ancient <(niiioil!
enforcing the duty of frequent preachini;, and
directing when and how often sermons slioulJ be
preached. The eli-venth council at Toleilo reoom-
menderl to bishops diligently to fit themselves hy
reading and study for the discharge of this duty ;
" ut qui ofliclum praedicationis susiepiinus,
nullis curia a divinft lectione prlvemur. Isiilore,
bishop of Seville (d. 636 A.D.), in his work on
" Ecclesiastical Offi' es," lays down that to s
bishop the knowledge of Scripture is necessary
because he has to labour In preaching. The
Trullan synod enjoined upon bishops "to
preach in their churches every day, or at
least on Sundays, teaching all the clergy snd
people with pio'us and ortliodox discourse, tol-
iectlng out of the divine Scriptures knowledge
and right judgments. And if controversy should
arise about the Scripture, they should interpret
It no otherwise than as the lights and doctors of
the church have expounded it in their writing'
(can. 19). A letter from St. Boniface, archbishop
of Mentz (d. 754 A.D.), not long after explainl
sufficiently his idea of the importance of preach-
- ■ • " Lullum constitueri
PREACIIINO
hcintii Priwilifiiturem et ilMitcri-m VtethyUt-
oriiiM A I'npiil.in.ni, S,,„„ ,,,|,„| i„ i|l„ h«l,,.unt
Fre»l.ytiTi M.t){i,triin,. ..t Moim.lii r.^iilarem
acutorfiii, et popiili Cliristiiini (i,l..|ern l"ni«di.
c»t(.rera «t l'ii»t..r..ni." .Still m«r.. i.ni|>|.atie U
the ..oinil canmi (,f the ,i.,th coiiiicil ,,f Ariel
(A.i'. -tit): l«t |.ric.,tii l.Mirii tli« h.,lv S.-ii|,ture.
»ml II... .nnoiiB, aii.l IH their wh«li. husin,,,,
conant III preachinjf nii.l t.'ii<:hiiiK, miil ht tlirin
buiM 111. iithi'rs M well in the kinm lu.lij.. „{ I'uith
ai in the pra.tice .,f ^o,,,! w.,rk»." A council «f
Wontj m the same year exhorts " binhops not to
fail to preach in perton or by a deputy, on Hun-
(lavK and feativaU " (can. 25). The aeiond at
Rheinm repeata this order with the additional ',
direction, that the bishop's sermon shall be in
the vernantlar tongue, in order that be may I
be lllld.•r^tood (can. 14, l,^). And tlin thjnl of
Toiirit III a very similar canon giwn so !ar as to re-
quire that be shall be careful to translate his
diicoiiise "in rusticum liomaiiain linKimm aut
Theotisnim" for the same reason (can. 1(1)
At in other parts of the duty of the clei^jy, so
with this, the emjierors th"ii|^ht it their duty
from time to time to sujiplement and support
rnlesiastical regulations bv the enactments of
their own secular law. The title of one of the
laws in the Theodosian code issued by the three
emperors, Oratian, Valeutinian, and Theodosius,
i> (fe miinere seu oj/icio einsmpm-nm in fircwdicmd,
rerbu Dei. The same law was inserted into the
f*le of Justinian (lib. ix. tit. 20, de Criimrw
S<Krihj,i, Lei;. 1). It would be long to quote
other provisions to the same effect, and we close
this list with the remark that this subject was
naturally not overlooked in the niultifarions
legislation of Charlema({ne, and of his succes-
lors. These capitularies contain many piovi-
lioni very similar to those already quoted.
A collection of "tractatns ntque sermoiies et
omelias diversorum Catholicorum patrum," for
the various Sundays of the ecclesiastical year is
«till extant, which was compiled by Paulus
DiatoLus at the command of that Bovercien
[HoMiLV, p. 782.] '
VIII. As to the days when it was nsual that
sernums should be preached, the Lord's day or
Sunday wa», the iirincipal occasion for this, and
It 18 th'<jght that it was at first the only ap-
Jiointc.. day. For .Justin Martyr (Apol. c. 87)
seems to exclude any other days by the description
he gives of the Christian worship " On the day
which is called Sunday." The report of Pliny
to the emperor Trajan speaks of the Christians
being accustomed to meet on a stated day
"state die ante lucem convenire " (lib. x. • Ep.
97. This would be about A.D. 105). We'may
perhaps then conclude that the celebration of
the Eucharist and with it the preaching of
the sermon were invariably held on Sundays :
not that they were never held at other times.
And, in fact, we learn from Tertullian not many
yeara later, that Wednesday and Friday, the
"stationary days" or days of sj.ecial meeting,
were observed in a similar manner with celebra-
tion of the Holy Commumion, aii.l no doubt
therefore with sermon, which, as we have seen.
7n' ^ "^"''" P*''' "' ^'"^ Eucharistic service
{Be Or„t. cap. U). [Stations.] The vat.Mtia
or anniversaries of the martyrs were also times
of abundant preaching. St. Chrysostom, in his
Homily on the martyrs (^Jlom. 65) remarks upon
rnEAoiiixa
1687
this and mentions that the whole city went
lorth to celebrate their ineiiiorv at their tombs.
Likewise the great i'..,tivals' and lasts .f th«
UiriHtian year were natuially the occasion lor
th< deliverv of sermons. In Lent it wa* -us.
toumry to have sermons ev. ry day. The homi.
lies ol St. Chrysostiim upon the book of (leiiesii
compose a I.ei.ten course ol this kind ; ami the
honiilie, "On the Statue." were similarly
preached upon every day in Lent. I'an.philii.
i«y. ol Origen that be was accustomed to ad-
dress the people almost every day (AihJ. ,,ro
Oru/. toin. i.). The Ar<»tul„Ml Cm^tituti.m:, also
have an order .lirecting public prayers and
preaching to be held on everv Saturday also,
ex.u.pting that preceding Kaster dav or en the
Lord. .',y ,;.'. ii. 0, .m,j. [SAmiATii.] It
wouh. .eem t) ;' it was the practi.e in the
Kgy; lan m..ii«.ster, ,. where there were coni-tant
serv; cs .v.rv day, ,' .r a aermoii to be j.reaclied
•iail; m. 1 this «■(.• usually in the atternoon,
po.i bo yu notia.r •' according to St. Jerome
(A/i. 22, ,■■-.-'„ ,. .ap. i5)_
It was i -iivjj a general custimi to have even-
ing preacl..!ig a. well as morning upon occasion,
of particular devotion [c(un|iiu, ViullA hi
several of Chrysostom's discourses he plainly
alludes to their being preached in the afternoon :
0. g. n<m. 10, ml l'.,,,„l. Antw./,. St. Augus-
tine makes it clear that he preaihed sometimes
m the niternoon as well as in the morning, bv
expression, which he uses : c.„. in his se,„i,d
sermon on Psalm Ixxxviii., where he savs, "Ad
reli(|ua l's,ilini,de quo in matutino locuti sumui,
aniiniim intendite et piuiii debitiim exigite."
And fiaiidentius, bishop of lirescia (d. A.Ii 427)
refers in bis Trartatus to his having preached
twice on the vig.l of Easter (Tm,!.*). Some
ot the discourses of St. liasil on the Jfc-xaemenm,
or SIX days of creation, were likewise preached
in the evening (/fwn. 2, 7, 9). it is, perliai,.,
need leas to multij.ly in,!tanceB of a practice
widely spread in all the churches, and naturallv
to be expected. '
, „4 "•emarkable statement is made by Sozomen
(//«•«. lib. vii. c. 19), that at Rome nciiher the
bishop nor any other were known to preach
publicly to the people up to his time (a.d. 440)
Ihis .luclaratioii is repeated by Cassiodorus in ins
Ihntoria Irn^irtila, and without hinting that it
IS incorrect. Valesius, in his note on this pan-
sage, observes, in corroboration of Sozomen, that
no sermon, by any bishop of Rome are extant
bef.re those of Leo the Great. His pontificate
.' "fnced only in A.D. 440-.-. e. in the same
year in which Sozomen's Ilhtnni break, otf
Ihere is indeed an oration delivered bv pope
Liberiu. in St. Peter', church on the Feast of
the ^utlvlty, upon the occasion of a profession
of virginity by JIarcellina, sister of St. Ambrose,
and oth.r ladies. But he argues (1) ttiat this
oration was not properly an 4^.a(o, or sermon,
Dut an address and exhortation to Marcellina •
and (2) that it was an exception to ordinarv
rule, probably to do honour to a person of high
rank. Bingham's suggestion is that the homilies
of famous writers might U rpad in place of a
sermon. Perhaps, however, all that Sozomen'',
statement need be taken to mean is that it u-os
rujt the habit to preach constantly, as in other
churches; or that instead of formal sermons
there were merely familiar and unstudied
m
'i\
W
1 'i
I
m
I ij'lf.
1688
PREACHING
addreflsfis for which the title of Sermon wns not
anogiited ; and that the Roman church had pro-
duced no great preachers, such as Origen, Atha-
iiasius, or Chrysostom, in the East. And when
we remember how few of tlie clergy were in
the habit of preaching during the Middle Ages,
and in the centuries preceding the Reformation,
the statement is credible enough. Bingham's
argument, from the expressions of Justin
Martyr in his Apolwjy, does not seem to be of
much weight, since Justin was essentially Greek
by birth, long residence, culture, and experi-
ence ; ami it is by no means certain that in the
passage in question he is describing the services
of the h'onuin church.
IX. Sermons were commonly written, but
occasionally preached ex tein/jore. Origen was a
distinguished instance of the latter practice.
Eusebius {Hist. lib. vi. c. 3()) relates, however,
that it was not until he was sixty years of
age that he ventured to preach unwritten
sermons in the churches ; and these were taken
down by raxvypdipot, or sh^vthand writers. It
is related by Sozomen concerning St. Chry-
sostom upon his return from banishment, that
he was obliged by the j,eople to go into the
great church, and deliver to them an extem-
poral discourse, '• ko! irx«Sirff riva Stf^nXBe
\6yov" (Hist. lib. viii. 18). And in many of
his sermons still extant, we have allusions to
incidents taking place during the delivery of
them, sulKcient to prove that the prepared
sermon had been embroidered by the preacher's
ready eloquence with these spontaneous addi-
tions. The historian Socrates (//. K. vii. 2)
recites of Atticus, afterwards bishop of Con-
stantinople, that though, whilst he was in the
order of presbyters, he used to preach from
memory discourses which he had previously pre-
pared, yet afterwards, having acquired con-
fidence by industry and practice, he began a
couise of extempore (^{ avroirxcS^ov) and move
popular preaching. Rufflnus says in his His-
tory (lib. ii. cap. 9) of Gregory Nazianzen and
St. Basil, that there were noble monuments of
their ability extant in the sermons which they
spoke ex tempore in the churches ; but it is
doubtful whether he means anything more than
vieinoriter. This remark cannot, however, apply
to that pasEage in a letter of Sidonius ApolH-
naris (died A.D. 482) to Faustus, bishop of
Reggio, in which he refers to " praedicL .ones
tuas, nunc repentinas, nunc cum ratio poposcerit
eliwuhratas," where the distinction between the
two classes of sermons is clearly ex^ . issed. It
is evident that to preach in this unpremeditated
manner was a matter of frequent oc;;urrence
with St. Augustine. In one of his sermons on
the Psalms (Hum. Ps. Ixxxvi.) he intimates that
it had been prescribed to him by the bishop then
present in church. In his book De Doctrina
Christiana he gives such detailed directions for
the practice of sacred oratory as to make it
abundantly clear that he contemplated a habit
of preaching sinr ir to that common in modern
times, viz. the careful prejiaration beforehand
of a discourse, followed by oral and unassisted
delivrry of It. !n his tvcs* Pr Oytfrhi-cmiis
Bwlihus he gives two sermon^ of different lengths
as models .'. .• the inexiierienced prerioher. Vet,
however careful had been the preja.-ation, they
were wont to t'apend somewhat on the inspiration
PREACHING
of the moment, and in this they considered they
were depending upon the help of the Ho)y .Spirit
promised by our Lord in the Gospel (St. Matt. x.
19, 20. There is an exquisite prayer fur "a
humble wisdom which may build up, and a nidst
gentle and wise eloquence, which knows ni>t how
to be i)uUed up," preserved in the works i,f St,
Ambrose (Orat. apod Ferrar. de (June. \\\\ i
cap. 8), which he is said to have haliitually
used before preaching; but it does not apjiear
whether privately or not. But these quntiitiorij
might he increased to any number, for the liaUt
of commencing the sermon with a prayer was
a constant one among the later fathers.
Another preface to the sermon whick was
commonly used was known as the Pax, " Peace
be unto you," to which the congregation w mlj
reply, " And with thy spirit." This wa.s (allej
in Greek irpiapT]iri$, the address or salutatimi;
but St. Chrysostom speaks of it as the Pcate
'ktnMvTfs Tif iii6ini T^iv fip'fiii'nv (Hum. ill. ij,
Cotoss.).
It was not uncommon to use a short praver
before the sermon, but there does nut appear
to have been any prescribed form for this.
It was a matter of individual choice; and
from the various specimens of suih pravers
which are now extant, they would seem to be
very similar to those which are fieiitiently
embodied by modern preachers in the exordium
of the sermon. Thus in the commencement of
one of St. Augustine's homilies upon the Psalms,
we find " attcndite ad Psalmum ; det nM.H Domi-
WIS aperre thysurin t/uae hie cotitimtUur" (in
Psal. xci.). A similar but longer one occurs m
Psalm cxxxix. " Ad juvet [Doniinus] orationibus
vestris, ut ea dicam quae oportet me dicere et
vos audire (Comp. also De Cuierhiiandis Hudibm,
cap. 4 and Horn, in Psal. cxlvii.). St. Chry-
sostom also says, "First prayers and then the
word, \lp6rtpov eiixh xal r&re \6yos, Hum. xxviii.;
but is here probably referring to the general
prayers, perhai)S of the Ante-Communion office,
which, at all events, usually and preferably pre-
ceded the sermon (Cunstit. lib. viii. caj). 5).
X. The text was always taken out of some
part of the Scriptures ; but it ajipears fi-ura
some homilies of St. Chrysostom that jire.ichers
would sometimes dispense altogether with a te.u.
The subjects, however, were always of a serious
ani religious nature. St. Gregory Naziin.^cn, in
his first Orat. Apol. de Fuyd, gives a list of these,
which includes the chief doctrines of the
Christian faith ; and St. Chrysostom gives a not
dissimilar one (Horn. 24, de Dapt. Christ, torn. i.).
XI. From the facts here presented it will be
tolerably evident what was the method of preach-
ing generally adopted in the earliest ages of the
church. There was little scope for the rhetorical
arts of the orator in the earliest Christian assem-
blies; and probably Thomassin is very right
when he concludes : "et Apostolos, et Episcopos,
et Presbyteros qui prioribus his saeculis conciona-
bantur, sermones etludisse extemporanecs, inor-
natos, ex abundantiS cordis, et plenitudiue
intima charitatis " ( Vet. et Xuva Ik-serip. Eceks.
part ii. book iii. c. 83). At a later period, when
a great burden of doctrinal teaching and j.criomi
cal discussion was thrown upon a far more cul-
tured and leisurely class of clergy, the typical
discourses of the age became much more elaborate
and literary in their character, even while, no
PREACHING
doubt, the great hulk of the popular preachinir
remamed comparutively unchange.l. Of thi!
period Orige... Tertullian, Athanasius, al.d
)er«,ne, may be taken as representative^. JJy
te end of the 4th century, however, the rhetoric
of the schools has completely made its wav into
the pulj.it ; and in the brilliant group of Christian
orators who ( ourished at that period, St. John
Chrpostoni, tl.e two Gregories, of Aa^ian.us and
of Nyssa, and 6t. Jiasil, we have the tvpical ex-
amples ol a greatly altered style of Christian
preaching About this time it became usual to
preach sitting in the «,«Ao instead of in tlie more i
distant c.,t/u:<ln,, in order to be better heard.
The custom of aj.plauding the preacher by clap- '
pmgy.e hands and stamping the feet («p<JTos)
.itended Itself by degrees into the church, and
,hewe< the great change which ha<l p.^sed over
the habits 0. Christians. St. Chrysostoin is said to
have inveighed against this objectionable custom
in an elociuent sermon, »-/„c/i «,,« /oml/,/ applauded
Rhetonc, m fact, sjieedily passed into mere un-
real and lactitmus artifice in that luxurious age
.nd the sermon seems to have in some places
sunk to be little higher than an intelle, tual ex-
crete. Accordingly, in Constantinople and other
great cities, popnia, preachers were loade.J with
rewards, with fame, and it would seem with
recompense of a more substantial kind. The his-
toriau Socrates (//«Y. lib. vi. cap. 1 1) tells a story
of a certain bishop from Ptolemais, Antiochus by
name, who was very famous for his eloquence, and
having come to Constantinople and preached in a
great many churches there, obtained by so doinc a
large sum of money, and then returned home. Pos-
..bly this prevalent ,ec„larify of tone into which
the practice of preaching had fallen, may not be
unconnected wth the disuse of it in the Roman
u ch and It would seem throughout great part
of Western knrope, whereat this time a much
greater simplicity of manners and even ignorance
(d. A D. 449), was renowned for his p^eachine
which seems to have been in some respects a
return to a higher and purer type of pastoral
duress It IS, nevertheless, too'rfiuch like th
mHated compliment of the previous century
when we are told by a contenfporary : "SiAu-
gustiims post Uilarium fuisset: judicaretur in-
ferior. The writer of his life gives the following
account o his preaching :_" Temporalis vero
JUS praed.catio, quantum flumen ' eloquent ae
habuent, quas sententiarum gemmas sc, IpserU
aurum supernorum sensuum .'epererit, argent^'
splenJeiitis eloquii abundaverit, des^.riplilZ
varias p.cturas et rhetoricos colm-es ex eserT
"rum spiritalis gladii acumen in trunc3
haeretioorum venei.atis erroribus exercuerit non
ton, icere, sed ne cogitare me posse p Stor •
d iibus praeparatis in ejunio ab hori diei sen
usque in ejus decimam epulis plebem spiri-
hlms sagmabat, pascendo esurire cogebat, esm-
s ne,,ua,,iam pascere desistebat. li per torum
olnX: '.''■",'' '^' '"'"""'"' --"^ticorum
coriiamitiiebat, at ubi instructos super venisse
»..h,set,seri„,,ne, vultu pariter in quadam gS
.':•""; I":'':'Wii doctores temporis, qui suis
criptis merit, summi claruere, S Iviu Euseb u
W' ^t'f '""-~i in hac'verr r:
„r '•. ''"'»'•"'«'". "ou elo(|Hantiam sed
»e.c,o quid super homines consecutum." '
PRECAEIAB 1G89
XII. When we come to the 8th centnrv and
.e beginning of the 0th century, we musf'co^
elude, ,f we may judge from the few spec .^Z
t .at remain that there was but littir, C "^
and that what exUted shews a singular n? ur^'
be correct to say that tlicre was little oi no
i^y^r'tt' &':'f'''*^s '■T'"^"' ^-^-
!ac^enessi:Sl^4:^:1nnri,r
f «.mple, piety. On the^ othe , the ?e ,««;
of the age w-as utte.-ly uncritical, and a™ Xd
.nd,scr,mn,ately historical truth, and the , os
crudeand incredible legends. The y/."2;S
are extant under the name of Aelfric (v hetl er
written by him or not, they are aimare ly a
work o, that age) afford numerous a, Ijof
this characteristic. And on th, ther land
hey have many pas,sagesof considcr.Mes.ir Zl
m.sight aud remarkable earnestness and beauty?
Xm. Literature. F. B. Ferrarius, /FV^!;!,
anstt Conaoni^^s, lib. iii. (Medio 1. 1021 often
U-terum Cmcombus (Helmstadt, 16.31)- f
Leopold, Pas J^recU,tamt un VrchM:um
the t,r,t how Centuries (Cambridge, 1864)-
Paniel Geschichte der chistl. Bcredsamklt
(Leipzig, 1839 ff.) ; T^.schirner de^MF^
V«' Ora<«..'„. (Leipzig, 1817-1821); T 1. Ha"^
nack, GescUiohte und Theorie L F^dL
_Wange„, 1878). Collections of sermons of the
f. theis are found in Combefis, BiUiMeca ratrum
W,o„a<om (Paris, l««2),'pelt et Rheinwar
Bibliotheca Concumatoria (Berlin, 1829 {.). [C.]
PREBEND. [Praedenda.]
PRECARIAE PKECARITJM, an agree-
which rvf ".'• Z'^'"'"'.'- (l>"cange,' 67o„.): by
which a life interest in church property was
y^ii
edited, 1, in return for the convevance ot"nn
estate to the church in fee simple 2, at a
fixed quit-rent, m return for feudal seivick
til, . t" 'f '"'""" P''°I'"ty "I'Pears some-
times to have been given over with a bare reser-
ration of the ife interest. Thus AuguXe
{&erm> 356, Migne, Patrol, t. y. page 1572)
si-eaking of one Aurelius, bishop of Carthage
tells a story of a man who, not expectinl^to
hiive children, conveyed his whole propert? «
(retento sibi usuf,uctu i when children were
ttn" ,:/'"" t.'^'''''"''' """'''"-y '" '"» "1' ^- •-
tion, restored the property to him. In most
cases however, the arrangement evidently Zr
took largely of the nature of a bargain Th <i
he third council of Tours, a.d. 813 (C^Sl) „X
the comphunts made by certain heirs, whi a !
Icged that they had been unfairly disinherile, " be-
cause the property to which they had a ri^.l,tfu^
aim had been co„,^yed to the church und^-r the
title of "precanae," that no one ever conveyed
property to the church without receiving either
as much as he had given or twice or thrice L
much in the shape of life interest (usu ftuc-
1 •
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1690
PBECARUE
tuario), and that, if the donor made it a condi-
tion, his children or relations were allowed to
hold the property on the same terms that had
been agreed on with himself. It is added that
even relations who had no legal cliiim were habi-
tually permitted, as a matter of grace, to hold
the property which had been conveyed away
from tlicm (de qui illi jam erant per legem
exclusi) if they were willing to hold it as a fief
(in beueficium) from the church. This they
allege to be the invariable custom and method of
the church. It is probable, however, thrt com-
plaints continued to be made by heirs who con-
sidered themselves unjustly deprived of their
inheritance, and that such assertions were not
altogether without reason may be gathered from
the fict that the council of Meaux, A.D. 845
(c. 21), found it neces.sary to declare in the most
pos''-ive terras that no one should dare to accept
" precariae," except on condition that the
owner should retain a life interest in the pro-
perty, and receive an annuity of twice the
amount from the property of the church (si res
pro])rias et ecclesiasticas usufructuario tenere
voluerit). In case, however, the owner preferred
to convey the property at once (ad praesens
demiserit)he was to receive a life interest to the
amount of three times the value from church
property, but only for his own life.
II. The second class of "precariae" consisted
of landS held from the church by military
tenure, on condition of rendering certain feudal
services, and paying a certain fixed quit-rent.
The occasion of the foundation of these precariae
is found in the proceedings of the council of
Leptina, A.D. 743 (c. 2). where an edict is recited
of (Jarluman the Elder, providing that, on
account of the cruel wars then prevailing, and
the necessities of the state from the invasions of
surrounding nations, the church should allot
some estates for the assistance of the army, to be
held on lease and at an annual rent (precario et
censu), on condition that the tenants should pay
a rent of twelve denarii for every farm building
(casata) to the church to which the property
belonged. It was carefully provided that the
estate should revert to the church at the death
of the original holder, but if the necessity oC\he
case required, or the sovereign willed it, the lease
should be renewed or regranted. These leases
might also be revoked even before the death of
the holder, in case the church or monastery to
which they belonged was in actual need.
A capitulary of Char' the Great (A.D. 779,
c. 13) provides for the ii iiewal of " precariae "
already subsisting, and the granting of them in
cases where thoy did not exist. From the
wordin;; of the capitulary it i.ppears {hat there
were two classes of these leases, some dependent
directly on the church, and others in which the
sovereign was concerned, for it directs that a
distinction should be made (sit discretio) between
the precariae founded by the will of the sovereign
(de verho nostro factas) aud those granted by the
free will of the church from its own property.
Another edict (AiJdit. iv. § 32) further provides
that those who refuse to pay their quit-rent, their
tenths, and n*>neSi nr defer to seek i renewal of
their leases, shall forfeit their fiefs, which shall
return in alwolufe and perpetual possession to
the church to which they belong. See also
Capit. V. c. 198.
PRECENTOR
As might have been expected, the holders of
these leases were engaged in a continr.al liiurt
to assert hereditary rights over the e,-lates so
held, and indeed to claim them as their aliso.
lute property, on payment of the fixed (|uit-
rent. Such claims were absolutely negafiveii bv
imperial decrees. A capitulary of Charlies the
Great (Capit. vii. c. 104), after reciting tlio evils
that had fallen upon states in conseqiance u{
seizing the i)roperty of the church, ex|ivessU-
provides that no one shall hold church lands tx'.
cept as " precariae"; that, on the death ot' tiie
holder, they shall be delivered up to the dinnh
and that the bishops shall elect either to nccivt
them or to regrant them on the same conditinns.
It is emphatically added that the property shiill
be delivered to the bishops of the iiarti<:iilar
church to which it belonged, and dealt \,ith
them according to the law (canonice)
The mistrust of the bishops indicated in the
careful wording of the latter provision does not
seem to have been altogether unfounded. There
are traces, even in the slender notices of pre-
cariae which are found in the records of onmcils,
not only that the sovereign occasionally t'oiinj
them a convenient method of appr(i|iriatiii._', with
a colour of legality, the estates of the church
but that bishops sometimes used them, as leases
of church property have been used in latei- .lavj,
to further their individual interests. Thus the
council of Meaux, a.d. 845 (c. 22), apparentlr
referring to the precariae mentioned in fhecapi.
tulary of Charles the Great, above quofod, pro-
tests that the sovereign has no power to issue
precepts concerning precariae creatod by the
church (praecepta regalia super precariis eccle-
siasticis fieri), and also (c. 21) decrees that certain
" precariae " which had been granted bv ljisho]is
who were in illegal occupation of sees which were
really vacant, should be resumed, and granted,
if desirable, by proper ecclesiastical n- civil
authority (cum authoritate ccclosiastica vel
civili). The latter expression seeming to indicate
that the state had some power of granting "pre-
cariae " out of the estates of the church. Tlie
same council decrees (c. 22) that " jjrecariae,"
according to ancient rule and custom, should be
renewed every five years.
It was evident from these decrees that the
system c!" " precariae " was never altoijethor free
from unfairness and dishonesty, though there is
no express mention of the abuses which it fos-
tered in times later than our present limits.
That donors of property regarded the system
with at least suspicion may be inferred from the
fact that gifts were sometimes made subject to
the spe<;ial provision that they should not be
granted as precariae. Thus the second council
of Vermez, A.l). 853 (c. 2), revoked the conces-
sion as a "precariae" of a certain nionastery
belonging to the abbey of St. Dionysi\is, because
the donor of the property in question had made
it a condition that it never should be granted as
a fief or " precariae " (nee beneficiario nee pre-
cario jure distrahendum). [P. 0.]
PRECENTOR, the leader of the singers ir
the chanting of the psalms and the other
musical portions of the chun'h service, "qui
vocem praemittit in cantu " (Isidor. Orii/;;. lib.
vii. c. 11); "qui rantando voce et mnnu In-
citat, ut servuB qui boves stinuilo uiiiians duici
PRECENTOR
inimne, i. 17). Other names were iwoHoKtbt
(.prompter); ^a..a^«6,, mon.W, sw,gcstorVmlmi
find no distmct mention of this office before the
4th century. We then have abundant evidence
of the custom of dividing the psalms ..nd can Wes
between one leader, who recited the first ha f of
the verse, and the people who took it up and
»ng the latter half, " praeoinebant cantores
PRECES
1691
Apostol. note 34, p. 260).' At Caesar;;:";;
(i/nsf. .07 L''JJ, §3), the psalmody was some-
times ant>phonal; sometimes one began the
.tram and the rest resj.onded (ol XoLl ill-
T:\ V,'"" *y the same custom was
adopted at Alexandria from Athanasius's narra!
ti7eof his escape from the soldiers who were
sent to apprehend him When the church was
bcsetw.ththem,l,taryforce,hedirectedthedeacon
to commence the 137th Psalm, and the peoi.le
to resi-ond at the close of each rerse "For His
mercy endurcth for ever," and then quietly to
disperse (Athanas & Fug. § 34, p. 717). The
custom at Antioch was the samef as we learn
from Chrysostom, "He who chants, chants
.lone, and, though all utter the resp'onse tt
voice IS wafted as from one mouth " (dnUl
nsvi. m 1 Cor. ..v § 9). A similar direction s
giveu in the Apostolical Constitutions—" Let some
person sing the hymns of David, and let the
people join at the conclusion of the verses"
hi Mfoarixio. iiro^aWhu,) (lib. ii. c. 57)
Sidonius Apollmans is evidence of the same
custom lu the Gallican church in the 5th cen!
lib-7" i« iTr ^'*="""l"'«,*''>-^t Pt'onascus "
(iiD. 1 . ±,p. 11). These leaders of t!ie chant
..imed a distinct class called {>no0o^,7s (Socr.
.0 ; -.t)' f 'g^n^'ly belonging to the order of
" ectores" (Mart.ne<fe Ant. sk Discipl. c. iii
§89), of whom, in Justinian's time, there were
as many as twenty-sij attached to the church of
Const.™ inople (.Justin. Novell, iii. c. 1). Thev
were forbidden to wear an orarium (Can. Laodic
3; Labbo, i 1500) as being a too distinctly
lercal symbol, and, on the other hand, we e
pohibited from singing in a secular dres
(Canon 11, Bracar. II.; Labbe, v. 841). In
proce., of time, the name praecentor became
«tncted m the Western church to a nl
Person, or sometimes two persor.s-the GemZ
^'miM,. speaks of those "qui chorum utdZ^e
regont-d 74)-whohad the chief reg Zion
I the musical portion of the service, and con-
J"cte,I „ himself, ;«r baoulum, beating time
«. ha Wo,, and proclaimed from the "Me
t tie of the psalm (Cassiodor. Praef. in I'Tc 2)
The narrative of Beda makes us acquainted with
everal poisons bearing this titleof odice, such as
tees, the chanter, who-.'magiste; eccle
■Hioae canti^^nis juxta morem Romanum '•_
' »". John, the p.aegentor,^rcA,u.«i!u<or of
t e^icrBisfopt"::;.er?/ /sTt Y\%.«»
i^rtd^S;HH^-^^V^-^
daltv Lch":'' " ''T ""■ '^"' petitions, e?2
the restricted u.e <>f " preces " in o? % • *
at'i^ V: '^' r- ■' iu'mSeln^C
atis in orationibut vestri? m oJ. „■ i .
d^::tV^:^T''r^^^^^^-^
\'^pist. bj ad Januar.). Here nrpcp» — »»,»
^^t^\^Ti '" --"*- wFtr:'hie-h
spS of'tYi°-'' ''I- ^'- ^"S^"'-' "ft"
speaking of the several petitions of the Lord's
the hast (thence called " diaconica"), from which
they were derived. Thus, Germanus o7 Paris
556, speaks of the "Levites singing the precis
Frece). So Isidore of Seville, about 610- « M
oum {Epist. ad Lendefr. 8). But at Rnm. ..
we infer from the langiage^f Pseud -InnTce'n"
the htany wa.. already said by the priest before
the begmni.g of the 6th century: "De noS
II 'tu i^P^i ad Decent, c. 2.)
11. The preces were peculiarly the prayer of
the people, and even of their children m St
of tin t n' he", turt'Sn'^r " "f
There are two metrical litanies given for use on
I l""u^'n '" 'I' ^*^'"'^'»> ^aeramentary founS
/tn century. They are preceded bv the rubric
I. •il9). See ^ot,tia Eucharistica, p 304 ed 2
These "preces" contain seven '^^erses each
The same sacramentarv eives in « ZlJ e
general use, three collLtf he; " \^' JZ
frecem (282), one of which refers ver y di I„X
t.1 the litany which originally preceded it
Two similar prayers in the Gothico-Galiican
Missal retain the old headings, " CollectTmtt
(^ol). Both pray that the people mav b«
heard, thus implying that they had Ven
praying There are two similar prav.rs with
I the heading "Post Prec«ni " i. t™ ^^;,T ^
i Missal of the 7th century ^M. 324-5) 'iS
Ml 24.! i Mm. Gall. Vet. 359) we find for use
I on Laster eve sets of twelve or thirteen short
I .ntercessory prayers, each introduced by a requ^lj
rilM^^I
! 4
t- ^^^H
'it ^HH
1
J
i 1 ^^H
I X
tg^^H
i^^^H
'1
■
J.V
^|9^^H
,1692
PBEOESS
h;j
[Preface (II.)] frum the priest to the f r^nple
that they woiihl pray t\n some object, or class of
persous, as for those then and th keeping
Easter, those in exile and unable to Keep it ; for
the clergy; for devoted virgins; givers of alms, &c.
In a third we find only the requests — " bedes '
in the stricter sense— the prayer being left to
the siliMit devotion of the people, excejit that
the priest says a general " Collectio *' at the end
(Sioca/n. Uatlic. (the 15esan(,on) in Mus. /tul. i.
32U). In the last these bedes f dlow immediately
the metrical litany cited above. It is obvious
that the form of this otfice is derived from f.
litany as bidden piece-meal by the deacon
according to the prac ce of the Kast, and of the
churches of Gaul aud Spain. They were probably
also a sul)stitute for such a litany. That which
had been the common eucharistic litany was re-
tained on Kaster eve, after its disuse at other
times (iSacnini, Geliis. u. «, i, r>(i4 ; OrJ. Horn, i,
Mus. ital ii, '26, 33) ; but it had become little
more tl^ ..n the repetition of 'vyries, and the
recitals of a long string of saints' names (see
examples, Miss. Moz. Leslie, 187 ; Martene de
Ant. Keel. Hit. lib. i, c. i. 18, Ordd. 6, 21). At
this stage, I would suggest, the want of the
intercessions in the old litanies wa.s felt ; and
ihe churches in Gaul sought to ren'ore them in
another form by introducing the prefaces and
collects auu.'e described.
The Hispano-Gothic preces came between the
PROriiKCY and the epistle; and those for the
first five Sundays in Lent were retained in that
place to the last, and are still 8t used in the
liturgy as celebrated in the parish churches of
St. Justii aud St. Mark at Toledo (J/iss. Mozar.
Leslie, 94, 105, 117, 128, 139). The Ambrosian
Missal still retains two sets of preces for alter-
nate use on the second and three following
Sundays in Lent. They are said by the deacon
alter the introit. Traces of the euc)"». ic
preces are also found in the earlier Roman jB i-
mentary. The heading to Missae, " Orationes i<l \
Preces," is of frequent occurrence, though the
latter hnd disappeared (Lit, Horn. Vet. Murat. i.
349, Leon. ; 493, 504, &c., Gelas.). The later
•Gregorian corrects this by the omission of et
Preees. See the various codices : Mur. ii. 7, 10,
&c. ; Paniel. ibid. ii. 187, 196, &c. ; Menard, Ojyp.
S. Greg. ed. Ben. iii. 82, 36, &c. ; Rocca, 0pp. S.
Greg. ed. Autv. 1615, v. 68, 73, &c. Allusions
to the preces of the people, similar to those of
the Galilean collects cited above, are frequent in
the Roman. Tlius : " Kxaudi, Domine, suppli-
cum /.ireces" (Skier. Leon. ib. i. 517); "Suscipe,
Domine, pieces populi Tui " (Gelas. 572) ;
'"Preces populi Tui .... exaudi" (686), &c.
Nor were these expressions rejected by the
Gregorian reviser, as they were easily understood
of the whole office when the proper "preces
populi " hH<i fallen out. They occur, of course,
here in the collect for the day, which in the
Roman rite followed the litany. See examples,
Saer. Oren. Mur. ii. 19, 26, 27, .31, 34, &c.
Several of our own collects preserve this allusion
to the preces. The following are amoug the
more obvious examples : Coll. for .Septuagesima
(rninp. .Kirr, Grng. «. s, 2li), t»nth .Sunday sftpr
Trinity (.<?. Gr. 169), and twenty-third after
Trinity (ibUl 175).
III. The petitions dictated by the deacons for
(the catechumens and penitents before their dis-
PHEFACE
missal were also called "preces." Ocrmanoj
(«. s.) tells us, in the dialect of his day, that after
the lessons "deprecarent pro illos Uvitae
diceret sacerdos collecta ; post i)rece esirent
postei foris qui digui non eraut 'stare d'nn j„.
fercbatur oblatio." The Hispauo-Ciothic iincaj
for penitents in Lent are extant (i\liss. Hu^r
Leslie, 99-147).
IV. At Rome the canon in the liturgy was
sometimes called Prex. Thus Vigilin^ .VJtj
after speaking of the geii,i.'al " Ordo pivcmn in
solemnitate missarum," says to a corivsiwndent
Profuturus of Braga, " Ipsius canouiiiiu /nrij
textum direximus subter adjectum, (juim Deo
propitio ex Apostolica traditione susccpimus"
(i\ova Collect. Cone. 1470, Par. lOS.i, §5; in
Labb. and Hard. " ad Kutherium "). Grpi;,,ry j,
in 598 : "Orationem vero Dominicani idciiDnijost
precem dicimus, quia mos Apostoluni fnit ut
ad ipsam solummodo orationem oblatiunem
hostiae consecrarent " (Epist. ad .Imn. Hi/nu:. vij.
64). He had been blamed, "quia orationem
Dominicam mox post cdnonem dici statuistis"
('■''«'•) [W. E. S.]
Pi Ta^'ACB (I.). A form in every liturgy
serving as an introduction to the anajihora or
missa fidclium.
The Jlenediction. — In most offices the jiieface
began, after the first liturgic period, with aWue-
diction by the priest, derived from 2 (.'nr. .xiii,
14, to which the people responded, or with the
ordinary mutual salutation of the priest and
people. This part of the preface caiinut tl,iim
an apostolic origin, for it is not muntidni'ii by
CjTil of Jerusalem in hij close account »f the
liturgy of his church, A.D. 350 (Catec'i. .l/vj(. r.
2, 3), nor in the West do we find it in the (JcLisian
sacramentary (Murat. Lit. Hum. \'ct. i. iJO.J),
nor attached to the canon as borrowed fioni
Rome by the Franks in the 8ih cent'iry (/-i(.
Gall. Miibili. 326), nor have 1 met «ith iiny
■eason for supposing that it had a place in nny
purely Gallican liturgy. Yet the beneilietion ii
very ancient in the East. St. Chrysostom, M,
alludes to it ; the priest "does not tmich the
offering without first praying that the grare
from the Lord may be on you " (Horn. i. in Pen-
tec. 4). Theodoret, a.d. 423, thought it imi-
versal, for he calls it " the commencement of the
mystical liturgy in all the churches " (/,);is(.
146, ad ,foan. Oecon.). la the liturgy of St.
James, used at Jerusalem, it appears in this
form: "The love of the Lord an.l Father, the
grace of the Son and God, and the tullowshii)
and gift of the Holy Ghost be with yon .ill
(Codex Liturg. Asscm. v. 32). Similar c.vpan-
sioni, or variations of the apo.stolic bcneilittloD
are found ir all the Syrian liturgies (licn.iuilot,
Collect. Lit. Orient, ii. 21, 30, 12!i, 134, &i.), in
the Egyptian rites of St. Gregory, ('optic m\
Greek (ihid. i. 27, 98), in the Arineniiin (Xcale,
f/ist. Eust. Ch. lntr>- '3li), and the Clfiiientiue
(Constit, Apost.yiit. \ ■ I'heNestorlan liturgiiis
which in th-'ir <■ ' i nt jiarts represi'Dt
those of Constantini ' .u psuostiabut'orethe
schi.sm, are more fai 1,(1 .. • .le te.\t of Scripture,
hwX thi'y read " us " ior "yuu" at the eivl, ris'
add " Now and for ever, world without cnJ"
(Ren. «. s. ii. 589,617, 626; Mism Malakr.
Raulin, 312). St. Ka^il and St. Ohryso.^tora
diti'er from St. Paul only by giving in the
^ - , " , .
1615 ; Murat ii. 1
PUKFACE
SPcnn,l clause " thp l„v.. „f the G,„l „„,1 K,ther»
{hi.Mojtun, G„ar, 105, To) a f,.w I.- T
li.u.-,ie.s .}., no, u.e this UneL-ti^^n.^'st' "aS
and the Ore.k Alexandrine of St Bis I hi
in,t..a,l, "The Lord be with you all" (Re^'T
14+ 64), the Coptic SS. BaM^and CyriK^" ihe
Un\ he with you " (Ul. 13, 40) ' '
TheMozarabieisthe only Western liturgy which
follow, here(w, h its own variations) the more
common oriental form: "The erao.. if r^i?i
K».herAhnighty the peace ZFC o^f ou '\. j^
rT\ ^^"'\?,"'^ "';■ fellowship of the Hofy
Le>Iie, 4). -The Milanese has, "The Lord h>. «.ith
JO. (mml. SSPP. Pa,n;i. i. 300)f and thi
prob,,bly borrowed from Milan) i, fo,^„d n a
(laniul.ii. 178; Rocca, Onn. Gree v fi'1 n,1
1«I5 ; Murat ii 1 , Menard^'opp. <f;e;:ed Ben-
in. 1 ; Gerbert, Monnm. EccI Aleman. 232 • &c ^
The common response to ooth benedictions is
'Andwith thy spirit." This is recognised by
L ('hrysostom („. ,.) : "And ye respond t^
him, 'And with tf.y spirit.' » In a few liturgies!
asthe Nestorian („ ,. sgg, 62H), and the Syrol
Jacobite of tustathius of Antioch (M. 235) and
Amen. 1 he Mozarabic is peculiar ■ " And urltl,
men of good will." Seve'ral veJsiclef 1" ^
sponsos with the kiss of neace follow before the
S^sm C^rda « gaid ^kiss. Mozar. Leslie, ^
Theodoret evidmtly regarded this benediction
« the opening of the Mis.sa Fidelium, and we
should infer from St. Chrysostom that 'it was a
part of It and near the beginning. iHhe
liturgy of M.Ian («. ,.) it is%receded by the
t^bnc Praejatio in Canmcm, and in some
Oriental rites (the Coptic St. Basil and S? CvrT
Ren. i 13, 40) by the title AnapWra K
^erubnc, "The priest says the canon" Tz;/
Aat,^ iW. 11. 589, 617). It is nevertheless not
jjnprobable that originally it was the ose of
Til" » 'T ^«"«d part of the liturgy ^
.uKgcsted by Mr Trollope {Lit. of St. JaS7^
.h»r'"^rv ""''u «°'"'t«n«»'^e from the facti"
t at 10 the Mozarabic the peace is given (Lesl e
)imthe Arnienian,the deacon utters his cry of
'The doors, the doors " fNeale « ,\. ,Vti,
estorian the gifts are sigLd (ft'en "li i^9 "o 7^
6 6,. between the salutation and the Surswn
Coma ; and also from the respon.se, Amen to thp
Win the very anciont%ite'of""Nesl:ril:
Summ Corda.--rhe next member of the pre-
face is Surswn Corda, "Lift up your hearts"
».t IS commonly given. In one form or another
hs IS found in every perfect liturgy, whence t is
reasonably inferred to be apostolic"' The earii'f
Greek writer who quotes it CvHI^f i
£ ~"hStt:r^[ ^;^Harkvfr
«r e.t witness : " Sacerdos, «'n?e ora'tio';™ prS
fat.onepraemi.sa,parat fratrum mente.s ,nc»ndo
S? ■■;•" ^"^^^ i'J" '>'-at. Loniin. 152, ed. 1690^'
it Augustine: "Si in terra obrnis co uum
•M«c.fortheci?aTfstVprS„j;:
PREFACE
1693
oT/'.S ^{' changes his cor into co/-ci„ (Srrm 177
Paris '■v.'i. <■ s,. ,' ^'^^- Gorman us of
mhno'not ut m r""" """^^ '"^'" ■™'^«'''- habere
Migne, Ixxii 94) ^ "^'''- ^"'"- ^'■'- »«'^
Ji'i«"Tso'!"'"''''"H'^'"'' ''-^'^--''^
cedpH Kir »k • 1 •'' '" ''>"t 't IS nre-
teaed by the versicle and respon.se- "Aqi-,.;?,!
*&.;«' I ^' "•" n'^^ Anastasius Sinaita (UrJ
GreS^St r'T' ^.T'"' '-^''l'- ^'- *■->*) The
t^reek St. Basil and St. Chrysostom give "A^^
ZTf\^,^' ""'''"'' ' «» do also the Greek lifur
g'es of Alexandria (Ren. i 64 99/A„rm- i
is citpH in ti.^ ' ■'• •""'' this also
f he w re fl' ','"' ^"^''T ^y Anastasius, aB
mTnds"(Re„ /sZ'tK'r^'. " ''''^ °P >""
^HHHii^^^t'r^
«iUeth a^t the" Ig^X, of'S'tiret^th'^^:
(Xystus, 1.^5) a- J ' 'ther's rl' T"^''*^"
as translated give "L,"ft„n J'*"' '""'"'•"'
Ren i 1 'I. K \' ^„„. "P y"'"" ■"^arts " ( Bn.t
X:c\ln::V,^< and "Sursum Co^.ia"
whiihiiei^:;;,/^!^^'; *•>--« -^«reek
aPt,quitatis_reverentia:"R%u. , 226 27 • Wl^
Litter'" ''"'''"' -* »f the ver^llr 3
Liturgia Communis or Canon Universalis ffh!
Abyssiniar church (Ren. i. 513). but. ^on the
., hll T'.'' "'^^'""""'1"*. appearsto be n all theiS
S"b '\I«-L?r?-" Lift Z .^'-"'-.H .^
hi,«h w^th the fear^of G„'d'^(K- o")-'" ""
I .Iv
'-V l-S'i'i
1694
PREFACE
Jenisffl. . («. >■): "Then ye answer, 'Exom'"*
irpds Ti I Kipiov." Yet it does not appear in the
liturgy of Jerusalem, though found in seme
form i>r other in every other. St. Chrysostom
(//oHi. ii. dc Poen.) intes it in the 8a'i><" words as
does also Anastasius Sinaita («. .«. 4.^.^', iM), and
this is the common reading in the Crock litur-
gies—in St. Clement, St. Marlt, and . iie Greek
Alexandrines, in St. Basil and St. CLrysostom.
Renaudot renders the Syri.i'. Ordo Com munis (ii.
21), "Sunt ad Dominum;" and so Masius, the
Syrian St. Basil (586) : but the former ^ives the
" Habemns ad Dominum " in every other
Syrian liturgy, except that of Xystus, wbire we
read, " Habemus ad Te, Domine " (13,5). The
Nestorin.i liturgies : " Sunt ad [apud Malnb. n <f.
312]Te,DeusAbraham,lsaac,et Israel, retglf.riie
{Beit. Apust. gloriose, Acs*, pergloriose, Mxi.) ;
but Theodore («. s.) simply, "Sunt apud Te,
iHuj." The Armenian (u. s.) has, " We have
lifted them up ti Thee, Father Almighty."
Among tl! > laHiis, St. Cypvian (cle Or. Dom.
n. s.), St. Alls v.iiu {fferm. 227, 34.5, § 4, &c.),
Caesnrius (&. ■ J>>, § 4), and others, quote from ;
their liturgies " '..l.?m\>3 1 il l'on.auim." Sccord-
jng to St. Augustus, "ill .tidic per uai ersum
orbem humanum ge .us una pacne Tuce rf.spon-
det, Siirsnm cordoi c" '.''ye ni Jlominum" (De
Ver. Relltj. :V § ■')). Ti^e ioivmn a.- 1 Ambrosian
liturgies give this fr.,r>iuia, which the testimony
of Caofjiirius proM's i.o have been used in Gaul.
The MozasHbic only hits, " Levemus ad Dominum "
(Leslie, 4, 'i'27).
Eucharistia. — Another versicle is then said,
properly, as in most litm-gies, by the priest,
but in rhe Armenian by the deacon. St. Cyril
of Jeruoalem gives it thus, Zvxo^Krriiffwtitv t^3
Kvpiip QC(th'i-h. Myst. v. 4); but it is not found
in the liturgy of his church (St, James). It
occurs in the same words in St. Clement {Const
.4p. viii. 12), in St. Basil, in St.Chrysost v ;Goar,
75, 165), and in the Greek Alexandrir i{ St.
Basil and of St. Gregory (Renaud. i. 64, 99), but
St, Mark has, Zixapurriinev r. k. (144), The
Armenian adds, " With all our hearts " (Neale,
530). The Coptic rites have the same as the
Greek, " Let us give thanks unto the Lord "
{fuxaptartinfv, 13, 28, 40). There are frequent
variations in the Syrian. The Ordo Communis
adds, " with fear " (Ren. ii, 21), to which Xystus
adds, "and worship Him with trembling"
(13.5). St. Basil: "Let us reverently," &c,
(586 ; corr. 550) ; others : " Let us give thanks "
(126, 170); but most resemble the Greek, " Let
ns give thanks unto the Lord" (146, 177, 187,
203, &c,) ; while St, James, which is used both
by orthodox and heretics, agrees with the more
common Western form, "Let us give thanks
unto our Lord God" (31, 163), The Nestorian
liturgies are peculiar. The Blessed Apostles
{ibid. 589) and the Malabar (Raulin, 312): "An
oblation is offered unto God, the Lord of all,"
which Theodore (Ren, ii, 617) and Nestorius
(62G) expand by long interpolations.
St. Augustine, in the Latin church, quotes the
clause thus: "Gratias agar:"-. Domino Deo nos-
tro " {f'erm. 68, § 5 ; simili . ' Strin, 227 ; Epist.
187 ad Dard. § 21). ' . grees with the
Roman sacraroentaries (M. I'amel, &c. «. s.).
The Milanese (Pamel. i. 300) omits " Domino."
The Mozarabic : " Deo, ao Domino nostro Jesu
Cbristo, filio Dei, qui est in coelis, dignas laudes
PREFACE
dignasque gratias referamus " (Leslie, 4). When
the (iallican churches adopted the Roman ^arum,
they took its preface with its several parts (<p»
Miss. Franc, in Liliirg. Gall. 3?7). s'l'iMve t";,i
the Siirsiiin Corda, Sic. were ni't, writu;!! in t;,,.,,
liturgies, nor do they even njij ear hi'li/i-y thp con-
testatio in the oldest sacrant-ntary i t .vliii'b the
Roman canon was insei-ted, %iz. t.u.i: of He.
Sanson (J/us, ftal.i. 279), thi ijh v.-e liiirn from
Germanu's («, s.) that they n \;ve not • nnlteti.
They weii: probabiy still sail' h'm mcii.iry u:itil
the suppression of the Gallican rites in the bia
century.
Tiie ti:sponse *o which St, Ciir_,sostonn refers
is fou'iii >.i nearly evei^ liturgy, 6t. (.'vril
{Cat. u. r.) gives "Afioc Kal SiKoioi', It is the
same ii\ th<; Greek St. James, St. ('"ment. the
Alexandrine Basil and Cyril (M as ahuve), , ; }
in the Copti' (Uen- >. l.'i, ni,'./g ). The nniiniin
Greek St. i^'r.rjsost.'m an.! St, ivisil eiilarirp .t
(u, s.) by a referen.. to i,i-a creed vhi.h in t". '.,■
precedes the Sursw. Coil'- " It is i.^vct snii r.^ht
to worship the F;ither, .~^nn, and !(. iy (ihust,
the consubstantial a.vl uuo'i\ided Tiiiiiiy"; but
copies are extant of the 9th and 10th century
that retain the brief original (Goar, 99 ; Bunsen,
Analecta Ante-Hicnena, iii. 215). The Syrians
have not changed it ; but the Ordo Ommnnii
{a. s.) adds a distinct ' lause : " God. have
mercy on us " It is p;- erved in all the .Nes-
torian liturgies (u. s.); biit in that of Sestiirins
it is followed by an exhcrlation from the diaonn
to remember the mercy i'.' God in the redenip.
tion of man, and by the wouls (also s.iid by him),
"Peace be with us all." ' .■ the rest he only
says after it, " Peace be with us."
St. Augustine bears witness to the practice of
Latin Africa: "Et vos attestr.mini ' JJiijmm et
justum est " dicentes, ut ei (■ ratias agamus qui
nos fecit sursum ad nostrum caput habere cur "
{Serm. 227; comp. de lion. Persev. 11), § j:);
de Bono Viduit. 16, § 20). This is to a letter
the response of the people in the Roman,
Milanese, and Hispano-Gothio liturgies (ii. s.).
In the Gallican it is written at the beginning of
many of the contestations, without any rubriisto
distinguish the parts of the priest and peojile,
viz. " Immolatio Missae. Dignum et justum est.
Verfe dignum et justum est nos Tibi gratia!
agere," &c. {Lit. Gall. 188, 197, &c. ; 33ii, 271)
The Contestation. — The next part of the pre-
face is strictly and properly, according to St.
Chrysostom as quoted above, the commencement
of the Eucharist. It is often itself railed the
Preface, partly perhaps for that reason, but more
certainly because, being variable, it is the only
part which appears under that title in the
collections of proper prayers. The Guths of
Spain called it the Ulatio, either because this
word, used by them in the sense of Matu). was
like the Greek anaphora, the name of the oHite
that followed, or because it .riginally dennted
the " illation of the gifts
can. 1) = the great er
which took place at thi
Quinta " [oratio], say:
fertur Ulatio ir vXW
etiam et ad Dei la " . .
virtuluuique coe.
(DeOff. i. 15, § ;.
equivalent to prof ' "
prefaces at the ci.l
{C'-mc. Yixknt. 'fH,
, of the Greeks,
of the servile.
,ie I'f .Seville, "in-
.It oblationis, in f i» j
. . . ' ^atrium creaturarnu
,. , :., ersitas prnviicaiv "
V he word is once used u I
•I collection iif Wmn
_'t" . hrt Vatican i'S. from
PREFACE
which Murutori prints the Sftcr. Gregor. viz in tha
rubra, "in Lx« tatione S. Crucis faJen initio
dicenda quae et m mventione S. Crucis'Vii ^^T^^
The Gallican churches often called this prayer
,,»,..'..i.« because it began the more sac riH. ill
'T\'-^ '.'i"'«r- -This may be illustrated by
, ■ on i ^f,^." PyPO'^xo^^'Sn^ {Lit. S. Bal
,.>.,. a>n._i. b4; i, Ore,,. A. 99), and 'O Up,),,
;.,X«T«, ■ns iyafopa, (S. Murci. 144), in some
S.um Lturg,es. " Immolatio " occurs in the
...■i,;v0'i sacramentary (J/„s. Hal. i. 345), in the
Uw.icv-Gall.can {Lit. Gall. Mabill. las 1<)1
202 ;.c.), and in the Missale Gallicanum Vetus
Thornasms &c. iibUi. 334, 368, 370, Tc). I,
theGalhcan liturgies it is also called the « con-
t«tat; . ior an obvious reason, viz. because the
>i:'Z>'Vlu " ^""^ J°'"' ^'' testimony
..th thit of the people to the fitness and justice
ofginiig thanlcs unto God. "^
Tl.8 Koman words of contestation are. " Vere
ipam et justum est, aequum et salutare, nos
(>b temper et ubique gratias ..gere, Domine
SkQute, Fater Omnipotens, aeterne Deus, ner
wT i^7"'"'n nostrum" (Murat. Pamel.&c.
..«. I the Milanese, " Verfe quia, lignum et justum
«," ic. (Pam. „. ,.). The Mozarabic Varies™
liignum et justum est, nos tibi gratias agere,"
ic. Leslie o 17 &c.) ; « D. et j., vere aequum ^t
«lutare est Domini nostri Jesu Christi adventum
■n mirabihbus praedicare," &c. (for Advent, 9> :
'•D.etj.,veridignumet honorificum est," &,•
(12); and 80 0.1 the clause which follows also
varying. The Gall.can varied aI.so : " Vere dignun
etjustum est [aequum et salutare, lit. Oall lan
nos tibi semper, hie et ubique (269) g.atias agere
f^t"'vS "P""'''"' '""' ''^'''•^^ Nomine," &c.
(188); "Vere aequum et justum est nos tibi
gratias agere, vota persolvere," &c. (197) The
hanks early adopted the constant Koman for-
Bulae with the canon, and indicated it bv the
«me symbol fjlu. (Jail. 317-319, &c. ; comp.
/Sicram. Oelas. Mur. i. 494-496, &c )
Tkreisthesiinie similarity 'amid' variety in
he Greek and OHental rites. In the Alexan
rme St. Basil the priest repeats the words 'A « J
thnce, and then makes a direct address to God'
-rhith begins like that of the Greek St. Basil'
The more ancient Syrian rites (as St. James,'
St.Basl, &c. «. s.) are faithful to their Greek
originals ; but many of the later have no express
S fi"- lV''tr'""'8y of Nesto..ius'^("
2,) ami in he Nestorian Blessed Apostles
{089), the priest prays fu, himself betwe^ the
response and the contestation.
The celebrant next, in every liturgy, declares
the reason why God should be thus glorified !
Th!!r' ■" '." «' ^'""eutine, in the Nestorian
T e dore and Nestorius, i„ St. Mark and St
fe^ Oreek and Syrian, and some other Syrian
mns, at great length. St. Chryaostom and the
Armenian are here shorter than St. Ba fl but
I r? !,'"'" ^'- .•''>■»«»' '»>« original of an iiree
The f„!, wing ,, one of the'shorter Orie. ^a
fws Olhou who art. Master, Lord, the God
Truth, ex.sti„g from eternity, knd re gnine to
toity who dwellest in the highest f.re^er
W and Saviour Jesus Christ, by whom Thou
Wteston the throne of the holy glory of Thy
PREFACE 1695
to show that it resembled very cl, elv «, t
r stnds"!" t"'r' ^"^ *^« -'•- a"' it
ha^^^rtn--:!— JJ;^{?;;^rnrit.
}eT%iLTt rnlj"™.ltmi7 ''''T'^ "
atttln-*--"'^-''"^- ^^r]. 'tl
^^:rpvr'M-sr^e
sometimes begins with th« 'V-^', "'"'=''
formula, but v^e^' oZn n'ot '^.^-ll^:?
Zrr' '" ""^*"""'-"'" '' '"nctificatorenf :Lu
caSTeSMa.^:;rr^-
!iina;t\^:ts^t:-:l
matter ^ff;'*"' "^^ '^e apparent V and the
i' w th fh? I'i"^'/' """^ ^y » comp.,rison of
it With the epistle from the Christians of those
c ties to their brethren in Asia and Phrvg a
Neale and torbes, Miss. 5, p. 12 ""'^£/'e»>
The Milanese missal has above 120 nroner
prefaces, one for every missa. They a^eyet
more numerous i„ the Mozarabic, mvl th^ev
appear to have varied in the sever'al Gall S
H ne'e Tn th'/'R *'' "*''" P'-'^y^" varied"
,»pr«^ ? Besan^on and Gothi.'o-Gallican
acramentar.es, we find above seventy. They
were equally numerous at Rome in the «fK
century, for Vigilius, 538, tells us that on saints^
.s, they had a proper missa for every such day
very certain Ihe later Gelasian limited this
rii,Ii.,./.i ik . ""^/> "''niie ine Oregonan
reduced the number to eight, of whi,.h V„
i HVlofl,^?.' '*• ^"'*'- <^''''- "• 8- Ms!
There were also in some rites proper prefaces
1 anTchri'srr 'm" '"' 'h^ ben'ediSTf
oil and chrism [seeMissA, x. (2)1 (Sar GclJ
the paschal light (^Missal, Qoth. Mab. u. s. 241 ;
1090
PREFACE
Miss. Oall. Vet, Sri? ; Miss. Moz. Leslie, 177 ;
Miss. Ainbrua. I'nmel. i. :Ht> ; Sacr. Greg. Miir.
ii. 14;l); at baptism (Miss. Qoth. u. ». 247;
Miss. Oall. Vet. " Contestatio Foiitis," '.W-i ; not
in the Human, Milanese, or Mnzarabic); at
mnniage (Siui: Oct. u. s. i. 7i!l ; Greg. ii. '.'45);
ut iinlinatiiin (Sacr. Greij. 244, 427, 4:19).
The variable jiart of the canon "I'ommuni-
CRiiti's," &«. is headed by the title I'riwfiilio in
the mass for Ilaundy Thursday {Sacr. Greg.
u. 8. 54), but this is by error.
The Reference to the Angelic Ifnsts. — In every
liturgy tlie eucharistic preface leads up to the'
angelic hymn, after a reference, which is nearly
universal, to the heavenly spirits by whom it
was first sung. They are claimed as fellow-
Worshippers. "This divine saying handed down
to us, which proceeded from the seraphim we
repe.it, that we may have communion in our
hymnody with the supramundane hosts " (Cyr.
Ilier. Cat. Myst. v. 5). Most of the Greek
liturgies here enumerate the orders of the
angels. Thus St. James (who associates with
tlieni " the spirits of the just and of the pro-
phets, the souls of the martyrs and the apos-
tles ") : " Angels, archangels, thrones, dominions,
principalities, and authorities, and awful powers
(see Col. i. 10), and the cherubim with many
eyes, and the seraphim with six wings, who with
two wings cover their faces, and with two their
ftet, and flying with two, shout one to another
with mouths never resting, with doxologies
never silent (ccp/ionesis), chanting with clear
voice the triumphal hymn of Thy exalted glory,
crying aloud, giving glory, shouting, and saying.
Holy, Holy," &c. (Assem. v. 33). Compare
the Clementine {Const. Apost. viii. 12), St.
Mark (Renaud. i. 134), St. Basil (Goar, 165),
St. Chrysostom (ib. 75), the Greek Alexandrine
Basil and Gregory (Ren. i. 65, 99). See also
the Coptic Basil, Gregory, Cyril (id. 13, 28, 46).
Similarly, the early Syrian liturgies, St. James
(Ren. ii. 31), St. Basil (586), &e. St, Chrysostom,
however (Goar, 76), only names the angels,
archangels, cherubim and seraphim, while the
Armenian is yet more simple : " He . . . hath
granted us to form part, with the heavenly
host, of a spiritual company, and with cheru-
bim and seraphim boldly to sing sacred songs,
to cry, to call, and say, Holy," &c. (Neale,
fntrod. 534). Nor are the several orders, as in
Col. i. 16, mentioned in the Nestorian liturgies
(Ren. ii. 589, 617, 628; Matab. Raul. 312);
though this part of the preface is long in them ;
but we cannot infer from these facts that they
were not named in the apostolic originals ; for
the passage above cited from St. .James is fully
recognised in St. Cyril's quotations from the
liturgy of Jerusalem (u. s.).
The prefaces of .St. Mark and the Coptic St.
Cyril, which is derived from it, are strangely
interrupted by very long forms of intercession
and by the reading of the diptychs, which are
introdu<i'd immediately before the reference to
the angelic hosts now under consideration (Ren.
i. 41, 146).
In the West this part of the preface is variable.
There were four forms of it in the Roman
liturgy, of which the most common is as follows :
" Kt iJeo cum angelis et archangelis, cum thronis
et dominationibus, cumque omni militia ( lelestis
exercitus hymnum tuae gloriae canimus, sine
PRESANCTIFIED
fine dicentes, Sanctus," Sec. (Murat. Sacr. Lnrt \
312, 314, &c. ; Gelas. 501, ."i03, &c. ; OVc,/. n.i,
9, 10, &c.). For the others, see S<wr. i:cl. |_'
494, .57.% &c., Greg. ii. 322 {i.J\u:m ImulniitV
Leon. i. 3l.% Gel. 517, .5.H, &c. ; i,r,;,. ,,,
2, 192, &c. (Per quern Te, or I'er (juem m-ijes.
tatem); Gel. i. 572; Greg. ii. 90'(.9<;</ ,.r,„^^.,..
nae virtutea). These forms arc foumi in tl>«
Gnllican and Anil>rusian liturgies, but nfti'i)
varied, and with several others; e.g. — ".Ante
pujus sacratissimam sedem stant ang<'li atiiiie
archangeli, it sine cessatione proclamn'it, di.
cente. , Sanctui," &c. {Mins. Goth, in Lit. i,nll,
198); " Congratuletur innumerabilis nuiltituli)
angelorum exercitus, cum quihus innumer(il)il,.ni
gloriam tuam canimus, sine tine dicentes, Unu;.
tus," &c. (Miss. Ainhr. Pamel. i. 300). li, the
Mozarabic rite no preface seems in this part to
follow any other. Some are very amliitidus
while others are as simple. Lx. " Cum i\ni;A\»
atque archangelis laudantibus atque ita iliiieiiti'
bus, Samtus," &c. (Leslie, 1 5).
'J'he Jlos'inna, — tven the hosanna which fn|.
lowed the sancttis is included by Isidore ((/c (iif,
i. 1 .5, § 3) in the illation (" in qua etiam et aj liej
laudem terrestrium creaturarum virtutunii|ue
coelestium universitas provocatur et osanitit m
excelais cantatur"); but this will be more pro.
perly noticed in a separate article on the Samtus
itself.
(II.) A short address in which the penple
are taught the intention of the praver or
office which follows. The word is chieHv to
used in thS liturgies of Gaul. In a complrte
Oallican missa a preface follows the " Cntlcitio
post Precem." The collect which it pre-
cedes and explains is usually headed CUhtio
sequitur, but often merely Colleciio [MissA, X.(S)
(c)]. It begins the Missa Fidelium, and corre-
sponds exactly to the " Missa " of the Goths in
Spain [Missa, V.]
In certain intercessions said on Kaster Eve in
the churches of Gaul [Precks, § ii.] the several
prayers are preceded by short addresses wliiih
are called prefaces in the Missale (-'.tlicinn. K.g.
" Oratio pro Tnjirmis. Pruefatio. Let us lieseecli
the God of all health, and Lord of nil power for
our brethren and sisters, who are afflicted in the
flesh by various kinds of sickness, that the Lird
will grant unto them the heavenly gift of His
medicine ; througli," &o. " Oratio seijuitur.
Lord, to whom it is an easy thing to raise the
dead to life, restore to the sick their fcnner
health," &o. (Lit. Oall. 245). The Missale
Gothicum has twelve such prefaces, the Galli-
canum Vetus (ib. 359) thirteen, each followed by
the prayer for the object announced in it.
The Ambrosian missal has a Prnefntio chrJ!-
matis, in which the bishop on Maundy Thursdty
invites the people to pray for thr benediction of
the chrism (Kituale SS. I't'. Pamel. i. 341) In
the Gelasian sacramentary (Murnt. Lit. Em.
Vet. i. 621) thebishop begs the prayers of the con-
gregation for those whom he is about to lil.'si
or ordain in forms entitled " Praelatio Ostiarii,
Lectoris, Exorcistae," &c., and the phmw is
retained in the Gregorian pontifical (i' 405,
406, &c.). [W. E. S.]
PRESANCTIFIED, MASS or LI-
TURGY OF. Any communion of the reserved
elements might be so called ; but in practice
PRESANCTIFIED
thew phrn.es were applie,! only to those public
wniinimion» u. Lent for which the eleinents had
teen c.x|.re.,ly consecrated on a previous day.
In he Last, co secmtious were forUdden from an
»rly j«riod throughout I^nt, except on Satur-
days and bundays; in the church of Rome they
were ciually forbidden on G.«h1 Kridayand liastcr
ke; m Italy, ie. in the province of Milan, on
wry (•nday in Lent. Heuce those who wished
to comumuicat , on those days received of the ure-
unxt'peJ, I.e. of the previously consecrated ijill..
y Aasi.-lhe foundation of the rite was
hid .■ally ... the hast. The council of Uodicea,
probably about .165, says, "It is not lawful to
1. T n" 'f"''"««P' on the Sabbath and
Ihe Lord s pay alone (can. 49) ; *hich appears
rather to state and conHrm an old custom than
to e.st«bl,sh a new. In an age when commu-
I1.0..8 wore valued, and Hmebvation for what-
ever reason practised, the final result would
jQon develop itself; but we have no decree
respeot.ng .t earlier than that of Constantinople
111 691: "Let the sacred liturgy of the nre-
janctihed [gilts] be performed on all the days of
he fast "f the holy Forty Days, eicept the
Sahbath and the Lord's Day, and the holy day of
te Annunciation " (can. 52). The Greek liturgy
of the presanctified (which see in the EucMogi!^,
Goar, 190) was probably compile.l by Germanus
ofConsta..tmopIe some twenty-four yaars after
the date ot the council there (G.«r, 210)
Only the Greeku celebrate a proper liturgy of
the iiresanct.hed. The Slaronites do not even
reserve o.. the iturgic day, of Lent (Abraham
hMknsi3, Sp^t ad B. Aihusium in Leon. AUat.
deEccl Occui. et Orient Consem. ad calc. 16G3).
They celebi-ated every ,l.-,y i„ Lent, except on
Saturday; but the exception was only a part
of vlieir Jewish observance of that day
Tk West.~?viMh\y the earliest notice of a
festriction on celebrations in the West occurs
m the epistle of Pseudo-Innocent to Decentius:
"It IS an established fact that the apostles
me ,„ gnef during thee two days (Good
Friday and taster hve), and also that they hid
hemselvcs from fear of the Jews. Nor, indeed
IS. t doubtful that during the said t;o day,
they fasted to such a degree that the tradition
of the church holds that the sacraments of the
church should not be celebrated at all durine
those two days » (§ 4 ; Hard. Cone. i. 997) The
writer is stating, of course, the rule of Rome.
It 18 probable that taster Eve was not long thus
iiicsdamua; but the history of the rite is
very obscure. The present rule, which only
prescribes reservation on Maundy Thursday for
the coiiununion on Good JVIday, waa probably
mtroduced .n the 7th century, 'a monastic rull
of that age, wh.ch appears to be in great part
« translation from the Greek, says, " Let the
racraments of the altar be consecra ed [on the
Thursday] in a large glass paten, that when
iZl !,'"'", T*^ ^'>''^* ''"^ t^; passion on
V hi. ^^^' ^°^ ""'y ^"''l "« "^ ^ '- that
day be hid .n our minds " (through rt.. : . , .n of
the sacrament ; Rcjuh Magistri, -■■, ■. i.ten
V.m'-J- m'k^- • "^"i^ Gelasian'sac, .mentar;;
FriL hr?"'" P"''*'"' P'"P«'- *° Good
tt rZ . ft"i *"\ *•»* •""'y and Wood
tie Wd, left from the preceding .-ay, and set
PRESANCTIFIED 1697
them on the altar." The Lord', Prayer with
•t. preface and emboli, having bcH,n then Taid
«. betore other communions,'^" aU .d!re th.
h..ly cross and communicate" (r.itur, It.m
n.zid by the K.,man Ih-d^r „f „ J'onUfieai A/a^
when they have said An,en (after the ' Liber-
."« ), takes of the SA.NC'rA,\«d puts it in["
the cup, say.ng nothing, ^^ theyall c m.mu"
2« c; "T ^^'•'^ ''■ ''■'■'^' "' -'^«*. ^™".
abo;,. fr ^' "' " """'""'= "'•J",»ee,„in^-ly of
?H.Z 1 »»'"« »8o: "Let the deacon take th.
body and blood of the Lor.1, which wal left
previous y on the day of Coena Dom „i,rd wal
consecrated, and put it on the altar, and let aH
n,bric is found copied inio'th^-rite? f N yT:!
Khe.m. R.6s, and Gellone, all preserved Tn &
iv 23^ §*27)!'"""^' ^^'"■'^•"' * '^"*- ^■''«'- !»^i
It was from Rome that the Galilean chnrch
eari.er books. The remains of the Gothico-
Gall.c^an m.ssal (^rt.ry. Oa//. Mabill. 237-239),
Uie Galhcanum Vetus (iJW. 349-354), th»
and the Gall.can lectionary (Lit. Gall. 128-1331
g.ve proper prayers and'lssons f;, Maindi'
Thurs,lay and G.K,d Friday, but there i, no
tmH^^M" '^"" '" *'"' •»««» «f the";,esano!
t.hed. Nor do we find any in the writing, of
Germanus, or in any other Gallican authority.
J'lor do we d.scover any trace of it ■„ tK«
t.oned by St. Is.dore (efe Offic.), nor by any of
the Spanish councils. On the other hand the
councl of Toledo 633, complain, that "through!
ont some churches the doors of the basilka.
were closed on the 6th feria of our uid"
pass.on 0.^. on Good Friday), and neither w J
office celebrated nor the passion of the Lor^
preached." The council th'irefore orderediroj
ilK .?""u' "^^^^ P^«»anctffied should be
celebrated-but that the mystery of the cross
should be preached on that day, "and that .11
the people should in a loud voce ?mpl„re the
pa«lon of their sin." ; that by this mLn, thej
might be prepared for their communion oi
Eas er Day can. 7). The service for Good
Friday now lound in the Mozarabic missal, U
Electa ^M * "VJl"r F-wanctificatorum
adjecta videtur (MabiUon, Comm. in Ord. Rom.
11 ; Mas. Ital. .i. Ixxv,).
AfJIa ^''? "" ^^■''l^f « of the practice of Roman
Afr.ca later than that of St. Augustine, who
vfr "r,*^*" ""'='' *" the service for GT,od
cell?/ "•*?""" ^"K't" PO'^io, solemniter
celebratur," Serm. 218; so again 2321 h„f
gives no hint of the peculiar riteTqucsti.''"*
m Communwn.-IU mas, of the presanc
nn r„L"^p"'')'"' '" "'* '^''"' *" communicate-
on Good Friday, or on other day, when conse-
crat.on was prohibited. On Good Friday
(Parasceve), says Amalarius. "the hndv nr tho
U>ra IS not consecrated. It is necessary that
they who have the wish to communicate hay.
Off Tit"" tT *^' P"'=l'^'"8 ^^y" (* Eccl.
Uff. I. 12). This was at first a general com-
munion, «„t populus qui reficiendus erat
••1 -Ai
1698
PRESBYTER
hnbert't in fundainciitiim < 'orpuj Domini "
(i6i</. Iv. 21) i. So BTOcinliiii, to the OeJnsian
rubric, thi' OrJo J/umnnun, »nj tl- '' 'i ' ii<"i,
quoted nliovi', "nil commui w uti'." let »• i
Anmlariiis (about 8'2()> wer io r.i.i.', n- fi t.un
this cuitoin alremly o' Utle tlii'i" that
itation in whii'htheaf .toiical Hitlutti the croas,
no one thi're communi'.itoi " («, ». I. ITi).
Thu reader may ri'"«r to Leo Allatius <1e
ifissii I'liieannctijicni "uin apud Gnuios IHascrt.
ad cftlc. Op. (if h'i'l. Occ. et Or. C\>n»ens. Col.
Ajfr. 1648, pp. l.'i ill lfi07; lo. Bona, licruin
Liturii. I. l.'i, § 5, with Salas notes; Sotilia
JCuchariKtia, pp. 897-l)0;i, 2iid ed. ; and to
more brief notieet in Martene da Ant. Ecrl.
Hit. \, Vv i. § 18; Merati, Norae (Ihicrv. in
(lavanti, Covuii. in Rvhi: i. 79 ; Z. II. van
Espen, ^iitnuicnt. in .lur. Vet. '''inoni'S, can.
Trull. .'■■■.', "pp. vii. 147, Vcn. 1781 , Cave, IHai.
ii. ad ii'c. Hint. Liter, v. AttrovpyiKiy.
[W. E. S.]
PRESBYTER. [Priest.]
PRKHHYTEUESS. 1. Prenbutera (rarely,
•nd n|iparently later, pri'sbyteri''M) is soni'-tiincs
fbnnd in euclesiaHtieal Latin fnmi the tJth century
andoni' irds for the wife of a preabyter, e»|'-oially
for a wile who had come under the rule which,
in some jmrts of the Weatorn church, made
msrrieil continence compulsory. Cone. Turon.
A.D. 567, c. li), and Cone. Autissiodor. A.D. 578?
c. 20, forbid a presbyter from associating with
his piv.shi/tera ; S. Greg. M. Epist. 9, 7, ini] >'a
that in such cases the wife went to a monastery,
where, however, she did n.it bec^ime a tnomicha
or adopt the monastic dress. Rather later the
wird is found forth.' widow of a presbyter ( = the
earlier " vidua," or ' relicta, presbyteri." 1 Cone.
Tolet. c. 18, C<mc. Epaoii. c. 33, 1 Cone. Aurcl.
c. 13), viz. in Roman councils under Gregory II.
in A.D. T21, c. i. and under Zachary in 743, c. 5,
both of which anathematize any one who
marrie.^ either a presbytcra ir a diaconn.
2. Kor the use ofirpf<rfiv r is, presbyui\i, and
preshytcrlsiKi in the sense of a church officer, see
Widows and Viroins. [E. H.]
PRESBYTERY (1). It. p-irt of the church
occupied by priests (^^jita, 0uiria<rT^pioi<, SSutoi',
HBara, UpfafiurfpfTov) (.Sic in Suidns) l'resl)y-
terium, Siicrnrium, Sanctuarii'm. Altariuni.
(Sc'retiirium in second council ' Vi.>s, can. 15,
ace. to Martene).
According to the most ancient .n-rangement of
churches, the presbytery was the part behind
the altar which contained seats for the bishop
and priests. It was early described in the West
as follows: ". . . loco, ubi sacerUotes, reliqii
cleiici consistunt, quod presbyterium nuv
patur . . ." (Synodus Rotnann sub Eugenii
(824), r.p. Ducange. Quoted as Clemens Pai
in i.ibbe, vol. i. 116).
. The presbytery was divided from the rest ui
the building by rails {KiyitXiSts, cancelli), which
were meant to render it inaccessible to all but
clergy (Euseb. /''.it. Eccl. lib. x. 4). That it
was sopar/ited by rails " i reficiuS nede " appears
in the liomtn synwl ■--.dei' Leo 'V. The first
council of Uracara (can. 31) prescribes that it is
"not lawful for laymen to enter the sacrarium
to communicate, but only for the (leri<s." A
Roman synod, under Leo IV., in the 9th (qu.)
PRIEST
century, forbids th .«e who are not In orient to
enter it. [Cancki.li; ('hawki. ; Cliotit ]
In Inter times i. ime ambiguity has crept in ni
to the use nl the term prva'njtery, the ddubt
being whi'th' r it applies to a spMce iH'fnre the
dtar or behind it, and whether thu presl yiery
forms, strictly speaking, any \n\rt of the ihnir
of a great church, or is to bo carefully .listin.
guisheil and architectunilly n parati' I ('imn jt.
These 1 ler uses it dnesii't belong to tUe]ire»ent
volume t'l discuss at length ; but with re^^ard to
the precise latitude of the term in earlv ci'n-
turies this much may be sail , that no aiuii'nt
'1;' M found wher; prosbiteiy i||,«g
'., munn ^4\e pArt of 'he ch ''ih which I'nn.
tnined the altar. In later times thu us;ii,'e ui the
word is certainly twofold, it being sninctimfj
identical with oAoi'r,* and sometimes pomti'iHy
distinguished from it. [II. T. A.]
(2) Prenhyterium, irptrT0uripiov (npiirffmt-
ptiov), are sometimes used to denote the body
of presliytcrs taken collectively timt is, as
C(iuivaleut to rh tup ir^xa$VT4puv (ru^fSfiim.
This use is tound in the New Testament in rej'cr-
encB to both .lewish (St. Luke xxii. t;i;; A(ti
nil. 5) and Christian (1 Tim. iv. 14) prisDvteij
Other early instances are, in 3reek, S. !i;ii:it. aj
Eplu's. c. 2,4; Clem. Alex. Strmn. (!, 13, p. 7i);|,
ed. Pott. ; Origen, Ifom. xi. in Jliercm. c. ;i, vol.
iii. p. 189, ed. IXdaruc; S. Basil. /T/otJ. 81 (31'j)
ci(' Innocent, vol. iv. p. 174 ; and, in I..-, in, S.
C- prian. Epist. 48 (45, ed. Hartel, p. 610): Coliat.
Carthag. c. 130, Migne, 1*. L. vol. , IJ98.
For the functions of the presbyters attiug col-
lectively see I'rikST.
(8) The same words are al.9o used to denote
the oflice of a presbyter. Early instances el this
are, in Greek, Origen. Ham. in Matt. .W. c. :•',
vol. iii. p. 690, ed. Dclarue; S. Athanas. Aput.c.
Arian. c. 47, vol. i. p. 131 ; S. Epiplian. c Ijiurcs,
68, 2, p. 717 ; and in Latin, S. Cvprian. Kuht.
49 (52, ed. Hartel, p. 019), 34 (39, e>l. lU., I,
p. 584); Pont. Itiacon. V:t. S. Cypnm. e. 3;
S. Siric. Epiat. \. c. 13; S. Innocent. I. /■,),«(.
3h id Maxim, et Sever. ; 2 Cone. Hispal. c. ,'>.
[K-H.];
•UE8ENTATI0N. [Patron.]
PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE.
[Mauv, Klstivaib of, § 1, p. 1140; § 5,
p. 1144.]
I"lcK8IDIU8,confi'SSor'in Africa ; commemo-
rated Sept. 6 (L'suard. Mart.). [''. H.]
PRT'' '"US, martyr in Sardinia, wit. Aemi-
lius, ' s, au>t Lucianus ; commemuru'-ii Mav28
(Usual I. Mart. ; Mart. Uoin.). ,C. H.j
r iKSTor PRESBYT'-R. I. Kams for
(1) I'ta&VTipos, preshijtcr (in insoriptioi-
sou les irpta^lTfpot, e.ij. on a tomb at Mel -
of theiird or 4th century, Otr/'U-i Insor. Gr. vol.
iv. No. 9288 ; prMsbiter, fm- Hisp. Cla-ist. ed.
Huebner, No. 67, prei^/iter, MU. No. 174, 189;
praesbyter, De Rossi, /iwcr. Christ. Jl" ■ Ko. 303,
Corpus Inscr. Lat. ed. Monmisen, vol. in. Xo. 755;
prnesviter, ibid. No. 975); in use in Kgvptofthe
ullicers of a temple, e. g. at Dios|>olia iii tne time
• Ju.«t as In modern Kiigllsb the term chnir Is olkn
applied lo that eastern limb of a cuthedrul wblth strlctl;
Cdiiiprlses presbytery as well us choir.
PltlRST
„fCl<!"pntra, C«-/.u, /n,„,r. r/r. vol. Hi. fjo .1717
oil. u,o «,,,.,„« tiK. .I.WH for th., „,.,„b..;, hoth
of thi. I.ical courts um-I of the chiof court at
J,.rM,:.i.u, the mo,t truHlworthy n„.| ' couci*«
ne<itnUiwiitlich,'n /•■it/rnoM.Ma, >,,, 4()'. „,„, .
ll,.t It h»(l t„.,.o,„o , title, «„,| w«B „ot ™„(i„',;,|
to|,er„.n, ot aly,u„.„| yo^r, 1, ,|e:,r fron, (,;.,/.)
■me, N. ( .vrili. A ex. m A,,;. /// ,,,,. ^y, ,. ^ '
Aiibort ; laj^ Or.) ..( .Seville ,/,■ A'c,./r«. Oif.'J 7 ,„„i
h.aee •seu.lo.A,„,eletu«, h),i,t. ii. o. '4 e.M,!ai„
lh.t ( hn.t.,,M preHbyter, nre ,o cllcl, ,lt „„
.ccount of their age, Imt " propter 8«,.ie„tiam,"
tliouKh .^ a.1,1,, ",,„o,l,i ita sit miru.n e,t our
niipientes fon.stituantiir"); it was hIho i„ use
lor » professor in «o,no „f the philosophical
»fhon|j; cf. .Sehweigliiluser's note to Ki ictet
to. i. 9, 10. Its ChriHtian ,„e begi, i' with
.hey.T«.,.Tit.i.,5,a,.,ll,e„ntinuo,i;hrmS
jub-apestolic; to moJerii times; o.,i. for eirlv
fr;r- ,^'-'' «• t+. ■% 47,\i. Henna,, "r^
PRIEST
1009
2,4(wliereOn^ n(fe PHncip.-i, n.vol i „ iiig
preierves the Gr.ek fonn, whieh the co, nmo,,'
Urn version renders l,y "seniores," the Palatine
bv pnorea'), Papms ap. Kuaeb. //. Ji s .3'»
(»h«re as is well known, the precise nj.piicati'..;,
01 he tern, in both the e.^prensi. mi, „t ^Alp^r,,,,
aniU T,,( '/liTfpoi lwi.,^n!hM been freouentlv
IT J' ■ ">*'^T"' '"J"" to the literatur;
«fth«sub,ec will be fonn-l in the note to the
fagraents ot as in G.bhardt and Haruack's
Nre, Ap.sto. 'a,c. i. a, p. fm, c" IHyH^
Clem. Al. ««m. 0, p. ^n,\,. l\,tt ; "f ?t^'
US. among non-Cat lie Christian churehes
Ihe most interest... .ample (which is also
probably the ear ,i evistin? inscription „„
. Christian bull Img) i, th... f the in.,crip-
tion on a Marc.„„ite chur.' ,.baba (l)evi-
Ah) near Damascus, dated a.. - sp. J,e Ba,
el Waddington, Tnscriptions grcv,,u!s i '.tines
™l.iii.No.2558;thatitwa^m(,,eJ,,47he
Ariansappears from «.,,/.)yictor Vitens. <&./>..,,«.
U^M. 5, U. (2) Upfh, >„^nlas: the early
instances of the use of the.He terms in reference '
othe officers wh.i were commonly called pres-
byters are open to much dispute; it baa
.ometmes been questioned whether Cypriar, does
no resen-e them exclusively for the episco,. Ue,
"' t" • ■'•?• ''"'; "• !'• 325, Ep!st. 40. 3, vol. ii
334, c early refer to presbyters, ,,.f. ij. Epist
4,3, vol. ,1. p. 263, where (as in r'.ptatus.TIs;
P>l+)>even deacons are iucluded, " presbyteris
e^diacombus non defuit sacerd,.tii vigor ; "from
I eSth century onwards, there is no doubt of
\ i^ .T'^"" Hppliration t.. ,,resl,yters, e „
!»orat. //. E. 1. 27 ; Const. Apos . 2, 25 ; 8 46
where presbyters are U.C.s, br,hop., \p^4:Z
C,.c. Tun.n. ad. 4G1 c 1, 4 'filet. '^D.%;i:'
;yhi;;--!„r-ihrL^dri^:
mu '"'="'-■' Jr'''. «''oerdos,"^Gru*er, ,
lK;^::"';^!!•;..!»^vl^';»hecont^;I^
2«;f ''-.h;— r. therncl„::ono?b:th for
foun-l Inconvenient, and presbyter, were .o,„^
times specialy designated a, IcumrZa ZT,
.r wamJ, onlini, mrcnlnte, (,s I eon M v ^
Constant. M. ap. Kuseb. //. /,' u" 7^ »"}''
M-.. iu sicun,io sa,:e.^ot'io't;,.:utu^::^
»'|itat. *; S:lusm. DoruU. 1 13 i, ii. •'
the,.eu,b,-Nido.andecre,a,i%'^,^,;,,i;;.-
c. -S. ' erilotum orilo bip.Ttitus e^t S
nnocent I. Epi.t. „U Decent, c.'ii, " lesl vteri"
01 the Anglo-Saxon " pn,„t " (Cotton MS
, '• '■> or "pi-eost" (frequentlv found, ea
^ HO r*^'''a"-i7 "''■ ^^'"'"'». c-.«-v" vol 1:
o which Irom "presbyter- is probable, i 'by
■".■«ns certain: in the A.-S. Chr \ioU; Z
v\lt '/'"''';"•■ 'i'- '\"'^ *"^' "f ^'"ims Chris
-ol ege, Umbridgo, ha.s " maesse p oo.st," »!,«
«... leian Mb. " preost," but Cotton MS - T beriu*
A. and U. 1 have the abbreviation « p.i,." 'iZ
m which the word iKKK^nU is plac^l' bv fh'
tvangelists on li.e lips of our b.nl, U is m ,.! •
ti.med not merely a, an assembly, bu a „ne
which disputes could be r,.ferr od, an,T wTo^
IsTcln t ^,''«.^''«^?"'« was conceive,], i„ short,
as a comt .,( discipline. A, such it continue,
to be fuKille.! by the .synagogue among .lew, •
nor was It separated from the synagogue even
n name, A,<A„,./aand .„^„y.^ being co.^vmble
terms not only in th, LX^xTbut ,l,m t
>a.ly Christian writers. (See Uani.uk 'gelaU
^<:>utJlUlw Theoli^iic f„r 1876. n 104- ,.,„) !^t
Uickell, QescKicktJ^ks Kir^lL^X^i iT !l
But the Jewish synagogue only poss,.H,He.l diJ-
cplinuy powers by virtue of its racti^l
v^t rr'h" "'*' the .„„V"., thaTtt
virtue the presence in it, though proiirlv
<l.3tmct from it, of a body »f npM\Z!Z
o..r|.oration or college of elders, wh„ fo3 I^
local court ,r adraiuistiative <J well -^ ' dicd.1
purposes. !t i.s ther-CrA nati-.-s' ."J"""-'*'
k'^a ri'hi"' 'T/''" bec.m;christi:"i'':„°:?
in a^,embl.e, and formed communities which
bore the accustomed name,, they ,„„ti„ued ia
these assemblies and comrauniti*^, the mam
a ures of the accustom.... organisation. And
this I, ,r. fact the case. I'resbyters are found
108
I'i' ;1J.
1700
PRIK8T
PRIEST
from the fimt In the .ludnoo-OhriitUn coramu- 1 w»re th. primltire r«l»tl..n» of ppmbyUri u
nity at Jonualcm (Aiti xi. ;)0 ; iv. 'J, *, '>. '-^<
83; ivi. +; ". 17), at K|ihf»us (A<t« ii. 17),
in the ohunhfli of Aniii Miiii^r whi »i were
orKinizeil by lUmahiiK iiiul Saul (Acts xiv. y.l),
■ml in the i;hurchi'ii which are aildrcHi'd by tlnwe
of the «iiii«tk'» who were iiw -t (•oaservRtive of
Jewinh n«sge«, St. Peter ni .St. Jamei (Jaiiien
T. U ; 1 I'^t. V. 1). (!♦ must be noted as a
•ignilicant fact that they are not mire mentinned
by St. I'aiil, Mccpt in the I'aitoral Kpistlen.) It
ii a fair inference that olHcerii who bore the
fame name in annlogous coniniiinitie* had aualo-
Sons functionii, an.l that the Christian, lilie the
«wi»h, j>re»byter« were otKcers primarily not of
worihip but of discipline. This inference is
corroborated by the fact that all the references
to them which exist in both the canonical and
the extra-canonical writings of the apostolic and
•uh-apostolic ajje refer tn dlv ipline. (1) In the
canonical writings, excliidinK of course those
passages in which the reference is not to organi-
Mllon but to the jOTSsession of xof'-'MOTo, every
passage iu which church oHicers are mentioned
ineaks of either the exercise of authority or of
the practice of its correlative, obedience. In
1 Thess. V. 12, toi>i vpohrrantvovs are siiokcn of
M foueiToCi^ai ; in Heb. xiii. 17, obedience is
enjoined to the leaders of the community as
being those who " watch for your bouIb ;" in
1 Peter r. 1, the presbyters are regarded as
shepherds, and are exhorted to exercise control,
^j) ivayKcurrm 4AA' iKovaius, not as majiters
over slaves (KOTOPeupi«uorr«i), but as being them-
lelves examples of the qualities which they
require in others ; in the Acts of the Apostles
it is on questions of church discipline that the
apostles and elders meet in the council of Jcru-
ialem (c. xv.X end afterwards at the end of St.
Paul's second missionary journey (ixi. I H, 2.')) ;
in the Piiitoral Kpistles, among the qualities
which are enumerated as desirable in bishops and
•presbyters fitness for teaching (SiSaxTiicrfi) and
■iouudnesB in the faith (4it«x<5m*'""' '''''" "•"'^ ''V
SiUaxJl*' "KTroC Kiyov) are altogether sulwrdi-
'Bated to the [nieaession of the moral quiilities
(Which are necessary in a moral governor, and
which in the Apoatolioal Constitutians are ex-
pressly taken aa correlative to the exercise of dis-
.ciplii»B. (2) In the extra-canonical writings of
the ApoBt(dic and sub-Apostolic age the same
position is held by the presbyters, and obedience
to them is similarly enjoined— . i;. Clem. R. i.
57 ; Ignat. aii Trail. 3, ad Matines. 2; Polycarp,
ad Philipp. 5; and the Ebionites appear to have
kept up the original distinction, which had ap-
parently become in. most cases obliterated among
the Jews themselves between the afxtavviyaiyot,
or proj)er oHScers of the synagogue, and the
uptafiirfpoi, or proper officers of the vvyilpiov
i(S. Epiphan. adv. Haerea. ixx. 18).
Whether the institution of presbyters eiiited
in the first instance outside the limits of the
Judaeo-Christian communities is doubtful. There
is no evidence that it did so ; the presumption
,18 that it did not, for when St. Paul, writing to
churches which we?e piesviFtrsbiy rion-.iiiw:s.. m
•their character, recognizes the existence of church
• officers, he designates them by other names —
upoXOTiiiiPM (1 Thess. v. 12), MaKomoi (Phil.
(i.) BelatUm of Presbyters to 5wAojm.— What
bisho|is is a question whiih cannot be ovrluokdl,
and yet to which, with tlie evidnnee iil |.n'«iit
itvailable, only a tentative answer ciii b< (jiTm.
Most probably, us the former were ol lewul,, m
the latter were of (lenlile origin, and as the
former presided over Jewish, so the liitlei, in the
first instance, presiileil over Oentile eoininuMJtii.^
Mence, when the distinction between .N«i»|| anj
Oentile communities begnii to fmle iiviitT, the
two sets of otlicers, fultillnig, as tiiey 'lil, aimli,.
gous r(mctions, were regiinled as liavioi; n\\\\1^.
lent rank. This point must be taken iin having
been conceded by almost all iniport:iiit writers
upon the subJMit in botli ancient iiii'l mijfrn
times — «.;/. in ancient times, .S. Ilieiirn. I'.mm.
in Kp. ad Tit. c. i. id. ; Kp. 14li (H5; nil Kmwj. ;
Thewloret, Interp. Kp. lui Phiiipp. c j, v. 1 ;
Ep. i. lid Titmth. c. iii. v. 1 ; A'/i. ■!'! iH. c. i.
V. 7 ; S. Isidor. Hispal. dc L'ccles. Ojf. Ii'>. ji. ,.,7;
Hrabanus Maurus cfc t'/cnc'oru»i Instil, lili. i,(.6;
and in modern times, to take only wri|.'is whois
tendencies are strongly hierarc hiciil, ProUt
(SMTiimente, \t. 'iUi); Dollinger (/Vrvt /(,;,. ;,
the t'AuivA (E. T.), vol. ii. p. ill). (Ilie evi-
dence upon which this opinion is biise.l »i!l b<
I'ounil in a convenient form in lip. I.ii;litlu(jl'i
edition of !%'■ Kpistln t, tlic J'/tUip/iittM, |i|i. Wj
sqq., ami in fJebhardt and Harnack'a e.litii.ii ui
< lement of Home, cd. ultera, p. ,'>, ami of the '
iifutp/urd of Hernias, p. 2.) ; see alse IJaur,
Kirch. Qesch. 3te AuH. i. p. 270. It muit,
however, be noted that there is a tendency jn
many writers to press the evidence t^n, far, anj
to infer an original idmtity of bishopit am |irtsby.
ters, whereas all that can be legitimntily mferrii
is, as stated above, an ciiuimlimtx i>( rank.) .\i
inter-communion increased betw<.'i'n .ludafo-
Christiiui and Gentile communities, tieuc whu
passed from one to the other tendeil to uie tli«
names bishop and presbyter as interchaiiKeable;
but how the two offices came to tu-c.\iit u
distinct offices in the same comniiiiiitT is lh(
most difficult point in the whole coiii|ilux quei.
tion ; nor does it seem possible upon esistinj
evidence to give any other than tlie general
answer that there was a fusion of the .luJaeo-
Christian and the Gentile organizations, and thai
this fusion was a gradual one. Hut whether thb
or some other be the true explanation of the co-
existence of the two offices, the fact of luch
co-existence must be admitted, although it
universality may be denied. Out of that fatl
two other questions spring : (1) Il»w wis it
that the relative rank of the two ollic< s chanfidi
from one of equivalence to one of snbordinstii-'n; I
(2) and how was it that the title ^irfffnoiroi rather
than any other attached itself permanently to
the head of the ecclesiastical orgaiii/atiun.
(1) To the first question many answers hate
lieen given in both ancient and modern time!;
when, as early as the end of the 4th century,
Aerius appealed to St. Paul's language as cvidfoie I
that bishops and presbyters were ni'a rafii, tiii
Ti^};, Kol tv i^luiM, Epiphaniusjthoughadmittinj I
that the difference between the two orders li; [
onlv in the power of ordination (this iseipreMeJ I
by the i • rast between iroT«'pos ■yon/iv ij j
iKKKitT'Kf o ordain, and rixva ycmv rp ^««*. I
= to baptize), propounded the theory that in I
some cases bishops had been appointed and not I
presbyters, and in others presbyters, but odj
PKIK8T
1701
PRIEST
Wihopi, In either c«i», l,„wfver, .|e«cnn. mrt
n....««,y. «n.l h.n...« St. I'^ul .,,.«k. ,on,..,.m«
«l de«..» .« .„,! buh,,,,., ^„„,ti„,,. „,• ,|„„,,„,
(1) ,. hi.ho,,, (J) , bi,hop in thB U,„ »m,«, l,«
"f;'"'* '■''". '■"'>'""">d, " Kehuke „„t ,u> el,lH- -
(1 liiu. V. I,, M cunoliuiv. ,,ru,.f of the .ui.e-
no.>ty of th,, on. «r,l«r to th..„lh..r (.S. tpiull.
t.m,n,.Hry with thu w« the U..o,-y oijerome,
t.iat Ih. ..piKopate ro« out of tho ,,r..,byter„tJ
*. a .alegUHrd ««.i„,t .ch«n,. a{ rir«t there
were .eversl preibytcri i» one chnr.h, but after-
ward . one wu electe.1 to presi.le over the re.t •
"quo,l |M,,tea unui ejntus e.t .|ui , aeteri. pnie-
p<M„.r..fur m $ch„,nat,:, n;n.-d,Mi factum e.t, ne
u,ui,.|o,,.,»B ».l .« trahen. (luuti eccle.ian,
rumpret (H.eron. A>. U« [„5] aJ £van^.l.y
»« also lu hii Cumnufnt. in Kp. aj lit. c. i. I .ummarv",7Vi ." "•"""""■ »"'< niojt rccei>t
".-." -t ergo pre-byter qui et epi.copu, et 1 l"Z,V j^^^^ '"^ *"' be found ia
;feA7.< et d.ceretur in populjn, Ef.., ,um I'auli »,hrif, ?^w u '»/ ''^^""««-''. in thu Zeit-
•go Apollo, e,o auten. Cephae, co.t.nuni pre" '' , un ti^s'lh^r.' "':r'"«"' '"">• '" '>"^h
Uro,u,„ con».l,o eccle.lae gube.vubantur "). evXre t. '-L tri ^^""' ""'^'"'K historical
Uter tbeonea on the «ubje<;t are so uuiuerou, JlTlZ 7 ''»* ^""" "'^'h ti.»e« there
u to loiikn th« ,1 ..i... .• ., """leious w«» a recognued ami oer,.„..,„.,. ..'..:.. . *
probable that, a. (ifrUrer think., after the fall
. Jeru-alen,, men', thon^hu tun ed to Rote ,»
.enturi '•"";'"-'•"'»'>' 'it«r»t»re of the 2n^
.entury which oiiKinated at K„„„. had f.,r t.
Which .t , lull, „p„„ the ,{,„„,„ „,j , J ; '
IK'H, Which probably retlect tae idea* of »h-
3rd century, the bi.hop i, not only *" : ',',!
noM^.KOf, but iniy,u„ a,),, ^„4 LI (Cult
AiHKt. ii. Jij) ih\ If, fi.. 1 Vi-o;t««,
.uchMH.m ^,.','""'e larger con.munitiei,
«uUi a. Rome or Kplie.u., i„ whi.l, the inlluenca
It w,i. natural hat the .no.,«rchic.al idea .hould
Sed;w':r'''Tl '''■"/'''-' ""« ''l,„.elf had
• lie tiearcKt and most rccei>t
Mmtrover.y will be found io
" ;•--; " "''"<:iB, iVo<:A Wii»j<i/ t'ftrwi in
i"'.."'!!^,;^'^''"""*" '■'• Av««"««-'i, i th„ Iti?.
Uter tbeonea on the eubje<:t are so uun.erou,
u make the dwcuxion of them an almo.t
indies, toelc ; and it must bo sutlicient here to
relvr to the more important of those whiuh have
been advanced during the present century, viz
tho.e of Rothe, Dio An/dn,,e der cAn/t}kh;\
jLin:/w u. ihrer Verf,t^su,i,, IHM (which
T.i- "•"''"/'"»«'«/, IHJ7 (which is
jdcpted in ertect by Dollinger, First A.,o of the
Church (t. r.), vol. 11. p. U2); Baur (1) UU-rder
Urspnuxj de, Ep,ioopat», 18J8 (which i, n„unlv
QeschiMe, Ale Aullage, Bd. i. pp 072 „,„ .
Bitschl Die Entstdmn,,, dcr altkatholilchen KirW
DO. W9 sqq.i Herzog Uber die AOr\,ssii,i.js,eit
PP
d.r J'astorall^^fe 1872; Hackensohmidt, Di,
Mfan:ie des katholuK/um Kirchenbe,,njrs, 1874
Without here aiding another complete theory
to those which have been advanced already, or
treadrng unnecessarily upon debatable ground,
it may be useful to point out that in all proba-
bility the question does not admit of a single
.|..wer,and that the relations of presbyter.^o
buhops varied widely i„ the several groups into
wh,.h the churches of the first two centuries
may be arranges, (a) The case of Jerusalem
.tarn is on a peculiar footing. The Acts of the
tZll'l '"i'T"'' "i." "■'"""""• *hich is con-
firmed by later authorities, that James had a
kind of presidency over the Judaeo-Christian
ommunity which eiisted there. The nature of
hat presidency is uncertain. The Clementines
i«ak of him a. < episcopus " (/ieco,,n. i. 66), or
'archiepiscopu," (»«. j. 73 ^\„ ^^ ^^^^j
Ums,e.g. Cone. Ephes. c. 30); but there iMno
tttemporary evidence of his having possessed
2na century bo admitted as to the possession of
h d signation is there any such evidence to
hew how far the relation in which he stood to
the other apostles, or to the " elders." was
jnalogous to that which existed between The
« ops and presbyter, of later times. The mos
probable conjecture is that, ju t'"- ^..J^y
..ption of a visible head of the- church' Vrose
AdTent ^Gfr""' 'V"' "*"'"=^« "' ^^e Second
Advent (Gfrdrer, AUgem. kirch. Gcsch. i. p 271V
Jtmes, as the Lord's brother, vas regarded as'
<>«=«py.ngH.. pli^ until He .me. ft is al.o ,
u,». . ,.0 I ■ ""'" "-'"^'y times
was a recognued and permanent president Itn.
here also there is no evidence to sh ew h" preS e
«:fsiitrr-i^^---:
"\~- \.'^^': (<-) In the cjise of the churches of
.ther cities, in which, it must be borne in mfnd
there ,s no evidence of the e.i.tenc of S S-
centurv it"''"'' """' ""* ">'*''"« "^ ^'e*^ 2nd
century, itai.pears to be sufficient to point to
the general analogy of the contemporarv com
eaily churches were mwlelled. Deiuocratical
as those communities were in the main, tliey
S nUuVf '"'• • ^*'^'"' -uch .president
00 u the Greek associations, under several titles
-«^. Apx.pa,..,rrti,. at Rhodes, C. I. Or. No.
^525 b. Foucart, No. 46, and at Svros Ro««
Inscr Gr. Ined. No. loV, Foucar? No U-
ipaydpxns, J>u,«. Uert. vi. 63; ipyjp^orat
Amorgos, Foucart. No 4.5- i\,Ja i^ .
I^elos, C. I. Gr ho 227, w^^ t^ij"'' »'
> v/. .. ui. i,o. izii roucai't. No 43-
20077'"^'^'" (of a college of priest. , C. I. Gr
2007 n ; so also among the f.pr,fio,, yv^aeMjZ'
«o. 2i3; (6) ,„ the Roman CoUeqia, very fre-
quently, and un.ler various titles, «.i «• MagLr "
at Rome, Orelli-Henzen, Inscr! A Z^mh
6011, Mommsen, C. 1. Lat vol ih Mn iqqo j
SS t ffi ^- ^ 'oet^" iS' t
No '02 . u ^^'- '"• ^,?- 3432, at Salona, i.'vid.
Plut i '2' '' vT <= ^^""^ V-rrdT,,,
the ChA„f'' "'»'='' ™»y be compared with
me Cliris»iau irpoicTTdutvatY an Pi r 1. •••
Nos. 975, 984, 1209. '^ * * ^^ '* ^'- "*•
These special circumstances of particular
churches, and the general analogy of "Item!
CTh'e ?a°cUh."t't' 'T t""'''^ ^ ~
lor tne tact that towards the midH!« nf th» "nrl
century, if not earlier, there was a "te'^dencv to
place a single officer at the head of the ecele-
siastical organization. But the question stU
reinaimi. nor ha, it hitherto been answered excent
upon purely speculative grounds. wJ^y, as umg
the existence of this tendency, should this sZlf
5 B 3
f? J
■■•■\m
, -1.' '
1702
PRIEST
PRIEST
officer have been called tirdcKPTos. The key to
the problem, wliiuh is nUbrded by inacriptious
wbich hnve only come to light in recent times, ia
one of the most imimrtant contributi >t\3 of epi-
graphical science to early Christian antiquities.
(1) At Salkhad, in the Hauran are several
inscriptions wliich contain the word ittiuKoiroi
(Le Bas et Waiidingt(m, No. 1990, cf. No. 1990,
2298, 24:12e; Wetzstein,.4u..,c'./.«/i/ie Gr. u. Lat.
Inschriftm, No. 47, in Abhandl. iter Bert. A/tad.
1863 ; Transactions of the Uoyal !S<>ciety of
Literature, 2 series, vol. v. part 2, p. 2.'' 9). It
appears from these that theotMcers so designated
had the charge of the funds )f the temple (Tctroi/
0eoC), and that out of these they had erected the
building of which the most important inscription
formed pivt. (2) In entire harmony with this
is an i'lsciiption which was found at Thera.
(Ross. /nscr. Gr. Ined. fasc. No. 2, 198 ; Rhangabt',
Antiiiuitgs hell^niquos, vol. ii. No. 764 ; but in a
more exact fornj Wescher, Seirue aixitibloyique,
vol. liiu (for 180tj), pp. 245 sqip) : —
(•^dvo^ Tat ittayyeXiav to ^[ti' ap-
/vpiov tyBaytlarat TOf cTri(rK6[Tros
iitttiva Kal MeAci'irlrof ....
" It has been decreed (sc. by the community
that the MaKoiroi (l)io and Meleippus) shall
accept the money and place it at interest . . ."
Thii seems to show that the iiri<TKoitoi of the
Greek associations were their officers of finance.
Such also were in all probability the Mctkottoi
of the early Christian churches. One of the most
important features of those churches was that
they were charitable societies. In an age which,
like our own, was marked by gi'eat extremes
of wealth and poverty, and under circumstances
which cut oft' many of their members from the
ordinary pursuits of life, they tended to gather
round thorn more and more every year the poor
and the dependent. They dispensed hospitality
to travelling brethren, they tended the sick, and,
what was probably the weightiest burden, they
supported the widows and orphans of those who
had died in poverty, or by martyrdc^i. All this
required not only funds, but adif. er of funds.
It was not possible to distribute a common fund
satisfactorily by means of a number of officers
with equal powers, not necessarily acting in
concert. A presiding officer became indispensable,
and the officer so appointed was known by the
title which was in current use to designate the
financial officer of a community. This function
of the Christian bishop continued to be a primary
one, even after many other functions had
clustered round his office. It is not sound to
reason from the functions of bi.shops in the 3rd
and 4th centuries to their functions in the first ;
but at the same time, the fact that the bishops
wero the custodians and dispensers of church
funds in the later period corroborates the infer-
ence which is drawn from other data that they
were so also in the earlier. (As the point is only
incidental to the subject of the present article,
the evidence in favour of the view which
is here stated cannot be fu'ly given; it must
he sufficient to refer to ''le titrpRji wMcli is
laid in 'La Pastoral Epi--' as upon the neces-
sity ol s bishop being a.tf.,\iin "is and <pi\i-.
{cfoi J to the fact that in H. .mas (Sim. 9,
87) the binhops, who are distinguished from the
iirrfirroAoi Kal !i!if<rico\oi of c. 2.5, are regarded
chietiy as ministers of hospitality ; to the fact
mantioned in .lustin (Apol. i. 67) that the lollfo
tions of the faithful were deposited in tho
president {irpofaTiis, the title dniirKoiias is imt
given), and thai he had the care of widows niid
orphans and prisoners and stranjrers; aiui tn tlie
long series of ecclesiastical canons and hnpirwl
edicts which regard the bishop si)ecialiy in the
light of trustee of church property. 'I'he luiiun
of financial and disciplinary char.ictcr in the
same person has a close jiaralle! in the curntcre)
= \oyiarai of the Roman municipalitios under
the later empire. For the authorities as t(^ the
functions of these important officers see M,ir-
quardt, IlOin. Staatsvcrwaltuttfj, pp. 487-iyi). It
is a coincidence which is worth mentioning that
the curator had the title o( pater civitutis.
It is ni't dithcult to see that such an oiliocr in
such communities must, from the mere uatnicof
bis position, have had considerable power. But
several collateral as well as several d(niviiti7e
causes were at work to increase that jiower, and
to account for the altered status of the pres-
byterate at the end of the 2nd century as com-
pared with the end of the first.
1. The cuf!todian of the church funds was also
the custodian of the list of persons among whum
those funds were to be divided. He kept the
Ktwdv or KariiXoyos. [Matricula.] Like
the coriesponding lists of contemporary com-
munities (which, however, were rathe-- lists
of contributories than of recipients), this
list was probably arranged in clas:es, the
presbyters, the deacons, the "widows," and
the " virgins," being severally ranked to-
gether. Hence, like the Roman censors, the
custodians of this list seemed to have assumed
the function of determining upon the right of
particular persons to be admitted to or excluded
from the severr^l classes. Hence also tlie bishop,
as custodian of the lint, was the proper ollicer
for giving certificates of membership. When a
Christian claimed the hospitality of a foreign
church in his travels, or when he passed per-
manently *■ om one church to another, and
claimed a place on the roll of a new com-
munity, such a certificate was indispensahlc.
The jealous care with which the right of giving
it was guarded (Cone. Antioch. c. 7) shews the
importance which was attached to it, and sup-
ports the inference that it played no inconsider-
able part ii'. the exaltation of the episcDpate in
relation to the presbyterate.
a. The presbyterate also lost ground in the 2nd
century through the large development within
the churches of opinions which were at variance
with the general currents of apostolic doctrine.
The authority of apostolic doctrine was generally
admitted, and the appeal to it was not made
only on the Catholic side. Gnostics, Hbionites,
and Ophites, the followers of Carpocrates, of
Basilidos, and of V^alentinus, all traced baclt their
opinions to an apostolic source, and maintained
that they were the inheritors of an unwritten
apostolic tradition (cf Iren. i. 2.'i, 5; 30, 14;
Clem. Al. Strom. 7, 13, p. 882; 7, 17, p. 900,
ed. Pott.), it hecame necessary to dislinguisil
the true frorii the false tradition, and the former
was found not merely in the tradition of apostohc
as distinguished from non-apostolic chur "-c!
(TertuU. Adv Marc. 1, 21, " aon alia agnoscendi
PRIEST
Liei.,,.whi.h,„.d*'::„\::;i':;::>-^";:
hmk- of those churches (Iren. 5, 2, 2, " L ae per
ditu. , tt. d. 4 2b, 2 (and 4, 33, S), with tue
Mme general reference, " cun/ ..pLoj^aJr^uc! I
cessione char.sma veritat.s a,x^,,erunt " cf
..other churches also the chief o'.Hc./ was "!,'
de,.«8.tao. and co.,scrvator of the faith. It was '
»afu- ... the hands of a single po.son tha. if!? '
were sh-.red by a nun,ber of persons. Thus the i
b.shop who h,..! by this ti,„e begun to be pro'
m,„e„t above the presbyters, was%ega.-ded is a '
.or .„ca.;,.ate tradition, the j.ure an unro,-- '
rupted sp.-,ng of apostolic truth (of. Clen,
&c»,7«. 3 bo, ab ipso" [6c. from the bisl o 1
!use.|j.te d.ictnnnm Hdei. cf .V) S fir ,i V
60,«.3;//,..„^^V/...3ltlso'in^'L.tlh;w:
mg ce,.t..ry, Cyprian, Epi^t. 69, 5, vol. i . 402
^...>le e„„n sch.s.nata et haere'ses obortae su.ft
rt 0.' antur dum episcopus qni unus est e
eccte.ae praeest . . . co.ltemnitur") The '
ueren.e of this function of the episcopate with
that wl..ch was n.entioned in Ihe prece ine
pa.agr,.i,l, .s .u-„..gly n,arked by Tert'ulli m (i?
Pmc^cr fjoeret. 0. 20), "Con.municatio pads et
appellafo frat.rnitatis et contesseratio ho^sp all
tat.s, quae jura non alia ratio regit quara eiu dem
sacrainent. una traditio." ejusuem
These causes operated with different degrees of
force .nd.lerent co.nniunities ; and it i?bTno
means certa>u when the subordination of the
ordo presbyters to a single ofKcer firs? became
ge.|eral. The evidence, wh'ether for th existence
1 bishops or for their sui,e.-ior authority, 4nno?
be l,.'essed farther than the facts warr.int ^ [t
maybea,|,nitted, for e.xamp!e, that H g±; ,'
ytrus worthy witness, and that a pfesi C
officer e.x.sU.d fron, the first at Jerusalem"^ vS
.^soa,,n,ttmg that such an office hdhe
1 ; t^h'"''' '" •'''"times attached them
• Ues to the episcopate. (2) It mav be ad.nitted
.» *, p. 4,5), hshops existed as chief officers of
sitnciut also admitt us that thou „ """eis
relation to the presbvfer ie th»^ "'""'' '"
ir!il,.h tk,. l"^^esoyteiate the same posit .in
i^iiich they occujiied afterwards. Irenaeus fo
example was cognisant of the distinc ion 'but
«) .u us,„g "successiones presbvter u V^'g "2
2,«n.l succeasioues e,,iscoporuin," 3 ■) / ' „ '
.',.">"'' »8 " episcopatus," 4, 26 2 -(A in
•Pl'l)Mng.he rob, ^.,^«<i.ous of Isa .4 60 17
Tf"''"""'' 4. 2.i, r,, he clearly l.npl.e's -h!?
«voi,S bvTh« ^^^ ^pn^'lusion cannot be
ma s l,„f t """""I't'on whi.h Diillinger
makes that Irenaeus uses the word " nresbvtlvi ■'
u an unusual «„ii.o mnnrJ,i, I'res"}^'!
E-T. p. 313.) " ' "^P^i^*^" '"id CatMus,
But by the beginning of the 3rd ceuturv
^ " '" "'"""™ '» " ""gle type, bishop, pr !
PRIKST
1703
S:^^tt^;:;d!:»tdtr'""°'^'-
wf: fc^o'ifc;;ti.''u:'■"':''V'■"™'-
i ti.e latter, thou'gh nlja ^ 'es ^e. h m' '^"^S
^yiTinn's clai.uf as iX/^^^^J^;^ f^'^'^
s.ii.us a., deacon, J'Jp. 49 cU .'.,■" ,"'"« '^ '"''"•■'■''-
lite... suum diacon'^um t^ 'd^^^ "'"''■
^^'Xn^-thi'^f"''^"^-"''''^--"^
^i.~^t'^ic:^-^-:!;!i;h^.^^e..i
nat.on cf the ni-,wl,v»,.,.,.,, "•""'■'^ "le subordi-
,„.: ■ 1 ' ''*'"y''-""'^ more co.nuletp Th^
original causes of both the rise an, t
causes the most important ere n\ ,1 """^
tion of .synods T'liho „ 1 ^^ "'^ ni.stitu-
"Ti;:'£;;^'::r---;i-">^^.?^:S'
::tim^^'""->^^^^'^-^-''T
ap. o. A.nbros. f «. vo ii „ oq-, u • .' ''
P>-e.sbyteri una ordinal o' Tstnt '"'"''" **
uullam causam audiat ab.sql. p,ll^' .a'cr'-P"'
n.m snorn.n; alioquin h-Wta eW 1' "''r
venditio;;i':;,;:i:^,:'-'-,:>:-p-umvei
connivcntia et snbscr.pt.^:' ^ ^""'^^;jl"«
presbyters [.see OuoinationI n fi ^ "'"^
ollow,ng section on U.e functi„,.s of , ! tters
it w.l , however, be convenient to give bv wnt"
of contrast to the Ktat^^.-it- rf n • I ' • ■'
Ci.rys.,stom, the elaboraiV «,;^'l;;''S':i: 'if
second council of Seville sumL, up ho Llr"
ences of tunctiou which had come be i'
u..ed at the beginning of the 7th nU rv It'
canon « n,„re i„,p„,ta„t than .«ost C^^J^;
•I. ^!1
: / .'.'Urn
h. ■
I
I
(it
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1704
PRIEST
1
1
J
HI '
V
1
i j
1
i ,
!
\ i
R i
1
because the president of the council was the
learned antiquarian Isidore, who is not likely to
have expressed merely local customs as general
rules ; it may be added as an indication, that
the tendencies of the council were not ultra-
episcopal ; that the preceding canon had restored
to his office a presbyter who had been deprived
by the sole authority of his bishop " sine con-
cilii examine .... Episcopus enim siicerdotibus
ac ministris solu- honorem dare potest, auferre
solus non potest." The canon in question begins
by disallowing the action of Agapius, bishop of
Cordova, who had frequently commissioned pres-
byters in his absence to erect altars and conse-
crate churches: it then proceeds to state in detail
(1) what presbyters could not do under any cir-
cumstances, (2) what they could not do either in the
presence of a bishop or without his commission ;
" nam quamvis cum episcopis plurima illis [sc.
presbyteris] ministeriorura communis sit dispen-
gatio q'laedam novellis et ecciesiasticis regulis
sibi prohibita noverint ; sicut presbytemrum et
diaconorum ac virginum consecratio ; sicut con-
secratio altaris, benedictio vel unctio ; siquidem
nee licere eis ecclesiam vel altarium conseerare
nee per impositionem manus fidelibus bnptizatis
vel controversis ex haeresi paracletum Spirituin
tradere; nee chrisma conficere nee chrismate
bai)tizatoriim frontem signare ; sed nee publice
quidem in missa quenquam poenitentium recon-
ciliare nee formatas cuilibet epistolas mittere.
Haec enim omnia illicita esse presbyteris quia
poutilicatus apicem non habent qnem solis deberi
episcopis auctoritate canonuin praecipitur ; ut
per hoc et disci-etio graduum et dignitatis fasti-
gium summi pontiHcis demonstretur ; sed neque
coi-am episoopo licere presbyteris in baptis-
terium introire nee praesente antistite infantem
tihgere aut ^ignare, nee poeuitentes sine prae-
cepto episcopi reeonciliare, uec eo praesente
sacramentum corporis et sanguinis Christi con-
iicere, nee eo coram posito popnlum docere vel
benedicere aut salutare nee plebem utique
exhortari " (2 Cone. Hispal. A.D. 019, c. 7).
(ii.) Helations of Preshyiers to Deacons. — The
primitive relations of presbyters to deacons are
hardly less obscure than their relations to
bishops ; but one point at least is clear, that it
was a relation of superiors to inferiors in rank.
Deacons appear to have been mainly out-door
relieving orticers, whose function was to find out
and to report the circumstances of worthy
recipients of church funds. They Were thus
brought into intimate connexion with the bishops,
who were the custodians and dispensers of church
funds. With the growth of the supremacy of
the bishops, .and also with the extension of the
eleemosynary system, there was a corresponding
increase in the importance of deaconH. Of this
there is abundant evidence in the ApostoUal
Cotistihttions, which perhaps from this point of
view may be treated as a " Tendenz-schrift." For
example," Const. Apost. 2, 26, the bishop sits as
it were in the place of God, the deacons stand by
him as the heavenly powers stand by the side of
God ; ibid. 2, 28 ; the laity are to make their
requests known to the bishop through the
deacons, even as we apprnaoh God through the
Lord ; ibid. 2, HO, as the Son is the messenger and
prophet of the Father, so the deacons are the
messengers and prophets of the bishop. So also
ID the place which deacons and presbyters
PRIEST
respectively occupied in the ritual, the prej.
byters, who were only coadjutors of and conceit.
brant with((7uu;UU(rTai, Aiot. KA'^^u. 17 [-0]) the
bishop, tended to be crushed out. In the " I'l.nti.
ficial High Mass " of those days the bish"|i urij
the deacons seemed to share the service between
them. The presbyters might take the bisiiii[,'g
place, but when he was present they appeiirel to
have little share in the liturgy. Even d"wn to
modern times the gospeller and the epistnicr me
regarded as deacon and sub-ilciacon res]iectively.
It is therefore natural to find in early (imiuilj
traces of a struggle for supremacy between pres-
byters and deacons. It is clear from 1 C„ne..
Arelat. c. 15, and 1 Omc. Nicaen. c. 18, tliat tlie
deacons had begun to assume to themselves ths
place in the liturgy which was afterw.uJs
reserved exclusively for priests, i.e. bislicps and
presbyters (the obvious meaning of these two
canons has been obscured by the interpretations
of those who have viewed them only by tlie li^-ht
of later usage, e.g. Binterim, DenlmiirdylMten,
Bd. i. p. 360 ; HefVle, Councils, E. T. vi 1. i.
p. 4-29). But upon these assumptions these
councils put an effectual check, and a few years
afterwards the council of Laodicaea (c. 20) made
the further regulation in support of the jiresbv-
teratethat a deacon must not sit in the presence
of a presbyter except with the presbyter's ]ier-
mission (cf. SS. Apostolomm Epitimia, ii. 7, ap.
I'itra, Jur. Eccl. Gr. vol. i. p. 105, wliiih,
although Pitra speaks of the canons in genei al as
an instance of " protervam illam byzantiiicinim
mentiendi pruriginem," is supported by SUtt,
Eccles. Antiij. c. 39). The rise of the sacerd<ital
theory, which made the sam* distinction between
pi jsbyters and deacons which had existed in the
Mosaic legislation between priests and Levites,
settled the question in the East, nor are any
other conciliar regulations respecting it found
until Cone. Trull, c. 7, which so far modifies the
earlier rule as to allow a deacon to take pre-
cedence of presbyters when he is acting as the
dejmty of a metropolitan or patriarch. In the
West it is clear from Jerome that the struggle
was even Pitronger and more lasting since he ii
at the trouble formally to refute those who
tfiought that a deacon was superior to a presbvter
(S. Hieron. Epist. 14G [85] nd Ewm;h'1.) ; anj
although the canon of the council of Aries, and
the growth of the sacerdotal theory, whirh hare
been mentioned above, prevented any revival of
the claim to what were considered to be sacer-
dotal functions (unless account be taken of 2
Cone. Arelat. c. 15), the claim for precedence was
continued, as is seen from Cone. Andcrjav. A. P. 453,
c. 2 ; Barcinon, A.D. 578 (?), c. 4 ; 4 Tolet
A.D. G:j.,, c. 39 ; Statt. Eccles. Anttij. c. 37. It
may be added that in the strenuous cfl'mt which
was made by Novatian to uphold the authority
of the presbyterate against the episcupato, he
seems also to have endeavoured to dispense with
the diaconate (cf. Coust.int's interpretation of
his letter, ap. Kouth, Reliquiae Sacnie, vol. iiL
pp. 21, 78).
(iii.) Functions of Presbyters.— The sketch
which has been given of the origin of the^rej-
byteratp, and of its early relations to the
ejjiscopatu, lias to some eitent covered iht
ground of the present section ; it has at the same
time shewn, from the great variations whirh
took place in those relations, the JillicuHy of
ear from 1 (';
PRIEST
framing any ,t«temenu on the m.bject which
»-ill hole g,M„l tor more than a particular period,
or a particular grouj) of churches.
The functions of the jiresbyterate may be
mainly grouped according as they relate (1) to
discipline, (2) to the sacraments, (3) to teaching,
(4) to benediction, fhe functions of ..resbvter,
mregard to ordination will begatbered from the
special artic e on that subject. [Ohdination, V.
Minister (if Ordination.]
(l)Vi.wip/;ne~U has been mentioned above
that the original conception of the presbyterate,
as gathered both from the analogy of the cor
responding office among the Jews, and irom the
words of early Christian writers, was that it had
the general control of the morals of the churches
and constituted a court of discijiline. The same
fimction continued, though its relative import-
ance decreased, even after the episcopate had
attfline, its hnal supremacy, and after the officers
ofthe cliurch had become officers rather of wor
ship than of government. T'he most significant
indications of this are found in the Ordinals of the
Western church ; the tenor of both the addresses
to the people and the prayers shews this to have
been the ea.ling element in the conceiition of a
presbyters functions at the time when those
Ordinals were framed. Presbyters are said to be
appointed to iiclp bishops in the government of
he people as the seventy were apjiointed to help
Moses. Ihe prayer is that they may exhibit in
their own lives the virtues which thev require in
others. In the earliest ordinal ofthe later tvpe
(Missale hancorum, ap. Muratori, /.itur,: lioin
Irf. vol. 111. p. 4,',o) there is onlv a slight
reference to any other functions, but all the later
Ordinals have .vlded a prayer, or pravers, that
he presbyter may "oiTer acceptable victims for
he sm,, an,l offences of the people," and the
l'« ado-Isid,.rian decretals (EpLst. klrian. I
C.I7; Hmschius, p. 16;!, make sacrificing the
prominent function. The question of the general
tearings of this function of discipline*' upon
Christian morals is too intricate to be properly
discussed here ; it will be sufficient for the pre-
sent purpose to treat briefly of its judicial or
quasi-judicial exercise. In that re.spect an
piportant di.stinct.on must be drawn between the
iunctions o. the Ordo Preshiiteromm in a church
acting ,n concert and the functions of an indi-
vidual presbyter acting alone; it is the more
.eces.,ary to bear this distinction in min.l as the
>gnor.ng it underlies much of the ^^^fus on
which exists in many of the discussions to which
the subject of the presbyterate has given rhse
Iherc are good grounds for thinking that in
h earliest period of church history the pr-s-
y terswere ittle more than the presidents and
, r'l f •!'■' "•^""' ^""-"'""ity, liable to be
W ^' ^y '-■»-, and bound I carry out its
JfCwoiis. The most pertinent proof is the
account of the judicial process in a Christ an
community i„ Tertull. aUo^j. c. ,39 0'udi4tu?
magno .u,„ pondere et apud oertoa de De co '
■pec tu, summimique futiri judicii praejudic urn
ton 1 ' '""'"'"'"" "* " ™'"""'nH'atione ora-
CZ1'['':'''''^''\. /"■'*'" 7"'V'<« s^u„rc.,
Mih.Z "";" i""''*=''=6'l twtimonioadenti").
m there can be no question that in time
llu-e, the ordo of « church (1) Jumed an
PRIEST
1705
authority apart from the communitv, (2) cam.
he^S .."Vtbrd*'"'™'^' ''"= P'--'''-t«"^d
ine bi»i(,p [the discussion as to the place oJ
sakr '"e he;:'"'''';: ";-,""' "'•'''' ■"«**- •"■• ^^^^^r*
sane, oe here omitted]. '
('<) The presbyters and bishop, acting t osether
fornied the court to which offences aganimoraU
aHairs of the church generally were .administered
In ih,s carmcty they formed' a <r.„Sp.„ragnat
£pist. ad Trail, c. H), „„J are designa^ted is Teh
-en so late as the 4th and 5th cent,?, ies, . ,; by
fs. Oreg. Nazianz. Or„t. 42, 11 n 711!. s? -7
C rU A]}r.} ' .l^^'>«'''ti lil. Kjmt.2ad
tj/rill. Alex ■ hyuesius, £j,ist. 67, p. 208 Hence
n erms which are borrowed fron, similar courts'
under theempire they are also spoken o as "J«
(S^at't 1w '. ; "'"' '" ^■''"" '•'^ « " consilium •'
.on requires each bishop to appoint t wf p es
byters, presumably to form such a con t a
IKAV. c 20, Pit/a,./„.. £.:" Cr vo 'p g":
A "A '" ^'-^"'"■-^''. vol. ii'. p.''l22 •
J>) Ihe bishop, as head of this body, was an
mtegral and essential part of it Flu ?
was nr<lin»,.;i„ ' "■ ">s consent
pronounced, and by whom the resto olof
without such an eniei4encv J„„ o ■
declined to act alone. Tffiotl iTge fe^
of the sub-deacons Philomenus and Fortunatus
and the acolyte Favorinus, since mai y of th '
clergy are absent, though in the meantime 1 hi!
caimcity of finance-otficer, he orders th,U the
accused persons shall not receive their monthly
allowance {Kp,st. 28 [,34], c. 3) ""'"tn'7
for''l),''"'"'J''""' P'-'^«''7««" sometimes claimed
for hemselves a similar discretionary po "^r
audio tamen quosdam de presbyteris nee evm,:
geli. memores, nee quid ad'nos martvres IX-
serint cogitantes, nee epi.scopo honorem s,.ce lotU
sui et cathedrae reservantes jan, cum ap, ,co„"
Tthm^d:;:'"" •"/'«"-<- ini-i^s.
nstiam dare, quando oportet ad haec vpr
c. ^). Uut the claim was disallowed. In the
yk ua ',rr:' '■"■'^ "'"^ ■"'•l ^J"*" ^^at id !
V dual presbyters must not act without the
bishop's consent (Cone. Laod. c. 57, H.^vyl/l,
TO. im,r;,6rov; so Can. Apost. c. 39, wheM
IZ:1T^ ''.^''"l; *" '■'^ admii'iist „n
church funds, but Zonaras understands it of
™munication); but the penitenti s who
were appoin od at Constantinople after the
NWian schism were presbyters'cSoc™; 7/.*^!
5, l.t), and much later archbishop Theodore who
.nust be taken as an authority for at any rate
contemporary usage, expressly states \hat
among the Greeks a presbyter may, it' there il
2. 3, 8, ed. Ha^a; aiid'stubls, 'i^s, ^'vl
11/
-'4
W
in the West their powers in this re.spect wera
limited by many conciliar enactments, the rep^
1706
PRIEST
tition of which, however, shews thtit thef were
not unfrequently struggled agiinst. The ear-
liest caniin is that of Elvira (Cone lllib. a.d. 306,
c. 3'J), the main purport of which apjiears to
be that a prebbyter (or deacon) must not re-
admit a penitent even in peril of death without
consulting his bishop ; but the text of 'he
canon ia somewhat uncertain, and has given rise
to some controversy (cf. the notes of Aubespine
on the canon, printed as an ajipendix to his
edition of Optatus, Paris, 1631 ; V. de Xlondoza,
Dissert, de Can. Cunc. fllil). af. Mansi, ii. p. '243;
Petaviusdc i'oenit.et Rcconcil. Vi-t. Ecdesiae Mori-
bus Jioccpta, c. 2, 4). There is a similar variety in
the African canons on the same subject ; 2 Cone.
Carth. c. 4, coinn.iiles with the version of the canon
of Elvira which is given above (the text as given
in Mansi, iii. 694, is slightly dillerent from id.
iii. 86-7, but the purport is the same); but
the African code allows a presbyter to act in
similar cases without consulting his bishop (Cod.
Can. Afric. c. 43). The Galilean canons agree
with the latter rule; 1 Cone. Araus. a.d. 441
(under S. Hilary of Aries), c. 1. specially of
heretics ; so lotidam verbis, '2 Arelat. c. 26 ; so
also Cone. Epaon, A.D. 517, c. 20. Cone. Agath.
A.D. 506, c. 44, 2 Cone. Hisp. a.d. 619, c. 7, lay
down the converse rule tliat a presbyter must
not readmit a penitent publicly in church ; and
the latter of the two councils prohibits such an
action even ujion the delegation of a bishop ;
but archbishop Theodore expresses the opinicm
that such a delegation was peiinissible (Poenit.
Theod. 1, 13, 3, ed. Haddan and Stubbs), leaning
herein, as in ottier points, rather to the Eastern
than to the Western use. It may be noted as an
indication of the drift of opinion and usage that
the .lumieges Pontifical of the end of the 8th
centui'7 (Pontif. Ciemmeticense, Martene, ordo iii.)
treats the receiving of penitents as an ordinary
function of bishops and presbyters in distinction
from deacons. The Apostolical Constitutions
(8, 27) deny the right uf individual presbyters
to depose (Kafiaipe7y) interior clerks, but allow
them to suspend (aipoptfeii') such as, being subject
to their authority, deserve suspension ; (the
Coptic version, as translated by Tattam, c. 73,
makes the distinction to lie in their having
power to put out, but not power to anathematize).
Whether a single presbyter had power to excom-
municate in early times is doubtful : the earliest
mention i f such a power is probably in the
Judicium Clemcniis, which gives summary powr
in certain cases of misbehaviour in church to a
bishop, presbyter, or any clerk (.ludic. Clem,
c. 20, ap. Haddan and Stubbs, iii. 226, from
Kunatmann Pdnitent. liiichcr der Anijelsachs.
p. 176).
(2) Tlw S(tcrarr\ents ; i^.) The Eucharist. — In the
earliest period it is probable that in the Eu-
charist, as in the ailministration of discipline
and church funds, the bishops and presbyters
acted together (this practice of "coneelebration"
survived at Rome long after it appears to have
wased elsewhere; it is mentioned by Amalarius
of Mctz in the 9th century, de Ecdes. Ojfi. :. 12,
three centuries later by Innocent III., ik Mifst.
Miss. iv. 0. 23, and by many mediaeval writers).
They ji^iutly offered, t.v Idoss-T! th?- nfirorir.c:'. r,r,.!
jointly distributed them to the people. In the
absence of the bishop the presbytirs could per-
form these functions without him | the power to
PRIEST
offer or bless the Eucharistic olferings, and to givt
them to the people, was probably reganlej a
inherent in the olfico of a presbyter; ami it mnr-
be inferred from the fact of its being the function
of which an erring presbyter was first dupiivei
Cone. Neocaes. c. 9, that it was regarded us the
chief independent function of his ollicc. (Juf.
side the city church in which the bislmp naj
his presbyters ordinarily thus acted togethor a
single presbyter . seems to have exercised tliig
power without question ; he might " braak
bread " with confessors in their prison, ^)r us in
apostoiic days " from house to hiiuse." .\t
Rome the presoyters of the several titnli, which
were practically t"uivalent to the urban pariihe*
of later times, were restrained from ('onscciiaini;
the Eucharist thei.iselves, and used instead that
which the bishops sent them ; but the wiinJs of
the earliest enactment respecting this, state es-
jiressly that the practice was merely d-simeil
as a mark of unity of communion, and aJrait
that presbyters have ordinarily the riglit of corf,
secration (S. Innocent I. EjAst. (id Dcrcnt. f. 5),
But elsewhere there does not appear to have
been any restriction whatever, except those
which were imposed by the general rules of
seniority and precedence, e.;]. Cone. Nentaes,
c. 13. In time, however, there came to be
restrictions of ]ilace. 2 Cone. Carth. a.d. 3ii0(?)
c. 9, forbids a presbyter from perforniintr his
office "in quolibet loco " without the iicrmissioii
of his bishop. The requirement that the altar
upon which be offers should previouslv have been
consecrated by a bishoj), is probably di' nmoh
later date; the first positive enactments ,ire in
the Liber Pontificalis ( IV,'. S. !>'iric. c. '.'), and in
the Carolingian capitularies, Karoli M. Capit
General, A.D. 769, c. 14, Pertz, vol. i. p. 3:- ; the
fact that it is so elaborately vindicated bv the
Pseudo-Isidore (Decret. Kelicis IV. ad I'linm
Episcopos, Hinschius, p. 700) and also tlie ;'act
that it occurs as a positive enactment, not baseJ
upon early canonical authority, so late a.s the
loth century,^.;/, in the caiiitularies of .\tfo 11.
of Vercelli, circ. a.d. 9,')0, c. 7, ap. D'Achery
Spicil. vol. i. p. 403, are significant indicatiousoV
its Late date. In the absence of such a consc-
crated altar, fixed or portable, Archbislwp Theo-
dore allows a presbyter to perform m.iss proviJed
that he holds the elements in his hands (roenit,
Theodor. 2, 2, 2, ed. Haddan and Stubbs).
(ii.) Baptism. — The admission of a new member
into the community was in early times the
work of the whole church. In the roost solemn
form of the ceremony bishop, presbyters, deacons,
and laity, ^ iraaa Upa SioK^tr/uTjo-is. and jrai^a
Tek TTJj 4KK\r}irias xArfpw^oTo (S. Uiimys. Areop.
de Eccles. Hierarch. 2 , 4, where a coiniiarison
with 3, 14 shews that Pachymeres is wroni;
in understanding the expressions of tlie K\r,fi)s
only) had each their appropriate part. In the
less solemn forms of the ceremony the Lasteni
Church seems to have allowed either a bishop or
a presbyter to preside (Const. Ap' t. 7, 22; m
il>i(l. 3, 20, pairr't((iv is a distinct and proper
function of a presbyter) ; but in the Western
Church the function of a presbyter in this
respect seems always to have been regarded as
.!i^irg^trri ftod liot Origirjrtl ; Oil tlli^ j-:::: ih';
statements of Tertullian and Jerome leave no
room for reasonable doubt ; the fornier fm,
de Bapiismo, c. 17, "dandi [se baptismum]
PRIEST
qDiden, hnbet jus gummus sacerdo, qui est
tamen sine qMsco,,. nuctoritate propter ecc esiaB
honorem ; ' the latter «ays, DM. TL^Tl
Op. ed M.gne, v,d. ii. 164, ■• inde [so. from ihe
njoemty lor unity i„ the church] Venit ursine
chr.»m« to et episcopi jus.ione ueque prcsby r
neque d.aconus ,us hnbeant baptizandi." ^ In
both l.a..t and West when the full ceremonia"
U,ok place, there was a division of labour • the
b^ account of the part of each orde „7 IcS
mthe hast.s to be found in the treati e^ff
St l>,ony.sius Areopagi.e qm.ted above the
air best complete account of Western usage is to
be found in Mabil on's Onlo liomanus, i^ c 43
t^!: .'■/ '?.^""' "'■ ''"'»« " <li«t>'netion t;
dia«n between the immersion iu water, which
Diigh be performed by deacons and e -cm, by
acolvtos, and the other ceremonies, „f which the
diKd were the anointing with the clirism and
the imposition of hands, which were shami be
ween the presbyters and the bi.hops. If the
bishops were absent, the Eastern church allowed
.presbvter to do all that, if present, the bisho,,
would have done; but altho'ugh there was i^;
some time a variety of usage in the West as
Ore t [Ap.st 4, 0, vol. ii. ,, (jgyj reserves the
fanal anuniting on the forehead for bi, ho,l
whereas in /-.pint. 4, 20, vol ii „ 70=; !,„ 'ii ' '
it to presbyters), it uitimat iy? c. me to b th!
Western rule that a presbytlr n"igl t „ ,« i
w th the chrism, provided that he ufed chH „
which had previously been consecrat ,1 b- "
bishop, and also that he did not anoint on "th
forehea,! (h. Innocent, i:pist. ad Decent, c 3 a,
Hmschius, p. :,28), but that he must not in'an'v
m^^ .nipose hands (Theodulph. Aurelian. i
Ordme BapUsmi,c. 17, Jligne, 1'. L. cv "^T Z
other words a presbyter might bapti.^.'but a
k,hop must confirm; (it is importint o n .t
that when I'hotius objected to this Westll
nasge and asked » Whence came th laTv
pr .byters should nit confirm ? " Enist i i
(2 ,«1.. Migne, P. G. vol. cii. 728, theT t „s weV
otabie to give any better authority tl^l th'
Decretals and the Liber Pontificalis, ee ea
Uienrguments of Aeneas of Paris ap. D-lcharv
%% vol. 1 p. 141). When the later sys^^'
1 had been followed by " confirmation "I
thought that the bapllm wasTpirUua!ly~
^^:im;:^- ^\Zr''''' \"''^'^^^^^^
PRIEST 1707
oroo..4.J^^^!;-^f;^--t^r^ht
the Deacon hat in M. '''"'''" "•'"" ^"^^
:,' ll' **• ":[ ,"«'!'la" and Stubbs). Where th»
Cone. Vas Ji-r ' i ^°"'- Jo'<-'t- e. 20;
!>'.), (,. ( I'ertz, Lcium 1 n oj. _ ,. '
(3) Preaching ami Tcachina _ Tho r • v
thos^^hJiabi.txtedrMr"'";^''^
her<>i,t function ^t .k, Al ■ ^. ' ""t •'" m-
i..iemont or lenatins Tl.„ r'l _ ^ ■- "."•"■"^r
o, o.)j. uut the function of teachiucr .,1.1, l
^.ctLs"(S.^4,lJ---;'P-0yteri
Acta PerpeUu.. et Felicitatis, ap. iuli i. t K vl'
•m ; "''■■''*>■■" «;•■'« >J*l'o«ed (Cone. Ancyr ad"
.■as either temper^,; or'w:, ' ^c „r;/'"/
•^. 22). It was, ,n .hurt, a delegated func^oa^"
1708
PBILIDANUS
it was committed to the " wincr " presbyters
(S. Chiys. Horn. ;< m Epist. i. nrf CoHnth. '^p. ei\.
Migne, vol. x. p. 26), nnd therefore, in some
churches, could not be exercised in the presence
of a bisliop (S. Ilieron. Epist. 52 [2] nd \ejmt.
c. 7, wiio objectB to this exclusion; 2 Cone.
Hisp. A.D. til 9, c. 7). But nfter the establish-
ment of the parochial system, the privileges of
presbyters in parishes became extended in this
and in otlier respects ; and the Western church
seems to have thenceforth counted preaching
as an ordinary function of a parish presbyter
(3 Cnnc. Vas. A.n. 529, c. 2 ; Cone. Cloves. A.D.
747, e. d); so the ninth-century writers on
church institutions, c.f/. Hraban. Maur. rff Instit.
Cleric, i. li ; cl". Quesnel, Dissert, xi. «» S. Leon.
M. Op. c. 12).
(4) Benediction. — The Christian churches con-
tinued the Jewish practice of blessing both
persons and things, and since the blessing of
persons assumed a superiority in the person who
gave the benediction over the person who received
it (cf. Heb. vii. 7), in the Christian, as in the
Jewish, assemblies, it was a function of the presi-
dent. Ordinarily it was thus a function of
the bishop ; but,' in the absence of the bishop,
a presbyter might bless, whether publicly in
chirch or privately elsewhere (Const. A}^iost. .S,
20 ; 8, 27 ; S. Basil. Epist. 2 od Jmphiloch. c. 27,
where suspension from this function is the
punishment of a presbyter who has contracted
an unlawful marriage). Cut in the West the
rights of presbyters in this respect became much
restricted. In the 5th century, Cone. Regiens,
c. 5, allows presbyters to give the benediction in
private houses and in the country, but not in
church ; and early in the following century Cone.
Agath. c. 4 \ expressly forbids a presbyter to give
it in church ; Ijut 2 Cone. Hispal. (A.D. 619, c. 7)
narrows the prohibition to cases in which the
bishop is present, and this has continued to be
the Western rule.
[For the conditions of admission to the priest-
hood, see OuDEUS, HOLY ; for the mode of
appointment and admission, see Ordination ; for
the relations of priests to synods and councils.
Me CotJNCiL, p. 473.] [E. H.]
PRILIDANIIS, martyr with Urbanns and
Epolonus, three youths, who suffered with bishop
liabylas at Antioch ; commemorated Jan. 24.
(Usuard. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. Prilidanius ; Florus
ap. Bed. Mart. Parilidanus, under Numerian ;
Mart. Rom. Priudianus.) [C. H,]
PRIMATE. The word primate (" primas ")
seems to have come, like some other ecclesias-
tical terms, from the civil law. From its first
use, in which it was applied generally to the
chief men of a community, it came to be u.sed
iu an ollicial sense (a) of the presidents of the
Jewish communities, after the title "patriarch "
had ceased, Cud. Theodos. 16, 8, 8, 29 ; (6) of the
" decuriones " of a muuiciiiality, Cod. Theodos.
7, 18, 1:J: 12, 1, 4; (c) of the heads of the
bureau of a provincial governor. Cod. Theodos.
9, -10, Iti; 12, 0, ?, cf. liethmann-Hollw.-g, Der
probable inference from the Pseudo-Isid.irian
Epist. Anacleti, ii. c. 26, that it wa.s also aiiplied
in the post-Imperial orgnniznfion of the West to
officers who had Judiciitl functions conespondiag
PRIMATE
to those of ecclesiastical primates ; out of the
existence of such oHicers no direct trace can be
fouml. (For the Carolingian " primates palatii,"
see Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgcschichtt;, bj. iv.
277.)
In its ecclesiastical use it is fcjund in tlirce
senses. (The use of its Greek cquivali'nt i
irjjcDTfuuji', which is found in several Syriiia
inscriptions, one of which bears the date a.d.
514, Corpus fnscriptionum Oraccaruin, Xos.
8627, StiliO, 8t)31, is here omitted, bec,i\i>e there
is no clue to its precise .^ignificatinn.)
(1) Its earliest sense seems to be th:it of
seniority, whether in respect of age or of ullice.
Leo the Great uses "primatus" of seniority
among presbyters (Epist. 19 (18) ad Jiitruin
Benevent. vol. i. p. 735). I'ojjc Hilary (Kpist.
8, ap. Migne, Patr. Lat. vol. Iviii. 25) transt'ers
the power of ordaining bishops from Hpimes,
metropolitan of Narboimc, to Constantius, lii.,hop
of Usez, a.1 being "aevo honoris primas;" just
!U! in a similar case Leo the Groat (Aynsf. 10,
vol. i. p. 641) transfers the function.- 'jf metro-
politan from Hilary of Aries to L^i ntius, ex-
pressly on the ground of his senii nty. The
word was consequently used in Africa to denote
the senior bishop of the province, who there
held the place which in most other jiarts of the
Christian world was held by the bishop of the
civil metropolis. The exact title of this bishop
was " primae sedis episcopus," and 3 Cone. C'arth.
c. 26 = Cod. Eccles. Afric. c. 39 enacts that he
is not to take the appellations " summus sacer-
dos," or ''princeps sacerdotum;" but tlie word
"primas" is used, apparently with the s.irae
meaning, in 2 Cone. Carth. c. 12 ; 3 Coiic. Carth.
28 (in 3 Cone. Carth. c. 7 = Cod. Ecctcs. Afric
o.'19, there is an important variety of reading
between "primatem " and "primates"); to this
African usage Gregory the Great, Epist. i. 74,
vol. ii. p. 559, expresses strong objections.
(2) The word is occasionally used in refeience
to the office or status of a metropolitan : c. ij. in
the dispute between the bishops of Viiinne and
Aries, which was settled by Cone. Taurin. 4.D.
401, c. 2; in 1 Cone. Brae. A.D. 56.'(, c. (5: so
also sometimes in the Ijitin translations of the
Greek canons, e.ij. in Dionysius Exiguus Can.
Apost. 35 ap. Sirmond ; Codex Can. Vet. Eicles.
Jioman., in Ferrandus, Breviatio Canowim, c. 4,
ap. Migne, Patr. Lat. vol. Ixvii. 9.')0, "metro-
politani vel prim.itis;" in Martin of Biaga,
Capit. c. 4, ap. Mansi, ix. 849 ; and in S. Leon.
M. Epist. 108 (83) ad Theodor. Furojuliens. vol i.
p. 1173 (in the plural).
(.3) The title was not in ordinary use until
the 9th century, and it was then apjilied to a
new distinction which was created ainong
bishops, chiefly by the influence of the I'scudo-
Isidorian decretals. In the Eastern divisions of
the empire the church had closely followed ths
gradations of civil rank. The provinces (Jxaf-
x'cu), each of which had its civil ijrnesa or
constitaris. and its ecclesiastical metnipolitiD,
were grouped into dioeceses, each of which had
its civil rican'iM, comes, or praefertus, and ili
ecclesiastical exarch or patriarch [Fatbi-
i!;."i5 .''^)1. But ill the West e;icb. nrovin.'f' was
in almost all respects a separate ecclesiastical
unit ; there was no oflicer norrespondiiig lo the
civil vicarius; there was no appeal from the
provincial synod and the provincial metro-
I
I
PRIMATE
poVtnn, except the appeal, which was oftcner
cliiinieil than allowed, to the bishop of Home
The earlier policy of the Roman see was to
support the authority of metropolitans : <? a S
Leo M, £pit<t. 108 (8.i) ad T/woJor. Fvrojul. vol!
i. p. 1173, ohjects to direct appeal from a bishop
to Kmne. liut its later policy was the reverse
of this; and from the tith to the 8th centuries
the intiuonce of metropolitans visibly declined
so that I'ippin consulted pope Zachary as to the'
best meaiis of reviving it (b. Zachar. pap. J-Spist.
ad Pippin, ap. Mausi, vol. xii. 326). It was
acconiiiigly revived under the Carcdingians
(Pippin, Cupit. Venn. Duplex, a.D. 755, c. 2;
toruli Magu. Capit. a.d. 779, c. 1), and the
revived ollice played an important part in
political as well as in ecclesiastical afl'airs (see
Waitz, Dmtsclie VerfassutKjsgeschiclite, vol. iii.
p. 351 sqc].). But both the suH'ragan bishops
sud the Koman see found the metropolitans in-
convenient: the former preferred a remote to a
near superior, the latter disliked the exercise of
ecclesiastical discipline by judges who, if sup-
ported, as they seemed likely to be, by the
inHuence of the temporal power, might weaken
its direct control over the Western churches.
, In addition to this there appear to have been, in
the troubled times which followed the death of
Charles the Great, several cases in which bishops
had met with severe, if not unjust, treatment at
the hands of metropolitans. Tha author of the
Pseudo-Isidorian decretals consequently intro-
duced into the West the Eastern distinction
betiveen metropolitans and exarchs, to the latter
of whom he confined the word primate, which
had hitherto been ocaisionally used for any
metropolitan, and which he identified with the
earlier Eastern equivalent of exarch, viz. patri-
arch, Epist. Annie, c. 3, "uulli archiepiscopi
primates vocentur nisi illi qui primas tenent
civitatts quarum episcopos et successores eorum
regiilariter patriarchas vel primates esse con-
stitueruiit, nisi aliqua gens deinceps ad fidem
convertatur, oui necesse sit propter multitudinem
episcoporum primatem constitui. Reliqui veio
qui alias metropolitanas sedes adept! sunt non
primates scd metropolitani nominentur:" so
Anaclet. Epist. ii, c. 26 ; Zepherin. Epist. c. 2 ;
Fclic. i. Epist. c. 4; Steph. Epist. ii. c. 10:
Julii Decret. c. 12: so also Benedict. Levit.
Capit. iv. 4;!9, ap. Pertz, Leuum, vol. ii. pars 2,
p. 1*1; CViiit. Angilramni, c. 22, ap. Hinschius,
Decret. Pseudo- hidor. p. 762. The letter of pope
"ormisdas which Hincmar of Reims quotes in
his comicversy with Hincmar of Laon as giving
a primacy to ,,'ie see of Reims, with a reserva-
tion of the right'i of metropolitans, resembles
the false decretals too closely to be treated as
genuine (Hincmar Remens. Opusc. in Causa
Bmcmr. Loudun. c. 16, ap. Migne, Patr. Lat
vol eixvi. 338). After this date the title was
in frequent use, especially in reference to the
metropolitans to whom the bishops of Rome
entrusted in their respective districts the powers
ot the Koman see.
The functions of primates in the later sense of
the term, so far as thev differ from the ordinary
,..r,...,.;., .- inrtvi.poiitaua, are iiimost wh'.iiy
JQdiciaj. In the Pseudo-Isidorian decretals,
which are the foundation of all subsequent
osnou law on the subject, an accused bishop who
mpects the impartiality of his metropolitan
PRIMICKRIIIS
1709
p imat., Clement E,,ist. i. c. 29; Ana.lct/ii. c.
^"I.l-elic i c. 4; Zepherin. c. 2; .Jul. c. 12
»o also (op,« Angilram. c. 5; a primate hai
«^so an immediate jurisdiction in the case of a
me ropolitan who oppresses his sullragans or
otherwise exceeds the limits of his authority,
Anne, .i, 4: Vict 6; and also in all "majors
ecclesiarnm negotia," Clement, i. c. 29 ; Anadet.
'"■ «.. 2b ; bteph. n. c. 10. But while in some
passages the decretals make tliis juvisdicH.mof
he metropolitan alternative with an appeal to
Kon.e,y,ct. 6, Jul. 12, in other pa.ssa.'es ther
malce the validity of the sentence of the^n i, ate
contingent on its co„,irmation by the Uoili;,,; see!
/-eph. 2 Damas. 8, elsewhere thev appear ti
!Zd\2 """'"■■i'y. to the primate !,nd hi.
2h^' .^' "• "" """"•'•'°» «/'«coy«.s-, and else-
^vhe.■„ on the contrary they ignore primates, and
gne an immedrnte appeal from the metropolitan'
to Nome, Jelic. ii. c. 20.
»pi?'f''.f' "'•'?"' "^ primates in the later
I>m,rtutio de l'rum!u Luijdnnemi et cet-ris PH.
m«.4.«, first published in 1644, and edited by
baluze in 1659.) rp- j[ -,'
PRIMICERIUS. Thename of these officials
L primus in ceram relatus" (Ducanije Oloss.X
the hrst entered on the wax tablet, or roll, of
the clergy] sufficiently indicates their office as the
head or leader of an ecclesiastical corporation,
the word appears to be identical with the " pri-
niiclerus," or head of the inferior clergv, of the
Spanish church. {Cone. Emmt. cc. ld,'l4 )
1. The office is frequently mentioned in con-
nexion with the ecclesiastical notaries. In the
council of Ohalcedon frequent mention is made
of Aetius, the primicerius of the notaries. In
the council of Ephesus (act. 1) the task of recit-
ing the edict of the emperor Thendosius was
allotted to Peter, a presbyter of Alexandria and
primioerius of the notaries. Anastasius the
libranan m hu life of pope Julius, says that he
caused all the rvcords (monumenta) belon.Tin?
to the church to be placed in the care of the
pr!micerius of the notaries. In the postscript to
the works of Aratus (5i6/. Patruin, t. vi p 700)
It IS said that Vigilius geve the poems in charw
to the pnmicerius " of the school of notaries,
Oregory the Great, writing to Antoninus, a
sub-deacon of Salonica, during the vacancy of
the see (Eptst iii. 22), directs him to take an
inventory of the property belonging to the see,
and hand it over for safe keeping to Respectug
the deacon, and Stephen the primicerius of th«
notaries.
8. A letter from Remigins of Rheims (Sir-
mondi Cone. Gall. i. p. 205) mentions a primU
cenus of the lectors, "primicerium scholae
clanssimae niilitiaeque lectorum."
3. Chrodegang, in his rules for the chapter of
Metz (last chapter), speaks of a primicerius of
the MATRICDLARII, who Was to exorcise a general
supervision over them, and to whom, with the
archdeacon, was entrusted the distribution of
their allowances,
4. Thev were also members of the cathodral
body, with authority, apparentiv as the deputy
ot the archdeacon, over the inferior clergy. The
council of Merida, a.d. 666 (c. 10), orders that
every cathedral should have an archpresbyter
i
111
•I
m
te^:-:.r_riM
1710
PEIMITIAE
■n nrchdeacon, and a primicerius ; and (c. 14)
divides till) (iffeiings into three [mrts — one
, belonijing to the bishop, another to the pres-
byters and deacons to be divided among them-
selves, and the tliird to be hamled over to the
priniiteriiis, and by him allotteil at his discre-
tion to the subdeacons and interior clergy,
according as ho knows them zealous and dill-
gent in their duties. Isidore of Seville, in his
epistle to LudilVed, bishop of Cordova (Isidori Op.
p. 413), states that the primicerius has charge
of the acolytes, the exorcists, the psalmistae,
and the lectors. In the Ordu lionumus (tit. 2."))
the primicerius is said to occupy a position
like that of the archpresbyter under the arch-
deacon, and to have special charge of the teaching
and discipline of the deacons and the other
inferior clergy. [C'haptkr, p. 349.]
It is certain that this office, though sub-
ordinate to that of the archdeacon, was reckoned
one of trust an 1 honour. In a letter of Pope
Martin (A'/). l.'>) the duty of presiding over
the see of Home, in the absence of the pope, is
allotted to the archdeacon, the archpresbyter,
and the primicerius. A letter of John IV. to
the church of England (liaronius A.D. 639,
6, 7) is signed by John himself, the archpres-
byter, the primicerius, and the consiliarius,
the primicerius taking precedence of the con-
•iliarius. [P. 0.]
PRIMITIAE. [First Fruits.]
PRIMITIVUS (1), one of the eighteen mar-
tyrs of Saragossa ; commemorated Ap. 16
(Usuard. Mart.).
(2) Martyr with others at Rome under Ha-
drian ; commemorated June 10 (Usuard. Mart, ;
Mart. £om.).
(8) One of the seven sons of Symphorosa, mar-
tyred with her at Tibur nnder Hadrian; comme-
morated June 27 (Usuard. Mart.). In Hieron.
Mart, a Primitivus occurs for this day in Spain.
[SVMI'IIOROSA.]
(4) Martyr with Bonns and others, clerics of
bishop Stephanus at Rome, under Valerian and
Gallienus ; commemorated Aug. 1 (Florus ap.
Bed. Mart.).' [0. H.]
PRIMUS (1), martyr with Cyricus and Thea-
genes at Peparethus in the Hellespont ; comme-
morated Jan. 3 (Usuard. Mart, j Hieron. Mart. ;
Mart. liom.)
(2) Martyr, commemorated Jan. 22 at Nico-
media (Wriglit, Axict. Syr. Mart, in Jown.
Sac. Lit. 1806, 424).
(8) Martyr with Felicianus under Diocletian ;
commemorated at Rome on Mens Coelius, June
9 (Usuard., Wand., Vet. Hum. Mart.; Bed.
Mart. ; Mart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta fIS. Jun. ii. 149 ;
Hieron. Mart, at Nomentum.) For the inscrip-
tion and mosaic in memory of these two saints
in the church of St. Stephen, the protomartyr
on the Coelian hill at Kome, whither their
bodies were removed cir. 773 by pope Hadrian
I., see Ciampini Vet. Mon. ii. 111-113 and
piftt- .Ji. i.v t:,j
PRINCEP8. The bishops, as the chief offi-
cers m the Christian church, were honoured
•t an early period with tbia and synouymoua
PRINCES
designations. [Bishop.] But according to tin
dillcrent idea which moulded the devi!lo|,nunl
of the Celtic ecclesiastical polity in t!ie liritis.i
Isles, and framed it after a monastic ratlieitimn
a diocesan or purely e])iscopal model, these tenni
received a corresponding destination. The eeele-
siastical unit in the early Irish church waj the
monastery, whose head was the abljiit. the
praesul, priniarius, or princeps of the nic nn.tic
family. Hence in the Annals of Vister (U'l 'uin.r
her. I/ib. Scrip, iv.) the alibat is called all.iis or
princeps concurrently from a.d. 681, until in the
10th century the prince]is has all but suiiirseileil
the abbas in the list of obits. Durint; tlie iith
and 10th centuries the princeps is found i.oa.
sioually as a secular prince (a.d. 808, 81)',', ■i;!,"i),
but very much more frequently he is evulently
the monastic head, and ajipears at times ulsi. as
bishop (A.D. 82,'i, 857, 873, &c.), Ferleii;hinii
(A.D. 878) and tanist abbat atone nioniistevv and
princeps or abbat ot another (a.d. 8s(o-6,
" jiroximus abbati Cluanae mac nois et priucopi
iMmiiinisensis "). Uesyabair is "dimiinatm
PriniH'ps Troeit moir," i.t . at Drogheda (a.d. VM).
But the princeps seems also at other times t*
have been subject, though only second tn the
abbat, and as exercising a certain authoi-itv in
the monastery as either successor or Hrcnath
(Reeves, S. Aduninan, 364), In the contiiii'iital
monasteries the princeps was usually a Mib-
ordinate, as is )irobahly intended in the liule
of S. Pachomius, " Vestimenta . . . accipicnt,
qui huic rei praepositi sunt, et infiientur
in repositorio, et erunt in potestate I'lincipis
monasterii " (Du Cange, Gluss. t. v. 447 a).
In Wales Gwengad, prince of Penalv, and
Sadwrn, prince of the city (d Tall', sign char-
ters as clerical witnesses in the 6th century
(Lib. LanJav. by Rees, 141, 'J92-293), while
Gwonocadwy, prince of Penaly, and Sad(jc,
presbyter, sign after king Morgan Mmaug the
laity, though both probably clerics (76. 14:1, 395).
The monastic praej jsitus w(.s of a lev.er rank
as " habens potestatem ordinandi, abbiite nbsente,
omnia, quae abbas praesens facit " (Du Cange,
Gloss, t. V. 405 a), as head of an afliliateil house,
under the direction of the parent house and iu
abbat (Reeves, S. Adamnan, 59, 60, 65, 7(<, 86,
127, 339) ; or oeconomus to the nitmastery
{lb. 339, 365) having charge of its secular ali'airs
(" praepositus domus "), as the episcopal oecono-
mus was " praepositus ecclesiae." They thns
as oeconomi or ereuachs might come by violent
deaths probably in the discharge of their secular
duties to the monastery {Ann. Ult. a.d. ClN,
731, 813, 817, &c.). Their oiFice was praepoai-
tatus or praepositura, and th« prioress wai
Praeposita, sometimes Praepositissa. (Du Cange,
Gtoss. t. V. 404 sq.) [J. G.]
PRINCES, ALLEGIANCE TO (flbmt-
nium, Huiimgium, Huminatus, Sacrainentm
fidetitiitis). It is almost superlluoiis to suy that
the general duty of obedience to the temporal
sovereign was recognized by the primitive Chris-
tians as resting upon the precepts ol' the New
Testament itself. The very remonstrnnees indeed
which are there addre^Kcd to Christians — "Who-
soever therefore resisteth the powei-. resistetl
the ordinance ol God '' — mav be thiiu^ht to be
indicative of a spirit of resistant-* anmnsst ce^
tain sadiridBals «c the body ; but the general mind
PRIXCES
wd l-rm'tlco of tho onrly chiuTh are no doubt
comrtly sketch,..,! in the b.mst „f Tertullian
{Ad Scapulam, c.p. iv.), -The Christian in the
enemy ol no man, mu,li leas of the cmiieror "
But b,-M,les this general allegiance which
Chnstmns were so rea.ly to ackn„wle,lKe as ,luo
from them to the s.jculnr power, there was a
•ubmission of a more special an,l technical
character, which was professed on the assnmn-
tion of ccc esiastioal otHce. It was not, how-
erer, until bishops so grew in temporal import-
uce as to be b.rmi.lable opponents or tl.om-
selves possible rivals of a sovereign, that «
formal profession of fealty could have had much
iignihcance. Hence we must not expect to find
«uch j.rufessions recorded amongst quite the
earliest annals of Christianity. In process ol
time a recognition of e^neral allegiance occurs in
the iDscrijition of epis,upal acts, as when Cyrus
[ffltriaich of Alexnn,lria, i^ spoken of (Cone'
Irull. act 13) as holding his position by the
mercy of God an,l the will of tlie emperor It
may, however, be doubted whether this allegiance
ever rested upon an oath in the East ; for it was
specially enacted by the emperor Justinian (Cod.
lib. I, de Lp.) that bishops should never be
majle to swear, their simple promise being as in-
violable as the most solemn oaths.
It is indeed not in the East, but in the
V,nt, and specifically in Spain, that the first
begnmiugs of the oath of fidelity are to
be sought. The Spanish monarchy, says
Tliomassin, was elective, and ecclesiastics were
sometimes tempted to transfer to a fresh
mpirant the allegiance which they had
promised to the existing ruler. Hence arose
the solemn oath of fidelity by which laics and
ecclesiastics alike were bound to their princes.
Theseventi, council of Toledo (cent, vii.) speaks
rt he oath as an accei^ted usage, and brands its
v^ola ion as ' perjuriura." By the tenth council
of T,.ledo in the same century the penalty was
decreed to be deposition, without power of re-
-toiation except by the will of the prince him-
self, rhe penalty was actually carried into
T "\ '.' '"r "^ ^'?'''"^' metropolitan of
K-ill':^'""'''^''^^'''^^"'"'-^^^''-
The oath of allegiance to the temporal sove-
reign was not confined to bishops on their taking
office rhe second canon of the tenth council of
Toed„(cent vii. enacts penalties against any
ecc s,astic(i-elig,„.us), from a bishop down to a
derk of the very lowest order or a monk, who
with profane intention violates his " generalii
jnramenta in salutem Regiam genti.fque aut
patriae data." By this term " gcneralia ju""
menta" ,t ,s not to be undei^tood, as Thomas ,n
justly remarks, that every humble clerk orlTnk
kt thVf V"^ '""S'"""' •''^f-^B the s„"e eign,
bat that ,at the coronation or in the senate or it
^^ councils the bishops .n.l superiors took th
oath 1,1 their own name and in that of their in-
fo;ors. In England, however, it is mpo sible
tV H '" ? "'"^ "^ ^''^^g'^^-^e persoZ y and
mdvLlually administered may form one of the
pKliminaries of admi.ssion into holv o.l,. ^'
:;;r^tHe peciplcs /f th"; Se 07^,^:1"^;
M l^rw^hi h\"'' ''"'■''"'*• "«'«'« his oath o^f
MelitT whKh he promised for the condition of
PRINCES
1711
his country and the race of the Goth., or for th.
; -nation of the king's health," &c. This
. . iln was reiterate,!, aii,l resp„nso was made
Marathl-r'r"' >rr">"I'»''"t. Anathema,
d ef,r thp""""^ ^"'"- ^^ """ 'his genera
leciee f,ir the preservat on of th,.. kin,r« „„,i .k«
kingdom shoul,! be renewed i!.l^Hhn:ri^
aaiailv 7'"',»"hse,,uent council, the renewal
attunlly t,,ok place. On the other han.l the
(Mr rtJr, i""^ ''""" ^y Bellnrmine (de
tilL ?"■'■"• "'^- ■') 'hat " the bishop^
the lather an,! pastor and doctor as well „f ',he
prince as of the rest of the people ,„,1 in
«,-cor,lance with these names the primx- ought o
be. subject to the bishop, not thl bishop ?„th:
The form of the oath of allegiance under
Charlemagne was this: "Proniitto p„r"?bua
Domini me, Caroli Regis et til.orum e "s n„U
fidelissumet ero diel.us vitae meae sine rnuda
et mao ingenio." ft may be a.ido,! on "he
au honty of Hofmann (/.c/.. .. Kile e that
«ymen only took the oath, bishops being bound
to a simple promise. * ""uua
In early times we find traces only of a
ZTlT^'^'^"'' "" »"*''• <•'■ fidelity St
i-eger, bishop of Autun, on being pressed to
recognize Clovis HI. as king, renid t at h«
I would sacrifice life rather^'han' the fidelif;
which ho promised before the Lord to Theodori^
(Thomassin pf. ii. Liv. ii. c. 88). About the
^me period St. Eloi, bishop of Noyonfon L n|
? 1 "s of thr"- f *'"^ *" *^« '''".« «-er thf
relics of the saints, excused himself till the
king at length desisted, at the same time
assuring him that he should henceforth ha^e
T T'^'^T' '° ^'"" f'"- having avoided the
oatli^than he should have had^ if he hL
In the African church we do not find anv
objection to an oath of fidelity in gene^af
but only to an oath with whose tern s the
h ,lf V .X'""^''''' "-equiied that the Cathol^
bishops should swear to the contents of a paper
refn eT" The""- ^'^"^ ^"''"'^'^'' '■■^''^•herr«nd
refused. They were not "irrational animals"
they pleaded that they should swear ligh iTwId
...c-nsiderate y v,ithout knowing what the paper
,,,f nVr* ""* "y*"-'* *" •"> °ath altogether,
taken ^» "" ?""' ^'''"'">' """1 thoughtlessly
aken. It was afterwards declared to them that
It was a kind of oath of fidelity, exnressini^ Vh»i,
desire that Huneric should be'^ueTeedeT^'h
son Hilderic. Some at length mok the oath
ZuLw r' P"-*-"y "f-'ed. But one and'
a the bishops were in evil case. For those who
took ,t were banished for having trans-ressed
l5-"''!'vt."r "^^^^ ^"'P^'' "Swear Cat
ail, .vhile the non-jurors were equally banished
r^tn'rerhim'.'"^ ''"' ''" '"'' "^'"^ ^^'^^ «''-'<«'
att^n;;'\j'i::p:!^rj',:'"''''r;,^-ntedthe
IrinH Tho .»* *' .;■,, "" "^*h of any
kind. The attempt o( Ti'r nsius the youneer
to exact an oath of the b ....s drew from Zd
of Seleucia the vigorous 'test, " Hitherto we
know not that an oath was presented to bishopT"
1712
PRINCES
{Cum:. C/ialc. Act. 1). In the some council we
nnd a .ilmilnr objection to ohIIih of any kind felt
by a [insl yter: " Five nn<l twenty years," cnei
Cussiiin, "1 have been in communion, inbusiuex
(as a biiniator) at Constantinople, nnJ OoJ
knows I never swore to any man : and now when
I am a presbyter, will you force int' to swear?"
The solemn aliirmation upon the Uunpuls was in
those days felt to constitute the stronjfest pos-
sible obligation upon a Christian in matters of
•very kind.
A gradual relaxation, however, took place in
the slitlne.ss of their ideas ; so thiit by the time
of the Trullan council (a.d. 080) we lind George
the deacon, who was what we fhould cull chan-
cellor and librarian of the church of Constanti-
nople, taking an oath on he book of theOospels,
"By those holy Scriptu.es and by Him who
spake in them.
The ceremonies practised at the profession of
fidelity have been dill'ereut in ditferent countries.
The subject was required to e.\tend his hands
between those of his lord, A remnant of this
may perhaps be seen when a degree is conferred
in Cambridge. This was known as Komagium
Uanuale. In Spain the subject kissed the hand
of his lord. Compare the practice when a modern
,English bishop " does homage." The subject
knelt on both knees before a prince, while the
prince himself was seated.
besides the authorities already quoted, the
reader may consnts 'I'Ueiner, Cudex Diploinaticits.
Rom. 1861, vol. ,, [H. T. A.]
PRINCEF! f'': SS.J;OT of. The privileges
conferred um < ; <Urgy [ImMCKITIES and
Privilkges \ii '•;;>! i'LERQTJ appear to have
had the effect oi' h'.icing men of wealth to
accept ecclesiastical otfices in order to escape
from their duties and obligations as citizens.
This dispurition was kept in check by a long
series of imperial decrees, all enunciating the
same principle, that the liability of all property
to render certain services to the state, must not,
under any circumstances, be evaded. A law of
Cbnstantine (Cot/. Theodos. lib. xvi. tit. 2, leg. .3)
provides that no decurion, or son of a decurion,
or anyone liable to public duties by possession of
property, should escape his obligation by en-
rolling himself among the clergy (ad clericorum
nomen et obsequium confugiat), and that in
future no one should be permitted to be ordained
but those who were of small fortune, and not
liable to civic duties. The clergy who had been
ordained after the issue of this decree, and in
defiance of its provisions, were to be again en-
rolled in their curiae, nnd made to discharge
their public duties, but those who had been or-
dained before the passing of the law were not to
be molested. Another edict of the same emperor
(t'tii'i/. leg. '>) provides that the clergy should be
chosen ixnm those who were liable to no civic
duties, nor of sufficient fortune to dincharge
public offices, for, it is added, it is reasonable
that the rich should provide for the necessity of
the state, and the poor be provided for from the
wealth of the church.
The principle of these laws was somewhat
modified in later edicts, which more distinctly
laid the obligation to render public services on
the estate itself rather than on the donor, and
in cases of disobedience substituted a forfeiture
PBIOB
of property for s recalling i per jonal serviot,
[Uliiihiw, lioLV, p. 1484.] [I'. ().]
PRINCIPPU8, martyr with Aevtlmnicui
nnd others under Maiimiuus ;' coniun nionitt'i]
Aug. 'i\i (Basil. Miiu)l.). [C. 1!.]
PRlOlt, M()VASTIO. 1. Title. 2. /•no,
Cliitistralia : (at His status; (3) mole c,f ^l^,..
tion ; (y) duties ; (H) priors dillorent tVciii duani.
i. I'ri(rr Cunvintikilh. 4. .Small pi-iuric. 5.
I'riores.^es. The title " I'rior " for a nmiiaiitic
olIici:il is much later in date than the ulliie
itself. According to Du Cange the wor.l wm
nut so used before the time of pope Cdrstiue
v., towards the end of the l:)tli ceiituiv (Dn
Cange, Uloisar. Lat. 8. v.). But the oilid! so
.(■■signaled is as old probably as the bigiuning
of monasticism, certainly as the first atli;mpt«
to organize the coenobitic life; " ijiaepdaitus"
and " iJi'aeltttus " being the words use.l in ihe
early days (Martene, Commcntur. in y/i-;. S.
Hctudicti, c. G5 ; cf. Greg. Ma^n. /)(.//.«;, I,
cc. 2, 7). In one passage where Benwiiit of
Casino enjoins on the younger monks the duty
of being reverent to their "priors" ("iiriores
8U0S nonnos appellent juniores "), it is siipijused
with reason th.it he means their elders 0:
superiors in the monastery (Boned. A./, c. 63).
Menard contends that wherever in the rule of
Benedict the term " prior " is used in the siii);ular
number and obsolutely, not relatively, it sijjnifiej
the abbat him.self, and quotes, in supp.r' ..f hii
argument, a pa.s8age from Cacsaiiiis , ; Aries
(Menard, Comment, in Bened. Anian. Comjoniia
Rcijulanim, c. 47 ; cf. Caesarii, Reifuta ad Vmjiaes,
c. 3). Where Benedict in his rule orders that
if any monk has an urgent question to ask
during the hours of silence, he must ask it of
the " prior," MiSnard, with other comnientators,
explains the word to mean the abbat or some
monk senior in standing, or higher in clticial
position than the others present (Benod. Stij,
c. ti. Comiikcnt.). Similarly in the chapter of the
rule about the reader for the week, the '• prior"
only is allowed to interrupt the reader, if neces-
sary, and to interpose a remark ; here Mmard
understands the abbat to be intended, Boherins,
the monk, at the head of the table (Ih. c. 38)
Again, on the quantity of liquor permissible, the
" prior " to whose discretion it is left to order
in extraordinary cases a larger quantity than
the hemina or pint, is supposed by Boherius to be
the father-abbat himself. Martene cites Hael'len
to shew that the deans (decani) in a rnuaostery
were sometimes called priors, the first deaa
being the prior, the second the sub-prior, and
so forth (Martene, u.s. c. 21). But this was got
usual.
There is » distinction to be observed
between tha prior of the cloister (" prior clau-
stralis "), a subordinate officer of the abbat, and
the prior of tke convent ("prior convcntualij")
who eiferclsed supreme authority within a mon-
astery of his own (Alteserrae Asrdirvn, ii. 8)
In the latter sense the Greek equivalent ot prior
is HiiOUMEN'OS, according to Altescria, who
quotes a canon of the second council of XicaeJ
which speaks of the abbat or the HcgunieDOi|
but perhaps this is a mere tautology lib. cf. ii.
Cone. Nicaen. a.d. 787, c. 14). Altcserra quote)
also a passage froin Kvagrius, equally precarioui
equally precAiioai
PitroR
LjtM. wra.rs a,n,r,li„s to Alteserra, i„ tt, „
^1« a u,„ of (i.,,..k ,;„hi„„,, were fon.l o,"tv «
l-""\J ""'"' " "-'"'"■^ "late to monks in the
The prior of the cloister ranked n,.,» i„ *i
«o,„.tery to the «bb,.t, and' .lirt't" L^
.bb« , veto exeroiHe.1 .in,ilur authority (JenH
%. 0. bo; cf. CunciLA,iuis,,run.AA>.mct'l\'
He w«» t e abbaf, lieutenant (sen.n.luH ,1, n.^n '
.ctn,« n, the name of hi, superior officer (M^uan '
Co,n..,U.,. ,„ Iie„e,l, Aniauens. Con.,.-,/, y 3'
c ^7),.;lo'"S noth.n;; on his own in,lepe„,ient
res,K,„.,b,hty, but always a« subject totl a
pr,,va o the «bbat-he«.l of the ,.bba 's v-cl
fvc ut m theory nothing more (Kruot. /■"
c. 20). Practically an ambitious prior « :.«
.pt to usurp the abbafs functions, especially 'f
Accm, ing to the ancient Egyptian rule ascribe,!
to Pachomius, the monks might complain to the
at 0. the prior's behaviour (I'a'.hom. ^^.
lf-»)- The prior was insnctor an.l controlb...
of the deans (76. c. 12), the lirst in orde Tw „,
took precedence in the monastery next after the
prior (Co,w. A.jiu.yr. u. s.). *
By lirimitive custom ,n the West the prior
w^ l-pomted by the abbat alone (Bened. V
Lt OR ■•"'''. '■,»"'>>*; itself the I{ule of the
&«t ("Regu a Onentalis"), but probably com!
pled by Vigilius Diaconus in France during t"e
5t cntury (M nard, ad Cude^ ReguUrum Iw
i>cU Ammums,s\ say.s that the prior is to L
.ppointed by the abbat, with the'colu e, oe of
the brethren (c^um consilioet voluntate fratrum)
Gregory the Great seems to have appointed
pnors and abbats „n his own authority^riet
(tf Gregor. M. Ep. vii. 42 ; ix. 42). It was tU
A.D. 817, c. 31). Priors often, as was to be
The tenure of the office of prior was for life
conJitionally always on good conducT A ?a« tv
«f e four admonitions, which were 'o be ad-
ram tered to him, according to Mart, .e, by ?he
monk the 'w""''- '° *''^ ''"'' "f - -''^"ary
monk the warning was to be given twice in thi
^' of a dean thrice, before prodeSing to punish
SirrHllf'"" " '''^''°' Punis'hm^:," aoJ
C atkn if ^''""'"'™'™''"n, extra lasting,
frl /h n^'^essary, deposition, expulsion
(e n 4,. I tV! „ "® '*«* anJ severest penalty
.SiL n fl""' '? ''"''*«'* by Martene as
hClL ^ZT"^' '"''"^''■•dination, or waste-
(JlaZe! «.':;' "'""'°' ^" '■''?'""■'« » i'"-
doIellZr tb",'"'',-'''P*'='''' ''"*y "«« t" look
""•eij after the discipline of the monasterv «nA
to report any breach' of disciplinTto thea'tUt
PRIOR
1718
(Pachom. Se;,. 152, 154; Hened. /,V,,. cc. 63,65:
Jii-J. larmte,^,, c. 2,1; Kruct. lie,,, c 111
to watch over the conduct of his bre hre day
to use in the morning, the last to go to his i^«l •
'1, till 411 the rest were asleep to ir,,n,.H
He was to lead the bretl, /\,V"
labours in the «eld, and u, ,.,ae, '1 '"'
noonday repose aHeld in t^e 1..;' d* ' , ^^
was ^'"''- ,■• '^^^ ^*''1'''«"' ^'"/- '••■ 5:.) He
Has en.powered to enforce disci dine by the
lesser excommunication (Fruct. lie,. ^ U^ Ken
{.<'-^«. c. (3). Jt is related by Lw h, 'w Sf '
M: ^rtoTnliT"''"*'' "^ '- '"'^"' '--
fot^^.t{irr:bi^:^St^iit:!rris
!^^:^tr:r:^^ht='-3
or oeeo„„„,u. On him also devolved t^he^
with the care of the monastic property the
ho d might be engaged (Isidori Hispal. C „•
20) He was also to superintend the food and
clo h.ng provided for the monks several W n^
excluding the abbafs ponion, rendeS' hi!
account duly from time t'o time' to his ;:^rf„r
{*ruct. Reg 0. 11). To discharge rightly these
various and important duties the i.rW wa rt
quired to be diligent, obedient, trustw rthy^
grave and sedate in character, but not too ad'
vanced m years to be still acti'ye (Pachom ^
128 Ferreol. if«^. c. 17; Reg. C^^u.dam). ^
It IS easy to see that the prior, h.ddine so
.mportant a position in the monastery, mfgh?
assistant He presid.a :n the abbafs absence
4), after once reproving his superior, he waa
scarcely likely to receive orders from him sub!
missively; m short, though intended T be a
proved too often a thorn in his sfde. ill thl"
Benedict anticipated with his shrewd, ate !
iTke fdiiidr'ii "" "■".j""'""' of a"S:;
me a divided allegiance; he was afraid of in!
subordination and dissension from what might '
monl::: '^ "71 '" ^' '^° f ''b'"' i" the i
monastery. The prior would fancy himself a
second abbat; he would make a pLty amone
toDavM ":]' •'^r''* P'aythepartof ASom
to i^eir 'r *] f."'".'!"''^'''"' ^"''" ^^eir loyaUy
to their ruler. Benedict much preferred deans
to a prior as the abbafs executive ; they wo2?d "
I be more amenable to control, less 'factloul aJ3
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1714
PRIOR
'is
self-asserting. Thus the reins of government
wouKi be in tlie abbat's own hands. If, how-
ever, for sunie special reason, a jirior sliould be
indis)iensable to a monastery, he was to be
chosen by the abbat, with the advice of the
brethren in chapter, that is of all the brethren,
according to some commentators, and according
to others of the elders only (lienedicti Jioi/ula
CommentaUi, c. 65). The wisdom of the great
reformer's policy has been demonstrated again
and again by experience. Uis canon on this
point was reallirmed by Charlemagne in tlie
council of .Maintz {Cone. Moijunt. I. c. 11). Lay
abbats subsequently found it far more convenient
for their jjurposes to be represented by duiius
than by a prior (Altes. Ascet. ii. 9). Lay priors,
anotlier innovation on the primitive strictness of
the Benedictine rule, were prohibited by Charle-
magne (Capital. A.D. 805, c. 15).
The forms of institution are of comparatively
recent origin (ISened. Setj. Commmt. u. s.).
The conventual prior was a later development
of monasticism, and was, of course, essentially
more independent than his claustral brother.
Next in rank to him in larger monasteries was
the sub-prior (Anselroi Epist. ill. 29. Ad
monachos Cantuar). Among the " canonici
regulares" the bishop was sujireme generally,
but the prior in questions relating to the rule,
or while the see was vacant (Altes. Ascct, v. s).
The conventual priors were summoned to pro-
vincial synod.s, and in some cases to the election
of bishops. They were sometimes styled " surami
priors," or " majores " ; they were to be over
twenty-five years of age, and in priest's orders.
They exercised the same powers of discipline in
their priories as the abbat in his abbey — they
were elected as he was; but their investiture
belonged to the abbat, un<ler whose jurisdiction
they uomimilly were. The order of Pretnon-
stratensians was at first under priors, afterwards
under abbats (Altes. Ascet. v. s.). Very small
priories were invariably discouraged by those
who desired to preserve the true monastic spirit.
Priories of this kind were the result of several
different causes. Sometimes they were simply
an overflow from a monastery more than usually
popular for the abbat's sake, or for some other
reason ; sometimes they were the consequence
of a monastery, which had known better days,
being annexed in its decrepitude as an appendage
to another more flourishing ; sometimes the
priory was merely an outpost of the monastery
which gave it birth, on some detached grange
or farm. Whatever might be its origin, a priory
on a very small scale was only too apt to degene-
rate into laxity and secularity. Benedict, in
the very commencement of his rule, reprobates
strongly the vicious custom of two or three
monks herding together promiscuously, being
really neither hermits nor monks (Bcned. Hog.
0. 1). Monks of this description were termed
" Sarabaitaj," or " Remoboth." Bernard calls
such priories " synagogues of Satan " (Bernard.
Epist. 254 ad Guarinum abbatem). It was
ordered by a council at Aachen that no priory
should consist of fewer than six members (Cono.
Aq.tisgr. a.d. 817, c. 44). Peter the Venerable, of
Clugny, required at least twelve, and this became
the rule of the Cistercians and Carthusians
(Bened. Heg. Comnf^f .. 1). It is matter of
notoriety in th: !■, .ory of the English reforma-
PRFVATUS
tion In the 15th century that the most (lagrant
immoralities were generally found in the smallest
monasteries. [Cellitae, p. 328.]
The oHioe of prioress, under fin abbess, was
very similar to that of the claustral jiriur. .She
was to be firm and discreet ; old in cliaracter
though not in years; she was to superinteml the
behaviour of the nuns, chiding and, if neceasarv,
whipping them for their faults ; she was lieid
responsible in particular for their clutlics and
dormitories {Segula Cujusdum, c. 2). The nuns,
by this rule, which is one of more than c idinary
strictness, were only allowed to make any com-
munication to their abbess through their prioress
(/6i'rf. c. 22). [See also AuiiAT, Audkss ; Uknb.
DicTiNK Rule; Discipunb, &c.] [1. G. S.]
PRISCA, virgin martyr, commemorated at
Rome Jan. 18 (Usuard., Notker., Bed. Murt. ; let
Horn. Mart. ; Mart. Horn. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jan. il
18H); her natale commemorated in the sacra-
mentary of Gregory Jan. 18, her name buing
mentioned in the collect (Greg. Sacram. in
Murat. Lit. Horn. Vet. ii. 19). [C. H.]
PRISCILLA, martyr with her hu.sband
Aquila; commemorated Feb. 13 (Ba.sil. Meml.)\
July 8 in Asia Minor (Usuard. Mart. ; Yet,
Bom. Mart. ; Mart. Horn.). [C. H.]
PRISCILLIANUS, martyr with Priscus and
Benedicta ; commemorated at Rome Jan. 4
(Usuai-d., Notker., Vet. Horn. Mart. ; hoW. Acta
SS. Jan. i. 165). [C. H.]
PRISCUS (1), presbyter, martyr with Priscll-
lianus and Benedicta ; commemorated at Rome,
Jan. 4 (Usuard., Notker., Vet. Rom. Mart;
Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i. 165).
(2) Martyr with Ma chus and Alexander undei
Valerian at Caesarea in Palestine ; commemorated
Mar. 28 (Usuard,, Wand., Vet. Horn. Mart.;
Boll. Acta SS. Mart. lii. 711).
(3) Martyr with a jreat multitude in the
district of Auxerrc; Cimmemorated May 26
(Usuard. Mart.; Hieron. Mart.; Mart. Eom.;
Boll. Acta SS. Mai. vi. 365\
(4) Disciple of Christ, martyr at Capua ; com-
memorated Sept. 1 (Usuard. Mart.; ]'et. Horn.
Mart. ; Hieron. Mart. ; Kal. Antiquiss. Patr. Lat.
cxxxviii. 1191 ; Boll. Acta SS. Sept. i. 213); his
natale observed in the sacramentary of Gelasius,
Sept. 1. his name being mentioned in the collect,
in the post-communion, but not in the " secrets"
(Galas. Sacram. in Murat. Lit. Rum. Vet. i. 666).
(6) Martyr at Tomi with Crescentius and Era-
grius; commemorated Oct. 1 (Usuard. Marl.;
Vet. Rom. Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Oct. i. 30;
Hieron. Mart, has a Priscus for this day, but not
the place nor the companions). [C. H.]
PRISON. [Decanicum.]
PRIVATUS (1), bishop, martyr in the dioceu
of Gabala (Mende); commemorated Aug. 21
(Florus ap. Bed. Mart. ; Hieron. Mart. ; Usuard.
Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Aug. iv. 432).
(9) Martyr ; natalis commemorated in Phrygis
with DionysiuB, Sept. 20 (Usnard. Mart.;
Hieron. Mart, at Synnada in Phrygia with Dor-
midonus and others ; Mart. Som.).
PRIVILEGE OF CHURCHES
(3)A8oldier; commemorated with pope Cal-
listus at Rome, Oct. 14 ( Vet. £om. Mart!).
JKryaEGB OF CHURCHES. ^[sH^l
PROAULION. [Porch.]
PROBORTIA "Of the Lights "j commemo-
rated Jan. 2, 3, 4, 5 (Cal. Bytant.).' [a H.]
PR0BU8 (1), martyr with Tarachus and An-
dromcus; commemorated Oct. 12 (Basil JUeml •
J, '^r w f •.'." ^'''""' <^'='- 9 i natoli' Sept.
(2) Martyr with Archadius and Paschasiua by
heVandalsm Africa; commemorated Nov. 12
{Vet. Rom. Mart.) j Nov. 13 {Mart. Rom.).
PROCESSipN I. The word procefe'ro^^,
^d by the early Christians in the especial sen!e
1,171% " ''""'' """^ ^"''^ /<"•" f" some
stated and grave purpose; in particular and
chiefly tor gomg to a religious service. Tert "l-
.m A.D. 192, addressing l^hristian women ,,
dendi) 1. of a solemn character : either some sick
bro her .s to be visited, or the sacrifice is olfer^i
/bfn. 11). Dissuading from marriage with a
heathen, he says, " If you have to go to a service
(si procedendum erit), never will househo d
busmess be more urgent " (Ad Uxor. ii. 4). S e
t F^Z^ll f «'• •'"r^ ('->• ^28 ad Gaul
3 Ep. 107 ad iMc-t. 9; Up. 22 ad l-Au^toch. 17),
St. Ai gustme {De Civ. Dei, xxii. 8, 8 22) Ura
fi^f .f'""- * 'S"^' '^"■■- 214)- and Pseud !
Ambrose (&m. vji, 3, i^ter 0pp. Ambr.). When
the fame ot a saint attracts many to a chur. h
m which his relics lie, "major est (it is s„ d)
pro mentis ejus frequentia procedendi " (pS
h. Quirini, 4; in Kuinart, Acta Mart. ^^^1
Hence processio acquired the conventional
toe tear ot God is, thei^e is ... , devout
attendance, and a modest going to ch irch (m-o
tt wor, ■ tolT"^" ^'t *" the application of
Zlf Tk I ^' ?*^e™bly or to tlie service
T\- ), l^^"^ ^'""«' '^-O- 445, writing to
the bishop of Alexandria of an AlexandLn
Rome: "Nostris processionibus atque ordina
onibus frequenter adfuit" (Eplt. uZ
^arf /).o,c 2). The contextVshew tha bv
K I'T" "'■'' '"""d^-'stand congregations
LT '/ ' "''"'^'^ a ''''''"'P to suspend the
Wices (processionem) of a certain cl>,r,.h
PROCESSION 1715
LtSe^'tKL'e^.I.'lit/'"'' ^'t" ''^«-
This was Per,niu:d:'"^:ic"famr':rnr i£
publica pr„cessi.u,e a conditore aliqnater te'^^a'
■■ ■ -r'ch ^"..N^MMir ^''P."»t"y ad-Ied to an
men. "iNltiiJ illio iinia ri,„,u«„.: ..i»_ ■
oldchirch- "Nihil ir VP^^^y added to an
jam debere n^ • J"'" f'-'^datori ulteriu,
jam aebeie, n si processionis gratiam auae
Chnstiams omnibus in commune ^ebetuT" (S
PriL^o" ^^"nlw *!"" "'^T'y '™''' (Processus,
SupSi'nSm^tr;^^^^^^^^^^
were common in the early churehH.V?'^''^'''?
^^tiTtfi^"-^?^'^'-v!"iir
film. vi. », &; I Chron. xiii 7 S . o r'l,
97 00 . D 1 ••• ^ '» o ; 4. C/tiron. \x
^1, ia; Ps. Ixviii. 25, &c thp iW.t in . :.•
I «»»'ons msome resj.ects as their mode "VC
SmithtTj ^?*;''*'»/'^« and Triumohc hi
the triumphal processions from ihJ <-
Martins to the Capitol (to t w a is 'sT"
our purpose) tiowera u/0,0 .,♦„ • '"
Instia, IV. 2. 3-fi • /)/. ")_<„ /' . „' '-'*''^>>
Pontica, ii. 1 35-4o1^'iif'^VS-]of'';f'^'
features of these ancienr'rif^s rea",, .;.. ^
em ire Thr'n"" .""". *'"'„ -"vets'ion of the
:=-o/tiraerr:;:f^^:::^.rw:K
gospel and their rulers indulged themt itf "
,>, K .V"''*"'""'* "• "« C/iKrcfcs.-These wer«
ttteetttlb-^-^f-H^n^
clerks ^tbre;i.-;;s„:;^--r;;^-
^l;rrL*:r'':'''^.*'-';t--Theiarli
(1) P-wm.o«s 6,/o>„ „,,,. ocrnc'c— The earliest
rtf Airm ?'"'", ''° '"'"''''' an el.:i
rite. All met and rested in the Si-pbvt.
out r the' \f"" "' ''• ">« W'hop'wried
eth ta\ g a^n ,"'=': Vh-rsul'^d ^'"^"'"J ll^"™"'
witK „ S""-"'!"- "le sub-deacon, folbwinp
wi h a censer, goes (procedit) before l,im^
and the seven acolytes of the re^inn l I " '
comes on that ciay,^,recede thrpTntltf u;'!.";!;:
altar, carrying seven stands of li"hK' ( wax
candles. But before they come to the tlr the
deacons tae off their pla'netae in the p byt.-
ha:!d^^h::!;rtth:^3^''::^*?l:r"™-^
which they belong" ( o!rij;? % I"^,,^"
Rog. Franc v ti-K ^-L ^1^"": ^"fJ*-
.«. 1 , '}•—) ine Greeks have for
the ^?^U ':.' 1 ■"•"--ion in monasteries on
the vigils of the greater feasts (DiataH,
com p.
Pkii 4U • • „ 8™«er leasts (Z
Philothei, m E,u.-ho/o,ion, Goar. «•
Lucemarii Omtiones, 40-43). '
(2) For the Prwession before the Readinn nf
the gospel the ancients nged to go out roAl?i
bema) and make a procession or cfrouit thro5'
the cnurch. And first in ♦!,» J" tnj-nng,,
carried light, that n^st al J'de'not'eTZ ""^
the deacon, and presbyter, who went in proce..
109
.: ./.If
'MU
1716
PK0CB8SI0N
tion with songs of praise represent symbolically
the evangelists and twelve apostles who went
forth and preached before Christ" {Expos.
Miniat. u. s. 9).
(4) After the Liturgy. — "Then the seven
candiestands and the subdeacon of the region
p. eoedo the pontiff to the secretarium. But as
he descends into the presbytery, let the bishops
first say, ' Jube, domne, benedieere.' Sesp. ' Bene-
dicat nos Dominus.' Sesp. 'Amen.' After the
bishops, the presbyters, then the monks, then the
school (choir), then the milites draconarii, i.e.
those who bear the standard (see tlie notes of
Liuilenbrogius and the Valcsii to Ammianus, xi.
4), after them the bearers of the wax candiestands,
aft6r whom the acolytes who keep the sacred
gate [Ruga], after them, without the presbytery,
those who carry the crosses, then the junior
churchwardens ; — and he enters the secretarium."
This is the description of the procession to the
vestry after a pontifical mass at Home in the 8th
century (Urdo Horn. i. 21 ; comp. Ord. ii. 15 ;
iii. 18).
B. Public Processions. — The earliest allusion to
them appears to be in the writings of St. Basil.
When, in the year 375, the clergy of Neocaesarea
objected that the method of psalmody in use in
his church, as elsewhere in the East, was un-
known in the days of Gregory Thaumaturgus,
who died about 270, Basil re|)lied, " So were the
litiinies which ye now practise " {Epist. 207 ad
Neoc.). These were evidently of a penitential
character, for he adds, "I do not say this as
accusing you, for I would that ye all lived in
tears and constant penitence." Bnt we find that
in t!ie West processions were at the same period
used on festive occasions also, at least by the
monks ; for St. Ambrose, in 388, speaks of monks
" singing psalms after the custom and ancient
use, as they went to the celebration of the feast
of the Maccabean martyrs" {Epist. 40, § 16, ad
Tlieodos.). About the same time the Arians at
Constantinople sang hymns antiphonally as they
went through the city to their church ; where-
upon St. Chrysostom, to counteract the effect of
such public demonstrations, organized processions
of the orthodox, in which silver crosses, given
by the empress, and lighted tapers, were born;,
and psalms sung (Sozom. Eccl. Hist. viii. 8;
Pallad. Dial, de Vita Chri/s. 15).
(1) T/te Procession on St. Mark's Day. — On the
25th April (VII. Kal. Mail) a procession (" obsti-
tit in media Candida pompa via," Ovid, Fast.
iv. 906) was held by the Romans in honour of the
goddess Robigo, and prayers oflered to her for
the preservation of the fruits of the earth from
mildew (Ovid, u.s. 905-942; Pliny, xviii. 69;
Varro, De Pe Past. i. 1 ; De Ling. Lat. vi. 3).
A document issued by Gregory of Rome in 591
speaks of a "lactania quae major ab omnibus
appellatur," which was held on a Friday in that
year, with a procession from the church of St.
Lawieucc, " qui appellatur Lucinae," to that of
St. Peter, as if it were already an old custom,
" solemuitas annuae devotionis " (Charta Epist.
lib. ii. praef ) Referring to some of the most
ancient MSS. of the Gregorian sanramentarv, we
find sot Anvin for t,ho "."ith of April, " W.inis
majors ad S. Laurentium in Lucinae " (Liturg,
Bom. Vet. Murat. ii. 80 ; Ritmte PP. Psmel. ii.
285). This procession also ends at St. Peter's, as
the lait prayer (" in atrio ") proves by its refer-
PR0CES8I0N
ence to the intercession of that saint. The in<
ference is that this procession is the same as that
of which St. Gregory speaks. His procession,
therefore, took place on the 25t1i of April, and,
from its antiquity, may be supposed with prcbs-
bility to have been a Christian substitute for the
heathen Robigalia^ formerly held on the same
day. In France the procession of St. Mark's day
was traditionally held to be celebrated " pour les
fruits de la terre" (De Moleon, Voyages /lYur-
gii^ties, 307).
Other churches took this rite avowedly from
Rome. The council of Cloveshoo, 747, orders
litanies " on the seventh day before the calends
of May after the custom of the church of Rome"
(can. 16). The second council of Aaclien, 836,,
recognises the " Roman " observance of the 25th
of April as the custom of the empire, and de-
crees its continuance (can. 10; see also Capit,
Rag. Franc, vi. 74). Similarly Herard of Tours,
858, " De Letanitt Romana vii. Kalendas llaii
rememoretur " {Capit. 94). This procession was
observed in France during the last century f.t
Nantes, Orleans, Rouen, &c. (De Moleon, 79, 180,
306, &C.).
(2) T/ie Procession of the Litania Septiformis.~
On the 29th of August, 602, Gregory 1. of Home
ordered a sevenfold procession of clerks, laymen,
monks, nuns, matrons, widows, poor persons and
children ( probably those supported by the
alms of the church) to depart in separate bands
from seven several churches, and all to meet in
the church of St. Mary (Sermo inter Epist. Greg.
xi. 2, given also at length by Amalarius, DeEcd,
Off. iv. 25). [Litany, p. 1003,]
(3) On Rogation Days, see that heading,
(3) Occasional Public Processions. (1) At time)
of Public Calamity. — These were very common,
especially in tli < '" -"t. Thus Gregory of Toun
tells us that i\ ;es, about 580, when very
violent rain" r ing, near the harvest, after
a night spent . . -vatching and prayer, "the
deacons took the relics of the saints, suitably and
reverently cjvered with a silken pall, and went
forth in white dresses to a procession" {VitaS.
Aridii, 8). A similar rito was observed at Rome
under Adeodatus, A.D. 671, when the letaniae
took place daily during the rains (/,i6cr Pmtif.
n. 78). In a plague at Rheims, 546, " having
taken a pall from the tomb of the blessed (Remi-
gius), and arranged it like a bier, and having
lighted wax candles on crosses and stands, ther
raised their voices in canticles, and so went the
circuit of the city ; nor did they pass any hospioe
without including it in their perambulation"
(Greg. Tur. de Ghr. Conf. 79; see also Hist.
Franc, iv. 5 ; Vitae PP. vi. 6). Gregory 1, in
600 advised a procession twice a week to stay
the threatened invasion of Sicily (Epi.it. ii. 45).
Public processions with similar objects were
also frequent in the East ; e.g. during an earth-
quake at Constantinople in the time of Theodo-
sius II. (Cedrenus, i. 600). A similar pro-
cession was celebrated every year in memory
of the great earthquake in the twenty-seventh
year of Justinian {Id. ii. 674).
None of the processional prayers now in w
priiper to a special object, as relief in a drought,
deliverance from storins, &c. (Goar, EiicM. 71)6-
769), appear to be of primitive antiquity. Some
of them arc ascribed to one of the patrisrehi
named Callistus, who sat abont 1400 (ibid. 785).
PROCESSION
It is probable that all litanies or.lere.I for a
.pecml nurpose were s«„g in procession, though 1?
IS not always so expressed. [I-ITANv ]
{i)The Processions after Baptism-So lon^
., many were baptized on the eves of Easter and
Pen ecost It was the custom for the neoph, t«
to leave the church after their baptism, and
agom to repair o .t on the seven folliwing days
n procession, clothed in albis, there to receive
the holy communion. The earliest witness is
Gregory Nazianzen, A.D. 370, who, preaching on
Easter Day says: "Beautiful yest^Alay was^he
wearing of white and the carrying of lights
which we observed together both in private and
public, men of almost every ' " •
magistracy, lighting up tlie
blaze '-(Ora*. 4.1, § 2). There" is direct" t'eVtil
mony in the West to the repetition of these
processions during the week after baptism.
thus Amalanus : "Our baptized, their past sin
done away are conducted daily to the church, a
lighted pi lar of wax " (an allusion to Exod.
■ "';,c,^^V^r?, H*^""-^ them" (Do Eccl. Ojf.
IV. 33; Pseudo-Akuin. rfe /)u, Off 21)
(5) Before Baptism.-When Cloyi/'was to be
baptized, A.D. 496, there was a procession, with
m I'.TirTTT'J'''''^'' *" *''« baptistery
(H d, rd, //,./. Sect. Bern. i. 13), a ceremony
probably common m the case of great person-
tTme ■■ "^''^l'^^' do not occur
(6) Before laying of tlw frst stone of a Church,
^■c.-A law of Justinian, 527, says : '' We decree
that,before all things, no oL L free to com!
raence the building of a monastery or oratory
before the most God-loving bishop of the
PRocrssus
1717
Stul'i?,... Serfir'st''f'"'r' ':^""-»« "<•
for the prayers at the 7 '^t g«thering, then
" static idT N » at '^'^''^"^ St. JI.), and
procession st^ptd an om"'? " ""^''^ *''«
service of the'^H S L M "''/" *''* '^"'^
sncramentary of St cl ""^^^ ""t^"" *« ^^^
604 6e2,elC:nd^rs^;,S:^.«"«--
funerals [OiiskquL, §Tiv.] ""-■"■ '""'''' ""'^ «'
both in private and rp '-•V''^' 8 "^•J
rank, anlthe'whde FrliZlTjIu'f- "^"'" "^ '^ ^-^«^-
ORit." A law nf T .• • °' "'^'''*» I"" viribus
currence of the bis b"""' '''' ""''^ "^ -'■
autem laicis infntli • '' •"'"^^'"T = "Omnibus
context shews ftinf fk it , >'<;"iis. Jiie
made in X '!s "I It''"'''™''/'?''' " ^'"^
="i'r-a^rF-=-
reponuntor-CJV^J/^na;;^ ^""^ venerabilibus
sui? Jac V^r^'^'^S '."''J'"^' tf-e «»''" may con.
instituted, set uu a cross. »„^ „,„u„ J. T"} I f ''fl/l'^^, Par. 1705 ; or the shorter notices of
b. J. Durandus de Bit. j?ce/ ii in- ai f
Pellicia * CMst. Eccl » l\ n'. ^,: ^"';-
ana i-aul ; commemorated at Rnmo in ♦!.„
tery of Damasus July 2 (Bed Wnn/ II"'"';'
Mart; Vet. Bom. Aflt. ;Ht:J^mrt Tl'
Rom.). Hieran. Mart, his also Mav t1 V ,' '
natale. I" Gregory's sacram:nta^ l^hV^atal': -
of these saints is observed on .lulv 2 and t.»h
are ment oned in the en11»„f /l^ ' ''""'
Murat. Zrt. Bom Vet -/Zt ^^''W'""^-
PROCESSUS. In the liturgy of Gothic
the processus." in which is "ageat set for tV
pontiff according to custom." n' /I
witHb." "" ''''r"',; ^•'"'''' he afterwanls 1?^^;
w h the "new fire" (See Lmnrs, ^ v.). Thf !
the?::i^^ " P''*"^''""'"' "f ">« clergv\hr iVh
the vaulted way towards the choir. « Va I nt
\u S Mn '^'""■"" " ^'"''^'^ Mo.a'tX
1'*, 175, 521). rW. E. SI
682 ■■'
instituted, set up a cross, and make the fact
manifest to all " {Novella, 67).
(7) At the Dedication of Churches. — Proces-
sions on such occasions were evidently usual
«■■ bin our period both in the East and West;
but they seem to have been somewhat differently
nianaged. When the first encaenia of St. Sophia
at Constantinojile were celebrated in 530 there
was a procession (lite), which "started from
thUioly Anastasia, Menas the patriarch being
seated in the imperial chariot, while the emperof
omed in the procession (<,vKMra..<,o^os)K2
e people "(Theophanes, Chronogr. ad an i
338, ed Nieb.) At the second encaenia (he
church having been restored after injury from
an^rtquake), after vigils kept in th'e Jhu'ch
bt. Plato, a procession was formed, in which
th emperor himself again took part, "he
atriarch Kutychius riding in a chario't, and
rssed in h,s apostolical habit, holding the
hoy gospels m his hands, the peo ,le all chant-
g " Lift up your heads," &c. (iftk 360). The
\estern rite IS best seen in the early English
pontificas. [Consecration, p. 431.] The Eng Lh
public library at Rouen, directs the fir ?
pr ssion to go round the church thrice before
It enters (Martene de Ant. l-ccl. Bit. ii. 250 or
Ar<;haeuh.m for March. 1833. p. i'.^fi) '
f}^\^''lt*f'mes.—lri the cities' of' the West
roni the 7th century downwards, there were
irrrh't^Y ."'.*'" ^■•^'''- "«"» ^--
.Lw I .* '■''^"'^ *he people collected by
•ppomtment, to another, at which the servicl
• '1'f
'■. •'■>'■ ft
1718
PnOCHORUS
I
PROCnORUS, one of the seven deacons ;
cominomorateil Ap. 9 (UsuarJ. Mart. ; VH, Rom.
Mart, at Aiitioch ; Mart. Rom. ; Uoll. Acta SS.
A|.. i. 828); by the Greeks July 2» (Basil.
Mftwl.; Cat. Hi/. ant.; Daniel, Cod. Litimi.iv.
204 ; Uoll. I. c). [0. H.]
PR0CLU8 (1), martyr with Hilnrius, both
natives of Anoyra, under Trajan ; ccimiiiemorated
Julv 12 (Basil. Mcnol. ; Cal. Ihiiant. ; Daniel,
Cod. TJtur.i. IV. 263 ; Boll. Acta S^-?. Jul. iii. 279,
or Prooui.us with Hilauion or Hilaiuus;
Miirt. Rom.).
(2) Deacon, Sei^t. 19. [Procui.U8 (2).]
(3) "Our father," patriarch of Constanti-
nople ; oorainemorated Oct. 24 (_Basil. Mcnol. ;
Mart. Rom.; Boll. Acta SS. Oct. u. G:i7); Nov.
20 (tti/. Byiant.). [C H.]
PR0C0PIU8 (1), confessor with Basilius,
under I..eo Iconomachus ; commemorated Keb.
27 (Basil. M<mol.; Col. Byzunt., bishop of I)e-
capolis; Daniel, Cod. Litunj. iv. 254, Decapo-
lita).
(2) Martyr, commemorated July 8 (Wnnd. ;
Basil. Mcnol. Dux Ale.\andriae, maguus martyr in
city of Aelia) ; in Palestine (Uauard. Mart. ;
Vet. Rom. Mart. ; Bed. Mart. ; Mart. Rom.) \ Cal.
Jii/tant. " glorious and holy martyr ; " Daniel
{Cod. Litunj. iv. 262), " great martyr " at Cae-
sarea; Hieron. Mart. Procouus, which Boll.
Acta SS. Jul. ii. ^77 from the same passage read
Puocorius, with Quartus and Felix at Caesarea
Capp. [C. H.]
PROCUmS (1), martyr at Internmna with
Efybus and Apollonius, all disciples of Valcn-
tiiius presbyter ot Interamna ; commemorated
Feb. 14 (Bed. Mart. ; Mart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta
SS. Feb. ii. 756, cf. p. 8ii2) ; Ap. 14 (Usuard.
Mart, at Interamna ; Mart. Rom. ; Hieron. Mart.
at Interamna with VaJentinus and others).
(2) Deacon, martyr with Januarins ; com-
memorated Sept. 19 (Basil. Mcnol. I'uocLUS at
Puteoli ; Vet. Rom. Mart., at Naples ; Usuard.
ifart. ; Bed. Mart. ; Mart. Rom.).
(3) Bishop, martyr at Autun ; commemorated
Nov. 4 (Usuard. Mart. ; Hieron. Mart. ; Mart.
£om.).
(4) Presbyter, martyr at Narnia ; commemo-
rated Dec. 1 (Usuard. Mart.).
PROCURATIONS. The fees due at visita-
tions to bishops and archdeacnns from the parishes
within their respective jurisdictions, intended to
cover the expenses of their journeys. A series of
canons and decrees of councils were found neces-
sary to keep these fees within their lawful limits,
and to prevent extortion under various pleas.
The second council of Braga a.d. 570 (c. 2) pro-
hibits a bishop when he visits his diocese, " per
dioceses suas ambnlat," from taking any fee
beyond two solidi, the honorary payment due to
the office, " honoreija cathedrae suae," especially
forbidding him to claim the third part of the
otl'ertories made in parish chuix'hes, which is
allotted to the lighting and repairs of the churches
themselves. The seventh council of Toledo A.D.
646 (c. 4), after reprehending the extortionate
PROCURATIONS
practices of the bishops of Gallicia, re-enacts the
canon all eady quoted of the counpil of Braga, hx-
ing two "solidi" as the legal fee, but cxcnijitj
from payment the churches belonging to monas-
teries. It also provides that when a liishop visits
his diocese he is not to be unfairly burdensome
to any particular parish, nor to demand an un-
reasonable number of horses for conveyani f (see
Bruns. Cuuncils, i. p. 264, note) nor to remain mure
than one day in any parish. The council of Mo-
rida, A.D. 666 (c. 11), provides that all cIitIis,
whether presbyters, abbats, or deacons, shouil
receive a bishop at his visitation with ail due
honour, and provide him with all things riiison-
ably necessary accordnig to their means, " piout
habuerint aut ratio permiserit." The si-iiniil
council of Chiilons A.D. 812 (c. 14) rebukos tlie
oppressions and exactions sometimes prattisei l.y
bishops at their visitations, and (c. 16) lurljiJs
them to exact anything for the lamps and oil uf
their churches, and (c. 17) speaks of ;in aniiLal
tax (censuni) of 12 or 14 denarii, which some
bishops were in the habit of exacting, and em-
phatically prohibits it, "quod penitus.idinjon.lum
est." In the same council (c. l.i) the archdeacims
are rebuked for cerlain exactions from, thtir
presbyters and parochial clergy, and exhorted to
be content with their legal dues. It w.is prn-
bably to excessive demands made under the name
of procurations that the c(mncil of Paris A.n. 8.'9
(cc. 25, Ml) referred when they denounced the
extortions practised in some places liy tlie
bi.shops (episcoporura ministros), not only on
the presbyters but on the laity agents. The
fourth council of Valentia A.D. 855 (c. 2'J) orders
that no visitation fee shall be claimed if the
parish has not been visited that year, and the
second council of Ticine in the same year limits
the quantity of bread and wine and meat which
a bishop may demand at his visitation.
The same principle that procurations were only
intended to cover the legitimate expenses of a
visitation pervades all legislation on the snljjeet.
A Capitulary of Ludwig the Pious (l.i.c. inO.Sii-
mondi Cone. Gall. ii. 432) expressly prohiliits
bishops fnmi becoming a burden to their flocks
when they visit their parishes for the purpose of
preaching or confirming, and orders thorn so to
arrange their visitations that they may not be
burdensome or unwelcome (importuna vol oner-
osa). Hincmar of I'.heims appears to have been
most anxious to check all extortionate practices
under the name of procurations, anti his wvitinss
clearly indicate the abuses which ha<l crept into
this part of the system of the church. Thus,
in his epistle to the clergy of Laon (Sirmon.li
Cone Gall. ii. 600) he warns the bishops not to
oppress the parishes which they visit, nor to e.^act
more than the contribution (collatio) which had
satisfied their predecessors, nor to require a sepa-
rate contribution from each church am! its de-
pendent chapelries, but only one paid in due
proportion by the whole parish ; nor were they to
claim or exact, under pretence of receiving «
voluntary contribution (accipiat, id est raiiiat),
any subsidies (adjutoria) in money or provisions
under the plea of meeting expenses incurred in
the reception of the king or his ambasjftdop, yr
for the adornment of tJie cathedral church. Again
in his precepts to his archdeacons {id. ii. 378) he
forbids them (c. 1) during their visitations ot
their country parishes, either when accompanying
PROCURATOR
him or by themselves, to be guilty of oppression by
deman,lM.s things not necessary, or by tilling with
hen a superriuous retinue, or their own relatk, ,,
to he quartered upon the, parishes whi.h they
v,s,ted; or (c. 2) by visiting their parishes u.o
frequently, so as to live at their expense and
.ave the.r own income ; or (c. 5) by <lemand?ng
as ortenngs (eulogiae) any contril/ntion eithe?
m money or in any other way from the presbyters
when they came to attend a synod, or to obtain
heehrism orfor enquiry into their ministry"
willingly ■" ^^' ""'^ ' *" '^'"^""'^ *" ""^^
A Capitulary of Charles the Bald (,y iii 9 'n
enacts (c 1) that bishops were to ,;.ceive either
a debn, e quanljity of provision or the two
"soI„l," alotted to them by the councils of
Brafta and lolecio (c. 4) ; that the bishops should
choose the richer parishes for their visitations,
m\ that finir parishes might unite to share fhe
expenses of a visitation ; and (cc. 5, G) that they
might visit parishes once a year and receive
procurations, but could require nothing from
panshc-s not visited. If they visited an/parish
more than once in the same year, they were to
pay their own expenses. [P. 1
. PROCURATOR. In its general mean-
ing a person in charge of the interests of
anoth.r as agent or factor (see Ducange, Oloss.),
but ,. ,e usually applied in a more limited
sense to lawyers in the civil, or proctors in the
ecclcsiasti.'al, courts.
These emiiloyments were in general forbidden
to the clergy as involving secular business in-
consistent with their ollice and position
Augustine <fc Op. Momch. c. l.",) draws a dis:
tinction between occupations which are carried
on bv manual labour, and those whose nature it
IS to distract the min.l with cares and anxieties
about secular business (ipsum animnm occu-
pare cuns colIi,endae sine corporis labore
pmmme), and expressly numberi "procura!
tores, probably using the word in its goneral
meaning, among the latter class. So Jerome
(»rf H^ot. c. 16) asks how the clergy, who '
are bidden to renounce all care for ihej; own
emporal possessions, can possibly undertake to
emnnageis (procuratores et dispensatores) of
the houses and estates of others. The decrees
of the church speak with united voice in th
refusal to admit into the number of the clercy
any who were actually engaged in managing
aliairs of others. The Hrst council of Cai?
thage, held m the year A.ri. \m ext.resslv
decreed (cc. 8, 9) that no " procurator s," or tho/e
many wayengaged in the artairs of othe ^(obno"!!
ttiecleig;, 1,1 they were free from their secular
In tr\'''V'^''^.?i'"'-''= ^h""''' be brough
ipon the church. The third council of Oir-
I'n '"; '^' ^•^- ^•'>' l^^hibits no ont
bishops and priests, but any of the clercy from
li ""y 'g"»'''« »>• dishonest occupation, eivine
a rea..n that those entrusts 'with ihTs r-
cTfnJi '""";'"' ""^ Ch'iltedon, A.n. 451
moni oH ■"•>; '"•''^■^'"S *» the 'clerical or
jecuiar business {iwti^iy..^ lavrhv KotruiKal
8M«..0 making, however, exceptionsTa cL
PROHIBITED BOOKS 1719
of any business imposed upon them by Taw or
committed to them by the bishop of th^e d^ol^se
".111, was not allowed by Jnstini,,,, „.i.„ •
of his law. <- V,,.. .// 'v/'istiii'im, who in one
^^>^:^lr■it^^tit£""'■'^--^"«^
i>aif,orofany'':;i:h't::X''^^ial':;
counci s, however nm,..-.. » "•""■'-'j. J.aiei
retai..in„ K ' " ""^ *" '""'"^ insisted on
iT'ittrrttS^^rfeS
cKilv't""'-"; '•'•'^ (•••• "0- forbids any oh
bel.lV f '"';'''"' "">' '■■«"' bu>iness, eLe, t on
behalf of widows and or,,hane, or in t'ases whe^
he property of the chu'rch was cone"™, ' nd
A.I-. BJ.) (c. 14), f„rbids any of the deivv t-
« raTo^ in rn'""""?'^^ (■"".•uetores'au't'^pro-
uiiatoie.s) in any secular matters, excent in de
once of widows and orphans. See ilsoTlVv^l^
'■ [I'.O.]
chu^'^f ?'"^- '''"' '''"-P-''' <"• the Greek
V,on o .rr'r'' '° ."^'' '""'" to the Kve or
V IGII. of the Latins. lUit some of the irreite.
fe tiva s have a ..o.opria of more than .^ ' ;
January VCT/":' ''"' Kpy'h-y begins on
januarj ^ ,t Christmas on Dec. 20 rXea|«
hastcrn Ch. Jntrod. p. 704). fC 1
PROFANATION. [Sacuilegi:.]
PROFESSION. For the profession of faith
m Baptism see lUm-.s.M, §S 43 4« , Crkbd § 4,
p. 489; lNTi.:,:uoGA-no, p. 8.i5 To these
gi)en by the council of Lestines (CunHUum
X.p«i».n.. A.n. 74:t) is one of the oldest s
"2? It "''^'"'' ^"™"'" '■" ■» Teutonic' an.
K"age. It ,s given as follows bv l>rofe,.or
ic , 1 r .^"'"'"-t" ■" g"t al'mehtigan falner
\n^T:V "'•'"'^ht'^n fadaer. C.elobi tu •
suno. fieb.bis u in halogan gast. Ec gelobo in
halogan gas.o. That is: '^y. Believest thou
in G.mI the 1-ather Almighty? A ] believe i„
S:•^^'?^'■-•^•'"'f'>t)^ *WU.ve!^t :
a,n>t Gods Son? A. i believe in Christ God"
Son Q. Believest thou in the Holy Ghost ? 4
1 believe in the Holy Ghost." vq n
PROFESSIONS. [Trades.]
h^V 1 s"lTression by public authority of
books adverse to the prevailing ,eligion las
common long befj.re the Cbristifn eraf A he
Athenians scandalised bv .i declaration of Pro!
trgoras, 1..C 4U,that lie was uncertain of t^e
existence of gods, "called in his bo" ks from
heir possessors by the voice of , public crie^
and burned them in the market.,,;„ce " (Diogen
Ira Da, 9). Another instance, in which the
1
1720 PROHIBITED BOOKS
actors were Greeks, is recorJed in the First Boolt
of Mnociibecs (i. 50): the (illicers of Aiitiochus
E|ii|ihau«s, H.c. (08, " rent iu [lieces the boolis
of the law wliich they fouml, and burnt them
with (ire." Exnniples are frefjucnt among the
n,.niau3. Dining the sciouj Tuiiio war, ii.C.
2l;i, when foreign suiierstitions were gaining a
footing in Rome, a senatus eonsultum was passed,
anil published by the praetor urbis, to the eli'cct
that any one possessed of " boolis of aoothsiiying,
or prayers or written treatises on the art of
siicrilicing," should give them up to the praetor
by a certain day (Livy, Hist. xxvi.). On a dis-
covery of the nature of the Bacchanalian rites,
li.C. 186, the consul Posthuniius, when explain-
ing the cause of their suppression to the peojile,
deilared that the magistrates had often been
charged with the duty of " forbidding the per-
firmance of foreign rites . . . collecting and
burning books of soothsaying, and abolishing
every mode of sacrifice not after the Roman
custom" {ibid, xxxix. 16). Five years later the
Greek books found near the tomb of Numa were
immediately burnt "per victimavios ... in
conspectu populi, quia aliqud ex parte ad soU
yen lam religionem pertinere existimabantur "
(Valerius Max. Momonib. I. i. U. Compare
Plutarch in i\umi, Reiske, i. 298; Lactant.
Iiistit. i. 22). When Augustus became Pontifex
JIaxinuis, he collected and burnt above two
thousand " libri futidici" (Suetonius, Oc<ai). 31).
The works of political opponents were exposed
to the same fate. Thus the writings of Labienus,
about 12 B.C. (Seneca, Cuntruvtrs. vi. Praef.),
those of Cremutius, A.D. 25 (Tacitus, Anruit. iv.
35), those of Fabricius Veiento, A.D. Oil, of
Arulenus Rusticus and Herennius Senecio
(" monumenta clarissimnrum ingeniorum," Tacit.
Airi<;ota, 2) were in the same manner publicly
destroyed. The books of the Manichaeans were
also under the ban of heathen princes. Thus
Diocletian and Maxiraian, A.D. 289, ordered the
teacliers of the " Persian doctrine to be burnt
with their abominable books " (Baron, ad ann.
288 ; iii. 252, ed. 1738), and Cabades, king of
Persia, A.D. 516, after a great slaughter of the
sect, caused their books to be burned throughout
his dominions (Theophanes, Chronogr. ad ann. i.
203, ed. Bonn).
il. Christian Books suppressed hy Jews and
Ilaithens.— 'When Christianity began to acquire
strength, this familiar mode of suppression was
applied both by Jews and Gentiles to all writings
that were supposed to teach or favour it. Ad-
dressing the Jews of his day, Anastasius-Sinaita,
A.D. .'lei, says : " Your fathers, who were then
completely worsted, . . . commanded that none
of the Jews should possess in writing an account
of the things done by Christ, or seek after them
at all, or read them" (Disput. adv. Judaeos;
Migne, Scr. Gr. Ixxxix. 1246). The existence of
such a law explains, as nothing else can, the
total silence of Philo and the probable silence of
Joaephus on tlmt subject ; or if the passage
in his Antiquities (xvii. 4, § 3) be not an inter-
polation, it accounts for the very brief notice
which the facts on that supposition extorted
from the latter. The Jews hoped that the new
religion would die out if left to oral tradition.
The heathens were influenced by the same policy.
" Through the agency of wicked demons," says
Justin Martyr, " death was decreed against
PROHIBITED BOOKS
those who read the books of Hystaspes, nr the
Sibyl, or the prophets " (Ajivl. i. 44 ; i nniii.
Clem. Alex. I^tn/iiiatu, VI. v. 43). Diichtiim
ordered "the destruction of the ScriptiMis l.y
fire," in edicts published throughout the cini iie
(Euseb. Jiist. Ka:les. viii. 2). In every perse, u-
tion, in fact, they were demanded of the (In is.
tians for this purpose, and many were renuiinl
to attest their abjuration of the gospel by biiin.
ing its sacred records themselves. Thoje who
gave them up were conventionally tcrniecl "tni.
ditorea" [TuaiiITOR}, a name which, aicunliug
to St. Augustine, cuniu into use some forty years
after the death of St. Cyprian (d. 258), when a
great " burning of the divine books " took place
in Africa under Maxentius (Ve Jl(tj)tisiiii>, v. l-^
vii. 2 ; Ojitat. de SiMsin. Domit. i. 13).
III. Christian Prohibition of Heathen Huuh,—
The works of the heathen were, on the other
hand, proscribed by the Christians, but iidt
without discrimination. Some writers wtre
more severe and strict than others, but we are
evidently to understand their dcnuneiatluns I'ur
the most part of those books on)y which had a
bearing on religion, or encouraged a luose
morality. The Apostolical Constitiitiims (i. 6)
in both recensiims say ; " Refrain from all th»
books of the Gentiles; for what hast thou tn do
with strange discourses or laws, or with false
prophets, which even turn the light-niimleil
from the faith?" Gregory Nazianzen, A.D. 8C:I,
hearing that his namesake of Nyssa, instead uf
reading to the peojjle as before the " saered and
refreshing books " of holy Scripture, had turneil
to the " braidcish and undrinkable " founts of
heathen knowledge, accused him at omie of
"desiring rather to be called a rhetor than a
Christian" (l.pist. 12, al. 4 1)- St. liasil, the
brother of the Intter, has left a discourse ad-
dressed " to the Young on the Way to prolit by
the Hellenic literature." His opinion is that
much good may be obtained from it hy th.ise
who resolutely put aside the evil part, and study
to bring the innocent into the service of religion.
Then, "if the two literatures are at all in har-
mony with each other, the knowledi;e of them
both will be of great service to us; but if not,
to have compared them, and ascertained the
difference will tend not a little to the confirma-
tion of the better " (§ 2 ; ii. 175). St. Jerome,
378, referring to Eph. vi. 4, says ; " Let those
bishops and presbyters read it who train their
^ons in secular literature, and make them read
comedies, and sing the shameful writings of the
actors," &c. {Comm. iii. in Ep. ad JCph. u. s.
See also Fpist. 22 ad Eustoch. § 30; com p. Aug.
m Ps. 103, Enarr. S. ii. § 4 ; in Ps. 31, Emn.
S. ii. § x8 ; De Anima et ejus Orig. ii. 17, § iS).
One ground of abstinence from even the more
innocent productions of heathen writers is men-
tioned by Germanus, the monk, in Cassiaa
{CoUat. xiv. 12), viz. the distractions that arise
at prayer from images suggested by a study of
poetry and history. Paulinus of Nola (Poema,
10) tells us that hearts devoted to Christ are
closed to Apollo and the Muses. The council of
Carthage, 398, decrees: " Ut episcopus Gentilium
libros non legat, haereticorum aulam pro neces-
sitate temporis " (can. 16). Much later Gregory
I. strongly denounces a French bishop who was
said to teach belles-lettres, " quia in uno se ore
cum Jovis laudibus Christi laudes non cspiunt
PROIimiTED BOOKS
(Epiit. h. 4H). John thf Dwioon gars that i
OreK..ry " .Wl,a,le the reading of (Je„t!fe h. .,k!
to all ,.o»tiH« without ex.e|,tio»" MV<," uT I
iii. :):!). lsi.l..re of Sevillo, about G.IO -, th?t I
.heCh..i,,ti„„ i. ..forbi,l,ien to read t'h i t
of the , met,," on arcount of their tendency to
c«rn.,.t the m.nj (*„<,„<. iii. i;,). oc,;e,;tile
book, n general he says- " Cavendi sunt tal •» >
|;|;;;;;,;fj';;^2— ..sanct.ru.„«ori,turarun.j
M,mk» were eapecially bound to renounce .he '
works of heathen writers. Isidore of I'eluMuni
A.D.4IL' writing to one, say, : " What i, there
among hen, to he ,,ret,.rred to ours? What i,
here t at i, not full of falsehood and matte
for laughter in the subject, which they study ?
Are not their divine ,,rinci,des framed out of
passion,? Are not their manly actions for the
sake of ,,a,s,ions/ Are m.t their conflict, for
passionsj- bhun therefore, the reading of the
.hanielul stull, „r it hath a terrible i^nver to
reo|ien wounds that are skinned over." &c r/„,V
^6|., St N-ilu, 440, to a monastic coli;.^tr;^
books: "fhe rubbish and a,hes and mud of the
books ot the Gentile, why dost thou with such
di igence rake together, to no profit, but to hurt
after renouncing them in a monastery" (E/m'. 1
11. 7.)). lo a disciple he says: "Kead i-ot the !
books of the heathen, neither historical nor
tropological nor touch the old literature at all ; '
bu read he New Testament, and the accouu,,'
f the martyr, and the lives of the fathers, and
Ihe saying., of the aged » (iv. j). ,,;,,„;., „^
heville, in his Hcyula Afomchonim ■ " I et the
monk be careful not to read the books\,f the
Gentibs, or the volumes of the heretics; for it
1, b..tl. r to be Ignorant of their perniciou tenets
than by experiment to run into „nv snare or
error " yiu. 3). Eginhard, who had been seore'
tary to Charlemagne, but afterwards an abbat
h,s son, a monk at Kulda : "Grammatica et
r etonca caeteraque liberalium artium studia,
vana sun et valde nociva scrvis Dei nisi per
graiam Oivinam bonis moribu, sube,se nos-
ntur, quia scientia inflat, carita, vero aedificat
Mehu, mihi quidem est ut te mortuum videre
coating,at quam inHatum et scatentera vUUs "
I IS ,,robable that in no single instance are
we to u , ,t„„j „ Christian wiier ", de^rh g
the absolute su,.pression, without qualificatim o?
exception, of the entire i,o,|y „> the a c °
■tcrature. This was, for example, very fitrf om
! Tr';i^': •'«'•"""'' who'els'ewhie defeiTs
appea of Christian writers to the testimony
of the heathen, and instances Cyprian, Quadratus
Arisfdes, .lustin Martyr, Clemen, of Alexandria'
and many hers, as men who had made a wod
use of secular learning ^Epist. 70 ^l^ l^aS
*«(.). Long before this we find Origen exhorting
of TTr .r™'"""^'" I" ?*"''y the'philosoiS
be (^mpare, the work of Mamor'ius (rf. ^r<;
PBOUlblTED BOOKS 1721
b.,ar, eudenceof u, writer having carcfollv
does he^in the cour,ej'i/i:^..;:^;';;':;;, ;-
then a, s „ ul, but rather as nn,afisfactorv and
at an onrU. . ■ I V ^"'^ luimerouK
I „f "". ^''"y F">"l, and as their obict «as in
' almost everv ch<i. (,. ,... . . "J" ""* "»
;™u,ions„g^i,::r\,::;..':r::::i"tr';,!rs
century downwards. Thus one of , |e IZjlu-
»iuinj,3. iiie A,„,stiAicol Cuiistitutious in thn
the disciples of sStldaeoiriri^!
"isuisLipie, . . . Alsoaniong the ancients sonio
have composed apocryphal l^,oks of . " ^ S
f.noch, an.l Adam and Esaia, and iH^w „.
tm,, and the three patria^hs .a ' ' 1 '
mciou,, and opposed to the truth " (vi U)
tor details of thi, literature see D.ct Cim
Bio<,. s. vv. Acts, Aiocbvimui.; Aioc'u vm-^'
ATOcnirPIIAL; CLliJlKNTINli Ll IKUATUUI- • Psif
DKriGUAi.mc LrnoiUTL'H.; the ,evei^al ' „ mes"
iV \"T""^ """'"" "f apocryphal ■ ks
and the titles of auonvmous works ^ ^ '
,.n*i "^"''''"'"''*"''.V"'W'«— Stories 01 ,, ,e.
outions and martyrdom were naturallv po,' u ar
and were easily made the vehicle of' h\.,v2 A
decree against such false or tainted narrath^es bt
the council .n Trullo (a.d. (i9u) shew, th' t the
danger from this source was still rec ^n e and
that the church in the Kast was still vi i'lant
against it, at the end of the 7th century- "w!
ommand that the martyrologies i^a 1 e y com-
piled by the enemies of truth to do dish nouno '
he martyrs of Christ, and lead those wl„ he!?
^jumci, 4 c., PassM Geurgii.
m?e d li trr'' "•^'' ^''\ "f P^«»^"bed b^k
pro.^eeding from Rome is a document variously
SasfMi^^H ';'''"'"'(*■"• '^^-^>'- "" -
ce urv It wi.rh ""'f.V'"""'"'"^ "f t'>« 8tl'
wHh su^h not! '"'" *" 8'^" t'"" '•« "tenso
with such notes as may appear useful. We urint
It from Hard. Vonc. ii. 940 where .V*'''""'
among the decree, of a' Roml « s S"t"
have been held in the time of GelasiuV;
; 1 '
"»' .• '
v,ntur (al. qui recipi non debent).
" In primis Ariminensem svnodum a Constantio
aTl^Q^T'*'"'""'^"^"^" filio coneregatam
(A-D. 359, Anan against its better mind), med™
1722
PROHIBITED BOOKS
rnOHIBITKD HOOKS
nnti' Tauro prnefiM'to, ex time et minr, ct iiique
in Hcti'rnnin, cdnKtcmur e»se dninnutiim.
"Item itiiivrarium ( = irff)Iu8us) I'-tri apostnli,
quiul niinullatur Sniicti C'leinvtitiii, llbri ucto (n/.
iKivem, (il. (Iccom), ajxieryiiliuui. (The Itccnij-
tiitiiiit^ lit' Clmneiit ('Ai'a7>'(>ipi(r^ii>), so coIIihI by
liurtiiii'", wliii trnnslntmi it (Ihr Atlnlt. I.ibrnr.
Orijfuh 11(1 ciilc. 0pp. Orijf. xxv. 3H(i, cd. Liimni.) ;
othurwisi- " dementis Itincriiiium, (icstii, Ilis-
toriii, HiHtoriiie, ('lironica, ami Clemens; and
from I'eter, I'etri I'oriiidi and Itinerarium, Petri
Actus, i. e. by Clement [see I'lmtius, llibliut/t.
ll.'lj, iitlier tlian thuse Acts of I'eter, of wliic^h
I'eter is the alleged author ; and the Oisputatio
I'etri cum Apioue ; " (Cotel. PP. Apust. i.
484.)
"Ac;tns nomine Andreae Apostoll, apocryphi.
(See Kune'o. Hint. Kixl. iii. 2T> ; Philaatr. do Jhter.
88 ; Kplphan. U<wr. jclvii. 1, Ixi. 1, l.xiii. 2; Innoc.
Kpist. ml Exupcr. 7 j Turribius, Epist. § 5 inter
Epp. Loon. M.)
"Aitus nomine Thomae apostoli librl decern,
npociyphi. (Twofold, one Miinichaean men-
tioned by Turribius (m. s), and Augustine (De
>>enn. Ihm. i. 20, § 05), and anotlkcr put forth
by the Kncratites and Apostolics; lipiph. llacr.
xlvii. 1, hi. 1).
" Actus nomine Petri apostoli, apocryphi
(Kusfbius, M. s. iii. 3 ; Philastrius, Uncr. 88 ;
Hicron. Viri Itlustr. 1; Isidorus Pelus. Epist. ii.
99).
"A<'tus nomine Philippi apostoli, apocryphi.
" Kviingelium nomine Thaddaei, apocryphum.
" Kvnngelium nomine Matthine, apocryphum
(Oriijen in S. Lite. Ev. Horn. 1, in init. ; Kuseb.
//. E. iii. 25 ; Ambr. Expos, Ev. Luo. i. 2 ; Jerome
Pracf. in ( uinin. su/xt Mutth. Ev, ; Innoc. u. a. ;
Beilp, Comm, in S. Lite. Et: i. 1),
" Kvangelium nomine Petri apostoli, apocry-
phum (Origen, Comm. in Mutth. Ev. x. § 17 ;
Kusehius, ti. s. iii, 3, 2."), vi. 12; Jerome eft: Vir.
Jllitst. 1 ; TheoJoret, Ila^r. Fab. ii. 2).
" Kvangelium nomine Jacobi minoris, apocry-
phum. (The Protevnngelium, because treating
brielly of the infancy of Christ. Mentioned by
Origen, Comm. in S. Matth. x. § 17 ; Kjiiph. Haer,
XXX. 23 ; Innoc. «. s. Probably quoted by Justin
Alartyr, Dial. c. Tnjph. 78 (see the Proici). c. 18),
Clemens Alex. Strom, vii. 16, §93 (comp. Protcv.
19), and Kpiph. Ixxix. 5 (oomp. Protev, 1, 2).)
" Kvangeliura nomine Barnabae, apocryphum.
" Evangelium {at. evangelia) nomine Thomae,
quo (rt'. quibus) utuntur Mantchaei, apocryphum
(nl. apocrypha). (Written by Thomas, a Mani-
chaean ; see Origen in Luc. Horn. 1 ; Hippol,
Jic/ut. Omn. Haer. v. 7 ; Euseb. //. E. iii. 25 ;
Cyril. Hier. Catech, iv. 21, vi. 18; Amb. u. «. ;
Jerome, Praef. in Comm, super Matth. ; Innoc.
«. s. ; Leontius Byz. de Sectis, iii. 2 ; Petrus
Siculus, Hist. Manich. 16 ; Bede, u. s. ; Pseudo-
Athan. «. s.)
" Evangelium (at. evangelia) nomine Bartholo-
maei apostoli, apocryphum (at. apocrypha).
(Jerome, «. s. ; Beilc, u. s. Possibly under this
name is condemned by mistake the Hebrew copy
of St. Matthew, taken by St. Bartholomew into
India; Euseb. v. 10.)
" Evangelium nomine Andreae apcitoli, .ipncry-
phum (Innoc. u. g., who ascribes it to Xeno-
charides (or Nexocharides) and Leontius ; August.
c. Advers. Lei;, et Proph. i. 20, § 39).
" Evangelia quae falsavit Lucianus, apocrypha.
(The forger more commonly known at Leuciiu
Charinus; see below.)
" Liber de Infuntia Salvatoris, Bpocry)ihiii.
(Irenaeus, c. J/aar. i. 20, § 1, ascribes »' uli.rj
found in this to the Marcosians. A^asla^illl
Sinaita jierhaps refers to it, Hudoijus 13. I'si'miIh.
Jerome seems to speak of this, or a part ol it
{Epist. ad C/ironuit. et Heliud. inter 0pp. lliiMnn.)
under the title of Liber de Nativitatc 6'. JAin.K.
He ascribes it to Seleucus (=Leu(in»). Its full
title is LiMlus de Miraculia Infantiao f). J. ('.,
but the tirst twenty-four chapters have been
known as LiUr de A'ativitate Mariae, et de /nj.mtia
iiatvatoris.)
" Evangelia quae falsavit Esitius (al. Isii iu.i),
apocrypha. (.St. Jerome (Epist. ad Jhinnifoii)
couples Hesychius with Lucianus as giving iiiiiiie
to books held genuine by a few.)
" Liber do Nativitate (at. Infantia) Siilv.itciris,
ct de Maria et obstetrice (al. ejus), apoirvplim.
(Probably, from the matter, the Pnteniniilimn
Jacobi before mentioned under another title.)
" Liber qui appellatur Pastoris, apiKTyiihiis.
(The Shepherd of Hermas. No book is nmri' fre-
quently cited by early writers, as Ireuiieus, Ter-
tullian, Clemens Al., Origen, Athannsius, ^c. It
proceeded from Kome, and the grounil of its
condemnation here is only matter of conjwture,)
" Libri omnes quos fecit Leucius disii|iulu3
diaboli, apocryphus. (This ardi-foiger is eo
called by Evodius (de Fide c. Maniclmcus, 4, inter
0pp. Aug. App. vi. ed. Ben.; but the oldtr
editions give Leontius and one Vatican MS. /,'«u-
tius), by Innocent (u. s.) as author of a 'bunk under
the name of Peter and John,' by Tuniliiiii
(m. s.), Piiotius (Jliblioth, 1 14), according t<j whom
all the ' A}iostolorum Period!.' containing 'Acts
of Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, ami I'uul,'
were written by ' Leucius Charinns.' St,
Augustine writes the name /.eutiiis (Aitu mm
Feticf, ii. 6; but sime MSS. give Lovitico or
Lentitio). His full name, Leucius Charinns, is
also thought to be disguised under 'Xeno-
charides and Leonidas ' in Innocent (n. s.). .\tto
Vercell. calls him Seleuciu8(Hard. inloe.)\ I'semlo-
Jerome (u. s.), Seleucus, and in the pre-sent
document he has appeared as Lucianus ; and so
Jerome ; Ep. ad Damas., as above.)
"Liber qui appellatur Kundamentum, npncrv-
phus. (Ascribed to the founder of the JIani-
chaeans, Aug. de Nat. lioni, 42, 40; conip.
Acta cum Felice, ii. 1'. It was in the form of an
epistle.)
" Liber qui appellatur Thesauru.i, aiincryphns.
(Cyrill. Hier. Catech. vi. 13. It is ascribed by
him to Manes, but by Archelaus, A.n. Tit,
IHsp. cum Manich. (Galland. IUblii>th. iii. 509), to
Terbinthus or Tnrbo (.572). See Photius, 85.)
" Liber de Filiabus Adae Leptogeneseos,
apocryphus. (Mentioned by Epiplwinins, Ihcr.
ixxix. 6; Jerome, Ep. 78 ad Fabiol. 18; Ced-
renus, Compend. Hist. 9, ed. Nieb.)
"Centones de Christo, Virgili.inis compaginati
versibus, apocryphi. (' Proba, uxor Adelphi,
centonem ex Virgilio de Fabrica JIundi et Kvan-
geliis plenissime expressit . . . Et qiiidara Pom-
ponius ex eodem poeta . . . Tityruni in Christ!
honnrem com|iosuit : ainiiliter et de Aeneide ' ;
Isid. Hispal. Etymol. i. 39, § 26.)
" Liber qui appellatur Actus Theclac et Paul!
apostoli, apocryphus (Tertullian do Bapt. 17;
Greg. Naz. Ordt. iv. 69, xxi. 22, xxiv. 10; Greg.
i'Uo:iinrri:D books
Nysi. //..//I. xiv. 1/1 Cunt. Cml i fl7,! . f
name, Ku.ub. J/. T v "^^f ''v"-r"'"''' "'""""
* .V„<. .< (,>.<. 04,777 lilt '"".^ ^''«-
"Keveliitio iiuao anjiellntur P»,,li »,, . i-
19, &c.) ■C'B. S , iJozom. //. IC. vii. |
J.»oquaoappellaturTWea,,o,toli.
"Kevclutio quae appellatur lanofl <!to k •
t wri,ef^waa miS irdur''see''-r"
&r. ;,8, § I, .ig § e , Gen„ad"X%,''=>,f:,f
48. There J, a Latm translation by Avitus imn;
0pp. Aug. Ajip. vi. ed. Ben.) ' ""* """
"Liber qui aj.pellatur Transitus i,l «.*
Assumpt.o sanctae Mariae, apocry^ hu ' rrin 1 '
" tiber Ogiao (Thiel'a second copy aacribpd ♦„
Horm.. as reads Kugenio, Epist.. 2„Tr^uff ?
.^cSL.'" "PP*"'"*" Testa^entu™ Job,
^^.r "PP"""" P--'-'- Origeni,,
a spur (,us tract in wh!,.h i V""-'' 'f *• Cyprmni,
(Th true rea, i„:;"f, Apostolornm, apocrypha,
^^ we ar:'i:^:,"deraU7h:'L^'r/. "' I
^his 13 confirmed h,- the imm«1^ ComUtuUons.
"'« canons in some ASS ) '"""*'^'='''= >"«"""■> of I
^^;Lber^qui appellatur CanonesApoatoIoru™,
"Liber Physiologu, qui ab haeretici, con-
PROlIlbiTKD BOOKS I703
Kpit^ix'Tpl^.-^^A'-bro.ii.i,.:.
.eebSZtTi'l';;"*'"''''''''' "f^yP""- (Bui
(N;:t^rxi;i,sr'i;;,n/^"'?'-'\«r-^p''«-
.on>e niinor error. 'thoi,"'"'"/":« '"'""K i"to-
intention.) ' "'""«'' P'^bally orthodox in
^^T^^Slfllr'' ''"""^■■'•»- (c-
that the Chr m.i«,n of I' T' **" '"•'••""•"«. 'ban
his Chronic",) ° "^ *'""'""• ^^us founded on
counVr.to^~ rti:'"' '^''''»- («" -
to those of Laotan „ n " f'"""""' '"""y "'"" '
lonni".", the Kesurri^ion, 'HT"' '" *"" »'"-
been ^.Urstoffin t ,f fctr t. "^'^ ^'''
ail we may conio.f,,,.,. ,*■" '" t"" oth century,
ignorantlye'onSe ;'i/u''» 'L" '«"'»'»'•••««;
"Opuscula Tas.ii vTw ^ ^'•''■'""■' "' '^"""J )
8«infs' full name was ?;'""'• ''P?'^^'Tl-l>a. (The
anus. As the M), ,! """' ^'""^iii"^ fjpri-
Martyris e CartCi^'^'""' "^^"^^ ^^^'l'''*"!
approved in the & ' "'"'"''''' "'•" ^""^
>'''ree of Gelasius, Z d ^6^^ ot":^ """^"^
cnce here must be tn .k ■^.^^' *''" "'"-
ron,ance. wHh whom be ""'^'t" ^'y''""" "^
" Of.uscula A rnnbir »f ^"^^ l"^' ^'' '"''■»")
Adv. JSatio^s was a Ve,r7r''"i <• ^"'^ ^"''
Gospel and expo"u * of ^ '• '^'^l'"'^ o*" "'e
;-. . .af ^iitsr i^^S^^
rv^^i^sr-^tt^^rnS'
GaniXto';S ^fio^T""") P«%t"i
r^^ian ^i^aeftmSS-KS-
I>raveU'MiSarian?"'"'P "^ ^^""^ °" the
"Opuscula Fausti Reeen»i« r.i]-
erypha. (The SemipeS;!T.D''4 '2"("'"' "P""
"Opuscu a Frumenfii <!„„ • •'
epistle to Aueustine U » / \ 7^^"""'' "''"ae
Theodorus Icon, who wrotp !^ ''"«*'«'• So
worthy J/ar^/nu;/, prinedK*''p'^"''« '■•"»»-
Martyrium, 419 ed 2 r ^j ^^^^Mt, Acta
Nicephorus', the ConfesL, a nlor^ t";. ^^
Ac;7rst.^s xr'^- ^'«*' »" »>"•
and they are sSe^ y LrerruTT. "—
none that can claim J^^^a ~^^T- "<>
-t carry on thei?7ac:\r"niXorri;:
', [
I ■ -"rf
1724
ritomiMTKD nouKs
huml' (TilleiiKiMt, Mim. tWl. V. HI). Two
JIinti/rJwM uj St, Ueunj* ai'« cuiidoiiiiii'J by
>iii:t'|ilii>rua, u. a.)
" S('ri|jtiiru (|imt! appulUtur Cuntratlictiu 9iil-
oni'iiiis, ii|>i>('ry|ihit.
" I'll) Ui'ti'iiii oiniiin, qM»« mm «ii;{<'lnrimi
(ut illi Cdiiliiiguiit), Med ilni'iiiununi iiia^ia nrto
inl. iinintiiibun) cuuncrijitaiuut, apucryph*. [See
PllVI.ACri.UY.]
" Ilitei: etuiiiiiin hU iiiniilia quite, Simon Mnf(ua
(A tri<ittiii« citlluj till! (Irciit Ikmimntrntinn ur
Jii'iclittioit, 'AiriipcuTtt M«7<1at), wiw Bsiribeil to
him, Hii)|i(ilytu», Ilifut. Omn. liter, vi. U-14,
17, 18), Nicoliiua (Hov. ii. li), Oriiithm (His
Jteveliitiuiis ui'u ccinili'iiinecl by C'uiua in Kiiaeb.
11. E. iii. 'JH), Mitri'iiin, baitiliiles, Kbicm, I'uulus
etiuin SiiiiKiaatenus, IMiotiiiim ct Uono.iuH et qui
giiiiili iTriire ilet'etoruiil (For tlie jiroai ription of
a boo|{ by Miirceljua lie Svhjectioiie C/winti, sup-
posed to I'uvour till! lieri'sy of I'aul, see Sucr.
JJist. J'Jirl. i. 30 ; ii. iiO), Miiiitiinus quo([ue
cilin suiH obsiaeniasiniia amiuacibus (The law ot
Aruailius, 3'.>H, onlered tlit'ir books to be burnt,
CmI. Tlio4„s. XVI. V. :U. Sue also liuseb. //. A'.
V. 18 I IV'trus Siculus, llist. Mimich. i'.\), Apol-
liiiiiris [ I I'^i Ejj/iicin Syri inter Ojip. Greg. Nyss.
ii. 1041.], Vulentinus (A Onostiu hymn and
l)siilni ; Ilippol. U.S. V. 0; vi. 37), sive Mani-
chaoua (l>"or names of Maniehaean booica, see
Timotlieus C. I', de ILwr. liax'pt., I'etr. Sic. u. s.
16, and the formulary of renunciation required
of converts to the cliurch in Ootel. J'. P. Apost.
note to Clem. UcaHjn. iv. 27. Oelosius, A.D. 482,
and Horniisdas, 574, collected and burnt the
books of the Maniclmeans [ Vitiui Pt»ilif. Anast.
Bibl. nn. 50, 52, 53], a fate to which a law of
Justinian also condemned them, 527, L. i. tit. 5,
l)e Ihter. xvii. 2. See Fuiulamentuin, Tlwaaurus,
above), Kaustus Africanus (The Manichaean
mentioneil before), Sabellius, Arrius (see the
EjtistU' of Conatantine, 325, to the ' bishops and
peoples ' after the council of Nicaea, condenin-
\n^ Arian books to the flames [Socr. //. E. i. 9].
When the Goths of Spain became Catholic, the
l(ing collected and burnt the Arian books
[Kredej;ar. Clirun. 8], Macedonius, Kunomiua
(I'ublic edictr. against them in 397 ; Philostorg,
hist. J-Jccl. xi. 6 ; and 398 Codex 'I'licvdas. XV'I.
V. 34. See I'hotius, BMiUh. 45, 46, 137, 138),
Novatus, Sabbatius, Callistua (The 15th bishop
of Koine, who having ' nii.\ed up the heresy of
Cleonienes, the disciple of Noetus, with that of
Theodotua, framed another stranger heresy,' and
left a short-lived party in the church of Rome
called from him Calliatiana ; Hipp(d. /.c/iU. Omn.
JImi: ix. 1, &c. In one MS. [Codex Justelli] the
name is omitted from this list ; in another it is
di'guised under Caliptnis.), Donatus, Eustathius,
Joviuianua, I'elagius, Julianus Eclanensis, Cae-
lestius, Alaximinus, i'riscillianus ab Hispanin (Leo
M. £p. 15 iid Turrib. 15, 10 ; Turrib. «. s. ; Cone.
Brag. 561, >,. Prise. Ikier. 17), Neatorius Constanti-
uopolitanus (Nestoriau books ordered to be bt.'rnt ;
Cone. Eph. 4.31, Acta i. Bctut. ad Imp. Hard. Cone.
i. 1444 ; a law of Valentinian, 435, Cud. Theodos.
XVI. V. 60, Hard. i. 171.1; Liberatus Diac.
Breviarium, 10 ; Justin. Nnvelt. 42), Waximue,
J^anipetiuB, Dioscorus, Eutyches (To be burnt,
and the readers fined, by a decree of Valentinian
and Marcian ; Cone. Chalc. 451, P. iii. c. 10, Hard.
ii. 680; aee also Justin. Nov. 42; Socr. //. E.
iii. 31), Petrus et alius Petriu, e quibus unus
I'HOmiUTKI) HOOKS
Aleiandriam (Mongm, a Mono'physite, ilii.<| i;ioi
alius Antlni'hiam (Kullo, aliioa .MMiiopliyHit.,i|;,.,(
ab(]Ut 4110) maculavit, Ai-aciua Coii.itanliiM.|„ i,.
tanua (The supporter of Mi'iigus against l;,.it,, i
cum couaortibus auis ; necnou ct (jmnea Iiuchm ir.
chaeeorumque disijpuli, (|ui achiamatica ili > uj.
runt, vel cousiripairunt, (juorum noniln:i miiiirin
retinentur; non solum rcpuiliata, verum i.tiam
ab onini Komana l'ath(dica et Apoatolica <'icl<..;i;,
eliniiiiata, atquc cum auis auctoribua aiirti,riiiii.
((uo aequacibus, indisaidubili vinculo in mti nmiii
confitemur ease ilaumata." See the atiovr ij.uji«i
in 1)|C-1I0.NAUY OK ClIKIirriAN IJUKJIIAI'KV.
VII. Olher llo'i/.a pronfriU'd for (illojiJ l/,i;.y
The Nutitia of Fseudo-Oelasius does ni.t inu.
feaa to be complete. The traits of Actiui
(Cone. C. P. 35'J, Theodoret, II. E. ii. L'tt), „f
Moaothelite authora (Cone. C. P. A.D. ti'.Ri, .\itio
13, Hard. iii. 1353), of the Iconochmt* (C.,iu.
Nic. ii., A.I). 787, can. 9), of the Saraieus (Nitlmi
laa I. lie.^p. ad liuUj. 103), &c. were i.(|uall»
ordered to be destroyed. On the Ilanmmi of
Tatian or Oo.^pcl of tlu! Four, see E|ji|.li, lUm.
xlvi. 1 ; Euaeb. //. E. It. 29 ; Theodon.t, y/,„,]
Fab. i. 20. The extant harmony aacriiinl to
him ia now restored to Ammonius of Ali..\;ui.lria
A.D. 228 (Galland, Dihlioth. ii. Prolcg. c. I'.i, p, Lj.
For the Helcliesaitea and their book, see lliiihul.
liofut. Omn. Iltur. viii. ; Origen in pn. HJ ; IamI,
H. E. vi. 38 ; Timoth. Presb. dt; Horpt. lUret,
in Cotel. ; Monwn. Oraev. iii. 390 ; Kpiph. jkcr.
19, c. Oaten. ; 53, c. Sumps.
VIII. Modified jHdijments. — In the eailiiriarl
of the Pseudo-Oelasian decree it in s;iii| uf
certain " new narratives of the inventi. n ut' the
crops, and the invention of the head of Jilm tlie
Baptist," " When they eome intcj the liamis ul
Catholics, let vhe sayings of the ble.sse4 I'aul
the apostle go before, prove all things : litlJ
fast th.it which ia good." On the wcuks of
Rufinus, the reader is referred to the jinl^menl
of St. Jerome. Some of the works of Drigu
which Jerome does not reject may be naj.
•' Rcliqua autem omnia cum auctore sup iliiiniB!
esse reuuenda " (Hard. ibid. 940). On the wirti
of Origen aee especially Jerome, Epp. 8ii-l(iO,
124;£'pi's«. Symxi. Theophili, inter A/y*. Ilierun.
92, § 1 ; Socr. IL E. vi. 7, 10 ; Soz. //. l.
viii. 11, 14; Snip. Severui, Dint. i. 3; Vila
Pachomii, 17. The Chronica and Eiclcsi.iHimt
History of Euscbius, though the Litter is con-
demned in the Nutitia Apocrypltonim, are I'dvtlifir
utility not " altogether to be rejected, but tlie
lukewarmness of the First Book, and hi.s Jel'eute
of Origen are noted " (Hard. h. ».).
IX. Suppression effectmil. — When the bishop
could ap|)eal to no exjiress law of the onipirf,
they could at least exconinumicite t'lr thf
offence of reading books condenimd liy tbe
church : and they did so. E. </. the patriarch ai
Constantinople, 59."), punished a priist uf Lt-
caonia for possessing ami reading a bdok "Id
%\hich many heretical things were coutaiiieJ.'
He fled to Rome, but was not received to com-
munion there, until he made a declar.ition of
having done it "in simplicity," piofoseJ th«
orthodox faith, condemned everything heretical
in the book, manifest or latent, and pleil^i'd him-
self never to read it again {Epist. (ireg. M.
r. 64).
X. Much information on the foregoing sntject,
and brought down to a later period, may be
(oun\ ill .III
t.ljiH '/lllllll.
i"J»)iiijiiTi:i) dkoi{i.;k8
In th.. l.ltli vuluin, , ; :'" i"'"u"'' '"«"""■••
On til. .u,,,.r„;u '„.•';:.;;;.''";, «•''-'•■. '7:<».
Ma.ic, p. Iu78. '>" Mufie, ,ee
[W. K. S.J
I'HOIimiTRD DEORFFS i„ ■
.11 civilij..,! nu >,.„. X. ■" ''"•''''''I''' in
«n»am,tl,urlv b ",.1 ;;, " '':''"""' '■'^'"""' '"
The w(.nlM"|,rohil,ite,|,|fi:reM»,„. „ . r
(muwM^mty. They r.M, ,h . '^"•'''
wilh e:u.h otiier vvithi , c" t, i. I «"»''^''-'''J
ofu..nru.,H. Thiiaiu ,1,/, I." i'!*"'''''-:" ','' "'"^^l"
i»n.e iiHin and l,i, KraB,l-,l,,,u,l?,?p , '^ ? ' .""■'
gm.t.g.an.lfiithor'' and jl :- ,u 7l "i^"'"
cunsequenlly they aio relaf. . , "^ '""«'"'-''' '
•ho (i„,, second LTthir,Wr" """ """"""' '"
But when we yLZum t)^^^^^^^^
collateral iine.'a conf^nni ,•,':„!'"; '" v7
^^.■■..he. and ..t:;:t'^ ,!, , « ^rz !ri'
di^Sree, because there i« but one "ten. Vn ,
'» the father, in whom their bLT^t' ^i'''
cousins are said to be related in th,: T^ '"'
l^ause from each tliew n> «,!'"'' ''"S'''^^'''
grandfather in whon heir hi i* "''■■'"' '" ""^
.iniilarlythechihCof irt? ■ """"'' ""''
cj^^»Lnde„usin:;-,:;:"::L^r';::'St
tne thud decree, hocamn o,,^K ■ '«'»tea lu
o»e ot the imrties U diatunt only two stel.sT.
tlie common stiriM. and tlu, ''| '*° "-'eps "-om
»" • "'" ""» 'I"" ■" I.. .1°,,
««viii. ti? X ^r'! 'T ^" tl's Digest, lib.
> "•"•. lH-7), an enumeration is made of all
rU011IlilTi;i> DEGHKES 1725
«X,r«,„;i,b. ■• c 'u IT'V. f'u'/"""' ^'"^
'"•«ree, "t' u.HnIt; aVcaltuttl' •;'",• •"'>•
to thlri^t^h^L^S;;; ;'■;;';'/ (--ding
-..".. law) with his broth rwi/::'^ "?
'I''«rec with hi,, cou^in-s wife i^ he th H l"-'""'
with the wife of his secu'l C'uHin ' ^''«'''"
the ditrerent de^^^^'^^^^ trf"! ""^.il"
^x:f;!;:£;,i:--i.;::i!;jl::,-!
■■'•age i, toZldc^^'wui^t "/'ir '•* 'iT"' ■""■-
ti»n, .-Mother (I evxv Hi 7v"7« ',;'""' V'""
lu.hiHi/jtrihrdiu'h,''' '^v "•'*'>•
'•••■iHted in the first dc.^/r,t^'' '""^ ""'" «•«
Sranddaughter'aTd 1^1:^.7::^ "d^' '"''
ll.e grandmother and the nlc !,rr«mUtcH ^^T'
gmndmother-in'lawTe/xWif ''■ru?\,'^f '
Se'^n^tn^^^-Li^ ^^^f -4'^
(Deut. x,v. 5), ste,.n,:,l,:r(l' ^;,' - r"'n ! "
to her sister" (Lev. xviii 1«{ i . ''• ," "''*
wife'H mother, thi w's da" .hf 11 '''' ""^
-ister (if such'be the meUnt „f ufe L.""'"'
"uwile to her sistPi-'^ tu ' "'* »-'»l"es«ion
daughter-in-law t le biih ' '"''^■""'*'"^'' "">
••elatedinthfiV5L,t of ;<«'';"' A'""''' *"=
gran^daughterandte:nc^l.;'S[i;|;:S
»iv^t^;i;]::7x;:i'Vz^'r ^"--■
touched by Lev. iviir 1ft L '"'^'''°' "'■ "»»
J.a.s been hotly contest ' Tk " ''"'''""" *''''-''
lated in our ve,^ !„ r". J '.J'"*- "" '■•■"'»-
Shalt thou take a wl'tH' "^"^ = "^^■«'"'«'
to uncover her nakrdl; be /Tk"' It ''"' *""•'
lifetime." These wrdscann^K^" """^'" '» ''««•
condemn succeLfvr mtrfaee with T''''' '"
If thev refer to such r^I!^^ with two .sisters,
be reiarded arDerm^H li'^^^l' ?"' ! '«^ "-»
be reiarded arpe Ju L"*^"' f ^'^/ """»»
the verse. iecordin^gi;tle^.:i;^jSrdiS^^^^^
i
1726 PROHIBITED DEGREES
"Neither shalt thou take one wife to nuother," in
place of the words, "Neither shnlt thou take a
wife to her sister." Thus renilereil, the vei se for-
bids not merely the simultaneous marriage of two
sisters, but of any two women ; in other words, it
Is a prohibition of polygamy. Though the mar-
ginal reading was first suggested only in the
16th century, there is no doubt that gram-
matically the Hebrew phrase may be so rendered
(see Exod. xxvi. 3, 5, 6, 17, and tzek. i. 11, 23),
and it is rendered in some such manner in every
other place in the Bible where it occurs. The
objections taken to such rendering are minute
and arbitrary. But though grammatically un-
assailable, it lands us in this dilliculty, that the
verse, if fo interpreted, appears to be a distinct
prohibitiiin of polygamy, and yet there are other
passages which seem equally clearly to permit it
(Ex. xxi, 7-11; Deut. xxi. 15-17; xvii. 17).
And it cannot be denied that, if polygamy was
to be forbidden, we should expect it to be for-
bidden in a more unmist^ikable manner. To this
objection it may be replied that the verse
does not contain a general prohibition of poly-
gamy, but that it commands a man not to
take one wife to another "<o vex" the latter.
According to this interpretation, the verse
would neither be a prohibition to marry two
sisters during the lifetime of both of them,
nor consequently a permission to marry a
wife's sister after the decease of one of them, nor
again would it be a prohibition of polygamy in
general, but it would be an injunction addressed
to a polygamist forbidding him to marry ii
woman who would be likely " to vex " a wife
whom he had already married, from being known
to have a spite against her, or any other reason.
If this is the true interpretation of the verse, as
seems probable, it has no bf iring upon our sub-
ject. Marriage with a wife's sister U not for-
bidden by the Mosaic tables unless it come under
the general prohibition, "None of you shall
approach to any that is near of kin to him to
uncover their nakedness " (Lev. xviii. 6), where
there is no doubt that the expression " near of
kin " denotes those related not only by consan-
guinity but by affinity. The fact of a wife's
sister being in the first degree of affinity and the
argument from analogy make it likely that she
is included under the generic term, " nearof kin,"
but she is not specifically named.
T/ie Roman Code. — By the Roman code mar-
riage was forbidden with the following blood-re-
lations (natural or adopted) : — Mother, daughter,
grandmother, granddaughter, sister, half-sister,"
and auut. Marriage with a niece was likewise
regarded as incestuous, but when Claudius
desired to marry Agrippina, he obtained from
the senate a decree, "quo justae inter patruos
fratnmique filias nuptiae etiam in posterum sta-
tuerentur" (Tac. Annal xii. 7), thus causing
marriage with a brother's daughter to be legal-
ized, though marriage with a sister's daughter
- The consanguinity and affinity resulting from odap-
tlon woB called Ugal rcUitlonslilii. It ceased to be on
Impi'.IJmi^rt. to marriage in tin.' cane of brofhcra and
slaters by adoption as soon as the adoption Itself bad
ceasrd by the diatb of the adopting pan nt or the enian-
' cipation of either the adoptid ur the real child. L< gal
relationship was acknowhilged by tin' church as an Im-
pedlnent (Nicholas, 1, Beip. (ul Jfulgar. c. 11.).
PROHIBITED DEGREES
still continued illegal. The innovation intro-
duced in Claudius' favour, though afterwariis
ai^ted upon by Uomitian, was never sanctioned by
public feeling.
The marriage of first cousins was also origin-
ally disallowed, but by the 2nd century a.c, it
had come to be regarded as unobjectionable.''
According to Komau law, therefore, marriage
with blood relations was forbidden to tluic
related in the first and second degrees of pMix.
iniity, except so far as the ancient sevurify hm
relaxed by custom in respect to cousins, ami in
respect to brothers' daughters, for the salie oi'
indulging the desires of Clnuilius.
By the same law, marriage was forbidden with
mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, step-niothcr
and step-daughter (natural or adopted), that is,
with those related in the first degree of alliiiity,
omitting the brother's wife and the wife's sistir.
It will be seen that the Mosaic and the llninan
tables almost coincide. The chief dili'erenre is
that the Roman table named the niece, until
altered at the instance of Claudius, while tlie
Hebrew table omits to name her, though slie at
least is undoubtedly covered by the expri'ssiou,
"nearof kin." The Koran, basing itsregulatidiis
on the Mosaic coile, specifies the niece, and aJils
foster-mother and foster-sist«rs (Sur. iv. 2o).
We may note in passing that the Greek tables
of prohibition were less austere than those ol' tlie
Romans, as would be expected from the charac ter
of the two peo|)les. In Athens and Sparta m.ir-
riage with half-sisters and nieces was piimis-
sible. But Greece was chaste in comiiarismnvith
Persia and Egypt, in the first of whiih marriaje
with mothers was the custom, and in the last
marriage with sisters (see Selden, who enters at
length into the question of gentile licence (be
Jure Gentium, v. 11 ; Vp. vol. i. p. 5."i;i).
The Imperial Code. — The Christian lm|ieiial
code was not a separate whole in itself It tmik
up the old Roman law where it found it, anj
enlarged, curtailed, or otherwise m(]dilie<l it,
according to the altered needs of the times (see
Cod. Justin, lib. v. tit. iv. leg. 17, de Cwinnt'Set
AifinSius). In respect to niarriage there were
three questions on which opinion was divileil;
1. Marriage with a niece ; 2. Marriage witli a
deceased wife's sister ; 3. Marriage with a lirst
cousin.
The shock given to public opinion and rcliwims
feeling by the legislation which snnctinncil the
marriage of the emperor Claudius with his
brother's daughter Agrippina was not got over.
Domitian indeed followed theexample of Clan liiis,
and married the daughter of his brother Titus;
but such marriages were forbidden by Xeiva,
who prohibited all marriages with a nieie,
whether she were the daughter of the brirthcnr
of the sister. By the time, however, of Cnracalla
we learn from Ulpian that marrin^e with «
brother's daughter was again permissible, «nJ
this continued to be the law down to thetiiiietif
Constantine. Sozoinen reiiorts (Ilist. Kecks, lih. i.
>> SpurluB Mgnstlnus, A.(\ 171, pays, while reciii;ntin(!
the KO'jd thiiips that he hnd done or which hsd Wallen
him, " I'ttter nilhi uxorem frutris sul llliam dodlt" (1j».
xlil. 34). VltelUus, In orguing for Claudius's inarri.B
with his nl«», A.C. ISO, says : " Conjugla sohriiianin Jlii
Iguorata tempore addlto pcrcrebuitse " (Tat Mim
xU. 6).
PROHIDITED DEGREES
L no .,eh i.va zT::zii:::tT"T
stantius, in the year i'W tS\/ lu *-"""
of marriage withTn c!' an J "I' ^ ''""'"""
forbade it? whether s e';;ere the da"u ^"""A
brother or of a sister b,i7 TL ."^""S''*" »f a
of capital punishl nt n a^r' ,t ^TI'J
offence, thus restoring i^elZn'i:^.!^:.
regards the nena tv) to thp »»„»„ i. ", V?'^. P'"'
before the nnovaiil^" l/cfatdi" .tf at Z
jarae t,me brmging it (with the s.^n e eleu
In the yoar .55, Co"„';t:nti'.:fto;r;';; th^e ,t?
t,o|, of marrmge with a deceased wife'sstter"
.nd wth a deceased brother's wife. Those mar
nages he forbade as peremptorilv a« \h2l !C
the niece; but allowing tha't'th^'w^r Warded
m old tunes as ai miiiilhli. i,„ !• i . P "
-h extreme penaC "'but'le^'de^nt'tC
Tkod. lib. iii. tit "ii "lej^"' t^'*™'"^ it'-
This legislation was conlrmed T; Th^' l^^'^'
It ?""'' ^r'i"'' Theolslus^-un or and
Anastasius. The freiiuent rpnom:„„ i .v'. ,
.hews that it was fr quenth nf in j[ ^''.'"^"
have a remarkable e.xamp" of ul !f. ' ""'' ^''
i»the marriage of the "mDero, H ^""'"*
jMwo daughters of sS." / "SU L'
.He same footing, a^d n^'dLtf .iotrs'drr„"
ithad been dissolved v;&::„'_!,r„'trd:k
the second marriage is made unlawfu tL
centred to be the law of the emp"^:*^"'- ^'"'
Theodosms the Great took in hand the question
«X;Xet&otaUaTZ„f '-"
i.hol/t^an^dSXra:.';^,^'""^^^^^^
ferns condemned them utterlV in « I ^' T
in the year 38+ or 385 Th law is ^71 ""'^'
"tant, but it is referred to n th» ■ ."^"'
Ltr.i7-,Ls.fjf "'•••:- "^
('.(arJT refers cJ T/l 4 V°. .*""'*<> which he
'■■:;heAs;^S--^-s.
» "f. 10, (i6. III. Cod. /A««j. loni. 1 p. 2|,„ ^
PROHIBITED DEGREES 1727
father had im^eS,e"h"'ir''r ^'''"•'' '"'«
he changed his min i *^ i ^ "'^ '"*^''' *•»• 404,
first couf fns 1 vf^ t^The Ka" " ""' """'"«« "^
two very valuable note3f?!Vh/";P"''- <^*«
yA-^orf. lib. iii. tit. X and f?f • ''i''"' °° ^"^•
'■ pp. 288, 298) KiVrl ' ,'"• '"«• 3, torn.
HoXius puSid'riarr; itc^h -r ^''^
^tl'T thr'^^est'n"^^ *' e'^'l, "^ -;;;!
or dispensation of he 7m'o7ror' the reso'ript
a difference of sentiment aSd'f T"""-^ ">""
J'istm. lib. V tit .v I .iv ^" <^'^'
law of A.D 404 w», .'^•,^^>' Arcadius-
and its p wisfon, W "''''P '"'' ^-^ Ju.tinian,
rule ..'• tCS ™ „ ^' ''''H''"^^'«JS'-''' ■" 'he
niar wUhTn,, ''"'t ^^ ">« VVest also, •
mis«. h„r """' '"'«'ne freely per-
;;.^h-fa;r a:ir.h"e"i^t'"r b"'^^" ^^^^^
■"arriages, are con "enTej wUh th '''^"'!f "^
cases that we have ,p7n „„ \^ """" ^^ree
the civil Wislatn, , °f ^^'^ ^'"^ attention of
nwriages between, to '" ^'"^ ""^■"Pted
Thus th'e™ "o Itrr D ""'f ^P-""'--
penalty of a five vo„,.?' ' °^' "upo^es the
one who m."rries ^'^.""'./''^'••"'"""ication on any
ixi., and ti't p pe :r:t"'''' ^ "^'"' =»»•
any one who mir,^'^ u" ""^"mniunication on
'"'. (Tle;it S;: '■; f/^n-ghter, can.
transl. i. pp 184 iGs/V? ^""T'^ ^°«-
Caesarea, in 314 i^^" ^ "^""""^ ""^ Neo-
municatl'on on 1 'womT' ^.^P"'"'''' ''^''»™-
brothers. can. !i. lmTL)\Cr\ ,'"?
Canons declare that « m^^ ^' ,. "® Apostolical
-tors or hrnSe"may°nt"be"a"'T™''*"°
can. ii. (iW/. p. 4G5)™ ^A n * clergyman
Innocent I. ad 402 fnii """" '^'""'^ ""J^'
deceased wifeV, siltot • '""""'''S^ «ith a
ceased uncle's wfe„; T' ''• *!."'' "'*'' " <ie-
a first cou n ea^ Ji J.Vr-"'^''" ""^'''' '•<'•
legi.slafion of the o^nliU ^f l^' "P""" ^^e
can. xii. (,v.y. p 1805) Thl '""'"f ""'' ^^^''
Oileans, A.D 533 Zbil '"''""^ '^"'"'"' "^
mother can r(''.'rfpl7l"J';"T;^%r-''i' " ^'"P*
of Orleans a n ■vilF' yi-L "'^ *'"'''' ^^ncil •
.tepmot?".' 's^lir.'"'" l."'"T-S« with
.tepmother ,t;pd;r,U' , K ^rv"^'
I'
^•f! I'f
172S PROHIBITED DEGBKE8
By the fourth oonncil of Orleans, A.D. 541, cnn.
xxvii. ('bid. p. ii'iii). The third conncil of Pnris,
A.r>. 5.'>7, prohiliits mnrringe with brother's
willow, stepmother, unile's widow, wife's sister,
daiighter-in-lnw, mint, stepdaughter, step-
daughter's daughter, ean. iv. {ihiil. p. 816). The
gei'ond council of Tours, A.n. 5H7, recites the
marriages forbidden in Leviticus xviii. and niMs
to them those with niece, cousin, wife's sister,
and confirms the canon of 1 Orleans, Kpaone, and
Auvergne, can. xxi. (I'AW. p. 87-'). The Capitulary
of Martin of Uracara, A.n. 573, forbids marriage
with two sisters, cap. Ixxix. {ihul. p. 014). The
council of Auxerre, A.D. 578, forbids marriage
With stepmother, stepdaughter, brother's widow,
wife's sister, cousin, uncle's widow, can. xxvii.
33 (iV;i(/. p. 057). The third council of Lyons,
A.D. 583, renews the ancient canons against
■ incest, can. iv. (lAirf. p. 974). So, too, the second
council of Miicon, A.D. 585, can. xviii. {ihvK p.
■ 987). The fifth council of I'aris, A.D. 615,
renews the legislation of Orleans, Kpaone,
Auvergne, Auxerre, can. xiv. {ihid. p. 165'2).
The council in Trullo, A.D. 691, forbids marriage
with cousin (uncle's daughtoi'), and prohibits ft
father and a, son marrying a mother and ft
daughter, or two sisters, and two brothers marry-
ing a mother and a daughter, or two sisters,
can. liv. (ihid. torn. vi. p. 1167). The first
Roman council under Gregory II., A.D. 721, for-
bids marriage with brother's wife, niece or
grandchild, stepmother and stepdaughter, cousin,
all k snien, ami any one married to a kinsman,
can. v.-ix. (Jhld. p. 1150). See also the Jmiicia
of Gregory III. .Ind. xi. (Hard. Ciyiicil. tom. iii.
p. 1873). I'opc Zachary, A.D. 743, forbids
marriage with two sisters, Kp. vii. c. xxii. (Labbe,
Concil. tom. vi. p. 1512). The fii-st Koman
council under pope Zachary, A.D. 743, forbids
marriage with cousin, niece, mother-in-law,
brother's wife, and all relatives, cnp. vi. (ibid.
p. 1547). The same council states, that pope
Gregory had allowed marriage after the fourth
degree, on account of the rudeness of the per-
sons with respect to whom he was writing, but
as a ge.ieral rule it lays down the principle that
there should be no marriage where any relation-
ship is known, cap. xv. The council of Vermerie,
A.D. 752, pronounces that those maiTied in the
third degree of relationship arc to be separated,
while those in the fourth degree are only to do
penance, can. i. (ibid. p. 1657). The council of
Metz, A.D. 753, prohibits maiTiage with step-
.r.„)ther, stepdaughter, wife's sister, niece, grand-
dnughter, cousin, aunt ; any offender to be fined,
and if unable to pay the fine to be sent to prison
in case he is ft freeman, and if not, to be be 'en
with many stripes, cap. i. (ibid. p. 1660). The
council of Conipi&gne, A.D. 757, orders separa-
tion of those who are (even one of them) in the
third degree of propinquity, can. i. (ihid. p. 1095).
The sixth council of Aries, A.D. 813, makes the
same prohibitions as previous councils, can. xi.
(ihid. tom. vii. p. 1230). The council of Mayence,
A.D. 813, forbids marriage in the fourth degree,
cnn. liv. (ibid. p. 1252). '
The impediment of alfinity wn» considered to
be created by illicit cnnucxion, as well as by
marriage (Council of Agde, can. Ixi. Hard.
Cum-iV. tom. ii. p. 1004).
Prohibitions on the ground of spiritual rela-
tionship belong both to the civil and to the
PUOHIBITED DECREES
canon law. They were first introduced hy the
emjiej'or Justinian, who pa-ssed a law, A.ii. ,V.'7,
forbidding any one to marry a woman for wlunn
he had stood ns godfather in baptism, thr tie
of the godfather and godchild being so aimlo.'ii'.n
to that of the father and child as to make smh
a marriage ajipenr improjjer (Ox/, .luitin. lib. v,
tit. 4, leg. 20). The council in Trullo, A.n. il'.M,
prohibited marriage between the godrathiT iinl
the child's mother, ordering that all^ who shcuM
hereafter enter upon such marriages shouM be
separated, and do penance, can. liii. (I.abbe,
Cori'il. tom. vi. p. 1107). The first llnmim
council under Gregory II.. A.D. 721,anath(<iniiti«is
all who marry their cmninatrcm, can. iv. (.',,/.
p. 1250). Pope Zachary, A.D. 741, for'ii.bs the
marriage of the godfather with mother or ihihl,
Kp. vii. c. xxii. (ihid. p. 1512). The first llniiinn
council under pope Zachary, A.D. 743, fnibils
marriage with " prcsbyteram, diaconani, noiinnm,
monacham, vel etiam spiritualcm coinmatri'iii,"
cap. 5 (ibid. p. 1547). The council of .Met/, .\,ii.
753, forbids marriage with "commatre .sua
aiit cum matrina spiritali de fonte et coiiiiinia.
tione episcopi," cap. i. ; that is, it prohibits the
marriage of the father with the goilun thcr if
his child, and the marriage of the child with his
godmother, and the marriage of the coiiliniu'il
person with the person who presented him fdr
confirmation (ihid. p. 1660). The iinm.il (,f
Compii>gne, A.D. 757, lays stress on the s|iiritiiiil
relationshipcreated by confirmation. If a hiisliim,!
offered for confirmation the son of his wilV In- ii
previous husband he thereby became so noaih-
connected by spiritu<il kiusmanship with his umi
wife as to have to put her away, and ho was imt
allowed to marry again, can. xii. (Hard. C im/.
tom. iii. p. 2005). The council of Jliiyi'iui', A.n.
813, forbids marriage with the godihiM u\- ilie
godchild's mother, or the mother of the iliill
offered for confirmation, can. Iv. (I.iilibc, f'Ubil.
tom. vii. p. 125ii). This kind of reliitiimshi|i is
recognized also by pope Nicholas I., A.D. 8iio. in
his reply to the Bulgari.ins (Hard. Cimdl. im.
V. p. 343). Forn list of spiritual relatives bitwnn
whom marriage was prohibited in later tiiins,
reference may be made to the couuiil of .'^alt.s-
burg, A.D. 1420, can. xv. (ihid. tom. viii. p. Wd).
The council of Trent found it necessiii-y tn re-
strain these extravagances by confining spiritiijl
relationship to sponsors and the child nnil the
parents of the child, to the baptizer an! the
baptized and the parents of the baptized, to the
confirmer and the confirmed and the imreiitsnf
the confirmed, and to the jiresenter fur i ipntiriiw-
tion and the confirmed and the parents of the
confirmed (Cone. Trhlcnt. Sess. xxiv. ; lie liejnm.
Matrimon. cap. 2 ; Hard. Cuncil. torn. x. p. ITil).
It will be seen from the above review that
during the whole of the eight first ceiitiiiies
marriages were never allowed, either by civil nr
canon law, in the first degree, whether of Km-
sanguinity or ntfinity, nor, with one e.xceiilii'ii
— that of cousins- -in the second degree. The
first degree of consanguinity com|irises the
mother, the daughter, and the sister. With
regard to these no question has ever been raiseJ
among Christians. The first degree of sbir.^ty
comprises the stepmother, the wife's mother, the
wife's daughter, the son's wife, the wife's sister,
the brother's wife. The repetition of prohihitiry
canons shews that it was necessary to guard
PKOHIBITED DEGREES
ipinst the force of temptation by again and
igain le-affirniing the law of the church with
respect to these coses, but there is no wavering
or hesitation as to what was the law binding
upon Christians. The prohibitions of marriace
with the stepmother, stepdaughter, mother-in-
Uw, daiighter-in-law, sister-in-law, and wife's
sister are as decided as those of marriage with
the mother, daughter, and sister.
The second degree of consanguinity comprises
thegran.lmother, the father's sister, the mother's
sister, the son's daughter, the daughter's
diughtor, the brother's daughter, the sister's
daughter, the iirst cousin. Marriage with all
of these was unanimously prohibited, with the
one exception of the cousin, on which, as we
liave seen, great dillerences of sentiment existed.
The second degree of allinity comprises the fol-
lowing : Grandfather's wife, wife's grandmother,
father's brother's wife, mother's brother's wife,
ivife's father's sister, wife's mother's sister, son's
ion's wife, daughter's son's wife, wife's son's
daughter, wife's daughter's daughter, brother's
soil's wife, sister's son's wife, wife's brother's
daughter, wife's sister's daughter. With regard
to these there has been no dilference of senti-
ment. The church of England in its " table of
kindred and alfinity, wherein whosoever are
related are forbidden in scripture and our laws
to marry together," confines itself to the rela-
tionships of the Krst and second degree (omitting,
what the early church omitted, that of cousins),
for within these two degrees are practically
comprised all the relatives that a man could or
would marry; but during the period with which
we have to do marriages within the third and
fourth degree were also pronounced unlawful,
and, indeed, the prohibition was extended by the
end of the 6th century to the seventh degree •
and so it continued until in the Western church
It was once more reduced to the fourth degree
by the Latcran council under Innocent III. in
the year 1;.'15.« Two inferior kinds of affinity,
arising from the second marriage of a sister-in-
law, and of that sister-in-law's second husband
were also abolished by the fourth Lateran
counoil ; and the affinity caused by illicit con-
nexion was declared by the council of Trent not
to extend beyond two degrees (Sess. xxiv. c. 4).
It is not necessary to quote the judgments of
• The growth of the enlargement of the area of prohf-
bltiuns may Ik studied in the history of our own country.
In the time ol Augustine of Canterbury, a.u. 801, mar-
rtsgesin the first and second degrees of reUtionsl.lp were
fcrb,dd,.n those in the third degree being cou.ited of
tobiful legality. (See Gn^ory's Ammr, to Augu,tme,
•nswrr v.; J.ihiiBon'fl XnglUh Canons, vol. 1. p. 69, Oxf
WO) ixveiity y,.»,-9 later, In the tlm.i of Theodore of
toiterbury. ^.d. 673. maiTlage, In the (irst, second, and
Uird degrees were forbidden, and th(«e In the fourth were
only not to be dissolve! (Thtod. Paenit. ed. Petit, c. xl
p. 12). By the lime of Lanfrane, a.d. 1078. the prohlbi-
^00, in tiiKliuid as elsewhere, had been extended to the
OTcnih d.gree. (See Unlrai.c's Canon,, made In Un-
Jon,can. yl.; Johnson's K'nglUh Canont, vol. il. p. u 1
It w« owing only to the " rudeness " of the English that
^«rrl,g,.8 BO far .. t|,e seventh degree were not forbWden
" farly ».<i e,en the time of St. AuBii«tli.o. (jreRorr — =
(8^'hta"^''j!*;?'^^ prohibited them to that extenl
n^ torn. 111. p. 618.) On Ukegrounds Gregory II. "con-
{"fut- M B<m\f.; ibid, p. 1868).
PROHIBITED DEGREES 1729
the^great church teachers with respect to nnr
prohibition, except that which related to tho
marriage of cousins. For on all other cases
there 18 an universal agreement; and we have
only to say that every writer who deals with the
subject at nil, witnesses to the prohibitions of the
canon and civil law, and endorses sometimes one
and sometimes another of them. Thus St.
Ambrose insists upon the prohibition of marriage
with a niece in writing to I'aternus, who had
proposed a marriage between his son and grand-
daughter (A>,st. Ix. al 06 ; Op. torn. ii. p. 1U18).
St. liasil argues with great i'orce and ingenuity,
in his letter to Diodorus, against marriage with
I'aris, 1638). But on the subject of the marriage
of cousins there is no such consensus, it.
Augustine gives it as , his opinion that such
niarriages are not contrary to the divine law, as
they were not contrary to Roman law until the
legislation of Theodosius the Great. Until that
time, that is, the end of the 4th centun-, no
objection appears to have been taken to these
marriages by the church ; but when the state
changed its mind, and after having vehemently
condemned them for twenty years, once more
declared them permissible, the church, which
had followed the imperial lead in the first
mstance, did not change back again so readily,
from the 5th century onwards ecclesiasticaf
authority first frowned upon the marriage
ot first cousins, and then condemned them
partly as being in the second degree of
proi.inquity, and partly for physiological
reasons, as stated by pope Gregor'y in his
fifth answer to St. Augustine of Canter-
bury, bed experimento didicimus, ex talf
conjugio sobolera non posse succrescere. Et
sacra lex prohibet cognntionis tnrpitudinera
reyelare. Unde necesse est ut jam tertia
yel quarta generatio fidelium licenter sibi
jungi debeat; nam secunda quam prae dixi-
mus, a se omni raodo debet abstinere " (Beda
//is<. £ccles. i. 27, p. 49, Oxon. 1846). We have
already noted that they were condemned by the
councils of Agde, a.d. 506, of Kpaone, a.d. 517,
of Auvergne, A.D. 533, by the third council of
Orleans, a.d. 538, by the fourth council of
Orleans, a.d. 541, by the second council of Tours
A.D. 567, by the council of Auierre, a.d. 578
and by others, including even the great Kastern
council in Trullo, a.d. 691. But these prohibi- .
tions did not begin till after the legislation of
Iheodosius, out of which they sprang at the
end of the 4 th century. It is n oticeable that
' Dnder the shadow of the system of di^nsatlons uTe
practice of marri^ige wlih nieces and sisters-ln-law has
become once more not unlrequent. Cardinal Guibert
archbishop of Paris. In an address to his diocese made at
the beginning of Lent. 1»77, which is devoted to the ques-
tioi. ol mHrriage, complained that in Paris the infractions
of the rules as to intermarrying within the prohibited
degrees had become alarming in their numlrer. •• Mar
riages between uncles and nieces, and between brothere-
In-lav^ and sisters-in-law. which used to be unknown, of
almost unknown, have muUlplled in these latter times
to a degree which saddens us. Inasmuch as It is a grievous
•.voafepnlag -f the principles „r the airistiau faith.- 'I'he
MOhbishop can complain of the evil, but he cannot forbid
it, md he acknowledges that the state of things Is wors.
. _> '1 e rest of France than in Paris. Ofawiement de S.
fc T Je Cardiml-AnheveiM de I'aris pour U CarSwu
« 1877.) >-"'o»w
.1*.
lift
■mi
1730
PK0JECTU8
prohibitions of marriage on the ground both of
cousinhocd nnd of spiritunl relationship origi-
nated not with the church, but with imperial
legislation.
For Literature, see Marriaoe, p. 1113.
[F. M.]
PROJECTUS, martyr, commemorated Jan.
25 (lied. Mart, PraejulTUS; Florus ap. Bed.
ilcirt. ; Notker. ; Mart. Rum. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jan.
2, 6;!0, deacon, mart, at Cesala, 8th cent. [C. H.]
PROKIMENON (irtioKfitntvov). A short
BUthem consisting of a ver.se and response,
generally, but not always, taken from the psalms,
aud often chosen so as to point the lesson con-
tained in the Epistle for the day. It answers on
the whole in the Greek liturgy to the Western
Gradual, notwithstanding that it is sung before
the Kpistle, while the place of the Gradual is
between the Epistle and Gospel. The custom in
both cases duubtless arose from the earlier
custom of singing a psalm between every two
lections. [ Gradual. ] In the liturgy of St.
Chrysostom the prokimenon is preceded by a
proclamation of the deacon, viz. ^aKjxhs Tif Aaytt,
2o(pla, though no psalm is sung there. The
words \J(aAM<>» "^V ^«"f* "f^ repeated after the
Epistle, where again no psalm, but only
"Alleluia," is sung. This probably represents
a remnant of the ancient custom, and supports
the inference that, as the Gradual of the West
stands for the psalm between the Epistle and
Gospel, so the Prokimenon represents that which
used to divide the Old Testament lection (now
disused in that liturgy) from the Epistle.
A Prokimenon is also sung in the Vesper office
of the Greek church, and on Sundays aud
festivals in that of Lauds also. The ordinary
Vespers prokimenon is invariable for the day,
but on the other occasions it refers to the
Epistle, as in the liturgy. i^- K. H.]
PR0MU8, martyr with Areus and Elias ;
commemorated Dec. 19 (Basil. McimI.).
PRONAOS. [Narthex.]
PROPERTY OF THE CHURCH. [Com-
pare Orukhs, holy, p. 1490.]
A. Sources of Church Property.
1. Xamk.— In the earliest days of the church
those who had lands and houses sold them and
gave the price to the church lund (Acts iv. 34).
This continued to be the custom of the church
of liome (Theod. Lector. Coll. ii. p. 307), which,
as Valesius thinks had no immovable property
until the time of Gregory the Great, excepting
of course church buildings and cemeteries, bo
Augustine would never purchase land or houses,
but if such were given or bequeathed to the
church he accepted them (Posid. VitiA'ig. c. 24).
We find the church in possession of land before
it was a bodv recognized by the state. Alexander
Severus al judged to the church a piece of common
land to which the vintners also 'aid claim ( Lamprid.
49). In A.n. 'iHl Gallienus restored the ceme-
teries. The edict of Constantine A.D. 313 declares
that the Christians arc knov.ii to po^sr-ss placpR
belmiging not to any individual but to the whole
body, anil he commands Anulinus to restore the
houses, gar.lens, and other property to the several
churches (Euseb. llUt. x. 5). From this time
PROPERTY OF THE CHURCH
immovable property was given to the church ir
abundance. Sometimes the donor reserved the
usufruct to himself or some neaf relative, as Am-
brose (Surius, Apr. 4), but many bestow t.l all
their farms and property absolutely. Aiiijustine
(/i)). 199) rebukes Eudocia for impoverishing her
household in this way.
(For the alienation of church property, see
AUKNATION.) The statute of limitations diil
not apply to church property ; recovery was nut
barred for a hundred years {Cud. Just. 1, 'J, '2M),
which was afterwards reduced to forty (.Vor.
cxxxi. 6), the regular limit being thirty. An
annual charge upon land by gift or legacy could
not be redeemed (C. J. 1, 3, 46), A.i). 5 lO, or in
an" way cease to be paid in perpetuity ; if alien-
ated it could be recovered with interest (I'Si/. ,i7),
but it might be exchanged with another church.
Leases. — The usufruct cf church jnoiieity
could be enjoyed by a layman for his lifetime or
a term of years, in return for an eciuivalent I'aiJ
at death or the end of the contract (A'oii. vii. 4),
Justinian forbade church estates to be let accord-
ing to the ius colonarium (a kind of lunefirlal
lease (i\ow. vii. praef.). EMPilvriasis was
permitted only for the life of one tenant and
two specified heirs (A'ou. vii. 3) ; it was for-
bidden in perpetuity {ibid. 7) unless the estate
was profitless and could not be improved {X',r,
cxx. 1). An ordinary lease was limited to twenty
years (C. J. 1, 2, 24), which was afterwards
extended to thirty (Aot). cxx. 3).
Another method of granting church money or
farms was per precariam, so called either "quia
illud precr.rio possidet" or "quia precihns obtinc-
tur " (Uucange). This is sometimes regarded as a
kind of benefice. One form was a lease for one
or a few, generally five, years, and rent was paid ;
sometimes the terms were the same as the em-
phyteusis of Justinian (.Vor. vii.), of which kinj
forms are found in Marculphus, ii. form. ;I9, 40.
The earliest notic-e of precariae is in a ciWon
ascribed by Gratian to some African council (Labbf,
Cono. ii. p. 1178), which permits a rector to re-
voke any precariae made by his predecessor to
the injury of the church. [Piikcai'.iaf,.]
2. Leijacies. — A.D. 321. Constantine decreed
that anv one might bequeath to the church anr
property he pleased (Cud. .lust. i. 2, 1). Full
liberty "was taken of this privilege, and it was
soon abused. Many bequeathed all their pro-
perty to the church, leaving in poverty thf
dependent upon them. Augustine refused to •
ceive legacies if they were needed by poor relati
(Posidonius. Vita Aug. 24). He was obliged to
defend himself against the charge of discouraging
legacies. Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, restored
his property to a man who, having given nil to the
church, afterwards had a son ; so when nn angry
father disinherited his son, Augustine would not
accept the legacy for the church (cf. ftrmo *
diccrsis, 49). Ambrose (in Liu-am. 18) forbids
to pinch relatives in order to leave money to the
church. Jerome (^Epit. Mar.) applauds MarcelU
for surrendering her own wishes to her mothers,
and bequeathing her property to relatives nither
than the church. .On the other hand he advises
the widow Furia, in spite of the opposition of ha
father, to leave her money to the church, (iregorj
the Great restored an estate rather than impover-
ish the children. . ,r, j r„j
A.D. 455. The law of Valentinmn {Cod. Jwt
iTi.2, 20) which forbade clerics to receive leeacies
from v,Tg,m and other religion, persons even a
trust,, did not probably prevent legacies to the
church for Jerome (ad Aepotian.) and Ambrose
(ep. 50) do not complain of the law, but of the
greediness of those will-hunters who made he
Uw necessary. Theodosius (xvi. 2, 27, A.D. MO)
forbade deaconesses to make bequests to the
church; they might however give what they
pleased in their lifetime (i6,rf. 28). Full liberlv
was restored to them by Marcian (Cc4. Ju,"i.
2, li).
Augustine advised those who had sons to add
Christ as one more Jieir and give the church an
equal share with the rest(De iJiv. Serm. 49); dead
chi dren were to be counted in and their portion
go to the church (,"«/. 44). Justinian ordered that
on accepting a legacy, the bishop should enrol the
?rJ?^9«^t^^'{?" *''"'"^" magistrate
(Cod. 1. . , 28). Also (A'o,-. 131, 9, ^.d. 541), if
.legacy I eft to God or Christ, it is to go to the
church ot the place where the testato? lived •
when a saint or angel is named, but not the place!
hen If there are many chapels so named, the
legacy IS to go to the poorest (unless there be one
which the testator was known to favour, C. J i
2, 2b) ; If there are no chapels in the city, to one
in the province and failing that, to the church of
the testator. If money were left to build a house
for charitable uses the work must be completed
withm a year (C J. 13, 46). The canons of Car-
hage (Con. iv. c. xvin. xii., a.d. 398) forbid the
bishop to enforce a bequest by law, but Justinian
commands the bishop to see that a bequest is
duly carr ed out (AW cxxxi. 11.). Annul" lega-
CK3 might not m any way be changed, but were
to remain annual (C. J. i. 3, 40, a^d. 530 ; coT
firmed i'nd. 1. 57, A.D. 534).
The minute requirements of the Roman law
were .ometimes relaxed in favour of the church
-e-g. bequests to the poor (C J. j 3 24) or
for the redemption of captives (ibid. 28) were
vahd, although theperso'n. benefited were un-
ertain and the claim- to such money wa. not
Urred for a hundred years (C. J. i. 2, 23). The
Flinch king, confimed the canons which ordered
that wils in favour of the church should be
t\ ? V,'m""''5'> [Mortmain.] ^
The Lex Falcidia, which forbade a man to leave
more than three-fourths of his propertv In
egscies, was repealed in the case of thi church
A«,. cxxxi. 12). A.D. 772 a Bavarian councn
f^ 11.) arranged for the alteration of a wi
lesTing property to the church.
r„i ^'■""'t"^™"'' ''''°™ *•»« imperial funds
™aC r '°n "f/^^""""'- Constantino
gave a large sum to be distributed by Caecilian
b.shop of Carthage, among the clergTof aS
Numidia, and Mauretnnia (Euseb. E^x 6) t^
efray expenses-a precedent which was fre
gently followed by later emper.rs H, Z>
panted an annual allowance'^of com to the
l.eontm,fi,r appropriating theconiat Ariminum
The civil,, annona, or grant of bread to the
poor, IS oftener mentioned along with the in,!
movable property of the churcl.f and could no
be al enate (CW. Jn.,t. i 2, 14,'ao.. vii. praet
t 2 19V 'f. t"""^^' '" '■«'" '° ">is corn [c. J.
.^-Tni ^" . ''"'" ""^'rao humanitatis est
egenis prospicere et dnie operam ut iKiuiienbus
al.menta n„n desint, salaria etiam q 1,0' sia^^
Sanctis ecclesiis in diversis speciebus^le pub ct
hactenus ministrata .sunt, jubemus nuuc .uoque
■ nconcussa et a nullo p,4sus immlnuta' p.^
♦h.'^T'^u"'/^"""'"'' '"■«''»5' pound'' of gold to
duct of^ft^,,"^ Constantinople I the proper co!
emidre III ''"'""•''"" ''""'''^^ "'« '«"Js of the
Sral'lv th.^ r"" •''"""' '■'-""•''"«J ««<=reJ ;
generally they were increased. Clovis and his
hrst successors awarded large tracts. St? Ke.n
distributed among the destitute churches. The
royal excheque,- was greatly impoverished (Greg^
ch. rch 2-oV' ^"''"■'^ '"'"'« K™"'^ to th^;
church 01 Orleans (Con. Auiel. i. c. 5, a.d 511)
Dagobert I. gave the royal revenue tV.™ T„„Vs"
to tho church of St. Martin (Eligii Vita, 1 32)
nXd alT'."^ "'>■**"". '''"K Chilperic an-
nulled all testaments in which the church was
made heir, but this was repealed by Gunthmm
1 tr-. ^''"'"^ Martel seized a quan itv c™
church land to reward his soldiers, a.d. 74 Ut
nanck). h-equently the gifts made by kines
were confirmed in synods, as those of Ounthram
at Valence, and of DagobeH (Planck, ii. 203). an^
of Pippin at Ratisbon, a.d. 742 ''
sinti™! -T^^ria i^-y^
cano.f„rbadeth^"^aliettfono\':Lr'c;%^^^^^^^^^^^
and rendered all such transactions void It y.«
tTf "i"!.'' Oa^dentius had left propertv to
the church the slaves might remain (J oL\.
wse he ought not to injure the chu ■ h SUl
to judge more according to the precepts of
wrrrel? i'^.''™','^-. -eh'^f^eeTmen
weie to remain in lus ecclesiae, ut idonei • their •
intestate and without relatives (Co./. JulV.t
20). Theodos.us extended to the church this
K :^;iti '^\e?ii- "''''' ->'«g- PotsS
vieiics withc relatives were expected to leave
their property to the church (Salvian. arf&"om")
C aS'c 2T' "''.''>'!-b"t their nephews"^;
rl."l3r:f."c.£':^£™"lf4?^^
fieed m»„ „,• • ""'^■"•c- 'O. ^0): the estates of
XTv."2)'!':h:tarrial'Vt'1 f '<''-
chuich tenant, if recovered (this was fo.-bidden
by Gregory, / c.): fines for ecclesiastical offences-
h^eestatesof cerks who becme seculars agal*
(C. J. I. 3, 55). The goods of heretics wert
110
i ♦i)f?i -
'''-'mi
1'^
(ff
K
1732 PROPERTY OF THE CHURCH
•ometimes bestowed on the church, ns were those
of Nestoi-ius when he was sent into exile by
Theodosius. So also were the houses where
iMontnnists assembled (Cod. Thood. xvl. 5, 57),
nnd Donatists (ibid. 54). Honorius gave several
heathen temples {Cod. Theod. xvi. 10, 20). Con-
stantius gave a temple of the sun at Alexandria
(Sozomeu, v. 7), and some basilicas, as the Sesso-
rian and the Lateran. The statue of Scrapis
nnd other idols at Alexandria were melted down
for the use of the church, the emperor giving
orders that the gods should help to maintain the
poor (Socrates, vii. 7).
Fees for baptism were nt one time paid.
Greg. Naz. (cfc Bapt. Fr. 6.')5) writes ag.iinst it.
The Con. F^liberis, c. xlviii. forbids this practice, so
does Gelasius {Ep. ix. c. 5) : and for confirmation
also. Con. lii-acciira, ii. c. 7, forbids the ex.iction of
a pledge at baptism from those who were too poor
to miike an oU'ering | and c. v. forbids the bishop
to e.xtiirt a fee from the founder at the consecra-
tion of a church. Jerome {Q'laest. Hcbroi: Gen.
xxiii.) censures the practice of exacting money
for a liurial-place.
6. JJcnefices. — Ducange defines a benefice to be
"praedium fiseale quod a rege vel principe vel
ab alio quolibet, ad vitam viro nobili utendum
conceditur. Ita autem appellatum est, quod is
ex mero dantis beneficio ac liberalitate illud
possideat." The word had a wider sense in
ecclesiastical Usage, " beneficia ecclesiastica dice-
bantur universim res ecclesiae in beneficium
datae, sive a principibus sive ab ipsis ecclesiis
et earum praelatis in beneficium datae essent."
It has apparently the sense of oblations in the
first canon of the council of Auxerre, A.D. 578.
In the laws of the V^isigoths (ix. 5, 5), it is
equivalent to merces, and is used in this widest
signification by Thomassin in his work, Vetus et
Sova Ecclesiae Pisciplina circa Beneficia et Bene-
ficarios, which treats of every kind of payment
to the clergy.
Originally a benefice was not separate from
ordination. By the fact of ordination a clergy-
man was attached to a church and could claim
maintenance. All the funds throughout the
diocese were handed over to the bishop, who
gave the clergy their portions. Gradually the
custom grew up of making special reservations
to particular places ; the right to maintenance
was no longer personal but local ; the principle
prevailed, "utqui titulum haberet ius qnoque
fructus percipiendi ex bonis titulo annexis con-
sequeretnr." Ultimately the canonists defined a
benefice as "ius perpetuum percipiendorum
fructuum quorumcumque ex bonis ecclesiasti-
cis seu Deo dicatis " (Van Espen. vol. i. part 2,
tit. xviii.). For other sources from which the
clergy were maintained, see also Tithes, Obla-
tions, First-Fruits.
Thomassin considers the history of the word
to be as follows (ii. lib. iii. c. xiii.). Benefices
were originally lands granted by the emperor:
when laymen seized church lands, these were
held also of the prince or the church by
military tenure, and called benefices : the name
remained after they had been restored to the
church. The other explanation is that they were
granted to the soldiers of Christ on condition
of serving faithfully in the army of the
church.
Biniiia, followrd by Baronius (anno 502),
PROPERTY OF THE CHUR(3H
fixes the origin of benefices at the beginning of
the 6th century. That benefices were only
just coming into use in the church at tiila
time is supported by the fact that some clergy,
after enjoying the usufruct tor thirty years
or forty (Just. Nov. cxxii. 6), claimeil the lanili
as their own by prescription. The first council
of Orleans (c. xxiii.), A.D. 511, decreed that if
the kindness of the bishop had allowed clerics
or monks to till or hold lands or vineyards,
even though many years could be proved to
have passed, the church was to suffer no harm,
and the secular law of prescription (thirty
years) was not to be put forward to tiie
prejudice of the church. It was also found
necessary to forbid all clerics to go to the
prince to seek for benefices without letters com-
mendatory from the bishop (can. vii.). In a.d,
517 it was decreed (Cone. Epaonense, c. xiv.)
that if R beneficed priest be elected bisiiop
of another church, he is to return all gifts
previously made to him by his church. Canon
xviii. enacts that the secular law of prescription
is not to apply to the church.
Although a benefice was altogether the frej
gift of the bishop, yet his right to revoke his
gift was questioned. In A.D. 5;i8 the tliird
council of Orleans (c. xvii.) forbade a bishop to
revoke the benefices (munificentias) granted by
a deceased predecessor, except for improper con-
duct, but he could force an exchange ; his own
gifts he might revoke if the recipients proved
contumacious.
Benefices were granted by word of mouth or
by writing (C. Aurel. iv. c. xviii. a.d. 541), u
the bishop thought fit ; in neither case could the
benefice be alienated. If a benefice were granted
to a cleric of another church, at his death the
benefice returned (ibid. c. xxxvi.). Improvements
went to the church at the death of the benefi-
ciary (ibid. c. xxxiv.). If a bishop, by will, left a
farm to a cleric, who entered upon it during the
vacancy, the new bishop might confirm or annul
the legacy («6icf. c. xxxv.). A.D. 554 the fiilh
council of Aries (c. v.) forbids clerics to dete-
riorate the property of which they have the
use ; the younger are to be punished ; the older
to be regarded as murderers of the poor, a.d
567 the second council of Lyons (c. v.) forbids
bishops to withdraw the gifts of their prede-
cessors ; if the beneficiaries need punishment, it
should be on the persons rather than their pro-
perty. Such canons were rendered necessary by
the frequent quarrels of the bishop and his clergr,
(<iregory of Tours, Bist. iv. 7; v. 49; vi.
86). The will of Hadoind, a Gallican bishop
(apud Baronium, A.D. 652), mentions a vills
" quam Lupus quondam per beneficium nostrnm,
tenere visus fuit, similiter villa quam ex muniti-
centia nostra concessimus." Lupus is to enjoy
the usufruct, and on his death they are to be
restored to the church.
In the Church of Italy the epistle of Sym-
machus to Caesarius of Aries probably describes
the custom of that time, to give a benefice only
to deserving clergy, or monks or strangers, when
there is some strong necessity (Epist. v.). This
was confirmed by a council held at Rome (cap. iv.
A.D. 502). Gregory the Great granted a beuefis
to a presbyter at the request of his bishop ; but
ordereil the annual value of the benefice to be
deducted from the presbyter's share «t the
PBOPERTY OP THE CHURCH
lib
ordinary division (Thoma3,i„, par, 3,
J°^.'irenlcL"""s"!'',r "of ' "' "^-'^^^ ^-"- -•
Tineola, ,eu alia ae, hT inT™'""" T"""^'
fecis,e probatur? sul'u n^ "[tae't^'!! '"'
u.que ad obitus sui diem possidlat C Hr'"'
Jum, iu> suum ectlesiae restit««f '„ . ^''™''"
tario aut su.'cessorio i,,r! ' ""^ testamen-
.ut prohaeredum re luat „i',r'r''"T ''""'"'"'"
pro Lntii. aut 3 io"' t™ XTC' ■"'
vouert." An IHQ ♦!,„ .u- 1 '''-'-"''"ae largiri
c. iii., enact^'ttu bfshopVa;:trr''V°'''''''^'''
pn^perty of the ehurcr H:weve if tZ? "•"
to the churches of their dim»,r ' 1-^ ^"'*
does not serious yhamprth/"vrr«?'"'^''
church, "firmum^manea'i '..«„/!''"{ °^ *'"'
clerics, and the needy, "TalvJ iurp .n 1 ''"^''"'
stare permittantur " "Kir J ^^-^'^^'ne prae-
plies tLt the lanT would'™;™ ZZn\ " ^
mother church : it !, th„ ? *° **>«
phrase "salvo i'ur^eLst/.nreUrit^
incentive to 'further IrT ^-f^'tiT bi h^".'
Swif-^i-i--^^--'ff^i;i
The laws of the Visicoths (iV. 5 6> forhM .1,
church estntps ..r>,i 011 •"' "y inose wno held
which all land wi su ^-1 av 1" •^'H*'*''^
w- to be paid as ronl Z tVS 'Tl %*
thecounci of Frankfnrf o ,v„ j ''• '^''^
« heneficiis et^rJust" 1? .'"''1,^ '""*
orders lurches to be restored bv th^,. » n k '''•
hcia exiude habeat." ^ "J"' ^*°«-
In the East there is no trate of ♦!,« „ x
granting benefices. The decree of r '"'*r. "^
themius Ta d 470 r", 7"^^ °' Leo and An-
>"■"■ *<", <^0j. Just. 1 1<\ „!.. .
Thomass n quotes ha=i rofo,! "' '• ^""='>
B^ADMm8TRAT.0,T OP C„U«C„ Pkop.Rxv
'I >-i. <j1. home, VI. c 7- <Toi» •
Gregory the Grea i/' 7,»""'' 'P- ^. ;
"feals were bound to criv- '^" '"'""•dinate
bishop and to a!? „ ^r* "" ^'^^°<'°t »<> the
rtether they were otn„°''''".^ou*'', ''*' J^-igment!
»r fflanaged the ^ ,"*?""" <^'">''=ed''n, c «xvi.)
V"/- =• ivii.), or chariflhl^ ) 1' °^ P-'"->shes
:fwtheri;ht::fir^,re; "^(^TAT'^f^^
»'theemp re, and (■'!■> h»«il j ^ •' "^^ *''« '''ws
l»lit«n and of the nrovfn. 1 '"^ "^^'^ ■"^*™-
^weils. [Bishop'^"""'"''' '-""""^ " °f general
'•The rights of the clergy cannot be defined,
PROPERTY OP THE CHURCH 1733
:-•• >»iv., decrees hai the hT"'-'"" ^°*'"«''
■«ter, but the nresbvlL i ? " *" '"''"in-
made acquaintK^h ,b» "«^ "" *" »"'
^h'-rch, that it may no't b. ^T"^^ "^ *>•«
private I'mperty of ?h' ^^ '""^^'''i with the
»me pu'rpoL Aposto c%^;„t''-, ^^"^ '" *''«
Canon xxv. reserves to ♦!,„ 1, ? ""'■ O' »'•)
f^r-ensingtothe; o^bftif'th^ *''^ ''^'" "^
deacons disapprove theV mav» I'"»''yt"« and
before the pio^-incia s/^^'f SoTb" pl'"','''''"'P
«ara^ "i. c. 16, a.d. 572^ The d of <' ^'v"^ ''™"
c. 32, A.D. 398 dppl«r«^ 'neu. of Canhaee, iv.
if -aHe by ti^ bLtrwithouVth'''' *" "^ ^""^
subscnption of the clerev 4! T"'""' ""d
A-O. 470 (Cod. Just. T lJ> "'"' "'' ^^o-
CfrgyofConstantinoDleflsho.- "'^''g''i^<'s the
alienation of church pro, e/tv's? ? ^'t'^ '" the
-^•B-SSi; (.V«t.. xlvi 1 o!^" f""''" Justinian,
prohibition of A'„r vii 1 In '""'''.'""« *''° strict
a church the ri^hf nf ?\*' ""'^ *" ^he clergy of
"Pedient toll'L^'e roS;?aL'f T- '' --
the consent of Hve ^^.^7 ^' J'f ''^ ^^'"'- ^'i'' 3
■•^quired to make valid Th 1"^^"'.° ''•"•™"» «
emphyteusis. [Il St'o, V Th '?k" '^""^'^
o'^ the clergy were limitV^ ."-' ""' '*'« "ghts
administratWeTniTh 1 "r'"";' l^" "^'^^
n seme cases presyterfseiiTth''''' •''",''''?•
out t was heM ♦„ K ^ t"" pr V eee
(Greg. Turon 1*23) 'V.l' "' '"'"''"■•''inati'o^'
«■ vii. viii., A.D. 32I371 rtr7 "'"^"'^™'
f"l), anathematize, a^v w^ • "'^ " '^""''t.
gift, for the chm^h s'avrte^rH '' ""'^'^
appointed otRcer ThT. \ '"/'"''' *°d his
probably to heretics wh„ ' '•^ference most
trust the dispens n^ ^i"', P^^^u^ded people to
t^an to the oSlf b- ho^'^Bi ,° i St r*""
the\i;rt?a^\.''™'''"^ t "Ser of
found in th^"rtideAuKvZr' '!"^^» ^-" he
the heading iZes ^"''-^'^^'°-^. and above under
ove;ri:^:^top.''*'chrrg:S'o/r /''^ "^'^ *°
are frequent in f h„ ,? ! "'^ ""'''"'""nistration
Athanaslus wa charLd' W^ 1 *'"' ^''"'^h
Tyre; Dioscorus «T„ k u"' *''« '•■"""'^il of
beW th coun il f Chaf ? °^ .^'"''ndria,
Ede^ wasaIso"id°' S'fe.f "^ ^""^ ^^
the'^trwrts-tbS^i^erh'r"^-'^
the negligence or T k ' "'^ '" »'"»» case,
require! t^t he sholT'^ 1 *•"* '"^"op,
o'Hcial. The Arab ^ "- ""' "''' "f a"
Nicaea (c. Iviif iv ^ h °' °l **"= '"""^i' «"
of each ity are ti 2T **"" *'«' '^''^"''^
ecclesiastic [0 man ge t "e^h '"T, """'' "■■
l»xvi. orders an ,^0^^, or ^1'"'^ '-''"'°''
appointed in each church ^n/ZuT."*^' '" be
to manage the estates fa ',<•"''. "^ ''™ "*'"'".
occupancv he kit n„ "''' ""'^ '^""'g his
^-> CWLsS w^ratredi?''-'"" "' '^''^
revenues without giv n.anv '"''"''^"'« '"'
~» .w 0..1 j:.^:»r.';"a c^
5 T 2
i"
^ m
.1
VI fl
» I'»ji.4f0j
■*'■
iUi««
\
1734 PBOrERTY OF THE CHURCH
letter of the council of Ephesus adilrcssed
" presbyteris et oeoonomis," though perhaps
these were assistants to the stewar.l, of whom
thfre is mention in the Life of Chrysustom by
Palladius (e. M). [OkconoMUS.]
In the Western cliurth the assistant of the
bishop was generally a deacon, or archiieacon,
or subdeacon, sometimes a presbyter, occasionally
a layman. Cyprian brings charges of _ fraud
and embezzlement against the deacon Felicis-
Bimus and another (lipp. 49, '1^1), but similar
charges against Novatus, who was a presbyter.
Augustine committed the property of his see
to ("•crtftin of the clergy, from whom he required
a strict account every year (Possid. Vita, '24).
When on a journey he had to make a payment
from the church funds, he wrote to the pres-
byters (ep. 219), and at his death left the
charge of all the property to the presbyter
Fidelis, who had previously had care of the
fabric of th church. Ambrose left the
finances of his see of Milan to be administered
by his brother Satyrus, who was a layman.
Prudentius (irepl artip.) celebrates the arch-
deacon, St. Laurence, who had charge of the
buildings and dispensed the alms. St. Martin
orders his deacon to clothe a poor man (ap.
Sulpitium). At Ticino, Kpiphanius, before he
was made bishop, managed the property as
deacon (Eunodius, Vila l.piph.). Tope Agapetus
transferred to an archdeacon the government
of the church of Rogium in Oaul (Cone. Gall,
i. 239, A.D. 1)35). The council of Paris V. c. 8,
joins the archdeacon with the bishop in a
decree against the unlawful assumption of
monastic lands. In the letters of Gregory
the Great we find that it fell chiefly to the
archdeacon to have charge of the property,
and he would have to make good any loss
(i. 10, 19; ii. 14, 15; vii. 130). He was
assisted by a deacon or subdeacon (i. 70), and in
some cases was released from his onerous duties
after five years (vii. I:i0). The CI. of Braccara
[Uraga]. 11. c. 7, a.d. 56:1, orders the arch-
deacon to manage the fund for repairs and
account to the bishop. Deacons managed
the Sicilian estates of the church of Ravenna
(Greg. M. ix. 4), and as such duties formed
their main employment, diaconia came to ex-
press the duties of a steward. 'lie CI. of
Seville II. c. 9, A.D. (>19, forbids the appoint-
ment of a layman to the office of oeconomus
as contrary to canon xxvi. of CI. Chalcedon,
and regards every bishop guilty of contempt
and punishable who shall administer without
an oeconomus. The fourth council of Toledo,
canon, xlviii. A.D. 633, confirms this. Gregory
iEpp. vii. 6) had already forbidden the appoint-
ment of a layman. An oeconomus is ordered
by Gregory to manage the funds of the see of
Dalmatia, which were under the care of the
subdeacon during a vacancy {Epp. ii. 22). This
otlicer was also sent by him to look after the
guest-houses of Sardinia (ii. 59).
If a bishop neglected his duties, the metro-
politan had the right of compelling him (Justin.
Huv. cxxxi. c. 11). In later times the popes as-
sumed a general supervision, and often appointed
a deputy. Simplicius transfers to Onagrius, a
presbyter of the church of Ausona, the admi-
nistration of the fund for the poor and for
repairs (epp. 3). Gregory (e,)- ix. 28) orders
PROPERTY OF THE CHUECH
the bishop of Ravenna to appoint a deputy, and
sends the presbyter Candidus to see after the
estates of the Roman see in Gaul (v. 5 ; x. 55).
The letters of Gregory the Great shew huw
large an amount of work fell upon an active
administrator. The church of Rome posscssi'ii
estates in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, in Apulia
Campania l.iguria, in Dalmatia, lllyricum, Gaul,
Africa, and even in the Kast. There are letters
addressed to the administrators of papal estntei
in all these territories, and in many cities,
Gregory prescribes the most minute reguliitioiis
for these lands, shields the pea.sant from the
exactions of the farmer or papal ollicer, fixes
the amount of small vexatious payments, destroys
false weights and measures, and, lest abuses
should be revived, provides legal forms of secu-
rity (see espy. i. 42). He lowered the charge for
marriage of slaves, secured succession to the
relatives of the deceased, and repressed the un-
scrupulous zeal of the clergy. Besides deacons
and subdeacons, he appointed eminent bishops as
his vicars (Milman, Latin Christianity).
C. The Distribution of Funds.
1. This was the duty of the bishop. Origi-
nally all revenues, from whatever source through-
out the diocese, were paid into his hanJs.
Afterwards reservations were made to persons
and places. The Apostolic Canons and Constitu-
tions may be taken to represent the customs of
the third and fourth centuries. Canon xxivii.
(or xxxix.) recognizes the bishop as the distri-
butor of all goods of the church, and warns
hira not to appropriate them to himself or his
parents, unless they are poor. Canon il. (or
xli.) commits all to the care of the bishop,
who is to dispense to the poor through the
presbyters and deacons. The Ap<istolio Constitu-
tions (ii. 28) order that at the agape a portion
is to be set apart for the bishop as first-fruits,
even though he may not be present. A deacon
is to have twice as much as a deaconess; s
priest who has laboured assiduously is to have
a double portion, a reader or singer, or door-
keeper, has one share. The priests are to have
the first-fruits of new bread, of wine from the
cask, of oil, honey, apples, grapes, and other
fruit ; first-fruits of money or clothing were
for the orphan and widow. Every tithe «ai
to be given to the orphan and widow, the
poor and the proselyte (vii. 30). It is onlained
(viii. 30) that all first-fruits are to support the
bishop, priests, and deacors ; the tithes are to
maintain the other clerics, virgins, widows, ani
poor. In Book viii. c. 31, it is ordered that »hat
remains over after the eucharist is to be divi,lwi
by the deacons among the clergy : to the bishop
four parts, to a priest three, to a deacon two, to 1
subdeacon, reader, singer, or deaconess, one part
In Book ii. c. 25, tithes and first-fruits are to
be taken by the bishop and distributed to orpham
and widows, the aftlicted and distressed.
Cyprian (Epist. vii. ed. Goldhom) leaves the
care of the widows and poor to the presbyter,
but if any needy foreigners arrive they are to
be supplied from his special share. In his tm
division was regulated by dignity. Cypnn
writes (Epist. xxxix.) that for certain confeij
sors who were only readers he has designed
the honour of the priesthood, that they m
to have an equal share with the presbyten
P-OPEnTV or THE CH„KC„ p„op.«tv „. r„. CHCCn
(.portul,, ,i.,lem) of the food distributed, nn,I
an e,,ual .hare m the monthly division,. 'pr„.
bably these monthly divisions were of the money
which we read in Tertullian (Apol. 39) was
£?l,i°*%*r '*""* ■n«"»>ly,o7 when any
pleweJ cf typr. ep. xixiv. When Natalias
„u made a b.shop of the sect of Theodotu, he
Z rZ r^'r, '^71'" »•" •"»"*'■ (K"'"''
. .K ^u. P* •^'- "'^ A"'i"'-h, A.D. 341, c. „r.
mM- tal^e what „ required of necessity for him-
•elf and the brethren. St. Augustine and h"s
clergy m.dfl no .livision, but had all thiuK, i
common (ScrmoJO), but he was afto v^, ,-
obi ged to g,ve this up (Senno 4.i). .Acoordin,'
to liaeda, his was the custom in IJritain untH
the armal of Augustine (M«. Oct. Anjiv
27). Ambrose says the bishop should de.'entlv'
.ioru he temple of God, bestow what human >
.ug^ests upon strangew, be neither too niggard v
w. h his clergy nor too indulgent (O//-. ii 'jn ^
In all this we see no trace of the fourfold
division which afterwards became the recoir.
n,.ed custom of the VVe,». In the Ka^tern churdi
tins custom does not seem to have obtained at
any time. In the Western church there are no
ra es of ,t for the first four centuries ai^i a
hill : "non enim prop.iae sunt sed -mmunes
ecclesiae .uuult..te."(J„lianus Pomenus ^YUa
Cont.;npl u 9) In early times it was open Iv
proclaimed that the piopeHy of the churTwal
the patrimony of the poor. The clergy fo- th^
most part claimed a maintenance as amon<rst he
Tth' 'S'^*"" ^^"^ P'"P"*y generally favi
to the church ; or ,f they retained if, they lived
upon It and had no stipend (ibul. c. ii 12)
2. But the neglect or the avarice of the bishon
requireil some settled plan of distribution a.J^
475. SimpUcus (Epist. iii.) writes to Flo.en
tius and Severus to fake charge of the
fraud O^r' *•' "^ ''J^''"P waf guilty 'of
fraud. Of the revenues of the church nnHtl,.^
for tieffit/t '^'?' 'r P"'^ -•« ' "
lor tne tHbric of the church and the poor and
strangers the last part to the clergy. ioUti
ofTclnf^'f '='• ^7) 'vriting to^he bi;*'^'
1k'T*\ '''?■'""' *''« '■"'^'■'■''W division to
^ 11 '"F;^""' «'ergy, the poor, the fabric Th»
pistles of Gregory the Great shiw that the fou.:
1 I HTl',l?^"'*?xi''°""«'''-^ recogniz d as
aw. He bids ielix of Messana give to his cler.r„
e customary payments (lib. i^ ep 64)70 de^^
he bishop of Panormus to allow his clergy the r
ourth part (ii. 51); blames the b shop of Sm
u»e because a though the revenues otTis church
J (.(luich was entrusted (iv. 12^ Whon
1736
thT „' 7 T^ '»'""'e"»'«^e, for the clergy,
Wi„r 'j u- "P''""°g churches ; but as
•^ letter l,ve in common. The fourth
part, wh ch was „,s|g„ed to the cLrgv was
order ;: Ik "'""">■• ''"' '«--™rding '^t,; the
".r«l-. •'""K*- '"'nplicius (I. c.) savs
3 ,my "«er"^r''' "^.^ """" '» «'=eive hi.
Qaudentin'. J v I**""' '"" ""'' <"dinem," and
part to h. ^"''' '/ '" diatribufe the fourth
'«ulc:;u em"ruld''r\e'' '"'" "■^'""T
tatem " (iv •>(n ' y""?"'" personnrum quali-
i to Ki v7\'o\u, *"', "'-'• ""« ''i»'"'l' "f P"nor.nu,
fourth nart"K f'^^ °^ '"» '^''"^h « f""
louitn pait, "secundum ineritum vel odicium
01 V one ,hi /" l^" P''"'"^ »»J 'leo'^ons, and
0. J one- h rd fo the infeiior clergy. Gregory
o dit ,1.""""",'" "■« J"''S-'"^''" "''the bishop
to (IM ide accord u'' fo merit • '• fl* tiki • ' '
I r4^"4.:'r;l.J■:.2.:;.!;?^;;-
church had been defrau led : to the cleHcs of thl
t:t\tA7'r' ""'"' '" -« hu-^^a a'd
iwenty-six needy persons on the church h„. i,.,
(praeiacentibus \L centum vii" sex "t ,
cognovimus) half a solidus each ; ^o the pri t'
and deacons and loreiga clerics 'fifty solid 'to
poor men ashamed to beg, one hundred .tml fifty
solid, to public beggars, thirty-six solidi. In
the absence of the bishop of Ariminum G.e"
gory appointed a visitor and ordered bin, f„
set apajt the two fourths for the c le^ and th^
poor; the remainder was to be divided into
s'iror(fv"4^{'''^^^'''™'*''«"'«'-'^^^^^^^^
h .H,?,^ f t^- *^'''-'S°'">' "''ed to make distri-
Such was the custom of the church of Home
It was extended to Bavaria and ultimately to
the German church by a capitulary of Greg 7y 11
There also the fourth for the clergy is fo be d s-
tnbuted "pro suorum officiorum ^dnlitnte."
In the Galliciin church, the council of Aede
c. 3b, A.D. 506, ordera that all clerics who faith
du ^rVh' ''I '=^"'' ■"•« '" "™'-« the stipends
due to their labours: "secundum servitii .ui
mentum vel ordinationem canonum." Canon ^
shou d hf f' /"S''^^"' °' contumacTo s
should be reduced to " foreign communion "
that IS, the condition of clerics of another chu.°h
who were without commendatory leUers f.'m
their bishop. In a.d. 511 the Li coTnc of
el Vi:^'^"^ ''"" t*"* produce of the
esfj, hich he king had giv ^o the church
inc. used for repairs of .urches main
enance of clergy and 'poor, or the r.^X
of captives. Canon xiv. renews the ancient
statutes, and orders that of the oblations offered
upon the altar the bishop is to claim half" the
Af
wt
\i.AM
1736 PROPERTY OF THE CHUROII
clergy aro to receive the other hiilf to be iliviileil
aocmdiiig to their di-greenj the I'nrnu are to re-
main unilcr the bl(iho|)'!i power. Canon xv. cjrdeni
that lands, vineyanis, ilavei, and cittle given to
the parishes are to be in the bishop's power. Ol'
the ollerings upon the altar only one thin' is
to be paid to the bishop. IJut as some of the
parishes wore very poor the council of Car-
liciitras, A.D. 527, ordered the gifts to the
piirishes to go to the clergy and to repairs of
till! church, if the bishop's see was adequately
rich ; if not, the pniishes are to keep only so
"lucli as is absolutely needed for the clergy
and repairs; the surplus to go to the bishop.
A.D. 5,(8. The third council of Orleans, o. v.,
decreed that oblations made in city churches
were to bo in the power of the bishop, who
inight set ai)art what he thought fit for repairs.
Ihe parishes and country churches are to keep
their own customs. Canon jii. withholds the
•tipends of the contumacious; so does the coun-
cil of Narbonne, c. x. A.D. ..89, and also from
Jiriests or deacons who could not read (c. xi.).
Oregory of Tours (Spicil. torn. v. p. 107) allows
some wuo were suspended to receive their share
(sportulani).
In Spain the division was into three parts,
the duty of re|)airing the churches being thrown
upon the bishop, a.d. 516. The council of
Tarraco, c. viii., complains of the state of tlie
churches, and orders the bishop to go round
annually and see that they are repaired, accord-
ing to old custom; for by an ancient tradition
the bishop receives a third of all. A.D. 563. The
council of Braccara, c. vii., orders three equal
portions to be made : for the bishop, the clergy,
and for repairs and lights, of which last fund
the arch-presbyter or archdeacon who admi-
nisters it is to account to the bishop. By
canon xxi. the oblations of the faithful and
gifts in memory of the dead ar^ lo be divided
once or twice a year among all the clergy eciually.
As the bishops tinjusily seized the revenues of
the smaller churches in their dioceses, the fourth
council c,f Toledo, c. xxxiii. A.D. 63,3, ordered
them to take no more th.an a third, and to go
round annually and repair the churches
(c, xxxvi.). A.D. 655. The ninth council of
Toledo, c. vi., allows the bishop to bestow his
third of the oblations on any church he pleases.
A.D. 666. The council of Emerita, c. xiv.
divi.les the money otfered in divine service into
three parts: one for the bishop, one for the
priests and deacons, who are to apportion their
share according to order and dignity, and one
share to the subdeacons and clerics. Canon xvi.
forbids the bishop to take a third of the obla-
tions from a parish, and throws the duty of
repairing their church on the priests, a.d. 693.
The sixteenth council of Toledo, canon v., de-
crees that as the ancient canons allowed the
bishop a third, he may exact it if he thinks he
ought, but must then take the duty of repairing
the ohuiches ; if he waive his claim, the wor-
shippers must keep their church iu repair under
the supervision of the bishop; but when all the
churches are in good repair the bishop is to
have his third. Many of these canons regard the
property ot a diocese as no longer a fund controlled
by one head, but as more or less separated and
attached to particular places. At what time this
rractice began cannot be exactly fixed. Theodorus
PROPERTY OF THE CHURCH
Lector (i. p. 5,53) says that abrmt A.D. 460 Mar-
cion, oei,..iomus of Constantinople, was the first
to order the clergy of each church to receive the
mlerings of their churcli. Uudcr Justiiiiiin
louudeis of chur.:hes gave endowments (A'u,), Ivii.
i ; cxxiil. 18), which would naturally he resenml
to their churches, though the Novels do not slate
this ; on the other hand, the law prohibiting! the
clergy or any manager of a charitable house to
alienate, speaks only of <;a'/c'sii( or aaont (iuniun.
3. Chuichos. — Itwas found desirable to rtfjuUie
church building by law. The council of Chal.e-
don, c. iv., forbids tlie erection of a don.us oratoris
[OltAToilIUM] without consent of the bisliop. .lus-
tinian decreed (.\oo. Ixvii. 2, A.D. 53H), that any
one who desired to build a church must (jet
leave from the bishop, and must also give tiist
an endowment for lights, repairs, and thesu|.n(,it
of the clergy ; if he cinuol all'ord so much, he
may restore an old church. The bishop is to
consecrate the grouml ami fix a cross tlieip, and
when the building is once begun the civil jii,li;e
is to enforce its completion by the diuiur or his
heirs (Aow. cxxxi. 7, l^.n. 541). If tiiu.is are
be(|ueathed for building a church, the bishop and
civil judge are to see it completed within three
years (Cod. Just. 1, 3, 46, a.d. 530), whi.h was
niterwards extended to five years (.Vor. cxxi,
10). Consecration is forbidden iieforeemlownieat
by 0. V. of the third council of Braccara,
A.D. 572. See CiiuRCiiis, Maintkna.nce of.
p. 388. '
4. Tho Poor.— In the earliest account of
church property (Acts ii. 45) we real "thiit
distribution was made to every man according as
he had need." The first council of the church
ordered that the poor should be rememheieJ
(Gal. ii. 10). During the first eight centuries of
the church, almsgiving was carried to a perni-
cious excess. The earliest notices of church ser-
vice (.Justin M. AfK,l. 2 ; Tertull. Ajwl. 39) tell us
that the collections were made for the orphans,
widows, the sick and shipwrecked, all who suf-
fered for the faith in mines, in prisou, or in
exile. Al-so as in apostolic times the wealthier
churches made grants to the jioorer; the church
of Home was especially noted for its liherahty
(Dionysius, Bp. Cor. Kpist.).
First in the ranks of the poor were found the
clergy. Some clergy, it is true, were notori<iusly
wealthy ; but a natural reaction against such
unbecoming luxury, aided by the inlluence of
the monks, led many to abandon all their pro-
perty to relatives, or bestow it upon the church.
Augustine was especially anxious to promote
community of goods among the clergy. He
refused to accept for the church a legacy from a
presbyter who had been apparently supported
from the common fund (jSermo 49). He de-
clared he would ordain none but those who
would profe.ss poverty, and would deprive all who
broke this rule. But he was unable to carry
this out, and made poverty optional (Sermo 46).
Many of the most emiuent fathers of the church
gave up all their property upon being ordained,
as Cyprian and Ambrose, Gregory of jfazianzum
and Basil (Thomassin, iii. 3,3). There are many
references in the fathers and a few in the councils
to the duty of the church to support the poor.
[Poor, Care of.]
5. Pensions.— 'i\\B council of Chalcedon, 4.D.
451, assigned pensions to four persons: to
rnoPHECY
B.«inu.„„„.« (Art I) . two r ; "l ""'" 'f""'"''
».i» !■> Iw «. |,t ,is (h„ |-,in,J, „c,i L ' '""'"'/'
r;-™it,A..,iu..). ;;:" J^'(t':;':: "'''^!"
mn.,, Sar,,i „u Itenefico..) ' "*" [^j^^r'j'"
PttOPJlKUY, LITURGICAL rn A I
from «„y ,,„,.t of the Old Te/tame. t r T""'
divine ai'i'vire, i"»iainciit rca.l in
was rea,l, it is bcli.vo.l ,„;!.! Testament
br:.ti,m of the ou ha ',t "n t^ v"' '^^ "'''-
Fri...i. Th,. .;,.ti„ M n^ tn uo "'"•^,'^'
ins that service' " Tk . •''•*•"■ '"^O, describ-
.P".tles an.l th:\vri i'nl/Ttr"'"'"'.'"' '''^ ,
read a,, time nern.it •- rV z**^" '"'"'''"''* "'•« '
prophets, „'„a :f thei, title ':ir'r?: '""■ "'"'
("ii. .^l Sim. more fully W "/*'"' 1^'"'"''''
St. Chrvsostom. 3'(8 rhri ".■ ' ^"•"■•'ling to
prophets-„„d the'aPle." in t'hat " '""""'J, "•«
refers to first lesson's i^^m the Oi';i" r ":'' '"'''
r»l m it, as from Isaiah (Se'^^ifl /".fj^"!'"'
lectio Isniae";, Mieah (48, 8 2 "V,. V' •"""
Prophotica •■), „n,i J^roverbs (8' 8 « P •'''''""'
Te..a.ne„t w^s ni; aUvJ "rtd t ^7; \''''
"as sometimes, alrea-lv nnf , . ' "^ P'^'^ips
elsewhevehesaJ, . S' ? """^ "' "" ! (""r
hanee, 5.H, ChiMebert in . f ; "''^^ '"
Priestgivin^int ^n tre:'r'*\'P'''''^» "f the
"'^e gospel, the ,Zhl "?''!''''''•'""«»«<•
Paris, his eontemporarvk hi", / '^""""i"" "f
Oallican. or more'^..orrec'tly the ^"'l^^'t'^ "'""•«
Mvs. " The im.nl- ,, , "y '"0 ri'ankish iturirv
''i"-ing e ' hit: itn ^'=''p^ '»— i.i««;
that we^avkno7Him to'r'^lK^ ">« '""""•«
>>l>o hft, thun,le"^J in ?h» \^^' ""'"^ «'"l
">e apostle, an, hon fo,fh ^'"fu'7' ""'■'^''t in
the gospel " (l:ZT: Ir '" *?.•= brightness of
"three hook;"*' ,^;,7"7' ^73, speak, of th
Pheoy.theapostle ,nd thet '■' ^^" "'" *''' P^""
"■ l<i). tl'ewhere he men'f"'' ^''''*'' ^'■"'^■
*l>icli "the prophetic le«t"' •"" '"'"''o'' «"
the reader wis aCadv an, II-^ ""'" '""^'
'» read the lesson of ^k? ^'^'"''' '^e altai!
J''>''c. 5. J/«r T 5^ ^ p '"' .'''f ««'» Paul '- ' -e
E-t, probably -aiou^t 50^^":^^'"''^'"''' '" ">e
■>. after the Psalm^w^Ti' '*"* "» '^at "then
«'^red volume by^lSi7 ther^.ding of the
&■/. //lir. iii. •2) Th """"''•'" '" course " (D>.
[" Maiimus, his comM^ 7 "'"'*'* '"'e, according
^^« Testam'ent (SrtrN''^*'"' O'd and^
^n»n of the 6th century -.rhu^" ^""^"iw
87, singmg psalms, prophecies,
rnoriiRCY 1737
^!t/':u,:sf'^^^:::',i^-Th. ,it,„,y „,
'"■■•<AciI...N)are r.ad Ij^", ^V'"^ "'' »*>•
|'"'l"ttho,.ro,,„t,an h.""-' *^''' Testan.ent
evident that when this rnl "'■'"'• ■*'>• " '•
P'-l.he,ie., were n!, sho ' ^r.'r """''""'■'' '^e
th« ;iay, but were lefr o th , "'T'''''''''' ''"'
"Ihciaut. We «ho„l,l „ . "'" , 'hseretiun of the
the New Test:;' 'wa,": :;■•;/ -•;■;• «•- that
the ehuivh at Jeru,«L n K '" 'h" hands of
'-tam-ut i, '^ti.. f'"' "■■ >^''ile the (lid
are "set forth " ' "'" '"''J-cts of the New
'V7't;:!'S'i:;-^--^U...i-ap, red
'^•"■n them ;!.",l,,^'^-' liturgies derite^
«»■' «vians, who' 7m.,, hi ''""''''r' "''■'■"•
'he .\estorianr retain ";' '''''f '•' "'• ■'"'"Idtes.
K«ry,i„„, or " readi'T" ' J""'" ">« na.ne of
tw" lessons from the nld ^^""•■'"'"■» they have
"■"lly the second bet e h! T"' ' ''"' .'■'^■■»-
the Acts of the Ap les ,hl;'^'^"' '''''^■" ''•"">
"• l". -'17; KenaTlt /■/*-'' " •^'■^'-•'""^
599- "ad I-'ectiOne.:'.)'' ^nl"'"- '",''■'"• ''• SH'J,
s'TVed in the Armenian ,> P^'thecy is p,e.
(•'■''.-•eded bv a psalm Tu "' "''"" " '^ ^""
we.naymentio^tairi.fft-i;;,t'^S ■'''"'■"'
CwiiniUHis, but it is *l, ., ^ tiyrian (),Jo
epi.^tleCK^naudiil'y;''- '"''' ^"""^"1 hy the
vi.tts!r^^!rrSrf-'»HMis,a,pr„.
ciebrntinn (J/«v™& j/„.„. ?''-^ """'"t l»r every
They are oalled'^^i'Lifr^t '.^^ \"^ ^-^
tsaye prophete" (12). .. I'lj " I'-^it'" l.ibri
a-'^tici Salamonis " f24^ tk ?, ^''"'' '"-"'•-'^i-
tionary found at Luxeuil Ih' "h '• ^'''''™'' '"<•-
the 7th century, give! «' ''' " "'"'^^''''^ to
under sin,ilar h'ea' lil, Z m "l"'" '"■"'•''""'^o
se-ve some left in the lie »i ^ ^ ^' ^ ^ "'■*" "h-
the .same date (.V«,Alr"':'" ''"'^■■''"•'•"tary of .
though that lite is nSi„I ^' "^■'- -'''*• '^«-).
to the practice of IL^ "t^Z^l: T'"""^'
"Lectio Pro,.hetica" is rea In •"'""""• *
except the Hrst two on Chrff , '''"'J' '"«"-
/'««-W. iii. art. 2? u:'"^""^' ''?■'' ('« P-nm
Borromeo, after a perioHf ''"'r'' "^ ^'''"'^^
asted in some of theeh r, hes 7 f' v'"'* '""«
the 14th century, the J^il? "'^ '-"mbardy till
then "content w[ h a L. » " """'^'^ '"''"8
gospel] after thTcustom^of 1^°° ..C'eforc thi
Tuner. A- C<mc«„m oa ^*'""' (KaJulph.
single lesson waTIJ^Hb P^P- '=^)- This
that period some me fnm the""""' "'^^" «'
trom the other TelnT/^ , T' ^'"''times
Roman leetionary the zl, V^ •^•^- '''''« "'d
that "custom of' Kome-' f""it' '''''^'^ to
one lesson before t bo „„'i • there also the
from either & '(4 'ri'' T"" '"'''«"'enti;
ed Villai-c i^ (, "ter (//,p. Hieronvm - c. o
an indication that d'nW^'^' ,^^ i"""^ *his as
period, the church of Rol *'"' ^"* '''«&'■:
other churches in reading f? "f^^ "''^ all
-tat every celeb^SrriSVl^^-
■ti^'it
;ifHl
i"-l
!.
1739
PROPHECY
Tlte is «tlll found In th» •iibitltttWV* ^ Uuon»
fi'Din that book for the epUtlm on the w#iik-<li»yn
!•( I.ant, M\\ in th« uia of such Uihciu, eviin
with ei)i<tlei, on the •mlur .inyi. AnothiT wit-
new to tht primitive rule nt Home ia the thlrt
ainbo t'lir the jircphecy itill to be leen In the
churth of Sun Clemente in thut city. It itBnile
with that for the epietle on the right ot the
iiltur i while that for the (jonpi!!, which is
higher anl more ornate, ia on the left (Mar-
tene ih Ant. A'ot/. Sit. 1. Iv. Iv. 3).
// itfi- Tenliiniiny.—Vrom liupert of Peiit^,
nU ((fa Off. IHv. iii. 15), we leiirn that "two
leiuona, ' i. e, a prophecy ami an eplntle, wore
ren'l at niaas " tain ilie qiiam noote ' at Christ-
mas. I)urnnilu», whose experience lay in France,
A.D. I'JH i, says that some churches reail " pro-
phocii's" before the eplatin on Christmas eve
anil Christmas ilay (HiUioniU, vi, 12, n. Sj V.i,
n. 2'0. Such lessons are foiintl In many of the
nielint'viil missals of France (Mart. d« Ant. Loci.
Bit. iv. xii. 21).
I'uat'xre of tht Ifearers, — Acconling to
the A)fstilkal Constit'itiona (11. 67) the people
sat while the Old Testament, the A-its, ami
Kpistlus wore real, rising for the gospel. In the
West, the earliest cuiitom was to stand during
nil ! f >r we find Caesarius, A.D. 602, giving per-
missinu to the wqjuen to sit when thi^ •■ lessons,"
i. e. the prophecy and epistle, were lunger than
usuni (Serm. il5, § 1). But from the language
of Amalnriiu, who wrote about 827, we gather
that the practice had become obsolete long
before his time : " Vjuamdiu haec duo cele-
brnntur, id est, lectio et prophetia, solemus
se Icre, more antiquorum " ((fc A'cc/. Off. iii. U).
The (»M Testament lessons in the daily
service of the Mozarabes are also called " pro-
phetiive " {llrcvlarium Oothicwn, Lorenzana, 7, 9,
12, 17, 10, &c.).
For notices of this subject see Snla's note (4)
on Bona Jler. /.itun/. ii. li, § 2 ; Mabillon de
I tiirt;ia Gallic, i, 5, § 4 ; Martene de Ant. h:rcl.
.'/■t. i. iv. 4, § 1 ; Neale, f/ist. of the Eastern
Church, fien. Introd. p. 369 j N>ititia Eucha-
ristica, 238-243, ed. 2.
(2) The hymn of Zacharias, •' i'.enedictus
Doininus," &c. (St. Luke i. 68-79), was always
sung, except in Lent, before the eucharistic
lessons in the old Onllican liturgy suppressed
by Pepin and Charlemagne in the 8th cen-
tury ; and n» so used was conventionally
known as " the prophecy." Its connexion with
the lessons is thus explained by Germanus of
I'aris, 55,'j : •' Canticum autem Zachnriae ponti-
Sci'i 'n hi.norem sa^cti Johannis Baptistae can-
...L. 'pio I- quod primordium salutis in
v.-tKiTii jfi ramenta (sic) consistit . . . et
.?. ift' , u mcilius est, prophetarum novissimus
f vvv\>{elistarum pr.i ■■•"" {Kpiat. i. or Expos.
Ml. c'>; prophetia).
"C^ri prophecy was on some days, in most of
the Galilean liturgies, followed by an " Oratio "
or " Collectio post Prophetiam." In the
Frankish Missi.l this seems to have been said in
every ordinary mass {Lit. Gall. 322-325). In
the Besanvon sacramentary collects " post pro-
phetisin" are pr.-A-i.-!».H for Advsnt {M:u!. Ttal.
i. 285, 287), St. John the Baptist's dav (340),
and most Sundays (365, 370, 373). The Gothico-
Gallican gives two only, one for Christmas day,
and the other for the first Easte rmass (,Lit. Qail,
PROSPHONESja
100, 2,M). There is but one left In the Reich«n«a
fragment (Forbes and Neale, Uiilliuan l.'tw.]iti,
8). A second, the title of which, "post I'ro.
fetia"(iit) remains, has been supplanted t.jr »n
AiMilthiii .'•'acenUit (28). There are none in the
AliHU'ilt il illii-iinum \'etu.i of the C(dlectlons.
The Frankish Missal has substituted Uorrun
collects whiih have no reference to "the pro-
phei y " for its original prayers " post pru-
phetiain " All the other examples extant nhi'w
that these v/ere properly founded on the cuiitu 1.:
itself. Some of them preserve much i I' its Iiim-
giiai(e : e.i/. "Blessed liidy Ood of lumel, \\„'
Thy people, bless Thy pople, and deliver it Imi,
all Its sins ; and grant, U Lord of Ilnsts, thAt
we may be delivered out of the hanls of mir
enemies, and may attain to serve Thee slue
with righteousneHs and holiness all our ilnys ;
and direct our feet in the way of pence, thiit wo
may bo able to fullil Thy will In all things "
(Slier. Oil//. (Vesont) in Mu». Hal, I. a7«i).
[W. K. 8.]
PROPIIETEUM (irpo<^7)T»*oi'). Churchfn ur
memorials erected in honour of a nrophot, or iti
his name, were in ancient times called /Vi./''ii(i,i.
In the council of Constantinople under Mennas
{At. iii. A.D. 539, Labbe's Cimcil. v. \ (JT)
mention was made of the Prophetcun of lasiali,
and Theodore the Reader (lib. ii. p. ACH)
speaks of the remains of the prophet .Samuel
being deposited in a separate shrine of his own
(tv rf wpo<p-nrtt<f> alnov). Com|iare A!'(>8l0t,iUM.
(Martiguy, Diet, des Antii. jhrit. s. v.)
[K. C. H,]
PR08A. In singing the Alleluia [Allkuta]
a custom grew up of prolonging the last syllnUi!
upou a series of notes. This was cnlleil ihe
jiihilatio, and sometimes tequcntia. A fiuthfr
development followed, of setting words to thew,
not in strict metre, but in rhythnical prose, heme
citlled Proses: then metrical hymns (Sci/wntw)
were introduced. Notker, abbot of St. Oall in
the 9th century. Is commonly said to have been
the first writer of them. The Syrian litureiei
have n hymn '.illid i^:dra, which is strictly
a prose. ['-'. K. ' J
PR08DOCJ7TC! /r-a'igi.'. • i), martyr at . ,
tioch with'' . ' ud . :'i, nanus ; commemo-
rated Ap. 20. (Wright, 5i/r. ifari.) [C. H.]
PR0SMANARIU8. The word irpoff^iofil-
pioi seems to designate the verger or watchinaa
whose olfice it wan to trim and extinguish the
church-lamps, and to remain permanently in ttie
building to guard it from pollution or robbery.
Thus the recluses (tyKMurroi) and prosrajinaiii
are mentioned byTheodorus Hermopolites iis the
persons who were bound not to leave theciiuith.
It seems* to be equivalent to the Latin Mas-
8I0NARIUS (Suicer, TJuisaurus, a. v.). Coiniaie
Paramonarius. [C]
PR08PHONESI8, the act or office of callini;
on the congregation to pray, and suggesting the
several subjects of their prayer.
The council of Laodicea, about 365, directi
that in the Utursv, after th" dismissal of the
catechumens and "penitents, " the three prsyen
of the faithful be said as follows : one, viz. tht
first, in silence ; but the second and thirJ by
the method of prosphonesis" (Ji4 »(ioit^4«»'i
PROSPirONESlfl
ma. 19) By r.fcrenc. to th« liturgy In ih,
Apo4tol,cal Constitution, (viil. 0), w« l^rn th.
mtMing of tl,i. to bo, timt tho.a uriverl
.r. to I, .^bUUen," « Uict.toJ to th. B
WOO r(«|iond. "^ ' '
K'v'.t.,* i, u,„d In the lame .,.„,o u waon.
f»i-.,j.. Tin. '. i«ron,Wu<.„a.:" Alter thiiftha
U.p..'«"^; ' tl.e competeute.]. l.t the d..c""
proJuim («^pj^T^T«), Pray y„ that aro un,lor
p.n.,.c.;' ,„.| petition, for them are then die
tiuJ to th« faithful, a, before, fur the other
non-rommunicatin^ olawe. (viii. 8). So on a
certain occa.iou, St. Athauaeiu. "ordered the
d«™n ,,p.{ai .Ox^i- (Socr. 7/^<. AVW. i. 13)
w{;h:"t:i-:"T'.?'/V'^V». ^'5. deaconi
PHOTULSIS
1789
, . """"^.«'l, '" "J"l« during the persccu-
tion. ot that period were no longer to " iLke the
pr.H;lan,atioM» " («„pia^„„, can. 2). Such bid-
dm, ot prayer are called by St. Ba,il. 373
jnWMaTo txH\r,<Jiaar,Kd. See KpUtle 155 (ed.'
B«n.), where he »'entiont some of the .uhiJ.U
uTlni " V'<"^«."-»reof brethren in foriign
iMiU, of those in military service, &c
Eiaipples of prosphonesis from liturgies that
were m actual use will be interesting* In St
Jsines, after the sermon, "the deacoi, says, Le
u. all -ay, Lord have mercv. O Lord Alnfighty,
the Ood of our fathers, we Seseech Thee, hear u.
For the peace from above, and the salvation o
soul, let u. beseech the Lord. For the pea.^
of the whole world, let us beseech the Lord/' &c!
{L,t. /luTos. Tro lone, 42). Again, after the ofltr
tory and creed, " tU deacon makes the univer al
.ynapte • or collection of petitions fur all !"?,
snd cond.fon, of men. " ^ a^'ocon .- Let u b !
"mVyw" *"'""''• ^H.r^P'"' Lord, have
meriy. 7A* dc-Mon ; . . . For them that bear
of"co'!r for'llf"' 80"'l 'vork, in the holy churches
ofGo,l, for them that remember the poor, the
wi ow, and orphans strangers and them in need!
bj .eaor land for Christians in foreign lands
:i, r;^ ^'-^-''l ''""'"'" St Chrysos't;™
in w mch, Bf er a similar beginning, the deacon
b ds the pe,,ple pray thus : "*Kor thU holy house!
a or tKose who enter it with faith, devothm
cl I ^k"^ "'"'• '^'' "' be.eech the Lor3
«rchb,snop N., for the honourable presbyterv
ICZT'^'^r"'^^ '" Christ.'^forall th'e
&?. .PrP'"' ''' "' beseech the Lord.
JncUoir: Lord, have mere v. T/ic deacon ■ K,,-
(/•-"W. Guar, 64; .sin, ariy, 70 71 74 «m i
■mular ecta^. is bidden ly'the d 'Joi in\ht
w«ra.420),in several clauses, to each of which
i en bV'tT"''!' ,■"■[' '''"' '" *'""« "f «"" er
ph,t,,k .L^ ^ ''^^- '"Stances n the Latin
t^ltlT"^^ °? *'"' "^-^ond ■">'• three fX
pardon frnm"!? ■"'; gifts or divii.f peace and
^ind 'wlrar^hre'"'?!"/ 7^""' *"»'«
I'orThvholvpLl, 1- .. i ,• hnvemercv.
out the worM "'"iie''- ''"« ""'• through- j
the world, we pray Thee, A ; Lord," L.
(Pamel. SituttU SS. PP i qou\ ,„ „
«.r;n the deacon J.' tl'iusf ^•J-'J'Vrr/
ol-:uV?itv.-v,t;t"<r; ^^'2l^
L<K>k down n n„ i / "/ V«. *c, Jw liiacon .•
Thv holy catholic .&?1,, ^.'..f^"-' ^o'
It will be observed that in »h. f i
y» .11 in common hear the voice of the dVac^ "
the catechumens, mentions it as bi,ldeu bv thl
hU that If" •"•""""; "• *•> " wal^'w .;
i 1.0 In V",""'""^" "'^ the Greek liturgy wtJ*
also called c/.<K.on.-ai. Latin witnesses are 4*
Augustine 1 Africa: "communr'r.t.o vo",
dmcon, md.c.tur " (Ep. 55 adJanua'ill 34 '
Caesarius (502) and (iermanu, (555) in Vanci'
ab' oiVjil iT- '"» '""'""* '"^if" pro popuS
an ongine libru Moysacis ducit exordium''
(Oorin.A>.H i. "DelVece," Jligne, h,i 92).
and Isidore in S,.ain, 610 i^'AdVum Lqu,'
Si^^rsi^*''"'"" "'"""'" ""'"'" " '^i^"-
The prosphonesi, of the deacon is lost in most
of those Oriental liturgies in which the peUtTn,
.ev rallvtr? «'•" ""'^ gathered or expanded
eeyerally into long prayers and assigned to thr,
l.n«st; as in the <5optio St. Basil fftenau. I
'> 'the^thlpTc tloSlll't the% '''-'''^ ■'
tieverua of Antioch f32'i> <5f r , -T^' "'
(375), St. BasiUSSS)! L^.\nd"TtL''v"''
toriaa ^ Theodore (.L'Vl 9^" and" 1^ tots"
muni' th^ fir^t '""7"^ '" "" ^y^'"" (^••'^ Com.
(T)1:,uilT '""■' ^"""""^ '" »» the liturgies
(5), and in the anaphora of St. James f34-3fi\
which u, used by Melchite. and JacobUei aS?'
PROSTRATION. [GKNOFi^Exio^iTj ^' ^'^
PR08TRATORE8. [Pexitence, p. 1593 ]
PROTA8IU8, martyr at Milan with hi.
fB:."w°r'lf''.'='™'"'='"«^«ted J ,e 19
(Bed., Wand., U.uard. Mart. ; !'<,<. if<„„. j^^,./ .
i/.^/-on i^ari.j AW. AnH^iss. Pa Jat'
c«iv.ii. 190 , in the sacramentary of Gelashia
their vigi observed on June 18 and their naUla
on June 19 j on both which days the r nante^
occur in the collect " s. , •• Ld T .
".union i on July 28 (k \aH) ^oJi^U
iCal By^ant.; Daniel Coa. ,1^ iv 07, *
Oct. 30, Antioch {Ilieron. Mart.). ^ [C. H]
PROTERIUS, confessor at Antioch • com
memorated May 21 (Wright, SyrM^t)!
^KOTHESIS (nprf9..„ , Credcntil-fcli
Hto Christian ritual from the Mosaic, where it
hrLwf the_Alexandrine equivalent Vrshew!
brwd (iproi T7,s npoedatus and irpdeiins Upraiy).
t '
IL >
^i»in
174
PROTHESIS
In tlie Greek ritual, the term is applioJ both to
the reiess upon the left of the holy table and to
the le.vser altar which the recess contains. Bing-
ham oliserves that in many churches" there was
a place where the ollerings of the people were
received, out of which the bread and wine was
taKcn that was consecrated at the altar . . . .
Thi> is called rpSBiais " (Aittaj. viii. vi. 22).
Similarly, with a slight enlargement, Renaudot
des<;ribes it as "that part to the right of the
benia in which the priest, about to celebrate
Mass, arranges ami prepares what is necessary,
and from which he proceeds to the altar with
a certain solemn ritual " (^Liturgine Orient.),
Du Cange. {Gloss. Grucc. s. v.) co'ifines his
account to this sense of the word, and does
not even hint that any other is possible.
Suicer, however, says that I'rothesis was altire
minus, to the left of the principal altar, and
that it had its name from the fact that the bread
■which was to be consecrated by the priest was
first placed upon it {Thesaurus, j). 8-1-2). In this
sense the term prothesis corresponds to the
modern Credence, it is remarked by Renaudot
that the term "altare miuus " is improperly
applied to the table of the prothesis " because
the sacrifice is not offered upon it" {Lit. Orient.
i. 188, ed. Paris, 171U).
Most of the writers upon the subject appear
to be agreed that the prothesis stood to the
left of the holy table as you face it. So it is
placed by Leo Allatius, by Goar, and by Beve-
riilge (in the plan given by Bingham, though
Beveridge's own words, subsequently quoted,
seem to place it otherwise). The points on
which they differ are two: (1) whether the
I'rothesis was a part of the bema or distinct
from it ; and (2) whether there was a direct
approach to the prothesis from the bema or not.
Beveridge (Annot. in Can. Cone. Nic. Primi in
can. xi. I'i) considers that the prothesis was a
distinct place from the bema, and that there was
an immediate communication from one to the
other, basing his conclusion upon these words
from the liturgy of St. Chrysostom : " Kal
fv\oyiii' rhv Kauv, «<Vfpx«Tac (ac. into the bema)
lifTa 5e tV air6\vini/, d oiiK iarl SiAkovos,
eiVe'pX'''''" i lepevs (Is t^v Up68((nv, Koi
fiiTa\a^fidvft rh V7ro\ft(p0ev iv rip ayitp Trorripltft
irpofrcx"'^ Kol €uAa/8aii Kal aTroir\vvfi rh &yiof
ToTTtptov Tpii, Koi ipS fi^ fieivji rh Xty6n(vov
fjLapyapirris. He afterwards quotes a passage
of Marcus Hieromonachus to shew that the
censing minister sometimes had to make his
entrance into the sanctuary through the pro-
thesis and not through the holy doors. That
the prothesis was, in some sense, a distinct
apartment from the sanctuary, and that sundry
liturgical actions had to be performed in it and
not in the sanctuary seems clear ; but it may
fairly be doubted whether ancient churches were
always built in the same way. In a modern
church, a vestry is sometimes a distinct con-
struction and sometimes an apartment merely
curtained off from the church. And it seems
quite conceivable that when Leo Allatiuo places
the prothesis in the bema, while Goar separates
it from it, both may be correct. In a hand-
some church the prothesis may very well have
been the apse of an aisle, whilst in s church
of humbler pretensions the liturgical re(iuire-
inent of the prothesis may have been met
PROTOAP08TOLARIU8
by separating off a part of the bema itself. This
appears actually to be the ease ,at the present
day according to the description given by I)r,
Neale: "The chapel is usually divided by a wall
from the bema, a passage being pierced tjiruugh
it ; sometimes it is separated by a screen, and iu
poor country churches has occasionally no
division at all " {/My Eastern Church, liitroj
p. 190).
The view of Mr. Freshfield is that the con-
struction of the prothesis in an apse isii (luestion
of date ; that Byzantine churches had ni,t at
first an apse for the prothesis, but that it was
introduced to meet the requirements of the
ritual when developed beyond its pristmu sim-
jdicity. He says that " where an ancient (ireek
church is found with three apses it is sulisi'iuont
in date to the emperor Justin II. {i.e. the niiilJle
of the 6th itury), or has had a new east end
applied : where it has only one apse it is prior
to that date " {Archaeoloi/ia, vol. 44, xxiv.).
It should be noticed that in Beveridgi:'s plan
of an ancient church as given by Binijham, the
prothesis is placed on the lett of the spectator
looking towards the altar, whereas Beveridge's
words seem to insist upon the contrarv. He
seems, indeed, to take some pains upmi the
point, as if he were writing against the conclu-
sions of previous authors. He says, "Lt 5ia-
koukJh' quidem ad deiteram Pontificis in throno
sedentis et Occidentem respicientis ccll.icatur,
■irp60e<Tis ad sinistram," and mucli more to the
same purport (Annot. in Can. Cone. Nic. Primi,
in Can. xi. 15). In point of fact, amongst the
several writers there seems to be some confusion
in the use of the terms " right " and " b-l't."
In the Eastern ritual the procession fiom the
prothesis to the altar with the sacred ek-mouts
is called the Great Entrance (p. 012) ^eydAij
«iV<JSoi, while that with the Book of the Guspels
is called the Little Entrance {^iKpa dnoSoi).
The complete rite is described by Goar (i.Wio/.
p. 131). The office of the prothesis is the
preparation of the oblation for the eucharistic
service. It opens with the rite of wasiiing the
hands on the part of the priest and deacon, say-
ing the Psalm, " I will wash my hands in
innocency, Lord, and so will I go to thine
altar." Dr. Neale infers the extreme autii|uity
of this rite from the words of St. Cviil of
Jerusalem, " Ye have seen the deacon i;iving
water to the priest to wash his hands, and to the
presbyters who surround the altar ot God"
{Ciitech. Mi/stai/. 5). Tlie whole ollice is given
in English by Dr. Neale {Eastern Chunh, Introd.
p. 341). [II. T. A.]
PROTOAPOSTOLARIUS, the first episto-
ler. The liturgical epistle is called tlie apostle,
because taken from the writings of the apostles,
in the Greek and Oriental churi lies (IMuri. S,
Chri/s. in Goar, Euchot. (58 ; S. Marc, in llonauJ.
Collectio Lit. Orient, i. 137 ; the Cuptic rito, Hid,
6; the Ethiopia, 508; the Sjirian [Melohiteand
Jacobite], ii. 19, but "epistle" also 8, J9; the
Nestorian, 585), as formerly among tlie Latini
(Childeherti Constit. A.n. 554, Gijiit liej. Fr.
Baluzc, i. 7 ; Oormanus Paris. 555, Lxpi.s. .'ilisssi
in Martene de Ant. Ecct. Sit. i. iv. 12 ; Cone.
Tolet. A.D. 633, can. 12 ; and some copies of the
Gregorian sacramentary, Murat. Lit. l>oin. Vet.
ii. 1, WiSnarJ. 0pp. S. Greg. iii. 1, ed. BeiLj
TROTOLICUS
epistuler waa calfed by the a f, (jl. ^""^ ""^
rilOTOLICUS, martyr with iQ^'" '^^ ^'^^
[of the protonotary] is evident (r„m thl
for he is the first of the no L il "•?""'
n a very ancient A^^.v, O^;' r ^.tta^"
ter"r'e:j^'^f^^'''^'»;-*^'p p""^^^^^^
t^echu^hri^ihertt^nrtic::!:.;?
the lawyers, an,i writ's will an, V'"'"" "^^
.nd pvec-opt; and the l.L " J,s A^Tn' A- 'T'
loiion. 276). Another document nfl^^"^
kind tells us that his station v"s in trbe'""'
that at the time of the eievaUon L T-*'
tein to the bishop, that height's hi:
hands, and that he also held the l>?cKnmw'vw
269). He read the gospel on Palm s^ n , /o'*!,'^-
.i»^arly270).TheUnZH:!rkSni
after the Lxocatacoich (Joan. Citrii Resn «
J'ls Gmeco-Rum. v. in the nntn. ^t n f P" '
Goar to Codinus, 132) I, L llth ?"'""" ""'^
enal officer, so called, i, termed b^y lltZ
S'^srrt)-%Thr;;Vd"?'
^ployed as a notary at ?he siUh ° ^"^ ''"'?
council writing in ^2,1^: ZlC;?:'^:Zf
tary of the patriarchic secretum " fCIZ
Hard. Cone. iii. 1833). This is Ithint J-^^"W
S Sim ar7v in^P^h''"?-;^' ^''^ «-'-
(Julius,N 36)-'.Hi. .' f-fr ^<""'><^'»
, iTu. oo;. Hie constitutum fecit nt
ever, it b came th« ; "■ ."',"' P""'"^' ^ow-
oflic r, Thu"L JohnT-r "'* "^ '''« Vm\
tonotarv of th/"^" . ?• ''^ P^mblcy was « pro-
°f L™ X. speaks of f hi f''^- ?"• ^^"^^^ ''^ ''»"
oinn," -H T ° "V*'^! "Protonotariatn, nffi.
ii,r776) ■P"""^'^"'"'""« habitus- (Hard.
PfiOTOPAPA<? f - [W-E.S.]
PROTUS
1741
& Le ma/' r"''''' ''""r'' "«' » -"ed.
western attU r'r'"'' '°.">edean of a
the bishop el bAtestho V'r'''"''r'''"' " ^^^eo
stand-s above all he rt ''""■Sy-, *•>« I-'otopapas
inthe-livineli; 4';:.r,»' [''] '-•""-'', and
t" the bishop. Thi W ho„ la. ^"'^ ^'n^union
the irpa.To,.l,.,ij He is ' I .7''" F^"' '' *»
higher'ranks'of he c „ .-ch :. "''^''' '" '^'
place of the bi hop in hV b' T"''-^''"^ ">"
Outal. ex. Allit .,V • ''hurch " ((;^c«/.
.'• --'71). He '7h'e 'rl'rif tb*^ T^'-y"'^
Co,linus, "and has7h„ . '"^ ■"-''""' ^"78
hi.sh,,p»\z>rMe kt* f'-^ Plfe after the
' o-cial"Sutr:; the"'^""':«'°° (^«V 'Som
tinople are m nt ne "b'rff ,"*■ C«-'-
PJ-obably did not , ifip. r ^ Codinus, which
by the^ame oTnoe; n otZr''"".''^''""^'''!
(xiv. 79). "'"'^'^ gi'eat churches
«h"4e.t"!v:! 11l"'"f . -attendance on
Thus Codinus:"'The e„rf "'' k**"* P-'^t-P^Px^-
""'ong his cl rev the /if u'^f " P'»t»Papa8
(-D« 0/. xvi II; '-^^..^hurch has the same »
"thepmopapas of th» ?' Cons.antine VJII,
to precede thrarmy w Uh'T "'"■ '^""""""l*'!
;;^i^^^S:tX-K^-p^
7fa{r!:!l,^X:;^;i::''5!^-«n^rthe™
pevmit^ the^'lVeKiTr ;'''tl'" ""'
protoVpa'de"can g'v, lerrs'^f""'"*^^'' i'^" 'h«
iJever. i 437). Tlin I, PT* (^'""''•■cK.
the canons forbade^ h^^'b! '*^'' *'"'* " '"'«'•'»''«
villages, therS he'^oXiiVTofth'"" '"''
b.s:^ri2^-iS,.^^Si-
not appear. Jn th7 m , ^ '^^ *^tent does
protopap^ «in ytLn ™ ^r'^ '^""-'^ 'he
sacerd'ot^bus seVpe? /.Slnef 7'^' "■"''"'«
e«rcet"(Goar, /gyj.P"'"™""'*' «t m e^,s^jus
PROTOPRESBYTER Thp „,. .
Roman legates is cmJJ^' ' »"' "^ ""=
the churcl at Rome (HardTssr^f "^i?"^ °'
•u
iliili
4
■'',4
s'SI?!
1742
PROVINCE
the old Via Salaria (Usuard. Mart. ; Bed. Mart,
with Hyacinthus, both eunuchs of St. Eugenia ;
Hierm. Mart., with Jacinctus, at the cemetery
of Baaillae on the old Via Salaria ; Vet. Hum.
Mart., Kal. Antiquiss. Patr. Lat. cxxxviii. 1191,
with Hyacinthus ; Mart. Rom., with the same).
The natale of Protus and Hyacinthus on Sept.
11 is observed in the sacramentary of Gregory,
their names mentioned in the collect, the
"super oblata," and the "ad complendum
(Greg. Mag. Sacr.). [C- H-J
PROVINCE. [Orders, holy, p. 1478.]
PROVINCIAL SYNOD. [CouNCI^ p. 473.]
PROVOST. [Praepositus.]
PRUDEN8 {Vet. Rom. Mart. May 19), dis-
ciple of St. Paul. [PuDKNS.] [C. H.]
PSACHNION. This word, whose meaning
is quite uncertain, occurs in the account of the
Builerings of pope Martin I. (ob. A.D. Gf)6). After
very criiel treatment had been inflicted on him
at Constantinople, the sacellarius (see Uucange,
s. V.) ordered one of the guards sitnding by, a
barber, to remove at once the pope's psacUnion
(J'atrol. Ixxivii. 115). This done, he was deli-
vered to the prefect of the city with a view to
his being put to death, which he but narrowly
escaped. .,. ^ lu
Uucange {Glossariwn, s. v.) considers that the
teit is corrupt, and that saccion should be read,
the saccus being an article of dress wo:-n by
patriarchs, &c. This does not seem very pro-
bable, because the pallium would be above all the
other vestments, and the removal of that is
subsequently mentioned. In the text as given
by Baronius {Anruiles, a.d. 651, cc. 10, 11), the
reading psaclmion is found, which, however,
leaves the matter quite as doubtful. Baronius
gives the rather far-fetched theory that the
meaning is that of a satchel or purse {pera).
Macer {Hit'olexicon, 8. v.) considers the word to
refer to the tonsure, laying stress on the fact
that it is a barber who is bidden to act on this
occasion. This would be tantamount to a de-
grading from the clerical office, so that the
secular power could be then called upon to act.
[K. S.]
P8ALLENDA, the proper sntiphon on a
saint's day in the Ambrosian offices of lauds and
vespers. Hx. On St. Andrew's day at vespers.
« Psall. Inveui David servum raeum : Oleo sancto
meo uuxi eum. Gloria Patri, &c. Inveni," &c.
[W, t). S.J
the
PSALLENDUM, the anthem between the
prophecy and epistle in the liturgy of Gothic
Spain: "Postea, iterato Dominus sit semper
Tobiscum, canitur aut profertur psallendum,
quod idem paene est atque responsum, non dispar
gradual! ofiicii Latini " (Ordo Die. Ojf. Outh.
from Roblesius, Vita Ximenii, 27, in Cone. Hiip.
Aguirre, iii. 264). Leslie (in Psallendo, Mtss.
Mozar.) denies its close resemblance to the
gradual. In the Missal this autliera is always
headed by the word "psallendo," which is, I
conceive, not the oblique case, but the lower
Latin form. Cnrapare scno fors'inum in the Bre-
viar. Goth. Lorenzana, 1, 6, 8, &c. [W. E. S.]
P8ALLENTIA, a method of sinj;ing the
psalms, hymns, &c. "Graeoorum psallentiara
PSALMODY
ad nos diiigere tua fraternitas dignetur." T^i^
occurs in a letter to Jerome, which has been
ascribed to Uaniasus of Rome, the- ground cf the
request being the rudeness of the Roman
psalmody at that time : " Nee pBallentiuni mos
tenctur, nee hymni dccus in ore nostro ccpgnos-
citur." The authentiiity of the epistle and of
Jerome's reply ia denied by Hjrdouin, kc.
(Mausi, Concil. iii. 428). [W. £. S.]
P8ALLENTIUM (or Psallkntics), a service
of psalnia and hymns ; a word in very comincn
use in France In the Gth century and later ; tut
less frequent elsewhere. " Cum psallentio saicr-
dotum crucem Domini vel piguora Siiiuturum
commendavit " (Baiidonivia in Vita Kadi:i;uwUs,
19): "Dumsub muro cum psallentio sanctum
ejus corpus portaretur " {lb. 28). " Prnstrati
solo Dominum diebus singulis cum psalk'iitii
modulamine deprecantur " (Greg. Turon. d,: Yit.
PP. i. 1 ; see Hist. Franc, i. 43 : " Psalleiitium
audierunt in caelo ; ii. 21, in a procession ; 37, of
an antiphon, &c.). In 653 Clovis II. mwk
grant to the church of St. Denys, " ut si..;-
tempore domiui genetoris nostri ibidem ijsalleu-
cius per turmas fuit institutus ; ve! sic Mt id
monasthirium St. Mauricii Agaunis die nootuim
tenetur, ita in loco ipso celebretur " {De Ri
Diplom. Mabill. 466). " That on the Lord's Day
every priest go round his church, together with
the people cum psallentio " (Capit. Men. Fr. v,
372): [W.LS.]
PSALMELLUS, an anthem from the Psalms
sung after the prophecy in the Ambrosian
liturgy (Rituale tiS. PP. Pamel. i. 295), auJ
therefore corresponding to the Psallesui'm of
the Mozarabic. Its analogy to the Gradual is
observed by Ralph of Tongres, who speakiui! of
the responsories of the mass, says, "In tii«
Roman office they are called graduals, and in
the Ambrosian, psalmeli " (sic. ; De Can. Obserc.
12). The following rule for its use is given in
the MisscU of 1609 ; " Post leetionem [prophetiae],
responso per ministrum Deo gratias, dititur
psalmellus, quando sequitur epistolaj alioquiu
post leetionem dicitur alleluia cum sue versa,
vel cantus " (Lebrun, Dissert, iii. art. 2).
[W. E. S.]
P8ALMISTA. The Statuta Antiiim of tn«
African Church (c. 10) declare that a " psalniista,
i.e. cantor," may undertake the ollice of a church
singer at the mere bidding of the piesbyt'.r,
without consulting the bishop. The presbyter
is to say to him, " tu vide ut quod ore cautai
corde credas, et quod corde credis opeiilms am-
probes." Compare Ordination, p. 1509, [C]
PSALMODY. The object of this article ii
to give some account of the rise, method, aui
peculiarities of Psalmody in early Christianity
and to trace the progress of ideas that were
associated with it.
It has been already stated in this work [sei
Offick, thk Divine] that psalmody formed so
prominent a constituent of ancient choir services
as actual.y to have given its name to some «f
the earliest service books that are known to us.
Indeed, the psalmody of any given service nisy
be coiisidtred us the thread upon wlncn *-'
pearls of lesson, versicle and collect arc strung.
Oerms of Clioir Services.— V,'e caa trace llw
rise of the elaborate services that have tea
PSALMODY
Wi in the Christian church in the little th«t
haacome d,.wn to ,.3 abcut t),e j.ract e of tl?e
ancients m psalmody. "^-me 01 tlie
The earliest writers na woll .. »i
tradition of Christ^ndl .npl ! tZtth """""!
performance of psain,, ha, "I'v^av' f r n d a'lr
of Chnstian xvorship. The first passage in
Cliristmn literature wliich makes «„..; ?'^
the rsa! ms of Dnvid Rnt if ,.,„ 1 ' -^ .
t-^P-f- of *he'age?rm:diX,J^:;b:;rn?
.nd that of the Jewish church before, there can
formed at least a part of what the early Chris-
tianssang. J v^iins-
Justin Martyr, again, in his Apology addressed
to the emperor Antoninus Pius, spfaks of the
Christians smging "hymns" R„t ♦!,„ i j
^nedictine edlto? obsir"":- there^Ma^ '''Tfs
both to the Psa ma of David and to lyrics com"
posed by Christians themselves, whicrusedT
be sung in church." Tertull'ian M J 39)
Zm:t' ?'^'"= "f '='""l'"'itions ta£ from
the Holy Scripture!!, amongst which it r«n J,.\.^i
bedoubted(though hedoes^ordUti *ct, " i"S
hat the Psalms of David were included^ Oriln
too (contra Colsum, viii. 37) makesuse of expr^es
«on, which may fairly be interpreted ""^ the
affirmthatthepsalmsweresunginpublicwSu
Indeed the earliest mention known to theZsent
1. 1.1.1... ,ith .f,M. .r,E" '° •"*"• "•
Alliamsius (rfe Vinjinitnle) tells « l.^„ <i q.„
5e oft ""^i^^lir'tht ''""^ ''^'^'
probably the ^n/L*- , '^ prayers are
«nnci/„f A„de fr r' ''' "^ '" *''«
«.H.^ ... ' f «^* '° the year 506 Ccan 80)
Ifnekher M ^° '^'^ !'/ bishops and presbyters
There isa'dirence of '''''^*" """' """ '"id.
PSALMODY
1743
with collects. Tomaii .fi,!i 4
rank m canonicul scripture /s..^^
a«.. Z«rf. est. 59, ni "'"""" «»
.i»o.}.t th, o.pit.1. of Ata ;?T (">
was forbidden tn „„„ ™8™n ot Braga it
were not n Scri-ntur.'""'''"'- '" '=''""'> 'hat
.t:rtv4v"'"«F'"-°»;5^
:"rwri£,rt:Lt,:""iF''
disposition to pronaLto f»li 7 T-" •''^'''' »
mentioned by Eusebius (^L fc/ vti ^m"'
an -the Do^Vtl^tVa taXl 'brst' T^'^'r'
(J^p. 55, al 341 Tk» ^^ ^*' -Augustine
however,'doe;not^;eem tohwet ''"'^'' r''"''
the schismatic partT for St I.^'l'''''^.'?'^ *°
composed a lon^ mAlm ^'gu^tme himself
Part?^. . He'' say? ^.^^1 X ""^Z"'^
meant it to be sung by the m, !♦ u 1^ •^** '^^
that the unlearned miJhf T^^'^"^"' '" order
I being said at the beginning of the imlm "'"''?"" ■
^;;^ strophe. Thfanti^::tCrtS
" ^"^ "•" K''"'^"'"' "• P«». modo verwn Judlcate.-
This antiphon the writer himself calk rr
psabna. The whole is followed hv „n ■i'^^
jc^t^f :-;? a.'tirtr.'.t £:t
etiam mmutiasmae aye. aolemni deS'n« S
!>F
'. fi
' If
h
1744
PSALMODY
dulci carmine ortus diurum et noctium perse-
quautur?" (5. Amhr. in Ps. 118.)
In later times we meet with a curious term,
wliicli appears to have arisen from this universal
obligation to psalmody — Psalmi aupirpositi. In
the Benedictine Kule it denotes certain psalms
enjoined for meditation upon itinerant monks,
who were too illiterate to read the psalter at
large. (See Du Cange, Oloss. a. v. "Super-
positi.")
it is sometimes inferred from a passage in
St. Augustine, that psalmody was not intro-
duced into the church of Milan until the
Arian persecutions in the time of St. Ambrose,
"turn hymni et psalmi ut canerentur secun-
dum morem orientalium partium, ne popu-
lus maeroris tacdio contabesceret, institutum
est." (St. Aug. Coiif. lib, ix. cap. 7). His
meaning, however, probably is not that the use
of psalms was hitherto unknown in the Milanese
church, but that until this emergency the con-
gregation had not performed them " secundum
morem orientalium," i.e. had not sung them
antiphonally, and with the people joining in,
(See Mabillon de Cursu Qallkano Disqiiisltw.)
Indeed, it v.-ill be sutficicnt to quote the phrase
of Augustine himself to shew that the practice
of singing the psalms was not confined to any
particular church, but was universal, "toto
orbe cantantur " (St. Aug. Conf. ix. 4).
Amongst special uses the psalmody of the
ancient Galilean church occupies a prominent
position. Cardinal Tomasi observes that in
more modern times it is represented, subject to
certain alterations of- detail, by the Mozarabic
(or ancient Spanish) rite (Opp. Omnia, torn. ill.
praef, Romae, 1748). The rise and progress of
psalmody in the Galilean church are described at
length by Mabillon {da Cursu GatlicaTto Disqui-
sitio). It will be seen later in this article that
one of the specialities of Galilean psalmody was
the use of Gloria Patri at the end of every
psalm, as is done at present in the English church.
As to the Roman mode of psalmody in early days
Mabillon (». a.) says that it is not easy to define
it ; but he gives his opinion that it differed in
some respects from that laiii down in the Bene-
dictine rule. The phrase which Mabillon uses
is modwi psallendi. By this he ])robably does
not mean the features of execution, that is,
whether it was done by a single voice or by
many, whether it was responsory or otherwise,
but he probably means the choice and assign-
ment of psalm and canticle in the several
oflices.
Of the condition of psalmody in this courtry
before the arrival of Augustine (A.D. 596) very
little is known. Of the British chant we know
nothing but from a passage in Gildas, who
praises its sweetness (Dei laudes canora Christi
tyronum voce suavitcr modulantcs). Some
writers have supposed that the Galilean
psalmody was used here by Augustine ; but
Johnson (Carons, preface, xiii.) refuses to allow
this. There are indications, indeed, that con-
siderable pains were bestowed upon the sub-
ject in the ancient English church. Bedo (f/iaf,
iv. 18) gives an account of the work that
was done here in the improvemert of psalmody
by John, the precentor (archicantor) of St.
Peter's at Rome, who came here by command of
pope Agatho. So great was the influence of his
PSALMODY
work that by the council of Cllove^hoo (A.D. 747)
the Roman psalmody was made of obligation ia
those parts of the British Islands which were
under the jurisdiction of arclibisho>i CutliljBit
(can. 13, 15). With respect to the languai^e iu
which the ancient English church pirfoniiej
their psalmody, authorities seem scarcely tu be
agreed. Johnson, indeed, admits that for the
first 250 years after the arrival of Augustine it
was done iu Latin for the public service (Cumis
preface, xiii.). An ancient MS. in the Colt.ju
library is quoted by Collier (Ecct. Hist, book i.
p. 48, vol. i. fol. ed.) to the effect that Gor^
manus and Lupus brought the Gallicau Ciirsm
(ordinem cursus Gallorum) to this countrv in
the 5th century. If that be so, the qui.vti.'-n is
settled ; for there can be no reasonable doubt
cither (1) that the term Ciirsiis incJuiles
psalmody; or (2) that the psalmody of the
Galilean rite was iu Latin. On the rolati.n
between' the Galilean Cursits a.ml ancient English
psalmody the reader may consult with alvau-
tiige bishop Stillingfleet's Orii/incs Britannioie
chap. iv. From that work, which takes in the
period before the arrival of Augustine, it mar
be gathered how little is really known of the
practices of Christianity in these islands during
the first six centuries.
Upon the ancient distribution of the ps,ilras
for the service of the church Gavanti(i'/n,«imij
Sacrorum Eituum, torn. ii. s. ii. ca|i. i. 3)
writes to this effect: Walafrid Strabo rcpi^rti
that, to avoid confusion arising from varietv of
uses, pope Damasus, at the instance of Tl'ieo-
dosius, ordered St. Jerome to arr.nnge the
psalms for the several services of day ami
night; that the distribution was niadp, was
approved by Damasus, and received by the
whole church. It is not unreasonable to a'ssuras
that in the 9th century (Strabo's period) tliere
were extant documents from which it could
be inferred that St. Jerome really did make
some such distribution as that which is allegcl.
Attempts were made to introduce uniformity
of use into the psalmody. Thus in the council
of Vannes (a.D. 465), " Rectum quoque duxinius,
ut vel intra provinciara nostram sacrorum ordo
et psallendi una sit cousuetudo " (Can. 15). The
same thing occurs again in the second council of
Bi-acara, which guards against the introduction
of private uses from the monasteries. (fiotK. liivc.
ii. cap. I.)
The regular psalms that would have occurred
in the oflfice of the day were at times set aside in
favour of proper psalms. A capitnlum of the
synod of Aix in the year 817, runs thus: "L't
praetermissis partitionibus psaltorii, psalmi spc-
ciales pro eleemosynariis et defunctis cantentur "
(cap. 50).
It ought to be noticed that in the performance
of psalmody the headings or titles of the psalms
seem always to have been recited. It is well
known that in his popular sermons on the
I'salms, St. Augustine often makes a gre.it deal
out of the strange words which the English
reader commonly passes quite unnoticed. Indeed,
hp speaks of the title as the herald of thi; psalm
(liriieco Psalmi). In this respect Christianity
probably followed what had always been (and
still is) the usage of the syn:igogue, where the
title is always recited as an integral part of the
psalm, when the psalm is used for devotionul
PSALMODY
jmrposes either by a .ingle individual or hv th.
3. The congregation was divided into two parts
orcho r8, which sang alternate verses. ^^"^"^
i. One voice sang the first part of a verse Cas
we say, .nceptod it), and the rest of the congr^
To these methods some writers add yet an-
other; <..,-/. Martene (do Eccl. Sit. IV ni?
de.cnbes a method which he calls Jiesp^oriu/
Th.s very common term, however, hafanotW
mea»mg, wh.ch we shall consider subsequentlv
h h, method, according to Martene, the canto,:
or h'ctor recited each verse of fh« Jl i 1
thes tl,e whole chorus rl eated i aVe h^e' h\1
one He quotes indeed several passages to estab
l.n this; but it may be doubted whether they"
cannot one and all be otherwise explained ^
(a) The method m which a single voice san^
tJ: rtV't'''ir^ afte?wardrcaTi:5
mctus. It IS described by Cassiin : "Prae-
ictum vero duodenarium psalmorum numerum
jta divuiunt, ut si duo fuerint fratres?senoT psu"
lanti.si tres, quaternos ; si quatior, te^no
Quo numero nunquam minus in cong^ega ione
decantant; ac proinde quantalibet muftitudo
convenerit nunquam amplius psallunt k yna.i
amquatuor fratres " (De CoenobiorZJnsM
I.b. ... cap 11, ad fiB. The reason why a psalm
was executed sometimes by a single vo?pp ,n^
somefmes by the assembly at if ge' given
S "'7dir?cf "^•'=^""^ this^iLeThod '*the"
aircct (d rectus, directaneus). Mention of
tins IS made m the Rule of St. Benedict If 1.
W The antiphonal method seems to be
f -tury) a leiion'Vg vrTh t^iht'
tf S/'-^-P-ding to thf d7v"ision"*o/thI
iMofarr he^Srn\ ' V'^'-.^P' '^°)- There
ia earlv rh! »f^ ^"^ *"'*"" '"'»»'s. no trace
m early Christian antiquity of the T>-«lm
^ been sung by half Ues\ ^;S:i
^SnlUS'de'm'andfso"'' \"''J^'=* "'^ ^-''
PSALMODY 1745
epistle and rosperwerr.''' '. T^" *'"''* 'ha
[GruDUAL.] ^PsalmA"' ^T^"^ hy a psalm,
were called' /e~rT"T^!"' '^'' ^""^•''"»
use of the te™T thT <• .^'"S'^^™ l^ntes this
which compla™ of it •"• """""^ "<' Toledo,
at the end'of such p:ims'"'''s " '''''" """"^
in fine responsorioCm F^ ""* ''"'''^'" 1"'
But, secondly anvZl "'■'?. °°" '^'"'•nt."
responsory psalm n^nf^^ .""«''* ^« ™»«d a
it, but simp? from the Cdp'r -i'"^^'^"' "^ "^
St. Isidore'^ of Teyi^'e'"''^! °^ "» Po-'f^rmance.
Responsnrium to a nlalm *!* '"■'t|,nce, applies
voice and taken upTvThp",* '"'' •"^•^•"' "^^ ""«
nomine quod, uno^ cLente 'oh"'' " ^'°'''"» >«"=
respondeat (A 0/ ,8) <:»n8onando
pa?mW„s"l™ ilt'^'^r """« *'^-
pared to the sea " <=h«rch is well com-
"Kesponsorit p?a'l„,„T/' ""'■ f ■»''-'«. »or
to one another. Then n^^?""/^^ .antiphonally
staatinople or Antiorh^ f '^ ^""^"^^^^ C«n-
assoona'sthe^ad ueeen':d'r """^'P''""'' ^''^t
or three psalms tW hurriedTffT'''^"u* *^°
and thought it was enonTf "«; ^"m church
{Horn, xi m i/a« ) ^ ^°^ *'''" '"'^tion
ther\re^et^:*^;;the':s\r ^T^ l"'^ «-"
afterwards calt^ ItC"" a^i tr*'
prnecentores. [Prec.:ntor^] ' One of h» *'"/
famous examples of thi« ,„„j / . "^ '""st
the escape of St Atwf ""^^ "^.P^'^^^ance is
was "urr'ounded by Sn "oldrer'" 'S".^''"'''
"Sitting on my tLonTi iew'the .''' '"*^''
read a psalm and fh« L "," ! '"* '^^^=nn to
ever " (Ath. TAl^^'; ^'//.^"/"''^th for .
Colon. 1686) ^ ' P" ^^'' torn. i. ed.
was to lead the psalmody SWefi'n h /°u
unless he had been ord«in»i i !! V '°, ^''^ "^^'^
iCap. Mart jfrZ c^^T^] "''" ^^ '^^ ^''^°P
amoigsftre ^oii: ftiv-' i"-" p'-«-'j
by Ca sian, a wSr ff tt' hVuSry'^lf ^'^
m medium psalmos Domino mnt!!?^ ^°"»
Cumquesed'entibus clcti ^ut e,™^:,';"^'*- '
I usque in Aegypti partih,,,) e in n «1) V," "T
oiniii cordis intentione dpfivL P?'?'*''^ "rba
orationum inte rier ^n. 7™' "'''ie':™ psalmos
P.H..- .. «it r.ris'."s
,11
I
I
I'i
i
" H
r ' '
:'i'l.a
jf r.i
■Mil
•(*'
1746
PSALMODY
Coenohhrnm TnsUt. lib. ii. cap. 5). From this
passage it will be gathered that while the singer
of the psalm stood, the others sat down.,
From some of the expressions already used it
will be gathered that the recital of the psalms
was commonly— it would obviously be too mu<h
to say always-musical. In this respect they
shared the privilege that belonged to other pas-
sages of Scripture. So far as we know, it
appears that in the Jewish cjhurch the Scrip-
tircs were never read in the colloquial >"fle"o°»
of ordinary speech, but were recited with tixed
solemn musical intonation. Every word in the
Hebrew Bible is accompanied by a mark or
accent, which indicates not only the logical posi-
tion of the word in the sentence, but also the
particular musical inflection with which the
word is to be recited. That distinction applies
to the words of the Book of Psalms as to every
other book of Scripture. In such » .|n«tt«y.
what every Israelite was familiar with, the
Christian Church would be likely to continue.
Basil th^ Great (and after him other writers)
explains two of the names that occur in the titles
of the psalms as having reference to the mode of
their execution. Apsa.'in, he says, is a composition
which is instrumeiitally accompanied (itToy
«(!puOua,j KaT(i Toi/J ipiuoi/moi/i x6r,ov% n^s rb
ir^avov Kooi-nra,): a son;) on the contrary is
a melodious utterance without the accompam-
raent of au instrument ((foiv)) iiili(\iis 4iro5i5o-
tpyd^ov. Horn in Ps. 29). We may gather
from a phrase of St. Basil's that the music with
which the psalms were performed was at times
as elaborate as the condition of musical art per-
mitted. He says that "harmonious tunes of
psalms were devised by us" in order that those
who were young in years or character might be
attracted aud instructed thereby. (S. Bas. Mag.
Sermo ii. de Doctrina). , , , i j
Protests against irreverent methods of psalmody
occur from time to time. "Psalmi in ecclesii non
cursim et excelsis atque inordinatis sen intem-
peratis vocibus, sed plane ac dilucide et cum
compunctione cordis recitentur" (Cone. Aquisgr.
C 137) At one time it seems that the psalmody
was even accompanied by gesticulations of the
hands (hpx^mis rS,v x^P"")- (See Balsamon on
Cone, rra/i. can. 75.) Ue conditions of good
psalmody are well described in a regulation of
Louis the Pious : " Psalmi namque in ecclesia
non cursim et excelsis atque inordinatis in-
temperatisqu. vocibus, sed plane ac dilucide
et cum compunctione cordis recitentur, ut et
recitantium mens illorum dulcedine pascatur et
audieutium aures illorum pronunciatione demul-
ceantur, quoniam quamvis cantilenae sonus in
aliis officiis excels! solet edi voce, in recitandi^s
tamera psalmis hujuscemodi vitanda est vox
(Ludovici Pii Mor'n. Keel, de Eej. Cleru: c^v-
ixiv. ap. Melchior Goldastus, ed. Frankf. 1673,
torn. iii. p. 217).
Gloria Patri in Psalmody.
(1) For the various forms in which the Dox-
ologv has appeared, see DoxoiXWY. _
(2) The use of it appears to have differed m
the East aud West. It is implied by Cassian
(Instit. ii. 51 that the use of Glona Pain as a
response at the end of every psalm is a Western
practice, whilst in the East, or at least amongst
PSALMODY
the monks of Egypt, it was only after the anti-
phon which followed the last psalm that it was
said. St. Benedict enjoins that at the end of a
psalm Gloria Patri be said "in the Western
manner." Some of the longer psalms he diviies
into two Glorias. This practice of dividing
psalms (as we still do the 119th psalm in the
English psalter) is referred to in the tliird
council of Narbonne (A.D. 589). " Ut in psal-
lendis ordinibus per quemque psalmum Gloria
dicatur omnipotent! Deo, per majores veto
psalmos, prout fuerint prolixius, pausaticines
fiant et per quamque pausationem Gloria Jri<»-
tati<i Domino decantetur."
The reader will specially observe that the use
of Gloria Patri was one of the points whioh dis-
tinguished the Galilean from the Konian vite.
The Galileans said it at the end of every psalm,
thus furnishing an early precedent for the rule
of the English Prayer Book that " at the end of
every psalm . . . shall be repeated this hymn ;"
but the Romans did not. The authoiitiss may
be seen in Collier, Ecel. Hist, book 1, cent. 5,
Versions Used. — It is not within the scope
of this work in any way to discuss the character,
origin, or authorship of the several versions of
the psalms; but one or two points about the
use of them may be advanced here.
A long discussion of them is given by Lorinns
(Praef. m Pss. cap. xiii.), from whom these facts
may be gathered.
At the request of St. Jerome, pope Damasus
caused one of his versions of the psalms to be
sung in the churches of i''rance— a version which
from that use of it Kas been since known as the
Galilean psalter. It should be stated, however,
that there is some reason for thinking that it
did not generally prevail in the French Church
till after this date. ,^ , , ,
The churches of Rome, including the church of
St.Peter's, until long after the period einbiaced in
this work used the old version of the psalms whl(h
St. Augustine calls Itala, St. Gregory the Great
Vetus, and St. Jerome Vulgata. The psaltei
used in the church of Milan, and known as the
Ambrosian psalter, does not dilTcr materially
from this. ,.,... j. i
On a point about which it is easy to mm
mistakes it may be well to set before the reader
the very words of some accepted authoritv.
Zaccaria, then, says this: — "Duplicis porro
Latinae versionis, psalterium habemus, \cter\s,
quam Italam vocant, a S. Hieronymo, sive
Damasi jussu, sive amicorum precibus Romae,
sed ut ipse ait cursim emendatae, et Hiermij-
mianae quam scilicet Paullae atque Eustochu
votis satisfacturus S. Doctor postea suscepit.
111am Simanam vocant, quod Romae praesertim
in usu fuerit; hanc Gallicanam quod hujui
versionis psalterium in Gallias finitiraasque
Germaniae ecclesias inductum fuerit, atque hmc
ad alias etiam Italiae ecclesias propagatum.
Primae tamen seu Pomanae versionis psalterium
ad S Pii V. ten-pora in omnibus urbis ac
suburbicariis intra xl. ab urbe lapidem consti-
tutis ecclesiia retentum est ; ab eo autem Fcnti-
fice Vuleatae editionis, quae ad Hieronymianam
sen Gallicanam interpretatinnem maxime accedit,
psalterium praescriptnm, Romae in 8ol& Uti-
cana S. Petri ecclesia, in reliqnft Itah4 ap"l
Mediolanenses, atque in VenetJ S. Marci BasM
in Hispaniis apud Mozarabes veteris Romw
PSALMODY
iwaltorii ususorvato" (Zace. BibHothcca Mu-
alts, lib. 1. cap. iv. art. 3).
Mabillon observing that the Gallioan Chris-
tmns had then- own version of the laalms for
then- psalnio(ly_a version which .litH-rs from
the Konian psaltor-cjuotes Walafri.l Strabo
upon the point :-"PsaI.n„8 autem cum secuu-
dum L\X mterpretes Komani aclhuc habennt,
Galli at Ocrinannrum aliqui sec.m.lnm emon.la-
tionemquam Hieronymua pater de LXX editinne
coniposuit, psalterium cantant, quam Oreirorius
ruronons.s epiacopus a partibua Itomanis mntua-
/r/Vr i!""]"' n ^''""' ''^'••'^"'"^ transtulisse"
(H-al. .Strab. de liobm tJcclcaiastim, cap 2•^)
This latter point as to the Gallican version
having been introduced into France by Greeorv
ol lours scorns open to some doubt
This feature of Gallican psalmody— that thev
had their own version for it-is of some interest
to us in tngland, as the version in question has
intluenced our psalmody at the present dav
It will be observed that the Praver Book
version contains a verse at the end of I>s 136
"0 give thanks unto the Lord of lords ; fo^
Hi5 mercy endureth for ever," which is not
in the Bible version, and which is not found
m the Hebrew original. The Gallican Psalter,
which now indeed has taken its place in the
UIga e, IS the only ancient psalter which con-
tains It.
Posture-kW that we can gather on this
branch of the subject is what may be inferred
from a few mcidental expressions of early writers
from the phrases of Cassian in the passa-e
.Iready quoted, « Unus in medium psalmos
Dommo eantaturus exsurgit cninque se<lentibus
cunctis, &0., we have a trace of the executant
andnig, while the listeners sat. The use of
he terms irraais and KiBLaixa, too, as applied to
the lesser and greater divisions of the Greek
Hter, contain, no doubt, some reference to
te posture maintained during and at the close
olthe psalm, though learned writers are not
•greed as to the precise reason for their adop-
tion. Durandus speaks of its being custnmarv to
t ud nr psalmody, assigning a mystical reason
lor It, ad ostendendura quod stantes in bonis
opribus vmc,mus"(/?„^b«a/<., lib. iv. rubr. 2)
hat this posture was an ancient one may be
mferred from the bitter words of St. .Jerome
addressed to the recreant deacon Sabiuianus •'
Tu stahas m chore psalleutium " (A>. xlviii. ,„
M^r^..). So, again, after the meal had been taken
w a recumbent posture, the guests in St. Chryao-
stom s time were to stand up for the psalmody,
Jh ch e osed the repast (S. Chrys. hL. in Ps.
i). ihat the clergy sometimes .sat in their
rf te biT 1'^^ "^ly «W>'=''" f-m the accoun
01 the bishop of Rouen given by Gregorv of
^urs, "Curnque inter psallendum f.frnnil.ae
umberef (Hist FraA viiL 31). It was
thfr. TT'- '"'"' "^ the ancient
Tlfr •''■"?;'' P"!"*'°S *" h-^""" see Martene,
* Anhms Mowichorum Hitibus, I. ii. 5(3 ) The
greatest care seems to have been neces arv to
8-rd against sleep during the services 7hich
- T? E„ i„iig m some monasteries. All monk'.
oourse, could not have a book in those davs
d so they were even to plait straw in orde?Vo
it°;f \''-'"^ "»*' "^ the brethr nwalkea
PSALMODY
J
17-i7
-rhTtonir''"™ "'"''''"''" ''" ""ti-^-'d here
Shcent -vV' : "' ^''-Insang, bishop of M t
^9^/fer.;:;!c- -/•"« -■■-
effect .''fiL ""'"'""f ^^-^'--""e remarkable
ctcit of blr"'"'"'? "^ P"''"""'y '-">-' the
TuYn^l tr:;'lv^rear "t ^^^^^ /'-
that it 2i:id\ ''I'nT'iii.n'L'^:::::- '^"■^''
people. Sketching the perfV-t monk h7. •'"•"^
th.if I... , 1. " ^ l""-'^'monk, he reiiiiires
th t by such a character it should be learnt
word for word (orf Jiustlcm.) The damsel
acatula was to commit the psalms to m morl
at seven years old (ad Gaudontium). SoZ"Jt
£ormt"':f";h*'" u""''^"' ^"---t -'^''' be
Sf i^lT ■ ^>"' "t^ fecythopolis, in the Life of
i' ithevh'alT "f, "'""''^ ^vere not admitte
PsilnolvH '■"*•'" '''""'■'• »"J the rule of
psalm, ly Hence it was ruled by the second
advanced to be a bishop unless he knew the
psa ter by heart, and that he was to be e Vmii ed
hy he metropolitan. Gregory the f iva a's
hat he would not ordain John the - " 1. t" ?
..I i. \.^^ ^^- ^"^ ^""iie pope would not
«Ilow Kusticus the deacon to be made bi 1 , „ of
Aucona for a similar reason. He was •, ■ iknf
nian,,n,leed,hesa;d,butaccordt:^;;;^^t
did not know the p.sahns. " '<-l'iiu, na
A curious st.u-y of an ineffectual atfonint to
earn the psalter by heart is told of he .hi-
maudrite Theodore, a portion of whose Ife ,
gn-eu in the Actsof the'second council of Ni e '
He bad been miraculously cured of an epidemic
■ckness which had threatened to prove mortr °
an<l on his recovery, apparentl} by wav of
thank-ofkM.iig, he resolved to lea/n the alt»r
eighteenth baffled mm, presumably by its
eng h. He was in despair about h-istask. ^ B t
prostrating himself on the pavement of an
oratory he prayed for success At L h on
ns."^, he ga.ed upon the image of the Sur
he felt in his mouth a taste sweeter than h.mev-'
h ,r..yer was ,. ranted, and from that moment
tti^trSt:'™"^*'-'^*"'''^''"^'™-^
So great was the zeal of holy men for psalmody
that wonderful achievements are recorded as to
the number of psalms which they recited, s"
111
i .1 'ii
4f
• »i.
i\
I)
1748
PSALMODY
Gregory Thaumaturgus pa«ed entire "'gh » '»
church with prayers and p8almody. St. Isidore j
had no fixed number of psalm, which he said in
the service of God, for the night and the day
used to be spent upon it St. Germanus, who
was bishop of Paris in the Litter half of the 0th
century, would say fifty psalms or more before
he rose from his bed and called his companions
(Vita, ad fin.). Of St. Maur, the d.sciple of
St. Benedict, it is related that he would repeat
commonly fifty psalms, often » hundred, and
sometim/s even the entire psalter b«f»f» the
night o(Iice. St. Gregory of Tours (de Gor. Con-
fess. 47) has even a wonderful story of two dead
priests miraculously taking part in the psalmody
of the choir with the rest of the clergy.
Palaeraon, the abbat, would say the whole
psalter and the canticle, bv night without any
sound. By the rule of St. fcenedict {Eeg^ c 18)
the whole psalter was to be gone through in the
week-a light rule, he urges, seemg that the
holy fathers did as much in a single day.
In England, also, a similar devotion to the
psalter appears to have prevailed. King Egbe t
even made avow that besides the psalmody in
the canonical offices he would daily chant the
whole psalter (Bede, Eccl. Hist. in. 27).
Lavmen seem at one time to have equalled, it
not surpassed, the clergy in their zeal for
psalmody. A constitution of the emperor Jus-
tinian draws from this fact a consideration as to
whv the clergy should not neglect to .ay the
daily service: "Si enim multi laicorum, ut suae
animae consulant, ad ecclesiasconfiuentesstudiosi
circa psalmodiam ostenduntur, quomodo non
fuerit indecens, clerioos ad id ordinatoB non im-
plere suum munus " {Cod. lib. i. 41).
As a specimen of a very ancient allotment ot
PS 'ms we subjoin the day and night canons of
psalms of Eusebius, which shew what psalms
were to be said at the several hours :—
PSALMODY
tribtited for the "Divine Office," the "Opni
Dei." It may, however, be permitted to pmnt
out the coincidence (surely more than aoci.
dental) by which certain psalms "havn bi((,me
attached to and associated with certiiin lioiirs.
e.q. (the Western church), 94 [9r)]," as nn intro-
ductory psalm to the psalmody of the day ; and
both in East and West, 02 [63], 00 [07], h, the
early morning; 50 pi], to the early m ming
and to terce ; 56 [57], to sext ; 85 [80], to now;
90 [91], to sext or compline; 4 and lii [IH],
to noetums or compline; 19 [20] and in [Jl],
to Sunday morning.
We will take the Eastern church first, to
follow the order of the article, Office, the
Divine. ^ n i i. l
The Psalter, according to the dreek churcli,
is divided into twenty sections called mtlusmala
[Kueiaixaray each of which is subdivided into
three s<«seis [(rT(i(T«ii],'' „, . .
and at the end of each stasis, Qhrvx is said—
Staais I. contains Pss. 1-8.
\av6vtt
•0(i«(>il«i t'
ma. a,'
t
r
c
12, 140, 141.
<^. 8.
S9.
1.
41.
B«.
TO.
<».
84.
111.
140.
lAB.
130.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
[17].
■18]-23
'25]-:U
'33]-36
'381-45
'47i-54
[56]-63
[65]-69
[71]-76
[78]-84
[8(i]-90
[92]-ino
101 [102]-104
105 [100]-in8
109 [110]-117
118 1 119^1.
119 [120]-131
132 [133]-14'2
143 [144]-150
-16
17
24
82
37
46
55
64
70
77
85
91
■241
'32
[37]
^46'
'55'
'64
'n
'n
'85,.
'91'.
[101' ,
[105',
[1»9'.
[118',
[132].
[143],
These cathismata are said in the following
order : —
From the octave of Easter (ivTCirocrxo) till
the Sunday after the octave of the esaltation of
the cross [September 14], the Psalter is said once
a week, thus : —
On Saturday, at w«per», cathlsma 1,
y
•'
f
n'
«•
a«.
u.
a.
4.
40.
61.
80.
ST.
«S.
21.
10, u
13, 14
19, 20
16, 11
At vttperi,
At x'eijiers,
Alvespert,
At rfsimii,
At ves]itrSi
At vesinri,
"^ "• [H.T.A.]
(V) Atranqement of Psalms in the Offices.— Thw
TOrtion of the article confines it.elf to reciting
t^e contents of the principal arrangements of
the Psalter, after it had been dehmtely dis-
On Sunday, at nuititit.
On Monday, at matitit.
On Tuesday, at matint.
On Wednesday, at matins.
On Thursday, at matins.
On Friday, at matint.
On Saturday, at matins,
as before.
Thenco onwards to the vigil of Christmas,'
the same arrangement is followed, except th»
at vespers on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and
Thursday, cathisma 18 (containing the gradual
psalms) is always said, ai<l the cathisma assigned
to vespers and those days is added to those for
. In this article the Psalms are numbered as In the
Vulgate. The numbers of the English version are .diKd
'"J Cardinal Bona says the aections ""^'^'f'','^*;?
names because at each pause In the ^^aln^lf y (/"'^
Jhemonks rose two and two by turns to recite, «.<! iW
while thev stood, the rest sat. ,
.Cardinal Bona says up to TyropKagm, "usque id
Domlnlcam in Qulnquageelm*."
'These have been i
Diving Offici, but fo
Inserted.
i:ui,
-23
■241.
-31
"32l
-36
'37-
-45
[461.
-54
551
-63
[64
-69
[70-
[-76
[771
-84
■85
-90
[91-
1-ino
101'
-104
105
-108
1119'
-117
US'
PSALMODY
natlna, lo that three cathismnta are then raid.
During the same pcridil cathisma 17 is adiled to
those of Sunday. Thence to the Sunday of
Tyniphaijus, which corresponds to (iuin.juagesima
Sunday, the arran({einent according to the tahle
given above. Kroin Sunday of Ti/rop/utijua up
to Wednesday before Easter, the Psalter is said
twice in the week, thus; —
On Saturday, at I'ts/wrs, cathisma 1.
On Sunday, at mutina, cath. 2, 3, 17.
On Monday, at mitina, cath. 4, 5, 6 ; at terce,
7 ; at svxt, 8 ; at vespers, 1 8.
On Tuesday, at nk<<ms, cath. 9, 10, 11; at
pritne, 12; at terce, 13; at sext, 14; at nunc,
15 i at vespers, 18.
On Wednesday, at mitins, cath. 16, 19, 20 ; at
prime, 1 ; at terce, 2 ; at sej:t, 3 ; at none, 4 ; at
vespers, )".
On Thursday, at matins, cath. 5, 6, 7 ; at prime,
8; at terce, 10; at sext, II , at none, 12; at
vespers, 18.
On Friday, at matins, cath. 13, 14, 15; at
terce, 19; at sext, 20; at vespers, 18.
On Saturday, at matins, cath. 9, as usual.
From Thursday before Easter to the Octave of
Easter (exclusive) the Psalter is not said.
The Hied psalms said at the hours in addition
to the cathi.smata are as follows : — <i
At nocturns (jitaovvKTiov), on Sunday, Ps. 50
[51]; on week days, except Saturday, 50 [51],
118 [119], (i.e. cathisma 17, and known as
6 ifuiiAos), 120 [121], 133 [134]; on Satu-day,
64 [65] to 69 [70] (i.e. cath. 9), 120 [1211 133
[134].
At lauds, Pss. 19 [20], 20 [21]-3, 37 [38], 62
[63], 87 [88], 102 [103], 142 [143] (these sii
known as the Hexapsalmus), 50 [51T, 148 148
149 (ol orxoi). '
At prime, 5, 89 [90], 100 [101]. At Ms
mesorion of the first hnur, 45 [46], 91 [92], 92 [93]
At terce, 16 [17], 24 [25], 50 [51]. At the
mesorion of the third hour, 29 [30], 31 [32], 60
At sext, 53 [54], 54 [55], 90 [91]. At^^e
wsorion of the sixth hour, 55 [56], 56 [571, 69
[70].
At none, 83 [84], 84 [85], 85 [86]. At the
mesorion of the ninth hour, 83 [84], 84 [85], 85
•[86], At the ti/pios (to rvnixi), 102 [103], 145
[14b] ; 33 [34].
At vespers, 103 [104] (the proaemiac psalm,
f tfoointait6{), 140 [141], 141 [142] (these two
psalms are known as the KiJpi* ^K^Koofa), 129
[130J 116 [117], 122 [123]. ^
At great compline, 4, 6, 12 [13], 24 [25], 30
gyy91]i 50 [51], 101 [102], 109 [110],
At little compline, 50 [51], 69 [70], 142 [14.3],
The Armenian church divides tlie Psalter into
eight sections, called canons, as follows : —
I. contains Pss. l-i7
II. 18
III. 36
IV. 55
V. 72
VI
vu,
PSALMODY
1749
VIII.
[18].
■19]-35
■37]- 54
'56J-71
■73]-98
99 [100]-105 [lOB
106 [107]-U8 [119'
119 [120]-150.
'Tbese have been mentioned In the article. The
talrt^^"'"' '^' ^'" '="°'P'«'«n«8 *t'ey are here
These canons are divided among the daily
services, so that the Psalter is gone through
once a week, ami in mcjuasteries every day in the
following order:— During nocturns, sections or
canons, 1, 2; after nocturns ami before lauds,
3, 4, 5 ; at terce, 6 ; at sext, 7 ; and at none, 8.
The following psalmi are also appointed fo»
the hours: —
At wicturns (called midnight), Pss. 3, 87 rSSl
102 [103], 142 [143], • L J.
At A/i(i/s (called dujbrenk), 89 [90] (v. 14:
"O satisfy us with Thy niercv," to end), ,50 [511
148 [149], 150, 112[113]-5,-114[116, vv. 1-91
129 [130], 53 [54], 85 [«6] (last two ;erses).
At prime (called sunrise), 71 [72] (v. 19 to
end), 91 [92], 62 [63], 64 [ii5], 21 [22] 142
[143] (V. 8 to end), 44 [45], 69 [70], 85 [861
(last two verses). ^ ■' ^ ^
At Uroe, 50 [51], 21 [22], 142 [143] (v. 8 to
end). ^
At Mxt, 40 [41] (first four verses), 90 [91].
ktnone, .50 [51], 114 [116, vv. 1-9], 115 [116,
V. 9 to end], 116 [117].
At vespers, certain verses from the Psalms !
Pss. 85 [86], 139 [140], 140 [141], 141 [142], 120
[121], 90 [91], 122 [123], 53 [54], "'
Compline (called peace or rest) is double. The
former is said inehurch immediately after vespers ;
the latter is said by eaeh individual in private
at the end of twilight.
At the former compline are said Pss. 87 [881
(vv. 1, 2, 4,6), 12 [l.J], 15 [16], 16 [17], 41 [421.
69 [70], 85 [86] (last two verses), 26 [27].
At the latter, 42 [43] (3 to end) ; the follow-
ing four sections from Ps. 118 [119] : >'Et venint
super me "; " Memor esto servi tui "; " Iniquos
odio habui"; " Appropinquet deprecatio "; 35
[36] (9 to end), 90 [91], 122 [123], 53 [54],
150, 137 [138] (last two verses), 141 [1421
(6 to end), 85 [86] (last two verses), 4.
In the Western church the three most important
distributions of the Psalter are, (1) the Gregorian,
(2) the Benedictine, (3) the Ambrosian, called
respectively after the names of their reputed
authors, and all, with change of detail only, in
use at the present time. Of these, the Gregorian
13 the Psalter of the secular breviary of the
Roman obedience, the Benedictine that of the
monastic, and the Ambrosian that of the diocese
of Milan. Hence the two former, from their
wide-spread adoption, are practically of most
importance.
Taking them in order : —
{'^) The Gregorian or Roman Psalter.
The following is the distribution "juxta
antiquiorem psallendi modum Ecclesiae Romanae,
ex antiquis monumentis excerpta," as given by
Thomasius, and with the exception of two points,
which will be noticed in their place, is still that
of the present Roman breviary.
On Sunday, at matins. Ad vigilias in prima
gain cantu, 94 [95] (said daily); in nocturn 1,
Pss. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 [9 and 10], 10 [11], 12
[13], 14 [15] ; in noctiim 2, 15 [16], 16 [17],
17 [18] ; in nocturn 3, 18 [19], 19 [20], 20 [21].
At lauds (" Ad matutinos diluculo "), 92 [93], 99
[100], 62 [63], and 66 [67], s.iid as one psalm
under one Gloria, lienedicite' (" Uenedictiones sive
canticum trium puerorum "), 148, 149, 150, said
• Though not strictly psalms, these canticles form an
Integral part of the office, and require notice.
6 U 2
m
..;■;■ if*'
^'i;|i
•
>
.!^.
i
t^f
r
1
1 '
l..i
1
t-i
1750
PSAT-MODY
under one Olnhn, nrnl callod Lmffef, Bmedkiu)
("(,'i>nti(um ('vanKi'liiuin /nihariiin ").
At pyim\ i\ [J.-i], '.'-J PJH], ■S.\ [^i^^ 24 [25],
25 [-^li], 5:1 [54], 1 1 7 [IIH], 1 IM [1 111]. ( 1 ) '• Ueiiti
imii'iaouliiti ";(;!)" Ill i|iic>(M.iTit!<.'t"(»ai. I iinilfriine
Gloria); (H) " Ui'tiibiie "; (4) " A.lhiii'sit," umler
oni! ;.'l(iriB," Athnnnsinn Creel (" Fiilus Catholiuii
S. AlhaiiMsii Kiii»cciiii ").
[In thf later rcvisioni* of the Unman breviary,
Pss. ■1\ ['.'J]— 25 ['-''l] are net »tM on Siimlay at
jiriine, hut are thus Kahl on the several week
,|ftv..:— On Muniliii. I's. 2:1 [24]; on VWa/.i//,
24' [.'5]; on 11 «M<W'iv. '-'5 [2i>] ; "n Tlmrsdni,
22 [2:1]; on FMvi, 21 [22]. This is the first
change above alludeil to. In the Sanim and
other Kn^lish breviaries the oM arrani?ement
by which tliese psalms were all said on Sunday
was adhered to.]
On Sundays from Septuneesima to Palm Sunday
inclusive, the f.dlowinK ehant;es are made :—
At lawis, instead of the two I'salms, 92 [O'i],
and '.HI [100], 50 [51] and 117 [UH] are sai.l.
At p.i,ue, instead of U7 [U8], 92 [9:i] is
said.
At tercc, 118 [119] ( (5) "legem pone, and
(6) "Kt veniftt'; (7) " Memor esto," and (8)
" I'ortio mea"; (9) " Uonitatem," and (10)
" Manus tune," under three iihruiH).
At sext, 118 [119] ( (11) " Defecit," and (12)
"In noternum"; (l:i) " CJuoinodn." .-ind (14)
"Lncerna"; (15) " Iniquos," and (16) "Feci,"
under three (ihrinn).
At ivme, 118 [119] ((17) "Mirabilia," and
(18) ".lustus cs"; (19) "CInmavi," and (20)
"Viilc"; (21) "Principes," and (22) " Appro-
pinquet," under three nlorins).
These psalms are said daily at terce, sext, and
none, trhntcrcr he the ojHec.
At vespers, 109 [110], 110 [HI], 111 [112],
112 fU:)], li:i [114 and 115]. Mvinifinat.
At compline, 4, .-.0 [111], vv. 1-0, 90 [91], l.-J.T
[134], Nunc dimittis. Tliese psalms are said
dailv ai compline, whatever be the office.
On Monday, at matim (in the norturn), 26
[27]. 27 [28], 28 [29], 29 [MO], liO [Itl], .31 [:i2].
•12 [:>;!], Si [34], 34 [35], 35 [36], 36 [37], 37
[38].
At l,vui$, 50 [51], 5, 62 [63] and 66 [67] (said
under one qloria), Simi) of Isaiih ("Confitebor,"
Is. xii.), 148, 149, 150 (said under one gloria),
lienedictus.
At prime, 53 [54], 118 [119] (the first four
(lections, said under two glorias as on Sunday).
[These psalms are said on every weelt day,
whether a festival or not, except where specially
directed.]
At i'c's;)crs, 114 [116, vr. 1-9], 115 [116,
ver. 10 to end], 116 [117], 119 [120], 120 [121],
ilaqnificnt.
[On ordinary week days throu8;hout the year,
excejjt in Kastertide. at all the hours except
nocturns, Ps. ,50 [51] is said with intercessory
prayers (m precilms).']
N.15.— In the later revisions of the breviary
this is no longer the case. I'reccs (curtailed)
are only said in Advent, lent, and on a few
other days of fasting, in which Ps. 129 [130] is
Faid at lauds, and 50 [51] at vespers. At the
little hours no psalm is said at preces. Here
bI.so the English, which were not subject to this
revision, retained the old arrangement. This is
the second of the two points changed, which
rSAI-MODY
were mentioned at the outset as nlnna of injr
impnrtani'o.
On Tuesday, at mntlm, In the nocturn, 38 pifl],
39 [40], 40 [41], 41 [42], 43 [44], -44 [l.",], 4:,
[46], 46 [47], 47 [48], 48 [49], 49 [.".oj, M
[52].
At lauds. 50 [51], 42 [43], 62 [63], nid (ii)
[1)7] (saiil as one, as before), .>'(;«</ iif Jli .•■■liin'i
(" I go dixi," i.H. xxxviii. 10), 148, 149, 150 (aj
b;l(.. '). Ilenalirtiis.
At ves,,er^, 121 [12:^], 122 [123], 123 [1241,
124 [12.">], 125 [121!], Maiinijinit.
On Wi'dnesdav, at malins, .">2 [53], r<i [,-,,•)], :.:,
[56], 56 [57], 57 [58], 58 [59], 51t [tlO], UO [til],
61 [tiJ], 63 [64], 65 [66], 67 [68].
At /.iH(/.t, 50 [51], 64 [>;.5], 62 [63], and 61I
[67], The Sim(i of llanmih ('' KxsnUavit," 1
Sam. ii.). 148, 149, 150, lii'n.dirtun.
At lexperx, 126 [127], 127 [12S1. 128 [129],
129 [1.30], i;iO [131], ilaiinlfrat.
On Thursday, at matim, 68 [i^S)';. 69 [70], 70
[71], 71 [72], 72 [73], 7:1 [74], 74 I 7i.], 75 [76],
76 [77], 77 [78], 78 [79], 79 [80]. '
At lauds, 50 [61], 89 [90], 62 [63], nnd fir,
[67], The Sim<j 0/ Mo.ws ("Cantomus," Kx. %\,),
148, 149, 150, Hcnedirtiis.
At ve.ifiers, 131 [132], 132 [133], 134 [13,5],
135 [136], 136 [137], Maipiificat.
On Friday, at ma/ins, 80 [81], 81 [82], 82
[83], 83 [84], 84 [85], 85 [86], 86 [87], 87 [88],
88 [89], 93 [94], 95 [96], 96 [97].
At lawls, 50 [-,1]. 142 [143], 62 [63], and OG
[67], The .SV'/ "I' llalHikhuk (" Duniine iiuuivi,"
Hall, iii.), 148, 149, 15n, lienedictus.
At tr.sy«r*, 137 [138], 138 [139], 139 [140],
140 [141], 141 [142], M'ljniticat.
On .Saturday, at matins, 97 [98], 98 [90], 09
[100], 100 [101], 101 [102], 11)2 [lii:i], 10;l
[104], 104 [105], 105 [106], 106 [107], 107
[108], 108 [109].
At tawh, 50 [51], 91 [92], 62 [63], and GO
[67], 'The Son;} of Jfnses ('• Attende noelum,"
Ueut. xxxii.), 148, 149, 150, Jtciicdirtus.
At n-si^rs, 143 [144], 144 [14.5], 145 [Uii],
146 [147, vv. 1-11], 147 [147, ver. 12 to end],
Mai/nijicat.
The outline of the scheme is thus ...vr. to be
very simple. The psalms from 1 to ln8 [lo9]nre
said in onler at matins, and the remain ler, Irmn
lo9 [110] to the end, at vesjiers, thniii^'lnmt the
week, omitting those psalms which are saiJ at
other hours, and are thus distriliuteil : —
On Sunday, at matins, in the first nncturn,
twelve psalms; in the second and third, tluee
psalms in each.
On week days, twelve psalms said in one noc-
turn.
At vespers, five psalms are said daily.
For the other hours, at /<it«/i-, five psalms [i.e.
what reckons as five] are said daily.
At prime, three daily, with additional [iisalras
on Sunday.
At terce, sext, and none, three daily.
At comp'ine, four daily.
In aildition, Benedictui is said daily at lamls,
as are Magnijicat at vesjiers and Nunc dimiltis at
compline.
Itito the festal arrangements of tlie I'saltei- it
is not necessary to enter. The chief variations
are the following : —
In festimts of nine lessons, nine psalms taken
from the matin psalms are said at rmiins ir
PSALMODY
thm nnctuind of three i.suIhim eaoli, instead of
the ])»aliin ill ecmrse.
At /„*y. „»,/ iv.y,r», the Sun.lav psnims nro
for the most p.rt »,il,l, i„steiii| „f the i,,.,ilin.s iu
C"ur»e. At vcsjhts „u iVniv.ils, 1>>. lnj fii?-! i^
often .ulMlituto.l f„r the lu.st Suu.lav |,>am, 1 l;l
IPsdniH lor laiil. and v..,,,ers much more rarely
th;iu was aiterwanls the case.
(J) T/ut Ui-ni'Ui,:tini: ur Mumstic Psalter
The i;erm of tlie monastic rile is «„j s,.,i
to liavu iH.en (ieriveil from the solitaries „f Kevi'.
Si. lJ.ne.lict fraine.l a rite for monks, whi.'li V'as
appruveil by Creijory the (Jreat. ami heme'„rth
adopteil for tl-, use of monastic c.ini,'re>;..tious
Itu UM'd, with »U^\\l modili.ations of ,'e ijl, hy
the Cistercians, Carthusians, and other i.ionaslic
orikrs. The so-called mendicant orders use
the secular hreviary.
The main Uk.i, so to siieak, of the distribution
CI the I'aalter is the saiiiu as that of the (iin.
g.irian olhce, that the I'salter should be said
(inoe a tteck, but the onler iu which it is said
dirt.Ts in many important poiuts. Dealing here
with the j.saliiis only, the following is the general
outline of tills ollice;—
At imtiits on Sundays there are three nocturns-
m each ol the first two, six psalms are said ;'
and 111 the third, three canticles. Week days
have twelve psalms, said in two nocturns.
J:*, lands, tivo {i.e. what count as five) "psalms
sre said.
At euch of the laser hours, three, at vespers
four, and at cumpliiie three jmalms are said
The following is the distribution :—
PSALMODY
1751
M terce, 118 [U9] "Luecrna"-" Inhiuos -
— "reel." '
.. -M ' •"■■'■'; .1 '* tl >9] " MIrnWIia "-" Justus es "
"(Jlaniiivi. '
At ,.,„«.. 118 n lit] " Vide "-" Principe, •'_
"Appropini|U(t.'^ '
1-8] 11.. [11'.. ver. !» to end], and 110 [117]
(«» one), K'8[1J<J], J/„^„,y„.„t. ■■
On TwmUi;,, at mutins, in nudum 1 ; 45 [lAl
4(5 [47], 47 [4.], 4« [4i.J. 41. [,-,u], mT^-].^ ^'
[5«i^s.7.7;y''^-^'to4^4-[^.j.55
At lawt.. ijii [.J7], 50 [51-], 40 u:\l :,r, r.^71
>«»,/ 0/ /A.««,W. (Is. xxxviii.), 148, 1411, 150
9 (to "Don peribit in tlnem"),
On Sunday, at matins, I'ss. ;), 94 [flS] (these
two psalms are said dailv); in mctnm X—^o
pl], n [22], 22 [2:t], 2;i-[24], 24 [2,5], 2,=i [2^{.
innoiYurn 2 ■.—•16 [27], 27 [28], 28 [291 29 HKil
■imi ;n [H-'] ; iu Lt^^n :.; three ctti.desl^'
At ifs,66 [07], ,ii) [Mj (these two psalms
are said daily), 117 [IIH], 02 [0,;] (these two
counting as one), Benedicitc, 148, 149, 150 (as
one), Bcwdictm. ^
In K.-istertide, and on certain other festivals
when they fall on Sundays, insteail of Pss. 60
. IJiin.l 117 [118], these two, 92 [9:)] and 99
[lUO], are said.
kl pri,m, lis [119] ("Beati"_"ln quo
corriget"-" Ketrtbue "-" Adhaesit "-said as
At terce, 118 [119] "Legem pone "— " Et
veniat"-"Memoresto" ^
Atse.r< 118 [U9]"Portio mea"— "Boni-
tiitem "— Manus tu,-ic."
.Kimie, 118 [1 19] " Defecit "— "In aeter-
mirn — "Quomodo "—.said as three
,,:)*;,T» '^^t'lO]' 110 [111]. Ill [112],
ll'i[ll.i], J%myic((f. ■' 1- J.
At compline, 4, 90 [91], 1,3:^ [1341. These
psalms are said daily throughout the )-ear. On
tue three days before Easter 30 [31] vv 1-6
anj Aun* dimittis are added. <- ■• • >
,„°°n'""';'y;"^ '""''"»' '° "O'-tum 1 :— 32[331,
WJ J4 [.1.5], 30 [37] (said in two parts
"• l-.ib, and ver. 27 to ..n.l) 'jT ['{k-j .
M lauds, 06 [07], :,0 [51], ,5, 35 [36], Smn of
I^^>h(h. xii.), 148, 149, 150, £enidictus. "^ ^
At^iwie, 1, 2, 6.
i't'Hil/l. Yll».
At yyn,„c'. 7,
[9, vv. 1-18].
At lerre, 119 l, J<i], 120 [121], 121 [1221.
At sest, U> [1...;], 12.) [1J4], 124 ['i,.5j:'
At nunc; 125 [120]. 120 [127], 127 [I2A
These psalms are sai.l at lerce, sext, and none,
on WediLsday, Thursdav, Friday, and Salurdav
idJ [l.J.i], Miuinijicut. ■'
On Wednesday, at vmtin:^, in noatxirn 1 :-59
[SO], 01. [01], 01 [02], 0,', roo], 07 (,,t > roa
vv 1-18], 07 (pt.) [08,'ver. I-9 to end]^' '' ^ '
In nucturn 2. --08 (pt.) [09, vv. 1-10], 08
72 [73] ''"'■ ^^ *" ""'^' '^'^ f^'"^' ""^ I^^^J' ^^ t7^].
At /««* 66 [67], 50 [51], 63 [64], 64 [65],
Sumj Of Hannah (1 Sam. ii,), 148, 149, 150
iiencdietus. '
[1 n' i'l'r'r'i' ^'"■'' '"^' '"■ ^^ '" '""'' """^ ^°^' '^*'
l^fri^HH; ^^iC^'^^' ^'^^ tl3«], 136 [137],
i.17 [IJ8J, Majnipcat.
On Thursday, at m i<.hs, in nuctnm 1 :— 73 r741
74 [75], 76 [77], 77 [78] (in two), 78 [79].^ ^'
At imds 06 [07], 50 [51], 87 [88], 89 [90],
Si- ''" ^ ""••'' ^■*^' ^*^' ^^°' ^'''■"''-
I At pnmtf, 12 [1,3], 13 [14], 14 [15].
n^X'^'.T"' ^^^ lI^'JJ (in two), 139 [140], 140
[141], Maijiiijwat. "'
On Friday, at matins, in noctiirn 1 ;— 85 fSOl
86 [87], 88 [89] (in two). 92 [9,3], 93 [94] '" •''
In nocturn 2 :— 95 [96], 90 [971, 97 r981 98
[99], 99 [10(1], 100 [101] '■ ■'' ^ ^' ^
At lauds 0(J [67], 50 [51], 75 [76], 91 [92],
f^ilp ;.::f« ^' '■'^- '"-^ ^'^ t'>«'-"Jivisi^on.s
148, 149, 150, Benedictus.
At prime, 15 [16], 16 [17], 17 [18] (1-24).
At vespers, 141 [142], 143 [1441 (in twol
144 [145] (1-9), Ma);nifcat. ^ ^ ^ ''"'-*'
On Saturday, in nocturn 1 •.—101 flO*'! 10!)
im, 103 [104] (in two), 104 [105] (in tw^)
Iu««<Mm 2:— 105 [100] (in two), U16 [1071
(in two), 107 [108], 1(18 [l(i<J] ^' ^ ^
At lauds, 66 [67], 50 [51], 142 [14,3], Song
o/Jfoses (Deut. x.xxu.) (iu two divisions), 148,
149, loO, Benedictus.
18 D9T'l"'[20J.''-' ^''' " '^"'" "'""'"''" '° '""'^'
At vespers, 144 [145] (10, "Confiteantur." to
end) 145 [146], 146 [147, vv. 1-11], 147 [147,
ver. 12 to end]. Magnificat. ^
-1^
I
>lll
1782
PHAT.MODT
The gfncriil plnn thiin la thin '.—
r»H. I-IU [20] itrH niilit nt tirime iin weekdnyn,
beainiiinK iin Mrniiliiy, threii i-m-h day.
I'ss. '211 [21] — lOM [Ml], i\ri) mti'l «t niHurnH
tlii"iighmit l1i« wet!k, liuuinulug "ii Humliiy,
twelve each Jay, iiiM in two lujctunu of ilx
iitiiliiiit uaoh.
Pus. liiH [109] to end «r8 »niil at rm/wri
thrciui{li<iut the week, t'liiir each clay.
l'^alnl» which are Haul ID ntlicv iiarts of the
ortlie aie <iinitleil wheu lliey lai iir l» i"iir»i'.
Vi. 118 [lUt] ii «aiil at prinu' mi .Suudny,
and at turcc, «fx<, and nuiui ou Sunday and
Monilny. . ■ ■ .
Ceilain of the gradual i>»alm» are said at terci;
sext, und no>t« daily on each of llie other week
"I'sx. 3 and 94 [95] are »ald daily before
l\,. m [«7], 50 [51], 148, 149, 130, are .aid
daily at hmii. , , ., .^ ,
IlL-neduttu i» naid daily at lauJa, and ilaymficat
daily at ivu/nrs.
In eomiiiiring theio two great psalters ot the
Western ehunh, the Benedictine airangement
apiiearn somewhat inferior iu simplicity to the
GreKiiiian. The reason for beginning the psalms
on Monday at prime is not obvicjus, ami the
divi»ion of the longer psalms into parts, so aa to
equalUe In some decree the lenijth of the
psalmody on .litferent davs, while the number ot
p»alnis is the same, is not without awkwardness
when the divisions of a psalm fall into ditlerenl
days (see printe and vespers for Friday and
Saturday). The distribution of the psalms for
the little hour is also le.ss natural. On the other
hun.l, there is a greater variety in the psnlms at
iiimls, though one misses the daily use of I's.
a2 [0;)], and the psalms at nocturns are mor«
uearly of the same length than in the Gregorian
(3) We come now to the >lm6rosi<in Psalter,
equally venerable and interesting with the two
preceding and more curious, and still a living
rite, though of much less pructical imimrtancc,
owing to the small area over which it is used.
In its main features, it is doubtless the work of
St. Ambrose, and shows Eastern influences.
The chief peculiarity in this rite is the
arrangement of the matin psalms (1-108 [109]),
which are divided into ten decuriae, and are gone
through in the course of a fortnight. Each
Jccuria is divided into three nocturns, and is
said under three antiphons, one to each nocturn ;
and ijlorit is said only at the end^of each nocturn.
The decuriae are us follows :—
Decuria I. Ps«. 1-16 [17].
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
vm.
IX.
X.
17
31
41
51
61
71
81
'.^21-40
91 '92
101
18
-80
-.■iO
•60
•70
-80
-90
-100 [101].
;i02}-108 [109].
The name demiria is plainly derived from the
fact tliat they all, with the exception of the first,
second, and tenth, contain ten psalms. Psalms
which are said in other parts ot the office are
also said in course.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
PHAI.MODY
The pnalms at nuitins are Ihun »rr«Dg«d; —
Theri^ Is no invllaliiry psalm, but in l'» |.l.ir«
the pr.it fiiirt nf ihit ''<oit-/ (-/ tlir three Cliil.ln'n
(called llr'uilrtM, as dlslini;ui«h»!d frnh' fh»
seciHld part, known as Hiiwilwiti:). This i^ mii.l
dally.
Ou Sunday no panlmi nrs saiil ; biil >liri><
oml.clm. one in each nocturn.
J/(i(i;n, on .Sunday, in WK-tnrn 1, Sim) of
li,mU ("l>e ni'cte vlgilal," Is. xxii); iii
nixtwn 2, Smuj uf ll'imviK (1 .Saui. ii.l;
In nuturn H, in winter, tlowj nf Jlilnlii.uk
(llab. ill.)) in luinincr, Huiy of Juwik
(,l<m. Ii.).
On Miimliii/ inlhe firnt iieek . Decuria I.
(Koria 2* in Jlntkiuiiuuh 1"'.)
7\j(',i(/'i,r/ . . • •
Wi'dnendity . , • •
Tltarmliiy , . . <
f'riittiy
ikiturihy, In twctum 1, Somj of Mmen
(Ex. XV.); in nocturns 2 and :!, I's.
118 [liy]t 1-88, said consecutively,
but iliviiied into parts, one in tach
nocturn,
On MomUty in the second week . Deourla VI,
TiKudn/ .... VII.
Wedncstlty .... VIII.
ThuraiUy .... IX.
Frifkiy ^•
Sutunliiy, in nocturn 1, Somj of ifones
(as ill lirst week); in nocturns 2 ind
3, Ps. 118 [110]. 89 (" In aetemum")
to end, said as in the first week.
The first decuria is said on Monday .iftfr
SeptUiigeslma Sunday. The regular cuurse is
interrupted by holy week (called authmti' wctk)
and Easter week. Dec. i. is said on MuniUy
after Low Sunday (Vet. 2' post allias). The
course is again interrui)ted by Whitsun.lay unJ
Corpus Chrisli, with their octaves, and on the
Friday after the octave of Corpus Cluisti,
Dec. X. is said ; and so ou.
Lauds. On Sundays, /yt'(icJ/e<us,(Song of Ziicha-
riah). Sung of Moses ("Cnntenuis," Ex. xv.),
Uetiedicitc, Pss. 148, 149, 15i),110 [117], atlinrt
psalm (" Psalmus directus "), so called Iwaibe
said straight through and not antiphonully, an4
sometimes a psalm uf fuur verses, so calle'l
because four verses only, almost always the lust
four, are said. , ^ n , ,
On tceelc dai/s (except Saturdays), lIcnaMns,
Pss. 50 [.'■.1], 148, 149, 150, 116 [117], a J,/ai
psalm, and a psalm of four verses.
On Saturdays, Ihiudictus, Pss. 117 [1181
148, 149, 150, 116 [117], a direct psalm, mi
a psalm uf four verses.
The direct psdms are these. They are the
same for both weeks.
Sundav, 92 [93] (said also on festivals)
"3 [541. T
r r. -^ -
142 [14.'!]. Saturday, 89 [90]
Monday,"53 [54]T Tuesday, 66 [67]
day, 69 [70]. Thursday,} 12 [113].
Wednci-
FriJiiy,
The psalms of four verses are :—
Monday, in the first iccek, 5, vv. M ; m *«
second week, 83 [81], vv. 1-4. ^^'i;"*-'* "^ ('"
(,o*h w»»kA 87 r88l. vv. 1-4. Wednesday, tit)
[67], vv. 1-4. 'Thursday, >ij [«:)], vv. W.
Friday, 107 [108], vv. 1-t. Saturday, 88 [8!t],
" On ordinary Sund.iys there is no pFulm of font
verses. The psalms at the other hours w«
PSALMODY
B»i»rl)r the Mmn m th« Oc^gnrinn for th* nftin*
hn.iri, mid w«ra duubtltM t aktiu from tlmt
pMltir.
/riVntf, fiM [54], 118 [lift] (hMt Jour wctioni,
Mill »» tW(i). /t(/irin<i>i.iti Crttii (aiiiil Jniljr,
tail hrailed Siimhaliim).
Tliiw pRuliiM iiro snld dailjr on Siind lyi nnd
wei'k 'layn. In the tivi-^ rf.iy ny^ce (•• jn ollicio
f«ri:ili ") TiO [,M] in tiiid alito " ill iirfciliin."
/'ivio, UH [lilt] (arxt »i« Hi-ctionn, anlil ai
thivi', i\« in thi' (inmoiinn l',»lt«r). Alw in tne
wci'k day olliri". 50 [51], "in prerilim."
A:rt, UH [Hit] (next «ij .nctinn*, unid lu
thri'p). In tlio wurlj d«y otlloe, 6ti [57], " in
|in'iiliii!i."
,V.m,', lis [11<>] (next, nnd liwt. nix snoti.mn.
Mill iis ttii' u). Id the week day oflioe, H5 [HilJ,
"in |iri!cilius."
r.'.i/wj. Thi'dnilT iwalms, inolinlini; Muinifi-
ent. nil' the saini) iih thd Giegorinn, with the Hdili-
tion I'f n p.i'ilm nf (imr venea on week dnys, and
in speciiil Hcasons nn SuncUyii. These are — on
Mui'lay, 8, vv. 1-4. Tuesday, 14 [15], vv. 1-4.
WeiJDMdav, .'10 [:U], vv. 1-4. Thursday, ;)6
[;I7], vv. 1-4. Friday, 74 [75], vv. l-l.
Kiitiirday, 91 [!•'.'], vv. 1-4.
( 'w/i;i//«,'. The djiilvpnalms are 4, .SO [.11] VT
l-«, 1)0 [iti], i:ij [13H], i;);t [ihi], ue [in]',
NuKdimittii, anil in the week day ollioe IJ [1,4],
•Ib piecihun."
There is no distinction between the weeks in
any of the hours hut matin» and lauds.
The I'esfal arrangement of psalms ditl'ers in
thi' I'l.llowinij points. The psalms at mutim are
umhiin^ed exe.;it on a few special dnvs and
lemons, when a (!oni|iiicatpd series of psalins and
Mtriiets of psahns, of varying nunilier, and not
arranged according to their order in the Psalter,
is iiiiid.
On vfxpcru, at festivals, instead of the psalma
In cnurso, two psalms, the latter followed by
m [lH4]anil IKi [117], the three said under
on* iilofiti, are said at ditlerent parts of the ottice.
The direct psalms, and psaltns of four verses,
vary. The psalms throughout arc said according
to the old Italian version (" Vetcrem septuagiuta
TerMiinem "), as in the breviary of the canons of
the V;it;can liasilica at Rome.
It will not have escaped notice, as hearing Ufion
the connevion of the church of Milan with the
East, that the lirntria of the Amhroslan rite have
» close family likeness to the oitliismntn of the
Eastern church, nnd that the psalmc .said " in
precibus"nt the third, si.xth, and ninth hours
me amons; those said at the corresponding hours
in the Kastcrn Psalter. The ditVerence between
the office for Saturday and that for other dnys
of the week is .•trong evidence of such connexion.
The Moziimhh rite has the strange peculiarity,
th;\t the psnlnis are never said in course. In the
first three weeks of Lent, and on a few other
day.'i psalms are said at terre, sext, nnd nomr
instead of the Kxed psalms, three at each hour;
and a psalm is said at vespers, but the order in
which they are taken is very irregular, and while
mnny psalms are frequently repnnt 'd, nothing
like the whole psalter is said. This peculiarity is
so unlike whst is found in nnr other knowu rite
thai some have conjectured that the distribution
of the p.salms as said in regular course has
aropped out of the breviary as we possess it;
Md that in its present shape it only contains
P8ALTEK
1788
th« fluid M,Im, ,t the daily hnura and thot*
for .|M.cial days. This, how«v.r, M far aa wa
"'?,**""'■ '* I"""* I'o'iji'cture.
The following are the psalms assigne.l to the
several Ao«r«. The psalms are said after the
old version, and not after the Vulgate.
At m.,t,n.i, P... 3, 50 [51], 5ii [57], or one of
them.
At lamli a canM,- (varying), H^oMrtut
(I.e. an abridgment of both part, of the Son.i of
.„ '.r* ^''"''''-0^) n»t iMid " in ferii. ", i4«.
149, 150. '
At ..t.-«r,i (,ai,| before prime on week days,
throughout the year, "in diel.u. lerils per totum
annum ) .19 [7(.], U« [119] (" Ite.ti imiimcu-
lati — " In i|uo corriget^'— •■ K-tril,ue ").
[ll't], 119 UH] ("Adhaesit'imvimei/to"-
Legem p.,ne '-"Kt veniat ">, and un .Sunday
and festivals, Tf /ii-iim.
At t.r,r, 94 [9,-.]. 1 IH [||ii] (" Memor esto"—
"Portio inea"— " lloiiitatem ").
At .v,..t^, ,V2 [,-,;<]. 1 18 [1 I9J (" Keci judicium "~
. Jhrabilia"— ".lustuB es Domiiie ").
At »-/»<■, 145 [lUi], IJI flJi!-], 122 rioQi
12:) [124]. ^ -' '■ J'
At ais}>ers (no psalms on ordinary Sundays
and week days). '
r9n' ™"''''"'*'' ■* ('wo lastveriea), 1.33 [134], 90
The later Western arrangements of the Psalter,
such as those of Cardinal Quigmm, or of the
retorme 1 French breviaries, besides being of lesa
interest, are not within our limits of time.
PSALTER. When we call to mind the usa
which has been made of the Psalms in both
•lewish and Christian churches, we must expect!
to find distinct volumes containiiii,' th mi. Thus
there are in the Hodleinn Library alone eleven
Hebrew MS,S. containing the PmiIuis without
any other book, nnd in the main without notu
or commentary. It would seem evident that
these M.S.S. were prepared for devotional use.
•■!. And so we find, even in the west af
Kurope, a few early MSS. containing the Psin'ms
>n (Jreek. The most famous and the most
beautiful of these is the (ireek Psalter, in the
Stadt-Uibllothek at Ziirich, which Tischendorf
rcprnduccl in his Awjuta S irra. In I his, as
in all other (Jreek Psalters, according to Zaccaria
(liihliothrr.i lUtwttiH, p. 80, ed 177ii), the I'salms
are followed by the ten canticles of the Creek
church, as they are also in the Alexandrine
MS. Tischendorf mentions six such p.salter8.
Of these the Veronese contains the Magnificat
but not the song of Zachariah or of Simeon.
The Ziirich MS. contains the Bjufoj iuBivhi of
the Alexandrine MS. and the three cnnticlea
from St. Luke. The others contain (apparently)
the three canticles. Sometimes, as in the
Veronese Psalter. Isaiah xxvi. 9-20 is displaced
for the hymn in Isaiah v. 1-9. (See Cantkm.ks.)
3. The Greek Psalms were used in some of
the monastic churches of Italy, and posslblv of
Trance, even as late as the 8th centiirv, after
these churches had become otherwise thormiirhlv
Latinized. For this purpose copies of "the
Greek Psalms were made in which were repro-
duced the Gieek words in Latin letters ; thus—
" Meta su e arche en imera tea dynameos su «n
te lamprotete ton agion." The oldest MS. of
i'-\m
ni
1754
PSALTER
this character extant is the famous Veronese
I'salter to which we have already referred. It
is supposed to be of the Gth century. Its con-
tents are printed by Binnchini in his Vimlicido,
with a facsimile of two passes. The Septnagint.
in Latin letters, is on the left iiage, the old
"Itala"on the right. It contains the apocry-
phal I'salm J'nsiUits cram in (Jreek and Latin,
but this (in Binnchini's opinion) was added by a
writer of the 7th century.
Another famous psalter forms part of the
Codex Seguerianus, the Paris manuscript of
Cyprian (St. Germain des Pres, IStf, now Paris,
10,592). The Psalter was considered by the
Benedictines to be of the 7th century.* It
contains the Greek, and n Latin version " very
different from ours " (Xouvenu Traitif, torn. iii.
p. 55, note), in two columns. There is the
latter portion of another psalter, Greek and
Latin, at St. Gall. (No. 17); this is of the
10th century. It contains the Canticles, and
also the Lord's Prayer and Ajjostles' Creed, and
also a Litany in Greek and Latin.
4. The Library of St. Germain des Prfes con-
tained a beautiful MS., which, according to
tradition, belonged to St. Germanus himself;
the vellum is coloured purple. The letters are
silver, except that the names of God are in
gold ; it is now in the National Library in
France, No. 11,947. A facsimile is given by
Silvestve, vol. ii. plate 113. It is considered
possibly to be of the 6th century (see Bibliotheqw
tic I'EmIc des Chartcs, series vi. vol. iii. p. 343).
It is represented as having the famous words —
"Dominus regnavit a ligno" (Psalm xcv.),
whence it would appear that it contains either
the old translation, or what is called the Jioman
version of Jerome. This Roman version was
the result of Jerome's first attempt to correct
the translation current in his day, which he did,
according to his own account, after the Septua-
gint " licet cursim " (Migne, xxix. 121). This
was done at the request of pope Damasus ; and
it was in use at Rome for some centuries, and is
still used at the Vatican Basilica. Indeed, the
Canticles of the modern Breviary follow this
version. It seems to have been brought into
Kngland with St. Au<;ustine, and so was used
at Canterbury. Copies are found in the British
Museum, Vespasian A. 1 (to be described just
now); Kegius II. B. 5; and also in the Cam-
bridge Psalter, Ff. i. 23.
5. The Psalter, Vespasian A. 1, has peculiar
interest. By comparing it, page by page, with
the account of a volume described by Thomas
of Klmham, as having been placed "super
tabulara magni altaris,"'' at the church of the
great monastery of St. Augustine's, Canterbury,
there can be no doubt that it is the one that is
so described ; the contents correspond exactly in
the two, although unfortunately the modern
paging, which differs from the original reckoning
of the folia, produces some confusion. It begins
• Later writiTS say of the 8th century.
•■ The position of the volumes mentioned by Elmham
may be seen in the M.S. in the library of Trinity Hall.
Cambridge ; a copy of the drawing is given In Dugdale'i
JUmiatlicim, under St. Augustine's monastery, ('anter-
bury. 'I'he work of Thomas of Klmham ims been pub-
lished in the scries of the Master of the Rolls, but un-
fuituuately the drawing was omitted.
PSALTER
with the tract " Omnis scriptura divinitus In"
spirata," which is followed by the liltir of'
Dam.isus to Jerome, and Jerome's re]ily. Then
it contains an account of the various bouks into
which the Psalms are divided : this and othvr
similar matters fill up the first ten leaves.
According to the account of Thomas, the oleventli
leaf began with the text of the Psalter, having
on it a picture of "Samuel the Priest." This
leaf has been torn out, and so the first I'snlm
is missing, the next leaf beginning witli I'salm ii.
V. 4, "Qui habitat." The picture of Christ,
which is now pl.aced at the beginning of the
volume, was clearly inserted at the binding,
when the old silver figure of our Lonl was
removed. There are a few curious drawing's in
the volume, and at the end of Psalm cl. there
comes, apparently on an inserted leaf, the
apocryphal Psalm " Pusillus eram." The can-
ticles for the various days of the week follow,
and the hymn " Benedicite." After that we
have the song of Zachariah, the " Magnificat,"
and three old hymns: "Splendor pnternae" for
the matins, " Creator omnium " for vespers,
and the " Rex eterae " for Sundays. Here the
original volume ended, but appended to it, at a
confessedly later date, we find the " Te iJoiim,"
the " Fides Catholica," and a few prayers. Tliis
volume has of course attracted great attention.
Some account of it will be found in Piiifcssor
Westwood's Falaeoyraphia Sacra, No. 40, and in
the same writer's Miniatures, p. 10, ])late 3.
The early part of this MS. is supposed tc be of
the 8th century, and so falls within our date.
(It is sometimes spoken of as St. Au<;ustiiie's
Psalter.) The others which we have mentioned
are assigned to the 10th and 11th respectively.
6. In the public library at Roueu there is a
psalter which belonged originally to the abbey of
St. Kvroult in Normandy, and from that |iiissed
to the church of St. Ouen. An accouut of this
is given in Silve.«tre, vol. iv., and in Prof. West-
wood's Miniatures, p. 81. The Benedictines
(Aouveau Traits, ii. 226) considered it to be of
the 7th or 8th century; Prof. Westwood of the
10th. It contains the two more recent transla-
tions of Jerome in parallel columns, the one
which he corrected from the Septuagint version
of Origen'.'i Hexapla, and which, from its ob-
taining use north of the Alps, is called the
Galilean Psalter and h.as subsequently been
adopted in the Vulgate; the other, which he
t(iok direct from the Hebrew, and is therefore
called, the Hebraic. A marginal note, onsidered
to bo of the 11th century, has been found in the
volume: "Hoc psalterium anglicum est, ut ipsa
littera manifestat " (A'ouBcau Traits, p. 383).
Of the Galilean Psalter we have numerous copies,
because this version was adopted in the writing-
schools of Charlemagne, after orders were given
that every priest should possess his own psalter.
There are seveial volumes containing this version,
of remarkable beauty and interest. One is in
the library at Vienna (No. 1861), and is sup-
posed to have been prepared by the order of
Charlemagne for presentation to the po)>e Ha-
drian I. Of this there is a long account in
Kolzar'^ Catnl"gi'e, vol. i. pp. ;'47-41'<, .-in.! s
facsimile in Silvestrc, ii. 126 ; see, too, Denis, i,
xxviii. Of another beautiful copy notice lias
been given by the Palaeographical Society (see
Plates Ixix. Ixx. xciii.); this seems to have be--
' ChttTlemagne's Psajter
PSALTER
longed to the emi)eror Lothair, a.d. 8''5 A
thirJ IS in the gmit library at Paris (1152)" and
retams sfll the beautiful ivory plaques which
formed its origmal binding. This belonged to
Chares the Bald (see Silvestre, ii. 129 13n
Another of almost equal beauty is in theDuuce
collecuon at Oxford (No. 59), ^nd a iirth i " ,
the hbrary of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
yI' f \ k ^' ''«'"''g«J to a certain count
Achndeus) The sa.ne Gallicau version is found
in the celebr.ited psalter Claudius C. vii., which
belonged to the Cotton collection, but is 'n " '
the hbrary at Utrecht. The Vienna copy has
much prefatory matter, corresi)ondiug in some
egree to tnat in Vespasian A. 1, including
however, the creeds of St. Gregory of Rome, sl
Gregory of Neocaesarea, of "Jerome" and St
Ambrose together with the genuine Niceue
creed. They all, or almost all, contain the full
senes of Canticles, the " Te Deum," t!>o
' Quicunque vult," the " Lord's I'rayer," and the
Apocryphal psalm." The MSS. assigned to
Lotha,r and Charles the Bald, and that in the
t. 0. C. library, contain litanies by which, in-
deed, their «r.g,nal ownership is established.
The MS another MS. in the library at Paris, No.
13,159, which contains the same Gallican version,
together with prayers belonging to each psalin
and copies of wo litanies, of which one is callc"d
Litauia ca nla,' and the other " Litania Gal-
ica. n ths JIS. 13 contemporary with the
names it contains, we must assign it to some date
between A.D 790 ..ud 800. It is probably later!
It contains the Athanasian creed.
8. At a period somewhat below our date, great
attention was paid to St. Jerome's three versions
and .several psalters are in existence in wliich we
have two or three in parallel columns. There is
one, indeed, in the Vatican library (fiegin xi\
which was given to it by queen Christina, and is
assigned by some authorities to the 7th, the (ith or
even the 5th .ontury. This contains the G.'llicau
Inn. Coll Cambridge is a volume of remark-
three ve.vsions, with noti^s in the intermediate
»i.ace. .-.nd margin, A volume corresponXg to
I 110 t respects (being almost a facsimile) is
the library at Paris, No. 8846 ; of this Si
re gnes .a notice in vol. iii. no. 188 The
former of these has reproductions of the drawings
jftheUu^c^^^^^^^^^^^
Kmther information as to later psalters will
be found ,n Prof. Westwood's works.'^bove ciled
11.™,- si.pi,,,., 1509, „^,;,l ,„' ,~ » ■
»fe .'hT'i'"; ""'"-•'•' '• " '"'I »'
PULPITUM
1755
British M
u*um promises a work on tliis subject.
• Chulenumne's Psalter d^i^^n~t^;,7
Mhrne vn v "^''-'''•^ks, will be found in
migne, vol. XXIX. pp. lii)_ion. „<• tt,„ ir i •
i" Vol.xxviii. p» llfii HAP '-n , ^{'■'''™«
eiven from tL P , ""'-^■'''fi- l^'ie last is also
the ed til ^f^"; "'' f V"''-"*. '■> tl'e notes of
Leipsic 871 A • y"'-'^'"' ^y '''■^'•■hendorf,
i^i?:xif!i!:..tro^^:tl^-'^-l<;V''^
pa.a^SLXi'LdSl^cS:^;;^:!'^''
PTOLEMAIS (m Cvrenaica-) '•o/Tn,!.
MKTTA, D.OCCSAN WnOD OF, ad 41 uX
fcrp' ".* ^^ll'^'' A"J.'onic'us, pi-eSof the
c u tv ""Tt'"''>\r'"' excommunicated for hU
this to tbn .1 ''V'.": "^ ^y'"'''"'' "nnouncing
this to the other bishops, is extant (.Mansi, iv.
^' [E. S. Ff.]
TeS?\S''V^'^,'^' T'y' "•*'• ^"---'1
Oc Ifln" r^/' Alexandria; commemorated
(wtd )''•'''"'• ^^''■^MAEUS). A'ug.23
nn,M„'^'*'"'^'' '"'*'' '^'"™™ ""'1 Others at Alex-
am ria; commemorated Dec. 20 (Uauard \tr,Z .
Vet. Rom. Mart. ; Mart. Rom). ^ [C H.j
PUBLIA, deaconess, confessor under the
^peror Julian; commemorated Oct. 9 (Bas?K
'•""•■*• [C. H.]
rated Jan. 21 (Usuard. Mart.-, Vet. Rom Mart •
Mart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jan. 2, 338) '
R.^f^^r'Sr?'"'"''^ •^''"- 25 (Cat. Buiant.;
Boll. Acta SS. Jan. 2, 622). '
p 1^) ^"""raemorated with Julianus in Africa
ieh. 19 (Usuard., Wand., Jlieron. Mart.). '
(4) One of the. martyrs of Saragossa: com.
memorated Ap. 16 (Usuard. Mart). '
(fi) Soldier, martyr under Licinius ; com-
(Boll. Acta SS. Ap. 3, 361). pc^ jj -,
rat^d^An^u' fcT^n "' f ^'^ ^""^ ' «— -
rated Ap. U (C,,/. Hi/iant.); Ap. 15 (Daniel, .
Corf. luun,. ,v. 257, with Aristarchus and Trol
phimus; Basil. Mcnol.); May 19 ( \W R^
Mart., PUUDK.S, Usuaid. Allrt'' Jfln: ^^^
a Roman senator). His figure, holding a rol
™e^^ church gate in -Ciampi^^:
PUGILLARIS. Cno of the names of the
isruLA or tube through which the wine in
floly Communion was imbibed. Thus the Ordo
Ao«.m„s,. (p. 5), describing the papal JIass o„
„ml^I k'^' '"'?"""'' "''^>'1'''°-^ et imgillares"
w^fh^ .r"-'"' '" ^^ '""''"^ *" 'he cliunh in
which the Mass is to ho said. r, . n
r
I r
PULCHERIA, empress, commemorated with
Irene, Aug 7 (Basil. Me,u,l.); Sept. 10 (Mart.
Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Sept. 3, 503> [C. H.l
PULPITUM, [Ambo.]
1766
PUNISHMENTS
PUNISHMENTS. [Coupoual PraisH-
ment; Discii'LiNK; Fine; Penitence,]
PURIFICATION OP THE ALTAR.
VESSELS. 1 kuow of no refei-enue to thu
subjiict in any doouniout within our |)criocl. It
is notioeJ, however, in the general instnictions
given to (laiish priests in the West at the visita-
tion of the Ijishop In the 9th or 10th centuries,
and we may presume that the practice which
they prescribe had been in some degiee observed
previously. In the Sernio Si/nodiliH, ascribed to
Ico IV. 847, but perhaps later, we read, " Wash
and wipe the holy vessels with your own hands
.... Let" a place be prepared in the sacrarium
(secretarium, liather. ; Adtmn. Synod, below) or
near the altar, where the water may be poured
out when the sacred vessels are washed, and there
let a clean vessel with water be hung, and there
let the priest wash his hands afterMhe com-
.munion" (Hard. CoKtlia, vi. 785). The same
directions appear also in a very early recension
of this document printed by Baluze (Admonitio
Siftuxlalis, ad oalc. Reginon. de Discipl. Kcd.
602), and in the Symdica of Ratherius, A.D. 928
(Hard. M.s. 790). They have also been preserved
in the later pontificals of Rome (Regin. u.s. 505,
508). Yet the order that the celebrant should
himself cleanse the vessels could hardly have
been general, for in the 11th century we find
John of Avranches, about 1060, assigning this
olHce to the deacon {Ejiist. ad Maurilium, in
App. ad 0pp. Greg. M. ii. 256, ed. Ben.).
.^ /-/- S |.^ p g ,
PURIFICATION, FESTIVAL OF THE.
[Mauy, Festivals of, § 1, p. 1140.]
PURPURA. The band or stripe of purple
used as an ornament in the dresses of the
ancients. [Clavus.] Caesarius of Aries, in his
rules for nuns, forbids them to use " vestimenta
lucida vel nigra vel cum purpura," &c. (iJty. ad
Vii-g. Recnp.l; Patrol. Ixvii. 1118). A canon
of the second council of Nicaea (787 A.D.), in
ordaining that clerics should,dres8 plainly, adds
that anciently they did not wear variegated
dresses of silk, nor npofrfrlSfaai' irtpoxpoa
iittfiKi\liara iv Toh Anpois ray inariav (can. 16 ;
Labbe, vii. Ii09). Another illustration of the
practice is furnished us by Gregory of Tours,
who dwells on an inci4ent where a majors
holoserica is turned into an altar-cloth, a atrip
torn olf being used for the above-mentioned
decoration (fiist. Frane. x. 16; Patrol. Ix.xi.
648). [R. S-]
PUSICIU8, martyr in Persia; commemo-
rated Ap. 21 (Vet. Horn. Mart.; Mart. Bum.;
Usuard. Mart. PusiTiLS). [C. H.]
PUZA, COUNCIL OF. [Pepcza.]
PYLORI. [Doorkeeper ; Ostiarius.]
PYNITUS inter opiacopog nobilissimus ;
.commemorated at Crete Oct. 10 (Vet. Horn.
Mart.). [C. U.]
PYTHON. The word is connected with the
Hebrew |nD, p<-t'i''ii, a venomous serpent, which
U rendered in the Septuagint by 'Airirtj, Deut.
Iixii. -33 i Job XX. 14 ; Pa. Iviii. 4 ; Isaiah xi.
8 ; by Apct(cac, in Jot xx. 16 ; and by hatriKiaKos
PYX
in Ps. ici. 13, b. v. Throughout the East evil
spirits received names from this reptile, an
usage originating, we cannot doubt, in tralitions
of the event recorded in Gen. iii.. In JScnpture
itself we have "the great dragon . . . that eld
serpent called th<> ae\.l" (Kev. xii. 9; xx. 2).
One result was that the attributes i.f the
demon and the serpent were interchanged, llcii^e
the pyth(.n slain by Apollo at Uelos was thought
to have inspired the oracle before the god took
his place : " Pythone serpente interfecto t.aiua
vaticinationis auctore et priucipe " (UiMsius,
adv. Pagan. JJist. -vi. 15); "Ante Aimllinem
responsa dare solitua" (Hyginus, Fiihiil. 140).
Hence, also, it was that both in Jewish and
Christian antiquity the name of python was
given to prophesying spirits. Hesychius s.'iys,
ni8av Aoi/toi'ioi' fxamiKSv. In Acts xvi. lii, we
read of "a certain damsel, who had a sjiirit of
python" (in Eustathius, de Emjastrim. 11, tV
■tr'v9unavTiv). In the Vulgate of Lev. xx. L'V, we
have, " Vir aut mulier in quibus pythoiiicus vel
divinationis fuerit spiritus." Conipare Deut.
xviii. 11; 1 Sam. xviii. 7,8 (Eustath. k. s. 20,
iru9((/io>Tij) ; 2 Kings xxiii. 24; 1 Clin.n. i.
13, " pythonissam " ; Isaiah viii. 19; xix. ;i.
The lower animals were supposed to be subject
to this possession. In the time of .lustinian
there was a dog at Constantinople tliat would
scratch up and return to their several owners
rings of iron and gold that had been buried
together; and indicate correctly the characters
of men and women in a crowd, — " on which
account they said that the dog had a spirit of
python " (Cedrenus, Hist. Compend. i. 0,')7, ed.
Nieb.).
Among modern writers consult espec! 'ly
J. B. Deane, The Worship of the Si'rpnit traced
throwjhout the World, Lond. 18:i0; Leo Allatius,
de Engastrivmtho Syntagma, appended to Kusta-
thius, u. s. ; J. H. Heidegger, Disstrtatio (It
Pseudo-Samuete, Tigur. 1675. [W. E. S.]
PYX (Greek, irui^j, irv^iov ; l.atin, pyxis,
pyxida, a box). In ecclesiastical usai;e the boi
in which the host is reserved after conse-
cration. The word is used in this sense in a
decree of pope Leo IV., A.D. 847-85") (Lahb«
and Mansi, Concil. ed. Venet. t. Ixiv. \>. 891),
" Super altare nihil ponetur nisi capsiie cum
rcliquiis sanctorum aut pyxis cumCorpore Domini
ad viaticum pro infirniis." In the lirst Ordo
Romanus (Migne, vol. Ixxviii.), in the part which
contains the detail of the order of the procession
before the celebration of the Eueharist by the
pope, the passage occurs, "duo act.lythi ti^nentcs
capsas cum Sanctis npertas." This is generally
interpreted to mean vessels in which the l-.ucharist
was placed ; but a comparison with the decree of
pope Leo IV. seems to make it doubtful whether
such is the true meaning. [Kkskuvahon.]
It is the o]iinion of many writers that the ear-
liest receptacles for the reserveil portion of the
Eucharist were vessels in the form id' a dive
[Dove, Eucharistic], but such was i)rid)atdy net
invariably the case ; and the round boxes lormeJ
from .a section of au elephnnt's tooth, datmi: Imm
v.arious periods, from the 4th to tlieTth tvnturv,
nearly all of which bear sculjdured «n them sub-
jects which may be held to have some reference
to the eucharistic sacrifice, have been (i'. observa-
tiorai by Padre Garrucci, ArJwolojia, vol. iliv
PYX
p. 322) confidently supposej to have served for
this purpose. Such nmy very possibly have been
the case m some instances ; but it must 'be observed
that the subjects carved upon many of them
would be well suited to appear on a receptacle
for a URANDEUMor cloth, which, as we learn
from St. Gregory's (the pope) letter (A'/,, lib. iv
tp. 30) to the empress Constantina, was, down to
his period, the customary substitute for a relic
and was habitually enclosed in a pyxis. His words
»re as follows : " Cognoscat autem tranquilissima
Donina quia Romanis consuetudo non est quando
Sanctorum reliquias dant ut quidquani tangere
praesumant de corpore sed tantummodo in pyxide
brandoum mittitur atque ad sacratissima cori)ora
Sanctorum ponitur. (^uod levatum in ecclesin
quae est dedicanda debita cum veneratione reoon-
ditur."
One which we can scarcely doubt to have been
made for the purpose of containing a brandeum
(or possibly a vessel of oil) is that which has been
engraved and commented on in the Archeoloqin
(vol. xliv. p. 321). On it are two subjects, one ithe
martyrdom of St. Menas, the other the saint in
a glorified condition [Reliquary]. Several
examples of such boxes bear secular subjects, as
one in the museum at Zurich, on which are Venus
and Adonis ; on another is Bacchus ; on one, in the
treasury of the cathedral of Sens, a lion hunt •
and a like subject is on one in the British Museum'
Of those which bear Christian subjects, the ear-
liest and finest is that in the museum at Berlin, on
one side of which is Abraham about to sacrifice
Isaac,on theotherour Lord teaching in theTemple.
This is probably as early as the 4th century.
In this instance it is difl^cult to see the
appropriateness of the latter subject to a vessel
employed in connexion with the Eucharist, though
in the former it is obvious. By Mr. Westwood
{Fictile Ivories, p. 272) the second subject is said
to be Christ seated among His apostles ; but one
of the figures would seem to be that of a woman
pressing in through a crowd, and the next figure
an elderly baldheaded man raising a hand with a
gesture of surprise, figures which wouW seem to
point to our Lord's teaching in the Temple
Several examples present the history of Jonah •
the raising of Lazarus is found upon at least five •'
the three Hebrew youths in the furnace on one'
various miracles of our Lord on others. All these
inay be thought to refer in some way or other to
the Eucharist, but most would be applicable to
pvxides -containing brandea or oils from the holv
places in Palestine.
These boxes appear to vary in date from the
«h to the 7th century, and in size from about
SJ inches to 5 inches in diameter and height •
several have had locks; among them that
ot bt. Menas. A lock is perhaps an indication of
the use of a pyx ns a reliquary rather than as a
receptacle for the host, for while many would
have .stolen a relic few would have dared to
steal a host.
It is difficult to find examples of pyxes (in the
restricted sensS) earlier than a.d. 800 which
either by inscriptions or ornamentation, indicate
c.ear.y t.hpjr destiuaiiun. We find, however, great
numDers of pyxes made in the 12th (some possibly
'n tne llth) and 13th centuries, chiefly at Li-
moges, of copi>er enamelled and gilt. These are
nsnally circular, with a conical cover, and about
8 inches m diameter. rj^. jf.]
QUINTILLA
Q
1757
QUADRAGESIMA. [T.ent.]
. QUADRAPOLA. This woru, whose mean-
ing is quite uncertain, often occurs in Anastasiw
Biblio hecanus He tells us (e. ,;.) th.it Adrian I.
made tor the church of St. Peter "cortinas .
Ue palliis stauraciniB sen quadrapolis" (p. 320)
It has been suggested that by the name is to be
understood pieces of cloth, in whose four corners
gold or silken threads are interwoven. This
however, seems nothing more than a guess!
Reference may be made to Ducange's Glossary,
*• ^- IR. S.]
QUADRATUS (1), martyr under Valerian
at Cormth, commemorated Mar. 10 ( Cat
Byzant. ; Daniel, Cod. Litwg. iv. 255).
May 26 (Jfart Usuard.. Adon., Vet. Bom., NotI
ker. ; Acta SS. BolL Mai. v. 357).
(3) Martyr in Africa, May 26 (Wart. UsuartJ.,
litmm.. Vet. Bom., Notker.). [c. H.]
QUARTA, martyr, June 2 (Mart, ffieron..
Vet. Bom. Mart., ISotker.), one of the martyrs of
Lyons. ^^./^^
QUARTILLA, commemorated at Surrentum
fi^'\ a'/'""',,^"''''""' Qui'itilla, and others
(Mart. Adon., Ilieron., Vet. Bom. ; Bas. Men.).
QUARTUS (1), martyr at Rom[^' wi"tl
Wuintus and others ; commemorated Mav 10 in
the cemetery of Praetextatus (Mart. Usuard..
iheron., Vet. Bom.; Bas. Men.).
(2) Martyr under Decius with Felicissimus
ana others; commemorated Au<t. 6 in the
cemetery of Praetextatus (Mart. Usuurd.).
(3) Disciple of the apostles; commemorated
Nov. 3 (Mart. Adon., let. Rom. ; Bas. Men.).
(4) ''Apostle,"one of the Seventy ; commemo-
rated Nov. 10 with Olymj^as and others (Bas.
Men. ; Cat. Byzant.). rQ^ y \
.„?'^^?CUS (or the Oak), SrxoD of, a.d.
403. [CuALCKDON, Councils ok (i), p. 333.]
QUINIDIU8 bishop of Vaison"; commemo-
rated Hb. 15 (Usuard. Mart., Vet. Bom. M.rt., '
Boll. Acta Sd., Feb. ii. 827). [c. H.J
QUINI8EXTUM CONCILIUM. rCoN-
8TANTIN0PLK (34), p. 444.]
QUINQUAGESIMA. [Pentecost.]
QUINTIANU8 (1), martp- with Parthenins
and others m Arm^inia; commemorated Au 1
(Mart. Hieron., Notker.).
(2) Presbyter and Confessor, June 14 (Usuard
Mart. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jan. ii. 960). [c. H.] *
QUINTILIANUS (I), martyr with Paulus
Mrttutinus, and others; commemorated Au. 4
(Mart. Notker. ; Mart. Hieron.).
(t) Martyr, Ap. 16. [Saiugossa, Martvrs
°^-i [C. H.]
QUINTILLA, martyr, commemorated Mar,
Ii!
H
i'^
lit
1758
QUINTINUS
19 at Surrcntum (Vet. Rom. Mart, Adon.
Mart.) ; IJuintillus (Mart. Ilifnm., Mart.
Usuaid. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mart. iii. 27). [C. H.]
QUINTINUS (1), niRrtyr; inventio com-
memonitoil .Inn. 24 (I'lor. Mart.).
(2) Miiityr in (laul uiidt-r Maxinv m ; com-
ineinoniteil Oct. 31 (.Mart. Bed., Usuiiid.).
[C. H.]
QUINTUS(l), mnrtyr in Africa witli Aiiui-
linus and Geminiisj commemorated Jan. 4
(Mart. /Heron., ]'et. Horn., Notkcr.).
(2) Mnrtyr; commemorated at Surrentum
Jlr.r. 19 (Jilurt., Usuard, Adon., JJicrun. ; Vet.
Hum. Mart. ; Notker. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mar. iii.
27.).
(3) Martyr, May 10 {Mart Usuard., Hieron.).
(4) Martyr, Sept. 5 ; commemorated at Capua
with Arci.iitiiis i'nd Ponatus (Mart. Usuard.,
Adou., lliermi.. Boll. Sep. ii. 526). [C. H.]
QUIllIACl'S (1) (.lUDAS), bishop of Jerusa-
lem ; connni-morated May 1 (Mart, bed., Hieron.)
May 1 and 4 (Notker.).
(2) Martyr, June 21 (Mart Usuard., Hiernn.).
(3) Martyr, Aus:. 12 (Mart Usuard. ; Boll.
Acta SS. Aug. ii. 702).
(4) Martyr, Aug. 23, at Rome, with Hippo-
lytus and Archilaus (Mart., Adon., Usuard., i'et.
Hum. \ Boll. Acta SS., Aug. iv. 563). [C. H.]
QUIRILLUS, martyr, Mar. 11. [Sedaste,
FOKXV MAUTi'KS OF.]
QUIRINUS (1), tribune and martyr, father
of Balliina; comniomorated at Rome Mar. 30
(Mart. Usuard,, Adon., Vet Horn. ; Boll. Acta SS. ;
Mart iii. 811).
(2) Martyr at Rome ; commamorated at Rome
Ap. 30 with Clemens, Lucianus, and others
(.Wart., Adon., Jlicron., Wand. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Ap. iii. 750).
(3) Bishop and mni'tyr; commemorated at
Siscia Jun. 4 (Mart. Usuard., Adon., hieron.,
Vet Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jun. i. 381).
(4) Martyr with Nicasius and Pientia in the
Ve.\in; Oct. 11 (Mart Usuard.). [C. H.]
QUIRIO, martyr, Mar. U. [Sebaste, Forty
MAKIlfKSOF.]
R
RACANA, a word whose spelling is as varied
as its meanini; is disputed. Thus Gregory the
Great, in the two passages we have cited below,
spells it on one occasion racaiia, ou another
rachana. The former spelling is that found in
Ennodius, the latter that in Anastasius Biblio-
thecarius. In the Re^jula Magistri, uud the re-
maining passages referred to below, it is spc-U
rachina.
It seems to us most likely that the racana was
some kind of rug or blanket, not, apparently, of
the thicker or coarser kin<l. The following order
from the Regula Maijistri tolls pretty strongly
RAGAE
for both points, " in lectis habeant . . . . st
lana.s, in nestnte vero [iro lanis raehinl^ pr")iti'r
ae.stus utanlur"(e. 81, IKdr^it. Ixx.xviij. lii.U;
cited in the Com-unlia Keinlaiitiit, I'litrnl. ciii.
IJ.'jiJ, where see Menard's note). On one ucm^hpd
we lind Grejj;"i-y the Great sending a presuiit of
thirty ranmne with lacmtf and Iccli ; on aiintliur
be receives a present of two (Greij. Mir:;. Ejist,
si. 1, 7«; Patrol. Ixxvii. 1119, 1210, wiien: ilie
notes may be referred to).
It was made of hair cloth (r. ciV/cmci), .simie-
timcs at any rate (]'ita S. Iladcjumlis, c. +•
Patrul. Ixxii. 66ii). It was a thing wurth
stealing (.Audoeiius, Vita 8. E/ii/ii, ii. .'IH ; l\U:\,i,
Ixxxvii. .■)70). This last was a r. caprini ....
vat' le optima, nni\ perhaps therefore belter thantlie
ordinary run, for in Anastasius we read of i'eur
radianeltac being sold numismato uno. In a
later ptissage the association cum .s(ormef radmiiis
is important for the view which we haveailnptij
as to the meaning of the word. It oiiglit to be
added, as seemingly conflicting with the J.'eipila
Maijistri, that the words following the aljuve-
cited clause are per totam hiemcm ( Vita Jo/m/oiis
Eleemos. 9, 52 ; Patrol. Ixxiii. 356, 363). The
word is also used by Ennodius (Ejjist. ix. 17 ;
Patrol. Ixiii. 156), who asks that a Uchu ami
racana, which are to be presented to him, shall lie
" coloris rubei aut fusei." On a survey 'if the
foregoing passages it will be seen that something
of the nature of blanket makes very gool souse
throughout. The same can hardly be sni^i of
some other views. Thus Sirinond (Kunn.liiis,
not. in loc.) thinks it must be some kind of b.ot,
by assuming that r.icatiae are the same as r.n/de
[Ragae], and that these latter are boots, because
the Theodosiau Code prohibits them in eumjiaiiy
with Tsanijae, which certainly are boots ! L>u-
cange's theory is equally unsatisfactory, whith
explains it of a patched and worn dress, such as
monks would wear, thus deriving it from /nbfot.
It is hard on this theory to understand such au
allusion as that we have cited, where a rulniwi
is called vakk optima, and is thought (|uite\viirth
stealing, or to explain several p.assages distinctly
connecting it with bed furniture. Other views
which explain the word as a kind of breeches, or
as something worn round the neck, need not be
discussed, in the absence of anything like evi-
dence in support of them.
Besides the notes we have already meutionoj,
reference may be made to Rosweyd, Omiiimticim
in Vitas Patnim, a. v. (Patrol. Uxxiv. 48'.i), mid
Ducange's Glossarmm, a. v. [H. S.]
RADEGUNDIS, ST., queen, Aug. 13, com-
memorated at Poitiers (Mart. Usuai'd., Hieruu.,
Flor., Wandalb. ; Boll. Acta SS. Aug. iii. 46).
[C.H.]
RAGAE. The Theodosian Code (lib. xiv., tit.
10, 1. 3), in a law put forth by Ilonorius in A.D.
399, forliids the wearing within the city ut' nij'ie
and tsanijae. [Tsangak.] The meaning of the
former word is very doubtlul. The |ii'eceJing
law, issued two .ears earlier, had prohibiteil the
wearing of brachae and tsanijae; i.nd thus one
theory has besn to rsad h.nrkao in both pascal.'??,
This view, uot very probable in i'.self, is renJciBl
still less so by the existence of a diminutive
raijetla (Pucange, Glossarium, s. v.). (Hlier*
connect it with fidKV, {i<i.ma, and illwstiatc it hf
such words as (laKolvruv, jiaKti'Siirup. Thii
RAPHAEL, archanj
EAGNULFU8
mn\d^,y, ,„ the meanins „f a monkisi, cloak
so-callcl from .ta apparently oHina^v e „liti"n'
seen,? .la the o hjcut of the two laws an oa • to '
U to ,,ut jlow., the wearing of foreiijn I e.s \n
Kome un.lor a penalty of total conds, ^ of '
property an, por,,et„aI exile. The theo, h,"t
I ""'"'^.'^'' ''l'^" i-^ i"ten.|e,l does not s ['m „
h.nnon,.e w,th the .lirect ol,je.:t of the law an.l
the penalty m this case wouM l,e out of .?
proportu.,,. Others, again, wouM \Z :Ut
o,-,v,ng ,t fron, f.„Cxo., a garment (DuctnZ'
(,hssr..HmGn,ocum s. ,-.). It seems to us, howl
e>-or, that the pn.hllition appears aimed at W,m .
tlnug too specal to be satisfied bv a o Ute
geoeral word. (See Gothofre.lna, nil.iuT
Duciinge, G/ossamim, s. v.) rj. g -j '
RAONUIFUS, martyr, May 27, oomme-
RAILS. [Cancklli.]
RAM. The Ram is not unfrequently used as
a »yn,bol on Christian monuments, and the^e
om, to be gronnd for thinking tha it w„, em
,ved to sym holue other ideaAhan those sigut
tol by the Lamb. St. Ambrose (;?„. l,ii-\
ays ha t.t ,s used as „ svmb,d of the Word
even In- those who deny th'e coming ofVhHst
u hn,lsn.the fleece of the ram a svmbo of
the "clotlung-npon " of Christians (2 Cor. v 2"'
in his defence of the flock against the uw.'lf
syniijol of Christ's victorv ove S,.f n • ^' •"
l-lin.theflock,asyn^;^„f' ,^:^'" -
»'«; m h.s substitution for Isaac, a smbo of
e one sacrihce; in his dun.bnJss b f, ro his
shearers (Is. . 71 « svml,,,! „«'*i >"- '"<- nis
Christ An,I „„ *i, ^ r , * "'" "i«ekness of
;Je"th,Vkef a type oVtl.: Jiwn'f^ „?
re found on fonts an.l other monument"
h.iv „g any reference to baptism, it was probablv
mi a, a symbol of force, ^„d „ an eucoo a^7
2'"t to "fight manfully >.(,.err oZS
* W, V. ,u. pi. 8) ; and under the san e rdea
f no„-,ragmg themselves with the device of a
"Imntantmal in times of persecution, Chhtians
ra to have worn rings with a ram engraved n"
t>T ".r-^ ■>« "■'''«' that^,oo r>s
™to face, w,th a cross between them, are n t
»n moommon syn.hol, ^,d nmy be see,', on t'l
pitals of columns ,n the churches of St A.n-
br se „„J St. Celsus at Jliinn (Ailegrata
&'r.Mon. di Milam, tav. vii. etc.), ^^""S""'^'''
(Jlartigny, Diet, des Antiq. dxrtt. s. y. n^Iier.)
RAPHAEL, archangel, Dec.9 (C,/. miop.).
„,^t™BOV, COUNCILS OP. (l)f„ 76^
ms Ian,„ (x„ 699), but this being the yar in
M L »■" f K '"''' '' '^""''' ""' ^^^■'11 have been
™i-ms3'"i thai les, who seems to refer to it
;^» l«ter cap.tnlary as having legislatedon the
i"tanveni .oil f '^.'''•^''""^ved their perform-
RECONCILIATION 1750
^S=;ln'i„i;i::-ri;S)^'>^ '-y -"^^
i"ftl';r;2i::;!':''V"'"."'' r-o III., confirm.
4tothechS'oSs:S''''''-'"r''f*'''''
-ceived (Mansi, ^., ^'1:A^I^;:;:t^^^
RAVENNA. SYNOD OF a n ^no"^' ^'"'-^
moned by the emperor Ilonori, s f,',, ■ Vn ' "u"
contention between Honif;, 1 I , s^'tthng the
-0 of liome, vS'b'/ "d™,S ir 'V'"
■nus, which it tailed t/dotji;::!;;;:!;;;!;!^;;
[K. S. Ff5
or^p' nff ^^™N- C^-^M, lT.nAT,o»
where, from the n mbe; „/ "*''"'■ '"^- ^'^•
'lescribe the artbr/- o ■'^","°>'"' '"*«'' *»
or bands ^LlTJ:^^ '"""'■ ''"' "^ -■J''
neck and down the tfj^r-,''"'u"'^ ""' '^<>
fastened as to hold tL '"'''' '"''"? then so
'•saving the arm file T"?^^ '"^^'-■"'"'•' ^hiie
;i3,5,lhere Ca,|an /s ctd G™ ^'"f' "'■
'00.), and I>.ca„go>s C^W^'j^.f '^ {^[^'s.f
RECEPTORIUM. [SALUTAToninM.]
RECLINATORIUM. [Staff.]
RECLUSE. [Hermit, p. 771.]
thi
RECONCILIATION OP PENlTFNTq
a Ifh ^ . ""* P<'"'t'-'nt was fully restore,/^
jus accipere, dare r , ' """municationis
hn-* "communionem dare a.I ° ■'■"■"
Oominicae commu"ioni s'oei '' ' '"■'"•'^t'"".
Many canons exp™ rec„ncil r* "'^"?'^i,"'"''-"
«-ord " co„,mun 1" and Greek " "T''''' ''>' ">«
those unreconciled' as it?;^;:""^ th""'' °'
'■'1 of Nice (c. l:i).absolutir"Tc"alled « ''"',™"'>-
Ti TtAeuToroi/ Ml /...^^ \ . " ^'''ticum,
samewordwasaipte7byte l'"''""- '''''«
1 Oonc. Vasens. c. 2*^ 0,nc' l':Z\ '"'"'uL' '
:?i=irr SffSi/r-
. ^'
\W.
V '
1760
RECONCILIATION
absolution ri'gaiil must be paid both to tlie /'TMbi
I'n^rniim— the consciense of the sinner, and the
furuin externum — the disciiiline of tho churih,
there is no trace of any such formnl distinction
having been drawn through the period embraced
by this work. It was considered that when a
penitent was reconciled, his sin was pardoned.
Hi.s whole course of penance had been a petition
for the divine forgiveness, and when the term of
the sentence e.xpired, the offence w:is judged to
be fully expiated ; the olfender was then restored
to comm\inion, and tnat restoration pre8Ui)posed
the forgiveness of God. The office of the priest
in the forwn intcitum was ministerial, and the
form through which he exercised his ministry
was an intercessory prayer. A judicial absolu-
tion of sin was reserved for the Almighty.
" Christ alone," says Clemens Alexand. {Poeda-
gog. i. 18, vol. i. p. 138), " is able to forgive our
sins. He alone being able to discern the sincerity
or insincerity of our obedience." The early doc-
trine on absolution is well expressed by I'acian
(£'p. i. 1.^): "Not indiscriminately to all is this
very pardon through penance granted, nor until
there shall have been cither some indication of
the divine will, or perchance some visitation,
may men be loosed ; that with cai'afu! ponder-
ing and much balancing, after many groans
and much shedding of tears, after the prayers
of the whole church, pardon is in such wise
not refused to true penitence, so that no one
thereby prejudgeth the future judgment of
Christ." The language of Ambrose {de Spirit.
Satwt. iii. 18) is equally clear: "By the Holy
Spirit sins are pardoned ; men do but apply their
ministry towards the remission of sins ; they
do not exercise any power of authority. Nor do
they remit sins in their own names, but in that
of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. They ask,
God givei--.." Compart at a later date the state-
ment of Gregory (m Evangel. Horn. 26, vol. i.
p. 1555): "then only is the absoli^tion of the
bishop valid, when it follows the decision of
the judge within." In the fo<-um externum, the
court of the church, the bishop's office was more
directly judicial. By his own <»uthority, through
imiwsition of hands, he restored the penitent to
the peace and communion of the church, and
this restoration so far partook of a sacramental
chara<;ter that an African synod under Cyprian
{Ep. Ixiv. 1) ruled that peace, however irregu-
larly given by a priest of God, was not to be
tt\ken away.
The complete ritual of reeonciliition in the
early ages is nowhere preserved, but there can
be little doubt that it comprised one or more of
these ceremonies: public prayer was offered in
behalf of the returning penitent; hands were
solemnly laid upon his head ; the Eucharist was
ndminis'tered to him as a token of his return to
communion, and a declaration was made that he
was agiun in the society and peace of the church.
In the most primitive times, perhaps, even these
rites were wanting. It seems probable that then
the delinquent, who had been subjected to a
certain penance, during which the hands of the
bishop were fiequently laid upon him, was ipso
/a' to reconciled at the conclusion of his sentence,
blJ with the last imposition of hands. Morinus
(rfe Poeiit. vi. 21) raises the question whether, at
a later date, when the station of the conaistentes
was in use, the penitent was absolved as he
RKCONCILIATION
entered upon the station, or at the close of it
He arguesHhiit the "viaticum" of Cone. Sicii'm.
c. 13, is not participation in the sacrameiit, Imt
a sacerdotal .ibsoluliun, aud that tljeretiire .ilis.i.
lution is distinct from communion, iind fr..ni tliis
he infers that absohition was given as the |niii.
tent was advanced to the stage of consistintia,
and full communion only as he left it. Hut the
whole tenor of the canons which nientinii a
viaticum is opjHJsed to this view, and a slite-
ment of 1 Lone. Arausic. c. 3, seems to put tiie
matter beyond doubt, for after declarint; timt
a dying penitent might communicate witlnmt
imposition of hands, it adds that the fathers litly
named a communion of this sort a viaticum.
1. Petitions for Absolution. — In the 8iiii])le
mode of discipline administered in the ear'i.vst
times, it rested entirely with the discrctinn nf
the bishop to determine what length ami severity
of penance entitled the penitent to absoluticn.
It seems to have been the custom for memliei-s of
a congi-egation to petition the bishop to i;ike
back again any one of their number who hal
been ejected, as soon as they were persuMiled of
his repentanrii, and for the penitent at the same
time to join v h the clergy and bishop in earnest
prayer that he might be worthy of restoration.
The entire congregation thus participated in their
erring brother's return. In the Apo^t. Omst.
(ii. 16) this duty of intercession is committed to
the deacons. But more usually the penitent
himself, by the depth and earnestness of his self-
abasement, was his own best intercessor. An
instance of a suc'jessful petition to be absolved is
that of the confessor Natalis (Euseb. //. F.
v. 27); an unsuccessful one, though supported
by the supplication of the people, is related bv
Synesius {Sp. 67) of a certain Lamponianus. In
no case does it appear that reconciliation was
gi'anted as a matter of course; the penitent must
ask for it, and beseech the congregation to unite
with him in his request. Tertullian (* /V;ii(.
c. 9) says that he "ought to enjoin all the
brethren to bear the message of his prayer fur
mercy;" and in the following section (c. 10),
" When thou throwest thyself before the knees
of the brethren, thou entreatest Christ." Similar
language was held by Pacian {Ep. i. 15, Paroen.
ad Poenit. c. 24). In the letters of Cyprian and
the Roman clergy, there are irequent ret'evenoes
to tho part borne, in the reconciliation of the
lapsed, by the prayers and intercessious of those
who had stood firm, " stantis plebis " (Cyp. Epp.
xix., XXX. 9, xxxvi. 6, xliii. 5). Amlrose like-
wise speaks (rfe Poenit. i. 16, ii. 9, 10) of the
pardon of an offender being sought by the tears
and lamentations of the whole congregation.
This supplication of the people ceased after the
4th century to be part of the ritual of reconcilia-
tion in the East ; but in the West the pontificals
and rituals of a date as late as the 13th centurv
exhibit the practice of the wh(de body of the
clergy and all the people on the Tluirs'lay of
holy week offering public prayers for the peni-
tents about to be absolved, and the bishop pro-
nouncing the prayer of absolution in the name of
the whole church; and as Morinus (viii. 13),
writiug at the ciuse of the I7th century, »il=,
"idem adhuc ritus in hunc usque diem perdurat,
sed verbo tenus tantum."
2. Absolutiim withheld till the Completion of
Penance.— The original idea of absolution was
RECONCILIATIOJT
that of a correlative to public discipline ; re^tora-
tion to oonmmn.on mipliea it« having been before
w.thhel,l, an,i those only could properly be ad
to be loosed who had previously been bound
Ace..rhng y ,t was for many centuries an ?n
flexible rule of the church that abso u .^ ,hou?d'
not bo gran.e.l till the offender had sh wn son e
proof ot contrition by the performance of certain
out*vaid acts ol penance. The evidence of thi!
practice is spread over the whole penitential
literature, bee especially Tertullian, d« VVnrt
pa.si,„; also the canons of Elvira ao many
ot whidi attach the words "acta WitimA
poenitentia as a condition of restoration ; also
the ludignat.on expressed throughout Cvprian's
epistles against those of his presbyteVr who
tra,isgr,;ssed the settled laws of the church by
recuucilmg the lapsed without penance, an abuse
equally c^-rrected and condemned in th; 6th cen!
ury by .i Cone. Tolet. ell; „nd for pontiH^l
deeisnms see bync. i'p. i. 3 ; Innocent. V,. i.T-
leo, Lp. xci. The principle, of coursef holds
psnppf fo n....:^ 4_ ....
_-, -^ ..... .„., i-jiiicipie, ot course, hods
good only m respect to penitents stri tly so
called; .n the case of sim,.le separation fror^
communion (a0op„r/x!„, segregatio, separatio)
.here no penalty was attached, no'ne cS be
eiacted. The rule was sometimes relaxed in
time 0, persecution, as in Africa, after conspicu-
ous .eal and resolution succeeding a lapse (Cyp
Ipp X..1V., XXV. ; or in deference to the requL'i
tl,e martyrs [LiBM,LAT,ci]; or in favom- of
^ M k I or ,n case of the clergy who were sus-
pen'L'd or depcsed, but not subjected to penance.
There are also traces in the Eastern ritual, of a
oraparatively early date, of absolution being
graated immediately after confession, and pZr
penance Morinus (vi. 24) assigns' the 0? gh'
thi.s custom to the abrogation of the office of
the penitentiary. The earliest .locumentary evi-
eaoeistobe found in the peuitential ofVohn
the Faster, the date of which is. yet to be deter-
mmed. In that treatise the penitential ^urse
beg ns with a minute confession of sin, imme-
diate y upon which follow several prayed of X
soluuon (A.J.r.„), but even^fter these the pen tent
1 held to be 4«<,..<ii.,^o,, his final and com-
Shew Ht"'f,'"'^f ^'^^"^' '"''' "o^munion
aa e wh,"l '"" ""' '='""Pl«tion of his pen-
ace, which in some cases did not take place for
long years after he had been absolved (Morin. &
PmU. appendix, p. 628). On the contemporary
G eek practice of absolution, see the evidenci
collected by Morinus (« p. ^560). If i„ fore!
queuceof the deration of the sentence, Abstinence
fro,n communion was much prolonged, the neni-
^ was allowed at intervals tf T'eceivfan
MSo,po, [LuLOGiAE, p. 629]. It was probably
the mriuence of his Greek training wh ch ij
nt„.f ^ ^*'''™'f'°" *■"'■ communion to
6e g^en pro misericordia," at the end of a year
uonnished. The history of the steps by which
afe't^^tf'^™^'""''^'! '""^ P""""-* custom ga^e
^ace to the mediaeval practice of first absolving
Md reconciling, and then inflicting penance b£
loiigs to a date which lies nnt-i.^i> ?• r"^'r' "^
., iriuLu lie. nuT-iiae mis work.
r.tl, ^ °^ ^t>solution.~m long after the
Caro ingian era, absolution was given in thp
ST7^ ""' '"-^Z indicativrfo™" '^:
•wdB, and imposition was never unaccompanied
HECONCnjATION 1761
s^terisi^/ir"''"^"'^'^"^"^'-
.,.r„.- 1. .; '""■>"» impositio n » oratio
by the Dra rtic . n^.V . }' ""^ "'"'* supported
tL P"^*"'"-' ot the church for many centuries
date in r T "'?" '" '"' """ent MS. of [hat
Remig ius TH: ^'''7'."' ^« "''bey of St!
0,^7' '""-V""""" '» that contained in th™
nf:r-^i--i--e-hsoi£
animas ligandi ktque soW di di enfef famf
harms prae'coeteris. Quodcunque 1 gave is &L"
Vice inquam eiusdpm H b„» ■ ."S'*''°"s, ate.
anH fhAA *" '"Kn'<^>-">g a remission of sins •
qiX*'re:oStioT[hr.::!: ';^£
supplementary benedictions: sSing generally
the history of the change from oL form 7'
another is this, the supplicatory wa^ the all ?
universal use of the church un to thl i^.u "
g>»thcr taken the nlacp nf fk. 1' , "°^
II f?ii
.1: hi
h.
17G2
RECONCIIJATION
ri'ileniptioniH mmo pivticipc* i\b niniil vinculo
jn'ciiitdiiiin iili«i)lvnt," &<:. l''or othor f(irni» in
tlui Lilt ill rliiinh, hcu lUitcramontttr. Orcijur. eel.
Jli'iiaril, |i. -'-li.
In \\\v (JriM'k church tho «n])pliciitnry form
hns noviM' lii'i'n ahanilonod. Ilotfi in the ciiilli'st
ond nicm' rccfiit KuchnloKiiw, the iihsoUiticm is
distiiiiiiy 11 |iiayor to (lOcl for iiardoii, fbxh ^t'
tuiv ii' iiTiritiiwv Kuonivwv. The (olidwini;
cnnipendidUH turm was rcpiesonleil to Morinun
(viii. 12) a.s in noneial use throuijh the (iifck
ohuiili in the iniihlle aRos, havini; cume down
iVoui an earlier date : hvrhs Atanora Svf !, iipti,
avyX'ipV"!'!' Toi aiioprlas rou A,, Uti abv rh
4. ViiYis.— Tho most conspicuous net in the
ceremonial of reconciliation was the Imposition
of hands. There is no occasion to cite authorities
for a practice which was as essential to the rite
of reconciliation as to that of coniirniation or
ordination. Indeed in many passnt;es the 3X-
pressiiin " iiuposition of hands" is identical with
ahsoUition; see, for instance, y1/)o,s<. Const, ii. IH;
I'acian, J.'ji. iii. ; SUitut. Keel. Aiiti'/. cc. 70, 78 ;
August. </<■ lliipt. iii. It>; V. 2U; I.eo, A'/i. .xcii. 17.
With the exception of this act, no other part of
the early ceremonial is known. It is prohnhle
that ("or many centuries the whole form of
reconciliation consisted in tho bishop layini;
his hands on the head of the penitent nnd
sayini; certain prayers, and perhaps making n
public announ<ement of his return to tho pence
of the church. Afterwards, no doubt a more
•laborate ritual was introduced, but there are no
materials from which to ascertain even approxi-
matidy the date n( its introduction. The Oela-
sian sacranientary is .idduced by Morinus ns the
earliest autliorily on the subject. After tlu!
prayers of the Mas.s, on " Keria 6 in Coen. Doui."
it puldishes an •' ordo a^'cntibus pocnit. piiblic,"
to this ell'ect : " On the mornint; of Holy Thurs-
day the penitent is to come forth from the place
where he has done penance, anil to present him-
self in the body of the church prostrate on the
ground." T. e deacon (in the Onlo Jiom. the
(trchdeacon) is then to accost the bishop in an
address which begins thus: "Adest, venc-
rabilis I'ontifex, te'mpus acceptum, dies propilia-
tionis divinae et salutis humanae," &c., at the
end of which the bishop, with the whole oongre-
gation, is to say certain verses of I'salm Ii.
The archdeacon is then to ask the bishop to pray
that the penitent maybe bronsht near to Ooil by
the divine i;race of reconciliation. After which
the penitents, having been solemnly warned
against a relapse by an attendant priest, are to
be formally abs.dved by tho bishop. Similar
directions, under the heading "de Keconciliationo
Poen. Capital. Criminis," are given in tho Hulo
of Chrodnpuig, of Metz (c. 28). This ritual is
also found, with some additional prayer.s, in the
most ancient MSS. of the Chilu Jhimmus ; in the
Gregorian sncramentary, " in Keriii .') de Coon.
Rom. ; and with some I'nrthcr additions, which
indicate a later compil.ition, in the spurious de
DivinCt Ojjkiis, cap. de Cwn. Dom., which bears
Uie name of Ali'oin.and there can be little doubt
that it represents in general outline the use ot
the Latin church on both sides of the Alps from
a very early age (Morin. *■ VVniV. viii. 11 ; ix.
3((). In the Knglish chun'h. public reconcilia-
tion was never appointed, as there was no public
RKCOXCIT.IATION'
penance n"heodor. rncnilrntlil, I. xiii. 4). In tin
(lallican church there are traces of a niiil-e el it,i„
rate ceremonial. Morinu-i prints (Appendix, pp.
,''il)M-li(iM) an olhce book from thi^' cathedral nf
Toulouse, apparently of the date of the' !Mli nn.
turv, containing very full and interesting diri'c-
tions for Ihi^ reconciliation of penitents. |';i|||,
.Sunday it calls the Sunday of iiidulgeace, miil
ap|ioiiits that at M o'clock in the morning •■f Ihc
following 'I'hnrsday tho arcdnh^acon is to ap|Mii,i( li
the bishop, se.'ited' on his thrcuie, sniToinili.l l,y
his (dergy, and to bo.v nnd kixs his kii , iiinl
announce to him that a crowil of piniti'iits is
staniling outside waiting to be recomiled hy h'»
miiii>tration. Upon hearing whi(di, the Kishup
will arise and walk in procession with his c|i.|,;y
to the door i)( the cl.uridi, nnd, Renting hiin.M.ff
there, will investigate the case of each, and sot
apart those who are to be reconciled. He will
then ro-euter the church and ascend the slips el'
the altar, with his face turned towards thi' piMii-
tents at the door, while four singing men, y\:\m\
at the door, (diant an antiphon, "If Tlmn, l.dnl,
wilt 1)0 extreme," &c., nnd four others tVoin he-
hind the altar respond, "As a sJiepherd gallicivtli
his Hock that is lost, so have I gathered tli.'(!."
The d<»»>con is then to bid the penitents c'litir llic
chundi, where they prostrate theiusehes, whjlo
an ollicewith speidal lections is sung on lliiir he-
half, after whicdi a special Mass, with appniprinle
prayers nnd reailings, is (dl'erod lor them ; iinj
immediately after tho gospel, the priest is to
preach to them, nnd when he has linisliel, tlie
deacon is to read a long exhortation, the |iri..st
exjilaining particular points in it. Wlien the
missa poenitentium is over, then are to folluw the
missa pro baptizamlis and the missa chiiMii;ilis,
and then comes the final oilice of recoiM iliitinn.
The bishop ascenils the pulpit, the I'enltoiits
prostrating them.selves round it, nnd the dciuoii
addresses liini with the same formula coiitiiiieil
in the earlier rituals: "Adest, veiieraKilin
I'ontifex, teininis acceptum," &c., at the comlii-
sion of which he leaves the pulpit and kneels
before the altar, while a long jienitential lit.iny
is sung ; he then again moimts the pulpit, the
priests standing in front of it, nnd on the ileiicnn
saying "Orate poenitentes," they prostrate them-
selves; and wdiile the bishop piononnies the
prayer of ahsoUition, seven forms of which are
given, two or four or more of the attendnut
priests li>y their hands on the penitents' lie.nls.
The deacon then accosts them, "snrgite do tenJ
reconciliati Deo," and they are admitted to com-
munion, receiving before the rest of the coiigie-
gntion, and, after one more admonition, linally
cease to bo penitents.
Private reconciliation would dilTer from the
public form only in tho absence of ceremoninl,
the two essential pcdnts of prayer and laying on
of hamls being maintained. For a specimen of
this ailmi:iistration of the private rite, see wli.it
is published fioni a Kouen MS. of the 10th cen-
tury bv Morinus (ix. ;)I).
!:. ilinistor. — The universal practice of the
church committed the power of absidution to the
hands of the bishop nhs(dntely. The decrees of
Nice (cc. I'J, 13) nnd Ancyra' (cc. 2, .''), leiving
to him the determinntiou of the length nnJ
severity of penance, assume the prevalenec
of this power. At a later date it was the sub-
ject of special enactments. Thus the second
RECOl
council of Carthage
[ircshyter to adniii,
a decision repeated
2 Couc. llispa). e.
c. 32 ; d Cone. Carth
c. 1 ; Cone. Kpaiiii. c.
thopenitinlial fThe
oilice to till' lilsliiip.
so long as public disi
the sole i.iinlsti'r id' i
the oilice was didegati
of whose fiinctions
(//. A', vii. 1(1) wr_, t
But allhuiigh the Id
vested with the powe
limes dcdcgaled to tl
long array of canons i
a presbyter In case of
with the .saiiclidii and
bi.iho|i, ;is in the aljsei
Cnrthag. e. 4, ,') Cone,
the penitent was in >la
Alex.iip. Euseb. //. A'.
Cyp. £/7). xviii., xix. ;
Eapon. c. lli), And n
danger was urgent ad
if the |iriest had ordert
or if .1 priest could no
imminent ((^'yp. JCji. x
ajfarent from c. 2 of i
i.D. ;i!t8, which prcdiil
tents, anil decrees thai
deacon, he shall be )da(
and denied the privil
linpiisiiion of hands wt
conlirnmtion, and recor
part in the two forme
have been customary (i
minister tho last, fho
the 9th century, in a
by Murtene (de Hit. i. e
the introduction to tl
(Wasstrselilcben, Dusa
•uch i)rivilege appear:
deacons in tho Greek i
lay absolution, and on t
canonists on its vnlidi
XIX. iii. 4 ; Morinus,
Africa, under the admin
clergy joined with the I
Reference is made to thi
ivi. 2, xvii.). The oust
in isolated dne, nnd a;
Carthage, a.d. 390, forb
take the rite of publi
probably fallen into disu
Toulouse Pontifical, to \
already made, the attei
hands on the penitents,
the prayers of absolutioi
6. Timf.— Reconciliatic
a public admission to cor
hare taken place in public
bration of the sacred m
quemquam in publicft m
of councils both in the
(2 Cone. Carthag. c. 3 :
*lle.xtiint ritual 'books si
reconciliation with the se
there is some variety of
die particular period in
ministered. Some place
OBKIST. AJIT— VOL. II
RECONCILIATION
ooundl nl CarthHKc (c. a) altoKetli.T forlmde n
preibylHr U, adii.M.iHfrr |.ul,li<- lecdiuMlTuti.m,
a decision iTjaMiti'd l,y {;„,„■. AkhIIi. <;. 4.1 „,„l
2 Cue. Ilispa). .;. 7. S.m. «1»„ (;„„„. kiji,,.,.
c32; :i Cnn... rnrthng. c. IIJ; 1 ('„„,.. Arau-i,.
c. 1; < »nr. K|,a„n. c. HI; ].,-„, Kp H«. .Similarly
tlioiMMiit.nlial CTIkmhI,,!-,. (|. jjii. 'j) ...iiiliiici tlii.
Mce tci tin' t.ii|,M|,. And in Ih,. W..Ht,.ni diiireli,
JO long as i„ili!ic, disripli,,,. was in (oit,., he waH
thi^sidc i.iiniBlii- (if i-ciMaiciliation. In tlio KaHt
the..|li,T was d.dr){»!i'd to the iH'nitcntiary, one
of wliosc liuu-Moiis Soziancn cipressly stalfcs
(//. !■:. vii. l(i) wiv, tjiar of alifl.dviMj! pcnitonts
But allln.uj{h till.' liisho), was alcain Inimally in-
vested with the jiowcr, in |,rac'ic(. it was soniu-
tinies .hdi'sratt'd to Ihd iircshytcrs. Thciv is 11
long array oC canons anIliorizinK the ministry of
apreshylcr in casi. of cnicrKoncy, only, howcivur,
with the sani'tionaudas the rc^irfscnlativi! oflhu
bishop, as iu tliu absiinc.. of thu hishop (J Cone.
Carthai;. c. 4, ,) Cone. ('Hrthajr. c. 32), or wiicii
the iienitent was in danger of death (A)). l)i<,n>/a.
Alex. ;i|.. Ensob. //. K vi. 44 ; (.'one. Kliher. c. ;)2 •
C'yp. .tV'/'- "viil., xix. ; 1 Cone. Arnnsic. c. 1 ; C'oac!
' Ejpon c. It)). And not only n jiriest, hut if the
daiit!er was urgent a deacon inight tnlie his idnee :
if the [iriust hiid ordered him (Cone. Kliher, e. 32),
or if a priest could not he f(jnnd, ami death was
immineut (Cyp. £p. xviii.). The same ii.sage is
apparent from e. :i of the (irst cnuneil of Toledo,
4.D. :m, wliich jirohiiiits the ordination of peni-
tents, ami decrees that if one has heen ord.iined
deacon, he shall he i>laced nmoni; the 8ul)-dea<ons,
and denied the privilege of laying on hands!
Impisiiiun of hands was used only in ordination,
confirnmtion, and reconciliation; deacons took uo'
part in the two former rites, it must therefore
have heen customary for them sometimes to ad-
minister the last. The same custom rcaiiiiears in
liie 9th century, in a ritual of Noyon, printed
by JIartene (<ie Jiit. i. 6), and at a later date in
the introduction to the pa. lionuin Penitential
(Wasscrsehleben, Ihmordmimjen, p. 360). No
luch privilege appears to have hi>cn given to
deacons in the Greek church. On the three of
lay absolution, and on the o|)inions of the Koman
canonists on its validity, see liingham, Antiq.
XIX. iii. 4; Morinus, de I'oenit. viii. 24). In
Africa, under the administration of Cyprian, the
clergy joined with the bishop in laying on hands.
Reference is made to this on two occasions {Epp.
Ill 2, xvii.). The custom appears to have been
in isolated dne, and as the second council of
Carthage, a.d. 390, forbade presbyters to uuder-
talte the rite of public reconciliation, it had
probably fallen into disuse by that date. In the
Toulouse Pontifical, to which reference has been
already m.ide, the attendant priests laid their
hands on the penitents, while the bishop read
the prayers of absolution.
^' .^""^•~'*^'=»0'^''iati"n being consummated by
a public admission to communion, it must always
haretaken place in public serviceduring the cele-
bration of the sacred mysteries. " lieconciliare
qoemquam in publicft missa " was the language
of connciLs both in the 4th and 7th centuries
[i Cone. Carthag. c 3 ; 2 Cone. Hiapal. c. 7).
Ml e.n|mt ritual books similarly connect public
reconciliation with the service of the Alass. Ijut
here is some variety of custom with regard to
the particular period in which the rite was ad-
ministered. Some place it ut the beginning of
OHHIST. ANT —VOL. 11.
RECONCILIATION 17f)3
I the ofliee, and this appeals l(, be tht intention of
; tlie (hil.i Itnmmm; hut the more usual intiTva!
I was immediately after the leading of the (Jo»i,el.
I in the (ielasian saeramentarv the penitential
; oll.ee IS succeeded by the directh.n. " l>o,tea
j oflert p ebs," that is to say, it immediately pro-
ceded the (,IIerlory. 1„ the Toulouse I'mililicnl
{Monn. App., j,p. .SUH-(;n«) the HiumI >,( rei'on-
ciliati.,11 IS intermingled with three masses, hut
tieiinal absolution lakes pln.e alter the gospel
01 the last and the most scdemn of them. In the
(ireek enehologies tint prayers of absolution for
"lie under exeomniuniiation are to be said just
hehu'u the priest places the elements on 'the
altar.
With regard to the time of vear, re.onciliation
appears from an early age to have h.ntn restricted
to the paschal season, although there is no evi-
-Icnce by which to ascertain when the restriction
icgau. in the time of iniioicnt 1., a.d. 40 '-417
both the season and the ,lay had become fixed'
I'c 1 emtentibiis ,,uintil leriA ante I'.ischa
ei« remitt..ndum Homaime ecelesiae consiietinlo
deinoastrat ■• (A>;. 1. 7). The Thursdov in
K)ly Week, from a period at least as early as
the beginning of the 5th century, was therefore
tlie day in general use in the Western church
f>" the Penitential of Tl dore (I. xiii. 2)
and the subsequent peniteiUials, to which at!
ordo IS attached. A passagein Ambrose (Ep.
3.) nd Marrell.) p.dnts to (iood Kri lay as tlui
usual day for relaxing penance in the iK.rth of
Italy a suppositi<,n which is perhaps suioK.rted
by the i.rayers appointed for » Feria sexta in
1 arnsceue,' in the Ovdo Atnlmsianus, all of which
, relate more directly to imrdon and i(.mission of
''ins than those of the Thur»dav previous.
Worinm; relying on a pa.ssnge in 4 Cone. Toiet.
c. 7, would cKtend the same cu.stom to the
bpanish church, but the words of the canon
clearly refer, not to penitence, but to repent.ince
genera ly There was no reason why one day in
the Holy Week shoul.l not be held as suitable as
another, and it is highly probable that in different
parts of the church different days were .selected •
but after the 7th century all trace of variety o*
time ceases. No surviving ritual or pontiKca/
alludes to any other day than the O.ena Domini,
ami all Koman canonical writers cite the assertiou
ot Iniujcent as conclusive with respe.t to thf
westerff custom. In the east public reconcilia
f on was granted apparently on any .lay at thi
close ot the Il(dy Week, or even on Easter Day
Ihis appears incidentally from a letter addressed
by certain monks under excommnnication to the
council of Chalcedon; they complain that the
times of Christ's passion and the holv eve, and
day of Resurrection, on which festival penance
was wont to be remitted by the Fathers, had
passed by and they had not yet been absolved
(Bingham, ylniiy. XIX. ii. 10). Gregory of Nyssa
at the opening of his canonical epistlJ, simiiarly
speaks of Easter as a time suitable for the
sinner s restoration. In the ca.se of the sick or
dying, reconciliation was given of course at any
season; and so with respect to private penance,
.niwnhition Could not have been couhne.1 to a
particular season although, to a great extent,
the private ministration kept to the time of the
public and more solemn rite.
7. Place.— y/hea the system of the stations
[Penitence, p. 1591] was rigidly enforced, thf
112
«;:.!,]
' )
• ' ! - ' I ■
"•■■' *.l
I'
;
i
1
i
;
I
^■'Jl
:M
,S>: .V'-'i
[it'4
17.-4
RECONCILIATION
p«nltcnt was move^l station by station towarda
the Kunrtuary, till ho anivcil aiiiouij the cunsis-
tentes, ami stoml with them near the altar whuii
the sacieil mysteries were heini; ti'lebriite<l. So
when his own time nt' reconciliation cune, the
bishop's han.ls were lai.l u|>oii him, kneeling in
front of the altar : "ilivino altario recon( iliatiia "
(1 Cone. Tolet. c. 2). The tnir.l council of
Carthage has a canon (.:. ;I2), which, after stating
the conditions on which a priest may recoiicile,
adds, that where the crime has been scaudalous
the reconciliation shall take place, "ante- npsi-
demi"on the principle, no doubt, that when
the iitTince had been open and notorious, the
absolution should be open and public also. In
the elaborate Gothic ritual cited above from the
CmU'x 'IVosnrtHt of Morinus, the penitents are
gathered round the pulpit to receive Imp.psition
of hands, and their reconciliation is altcrwnrds
completed by reception with the faithful, of
course at the altar. In the Ordo Romanus,
Fcriii .'), in Own. Dorm., in the Gelasiau sacra-
mentary, and in the later pseu lo-Alcuin, Do
l>ivinis\>ficUs,the penitents are directed to present
themselves for reconciliation, " in gremio eccle-
»iae." An<l in a MS. of Kvreux appended to the
Pontifical of Kgbert (Marteue,(/e Jiit. i. 6) direc-
tions are given that the bishop is not to mount
his throne on the day of reconciliation, but is to
remain either near or in front of the altar.
H. Absolution of the Sick.— There are two lead-
ing decisions on the treatment of the sick in
the early centuiies, which at first sight are nt
variance. The first council of Aries (a.D. 314)
(c. 2.') had decreed that apostates and others who
sought tommunion on a sick bed wore to be
.refused it until they recovered, and had had an oji-
portuuity of performing penance. And this is in
• accordance with what Innocent (ffp. ni. ad Ex-
sujicr.) states to have been the early custom, that
at first penance was granted to such delinquents,
but not communion ; and that afterwards, on
the conversion of the empire, a more lenient rule
prevailed, and communion was refused under no
circumstances to a dying man. On the other hand,
the council of Nice (c. 13) orders the itaKaths Kai
KcwoftKhs yiuo! to be maintained of giving an
i<t)6Stoy to a dying man. The explanation of the
apparent discrepancy is that the canon of Aries
applied to delinquents generally, v^ile the
Nicene canon, as is evident from the^ecisions
immediately before and after it, had reference to
those who were already penitents. The primi-
tive church order therefore was that notorious
offenders, whose repentance began only on their
death-bed, were to be granted i)enitence, but not
communion, while those who were already peni-
tents wore always to be allowed plenary recon-
ciliation when in danger of death. Afterwards,
from the beginning of the 4tb century, the
former restriction was removed, and all sick men
who desired it were to be allowed the benefit of
absnlutiou. "They," said Leo (iS'p. xci ), " who
in time of urgent danger seek the safeguard of
penance and subsequent reconciliation must not
be refused, because we cannot restrict the time
to God's compassion nor ]uit any limit upon it.
Therefore we ought not to be hard in dispensing
the gifts of God, nor ought we to ignore the tears
and the contrition of the penitent, because we
believe that that very emotion of repentance
•prings from the inspiration of God." He there-
RECONCILIATION
fore rules In the same epistle that the graoe of
comiBuiii m is to be given if the sick penitent
his lost his voice, and can only make a >ii;u. At
the same time there was lot theoame ass.irance
felt of the final pardon of the sinner, "lean
give him ,ieniti'nce and abs(dution," said Alnil;()^^l
(lit Kxliurt. ixd J'm-nit.), " \ canuot g've tiim in-
tainty." The fourth council of ('arlhai;!' ( j. "il)
had decreed that if the patient had bocmiie ..tasi'-
less before his request I'orabsidutinii could lie c^.m-
plied with, he >hciuld sti.'l be absolved, and the
siicred elements be jiut into his moutli, tn wli''.'h
the eleventh council of Tcdedo, A.I). Ii7r> (e. 11),
added that the communion would be i.iiui|iletc
though the sick man could drink thii cup only,
and was too weak to swallow the bread (<ee l:'
Cone. Tolet. c. 2, 13 Cone, Tolet. c. 9). Ani
further, if any penitent was siiatche.l away by
sudd'Mi death, in the fields or on a journey, with-
out communion, the first council of VaJM n, a.d.
4+2 (c. 2), decided that his memorial an. I funeral
rites should be the same as if he had die I in tin
peace of the church. The 4 One. Carthni,'. c. 70,
and 11 Core. Tolut. c. 12, came to tlie .«ame
decision. In the Koman church, however, ,i
severer practice prevailed. "We cannnt," says
Leo {Ej>. xcii. 6), "communicate with those
when dead with whom we did not coiuniunitatS'
when living." This strictness was niaintainel
by the subsequent popes Gelasius and Vigiliuj,
but afterwards abandoned in the filth Kuikiiq
council, A.D. 553, and the whole western praotlos
was then uniform. From the ecclesia^tic;il rule
that a penitent did not die out of cuminnninn
with the church, who, from the accident of hi»
death, was unable to obtain the eucharist, arnse
the custom of absolving the deail. tJrepny the
Great ordered a prayer of absolution ty be read
over the body of a certain monk who i.,.! died
suddenly under excommunication, with miiatu-
lous results, according to John the deaeen (li(j
Oreg. i. 45). For similar instances of iilisolution
of the deaii see Gregor. Dialfxj. ii. 23, iv. 55. At
first the absolution went no further tli^in the
offering of prayers and masses for the snuls of
the dead, but in the time of Innocent 111. it «a.s
decreed that the whide ceremonial of abvjlution,
with penitential psalms, &c., was to be ol)serve<l.
Karly Greek euchologies contain many s|)ecial
prayers for absolving the dead (.Moriu. ik
I'ocnit. X. 9).
There is no record of any early rites peculiar
to the reconciliation of the sick. ' The ceieraony
would probably be confined, with more or less
formality, to prayer and imposition of hands, and
administration of the eucharist. The third
council of Tole<lo (c. 12), followed by 1- Cone
Tolet. c. 2, 13 Cone. Tolet. c. 9, ordains that the
sick penitent, no le.ss than the sound, should be
8h,-»ved, and if a woman, be veiled, and be
sprinkled with ashes, and clothed in .sackcloth.
And this practice, with some variety, lonj? con-
tinued, for some ancient IISS., quoted by Menard
in his notes to the Gregorian aacranientary, relet
to sackcloth being laid about the head of the
dying, and a cross made of ashes and water being
placed in some instances on his breast, and in
otheri on his forehead. It was the custom oi
the IJenedictines to wrap a brother in extremity
altogether in haircloth. For further partieulars
see Viaticum, and for clinical jjcnaace genfrally,
Penjte.nck, p. 1606.
RECOKCILIATIOV
8. K.,r recoHcliation of hoivii,.., ,vhi,h wns
.otm. „„., l,v u,u.ti„„, s„„u.,i,„.',, l,v „ ,,r . , ;
[«. M.]
Prill I 111. ID ,V';.' ""^ A Church
. un.lir a l.nn wa, .,,1,1 to be c/„i„, T (w,„
ar.,«. t„ the ,.,opnety «,ul th. .u-cmI „f , , "^
.o,M...l„n^ to free her .„cre,| bi.il,, n^, ! m
he ,M,lluti„n contrnctiHl. •_' Chn,,, xxi,
h,.t„n,e) relate, at great length h"l kn^
He/ekmh "opene., the ,l,,.„r8 „,• the house „fh''
LoriVaner thev ha.l been "shut - bv he M „,
Aha. an.! „„(, what ri.es and ;acrifi 'es he
«ma,le reconciliation- (V. 24) upon the a tar
The chief instance of recnciliation .,f the
(secn„,l temple took place after the pollotU ,.
U by Antiuchus Kpiphancs. „|| the detalT
that .vhich givea this ritual its abiding intere
and inHuence is not only that the anniversan
w«. s„on after observed as the Keast o, S-
H,m,,el (S,t John x. 22), even by Him who
w„o drove the buyers and sellers^ut of the
^mple using the signKicant words, "mak no
M> tathcr s house a house of moichandize."
Ihe early part of the 4th centurv, which was
Iked" V The'"'' "'"';'' ''"'''""^- -- -
hee which »*/"'' 'P''-"'* "^ "-e Arian
Oeiesv, which, as it was agL-ressive in thn
cm, oyment of litanie., in a fite spirit gaie.
for the heretics the (temporary) possession of?he
W'tli rahT- T'^ P'"U« Worentertai ed
by e Catholics of any contact with heretics
ou tless led them to institute and use some
mJo. rite suitable to the occa-ion w hen thTy
recovered their own churches, though no early
rn^stunce or form ha, come down to\s Nice^.
phoPis refers to the edict of Jovian by which
ch„rches of God were again "opened." „
he ^loramentary of Gelasius. Xo. xciii, there is
.nolfice for dedicating a building hitherto use
^ a synagogue "quod perditum fuerat ante
atibulum, et quia infidelium turba in Istoloco
con eniebat adversa" (p. 617 | ed. JIurat.). "J
ffonld scarcely venture to affirm (says Gussan-
JltlT' '^ ""'""'"''' "" S'- Gregory the Grea?)
hat the churches of the Catholics, after occupl
fill ■, n'"'' ."'"" "'""y* dedicated by a
fi hnte. But whatever took place in forme?
times Gregory certainly, a most experienced
Riuiahst, consecrated anew churches pofluied by
And accordingly we find instances recorded in
..^r^' V'''"g»- In a letter to Peter a
Meacon of Campania (^/.-.i. lib. iii. 19) ' he
TZT '"\S"«t anxiety to dedicate to the
reverent worship of the Catholic religion places
trtnr?gt"rr''"°^=-^-r^''-'"'"
«;^ii'^sr::ci;=p:;f^
!;St^L7iir^---Av
RKCONCn.IATION 1765
of the Arinns, in that region of the city called
r. , . K '",■"'• "■"' '" '"> 'le'linated afresh
a^=,l!;;r:f;be^!;:^:^-:;;■/
* rtgoij) that fr„m ,he same place was goina
out the ui... eaii inhabitant of 'the place " H?
record, sundry other "wonders" o'f the same
L-tE'in'hi;" '"'"'"': "'"-^i:™''"- fr"", Victor of
b«siiica:fKaust,:s";i,:Li^S::fr'r
«.>.l after a little while emptied and ( lie' w h
« multitude of swine, a p.uible of iu bein.'g? „'
uj) to the Arians. * s'"-"
A very old MS. of the sacramentnry of Gregory
f^^pl^Sdifp-- ;;-,--;:
?i cs of t)VT '."""'"' '•>• **•« '"^rilegiou
aoks of the (Lutychian) Anthimus, patriarch
direc.^of;:,^^,r..:i;xi:;:::i^
to the bishops of Italy, saying it was what he
had done himself at Constantinople for the ake
ofthe Catholic religion and king Theodorfc the
p.ous orthodox emperor .lustin extirpating the
Aran,. Whatever churches we found in ^their
diodTt8w'^TX°^ Constantinople, who
aiea A.D. BO. had like work to do. Amongst
found "a prayer of Tarasius on the onenin»
'* ■•. n^i' » L ,S?.: , S: *r„sr/
ceieorated. "A prayer to be said, before the
customary one at the beginning of the Ma,, on
the icnnciliation of a chnrch in whfch il'h " '
Jwened that a man has met with a vten"
pontific, of Egbert, fro^m tt Kf '^Z^^
Hospinian {de Orlg. Templomm, lib. iv n
3/9, ed. Tiguri), according to his custom of
disparagement, ridicules all ritual of thTind
And he refers with more approval to the case of
a deacon of Xestoriu., who hid polluted a church
at Constantinople, when NestoHus"did not use
deto:tom"'h*''' I""' '"* ^""'''y '«"">""" "he
aeacon from his pl.^cc and oilicc." To iiiHict
couiae. Of old, however, a difJ'erent view was
taken .f .such calamities. Socrates (i^^/^yT.'
mttlr^ to "''' •■ "J''' ^'''^*' "^ « ■•'•<=h harbar I;-
Z wkh d ''' ''" ^'".^''y' «•"* *" 'he church,
and with drawn swords leaped •> the alUr Of
5X3
iM
:,iifll
■it
'.m
I ' ■'
1766
RECTOR
ciiir*.' the (livinn offl.e roul.l not go nn. They
thieateiieil every one thiit .nine nenr, kille.l one, ;
„oun.le,l ftiiother, «n.l then kille.l then..elve». |
One of those who were tlieie xnid thit the pro- i
faniition of the temple foreh.Kle.l no « I. Mir i
was th«t .ayinu falne, for it poitMn-Unl the
rupture of th.' people, ftnil the .lepoMtion ..f him
who caused it (i.«. Ncitorius)." ["• "'J
RKCTOU (1) Thw woril rector is used by
Greirory the Oreat in the lie,iul,i I'a^tvniUa as
equivalent to pastor ; and a prie.t is .aid to rule
(r.'tjere) hiH people ('Vmc. £(ib. c. 77). Soe
PARmii, :>, iv. p- 1500.
(2) The lend r of each aide of an antiphonal
choir 18 -cnl'.ed rector chori, as in iin nn.ieut
Sarum miwal quoted by Martene, Do JiU. Ant.
i. 240.
(3) The pope ii lometimes styled rector aanclae
kJ(s (Mairl Jlierolcx.). L^O
REDEMPTION (/i'«Am/)<ir').--ComiTintatlon
of ecclesiastical penance. The origin of the
system is doubtless to be trace.l in the dispensing
power vested in the hands of the I Miop. This
power existed from the very first. Indeed the
later custom of assigning tixe.l sentences to par-
ticular sins was a development of a tar earlier
practice, which left the determination of the
length of penance entirely in the hands ot the
bishop. But even after a code of penitential
laws was established all authorities agreed in
leaving to the bishop the power of relaxing or
remitting a sentence. The bishop, declared the
council of Ancyrn (c. 5), shall bo the judge of the
siu.erity of a penitent's contrition, and may
either increase or diminish his period ol exclu-
sion. If the delinquent manifested his earnest-
ness by fear and tears and patience, and good
works, then, said the council of Nice ( . 12), the
bishop may relieve him from passing m ep by step
through his allotted stations. For furtli.'r illus-
trations of the exercise of IndULGENCK see Basil,
£,,.acl Amphit. cc. 2, 7, 54, 84; Greg. Nyss. /->.
ad Letoi., passim ; 4 Cone. Carthag. c. 75 ; Cone.
Andegav. c. 12; Inm.r,.nt, Ep. i. 7; Leo, Kp.
cxxix. 5. The object oi this power ot dispensa-
tion was not to exempt men from penance, but to
excite them to perform it. It was natural and
equitable that one who shewed earnestness in
his repentance should not be debarred from the
privileges of the church for so long a time as
one who paid only a formal and perfuiv tory obe-
dience to the letter of the law which had con-
demned him. And probably for the first five
centuries the only means of redeeming penance
were zeal and sincerity in the performance of it.
After the 6th century there begin to be traces
of a more corrupt dealing with the censures
of the church. As the life of the penitential
svstem died out penance came to consiNt more and
liore in outward acts alone; it lost it.s original
notion of a censure and means of improve ment,
and came to be regarded solely as a punishimnt ^
sin wa,s to be expiated by submission to certain
penalties, regardless of the state of mind of the
oB> "der. To redeem peuauce was thcrei'rr --
gui-titnte one outward form for another. The
delinquent »=»» allowed to pui > hase a remission
of lengthy acts of self-denial by undertaking
others which were shorter and more laborious,
er by Tolunnrily depriving himself of something
REDEMPTION
vnloable to him. The pi In. Iple being ..nee eon.
ce.le.l, re.leinpli.ais <d' penan.e w.mld b.i ..ms
general, an. I w.iuM be t..lerati'.| ni'.re l.lii.iilly
tV..lii the .■iicuiiislali.e that tli.'y lnougl.t Iim-
terial prolit t.i the churili an.l h.T lui.-is.
Moreover, in those parts of the ihiii.b whcia
the system prevaile.l, penance coiisist.'.l aliii.Kt
exclusively of long fasts ami iibstiii.-n.'es, ;in<l It
must fieii'ueiitly have bapp.'ni'.l that ..win; to
sickness, .ir oth.'r circumstances, it wmild ho
iinpra.tlcable t.i .disei ve them, or fr.'m an ii.iii-
niulati.in ol crimes their iluiiiti.m ininht 1..' «o
cxteii.ieil that lii.' w.julil n.it be l.mg I'l ;;h Cur
their cumpletiou. S.ime .lispensing p.iwer vv.aill
then be nei:essHry to assign more expivlitlmu
modes of carrying o"t the sentence. Th.> p.-ii.ti.c
also among tbe T.'ut.inic tribes of coiiipi.iMi.liiijr
for personal injuries by money puymenls wiailil
readily lea.l t.i a similar composiliiin for iiil'iiiii;e-
ments of the law of the church. Tlui^ the
system of the commutation of penan.f, wlii.h
is altogether alien from the meaning an.l ..hji.t
of a spiritual censure, but which has the saiiitiuii
of honoured names in early F.nglish .liur.h
history, grew up. The power of grant iiij; .r
refusing such re.lempti.insat first no d.iul.t wAtA
entirely with the bishop or priest; nft.VH.ii.ls
the penitent was allowed to cho.ise for himsilf,
and systematic scales of penitential valius were
ilrawn up. It has been customary to assume that
the system originated in our own lau.l with
archbishop Theodore. Moriuus((/e I'ocnit. i. 17),
however, hail the sagacity to reject as hpurimij
thechajiter in his so-called penitential on which
the assumption is based. Since the .lisiovcry
of the true penitential it is clear that re.li'in|ition8
were permitted a century before Theo.loie'8 time.
Wns.serschleben (Die Bussord. pp. lltii-UH) has
published fragmentary collections of Irish canons,
all of very e.irly date, and some containing
decisions of synods over which SI . I'at rick piesitlcJ.
[PeNitkmiai. Books, p. 1609.] Amoni; "ie»«
" Canones Hibernenses " is one series whicli treats
entirely " De arreis " (arrhis, pledges). It con-
tain- nine ditferent redempti.ns of the penance
of year. In the preface in i he penitential of
Tb. i>dore is an ackn.iwledgm.'ut by the uu»no\VD
editor of the use in its compilation of a " liliellui
scotorum," i.e. an Irish booli, and it is highly
probable that from these early Irish canons Theo-
dore drew his reference to the practice of com-
mutations. Ho did not himself orininale tlie
system ; he found it existing, and gave it his
sanction . " Item xii. triduana pro anno pen-
sanda Tcodorus laudavit. De aegris vero pretium
viri vel ancillae pro anno " (Penitent. I. vii. 5).
See ibid. I. iii. 3 ; I. iv. 1. Such a system as that
by which a sinner was allowe.l to pur.hasc him-
self free from the spiritual penalties attacheJ to
his sin was likely to be popular ; an.l in the
interval betwe»n the publication of the reir-
tential ot Theodore and that of Be.lc it grew
with amazing rapidity. The latter treatise m-
elude.! with a chapter on commutations unJer
twelve headings, out of which apparently the
■ penitent was at liberty to select the easiest and
' Liost ejpediti.-.>:s-.«o.lcof pertl.rmint' his penance.
; He might choose almsgiving, or strip.s. or psilni-
singing, with genuflexions, nn.l ii is turthet
I provided (Baed. Poenitent. x. 8) that if he .annot
' learn psalms he may pick out some holy man to
undertake for a consideration the penalty itoteaU
RF
of him. The nam
iri'hliiih..|i KgUert,
liliuin misi'riconii
liv,-«vi.) lays bef.
UDlii.iiti-.l clioice II
onrriipti.in conlin.
Kmnkish penitentii
p. 4tl.)) is e.iually
penan.e, ami give
itletli.jilH by wlii^h i
date Ki'gin.i of Piiii
tions ..I' p.'iian.'e, pr
in iiiipiililishi'.l M.S.
c. '.'rt, Cm.'. Triliur.
tions cited by Duiai
the (Ills.' of the Htli
eiiiially In Italy, Oa
17), iii.l the council
to have iiia.le any sc
Knulaml thesyiio.l o
ari'hhishiip Cuthberl
in«lle.aual protests.
were to be given, no
ing caii.inical peiianc
wrulli ; similarly (c
sung, iu onler that a
be omitt.>.l ; still U
their wealth to relie
of their sins. A cei
coun.Ml of 'I'ribur. (cc
late inilisiM'imiiiate ri
the (irst year of peua
cause, should be r
leoouil and third, po
muled I on the treati
there was no restricti
The methoils of
Twciily-fiiur "biilua
ftitirig, were o<iuivj
(Bad. IU. X. •>). Inst
3iiO psalms said kne:
bending the knee, 3
Poeniteutiae.") Kiftj
or seventy without,
dny'saljstinence on bre
lii. 11). Fifty psalm
nine ns the whole |
f.rf. XV.). The peiiil
psj.lins must prostraft
the Miserere (ihiii. xvi.
sion by getting a priei
The "Canones Hibern
ditions t.i the saying o(
Mid (c. ;!) at the tomb
itamling for three days
or drink, or sleep. Ai
sition was scourging. I
fourth year of a penalt
lashes on the bare b.
assesses a day's penan*
the Cipitula Herardi (a
was t.i li(. applied durin
the psalm-siiiijing wa.s
!"nny "p.ilmatae," wh
jectures to mean not str
tions, and with the pal
on the gr.iund. Moro g
t."ii.i any of the above ri
money payment. Thcodi
a thief to escape part ol
restitnthm, or (ibid. I.
Wood-feud by compositi
m^' • '
REDEMPTION
of him. rho mine »VHt...n was t.,|,.rate<l by
»rrhhi.hu|, l-.Kb«rt, Lfn.l,.,- the |,l„a ..(„ •• eo...
liliuin ini»..ii™i.'iiie" his /'-■/.//«,,/, .Mxill II
.iv. ,vi.) iHy. huCon. th« ,i,|i„,,„,„t „„ „|n,„,,t'
UDlii.uti.l i-lioico .)) r«l.'iii|ilioii8. Nor wiw (he
coniC|.tinii rnnliiH.,! to thcno i,U„,|, Tlie
JmiiKuh penlioiitiiils (i( Cuiiime.in ( W',i»,crH.h
p. 4ti:l) i« ,.,|UMlly |,,ii...,t in th„ n-m,n,imi „}
pen.u..» «n,| S5iv,., « U,ng ,.,.tal,,KU.. „f tho
mKlHKh hy whlMi it ran be leilrenad. At a later
d»te l!.^Mno of Piiim U»u,.,l „ |„bl,, „f ,;,„„„„„„.
tioni nf |„.nan™, piinle.l by Moiinus (x. Kilfmni
•n ,i«|,nMiHh..,| M.S. s„c aUo r',./„Y„/„ //,,.,„.,,
c. •.'«, ( .a,,' Iribur. a.D. 89,5, r. ,V) ; an,| iljn,!,-,,:
tions ,.|t..,l by Du.anKe, .,. «. ■' l-onnitenlia." At
the ,■ o«,. «t the mi, ceutuiy the nbn»e |,.evaile,l
e,|u;illy Ml Italy, (,«„), ,^,,1 (Jmmanv (Morin, x
1.), iii.l the councils of the period ,|o not appear
to have made any .seri.ius ..(Inrtu to (•heek it In
Lnilin.l the synod of ('l(,ve»bo«(A.li. 747) under
aiThl,i,l,„p Cutl.bert, publi»bed some str-mg but
luelleetiial protesta. Alms, it de(dared (c '«)
were to be given, not for the purpose of diminish.
lUK eniioiiical penance, but to appease the Divine
wrath ; similarly (c. 27), psalms were not to be
sung, lu or.ler that abstinence an<l fasti-iij might
be omitted; still less might the rich employ
their wealth to relieve them from the penalties
of their sins. A century and a half later the
council ol Iribur. (cc. 5ii-,5M) attempted to regu-
late ln.ll^crlminate redemi.tion by decreeing that
the hrst year of penance, except tor some urgent
cause, should be rigidly performed ; of the
secnud and third, portions only might be com-
muted ; on the treatment of the remaining v :,
there was no restriction.
The methods of redemption were various
Twenty-lour " biduana," jwriods .„„ days'
faitiiig, were equivalent to a ■. i m nice
(Baed, /Va. x. 2) Instea,! of one « vk of , .-nance,
3»0 psalms sanl kneeling, .,r, if said without
bonding the kuee, 324 (Cumiman " ,le Modis
Poenitentiae. ') Kifty psalm- with geuutlexious,
or seventy without, might ompound for one
day sabstinence on bread and water (Kgbort, Poen
111. U). Fifty psalms in winter had the' same
Taliie as the who!,, psalter at another season
f .«/. .u-.). Ihe p. ..1,1 wishing to sav fewer
I»ilins mnstprostiai.- himself oftener and say
the Miserere (ibki. xvi.), or he may obtain remis-
610D by getting a priest to .say masses for him
Ihe "Canones Hiberneuses " attach other con-
aitions to the .saying of psalms ; they should bo
Mid (c. ;l) at the tomb of a saint, or (c. 4) while
itauding tor three days in a church without food
or Jnak, or sleep. Another method of compel
«monw.xs scourging. Bedo(/V„. x. ti) sutlers the
ourth year ot a penalty to be redeemed by ;100
la«hes on the bare body. Egbert (I'en. xv)
awesses a day's penance at twelve strokes. Jn
the Upituh Henirdi (apud Morin. x. 16) the rod
was to ,e applied during vigils. In Bede (x. 1-5)
the psalm-singing was to be accompanied by so
many ••palmatae," which Ducange (s. r.) con-
jectures to mean not strokes of a rod, but proatra-
tion.s, and with the palms of the hand extended
on the ground. More general and mnr» corn-pt
j^a «u.v 0. tne above redemptions was that of a
money payment. Theodore (h-n J. iii. .1) allowed
a thief to escape part of his penance on making
Mood-teud by composition with the relatives of
BKOIO
1767
l>l« vlcllni. He also (,/„•,/, J y, .X
-•'•"ntenanced the bare and direct purhaal ,f
•;■""- 'n i'-le-H ,.ompi|,.,i„„ the loor w«
su ce oVi7 ""■":""".'"'■«-' "l"'»K'iving would
Me must give a deriariii, liaiJv to the i,.,.r i.
».i. .tion to tasting (/,„, ,. ■';, " ^'"th' Egbe t
'•Hemption by m„neyi «ope„lv'rec, gnized J .
must distribute in alms tweuty-six solidi forth.
: •", twenty. &c. (/.,.,.. xiif II, •\,i'';
."w«rli, man he must release so nanyll-^
nd captives. The (;„;«<«/„ ,w |;„^,|n„ JJ'^^."[
•Kular scale. Kor seven weeks' penance a n h
nitord so much, ten, nn.l a poor man three The
suvans ol <i"d, ,ir in alms to the poor. By
^-nc. Iribur. c. .-,0, the Wednesday, K iday and
Saturday fasts might be redeemed l, a din^S
01 by th,,. support of three poor pe ,. At a
»„ ' I •■ '^ '"• !•• •'•') ""■"""" the buildine
and midowing of churches, making bridge „„,?
cXstfi 'r '"■'^''^''yM;- ■■ e-f coiSm'ut g
ec.les nst cal censures. To these may be added
:h;ii'r'"^'"'" »'"«"-«--' war agai':st
[O. M.]
KEPECTORY. [Monastkrv, p. 1240.]
UEOALE. By the right of reqale we are to
I nderstan, the claim on the part of the s„ve,eign
"1 a c-untry to enjoy the incomes of vac' n?
bshopn,,, , t„ p^^.,„^^ ac..,
ecclesiastical places or benefices, except the
ordinary parochial cures. And the right 'of the
king to he episcopal income-according o the
trench lawyers-was not cMinguished^y he
n ere appointment of a new bisl,,,,!^ but contLied
oh / ';r'7-"Pl"''n'«J bishop had taken the
oath of allegiance in due form (DOllinge- in
M-n.U.ic.n s. v.). The f.iU devel?,pmeit
of this claim belongs to mediaeval and nfodern
times; but so much as belongs ,„ our period
may be se, n under Vaoancv; lii.siiop n Tlfif-
PttlNCKS, ALLKUIANCK TO. ' ^' (J^-j '
REG EN8E CONCILIUM. [R.ez.]
...P^^IfE, another torm of "rugae." Ma-
tinct.on b,..tween the two which i. probably
without foundation. [E V 1
REGINA, ST., virgin and martyr, Sept 7 •
commemorated at Autun (Mart Usuard '
tiieron., Wandalb. ; Boll. Acta SS. Sep. iii! 24) '
rc HI
RKGIO. In the pagan history of Rome the
word mens a quarter, district, or ward of the
city In the tinie of Augustus, the city itself
was divided into fourteen such wards.
Thp term was adopted by Christianity, and was
made to serve the purposes of the church. The
Onto Somawis (ap. Uucange) observes that there
were seven Regiones in the ecclesiastical division
of Rome. But in the time of Gregory the Great
there were fourteen Regiones (Morinus dg Sacr
1768
RBOIONABIUS
Ord. iii. 8). Each had its regionary deacons,
siibdeiccns, and acolytes. The regions took their
turn by a regulated cycle in the j«ntihenl
ministration of Easter week, each region being
responsible for a day, and each region had its
assigned precedence both in church and in pro-
In the collection ot rubrics, taken from the
Salzburg PontiHcal, and headed de Gr""'""^
Ecclesiae Somanae (Martene, I. viii. xi. Ordo »),
we find that at ordination there was a gathering
of the regions— " fit enim conventus populi
et congregatio regionum primum ad S. Adri-
anum." , ,, ,
The regions had officers, who were called
patroni renionum (Martene, ibid.) The term
existed as early as the time of Clement 1. ; lor
Publius Tarquinius, stirred with envy at the
increase of the Christians, tried the inHuencc ol
money with these officers to check its progress.
"Vocavit ad se patronos regionum et data eis
pecunia monuit ut seditionem excitarent nomini
Christiano." (,Hist. Clem. /.) The patront how-
ever, in this case, may perhaps have been civil
officers. L"- 1- A.J
EEGIONABIUS. The term is sometimes
used absolutely and by itself as the name of an
office (Greg. Mag. vii. i. Ep. 5), and sometimes
as an epithet with other official titles, notarius,
diaconus, subdiaconus, defensores. An example
of this may be tal^en from the second council at
Rome (A.D. 745), where the word occurs in this
connexion: " Accipiens Theophanius notarius
regionarius et sacellarius relegit. . . ." (Actio
1 ; Labbe, vi. 1557.) ,. j ^ .u
Bona observes that the term is applied to the
ostiarii and other ministers who served the pon-
tiff' when he was officiating in the several regions.
(Rer. Liturg. I. xxv. 18.) He however gives no
example of the term Regionarius being applied
to bishops. [See Bishop.] Nor has the present
writer been able to find such an application in
Martene, Thomassin, Morinus, Hofmann, Du
Cange, or other authority on the subject.
The term Regionarius was looked upon as a
title of honour. Gregory the Great decreed that
83 some of the notarii and subdeacons were
appointed regionarii, so seven of the most eminent
of the defensores should be decorated with the
game distinction (honore regionario decorentur,
lib. vii. Ep. 17). One of the seven defensores
regionarii was assigned to every two of the four-
teen regiones of the city.
The following passage is of interest, as shewing
the application of the term to the order of sub-
deacons : "Subdiaconi sunt omnes numero
viginti et unus, septem regiinarii qui epistolas
et lectiones cantant in stationibus : septem
Palatini qui idem munus praestant in ecclesia
Lateranensi: septem alii qui dicuntur scho a
cantorum, qui cantant tantumraodo quando
»ummu8 pontifex celobrare consuevit " (Martene
<fc Ant. Eccl. Rit. i. iii. 8). , ^^ „ . , .^
The regionary deacons of bt. Maria ana ot.
Sylvester were put in charge of thte hospitals of
pope Stephen III., A.i.. 752-757 (Anast, Vit.
Font. p. 165).
A classification of the inferior ministers
(acolytes, exorcists, lectors, ostiarii) is made by
cardinal Bona into (1) regionarii, who were dis-
tiibuted throughout the regions, and in them
RELICS
•
severally ministered to the pontiff; (2) sta-
tionarii, who performed the same office for him
when celebrating in the stations; (3) basiliiaiii,
who served by turns in the Lateran Church ;
(4) oblationarii, whose duty it was to recniva
the oblations and bring them to the archdeacon,
(Rer. Lit. I. xxv. 18). v ■ .^
Whon the pope distributed the eucharist, ha
communicated the regionarii last of all, e.\ii>pt
his immediate ministers (acolyte, &c.). The
order was first those who were in orders ; then
the aristociwcy (magnates); then the la lies
(matronae) ; then the regionarii ; and lastly, his
acolyte and servers (Martene da Eccl. R<t. i.
iv. X. 4). From this passage it seems as if re-
gionarii was applied to persons not in any onk'rs
at all ; as if it meant, in fact, peoide of the
reaiones, or, as we should say, the parishioiicis.
I ' ' [H. T. A.]
BEGULARES. Horizontal rods of wocul or
metal for the suspensioa of veils or curtains.
They are usually mentioned in connexion with
the "rugae," which appear to have bcfii the
lattice-work screens and doors separating the
presbytery, the ciufessio, or the sacrariuni from
the other parts of the church. The " regularos "
were often of precious metal, and were decorated
with a row of images on the u|iper i)art, Stephen
IV. (Anastas. § 28-1-) made silver "rcgularis"
above the " rugae," by which access was given to
the altar, "ubilmagines in frontispiciocoiistitutae
sunt," at St. Peter's, St. Paul's, and St. Andrew's.
Hadrian 1. (ibd. § 33u) set up a "reguhuis"
cased with silver at St. Peter's, and placed upon
it portrait-busts (" vultus ") of our Lord between
the archangels Michael and Gabriel. He also
erected above the upper " ruga " in the middle
of the presbytery another silver-cased " regu-
laris," supporting similar portrait-ljusts of the
blessed Virgin between St. Andrew and St. John
Baptist, all six "vultus" being made of plates
of silver-gilt (Mabillon, Mus. Ital. torn. iL
pp. viii. cxxx.). [E. V.J
BEGULAE8. [Monastery.]
BEGULU8. bishop and confessor. Mar. 30 j
depositio commemorated at Senlis (Mart.
Usuard. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mart. iii. 816). [C. H.]
REILIG, BELEC, BELIC, BEUG, Irish
name for a cemetery. It is probably derived from
the Latin reliquiae (e.g. Relic Odhrain, the mon-
astic burying-place in lona), yet is also applied
to the pagan cemeteries like the Kelig ua High
at Cruachan (Reeves, St. Adamnin, 'M\, :'0i,
283, 417, 452; Petrie, Round Totcers, 103-7,
155-6). Todd (St. Patrick, 476) takes the word
as equivalent to Recles, which he defines " a
sepulchral church," and Reeves (St. Adamnan,
276, cf. 283) "an abbey-church," as distin-
guished from the secular cathedral. [J- G.]
BELICS.* I. HMthen Precedent.— The law
of uncleanness (Num. xix. 11-22) preserved the
Jews from any undue veneration of the relies of
the dead ; and their freedom from this super-
stition was inherited by the church, fuumled
as it was by men of that nation, and ftt nrst
largely composed of them. But the semi-cmverU
of the 4th century and downwards brought with
them a .strong tendency to the worship ol human
relic* and to a belief in their tutelary power.
EELICS
This had been general among their heathen fore-
fathers, whether Greelj or Roman. Jf we refer to
. few examples, the reader will be able to judge
for hm>.selt ,n what degree the later practice
of Christians sprang from, or was moulded by
heutheu precedent. We may instance the reve^
rence pau by Athens to the supposed relics 'f
Oedipus (Valerius Maximus, ExJ^npt. Mem y S
eit. 3), and of Theseus (I'l'utarch.^n^^^/g/.'
compare C,n.,n, 8), by Thebes to those of Linu
Pausamas, nicotic 2^), and by Alexandria to
those ot Alexander the Great (Aeli.n, IV Hilt
111. 6+; buetonius, Amjuatus, 18). The bonei
of Zoroaster were the satiguaVd of Per" a
the first eid.ccas secured the kingdom to his
escendan s, so b,„g as they should be buried by
t em (Jns ID Ihst I'hilipp. vii. 2). An oracle de^
lai-ed that if the bones of Phalantus reduced to
dust were sea tered over the forum of Tarentum,
the city would never be lost by the I'artheni J
(J..stin, iii. 4). See the ^,^<.^LLt „? LobeTk!
Tlie pomp that attended the translation of the
relics of a martyr may in like manner be iUus-
trated by the honours shewn to the remains of
pTZ ^'''"'- ''"'"''■• '''^' '""' pS (Id
thJti""'''? f '■"'"": "^ ''«'i^*''i"iJ "rations at
the graies of heroes is mentioned by Cyril of
Alexaudria a« a justification of the Christian rites
;:rt!33^«;"ei"spi.r "''''"■' ''""-
II. r/w earliest Treatment of Relics in the
of their brethren as worthy of very reverent
X'h r"Tl f'^ ''*'' ''^*'' instruments by
«hich God had wrought ("quibus tanquam
organis et vasis ad omnia bona opera usus est
pintus (Aug. De Cura pro Mori 5), and were
stmed to share in the future bliss and glory of
the redeemed soul. It w,is for this reason far
more congenial to Christian feeling to cover the
remains of a friend with earth (Omkquies, 8 xv >
»Dd leave them to the natural process of decay
than to dissipate them by fire, or give them to
the b rds and beasts. The feeling w^a of com- e
greatly intensified, when one had proved Lu
&. h in the resurrection by a death of suffering.
Great (forts were therefore often made to obtain
h body of a martyr for honourable burial. A?
fir t, as we shall see, this was the only motive-
but as tiifle advanced, a superstitious vie'
^m to be set on the relics of martyrs and
other eminent Christians. There is, howeve/
no trace „l the error to be found before thrcon-'
ersion of the emperors, under whom mult tudes
f proselytes entered the church, who had only
partially renounced heathenism. ^
! ouud m the earliest records of the martyrs
anJ especially in those contemporary .Ic^s and
hmns which were prepared by the^nota r e of
t great churches for reading in the serviced on
r nniversaries. A careful examination of
™h documents, as collected by Ruinart (Acta
«.r«jr«„,ej Veron. 1731), clearly proves th-
tb!,L,' '"'■'"'"."' the first Chi'isUans" frmn
thundue veneration of relies of whatever kind
For our purpose these Acta naturally diWde
th mselves into three classes. (1) There are I
m-x* document, that make oo ment on of th '
EELICS
1769
X of°L^tir '^2)° -rf ""^ ";?'*'>■"'■'* '^'-
^utio.ori<f\,^--^;%-^that
o'X ' T ; 'firr'tTo d " " '"""'' "' "^^""S-
from A.D. 61 or 62 (iJZul '7'f V-'''''"''.
Heg'e.:;,:ru'sL.'i^tV"5 eu^ss'^f " r™
and Auirustin. ..„.! -rh , ' ^' .'? ''*'• (-hn-sostom
•-. umucu LO Kt
niartyrs had been burnf ,'„ i ^
Christians went to tto 'n, ^i"* "'«*" *''«
"-Lieu. tsut I'ructuosus "anneared fn ♦!,„
brethren and warned them thft iho I ?i
gether"(K 193) they were buried to-
ab ut 470 (see GreTT '",?'" ""^ '»'"" ^han
'I'henextisSf ■ ^: "■■• ^^'"- ^>'^n'-- H- 15).
lae next is ttiat of .M. Lawrence a i> '}^f> . \. I
ejus venermur^ ' ^'^P"'"'«'L ""ncti corporis
s cut expetuntSr" LUT'u'"'^"^ l'*'" "vilates
C ssian of Imola, date uncertain (R tu 4«9V
Of St. Domnina etc. of about the same date SL
Chrysostom some eighty veaiN ■ffar "'"e, St.
us fall down before hlir! '":'«'' ?«ys. "Ut
Julitta, who suffered at Caesa? a in r '"f'''
«ome time in the 4th cenrury S R Tt"'*
■•"0, says that the earth S she wT'.''^""?
f'ither «v f Ka* .1 I ' . • *■'• 'he same
Set;e?ultVnt',fo""^o'''£r''''^"\°'
^oSnar^^H-^P'-'^^Si::;^
coasts, Like towers close y set. thevatfnrH n,^
ection againrt the incursi^s of „7r tn mfe.^
iff<.n. de .^S.. x/. Mm. 8 , R. 464 , similaW; Qreg.
1770
RELICS
Nyss. Horn. i. in xl. Mm. li. 935). St. Chrysostom
agaiu in his Laud. S. Droaidia (nt Antioch, date
unc.) n3M.'its that the bones of the mnrtyi's both
drive lavay disease and put death to flight.
They have " done the latter," he says, " in the
lime of our forefathers ; the former in ours "
(§ 4). " Where the bones of the martyrs are
buried, the devils fly as from tire and intolerable
punishment " (2). Paasij S. Geiiesii (mI Aries,
date uuc): "The faithful servants of God nt
that time toolt care that the guardian power of
this one martyr should be a defence to either
banlt of the river crowned with a double city
(the Klioiie Howing through it); for leaving the
traces of his consecrated blood in the place itself
of his blessed passion, they transferred his
honoured remains to the other side of the river,
. that the holy Genesius might be present in both
places, there by his blood, here by his body "
(R. 474; written by i-'aulinus, A.D. 393, ad.
calc. /./)/'. 0pp. 31(3). Martijrium S. Julmni (a
Cilician, date unc): "Take one afflicted by a
devil and mad, and lead him to the holy tomb,
in which are the remains of the martyr, and
you will see him quite starting and fleeiug away
.... Now, after so long a time, when the body
has become dust and ashes, they do not "^are to
look towards the tomb" (Chrys. Lauaat. S. M.
Juliani, § 2 ; R. 476). Encomixtm in S. M. P/iocam
(at Sinope, date unc.) : " The relics divided
among many places keep whole for the thrice
blessed martyr the love of his name .... The
Romans worship Phocas no less than Peter and
Paul. Whence, as they relate, they have with
great pains procured the head of the martyr
.... to honour him, and for their own advan-
tage " (Asterius Amas. A.D. 401, in Combefis.
Auct. Gr. i. 4y3). J:'pistola Ecclesiae Gotthicae
dc Martyriu S. Sabae (in Gotthin, 372): the
remains were lelt unburied by the murderers,
" sed ii ])iis tVatiibus servatae sunt, easque claris-
simus dux Scythiae Julius Sorauus, Deum colens,
missis viris tide dignis, e loco burbaro in Ro-
manian) transtulit, et gratificari volens patriae
suae pretiosum munus, fructum tidei gloriosum,
misit in Cappadociam ad vestram rcligionem,
•X voluutate presbyterorum " (R. 529). S. Viiilii
TriJentini Epist'ila ad S. Joan. Chrys. de Mar-
tyrio SS. Sisinnii, &c. (at Anagnia or Anaunia
near Trent, 397) tells us that a nobleman
"sanctorum recentium ct vapore fumantium
reliqiiias postulavit," which he took or sent to
Constantinople (R. 635).
The necessary inference from the foregoing
analysis is that the worship of reli&s, and the be-
lief in them as remedies and a protection against
evil, originated in the 4th century. They
first appear in writings, none of which are earlier
than the year 370 ; but they prevailed rapidly
when they had once taken root. This was per-
haps largely owing to the encouragement which
they received, as we have seen, from some truly
great men, as Ambrose and Avgustine among
the Latins, and Basil and Chrysostom in the
East, who were evidently deceived by certain
physical phenomena, the nature of which is ill
understood even at the present day.
ill. Uultij'ariuus kolicsof J'uiriarcha, Prophets,
Christ, tite Apostles, and other Saints. — The bones
of the saints of the Old Testament, long held
unclean, became in the 4th century objects of
giMt Teneratiun. E.g, Paula and ^stochium,
EELIC8
writing to Marcella in 386, suggest that when
she visits the Holy Land they will " pray toguthur
in the mausoleum of David, . . . hasten to the
tabernacles or memoriae of Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob, ... go to Samaria, and together aduri;
the ashes of John the Baptist, Elisha also, and
Obadiah " (^/ipist. Hieron. xlvi. 12). St. Jerome,
in 400, tells us that Arcadius translated " thf
bones of the blessed Samuel from Judaia into
Thrace " (C Vigilant. 5). Among the nuiiilx'r-
less relics collected with the aid of Charlomagne
from all parts by Angilbert of Centule, a.d. 8U,
were the blood, hairs (also at Corbif, Acta
Bened. iv. i. 376), and garments of .lnhu the
Baptist, bones of liis father Zacharias, niemoiinls
of Symeon, &c. (Scriptum S. Awjilb. 14, 15;
Bolland. Feb, iii. 103 ; ov Acta Bened. IV. i. 114).
Hair from the beard of Noah was shewn at
Corbie in the same century {ibid. 377).
Alleged relics of our Lord were very nume-
rous, and, it is to be feared, all, without extup.
tion, spurious. For the history of the cniss see
Vol. I. pp. 503-506. To the discovery of the
cross by Helena, St. Ambrose in 395 ad.ls that
of the title written by Pilate, and of thi; nails,
one or more of which she caused to bo wrought
into a bit for her son's horse (de Obit. I'Ke'dui.
46, 47), a tradition known to St. Jerome {Comm.
in Zach. xiv. 20), Cyril Alex. {Cumm. m /w . cuml.),
Theodoret (IJist. Eccl. i. 18). Sozomeu (7/. A, ii,
1), Rufinus (tf £. i. 7), Gregory of Tours
Mirac.i. 6), and Cassiodorius {Hist. Trip. ii. 18).
By the time of Gregory of Tours, 573, the holy
spear (rediscovered in 1098, Guibert. .\lil). Hist.
Hieros. v. 19, vi. 7), the reed, the sponge, the
crown of thorns, the seamless coat, and the
pillar of scourging had all been supplied to the
ignorant credulity of the age {Minic. i. 6-8).
The thorns were still green, or if they withered
were daily restored to freshness " by divine
power." Twists of bread made with water from
the tomb were sent over the world, and lieided
many. The same virtue was ascribed to jdalted
thongs that had been wrapped round the pilliir
(ibid. 7, 8). The holy coat was kept in a chest
in a very secret crypt in a basilica at Galathea,
a place mentioned by Gregory only, "quae .irca
a devotis atque fiJelibus cum summa diligentia
adoratur" (8). Twenty-one "holy coats"
were afterwards shewn, as at Treves, Argcnteuil.
Rome, Bremen, &c. (See Gildemeistor und von
Sybcl, Der heilij/e Rock zu I'rierf und die
zwanzig andern heiligen ungcr.ahten liS<:..c,
Diisseld. 1845). Angilbert (u.s.) believed that
he had acquired parts of the cross, bonds, nails,
and sponge, of our Lord's garments and sandals,
of the table and brand of the Last Supper. He
also possessed water taken from the place of His
baptism. At Corbie, in a reliquary called the
Prima St. Petri, said to have been given to the
monastery by Charlemagne, were His blood and
hairs, part t' the umbilical cord, of the niangcr,
cross, napkin, table, tomb, clothing, &c. (Acta
Bened. iv. i. 375).
The chair of St. James, the first bishop o(
Jerusalem, was in all probability the ouly true
relic of the apostolic age that was preserved to
the 4th century. H is nieiitionod by Euscfains
as treasured at Jerusalem in his time, "a clear
proof of the veneration in which holy men were
and are held " (H. K. vii. 19).
In the collection of Angilbert (u.s.) weremsn'
" His solidata fide
RELICS
allege.; relics of the blessed Virgin-drop, of her
Bilk, some haira stu-eds of her cloak and
garment (th.se all with parts of her veil, &c
»l8o at Corbie, Acta Uened. iv. i. 375), a„d a
part of the manger (praesepe Mariae), which
hcLles. Urb. Rom. Alcuini, Opt). Ann iii i-,Qai
Abundance of her hair (reliqle tZ capi J
lorum) WHS sa.d to have been brought from
Jerusalem to Spain, and to be preserve.1 at
tlTr'^ Ov,edo(Osmundi Epht. ad IJam,
Mab.ll. Vet. Am. 433, ed. 2). At Corbie were
hairs and son,..- of the ointment of Mary Magda-
leae (Acta llened. iv. i. 376). ^'''Ku.i
Part of the remains of St! Peter and St. Paul
are now "m the Vatican church, another Z.
t.on m the basihca of St. Paul; but their sacred
heads are m the Uteran basilica" (Uuinart ad
Greg. Tur. M,rac i. 28). The bodies of SS.
Andrew Luke, and Timothy were at Constantil
nople (Hieron. C. Vigil. 5). Relics of St. Andrew
were also preserved at Keuvy, near Tours (G. T
a!' l^\ i*"" '*'""'' "^ ^^- P«"l were early
«,dtobeat Rome (Chrysost. H<m.. y\n. in jj
of a table belongme to h,.,. was in the collection
ofAng,lbert(«., rs of St. I'.„| were .«ent
bypope John S :. :. , oishop of Vienne (Hard.
.^R:r- '^i' '^' ••■">««fS'- Peter appeared
at Rome much ,aUr than those of- St. Paul, not
in tact till very special claims were made for
Rome on his account. Jf I mistake not, Gregory 1
18 the hrst to mention them. He sent to Chil" '
debert, in 595, " keys of Peter- (Gi-eg Tur ^>
1.29; see § vi. sub fin.) and some filings from
^s chams (Epis. v. 6; comp. ii. 33: ''iii. 3^
ijll .1'' '■"'*"'*'' '■"■""' Gregory HI.
the "keys of the venerable sepulchre, with the
chains of St. Peter » (Fredegar! Cron. ad an )
The importance of this possession to Rome in
that age may be easily ucderstood
RELICS
:771
" His Bolidata fides, his est tibl. Roma, catenls."
Alculii. Carm. 169.
rri","" fT **" <=^°»»"of St- Peter was sent by
Gr goiyof R„„,e to Secundinus, a recluse (Hard
ft-ic'. .1,. o03). At Ceutule (and Corbie, ^.ta
Bened. u.s.) were hairs from the beard ^f St
Pe^er parts „f his casula, his sandals and table
(Sonpt. Angilb „...); at Corbie p4rts of his i"b
of 1 IS cross, and dust from his tomb (Acta Bened
«.«.}. Ihe relics ot the other apostles were in
rSe?""'- "'"' ""'^ ^^'"'■•'"'y °f thi ":„;:
The relics ol' St. Stephen the proto-martyr
«en- especial mention. In 415 the site of
hu body and of those of Nicodemus and Gamalie
naaied Lucian. They were at a place called
C phargamala (i.e. Villa Gamalielis), near Jeru-
«>lem (Lucmn de Rev. Corp. Steph. iJVol
Aug. A,.p,vi, ed. Ben.),to which city that of S?"
S phen wa3 removed, except some small ,"oint.
Si^irt '"ttT'""'' *'" ««'h was resTed
from the cTlV"'! ""■*''" "t""-:'' translated
nthe9tlw.nf ''y i^nastasius Bibliothecarius
m the 9th century, affirms that it was »t Jeru-
Se"n7;":„^'T '.'[ '''« ^-PerorConstantii'e
r wJi AVf""*'"'* *° Byzantium (rf,,. rnmsl
S.UejpK M.). A third document tells u? of
mZ.°! '^''P''? '"•""eht fi'om Jerusalem to
Minorca soon after their discovery and ™ .
writtpn ..♦ ♦!,„ . r ''■ ''W, /lawi, said to be
Ulal s in AW '".f'T" "^ *^''"'i"^' ^shop of
church at IJordeau.^ (Greg Tur 1/,> An
fr..-/ J " succouriug a shii. in ,li«-
*K„ " s""""n ot ht. Lawrence (Antrilb « « 'i
St. Lubin ( Fita, Venant. 20), a shoe that fell from
^h:^it'i,e^:Lthru-;^r^?
this means St. Hilary cured lepros;^('^ vLrii 4)^
imiruT's\%h'^"^^r"^"'''''' '^'^^^^^^
toot"hach:?nd t-e?("Gr™erT:; V^Ts ^' '"^•'?
snoe Of M. t.pipodius, ague (ft 54\. *,„
tine rfc A'.i 7i„.' •• "",'/• "ee ot. Augus-
WM 8 2 f'"';.""-,""ii. 6; £>. 52farf
&^^nSt^:-i--S--^^
found in a tomb (Greg. Tur. Gloi. CmV)ZI
for the same purple. ^^ ""'' '""'"'•"■^^'l
The "holy grail" first appeared when
Cacsarea was taken by the Crusaders in TlO?
W. l,am of Tyre, Hist. Rer. T,-ansm\ 16)
•t .t be correctly identified with the vessel fof
green glass?) found there, but not at fi ,t
deemed a sacred relic. '"*
p.,|fi'»,'f^'''' '•«'*<=« in ancient churches at
y^^m^ and cl.sewnere are printed bv Mai fn
W r.« Nova Coltectiojy. i. 37-5'' Per
haps the longest extant,' enumeraUng' neaidy"
1772
BELICS
IV. Spurious Relict. — St. Augustine, denoun- ]
cing rertaiu wandering innxistors in the liabit ot'
monks, snya : '■ Some of them linve for, sale the
members of iniirtyrs, if tliey were martyrs "
(cfo Op. Monnoh. xxviii. 3t) ; conip. Isidore de
Div. (iff. ii. i). Fraud wag, therefore, already
practised b; he beginning of the 5th century.
Gregiiry I. near the end of the 6th, writing to
the Augusta (Joustantina, declares that some
Greek monks hiid been detected exhuming bones
near the church of St. I'aul in Kome, who, being
closely questioned, "confessed that they had in-
tended to c;irrv those bones to Greece as the relics
of saints" (7i>is<. iii. 30). About 587 an im-
postor appearw! at Tours and Paris, professing
to come from Spain with relics of St. Vincent
and St. Felix. Having told the story, the historian
adds: " Multi "nini sunt qui has seductiones
exercentes i)0|)Ul m rusticum in errorem ponere
non desLstunt" (Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc, ix. 6);
and this notwithstanding the stories of divine
chastisement which were circulated. For ex-
ample, one who exhibited for gain a pretended
bone of St. Godehard, was seized with delirium
and died {Trmsl. S. God. 46, Acta liened. VI. ii.
890).
Such frauds were less frequently exposed in
the ages that followed, many bishops unhappily
thinking that it would be inexpedient to unde-
ceive the people; e.cf a man, who had under
various names sold false relics in France, went
into Switzerland, and there having, " inore
solito, collecteil by night from some vile place
the bones of an unknown person, and placed them
in a box on a bier, declared that he had been
revealed to him by angelic information, and pre-
tended that he was a martyr named Justus."
The ignorant were deceived, miracles were said
to follow, and at length the body was brought
to be placed in a newly-erected church at Sus
in the Engadine. Our informant was present
at. the consei:ration, and by questioning the man
easily detected the imposture. Nevertheless the
service proceeded, and the false relics had their
part in it (see after, § xiii.). As in later times
with the impostures of La Salette, Lourdes, &c.
the educiited and thoughtful were shocked and
scandalized, but the multitude " remained in its
error injusti nomen pro Justovenerans" (Glaber
Rodolph. Hist. iv. 3).
We must not, however, attribute all false
relics to the action of deliberate fraud. The
ignorant were always disposed to regard any
human remains accidentally discovered as those
of a martyr, especially if found in or near a
church. An altar had been reared in a certaiii
place in the diocese of Tours on the strength of
a popular tradition that a martyr had been
buried there. St. Martin, A.D. ;)75, doubting
the fac^ "standing on the tomb itself, prayed
to God that he would shew who, and of what
merit, the person there buried was. Then, turn-
ing to the left, he saw standing near him an
ill-conditioned, fierce-looking shade. He orders
it to declare its name and character. It tells its
name, and, touching its crime, confesses that it
was a robber," &c. (Sulpic. Sever. Vita B. Mart.
8). Aogustiiic of C.'.interhtiry found some per-
gon«, probably in France, " worshipping ' a
body which they supposed to be that of St.
Sixtus. He wrote to Rome, asking Gregory for
tome genuine relics of the martyr, who, grant'
RELICS
ing his request, gave him this direction : "Th«
relics which you have asked for are to be buried
by themselves, that the place in which the afore-
said body lies may be altogether closed up, and
the people not sutfered to desert the certi.iii and
worship the uncertain " (Greg. M. hpist. xii.
31).
V. The Trial of Relics. — Doubtful relics wer»
often put to a deliberate test. We first liear of
this, in Spain, the council of Saragnssa in jH2
making a decree that the relics in use wliere the
Arian heresy had prevailed should be " trnui;ht
by the priests in whose churches they wtre
found, and, being presented to the bishops, should
be tried by fire " (can. 'i). Actual instances of
such ordeal at that period are not, so far as I
am aware, or. extant record ; but we meet with
Leveral later on. E-ij. Egbert of Trier finding what
was supposed to be the body of St. Celsus. " lest
any 8Usi)icior of the sanctity of the holy relics
should arise, during Mass, after the otieitory
had been sung, threw a joint of the finger of
St. Celsus, wrapped in a cloth, into a tliurible
full of burning coals, which remained unhurt
and untouched by the fire through the wliolt
time of the canon " {Annul. JJened. iii. ij.'jH, ad
an. 979, n. 91). Similarly when a monk Ijn.ught
from Jerusalem to Monte Cassino a piece (jI' linen
(more probably cloth of asbestos), alleged to be
part of the cloth with which our Lord wiped
the feet of the disciples at the Last Sujiiitr, it
was also put into a censer containing tire.
" Mox quidem in ignis colorem conver.sa post
paululum vero amotis carbonibus ad pristinnia
speciem mirabiliter est reversa " (Leo Marsic
Chron. Casa ii. ;t3; Ada Bcned. s. vi. i. 101),
The relics of St. Kotrudis stood the same test
{Chron. Andriensis Monast. in Spicil. Uacher. ii.
78, ed. 2), which was applied also to the bone*
of king Wistan {Vita y^'ist 5, in Boll. June 1|
i. 87) ; and other instances might be given.
Ruinart has printed, from a MS. preserved in
Rheims, a form of prayer to be u,sed at the tiial
of relics (Ajip. ad 0pp. Greg. Tur. 1306), which
Mabillon has reprinted in App. 2 to the Epist
de Cultu SS. Igmitorum, written by him under
the name of Eusebius Romanus. It is also given
from two Rheims MSS. by Martene, Ant. Eccl.
Bit. iii. 8. We observe, however, that the relics
referred to in the prayer are only portions of
the saint's dress, " pamius iste, vel filum istud,"
a circumstance that suggests suspicion. It would
require no great adroitness to appear to repro-
duce a burnt shred of cloth.
VI. Translation of Relics. — For sflme centurla
there was an unwillingness to meddle with the
bodies of the saints when once buried, aiising at
first, from a proper feeling, but later on iioni a
superstitious fear. A disciple of Simeon Stylites,
desiring a relic of his master, thoui;ht he saw
the body stir, and desisted in alarm (Antimiuj
in Vita 8. Sim. 16). This whi lesome shrinking
was first forgotten in the East (see the ne.\t jiara-
graph of this section), but it remained so lungs
tradition of the western church that Gregory of
Rome could say in 593, " De Grnecoruni eon-
suetudino, qui ossa levare sanctorum se .isse-
runt, vehenienter miramur, et vix credimus
{Epist. iii. 30). He declared, though ni-t quite
truly, as we shall see : " In Romanis vel tutiuj
Occidentis partibus omnino intolerabile eit
Htque sBcrilegum, si sanctorum corpora taugsw
" Constantino primui
KELIC8
qnlsquam fortasse voluerit " (i'„d) Manv
,tor.e8 are related „f the danger thus i^
curred Lven down to the latte? part „f the
6th century (hodieque) there was »»„ " at a
fear of meddling with the tomb of St Casaian
hat "no one at all had dared to touch anyt.Z
belongmg to hm, if any one did 80, he wis
either seued by a demon or destroys,! by '„ sud en
death Greg 'lur rf. G/or. i/ak43). When
the tomb o Agncola or Vitalis was opened by
one who '' ,\.sn:d to take therefrom some of the
saored ashes," the oflender was caught by h
stone mllHig on hm,, and with dillicultv refea ed
^. 44} A soldier who rescued some' relics of
k Andrew from „ fire was seized with cramp
at he door of the church, whereupon he put t"e
mke round the neck of an unpolluted child
one of h,. prisoners, and so "arrived safely ,„ hi '
own country" (M, Mir. i. TO). When the
Manichaenns destroyed a fig-tree which had a
healing power from growing on the spot where
kTI ^''^""'"''* (,.„. 341) they wer"
punished by a plague (As.sem. ActafiS. MM.'y
my When Unstantina begged of Gregory I
fT '''^.;^^': ''""'• ^^ """^^J her that 'ih •
bodies of t,t P.tor and St. Paul blazed ?r their
churches with miraculous terrors, so grea^ that
It was not possible to draw nigh thither' even
for prayer without great fear." He aflirms that
when his predecessor wished to change the si ver
covering over the body of St. Peter, •' signum e
Don parvi terrors apparuit ;" and th.ftwhen
'•''";,^'f "ished to make some improvement
about the tomb of St. Paul, the person Th*
ordered the removal of some other bones found
near it, "apparontibus quibu.dam tnstibus
iignis, subita morte d»functus e^t •" »n 1 •
thatwhenthetombofSt.'ureioe'^:.l;f:-:
dentally opened, all p.esent died within tL
i>iMl^p'st. iii. 30).' Clovi3 «as srrui wth
madness because he attempted to carry ^ff a
one of St. Denys (Gesta D.go'>erti, i.^2- in
Duchesne, Jffist. Franc. Scriiyt i isq '
Gesta Reg.Fr. 44, i,id. iIT'^L also VrS'
Oud.al, ,M.. 72, in Bolland. June 6; i 747:
d Cer,t,o Ep. 5, ib. 709 ; Illmr. Claud, v 44'
li. June e, i. 678 ; &c . '
Constanfine was the first who ventured to
moH. the bodies of saints, contrary to the sniiit
of the aute-Nicene church : ^
RELICS
1773
"Constaniino primum sub Caesare factum est."
I'aulln. y'oem. .\lx. 321.
To gain for his new city a prestiire siniiU.. *
merand St. Paul, he transferred thither "th*
!> !.v relics of Andrew. Luke, and Timothv "
(Leron. c Vigil. ,5; Procop. de Ae^cTPi.
Theodoius Lector, //,s<. ^c4s ii 6n A I * '
aw of Theodosius expressly forbade Vucht at'
J.ons to the subject^ " nLatum c r^us 2
iit'^Sr T^'^ -- irtyrr
(-i..eUr-d:,!;tl^a,eSa!i
som m,.| h "" ''W«''«'' that the clergy of
(c»n. 'Si rr„? V^} frequent psalm-singing "
t^n. .5). Under Charlemagne the old Gallican
or of the bithi „na thrr"°" "V'^! l"*"'^'
martyr, even whe, a ll '"'"'' "^' "
oonsecr;tiono ac Inrch 'VV","''"''-«' '''' '^'>
«t all.it was on V that A " ■T"'"'^"""''"*
ng».n in a more '[„ '"1 1'^' T^' \ •'"■-d
e.^thbyM^i„ ii:fc:^]J-»hew,.^
Glor. Conf. 72, Hu) must Vh ;■ ', ^^' ^•' ' '^«
to hnder etna eland! r'™r "^^ ""-^"'I't^d
'^7:'^.^'^ everything "^:.r tt
themv^if^t:^-.!^!-
n-§^;^^uUp;::,;"--"^,:^. i-
fcr;i:Ss'r£tr^"^'^""-
that it was cofnmo ° in'pr" te "t Ih^t ""''';!f
(Greg. Tur. Mirac. i, 90) G r!,i ,''""^
Trfd ." ;:;;i'"'""« t -"- ^- '"'r ofX-
wm earned off by night from Pa^i'a hT r li? Sf
at. hpiphanius and St. Speciosa H» Ko 1 *-"'*, °*^
at first, "presumptionrs^ducebat " but .r'7'''
presbyter "divintus" overrutpJl ^"''',?''™aa
' fi-ol'l-fhuK R'ot Ther'Sf"' '\ "^-
miracles on the road to v.? ^"'^"'.""'J many
■«tffi. n. a). Ihe tomb of St. Hei,p,li,.( Kn.i >
^viappeu became red with blood an,i
natural obs.aele to the priest srin^eldTd"^
ther rsLrrbu't'tr"',' 'r ^"'■■''^■'■''■^
e«riie:^eri^:'rtiS:.^!:-,jrti^;k^
of Verdun, preset at thc'oX if tifeshS
f9
'II
,.f.
1774
RELICS
of St. Matthlns »t Trfeves, attempted to steal a
relic ; but the lid fell suddenly, and he lost the
end of his cope, which had been caught by it
(Invent. Corp. S. Matthi. i. 4; Boll. Feb. lii.
449). In the old Calendar first published by
Bucherius at the entry, " VI. idits Jul. Depos.
Silani," we find the following curious note,
"Hunc Silanum Martyrem Novati (Novatiuni)
furati sunt.".
After the 6th century it was common to sena
to Home for relics for the consecration of »
new church, if jione could be found at hand, and
the request was generally answered by the gift
of a brandeum, palliolum, or velameu, that had
been held over the relics o." St. Peter and St. Paul.
Forms of letter to ai;company such gifts are pro-
vided in .he Liber Diumwi of the Koman Pon-
tlHs : " Bencdictionea de sanctuariis Apostolicis,
Id est palliola de eorum confessionibus, tradi-
dimus collocanda (in ecclesia)" (v. 12 ; see tit.
15). Again: "Scias sanctuaria novitej missa.
Sunctuaria vero suscepta sua cum reverentia
coUocabis" (17). A supplement to the Uber
Diui-nm gives a form in which the pope, intend-
ing himself to consecrate a church, demands of
a bishop relics of the saint to whom it was to
be dedicated : » Levatas reliquias contradcre non
omittas; ut ad nos . . . quantocius valeant
reiiortaii" (Jtfits. Hal. i. 3,5).
VUl. Beceptacles of i?e/ics.— These were called
CAl'SA (originally the coffin for the whole body)
(Greg. Tur. Uist. Franc, viii. 5), which later was
«' capsa major " (Flodoard, Hist. Eccl. Mem. iii.
5) ; capmla (G. T. u. s. x. 31, § 19 ; Vita S.
Aridii, 29, &c.) ; capsella (Suggest. Legat. inter
Epp. Hormisd^ie ad calc. Ep. 65 ; De Mtrac. 8.
Stcph. i. 8 in Ap. vi. ad 0pp. S. Aug. ed. Ben.);
capiis {Translitio 8. Mcnmtia, in Martene et
Durand. Ampliss. Collect, vi. 983; Mirac. 8.
Gihriani, i. 5, BoUand. Mail, vii. 633, &c.) ;
area (Greg. Tur. Hist. Fr. x. 15, Mir. i. 8:
Cone. Bracar. A.n. 675, can. 6, " area Dei cum re-
liquiis "), fl^ioj, t/ieca (Sozom. H:st. Eccl. ix. 2 ;
wliere = (r((pos;Theodoreti«Ps. Ixvii.l2; Testam.
Ferpetui, Turon. Greg. T. 0pp. 1318); scrinium
(whence shrine, screen), scriniulum, A<ttt3 Pontif.
Ceiwman.'U, in Mabill. Anafecta Vet. lOO, ed. 2 ;
Chron. Ctssin. iii. ; 57, &c. but I douljt if within
our period ; chrismarium ( Vita Aridii, 6, 35,
36 ; Greg. Tur. de Mir. 8. Mai-t. iv. 32); sanc-
ttutrium, at first the reliquary, but afterwards
less properly the relic (Gfeg. M. Ep. v. 45;
Couc. Meld. 845, can. 39 ; Mu3. /tat. ii. 152,
&c.); turris (C/tron. Cassin. iii. 30), probably
because this was a common name of the eucha-
vistic pyx ; pixidula (ihid.), &c. Relics were often
inclosed in crosses (Greg. Tur. Mir. i. 11 ; Testam.
Perpet. it. s. &c.). [Reliqoary.]
IX. Relics carried about the Person.— Tii6
Council of Braga, 675, condemns the vainglory
of some bishops, who in their progress to church
on the festivals of martyrs were wont to " put
their relics on their necks, .... as if they
were the ark holding the relics, the Tevites
(deacons) in albes carrying them on litters."
For the future, either the Levites were to carry
"the ark of God with the relics," or the bishop
mi-'Ut carry it himsoif walking in the proces-
Bion (can. 6). The objection here, h<iwever, was
that this practice ministered to the pride of the
bishop. For it had long been the custom to
garry relics about the person, and the practice
RELICS
continued ; e. g. the leader of a party of Indian
monks (perhaps almut A.D. 380) wore a '• scrip
of hair-cloth, tilled with the relics of CHitain
holy fathers" (Joan. Uamasc. Vitu Pirlnam, c
•-'2). Germanus d Auxerre, A.D. 430, when a
blind child was brought to him, " took in his
hands the little case (capsulam) with tlio vMa
of saints hanging by his side, and, tearing it cilf
his neck, apiilietl it to the eyes of the girl in the
sight of all" (Constant, Vita 8. Germ, i \li).
Aridius, about 580, wore relics about hU own
neck ( Fiia, 29), and hung dust from thi- t.nnb
of St. Martin in a little -ase m that of Grp^n.iy
of Tours (G. T. Hist. ;'V. viii. 15; see al«o ii
aior. Mart. i. 84). St. Willehad of Uromen
" had a case with holy relics about his nnck "
(Anschar. in Vita Will, in Acta lieneil. s. iii. P,
2, p. 406). St. Gall wore one with loliis of the
blessed Virgin (Walafr. Strabo in Vita S. OM.
11). This was, however, probably nlwiiys so
'.r uncommon that the wearer of rclirs was
.upposed thereby to profess peculiar sanitity.
Thus, in a particular case, " Capsulari lioncn-.', quo
reliquias inclusas collo gestabat, cosnovHiunt
Dei esse famolum et cultorem " ( Vita .9. Aiii<it;ris,
c. iv. § 25 ; Boll. May 1, i. 57). [liKLiyrAliy.]
X. Uaths taken over Relics. — This was cnmmon
at one time both in the f^ast and West. Cyril
of Scythopolita relates the story of one who,
having denied a trust, was required to take an
oath over the relics of Euthymius. His luijury
was punished by a scourging in a viMim and
death {Vita S. Euth. 155). In the West we
read of oaths over the tombs or relics of SS.
Denys (Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc, v. 3:i). M.iitin
(t6. v. 49), Genesius (de Glor. Mart. 7+). Maxi-
min {de Olor. Conf. 93), Julian (de Mir. ii. 19,
39), &c. See Car. M. Capit. i. an. 7, 89 n. 62. A
law of Childeric, 744 (Capit. Be,j. Fr. i. 15i),
renewed by Charlemagne (Capit. iv. an. 803,
c. 10 ; Ca}iit. R. F. vi. 214), decreed that^" every
oath be sworn in a church or over relics."
But the laws of the Franks took cognis;mce of
such oaths more than a century before ChiMeric
Dagobert in 6:ip prescribes the cereniouial.
When the oath is taken, the -^-cused ami his
compurgators shall "put the, ^ .mds on the
capsa, and he only whose case is being e-xamineJ
shall say the words, putting his hand im the
hands of all the rest, that so may God help him
and those relics under the hands which he hoMs,
that he may not incur guilt in the niatt.'v tor
which he is questioned" (icr Alam. vi. 7, Cap.
Reg. Fr. i. 60). Hence, in the laws the accused
is said to touch the relics "manu quinta,"
'sexta," &c. according to the numljor nf his
compurgators (Bahue, Notae in Marculpm in
Capit. Reg. Franc, ii. 924); e.g. aniwij;the
Formulae collected by Marculfus is an order that
one accused of receiving a fugitive slave shall
repair on a given day to the ro-al palace and
clear himself, " sua mnnu septir .... super
capella (= capsella) Domni Martini' (i. i8).
Formularies used on these occasions were: "By
this holy place and all the divine relics (patro-
cinia) of the saints who rest here" (Vet. hnti.
Andeqav. 49, in MabiU. Anal. Vet. 396, e.l. i)\
" Bv this holy place and the relics of the blessed
martvrs " (Greg. T. Hist. Franc, iv. 47).
Egbert of York, A.D, 732, imposed a penanci
of seven years on those who took a false oath
I " in a church, or on the gospel, or on the relia
EELIOS
nes, or p,.l.sy nriicted on the perju e? /ll'
over the hod, .f ^.J.^T^tol: to"*" 0" 'r^:
i'c^':„cinrcarthSr47rorr7^L''"'^-
the remains of a snint wei^e remove Jtn„ ^^^'^
'^eren.i„sorthodi:rrr:t?r\'nrS
bhrisi To mf sWT'' '"* »''»""'
.peralar^'tnf.rotnrs'-";^,,^ft;;|»e
other n,art,rs the Jmc fltS ^a^ if 393 ?
Prud. de Cor. y 3n SimiT ?'' ^^^ ' '="'"1'-
m alns asilicarum altaribus '^ n<^ S" vi^
8). See also de Mir. S. Jul 40 . T' • - "
i/fi R f^' '" '^ C«»»^«-«<w» 0/a Church or
greatest derotion on the part of all"
BELICS
1775
SA:t^t,Zy2 ,^';-.-""' time
without rel cVh peo',1 "h ^"^ r'"" ^"''^''^^
he had done before*^ 'h', ^8^,' *".'" '° ''" «»
complied with th^ L • '"S '^"""' '•«li<-S he
under the altar. Pal, ' '," ^'"[^g ''^,- ■'•"-<»
recrjgn zes the i-it» m. , ' , ■ '*'^> "'-'1"'-'ntly
Apoftolorum i'nt ati.i m"' Vh """'"' " r''''""'
sncratis, non .,„1„ bea Ke 'i^ ^'''''" '"^ "'""''»
being built at Fundi le\ai.u""'''"'™''
basihculam de benedietis annV. 1 " I"*"!"'
tyrum reliiiuiis sarH . «P«?tolorum et niar-
oeverus to obtain relics fii/tK . f- "™'""'fnd8
(/6«/. i 7.)
Gaudentius of Brescia, a n !t«7 u •
"'hen on a i)il>'rimaff» tr. i . ^' '>'"'ng.
"t Caesarea s'omf r ?^.; If ^""^?,i™. received
<rom the nieces of Sf u ', ^"J^^ ^artvrs
possessor, en, dovel ft "'"'' *'"'''' "''gi""!
with othir reli s fn the r*?- T""^ J'-^"" "'ter
In his sermin on Thl l '""""V*' '''*' '^burch.
he says: " Venerabi es v"'?' '"^'"^ '' ''^'""^r
reliquias popuHs fit^t^r'r ^""'l^ginta
percolendas ' ( K./ i,!""'';' • ^'"'^/f proponimu.
Urix. 17;i8) '<H "hpt^"'- ''-''"''• ^'-P"*"- P- 341,
dictos X. sanctos e/divi:'-^?*''""' -'• «t prae-'
eongregatos, und'e "anc insl h™ T™ ''"'"'"'
meritis dedicatam C^^ w"™ '"'"'"
pupari oportere decer^us » n^^"'^ """'■
=l«7j''«-goryofW;.,y'f5o'" ■""
thou^g'h 'so' rcXIo :r "■ ^"»- -"-dy
church, thatfn od chuVh •'"■"'^"•»ti«n of ^
the omission was often s^nnir, "°'-'" ^"^''"''^
at Neuvy, " ubi nullT.TM'^ ' ""° ">e church
habebanfur " (Grei Tu, V"""'"."™ •"«"«'•«
another at Pr/cignUilUiL^';:'- ''^' ""^ "^
pignoribus" (VU^ PP rm "^ V" T.""""'""'
practice prevailed in the Ealt • t ^' k . ''''"'*
6th century, a church w»/ t''- '^'"'°' '" the
tomb of Euthymius theT .^k^T""^ "^"^ the
under the altarTrt'.in n . '"''"'P "d«P»sited
martyrs " /lw/.„I ^/Z^'/^'. ''' '''« '•«"«« «!
8th century pToWdes a fol ^^ f ''""'' '^ '''^
removal o/r^lic/f « IXST""'""''"'
new one fv is> a cnuich in rums to a
Any relic, however triflina mio-hf ),» j
1776
KELIC8
Society, 48), the Jumiiges Po.Uifica!, alsoLns^lish
(Martone, ii. 254), iind that of Uunstftn (J.jT).
See als.) thu Ordo Humanita in Ulanchim m collec-
tion of .locuments (T'.<-«.- I'ontif. Jtom. amt.
Anhstas. Wbl. I'loleg. iii. "'viii.), ami later
books in Martcne, «. s. pp. '207, 'J.O, 274, -!9( .
At a later period relics were also useil at tne
reconciliation of a churcli. See ij^oOrJe",
Martene, «. ». iii. 286 ; iv. ib. ; v. 287. Heathen
temples, again, were purified for Chnstmn wor-
ship by nieaiis of relic. Thus at Anf.och one
WMS dedicated by the bones o! St. Igmitiiis
(Kvagrius, Hist. Eccl. i. 10). Gregory 1. ordered
them to be converte.l into churches by aspersion
with holy water, the erection »/",»»"»'■'"";
the depo/ilion of relics (£p. ad MellUuin in Bede,
■^TheY^rtof the altar, &c., in which they were
placed was called the Skpulcrum, Confiossio,
or loculus (Greg. Tur. Mira.. i. 34). It had an
opening for the introduction of brandea, &c.,
opposite to which was a similar opening in the
box iu.losiug the relics. See Sozom. in Ihd.
Ecd. ix. 2, and the notes of \ ales, m /oc.; or
MabiUon, I'nwf. in S. ii. Ord. Ben obs. 44
These holes are called by the author of the
Miracles of St. Si«;jA«n " feuesteliae " (^« Hir.
S. St. i. 12). , ,
Sometimes the entrance of a church was
hallowed by the burial in it of relics. A crime
committed in the court of the church was
aggravated,, because "the doorway of it had
been consecrated with the relics of saints
(Capit. Lnd. I'ii, 819, c. 1; Capit. Big. Franc.
iv. 13 ; Lej. longob. i. ix. 30 ; Canones Isaaci
Ling. ii. 2). As there is uo earlier evidence ol
this practice, we cannot accept the suggestion
of Uaronius (Notae ad Martyrol. Horn. ^ov. 18),
and Martene (u. s. ii. 13, § 12), that the reve-
rence shewn to the threshold of a church, espe-
cially as indicated by the much earlier use of
the conventional phrases, limina sanctorum
opostolorum, is to be ascribed to the fact that
relics were buried under them.
Relics were also placed in other parts ot
churches, or their adjuncts, as in the capitals
of pier-s, in the corner-stones of bell-towers (.Leo
Mars. Ckrm. Ca^sin. iii. 30); but especially in
baptisteries (Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc, x. 31, § la ;
Vitae I'P vii. 2). A form of petition for the
dedication'of a baptistery, " ita ut reliquias in
eodem looo sanctorum martyrum 111. et 111.
desiderem introduci," may be seen w'th two
forms of reply in the Liber Diurnus, v. 19-21.
Forms of public notice announcing the intended
deposition of relics on such occasions (" Denun-
tiatio cum Reliquiae Scorum M.irtyrum ponen-
dae sunt) " are extant. See the Ord, Romama
in the Prolegomena to the Vitae Pont. Rom.
of Anastasius Bibli aecarius, ed. Blanch, in.
xlvii. ; Ordo R. Bernoldi, Hittorp. De Cath. Eccl.
Off. 119, ed. 1010; Ordd. i. ii. in Martene, JJe
Ant. Eccl. Rit. ii. 13 (ifwW. Gellon. and Pmtif.
Egberti). , „ ,
XIV. Helics on the Altar.— Yvom the 6th cen-
tury downwards relics before their deposition
were commonly set on the altar, as the place of
highest honour. Thus, R bishop hearing tha
some were brought to his church, says, Let
the blessed relics rest on the altar, until in the
morning we go forth to meet them " (Greg. 1 ur.
Hist. Frane. ix. 6). Some shreds from the cloak
RELICS
of St. .Julian ready to be placed in a church,
as yet without relics, were set lor the nii;ht on
the altar (J/i'nic. ii. 34). It appears also that
wheu pilgrims bearing relics halti'd at a ( I'urch,
they were so placed till their dej.artmp (He
Olur. Ciiiif. 39). Compare Baudoiiivi:\, \;u
S. I.adcimdis, 14. Relics were not, however,
allowed' to remain ' auy time on thi: iiltar
until t!ie 9th century. It was believed iIimi the
miracles of St. Walpurgis ceased, '• beciM.sc her
relics were on the altar of the Lord, where only
the majesty of the divine mystery ought lo be
celebrated " (Odo, Cullat. ii. 28). St. Innhar
a|ipeared to a monk and 8eriou>ly reli\iki' I him,
for having pl.aced his remains on the altiu- which
was "tjhristi inensa Corporis" (Miraa. S.
licrch. V. § 36 in Boll. Oct. Hi, vii. l(i2.S). Tho
' remains of St. Servatius of Tonijros, when
exhumed in the time of Charlemagni', were
" placed before the altar, because it was n"l yet
held lawful for anything except the samlite to
be set upon tho altar, that being the table of
the Lord of hosts " (De Sorvat. iv. 30 ; Poll. May
13, ii. 218). The relics of St. Celsus wera
placed on the altar at Trier, 979 (Annol. licncd.
iii. 658); and other examples oc<nir in that age.
The practice in fact had been fully established
bv the end of the preceding century, as appears
from a canon of that date : " Nothing is to be
set on the altar, except capsae with th.j relics
of the saints, and the four Gospels" (('inc. Uero.
c. 5, in Regino, da Discipl. Eccl. i. GO. t.'omp,
the Adnwnitiunes Synodales, ibid. i^Oi, Mi,5, 50»).
XV. Watching before /ie('u'S.— This bewail
early, and was common to East and West. Thus
St. Ambrose says of the remains of Gervasius
and Prota-sius, "The evening coining on wa
remo\ed them to the ba.silica of Fausta. There
watch was kept the whole night." The next day
they were placed in the new church (7;'/'. 21, 13),
When Gregorv of Tours, 573, dedicated his own
oratory, he watched the night before in the
church in which the relics designed lor it lay
(De Glor. CortA 20), and he incidentally mentions
the practice (vigilata nocte) elsewhere (* o9).
A similar vigil was kept before the relics ofTara-
chus, and when others were placed in the church
of the laura of Euthymius (Cyrill. Scyth. li(a
Eut!,<im. ■ '.!). The rite is recognized ni the
early pontificals: "Delude vadunt ad eum
locum in quo reliquiae per totam nocteni prae-
teritam cum vigiliis fuerint" (Ponl. Kgberti,
44 ; in Martene, ii. 249 ; see other orders, xhid.
254, 257, 259, &c.). Vigils before reins were,
however, enjoined at other times on priests
who had charge of them, " Reliquias sanctorum
cum summo studio vigiliarura noctia et diurms
otficiis conservet" {Capit. Epincvijorvm, an. 801,
c. 3, in Cap. Reg. Franc, i. 359).
XVI, Relics brought to Councils.— \\ e hava
many examples of this, beginning near the doss
of our period. The object was to insure the assist-
ance of the saint thus honoured. In 7i)8 Tassilo,
duke of Bayeux, swore fealty to Pepm at the
coun.il of Compifegne, over the bodies ol several
saints (Adonis Chron. ad an. Migne, c.x.xiii. U4>
The body of St. Remigius was exposed on an
altar in a council of Rheims held in the time of
Leo IV. (Martene de Ant. Eccl. Hit- mi. I'J;.
At Charroux, 989, a council was held belore the
relics of St. Junian (Letaldus, //is'. 2, .^c/a
Bem-d. iv. p. ii. 434). At a council inAquiUW
HELICS
pho.vtae reliouiarunT-Tr r, K^V'-'r;'"'-""' "f-
RKLIC8
1777
&e other examples in Marlene. *''^'
X\ H. //„r,„/ „,,,„. Av/iV's.—At first H,o.
( slroiijr f,,,.|inir „||,i „.._- • , ^' '"« 'here was
Dear the b.„lv ..f „ .rtvr M "''""""' ''"'•''''
but in the n,,use V im ^ h s 'Tr''"'' § "''l'
•desire t,. be pla.^e.l i., Z.,1, ,^*'? '""'y '" "">
of the ».in.s\ ch , r,fmir r J^- '"■"•"^''""
Gregory of N,4,a burir'Lh'e "^'IVrrr-
near some small relics uCth.. fc- ... .i >""tber
in the .esurrcctio, ey n tht */'' ■'^.''•' """
company of these alio^^,^,,'":; '""':,•''" ""'
{0.„t. i iu 0-/. .!/«.< App fu^^ J'-h-lcnee "
Turin, 44>- "if ,i.„ '^' '. , . •'• *''«'i'ius of
jrartyr, we e^.ape the dari'uel of *h M ^
their merits ndeeii. vet ,,,t,;„ • ', ^
lan.tity " (yenn (in ^p ,"""""•« '" their
" "''■'' '■''^'"° «"«:t„rnni sanguine ducat
yuonoH.rasillopurKetinigneanlmaV"
St. Augustine thinks the onU- n,lv«.,fo„ r ..
tj. j.imes the Syrian, in tho \n. "•"•
™T. :,K^.tt"s^^Tr■•'"
taa'. § 3, Acta Honed, v. 4701 *(«« i \l
(I) V/,e Bhnd receive their Suiht &c_Wh„n
the remains of Gervasin. «„,i u\ : — "''°
fouml at Milan, AD 38H "",•',. '\'-<"«'^' "« were
"touche,! the d thing of 'the mar, ""'° '"'^'"■S
•tely received sight "(l'a,|„ irr/'"'!:. ''TT"-
when the rd"s of sEi"ntius aTd ^T""" ''^'" *"'''
broDght to Mihn « Tf! Alexander were
bliitoucU'tr^hVt irw'^hXhtr '" "!
d«larea himself healed (vZlt llL^^l T^
woman touched her eyes with flowers th^fl!"^
b«nm contact with the relics of Sf ^J* k "^
«»<! "forthwith saw " (Aug „?iOi i'?,"!;
oan was directed by Germa^nus' A D ^^...^''P.'^
fc« ween the altar and some relics" of cl' '"
;»w. healed (Fortunatusf ^JX'.^---
8r«sum e obst. i 1 •""" .^'''"'"' ^ebilitas
told '"» that the bone ofthTf,; ^ ■">?"''*'"" h«»
"e alle^jed by St aZ', T- l""'"' "'»t'"i''fs
t-'"l«un«, in ACri :. '?r T ^ l""'^'')'"'- "t
when « tunic whi .,' 1. , ""' "" ''*-""'' '"vived
containing ,Te,"„"';;' ^r"/"^"" "' '^ '"^■"""i"
hi» f-'ly (Aug V ct ^''fl'l.en, was placed on
^vaggon^wheeUv^toeVf :;;„'>"• T'lV"'- ^
hi» mother took him at - " '""' ''''"'
memoria..^,, ,,/™; one. t the „.„,
but even appeare.l unhun " r? , , -''""K"'"'
W"mennl.sowererestoe?l/ IT^'''"'- ''^> ''"«'o
With dieses that hlTde We'd :" '-^^'"^ '-'"•«J
seme memoria (16. 17% a , "■"■' ''""' ">e
with the oil of the'sahi nia^';."" ''1 """"'"'"''
li'idonthememorian In. ! ^ '. ""'' "" '"'''int
Obadiah and John th Bant t" • T''^ ,"'' '"^'"^
daemones rugire crucintT '^'■■'•'"■I'at variig
sanctorum u*^uh„e hit ' '' ^'"''•' ""I'"!'-''-''
vo.:ibus latrar tnum 7 °1 T"'" '"'""""'.
^'■rpentum, niugire^/u orul™ T""'' ■^"''''"•«
brought to the memoria of r ''.''""■"""■' was
the demon "with a g "eat w;i7'::'r ? /"''P"'
"I'ared, and confessed wh„„ '^•"'■««te.| to be
had entered theyout ."Ih' ^'fu'*'' '■"■'' l^^w he
(Aug. * Civ. llr'.il 8^""' '^rf- I'on he left
hy the attacks oUnLlllP- ■ ' "'''""■^ ^'"eJ
thetombofSt.I)e„"V?A'Tor'''.''/''','-'" '"'' '^
power, were compe led bv ^h "^ *'>' ""^ ^'^'■'"">
saints themselves to cWlaL^ '"'"'"■■'"J o»' the
of the martyrs had been J-P'T *''"« '^"'•'h
of a Xip c;,iitinr:r ^r "^" *"^ ',"•"'■-"
of St. Julian As ifT ^"" *'"om the tomb
towards it, and after aT' .'".'""''' ^"^ ^"'^hed
^- (Greg. Tur*:t ".^ : t"^S' -- -t
Gregory of Tours took «nm„ V-' ^ ^ ^- ^^hen
Mint ti the chm4 of Tm .'•''."'■ '''^'«»'"«
an energumen with r,/l .' ^"■"" '« "-at city,
Julian. Why l'„,?Thou c^ll rt'^'^'"'^' »»
presence was punishmZ „n u l''""-'''" ^hy
ha.t called one " ke thvself tn^-"" ^"^ ""'■ '''h»«
ments" (Id. ,/,^ ,3!. T'V ?"'■'•■"«'' ""f tor-
11- Compar Ambr' T.^ ? ..''"" ^- ^- ^iii.
-"^in'-Xfr-^lClf^'tT-^-
other saints to be t-ken'toToLttfaSr^ "'"' '
*~ (P»'»'°u». ^om. six. 338 ^
says Asterius, sneaking i'*' i-""" 'hurt',,"
about with the mart"^ « T''?' "" ^^""«J
soldiers. Thev who /« " "'^ ^'^^ brave
tingencies oiVlVmTSelV/u ''" ""'•
""y up to It (Asseniani, Acta SS,
r»
n
I '"1?
't p
1^«
I
I
,i.'i
1778
RELICS
Mart. Or. tt Ocr. i. 70). The neighbours of
Simii.Mi Styliles iHinented the lemovftl of m»
bodv to Anlioch, Ijeiiiuse they wouM tl.ereliy
loHe'thepinteHioiiofhU relics (Ai.tou lu VUa
S Sim. Ill), The smne Ceeliiig prevnilea in the
Went. 'I'hus, WiltViil leaving Uome on two
•evernl oeci\«ious, aupiilied himself wjth relics!
una so" cum l)eneaictione sr.nctonim (b-ililiUH.
Stoi.h. ViU »■///'•. ft.i), "'^»'" reliiiuiaruin wnr-
tornm nuns illic invenit auxilio (4), icaclieil
home in si.felv. Similiuly, the fither ol (.retjory
of Tours helieve.! himself to have escn|,e,l in
many .landers l.v sea and land through the relics
of some unknown saints which he carried with
him (0. T. ,/<■ ilhr. .Wart. i. 84). Hincmar
inclosed in a large shrine " the pledges ol - iiy
snintsas a protection to the whole city of Khemis
(Klodoard, llixt. i:»i. Rem. iii. 5). Ihe inhabi-
tauts of Cusiin in Catalonia sought to kill &t.
Romnal.l, "ut haberent pro pair..cinio terrne
vel cadaver e.vanime" (Petrus Dam. in 1 ifci 'V
Hoin. Kt). „ ,. „, , . ,~.
XIX. Kvlh (trising from SeUc-Vicrshtp.— lhe
crowds which they attracted to a church or
monastery were a serious interruption to the
duties of the place, and a source of great dis-
quiet and misgiving to the more spiritual an,l
earnest minded. The evil was telt so strongly
at the Abbev of Moyen-Moutier in ihe Vosges
707 that tlie abbat Hidulfus appealed to tlie
departed monlt by whose body the miracles were
wrought : " Brother Spinulus, on account ot tlie
perils incurred bv souls, stop the crowds of those
who tlock hither.' Then the miracles ceasing, the
concourse also ceased" ( r.'to //W. i. in KoU.
July 11, iii. 228; at greater length in Vita, iii.
c XV 234). The monks of Rheims equally
deprecated the miracles of St. Gibrian, nor was
St Bernard himself allowed more liberty at
Clairvaux (Acta llcml. Praef. i. saec. in. ex. 36).
At Sarlata the monks removed the body ot ht.
Pardulf to a neighbouring church, that they
mieht regain their former peace (fiid.). Stephen
of Luttich adjured St. Wolbodo to " abstai. from
miracles, through which such trouble came on
the brethren bv night and day through the sick
(Acta lien. S.' vi. i. 165). At St. Tronc, when
the relics of the patron began to work miracles,
the abbat Guntram endeavoured to conceal them,
remarking that "signs were given to the unbe-
Ueving, not to the believing " (Rudolph, in Chrun.
Tnidon. i. Spicil. Dach. ii. 662). They continued
under his successor to the grief and annoyance
of the elder and more religious monks ; for, says
the historian, " the further the glorious fame of
St. Trudo was carried by the report of pilgrims,
the more also did the worldliness of our monks,
as displaved in levity of manners and the abuse of
A state w-ithout discipline, become a subject of re-
prehension " {Spicil. u. s. 664). " Because many,
remarks Ambrosius Autpertus, " seem to have
their «harc of miracles, but in nowise have
their names written in heaven, we do not in this
see bv anv means demand miracles in the church,
bit a perfect life" (Vita SS. PMonis, &o. U).
Literature.— 'ihf following are among writers
on thio s.ihiect. J. Calvin, Traict^ des lieliques,
Oenfeve, 16ul, &c. ; J. Launov dvCura i"^f'o^
pro Saudis et Saiictorum /fcliV/ims, Par. 1660 ;
Rud. Hospinian de T.mplis, ii. 7, Genev. 1672 ;
J Mabillon, Lettre d'un BeWdietiu touchant le
£Haeememe7U d«s anciennea itetiques, Par. 1700;
EELI010U8
Idem, Praefatio in Saec. ii. Ord. S. Pen. It. 42,
ob«. 7 ; J. H. Jungius, Diiquis. Ant. de /I'c/iyiuij
ct Piufania et i'ucns, Hanov. ITHIt: J. A, S. C.
de I'laiicy, Dit:tionnaire critique dea Udi'i'K'x, iic
Par. 1821. L^^' k" ^0
RELIGIOUS. The word may' dcsigimte
(1) ordinary Christians; (1) eodesiastii s: ^.l)
monks. In mo lern u.sago the term is applied
to thii»e who have given themselves to tht
monastic life, whether they lie i" holy ora,.r»
or not. That, however, was not the early us. of
the word. It appears from the second i aimn of
the t.-iith council of Toledo (cent. 7)t)uit the
word iui hided all ecclesiastics, " from a liishop
down to a clerk of the lowest order, or a monk."
Akin to this is the fact, that in a canon ut' a
subsenuent council of T(dcdo (,A.I). 0113) the term
»(■(«/ r is applied to such as are not priests
"Sacerdotes "(Com: T,t. xvi. can. 6). But thi.l
the term reliqiou^, which i» the negatum of
secua,; was not anciently restricted to ck lesiaa-
tics, may be inferred from the first couiidl of
Orleans (cent. 6), where we have the term
" profession of religion " applied to other than
those in orders.
The earliest writer in which the use of reii-
niusm is clearly fixed in its technic:al sense of
'" professed," is Salviau, a French writer of the
5th century. In the passages of earlier writers
which we have examined, it is susceptibl' of the
meaning conveyed by the modern Knylish phrase
o religious person. In Salvian, however, the
technical meaning appears to be uudeiiiable.
"Some of your sons under pretext of religion
dissent from religion, and leave the world (sec\t-
lum) more in garb than in mind " ('((/ Calinl
Eccl. lib. 3). And again, " Multi enim lieligiosi,
im6 sub specie religionis, vitiis secularibus man-
cipati. ..." (id. de Oubern. Dei, lib. h). The
fourth council of Toledo speaks of Religiosi, who
are counted neither amongst clerks nor monks.
They are " per diversa loca vagi " and are to 1*
restrained by the bishops (can. 53).
It is affirmed by Severinus Binius, in a note
upon canon 17 of the council of Oangra, that
"the Greeks used to call the life of those whom
we call Reliiiiosi by the name of Stnojins." That
points to a field of Greek phraseology upon the
Sv jject much earlier than the corresponding
Latin phrases can be traced. Thus we have
yvuvaaia /.okoSik^I in Isidore of IVlusium;
S(r(t7,(ni trts dxr^Ptia! in St. Basil; SffKUff.s
HovaxiKii apud Theophanem an. 3 Coiistantii;
and other similar expressions. It shoul.l, how-
ever, be noticed on the authority of Du tiesne
(Gloss. Or. 8. V.) who quo'es several Greek
authorities in support of his position, that the
iiricTjToi were " not so much monks, especially in
the first ages of Christianity, as any Christians
devoting themselves to a stricter life and to
holy functions of piety."
It is extremely ditficult to say when f em
meaning devout Christian life, the word rehg<c
faded into the sense of monastic profession. Ihui
the word seems to be hovering between the two
senses in the fifth council of Paris: "Quae s.b.
vcstcs in habitu relijh.i^ in domibii^ propriis
tam a parentibus quam jier seipas mutaverin
(can. 13). In snch a passage as the following,
which is drawn from St. Gregory the Great, tl«
word seems to have no tinge of the monastic
BELIQUARY
meaning Speaking of the uttrRction that wai <
eu.rc,»eJ „,„,„ l{.,,nnn ,„nety by St. Bene,' t he
may h«ve e..„ l,,.„,Kht np „, monl.', b. th
piirwita coiii.l hnriJIy have I'nen »„
In the ninth ..«„„oil .,f Toledo (rent. 7) r,/,,/.o
plainly moanMhe nionn^tie profonsion : '-id!,.
libu, .aue hiios s„o, ,,./„;,„,„■ contm.ierB, ' "n
annu.n li.entm p.terit e.sse " (oan. (i). Uv thn
date the sense seen,, quite estahli/hed. a, wo
have a.irnin " rv/i./ioui, t„n.sui-an, " mu\ " k*//I.-
de .tan; ve,te„,," where it cannot nU.r^ 1 X
orders be. M use the clause is applied to both
s«ies("in iitHKinosoTir')
Vet long after the teehnical sense of rcli,,io^,s
ha;l made good ,ts (oot.ng, the earlier meaning
existed along With it so that ,n son,e passages
,t ,sd,.h.ult to say which of the two meanings
Martm of llraenra reads, " N„n liceat sacerdo.
.busvel cderics sed nee rcligiosis laicis ,M,vivi«
acere de confertis." Here a good sense would
e got ei her (rom "devout laymen," or from
"prolessed laymen."
There is a trace of a certain restriction of dress
so early as the tune of Augustine. He speaks of
y.iuiig men who have wives iilleeins it t„ b„
dillieult for then, to assume AaS .^/.^iS
He rephes to their objection, that he is not plead-
ing so much for a change of dress, as f„r a change
character Vestiownta rvli,wm would be „f
ittle use without good works and change of heart
(b. Aug. &mo. Ixvii. "Rogo vos, fratres char" -
inn ) In this and similar passages, however, a I
restric ion of dress may be meant which distin!
^Mushed Christians from Pagans, rather than oHe
*hich marked out one particular circle of
Christians from the general mass of their fellow-
believers. j-j,_ j.
HELIQUARY
1779
RELIQUARY (Gr e^^r,,' Up^ei,^ , La^.
ll^T'?' "T"' ''>'«"'"A<..a, Uel/uZ/cirwra.
mm; if of such size as to be attached to a chain
worn round the neck, cncolpiu.n, or iy,6K.Z,
as to be borne i, h6\„^, in the bosom; ph,/.
totenm, and many other words; if to be .arried
processionally /erct>-u,n ; Fr. relipuiire, Mssl)
. repository for relics. Compare Kel.S. ^
KelKiuaries may bo divided into two principal
^rr'^r ''^'"^ ''"'' "»* intondeVto'^be
ca™d on the person, and those which were.
Ihe hrst class contains by far the greater
»un.ber of forms and sizes, bo[h of which^^Ir ^d
ID accordan<^e with the size and form of the
object to be included.
Relics may be divided into three classes:-
wLn, ,1 ? °^ T"^^'" •"■ °'her venerated
oC nK /"'*r? "/ '"^''5 2nd, clothes or
h objects which had been used, or had in
other ways come into contact with such ner
™»; and 3rdly, oil from lamps whchbn™
Wore heir tombs cloths (branJea), wMch had
m/t:i Z^^^'""' ;■"* ''"'" '^hich had been
m^t from the floors of sanctuaries held to be
j-r— ,-ainc-nU) iioly.
We accordingly find, either now in existence
IZZ ''"^l'^''"'"' "^ '^« "o^' diverse
5 &e '"'V '':'«\r"'^' ^""'angular, octa-
ThLt V. "'' ^'*'' S-''l'le-'^"ded covers
mSlST. ANT. — VOL. H,
or (lasks of vn,.! .■ '"' P''""««"ed, bott «.
...tiessvaried.'"\ve'«l;;r ::r"dd"'nr
'~. crystal, ivory, wood. bone.'^Ste .a"'
;-:.:^.tour';:. h::-^""'" " i-'-^hi
thle^v;^rr:d^"?r!;ti:r'r""°'
versa V CmU h.„i. " """ *" "ni.
n.ii,,iaries,ni:c:ir;;!;:i,r„-''-:^^--.
he Acts o FrTr "'"'^'i""l '' '" '^^' '^'"»'' '»
u u>- '-il I.), that atter h s marfvrdom the
remained a ter the burning of his bodvto re«t„r»
hem, so that all that rem.ine.T ofYim „ d h^
te low-martyrs, Eulogius and Augnriu ,^, ^t be
rid on Z TT" «'"*•"• '^''" -I'ier e„e
rUied on by Martigny (iJict. ,/es A„tu chr^.
rtirose'^f'^*^ p irpM%t"'i'" "j ""^'•
rat.„th.ew,.reS:::^^L&neZ
had venerated while living than tho e whi. h
a desire was felt to obtain a fragment of ah v
oiweH " . ^^ r^y connected with, the de-
opposed the exhumation and dismemberimr of
tt; head or"'^"''' ^.^P'^'^^ *° ''" requisition fj;
Po e"?„f SfT'?\^" '^'"•* (""""J 'luiJ de cor!
£ « .f » u "'' ''^ "l"''««es his horror of such
an act as exhuming and mutilating such sacred
remains, and suggests the sending iul'd
brandenm "\ ri^- 1 ^ tantummodo in pvxide
wanaeum ), marks a point of time when thl
more modern system of dividing the rlmains of
rerbiis^r ir p"^'"^^' ^"' ""-•"'
luiy established. This practice would seem to
have been introduced earlier in the East tha™ i^
il^;^£V^[L/ttStr:^:;r
tney ^purposed to convey to Greece L relics of
These details as to the character of what
were deemed relica in the earlier age. are need!
113
J»f
:; ■ ;li
' '.I
■IT
1780
REllQUAHY
ful, M furniihliiK the n.ii«..n why wo find on
ivorv biuo., i.r.ilmbly <ii-iKi'i"Hy r.'li.iuiiii.'s, «""-
ject. lr..m iL hi.tury .t "•"• I-"''' i "»';'',"';;:
the eintilar l.<ix.'», nioHhmiiiK fi""i «!"""■ '""
to live iiichoH ill .liametcr; nn luuit.vn mit i.t
miracle, of Chri-t, the i.t..ry nl J.,n«h, the
three H..lirew vuuth. in iKo turnm-. «ll "I
■.hich, either a'irectly .>r i.ia.r-rtlT. h.ive ...nie
refereneo tu our Lord, ami c,.n»e,|U..nlly t,. he
e„chKri.t, arc carve.l (-ee 1' ~ Ire (larn.n. .0.-
,crr.u..m Ant. vol. xliv. p. M^). lhe»e haNe
been u.sually hold to have been u«mI a. arto-
phoria .ir .yxe. [I'vx] to h..l.l the reservpl
portion of Ihe euchari»t ; hnt the recent .Uh-
^,very of one on whi.ih the nmrtyrc on. of St.
Menas i. carve.l, leave, it o,,e.. to ,l,.ut.t whc her
,nch was their ori«inal .le.tinati.ui, and whether
they may not really have been intended a. re-
p„.it<.rie., either for ves.eU of oil or for brandea
hiKANl.KUM]. If such were the ran-, 'lonbt-
U those on which aet. of our Lord are carved
containe.l sueh memorial, fr.im some of the
iacre.l pla.e. of Jerusalem or "t^tl'lfhi'm, a.
that can'ed with the martyrdom of St. Mena.s
no doubt contained some similar object, fn.m the
ihrine near Aleiandiia, where he wi.a buried.
The earliest in date of these circular boxes i«,
ju.lging from Us excellence of style, that in the
B.rUa ftollqaary. (Fifm W»l«ood'i • rictU. IrorlM.-)
museum at Berlin. This is cut from ft portion
of a very large tusk, measuring about hve inches
and a half in diameter at the base and hve at
the top, the height being also about five inches.
The subieeU can-ed on it are the intended sacri-
fice of Isaac, and Christ teaching in the Temple.
Our Lord is represented as youthful and beard-
less, and neither He nor any others have nimbi
surrounding their head.. The style is extremely
Bood, not inferior to that of the best sarcophagi
with Christian subjects, and the box may be
with reason referred to a date a« early as the
4th century. The exceptional example of these
circular boxes is that figured and described in
the Archaeoloiji. (vol. xliv. p. 32.'), upon which
are two subjects-one, the martyrdom^^ot St.
Menas, an Egyptian who sulTercd under ;"sxim!-
um Galerius or Maximianus ; the other, the saint
in a alorified condition after death, standing
before a gateway, which, no doubt, represents
tho very celebrated sanctuary where he was
buried, about nine miles from Alexandria. This
RET-IQUARY
box no doubt once contained «onie rell(^ of tin
taint from whose .hrin.', a. will be m.'iiti.iiu,|
her.aftcr, earthen bottles containing oil w.n;
..■nt in large quantities. The box may 1 i,.
(idently luirilied to the earlier jiait ol th,. i,tl,
centiirv. The circular part, whoh is nil thiil
rciijaiiia, measures four inches ami a Imlf in
width urid three and a .|Ui\rtfr in lo'|.,'lit.
No finer example of a reliMinivy datui- IV ni
before A.I>. H(M) has been preserved than tik
casket of carved ivory in the pobllc lllmrv.it
brescift. It ha. been taken to pieces, but ,m.
dently once foiiiied a box about nine im< lien n\
height and breadth, and thirteen in li'ni;th, the
piece, having lieen united by a mounting, or i,t
least by hinges, and bands of gold or siIv.t. It
is covered with carvings represent in.; al,,.iii
thirty-live subjects; the larger and nioiv nn.
portant, both as reuards size and nunibir, U:^
taken from the (b.spels, and re|pre8entinu' s..iik.
of the more import int miracles and hchus m
the history of our I id. Thus, on tlu trnit,
the central group i resents our Lord tcaihiiin
in the temple, whib- on the rigln . He is shewn
as the Sliepherd guarding the fold livn the
wolf, and on the left, « ith Mary Ma:^'d:,l,.,„. i„
the garden. On one side the priiiciiiiil M,i,ji.ii
is Christ raising the daughter of .lairns: ..n the
uther, restoring sight to the blind niiin, i.nj
raising La/arus ; on the back are the tr.iisti^a-
ration, and the story of Ananias and ;m| i hira;
on the lid are Christ in the garden ol ,, lives,
Christ taken in tho garden, and the iliuial .i(
St. I'eter; while above arc two subjects- Christ
brought before Heroil (two persons are, how-
ever, shewn, each seated in a curule (hair), and
Christ brought before I'ilate, who is In the a.t
of washing his hands. The lesser snl j. (t.s, two
ranges of which surround the box, nif taken
partly from the Old Testament, partly Imm the
New : the history of Jonah, scenes tV.mi that of
Moses, of Susannah, of Jacob, and others, occur.
Besides these are two scenes of agapes, or pel-
siblv heavenly bancjuets, and some synili.ls, nsa
tower, a lamp, an olive tree, a balance, ,*tr.
Above all these is a band of busts m patoras,
fifteen in number; the majority are l.oarJel,
but some are youthful. In the cimtial ponit of
the front is a youthful head, with hair eiit
short over the forehead, but falling in hng
ringlets to the shoulders, which is inteialed to
represent our Lord, the same type ot h™l and
hair being preserved through the whole striei
of subjects in which He appears. None of the
figures have a nimbus: the style and execution
are throughout good, quite equal to those of the
best examples of sarcophagi with Christian sub-
iects ; and there can be little doubt but that
this most important monument of Christian art
ought to be assigned to a period not lator than
the 4th century. Casts are in the ^">"ti Ken-
sington Museum, and it has been described a
some length in the Catalmjue of hcUle Iwr^
in that collection, p. 34.
Very good examples of reliquaries of then it
succeeding centuries are supplied by those JiJ-
IZld in 1«71 near or under the high altar of
the church of Grado, anJ ••K"''.^^ «''ll/-'''»;
by De Rossi (Bo«. di Arch. Cnst. 18.-!, P- ^f
Uoth are boxes of silver, the one circular, th
other elliptical. The circular box is four mota
in diameter and three :n height; it is inM
Onulu Ballqusi;. (I
HELIQUARY
into six comp»rti.H.Mt« l..v a c..nlral (n)„. ,„.! five
Dnrm„.m, «ll tormml „f ihi„ .ilv-r; „„ th.cov..r
h * "'"". ",' ,'.';"' ^'■•X'" ■^'"'•-v, «.'«t...l .,„ «
Virgin hol.lH a cruelfi.rin H.^ptro f.„v■<^•„
cn.>/.fv,) In h..r riifht hn,„l, «n,l „ nimbu. „.,-
roun.l. h...r hon,l. An ir»cri,,t,.,M. in tw,, lines, i.,
.n^mv..,! .>„ tho box, «nj con.UU of the name.
01 aaintu na fullowa: —
RKriQlTARY
1781
IAS0.MAHIA.8ANC.VITVS.SANC.. AHSANVg SANC
PA.V.-riATIVS . SANU. VI^)UrV».dAN0.Al•OL^iN-
Al(r.^.SANl;.lUUrINVH.
Within were foun.l eleven smnll pUte. „f
goi.l.lMMUM.K n«me, of ,„i„t,; « ,nmll rvlin.lriral
bo, ..( K..I.1, wh>,:h encl.,»..,l „ v.Ty ,n',all kI«».s
phml ; n smnll ^ohlen box, ..f .Mibi.nl fcri,, with
« (;n...k ,ro,« enamelled on its li.| ; anj a diae of
Ituccd impreaaeii with a crosa.
Or*lo itoUquuT. (rremi D« tkmi; ■ Bull. crUt Aroh.')
Tho elliptic box measures five inches ami three
qumteis in length by three and a miarter in
wi.lth and height. On the cover is, in relief a
gemmed cross, standing on a monticule, with' a
sheep on either side. The side of the box is en-
cirHed by two bands of Inscriptions, which run
as follows ; the upper : —
SANCTVSCANTrVSSANTIANVSSANCTACANTrANirLA
S.ANVVlXjVIRINVaSANTVSLATINV
The lower: —
8UVRKNTIVSV8IOANNI8VSNICEFORVSSANTISRED.
DIDID BOTVM
The first 8 Of the latter inscription should
be added to the former, and the lower one read ■
Uurentius V8 (i.e. vir spectabilis), .loannis v'
Nicdorus vs, Santis reddidid botum (ie red-
diJenmt votum)." ^
Between these inscriptions is a band of eight
circles (,%e,- or pa<6r,E) enclosing busts, and .it
each end a palm tree. One of the busts, th,>
centml on one side, appears to represent ,., •
Lord; the hair is long, and the face beardl.ss
Those to the right and left probably represent
St Peter and St Paul. On the opposite side, in
the centre, the bust is that of a voung woman
nchly dressed; the others all represent men
beard ess, and with rather short hair. This
casket contained another smaller bo.x, of silver
without ornament. '
Both caskets were found full of water ; and
nothing remained of the relics which they doubt-
le 5 once contained, but some black matter 1."
iTi'.i'l.
at Tri«t'^*"'"!^']'°''T**°' »'■ the Monuments
1d452 \Tr.'"^'.'",'8'" -^"'^ from about
A.D. 452, and the elliptical from about a.d. 568 ;
[ d.'.'ub,'!'"'' """'"'""• •"■ ''•'• "• P^hT* op*" to
' rJ."l*"l Z"" "-'"'"■y may be aaalined the v.rv
he Merrick , n|l,.,,.t,on. |t j, .j^hteen inihe, i,
I .L ,■ o'ni'i- 01 loliiige eiic oa 11,/ hii f.
«th hg„res„C( the lid i; the middle, ur
an.l M. .Jul a; ,„i l|i» l..,|, ,St. .(„hn the »a„t„t
M. Alexaii.liT, and .St. Crisanti^ • ,„. tk J
.S.S Phili., Ti <•• ^^risaniiit ; on the (rout,
ItLl '' """■",'■"••'"''"' ''"ti'r, I'aul, Andrew
.St pheii the pro,., -martyr. Mark, Thad leus
Matthew, James (the Less?). Simo ,, .Mat h .
a..I.uke,..,o,„,«„d,ss.Nereus,(j;eg„^ :
*^.K\r in^'""'"' "" ">« other, ,SS. , fuHt, IS
■'«'.) r, «nd I'anoratius. The names ,»■■. in at
'■i<e».«.vMninsc,iption». ' '" *"
. .Mo' .7vl:' r T'TV^. • very poor and
» ,.nt. It .reatly resembles, both a, r,.g,,rJs
'';«"•' '•-"ti.m, the diptych sent bv. J,™
:,■; r',\.*" 'i'""'" 'l'ti«"ielinda, which bears
oviiofar""""'^"'"' ^'"^ I'-v.d and was h
covei of a responsorium ifindimlfl,
/iVk!;'y !,"'*''{.*''"'• ^hile we find in the
I'H ns, a,„i „ther vess.ds and articles made bv
« r us popes for us,, in, or decoration of, churcheT
V ry ,„w notices occur of reli,,uaries, and these
on y commence in the 7th century. The ex. In
nation probablv is that nf ♦!,<.;■ '"', "l",""
cnltii. nf ,^ ^1 ' "' '"" *'""* when the
ev r k^fj:^^''''™"'" ■""■•« f"'ly e»tablished,
aints, transported thither, in most cases from
their original places of deposit in the cataJo il"
and the popes naturally took comparatively lit^
«„„\^ K ^h';' ■reeks, as has been shewn above
seem to have been the first to dismember ^1.,:
the fi l' "'""'"'' ""' surprising that one of
'phofif'. mentions which we find in the Xrte,
Pont.^ca,s of a portion of a holy body e„ch sed
>» a rPli,,uary, is that where we\re Udd h^t
K.peMJregory III. (731-752) found in the I at nm
the head of St. George in a ",.psa," with a la "
on whjch^was a Greek inserip.on, testi,,ing 'd
bof*h"'^r'i?"?"'', *"" """J* «* this period,
both , a the Last and in the West, and menfion o
them trequently occurs in chronicles and other
documents, but examples are rare. The ar of tbe
period was extremely bad , and when a ,re ioS '
metal was the material, they have probably been
broken up. Some may, however, still exist with"
"ut having been noticed by any one possessed of
antiauarian knowledge ; foV it is not always asy
to obtain a .ight of all the contents of a church
reasury. One fine example, which mav ve?v
possibly date from the 8th century, though so'^
are disposed to give it an earlier date, is pre!
^rve.l in the treasury of the abbey of '^St
Maurice, m the Valais; it is about seven inches
and a quarter long, two and a half deep, and
1 f-*^ \2""''^'" ^'Sh ' the !o«er part li rect-
angular ; the upper, or lid, sloped in front and at
the back, and gable.l at the ends. On the f-',nt
19 a large antique cameo and several p.rdous
stones, pearls sardonyxes, and other stones with
antique intaglios, are placed at regular intervals-
6 Y 2
II. ill
'! .
II
1'
f '
*}
I'f.tt
l|
I- i\
1782 RELIQUARY
lines of pearls run from one stone to another,
and the whole of the compartments thus forraea
ore filled with small pieces of garnet and ol
ereen and blue glass, each piece bein- Mirrounded
by a little partition (cloison) of gold, precisely
OhtiM St. Maurice. „ _, ,,
(mm Anberf* ■ TWeor de I'AbUye tie St. Maurice.-)
in the manner in which similar ornament is
applied in the brooches frequently found in the
Saxon graves in Kent, on the sword of <^hilderic,
and other objects, dati-.g from the 5th to the
8th century. The date at which this sort of
work ceased to be made has not been ascertained,
but it seems quite possible that it was still in
use as late a^. the 8th century, and the form ot
this reliquary is rather in favour of a somewhat
late than a verv early date. The ends are orna-
mented in a similar manner. The back is covered
with a plate of gold, divided into rhomboidal
compartments by corded lines ; in these com-
partments are letters engraved on the gold, in
most cases one letter in a compartment: the
inscription, which reads diagonally, beginning
at the right hand corner, runs as follo\y8 :
"Teudericus Presbiter in honore sci Mauricii
fieri iussit. Amen. Nordvalaus et Rihlindis
ordenarunt fabricare Undiho et EUo ficerunt.
RELIQUARY
the Merovingian period ; and he supposes that it
may have been fabricated by a Frank or Buri -n.
dian artist, about A.D. 600.
Two rem :rkBble examples should now be men-
tioned, though their real date has not beci very
clearly ascertained. One is preserved at Xlrmza,
the other in the treasury of the burg at Vi.nnii,
the former being said to contain hair and a tduth
of St. John the Baptist ; the latter, some earth
mixed with the blood of St. Stephen.
The first of these is a box about ten inchej
high, and eight wide, but of little depth ; ;t, is
rectangular below, but the upper jmrt is
diminished in curved lines, so that only a tiaiiow
ridge is left on the top. It is covered witli ,'uM,
on which are set precious stones, so dispcised m
to radinte from a centre. The back is oovereil
with a plate of gold, on which are delinentid, by
the use (jf a very small punch, our Saviour on
the cross, with the Virgin on one side, St. .John
on the other, and two figures, one piercing; his
side, and the other offering the sponge of vinegar,
Above the arms of the cross are medallions, en-
closing busts which represent the sun and moon.
The drawing is tolerably correct and good, though
the execution, by reason of the process employed,
is rather rough.
The reliquiiry at Vienna is of almost exactly
the same form as that just described, but
smaller, being only about eight inches high. The
front is covered with precious stones : some of
the larger ones are disposed in a sort of cruci-
form arrangement, the others rather irregul.iily;
all are very simply set. The back has lost its priioi-
tive covering, but the sides are covered ivith thin
gold plate, divided by circles of pearls into com-
Reliqnfti? ftt HonzA.
(From labartfi's ' H!'«>nlr« <1m Arta IndnrtrlelB.l
M. Aubert, who lias figured and described this
object in his T/ffiv lie l'A'<baye de St. Maurice
d'J(jftune, p. 141, and pi. xi. xii. observes, on
this inscription, that the " imes clearly point to
partments, in which are figures in rcli--*[; among
these can be distinguished a man fishing with
a hook, one mounted on horseback, anil an
avenging aigel armed with a bow and dart, with
a legend, " Malis Vidicta." The style of thfse
figures, according to Dr. Bock (Klinoitien da
Hell. ESiiiischen Seiches, &c., p. 53, app.), shews
a reminiscence of the classical period.
These two reliquaries correspond so nearly in
character that they can hardly be far distant in
point of date ; that of Vienna is probably ratner
the older of the two. Dr. Bock is dispnsed to
think that this last perhaps dates from a pcriud
earlier than the Carulingian ; but the style and
character of the representation of the Crudtixion
on the back of the Monza reliquary setm to ap-
proach very closely to those of ivory carvings,
and other works of art, which have been ole.irly
proved to date from periods subsequent to SOO.
Two similar reliquaries are said to exist, one
in the church of St. Willibrord, at Einmerioh, the
other in that of St. Servatius, at Mnestricht.
A very remarkalde reliquary of kindred form
has been preserved at Sion, in the Yalois, the date
of which can be accurately fixed, as it bears the
name of the donor, Altheus, bishop of Sion about
A.D. 780. It is six inches high, six and a half
wide, and two inches and two-eighths deep at the
base ; at three inches from the base it liegins to
diminish on all four sides, and no doubt wm
finished at the top by a crest, now lost. It
tg covered with thin silver; on th» frrat,
in the upper part, are the stalk, leaves, anil
large flower of a plant in relief; in tn^ centre of
the flower a medallion, with a half-length figure
of a female saint in cloisonne enamel ; below «re
RKLIQUARY
jTinZfh r '■'' '". ""'^ "'^ ^^hich are two
enamel ; on the hack, on the nn,,er part are
two hgures iD relief, St. Mary ^'n,l Jt j'ohn
belo«- are two plant-like ornaments, perhap
hlies; on the sides are lilHikoornameAts on the
upper part, and halt-length figures of saint
beh,w. On the under side is the inserin" on
.'Hanc capsam dicata in honore see jfariae
Altheus tps. fi„i rogavit." The style both of
the enamels and the reliefs is extremely bad-
>n fact, barbarous This reliqnary has been
engr,v.H by Blavignac, Hist, de I'ArMtectZ
sacree, PI. XI. and Atlas PI. XXIII ^ ' ''^"'^'^
The last four examples which have been men-
,oned have a certain similarity in form, vi.
that they have a rectangular lower portion ll'i
a sloping upper portion. This form afterwards
became that adopted in all the larger re ,uaries
and, indeed, in many of the smaller. It has brn
variously supposed to have been borrowed fnm
a tomb, a house, or a chapel. The truth un,,
seem to be that tombs wire often ma"le in tit
form of churches or chapels [see Basilica!, and
tombs ag,.,in served as models for relinm rieV
the tomb-like form being a verv natural one
when the intention was to enshrine bones, or
other portions of the bodies of deceased saints
The hange to this form from the earlier box or
pyx-bke form appears to have i„ some degree
coincided with the increase of the practicfof
ffll *^/ "l"""'"' '■*'"""'' "f 'he' departed
A fnrther development of the idea of formine
reliquaries m imitation of buildings is to bf
t»nnd in that given by Charles the Bald to the
repr....ited the ^adf o'f"a J.^ild „™ Vf" tt
stories with arcades in each, embellished wUh
precious tones and fine pearls, and crowned by
magnihcent antique cameo, an-1 was estrmated
to. contain nineteen marks ^f g„Kl, anneven
narks weight of stones. It was known ^rlk
name of the " fiorin de Chariimag":"" A^ '„!
Reliquaries in the form of heads, arms les,
th iid.lle iges are frequently to be found in
eel Prhl ?."'""''', "P'^^''"' *" have been
notced. ierhaps the e.irliest now existintr i,
that in the treasury of St. Maurice in H,! v '1
containing the head of St C , |i,, ? ''' Vh *''
probably of the lUh cent r ,^^ ^^V
Wbke attributes it to C^^! i"".!. N^Tt
erroneously the head of St. Maurice t s
tor these are virtimll.r ».,i- .^ '" veneration,
hap^ it may be hekT h^at fhrr'1' ''"'"Sh per-
mrMM
'C." of th"cl'''"^ ^^"h which the
closftl Tk ["V^tacombs near Rome were
RELIQUARY
1783
SS'j^^s* -arrets :;
iTntrT'f "' '^" "««?«■ ^^'-tigty'Ti/;'
hat ,"«»«'", ■■• "■■*: ^^"S des Martvrs) state.
arir'- •"-»"."" i=;x;i'
shrnes Amon Vtb ™P/ "* '^'^^*'«'-« celebrated
-ini^g a'rrtre'';reS'i^.S'':Hi"h
^- ms'sulfe'sr wV TV"" '■^"■'^■•' -'»'-'
in glory,"e;!:td bT^ f: -iTure'e' ^ t^"
SdjS^xduj^'^^B^
by heads of the apo^.^:''::.;,.,; ' L'^eir"!'
theCrfptlonU '* '"'"''°°^''' ^""'""'ded by
EMMANOYHA MET HMWN ©EOOC
On others is the inscription—
oils from shrines in Rome. These last Ire ?
preserve M I '''"' P" '^'^^' """' "^ ^^hich stil
various ^holy placed in ,1^7'%;^' ut^?,
fl.?J'''"JY"'P'^' "'"'■'h notice are the earthen
oeen found— nineteen are in the British Museum •
Zt ^7 K^^" "''"""^ '" "l-"™* every eount^
which borders on the Mediterranean. ThevIZ
n.ua ly about four inches high, ^"id froTtw:
and three-quarters to four inches wide Th^
auri te 7/'"^'" f "'• »'-- with 'hi^
attribute of two camels, and inscriptions con
taming either the name of the saint only or
couping with it the word " euWia -^Vr
r f '"^"i , Jhe style of the figures is^bld and
rude and they may perhaps be attributed ?o th!
Gth and early part of the 7th centuries. '
Ihe last-nientioned objects were evident^
™;f« °'- thj P"'I'-^e« to ,ihich th . have he^
applied i those which remain to be nienttoned on
the contrary are vessels originally into, d"d f^"
rlZri": ^' "'Y ""'^'^'' *° "^""tion two very
remarkable examples, which have been proservid
m he treasury of the abbey of St. Maur e h he
Va ais, from a period probably as early as hat
LthrvJe" *flT'- •^"-■"f'hesefsknot'
88 the Vase of St. Martin, the tradition being
m
nifi
I
( -If
> » if «'
n
{if.
(
i
' '
t
* 1-
1.1,
i
v" •"
(EMS
1784 BELIQUARY
that St. Martin of Tours, visiting Agaunum, i
filled this vessel with earth from the iilace ot ;
the massacre of the Theban legion, mixed with |
the blood of the sufferers, which miraculously
issued from the ground. It is an antique vase ot
sardonyx, measuring about four and a half inches
in diameter, and about six in height, on which
is sculptured in excellent style a subject believed
to represent Achilles betraying his sex at the
sight of weapons {v. Aubert, Tresoi- de / jWmj,;
do St. Maurice, p. 181, pi. xvi.). This vase has
a foot and neck of gold set with precious stones,
and plates of garnet in fillets of gold, precisely
in the same manner as the reliquary belonging
to the same treasury which has been mentioned
above. „ . ,,
The other vessel is a ewer of massive gold,
nearly a foot in height, adorned with uncut
sapphires and large plates of cloisonne enamel, the
colours of which are extraordinarily rich and hue.
According to tradition, this was sent by Haroun
el Rashid to Charles the Great, and bv him pre-
sented to the abbey. Whatever the value of the
tradition may be, the vase may well date Irom a
period sufficiently early to allow of its truth ; it is
more probably of Byzantine, than of oriental
origin. It has, like the last-'^i ntioned vase, been
engraved and described by Aubert. This ewer is
said to contain blood of the Theban martyrs.
Both vessels have their mouths enveloped in some
kind of string, and masses of wax, on which are
impressions of episcopal seals, the legends ot
which are undecipherable. , . , , . .
As great an antiquity may no doubt be claimed
for the second class of reliquaries, viz., that ot
those which were intended to be worn on the
person, as for the first. Prudentius alludes to
the practice of wearing relics, which of course
implies cases to contain them, in the hymn
celebrating Fructuosus and his fellow martyrs,
Eulogius and Augurius (Peristeph. vi. v. 131) :
" Turn de corporlbus sacrae favillffl
Et perfusa mero leguntur ossa
Quae raptini sibl qulsque vindicabat
Fratrum tantus amor domum referre
Banctorum cinerum dicata dona
Aut gestore sinu fldele plgnus."
Many instances of the practice of wearing a '' cap-
sella" or "capsula," with relics, are to be found
in succeeding centuries («. De Rossi, Hull d> Arch.
Crist 1872, p. 17), and several examples have
been found which may be confidently referred to
the earlier centur ■ -> of Christianity. Iwo ot
these are given by Rossi (Bull. 1872, Tav. 11,
RELIQUARY
figure of a dove. De Rossi is of opinion that
it contained either a relic or some portion of
the Gospel (v. Ihilt. 1872, p. 12, 18tJ9, p. 63, as
regards the practice ; Bingham, Orig. Ecdcs. c.
xi!^ chap. v. sect. 8. and b. xvi. chap. v. sect, (i),
" parvula Evan^elia," as they were termed : Mar-
tigny confidently asserts that this is 'of the -ith
century. It may indeed be so, but all that cm be
said with certainty as to its date is, that it is not
older.
The other example (see woodcut) is no 'ic.iibt
more recent. De Rossi gives it to the oth
century. It was purchased in Rome iu 1872,
and is made of thin plates of bronze, the sjiace
between them being not more than suilicient
to contain a piece of parchment or of cloth.
The subject on one side is clearly our Lord
changing the water into wine, that on the other
would seem to represent the martyrdom of .St.
Vitalis, who was placed in a pit or hole, at a
place called ad Palmam, near Ravenna, and then
crushed under a heap of stones (v. Bull. 1H7^>, p.
10). The object contained in this encolpium was
probably a fragment of cloth, perhaps dipped in
the blood of the martyr ; or perhaps a nn.rsel of
a brandeum which had been placed on his ti mb.
Another and frequent form for a jjeiidaiit re-
liquary was a cross. The oldest of those (If we
can believe the tradition concerning it to be well-
founded) now existing, is probably that i)re-
served in the treasury of St. Peter's at R.,me,
under the name of "Encolpium Coustantini
Jlagni " (v. Bock, Kleinodien dcs Heil. Eiiiuhckn
Boiches, pi. XX. fig. 28, p. 115). Of this, only
the cross which occupies the centre can hava
any pretensions to belong to the period of Con-
stantino, the tablet in which it is enclosed being
obviously Byzantine work of the 11th or soma
later centurv.
The cross itself has arms of equal length, and
measures about one and a half inches in height and
width. It contains a cross reputed to be of the
real cross of our Lord, the receptacle containing
which is surrounded by a border of blue and
white enamel. Two very remarkable example!
of such pectoral crosses exist in the treasury of
the church of Monza. The earlier is that which
has always been regarded as that which St.
Gregory the Great sent to Queen Theodelinda, m
A.D. 603, with a letter {Krp. lib. xiv. ep. 12), in
wh"'hthis passage occurs, " Excellentissinio an-
tem filio nostro Adulouvaldo Regi trausniittere
phylactcria curavimus, id est crucem cum ligno
sanctae crucis Domini et lectionem snncti evan-
eelii theca persica inclusam." An engraving of
Reliquary. (From Do Boal'i ' BuR <U Aioh. OrW.")
fig 1, 3). The one bearing the labarum (see
woodcut, p. Gil) is of guld, and was found in 1571
in a tomb of the Vatican cemetery. It is not
now known to exist, but the de.sign has been
preserved by a drawing by Alfarano. and it has
been published by Bosio. On the reverse was a
this will be found under Crucifix, p .
and it is only necessary here to say, that it is
formed of gold, the figures and inscriptions being
in niello, and covered by a piece of rock crystal;
it measures three inches in height, by two and a
half in breadth. In the interior is said to be a
piece or pieces of the true cross. The best repre-
sentatioh of this object which has been given i!
that in Bock's Ktawxlicn, &c., app. p^ 2o As tte
inscriptions on this cross are in bieek, it hM
eenerally been assumed that it was of Byzantine
origin. But this is hardly probable: Hyzantme
I ^.^j. nf th.1t per"-"! would have had a better mi
\ rather more classical character. On the other hand,
I it corresponds very closely in many point-^ 'vith
1 the drawing of the Crucifixion in the ainou
1 manuscript Syriac Gospels, iu the Medicean library
EEMEDIU8
•t Florence, dated a.d. 586 [v. woodcut under I
Crlcihx] nnd It most probably came from Syria
or 80>ne adjon.mg country. Pope Gregory •^ent
to Kecared k.ng of the Visigoths, a crossfvery
prc^aly hke fashion. It i., „,e'ntioned i'n one
" ('n , n " ^ ■''■ "'' ■ '"'■ '^-^ '" '^''^ t«™^ =
inest et capilli beati Johanuis Baptistae "
• I ! "^''T ."■"'' "' *'""^'' containing relics
.s thatcalled the '■Cru.x Regni, Vhieh belo^iged t'
Berenganus, king of Italy (ob. 024). It is perhaps
beyond the penod of this work, but a te.l words
may be admitted, as it serves as an e.xample of
crosses of hke character which come within it
and indeed may really be earlier in date Than
lU possessor. It is of gold, thickly covered with
precious .stones, .sapphires and others, chiefly cut
m calj,c/w^, and measures nearly nine aud a half
inch..s in height and breadth ; the height is a
httle greater than the breadth: In the centre is
a repository for a relic. Dr. Bock, who ha
that although It has been used as a pectoral
cross at coronations, it was originally Attached
to a votive crown, , is were those of Agilulfus
and of Keccesvinthus. *
At Aix la Chapelle is preserved, within a
cnicihx of the 12th century,' a small 'cross nl?
snring two .lu^hes and three-eighths in height
by one and a-haif in width. On the upper limb
ot his IS fastened a piece of wood, which, ac-
cording to a respectable tradition, is a portion
of the pectoral cross found on the body of Charles
he Great, when his tomb was opened a.d. 1000
U IS engraved m Dr. Bock's Der lielu,nienschatz
iesLiebjraucn-MiinHers tu Aac!u;n, p 36
ihe cross engraved under Enuoli'ion iu
fcs work and by Alartigny, is asserted by the
tter to have been that of a bLshop, and io be
St ltl?'"""r'"' "'■ ""^ ^^^ '"'"«■" to
8b3) a long and careful dissertation on the
en tu • '^ Hif / ' ""^' '° ^^' '^th or 6th
c ntuiv. His reasonings appear well founded
but on one consideration he does not dwell, v z
at 1 was found in a tomb within the church
b. Urenzo-fuor-le-Mura. near the repository
1 ; ."'•I'i'y- ^'-•'"gi"^ II. (A.D. 572-59(')) ?s
stated m the Liber I'ontif. to hW built that
h IS perhaps, too strongly expressed, but no
i «::"'"""' considerable works thwe ; ad
as the first pope who was buried in a church
was Leo 1. in 462, and he only in the vestibule
^f the s,jcristy of St. Peter^, we can hard v
suppose that any one would ha^e been placed ^
uch prcvimity to a martyr so venerated as S
Uuience until long after W time of Leo It
ma) thereiore seem probable, that although
d tS,'' "fefjer. late, the interment
am rot take place much before a.d. 600. There
no indicntion that the wearer had been a
b"l>op, as M.-irtigny asserts. On the sides mono
rams are engraved, and De Rossi make'se erai
s''K»stions as to the name they contain but
Wnies to give a positive op'aionf [A 'n]'
REBED08
1786
BEMIGIUS, bishop, Jaa. 13; depositio
commemorated at Reims {Mart. Usuard V
J/«rt. ; BoU. ^cfa SS Oct. i. 59). [ChT
RENUNCIATION. [Baptism, p. 159.] '
p. Sj'^^'^^" ^''"^■''CHES, Maintenance op,
REPASTS. [Mkals.]
oomii'i ted ; ^' ^"* *" *^= ""'"^^-^ «-<"-^ then
Venice mnll'""T^'' '^''""^ well-known
rel e ce 7n fh Tf^'^'f'^^ ""^er this brief
'' Requi-m " &c ^'"I '^'-^g"""" antiphonary,
of the Cs. ft ;. T"'-'' "''''"'"■■^ "' ''"' introit
i-amel. Liturjica, n. 175). QV. E. SI
REREDOS (Fr. rotable; Span. retMo-^
t IS shewn by Viollet-le-Duc thartke aSof
the primitive church had no reredos fXlt^
nan-e raison,^^ de C Architecture, vol ii^ p 3^
So long ,n fact as the bishop's eat was at th«
back of the altar, it was unlikely th.at he • nd
scieen. Ihe rise of the reredos dates only from
^ the sam. writer, ^heVhad'L 'm th? V^Jt'
Til b^r^K*" P"''' '^' «"«■• back aga nst a
w.-ll, but they erected upon it a reredos wbLh
was most aequently a movable erect on and
was made in metal or in wood In l.V.,r '
without ces nouvelles inventions." It apnears
iuTel Z"^" I' ^ -'>:i-'-f'"c iDict. .-^S ar t •
Kst „ tnat.n trance the cathedrals were the
anti.,uitatemetorigi„ei^;or";"::;,^^^r ;;:^!
!h'r '"^'"'^"'' ^""'"t>Hispai,iao dcberi cum
tabuhs potius quam parietibus episeop mS
pso VereTo""'?"^;"''.^ "^^ P"'*-^ ™'' •-" ho
t n^^^H
l^^l
1786
RESERVATION
RESERVATION
RESERVATION OF THE EUCHARIST.
Our eiu'liest extru-.scriijtural account of the cele-
bration of the Lord's Supper says: "The (.'racons
communicate each of those present, and carry
awny to the absent of the blest hr 1 and wine
and watar" (Justin Martyr, A.n. 140, Apol. i.
65). This liberty wa.s necessary during the per-
eeoutions of that age. From other writers v 3
infer that those to whom the Kucharist was
tfkeu at home were not bound to consume it
immediately, or all at once, but might reserve a
part, or all. for future occasions. In the course
of time this liberty was extended, and we hud
persons present at the celebration themselves
taking away and reserving of the sacred elements.
Tertiillian, at Carthage, 192, advises some who ,
feared to break the., fast by communicating, to i
" take the Lord's body and reserve it," until the
fast was over {Dc- Unit. 19), The same writer j
speaks of a Christian woman as partaking of the
sacrament at home, " secretly before all food
(ud Cx. ii. 5). This seems to imply a frequent,
perhap d.iilv, reception of the reserved b-ucha-
risl. St. Cyprian, bishop of '.he same city, A....
251, tells the story of a woman who, " attempt-
ing to open with unworthy hands her casket in
which the h(dy of the Lord was stored, was de-
terred by a tire rising out of it " {DeLapsis, 132,
ed brcm.). The murderers of Tharsicius, a
deacon of Rome, 257, found him ' carrying about
him the ■ acraments of the Lord's body (Dama-
sus, Carm. ra; Surius, Aug. 2, ^rfa Stepham,
p. 13). So some Christians in dar.ger at sea have
with them "the divine sacrament of the faith-
ful " (Ambr. dc Kxiess. Frntr. i. 43). The sister of
Gregory of Nazianzum, praying, for restoration to
health, mingled with her tears " whatever her
hand had treasured of the antitypes of the pre-
cious body and blood " (Greg. Naz. Or. viii. 18).
St. .Jerome, A.D. 398, speaks of a poor bishop as
"carrving the Lord's body in a wicker basket,
His blood in a vessel of glass" {Epist. 125 ad
Hust. § -M); and of some who, deem ii_ beni-
selvcs for a special reason unlit to go vj arch,
inconsistently communicated in private ou ■ . ;
Bame day, obviously of reserved elements (^p.
48 ud Pamnxach. § 15). St. Basil tells us that
« at Alexandria and in Egypt the laity for the
mo.st part had every one the communion in then-
own hoases" {Ep. 93 ad Cues. I'atric). It was
tLns that provision was made for the commu-
nions of monks, nuns, and hermits : " All those
who dwell alone in the desert.where there is no
priest, keep the communion at home, and receive
it at their own hands" {ibid.). We rajght. gather
as much from an instance in Palladms, 401
(Hist. Lms. 61). In 527, a law of Justinian
orders the appointment of an approved presbyter
or deacon to "carry the holy communion to
monks and nuns (A'oueW. cxxiii. 36).
^);«.sv.— Reservation in private houses natu-
rally led to abuse, especially when persecution
had ceased. St. Augustine, in 4:50, mentions a
case in which " a poultice was made of the h-u-
charist" (Cmt. Julian, iii. 102). Some heretics
pretended to communicate publicly, but took all
awav with them from one wrong motiv-e or
another C^-to.-. at.".i::raut: a.D. 380, ran. 3 ; Cano.
Tolet. 400, can. 14). Later, tho Kuchanst was
abused to witchcraft (Caesar. Heisterb. Dud
Mirac. ix. 6, 9 ; Cone. Later, iv. can. 20. Sic).
iToAiWtton.— Abuse led to suppression, ihe
earliest prohibition, if it be assigned to the right
age, is that of an Armenian canon c^l the 4th
century, which generally forbids presbyters to
"take the Eucharist from the church to tho
houses of laymen, and there impart to them the
sacred bread" {Canonec Isaaci, in Mai, Scrij.t.
Vet. jVou. Cull. X. 280). The council of Sam-
gossa, 380: "If anv one is proved nut to havo
taken the grace of the Eucharist in churcli Mttr
receiving it, let him be anathema for evi^r " (can.
3). by the council of Toledo (above) it was
decreed that for this offence a person shou'd be
" expelled as one guilty 'f sacrilege."
The only certain instance of reservation by a
lay person with which I meet after the 5th cen-
tury, occurs in the Pratum Spiritwdo (7'J) of
John Moschus, 630. He mentions, however, thiit
the sacrament had been laid up in the house ''ac-
cording to the custom of the country " (.Seli-iicia);
from which we should infer that it was at Itast
: almost extinct elsewhere. But bishops, priests,
! and monks continued to reserve. Thus we read
1 of a bishop, Birinus, of Dorchester, who carried
' the Eucharist wrapped in his pall ( Viti, Suriiis,
I Dec. 3), and of priests who, as was " theu the
I custom of many, carried it as a safeguard by the
I •"_•- " ' :ta Lmrentii, 7, Sur. Nov. 14), ami of
a i „ '. vho was able to send it to another al a
dist.Le (Joan. Mosch. I'r. Spir. 29). Gieek
monks (Arcudius dc Concord. Eccl. Uc. ct Ur.
iii. 59), and the bishops of Rome (Lorinus,
Comm. in Ps. Ivii. 2), have retained to nio^lera
times the custom of carrying it on a journey.
Various Uses.— The reserved sacriinunit w.is
used in communions of the Puksasctikikd (p.
1696), as a token of inter-communion [Kuuwia,
Vol. I. p. 628], as Fekmentum for other cele-
brations (I. 668), for the communion of newly
ordained priests (669). for deposition in tombs
[OlJSKOUlES, § xix., p. 1434], for the consecration
of ohurclies and altars, and for the communion
of the cick. The two laiit-named uses we proiiose
to consider here. .
Deposition in Altars.— It was probably in tlie
7th century that the church of Rome intro'lnced
the practice of depositing, at the dedicatir.n of a
church, portions of the consecrated bread un.ler
or in a cavity made in the mensa of the altar.
Owing to the lateness of the extant MS8. only
one Roman pontifical now known, viz. the Cmkx
iJaioWt, prescribes this rite: " Ponat tres por-
tiones corporis Domini intus ct tres ini:ensi
(Saeram. Oregor. Menard, n. 580; 0/)/'. Greg. M.
iii. 436, ed. Ben.). In the Roman books this
practice w.is pa^t of the order of conseeiation;
but when the English borrowed it, they treated
it as a separate rite, to be observe.l after the
consecration. Thus the council of Cealehythe,
816, having directed that "all be performed in
order as in the service book," adds, "ytfto-"- T(is,
let the Eucharist which has been tonseerated by
the bishop at the same service be inclosed with
other relics in a casket, and kept in tiie same
basilica " (can. 2). On this principle we hud the
' ■ ■ ' 'ure of the sacrament an addi-
'.e forms of dedication in the
j\ . See that of Egljert of
i;, od. Surtees Soc.),^that
,'uiiiiegt's, now XNc. 3n'2 iii
tho'imblio Ubrary ..t Rouen (Mart. u. s. ii. 254),
whi>:h is assigned to the latter p.art of the reign
of Charlemagne, and the pontitical ol St. Dun-
order for the inc'
tion or append)
earlv Euf^lisl ,;
York, 732-76.
formerly prese:
RESERVATION
.tan, 961 (.i 257). The two latter pontifical,
eipresslv ascnbo .hi. rite to Home iu the heading
"Here beeina the Oidov nf«k„ t-, • . '"^'"""Ki
Relics iu fhe h„i; Hotu C ■tc^'^'T.r *" ''^
of Cealehythe C^) „„, St. Du:;,^ ( ='
an opinion that the tuchaH.t ,„ " >."• *•; ""I'lJ
^nt'than the reiic.^^Sl/Cl.'^^d'wr U
The former say.s : "If he i. ^ot able to inclose
other re hcs. yet may thi.s profit more than X
^Tr " 'Vt'L^" ';?^^- "^«"' LordJe us Chri""!
NotoneoftheF,;„noh orders which prescribe
h>s nte ,s earher than the end of the 9th en!
tury, to wh.ch period belong the pontiHcals of
Rhem,,s Noyons and Sens (Mart. ii. 260, 2,n
ccntuij O". -^.J)' It was practised also in Ger-
many, as we learn from a .^alzburg pontiKcal
of the 1 1th century (Mart. «. s. 2 J/ Ko 1 i
/•or Me ac*.-Among the absent to vhom as
JustmM..rtyr tells us, the Kucharist was s nt
in the 2nd century « uld be some absent f r o?n
s,ckness, but we cannot say when it began to be
reserved by the celebrant expressly for their
Mke. As tlje primitive church had no o.Hce of
pnvate celebration for the sick, this was pro-
bably done nt a very early period. Kusel ius
Dear the begmn.ng of the 4th century, tell us
ofadymg man who sent for a priest to com
mun,cate hnn, and the Eucharist, whicu mu"t
have been reserved, was taken to him b; aa,^he
(ff^i. B;c. v,. 44). The Ai^menian canon of th .
same cen ury permits one exception to the pro-
ms. When St. Ambrose was dyin?, 420 a
priest, warned of his state, oarried thelu.htri ?
to hi™ (Paulinus, in lit. k Am!r. 47) Pht in
picus, AD. 597, anticipating a vioint de h"
"sought to receive the body of the I or l." U wi^
m the night, and the danger sudden so tH
Wu(. Ace . 8J). After this j.eriod testimonies to
the practice are very frequent. It is exnress Iv
Jhal" thJ " ""," 'L"' ^""■•^' cited byXgS
that "the sacred oblation be laid up for the
eatored the place "where^ the ko y thi'ngs wer
stood up, and the mo.st holy blood of ChH.twl
pi on the garments of the said solleis"
^S'^-th^f .'^ ^T- '')■ Travellers by
.. : ,"" ^"'^y "O'l b'»"d of the RedeemeV
with them •• (Greg. M. a.d. 590, i)J/ ii 'S T
Mary of Egypt, when dying, U 629 rec;ived
"m a small cup a portion of the undeHled bodt
J precious blood" (I-*,,, iv. 34, in BolS
XJn I '."'"^ "''"g ■'' "-e'ated of SS Odilia
nltn/- '-o'f **'? ^^'""^- '"■)• Chad ot,
^9,BcdL Mar. 2), and Cuthuert (Bede, Vita S
„™- ^' *>)."> 'he same century. Ijcde 701
RESERVATION 1787
I xix., xxii. ; Martene, M. s. i vii fi ,. q. »r .
Au,l/(. 022). Kvpn n ♦k V.il! "' "• 3 -^o'-
I in a Sal.burg r mUti "l ^h "*'' '"'"*"7 ^' «■"!
iU ■ . * r"'"'nc.il the exnre.ss on <"■ • -iTn*
5:;t''iii:fr;rf ^"'~■
2i^:^ls'K:'^r»!^?vi~=-
and blood,' " &c ^ "''^' 'he body
body," &e. (.Jerome , in d "' ^^' '"' ""'«
hut^ve canilot in^^r nUhi ' hrtZlo'. ^ ^'j^'
was ever reserved at the time for wo (in UK^' i"'^
g"»ge used of public as w" 1 a r v ' c '""
n'ons, and all acknowledge hut'h V •! """'"■
invariablv in both L-i., „.'.','"'' '"rmor were
Orat. u{Z ,om (to^' .'■ '''"■■.'""i- (*
bodv" u tu. \"""- (''■«■) "reception of the
has keJt int'h >'"'■''' '-'"^ i'"''''''' "^ ""inction
day Th ' on:c';;T:rb'''",7 **•« '''<""' »" ^his
little particles re, il^^'""'' ^''"S " ^^-'^'ken into
«'als, and then put th'm Into fnT'""? '''° »'
-served - (Smirh,'S^:; J ^ ,^2".'"L;oVr,..';^
«e Jiecent. dr. Tern,,/ u--.^ '' J^?- >. "-eo Allat.
notices ot this occur within our neriod Th.
earliest is in a canon of Isaac III L T ■
the common name for the L.?' T''! '''"''
the likeness of a tower" fGo-n,, , p °
50.5, Expos, m,. liZ) sef ;, ^'"'."- '*•"•
tAPSA. P^j„s, afterwards universil seems to
have come into use in the 9th cent"- "Fv .,?
prcsbvter shall have a nvr n^,. 'V , ^
■ ^''tS';
17R8
RESIDENCE ,
Iv, • L, ' '■• Conn. vlii. 34). Columha was another
Liimo' Poi-petuus of Tours (471) in his will
siieak^ <pf a poristerium (the canopy over the
coluiubii), and a ilver dove for a repository"
(App. Oj)p. Grog. Tur. 1319). Set Dove. Yet
anollH'r wiis C/trismale (Missale I'lmcnrum in
Lit. Gall 31(3). See CllUlssiAL. A liter name,
which we timl in Knglam!. Irelaml, in<l Krance,
was f'(up.i (///5«. Kpisc. A'ltiss. 67, i'l Martene
CU, Ant. ElvI. Hit. i. V. 3 n. 8 ; [nstnutio
Dccanorum, Svnodi Meldeusis, in Marf,. ct Uur.
nesimr. Ancal iv. 930, &c. See Ducaiige in v.).
Ci'iuriitm, originally the name of th.; vaulted
cnnopv over the altar (see Vol. I. p. «t3), >v 's also
used in this sense (Curun. Centul. ii. 10, i,;. <, in
Dach. Spicil. iv. 467, 480, 487). T!,.' J-i:el53
keep the wnsecrated bread reserved for tlie siclc
in a box whioh they call the iprucfKipioc, or bread-
hcMer. "This box, whether of silver or wood, is
put up into ii silken case, the i .iter to defend what
i« incbi=ed f.'fii'i cnhwcbs, or anything tliat may
liefiie it, aiiii i- iv.jiig up usuiily behind the altar
aeiiiust th.. '- -.u. with a lamp or two, for the
most part, ^ .uhig b,foM it" (Smith, G«./(
Church, 162). O'-^^-M
BESIDENGE (nrpiDESTiA PiUociioRUM).
There are oiiir; \.ro.h. both ir. the decrees of
councils aid in Ki.'iKn,;! edicts, that the evil of
non-vflsidci -.voiith.' part of the parochial clergy
had made itsolf fell from the earliest times as
an evil whicii required to be strictly guarded
against. At the council of Sardica, A.D. 347
(c. 16), coniidaiiit was made that the presbyters
aiki deacons of the region round Thessalonica
were habitually attracted by the seductions of
the capital city, and induced to take up their
abode tinre for an unreasonable length of tim .
The council therefore extended to the parochial
clergy the decree that had been ; ^.e about
bishops (c. U), that they should no. 3 absent
from their parishes more than three Sundays.
The council held in Constantinople, A.D. 692
IConc. Quinisex. c. 80), prohibited any of the
clergy or laity from being absent from their
parish church for more than three Sundays,
except under plea of necessity. In case of
disobedience, the clergy were to be deprived of
their preferment, and the laity excommunicated.
Justinian (.\'ovell. cxxiii. 9) includes all the
clergy in the law which forbade bishops to
be absent from their see for more than a
year except on imperial business. Gregory
the Great (lib. iv.. Indict. 12, Ep. 13) commends
a sentence of deposition which had been passed
upon a presbyter who had been absent from his
parish, but adds, that the presl)yter asserts that
he had duly obtained leave of absence from the
bishop, and been unavoidably detained by illness.
He therefore directs that a fresh examination
should be made into the circumstances of the
case. A capitulary of Charles the Great (V. c.
329).complains that bishops, priests, and deacons,
from motives of gain or pleasure, were in the
habit of travelling to distnnt parts of the conn-
try, leaving their paris , " '!stitute of the means
of grace, and neglectin;. .: luties of hospitality,
and strictly forbids ♦he ; ■ -.ice except in cases
of inevitable necessity, ihe fourth council of
Paris, A.D. 829 (c. 29), recites in strong terms the
evils caused to country parishes by their clergy
baiiig sent from them to transact legal business
RESIDENCE
for their bishops. At a council held at Rome,
A.D. 853, Leo IV. complained that a certain
Anastasius, a cardinal priest (" pii>sliyt,i;i' card! lij
nostri") had been absent from hi.: tburch fcr ;;v.
years, although repeatedly liltd tr, reaidis. 'Ilii
sentence of the council wan tnut Anastasiu*.
should be deposed.
JiurirKi festilence.— It a\\:eaYti to have be.':i
reckoned as shameful for t.hi; ck-rgy t^ desert
their p^sts in t-.:tie of pes-ti^avicr, as n lin», ..f
persecution, suci. seasons bun:: alwiiys reijniMed
as especial calls to more e most work, and
favoia-iible opnortvi.ities for . .diking inipivs-
sion .i; the people. K few examples will
sulh. !■.
C) i'i'-''S in his treatise Be M' rtc'.itate, written
on the occasion of a terrible pi'stiiciice, roc"ui.!;;
the reasoiis by-.', idch th'; .Oiithful were u, U
persuade! to remain in tbu afflicted >iiies,
adding, that this ; ftord" i them .-. 9ph"-dirl ..npor-
tunity of returning g '•'■■' for evil, by succ-uiMig
their per-iecutort n tiir iiour o! u cir iie.."s.sity.
Gregory Nyssen, lu his .i{fe of (?-v,o',y Thanma-
tur^jus (p. 958 B. Migne, Patrol.) speaks of his
conduct during a pestilence in the city of .Neo-
cae-sarea, of the confidence which the sick
reposed in his power to drive away the iliscase
by his jirayers, and the influence whicli he
gained over the pi'iHigate and unboliovors.
Eusebius (//. J5;. vii. ■.:.;) gives some frasmonts
of the epistles of Di .i.}sius of Alexandria, in
which he speaks of fh- noble conduct of the
Christians of that city 'uring a plague, narrat-
ing how they helped i i every way, not only
their fellow-citizens, but even the hoatlien,
tending the sick, burying the dead, and in many
instances, especially 'in th.: case of prosljyters
and deacons, themselves cat.'hing the postilence
and dying. This he contrasts with the conduct
of the heathen, who avoided all communication
with the sick, and cast out, their dead into tiie
roads. Gregory the Great (Epist. viii. 41)
urges Dominicus, bishop of Carthage, to remain
at his post during a pestilence, and not only do
all he could to assuage the sutl'erings it caused,
but to make it a time for earnest exhortation
while the hearts of men, made tender by tVar,
were open to receive his exhortations to ropcnt-
ance. That Gregory inculcated such conduct,
not only by precept but by example, appears in
his Life by John the Deacon. It is there stated
(i. 39-43) that he took possession of his see
while a fierce pestilence was raging, and eii.ouD-
tered the evil with processions and publio
meetings for prayer ; that during one of these
meetings eighty people died, bnt tliat (iri'sory
never ceased from prayer and supidieatioa till
the plague was stayed. Gregory of Tours (Hist.
Franc, viii. 2) relates that Salvius. oishnp of
Alby, in Narbonne, remained at his post whtn
the city was devastated !>y pestilence, urging
the people to repentam and prayer ; aii.l again
(id. ix. 22) that The
like occasion, remait
Victor with the fcv
the pestiler. in eai
tion. ThesixsT'.r
in the recitr.' iX tii
Jlarspilli's, on a
':he church oi' St.
. ) . i>re untouched by
..' prayer for its .-ess*-
. ncil of Toledo, A.n. t:.93,
nrocoedinas, alli-sed tfl
their decrees i H.', ns. Canon i. p. 379) notes that
the bishops 01 .\ .:' nne were provonto.l from
attending by th'^ ^ or.t Wnce then raging n then
country. L"- "'J
EE8P0NS0RIA
RESPONSORIA (or psaUi re.ponsoril, or
psalm,), a tfchn.oal name for the , cairns or
port.ous of ps,.ln,s which were .aid or .un.
between the lections in the various oiKces of
the church. Speaking of the divine o.lice as
arranged according to the Hours in the Breviary
Radul.us sa.d: "Sunt etiam in o.licio divino
brevm re.si,ou.s„r,a, quae in ollicio iiomano ad
parvas horas, ut ad priniam, tertian,, sextan,
ronan, et completoriu.n dicuntur, et de i.salinis
sumuntu, exce,.ta prima," &c. (/>, C,«. Wi
Lihcr, Irop. x„ , S,i„ute regulations as to
their «,der and lorm in the Hours in the 8th
«ntury are laid d..wn by Amalarius (Jo 0,d
jnt,,,l,on h\>. cc. 7 1-80). But the tern, is more
trequcntly u.sed to denote those psalms which are
interposed between the lections in the OrdvMm,e '
and winch are roj^rcented by the Gradual'
iract, &c. in the modern missxl. The title
re8p,msonum is employed instead of gradual
Ihroughou the antii-honary of Gregory, as
prmtedin 1 amelius (Litur.j. ii. 02-170 ; Gerbert
f ";■:'■ ..fT"' i- :''^«i Hugo a S. Victore,
EruM. Ue.l. 1. 18). It w.as originally a long
passage trom bcripture, consisting of a whole
psalm or canticle, for which an extract of a few
verses was substituted at a very early date.
Ihe use of a whole psalm survives in the
Arineman and Coj.tic liturgies (Hammond, C. E.
Anc. {-<• pp. 145, 199), and was e.xempliHed in
he old Galilean rite by th« po.sition of the
hymn of /echarms before the first, and of the
song of the three children before the third
lection.
1 The tJtle "responsorium » is said to be due
to the aiitiphonal form which these psalms
usumed in the mode of singing, and to the form
ol versicle and response, "vocata hoc nomine
quoduno canente chorus consonando respondeat"
(Isid. H,.p de Lcc. Ojfic. i. 8), "quod alio
dtoiuente id alter respondeat " (Rabanus JIaur.
delnMut. Clone, i. 33), "quod quoniam alter-
natim cantatur, unde et nominatur respon-
sorium ' (Hugo a S. Victore, Ji,-udit. Theol. i.
18), According to other rituals the term is
derived from the responsory answering to the
preced.ag lesson "quod a crnite repetatur"
(.\lcui,. .leDw. Offi. ed. Hittorp. p.69). "Dicun-
tur e„,,„ , a respomlendo ; tristianamque tristibus
et laeta laetis debemus succinere lectionibus "
Rupert *Z>/.. Offic. i. 15). It wa.s mystically
erpreted to represent the active life, as thl
lleluia which followed it represented he con-
toplative life (Amalar. de£cc. Ojfic. i. 3M
Other mystical meanings are worked out at
reat ,ength (Md. iii. U-H). The difference
betwe™ antiphons and responsories lay in the
TocAmT"^- r ''"''■ "«P'"'^''ria et antiphonas
hoc diftert quod m responsoriis unus dicat
chori (Raban. Maur. de Instit. Cleric, i. 33).
f he date of the introduction of "respon-
»«na" into the liturgy cannot be fixed lith
,X2' '"'^'^y w-e popularly, but withou
nffi ent evidence, said to have been invented by
the Italians as antiphons were invented by the
Greeks (Haban. Maur. rf- Instit. Cler. lib 1) a
iliT„t!"T*u"'"f'' ". P""'''i'* ''^""^J "" the late
h »n ■ I . '*■''"" •'y ''^'"^ *''«y "« technically
.utrr; i"]'""' '" *'"^'" '» the following
ith '•'"i"'"™*'. E'l^tern and Western,
pro^e th«r use at various early dates, and justify
RESURRECTION 1789
I the placing of their introduction by Amalarius
I longo ante tempore," or by Marteiie, -ah ipso
; evaugelii exordio" (Euseb. His,. E.ve.. ij '17
mterpretante Kufino ; Ambros. aJ Mu,;r'lina,n)
:August,n ,« yv„,/<,^ ,d P.Umos 40, gS
Chrysost Horn 36 in 1 Cor. ad linem. ; Socmen
^'f 4 '■ I'J ;, *t- lieiedicti Uegnitt, c. ix.).
d. The normal portion of the '• psalmus
•esponsorius" was between the lections in the
breviary offices and between the Epistle and
Gospel in the Liturgy. This was the ase in he
Koman liturgy ,,.„„>„, i„ the African (Aug"stin
i^rm -c d, \orb.Apo,t. torn. y. p. 8;i<j^/w
t^rf^ IVv* /;„„,), iu the Galli'cai, (oJrmS
Ins. I^^pos. Brocis. § 7); but in the Mo.arabio
oc u.^^' V'''' "t "' ""^ "'''"™"' *'•''■'> '"othl
occuired 11. each missa, the full responsorr
uiterv-ened between the lirst {lectio pro\lu-tl^)
and the second (,/;;o.,W«s). P^'PMiiM)
, 4- The iisalmus was originally sung by a
».ngle cantor, afterwards by several cantors ^the
(TSdnt \ ■■'''"''". "P ^y '^' "hole dioi?
MCler. u. ol) J but there was son e varietr
of custom on this point. According to the
ordinary rule a lector was chosen for this off ce!
"Iraecentor psalmi responsorii usitatius ex
r '/?','"'"'""'" " (Th"n,asius, inpZ Id
Horn. AHt,phon.). I,, the Anglo-Saxon chnrci. it
was sung by a priest (Theodore, l'o.utentlin\
or a layman (rt/rf. i. lO). In the Galilean chu,-ch
by a deacon (Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc, viii. 3) or
by children, "nisi tantummodo responsorium
ii.\i:.T7)! ""*"•" (°"™''"- ^'"-
pnf,;/'KTr'""S on the step from which the
epistle had been read {Ordo Horn. ii. 7), whence
jts more modern and familiar title of Gradua'
t was said or sung originally by heart, but at a
fnlfK'"''"'- **'v ««P°"sories were collected
together in a book called the I^ospun.M.
The arrangement of its parts differed slightly in
Rome and Gaul (Amalar. rrotogus de Or!C
Ant,phon). It was sometimes prefaced by a^
announcement of the passage of Scripture from
whic 1 ,t was taken (Cassiodorus, cap. ii. Iref^
.« />W(,«.), and was usually followed by the
ruZ'^f S!''\\ ^'='=°^'l'°g to the direction of the
rule of St. Benedict (for Nocturns) and of the
fourth council of Toledo (can. l,^); which also
alludes to its permitted omission in the case of
the penitential psalms (can. 16). The cantor was
twlnf '.I'""? ""'' "'r"^^ may gather from the
twenty-third canon of the council of Laodicea.
which forbids his wearing a stole, and from the
eleventh canon of the second council of Bracara.
Hhich forbids his wearing ordinary dress. Fo^
further information the reader is referred to
GuADUAL, Tract, &c. [F. E VV.]
RESTITUTU8 (1), May 2P ; nafale com-
memorated at Rome on the Vi.- iurelia n/art.
/T't' ^/'■'"■.■^ Notker., Vet. Jiom.; Boll. '
Ada SS. Mai. vii. 10).
(2) Aug. 23; commemorated at Antioch
(Mart. Usuard.). r^ jjV
MiiNl. It IS .lilficult to say with certainty
how far representations of this tremendous sub-
ject really belong to early Christian art, that ia
to say to that period of it which ends with tht
I
■.lit
'!!
i
1790
BE8UBRKCTI0H
death of ChnrlcB the Great. Though many of
the Rrcat mosaics after the 6th century repre-
sent the Lord in glory, attemled by saints, they
do nut. as at iieriods nearer the miiMle ages, set
forth His sentence on the wickeil or the rightiM.us.
That of the Duoino of Torcelhi is jirolmbly the
earliest remaining instance on a mural scale. The
various sketchesof the coniieniniition of the wiclced,
and the very numerous hells of the Utrecht Psalter,
are no <louht prior to them. The Psalter of i
Athelstan (late 9th century) has its concourse |
of saints and glorification of our Lord, which ,
quite anticipates the crowded mediaeval-Gothic j
Paradises. |
Lord Lindsay refers the great judgment ,
mosaic of Torcello to the 12th I'entury, when a i
reaction or renascence of Byzantine art took ;
place under the Comneni. Its Inferno has much
ghastly imagination in the representation of the
sea, Aniphitrite in person, giving up her dead,
the worms writhing from fleshless skulls, &c.
This, with the varieties of torture represented in
the smaller compartments, would be almost
decisive as to its late date; but Prof. Huskin
and the Marchese Selvatico appear to think it
probable that this mosaic, or parts of it, may
have been among the decorations of the original
island-church of Torcello, built in a.d. 641.
(See Appendix to Stones of Venice, voL ii.) If
the mosaics are really 7th century, they are,
as far as the present writer knows, unique as
to subject and treatment for that time ; and
their ghastly imagery would seem to indicate
a later date. They certainly anticipate the
imaginations of Giotto and Orgagna, as the latter
influenced the works of Michel Angelo in the
Sistine, by his frescoes in the Campo Santo of
Pisa. There is a peculiarity noticed by Prof.
Ruskin in the Torcellese artist's conception of
the everlasting fire, not as a conflagration or
fiery prison-house, or personified monster, as in
later days, but as a red stream issuing from
beneath the throne of God. It is suggested
under Torment, Place of, that the represen-
tation of an actual mouth of hell, so common
in the middle ages, may be derived from the
RE8URKBCTI0N
tion of the Last Judgment at Mount Sinai ; and
the one or two at the convent of Mar Saba seem
of late date. There are many at Mount Athos, Imt
.Mr. H. K. Tozi'i' considers them entirely or' ,if
our period. In Messrs. Tcxier and I'ullan'j
Ihizanthu: Architecture, p. 41, mention i^ nmle
of several last judgments, none at all eArly. The
subject is said in this work to be entin-ly
Uyzantine, and derived from Kgypt, to l)e in I'iu t
a repetition of the psychostasis of aT\ti.|iilty.
The sculptures in tympiina of church porch, s in
the Went during the Kith and 14tb centurii's mc
very frequently of ISyzantine derivation.
A heathen painting of judgment, or presenta-
tion of the soul after death to the lower jh «ers,
has been found in the catacomb of St. I'raitix-
tatns. (See Perret, i. 73.) " Die.-pitcr " nnd
" Mercurius Nuntius " are named in it, as also
Alcestis. See also the " Inductio Vibies " in the
Gnostic c;itacomb(Parker, Appendix to CVi/'icom's,
p. 174 ; Perret, vol. i. No. 73), which certainly
represents the presentation of the dead Viviii to
some assembled divinities. [K. J. T.]
EESURRKCTION OF OUR I,ORD. .See
Crucifix. This subject forms pnrt of spvcial of
the early crucifixions. There seems to have been
a feeling on the part of scribes or their pntrnns
that the true impression of the event of the
Lord's death could only be given in cne view
with His victory over death. The iinncsed
woodcut (No. 1) is a striking represent iitinn
of the Resurrection from the Rabula MS. in the
Laurentine Library at Florence. As sulijects
drawn from the passion of our Lord are ,ery
rare in early Christian art, it is not very sur-
prising that His resurrection does not occur
often. The following examples, given by Rnhimlt
de Fleury, L'Evwiijite, v(d. ii. ppl. 9'2, 'M, 94,
will amount to a tolerable list.
In sculpture, a well-known Lateran saroepha-
gus of the 4th century gives the nionoirrara,
inscribed in the circle of a victor's wreath of
bay or tlive, and elevated on a l.irge cross, which
forms its upright P. Two s ■ diers resting on
their shields are placed beneath its arms.
No. 1. Bararrectlon, us. of Eabnl. (From Anemnnl's Catologus BlbUothocM Lanrenltanaa)
nfernsl
roaring mouth or passage from the
regions described in the vision in Plato's BepMic,
bk. X. ; but its not being found in this mosaic
may render the connexion less plausible.
The present writer remembers no representa-
Martigny mentions a lamp figured by f^iorgi,
do Monofjrammate C-risti, p. 10, of neurly the
same device, with the addition of a tablet with
the motto of the Labarum, EN TOVIITO NIKA;
also a marble tomb at Nimes, and a sarcophagus
Rl
it Soissons (Le B
Rohault de Kleu
similar sarcophaj
the upiight inoni
the crras. Sua a
from a Vatican si
private palace in
Ho.1. SjmboUc lissnr
The 6th century i
de Fleury, ii. pf.
resting on their shie
of the Maries abov(
square building, surr
«nd supported by (
doors (the other is
broken), there seem
Raising of Lazarus, I
In pi. 94 he gives ti
at Munich ; one of f
of St. Mary Magdal
cases by the angel of
attached to an llth (
thinks they may pr
Charles the Great.
In mosaic, the chi
CittJ at Kavenna, is (
of(!.'. de Fleury, pi. <
example the sepulchre
temple, a peristyle,
dome roof. The brol
entrance. An angel
nimbus and wings, w
addresses two women,
Violet tunic and brown
Besides these, Marti
containing this subject;
ofJt.Maximin(J/bHM,n,
IS from the sarcophagui
(Bugati, Mem., di S.Ce
gives a woodcut of it
napkin or gTave-dothi
served by St. Peter and
the other sees the ane,
sepulchre-which is cir,
doorway, and obtusely
'L- , ■ ••^f' I nomas a
finally, there is a resui
qoariessent by St. Greg
, J^''ofLombardy(Moz^
if'^M.MaryJIagddene
BESURRECTION
the up.«ht i„ ;;:„,itLSt::;; at'eiS
thecnws. See al*, Aringhi i 41 1 " j "*
from a Vatican sarcophagus which hil VV"^
private palace in hh day ''"°8'"' *" "
BE VERSION 1791
vesselH, sent at theJl V '^'"'y " P*""'' '"' "'»
thorri i; an all ; 'Lk "m '""*""* "' """^»'
the woi'd AN^Ct/c c'" t"- V:^-.-^ "''^
symbolisms of the Res, r; *• '^"'* ^'"•i"'""
sallv-occurring ,L"r of .'"" ^ 'Y """•^■'-
fre.,„ent one of sZlZ ^LtZ' "'"^ ""' '^'»
(Buonarroti, .W,,,T:v' ' J '^: ^trR "''''''
of .ujarus will be f.nmd ;. /"• but J^ """!
and the ark of Noah can W ii ' u *'"' l"'"''"ok
by f>e Fleury) as svmbn. '^'^ ^' considered (as
to this subject '^■"^"'''■"^ specially directed
[li. J. T.]
REVENUES. [PuoPERTv.]
Sat «^'»"''B«mrrecU„„.e,^ph.g„^^^j_,^_^
de^-e ; Tj 7P °''^' ^"t'-n. Rohault
rating on thir shields' ar?r''"\' '^' '"'''^'«»
of the^Maries above t'hem '/he ,7',^*'' '*'»
square building, surmounted bv! I P."'"'?''* " «
.nd supportecl 'byTwo pniarV X^"*^ '?"'"
doors (the other i. ontitt dTn th. . ""' "^ "'
brolten), there seems t„h^ \ * carving-as
naisin/'of L"ans,Tre;ted as in th?'"/ '"' *^
In pi. 94 he gives two fiVh !f * ^- =''*a'="mb3.
.t Munich ; one of the threp M ""^ '^°i'''' °°^
Charles the Great. ^ ' "'^ *'"' ''"'^ <>'
In mosaic, the church of <? i„ ii-
Citti at Ravenn'i i, tK„ ^pollmare nella
of (!;. de Kllury "n" 9/ «?i^ "■""?'" ^« know
sample the " .^^iSre L , T^^^'^^' '° this
temple, a peril 1 *'^^^^
dome oof. '^ThrbwkenV'.*"' ""'' '""'
entrance. An an^el «if ' 'T' """'^ the I
nimbus and ?vings^vht roT ^* '"'"'' ^"M
addresses t,vo worn™ fU / ^/l*^ ^^'""'- He I
Wolet tunic and brr;„*!::bt"' "' '"""" '^'"'l - «
-u!:!:VtfcubK;^o7ebT*""' *^° t°™^'
ofSt.lIaximin(S„l' S J'^j')«>''"'« ='>-Pt
i' from the sar oEus of sV r f '"">'''"''t''er
(Bugati, Mem. rf^'c^o p'sS "Vn «'
gives a woodcut of it oil' • ' ■ ■ ^^' ^e
naptin or gva H L ^n%'^ '"'"^f « *° *>>«
;-%st'petW^2iL7ohn'^;,;"t°5n''-
fo-ay, and obtre'iytabled" rolrt'^f'^i
q£ii'j^'r;^rE7f'^°---f''>ereii
. 'i'xiaofUmbardvnfn^f ^ V Great to Theode
m..?al7a?l?tJ,?ViC i* '"■'^''.' —
SS. Jun. i. 40) ^ ^"'^'' U«"a'''I-i Boll, ^c/a
[C. H.]
REVERSION (He^ressu,^ i .
securing the ri>;ht of ..^ ^' ^D^'anccs of
are not unlren fent in f h k-'^° '" » ^'^^oprio
church, so„"t!mr "ytsi r*o7^th' ''" r'^
other times apparentl^- by he ^nt T''''?. "'
bishop, but always under necuHTr- ^ ''"''"S
Eusebius (/r £■ '""^■^ peculiar circumstances.
being appointed ctdjutor tofhl "i ^'"'■'-Jer
bishop of Jerusalem ivdn,Vwitff''':^;i°»i
succession, and ff E vll^o ^ A *"" "S^t of
"fet^ni^T=r^r'^^^^
tio^sk^sISs?:^^:^^'^^--
two bishop "Melei^Vanrp'"?' "'""'«'•« '"'">«
their function at the -- ^" '' «*"'^i«io|
peopleassembld those oZ'c™' '"k''' '"' '"«
sidered worthy to be Tntr, f f'H "'''o were con-
and bound the'm by an oath ttaTlV' '"^''"P"'='
of the twobishopsshoulddiethV '"'■'" ''"""
be permitted to retain !•' "'r,""''^'"' ''«"''<»
the see (compare Theodore"'^;/ V""?"" "^
note by Vales.); and N V --3 ^- ^' with
I^aul, (he Novi'tian bfihfp™/ r 'f"'"' '"'^
when on his death-bed was „ot nnr*'''""°"P'«'
, but requested by his presltterf ♦ ^, P^™itted,
I successor. Pwsbyters to select *is own
Sozomen (H. E ii 9n\
who h.id been ord,;^! l-T' *''*' Maiimos,
(c. 75) forbid a bishon to ovH ^P""*""" Canons
tions, giving as a ,.?„ l^"'" ""^ "'^ his rela-
hereditVs'u ccLlnr/ht'tft to'l P^T"^"'' "'
into the church oft ^A„ v -'° ^e introduced
Antioch, A.D. 341 (c 2s7l J*"? "°''""' of
bishop to constitueVS.^rsLr^'"''''''^^ ^"J'
f"cces»or, and provides th^t"^ l~^ ""' **^ ^is
if made, shall be vo d *Th/r .l''P"'"''°«''t'
Toledo, A.D. 633 (c ifl/ ' '^"r"' '"""'^'^ "'
1792
REV0CATU8
Wnhop (luring hl» lifetime l- appoint a incccsaor
nnl«»a uii l.'r certain condition. '•. « < '''♦ wo'r"«
Biaiior, 11. M«. 1 ^ J
BEV0CATU8, "' ivoh 7, coin,, i. itcd at
Tub.ivbuin {H.irt. U,.inr<l.); ttrP"*"''!/ the one
inentiniiea in Mart llicivn. Feb. 5. L"^. "J
BHKIMS, «n,.A Cmnnl of (liftncnse Con-
Cilinm). A.M.tiJ"'- Kirat mentioned in the history
of the ohmch (.1 lihoims by Kln.loftrrl. one of its
canons, iu the luth ccntnry. Ac™r.lin« to him,
it wa» summone.l by Sonnntius, bishop ot Uhe.mSj
atten.led by fort V or more bishops, ami pas: ■
twent .•-«%•,; canons, in which allusion .s iria.le
more than once to the synod of I'ans, A.D. l.l.>.
Nor is th.ir eeneral tone dissimilar. Uut, accor.t-
Ine to ilurchard and others, it (, .ssed twenty-two
Kucu which he omits, all confessedly the w.,rk of
the s;h and 9th centuries. And thes» (cnuplcl
with Uio twentv-one statutes of Sonnatius as they
are ailed, which are no less apocryphal), must
discredit everything else reported of his episco-
pate, lor which no earlier authentic proot can be
had (Mansi, X. 593-604). Lt- »• '''•J
l.HENO. We learn from Isidore ^^Etfjm. xix.
23. 4) thiit rhcno is the name of a garment
covering the shoulders and chest ai,d re.ichmg
down to the waist, specially intended for protec-
tion against the rain. According to Salhis*
f Isidore, /. c.) it was worn by the Germims. 1 h
derivation is uncertain. We can hara/ agree
with Isidore, that it i to be found in Rlienus, the
river Rhine, because of the use ot the garment
in the adjace. t country. Another theory con-
nects it with the name of the rcmdeer, tiom
whose skin it may have been mad. . It is perhaps
more likelv that it is to be connected with p^v,
so that it" would merely mean a sheepskin, bee
Duciinge's Glossariwn, s. v. U" °-J
KICHARIU8, Ap. 26, presbyter aud con-
fessor; commemorated at Centula (.at. lu^iuier)
O/,.W.Usuard.,N0tker.; Boll. ActaSS. Ap.n
441); Oct. 9 (.Mart, ^ieron.). L^- "
EIEZ (in Proveni. , COUNt^IL OF (, .-
qense, or Se.viwru-e Concilium), k d. 439. Caused
L the uncanonical act of two bishops in consecrat-
ine to-the see of Embrun wi'hont any reference to
their metropolitan or ' a .leagues. It was
attended by twelve bisnons, of whom Hilary .
bishop of Aries, in whose jurisdiction Lmbrun
then lay, subscribed first. Its eight canons are ]
partly directed against the offenders, and partly
to prevent any similar otfences in future ."Mansi,
V. 1189-1200). L '''•J
EIGAB. [RuoAE.]
KIMAS or RIMNAS, Jan. 20, n, r wii
Innas and Pinnas, disciples of St. Andrew the
apostle (Has. Menol. ii. 124; Cal. Byzant.\
KIMK^r, COUNCIL OF, a.d. 359 (ARimi-
HENSE CONCILIUM). Two councils, of which
the first, that ■- Himini, was entirely composed
of Western pn hites, and an Eastern assembling
at Seleucia, the capital of Isauria, were con-
voked about the same time. There were more
than four hundred present, of whom but eighty
were Arims. The Nicene faith was accordingly
BINOS
rscBlved, all lat«r formulas rejected, and f.mr or
Hvfl Alian bi. ops condenineil. leu de|,iitiei
were sent with these dc i-.i"iui to foustantius.
But meanwhile the Acacians proceeding t.. ('.,u.
Ktantinople gained over tlie eiMjieror and WM
the last creed of Sirinium to liinmn t.i Jpe le.iiwd
there. At first the c"un<:il st.'adily relused ,um.
pliau.e, whereupon I'rsacius and Valens, twu of
the ,(.n.leinned bish-ps, hurried oil to Niriisa,
overtnok and dupe.l the deputies that liii I been
sent from Kimini, an.l then returning t,uther
themselves with cm.nt Tai rus, who had ..,.1. rj
f,, ' . .-' ^ver they tuld h.in, rev.dutinni'.a the
(.o.ui:.;, .o-r«d it at a Bii^se(iuent mcetiin; to
subscribe to this > ued, .i.d adopt ArL.msm,
" Ingemui* totus orbis, et Ariauum se ess.' inir.v
tiis est," says St. Jerome, who sumniari/is iti
proceedings (Adv. Lwnf. c. 17-19. Oanimrs
the documents in Mansi, ill. 29,1-;il(i, aul the
discussicm on them in Hefelo, u. 2ol -.i.,1, Kn^.
Tr.), [t- 15. H.]
KIN'On. The finger-ring used as a signet go-^
as far back as very eai.y Egyptian tiir.os. It
has continued to be used for the same iiurpost
in all ages down to the orescnt day, hut . jjro-
cess of time has come i^ be employeil tor other
purposes also. Rings may indicate oiiinid rmk
or the espoused or married state, or may be mi
as ornaments, or pressed into the service of
devotion. Wealthy Christians in t -.e tunes ot
the apostles wore gold rings (James ii 2). The
Ante-nicene and Post-nicene fatt" alike hn.| it
necessary to Jecla.-e against tUo i.iodigality ot
ChriHtians in wearing rings and gems. (!<m
Tertull. ile Hab. MuUdrr. c. 5; ^l/«/. c. 6
Clem. Alex. I'W'l lib. iii. «• Hi <-'yi"i^'" '/f ""*
Virii. c. 14 ; Basil, llomil. ad Dwit. c. 4 : Hi. „ i,
Epist. ltd l.aet. c. 5). One of the earliest notices
of a finger-ring in Church history occurs a the
Acts of the Martyrs Perpetua and Ichoitm
(circa "02 A.D.), wliere we read tliat 'i,-! iimrtyr
Saturus drew a ring from oS' the finger (./nsic
lam de d^id- f^'*'''') o'' ''"'''-■"'• " ""'"'"; !"""
witnessed' his sulferings, and returned it to bim
covered with his own blood (c. 6).
ChristiM Rings of Metal set with Gem'.
A large number of Christian rings were uAje
to be worn on the finger, more ranOy .-n the
thumb, and of these many bore engnuvi stones,
which h.ive cci,,e down to us In greater numbers
than the rings themselves. The devices "n such
stones are described under Ge:.«. .^ few
-. •.ipleswhlcl have survived h-^ving l,iitverv
■irely any peculiarly Christiau features need
;„t be dwelt upon at length; three very m
.,nes have been just alluded to under C.KSis (pp.
713 b, and 722 b, mi' ); one now m t>» i.ntisli
Museum, of massive gold of hexagon:., nra, u
supposed to be of the early part ,.l inl
.-entury, diameter ab. ot 1-5 inches Mig»"<J '
Perret, Catacoinbes, v, iv. pl. xv.. »-*)\'!'
second (p. 722, a), perhaps a little In «■ s ...
the possession of Monseigueu de BonaM, < i •
nal Aichblshop of Lyons, also of ^^^''''f^
circular. Increasing In thickness tow.r.ls^tte
be?el, where it is lolialed ; tr.c rest .= '""S—v
br. elegantly corded at intervals, so tha
bears some resemblance to a successioo of i«^
(diameter 1-4 inches): the bezel, '''"";"
the gem has fallen out, of an oblong quadru.
pilar form (lonj
larger si.jes viv.
by a palm brand
Blant, [nscr. cki
Martigny, Diot. %,
whi. h is likewise o
fmbossed on the sli
on which a feinalt
is engraved ; it is c
p. 71' b.)
The ldlott-inf» g
tioned, with the t
when present. A
uniform hoop of .
bezel, raised and sc
is surroiin.led by ,■
M.I8 niccolu (a tr
re, , 1, nted a dolpl
take, .13 a symbol (
187. . 49-7:i) :
Nocrc ;vs (the n
diameter of ring 1 i
face of gem 3. T
be of thi' ' , cerit
fully fig nn,'.. si
Mhscu Patorinu, \
11. de Uossi, Hull, n
Probably found in Si
A beautiful g.dd
flat and widening to
in 18,i7 among the r
Tusculum, ,ind came
Princess Aidobrandii
lazuli bearing an .inc
ipibols of hope an
!jnibols occur separj
Oeus, pp. 714and 71(
fouml in conjunction
very fine work, but i
De Rossi ig persuade,
tions that it is earlie.
(Bull. (Ii Arch. Crist
0.3).
A massive plain t
Museum has an on
clirisma, the p beinj
itroke (^), Fort
(i<*SO), p. 142.
Another very nias8
ordinary sub. icular
mutation of niccoh,,-
"i" risma, t'... p b<
«nd ,usu with a horizoni
.option (i^):<liainet.
"■«' of the euborbit
BINOS
(paUr form (longer .Ide O-O), Hm on lU two
UrK^r »„lc.» vivas ,s deo | as mu, f„llow..,l
by ap«lm branch fOK.MS, ,,. 722, fig,.re,l in Le
Blant, rnncr. chn't. </« /„ Gaute, pi '> „ ,)
Martigtijr, Diet. .. v. Anneau, ed. 2). The third'
RINi^S
1793
(U Blunt.)
whi. h is likewise of gold, bearing figures of doves
en,b.™H on thn ,honM..rs, is set with a g.ZTt
on wh.ch a female sitting between two Crosses
u ^ngruved ; ,t ,s ot later Roman worlc. (Gioiis,
The r.llowin-r gold rings rem;, in to be men-
tioned. «.th the types of their Kems or pastes,
when present. A gold ring with slender fla
uniform hoop of circular form with cuvular
be^el, raised and s.MInpe,! «t the margin, which
s surrounded by a „.aded line, holds a pale
!..» mcco o (a tn.n.ated cone) on which is
K .vnted a do phm (regarded as a fish and so
UU.. .s a symbol of Christ, see De Rossi, Hull.
No^n vim! •■ ^^^ ''""' '' '"'"'^"^ ^•V'^S
NOCTt ,vs (the nominative for the vocative) ;
Jmmeterofring 1 ,„ch ; of chnton 0'8 : of si/r-
fee of gen, ,1. This curious ri.g, supposed to
be»f the f, ,i centul•^ , is described and beauti-
fidyfigu,.! ^nat. si.n , by Prof. A. Salinas, Heal
^.^^;Z^tL -•-"•^3(enlargedj:
fl,f„tT""-f''-^"''l «"«"-""«. '^ith the hoop
fl. and widening towards the bezel, was found
m 18., among the ruins of the Roman houses in
Tusculum and canu. into- the possession of the
Princess Aldobrandini. It is set with a lapis
lazuli bearing an auohoi and a iialm-tree • the
.ym s „f hope and of final victory. These
•»mbols occur soparatdv on sev.ral gems see
0EMs,pp.714and7I(0; but have, ,.i,hfrto been
found m conjunction only on this one gem. Not
very fine work, but neither again at all rude:
De Rossi IS persuaded i,. ,„ various con.udnra-
tions that It is earlier than the fourth cei ury
{M. d, Arch. Cr,st. 1872, p. U9, tav. vif
uLZ'T P'"'" K-l.l.ring in the British
Museum has an onyx intaglio bearine tl,
ctrisma the p being crossed with the^hird
.trnte (_p). Fortnum, Arch. Joum. i^cvi
(IdSO), p. U2.
Another very massive plain gold rine of
i^tifioa of mccol,,,- upon which i. ir,,,,.^..."
Li "T.' ': •'' ''''"S "»«»«'' with the X
MJ.U.U with a horizontal line through the inter-
•''tlon (^ ) : diameter of ring 0-9 by 0-8 inch :
'iM^ of the suborbicolar chaton 0-7 inch .•
In h! " ."?""'' ("'■'"''' Museum).
»« ilfng t., the , boulders and surm.unfcd bv
cN=;;?;:!d:rtS7hfr -"■""-' '^
;;;;_enam./which";:ron:e"hi;:';::.!r:
4th'o:.tory''"^ ■■''"«' ''^'' '''''''«'''/ "ft'-*
Other settings of early Christian gems aro In
i^u!;■lu,Una•./gul d^bt^ m\n;;'fr." r:. "■••
-byhiskindpfrmissi.^t';;S':i'"v::;
(Fortnam, No. 6.)
etS;tir> *"■'-""■" -»•
IS engiaved. Some of these were, in th- in, Idle
ages the badges of bisl.ops (see uLde, i) w
lim,, below) but whether w, have anv , . them
n e:erT"re""n- \ "" '"*'""'•""' '-"h'-' -«
in everj age may have worn such, but inde-
pendently of any religious significnnc;. °
card n Is 'Ih"". ""^'" .^'"' '^'^ ^-''-'ration of
caiiJinils which mentions the delivrv nf »),•
nng:, Aiaitene .fc Ant. Eccl. ^Ti,': i^'e/
§ X . Or, . x.v. It is probable that their rin-^s also
ope 1 lus IX. installed sevcra caidin il« ]L r.,.^
-nted each of them with a goKr'rin g ti wit'^t
»..rf'h"-e (Jones, Fin^er-rmiLore, p."- r'id*
"tone appears to have been generally ,, iW the
^"■rr*!; T L" *'"' ™^« "f ^i»'"'I« (Jones J A
heOrdoRomani.(p.U;.,Hi^t. seo';^,'';,!:;
Wh t [hi / ^' "?"' "' *''«''• '-"'^ecration.
What these were we know not but it mav iJ
surmised that thfey bore plain stones. ^ ^
Forms of Christian Rings mad.' wholly Metal
and bearin) Devices. '
The various forms of these rings (as Mr
Fortnum observes) do not appear todi, Mi^m
he general fashion of the rings of the r dlv"
■n the world (^hrUtian and Pa^an" aSdrsoTr
a the figures in his «ad in the presen paper
a.e concerned, may be da«;fied tearly ^Z
- In iU^Dactylwthtca of Crlseus, may be m-t, fi<mrei
of upwards Of 20o rings, one or two of which 0^"'^,^
catacombs) probably t'hrtailan.
1794
RINOfl
own wcinls a« follows (.IrcA. Journ. vol, xxVi.
[ip. I.pH, 1 lit). I'll'' iiiiinliiTs iiUiiuhi'il retor to
the rmHH 111 lii« own colU'ction, ami i\'' riliril by
hinix'lt.
A larno piirt of the «thi'r« wlili-h Rio ni't
fimiri'il, woiiM jirobably fall unilui- the »amo
hea'U.
A, ThiM'iniilar hoop of ivcx metal »wi"llin;{
to the Mliiiiiblers anil tlaltenecl into an ovnl or
»n({iilai- 'Imtuit. .Sn<li are Noit. H. '.'4 "nil 2,>, in
Mr. FortmimV colli'i^tion ll(;iireil tmlow.
IJ. Uiinjs lornicil of two, three, or more hnojn
i|iiiin,'inL; I'll. Ill one, wiileninj; to the bezel,'' anil
generally liaviuK' beadml wire or eliiiinwoik be-
tween eaili lii.n|). Tliiii form, as the last, oceurn
kUo at ail eiirlier poiiiHl. No.s. 1, i!7, -H
(Kortniini) are «xani|ileii of this form.
C. Uilajjimal. A Hat hoop of metal formcil
into an oetafton ; Konietinies oval anil swellinj; to
the bezel, w hieh ha» a rained table of metal;
a form, m Mr. Kortnnm tliiiiks, peeuliar to the
3ril anil 4th eenfiiries. No. '■ (limireil above)
ia ol' the »,ime form, but bears a gem.
1). A peeuliar form, greatly varying, and,
again, in tlo^ ojiinion of the same gentleman,
only ociurrin;; during the Lower Knipire ; Mimi-
times of the largest size, and of great weight o(
metal. The bezel is more or less rai,--ed, and
the shoulders diverge in straight lines at a
greater or less angle from tho bezel to the side,
from whence the hoop is completed by a semi-
cirele or semi-hexagon. These rings are .some-
times of extreme width. No. 11 and 12 (Kort-
nnm) are ol this clas.s.
E. A simple hoop, generally of convex metal,
mure or less swelling to the shoulders, and hav-
ing a idrenl.ir (but little raised) bezel with Hat
table, ou which the device is engraved ; No».
l;i, U, 15, l(i, 17, 10, and 33 (Kortuum) are
of this abundant form. Nos. 26 and :iO(Fort-
num) are varieties with a square bezel.
K. Tlie simple hoop has a high, trumpet-shaped
bezel, formed as an inverted cone of greatei or
less height, and Rometimes octiiijonal laterally.
Such are Nos. 20 and 22 (Kortuum). Cardinal
de Bonald's ring (figured above) with raised
quadrangular bezel and No. 29 (Fortnum) arc
variations from this type.
This form, he says, and also D, are peculiar
to the period of decadence, and occasionally
occur of grotesque proportions and ib velopinent,
the tower-like head rising sometimes to more
than half an inch in height.
To the above cl.isses of Mr. Fortnum the fol-
lowing must be added for the Krench rings of
the Merovingian period, figured below after Le
Blant.
G. A simple hoop, slightly swelling towards
the shoulders, where it is sometimes corded ;
bearing a large oval or subcircular tabular
chaton (not raised): the extremities of the hoop
next the chaton eiicii bear bosses varying in
number, resembling pearls ; and the chaton some-
times bears a border in imitation of smaller
pearls. See under Cross below for two examples.
Had is Uscil here and in the fuliowiiia img.n ua
gynoiiyinous «tth chaton, so as to Include the whole
ornameutul surrounding. If any, together with the metal
face or table. If the latter word were kept for the
metallic lace only, and beiel for Its surrounilliigs, It would
be a gain. Scudo (.tat. tcutum) Is auaubiguoos.
TLVftCn
The preceding remarlts on the fnrini of Chrit.
tlan rings refer only to so li as bear deviiei.
Kings to which keys are attaihed, or which Imvt
the bezel in the form of n shoi' (lioth IIl,uii'i|
below from Mr. Fortnum) are likewiie not in-
cluded in the above claskes.
CJiriatUm Umi/s nf rurmiiH Miliriiil!', nut Ix'trinij
Pnvices, nur net 'ith (leiim.
I'biin rings in abnndanre, with or without a
bezel, both in various metals and in ivory, Inve
been I'oiiud in the Uoman catacombs and ia
Frankish, Oernmn, and Saxon graves, and
above all in the tomb of Maria, wilt
of the emperor Houorius, where l.Ml riai{i
it( dillcrent kinds were found in 1.S4-1, nnw
dispersed and lost to knowleil,{e (TuMus); nnJ
likewise in many other localities, where I'luii-
tiaua have been buried, and soiiictiiiies even U|i(ia
the finger of the skeleton. .Some ivory iiii^r,|
too small or too large to bo worn on the liiijjers,
have been found attached to the outside i.fse.
pulchral niches in the catacombs, even four or live
on the same tomb, probably for the purpusm iif
identification. One with plain cylindrii iil lii).)]i,
another ribbon-shaped in the obliiiue murkinjjs
outside are ligiired by I'erret (M. s. pi. viii. Nos.
.'> and 8). Kings of ostrich bone (de struthiimtim
ossibus ansulae in digitis) were sometiuiea wi.rn
as superstitious charms, and are condemned by
St. Augustine accordingly (/'v Ihjctr. Chrixt. lib.
ii. c. 20). On these various rings see Martii;ny,
Anneaux dcs prom. Ch-ift. pp. 13-1,"), and his
references: also Fortnum In Arch. ./'Mm. vol,
xxviii. pp. 267, 288, 284.
. Materials of Christian Rinits.
On the subject of material Mr. Fortnum
observes that, " us a rule, early Christian lini^
of gold are rare. This might be expected, .u
the use of rich and numerous ornaments wan
not in accordance with the teaching of the early
church." Notwithstanding this, however, ,1 fair
number of gold rings do occur. "Tlie rule also
of wearing one ring only, as a signet, insteail
of one on nearly every joint, as was mostly the
fashion among the Pagans, would acimint tor
the comparative rarity of rings with early Chris-
tian symbols." (Arch. Juurn. vol. xxvi. p. IMU.)
Authentic early Christian rings in silver are
perhaps even still more rare. A few are men-
tioned below. The most common material is,
without doubt, bronze. A few of iron still sur-
vive, but, as might be exjiected, in a more- or
less damaged condition ; two from Mr. Fort-
num's collection are Hgured (Nos. 22 and 25).
The writer has seen but one in lead, and that a
miserable production in all res))ect9, whos*
Christianity also is not entirely above suspicion
(Waterton collection : see under Cruss below).
(Fortnnm, No. 3.)
It is but very rarely that the entire ring if
made of a gem. A green jasper with unit'omi
l»«Nrd,|g„„,tl,e[rChrlstlanlt3
I Cbrtrtlan whose name was C
■ tow„,„ be, Christian family „,
I^Mhlng Christian atwnt the rii
■S^F«r,m,m,arcA.youm.vol.x
■ ' rh(»e In the Drftlsh Museun
■ta,m^,c-,llmlon.h.vebeenln
^'wriier.and he ha, occasional
F R. Soden .Smith, and to Mr.
.■M^ given to inspect ihem.
MlMT. 4MT.— VOL. II.
KIN08
corwimn of .similnr f,.rn. 1. i, . '" "
A few rinK, |„ |,.,„„ „, (,„ ,
taho,e munfoned above. «re de.cVibcl m"^. "
Authoriti:,/or the folhrrin.j Knwner.UUm of
t/lriatittn Jiiwjs. '
.)!*'K.Mr*''"'K'"\"""*""" «'' (^hriiti«n ring,
fli..h lollow. h.« been .lerive.l partly r,.„„, "h"
.n..« on tb« t;«u,.omb., Arin^ll,, 1 J,|etti, . „,
>l..,^ny, ia.n.r Le Want. Salinas i'o Ijo,, '
*». whub are <ont,u„«,| in variou. ..nblio col
-t,nn..an, ,n bi, „w„ , « viz. in the Vatin.n
J»«um of rbr,,ti,nAnti,,uiti.«,i„ the JIu.mm"
U. Brituh Museum, and in the Waterton ,■«"
kta, vvh.oh |. no,v for the mo.t part contained
mlhe .South Ken-n^ton Mn,e„m (^,.,7, ,/,«"„
"vn.. 1H71. p,.. L'7H-li83). Hi, „ v„ .olje.Ton
.«cr,bed part y in vol. xxvi. (Imi9), pp 1 "-
,, and partly in vol. xxviii. pp. iiati^j, and
Ikd later additmna to it, pp. 2«4-'.'91 The n.
Imncestn the numbers are u ho gives 'them « „i
l^'-l'-'nption. of the ,e,n, i„ th ,rcol eai„ '
«.e.rlv ,n hi. own „„,!,.- Several,, ,5,
«;^-oohruti,;nc;;:t;:HS, ^li^:::;:;!!
«« of thee figured by Perret and other"
niNog
170fi
Trinciju,l Tjipea of ChrMm Itin^s
I wial or oi bone. These Ji„ll „ i^ " ""8""
Ra:-^tJ:srts-:vir
uJiij ui8t Which has been followed in Gems.
1. Ordinart Finoer-rinos
ll-MhlDgChrlstan I^,,"^^ :''"'? "'"^' ""' "" <h "re
U:';:.'!'^.".'!;'''!'' «"->"'. <n the Waterton o„,.
t "• Soden .Smith. anTT Vr l^""" *" *•■•• *''""'».
cuaisr. AOT.-voL. ii.
!'.t':li:;;:^:?;„;>;;"p"^.v"ohe breadth
inters oV OY0X " ' vnwo'"' "" ' "'''''"
^■"""d near I!,,m, . i ,,^^y°. '■-"■"'?'--l-).
StroKanoli; |i„,' ,., , " ' •'" l'-''ti"» "f Count
th« ronrth ,J::tu ;!;■; '1' "•'• -thor than
hat the .ubiinear 0, -^ of u'/'T''. "'',". """'<•
for the missing | (|,' VI, //")' ";'" "'""''
'«f'<. IT. 7«, 7*7. tav iv'T';,)"""- ''"•"■ t'-"-
'''''•. p. (J t) than fn <l \i- '•'""■ 'irtll. Crist.
"X"";, was found n Imm i i .i
Ifoinan roail at M.w,fi • '' '"■»i'le the
l-ervedin'ft:::;:;-';M"ntp,.lli,.r,n,,w
Society of that rdn, . T -\r.hii(,lojji,:a|
ve'T forked ailf en* -av^d" "'""" 'l'''' "•^"' "
"I'-vnted chaton- the h "',"'" "'" "|i""'o
«wwiin«to«;i:;i;tts ;;id;;;a:V'«^"7'
each terminatine in a »n. I - u *^ "' '**"' <-ords,
»1'I-H.s to be Koman nil '. \?'' '''''« ''"l^'ic
tt.e Castella, • tiSio: C'9 T:?^'''"- • '"
of coarse work the l,„ 1 ' " o'onze rini;
i?rge Hsh between "tir'sS"""' "'"■ ""«
tortnum has „ bron,o riLTf "'""'• '*'''
f i'-cular boo,, of which ^^ ^ '"'"'"' ""'''' *'•«
circular bezeV on whkh . "'"■'""""""' 'O' n flat
reetly) an ear' of corn '"«''"^'"'' <"'-^- '"™'-
between two fishes,
wnich ho regards as an
'emblem of the br.'ad
of lile, and of those
who live in faith upon
•t"(No. 17).
(-•) Anchor. — 'n,e Cortuam, No. 17.)
K"S"f:T;:;rS'°''e Christian by Mr.
toH-anlsfhebe,e ,m"'^K'u''-''''' ''•■""' »«'''""'S
graved wi h a si'n ; '' ',' " ?'"'' "*•«' <■»-
c-llection, No 1 • Tow inTh "u^"'' ^'"^'""""i
(The geni'iinen,. s' of This rit f""'' """"'"■
doubtful: the work is r , i ' "« '^".'"^ »">i'o«hat
form, also of goTi enf-iav V ■.1.""« •"■ ''"I''"
a .H-.(Xapl!. M„T.H. 1:' "Vr'""- ""'^
with creular be/el „ 1, • l ''■ bronze ring
a sbip are engraved (X.^^'^r '""^'"'^ ""'1
Bolde'tti (tt,i p:1o2 Nror'^'T"'"' -^■°- 2)-
with two bezels on 1. «• l\ '"S""' ■'« "ng
on another a Shi," % "^ l'"'^'' '» "" «"<^hor,
h-. t.o an^S con-u^" ""''"« ''^""^^S-'
fon: two .-e in Mr. Fort-
""'".' ™l'".tion. One (No
l%" •''<;r">-l.i8acircleof
half-round metal, swelling on ^a-Sl^
the shoulders, and having a rrortJ^ '
croular raised chaton, ^on ''"'""'"'■•'••"J
b7 te'Tf S.« tu'l'?,".''^'' «-»-. c«
JK.aried border. Ymm iLlZ """"""''"I by a
Another with the saTeK ''"'^^"'"bs at Rome."
obt,Uned in uSrCTde«rL" nT'^"^'
session of the writer Mr v \ ' " '" *''* P"""
this emblem wal in u„ "'■*"""' "•"«• that
Another (No ^1) brtfrr'""' *," ^•''- 312.
V "• 'ii; bas the face of the bezel
lU
tw"»"
riFJ?
1' .,
f '■
■'!
1
, 4'
1796
EING8
(FortnniDt No. 10.)
similarly engraved, but the socket is inversely
truncato-conical (nearly as No. 20), the cone
bi'iiig encircled by three projecting mouldings.
Probably of the 4th century. Obtained in
London ; place of finding unknown.
(3.) S/iip.—Mt. Fortiium has a bronze ring
with plain wire hcop (No. 14), on the circular
chaton of which is rude'" engraved a ship with-
out sails; X and P (for
XPICTOC) are engraved on
either side of the mast. Ob-
tained ill Home. The follow-
ing in the Castellani Collec-
tion are also of bronze. One
with corded hoop and circular
bezeV engraved with a ship jiropelled with oars,
the I'K.st and yard of which form a cross (No. 6).
Another of similar form, and of similaj- device ;
but the mast supports tlie reversed chrisnia
enclosed in a c'vcle. (No. 7.) In the Waterton
collection was formerly "a massive bronze
signet ring, with ship in full sail, having the
sacred monogram on the sail, while round it are
the ''.ames STiiP/FNVS iiki.enak." Fortnum in
Arc I. Journ. vol. ixviii. (1871), pp. 274,
[See also Anchor and Cross^
(4.) Dove. — This typo occurs by ^itself, and
also in various combinations. A massive bronze
ring found in Home, with scalloped bezel, bears
on its face simply a dove (Uoldetti, Cimit. p.
502, n. 27). " A heavy bronze signet ring with
massive hoop and projecting bezel, upon which is
the figure of a dove ; the hoop is modelled as a
wreath, having the bezel as a central ornament,"
is in the Waterton collection, No. 3. (No. 605
in S. Kens. Mus. Inv.) In the Vatican Museum
(No. 15) is a "bronze ring with larg;e oblong
square bezel," engraved with the chrisma and
the dove standing on an olive-brarch ; beneath,
a star or perhaps double cross. See Cross.
A nearly similar ring is engraved and described
by Aringhi, Rmm Subt. t. ii. p. 708, reproduced
EINGS
Malrid, bears a bird (dove ?) on the chaton
around wliich is inscribed A (Aurelii) Vix-
CENTI (Hiibuer, Inscr. JJisp. Christ. Nos. 200,
207).
The above-named ring in the Vatican Museum
is the most important, b\it not the only bronze
example therein contained which is eugraved
with a dove, oee under No. 18 of that colltc-
tion. (Fortnum.)
See also below under Human Figures.
(5.) Palm. — The palra-branch occurs without
doubt on Christian rings, but when aloue it is njt
easy to be sure that tlie work is Christian. Tlitrt
are several gold rings in the Naples Museum,
one of duplex form (No. 4), with a palm ou each
bezel, also a heavy plain gold ring, in the Cas-
tellani oollection, round, with flattened bezel,
coarsely engraved with the palm (No. 4), which
is counted by Mr. Fortnum to bo Christian,
thorgh with expression of doubt. A gold ring,
half an inch in diameter, with thiu llat hoop,
and the hazel no wider, in which a palm-bi inch
of poor Roman work in the Waterton collection
(No. 467 Inv. £. Kensington Mus.) may proUbly
be Christian. (See Gems, Vol. I. p. 71G.) Thera
are other rings in Mr, Fortnum's
collection (Nos. 8, 9 (both gold)
and 12 (bronze), all from Rome),
about which he now feels less
confidence as respects their Chris-
tianity than formerly {Arch. Journ. vol. xxviil.
p. 276). The former, found in a child's tomb,
seems of the 3rd or 4th century : it is small, of
a common form, viz., a simple hoop flattened out
on the bezel. In the writer's opinion it is pro-
(Fortnnm, No. 8.)
(Foitaniu, No, 11.)
by Pe Corte, Sunt. p. 121. In Mr. Fortnum's onl-
lect.on (No. 11) is a bronze ring of coarse work
and hexagonal form erternallv, circular Inter-
nally ; the shoulders are " splayed from the
chaton to the centre of cither side." Oa_ the
raised circular chaton " two doves and a tish "
(rather three doves) are engraved. A gold ring
found at Tiilavera de la Reina in Spain has a
hexagonal bezel, bearing two birds, probably
dove.s, on its face. " Intra hexagonum ab utraque
parte avis est; in c>rcuitu anticae inscriptio
EMANVEL, postic e RECCAREAO (.ftc;),"
<' e word lieccaredxj einn followed by a cross
oi four dots, evidently of e Visigothio period,
jiossibly belonging t' kiug Recaredo (fi85-601
A.D.). A ring (metal not named) found at Cor-
dova iu 1768, now in the public library of
(Fortzram, No. U.)
bably Christian ; the palm, the symbol of victory,
is less likely to be given to a pagan than to a
Christian child by its parents. So very possibly
is also No. 12, with bezel raised on tour stages, j
and palm-branches on the shoulders, wliidi seems ,
rather later, perhaps about the beginning of the
5th century, when paganism was dying out and
monograms were coming into fashion on ring!
and seals. (This monogram may be EVE and
(Fortnam, No. M.)
stand for Evotius or some other proper iiii»«,|
doubtless that of the owner.) Hut" a less (i^iiiU-l
ful example is a bronze ring, also in Mr, tort-i
num's collection (No. 16), on the br?l of whicHi
is cn^faved ft palm-branch and a tnonograffl,!
having also palms iu panels lU the boor. w|
RiNas
Acclamations helow. 'Other h»nt,,» -• . ,
Vatican A.u.seu„., oH.S 1.^^^^^^^^^^^^^
™y be chn.tiau' ;:;!!; LfcSA:''"''
(Fortnum. „. .. vol. „viii. p. 276 T ! m 7
ml .s but rarely orn,.l,,ye.i' for Christian .t'!"
tion (No. 28) of ,luj)lex
form with united jiointed
bezels, on one of which is
engraved the name of the
jmssessor FAVsivs, and
on the other a jialm-
branch. Weight, 4 dwt. /
4 gr Discovered in 186.5 at Porto, near fh^
to t.e tnat ot Pammachius, the friend of Sf
Jerome among many other object, th" ."luer
part of which were adorned with rh,,!;
.ymbo . The excavations were made t^'^Z
Torlonia, who iiresented most of th» k- 1
!^^^.r. to the Christian'nli tP'Z
wi!l:[;^:.:HZi;;::;:^S„";l:,'^,-jined
securely a.firm then, to i.e Christl.^n """
Ihere is n hronze hoop-rins in th« v .•
collection (No. 14) engra.^ed l^it'h a branch^o"
ElNbS
1797
(Fortnom, No. 2S.)
_, „.^„ ^ urancn of
palm, a cross potent (k-J^), and the word
VIVAS. It occurs also in connexion with the
(6.) 6'mw._Thi8 subject occurs under several
dXlerent forms and is either alone or in co„
"1?" 7^*';, others. It was engraved a e.?;
. the fourth century on the iron rin? of St
Jaonna, which contained a piece of the^ ueS
cros. I see below at the end of § 18. ^'^
(A.) Nut accompanied h, Inscriptions or
'^I'jHixjrams.
A Kronze ring gilt with high inversely conical-
tr«' te bezel (cf. No. 20 and 21 of Fonnum)
H m »;,e Vatican .Museum (No. 17) eng ave"
w h a Mnltese cross. (See also below, Vmder
ormea as a 1) in connexion with a iialm his
been^ mentioned under I'.Um. (See al'so unller
The Greek oross is found on many rings under
„ .t\V''''^,"" " '"'y ■•',de%i„g^of tZ
n the Water on collection (No. 1 being' No. 607
fili-penod?"^- ""•^' '"J"™^'' '" '« "^ ^he*
A Greek cross, crossed by another in form of
Lt\ f 'T "' *'"' '<^"" X, so as ™re.
circu ar bezel of a cmree bronze riuL' in the
O^WIani collection (No. U). (See al^o un,
';inuo:::;'i::,S""^^""''"^*-'-»''»"^^
longest o,r!" """'' • '"*'■"» ♦*« '"^^-'t limb
tttadXZi'r' '^"""'^'^ — »
grade (so that it Zld r ad 'n It ""'ll'-^'^ '•''''•"-
impression) an.l in the cenf. """"""y "> a wax
to one on a coin ofcmZioYl ^BT^;^',?'""'"
at Marseilles, and i.erl ml Lli- "''''' ^ '*''"''*
bablyVound II ,:' ( ^H .ir/''""'''"^- •"-
91, 1 . 647.) A s ni li • "• *• "• ^^« -*• !'!•
cross pre.ix;dt"o;4"'"r^ "'.": ^'"'""
centre of the be/el s^r.T (™V'"?''"''''> = '" the
.n.-..neter of th'llib; r £ t r„;'tl '''■ < ''1'"
foregoing is about "' """ "'"^ the
half an inch. Found
in Deuxieme A(|ui-
taine. (Le Hlant,
«• s. n. ,575 A. pi.
79, n. 476.) A simi-
lar gold ring, with
corded hoop, and
somewhat larger
pearled bezel, hai a (l^nimt.)
trSe)":Tn''the"'' t" «^«''^^-"«AMvr8 (re-
Andrew's cross (X)pt^^^tr^^;^'-:;S^
hS' "this%vn^' "f •"•,^^' "■ 2'«') A bro
Anfnnl^S:: ia/mriv:nn:is:rTi;ff ^ «'
approaching in form to the Ma ^4 teti" .Tf
ring of Merovingian type with rm.i T u" ^
found buried at a sliglft denth o^ a'^ ^"T
in Deuxitme A,,uita'nf, now' n tl7 ^'"■''"''•
otM. Benjamin Killon. ""* ''"^^^-ssion
On *!.„ _I. .
{he BItinl.)
(B.) Accompanied by Names or Monograms.
G^Jkhtt'V^ "'T ^^ '""•« the following
(.aukh examples. A gold ring „f the Merc^
On the chaton is „
small Greek cross, and
above it an almost
inextricable mono-
gram which has been
read RADmoNDis, but
which may equally
w.dl be 'read into
several other names as
^ at any rate very uncertain, not to ... v,r
bab e. ii„ body, resting at Poitiers. "i7 siiTI;"
have been taken up by the Huguenots in ,562
a soldier Tn^ *." ""r '■"""" '"' ''"^ Po«se.ssion of
a soldier, on whose finger it was found seven years
oe the ring, ,t seems to be unknown where it is
5 Z 2
. in
i^
1798
RINGS
now. (Le Blant, u. s. n. 575 n, wlio hna many
observaticins worthy to be read, pi. 75, n. 452 ;
Butler, Lives of t/ic Saints, Aug. 1:!.) A silver ring
found at Hohberg, near Soleure in Switzerland,
with broad angular hoop, has on the rectangular
chaton? (forni'insr one of its sides), a monogram
which apparentiv reads vkp.ani accompanied by
a Latin cross. (Id. n. Jiti'i A. pi. 4-2, n. 247.)
Other rings, also found in Switzerland, bear
monogram's on the chaton, and may probably be
Christian, but they bear no Christian symbols.
(Id. Nos. ;Ki4, ;!tJ5, pi. 42, 249, 2,-JO.)
Examples occur also in Italy acd elsewhere.
In the Castellani collection (No. 2) is a heavy
duplex ring of gold, found at Orvieto; tm the
oval bezel of one of the united hoops is incised
the name ulithia, and on the other a cross potent
above i=^, which is Rpparently an abbreviation
(Fortiiura, Na 19.j
of a proper name, probably of the same name,
as Mr. Fortnum is inclined to suppose. In the
Vatican Museum (No. 7-1(1) are three bronze
Ii0(>p-rin2s, each engraved with a cross potent
and witii au inscription which Mr. Fovtnuni
could not decipher ; probably they were owners
names, and possiblv expressed in monograms.
In the IJritish Miiseura is a silver ring on
whose oval chatou (half an inch by about a
quarter of an inch) is a cross pomm^ (i.e.
having a globule at the extremity of each of the
limbs.'whTch are united in a Latin cross), fol-
lowed bv EVCE, below which is a B and an I
above, probably for EVCEBIOY. Tht shoulders
of the hoop are slightly foliated, as Roman rings
often are.
Jlr. Fortnum purchased in Constantinople a
gold ring of excellent liyzan-
"tine work (No. 24), pr<ibnbly
of the 5th or 6th century.
It is a circular convex hoop
widening to the shoulders,
and Hattened to form an
oval bezel, on which is en-
graved a monogram between
two Greek crosses. The
Waterton collection (S. Kens.
Mus. Inv. No. ()21) has a
somewhat later e.\ample of
Byzantine work. A gold ring
tlie hoop of which is nielloed
on the outside with a Latin
cross, and the proper name
of its possessor, BARINOTA (i.e. probably Vari
twtarii); the bezel is formed of a gold solid ns of
Constantine Pogonatus (tii)8-«88), and the ring
also may very well be of the 7th century.
In the Uoyal Museum of Palermo (Salina.s,
Seal. Mus. di I'ltl. p. 57, tav. A. n. 12^ is a iilain
oval massive gold ring with small Hat bezel, on
which is engraved a Latin cross and below it,
in four lines, EY<t>YMHOY YHT, apparently
for tvipiifiiov iitirov. U is doubtless, as Salinas
observes, of a base epoch, but may well be within
our limits. The Hypati (viri consulares) and
Notarii (secvcto-iVf) ' were high oHicers of the
Byzantine court.
'7.) C/iridum or Mimmjram nf Christ or initial
Letter) of Chriit.—Thc common form of this
, and also the form having the P reversed
, sometimes occurs by itself is on bronze
EING8
rings fonnd in Rome. See Vatican collection
(Nos. l.'>-25); Fortnum col-
lection (Nos. 18, 19).!' See
also Boldetti, Cimit. p. 502, tav.
H, Nos. 29 and ;!1. It occuiv like-
wise in other metals. For the
Castellani ring with cloisons of
gold, see above. A ring of
massive silver, or rather mixed metal, in the
collection of Lady Londesbnrough (No. 18?. of
Mr. Crofton Croker's catalogue) bears nii its
ovato-acuminatc bezel the ordinary form m1' tlw
chrisma. (Fortnum, u. s. p. 283 ; figured in .loncs's
Finijer-ring Lore, p. 47.)
The separate letters P and X occur on a bronze
ring in the Vatican collection (No. 5). The
chrisma is also frequently found along with the
Alpha and Omega. In Mr. Fnrtnum's colhction
(No. 10) the chrisma occursbetween those letters
on a bronze ring, which is a "circular him|i of
(Fortnum, No. 30.)
(Fortnam, No. M.)
convex metal, swelling to the sauJo, which is of
lozenge shape," upon which the letters arc en-
graved ; " the >houlders are ornamenteil with
lozenge-shaped p.inelliug." From Home, of the
4th or 5th century. (Arch. Jonrn. vol. xxri.
p. 14.3; vol. xxviii. p. 273.) Also on anotlur
bronze ring from Rome, in the Vatican collection
(No. 16), as well as on a bone or ivory ring,
having an oval bezel, in the same collectiim
(No. 26).
The same combination is found on a hronze
ring, whose figure is given, brought to Mr. Kort-
num from Rome (No.
30) ; the loop of the P
is reversed, and a shte;
is standing on either
side of the base of the
monogram, the limbs
of which are slightly
wedge - shaped. The
hoop, swelling to the
shoulders, ornamented with palm-branches, ii
incised, traces of niello apparently remaininj
in the incisions, as well as in the incised tyi>es
of the square chaton ; these indicate that the
ring was not intended for sealing.
the palm branch is placed on either side of
the chrisma on more than one massive bronze
ring found in the Cataombs of Rome (linlJetti,
Cimit. p. 502, Nos. 30 and 33). The chrisma is
also found, though very rarely, with a date
expressed by the name of the reigning emperor.
There is an ivory ring, recently found at Lyons,
of large size, on the circular bezel of which a
chrisma with long stem and open loop is sur-
mdcd by VlcrORE avo. (he was associated
a:, emperor in Gaul with Maximus, his father,
A.D. 383-388). In the possession of Canon
Martigny, who figures it (Diet, des Ant. cM.
ed. 2, s. V. Anneaux).
The chrisma whose stem ends in a star is
found on a bronze ring in the Vatican Mnseura
(No. U), placed between two stars, a word of
six letters (illegible) being underneath. Tlie
chri-sma is also found in combination with AlpM
' Lord Braybrooke's collection contjin'd "a ilijlit
•oruirzf riir.; " (N-. 1= ■"■f hi- ^>.^.il^.gn<■^, -.vhic!. app-n!''
have some form of the chrhma (" uppareiilly a Ciirlstlu
monogram"); U la said to have b.cn fujnd In ths
'I'hanies. Mr. Kortniiui rea.«onably considers that It i!
probably early Chrliitian (in Arch. Joum. vol, nviil.
p. as3).
ican collection
(Fortiiara, No. 19.>
rortnnm, No. 30.)
(fortnuni, No. I.)
BINGS
and Omega, and with a S/,w wifl, rr
/wra, and with ^r,7„„,/^^; *" -^/'"nan
hea :lin.s). m' tl, ''T ^'T ""''"■ "'°«''
symb.,r alone or in • ,„ Znar'""'''% ""»' *'''^
.-i-nnotheeo.Ue„dro*^'::Khr:;5-
combination with .some other svm bo' "1^^ ""
num ha., a gold ti-iplev villf.\, r. '"■■ ''''""
probably o/the a.'li or ^h"' ""'' '" ^"'"'=' "'"'
century (No. 1). The three
hoop.s .spring from one, and
widen towards the bezel
between which a beaded'
wire neaily fills the open
space, and is formed upon
the bezel into X crossed
by the I. The same form
occurs on GlCMS (n. yO'''* nn,1 n„„ . .
verv enlv dnf„ „ '—A and appears to be of
q" 7' '-V '•"'«' a«™rJ'ng to some before ad
312 (Jortnum „^, vol. x.viii. p. 209.)
of XPICTOC Uk?'-^"'"^ "'^ *^" «r.st letters
01 Ariv^ivjo likewise occur- P V „i
bronze rin, in the Vatican MuUnmCN^M Z^
X q m conjunction with a ship. See V.^-*' ^
>.«. as the initials of Jesus Christ r);^'"^"'"" '
to be suspected, however that t is I ""'"''"'[
indication. of s'ome so t'; X her p'T"''^"'
connexion with the vrir,n;L. ^ ■ "'" ""•'^
ring, tlie hoop widening towards the h^v l f
which the mardn is flnt,.,I. p . ■ ''"' "^
B-lMe;aa;t,^,!':L£l„^«/»-'^o„„,
fonud on any monuments wh re the Ch i^t "''
r.' acconip:- ^hV tt-^tttXBptcA'z \"""?'
taent proof of the identity of the tw. ""
page, in the estimation of L owner " /t""'
ka"s^'U collection ^ ' Mertens-Sehafl:
I «t*Wio^;^ndtf7h''e'ch""r -^.''-ynbolof
i^-aitsa::rf-t"""'^^^'^'-t^'
iaxGs
Kyj
(Fortnum, NO, 2fi.)
K-' iill;"':::;^. -r"''^'^""- ^^ ^o.. m.
a>-tian,;;o" ,i:„^r"«! 'io».an'eari;
also above under ' '7 ^"■•tmm.). See
N". 3(1), where he' ;; ""'' .^""■.■/" (^•o.•tn^m,
thechW^niasil t ' '^ "' ^^'^^ '" "'^' ''"»' "f
^iSMot ring in e'r/ .;'■'*• ',""•"'«. a bronze
being No. S04 1„vK^f""-''-ti"n (X«. 4
formed as a wre-i h of , T^-^' ''"-'"g the hoop
for the centraTon, melt'"; '' ""*' "^"' '"■^'^'
tiiereon. Above n "!' /^'"'"S '' 'amb incise,!
two rude bnmcles R, ' ^'''"" ?' "'« 'amb are
siJered both n tl ' IT ''"'^ ''"' l'""''- ™»-
I'oop, swelling to the chin""' ,r'",' ^"•'"'"••
collection (No!25) eni^la" ,'" r'''' ■'••"'t'-uni's
i" a crouct'iing poiiUo"' T ,,' * ''"" '" ""-' '''ft
'•'"S, which he considers to be
P 'hably of the 6th century
was found ,„ a Coptic village
ne.irt, t,„,,,, [;,,J.a,^e
plausibl/reg.rd he lion ^'\™"tury. JJe
-;r^.^''u^hat^!ei-/^t;!r§i-
' '-"P'-eaentations of saints I ; r^'^ w^ '"'" '" ''«
lection (No. 6, lav No (iofi ' ^^■^'«'-ton col-
fi"g. 1-^ inches ndiame ei- ot "'.T"'^",''"""^'^
hai.s Byzantine • the In ' ' "'"'''' l""'-
orante with subc r cuh" 1 ','' '" '=",S'--'''<1 an
on either side- on the n,.''.'! P"''" '"•'■'ch
is a smaller "tabnl-'T"?/'^'^ «*' 'h« hoo,,
Greek cros .^ In the T, le"" V"-^'-''*^''-"' "'"' ^
619) is a '.ronz ring wh 1 h ''V"" <^"^'- ^^'«-
(Inv. G08)of ff 1 w tif '." *^ f »« collection
i"g at the' ^zt^t:2'i^r T T''-
graved with the bu 'of . ^"" ^'"''' ^''-
■'i">l">s. On either si e f. "","' i'''"' "'-^l
letters M A (for llaia tI" 'T'' "'' *''«
the last; but the vinJi , f/'' ''^'^'-'Wes
late as the (Jth c n v „ ^h ''''^ "' '""«* ««
for the present wo"k at;. I' ^''' T"" '"» '»'«
ring(No.20) ''aThnnle I n 1'",'!'" ''"' " '"•'"'^e
bul!r chatonV-'^n w'hi!.!."'"''' '"'''''"ga.quare ta-
IS engraved a draped
male figure with subcir-
cuiar nimbus standing
before a cross potent,
which springs from what
seems to be a cup with
bosses, such as occur of
glass in the catacombs.
(Kortnnrn, No. 26.)
" Po««ib!v
H«. — _ J"
^1
.1!
li*M
'ill
1
1800
RINGS
work of the 6th or 7th century ; obtained m
Athens." In the same collection is an iron ring
(No. 22), of which metal very few rings have
(Korlnum. No. 22.)
siirviveil in tolerable condition; on the flat
raiseJ octagonal bezel are engraved two Hgures,
veiv Diobably intended, as Mr. Fortnura sug-
gests, ior .SS. I'eter and Paul (Pkter and
I'AUI., and Mki)A1.s), the chrisma between then-
heads, while on the eight sides of the inversely
tiuu.ato-conical socket or stem of bezel are
engraved eight «gurea imperfectly preserved,
inol.ably saints. Perhaps of the 4th or 5th
century (Mr. Kortnum assigns no date). Ob-
tained In London, but probably of Italian work.
Tlie same collection in tine contains a bronze
ring (No. 15), with rounded hoop slightly swell-
ing to the shoulilers, bearmg a
plain circular bezel, on which is
engraved a fcmiile draped quite
to the feet, having the chrisma
(with loop reversed) on each
(Kuniium, .No. 16.) siile of the head, and a bird,
probably a dove, on either side
of her feet. Possibly an emblem of the churcdi
feeding her .lew and Gentile children. Found
in the catacombs, probably that of St. Cali.xtus,
and presented by Padre Garrucci to Mr. I'ort-
num : they assign it to the 4th century.
There are a few others of this class which
seem rather too late for the present work. One
in the Waterton collection (Inv. No. 6'29), gold
with full-faced bust on the circular bezel, with
a Greek cross and legend AVFRET, seemingly
Anglo-Savon work : it bears some resemblance
to the unbiue aureus of Bishop Wulfred in the
British Museum. .
(l;!.) fluj'erial Pcrsomfjes m connexion vttlt
CAnsiuiniiv.— As in the analogous case of gems,
these occur but rarely on rings. There is, how-
ever, a most important example in the Museum
at I'lilermo, which has been well, though not fully,
.lesiiibedand illustrated bv.Salinasand Ugdulena;
an 1 roproduced by a beautiful figure in gold and
coloiu-s. It is, as the former observes, a veritable
pro ligy for the minuteness of the work in niello
with which it is ornamented. The date and
principal subject appear to be satisfactorily made
out : viz., the espousals and coronation of the
emperor Heradius and his wife Kudocia (A.D.
(illi) It was found at Syracuse, along with
coins of Constans If., the grandson of Eudocia,
RINGS
who transported the seat of empire thitlier,
and died there in 6(38. The gold hoop ia
slender and octagonal, and bears upon suven
of its flat sides as many scriptural sub-
jects. Salinas interprets only the first and last.
They appear to be as follows : — (1.) The Ait.mn-
ci^itiun. The Virgin in dark dress holds a
basket (oalathus) and ....?; the angel on tha
right in white (silver). (2.) The licilnt.Um.
Mary, as before, and Elizabeth, in a paler ('less,
kiss each other; they stand between two (Intk
crosses supported by a white (silver) pe(l<;>t;ii.
(;i.) The Infant Saciour at Bethlehem. A cave?
(darkish): the Infant stretched out above, the
Virgin on the ';eft; heads of two oxen (?) in tiic
distaice. (4.) Adorathn of the iltiji. Viri;in,
with circular nimbus, seated, bearing the Infimt
on her lap, on the left: the three Magi lu ti in-
cated caps (like modern cylindrical hats, luit
Phrygian caps as on Mkdaw), advance towiu-ls
her. (5.) The Baptiaw. The Baptist, with niiiii ,
places his hands over the head of Jesus, «
nimbus (?), who stands in the .lordau up to tii.;
middle; on the opposite bank two figures, appnr-
ently angels (mostly in silver). (6.) LVv.Iiin,
perhaps JeMs browjht before I'Uate. A figure
with helmet and cuirass (?), is on the hit ; a
figure with nimbus in the centre ; another figure,
not fully draped, on the left. (7.) The Vuit h
the &i>ukhie. A subcylindrical structure with
dome, on the summit of which is a cross;
two female figures on the left, one in dark, one
in pale dress : opposite on the other side ..f tlie
tomb an angel iu white ^^ilver). Tlie length
occupied by these seven subjects is about three
and a half inches ; the breadth rather more than
a quarter of an inch. The bezel is elevated
about a quarter of an inch above the hoop; the
socket is keeled, bearing on the upper part the
following barbarously spelt legend, to which
a Greek cross is prefixed: OC (xJnAON
6YA0K1AC 6CT€*AN0CAC HMAC,
nearly .as Ps. v. 12 (LXX) where we have it
htKai «u5oKi'us iareibixvoioas t|m<<s- l'''"' "
every likelihood that the Empress Eadocia u
here enigmatically described; who, together
with her 'husband Heraclius, are represented :n
white (silver) on the subcircular chaton. whusc
diameter is nearly half an inch ; a dark figure
witli subcircular nimbus standing between thciii,
which is doubtless intended for the Saviour, who
occupies a similar position on coins of Roinamis
IV. and his wife EudiiciaH (1067-1070). descnliid
and figured by Sabatier, Mon. li,z. vol. ii. p. bii».
pi 1 n. 11. The espousal and coronation ol
Heradius took place on the same day, so that
this ring may be considered to commemorate
both events (Salinas, u. s. pj). 57-5U, tav. A,
(14) Acclimations sometimes accompanied hj
Nnnws ami Portraits of the 0.i'H«rs-.-Several rmp
of bronze are engraved with the inscription vivas
or IN DKO VIVAS, either at length (with slirht
variation?) or in monogram, the chnsinn beisg
iy-.r hoop w !" "Ii'llo. It Is to he fesred thi t this curious
rln;? falls below our perfwl; ihe simple tnuMBie, i,<.«evec-,
(wours on various early nioiiun.ents iw an cmiilem of
the Trinity. S^e Tkukh'.k; Tiumtt. I'rebeodary
Walc-oit, however, olwne-i that three Interlacing
tr.aiigles do occur In the Otb century (SHcrcJ Arch. p.
3M).
s The writer mv^t -.nf.« f. h^v-nir h'* • ™l»!^"^ \
that this is the EiHlc^ia of the nng : the nimbus oM ,
S.vlour, however. Is different ii. the two "ses, on
line it Bccras to l)o simply fubcircular; on the f "
;, is crudtorm. The cl.vmnsumces uf the finding r« r,.
strong y to Eudocia, wife of IlcracUus.
lometimes added
lection, finely
ser^'ed, found in
the catacombs i;
Via Appia at
bears the chrism
CX)SMK VIVAS 01
circular face of i
versely conical
(No. 20). Anotl
the Vatican has a i
bezel inscribed
I
(No. 6). A simlli
in the Waterton (
tir,n(.Vo. .31). Ai
with ribbon hoop,
• retrograde legend
belonging to Sig. (
Arch. Crist. 1874,
two following wil
inscription, hut v
found at Chiusi :
Kossi to stand fo
ilodena has the t't
words in ditferent (
A more interest!
in the JIuseum of
reads round the rig
>g I SI I ^>i I
Sjxs, m Deo vicus,
proper name, as it
inscriptions. Mr.
oetagonal flat-band
ing DONATE imiA!
V. I. V. I. N. D. E. O,
of the 4th century
bronze ring with fia
hoop, which is decor
lozenge-shaped pan<
cut on the bezel, is
Rossi. Dcus-Dona vit
Deusdedit, &c,, beinj
owner) and still sur
donne, as Jlr. Fortnu
the 4th century, foui
this ring (No. 16) fi{
infhesamecollectioi:
reversed, as the ringi
There are also a ie
icclamation, the mo!
found iu 1«60 near
deaoonry of Fermo i
made of large slabs
bones of the decease
This splendid ring is
gold of duplex foi
the united bezels bci
acutely ovate. On c
if engraved the na;
nUNA.VDA (the f
l»st letters each in
..,.« r.j. ,i-...iij^ anu
the other are two lir
lyastar. .Six beads
'It Is called 'aiglllo I
RINGS
jometimes u,lled. One, in Mr. Fortnum's col-
lection, hnely pre-
sen-ed, found in one of
the ciitacumbs in the ^J§^Q
Via Appia at Home,
bears the ohrisma and
COSMK VIVAS on the
circular face of an in-
versely conical bezel
(Ko. 20). Another in
the Vatican has a square
I VIVAS
RINGS
1801
bezel inscribed
(No, 6). A similar one
in tlie Waterton collec-
tion (No. 31). Another (Kcirluum, No. 20.)
with ribbon hoop, with sessile square bezel and
retrograde legend, mentioned by I)e Kossi as
belonging to Sig. Castellani, has ^'^'^^ I (Sull.
Arch. Crist. 1874, pp. 76-79, tav. ii., where the
two followmg will also be found). The same
inscription, but with Dio, on a similar rinsj
found at Chiusi : vivAl is considered by lie'
Kossi to stand for vivat. A label found near
llodena has the lace" inscribed with the same
words in different order
A more interesting ring of octangular form
in the Museum of the University oV Perugia
reads round the right sides as follows : '
f- I. "„ I "^ I '-^ I DE I OV I IV I AS.
kjKs, 171 Iko vioas, where Spes appears to be a
proper name, a.-i it certainly is in some other
inscriptions. Mr. Fortnum has other bronze
octagonal flat-banded rings (Nos. 3, 4) read-
ing no.vATE jiiiiAS (i.e. vivas) in dko, and
V. I. V, I. N. D. E. o, both from Kome ; probably
ot the 4th century. Mr. Fortnum has also a
bronze ring with Hat circular bezel and circular
hoop, which is decorated with palm branches in
lozenge-shaped panels; the monogram, deeiily
cut on the bezel, is rendered bv the Chev. de
Mfi, Di'us-l)om vivas in Deo; "Oeus-dona, "like
Deusdedit, &c., being a proper name (that of the
owner) and still surviving in the French Dieu-
donne, as Jlr. Fortnum observes. Good work of
the 4th century, found in Kome. Tiie device on
this ring (No. 1(5) figured above, and on another
in the same collection (No. 20) described above, is
reversed, as the rings are intended for signets'
There arc also a lew of gold bearing the same
acclamation, the most important, of these b"inir
ouud in I,SGO near Masignano, in the arch-
deaconry of Fermo in central Italy in a tomb
made of large slabs of stone, containing some
bones of the deceased and '.ragments of gold I
This splendid ring is of
goiJ of duple.v form,
the united bezels being
acutely ovate. On one
is engmved the name
fiuna.nda (the two
l,'»t letters each in a
••"- ••; Ttrm), ami Oil
llie other are two lines vivas in deo followed
tJMstar. Sii beads meet the juncture of tlie
Mtla caUed 'siglllo iu bronao,' and though about
bezels on each side ; the hoop (rounded ex*.r-
nally, plane internally) diminishes in width from
the bezel. Weight, five and a-halfjienny weights.
1 robably of the latter part of the 3rd or of the
beginning of the 4th century. Formerly in
the possession of Don Antonio Donati, late
librarian of the college of the Sapienza at Kome.
now in the collection of Mr. Fortnum (No. il).
bee also Palm, where the inscription is gimplv
vivas, a gold ring found at (Jaetobriga
(Iroye ?) in Lusitania, in the cabinet .d' the
king of Portugal, of octagonal form, has on seven
nilfh !"' i*"; I O' I OS I AK I VI I VA I SIN, th«
eighth side being a monogram probably intended
for Kupiu, (hardly for Chri.to) Hiibuer Use.
ll>s,>. Chnst n L'04. A gold ring found at
Silchester about 1780 has the hoop formed into
ten squares, in one of which is a rude head
inscribed VKNVS and in the other senixia.nb
VIVAS followed by iindu tor In Deo ; a pagan
ring Christi,anized, see Gems, p. 714, b. (Arc/uwo.
■fe- ^"";J"'- (1^«7) p. 449; Hiibner, /user.
lint. p. 234, n. l.iCx)' other acclamations are
more rarely met with. On the circular-oval
bezel of a bronze ring in the Vatican (No. rn
are inscribed two words separated by a trans-
verse line, which Mr. Soden iiuth suggests mav
tutf ^^^T ^'""''- The Abbe Cochet has
published a bronze ring, reading iM)i I nv.mi I
NE A seemingly for In Dei nomine. Amen (Le
Blant, Ju^cr. c/iret. de la Gaule, tom. ii. p. 73)
On an angular (semi-he.xagonal) silver ring,
with broad nbbon-noop, we have -.n one side
thejiame of the owner Leubaciun in two lines
■ LEVIIA I
I V8 *°° "" Pai^ 0/ the semicircular ribboa
opposite a monogram with an I on each side of
'// ynJ^^ ^"^^ supposed to read In nomine
vfa^^ A " ' "■•'• K"^^' °- ^'''^ ^' Vl 90, „.
&•*»). A brass ring, found in Egypt, now pre-
served m the museum at Leyden, bears an in-
scription in t,vo lines, g|C0 .^ gQC Oh
etis). The chrisma certifies the Christianity of
the ™s. wh,^, is doubtless of tolerablv early
date (hoekh, Corp. Jnscr. Grace, n. 9059)
p^Ja^a^ ff'l^, ^"''^'"'^ containinq Profession of
FadhbytheOxomrs.-A Roman gold thumb rine
supposed by Hubner to be of the Christian period,
found in 1823 near Castor in Norfolk, bo.irs the
legend CO.n^stani {sic) FiDEd, a,,parently fo,
C--H.ia;i , pdcs {Arch^Kol. vol. xxiii. (1831) p
.tb6, and vol. xxi p. 547, with figure ; Hubner,
Imcr. Int. n. 1301. who observes, "Similia
e lam alibi reperta sunt "). The legend seems
, clearly intended to shew that its Possessor was
a Christian. This fact which is more fullv
I expressed on the gold Saxon ring, now to be
I 3 inches long, seems to have been Intended for the ,
bezel of a ring. '
nUbrier ami otlurs regard as Christian or as "aovl
Uirlsliiitii;" one in .SutrolK;, reading OAVMnEI
ZHCAICi:iiKuredinJ„ncs'«ft«j;rer.ri>io tore n 2561
uiiolher fouiiC at Corbrl.lge of beautlfnl pi, reed work
'^pi.Fo".,'"'"'^ f ?„-'■'""•• ''""""K aemilia'
T u "^ v<l' --,-,.-.j«i ,^ik! ijg.jrcii in AicA. Juu,„. vii. n
I'.i^i but see Mr. Forrnuin's remarks on Us .ige in vol
Jt.\vi, p. urt). For ihosH and oilier r'ngs found In
hnglaid widch may pu.lwbly be ClirisMan, bu{ which
do I!, t give clear signs of tlielr Christianity cee Habn^r
imcr. «n< p, ii34. """ut.
.l.A
1802
RINGS
described, v^ose workmanship, to judge from
the fijture, bears considerable resembiance to the
coins of Ofln, and may therefore pvol.i.bly be of
or about the 8th century. The rin^: is of con-
siderable thi<knea8, the hoop being composed of
beautiful chaiu or rather plait-work which
encloses an oval-headed bezel nearly 1 mch by
three-iiuarters, in the centre of which is a small
bust with jewelled head-band or diadem, the
collar being pimilarlv ornamented; around it
in letters evidently of early date, .nomhn bulla
FID IN xi'O {Fides in tkrislo). Found in a
meadow at Bosingtou, Hants. Kow in the
Ashiiiolean Museum at Oxford. {Jown. Archaeol.
AssM. vol. i. (1840) p. 3+1 (with fig.); Jones s
i'imier-rini Lwv, p. 03 (same fig.).
To the above distinctly Christian subjects is
to be added one taken from the Old Testament,
which, however, waa regarded as a typical repre-
seutation of the great sacrifice of the death of
Jesus Christ and of his resurrection following
thereon. , .
(10.) Sacrifice of 'IftraAam.— This subject;
though found on various other works of Chris-
tian antiquity, is so rare upon metal rings that
only a single example seems hitherto to have
(Forlrnim, No. 29.)
occurrcil. In Mr. Fortnum's collection (No. 29)
is a bronze ring with highly projecting bezel of
square form; the hoop is a simide circle of angular
projection externally. On the sciuare face the
subject is deeply engraved. In the centre is
Abraluim, hol.ling a knife with point upwards
in his right hand, and the head of Isaac, who
kneels before the altar of piled wood, with his
left, lie seems suddenly to have caught sight
of tlie ram, which st.-mds below a tree. Between
Abraham's he.ad and tlie knife appears an un-
certain object, which Mr. Fortnum with great
probability explains to be the angel, but which
Padre (nirrucci suggestst may be rays of light,
Bymbol of the Divine voice restraining Abraham,
and which the Chev. de Rossi thinks may be
the volume of the prophetic Scriptures tied witl
a ribbon proclaiming to all generations that
Ahrai, nn should be blessed in his posterity ;
but these explanations seem less probable.
Apart from these had better be described two
other forms of rings : one in the shape of a foot
the other of the common circular form, but in
combination with a key.
(17.) I'lfit-sluiped Rinqs. — The bezel sometimes
assumes the form of tlie sole of the foot, or
rather of the shoe ; and the rings of this form
appear to have lieen in most cases, if not all,
used as signet-rings to indicate the possession of
the tliiii';;s «o ^ealM. Rr.".:-,7..-> ri:-.?.'! of this form
have been found in the Roman catacombs, either
bearing the name of *'<it'. owner, e.7. n massive
ling, labelled IVSTVS a compsnied by a star or
double cross (Curt. Sijnt. de A.-t p. 398, from
IUN(JS
Aringhi, H. S. ii. 698), or having the chrisma
with horizontal stroke at the top, and two
pellets above and below, as one in the Kirclicrian
Museum (Perret, u. s. pi. xi. u. 0), or as a \:uxir
one in the same Museum which reads si'i.-i in
DEO (retrograde). (I'erret, u.s. yA. xi. n. S.)!
See also De l!o».~i (Bull, di Arch. Vrist. lH7 4, p,
77, tav. ii. n. .'1) for a line similar exampli^ from
Capena ; and one in Mommsen, liu^cr. Jici. Sep,
a. 0310, § 'jyO, now at Naples (apparently nut
retrograde). There is a foot-shaped ring in
the Vatican Museum (No. 25); also another
in the same Museum (No. 13), engraved with
8AVIV, i.e. vivas (re-
versed), evidently in-
tended for stamping.
Mr. Fortnum has one
" the bezel of which
surmounts the sivelimg
shoulders of a hoop of
half-round wire, and is
shaped a.s the sole of a
shoe upon which in
coarsely incised in dbX)
with a continuous
border-line of punctua-
tions " (No. 31), He
thinks that " iiiis ring
could hardly have been (Foruium, No. 31.)
used for stamping or
sealing, as the lettering reads rightly ca the
ring and would of course be inverted in the
impression."
Mr. Fortnum observes that this is a form of
ring previously and contemporaneously used U
pagans, and that similar rings bearing n.-unei
and words that cannot be assumed as Clirirfian''
are preserved in the Castellani, the Wuterton,
British Museum, and other collections.
The form of the foot is in allusion to the an-
cient adage of the jurists, "Quic<iniil pM tuus
calcaverit tuum erit," on which Paul de Castro
(lib. i. Vc nci/. vcl. ainitt. loss.) writes ; " Nuta
quod pedes sunt instrumentnm aptuni ad ao-
quirendam possessionem naturalem :" sie Pel-
licia, de Eccl. Po'it. torn. iii. p. 227, quoted by
Martigny, Aimeaux des prem. Chret. \\ 38,
also Diet. s. V. Aiineaux. It is, however, just
possible that such rings of this form as were njt
intended for sealing or stamping may have been
symbolical of walking with God (iN lii:o), and
having attained the enil of the pilgrimage in
safety, as among the pagans votive i>r.;:;'»« e?
feet expressed a sal'! return from a j'luiuev.
See Martigny, I'tct. s. v. I'lantes de I'ifl.
(18.) Rimis u-itli Keij a»<(r/i,rf.— This ciassof
rings is by no means exclusively ^lll■i^ti.1n ■
several without any emblems, and one h;nliig
rudder between two ears of corn on the onys
chaton (see pp. 34, 35), are figured by Licetu!
(de Atiuiis Ant.) in the plate at the beginning
i In the Vatican Museum there is a st.imp, fumpil as
the sole of a sl...c, of larger siw than the riiik's of thil
form, wliich has tlie same legend, witli lettirs revrrsfd
and fncis.'d. Fortnum In Arch. Journ. xiviU. (lull)
p. 'JxO. It may have been made for a riiiR.
k The large bronze ring engraved fcjhtvxivs accom-
imiU. J by ;in ivy iraf, i-gui'-d !>y \rM~n', {ri„,ii 51.506
II. 3«), »iM by I'erret and Martigny after liiiu, is m »U
liltelihood Christian, having lieon fduiul in thecalucoml)!,
l)ut, lilce several others of the same clM, has b«n
ouiiit.;! here.
(Furtiiuin, .N,j. i2.)
RINGS
of his work. (X„s, 2, 3, 4 5 6 7 S \ tk i,
bet.n calleJ Oy him in I , i ' ' J^ey have
key attached, of which a
figure IS given. " It is a
simple hoop, the bezel of
which is slightly raised
and flattened, ami from
the side of which projects
a small neck, attaching a
circular table flattened
towards the ring. This
« clrcuKv'l''' " "■"'' ''^'"^ " surrounded with
a tiicu ar depression or borderi.ig." The k,.v
thiskindofring, IWliu?(''li-.^,S'^f,^/i;'
fine opcnmejusl says that St. Au,.Js n^ nt'ver
wore them himself. "Domus ec.Gae ci-.m
omne,„,,ue substantiam ad vices cler deh^ M
p. ;.07) gave golden key-rings of th ^ k " '
which had touched the body of St Pete o. 1"
which a bling of his chain w^as inla d, t pr L s
as species of relic, accompanied bv hi,' b" «
Before this time JIacrina, the sister of St
Gregory of Nyssa, had obtained a pic" of tht
true cross, late y discovered bv Hoi , i , ,
it inclosed beneath the be^el of a" iron r ''"^
"'-ieh a cross was also eniite \ ' ^ '^iZ
tlie chaton, and MVLtis axnis on 2
op, may have been meant for a lew yeaX
g'ft. [Arch. Joum. vol. xxix. p. 305.) ^
KIKG8
1803
dfrfu?of iM'^r'T.?"" ^"^^ ^"^ ""> '«''«ren.
iml,li,.„„ I r ^' l"*"^ "J eum omnes
ririn.t'f.rfomU't'-" a"^ *=" """ ^•"'"''--
time nrob-i Iv 1 Audoeuus was at this
^i^ho;:ftS;,f;i--.jJ^^;^-ne„rch.
.^drii^'rr''::,^';::^""'^'''^''""
sion of a' rinir hv « hi ^ '""" "' ">« posses-
"i^ Home, A.D. 310, is sii, Vn ."'""""' '"«''«P
monogram of ChH«t J. ■■ "■'^'' '""'"« the
ring and that of hi, """ "^" "*^ ""^ ^'"" "^ ^is
(.^ u'sani,; ll;?^^;- -- -the other,
s'ngton Museum a ring fNo 74^ ^ ''*"■
Vatenoneol,ecth,„)i/tit-d:st:.LTrHlli^i«
Gn-en by Sir James^ Huds^' K C S "'V', ^■
inlaid with eight red a„,f'n"^ "' .'"'^'^ *«
-^^ae, also apUentfy orjastt theT^rf t?
2. Royal Rinos.
It >s certain that official rings were in
co:oltn^^u^rX ttL'iTrrT'^^'^ ""«' «* "■^"
is said of the ri^ in '"^^ «' ^""lemagne. Nothing
^w,MhJ':/K.:!:,sr.r?:;^'-rj^!^
formisgivenforthedelTvt™';:;;,^^^^^^^^^
signaculum videlice; sane ae fldel s ' m^T """"""
nation T a I "1 w,n '" f '^'ir" ^P'^'"""' ^°«-
l^ut we do not flml tZ •ut"'T"« "> ^'''■■'"«;
, example TLZ^L^'I":'' f/'"' «' Pretended)
:t lo retoidud of utt'a kinir nf .i,„ i- '."'. ."* ""'''■ "'"fe
=.=^'3 "=•""= -^^^^^^^^
li
.11
-I'f {
ffpi
--si
1804
RINGS
quite uaileJ, but resfinble a star of eight
rayM.
St. Augustine lind n signet-ring (nnulus), "qui
exiirimit fuuiom homiuis nttemlentis in liUus,"
meaning npi'arently n hea.1 seen in prolilc.
rC5i-.MS, p. 7l'J.] A letter of (.'lovis is adilressed
to tlie Oilliean bi8li()))s, clrea A.n. 511, in which
he iiriiinises to recognise their letters as authen-
tic, [jrovided they were signed with their ring
(" vestvo anulo signiitas "). (Greg. Turon. t/y.
Aiwnd. p. i;^'.J7, ed. lienid. ; col. 1158, ed.
Migne. Patrol, t. l.xxi ). The seals probably
bore tlieir names or m(iii(igram.s.
About the same time Avitus bishop of Vienne
writes to his bro'her, ApoUinaris bisho|> of
Valentia, how he would wish his signet-ring to be
made. Tlie ring was to be of iron, not massive,
formed of two dolphins, with their hejds on the
side opposite to the liezel, and their forked tails
meeting each other around a double seal turning
on two pivots ; on one face, which was to be
clectrum (pale gold), his own name was to be
engraved iu monogram (" latitabunda ") ; on the
other side, a bright green stone ("vernans
lapillus"), his name was to be written in full
(." publica "). Such at least appears to be the
• meaning of his directions, which are given as he
says "jiaullo hilarius," but which might have
bijen better described as " pauUo obscurlus.""
Such monograms hail become fashionable about
this time, both in metal and in stone, on seals or
on coins ; and the passage of Symmachus, relating
to the intricacy of his own monogram on his
seal is sulhoiently well known (lib. ii.,epist. 12).
Arnulpbus, bishop of Metz, in A.D. 614, took for
his se:d a milk-white cornelian, bearing a fish
with Its head nbove the basket in which it is
contained, ou either side of which is a smaller
BIKGS
fish, which was set in his (gold ?) ring, a plain
hoop widening towards the bezel, liist figured
■n Martigny, Diet. s.v. Anrumt vpisaipdt (Jml
ed.). It is now preserved in the cathedral at
Metz. [GkmS, p. 714.] Ebresgilaus, Aishop of
Meauj in tibO, wore in his ring an intngbo
representing St. Paul the hermit (il'iJ. p. 7 lit, h).
Agilbert, bishop of Paris (d06-080), was buried
with a very large ring (thumb-ring?) set with
an opaque figure, on which was represented St.
.lerome beating his breast before a eiucllijc
{ibiJ. p. 71«)." The ring of Leodegar, bishop
of Autun about A.D. 685, is mentioned by bu
Saussay as existing in 1636 in the Koyal Mon-
astery of St. Victor in Paris. Unlurtunately
the Miirtyroloijiwn GuUicanuin which iniMitiuus
it under his day (Oct. 2), as being in tlic
monastery aforesaid, says nothing of its niatei in)
or style, but only of its miraculous qualitios:
" cujus iu aquani imniersioue minuulii t'cre
pereunia eduntur ; nam oculoruin inliiniitiite
iaborantes consecratae aquae ipaius perlusiuiie
recuperant passim sauitatem." °
In our own country also rings h.ive bein found
in the tomb of Birinus, bishop of llorchester,
who died 64U (" inventus quoque [in scpiilehro]
est anulus," Vit. S. IJirini, incerto auituie in
Surius d<: V'itia Satictorum, Dec. 3, vol. vi. \\ '2'JO,
Veuet. 1681), and in that of St. John "1' I'MViiley
who died in 721, when he was transhiti'd into a
new shrine, circa A.D. 1037 (Dugdale, llift. of
Coll. C/i. of Biicerlcij, p. 55 in Appendix to Hist,
of St. Paul's Cathedral ; R. 0. JieviUe, I.cduro
on Antiq. of Fimjer-rings, p. 15, Sall'r. WiiMen,
1856 ; Waterton in Arch. Journ. vol. xx. (ISiiJ),
p. 225.1'
■n I'he text of this most dllBcuU passage is :-" Slgna-
torlura \g\ or, q"o(l picias vestra noii tam promitiere
quam off.rre digmita est, In hunc nioduin tlerl volo.
Anulo ferren et admoduiii tenul, veliil concurrent Ibua
iu se ilfl|ililimlls coneUulendii, sigilli dupUcIs forma
geminisondimids in5eruiur. yuai> ut llbu. ril vicissini,
uu latltiibuniiu, mu publica, ubtutibus iiitueiuluiu al-
leriia viTiiuiitis lapiUi vcl elcirl palleiuls fronie nintetur.
Nt'C tuiiieii talis ileciri, quiUe nup. r, ut eg' ■met hausl. In
B.uicto tti' sincerissinio iinpoUutae niauus iiitore soidi-bat
cui coiruiitaui jiotlus quam confeitam, aurl iionilum
fornace di'i-ocii creilidcrini luesse inlxturam ; vel illani
cert., quom nuperrlme rex UL-uirum (he Is exphiincd to
be Alarirus, a Clocloveo prosfatus), s^culurae pruesagani
rulnai', nionilis publids udulu^rium flrniantein manda-
verat. SwI sit ejusiniHli color, qui'iii a.qualiter ac
niodeete, rut)ori'ni ab iiuro. i\b arginlo candorem, prelio-
Bltaii'in lib utroqup, a cai t ria riipient"m tulgureni, arii-
tici i'saeiqirdcni mi'dioxlnia virorlsioiniiu'iidat aoiwiiltas.
Siqu.ieiasi|uid insculpi^iidum sigillii; sigoummonugrain-
niaiis uii'i I) r gyrum script! iiomii.is legator ludicio.
Mcdimn i>urro uniiuli, ab ea parte qua volac clausae
vicinabilur, delphinoi urn quorum superiuB capita descrip-
Blmus, caudal' tehebuut. Quibus lapisculus ub hoc lp»uiii
qu.ie.iius, i.bbuigus scilicet I't acutis cipitlbus fonn.itus,
inileiur. Ecce hilws quoddam tiiutuininodo spfculuin
douniatis c.\9i;ciueiuU. Noc touen ainplitudiuem elc-
gantl.ie tuae 8ic ad menioiaium ixeuiplar cnuciii (leg.
coarctu ?), quasi libiniui nun -it iid.lere quod vld.'tur."
Aviil Vlnnensis Kpi>t. Ixxvili. Api)lllniiri eplscpo
.... .. . I . . t:.. fioii nu,\ M Iu IMiitii
(Mij;nc, l';itroi. i -<•. '■ 'ix. ri'
■?.m:, 2sn. M-. L» iilaiil
(Jna.r.chrk.ile la daule, iom. li. p. 50) lias ventured
upon a traii4ailun or p.irapbr.isi'. adding rclerence, tn
S,Tmoiid Old Caiiciani, and mentioning a ilcrovlngian
ring on which the name Aster Is engraved In monogram
■ltd else in full.
» Du Saussay (/'anopl. Hpisc. p. l»3i)) descilbes the
setting tbus:— " Encaiisto anulus in supiii.jn parte
circull decoratur, cinliietquc- e medio ijus vusculuin
falcatis quasi unguiculis ev.ctum, quibu.i ijisa BMunia
stringitur; adeoque exquHto artlflcio fabril.iuium opus
est, ut vlx elegantlon forma confi.ctuiu aliuJ pvufi-nl
possit."
<• De Corle, Simtagm. de Anulis, pp. lCs-78 bu
various notices of miraculous rings. Many will aitrea
with him when he writes; " Kt quls singulus silutmium
ainiulorum vlrtutes caelitus adcpus iu nunuTiini cogrt
nl li ctori suo tuedium parere gestiat .' Absiiiieo i|jliur
si unicum Inaupir . . . rinenauiro."
p There Is a very early riuxon ring wliich may |*rlmp8
be the ring I'f Alh.-tun, bishop of Sberlwrn.' a.o. S'J4-r.67.
If so it Isjusi U») Uitc for this work, but the aitributiua
is uncert.dll, the name Kaiig a common one. Ii reads
ALiiSTAN having a cross preflxid, on four n.i.nii slitea
of a ring alterinitlng with four lozonge-abapid siiles
on which fabuloua animals an' depicted. It i^ of gulii
and nlelloi'd. li is now to th- S. Kl■n^in(^to;l Miis'.-um,
fornuTly Iu the Waterton collection. Figitn d in Arch,
Ji.urn. vol. XX. p. • Vili, the same figure b.Ing used li.r Juni's's
Finger-ring l.ure, p. B2. It had been i)n'vion>ly il.-oriW
and nguii-d by tliu Kiv. Dr. I'egg' in .lir/wii/fci/iii, Mil.
U. p. 17 Perhaps itshould be added that when lb- tomb
of bl>hop CuthlK'rt (di.d ii»6) was opeu.d in 1W7, a
" n)a.'->ive gold ring, *;i with a aapphir. i n cubu-hM, »m
found on one of his lingers." But. alhougli tlie .luiben-
ticaiion of Its diovery is undoubte'l, It ia n.iiM.l nil to
be certain that it coiild never have been worn by St.
Cuihliert, being apparently not older tliui ilie litis wn-
tuvy. Mr. Waterton thinks ibat it li.'d i-..i'.My beluiig.il
to one of the bishops of Dm ham, ml i -i i"''" t'i»'>l
where U wa« Si«iid on aoiiie occa^ioll . iien tuv ^b^ITle
Wi5 oppoed. B- ohai rvea that it ius been fitiu.ed in Ihfl
* kaeoi. ^eto-u, vol. II. (N. S.), p. BO, an^l is iio« pre.
aarved iu St. Cuthbeifa College, L%Uuw, near Drnhm,
RINGS
It cannot bo concluded from tl.ese lit- ■. y
notice, that c.,,.sc<.,,„l riLga were of an .. ■ Z
astical character properly no called, or ditleu at
m any way from those which niight hav b n
US...I by persons who were not ecclesiastics. Nor
d,u'> there ajipear to be any clear proof that sieb
rn,,s e.,sted at all until tbe'latter ha of le «
c .. urv. ' I. ron. about that tin,e forwards bsho
a tlH.r consecration received a start' (bacu us
and also a rinj; symbolical of their oflice a,
bndegrocns of the church (anwlus), and also a
",, '' "• '»!""•"■; l"'t whether these were in
all cases capab e of being used as signet rings ir
not, .t >8d. hcult .f not in,possible to decide, from
the nnperlect nature of the evi,lence. lu'l. "
tinu-s they certainly could not be so used. The
earliest ecclesiastical writer who makes mention
ol such a ring seems to be St. Isi.lorc of Seville"
« ho was bishop of that see from a.d. 595-«;w
Jn his second book of Ecch.iastUal Offices, sup-
RINQS
1805
Ta""!'! »l!;;!"' 'T'" *"■'""" «'""" *•"• "10, he
anlk, , ■ ^"'"""'t'" '■"'" e"n»«-craturj et
;niJU,^,eart,,impi;t;.';tis^':^^::!
ring. David, bisho)) of Henevento in the time
"anub'Tjr-""'^'"''"' « "'-''"te '"> '"o 1«-
anulo nctae nostrae ecclesiae (irmavimu,
Arch. Joiirn, xx, 237 nhnro n.11,.1, « ■ »
r tr-h,r;;ctr:r^;^etrn;- irr ?i^:^
d.b..t tMcrat I ed. (JavuutI, p. 13,,). |,„ran,l „ak"s
a.n«llur ren,a,k (cfc Hit. tccl. ii. ». ^ :,7>. Accorri
»,«.,,• episcopal rings of ,hc 13U, .Ulu, - tT^yfX
ru,lof..h,u„ . . . ., Uie .tone sot just as it wL f„u.[
m.,-.lv lmv„,g the surface polbhe,!. an,, the s^ of he
pXisnnjzfr.: ?.;:-;',-
llie AI)bo (now Canon) Martigtiy, both In hl» Ar,
««."x eke. le, premier, rAW(.«„f(pp. 4 Je) Hi"'
both the cltions of his l>ict. A. AnU^'^chrk,i' y An
fii>t b„,,k, c. 10 (p. 37, ed. Albosp.) where he Zs that
t ,T " ""u '"" ^'^'^ *'"'^" ^'- IVter aloneTecel eS
n..us p. n«, and of Mlfine (Patrol, i. xi p Lt) it
mtmm
eol -Ue r. siirnBt " „*'""*' * perlidia sigillet, secreta
in 0,,.. tuV^ Iv n "" ""'" P"""'*'^ o^urs anywhere
" ""tiunus Augustoduneusis, a writer of ihe
roborandum " (,„oted "froV;" Ughell'i" 'iTZb'
rol.al,le that the bishoji's ollicial rini' went with
lie see. And upon the whol t *;eTm ' ,„ st
i:^t' if no°t liri'h"''^ ^^"'' f- ^'""^"" *"
e nth . "''"'"l'"' ■■"'.?» •"'"•lier thaa
employed f"'';;ril ''"•»''■""''' ""' ""'>■ ''O
I """"•) ^n some churches of Gaul and Sn,in7h«
no uncommon but far from unilr i'^,' , i
centuiy by the application of the bishm.'s sen
en nU'fh"r'""> '" *•-« sates oft'b pti 1
ten ti om the beginning of Lent till Easte, when
baptisms were often celebrated in giea n,,m
bers (Concil. Tolet. .vii. (694), De ?of Hd c i :
I ] ^' **■*' '«'^erred to in MartieuN, Diet s v
Anneau^c, Bingham, Ar^t. xi. 6, § 7,' ..f fs 2)!
£ Six-inihrr ?:,"$
cev.iie, A.D. b.j.J) we read thit "if o 1 • i,
prosbyter, or deac^.n be nn istlv dep e . t ?,'
oe wnat he had previous y been un!e«« ho
receive again the rink which he hi.d lo^ from
^. nand a bishop before the altar. I H e T,
b^n a bishop, he must receive the stole (oral
"«»0, nng, and staff. . . and so the othe! m^C^
■ This inference how.ver is made Ics certain bvti.e
allegorical expressions whicli f„llo>v. ■• Nam multa «■ n!
quae carnatiun, mi.iu.que int,.MIgentii,m s/ s Tu
inZ.lT';'^"''' """"' '''" *'8"»^>"» «b,.coiidurne
Indlguls qu.lMisque sacramenta I), 1 a„erlan«Mr '■ '
' The practice- 1, ear,, flum the d.ite nf ,h.. council ■
m
■u
'lii
■ ul
■ n
n
?
'lij
IBbC
nii^GR
crilerH lire to ir«ciic, with d view to thnir rfsto-
riitiou, wliat .it the tirriH of onliniitlDii they
orijjiBiilly received. (Urims, Cimon. Apoat, <t
Cuncil. yet. vol. i. p. 2:11. Marriott's remleriftg
is here InlloweJ, Vest. C/irut. p. 7.'i.) From
these |)ii.s9iii;es it is plmn that before they were
written bi.siiojis rceeivej a ring nf thi'ir oriii-
natiim. We have several nneieiit or'liualiim
services in which the ilelivery of the rint; to the
bishop is mentioned ; nnil of these one, if not more,
is probal)!) somewhat earlier than thoTtli century.
Th« sacranieutary of (jre^rory the Great, circa
A.D. r)9(i, as it stands in Murutori's edition, gives
the following formula : Ad aiiulum diijito imjio-
nendunt. Accipe anulum tidei, scilicet signa-
culum, (piateuiis sponsnm Dei, videlicet sanctum
erclesiam, intemcrata lil'' ornatns illibate custo-
dias. (iiaci-iimcutiii-him ii&jorianum do Officio
Episcoi'i, in Rluratori, Lkun/. Hum. Vet. t. ii. p.
442, \enet. 1748.) liut in the edition of Angelo
Rocca (quoted by Du Saussaye, I'anopt. Episcop.
p. 181) we read : " memor sponsionis ct despon-
satiouis ecclesiasticae, ut dilectionis Domini Dei
tui, in die cjua assecutus es hunc honorem cave ne
obliviscaris illius. Accipe ergo anulum discre-
tionis et honoris, lidei signum, ut quae signanda
bint signes, et (luae apcrieuda sunt prodas, quae
Uganda sunt ligea, quae solvenda sunt Bolvas :
utque credentibus per (idem baptismatis, lapsis
autem sed poenitentibus per myaterium recon-
ciliationis januas regni caelestis aperias ; cunctis
vero de tliesauro r • 'inico, nova et Vetera pro-
feraa, ut ad aeten -.i! .iilutem omnibus consu-
las gratia Doia; .' .."nU'! Jesu Christi, cui cum
Patre et .Spiri' '. '^v..V' est honor et gloria in
saecula saeciii i. Au<en." This Last appears
to be a lal- i ,■' > i" viaptation of the sacra-
mentary which -^ ■■■■■■ i '.e to the Ordo Romanus,"
where a portion f the same words occurs
(Martigny, Anncaux cliez les prem. Chret. p. 4-1).
From thesr tlowed a variety of formulae, one
of the earliest being found in the pontiKcal of
Ecgbert, Archbishop of York (732-7GG), where
we read, " Cum aniilus datur haec oratio dicitur :
Accipe anulum pontiticaHs honoris, ut sis fidei
integritate niunitus. J'onlif. Eijbcrti Eboraccnsis
Episcopi m Mart, de Ant. Eccl. Kit. lib. i. c. viii.
art. xi. Ordo ii. We have also repetitions or varia-
tions thereof in several early mediaeval services
for ordination, which in all cases appear, and
in some instances are declared, to be derived
from the Ordo Romanus. (See Martene de
Ant. Kit. Eccl. lib. i. c. viii. art. xi. ; Ordo iii.,
Ordo v., Ordo viii., Ordo ix., &c., Bassan. 1788.)
Of the age of these rituals it is not easy to
speak ; but inasmuch as the manuscript of more
than one of them is as early as the 10th or
11th century, it is not improbable that .some of
them may be as early as the time of Charle-
magne. (See Waterton in Arch. Journ. xx. 1863,
pp. 220, 230.) In the Missa Pontificalis (Ordo
xviii.) of Illy ricus, which he thought to have been
in use in the West about the time of Gregory the
Great, occurs this prayer: "Ad anulum; cir-
cumda Domine digitos meos virtuta et decora
sacrificatione." (Gerbert, Vet. Liturg. Aluman.
o Probably a cuuipilatlou of tlie 81U century. See
Okbo. a critical edition of these early liturgical compo-
sitions, which differ much In different MiiS., would be a
great boon. See I'almer, Orig. LUarg. } vl. (Liturgy of
Borne).
RINOS
torn. I. pp. 70, 2r)5, 2.")rt, ». i. 1770. Sne r1,o
Martene, u. k. lib. I. c. iv. A- . xii. ()rdo iv.) It
is Impossible to conjecture from these litnr|;ii'il
forms the material of the ring, and whether the
ring had a gem or not, and if it had whetlur
the stone bore any device or not. Thes,' matli rs
may for scpiiie tliii" have been bli indetinili';
afterwards, ii is well known, tiiey were all
deliuitely (ixeil. Tlie Ordo Konianus anil ijenir.d
usage in the IN man church afterwlinls pl.ii. j
the ring on the fourth linger id" the l>i<liii|i',i
light haiiil. "Anulos ipsos non in sinistra pnid
oportet," says pojie Gregory IV. (elected to
the papal throne in 827), "nulliiis venae cir-
dialis habita ratione, quae gentilitatem capere
viileretur ; sed oniuino in de.xtra tiinquani dii;.
niore, qua sacrae benedietiones impeniluiitiir;
niaxime quia ipsi pontitices, dum sacriliiiint,
ucin nimiuiii exercitaa manns habent ; et sic
ipsorum tam sunmiorum quain ceterorum pin-
tificum consecrationibuH doxterae signanter luiii-
lus iniponitur " {De Cultu Puntijivwu, quoteil in
Martigny, Anneaux, &c. p. 40).
The earlier stages (if any) through which th»
episcopal ring, with its concomitant stall', piis^nl
before it w.'is placed on the hands of the bish"|i-
elect by the consecrating prelate, appear t" W
unknown before the time of Charlenii^rii'.
Perhaiis it was not received at all before cuii»e.
oration.
A few words must now be said upon the hi
tory of episcopal investiture by the riii.', Ihi
source of such deadly feuds between the pujies
and emperors in the 11th and 12th cent i ics.
The Ming of Innstittire.—ln the rei^'n nf
Charlemagne commenced, according to the cnni-
mon story, the investiture by the riiic; nn 1 •t.nr,
an act of the civil power which entitleil ti
bishop-elect to the possession of the tempemll-
ties of his see.» This privilege (among nthcrs
with which we are not now concerneil) was
granted to him by pope Hadrian I. in giatitiuie
for the services which Charbs has remlenii to
the Holy See by expelling the Lombards fmm
Italy. This fact is distinctly asserted not nuly
by two of the best historians of the 12th ceiitiuv,
Sigebert {Chron. s. a. nicxi. ; see also Giat. Inst.
Ixxiii. c. 22, quoted in Invkstituki;), ami bv
William of Malmesbury (6est. llcij. Amil. \\\t. ii.
§ 202, p. 348, ed. Hardy), who puts the dechira-
tion to that etfect, with express nieiitiuu of
the anulus et baculus, into the mouth of pepe
Gregory VI., but also by a bull of pope Leo Vlll.
» Such is the conclusion of Kirchmmin ((i« Amln,
c. 20, p. 'ill, Slesv. 1651), who has carefully luve»ti|ialHi
the subject. " Verum age. dlcanius etiuui," ure Ijl9
words, "de usu anulorum In eplscoporuiu invcstituri*;
cujuf morls ante Caroll M. tcnipora nullum repirioupiiJ
scriptorea vestigium." De Cortc accipts his concluMon,
and indeed his very words. (Curtlus, Syntagma nV
Anidia, pp. 372, 373, Antv. 1706.) So does also .Mr. 0.
Morgan in Archaenlngia, vol. xxxvl. p. 3ii5. Kirch-
mann quotes several writers later than tlmsc mentlni'd
In the text, who agree In the view that invcstiiiirps
originated In ihe time of Charlemagne. Muslicini, (:f\.
Hist. cent. xl. part 11. c. 2, } 15 (note), says, " Wliul king
or emperor llrnt Introduced this ciiatom of apiieintiiig
prelates by tlelivevy of PtftlTand ring is vrry ciiicrta!!!.'
Adam of Bremen ascribes it to Louis le IHboiin«lre,
the sou of Charlemagne ((114-840) ; Humbert to Otlio th«
Great (936-973), to which latter view Moshelm Is niudl
inclined. Both writers are of the llth century.
BINGS
the (invit. t,l, na.nV „,":;?'''"'■' '^'"■" ^t''"
Fraiirornm ct I„nL-„h.i.i "-'"'■'""'■^fini., .-,•-
i- ^i>i«v,,„H '«, ,vi,, ;;,"',' "«" 4"'"i"o
" ■■•" iit.|i.t. I„r.-i,„,,. .L . ' • • • "^^"n-
Tentn,,!,.,,,,,,;,,- &r^ ',/,""' .''""'° '"Ki
An.,/,;, p,, L'l.^^>l,I•'^,":''';"•^'•• '^■'>'l,n,a„n ,/.•
fi"i;.;'nt in Peru, .v'o, ' t „' ^^f [^ " ).'"'«
p. Ill*) n. V ) l» I. 1 ; '''.'• *""!• . B
itt.mpts 1,,,; hi'' r.Vy '"'■• '" «ay tha
■I'-nbt, on ,h,. .on"inl T?"^ *" ""•"'v
Mray a late,- or U 'M utT?'.. " ^'''''"" '»
at the time "r.ally'haH fh ' "^ "'""^•'••"'■''
.orbed "^Kobertson/J^^;'' ^1 r*^' ' ■'•« '^''■
the ..ltra-H,„nan nartV.. P"'"'' ''""''"'""< ''X
no very tempting hfeetC Tl-'''"''' """'^
interest of the see „f ^'ne *"''«'" '" "-e
Notwithstanding thoso nnrl „fk
•■"■thorities, some disfLu?! °,"'" ™»P<"--*«ble
lately called in que.,. '|,f, ,''';' r''"'' ''"ve
Joen,M.rioated'inl:7:;r':;'"^
Tlie rea.ler mu.st of (■r.r„se i.rm K ''*'"''8n«"
»'«a oa this obscure matter ,'\""'" '^""^•'"■
r^terlyhave been parsed T *'l'«h 0""^ not
anidc. P""'*'' ">•««• 'n the present
to. he Orfk;nd,.;i;K£:='^ """""-
man, now made of StZ]'? '''"« "^ the fisher-
tation «fSt.IVterTnrbl fiir" '•"'"•«»«»-
"arae of the rei^ninKpor .?'•'""' *''«
('aysMr.\Vaterton)«„?rhe ;,"' 'f' ^'"^''
""K of investiture, beinTll ?""'^ "'« l'^'P«l
*eted pope's finger bv the' 'r ? *''" ""^'y
i^ediaVly after^a suies f ,r'''"'' .' ■•'■"•''•'''''go
has been arrived at by the eolr""" ir,"'" ^"''^
jt would seem, to rathe • a late "'T' *"■'""«'• ««
t has been state.l, inde'V bvfir; •''''■'' I"'""''-
ongi * A,u,ns, p. 9: ) „„',rL'* ^,"'!"''' :i-t«'l ^'V
RIN08
1807
'"' '"V", •• It m-iv ,'.'";"""' '•* ' "•<).' 11,.,,,.^ ••
"'--fy:a„;f;'\,;'; -■•«-' fmt tl. po,,es Li
M'"tin V. elected In 4,7 ■"" '',"'"'" '"tt-r..
f'nther inf,.rn>ation n H ' ^'""^ '^'-''- "•'•"
""•n time,, se. \v", 1 ' 7 """'"'" '''■^^" '" «»'•
andO.AWga„(/;:;''M;-».|'P. n«-UL.)5
.V Heineccius ('i g^^.^'^'y '*"ng.-atia, quoted
l-imself made use of C.l-L I' l^''\ ^'- ''"ter
'li". asks Heineccius bit I'o!' ^ ''''" ^''"«''''»
of him ? J^.bill„n i'Vt "f "''''.■'"rf the like
§.")didn„tknoVofL^:ff ''''•'i-'^-H
{'"g^was e„,ploved )«fo'e^he 7 '" **"" *■"»
"!■ Waterton! in his • h 'hi ' "^ •''-"'"O'-
Ring of the Kishe nan ' mL"'")"": "0" the
P' 138, 18.^6). believes th,/fhe7 ■"''"'• ^■"'- ^'^
't oonurs in a letter of IW^, ''"' """"'i"" «f
»^phe,v Peter Gro si /„ iT^ ""'""t IV. to his
"S^luta matrem et fat^'^'"'"" ^ '"'■';'' '"^ "-V^
":!!l^'inribu^^ tiM
"'Alcuin, Amibriis «nrt I , '"' '"''"«. however
la.iy .,r^^ accurdinif f„ «f w —""'"^ »i«- been
:»';'.v, wMol, ha. l^en clear,? r"^' ^'"« "' "■'■ 9eh
f for «,me time earlier s.:\?"/° "■'^«' "een In
The*e!;,7 rar- T """"^"^ '*'-«•
solemnity of innrriaK. < -iT."'' '" "*«
innocent .-..remonv",., ''"" ""■'' «"
foMen, ( ^,;,. //^/,; • „',; ■ • "". who refers to
t'y the Romans before ti; Vi™ "I!' *;; -■"'' " "«"'»
"'"' in some mel, re „",* T.''*^^ '-''''■'''■'''ity,
whence it was nZnli "''""tte'i by the .Jews
the heathen as hni.,„i„ '** "'« amonir
could take no offe™ ;;/' "'^'''' ^''"•''t'""!
P'-e»ent at the cere monh?" f T^^' l''"^''''"-" ^^
at .some others But i i i?'"'""'''' '■"* "'>"■ «»
his language that it hJ""''' '"'"'"-"^ ^^"■'" ''rom
by the Christian, of C„' th "* ^'' ''^'"" "''"I'te™
tates)mu„das es'elino.'^'''^''-' ""■'" («"''^"^ni-
neque vestitus v ?lis' ,ea,.iT T""'*^" ■■ 1'"»
»e. ; «e the words ,;"> Tt "'■ (^''""^"'""n
talis de aliouius il7- ■^^•''"'™".'"n''ti''',,ari.
/'/"/o/.c. 16) Henn ?"™ J«S'endit" (/t
for teachlS" worn ^ mot?'' ""^""'^ '^"""'n
whon, no other weTrinT oT J l","'' ^'''"•'^■'■^' »«
«ave on the fin Ji "n Ehih^.u ''"' I'"''" itted
nubus" had bT^'Zc^S ,2^/" ""■;''" P^°-
e-^pousal ring, however wa/f-, ''• ^'>- T''e
nor did it atwayrb::; TIZ "'""l^;^ "^ S"'^.
s Ponsaeanu usfcrreusmifur ^ "ttiam nunc
(I'lin. A'. //. ,,ir iT v":''''''"'''''"''^'-'"'"*''
times bore joined "hand, „ ''T" ''''*^ '^"'l''-
J^lXst 19),'su"h' were aC '''"""' .('''S"-"-.
■n the loth century and .11 r'™™ "' ""'/
became obsolete sonlv after. ,""" ^"'"' b-t
anulorum vul^n T ^ "^'"■'''- "''I cenus
i-icetus ".. ft,,: rr'i"t r "'''^•^' ^^""
"-•ch Christian ri'ngs before he't""""";"' ""
■'''Colas I. It is evident J. '""" "'^ I'^l-e
words of Clement 1 " ' l?-"'!!''' '^'■"'" *be
"•omen, while they weVeT .*''''" ^''™tian
wearing of eold wiM,l """'' *" '^"cp the
pc-mittii, of ii: tjoT^eT;"" '"""'•--
nng, as a ,,eal «nnr, fi • ' I """■■"■ ""^ gold
-'ing that u 1 \IZ 1:\ '""'"r-''^ Soods,
|"g of the house devohS '"V""'^™''" '"■epl
that the wife's ring bore « / ' "'^"^ I-'oves
seem probable that the Zrof p ','"'"'''
it«'ur'('::.':.)?a':f;&fT '"""^'' "y ^'afiuon for
if
. 1
||:
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■ 't
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)
IX)
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1.25
iai2.8
■ 50 ■^"
^ h^ Hill 2.0
2.5
2.2
6"
M. 116
^ clplUC
Sci^ces
Corporation
33 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580
(71f ) 872-4503
#
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4n
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1808
RINGS
A.D. 303. When solicited in marriage by a
notile youth, she replieil that she was already
pre-occupied by another lover (i.e. Jesus Christ),
"qui . . . anu'io fidei suae subarrhavit me, longe
te nobilior et genere et dignitate " (Pseudo-
Ambros. Epist. 1). The same thing is rendered
more evident still from the expressions of St.
Peter Chrysologus (made bishop of Uavenna in
433), who, alluding to the father's putting a
ring ou the finger of the returning prodigal,
not only calls it " anulum honoris . . . insigne
Spiritus pignus, signaculum fidei " (these and
like expressions occur also in other writers,
see E)e Corte, Synt. p. 79), but " arrham coe-
Icstium nuptiarum " {Scrm. v.) Asterius,
bishop of Amasia in Pontus, who flourished about
the year 400, maltes direct allusions to the
pre-nupti.ll ceremonies among Christians, and
although he does not directly mention the ring,
there is little doubt that it was employed, in
accordance with Roman usage, when the dowry
was agreed upon. " Wilt thou make void (he
aslts) the agreements (^irl Tip yinv) which
thou settedst down with a view to marriage ....
I mean the dowry which was there covenanted
(ttji TtfioiKhs T^i avYypa<pfl<Tr\t ivravia) ? "
(Aster. Ilomil. in Matth. xix. 3, ed. Combef. p.
81 D, Paris, 1648). We have an actual example
of the giving of the espousal ring recorded by
Gregory of Tours, in a work written between
590 and 595, referring to somewhat earlier
times than his own. Speaking of St. Leobardus
(who afterwards retired to a monastery) he says :
" Denique dato sponsae anulo, porrigit osculum,
praebet calceamentum, celebrat sponsaliura diem
fastum " ( Vit. Pittr. c. 20). Yet it is not easy to
name any author earlier than Isidore of Seville,
who succeeded to the archbishopric of that pjace
in 595, from whom we can obtain a distinct
attestation that the ring was regularly used in
Christian espousals. "The ring (says he) is
given by the espouser to the esjioused (4 sponso
sponsae) either for a sign of mutual hdelity or
still more to join their hearts by this pledge ; and
therefore the ring is placed on the fourth finger
because a certain vein, it is said (see Aul.
Cell. Noct. Att. X. 10), flows thence to the heart "
(Isid. Hisp. de Eccles. Ojf. ii. 20). During the
whole period with which we are concerned the
ring seems to have been used in espousals only,
and never in the actual marriage ceremony itself.
For pope Nicolas 1., writing so Inte as 860 in
reply to the Bulgarians, says : " We will try to
shew you the usage, which the holy Roman
church received anciently, and which the church
holds up to this time in unions of this kind. . . .
After the espousals, which are the promised
covenants of future marriage, made by mutual
consent . . . and after the espouser has engaged
to himself by a pledge (arrhis) his espoused by
decorating her finger with a ring of fidelity . . .
both are led shortly afterwards or at some con-
venient time to the performance of the marriage
covenant. And first they arc placed in the
church, bringing oflerings which they ought to
offer to God by the hands of his priest, and then
they receive the benediction and the heavenly
veil " (Nicol. I. Kespons. ad Consult. Sulg. c. 3 ;
in Coleti, CwmI. t. ix. pp. 1535, 0).?
r Rlildle (CSHit. Ant. p. 1U note) says that Calvoer
(ijttuak feci.) traces the origtn of the marrlnere ring to
RINGS
Examples of Esponsil or Marriai/e liinrjs. —
The following rings bear every appearance of
having served matrimonial purposes. In hpon's
Recherches curieuses d'Anti/uite, Lyon, ;Ort:i,
the DUieme Dissertation is a letter from de
Peiresc to Holstenius in 1619. Me IV'iiesc
bought at Aries a gold ring, weighing about an
ounce, recently disinterred, on which was en-
graved a face of rather rude execution with fhe
inscription around : " -f tecla skokli.a, le tout
d.ans une plaque d'or environnee de quehiues .'ii-
richissements de feuillages et godrons ; dans le
Vjuide dcsquels est <!crit + tkci.a vivat iii:o
CVM MARiro SEO (sic) ; k I'opposite du cercle de
cette bague, on y voit un petit ovale avec les
lettres deditns ra'pe" (p. 169).
Peiresc observes that the cross and the diction
shew the ring to be Christian : SEO for svo he
notes as a not uncommon form in the 4th and .')ti,
centuries ; and more common still in later ones.
He regards it as an anutus pronttbus. He does
not explain segella : and proposes very doubt-
fully arra genialis as the explanation of UA'rK!
The former may possibly be for Tednc {i.e.
Theclae ?) sigitlum. Other rings have been tuund
in France which appear to be Christian and
to have been used in espousals ; e.g. a gold ring,
duplex, hoop-wire of light fabric swelling towiirils
the united oval bezels, which have a line of bends
from them on either side : one of them bears the
name bavhvlfvs, the last three letters written
in a line above ; the other has iiaricviia, tiie
last letter written above. It is regarded as a
Christian marriage ring by M. Le lilaiit who
figures it (Inscr. chr^t. de la Guile, n. 337, |il.
36, n. 221), and by Canon Martigny (Anneuii
ckez les prem. Chr^t. p. 12). There is, however,
the lOih century. He supposes It to have been iniro-
duced in Imitation of the ring worn by bishops . .Martone
dt Ant. Eccl. Kit. (lib. i. c. ix. art. 5) gt .es several
ordinti for marriage. The ring Is not n)entiinr<l in tlie
earliest (Ordo i.) the Mittale Gelasianum, p inted fn ni
a MS. of the end of the 8th or iKgiruilng of the 9ih
century: it occurs, however, In a Mismh Redmmu
(Ordo H.), printed from a MS. about 200 y-ars later,
where we have BuneJictio super anulHm in tli.s' words;
Creator et conservator humanl generis, dator u teniae
salutis, omnipotens Deus, in permltte Splrltum .San, liim
ParacUtiim super huric anulum. Pcr,&c. Also in anther
form (Idem Drdo) thus ; Beiiedic, Domlne. aiiiihini !si\im,
ut in ejus figura pudicliiam custodlant. IVr, kc. We
likewise find the ring, which Is sometimes said to 1«
a silver and sometimes a gold ring, in almnst all the
marriage services taken from still later MSS. (Ord'i III.
iv. vi. vii. viil. Ix. X. xl. xii. &c.). Th.re re t»o
rings mentioned In the ^ucAofogia of the (Jrceksi ihe
priest gives a gold ring to the bridegroom and a silvr
ring to the bride with various ceremonies and a lung
prayer aftervvards (Ordo xvl.) See also Po licia, lit
feci. Pol. vt. 1, .3. It is needless to do more than allude
to the assertion or tradition that Josi'ph gave the Virgin
Mary first an espousal ring and afterwards a marriage
ring (Martene, I. c). J. B. Ijinrl published in 1621
a work entitled De Anulo pronubo Veiparae lirginii,
and from this w.srk is derived th ■ account given In I'r.
John Patrick's neflectiont ti/wi ihe Vevotiimt of Ihe
Jinman Church, pp. 45 00, Lond. 16S6 (ed. 2 without
his name)! see also G. Longi de anulis, p. J, Logd.
Bat. 1(172. This rliiij, o ii well-known type of later
Eoman times, Is preserved at Perugia. There Is, ho»-
ever, another which passes under lUe saiuo name in tm
church of St. Ann • :X Rome (D i Saussoy, Pampl. epiie.
p. 193). See Martigny, Diet. s. v. .^nneaue, and Fortnuni
In Academy, vol. x. p. 605 (1876),
(Poitnam, No, 3S.)
Weight 3j dwt«.
RINGS
DC external sign of ite Christianity, but it ia
very a„n,iar in structure to Fortn\,'m No 27
rf^th.\',\'"^*'"'y V''"^''«°- Probably rathe;
of the 4th century than of the Merovingian a/e
b:e:tL^'a^^^^eS::; r^ ™
CaJ^desM^n./^^^^^^
scribW bv Le Bl„nf ."*""' " '^^"'"^ ""^ de-
534 536f If J*'""^', («• «■ n. 669 B, pi. 90, Nos.
f 1 f ^' , ^"^ '^"""'l "«•■"• Mulsane and !,
VS UhTlA m niello, while on the face are en
graved a man and a woman
standing ; the flattened
wirc-hlfe hoop is corded at
intervals. Probably too
late to be Pagan.' But Mr.
Fortnum possesses a gold
ring (Xo. 3;t), undoubtedly
Christian, which he regards
as matrimonial, of Byzai>.
tine character, like the
coins of the 5th century
The hoop, Hat inside, angu-
lar externally, bears a cir-
cular button-like bezel, on
the face of which a male and
female bust are opposed,
above them there is a
Latin cross, the limbs
being slightly wedge-shaped.
Obtained from Athens. Anotherlii^iTIr," b^t
hner example, octagonal, with decorated plnel,
IS given m Arch. Joum. (vol. xxi. p. 311)'^ See
Arch. Joum. (vol. vii. p ign fnr . p
ring found in Wrham wfth sim^ilarwTut
without any Christian emblem. Thern're in
fine certain gems, set in rings, bearing an anchir
f cm whose arms hang two' fishes (Gkms,;'
71+, b; see also Oorl. D„ctyl. ii. n. 564 ed
Gronov.); and Canon Martigny, wh^ has rt
oeived and figured an example bought from
Alexandria iV,ct. s. y. Anneaux, 2nd ed ) T
gaids these "anneaux et pierres annul.aires " as
uncertain, is at least ingenious. ''"'''"°'>> "
(Ihe following are the principal works on
rinss in general, in all which Chritian rines are
mentionecl incidentally. Kornmann J« K
^n/*/..., H-ano 1610 (often reprinted)7Lketus
t ^««'^ "nti.,uis, Utin. 1645; Kirchmannl
jB.it. Ib72; Oorlaeus, nKtyliothcca, cum exol
Groaov. Lugd Bat. 1695; Curtius (De Corte)
S!inta,,ma d: Anulis. Antv. 1706. For Christ an
"ngs m particular we have Martigny A",
hu/r^// /"'■''f"'*''' ^'^•=»n. 18'^8; see also
tt ^«^f V'"- ""f*- (^'^- 2)- Various' papers n
oy MesMs. Waterton, Octavius Morean and
fortnum, referred to above.) ^
Plaled at\h?H^ K^nfienian has most liberally
pwced at the disposal of the writer the .m
£.'av.ngs used in illustration of hi" Xml
faj-tf. on Early u,ri,tian Frn ger-rings, published
tbIt°.ttur«T» '^^ '"' ' '^"^"B^^h^
ROGATION DAYS 1809
Some of them are also reproduced in Jones's
f •"■"-'•'"? ^orc, pp. 47-49, 268-273 (I„nd!
'• [C. B.]
RIPSIMIA Sept. 30, virgin martyr in
Armenia, under Tiridates \Mcr^,. l\Z
to^tlT^Af ^;- "^^'l """''^ '' cnimonly applied
to the collection of ritual directions for th«
drron?"; T'' "'"7 -™"'i«- wf;; tt
Paul V in l/,i uT""' "*■ '''"•'""' by pope
that thL .T K ,/"«'r""''™'"' been supposed
tbat the "Libellus cllicialis " of iv. Tolet
nroJ^hr m'*""' ^'"'^' *"'» t^i" '!"« not seem
probable. [OmciAus Ui.kr ; Ordo.] [c!]
RIVERS, THE FOUR. [Foun IJivers.]
ROBBER-SYNOD. [Ephesus (6), p. 615 ]
[C. H.]
t).f^A^'^l^^ ^''*^Y»- The procession on the
three days before Ascension Day was instituted
45^ X?:'.'i''"P°'^'^""« '° DauphinrA.S
:.l\ f **""', "*y '^»» greatly injured by
iTghtnTnf ''it'';;' *'^ '"'"' P-'-e d-f-oy^ b^
othpr Ki^K ''*'^'"* ^" """""l Observance, and
which rtfS.'"r''.f!y *■>" ^"'ble blessing
wmch attended it, followed the examnle ,.f
Vienne (Greg. Tur. Hist. FraTiCu-L^
ff<m. de Jtoflat; Migne, Pair. Zat.hx 20 .'
.ion"r,'rf^f- ^•,'*\^''^*'>" his'procel'
Anril 25 rP«i^ ""■''"; ^'""' *''« «<""■"» "te of
Mamertus T'1^'"''^' " '' '.'"''"'"'''« *° decide.
Mamertus, at all events, instituted "orandi
modum, edendi seriem, erogandi hilarem disnen
sationem " (Greg. 1 .r.), wh'ich suited th" tZe;
of his countrymen, and became a widely snread
and enduring observance. In 511 it wasenfo ^d
council of CloveshooJ^^^Sr, frLs' thSerta :
of these rogation days, "secundem morem
priorum nostrorum " (can. 16). The conncuTf
Mayence in 813 made the follow ngde're/
than those before Holy Thursday: " It hath
ser?.^/"'^ nT? *.•"" '^' greater litany be ob-
erved by a Christians on three days, as we find
holy fathers instituted, not on horseback, nor in
clot^fnT";:*'' •'"* ^i'hbare feet, and in sack"
(an ^v;'*""'^"''^' "'^""'^o »hall hinder"
(can. 33 ; comp. Sidonius, Ep. v. 7, « Incedunt
. . . castonnati ad laetaniaf "). Herard 858 •
b^pl'trnT"""""' "' "-'-ter^r't'iidrose
(C7mt sI?t\' •"""' '^ ^'"•'''» celebrentur"
it RnL^•l.i"^ '■"«'*"'"' ''"« not received
: ,^;T ""*■' 'he time of Leo III. (A.D. 795). who
allfhl . " ""the Monday "the pontitf, with
ho^*h}"F T^ r"".""* •""'P'^' 'hould go forth
ceed to fh" ' °^ *'"' ^^"'^^ "^ «"d, and pro.
Snti \h« manger at the Church of the
hvmn^'' '!.'"'''• " '"1'^'* ""= Constantiiiian, w th
hymns and spiritual songs; "on Tuesday from
:-H
Ii
m
1810
ROGATUS
St. Sabinn to St. Paul, and Wednesday from the
ChurcTi of Jerusalem to St. Lawrence without
the walls {Liber I'ontif. n. 98).
Gregory of Tours, as above cited, does not tell
us that the " orandi modus " instituted by
Mamertus included a procession, but we learn
that it did from an incidental notice of the
rogation days by the same author in Hist.
Franc, ix. 6: "In these days the public roga-
tions were celebrated, which are wont to be
performed before the holy day of the Lord's
Ascension. But it came to pass that while
Raguemodus, the bishop (of Paris) was in pro-
cession with his people, and perambulating the
holy places," &c. So Kortunatus in his Life of
GermviHs, who died in 576, jome thirty years
before his biographer, telling the story of a blind
woman, " not able to go with the people at the
time of fhe Litanies," says that " hearing the
choir of the psalm-singers she implores the help
of the lord Germanus with tears." After a
vision she recovers her sight ; and when the
day dawns she " goes forth to mass with the
people in th? ])rocessiun " (c. 33).
The Luxeuil Uctionary gives proper lessons for
these days at matins, terce, sext, and none (Lit.
Gall. 149). One prophecy and three gospels are
also appointed, " in letanias legenda," in the
Bacrumentary of Besan^on (Mus. Hal. i. 334).
" Ooliti;tiones in rogationibus per diversa loca
sanctorum," i.e. to be said at the several churches
or shrines at which the procession stopped,
occur in the Gothico-Gallican Missal (Lit. Qall.
266), and the Missale Gallicanum VetUs (376).
The former also gives proper missae for each
day (2IJ3-266); the latter part of a missa,
headed " Incipit missa in Rogationibus " (377),
which breaks off in the middle of the contesta-
tion. The heading implies that there was only
one. There is only one in th<! Besan^on rite
(Mus. Ltiil. i. 335). Several early sermons
preached on these occasions are extant, viz. two
by Caesarius of Aries, A.D. 502 (De Lctania, I. ii.
lii Append, ad 0pp. Augustin. SS. 173, 174, ed.
Ben.), one by an unknown bishop (ibid. Serm.
135), two entire by Avitus of Vienne, A.D. 490
(0pp. Av. 291, 296, Migne, lix.), and several
fragments by the same author (303, 306, 310,
319, 322, &c.). [W. E. S.]
ROOATUS, Aug. 17, monk and martyr;
commemorated in Africa (Mart. Usuard.,
Notker.). [C. H.]
ROMANUS (1), Feb. 28, abbat; comme-
jnorated in Mount Jura (Mart. Usuard. ; Boll.
A:ta S-<. Ki'b. Mi. 737).
(2) Aug. 9, soldier and martyr ; comme-
morated at Rome (Mart. Usuard., Bed., Vet.
Horn. ; I$(.ll. Ada SS. Aug. ii. 408).
(3) Nov. 18, monk and martyr; comme-
morated at Antioch (Mart. Usuard., Iliiron.,
Vet. lirtn., Sjiriim, rior. ; Cal. lli/zant.; Meriol.
Gfvicc. Siili't.; TiaM. Menol. i. 196); a church
called after him was erected by Helena at Con-
stantinople (Oodinns de Acdif. C.P. p. 98, ed.
Bonn, 1843; Du t'ange, Ciiolis. Christ. 92).
(4) Nov. 24, presbyter and confessor ; com-
memorate ! at Blaye (Mart, Usuard., Wamtalli.).
[C. H.]
ROME, COUNCILS OF. Some preliminary
remarks on these councils are necessary, from
ROME, COUNCILS OP
the prominent, yet constantly cha»ging, position
occupied by the see of Rome, from early times
downwards, in the ailiiirs of the church. First,
whether from design or accident, their records
have been about the worst preserved of any,
the only voucher for the earliest being'the Lib.
Synodicuf or Synodicon, by a Greek writer with
I-atin sympathies, in the 9th century, which, even
if it can be trusted, is full of mistakes; and but
incidental references in St. Cyprian, Eusebias,
Rufinus, St. Jerome, or St. Augustine for the
next early. Was it that their proceedings were
so trivial, or of so little interest to the world in
general, as to be not worth recording? or was it
that they witnessed to a state of things which a
later age may have wished forgotten? Secomlly
— whether from design or accident — there have
been more synods alleged to have been luld at
Rome confessedly or probably spurious, tnan in
all the rest of the world put together, their
characteristic being that they have been forced
in the papal interest directly, which is also the
characteristic of a good many more fabled to
have been held elsewhere. It may sntlire to
instance the three Roman synods under jiopc Sil-
ve8tcr,as theyare called (Mansi,ii. 551-'!, 015-34,
and 1081-4) of the first kind ; the alleged canons
and synodical letter of the genuine (i6ic/. 409-77),
with the canons of the spurious (called 1 and 2
in the Pseudo-Isid. collection, where they may
all be read and compared ; lligr >'s Patrol, cxxi.
375-382) councils of Aries, all .nree betraying
their late origin, of the second. How so patent
a forgery can have deceived the learned so lonj
is a marvel. The acts of the pretended council
of Sinuessa (Mansi, i. 1249-60), damaging as they
may seem to pope Marcellinus personally, were
conceived in the interests of his see. Centuries
upon centuries have to elapse before we come
upon a really genuine Roman synod, w'th tolci"-
ably full details from Roman aiv' One
thing they all testify to beyond dc ether
true or false, viz. that according tradi-
tion of those days the bishop of il . a^ could
decide nothing of importance without a si/noj,
any more than his brother bishops. Let us now
inquire into their composition. This we shall
find varied with the actual extent of jurisdiition
of their presiding bishop. It was at one time
commensurate with that of the city iiraefect,
and was limited to the suburban churches ; at
another, it extended over the ten provinces of
central and south Italy governed by the city
vicar, but went no further, which was its posi-
tion about the time of the Nicene council and lor
some time later [see that Art.]. Every now and
then, indeed, it had a wider appearance ; but this
is at once seen to have been exceptional. All
the earliest Roman synods are stated, in the Lib.
Si/iiodiats before-named, to have been synods of
from 10 to 15 bishops, to which the "Concilium
quindecim finitimorum episcoporum," in a re-
script of Gratian and Valentinian to the then
city vicar, may point (Mansi, iii. 629 ; coiiip. the
letter of the Roman council immediately pre-
ceding, p. 624). Then, for a considerable jieriod,
their numbers increased, but seldom exceeded 70,
which is about the number of sees stated in the
old Vatican MS. printed by Baronius (A.D. 1057,
n. 19-23; comp. De Marcn, Concord. &i<\et Lnp,
i. 3, 12) to be dependent on Rome as their
metropole ; and also the number usually fixed
RO
upon for myt
higher iinnibe
and bisho])s o
have been pr
There were t
France, named
synoil which ])
Meroc/es (not ]
i. 23), bishop
(.Mansi, ii. 4;i3_
under pojie Dai
bishop of Jlila
letter, accordiui
muJ I'd'erinn ; i
(ibd. iii. 455).
this re(|uested
decisions to "t
Sardinia " (ibiil.
Orientals that
Italian, and all t
the Latin has it)
his own (ibid. ii.
of course, possid]
provinces of nort
if so, this was
Aquileia, Milan, i
dent centres in
their independen(
time not only tl
Britain, and Goj
ihei another inti
power, or else hm
boundaries, by v
patriarchal, and i
Italian, European
cvii. 3-8, but wit
now pass to the sy
Passing over th
reported in a work
tr.), we may start
from the Lihellus l
!■ A.D. 140, des
under pope Telesj
tanner was conde:
misstatement, for 1
pope Victor, a.d.
(i. t)62).
2. .*.D. 165,oftei
and St. Polvoarp, aj
with the Jews (i'.i/
3. A.D. 197, unde
tion of keeping Eas
is a passing referen
^■ff.y.23; andpe
*■ Another, of ft
same; condemning '
mon (ihid. 728).
5. Another under
errors of Sabellius ai
had not then arisen,
Jo the pontificate of
«■ A.D. 237, under
Origen. For this, Ru|
Msebms (ff. E. vi. £
ejpressions are vague"
7. A.D. 250, during
from St. Cyprian. F%
S. A.D. L'51, under
(«866),andatwhicl
Some make two council
CHRIST. ANT.— VOL.
ROME, COUNCILS OP
hl^.'TnS^.^';:;:,^^-. and *^-
France, m„JXy S /tinf """"""'' ^'""'
synod which nope AI tia,' 1, ' .'i'T f"* "* ">^'
i. 23), bishop of Jfilan L ,' . u"'"""- ^^""■
(Mansi,ii.4;i3-40 Th»i' ''' f •"' '"•^'"nce
J-ishop ^i MilaT'w^,^'^;,^:^;/^''- A„.«„tin.^
letter, accordinirlv runs in r synodical
f»(/. iii 455^ Tl^ c ™'"S *"'*'i"P"f Am.ileia
lhis^:::ut:t^i p^j^,:«3:;!-» fathers had len,;:
decisions to "th'e 'bishop "fUar'sirf ""'^
Sardinia " (i/M. 40) A „1 K ^- ^' ..''>'' """^
Orientals that he spoifk in/r"''^ '""^ t^e
Italian, and all the bfshons of /k .."""'' "'' ^^'
the Latin has it) in , hiTu *'"' '''"e""'^ " ("s
his own (,/.•,/. il. 1219) "l^L?,! '">•• "^ "-" ««
of course, possible that the bSLrofT '' "'
provinces of north Itnl„ . T"P' "' 'he seven
■T so, this wa e.eSnar,^, "^'i'.''"''' ^"^
Aquileia Milan, anrCm'a ZXut^ °'
dent centres n thnso ..v^,.- ' mdepen-
their independence X "eXt' «"'' P'"""'' of
tin.e not only thoV but Kv^ ' L" P""'^*^ "^
Britain, and GeSn^'helTi; ''"'."' ^'■^''*
.fter another into the" arms ^f 1^7''^'''' o"^'
power, or else had tn «,, J, / ,, """""ching
bLndiries ^;;^il;-^- - t'i -tropolitan'
patriarcha, and svnn.?» A , ^ "' ^x^came
Italian, Ku;„peaV(5 ' Ma r'/' / "^ ^'""»" <"•
c.vii.3-8 bu'lwithTom^ill;) V' ''"^
now pass to the synods themselves -*' " """^ I
Passing over three synods of tL o a
sported in a work of no'c^dit li^,f "^'^ o'^,^"'"^^
unL"p%^\£Ki wh:: ^r'^.^""^"""^
t.nner was condemned Th ° jf'"'"'^'"'" ">e
misstatement, for he was rLlT ' ".""''^e'-. a
pope Victor, a.d. 194 8 "if' '"""'''^■nned by
(i. 662). '^^ ^' -*« Mansi points out
and%t.-U':4;:"S«P-nder pope Anicetus
with the Jews OW^cZl ' "''"' ""^P' 'faster
-;; ^o^tl-n^VSotusIr ""^ ""^
men (j6,Vi. 728). "eoaotus, i.b,on, and Arte-
5. Another under the an
errors of Sabellius and No^turViH^T"/"^."'^
had not then arisen tjlVl i^ ■^' *"" '^hich
^ the pontific^ r,f SiSs 1^^'' "■'"'^"•^ it
1002). *'^t"» "•• A.D. 258 (ibid.
4en"Vr"hi;t«nTan;ft' "^""^r-^
expressio„"sarevag„eX"78?)'''^''''"'*''^''
^- f 9fn:^,^S- ^ein, i„.„ed
">e lapsed; nferitd' J-?"' «r''""^- "'P'^'ti'.g
(W.866),.ndTt"hiT ^'- ^>P>-ia"- Ep. Iii
Some make two „nn l,tf tf "r'^V""''^""""''-
CHB.ST. ANT.~V0U It " ^''"'* '"'""'^
BO.ATE, COUxVCILS OF 1811
attended by' ^^hit^Tt"' ""^^ '^»' '' ^^««
»he other ha'nd 'fu ..s'g'T vV'll. '"^ ' ?"
states there ,Ure si" v 1.; K ^ e-^P-'c'ssIy
presbyters and dcicnnsTn , i,^"'" P'""'^^'"' ""'1
He states fu" j': h ^ "t ,'i S'-"''!";''"'ndance.
of Cornelius to t^i'b » of \„r 'k** "^ ""' '""'''
nately lost, from wh ib i "*'"'''• ""^^ ""forfu-
n"."b'erofbish;:;tnd ;r ^ir^^r'''**'^
and sees, was set down Tl ' ""eir names
with what St. Cv, Han sav • T'''] P'^'''''-'''*'y
for St. Jerome cal i,g t "^i,„V"' ""'' ''™»'""»
then St. Jerome sp., f, ,,• !" i*"'"" '■■"""'^il- But
(Mansi, to. suris) Probtblv'",;;-'"'"' "' ^^<'"
R'.'man synod. compLd o eigh Jen bTb"""'' ""^
joined by fortv-twom,,,. <• '«"teen bishoj)s, was
hofore it^ .sepa^rat d cJT """"i l"""'- "' Italy
^•i.l57)\:Ki,^;;^^^-.i^^li^t(//J
the most numerous Bn,) ih u 1 ''^ certainly
yet, of any s^nJo^lf^^t '"* ''""'^"''■^'''«<'' -
Afri'cat'l'wt'C'deHrr ^"''''j''" ' ^^"-^n the
from' what'^St Mhan^'"' "IT^''"^^ ''"'-^ed
§ 13) says atuf t^^me^lt ^'% ''"?'■
^;y^_ accused to him of^t^enL£r(S
'^tnnli„e:°wh'Jse'leYtert'"M-,J''.' *'"P'='-<"- f""""
ades), bi;h«p :; t; *"Jll*""*r ^'"" ^^^'"'"•
see presently, giyir h';" . ^'^'ocje^ as we shall
in Greek anIS ^t 7^^ .'" "' '^ "*"'"
to one version is utn,,''^''d'"g, according
episcoro Romano hierarchae"*;.^"^- V'^'^^'
"hier..rchae," we read "et M '° ''"'"*'""' ^°^
taken evidently from the nH% '"'^'^'^''"<'
P"^/*«W\«1 Mrfp4: where "he^"^'" 'T'"^'»'
unquestionably M.p!«w L *b "' '''■'"''"S '"
by Optatus. He tel^ them '"'"". '"PP"*'*
number-that CVc iiL • T~""°^ *'''' P''"-"!
With ten bishopV'fr:':''al*„Vhst'"'"r^'
from among his friends. FurthertbJl""
bishops of Franrp_Ro.i„- ,,"""! that three
rinusLhave XTto be th^/'f'u^"'"-^' ■-""'' ««■
them in hearing Thl^, * '''f'*''''' to assist
The Donat ts ^L'£ ^'If.l^the law directs.
petitioned tha The r c^,e ^ic^H^' V'''"'"'' '""^
bishops selected from pCe t ot V''" ""^
tinues, "So thevp ,v„v„ • • "Ptatus con-
person's of M, ernu? f^'f^lf "" ^i"" '" ">"
Autun, and Marinu f itf*' t^'"'?k °'
b.shops came from France w?th m""" ""'"^
frun Italy. They met in fL T }^'"^ "ore
the Lateivin, in thel, nth T.' "^ •■'«"«»«, at
tine, and the third nfr ."'"^"'^hipof Oonstin-
'^■mini, Felix from Florence n„?i ^^^T' ^'"'°
Constantius froni F enza iv , ""i' *^'"'"" f^".
Theophilus fromVe .yrn't " binl'' f"'" «i>P"a.
ein.i, Secundus from pSsI ?•",' '7" ^"™-
terna, Ma.ximns frorn S' fe'": from .;i.,.
Urbino, Donatian Vm c^j'; '='Tf"« ^'^-m
nineteen bishops, when thevhoT; , '^'"■'' these
was the cause of bonTsSdS .Sn ll 77^ '''
•That"::.? r ^''««'"^' i*-^^^^^ e?cr
That he had confessed to having re-haptfzed to"
115
1812 ROME, COUNCILS. OP
hiivini; imposed hands on lapsed bishops, whijh
is not the wont of the church.' Witnesses pro-
duced by Donatus having confessed that they
had nothing to say against Caecilian, he was
pronounced innocent by the sentences of nil the
above-named, not excepting even Miltiadcs, whose
sentence, delivered in these words, closed the trial.
' Whereas it has aiii'i ared that Caecilian is not
accused, on their own shewing;, by those who
came with Donntus, nor has been convicted on
any count by Donatus himself, 1 am of opinion
he fully deserves to be letnined in the com-
munion of his church, and in his own proper
grade.' Vet, notwithstanding his own condem-
nation by so many voices, and the acquittal of
his rival by a tribunal so grave," continues the
bishop of Milevis, " Donatus appealed from these
bishops" (/>e ScMsm. D. i. 2:i)- Finally, that
this led to the summoning of the council of
Aries by Constantine two years later, we learn
from himself (Kuseb. i'lid. Ep. ad Chrest. ; comp.
St. Aug. Ep. 43 and 88, ed. Ben.).
These details deserve to be recorded at length
for their decisive character, and the unimpeach-
able testimony on which they rest. We learn
from them (1) that it was Merocles, bishop of
Milan, to whom Constantine wrote jointly with
Miltiades ; (2) that this synod was due to their
joint action, under orders from him, which
accounts for bishops from north as well as cen-
tral Italy being there; (3) that if bishops from
Africa and France were present, it was because
they had been sent thither by him ; (4) that
each of the bishops present delivered his sen-
tence ; and if proceedings are said to have been
closed on the bishop of Rome delivering his last
of all, like St. James at Jerusalem — the council
being held in his see — it is also true that Donatus
appealed, and was allowed to appeal, from his
sentence. Vales. (d« Schism. Don. c. 7) confirms
this, instead of disprovinir it by his quotations;
but the authorities are best seen in Galland.
(BihI. Vet. Pat. v. 401-675); and in none of
them is there the least countenance for the
gtateraent in Mansi (ii. 434), that Constantine
appointed judges, " ei. lege, ut citra scitum, con-
sensum, ct auctoritatem Romani Pontificis con-
stituti judices nihil definiant;" or for Hefele's
(i. 179) that "the decision of this synod was
proclaimed by its president the bishop of Rome,
and communicated to the emperor."
The three spurious .synods under pope Silvester
are omitted here; but the acts attributed to
them may be studied, as curiosities, in Mansi
(ii. 551-4, 600-618, and 1081-4). The earliest
references to them being in the reign of Charle-
magne, they could not have been forged much,
if at all, earlier.
12. A.D. 342, commonly called the third under
Julius. But the first ami second, given by Mansi
(ii. 1269 and l.fSl), are fictitious. At t'hi.s, St.
Athiinasius, having been heard in his defence by
fifty or more bishops with pope Julius at their
head, was, with Marcellus and other exiled
bishops, admitted to communion. The letter of
Julius, written at the request of the council to
announce this to the Easterns, is extant in Greek
and Latin (Mansi, ibid. 13.59; comp. St. Athan.
Apol. c. Arian. §§ 20-36, .ind Sozom. iii. 8 ; and
Vales. Observ. in S"C. et Soz. i. 4, 5).
13. A.D. 349, when Ursacius and Valens em-
braced the communioD uf St. Athanasius, and
ROME, COUNCILS OP
were themselves admitted to communion hv
Julius, having sati.sfieil the council of Miliin. two
years before, of their faith and sincerity (Maasi,
iii. 163-70).
14. A.D. 3,'i2, uniler Liberius, on becoming
pope ; when he declared for or against'St. Atlii-
nasius. The common account that he declared
for him is mainly based on his lettor to the
emperor Constantius, extant in the .'ith IVaKmeMt
of St. Hilary, and admitted on all hands to have
been written A.D. 3,H. But if the letter ascribed
to him in the preceding fragment is genuine and
rightly placed, he renounced his coninuiniou
some time before. Then, in that case, the ri'fer-
encc contained in it to a letter written dy tnose
he was then addressing to his predeccsscir, Julius,
and not to himself, would point innnil'esllv tn its
having been written soon after his accession ;
and tills, again, would explain its apparent incnn-
sistcncy with the other. Kor if there was a
difference of two years between them in those
exciting days, there was abundance of time for
all the further correspondence mentioneil in his
letter to the emperor to have taken place, and ,ilsc
for Liberius to have changed his mind again and
again in the interval. Lastly, from the character
of the comments appended to this letter of the
4th fragment, we can hardly doubt its having
been placed there by St. Hilary ; and if so. cmlit
quacstio, Liberius must have signalised his aces-
sion, as well as his restoration, by condomninc
St. Athanasius. Mansi (iii. 208 and 2'_'!i) shrinks
from committing himself on either side.
15. A.D. 358, on the restoration of Liberius, if
at all, the acc<iunt given of it by Ualuze bung
inconsistent with all we know of Felix and his
retirement from other sources. (1) St. Athano-
sius, it is well known, likens his ordination to
the deeds of Antichrist (Hist, ad Munar/i. 77,1).
(2.) It is admitted on all hands that, at the time
of his appointment, Acacius of Caesarca was his
friend; and that, whether orthodox or not, him-
self, he held communion with those who were
not (Soc. ii. 37; Soz. iv. 11 ; Theodor. ii. 17).
(3) It is nowhere stated that he was ejected hy
Constantius. He remained there by all accounts,
on the contrary, till the return of Liberius, when,
Socrates says, he was turned out of the church,
in spite of the emperor, by the people (iJ.);
Theodoret and Philostorgius, that he romoved
elsdwhere (16. and iv. 3); Sozomen, that he
shortly died (iv. 15). In short, the story
reported by Baluze (Mansi, iii. 290) timls its
best pendant in the story reported by Msnsi
farther on {ibid. 339-^4).
16. A.D. 364, occasioned by the arrival of
deputies from various Macedonian synods,
professi'.ig the Nicene faith ; when the syuoilical
letter of Liberius and the Western bishops, ex-
tolling the Nicene faith and their adherence to
it, preserved by Socrates (iV. 12), was [lenned in
reply. There is no mention, however, in either
document of St. Athanasius (Mansi, iii. 377-8").
The letter addressed by Liberius to the bishops
of Italy, with theirs to the lllyrians, wrongly
supposed by Pagi to have emanated from a Roman
synod under Damasus (nd Haron. A.D. .1(19. n. 5),
would seem from expressions in this synodical to
have been sent earlier (St. Hilar. Fruym. iii. ed.
Ben., with the note).
17. A.D. 366, called the first under Damasus,
who was elected this year; and in it with 29
bishops is .s
Ursacius, an
presliytcr v
believed, Li(
IS. A.D. 3
Damasus ; w
»ei|uitteil in
adultery bro
Concord i us a
dernned.
19. A.D. a
Damasus ; in
was deposed.
of Anticicham
confused abon
thinks with 1
attended by 9
as Theodoret
natious, as Soz
to the letter o(
to be inentioue
on this occnsi(
France. Thus,
the bishops pri
from their on
letter, addresse
in the name, no
rian as well ; th
Further, the pe
to the Kasterns
of Uome, but of
in the copy whit
synodi habitae
scripto imperiali
P- 1<>5), suggest
the emperor, lik
every way, there
a Roman counci
gravity of the a
being no less a
Milan. The subj
letter is devoted i
Father, Son, ,ind
Nicene fathers.
directed to this su
of the Alexandria
ten years before ;
Sozomen says, witi
Ghost (vi. 22). 1
dressed, in the fir.
illyri.i, was convej
elicited an energet
fcistern bishops, to
noticed, running in
peiors, lent additio
M-insi, iii, 585-92)
also carried into th
the Mianese deacoi
And tliore, Mansi 1
under Meletius repli
.»a» tight in thegra^
•nd for the next sii
fl^where (Constan
Ji' Meletius in exil
JWeletius was then po
mssionofSabinusw,
ost upon Antioch ; b
to h.avn j„i,t i,ji J
fliioh resulted in the
Mpted at Constantin
(i™/,).
20. A.D. 374, or th,
BOMB, COUXCILS OP
aJultc.,- brought i,a,l ' r,,:' .t '^'"i'^-'^'' "'
Concordius and Callistus h . ■ ''e-'^^-'ns,
demiicl. ^""'"tus, hi, accusers being con-
19. A.D. 372 (al ^f!Q\ .L
Damnsus; in wh ch AuV.nr""' *'!'-' /hir,) umler
W"^ ciep„se,l. A wi" •?"":• '"^'-"P of Milan,
of Anti'chanJ R„,ne «• h'7h ' 'I"!' """ ^•^•""''^
confWd about thr^/^'i'^^iit'^. "-■"-'-
thmlcs with Paei took „|V '' ^'''S he
atten.le,l by 9j*^bishoo/f; "" t"\ •'"• '' ""^'
as Theo,loret (ii 22 j or bJ r^' ""'^ ^'"'''''
nations, a.sSo.omen;avs"vi3^'l"r" "^ '"""y
totheiot.erofValentini v'Ls rnVr;''"^
to be inentioued presentiv ' „'"''°'' ■'""^ "ratmn,
on this occasion one in r'-'";"'^'''^''" J' ""='
fiance. Thus thp n 1 uT '""' ""^ "^her iu
the bi.,ho,, p!^,^'^ Zl •■ "'""" '" "'•''"
fra,n the'ir own sy, d' ^' T" "^''"''•^■^
letter, addressed to »h„ K' t*^ "'."' s.vn»Jical
in the name, t:' ot' D,Jlt', !" "^"'^'•'■«• "■"«
rian as well ; thelattP . ' 'IT' **"' "^ ^"'0
K".ther, the" pei nfLi^h 'fh' '' "' ^''f'''-
to the Easterns was « l7 ""* *'""« 'etter
of Rome, but of Man ::d";hr;';l' ''' '^''"'^''
iu the copy which is th'„r I '',"'' S^'^'^" *» 't
synodi hab'itaetm^" ;:,:::! " '.^^'"'""'»
P. I«5). suggests t ha incr h "• ^"''^ '^<"»-
the emperof like that of 7n '^1". ""T'""' ''>'
e^":frj^?-7^-:thJtu:s
Jl.lan. The subifct T'^f '^'l" ">• ^'-^^op of
letter is demed is tho " *" T'"''^'' "^ ^^O'lical
Father, Son, and Hot Vh""'. ''""i'"'''"^' "^ ">«
Nieene' fathers A emion 'h:;"^.™"l''>- ">«
directed to this snhil f ... , '"=^° fw^'bly
«f the Ale.lS'': od idS'lr '^""
ten years before • h„t i. ' -^tnannsius,
Sozomensav,,w1thsnecinl '"7 ''''''''^ ""»•' ««
Ghost (vi. 22 Th/ e»i r^;';?'^ '° ''"^ Woly
d'-essed in th. firs in! '^ ""' <=""'>=". ad-
Ill v...^ was con .eTedt''t°^'' "^ - '''"'•"P'' "^
elicited an energeti an!'.! "" .k-'.'^'P''""«' «■>''
Ea.ste>n bishopsfto whTh ,hl' ""'''"•P''"'' '° "^e
noticed, runnin? in IJ T'"''" «l''ea''y
perors, ent addition^? r'"""!K''^*'"= *^''' «'"-
also carried info tL F. 7 . '"^^ '''"'^'' was
the Mi:ane.e deJon fab "' ?"™ '^""'^ h'
AnJ there, MansHhfnk "'' "' ^'' ''<"^" ^«i'i-
nnderMele'tirrenlildTo-; '. '•'"'\'' ^"""'^h
."»« tight in the e?asn „? v 1 ""'^ ' ^•" ^°''<'^h
.nd fof the neZ Pylr^'rh' "l''""T<'°''
fl^ewhere (CoN8TAVTIvnp^^ n ' '""' '''««"»
and Meletius in exHe so th' . ""''"''^"^ ''^' *^'
Meletius was then'tl^e Ye C ^^^ "'"'-
raissiimofSabinns vvo. , ' "'• *'''''t, the
lost upon AntirhVVuVlrt'h'T.' T''^"^' "«'
to h,».rn j„5t hcined fl' I ^ ''""'raiy. seems
which resulted rtheaddfr' ""^ movement,
^Pted at Constan inople ' o'The" V '■"■'•"•''^ ""
{161-/. ). ""pie, to the Aicene creed
20: A.D. 374. or the fourth under Dam«s„s;
BOxME, COUNCILS OF 1813
^Sl^b?^::,f:;}^'/r^")'^--. the rival
wa^ condemned'^ Alexandna (Soc. iv. 21-2),
D«masus^.;ue;d /,'''•, '".'-9' "' ">« fifth un,ler
^vhen Ap d n ' Lm"' ^^ •'«""■ "'' -^lexandri"
iii. 477).' Tl? i;^^,,7'„^'°'"'*''"°«'i (Maus^
this is given bvl'Ii "' I^^^asus announcine
d-gma.icasw,,,'::.^""'; «■-. an'i ^»^''y ■■">'•«
by hini to I'aulinuT,, T^ "u- '*-'"'''■ addre.s,ed
ae"uncildis.i ".omfhi '"v ^""^i "'""'=' "'
about the same t Z "Z "' ""'• ^O^-*)
continued bani'hm nt of 'Z 7'' ''^'"« '" '»>«
are told particularly bvs^'V ""'■'"'•''' «'«
3) I'aulinus was „^,f„^ ?'"?" l'"'" ^ '"'■' ^'ii-
'loret,in inserting It s.v Pi? "'""«'' '^""'"■
then at Thcssalonic 'o?,'^'^"''","; "■- ',""''''
was or was not there this l!',, / '"Y^''"" ''^
to Antioch at last where ." ^""""^ "« "•''y
council by Mel tL?ud it^V r"'"P'^'' '" ^"''
80, on his return fwm exile • ^"^"' .^•"' ^"3-
bability, "the WestZ ?',"",'' '■'' '" all pro-
^"lings'^f th:t c. nd i "X Ht"r' "'"'"'«
politau canon (mis d ,1 1 1, m^''' '•'"'■-tantino.
but restored afrnv^K.^A'''''*'- '"• •*«l--^
his colleague, Lthet an '^- ^^'^'"''"'^ and
-for to tife m'is:."„'o s;b::r,'°he'' "''''"''^
nient of his exile » n '^tT/v'-Is "^ comnience-
curious letter u;,^;^„f.i/'^ Lastly, the
by a Roman coin, „7hl ^"'^ been addressed
Valentinian, with„u a„v ""'T'' ^"''"''^ «"«!
the subject of the cont nl) """" "^ ^"'«««. ""
and his party mav h- '"''•'«"«' of Ursinus
council %d'6il wirhThr'"^' ^'^'i '■""» "'i''
027). ' *"" the imperial rescript,
sub?equen;ifi'„\ttouil"""'^"" '''"""''"'' "■'d
year, as Mansi says .,« y63sT T^^'u"^ "'«t
tationtotheEa,stein bthoL^^' "^^^ ">« '"^i"
in their synodicll "of^.'^^P^' ■^^'""-J.hy them
ae.^^^d.ed[Co.s™rp/a^^^^^
Dam<;su;^n''!;^4'th;'"'''*,'' ^'^ '"^^ "-"er
Easterns u t m ntionod Tn'"'"^^' .'etter of the
faith of the council of ri ?%'■''=''''«''• ""d the
and at which dciLsfr^m/h"'"^ '^''°«''"''^d,
(Mansi, i/,icl. 639-42) ''" ^""' """i^ted
of^ie?;^?^CtKStrr"'^-,«^-^
Pagi (,•/„</. 678), there beL .. P."''"'' '«y»
"tant, as from'' that pope,^;' iirtb '"''"'. '
Africa, containinirnino,!l„ , ® bishops of
Idus Januarii, postVTfter ;if ^'"'"'''' •"="'^■'5.
Arcadius and' k2n''''%.^\r9%t%'>'
this, and several other ev.L '"'^-71). Rut
it, and in more than one oritur' "'"''*'"^<' '"
establish its fictitious ch«racte'::tr'.^" '" '"
canon (on clerical oontinTn f- *"" "'ninth
dictated the second canorot^lh"'*''''''* "'' ''•^^''n?
thage, A.D. 390 ( A 692VL M ™"""' "'■ ^'•''■•-
687), may rather tve been boSwe'd 'r""'^- ('*•
made to suit it. TSee nru cTl ^ '^""" 't or
and Council of Teleftk l ''°"' "^ '^^«'''°'^
2o. A.D. 390, when Siricius wth i.- ,
condemned Jovinian and hi= f 11 '^" «'"«y
himself (Mansi, S * 63^'. '^""""^"' <^ »>« 4=
26 A n .inr 1 ~* ' comp. 687)
the'tettr- tt" he"AfH.rbth""^*" ""''--d
-on6.oftheir^^rS,it;;P^^^^
6 A 2 ^'
■ri
i*'ii
'-1
i I
'Im
■in
1814 ROME, COUNCILS OF
27. A.D. 417, umler pope Zosimiis, on his
accession. In the cliurch of St. Clement, as he
tells us himself in his letter to the African
Ijishnjis, reconimeniiiiig'to their favmiialile con-
si'lonition the profession which Ccle-tius the
Pelagian had then submitted to his (Mansi, iv.
351.1 and :!71).
28. A.D. 418, if at all ; at which, accordinif to
Mansi, pope Zosiraus issued his encyclic, called
" Tractatoria " by Mercator, condemning Celes-
tius and Felagius (ibid. p. 375).
29. A.D. 430, under pope Cclestine ; on re-
ceii't (if letters from Nestorius re.specting some
Pelagian bishops who had come to Constantinople,
complaining that they had been deprived of their
sees. ISut his own orthodoxy being impeached
in communications arriving about the same time
from St. Cyril, his opinions were scrutinised and
condemned ; and he himself was threatened with
excommunication by the pope, unless he retracted
his errors within ten days of receiving this sen-
tence, which was to be communicated simulta-
neously to St. Cyril (Slansi, ibid. pp. 545-52 and
1021-36).
30. A.D. 431, under the same; on receipt of
the summons of the emperors Theodosius Junior
and Valentiniau 111. to the council of Ephesus
convened by them, when bishops Arcadius and
Projectus and a presbyter named Philip were
lent thither to represent the pope. In the paper
of instructioLS they received from him, they are
told to look to St. Cyril for guidance, and to
follow his lead. But of his representing the
pope conjointly with them there is not a word
(JIansi, ibid. pp. 555-6). In the communications
that passed between themselves on the subject
the pope certainly delegated his own full powers
to St. Cyril (i'-ic/.' p. 1301) ; but ithis was e.icep-
tional, no such delegation ever occurring before
or since, and it is explained, probably, by the
accused having been bishop of new Rome (comp.
ilPHEsus, Council of).
31. A.D. 433, under pope Sixtus III., " le 31
juillet, pour I'anniversaire de son ordination,"
say the authors of L'AH de vii-if. les DatiS : " It
y res'ut la nouvelle de la paix entrc St. Cyrille
et les Orientaux." Thus much, indeed, we learn
from his own letters to John of Antioch and St.
Cyril (ap. Baron. A.D. 433, n. 13 and 18). Bnt
how comes it that nothing further is added of a
synod of this same year ? whose acts, said to
have been collected by Sixtus himself, fill seven-
teen columns in Mansi (v. 1161-78), but whose
true character Pagi describes as ftdlows : — " Acta
synodi Romanae de causS Sixti III. Pontifiois
Roniani stupro accusati .... falsi consulum
notS consignantur, et anachrouismis scatent . . .
ejusdem farinae sunt acta de synodali accusa-
tione et expurgatione Polychronis episcopi Hiero-
Bolymitani,quae sub pontificatu Sixti 111. Romae
dic'untur habita. . . . Refertur quidem accu-
gatio et purgatio Sixti III. in libro Anastasii, sed
cum in eo aliae fabulae recitentur, utraque
historia suspectae fidei haberi debet " (ad Baron.
ibid. n. 31).
32. A.D. 444, under pope Leo I., who gives
more than one account of it himself, against the
Mauiehees. (Mansi, vi, 459.)
33. A.D. 445, under the same, at which
CelidonitU, bishop of Besan(,on, was restored,
and St. Hilary, metropolitan of Aries, who had
deposed him, deprived of all jurisdiction over
ROME, COUNCILS OF
the province of Vienne for the future. A
special edict was obtained subseiiuently by the
pope from Valentinian 111., confirming this sen-
tence. (Mansi, ih. p. 463; comp. v. i2't3-54.)
34. A.D. 447, ' nder the same, at -which it
was ordained, with reference to some complaints
which had reached him from Sicily, that no
bishop should alienate the goods of his clmrch
in future without the full consent of his chigy.
(Mansi, i'/ p. 493; comp. v. 1313-16.)
35. A.D. 449, under the same, at which the
acts of the robber-council of Ephesus, as it was
called (Latrociuium), were rejected. (Mansi,
ib. p. 5U9.)
36. A.D. 450, when the same pope besnuu'ht
Valentinian III., then present in Rome, to write
to Theodosius Junior, and get a general < ciuiuil
convened, at which the late proceedings nf the
robber-council might be reversed. (Ma.nsl. ib,
p. 511.) This, in all probability, was the
council to which the Liber Hyiwdicua refers,
though Mansi thinks otherwise (ib.).
37. A.D. 451, at which, probably, the synndi(al
letter of the Chalcedon was received, infoniiing
the pope of all that had been done there (the
date assigned to it is Nov. 1 ; see Mansi, vi
145). That he confirmed or accepted it nil is a
pure fiction of the Liber SynoiUcus (Mansi. vi.
869-72), flatly contradicted by his persistent
opposition to the 28th canon ; and it is even
doubtful whether the second form of the creed
(that of Constantinople), authorised there, was
ever regarded by him with the same favour as
the first (that of Nicaea). Mansi considers two
canons were passed here to which the piipe
refers, as having been discussed at a late synoii,
in one of his many letters ; but it is by no
means clear when that letter was written, or to
whom (t6. comp. vi. 385-92). The authors of
L'Art de v€rif. tes Dates make the year of the
synod to which he refers A.D. 458.
38. A.D. 465, under pope Hilary, to consider
a dutiful address from the metropolitan and
bishops of Tarragona, relative to two bishojis of
that province ; one whom they wanted to or-
dain, and the other to depose. No doubt the
thing most intended to be gathered from their
proceedings was the glorification of their metro-
politan and of the pope. But neither the sub-
missive tone of their letters, nor the shouia of
applause that interrupted them, as they were
read out ; nor yet the shouts of applause with
which the five canons proposed by the pojie for
regulating their case were received ; nor. ai!«in,
the character of the five canons whicii he
grounded on them in his reply, — niftke for any-
thing half so much, as ag lin-i the genuineness
of this synod, which was evidently concoctod to
serve a purpose ; nor can its standing first of
the papal decrees, added to the collection of
Diouysius Exiguus by a later hand, be consiilereil
much of a presumption in its favour. (Migne,
Patrol. Ixvii. 315-20, where all the documents
are given in succession, which they are not in
Mansi, vii. 959-68 ; and then 924-29.)
39. A.D. 478, under pope Simplicius, when
Timothy (the Weasel) of Alexandria. Peter (the
Fuller) of Antioch, and others were condemned.
Inferred by Pagi from the words of Feiix ill.
his successor. (Mansi, vii. 1017-22.)
40. A.D. 483, under Felix III., at which I
letter of remonstrance was sent to the emperor
h(
Zono for tak
and ill-treatii
Acncius, bitih
comluct to «p
41. A.D. 48
Vilnlia and A
8t«ntinoj)le wi
synod, and in;
there, were e
Aeacius himse:
giving an aco
addressed, in
orthodox presh
stantinojile ; bi
the pope hin
stated at the e
if so. wneve we
seven ,y..seven 1
met on this oct
hnldy, the iette
Inteil and inter
with l>agi to th
42. A.D. 485,
Fuller having
Oalendio driven
instigation of Ai
denmed a second
Fuller also, and
forced upon Alex
43. A.D. 487, (
the same, to con
who had lapsed i
tions were passt
•ncvclic of Keli
1056-59) of that
44. A.D. 494 (
»nd attended by
well-known decre
recijiiauiis, as it i
buting it to him
831, for the abbi
Spicel. n, .SI, ed. H
being in others ai
predecessor, or Hor
But by Pearson (
(Hi^f. lit. s. V. Gel
'Piirions, and doub
Eccl. priiH. c. 9).
•gainst its geniiim
developed as they
upholders are not a
what pope it was '
Baron, a.d. 494, n.
among the decrees
Esjguus, who only
expresses great pers
his preface (ap. Slig
Neither is it includ.
his collection, which
A.D. 731, and supple
popes, anterior to «
in Dionysius. (4) >
IISS. ainmi; the decn
•itherhistofall, ori
(•i) Neither is it qu,
writer before Charie
sanction given in it tc
*"", 'he pope of his
'-?■•-•'• 11- 13; aj.. Mi,
wrap. art. Second Nic
OiTided on some points
" wntaius, e.g. whetl
Home, councils op
Ac«nn«, |,i.h In 7 '«'•;"'"•',: «'"! « Htntion t.,
con,l..ct'to HP «r at ,;::"""';]''"' ''■' »''"""
•taiitin,)i,lc with thl I . L "■•■" '"^■"t '" <'u»-
Acacms himself cn.iomne, { ' 7"T ' ""''
Mr.»se,l, in the ,„,„ e ,f th '" ','"""' ""»
orth,,,l,^v presbyters a I 'k'''' V""'"' «" the
8tantin.mlo. but ki ."'?'''''■'''■■'' "^ '■'"<>-
the ,.n,ie hi„::iv/T,n7,:;''^'";."r''-'''.v
Dtated at the en,l to h„, " , ? '"''"'I« "i'
if .0. «-„e...e „e e L rl t"'. t'h''"'^''/" " ' '""'
seven ,y.seven bishons uh *■ '"">•-»''«•» "r
met ,m this oc a ■ ,n' /; ^ /!"l"' '" '■"ve
baMv.theletter a if .*.''''• "'*'-*2.) I'ro-
with IV to \rnS,S ''"''''' ''''"■^^'«-'
FulitrVa'Vi'fC'n. /''%''""''= P'''" the
Calendio dr "f„ ont bAf "' ^"""^''' ""J
instiKatio,, of I^ . „? ' h*^ ™1""-''^ 2'^'»' at the
Fuller also, and wiu' *".'" ' ^■*'-''" the
forced .-,»„• A7e'.!„L?riI 'S m'. t'l^^r/) ,"-"
the same 'to LTid:: 'lb""'' """'^^' ■*«« ' "'•''"
who had a sed und ' ' '"'"■ "^ *''« ^^^i™""
tions were 'passed „'[""'""""• ^'"'^ "^''"'"-
.ncvelic of KeTix III .r "'"'"'""' '" the
10O6-59) of thai date ^ " ''P" ''''^-^*- ""''
.n.f attnded'VtS b'"l" '"'P^ ^-'-'-.
well-known dec ee r L.?v ."f"''. "■^•'"^■« t^e
ncipiauiis, as it is call/ 1 '"■'/""""'« ''< nm
biting it tohnir.', b '"/.'""" ^'SS.,attri.
831, for the abbe^;*, ''L^'"'"'".'^"'' """"'-N A.a
being in „tLrs' at r b^ 'ed' T"' '" ^V '^^""> '
predecessor, or Hornl,^! f"'" ^'""'"s"", a
•purious, and do, btf nil;' r"" '"t" P™"°""™'1
against its gen ninene , b ""'^'^* "guments
developed as^th "'^1^;;: ""', ^een so fully
«phol,l'ers are not^ ?d Jn wlfat T"" ^'^ ,"'
what pope it was hnl,? » t >^«'' <"• ""'ler
>mong the deoVees of' ^1 '1"°' ""^'"'l'^''
Eiiguus, who onK iust mf "."' ^^ ^"'"Y^i^^
"pressed great" pLa^tirnlr'b"' "'"
his preface fan Mit,n„ „';"7'Y""i '»r him in
Neither is it TndXin fb i "'"• ^^'^ (3)
hi^ ™"ection, w Znds tth r';-''''''''";"/-^' '"
in Dionysins. «) Neither' • I "," ""* '"'"'"<'
liSS, «;..,,; the^delt'rGela^ni'r^ "^ ^"'^
•ither last of all or in . ^; "'''2 ' • "' always
(■') -Neither i U qZed 'r" 'T" *'>' '*^«"'-
writer before cLrllr! '"^"t.oned by anv
«m.tiongynin,t toth^"''/''" '"^P'"^» th'e
O'Tided on some nnints nf in,„ * '^' ^ -' *'"^' '""«
''-tai.,./;',"r7n:r':f'apry;s:i,
ROME, COUNCILS OP 1816
denied this 1. oi ^l'"'!"''^' ">"^^»<"-" '"en who
his colleeti „ r " '"""'K""l>"led them i„
in some MtiS „n »K,. i I f' ""'•*' "'''• '""'"I
aboye.) AnoH "r tLl^ w ' ./''''^■'''•'''^^ "•''
Koneral conncils, tha f • „1 '" T""^ '"
-l>uled or not. , ,. ,, t ^ss ■';""7'"' "■"» '"-
it i» included in s, n V '^'^^ " "" ""*• ^'"'
Wansi -nsidered t Vrst h'; ,:.:i"""r'' "^ ^l"'''
ence; but in his S,,, l '.'""'''' '""■'^'er.
rendoVs to /nil ■ ew ' 'i'"" 7'', -" "'""''^ ''''
"niissions and con , is " ""-^- (^> Th«
e-ntents ab.ne "■'';,"' "f -'^■'""•ledged
"ince. I, chisse,; j,," ^, '''''■•"■'^'' it long
«ibli.nl; ii. Pa, ' t , ■ . ••. ■" ^^"'''- ^""'^^
Under the 'firs he," „s .'ay'"' •'''™'-.^f'hal
decreti SB « u ' '""^e savs: '■Auto'
'itetur. '• ";;:?'"""?,■ '" '"""''""'» -'I- ' "-
S. «-ipturae iLn : "'"""J'"'" <" deriniendo
rntk.n(,ake, i.'iZ , i:' "^'T ''"^ « ''"'«-
of Anacletu a the T '^^ *'''"' ^^^'^--t"'
L'oxncil, i . the teudr ^'f ™ *" *''« ^^''^'^"^
the pre ognti"!, if"h "-''"'"r'"" '■""e^'tion) on
and AntioTaJft " '^"""■' Alexandria,
each, making" *^,,f;^:™''7';,'- to'
among sees, m,r LZT t,""stantinople
councLf ( ,r;,S '■'^ '" "'™' *''^S- "f the
on which it les"a ts n!"^'""''i'V"''''''"'™
of the lath .r fol 1 K -^^'^ "-em, a list
received : and f,'"tl: 7^"'" "'"'■''' »" '« •»"
subseque ,t om ' ^; *" ^"J' ""tj-ing of other
one aid all, ™ IT' '^.u''''"?''™] ''''"'"'.
we read : "Item „ef ,s ? 1 '«.'"g'' n.idway in it
sodis praesn s li ' el. s '''*''• '»l">-''t'>li^'ae
ignor tur;" and thl- ''"' "'T^'l'^it nomen
by other document fh/""'™''"' """^ ''""«"■''''
the third head nfm ''' V""'« -^'amp. Finally,
the works of Ter uli an :'7- "'^ ^'■''''^'"'''
•St Clement of S/andria "v,'?' .AW-^-n'S
giv:i-ro^^^nr?^^^-=- ""
-nyirliElf --^^"-'«
couhfnot h ye be 'n by'L^'""'"^:, '^'' ''«"««
or penned by him 'aiT T I'""''"'''?, dictated
nexion with it i^'e,i ' ■*''! ".^'"'t'^''^ "f hi^ con-
cumstance, th t m sT'mSS '^ '^ *^"'"''' ^''•■
his name preHxed io it . , °,"","'"e " ''«^e
tignringin it tintof A *'^'. " '''^* """*
But Acaeius d .?! tb '"' "'^ Constantinople.
became ;;, aid was'lr" ^''"'^ «'''''''»'
a» having L n "e " e f <=<'"''<""neJ by him
by his predecessi s 'Sps"'"tho:rt "'"i^^"'
pressions of ,„„,„ HnVm f *"'"Snl ei-
reiies, „,ay h^Tjg;^^ ZZ^'t '"''
somebo,|y who could SI ""'"Pos'tion. to
extant but thou^^Se":,r;;fbi/''?^,^:;'
un.^Uo-,6, part of which has been ^aS'
onf ofX tvf; T-^'b'" '^' .'"•"«' ^'"'° Misenns.
ConstanllTop'rb.l^ ,r m'' 'n1 ^^ ^'^ *»
municated /or mLon I "■,;e;;l '',:^" ;---
been absolved (M„nsi, vi r m-Sti^ T^''
agam, has no place UvJl*^ I ■'' ^^"'
'^Mori;nool.:eU.Vr3:°I^rt&^t
Hi
1816 HOME, COUNCILS OF
osrncd, it is an i!x»ct cnunteriiart nf thi^ ii'i^itcil
BvniHl iindBr iMjpe Hilary, A.u. 40.'), ilescriLod
hI)ciVO.
4ii-,'')l. A.n. 499-.')0r), iiniler p«|>e Synimachus.
There are no less timn six syinKls iittributeil in
Miinsi to tliis i")]"'; but tlieir ilntes, miiiiluT,
anil aits are Imth hoiwlessly i!(itii'u>eil aud
vnriciiisly assittneil. Nut (me "f them is ({ivcn
by l>i<inysius Kxinmis, win) mi(?ht have wit-
nessed them all; mily the lirst three are givi'ii
ID the appenilix ti) his ci)lleeti(in ; for the re-
liiiiindi^r our sole vmiiher is the I'sc'iido-Uidore.
Til "dore, the reader, a (ireelt and coiiteiiiporary,
tueiitions hut one, viz. the seeoiid ; the author
of tlie Lives of the I'npes but two, vias. the
second and the fourth. To understand them
properly, we must recall the facts. Laurence,
one deacon, was consecrated po|ie on the same
day by hi.s party, that Synimachns, another
deacon, W09 bv his; and 'Iheodoric the Arian
a» well as Gothic king, resident at Kavenna,
was invoked by each more than once to decide
between them, so that of turbulent gatherings
on both sides there was probably no laik ; and
Symmaohus gaining the d^iy, embellished ac-
counts would be written of his subseiiuintly, to
enhance their importance and to swell their
number. There is a strong family likeness
between them all and the last under flslasius,
in point of form. lu Mansi they stand as
follows : —
(1) A.D. 499, when five canons respecting
papal elections are said to have been decreed,
amid rejieated plaudits (viii. '2J9-H8).
(2) A.D. .'lOl, .It which Theodore, says Theo-
doric, Anastasius says Synimnchus, constituted
his rival Laurence bishop of Nuceria (Jb.
•24.^-9).
(;!) A.D. 502, at which a late edict of king
Odoacer, approved by pope Simidicius, ordaining
that no episcopal elections should be held in
future without concurrence of the civil magis-
trate, and that all alienations of church property
by the bishop of the diocese should be void, was
annulled (ib. 261-72).
(4) A.r>. nO'A, called, from a door in the church
of St. Peter of that name, pnlmaris ; and occa-
sioned by a reaction in favour of Laurence ;
when 115 bishops declared Synimachus innocent
of the crimes laid to his charge, and condemned
Peter, bishop of Altino, whom Theodoric had
appointed arbitrator in the' renewed schism,
together with Laurence himstilf. Knnodius,
bishop of Ticino, drew up a lengthened apology
for the acts of this synod, which is still e.xtant
(rt. 271-94; ana for the rest, 247-62).
(5) A.D. 504, confirming the acts of the pre-
vious synod, and commending the ajiology for it
by Ennodius in high terms (i6. 295-8ti3).
(6) A.D. 505, at which all who had possessed
themselves of any goods belonging to the church,
were to be anathematised unless they restoiad
them (/5. 309-16).
62. A.D. 518, under pope Hormisdas; for
ending the schism between the churches of
Rome and Constantinople, which began with
Felix III. and Acacius, and had lasted thirty-
fire years (Mansi, ib. p. 579). The negotiations
and terms at last .igrocMl upon may be read
among the letters of pojie Hormisdas (ib. pp.
434-52).
63-55. All said to have been held A.D. 531,
ROMK. COUNCII-8 OP
under pope Uonlfai:e II., yet there ii a suspicions
character about theni all. (1) So decrei'S (.f
this pope are given in the appendix to iMiinyaiiis
Kxiguus; and Imt one by the I'seudo-lsidor.),
which proves its own spuriousuess (Mansi, ih.
pp. 731-;l5) (2) The soln authority for liie Hut
and second of thi*se syuoils is Anastusius, or
whoever wrote tlm Life of this pope; and llis
reason given for them is, that at the \\ni
he constituted a deac«n named VIgilius his soi-
cessor ; at the second he annulled hisoariact,
as contrary t<i the canons (comp. the aihgiil
letter of pope Silverius on the subject; .Mmi.sI,
ix. 6. and another alleged synod under llMiiilaie
lU. below). (:i) For the thinl, which was only
brought to light in modern times, there is no
authority whatever, apart from the MS. ci.n-
tainiug it, any more than there is for a syuol ,.f
Constantinople, which is there said to have li^d
to it. The heailing given it in Mausi, which
was made for it liy the discoverer of the .M.S.
as he owns himself— 1. ocas Hidstenius. prefect of
the Vatican — and exphiins fully the iiitenst at-
tached by him to its discovery, runs as I'ldli^ws;
— "Concilium Koninnum 111., ([uo lecti s\int
libelli a Stephano Larissae metropolitano traiis-
missi, atque pndatae e acrinio sedis a|iostiiliine
complures epistolae, (juibus constat, i|uaiiivis in
toto mundo sedes apostolica ecclesiaruu) sibi
jure vindicet principatum, si)ecialem tanien in
eccdesias Illyrici guliernationem sibi vimlicnssv "
((4. PI) 739-84). Not one of the jiapal epistles
given in it occurs in Oionysius Kxiguus ; aud
the lir.st in his collection to bear them out is
one addressed to Anastasius, bishop of Thessa-
lonica, by Leo 1. (Migne, Patrol. Ixvii. 291-il),
whose lettera come last here.
56. A.D. 534, under pope John II., where the
proposition — " Unus e Trinitate passus est iu
came " — was approved, notwithstanding its
previous rejection by pope Hormisdas, and the
opposition made to it by the monks called
acwvwti by the Greeks. (Mansi, ih. \\. HI,',.)
57. A.D. 589, under pope I'elagius 11., unless
the genuineness of his letter, in which he spvalts
of it, is to be given up. liut the only ris-i.a
for questioning it is the interesting inforniatiun
it contains, about the prefaces then used in his
church. Particulars of them having been asked
of him by the German and French bishops, he
says, after consultation with his synod, in rc|ly:
" Invenimus has novem praefationes in sacro
catalogo tantuinmodo recipiemlas, (juas Imga
retro Veritas in UomauS ecclesiii hactenus sir-
vavit : " viz. one for the first Sunilay after
Kastcr — no doubt, that of Easter repeated ; one
for the Ascension ; one for Pentecost ; one for
Christmas ; one for the Transfiguration ; one for
festivals of the Apostles ; one for holy Trinity ;
one for holy Cross ; and one for Lent. The
grounds on which Pagi aud Bona would discredit
this statement are far from conclusive. (M.-vnsi,
ix. 1021.)
58-61. Four synods appear to have met under
pope Gregory I. ; at least Mansi gives four.
(1) A.D. 590, at the request of the emperor
Maurice, to end the schism that had ensued on
the condemnation of the three chapters at the
fifth council. (Mansi, x. 453.)
(2) A.D. 595, to hear a complaint made by
John, presbyter of Chalcedon, against John,
bishop of Constantinople, who had condemned
RO
Mm fill heres'
(.^l>- I'll. 475 H.
(3) A. I.. Hl)\
lli«illg epi,s(.,,|,
It i.H signet liy (
hyters, nud loui
(4) A.I). (;(i|
was condemned
tery built and
reigning |,„,„,,
«'l'- (/''. p. 4(
ti2. A.I), tidii,
seveuty-tud |,js
the deacons ai
Uoniface 111., «.|,
steps for the a|)|
see of lionje 8h(,i
the previon.s p,,|
There is ..nly the
that then; was
lionilaco II., „l,ii
63. A.I), (ilo,
whieh Mellitus,
dentally j)resent,
wilh it.s decrees,
Kthelbert iind arc
from Bede. lint
extant, pnrportin)
tinned on .solid gn,
Spelmaii and VVilk
"ii. 'i2-9 ; comp. M
64. A.I). (i4(i, „„,
Ecthcsis of the e
denined. as appear
liUr iJtunms of t
mentioned bv name
«5. A.J), (in, un,l
the Monothelite hi
pp. 697-700.)
66. A.D. 648, ut
Pyrrhus, patriarch i
Jetnned as a relansi
78:)-4.) '
67. A.D. 667, unde
bishop of Lappa in C
7 I'aul, his metro;
li. im ; Comp. ]i. i(j
t)8-7(i. A.I). 679-
Tnree .such are dist
and Professor Stubbs
'"• l:il-41), -the ti,
seventeen bishops ai
and discussed questio
Murch, but without
tie segond, which con
presbyters, the restc
see \vr.s decreed, subi
bi8hoi)s of his own ci,
consisted of lo,5 bis
preparation for thesixt
tie Jlonothelites, Will
f »«rk, and signe.l (
Swttish, and Irish ohi
179-88)."""'"' '" *'"
Jl;Aa 685, unde
Anastasius alone record;
™n "< a bishop in Sa
^w^-tikon place with
(Mansi, XI. 1092 \
72. A.D. 704, under p
W'mrid was accused and
ROME, COnNCILH OP
Mm Cm hl'rc'^v • k.. ..
(/4. PI'. 47:, M.V *•" l"-"»""n..od |nnor«nt,
the d,.nn,n« and /„;'•. ' ■"•""''yt.r,, dl
»-e of Hum,. »h , 11 "• " ""'■'■'■•'""'■• i» th,,
Th,T. is „„lv .h ' ''" •""■'«'' tlirix- ,l«vs
w'^^i.Xi,;;;::^';;!:;7'L^r'^'-'--.-
fron, 11,..,!,, Ji" tth! J "'"-''-'• "' *" '•-'«'«
tinned „u «„ id Kim.nds hi- ?K I h'"" 'i"""'"
£c!!t»^-';;/'l;":;;;;,^;;j:««--inu,,.henthe
'ien.«.,i, a, am .a r" Von, "'^^'''"^i'"''. ^-^ ««>"-
|>p. <i97-700.) ^ **" "^"".leinned. (/i.
■«• lil-H), -the first of ^kT^ Doi-uments,
and discus»e,l qu'^;tion relatV„; 7 'r^''""-
P«8byters, the restoration oi^'^lS^ "k"*^
see Hr.s decree,! «i,),;„,i » •. ,7 "'"a to his
coJted of A iTJ "' '}" ^hird, which
these councils in J?an,i n„ . """""'* "*"
179-88). °*' "'■*''« revising (xi.
A/a!ia^iu"\l!ne' records' it''"n"''''l° ^•' "^"^
iSOMi:, COUNCILS OF 1817
-" '''it::.';:f 5,:- " - ••-' -- ,„ th,
I, ;:..«). ' •!."l-04; oomp. Mansi, ,ii.
"-t'A':;ai;;;:;,:!:t:,':ri;!;''';! ^''•-''' '•-'
ti"n from th,. emporor , ' ' .". '•"""" >i"i'^«-
» '''•'■'•!"■' o>, th '7, i';' '"':'''"» ''•• f -ting
«f>i<h this i,o," ,.":".""'•""»" '^'""n.,
7:'':--'iing ,,,'hi's bi!:; ,,./;;;'■;' t" giv... and,"
tl- .;rn..,l and th,. ,r,. ' "^'""":"' '"'tween
;^'-r;i:^;:;,.!:t'V'i;i/:»r'i^''"!''"'''
''i''»« a speech of lien,,!' . '.'■''""'^^•' '" 't
'■"■nplaining „C „„ ,„,,.,,, i"''"''"'' *'"«".
■ ■etror.nli.,... ,.;_i:: .'"""""iK'al invasion of his
-'!!^tr,.,,,di,,„uigh , :,:;;''""!-^''V"'''»i''" "'hi;
^n-WJ-'M.) * "^''-I'^t^unstautine. (Mansi,
under";!; JI'^;:;:?;';^;'' •««'"ding to Mansi, „,et
illi'it ma'rr?aj;.s"td T'""'!"" '^'"'""'' "?"i"«t
:^«re passed ulfd r th n n"'"? 1 «i^'"<'''
twenty-three bisho ' , "' ' "' ,'*"'"'-'fi''-'' l«y
t-n l.re..byters, aTd ?ou '''!'*f "'" ''"''^ f"-"--
Krei:Lg;";j;;^h:i"°eS"i"r' '""•'"pof
allowed to resign l,is see «,? .""* '"'I'" '" ^
'"it. (/A. ,,,,.. ..^y^a")"' *"« "^J^ed to return
I'^aurian, was resisted and ,. , i ' '"mame,! the
70). The two letter ;?' """'"""""I (<V I-p. 2(i8.
8a). "*" attitude (,7,. ,,,,. 959,
aJ'gilcn''irS\rj"TH''T "'•^■«-y '"•
AnastaMus alone, I,; ""co 'V'. "'"-' "'" '''""'
.l-y two marble ablets YnH v "« ^on'inned
"'^tribed with their act M T""™" '^'H'ts
^ta'e. The first ot't ', ^'f . \" " '^''''''''^
'•^l.oD a presbyter name,l P •* ^^"'""'' ^•'»-
.l-een sent to Ooi.tantiuo e"^^ ^ ''li "'"' '""^
'i'tory letter ■ t%„ ',' "■-' "" o.x|,ostu-
whichhehad .,( , toJT '^""^ ""'l'-^^'•"^
"f the syno,i ; e mxl 1!,"; ^^ ""c r,',,„est
with it. ^At the sec"nd'at ..?r\' i""'' ^"'" ^-ack
l-i^hops and a lar^e c«n<. n'''-'V>'''i"''')'-three
a -^-'f titutionwa nubiS ?, "^ ""i'' ^■'^''•'™'.
ha.l been the imnieniori't c ,' T "^ '"■■"' "hat
hitherto respecting iC"/' '^« ^'""•^•h
^tingall wh'o contn.3 't "a /"""""""i-
strauce was despatched to t'h. '' '""""'■
with no better success rM.„ '•"''"-■'•'"■' b"»
8l>, 81. Two svnoJ?" ^1 ■"*'• ^'i- 297-300 ,
!';kewise given if ansT^Th'T f"'"'™'' -«
th h-d ye,^ of thVu urpei Arto"'/^''''''-'^ "-a
thirty-second of Luitnrand.K ?''''''• ''"'' 'ho
(A.D. 743), both ind icatinAK * ^"'"'""•'^ ^ing
«tyle. It^assed h et «credL7r° "'' " "''^
d'S'-ipline, but the subvLi. »■''''' •^'""">s "n
trustworthy (rt 38 -90 t't""' '°Jk"'= °°'
;- through^he pag^n'auS /Arifcec"^'
A.D. 745, two priests mm ^', "B^^^Dd,
anathema ?sed. The r; T' ''^P™«J «n5
are spread over thre^ se In^' "'r'"'^' ''"'^
-Ptions to it iaoiule^^bisTisrLidi
^.^
m\
,* i
^^w
; Lttdfci
.tE.
1818
R0Miri,U8
(A. pp.
the (1 ipc, nil I '.I'Miiti'i'ii pri'itliytew.
87;i M.'i It 'lii'ull I"', .iu:i-HiJ.)
HJ. A.I', ".'i:!, nil liT ,pii|M' .st('|plii.'n II., but it
la iiijii'lo'.l (liuliltiil l>y Sliili^i, iiikI di'iiN mily
with ^raiitii tn iiiiiim'>ti'ri("< (.Maiiitl, kii. .'lOT-rn).
Aniithir, wliidi lu' ncu lurt rciiMin to ilmilit,
reliiliin fun i|iiniiil tictwiM'ii .Siirgius, iirilil)l>.linp
of KnveTinn, uml, iircinilliiK tn Mniisi, thin pii|i«',
li pliuifd I'V him fiiiir yi'iiis Uti'i- (i7). p. ll.'i;)).
H'H, A.l>. *<n, iiiKlt'r piipu I'luil I., Ki'Hiiting
privili'^i's mill c'xi'iiipliiiiis tn cii'itniii in(iiiii.Hti'ri"H
Biul cliunhp* Ijiiilt by him, n* uppoiirs by his
letter, {/'>■ \>. iMO; ininp, p. Ii4il.)
84. A.l>. Til'.l, miiil tn hnvi' b i bi'lil nt the
Literiin, umbr iinpo .Stcphi'ii III., wlii'n judc-
iniMit wax tjivi'ii iijjiiin.-t the lutn ncciipaiit nf liis
sen, Cnii-.tmitlriii, mill thu nhl limlitiniH nf the
church ri'^pi'iliiiK iminfi's iiphulil. Miiiisi nialcn
much nf what hi' cniiHliliTs thi' recnvoiiiil acts of
this fniimil. Thi' aiitliorn nf /.'Art dii vifrif. loa
I)<itei iibscivo pithily: " I.a ilate en est sin-
gulltrt)." It runs a» fnlliuvs: "hi noiniuo
Pntris ct Kilii I't Spirililii Saticti ; resnantc mm
et o.iibin samtaTriuitnto . . . muime Aprili, ilie
I'J""', linliitiniii)?'"*;" ninlthi- acts which fnllnw
nri! cnninu'iisurnli' (i'), pp. 7i'M-'."2). Another,
aJHii said to have bucn hidd at thu I.ateran
undiM' pnpi^ Adrian I., A.I). 774 (which Mnnsi
feels hi) has noipptinii biu to prnnounce spiirimis,
yot, " 111' quid diisit ad pb'iiani ilii re coiiciliari
nntitiiiiii," prints iitfull liMi^lli), baa this heading
— cpitniiiisud from .Sijicbcrt— " in <iua C'aroln
Jfie^nn jus datum furtur a pnntilice, ut ponti-
ficcm ipsiim Itoniantiin nt opLscopos cligeret ot
investituram ciuici'iU'ri't." This and thu " ,Siciliaii
mnnarchy " nf a later popo may doservo com-
parison (I'l. ]ip. HH;1-8). Another, a.d. 79'J, under
the same, is reported by Mansi, when Keli.^,
bishnp of Urj;el, the Adopt ionist, abjured his
heresy; but it is nowhere said that he did this
in a synod, as Krolieniiis points out (/'I's.f. tfc
Hiur. ' ICIiii. H F,l. § •-'■-'; ap. Migno, J'utrol.
c. 1, 31:!; conip. .Maiisi, xiii. H.')7).
85. A.l>. 7il4, under the same, confirming the
condemnatinn of Klipandiis nnd Kelix at the
council of Kraukfort. (Mansi, i6. p. 859; Froben.
••ft. § ;i'J.)
86. A.l>. 790, under pope Leo III., when a
tract of Kelix against Aliulu was condemned.
(M.msi, I'l. pp. 10'2<)-;)2; Froben. i7i. §41!.)
A new era was opened in church and state, as
well tor the West as tor Koine, .by the next
synod, A.I). 800, when l^haileiiiagne was solemnly
crowned emperor on Christmas Day, in the
church of St. I'eter, by the reigning pope; but
our limits forbid any further details of this
synod. (Mansi, i6. pp. 1041-8.) [E. S. Ff.]
ROMULUS (1), Fob. 17 ; commemorated at
Concordia (Mitrt. Usuard.); at Aquileia (^Mart.
Jlieron.).
(8) Mar. 24; commemorated in Mauretania
{Mart. Usuard.j Uieron., Notker,). [0. H.]
EONitfUS, June 1, 6th century; comme-
moratei^H Armnricu (Bull. Acta SS. .luu. i.
83). W [0. H.]
ROOD. There seems no satisfactory evidence
that what is commonly understood by a rood,
that is, a cross fixed aloft upon a beam or gallery
in the middle of a church, is to bs found within
ROOD
the period embraced in this work. It ii, indetil,
allir'iieil by I'ligin (O/ntfuin/ n/ AVi/cniiudia/
(irmiiiuntu) that these cmsses bi tween the iiavo
and choir of Inrg.i ibunhei, or the nave Hn.l
clianrel of small mies, are of great ivnti'|nitv.
The same is nflirmed by the abliii .Millie. Itut
it will be fniind upmi lumparisnii that he has
simply translated I'ligin's remarks, and tlierefnre
canimt be accepted as indepemlent authority.
The ctirreul statements ou the subji'i t may be
couveuieiitly taken from Migne ( A'/u//'/. I hr.itixj,).
It is allirmed by bim that (ienrgius Cndiiitis, mu.
of the Hyzantine historians of the l.Mh leiiturv,
describes an ancient crnss over a screen in the
church of St. Sophia at Coiistantiiinple. He sayo
that it was of gold, enriihed with pnciniu
stines, and furnished witli cliandeliers. .Mii,'ne
ipiotes this writer in proof of the assertion that
such crosses are " d'une haute antiiiuiti'," and
assigns him, probably by a typographii iil ei-rnr,
to the 5th century, whereas he was really "t th«
l.'ith century. Uut what is nmre serinus, he
gives uo reference, and the present writer him
been unable to verify the nuntation. Yet it nmy
be said with confidence that in bis wmk Ptpl
Tf|j oiKo!o^7;j ToO "ooO Tijs kyiat 2oiJ>[o5, ('Mlinus
certainly describes no such cross. The utdy
cross which he there describes is the cross nlthe
ciborium — a cross, it may be added, wliii li cnr-
responds with the one descrilied above, ln.th in
its being of gold and in its adornment witli jewels.
lint all the.se quotations, whether in |jii;lish
or French works, are ultimately traceable to the
great work of (Joar (In Ord. Siicri Mlnisimi
Niitde, f>. 19), who says, "Ilium [sc. arnlinni'in]
qui in magna fuit eccleaia describit .MS. K.^jium
Codini verbis vnlgaribus, rhv Si S/u/Soito h> [sh]
tV (Twhiav iiroiri<T(v /ui o'opSoi'tJxw*' et i!ifra,
iiToiriaf tV rpovWav tls r. ififiwva iifra /iapya-
finapiijav [sic, without accent] Ka\ XvxviTaf'iUV.
(5 8« (jravfihs rov ifa^avos laTa \lrpas ft, nx« 8i
KOTct (TTUx>''k KuxfiTiipia, Kul iJiapyaun apia. dtl-
Soto" ivrl Si arTiBtwv 6 Hfxffiiiv t-ix'i' Sm'^fr
6\6xpvca irfrdata." If this passage is cnrrett,
and if the information of Codinus, a compara-
tively late author, is to be relied upon, thin
citation obviously concludes the whole questiun.
But one or two observations must be advauceil
upon it. Goar quotes from a MS. copy of (,'odi-
nu8, without saying from which of his works the
quotation is taken ; but the passage is nut to be
fouud in the printed edition of Codinus, ffe S.
Sojjhiii, which is where it would naturally be
BKpeoted (Carpus Scriptvrum IJIsturini' lli/mn-
tiiuie, Bonnae, 1849). There is, indeed (p. 142),
a description of the ambo, which in some degree
resembles the citation of Goar, but there is no
account of a cross upon it (the cross described in
that page is the cross of the ciborium), unr is
there any notice of a variant in the reading
amongst the critical notes of Meursius and Lam-
beciuB.
It may of course be some other work of
Codinus, which Goar quotes ; but the present
writer has attempted in vain to find anything
like it in any of the works of Codinus in the
printed collection above referred to.
It may be added that there is no mention nf
the cross ;.i the luflrieftl desorijitiiii nf the amho
of St. Sophia, which is given by Paul the Silen-
tiary, though Ducange, in his commentary upon
it, says that Codinus adds a mention of the cross.
ItOOD
Th* il.iH»i,n| IV. irk ni> .k
1» «"m.nvh„t r,,r,.. n' ; ^' " •:""-^ «f r^-vl-Ioft.
M» »nt.,r .,„„t„, i, ■,(,„;".""'> .I'l'-'OK.! whi.'h
•"•-•'"•'""Klv it ,..,.„H t u ,. I'"!',' '^'""■' '" *'"'''''
the,„W,|,„„t „,,„;; '" tl'u '.t,,t..|.,«„u „r
•"•"■M.t.rti,.,!,,,/;; .•"!'y'>..i '"'..•th.,
italinilini,, n,,, [ ■ "' ," ','" I'r-to.'t,,, vc.m,r«l,ili,
Ai-t..ii -.ut/i.:;:;:'^. n; ,;;;. -i[i.'^,^..ti ivtw
p. !;■'-'.'. ..',1. .Mi ',.'., ^""'A Loo lU.t^'.im
to the nM.Hnsi,,n,,t\;)/ ""*'•«'"? "''''■'' '""'l^
in the »,,,!,» that i» . ;'''""''' '^'''^ « imo.I
the only tH,, ,;,,.„ that Lr ". . ^"••'«t''»""'-Hro
the"«n.ata,,,i,,„u;''',,,";;''"-'t',..,,,,,,rt
»I'F'"-H that „, ther J \l ""'■, "'" " """<
fr™ taint ; a„,| a. . 1 "' 'V''V''''''''^''- ''■''^'
prove in.ii.s|,utahlvtl,,? "'''""^'^ which w.,ui,l
»l"lt u,,.,n a |,,,„„ ,„. ,',;;»; •"• cruc.h., rai^e,!
"o»^''"twith.„t'i::',/ •■;:-"f^^van.^^^
iuch »,T..,.„.H exi.t.vl but), „ r ■^'"■"""■; that
^hurohe«;that,hnv, t . '„ "'"-^ ""'' '•'"'"
th.m,.ith«r i„ yZZ r '-■"""''•"'•*'"' «ith"ut
anJ that uv,,rv Wnr I ;„;■'"';'''>> '"• '•"'"'"lers ;
•^•reen,l,nvntnth rt fT"'"' h'"! « r,„„l.'
these crosses ^-cre st , If' "T' (^■'•>' "'""•
""'"t. In all this h n ov fr ^^' ^Z' "'^ ''<"•""-
«»J, in some sits "''!'*''»' "''"I'tinjf,
the c'oss\,;ert '.,''*::■'''«■''') "''-rves that
clmns, which were oft, „ f ''''".'''^ ''X three
tion. lint neither i, 'if,. "7 'l"-''' ""•'true-
-■'^' anything M h ""'' "'^ *'"' '"^>l'-^t
period tr«vcisen>U.t!:.,,rr«' ''-'••- the
-i;;i,:;::rtt,rS"^''""'r»^»"«-^--
e"ly church. (See P, "/■'"'"^ "-^'^t^'' '" the
Hippolytu,;" & i"^'^"'"''' "Hymn of .St.
"•e juhe of theXrch „f"^''';r''°''«-^"i''e,
pope Martin /., ^y|,„ u,,? *u <-yi"'iuu ; nu.l
Li».»rnn M ' ^'^1": na'l the can.nis cf th«
UOSAKY
1810
Ih.- early Ka,tern'"| ,";''■'•-'•'"« |.r.,v^s.'
'^iirAn enjoins i„,,^^ , , *•" " '"""l"it>-. " The
•^"'■'■'C. i..-sc,iu-I ''';"■'"«'■'"»( thr,i;,«h
"'■""'"<• It n.nno ".""'iln,-, no,,,,, „*,,
'-"M.M- (hat the : • „ .''''••""'■^•- '- -mttcr .'|
•''•'''-•'''"'iivrnish,.! i,:r"V"':l'-;' '"^f^.
'""«. ".nu.teri,;;-^ ,,''."' ■'",""■'" ''V'-
""''■"^''■7"nhechurcl„f t^: 'V'Vertheless,
^;''''i:'\!''-v., in':' ;7j--".i-a,.v..i;
•^'. ''"minic the inv,.nfi, \} ■'"'} ■>'^n;hr^ uj
•'-"■■•"fthehless., •'''." 'V'e rosary „r
.'""'"■■^'•""'•'nhest'inJ,'"; "!"' "'ishasl„,cn
he >e,,ms rather t„ ^ ' '.h,.a.ls so call,;,l; ),„,
•"■the.„etho I, , .',;;7':!'^-"^'. •■'"'-■ that „', , "
('■■"'Ave Mar'r r,rC''''>-^*''''"-''^
"■•"'^ " w, lio« ever, ,1 ,,,, ,. """"-'.■rs). T,,,
•■♦'"'•; hut we sho,ll,'r ''!''>■ '':'y'h-vVer,il
they were not yet <■« t, ' r ••" ■^""""" """
"■•«"li P-trenf,. in .!„ ; '"^y- " K.t n,o,lu,
{"■'■■'j'-torios,- rr,„,s/. '."aIC ■"'''■: <' «'"''"'"»
V"li;us „,„,1„ ,,re,nla ' " "'^'""- ''K'>>e„s, .,,„„
hrea,le,l, ,cn s„,alW ^ | ■ T, 'f '•'''■'' ""J
h"">K throughout fo 1, . ''"■ *']' '^ve .Marias
'"""'■""»ter, ,0 he „ ,„i ^ T '"'■«'■'• ''"'■ the
'h's in^^trument he a.ssiir„; ,„ ,. ' ""'"ti-q of
«h,. Honrishe,! i„ lu'm ri, ''',"'" ""'•"".
"'"J- he due to Peter t,t '^",!""" '" "f bead,
;-''va, who, with 1. hu W r''";'^"'"'.''^''''''^-
the monasterv of r,,,. ■'""' '*"»' ic, founded
".-7'i"m Se^n^LurS,,'" /'^^.<'- P'-essel
;"'fi"h-'n,m ™ntaceus"ne ITo, :'• """'•''•'"• "'
"umerum non nraetermi? ,.»""""•"* '"^'P'ens
■rr; ■""- '"'"ner in this branch i,r~'th — "I"-"*-'" I *-■""'"•'' "f CealchvH,» ' ''•'' ''''■ '''««J- Tha
church.) Viollet-l! r,? 1 ° ''""d-'oft of that |, c „ i i' " W"-«ntly this is ,nlt ' '"'
til senses of ti,„ ,. — , _^ °-.. "" "rosary" in
Indeed, the e „ ,s^ ^^"''^ ""nnounted by a rood
Iko is' a.!l.. A ' ""■",'''« '^hich Vi.,|I..t-!e,
Pfced abov'eafravris nL"- "Ir "" '=''"=ifi-^
«-.. Which date3Z;^:,-i-t«m of
[H. T. A.J
'9-~l, Aug. 4, i 422--l^7 o ■ -^'"""»- '^""/.
'J 11
t H
1820
ROSULA
Colon. Agvipp. 1599. The Uttur (I. ii. 205)
gives a list o.'' earlier writers on the subject.
[W. K. S.]
EOSULA, Sept. 14; commemorateil in Afrien
{Mart. Usuiird., N(.tker.). [<-!• H.]
ROTA. [CouoNA, p. 461.]
ROUEN, COUKCIL OF (Rotomaoensb
Concilium), a.d. 682, al. tiH8-9, al. 092, at
which St. Ausbort presiiled, (iftoen bishops were
present, and a srrant of iiriviU-ge to the abbey of
Fontanella— that of choosing its abbat from its
own body— was confirmed (Mansi, xi. l^-*!*-'^''
comp. Cave, Hist. Lit. i. 610>. HE- S. tf.J
ROUND TOWERS. The round towers of
Ireland have a cliaracter and literature of their
ROUND TOWERS
ashlar or spawled rubble work, and tapert
upwarils towards the summit. OccasioiiaUy,
as at Ardmore, it is b.-ltcd with stringcourses,
which are, however, entircdy ornamental, ahd
not connected with the internal Hoor/. The
wall is |picrced for a siiiylc door, which is ui'ver
constructed on the level of the ground, but from
eight to fifteen feet above, and for windows,
which are unfixeii in position and number; tlie
jambs of both the door and the windows alw.iys
incline inwards towanls the top. At a very
short distance from the conical roof there are
usually four, but sometimes more or fewer.
Itoanil Tow«r, IteveniBh.
own, and the many questions regarding them
are still unsettled, though the ascription of the
towers to Christian times and purposes^ now
appears to be the more generally accepted. There
are upwards of a hundred known to antiquaries,
and of these about twenty are perfect. Two in
Scotland, of which one (Brechin) is perfect and
the other (Abernethy) a ruin, together with
that attached to the gable of the old church
at Egilshay in Orkney, are the only examples
outside the ancient Scotia. All are built upon
the same general plan, with little variety of
detail : the complete tower at Deveni.sh, in Lough
Erue, may be accepted as the type. (See
woodcut.)
(i.) The tower is a hollow circular column,
from fifty to one huudied and fifty foot high,
usually capped by a short pointed roof of stone.
From the base, which is frequently of cydopean
masonry, and measures from forty to sixty feet
in circumferem e, the tower is externally of
WluJow at Gloiulrtlt'iigli.
windows, and all the winilows in tne tower have
round, pointed, or squ;jre heads, but iicvtr a
built arch.
Internally the tower is divided into stories, in
number according to the height. The lowest is
usually filled up with mould or masonry to or
near the door-sill ; the rest, usually on joisted
floors and about twelve feet high, occupy the
whole interior to the top. The rocjms or stories
could have been but dimly lis;hted, there being
but one small window to each.
(ii.) For what purpose could towers of this
kind have been built, and that in such nuinlnTs?
This has been answered by many suggestions;
e.g. that they were the temples of a primeval
religion among the Cuthites (Keaue, O'liri-n),
the pyreia of Phoenician, Persian, or other Kastnn
n.itions (Vallancey), bell-towers (I.yncli), sepuU
I chral monuments(Windele), Danish forts (Walsh,
Molyneux, Ledwich), eremitic j.illars (Hams),
anchoret or penitential cells (Smyth), bell-
towers, secondarily monastic strongholds (I'etiie).
There can be no doubt but that in the Iri.sh
Annals (as in the present day) the common name
of the tower is Cloictheach, literally bell-li.mse,
and in some of them up to the ju-esent time the
bells .are hung. Yet the whole structure dcnutes
a place of temporary refuge aud defence in cases
of sudden attack. In this view there is a pro-
m-iety in both the general outline and the several
details: the tall, compact, round pillar, with
strong, often enlarged, base of solid building, or
of great thickness in the wall, aud with the
door small and several yards above the tounJa-
tion ; the smooth external facing of stoue, and
the storied accommodation within; the sma.l
windows for ventilation and, at the to]), also for
observation, and the strongly-defended doorway.
Into such a house of defence, which is ahv.iys
found among or near ecclesiastical biulJings, or
their known site, the monks could easily retreat
for safety to thems<=lvc-^ aud the vahiaMe 2..oJs
of the church till the enemy had left, or otlier
succour h.ad come to the inmates' relief, he
whole building is such as bespeaks a st.-ni but
passive resistance, and when the cloictheach was
liijurum leges/'—Juv. i
RUBIJIC
burneil it was only th" inn,.,- fl ■
Jearovcl. h,uJ,^:,T' """'•■ng that wn,
»ec.n,i;uy, .hough .ome 'u^V[ "''''^''^ '" l"^
been sj.c.cially built 'or . ,'„ "'," "">>■ '"'^'^
Cuthito c vilisation „f V„ 7 '-"'"'•"'n views of
wholly un,it,e,l for the" , u r,;™ " 'k""^-; T'
totheChri^tianl,erio,l ■.,,,1,7 ^^"^ ^'■''<"^g
orle.t..a.able'n^r;h:t,^^;;:-:''7-'-
from the 10th to the r2,i''\'i: 1 "''^■' "''"^'^'">'
no reu.s.in for our tr-u^ino- ,.i.k ll^ "I'l"'-'"''* t" be
Je^ign to ti,e dIs wh,f ha /"' ' "'"''^'"^ '^'-'
bavin,' possessed tether .1 .^""' '"' '"'""f »''
Huro„,Uhou;!.;;!:;rr:!:^:t;;^ir^^""
lost to the origin of such 1 "''°i' "" ''"'
that they are^iol^,;^ LTrBwti h""^'^^'
lecture which wa. banished f^„„, a' ,r"
the entrance of the Saxons „„i> .'"'° ^'i'
^^rs, ..7) notices til:- ":iS;;^<^::;;:!
most au.ient military tower. ., "''
Kon,an times found in he Bdt h s es"'T' • '"
{Stu,u.' Monmu-nts, &c.) would tr. .1 ''''"'-
tvpes still met with in ZTr ■ "*-'? "''■''" '"
—.1,. they '«:£'•"';,: en.:itr""^
general features, and arj si^ ,y u^ke'tT
olJe»t round tower on K,n<' .■ ^ "nuke the
St. ApolUuare ad CI." em ' k^ '"'r!*'''" "»
to the dth century TCtrrn '"-■'?^'"S
ocunted for as at first an I, -7^ 1 '"'hciently ac-
«"ited the nioL tic "o^^o„ ■''^It'"^"'"''''--''
turbulent tribes ani,, at 'caTin .*'" ""''^* »''
pe.severed in, after t'hei/ie^jt'-^''"^ ^"^^'^
a^--ed and tinie-hon .re^fol/o'f Tl ''"^'•
tical architecture, possibly aZ ,/ ''•''""■
stokes; Keane, yw^'ti r''^"'"'^' '^- ^J' «•
in'haeouiiia, i ii iv . u- """^'* "/ Jretand ;
^*«.'; wwich,l',;:'';t;«^2f-/'t :/
BUFU8 1821
I 'u the same wm. n, ■
""-nner of ,,cr( ,r ,?L t^" '''8"''"i'"'« for the
church were'c I i' !^«.,^' ^"T'' ""i^'^- "f the
written in red ch. ,.. "''"'' **''"'* ^'"""■"nly
f tiugt,isha,:i! itm'ri : ;t ":r' ^^^"^
Ancient y the^e ml,..,- '"'' ""'™ t»e f.
-•' oni/ w;^ :'r\:r "■"•^•f ? ""^'^"'-.
Pf'-pose, and known on I "'"'■-"'' ''"'■ "'^t
Wrectory, Cere,n:ral T\^"'vr .''"'■■^-
(V- «•)• The oMest ilsx ■•'' ,""""'- <^'rdo
service-books are .ith^.^- ""'r^^' ""J «arljr
de.^tituteofrubicsTh «'"•"■'•''>• "'' -"""«'
m contains no ■ jhrils ^^•'•^'''-"'•'ry of Leo
«^'iasian Sacrau.enta f49'.^' '^'■^' 'i""'' "'" 'he
^seveu, some of them verr . '""t"""' -Mxty.
book has none; the hi , T l"1'' ''"-' ^'•'^■"Qd
^regorianSacranl, : lul ''■?: "'"•-'• I'^e
»-h.ch are confesse.lly 'r T, u^,*''""" f""'*""'*
'"■onty-six. Of thelc ent K ''""^^ ^'^'"•'' '"'«
»^-coud yolume of J ahl | ,„- *,?' '"''"*"' '" ">e
a Gothic Missal o/t),e tV ^f'""* ^'"''■'■«"'.
'■"'Tics; a Frank shML^of7,,'"^r^'« -ven
has eight, the Canon h' ""5 "^"^ century
fjuity, has six; a G • c ""certain anti-
Jth century has elev.n S'™^'?'"'-^' "'' "'«
(Irish, 9th cent.) has t„o T • *'*"""' ^^'"^^^
nacular. -* ** ''"^ rubrics in the ver-
iiurcard, IWtor of thp r„
Ixmocent VIII and a ■ ^'^remodies under
of the 15th century r'i" V" '' *'"^ ^''-«
published together ?h» I ^ *"■"' l"-'r*on wh,
'lirections of?he (l- Lt' i^^"''^. f''« ceren.onia
few years later un:r''Leo''x"'l^'-" 'r''-"'^'""! «
venienceof such aconrr« , ■^'^ obvious con-
which were ?elt in certain ""'^'''''' ^^e scruples
li^hing before the laitv ° ^\'- "*•''' "*"'"' l'"'"
ouly necessary for hJ'i""-'""''^"hich it was
books therefore mutinliedT *n '"='"'• »"«»»
beyond the scoprof 'thf,^ '"V'^'^'' ^^^^ 't is
various editions 'together wltr^K*" i'""' '^eir
modifications which the r. V ' V*" "'"•"■'•'''^ '"«>
to time passed thron^h "" ^^'\ ''™"' '*">«
^ [F. K. W.]
M^oru.le«es..Wuv.;^[S^r
R(. -.. < '' '''°>'" cur condlta sit lex
Bi.«tatabuU8,etcnrrubrlca„,;etur''
PruU. contm %». ji. 4^0
Rome (^j5!^i!^/i£^°' fP-^^l^morated at
^cVa ^iS, Jul. iii. 28). ' '• ■^'"■'■°»- ; lioll.
'•i'^i^i!fi'ik"S'"*'^""^^^"'''-^"-d.,
EUFINU8 (1), Feb 2S . '■^' "'"'
Usuard.). ^ '' ®°- 28' martyr (i/ar<.
(2) June 14. morf v, .
Soissons (J/ar^ [jruar7''//"'"'"''"°'"''*'='I at
Boll. ^c<a'55. Jun ,i 794^'''''"'-' ^Vandalb.j
(3) June 21 mnvt,,,. .'
Syracuse {Mar. Sd ' f"'"'""""™*'''' at
JJi^ron., Wandalb., Toke'r R-/, ^f ^""'•.
Jun. iv. 73). ' "°^^^^- . Boll. A.cta S3.
Mar., I,, J, tl^^^^tl^:,^:-- '
RUPus(i), wii iQ . ^'•"•J
rated at MelittfluA^rL^; ^F / r;"""""^
(2) AiiiT 1 « i. "»"aaiD., Aotker.).
deSia "fn a" bi ^ rVr';"?.""^""^^ "^^ '"'"'«.
Notker.). '" (•^'"■'- Usuard.; /y^,.^.^
(8Mug. 27, patrician and martyr; conun..
m
f) <'Hn
182i
BUaAE
Vft H'"n., Wnivlnlb.; KM. ArU .S-S. AuR. m-
16)'; ....niMH.mnr,.te,l in the Gelani.m Sac.'amm>t.r>
on this .lay, ui.me.l in the collect, secretii, ami
po»t-i'i'niiniiiiion.
(4) Nov. '^l, martyr; mentioned by St. Paul,
Roin. xvi. 13 {Mart. Usuard.).
(6) Nov. 28, martyr; commemorated at
Ronu- (Mart. Usiiard., Vet. Horn.).
(6) Dec. IH. martyr; commemorated at
PhiUlM.i (Mart. Usnard., Vot. lionu);\ecn
{Mart. W.andalb.). V- "-J
BU(}AK, a word of frequent occurrence m
the (Mlo Rnmanus, as well as ... the L.veB of he
Popes uoder the name of Annstns.us, as t,. the
meani...' of which the.-e has bee.j so,ne co..-
si.lerable dilVe.'ence of oi„.,.on. Caesar Bul-
linee.-, looking' at the supposed etymology ot the
word and not at the passages in wh.ch it s
found, detiiiod •' rugae" to bo streaks in uia.ble
ormot:,!, or pipes or furrows (" canal. cM.loset
sulcos ") like wrinkles, or wrinkled and streaked
p"a es of precious metals. l),..:ange, with «u
S al negeot of the actual ,.se of the word,
Xngeh^on..ects it with the Fre..ch .«.,
and ."xplains it as the sacred path before the
presbvtory, " via in aedc sacra ante prcsby-
terium," by which the pope enters wheu about
to celeb.v.te Mass (Dcsrr. Aed. Sophan. no. <.i
Gloss, sub voc). Mabillon, by a comparison of
the places whe.-e the word occurs (Mus. Itat.
tom.ii.; Comnwnt. i, Ord. A'om. pp. x.x.. cxxxv.,
has clearlv demonst.ate.l th.it by "rugae aie
mea>.t the melal "caucelU" or sc.-eens of the
m.,re sa,red parts of a church, w.th the.r doors
a,,d ^'ratings' and .sometimes the latt..e-work
doors alone.' In the larger a.id more sumptuous
churches they were often made of si vev or eve,,
of gold. The presbytery at St. Peter s was
tcid in with\silve-r " rug,.e," and the '' con-
fessio " with " rugae " of gold (Anastas. S eph. IV
§ ■J8+; I.eo III. § ;iG;i). Sei^giu^I. set up s.x
pairs of aurichalchum (Und. § 492). Ihere were
Later aud lesser " rugae." Leo 111. erected
twelve "rugae majores " before the "secie-
r,iu.n " at St. Peter's (i'nd. § ^ The huger
were of very ,M,nsiderable we.ght. \hj-se of .s.l e
placed bv I'aschal I. before the vest.bule of he
altar weighed 78 lbs. (ibid. § Ul); those erected
by the sa.ne pope at St. Maria in P;''""'^'' !'^, »!■;:;•
and by I.eo 111. at St. Andrew's 80 lbs. (M.^ M,»).
The smaller on ^ werecalled " rugulae." fhe ' ru-
gnlae." the " confessio " at St. M^I'T^'i'J"',;^,
u„ bv Paschal 1., were of pure gold (xh,d% 447),
those of Leo IV. at the ent.ance o the pres-
bytery and "confessio" at St. Peter's, w, h the
" cancelli," of silver : " rugulas de argento tus.les
cmn cancellis" (ihid. § 54(i). Aceord...g to
llabiUon, "rugulae" also signified the grate.n.r
latticed window-openings of the '; '=""'?,'^'*'"' "
« fenestellae," or " cata.-aetae,"-by wh.ch the
sacred to.nb might be seen, and handkerch.efs oi
napkins [1',uanui:a] pushed through to touch tt
■^^r^^^^^e of the "rugae" wa.Ucptbv
acoivtes ("acolythi qui rugam consorvant
Ord. Komm.). At ordimvtions the person^ to bo
ordained deacon stood " ante rugas altans (ib d,
viii. ;i), and wheu ordained priest was taken out-
■ide the " rugae," " tbras ruga saltans (ibvi. *).
BABBATH
(Mabillon, «. s. p. cxxxvii. p. 8,^.) On Ash-
Wednesday the pope's cha.nberlain lelt _ Uie
chancel aud passed th.-ough the "rugi.e to
distribute the ashes, and on tandlemas Dav the
,,„pe went to them to di,..t,il,ute' the taoers.
On Palm Sunday the branches and leaves «erc
thrown to the people thro..gh the ap.Mtui-es,
•'per foramina rugarum " (Mab.Uon, "• »• p.
cxxxvii. ; Ciampini, o. xiv. ./« Azymo). [!•.. V.
RURAL DEAN. [Decanus 1L p. '•■''l.]
RUSTICU8 (1), Aug. 9, martyr; coinme.
morated in the Kast (Mart. Flor.; ilun;.,
Notker.).
(2) ^ng. 17, subdcacon and martyr; i:m-
men.o.'ated in Africa (.l/c<rt. Usuard.; \et. Hum.
Notker.).
(3) Oct. 9, presbyter and martyr; cmrae-
morated at Paris (Mart. Usuard., Ued. ; //iV.-,„i.)
(4) Oct. 26, bishop and confessor; comme-
morated ttt Narbonue (Mart. Usuard.).
[L. H.J
8 AB ALLUM, 8 ABH ALL, S AUL, S AVAL
(Zamui.lum), Irish -name for a church of |i..niliiir
orientation, usually north and south. It Miigi.
nated in the tradition (as presenttMl in a";>"™ii
Lifo of Si. I'atrick quoteil by Ussher, brit. h:.{.
Ant c. 17, Works vi. 4t»H, and in the Uves el
the same prelate publisl.e.l by Colgau Ir ;/,„«,
pp. 2;(, 72, 124), that the barn ot I .eha, h>s
first disciple in Down, was the model ol l.h fast
church, built in the iiebl with wh.cnlVlu,,, re.
sented him, or perhaps was the eluirch .t^. . It
gave its name to the pansh oi haul, c. D.nvn,
and, standing north and south, was f-Y^f^
the epynomus of all churches wh.ch d..v,.t.l ,o
a marked extent from the usual Kaster.. n,-,vi,ta.
tion. (Keeves, Kcol. Ant. 40, 22U s;,. ; 1.41,
Patrick, 344, 409 sq. ; Petr.e, hound imn,
148 sq. ; Lanigan, Ecd. IM. Ir. i. 21- .|,.)^^^
BATl-m ri~i Anr. 15, Gothic martyr iiii.ler
At'f^>S^' in V -i^V^ Valentiniau (b.,1,
Menot.); Apr. 1% (Menol. Graec. S.vlet.).
(2) Apr. 25, martyr, officer of Gothic race at
Rome ii the reign of Aurelian (liasd. ilcU);
Apr 24 (MenoL Gmec. Sirlet.; Mart, /.'om.;
Boll. Acta SS. Apr. iii. 261).
(3) ..Jg. 27, presbyter, martyr with .\lei-
ander (Syr. Mart.).
r41 Dec 5, Cappadocian monk, 6 ^-yiaffwrn,
" i,u^•athWMntll^ reign of TheodosUItounto
of monasteVies (Basil. Mcu^L; MaUUr^
Sirlet.). Lt. H.J
SABBATH. It will be the objoet ot' tkis
arttd. to givfa brief sketch of the vie«. ..ta
in the earlier ages of Ciinslia.iity nt tae . ,'.i-i-
,f the Jewish law, and of the degree an. o ■
';L er of observance which has been attache
U n liflerent ages and >lift'e™"V"'""t'; S
Christian church-in fact, to take up the.ubject
SABBATH
very mtirh whoro it i, l,ft bv the nrtlnlo <?i„
In relation td inn.li.r,, i.i„„ .', .
h.. ... i,..i. ,,,„,„.,., ir ; 1 ™s '-'•
or in Clinsti.ui nnth|iiity. ^ »crij,tuie
TheSahLatli is invariablv reeai-.k.,i „, ,„„,
scntal v« of till' rii'i,! 1.,,.. T ? "^"^"^^
Uos|icl, «)iich riMiiains Ibr evr.r TK„ •]
syniliuiizecl hy the two ,l„,.= " "'•=■'■*
Jewish system, an,l clenmn.ied for its hL ,or
purposes of uoi..,hi,,, j„y, ,„^ thank'gi in. ±;
measure of l,at rest fr„,„ work so em, hat'io' Iv
cbaraetenstic of the Sahbath U„» *i "
afterwar,ise,.ho,,iedi„;hSoof e'-C,:;^
lan Sahhath," ami earried out in o dLnc f
Ju, aio riK'our was, ,„ fUr as we can see e t re
unknown in the early centuries of Chri t , itv-
Da\. In the present article the reference is
throughout to the true Sahbath (or Saturdav
s drsfuguished fron, the Lord', Day ; a. o
the extent of ts survivul in .i,„ i ' '
the Christian church. ""' observance of
(I.) It is of course clear from the Von, t„ *
men,, hat-as from the nauTe otthe'Ialrwe"
the Sahbath according to the Jewish law was
Siiiis'^stT !^'"'""^ "^ chrisu:;,":^
In „ 1 • . .' ''• ''•'* no man ludu-e voii
LnW" '''■'"'^; "■• in '-espect of an ho y
^Mr of the new moon, or of the Sabbath lav ^
0,1 sins n ; f ' """''''' «"•'"«» '•> the
uiossians, in reference to the strange half-
G.,,o(a„ perhaps Kssenic) development wh h
re of tie T"" '':""^'/'""'"'<^0'nent of ll,;
remiht ot the ob.sorvation of "days and months
«n. times and years," addressed to th e." 1 „
Pharisaic Judaism of Galatia (Gal. iv. 10)
How they were understood in the earlr church
m opposition to such Judaism as that of cVrin-
"■N who 1. expressly declared to have enforce"i
S&In'tith"'-*'" '■•:,"'^'''') '^ "^-^" ''y 'h
celebrated antithesis, fxriKir, <Ta»^aTi(ovT,! iAAi
ath"??;^"""^ (""" '""S" keepin, the
ma h but hving in the spirit of the Lord'
^S:ft^7-y^'r-'^--^vei
on t rm7t, , m r:- i'^*- A"g"^t">«'« remarks
Prewly d.stmgu«hes the Fourth Commandment \
SABBATH
1823
SeI';7l!;e",b"'«.''''r-1«g"-''-lvor
Christi,,, '""''"^ "'• "' '"'-mal rule. Koi'tho
(vol. ii. ^, • Tit'2lA' H '"f '"' •^'""^"•""n
"»"« |.at,i„rchal Sabbath had b ,., , '">""'!
»th,,,,.r.',;L';;; -;.;•;.■;*,,'■•'•,'*•
m the actual i.ractb'e of fl, V , , '■"'''"■«
i" aocordan.e'whth .,;;■"■"'' .* '"-'^^'-n^ ;
auymancalle7;:^ni''i;^C:;:;,l-7W^-'-lB
become uncircun.cisc^l " (l "■^; '; i h\ ", 'f
apostolic practice of St^ I^ul" h h ^' '""' ""'
(Acts .xii 18 vvi oi\ , ,' '" '"^ ""■" «'se
Acts . t 3) vv ^ i"' ",'/'"' "'""■ "f ■' '-""•hy
eariiesrd;.; -of "^i^.™;: ;:;[;">h:!7;|;^'^" -" "-
as they were "dailvin th T '''".'-hn-tMns, just
the.J..t,rwi^rte/'^:^;;t::,:^.;;'r^a
a Zi„, t 1™^ *' ■''*'■•**• ^'hrisHanity lasted 1
wouIdVndeed view he Sail ,t Vr -'•""'"■^' ''
the lieht of n„l T P ''''bbtth obligation un.ler
^i»tiSLhLr;i;^rir;'s^y-ir,;j:f«
....^andmitigjUionswhi^rHeX^ ™{-
thenewandgreatrslic^tn he^';:.;,!.:™,^
Chr,st,a„ „r,|,nance of the Lord's Day w , '^
batical observance retained its strict t, i •
t""", and imposed itself a3 of L,. ?
oM-^Uon. it Juld be looLruX wuH:
ol«ervance of the Sabbath. 'while th ^ were ha,f
Thr^'noilVSirTn:;^.^^^'^'^'^-
conte.vt (as, ind,.«,. ag.dnsl the «tk C „f N w t1°
tanient teaching. ...Cually transforms this pL^". [^
um
,i f
I tfti
:i->-i
1824
SABBATH
on it as Christians " (oii Su XpiiTTiovouj 'Iou8o-
t((iv Koi tV T^J aafi^drif axo^^ifv .... r'liv
Si KvpiaK)]V irpoT(|Ua)>>TOt ff >€ Swaii^o o'xoA'iiCf"'
i)S XfiiiTTiai'iiO' l''^ enactment is important,
not only in its nttncliment of the ol>ligation of
rest to the Lord's Day, but as shewintf a forni'il
antagonism to strict observance of the Salibath
as a iliiy of rest, on the ground of its essentially
Judai^tic significance. Whatever the Sabbath
was in the church, it was to be something.' wholly
unlike this. Much in the same spirit the I'seudo-
Ignatius (./rf Maijn. 9) distinguishes between the
Jewish and Christian idea of sabbatical observ-
ance. " Let us not keep the Sabbath day after
the Jewish manner, rejoicing in idleness, ....
but spiritually, rejoicing in the meditation of the
law, not in the rest of the body, admiring
the workmanship of God ; " and moreover
infers that the keeping of the Salibath was
a preparation for the greater sncredness of " the
Lord's Day, the day of the Resurrection, the
royal festival, the highest of all days" (ncrh.
6i tJ) (TaPPaTiffat eoprafeToi irSs <pi\6xp"f'''os
tV KupiaK^v, t);i' i,va<rr<i(nnov, t^v /3o(riA/So,
r^,p iitdrijii rwv iraaiiv fiixfpwv). But while the
foruial sabbatical obligation was thus repudiated,
as purely Judaistic, we find that in the Eastern
church a distinct observance of the Sabbath
remained, and remained so far in accordance w ith
the (dd Jewish idea that (with one notable ex-
ceiition) it was always a festal o'i,<ervance.
This is brought out most strikingly in the
Apustolical Constitutims, in which the Sabbath
and the Lord's Day are treated almost as co-
ordinate. Thus (in ii. 59, 1) Christians are
exhorted " on the Sabbath Day, and the day of
the Lord's Resurrection, the Lord's Day, to
gather together with special earnestness, send-
ing up praise to God, Who made all things by
Jesus Christ, and Who sent Him to us, and de-
livered Him to suffer, and raised Him from the
dead." The different consecrations of the two
days are still more clearly marked in vii. 23, 2 :
«' Kep)) the Sabbath and the Lord's Day as feasts ;
for the one is the memorial of the Creation, the
other of the Resurrection" (rh fiiv Siiutoupylas
Io'tIi' \nt6iiin\na, v Si ovaffTcJoreti's). In vii. 36,
1, 2, there is an elaborate and beautiful prayer,
bringing out the sacredness of the S.abbath :
"() Almighty Lord, who didst create the world
through Christ, and didst ordain the Sabbath as
a mernorial of creation, because in it Thou didst
rest from Thy work .... Thou, Lord,
didst bring our fathers out of Egypt .... and
didst give them the Law or Decalogue, spoken
with Thy voice and written with Thy hand. . . .
Thou didst command them to keep the Sabbath,
not giving in this an excuse for idleness, but an
occasion for godliness " (o6 irpiipaatv ipyius
SiSovs, i\\' ii(t>opnh>' tb(Tffiftas) "For
the Sabbath is the rest from creation, th« com-
pletion of the world, the seeking out of Law,
the praise of thanksgiving to God for all that
He gave to men." The same passage goes on to
gpeak also of the peculiar and yet higher con-
secration of the Lord's Day. In viii. 33, 1, w*;
have a command (in the names of St. Peter and
St. Paul): "Let the servants work five days;
on the Sabbath and the Lord's Day let them be
free from labour in the c'linrch, with a view to
the teaching of godliness." Whatever opinion we
may form as to the genuineness and authority
SABBATH
of these Constitutions (on which see ApfWro.
LiCAL Constitutions), it is at least clear that
they represent to a very considerable cxtcut the
traditions of the Eastern chur. h in -thi- 3nl and
4th centuries. Thus the very Council of Lio-
dicea, so sternly condemnatory of Judiii/.ing
Sabbatarianism, yet in its forty-ninth and lilty.
first cau'ins marks out "the Sabbath and the
Lord's Day " as days to be observed fo^lnily
even during the fast of Lent. EverywhiTe the
festal observance is very strikingly niarjii'd, nnd
we note that the consecration of the Sabtwth by
the rest of the Creator is brouglit lioine to
Christians by a constant reference to the cre^ition
as having been wrought " through Je^us Christ."
From a canon (No. 10) of the Council of La^nlicea,
and from a passage in Socrates' l.'i-clc.'-iistiiyil
Ilistorji (vi. 8), it appears that on the Subbath
as well as the Lord's Day there were sulemo
assemblies for worship; and Gregory of Xvssa,
upbraiding those who neglected the Salibath
assembly, asks, "With what face wilt thmi dare
to behold the Lord's Day, if thou hast dcsi)ise<i
the Sabbath?" "for" (he adds) " thi'V are
sister days." Accordingly in the Aiiostolical
Canons (Canon 6ti) it is laid down, that "if any
cleric be found fasting on the Lord's Day or the
Sabbath, except the one (Easter Eve) afune, let
him be deposed ; if any laic, let him be excom.
municated." The prohibition of this canon is
illustrated by the extravagant declaration of
the Pseudo-Ignatius, that "if any one fa>t:i on
the Lord's Day or the Salibath, he is a murflerer
of Christ " (XpiiTTO/cTdvos iari). We may notice
that this canon is appealed to in the '•'I'riillaD"
(or "Quinisextine ") Council, held at Constan-
tinople in A.D. 685, in opposition to a custom at
Rome of fasting on the Sabbaths in Lent, and it
is decreed that over the Roman church also it
should " most firmly prevail " (aTtapaaaXiitm
Kpartiv). From a well-known jiassage in Kjii-
phanius {adv. Ilaer. Book I. Tom. III. v^l. i. p.
;i04), we may conjecture that a special em-
phasis was given to the festal observance of the
Sabbath by opposition to the heresy of Marcion,
who is said to have bidden his i'ol lowers last on
the Sabbath to signify their " repudiation of the
God of the Jews " (iVck /u^ rh KaeriKoi/ Toi) &tm
Twv 'louSoIctfi' ipyaCdneSa). But, however this
may b.?, it is clear that a reverence was paid in
the Eastern church to the Sabbath festival, oolv
second, though of course markedly second, to the
higher sacredness of the Lord's Day.
Nor was this festal observance confined to the
Eastern church. The practice of fasting on the
Sabbath in the Roman church is noticed by Ter-
tullian, and condemned on the ground that only
on the Great Sabbath should men fast {De
Jcj'iniis. c. xiv.); but he seems to indicate that
the practice was not invariable, ami that it a'cse
from a continuation of the Friday's last (" cur
jejuiiiis parasceven dicamus ? quanquani vi«
etiain Sabbatum, si quando continuatis-nun-
quam nisi in pascha jejunan<lum, socnnJum
rationem alibi redditam "). The Montanisis
(he says) excepted both the Sabbath nnd the
Lord's Day from their solemn fast weeks (o. xv.),
in lliis respect distinctly i'oHowing tin; w,nf«i
Eastern usage. In another place, speaking of
our Lord's defence of His disciples for plucking
ami eating the ears of corn on the Sabbath, he
declares that " He remembered the privilcgir-
of exemjition
Sabbath iroin
d"Uble gift „(•
the Sabbath t'l
finally iledares
that " it Would
even the Crciti
His disciples t,
Scripture and
itiin: Hook iv
throughout spej
such language
without (|ualifi(
oiiiiiions as to
character of the
continued long
from the well-k
to Casulanus, w
was observed in
Rome, and a fei
majority of Wesi
agreeing with th
days of St. Ami
vailed ; and whci
of his mother Mt
method of obsen
conscience to St.
as a matter of
that church, and
fasted on the Sab
if he was at Rom
ciple cai-ried out,
Augustine's time,
Sabbath while oti
Casiilimus, vol. ii.
IS.'W : and for a sit
of practice and of
the question at is
Jeroim, sect. 14, vo
(III.) TheonVin
probably to be "trat
continuation of the fi
(A.i). 270-303) com
on this point with a
io? of the Saturday,
"Hoc die solemus i
dominico cum gratii
«»"iiiis. . . . nequit
Mrvare videamur " (
As this festal obser
natural in the Ch
Jewish influence ha<
survival nf the old Je
nand, wh. no such i
where th. iturdav w
purely Cbiistianpciut
f« Jewish practice, tl
}' as a fast might v«
lord's Day was the
tne Saturday would
with the Friday, as a
• «« «uch vigils fastinj
here was a far more
Ming usage in the si
was called the "Great'
tve Even in the Ea,>
i-abbath was observed
euM a? a ..friet fast
«;lemn fast of the year.
iabbaths were festal, so
WMtion, this is to be a
SABHATH
the Snlluuh tV , l "'^ >■ '•"'«>■ t" preserve
that "it uouM h« • ,1 " T':'"' vehemence,
eventheCWor ■ W™i:'^;^«''''''''t''.an,l
Seri,.t„re' an,I he v 'iK'^U'r '''•■^■''"••^"°" "^
thr„utrhont sneak-in '"f,.', *,''"* *^^^*' ''« ''s
without ,,ualiHcatio„, ha" he not helT"/"'*'
oiMnious as to the cmtinuanoe „f th , iT-f
character ol' the Sahhath. This oontii. t „<• ""'
fn.n, theJ^ll^knovnti^iin^St'r^ '^■•
to Casulanus, we H,„i th wh . , '^"S"-^'in«
was ol,serve,l i» hi fL , ''^ sabbatical fast
Rome, an I a few o.h rw" ^ '" V^^ '^'""^^ "^
m.-,j„rit. of VesTen ch,nvh» '° ^''"'■'-■'"■^'' *'>«
agreeing with the Fa t r '' '" ""' 1'""" '"H
railed; and when St A"-. ^^''i' ^'^^' P''*^"
of his mothe, Monica ZtT' "* *■'"-' '•*"'"«-^'
method of observance' of the dr"""" '"' "'«
conscience to St. Anfbr se, h t t^te'd ft™" T'
»s a matter of tho „Jj' '"'''«<" "■ simply
that church and a, led th'T'^-,'"^ '^'" "'
fa.sted on the Sabba h ,L "mT'''''' '"' "^^'^■-
fe„/„„«., vol. ii. pp. 101,21 ff ^^".',- ^^
18.W: and for a similar 7. ' ^ "''• *''• '«™
of practice and of le 'f """l^^t "f the variety
the'question at sst oo "'" '"f'^''^^''"'' "f
y.J<., sect. iS vol. iip'TgP"'' ^^-'- '» 5^.
«)ntiuuAtionofthefWofthii- '"" "l'"'') '" «
(A.D. 270-30,3) conrirm! Tertn'n '■• ^ ''""■'""^
on this point w th a srnifiLn 'r^ ' statement
in? of the Satur,h,y,h^S7^;:'*y'''°»: Speak-
"Hoc die solemus su;'' .^n^,,l'^'^*'-!<^«^«»«f'),
dorainicocum eratiar !'«,»; t'"" "* '"«
servare videamur-'ieP .,;'''' ^'''^'■"•"" "f"
As this festal obser^ ^n e of 'thr s'h1; "^-k'''^-
"■•tuml in the ChrktiL k .^"''''ath was
Je«-ish inrtuence ha . anv t"'''' • ^^^'■''^•"
wvival nf the oMJelich r V™* '"''"'-•«J a
hand, wh, no such r-^*"'' ?' "" ^he other
where th^ .turdrv wl ^ f ^'' P"'^"'' '■""'
pnreivC1u,stian ,Wn V'^"'''"'-''' *'"'" '"'•""' a
t« Je\vish practi' th^ '"r- "^ '" '^"'"g-'uism
lord's Day waf he liTri;'''-" '''•''»''• "''he
the Saturday wouM b^ ?!;""'"' '""^'"■^l J
with the Frday a a^^i^r /^' '° ™"'in"i'y
to such vigils ^fasilT'."^ preparation, and
tliere was afar !^„^ **'«« "ppropriate. But
fctin? usage n X ' fe'^rl'",,""^"" '^' »"
was called the °G,ttSah;,^. '""•■'"« "^ "'''"t
Eve. Even in th Fa . ""l -'■^' '^e E^-ter
Sabhajh was"o£vtr feta', r^' h-"'"" ""^
eaidwl a» „ st.ri-t r I ■ ""y' '""s wa.i .;e-
wlemn fast^f the year Th"""' l?'" ""^ '""'^t
Omtitutions we are told tl"; '^f ^'"'^'"lic^'
Sibbathswere festa ,ni' f-"' *'"''"™'' "'her
" oe a last, because on it " the
8A nil ATI I
1825
'"»'•■ la^t, so fa,, as strent* ^""P "" "" "''»»■
"".vone is unable to 1^ -^ .;'"''"' " ' " ''""^
n"""»ly, let h n at , P """ *""' ''"^s -nti-
Himself, savs, < VVh '„ the b rid ' 'P?'''"^ "'
been taken from them ti P',',™"*'"'" ^lave
those days- y g 2^ 'rr'"*" ""-'y '»"' in
observati'on of this sicred f ,s'"/"'"''' *"' """
cally described • " F,„„ '^"^ " ei'M'hati-
Kather together' in theThr\"'"^"" ^"' l^' "'•"^
i"S with all suppndt on : r ?'■' """^''' l'"^-
'»"S vigil, readVng the la "'t"^! '" y'T '"''^'-
the psalms, till the crow nl' '.^".'''"I'^^.ts. and
then, having bapti>ed vol ^/k" '"''^'' ""<'
the gospel inTar and trn'n'-'''™''''^' ■■'■''' '-•"i
the ^eo|,le the thin^ tSSal"''t"''''''" '"
from your mourning and m^"*'V ?""'' ''"'•'«
""V be converted, and (Jml a^„u"^ '"" ^'''"^
ance and remis-ion ot' T- P "'''' '^'' ''"P'-'nt-
the Eastern d u ch ndeertb'"^'"^'""-'"- '"
'"'od to Easter Eve • but in'iK ' l""^' ^"^ <^"°-
?nd some other churche. of t.' 'p"'''' "'' ""■"«.
ju^t as all Fridays in the J .' P''^* "'"' ^^<>st
their observan oVom Gri''."".'' *'^'-' ^"'"" °f
Sabbaths of the yea, m?2 ^'"^'V' ,«» «" the
«s fasts, in imitation ^e^^u '''/'""■'^h be kept
Sabbath'of Easier Eve ""^ '^^^ "'■ t^^ Great
'" be, kept s a daj of viM* ?■■ '^"^ "'"''Sht
which was derived the Pon^' T'"''^ ^'""^
"«e of the word " i'hb f "'/''"''^^ '^^■'^" t''«
-velry of witX's and 'ey sp^ts''^/'"!!"^^
(Book XX. c. ii. 4) aunt^^ Z ''"'"''■ I^'nghanj
from St. Chrv ottom St f "''^'' *° ^^'" effect
St. Chrysos^im (hX i 1^"V'"''' «°'^ "'he",
that the Jews used their rtle^''"";'''^^ •^'='^'"'='
work not "for si tual Th' ^'''"" '^^»'ar
'-Josty, and the hSg h ';"^:i ^fp^' T'
'n serving their bellies and dl^^u ^'"'' ^ut
«>. sect. 2, vol iv ,, I in'^^s .-^"P'^t.ne (/-,.
the Jews of " keeping' the sh'Tk'''*"'-^ •■"^^"^es
bodily rest laVvP r^ , ^".^bath with a mere
rest '^(h: 'ad :7:. i '": " ::J"-^"'r--" - our
goo.I ;o,.ks. It is tetter ^'7'^'' '^eirs for
''»»ee Many rest in t, i' P'""^'' *•""> to
lent in soul. \hat vh, h ■> \"'' "« '"'bu-
Psalm is the oidUion o th 'f. '>>"">'^J '" the
Sabbathof theheari in,h . H'"''''''"' '" the
the serenity of coScf" 'su'eb'l *""'J»i"it.v,
(as Theodoret and V*"-?' . .^,"'^'' Sabbaths were
|(-Theod:.;t;nd^rof^:S,^'^''^*''--
commenting „p„„ Amos If n Ii'" """'^ '"
<^*«Sr, of the%rophetsr,inI„'^^ u^" "^^^'^'^
tian man sh.mld proves? wr."'' T''>' ^''»•'■''-
natural than that sl.nb T"" '''""''' be more
ness and intirr , g", ^t.^Tr
m marked antagonis,^ to .Tl t ,^''bbath fast
as a matter of^abs„7ut^obl' .T "^ ''''^''■''•■'''<^''.
that they who negleS..:;^!:te,'n2j
1826
SABBATH
and cannnt iilcase (io.l ; . . . lovers of theiv
bellv, iirofeiiiiig .Iiidaism to the chnroh, aiiil
bei'Miniiig cliildiim of the liondwomnn." " U
(savs the cliamiiii.n «{ their cause) "the Jew by
keeVing the Sail -tr. Jenics the Lord's Day,
how shall a Christian keep the Sabbath ? Kither
let us be Ohiistians and keep the Lord's Day, or
let U9 be Jews ami keep the Sabbath," St.
Augustine, iudigimntlv reje-,:ting this imiierious
Intiderance, aud laving down the prineiple of
simple acccrdauL-e on this matter to the custom
of each cliurch, has a curious passage on "the
Great Sabbath " and its eflect on the general
observance of the Sabbaths of the venr. "On
that dav " (he savs) " the fiesh of Christ rested
in tlie grave, as (iod rested on that day from all
the works of His creation. Hence arose that
variety . . . that some, as especially the jieoples
of the East, on account of His rest prefer to
relax the fast ; others, like the Roman church and
some other churches of the West, on account of
the humiliation of the death of the Lord, and
(as he adds below) " the grief of the disciples,
" prefer to fast " (sect. 31). But looking at the
question in the abstract, without recogmsmg
any survival of the old Jewish feast, it would
certainlv seem that the Roman practice might
be bettor supported in argument ; and when to its
reasonableness was added the effect of a strong
anti-Judaic feeling, and the influence of the
Roman church, which was soon to become tar
ereaterand more imperiousthan in St. Augustine s
time, it is not surprising that it should have
prevailed over the more ancient practice.
At a later period we find Gregory the Great
laying it down with authority, that to "cause
the Sabbath to be kept from work ' is a mark
of Judaizing and a " sign of Antichrist ; and we
note that in his whole treatment of a tendency to
sabba'ize the Lord's Day (see IX)RD's Day, p.
Ki;.! ), he seems to ignore altogether any special
celebration of the Saturday as a Sabbath,
whether as fast or festival. This silence is pro-
bably significant of a change passing over
Western usage altogether : for, so far as we
can judge, the special observance of the babbatd
there gi-adually died out. The fasting observ-
ance having prevailed against the festal, was
itself naturally overshadowed by the tnday
fast At iiresent, while all Fridays in the year
(except Christmas Day) are fasts, there is no
trace of the Saturday fast, except in the vigils of
Easter Day and Whitsun Day, and the Saturdays
of the Ember weeks.
In the Eastern church the festal observance
remained far longer, and, indeed, is distinctly
traceable at the present day. The canonists
Zonnras, Balsamon, and Aristeuus, representing
the tradition of the 12th century, all speak of
the Apostolic Canon as still observed and bind-
ing We have a consultation of Nicolaus ot
Constantinople, about the same time, as to the
question of standing in prayer on the Sabbath,
- 11 „„ (Ko Tni-.l'a Dav: and his answer is
88 v;ell as the Lord's Day ; and his ansvyer lb
that " to bend the knee on the Sabbath is not
forbidden by the canon ; but that men generally
(ol rroXAol), because they do not follow the
practi.;e ..f iasliug on the Sabbath, refram also
irom bending the knee." Of this significant
Eastern usage we have again a slight trace in
the West in the Montanist body. Tertullian
((fc Oratione, c. 18) speaks of a variety of usage
SABBATH
introduced bv a very few who on the Sabbath
abstain from'kneeliug (" p-' I'auiulns (lUoMlam,
(lui Sabbato abstinent goiuibus"). The practice,
however, he disapproves ; he wouUI have it
given up, or so retaineil as to avoid oll'encc ; tor
tlie abstinence from kneeling (he thinks) pro
perlv belongs only to the Lord's Day. It never
seeiiis to have taken any hold ill the West ; but
in the East tt is still [.reserved in the piestnt
practice of the Greek, though not of the Kussmn
church. It is also held that Saturday is so
entirely a day of joy that it is unfit tor lasting
(excepting always the Great Sabbntli), and ac-
cordingly, if a vigil chance to fall ujion it, it is
transposed to the Friday. Even on Easter Kve,
though it is a strict fast, yet the black of Lout
is changed to the white of Easter in all chur. h
vestments and furniture. It is curious also
that in later times a new and specially festal
consecration was given to the Sabbath in the
Eastern church, by considering the Great Sab-
bath of Easter Eve as the day of our Lord's
triumph in Hades, giving rest to the spirits in
prison, and accordingly looking on all Sabbiiths
in the year as especially days of conimemoration
of those who rest iu the Lord. Still here alse
the greater festal sacredness of the Lord's Day
has rightly overshadowed it; and in present
thought and usage there is nothing like the
quasi co-ordination of the days, which we have
seen iu the AfmstoliccU Constitutions.*"
Thus the Sabbath, placed between the two
great days of distinctively Christian observance,
may be considered as parting with its observ-
ance as fast and festival to the one and the
In "the later ages of the Western church, as
we have seen (see Lord's Day), a distinctly
sabbatical observance gathered round the Lord's
Day itself,— partly by natural attraction to the
great day of worship and rest, partly by ennct-
ments civil and ecclesiastical, ultimately by a
formal transference to it of the obligatic.n of the
Fourth Commandment. But it is notable that
when the Lord's Day was thus considered to be
" the Christian Sabbath," it began to be observed
with a certain austerity and rigour, dillering
entirely from the festal character of the
Sabbath of the Jews. We are almost tempted
to trace in this change a survival of the
ancient Western usage, which observed the true
Sabbath as a fast.
For the chief authorities on this subject see
LouD'8 Dav. . ^,^ , C^' ^'l
f!pi;;ial Ritual of the Salihitth. (1) Lessons.-
During the first' ritual period proper eucha-
ristic lessons were provided for Sundays, and
a few feasts and fasts only, as in the body of the
old Galilean Lectionary. At the end of this,
however, are two sets of prophecies, epistles,
and gospels for choice on the week days ; or there
roav have been three or four, for the MS breaks
otr'here (Litur,j. Gall. Mubill. 172). The nex
step, in the Roman books at least, wastoappom
proper lessons for the Wednesdays, Fridays, and
Saturdays in Lent and the Ember weeks. t«
the Cap'Hula Uctionum Ev^mjeW, not later than
thn beginning of the 5th century, m the
b For information on this subject I have to thanltlie
Uev. Archimandrite Myriantheus, the chief pnesloiw
Greek church In London.
SABDATIUg
tika, ii. l--iii) civL-s/n, //,"'"''"''• ^-'''"'-
5«). and th.,L^;:S,:rru }';*!, ''^Y^''-
on l..,s.n.s wore a,Mgn«, , h S /■"'?• ^"''•'''
the E,,i,,hany an,l f few ,h , , A"';/ '^z"'^'^''"
EM. ct D,ls is'i-ul ' V ■'■'' V'^-' "•"' '•■'
SatuMav losl^ns h.rvl teo„ T"'-, ' V^^' '''*>••'
cent I..an,.a,Tntlv.nnnn .,/"■''''•"' '" '""«-
the Sal.li h fa"t at Konl A .^"'"',""' ""'" ''
-^'^ /W. U^ S^ f-- »th^.
Pseu.lo-Jnnocent, as we must ,.^li !'• : *'''"'
E,Me to Uercntius (§ T , " .T'.^" 't"'
serrance of the ktf.o. ,•■* . "" ""-' <>''-
lessons were assoeiit'd '"' '""'' ^^'^^ t*"-"
(2) Ordinations.—leo J in d->Q i • j .,
ordinations should ttke p1 !e f'r::fst 'Y""
above)/., quod tsde^oLS^^Ii^'?
mane ipso dominieo <lio „ .r""'^" «>'*, si
jejunio/celebretu" -• (i;^, T,"""''}^. S^"".ati
~.:r?»;\i;%s;rn'''" "'■'■•
p. 1517.] ''• [OUDINATION,
For certain special Sabbaths, see Sabbatum
[VV. K. S.]
SABBATIU8(l),Ju,,4. [SKnAsrxA.]
phl'l'rdDo^yrdl^^rthe'""'''' ^l"' ^^"■
SABIXA
1827
(Sitcr. Gel. i. nn It c ,^
179.2-'; "o,,,,',!^''"''-' /'''•'•• n«l"2. cc. Ill
M.S. i. ;n 8 .' s'^f: "■;;"'"'■■ •"' *»>« i"».vor. in'
"ame after this rL,, ■■•"'•,"»'"" "f the old
•i-v lessons whi .h th, > ■",* "''?' "'"■'' "'' '^e
been r.ad tw'o ,.•,■„;'"'','" ""'''' '""'l^» ''•'J
(Am„l„rius, rfc. /;" ."/"rV"'' °"'^<- in Latin
""gins to the nth ,,„,,.' '^i'^!''"!;?, be-
■esson, to be said on h ' "'■"'"'' ^'"^'-^
[COLLICCT, i. p. 4^il ",,'t^ ,^^'y^ '" '•' ehnroh
toasscnble'^.eJ'X;^ ;;^oi'-I.lowe,.e
appears to Martene /,/,■ t ,7. , ''"'• 'his
S9)toaccoun;'^,^;;i;^"..I.viii.5,
siblethat so minv ..•,,.!,;' ,' '' ''* ""pos-
•nis-sed this eX. i f i- th'''-^'^ '^""^'^ ^ave
had existed in 'the ^ "," ^^' '"'■''"'■'"'^ f'"" it
-'fd the Sal. ^"^ :•,";, :7 "'-t rather
older than the llti .1, ™'' P'"'''''ly not
«-ore only th.^le e, nb' "■^■- ,/' ''"'^^ '''"e
^>««'/. in Ma tcne ^ ■"""' (CvUnlur, led.
747, can. 18) b, t t-h > A ^''"^- '^'^^■^'''''- a.d.
thJSSj''^"^'-°^-'<^'^/^;^in
nbic MiS '^'"'""«'"""-. no.' in the Jw"
(3) SM.ifum Sanctum tKo
neophvtes laid aside th!v; Ti-, ■"'' '^''>' ^^e
(2) Subbatum Duodecim Ltctimum in vrr
as twelve were reid «.l. ^ ■ ''"' '"'''"s,
the salte of th! 'f n"!"'" Komanos " hr
ir ip. ^ "^f"^.""- ^e"*"!-' ^lm>n:,c, iij. mg .
23.and he sJ'i r^J Z '^'""'''- ^^«'-^- i •
Yd i 4^ .'^•«^«'«. Gelas. Murat. i;,< ,™ d, „
" 7 iT'buT'r'^^''^' '^^'- «'-^- Mu":
'«'«», m Murat. X,-^„.^. floj. XT':! ^30)""'""
heoause the sole.n.^d'eliv rJ'^fWe""'^ f '""""
catechumens Uok p ace on i^ M T'^,*" *''«
I'amelii Litur„ica i Wfi^ « ^^'"'-"■- ^'^««- in
supposed that'fh^ vf 2't fr'''"""','-^*^'"'^*
of Milan, because St Tnl, ?,«'""' ^'"*'°"'
on Palm SuJI? 'h l "rd h"''"'" ^>''^'"'" "
afford sutlicient^erounl f^i*^:', ^"^y"^ do not
»P.," Sequent! d re;L autem dT""'^" "«
Ifctiones at,,ue tr.ct, turn 1 """' P"^*
menis, svmbolum aHn, i ' ™"'" catechu-
^apt^ter^i. tSbS'Sir^^^^'bus i„
not have said " tn ,™„. "* *ould
.oferred to the great mZ ^^^'^^^'S "" '"'
the creed at this seaTn TK '' "'''" ''^''''^
-me who from^'^neTausel IXrr^''^
been present on the previous dar[\V.EsT
PefsfaSv"rrat"co:!t' ^^T' »"'' '--'•
(Basil. mJ:!.- L b^^T} \r'r ■'"='»°
Sirlct.). -^^^an*.; iTcno/. 6>(w.
116
nil
,!
i?!^
«i4li!
1828
8ABINIANU8
Jnn ii 944, from an ancient MS. of Trovos) ;
Aug. 29 (Mart. Usuard. ; M^rt. RonMtt.).
(8) .Ian. 30, also called Savina, widow of '■"'"
in the 4th century, comm.nu.rated »»»""«"
(Boll. AcU SS. .Ian. ii. 1029, from th. office of
the church at Milan).
(3) Aug. 29, virgin martyr at Rome under
Hadrian (ifart. bed., Usuard., Ad,m., 'turon.,
"Tliom., Rom., Notkov., Wand ) ; menfoned
in the Super Oblata and the Ad Conn>londum
for this lay in the Gregori.n Sacramontary
•^,LV>cr AntiphonariHS of Gregory has an othce
for Vi- natule. There was a church named from
her on the Aventine in the time o Synnnaehus
(Mansi, viii. 236 1.) and Eugenms II. (Anast. L>b.
Pontif. num. ci.).
(4) Oct. 27, martyr at Avila in Spain under
Dacianus, with Vincentius and Chnsteta (.lA.rf.
Usuard., Vet. Rom., Wand.). L^- H-J
BABINIANU8 (1), Jan. 29, martyr with his
.ister Sat.ina at Troyes in the reign of Aurelian
{Mart. Usuard.; Boll. Ada SS. Jan. n. 937
from ancient M.iS.).
(8) Dec. 31, bishop, martyr with Potent'*""''
commemorated at Sens {Mart. Usuard.). [C. H.J
8ABINU8 (1), Mar. 16, martyr in Egvpt
with Papas in the Diocletian persecution (OK.
Byiant.). .
(8) July 11, confessor, commemorated in
Poitou {Mart. Usuard.).
(8) July 20, martyr, commemorated with
Maximus and others at Damascus (Mart. Usuard.,
Hieron., Notlter.).
(4) Aug. 23, martyr with Silvanus and
Pantherius, Thracians, in th« Diocletian perse-
cution (Basil. Mend.).
(6) Sept. 29, martyr, commemorated at
Perinthus (Syr. Mart).
(6) Dec. 30, bishop, martyr under Maximian,
commemorated at Spol.to (Jlfc^rt. Usuard., Fet.
Rom.). t^- "-J
8ACCU8 (ciKKoi). (1) The S/ocus, which
may be considered as the Eastern representative
of the Western Dalmatic, is a tight-htting
vestment worn by metropolitans (except those
ot the Armenian church), and in tlie Russian
church at the present day by all bishops, ia-.tead
of the phenoUon. See Goar's Evchologion,v- H3-
(2) [Sackcloth.] v^- °-J
SACELLARroS. The word sacellum
designates a casket or shrine for receiving
relics ; hence the sacellarius is the person who
has the custody of such a casket or shrine. It
more commonly however designates the keeper
of a money-chest, or treasurer (Ducanges
Glossary, s.v.) L^"J
8ACERD08. [Bishop, p. 210; Priest,
p. 1699.]
SACEKD0TALI8 LIBER. A name some-
times given to a book containing the offices to
be s.iid by priests, as Pontificalis Liber is given
to that containing the offices to be recited by
bUhops (Maori, Hierolexicon, s. v.). [<-.]
BACRAMENTARY
SACKCLOTH (scccus, ciliciitm). 1. We
find th» rough Haircloth [p. 7.5(1]— gemiially
of camel's hair— which was used m the Yjxst fur
sacks- and tents, worn as a sign of mnuniins,
humiliation, and penitence by Syriims (1 hini;s
XI M) and Ninevit«s (.lonah in. ,>), as Wfll ,i»
by Inraelites. Among the btttt-r, sackcloth wa»
an almost invnriat)le ucconipuniment of iiiouiniiig
(2 Sam. iii. 31 ; 1 Kings xxi. 27 ; 2 Kings x:x. 1,
&c.). It was of a dark colour, as we sei; io
Apocal. vi. 12: "The sun bccaiuo black as s.icli.
cloth of hair (is ffiKKOS rpix'""')" >»"'l «as
probably associated with mourning tiom its sad
appearance, as well as its roughness and men-
venience, for it does not appear to have be(.n by
any muans invariably, or even coinmonly, worn
next the skin.
2. T-rtullian (de Poenit. c. 9), treating of
penitence, does not speak of wearing sitck-
cloth, but of lying on sackcloth (smm) and
ashes; and similarly Cyprian (de Lapsis, c. M,
p 2t)2, Hartel) speaks of the lapsed proving
their penitence by grovelling on sackclotli (cilj.
cium), dust, and ashes. " Sackcloth ami ashes "
became the signs of a penitent. Anil.i"se (od
Vini. Lafsam,c. 8) would have the [.cniumt'*
whole body emaciated with fasting, spiintl*!
with ashes, and covered with sackcloth ; and
Pachomius (Reg. art. 121) desires one who ha.s
been convicted 'of theft to app.jar in saclicluth
and ashes at every assembly for prayer.
3. In the course of time, probably from the
3rd century, it became usual with ascutlcs of
remarkable rigour to wear a hair-sliiit next tiie
skin for the purpose of producing discomf.irt.
Such men as Anthony the hermit, Hilari.m, ami
other patriarchs of monasticism are saiJ to havt
worn the hair-shirt constantly (Athanasius, l*i
S. Ant. t. 59 ; Hieron. Vita i>. Ililarii, c. 38).
4. The eighty original monks of St. Martin
are 'said (Sulpicius Severus, Vita S. Mart. c. 7)
to have worn, for the most part, clothe.s o(
camel's hair. It does not appear, however, that
the rough vestment of the monks was worn
next the skin. Ascetics in the East very com-
monly wore cloth of camel's hair— after the
example of some of the prophets, and peihsps ot
John the Baptist— as their ordinary clothing.
Compare Mafors, Melotes.
5 When Martin of Tours was on his death-
bed' he would not permit his disciples to put
anvthing between his body and the sackcloth oo
which he lay ; on sackcloth and ashes he hel
that a Christian should die (Snip. Sever. £,«!.
3 de obitu S. Martini). So Anthony and Hilnrion
died wrapped in their haircloth, and Pauls,
according to Jerome, died on the sl'P of sack-
cloth (ciliciola) on the hard ground, which ..aJ
served for her bed during life (Hieron. i^w.
108, ad Erntoch. p. 706, ed. Vallarsi). In t.n
Middle Ages the practice became common. Petei
the Venerable (de Mirac. i. 4) speaks of dyinson
sackcloth and ashes as a custom of Chns tianj,
and especially of monks (O. Zbckler, GeM\t
der Askcse, p. 82 ff-). L*"J
SACRAMENTARY. The Western book««( j
offices were first called Libri Sacrmimtotm', i
but after the 8th century Sacramentanm u
more frequent; though at Milan, so ate »
1024, we find the treasurer of the chapter p«^ I
8ACRAMENTARY
plexed wjien aske,! for ,n "Anit„„sian Mcm-
aiH.i. Il.il 1 96). Kith.<r nninc «a,s iippromiafp
beonu,, the book conUin.,1, n,.t ,i„. t u™,^ * ij
prayers only, but «l,o the prave.s. I..M,e,l " , n
«>M pr.fao,.H »,e,l «t the perfnnna.ue , ' ev rv
nannn the b cssinK of nuns, wi.|„ws. oil /«'
water, the ,le.licati„n of chunh... ic
« I! ilo not know when or l,v whom such a
volumo wa, first eompile,!. K„ra ,,e io,l " ,„"
certaw, , nration an,l VHryir.g in .li.lerlnt churc s
the p. .he prayers an.l other formularie., were
cnmm.tte, tomen.orv. [O.ukM 1.1 A tra'e of
th,s practiee is .still /oun.l in th! (iallican" cra-
meutanes, which merely indicate the words of
conseoration by the first words, as "Qui "j.Me
ill oo4 ^.L^"-)' '"■ """' ""''" "Ito^'ether
(.6, J. 227, 2,10) In the West atten.pts were
made to enforce the n.le, even below ou'r pe^ud
Orationes quoque mi.ssarum et praefationes et
canonem bene mtellijTHnt presbyteri ; et si non
.altem distincte et nwmonter juoferre valeant."
Th,s occurs m one of those episcopal addresses
whch were read at visitations from the 9th
century downwards {Admo,i. SyAoil. in App ad
RcgMu,n.s Lhr. de Disc. Ecd\n, ed Ba ue
Comp. In.juisUio 82, ibid. p. 15), Bishops even
mqu.reJ ,f the parish priest " had bv heart "
the exorcisms and benedictions of salt and water
(/«,«,.. 90, «. s. 17). if he could repeat the
Psalms from memory (]h. 84, n 16^ and til
Athanasian Cree.l (V 85, le^ al ' !?i„';
Sfinod. 504 ; Aora, 506 ; .Xo.i.s. 509 ; Ah,,to B sU
Cnpt. 4; Hmcmar C„p,<, an. 852, cl 3, 4;
Walter of Orleans, Caprt. 21) '
It is evident that when this rnle was in full
force, a complete sacramentary would not be
neede,l for public use in church. If the memorv
required assistance, a small book (libellus) con-
taming the prayers for the season, or the occa-
sion would be more convenient, and such were
nsed. See Gregor. Turon. ffyt. Franc, ii. 22 •
I to P.lrum, XV.. 2. Another thing worthy of
note IS that even when all the office! were thus
CO lecte.l mto one volume, it would at first cc"!
8.st of prayer^ only, because those who compiled
t, or procured Its compilation, for their own use
required no directions for familiar practice'
Hence the older MSS. contain the fewe? lubc"
The .so-ca led Leonian or Veronese Sacramentary
assigned by Morinus to about 488, contains 7o
directions whatever, only a few brief head ngs
to the missae, the several members of whW,
are (except in one single instance, Murat. Lit
!Z t '■ *n?)' ""i'^ti-gui^h^-l by the prop :
titles. Super Oblata, Praefatlo, &c. which occur
= 'V ^.?1'-!- -^. «-;eS-ian' " The
■ — -^...».„u ouu vjiegor an. The
growth of a sacramentary in this respect de!
«rves further illustration. £. 3. the " Leonian »
V -— -. .. ua^'l Milieu lUi
«rves further illustration. ^. ,j. ^ne .- i^eonian "
has a prayer to be «.id at the blessing of f^^its
n Ascension Day (Wrf. ai.'i) ; but there is no
n »l. J ,rTt "'*P* '° tl-^ «'°^J' of the
pray.r itself. In the Gelasian we find the rubric
Imie vero modicum ante expletum canonem
bcuedicis fruges novas" (Murat! u. s. 508 ; ThT
^mns. Libri UT. ,S,en„,. joo). A.ain th^
Leonian (.;U8) supposes baptismi on Tvhitsun
tve, but gives no directions about them • in the
GeUsian the officiant is guided by sval rubric!
of -ome length (Murat. ». ,. 592-596 ; Thorn^
SACRAMENTAUY 1829
I 102-loH), Compare with the Mm.- view the
i tha of ;'."'"'■"."' "l-"'"«"nau S«, rai.ieutaTv a.
t. n 0, (Hhoboniau (.M„rat. ii.) with the Codex
|Kl«,anus„.o„,which Menard (.S.cv„„,. /j,; a
, rttn. ^'''''''u'- ''■"■'"' !''■*■-''. »"'' the Dene-
r t l.tTi '""',(''«'; ^- '-■'■/. iii.) havt
printed, or 1,0 an,,,„t Galli,;ai, books (Murat
«. ». &c.), with the kimhed Mo/arabic which
was in common us., three or four.entu i s r
Iwo obvious .s.,u,vcs of these accieti uis , ,v
be in,l.cated In the 8th century .e pel
was required to draw up „nd present' t the
bishop f^ approbation his own code of rl,^
(t^ipit. harlom. a.d. 742) Such 1, .» ,/ 1
«l.l.roved, would naturall be" t •' Pi h.
book of nrayers.aud become a rule to h , •
w\ . ,(""'"""'« f'T the guida'nce of t.ie
bshop K,„„,^ '"•"•'-• -'..rbLarian . >
ceses. This soon became, as we inter from th.
commentaries on it l,y the German I, lifs
an authority with other bishops and pries d
many of its ceremonial directions we e , ! ed
into the saciamentaries with more or less it ,a
exactness. To eive an P.,iinr.i i ,
of the r..l„, vr ^""'"ple. In a direction
de OIF. Cafh. hcd. 75, ed. 1568; sint) paratiuu
eos suscepturi sunt cum lint is in^ m j „
eorumetaccpiunt(0.<W. «.s. : accipianT) os
a t-resbyteris (0,cfo R. \... a presbvteris 'vel
bur"fc.^'-''° ^T-^- - P-"^- ve/di'al;!
bus, Bern.: a pontihce, presbytens, vel dia-
con.bus), qui eos baptizant." Vhe Ordl tVe-
quently refers to the Sacramentarv for the
, P-^J'"" *" ^hich its directions apply. %.
Dicit orationes solemnes sicut in Sacramen-
torum (Libro, supplied bv Bernold, u!^^ 49 66>
cont.netur " (O. R. ;„ j/^. ,^„, .; "^ ^9' bb)
oL'it^LlV ''- 'M- ^'•^ 'hi-^orde is
copied in the Kfigian codex, the mention of the
Vpp. 111. 62); but in one passage (69) a s milar
reference is inadvertently retained-" ""
quo .„ Sacramentario." We find again tha Z
episcopal addresses and inquiries already ,„'!
loned contain many directions which at^a 1 er
period appear in the sacramentaries, as e.g. w' th
reference to the mixed cup (/„<,„;s. 64,'Reg n
13) the disposal of the remainder of the e encfn°s
/^a.J. Labbe. C^. vm. 36; Ad.n^. Syn. u. s.
D ^oJt^!l^''^<"^''"^'—See LiTURGT,
p. U»d2 tt We may mention here that some
critics, judging from internal evident thini^
many of the prayers in the " Leonian "^'r Vei".
Juiu^l'TM"'"^'':;""^" *'•"'' Sylvester and
Julius I. (Morinus de Sacrain. Poenit ix so
R. 2 i Gertert. Vet. Lit. Mem. Praef xv -xWin'
or than Sixtus IH. and Felix II. (Murat S
•v.; .. 41) ; while others, also judging from sf vie
and matter, see much in ill thf P°. 1, ^'
>k„> k I II . VL "* "oliian booKs
that belongs to Leo I. (Thomas. Praef. in Libr. iU
^<^<^'n-V-_ 3; QuesneV --t. in Leonis &n«. xcvi •"
to Leo the comp.lat. . a sacramentary. but
there are traditions preserved by later writers
8 B 2
m
' m.
1830 BACRAMENTARY
which nhew that he was kilicved to hnvn enlargn.l
ul Ifiist thi- iiiisKiil part <it' 'hn ICdiiiaii l.ihiT
Sftcrarni-ntorum. Thus Auastasius Uihl. Vitnf
piiittit. in Hoiiio (.Miiiii's (I.al)ln', C'wi. . .ii, I'JOl ;
UoUa'ii.l, Aiir. 11, ii- -1); ''<•"""" ^"i"""'. !•'*'*■'
Riinort. <lo IHv. Oir. ii. 21, &c. A.s.'.imni
iniliiws to the (ipini. n nf (»r-i, "iini liurum
nntiiin'Hii' (u'lMHianuiii Sdcrami'iilariuin in Veni-
n.'nsi cmlic.i (oiitimTi .■cn»uit " (('«/. J.itun.yi.
P. :i, |i. ix.); thnui{h he mlniita tliat, "innltai!
oratinni'8 I.cnnis saiiiiint «tyUini I't I'nrtc actn-
ti'in." nml "in hi"' sairnnii'iitarin, vclnt in Bern-
rinni .i"'"!'!""' iHntns, coiilinori iire<cs liturKicaB
RonuuirtP pc'ili'siac iiimo priuribus 8uuculi» tuuro
prntMiiiitat! " (viii.). ,
Our earliest authnrity for nssij;ninK «ueh a
worit to (iela.ins is (ienna.lins of Marseilh's.
•' SciipMt et traotatns ilivorsaiuni Scri|.tnranim
et snrramcntornn." (/V I'ln /llmtr. ill). Wahi-
frid who is later; "Tarn a He (lunm ab alijs coni-
positas preces ilicilnr or.linasse" (/'« /iV". AaV.
22). The sacrainentary ns(Til)ed to him is, un-
like any other, in three hooks; (1) Ordo .\nni
Cireuli ; (2) N.italitia Sanctorum ; (3) Orationes
et Preces cum Oanone. It uas this recension
which OrcKorv I. undertook to simplify ; "Oe-
!a>ianum Codioem de Missarum sidemnitatihiis
multa subtrahens, pauca convertens. noniiiilla
ndjiciens, pro exponendis evangelicis lectjombus
in unins libri volumine conrctavit (.)<iaii.
Diac. Vita Ore,), ii. 17. Comp. Wal. Slrnb. us.)
All the extant copies, however dilierent in other
respects, consist of a single book.
The Oelasian and Gre.goiian books were lor
some centuries in u.se at the same time; and
were even combined. In the library of Centulc in
8;U. lieside three Gregorian and nineteen Gelii-
sian missals, thw.e vras " Missalis Gregoriauus
et Gelasianus ino.lernis temporibus ab A bino
(Alcuino) ordinatus " (Chron. Centul. X lU
Dacher. Spicil. ii. Hll. ed. 2). Another collec-
tion ascribed to Alcuin (to which Micrologus
fc. 60] probablv refers) is printed by I'mmdnn
(Bitualo SS. Patnim H.) with a second by Gri-
moldus. On these, and on a third by Rodradus,
see Gerbert. Yd. Lit. Akm. Disq. II. i. 21.
Yet more remarkable than the twofold sacra-
meutary ascribed to Alcuin is a V(dume ''olim
S Gallense, nunc Turicense, .sncc. cue. X. ad
triplicem ritum Gelasianum, Gregorianum, et
Ainbrosi,inum concinnatum," whicii has been
printed by Gerbert (Monum. Lit. Aleut. 1 . 1.).
The Milanese Sun-amentary.— The predomi-
nance of Rome did not suffice to commend her
offices even to the rest of Italy itself. Paulinus ot
Nola. for example, " l«cit et sacramentnrium et
hvmnarium " (Gennad. Vir. III. 48); but that of
Milan, from its real or supposed connexion with
St. Ambrose, acquired an authority which has
given an enduring vitality to the proper use of
that church. In 1024 two canons ot Ratisbon
ask the treasurer of Milan for the " sacramen-
tarium Ambrosii." "cum solis orationibus et
praefationibus Ambrosianis" (Paul et Geb. arf
Mart. Epp. i. iii. i'^- ■^««'- '• 9^' ^^\ V°
centuries earlier Walafrid Strabo says, " Ambro-
sius tam missae quam raeteroriim disposi-
tionem ofliciorum suae ecclesiae et aliis Liguribus
ordinavit " {De lleb. Ecd. 22). It is not improba-
ble that St. Ambrose did re-arrange the material?
left by his predecessors, among whom tradition
placed St. Barnabas, not only as the founder of
PACnAMENTAIlY
hid ehurch. but as the author of « " MIssai
Onlo" also (Xic.comes, Je Hit. Mitm. ii. 1;^)- At
the instance of a Konian council, by whicli tlo!
pope Iladriiin also deidare.l himself (■.mslraih.'.j,
Charlemagne atteniplcsl to destroy all Ih" Ani-
brosian riles rthich Gregory had rcsjiected, " Aiii-
broslanum invsterium videiis esse tactiiin divmo
magisterio" ( Laii Inlphus Sen. MctUuhm. II.M. ii.
4, 10. in Mui-at. ,^'■^■/>^ AVr. fl<il. iy.T2)\ but
the poiie.iii.iv.'d bv the reiiioiist ranees ot a I'lviMh
bishop, Kugeiiiiis.'j-oa.-seinbled the counril, « liii h
was induced by the latter to remiisidcT its
dwcree, and the Milanese Sacraiiieiilary « m
restored (iV;. 12). The Ambrosian rite in th«
threefold use published by Herbert (see above)
gives the benedi<'tion of ashes (p. 4H), of olivj
branches on Palm Sunday (at Milan, •' limo. iu
Uamis Olivaruni " (<>4), of the oils (70), the niaor
of baptism (88), &c. ; and the two la^t-
named rites, with the benediction of the new
fire, have a place in the "Missae Ambrosiaiine."
almost a new missal, of Pamuliu»(/.i<i"y. i. lUO,
344, 848-;i.''.l).
The Oallican Sacramentitries. — 1 hese were
various, and it would seem that several authuis
contributed in ime way or anijthcr to their I'nr-
Illation. " Liber hymnorum et alius roystc-
rioruin " ( = sacraiiientnruin) are ascribed liy
Jer<.me(rff Script. Ikd. 100) to Hilary (d' Peiliei-s,
A.l>. 354. Salvian of Marseilies,_44ii, conqpi^eil
many "homilias sacrameutorum," i.e. prvf o's Iq
the Galilean sense [I'llKKAUh;] (Gennad. «.». iji).
Mnsaeus also of Marseilles, 460, at the request of
his bishop " composuit sacramentorum e- , niiim
et non parvum voUimeii per membra qui.ieui pro
opportunitate (jlliciorum et temporum, pro lee-
tionum textu, psalmorumque scrie et eant.itiene
discretum, sed sujiplicandi Deo et eontestiiuli
beneficiorum ejus soliditate sui conseiitaiieiira"
(the Galilean 'preface or contestatiun, (ieniiad.
79). Again, Sidonius, bishop of Auveri;ne, 472,
composed a book of masses (Greg. Tur. IM.
FrmK. ii. 22). Chilperic 1., A.n. .^61, wrele
musses, but was unable to impose them un the
ohMrch {ibid. vi. in line). The Galilean siicra.
mentaries were suppressed by Pci)in and Clwile-
magne [LiTUIuiv, .^1]. The Roman sacnmuMitnry
which the latter obtained from Hadrian (/./iis(.
Adr. ad Car. M. in C;»;i. Greg. M. iii. f,lH. e<l.
lien.), as a standard for his emi)ire is ideiitiliwl by
Lambecius with a codex at Vienna eiil if led, " Li-
lier Sacramentorum de circulo anni eximMtus a
Sto. Gregorio Papa Romano," &c. {IUimK
Caesar, ii. 5, p. 14). The Galilean " Mlssnls
mentioned in I.ituroy, § ,H, wers true saeiaraen-
taries ; e. <). even in their present state ther con-
tain the order for baptism (A/iss. Gvth. in Mjrat.
U.S. ii. 589 ; Miss. Gall. Vet. 708-720, 7:ii5-74i),
ordination {Miss. Franc. 661-671), bene.liclicu
of persons {Miss. Fr. 673, 5; Miss. Gall. I. .01),
of things (J/. Goth. 582; M. Fr. 675, 7, ic;
M V. T'^2). The Sacrnmcnt'irinm GiiUmmm
ri,lTlJROY, § 54 (f)], besides the rites nf bap-
tism (Mur. 828-835, 847-852) and beiwhctwn
845, 953-961), gives the lessons for evtrj
Ai&ss
Th- Mozarabic—See LlTUROY, §§ 46-4fl, Thi
Council of Toledo, 633. ordered that tlireuiti*;
Spain and Gallia Narbonensis (also under the
Goths) the same mode of celebrating masses atl
other offices should be observed (can. i). A!
Isidore of Seville was then living, and the tliJ-
SACRAMENTS
«bvth:.t,i„.„,i,u.t w,H ,.„;•„„;,,."', 'him
byth,.,,uiu,l(ll„n,„.,,„„„/_^„j ' ^ '
Am,>nKtl,.,„>,.t.„i„|. 1„,„,„ hi,nw,M,.,l„?l',,Z
.on... s„|,,.|„.,| |,v h,.H„wn l„„.l,..,. I.,.,, , ;:
wlmn, he .jys. •• I„ o,:,.l,.,i;.,U,i, ,„li, iV i i,.
hru. ,,,■„,,,„, |,„„|i|„„ ^^ ■ ' • 'I
du^,^v,„^ .om,>"M.it •• (IK- S-nrt.K,;:/e. -S) a
later c,,i,h;,l,„t„r w„h lli|,|,,,,msc. „r T, l^h , ,h,
S...luliHt.„tTul.M|„,(i«(»(.\. ,„| ||,|,.,•;/;^"I'■
Ju u.. h.ms,. , w..a|,„,,,.,|,..,^i|„.„„; j; J^^
de ot,M ■..ul,,«,„.,i„,,uM„m-|«,rt,.s,livi,s,„„
qu,l,u,s ,.l„,„»s vot„.s.,.ti.s incuna vi,i,.,„. ., .n
pl.u„.s e„u.,.,| .v.t a,: c„n,,,|,nMt, Hli,|,m» vcr,. ',
t«to,:u,„|K..s,M."(,-W,/.) Th. M,„a,al,ic n„ v I
whid. was ,„ ,,se till thu liitl. contun-, .vtain^
few t,a,.(,s ot tho sjuMial .hanat.n- ..f « ] "v
S*aa,„,.„t„ru,„. ll„t .„u.h aro tho " l,|,.s,i, '
(UsiKs 148) ot the now lire, &c. (174). ,„-|
nsS "' '"'''"^"' "" ^^ '^"'-'
yv..' ..l/Vj6v,M /,',Vm._s„« LiTiTituY, KS :)8-4..
TM.l.tmn has ,,.-t..se>-v.i,l the na,„,.. „,• „„i.. ,,,:;
c«m|.".s.r or c,m.i,il,:r, V„c.,nit,.„ l.ish,,,, „/• Ca '
tellanum 111 Manntanin, iu a.u. 4.;o, t, wh.m, U
SACRAMK'NTS
I8;j|
SAURAMKNTH. Tho.-o was withm our
penod „,. „.„,l...„cy to restrict the a,,,,lie .In"";
hewurd sa,ru,n..Un,n to Christian .'it,.., M
es, to any (,xe,| nmnher of rites. Only „• ea
Wd of a religions observance at all, i, n,eant t la?
some saored n.eaning lay nnder a v.ihie li?,
"baommentum est in aliqnn relehratione cmn
res Kesta ita fit, ut alu.uid .si^'nificare 'nte- l", .,.. o v 1,' <
ptur ,,u,.d .snncte accipiendum est " (Isid llis, mn ' ',
On;/oi ,v, vi. 10). ^ V- I (wigenis //,
Ifci^.' a purely Latin word, sa.-ra,nentu,n
oould have n,. eeeles.astical use iu the A,,ost„l,e
«ml sub-Apostol c ages, during which the lan-
gMge ot the church was exdusivelv Grek
(Jhln,an /,„</„ aristianit;/, 1. I, vol. { i^-^j^
After that peno, ,t came into com.non use from
the current Latin versions of the New Te "
ment. in which it was fre,|Uentlv emplove.l is an f h„ 1
(limn, C. ./i„l,,ma, |. 4 g ,n \v„ 1.
^:::p;*;,t::'S'Vf''^';f,^^Ti-'^«ii
"""i»"(i.e:s' " • /':'""""\;;' '-"".e.
nim" (|.\ii 1. ,,//'•*"•". "l;.Viiptura.
^1), '•«:i'ascL,/'^(;i;"',;':;;^i ["--■ ia.]
"f the Nativilv is . '' "' ""-' '•■•"»»
(«'nssian, <w/;;.\ ^. ""'™'''';'' ,-' -'""»"
'■litccliumen with sni'.l,. •"'"'""« '" the
«:-?""■■;;?"■■ '^'- ':■-'■*-!•
H'ditum sal "c», ''. ''•'■■ ';:!"<'';","""-^"''i»i
"v;.i , ." ^'•'"'- ■')• t.onip. Iheoiiifr,/ , -,\.
h.ileni in Sacramento re. i dunt - fs'., ,«'?-;
Again, the creed tauirht t.. ' '" /^'■'' ^ ''0
""■ntnn. ivligi,, , '.7 "" '"'^r''"';";;"- iH " sHcra-
, "■; ;\V-'',, ■"!' ."• '•^'•-■nerationis •' (WilUbald"
,, '" ') /'"»'/•, yi. 19); confirmation wj J': J
""'•■■t".n ole, " (,V, ,.,i ; comp. Aug. .S rm -o';
!'"""»'."• ' ." """"■ »a„„„,„,, ,|„,„ , t, •;; :
t "'";;.; ::, "•'•",."", ""»"'•"""' 'i™
um,hum,litatepeJum,-'&c.(i>.,v,,,,,I,S:;;-
I. 1, § 1); while Hildefoiise includes all the"e
fc . .t. vision ^ -=^rt^ I :— i-i:^::-^^^^=''^f -:
VI. , . , ■■ '""'" conimori before the
Vulgate, which we shall denote by S. (.Sabatie,
a/.*.r.X„M.„ ^„, Kem. /74;i)Sn tm.'
IV.. 2.) we have " revelationc saeramenti "
Quoting 1 Cor. ii. 7, St. Hilary (De rZ\
M»> re,ads "in sacramento." Vor oth e^:
mples see 1 Cor. xiii. 2 ("omnia sacrame nta '')
r ^1':' ^y.^l- Augustine (Trad. vi. in S Jul'
&§21,vii §3,ix.§8,&e.): Kph. i. 9, iii ,•
.4.9lnS and the Vulgate; E,,h. vi. 19 i,^ S .'
Co 1. 2. in St Hilary (Co, J. in I's. i;38, 518).'
W.1 27 m v.; 1 T,m. iii. 9, 16 in S. an i V •'
Kev. I. 2u m S. V. : X 7 »vii k in « . ■ , : '
Hence, whatever could in any aeUse be called i et
my,,t,.ry, was with the Latin Christians a A
s«a,nentnm.» Revealed trutns, . n. 'e
pmus opinions, are •
sp-uks of the "sacrauLta •- of 'at c umenro';
he sick, and of the de.-id (CapuZZTht
■-uchamt was called "sacramen um altarl "
Aug. *.».. 69 § «, A. C/.. A.', X. .i), m- " ".era
menta altar s " (Id. .<cT,n "o(i V .. ,., f; "
ni«>es."(M.*Li2fr-'^ii".s^;:;c'rr
.<), «euch,-,nstiae s." (Tertull. Je cJii> t
s. Dominic, corporis et sanguinis" (Gaudent
Serin. 2 ; comp. Auir. R,, Q>i g „^ J^'""Jeat.
etsaiigu ->• (Hilar". *'-7w;.-v!,,'V)&c" si'
a Augustine has "sacramentum exorcism,' "(&^,:
1 ;,., ., •■■- — '^mvsteriorum saciameuti" hJ ' T ^^ ^"^'"smn exorcism of oil, " Fiat
-^•Codhead , ..„entu.n ''Viaitat. -^ ^cLIne^t^^i.:'^:™ ^I^rlSli.l. ^^ ^i:!:;
i .3'?
m
Ii
li^
t- !?n
li
ir ■
1
1
f -t
i ■
't
i
'' Mil
; 1 i- ^1
, liiiir
wat
SAORAKirM
*^,!'^' • ..»,cr»in«Bt«" inlnnl 1p« w.nine-
,»r, rtWMnfjr ] but uiirlunt UHiiKH a ill
besuthciui., ... i.^rBte.i.ifw'"""^'"" """ "•'"',';
un,,llc«ti»n ...■ ti,, woM. lly «'K«.r.n.HUt.m.
wn, tonin.onlv m,.t.-i»t.m,l ni> n,,th. »«,,..nu 1) «
military .mth («.«. 'W.x 77„.W... vi. "HV
Hence th.T,- W5» imtuvally ».ini..|ln.'-» Hn «1 ''''""
„„,l.r this woni t.. th- oUiuMinn w .ich a
Chn.tiiin ti.l(u» nil himsi'll a" » m.Mi.t "t » hiw-
Th», 1.... (Nrm. »!..%): "SI <"«'1"«"^ ""''V"*
„„.nm..'.,t« »crv«v.ri., n.m .lul,ile» l« li. ta»tn«
ti-iun)ph.ilil,u« l{.tfU H.'tcrnl |.rn vl.:l.,nii cnr .-
uan.ln'..." CN-mpuro T...t..lllnn, ^J ^'''^'■'l!\\ '
SACRAIIIUM. (1) A Ohrl.tlan church, or
con»e,r.it«,l InnMlnK s«.'"r«ll.V ; '■•//; '""'"'«!,:„
ritu. Chrl.tiiml .acnuium (Amiinan. Miir.ellin.
lib, x.»vi.). Of. Si.lonim AHliimns, lib. viii.
(jp, 4 ; Sftlvian, lib. Hi. , . .
(<i) M..re iivLPfrlv the m.mt nn'-reil jmrt ol
the 'hurch. th.. i-lftco of ih. altnr an.l "con-
leasiu"; in the (Jn-ik church tJ. St'o"./* '•?«-
rthu, from which the laity were cxcl,i.l«a. I he
thirty-llrBt cinuu '.f the 'ir.t council ot »r«Kft
„rJ»in» "inKrmli .acnirium «,! .Mmimumcamlum
„0D licoat liiiciH ni»i timtum dcricw; an.l the
third cancn cf the ...uncil of V «.»".> "pcRk" <''
the minuter, "cuju. olli.'ium «.t "peranum d.s-
Louere et .uerftnientft nuiicipere. Here tne
,rterinK» of the people were receive.l. I he
ninety-thinl canon of the fourth couno.l of
"arthnne (orbicl. the reception of he ol,lnt|oni.
of brothers at variance either in the sacr.irn.m
,„• treasury, "obUtioncit .li8»i(lentium Iratruni
uoque in micrario no-iue In garophylacio re-
' ''(3)' The socrlHty, or ve.try. " Sacrarium dicU
tur quia ibi .acra reponuntur et servantur
NValifrbl Strabo, </<, AV*. AW. c. li)- Th>a use
■ ,1' the word was inherited froin P'|g«n «;'''"!°»-
Wy. Ulpian (W;/. lib. 1. tit. 8, le^. -.0 del.ues
:. TrnT .rmm " as " proprie locus iu quo sacrne res
ponuMtur et servantur; quod ctiam m aede pr.-
lata esse potest." Serviu, (aJ Aen. xn. 199)
similarly .ays, "sacrarium propne 1"«»» «» '"
templo in quo sacra reponuntur, sicut .lonar.um
est in quo pouuntur oblata." We earn from
Kestus O'n ^.v/mM".) that the holy things were
xh bited in the '' sacraria " behind a metal 1 .tt.cc
work, as afterwards through the "transennae
of the " confessio ; " •' sacraria in templis repagu o
.eu reticulo aeneo olim sepiebantur ; m quo tub.
relinqi-eSantur per quos sacra num.bus tange.e
'cehat.' 'Ve find it used repeatedly in this
seuse in 0>rk i;«wmu«, fl..'/. ^ l'^»^«^^!;^^'=!^
coram tpi- '•<>
sacraric orp'
Auastasiiii b,,
recorded r . V-iv^
gaorario b*iu'' T
i.jturis a cu«to<le eccle.>iac in
k.K • raebc"(U aunc; " and in
•, p. ftion •■ 'he true cross is
■jD '■ • ' ' l-'V P"l'e Seruius "in
," ..,...v.>ii," § 162. FK. v.]
SACRIFICE
«Mt thing. "tV..r.d to |,l„U," and so In the Ian-
goageof Cvpnau (/•.>. ««. D "hey del led both
th..rh«nd»ai,d lil,. with »aclilegio»» contact. ( y-
■,rl«o' regarded »urh connivance witli iloatry „
a 1*1 '-re gncvnus lapse than that ol wiii' b tl.e
LiiM:..LArici were guilty; at the same tin,.. I«
,livw a broad di>t,n.tioi. between the ,b.gre.., of
guilt among the s.icrilicatl the.n.selv.M. We
should not," he say« (/•./.. Iv. 1«>). •' l'»t "■"' P';
one who fovthvMtb and willingly sprung l"V«aid
t„ the dieadl'ul .uciilice, nud one who, having
struggled and Imig re.i.ted, came by coiiiim -mn
to Ihi^ fatal work ; one «ho betrayed b„tli hun-
self and all his. and oue wh.of liim.ell apprumh.
iugtotbc danger, protected wile and .■hildn.u
ami hlH whide bouse by exposmg himsell to peril ;
„„e who coml.eli.ed inmaten or friends to the
deed, and one who sheltered uieler bis own re,,l
vervmanv bretbieii who withdrew to baiu.h-
ment " the testimony which h" gives in oiIkt
epistles of the conduct of multitudes ol ( hris-
tiauH in Africa in the Decian persecution g,,.,
fa' to iustllv the severity ol the church towards
those who aicriliced. Men did not wait (I vp de
l.ipala c U) to be summoned to the triMi, they
wentspontaneuu»lv,theyn.utuallyencourage,h,ne
another to submit, they took their children >vitb
them, thev even entre.ited. when the nlagl^t rate
nostponed'the ordeal on the approach ol niglit,
U,at their downfall might uot be .leluyed. " W hy
bring an olVeriug, wretched man, he coi.tnuR.s,
" whv present a victim for slaughter t \ "U iirs
v,„u „ If an olVering for the altar, you are vuur.
;«lf come as a victim ; you have slaughter... there
your own salvation, your hope ; your iaith »ai
burnt iu those fuueral flames.
The penalties of sacriHcing varK-d with th«
circumstances of the guilt. If the lapser was com.
pelled to make an olVering, yet did it in a lestive
robe and with a glad countenance, then th«
council of Ancyra (c. 4) decrees that he was to
do penance six years,; if in a mourning iob«
and with a sad heart, then the penance w,-..
reduced (c. 5) to four years ; ii he did not actually
partake of the sacriHcial victim, it w'as lurther
reduced to three. Should the sacrifice be repeateJ
a second or third time, the penaltv (c 8) vsm
seven years' exclusion, and should a ChrbtioD
compel or entice others to succuir.t. he was to be
exc.mrauuicated forten yearsO ■> TI «. .un.'M
uf \ .ce further decreed (c. 11) that it a L,,nsL.;o
sacrificed when there was n. .b'Pf" 't ' -vA
from compulsion, he was to I ■ . •■' "i^o.i" • '
twelve years; a sentence cited aim '»"'«7"
severe by 1 Corx. Vukntin. c 3, but modihea by
2 Co»o. Arclat. c. 10. The Cotic. LUkr c
decided that one who after baptism and ot fuU
age participated in the worship of an idol
temple, was guilty of a crime for.^'l','^ ' t„^
dilation was to be given '• nee (uisi ?) m h e
With the close of the persecutions the cTime o
a great extent passed away. L"' '''•J .
SACRiriOATl. The name appli.-. to those
Christ iaus ..ho in time, of persecution took part
iu a heathen »acrincc. They were uM strictly
apostates, b:.t to escap. cotihscatjon ot good., or
torture or d-iath, they performed a distinct act
of idolatry. The act was genera ly made to
consist in ;h,.ring either in the actual sacrifice
or in the imcriticial feast, that w, they openly
SACRIFICE. This term was applitJ by
early Christian writers to any act or otk'raigo
devotion. St. Jerome calls private prayer, a
ni.rht " an evening sacrifice" (£p. yn. od l.ueta,n).
StTHilary uses ■■sacrificium"ol the pcrtorn^.i...
of the corporal works of mercy (mis. cxl . a
Augustine' saye that the whole congvcgatu>n»f
saints form the Christian ^a^-^hce (* ^.t- i'^
X. 6) in words which are .uggestive of the ublaUot
8AC.':rFlCB
the(,«la,m>. .s«cr,u„.„t,.ry «, "a h.Jy .ir ,"
h.ium i..i.„,„ ,.l«tam l.u»li,„n " «,„ ,„i,i . wl
cation, &c., „„„. i. ^, 5i,„ „ j^ (/''/;'-
Hut by fa^ he -r.. t common me of the tiTin
•'"■'■',"•"»■»- t-K-'ther with .u.,h wh II
P.r-,.wl .,,,„val.,„t ,«rm. a. 0,>„ia, 1,1 "I
iu. mr„t I he .aeriri.ial .har.rter of that r. ^
ha. .„.,.,. bnuMl un ihe U8« hy our Lord at t^
m.t.tut>o., of th« wor,l, ,..i„ ami 4X1'. .
bu jt ,loe. .ot fall w.thin the scope Tu ,'
rtide to e„t.,r ,„to the ment« of the ..mtr,
v.r,y whirh hxs l,..M..a iai.ed i„ me.liueval a, 1
recMU rather than in prinativo timen ove " e
eiact M|{nih.anue of those lenns
The reader is referred to Smith'. DM. of
the lh',to for the theory and hi.tory of Jeivil
..or.h..e, They all foreshadowed the^Jr iV
U,n.t on alvary. since which time St. Au^ sti e
":' ""' "'".'T' "'"ll tlu.»e sacrifices and 7
.l.o„., U.r,st s body is „lered and minist d to
the partakers" (,*,. tV«. A/, xvii. -U), that "the
myslera.s o the Jews were succeeded by le
Mcrihce which He afterwards willed to be eel e!
bratod m the church i„ the stead nf them aU
^cause by al of them He was pre%ured." S
Dmonstr. Aram,. »■ 10; Apost. Const, v 2t
Leo i. Serin. Iv . de /',i,, < 7 . 11 1 . . '
Heh liii in. (V,ii , .; * '• "'<""l«ret in
xvlii. 35; <:. Adv. Le,i i SH >Q . /■ ■ }■'
«1 Ha t<\ .•''.. ^"> ■'" t-yprian, /,;;.
f, § 4; Clement of Ale.x. Strom iw. 8 05'.
tu8eb Dun. J-.v. y. 3; Jerome, /.>. aj J/ ,.;^/:
fa'",io.. Other writers, especially St I'hrl
.o.tom, dwell on the identity of the eucharistic
.en ,.e with that wM.h Christ oflered (h! .^ ^
m ,1 ..'..Hom.50inMatt.vii.; Horn. 7 1I
Heb. u. JS, ,a eoa qui Pascha jejunant iii. § 4,
titu "'''r^^ " "f* "'■ *•>« ^"rio"" sacrificial
titles apidied to the Kucharist in early docu-
meuts Kastern and Western. ^
Jhe sacrifice, sacriHcium (Ambros. in Ps. 38.
H.r Y"lr^ fre'juc'nt), e.ala (Lit. S. Jas
Ha«m„,, ed.t pp. 25 39, &e. , Ap\,st. Cons '
'• 0'). Ihe l^oly sacrihce, sacri/icium unde dis-
pensatur victima sancta (Aug. Co»f ix 1 A fc
p. d75). The new sacrifice, novum sacriHci.an
I5M) riu. Lord's sacrihce, sacrificium Domi-
Pi.v.v -"•?•-',••«''« (Chrys, li,.,u. iii. § 4. in
Ph>hl:; De ^. Pentecost. Horn. i. p. 493, &cT
The pure sacrifice, sacrificium purL (Ir'en h^
17, 5, V. 2.., 4). The inexhaustible sacrifice A
W^ro, 8v,ria (Chryg. Up. ad Hebr. Horn xviL
BACKlFId
1833
i;-..^......hurch;.v^l,^i:',^^,l-'5^
!S':;t. M:;"r.97:"^r f-r""^ <^'^-
ti;;n .a.ijcium's,^:i -:."--::-f ^
ihti HftcniKM. of C'hrUt ■/....-;/; ;.. /V* ■ ^ '*
Chri«t'« ll.,.i.. . .... "■'• ""' •airiMie of
'"W<r.«, (Lit. of .S. .las. (Jk 1 ( 'r . v dh -l"^"
Athen««. /,,,/. /,,, c/,n,t,., § 13, &c /Wv ,;.,.;V
'i'o most pure and ui.ldo^dy >»,viL Ze' ^^•
"aJ M.....«yi (Apo'st. O ns,i ? yt. '-3 ^'-itur
•nendous and unbloody sacrifice. i^^^ol^V^
i^a,MaHr., 0u„la (Lit. S. Jas. i„ Orat '^Vewf
(^i:w^in:::^;ri^nfTtr ^''^^"^
»-(« (Apost. c,,Liiuwi.'i«;^^.;^,':;:r?;;::^
^«.u. Mysta,. y. 8). The inte 1 Jt 1 a'.'.Hf^' "
Aoyi*^ e.aia (Euseb. Z><v«. AV,»„/. ? l" So
Christ is said to be intelle.tually sacrificed
("orruf), Cyril. Alex, in Zeph. iii « U) Th.
true and full sacrifice, sac^rific m VeL tt
|.l«num (Cyprian, Kp. Ixiii.). Tl.e holy and most
-^ingsacrifi^ef^^LSla : Sfi^r
Ihe most true and .ingle sacrifice of th
le2?wTr f^^'-'g"'"* «aerificium
iv IH n TK n <' "i^'««">'' "''latio (Iren.
'fCh'ri ■ ,.,'^\*. "•''"""" ."f tl'e B.xly and Wood
<'i Uirist, oblatio corporis et sanguinis ChnVH
; fThe''"^"'"-,'','"^"'"''- '' '-w.^s
*".;. Ihe reasonab c ofleriniT i i„. i. ^,
(Anaph of St. Basil), JbteaL^l^I?: «
Lit.) Ihe tremendous and life-giving olierin^
a^tu'r^iVS.''"^^^'"^ ^'' '^' '■" - ^•"
It would be impossible to present the reader
h a complete catena of the^assages in early
I'turgies, councils, and writings in which th!
eucharistic sacrifice is mentionel Thrf„ „'„. J^
-.•t of sacnlical phrases from the earliesf
western sacramentaiy will affonl an idea of th.
cnent to which the thonghtandknguage f he
•ly church were saturated with th! con! I
ex
eai
:!;ri::ei.,,"^;:n--ph-f^th,,
lie writings of tj.,tern saints and the Fastern
^^^•'7°' ^''"''"y '" ^he use of C°
ill*
I
(I
;-■!
1 r ■ If
^;
1834
SACRIFICE
In the sacramentary of Leo—" Divinum sncri-
ficiuni {Mcnsc Aprili, xii.); shcriticium placa-
tionis et laudis (ib. xiii.)", lamlis tuae itomiue
ho.stiiis immolamus {Mens. April, xiv. Jul. xli.);
ho.itia iilacatiiiuis et lamlis ; spii-itualis lio.itia
quae miro incll'ubiliiiue mystei-io et iininolatur
semper ct ea'lem semper utrcvtur (Muratori, do
Beb. Lit. 198) ;. rtacrilicium singularc ([iioil iiiajes-
tati tuae et semper re.l.litiu- el debetur (.1/k'iiS.
Jul.\ Prec. IMurn. xxxv. xxxviii. ; hestias tilii
domine ileteriiniis immolandas (t'l.) ; hostiiis tibi,
domiue, >uppliciter immcilaraiis (A.) ; sacriticiura
nostrum (m Satal. Dutn. iii. ; see the whole of
this collect.); suscipe domino sacrificium cujus
te voluisti ^diguaiiter imimilatione placari {nil
Jcjitn. .i-mi. J/nisis); oblatiouis obsc(iuium quod
otferimus {Mcnsu Apr. xvii.); sacrifioium cele-
bramus quod nobis debet esse periietuum (iV).
xxvi.); banc oblationem quam tibi olTcrimus
placatusai'cipuis(m I'ciitecost.); hostiasaltaribus
tuis placationis imponimus {in Nidal. SS. Johan.
et Paiili, V.) ; oblafio nostrae servitutis (in Xatal.
SS. Juh. ct J'mli, vii., iv. Id. Awj. v.); sacriticium
(m Xatal. Pet. et P'uli, xvi. frc-iuent.); hostias
nostrae dovotionis {Mcnse Jul. iii.); sacrilicium
gloriosnm {Mcnse Jut. iii.); oblatio sacranda
(J/oiw Jul. XV.); sacrificium tibi domine cele-
braudum plaeatus intende {Mcnsc Jul. xix.);
tuae plebis oblatio {McnJic Jul. xxiii.), or populi
tuae, or familiae tuae {ib. xxxiii.); sacriticium
quotiilianum {Mens. Jul. xliv.) ; sacratae plebis
oblatio (viii. Id. Ah;I. vii.); sacriticium laudis
(iv. Id. Aui). V. canon Gelas. frequent.); sacri-
ficium salutare (Id. Awj. iv. ; Natal. E/^is. xi.x.) ;
sacrilicium nostrae servitutis (xvi. Kal. (Jet. iii.);
hostias laudis {I'rid. A' J. Oct. i. ; Mens. Sep. xii.
&c. frequent.) ; sacrificium nomini tuo dicatum
(J/i'iisi's Sep. i.); sacrificii praeseutis oblatio
{Su/cr Pefuiictos, ii.) ; sacrificium cujus te
Toluisti dignauter immolatione plaoari {in Jejun.
Mens. xmi. ii.)."
The followins; are anions; the various titles
applied to the Eucharist in the ancient Celtic
church of Great Britain and Ireland:
SACRILEGE
virgin daughters of Laoghaire, " Ye cannot see
the face of Christ except ye taste of death, and
except ye receive the sacrifice." Ami thiy
an.iwered, " Give us the sacritioe tlvit we may
behold tlic Son our Spouse," and they received
the Eucliarist of God, and tliey slept in death
{Piool: of Annagfi, fid. 12a). The two words
communion and sacrifice are freciuently used
together in one phrase in the Leabhar lircae.
" thereafter I'atrick sent lorth his spirit, and lii'
received conunnuion and sacrilice from bi>hi.ii
Tassach's hand" (fol. 29 b; see also fols. 65a,
66 a).
The u.se of the word " sacrificium " fur
Eucharist is freciuent in the service books iin.l
eccUsiastical documents of the Anglo-.Saxm.
church. This is natural in a church wliith
accepted through its fniindiT the Uonian litiirgv
in the sluipe of the Gregorian Sacramental v,
modified by the introduction of several (lallicin
and perhaps of a few t'eltic i tures. Illustrations
might be drawn from almost any page (d' tin-
Anglo-Saxon nii.ssals or other service books
(Surtees, Soc. vol. Ixi. p. ix ), and from tlie
regulations concerning the Eucharist laid lovvn
in the penitentials of Theodore, cap. xii. (7th
century); of liede, cap. viii. (8th century); of
Egbert, cap. xii. (8th century), &c. (l.inga.d J.
Anah-Saxun C/iurch, edit. 1858, vol. i. )). JOo).
[F. I-.. W.]
SACRIFICIUM. The anthem cmnnicnlv
called the offertory (" quod in honore saeriji^io, im
canitur ; " see I.-.idore, dc Eecl. Off. i. 14) was
so called among the Goths of Sjiain, as by Isidore
of Seville, A.D. 595 {Epist. ad Lcihlefr. § 5).
Siicvijicium is the invariable heading of the-
offertories in the Mozarabic Missal. ICx. (the
offertory for E.-istor) : " Sacvi/icmin. Ecce Agnus
(.John i. 29). V. IMcunt qui (l*s. cvi. l-.i).
P. Qui toUit, V. Gloria et honor I'atri. P. Qui
tollit peccatum." [W. E. S.]
SACRILEGE. Amongst the acts which nrf
specifically classed as sacrilege, we may enume-
rate —
(a) The act of one who " acceptam a saeerdote
Eucharistiam non sumpserit " (Cone. Tuld. i.
cap. 14).
(j3; The seizure of sacred or ecelesiastieal
property {Cone. Vus. ii. c. 4, A.n. 529. citing
St. Jerome's letter to Nepotiauus). in this
Hostia ; {Syn. IIib< riicns. ii. 21) oblatio ; {He:/.
Colmnl)ani, c. iv.) 0]'f>f\ieX\X) \ {Scnclms Mor. i.
126, ii. ;i44) "r<lCO)ty:A)C ; (y?ooA of /)eer) sacrifi-
cium; (Gildas, Pracfat. dc Poeniten. §§ 6, 7, 8 ;
Mibernois. xii. 4; I'c;). S. Colum. cxii.) sacrifieale
mysterium ; (Cuniinius, n/. -?. Cu/i(/«. p. 29)." ... . .. . , , . ■ ,. ,. if
To celebrate the Holy Eucharist was expressed ' category we hud the seizure of tlie goods of a
bv_" Otferre (Gildas, /'rac/. dc Poenit. xxiv. ; | bishop at his death by the clergy {Cone. Ua!c.
memens. xviii. 6); sacra olTerre (Gildas, i/,. j can. 22), especially the plunder of the palace and
xxiii.); otferre sacrificium {Liber Davidis, can. j the licence that prevailed through the whole of
xii. ; Patricii, Cunfcssio, xiv.) ; sacra oblationis j
mysteria ministrare (Adamnan, Vit. S. Colum. i.
40) ; .sacram oblationem consecrare {ib. iii. 17) ;
immolare hostiam (Secundini Ilimnus, Irish
Hytnwiri/, p. 17),"
The word " sacrificium " was used equally for i [Vacancy.]
Rome and its suburbs on the death of the supreme
pontiffs (Ravennat. sub Joan. iv. c. 11, of). .i.D.
685). Akin to this is the removal of anything
from the episcopiil residence during the vncancy
of the see {Cone. Herd. can. 16, A.D. 524).
At a later period we find traces of the seizure
of the goods of dei'cased presbyters or clerics.
{y) A bishop's delivering over a monastery to
spoliation {Co7io. Ilispal. ii. c. 10, A.n. OlSt).
(8) The sale of any of the vessels of the church
on 'he part of a presbyter or deacon {Capiiuk
Martini Brae. c. 17. cent. 6).
St. Ambrose melted the sacranieut:il plate al
Milan to redeem s(uriB captives, and tlie .uians
„, , „, „, ., branded that as sacrilege. I'.ut St. Ambrose
St. Patrick said to the newly-baptized | justified himself, arguing that it is better to
that which was offered to God, and for that
which was given to and receiveil by the com-
municunt. St. Gall told his schcdar MngnoaWtis,
" My master Columbanus is aci:ustomed to offer
unto the Lord thu sacrifice of salvation in brazen
Tessels" (Wal. Strabo. Vit. S. Oalli. i. 19). The
twelfth canon of the synod of St, Patrick runs
thus; "He who deservsth not to receive the
Bacrifiee in his life, how can it benefit him after
his death ?" (Haddan and Stubbs, Coum;ils, ii. 2,
335).
SACRILEGE
hnvp preserve'd the r(.K«,.la c i- •
St. Cyril „t JeVutC 'and bv n ^""''''' ''^
Carthage. Biiu'hai .hi, .u^ .'^'•'"S™tias of
Justinian a sr.^iia r±7' """ '" ""= ^'"'l« "f
A similar p.ovis „ L he ™' ^'^r''""""' ^■•'»«'-
bythe™.'ci,„;.;!^:;,:^^--J;wwas.ade
PRIXCliS, Al,I,|;oi INCI- TO ^" ^^
Thl^i'ir'ns^vf^STth"''^''^^''- (Cod.
«teen...>ro.jrmtHf4'Ll^f ^^ "'way.
of^h^S'S:^Srr"'>^''^'-'^^—
(Cor/. r/,««/. f,i "f ""^ "^°" >>■■" other duties
r^<*/. 16,") '"°"""S 'ts ministers (Corf.
^«.nthe..pinH„lX:^:;:;^^-^;»;mng
(K) 'ne name of sacrile-e is i,iv,.n
neglect of ignorant' or^ca elf' ? 'T *° "
preaching the word of rn 1 if teachers in
divinae legis Liiut^"'' '"''''' ''^l''': •■ "^ui
-niogium con,'l;;;S..^"f,?^ ^Vw *"""
Bingham, .wi. tJ, 27). *■ -'''<-<^- "P-
There are many acts wh;,.), „ . .
sacrilege I,v the canonists «thnt/'' ''"''"'^ "'
called by that nan e i i SL 7^^ "''""l'^ I
erample:-- i-onulmr decrees; for |
«/^4r(&'^°'];^'"*''-'*-p-"ox.^|
hi/;^oul^ri:^:^;"^ *"-"-- a -vering for'
cii V, t ' : f'^toiuiii lusanorum "
(cL'ii':!r""""''''^'"^'''''''^''""hurch
(5) rming the Eucharist to the dead.
v^ilhViSd^WnlSli^-^ -^ the cup
C.68). '^""'''•"') to be destroyed (Trull.
(9) Profanation of churches by traffic CTroII '
'■^^)■, or introducini. cattle fTruI . «1.
impropriety (Trull, c. 97) ^ ®**-'' "»"
(10) (living or receivinir fi,„ n
(-"r«f-")"'an;svSi.^°rr'"""
(H) Drawing ( imres nf X '■
«i~:i£;^* ='3:.'::
8AGUM
1835
.ooSyt.:,'trtfn:tJll™'' '^''""'*'"^ ''"«-•.
^"/. iv. c.L'8) '' "'■ '""S'^'""" (Cone.
"gSsSt'it"" '"""'^'""■"' <■«-'«<«
canon of the c^oun ■ 1 l-T'.. '':"" ""-' '«"»
quoted th,-it coiiv.v '-"'^" (""''■) ■■'''■™'iy
nxiusa,Xm""^;;::;:^,f;':^-'i.''r'pr^
for accusation (" nu latem ^ , ?""' '''■•*''"•;'''««'»
suntadmittendi^l^S^rz^-.T'''""'"
i'le mode of iuHictin,T fU ' "■ ,
described at len^jth in tl- '^ J'""'''""''"' '^
second council 3 Tours (. i,i;7r"T; "' ''"*
sion was the seizure of }u i ■'' ""-' oooa-
was finally recalcitrant Vrt '"''.'?""• '*"t if he
al-bats and ,,r ' [" *'■''''" '"'■'' •"'"'•mition,
'he solemi Sji,: X P' '" '"" '""-
in ohoir, Christ Z\Z\h \ , ''^^ "■''""' ■''""
Psalm ( VniriOS w', '"; *'''''?''■ '' '"^ ^^'■>^^
»he ponV thf; !.„/„ y' ■^"■''.'0 the murderer of
denunciation ii l.cl 'redto I ,^,"^'1' "'" 'he
'lie not only e;.comn ',n ^ ^^"^ *"= 'should
a»J »hon ;i te n t , "•■'■'if "?'"hen.ati.ed,
heayen. [JlALLieno';] "'"' "'^ '^""^ °f
sacHi:,S'gra:Si:: ''"';'^''° «'-^» of the
ahieb;.leati'niM ilddri.':;^,'^"'',''"'''"''-
accordinelv thit , ,., .' """' h'»s, and euiiots,
j crime be' ^p'td .Von; ,'•; "h " ^""^" *"' *''«
years- penance (. 45? i tt "■'' '""' ^" "''^«
I bishop K--bert Toi oT n„ r "'",«-'"-'e''l'ts of arch-
isonsL™:^e^':-;ri;:=-'^iiS['"-
01 l)unishment Ci.voo...^ ii . . '^^ H'lliction
I i» the. p^:^'.^^!;:^^.'^"-")
Kmtif. EpUome Lib '3/ 1 t""" -'"''"'■^*''" ''■"■'«
Gregory of Tour>i rl,. ri ■ ,, ' instance,
*-w...:S.'T;;™.;i!-cSS;.;S°S.5'-
[C. H.]
Kotker.). ''•""U'««t. Lsuard., \ct. Jiom.,
[O.H.]
a c?M?S; bJthVr'^ '^T''-^ «''P"«J to
i^ii
.it i
iH
f'^i
; I ■ ^^
IS.IO SAINTE8, COUNCIL OP
Gnllican origin ami reetangHlar in form (Ktymoi 1
xK 2+ VA) With its military use we hav. no
concern hero, Imt it is necessary to remark that
r,he 8th century we find several proh.b -
"ons against the use of the sagum by cleric..
Thu aiuncil hold in A.D. 742 under the pres -
deucy of Uouilace, either at Kat.sbon or Augs
burg! orders that " priests and deacons shall no
wear 3<«/a Uke laymen, but casiito (can. 7 ,
Ubbe, vi 1535). The rules of this counc. weie
Srmcd by a'capitulary put forth by tar o
man at Liptinae in the following year ('..Uu-
letter of Bmiiface to Cuthbert (A.D. 745), we
find a reference to his prohibition to the " ser-
vant, of O,,,! " of the use of sa.ja or weapons
In the Theodosian c;ode. sagum is the name
applied to the cloak or outer covermg us d by
those who looked after the horses used for
pubUc conveyance. Th«se are -'to be taken
away or torn by those employmg the horses
(lTb.\-iii. tit. 5, 11. »7, 48, 50- and see Golho-
fredus's note). For further references see Du-
cange's Glossariuin, s. v. L • -J I
8UNTES, COUNCIL OF (Santonensb
Concilium), a.d. 562, when Heraclius, a pres-
byter, was'nominated to that see m heu of
&,erius, appointed to it uncanomcally by krn^
Clotaire 1. But the bishops were hned for this
a t ^' Cherebert, the son of Clotaire and
EmeriL was maintained in his oifice (Mans.,
ix. 783-780.) l^- ^- **•■!
11
P^PIigy.j
?f'
i;5i^
k ^!.
SAINTS (!'anct<, Sy'"')- (1) The people of
God, as holy by election and ?"'«?'*"'"'"»;"
been so called under both dispensations (Ueut.
XXX. 3 ; I's. 1. 5 ; cxlix. 1, 5, 9 ; &o., and N f.
was common for more than three centuries alter
Christ. With Constantine the visible church »
i Uyiu,y <riK\oyos, the assembly of the saints
^rt Omt. ad SS. Coeium). In several passages
in which St. Chrysostom speaks of the interces-
sion of " the saints," the context she^" that he
lans our living brethren (//om.44 .,. Gen.% 2j
H,m. 5 in Mam. Ev. § 4; Horn. .5 .» hp. 2, ad
Ftth S n " Grex sanctorum is the church in
the language of Victor Vitensis {de rerscc. Afnc
5) Caiarius of Aries, referring to the precept
(St. James v. 16), "Confess your faults one to
another " says that " Scripture advises us to con-
Zful sinl, not only tUod. but also to the
Lints and those who fear God" (&m. Ivi. § ).
But several conventional restrictions of the
moaning of this terra were at the same time
grcnving up. Thus it was sometimes United to
fhose who lived up to their holy P'-f -'7' .^^^
true saints in the visible kingdom of saint, a
when some persons, condemned by the council of ,
M 1 vi A.n. 416 (cans. 7, 8), attempted to ex-
pl in away the use of the petiti-n "torgive us
Z trespasses," by "the saints." Again t
Zetimes meant those who were especia ly
devoted to holy offices or to a ho T l"e, «s the
clorav and monks and nuns, lhu» Cyi! of
Jerusalem calls a certain rite ,n baptism "the
insufflations of the saints" (O.toA. Must. ... .iy.
Salvian, complaining of the oppressions of his
day "Viduarum ot pupillorum viscera devoran-
tur.'et cum his ferme sanctorum omnium ((fc
SAINTS
aubem. Dei, 5). In the East again the writer,
of holy Scriptuire were especmlly so called. See
examples in the Festal Epfes o St Athana-
sius pp. 14, 20, 25, 39 (/-";/'• -''•• 0^9' ='•
Basil o?Cae:area ask^, " Which of th^ saints has
left in writing the words ot uivocat.on at he
consecration of the bread ot Luchanst and the
wine of blessing ? For we are not content with
♦ hose things which the apostle or the gospel has
1 mentionedrbut we say other things' (0. .-j-.r.
^";2)" 'I'.LTin the Calcndar.-lhe use of the
title "saint" to denote a "martyr df 'gnatus
(Tortull. Ad Mart. 1) or " vind.catus (Optatns,
de Hchism. Donat. i. 16), or a confessor raised to
the same rank, is not earlier than the 5th c.n-
tnry. [Compare Calendar; >lAUTVUO>.o.iV.]
We find it, however, in a Roman table of
eospels, "Capitula Lectionum hvangelii am.
!irc^ ad missam," which Maitene thinks no
later than the beginning of tljat period, almost
every name being preceded by the title
"sanctus" (Martone and Duraud, rhcsaw.
V 66) Another calendar of the oth cen-
turv is headed, " Hie continentur dies natnlicio-
rum martyrum et depositiones ei.iscoporum,
' quos ecclosia Carthagenis anniversana cel^
brant" (sic) {Anakcta Vc« Mab lt.3, ed 2,
Uuinart,«. i. 693). Here the title of saint u
given to nearly all ; but the custom dues not
,eem to have been quite fa.nil.ar to the com-
oiler ; for the fir.st six in the list are without it;
-hough four of them are described as martyrs,
The rest, above 80 in number, with three ap|ia.
rentlv accidental exceptions, are all called saints.
The Calendar of P.demeus Silvius, or rather
P. Annaeus Silvius, was written for the yew
448 Beside heathen festivals, birthdays of em-
..erors, &c., prognostications of weather and
oine of the greater Chris lan testival.,
notes "Natalis S. Viucentii JIar yns, Depusitio
sancti Petri et Pauli, Natalis S Uurenfi Mar-
tiris, Natalis S. Hippoht. Mart., Natahs i
Stephani Mart." (Boll. «. s. 17b ; Mai, Sa-qd 1 d.
xYoi OAl. V. i. 54). Certain FasU Cn^uUre,
which end at the year 493, contain "H'n..i.anJ.
of nine martyrdoms, and of the translati-n of
SS. Andi-ew and Luke to C P. ; but m only two
instmces (St. Laurence, St. Euphemia) is tlit
tHle of saint employed (Boll. u. s 186) A trag-
ment of a Gothic calendar found in the library
at Milan names six martyrs, but styles nmie of
them saints. It was com].iled before ,-..!, bu
when does not appear. It is therefore unco tarn
whether the omission is a ""Vlr"'''' l.wh
quity or a peculiarity ot the Got uc church
fMai .-. s. 66). In the Catemlmum Mommum o
the 8th century, printed by J. Frouto {Ipid. et
m'ert. 133, vl'ro'n. 1733), the title is scrupu.
lously prefixed to every name; as it is ab to
those flund on a marble calendar of the ninth
given by Mai (u. s. 58). , , ., tu
(3) Commemoratint in the LUurg.i.-m
one privilege accorded at the ear test pen-d to
Z recognised saints of ary church, was annual
rnention in its liturgy. Thus St. Cypnan, s^-
hi. of two martyrs, says " As ye remeio or, w
always oHer sacrifices t"l' tncm, wheh- .. «
celebkte the passion "n^ /ays o martj^s b a
yearly commemoration" (£;.st 34 "J/ '• '
Ln-) TNatalk.] He ordered the aeath»«t
p^rius uuder persecution to be notified to bm,
SAINTS
that they might be thus commemorated {Epist.
37). It was in fact a part of the bishop's duty
to control the services of the church in this as
well as other respects. Even at the later jieriod,
when martyrs became objects of worship, it was
the bishoj) who exercised the right of admissiun
or exclusion : " De . . . . Sanctis noviter inven-
tis, nisi e])iscoiio probante, minime venerentur"
(Capit Car. Mag. A.u. 8u.->, c. 17 ; coni|i. Cone.
Francof. 7"J4, can. 42; Capit. lieg. Franc, v.
2,>7 ; vi. liB:i). Before long persons not niartvrs,
but sullerers for tlie truth and eminent for holi-
ness (see the earlier limitations in Hernias
SAINTS
1837
I'aitoi; i. vis. 3, J 1 ; iii. Siniil. § 28 ; relaxed
in Cyprian Epist. 37 (W Clcr.), received the same
honour under the title of confessors. One sucli,
viz. Sylvester, but only one, ajipears in the
Roman calendar of the beginning of the 5th cen-
tury, printed by Martene ( The.-aurua Aneod. v.
66). At length such commemoration, whether
annual or by reque.'.t more frequent, became an
object of ambition, and was purchased by gifts
or bequests. E.g., a matron named Theodilana
ii- »he 6th cennury (Mabill. Anal. Vet. 160, ed.
i) ide a donation, and Kemigius of Rheims
(Ubb. Biblioth. MSS. i. 806), and Bertram of
Mai'.i (Mab. u. a. 2.57) made bequests to churches
on condition that their names should be " in-
scribed in the book of life (the diptychs) and
recited on every festival."
The names of the Virgin, apostles, and other
chief saints were recited from the diptychs with
the rest, in some churches even down to the
8th century (Salig, de Dipt. Vet. iii. 34, Halae
Magdeb. 1731) ; but a distinction was felt to be
desirable even before that period, and in the
West the more eminent names had for some time
occupied a permanent place in the liturgy itself.
Hence within our period there were prayers for
the blessed Virgin and others byname, certainly
in most of, presumptively in all the litur-
gies, except the Clementine, which was modelled
on the eailier rite, and the Nestorian of Theo-
dore and Nestorius which were derived from the
primitive liturgies of Mopsuestia and Constan-
tinople. At first these intercessions were said by
the priest at the altar, and after the consecra-
tion {Notitia Eucharistica, 421, cd. 2) ; but after a
while, obviously for the sake of greater distinc-
tion, they were generally removed to an earlier
part of the service. A surviving witness to the
earlier arrangement is found in the Armenian
liturgy: '' T/ie Priest : We pray that the mother
of God, the holy Virgin Mary, John the Baptist,
the hrst confessor and archdeacon St. Stephen, and
all saints, be commemorated in this holy liturgy.
Choir. Kemember them, O Lord, and have
mercy upon them " (Xcale's Introd. to Hist, of
East. Church, 594). Other names follow. In
the original text of St. .Fames after the conaecra-
Uon God is simply besought to remember all the
orthodox "from righteous Abel unto this day,"
but the later adds, " that we may find mercv
and peace with all the saints especial Iv
our most holy .... lady," &c. (Assemani Co-
dex Lu„r.,. iv. P. 2, 45). The Sicilian St. James,
not only commemorates tho Blessed Virgin, arch-
aiigcis, the baptists, tlia apostles, prophets and
martyrs in general terms, and St. Stephen and
James by name (ihid. 68) before the consecration,
but also prays for " the memorv, pardon, and
Mpose of all the archbishops of jermalein after
James, naming some of them (76). After the
consecration (p. 86) it commemorates a great
number of the saints of Scripture, and many
martyrs and others by name, "not that we are
worthy to commemorate their blessedness, but
that they, standing before Thv dread and awful
throne, O Lord, may remember our piteous
state. ^
In the West the Roman use commemorates by
name (in the Cvm;.nnicant- s) the IMessed Vir.'in
eleven of the twelve apostles, St. I'aiil (associaUd
with St. Peter), l.inus, Cletus. Clement, Xys-
tus, Cornelius, Cyprian, Lawrence, Chrvso-
gimus, John and Paul, Cosmas and lianiiau"; to
w'hich the local churches added names at will
(Martene, de Ant. Hit. Eccl. 1. iv. 8, u. 16).
This was before the consecraticju. After, it prays
tor part and lot with " the h,dv Apostles and mar-
tyrs J<,hn, Stejihen, Matthias (omitted before),
Barnabas, Ignatius," and ten others. In both
formularies it avoids prayer for them. Tho
Mozarabic now merely commemorates (before
the consecration) the B. V. the apostles, &c. ;
but still " oHers on behalf of the spirits of those
at rest, of Hilary, Athauasius, Martin, Ambrose,
Augustine, Fulgentius," ic— In all sixtv-live
names ar« mentioned (Leslie, Missalc Mozar. 4.
225).
When the system of Missae was formed in the
West the several collects composed for a saint's
day mentioned him by name. The reference to
him was various ; but in one of them at least a
prayer was oftered for his repose. Such pravers,
however, were so contrary to the feeling of the
early mediaeval church that only two examples
have come down to us in the sacr.imentarb s of
Rome; viz. the secretae in the Missae for St.
Leo and St. Gregory. Until altered, not Ions
before the time of Innocent III., a.d. ll<»8(/Vcr
Const, iii. 130, in Opp. ii. 764, Colon. 1575), they
began thus, "Grant unto us, Lord, that this
oblation may profit the soul of Thy servant "
(SicTom. G/-C(/or. in Murat. Lit. Rom. Vet. ii. 25.
102). '
It was an early rule that no saint's day should
be kept in Lent (Cone. Laodic. can. 51 ; Cone
Tglet. A.D. 656, cap. 1), and none are set down
for that season in the earliest Roman table of
gospels (JIartene, Thesaw: v. 66), nor couM there
have been any in the old Gallican lectionary
found at Luxeuil (Lit Gall. 124).
Litanies of the Saints. — Originally the ectenes
of the Greek and Oriental churches seem to have
contained uo reference to the dejiarted (Xntitia
Eui'haristica, 422). Now they have a commemo-
ration of the Virgin and other saints introduced
somewhat awkwardly (Goar, Eiichot. Grace. 66,
74 ; Renaudot, Lit. Orient, i. 9, 139, 149, 506,
514j Kaulin, Liturg. Malab. 298).
Nor were they commemorated, except very
generally, in any of the corresponding Western
forms, the Missal litanies, as said in the Missa
Catechumenorum (in the Ambrosian rite im-
mediately after the ingressa [Intkoit]) from a
very early period. In the Missal litany pre-
served at Kulda (Bona, Aer. I.iturg. i. 4, n. 3),
the only nlliuiinn te the saints is In the clause
" Sanctorum Apostolorum et JIartyrum memores
sumns, ut orantibus eis [iro nobis veniara
mereamur." There is no reference to them
whatever in the two litanies retained in tha
Ambrosian Missal (Pamelius, Liiuryica, i. 32«,
' i*lli
I 1 1
; 1 .,*j
183S
SAINTS' DAYS
I
331), or in the Jlozart.bic and Gallicnn PuECra,
ihi' lust I'orm of the eucharistic litany in S|]ain
anil France, liut when litmiiea (lisapjiearL'tl from
the lilnrsjy, they were still iised in Pkcckssioxs,
anil in the visitation of the sick. As so nseil,
however, we linJ them enlarireil by ilirect in-
vooiitiijiis to saints; as "Sanota JIaria, ora pro
nobis," &c. — Above 150 are thus a(lilres,seil by
name in an olil litany of English use ascribeil
to the 8th century, printed by Mabilloii (Anal.
Vcl. Iti8). Another of the same character, and
also Kiifilish of the 9tn centnrv, is given by
Mr. l'r.ict(.r (/list, of H. C. P. -IM) from a MS.
(//. i. 'l^) in the Cambridge University Library.
An Ani,'lo-Sa.\on litany printed by Mai (Script.
Vet. Sin-a Cull. v. i. titi) from a MS. of lisry St.
Edmund's, now in the Vatican, contains thirty
names, all purely national ; except that of St.
Helena. One of Gallican use, and of the age of
Charlemagne (Mabill. Amd. 171), gives about
2U0 nnmes, among which we find those of
Oriel, Kagnel, Tobiel, which Zachary, in a council
held at itonie in 74.5 (act. 3), declared to be
"the names not of angels, but of devils" (Labb.
Cone. vi. 1501). Later litanies of this kiud may
be seen in Uona u. s. App. (Codex Chisimi.), and
Wartene, ife Ant. Eccl. Hit. I. vii. 4, (ordo 6
(above 'JSO names), ordd. 11, 13, 15, 17, 25).—
See litanies as used at the dedication of a church
[PRooi:ssU)>f, ii. H. 15] in the (Jrdo Rommns, lier-
noldi (in Hittorp. Eccl. Off. 108, ed. 1); and
Martene (ifc Ant. Eccl. Hit. ii. 13, ord. 4).
They contain each about fifty names. For similar
litanies sung at the coronation of an emperor,
see Mart. u. .v. ii. 9, ord. 5 (at Jlilan), and ii. 23,
ord. 9 (at Rome) in ed. 2 ; at that of a king of
France, ii. 10, ord, 7 (58 names). [W. E. .S.]
SAINTS" DAYS. [Fkstivals; Martyr,
p. 11 -'7 ; Natalis.]
SAI.AMA (Frijmkntius), July 10, Sept. 20,
Dec. 14, apostle of Ethiopia (CiU. Etliio)).).
[C. H.]
SALARIA or 8ALARIUM. A saltcellar,
generally of sonic i)reciou.s metal, for holding the
ealt used in consecrating holy water, or in the
sacrament of baiitism, was annual ]iiece of church
furniture towards the end of our period. Flo-
doardus (Hist. S. Remiij. lib. ii. o. 5) mentions
"eochlearia duodecim et salarium argenteum."
Bernard. Mou. (in Ord. Cluniiio. part i. c. 27)
speaks of the " salaria " of the refectory, into
which what remained over of the salt, when the
holy water was consecrated, was put. At a later
period, among the church furniture of York
Minster (Mon. Anifl. iii. 171), was a silver
saltcellar, gilt inside, "pro sale in dominicis
diebus benedicendo." [E. V.]
SAIiCHU (SoLOCHON), Sep. 17, an Egyptian
martyr, commemorated at Chalcedon (&//•.
Mart.). [C. H,]
SALOME, Oct. 22, disciple of Christ (Mart.
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Jiom.); Oct. 21 (Xotker.).
[C. H.]
SAIiOMON, Feb. 8, martyr, commemorated
■t Cordova (Mart. Usuard.). [C II.]
SALOMONIS, Aug. 1, Maccabaean martyr
with her seven sons under Seleucus at Jeru.salem
(Basil. MuioL). [C. H.]
SALT. THE RITUAL USE OF
SAIiON, Sept. 28, bishop and confessor, com-
memorated at Genoa (Mart. Usuard.). [C H.]
SALT, THE RITUAL USK OF I. I'm
into IIul;! Water. — See IlOLV WaI'I'-R, § iv.
J'rayers for the e.\ori'ism and benediction of the
salt before it was mixc'l with the water may be
seen in the Siicramentary of (iel.i>iiis (.Moral.
Liturij. lioin. Vet. i. 739-741) in tliiit of Grej-ory
(JInrat. u. s. ii. 225; Ojip. S. Graij. iii. 233, id.
lien.), in the Homanizing rite of llesam on found
by Mabilliin at Uobio (Mus. Hal. i. 38ii), \-c.
Holy water was often made expri^ssly to be
sprinkled in the house of the sick, and then, ,is at
other times, was " nspcrsa .sale." See Ordines
vi. 16, in Martene, de Ant. Eccl. Hit. i. vii. 4.
The origin of the custom is not known, but it
IS possibly connected with a heathen practice,
described by Balsamon as having been oIimtvi'iI
annually ,it Constantinojde even in Ctll■i^ti.•ln
times, of sprinkling every house with water iVorn
the sea (Comment, in Cunc. Trull, can. i)S).
II. At the IlediC'dion of a Church. — On such
occasions blessed water mixed with asln^s was
used, and salt was ailded here also. It was sup-
posed to rejo'esent divine truth ; while the w:,ter
was a symbol of the poople ; the ashes, of the
sacrifice of the Lamb of God. With this miMiire
the bishop signed tiie corners of the altar, and
si>rinkled various parts of the church. What
remained was poured out at the foot of the altar
(Uemigius Autiss. do Dedic. Eccl. 4-0). There
are no examples earlier than the 8th century.
See Martene, u. s. ii. 13; viz. the Gellone .!/«*(/
Ord. 1; Egbert's Pontifical, Ord. 2; or Suitoi's
Society, vol. xxvii. p. 34; the Anglican I'lmlilical
found at Jnniieges, 3 ; Urdu Jionianus IVinioMi in
Hittorp. dc Off~ Catli. Ecclcs. 112, Col. l.'iOH; ic.
The same rite ajiiiears in the Gregorian .Sacra-
mentary (Mur.at. u. s. ii. 474; 0pp. S. Greg. iii.
147, ed. Ben.), but not in the earlier (icla^iau
(Murat. u. s. i. 00!)).
III. Salt i/ioun to Odcchumens.— This wa.s a
purely Latin rite, though some have supposeil
Origen to refer to it when commenting on Kzekiel
xvi. 4 (Horn, in Ez. vi.). As no other Greek or
Oriental writer even appears to allude to it, and
the ritual books of their cluirches do not jne-
scribe it, we must supjiose that Urigen is speaking
figuratively, like the prophet whom he i>ava-
phrases. See a similar passage in Ambrose. Ex// s.
in LtK. Ev. X. 48; comp. Mark ix. oo, Luke xiv.
34, Col. iv. G It was, however, general, if nut
universal, among the Latins after the 3rd century.
Thus we find the council of Carthage in .197,
decreeing that " throughout the most s-olemn
days of Easter no sacrament should he given to
the catechumens, except the accustomed salt "
(can. 5). St. Augustine also, in Iionian Africa,
says of him.self: " Adhuc puer .... signab.ir
jam signo crucis, et condiebnr ejus sale " (Coufm.
i. 11, § 17). The Cielasian Sacranientary has a
'• lienediotio Sal's dandi catechumenis," in which,
after exorcising the salt, the bishop prnceeils;
" Proinde rogamus Te . . . . ut haec cn'atiira
sails in nomine Trinitatis ediciatur saiiitare
.sacramentum." This is followed by a "liene-
diotio post iSalem diitum " (Mnrat. 'f, 5. i. KUj
Codices Sacranumt. Tiiomas. 49; Uoniae, I0S9).
All this is preserved in the Gregorian iiookB.
See Murat. ti. s. ii. GO, and other examples in
Martene, de Ant. Eccl. Hit. I. i. 0, OrJ. 3. Tha
SALUSTIA
rite is not found In th.. nl,i p.ii- i .
enjp.r,., who,,, Cl,,„.k.,„,,gne cLnO ,m It
ouly l,oa,-.| of tl,e ,ito as loc 1 "(W ^^ ^ '■'"
" Lvnrc,,-a„tu,-, ,l.,i„,e salon, .Lipiuft." "n;th\'
9th centmy ,t was still ku„wn thLt this rite wu!
not ajmstohc: "Alii a.icli,le,-»„t in ha,,t mat
(Ordo Scrut I, 8, in Mus. Ital. i. 77, 8n and
nith ttl„ch tho .«techumen was eniduallv
.mbue.l dunns Lis preparation for bapU m So
OHic. n 20) Magnus Senon. («. 5.), Rabanus
"■'"'•"? (^r /'«<'■«. CTm, i. 27), and many the,"
Th,s s,g„,f,e,,t.on was also recognised n the"
form,, a used at the minisfation, " Accipo, // sa
s^.oDtiae prop.tiatns iu vitam aete.'nam "K
Jl' f'-'^J" ''"''t<^ts.~h the 8th conturv
we find ,n trance canons, founded on that of
St t^ be ^iv'': • '"-^ ".-teohumens, which orde
salt to be gi en to penitents also : " Quae forma
e™ a publics poenitentibus omnino .'equ nda
S^i^'^':ii'2«;!f''''^-^'^-^--«3'W
V. In the EtKharistlc Bread.— The Greeks
from an early period attached im,,ortance to the
p.-e.ouce 01 salt n the bread. It 'was the mind
thy .sa.,1, as the leaven was the soul of the
oMale and an a.y.ne without them was dead
uaraasc. I (,49; comp. Mich. Cerulai-ius ii,
^™».i„notisOote..iri.^pS^^^Tl'ir
M/ /* ^'.'''' .:'"'' •Xvro-Jaoobites (.Assemani
thfcuim'rrVr-.f'^'''''''^ •"1""">- ^•'•■-- <^'
tne cubtom). [Llkments, p. 602.] [W. E. S.]
SAMARITAN WOMAN 1839
f SAMAiaTAV WOMAV ti •
:?£•:;;;' ■r""S'C;;;'V3;
not .in",; J' ' ,: li'""',""" """""«■ "^
i'^-'-.;a,n^.,!^.i^,S..'i:aAiiT^rr
wnodcut), the well is re„res,„ty^l 1: ' ^'"^
allv usi.,r.,t nil.- '1. '7 '"""*'-' W" occas im-
oCre '&UT\vua VjJ t v woman's words,
would se™,''^: ^; "tt^'tr" '"' ^''''*'
eonv^i.nce. Bn,"!^^is'X«;---;^
-oman\;a„d on L h ^^:;ir:;''.h" '"'"' '""' "'^
the words "Give me to ,1, nl," k"'','"-'"'''- "^ ""
uttered. She wear, a tnn 1 ''?;' J''«' been
TertuUiau 5./\X c sa?'"* ''"''"'"• "•''''=''
SALUSTIA, Sept. 14, martyr with her hus
and C'erea is, under Decius, at Rom< ?/ "
Usuard., Adon., Notker.). [CH]
"■"""•" o' Samarta (from Martlgny)
One of the frescoes of this subject is in the
CallLxtine cemetery (Bottari, tav. l,vi.). Here
the woman ,s alone, ai.d the well open and with!
"Ut w„jdlass. She wears a short wide sleeved
«n,c; but inM Perret's Cat.,c..>>esXlTpt
dk V ou'""^ treatment of her figure are
ffe ent. She is represented »s tali and nob"!
ookM,g,,n a long Howing tunic; not as otxes-
t.omng our Lord, but presenting I^m w?th «
cup ot water, as He raises His hai^t" her
apparently speaking to her of God'sglftof living
No less than eight examples of this subject arp"
tigtired by Rohault de Fieury up to the ^Th
century, and he gives others^f \he lUh S
y"^"-!}''l T"}- i- P>- xlviii. .xlix.). His fi^ 5
.1. xlviii. (.jth century), from the tomb of^ St!
.'ude at \erona, ,s identical ,vith the first
1840
8AMONA8
dcstiibeJ and figured by Mftrtigny. His first
and second figures are early work from St. Prac-
textatus and St. Callixtus ;• he also gives a oth-
ccntury ivory from the Musee de Cluny, and
another carving from that of Aries. His next
plate contains an outline from St. Apollinare
nella Citta in Ravenna (oth century), the woman
wearing a long robe with two stripes, and a
disciple standing behind our Lord ; and another
from a 9th-century MS. of St. Gregory Nazian
len Our Lord wears a violet robe, the woman
a red gown fronted with yellow ; the bucket and
rope are in gold. The latter winds around a
regular drum ; and all the four last examples
contain the pulley fixed in uprights, j g^ .j, .
8AMONA8, Nov. 15, martyr with Gurias at
Edessa (liasil. McrvA. ; Cal. Syzant ; M<nol.
Graec. Sirlet.); Nov. U (Cal. A'-men.). [C. H.]
SAMPSON (1), June 27, "our father,"
xenodochus at Constantinople in the reign ot
Justinian (Basil. Afeno/. ; Cal. Byzant.; Menol.
Oraec. Sirlet.).
(2) July 28, bishop, confessor, commemorated
at Dol (Mart. Usuard.). [C H.J
SAMUEL (1), Aug. 20, Hebrew prophet
(Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Horn. ; Basil. Memt. ;
Menol. Oraec. Sirlet.) ; Aug. 21 (Cal. Byzant.) ;
June 3 (Cal. Ethiop.).
(2) Feb. 16, martyr with Elias, Jeremias,
Isaias, Daniel (Basil. Menol). [0. H.]
SANCTA. The Fermentum, or reserved
Eucharist, is so called, which, having been con-
secrated bv the bishop of Rome, was sent to the
churches in the city. The word is used as a
neuter plunil in the most ancient recensions of
the iirdo Rmmnus (0. H. i. 8, 17, 18 ; ii. 12) ; but
in the gloss (mentioned p. 668) on the epistle ot
Pseudo-Innocent to Docentius we have, " de ipsa
8ancta"(Mabill. Iter German. 65, Hambr. 1717).
|_W. hi* Oij
SANCTA SANCTIS. Cyril of Jerusalem
in his description of the liturgy, after comment-
ing on the Lord's Prayer which follows Con-
secration, proceeds (Catcch. Mystag. V. 19):
Then the priest savs, ' Holy things to holy men '
(t^ h'a ToTi o7(<iIs). Holy are the gifts on the
altar, after receiving the influx of the Holy
Spirit; holy also are we, to whom the Holy
Spirit has been vouchsafed; the two 'holies'
correspond one to the other. Then we respond,
•One is hoi v. One is the Lord, Jesus Christ.'"
The Sancta 'Sanctis, which Cyril here describes,
is in nearly all Eastern liturgies the prelude to
Communion. See (e.;!.) the Greek St. James
(Hammond's Liturgies, p. 49). [C]
8ANCTIM0NIALIS. The word sancti-
monialis, designating a woman of distinguished
piety, is applied especially to such as were
members of a religious society, or NuNS. It is
not, however, limited to that use (Uucange,
8. v.). Compare Virgins; Widows. [C]
SANCTUARY (Sanctuakium, Sacuarium,
SeCRETAHIUM). As the part of the church con-
Apparently given in Mr. Porke-.'i Photograph No
1801, and if w, very dubious as to meuulng.
SANCTUARY, RIGHT OF
taining the altar, the word aanctuarium first
occurs in c. 13 of the first council cjf Braiara
(563); the corresponding word, sacrariuin, in
the same sense is found a little e.^rlier in c. 3 of
the council of Vaison (44'2), Many of the
Khenish churches had two sanctuaries, one at
the east and the other at the west, and the
plan of the ?,bbey of St. Gall, attributed to the
abbat Eginhard, who lived in the time of
Charlemagne, presents the same arrani;enic:it.
[Church, p. 383.] (Viollet-le-Duc, Diet. rm.
Je r Architecture, *.y. SANUTIlAiRt;). See Prks-
HYTKRV ; SACRARIUM. [H. T. A.]
SANCTUARY, RIGHT OF (Jus asylo-
r'lm). The right to take refuge in a churih.
Similar rights' existed both in Mosaic and in
pagan times, and they in some cases extenJea
not only to altars and churches but to persons
and things such as statues and standards. (Sue-
tonius, Vita Tibefii, c 37; Tacitus, Aimal. iii.
60). The privilege of affording refuge was con-
ceded to the church from the first ages of the
emperors becoming Christian. The codes both
of Theodosius and of Justinian contain imperial
constitutions for the control of this privilege.
In later times the right has been abolished as
having led to great abuses. The church was
the seat of the bishop, and though the idea of
sanctuary was not new, yet Christianity very
early felt that the bishop was the natural refuge
of those who were in trouble. [Intercession,
p. 864.] It was in fact part of the bishop's duty
to intercede for those in trouble ; and for this
reason those who (whether justly or unjustly) had
occasion to fear the civil law took refuge ih the
church. A decree that follows the til'ty-siith
canon of the fourth synod of Carthage in 399
enacts that the bishops Epigonius and Vincent
should be sent to the emperor to beg for the
churches the right of asylum. This seems to shew
that the right of sanctuary did not inherently
reside in a church, but that it was a specific con.
cession on the part of the civil power. Legal refuge
was in point of fact nothing but the intercession
of the clergy for men in distress, and, pending
the issue of their efforts, the right to protect
them from violence. It was in no way intended
to obstruct justice, although in course of time
it became so abused. A law of Justiniiin's dii-
tinctlv affirms this position : " Teniplorum
cautel'a non nocentibus, sed laesis datur a lege,"
Siinctuiirv was intended to be a shelter for the
innocent,' the weak, and the misunderstood, and
not a refuge for systematic or determined cri-
minals.
The right of sanctuary at first attached only
to the altar and nave of the church ; but in 431
it was decreed by Theodosius II. that the right
should be extend'ed also to the court, the gardens,
and in fact to the entire precinct of the church.
There is a lengthy edict •'concerning those
who .take refuge in the church " issued by the
emperors Theodosius and Valentinian, from which
the following passage may be quoted as shewing
the boundaries to which the right of sanctuary
extended in early limes. "Let the temples
[i-aon of the great God be open tor those «to
are in fear, and let the common altar \pai\xii\
receive the suppliants who fly to it; and let no
menace presume to remove the divme aid,whicli
is offered to all alike from its abodes
SANCTUARY, RIGHT OP
In our tinus, then, we decree to grant for the
Uanv^ [evaia,TT^p,a] «n,l the oratory of the
gul.ir >valls but whatever spot there happens
'*:,^' •>''>■"»'' these, as f.r as the extreme C
of the church,,vhere those who intend t™ firs"
enter-we determine that it be an altar of „^,ercT
to the fugitive . . . and that the precincts
ne t othe public property about the (i'rst doo
of the holy church, whether they be in houses or
... gardens, or in courts or in baths, or even in
porches, shelter fugitives who enter then ju t
as the ,nn,ost part of the church won d"
(Labbe, Conn. ,ii. 1235, ed. Paris, 1071.)
The privilege at first rested on imperial
.uthonty ; but it contributed so much o the
obvious advantage of the church that it was after!
wards confirmed by the pope (Peese on A,vl„^
who became pope in 609, enacted (Platina, Vifa^
PonU^cum) that " criminals who Hed to church^
should not be taken thence by force." From
one expression, "quovis crimine patrato " Tt
appears that no crime was bad enough to exclude
.fugitive from the protection of the church
(Archacvtog,a, vol viii. p. lo). This, however
was afterwards modified. Gaillard (/to J;
CMoma,/nc, tom, iii. p. 80, ap. Pegge) writes^
"ill churches before t'he timi^ of ChaiemSe"
were asyla and for all sorts .of criminalsTC
he by a capitular A.D. 779, conformable to one '
of Carloman and Pepin passed about 744, decreed
that churches should not be asyla for criminals
who h.d commuted such crimes a» thriaw
punished with death; and if he did not go so
far as to m.ake it lawful to force a criminal
from his asylum, yet, what came to the same
thing, he prohibited people from giving them
any nourishment." * ^
As to the privilege of sanctuary in Britain,
the following particulars are collected by Pegge
y.V. 16 ff) In Druidism certain sacied
tees were held to be asyla (Evelyn, S,lva p.
614). Suspicion attaches to the stories which
have been repeated by some historians that the
Christian king Lucius (a.d. 18o) conferred the
pn>,lege of sanctuary upon the church of Win-
chester, and that Sebert, the first Christian king
Lssex (A.D. (J04) did the same for the church
of Ystm.nster Ina, king of Wessex, about
A.D 690, enacts that, " if a person who h^s com-
m.t ted a capital oilence shall fly to a church, he
«ha preserve his life and make satisfactio . as
Sve^h,W.^'"'"'^'*''«P™"""-*"'all''be
The obligation on the part of the fugitive to
make composition for his crime [RedkmptionI
was decreed by the council of Mentz in 81.3-
fteuni confugientem ad ecclesiam nemo abstra-
SiS:Vci;."-*'''"^"'^^'^'---p-'
The eariy centuries of Christianity furnish
many interesting incidents in connexion with the
8he«. that the altar was the particular spot to
H uses th'^''*"^'"^'"™ ''^""^^y '"'o'.ged?
Itwrnn f f.^P''"'"? ""'" «""'" tenebo."
ill *•"* ^niplaints against the violent
Eutyohian party that they had violated this
8APIENTIA 1841
It became much less. The Co le nf Th„ i
m .otT'''^'' ""•' "■" ■"""« Pn.hibit on was
or tne right of asylum to put to death one who
Turon T^f"/^'** ^'•""' "-« -church (S Greg
Turon. mst Francorum, lib. ix. cap. 3) ^'
bv Ritte'rVh "".the subject is a small book
by Rittershusius, 'AcruAio, hoc est, Dc iu^
^Sn^Sr; l^r;iii\^r^^^
i^t,..ctby.Rev.s'?;g;ri„^r:;^S;
Us abXtioruZr-Ari '' "'^'^TH.ti^
v.fn^^^.T^^' .-^"'y 26, martyr, native of Ra-
Sr ''"' '"S" °'' «"<=- Antoninus (BaS:
■'• [C. H.]
SAXCTUS. [Preface.]
SANDAPILARn. [Obsequies, ix. p. 1431.]
C0UNrrt"nF'''>^J5^'*A, NOVATIAN
v^NCJUUM), A.D. 391, at which the then Novatinn
b^hop, Marcian, called upon one of his pre,"
ir.differLt'i"^":'-2'r2".'eIn\7' '''"?'
699; Cave, Lt. Zrt!i. 367) ' "[E al'fO '
8ANTONEN8E CONCILIUM. [Saintes].
8APIENTIA (SOPHIAX Ang. 1, martyr with
1842
8ARABAITAB
her fihildwn Fides, S|ies, Carittis {^fnrt. Ilsiinnl. ;
('(/. Aniuiu); Sept. 17 ■ Oil. liij-.^nt.); Sept. Ifi
(liasil. .l/cW.); commenKirBloil June -' i at
Niconieili:i (Notker.); July 1 (it Uonie (Klor.).
[C. 11.1
PARABAITAE were sin^h monks as liveil
under iiu settled iiiinmstic riilo, liut cullei.'ted hi
little t;i(nii>s of two or tlirei?, j;enenvlly in smiie
poiJiilcius pliico, where they I'mind |iuri:h:iser» for
their wares, wliich they sold nt iiHiro tluiii the
market value in conseiiuenee of tlieir suiiipuaed
sanctity. They seem, according to .lercjuie
(_j:p'St. 22 ad Kuitm'/u c. l.'i), to iinve practised
all the arts wherehy a reputation for sanctity
with tlie vulgar may be won, in dress, ajipear-
ance, and gesture, while they disparaged those
who led more regular lives. The Kgyptians
called them (says Jerome, «. s.) Uemhoth or
Remoboth. t'as'sian also {Collat. 18, c. 7) draws
an unfavourable picture of them. (liiugham,
Antiq. VII. ii. 4.) [C]
SAKADALLA, 8ABABARA. This word,
which represents some article of Persian dress,
is merely the transliteration of the C'haldee
}*^3"!D, occurring Dan. iii. 21, 27 ['J-t Vulg.].
The esact meaning is doubtful, but it is most
probalily to be explained of some kind of hose or
other covering of the leg. Thus the Vulgate, in
the former of the two passages, remlers the word
by hrirrae, and Symmachus by ava^vpiSes. A
full discussion of the meaning of the Biblical
word does not fall within our province — refe-
rence mav be made to Gesenius, Thesaurus, s. v.
The occurrences of the word in the fathers do
not help us much, for either they are references
to the above |iHss;iges of Daniel, with the word
merely reproduced, or we are distinctly told
that the meaning of the word is uncertain. We
find the word in T^-rtullian, with the spelling
saraham (de Orat. 15, de lies. Carnis 58 [of the
Three Children]; de Pallio i [of Alexander the
Great after his eastern conquests]). Jerome
adopts the spelling saraballa, or sar^ihata, and
speaks of that with an r as corrupt {Comin. in
Dan., in loc. ; Patrol, xxv. 508 : see also £pist. .i.
ad Innoc, ib. x.xii. 8'J9). Jerome explains the word
a.s meaning coverings for the legs, but we find a
curious dili'erencQ in the explanation of Isidore
(Etym. xix. 23. 2), that they ar« " fluxa ac
sinuosa vestimenta," and th.at in the oi)inion of
some they are coverings of the head, "qualia
videmus in capite magorum picta." (Cf. also
Aug. de Mwiistro,,e, iO; Patrol, xxxii. 1214.
Reference may also be made to Ducange's Glos-
sary, s. V.) [K- S.]
8ARAG08SA, EIGHTEEN MARTYRS
OF, Apr. 16 (Mart. Usuard. ; IJoll. Acta SS. Apr.
ii. 40ii) ; Apr. 15 (Mart. Adon., the names being
somewhat different : Mart. Ilieron., the names
much different ; Mart. Eom.). [C. H.]
SARAGOSSA, COUNCILS OF (Cae-
8ARAUQUSTANA Conciua). Three are reported.
(1) A.D. 380, or a year earlier or later, accord-
ing to some : for which Sulpitius Severus (Hist.
ii. 47) vouches as having been held against the
Priscillianists, and resulted in the condemnation
of two bishops, Instautius and Salvianus, and
two laymen, Elpidius and Priscillian himself.
SARDICA, COUNCIL OP
" Additum etiam, ut si quis daninatos in com-
munionem reeepisset. si'iretin so eandeiii seiiten-
tiam pr(.Micndam." Tliis is the only part ol liit
statement which couiiects it with ;lhe eii;lit
canons that have been assigned it, as they nr«,
virtually, the words of the til'tli canon. Tht
rest are by no means as " plainly directiM] against
the Priscillianists" as Hel'ele requiri'S iiis
readers to believe. The preface to tlicui nialten
only twelve bishops present at their p:issiiig.
•Suliiitius makes his synod attended also by tin
bishiqjS of Aquitaine (JIausi, iii. C3;i-40 ; Uel'«U,
ii. 2"J2, Eng. tr.).
(2) A.D. 59'2, when three canons were p.assed,
all suggested by the conversions from Arianism
that were taking place, and passed in general by
those who had subscribed by themselves or their
rejiresentatives to ths tliird cijuucil (jf Toledo,
three years before. Arteniius, metropolitan of
Tarragona, who had been rei)resentcil there by
his presbyter Ste|)hen, i)resided now ; and must
of the eleven bishops who subscribed now
subscribed then. Two more who subscribed
then sent their represnutatives (Mansi, x. 471-
4).
(3) A.D. 691, by order of king Egica, as we
learn from the ])reface. Five canons or chapters
were passed, the fifth of which, referring to tht
fifth canon of the thirteenth coimcil of Toledo,
and confirming it, decrees further that th«
widows of kings shall take the veil and enter
the cloister without delay. But who presiilsd
or who subscribed on this occasion, is not stated.
It may be observed also that neither of these
two last councils appear iu the pseudo-lsbloriaa
collection (Mansi, xii. 41-46).
[E. .S. Ff.]
SARAH, the wife of Abraham, Aug. 19
(Cal. Ethiop.). [C. H.]
8ARAPI0N. [Sf.rapion.]
SARBELUS, Jan. 29, martyr under Trajai
(Basil. Meaol). [C. H.]
BARCILIS. A kind of woollen garment,
mentioned together with cappae and ramisiks
in the Bule of Chrodegang, bishop of Metz, iic-
cording to the text as given by Lablie (c. 29,
vol. vii. 1458). Here it is ruled that clerics of
higher standing have either sarciles or wool
sufficient to make them a couple for the year'i
use, and clerics of lower standing are to have
one each. It must be st.ated that the text given
by D'AchfSry (Spicilejium, i. 235 [here the
chapter on Vestments is 41]; reprinted, I'atrot.
hxxix. 1075) omits the mention of the srircUcs.
In a capitulary of Charlemagne of A.D. 81^ (c.
19, vol. i. 510, ed. Baluzius). it is ordered that
female servants of the Imperial household are to
receive wool and flax to make " sarciles (ii/. SM-
cillos) et camisiles." fK. S.]
SARCOPHAGUS. [Sculpture.]
SARDICA, COUNCIL OF. (1) Socrates
(//. A', ii. 20) and Sozomen (//. E. iii. 11.) state
expressly that the council of Sardica (the modern
Sophia, in Bulgarian, Triaditza) was held in the
eleventh year after the death of Coustantine, i.e.
A.D. 347. But the fragments discofered bj
SATAN
Miiis to Alc.van.lrm in the year 34«, ami wo
know fr,„„ A.),a„a.,iu, hiM„elf that this r tuTn
wa« two years after the council of Sar.lica
51nii.li there lire ( , 87 in i.In,.«. »i,„ '^nr iia.
the veur 'UA Ti • ' ' ' '"" '^""ncil in
tne jear .U4. Ihe nineteenth of the Featul
W waf '''""T'"''. that for the Kaste
347, was certainly written in Alcxamlria. On
the whole, It seen,, necessary to accept tie yea
p 190 i ^"'^"^^'I'S in I>iCT. Ciiu. Bioo.
(2) That the council of Sardica was snmmoneil
by the emperor, Constana ami CVnstantTns is
Tn^'c'l^r." ""^^''-^-'C" Athanasirs '^M
the ,1 i're nt^ p' ■"'' ""' " "■»' snn.nioneil at
the des.ie of Paulus and Athanaslus is stated
both by Socrates and Sozomen („.,.)• .1. i
HoslTs of '"".*• "■"' "P'O'*""-' W two 1 , t "'
Hosius of Cordova was president. At the ve.-;
outset, however, as the Western bishops ,i„^
on giving Athan,^ius a seat and a loic" tl o
Eas eras separated and held a rival council at
PMhppopo IS where they conHrmed the d po-
sition of Athanasius, and drew up a creed in
accor ance with the fourth symboLf Ant'och
SAU0HE8
1843
rS^L^i'")!""' P- -"^-J Compare D.MOJf.
p. 54a, and Dkvil, p. 547. [K. st. J. T]
SATURDAY.
VVekk.]
[Saubath ; Saiiiiatdm ;
ThvZ''an,7\^V' ^'>' •"•"• '"' -»«>- wit"
au.riwir, 1 'i "'>"""^>"„r«ted at Alev-
audria (J/i„.<. Ls„ard., //,.ro,., N„tl<er., VVaiid.).
n,.?^ .k"''' ^' """'>■'■ "■'"' P'-fpetUB. Felicita.
Atrica (J)asil. J/,W.); Ma,-, u (,j„gi| ^, ,
here hATUBNiLus); i],,i- 7 t\l,/f i- ,'
anKf i!fA?;^:S:;."C^H?'' ^-"-^
to^hii^i "• """ "'' '"■"" ''■■""ii' >=hi^fs said
(«) May 2, martyr with Neonoli,. com
rn^n,oratedatAle.andi.ia(iA..,U.ua^t>W^
[p. 9.)]. It IS evident that aftei this separation
h counc, nad no claim to be called o^c"n, *?
ical. ihe Irullan counc (c. 2) adouted tho
— ."f Sardica (a, it didSho/eofTarth J
and others which have no pretensions to Ee
oecumenical), as of authority in the l.^tern as
well as the Western church: but tC h„ve
never been formally recognised as oecWenical
Z:Mr- ''h 'r "" h7ha^°e";p Lry
.tated the council to be oecumenical. This
question has been the more hotly debated as
thrn"'-.*' ^ ^T'^ ^^ S"^" *" d/pos d b shop
the privi ege of appealing to Julius, bishop of
Rome It seems doubtful, however, whether the
ouncil intended to do more than confer on .ulu
IV\T"^ P»\- '«K.«. a» an expedient for a t m of
165^%^"""°^^''^.^^ P' 197, Pope
p. Ib58]. The canons of Sardica in Western
JKSS. are commonly appended to those of Nicae"
a^i.'.sr'" "^ '""" '-' ""^'i^
LONCiLltJM), A.D. 521, composed of African
bi hops then in exile there. Their svnS
ettor, in reply to John Maxentius and h?
SiTi" Tsaid' To*h^ ^T "''"" -"h--
FiiU '■ /« ." """^^ ''««n written by St
Fulgentms (Mansi, viii. 591-600). [E. S. Ff^
PEN^m^; jP'-^f' '''='"'''' D^'^'JO". Ser-
pent.) 1 he evil spirit is represented in his soecial
liook of Rells, ma temptation of ou^ Lord
OVestwood, Ang.,. Saxon and Irish MSS.) He
' there a black skeleton-goblin with a tail
fT T,','^'''^ *° "O'l"'' "ncy In the'
Palter of Utrecht (P.. cix. (5) he^'s drawn
'8tand,ng at the right hand " of the wS
»an, apparently in the sense of prevaUin": -er
nd and ^1"""^.*'™ "^ '^' "air^from
voW'e ^n^ i^ "^ '',"" ^'^^ supernatural
t™e bak rse'^m'.'l';"'' •- "'« ™''''<'f
,J}, ''" y ^' •n^'^'y in the reien of Tiainn
(Basil. Meml., Satuiivilus • i/!,, / ! ■'^
Sirlct.). '^'Aiuii.NiLUS, MuiujI. (jracc.
uZs^tf^'f^l.T'^^'^ ' . '""•"•"""'rated with
"lamaiis, hpictetus, and others at Port„»
Komanus ^Mart. Usuard., Vet. £0"'., "LLy
«,iff?M'"^;,""*''-^''' commemorated at Cnpua
I'suard., .ffaron., Notker.). ^
(9) Nov. 29, martyr, under Maximian • com
memorated at Rome on the C s^ ' T."
Sacramentary in all the special prayers for h^^ '
ary the name of Saturninus occurs without tl>«
others ,n the Secreta and Super Oblata '
(10) Nov. 29, martvr at Toulouse in ♦!,.
aj Deciu= (Mart. mu.rCTL.'Xt
(11) Dec. 23, martyr in Crete with T),e».
d«Iusandother.inthL.eignofDe:?ul:'(E^
'^' [G. H.]
8ATYRIANU8 (Satiriancs) Oct ifi
martyr with Martianiis in the Vandal pe'rsecu'
tionm Africa (Jfar*. Usuard., Vet. So^'Xt.
Jrt^^^^ (1)' J""- 12, (Saturus) Arabian .
martyr; commemorated in Achaia (Mart rT
(NoTke;:)"''""- '^'•^-- ^'^-); - ArS
^Alt ?SArR;'.r(25r ""'""• '^'^^'"^'
/-jj'l *'?,"■• 29. martyr in Africa under Genserio
(Mart. Usuard., Adon., r.<. ifom., Notfcer )!
£-ptst. 22 «d Z-u^focA. c. 15). by the Egyptians
to those monks who lived a common iffe
[CoEjJOBiuM ; Monaster^]. [C]
117
m
1844
8AUT.A
SAl'IiA,Oi't.20, viri;in, niiirtyr ;, rnmtnemn-
r»tc(l ai C' ' jgue with Marthc and oth«r» (J/<irt.
Uiuard.)- C^'- "•]
8AURCI, COUNCIT- OFCSaiiriciacum Ton-
CII.ll'M), A.I). .II^O, iillowiiijj I)riictc'(;isilo, bi.4h<ip
of Siiissdiis, tn reurn to bin ((imi'ni', frmn whirh
he hml been driven by the bishdps of his province
for drunkenness four yearB before (Miinsi, ix.
1009). [E.S.Kf,]
SAVINA, ST. [Sabina (2).]
HCAPULARE. A gnrmont to cover the
Bhoulderj' {sc'i/i'ilne), specially in use amoni;
monks. The Kulc (jf St. benedict proviilncl th;it
hi.-i nionksVcre to have a saijviUtre prni'ter i>})i'ra
(c. u:,, I'ltrul. Ixvi 771). This regulation is
cited in the letter written to Charlcmngne by
I'aul the deacon, acting on behalf of Theo<le .,u,
" abbot of Monte Ciissino {Patrol, xcv. 15Ht.). The
writer adds that the dress in question is worn
by almost all rustics in that country. It npptiars
therefore during the hours of work to have re-
phocd the hood or cowl, .as being shorter and
more convenient.
We m;iy compare, as more or less equivalent
to it in (Jreek, iviKafiot, itrwtiiov, iirafidStov,
Karavarloy. See especially Menard's notes to
the Concordia Hcimlarum (c. 62, Patrol, ciii.
1231). [K. S.]
SCEPTRE. [Coronation.]
SCEUOPHYLACIUM. Another name for
the Diaconicum, or sacristy, as being the reposi-
tory of the utensils for divine service, Tck Upa
(TKfirt, and the vestments of the priests, from
which they were brought by the deacons before
tlie commencement of the rites, and to which
they were carried back again by the same
minister after their conclusion, or during the
singing of the post-communion hymn (Chron.
Alexiimlr. p. 892; Cotel. in Const. Apost. lib.
viil. c. 12; Goar, Exicholog. p. 16; Pallad. Vit. S.
Chrysost. 92). The ancient liturgies contain
speci.il prayers to be said by the ministars in this
place. That of St. James gives, dx^ Kfyonivrt
iv T<f crK(uo<pv\aKi<f /nerct tV i.ir6\vaiv. In the
sceuophylacia of the chief churches were de-
posited copies of the imperial edicts and laws
(Novell. Justin. 8, Edict. 1, in Pracfut.). (See
Ducange, Constantinop. Christian, lib. iii. § 87.)
[DiACOSICUM.] [E- V,]
8CEU0PHYLAX. An ccclesia.'stlcKl officer
in the Eastern church corresponding to the
gacrista in the Western, to whom was committed
the ch.irgo of the vessels, utensils, and vestments
belonging to divine service. Such an officer is
spoken of as (C€i/tti)\i((px'?f) ^i^Ao? Toiv KeinriKiaiv
(Soz. //. IC. V. 8), <pv\ai rSiv Ujxev KtninKiuv
(Eustath. Vit. S. Eutych. § 8), or Kpariiv ri
aKfvri rris ixK^vi^ias. The authorities given by
Ducange (siA roc.) shew that though the pare of
the sacred furniture was more commonly entrusted
to a deacon, it was not unusual for a presbyter
to hold the office. The church of St. Sophia at
Constantinople had a large number of sceuophy-
laees attached to it, s.imc of whom were presby-
ters, some deacons, others readers, of whom the
■ chief was called d liiyas (rKtvofiXa^. These were
reduced by Heraclins (610-641) to ten, four
BCIIOLA CANTORUM
presbyters, and six deacons (Codin. ilf Offic. p,
112, ed. lionii). The " gr.at scenophylax " \\m
always a leading ecclesiastic. Codjiuis places
him (>'>»/. c. 1) in the first rank id' the ofliier« of
the church, having a seat in the holy synod with
the patriarch himself. Macedoniiis was s.vimi-
phylnx when he was elected to the 8"e of (nn-
stnntinople (Theod. Lect. //. E. ii.). When tho
pHtriar( h celt brated, the great sceuophylax st.ml
before the sceuophylacium, and supplicil liim
with all that i is needful for the servici -
vessels, books, cunu.es, &c. It was also his iluty
to take care of the ecclesiastical utensils of
churches rleprived of their bishop by de.ith. iiml
to see that all the churches of the city had what
was needl'ul for divine service ((iretser, .dHiir.dij,
aJ Codin. p. 112 ; Suicer, aub Doc). [K. V,]
SCHOLA CANTORUM. At Rome, in early
days, there was established a school for the
education of youths in ecclesiastical chant ami
sacred learning, who shouhl be able to sing the
solemn offices at the several churches of the cit y
on great occasions. It was governed by -n
officer of great dignity and consideration in the
city, who was variously called priinicerius, jiriar
scholae cantoruin, or simply cantor. The origin
of this school has been sometimes thought to be
due to Hilarus (ob. a.D. 407), the successor of
Leo the Great in the see of Rome. Sometimes
it is traced to pope Sylvester (Bona, lin: Lit. I,
XXV. 20). In the Life of St. Gregory the Groat,
however, written by John the Deacon, the crea-
tion of the school is expresr'y nttrihutcd to this
great reformer of the chv^'-'s song himself.
In any case, St. Gregory enuuwed the school—
which, if it existed before, depended on a com-
mon fund — and constructed a residence for it.
His aim appears to have been to abrogate the
pradice which hitherto had, in some degree at
least, prevailed, of the ministers and deacons
themselves executing (often inefficiently, as it
appears) the singers' part. (See Cotw. Rom,
A.D. 595 ; Dccret. Greg. cap. i.) From Rome
the institution spread to other churches, so that
by the time of Charlemagne we find mention of
a schola cantorum at Lyons (Ledrad. Archicpisc.
Lujd. in Ep. ad Car, Mag.). In this school of
Lyons several became so learned, says their
archbishop, that they could even instruct
others, It was Pipin, the father and predecessor
of Charlemagne, who first took measures for the
introduction of Roman chanters into France to
instruct the Galileans, who appear to have been
far less skilled in the execution of their church
music. In a letter of Paul I. to Pipin, the
writer has handed to posterity even the name
of the master of one singing-school thus estab-
lished, as Simeon, who is described as Siiiolae
can'orum Priori. Amongst the several schools
which thus came into being, that of Sletz
seems speedily to have acquired distinction.
For in the time of Charlemagne, we find this
boast of a Frank monk, that, "in proportion
as the Roman chant surpassed that of Metz. so
that of Metz surpassed that of the other
schools of the French." Charlemagne himFelf
ordered the establishment of such schools in
suitable places throughout his empire, with the
object of setting bishops and presbyters free
from the necessity of attending to the music,
and so enabling them to execute their offices
SCHOLA CANTORUM
tw..fve'„fth;::M;;,J'.^,,;;;'-j:r';-H.."s.
faith, an,, ^'^I'l:^:^'^^:^:^'^
I'mM I. ""gory 11., Stephen ]II., and
In tlie time of Stephen VI. we finH ♦),.♦
the house of the Sohola Canto um'.f,ed t
«S« ("prae nimi« vetustate imone in r, inl
posita atque oontracta "). I>„ne C„i, . ' "]
it to a better condition l^'Z^'^r^'^^
ap. Uhbe, v,i, 1796 d, ed. Par. 1G71) '^ '
.hi"r:i;":.^^i^:::;',:;:^';fcantorum
vm XI. oMo 9). Martcne infers from a decree
flrogory the Great that the school included
gea^ns and other in W ministers (y)S
not o,,,,ici,,;;;-,i?,J-f;^4»-ver. does
;Zt^r.[rh"'"7^™''*'""^'''''''^--to"«
"at the . '" 'T'. ^V'h th* Schola Can-
Pf V , prescribed time" (Ludovici Pii
ill ; irT ''"'• "^- J'""''''- 167^, torn!
=&Ko;^t^!tS:rrfB
itn r '7-/«-;^t^J-"Hlii (subdiarni
c nsuei.t (Martene, * ^n/i^. £^,i_ ^.^ , . ^
»)• At ordination in th- dtv nf P-m *• • •
The praecentors of the responsorie. were in
SCIIOOLMASTEn 1845
^s^^:?'-'"-'-'"-"^::uh:{^
L"' ^ • A.J
8(7ror,ASTIOA,Feb, 10. virgin ,i,ternfSf
■ tl. ee,U„r,es. against whoso .xaotio,,, ,„,,.?, ''
hr-.tTT. "'V"':r, ■'■•"^■'"'""■^ "« -- ' in
5oVedi:^mi5t^•^'''■^"'■'''•'''•-•-^
I n . J ' " '■'"'"'■'' *" « "'ember of tl„. b,„lv «
thisTffi/ !• ^'"' P"''"'"" ""d 'luties of
this office o,:.e described by Thomassinus f r!.<u.
et^^va £cctes. Di^cipuJ, edit, no^vol T
■'■ [F. E. W.]
amicus, Ca/,«< Sc/,ol,ie, Capischolus (in Franca
sometimes Capiscolus). Very few rh.i ft
durinir (K« «,!.» ^ ^^ *" Christians
nuring the first four centuries, appeared to
have belonged to the profession ;f the " g 'a,, °
mate " or the " rhetores," as teachers nf tL
traditional pagan learning Of thb he mm
parative rarity of Christian mon imnt,!^'
as that of a " grammaticus " is significant
176.t), p. 115] gives one of these rare excen-
t.ons; and Martianus, a prnsbyter of the" sect
nf the Noratians, is mentioie.l bV Socrates (//I
V 9) as teaching ypan^/^ari^ot,! \6yov! to the two
laughters of tiie emperor Valens. But, in gone ral
th necessity under which those who aZ,ted
his prolession found themselves of expoun in?
the pagan mythology and observing the p Z
festivals seems to have deterred the ChrE
, ^a^cWfr<,n, entering upon such a career^::
The appointed teacher of a school, from the
5th century onwards, whether monas ic o, enis
copal was generally known as the ^'tZ^.
cus, or, m France, as the "capischolus," or
"eapiscolus." In the cathe.iral schools he ^Z
always selected from the body of the canons
or Magister Scholae "), and was generallv one
of the senior members, and one whi.c ™"L°"'
aud ife were especially approved (Kculfel, Ifst
l^urum, pp. 248-249). The "JlaV^er
Scholae IS mentioned among seven officials
the hebdomadarii," who, in turn, once a week
6 c a '
;-!i I
.Jl[
f^m
■ ' Pllr
I Aim
1840
BCIIODLfl
r I
WHi'H fiiUcil ^i|«)n til ii'li'liiati' "nmiiiri'm mUinm''
(Mni'leuv, liti Ant. AVc. IlitiliUH, i. IJtl),
^ [.I. U. M.]
HCHOOI-S. Kiluiatliin iiii)i>n« Chriitinn <mm-
muiiitiiiit iliirhiK tlm (ir«t I'l^ht centurim muciin-
livuly iiiiHiiiiii'n I'liiir vi'iy ilMtinct yhiw*. Klmt,
UK Uiniti'il til iimtriirtiiili in tlio r.pii i»l tiMii-tH nl tli«
tlhiiitiiiii I'liitli, mill iilliiKi'tliiT iliniiiriiUi'il I'riim
gei'uliii' ciluiHtiiiii ; K'MiMiilly, ii» fiiniliiiii'il with
tiitKiui inllmu, Biiil nimiiix i\t IV imrtiiil niininilin-
timi 111" the tlinlitiiiiin nl' tlint niltiili' witli its
own; tliiiilly, «• iiltniiiitluT tilminliining any
■mil ultiiiiiit, mill rcittiii liiiK itm'll' t" ii-liuiniis
dmliiiii', mill til tlio iiii|iiiriiiiiMit» iliii'itly mili-
■urvii'iit til tliB |iiiriiiimiii ol' tlu' iliTinil or tlie
miiii.iiitio lil'd; limrtlily, nil ri'miminK in miiiic
meiiniiro tliii viiiliiT mul liinie litii'ial riimi'iitinii,
Bii>l iimiiiriHtiiiK "" •'tivity luoiluctive uf ini-
iHirtiiiit ulti'i'-iimiltii.
I or tliu I'liriiitiiiii liinliiip "f tho |iriniitivc
Cliuirli it wi\» iiMiiiiii!il, nut only tlmt he shouM
hiniiti'lC hu "ii|it til ti'iiih," lint iilmi that he
■hiiiilil iii'iiviilii I'lir till' «iiiiitnal iimtructiuu nf
hid limit. Fur this piiriiime he wnii wont to
ii'li'it, iiltiir tho ciiKtiiiii of luvKiiii iiliiliisiiphurs,
thiim! mniiiiK lim Jimiplim who liy uniii'rior iic-
.liiirtmontu mill tlu' jiiiKm'imiiiii "f the I'lanlty of
t.'iiihin|{ si'iiini'il Biiiniitilly iinalitieil I'urthe work.
Tho niothml of instriiitioii was iiitei.hi'ticnl, ami
• Hoiiil H|iuiiiiioii lit' itii character ami raiiKo
will 1)0 I'liunil in tho KoTt)v^|'«'i ♦ci(Tifu^«V«i',
or li'L'tureii to eateihniiioiis, ili-livt'reil in A.D. 'MH
by t-^yril, al'terwaniii hidinp of Jerusalem, when
tt'ill ' only ft pri'iiliytur (Miitno, latr. Serica
Oraeca, xxxiii. y.'iti). Tho siiliji'itu of his ilia-
courses, such as tho Seconil Cvitiiiig of Christ,
tho Holy Spirit, the Ihiiirnittioii, Divine I'royi-
douco, ill'., shew that they were ilesifjueJ for
those who linil iiassed bcyoml the elementary
»taK'e of iliictrlnal knowluilnB. AuKUStine, in like
manner, at a somewhat Inter 'lerioil, was accns-
tomeil to draw armiml him in his episcopal
house tho most promising? of the youiiger
clorijy, ami instrmt them in the .Scriptures,
those" who had hei'U thus privilei;ed hoing spe-
cially nought after to till the .lill'erent oilices
of the Church In Africa (I'ossidius, li<a Aui/.
c. x'u). .
From this mothoil of systematic instruction by
the bishop, the school lis a di.stinct institntinn
was a natural development. Of their organ-
isation and methoil of iustructinn an account
will be found under l'Ari.Clui.MKN8 ; and a full
descriptiim of the must celebrated of their
number in Ai.kxandru, CATKCiiKricAL School
OK. Origen, when driven from Alexandria,
founded siich a school at Ciu'sarea in Palestine ; it
fell into decav, but was restored by his friend
Pamphilns, who bestowed on it a valuable
library (Kucebins, //. /v. vii. 27 and 30). Other
examples are perhaps to be recognised in a
iihiiol established at .lerusalem by Clemens
Alexandrinus, about the year 'JOO, over which
Cyril, above mentioned, subsequently presided ;
in that which KhiHlnn (the last teacher of the
school at Aloxnmlria*) founded in the reign of
• That the catechctlciil whoolof Alexandria bad ceased
to exist with tho close of the Hfth century appears,
M Guerike points oui, to be a iieccssarj Inference from
CttMloJorui, fra^. ad lU Imt, Oin. Lilt. Xligne, I'atr.
1U.HT.
SCHOOLS
TheiHloalua the Onnt at SiiU in ramphyll,!
(Uuirike, Sihiil. Alv.r. i. IIH); in that whb li it
has been supposed Irenai-us founded at l.u>!ilii-
Muin (bainjeinark, lli.it. Oitirh. I. I'ltl)) and in
that which Tertullian (Jr Hiiptiano, c. \H)
appears to imply existed at CarthsKO in th« :iril
century.
Of such institiitinns the one at Alexmilni
may Im accepted as the typo, and I'rnui tliat li,-
tiniiiishe.' ceutre Christian education iimiiil.-
derived its inspiration diirinu tho tirst tin.-
centuries. In Alexaudria itself, however, tin;
instruction smm advanced beyond the imiil,
doKiiiatic character; tho dangers with wlihii
the faith was menaced by Jewish and \n.:m
o|i|ionents, an I bv the heresies of the <inl■^tll;i
almost necessarily imposing on tlie Cliristi.iii
teacher the obligatiuii of assuming a wider ruiige
both of culture ami teaching.
With respect to the foregoing kind of instrur-
tion, it is important to observe generally tlmt it
forms a characteristic featuro of early i'iiii>-
timiity, t/iv eJuciUiuit i>f yiiutk Imimj vnHjitl.d l,i
th: ministers of rMjion. Among pagan imn-
munities, whether Oreek or Uomau, the fumti.iu
of the priestly ollice were limited to the 8ii|iir-
intemleuce of religious ceiemonial or the intir-
pretatiou of signs and oracles; of any iiistniitinii
of tho people iu the traditions of their luitli we
tlnd no trace.
il. The views expressed by the earlier teailipin
of the Church with respect to the abatnu t valu.'
of jiagan learning are somewhat viigne and »ttun
coullicting in character. It is obvious, howevor,
that the general conditions under which Chris-
tianity existed at this perioil were such as tu
render any attempt at founding separate sclnmis
of general instruction uuadvisable if nut iin|r.is.
sible. Those parents, therefore, among the
Christian community, who could all'ord thu
expense, sent their sons to the immmsiuin. uiiilur
the care of a paedagogus, to share with paitaa
youth tho crdiiiary instruction of the time. Tliis
fact is one which must not be lost si^lit of in
any endeavour to estimate the inllueiices umltr
which the teaching of the earlier Fathers was
conceived.
In the first century, intercourse with Greoct
had already somewhat extended the narrow
limits of Komnn education both in Italy ami in
Gaul (Horace, S,tt . I. vi. 71; A>p. 11. ii. 41),
and the elementary acquirements of reailiiij,
writing, and arithmetic, were followed by a
certain amount of instruction in the Gicek lan-
guage and literature. Quintiliaii (I. i. r.i),
indeed, advises that such instruction shoull
precede the study of the Ijitin tongue, inasmuch
as a command of the latter could be aci|uiieJ
without any formal teaching whatever ; ami we
learn from Tacitus (de Claris Urat. c. 'iO) that,
probably with the same view, it was custiniiaiy
for the children of the wealthy to have a Greek
nurse.
In the days of the emjure schools were oftivo
kinds— an elementary and a higher grade. .U
the elementary school (that of the " gramma-
tint? " " magister," or " litterator," styleil bf
Tcrtlilliau (ile^'Pallio, c. 5) " litteiarum'liriiiws
informator ") the scholars were taught to read
intelligently, and with correct acceutuatinu the
poets and orators (Quint. I. i. 24 ; I. viii. 1),
and also acquired a certain knowledge of
SCIIOOIJ?
pu.m„i ,i,„in.i.i,.,, ...,„„„„i,.,i „,.. ';;„l 7 ,^';
;.u.l ,,o..„„, „,„| j,,„„ ,„„|i,„.,'.,,. ,j !;•
th.n h,.,-lc a«,.i„ i„t„ f(r..,.|,. |-„,l..r tl,. ^,1,,?
..tther,..t.,rth,.v,.„n, I .h,.,„,.. „ , T, I .
tlon«(..,>,.ly '■rH,.», „„,| „,,,w,,„i,,u i„,,,, ' ,
of ,l,.„, ,u-,| «„t „r,). th.. wh„l..fr«i„i„« , „
r.^.r.Mu,..t,,t(M.r,.,,,,in,,n,,„,,,,f,,,,, ,■,,,,,,, ^^ ,^,
«nl .'-!). rh- anthnr, stu.li.M w,.io .liintlv
H.,r n, M..nH>.,|,.r, „n,l 'IVr,,,,,.. ; tl,,- sLvuZ
rhu,y,li.lo«, Cat,,, atul .Sallunt. H..v,„„| thj, „»
lch(MiU' <>l Hturly hiiH cnmo .Idwn tu iih nn,l if ia
?!■ "''"/.''"t the t.a,:l,„r ,el„.te,J hi,;: , , a
hia 'iwn (liN(Teti(in.
S.M ;h waj. th« chararter nf tho o,|,„.atinn that
preva,l,.,i thn,UKhn„t tho n.oro rivilis..,! part, of
I.il«-rally ai.lo.l nn,| on.lnw,.,! I,v th« »tat.. in „„-
ri..»,ve enactment, of Ha.lrian/Marrn, Anroli,,,,
Ve,|,a.L,n, Val-ntinian I., Oratian, an,l Th,..,.
(io.,ni,, ,t wa, far too gonornllv .liiru,o,| an,l too
es,|.nt,al a .•oii.l.tion of 8ur.:;.s, i„ ,„,i«l an,l
puhh. life toa.lm.t ofit, roj,.,tion bv tho Chri,-
i.n, of tho,« .lay,, Tho r ,.,M,i,i,',n of Chri,-
tnmty by the state ,i.,e, n.,t a,,,„.ar to have
rr.>,lu,.e,l any ,„,M.n ohan^.o in th'.,e ..„„,|:tion,.
n t'onW ?f "'V'"Pi'-"- "^ 'h,.y wore torn.e.l.
not only c„,,t,m>o,| t.i exist, but .naintained their
tra.|ition8nfe.luoali,in unmo,lifi,.(l. At Athon,
w ore the two ,eh.,.,l, („„« f,,,- rhetoric the
other for philosophy) foun.le.I l.v Man,,, Anre-
l.«, ro,,re,entu,l a k.n.l of nniversitv, were
gathered many of the mo,t aspiring intellect, of
the time I)i..d.,r,„ of Tars,,,, GroRorv Na/ia„.
zon,' St. Hasil and the emper,.r Jniian attended
-he same school, and perhap, sat t.,sether on the
Mine bench (Baronins, iii. <i87 ; liasil, Kp. HIi)
The author of the (Jrook Life of f!r..L'orv- tell, u,
that he and Ba,il cuile.l the H.-wor of^hetoric
r'.'" ^' '"« 'he fal,ity of the art (Mi^no
ttiT ,?,'T™' •'■•V'; '^!"'^' "" "'^" «»»♦"'' that
t^.«r studies inchuled grommar, philosophy,
miisio, geometry, and astronomv. ^
The system of instruction piirsued at Athens
-eems to have formed the mo.lel for the h ^h"
nn-tj"n througho,,t the empire. A sin'lar
lim,,«h less famous school at Home, founded by
the emperor Hadrian, wa, known as the Athe-
«,„n. Here, in the time of the emperor
»'th great success, and after him, Aspasius.
SCHOOLS
1847
b It Is important to remember that throughout our
P«r,«l the term "grammadcus " de„ote,l «,meti,Z
much more than a teacher of grammar in tl^ m", "n
Km. being really equivalent ,o ., .„„cher of ■■ ';
'i^'ll JT" "'™'«°'"'"' '■■««'*■ <i- cla,>ischtn I'/iiloloalt
' (fllilcist. Vit.v .9„,,A,:,/ ',H'I ll"7\ M,,
^'an,„ ,.„jovod a ike |„ ',' 1, """"" »'"' ""'
ll|'-|lno,,fin,tr,,ct,,rinpagan,ch.,,dHw,,ull
PI ... to have b,..,, pr„s,,.ib..d bv the lather,
Xl.,n «|th the rolljfio,,, belief „,„| prg,,,!,,, "(
pauamsm : " (Maerondun, auton, ,.,t •' ,«v, ' Vr
:; !''"';'''i'''-lHudin,.,Kis,,.|s t\l",..t,. :
r'm r ''""■•"7'"' '"'" ""» ''•"'it^nd.M
tl , In. T '"""," "-■ i'l-'.datriae " (,/'.
/""(. c. (I ; Migiie, J',it,„l. i. »l7:l-075) Ti,^
I" iido,ii the 9.hooli„,„„ „,i,j, ij,„.|a„ds • the H,«>
pavnent of a now s..hoIar wa, ,l!vot" ..Mini.,'.':'
now year, the fe,t,t, of the Seven Hill, i^^d'
I Hummer s.dsfice wore all ma.le ..cca,i ,„,7, r
p,vs.M,tatio,, o,' gifts fro,„ t,,„ ,^^X''l
^"* hull inngistor.
\Vhen, howive,-, it came to a question of the
an^f'tToi' •■'"""'"■"^'' «* these 'school," o„
>art . f the K.arnor, even Tertullian shrank f,„„,
ntordicting the advantage, of ordinary Xca n
o ,rist„jn youth : ■• g„o„„„,„ ropudiim,;" .' u"
8 nt,- (,,.). He accord ngy ilecide, tb^.f tl,a
Christen scholar m..yt...^,i:ent'^r
t. taLlK I''*^^" /'";'•'«■•"*)•, and he enjoin, him
t« take the g.i.Hl and to reject the bad " even „.
one who knowingly receiv;!, pois.,n f ,'m a , U>o
k.,.."? '* "V'- '"' '•«'■'•''""' <r<.mdrinkh,gi "
Hence it was," observe. Dr. Newman " tb^t n
atto, d the heathen seho.ds for the a.^quisition of
«oc,,lar a,;com,dishn,o„ts, whore, as no le "an
attend on m..xe,l education now. The gravest
fathers recommended for Christian youth the use
of pagan master,; the most saintly bishops and
most authoritative doctors ha.l been sent Ttheir
ad.lesce,.e
nails (/,/,.„ of a Unk-irsity, p. 9)d
During the Krst three centurie,, therefore the
Christian parent justified himself „ se.'C hi,
son, to pagan school, on the ground "•^^mDe
necessity, and while Christiana doct ine wt
tc 'ch° r'of lllfT"' '"""'''" "'""•«'' "hfch the Chr.„),n
1 !. o, ''"^ ■"■'lutrcd Insiruciion, Chrywstom l« »
Koud "..stratiou. having been educa ed Tn reZiluJ
knowledge by his mother, in rhetoric by Liban usTn
philosophy by Andraguthlas, and finaUy in,,r ucted n
Cbri>ta„ doctrine by Miletiu,, niodoru,.'^«Ld K-^^
(see K,hn, Aelt. chrull. nchuUn. p. 60). '""*«"'>»
IK.
til
■1
,,;Ji
i \
:i ,1
v^HI
1348
SCHOOLS
tauglit by Christiiiu teachers, secular knowleilije
was suuglit ill tlie ordiuary clianiiuls (Asseiiiaim,
DihlMtli. Orient. HI. ii. !)J;!)- Hiit iu the ineaii-
tiiiie, the far more dillieult question of the
desirability of stuilying, at auy perioil of lil'e, the
])Voiluetious of payau genius and learning, was
debated with considerable ardour, and at the
time that Cliristauity received the recognition of
the state, remained still undeci.led. While a
Cyprian insisted on the wide distinction between
Christian doctrine and pagan philosopliy {ad
Aittim. Migne, iii. 782), a Celsus reproiiched liis
Christian antagonists with their hostility alilie
to learniug, wisdom, and thought (Origen, adc.
Ccts. h\i. vi.). At Alexandria, on the other hand,
the study of pagan authors was warmly defended.
Clemens cites iu its defence the worils of Christ
(John XV. 1-10), which imply that the vine must
be trained and pruned, and the soil cultivated,
and argues, that as the physician who studies
otlier arts is thereby better qualified for the pro-
fession of his own, so the Christian who fami-
liarises himself with other modes of thought will
be all the better able to distinguish the alloy of
error from tlie fine gold of truth {Strom, i. 9 ;
Migne, Series Graeca, viii. 7^9). These views,
says Dr. Newman, were advocated in the early
ciiurch, " not with the notion that the cultiva-
tion which literature gives was auy substantial
improvement of our moral nature, IaU as tlwrehy
vpciiin:! the mind and rcndcrinif it susceptible of an
appeal ; not as if the heathen literature itself
had any direct connexion with the matter of
Christianity, but because it contained in it the
scattered fragments of those original traditions
which might be made the means of introducing
a student to the Christian system, being the ore
in wliich the true metal was found " (Arians,
p. 88).
It appears to be beyond doubt that, notwith-
standing isolated protests, the education of the
clergy throughout the fourth century, and even
after that time, continued to be of this more
liberal character. Besides the conspicuous
instances already noted, we find .lerome, iu a
remarkable letter to the monk Kusticus, speaking
of the education of the latter as having been
commeuced iu Gaul aud completed at Rome, " so
that the dignity of the Roman discourse might
attemper the copiousness aud elegance of the
Gallic " (Migne, xxii. 935). Of Jerome himself
it is to be noted that he received instruction at
Rome from Douatus the grammarian (ib. xxiii.
472). Lactantius (t aft. 317), Arnobius (f circ.
300), Ambrose (t 397), Augustine (f 430),
Hilary of I'oitiers (f 367), educated at his native
city, Hilary of Aries (f 449), Sidouius ApoUi-
naris (t 489), Salviau (f 495), are all examples
of ancient writers and ecclesiastics who, while
strenuous defeuilers of Christian doctrine, had
received their intellectual training in schools
which followed the traditions of pagan culture.
In the meantime the growing importance
attached by the church to the whole question
of education, is attested by the language of its
most eminent teachers. " Parents," says Chrysos-
tom. "will inquire ''urefully when they hire n
herdsman, as to his fitness for the work, but
will take little trouble when engaging a tutor
for their children, althoiujh there is no function
of ijreater im/iortance than this" {Horn, in Matt.
ed. BB. vii. 605). Elsewhere (i6. xi. 159), he
SCHOOLS
says that a good education is the best legacy
that a parent can beciueath to a son.
This increased interest in the subject was the
natural result of the fact that tli; task of
educating the young now began ti> be more and
more confiiled to the clergy. We find tliat
Julian, when at Jlacellum, was instructed iu
the Scriptures by rots v(pT\yy)ra!s tui/ ayiuiv
riia<piiv (Sozomen, v. 2) ; and according to
Socrates (//. E. iv. 9) the two daughters of the
emperor Valeus were instructed by Martiauus, a
presbyter of the sect of the Nuvatiaus, in
yrainiiuir, — ypanfiariKovs \6yovs.
The policy of Julian (A. D. 361-36 'i)uiiJii"litedly
tended to precipitate the decisive struggle as
well as to embitter all subsequent discussion of
the question. He apjiear.s to have noted with'
displeasure the growing influence jf the Chris-
tian teacher, and to have sought to convert the
scruples of the church with respect to ]>agau
literature into a pretext for excluding her
minister's from all sliare iu secular educatiiiii.
The Christian, he asserted, if really conviiicod
that the deities whom the great writers of
antiquity worshipped were unworthy of sudi
adoration, could hardly be a fit expoumler cf
the pagan literature. To expound Homer aud
at the same time denounce what Homer held to
be most sacred and venerable, was malevclfut
and base. He accordingly advised the Christian
teachers to restrict themselves to the work of
the catechists," or, as he expressed it, " to
expouncfing Matthew and Luke in the churches
of the Galileans" {Ep. 42; ed. Heyler, p. 81).
According to Socrates (//. jF. iii. 12 ; Migne,
Series Graeca, Ixvii. 412), he also enacted a law
excluding Christians from the work of puldic in-
struction, and the motive he himself assigned
for this enactment is especially deserving of
note, namely, t/mt by beiiuj thus prevented frum
aciiuirinij dialectical s/iill they might be reiidcied
incompetent to contend iu argument witli their
pagan antagonists.
The short reign of Julian was succecdoil by
that of Valeutiuiau I. (a.d. 364-307), who pru-
claiined general religious toleration, and that
of Gratian (a.d. 367-383), who was the avowej
defender of Christianity. The former, iu the
year 364, rescinded the prohibitory law of
Julian (Coof. T/icod. ed. Haenel, p. 1322); while
the latter, aided by Ausonins, who was of Chris-
tian faith, and had taught both as a grammarian
and a rhetorician at Bordeaux, reorganised the
schools of the empire, and, as far as it lay iu his
power, sustained and invigorated the traditions
of pagan education (ifc. vi. tit. 13 ; Ilacncl, p. o45 ;
see also pp. 1321, 1322).
A certain dislike and suspicion of the dialectic
art is discernible from a very early period iu
the church. Irenaeus, alluding probably to tlie
Basilidians, complains of those who oppose the
fu'tli with an Aristotelian word-choppiiig
{minutiloiiutum), and excess of refinement in
argument {ado. Ilaer. ii. xviii. 5). Tortulliaa
styles Aristotle " miser " on account of hi*
invention of the traditional logic {de J'raescrip.
c. 7). Athanasius, in his treatise on the Niceue
• " Inter quae erat ilnid Inelemens quod docere vetutt
mogistros, rhetoricos, ct graiiimaiicoa Chrlstiarms, ol
transis-entailuuminuiucultum' (Auinilan. Martellimu
XXIV. iv. 20).
:he best legacy
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decreos, speaks of Theognostus as advan.in,,
certain 0|,iDiun.s with respect to fh.i^
nature not a., his deliberate' conVtibut't
way of exercise ia areument /,! j 7
wrote with a like design, i, CvrlfL'r
(Migne, Series Graol LVm^lTlt
tusebius 3|,eaks of those who "are i™ 1 f ^^
Christ and adulterate the fai I, , ,'S'"™»' "f
figure of the syil "um thth'^lil h"? ''"" "■"'
their heresy "(//'V'" 07. T " ""''■'.'"'*
the -'campL rhetoriJ'eSii •■U^XZ'^T
dialectonnn," and the "4. Lt Vr "''"''''''
with the ,dai„ and si , ,le it'Zt:^ S 'h'^ "
L. Aetius, thf IVLTa^'tiyin^r -ur;
on the categories of Aristotle (//. /TT'
Migne, heries Graeca, livii. 297 ; see also W *■'
V. 10. and So^omen, N. E. vii. 2' " tL tw^
Gregones ■' says Dr. Newman {La,^s7 ; m
"Basil, Ambrose, and Cyril, protest with ^'
voice against the dialecti^-s oV ';h; '^ Vp tn^
and the sum of their declarations s l^L
expressed by a writer of the 4th cen .rv
(Epiphanms, Haer. Ixii. 69), who call, ArUf »7
'the bishop of the Arians.' •• L:"!'' 'ate :
he seventh centurv we find Theodorus Rhai
tuensis declaring tliat hia opponent Severus of
Antiooh estimated a theologian according trhs
knowledge of the categories, and " of the ot W
rehnements of pagan philos'oph;- Uln^
Migiie, S. G. xci. 1S04). ^ -"luirn.
r«V*''%'^!?f' ""i".?'*" the tendency of the
Greek and the Oriental mind towards subtle
squisition this dialectical culture appears to
have hehl its ground much longer than amonl
the Latin races. Socrates the'historian who
practised as an advocate in Constant" lonle
recommends the cultivation of the art a a
means of defeating the enemies of the fdtl with
the ,• own weapons, especiallv, he adds as thp
*o,.,pt,,res themselves dj not t^ach Co dlE.
.r 441 td ^'' ^f'^ "f I>"ryleum in the
year 441 had, according to Evagrius. taught
elf .Th'V" ';"."''= ''^'^^'' andlva ed hfm
S:[yc'hes"""'^''^^ "'*'•''"' '"*'"-«'f"tation
• Among the earliest authoritative utterance,
marking the transition from th pagan t,th
C r.ti an theory of education is' that of St
fc ') d t"n.Hv ''r y?^''' '''*' "**' N.W
i :m' 1, •'• :f ' ,*.'J' """"^'''^ «-^i"'" that
a I on. actions ,n this life are to be conceived
Cfl'^rr '"•■ l"- '"f ""'■ "« neverthJes
ncnl,,itfs a certain degree of attenticm to the
Fe Xire^'eir'r'*'","""''^^^ ^-- -^enc
rsi;'i'!!^>-'''«'»^'heKg;^;t£
The language of the Apostolical Constitntics,
listn, tioi of catechumens, is authorititiv»
«?ainst the reading „f p' author t! I
enjom the Christia'n di.cfpl'e to^-tfrl ^2
^m
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1S49
ot'^lt!ZZTLl'T" """* P'*^""" ""d those
,«r» , '"^"'""' <" the tame cUm i„ ihe Chrutian
S J ""'" "'"""«''■ t*« AiosioL.CAt Con J
ft'clf^' "^ i'" ^'■'"^^•"" (^Post. Const.
A D ''ayt'^'q';";'' of Ambrose (bishop of Milan,
^^ 7N^s t!;:^=r:,=i^"
^Sant'of thXir^er^ri,"^/^--' r
eminent bishop «f J:di:e" at"in1i^ ' ft^^ eS
DelieveU, in a dream, recalled him to a sense
sacred authors (£■„ yrf AW,w, Ir •'
41fii» «„ <■ L^ ■C'tttot'A. Migne, xxii.
Ve^il was a necessity, a concession which may
m the classical authors (especially Vergin and
."lit''; ''f " •-'» (^^heri, a.si ,::j::2i^
educa';;on,''he'Sself^'tenru?r.t/r^^»'-'^
Miene xxii oj7x A \ , "', (™ ■'-'"'"n'O'im,
^emus^murLncan. As this obviously implie.
of ^tifT'T ',^ k!""" experience is recordod^K^i^;;^
,!!■:>
ili!
1850
BCH00T.8
il
I
♦ he study of the authors themselves, it is eviJent
that at the close of the 4th century a great
jiropurtiou of the classical writers were still
read with considerable care.
In his letter (circ. A.D. 397) to Magnas (a
Roman rhetorician who, at the instigation of
Rutlinns, had ventured to ask Jerome why he so
often introduced allusious to profane literature
in his writings), we are presented with what
may be termed the stock arguments whereby
such culture on the part of the Christian clergy
has been defended ever since his time. He
alleges that even Moses and the prophets borrow
somewhat from the " books of the Gentiles."
He (juoti's the opeuing verses of the Hrst chajiter
of Proverbs, Titus, i. 12, and the other Pauline
quotations from Aratus and Menander as further
examples. Then he brings forward the justifi-
cation allorded by Cyprian, Origen, Kusebius,
A|)olliniiris — "lege eos, et invenies nos coui-
jiaratiime eorum imperitissimos ; " he refers to
Josephus and Philo, and, finally, cites the
precedents set by Quadratus, Justiu Martyr,
Dionysius, Tatiau, Irenaeus, Clemens, Origen,''
Basil, (jlregory Xazianzen, Amphilochius, &c. —
" qui onmes in tantum philosophorum doctriuis
atcjue sontentiis suos resarciunt libros, ut nescias
quid in illis primum admirari debeas, eruditionem
saeculi, an scientiam Scripturarum." In the
Latin Church he brings forward the examples
of Tertullian Minucius Felix, Arnobius, Hilary,
and .luveucus, and finally forestalls the possible
objection that such learuing was only resorted
to in controversies with pagan antagonists, by
observing that it is apparent in nearly .(// the
writiih/s' ii( those whom he has named {ad
Miiiiimiii, Migne, xxii. 4'2()-4:!0).
It is questionable, however, whether, with
advancing age, Jerome's views did not assume a
third and yet more austere i)lmse. We find
him, for example, recording with manifest exul-
tation the neglect into which "the phih)8ophy of
paganism, Plato and Aristotle, was alreaily fall-
ing (Migne, xxvi. 487), while in his Commen-
tary on the Kpistle to the Kphesians (vi. 4) he
unsparingly rebukes those bishops and presbyters
who, iu.stead of instructing their sons in the
faith, make them study pagan authors, read
comedies, and sing coarse songs, and this, too,
at the cost of the Christian Church, the offerings
of the devout poor thus finding their way into
the hanils of the grammarian or rhet<prician to
be la\ished ou profane and even immoral iu-
dulgenoi's (Migne, xxvi. ()6i)).
The views of Angustine much resembled those
of Jerome, but his literary sympathies were less
ardeut. He altogether comlemned the lighter
literature of antiquity, and in his Cunfessiuns
(i. 17) lie refers with penitential contrition to
the pleasure which, in his youthful days, he had
taken iu the study of the Latin poets. The
slight evidence of a certain care for letters, such
as his anxiety for the formation of a library
(£■/). iW, Migne, xxxiii. lO'Jli), aud the solicitude
which he is said by Possidius (Vita, c. M) to
have shewn for its preservation after his death
SCHOOLS
do not certainly prove anything with respect to
classical authors. On the other hand, it is un-
deniable that the sanction of Augustine was
given in very explicit terms to the -stuily of
rhetoric and to that of the graver writers of
antiquity ; and two passages in his '.^ Z'Mtrimi
Christiiimt became " loci classic! " in later nges
whenever it was sought to defend the study of
pagan literature in the Church.' Of these, the
first enforces the precept that the writings of
the philosophers of iiaganisni, wherever they are
found enforcing what is in agreement with the
faith, may safely aud advantageously be ad:ipted
to the Christian use, just as the Israelites, when
they went forth from Kgyjit, though they left
behind thein the idols and superstitious of their
masters, took with them the g<dd and the
raiment (ii. 40; Migne, xxxiv. 6:i). The semnd
passage (iv. 2) points out the value of a kiiuw-
ledge of rhetoric to the Christiau preacher.
HI. The course of events after the death of
Augustine, when Gaul, Italy and Africa alike
became the prey of the barbarian, involved the
overthrow of the imperial schoids. From this
time, at least iu the two first-named countries,
the profession of the grammarian and the
rhetoriciau, as that of a distinct class, ajipeais to
have gradually died out, while the culture which
they represented survived only in a few rar.t aud
isolated instances among Christian writers and
scholars, who, like Claudius Marius Victor,
Sedulius, Pomerius of Lyons, Prosjier, Claudius
Mamertus, and Avitus of Vienne, sought to i;ive
to their discourses a certain rhetorical enibellish-
meut, or still cultivated the art of original
composition. Whatever of education continued
to exist among the laity rarely conqirised any-
thing more thau reading, writing, aud ordinary
computation. The work of imparting this
elementary instruction was carried on chiefly in
the episcopal or cathedral schools which bisl,y)is,
by virtue of their office, were recpiired to insti-
tute in the chief city of their respective dioceses,
in order that youths might be educated for the
priestly oliice and the laity receive a eertiiin
grounding iu the knowledge of the faith, 'fhe
considerable political power which, at the oom-
mencement of the 6th century, the episenpal
order still retained in Southern (iaul eiiuUed
them effectually to protect these institnthms.
In the year 529, at the council of Vidson, we
have evidence that it was sought to raise the
standard of education among the clergy by re-
quiring that priests in charge of parishes, aecDrd-
ing to the custom of Italy, should receive
" readers " into their houses and eilucite them
there (Sirmond, i. 22tj). It appears to be a
legitimate inference from the foregoing ciinnn
that, prior to the Lombard invasicui, the cduea-
ticui of the clergy in Italy was carried nn in
a regular and systematic manner, and tlnit an
endeavour was made to introduce a corresponding
system into Gaul.
The conquest of Africa by the Vandals (A.D,
429) does not appear to have been attended. hy
h If the date asslnned to this letter by tlie Benedictine
editors lie correct, this mention of Ori(;( ii, after the dis-
pute Willi Uu<Huu8 with refl|«ct to tbe ortliodoxy of the
Alejuuidiiue teacher, is somewhat remarkable. (*««
Ebert, tf««cfc,a. v/uoUiolirUU. Lit. p. 3W.)
' Compare with Hiese p«ssr.g« f's==i.i.inriis, <.'<■ !«!'..
Div. Lilt. c. 28 (Migne, I'atr. Ixx. 551), :uiil Itjilianii)
Maurus, <le Inttitutiont clericorum (iiptra, eii.('"lvi'ner,
vi. 41). the latter quoting Augustine wi lunit any
ucknowledgmeut, — a frequent practice iu ttie midiUt
ages.
! ;
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Martiaiius Capella, a rhet„ri,ri, nf , ■ A
l«.reo.a.wt..:^a^;;:;i^s;::,:-^:;!
ho author's time it c«uti„ue,l to e.Vi , ^,u ''
^nsive ,.„,„, arity as a manual of 1 ,„ j,;
JJ 6). Pelicianus appears as an eminent
'»'•"■, "^ S':"""""'-. whose schoo „!^""fV;'
queuteJ both by the sons of the Van als and
those of IJoman extraetion (Dracontius, "' W'/arf
Illjhn.). Diacoutius himself was a / \ e
48+-4%); and theChristian mother of Fuleenu"s
s sad by his biographer, Ferreolus, to a 'e
caused her sou to co,„„,it t„ memory 'the wWe
Homer, together with large nor ,o ^ if
Me , under. Alter this early training i G ee
Ju gentius ;yas initiated into Latin literam-n
aud iMirsued the study with t hV I ■'
aa™nta^sofhomei„st^eU;"\^\^i;;;:
ait,., aujitouo (Migne, Ixv. 119i.
V ith the advance of the 6th centnrv (h„
study of pagan literature and the t Sl.s of
pasan education had become yet further crcnnf
M m Latin Christendomfaud th oft'l 't J
t-iitiousofeducationrfr:;iii:ivS;itho:?
youth (probably of theSlu'd"TL\'' CWi' ^ '^f
Aries had .nst.tuted and promoted in A.niUne^
wore in existence in the time of Ck "he "/
(i.D Oi:i 028), and of Dagobert (a.d e' 8 63S '
which excited the emulation of othr lands W^'
aru ,„, , , „„ ^,^^, authority of Bede
at 6,gebert, king of the Kast Angles U^D slT)
be. g anxious on his return from exile to
mn,uue, "set up a schoo for youth tn ho
h manner of that country " (Baeda,^ /f "
"■iKitt.odoxj, but also to adopt a theory of
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':
If!
1851
Scriptural interpretation whi.h involv.,1 „ i-
theory, and timrl.t ,, 'J^'" " >-' Alexandrine
ticaiL.,^:;:??!;:^!:;;^^^:-;^^thegr_^
gi.r:Sui^''''f ^-■""*^^. ^- tn !^
N^atd1£ :• ';;;f,/--';';«'-^ -hlch' re.
ru.-i.edinte,iecr(S':;!!r/o;;r:;it
^inXtathlt'r'"''"?''^*^-""--
; uit lact that he was also the antho.- „f
a time :" ,' ''.''^'^'f "'["-ei'tion of learning. F„r
rS). *■ ''^""'- "* *'»'"'». Mig,,,
w^er:.erXr"c*''^^'^.^« -•■^■'>' •---' ti^t
I -/ridtbi^rnUe'^riu-'rh^'^.TTH^ °^
'-sted mc,,„„,,i ,>-^^^
a::n:X'=:i:^i^:irl-br"^
-£^7:=tstrr[^-rif
^S:^^V'',S:?e^c:^---?^
^ fs'\/:tu:rr:iAr st^l^-h::;::^
K-ig'Sx^t^rc^^t^i-^- '
«^. 14 ; Wigne, V>„<r. Uvii. 1100) n the";;;:;,'
ven s tor women it was for two ho rs fro n
S.X to eight o'clock in the m.,n.ing S.i 3
J.rj/»,.., reg. U; ,A. hvii. 1110). ^ ^ ^ ^^ ""^
iiut while such ,vere the tendencies of ednca-
t.ou in the West, we find a far more liberal con-
if
mil
'''■til
m
1852
SCHOOLS
■ jf it' r"
ception niaiutiiiniug its ^rouml in many of the
churches in the Kast. In niarkoii cc.nti-ast tn
tlie soh.Kil »f Alexanilria, that c,f Antinch ac-
o'jireil, in the 4th ('entury, scarcely less distinc-
tiim as a centre nf widely iliU'ercnt teaching.
The teachers of the schc'ol of Antioch were
distinguished by tho hujli vaUu- uhic/i thetj set
tm,.i )ini,in lil.vfit'irr, and had their views with
resiwct to Christian education gained the ascen-
dancy, it is no exaggeration to say that the his-
tory '«.f the .Church, and conseiiuently of Kuro)*
at "!an;e, throughout tlie middle ages would
have In'cn materially nunlified. That the jiro-
fcssion of instruct'.r in pagan learning did not
necessavilv involve a departure from orthodox
belief is attested by the example of Malchion,
a nvesl)yter of the Church, and according to
Eusel.ius {//. E. vii. 29), "head of the profession
of the sophists in the schocds of pagan learning
at Antioch," but who was also distinguished as
a refuter of the heresies of Paul of Saniosata.
It is, however, with Lucian, jircshyttr and
martyr (t'Ul), that the hi>tori<-al exegesis of
Antioch, in conjunction with a recognised school
of instruction, is first to he traced with certainty.
(Ncauder, Kirrlwiyicsch. I. iii. S^.^). I.i.ci.in, like
Origen, was fanieil as a teacher, and along with
Dorotheus, educated a large (drcle of illustrious
disdolcs (Nicephorus, viii. :!1 ; Theodoret, //. E.
1. j;.' He was also connected with the schools at
CKes-irci and Kdessa. When Meletius was driven
in't-. e\ile 1)V the Ariaus, his see was ably guided
by "lavian'(t+03), and bc.th of these bishops,
aie -rding to Theodoret (/;. //. iv. '2'2), were the
li!-».uctors or advisers of Diodorus, from wlioin
the iiigh celebrity of the s( hool of Antioch, which
lasted' from about A.n. 870-428, may he held to
date. Diodorus, although described by .lerome
as ignorant of secular learning ((/c Viris Jllast. c.
119), was really a man of wide and varied cul-
ture, and the instructor of botli Chrysostom and
Ti.coilore of Mopauestia. While distinguished ns
an opponent of the Apcdlinarian heresy, he was
also an able defender of the historical school of
Sd-iptural interpretation, a feature which suffi-
ciently accounts for the hostility of Jerome.
With the dep<isition and condemnation of Nes-
torina (4:U) the reputation of the achool at
Antio,:h appears to have come to an end.
The doctrines taught at .uitioch re-api>cared,
however, in Mesopotamia, and especially at those
celebrated centres of theological teaching, Edessa
and Nisibis. The history of these two schools 13
singularlv intertwined and somewhat obscure.
It has been supjiosed that Kdessa was the
original seat whence Antioch first derived its
characteristic tradition, and it is beyond doubt
that it was here that Lucian received instruction
from Macarius (Socrates, //. E. ii. 9). Kusebins
of Kmesa was also iniitructed here, not only in
religious knowledge but also in pagan learning
(ib.j. It is not nnti' the 4th century that Nisibis
api)cars to have acquired distinction by the
teaching of .lacob, its bishop, who was th^ in-
structor of Ephraem the Syrian. Ki)hraem was
snbsequcntly driven from Nisibis and took refuge
in Edessa, w'here the scib.ul which he founded or
re-established became distinguished for its judi-
cious aixl sch.darlv principles of interpretation
(Assemann, i. 38 ; Socrates, //. E. iii. 6). After
the year 4H1. Edessa became a centre of Nes-
torla'n doctrine, and the survival of these tenets
SCHOOLS
13 attiibntcd by Theodorus Lector to the activity
of thia school. Its auppressiipii in the year 489
by the eni|)eror Zeno, on this very account
(Theod. Lector, E. II. ii. 49 ; Assemaim, i. 40ii)
failed to bring about the extinction of the sect,
for its teachers, removing to Nisibis, maintained
the sime traditions ; and a school, in which the
Conmientaries of Theodore of Mopsncsti.i were
l)rescribed as sources of doctrine and all di-
vergence from his teaching was forbiildeii under
the' pain of anathema (16. iii. 84), continio'd to
exist until tlie middle ages. Junilins Afrirunus,
writing about the year 540, speaks of it as a
centre of systematic religious instruction, " ubi
divina lex per magistros ]iulilicos, siaif ,ij»ui
nos in Jimndduis stmliis iirmniiuitiai ct rhcfirlcn,
ordine et regulariter traditur " (I'racf. ml iJi
Part. !)iv. /,(•(/. ; Migne, Ixviii. 1.5). The fore-
going passage from .hinilius, who was an African
bishop, is of twofold interest, inasmuch as it
attests the continued existence and activity nut
only of the schoid at Nisibis but also of .sth'nJs
of gr.'.mmar and rhetoric in Africa in the lirst
half of the Oth century.
Among others whose attention was attracted
to the teaching of these remote schoids in tlie
East, was Cassiodorus, the eminent minister nf
Theodoric the Great. It was his en.bavour to
give to monastic education a more UIiitmI cast
than it had received from Cassinn, or than it
was then receiving from his c(jiit,'ir,i)orary,
Caesarius 0:' Aries— the latter of whom, nut-
withstanding his efl'orts to promote the educa-
tion of the clergy, was altogether ailverse \n tht
studv of pagan' I'iterature. Cassiodorus appears
to have succeeded in carrying his designs iuto
eti'ect in connexion with the monastery which lie
founded at Viviers in Uruttium ; and we liaru
from the preface to his treatise, dc In.4:tHlinie
Dmnarum Littrrarum, that he had so\icht, in
conjunction with pope Agapetus, to found cer-
tain chairs of Christian instruction at l.'iine,
after the fashion, he says, "that hmg existej
at Alexandria, and that now prevails in lull
force at Nisibis, so that the simls of tlic I'aithful
might gain eternal salvation ami their speech
be adorned with chaste elociuence" (Migne, l.xi.
hS7). The sriiciiui, " lectionis ordo," given hv
Cassiodorus himself, is also in evident agreement
with the method and range <d' instruction which
prevailed at Nisibis; and it is worthy of notice
that anKuig those to whom he refers as emiuent
promoters' of Scriptural instruction Cintro-
ductores Scripturae divinae ") is Junilins Al'ri-
cauus. Cassiodorus, however, goes on to state
that the outbreak of war had compelled liiui to
abandon the above design, and- that he has
accordingly jmt forth his trei.tisc, whuh he
describes .^s "a compend of Scriptural know-
ledge and profane learning." The Catholic spirit
in which his precepts are conceiveil is evilev.t in
many points ; in his advice to the monks to
3tu<ly geography, and in the fact that he ha.|
<'aused Latin translations to be made of J.se|ihiis
J/lstory of the Jctrs and of the writinj;s of
Theodoret (c. 8). These were placed m the
library which he collected, and of which liii
treatise gives an account. We leain that it
imdnded, besides the canonical Scriptures ami the
Fathers, the encyclic of the council "I I hal-
cedon in the version of Epiphanius, Kuscliius
Ecclesiastical History, that of So/oinen together
SCHOOLS
SCHOOLS
1853
als,. tak,.s ,„.,,,.: , " + ->• «<! ''''^^, '"''«' 'laniig spirit „f alleg„n,,,l interpre-
lath.n t„ tlu. entire exclusiou of the ai.Js that
. neutal or c „.s.ical learmng mii;ht have s,,,,.
.0.1 am which couM har.lly have failed o
•s ra.u the unbouude.! extravagance whi.h cha-
lactensos th.se |,agos. » U „,ay saftl,. b^ ,ai,l,"
hservea JI.lnKU., >' tlmt accor.liug to'Ore^ory's
fir *' .^""/"'J," ""^ '*"* "■'•'• «•"•«<'»"
(V-'i^H (.hnstuiHitij, bk. iii. i,. 7).
The unrivalled influence exerted by Gre^rnrr
"ver h,s age .s thus to be traced in a twofcS
torm in re atn.n to learning: (1) as diainctlv
unfavourable to secular studits ; (2) as fa 3
the a egorical method of interpret ng Seri,,t«"e
and thereby setting an exan.pl'e which o, rated
powerlully on the whole course of mediaeval
^rose'fn V V i"' "" '"''°''^*''-' "^'>""'' "I'i'h
arose m hngland were modelled mainlv (,n his
the schools res ored or founded by Charles the
aITvaV^" '1"'!5 P"' "f *•'<' 8th century
derived their method and their traditions. ^
t IS main y to the etforts of Theodore and
a tribute that somewhat more liberal concept" n
o Christian studies which obtained in tng'^^and
at this per.od Hoth these ecclesiastics, of wh" m
the one was from Tarsus, the other from Afric"
fnlj Church Ih,t,r„, p. 219). Of the sysfem
:if"jf'7.';t^"dueed by Theodore it has\ee"
saw, that it was in principle substantially the
same as that which now prevails " (Hook i.vt
"/ the Archbishops, i. 196). Themlore also
augmented the library at Canterl,ury Edwards
inf ■ t^ K *r'"''' '• ^°'>- Of the higherTean,:
tSoofand fif'll^"'" movement, Aldhelm
(T 709) and Bede (f 735) are the two most
Dy Hadiian at the monastery sch(^ol of Sf
Augustine's Canterbury, and subsequently, ia
order o obtain a livelihood, instituted a school
Jont. lib. V ) Aldhelin was also the founder of
numerous other monastic schools in Wessex Ld
.«e still possess an account of his system of
nstrncfon (Wright, Introd. to Blcj. Jiitltl
>■ 74). According to his biograi.her, Faiicins he
was a competent Greek scholar (c. 1). He how
ever so far reflected the influence of Gregorv^
eaching, that he discouraged the study bfth'of
the poets and philosophers of an'" ' ■ i„ the
in flated Latmity which passed for scooUrsh p of
his period, he intimates that the rnde simpli ity
of he gospel appears to him far preferable to the
«l|l>pory byways of pastoral poetry or the thorny
(^cst. Jont. ?d. Hamilton, p. 342). At nearly the
same time that Aldhelm 'was founding lol
m Wessex, Felix, the first bishop of the Kasl
An? ea (\ n Ran\ • ' ^ '^''^*
oI>■Sn^ltcr;:?''"""'■'"'^''"^^'^^'^''^^'■''t.'?v
01 p.igaii literature, urtriiiir tbnt it : <••
ticr;t,^rii''^i;£H'r7--
or Uie lathers wholly to ^^dJ;-;";'',;^'^;^
);.!;" With goid::d*lei^:n::a;nttX,$^;lj
that nii».st sweef t-pu.-lw... . i ii •■t^^i'iiau
..nt n,rth n.,^ S? "hI^'Z i^K
his own language, " utr.s^n, ,/o,;ir/«„, i '.''si
mus, l.gere lestiuemus. ' Quis enin. iud a
h oere , ubium, ubi virorun. talium muUi "!
priiccedit exeniplum i " '""iiipii..\
In the period directly following upon the
tniie the foundation of tliTm^nart ; o n:'/:
Cass.no (A..,. 029) and the rise of the BeneTil
!,T" It u"^ '"""S"™'-' a new epoc^ The
ul otht. Benedict was a kind of mean between
ha ol Cassian and that of Cassiodoru U
neither enjoined nor forbade the study of s"'.ular
hteiature, but it prescribed, like the rule of
Cae.anus of Aries, the setting a,,art of regular
Wis fo. reading. The energic^ of the monk
were still mainly to be given to active la our
but he grey dawn of the winter day and the
mtridiau he.-it nf «nn,™ __ ,,..■' ""^ '"«
n.rUiauheatofsumme;';;;Xt:r^;^];!
an,l lu the season of Lent the time assigned foi^
his purpose was extended. U^ith the oife excen-
t on o Cassian, Benedict specified no autho-^s
but only the books of the Old and New Testa.'
"f moft illusTr'' '"f ^^P"""™' "--- -
tie most Illustrious doctors of the orthodoT
S rV':,'^;**''"^ '■"*''«" had compS"
• V\fr t\-- ® ' '"^- Waitzmann, p. 32).
si^^'1r^'-'-^=t^th^
teaching under an exception'lfy viv^' o°?iet I),'
of he approaching end of the world-a consum
tr::i:t\\h^^'tin?es^hfr'k^!;"-"^l;
't-lies which did noTd^c ,; Suce"irth
esrWe" "r .rl'S'"- "'•e - worse than use
r 1 , I t k"''' " ", *'""'=' h^th his biographers
uiisniug state ot learning n Home in hi« ^^^-
ut against these doubtful\nd vague ass tins"
) h rT ' ""r "'"'' f^"=' 'he following S
UJthat according to John (Vita, iii Tti
Gregory expressly forbade bishops' to study
Pgau literature, (2) that he strongly "en ured
« some ot his clergy in c aasiml iit„>„i.
;n>ploymentof time^^hich^d',I;l^?^'^^^ , V' "^P ^ '"" -""P «• the Kasl
mTi TJ^ " ^'-^ layman [%. tf 54) wortiu^M"' d'''^' "-/"")"'/-» a similar
Li ''/^his own admission he was himllf <^U^ • ""■"'' ''here, s.,ys th- historian,
accordi,,,, ♦„ i.„...... ri. ^^A.__>". oO), and, 'i'he tradition from Aldhelm was handed down
fcordiugto Paulus liiaco ^^C F^;:' c ') Z
scoo^ tononein Rome in poliKrning^T
' stfiMng illustrat on of the re^i.lu tf tu-
a;;:r^""". -' '.ntoiSuircuitur / ;:
^^J>u>Moiul,a, or Exposition of the Book of Job,
K„ All • ;^A -V,, •'""■'"•■■"I was nanuea 'Jown
by Albmus (t 752), abbat of St. Augu.stine's,
( anterbury, and the literary adviser of Ilede
Albmus was instructed in Greek by Thewlore,
and, according to Bede, " knew the Greek tongue
to no small perfection, and the Latin a.
k I
kii
i\
4 I
1654
SCHOOLS
SCHOOLS
thoroughly as the English, which was his native
^CXfve'eaniing of Bede, which was of
a vet hiKher order, was aciuired partly u-idor the
tuition of Benedict Bisco,,, at the n.on.s eru^
at Wearmouth and .larrow, and partly at S't.
Augustine's at Canterbury. »«"!« '""f. ' ^^'^
subsenueutly an active founder of the l.uiiuus
choorat y Jrk, the most distinguished centre of
earning in Kn land in the 8th and 9th ce.^ur.e .
It was successively presided over by Kghert
IV'lbert, and Eanbald, each of whom succeeded
fthe archbishopric of York ; but >tB --«» ^ -
tinguished teacher was Aleu.n. l^e schoo,
appears to have been open to the secular clergy
afwell as to those designed to the fona^t.c 1 fe
a fact which may to some extent accoun for the
Hberal characte/of thestud.es V""'^^:' J^^ ^.^^
scholars (Migne, Patr. c. 146 ; c 845 , Stubbs
Pref. to do LcntioM, p. vi.). Alc»,n, w ho was
n^a monk, was fo' 8ome time Ubrav.an of tl^
^thedral library, and i".'>>» Z^""', * frht
Hcibus Ecdcsiae E''oracens,s (Migne ci. 845) has
S us a glowing description of its treasui^s.
According to his account it was a compete le-
poslto"; not only of patristic, but also ot Greek
and Latin, literature. ,
Such was the institutioi> from whence the
Ught of learning was transmitted to Franklaud
and there handed down to the middle ages ; but
before proceeding to follow this main p«th, as it
S be Cnei o'f our subject, it will be neces-
siry to devote a brief attention to the condition
of letters and education in other parts of Lurope
during the 7th and 8th centuries.
The tradition of important Christian schools in
Snaln at a very early period in Church history,
Sus stand or fall with that of the -rb' evange-
Hsation of the country [Paganism, ^^-Rvival
OF sec iii.l. It appears to have suggested to
Zl an h'lr^of the spurious aronicon of Dexter
Jaun. 185 and 370),-a Jesuit forgery of the 17th
Sry,-the statement that such schools ex-
Uted in the 2nd. and were restored m the
4th century, nor is it easy to believe that
under ecclesiastics like Hosius, the work of
education could have failed to be carried on with
vigour Lann .y (de Scholis, &c. c. ivi) observes,
howev;r, that the school of Bracara (now Braga
Tn Portugal) is the only one of wha.h we have
any distinct mention pnor to the 7th century.
This chool, where were pursued ' «Pt"na'-um
artium studia," attain^^d to yet greater celebrity
under its abbat Fructuosus, the -ntemporai-j- o
iMdorus. Inthetimeollsidorus A^a,^.0-6^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^
a general revival of learnin thro gt Spam ^1^..^^^
:FSr.Mc\\1dTeeirundedb/hisbrot^her ^oss. rBourret.
and pred cesser in that see, Leander, exercised
considerable influence over education throughout
Andalusia. Isidorus himself was undoubtedly
fhe no earned ecclesiastic of the 7th c.ntury
and an active promoter of learn ng. He was
aho the founder of another school in connexion
w th a la'g« monastery which he bm It withou
The walls of Seville. The discipline of this choo
was remarkable for its seventy. The scholars
wfre not p«i-mitted to go beyond the walls of
The monastery until four years had elapsed from
iheir first admission, and those who evinced a
disposition to saunter about and ""glee h r
.tudies, were compelled to wear iron fetters on
their foot (Rod. Cerrat. ./c< »., c xn.,
Migne, Ixxxi. 78). Discipline of th>s kind, how-
ever, was confined to the monastic s.'Imh.Is, which
aiuioar to have sometimos served the puri.ns.. ,f
tlK- modern reformatory. Wo find, for «i.n,,.l,.,
that a decree of the fourth council ol 1m1,.,u
(AD 6:i;i), over which Isidorus presided, wlnla
en'i<.ining the institution ..f schools tor the cl.T,y,
directs also that refractory scholars shall l-e
sent to the m.masterios (Mansi, x. 6.t,) Ihe
lirst canon of the second u.unci! of lol,., ,.,
A a air-,, makes, likewise, exjiross provisinn l,.r
schools for the clergy under the direction ot tlie
'"fsillorus says (&■««. iii. 8) that b-jth (.ravor
and reading are duties of the religious lite, thuu.^h
preference is to be given to the fortnor. He
discourages the perusal of pagan htor.ture
(ih iii i:(), aud affirms that the meretricinus ;irt
of "the gr.immnrian must not be prefenod to
more simple knowledge (».). H is, however a
lecitimate inference from his Ebpmlo.jixe (nr
Ori'lines, as the treatise is sometimes teini.. I),
that Isidorus did not consider these in.1iU".ti..n3
to be equally binding on the clergy. This h.ter
treatise, along with those .• Boethius, t ,o _'.
ArtilMS etc Dlsciptinis of Ca: uKiorus, and the
de &-ptcm Arti'ms of Martianus, may be lookod
upon- as completing the list of the ordinary text-
books of instruction up to the idth century.
On the whole, it may be said that Christian
education as conceived by Isidorus rested .m a
far more liberal basis than that laid d.nvn ,y
Gregory,— a fact in some measure attvibut.il.le
to the immunity from war and invasion winch
Spain, when compared with Itdy, at this time
eijoyed. As regards the interpretation of
Scripture, however, Isidorus folloNved in the st^.s
of Gregory, a fact of which his ^/(^;o™c at .-rds
decisive evidence, and he thus lent the weiiiht ..f
his high authority to the perpttuat..m nt the
Alexandrine tradition in the Western ( huv,:h. ,
The extant writings of Braulio clearly innve
that he had profited largely by the mstnuti.n
of Isidorus, and the quotations from Terence,
Horace, Vergil, and Juvenal, which they contain,
shew a fair knowledge of Latin literature.
Among Isidorus' other pupils were bisebut, king
of the Visigoths, and the archdeacon Redenivtiis,
author of the Life of St. Didier. Brau loin h„
. turn, becainethefounder of an important sch..ol in
northern Spain, at the city ot_ ^'-''^S''-^^- J"
among his scholars were Lugcmus, tlur.l hbhep
of that name of Toledo (a writer whose nietruM
compositions are among the most fayourab
• ' -^-: literature of the period), and
successor in the see of Sara-
gossa (Bourret, L'Ecote chrit. de Stalk,
119-133)
The conquest of the country by the Saraoens
under Musa, in the year 711, probably invohcd
the extinction of these schools, though trace
learning and culture are discernible even a
this time; but throughout the 7th ce„t r ,
Spain may fairly be regarded as ''n "": ' " ^
the intellectual darkness that prevailed ni \ e •
ern Europe and almost justifies the obseri-
ation of the nbb^ Bourret -"On d''«'« ^==
toutes les muses se sont enfuies vers les berJs
k Perhaps one of the passaRes that may be acceptedu
genuine in this Urgcly Interpolated production.
SCHOOLS
»r.ivt.„t les echo,, ,1,. \a ,L t '\. '"■"''""'•nt
(l |.. 20.i) ""'•"'-■'^^'"'-■"^ '!« 1'i.uinauite "
111 the' Kast, nnd psnprmlK. „» n x .•
toad, i„ private dwelling n,'«s ",„ """"'■'' '"
domestics." This e 'l t \ZT' u " '""'''■'"-'"
byi'ini«yasaty;;^t:ii'r,;''~tt
puhli. instructors, aH^ lows in I alT^th'' "'^
Hero,l„tn, and Thu..y,Kdos, the commeutaton, ,f
Aristutle being seen darklv if Af .11 »k • 1
the clouded glasses ofvLhL m ' ^T^^
and Joannes Philjouus ••//:', '"Jj'^'.refV"!'
ui. 373-37*). ^ ■ '!' '"^* ^'i-
7« '•'may, that learning was still cultivated
SCHOOLS
1855
ih.!'L&ii^::::::'''«»y-'''--pire.„nd
, is to be f,, I * '"7". "i;;"™ existed in Greece,
, there b'VuLt ii.Ll'lirih''" ''^f ■■''•""'•
i-iKc by which h- c b L^[' T""""' ^":"'-
!H^:f^h::i:;;;rSs^-,x:i;:-
!^-H:7::^d^;^;^^^^^^^^^^^
I at Constant! ,!!' n '.^ "'•""'"T''^- '■"""•l'--l
(A.D. 842-8U7) in Jm K i^° ""^ *"''""'' '"•
and a,strono,n;^h , K. rtsHlZ 1 '"""T'
ten.uali„sti4cth.ninGr::LtS.:""^^-
attainnwnts .see Mi>/„e .Soriesf:;, '•'',„'" *
In northern and cen n.l t'l;'* h"' "»k ^^''^
of the Lombard sup;!. ,,d & ^.'J^,'' '"^e rule
en-peror, the course .f events c,u 1 n'VT'f"
m-kable reS tatt ~'^:, '^''^ \«,-
formed the father ^frLn-^^'X^'^ '""
sub.e,,uently ran.somedrthi \ ''""' \'' ""^
hoen adorned bv rhe^ol /V *"' "I"-"''''' had
trained in dii;^;^:;S:'::;!7;:;ir^rr^
philosophy aTh'inftio gZ Srf "' ''''"']
astronomvrTii/An^^.'o 6«ometr>, niusic, and
hadbee„^^u:^it:-^'t:^£i::"^j";?"^'
& i\s' \X'c - She l'7" \' ^\«
had mcst clearly set thenTforth ^rAw's""''
Oraeca, xciv. 430) l'^"gne, oeries
reason for infeirinrth^ t-w- /,)()) there is good
episcopal scht rafltt'rs T i"'/'"'^' "'
Bourses, Clermont, V nne k^! '' ^' <f ?"''
Aries, and Gap; ;hile besLe Z '"'■"^"""'''
-hools of St. ivedard' a't So^ :,*t:dThr'?
^o?;.^^Sh:£^f:^J.'=^
ae:i?:K;bftfir:::;rnt:e^^
!tV:^::u'.rT-;[;:f-^*aught°™aiJ:f
Paulns I)iacon,!.,,'Thi^ :;,.„f •/•^); ,while
Bavarian, and Theoduhn, „ ^ • J:"'^'"'^"'' »
scholars with whom bl .'"'""'' °'"''' *«'«
:iuring his campirgTin' talyrn ^T'tt
in none of the.se were fhLi' l^' ^"'
attainments and he eer«y relief "^'' *'«'
inir niif ti,„ i ^"'^'hj requisite (or carrv.
.ng out the great work of restoration whTd,
"I
iil
■'" !
'm
v.tm
18.)t>
SCHOOLS
Chnilis liftd in viuw. In the yonr 782, he i»
aci;(irliii){lv tn be fdUtul nii|il.vin|5 to Alciiin of
York lor lurtliur ussiataTiCL-. L'ltiiniui'lv Alciiin
acwIiMl to tl\is re(iiii.'st, and on re|>iiiriii){ to
Kriiiikl;ind was iiistiilliMl instructor ot' the imliice
s< hool, and also invusted with a general super-
intend Mice of the work of education throughout
the realm.
There can be little doubt that Alcuin was the
most accomiilished scholar of his time, for,
besides consideralile theological attainments, he
was well read in the Latin classics, and also
possessed a slight knowledge of Greek ; but Ins
mind was wanting in independence and origin-
ality, and his pronenes.sto lean on precedent and
authority inclined him rather to follow out the
precepts of Gregory the Great than to seek to
impart to the studies of his age a more liberal
and catholic tone. This must always be re-
garded as no slight misfortune for Christian
education in the middle ages, for the almnst
unquestioning deference and obedience which
his. learning, high character, and amiable dis-
po.s'ition won for him from his scholars resulted
in an inlluence over education in Frankland which
lasted until the vise of scholasticism, and may
even be traced after the Renaissance.
The palace school, which included Charles
himself, his family, and the leading members of
his court, is -noticeable as a successful endeavour
to raise the standard of lay education at that
time. To Alcuin's instructions we may pro-
bably attribute the literary tastes of Lewis the
Pious; while Adelhard, Wala, Einhard, and
Riculfus all perceptibly reliect the same in-
fluence. The teacher supplied his class with
such knowledge as was to be gathered from the
manuals of Boethius, Isidorus, and Cassiodorus
on the subjects of the ancient trivium and qmd-
riivun. In connexion with logic and astronomy
this was of a very meagre character, and the
inquiring intellect of Charles seems, in these
branches, to have decidedly outstripped the will-
ingness or the resources of his instructor (see
Alcuin, d<! Dialectica, Migue, ci. 951-979 ; also
ib. c. 275 ; and DUmmler, Akuiniana, Epp. 98
to 112). .
Aided by the counsels and the pen of Alcuin,
Charles next commenced, in the year 787, an
endeavour to awaken a more systematic atten-
tion to letters in the monasteries of his realm.
'A copy of the Capitulary designed to promote
this object (that addressed to liaugulfus, abbat
of Fuhla) has been preserved, and supplies us
with an important illustration of the actual
status of education at this period, the argument
for the necessity of improvement being enforced
bv reference to the uncouth and illiterate diction
of the letters from time to time addressed to
Charles by the dilferent monastic foundations.
It is to be" noted, as further illustrating Alcuin's
theory of education, that the desirability of the
proposed reforms is chiefly insisted on on account
of the aid that students would thereby receive
in understanding the Scriptures and those deeper
hidden meanings which they enfold. " For as
these," says the Capitulary, " contain images,
tropes, and similar figures, it is impossible to
doubt that the reader will arrive far more
readily at the spiritual sense according as he is
the better instructed in learning " (CoiisWuti'o
de Scholis per singula Episcopia et Monasteria
SCHOOLS
inntUuewHf, Uahize, i. 201-204; Pert/., T.cfj. I
.j2:i). Until the clerical profession and the
monasteries at this pcrim! were largely recruited
from the servile (lass ; and it marks the iisin;{
estimation in which edui'ation now began to l,e
held, thiU another of Charles's Capitularies. ,f
the year 7H'J, enjoins the clergy to svek f.ir
schcplars not iml;/ aiiuiwl the sunn uf s/(iir,« hut
almost among the sons of freemen ; it aWo
directs that in connexion with every epis(if|ial
see and monastery there shall be a school where
boys shall he taught the jisalms, notatinii
(" notas "), singing, the use of the Coininitus, and
the Latin tongue, and that they shall be sup-
jilied with accurately transcribed text-hooks,
" libros bene emendatns " {Cupitula data iiussis
duminicis, Ualuzc, i. 360).
In the year 7i)G, Alcuin's work of reform in
Frankland entered upon its third jdiase, (i,u-
seiiuunt upon his appointment to the abljaiy cf
St. Martin of Tours. Hero he forthwitli prg-
ceeded to put in practice his more austere cim-
cept'ons of monastic discipline and educatinii,
while his reputation attracted scholars not only
from all i>arts of the empire, but also from
England and Ireland. The influence he tlius
exerted over his disciples during the eii;lit years
preceding his death constitutes probalily the
most enduring impress that he left upon his aije ;
but his mistrust of pagan literatur'i and too
deferential adherence to the Grego-iaii tradi-
tions largely tended to cramp and tetter the
intellectual energies of subsequent generatiniis.
The movement thus initiated continued to de-
velop itself long after Alcuin's death. In the
year in which he died (A.D. 804) fresh injunc-
tions were issued with a view to the nmre
systematic education of the clergy (I'.aluze, i.
417).' In 813 a decree of the council of Chi-
Ions enjoined the creation of additional schools
for the cultivation of learning and the study of
the Scriptures (Labb^, Cuncitia, vii. 1272). The
augmentation in the numbers of the scholars is
probably indicated by a canon of the coumil of
Aachen, in 817, requiring that only those who
had already embraced the monastic lile (the
" oblati ") should in future be admitted to the
schools within the monastery walls (IVrtz, /.cw.
i. 202). From this time the monastic schools
appear to have been of two kinds : the " schnlae
claustrales " for the " oblati," and the " siholae
canonicae " for the secular clergy. In the year
822 Lewis the Pious issued new instrm tions,
affirming that education since his accession had
not received due attention, and enjoining that
every candidate for holy orders, whether young
or old, should have a settled residence and a
competent instructor ; the parents or masters of
scholars were to provide for their maintenance,
and if the extent of a bishopric rendered it
difficult to assemble the scholars at one centre,
additional schools were to be opened (I'ertz,
Leges, i. 231). Among the episcopal schools in
Frankland those of Orleans and Rheiins were
especially distinguished. The first, under the
1 Tho ohnrter representing Charles as endowing
schools ot Osnabrlick for the purpose of raaimaioiui! i
knowledge of both Greek and Latin among the cunoti
of the cathedral (see Baluze, 1. 419) is not accepts bj
Pert?,, and Is probably spurious. See Itiplma Canlt
ifoi/nt /miJeratoriJ (nil), a treatise attributed to Eccui
SCHOOLS
direction of Theo.lulf,,,, the archbi.hop w«,
up n th,. „.„ver,,ty era. Thcu.lul lu« wa8 T^
cm ly a,,t,v. m h.a e.„leav„ura t pr.servt » .d
re«t„r,.. „,a„„»cri,,ts, an,l those ,, id , \, ."
nut., I»r thj.,r beauty ami aceura.y. 11,^2
?i:'».ir:r:^;e;::;rs^a:"'-/f
f^^i:t,^t^Ke:;---;--^^
the oeh-hra e,l ll.ncmar, was not lea, t-,mn
an. n.Kler tl>e 8un:esaive tea.hinjr of Sieu" I
ar,;),h,sho,, In.lk, Keniy of Au.erre^nd Hu S|
enjoye, the },nn„l diatinction of having ,1-
.er -ed thro„sh„„t the Oth century that tradithm
of UrniUK which linka the opiacopal scloola
witli tlie university of I'aris ai-iiooie
The jnonastic school., of this period, however,
altogether surpassed the episcopal schools both
m h.an,.ns and m celebrity. Foramost in this
cateiiorv stands the school of the abbey at Fu di
under the rule of Kabanus Maurus, the disc le
fAlcu,nat lours. He was equally distinguished
by h.. attaimneuts and his ability as a teacher
aud Ins treat, ;e on the education of the clerA-
d.- r,Mut,„xc Clericonm, contains not a (ew in'
.cations of lus desire to set up a somewhat more
hheial standard of auch education than tha?
whicn he had received. Among hia achoTara he
numbered many of the moat* prominent cha!
actera the 9th century, such aa WalafHd
Strabo, Otfried of VVcisaenberg, Rudolfus Luit
pertus, Hartmuat, Meginhard.l'c. (S, ^dcl
vener, 6 vols. 1626 ; Spengler, /..W^Afc
Mabanus Manrus, 1856). The abbey of Hiraar.
gme an oBshoot from Fulda, ^yas also distiu-
f „r »' » 'r'-n^J '^"mmunity under William,
3,!8). That at Sel.genstadt, under Einhard the
historian was noted for the scholarly and admii!
able productions of ita scnptorium ; th^t at Fer-
i^res, m the Gatinais, could boast of ita abbat
Lupus Servatua the presence of the most distin-
gu led classical scholar of the time (Nicolas,
Etmk surles Lotres de Servat-Zmip, 1861). One
of hi» disciples, Knc, afterwai-ds abbat of St. Ger-
main at Auxerre, waa the instructor of Lothair,
the son of Charles the Bald. At Mavence the
abbey of St. Alban numbered among K^^
Rupertus, known for his Greek learning, and
fcandTT'-"""- ^''' ^"P"» Servatua,
of St rZ, \ T'/ "■""•>• ''"''« monasteries
• bt. Germain des Pr^s and St. Denis at Paris
Iready enjoyed, in the 9th century, a cons
erable celebrity as schools. At C J bev, near
Ami™, under Adelhard and Wala, and Pascha
S.US Rad ertus, was gathered a society emtaen
lor ts learmng and illustrious as a parent
oun ation. It fell before the Norman invasion*
l"t I 8 namesake, New Corbey, in Saxony aiis
ained the same traditions with scarcely k'^s d
mction (vv„/ Vita, Pert., ii. 578-581). The
great abbey of St. Riquier, under the rule of
l»r Its devotion to letters; an inventory of its
2e»«.ons._mado in the yeLr 831 by tl.Tdirec-
n of Lewis the Pious, included a library of no
U„„r-.''%'"""^'"'"' '""' thirty-one v-olumes
Uon Maitre, Ze, Eooles, &c. p. 67). The abbev
•f St. Martin at Metz, u'nder ^the rule of aS
SCHOOLS
1867
. 1.) a r*'^ '^" celebrated (Raluze, J/,S„.//.
are .till ""'''• r"^ ""•• '"'■''»»' "<■ I''"'"'!' l>r;.Ko.
re II preserved, and rank among the most
i^y T'^sr^'^ni-V'-^r""'^ »''■ "<"''*
1 . •',. ' "^- '^I'biel-sur-JIeuse eniovod tlia
diocMe „f fo, I ■ i\".""- "'• IVrtiii, in the
.our ft ^ "^'"'' ";'■""""' »''« •li.sti.,gui.he,l
A remarkable ellort on the narf of tt.. •
pal order still further to e',t:nT:n. e'lTf
it^arParis'!: " ''" -^?'' '■''' -"-»'«»
:t:kT:r" '"^-^ ^-" '■-'-'^'•^ ^M^:
th Json'^s'of Tb! "^ *'"' ^^"'"'■''^ '»*"-«<^'''«' o{
di.fir?. •. P""'' "PP^S" t» h«ve been very
distinctly on its trial at this period. An ZJZ
■on over the portals of the monastery at slk
burg contained the verse— ^
" Dlxcere si cuplas, gratis quod qnacria habebia • ••
-nvia^y distlSSe^^'by ,: Sr!^ IT.
fiom the scholars. This practice was str,,,,,!^
denounced by Amalaric, who had foTmer ly acS
mot d to'tb "' ^^f.T"'''-''"^' »"'» '•'"' b-n P 0-
mr sl") t "/^''''"^opric of the diocese. In the
)ear 84,i, he founded a fund for the purpose of
providing gratuitous instruction in Tours a.^
the measure was subsequently sanctioned iu a
ttrVrT'"', f*^ cLrlea^he Bald (Mar!
wne, J/us. Aneccl. i. ann 84'n A* n„o.i Vi
aamand fees for the instruction of children
but only accept them when voluntarily S
by the parents (Mansi, xiii. 388). T e Ca .1 u
e7uentrv'"'<'r ''''Y'""" ">" P-viao wa " bl
sequently widely adopted by other diocesL
(Baunard, Th^udiUfe, p. 61) aioceses
oW^om' 'Tfr' "'""-■ Wit'th^^Im*: ■
acbn V f n^"'! """" " associated the great
Ulste! f ^'^."'1 «' Benchor in the Ird of
ed R^eve?':' 306)%'n7f''' (^'^^-Z ^""-H
learninl tk' . ^' """^ '""""'« »« a seat of
learning. The yet more celebrated school at Hy
or lona is associated with the name of St
• 1!";^', i*"** °f Liudisfame, or ml iLud
with the labours of St. Aidan ; those of LuS'
B^btrtSoKKu-H^tr'™^''''^"^^
career of Colnmban/ ^I^Gl^^'^in^'^LISni:
aessed no school at all corresponding to Its imnortJn™
I aa a monastery (Bingham. ^rtfU. 347> '"Ponwu!*
■itl
f -1
1858
BC1I00L8
which in the 9th century i)i»»c»so(I .» lilirBry of
four humlri'd volumes (Wcianiaun, Ilist. do li
Ilihlioth. ite S. Ontl, 1). Iti), still preserves the
name of its foumler. St.. Kiliiui iu Thuringm,
and ViiKilius in Carinthia, were reiircsentatives
of the siinic great movement.
The (lucstion of the common origin of this
teaching, ihiiracterised hy a distinctive schidar-
Biiip and a distinctive theology, in Irish founda-
tions, would inv.dve a more lengthened imiuiry
than is here admissible, but it may be observed
that such evidence as we possess reinarkiibly con-
firms the traditions which ass.iciate the ear y
Irish riviliMition with the Kast, either directly
or indircctlv through Massilia.
As earlv as the time of Jerome, there i« evi-
dence of an Irish Christian civjli.sation anterior
to St. Patrick, and in the 6th century the
«' Scotti " as they were termed (Irelauil being the
original Scotland) were already eminent for their
love of learning. An l.-ish scholar, Maildulf,
instructed Aldhelm at Malmesbury in the 7th
centurv; and Theod<ir , the archbishop, on his
arrival', I'ound himself, according to Aldhe m,
surrounded by a throng of eager Irish disciples,
" Hibernousium globo discipulorum stipatur
(Ussher, .S'vWo;/. A>). p. 38).
The distinguishing features of this Celtic
Christianity, so far as related to education
and learning, were as follows: (1) the adoption
of a text book of secular education which was
condemned by the majority of the Latin cler<^y ;
(2) a superior knowledge of Greek and also ot
the Latin classics and of astronomy ; (;J) a dis-
position to employ dialectics in theological con-
troversy. , . ,
(1) The treatise of Martiamis Capella, to which
reference has above been made (p. 18:>1), was a
favourite text-book with those who leaned to-
wards the cultivation of pagan learning. We
find, for example, one SecuruB Melior Ifelix, a
rhetorician at Clermont, editing the treatise in
the year 534, and distributing copies throughout
Franklaud (_Hist. litt. de la France, ui. 21, 17J);
80 that in the time of Gregory of Tours, it would
appear to have become the ordinary manual ot
all those who among his countrymen still made
any profession of learning (Hist. Franc, x. 31).
St. Patrick, it has been conjectured, first brought
the book to Ireland, where its speculative cha-
racter recommended it to the native genius.
Various features, however, combined to render
the volume peculiarly obnoxious to the orthodox
party ; it contained, for example, a remarkable
anticipation of the Copernican theory in a state-
ment that Mercury and Venus revolved round
the sun ; it asserted the existence of an antipodes,
and finally it referred to the Triune God ot
Christianity in the. same category witn the go^J
of pagardsm {Mart. Cap. ed. Kopp, p. 856). It
was from these pages that Virgilius, the Irish
bishop of Salzburg, derived his theory ot an
antipodes, by the maintenance of which he drew
down upon, him-elf the enmity of St. Bon'face
and the anathema of pope Zacharias (Jatle, Mon.
Moqunt. p. 191; see also Gorini, Dejcnse de
rAjlise, ii. 375-383). Prudentius of Troyes, in
his controversy with John Scotus Kngena,
broadly iucused the latter of having "imbibed
the doadlv poison" of heresy from the same
work (Migne, P'lt: cxv. 1294). , , . ,
(2) The superior scholarship and classical
8CILLITANI
attainments of the Irish scholars are attcsffid
by fre(iueut evidence. Cidumban beg\iiluJ hil
leisure with the comuosition of Latin verse flie
allc'ctation of Greek modes of cxpre.ssion is, how-
ever a serious defect in their Latinity, and iM»
much t(^ the obscurity of their dictiort. " It la
palpal 'e," says Mr. Haddaa, "in british writ..T8,
as well as iu 'rish and Sax-^n, from Gildasdown
to Kictmarch " (IIciikHhs, p. 280). Tlicv wire
often well read in the Greek fathers, and t hioint
the Scot, when at the court of Carhnnau m Hi,
shewed himself familiar with the writiiii;* of
Origen, and declined to be bound by the do tii of
Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory (ft. pii, J7+,
086 ; Jatic, J/on. Mu<iunt. p. 140). 'Ihc transla-
tioii of the treatises of the pscudo-Dionysuis by
John Scotus Erigena in the 9th century (a task
to which none of the Frankish clergy hai b«n
found equal) Jiroves his 8Ui)erior aciioaiiitamc
with the Greek language, while we may uiKr
from the questions •• hich, at the suggcsti.ii of
Clement of Ireland, Charles the Great proin.uivled
to Alcuin at Tours, a more than ordinary ac-
quaintance with a-tronomy (Migue, I'utrul. c
266 ; Jatlc', Alcuinuim, p. 420).
(3) The proneness of the Irish theoIo;;iin9 to
the use of the syllogism aroused the «htii«ithy
which, as we have already seen, was tra.htiunal
in the Latin church to such modes of discussing
theological questions j Uencdict of Aniaiie iiotoi
this feature to their discredit: "Apud ninderuos
scholasticos, maxime apud Scotos, iste sylloi;ismu3
delusionis " (Baluze, Misc. v. 54). The practice,
probably carried to its abuse, is discernible tiom
Pelagius down to John Scotus, the latter of
whom Prudentius found it necessary to remind
that the fathers of the church had eujomed that
the faith should be defended, not by sophistic
trickeries, but by the plain statements ot the
Scriptures : "Ne^uaquam sophisticis illusi^uibu!,
sed Scripturarum sanctarum evidentissiniis alle-
gationibu8"(Migne, cxv. 1013).
But although, in the 8th and 9th centuries,
the treatise of Martianus Capella and the em-
ployment of dialectics were discouraged by the
church, there is sulKcient evidence that neither
the one nor the other fell into disuse ; so that
when, at the commencement of the 12tii century,
William of Champeaux opened his school uf logic
at Paris, and found both a pupil and a rival in
Abelard, the ancient art was revived with new
^•igour, and the history of Christian education
itself entered upon a new phase.
Authoritcs, 4C.-Thoma8sin. Cave, Histom
Luteraria. Keuilel (G. G.), Ilistorm Orym.s ^f
ProaressM Soholarum inter Chrtatuinos, li«.
Ampere, Histoire Utterairc de la tra,Ke,3^.
1867. Gorini, D4<"ise de fEgl<fe, 4 v. 18b4.
Kihn (H), Die iiltesten christluhen IxhtUn,
1865. L^on Maitre, Lcs Ecoles ^piscopaes ct
monastiqves de I'Occidcnt, 1866. haufmann
fGeore), JRhetorenschiden ttnd Klosterschu^
article in von Ranmer's Historische, Taschenkch
for 1869. Prantl, Oeschichte der Lofl>k tmAm-
laml^. vols, i: and ii. 1855-60. Mul inger(J. H
Scliools of Charles the Great and Jtcstoratm 0/
Education m the iMnth Century, 1877. ^ ^^^
8C1LLITANI. TWELVE MARTYR?,
July 17; commem. rated at Carthage (i/?rf.
Uod., Usiard., Adon., Vet. Bm., li'eron-^ M-
ker., Wand.). L'^'"J
SCREEN
SCREEN. [Cancelli ; Ico.vootash.]
Bciuuiismm, scuiniiNmH, the
more an,:.,.„t .S..«,.duu,lhe .,r hist,.. ,,!,•,„ *
nnes. He was ..„,,yi.t, illu,„i„a, . X"
F.,ur -»/.'«<.-r, we fiu,l fr,'„,„,„t obits.,/' he sT he
'l»r..|« the H,h, 9th, an,| l,.,h .enturies ,.n.
l» olteii (A.I). HO,), H.'l), 8'.>8 871 &,. \ i i
•'.scnhc, bishop, anchorite, an,l abhai "YKeev,:?
-.ic.n,r,hAioo;,:,?''al?i,„':^.:-;;-:;
hat for the bloo,l of a bisho,, or abbat ( ",? the
r,sh canon of the «th centurv. .iu,.te,i fr ,,,
DAehery and Mart^.ne by OVonor. /A. iv 1
icriiits which still remain, both in our own
.nes anJ in the continental, attest th ir
.11, taste an,l assiduity, and their knowledL'eof
he principles of their art, and of the con bin"
Jl^m Wth th "'^ °/vlm,,,/4, and the £«,/,
u,r / '*^^"'',"'"^^"' "rnamenthtion of Uunic
bots and aniiMl, with elongated and inter acin'
ext,em,ties(0 Curry, lJ. MS. Matc.-Lt3
Anc. Ir. Hist. pass. ed. 1873). rj q f
SCRIPTURE, STUDY OP. The object
P'"t'7/' '» this article is to throw soitielilh
upon the habitual use which wa, made ol oh
.-.pture during the early ages of the chu r h
as the subject of the constant study, and as the
1. A the numerous versions made in ancient
times httl... needs to be added to the articles
which h.,ve already appeare.i in the ^t
tmary of the Bible. [vLrsions.] Great i,^
portauce was attached to the iuSat^^^
versions into the vernacular tongues of
™Li ? c\ '^ "'•) ^^■'■''*s: "For the
translations of the Scriptures from Hebrew
nto Greek can be counted, but the Latin trms
£Tthe"Vafth''" """""• '''' '" '"-"^
.;l . "* ^""y ■""" who happened to
barbarians, throughout the world- 7„rk
CHRIST. ANT.— VOL. ij.
li;!llr
SCRIPTURE, STUD^ OP 1859
p-ent province t!f ,n::sr;!h/ 1;:^'::^ :;;:
A.-W,., s. V. Canon^ ' ■ """' "■"' '^'^•'- 'V <A.
,3 ,7. fi '•;:; '"?■ •■' p"-.')"- <". .
ne author ludeeil very properly refers to »1,«
d scourses of our blessed Lord\s to an author v
of equal, and indeed more especial, ^.iX "'t
he never expressly quotes these fmn anv'.Kir
t cu lar written gospel ; and although h.^v
exactly agrees with these evangelical narraUves
>n substance and in sense, yet the voHmI dis
u..f.,™ .|,p,.| i, ,„.j, „ n, J- *" ■
the homihesand other works of the mst cell
tTZTV-'"' '^"'«-' study oikVt-
lure, Jrom the invitations addressed to tL
wriStr^'th'"*?^" '" "-i- the! ^^
writmgs tor themse ves, and from fhn :
ental notices which their tr^ afford :f
the extent to which the Scriptures were read
aud^st^udied .n private, and of^he effecj tTus
Clement in his epistle, c. 45. exhorts tha
f/^f""""*" "look'into'the HoVscrJtur^B
which are the true words of the Holy Gh"t "
Again ,n the fifty-third chapter he Ls, « y^
know ful well the Holy Scriptures, and h.re
thoroughly searched i:.lo the oracle of Go3 "
I Polycarp, in his episile to the Phili,.pians, c. lij
118
'1}
.t ffi
1800 HOinrTUUK, STUDY OF
writi'» thin ! " I truit ye nro well pxeroit*! In
th« Holy Scriptiiri'it, nivl tlint nc.thlni! in liil
from yi'ii." Tutinii in lii.< Aithymi tn < <■
«)•«;« (f. 'Jtl) l>n«rH wItnoMH t(i til.- priicticnl
tlTtrrt iniulunoil iii">n hl« nwn litMrt nn.l lilV' I'V
th^ willinKit witli wliiili 111- ImiiiMMio,! t" nn'i't,
"toil iiM tiilMM'.iiniiimMl Willi till' o|.ini(m« of tlii^
Oicck», ftnil t"" iliviiu! til \iv nniiimii"! willi tlii'T
erruiit." 'rhiMi|ihilnii (.11/ Antnlii nm, 1. 14) l.fnin
iimiliir fi-«llninny to llmt "f Tiitian t" the cll.'it
pri.iliiifil nil liiH "wn miii'l I'V tlm ntU'ly ot tin'
ScriiitiiicH, im.l h« urKfH liin iVieml " tn utmly
rnivHillv the) priiplwti.Ml writinKH," ntsiinn;;
lilm tim't thi'V will IimhI him " 111 mi- ci'i-tiiinly t"
a wiiv 111' I'li'iM'" '"*■""' i'Vi'i-l'i'<tim,' puni-lmipntu,
tnt ti'i iho iitliiiniiuMit (.f tin- f v.Tliiitin« hln.-mn^ts
of 1l1.1l." .liHtin Martyr (C'lhm-I. 'id <li;i<r„s.
c. :l.')) I'lirnostly fxhiirtu thunc tn wh-nn he writi'S
" lis tliii Olio thini? which ri'iniiiniM fur thiim
to do," that " ri'iiiiuminK thi- error of tliiMr
fiitiior.^ thi'y woulil nm.l the prophecies ot
the s,ur<>'l writern , . . nn.l lenrn from theni
thiit whiih will («ivn thi'iii everlinting lite.
AtliiMinijoiftii ill hi" /'/<M for thr Vhrhtians writes
thus ; " 1 think that yoii nlsociuinot he ii;nniiint
of tlie writhiKS cither of Moses, or of Isaiah ami
Jereniiali, Hinl the otlior prophets" nml ii'l'l^.
" But I leave it to you, when yon meet with the
books themselves, to examine carefully the
propheiies containeil in them, that you may, on
HttiiiK «roiinils, ilefeml us from the ahuse cast
upim us" (c. Ix.). In like manner Tertullian
(Ai»>l. c, !)1) invites the Koman presiilents or
ninitistrates at Carthaije to " look into the words
of doil," imil Rihls that the Christians did not
conceal their Scriptures, and that many accidents
brought them lefore those who were not of
their relinion. Clement nf Alexandria in his
Kxlinrlatiim to tlm lleiithrn (c. ix.) not only
quotes many of those " ten thousand Scriptures,
which, he savs, ho could adduce, hut ho addresses
them in tho following words ; " No one will be so
impressed by tho exhortations of any of the saints
ns he is by tho words of the I.ord Himself, the
lover of man. . . . Faith will lead you in ; ex-
perience will teach vou; Scripture will train you,
for it says, 'Coine'hither, children; listen to
me, and 1 will teach you the fear of thi- I.ord.'
And, ai;«in, in the atromnteis (i. 7), Clement
writes as follows : " Wherefore also the Scriptures
were translated into the languaKe of the Orccks
in order that thcv niinht never be able to alleije
the excuse of i(?norRnce, inasmuch as they are
able to hear also what we have in our hands if
they only wish," So also Tertullian {ad U.rorem,
ii. t>), when setting forth the dangers arising
from inarriaKOS between Christians and idolaters,
asks, " Ilbi fomenta fidei de Scripturarum inter-
lectione?" when' he seems to assume as a matter
of course that such reading would be common
with those of the same faith. Other passages
might be adduced from the same writer in proof
of tho prevalent use of Holy Scripture amongst
Christians, and of the appeals made to it in their
apologetical and coutroversiiil works in terms
which imply its accessibility to all. In like
.^ . ,. />-i— '••- '— H""> ltr\.a.ira. "let
us read the Scripttires of the Old Testament. . . .
Let us also read the Scriptures of the New Testa-
ment, the words thp n'"»tl«s; and having
read them, let it be oui are that they be
written in the table of our hearU." And agai;;
SCIUPTrRE, HTHDY OV
(in lib. Jeivm. Hom. ix.) he says that " though
at the verv time of reading theuKthe Scripture*)
there be no sensible adviiiitage, yet in the end
thev will be found protltible for !.treiigthnilhi;
virtuous iJiii|Mi»itions ami weakening -the luibit-
of vice." And, once more, he exhorts his heni..r<
to "come daily to the wells of the Suiptiin.,
the waters of the llolv Spirit, and th. re diiiw,
and ciirrv home a full vessel " (in «ieii. lloiii. x.).
Ill the letter addre>sed by Theoii.n, bishop nl
Alexandria, al.oul the dose of the :inl lentiirv,
to I.iicinuus, tlie chief chamberlain of th*
emperor (probably Hi.., letian), we lin.l »i<m-
iuteresting directions given concerning lhedulii'<
cif the person who mav be entrusted by ili..
emperor with the cuitody ot his library.
Amongst these we find a diiection to "l;iii,l
the r>ivine Scriptures which I'tideniy I'him.
delphus caused to be translated into „ur
language ; and sometimes, too, the gospel m\
the apostle will be lauded for their divin,.
oracles" (c. 7) The following advice is al«..
given to Lucianus himself: " I.et no diiy pa-s l.y
without reading some portion of the mutwI
Scriptures" (c. 9; in liacherii .S/iici/c;/»(»i, lii,
pp. o'JT-'JOO). Cvprian (i/-' ■■^l> rt.inilis. c. In)
savs : " Let the fai'thful Christian devote liiiiKcIf
to' the sacred .Scriptures, and there he shall
tind worthv exhibitions for his faith.' <h\ftn
urges Ills hearers not only to hear the Scnptun-
read in the church, but also to exercise them-
selves in the reading of the same in their ImiHw,
and to meditate thereim day and night (cf. Hum.
in Levit. ix. tom. vi. pp. IM, I"."). <=''• Wirre-
burgi, 178:l; cf. Hom. in Oen. x. tom. v. \<.ti'):
Hom. in Ex. xii. tom. v. pp. W:>, 4()ti). St.
Augustine, writing to I'roba (/i'y. c. xxxii. 11.
p ;li)0. Ant. 1700). exhorts her specially t" read
the writings of the apostles, assuring her thnl
bv theiii she will be incited to aciiuaint hcrsell
with the prophets, whose testiinouies the apiistk
l le earnest exhortations of St. Chrysostom,
addressed to all classes of his hearers, to devot..'
thems. Ives to the diligent .study of hidy Siriptur.,
are familiar to all wh" are aciiuaiuted with hi-
writings. Such exb. stations are found, .■.■/. r.
his tw^'ntv-Krst ho- .lilv on fienesis. aii.l in k
thirty-second .and f' vty-first homilies on St. .1 1
and also in the h-milies of St. Uasil, as iv;. ::,
those on I'ss. xxviii. and lix. A nioiv i-
markable passage occurs in the third "i * liry-
sost.im's sermons on Lazarus, a passaf which
deserves special consideration in connexion with
the jiresent subject, not only by reason et iht
earnest exhortations of the preacher te th*
private study of holy Scripture, but al?" «-
bearing directly on the interesting and ii"|«r.
tant inquiry respecting the extent tn wbnh
copies of the Bible were multiplied and cipulaiol
in the 4th centurv. In the beginning "t tW
sermon, Chrysostom assigns as one reason why
he did not complete his examinatmn ot th(
1,111 aide of Lazarus in one day, his desire thnt the
subject of his discourse might take deeper ri'i
in the minds of his hearers by continuous iiie'li-
tation on w hat he had said. He then goes on :•
assign as tne reason why iie iVe.iuenUy amif.:;: -
the subiect of his discourse several davs h&'n
its delivery, his desire that during the inter-
vening da/s his hearers should take tk f,d
into their hands, and by a careful exaininati*
ROIUITURi:, STl-DY OF
tlwU .h/,tn,lv , fth 's,.i ,,1*'''"'* "■'"' """»•'••''
only .,.;.-. i,..,.:,!!:^ :;:;'■•;;:; ':;,-,"■■;-;
He ni',,r."..,U . 1 u i '"'" "'"' ""•« "til's.
"iRlit ... fh. Imnk- makes >,„.„ l„ss ,„.,„„. ,„ ^,,,
In "■■"■'■ It IS im,mrta„t t., .,1... ve th h
ni I T . ' '"^'""■stdin |];ivi' II' fi'i'DcH til till.
OM li.s(am,.„t«,s well „, to th., \..,v^h, K I
',"."> '•iliii'ts his heni-iM-s t.i iniitiniip »,, -.. i
i;:ii,:f.::^:'liMrr;i;i::!'7r,"i-
the tn.tha whi.'h th.-v . ■«' l'"''' "'"'"
w,iu,,,ni..,f.L^'';ij!r''rL';hr«fth;i
de,.is.iththee,rv;;'„Si,;i;'rxj:
of the liible Rrnun-led on th,. all..„e,| .liili',, tv f
'•".•iinnB ci.,.>es. A,, regar.ls tht ri,h h" li ■!
that this excuse is altoKether ri.liiui;,,, l' ,
d,'es not attach tnn.h w,.it'ht t,i it' ZZd.
poor, but .ibsiTves that if anv are so ,' r th
cannot ,,urchase .'opies oi' th« Scri itures , r
th.,, selves they n,i,ht nevertheless, by rc.s, n
01 the ,„n ,„„„! public reaiiini; of them hT'Z
.cqn.iuteii with the whole of their on ,,,"
On,:e ,nore, ,n his thii-ty-secon.l hnmilv „„ St"
John C(,,vsost«m reproves those who ca ej only
for he hnenessof the parchment ,.n which c.,,"^
the .Vnptures «ere written, or ; . the beauty
of the .haracters, an.l who negle.te,) the content.
Ami as .llustra.ing his own practice Xence
Oe e U™' whi^r^" '" "l'^ -th homily":
.. ,' T " •"* '»>'« 'hat by tnkin? the
amJ books (ra e,r« ffipiu. ., „.,„; fi,"t a m,l e.i
he e.itire collection of the li„„k" . f S^ i' , .»
bylhrysostom) into our han.k b„t h be o 'e a>^,
alter meals, we shall be able, when at home to
derive profit, and to afford spiritual fL to 'th:
enrtelirT'""^'. *^ S-'ent writers of the
Gr «, ""'y.S'^'-'P'"'-'' "n the part of the clergy,
t-regor. Naz,a,,zen complains of those who
k«,'e they well knew how to read .1, .S,";'
qu.,l,he.l for the governntent of the ^bn "h
»;""!)' a "'^ ."^^''■'' ^f- t-hrvsostom, in his ti-ea
T- "•^""'y *'«-'I'ture upon the clergv He
■n™, tne word of God was instead of everything
SCRIPTtTRE, STUDY OF imi
that was used In ,h., cure ,.f bodilv ,|i..emp..r.
t7i«.ript:i:::::t,?;;:r:':,i,;,::--:.-''y-
i<./.\iV«<</.(„.). And airaih .. I,- ''''''•
.I,,.,:,; , ■ "tri'in, "Divinas .Scr utiir .«
=ilK.;"i.,5:;:;,.';;sV'"'''r
'"'■■™'.--«"i" ....!». ;;■,,■■;'::;;■,■:
1 «";::?'™';, :;!■;';■,-;; t*''~ »"
At th,, designation of Kraclius by .St. Aulm,,.
,f hi r ' '■"'?""" '" "'« 'li»H,nVi.f o ,e
res,duti,.Uor,he3,;;?^^^;^l;--his
a»hrac.usw,,,d,|..kin.llygiye'im"l V'.' o
^ s'^r'ue^ ";-'"''y"fthesa.:re,r«;,i!
T,,,. ,„||owins; references throw some light upon
,t.';::';;:rn^rTi:;^,i!:x,::^^"l'''7"
itr^Xh^'''"-r"V'fS"^--~
I icii in wnich his sister ha, been nrinr„«» ),»
s'h•.t'Tt^'""';"''''""•'^--^"'"'
receiving fo,.d, their ears shoul.l be oc, ,^^1
oeivin^,hewo..,i„fo.iaet;:rc!;:-^^^ ;:^^
:x!ta;m::;Sr;t/-::?s:,";f"
neven„termitte,l (,^ /-I^Ji^'^;:^ " r:^^ '
"Po'trramT ^"^-V^f ">« Egyptian monk;
pilm- ""■" "■ commune con.urritur •
Seri;!;ri!j: ■^"""^'' '"^-"- '« ^he st\i^;"o';-
of IJf: ^^^ T"* ^'''[l''"™ which shall be adduced
of the actual use which was made .,f Hulv Serb
ure in the early Chui, 1, )s derive,. fL, VC
^-t-nt to whicn It waa either c.mmitted to
memory as a .iistinct exercise, or, as a re„lt .f
Z'r""r.r""''« ""'I mediiation, bci:
familiar to the mind both of public teachers and
also of private individuals. ^
Eusebius says that Origen's father trained hta
6 D 2
''H
i
' !
'if:
n
. s-^Ksaua
JU«..I^I
■
1862 SCRIPTURE, STUDY OF
from his ohiMhood in the Scriptures, appointing
him to repeat some passages every day (iiist.
Ecdes vi. 2). Socrates also says tliat fcusebius
of EmesA had studied the Holy Scriitnros from
his infancy and was then taught human learning
(Hisl- Ecdes. ii. 9)^ and Sozomeu, who bears
the same testimony, says that this was done
" according to the custom of his country (i»st-
£•«;/£" iii. 6). The same writer says that
Marcus the heretic was expert in the Scriptures
(vi. 29), and Palladius says that lie could repeat
all the Old and New Testament without boolj
(Histor. Lausiao. c. xxi. quoted by Bingham, Antv/.
iv p 176). Gregory Nyssen remarks, in his
life of his sister Macrina, that in her infancy she
was taught the easy portions of bcripture that
were moit suitable to her age. Sozomen says of
were inosi suiuauit.- i.>^ ...■> -»-• ^\i\,„
Julian the Apo.^tate (nist. Ecdes. v. 2) that he
had been brought up in the knowledge of tlie
Holy Scriptures under the guidance "t priests
and bishops." The same writer says of Mark,
one of the monks of Scetis, that " he committed
the sacred Scriptures to memory (i*. vi. ^»;.
St. Jerome says that the young virgms whom
Paula had collected out of different provinces
were obliged to learn the Psalms and some por-
tion of Scripture every day.' Augustine (de
Doct. Christ, ii U.) says that the hrst rule in
the study of Holy .Scripture is " to read them
so as to commit them to memory, though he
qualifies this direction by the words which lol-
low, " or at least so as not to remain wholly
ignorant of them." He adds : " In this matter
memory counts for a great deal ; but if the
memory be defective, no rules can supply the
''^He refers moreover to the case of those with
whom the Holy Scriptures had been so exclu-
Bivelv their text-book that when they met with
other and more commonly used forms of speech
than those to which they had been accustomed
in their Latin Bibles, they were "surprised at
them, and thought them less pure Latin than
those which they had learnt, from Scripture
(De Doct. Christ, ii. 15). , r,. •
Thus, e.g. in his preface to his work on Chris-
tian Doctrine, St. Augustine refers to the case ot
the Egyptian monk Antony, who, though unable
to read himself, " is said to have committed the
Scriptures to memory through hearing them read
bv others, and by dint of wise meditation to have
arrived at a thorough understanding of them
(Works, vol. ix. p. 2. Edinburgh 1873).
Gregory the Gieat, when chiding the abbat Theo-
dore for neglecting to read some of the words ot
his Saviour daily, mentions the case of Servuliii,
a palsied man at Home, who purchased a copy
of the Scriptures, and, though nnable to read,
learned the Holy Scripture through hearing it
constantly read to him by the religious men
whom he entertained (Zfom. xv. in hvangel.
Quoted by Bingham, iv. p. 179). Eusebius of
Caesarea mentions the case of a blind man who
could repeat any part of the Bible, and sorae-
SCRIPTURE, STUDY OF
times supplied the place of a reader in the church
iDe Martyr. Palacstin. c. xiii. i'-.). Socrates
makes incidental mention of one Pambos, an
illiterate man, who went to some one who could
read for the purpose of being taught a 1 ..aim
(Hist. Bed. iv. 23). The same writer ^ays of
Didymus, who lost his sight at a very earlv age,
that his acquaintance with the divine orai b;.s, as
contained both in the Old and New iestainent,
was so perfect that he composed several treati>cs
in exposition of them (.';. iv. 25). and "t the
Emperor Theodosius Junior, A.l). 422, that by
his eariy training "he learnt the Holy hcrip-
fres by heart," and that he was " a more mde-
fatisable collector of the sacred books thau even
Ptolemy Philadelphus had formerly been (A.
vii. 22). , „ , , re
Jerome (Ad Qaudentium de Pacahdae Man-
Lie. Kdmatione, i. pp. 45, 151.-,) advises thut
b Valpslus. In his notes on the second book of Socrat««'
Ecclaiaaical Butory. says that " it is »ell known that
the boys of Edcssa Roi by heart the books of Sacred
Scripture, according to the usage of their ancestors."
. " Nee licebat culquam sororum Ignorcre psalmos. et
uon de Scripturls quotidle allquld dlscere." (Epitaph.
PaoUe 0|)p. torn. 1. p. 84. Ul3.)
when seven years old Pacatula should leain by
heart the Psalms, aud should then proceed to
make the books of Solomon, the gospels the
Apostles, and the Prophets the treasure of her
heart Again, when writing to Laeta concerning
the education of her daughter (i. p. 26), he ad-
vises that at a tender age she should be inibutd
with the sweet Psalms. He prescribes lu the
following words the order in which he recom-
mends that the Scriptures should be studied and
committed to memory; "Discat prime Psa t^;-
riura • hie se canticis avocet : et in Proverbiis
Solomonis erudiatur ad vitam. In Ecclesmstc
consuescat quae mundi sunt calcare. In Job,
virtutis et patientiae cxempla sectetur. Ad
Evangelia transeat, nunquam ea positura de
manibus. Apostolorum Acta et Epistolas, tola
nordis imbibat voluntate. Cumque pectoris sni
cellariura his opibus locupletaverit, mandet me-
moriae Prophetas, Pentateuchum, et Rogum
et Paralipomeuon libros, Esdrae quoque et
Hester volumina. Ad ultimum, sine penculo
discat Canticum Cauticorum, ne si in esvrdio
leeerit, sub carnalibus verbis spirituahum
nuptiarum epithalamium non intelligens, vul-
neretur. Caveat omnia Apocrypha (i6. p. 20.
So aeain (Ad Denuitriadcm de Viriiinitatc ser-
varuM, i. p- 31) Jerome advises Demetnadee
thus : " Statue quot horis sanctam Scnpturam
ediscere debeas; quanto tempore legere, non ad
laborem, sed ad delectationem et instructionem
animae." . „ , >
Again (Vita HUar. c. 7) St. Jerome s.iys of
Hilarion, a monk of Palestine, « Scripturas ^aDC.
tas memoiiter tenens, post orationem et psalmos,
quasi Deo praesentc, recitabat." , , . .,
V The importance which was attached to the
public reading of Holy Scripture in the religiou.
assemblies of the early Christians is abuudautlv
established. [Epistle ; Gospel ; Lkctiun ; 1 ko-
But besides the public reading of the bcnf-
tures in their assemblies and the earnest exhor-
tations with which the writings of tie early
Christians abound to the diligent study ol the
same in private, it appears to have been a custom,
adopted in some partes at least, to have copies of
the Scriptures in t*e vernacular tongue plnc«l
in convenient parts of the churches so tnatihfrr
who frequented them might have opportunity ot
reading them for themselves either botore or
after the public services. The f"l'''",'"S ™
written by Paulinus upon the wall of the church
SCROLL
IS '"'■''''""' '° *"«"-'«-« of thia
"81 quern sancta tenet meditandl In lege voluntas-
Hie potent n.«icle„, sacrle Int^ndore l^^^T^^ '
of II!; li'^e Tu^i^T' 7^''='' ^"' ^'^ "'J'i'"^'"'
01 iiic use ot Holy bcnpture ma.le in the en-lv
Church ,.s.lerivecl from tL eager„o,Vwith wh ,^
the heathen persecntn,-., ».„.^k. > .? '""V"'^^'l
attache.1 to their possession, and the infamv
In the former of these letters innocent re nh
ine lion liibio, he continues, "which wp
expmini to (ho iipm.u „,v i "','" ^^
exlniples of the'LilS't/S th "^l^:
have been invariably subjected, and shews tha
they > 1,1 no receive their crowns till theVhad
Tieodore't (n n '• ^"'^ '^''^^ '" ""^ '"tt"^'-
01 llieodoiet to Doscorus, written about id
4++, bespeaks ot the great comfort wbh^h the
™m,,les contained in .Scripture althr o 1,1
who are calnnnnated, and cites the case of Joseuh
when cast into prison bv Potiphar, of K
when persecuted by S.ul, Knd laltlv of ourTo d
the Savour Himself when accused by His
77t'^r^"it ''"''' ^'"'"'''''"''^
As a further illustration of the practical use
made of Jloly Scripture in times ot' sorrow re!
ference may be made to an incident recorded in
the .Lives of the Abbats of VVeremou at^d
Jarrow appended to the works of llede to the
ertect t at on the night on ^-hich r.ene U^t h.d
Jan 12, A.D 689, some of the breth ren m t
^>S"ther in the church and passe,l e ni" t
w.th„nt sleep in p,aying and singing whn
th. s remained in the side chambers ^awaitn^
yronis, 1 V. d85 ; ed. Giles). mj v->'
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN 1863
wholly interdicted, but, at the same time, that
mZ V"'' \r'''^ '"•'''"*' ^"^I'i''"" an
of th!'=, ? '";■''' "^•'•■'^l'' 'he authenticity
ot oui Joi-d was erected at Paneas bv the
cnrx '!.":' .^"'" ''' '-- <"■ bwd*^^.^
JURIST liLPHKSENlATIONS, p. 8771, We should
de^te 't T!,'''^' ^""'''^'^ ex'amplei-Tcu?, u e
'le*oted to Christianity. The tale, however, is
the '.e;.h:;';-e;:;^ , "Lsrirci, i:ri ---ot^r tJ'Sirnuf^ ^^r-t Y -"'"^"-
i.,i, , , 1 '"""»"'■' "'" •• i:irarium " have no
,^ aim to belong to the domain of Christian art
Til f- ■ "^ ^'■'"^i*- '■ ^-^S), "the noveltv
J^:^y^!^e:^t'Sd^^:;Zrrv^
no other w, }' ''"''"'^ ""-^ -"'''" Ji^covered
no othei well-mithonticated example. For seven
eCKOLL. [Volume.]
8CRUTINIUM. [MissA, p. 1203.]
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAIV tk ...
* Q«ot«i by Bingham.^„<ij„,„«,. hook siv. c. iv. {7.
I. Statl'es.
.J-^u ^''T,^ "'^ ™'"'''='^* «'"' best of these is a
Tr rir i^tf "^'1*^ «^*^ «""j sh:,:he.d!
LS'Musu;'^'':ri''''™''^' """ '" *'^«
%.re,withaSc,„^H;L niSdti^'-f
y b hTa"! ^'t.;' '""T" "^■"- '''^ shoulders
f^l a-S r^Thf;;!: ^-''^^at nee,,.
;js.o„d(Appeii,„,i!T;feii:-^g:
with his right hand on his' shoulder, and the
"pedum •' with his left (Westwood, u.s Perm
CaM^s iv. 4). There is also m,e of in e"';
workmanship in the Kircherian Alu'eum (Per
kms, U.S I.,x.xix.); and one is mentim.ed at
heend of the4th century in the coHec ton of
the Duke ofMedinaCocli at Seville.
vSJ\^*' -P; 'f — % f'^r the most importantearlv
Christian statue as a work of art is the famous
bronze hgure of St. Peter in the vluc
basilica. It may probably be placed, as it i • !
.Ml. . I. H.Parker, however, who ,.lwnva reL-i,,!-
7\1 tl • «''"""7' It is a close imita-
t.on of the ancient Roman portrait statues, and
according to Liibke («. ,,. i. ;(W), •' displays a catt'
and accuracy of technical skill ast.Lsi, g " „
the 5th century," but a complete absence of
.*. i!
t
if .'• I>
1
*i.
4
\ "^
^i
, im
lA
1864 SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN
originality " we have in every line of the labo-
rious imitation of antique senatorial figures.
The finure is in Roman costume, with the
richt foot extended to receive the Itisses of the
faithful ; the right hand is extended in blessing,
ami he holds the keys in the left. The marble
chair in which it is seated is of the IT.th century.
According to one trailition, I,eo I. melted down
the ancient statue of Jupiter Cajiitolinus and
recast it in this form ; others hold, with less pro-
bability, that it is the old statue with a new-
head and hands. The celebrated statue of bt.
Peter which Leo the Isaurian threatened to
destrc.v in the time of Gregory II. ('-l'-^;"')'
was pi-obablv tliat preserved in the crypt ot bt
Peter's, the" body of which is antique, the head
being an addition of the 13th century.
The royal cabinet at Berlin once contained a
small standing bronze statuette of St Peter,
said to have been found in the catacombs.
It seems to have been talten by Napoleon I. to
Paris, and to have never returned. It is
described as being of good style, with drapery ot
artistic merit. The apostle was clad in the
tunic and toga, holding the lab:irmn in the let.
• hand, and giving the benediction with the right.
The head displayed the broad features, the short,
thick beard and curling hair characteristic otbt.
Peter (Bartoli. Antk/ie LuccrM, part in. pi. 27 ;
Milliter, SinnhihltT, ii. iil).
(3) St. Ilppoh-^ns.—lhia is a marble sitting
statue, much restored, especially in the upper por-
tions of the figure. It was formerly in the \ atican
T.ibrarv-, but is now in the Lateran Museum.
The (i'^ure is seated in a dignified attitude in a
mavbie cathedra, on which is inscribed the
canon raschnlis ; and on the other side a list ot
Hiiipolvtus's writings. It is vested in the
philosophic pallium. The right elbow rests oij
u book held in tlie left hand, and the right hand
is raised to the breast. The date is uncertain,
but it is probaljlv not later than the Bth century.
Mr Perkins vegards it as devoiil of character,
while it is pronounced by Winckelmann ami othei-
authorities to be •' the best known, example ot
earlv Christian sculpture" (Westwood, u. s.
p 37; Perret. v. pi. i.; Bunsen, JlippolytHs, i.
frontispiece; INIunter, Simbilder, ii. 13; DAgin-
court, SMljjt. pi. iii. No. 1).
II. Saucophaqi.
The chief field for the exercise of the art of
sculpture in the e.irly Christian churcli was
furnished by the sarcophagi, in which tlie
remains of its more wealthy members were
deposited. The number of these is ve.-y large,
esprciiallv in Rome, where very many have beeti
discovered in the catacombs and other places ot
earlv Christian burial. Examples are also to be
found at Ravenna, Milan, and other cities ol
Italv as well as in the south of France, where a
natiVe school of Christian sculpture, derived
from Italy, evidently flourished. 'I here are
also a tew in Spain. The chief examples in
P.oine are now collected in the I.ateran Museum,
where a verv interesting series of examples of
Christian sculpture are brought under the eye
at once, ."ind may be ntudied and r.mp.ared ?t
leisure. The most important of these, as well
a» the other principal sarcophagi now existing
in Ron.e, have been photographed at the est
of Mr. J. H. Parker, and their designs have
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN
been thus made accessible to the student at
The word "sarcophagus," as well as the mode
of burial, was horn>wed by the early Christians
from heathenism, and passed into the, nomen-
clature of the church. Augustine writes:
" Area in qua mortuus ponitur, quod omnes jnm
<rapKO(piiyoi' vocant " {De Chit. Dei, xviii. .5).
The word is al^-o found in an early ei>itnph
given l>y De Rossi, "in hoc sarcofago conditur"
{fnsi:r. C'/irist. J!uin. ii. 530).
Nowhere is the ra]iid decline of art more
recognisable thau in the sarcophagi. The has-
reliels. which so lavishly adorn their sides,
manifest a lamentable deterioration of style. The
compositions an- crowded and ill-balanced ; the
figures are usuallv ill-drawn, with short, thick
bodies and large heads, and stilf draperies, and a
general absence of dignity or grace. The com-
positions are rather architectural and luctorial
than sculptural or statuesque. The ligures
occuiiy one plane, unrelieved by any depth of
backgroumls. Tne majority of them are seen in
front view, instead of tlie profile, which chnrjic-
terises the Grecian friezes. But with this
decided deterioration cf style, it is evident
that the mode of decoration and its general
siiirit are directly derived from pagan art, and
are in • -> sense the natural development ol the
Christian mind. The pose of the figures, thoir
attitudes, the drapery, the types ot the heivls
are inherited from ancient pla.tic works. Ihe
inf\"'iority is due to the want of skill in the
sculptors erai.ioved, not to the introduction of
new forms. As a rule the earliest work* arc the
best, and conform most closely to the pagan
type. The later, we .lescend, and the mere
unmistakable the Christian character of the
sculpture, the greater is its inferiority as a work
of art. Sarcophagi bearing a distinctlv Christmu
character scarcely appear before the 4th century.
Le Blaut {Sarcph. Chretiens d'Arles, pp. m. iv.)
speaks of the exceeding rarity ot ear ler
examples. He refers to one bearing the date
A r; '273, and regiirds as belonging to the same
primitive type, that of Livia Primitiva, trans-
ported from Rome to the Louvre, and one at La
Gayole (pi. xxxiv.), but is able to mention no
others ; and though an earlier date has been
confidently aftirmed for some others, the most
trustworthy authorities agree that there are no
well-authenticated examples of Christum sar-
cophagi which can lie assigned to the 2nd century
and hardly any to the 3rd.
There is abundant evidence that pagan sar-
cophagi were used with little scruple for the
burial of Christians—" Profanis tumulis Chris-
tiani non raro quasi propriis usi sunt " (Mahdloii,
Iter Ital. § 10, p. 81). The use of the sar-
cophagus was a mark of wealth, and the desire
not to shew any inferiority to their neighbours
which is nowhere more powerful than in luiieiii
rites, would lead Christians of means and
position to adopt the mod.' of the disposal of
their dead which was appropriate to tneir rank,
without much regard to the character ot ttie
sculptures which decorated their last rcstinic
plspe If there had been Christian sarcophagus.
makers they wmild doublie.s have eiiicl-yM
them by preference ; but in the abs-Mioe of
artists of their own faith, they would have
recourse to sculptors of the old religion, ouly
SCULPTURE. CHRISTIAN
taking care to avoid those scones which had an I
Tt.;;™ IT\T/' '"-l ^y 1-re.erence selein"!
fnto which r '^\ TV^ "' ""'«'• ^"•'J'"^t! I
into which a symbdical meanint- could bJ
hX r i ^^''^^' °"<=e contaiuine the
body of a Chnstian virgin, and bearing the in!
Hc-npfon ' Aurelia Agapetilla, anoilU lei" is
ornamented with figures 'of Ba'cchus and nkked
Amormi, s„ e by side with "oran.es " (BoMetti
Osserva. 466). Another in the Vatican filued
by Uncelher , exhibits Bacchanalian seen s^ an.l
a Christian inscription. One in fh,. ' .
of the Villa MedicFon the ?C.i ^n ifme^i ion ,?
by Mart.gny, on which both Cupid ZfZt I
the tho^ugi^, p,.,„„ ,5,^- ^ Roaring
, S«-an, Phaeton, Castor and Pollux, and bv
looking on at a cockfight, togethe; wMth L
Good Shepherd. Botta^.i, a canon '„f Tortona
1824) to establish the Christian character of this
sarcophagus, but it hardly admits a doubt that
1 was "ngiuallv a pagan work. The sai- ..ha'n
at Aix la Chapelle, i„ which the br,;>v 01 ^ h-.rle
magne was first laid, on wht :. W. R^p'' „f
Proserpine is carved, is a well. ,, ,,..,,„,„ "}
the emplovment of a pagan U , XJ ,■
burial. The beauty U ^il^.p.oousne^' f *;;;:
work overrode all scruples, 'ihe earliest la ed
sarcophagus bearing an undoubted Cliri ? a„
subject IS one from the cemeterv of SS. P er
Id Marcellinus, presenting the Xa.ivity, w th
the 0.V and ass standing l,y the crat<:h, with the
consular date a.d. 343 (Xat.v.tv), The m g!
nihoeut sarcophagus of St. Helena the m" 1 fr
f .e Lmperor Constautine (d. .iM), now in the
Vatican, probably the largest ev • «" h on
with the exce,,tlon of that of her grand,laugl e
Unstantia, is entirely devoid of Christi.m sym-
bols. It IS formed of one enormous block of red
porphyry, highly polislied, the face of which Is
covere,. with groups of arme.l warriors on horse
back .striking down their enemies, or driving th r
aptives before them, all, as it were, (ioating in
the a„. without any indication of the ground.
On be front and back at the upper angles are the
busts of Constantino and Helen,^ and on the Id
repo.se hons wreaths, an,l winged genii. I.iibke
mail m in a good antique style " (i. 338) : but
Dr. liaun justly remarks that "the tolerable
e.'ceeutinn of ndividual parts only render.' is
want of meaning as a whole still more striking
there heiug a want of unity of design and con^
eepfon " Aringhi, ii. 41 ; Bottari, iii. pi. 196 .
Ciampini, m. 28; Parker, Tomhs, pi, xii.).
fhe sister sarcophagus of St. Constantia (d.
alii TT^r''^" i^' '»»t-mentioned out\,f
n . V 1 " . "f, .r'-l'hyry, is equally wanting
n any definite Christian symbolism. It is the
a .est example of the vintage scenes with which
U 1 t an sarcophagi were so frequently deco-
TZ • f " '"''''""' "■''"'^- exhibiting heaw
gMps of chiinsy-winged genii gathering grapes
troa.l,ng them out (of the same chara'tc'r, bu
mu inferior ,„ style to the scenes on the mosaic
I„ , ,'r '.''P"'^''"'nl «lmpel where the tomb
WM found), with arabescjue festoons, peacocks.
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN 18tf6
ont o'tTh?' **"' ""^^''''' "" '"'^riouslv chiselled
aarcopha.4of n Ih , ' ^"""1""'' '"• ■•^'). A
but of f,« niore Ir ceA? f"!"'''""'"' '^'■"■•"^ter
of St. Lorenzo i '7^"' '" '^e portico
^vlth, sometimes without subioct; from Mnl
of , n r 1 ^ '!"!?'■•■'>■' **"= '^'•epher,! character
Hh; r T; J'"',^"""',Shephord with His "pHduin "
His right hand on the head of a sheep st, ds in
the centre, and is re,>eated with a an, /^f two
or three sheep at either end of the f^ce. 'Between
stand the apostles, six on either side, each with
a sheep at his feet. Professor Westwood in he
ab,,ve-4uoted es.say, supplies a larg iberof
Chr tl? '° 'f*"''"' ^'•■^'^^ represented on
Christian sarcophagi (p. 43).
fj}^''y /'"■■'="yi>4 bear in the centre of their
face, and sometimes also at the ends. wh'a[
are known as imagines clipi.atai,, .-. / the
tari 17> f V f .' '•"'^"^ ■■'"J t'altouia, Bot!
tail, 17), contained in a disk or shell, or sui.
ounded with a wreath, sometimes bo 1 e by
l^^ i f "'■ '" '°'"' '<"''' these busts are
unhuished, pi^ving that the sarcophag were
ordinarily sold in an incomplete state, levng
StrigUn. Frum Martignj.
t:
m
Ift
m
the disk bears only the sacred monogram rBot-
tan, 3,). Not a few of the less costlv are di^
tiuguished only by an "imago clipeata," the
1
ul 'i
M
1866 SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN
remaining surface being incised with curve-
ciiannels, linown as sfryiVs, from tiieir resem- j
blauce to the bath instrument of that name.
Hardly any of ',he sarcophagi have indcriptious.
The maguiticent tomb of Junius ilassus is an
exception, as is that all Cy mentioned of Aurelia
Agapetilla. The cust .i of decorating sarco-
phagi with colours, proved to exist in Syria by
Renan (JJescr. de I'/ionick; pp. 41,"), 41(j), has been
shewn bj Le Blant to have been sumelimes
a,iopted, not only in Jewish catacombs ((.iarrucci,
amd. d'Antichi Ebrci, \>. 2 1), but also in those
of the Christians (I.e lUant, p. 37).
One class of sarcophagi have as their only oi
principal subject figures of our Lord and His
apostles. Reference has already been maile to
that in the Later.an Museum, in which the whole
series appear in the charac' 'r of shepherds. One
of the most remarkable of t..is class, perhaps the
very tinest of the Uoman sarcophagi, is that ot
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAiT
gentation is found in sarcophagi out of Rumi-.
The sarcophagus of Titus Gorgonius in the crypt
of the cathedral of Ancona represents Christ
standing on a mount, with a male and female
figure embracing His feet. Near Him stand St.
Paul and a disciple with a jevelled cross. Fimr
disciples stand under at.:hes ou either side. At
liavenna, where the sarcophagi are of later date,
we lind our Lord no longer seated but cnthrin.td,
and sometimes nimbed ; on one at St. A|ioliii:iirc
in Classe, thought by Professor Westwood to i*
perhaps not earlier than the 7th century, <iur
Lord, represented as a nimbed youth, is sintcl
between St. Paul, who with veiled hand receivos
a roll, and St. Peter, who bears a key and a
cross. Both the ajiostles apiu'oach our Lorl
with hasty strides, their garments carrieil by tliK
wind. On either side two figures oiler cnnv.-^s
(Appell, p. 28). At "St. Maria ii. porto f'luiri "our
Lord appears also as a L -ardless figure euthroneii
fiaroopbagos of Peuxjniiu Probaa.
Baivoiilmgns. Church ot St. ApulUimra In CUwae (.\iiikiU).
Petronius Probus, praetorian praefect, d. 39,5,
in the subterranean church of St. Peter's. The
face is divided into compartments by spirally
fluted columns supporting arches, in the spandrils
of which are birds pecking at baskets of grapes.
In the centre compartment our Lord, hohling a
jewelled cross, stands on a mound from .vhich
issue the four rivers of Paradise ; on either side
of Him stand St. Peter and St. Paul in attitudes
of reverential attentiiin. Beyond, to the right
and lilt, are two artlies, t.ich enshrinmg two
apostles. Each end has three arches, with two
figures. On the back stand Probus himself and
his wife Faltonia hand in hand, with a disciple
at either end (Bosio, 49, 51, 53 ; Aringhi, pp.
281, 233, 285; Bottari, tsv. lfi-18; !)'.\gin.
court, pi. vi. figs. 12-15 ; Appell, p. 12). A
sarcophagus in the Lateran Museum (photograph
29J9) bears on its face Christ and the apostles,
each bennng a roll, under arches alternately
round and angular. Ihe same system of repre-
between four apostles, one of whom approaohcs
Him bearing a crown. The dillerence in cha-
racter between these sarcophagi and those of
earlier date is very marked. Fine exiimplts cf
this mode of treatment are offered by the sar-
coph.igi of Aries. On one we see Christ seated,
His feet on a footstool, with the apostles nnii
evangelists seated on either side. Chibt holds
a book inscribed Dominus Lc'jem dat, the other
figures hold rolls, some open, some closed, those
of the evangelists inscribed with their names
(Le Blant, p. 7, pi. iv.). On another of remark-
able beauty of execution, the central place is
occupied by a cross surmounted by a chaplet
i with soldiers below, symbolizing the resurrco-
' tinn. Six apostles stand on either side, raisins
j their right hands in token of adoration. Stars
! are seen in the background {ibid. p. 27, )il. lif,)'
' One, divided into six arched jianels, contains tiro
apostles on either side of Christ, one presenting
1 a basket of bread, another fish, both with veiieii
SCULPTURE. CH-^JSTUN
r/i'<-n''?" """"■ '"■" '^"''' ^""»- % « remark.
all four si,los are ™ Th J. ."ra" "'''^■''
more iiMmlly there is onlv ono Tk , i • .
.-.ii,n,. „,„„ . o.,,,i„;;,rii J I ,,-,".£<
« t.,.„„,j i,„. ifc, oti,.,„i,h,..,,„lj , ,!":
=■=■;:; :zrri.ii»-r
diminutive propnrti.'ns ''"'''""^'='' '" '""--e
We cannot fail to remark «» in ♦!,„ .
frescoes thf. li,>,-. 1 '^"''"''> "s '" the cataenmb
irescoc!., tne Jiinited cvo " tn whinK fi, i
was coi lued by ecclesiastical tradition •,,
well as the small amount of libertv hT'
iecure symmetry and balance i, tK .
tion lo r<I..„t 1 ""' "'V '-^ '" "le compos -
n?^'K '•%^'""' ' ■" ™"''J attention to the 1 .ro-e
r^f ith'T'' " '"r"'"'^'^ ^'"-« striking th
. rocK with the israe itos pniri>vi.> „* ■
fink, at one end, is hli:n::^'t?t^":^l oC
Uzarus with the adoring sisters at the off
;« we as th.se in which a LiW i/'^ s li's
ft- m he clouds on either side of the cent '
u joct, in one case to arrest Al,rahan'sacritce
.0 the other to give the Law to Moses. '
The subjoined tabular list shews the co, i
parafive ft;equency of the occunence of the
various ,cr,,tur...l subjects on the sar ophlg of
tl . «' *."*'■""" «"'' "f those g ven b,-
Bosio chiefly from the Vatican. Th? list is
cased ,11 one drawn up by Dean Bnrtrn , A
«an,i,.tion of the l!atiran^';"a^n::;fe?(fe:
frn ■'-'«,., Letter \X.),,o„.eeted by Dr Nor h!
*.J,y whom tne list from Bosi'o has b^en
Lateran.
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN 1867
ThcSicrincooflsaio
A(Ii)nitloiioi'theMtt(rt
Tl.eK,llofMan
"■ofSrr'fr'^-^}
Clirl>t'» Entrance into Jeril,
salcin .. __ !
1 he (io.(l Shepherd .'.'
Noah dnj tlie Dove
Chn..t b.-f„re Clh to .'."
Moses receiving tlie Luw "
Tlie Ihree Children In the,
riinmco ,. J
Mo«.8t„k,n« off his Shoes.'.
WlJ'ih's Ascenslun . .
The Nnthity ..
Christ crowned with' Thorns
l-aleran.
n
n
u
Bosio,
9
3
10
8
3
3
4
I
23
21
20
20
19
16
16
14
14
Boiio.
11
16
14
14
11
8
14
8
7
Jonah .. .,
Moses smiting the Hw'lt "
Tije Apprehension of Peter \
or, t
The Assault on Moses ..J
The Miracle of the Leaves *.'.
The KcdinR of the Blind
Tlie Jliracle at Cina
The l!.iisii)g of Lazarus .*.'
Peters Denial I're.ljcted
Diuicl and the Lions..
The Paralytic carrying bl's'i
^^ •■ ■• .. ; 12 .. 7
The Creation of Eve.. ',\ jj
iwlcal n. • . , V ^' ' ""• '■''niarkuble lo be ovr.
S: ani ; 'rl r]"i''«„^"f''' 'he sacrifice of ,2
tho°::rfelab:,.r\„^:r^^?'''<! »^this class i,
'■«'t ofthe city.l t. wh^.h^/r"-^' •"■""■
and execution n mv « r il" *^^"' '*' ■'ty'e
best works of ei" h'c, -i tii;' '''' """ '"' ^he
" it sut!icient;L;fth;"' '","'' '^"s''
especially ,n the t, :.. ! ''T'"'" "^ «">
/•'vided by ci;^;!,*;^^^; ^^;" -"p^ent.
centre ofthe unner fi ', r ."'^'■'"'J- in the
between two"!.' ^Itf ZurU'tf'""'"
represented as a beard .vlnl.l ' ^ ^f"""'
canopy of heaven »., ■ . ""° '"'"' the
' (n th» „, > '^~(') "he sacrifce of Isaac-
0;) the apprehension of Peter- rnci„iL ^ '
Pilate; (4) Cilato ,v., i>' . ! Ov thnst before
, » \^j 1 iiare wasnioo- Jiia h-iTit. i ^i
lower tier en i k :.»,"'» nan.ls. In the
i'nendscoI;1^,::t;:;^;^'^^^';;,«^f-|
of uian: (3) Ohri.:f» f„- V ,■'' '^-> the tall
=!e;-ff=-ns™r
t.tAi '," .'•"'•'■ " "~«"' . "J
ooss" (Hosio, 45 ArS V 277" r ,''"•"?•
I-.. r>'i™;„ . *»»i"su., 1. dit- IJottari. i
la^nt. The upper row exhibits tie raising of
m
hi-
I
1868 SCULrTURE, CHRISTIAN
Lazarus, Daniel in the lions' den. the law
received from the hand of God, the sacnhce of
Isaac and I'ilate washing his hands. A scallop-
shell in the centre contains two excellent por-
trait busts. The Divine Hand issuing trom the
clouds on either side of the -wll shews the usual
attention to balance of composition (Le lilant,
&in-m>U. p. .XV. cf. pi. vi.). In the lower tier we
have the combined subject of Moses .triKing the
rock and the apprehension of I'eter (see ()t.D
TK3TAMi;.Nr IN .\iiT, p. U58). Daniel and the
lions, Moses r.^aling the book of the covenant,
the healing .if the blind man, and the niir.acle ,.f
the loaves and lishes. This last subject is repre-
sented in a somewhat unusual maimer. Our
Lord stnnds, and puts His right hand on a o.f
and His left ..n a Imsket of hsh (Annghi.i. 42.i ;
Bittari, ii.49; Liibke, fi^ 2M, p. 84d). Ihe
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN
sarcophagus are very differently treated. Each
is carved in low relief, with a liackgrouiid full
of buildings, including a ba-ilu'a and a detached
baptistery, clumsily executed, but of high intciest
as contemjiorary representations of architecture.
The one represents our Lord iiredictiug'l'cter's
denial ; the cock standing on the to)! of an Ionic
column ; the other the woman with the issue of
blood, and Moucs striking the rock. These
reliefs are separated by some centuries from the
admirable sculptures on the front. They are
placed bv Mr. I'arker in the «th century (llosio,
80, 87;'Aringhi, i. 317, aii>; Appell. ji. 'JO).
Another sarcophagus, of somewhat similar (lesii;n,
deserves especial notice not only for the auty of
its execution, but as exhibiting scenes .rom the
Passion which occur very rarely. The iVont is
divided into live compartments by columns with
largest sarcophagus in the Lateran Museum, dis-
covered at St. Paul's outside the walls, also with
tv,o tiers of subjects, displays in the centre of the
upper tier unfinished busts of a husband and wife
in a"clypeus" supported by genii. The subjects
belong to the usual cycle, with the addition of
the creation of woman (Old Tkstament in Art),
and the adoration of the Magi (Appell, 16, 1( ;
Northcote, p. '2uO, pi. xix. ; Westwood, p. bO).
A somewhat dillereut mode of treatment is
shewn in a sarcophagus of the 4th century, dis-
covered at St. Peter's, now in the Lateran
Museum, one of the most simple and excellent
of the e.irly Christian tombs. The front is
divided by eight ccdumns exquisitely carved with
foliage .md flowers. In the centre the ycmthful
Christ, supported by Uranus bearing the vault
of heaven, stands between two apostles. Others
stand on either side, one of whom receives a
scroll from the hand of Christ. To the left is
the sacrifice of Isaac ; to the right Christ before
Pilate, who washes his hands. The whole are
most beautifullv designed and sculptured in high
relief. The two ends of this very remarkable
spiral flutes. In the centre stands the labarum
with the crown of immortality. Doves i.er.h on
the arms of the cross, and a waking and sh'vping
soldier sit below. To the right Christ, ropre-
sented as a youthful figure with Ihstuiger
raised in benediction, stands before IMlate. who
is preparing to wash his hands ; a crown ol ^dory
hangs above. To the left we see Chn.-t i«;mg
crowned with thorns, which is translornHnl into
a victor's chaplet ; and Christ -earing lUs cross
a mere trunk, under a. guard of s.ddiers. 1. crown
hanging ab.A-e. Few early Christian «.rks of
art exhibit a greater union of .aim .hgn.ty and
grace (Appell, 20, 21 ; N.^rthc te, ..OO.
One of the most frequently recurring s d/.t
is the hist..ry of .Im.ah, a type of -l.i.tii ^>nd
resurrection. As an example we may p..«l «
one of singular grotesqueness rom u I ..t. n
Museum, the face of which is 't','- '^„; "
will, figures of difTcrev.t =,^e=, ^'f «|''-' " "" ■'"' „
series is the most consiiicuous. Ih.' sea nioiis ei
with l..ng sinuous tail and vast yawning moutti,
well furnished with teeth, appears U^nv in th
centre, first swallowing the prophet as he is casi
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN
out of the ship, above the anils of which are
«lles;oncal r.|,re.,entatio„a „f the sun nn.i wiml
the noii.i. At ntluT extremitv fishermen are
"•'"' "" '^; .^'''"■'•'- Above and aroun.l are the
co,.,nu,n i,hl,,al s.^nn, on a smaller scale the
ra,s,ns ot l.azan.s Moses Mnitin. the ro..k b!
a,,oreh,.ns,„n of Peter, the Good Shepherd an.
two ce,, n, a h.tle box-like shrine, and N h
™, the dove floating i., the water (Arin^rh i
33,.; liottari, i. 4> ■ Appell. ,,. isi) '•'"'"S"'' '•
\Vhen we ,,,.it Kome a ditierent schod of ,,rt
.s endenccd by the cliange in the wo-kn^ansb ,
and the appearance of new subjects. A sire
phaK.is ,n th. crvpt of the catiledral of Km-uu,
einib.ts the raising „f l,„reas and the in,priso„.
men and release of St. I'eter (iJe .^'li„ic ,
SUum. M J-crmo, ,,. 83 ; Apj,ell, ,,. ^4) -U
UM-cna we b„d in tl,e crypt of .St. Oiov^nni
n \ alle the verr rare subject of Judas' kiss and
he.SA.„AKnA.v \VoMA.N with fhe well-,,ullev .-m,
buckot, wb.ch rs also seen at Clermont Ferrand
(M.dei J/»s. Uron. p. 484; Ver. lUust,: part
m. |)l. ■-', nog. 1, 2). At St. Ambrogio, at .Milan
the very remarkable .sarcophagus called by somJ
hat ol ,M,l,cho ami Serena, deserves nmchatten-
tion. Ihe chiel subject is a yonfhfnl be.-irded
Christ tcaclung the apostles, with the adoration
of the magi on one si,le, and the three children
refusing to worship the golden image on the
her Ihe ends exhibit the Fall, Isaac's sacrifice
Lhjah s ascensb.n, and other usual Old Testament
subjects. In a pediment to the left is a curi, ,s
rehel of the Nativity (NATlVfrv) (Appell, p. :;,•;)
Ihe .■sarcophagi at Kavenaa display a remark-
able poverty of invention and feebleness of
execution together with an almost cmplete
absence of decoration. The ornamentation con-
sists chiefly of the meaningless repetition of
convontu.im symbols, crosses and myograms.
The limited powers of the Havenna sctVlptors
s snk,,,gly_e.vhib,ted in the colossal niLrble
tombs--hve ,n nuini,er-in the mausoleum of
Galh. 1 aadia d. 4oO. Her own sarcophagus
of imrest Greek marble, is npw perfectly devoid
«t ornament, but once bore plates of precious
front .livided by Hufed columns; in the central
compartment the Holy Lamb, with its head
awkwardly turned back, stands before a crof
on whuse arms doves rest. On either side ai-e
snnple c:-;.ses. That of Constautine HI., d m
ha^. carved on it.s face three lambs with palm'
whence the four rivers i.ssue. The fen large
marble sarcophagi of bishops from the 6th to the
8h century, at St. Apolliaare in Classe are
characterised by the same extreme po"4t'y of
"venion and feeblene.ss of treatment. One
lrea,ly described, exhibits our Lord enthroned •
^.t nearly all are content with the same ,^0-'
ULiKled with wreaths, cros.ses, doves, and vase.
™bs under palm trees, peacocks, and other
gid conventionalisms. It is an interesting fac
er„ ti-om Oassiodorns (VaHor. lib. iif ',
") tliat a certain sculptor named Daniel was
ummone to Kavenna from Home by Theodr,"
m ,h " '° 'i'^^vandis atque ornandis mar-
moabus, and received from him the privilege of
SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN * 1869
Zd^'w^hlch "■''•^7*'">'^ "f R»vonna with sarco-
I hag, which are designated in Theodoric'., re-
script a.s"orueae,,uarum beneticio c.-.davera ia
E''-irf'?"'''"*^'^"'''''''''""i''''-va'o^
Md.itio. Ihe tomb fr„m .St. Apollimire in Cb^se
: aln-ady described, displ„yiiigolir l.oM e t ! ^I
i tlinv'l "i"''""?" ,"'"'''"'- '^ '"n^i'lored bv .Mar-
, »<-Ulptoi. he,c sarcophagi have u.uallv semi-
ot the oxauh l.aac at St. Vitalis, U. ,544 ,.„„.„.
seats he adoration of the magi The h , 1
n">.W and the star stands aUvelh^■r :„'
led ,s a poor scattered work, weak in dc'iga
•md iude m execnti.in (Appell. 1,1 -.7) ^
Ihe south of France, as ha,s 'been alreidr
rem.wked, is peculiarly rich in earlv Ci ! Z
arcophag. of the 4th and oth cei.'tur ir"
t.cular,.sed bv .Millin and Le Blant, vL ' '
OiegoiN of lours mentions such sarcooha.'i as
'M^ting ,„ France in his dav. One he 1 "k, Tf
t'>nned of white marble, .Sculptured wh the
■""■acdes o Christ and the apostles a St ' roin
near St. All.re (do Glur. Cnfe.s. c. ;t5.cf c 4"^'
an. in the next chapter reconis ".sepuKhn™
c,, p urn mentis gl,,,iosum sanctae inem;:, ™
"1 styh and subjects with those of l!„,„o in
other p aces they are marke.l bv local pec i^r"
<r ■ , " u' ^''- ^"''■•)-aiithu-s a.d '1 a iat
Marseilles has its face divided into ven
•ompartments by trees, on which are to be se!n
rdswii.he.r nests and young. Up the stems
of the t«o end trees serpents are wrig,r|ine
auotliei. In the centre two harts ,ire driiikinB^
rom wo brooks issuing from a rock; on ei,^
t,.eH iciT^ '1^ t"^ .'^ ^"'•'""^ a<ti>ude3
no 41 Tb' ^^''"'"\,t".'"- i^-- V- m, pi. xxxviii.
no. 4) The s,ime division bv trees with birds
on their bi-anches and a snake clinibing the t ink
"f one ,.f them towards a bird's nest I 1 u ml "n
one ot the Aries sarcophagi (Le lilant, p. 9. ,1 v )
and .,n one at Carpentras. The evd'e'of h bi;Val
nbjects IS .somewhat enlargd. One of the most
be n T^''T "". ''''"^ ^''""■^h sarcophag
s the Destrnction of Pharaoh and his hit iu
the Red Sea. Le Blant mentions three or four
examples at Aries itself, and others at 4T. and
Avignon (pp. 50, 54-57). It is not, however
hmited to Gaul, h is found at Rome (15 ,t,r?
tav. 40, 94, 199) and Pisa (Lasinio, taV og '
and appears depicted with much sti • and action
on a sarcophagus at Spalato. In this last e.xam le"
as at Aries and often elsewhere, the Red Sea
s symbolized by r. couchant human Hgure as
the Jordan frequently is in the subject^ f 'the
baptism ot Christ and the ascension of Kli ah
(Le Blant, pp. 51 54). A sarcophagus form it;
at Aries, now in the museum at Aix, in addition
o the passage of the Red Sea, whi'ch , c 1 "e"
the whole face, has on one end Moses before
Pharaoh, and on the other the gift of quails and
the striking the rock. The pillar ^.^t is
dopic ed m the most naturalistic manner a an
actual column of stone with a blazing liX on
.ts suininit ^Le Blant, pp. oO-S'.', pi. xxxi., xxvii "
Millin, torn. ii. p. 353 pi. 9 no 1 '^ 1 tL'
grapes of Eshcol is found on one in tho^'Marsei les
Museum. Among the scenes from our Lord's
history less frequently found eLcwhere we may
•if
I ii
I'M
1870 SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN
mention the raiding of the widow's son (Lo
Blant, pp. 1. !», pi. 1, i. v. p. 57), the raising of
Jairus's (laui;hter (i6i(/. p. 29, pi. xvii. ; Millin,
t. iii. p. r);l7, pi. Ixvi. 1), Christ and the woman
of Saiiiiiria {ilnd. p. 30, pl. xviii. 2 ; p. Oii), and
the w.i hing of IVter's ftiet (ibid. p. 18, pl. Ix)-
The raising of Dorcas is seen on the tomb assigned
to Siilouius Apnllinaris in the crypt of St. Max-
imin (Uostnu. Mnnum. Tcnrwj. pl. xii.), and on
one in the Aries Museum (Le Blant, p. 4, pl. u.
1), as well as iit Kermo. On another at Au
there is the massacre of the innocents (Kaillons,
Monuments ini-.lits dc S. M. Maj.), and the
giving of the keys to St. I'eter at Avignon and
Sarcophagiu. Bordeaux. AppeU, p. 43.
at Aries (Lo Blant, p. 4, pl. ii. 1). One of the
most exquisite of extant sarcophagi is in the
museum at Bordeaux. It has no figures, but
the face is covered by graceful vine branches
beiring grapes, issuing from two vases sur-
rounding the crowned monogram, which also
appears "on the s{(»JJhlg lid (De Caumont, Cours
<r.4.i«'/'aV,vi. 220j Appell, p. 43).
Spain also can shew some early Christian
sarcophagi at Toledo, Astorga, Zaragoza, and
SCULPTURE, CUIU8TIAN
Marcellus. There has been some dill'ercnce of
opinion aa to its .date, but it may probably hv
assigned to the 4th ceutury.
The mode of fabricating Christian sarcrj,hfigi
is shewn in a very intcre.-tiug miuiner on tk
tomb of a sarcophagus maker uamej Kiitroimj,
givBU by Kabretti (/;iscr. Ant. c. viii. y. ,'i>7, cii.),
erected by his son, bearing tl-" iiiM viptiuij
AnOC ©EOCEBEC 6VTH yilOC €N
IPHNH VIOC EnOIHCeN. It rei.rt.
sents the sculptor seated or a stool with ,-ti ps nf
dill'erent heights working out a strigillati-il Miroi.
phagus ornamented witii mask, witli a Tuung
apprentice turning by a cord and jiullcy the
pointed iron drill he is using. The ni.iUc't ani
other tools lie below. A tiuished saruoplmgus
bearing dolphins and the name gVTPOnOC
stand to th right. Behind the soulptni- stiirds
a tall male figure with outstretched arms, hoM-
ing a small vase (A'wn. Sotter. iii. p. 44;i).
III. Tijmiana of Dooncaijs, etc. — Thi' intro-
duction of the Lombard style of archltecturn
otVered a new field for the Christian scul|,t.ir'8
art in the decoration of the portals, csiifcially
the tympana, of the newly-erecteil churches.
The larger part of the existing speciiiiuns "f
this mode of architectural decoration are sub.
sequent to A.n. 800. Some, howevin-, come
within our period, and demand a passing rolcr-
ence. One of the most remarkable is the lias-
relief which occupies the tympanum of the
chief doorway at the cathedral of Monza, tu
which a date between 591 and tU5 may b«
assigned. This is curious, not only as an ej-
ample of the rude awkward sculpture ot' the
age, but also as representing in stone the con-
secrated gifts with which queen Thendolioda
enriched the church, some of which may still be
ATIOC' ©EOCEBEC
UTTPOlioC • EN IPHNH
TIOCEIXOIHCEN'K'fi'I'K-CEII.
Tomb of Liiiropos. Fabrettl, Ituerlp. Anilq. c. lU. p. 587, di.
Barcelona, but they are described as presenting
no remarkable peculiarities. In England a tomb
supposed to be Romano-Christian has been dis-
covered at Barming in Kent (Roach Smith,
Collect. A»t. i. I.Hl), and a stone cist with a
slightly gabled lid, bearing a long cross with a
floriated foot, was found at Westminster Abbey
(where it is still preserved) in Nov. 1869. The
inscription states that it was erected to Valerius
Ajnandinus by his sons Valerius Praeventor and
seen in its treasury. The church being deJi-l
cated to St. John the Baptist, the prinoipal seem I
represented is the Baptism of Christ. Ourl/'rll
stands in the water, which, in defiance of tbi I
\nv/n of gravity, rises in a cone .about Him. o"|
Holy Spirit, depicted as a dove, descends on Hnj
head, holding a vase in its mouth, ftoim whichi
the sacred effluence descends upon Him. Onj
either hand stand the Virgin Marv. St. John,!
St. Peter, and St, Paul. ^Above, Theocloliwiil
SEAL
herself appears with her second husband Agilulf
uiJ her son and daui^htcrs, otleriiiir a jewelled
crowu to St. John the llaptist. Behind are seen
the pensile crowns, crosses, vases, as well as tlie
curious c/iioccia, or hen and chickens, j)resenled
by her. Annther interesting bas-relief of a coro-
nation, ol the same date, exists in the south
transect (Perkins, m. s. i. xlv. ; D'Agincourt,
bculpture, pi. xxvi. fig. 8). A large number of
examples of early Lombard 8culi)ture, tliirty-
eight in all, are c.dlected by D'Agincourt in the
|)late just referred to, which shew the extreme
rudeness of the art at the period.
Otiier examples are to be found at the bai)-
tisteiy of Civiilale in Kriuli, erected by Calixtus
l«triarch of Aquileia, a.d. 71^-744. Here we
find the evani;«listic symbols, crosses with iialms
cundelabra, &c., surrounded with circles rudely
•culptured in a barbarous kind of relief, formed
l.ylcivering the surface round the clumsy figures
which rather suggest than imitate real objects
the details being marked by furrows on the
stone.
Mr. Perkins cites as other specimens of Lom-
bard sculpture the tomb of Pemmone, duke of
Friuli, at St. Mark's in Cividale, of the 8th
century; the sculptures at St. Ambrogio at
Milan, St. Jommaso in limine near Bergamo, the
Well in the Lateran cloisters, &c. [E. V.l
SEALS
1871
sea M. D Arc (see below, states that the nuitrii
of Oagobert I. (AD. (J28-.i;i8) was discoveivd a
ho department of Ooubs. but he does not inei"
tion the metal. It gives hi« f„ce, ,„e„ in front
tt le:''Vir'' "^™'"1">»'«1 ''y two crosscl'nd
l-i^etu.-^ mentions, on the autl,.,ritv of Petra-
Saucta (De ^y».. lib. iii. c. 9), that ( ,ar cmagne
■-"... «nuli gemma sed in gladii capulo ^^t'H.
lum ImbuLsse, ut edicta et leges ol.signartt •
putabat emm, ejusdem gladii dfbere es.^e ege«
tuer. ac eas promulgare " (/>, Auu/is, p. l«>f
A. Wax Impressions of Suals.
SEAIi. (1) The woid <T<ppayls is frequently
used in Greek liturgical language for the sign
ot the cross, and the person who makes the sign
is said aippaylCdi'. [SiON op the Cross.]
(2) Thestam]. made on the bread used in the
Holy Eucharist is also called atppayis, and when
the bread is divided in such a way that each
portion bears a stamp, the portions are called
. ir^()a>(5ef. [Lamii, the Holv, p. 916.] [C]
SEALS. (1) Material Seals. During the
ihole of the Christian period comprised in this
work the most common mode of sealing was by
rings, whether set with stones or not, the im-
pression being made in wax. • [Gems ; Rings.]
Wax impressions, however, were not always
made from gems or rings. They were occasionally
formed by a simple metallic matrix, like official
seals in mediaeval and modem times. Very
few such, being Christian, or indeed of any
kmd, appear to have come down to us until after
the age of Charlemagne. We have, however
the brass matrix of the seal of Macarius'
patriarch of Antioch in the seventh century'
on which St. Peter is represented seated having
a cock near him ; it was found near Aintab in
Syria by a rustic. (Chandler, Marm. Oxm. praef.
p. Til., with a figure.) The following inscription,
Mtens ligatis, is round the margin : it runs thus
in common minuscules: Ma/ceioior i\f^ Biov
"jpidpxvs rris tifyd\r,s &u7r6\eas 'Ainioxflas
«ol niaris ayaToKrjs (Bockh, C. I. 0. a 89871
Macarius was condemned in the sixth oecum.>
meal council (a.d. 681) as a Monothelite. An-
■och was termed in the age of Justinian, who
bailt very largely there, Theupolis (i.e. Theo-
polis), as being the see where St. Peter governed
the church of God ; this explains the device on the
Of the wax impr-ssions themselves a greater
number has been preserved than might Spa
have been expecte,! : they are mosUy i ve?y
'luahtj. Ihe oldest extant are white or i.ale
yellow and pale red or reddi.h-b.'.wn Ch
colours are found in Mercvinglan and also n
f~ i m"' ""''^^'""O"'. round and oval : tho
former is Merovingian, the latter Cnrlovingian
/^,i,^d«/'ra„o., p. 2, soebelow;I>'Arcq,aee
The most ancient mode of fixin? the seal to
deed iTiir' '"T^' '^ "''^'''"'■™ '"^i^i"" i" tl«
wh ch li' "'"""y °° '^' ^'S''' '""><'' through
which the wax was introduced, and flattened on
both sides The seal was impressed on the
written side- Before the 11th century al wax
seals were thus " plaques;" the date o^f p rhap^
the earliest pendent wax seal being no older
ban A.D. 1067 (D. D'Arcq, ElA^ae S^Z
graphje, pp xvn. to xxiii., prefixed to Collection
or til M ^""•* ^^\"i enumerates the seals
of the Merovingian and Carlovingian sovereignl
existing in the archives of France; they cfm!
prise (besides the seal of Dagobert I. me^tiorj
iS\)' 'the1:n"''P""'*lf "." ™''^'-'-'- ™»J«
nom It), the following, all of wax and plnqu^s •
Thierry 111 Clovis III., Childebertlll., CMpeHc
a, Pepm le Bref, Carloman and CharleiZne!
nterlt^Hr"' ""'' •^'"■""^ ('""■•^ °' '"^s ob-
literated) occur upon nearly all of these and «
cross IS still sometimes and L perhaps <;;ginaly
always prefixed. One of the seals of pfpin le
Bref has on one side Christ crowned with thorny
seen m front, a person to the right of him i.,°a
r^lV "*' '«g«"'; it « attached to a de^
dated June 20, 7.50- (Nos. 1-16). W .liy (^^
' In Europe, as tor as I know," says Beckmann.
w xhas been everywhere used for scaling since the
«fUBt ages. (Beckmann, Iliti. of Inventiom, vol 1
|k no, transl. by Johnston, In Bohn'B 5ton<J. tifrr )
K„H . Tu !ft '•'"'°''"' '" "^« ''rt"8b Museum Is of
o'^r^ f ""f"'^' J™' '"" '"'^ '■«^ this work
JJ^tZ.f"^^" '"P«*8l<"i made from a BP^a,cribed
nn! ^°*«7' his seals hasaheadof BacchusorSllenns.
one of Charlemagne figured by WalUy, pi A No !'
boars a hoad of Ser»pl.. Th Jwore p ohably 'il^!.'
sion, from ancient pa^an gems. It is diffl.ult ^ say h'w
^-Jclatit wax Impressions generally were forn^ The
seal 01 Dagobert (figured by WalUy. pi. A fig n is of
eonsldorable sl«, about 3* Inches In dlaneer, t wi
Cc^ubSSf tT^: ™^''t' '" "^ S-uio'eilessTs
very doubtful. See the remaiks in tho Sceaux del /row
fe flZ?JS'-.\'"";^' other ancient Impressions which
" This plate Is reproduced In the " Treaor de NumUm.
•fif
If
1872
8EAT.8
de P^tli'oijrdphie, torn. ii. l>. .138, pi. A, No. 8,
Paris, 18:i«), tigm-fs n wax senl (pliunn') "t
Cliiirl.Mimnne, which rea'ls xi'K • iMtOTKOK •
OAKOL • iu;0 • FKANCB. It i" iittiicheil to the
chnrter of a gift to the nhbi-y of St. Denya,
dati'il Seiitcmher U, A.D. 774, it is al.out IJ
Inches l)y 1 ; oviil, not ncuniinate.i. Tlierc is
nn iniiiri'ssion of this scbI in the lintiah
Tlie only English king within our 1>'''-"''' "'
whom nnv wiix M-al loiniiins iipi'fiiis to \n' Ottij,
kini: of Murcia ; it is ,l..scrii>«.l hy D Arci in vol.
1,1. of the «lM,ve-nan.ea work, n. 'm:> ; heml to
r. surroumlea by a dia.lem "4 q.i," the wax he
desciila's as •' rou.,'eatre, trcs-consistante, plftiliic-
on a charter of that king, daleil 790, in lavour
of the abbey of St. Dcnyg.
B. Bullae op Earth and Mktal.
In very early times some kind of earth was
empl"V.'([ for the purpose of receiving the im-
pression of the seal ; this method, which seems
to have originated in Egypt, was occasionally
emplovod in the Greek empire, at least as late
as the 8th century. The lump of earth so
sealed was attached by a string or strip of cloth
or leather to the diploma or other document.
Such earth must have been employeil in 9en''"K
bv the Hvzantine emperors, for we are told that
at the second council of Nice (a.d. 787) Leontius,
bishop of Cyprus, defended the worship ot
images by saving that no one believed that those
who received' written orders from the emperor
and venerated the seal worshipped on that
account the sealing-earth, the paper, or the
lead. (See Beckmann, u. s., pp. 137, 138. I'or
the original Greek see below.) "Actual ex-
amples of such seals belonging to Egyptian and
Assyrian times are still in existence, as well as
reniains of the cloth or strap by which they
were appended " (Birch's Aw;ient Pottery, p. 8.1,
2nd ed.). No Christian seals of this character
belonging to the period with which we are con-
cerned appear to have been preserved. We have,
however, a considerable number of such seals in
lead, the earlier ones being principally papal bulls
beginning bv about the 7th century.*
The earliest leaden bull of certain date known
to be now extant,'- whose authenticity is gene-
. rally acknowledged, is that of pope Deus-dedit
(a d. 014-G17); it is figured by Ficorom (Pio/ndi
Antkhi, tab. xxiii. tig. 3). It bears on one
et de Olypt." in the volume Sbeaux d«» RoU et lieinet
de France, pi. 1.
' More than a doJen seals of Charlemagne are known
. In wax or metal according to the authors of the Smiwau
Traite de Diplomatique. Plereso took impressions of
ancient seals Cvetcra slgilla) whi.h he found in various
ancient abbeys ; they bore the true likenesses (verae
cBlgies) of Charlemagne and other kings ot the second
race (Chiflet, AvasUtis, p. 112).
t lUlnalduB maintains that papal bulls go still farther
back, and affirms that leaden bulls of Sylvester, Uo I.,
and Gregory I., «ro kept in " archlvo Arelino "and in the
Castle of St. Angclo; but Helneccius does not believe In
thplr gcnulnene"" 'J>' ■'•fft"- P- •48).
h Heineccius thinks that the Uyzantlne emperors made
the earliest bulls («. ». p. 42); that the patriarchs of
Constantinople followed them, and that the popes of
Home were determined not to be behind these (p. 40).
This may possibly be so, but the existing examples and
notices suggest a different chronological order.
8EAT-8
side the Onoil Shepherd between two sheep, and
on the other side in three lines l)i;vs | w.u-v \
I'AI'AIO. I.eadeu bulls of the follnwing pi pes also
are still preserved: Honoiius (v.D. li H), rii,o.
dore 1. (\.l).d49), Agatho (A.D.tiTH), John V.(a n.
1)8.')), .Sergiu8i.(A.l).687), ('onstuntine(A.l>. TliH),
/.aiharias (A.i>. 741), I'uiil 1. (a.d. 7.">7), Ste-
phen 111. (A.D. 70H), as well .is of many lattir
pontiils. On all thes.-, however, i\\" types are
very simple, such as a cross, a chrisma, >,: a
star. On one side the iiiinie of the (mpe nccuu
in the genitive (sometimes in more ihiiii one
line), on tne other the word I'AI'Ai; (commonly
in two lines). Thus : one of John, sujijnpsid tu
be .lol"! ^'., has on (M. a star of eight lays, in
the ceiitii-, rending lOiiANNiH around; tli.: rm.
has !■ 4- A I'AKiii two lines (liiitish .Mi„tMmi).
Anolher of Sergius 1. reads on o'"'. -f si'.mill
on a civile, having for type chrisma and
another ni'iiograi united with it; nr. I'AIvk
above a chri-mn of the ordinary form (I'rit. .Mu»,
Figiire^l in Kiujlish CijcUip. Div. iv., /l'(s aid
Hdcwxs, suppli 1873, s. v. bl'lla). Another of
Zacharias has on oliv. a cro8.s, below which ZAC |
CHAR lAi: in three lines; on ret. a cross, klow
which I'A PAK in two lines (Brit. Mus. Figured
also in Mavtigny, Diet. s. v. Sumism. iil. '1). A
fourth of I'aul I. has on oU\ a iross. Mow
which I'AV LI in two lines and beneath iiiinthcr
cross. Bcv. ii cross; PA | I'AK in two lines, ami
another cross below. (Brit. Mus.) Oth-r es-
ainples are figured by Ficoroni, U.S. t. x.vi -sxv.,
and by JIartigny, u. s., and are mention.- 1 by
Mabillon {dc Ke Dipt. lib. ii. c. U). Several
may also be seen in the British Museum ; their
dimensions vary from 1 to IJ inches iicross ; the
form is subcircular.
The leaden bullae of popes, so common in later
times, beiring the heads of SS. Peter .•\iid l';ml
are not earlier than the time of Paschal II. A.u,
1009 (Martigny, «. s.). JlabilUm (w. s. lil), ii.
V. 14) mentions' bulls bearing the ruimex "f thoie
apost ■ as issued in the time of Urban !!.,
his immediate predecessor.
The patriarchs of Constantinople were little,
if at all, behind the popes in employins leailen
bullae. Germanus I. who sat there A.n. 71') te
7:tO, indited an epistle decorated with a bidl of
lead (jioM^Uv^ ffoiWri) whicli is described in
the Jus Graeco-Kom. (torn. i. lib. iii. p. 'l'>>y)ii
having on one side the Virgin and Child, mid
on the other (in Greek) '-Germanus, by the
mercy of God, Archbishop of Constantinople,
New Home, anil ecumenical patriarch."
Somewhat later we find other bishops making
use of leaden bulls both in the east and in u.;
west.' The second council of Cabillon, i.e. Chilou-
sur-Saone (a.d. 813), c. 41, directs tliat a pre!-
bvter moving to another place shimbl cam-
letters fortified by the names of the bb^hopand
the city in lead (in quibus sint nomina e|iisro('i
et civitatis plumbo munita). See Mabilb'n, «. J.
lib ii. c. XV. Other later authorities make
1 The Lex AUmannorum has a chapter : De tenii »•
cletiMticis, Ii ad Epiicopum aut Judicem timm«mn
aespexerinl, in which occurs this chu-- : " '-> -?"'™
episcopl neglexerlt aul ad venlendum aut ml aiutaUn-
dun. ubi jus^erit, du«lecim solbiiB sit cui^abilU
(an. Goldast. Rer. Alemati. tom. I. c. 22, r ") '»« ,
may be suspected to be of lead, lik«! th(.s« nieniioneJ is |
council of Ch&lous.
SEALS
InenHon of .ImlUr epl.,.op„l bnll, (H.lnoec. «...
ea ", !':;;'',l''''Vr'' "■"' "" -"-t"-' exam,".,
ea . . than the Tal, ...ntury w.-ro known tr.
"'"""""("•»• p. IM). The wrifr, however
po»»,.ss,.« a ,„11,. of Hy,,atuH, Mshop of Ni.^,„ 1 ,'
\J \l . •' V"",""' "■"■'" ""•'■•"• vol. ii. p.
which En ckTnikoy r i"""'"!,! '"••'"*
bull. e.vi.t «l,„nt who r'^e^ it ^ ;,''r:''r'
no)ilo,„l whom thore wero several s„ n.mn.l f,
the mhtotho 12th c..„,„ry(W:,^:'^^^'^^
n. 1, l).k-kh, n. OO.iO). of I.e„ |,i»hop'of W :
mennim (hooroni, tab. ,x. n. 7, IWckh, n. 9 29
ofber^nu,, M,h„p of Therme (1,1. n. 9045), of
Antomns, metropolitan of Catana (Ficoroni. tab :
IT . n. 4 io,..|<h. n. 9001), and of F'aul, Lrch- '
Sf:. :;! ^'ini'""'^^ ^^'--'- ^»^- '^' - 1
Le;|,lcn bnll., of ecclesinstio, of lower rank-
than bishops have rarely been foun,|. We hnv.
however, one in Knglan,! of arch.leacon vZi'.
BEALB
t6 iTiBi., iir»v„^,„. (',„„.|1. Nic. [|. Act. iv )
I-emlen bulls of Charlemagne are mentioned by
are ^hTi t" ,'1""""^"""' "• »■ P- '0, nn.l some
ine still in existence; one Is rudely lii;ure,l In the
im.ljsheH Intholastoentui/, anVtheri'npr.,:
I s o„ f„„n he same m ,ul,l is here l,.ure,l trom n
■ .1 awlnj, k,n,|ly sent by M. Samhon, ;ho posse.s,"
I the origin,,!,- N-ither specimen i-'eomplete, but
from aenmiunson of the two with e.eh other an.l
' with a bulla „f Charles the Ilahl.tl,etyn,.s .„,.
leKen,ls on both shies ean be satislacto/liv maJe
out. Uii the obverse we have bust of rharle-
n.»Kne to r., with broa.l ,lia.lc„,, wear!,, ' the
IMlmlamentu.,, with l,.^...n-i : + ./,.„ (,„v) note
n% Cr^ndefemh poUnhr ; on th,. reverse a
teinmahng ,n a fetter, the f..„r letters being
K K Ls(harlns)i the lesen.I h + ,.it.,n„ ,il an.to
h..t ,' !T"' "i"!:"' p"-'o- It i» not improbable
i that bullae of lea.l were employe,! by other
ein,...r,.rs before Charlemnsne j but it ,eem»
doul.„ul whether we have any genuine e,a„ ,1
now existing in that or any other metal before
his t inie. The silver bulla of Dasjobert, ,le.
beinr i^u '" Yr!"' '^''"'^ " ■"^""""«'' "
„'"?„'" "gwophylaeio (lucali Cfhano" by
w th su«,,,,,,„n ( p 4ij_ ^^
ChJ ""• ';''• ""• P- •"^•^) ™y«- that
Charlemagne intro,luoc,l scala (bulls) of gold
loKien bulla of Ohjrlemagne,
leaden b4ll8 were likewise emploved by
secular persons. Those of the Greek emperors
m the 8th century are the earliest recorded.
l^ontius, bishop of Cyprus, argued before the
second Nicene council from the veneration paid
to the leaden bullae of the Greek emperors to
the veneration of images in churches, i KiXtwiv
Sa^iKias Stidfifros Ka\ iuriraadfitvos ri,v rrApo-
r^g ov rh,' ir n\h^ irifirtafy ^ t^ x Vi?" « rhy
i There «re also leaden bullae which bear the names of
rarions saints. A curious example, both In Greek and
Utin, is Riven In Flcoronl. tab. xlv. n. 7. On one side is
reprts,.nt«l a man in the attitu.le of bene<llctlon,
UN. KOA AOC liPliig written Kiovr,&m In two lines •
on the othor Is a cross, b-low which in three lines sioiii!
I SCI I NK-oLAi (Bockl,, n. 9035). FicoronI and Klreb-
mann consider that the bull is a seal of some monaatery
dedicated to .St. VlcL,,^. The Rritl.h M,Hem. ;,«., othc^
rali ^rfL""* ""^ "^""'"- "'""^•^' "nd titles of the
^ ",?1' ^*' Chrysostom, St. George, and St.
Thcod,,re, which probably belong to the ume category.
Theda esof all such being uncertain, it must snfflce to
Mve alluded to them thus briefly.
(^\w of the original.)
btit neither Heineccius (u s n 'K%\ n„, i ^
writer apparently have t r ."e'ef s , "^ 't S
times both emperors and nones ee.f^in
ployed them (Heineccius, /,T ^ *™'
Co!znert"heIH"r;" '''f"? ^^'"'"^"^ ^"'' «bb«t
Cotzpeit held before Louis le D,<bn„„aire a
document was produced bearing the s II' of
Charlemagne. " Q„am (chartnm)quum piisslua
operator suscepisset, sigillumqle^u'^ "^
lat^Ker'"''" """'■'"' «■"«'. veneran,lo,leTc"
latus est, ciroumque a.stantibus similiter honoria
causa deosculandum contradidit " (Rat, , t 1
Heineccms, „ ,. p. n). j, j, ^^^ 1 '^ ^r
the dtplomahaAa wax or a len.len seal mX
quredTbot?"'''^''^''''' '"""■ (^^- ^--'i
Th,i number of lea.ien bullae belonging to
-eculnr persons of inferior rank is very conshler-
able. All or almost all of them were struck in
^^ DjAra,(„. ,. vol. r^a^ribes this bulltoCharle.
1874
BEALB
v.ivioim \mriK nf tilt llyinnlllio emiiire, in"r«
e-lHTJiilly in Sicily. Mitny "I' iIu'Tii Iji'im- U|ii>n
the iil)Vi'rM^ « 1 1 uiidinii imiii"nriiin, niiuimniting
KiV". Ho/litt TV "^ 8»ilAr>', or Ti^ tou\^, (Tuv,
for wliiili TiiD ifrii" Jiiu\ou in Nomi'tinii'iJ mljuli-
tutiMl (() l-opl, lii'lp thy Hiiiviiiit); tlif icv.tm-
boiirs ill ' "It 111" "i'"i'' ("••<■'' i" 'iiii""i "'"^
of tlm 1' -r mill hl» (illini (nflcii in nn .u.l>i '-
viiitn.l tiirm) in I'm ilutlvw, niiiii- riui^ly in tlie
Kciiillvi' rune; ii i rniw "fli'n [irfifdi'ii, ami sotnt-
tlni«» I'lill.HNs.' Hut I'.'W (if lliem ((iMi|mnitiv ly
ciiu li« iImI ■!. <»!' Ilii'im wti ini'iiliim tlu' lullow-
ing: A bulJii, iii«»''rved lii tlio inuKuum of th«
ta*>1*n HmI .i( lkir«ln», »l«nil lw>-llilrrt« i.f Iho dii. uf II*
t>rl(lrial. (lulolih.)
inonnstcry "f St. Nlcoliil i\t ('iitnniii, beiirs on the
obvi'rse thi' nmnimriim nnd legi'nil ahuvc-mim-
tionc.l, mill oil llif other Kiile thii niiiiii' ofSirglim.
niitriciiin nml ilrntt'Hii»— "'f- K. ('• c Kvptt)
^o^jtfi {/3uT)0«i) rif KoiXtf (row. Jicc. + Itfiyh
itot/iik/v k"! iTTpoTtlYiji + . JIf in li'ivsoiinbly
iupiiciM'il to III- th« priiHtor of .Sioily incntiouiMl by
Animtiiiiiiis iimlcrtho yi'«r 7;t:t (UUckh.n. 8988).
Allot hir liiMiiH tliu Kfttiie ohverno, mid on thi" re-
Verne " fiieijoriuii, piitriiiiin, Htrnte({ii» of Sicily. "
He in Hiippo^ed by C'lHtulli iiml by Kirehinium
to be the Ori'Kory who governed Sicily in the
bcyihiiini; of tlin Oth century (IWclth, n. 8'.HU).
Anotlier exnmpla (in Mu». I'litern. UOclth, n.
8i)8ii) hits the Slime obveri<e, but beiira on the
reverse tlie niiine of .lolm, " pi\tricii\n and royal
HpatbiiriuH," probably the mime an .lohn the proto-
spfttliiiWus, who wan sent to Sloily in the reipi
of t'oniitMiilino Porjihyrogenltus (A.i). 780-797).
A fourth, preseivod in the Kecupcro Museum at
Catania, is described liy Prof. Snlinftfl from n draw-
ing by Ki'ciipero hinmelf The obverse isas before;
the reverse benri the name and titles of Kuphe-
mius, " royal spiithiirncanilidiitus and strate^us of
SIcilv." tlie title of royal eandidntiis occurs on
other bulliie, mentioned by Salinas, who considers
that this Kiiphemius lived in the reign of Con-
staiitine I'orphyrogonitus, to whom he also now
attributes the gold ring which he figures, men-
tioned above under Kinob, § 6 li. (Tre anelll,
&c., ti. s. pp. 4-6.) A fifth bulla in fine, found at
rhilippeville in Algeria lienrs on each side a
cross and two pellets; below is written on the
obverse the name of Photlnus (in the genitive),
and on the other his title " stratelates." He
I The same formula occnm also, though rarely, on
rings I'rof. SuliimH describes and figure* a gold ring,
prcserveil ill Palermo In the museum of the I'rln(^
of Tnibla, which nwls In four lines KEBOH II
©HT0OCU)AbllAU)NIKHTAB'IIA'CnA©P.
t e. Kiipit PoTJflti T(? ffcji JovA(|> NimiTif PaaiKiKif n-puTo-
arragapiu. He considers that ho Is prolxibly the NIcetas
meiiiiimeil l>y IIir..nlu3 under the year 797 sr jiref^t "f
Sicily. (Trt antUi Mjrnator. . . . imtmuti in .Sicilia,
pp. 4, IS, KIreMP, IH71,) We have also a ring of nn-
oertaln sue, preserved at Syracuse; K[«pi«] p[o))9«i] ti?
♦opCoilcnit] (II ckh, n. mi). These should have been
given Id Uixas, under CruM.
BEALB
appears to be the proto-spalharins and irTparrtyht
TOil' ifOToAiKiii', who is nieiitl.iiid by <'"lreiiii»
as governor of the prnviiKe uf Sicily in the
rei^'no^ Michael 11. (llUcldi, n. 8119)).
In iiuicli the greater iiiiinber of cases, how.
ever, there is no iiidicalion of date ; ' iis for
esaniple in one meservc I at Syracuse, which tiiu
the (diverse so otteu nieiii inued, and on the revi rs*
"Andreas, hypatus" tcmisul), "and Btiatei;us.
Amen " (Ubckh, n. 8',iitH). Another cxiiiiiiile, In
the possessimi of the writer, ('i"in tlie l.ovati
collection, has the obverse as liel'i.re, wliile
the reverse has " If' notariiis " (in genitive).
Another from the same colleclion has the smm
obverse in the dative, and on the reverse "An-
toniiis notarius " also in tlie dative. Many other
names of otlicers of the llyzaiitine court ocitir
on the bulls which are ligiired and described in
Uilckh's work. The Uritish Museiini also cod-
tains a large mniiber of sncli.'" Hut it in
unnecessary to multiply eMiiiiples In le, not
only because their date is doubtl'u t.ut also
because tlieir Interest is rather si uliir thnn
ecclesiastical.
(2) A SiU'.red f^ujn, cspcciaHi/ the .Sii/n of thi
Cro.i)s.— The word seal is used for the sign of the
cross with which the bread in the ciicharist la
signed. In the liturgy of St. C'lirysoBt.nn the
priest takes the ohlation (ir)"KT<(>of)4>/) with hin
left hand and the holy lance (Lanck) with his
right, and with it sealing (,a<t>payi(wi') over the
seal {<r<ppayU) of the (dilation, he says thrice : "lo
memory of our Lord and (Sod and of uiir .-^^viuur
Jesus Christ." Heineccius (u. s. p. IH) netei
from floar that this seal is the sign of the cross
impressed on the host or oblation, as is sinn
in Arcudius, and in the figures annexed. He
likewise observes that the sign of the cniss is
fre.iueutly termed aippayh in early and niediaevii.
Creek writers, whether used in baptism, or oidi-
nntiou or in the eucharist, or elsewhere. Thi-
tonsure of ecclesiastics is also so called. (See
Ooar, /iVAo/. Graev. pp. 117, ^'.il ; Suiccr, 7/i.j.
s. V. aippayis ; Ducange, Oloas, Med. et Inf.
Qraec s. v. aippayli.)
(rt) Solumm's Seal wed as a Charm.— On (in
amulet of red copper, pierced for suspension,
found at Keif in Tunis, described at length uii.ler
Mkdaw, part of the legend of the obverse nin»
thus : — Inhidia (invidia) inJiUtiosa (iiividiosa)
nkit (nihil) iihi ad. (adiniat ?),' (immi I'lm
ct muitdci Quirvue ; sdtti jiuitim (maligna) iwn
tibi jn-aeviitealny. Lijabit tc Dei brachimn, Dei
et Christi, ct Sijnum ct SijiUwn Sol.,mi{ni^]
PAXCASA' (='Abraxas?) Perhaps we shciilJ
read hei et Christi si<inuin (i.e. the cross). Con-
sidered by M. Keuvens to be "assez rtont."
It may iiossibly be as late ns the conquest
of Africa in the 8th century by the Arab,
in whose view Solomon wa.s a great magicinn,
and from whom the Christians there may have
derived it ; this however is not certain, as there
are gems (haematite) very similar to some coins
of the 4th century ; they bear a horseman spear-
ing a fallen enemy, with legend COAOMaN
(^Solomon), and on the other side ('♦PAPIS
eEOT {the Seal of God), with mystic characters.
(Writer's coUecilou ; others ncirly similaf '<'■■
m The writer's thanks are due to Mr. W. de 0, Blrt
for giving him every facility to Inspect theise, and Sm
other valuable help.
8EASOV8, THE FOUR
bail ipMcinmn figured
')• Th. w„|
of
Brff. Mim. ; oiip ,|,|„ „c J
in KiiiK', ^rWh,, m|. ,;. „. 7J -^-.j^;
Solueiiciu n ,,11,1 >,, V. ,1, ' , . "
of ..ve rav, trnll br t,'"" '.''''"' "' "'"
/Kir.. I, /I. V ;"'*" "T "nt.T«ectini{ triHtiirli..
Kir, h 0,,.p. Aey„pl. d. K, ,. y,;, « ^ '^"f'j"
,.l«nt the K„«,i.h n.:fr„'f t o'u-r "J" ^t*
the mm II nin un th. -.~ l " * ••*'• On
constitute the .h.r.n th« ,iii ( ,, ^' "^''"'"' *"
nuke the owner vi.'t ,r ou. si' ^ '"'"'» '"
»i>bje.:t iB Kin^ u / %.i aJ":™ "" '>"•
t-i''"'- '"»'"'-•■ ^"'i^^. pp. 91/92; LS; "''
SEASOVS, TFfR FOITR tk' .f^^" ''•^.
Ihe a,l,,.te,| .'nl.je';; of rfri.tiM."„rt ""V,"'
.e«„n, hH.1 Ion,' been , f™ ".^^,^ ^ ^-.
'""'"» '""'Mtion, of the mo,t p!ea,inrch»L
ter, an<t connected with ,„, P"^""'"8 Oarao-
in;;K..ry. ,0 that the ZLZon U^LtTZn.
With assoriations of her own IV Vi, l , "'
they furni.he.l matter fL:^t,„',l\''i:„''"t':-
thange, growth and decav in V-h,' . .l" '''^'•
t«. tpe of the re,Sti:"„^'r':;:, , ?"£
pictures of aowen r«. .,.,.. 1 "'""^"1 ""d
LuM have their.refi„rtr.'; „-;^ ,--;;--
knew the Lord's parables An,V »k ""
»re .0 fre,,,e„tl/(:,i t^lr^ IT'O^
moM with tiie form of the (Jo.H^Sheohe .V
that It IS impnss ble to donU »i, V''^l '••'r",
im,mrt, at an earlydate i. „, t Z "-'""'""T
;ingle emblems, iL the pel^kji "r":.;'!?
which have no sneiiAl #».»«„ 1 e "r lagie,
connect them ei h r with th, "" ""*""'"* '"
The customary use of this subiect seem, tn
Seasons m the catacoml. of nimit. la 'nr t
young man, on y clad in a acVrf =„ 1 '^ f/' • *
ro«,. The cemetery of S.Pra"t«Lt1.f^!'*"^
2nd century work at latest Thcv 2re n^. " ?
-y :i hIre'aTrir' "T^h' "'""-*"" ""^
^oubtedly types 1^0,1 „!.'iL tl-' tT"* •""-
'ta aii Christian .ym"bois\l ie" e«e^t' the
SEASONS, THE FOUR 1875
I r:;tr;.it^;^^,,f''r •■'"", -"i-tn,..„t, „f »
t«iniogt^.take.:„d,:;:-;'r;t;;;^;-
AKtUmiL
"»•» «i.e 0«n.t«y of PonU«a.(Martlg„r).
.Ill
|.
■ "^^ "*<'»«»«» of iMBti«iuu(jun%Brt.
119
1876
SEBASTE
young man by a fire, holding a torch in his left
hand, and in his right (perhaps) a billet of wood.
Jliirtigny refers to a sculpture from the ceme-
tery "of St. Agnes (Boldetti, Cimit p. 466 ;
JIati'ei, (iemm. Aiit. part, iv. No. 58, 59), where
•' Winter " bears a leafy bough and a bird. This
subject exists in sculpture, on the ends of the
sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. Bottari, torn. i.
capo dellu prcfaz., and Buonarotti ( Vetri, p. i.)
has published a sepulchral urn which bears it
also. [R. St. J. T.]
PEBASTE, FORTY MARTYRS OF,
in the rciL'u of Uciuius: Mar.. 9 {Mart. Bed.,
Wand. ; horn, of Greg. XIII. loSii ; Cat. Bijzant. ;
Basil. Mciwi; Meml. Grace.); -Mar. 10 (Boll.
Acta SS. Mart. iii. 12 ; Mart. Rom. of Bened. XIV.
1749, and as reprinted in '873; cf. Neale's
note at Mar. 9 in Cat. JByzant); Mar. 11
(Usuard., Aden. ; Vet. Rom., Hotker.) ; Mar. 16
(jCal. Armen.). [0. H.]
SEBASTIA, July 4, martyr with Tnnocen-
tius and thirty others, commemorated at Sir-
mium (Mart. L'suard.) ; also called Sabbatius
(Vet. Rum. M'trt.) and Sabatia {Mart. Hieron.).
[C. H.]
SEBASTIANUS (1), Jan. 20, commander
of the first cohort, martyr under Diocletian,
buried ' in vestigiis apostolorum " {Metr. Mart,
Bed. ; Mart. Usuard., Vet. Rom., Hieron., Wand.) ;
commemorated on this day in the SacramentaB'y
of Gelasius, his name being mentioned in the
collect, the secreta, and the post-communion ;
also in the Sacramentary of Gregory, his name
occurring in the collect and ad coroplendum;
Dec. 18 {Menol. Or. Sirlet.).
(8) Feb. 8, martyr iu Armenia Minor, com-
memorated with Dionysius and Aemilianus
(Mart. Usuard. j V:t. Rom., Notker.). [C. H.]
SEBOAS. Nov. 13, deacon, martyr in Persia
in the 4th century (Basil. Meiwl. 1 185). [C. H.]
SECLUSION. One of the penalties imposed
upon penitents in the seventh and two following
centuries was incarceration. It was a penal
sentence, and distinct from the voluntary profes-
sion of monasticism undertaken to expiate a
gre;it cri'-.;e. The practice arose on the decay of
public penance. One of the earliest instances of
the imposition of the penalty is in Spain. The
Cone. ]>larbonens. A.D. 589 (c. 6) decreed that any
clergyman or citizen of position convicted nf
crime was to be sent to a monastery for correctit;..
In the nth Council of Toledo, A.D. 675, c. 7, " re-
triisio" is coupled with exile as among the recog-
nised punishments inflicted by the church. Nor
was this mode of penance confined to the Penin-
sula; it became common '' roughout the West.
Thus pope Gregory II. 715-731, iu a letter (Ep.
W.) to the emperor Leo the Isaurian, con-
trasts the spiritual with the civil penalties : the
state, he savs, executes or ' iitures a criminal, but
the church shuts him up iU the " secretarium,"
the vestry or the chapter-houfe, ^at he may
purge his soul by f.ist* and vigils. The sentence
of incarceration occurs also among : decrees of
• a synod held under Boniface, a.d. 742, the deci-
sions of which Wt d confirmed in the toll' ving
year by Cone. Liptin. : any Christian guilty of
fornicatiou was to do pcuauce in prison on bread
SECRETA
and water ; an ordained priest guilty of the same
sin was to be flogged and remain two year.< in
prison ; a monk or cleric was to be beaten thrice
and shut up ; and a nun who had fallep was to
be confined and have her head shaved. The ^ame
discipline is apparent in the rituals of that pciiud.
The Gelasian Sacramentary, under the title
"Ordo ngentibus publicam penitentiam," directs
a penitent to be taken in the morning of ihi>
first Wednesday in Lent, and to be shut up
till Holy Thursday, when he was to be brought
into the church; and among the rubrical direc-
tions /or the Mass on " Keria 5, iu Coen. Dom,"
the pcniteuts are instructed to come out from the
retreat where they have performed tlicir i)tnan(:e.
Similar rubrics are contained in the Ordo Ho-
maims, and in pseudo-Alcuin dc Divlnis Uftdis,
cap. de Coen. iJom., and in an aucient Toulouse
Pontifical of the 9th century (Morin. de Poenitfnt.,
appendix, p. 599), where the penitent i.- ordered
to be shut up "in loco secrcto" throughout Lent.
In the Penitential of Theodore (I. vii. 1) lilV
long confinomeut in a monastery is ruled to be
the appropriate penalty for an accumulation of
mortal sins. Compare Poenitentiale Cummeani,
xiv. 1, and the early British penitential frai;nient
"Sinodus Aquiloualis Britt." cc. 1, 2 (Wasser-
schleben. Die Bussord. p. 103). The discipline
of imprisonment was enforced also against the
Caiwnici. Thus the rule of Chrodegang of Mctz
(c. 28) ordei's the seclusion of the collugiiite
clergy when under penance in terms identical
with the directions of the Kituals. In the case
of the secular clergy, after monastic houses had
become general, it was a common punishment to
confine an offending clerk in a moua,stery, either
for a term of years or for the reinaindi!r of his
life. This mode of secloiion was aiipoiutod
both by civil and ecclesiastical law. Justinian's
Novell, cxxiii. 20 direct that a presbyter or
deacon giving false evidence, shall, in place of
being scourged, be deposed and shut up for
three years in a monastery. The Council of
Agde, A.D. 500 (c. 50), orders the seclusion
to be lifelong when either forgery or perjury
has been committed by a clergyman : a similar
penalty was attached by 3 Cone. Aurelian. c. 7,
to adultery ; and by 4 Cone. Tulct. c. 29, to
magic and soothsaying. See Cone. Epa',n. c.
22 ; 7 Cone. Tolet. c. 3 ; 8 Cone. Tuld. c 5.
By the second Council of Seville, A. P. 618 (c. 3),
i. i^lergyman deserting his benefice was to be con-
fined temporarily in a monastery. Monks who
subjected themselves to penance were still I'urther
secluded by confinement in the cells or " ergas-
tula " of their monastery. Syricius (E) . i. 6) im-
poses this penal confinement upon monks or nuns
who, in spite of their monastic profession, have
contracted what were held to be incestuous mar-
riages. See CoTic. rorrutort. c. 1 ; Cone. A^ihssiud.
c. 23 ; Cone, in I'mll. c. 41. Th" severity of the
austerities to which delinquent monks were ex-
posed when under confinement may ^t gathered
from the account given in the SmIm .if Johannes
Cliraacus, grad. 5. [G. M]
SECRETA, SECRETAE (.<:;i')=«-3<!). m-
tionea. Cf. tix^t wpoiTKo^iJrir- eiixh airniptim'
^y 6 Itptiis iitfix^rai iittK\iv6iJ.ti'0i, i.t: si'ifT
oblata, nvffTiicu!). In the course of the MiiM
Fidelium, the celebrating priest was wout tossk
the prayers of the bystanders, " Pray for m,
SECRETA
was alread/" th m '- VT"", "' *'' *''™' «« "
turned to the a tar a?^ (•'^'"•''anus) ; he then
»o as only himXouU r''>'l«"'> » 'ow voice,
oblation./ l" 1 " i^ '"''"■ *'!'' «■''■•'"«. »ver the
given the na^ '"oVS'":,""-'^^ I-ayers, was
Clementine liturjv th» l • • ''"'"'"'■ ^^ the
rray.ilently asWdla^fh "•'' ""^' •'"J"'"'^'' »"
Const, viii. 12) T),t r * ,*/'X"P*m, Apost.
hearsing the order „f ""•"' "'^ ^''''''ii^'ea, re-
"Arter^th/^a^^Hhumtrjir;: rl:;^?;/?^' T-
prayers of the faithful are to br n , ' • fu*''*
parts the first with silence V,iv*S-' '° ^^'\'
and the second and third with ^^ ," V""^'')'
»poo-,f,a,v^^,„r)- then th» t- "/"^himatiou (S.d
given," &c &„v o? l^" ^'T"^ P---^"-'" is to he
praye'r, and Aml'l/fl'r'r *'"^
liturgy of St. Chrysost'mtfgr;. f'Xte" ''"
Some (e.)i, 75n««n<.*\ i S""-" auove.
the worl 4.^;7f I Sd St"" *"''*
(sccerno), i.e. after tl,o !' ^. T tlie secretio
of the ofterings of whar'"'""^ ^'""^ the rest
euchaH.tic satrifil," lfrr%h:"""'' ^ *'"'
the catechumens fro, ° he fnLVi '?i'»''»t'on of
ground, for the ancLr-.« '' "* ^''"^""t
as the Greek, agree n he otr''"'t"*=^' "' ^«"
which is fur'thf proved bv the Tl^^f^''""'
where we find these pra ers^Illed At"-^ ^"'''''
but) arcatu,.. The wm-d is al. ^'"'^ f "■'''"'>
aJjective, as in the^l " """^ "' «»
"collectio s crTt." ^^.^^^'•"""'ntar^ of Bobio,
Un,e, called J;t;>, i/^:*S^:^r^-<;-
»>.Fply. Thus Rupertus ( fe % ^rfi'"^"?, ^^^^^
"The priest therefore tai^dtn^' W^V' '^^ '^y''
silently (tacii!c')savin<;tl!r^ " "^'""'^> and
lation., prepf 4 the i Iv '"%' "" T' *''« "h-
saving m;=tery of Hi ow^'Sn"*^ Th*"'', *'^
Uje priest designates 1^ hiding-"; ^Tf
cipl.. did not confess Ci:r;:t\:'t Seth-""^
S3 .'Vmalanus (,fe z-cc. C«c. iii 3 / V. ,,-n
prnyer is called secret, as being s j se^ etlv 'r
saorifice to God 'alone LTttr''^"' I' "'''"
we speak ont of our tho,>fhf, "''' ^''""'"'
voice' is necessary, but wort 'for th'"'""'"''"'^
Atthf:„';f L.Wet"';r''P-!^ .
raising his voice (^V^-Lt ^StTh "'?";?*'
^o:nti7:viS^;:;^-j;-.;\j-/"'"?
Gelasiaii are called «eo-rf<ie in tul r •
.wi,..,. ^,;.,y,, ™, *>!;""««, m the Gregorian
Mints shew thnfT- mtercession of the
Y t .L •^- ' *'l.°y '^'''•^ ""t trulv primitive
Vet the pos.t.on of some may be justilfed by
SECRETARIUM 1<J77
ort'h?f./i!i:' ^--\.'''''>-- "^ -trainee
God is now besZlt "'""" ."'' *'■" "'"Kv.
the holy ilse to whi... '"^^•^1'* 'he elements for
(Scudam^or ^W^^:^' ,7" '^, devoting them."
called bytheGre csdk. ■' """ '''''■'•"tarium,
»acred vessels TreSaZ":"'' "',"' .*""^''' 'he
word in the passage of B da /^'";^"''?, "'"''■«
records the bun if ^f „ J- " ^- "• 1) which
P"rtice,"^,i4^;>^,fr^goj, i. ..hus..
the eucharisti- vessel, f' , ^"^ P''"-"^ "'here
Pandect, vol i ' Tr '" ^'^'^ (lit'vereg.
E^iguus, in hi, Lafin tr\n'lT*-\ ^'""J'*"'^
"(■Laodicea,w- tes '° , ''."■^'i'V.''" "^ 'he canons
i.e. secretano'si^t' r Z i"''t7h " 1!^"*^""'™'
sccretaria were frc«lv .!? *'" ^*^' 'he
sutticient for the recenH n '? ^* «P"rtm,.nts
number of peopl' Co 'n,^ "^ " '""''"'- ''"«
monly held in Lm tT '° 'i'"* ""t uncom-
Hfth.^nd sixth ,ln ,""' t^' ""'•<'' f»"''th,
held "in secretari^. r "^ ^"'"'"g'' «'<^'«
that of Aachen ^836"''^ "f''"'"^'" -d
■■s. Mariae quod in r„t„ '°. ^"^j^.'stario basilicae
;^iv. 6V; cf^l'Tu : fb"': 'S''Th^'"^^"";
Councl of Aries *n j-o / -'• '^he second
that "in secreti'rio Hi ''^ ^'■.''"- ^ 5), ordained
Bedere non licea^^ r1 \T'' J,"'*'" P™»hyteros
The word is « ..^^""hhe, Concil. iy. loi3)
itself, /J XZtr "".' 'Z *>>« ^""ncl
secretario/' Sn' ''?'""'''; " P^-^'^ito
receive the sahSls of tt T\ '" *'""'" '»
«nd settle disputes St 5. i""^' *"' *" ^"'''
"secretarium"ChUe"i*-«r"'*"' '** *" ""^
byteri sederent, 7el lain tTtinnK '""'""■'" P^^^'
audiendis neg'otiii ^^^'\^'^'f -">
lib. HI. Vioi. ii c n tJ /, W>"P- sever,
sometimes served as a Ioi„* "secretarium " also .
slept there and on hi f^^ ''"'""• ^^- Mo^in
thiohurcKeri„':;tr-:,f«7''p-of
he had sat, and parted th„. plfe where
following lines. ^ °^ '^'''°"* *'"dy, in the
To the right of the apse,
and to the left,
■ii»j!<. SII, ait Scverum.
- --."-, mjt^v^i urn*
themselves before the hial e '."* ,P"P"='' '"hed
thence to the « tar Thi ^ '"'" ^ """^ ^^""t
i?om«„,„, wh,V "ute tha"f''wh.:"tl """ '''*
about .0 celebrate, ^^^I'tt^^o^-attciTr^lh"
ti E 2
ji
m
M
1873
SECULAR
SELEUCTA, COUNCILS OF
Bltav, but proceeds first to the " secretarium,"
Bupported by liis deacons.
Notices of "secretariH" are frequent m Ann-
Btnsiu.s. The first place of interment of Uol.
was "in abdito inferioria secretarii at ht.
Peter's (Anaat. § 16:<). Orcgory IV. rebuilt at
St George's "secretarium diaconiae (iMi'. 8
464) ; benedict 111. rebuilt the baptistery "cum
secret.irio" at St. Mary's Trasteverc (<J 57^);
and Nicholas I. that ^t St. Mary Cosmedm, and
constructed in it a » triclinium cum <.'«'"';'»*'»
(§600). L''' ^--l
SECULAR. The question about the word
is whether in early Christianity it designated
those who were not in holy orders, or those who
were not living under mnna.stic rule.
No very early passage is forthcoming in which
the secular is cmtrasted with the monastic life.
Fven after the rise of the lienedictine system we
find the term se<mlar contrasted not with regvlar
as applied to those living under monastic rule,
but rather to ecclcsi-stic ; for in the sixteenth
Council of Toledo (A.D. 693) sccuhm applied
to such as are not priests or bishops (mcerJotes,
can. 6). So, again, in the fourth Council o
Toledo (A.D. 633) the term secular seems alm< it
equivalent to layman: "tiuicunque ex secu-
laribus accipientes poenitentiam totouderunt se,
et rursus praevariiiaiites laici elfecti sunt ....
(can 5,S) Yet at this period the word seems to
be hovering about its later sense as describing
those who are unprofessed, for in the sanie counci
we have the following language: "Duo sunt
aenera viduarum, saeculares et sanctimonialcs.
Saeculares viduae sunt, quae adhuc disponentes,
laicalem habitum non deposuerunt (tone. lol.
iv car .^ti). In the 8th century we find the
term seaUar in the modern sense, as distinguished
from regular: " Ut si quis secular.um sanctae
professionis famulatum subirc desiderat, non
antea tonsurae habitum suacipiat, quam illms
conversatio ac morum qualitas secundum rrw»as-
ticac rcpilae dejinitionem mauifestius probetur
(ConciL Cloveshov. ii. c 24).
The word secular as applied to those who do
not live in the monastery is found in tho.,e
sermons, ad Fmtres in Eremo, which pass under
the name of Augustine. It is now, however,
zenerallv understood that these sermons are the
production of an author long subsequent to the
eroat Latin father, so that we cannot afiirm that
Icular was used in its tech,ical sense so
early as St. Augustine s day. 1". i. a.j
SECULARIZATION. [Alienation.]
8ECUNDA (1), July 10, virgin, martyr at
Rome with KufiuB, umler Valerian (Mart.
Usuard. ; Vet. Rom., Hicnm.).
(2) July 17, one of the Scillitani.
(3) July 30, virgin, martyr at Tuberbo-
lucernaria'in Africa, with Maxima and others,
under Gallienus (Mart. Uauard. ; ^ '-'<•-'""»• '
Uierm., Notker.). L^- "'J
SECUNDIANUS (1), Feb. 17, martyr with
Dou.uus, Uon.uhi>,and pighty=»ix others ; com-
memorated at Concordia in Africa (hart.
Usuard. ; WiVron., Notker.).
(3) Aug. 9, martyr with Marcellianus and
VerianuB, under Decius; coTiimeraorated at
Usuard. : Hierm.,
[C. H.]
8ECUNDINA, July 17, one of the Scill:-
TANI.
Colonia in Etruria (Mart.
Notker.),
SECUNDINUS, Feb. 21, martyr ; cominemo-
rated at Adrumentuin with Verolus and others
(Mart. Usuard ; Ilicron., Notker.). [C H.]
SECUNDOIiUS, Mar. 7, called also Secun-
dulus and Secundus [FeliCITAS (1)].
SECUNDULUS, Mar. 24, commemorated in
Mauretania with his brother Komulus (.Mr.rt.
Usuard., Notker., Wand.). f.^. H.]
SECUNDUS (1), Mar. 7, martyr. [Secln-
DOLUS.]
(2) May 15, martyr in Spain, bishop of Avila,
reputed to have been ordained by the apostles at
Kome (Mart. Usuard. ; Vet. Horn., Adou.)
(5) ,Iune 20, martyr ; commemorated at Sir.
mium (Syr. Mart.).
(4) June 30, martyr; commemorated at Syn-
nada in Phrygia with Democritus and l)i(juysius.
(6) Aug. 26, martyr, leader of the Thcbaean
Legion ; commemorated at Victimilium in italy
(jy/urt. Usuard. ; Vet. iJom., Adon.).
(6) Nov. 15, martyr; commemorated at An-
tioch with Orentius (Syr.- Mart.). [C. H.]
' SECURUS, Dec. 2, martyr in Africa with
his brother Verus (Mart. Usuard.; Hienm.,
Wand.). C^- H.]
SEE (Lat. sedes ; Fr. si^ge). The history of
the word sedes, in ecclesiastical usage, is exactly
parallel to that of the word Cathkdra ('/. v.).
Designating first simply a seat, especially a seat
of dignity, it came to be especially applied to
the seat of a bishop, and thence to the city in
which he had his throne. Thus St. Augustine
speaks of the cities, the churches of which had
apostles for founders, as "sedes apost^lieae,"
and in later times "sedes" came to designate
what we call a " cathedral church." [Diocmk.]
SEIiEUCIA, COUNCII-8 OF (Selecciex-
8IA Concilia) ; four in all. (1) a.d. 359, at
which the Acacians or pure Arians were con-
demned by the semi-Arians. The formula com-
posed by the latter is given in Latin by Mansi
(iii. 315-326.)
(8) A.D. 410; but this was at the Persian
Seleucia, where forty bishops and metropoUtaiis
are said to have met on Christinas Day, and piisseJ
twenty-two disciplinary canons, or, according to
the Latin version of them published by Munitori,
twenty-seven. But unless this Latin version mis-
represents them seriously, its bare perusal more
than confirms the doubts of their geniumMiess
which he throws out (Mansi, ih. 1165-1174).
(8) In Persia likewise, but of the Ncstori.in
body, when Acacius, their patriarch, whom
p^/^-n-as, the metropolitan of Nisibis, had
accused of incontinence, proved his innocenw.
(Mansi, viii. 1173-1176.) The authors ot LM
de t<rn/. les Dates (u 148) make two synods of
this, and assign different work to both.
SELEUCUS
(4) A.D. 578, in Persia, and comrosetl of N.s
like the ground allpu-N,! 1 •- .;, '"'« '« t"o
canon, attributed Tthi^". -n^lt ^^^^l^T
the^h«. ,ngsof one-third to judge irom (Ma.^
TK S FT 1
SELEUCUS (1), Feb. 16, martyr with Pam-
ph.us and others at Caesarea, ia the D ocletiTn
persecution (basil. JUcnul.). ■utitiian
(3) Sept. 1,5, martyr ;
Galatia (Syr. MaH.).
commemorated in
[0. H.]
SENCHUS MOR 1879
plates^ an.l gave out a sound not unlike that of
smaller -Tu '*■'■' "^ '^'^'^'^T' ''"'- '"g"'' ""J
smaller , a. ^.ya, <r. ;i,«pj^. T),us we rend in
the Jypu:on S. .Sal,,,:, L.Sr,Kd^„, J^'Zl,
were sounded firsi, then the la^eV G "
EucAol.^^ 473), which were followe.l by ,h, e of
ron Theodore lialsamon, in a treatise devoted
t the subject, com,,are.s the sounding of tl e
I'ttle, great, and i, "semantra - 'to tho
i J i
preaching of the biw -, r *u ,
la^ttruuTp. He's vs.'],, tlnt,.'^'*''"'' """* "•"
. riie slow deep notes, at long intervals i,ro
SKMANTRON-, or 8EMANTERI0N (.^- S „X'r«: Ind rltM "' ^""'■™''^''--"
.b.titutesWbehsinti^G.^Th .^rXnJ
of wood, sometimes of iron or hr^,.u li
(^u.Ao^.560)»peakaofthem:."penlee£
".""•'S^^-.' There is so little change in fhe
ntual of the Greek church that the present form
ri^!:^!"'!:!'-:-''''^''areindaii;ri,S,::
monasteries, u.,erth;;;;m;;;".:;:;^x;"^:Lt!^^ ■ . --■ —
call the monks to service, is probably that _ ""'" (-^^'"■*- ^'^''''id., y/„ron.). [C. H.]
"Semantra," from their size and shine fn^
(Mr!..;^S;'!^VSc;it:^;to^7r'
originally adopted. Neale describes" a'"-,^^;';;:
tron as "a long, well-planed piece of tTXr
usually heart of map e, from 12 ft nn,l „^ i
in length, by 1 J ft. b'road, ami 9 in i„"" i k' Tss •'
la the centre of the length, each edge rsHghUv
ooped out to allow the priest to grasp ft by
the eft l.md while he holds a mallet in the
nght w.th wh,ch " he strikes it in various Irs
aud at various angles, eliciting sounds no K
gether unmusical." The semantra are usim Iv
uspended by chains from a peg in the pro. U„^
(^eale, //«<. of loly Kast. Ch. Introd p. 217
Iheword for striking or soun.ling the%u„V:
■rpov was the kindred verb <rr,^al,uy, eUher i
»loue or with fiJAo., and also koX,. \X7a
was used as the sound itself, thus we find th»?
I r rdL:'o'^;"rT"'?"^. "- ^^^^^aS
01 tne reJits of St. Ana.tasius was shewn tA
T £ ^,7'»''- ^i"- 22). In the Life of sl
S ( Z>.- V "'•"'■'r";?""'. given by Koschu
(Imt, kpmt), we read of some Kutychian monks
he party of Severus, who, to disturb the sahi
this devotions, " beat the wood " at an unwont 1
hour, an,! ofTheodosius beholding Cnuspmy
wg, with a star over his head ,„A " -^
devotions betbre the hour of striking, XS ro£
^«..«ro,ap„, (Cyril. Scythop. ^t's^Z"^
M, 59). The officer whose dutv it was to sound
the^^emantron was the candie-lighter, J,,.
Though u.nally of wood, the "semant-,."
were sometimes of iron, ^y^.^^ o7TiL
'An elegant epigram on a aemantron is extrRcted htr
"r'; f • '""/">»' Allatlu, and Knglish.^ by Slf '
SENATORIUM. A term used in the ancient
Roman o,-d:,m to designate the part of the
church which was reserved for nobh^ l[ w^
Tere m.Te b" "",7"- .^''<"' '"" oblation^
were m.ide by n.ibles, the i)ope or uriest
descends into the ounatorium to receive t*^ m
the altar itsef. horn the use of the term bv
Martene (de Eccl Jiit. I. iv. x. 4, vol. i p 155
f"l.),.t appears that at Kome he smori^,n
by (,vhat we should call) the aristocr.cv
When the pope was goin. to distribute h^'
sacrament, after communicating those who
were in orders. " descendit in sen.fnrium ubi
magnates tucharistia reficiebat." [H. ™ A ]
SENCHUS MOR, „ collection of ancient
meet the Christian requirements. It i. the
emijodiment of ante-Chiistian Brehon law, and
with Its additions, interpretations, and glCs
has formed the authoritative Jirehon code fiom
a very early date down even to the 16th centu "
But the time and circumstances of its c..,".pi|,\
t.on are matters of dispute. Ancient trad ion
and Its present Introduction attribute it ,'?
manly to St. Patrick, who had a quirei su, I
cient influence to procure a purgation of the
pagan laws, and the infusion into them of a
milder tone and purer Christian principles. This
was be ween the sixth and the nLith j^ear!, after
^'lit.^' Trh ""^ '" "'« "'Sn of Lae.haire.
'v-...„„i,.„ of Ireland (a.d. 428-16;^). The Irish
Aunals of Ulster and Annals of TiiM ' .«
*i^. */""', yf""'. '^'D- "^38 (O'Conor, Ker. m
6cr.pt. .1 101 ; iv. 1), a date which may po nt
to the theory of the compilation as presented
below. Aine are said to have been engaged
' Iff
', ml
1880
SENIOR
together in the work, viz. three kinp, Laeghaire,
with Oorc king of Munster, an,l Daire, a ohiff
ia Ulster; three bislioi.s, St. Patriek, Ueuignus
his successor at Armagh, nn.lCairnechotluilen;
aiul three poets or ju-tges, l{»s.sa,son of Inchem,
Dubl.thach mac Ua I.ugair, and terghus(66'ru,/.us
Mur i .1.5). This would assign the orisinaldralt
of ti.e Scnclms Mor to about the middle of the
5th ceuti.rv, ami the memory of St. [''"icHs
connexion with it was perpetuated by the dtcp
■everence ever paid to its constitutions an the
name given to it of "Cain I'atraic" or Patrick s
law. It was al^o called MollFlT "^ ^^OVX,
the knowledge of the Nine (^Scuilius Mor, i
'liut this Patrician origin has been keenly dis-
puted'(Laiiigan, Kcd. Hid. l>: i. c. 7, § f['). «"<!
had ol)jecti,ins raised to it on the score oi history
and chronolou'V (I'etrie, IHst. and AnUg.Jara
im, pass.; frana. Hoy. Ir. Acad, xyiii. 52 sq. ;
Todd, St. l'atrick,\V, . sq., following Petne). Its
critics and opponents would grant it Christian
authority, but of a date later than St. Patrick s
time liut in the e.lition of the 6<ncAus Mor
(published under directi.m of the Commissioners
fur publishing the Ancient Laws and Institutes
of Ireland, :'. vols. Loud. 18t>5 sqq-) th* «''>t"'''
Mr W. Neilson Hancock, has met these objec-
tions and upholds the ; .trician origm, while h.:
shews that much has since been added, and allu-
sions are made in it to interpretations and lir..--
hon judgments of a much later date. Ihe era ot
St. Patrick was peculiarly appropriate for the
codification of the Brehon laws in Ireland, es, e-
ciallv at the instance of a Uoman citiisen who
had newly arrived from the Continent, where a
similar procss up.m the Koman civil law was
being carried out with all the weight of the im-
perial authority. The Theodosian Code received
t', . imperial sauctioYi in A.D. 4;t8. (O Curry,
J ,t. iV/c.». and Cust.Ano. Ir. ii. 24 sqq., and i?c .
JIIS. Materuxla of Anc. Irish Hist. lb. 91, ed.
1873 ; Fuur Mast, by O'Donovan, i. 162-64, a. ;
Keating, Ocn. Hid. Ir. B. ii.) , „ „. ,
The "Seiichus Mor (derived from the Celtic root
sen, old, and mor, in recognition of its authority)
is in uo sense an historical treatise, but is a body
, laws, criminal, commercial, social, military
and agrarian, coulaiuing the original text with
a lar>'e collection of glosses, interpretations, and
lirehon refinements. It is interesting as a record
of ancient law, and doubly valuable as shewing
the mellowing iutluences of Christianity Uj.on
heatlieuism. L"^' ■-'
SENIOR, a presbyter or priest, one belonging
to the second order of the Christian ministry.
The usage arose from the more common render-
iui o( np.c06r.po, in Scripture. Thus in Acts
XV. r, the early version gives " ApostoUet sent,
ores" (Sabatier, Bihl. Sac: Vers. Ant. i)'- .-jlS).
and this is ineserve.1 by St. Jerome ; sin''!'";'/
a, 22 (Sab. 552 ; Hieron.) or 23 {ik), xvi. 4(Sab.,
Hier ). in Acts xiv. 2, xv, 23, St. Jerome gives
nrcsh'iuros. The word is used in this sense by
Tertullian {A,ol. 30), Firmilian {Rp ad Cypr
n. 7.5 inter i>/>. Cypr. cd. Ikn, " Bernorns et
nraepositi" == priests and bishops), and Paulinus
i;> 4 ad Atmtml.. " nomine ollicloque seniores).
It occurs also in the Missale Frinomim,'' I robet
H,. esse seni..rera" (Liturn. Gall. Mabi 1. 30<),
and the Missale QaUicannm Veins oi Thomaaius
SErUI-CHRE, EASTER
and others, "Aedificct sacerdotes (the bishops)
-xaltet seniores, illustret Levitas" (the de.uous)
ImI. 337). The prayers in which these nc, it
are probably earlier than the codices in whnh
we lind them. We may mention, however, that
so late a>, the beginning of the 7th century
Gregory 1., writing to a bishop in whose dioce.e
Greek was spoken, uses the direct e.iu,v,.lent to
the Greek term, " consensus seniorum et elen
(Epist. ad Joan. Panurm. xi. 51). Compai-)
Patbon, p. 1577. V ■ !•- *•]
SENNE8 (1), July 30, martyr at Rome,
with Abdon, Persian subreguli, under Deeius
(Mart. Bed., Metr. Bed., Flor., L'snanl. ; ]'^-
Rom., Adon.; Hiei-on., Notker., Wand.) Ihe
m.r Antiplionarius of Gregory has an olhce lur
their natale.
(2) Nov. 29, deacon, martyr ; commemorntoil
at Uome with the deacons Saturniuus and ^ isni-
uius [Sat"hninus (9)]. V-- HJ
SENS, COUNCIL OF (Sknonknsk Cox-
CILIUM), A.D. .lU.b.it f'-e only thing, not purely
conjectural, rep. - ■ o it seems to be that M.
Bethar, bishop ..'■ Ohnrtres, was f^vourahy
received there. (Mansi, x. 485.) L''- ^' f'J
SEPTEM DORMIENTES (Skvkn Slkkp-
EKS OF KPiiiaus), martyrs, Jan. 8, Mar. 4, Au>;.
13 (Cat. Ethiop.); Jan. 19 {.Cal. Ari^n.); Aui;.
4 Oct. 22 («i/. Byzant.); commemorated at
Ephesus, Aug. 10 ^Mart. Uierm.), .luue 27
(Notker.). L^- "'J
SEPTEM FRATRES, July 10 {Vet. Horn.
Mart ). Their intercessions are prayed for m
the Gregorian Sacramentary on July 10 They
must be the seven sous of telicitas (S^-^l-'t
Bede July 10). L*-' "0
ciL TFM VIROINES, April 9; commemo-
rated "at ; nuium {.Mart. Bed., Usuaid., A.ten
Vet. Horn., llieron. giving four ou'y. »;'";'•
giving five). \y- "J
SEPTIMIUS, -^^ril 18, martyr ; commemo-
rated at Salonae with Hermogenes {Syr.Mnrt).
]}- n-J
SEPTIMUNTIA, COUNCIL OF (Si.in>
MnNCKNSB CONCILIUM), A.D. 418 (?), one ul the
many councils of this period in Africa v,ho<e
cani-.s— in this case six— are known to us only
through Ferrandus. (Mansi, iv. 439.) ^
SEPTIMUS (1), Aug. 17, monk, martyr,
with Liberatus an at)bat, and others ; cummerao-
rated in Africa {Mart. Usuard., Adou.).
m Oct. 24, martyr, with Fortunatiis,
readers, under Diocletian; commemorated at
Venusia {Mart. Usuard., Adon. ; Ut. 7to«.).
SEPTUAGINTA DISC .1 DOMINI,
commemorated on Jan. 4 ( ■■ "' )•
SEPULCHRE, EASTi. -nongsttlo
many elaborate rites with v..., J. the anccr.
Kh solemnised the week l^.oreb>s or-
the ceremony of the Sepulchre. It ■
described in the ancient ordmanwn oi Bi)o",
On Good Friday a 'sepulchre' is m""^
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY
towards the left horn of the altar, with cushion
«n,i costly huea. I„,,i,|, this the bisho,, ,„, e,
the cross the reserved sacrnment «n,l file sncr.v
menta plate ; an appropriate form of servi.e is
8»,l; the sepulchre is censo,l,„n,| close,!; when
a I depart (according to a mo.t ancient ki7u. l"
of Po.cfers), leaving only two persons to eu" .'j
the sopnichro, which remains fill Kasler "
Martcne (cle Ant. J-kd. Jilt. IV. xxiii 27>
only gives examples of this in France' an,
Ensland (Nunm), and he furnishes „„ pa,,i, „|,,
frnn, wh.chdu. , ate of this singular p rf, r n „"
am be Hucrred. There seems, however, no
reason to suppose that it was coeval with' the
rise ot transiibstantiation, as it is plain that th
practice ot ' reserving " the sacrament was one
that existed centuries before that dogma was
formulated. rij n' . ^
L"- 1. A.]
SEPULCFfllE, THE HOLY. It is now
more than thirty years .since the c ntroversvon
the sitcof the Holy Sepulchre was hrJt , irl"
eommenced.-though doubts were thrown up./n
the tradi lonal site a hundre.l years ago by he
German bookseller Korte. Dr. Robinson re-
newed the attack in 1H42 by arguing that the
second wall must have run outside the present
church -a thng fatal to its traditions Th
Rev. Geoi-ge Williams defended -the site, main-
taining that not only was there a continu-
ous Cham of historical evidence in its favou
but that the second wall could be proved to
have run e,ist ot the church. Mr. Kerlrusson n
8+7, advanced the theory that the .s^ e a's a
forgery of the 10th century, the real site being
that now occupied by the Dome of the Ko.'k"-
and Mr hnlay in the same year attempted a
new and ingenious defence of the trad tional
site, to which we shall presently allu,le. S n
then, niany books have been written on one
sule or the other. Among them are the works
of Prolessor Wilis, De Vogiie, De Saulcv, Tobler
am Lewiii. Colonel Wilson ha, pro.iuced i^
ordnance survey of Jerusalem; thi rock levels
01 the city have been almost completely deter-
mined by him Colonel War-en, Lieut. Lnder,
M. Clermont Gauneau, and Herr Schick; and
Professor t.H. Palmer has published a transiatiot^
of the Rock to have been built by Abd-el-Melek
Ihe question divides itself into two: fA) is
te present site that fixed upon by the officers
ofUmstantine and (B) Was that site certain v
rrri^d' P '"'^'' ""= ''•"" '"<" -''-« <-• ^-J'
J' ,''"'"'/^'''«"'^= f"'- the first question is his-
rical and architectural. We pro,,ose to cite,
s bneHy ..s the subject permits, the chief hi.s^
toncal evidence which bears upon the Holy
Si'imlchre from the Constantinian period. ^
i. [A.D. d'H.] The sepulchre was recovered in
h year .i't,. An account is given in some
detail by ar. eye-witness of the whole event, the
Hstonan Lusebius. No doubt whatever has
ever been thrown upon his trustworthiness
"xvi."e[^e$ )f "^ ^'"""'"''"«. """k "'• chap.
"It had been in time past the endeavour of
m nous men to consign to the darkness of
oWinm, that divme monument of immortality.
thought to remove entirely from the t 'es of
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY 1831
TC:uiT''n'^ ? ^^'"' '■""y """ »h,m they
should be able e.lectually to conceal the truth
fto n T'^^/' ""-^ '"■""«•''■ " l-'o^t'tv of earth
f om a ,|,..tance with much labour and covered
the entire spot; then, having raised this to a
mo erae height they payed ft with stone, con!
mound Th '^ T" *"""-■""' ""^ '"""^i^*
mound Then, as though their purpose had
been eflectually accomplished, they q re on
his foundation a truly dreadfufse .„ c re of
; b.ls to the impure spirit whom they call Venus •
he truth'?;' '"'^'rr' ^'^•'''"' ■"- •^';"'-t
the truth had prevailed for n long time- nor
had any ole of the governors, or mili li^y 'com-
manders, or even of the emperors thomselvel
' s yet appeared with ability to ab,dish these
■laring impietie.., save only our prince. He
gave orders that the place shoulll be thoro'ughly
purihed . . As soon as his commands wera
■ssued, these engines of deceit were cast down
w' •.'"•■■.'■'h''''"". aud utterly destr<.ved
hred with holy ardour, the emperor directed
tha. he ground itself should be dug up la
to a distant place. . . . But as soon as tiie
uncring ot earth appeared, immediately, and
contraiy to all expectation, the vener.b and
w^'di:l:::;::r:"*"'"''^'''^'""''"-'''-"-
"Imme,liately afterwur.ls, the emperor sent
foith injunctions granting ample .supplies of
.nonc^-, and commanding that a hou.e 't Zy°l
?^Vg.e.at:r! :*'.?'''' """^^"'''»^™h and
Here follows the letter of Constantine, in
nt .?^^"7«'-™arkable passage, the follow-
ing.— ihat the monument of His most holy
Passion so long buried beneath the ground
should have remained unknown fov soTong a
Heries ot years until its reappearance, . ^^ j"
a (act which truly surpasses all admiration."
tusebuis resumes the narrative ■ —
" Accordingly, on the very si.ot which wit-
nessed the Saviour's su.ferings, a' new JeVusalm
b ated of old, which, since the foul stain of
g. It brought on it by the murder of the Lord
had experience.1 the last extremity of desolation
wa,, opposite this city that the Emperor b gan
overiurr"'"'^
" First, he adorned the sacred cave itself
Ihis monument, as the chi>f part of the w" "'e
vith'.T''"'; ''"'""'. "''';:n.Hcence beautined
with 1 are co umns, and profusely enriched with
the most splendid decorations of every kind
rhe next object of his attention ..^ll^ato'f
ground of great extent open to the pure' , r of
hue v°; r 1*"^' '"' "^"'"""^ ^-'"^ » pavement of
hnely-pohshed stone, and enclosed it on three
sides with porticoes of great length ; for at the
side opposite to the sepulchre, whi^h w 1 he
eastern side, the churc'h itself was ere t ^i'^
noolfi work THin ,. t- a v.ist hei.-ht, and of great
extent both in length and breadth." ^
• A coin of Jerusalem, of the reiBu „f Antoninus
Plue tars U|«„ the obverse a temple of Venus, ml
coin is engraved in Williams's Holy City.
1882 SEPULC ii:, THE HOLY
The description of this church follows;—
" Id the uext place he eucUiseJ the atiiura
which occupied the space leailiug to the eutnuicr
in front of the church. This coraprehondeJ
iirst the court, then the porticoes on euch side,
and lastly the gates of the court. This, then,
in the midst of the open market-jilaue, the
entrance-gates of the whole work, which were
of eiquisite workmanship, afforded to passers-by
on the outside a view of the iiiterijr, which
could not fail to inspire astonishment."
II. The date of the "recovery" or "dis-
covery " of the tomb, A.D. 32(5. was seven years
before the iinonymous Bordeaux Pilgrim visited
Jeru^al'.m. The buildings were then in pro-
gress, two years before the Dedication. The
foUo./ing is his evidence. Beciiuse, in his case,
as wcii .1^ in several others quotid, hit; words
have bfc>',i uanslated so us to mean quit.u dif-
ferent things, the Latin -^nly i^ given.
He describes the Teit,,V. .n ifa ruined condi-
tion, where there was si.t s "n "pn 'ulus tiirris
excel8is.-imae," the pinnae'. •! *fn^pl ^tiuu— -"ad
caput anguii ct sub pinn4 tv,r;-Js !v ""> ^""^
cubicula jiurima ubi S.ihur.t.u p;i).itii\i.i hi.bo-
bat;" no doubt the subst rue; -i: ■ itiii iiu'..*n
lis Solomon's stables. Ooion.-l ',\ anen his
revived the tradition oi' the pili-rim by plaiin:^
Solomon's palace in tlie sp >t. A remavk;tble
passage follows: " !n atile ipsa ubi Templum
fuit qund SiiUmion aedificavit, iu marmore ante
aram sangiinem Zachariae." What was the
aalea ijjsal And did the pilgrim confuse
Hadrian's with riolomon's temple ? If the
memory of Herod as a builder had so completely
perished, why not th it of Hadrian ? A line or
two lower down he says, however, "sunt ibi et
statuae duae Hadriani."
From the Temple he takes us to the Holy
■ Sepul'hie in the following words ;—
■' l>cm, e.veunti in HierusMlem, ut ascendas
Sion, in parte sinistra, et deorsum in valle ju.xta
murum. est piscina, quae dicitur Siloa, habet
quadriporticum . . . Jnde eadem via ascenditur
Sion et paret ubi fuit domus Caiaphaesacerdotis,
et colunma adhue ibi est, in qua Christum flagellis
ceciderunt. Int us autem. intra murum Sion, paret
locus ubi palatium habuit David . , . Inde ut
eas foris murum de Sion (eunti ad portani
Neapolitanam) ad partem dexteram, deorsum in
valle sunt parietes ubi domus fuit sive prae-
torium Tontii I'ilati : ubi Pominus auditus
est antiquum patt-retur. A sinistra autem
parte est uionticulus Golgotha, ubi Dorainus
crucifixus est. Inde quasi ad lapidem mis-
sum est crypta ubi corpus ejus positum fuit
et tenia die resurrexit. Ibidem raodo juisu
Constantini imperatoris basilica facta est, id est
Dominicum niirac pulchritudinis, habens ad
latus exceptoria unde aqua leyatur et balneum
i tergo ubi infantes lavantur."
III. [A.D. li:!7.] The Onora.i.sticon places Gol-
gotha on the north of Mount Zion.
IV. [A.D. aoO.] While the tempi : ^f Venua
with its foundations was being cl :. .i ' away,
there might have been, and most j .: y was
present, a Christian lad, native ol salera,
eleven years of age, watching the discovery,
which did as much as the great luminous cross
which appeared in the sky four years later to
confirm the dtuLtful and strengthen the faith-
ful, that of the rock containing ihe sacred
BErULCHEE, THE HOLY
tomb. It was Cyril, afterwards bishop of Jeru-
•aleni. One must not forget that he U U,^
third eye-witness who S|«!ak8 of thcs-? tKiijs;
i that, though he was a boy at the tini' l" ih:
I discovery, he lived in Jerusalem, and m n'V hav
1 watched, step by step, the progress of tli" gri.i!
i basilica ; that he wa» ordained before th.) ci»ni.
plotiou and dedication of the b.iildings, mii tiin
inanv, if not all, of his lectur-'i wi-te deb . ■■ ■■ 'i i:i
tile church of the Anastasis it.<iclf "The i :iig«
of this day," he myt, "have in their . ty
lui't this holy Ohur.:h of thu Ueaorroction . . ,
iu wi.ich we are m^mu Had."
T: ■; statement'i "• '.'o t which have been ea-
theruil irom Cyril must therefore be adniitial,
unless there can be shewn any temptntioii tu
exaggerate, as exact'; trm Fo-ir i.ro iin-
portaul. They are as f.llows : —
(d) "The cleft which wan -it th ^ i«n' nf t''i\
salutary sepulchre . . . was :iewi\ 'Ut of t','
rock itself, as is customary ht. r in the front "■
sepulchn ;. For now it apiiea.'!: not. the i iitir
I ,-«ve having been hewn away for the sake of the
prc>!ent adornment; for, before the sepulchre
was decorated by royal zeal, there was a cave in
the face of the rock."
(5) "Though the place "— outsid. i ',e sepuh hre
— " is now adorned, and that most .xcelleutly,
with royal gifts, yet it was before a t-arden, and
the tokens and traces thereof rem.iM."
((•) "The sepulchre consisted ori^i >,illy of a
double cave, of which the exteri'.v was cut
away for the sake of the present adorn niiiit."
(d) "The entrance . . . was hewn out of the
rock itself, as is customary here in the 'Vont of
sepulchres. Now it appears not : the out -r cave
or vestibule having been hewn away l^r the
sake of the present adornment ; but before the
f .ulchre was decorated by royal zeal there was
.ave in tlie face of the rock" (I.ect. xiv).
V. Sanctae Paulae I'eregrinatio (circa A.n.
380). After praying at the Holy Sepulchre, she
ascends Sion : —
" Inde egrediens ascendit Sion quae in avcem
vel speculam vertitur. Hanc urliem iiuondam
expugnavit et reaedilicavit David."
Vi. 1'. Eucherii epitome de aliquibus locis
Sanctis (A.D. 427):—
" Situs ipse urbis pene in orbem circuniactus,
non parvo murorum ainbitu, quo etiain uiuiite...
Sion, qu<mdani vicinura, jam intra se rccipit, qui,
a meridie positus, pro arce urlii superoiniuet.
Major civitatis pars infra mouteni jaiet in
planitie huniilioris cnllis posita.
" Mons Sion latere uno, quod aquiloueni rospicit,
clericorum religiosorumque habitationibiis fro-
quentatur : cujus in vertice planitiem inniiaoho-
rum cSllulae obtinent ecclesiam circuiiul.intes,
quae illic, ut fertur, ab apostolis fuiulata [jrc
loci resurrectionis domiuicae reverentia.
'o:''litioiie
qjae
igno
. J ,1 tSSU
. r.nnstasis
(1, medius
. I lominicae
apparet qn^
, ;iore, cruorai
: loiitem Sion
I r ■! ] '•'KeieD!
;.i i.ieriori
" I'rimum de locis Sanctis. Pr"
platearum divertendum est ad be
martyrium appellatur a Coustai ,
cultu extructa. Dehino cohaerer
insunt Golgotha atque fl '^'.sis •
in loco est resurrectionis, G i
Inter anastasim ac niartyri. ■ :
piissioiiia ; in quo etiam ;■ ■
quondam ipsam, affixo Don^uii ■
pertulit. Atque haec turn s^-v
posita cernuntur,' quo se ad r.-iui
loci tumor ponigit. Tcraplum vi.
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY
T'. .h ^' ''" ^""^ '^""'' l'r""m„,,it."
OutJ,,,"!;;;^;;:.!'''""" ''^ "*" T.r>ao Sanctae
'!,'■ :"''"' civitatis est bnsili.a A n™vt»
ear se,u.. luni Domini nostri lesu C'hi-isti vl
Sepnlca. b(,.:,ine usque iu Calvnr!.,,. l
pu.-.. niM.uio XV '-^'jo'-me locum sunt
-:>;^in(.;i«otham,,a;.u;,u,!:^„:;;;t]i^/-"
quae est modo ecclesia Sanota I'e r .„ ' i
minus ,,assus numero L De I, ,„ r "J '"'"?
rraetonun. Pilati plus minurX. itc'
Ibi est eeclesia sanctac Sophine " '"""-'o ^■
Let us pause here to conside.. the position of
'i:^io.l::TS!!Sv^ -oi/the'ir
the western hil I ^0,^; on7r/"°^ "' .^'"''
that the Bordeaux pS ri„ ""'f"""""
at all Pnnln '"gr"" Can be understood
al a 1. faula goes from the Church of th^
Sepulchre to ascend Zion, a phrase whil h
meaning at all if Zion were thH J . ^u^ ""
the Chu..c.h of the SepuTc^^'ti Tth ' ^of
it. tuoherius sneaks of ♦ho ,u " ""^ t"|) ol
^o„, which can l.,;;j\:^^!l V'l'^I^L.!'^-
Coader has remarlted in fho u *" "'•
s,»udtothe Golgotha of l"rwh; T""
reached by steps. "le^aoms, which was
Vlll. Antoninus Placentinus undertook hi,
™.rney at a .late which is uncertain Jtw.
;^^:^:Sti^s-irt^-r:f[J:
?""s:iir^o.ir-!z.„:s-- ^"
Ipsum nmuumentum in quo cornl n * •- •
positum fuit, in naturalemrxcisumTf ^7'°'
.*.,, d...„,,j, taT„;;.m"„';S''"«- "'•
The authorities for this statemonf
temporary with th« eTent Th„ r'^ "'"■
Antiochus the mo„t_;n f'h ^''^'""'"'^O, and
a.Uhoritiesldes^rTbe7he aT !»"'«'"P''™ry
■ebuilding of the Vuth Tk'^'T "'"^ "-^
writ.., .• * MndA",,g ^''f la.'.t.named
nostri quae quideinL^ho.-' '^"'1'''* Salvatoris
in sub in,e e igit omni n"* '8"«.':""flagrarunt
'i»ne, puta aefes sanctae'^p'?"' '''^"'* '''"'""■
wtionis. ^^^^£^7--::^
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY 1883
thS'rM;!;:"':^"^''" '':•'""'"'"«'''«»
three contom porarvinf """,'''"'"'» ""PPorted by
followed iT su »''"'" "I' """'"'"^''' '"'''
Utronggroumlworrr'i .-.''"''""'' '"^ "
the u^'ouhMrs 4i'::t :&offh'p'' "■"
' conquest, and the <r„„ ^""""t"'' "f the Persian
seems to be no room uh.« ' > '' """^ """«
Thebuilding/ofSt.ntineT'' '^"'' ""y ^oubt.
and artistic^lljl-c^ "^Vu"*!' th""." •'>;'r"'"''^-'''
«ndthema7k t'lace Tn"thrr'> l'" ""■'"■"'
next period, as describe by A :.;;"^^„". '^
l-'Utychius, and other writ/r/ ?i. ' ^^'"'';a'<l,
.™«':l-" "r Ti": rr '<■ "• -
first khalif of the 0mm! ,^""'.*''"'W'y»h, the
to iem^Im^ookpW '•■■'' ♦''? ''^'* "''^■•'^^'f
'^overeign'sTafh If r ' [""^ "*'''' ">«»
iSliiii
abovethefloo "Th^""' """^ "^'"^ three pain,.
by Arculf with M '' '"T"''™'"'"'-" were taken
"y -^rcuii with his own hand "Tho * i, •
broad enough to hold one Sying [m hi nek'
mens tools: its colour is not uniform but
Hi
r'i
i-.
!■ If .
iir
■ \
■ 1
1884 SEPULCHRE, TIIK HOLY
nppeiivs to lie a niixtuic of wliito ninl rc'\." He
goes on to ilc;.-,(Til)U the other ohiirohes which
then tiiin\f,l the group— the square church of the
Viriiin Mary, ami to the eatl the large church
buiit on the site of Ool gotha. " Uniler the jihice
of the cross a cave is hewn in the rocli, in which
sacrifice is olVered on an altar." If that is true,
what has become of the cive, ami how couhl a
cave he cut in the rock cast of the platform in
the Haram esh-Shereef, where the grounl ha>
n slope of one in six? A^ljoining the church of
Golgotha to the east again was the basilica of
ConstauHne — the Martyrion. Between the Ana-
stasis ami the Martyrion Arculf spejtks of an open
space, iloubtless that descrilieil by Kusebius.
This description, with the rude plan which
accomi)anies it, is evidently one extracted, so to
siieak, bv numberless eager nuestions. Adam-
nanus wished above all things to form a clear
i lea in his own mind of the most holy of holy
places.
XI. [a.d. 690.] The Dome of the Rock, which
is according to Mr. Fergusson's theory Constan-
tine's er. ction, over the Holy Sepulchre was built,
according to Arabic historians, ♦n this year by
Abd-el-Melek. Three Arabic writers— Jelal-ed-
Diu, Kemel-ed-Din, and Mejr-ed-I)in— agree in
dcsciibing the erection by the Khalif. Prof.
E. H. Palmer has given a full account from
these sources in his History of .lermakm (p. 79
et seq). Eutychius, himself of Arab extraction,
also ascribes the Dome to Abd-el-Melek.
XII. [a.d. 800.] The church of the Holy Se-
pulchre was given by Haroun-al-Kaschid to
Charlemagne.
XIII. [a.d. 7(5.5.] After the death of St.Willi-
bald, who visited Jerusalem four times, the Inst
about the year 76,i, a description of the sacred
places was written by his biographer, apparently
from his own narrative. It is found in the Acta
Sandayum, and is quoted by Mr. Fergusson,
Canon Williams, and Professor Willis. As in
the case of the Bordeaux Pilgrim, the words
have been used by controversialists to support
opposite views: " Et inde venit ad Hierusalem
in ilium locum ubi inventa fuerat sancta crux
Domini. Ibi nunc est cicclesia in illo loco qui
dicitur Calvariae locus : et haec fuit prius extra
Hierusalem ; sed Helena quando invenit cruoem,
collocavit ilium locum intus intra Hierusalem.
" Et ibi staut nunc tres cruces ligneae foris in
orientali plaga ecclesiae, secus parietem, ad memo-
riara sanctae crucis dominicae et aliorum qui cum
eo crucifixi eraut. Ulae non sunt nunc in ccclesia
sed foris stant sub tccto extra ecclesiam : et ibi
secus est ille hortus in quo fuit sepulcrum Snlva-
toris. Iliad sepulcrum fuerat in petra excisum,
et ilia petra stat .super terram et est quadrans in
uno et in summo subtilis.
" Et Stat nunc in summitate illius scpulchri
crux et ibi supra nunc aedificata est mirabilis
domus et in orientali plaga in ilia petra sepul-
chri est ostium factum per quod intrant
homines in sei'ulchrum orare. Et ibi est intus
lectus, ubi corpus Domini jacebat .... Hie
lectus in quo corpus Domini jacebat stat in
latere aquilonis intus in petra sepulchri et
boraini est in dextri mauu cjuaudo iutrat in
sepulchrum orare. Et ibi ante januam sepulchri
jacet ille lapis mngnus (luadraiis in similitudiuo
prioris lapidis quem angelus revolvit ab ostio
monumenti."
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY
XIV. About the year 870 the monk licrnhard
visited .lerusalem. The following iu his account
of the second group of buildings; —
" Uecejiti sumus in hosjiitale gloriosissimi
imperatoris Caroli, in quo suscipiuntfir oniuca
qui caus4 devotionis ilium adeunt locum !in;^ui
loquentes Honiana ; cui adjacet ecclesia in
honorc sanctae Mariae, nobilissiniam liabcns
bibliothecnni studio praedicti imperatoris, cum
xii. mansiouibus, agris vineis, et horto in valle
.losaphat. Intra banc civitatcm, exoejitis aliis
ecclesiis, quatuor eminent ecclesiae mutuis sibi-
met iiarii'tibus cohaerentes, una videlicet ad
oricntem, (luae habet montem Calvariae et Imum
iu quo reperta fuit crux Domini et vocatur basi.
lica Constantini ; alia ad meridiem : tenia ad
occidenteni, iu cujus medio est sepulcrum Do-
mini, habens ix. ccdumnas in circuitu sui inter
quas consistunt parietes ex optimis lajiidibus ; ci
quibus ix. columuis iv. sunt ante faciem ipsias
monumenti quae cum suis parietibus clauilunt
lapidem coram sepulchro posituuj, quem aiigi'lus
revolvit et super quem sedit jiost pcraitam
Domini resurrectionem. De hoc seiiulclim non
est necesso plura scribere cum dicat lieda in
historii anglorum sua sullicientia . . . Inter
praedictas igitur iv. ecclesias est paradisus sine
ttcto, cujus parietes auro radiant ; pavinientura
vero l.ijdde struitur pretiosissimo habens in
medio sui conrinium iv. catenarum quae veuiuut
a jiraedictis quatuor ecclesiis in quo dicitur
niedius esse mundus,"
XV. In the year 1010 the group of churches
were all destroyed by order of the Khiilit'
Hakeem. Of this fact there seems to lie no
doubt possible. It is attested by the fillowing
writers: — Haoul the Bald, Lib. III. chap, vii.;
Ademar ; Guido; William of Tyre; Abulfura-
gius ; Makrizi ; and it is acknowledgeil liy Ke-
naudot. Hist. I'utriarchamin Alcx<mdriii(,r>im,i\ni\
by De Sacy in his Life of the Calipli Ila':m
Jtiamr Allah. The churches, it is stated, were
destroyed as completely as by Chosroes. i; i<
related that the sepulchre itself was n(.t s] . eii
— perhaps they broke the upper portion of the
rock.
Scarcely had the buildings been destroyed
than the capricious despot gave orders t'lT
them to be reconstructed. " Tunc," says Itaoiil,
" de universn terrarum orbe incr.'dibilis
hominum multitudo exultanter Hierosolymnra
pergentes, domui Dei restaurandao plurinia detu-
lerunt munera." By the help of the emperor
Romanus Argyros and his successor and the
offerings of pilgrims, the churches were rebuilt
in 1048.
XVI. [a.d. 1102.] It is hardly necessary to
quote the long account given by Saewulf »t the
buildings as they were before the magniliceiit
alterations made by the Crusaders. It i*,
however, most valuable in shewing whnt the
buildings of the third period were— a circular
churchi with a group of churches and duiiieli
round it. The description may be read in l'i"l'.
Willis's paper on the church (Williams's /Wj
Citi/, vol. ii. p. 270).
No one has doubted, or ever will doubt, that
the group of buildings described by .S.anvul!
occupied the same site as that now covcieil U
the modern church of the Holy So[julohre.
What follows, therefore, has no topographical
importance, but atlects the question whether tin
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY
P-ont sepulchre is cut in the rock or built
ti„n bv tl,r(V^ 1 ^ ^■'•■''" """ the "copa-
^ifv^si ;::r:i.l•s„::-:l■-r-'"
altoeotl>r hat 'u''?" '•''*■•")■«''. but not
ten,le,l extensiv ro;a i , ' ''■"■^f ■"- «"l'erin.
which he removero"e of '^^"'•'-■h. during
with whic n the Holy LpuM, '"■ J;^"''"^'" /'"''?
Hol/seH'ore.""^"^ "^-''""^ '-''"'rtt
XX. Among the many scaLUr«d notices of
Willia.ns for L /^ Sv'(.e td afew fnZf
siuuts 01 nre, hozomen savs thpv ♦«,>!,
,L " tl'e.ac<te ,j,s« mentioned by the Bor
tl- 7 ^fi'schasms liadbertua, soeakinir
n.n> ...formation given him by pilgnm?savf
a the monument (a.d. 848) was cut in ^o^k^!
that It was all one stone, not many • a d f H„f'
been entirely without fo^.ndiC In 30
tne Russian abbot Daniel *= ,.,„ i. 1 ,
SEPULCHKE^ THE HOI.V 1885
I quod monumentum . . . non est ill,..! ;.,
-pusChristisacrati.;imr.^,„^l^V,Uu:
-nZ;rcS':^^ «"-♦''"''' ^'-"S
viva lll,„i , ^'"^'"' ''"'' t'xcisum m petrii
Irti "i, tur. ' '^.'"•S'"'"""" ^rcmento minus
tht of":?,' '/ '"""' '" ^'"-"•»'' ™c";;,.
Let us sum up the evidence.
that tho n ""empts of impious men;"
Pillar, irr'?' '"'""'^'' t*--^ ton-h wi h
ant torn If iL'"'"^? "' ^»- ''"'»
o.uand^pS^.-!P-Mween
^i^rt^^ai^Sr't^aa^y:;^^^
ment he is^ orLnV£rJi:tat i;^
would go outside the town from Zion to th«
Father tabn, an eye-witness in 1480, declare ihit
the churches overthrown but also the' sem.1
kZ7"u f""">- '^'''"'y^^^^ by order J't
cie innae by the Lnt.n conquerors • .nn.l ♦!,,*
t/ronf !^ ^ '"^ Charezmians in 1244 no
« oflSof^'"' """^« '" 'f-* church till the
ot ?/u,!drio:;rTr:'f:Lv-Sf'h^ ^^"'•^. '^«
bu^JiStTr"??'«^^^'-'ES
wUh'Tr't in' dXlLr ""Vher'' '''"''''''
buiHingorgrou^rSin^S^X^T^'^:
q" orfTh^f ^'.'".^ ''""^' Of hurried' .:
queiors. The foundations remain, with some of
1
m
\4
I
- t-i
1886 SEPULCHRE, TUE HOLY
indeed to know what portiona, if any, of the j'
»ent oliurch belong to IIik lir»t, second, ,ir iMiru
group; to truce, u» fur lu possible, the u'Ui.'i' i
of tlie buildings described by Siwwu i , i.< .nctr-
tain what ure left of the recoii!-ltucti(M>-. oi
lIodestuH ; to estalilidh how mu( li is ii'ft of the
Crusaders' church ; iind, if possible lo find what
belongs to the churches destnyod by Hukeoni.
This has been attempted by the ct'Unt de Vogiitj
in the Ajlincs lie la Tern SninU
XXII. So far then, from Constiintine down-
wards, the history of the Holy Sepulchre hus
appeared to most students a clear und continuous
record of events whii'h, exaggerated perhaps by
the imaginary terrors of eye - witnesses and
the zi'al of historians, were really eiimt.d
around the site when' now stands the tradition ,1
Holy Hupulchre. l,ut in 1847 objections of an
entirely novel ki'il wore raised by Mr. James
Fergusson, who.se i jputation as a student of
architecture at once .onimeuded a respectful hear-
ing. He declared, on an examination (1) of the
drawings, Sfi: i, • ,, and plans prepared by Messrs.
Bonomi and C.itherwood, and (2) after a personal
visit to Jeriisuleir that the Dome of the Kock,
which he called the Masjid or Mosque of Omar,
could not have been built by Abd-el-MeIek in
the 7th ccjitury ; that not only the Arabs could
not have erected such a building, but that no
Christian architects of the period could have
designed it; that, finally, it belongs, and can
only belong, to the time of Constantine.
If of that time, then why have we uo account
of it ? And what else can this splendid and
richly ornniaented erection "■, but the struc-
ture placed up by the emperor't command around
and over our Lord's place of sepultnru?
This revolutionary theory necessitated many
others: that the cave under the dome is our
Lord's sepulchre ; that Zion was also the Temple
mount; that the Temple was in the .> W. angle
of the Haram; that the eiu>teru wall «.is built
by Agrippa after the Crucifixion ; that the second
wall might run without the present church ;
that the northern part of the Haram .>a was a
place of tombs, with other consequen.
Many solutions have been proposed to meet
the dilhculties of this theory, first started by
Mv. Fergusson, but they have never yet been
answered with such fulness as to convir '
or his foUoveis, Mr. Lewin {Skge of J^i isaleiu,
f. 145) suggested that, when they wantiO to
»uild the Dome, the Arabs brought over as
many jii liars and other ornaments as they re-
quired from the church of Constantine over the
Holy Sepulchre, on the opposite hill.
The count de Vogiii pronounced the building to
be Byzantine in character, the work of Christian
artists ( Temple de Ji'rusalem, p. 82) : " La dis-
position de i'ldifice, ):rise dans son ensemble, est
toute byzautine : un siMe avant I'bdgire, les
archi .»! ^.|■s byzantins batissaient des ^glises
polygoualea ou rondes, telles que celles de Bosti-a
et d'Ezra, edifices datis dn sixiime sifecle, qui
se lattachent eux-memes par les ^glises Con-
stantinienneS d'Antioehe, de Saint-Constance de
Borne, aux temples circulaires de I'aiitiquit^. Sous
Abd-et-Metek, les Arabes n'avaicu:: pm d'urt qui
leur fut propre : ou du moins, s'ils avaient des
' tendances sp^ciales, un gottt particulier pour telle
forme ou tel motif de d^corati' ., ils n'avalent ni
icoles ni artistes de profession, et surtout iU
BEPULCHUK, THi: HOLY
-'nvaient pasd'ouvriers en 6i' de nienerl bonne
nn uno ^rando cunstructi ^n : il scrait iiiJMliMlB
iilvi ju'i; u'avaient auiune notion de I'art de
liu. , puisque les viUi't* ilu lentre de rAnibo'
•out construites en muijonnerie de pictre et d"
bois, et ij'rtaineincnt ces construct iims, sur li's-
quelli'S nous maiii|ii"ns absolument do rcnsi'i)i;tii-
rrients pri^cis, deviii"iit par ((uelqiic lotii avuir
lour origiuulite; in. us A JeriiMilein, I'li tSyriu, eii
Bgypte, iltti\s les iiays n-cemment soniiiis i leur
<loiiiination, ils n uvaient que de» soldats .jt A>i
foiM'tionuiiires • ) •- '' - les nouveaux uonu-
ments de » i .■ '.'.., a l-irent s'.idressf- an:;
vaincus, a la population indigene qu'ils u\,,iint
convertie en force, mais niu cliangee ni depla^ n .
Souvent mcme lis firent vetiir du dehors l,"i
artistes que le pays no pouvait pas leur fmiriur :
la grauile inosquee de Dumas fut decoree par ii-a
mosaistos que le Khalife Al-Walid deuiaiuli
directement k I'empereur d'Orient l.u
renseii;nements hiHtoriques manquent sur la iiii-
ti<inalitd des architectes du tjoubbet es Sakhnih,
ma:9 le style du inoiuiment est un guidi; au
mollis aussi sOr que les chroniques nrabcs et nn
lni«se nucun doute sur le caractfere byz 'iitin dc
I'^ciifice. Mais quoique byzantin |iar In styli', il
n'a rien de chriStien: le trait principal qui I"
distingue des ^glises que lui ont servi de nioilMc
est I'absence d'abside L'abside est le si^'lle
distinctif des (Sglises primitives, et son alistme
ici pi live ((ue les architectes du Qoubliet es
Sakhiah, dont en bStissant suivant les hubitu is
byzantins, surcnt donuer au monument le cai.u-
tfere musulman."
XXlll. IJut if the architectural argument of
Mr. Fergusson. to shew that the Dome nl the
Rock is the work of Constantine, has never li' 'H
disproved to the satisfaction of hit followers, it
must be also acknowledged that the objectiun^
to the corollary to the theorj , that it is the
monument raised by the emperor over the Hily
■1 pulchre, have also never been 8ai.i:;!'^jtonly
answered.
They ai'e, may be gathered from the furc-
(;oing histoi .il evidence, br'efly as follows: —
1. Const.i.,. aie built no lime or church at all
over the sepulchre. He simply ornaraentod it
with columns.
2. It appears certain from the Bordeaux Til-
grim and others that the Zion of the,4th century
was on that 'art of the city i' Here it is uot
placed.
3. From the Onomatticon it is also r r'lin
that Golgotha wa" 'li the north of Zion.
4. Cyril saj. ■ t the tomb had a vt'stilmi.'.
" as is ( ( itomary m're in the front of sepuli.'hie.^.
Whnt of a v. tibule can be found to the cave
of thf i f
5. re w om for only nine raei. to pray,
stanii Till actly fits the present tomb.
6. I'aula, after leaving the church. 'i.iJ to
ascend in order to get to Zion. How iie
ascend from the Dome of the Rock, which is ou
the top of the hill ?
7. How far is the thuory that the church i?
that built by Constantine — even making all a -
lowances for damagefi at various times, repairs,
and additions— comp'.liHe with the two c^nip.ftc
destructions by Chosroes and Hakem ?
8. The time assigned to the proposed trans-
ference of the old to the present site, that of the
wars between Nicephorus II. and the Khalif Mut«,
SEri'LciIRE, THK HOLY
contin.KM,,. Can ' ]'"?. "' PHtn.n, the most
Pilsfritns, an.l th,.«e th ' ' '"■'"'"''■ "'""'", '
weok-,h. „1,| tZ ll'TT ""•' ^""" "«'■'> '
th-it th. ™n,pira,v'w,Vi,,„:;'.'^ " another ;
"ect.onj ami that ofnil the hu,7' '," i""'""* "''
l'>m-'i in this f.,rs..rv not ' ': ""''"^"h'
home nn,l t«l,l the t2' Tl ""'^''" ""« «'""
«rite it ? N,.r »1 ", • "';' :"« «»-- ''"un,! to
w.mld be pre, ,', " ' 2 r'.''" filKHm, who
There were the mr'LVnrdK'? T"" ""^ l'''''^
tm.lers, whocane year lt>..; "'"?-"""'" I
Marseille,, to buy "pts , , ' ^ *',"'"• »"""'"".
hurt's. The,o would 'hav« T*^"""'- """' "'"' '•''•'' '
an.: might perhap have . ■""" '" ""e plot,
...' brf.tho'; Xstir/xr^'^K*'"',"''-
thirty year, of the . "turu r !'' **"* '"*
-tituted f«r Mecca a, 2' '"*'"'" *"" '"•'-
Moslem pilgrim, po'u? dMr^rff '".""'-/ <■'
^'-flTLCHHE, THE II0r,V 1887
'' h«.| a ve,t ", '^" '"•'"""''""'•'""I tha
•hatithadro, ',r ';';'•'','• ^''hthi, the faa
I that there was In u'l"";"/."" "'""'''•V. «".!
place open to the ,o, th hZ > ""["' "'''-■• "
'' '"""Kh for the l,„,| ' ,,(! [Z] ''"'"'^ hi^h, larg,
i'".lfr the d.,me con „,, ,,"""■.. '^T '*■« <*'•
f«<'t; it may poM,Mv hVr ^ *•"'" ■'"" "luare
t«inlyh., n^Jj;;i -^^^^
there i« ,u. vestibnle, nnrtno 1. , ""'' '""''' i
ever having been ^n ' Tu"'''"'"''"'"'-' "f there
«ver <.onl,, have lUn"ne ' '^'^ *''"« 'heri
< ''"tat present t/y en a m":','""^' '"''"'"''
there are a Inrite l.ody of hn. *■ ""*• A"*
question, who «r, LI ," '"'' rested in the
ProiM«ed solution ., the ., k""''''* "" ^'''K'ie'.
"Vho can refer a the „, "•^':'t'-:t"rnl dimculty ;
"«t diibVnl.y to'ihe pr ;: r ft;:' '' K*^""!"? ^''^^
the modern site i, that !nnl, ' "',''" ''"''' that
^pii. and the ...^Lown nil. " 1 ^>' ^■""^'"•"».
the three conten.porvf^r, .''"'" ''"''"'^-'^l
Moslem pilgrims no'ure,/ "" ,""'"'""' '"""''«'• <'< CVril" ^".u"' '' 'hat spoken ,'.
in <lyemg stulfs- ,b„i,i.i self. IL *'^*'''' ' I. Hlstor),.„ i .l ^'"t"" and pilgrims ?
i^->"»« had is; ':"S::,!^;:-hippe„ ^ i SI v^SeiiT^^xir 4^/\'''-'-^'"-X
■" the garden (.John xl, 4 •' /"" ^'''"''^^'•" «•«»
Such a conspiVacv'k "f ""7 '"''"'«•''' a He"?
(■"rr.-..,| through hut it . "" '"^•^^''saftilly
^>'> piiefty',!*:] '«;;;:' t^bt't '"""f "•"'
fanatics seems impossible hetwec, hoatile
'J. If the Dome of th, i
^•hnrchof the Seit. ,;;;';., r"
enterng the same sacred enclosure
«3 friends, for prayer and ru"
has aver been founZ^K"!"'"'--^'"?'
» ever b^en fou dTn the Hal? "P" ■""''""K
any look, to wa ran .,,"k ?".'"•?'' 'tseh; or
■vas the
' years,
■ilems
sid ,
^othinl,'
I I" the garden dohn xl'" Vu- it'"" ''''"''^^''" «•«»
t"nib(f,nke jtxiii ST. M. i'' ' "'"'' " rock-cut
;'«V.'t was •• With' ;tXu'c-"'ai f"":."--
that <,, v^ithout the second ^"111 ^^'^^ '"'• 1-^'
"f t!;:":;^:,:^;^*';:; ' r'^-- - the site
hy the light 'of w^hfch t' rmavT "" '■""•''
Ihus, ,t will be conceded thit \7/V'""""«''-
frequented spot, or at 1.,. ' l"'"™ *«« »
it was easily'acCibie , \r„ "'"'"• 'h'' ' ^'r that
out to see theCrnciHiion' th»f 'T""''' "'"' '^«nt
near as to be visib,et^„^l^-;!:!^^f'".''»P^-
'";huiidingofstXr:r.;;Vr7n"%r *'r -'
histonans relate it with «nV.K ."i 7^"^" ^wh
t^n I to shew thei g^ ,e,aT t leT;" '' ""^"^« ""
"^-i that these wrote some h^/ i' '""^ ''e
'"" 'he event.. That sTrue ""xh:^ "' ""^
•"'»' r, an older record In »I* r'""""«'
"<.ord. In the building
"• For 300 yearftK '"■- . "^ ^"■•''^■"^■
-P"lohre.'ti;^'\;^--;--- a, regards the
Ale.wnder goes to Jerusalem t"*"^' '" ^12,
places" generally n!-^ "" '"" "the holy
•. -o oiuer record. In th, v, ".T.--' | »» Bethlehem as „y"/*"/P™ks of the cavi
"MJ the colonnade. "In the^''^'"" . ~-
■ ■ 'he servant of God "fr a .IT" "^ ^od
"»e commander of thTfaith^ :?\^^t":.^''''«''>'
'" " - ...ar 72 " (a d 691) ' "'" """ ''"We
OhrUti«Sb:/lf:t;h^'').-^'"'atthe
»ftlie Temp^" on *? ""'hin the area
«f ""e Urftd had iTft in' ""' ''-'"--tio::
f "-^ Tomple •• inlhe ( th " '• ^'"' " «'"*
'^'present Haram aV, '"'^ *"^ """^'j
^»H^i^a::,,t,^srrE'- ^-^^■-^"
■•'■ason of the nn.und , '\anh '^ ""*' >>"'' ''7
t" hide it, he could n;.::^ ""-'"' P^I-^'X
th-iy '%trerz'^:;;!r7 '^^ ^«" "'-■^ -
.1- Those who do Tt^b leve ,-7tr'"'i
c'ty of the site conf.-nd that the *^ »«thenti.
took no care to , Jill. Il '''>'^'''"'»ti«ns
Bacr«d place ; hat' .HZL!'r''J:'Z'>'y "V-"!^
, -... ..ar«m ar, - —v looK no care to i ..«rv. tk -''^'"■'"lana
- Our Lord's toml. .as rock ■ / rr i. .. saced place • h«t „^ ?i. ""^ ''">mory of any
1). and ■■(■»"- ♦Ho . ""f '^"MLuke nifi I ^i.,^ .. *^'"^-*.' "at nfter their ret-m f/-- i- '-^
a:?^^B?srS£:ciisssgr^
53),
IflSfi SKPULCIinK, THK HOLY
vlth ttiu .li'wi, chiui'il fnim thf ii|iiit, iiml urily '
tiitiTAti'il whon thi-y «hc'»i'il Ihrir ilintiiutinii hy
elei'tin^ n lii'iililx lilitliir{i ; tlint the trmlitiimM til' !
th« iiimt viitiUhi'il with llii- .liiiljii/.iiiK nr .lewiiih {
Chrlntiiini ; thiit tho npnt ihimi'ii t'nr the church
wai •I'liM'ti'it frMiii miiiiii vn)(ii>' trmliticiii cf '|Uit«
rfi'i'iit nrnwlh, frimi mimii I'luniHil ri'ictnli k* of
uriiiiiiil, I'rMiii Kciinu rciiiniiin nf )(itr>li'im, ur even
by I'nriai'iiiuii niiil iIckIkikmI iin|iiwtiirv.
2. On the iilhcr huml, thii miiipurtcri of the
trsiliticiii (mint lint the iin|iriilmhility thnt mich
a |iliiri' Mit th» menu of thi' Itemirrec tion, the
»t\i|ii'niliinK iin|Hirtiinrii of which hin ever been
jircHcnt to hII Clirintiiin t cm hem, nhouM be for-
((otten liy thow on the upot. They nrRiie thftt
the ChriHtiium tiiunt hiive returneil to Jeriwilem
very "hortly iifter the sicKe, beiauBe they were
able to elei't for their hiiiho|), in the (ilace of the
nmrtyreil .liiniei, Simeon, aon of Cloiiaii, brother
of our I.onl ; tintt itlthongh houses nnd walla
inny be JcHtroyeil, streeti and the lite of (rutes
reiniiin to niitrk the plncen where old associa-
tions I lin({ ; that the tradition in nnbroken ; that
the worils of Knsebins clearly convey the fact
that the site w«i known to all C'hri<itians in
Jeruaitleni ; and that when the historian sjieaks
of olil rccorils from which he conipiled his list
of the early biihopi, he sii({(;est* the very records
whii'h iireserve the memory of the site.
IV. We nniy hero briefly notice the theory,
already rclerred to, of .Mr. Finlay. It is this:
The whole of the vast Homan empire, he says,
had been exactly majiped and planned by the
imperial iKjriiiicniKircn, iinder Augustus. On
these maps everything — a group of trees, a
garden, a vineyard, or a (ield — was accurately
laid down. <')f course, therefore, .Mr. Kinlay
argues, the name of (Jolgotha or that of the
tomb of .loseph w<iuld be found, and all Con-
nt.mtinc had to do was to order a search in the
survey map and send to Jerusalem word where
to look for the sepulchre.
This is ingenious, but it hardly satisfies oppo-
nents of trailition, who say that it would be
absurd to expect in any map the name of one
tomb among many, or even the name of a certain
obscure |ilace outside the city ; that it is not
clear that Palestine was regularly re-examined ;
and that it is perfectly clear from the historian
that Constantinu pursued no such line at all,
being .under the impression that the tomb, if
not the site, was unknown. On the other hand,
the upholders of the site do not want the aid
of an argument which rec|uire8 the concession
of so many improbable things.
V, We have, lastly, to notice the topographical
argument,
The sepulchre was without the wall ; i.e.
the second wall, which, starting from Gate
Gennath (Gate of Gardens), near the town of
Ilippius, ran to the fortress of Antonia, in
aoinu sort of curve — KVK\oifnvov. The
course of this second wall has yet to be traced.
If it is proved to run outmle the sepulchre, then
the site must bo at once abandoned. In 1862 a
portion of a massive wall was found, about
12 feet deep, just south of the church. (Lewin,
Bicgc of Jcrusaian, p. 2i.5.) lis stones were
about 7 feet long by 5 feet wide, and shewed
the well-known marginal draft. In 1874 M.
Clermont Ganneau (Quarterly Statement, Pales-
tine Exploration Fund, 1874, p. 145) found and
BKRArillA
partly trooed a scarp which hi' ihgeiiliiii»ly con
nc' ts with »he seioml wall. At preiieiit, hnw-
ev- r, \.e may admit that the iniirBe nf the nei'imd
wall has never yet been m.tdi' out to the snlisl'iic-
tlon of all. Until it has hecTi lidlowed 'IVnm en |
to end, or at least until its fininilatiniiH in t
general course have been establiHhed li'Viinil a
doubt, we cannot say with certainty whi*her cr
no the present site is within or " witli< iit thu
gate."
We mar add th;>t the latest writer on the
subject, Lieut. (Vinder, R.K. {Ti)it Wark in
I'dlf.stinr), argues I'lom the rock levels, that the
wall must have passed outniJe the church. Hi-
has discovered a place north of the city cull ^l
the Place of Stoning, which, from the cunforn i-
tion of the ground as well as the tiame, he sug-
gests as the real site (^f (iolgotha.
There is one fact which makes in favonr nf
the present site. It is that the chnnh Kt;iii.ls
over at least one tomb of undoubted nntii|iiity. in I
perhaps stands over many. It hna bini; b.iii
suspected that the so-called tomb of .lose|ili nf
Arimathaea which is shewn within the i hiir.h
was a genuine rock-cut Jewish tomb. ■ I'mlcssir
Willis statu the fact as already proved. Iir.
Robinson, however, denied its antiquity, t'niuiii I
Wilson ((/. S. notes, p. .'I't) speaks of the jiliice as
an undoubted tomb with rock-cut /ocii/i. M.
(Vermont Ganneau has proved beyond a il iilt
(Quarterly Statement, I'al. Explor. Fund, l.-'T?,
p. 81) that it was a tomb of the well-known ty[ie
with three la^nli on each side, in which he hm
been corroborated by Colonel Wilson (Quarterly
Statement, 1877, p. 128), and has tried to shtw
that it is connected with another sepulchre cut
in the rock beside it at a lower level. One niny
fairly argue, therefore, that by whatever nuiii s
thi- site was chosen for that of our Lord's sc|iu!.
chre, whether by transference, or by traditlen,
or by imposture, it was chosen with the knew-
ledgc that here had been a place of tonil'S. N.rw
the only known tombs within the second wall
were those of the kings and the prophetess HuMah.
It will be seen that, while no amount of argu-
ment will ever reconcile those who hold op|i<i-
site views as to the continuity of traditinn Ircm
the earliest times, the continuity of history Irnni
the time of Eusebius appears fairly cioimni-
Btrable. On the other hand, if it cannot In- liis-
proved by architects that the Dome of the lioik
is of the age of Constantine, what way out of
the difficulty remains but one, thnt pointed
out by Mr. Fergusson, itself bristlins; with
other dilliculties ? A careful and exhaustive
examination of this building on the sjiot liv a
thoroughly competent architectural sihnlnr is
greatly to be desired. That, indeed, seems the
chief thing necessary. The next step, if it shouM
not be the first, is the recovery beyoml sny
doubt of the second wall. These two desiderata
accomplished, and the rock-levels of the citv-
already far advanced— completed, the iiiustion
of the site of the Holy Sepulchre will be nar-
rowed to one or two issues. [W. B.]
SEQUENCE. [Pnc-^\.]
SEQUESTRATION. [Alienation.]
8ERAPHIA, Sept. 3, virgin, martyr under
Hadrian; commemorated at Rome (Mart,
Usuard. ; Vet. Sm., Aden., Notker.). [C. H.]
flERAPIOIf
(Cut. llu^J.).^^ ^ '• ^"""- '•''"•'•)! 'H»'-
(8) Mar. 10, m«rtyr with D^.u^C-Si^r. ,M;,r< >
A'liMi. ; //„r m,, Notknr.). ' '
fiERPKNT
1889
St Icnt.ijH.l,, ,„ Libya, with ThmHlorui. ,. I.ish ,,
ren«.,us , d„a, „„. Ammonium ,. rea, er / ;' '
wi[r^z,!,i;S^::r:fAn.,.h,eo™„.e..;,„,
^(8)^,luly 13, B^artyr ua,.„r Severu, (^Syr.
(10) Aiifr. 27, martyr with Marcllinus Mnn
(11) Sept. 14, preshyter, martyr {Syr. Mart )
Notker.). ' ''• ■'"""•» ''/""•"".,
SERGIU8(1), Jan. 2, martyr (Ca/.i,,.4.
(2 Feb. 2, disciple of St. Paul (Ca^. ^rm«,.).
CWreM',; r*' T^y-' commemorated at
ES.i;:^ij3'Sii;«/{;^BaeeH„ai„
if«.-/.; J/c.„o/. ffU Siriet.?'-''^*'""i-6.^^:f
i" liturgical position frlTK'" *" ^"''^ '"'«"
times. Justin*^ MartvrT ^l ''">' ""•"'=''*
w-rsftip iu the 2nl^ '* ^escnbrng Christian
re.der\of the lectLsThY/'/''^'' ."'r'"^" 'he
mmifh /»,i • ' s exnorts bv woni nf
rcci.r.1,.,1 ♦.. 1,: '• '^t- '.all(7th (Tntnrv)li
"'■'■««i<m of the ..I,.va,i , , f '" V'"'' "" '•"•
^;^^m'" "3;^:^9St;T^^^
*-^o, p. lt.84, and lloMUV, |.. 781. [K K VV ]
.vmboli, n? that L f '"*^"" '" ^''"'"'«"
rflVrenr.,, ..■♦1,1 '° *'"' '"stance have
or serpent with fl,» i.i, P"''^"ig the dragon
No. 1. Serpen. «n,l Labarum (frun. M««lg„,, p. „„
and afterwards on Constantins's (Ari„ehi ii
P^ eeBaronius,adann.325Ure?^U
on fho -'i ■ '■ ''^' ^« ancient dragon form
.f.f
'
wmm
1890
SERPENT
meat from the earliest data (see Westwood's
ralitevyruphia Sacra, on the bonk of Kells and
other ancient MSS.). This is of conrse in great
part a result of the northern fnste fiir plaited
and interlaced ornaniont ; and the forms to which
snake heads are attached are generally mere
ribands. Still Professor Westwood appears in-
clined to connect their continual recurrence with
a symbolism of temptation, of the fall of man,
and his spiritual enemies; perhaps, behind this,
to fainter traditions of ancient Ophidian worship
of the principle of evil or d.'structiou.
The earliest representation of this kind in
Christian Art is the great book-cover of the
V'atican, representing the youthful Christ tread-
ins; on the lion and adder (figured by Gori,
T/us. Dipt. vol. iii. p. 32, tab. iv. ; Westwood,
Fictile Iv'jrifs, pp. 51, 55).
The appended woodcut of St. Michael trampling
on the serpent or dragon, '.n his character alike
of tempter of man and er.emy of God, is certainly
well within our period,,and of some beauty and
importance, as illust'ating a transition (perhaps
by the hands of son e skilled northern workman)
from clHsflic Roman to high Gothic art. Some
of the perpendicularity of the harsher Byzantine
is there, but, on the whole, the older classic
SERPENT
style has not yielded to it. The drapery is too
complicated, and, with the oval cetr(, may
rendnd us of Saxon work; nevertheless the
figure is worthy of the best Gothi;,- of later
times, which it strongly resembles.
The various Ophitu or IJnsilidean-Christian
he'^'^tics made much dsb of the serpent un
amulets, &c. (see Gems, p. 721, Nos. ',\, 4), and
it iippeurs from Augustine (Jb JIacres. cap.
xvii. and xlvi.) that the Manicheans used it as
a direct type of our Lord. See King {Aiitiiue
Gems and liiixiis, vol. ii. p. 20, note), where the
dove, with an olive leaf and perched on a wh«it-
sheaf, represents the church, and is supported hv
a lion and a serpent, evidently with reference tn
Matt. X. 16.
Our Lord's reference to the serpent of t)i»
wilderness as a type of Himself would give the
early church the same natural reason for using
it as a graphic symbol, as for the use of the
Good Shepherd. Nevertheless, it seldom occurs,
although it is the first " image " which occurs tn
TertuUian as permissible in his protest against
all such things in De fdoMatrid, iii. St. Am
brose dwells on it thus (De Spiritu Sancto, lib.
iii. c. 9) : " Imago enira crucis aereus s Tpens est:
qui proprius (De Salomon, cap. xii. et Serm. Iv.
De Cruce Christi) erat typus corporis Christi : ut
quicunque in eum iispiceret, non periret."
No. 3. Serpont (ftnm Martigny, p. 612).
Martigny also gives a woodcut, which we
here repeat (No. 3), from a gilt glass, without
reference, which, as he says, may represent
Moses with his rod, and the brazen serpent, with
a person who represents the Jewish people cim-
teniplati'ig the latter. But from the large size
of the serpent, and the calm attitude of the
spectator, the subject may possibly be the loJ-
serpent as he appeared before Pharaoh, alter
swallowing all the others.
There still exists in the nave of St. Ambrogio
nt Milan a brazen serpent on a granite colni,in,
to which a number of stories are attached. It
appears from Aringhi (Koma Subterranea, vol. ii.
p. 453, bk. iv. 4) that it was given to Amulf,
bishop of Milan, at Constantinople in 1101; he
having gone there as ambassador from Otho III.
(see Ferrari, Afonum. di S. Ambrcxjin, p, 20). It
is not likely to be any remnant of a he.ithen-
templeof Aesculapius on the spot, and i.s probsblv
an Alexandrian talisman of the .'Inl or 4th cen-
tury. (Murray's Himdhook of Northern Itihj, p.
158.) This reminds us of the singular wrenthed
or triple RnrpcRt^piUar still in the hippodr*'
of Constantinople,* snid to be the enine as that
• Its identity wUh the Delphic offering of P»H«n
fpollfl after PUtaea Is now established (Rawllnsooi
Herodotus, vol. iv. p. 391).
partly shfltt
II. in U5;ij
The story i
and the pill
MistxIUnies,
At Milan it
ceived by At
of the wande
lous, till (".ir
bered or red
destroyed by
being paid it
SERVAN
msQus in Si
Adon.).
SEBVATI
confessor (Ma
Notker.).
SERVICE.
SERVILIA
memorated wi
Usuard., Adon.,
SERVILIUl
Zoellus or Joe
Aden., Hieroti.).
SERVIUS, .
rated in Africa (
Notker.).
SERVULUS
with Verolus an
Usuard,, ffleron.,
. (2) Dec. 23, c<
in the church o
•W. Horn.).
SEVEBIANC
)ii» wife Ariuii,, ;
in Mauritania (M,
Uieron., Nutkcr.).
(2) Jan. 05_
Gavala (Mart. ITsi
(3) Sept. 9, ma
"inler Licinius (I
itenot. Graec. Sirle
(4) Oct. 9; con
(Cu/. Armen.),
(5) Nov. 8. [Co
, 8EVERINUS (
lew, brother of V
Naples (Mart. Uau,
lier.).
,(2) P'^b. ti, abl
l-suard.).
I ,„W Nov. 1, mon]
I {^"rt. Bed., Adon.,
SEVERU8 (1)
! "leiMorated with Pei
, '-) Aug. 8, presb
I s:r "' ''"^"^
CHRIST. ANT.-VOL.
SERVANDUS
the snme as that
The story m^v be „n • '.'"™ "^ 'ho city.
-i the p^H,^,"^,": rre'";:;r?,:e'o:'r""*'''
At Mil,., it'waswfnn itv'/tV?' ''',; '''^^>'
ceived bv Arniilf «. .k -T '" ""^^ been re-
of the wanl '; "nd J':"]""', ""^'^ -'P- t
lous till (Wlo SrnlL^oTo ttu '<' "■'^->-
bered or rediscovered that fW T"^^ '''"''^"'-
da,tr„ye,l by He^ekial H« hvhJ "'^ ^l^ ''«^"
oe-ng paid it accordinglv *"' ^"^r,"'"/ '""""^'•''
6 v- LK. ht, J. T.]
SEEVANDUS, Oet "q „.^
j.sj'isj Sfj'- "»!•/' T.i„;!,
SERVICE. [0.ncK, The Dxvi.vK.f ""^
SERVILIAJfUS, Apr 20 m .
memorated with S ilpic'/.s .f' ^"'"^y ! «"ni-
^--d., Adoa, ,,, i:U'er.t"'^[((^f/
Adon., HieronX ^^'"'*- Ijsuard.,
rc H 1
8ERVIU8 Ausr 17 u^ I- • -J
SERVULUS (1), Feb 21- ^°' "■""
with Verolus and otheiNat a, •^'"""^mowted
I'^uard,, ^fero„.,Not£). ^'^'"■""''"n (-'^""i.
inK^ril; rsTTiir'. "A^'"''''^'^'-'"^'!
SEVESIA^US (1) Ja„ no '"^■"■■'
m Mauritania (Jfa,; ''Z") .. '^ ^"'^^''sarea
Uieron., Nutkcr.). ""'^•' ^''''"•. »"<•■<• Jiom.,
(2) Jan <*5 j ; --K
Gavala (^fforru^ua'd'XtfcoO """""*'"' "'
Jf^no/. (?n«.c. Sirlet) ' ^'' ^^^''«<- i
(Ci/.'^'^l.!'): '^""'"'"•"■•''t-1 with Sparechius
^'«)^ov.8. [COROI^ATlQaATCrOR.] fc. H]
8EVERINU8 (1), Jan « v >,
?«or, brother of Victori'";?' ^^"P ""'^ «"«'-
li'!'- "' "'"'« "f St. Maurice (Jf„,,
(^S:,!idr:^:~norated.,Uur
«EVERU8 (1), j„„ „ , ■ '^
, meraorated with Peter «„ir •'?'''««sor; com-
! f>» (i^ari. Usuard \don ^"""' "' ^'«-'"«"
.\otter.). >""u-i Adon., Hienm,. Vet. f3r.,n
JNotker.). ^°"* (^a'-<- Usuard., Adon
^-'""W. ANT—VOU II.
SEXES, SEPARATION OF 1891
(S) Nov. 8. [CORONAT, QCTATUOR.] fC H]
t'-othev S^lS. '"^""'^«'-- "-« other und.,- hi;
slaves; while th'hi^.'l "*" «'"'""'ipation of
t.^e ,Srd co„ , of 'S ■■"";- the r.th'„an„„ of
B-char^andotb^r^'JCslr*!'-'/" '' by
"f^i^*eh"^'a'^j;:;';f»'>fthi,.teou'ca„o„3:
bishop, „ S^..ian y unh wh ", ■\ ^'"""l-hy-site
t'-em .nd at length abiur'ed Hs h '""'" '"""-^
i^ '-e^uted and condemn 1 n J^7\''^''^
The -tare disciplinary illli.t'sl!:':;^"'-
SEXES, SEPARATrnv ^^ ^'^' '^' ^"'""^
I el>urch the' wor^m wt"„?,!^,?^- '"^ ""^ '«'-'y
he men i„ p,„,,, rr:^ f; 'Vhr Th:' '■■"'"
aay.""^ -age was, it is by' .oll,^.::;'^
ch2K;-rjitCi!fy^" 1- '-» *"«
from the usages of Jew "h wLk " ''"'"■tment
wonen were (and are to thu S' "^ ^^''^'^'
from the men. Or Jl ? "^""^ separated .
a feature of Oriental ]ffJ' '? '"^^ ^' ^'""P^Y
which females we all""''."'?"""'' ""der
'Elusion than they are w7h,«'''. " .^'^"*«'-
"»tic„ of the West In Til a ""t"" ^^^ civil-
t"tions it becomes the sublrc^'*"';"'' ^'°"^"-
direction that the women "T "'^ " 'P''«i«l
the sexes entered the Ph,,lt\ "."PI^-'m that
(Apcst. Conm nb')i c en "iy ''"'""'t doors,
to stand at the entrances of tbi "'''"'■''' ^"«
deaconesses at those of ft """' »■"' the
Chrysosiom seems to pe^4 of • /"'• "• •)• St.
tion between the men and th/ "'■'""' P^'^'^-
ought to have beerwithm t T.T"^"- " There-
which parted you ?rcm .Lll ' "^""^ '"''"J «^«»
would not, the fath™ Ik «"?""'"! hut since ye-
, wall you oV even wthth's^h' " "-"-"--y to
I from my elders thl tndentlvTh'^ *'"'' ' ''*"
^ese^wans" (St. ^"rj^^y^-vere „^
thi"hr;ftrted.nher*'^»*''><'p"'''f
«»"<■, upstairs. rC were „T'";'-'^' '" »'""''
^rae kind of a callJrv ?,' '''.'♦"t'* P"'hahly in
P' 706]. It is said bv M- ''"'"•''-''^ r«Ar.LEHiE8,
Narth^x) that rntj^^lZli^-T'T'''''' '■ '■
were placed ii, the nlrthrr . "'■"'"'' '■^"'"en
"ft> grilles and rails • ''''''^'' J^"' '"""•^e'l
The authorities for the »*,i„*
this usage of separating t hi * ""'"t^nance of
centuries of th«?"f.!s*f.""' »««« '" the earlr
Cyni of JerusaTem "!'"■''''■">■ """'"»"«• St.
Noah's Ark, "nwLh^P"'\' ""« -church to
and hi, w.'i a "d ttt T" ^""^ ""'' ^"' «"""
Ark was one, and thtdonr"'*'' "J"^ though the
-««.bee.;rra„;i\tt;^:l-'^,^-^^^^^
120
'rW
'in
1.892
SHAVING
church be shut, and all of you within it, yet let
there be a distinction of men with men and
women with women." {Cittech. Prcfat. Oxf.
trnnsl. p. 7.) There are several canons which
expressly forbid women to enter the sanctuary
of the church. We may cite as a specimen the
44th canon of the council of Laodicea — "that
no woman enter into the apartment where the
altar stands." The rubric of a pontifical of the
church of Poictiers (executed in MS. not later
than the 10th century) directs that the males
be arianged in dcxterain partem, and the females
in sin'stram (Martene, de Eccl. Jiiti'ms, lib. i.
cap. i. art. 12). [H. T. A.]
SHAVING. [Beards; Hairj Orders,
HOLV-,p. 1491 ; TONSURK.]
SHEEP. [Lamb; Shepherd, the Good.]
SHELLS. Both marine and fresh water
shells, either whole or broken, are often found
on the tombs of martyrs and other Christians
(Boldetti, Osserrazhni, p. 512, tig. 65). They
are sometimes found fixed to the outside of the
loculi ; sometimes merely drawn or engraved
upon them (I'l. pp. 351, 43.5); often in the
form of a bucciuum or whelli. Various forms
of this symbol may be observed on a curious
sarcophagus in the Vatican, representing dilferent
kinds of fishing (Bottari, Sculture e Piiture, tav.
xlii.). Gems are found engraved with this device,
and sepulchral lamps, either in the form of
shells, or having shells carved upon them (Bar-
toli, Anti'i. Laccrn. part iii. tig. 23). Ancient
Gallic tiimbs exhibit precisely analogous features.
Snail-sliells were found in the sarcophagus of St.
Eutropius discovered in 1843, and M. Letronne
iEeatcil de Piecfs, &c. p. 81) shews that the use
■ of them in Gaul cannot have been a matter of
chance. Instances of the same symbolism have
. been met with in a Merovingian tomb in the
cemetery of Vicq, and the abbe Cochet, in the
. course of his excavations, met with a good many,
especially in a tomb of the time of Charle-
magne, near Dieppe (^Aorinandie soutcrrainc,
, passim).
The most probable explanation of this custom
is that the shell was used as a type of the
Resurrection. The shell represents the tomb,
which the occupant must leave empty on the
last day. One sarcophagus, at Marseilles, shews
the she'll with the snail still in it (ilillin, Midi
de la France, pi. Iviii. 4).
The significance attached to this symbol in the
Jli.ldle Ages is shewn by a miniature of the 13th
century, given bv Count Aug. de Bastard (Bullet.
A'S Coinii. Hist. ArcMol. &c. 1850, p. 17.1), reiire-
senting a anail coming out of its shell by the side
of a drawing of the resurrection of Lazarus ; and
the same combination may be seen in a MS.
of the 15th century in a collection of ancient
liturgical MS.S. made by order of Louis XIV.
The aptness of th? symbolism is increased by the
fact that the snail is said at the approach of
winter to block up the mouth of his shell with a
calcareous substance, which he bursts through
on the return of spring (Martigny, Dkt. des
Antiq. chret. a. v. ' Coquillages '). [E. C. H.]
SHEPHERD, THE GOOD. The image
conveyed by t.-s, perhaps the earliest and most
important of all Christian symbols, occurs fre-
SHEPHERD, THE GOOD
quently in the Old Testament, and is common
to all countries in which the pastoral life has
ever prevailed. The Homeric epithet, " Shep-
herd of I'eople," conveys much the same idea
as Ps. xxii. Ixxx. though with far less force and
tenderness. (See Ezek. xxxiv. ; Jer. xxxiii,
12, &c.) Our Lord's own use of the similitude
concerning Himself, and His personal relatiim to
all mankind (Luke xv. ; John x.), gave it
precedence of all others, excepting perliaps
that of the vine, which stands on exactly the
same ground. That of Jonah, which relates
rather to the Lord's resurrection than to His
relation to His human family, occurs more fre-
quently in bas-relief, and almost as often in
painting. But as is observed under Frksco, the
Good Shepherd is most freijuently the central
painting of a roof or wall ; and perhaps the
earliest type of the complete decoration of a
Christian vaulting is the vine, with more or
less conventionalised branches an'l clusters sur-
rounding the Form, bearing on His shoulders
the sheep which was lost, (See Vine ; Bottari, ii.
tav. 93.) Before going farther, we may notice
that thare are three types of the Good Shep-
herd : one connected with the analogical image
of Orpheus, and frequently used in half-vaults
and semicircular spaces; another certainly
adopted from the Hermes Criophorus of Caliirais,
at Tauagra, and representing
the Shepherd with His charge
found and rescued. This is
universal ; occurring in fresco
and on sarcophagi, on the
gilt-glass cupf ; on lamps, in
ivory, and more rarely in
mosaic. The third, with staff
and dog, is less frequent.
For reasons which can
hardly be assigned with cer-
tainty, the Good Shepherd
died away in the 5th, perhaps
the 4th century. Constan-
tine, it is true, placed "sym-
bols of the Good Shepherd "
in public places in Constan-
tinople ; but as Lord Lindsay
says (vol. i. ch. on Roman
Art), the Ea.stern church gave
the subject up. And though
it was nni)uestionably an
image of Hellenic origin, tech-
nically speaking, it was never
adopted by the Eastern or
Byzantine side of th- Christian
church.
The paintings in the tomb of St. Domitilla
are almost certainly the earliest Christiiin
frescoes,' and the Good Shepherd was as cer-
tainly chief among them. There is one in the
catacomb of St. Praetextatus [Fresco], and
the Callixtine contains, or did contain, many
very ancient ones. The derivation of the form
bearing the sheep will be found in Ranul
Rochette, Discours sur I'Onjine des Types imitdifs
qui constituent I' Art du C/iristianismc ; also in
Seemann's Giittcr u. Heroen, p, 80, where tho
stiitue by Calamis is figured in a woodcut,
which we here repeat. Sec also Psusariis:,
• F. T projier use of the words " fresco " and " distemper "
see Fkescx).
cap,
nprmefl Ci loplionis.
Frum Stcmairfl GiKfer
lib. .1.
be Compare
of the Vat
of which ,'c(
Mr. Parkei
For the rej
suae ofthe flood SI
also N'o. 2928,
the stuccoes ol
For the threi
century, on a
Parker, No. 291
The chief cxi
of Galla Placid
fastlake's translati
'>'iwe and Cav.ilci
It IS well dcsirihed.
psi'l'in. fhi,, ,„,,,_„
"'■I'lpheus of Ari'i
, ■■"'irnther examjil
;'i fresco, see Arine
I* ["■'•''ahly a pninti
niiefaccdbyutoml
GOOD
and is common
pastoral lifi> has
epithet, " Shep-
h the same idea
ir less force and
?. ; Jer. xxxili.
)f the similitude
•sonal relation to
in X.), gave it
eepting perhaps
s on exactly the
I, which relates
ion than to His
occurs more frp.
lost as often in
niier Frksoo, th»
mtly the central
\nd perhaps the
decoration of a
!, with more or
md clusters sur-
m His shoulders
i''lNE ; Bottari, ii.
r, we may notice
the Gooil Shep-
analogical image
3d in half-vaults
lother certiiinl''
(lorus of Calarais,
Honnffl (^i ifiplionw.
From s^cmftu'B GMter
ttwt lltrvfn.
of St. Domitilla
larliest Christian
herd was as cer-
lere is one in the
IS [Fresco], and
id contain, inanv
ation of the form
found in Rai'ul
dcs Types imitatiis
tianisnw ; also in
p, 80, where thi'
1 in a woodcut,
I also Patisaiiis^i
«o" and "distemper"
SHEPHERD, I'HE GOOD
lib. ix. can. 22. n 7-,o ,i i- l ..
be compared with fh'\ iV''""' '^''is may
SHIP
1803
SW«e of the GoodSLppUeru (,:.,„ <,,^„„^„^^__^^^_^^^^
also No. 2928, and Aringhi, i. n 531 o ^
.he ..tuccoes of the Latin VVa^, ^.Siii S'
*»r the three-fold Shepherd and v ,\e g^i
I^amasJ Th re' is ' i '"r V'" *-""-' "f
(Ariughi, i. 5- wi^h.r':'"^'^ "■''!? ^>-'-'"*
bearing the she , „ , if"^ "' i? ^'^'^^ ""d
I'arke * N„. 205''' i , ? , ' "* P; "^■*- «••'« also
f-m St. .■.„-•;:,;: '"t,,^- -■;" M"-um, fallen
of a third or Koman d;,) r If ^"'^ ''''■"^^^
' leaning on his st'i nn^t t "'^ ""^ Shepherd
doubt of th r inii^*'''' '?" ^' "^""''tla
>«/n;iv. 1). '"S <■''" "Iso Buonarroti,
This subject occurs in t^a o ;■ n
naean hypogee (I'ach , '^^^- ' Scfc t o" " "•>■"■
pl- li- 1). 370). ^^ *- '" '-V'-ciiaiquc,
iJ'Agincourt refers three exqmnl,,. r i .
Fi'-'ted with the shephera " H ™"''"'S''
the 2nd century, giv ,, 'j ' ^^Z ''"^'''' '"
ti'-tt ii. p. 20 UnekVl n {""^"^ v- pl. vi.
P- «9t; i in he the, ■. ''«^■"•- "'"''^^'- 1'"' SCO,
«'H.ep, ' iV^e de iV, "'\^'"'pl"-''-'l ''«>rs the
d^ite! SeeGKMs '7 3-"r ""^""^ f-' any lata
p. 920. ' ^ • ' ^^ • <^'"^S«- P' 732 ; Lamis,
«SrSiS'i:^,:-!-''^'-™ii„te-
where ; as the '(^' , K Tu '\'^ ''S"^'*^'' '^l^""
syrinx(pl. Ixi vol ii 4- ^■''^'!,''"^^'■^' "■•''■ the
shec,. bikh'g u to' Hit; ' Vl^^!"' "■'''' trie two
The picture fnu th s 'me nla'ce T' ^'^ ^^"^''•
tween trees, and a mTn, L ' "''" "''"""•■ ^^•
side, another bearitnU'^ ?" '"-^ «" «"«
iifi
^.I'tlako's translation of Knghr %-nI i • =1. 1.
:™.S";l„SS-1);; il* )'. -"-: ™™??''™' *■«>"«»'' »™e-
P^Ji^ion. lhi« ,„...»;., 1. ._,\ f'"*- ^» " com- j
■s n,hndv a painting of ,reat an i„,tv «; it cZ'"-^ ""• ''''"■^- "'"^ ''"^'"v ad.pt.d ', f^e
''" ^^ " -- -n. cut ri«ht [hron^:!;; i ^^^ ^S ^^-^^M:;- b'S
6 F 2
1894
SHOES
aoostles. The ship in full sail (BoHetti, p. 360),
or with sails furled (t6. 3«ti) are aiil^e uso.l m
the cemeteries, as prosecutins the voyase "
Christian life, or the having happily conolu.le.l
it. (See BoUetti, i-p. Btt", 372-H ; Perret, vol. v
pi. xxxii. xxxvi. 397 of mvivs KKsrvrvs.) The
] KiilTliousi; or pharos is sometimes adried, as a
Bian of the accomplishment of the voyage of the
soul (see Mamachi, Orijin. iii. tav. xvii. ; Perret,
V nl. xli. Ul; and Bol.letti, 3VJ-3). And n
some instances the na<ne (.f the .lead "I'P™" to
be inscribed on the ship, as in the case of the
Eusebia, whose titulus is found in P''s«'""<-' ^
In^crizione antichc, p. l'^5 (tol. Lucca, 17b3).
The latter example is a marble in the Kircherian
Museum, where two large urns or vases are re-
presented in the ship; which may seem rather
to point to a qnasi .'-Igyptian synibo hsvn of the
voyage afte^ death than to the Chris .an vovage
of life. Sometimes (Perret. v. pi. Im. 0) the
monogram takes the place of the pharos on the
sepulchral slab." , ,
For the ship as representing the church ot
Christ, see CnURCH, p. 3H9. For the Cardinal
Borgia's jasper with our Lord ,xa pilot and six
rowers on a side (of course implying six others
on the other side) see woodcut.
^IHCOYj
Bhip of the lord and llpo«"« 'trom Dorglii, D. C«« ««-*»■
The dove, with olive-branch, in token of peace,
sometimes sits on the prow of the ship, o en
with the word3 m Pace. (See the inscription
OKNIAL.S II IN PACK, with ship and dove,
Perret, v. pi. J^xii-) Sometimes (lis Boldetti,
p. 3-3) there is apparent play of woros on
the name of the buried pers««,^as a ship is added
to the epitaph of NAVlRA. I-or a large lamp
in the form of a ship (see Mamachi, On.;. ....
pL XX.) ^^- ^'- •'• ^•-'
SHOES. (1) The Lord's 6?r(iBt?M''. ti\e strap
of S St.^ John Baptis t declares himself
~. The monoRraia is not to be found on this .lab. but
0«urs 911 one In I'arrel'B next ftgfi.
SHOES
unworthy to unloose (.Tohn i. 27), was probably
a sandal ; i-c a leather sole fastened to the font
by straps; and He Himself bade His disciples
"be shod with sandals" (Mark vi. 9), an lu-
iunction with which they no doubt complnd
(Acta xii. 8). It seems from the context that
the intent if the Lord's command was, that the
discipU'S sliould conhne themselves to the
simplest — even coarse>t— necessaries in their
iourneys. And according to Martigny {Dic-
tionmira, p. 7Hri, 2nd ed.) all sculi.tures on
sarcopha'-i, all mosaics and some gilt glasses do
exhibit the Lord and His apostles shod with
sandals; but most of the frescoes in the
catacombs (e.g. Bottari, ScuHure e IHttn-c, liv.
Ivii. Ixxii. cxx.) and gilt glasses (Buonarroti,
YetH, viii. xv. 1, xx. 2, etc.) r-present thorn
with bare feet. A few frescoes g.ve tliein
complete shoes (Bottari, xix. xlvi. Ixxii.). Female
figures in art are generally shod with complete
shoes. See, for instance, in frescoes, the Virgm
in the Adoration of the Magi (Bottari, xxxni..),
the sisters of Lazarus (xlix.), the woman <A
Samaria (xxiii), and some of the Uranti (xxxvi.
Ix ) Many of the Ornnti, whose attire is also in
other respects different from that of every-diiy
life [Paradisk], have bare feet (cxv. cxxiii. etc.);
shoes were probably not thought necessary for
those who tread the paths of bliss.. .,,,,,
Clement of Alexandria {Paedwj. II. xi. ^ U,)
has a curious passage on the shoes of Christians.
He deplores the prevalent fashion of wearing smi-
dais embroidered with golden flowers or studded
with ornomental nails and even with erotic
devices. All such decorations as these he wouM
have the Christian rojec^t, considering that th^
proper use of shoes is simply to protect the feet.
Women may be permitted to use white shoes,
except when thev are on a journey, when they
should use a blacked shoe (jv ahdnr^). On a
iourueythey may also use nailed soles. Ihey
should at all events use shoes of some kind, out
of consideratisn for modesty. For men however,
unless it be on the march, it is better to be
unshod ; or, if they cauuot bear naked lect, to
wear light slippers, such as gymnasts use
(^Kairais <( ipaiKaalots). , . ^,
By the beginniug of the sixth century it w«
found necessary in Gaul to prohibit the clergy
from wearing shoes unbecoming their couditu.n.
Thus the council of Agde (C. Agathensi; c. 20)
A D 5011, forbids clerks to wear, or to have
cloth.es or shoes not suitable to their otlice ; and
a council at MScon (C. Matisc. i. c. 5) A.n. oHI,
also forbids the clergy to wear c bthes or shoes
after the fashion of the world (calceanieiita
saecularia). Probably these canons were iiiteiiJed
to prevent clerks from wearing shoes ol an
extravagant fashion, iuih as the peaked shoes ot
the middle ages. ,. ^ . '•■',•
(2) Monastc Shoes.— \n the earliest days n
monasticism monks went barefoot, m strict ac-
cordance with the austerity of the_ir profession;
like the Stoic philosophers and Hebrew pvophetJ
iu whose steps they trod (Cassian, WMt. sx.v.
ID • Gregor. Nnzian. Oratio viii. de Jo^'':. '■;""";.
l"^ !n3»ttuc"« occur coutiuuallv of this kimi H
ascetic seU-inortilication in the lives of mo,...
and
CO 8eiI-iI10illlMai..u.. - -
hermits' (Discalceatio ; nudis pedibjs
• Ro»weyd, Vitat Patnm, p»aslni.
SHOES
inccdere; nuilijieilaliii p.vorcero, etc) It is
reliitfd of Silvaims, bishop (.ll'hili|,poi„',li9, very
enrJy in the fifth .■eutury, that during his resi-
dence at Constantiniiple lie wallieU about the
crowded thoroughfares of the capital of the
Roman enijiire in sandals of twisted hav
(Socrates, //. E. vii. 37).
Some heretics strove to enforce on nil Chris-
tians the obligation of going barefoot; these were
condemned; but the jiractice was commended
for those who were exceptionally devout, par-
ticularly monks and jienitents (Augustin. do
Buereti. 68 ; Hieron. Ay xxii. 28 ; Tlieodcret, Ifist.
Rdiij.i; Gregor. Turon. rfc 17/. I\iti: 15). Thus
Augustine in-aises his friend Alyijius for travel-
ling barefoot through Italv in winter (August
Confess, ix. 6). Instances of this kind nii>'ht be-
citeii almost endlessly during the middle" ages.
"Barefooted " was an ejiithet commcinly applied
to the mediaeval friars, even when they had
ceased to merit it literally.
The great monastic legi'slator of Monte Casino,
with his accustomed sagacity and tolerance, left
the 'I 'stion as to the proper covering of the
feet to be settled for his monks by theabbat's
discretion in each particular monastery, accord-
ing to the reciuirenients of climate and locality.
As a rule Benedict prescribed " pediiles et
caligas"as sufficient in ordinary circumstances,
wisely prohibiting all controversies about size,
material, colour, shape; only recommending
whatever in each instance might be cheaiiest
and least eccentric in tho.se i)arts. In the list of
articles of necessity for a monk are mentioned
these "pedules et caligae" (Bened. Rai. c
55).
ks, to the e.\act meaning of these terms there
is much uncertainty. Martene, in his com-
mentary on the Kule of Benedict, enumerates
almost endless varieties of interpretation, not
easily to be reconciled with one another, and
Jlenard sjieaks of the words as obscure.
Smaragdus, according to the former, take«
" pedules " as shoes, " caligae " as socks ;
Hildemarus takes the words severally as slippers
and sandals; Bernardus Casinensis as shoes
whether of wool or leather, and buskins or
gaiters respectively made of leather and wool •
Boherius Nicolaus de I'ractutA as shoes and
boots; Haeften as woollen socks and slippers-
other commentators as slipjiers and half-'
b«its, or as socks and stockings (Bciicd. Rcit
CminwU. ill c. 55). In sucli a conflict of
opinious ou a point so remote from the e-cperi-
enee of nioderu times it it hopeless to attempt
to decide.
Nor do other monastic rules solve the difficulty
f'assian allows " caligae " at midsummer only
and midwinter as a protection against excessive
neat or cold (Cass. Institut. I. cc. 8, 10). Isidore
ot Seville allows " pedulea " in winter, or durii-..-
a journey; at other times "oaligpc" only
(Isid. Ifcg. c. 14). So Frnctuosus of Braga
(hiictuos. lieg. c. 4). The anonvmon.s Rule of
"JIagister" orders the " calig.ie" to be tipped
wth iron and studded with nails, " ferratae ac
clavatae " {lieu. Mag. c. 81). A similar expres-
si-a occurs in the writings of Uregory the
Great (Gregor. M. Dialog, i. c. 4. Alteserra
in hi» Asceficon deKnes "caliga" as equiva-
l"it to sandal, " caloeus " to shoe or boot
'.iltes, Ascct. V. c. 18). I'robablv the meaning
SIGN OP THE CROSS 1895
of all these terms varied in different tiroes and
jdaces.
As usual, the rule and pr.ictice of the female
devotees correspond with those of the monk*.
ttfyiitian nuns, for instance, are spoken of by
sidore of I'eusium, as "sandalled recluses"
(Isidor. J-.pp. I. 87).
(Alteseria(A.U.), Ascct/ron, v. 18; Ilalae, 1782.
Ash-se, II. 2, I-rankfurt a. Jl. 1863.) [I. G. S.]
SHROUD. [OiiSEQDiM, § V. p. 1428.]
8IAGRIUS (SvAGR.,-,s), Aug. 27, bishop and
confessor; commemorated at Autun nf.rt
Usuard., Adon.). r^] j^ .,
wSmT^'^^'^^'^^ ^*^ ™^- '^^'""^^ '
SIDA COUNCIL OF (S.dknse (^nciuum).
A.D 483, al. 3!tl, against the Massalians or
Ivuchites, attended by twentv-Hve bishops, with
Amphilochius of Iconium at their he.id. A letter
was addressed by them to Klavian, bishop of
Antioch inf.irming him what they had done.
(Mansi, 111. 651.) rj,; g jy-i
SIDON, COUNCIL OF (Sidonensk Con-
CILIUM) AD. 511, attended by eighty Wono-
physite bishops, who met to condemn the council
of Lha cedoa, and Klavian, the second of that
name, bishop of Antioch, and Klias, bishop of
Jerusalem, for upholding it. (Alansi, viii. 371-
'*^*-> [E. S. Ff.]
SIDRONIUS, July 11, martyr; commemo-
rated lu the territory of Sens ( J/u>t. Usuajd )
[C. H.']
SIGISMUND, May 1, king, martyr; com-
memorated at Sednnum (Sitten, Sion") (Mart
Lsuard., Adon., Notkcr., Wand.). He has a
ma.s8 in the Ancient Gallican Sacramentary.
[C. H.]
SIGN OP THE CROSS. The use of the sign
of the cross is of great antiquity, and was very
frequent in the earlier centuries of the Christian
Church. It was connected with such passages
of Scripture as Ezek. ix. 4, Rev. vii. 3, ix 4
XIV. 1 or more fancifully with such passages as
I a. cxiiv. 1. It was by Moses' hands being held
up m the form of a cross that Joshua was
believed to have conquered Amaiek (Kx. vii,
9-14), and the cross was identified with the sign
of the Sou of Man foretold to appear hereafter
m the heavens (St. Matt. xxiv. 30). (Chrysost
and Jerome, in Iwo; Cyril, Cat. Led. xiii. 41,
XV. 22 ; Cyprian, ad Quirin, sects. 21, 22 •
Lphrcm Syrus, de Panoplia.)
11. The origiuai mode of making the sign of
the cross was with the thumb of the right hand
generally on the forehead only, or on other
objects, onco or thrice (Chrysost. Horn, ad pop.
Antivch. xl. ; " Thrice he made the sign of the
cross on the chalice with his finger " fSnnhion
:.' ,iC:' "■"•", , •■•■ •■"!';" oi l>t;!!:itr..s (iiD.
VII. cap. 27); and Kpipliauius of Josephus (Haer
XXX.). Justin M. J'ar. gifwcst. 118. " The sign
of the cross is on our brow and on our heart.
It 18 on our brow that we may always confess
Christ, on our lieart that we may always love
1896 SIGN OF THE CROSS
him, on our arm thut we may al'vays work for .
him " (Ambrose, Lilj. de Jmuia vt Aniina, viii.)-
•' lie iu)t ashamed of the eriMS of Christ. For
this reason hast thou received it on thy forehoad,
8S it were ou the seat of smime " (.Aug. ill /ru,</.
titrm. '2.1 i see Senn. 2 in I'arascece ; Cuiih in I'ss. ■.
3i), Ul ; Cypr. ik (Jnit. ICccles. cap. IG). The act
of crossiug was generally perlormod in the uame ^
of the Trinity, expressed or implied. " The faith l
is sealed in the nam-! of the Father, Son, and Holy ,
Gho,t " O'e''""- '^ ^"P- "^^l'- ^)' "" '" ""^ """u-
of Christ. " Being a Christian she crossed herselt
iu the uame of <;hrist " (tpiphan. Hcutr. 30, cap.
7) or with some formula of renunciation of evil.
" i renounce thee, O Satan, and thy pomp and
thv service, and 1 enrol myself as thine, Christ.
As thou sayest tliis, make the sigu of thn cross
upon Ihv forehead " (Ciirysost. Or. 21, ad Pop.
Antiuch). It is impossible to fix the exact date
ftt which this primitive method of making the
sign of the cross became obsolete. In the Oth
ceuturv a second and more elal)orate method had
aireuily supplanted it. The hand ws<i raised to
the forehead, then drawn down to the heart,
th»n to the left shoulder and then to the right,
hut in the Eastern Cliurch first to tlii right and
then to the left shoulder. Sometimes the thumb
wao laid cross-wise over the inde-x finger and
kissed (Gretser, dc Cntei; bk. iv. c. 2). A third
method, usual in bene.lictious and consecrations,
was to make the sign of the crosii iu tlie air over
persons or objects. A fourth methou was to
raise the hand to the forehead iu the name of
God, as the head of all, then to lower it to the
mouth in the name of the Sou, who is the Word
of the Father, then to the heart in the ^ame of
the Spirit, who is the bond of love. In all these
cajes some or all of the fingers might be em-
ployed with varying symbolical significations.
Five fingers would represent the five wounds ot
Clirist ; three fingers the Blessed Trinity ; one
finger the uuity of the Godhead. Thus pope Leo
IV. ordered, -'Sigu the chalice and the oblation
with the right cross; that is to say, uot in a
circle ami with various fingers, os many do,
but with two fingers extended, and the thumb
bpnt up underneath, by which the Trinity is
signified. Studv to make that sign of the cross
rightly, for otiierwise ye are unable to bless
anything" {Supplem. Mansi Cuncil. torn. i. p.
911). The plirases, " I'ortare crucem in fronte,
iKTViroO^ iv rv fifrdiwtf, have led sor.ie persons
erroneously to su\ipo3e that the cross was in-
delibly iinpresse(! on that part of the body ; and
a custom does seem actually to have existed
at one time in the East of branding Chris tiau
children on the forehead in order that they
miglit be recognised again if carried into cap-
tivity by Mahomedana (Kenaudot, Pcrpet. de la
Foi, torn. V. 1, 2, c. 4, p. 100).
in. The following passages will prove liow
widespread the use of the sigu of the cross became
from A.D. 150 onwards. They form merely a
handful, 6ele':ted from out of the multitude of
allusions to it which occur in the pages of tho
chief Christian writers of the first five cen-
turies. .
" In all our travels and movements, in all ^ur
coming in and g.dng out, in putting ou our shoes,
at the bath, at the table, iu lighting our candles,
in lying down, in sitting down, whatever em-
ployment cccupieth us, wo mark our foreheads
SIGN OF THE CROSS
with the sign of the crotts " (Tertullian, * Cor.
Mil. c. iii.). " We see the sign of tlie croBu
naturally in a ship borne along with be!lyii,g
siiils ; we see it when the ship glides forward
with outstretched oars, and when the yuv.l ia
hoistr' ; we see it wlien a pure-hearted iiiim
worships God with extended hands" (Mii.u-
cius Felix, edit. 1072, p. 287, compMre Justin. M.
_ . . It .. r.i' . l......m.. /.'. >iit
Aj)ul. 2 : Ambrose. i.Sct/». uii ; Jerome, I'p. 211,
&c.). "And when ye do this, we shall hiy cur
hauite upon your heads, and make the sii;ii ..f
the cross upon vour foreheads " (Julius Atri-
canus. Hist. lib. vi.). " We ought, therefor.', ui,
risiug to give thanks to Christ, and to ptfinrui
all our daily work with the sign of the crKis
(Ambrose. Senn. 4;i). " Whatever tliou d.*st,
wherever thou goest, lot thy hr;ud make tliu
sign of the cross " (.lerome, ad Etutuch. Kii. 'JJ),
"Let the word of God and the sigu of ihrM
be Iu thy heart, in thy mouth, on thy fonh' :. I,
when thou sittest at meals, when tho'i g.u'si m
the baths, when thoU retirost to *.iiy bed, iu
going out and in coming in, iu time of joy ai.d
in time of sorrow " (Gaudentius Brixiamis, tract.
i. do Led. JCvani/.; see Sligne, I'atr. Cursus,
tom. XX. p. «'J0). Compare rruileUtius, Cult.
Hymn. vi. 129, sc'j. ; adv. tiijmm. ii. 712. '■ K„r
this reason the Lord himself has fixed his ci.sa
on the foreheads of tlmse who believe oi. him,
which is as it were the seat of shanv;, whure
proud aud impious madmen mocked him iiioidf
that the faitiiful may uot blush at his nnnu', and
n.ay rather seek the glory of God tliau ofmeu"
(Augustinus, Hum. liii. in Ei:uiu/. -S'., Jam. suet.
l;i ; Hum. viii. sect. 2 ; Hum. xi. sect. H, cf j«is.s-i,i).
" A third commeutator, one of those vsh.i bdievo
in Chriiit, said that the rudimentary eleiiuMita
presented in the letter Tnu a resemblance to tin.
figure of the cress, aud that therein was contaiueil
a p-ophecv of the sign which is made by Christiiuis
up.m their foreheads ; for all the faithAi! make
the sigu iu commencing any undertaking, iiii4
especially at the commencement of prayer or ul"
reading Holy Scripture" (Origen, Sm-I. ;ii
Ezdch. cap. «)• " ^^^ "** ""*■ ^'"^" *"* ashamtil
to confess the Cvucilied. Be the cross our
seal made with boldness by our fingers on ,.ur
brow, and ou everything; over the bread we
eat, and the cups we drink ; in our comings in
and goings out ; before our sleep, when >ye ]k
down,' aud when we awake, when we are in tl,e
way, and when we are still (St. Cyril oi Jcr.
Catoch. Led. xiii. 30).
"That sign of the cross which formerly a'l
persons shuddered at, is now so emulously s(iui;iii
by every one, that it is to be found everywhiTo,
among rulers andsubjects,amongmen and wtnun,
among married aud unmarried, among bun,! mA
free. All are continually making it upon the
noblest portion of the human frame, -.M laily
l"ar it about engraved on their foreheads , is iii
a pillar. Behold it at the holy table; at the
ordination of priests; refulgent along with tne
body of Christ at the mystic meal. Evcrywm>rc
one may see it celebrated, in lo.us-.s, in market-
places in deserts, in high-roads, ou moMotiu.is,
in groves, on- hills, ou the aea, in ship, m
islau^is, in couches, iu dresFf!', m arms, in
porches, in convivial jsseniblies, oil fr»ld aiM
silver vessels, in jiearls. iu mural pamtin^s, ™
the i>odies of the sutiering brute creation, ou the
bodies of persons possessed by de>.!s. m war, in
SIGN
peace, by day, b;
ccmipanies of asi'
each other in set
unspeakable grac
et lidltiles ijuou C
571 ; Hum. Iv. in
Antiuvli ; Hum. x
comjdains of its
habi'ual mechaui
26, and in 1 Cur. :
IV. The above i
of tile cross acco
sacred or profane,
in the morning u
It may, however,
objects for which
ful, and some pi
bviievcd to be coi
were secured by il
(u) It was empi
Church to denote t
to distinguish ther
heathen. " We re(
if they are the i
bi. iring the sign
5:), <le Vvrbii Z>ei)
this, aud urged thi
times as a ground
altogether (Hooker
(6) To put th
believed to be very
the assaults and t
spiritf. " Then so
who knew the T.ori
priest, made the iir
their foreheads ; i
demons were put t
thrown into conft
Mart, Persec. edit.
these words makct'
forehead ; for ti'us i
but also rot even t
in any way io hur
everywhere protect
ad Ilium. Catech. ii
ifctth. ; Adv. JiidfM
Iciii, Cut. Led. iv.
Lib. lie S'/mh. f'ap. i
wishes t- obtain a f
before come, and al
or in the case of th(
of the m'irvels of m;
the c;oss i.liich is ri
naming tiie nam.' -'I
the di.mous are put
cracl's oaoiu, .-"d al
b;-i.ught to nought
Lei, cap. -i-S).
(c) Fo- rominding
and o'.ners under
their fiiith. " The
cross, that the mind
de Res. Cnmis, c. 8
martyrs thus : " Lei
the mark of God i
{Epp. 50 et 58, c. (
who liad not lapsei' i
;--iii'--.i \vith th,: sig
th*- crown of Satan,
crown of t'le Lord "
121).
((/) As a re-.aedy a|
s, lu war, in
SIGN OP THE CROSS
peace, My day, by night, in revellers' (iiinces, in
companien of ascotica. Thus do nil vie with
each othpr in seeltiiig this nmrvellona gift, tliis
uuajieakable graie." (Chrysi.st. centra Jmheut
et lu Allies qwjii CMstiis sit I) nis, edit. 1718, p.
571 ; ffom. Iv. in S. Matth. ; Hum. xxi. ad J'up.
Aniivv/i ; Horn. x. in Acta iv. 1-2'., where he
complains of its having dropped intn a merejv
habinial mechauical action; Hum. in 2 Tm ii
26, and in 1 Cur. iv. (i, &c.)
IV. The above quotations prove that the sign
of the cross accompanied almost every action
sacred or profane, in a Christian life, from riaing
iu the morning until retiring to rest at night.
It may, however, be convenient to specify some
objects for which it was deemed especially use-
ful, and some particular virtues wliich were
btiiieved to be contained in it, or results which
were secured by its u.se.
(a) It was employed by members of the early
Church to denote that they were Christians ; and
to distiuyuish themselves from the surrounding j
heathen. " We recognise the members of Christ,
if they are the members of Christ, by their
btiring the sign of Christ " (Augustine', Scnn.
53, (le Vvrln Da). The Puritans understood
this, aud urged the altered circumstances of the
times as a ground for abandoning the custom
altogether (Hooker, Kccles. Pol. l.w. 6).
(b) To put the devil to flight. It was
believed to be very eiHcacious towards repelling
the assaults and neutralisiig the power of evil
spirits. " Then some of the assistant miidsters,
who knew the T.ord, standing by the sacrKicing
priest, made the imm^^rtal sign of the cross upon
their foreheads; and when it was made, the
demons were put to flight, and the sacred rites
thrown into confusion" (Lactantius, lib. de
Mart. Persec. edit. 1692, p. 871. " Along with
these words makcthe sign of the cross upon thy
forehead ; for ti'us not only no human adversary,
but also rot even the devil himself, will be able
ic any way io hurt thee, seeing thee ajipearing
everywhere protected by these arms" fChrvsost.
ad Ilium. Cntech. ii. ad finem ; Hum. "iv. 'in S.
Mctth.; Adv.JwiM'.os,nu. 8; Cyril of Jeriisa-
Iciii, Cat. Led. iv. 13, sUi. a, 36; Augustin.
Ltb. ,1c S:/mh. rap. i. et pa;sim). " Let him who
wishes t ■ obtain a pioof of what has been said
before come, and at the apjiearance of demons,
or in the case of the deoeitl'ulness of oracles and
of the marvels of magic, let him use the sign of
the C-.-088 i.liich is ridiculed aaiong them, merely
namlug tlie nam.' t Christ, and he will see how
the d. mous are put to (light by it, and how the
craclra fs:.,c, ,-"d all magic and witchcraft are
biiught to nought" (Mhm. de Incarn. Verbi
Dei, cap. ■t'i),
(c) Fo- romindingandcnco.;raging themselves
and o'ners under difficulties and trials to
their fiiith. " The flesh is signed with the
crass, that the mind iqay be fortified " (Tertull
* Hes. Carnis, c. 8.) St. Cyprian encouraged
martyrs thus : ^" Let thy brow be fortified, that
the mark of God may be preserved intact"
(Epp ,56 et ,^.8, c. 6). and congratulated those
who )iad not lapsed iu these words ; " The brow j
p:ii!-d with th.: sign of God .ouid uot endure •
th- crown of Satan, but reserved itself for the
crown of fe Lord " {De Lapi. ch. 2, torn. i. '
((/) As a rc-.uedy against temptation to special |
SIGN OP THE CROSS 1807
sins ; as anger (Chrysost. in S. Mutt, xjvii. 44 •
Fin '(■ ^'"" ^''~^''^' '"' ''"-(^■"brose, Hji/.urt. ak
(c) As a charm against disease or mishap, St
Chrysostom enumerates this among its chief
virtues. "This sign, both in the days of our
forefathers and now, hath opene.l doors that
were shut up, hath neutralised poisonous drugs,
hath taken away the power of hemlock, hath
healed bites of venomous beasts." (Hum liv
m S. Matt. xvi. 2:i ; Ihm viii. m Cul iii.",
Aug. in Ps. xcm. ; Sophron. in Pnil. Spirit, c. 56 )
Many ,,f the fabulous stories contained in the
I'ages of later historians and martvrologists are
connected with this supposed efficacy of the sign
of the cross. (Sulp. Severus, de Vita Mart^i,
cap. ill, u. xxiv. et al.). '
(/) For purifying places, churches, vessels,
cups food, drink, and other objects which were
considered unclean, or had been abused to
Idolatrous purposes. « Is not then swine's flesh
unclean? By no means, when it is received
with thanksgiving, when it is marked with the
sign o: the cross ; no more is anv other thine
uuc.ean.' (Chrysost. Hum. xii. in 1 Tun. iv. ; for
ubulous stories of later writers vide Uede
torn .11. ,„ F.to S. Vedasti; Fortunatus, m Vita
S. Germani, c. 34.)
V. It remains to give some account of the
ceremomal use of the sign of the cross in the
liturgy and sacramental offices of the i.riinitive
Church. As most of the ritual writers and
most missals and manuals, at all events in their
present form, are of a later date than the 9th
I century, this account must be necessarily of a
somewhat fragmentary character, A minute
and systematic account or a comparative table
of its usi in the Eastern and Western office-
books could only be drawn from materials of
mediaeval and modern times.
The Sacramentary of Leo contains no rubrical
directions at all. The few rubrics enjoining the
sign of the cross in the Gelasian and Gregorian
bacramentaries, in the earliest ordines Komani,
and in the fragments of certain Eastern and
VVestern pontificals and rituals not later than
the 9th century will be noted under diflerent
headings Of early ritualists, Amalarius ex-
plains the meaning of crossing with oil and
balsam ,n baptism (lib. i. c. 27), and its frequent
ritual use in H.dy Communion, at the gospel,
at the consecration of the chalice by to'uchiue
It crcsswise with a particle of the consecrated
host, aod who suggests greater simplicity in
Us use: "It seems to me that if the sign of
the cross was made once over the bread and
wine It would be enough, because the Lord was
crucihed once " (lib. iii. 18, 24, 31).
There are many passages scattered up and
down the pages of the Christian apologists and
the early fathers which bear out what the above
facts seem to imply, that the use of fh.. .ign of
the cross became, at a very early date. * marked
feature of Christian worship, both m their
general devotions, and more especiallv in the
adminisf ration of the sacraments. The "joined or
crossed hands in nnv nrover -.■rtir.-ssrii-—^ *}»
cross— "Crucissignum ert cum homo L«4ecti8
manibus Deum pura mente veneratur - (IViiauciua
Felix, edit. 1672, p. 288), 'Eiri cix<i. aruvpi,
K.T.\. (Chrysost. Demmst. quod Chriat^m sit
Deus, cap. 8). In speaking of the sacrament*.
s' i
,kU
ill
1898 SIGN OF THE CU J88
laneuaee was sometime, employed which w.mM
>«>>,,, fi assort their iuvalidity, or at least their
irrennlarity, if the »i%a of the cross was n.,t a
constituent portion of their ceremouial. W lio-
ever mav he the ministers of the sacrainents, ol
what sort soever may be the han.ls which either
immerse the candiJatos (audientes) lor haptisin,
„r am.int them ; by whatever lips the sacred
words are uttered, it is the authoritative use ol
the sign of the cross which works the e ect m
all the sacrament!- " (Cyprian, de Pass. CAmfi).
St. AuRustine said that " Unless the sign ot the
cross is made either on the ''"'•f'""'''%"V J'''
faithful, or on the water itsef wherewith they
are regenerated, or on the oil with which they
are anointed with chrism, or on the sacril.ce
with which they are nourished, none of the^
things is dulv performed " illom. cxvui. m 6.
Joan. xix. 24). St. Chrysost..m used these
words : " As a crown so let us bear about the
cross of Christ. Kor by it M things are
wrought that are done among us. U one is to
be regenerated, the cross is there, or to be
nourished with that mystical food, or to be
ordained, or to do anything else, everywhere
that avn.bol of victory is present with us
(//«m."liv. [al. Iv.] m S.Matt. vii. ; Op. tom. vu.
^" In these and other passages we find that the
Bign of the cross was part of the ceremonial
attending certain religious services, and was
especially employed on the following occasions :-
(a) At the reception of a Catechumen.— bt.
Augustine, in an address to catechumens, told
them, " Ye are not yet regenerate by holy bap-
tism, but ve have been conceived in the womb ol
holy mother Church by the sign of the cross.
(Lii. <le Symb. ad Catech. ; Horn. 1. m S. Joan.
Beet. 12 ; Ho,n. m 1 S. Joan. v;. 2 ■ dePeccato,:
Her c. 26, et passim). In the old Ambrosian
rite the sign was ordered to be maile once on the
catechumen's forehead ; in an old Gallican rite
twice on the foiehead and breast; in an old
Gothic missal four times, on the eyes, ears, nose,
and heart; in a Galilean sacramentary (7th
ceuturv), once on the lace.
The" above and the following details are
vuUed from the Gelasian and Gregorian Sacra-
wentaries, and the fragments of early Western
missals or rituals preserved in Mabi!'"" »
Musa,'Hm ftalicwn, and Martene,.^ Antu). Ecdes.
J}it. Their statements, or conjectures, as to the
dates of documents have been accepted.
(/,) At lUptivn.— In the pieliminai^r conse-
cration of the water:-" Baptism, that is to say
the water of salvation, is not the water ot sal-
vation, unless having been consecrated by the
name of Christ, who shed His blood tor us, it
is marked with the sign of the cross (Aug.
Jfmn. xxvii. ; />'■• 6, c. Julian, cap. 8 ; Cypr.
£«. Iviii. sect. U'); in the exorcism and impo-
sition of hands (Aug. Con/, i. cap. 11)! «';*';«
unction (Conxtit. Apost. lib. m. cap. 17 ; Tertul.
de Kesur. cap. 8 ; Ambros. de m qui imtuxutur,
c. 4, et passim). . . ,
(c) At Coii^rmation. — This rite, m early
timps. immediately following baptism, consisted
of the imposition of hands aud tiic i..«kmg tnc
sign of t.io cross on the candidate s forehead with
chrism aud in the name of the Trinity. Bap-
tized i^rsous receive the gifts of grace by
the sign of the wime cross, aud by imposition
8ILVANU8
nf hands." (Aug. Serm. 19, do .Wij;
Gelas. Sncrain.; York I'outitical of Kgb^rt ;
Cahors, Beauvaii, Poictiers rituals ot 9th cin-
((/) Jn extreme unction.— The short olliee f.,r
this rite in the Gregorian Sacramentary contains
no rubric enjoining the sign of the cross It
does not appear in connexion with unction ol the
sick till early in the 9th century, when a
Troyes pcmtilical directs the sick man's liri',i»t
to be anointed thrice with cinders, while a Tours
poutiHoal of about the same date presents thin
elaborate rubric (Marteue, lib. i. Ordo, ni.
cap. v.i. art. iv). [Unction.]
,'(,•) In JMi/ Communion.— This rite is generally
mentioned in passages previously >iu<.ted as one
in the ceremonial of which the sign of the crc.ss
formed a i)art. The cross was symbolised by tlie
elevated hands of the consecrating priest, whu,
"representing the mystery of the cross by the
elevation of his hands, prays conlidently ou
behalf of his own and the people s ignorance.
(Cyprian, de Coem Dom. ; Aug. &rm. cLxxxi. *
temp. ; Ordo Horn. i. 8, 11, &c., ii. 2, 5 ; (.reLToriau
Sacramentary ; Slozarabic and Spanish uturpe.
of 9th cent. Martene, i. 382 ; MabiUon, Lit. ball.
p 449.)
(/) /« Ordinatiim, whether of bishops, priosts,
deacons, subdeacons, readers, or other nimor
church ollicers (.vide supra); but the earliest
extant Western ordinals explicitly ordering the
sign of the cross seem hardly to fall withm the
limits of this dictionary. There are directi.™
for its frequent and elaborate use in the M
Syro-Jacohite and Coptic ordinals printed m
Martene, vol. ii. [Okdination.]
(,/) In the Consecration of Churches and Altan.
_» With the mark of the same cross churches
are dedicated, altars are consecrated" (.\ug.
Horn. Ixxv. de Divers.); of fonts of piiteus
(Gelas. and Oregor. Sacram.) ; in blessing aud
lighting the Easter candle on haster eve (lI>);
and, therefore, probably in other minor acts of
dedication or consecration which have esciipea
specific mention. (For further det lis m a,h.-
tion to authorities previously quoted, consult
Lipsius, de Cruce, and Biuterim s Denlm-urJui.
keitcn, vol. iv. pt. 1.) [Coksecbation.] ^ ^^^
8IGNA. [Belub.]
SILANU8, July 10 (Bed. Mart.). [Silva-
NUS (5).]
SILA8, apostle; commemorated July 13
(Wart. Usuard., Adon., in Macedimia); July .1",
with Silvanus, Crescens, Ei-aenetus, Aiulronicui
(f,./. Jiyzant., Basil. Menu!.; Menol. Oraec. hir-
let.). L^' "■J
SILVANUS (SYLVANUS) (1), Jan. 29, inar-
tyr under Diocletian (Cal. Byzant.).
(2) Feb. 6, bishop of Kmc^sa, martyr under
Nnmeiian, with Lucas deacon, and Mocius reader
(basil. Mcrwl. ; Mcnol. Graec. Sirlet.).
(3) Mav 4, bishop of Gaza, martyr under
Diocletian (.1/art. Usuard., Adon., Vet. /to»„Not.
ker., Wand. ; Basil. MeiwL).
(4) iJav 24, martyr ; commemorated in Histru
with Servilius and others (Mart. Usuard., Adon.,
Vet. Horn., HieriM-, Notker.).
SILVESTER
SiflL^sl^ ," ^f'::'- "'"»^''- Notker.; Bed,
(6) July 30, apoHtle. [Silas.]
(7) Aug. 23. [Sauinl'9 (4).]
m, t ^' •'''"^"V ''"'"'""■"'"•"ted at Auc/ra
(Mart. (Jsuiird., Ai ciii VW A-,.™ ti- '
Notker.),Aug.31(;A";'„„.):'' ^''"••' ^'''•'•'^•'
(») Sept. 9 (,Syr. J/ar<.); Jr„r<. //,Vron ha,
a martyr under this day iu Sabiuum, with^ ly^
cmth»8 uud others. '
B<SsX.'^sZ5"^''»^''«'-''-y«f
SIMON ZEL0TE8 1890
memoratcd hi Sicily {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet,
Horn., Jlwron., Notker.). [C H.l
(12) Nov. 5, martyr under Diocletian with
Domuinus und other.. (Basil. M.nol.) [C. H.]
^.ret.); Dec 31 (i/ur<. Bed.; Mart. Metr.
Bed ; iJ/un. Usuard., ('«<. Rom., Waud.); praved
for by name .n the I^rtnian Sacrameutary oit ,.
ber; his uutale observed on Dee. ;u in the
Gregorian .Sacramentary, which gives his name
mthe collect; his natale also observed in th
Lib. Antiph. of Gregory.
(2) Nov. 20, bishop, confessor; commemorated
at Chalons-sur-Saone {Mart. Usuard., A.lon )
m the territory of Terouanne {Mart. Usuard.).
re HI
SILVIUS, Apr 21, martyr; commemorated
at Alexandria with Arator, Fortunus and other
{Mart. Usuard., Notker.). fc h!]
SIMEON (SIMEON) (1), Stylites, Jan. ,5;
commemorated at Antioch {Mart. Usuard., Flor.
m\' \f /^"'"•' Notker., Wand.); Sept. 1
(2) Senex, Jan. 5, aged prophet of Jerusalem
t.f^S:^'£^yS.);^ib'
W;^^^,.„,,,Oot/'^'(^^1;S;'
(S) Feb. 18, bishop of Jerusalem, mart-r
^'t y;,"?'"' ;' ^^'"'- '■'"• ^""'- Notker.)
(Uasil. i/cK,/. ; Menol. Oraec). '
™i!^ '^'•'■' n"*' ^'"''"P of Seleucia and Ctesiphon,
fr/ ^T • "r""^--^^"^'- Oraec): Apr 21
g..^Usuard., Adon., ... R^, t'!
ritf ^mE"o4 ^Jt^^"""?". or the Thaumasto-
tilx^ ^^^a»<.); May 23 (Basil.
Etfi, )'"'^ ^^' P"*"»'"'='» of Alexandria {Cat.
"mrh^l ^V. "'""'' r'"> -'"hn at .lerusalem
our fathers, m the time of Justinian, natives
of Uiesa (Basil. .V«,„,.; Cal. Byzant.).
(») July 27, monk (also caUed Simon); com-
SIMEOV SONG OP. [CANnctE.]
8IMILL:k_08, June 16, bishop, confeasori
commemorated at Nante. {Mart. U.uard., Adon.
llicron.). ^^ ,j^ '
SIMON ZELOTES, Ak.st,,e, FF:sT.VAr. or.
I. ■'-«/<-•'»/.— Although this apostle i.- designated
by two npp,;rently distinct surnames in the Nev^
lestanient, /elotes and Cananaeus," these are, a.
is well known, identical in meaning. The latter
merely represents the Hebrew, of which the
ormer ,s the Greek equivalen;, the reference
doubtless being to the sect of the so-called
Zealots. Beyond the (act of his apostleship, the
N.^w lestament tells us nothing of St. Simon;
and, as in the case of so many other apostles
there is next to nothing of trustworthy tradition.
It IS not our province to discuss either of the
nnpiobable theories which i.lentify him either
with Simon the Lord's brother, or Symeon who
Buc.«eded James as bishop of Jeru.Kalein. The
Greek A,,,,endix of Sophronius to the Ul^r de
Ur,s Illmtnms, does indeed i.leutify him with
the latter (Jeron.e, v.d. ii. 968), and gi.eaks of
he crucihxion which he underwent at- the age
1-U years m the reign of Trajan. This, how-
ever, 13 to., utterly unlikely to need farther
notice. A note in one of the Vienna MSS. of
the ApostolK Constitutions states (viii. 27) that
DomUiir "'"■''"'"' '" •''"^'"^'' *° *'"« ''^'g'^'f
tions^L'T'^'"'"^. ^\T' P''''"'P''' "f the tradi-
ons as to Simon's labours, associates him with
l^th^^r 7lf ''"'^"?'"^- '■''''"'• *h^' Prolog""
to the J/ar<. Huironymx makes Simon suHer with
Jude "in Susia civitate magna nj.ud Persidem "
Moses of Uorene (5th century) are given letters
of Abgarus, king of Edessa, to Artasis, king of
the 1 ersians, and Nerses his son, which mention
S mon, one of the chief apostles of Jesus, as
abouring in Persia (ii. 29 18; p. UO, ed. w'his-
ton). Moses subsequently adds, "as regards
&mion, the sphere of whose work was Persia I
thJZV^ "-"■'.""' '"f""™"**"-. •either as to
what he did, or where he was martyred. Some
declare that an apostle named Simon died ne^r
the Iberian Bosporus " (ii. 31, 6, p. 143). On
this last point, however, Moses decdiues to give
any opinion, and evidently views the whole
hmg as quite doubtful. It will be noticed here
thai th.Tc is m the above passage nothing to
shew which of the two Simon! among ^he
ai.ostles IS referred to, and the Whistons {Lt. in
oc.) remark that n,ost commentators suppose
he reference is to Simon Peter. In the 'j™.
sfo/ic History of the Pseudo-Abdias (lib. 6 in
i<^y'rmn^,Code^Pseiu},pig. A'ovi Test. i. 609), 'the
scene of Simon's martyrdom is given as Suanir
in lersia, aud the name of the Persian king a.s
-Xerxes. The Christian poet Venantius Fortu-
natus (Ob. A.D. 609), following the lead of Abdias,
declares {Cam. viii. 6 ; Patrol. Ixxxviii. 270)—
"H!nc Slmouein ct .T»,i«r,-. !.i.„en Pcrsida gcmdium
Laeta relaxuto mittit ad astra sinu."
i •
r-H
•:'Tl
m
B i"
■Ml
* The Komi'iTTis of some aulhoni ' is
change of spelling due to Ibe belief ttiiit !\
derived from Canaan ur Cana,
.I'tleu a
' urd woA
1900
SIMON ?ei,OTE8
Another htory snys thiit he liiliourp'I In Niitli
Africa. Egy|it, (.'yriiiic, oml Mnurit^iniu, but the
eviilmce on which thin rests is ot' no wcii;lit
(Niiiph. Ciill. y/iff. Ea:lef. ii. 40; I'sciKlii-Iluni-
thfiis, in App. til < /inmiron /'.Mr/iii/.-, Ii. IMk. imI.
liinilurf ). Till! latter slates that alter lili.nirinij
in Africa, he inrrieil the news n( th- f;o>pel to
the British Isles. Such also is the story tulJ in
the J/i'iiiii'u.
ii. It'stiml.—Aa in the case of nearly all the
fl|Kwtles, there seems no trace ot' any early onm-
nieinoratiee festival of St. Simon. In the West,
he has been generally associated with St. Juile,
and cunimemorated on October 'JS ; in the Kast
thev are Kininiemorated on diU'erent days.
As regards the festival in the VVest.ru church,
it is not necessary to repeat what we have
already said in the article on St. Jmle, and we
shall a'cconlingly merely refer the readiv 'here.
It may, however, he well again to remark that,
though in sonie Western records St. Siuvpn is
commemorated on other days than October 'J8,
yet in all tliese cases, so far as we are aware, he
is associated with St. Jude.
In the (ireek church, St. Simon is commemo-
rated on May 10. The Mciiaeim identities him
with Nathanael (iiiiuiv 6 Kal NoOafa!(\ ovo/iofii-
^eyoi), although there can belittle doubt that
Nathanael is the ]iersonal name of ISartholomew.
The entry for Way 10 in the Greek metrical
Ephemeruk!', prefixed by I'apebroch to the AcU
Sanctorum for May is (p. xxvii.) rp StKiiTj)
l.ilJ.aiva tTTavpaxrav 'Air6(no\ov fx^f'"'
In the calendars of the Kthiop'.
drian churches [lublished by Lu ■ :. :■
mention of St. Simon, but, fro.,'. > ■<
July 10 " Nathanael the (Jari«(t;.ntv " i
Acth. Coin.li. p. 4-21), we ii.,..v .•i..:i!,n<? t
churches, like the preceding, id^otlfy Sunou and
Kathanael.
In the Armenian church St. Simiru .8 perhaps
commemorated on .September 28, on which day
we find in the first of the two Armenian
calendars given by Assemaui (WW. Or. iii. 1.
645 sqq.) "Simeon, Apostle;" though in the
second the entry runs, " Simeon, the kinsman
of Christ."
The name of Simon has not apparently been
made much use of by the authors of apocryphal
writings. We are not aware of the existence of
any except the Acta Simonis et Judac given by
the I'seudo-Abdias (sujmx). The Apostolic Con-
stitutions, however (viii. 27, 28), assign to this
apostle the regulations as to the consecration of
bishops, benedictions, &c.
For an elaborate account of the legends in
connexion with St. Simon and his cultus, refer-
ence may be made to Van Hecke in Acta Sunc-
torwn (Oct. vol. xii. pp. 421 sqti.). [U. S.]
SIMONY. Bingham (Antiq. XVI. vi. 28)
distinguishes between three degrees of simony i
(i) buying and selling spiritual gifts; (ii)
buying and selling spiritual preferments; (iii)
usurpation of ecclesiastical functions without
election or ordination. Against tratHcking in
spirituiil gifts the laws of the early church were
very severe. Thus the apostolical canons (c. 28)
appointed that if bishop, priest, or deacon ob-
tained his sacred character by means of money,
both the ordained and the ordainer were to
be subject to total excision from the church,
Alexan-
e is no
I .try on
.'1 Hist.
'I'.t these
BIMONY
navriraffturflt Koivaviaf /KKoxr/irffw.the severent
sentence which it was intlie powrr of the cliuii '■
to inHict. The >econd canon of ChaUedon I . •
wise excnmmuniiated those who obtained ./
a iirice the priceless grace cif holy orders.
Similarly the second council of lUnga, A.l>. .'i7'.',
c. ;i. reiapitnlating the decision of the KaUurs
against bribe, primounces " Anathema daiiti el
a. cipienti." And in fact denuiicim ions against
simony are fre-jucint tliroughoui the wholi! ot'oiir '
jieriod after the 4th century ; s. •■ 2 Coni'. Anrel
CO. 3, 4, 4 Cone. Tolet. c. 19, >t Cone. ToLt.
c. ;l, 11 Cone. Tolet. CO. 8, «, Cone, in Trail.
c. 22, 2 Cone. Niiaen. c. 6, Cone. Mogunt. c. m,
Cone. Kemens. c. 21, Uasil. Kp. Ixxvi. ml A>(>.,
(Solas. IJ/i. i. ('(' l)iisc. Lwan,, Symmach. I'lvrct.
c. 1 and very frequently in the writings of
Gregory, Kj'p. v. 5;i, 55, 57 ; vi. H; ix. 4y, lull;
xi. 41) ; xii. 28 ; xiii. 41 ; Horn, m AV.ih/c/. 1. iv. 4.
Against simoniai al transactions the civil law
upheld tlic discipline of the church. Thus
Jn.stin. Novell, cxxiii. 1, cxxxvii. 2, required in
the consecration of bishops that both the electors
and the bisho|i elect should take an oath ua
the Gospels that nothing had been given either
by way of donation or promi.se, or thmugli
friendship, to obtain the' election ami the . unse-
cration. Closely allied to the chief sin of corrupt
ordinations was' that of withhidding the saini-
ments unless payment was made. The v.iriuus
canons directed against this abuse inlicati' that
on iiretence of asking an oUcring the clergy were
in the habit of setting a priix- on the spiiitnal
gifts which they administered. At bapti>nis. fur
instance, it seems to have been customary to
make a voluntary oblation. This easily lei to
the notion that the oblation was compulsory, auJ
was calculated to deter the poor from the sacra-
ment. The council of Klvira accordingly (o, W)
prohibited the practice of casting money into a
bowl at baptism, for the clergy were not to make
gain on the sacred gift which they ha.l retaived
without cost. On the s.ame ground Gelasiu'^ ( A>.
i. ad £pisc. Luc'n.) forbade the Italian clorsy
from exacting a fee for bapti.sm or contirmatioo.
And in the Greek church Gregory Nazianzen
{Orat. 40 de J5ii/)<.) remonstrates with those who
kept away from baptism, alleging that they
could not afford the usual oflering or the entiu'-
tainment for the officiating clergyman ; he tells
them that the only offering demanded is that of
themselves to Christ, and that their own holy
life was the only entertainment expectetl. In
the Spanish church apparently in sjiite of the
decree of Klvira, the covetousness of the clergy
still debarred the poor from b.iptism. In the
second council of Uraga, a.d. 572. there is a
canon (c. 7) denouncing the compulsory de'.iand
of i< pledge from those who had not wherewithal
to offer voluntarily. The same council (c. .5)
prohibited the exaction of a fee for the consecra-
tion service of a church. The eleventh council
of Toledo A.D. ti75 (c. 8) pronounced it contrary
to ecclesiastical law to take money not only for
promotion, to holv orders, but also for baptism,
iHinfirmation, or iinction ; the demand of a fte
for the administration of the eucharist fell un.lcr
tho same cuudemnation from Cone, in Trull, c. 2:1
A voluntary ofl'ering, which was of the nature of
a thank-offering, from one who partook of a
spiritual ordinance, was lawful and praiseworthy,
but a compulsory fee was tainted with aimouy,
SIMPLICIU8
lit* same <i(ti nen w.';io *k i _. . .. ^
8IRMIUM
1901
Sim
the ,a,ne „),.„,., ,,,., tho .n,,,l„v.n,.„t o / -mpt
nii'iins til iHtii M uriirni.H,,,. _ : ,. '"irni)!
chiirW. In h.' .L l'i"'"'»">it ,„ l|,„
tiim-i, for whi'ii B
I "raiMiition nmm'.
he ..•hurd, wore struc;. «t (i,st. liut w «n n
b.. ,„|,r,. beoa,nc. „ot only a ,,n.iti„n o Jni.v
»".'' ""l">"nn.o l„.f al.soH.ioonr,, „„., there voi;^
2;x;rhn:iintiir^t,,!iv''f '
p,.itio„l,.,^j:;':;!-^^^-n,-';;;->c^
Co.n,„.r.. the o„th already q»oto,l to be .' k | v
he elector, that the hisho; oloct wTJotZZ
n \r7 V ""■^''«'' '*•" "'"-""'oof money
(.lustlD. Novel, cxxxvii !>■> l,,,* l.„ "■money
known to hoi.i to' c'th i „;r::^ '^ r^
-mof goo.i life „„,,,„„„:■, ;::., J; "-'"««
».on ,nto sees already occu,,io,l wat .sch na" ,«
rather than a nuniacal llnf <i '-"'''" aticai
bishops to «ottheSs^lr,;i;;S^L:^
whenever >t was done for the sake of c m or Lv
.. rupt ,neans, was of the nature oV „"on/
'Th.t pernicious custom ouaht to ho ,fJ ?"
roo» loutthatitbelawful'l'lanvhiC't
mov from one city to another; fo/the L„
m- which he d,,os this is plain/since we'^r
he^^J of any bishop who laboured to bo^em^-ed
from a larger city to a smaller. Wh, never it
suspicion of corruption. [G Ml
•mperor he mention:., Hmon« sevenl .„her
Th meaning „f the wor,| In very do„l,t.„l fr"«
Will.7n*'- ""■'•' "<ytn.,.v„r'a,a"
' '"" *'" "f <'>"«ory of .Sa/.i«nzum, wheie lie
henueatlis to the "notaiius" Klaphii, with
^ "'"^r;;' '•■:,m ''r- ^'>'^^'^- - ^>^^'
('I "'''••*>'■)• We may at once, with the
I'osal to ,e,,| fmiUmn^s (n,<t. in kn-.). |t neemg
-est to siip,,o.e that the (Jreek word is 1 , t «
reproduction of the L,M, and tonjpae in
(ef. he Lnglish s.n^l.t, ,M./et). Uuh w Invo
LilT^ '""• "'"'•*"' '^^^"^^' /""?'*'■ '
fln^«. Another v.-ew as,o,.iates the w/
•^'ViW«m, and thus we should have « refer,,. , ,«
mnrk, worked into a dress (such „. ,: .UaZ
■t'^"" ">« f^V^'"] ""'' th" like), hut t^
Ski ^'' *;'"'"' ^''"''"'"'■"»<'»- may not im-
pr< hably imply ,„me connexion with the Da .
SalriL"^ ''-'".""i ^™ "" the whole !u!.s in
faalmasms s note, Trobell. Poll. /. c). [U. g.]
SIRENS. [Paoanism in Art, p. 1535.]
8IMPLICIUS (1), Mune 24 Ki.i,
»emo , , ,, AutinUTufu-arS^fer
vimi:r"?-:^^rj^-;^
X"„;^r:Sr '''" '"'*"'« '■'^'^"••^'
(3) Nov. 8, with Claudius, Nicostratus Svm
pron.anus, and Castorius, eminent artifi^.!'r..r
Aden., Vet. Rom., Hieron., Wand.). [c h ]"
he recounts a number of presents he w\s seeding
Iacf,!!l^^^^'''u"V^ 18; commemorated at M».
laca m t,pam with Paula {Mart. Usuard.).
rn,, • 7" ^,'"' ""'"''«'■ "'"1 character of these
l";7'll?-«-n hotly disputed, fave (/S
3ot „ fir K ^^ '^"."'•' but in another (,„/ .s4. ii.
^0) a hfth ; JIansi (iii. 179-289), three hut is
fr^w'^*." " '■''"^"•. The Je uits re avius
p«s. de Phot.) and .Sirmondus (A<,< 1^,^)
took oppos te sides on the subject ; and , e J a "^
sett ng It. There were three creeds likewise
published at Sirmium, but it is no „gre^ 1':
which councils. Taking Cave for our guide^
whose statement is the least confused" we^ may
arrange them as follows :— '
(1) A.D. 349, when Photinus, bishop of that
see was condemned, "vertim, redamaiL ,.lete
sede sua jam deturbari non potuit " 's Cave
says. , This synod was first brough to ight by
Petav.us, and has been accepted by most. ^
(2) A.D. 351, when Constantius was there
treating with Vetranio (5oc. ii. 28) and Photinus'
having disputed with Basilius of Ancyra and
been worsted by him, was deposed ; WAlrcus
composed he first of the three creeds in Greek
Such II .*"'!"'^-1''' anathemas are appended
Wansi. Valesius and Cave ditter only from them
ihifrr^er ""^ *"'"•" '^'^ ""' tLrhlrTf
• ^^\ "'^^ ^,^^' ''''*" Osius and Potamius both
^gned and lapsed. The creed signed by the n
was the second creed, published in Latin but
«cc..rd,ng to Mansi, tra.^lated into Ore:k"bv'tt'
same Alarcus who composed the first. It' was
much more heterodox than the first, however L
much so, that it is pronounced "blasjhrm7"'by
b. Hilary. Germinius, the successor of Pbo-
tiHus, was present at this council.
Ii
f
..«^'.
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1902
SISINNIUS
(4) A.D. 358, when a composite creed was put
forth, to which pope Liberius subscribed, and on
subscribing was restored to his see. (Comp.
S. Hil. Fni<im. vi. 6, and the notes in Migne,
Patrol. X. 689.)
(6) A.D. 359, when, according to Valesius and
Cave, "conscripta est fides ilia, quara Marcus
Arethusius composuit," with the names of the
consuls prefixed to it. This was afterwards re-
hearsed at Kimini ; but as it was probably this
also to which Liberius subscribed, it must have
been promulgated the year before, for he was
restored that year, and if he subscribed to a
different one, there must have been four, not
three, creeds published here, which nobody main-
tains. Let us suppose, therefore, that the names
of the consuls were prefixed to it at Riraini, and
this council may be merged in the preceding
one. L*^- °- *'•-'
SISINNIUS (1), May 29, deacon, martyr ;
commemorated with Martyrius reader, and
Alexander doorkeeper at Anauma or Anagnia
iMart. Usuard., Adou., Notker., Hieron.).
(2) Nov. 29, deacon ; commemorated at Rome
on the Via Salaria with Saturninus martyr, and
Sennes deacon I^Mart. Usuard., Ve*. Rom., Adon.)-
(3) Nov. 24, bishop of Cyzicus, martyr under
Diocletian (Basil. Meml.). [C H.J
SISOES THE GREAT, July 6, monk of
the 4th century, "our father " (Pasil .Meno/. ;
Cal. Byzant. \ Meml. Qraec. Sirlet). L^. «.J
BIXTUS (1) (XYST0S), Apr. 6, pope; com-
memorated at Rome {Mart. Usuard., Vet. Bom.,
Adon., Notker., Wand.) ; Apr. 3 (Flor.) ; Aug. 6
(Bed. Metr.), in the cemetery of Calixtus on the
Via Appia {Mart. Hieron.). In the Gelasian and
Gregorian Sacramentaries his natale is on Aug. 6 ;
in the former his name occurs in the collect,
secreta, and post-communion ; in the latter he
is mentioned in the collect. The Liber Antiph.
of Gregory has an office for his natale.
(2) Sept. 1, bishop of Beims (JMart. U^u«d-.
Wand.). L*^- *^-J
SLAVERY. The subject of the relation of
the Church to slavery may conveniently be con-
sidered under the following divisions :
(0 During the flret thtee centuries, when Christianity
was Itself subject to oppression and whatever
amelioration is to be discerned in the condition
of the sUive is to be traced rather (o) to the
teaching of the Stoics, (fi) to the sUte IcgUlatlon.
(y) to the secret societies, fco.
(W From' the commencement of Chrisilan legislation
under Constantlne (a.d. 313), to the accession of
Justinian (A.D. 526).
•(HI) From the accession of Justinian to the death or
Grpgory the Great
(Iv) From the death of Gregory the Great to the com-
menccmeut of the ninth century: (o) in the
Eastern empire, (fi) to Lsti" Christendom, (y)
am jng Teuionlc nations, prior to the Introduction
of Latin lostltuUous.
(i) During the first three Centuries.— The more
general coudiUons of pagan life, which ff.stp-pd
the continuance and systeraatization of such an
institution in the midst of highly civilized com-
munities, are described under Society; it will
be sufficient here to note a few of the principal
SLAVERY
facts which illustrate the indifference of society,
as it existed at the commencement of the Cliris-
tian era, to the moral wrong and physioul
suffe/ing involved. Looking upon the »l»ve iis
nothing more than an animal oi superior intell,-
eencc, the statesman and the legislator had, up
to this period, altogether discouraged the n.<t,un
that he possessed any rights, or was entitled to
any consideration, beyond what the .'nt"e.st of
the master might dictate. Lven Aristotle had
asserted slavery to be an institution of divine
origin, whereby inferior races were desigm.Uy
subiected to the superior* (Po/.«<ct, in. 4), a
view adopted by Cicero (cfc Bepub. bk. iii., quoted
by Nonius). Pliny compares the relation ot
slaves to the state to that of drones m the luye
(Nat. Hist. XI. xi. 1). Oato advised that, like
beasts of burden, they should be worked to death
rather than be allowed to become old and un-
profitable ; and in order to divert them fr..m
forming conspiracies, he advised masters to imite
them to quarrel with each other (Flutarch, Cuto,
c 21) It was a proverbial saying that evi-ry
slave was an enemy-" Quot servi, tot hoste. "
(Festus, ed. Mueller, p. 261). Columella (de Re
Bust i. 8) observes that the more inteilig.nt
they are the more frequently it becomes necessary
to put them in chains. In the year A.D. bS, i.mr
hundred of the slaves of Pedanius SecunJus,
notwithstanding a strong display of popular
feeling in their favour, were put to death in
order to avenge his assassination by one ol their
number (Tac. Ann. xiv. 45); and in the time ot
Ulpian, who wrote in the 3rd century, this cruel
practice was still authorised by law {D>i,est.
XXIX. V. 1, §§ 32 and 39). The chief vHne-
sentative of the artisan class, the slave, inherited
the contempt with which mechanical labour was
regarded by antiquity. Plato {Bepvb.hk. iv.)
affirms that it is of small matter whetlier the
mechanic lives a virtuous or an immora lite ;
and slaves under the empire were unable to
obtain redress for the violation of their own
wives (Cod. Just. IX. ix. 23 ; Kriegel, Corp. Jum
Civ ii. 587). As he was held to be a uon-reli-
eio.us intelligence, or of a faith differing from
that of his master, he was supposed to be in-
capable of being bound by oath, and controllable
only by fear— "quibus diversi ritus, externa
sacra aut nulla sunt, ooUuviem istain nonius,
metu co«rcueris" (Tac. Ann. xiv. 44). Lven
when on the eve of receiving his freedom, it wiis
customary to bind him by a promise, suliject to
certain penalties, that on becoming a f>f'',n''«
he would ratify his promise by an oath (Digest.
XI xii 44)
The severity with which the whole class was
eenerally treated appears to have been owing
rather to an instinct of self-preservation than to
wanton cruelty. From the time of the bervile
Wars of the 2nd century, the Roman, though
master of the world, lived in con-stant dread ot
conspiracy and insurrection among those whom
he had thus deprived of their natural rights, and
. Sec on this point Krug, de ArittoteU Servitutit dffe^
tart, 1818. Overbeck, however, quotes Fol. I. n. 3
f i-mun yip Toi- M" SmI-ov etvat rbr 6' tA*vfl*,>-.v, i-.j"
proof that Aristotle recognised the radlcnl Injuet.ce ot
the Institution. MUman (iMt. ChriHianily, li. U «•
1887) appears to have overlooked this passage.
SLAVERY
kindle the'Han,e of iv r:!," T„:"'f' ' "^''-A"
1T9) as high Tont^Z tV. '"'V^*^''- '^'"'"'' "•
This esti,n1,te s g/n :„! K te™" '? •'"''"'^'«"°-
but the extent to^ X h \heTll''' fT^'"'
quently endeavou.'fd ale, theirf;.."?'^ 'k "
a lite of brieanJaee III fK. ^^,''"'" "^^
mine, were w'orkShe m'ertnrript'^ tt
higher departments of nfechan r^ki l" "'^
et::rrri!:';t™^"^'''-'-"-'hLh^^^
e emeui, a id in the mansions of the wealthv h„
cuted it, deooraionfantX e tlm'wTh
paintings; he Prepared the feast anV en ivln 5
it with mus c; he was tlm f..„,-i T """^^nea
.i™ „ fit: : z. „• J'"*' ""• •'%.■
^ih^lh-b^^^
owner at his' deat!;%V' n^^/^a-^^^noo/sTavt
Ithough a largo portion of his patrimonv had
Jligne, &.n6-s ffracca, Iviii. 608) '
A consideration of these broad fact, «f „„
suggests the risk and danger that wn,.n u
*..g.; or king revolui..,,; ,„"•'•;; '5'
a slave, he was enjoined not to allow his con-
BLAVERY
1903
dition "to be 8 care" to him (1 Cor vii 2I^.
obedient to his niasteVani to '^^ve^r.' witt
«n.g ei^ss of heart and goo.1 wT • ' Shes "i
5-i)), "fearmg God " (Colos,. iii. 22)- whatever
bis master's moral charictpr L "^ ' ^V
hi.n "with all fear"( p:'it%*r..'"rfr
unlawfulness of such delations he ^^Jw LS!
ment contains no intimation, and St PaTil h m
of tt ^TsiVoixrxit:rjr ""'"'^
on the naif nf tK„ ^ inculcated human tr
class not to seek enfml^h' ''^"^' "'^ ^h"'"
o.4,Cur.ton, C^W it) Vlf '^"'^•^'"■^•
to regard the tiih it? •?' ?•'■ , '"'*° appears
the sfrvl' rLd'eS^r'the Ila : "'•'"'''"'»
under much the same cateLrv7'^ />""""■«
c. 4; Miene .Sl-ri,.^ category (urfw. (Jra^cos,
lian IncasS„''rdr;f^t'''^- J^I""'
the part of the ma^Jer a^j on ^0^:1'""? '•■'
like ourselves " (Ft^d f:, ,0" ,,. ''"^^'^^o men
about a household the ,<,/»„. "^ "^ numbers
i.7 11.. w"i.h.r.bl.]j s°Ai"rr; ""'"'^'"•' •
i 'if
iim
19(4
SLAVERY
in the Phil sop/mmena, while bitttrly assailing '
his clinracttT and motives, does not refer to the
fuct as involving any stigma." Of the uniform
disregard in the church itself of any distinction '
between the slave and the free man, the cata-
combs afford silent but significant evidence; for
"while it is impossible," says IJe Rossi, "to
examine the pagan sepulchral inscriptions of
the same period without finding mention of a
slave or a.freedmau, I have not met with one
well-ascertained instance among the inscriptions
of the Christian tombs " (_Ilull. di Arch. Crist.
18t)t>, p. 24 ; see also Le Blant, Inscrip. chr€t. de
laGaule, i. 119).
Jn the meantime other influences were in
operation, which, although there is sufficient
reason for concluding that they could never
have brought about the abolition of slavery,
undoubtedly led to the amelioration of the con-
dition of the slave, and to a more humane view
of his position in relation to the body politic.
These were (o) the doctrines of the Stoic philo-
sophy ; (/3) the imperial legislation ; (y) the
private clubs or societies.
That the humaner tendencies in the imperial
legislation were owing to the spread of Chris-
tian doctrine, has been maintained both by the
jurist and tiie historian, but is not supported by
Uie most aiithoritative and recent research. M.
Wallon (Hist, de fEsi-lavagc, ill. 91) distinctly
admits that they are mainly to be referred to the
teaching of the philosophy of the age. " When
we add to these laws," says another writer,
" the broad ma-ilms of equity, asserting the
essential equality of the human race, which the
jurists had borrowed from the Stuics, and which
supplied the principles to guide the judges in
their decisions, it must be admitted that the
slave-code of imperial Rome compares not
unfavourably with those of some Christian
nations " (Lecky, Hist, of Murals, ii. 327). " As
regards certain improvements said to have been
introduced by Christianity into the imperial
law of slavery," says Sir Henry Maine, " they
were probably quickened by its influence, but
they began in principles which were of stoical
rather than of Christian influence " {Early Hist,
of Institutions, p. 63). The language of the
Christian apologists above cited, in unison with
that of the most enlightened stoicism, but
. scarcely transcending it, must be regarded as
corroborative of these views. The stories told
in BoUandus (i. Mai, p. 371; Januarii, p. 275),
on the other hand, of eminent Romans in the
reigns of Trajan and Diocletian, immediately
after their baptism liberating large numbers of
their slaves, are at variance with nearly all the
evidence for this period.
(ii) From the commencement of Christian
leiiistatiun under Constantine (A.D. 313) to the
accession of Justinian (A.D. S'i.'i). — The period
upon which we are now entering presents us
with evidence of a desire on the part of the
legislator not only to ^ameliorate the con-
• The panciion e.xtended by Calllstus to marriages
solemnised In Ida dliiccse between free Christian
women and Christian slaves. Is noted by Overb<ck
(titwiicn, ic. p. 1 90), «» one of tlie very rare insiHlices that
present themselves before the lime of Constantine of any
attempt on the part of t*'e church to determine questions
that came within the provisions of state legislation (see
aippolj/ti Jlt/ut. U. 12).
8LAVEUY
dition but to facilitate the liberation of the
slave, while, in either ciise, the laws nlatlng to
the subject clearly boar the impress of a nmre
humane spirit. For example, wltliin two yciirs
from the time that Christianity received slate-
recognition, a law passed in A.D. 315 enjoin,)
that fugitive slaves shall be branded only on
their hands or their ears, ami not on the fate —
" quo fades, quae ad siniilltiidiuem ptiUhiitu-
dinis est coelestis figurata, nilnime maculetur "
{Cud. Just. IX. xvii. 17 ; Kriegel, Corpus Jur. Civ. ii.
271) — a sentiment manifestly of Christian origin.
The laws relating to manumission afford move
decisive evidence. The customiiry form of niiinu-
mission during the mastei''s lifetime h:id hitlier'o
been by a well-known ceremony performed in
the presence of the praefect and his lictor ; but,
by a decree of the year 316, it was declared tlii\t
a slave might be set at liberty by a simple
declaration made in a Christian church in the
presence of the priest and the congregation,
while, instead of the ancient ceremony, a
written document signed by the master was to
suffice as evidence {ibid. I. xiii. 1 ; Kriegel, ii.
89-90).
In the year 321, a further concession was
made in a decree of Constantine addressed to
Hosius, the eminent bishop of Cordova, and not
improbably reflecting his personal Influence over
that monarch (see Milman, Hist, of Christitinitu,
bk. iii. c. 4). Here, after recapitulating the
above law, the enactment goes on to declare that
the clen/y are permitted to bestow complete
civil rights on their slaves, not only by > simple
declaration of their purpose before "the church
and godly folk," but also by instructions in their
wills or any formal document, the freedom thus
conferred to acquire validity from the d;iy on
which their intent has been made known {CJ.
Just. I. xiii, 2).
Biot {de rAhoUcion de FEsdav. p. 147) inter-
prets this latter law as proof of a design on the
part of Constantine to attract converts to Chris-
tianity, inasmuch as those whose enfiar'
ment was proclaimed in a Christian •
would necessarily be Christians, and Ih
here admitted to " plenum fructum llbertiu^;'
I.e. to rank not simply as " Latini " but as
" cives." It was not until the year 401, nearly
a century later, that this mode of enf'ranihl.-e-
ment was extended to Africa (Blot, p. 148); but,
wherever valid, it appears to have been reoog.
nised as a triumph of C; ristianity. Augustine,
in one of his sermons {Scnn. ccclvi. sec. 3),
announces that several of his clergy are deslgu-
ing to emancipate the few slaves they possess,—
the result ajjparently of the introduction of the
new law into his diocese. Gregory of Nyssa, Id
contrasting the features which distinguished the
Christian celebration of Easter from pagan
festivals, mentions, among others, " the slave
enfranchised by the good and humane proclama-
tion of the church, and not smitten in unseemly
fashion on the cheek " {de liesur. Dom. Orat. 'i ;
Migne, S. G. xlvi. 657),
A law bearing on the same subject, but of yet
earlier date than either of the foregoing, is lost;
but we learn from So^omen (//, K. i. 9) that a
hundred years later these three laws were placed
at the headofnll formal documentsof enfranchise-
ment — npoypi.<pfa9ai iv Toh ypamxaTfiois ri»
iXtvStpi&v (Migne, S. G. Ixvii. 21) ; and it is easy
SLAVERY
"charti.lirii .. f u'"' ""<' "> that of ^21 the
(see-Ot Pt. wT "'""'■'' '"'"'•"'^ '
the yoke of s./trilln^oa^'' '" -'^-
tha^t^thc'Lttriuij;; yiV" '''^"■■^^•^
much the s.nie We Hn,i .• ''"'*, ■'e""""'"'
law of the iZr 3r7 thai ^"h '""""^'' '■'"™ "
fugitive slaves was still . *''.%"'""'Mtion of
J I ii ■'• ■* 'aw of the VPar ■^tQ
33' enact? tL^' 1 ^; '^"''"'"'" '*'^ "^ the year
directs that saves turnin<i ;„c ^ '°'
their masters are to be L nt"''"7' ''«'''°^'
whatever docu.enty'"'eS 'e tlf ^^
tt:ec^utt/o"n SieftLnr'l, "^T^"-
ti,„* f i. "'"i-n incy have alleeed has hpon
that of treason aeainst thn tf..t» <4 • "
(ibul IX vi 9 . S , *°® state—" majestatis "
t»«/. lA. v.. 2; Haenel, pp. 836-837).
Stuiij^^t^-sr^t^-rt"'*'^^
li/h tK ^" ^'"•y^stotn boldly eraiiDlea
with the appareut difficulty presented bvir
^'^"°":!:-!l-^°^i^tL :yteV''and
SLAVERY
1905
Including A^. men and c^drfn^ w^'I^^ ""'""•=*
««"mgtbem into captivity i„!thr,. ™ *'''^«''. ""d
»f the church, througttu ".^ lod ^ .' ^"^ '^"''^
to redccminK those ,,nf,*, "^ 1' *-'"*'^'y<'"-"tod
v.lu»ble as Evidence of n,H^r ™? "^'"'"' however
be regard" al piJ^f of » h j">"»"'hropy, cannot
hm- ot-H- T, ^""'^ '° »hoIl8h sUvtry at
'.b"c„tu;;';ivi^ :,:,: ^::;„«/"-[ ^-x. ,„\\'
(Stubba.itec«me,.£.p.«^'"°' '"~"«"8 ^ "la "wer"
f stf. te "of 'hv"'^^" r'"" '''V'"' "'"■•'"-" «'
spiritual lb 'm^?^'" '^''"J""'^t,on with that of
for Chn.tIaX''tirit, Si'"""'"' V""""'''
as the spectaci T ho iJ !'■""''■" '^'>'''
walking n the fn ■„, '" ""''"'^ ^""ths
than the e. Unctfor^.h"""'/ ^'"'''' "'""■^'
been(,>.0«J,r; ;Vv n ThTn """" ''"^•'
in which the church IJned the !?""'"■•," ^.'''"'
equality with the f „, ''"^" ' "''S'"""
paved the way ft ^he. "!'""" """ '>»^«
and social eouali v '^. , "•^"S"'*""' ^'f his civil
upon him a a nonVpl ''"'^""'™ """' '""ked
and Gregory Nazi Le^ in"i ^' "'^o^ »"'PtiBm
who, L- yourTike, ton!, "^. '"'•*'^»''' ""^
a slave. K« froni ,hn1 Tu ."'"" "'« '"™ "f
anew, all he a °J „t m "l, f ^* "*= "'"'"^-'d
i« impressed as a comL^r '^'*«PP'''"' i Christ
manner, Chrvsostom t^ c . ,. ''^- '" '■''9
iii. 4) main'lC rth « a-n/?"t "• "l-"-
among the partakers o?^), " P"'«f^t equality
Lord's Supner a" ,?■ ''! """""eut of the
Apostol^a^'c ;o,^';";t'raf '° '\' P"' "^ '^'>
to ordination wTth.'uthZ.T"'.*" ^^ '"^'"'"*'«
this, the canon 'ysiTdTthr'"'',:'"' '■'"'''
of a household ; hL m^i,../''' «»''■ ""ion
rir""'" «- <'-'-drb:rentraf 'i?
would appear, however »h..t ;„ ,""","'• «
toTheophilus b1 honof Ar*' .•'^"""'' '^""°K
John hiLe.?hartre?m':rgircirrir^^^^^^^^^^
deacon while Itm'a avTSrs^'T' "
"»: 516). I„ the corresponSce of r! '^°'''
Na.mnzcn, we find him referHn/to I^"^
where a slave had been nmXTf k " '"^'^
small community in the desert The ^."^""^ "
lady to whom he belonged epde;voIreH ?"""*"
hei- right of ownersh%,tr S'" "''^''''^t
severely rebuked by St Ba, 1 I?» o \® """^
death she again clafmed tip .1 " ^t ^'^'^'^
Oregory adfres^edTt '^ etTeV'of^'P""
remonstrance at her un.Chri«H»„i' ^ ^rave
his lifetime, yet did not ,ot „»\ ] '""'' "»
connived at thii^^^lf ' rrm'!"'*'^
the exigencies of the state (as^wiU shortiw''
shewn) appear to have boon K u """^"r ho
with such icence Leo the Pvo ■'"r'7""''''
lofty conception%f'thVtSXVrtt''' .""
aounced a practice thereby 'he affirf'-tt
kn$ t*
1906
SLAVERY
sacred ministry is dishonoured, nml the rights of
masters are set at naught" (A/t'si. 4; Migne,
iiv. 612). A decree of the first council of
Orleims (A.D. 511) requires that whenever a
bishop shall have admitted a slave to the oflice
of deacon or presbyter unlsnown to his owner,
the ransom paid shall be double the slave's value
(Sirmoud, i. 180). A council held in the same
city, in 5;»8, decrees that the bishop who has
thus infringed upon the nwistcr's rights shall
himself be suspended for a yciu iVom tne function
of celebrating mi.ss (•(.. \.2bn); it further re-
quires that neither "coloni" (see infra, sec. iii.)
nor slaves "shall be admitted to ecclesiastical
honours until either by testament or charter
they have been made free."—" Vt nuUus servi-
lil)us colonariisque conditionibus obligatus, juxta
statuta sedis Apostolicae, ad honores ecclesiasticos
admittatur ; nisi prius aut testiimento nut per
tabulas lesjitime constiterit absolutum " (»(>.).
The prevailing tone with respect to slavery is
still such as indicates that, like poverty and
other ills, it was regarded rather as a misfortune
to be endured than an injustice to be done away
^.jth,— a firm of suffering, consequent upon the
Fall, of which the chief compensation was to be
looked for in a future life (Eusebius, I'heophan.
V. ^l ; Gregory of Nyssa, Orat. 9 ; Chrysostom,
Horn. 29, m Qen.; Cyril of Alexandria, de
Adoiand. m Spirita et in Verit. bk. viii.). The
fear that Christianity might appear to. be aimmg
at revolutionising the state still operated with
considerable force. Chrysostom says that " it is
fitting that the Gentiles should perceive that a
slave may please God ; otherwise they will assur-
edly blaspheme and say that, if masters are to
be deprived of their slaves, Christianity has been
brought in to upset the existing order of things,
and is a work of violence." In the same treatise
he says that if a slave is distinguished by his
excellent qualities, this is all the more reason
that le should continue in servitude, so that by
his presence he may exert a beneticial influence
over the whole household {Arg. in Epist. ad
Philem., Migne, S. 0. Ixii. 704). He hold.s, how-
ever, on another occasion, somewhat different
language, advising masters to give those slaves
whom thi-y do not really require, instruction in
gome useful art, and then, when they are able to
earn their own livelihood, to set them free. But
he admits that this advice is unpalatable to his
hearers, — ipopTtK6s tint toTj iiKoiovaiv (ad Epist.
i. ad Cor., Horn. 40; Migne, S. 0. hi. 354).
Isidore, the learned abbat of Pelusium, puts for-
ward the singular theory that the servile con-
dition may even be preferable to that of the free-
man, because in the day of judgment the slave
might plead in his defence that he had been com-
pelled to obey the mandates of his earthly master
(Epist. bk. iv. 12 and 169). Here, however, says
Prof. Habiuglon, "he is not giving his own
counsel, but paraphrasing St. P;iul " (Influence
of Christianity, p. 29). It is a somewhat too
sweeping assertion made by the last-named
writer, that the writings of St. Basil, Kphraim
the Syrian, Pseudo-Ambrofic, Chrysostom, Je-
rome, Salvian, anil Leo the Great do not contain
a hint that slavery is unlawful or improper; but
It is certain that none of them advocate its abo-
lition. Theodorus Cyrcnsis, in his seventh oration,
de Pruvidentia, puts forward the view that
•lavery is a punishment indicted on the human
SLAVERY
race which, while it convicts man of sin, bears
witness ~o the justice of the Creator (Migne, .S'.
0. Ixxxiii. 676). So completely, indeed, did the
church at this period dissociate the theory of the
slave's spiritual equality with the freeman from
that of his civil rights, that at the Council of
Oangra (circ. 379) nn anathema was pron(iunce<l
against anyone who should make the former
theory a ground for instigating a slave tn reim-
diate his master's authority (Hardouin, Com;, i.
530). Hefele, who cannot be supposed to under-
state the arijument in defence of the church,
admits that fathers and councils alike systemati-
cally discouraged the self-assertion of fieeilum
(Beitriijc, i. '.{16). Enlninchisement was generally
regariled as the reward of exceptional merit, and
was often associated with some religi'ius festivals ;
according to Gregory of Nyssa, especially with
the celibiation of Easter (Migno, S. Q. xlvi.
657).* How far the church was from proclaim-
ing a (jeueral denunciation of slavery is to be
inferred from the fact that in the year 5()3 the
household of pope Symmachus was largely com-
posed of slaves, and that, in the course of this
pontifl's struggle wilh Laureutius, the royal com-
missioner sent by Theo<loric subjected them to
torture in order to extract evidence bearing upon
the matter in dispute (Milman, Lat. Christianity,
bk. iii. c. 3). Christianity, to quote the language
of Milman (Lat. Christianity, bk. iii. c. 5), had
taken slaves " out of the class of brute beasts or
inanimate things, to be transferred like cattle or
other goods from one master to another, which
the owner might damage or destroy with as
much impunity as any other property; and
placed them in that of human beings, equally
under the care of Divine Providence and gifted
with the same immortality .... But the abro-
gation of slavery was not contemplated even as
a remote possibility. A general enfranchisement
seems never to have dawned on the wisest and
best of the Christian writers."
(iii) From the accession of Justinian to the
death of Orenory the Great.— Although the
efforts both of the legislator and of the church
up to the commencement of this period must
be looked upon as tending rather to the ame-
lioration of the condition of the slave thsn
to the abolition of slavery, events, in the
mean time, were conspiring to bring about a
more important change,— that whereby slavery,
as a political institution, was gradually suj)-
plantcd by serfdom. From the earliest days of
the empire, the cultivation of the soil (the vitrtl
question with the civil administrator) appears as
carried on mainly by two distinct classes,— the
slave and the " colonus " ; the first cultivating
the land solely for his m.ister's profit, the second
receiving payment for his labour or renting the
land of the proprietor. Owing to a conjunction
of causes, iijto which it is here impossible to
enter, the owners of the large estates found, with
the advance of the 3rd century, the supply of
• A passage tn St. Ambrose's celebrated rrply to Sym.
macbus, implying ttiat the freeing of captives is, along
with reeding the poor anil supporting th"se In exile, one of
tho works of charity to which the revenues of tlie cbntch
of his day were largely devi.ted (Migne, x<ri. fi"). iau.1
be classed with the numerous paSMgis referred toaboM
(note ''), and cannot be lo(*ed upon as having any fe«l
liearlng upon the question of slavery.
SLAVERY
ItZiSTu' ""''T"'" *" »''<' ''-""-nd. In
had grown to ,„ch an ex en thaMn^ *"' *"'
the most fertile region of talv n ^r^'V^'
Against these difficulties leeislation r„. ■
cleailv to be seen in th« T),» i • ?? <^'" "
long been contending" bu? inTh^T ''l'^'^ '"•''
condition of the 'ttu » hadT '"'' ""'
Bteadv and continn-,,,. ^ ""!..*':"' >'."" on" of
SLAVERY
1907
150]. To quote the description of M w^i ^'
the "CO onus" sharprf th. ^^^ ?■.■ *': """'in,
without be^g egaiit such - h"" "^ " "''""
the condition 'witrufej:y';g'";t S"' r"'
freeman. From thn reiT,. „?7i >'ghtsofa
anomalous condition oTtht ^''"''"^""N this
referred to in legislation • tX " ^'"^'"'''^^y
the reign of J.' tinfr t.^ 'a'^^ieVo"/ f,"e*i'
enactments took formal cognisance of th/ "''
ances under which the "nnlnn ^f . u * S""'
defined his status anS^ight^Th 'eTof .T"
legislation, accordine to Siv ™i '^V f '^'''
aLdp;amalgamX\ar.^;r: J:p;^-
"servi," whereby the herpH,f„ „fTl' . "'"' ."'«
"servi," whercrby he he editV oflT ""'' ."■"'
associated with tL eultrvSf the s„ l"'^ "^'"
h':e^eL'fheTSn"o"f^tr;' r ^Z '"
« equally able to enfi^nch sf the shve Alll"
with his private hoardi anH ♦„ „ i j / ('""ng
overlordsi:iptheC'4tutu^\7„twrt^':
oul'tivatef the sSland'fJrM''?''" '''"' '""'
now declared to be a " coLus '' anH^ ^■*"'l' "™
raising of his rent nr !L ""' a'''"t''"ry
from the " colonus " h1 1,,ih ',''^"''''«'' *"">
away from the Cd whthTe' ulU "a^ 1 1'
H^^athing property, h^tukS 7^;^^^'^
t" Me > : :','"' "-criptitius." election
free,-.7^^,;';L'l'f:'''*y ""'''='■«'' ^im, ipso f,u:,„,
«eri .titii c nd im eT ""'T/ ^^■'■^"' «' »''-
thlr g rdr'^lt'C^'-^ '-^-'-i^-idence.
ch-». who?e bbour v'.f, »7"""> "^ the servile
their condition nfhr...^'"'"'"'* °'' *''« '""'L
-siderably f rthat of ,h "'"'V '^'"'"■"'^ -^"n-
in the enrhMla !f t, •" ^ST'culU,r,i labourer
inferior to tlat o? th, ""'"'*• '' ""^ -""^h
wnsagreat'^:::v?mVnn?n;h^:K:'r'''
— a circumstanop u/hi..;, . ' ' '"e slave,
mind when re'oi:' Z"it V." '" ^''^ '^
century, especially during th '".**'"" '"""''
Giegorv the Great thnfr^/^!" P-'itiHcate of
of the church t; be' n't?;""'"' '?"^--'»»
element in its history^ u ^ t™ ""'T'''?'
tions of the churrh tl.u r:^- ^' **>« >« "-
letters of Grejo . „11^.-, ■■''«;7 1"-'i<'n the
Among th.,n tCi-e tn^ ?' v'''* '""■^•'"ti'm.
of Luna' rthe J elf '° Ven.nntius, bishop
LiguriaVf o/Xh -r"'' "" *hc confines of
muuity of JeVhoMi ' ?^?'' ""»' ■> com- .
were also propT^tors off". •■"? '" *'"= '""•^«"'.
Korv havin? 1 <-hnstian slaves. Gre-
dis;i;;ct;;!it''dZ„r :"'";•* ^ ^-"'''^-.
be allowed ^o hold Chrit •''"''' **"" ''" "''^^ <=«°
hut he goes on to s J that '.L""'" '° f"""'''g'''
although those ove/whom the „ r'""' '"^""•^«'
claim may be free men in pofntnf? "'■'''' *'''''■'
withstanding, ,„,,«„ !5i'V,r\* ^"7' ^"^ ■">*-
they are bound by the ciT. ,11 ^'"•' ":?'"* '«»<'*' '
and must according y con, ~"''' '^^ ''"'''
lan.l, and to pay U^i ? 1"" trthe'"""' "'"''
besides complWn? with an ?h„ n •"■"I"'"-''«",
binding u,/on "coToni " '''«'''''|ga'"''ns legally
that n^o furUier Sen isM T'^'""'"'"." ^"'
them (/T;^.. iv. 2.;trgn; , i'^t'or" ''""
ce^rsir£;^^prs:-
would appe." to affnv? '"'""' "^"^^ described,
the positr:;Ve''"t,ruT":rtf r *■'""'
one which secured to him » • .""', '""* "'as
of freedom. The antina h. .^"P^'-^fa^''" •'"glee
enslaving of ChrislKS t/tws":;^^'"'
dSortLi^outif^Mf'--^'^^-^^^'^"-'^
whether it be his design to reta ntm ^'T''
.^JLj^Z.^^!!!^'^^^_^[^vev^ (Studien, &c.
wh7t:tcr;,'';X"e'-Ji^'r''''<^^™» those
Influence of ,he quTs.loTof .tourin l'''''^''"" ''he
land Is to be recomised ."^ T""*'"" "»* the
enfranchisement the sLvesoVl"„' ?"? ^'"''"^' «>«
"nJust"utmon«chlsq„„.t,rum r™r'''''r''"'''"8 't
tha\t;,!!L^r.sSe':ntvrir '-^ "'^-«
-^-aU„ab,e (see Bio, ^^1^",^;;^
121.
I m
1908
SLAVERY
p 2ll)thnt this nveision took its rise in mere
ieli);ic>us biifotry, and waa contrary to the llicory
of tli« primitive cliurcli, breatiiing rather of the
ancient pagan prejudice against the barbarian
(I'lato, Jlejmb. v. 15), appears harsh and over-
strained. It is also to be remembered that the
exaggerated importance now discernible as at-
tached by the church to a formal observance of
religious duties, e.g. fasting, keeping of sainis
days, &c„ must have operated very strongly in
the same direction. The Christian in slavery to
a jiagim master could hardly have avoided living
in tlie liabitual commission of mortal sin ; and to
no object were Gregory's clforts more ardently
devoted than to the suppression of the slave-trade
as carried on by the Jews in his day (.Lpist. iv. 9 ;
Jligne, Ixxvii. 689; see also pp. 408, G52, 8b8,
&M, H5+, 1016). Writing to Theoderic and
Tlieodebert, kings of Frankland, he expresses his
surprise that they should permit any Jews in
their dominions to possess slaves (£pist. ix. 110 ;
Migne, Ixxvii. 1018). It seems accordingly that
the condition of these " coloni " at Luna Was such
. as he would never have sanctione*, had it not
left them free to observe Christian worship and
perf.irm the chief duties of the Christian life
unmolested.
On the other hand, he appears to have held
the theory already referred to, which looked
upon one Christian in bondage to anothei- as
simply the result of the divine decree finding
expression in human institutions {Epist. in. 18 j
x.ati; xii. 4; Migne, Ixxvii. 637, 1089, 1210);
. nor can it be denied that this theory appears
sometimes to have been construed by him in
a sense repugnant to more enlightened views.
Thus, when directing Januariiis, bishop of Cagli-
ari, to take vigorous measures against pagans,
aruspices, and sorcerers, he says that if slaves
they are to be beaten and subjected to torture,
but if free men, are to be subjected siTiiply to
imprisonment (J'pist. ix. 65; Jligne, Ixxvii. 982).
Hut, notwithstanding, it is in the letters of this
pontiff that M. Biot considers we have the earliest
example of the Christian sentiment of liberty as
the nuttiral rUjht of man, finding expression in a
deHnite act of manumission ; this is on the occa-
sion of bestowing their freedom ou two slaves,
Wontauus and Thomas, when Gregory compares
their enfranchisement from the yoke which the
law has placed upon them to the liberty which
.Christ came to win for all mankind— "quos ab
initio uatura liberos protulit, et jus gentium
jugo substituit servitutis " {EpM. vi. 12 ; Migne,
Ixxvii. 804). . , ,
The decisions of Gregory having formed, in
almost every important question, the rule ot the
Latin church during centuries after his time,
the theory to which he here gives expression,
may be n^gaided as that which continued to pre-
vail to the conclusion of our period, whereby
slavery was looked upon as an admitted antago-
nism between "natura" and the '-jus gentium,
(iv) From the death of Gi-egory the Great to the
commencement of the 9tt centuni : (o) i« tlie
Eastern Empire ; (/3) in latin Christendom ;
(y) among Teutonic nations, prior to the m-
tiod'iciion of Latin instiinthn^.
(a) The influences of legislation and religion, in
the eastern provinces of the empire, combined
steadily to diminish the number of slaves (Gibbon,
ch xliv. J Wallon, Hist, de lEsclavage, in. 452),
SLAVEIIY
and, according to Finlay (Hist, of Greece, ed.
Tozer, ii. 220), were aided by conditions more
favourable to free labour, operating more imme-
diately "in extinguishing predial slavery, and
repressing the most important branch of the
slave-trade, by supplying the cities with free
emigrants." The evidence aflbrded by legislation
is to be studied, after the Gth century, chiefly in
the enactments of Basil the Macedonian (^emp.
867-886) and of his son Leo the I'hilosoi.her,
and is described in its main features by M. VValbm
(iii. 452, 453). It is to be noted that the latter
emperor revoked the law of Justinian which con-
ferred freedom on slaves who had taken refuse
in churches or monasteries, in the event of their
giving satisfactory evidence of having been sub-
jected to ill-usage.
The monasteries of the East appear to have
been distinguished by th"ir repudiation of the
employment of slave labour, a principle empha-
tically laid down by St. Platon and Theodore
Studi'tes. The latter, writing to his disciple
Nicholas (recently created an abbat), instructs
him that he is not to have a single slave, whether
for his own service, or that of the monastery, or
for the culture of the land; "for this," he i . .,
" is permissible, like mirrriage, out>- to those who
lead a secular life " (Sirmond, Opera, Paris, 1696,
V. 84).
O) In those countries where Latin influences
continued to predominate, the close connexion of
the question of slavery with that of the cultivH-
tion of the land appears to have hindered the
progress of emancipation. Among the Western
Franks, the condition of the slave difl'cred, ac-
cording to Guizot, from the ancient servitude of
paganism, in that it was not " uniforme, con-
stante et siparee de celle des hommes libres par
un profond abime" (Essais, p. 214); and owing
to the fact, that it was thus vaguely defined, it
afforded conditions which ultimately resulted in
the establishment of freedom. He concurs, how-
ever, in the opinion expressed by Gibbon (ch.
xxxviii.), that from the 5th to the 10th century
"the laws and manners of Gaul uniformly tended
to promote the increase, and to confirm the dura-
tion, of personal servitude;" but, at the same
time, considers {Essais, p. 208) that in the many
cases of enfranchisement that come under our
notice during this period, religious ideas suggested
the preponderating motive. The Formulae of
Marculfus (a monk of the 7th century) systema-
tically represent the bestowing of freedom on
the slave as a meritorious action that will lie
rewarded in a future state (Migne, Ixxxvii. 747).
It would appear that it was customary for the
king, on the birth of a son, to bestow freedom
on Three slaves on each of his farms (villae), and
the formula used on these occasions is preservfiJ
in the same writer (bk. ii. 52). The Kipuarian
Code (which exhibits an admixture of Latin and
barbaric elements) defines three distinct modes
of enfranchisement, according to which the slave
was known as a " denarius," a " tabularius," or
a "chartularius." On the first of these, free-
dom was conferred according to Salic law,—
the slave holding a coin (denarius) in his hand,
and the Uinir thereupon striking his hand, so ai
to cause the coin to tly into his face, and pro-
nouncing him a free man (Marculfus, Form. i. 22).
The second mode (" secundum legem Roinanam')
corresponded exactly to that prescribed by the
SLAVERY
W of Con,tanflne of the yoar 316. ♦},„ ,v, 4
tulnrius") rc,ro,Tn^; .r'''"^'? "' " "'■'h'"-
sec- ".). It i, thl "'these see mprn
p. 21:./ that ne':fXrn:7"""" (^'*"'
piete frecion, t.> the nn-'n ,hi ;i", '""T^ T'"'
in each ca.se, he w«r« ^ „ '"■"' '"'* "'"«>
"oce^ity ofWtLhZhtelfro'^..""''" ""'
wl.«, in the fi,.,t cai ,v„ ri V ''■■''''"°"''''
«econ,i. the church; while h^' t'"^\'" ""'
elected to which ofVhpll, u '•''■"••"larius »
A decree of the ritd :? Ch,;:;""'''^ *"'""''•
prohibits the acllinn. „f .1. ^'""""s (a.d. «50)
'f kin, Clovis n '(SiriiTZ'/'" ^l"" -"-
of the year 74:t prohihTt? h • t ^' ""'' """"'"
soli.o^Jews(Mri',tmr7hf:",,7™-'
ragclus, n the rei^n „r r'l, 1 , "'" ^■"'i-
l.one<l that mor^afh nit t '! ""^ ^"■^^"' <=•'-
(Biot, M. J. p. Hji) -,, '"«- 'lis o« n slaves
Council of Aachen (a n Sir. V ,™""'' "^ ""«
be regarded „»th<..' v^ "'''"'"' '^-h'" m^y
of »la?en at h J „'ro7o.',"-' ecclesiastical vie,^
anlthat.althog ,:S^r""V'"^'^'"'•
comI)arati^•e int^lliJ '-';'"^»"'- regards not the
duals, yet Ho ht 1! ,';,^'"''''''''^"'> "^ '"Jivi.
cher^'to clzXz^;:zt: "i^rv"'
of the slave to do ill ZT) " *''^. " t'-'ndency
poweroftheJU'i.-!:: -'--Jbythe
tHelcty™Tt;2^L':''''^'^'^'-^'^^^"'-«'-->
.laves and de,,c S'^/'.V"'''""-'™'''''" "''"-^
towards the clis of "he fth reni""""'*^'^ """''-'
these slaves resided i! "'"J'' ''"''^« "">'
were Pe™.tte7;o ' 1^; l^rt 'ot' rh''-^'"' "''''
a condition closely re enE^Y '^'''T'"'-
with, that of the "colonus •' fv ."'• ".""'■■■''
in a charter confi™in'g ,e r ;ht:";.nd"''- "",""''
o/the sanje monastery! relL^Hs'te^^
"anc, llae "as well „s ft, .. ubM " r- . *„'"''
lam') and "chartulati " 64 I i~. *",'"!■
^ei^^tSrth-iiS"^--^
-trr^3„:-£St""^'-.'"
et™pfHo,..,.i:^;;!:^„:^t^-Miscipii^
code with that of Thf^"""'''"''" "^ ""^i'- »""
P«ints of material dillererce vh.! ""'i'' '"'*'
the Koman law — the ch/It' )• . ° ™'"I«"-e'' «'ith
slaves were pernntted ^* 'l-'itmction being that
^'"•nce(Biot,^4o") '" '"^^'S^ '° ™""'-"y
again relived a c^hfcr'" xte 'Sfl '''^^"""i
rer^nal slavery," says .Gibfcon (ed "L^tTi?/
;;'+).;' which had been almost snpf^essedbv'th
I'oaceful sovere srntv of Rome ,,. ' ' "^''^''™ °y "e
and multiplied bv the i, '. ^ ",""'" ™^''-e<l
;*.eindepen'de„t b rbar an's"'" Th tt"""*^" "'
lamed bv one write, ^^e theory main-
»laverv, Strictly ,0 <^, led °""" *"''J«'-''.-'hat
H.Germ-.n,',^ so-called, never esisted amnn^
-_-^>>^^^>n^., and that contact with the Lat"a
SLAVERY
1909
whdemStiirzeRoms." '"'"'"""^cbe Kncchtscbuft
among thJn,-i, :"•':" ?^ '"""^ '" "i»t,n^
established ";,nc,shl"':,^::;;;,;v;f' "- '"■»?
clearly implies tha fk ■ ." ^^"'"m- ". L'5)
talcenbvhsmas ; w.b ""^ '"■" ^""'J '^«
be <leni. l,"L^r . ' f y* ""''"'."'^ "'' 'aunot
in the str ct sens 1 1 ;; I •■'^""" -^'"''"J^
tive, institution 1 the 'n™ "T^ ' "l'' ? l"""'"
In direct contravent on of thl l'" ' ^'1; V ^^>-
and Ciallienus [.«,„•, ,",; .'^" 'w' '," ^"'"'■'■""
Merovingian dynlsty i, ' Kru^lln r "'"•"'^ '^
freeman to sell himse into s l"^™''"^'' »
prescribed the form 1 ■ M ? '"''•'''>'• ""'' «^-'^n
The research'. :f;.;':,;:;';r' '■''■"'•>''• -«)•
earliest codes of th T ■ '"""'"'-" *''■" *he
gians, K^,;!^: 1 "1, ~. «--s, Thurin-
t^undamental violation of „„, " ' '"*''''''e that
Salic Code and ; ha?o';Vhni- '" "l" »'''-•
estimated with refer^n'c.;' ' he^ "^ "i;^ '?
^wf^s.ib:;^:LtH"r-';^^«^"'^^
the q;H-stion'„f"hi:"£,t rtl'^-^'e'™' 7'"'
says Jastrow, to his " we, II •' ' T^I^V"'""'
other name. "In sLp !•« ^ ' ..""'^ ""'''''" «"-
Stubbs, "the practirof "'''"">■'' ^'''"''"''"^
the theory : theXeislrH i"^ i' ^•'"'^^'- ""'"
a day, anihis holy ^a "o^l ^ j'^ '- '»-„-
can purchase his iVeedom wi;h '"";"• ""
some unexplained wav LTn T'"^^ ""'^''^ '■»
to keep, „';,d th sLtt hw'' """"^'' •"■'"
penance on the master fi,r ill/. •"'/"'^'■'^'' »
his status descends tCr? «!"].•• ''"'
terity, unless the chain , hvokl'L ?"'■
t.on, are born slaves " (rW/A.^^ f"'i'"'^'P''-
also Kemble, Saxons in t"Ti i -■ '■ "^ ' '*•'«
In the laws'of X kL^f V ' S'S'^-SSo).
this " JIannwerth " ho ° °f Wessex (circ. 690).
gild " (see l^Trt ^^s^ '^'••';';r^% « " wer-'
41). One of the law7„f W e,f 'ifii'^^'tr ' ''"
made at a witen itrnm,,* h 1 1 V^ ' '^'"^ "' ^^'^U
690, requiref t-hft™ t / , '?i"""f "^"^ ■»
g'ves them meat on a fiu,rshaH ''-' ^^"
devoting his " hals-fi„tr" /' . I"^"'''"'-« ^v
'•"r punishment n th^e n^ '"' ^°^ "'"""""tion
"bond or free" (HmJ V] "^ redeeming
iii. 235-0). To The^forl Tt ^'"''''^' ^"""^4
the merit of obtain,-, fin ^h^t'-^"^ '« attributed
of the axiom rfC^/mn' '■'* ">* "''"P"""
monastcy could ha" ' T Tvr'rH 'f f ".'''^
M/c i gi?-* Ti,„ ''"■i\os (Hefele, ^e,'.
allow men t^; sell henT'l ^^'^''^''•■'^"'^. ho«'eve ,
' soul of the dead At n ^ "^ " '"""> *» the
bishops bound LsevertoT"' "/.P""'"- *»>«
all serfs on their™ tl! lVr,',''''-'''"'''^^«''««
was set free before the u '-""''".*' the slave
porch, and the Gosnel iV' l' "' '" '''" ^'''"'•^h-
6 G 2
^.^
1010
SLAVERY
Infiffpi'tivn. A hnmlrccl yfiirn Inter than Dimstnn
the wealth of KiiKlish imblfH wan »iiiil smiietimus
to »iiriiin tVoni breuilinj? itliivfii fur the inarki-t.
It wn» not till the reign of the tirst Noriimn liiii({
that the iireaching of Wulstan and the intlueiitc
of LanfiaDi; BUppresned the trmlo in itn hist
stronghold, the port of Urintol " (S/turt Jliaturi/,
pp. 54, 55).
The s.oncliislon» to which the foregoing outline
of facts appears to point, as to the extent to
which the Christianity of the tirst eight centuries
tiKHlilied the conditions of the slave, admit of
being very concisely summarized. During the
first three centuries Christianity could scarcely
hope iiiilerially to inHuence that legislation by
which it was itself ju'i-sccuted, l)ut, in conjunc-
tion with the philosophic teaching of the Stoics,
it brought about a change of sentiment which
led to the consideration of the whole question of
slavery from a dirterent standpoint. It spoke of
him as a man in this life, and as destined to im-
mortality hereafter. Of the general abolition of
a system which underlay the entire fabric of the
state and of societv, it 'had little ov no concep-
tion ; but with the fall of the Western empire
the whole question of labour, ra associated with
the cultivation of the land, assumed a phase
which ultimately involved the suppression of the
harshest features of the ancient slavery. Con-
currently with this change, Christianity was
gradually raising the condition of the sifive by
admitting him to the sacraments of the church
and to the ranks of the clergy, as well as by the
manner in which it encouraged his complete
enfranchisement as a Christian act, and associated
it with Christian observances. Even the in-
tolerant spirit which, at this period, began to be
displayed towards the Jew and the pagan, is to
some extent redeemed by the fact that it led to
the essential injustice of slavery being more fully
recognised. With these considerations before us,
it seems difficult not to assent to the view of
M. Wallon, that when, at a later time, with the
commencement of feudalism, the question of the
cultivation of the soil entered upon another phase,
there was no security in existing institutions that
the serf might not relapse into the condition of
the slave, Christianity interposed, and not merely
averted any such retrograde movement, but paved
the way for the complete emancipation of the
serf; while, by the admission of Gibbon, "the
custom of enslaving prisoners of war was totally
extinguished in the i:!th century by the infiuence
of Christianitu" {Decline ami Fall, c. xxxviii.
note 9t))- , ,
Authorities and works referred to : Muratori,
Dissert, xiv. and xv. in Antiq, [til. Med. Aevi,
vol. i. 1738; Xencdey {}.), Rbmerthum, Christ en-
thuin nndOe)tnanenVnim,mdd<renwechieUeitiijer
JCinttuss M der Uinnestiittuw) der Sdaverei des
Altcrthuins in die Leihcujcnschaft des Mittelaltcrs,
Frankfurt, 1840; Biot (Edouard), De I' Abolition
de I'Ksclavige ancien en Orient, Paris, 1840 ;
Wallon (Henri), Histuire de V F.sdavaije, 3 v.,
Paris, 1847; Babington (Churchill), Influence
of Christianity in promoting the Abolition of
SlMirq in Au;'o;«, 1 8 4 6 ; Rivi^re (A.), L'Eylise
et I'jJ.^ct.iVihje, Paris, 1864; Hcicle (C. J.), Skla-
verei und Christenthmn (in Bcitrdge zur Kirchen-
geschichte, i. 21'2-2i.'6); everbeck (Franz), Ueber
■das Verhdltniss der alten Kirclxe zur Sclaverie im
rSmisc/ien Aew/ie (pt. iii. ol Studien zur Geachkhte
SOCIAL LIFE
der <dten h'iirhe, Basel, 187.")); Allard (Paul,,
/,!■» I'Jsdivet Ciiriftiens ilcpuia lei preimen leniin
de I' liilise jnsun'ii la Jin de la Duminalion Uiinuii.e
en Uuculeut, Pans, 1870, and review of the
same by Ad. llarnack in Theulmjische t.iienitiii.
zeilunn, 1877, No. 0; .lastri>w (.1.), /«'• stnif.
rcohtlirluiii •Heliumi der Sclavm bei Deutachen uud
AnjeUchsen, Breslau, 1878. [J. B. M.]
SMAltAODUS (I), March 12, commonio.
rated at Nicomedia with Mardonius presbyter,
and others (.S'l/r. M.irt., Ilierun. Mart.).
(2) March 10, martyr at Koine under Jlaximin
with LarguB and others ; passio (Mart. Usuaid.,
Vet. Hum., Adon.); Aug. 8, depositio (ilnrt.
Usuard., Vet. Horn., Adon., on the Via Oatiensi ;
Mart, llicrun. on the Via Sularia).
SOCIAIi lilFE. The design of this article
is to point out and illustrate what appear t<i
have been the distinguishing charaoteristiia uf
Christian society during the first eight ccntuiiM.
As, however, these characteristics are found i»
dill'er considerably according to the varying tmi-
ditions of the age, any attempt to bring the
phenomena of dill'erent periods within a sint;le
outline couM hardly but prove fallacious; it ij
accordingly proposed to consider them as tiny
present tliemselves to our notice at three diHerint
eras : (I.) During the first three centuries.
(li.) In the empire, subsequent to the recci^'nl-
tion of Christianity by the state. (HI.) Aniuni;
Teutonic communities, 8ub.scquent to their nomi-
nal conversion to Christianity.
(I.) The Christian life, as conceived in the
primitive church, may be said to have Ijecu
dominated by two distinct, and, at first siglit,
somewhat antagonistic conceptions. The n|io-
stolic injunction to be " not conformed to this
world," but " transformed in the renewing of
the mind," and the teaching which led the ciirlv
Christians to regard themselves as "an elect
people, a royal priesthood, a holy race," were
combined with a theory of the relations of the
Christian citizen to mankind at large, which
completely broke down the barriers of' the oM
Roman exclusiveness and led him to look U|«n
mankind as, to use the expression of Tertullian
{Apol. c. 38), one great republic. It is cert.iin,
however, that, partly from a sincere desire to
inculcate principles which involved the recoijni-
tlon of a universal brotherhood, partly from
anxiety to discourage notions which causcJ
them to be regarded with suspicion and dislike,
the earlier Christians emphatically disclaimed the
adoption of distinctive institutions or peculiar
habits. Thus the author of the Epistle to
Dlognetus (c. 5) says that Christians " are in no
way distinguished by their country, speech, or
customs from other men ; " that " they neither
dwell in separate cities, nor use any peculiar
dialect, nor do they lead an unusual (iropticTiMOi')
mode of life" (Bunsen, Anal.Anle-Nic. i. 111).
It is in perfect harmony with histoiicnl ex-
perience at large that, though the centres in
which Christianity first assumed a distinctm
social character were noted for their luxurv,
dissi lotion, and immorality, the life of the Chris-
tians themselves in this uncongenial atniosphers
,»ppears (so far as we are able to arrive at the
evidence) to have been faithful to an unusuil
extent to the Christian ideal. The corruptions
that surroundi
Antioch, Alexa
thage were, in
minds n,.t total
which material
from yielding tf
example set by
{'■<mt. I'els. iii, ;!
the Christians i
hesitate to affini
among tlieni givji
jiagan communlt
rail' iv Tois Sijf
Oraec. x\. 4(i()).
isolation we add
the state, by w hi
the earlier Chii
"I'on with mistr
period almost n
exclusiveness am
course with the w
While, again, i
civil lite the Chri;
claim eccentricity
vailing jiractice, h
derived from thj
neither the one i
observed. At hoi;
which always affoi
right and virtuous
citizen) o/I'ered a si
of the |>agan in tl
was regular and sj
fered from it in so
looked upon as a
in the otiier as a
canonical hours of (
<Jth, and the 9th
marked out as time
circle, at the third h.
the common prayei
lujah Psalm sung.
of the day, preceded
special prayer for
lervance which, to u,
of Alexandria, con\
sacrament {Paed. i
c. 20). When the
mother and her chil
peace and then sepa
their dailv tasks ((
BuiLsen, Anal. Ante
the hours above si)e
prayer was strictly e
f'""'. c. 4) at sunrise
Wore retiring to re.
Mnptures were daily
comprehension, it was
only when this exerci
prayer (Origen, de Or
«ife were enjoined hot
»'U(iy the Scriptures
'Wing a view of the
"trilcingiy contrasts wi
to Socrates (Xenophon,
poke with no one le
'•"n in the exercise of
th.'f^ ^''*"''" (•'^'^1
!,«. " """"""s monast.
rwh century were often i
"''^Peatcitief.
SOCIAL LIFE
which maf..,i„H> WcV ;"' " "^ ^""""K
f'om yieMine to thV . ' l"''«.'rve then,
the chM,ti;:Vi„\r,!^:";;;ti-'-'''.«>'t''« iif^„-
he.it«te to „,firm th«t ev^fthe 1,' IT', ''''''", "'''
ri" i" rot, Sil^o^t,TJ''--''^\T ^"yxi^uu
the earl or Chr sti„ns „ '"""•' l«^^''^eout..,l,
ui-n with mi'trn the <7-7.'''"r"y '""l^'''
l>eno,l „,,„„,t «::! I'S;;:" '"^ "t thi,
e.Klu,lve„e,., „„d halVtIl A 1 "■ "''•"""
cou,™ with the world without " '° ""•^'•■
^;wMi''trSrl:;i:l!S;::i-7re.atio.or
derivc"d from 'th ilf" "' "'"^ ''''' '■■■""'"^t. «»
neither the "ne;,rth^";';' "•^'\ ^•'<''' that
observed. At horn hi, '""-''■..'•""''' 1"»» "n-
which always „(Cs%he I T''''"'-' '""'-■(*''« '"■«
right aud vfrtuou le .,t' f "r'rr '"'" *""
citizen) oDered a 8nper& " "'? .''"""•^ »f the
of the ,,a,„„ ,„ th?.t h"b :n;"nt7 '" 't"'
was nn'u ;ir aud sv,».,„.„»i ^ "' worship
I-ked upon 1" a n re It^'*"" '" "'^ ""'' *"^
i" the other a' a ZrL 7'""" '""' "^^'■'■^«'l
canonical hours of tTe„|. T'T .'"'"' ^^''^
«tl.«n,lthe9th\t:>-t"avno''''''^
marked out as times of, lu.. ♦• '"^^'-'O, were
cirekatthethirTh :. ^Hntu ""' '"'""">•
the common prayer was ortV f T""'"'*'^'
lujah I'.a!m sun/ Then foM'. ".T' *^' W''"'^-
of the day, preceded liln"'"','^' '^■•*' ■"'•■"I
specal pi;;er "or 'tl'liw^^rf ''-"'<='''- by a
servance which to use ♦!,! blessing, an ob-
«<• Alexand,' . ' ^.^n^Vt '^'Z^'^'T'''
c. 20). When he fi„; ^"■V"""'' ^ Oral.
mother and her h'ldrne"";:'' "'f "^■•-''•' t^e
peace and then s« '/"^'^S^d ^^e kiss of
thoir dailv tasks 'cw,' "•>■='•« "e.r^sary, for
the hours above si>e,.ifl„,i IV ^'f~'*> iJesides
prayer was str :ti;' TnSd rCv "'^ "' T'^"'*
^<"''- c. 4) at sunrise an,T/^ ''"*"• *-' ^'•«'-
Wore retiring to mtn^i /""?''' ('*• «• 3^),
Scriptures wefe dailv to he "', "."''"'s'^'- The
comprehension, it waVhet '■""'.','^!!* '}"''' "S^t
^niywhea thi Lerdj^^^h' 7 " ^' '""k^J for
P"yer(Origen, aeOat c Sir^FT'^f ''^
W'fe were enjoined bof , ♦„ ^\ Husband and
«tudy the sir nture, l!""^' '"S'-'ther and to
voivi,,^ a vfew of the o'^ \' " P''^^"!" "'-
»'riki"?ly conTrasts wirr^-''' ,'•«'"*'<">» which
to Socratis (Wphon L""-' ''■^.'.'^ "^ Crifobulos
•poke with no oTele's^ t'll "'•-.i'l*'"'' "he
^thee^erci^i^lS--^^-^;
SOCIAL LIFE
1911
farth century were "^S^Tnfh.";'"'^'' «"-" »P '» "-e
fcpeatcitiai. ""* '""""liate vicinity of
"■t'tg::tt,:;;;'S''"-«"i"'nednott„
bec^mr'r!nc£.^!"' 7"?'''^'"' -"' -^-^
t''« life of the :;,;::; '.,;"y.« ''<.ly-.Iay, and
"»l'rex,i„n of ,•],,, '' "'^'"'". t" q""te the
ti"n, Sira, JUfll ' ' - • ¥ "'''■'"'■'' "^ '"'"ra-
"'-ervlnees. how : r '::^T\ ■""^ '" »" "-■^''
which oHlTs t" e^;.,; ^ "'■'-' "'"denoted
'""I'cd upon as a nu, v I 1 '"'^ '*■"" ""t
the scrut „y of othirfl I ' " *^""'''''''' '''•'"»
'•c«.lilv sh.red V " "V"-'"' l"" *«'«
they repres:u/e,rw!;i 37: ";;; .:f« <J"^tnn-
l"-'taKa«.li>n, taking; the pi ''' of ' ''■"■' "'
"-■;» <■ ara,.teristic o'f pa^a'„i.:„r ''° '"''"""■"•
humHt^a^r'itr'T''""-'"'''''^''''''-'
"f the fami ■ a .f '"'"""" "^ ""= '""t''er
•"■ing about a Lorn, if: ,^." '-""^''''-'■•^'We as to
the relations of w^^K^^ "'"^''■•Ption of
obeclienctttoherhuirn " '"'"-''>■• ^^'''i'"
"!'<■" the wife [hat clot ?•'" "'^'' "'"'''"/
collision with .ne , f „'i:rh''-''i *''^'=", " ^■"""-- '°
f. j.<.«,v»*«w ; r:;j°,:ri;'-' r
t" be a stayer J Zu'^' fK^ ^^' !'yi""^*''^
the sphere of her a.ti Wtv in fhf '' "•"• ''^)'
was at once extend^l'd" mMT^'r'^'tf
household industry of the R, „ ^o the
mlded the higher Vnction nf "". """™° »''«
el;iMren(i.oiy;arp,S^:^r';"5;":H,^^
"...ret werf n-aii/ly'Smt'tariri::' ''"""-
sion of their sous. Cleme, t, f ^ ''''°''«'"-
the Christians at Co "he. ''"'"!, '=«'":<'«'^d«
then- children mod^'aton :d'cirasUtr''' ^''*
^/»5i. i. 147) "let ^.^^'"""s. ^/W/M
society, and their'^^.tlf! 1 ""?8^'"S '" W""
,i?f
1912
SOCIAL LIFK
good nnl "vil.nn'l, infnr rrom Ix'inK '^I'lnoriillm''!
Ty thrir »< h"c>l-f>^ll»wi, iiftiMi lii'ciiii;lit tlio eoii-
tii|{ic n with Ihrin I'liJin their I'vvii ImiiiPi,
riu' ilisiiiiliui; (if thi' CliriHli 111 hmiHi'liolil vri\n
(lintiiiitiiitlii'il, aniiiii, liv a «|iiiit i.f jji'ditir
j;i'iitli'ii(s», Ihn Rti'fnii('>» nt' tini |iin,'iiii I'lillii'l'
Iciwiinln liiii «in Ijcinu ejilimiKcil (nr ii t^iiu nf
Idviiij; luliiioiiltioii ((-'ypriaii, Tint. nilv. Juilnvii),
iii. 71).
While siirh wore the iufhioncei tlint provnileil
111 hirt cKuneitic life, llie ChrlHtiiin eitizeii left
his hi>iiii' til |iurHiie his iliiily iiviii'iitiniifl in the
Wnrlil inspiroil hy ii teachiiiK which lej hiiii t"
recii);iii<e III every other tiinii a liinfher, nml
nniieil with n inonil cmle which wan eipial tii
everv iineatinii iif ciinii ieiiie that iiiiifht arise, a
ciiile which was, in the langimjfo (if Kuimseaii,
"always (;ertain, always tine, always .lingle,
mill always in harnmiiy with itself.' In sin-
(;iilar ciiiitrast tii that feeling nf hntreil fur
fureijrners on which I'lato {MenrxciiHS, p. 'il.'i)
ci)ii'4ralnlatps his fellnw-citizeiis, .Instill (/!/«</. i.
14, ii. 1:1) e.vpressly mites that whereas sympathy
anil intercdurae hail before existeil only between
those who beliini^eil to the sanv! natinnality,
(Christianity admitted no snch liiiiitatious.
"We," he says, " who bated and destroyed one
snothcr, and on account of their ('.ill'ercnt innn-
liers would nut nse n roiiimnii /ictirth (iml Jirc''
with men of n ditVereiit tribe, now, since th(.'
cominn of Christ, live familiarly with thein, and
pray for our eneinies." Kvei. towards those
whii were not of the same faiui the church re-
C(i);nisi'd the obligation of shewing friund.diip
an.l of e.Nchangiug friendly ollices, "ncce.ssitas
nmicitiaruni oHiciorniiKiue Kcntilinm " (Tert.
t/c Caltii Fein. ii. 11; Mijjne, i. lHiO); wbilenll
alike, yonni; and old, bond mid free, Greek and
liarliariiiii, were ecjually admissible as members
of the Christian polity (C'lemen.s, Strom, iv. 8 ;
Miiine, l'ati;il. Gnwc. viii. '21'.)). The e.xigencies
of the state at this period forbade, indeed, any
to entertain the notion of a geiier.il abolition of
slavery [Si.AVKUV], but the Christian could lool
upon the slave as one born by misfortune in a
coiiilitiiin which, howevr jiitiable, involved no
religiiiiis inenuality, and which he was bound to
amilior.ite by acts of kindness.
Underlying this new and greatly enhanced
estimate of man a.« an individual, there was the
Christian theory of the sanctity of human life,
which rested, in turn, on the belief in the im-
mortality of the soul. The iiroouring of abortion,
nigarded among pagan communities as scarcely
deserving of censure, was from the first system-
atically denounced by the church. The mother
guilty of this crime was e.\cluiled by a decree n(
the council of Ancyra (a.d. 314) from the sacra-
ment until the hour of death [Children].
Infanticide, and the e.tiwsure of newly-born
infants, a common practice under the empire,
and, according to St Ambrose {Ilexnem. v. 18),
especially prevalent among tlie poor, as abortion
was more the practice of the v.ealthy, was
shunned by the Christian cijmmunity with
horror. "Christians," says the writer of the
Epistle to Dioguetus (c. 5), "marry and begat
children, like the rest of mankind, but they
<> The allustou in this oxprosslon to a community of
religious rites Is especially deserving of uuticc. See
Fustcl de CoulangcB, La Cite Anti(iue, c. 1.
SOCIAL LIFE
do not cnit away their olliipring." (f^tt <i>n
l.a tantius, /'if. /imt. vi. Jd i I'ml. TIu'hI. XI.
xxvii. 1 and 2 ; ih. V, vii. 1 j All.inl, /-c» A'.w/jrij
(7i)rt. etc. p. ;t('0.)
Uut while the 1 (inception of smial (ibli>:ati( in
and sytiipatliiis beiaine thus greatly exteluli.!,
in one particular relation, that id' the iiuliv iilii.l
citi/eii til the civil jiiiwer. It inviilved u diiliritit
•tanilard from that of paganism, and one which
was also s what lower, 'fhe Christian plan. I
huiiiaiiity almve the city, and repudiated a tlni.rv
which invulveil the idiliteraliim of iiidivi.lii.il
rights whenever they came in cimllict witli t i,.
supposed necessities of the state. The diitii-. ..f
private life, llmse of the iiinii to himself, to iiis
family, and to Cod, were now regarded as piir:i.
mount, and patriotism was no Ioniser the auprem.'
duty of the citizen. The iiatrintism of tl,,'
pagan, indeed, it lias been truly said, was Imt n
species of rulined egoism by which he deniaicl.M
back with interest all that he gave to tlif
(•ommiiiiweal. On the Christian the love uf \iU
ucighbiiur was enjoined as a principle, a priii.
ciple which rendered the iiiterpretatioii of all
social duties easy and iiitellii;ihle (Clem. Ili.ni.
iij Corinth, i. 41)). The empei-or .Julian {l.)n,t.
40) could not but contrast the kin Ines, ,.|'
Christians to strangers with the ordinary p;i.{:iii
iudillereiice, and indicatei, this feature, tnu'itluT
with the care shewn by them for the tmiilis ..|'
tlie dead and their external decorum of i|.-
meanoiir, .as three points well deserving tlio
imitatiiiu of pagans.
On the other hand, the early Christians were
leady cheerfully to recognise all the custniimry
_ oblig.itiiins of the citizen to the commoiiwwiltli,
Justin, in addressing the emperor Aiitiuiiiiis
I'ius, .says, "We everywhere liefore all tliinc*
endeavour to pay tribute and taxes to thuse
whom you ajipoint" (.l/io/. i. 17; see iilso
Tatian, c'o/ii. dr-nTus, c. 4; Aj'ost. Ctmst. iv. l:i),
The graiidcliildren of Judc, Kusebius tells iis
(/.'. II. iii. '20), when summoned before Dnniitiiii,
pleaded in proof of their loyalty to the civil
power the taxes which they paid from tlieir
manual labour, exhibiting their hands enlli.iK
with toil. Tertullian {Aixil. c. 3:i) declares tli.it
theChristiaus are actuated by a more reaMmnlL'
sentiment of loyalty towards the emiieror tlaii
that of the pagan community. Origen alliiins tli, t
by their pray-:n they render cH'ective support t
the imperial cause, " composing a sacred army U
their intercessions with the Deity " {and. Veh.
bk. viii.; Migne, I'atrul. Grace, xi. 797). His
language to Celsus aiipears to imply that llii-y
often declined civic ollices, but he justi(ie.s .siuii
conduct on the ground that in so doing theyiirf
able to give themselves "to the more hdy mA
pressing service of the church in saving the
souls of men " ('&.).
In the choice of a profijssion or a crnfl, the
Christian wa» necessarily under a certain
disadvantage when compared with his pai;,iii
fellow-citizen, from the disfavour with whiili
his creed was regarded by the state on
the one hand, and from the limitations im-
posed by the church on the other. liy tfc?
church he was forbidden to engage in anj
art or occupation which pithpr dirertly ■'.
indirectly subserved the rites of iiloljtrr
(Trades). The profession of the astrologer it
the conjurer (the latter at this period a frcipieBt
•nil fniilfiil .,
ful (.Slander,
might assume
heen imposeil
voluntary ado
fiir Cliri.tiiui c
The (ailing o|
altogether tori,
adoption of tlm
||" pagan jean
account of the
he Would he n
nn, partly fium
fession with tli
and cereitKinics
nccessiiry restri
scribed oulv bi
creed: "It i,'
iii. II ; Miijne,
part in |,ul,lic m
in the business
he done huneatl-
that one has hut
Idleness was ^
in contrast to
lahiuir was iiphe
Ciinstitiitioiis (iv
to find eniployiiK
especially for oc
to whom his epis
their hands thai
jfiveiieas for j,
a/iapTiiiv (rou (Ci
It was, however
church, nt least
the clergy were
manual labour (M
The ao(|nireme()
have been pronou
hut the teachers
that when aci|uire
purposes ; money,
difcH snIvetHr, c. 1
.'13H), being an in.\
If lawfully obtai
enterprise, or inh
wrongful in its nie
devoted to chnrital
«pirit of avarice.
the new spirit of pf
tianity, that althou
still continued to
diminished extent
times appealed mai
s.vsteniatic beiievole
are to be found be.
The church at Ron
ported no less than
43). Nor was this i
had embraced the
taneity of this benev
to the observation o
so deeply as to brin,
recent writer has si
that the care shewr
fortunate and the
oftiers the stroncest •
SOCfAL LIFE
3:™ x:i53,--^ri^,r";;;
Kf ;;:;::7:;:r£"i:";r:::-: !t'
:?:s,r:i;;;;: ™ t;bi;' ;f
nf m,,,, , Kfi'i'imiiticu., " ,„. t,.nch..r
.crib...l mJ; In Z' \';':''';'.''' "■"" '■"•'">"-
Hi II .. "'"liil, anyH (' i.|,ii'riii r /'„ . ;
"'• 1 ; Mn;nn, /v.w. «r,„.,. yjij , ./ u
in the l.u»i„,.s« „f thi. woln , , '■"'-'"'-"-'
that on,, has l„a on" price '"^ ""^ "'"' '"""*•''''"'
III 1 iMi| i„n,„.||t lornrtisnns mit nC u,„l, ,„„i
espi'ciii y (ir m iih«n« i(» l "^ '" ."""^' "'"I
the cl.-Kv w^r. on, t7p, » t '' "-"""'J'' ""at
man,.,., ■•rho::r(M:s u;.c!'.-„r"'''''' '"■"
Ihe noqnirement of wealth does not appear to
have been pronoiinceil unlawful hv m'k u
fortunate and the poor is » hi r 1 "'\"''-
o«^r. the strongest • 'ZtVtn^^^Zl ^^^^
SOCIAL LIFE 1013
-:;}:,„ ni-^^hrc^y-
.i-iS^^!::!;!;,:!;^!:"'!^ •^■""" - '"-
with thn,e vh. w-h * '*'■';''''"* '■'•'•>■'""»«
whi.h he haT ',:"";' '" ;:-'"'li'«t- th,. tenet.
«-tinH.nt.:twi'i,rni ""''■'''■'•' •'■'■'''''«
•h.Hvn l,y hi, n„w IN ''""*-'""» «">-0 host
them ill.V ev , f ?'■'' ""' ""■'■"l>- «" '/"
niH'ient tiailition in ,k i u' '""""" " l"''-
"ventoc „' Ir '"'''"■■'"' f'i'"""'!-. »n.l
-usisten^Vh,, '":?'■'; "'/,^-"' »« '"'■•'Ily
"vn after the e" a it . T"!'"' l"'J"'li<'«
The nrlWtrai n ,"t;T I .''' '■'"«'""■
Ami thin arl, itratir 'I ""''"« ''i'li'-'-ntes.
M.pportcVb- 1" f'!'''!'^'':'"^^"M-^
thi civil m, It t t^:''"' "'■''"'l"'''^'' •'''•'"^'-'
"lent of their pastors """"""■" '" ">..■ arbitra-
ta'^'. ' to ^;;:;^ S^,:^ christian wa,
boing systematically nvoiced ',;,": r'""""'""
2; Ali,/ne^/«;;j°^f "''''''''^^ '•»"^'"' (/'^^rf. ii.
(Tert. .l/>o'T 'iM Th '" •?''"""'■'' ''>• them
, f the 4,u,n'et- he re elTr r^"'T"T'''
I lascivious dances and wanten T""^ ""'' '''
■•» evident' that he ^-lierVhrir"" ",^ ''''''^^ "
■' 1*1
--...options. ..:^zt^!:^t^^z ! i!^i^;--' -^S'^-^^t'^ss:;;^
1914
SOCIAL LIKE
tiroes. Even Clemens {Paed. lii. 11), while
condumiiiug u .due luxury and etVeminaey, says
that " the wearing of gold ornaments and soft
raiment is not altogether to be condemned, but
only an undue fondness for such attire," and he
quotes St. Paul (1 Cor. vii. 31). Tertullian,
hewever (de CM. Fern, ii. 11), seems to imply
that a.nong females the convert to the faitl) was
distingtiisiied by greater sobriety of apparel.
In the furniture of his house the Christian
was to aim at simplicity. " The use of gold and
silver vessels," says Clemens {PaeJ. ii. 8), " is
vain and idle, a mere illusion of the eye. The
supertluous possession of such wealth evokes
envy, it is hard to acquire, hard to keep, and
ill-adapted for use." Silver plates and goblets,
tripods of cedar, ebony, or ivory, bedsteads with
gold and silver feet, purple curtains, &c., are
enumerated by him as tokens of undue luxury,
which the Christian should not possess.
Works of art adorned with representations of
the deities of the pagan mythology would of
course be banished from the Christian household,
but there can be little doubt that uuring the
first two centuries the tendency to asceticism
among Christian communities led to an undue
depreciation of art, especially in sculpture and
ornament. Buonarotti (de Vitris Cocmeterinlibtis ;
Mamachi, i. 240) attributes to this fact the
comparative rudeness of the devices on the
Christian tombs (Hefele, Beitrdge, i. 26).
In the question of lawfui recreation and
amusements, the broad principle laid down by
Cyprian, that the scriptural code forbade the
Christian to witness what it was unlawful for
him to Ji) — " Prohibuit enim spectrin quod pro-
hibuit geri " (de Spectao. c. 4 ; Mijpiu, iv. 340) —
atlurded safe and intelligible guidance. The
s.inguinary gladiatorial contlicts which so de-
lighted every class in those t'mes were a
spectacle altogether unlawful. " if," says Ter-
tullian, " we can maintain that cruelty, impiety,
and barbarity are lawful, let us to the amphi-
theatre " ('/f' Spectm. c 19). " What vileness,"
says Clemens, " is there which is not exhibited
in the tlieatre ? . . . They who, from the un-
cleanness of their own hearts, take pleasure
therein, transfer the representations they have
witnessed to their own homes " (Pace/, iii. 11;
Migne, Series Graec. viii. 109).
Of the isolation in which, according to some
writers, the primitive Christians passed their
lives (I'lcuan, St. Paul, p. 562), few signs are
observable in the 3rd century. ''The Apostolical
Constitutions," says Blunt (fi'rs^ Three Christian
CentKriiS, p. 311), "abound in provisions for a
mixed population of Christian and heathen
thrown into the most intimate civic and social
relations." Christians are not unfrequently t<
be found holding high public office and even
important position at court. The Christian
father of St. Basil wa» one of the most intluential
citizens in Pontus. Eusebius (E. H. vi. 28)
states that in the hQ.usehold of Alexander
Sevo. \is, whose mother, Julia M.ammaea, be-
frii.iiilod Christianity, they were numerously
represented. Theonaa, bishop of Alexandria
(A.D. 282-:iOO\ writing to Lucian, who held high
oifioe in the court of Cons..,ntine Chiorus, gives
him detailed advice respecting his conduct in this
dilficult pixition : he was to practise impartial
justice to rich and poor, never to grant access to
SOCI.XL LIFE
the emperor for a bribe, to be courteous, bene-
volent, and jLiodeat unalloccasions, and especially
to obey and serve the emperor himself with the
utmost fidelity, so long as in so doing he was
not involved in a breach of religious dutv
(Bitilioth. PP. Gallamli, iv. 69, 70). "If a
Christian was appointed librarian, he was to
take good care not to shew any coitem|tt fur
secular knowledge and the ancient writers. He
was ad\ised to make himself familiar with the
poets, philosophers, orators, and historians of
classical literature, and while discussing their
writings to take incidental opportunities of re-
commending the Scriptures, etc." (Newman,
Avians,^ p. 68). Notwithstanding, however, many
and eminent? exceptions, it is evident that the
larger proportion of the converts to Christianity
during the first three centuries was drawn fioin
the humbler classes of society. To Cclsus, who
made it a matter of reproach, that the new faith
appealed to and was embraced by the most
illiterate and simple of mankind, Origen contents
himself with the general reply that Christianitv
was essentially catholic in character, and, while
receiving accessions from all parts, did nut
exclude the young, the uneducated, and the slave
(Origen, c. Cels. iii. 44; Migne, Patrol. Graec. xi.
476).
Although the foregoing outjine is liable to the
objection that the picture it presents is derived
rather from the precepts which we find laid down
by the authorities of the church than from facts
in the actual lives of the early Christians them-
selves, there is good reason for believing that
precept and practice in these ages were in closer
agreement than perhaps at any subsequent
period of church history. The observation of
Milman (Lat. Christianiti/, bk. i. c. 2), that
" early Christianity cannot be justly estimated
from its writers," is applicable rather to the
polemical character of many of their treatises —
a feature which in no way detracts from the
value of the didactic literature of the age, or
the presumption therein afforded of large and
increasing communities, like that at Rome,
growing into power and importance amid quitt
obscurity and the practice of a genuine though
retiring Christianity. The impression which the
very imperfect data that remain to us are
calculated to produce — the heroism of those who
from time to time were compelled to attest the
sincerity of their convictions by encountering
martyrilom — the reluctant admiration which the
lives and tenets of the Christians evidently
excited in the minds of the less prejudicial
observers among the pagan party — all combine to
prove that the natural recoil from the excessive
demoralisation of society under the empire
uniting with the lofty teaching of the new t'aith
brought about a very high standard of practical
morality.
Already, however, there were evidences of a
considerable decline from the primitive simplicity
and earnestness. Cyprian contrasts the luke-
warmness of the church in Africa with the zeal
of the apostolic age, when believers sold their
possessions and gave them to the poor : " Now,"
he says, " we give not even tenths from our
patrimony, and whan the Lord bids us »c!l, kc
buy and store" {de Unit, c- 24; Migne, iv. JOI).
In another passasje he says that long inimiinitr
from persecution had brought about a great
decline in religio
diociplinam pax ]
upon the trial c
divinely designee
almost unconscioi
Migne, iv. is2).
the increasing u
avarice, but als(
Christians with p
(Ii-) That Chris
ncss and earnestn
by the state and
enij)ei-ors, is a ge
Die Christ!. Kirche
troii premiers Siec
Schmidt, La Sociel
existence, it has b
by the vast nun
accessions to its i
Moral, ed. 1851, i.
century themselves
the degeneracy of
with apostolic timei
large numbers of pr
whose sole i'elii;io
coming to church" 01
Sirof rov iviavTov t)
{de I'ajit. Christi,c.]
3iJ4). Augustine h
defections in his floci
the church to a corp
fession of religion, he
unworthy motives : (
■ seeks to gain the go
they may interest :
another takes refug
powerful foe ; anothe
accomplish a marriag
sibility, « ut aliquan
evadat " (in Joh. Emn
I.XXV. 1600;&/,rt. jtlv
On the other hand, tli
a really Christian lif
persecution and ridici
*m. i, 4 ; Migne, xx,
1 urin compares the ab;
Works in his day with
age. So far from coll
the apostles' feet, the (
says, are to be seen dra<
extortion from the feet'
wealth consists in gooi
he fears that a wealth
found " in coetu nostro
That, as soon as Chr
under the protection
fmperor, large number:
Its tenets from no bett(
sell-interest and policy is
but it is necessary als,
other causes which at
considerable potency, and
«ble to morality and simi
these the most important
W Ihe remoml of th
'^Pl'!- By this im,)o"rtan
"'urt was brought directl
mSaencs of Oriental habi
the result there prevail
cWs of society an ar
etteniinacy unprecedented
S^OCIAL LIFE
.■"."St-uuco„^. •:! 'e:nS " O/f /' '""'"' "»''
M gne, iv. 1H24 „ "".""'"n (<w I.apsis, c. 5 ;
avarice, but also tZ^f! '"""^^-S^'ting aud
Christian hJ';:^,^ (ft "eT.' "''"'^''- "^
by tl,e ^tatrrndlLTV.^rn'iV"""^''''™
emperors, is « irenprnll. i ° ?> successive
existence, t has Hnpi. ^i. •'• "* ^'ery
by the vast nut cal but'' ''■''^''''•''''''^"-'
accessions to its ranks rHil k'^'^L^ ""■"">"'
century them.^Ivesfre;„pT.H '^*i'"'." ^^ 'he 4th
the degeneracy of theTr S wb'* ""'' ''''»'■"«
with apostolic times Chri^ ."' T"''"*"^^
large numbers of professed ChrT '''*?''l °f th«
whose sole reliWoul nh ^''^''8"'* '" his .lav
oon-ing to churcll^rce t'^VT^'^' -
3ri+). . Augustin'e hmeT:,^:^-^^- '^''■
defections in his flort «„^ „ ® mmierous
the church to a rpse ""I'^rP''^^ the body „f
fession of reli..,o,^^ hp.. ^'""'^^^ho make a pro-
unworthy n Hv il^VhTmrf '" i"«-noeJ by
seeks to gain the %ood\vT f^lu 'T""' ""''
ti.ey maf interest' the,: ,,' b" bf TVjf
another takes refuge in Ip A u ^'''''*!
powerful foe ; anotlfer seek to .ain'''^ ■^'"7 "
accomplish a marriage or to p° T * ^"'"'^' '"
'ibiiity, "ut aliqZ^Lsuram .'""'' "'''""■
I.tiv.l600;&r,«.jtlvii 17 Mi„„ ^^ ; Jligne,
age. So far from coIIp, tin "" "PO'^'ol'c
the apostles' feet the rh if- """"7 '" '"^ '' »*
««yjre to be sel dra^^ ;''?'-';'^.h'» -^-r- he
enortioa from thTfe'^oTtl. 'Sr^ "//!"'''
5-'i„coetunr^(r„:^^;«j;^^,-^be
-t'th": pn°e::i,?tr;L?'"' '•-"*'"^-
^peior, large nu , berri ' ". ""u ""^'^ "'' 'he
its tenets Crom Tl,. ^"""^ ^"''^ P^fessed
"Wetomorafityan'd'mplt'';"';™""':"'"^-
thea. the n,„st i-portant^pil; to' have t^'"^
Asses of societv'ir """'"- "'e upper
SOCIAL LIFE 1915
MiK (/I'^\Tcr/*''« E-t,- observes
"were too tr^n/ for Th '"''?'.''''• "'• «• 1),
first Christian emnerorP '''«'?• ^'''''^ 'h*
ceremonial. whi^h^Tt JTr'?"''' 'hat Oriental
rebuked by tt oU 7&:"'r T'' *"«*'
""Perial depot would n„. "^ '*'""'• 'he
founded another cr.Wtll-L'"''""'" "" he had
describes the court It L ""''''''''''°"''
"vitiorum omnium seminV'T" "'" J"''"" <"
With the latTer halfTf thp""" ^'•''- """ "^^ ^)-
to be seen spreading w i"'"*'"'^ *his evil is
of Chrysostom, Jlaximn, „rr • ^ ' "^ sermons
and the letters of Jeromp„>T' "'"' "''h'^odoret,
»hew that Iwurv an I . ^"K-^'i"" plainly'
usual concomitants of „,'■'"•''•'"'''"' ^^''h their
love of money-ge in/wpy"; T^ '""'•'^'"«'«
"'ost fl.gr«„t^^r"s ff snc r *'"' '""•'*' the
which the teach s''„f the c^^'V"''* ''^'""■^*
'" « continual struggle thou.h IT ""^''e'"*
perfect success. ^^ ' "^h With very im-
affected more^directh the rt' ' i'"'"^^' ^'''''^h
the ago. Ammianu^dcrib'ef •""V'^r''"^ "^
the reign of Constantius a t h'ghways i„
urging their way to h" dfflbr. "' \ '"'^'"'P-^
on "reducing the whole seft to Vk'^"'"*' '"'^"'
opinions " (bk. xxi. " 16 h-i^'"' P'"-ti'^ular
thedistingiishedoppon nt^f thp r *" ^"'•'"'
that there are "a'^^^ man/ jl!^""'''"-^' '™«"ts
among men, as manv d„,/- ""*" "' "P^n'on^
"nd as many sources of M^f "' i-^Iinations,
(«rf Co«s?a«/ iH Mi °p"''K''t'"y "^ faults''
that the ten prov^incef of /^^'""'^'■^ "•"'•'"»
the simple enumemion^^f ?r'!>"«.'''''-''"«'^ that
Christianity atTb ?♦ ""^ rfifferent sects of
huge vol-'LV Mt e 'x^il To^ "wr '\ ^^
essayed to establish the nWn'. ^h«" Ju'ian
--'quality in the relations oT h!f'". 1 '"■"='»"»
contending sects, theiifipvrpV, '**''*' 'o these
appeared i him to s™ti;:rf'r '"""''
boasts towards man (bk Ixi . fx A '""''
e.vtent to which n, ''^■. .^'"'' c. 5). Of the
ftirred all e£„ ' ::iettC'/t'^'' ""^
•s aftbrded in the thirtt^f ^'/ ^""^ '""■^tration
of Na^ianzum He sfv's pTp*^ ^'■"""° "^ '^'"S'"-/
PUtes generated by 7heEunn''' that the dis-
market places rinedistHrKtr"""" """^l^ the
penetrated even to'thp r'"''>' banquet, and
f.7; Migne, ^«l^.'.5 ,^Tx°;w1r«^V^^'■'''•
tlne deplores the fact /h^t L.t®^^" ^"§"8-
worship manv gods \w!h; '"'"'* 'he p,n|ans
tians w'ho wirs^p :„ ^"e ^"7'«"ing, Vh'ris.
remain in unity {s^ T rn^- """'''' *"
Migne, xl. 712) ^ ''* ^'''''- J«>"'*- c. 7 ,
oii^ir^-r tt'tt^ie'-of^Tb""' -":'^'-
attention to obscure n , .1.- '^" excessive
dogmatic belief b";': t^ be Tke " *'""'"^^'
greater importance than virtn '""'^^'^ "P'"" as of
conduct itsilf was conceived Tnr"°''"l' ' ''^^'
■"Pirit-almsgivin-r fa^tinl i. . '"^ "'"chanical a
hours being the vfrtues 2't ^^ ^^^^""^ "' ''''^""^
e.v|.ressly savs that these avp fk '': '^ '"-'"stine
actij-ns in this lif ^p^'^.^'J't'"™'''^'''"'
'•Three things,"savs 1 Jo. h!V '.*'"'"• '"• ^l)-
" there are which , , * r ""' <*'"'"• »ii- *),
godly actioni^ri'?^ a" appertain to
praying, fasting, and almsgiving."
191G
SOCIAL LIFE
Penance wns iniimseJ In* flie church for loni-
Jiinntivcly siniiU oll'encps, anil the canons cif
numerous councils shew a tendency to enforce
a i<j.s<^i)iline which, although [lerhaps prmluctive
of greater outwaril decorum, cannot but have
exerciseil an enervating influence on the higher
conceptions of morality.
(4) Knlianccd diatinctiuns between the tiumastie
and eec'eskistieal nrders and the laitii. Notwith-
Btandmi; the many examples ortered by inonas-
ticisni in its earlier stages of self-denymi; virtue
and saintly life, its inlluence on society at large
was certainly of a Somewhat mixed character,
attracting admiration among the majority of a
life which they were unable to imitate, and thus,
as Gieseler observes, familiiirisiffg society with
the notion of a " higher and a lower order of
viitue " (A'irchenycsch. vi. 104). It is again at
least doubtful whether the greatly advanced
conception of the priestly office that now began
to prevail tended to raise the moral tone of
society at large. The clergy were regarded as a
class exclusively devoted to religious duties,
whose works of supererogation might avail on
behalf of others. Eusebius describes the clerical
and lay elements as constituting the two great
divisions of society, of which the former, seeking
neither for marriage, nor children, nor wealth,
is devoted to appeasing the Deity both on their
own behalf and that of their fellow-Christians
{Dcm. Ktan^. i. 8 ; Migne, xxii. 29, MU). No
humiliation or punishment was regarded by them
with so much dread as that whereby they were
degraded into the position of laymen (Milman,
Hist, uf Christianitij, bk. iv. c. 1).
(.">) Deiieiuraci/ of the clcnj;/. Notwithstand-
ing the increased attention pai 1 to organization
and to ritual, the morality i>\ the clergy was
exposed to no ordinary temptations by their
growing power and wealth, and especially by
the right which the church acquired under
Constantine of holding landed property and
inheriting it by bequest. The practice that now
began to prevail of making the clergy the
ordinary dispensers of charity, was also pro-
ductive of trequent abuse. A law of Valen-
tmiau I. {Cod. Theod. XVI. ii. 27, 28) declares
all bequests and donations to ecclesiastics null
and void. " Charioteers, actors, and harlots," says
Jerome, " yea even pagan priests, may receive
what a Christian priest may not ; I complain not
on behalf of the church, but I blush for those
who have made this law necessary " (Epist. 52 ;
Migne, xxii. 261). Chrysostom advises his
hearers to distribute their alms themselves, and
not through the agency of a priest or deacon
(Thierry, iS.Je'r6tiui, p. 17).
Other causes might be enumerated, but the
foregoing may safely be nosigned as those which
appear to have operated with the greatest
potency when tested by the social phenomena of
the 4th and 5th centuries. The period A.D. 350-
400 has indeed been indicated as that when the
greatest luxury known in ancient times pre-
vailed, and whatever may be the feature of
society selected, it is impossible not to recognise,
even among those communities which enjoyed
the most enlighteneil spiritual instrnrtion of the
time and altbrded the most eminent examples of
the Christian virtues, the demoralising cll'ects of
this influence. In the 4th century, the ostentation
ftnd luxury that prevailed among the Christians
SOCIAL LIFE
excited the surprise even of the jiagan party,
and Chrysostom reminds his hearers hnw much
more etlective is practice than precept : " whec
they" (the pagans), he says, "see ua building
splendiil palaces and ba'hs, laying out gardens,
and i)urciiasing estates, they cannot bidieve that
we are looking forward to dwelling in another
city " {Hum. xii. in Matt. ; Migne, V'ttroi. Gnwc.
Ivii. 2118). The view that the frivolity and dis-
sijiation engendered by this excessive luxury are
to be looked upon as mainly characteristic of
those who, while giving a fornuil assent to
Christianity, really retained the habits and tastes
of paganism, is not altogether borne out by the
facts. Zosimus (iv. 33) does not hesitate to
accuse even Thendosius of culjiable ell'eminaoy;
and the sons of Theodosius were conspicuous fur
the oriental splendour by which they were sur-
rounded, and the gorgeous attire which attractt'd
the admiration of the vulgar to their jiersdn
(Miiller, dc (lento, etc. Aevi Theudns. p. 10). The
language of Synesius at the court of Anndiiis
attests the existence of a moral degeneracy at
the imperial court which the philosopher and
the Christian alike condemned (Migne, I'^ti;
Griie.; Ixvi. 1075-90). The governors of the
provinces, Eut''opius, Rufinus, and Andronicus,
were as corrupt, as rajiacious, and as cruel as
Verres. Milman characterises the life of the
aristocracy as "exhibiting the pomp ami |ini.
digality of a high state of civilization with none
of its ennobling or humanizing eti'ects " (///.rf. of
Christiiiniti/, bit. iv. c. 1). Ambrose describes
the holders of high public offices as seeking to
gain the popular favour by instituting games in
the circus, performances in the theatre, and
exhibiting gladiatorial combats {de Opiciis Minist.
ii. 21 ; Migne, xvi. 131). In another passage he
says that the regard for wealth has taken snch
a hold of men that none but the rich are had in
honour (I'A. ii. 26 ; iii. 6). Asterius, bishop of
Amasea in Pontus, remonstrates with his hearers
on their abandonment of "all care for virtue
and the welfare of their souls;" he describes
them as devoting themselves entirely to the pur-
suit of gain and to lounging about the mnrlitt
places ; he depicts the luxury of their liantpiets,
— the attendants, wine-bearers, butlers, musi-
cians, dancing girls, flute-players, biill'.iuns
{y(\wTpiroioi)s), parasites, — and then asks, " How
many poor are w ronged in order to provide this
luxury ? How many orphans are maltivateJ
{KovSvKtCovrai)? How many widows inaile to
weep ? " (Migne, Patrol. Graec. xl. 170). Per-
haps however the most sinister feature is that
he declares that many seek to be well spnlien
of by slave-dealers. In his sermon on Itives aiiJ
Lazarus, he describes the prevailing extravagame
in dress— a feature almost invariably indicative
of a low standard of public morality. Some
wove into the material of their costume n'lire-
sentations of wild i limals and hunting stones,
which excited the wonder even of the chililra
in the street, who would follow pointing at the
wearers. The more pious selected subicots in
sacred history, the miracles, &c. {ih. xl. li!G-l"U).
The clergy shared in this form t)( degeneracy.
.Terome describes the young dea(!ons at Rome as
appearing in public with their hair curled like
that of actors, perfumed, and wearing rings en
their fingers, gomg from palace to palate, and
there singing luvc-songs or declaiming tumeiliis, I
*nd leaving wi
^2; Align,;, XX
I'he amusem
«ame temieiicie
observes. " niac
these" {Cioilis.
Animianus Mii
orders that th
"their temple,
assembly, and (
(hk. xxviii. 4).
prevalent, and
habits of thrift!
At the council
deemed necessar'
ing niarriage fe,
leap— /8aAA/f(„/
574); the clero
before the plays
direction which t
f'irmances were c
the laity.
•As a consequen
duties and the sat
the (ireat {de i'o
even the rite of |j
until tliey found t
Other oiJservancei
feasts at the tombs
into occasions of si
The widesj)read
whether we look u
(I'AOANISM, SURVl
new Oriental influ
was the Christiani
on presenting to h
" mathematicus " w
and had come for
books, implies that
tians;— "Quain „,„
nummos abstuJisse
xuvi. 748).
The laxity that pt
inferreil from the fac
by Constantine on li
1) were almost abr
III. xvi. 2); and A
changed their wives i
prepared fresh marri,
booths at a fair (Migi
Zosimus (iv. 28 ;
strictures of the Ka'th
ruptions of the court
grade of society, and
were disregarded in tl
aad indolence-a con.
the view of Gibbon (ii,
the overflowing prosp
from "that indolent ,
present hour, and decl
'"J" If indeed wen,
quoted -from Ammiai
close of the 4th centur
-represent both paga
"iJ also depict society ,
""|)ortant provinces bol
"'estern empire, the" d
recommendd in estimat
times from the writings
prevent us from conclud
?»nveyed is, „„ the wh
•>« » matter for surpriB
SOCIAL LIFE
An.,n,„„,,3 Jlarcellinus as,/// ''.r;" ','^' '; «'*>•
orders that the Circus AInv "'" '"^^^r
"their tomple, thirlw/n ,'"'"!, ^"^ "' °"'^«
a.se,ni,ly, a,!d 'the cC. re "^', ^ ■• Ij'"- "^
habits of'thrimn/: ' Tl rvlf J^ -^''-'^ «"
At the council of 1^1-^' ^*- ■^^'•ome, . 4)
ing nianinge feasts ou^rht •?,"*"""' ""«"J-
574); the clergy aTe^k.^^'""''. Gone. ii.
helore the „lavs ffll ,"'^<>, J'recte.i to retire
direction wlli'df t-.-fc l,"' ^-^ — onced, „
(2-;:;-— on..o„Lsa.tL^tn^^
even the rit\ of C tist t?V r ''V''^' "'"'
until ti,ev fou„,l then se J '■''^"'™'' ''•^ ""•"y
Other .'h«-rva„ec. s "h73";C'?/«at l-eriL
feasts at the tombs ;f the niartvt ^K"!"''' " °''
mto occasions of shan.efi;! e'/eVs ' ^'"'^ '^'^'"'^"^
the widcsnreail l.„l;,<- . ""•
whether we ll^rupo fas a rcKf ^'^^'"^)-
(Paganism, Survival opV or / l'"?""'™
new Oriental influenc^.s sh ?' '^"'*"«'' hy
«- the ChristialitT: 'tt r?''"^;'"''"''-'
on presenting to his con^r! ' • A"S"s'i»e,
"niathematicus"wlohaH^»?f*""l, "' *=''"'-«h a
and had come forw „ d .n^I "'f^ Christianity
hooks, implies thalX't^r Zl-^. !!.."->, his
SOCIAL LIFE 1917
hooks,-i;pi;::; --'^p;^ to burn -i;;;
nummos abstulisse?" (T jZ 7 ■^^'".'y''''"'
xixvi. 748). ^" ■'*'"• '*'•; Migne,
infSSSteh1t1h""ti "^^ '« "> --e
hy Constantino on d votl ('c^ r"' T?i?'''-''
1) were almost abroeated S,,^" u"'^' "'• ^^i-
III. xvi. 2); andTs^erii f "onorius (.A.
changed their whes as of en 1' ""'^ *'"»* "">"
prepared fresh n ar i«ee ebark'""' '^'"""^«' "'"I
booths at a fair (S p^t^^"' "» r^dily as
Zosimus (iv. as tA """'• ^'- 227).
strictures of the Fathers ,1 ?""' *^ ""^^--^st
ruptions of the cou p ^SS'th^* ,"''' <=-'
grade of society, and tha7„ll .^'""S"' e^«ry
were disregarded h, the tr .«"''''" ""'' ''^cency
a..d indolence-a cond thn /"""" "'" »l'P«t'te
the view of Gibbon 1-404^ r ""Tl '''"'^' '"
the over/lowing ,"ros wit v-^nf >"'''' "»' ''•'""
from "that indoCt'defpair wh ^'"■'•''■^' »'"'
present hour, and declines tLT.^'"•'">'« *''«
ri'y." If indeed we no e thlf / '""^'?' "'' *""'"-
1U"ted,-from Amr^ia^us wt i";?'"'' «''»^-«
close of the 4th ceZrv /n r f ^"'^"'^^ the
-represent both S and rr''".-'''''^'' "' ^'^^'
«n.l also depict socfety a" Ue.^s/eH ''"'*. "P""""'
miwrtant provinces both nf A t"^ '" ">« »««'
Western empire, the "discrer "'"'u'^''" ""<! *he
recommend, in V.tLatiT .i"" ''''''••'' *"l«an
'i">es from the w ^gfof tht^^th™ '"^ "' *"«
«l".ost compile ^tCi"' a""' '^ "'"■"'« ""»
'ives „f St. JJasila , '^""n , ""'-'ety. The
at Annesi, of Wll„ 1 ■" ,""'^''" «'"' ai»ter
■"»"»i"n i,\ the s L'rb" :^r'i ^'^T''^ »' her
Jerome (A'pi.t. 24 18 M '"""'' '^''^eHbed by
that of .,er/.me himself! 'ti'f;';'.","- '''' '">'
may all be looked ui o ., ' aul.nus at .Nola,
ing sentiment .wlKun," '™'i"'''"^'' S^""-
aion in n.onasticism' """"" '^"'•""'' ««pres.
Vet notwithstandine tho „, • .
where presented of "%l,' /^''^"^^ «very.
standard of Christian n,^. ''"" "■"■" the
there yet appearilrHc'te™,,:" "f'^' "'"--
us in ascribing to Cinl.K . *■? *° warrant
which mainly Averted hp"^^^ ■"'* '■'""ences
»f society, and n t ,natelv";° ''""""•"""^'ti.m
reorganisation. Features Jn . m'^*" »''""t its
which contrast favtra f/^ul ' !" ''V'"-''"=J
of pagan communities n Z\ ^''^ """■"''ty
and the exposure of o( s,,/;?^ ^"^ ■ ^"'""'i-i'le
persistently denounLlin7 """'"""-"' '» ''«
extent suecessfull/ ' ' ^"''/f™ '" « great
(Chrysostom, m X J '^My ■ "* ''^ *''« <'h"roh
^^0.. 4). The d g ftV ^f"r„/'^ 't """' Mit,
m some degree reco2sorf 7^ ^'^^" '° he
associated Ah fSornVvv:,!?'"' rf"'''^ '» he
""yo, iii. 92; Guiz,t //£ ,'7•^^"■'•'''''''^«■/<'-
Chrysostom declares th f t '" ""''*"• '■ 52).
preferable to !n!lX/ w aUh"r !", 'T'-'^ '^
"^'V-. 5). The rights an 1 ^ " , " '^'"'- "<>"'•
«--;men continued toCreZcteTa' 1 ''"'""" "'
^'o^rS^,t£^"?-h:-
custom of ejpellintr nl r r ""' '^* tra.litional
famine appealed '"f brineM- *''* '''^ »'"■''
while censuring the selfisH? °^- , -^•'^terius,
a-Rrmsthatthe^ZwhotnTo"!:^ "^ "'"^ "S^'
suffering from hunger or Hi« ^ ."'"'" "'her.
moved gives the lie t^M K '■■^"■' '""hout being
Patrol. Grace x\ 7n ^tT'"" ""'"'■^ (Mi^nf
'■elating to Cd^sVa Jalt 2"^"'^''*"*-'
thage, who had been cllZtTlT"? "^ '^"•
city on its capture bv the vin , ^ '* '^''""' 'hat
the loss of all his i,(L. ■ °''" " '" «i^ with
pleasing relief t ^t^s' r '. "^ '^''^''''>' '°
been eminent both for his vt* ^'^'''"'^"' '■ai
hospitality, and TheodoreM !!"! ""'^ ''"'' his
of CVrrhus)describesth'rb V ''".' '""« ''ishop
'vhich he bears M:v?m]r/'""'""''''^^"h
series of letters of introducHnn""'' ""^ '" a
to the symnathv ' ^ [['"''"'tion r.commends him
and othfr oT /e chie^ men"\'' f"'' "'" ^°"'' b^
^tt?nT/"^'''^°^S^O^«r"'^^'"*«'"^'
the eminent mu who aVti'^T ""! "'"""■- "f
"Pi^copate, that we rl'^^Lf'the ''^'■'''''' '''*
which society owed itrn£ .■ *'«ment to
which it wa^, to agea^™""'',""^ '"""^
reorganized. "The bishL» * ^"bse.iueutly
36),"wastheperpctu„7'^' ^T •^"''^"" (i^^
his people." "'^[^i "jiii'l"" "i ^^' '""■•al» of
inaiir;^:ls:rli^nf^^''^^ •
inHuence madeS mo„ Tff"'/"' ^'"' "l'-'^'^"!'-"
^*^hop often confr:LdrS-i;.";,,;-he
1818
SOCIAL LIFE
courage nnd authority to which the'Iatter found
it expedient to yield. Ambrose at Milan, Gregory
at Mazianzum, Synesius at PtolemaVs, Deogratins
at Carthage, Leo and Gregory the Great at Rome,
are instances which may be considerably multi-
plied at this period.
In proportion to the social and political autho-
rity of the bishop was the influence which he
exerted as a teacher of morality, and the teach-
ing of these centuries was (Mten singularly en-
lightened and humane. No more judicious and
elleetive rebukes of .superstition can well be
cited, than are to be found in the sermons of
Kaximus of Turin (Paganism, survival of).
The arguments by which Asferius of Amasea
enforces the advantages of temperance and occa-
sional abstinence might command the assent of
the most enlightened modern social reformer
(Migne, Patrol. Graec. %\. 371-4). Synesius,
" in whose hands," says Milman {Hist, of Chris-
tianity, bk. iv. c. 1), " the power of the Christian
bishop appears under its noblest and most bene-
ficial form," repudiated the theory of the celi-
bacy of the clergy. The most eminent of the
Eastern clergy (in contrast to the narrow view
that prevailed in the Latin church) encouraged
the study of pagan literature (Schools). Even
Gregory of Tours, though singularly prone to
superatitiim and credulity, defended the principle
of religious toleration. Of society, as presented
to us under the influence of these more humane
and liberal conceptions yet free from the deeper
corruptions of the empire, we gain a glimpse
in the pages of Sidonius Apollinaris, where he
describes the ordinary life of the nobility of
southern Gaul, with whom the bishops of
the province associated on equal terms. The
day commenced with attending service in the
church; then early visits were paid to neigh-
bours, from which it was customary to return
before ten o'clock in the morning : the remainder
of the morning was spent in playing tennis or in
reading Latin authors in the library. Here the
ladies were supposed to occupy themselves on|y
with religious works, the profane writers being
reserved for the men. Then followed the use of
the bath, after which dinner was served {Epist.
ii. $)■
Ii is probable that a full and satisfactory
investigation of our subject at this period would
render it necessary to distinguish the phenomena
of Eastern and Western civilisation. In • the
opinion of some writers, the earlier and more
complete acceptance of Christinnity in the East
served as an element of cohesion among the
different ranks of society, which, notwithstanding
the fierceness of theological controversy, enabled
the Byzantine empire to oppose a successful
resistance to successive shocks of barbaric in-
vasion such as those to which the Western
empire succumbed. The traditional theory,
that " the example of the Byzantine empire has
proved on a vast scale and in the most indis-
putable manner that Christianity couM act only
mediately and indirectly on social life, that it
might receive the assent of an entire nation and
yet not save it from decrepitude and deatli "
(Flint, Philosophy of History, i. 54) is accordingly
not unchallenged. "The popular element in the
social organisation of the Greek people," says
Mr. Finlay, " by its alliance with Christianity, in-
fused into society the energy which saved the
SOCIAL LIFE
Eastern empire ; the disunion of the Pagans and
Christians, and the disorder in the ailniinistratliin
flowing from this disunion, ruined the Westeru "
{Hist, of Greece, ed. Tozer, i. 1.38),
(III.) "As Christianity," says Milman, "re-
ceived the rude and ignorant barbarians within
its pale, the general elfect could not but be thiit
the age would drag down the religion to its
level, rather than the religion elevate the age to
its own lofty standard" {Hist, of Chrislianitu,
bk. iv. c, 5). The features of society in the
Teutonic communities, after their conversion,
attest the truth of tliis observation. It is agricd
by the majority of the most competent writira
that the standard of morality in these communi-
ties, when compared with that of the Latin
races, exhibits yet a further decline, and that if
we are presented with fewer evidences of vice
there was a larger amount of brutality aul
violence. The barbarian conquerors and tlie
subjugated Latin communities reciprocally in-
fluenced each other, but this influence was, in
the first instance, for the most part unfavour-
able. The latter were still further demoralized
by their subject condition (Jerome, £pist. 89;
Salvian, de Gu'i. Dei, vii. 5-10), the former by
the licence in which the^ could indulge without
check. De Broglie {I' Eylise et f Empire, III. ii.
497) characterises the conquest as " la mise a
sac d'une society tout eutiire par des horJes
qu'aucun lien social ne contient." The Cnrful
state of society in Fiankland under the Mrro-
vingian dynasty, as described by Gregory of
Tours, is familiar to most students of history.
Ozanam {Civilis. chez les Francs, p. 311) quctoi
from the Zibellus de Ecclesiae Disciplinis cnm-
piled by Regino, abbat of Priim in the 9th cen-
tury, the questions which the priest is thore
directed to put to an ordinary warrior in the
confessional — a category which implies that
crimes of violence and the grossest superstition
were still fearfully prevalent. The aversii.n of
the conquerors to city life enhanced the dirficuity
of bringing them within the influence of Chris-
tian teaching. The clergy, whose duty it was
to convert, instruct, and humanise the conqueror,
themselves shared in the general corruption.
" From the moment that the barbarians beciinie
masters in the West, an immense deterioration
becomes manifest in the clergy, in their teaching,
in their standard of conduct .... Even from
men like Prosper of Aquitaine, Avitus of Vienne,
CaesariuB of Aries, the descent is great to the
next generation iu the 6th century, with their
coarse and superficial religion, their readiness to
allow sin to buy itself off by prodigal gifts, the
connivance by the best men at imposture, its
direct encouragement by the average " (Chnich,
Beyinning of the Middle Ages, p. 49). The e|ii-
scopal order, indeed, lost for a time, much of its
sacred character. The bishop was often a war-
rior, and differed but little in his habits of life
from an ordinary baron ; while the work of
evangelisation and the preservation of the scanty
learning of the time devolved almost entirely on
the monastic orders. Slavery reappeared in its
harshest form, and, in spite of the efforts of the
clergy, continued long after the 9th century to
disgrace the Christianity of the age (Sf.AVi-.hV).
In fine, it would seem tliat society, if we inter-
pret the term in its strict sense, can scarcely he
said to have existed in Italy, Gaul, or Biilaia
<l">"ig the per
the C(ini| nests I
the Suxoi). In
state of ilisorga
and restraints'),,
form of civilisati
This condition of
with tlie interv
relajise, succeede
organisati(jn of i
ti^il influences,
stitutions, nation;
reflect a combini
Christian doctrini
Authorities am
fhe standard hist
Gieseler, Mihnan,
dis pre.niers Chn
Christtamty ; Geni
ticnne au 4me siec
<!•! I' Eylise yrccque,
civile dans le Mondi
mation par le C
(A. F.), la Civilisai
1849, and la Civ
1850; Lecky, Hisi
Augustus to Charle
St. Je'rdine, 2 v.
^irchengeschichte, A
bingen, 1864; Pres>
premiers Siecles de
1869; Church (De
Muldle Ages, 1877.
SOCRATES (1)
with Stephanus in B
Aden., Notker.).
(2) Sept. 21, soldie
iheodorus, under An
(3) Oct. 2,3, presby
»|--Aucyra (Basil. ^^„
^I^let.).
soissoNs, cou;
Concilium), a.d. 744,
bishops, when ten c,
passed, Abel and Arthe
Kheims and Sens, and
''eresy. (Mansi, xii. 3(
SOLDIERS. [jfiL
SOLEAS. A term
';'?","' "s to theme
«liioh there hns been g,
The orthography of the
»W«; We find „^),
"Afo. The ditficu' i
eoce of the word Has r,
tributes it to the arrai
H«ed out of use, a„d
Graeo^ubiquenomenhal
'"" (<^'>«"-. Eu,lu,loq.
l^ont, pours forth a mass
et, .ind comes to stran
7" the end. At on
Meurs.„s,„dB^
wi. V V"»-?,'-^'"S *he
Si,/'*; '•>' •"" "
Koaostasis." An e«mi,
SOCRATES
diiiine the nprini /l ^ .
the c.^n.i.er ^Ue I„:T"f "I'-'y »«'^™<-de.l
the Sax„„. ,„ it, nl,. .7 ""■''' **"' ''"'•"''k, and
This condition of thing y'"f:''";"«I>I'e«re/.
w.th the interventi,fn!f"r:^"""j:'«"''''ften
relapse, succeeded bv one wV \ 1"^' complete
organisation of soc'-'etv m^ "'"''"» ^^"^ --e.
"titutions, nntio;ar „c .1 !''f '^'>""'^>>t of i„.
reflect a combined' S i„n of r''"''' ''^"^^
Christian doctrine, """""n "^ Koman law a„d
Authorities and works Af ,.t
the standard histon^^Gibh T"'* = ^'"'^'^
anst!,.,utu; Genin (7: IW ^^^'t' ^''-"nitive
civile OanA & 'i^^^";"'' (^•). ^^ ^^oci^e
mation par le CmZZ: T^-^I'T'^'^'-
(A. J.), La Civilisation cArJlt„'„J, '. ^'=""8'"
1849, and La CiviuJtinlT^ '''''''''<'' Francs.
ff: f'-""^. 2 V. 186-7; He7ele'I^'^f'^•>'
A.^.Menye.,e^«.A, Arc/,aoloai^u^'^ Tl "^^ ""■
bn,ge„, 1864; I'^essensTvg de) //"/"T*' '^"-
premwrs Siiclos de rE.A„' /'.{.'■ *« (rois
im; Church (fiJufr/u. ;;'''■'"'' vol. v.
i/<;W/e ^y<;s, 1877 ^''gmning of the
[J- B. M.j
SOLITARIES
;)i9
I •/. iJ, jW 1
SOCRATES rn s„n* 1,
with Stephanus iu Britain V;If', ™"\'"""'""'«t«'l
Adon., Notker.). " ^^'"'^- ^'^■, Usuard.,
t/2> ^P'- 21, soldier, martyr «t A
-^r(Bira:;,r^«^HThidota
^"rlet.j. ' ' ^'''- -^1 {Menol. Graec.
co?STf;^?4r„sL?b^^^^
bishops, when t;n c«non« "^ ''/ *^^«"t>-three
P«sed,AbelandTr*he" ord t''''^'^'''' ^^--e
Rl-eims and Sens^ nd Id trt /'t'"""''^ •"■
ieiesy. (Mansi, ^ii. 369-372! rrS't ^"'
SOLDIERS. pfxuT.K.SKRv,CH.]'
teSf ifs'io Ihe ™eimW ^^--S •=!'"-'' -M-
Jhioh there has been gre^ 5"'"*. '•"'"■"tion of
The orthography of the wL "■"J^ "'" "P'^io"-
""Afo. The difficT, ?nT* °'.'""^'«' '''•"^'la,
*"oe of the word "as eco^ni'''!!"'^^ ""' '■'^'^^^
XWbutes it to the a;rrnXnt ^.^"'"•- ^^o
l;»««ed out of use, mdTZ,V^^'"^ "','"''''
Gwecis ubique nomen habef in , ' • .'" ""^clesiis
!ont, pours forth a niTs's of 1 ''^'"'' «' '» hig
»;'l. ' -lium'?:"^throne'';i' % '^""fyn-ous
^"•'lA en in.\;/ " f* ^"»Pi- Graec
"'Waosta.ia." An einm n *• '''"'"'"tum " or
An examination of the passage.
in which the woM «„
ne- of both! it ," .rt'hT^*''' ""•""«''"-
«l«ny., strictly used a,H *.■•" ^'""^ '» "ot
»ig>'i(icntion »Ln , t „f ""'r«""«' h"" « wider
rtouU that the "sol^a '":' ''"* '^''"' ™° ^^ ■><>
church, not a ,,iece of .1 ." ,^"''^'"" o'' 'he
'here can be aVlittlf ';";''' ^T''"'' ■ >""
■•'Sht in deciding it ' 2 K "" *'"" ^'^'''•'''' "
■nteryening between the ''trine/"'"'"' '''""»""
the "boma" or sanctiLv ' ' , "'' °"''e. and
""ve by one or mor at ?,?' h"'"''"' '"'•"'" '^^
oancelli " or "icono'ta '" if T\ '.""'''''« 'he
was approached from th„ / ""' '"■'"»." »nd
"holy doors." 'iT ..taX"r{ ''■''•'«'' '''«
are l.laced by Ve„Ie furth " . ''."'"'"• "'hioh
to the (ritual) west of fh» 7",*'"' "''''■''• *<^^«
"amb„%too,lnenrit u "'^"'''" ""d the
ohancel-rail step in our ch?"!"''"'"''-"'' ""ho
P«ce where the ^.omm.: -can rktl; t'^'"^ '"^
priest,Uhis''p,rrt:tf ," .."^'"■"" -
deacons came out from the " ^"'. "'"' '"■»
ducted him, on either ^,1 l^""''" «nd con-
gamed extension to the wA? f!^' '" ^aye
P'"fe for the subdeacons an ' ""' ^''""'''' 'he
dehned by Gretser (AlTf.'. " '" eon^ectly
361, ed. LnT::i'',Zu-:fi ?"'"*• ''"• ^•^o^
ad sacras ff^Jro! for?, , . '"'''"■'' e^oelsior
pro '^^hristiir: mm nCe'l'T;'"" ^'h"«tul
true position and ..h«l 1 distribuitur." Jtg
P-a^.es in IX:^^'^:^' ^^'myj'^l
descending fro,„ the '^ambo " " ^ • ""f'""'
aoross the "soleas," "nrthn,! '"^''^S "'""«
.r--.'^' the beautiful doors " b.7. ""."" *"■
"soleas"and''bema"„n^fi ■• '"^^ar.ls the
standing to receiyT him "at / '"l* '*,P''"-'»''^h
Codin. Curopal. c. 17 o„ I *o! h'.ly doors "
In the more statelv nK*^' L ' ^•^ ' "'"' P- 'Wn
'"'aid with costy^iMe'" ''^ "-'«' "wa;
I'lates of silver and i ' •""'""enfed with
^V^hen the dome 'of S Son^"^^,''"'' ■"'»?«'
pieces Toir<ra,A»/«^* A 'r^"' C'"' '' hroke to
- the restor:,1:rby*j Ts'lft'' f^ ^^»-; «nd
ambowere made of' ,t .« "rCod.n"*^' "'''^ *he
361;Allat.rfc.&&„ c xi\ ^ °' ^""'"'"- P-
' • "■^- [K. V.j
L'''- v.l
SOLITARIES F
impulses which ledmen°toTt "T"".' "^ 'he
wilderness, see Hkrmi? L ^ ""'"""'« 'n the
b« added 'that fo S ^^f '^«"^«^- ^t may
cluster round gre, and non,^"'" '""-^ '"'S"" '»
pare SAlunA.?AM Paf,T"'"".f;^'''-- C^'om-
mfluenced by actual »,« -^ Perhaps they were
horrors of l.fne linei' Z,TT °*' ""^ -^I'^^ituil
in the theologic", fray h^,''^'*'^'»ht„'ming?e
heretics, partfy p'rhap^s by ri"'"""'"-^ '^^
their hardships noticed anH t "^'"^^ '» have
Sometimes the eel of the T"'"'^ ^y men.
attached to a mon„ tery The H ""'^ r' -"""i-
«• 3). Sometimes the soil '''"'?• ''''<• ^''*%-
temporary shelter a re rl ^^ ''" '^"^ ""'y a
breath, as it wellZ ' '° *hich to take
-fi- in, th;"b:;rT^r^^'^"'•«^"«"i'4
-ivice 01 the wisest l»„^ „ ^*'"'' •^^'^r the
nioyementthatth eshol"^ "^ ">« """■"•"io
of probation in a mlnasteri k / '"""'' i"''<^
'he life of a soliUrv and^I f"''' ""^"'"kinir
allowed to expose hemsehe ' fo T' "'?""''' ^
-hout the express .an:;;„;':?lVti;i
t-lV
1920
SOLOCHON
»iippi-iors (CnsH. Collnt. Pi'Ref. xvili.). As the
mi'iiiistic sy.stem became more firmly cunsoli-
diiteil, and nt the same time more complex in
its organisation, the solitary life, especially in
Western Christemlom, came to be more and more
exceptional in its occurrence {Cone. Toletan. vii.
A.n. 646, c. 5; Cone. Franco/. A.D. 794, c. 12).
Literiiture. — Petrarca (Francesco), Dutlor/us
dc Vita SoUtaria; Parisii^, 1513. Rosweydus
(H.), Vitae Patrum sive Jiisturiae Eremiticae;
Antverpiae, 1528. Zimmermann (Joh. Georg von),
Ueber die Einsamkeit ; Leipzig, 1784. Hauber
(Ign.)„ Das Leben und Wir/ten Gottgeiceihter
PiTS'incn in der Einsamkeit ; Lindau, 1844.
Zoeckler (D. Otto), Kritische Oesc/iichte der
Ashese ; Frankfurt a. M. 1863. [I. G. S.]
SOLOCHON, May 17, Egyptian sol.iier, mar-
tvr under Maximiau (Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Grace.
Sirlet.). [C. H.]
SOI-OMON, king, June 17 {Cal Ethiop.).
[C. H.]
SOLUTOR (1), Nov. 13, martyr, commemo-
rated at Ravenna, with Valentiuus and Victor
{Mart. Usuard., Vet. Horn., Hieron., Adon.).
(2) Nov. 20, commemorated at Turin, with
Octavius and Adventor (Mart. Usuard., Hieron.').
[C. H.]
SOMNIARirS, Somniatorum Conjector,
ivftpoKpirris, 6vfip6ii<uiTis, 6yfip6KnKos. A ' law
of Coustantius and Julian, A.D. 358, denounces
those who " narrandis somniis occultant artem
aliquam divinandi" (Theodos. Codex, x. 16, De
Malef. 6). The offence was equally forbidden in
the empire founded by Charlemagne (Capit. inc.
an. c. 40 ; Baluz. Cap, Seg. Franc, i. 518 ; comp.
the complete code, vi. 215; Herardi, Cipit. 3).
The council of Paris, A.D. 8'29, regarded the
practices of the " somniatorum conjectores " as
a relic of paganism (iii. 2 ; comp. Add. ii. to the
Cap. lieg. Franc, c. 21). [W. E. S.]
SONUS, or rather, corruptly, soimm. The
Offertorium of the Franks was so called, e. g.
" Sonum qiiod canetur {sic) . . . quando pro-
ceilit oblatio " (German. Paris. Expos, Brev.
Miss,), The name is said (Germ. «. s. ; comp.
I.sid. Hisp. de Eecl. Off, i. 14; Amal. de Eccl.
Off. iii. 19) to have been given to the anthem,
because sung in imitation of the sounding of
trumpets over sacrifices under the law (Num.
X, 10).
Among the Goths of Spain the proper anthem
at lauds and vespers on festivals was also called
sonum. E, g. the council of Merida, 666, orders
that on such days " post lumen oblatum
( = lucernnrium)prius dicatur vespertinum quam
souum " (can. 2). This sonum was sometimes
caUed laudes ; for whereas the Mozarabic breviary
diieots that it shall follow vespers immediately,
Isidore says that the lucemarium was followed
by " two psalms, one responsory and laudes "
{Regul. Monach. 6). The following is the sonum,
or in the yet lower Latin of the Hispano-Gothic
breviary the " sono," for Easter day : " ego
dormivi ct quievi, et resurrexi, quoniam Dominus
suscitavit me. P, Gloria mea. Alleluia. V. Non
timebo miliia populi mei circumdantis me :
exurge, Doraine; salva me, Deus mens. P,
Gloria mea. Alleluia " {Brev, Goth, Lorenznna,
370). [W. E. S.]
SORTILEGY
SOOTHSAYER. [Matiiematiccs.]
SOPHIA, ST. [Sapientia.]
S0PHR0NIU8 (1), patriarch of Jerusalem,
commemoraied Mar. 11 rliasil. Menol.; Cat.
Byzant. ; Menol. Grace, Sirlet.).
(2) Dec. 9, bishop of Constantia in Cypnu
(Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Grace. Sirlet.). [C' H.]
SORTILEGY. It was held that "demons
rule lots"(Cypr. dc Idol. Vanit. ; comp. Miiiut.
Vel Octav. S ; Greg. M. Epist. vii. 66). Hince
divination by lots was thought a part of m i;;ic
and a branch of idolatry. It was therefnre
forbidden to Christians both in the Ea-st Mini
West ; as by Cone. Ancyr. 358 (can. L'H), V.
Venet. in G"allia, 465 (c. 16), C. Ai;ath. 5ii6
(c. 42), Aurel. I. 611 (o. :tii), Antiss. 518 (c. 4),
&c. It was a subject of inquiry at episcopnl
visitation (Regino, de Discipl. Eccl. l.'il, od.
Baluz.), and at confe.ssion (see the old Gallicin
penitential, c. 26, in Mus. Hal. i. 39.1, anrl others
in Morinus, de Sacram. Poenit. ."i87, &c.). h
was condemned by Christian princes; as l.y
Childeric, 742 (c. 5), Carloman, 742 (c. 14). Cur
M. 769 ; id. 789 (c. 23), Ca/,it. Meg. Fr.mc. vi.
215, vii. 128. Under the Prankish laws sorti-
legi were not received as witnesses {Capit. Heg.
Franc, vi. 397, vii. 369).
The methods were various, " sortes quas sanc-
torum vocant (comp. Concc. Agath. Vciiet. Aurel,
u. s. ; Bede, de liemcd. Peccat. c. 11), vil quas
de ligno, aut de pane fiiciunt " (Cone, .\iitiss.
«. s.). Divination " per sortes sanctorum " w.is
a Christian counterpart of the sortes Virgilianae,
&c. An augury was drawn from, or a conclusion
founded on, the first passage at which some
sacred book (as the psalter or gospel. Car. ,M.
an. 789, c. 3 ; the lectionary, Greg. Tur. Hist,
Franc, iv. 16; the saeramentary, jon.is Aiiiel.
in Vita S, Httberti, c. 15, in Baluz. yot. ad Cup.
Heg. Fr. ii. 1038 ; &c.) first opened at hazard.
This is condemned by St. Augustine as an abii.^o
of the divine oracles, though he had rather men
had such recourse to the gospels than to (lemccs
{Ep. 55 ad Janurr. xx. 37). The Galilean Peni-
tential, «. s. punished even this when "contr.i
rationem." See instances of the practice in
Greg. Tur. or Jonas, «. s. ; Vita S. Consorfi^w 9,
in Acta Bencd. i. 249; Vita S, Hucbcrti, 18;
Acta Ben, iv. i. 302. An unsought omen from
a Psalm ended the opposition to the choice of
St. Martin as bishop of Tours (Sulpicius Sever.
de Vita B, Mart. 9).
There is extant, under the title of Sorfcs Apo-
stolorum, a collection of pious sentences, but not
from the apostolical writings, so framed as to
give suitable, though vague, replies to evorv
probable inquiry. 'I'hey were printed by I'ctr.
Pithoeus in his Codex Canonum Vii. Eccl. limn.
Par. 1687, p. 370. A fast of three days on bread
and water is prescribed before using them. On
the third day the office of the Holy Trinity i.s to
be recited and Mass heard. Special prayers are
also provided. At the end we read, " Il'icc stmt
Sortes Sanctorum qnae nunquam fiilluntur,
neque mentiuntur ; id est, Deum roga et ob-
tinebis quod eupis. Age Ei gratias."
Many tribes retained a custom observed by
their heathen ancestors (see of the Suessones, IVta
Anskari, 18, 26, 30, Pertz, ii. TOl ; of tin
Saxons, Trnnsl, i
siones, VnUframi
i. 35!», 361'; I'rt,
torum "), ib. 60'
Pertz, ii. 381) of
innocence, life or
tioned by Christ
accused of theft, '
bert, 593, c. 5).
method (comp. T
tallies, one marke
in white wool, an
marked was draw
Some kinds of on
were included und(
sortem ambulare "
630: "Adignems
deat " {Lex Mipua
Baluz. i. 34). te„
settling every cau
cuncta vos iu vestri^
ii. 4).
SOSIPATER, A
of St. Paul (B;si
Byzant.; Menol, G
Pyrrhi Beroea {Ma.
Vet, Sum.; Menol,
Olympas, Rhodion,
"apostles," Rom. x
Byzant, ; Menol, Ora
SOSISTRATUS,
Antioch with Hespi
Mart.), ^
80SIUS(Socms),
with Januarius bishop
rated or mentioned wi
iknol, ; Menol. Grace
Vet. Rom,, Notker.), a
(Mart. Bed., Usuard.
Wand.). He occurs v
on Sept. 29 in Mart. L
.SOSTHENES (1),
Paul, commemorated
Vet, Mom.); Nov. 26
.Bom.); Dec. 9 with A
and others (Basil. Jf,^
Sirlet,).
(2) Sept. 10, martyr,
cedon with Victor (Ma
Bom., Notker.).
. 80TER (SOTHER) ]
m the East (Jfar<. U,,
iotker. Wand.); her n
aymtheGelasianSacr
her m the collect, secret!
she or another of the
uoder Diocletian, ia men,
. S0UL,SY]»IB0LSO
■ng symbols were used bv
centuries to denote the d
from th« fetters of the fie.
heaven.. (1) a horse runn
goa , derived no doubt fr,
l«!rhaps from 2 Tim. iv
™l toward, a lighthous;,
80SIPATEB
Saxons, Transl. S. Alex 9 .a a-,r ,
«ione,, ',Vulfra,ni H," 6 8 Jl^l I'^a Fri-
i. 359, 3til. Vita WM^ ',.'1 '^''''' ^<^'l- iii.
mnocence, life or de«th, by7„t ' Ui *^"' •"•
tioned by Christian prince,." „'%*"""'"''-
accused of theft " rH L. . ' ^- "^ « s ave
bert, 593, c. 5) The HTP"""'"; (^^''"''«-
niethod (comp. Tacitut r«. """' ^'"""^^^ »
tallies, one .nark d wUh a cr'nT*"' '*^>- ^wo
in white wool, and kid nn lu ' 7^"^ ^'''^PP'^d
Some kinds „f ordV,':s''"re"r„:d"h"'=''"i'"''<'-
were moluded under the term ,0." H^ ""'"'^*'
sortem ambulare " (Childeb « ! on r"^' "'1
6M: "Ad ignen, sen ad sortl ®^- ^''g»t,ert,
Baluz. i. 34). lTiv '^J'- ^' ^<'3- J-ranc. Cap. '
cunctavos,nvestrisdisei;iminatis-S«:!';^
[W.E.S.]
Pyrrhi Beroea (i/artUsuar) ll, ^'""' ^^ »»
Olympas, lihodion, Tertius V. ^^ i? *"h
"apostles," Rom. xvi ii'l^ 00'' ^""*»».
[0. H,]
SOSISTRATUS Junn 9
[C. H.J
SPIRITUAL EXERCISES 1921
somelimes*bwie^back\oTh''''.T/'''"''' ^^ '^'"^^^
the Good Shepherd .f^ia'd" ^"^'^ '" "^e.arms of
w.ng, sometimes ae'a ted JT' '"'"'""''«'' »" tl'e
symbol of the bo^y .Te^ert.dT "T^ ^""'~''
again settling in ThowI.'^^ *''^ spirit-or
^«Pose of the soul i? pfl:^"' '" '^'g"''/ "the
fig-re quitting a Welesco;'*'^'^'^^) " ''^'"»1«
»">•« fig»rer« „g '7:^; («) by a n.inia-
sentation of the dead A ■ '"'^ ^y' ^^e repre-
<"« of the female hVnr.'""'''"'"'"™"'' the
medallion figured by Lunir/>"'-'"/.°'' » '<"^«» '
"'"ting the martyrdom o'^lfr '' ^^''^' '"P""
pl. viii.]. An e«cu?lpr t ♦ ""'■""'^•'[•^'ON'^^.
the saint upon the „v, , ^"'"'"''g *he body of
[-alefigur'ei^ rWng'V; ^t' ^.t C --f t"gth
' towards heaven, fron? whu.hV ^In I "'"'' '^"'^"^
or conte'mpIat.W betwee. Tw ''/^"'■'; '"" P'^^"
>nany tombs, ma,- nil be s7„,rr'' '^""'"' "° »°
&"^^\m:!/^-^""Sr^'S:
SOULS, .ESTIVA. OF. caJH^'
SOZON, Sept 7 „ . ■'
under Maximia'n VBasiri/J"" /* /"mpeiopolis
^enot. Grace. Siriet? "'•' '^"'^ ^^^««'- !
■''■ [C. H.]
SPAIN, COUNCIL OF r,T- ""■'
/""»). [Toledo, CoumS oifri^j*"" ^^■-
rated or mentioned with h1°"'l'""' <=<""'n«'ao-
ret. Eom., NotkerWni^il ' f'";'' ^'=''- ^Jon.,
(J/«r/. Bed., Cart it T'"*'.'? "" ^^P*" 23
Wand.). He oc" urs w th T "*' ^'^'"'■' N"*'^*''-,
on Sep! 29 in S ^l^^"— a^J^othe..'
parcSSta^fs:../^^,'^'^'-^^'-
Vet. Horn.); Nor 28 m M ""■'• '^'''"••'
.J?»«..); Dec. 9 wUh Anoll f--i: ^'^'"'■' V<=t-
and oth.rs (Basi !Xif? 'n' ^^P^f' Tychicus,
Sirlet.). ^ ^'^'•^ i "««• 7 (Jfcno/. Graac.
^<»»., Notker.). ^ '• ^'""'•J-' Aden., Ke<.
[C.H.]
, 80TER (SoTHER), Feb 10 ^^ •
'? the East iMart. Usuard L ^'l' """^7'
Notker., Wand.); her nata L' f "" ^^'^ ^'*'•'
%in the Gela'i'an Sacra nntrrv^"'t'^ u°" *•"■"
5fi^'etian..J::nS^;^-;^yr
[C. H.]
. SOUL, SYMBOLS OP THP rum
'ng symbols were used ht Pk • . • " ^''^ '"""w-
wnturies to denote the T ^'"''^t"'"^ in the first
from the fMtters of th « l'"'"'""=« "f the soui
K derived no d:^bt S 1 T " .^ ''^''' ^^'
Irtaps from 2 Tim. iv 7 ro> /' k"' ^*' "'«'
-' towards a lighthous;/o; Serdy'tived^i'
Grfek1S"S^a te'tm"""?-* Z"™ "^ the
patens, chandelier, l^.i/^P'""' »" "halices,
word occurs Cently ^ An" ',' *^^ '"P" ^he
we read that Leo III. '^ 1" cf ""'«","»• There
aureum praecipuum s^uooliftum r" ".*"'''«"»
turn lapidibus," together wihn * """ """'-
spanoclistam" (Anast. « 399S P^*'''""" auream
also gave "gabathae spanoclistaI"%'T' P"?"
the purpose of giving Jiglu in th! ,< ]"*"« '"'"•
ens" or cloister (S 418 •' J *'l! " l^adriporti-
clistum " of gold Wth iVv. °. '■'^'""" »P»no-
t" hang over^the aTat % 398^ Pp"'"";:^/'-"™ '»
presented to the church^of St P '^' ^- "''"
and jewelled "resnum »! i- '■"^''^' « g«ld
ST"""-'"""-'"'
orjih. [Sapientia.]
Mel^J?u?cfpSoda,; "• '"'"' ^'"'iPP-' and
eomme'mV.^effi ;~7;/r^^
Hxerw., Notker., Wand.). '^'""'d., Adon.,
Ex^SmT- '^'''''- f^™-'
[C.H.j'
Demoniac;
^^^^t^^lSS^^t^^
1922 SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
tualia) it is ronvenit'nt to enumerate the prin-
cipBl |>ia_c'ticca which aro believed to cootributo
to the exaltiitioD of the spiritual life.
1. First among these we may reclton Heading,
and especially the leadiDg of the Uiblc [ScRir-
TL'RK, Stijuv ok], both in public and in private.
To this soon came to be added works compiled
With a special view to edification, such as the
Acts of Martyrs, the Cu/latioticf of John Cassiau,
and the lives and niiraclea of famous men col-
lected by Kufinus, Theodoret, Joannes Mosehus,
Gregory of Tours, and others. Forgeries in this
field of literature soon came to be frequent, and
many Christians had an inclination for the pagan
literature which the more ascetic leaders con-
demned ; circumstances which led to certain
books being marked off by authority as unfit for
the reading of Christian people ipKOniiiiTEr'
Books ; Schools],
2. T/tc I'salins in particular have always had
a speci;il prominence among the books used for
mdritual exercise [F'SAUlODv]. The fathers
constantly rccummend the learning and the
iuying of psalms as an exercise of the highest
ellicacy. (See, for instance, Jerome, EpistlOl,
ad Lactam, c. 4; £pist. 125 ad Rustic, c. 11;
Epist. Ui8 ad Kttstoch. c. 19.) And the psalms
— however long a portion might be said — were
commonly recited standing, unless in ens of
some grievous infirmity (Theodoret, Hist. Relii).
cc. 2 and 5 ; Moschiis, Pratum Spirituale, c.'46 ;
Basil. Epist. G3 ad Ncocacsarcenses, &c.). With
psalmody is intimately connected the observ-
ance of ViGil.8, especially in monasteries [HoURS
OF I'RAVEB, p. 795]. A whole class of monks,
the "Sleepless" [Acoemetae], devoted them-
selves to keeping up the Divine ofiSce [Office,
THE Divink] without intermission.
3. Prayer and Processions, Litanies, Ro-
gations, Stations, and Pilgrimaoks, which
are reckoned among spiritual exercises, are
treated under their proper headings.
4. The Confession of sin, both to the Lord
(Ps. xxxii. 6 ; 1 John i. 8, 9), and to the brethren
(Janie.s v. 16), is reckoned among the exercises
which tend to edification. Nothing, says an old
father of the desert (Rufinus, Vitae J'atrum, ii.
9), so wfiikeus the power of Satan as to disclose
our unclciin thoughts to holy men and spiritual
fathers. And nothing, says another (i'6. 117),
more rejoices the enemy of souls than the con-
cealment of such thoughts in the brea.st. Hence
in monastic orders, both o'f earlier and later
times, a reciprocal confession of sins is enjoined
on the brethren. See, for instance, Segula Co-
lumbani, c. 10, and the Reijula Cujusdain, c. 6
(in Holstenius, i. 397); the latter is supposed by
Holstenius to be Columba's. This kind of con-
fession is distinct from the auricular confession
%vhich is followed by sacramental absolution.
5. That the }Ioty Communion holds a high
place among the means of grace needs scarcely
to be sail!. On the frequency of communion,
see C0M.MU.Ni0N,'H0Ly, p. 421. It may further
be observed that in the early African Church
the brethren were so anxious to sanctify every
meal by first partaking of the F.ucharist, that
the consecrated elements were taken home for
that purpose (Tertullian ad I'Mrem, ii. 5 ; He
Orat. 19 ; Cyprian, de Lapsis, ii. 26. See also
Arca, Rlskuvation). Hippolytus wrote a
treatise, which was known to Jerome {Epist.
SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
71 ad lucin. c. 6), on the question whether we
ought to communicate daily or at set times.
We may see from the lamsnts of Chrysostom and
others that ordinary lay persons communicated
less frequently than was desired, but with sjicci-
ally devout men it was otherwise. The old monk
Apollo, for instance, communicated daily, and
taught his disciples not to eat until thCy had
received the Euch^irist (Palladius, Hist. Laus. c.
52, pp. 750, 751).
6. &lf- Examination (sometimes called Rccnl.
lectio) is a recogidsed duty of Christians ('.' Cor
xiii. 5), especially before Holy Communion (1 Cor.
xi. 28) ; but self-examination as a systematic
practice, regulated by definite rules and recurring
at certain times, is the development of a later
age. Clement of Alexandria, in the directions
for Christian life which form the Paednguim,
though he quotes the Pythagorean precept, that
a man should examine himself every day, does
not hold it up as necessary for the Christian
(Paedag. i. In), and Macarius in his special treatise
on "the Guarding of the Heart," while he in-
sists strongly on the necessity of withilrawing
into oneself and of constant self-watchfulness,
nowhere recommends any methodical [iractice
of this exercise (ir«pl ipuKaKtii KapStas, c. 1. ; but
compare Athannsius, Vita S. Antonii, c. 28).
Cassian (Co//<(<. v. 14) advises every man to dirert
his principal eflbrts against the sin which most
easily besets him, but gives no directions for
self-examination such as prevailed in later times.
Nor do Chrysostom's strong recommendations of
watchfulness over oneself (Ifvm. 73 ad Pop.
Antioch. ; Horn. 82 in Joann.) imply any definite
rules for examination of conscience. Such rules,
in fact, scarcely belong to an age eailier than
that of St. Bernard and the mediaeval mystics.
7. Meditation or Contemplation, the effort to
withdraw the soul from the world of sense, and
fix it on God and things divine, plays a very
important part in the lives of mediaeval and
modern mystics. But in this case also the de-
velopment of the system does not belong to the
ancient Church, though we frequently find in
ancient worthies — especially in the ancient her-
mits or " Fathers of the Desert " — an immense
power of withdrawal from the outer world,
generally coupled with the faculty of seeing'
visions of things unearthly. One particular form
of contemplation— the contemplation of death-
is found from a period of tonsiderable antiquity,
Several of the Eastern ascetics, after the example
of Anthony, dug their graves near the cave!
which they inhabited, or lived in tombs, so as to
be always reniinded of their latter end '^Palladius,
Lausiaca, cc. 5, 45, 109, 113; Theodoret, Hist.
Rclig. cc. 6, 9, 12). John the Almsgiver, patri-
arch of Alexandria (t6l6), had his grave and
coffin partly prepared, and bade the workman
inquire aloud, on every high festival, whetiier
he should not finish -the work, as he knew not
when his Lord would come (Leontius Neapol,
Vita S. Joann. Elcemos. c. 18). The abbea
Caesaria of Aries, sister of the famous bishop
Caesarius (t542), had a hundred stone coffins
made for her hundred nuns, which were placed
around the church, that they might daily be re-
niiuded of deatii. And other instances might be
mentioned of similar practices.
8. Silence of course accompanies meditation,
Pambos, the monk, we read (Socrates, B. E. n.
23. p. 238) was ,
the ,{9th Psalm-
■"y ways, that I
that he would hi
many yoars he h
Monks oanio to h
rHravciIA.STAK]
l-e»t(/.„.«/„c,4,'e.
from the tumult o
noide to JtMrn to
(Rufinus, ii, lyo)
»o I'l-ofoHiid a sile'm
solitude (/,,„„,a,.^_,
to nave kept silent
except when they
Sabbath and the Lo
Thomas kept silent
Ruftnus, ii. 6), an
8o) for tiventv-tiv,
forty-s-ven (CyriJI,
Surius, v. .'iOO). p
to indicate their wa
talking (Pach„mii&
ihelfenediotine Rul,
rules following it, e
monastery after Cor
except so far as reear
ing book {R,,j. Bc.ieo
'«<'»'. M. 8, 15; (
C;8). (Altescrn.; ^,
<ieschichtcderAskese.)
ePOLIA. [Vaca:
SPONGE. Thes,
liturgical ritual is ki
mvaa, sjmngia sacra.
present form, which
w.th little change from
7 ^'latius (Je Rec. Ch
»r°/* 'P^-S* «'"nP'
affi«d to a Ion ,,„^j
office of prothesis to col
™^ "" *he paten,
m^ of Prothesis, n,.,
emn'''l!,°"'«^"«hari
employed by the deacon
'A»lice(Goar,^«cAo/(w.Z
"Rafter the receptio?^^ a
"'/^^''P'byitintoth.
?7 "■« paten cleansed,
'"■y veil was also employ
'7. '^1'^^'' rby Sy,o, S
rWa.(Z.-<u,,.6'.0
„ S , ^"* '"'•■•■ed virtue
'egarded as being imparte
«frdingtoGoaf(7r)1
Patnarch among the Lc
S^',°'\em'eliro'';;
^"«(§182)thatEudoof^
rfsr'""T ^^' »«■"»<=«"«
.if- A liturgical spone,
feet* k *'" "■'""'«
"^■^'^.n.np.i^^i
8P0NSALIA. rjiARUT
SPOLIA
S'?;9?h%x:!..r»:[l "i^ "If «-' -^»e of
>"/ wa^-,, that I o/ib, ; • r ' *''^'' '>"^'' t"
that he ,vo„M hoar n " " '"^ t™R„e "_
Monks came to be nnme,l ■ '" '"''"■*''«• 't.
dwelling,, h^^yJL r """^""rai ami their
Lent (/.„.«,„<,v,;e. 20 ' 7 i n'''' '*''«"''" ^ «l'ole
from the tumult of the <™,,.'i-r ''?'"'' ■""''''e'l
noi'le to learn to ,.r utise , ''^^' •"'^ t;„„stanti-
(Rufinus, ii. i.jo) '^''' "''- ■'' ''-nw in the desert
»olitude(A,,,«/acaj8) ihoNl^v'''-'*"'''' '" ''" '"
fhave kept Mlenc'je^eh th'"" "'""''" "''''™''
eiceptwhen thev mcrat th k'"'"'™.''' ™".
Sabbath a„,, the L.rd-,' Day 6 «o\"1., "" '^^'
Thomas kept silence f„r th ttV ^ 'heabbat
Kuhnus, ii, tn „„ , t'urty years ra ,50 .
85) ror't„,n;..|,^"jX'^r«!° (^--^.;
orty-s^-en (Cyril,, ' 'S yt" ^v'^'^J' '"^
Sunns, V. .'iaa) P„.L ■ '^'- ". 2:i; in
to indicate their want Tv" ^"'^^' '"" '""" "
The Kenedictine Kuln .n 1 ''"'^t«"'US i. 27)
rules followin, t.tli";' afl r''""' '— ti^;
monastery aftfr cCpnem "''-', "''^"^'^ '» »
except so far as regards he Tr "''" "' '■'''^l".
in? .book C^,,^. Z?S,f'3«'"f,"':r «;''0-
Columbani, c ft . ji ,
I «)• (Alteserrae Ascctiran 7^ u? ' ^^":/"'tri,
OeschichtodcrAskese.) ' ^''''"' ^^''W
SPOLIA. [VACAxcr.] '"''•^
:urS''rLal''tVn^r „ri' '" *i« «-k
present form, wliirh V P^,n"<^<itorium. Us
with little chk„g";,tmeaXr"' V'"'- don^
by Allatius (* V 2^f ^ '"^/'H is described
piece of sponge comni % •"'''• P" '49) as a
affixed to^a bng S it'"*'' " """'^ ^"^^^t
office of prothesil to collect h "" T"^ '" "'o
tbe bread on the paten tA ""*" ""'"''s of
(0^=. 0/ Prc;^.^'l?;,f/' "«5i? njight tall „ff
^- and in the ^n.SlJL^Z'-J± ,'"'-.J
SPONSORS J903
"■'.r,,,^,. T(f„ ncc,,C f • ?■'" '""•^■'"«;
sereralofthesetitles V I , "'"' ""'"""'g 0/
^•'- the in«tit,SV!:: 7'''^ "''''. i-fiH^tion
'." "ible, yet there „T "k '""•^: '" ''"""J '■>
."■"'K- And thon^., ;;,!■' '1'" "'the word or
"ndertakers sh„uhl n k ''':'"'^'"' "'"^t ^'"rtain
for their pious educatt , '"" ■^">»'atiou
I g'""nthers in b„pt , n'ir ' [^"' "nuable t., „ur
these were anvthiL n'\l' ''""'"'"> whether
raremnnv. VVe n,.. > '"' "'tm'sses of the
y-tuiiian (* V.X " '';f,;''" -''""-"t <;
'h^termined thi,,, assinWK ''^'""*'''-'l'""-o hath
'""^'J it. which dou t "a,;;'-^""» ^'.•■'t'- eon.
trad.fon. Other obsrv,', ° '^- '"''"' <■""
■"■rij.ture document ToTl T' "■'"""'t any
t^'lition alo;,e, u;,^ ;'t,"r' "" '^o ground "5
««'l"<.nt custom, iu (. i ," ^'.'I'l'orts of cod-
«-hen we are about to co' 1 f !." "''"' ''^l'"«™.
»■■""« place, but at a som vJ ./^° v"'"' '" ti"«
as catechumens), we d? ' '1 °",'''"-'" "■'"« ('•«•
"'"l'^^'- the hand of a "h ieV '• ''""■'•'' ''•'^'ify.
renounce the devil br ""'"''"> tliat we
Then are we thrice d;rnl''t ""'' '"'^ -S-^^
omething more than'^ ^',' .H=,'"S,''"'-^'--lve« to
'D the Gospel ; ,n n '' ''■"'' Prescribed
'It. those who take n ,% ""* ^"■^ocptores
[-'.orgod,,arentsVw:Z':t''\*- ""' "f tS
a mixture of
f-a l^a-l^^'to^be th-'tsT' 'm"'!'"' «"^t
the necessity for ifg :,,/' ,'"' authority for if
referred to \h g n .Tci"'""" ''^ '"ti'-er to ^
t'mes. The frequent 'er'l"''*"™' "*" 'hos!
W Of l'rothe,is, Neale '/7T T^Jl" "" »''' I '''"■'>' "K^s brought wi/k. I ''""^ ''"riu? those
-^9, and in the Euchadsti'c offi ""'• ^'*- '"''•'"'• "'« I'^^baWlity of tVe v\'''''" « twofold perT
^ployed by the deacon clean eTh:''f'**""^ '•"'^'"'' «■"' the n„ L bii^r^ 't'^'t "'" ^''"'S
=kalice(Goar,^«c/4o%.z;,>rI?riP'''*°a"d paganism «f the I,?, f J"' ""« Ve into
Md after the recei.tiM ant r!,^' ''''' ^•''' '^1). '"'"'""''l necessity on'^""'- ""^''ee arose a
wre swept by it nt^^ "h ^hr""""^ ^'agments obtaining a secn^j "° l^? P"* of the chCh oi
?«<i the pate'n cleansed ItlCt '""• """ "•"' *'"' b" ^ d ilf n't?'r' ,"/ ""= ''"-t^
•veil was also employed, uUiir^'^i* **■«"'' '" *'"' '»'th of t?e "h ,r h""''' ''<' ''™"ght
l7fC"r£KaA.ii.„„'.i).V"^^'rMfT<iA«d„„ parents' deafh „. ^"^'■''"eh in case of ♦!,*;:
7 ^"« paten cleansed. For thi7^ '^"'" ^"^ ""e baj.tizei
Wy veil was also employed^LA'7"'"P"j« ^^e up in the ,a th
"« Aa;8iv rhv i-vmu XU J. M"" ■ • • . character of a,l„
fy'o..orvploX:J^rcJr^rr Y^- '^ a-^swered'fo'r'b
wre swept oy :t mto th
?7 'he paten cleansed
aoiy roil itT..„ „i-- .
(Tfo
P' 83). The'sacred VttS?f tl' p""f ' ^"^
'^garded as being imparteV to f h ^'"''"''' ^"^
"hording to Goar (« O wa d »t' T"^"' ^^'''^'h
patriarch among the nennlp r."'-'"'"' ''^ "-e
"conled in the memoir of rv ' *„" "'•nilarly
»'"« (§ 182) that EuSo 0/ tTtl "• \' ^'"""'-
»« encounter the Saracenrd ,f T' ^'''° «'"'"»
^.spenge «ad nsumril'l" "i! „ S"«--
" encounter the Sanacena ,1 .V T' *?^° a'*""* *he church. « The r.; • ""^^d institution in
of a sponge "ad usum Sae nn^"fi • P""'""" P"'""''''^' "ccordinlt ."r^ of baptisn, is mo«
2 al' who received S Cm J"' ."''"•^'^ ""°' -""^ ""orcover^th: at ^ '"''.""■ "^ ^ispo^^
death A liturgical sponl of U^ """"^^ """^ especially in the case of ch^M ""'' P<"s"n, but
r^..cV^' P^*"areh on Wau"ndv rt SH ^.! J-^^"" .(»/'<'«*or.,) also K "r.!""5r- '''"^
'!« iept for" ^rri/P","^' "/ '"?" »'• e w^
T,blo hv th . ^*"''' washing of ths Tf I
^^^^^o.c.WKp.frti'ii.Sc^;^;;/
SPONSAT.TA r,. '' Lt.- V.J
arci__ „
ehurch oi
t ot th
up "> the-iS'rf t'hTihf.rct"'"''' '" "">"«'''
parents' death or apost^s ,'" ?"'" »'" their
character of adul^' sl^k ' ""l^ '^'' '^^ «aJ
be answere,! for bv oth„. .1? '"'P""'" should
guard against the ke t r tt I *^'"»^«'ves, to
know that the risk nV Li ?'"' calamity. IVe
led many of t"e f Po^t-baptisnial sin iad fall
thought ltdy,t: Z'Zttr' ."' ^'"^'stS'n
baptism, eg. Tertullian wh? P"»'Pon«meut of
argument, which incde^talth'' *'"' ''""""•ing
sponsorial office as an el^lf.T'r "■''-"*^ '» 'f^
the church. « The dewl '<• ^ "'''titution in
profitable, according to the i^.v'"""' '» '""^
tion, and moreover ^the age oPt'T' ""^''i'"''^
„„,^, " tne thine be not 30 r>'-l ^ 'f "
'ff sponsors (aponsoFes) also K ""■•«=■ ''ry, thai
danger? f„r boththey thin .' ""«'" '"to
the.r mortal nature, fllj of fu • '"'^' '"^"'^
they may be di«,ppo nted bv th ^"'"'.'"''' and
a bad disjwsition ■' wrA' ^™^"'°' "P of
«o« charitable and trnf«^l "'' '' ' ^he
" trustful course tj,gj
122
1024
SPONSORS
SrONSORS
in<li<-Atc<l in tho Rcspons. ad Orthod., attributed
to Justin Mnrtyr, 5tt, 'A^ioCftoi ruiv Siji toC
flairr/.TUoTos iya9wv t4 0i>f<pri t») iticru rwy
mpoiJit>»p6vTa>v oirA t^ ^oitt/it^oti, Auil so tlie
Butlidi' uiiilur tho imme nf iJiuuyii. Arecip. (ifc
£ct\ llkrurch. en]), vii. nil tin.), "It nppcarcil
good to reiTive iufnuta in tliis wny, tlwit the
n»turnl imrcnts of tlie child nll'ered !>hiiuld
hand the boy over to one of tho faithful,
a giiod tenchcr of divine things, unilor whom,
aa under a divine fnther (godi'ntlier), and a|iu|)il
In sncTi-d snving truth, the boy shoulil bo. Un
this nmn then i)ronii.4in(t that he will educate
the chilli in h<dy living, the prioat cnjuins that
ho promise tho reuunciationa and confess tho
faith. Mark, he does not say, I do this instead
of the chilli, but so the child docs, i.e. 1 pr(inii.>.e
that I will train up the child by my sedulous
exhortations, so that when he grows to years of
discretinn he will renounce."
The raliiinate of the office for adults is thus
given by the same writer {do Ecc. Jfierarcfi, cap.
ll. par. 2) : " He that is iQ/lanied with desire of
obtaining the heavenly gift (iu baptism) goes to
•ome one of the number of the faitht'ul, and
prays him tii take him to the priest, promiaiug
that he will thoroughly follow all that is deli-
vered to him ; and he prays that he will both
bring him, and that h'? will undertake the
care of regulating the rest of hia life for him.
The other (with deep sense of his responsibility,
&c.) most kindly promises to do what he asks,
and, taking the man, brings him to the priciit,
who with joy proceeds, &c. [At a later .stage
of the proceedings] he orders the man and his
Busccptor to be described and the names written
down. One of the ministers calls aloud to each,
and then leads him into the water," &c.
That these sponsors were provided in a great
lnea.sure to afl'ord guarantees for the character
of the catechumen is plain from the Ap'stolical
Constitutions (lib. viii. o. 3'2), " Let those who
first come to the holy mystery be led by the
deacon to the bishop or to the presbyters, and
let them examine into the reasons wherefore they
are come to the word of the Lord. And let
those who bring them bear witness unto them,
knowing accurately what concerns them. And
let their manner and life be examined into."
The rest of the chapter deals with this examina-
tion iu detail. For the same ends it was
customary for deacons and deaconesses to under-
take the office. In the Apostolical Cvnstitutums
(lib. iii. 16) it is prescribed, " Let a deacon
receive (i.e. as sponsor, for baptism) a man, a
deaconess a woman, that the grant of the irre-
fragable seal may be made with seemly security."
Instances are given by Coteleriua in his note,
from the Life of St. Epipbanius : " Lucian was
the father (i.e. the godfather) of Epiphanius in
holy baptism ; and Bernice, a holy virgin, had
been the (god) mother of the sister of Epi-
phanius." Victor of Utica ((fe Persec. Vandal.)
gays, " A deacon stood for {suscepit) each one."
(See also Ringham, bk. xi. cap. viii. § 7.)
Hence also the great care which the early
church used in the selection of persons (other
than deacons) to undertake the office of sponsors.
Thfi ancients excluded .ill catechumen.i, energU"
mens, heretics, and penitents, that is, all persons
who were never yet in full communion with the
church, as being themselves uubaptized ; or else,
such «a had foifelted tho privileges of their
baptism by their errors, or crimes, or incapacity,
by siinio canons persona who weie nmer coii-
iirnnil were also exiluiled. At a ci>uii(ll held
at Auxerre, A.n. t>7S, mnnks and nnna were fur-
bidden to act in this o.ipacity (see liiiigliairi,
bk. xi. rap. 8, § 10). It dues not iippe.ir that
wives aloud i/iY/i their husliaiids in any mm.
K.lias, metropolitan of Orete (,\.i>. 7 )«y, answer-
ing tho monk Dionysius (lib. iii.yiim Oricntnl,),
speaks strongly on the grave ilulies iif spon.siirn.
The fourth I'onncil nf Carthnge (.v.D. ;)i)H;,
canon I'J, prescribed one of the duties Jf
widows and deiicnnessea to be the instruction iif
the ignorant and rustic women how tii ninkf
their rtmponses to the interrogatories vvliich the
ministers wnuld put to them in l)aptisni| auii
how to order their conversation aft( rwanls.
In the writings of .St. Augustine, and in those
attributed to him, we have iVeiiuent alliisiun tn
the institution of sjionaors, with practical advire ;
e.g. ^^erin. Hi:), do I'vmpore, and to siuiilar
purport, De lifrtHurUnc L'atUiA Cunrt'i-mit. §§ 2,4,
"I admouiah you above all, Imth ini'n iiiiii
wnrttm who have stood for children in baptism,
that you reciigni'o that you are sureties ( fi(/«-
jH.sscm s) to God for those whom you have Lii'd
seen to receive from the font." Where bImi he
adds further injunctions to persevere in thin
duty : " V'ou ought to admonish them to preserve
chastity, love, justice, charity, and almve all
things teach them the Oced, the Lord's I'liiver,
and Ten ('ommandments, and the first rudiniiuts
of tho Christian religiim." These instiuctioiis
are quoted in the canons of Ceakhythe, A.n. 7H,"].
In his Epistle to Jlacedouius, no. 1,'),1, liea|)oak>
of a surety deceived by him for whom he stood.
The threefold interrogatories put to sponsors,
and the promises made in return liy them, are
often alluded to by St. Augustine, ami nil is
reckoned to the benefit of the child ; a/., "it is
piously believed that the faith of those by whom
he is ofl'ered for ciuiaecration is profitable to the
infant " (De Lib. Aihitr. iii. 2;t ; and similarlv
De Baptismu c. Donatist. iv. 31 ; and De Pea.
Mcr. et Rem. lib. i. in various passages, cspeciallr
in cap. ys).
The questions put to Augustine by a scrupu-
lous bishop, Bouifnce, occasioned liim to treat of
the subject of sponsors, and to expound the
ratiimale of them more fully than el>ewhere
(£>. ad Jionif. 98, al. 23). He expressly states
the Scripture truth that regeneration is by water
and the Holy Ghost, not by the will of the
parents (1), or by the faith of the sponsors(2),
or by the faith of the ministers; where »e
should observe the distinction between (1) and
(2) drawn by the writer. Again, even mis-
directed faith and lack of right intention, on the
par^. of sponsors, do not vitiate the sacrament
" For it is not so much by those by w hose hands
they are carried that children are ofl'ered for
receiving spiritual grace (although by them too,
if they be themselves good and faitlif'ul), as by
the universal society of the saints and faithful;
by all, in short, whose love and faith is in
operation." Thirdly : " It is not necessary for
the removal of original sin, that the children be
presented by the parents : for in fact iaauj afr
often offered by persons, as it may happen, no
way related to them, e.g. slaves offered by their
masters ■ or children whose parents were deid
•reoflerodbytl
t" tak t'hei
•1«" thoao wh
Mpoaed to bo
•re gathered i
preaenfeil to ba
any chiMren i
pros| t."
In the view r
great variety of
we may Indiove
much wlii.u he
" I'aii'nts were <
childiiMi." '|'f,j
the foundation o
Ifated by .St. At
chap. ,-1 „(■ Jija I,
•oruple proposed
Augustine", wcMih
voY sponsors in .
but as being mei
•outing the ihiin
of inriint baptise
p«'nil, not on a na
the communion (
Augustini! is ,„a,|,
a child who throi
he believes, does i
lacianient of faitl
does itself r"nder 1
»diled that, as th(
"lately the spiritu
anil not on the ap.
maintaining the ba
The writings of
he treats of regener
analogous to thost
embody the ancien
designating the part
regeneration of the
pledges, or engaginj
both (see Blunt; O*
537). And so is ti
plained by Hugo, dc
SU.£i:c.hb, i. 19);
while they ofler chih
new life, they in a sc
to their new regeneri
generation may be m<
there being spiritual
called parentes, and t
if' Aug. Serm. 116)
the love which a godfa
his godchild as that c
of consanguinity but <
iTom language of (
saps natural to the
the term "spiritual
WMREra, p. 1728.1 1
Ao. m, no. U, the s]
godson's weregild if t
to be made in money t
of the murdered parti
of Constantinople, a.d
from church for having
children he had stood f
compaier," U "simx
^ Mayence, a.d. 813
•■-f;*trc5S(uritale8,"a
beir children in the cat
« 18 enjoined, "Nullu
filiam de fonte baptism
spovsons
"I h„ : rt : : iir:,: - '-■-•• '-.ny
pi';::;7,;;'.tsr.^':lt;,:■»r.r....
••...,„.,,„. .„.„;,„„*■„;„;;",;';■!•, s -•>.
chill ri'ii." ■i'h„ ,i„„„ f. '"""'*'."■ t.c-ir mvii
•<•ri.pl,. ,,r„,,„8,.,l l,v 11," ,-r .' '" *■"■">■ ""^t
b"t,.i,,.i„, „,,„;;:,'/;;;;;;; '/.'.< ,;-,.„t.
W..tinit tho phnnh • thnt h' "'"' ''"l"''--
F...i,..otn„^ „:,::. ^;;« '•;.;;-..").!,,.,
th.. .•...n,n„ni„n of s„int« „ Vl , '"'^'""" '"
J-'hil.l who tluiml h" „. ,, ' '■•^^'■"•that
h.- l..'lieveH. ,|„e« belie,. „ '7! .^ """"!"•» "-at
.a.-.a.n..nt of (hith hr'Z "^ '''''■''"■'^^'' ">«
doe, if«elf r-uJer him a ft. thf'T™"''-'''' "*" '"i"'
•'M..! that, aa the dn>r i, ' """• " '"«v Le
™i.,.cly the ancient «o„ L „ '» L*l,">« '',t'^'
<le«.s..Htingthe partieswho p „m^ ' u'-"*'' "f
reKcueration of the infantLvr? ^" '1""'""'
plained by Hueo TZl ,^ " I""""' "-
while they offer ch'iMrenTo T '" ™"'"' ''^™'"'«
new life, they in a sortof ''\'-''g«n«ra;ed to a
1.;^ godchiira."tfafTf:t£' rrr*'''"
of consanguinity but of .piSp^rt mi^; ""^
the term "spHtut Sl^.^^'t,^ -"h
DkorEES, p. 17281 In Tl I [fROHlUITED
A.a 69a,'„P„. lis ,X^o ra"Lt"? ^-"^
gcdson's weregild if slain .•^11, " '" ""
to be made in monev for mn;^' *^ ^ti^^ction
of the murdered p^^ty TjX '" '^' ^''^'^'o^
of Constantinople'^A D ■ 80« ' 7'"f' .I'-'t'-wrch
from church fo^havwl,'- V"^""^"^ « man
children he had ,to.Tforf..""^K" •'""""'" "''"'•'«
';conjpater," r/^lliT'p --•''^-"/.^'-'''y »
Jf Mayence, A.D. 813, S,ea the !te t -r
theiTSeTiX'i'rri^^-"'^'-*-^
ft is enjoined "Nunn, *'*''• ^"^nonSS
■"* baptisinatia suscipiat ; nee filii
SroON, KUCHARIHTIO 1925
'l"«.n.t." V Vh * .(,. "'" '"' '••""i""''ti..«,.m
'"""'"•r ..f HI onl.l "V '""'tation of the
''--.".•, .li:i':;p;^:''""«'''''''x''mi
'•■•"". ^St. <;hry,„: om". r,. ■' ;•■';'■«"« ;i""tati„n
once is incorrect. ' ''"' ""' '''■f"'--
[11. li.J
('..nncilof I'nr t- ,*"" '"■•l.i.lden by th,
"'«'■« than the I and of i^. "''''."'"'' ''"• t^-it
^>"-" the lanJZ/yV^ 7>''''"(^»''' "" >•
"With hanil^puf'tlih " '*"""'»'^^''"«. 7*),
■•e.''.ive the bo, v of T .". '•■'■rwise let ,„
"-.tion »f thi vL 'o'ii'^r r'"!.''' '"'"'•
''- >vaH Hiectuaiiy:, ;;,::, '^'v,'-"' "-v;;'-
hoHover, that the tr.ditLnif.i. • i"-<-i>Me,
that of the ,po„„ w Ih " f r?,'''''"»««'^'^''l
K«neral in the 0?eek a„,l ™""'"'^«t 'ater l«came
served f«.- the «l,.k • Tut .ft " "', T '" ^^ '•«-
^xs!tJir^"="KiS'^'^'
allusion rtrhvi'VTb "^''' "■" •""«»• '»
t'"-.S with them tdslL of th^- I'y "'■"■»^">
the figure of a '' ve'^oal • " « ""''"'^' '""^"
common among th Syruli rSt rll^'' -'"i^ "">'«
Ephrem, Comm in Li T.' P"""*^' "• *• '• St.
Hence even a convent?!^ il '■. '*^' '^'""' 1740).
s..crament"vi/?^"°r"' i'/" an name for the
"•63). AtTst ihe /in ''■ '^'"'■^- '^'*»'-
the tone, lXth.vJ^"'A^^^ '''"'"^n of ai
Lord .ha i b ;: us and Sf "'""'"'''" = "^h.
the fiery coal with ?h» . ."' '"*'" '« '»''« "P
and to lay t on th. »""* '""K? »f the fingers,
(Assem. cUl:iitl T)" ^V^ft'th^ur!
was transferred to th. .,^ ''" ^^"^ *•>« ''"''•go
«H2 '^'
I
1D28 •Powi, nivji. .ElsTio
othtr Orkiiti)^ xrlivrchM ao'l i«, ,*>>« Oreel^ h«
(Iwayi r''i'«l'M iW t'lo Tinner iiii.niii'f (^Ooar,
JPm,.'*)/. rt-- *J|8l, I4l»i Itoniivil. M,. 118).
IntiiK^^tin... as till' prmili'M! nC i(ti'e|ii .' the boily
in tilt bloi'iJ «if i:illei| In thi- \V«»t, n tlionglit
by wmf vUi?!wi(ti,. ill Ociiir, Ut'i\ Arcmli '.
C>tM,fi^i "' . «( Or. HI, •')'; to lii»vt' liwH lir»i
•lioptfl (.'~ii th» use i>f Jhw spmin) ^n i nilne-
qiinnce of <, - ' ' 'i^tnntio'iple, wliniii St.
C'lirys'istoin , , ''>nj{, luving cnrrii'il
utl' tim Kuili.irir,t wl.ivh ('•■ Imil (ilacBil in lier
liaiiil (xcn Soziitn. //m(. £<>;< fili. .5). It \* mnru
|iroliabl(<, hiiwfvur, that » cuatoin lo i^onvrnl wiis
!Hi((|<>.'»ti'il by thi! ciinvi-niiinfe fmiml in inliii^t<>r-
iDX thiin to thi'iiik. In « dtiiry tolil liy Kihi'Ijhh
thii jiorson "I'nt to « ilyinj; nmn with thu Kiicha-
ritt, the pi'ii^l hliiLsolf Ix'iii^ Hick, wuh iliriMtml
to moisten it ninl drop it into the mouth (IIi»t.
£ccl. vi. 44). The C/ounril of (!«rtlini!e, A.l). 'M>H,
orders "the Kuehsri.Ht to be |Hmreil into the
iiionth " of those who linvo become iu.sensible
((^0. 7(i). lu the name city, not much later, »
wimian who hail Au obstruction in tlie throat
received a " steeped particle of the Lonl's br'ily "
(/)(■ Prom, at I'nwd. Dei, Dim. Temp, ti, inter
Of}/!. I'rosp.).
When intiuctipn for ordinary communions
bogiiu to prevail in Kurop<?, it seems, like so many
other minor rites, to have been introduced from
the East throuj;h Spain and I'ortujial ; for we
tind the first mention of it in a pridilbition ^>y
*he Council of br«(fa, A.r>. 075. The frround
leged wa.s that our l-ord ga 'e the bread and
ne to the apostles separately (can. 2). The
Jinictice thus receive<l s great check among the
•alias, hut in the 1 1th century we tind it general.
hi the 12th it waa suppressed, very much because
it luggcsted the aop of Judas, but still under the
authority of the canon of Kraga, which was then
known as a, decree o( pope Julius (.\otUut J-'uc/m-
fistica, 70."), ed. 2). There is no evidence that a
spoon was ever employed in the West during
the prevalence of intinction.
So far us I have discovered, the only proof
that the practice of intinction existed in Europe
between the 7th and the 11th centuries is to be
found in the words of delivery used in many
churches at the communion of the sick, and in
direction.s that have reference to them. The
form given by 'Choodulf of Orleans, a.d. 794,
runs thus : " The '■<■ ij and the blood of the Lord
b« unto thee remit.^ion of all sins," &c. (Capit. ii.
in Baluze, Miacell. ii. 104, ed. 2). A Scottish
order of the beginning of the 9th century :
" The body with the bloo<I," &c. {^Book of Deer,
90). Similarly two Irish orders in the Books
of Dimna and Moling {LSxr de Arbuthnott, xix.
rii.). i'rudentius of Troyes, A.D. 846 : " The
body and blood of our Lord," &c. (in Martene,
de Ant. L'ccl. Hit. I. vii. 6, n. 3). Kegino, A.D.
906, gives a canon of Tours of uncertain date,
in which it is eipressi) ordered that the " sacred
oblation be steeped it- tb" blood of Christ, that
the presbyter may he "i. to say with truth,
The body and blood," t,. D. I'Hscipl. Eocl. i,
70. See again A^of. t'wh. . \\ . ' the l.Uh
century some formulae of '.ci - v nrbar; le-
cogniged the intinction: " rit >• ',' «• . . - L-ord
Josus Christ, steeped in BiiN b'i:-.> ju^i-vve thy
s-inl," kc. (Pmtif. .lu,--':'..^. in • v,., u. s. 16;
Miss. Ambroa, cited by ixtl' ixk Bt'b , Ser. Lit,
ii. 18, § 2) [W. E. S.]
BTALI.8
J»PO«Tllt.4 J* prnperly th« basket u«ed l«
dlBtvibiitiiij! pri si,n "f money or I'lmd to i llMufi)
(Juvenal, iii. _t''i Hence It iiiiiic to bn
iipplled to pri'M iil~- • 1 I'liintlons generally. Jiid
CyirlMn calls the der-jy ot lin time" siuirfiihiiilii
fratres," as depending upon the coiitriliutiuur, nf
their Hook {Epiil. 1, p. 4tfU, Hnrtel). [(.',]
HTACIIYft f>ct. 31 ; commemorated with
Amplius auil ' ■^'^nus, Honi. xvi. 8, U (I'-n^il,
Atcml. ; Menoi. Ur.PH). Sirlet.). [0. 11. J
STACTKUS (I), Juno 27, one of the seven
sous of .Symphorosa. [SVMl'llOltusiA.]
(2) Sept. 28 ; commumorstud at liuwo (J/iirl,
Usuard., Iliert/n.).
HTAFP (liii-uliia, onmlnioa). During the
saying of long ullices, consisting priii ipiilly ivf
psalmody, at which It was usual to stand, it w:is
permitted fur the worshippers to lean on a ling
stair or crutch by way of rel'ef (Martene, <lf Hit,
Keel. Aiit. Iv. XV. 1.1). Chrodegang of Met/, in
his liule (c. 20) does not permit this lndulj,'inie
to his canons, unless in case of infirmity. The
monks of Kiilda in their 8Ui>pllcatinu to CharUs
the (ireat (Migue, Patrol, cv. 419) complain tlmt
their abbat did not permit even the intirm to use
a stair or to lean on the stiniling-dcsk (i'n<//iM.
torium or reolinntortHm). The stall' was laid asiije
at the reading of the Gospel (see p. 744), For thu
stall' of the bishop, see I'ahtoral Stakf. [C]
STAG (IN Art). From a very early date in
Christian symbolism and iconography, the stag
has been useii to represent the Gentile convert
thirsting for and approaching the waters of
baptism [CR088, p. 496]. He accompanies the
lambs or sheep, the catechumens of Christian
or Jewish birth, in most baptismal works of
art, as the Latcran cross, the frescoes of St. Poa-
tinnus, and the more ancient mosaics of th«
Ra\enna bajitisteries.
The stag is represented in the mosaics of
Ciainpini {De sacr. Acdif, cap. ix.) ; on tumbj
(Ciampini, ]'et. Mon. ii. c. 3; see also for later
paintings Bottari, tav. xliv.) ; on lamps (Aringhi,
ii. p. 6u:i ; see Lami'8, p. 921).
It would seem, from a Ravenna sarcophagus
given by Ciampini ( Yet. Mon. ii. p. 7, tab. iii. \)\
whore two stags are represented with the chalitt
(as birds frequently at Ravenna), that the
animal symbolises the desire of the faithful for
the other sacrament also. These examples on
Christian tombs can hardly have a secular nioa*
ing only; though . 'casionally, as in Buonanitti
(^Frammcnti di Octro, xxiv.), the stag only «
pears as a beast of chose. It is seen in ; -
sense very frequently on the Lombard carviia^
from the 8th to the 11th century; very notably
in the celebrated hunt of Theodoric on tbo
facade of S. Zenone at Verona. [R. St. J. T.j
STAGE. [AcTTOBs; Theatre.]
STALLS, SEATS (flpdvoi; conscssw pre$-
biiterii-um; sedes; formula [Magri, llicro-
/ea;k.'on] ; vnstellum). Compare Stasidia.
Th' mo.st ancient notices describe the .seats for
th- 'i.iiyjrrs Tis being arr.anged in the arc of
the apse, behind the altar, on either side of tin
seat {6p6yos') of the bishop, which was la tlM
wMlle of (hni
IJiiighain (.IhH,
thi niTaiit;..|,ie
"'•'.v of pr,.Hi,y,
"'I .Uii/ncn. i,i)
The term •' thn
to the Kcat (if 8
of the pr, .sbvtei
»' by Constant ill
persons fr„r„ »(,,,
ftn.Jiaii/iim spea
as forced by vioh
;>• iiitii priests' „
Viollct.|,..|)|,e (/
Chociir), was mai
evainple in that
»< ">" \Hth ,.Hnt
•• V. Stall,.) „/iir„
oi'ii-stnict,,! in w
'n I'Hiy and Sici)
•iimetiiiies nil I.' i'
which the compai
rcii.lcred unsiiitab
st.ills remaining ji,
ol Charlemagne ; b
»i'<^ left can (inly
a'n»<(||iicnceofal„i
'">' lirlnciple ui
a>»ii;ried i„ the earl
this, that .seats wi
""If. ilence great
will) were in d,.nc,
with those of superi
" th" Ccncl o:
tnat deacons were er
"•Ives into the row
ranon of that counc
pint to intrude in
the synagogue " is f„
'"t ,it not be pern:
'It in the midst of
which is (akins, lilac
coutiary to order."
duacns were always'
th« priests i„ the .san.
,"' th<-' Council of Ar
itie deacons were bout
" IS not easy to
an-angementofthecler
originated in the East
Phin ofa choir with wl
But the ancient arra
•Piwnrs to have prevail,
■> I-' 6th centur>.
■ ■ '"""ss in her un.
ce the abbesti, uni
".- .sembled nridsts, w
I'lbunal of the church-.
do ibu.s qui aderant su
(G fg. Turon. //«/. f^,„.
J^o mention of those a,
'^h'ch are known as Mis
t»8 boon found within th
ms work.
8TAMLVBA(also5^„
iull- '""'er-garment
.""!<! of trucfnosus allot.
theVi'."^',^"^"'- '"^^ii
^TpZ'T'r^^
RTAMrVKv
Th
"■^'''''I'le in that, ,n"v.\ ■''""'•■'»''■'■' ''■'^'•■•r
0'"«tr,„.t,,,l jn ft-,M,| „ J" '"'■"■» "tnll.s wore
mt.U'ml iiiisiiital,!,. in I'- „.''"' ''ini.'ite
«''i"'T-n.x.urai;„;}\;,';/,i;,'-''-'''-'''''-'. ho the
th^S that .seats wc^r^o ,"..■ '"""'"■""
rank. il,.noe Ki',.at ,.„,•„ '"! "' «l''niuul
»"h those „f superior «„ir , 'l ,""' ""' ''it
that,le„„nsw.eenlo«v"'™ '^'"' '' « "-ac-
'•■lv..» into the rmv .?.■""'' '" "'>'•"-' th.,,,.
--» of ti,atoor^r2T,:--,''^ '''«'«''•
l«"t to intr„,lo into th,. H "1.''"" "" "•eir
tne synaTOciio "is fnr,„,,i n'«n<'st seats of
'"'" f' ''« -- ^n'";he"'"^'• ""'"
■It in the mi.lst of fl '"* ''"I'-'ons to
w'""h i. t«i<i,, ,,:„?; ':r''-^'-' <•- that
fnt,ao. to o,-,lor •■ It ,h ,;i( r I" ''"'"'" "'"'
Jfic.ns were ahvav« fori "''■^">-«d that
The .ieacons^werelotdl"!^;,;!,"'-'-''' '- '• 7).
»n'an,;.;;,:„uS j,«J[ !:-ci.ely w the
wiginatud in the Fast w,^'' ""'"■• "''•''-■h
plan ofa choir with whioh ""'"■"^"''•"l hy the
•PP-rstohav^Jrera Jirttt ''t ^'"^>-
•> '-' 6th centur, 0„lVni. ^''"''^ '='""'^h
-»«inher"^;n.'^rn , 'I'hf';^'^ With
A" niention of f h ^'^""^'"'""'> ''b. x. 15).
rtich are known a?,"''';'"''''":''' '" «hoirs.MIs
this worlc. *'^* P"""' comprise,! in
[H. T. A.]
8T.VK1DU
1927
tl"n nc„r,|inif »„ rh,.
*""'"^ «'"'• .",.nk , ,?nT '"■''•■'• "•'" in
K'-"tMin ,|i„„i,i, "" I"'-* ••,>,,rai.„g,»
^■■«<'. /'-W. )„;• H''""' stan,i„e,„„'.?
[II. s.-j
STANDrVO wa,
™":: I'-t,.,-,. an, •'^, '"»:«'' known. ,
, n I'HAYUi [,,. l,i«,|*' "'! ""■■''■"t (Christian,
"•"««''■ fon,,,ar« SrAfl'.; ,t /.jI^h!"" "^ '''" '''i''y
"t.^;!i:!^r.,,ne':;;;!.;:!;,;!';:;;;^';'' "-amn,. h„t
"'^"" -Itar,. in,!,, i '"',•: "'," 'l'"<'n at ,liC.
-"•n«nH.„t f„r ,|L ;; :!' " ■"""' ■"-• -me lci„,, ^f
[K. S.]
^ I Alls d'f Arir^ n-
'"■"•" "'-n on either side of h' -"""■" ""» •«
"■' '•■'"•ly glasses, 4 whih '"«'"■'""' •''>^*«t
'•• •'«)• A ChriJ '" '''>i"itv ClWr/
(•^''A..At;.!;;r,-i;Kiv.M.hybe;t;i
;^'>-T'a.r,| with His hea, ;:;.'?■;'""" ""' ^''""«
■''''""■times tl,e .n,,,,,,! J, '„ '' '>■""''•" "tars.
''tte.,ie,i(.y,.^. ,iii. ''a' ";':";•", ."i''"'"" "•„,
•'^-1 n. early Ch.ist „„ , ?'2 '"'' !" ''•'"montly
h'-nvHi. At'st. Vit,UU at '''"'''"""'tia.l of
''"'"h i8 seen in a 1 e ,1 fh "'"""" "'" ""Iv
(■'"'"I'ini. tab. 1 "),";i'^ \)''; »■'«•» with starl
lf«««l i" the chap. ,!?';,. '''.i;'''^*'^ similarly
«'.^). ^>n«»aroophL,.9 at a!? ?'■'''"''(■■*''''• tah.
tho apostles (.Millin p I^'i'.'^r'^.V" ^'='"'- ^'^
P- '7).. The iiKure of I ,,I:,kVi'' /''''■'' I'l'^iv-.
'« '>.""c.l on a sar,.ophac ,t ',^ •'"':""« '""o''
» Mrs above hishea,! (Le^ Llf ^ T','." '"'" ^"■''"
"tar, together with e.nbVl""': '{ ' :>• ^ single
8n,l a JJove snrroun.le | wUh ''"^""'"•ti".!,
K<^m given by i'erret f rw 'i'"'''' "'''' '''^'•'n on a
Ayou,.,Mn„n\ith t^r'fr:^^^ P'- -"i. 8)"
raMi.M uith encharistic embb.1 • "°"'' ''^^"'"■
«'"»« (Maranz,.ni, cij « J'"^'' f. '"""J on ,
'•';i"'-utati„„sof heZivtv T^l^- '" the
t;,^*" '^ «" a'mottun'rlE,:":' ^'"'^^'"■'''•""y
of the scene. Instance w'fp™'" '""""' *
w-ooilciitsof thearfi,.]^. V ^ '""""J n the
BAnoN OP. ""'*' N*"vity; Mao., Ado!
A 73?;\Sel5»;.;^;^^'»'>'7", ^<««.ma, &c.).
^ 17. ^'-'<r,7. cW 1 >4fl ^i"""''^'' of Aniane,
;th'r^!,^?it- J'th? KL't" *'';---'- and
t.ng,nsh,..| from the stalls of tLj'''y •"■" «'*»-
I'.v their iKjing ,.i,irina Ik- i''.^^'"''"" ''hurch
P'a-» for »ta!a, g'Tn'^' >;"<• til;"'""'' ""''"™.
"o seat., and their ^^c a„Ts ''^- '''"'>' '""'
■"■Ives » hen wear,- on thi i? '"Pi'ofted theni-
which corresponded to th! *"""? "^ ">« "'"ils
the Kastern churche8.'*"s''ui!!.!/r..""''!!''PP«" in
'""ch accnracy as " sedilia n .""' *'"'™ "-"h
vel sedcntes .luiescunt «1 > '"""" «"'«'>-i<'^te»
laborem levins ferunt • ! "'",'"'' '"'«>«n''endo
digniu8ocoupent8ed.le"rs,^°ltV r '^'^"''"^''
^■'
1928
STASIS
the " c"n" of the patron saint (A.i^'',o/. p. 4
n 351 He .ays aUo that in monastic churchc,
?,e;^were nsu'ally returned, but "»* 'n par, h
churches (JIM- 19). Ka'^h "'""'' }""^ ,T\\l
siaU The T^Jn S. ,Sabae speaks rej>eate,l y
oi a monk going .U rb araaihio,' avrov. Ut j
aie sometimes called riitoi. L • 'J
STASIS (ffTdff.O, one of the subdivisions _of
he Greek Psalter. In the Greek church the
Psalms are divided -to twenty groups ca^;!
Kaelffnara or sessions. Each Ki3.<T|ua is dn M a
rnto thrle TTd^.sby the recital of the formula,
fhis ru"e that even Psalm cxix., which by itself
coisti u?e the 17th session, was divided into
"fetrfa... And f-ther, when he numb r
of Psalms in a session is even, still the oM
:[JZo(.ri<r.. ill it was pre-ved by grou,^-
ine two or more Psalms together. With tnis
may be compared the Western pra^^tice of
Tecuring the sLe result by saying two Psalms
under ole Ghria P.M. For further information
:„ this curious subject the present wn er may
be permitted to refer to an essay upon it in his
volume on The Gradual Psal,»s
For the actual division of the Psalter see
^'sufcerthinks the term ,rT<l,r» arises either
(l)from their standing to recite the P«al™«. «'
(0 from their standing up at the close of each
iession (Themims, s. v.). Perhaps, ho««^«'' ''
may have meant a halt or stop, a sense which
the word acquired in post-classical Greek._^^ ^ .^
STATE AND CHUKCH. [Law.]
STATIC 1. By earlv Latin writers was
applied to a fast day. Yet a distinction can be
drawn between jejunium and statto.
■^ere has been much difference of opinion
wl ether a statio liffered at all from a fast
Tidu^^^rn) ; and if so, in what respect it ditfered.
ffiius. for example, argues that there is no
difference. Bona, however, concludes that the
. "to is sometimes identical with the j.junmm,
and sometimes not. The statio dof 'l/* """f:
the iejunium (proper, e.g. in Lent) at vesper,
hen-^ they were different. But sometimes the
shorter Lt (which Tertnllian calls se,m-jeH.
. um) was called jejunium. In this case he
faithful might take food ''^ '>°"«. ""iVieTat Sn
f,„t was the same as the statio. The relation
between statio and jejun^im is discussed by Bona
(de Iloris Div. Psalmodiae, cap. in.). In ler-
tullian, he says, solvere statimcn is the same
asMumum lllerc. But Gregory the Great
rssiScertain churches of the city (Rome) to
Sns, and on the more solemn days com-
mnded'that stations should be done {states
S) until sext, aud to those churches on sta ed
r,ys {statis diebus-this P«''''PM"/r''''„ ^i*^*
origin of the term statio) the Uihful usually
°,.'^ t Tho^tations. Bona complams. have dis-
Luneared, owing to the chill that has come upon
K and t^e abstinence of the fast alone remains.
'The classical passage on the subject in ve^
early writers is a clause of Tertullian's : " bimi-
mer ^t stationum diebus non putant plerique
wcrificiorum orationibus interveniendum quod
STATIO
statio solvenda sit aciepto corpore Domini " (*
/)«< c xiv ). To this there may be added one
or two other sayings of the same writer (<fa
linn c. U ; ih. c. 10 ; ib. c. 13), from wliich we
Si. er that 'the statio was held on Wednesday
^nd Friday in every week throughout the year
(Lecnnse, according to Gratian, on those dny^
respectively the betrayal was planned and he
Cn cifixion accomplished), and that it lasted till
the ninth hour. The fast on these two Jay, of
the week is enjoiued by the sixty-ninth o. the
\„ostolical Canons, though the Greek e<iuivalent
of the name statio does not appear there. It may
be added that bishop Beverege's long note upoa
this canon will be found to give the "jo^t com-
„lete and the clearest reaumi oi the facts, ,iimd»t
1,11 that has been wntten upon the subject
(Pandcctae Aunot. u. 35). , , ., , ,, „ ..
It has been alr.ady suggested that the fast
was called s«..<io, because the solemnity nn^
kept on fixed days {statis diebus)-, but bt
Ambrose gives another account of the ong.n of
the term "Our fasts are our eiicam;- nta
which protect us from the devil's atta, ,. ; m
short, they are called statU>nes, because stnnding
istantes) and staying in them we repel our
plotting foes" (S. Ambr. iVm. 25). leitul-
ian likewise undoubtedly takes advantage of
this military sense of the word (sta<.o,«,™/,...m
in his treatise * Coro,w MMis (cap- J>. • ^o'
an account of how the fast of the Wednesday
,talio became in process of time "^^'uiS^^^for
the Saturday fast in some parts of the \Nost,
see Sabbath. „.,,,. u i.
2 An assembly of the faithful in chuvch,
especially that which took place on the l.-rds
da It has been mentioned above tha Gregory
the Great regulated these stations in Rome, bu
it is clear that he did not originate them; for
though the word appears to be "^^^ in he sens
of the Fast in all the P'^«ag«^ "^ J""'"
(see the several notes on them in the Oxt,ml
translation), yet it (ffricr.O is used b) bU
1 Gregory of Nazianzum in a passage whore it
' could hardly mean anything but an asson, 1, y
rOreg. Naz. Ora«. hab. in Concho Const.). Ihe
term has an obvious appropriateness m a Gveek
church, where there were no seats and all had
*°f' In a sense closely connected with the fore-
eoing, a station !•. a church, oratory, or o her
Place where ecclesiastical processions ma.le .
Kand certain otlices of, divine worship wo«
performed, sometimes the service of the 1 ly
Eucharist itself. From this it came to pas. that
the processions themselves were called «(.l,o,«
They were first instituted by Cyril of A exan,im
f Ducanee, s. «.). The tombs of the martyrs w r6
Ehe'scenis of stations. In Wer tin,. .
term was used of a procession >""<!« by "
clergy of a city to some leading ch"'''^h of th
city (Anse'm Leod. c. 09, in Wolb.) D.uaag
1 sa/s that wnen the clergy from^ the var,..«l
' Zrches were assembled at » «tat.o,, any ,^
cult question that was pendmg was .se tlrt.
This fact, he thinks, accounts tor 'lertulbaiu
....mcnt that th. station WM sometimes pre
WeTtott vesper hour. It appeals tronot
Cvnrian (A> 41) that the Novat.an sch,s,™.«
dJma dea that heir charges should be mv. j
nVi 1 " in statione." Some have thought th«l
fwisthelutions of this class that Giegor,
STATIONS OP PENITENTS
the Great took order to regulate ("solliciti ordi-
navit ) an,l that while taking part in them he
delivered many of bh homilies on the gospels.
This would pomt to the use of the eucharistic
office m the station. The same use, too,
prevailed m the church of Constantinople,
where we are told that the epistle and gospel
at the stations used to be recited in Latin
(N.colau. 1. £p 8). Anastasius again (m S.
UtaUmo) speaks of a station "ad Sanctum
Petium on the Lord's day, and of the mass being
celebrated there U is not unlikely, indeed, that
in the early Christian mind stcUio was eminently
connected with the Eucharist, because the corre-
spending word (ip_^)p) „.«« already in use in
the ritual of Israel in connexion with the sacred
oblation (see liuitoif, lejc. Talmud, s. v. 1K)]1) ;
and stath nmy be an example of those many
ideas which Christianity adopted from Judaism.
Hofmann {Lex Univ. s. v.) boldly defines sMio
as ritus audiendi Emmjelium. This, however
would seem to restrict the liturgical use of the
word too much.
At these stations the sacramental yessels were
carried in procession. Anastasius tells us that
this practice existed as early as the time of
Hilarus (ad. 401), the successor of Leo the
Great in the papal see. Leo the Third (a.d.
795) made twenty such vessels of the purest
.liver, to be carried by acolytes in procession
("qui praecederent per stationes per manus
icolytorum ).
In modern times the term stationes is most
often applied to the use of certain devotions in
front of pictures or sculptures representing
the leading incidents of our Lord's Passion Of
this use however, no example has been found
within the period to which the present work is
restricted. FH T A "<
STATIONS OP PENITENTS. TPiiNi-
TENCE, p. 1591.] '•
STAUROPEGIUM {<Tra„poi,i,ywv). The
solemn act of fixing a cross by the bishop of the
diocese, at the foundation of a church or mouas-
tery. The service and ceremonial iu use on such
an occasion, with full rubrical directions, are
given in Goar's Eitc/totoijion, pp. 606-613. This
custom is an ancient one. It is probably alluded
to by St. Chrysostoni, when he asks, " What
community is there which has not the staff and
cross ? What church which has not been forti-
fied with the cross?" (Horn, in Baia.); and it is
distinctly mentioned by later writers (Balsamon
in can. vii. Septimae Synodi).
In later times the term came to denote a
special right claimed by a patriarch to consecrate
a church in any diocese within his province, by
sending a small wooden inscribed cross to be
fixed behind the altar. Such a church became
the patriarch s peculiar, exempt from ordi-
nary diocesan jurisdiction. An account of the
controversies caused by this custom is given in
Uuoange, Glossary, 3raec. Med. Aevi, s. v. See
for further authorities on the subject J. M.
Neale, Eastern Cimrch, Gen. Introd. p. 1041.
TF e w 1
6TAUK0PHYLAX. After the supposed
discovery of the true cross by St. Helena, the
mistody of the holy relic was committed for the
time being to one of the presbyters of the church
STEPHEN, ST.
1929
of Jerusa em, who was thence called i .rrai/po.
rrV '.* «■"* regarded as a position of very
high dignity, and the holder of it was fre.iuentlr
ndviinceu to the episcopate. Porphvrius bishoi
h Lh^n" t''- *'/^ ^'^^ '^' "'«'«' «»''J'>' John llT
b. hop of Jerusalem (513-524). " Elias episcopu,
H.erosolymae exilio traditur et pro eo Joannes
ciuois custos episcopus ordinatur" (npud Du-
c'ange su>j voc). The names of several piesbyte«
who were " guardians of the Cross " occur in the
biographies of St Euthymius and St. Salirs by
Cy ril of Scythopolis. r£ y •.'
STAUROTflEOTOKION (araupo9.or6.
Kiop) a Iroiiarium or Sticheron, including a
mention of both the cross and Jhe li V M
Goar, Ai«,.^ofo.y. p. 188; Triodium in Domini^
yro],hagi Menaea, July 12, iu J. II Neala
i^asfcrn C/iurcA, Gen. Introd. p. 832. '
STEPHANIS, Nov. 11, martyr ihh^ViS,
under Automnus {UaM. Mcnol. ■ Mawl. Graeo.
oiriet,^. rC H 1
holff^^f^^^^? (^>' •'«■'• 14, monk, "our
holy fatlier." m the time of Leo Isaurus, founder
cL!%~'"'^ "^ Ohenolacus (,ii>isil Menol. ;
(2) Mar. 27, hegumen of Triglia, confessor
Men7)^^' "^ ""'''"' ^'° A^enus (BasiL
(3) Apr. 1 ; commemorated in Eeviit with
Victor (Jfari! Usuard., ^i^.o«.) ; May 1 Suri!^..
//i«j'0»., Notker.). '' ^ •
(4) May 24 martyr with Meletiu.s under
Antoninus (Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Graeo. Sirlet.)
(fi) Aug 2 pope {Mart. Bed., Usuaid., Adon.:
Ihcron., Ut. Rom., Notker., Wand. Basil
^^'^'■[^fol Graeo.) ; Sept. 7 (Slenut. Graeo.);
t., ; ^^f ^'■''^■"■>- '" "'« G'-^gorian SacrU
mentary, he is commemorated on his natale.
.n"^*'"? ?""""• 'P «^-«'-y prayer; there is also
of ol^'or ' ^ '" ""* ^il»'''-^ntip/,onaritu
<ji ^f^ f"^/'. \ subdeacon, martyr with pope
Sixtus {Mart. Bed., Usuard.). ^ ^
(7) Sept. 17. [Socrates (1).]
the Sabaite" {Cat. Syzant; Menol. Graeo.)
(9) Nov. 22, martyr under Diocletian, with
Marcus, natives of Antioch in Pisidia (BasiL
Menol. ; Menol. Graec).
(10; Nov. 28, The youNGER, martyr for
image-worship (Basil. Menol.; Menol. Graec.;
Mart. Usuard.). »
(H) Protoinartyr. See Stephen. [C. H.]
STEPHEN, ST., PROTOMARTYB, Lb-
OEND AND Festivaf. OP. 1. Le.,end.-h one
oi the appendices to the works of Augustine ii
a letter from Avitus, a Spanish priest then living
m I alestme, to i'alchonius, bishop of Bracari
(Braga) in Spain, which was to be conveyed to
him by Orosiua the hi.t.-.riRn, thou about to
return to Spain, which was his nativ* land.
Besides the letter, Avitus furthur entrusted
Orosius with soma relics of St. Stephen, and
w-ith a Latin translation of the Greek narrative
of Lucian, to whom, it was believed, had been
1930
STEPHEN, ST.
vouchsiifi.M the discovery of the martyr's remaiM
(Aiii;iistinp, vol, vii. 1125, ed. Giiiime).
We >hiiU proceed to give, in the lirst iil.ice, ft
brief 111 istract of this latter documont. Lui'ian
'was priest of tlie church of Caiihar-Gamala, a
village twenty miles from Jerusalem, and on a
certain Friday {" parasceue, hoc est sexta feria"),
three days I'efore the Nones of l)eceml)er, Hono-
rius being for the second time, and Theodosius
for the sixth time, consuls (l)cc. 8, A.D. 415),
he was lyiii;^ half asleep in the ba|itistery, where
his bed was placed that he might guard the
sacred vessels. Here, at the third hour of the
night, he saw a vision of an old man clad in
white, with a gidden wand in his hand, who
commanded him to go to John, bishop of Jeru-
salem, and bid liim open his sepulchre. He
further announced that he was Gamaliel, the
teacher of I'anl, and that he had caused the
remains of Ste]ihen to be .secretly conveyed by
night trom the scene of his martyrdom outside
the north gate of Jerusalem to Caphar-Gamala.
Here Gamaliel laid tlie body in his own tom'o,
on the ea^t side; and subsequently Nicodemus,
who had been excommunicated by tlie Jews and
had been maintaiue.l by Gamaliel, was laid in
the same tomb. There also Abiba.s, a son of
Gamaliel, who had with his father been baptized
into Christ, and had dieil before his father, was
kid. Last of all, Gamaliel himself w.as buriifd
there ; but his wife Ethna, and his eldest son
Selemias, not having embraced the faith of
Christ, wore buried elsewhere.
Lucian, on awaking, doubted the reality of the
vision, and prayed that if it were sent by God it
might be repeated a second and a third time. On
the fidlowing Friday the vision appeared agaiu,
and (ianialiel .isked why Lucian had not obeyed.
On being told the reason, he shewed as emblems
of the nlics three golden baskets filled with
roses (line with red for Stephen, two with white
for Nicodonuis and Gamaliel); and a silver basket
filled with fragrant crocuses for Abibas. The
vision tlien vanished. Yet a third time it
appeared. On the following Friday, at the same
hour, Gamaliel appeared and upbraided him for
neglecting to obey.
Lucian, being now convinced, set off for Jeru-
salem, and related the story to the bishop, who
b.ade him dig for the relics, it being believed that
they would be found under a heap of stones in
the field indicated by Gamaliel. However,
Gamaliel in a vision to a monk named Migetius
explained that the bodies were not there, but
had merely been laid down there at the funeral,
the heap having been set in sign of mourning.
The bodies really lay in the north part of the
field, in a spot ca'lled Debatalia. A vain exami-
nation of the heap proved the truth of the last
vision, and the relics in four cotfins were found
at the spot indicated. On that of St. Stephen
was engraved, according to one text,"Keayea
Celiel, ijuod iuteriu-etatur servus Dei " (c. 8, Op.
at. n:i;!); according to another, " Celeliel quod
Stephauus dicitur " (t6. 1134). The latter inter-
pretation is of course the correct one, celil (?*??)
being a common Aramae;tii word for a crown, as
Stejihen in Greek. Bishop John, then at the
Council of Lidila or Diospolis, being at once in-
formed, came to the spot, bringing with him
Eieutberius bishop of Sebaste, and Eleutherius
STEPHEN, ST.
(al. Eustonius) of Jericho. When the cotBn of
St. Stephen was opened, the earth shook, and a
fragrant idour was diltused, by which seventy.
three persons were restored to health, The
coHin was then redosed, and was carried to Jeru-
salem, as the church of which St. Stephen hail
been deacon ; a small portion of the relics beijig
left at Caphar-Gamala. This transition was
made, according to one text, on Dec. 2li (7 Kal.
Jan.), or, according to the other, on Aug. ;i
(3 Non. Aug.).
We cannot of course attempt to define accu-
rately the historical element in this legend, still
it is dear that some cliscovery of the relics, rc.il
or sujipiised, took )dace ; and that this was
followii by universal credence in the story.
Thus, f(.r exam)ile, as we shall presently seo,
Augustine, in the twenty-second book of the
Dc CivUatc Dei, written a few years after the
above events are said to have happencid, refers
to miracles supposed to have been wrought by
relics of St. Stephen brought from Palestine to
the province of Africa ; and the events are taken
for granted by most of the immediately succeed-
ing writers. The series of visions su|iposel to
have been seen by Lucian we may readily .allew;
it demands nothing more from us than to crcilit
Luciiin with a lively imagination and an iutouse
faith. Explorations in pursuance of these vislims
might easily be rewarded by the finding of a
body, even if not so simply as the story makes out.
V\'e are not called upon either to lay to the
charge of bishop John a craftily conceived anj
carefully worked-out imposture, or to accept the
elaborate story in all its details. Much of these,
the names upon the collins and the like, we niiiy
readily discard as mere embellishments — a story
of this kind never loses by the«telling.
The news, when promulgated, would be, we
can well believe, eagerly caught up. Relics
were, as we have seen, widely dispersed ; and
the simple but intense faith of the time might
often, by its very intensity, do marvels. Thus,
for instance, the case of Taulus and Palladia,
afterwards to be mentioned, is just one where
strong faith, working on the line of stroLg
nervous excitement, might well produce the
results said to have happened.
We retarn now to Orosius. We find from the
letter ofAvitus that, in Dec. A.D. 415, he was
eagerly looking forward to his return journey
from Palestine. He returned to Augustlue in
the following year (Aug. Epist. 175, § 1; vol. il.
923), bringing with him portions of the relics
of St. Stephen, which Avitus had obtained from
Lucian (Avitus, I. c. ; Geunadius, do Viris Illui-
tri'ius, c. 39 ; Patrol. Iviii. 1081). The history by
which Orosius is most generally known was then
written ; and after this he set .sail for Spain with
the relics. On his way, he landed on the island
of Minorca; and here, learning that the Goths
were ravaging Spain, and that it would hardly
be possible for him to return thither, he settleJ
rsfther to return to Africa, having Intrusted
his relics to the church in Minorca (Severus,
Fpist. lid omrunn Eodcsiain, § 3 ; apud August.,
vol. vii. 114(5, in Ap])end.).
We havp s,",id that the belief in the discovery of
St. Stephen's relics soon spread widely. liesiues
Augustine, of whom we have already spoken,
and to whom we shall recur presently, o may
mention Chrysippus, a priest of the church o(
STEPHEN, ST.
J^'"'''''^'"', '^",'.^' ,a.„„t the „• |,„e ^f ^
wufiry l.h>,„„, {liihliotheca. cod. 171 ; /'«W
(,,-. CM,. 50,.) sa.v, that he hml re.ul „Vo'k „f
Chry.,,,|,us, a ,,m,ogync of The.Klnrc tlie ma tyr
h.s vision, and the cons..,u,.ut discovery? U
about the same period, Basil „f .Seh.„cia wrote a
pane.yno of St. Ste,,hen and concern ,1 the
.i.\^. 40 ). Ihe Cln-onicle of Matin.s mentions
t e n.an, Otation i^uu-t,,- St.pkanu. ,- !, "
at Jcrusalen, ,a t ,e ej.iscopate of John (Pat J.
oe-.! s IV ;'h " ^'""""i.'-'''-' «f ^'arcellinus
wealds of the discovery of the relics and of
Lucans narrative (A 923: see also Gonnadins
1080 s,n.). ' ' ' ^^' ■''''"'-■ '^■"'•
\Ve now return to Aus.istine. In the last
book (the twen.y-second) of the De Civitatc M
«-rntei, apparently towards the clo.e of 1 ,.'
iJ>, he tells us of numerous miracles that had
been wrought hy the lielp of the relics in an
near lii,,po (c. 8, §§ 10-2.', vol. vii. loO.^Vwl™
^,am.na "T oratory of St. Stephen had he ,, bni
about AD. 42. (rt,y. § 20), i^ commemoration
It would api,car, ol t.,e arrival in Africa of fresh
n^hcsof hemarty, >. sermon of Augustine'
seems to Inve i.ecn dei.vered specially for this
oc'casion (Sen,, 3t7 vol. v. 1870), and^ the s u 1
aediivg oue ^h.n the relics were deposited in
the church erected for them. In a letter of
Augustmea to bishop Quintilian, commending
two ladies to h.s care, ho remarks that they
are the bearers ot relics of St. Stephen, " which
jour Holiness knows in what beHttins way you
ough to honour even as we ourselves have
•lone" (Ep,st. 212, vol. ii. 1194)
Besides ih,,nc;„oria at Hippo, Augustine spe-
Md Cirta, Sinita, a town near Hippo, Hi
Calania, where IVssidius was bishop.' At a
these places, and at others near, as well
as at Hippo, were 7ne,m,-iae of St. Stephen
Augustine remarks OW. § 20) that though he
has mentioned many miracles, he has also Lsed
m-er many, which, were they all to be given
"plurim. conhciendi sunt libri." He adds that
not only in the country round Ilit.po, but a
Uzalis also, a town near Utiea, many wonders
were done. The bishop of Uzalis, Kvodius, an
mtiniate triend of A.gustine, caused a work tL be
wn ten />« Jr,>v,c„/4; S. Stepl,a,u Proto.naHyrt
mttto books, which is given in the Appendix to
the seventh volume of Augustine (c,d. ll(il sV)
One more example may be added, seeing that
t «-as made the occasion of several sermons by
Augustine, the case of Paulus and Palladia d
sn Th'' ""• ^- "^^ ' *'•»'■ •■^''0-3-'4, vol. v!
im) These were two out of ten children of a
^■af Caesarea ii. CappaHocia, all of whom thei?
mothers curse had aillicted with a terrib e
shaking of their limbs. The two above n"ne
came a last in their wanderings to Hi ,«
bout h( ecn day, before Kaster.^ Here th v
d% visited the «i.,„„na of St. Stephen, and
wh e praymg „„ Ka.ter morning, the y„uth wa
^..Wenly healed. On Easter Tuesday L^!li^ I
- nis =.nuon, embodied the who!,, deposit i„„ ,„'
aulus (Sn«. 322 .„p.a), and on tha't lay
vi , I 'k"*"'''"' '^ "'« '"•"th" had been
OMiously, however, the above a.lmits ."''
bave already said, of a very simple exjbaalion:
STEPHEN, ST. 1931
:"ip;^;r;:?;^sSa^^'---''-^^o^
earlv'pivvn'i T '"\"' '^' '"""' "'"St- Stephen
of St St,., l„! ■*■* "'■''' "' '"e martyrdom
thatl,^ ':£nd^':;:^"?"J''^^«^l'-*^-
elbo^v• Thk, sirikim; the martvr'g
forth a mc,„o,-ia of St sV^i 1 '""'"'•"<' ">cnce-
1..U01 (//„<. 7.,.,.fcj, „_ ^^ ^,^^^^.
r ,?* "" '"■' '- "«'Si J,3.?,';. • ;s
1" Ik. .|M»,|«i, 0, u,h.p iX„. T„ Ii;
^IH) 7, a translation of the bodv of St Ct k
I'C), giv^s" up thUlTgcS""'"^' '•'"'^'^" (""'■ '•»
the African bishop Ga'udiotis l^int from' -thJ
persecution of the Vandal kin^ 1, i'
Naples, and of the relic of S^^Stn^) 1", ^
he<4/ie;:;;g^.^A7L:^:Vi^rx!tt:
omiuess Eudocia, wife of Theo,i;i 'iL, ,ui
a church just outside Jerusalem, on the sc „,
2. Fed,u,ls.~T\,e discovery of the relics in
Palestine, whatever explanation we may give of
(«. cina A.D. ;;9«), in which, as well as i,, {hat
ext to be menthmed, we are told that it fid on
the day after Christmas iPatrol. "r Vlvi 701
II
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ob'vllu;. ^'"^ "''"" '^"""'* ""-^ ^V-. I. of oour*
1932
STEPHEN, ST.
721). Wc also have a sermon for the day hy
Asterius,'' bishop of Amasen in Pontua, which
we may safelv refer to a date iirioi to a.d. 415
(//o»i. 12; Patrol. Or. il. 338). Indeed the
absence from the above three sermons of any
allusions to the discovery in Palestine would of
itself lie evidence. The hcmiilies, however, for
the festival of St. Stephen, once attributed to
Chrysostom, are clearly spurious (vol. viii. 501,
699 ; xii. y29, 931, 933, ed. Migne).
To the above may, we think, be added the
instance mentioned by Augustine {supra) of the
ancient numwria of St. Stephen at Aucona. If
Augustine honestly believed that this had been
built at a period not long subsequent to the
martyrdom, we may fairly acquiesce in at any
rate surticient antiquity to carry it bade to a
time before A.D. 415. The reference to the
festival of St. Stephen in the Apostolical Constitii-^
tions (viii. 33) would be of grejit importance, if
. only we liad more definite kuowle.lge of the date
of the work. In the passage cited, it is ordered
by Peter and Paul that slaves are to rest on
certain great festivals, besides which are the
days of the apo.stles and of Stei)hen and other
martyrs unspecified.
It 'may at once be allowed, however, that these
isolated notices do not suffice to establish the
existence of a festival observed by the church ^t
large, and thus we record its absence from the
Roman calendar of Bucherius, a docuaent ot
about the middle of the 4th century. When,
however, we pass to the period after A.D. 415,
we soon find all ancient calendars, niartyrologies,
and liturgies agreeing in containing a commemo-
ration or commemorations of St. Stephen. The
davs speciallv associated with him are Dec. 26
and Aug. 3. ' The tirst is certainly the comme-
moraticm of the martyrdom, both because we
have it mentioned in writings prior to the date
of the finding of the relics, and because of the
constancy with which it is so noted in ancient
authorities. On the other hand, one text of
Lucian's narrative gives Dec. 26 as the date of
the translation, the other referring it to Aug. 3.
Probably the latter date really commemorates
the consecration of some church in honour of
St. Stephen, or the like event, but, as we shall
presently see, it is generally associated with
the translation.
The festival of Dec. 26 is recorded in the
Roman calendar of Polemeus Silvius of A.D. 448
(Patrol, xiii. 688), and in the Calendarium Cartha-
qincnse, which is probably only slightly subse-
quent to A.D. 484 {lb. 12-28). It is not neces-
sary to give an extended list of ancient authorities
recognising the festival ; it may sufHce to mention
the Mart. Ilieromimi as edited by D'Ach<!ry from
the Corbey MS. \Po.trol. xxx. 437), the Mart.
Gellonense (D'Achery, SpicUeijium, xiii. 390), the
Gelasian (7'iitro/. Ixxiv. 1309), the Gregorian (.6.
Ixxviii. 33), and Ambrosian (Pnmelius, LiturfUj.
Latt. i. 30()) Sacramentaries, the Mozarabic
Missal, the Lcctiomrium Luxoviense, the Gothico-
Gallic Missal, and others. To the Leonine
Sacramentarv we shall refer at length below.
Aiiiciig th'' "fafhors who have written homilies
tor the day are Maximus of Turin" {Horn. 64,
STEPHEN, ST.
Strm. 85; Patrol. Ivii. 379, 701) and Fulgentiui
of Kuspe {Serm. 3 ; J'atrol. Ixv. 729). Again,
Aug. 3 is given as the date of commemoration
of the discovery of the relics, e.g. in the Murt,
Vorbeiense (supra), the Martyrologies of UeJe
{Patrol, xciv. 996), Rabanus Maurus {ih. ex.
1160), Wandalbert {ib. cxsi. 606), Nolker (li.
cxxxi. 1131), &c., and in one text of Lucian's
narrative. Besides the above-mentioned two
days, the Mart. Corbticnsc also cites a coinmemo-
ration at Jerusalem on .lau. 2, and at Aiitimh
the " natalis reliquiarum Stejihaui protomiutyiis
et diaconi," on Aug. 2. It is not improiiable
that in this last case Antioch is an error f'ot
Ancona, for several martyrologies {e.ij. I'.eJe,
sHjira), while naming Antioch, add the story of
the stone which struck St. Stephen's arm, men-
tioned by us above. Also Aug. 2 is perha|>s an
error for Aug. 3, on which day the refercncs
occurs in Bede, Rabanus Maurus, &c.
It is now necessary to enter into details ia
connexion with one or two liturj;ical nioniiiiii'nts.
Tlie Leonine Sacramentary makes no mention of
St. Stephen among its December festivals,
though it recognises there the festivals oi' St.
John and the Innocents. In August, however,
we have the heading "iv. nonas Augusti. Xiitale
Saiicti Stephani in coemeterioCallisti via Ajipia,"
after which follow no less than nine masM-s for
a festival of St. Stephen {Patrol. Iv. 91). .Mma.
tori, connecting the heading with the masses,
considered that the iv. nonas was an error tor
ill, nonas, but there is no doubt thiitthe Sti-jihen
mentioned in tne heading is Steplien bishH|j of
Rome {ob. A.D. 257), for in the Dcpositio Kinsco-
poruin {i.e. of Rome), which stands at tiie liead
of the calendar of Bucherius, we have " iv. iionaj
Augusti Stephani in Callisti " (Bucherius. ds
Doctrina Temporum, p. 267). Also the Mart,
Coi-beiensc gives under the same date, " Komae
in coeineterio Calisti Sancti Stephani martyris,"
and the Mart. Qelloncnse, " Roma Stephani cpi.
scopi et martyris." In like manner, too, the
Gresorian Sacramentary gives a mass fur the
Anj {Patrol. Ixxviii. 128). While, however,
there can be no doubt as to the reference in the
heading in the Leonine Sacramentary, the m.issea
have direct reference to the protomartyr. except
the eighth, which has no individual reference at
all. it is important to note that the Preface in
the seventh mass definitely places the festival of
St. Stephen on the day after Cliristmas, shewing
clearly that thin mass, and therefore prolialily
some at any rate of the others, are in their
wrong place here, and should be transferred to
December. It may be arlded that several of the
prayers in these masses occur in the GelasisB
and Gregorian Sacramentaries under Dec. 26,
The ninth of the Leonine masses refers to the
dedication of a church 'ta honour of St. Stephen,
and the Ballerini {not. in loc.) suggests that the
reference nmy be to the chinch on the Mont
G,eliu3, dedicated by pope Siin|dicius (A A.D,
483). Possibly this mass properly belongs to
Aug. 3.
In Mabillon's Leationarium Luxoviense, a Icctioj
is provided for the festival of St. Stephen, jd
b This serraon Is dcflnltely ascribed to Asteriug by
Photlus (Bibliotktca, cod. 271 ; Patrol. Gr. civ. 204).
•■ ii.ere arc also two other sermouB altilbutcil to
Maximus, but relegated to the appendix as KpurioM,
one for the festival of St. Stephen and the otlicr fiK
the Octave (Sermn. 29, 31, In Append.; Patrol. M.
906, 913).
STEPHEN, ST.
mattttvmm, Jeremiah xvii. 7-18, followed by an
Mti,H:t iron, a sermon of Augustine. At mass,
the lections are Acts vi. 1-vii. 2 ; Matt. xvii. 2:1-
xvn.. nUYrol. Lxxii. 174). In the Gothico-
Ga he Jlissal ,s a contesiatio or preface (the so-
called ;<ra.y„<,o being here the priest's first
prayer) of unusual length, by which the min,ls
of the worshippers were to be better fitte,! for
the soleniMity which was to follow, in this fact
we may see obvious evidence of the importance
of the festival {ilj. 23(1). '
In the Mozainbic Jlissal, the j.rophetic lection
is not a special one, but serves -ilso for the
festival of M. Clement, Wisdom iv. 7-15; and
for the epistle an,l gospel are re>p,-. tiv.dv Acts
"'■■• T^'.'o.t ("""'ti'ig vi'. 2-51) and "Matt,
will. l-;)9 (i'ativl. Ixxxv. 190).
In the Cireelj church, the martyrdom of St
Mephe;! is now commemorated on Dec "7 the
festival of the previous day commemorating
the Blessed \ ,rgin and St. .Joseph. The heading
in the ..IcHuca speaks of St. Stephen as th?
holy l)iotoniartyr and archdeacon." The fes-
, tival of the translation is held on Aug 2 The
Dotices for these days in the metrical Ephemerules
preliied by I'apebroch to the Acta Sanctorum
for .May, vol. ,., are respectively tUdSi Aaf^toj
STf^ai^ov fxupos m6^Lr, (TKf„ and Swmn
Kiix.). The ej.istlc and gospel for Dec. 27 in
the Greek church are respectively Heb. ii. 11-18
and Matt. xxi. 33-4;i.
In the calendars of the Armenian church, pub-
lished by Assemani (Bibl. Or. iii. 1. 645 sqq )
Dec 2b is the commemoration of the martyrdom!
and Aug. 2 that of the discovery of the relics
Jan. 7 IS also a commemoration of St. Stephen
apparently of the martyrdom, which thus comes!
it will be observed, on the day after that on
which tho Armenians still, alone among Chris-
tians, celebrate the Nativity of our Lord
[Christmas.]
In the calendars of the Coptic and Ethiopia
churches, published by Ludolf, Dec. 27 is the
??^' ^^\Jh^ commemoration of St. Stephen,
though the Coptic calendar adds the note " Findl
ing of the bones of Stephen " (ad Hist. Acth
Comm p. 403). This, however, as v;e have
already said, is obviously wrong. On Sept I''
both calendars have another commemoration!
special lydehned in the Coptic calendar as the
" martyrdom of Stephen " « (ih. 391). On Oct
i"/"onl"."'""' ^"* '" *•»« Ethiopic calendar
only (ly. 395).
i. Ajiocnjphal Literatwe.—Ihe council held
St Rome in A.D. 494, under the episcopate of
Uelasiiis, condemned among other books a
Kevelatio quae appellatur Stephani " (i'airo/.
III. Xio),
In addition to works cited in this article,
reference should be made for the le„^end and
festival of St. Stephen to TiUemont, Meimircs
pur scrmr a I'JIistoire Eccl^siastiqw, vol. ii pp
1, 503. The Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists
STICHARION
1933
do not avail us here, not ha/ing yet reached
beyond the end of October. [K. .s.]
STERCATIU8, July 24, martyr at Merida
wi.li his brother Autiuogenus (Mart. Usuard.,
Ilivron.). [-^^^„j'
It la all the more probable th»t this variation from
urumary use is simply a,, error, because in the Cakndar
0/ the Loptw Church, published by Mr. Malan, the entry
tor .Septeoiber 12 is •• Removal of bones of .Stephen.
First of Martyrs and First of iJcac^ns;" and that
to leceniber 27. "Martyrdom of the holy Apostle
STICRAUIOX or STOICHAIlION (crtyd-
piou, o-Toixapiof). This vestment is simply ths
eiiuivaleiit in the Kastern church of the alb
LAui] of the Western church. llefore citing
any references as to its use, we must Hrst speak
br^efly as to the word itself The etymology
must be considered doubtful. (i„ar ('h'ur/Jo-
'J«m. p iU)) derives it from <rT(xoj. "ab uno
Muasi Imeae ordine," from the long' unbroken
^;veep of the dress (■' redact longum protens.-i ").
Duuange (Uhss<,rium Gnw.wu, s. v.) forms it
trom a word .ttixiW, a tunic. There is no
reason to doubt the buna-ikic existence of this
latter word, for we find in Hesvctiius, «/3jA«i/,
Oi-OMO o-TiXfiuu, and there are perhaps traces of
a Latin word sticu (see Ducauge, s. v.) in the
same sense; still it brings us no nearer the
;lerivation. G. J. Voss (do \U^s Scrmmw, lib.
ill. c. 50) suggests that stica is for sticta, givinir
us the notn.n of a x.riv KardirriKros. He call'
attention in support of this, to the fact that the
sttc/iaria oi bishoi)s are waved in bands. Al-
though the fact is certainly so, the roundabout
theory of derivation must be pronounced absurd,
indeed it does not seem unlikely that stica may
have arisen as a shortened form of stioharion. It
IS possible, however, tnat the sticharion may
have received its name from the bands or lines
upon It,
As in the case of most other ecclesiastical
vestments, the word evidently represents in the
first instance a dress cf ordinary life. One of the
charges Ijrought against Athanasius was that he
had required the ligyptians to furnish contribu-
tions of lm,n sticharia (Apol. contra Arianu,,
c. 60; Patrol. Gr. xxv. 358). As, in describine
this mcKlent, Sozomen speaks of x'to-Wo,.- \,y&l
<p6poy (IM Eccles. ii. 22), and Socrates (nist.
Ecocs. 1. 27) of Aiv^v iaeHra, wc may feel pretty
certiiin that we are not dealing here with eccli
siastical vestments properly so called. The same
may be said cf the references to sticharia in the
will of Gregory of Nazianzum, who bequeaths
to tvagnus the det jon, Kd^,a<Tou i^, ^r,x<ipiop J„.
TraKMa fi , and to the » notarius " Elaphius a
similar gih {Patrol. Or. xxxvii. 293). See also
falladius (Iltst. Lausiaca, c. 13(i; Patrol. Gr
xxxn: 1235) where Athanasius, on an attempt
to apprehend him, catches up a sticharion and a
Hi^piou and flees in the dead of night.
We must refer now to the word in its eccle-
siastical sense. Here we find it for t.,e tunic o{
bishops, ; riests, and deacons, as well as for sub-
deocons and for monks. The earliest refereuce
with which we are acquainted, other than those
in a L.turgy the date of the several parts of
which must be considered doubtful, is to be
found in Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople,
early in the eighth century. His account 2
■And first the sticharion, being white, setteth
forth the splendour of the Godhead and the
glorious citizenship of the priest (toD Up^w,\
1 he stripes (Aapi'o) of the sti'harion which are
on the sleeve (tA iy rfj xupl), do set forth the
bonds of Christ The stripes which rua
*J.
? '>- .1
'A
1084
STIOHERii
acrdss, the blooJ which flowed from the side of
Christ OH the cross " (//is<. hkclca. ct Mystica
Tltfriu ; Patrol. Or. xcviii. ;)9+).*
\Vc g;ithi'r from nil tliis thivt the vestment
was originally of white linen; tho\is;h it is now
often nmde of costly materials, nnd in Lent
(except on the Annunci ition, I'alm Siinlay, and
Lister Kve) [lurjile stichnria are worn (Codinns
Curopalata, Je Ojilicus, c. 9, in Jin.). This is of
course meant in sign of mourning.
The bands siioken of by Gernninus may be
illust rated by tliose found in early instances of
vestments in the West [see c.i/. Dai.maiic]. it
will have been noticed that (iermanua referreil
to the stic/uirion wiUnml siiocia! reference to any
particular <irder. The wavy bands are now,
however, peculiar to tlie sti: hctriii of bishops.
For another kind of ornamentation see Gam-
MAOIA.
The Liturgy of St. Chrysostom, at its begin-
ning, gives the formulae to be used by priest and
deacon on assuming the stic/utriun (Oonr, p. 5Ii)-
The same name, too, is given to the garment put
on the subdeacun at his ordination (16. 2++).
According to Goar, however (p. -4i!, n. i!), this
is a tighter aqd shorter garment vhan that
ordinarily so called. For an inst.anco of the use
of the term for the dress of monks, see ih. p. 484.
Among the Syriac churches the vestment Js
known as kuntiiw, a mere corruption of yjTiiviov
(Renaudot, Lit. Or. Coll. vol. ii. 54, ed. 1847).
Among Coptic Christians it is known najabat, or
touni'tt, the latter obviously formed from the
above Greek word {ih. vol. i. 101). See for
further notices Ducange's Glossariuin, s. v.; and
Suicer's Thesaurus, s. v. [K. S.]
STICHEUA (anx'npi)- G) Verses com-
posed by ecclesiastical authority, and forming
part of the Greek liturgical olHces. (Goar,
Eacholotj. pp. 32, 206.) (rTiX''!po irpoo-d^oia
were versicles composed of an equal number of
syllables, so that they could be sung conveniently
to the same tone.
(2) Stiehera Biblia was a name given to certain
books of the Old Testament, in consequence of
their metrical or poetical character, viz. Job,
Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles. (Greg.
Naz. quoted by Ducange, s. ».) [F. E. W.]
STOLE (prarium, stola; i>pdpiov, imrpa-
X^lMov, irepiTpox^Aioi', <paK«iKiov [Gcrmanus,
tc.]; |)f6l)- '* " ''""^ ^^''^ ^^^ word stole
00
does not occur, in its technical sense, as the title
of a certain ornamental Christian vestment, till'
after our period of the first eight centuries, but
it will be convenient to include here under
this head our notices of the various ornaments
which, under whatever name known, may be
grouped together as being but varieties of the
sitme general tvpe.
Before doing this, however, we shall briefly
remark on the uses of the word stole (o-toA^,
«Wrt) itself, in its earlier non-technical meanings.
In classical Greek, (TToKit Is most often found in
the sense of garb or equipment (see e. g. Hero-
dotus, i. 80, tiririSa aroXriv iviO-TaXfityovs), and
also, though less frequently, with the mean' .g
of an article of clothing, a single garment. This
• Ducange (Otoia. Gram. s. v.) speaks erroneously of
Qermanus referring merely to the tticharion of deacons.
STOT,E
twofold use obtains also in the I,XX. Here
(TtoAt) stands for a variety of Hebrew words, liut
most frequently it is used for the priestly and
hii;h-prie>.tly garments, both in the singular fur
the whole set of vestments (and that though the
Hebrew word itself is plural [DnJSl; sec
e.(j, Etod. xxviii. 2, 3 ; xxix. 21, 21), Jvc), and in
the pUiral, where refereii..e is niaile to the com-
ponent parts (c.;/. Exod. xxvlii. 4). The cullpc-
tive sense of (rroAjf is not confined to the |jrie.-tly
garb, though tliis is the commonest use of it (see
tv/. Dent. xxii. .'), o-toA); •yvvatKtia; .ler. lii. 'J?,
Tr)v (TTo\iiv Ti^j <pv\aK^)i; see also Baruch v. 1).
We may add that mitK-\\ is the word used lor the
robe put on Josej>h by I'haraoh (Gen. xli. 4-J),
for the " change of raiment " given by .Joseph Us
his bretliren, and that it twice occurs as the
translation of cp/aiJ, David being the wearer ('J
Sam. vi. 14; 1 Chrou. xv, 27). The word will
doubtless carry with it as a rule the noti m nf a
long, stately dress, as may be inferred friim the
choice (if it to reiirescnt the (lowing priestly g:ir-
ments, though of course it is not mi'ant to imply
thr,t the word per se will mean the jjiictly
garb. Such is markedly its New Testament use
(see e.g. JIark xii. M8 ; Luke xx. Hi [of scriljcs
loving to walk about iv oruAais]; Lake sv. 22
[where it is the "best robe" brought forth for
the pro ligal], also Mark xvi. 5; liev. vi. U, ie.X
and also that found in classical l^atin, to which
we shall presently refer.
In ecclesiastical Greek, the word, as applied to
the garb of Christian priesthood, occurs exceed-
ingly rarely.* Theodoret (Hist. Ecclcs. ii. 27;
tells of Constantino's gift of a Uph (TtoA*) t«
Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, where one would
suppose the word to be used much in its old
classical meaning. Germanus, j)atriarch ot'Con-
.stautinople early in the 8th century, speaks of
1] <TTo\^ Tov iepews as being (tarck rhv mlfip/ii
'AapJiv {flist. Eccles. et Mtjstica Cuntcihjttatio ;
Patr. Gr. xcviii. 394). This, it canuot be doubted,
is to be taken of the phclonion, the vestimmt/w
excellence; indeed it may be noted th:it tli«
ordrium i.s afterwards mentioned and described,
as we shall shew below. Again, in the still ex-
tant letter of the patriarch Tlieodosius of Jeru-
salem to Ignatius of Constantinople, at the tims
of the Fourth General Council of Constantinople
(A.D. 8()9), when a present of the supiioscJ
iro5^pi)j, iiriDiits and nhpa of St. James is sent
to the latter, they are grouped under the colloo-
tive term of ri Upapx'tii ittoAij (Hardouin, Con-
cilia, V. 1029).
In classical Latin, the stola xvas the ch.iriu>
teristic dress of a Roman matron, as the logii of
a citizen." It came down to the feet, */ taios
stold demissa (Horat. Sat. i. 2. 99), and wa»
generally edged with a kind of flounce (instita).
The use of stola in the Vulgate version of the
Old Testament is not of course specific, lilte this,
but it generally carries with it a notion ol
stateliness. In the collective sense of the Greek
word for the set of priestly vestments, it do«i
not seem to occur. In the Vulgate version 0/
• Hcfcle (Beitrdge, il. 18S) speaks of only two instinoM
as to be found in the wrltere of the first eiglit centuries.
b Very rarely we find the word used in connejlon
with men, e.g. of the priests of Isls (Apuletus, Metam.Ji.
21).
Oirist. p. 215) commen
STOLE
tt'lrj?""'' ''''''' ''"'^''>'' ">« *"-'-
The technioal uso of stoh for a stole does not
occur bufur. the iHh century,' oninwnClnl "he
current nH,„e o that orna.nent in th ,3 1
centuries. h.,rly in tl,c !)th ceutury/it won M
;:^L':r'the " 3 ^-*''°«,;:!t;' --.«^o:
of the ornament as sMu, »nd ignores the woiJ
(r<„-.«», altogether (do Keel. off. ii 20- )■ f°,7
ovum). In Walafria Strabo-fli.:t of Chris an
vesments^ however, in the middle of th y?h
Ointury, the name orariuin alone is „. ,^ r,
this moreover, the old name .survived side bv de
with the new Thus, in a statute of KicGlfus
bishop of So.ssons («4. a.d. 90-'), enjoinW a
proper stock of vestments for prie'st and ilt^„
one. tern .s'oraria, id est stolae duae ni.ida""
(Stat. 7, Patrol, exxi,. 17). Again, in a work
once wrongly ascribed to Alcu.n, but evident Iv
wntten .n the 10th or 11th century, we ml t
mvm "'7''Jfr'/'°™''"'"' '^ ««t^^tola-(^
Z).«. (;/.39; l'„trot. c. 1242), as though the
former were rather a technical, the lalter a
fam.har name Writing as late as the middle of
te 12 h cen ury, Honorius of Autun still use
tur^^ {Ocnina Anv.nae, i. 204; Fatrol. cUxii.
It may now be asked why such a word as stol,
with ,ts long-e,stablisla.d uLning „?« fu, ^ v-'
mg robe, .should have been oho.seu to re, res nt
.0 totally d.derent a thing as the narrow riband
like ornament which we know as a " stolp " T,
STOLE
1935
.. J .....wtut a iiuug as tne n
like ornament which we know as a " stole " To
this question no very satisfactory answer has
been given. It has been sueeestcd th^t t\^
^f.r was the only survivingS:t of'tt oM
*/a, and thus inherited its name. This is the
view of Duran.ius {Rat. Div Off iii "s fl^ J
after stating that \h. stJa Z 'le' \"i'
dress coming down to the feet, adds, "sed pos !
I, ^U^'"'' ^^'^'"''J- Oewa,uler des Mittol-
e^r'that 1 1 sTh'"" \' '""^' '"' eonfessedX.
eier, that this theory does not seem at al pro-
bable tqually little does Marriott's view f f«T
dm p. 215) commend itself to our mind that
from the use o( stola in the VulgatoTt beca4
apecally .associated with the idea^f a priestTv
™ e and hat perhaps the orarium^ ^^^l
tJ^Sth century " the special vestmenl of Chril-
• Thorn would bo a much earlier Instance than this
LlofTn " "'"P' «'« '"^isnient of the «liton, L to the
to of m anonymous fragment eoncemlng the vestment!
T^ "'l^""'"'" ^bnrch (Martene and Ed Aa
in«.<l V. 99, cited by Marriott, p. 204). HenTthe vp« '
meat IS calM Ma, the name o^nj bernrait^X*;
J«nt. Although, however, the date of this dSe^t
bglven by the editors as the middle of the 6 h ^mar?
to Bcema every reason for putting It several «n°uriTs
Uter. We may note here that the rule Is h.Td down
raiceralng the stole, that It Is not to be wora fc S
pro humniatlone." Again, tho wnpl ^^^^.}^''^'
fct«la,ical Beu«, In the Orogorl.n's.cra;;nen^ry bat
ttelona in which this has reached us ls™XnWtoo
S 7""^ f™? ""> ""K""' to aUow of any wflgt
•wenoe which could be adduced in eupport of lu
: ■■"'.•"■'"■^thood," gradually acquired the name of
\vn^^^y ^tz:^l^^^^'l^l^-■^^■
further 1 ,, h .i" " I'J^amination a stage
some indeed ;erv"lfete.^d\nv.r^''-'"" ""'"'^
^.^^J^?d£rr-"-^=:
sense of border .'Tornn i'*"". '^' '° ""'
^^n!'^Thr^-:t::''^^'?^^Ss
propose, some to d^e'v^it rom r^' ."^"'"'"^^
meansofit "is indicate, fh ''P?' ,l'«'^»"'^'= 't
parts of the serv ce -'or I . "^f- "" ''"'"'="'
ministration™ ILras.-otrr' V' '■^'1^"';' '•''1
because the deacon is' b^utiSwihU f-f ^^'"Z
rfewrt-he^i^^istt'^^-r^T^'^'-n
is minister ng A stni^'' "''■*''' '^'-"'^™° ^^o
bearing on'tf; qut „"„'rt'h'e ^'mgu:' ''""'T
nished by the El^nolooiJAl^XTlTjJ:"'-
•pmaa^viov (an EcvDtian wn-/ ' : '^ '^'^"'''
abl*; than'':i7«?trel,Tefewsl%\:tT\-
wiping the face.^ Then by „ very na ur.? "? "'
P^^u.rt'-;s-rte
rSr!S:lr'S5!^-'^"dinthe//,^
, ^.^....ijjies are toui
toriae Awvistae ^.-iV.'-i- -r i ,
1936
STOLE
SHrabilena'' quatuor " {Vita Claudii, c. 17). The
next emperor, Aureliun, was, at we are told by
his bidgrupher, Klaviui Vopiscus, the tirst who
gave oniria to the Uoman people, "quibus uteretur
popiiliis Hil fiivorein " ( \'it<i Aurcl. c. 48, where
gee the notes of Casaubot and Salniasius). This
appc'ars to mean that the peoi)le could by these in-
diciite their applause in the circin or theatre, h;iv-
ini; previously been in the habit ot' waving their
togas. Thiis'they would natunilly be worn over
the other dress. Marriott justly cites iu evidence
here one of the sculptures on the Arch of Con-
Stantine, where a number of the attendants ol
the emperor wear over their left shoulder a
broad band or scarf ( ftsJ. Christ, jjlate iv.).
When we find that the earliest pictures of the
ecclesiastical onmuiii {ih. plates xxviii. xxx. xxxi.)
are, on the whole, similar to the above, the infor-
enre does not seem at all forced, that the Chris-
tian orarium, like the chasuble, the dalmatic, and
other vestments, is but the old secular orna-
ment, modified and adapted to its new use. The
techmciU Christian meaning of the word then
bemg thus formed, it speedily passed into Greek
and Syriac ; and indeed the earliest instance we
are able to cite of this technical use is from the
canons of a Greek council. Doubtless relevant to
this matter is the question of the/ixWia lim^tima,
which Sylvester, and afterwards Zosimus, is .said
to have commanded deacons to wear [Manipi-k]^,
and the papal palliuin [Pallium] is obviously
but another special instance of the general orna-
ment. So too in the East we have wpdptov,
imrpaxif^toy, a)noip6ptov ; all of which, we do not
doubt, are but modifications of one primary idea.
We must now trace the history of the urariuin
as a ministerial garment. In the West our
starting point for such a history will be the
canons of early Spanish councils of the 6th and
7th centuries, one of which furnished us with an
important record in tracing the history of the
chasMe [Planeta]. In the Eastern church,
however, the use of the orariwK can be traced
much further back. It is to be remarked, before
entering on this discussion, that the orarium,
havingbeen originally merely a handkerchief,
even though at times of a choice and ornamental
character (from which species of it, indeed, the
orarium, in the sense of stole, has sprung), still re-
tained its ordinary, as opposed to its ecclesiastical,
meaning, even amongst Christians, long after its
ecclesiastical meaning had been formed. Of this
we have already given some examples [Orarium],
but shall again here cite one or two instances.
Ambrose uses the word orarium for the " napkin "
with which the face of Lazarus was bound (de
excessu fratris Sityri, ii. 78; Patrol, xvi. 1396).
We find it in Augustine for the bandage which
binds up a wounded eye (rfe Civ. Dei, xxii. 7 ;
Patrol, xli. 765). Jerome couples it with s^idarium
{Epist. 52, ad Nepotianum, c. 9 ; vol. i. 264). The
Christian poet Prudentius jays of the martyrs
Hcmeterius and Celedonius, that they sent up to
heaven, as it were heralds, the one his ring, the
other his oran'um— "hie sui det pignus oris" ut
4 The mpanlng .-ind spflUng of this word i" draihlful :
one conjecture U Sanptetm, from Sarepta, the Phoenician
dty.
• The Implied connexion here between orarium and
01, as bearing on the queittion of derivation, wlU be
noticed*
STOLP
ferunt orarium " (Pcristcph. i. 86 ; Patrol. Ix.
28ii ; cited also by Greg. 'I'uron. do Olurin Mar-
ti/rwn, i. 93 ; Patrol. Ixxxi. 76 ?). Indee.l, nearly
two hundred years after this we miiy still nite
an instance. The four orarin which (iregory the
Great sends as a present to Constantinople, tofje-
ther with two camisiic, are (djvioiisly nuTily
handkerchiefs (A>is<.vii.:JU; Patrol. Ixxvii. 8S7).
We must now proceed to speak of the orarium ai
a ministerial "estment.
The general result yielded by the whole series
of early allusions is that the orarium might be,
and was to be, worn by orders down to that of
deacon inclusive, but below the order of diacnus
its use was prohibited. It thus becomes spciially
associated with the order of deacons, as the
lilaiwta with that of priests. Our earliest refer-
ence is to be found in the canons of the Council
of L.aodicea (c. A.D. 36;)). which forbade the use
of the orarium to sub-deacons, readers, and
singers. The latter are not to wear a stole whea
they read or sing(cann. 2'.', 23; Labbe, i. loOii).
Again, in a sermon once attributed to Chrysostom,
and which, though probably spurious, is not
much later than his time, the writer speaks of
the \uTovpyoX rrjs 9flas AciToup7iai imitating
the wings of the angels with their Afirroi
l)$6i'ai, which are worn upon the left shoulJer,
the earliest trace of that which we afterwards
find the universal custom (Purah. ile Fil. J'rofliijo,
vol. vii. 655). Much about the same time,
Isidore of Pelusium speaks of the ie6vn with
which the deacons minister in holy things (A'y.is/.
i. 136 ; Patrol. Or. Ixxviii. 272). It is true that
per se the word oe6vri might just as well be a
mmipte, as a stole; but, in the first place, the
maniple, as the word is understood in tlie West,
is unknown to the Eastern church, and moreover
in the preceding passage the o96vai of the diacons
are worn upon the shoulder. A very similar
allusion to that of the Pseudo-Chrysostora is
found in the account of Christian vestments by
Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople (/. c).
Here the word oeimi has been replaced by
wpipiov. We must notice, however, that whereas
in Latin orarium means a stole, by whatsoever
order worn, in Greek wpipiov means the stole of
a deacon, and ^iriTpox^^"»' is applied to that of a
priest or bishop.
We shall neit call attention to a series of con-
ciliar decrees on the subject of the O'ariuin,
which, taken together, give us a pretty complete
view of the state of the case. In the first
instance, that of the Council of Orleans (a.D.
511), it is probable that the ordinary interpre-
tation, which explains orarium in its non-ecclesi-
astical sense, is correct, from the company in
.which orarium here finds itself. The use of
orarium and tsangae [Tsanqae], a kind of boots,
is forbidden to monks (can. 20 ; Labbe, iv. 1407).
Ou» earliest definite instances are drawn, as id
the case of the planeta, from Spain. The .Second
Council of Braga ordained in A.D. 563 that,
inasmuch as the habit had arisen among deacons
of the province of wearing the orarium below
the tunic, and consequently hiding it, so thai
ther (fould not be distinguished from sub-
deacons, therefore for the future, "superposito
scapulae (sicut decet) utantur orarirf " (cap. 9,
Labbe, v. 841). It is from the records of th«
Fourth Council of Toledo (A.D. 633) that «
obtain the greatest amount of information. Om
STOLE
re^nlHtion ,,:,s.so,I here was to moot the c«.,e of
fre^h .yncl ,ev,M.s...s the seneanc, they are sti
not lo 1,0 .•,.ns„lc.r...l to have roga ne,| theii- lost
unc.u.ns ti , th,,y have received before th 'at
the external „„ ;;es of their or.ler from th"
hnn,ls „t he h„h,.,, ]„ the case of bishops
pno, s, an,| .leaeons, one of the,,e is the on,n,m
A ...[.sequent canon of the »ame council forbid
bishops an,| ,,n,..sts :ml a fortiori deacons, to
wear tivo ,.ran,. The deacon is to wear it on
the left shoulder only,' and it is to b in
(p«™,„ not ornamented with colours or V M
(cann. 28, 40; Labbe, v. 1714 I7l,n tk
^m,■.th Council of liraga(A.n.675)'o'r' it
at th celebrahon of the Eucharist the ,,ri,.
.houd wear h,s stole (and only one) so tha "i
.houd pass round the neck'and over both
houlders and form a cross on his breast (can 4 •
Labbe, v„ .81) This regulation is qrSed t;
Innocent HI (,/<,. ».cro Att.ris M,/st.rio, lib i
c, 54 ; Pntrol. ccxvii. 794). The penalty enacted
for disobedience IS excommunication
All this points to a well-established state of
things, when even the manner of wearing the
vestment is prescribed; and there is nothing
unfair in assuming that it represents a lon.-
.ettl«l usage The reference also to stoles
ornamented with gold and colours points to the
jame conclusion. As an illustration of this
last point we may cite the will of Riculfus,
bishop of Helen:, (ob. a.d. 915), who, among hi
legacies to h.s church and successors, lo°,ves
"stolas quattuor cum auro, una (sib) ex illis
cum tintinnabulis" (Patrol, cxxxii. 4G8). We
my probably assume, too, that the omophoria
and Oram, by presents of which, accord.W to
Nicetas Paphlago ( Vit.c/gm. Couk, I'atrX.
cv. o72), the patriarch Photius signalised his
Restoration (a.d. 878). would be richly ornt
A number of later rules go beyond those we
have a ready cited, and require at any rate a
priest to wear his stole constantly. Thus the
Counc. of 5 ayence (a^d. 813) directs pHe" s to
wear the stole, _« Sine intei-missioie . .
propter d.Berentiam sacerdotii dignitatis"
(Conc.1. if<yunt. can. 28 ; Labbe, vii. 11249 with
was a pi.est. This rule assumes a special fo.™
M !a.d down at the beginning of the 10th cen^
tury by Regmo, abbat of P.^mia, to the eff ct
th t a priest on a journey shall always wear his
^xxt ?90>''""""" ^^""- ^"">"- '• ^2 ; J'<'tr2
Later notices of the stole, its ornamentation,
Md special ru es concerning it, do not fal
within our province. It may suffice to remark
that even in the 9th century not only were
CO cured and ornamental stole's worn, but a o
the prohibition to wear more than one sto e
seems to have been disregarded. We find for
lample, in the illustrations to the PontiHcal of
Undiilfus, a MS. of the 9th century, t at tme
white, with black crosses, and the other gold-
flithat, the ri«ht being free, the deacon may l« able
tte more readily to hasten to and th. on li "ntler
STOLE
1937
In the a.eek church the stole is known bv »
J iKM-ent name, and as.sun,es « dill' e f f.^m
-Active \t"?.fnr"" •" '"f^'^'-
clusively «,s,!.t ted w th TT'"" '"""'^ "•"•
.Ic-acons.' Into th ca e ol' thi ' "'a""'''' ^^
nee,l not again Zt^f-%^1 v »,mf.horu.n we
from the Wes tern s„ ll ."'« ''/"''•"•^•'«'«"' diireri,
HE:?— --a^.K™
It may be convenient now If wo „t »k • i.
;^^ over the^ea shoulder ^ t,:^ ^
prilTstfanrw^h "';•'' ""' ^"''''^^''^ (worn by
puests and bishops) practically forms, as we
Syrian Christians we find a diHe.rcf'' hot thf
stole is worn by readers (but among the Mu-j!
es only), hanging from the right shou de • • by
sub-deacons (among the Svrim fhri.f ■ ' ^
rallv^ roiin,) »),^ ""',''y"'«n Christians gene-
froratheleff,!,!. "'';''' ^^ '^''"""''' hanging
eenTr^llvV Ll"?'''""-^"'' '° ""« «^'-'e'' church
geneially); and by priests, hanging round th«
the' Nesto.Sa LTVZX ^H:' ^"""^
his arms but only atThe Ume f^ZTo^r
nation. Among the Malabar Chr stlns the
h^e that ot^ the 'XS^^,^-^:^^^^^^^^^^^^
p. 133). The vestment is known in the Co tfe
church uiider the name bitaroM, wWch i, clea'riv
ArmSlns T i'' ^Zn' L'^lr o'"'"'' ''^
For the matter of the foregoing article we
must express our obligations to Hefele' e ,1'
IMS
8TRAT0
A'ii: /leniicscliichte, ArchiiiAojic untl /.iturijih, ii.
184 ii<|(|.; iJock'B '.itw I, Ufuihulir da Mii-
Wiiltcrs, i. 4:iii s(i(]. ; bona, ife IIcIiuk lUiii-'iicU,
f. 24. (i ; M;ii-riiitt'.t VC'tiiiriuin Cltrisluiiium ;
l)iicaiif;i!'s (iVosvinVs, b. vv. Orariuin, ><i//ii,
<!)pd/ll.J^ ; I'liyuB Smith's T/waaurua SyfiticM, s. v.
Jii^). [K. s]
STllATO, Auf. 17, mnvtyr ; onmmenioratod
At N'ic'i>nu'<lni with l'hili|^iis nucl Kiityuliianuii
(Uusil. Jknol.); Aug. 16 {Mart. JJifivn.).
BTUAT0CLINIANU8, June 30, presbyter ;
coiiiincuKiiiiti'd with another iirosliyter (Al-
piniamis) iiwd bishop Martialis, at Liuiuktes.
[c;. H.]
STRATONICUS (1), Jan. 13, soUlior. martyr
with the <learun Ilermylus, under l.ieiuius iu
Moesia (I'iasil. Mow!. ; Cal. Byzant. ; Menul.
Grace. .Sirlet.).
(2) Mar. 4, Aug. 17, lictor, martyr with
Paulus and Juliana at I'tolemais, in tlio reign
of Aurelian (Uasil. Morwl.); Aug. 17 (JAcrioi.
Oraec). [C. H.]
BTRENAE. [New Year's Gifts.]
BTRIGIL. [Sculpture, p. 1863.]
STUDITAE. [AoOEMETAE, p. 13.]
STUrACIUM. A kind of cloth made from
•»Brse fiax. In the worlt De Vita Ercmcticii,
'jiended to the writings of Augustine, we find
long the rules for clothing a direction that
nere be in use for both summer and winter
duae de stup.icio camisiae vel staminae " (c. '20,
•ol. i. 1390, in Append, ed. Gauinc). [If. S.]
STYLITES. [Compare Mortification, p.
313.] Solitaries, who made their abode on the
<\) of a pillar (arvKoi), received the name of
rruATroi. The Hrst of these pillar-saints was
lynieon, who in the early part of the 5th cen-
• ury took his stand on a pillar in the ncigh-
"•eurhood of Antioch, and died, after many years'
exposure to the elements, A.D. 459 (Cvagrius,
//. E. i. 13 f.). His most famous followers were
his pupil Daniel (t 489), whose pillar was near
Constantinople, and Symeon the younger (t 590),
who displayed himself, like his namesake, near
Antioch (Kvagr. vi. 23). [See their lives in the
DiCT. OF Christ. Bioor.] A certain Alypius
is said to have spent seventy years on a ))illar
in the neighbourhood of Adrianople (Surius,
Nov. 26). The first Symeon's pillar was, accord-
ing to Evagrius (i. 13), two cubits (about three
feet) in circumference ; and the saint abode
Bcven years on lower pillars, and for thirty years
n|ion one of forty cubits (about si.xty feet).
Another authority (Theodoret, Hist. Hel. c. 26)
says that he took his stand at iirst on a pillar
six cubits high, then on one of twelve, then on one
of twenty-two, and that in the year 440 he was
seen on one of thirty-six cubits. The supposed
base of Syrrteon's pillar is still shewn at Khelat-
Scma'n in central Syria, between the church and
the monastery of St. Symeon (De Vogiitf, Syne
Centralc, pi. 139, quoted by Martigny). So
slender a pillar as Evagrius describes must of
cvurse have had some kind of platform ut the
top, probably railed, or it would have been im-
SUDDEACON
possiblo tn avolil fallia^' iliiriiij; Nh'i'ji; but it Is
clear that the saint nllosved liimsill' no |>roti't'tii>u
fi-oiM mm or storm. In an amiriil drawing
figured by Martigny (]>. 745, 2nd imI.) the saint
is represiMiti'd sitting in a kind of cup-»ha|n'J
capital, while a (iguiu bidow attnchi-s a baskift,
probaldy of tmxl, to a cord which he lets down.
The pillar-saints naturally fouuJ f>'W imitatnw
iu the nioi'e rigoroiH cliiiuilu of the West. .\
Lombard named W'ullilac did, however, pau
some time on a pillar iu the J' tritt of Tri'vii,
and i|uitted it at the desire >{ lis bishop. He
himself told (irigory of Tours (1/ist. rniw: vili.
1.')) that he sutlcred horribly iu winter frcini tin
cidd, which had caused the nails to droji fr.ini
his feet ; and that tlie rain, freezing on liia
beard, formed icicles whi(di hung down like
a Innich nf candles. (LI. O. Sieber, ilo /•iimti)
CuhiiimrnhHs I>issert. Lipsiae, 1714; .Scliriickh,
A'lVc/icji'/i'sc/iic/iif, viii. 237 tl'; L'hleman, Si/iucuu
ilcr crstc t^inlcnhciliije, in lllgeu'a Zciischrii\
1845; Herzog's Itcul-KM-ijdnj], s.. \.\ Martii;ny,
Diet, lies Anti'j. Chr^t. s. v.) [C]
STYRACIU8, Nov. 2, martyr with Tobilu
and Nicopolitianus at Sebastc in Armeni.i, in tlie
reign of Liciniiis (Uasil, Menol.). [C. II.]
8UBCINGULUM. [Girdle, p. 728.]
SUBDEACON {!ntotii,itovos, virr\piTTis \ siih-
diaconns). At what precise time the ordiu
lower than that id' deacon were instituted in tli*
church is a matter of complete uncertainty.
The attempt to trace it to the apostles or their
immediate successors is acknowledged by Cardi"iiJ
Bona {licr. Liturij. lib. i. c. 25, § 17) t< '•» a
failure. The most probable view of the c<...t \t
that the growing needs and organization ol the
Christian community gave occasion to their
institution and gradual and orderly development,
" Crescente ecclesia, crevit ollicium ccclesiasti-
cum : ut multitudini ecclesiae subveniri posset,
adjiciuntur inferiores in adjutorio praupo-sito-
rum " (Amalar. de Ecc. Off. lib. ii. c. 6). And,
after their introduction, an apposite [ircceilent
was discovered by later writers (c.ij. Isidui.
Hispal. de Ecc. Off. lib. ii. c. 10; Anialaiius,
lib. ii. c. 11 ; Rabanus Maurus, dc Instil. Ckric
lib. i. c. 8) in the Ncthinim of the Jewish church,
though, with their ignorance of Hebrew, they
strangely interpreted the word as equivalent t*
" humilis ; " and, by a similar mistake in etymo-
logy, they considered Nathanael, the " Israelii*
in whom was no guile," to have been a tyj.e of
the order.
St. Ignatius certainly makes mention of only
three orders — bisho])s, priests, and deacons. In
his Epistle to Polycarp, vi., in-qpirrts me.iiu
evidently a deacon. And so it is in Hernias, Vix
iii. 5. Beverege (CW. Can. lib. ii. 4), after
quoting No. 43 of the Apostolical Canons, argue!
that the office existed as far back as the 2nd cen-
tury, though (he acknowledges) we can find wi
mention anywhere of its first institution. All
that can be said is, with Martene (torn. ii. lib. L
c 8), that it may have been of more ancieot
introduction than the other " minorcs ordines,'
and that it, as well as they, was instituted by
the church in the 2nd or 'drd century.
Subdeacons are not mentioned by name in any
Christian writings of the West till the 3rd cen-
tury ; e.g. St. Cyprian, Epp. 24, 28, 78, 79, 80
(ed. Benedict), and the Epistle of ConieUui,
SI
biiho)) of Home, i
and in the (Ireek el
f.g. St. Kjiijdian.
St. Uasil, Ejii.it. (
•ome uncertaintv I
iiitrodui tioii iiitn
other minor orders
deacon, alter they
K.ij. Ojitatus (lili.i.
by Cotelcrius iu his
"episcopiis, presbyl
laicos sen tiirljam ii.
genera caiiitum In
byteroru.ii, diaeono
St. Jerome, (HI Isiiia
in the church, not
the Apst. Cun.st. lil
in used as an ecjuiv
l>lac"s, cy. iii, 11, vi
ci|ni\-i'.;iit to liTtoS,
nienni.i^r points to tl
point '"11 ill thc'sep a
v»--iation of meanin|
other 'vriters.
The as^e for ordin
was twenty years, ace
of T. ledo, can. 1 (,\.
in Trulhi, can. ].-) (a,
ordination, see Oitnix
In regard to his du
first, no doubt, little
imported, one undor
deacon. Special duf
assigned to him. SucI
the priest in which t
appointed time in the o
a function elsewhere a
Cyril, //icro.1. Catcc/i. x
lical Cimstitutiuns (viii
deacons should staml ii
entered, and subdeacon
entered, so that no o
should go in or out dm
solemn part of the oil
duty presently devolve
Dion. Areop. Ecc. Iliera
oftheNicene council, pi
Ufoiiifvot, v"^. ;,r((rKor(
^ffTjii. It was the
remain at the narthex o
to keep order as peojil,
not to depart from the c
over. By the council of
siibdeacon is to pay th
Jeacon as the deacon to (
have any place in the c
touch the sacred vessels
ORAniUM, nor leave tii'e
forbidden him by can.
canons explains that the
it the doors for the pi
the catechumens after tl
»a8 finished; and so t
»ut, the penitents, callii
[ Ifave the church, and to t
Iney were not to leav
purpose of joinins in thr
that olfice belonged to'tf
serrice they had to brii
paten, to nave charge of ti
Wons, and of the chalice- ■
CHRIST. ANT.— VOL. II
StJBDKACON
ot)..r,ni„.,ronl,.rKw.r,Mn,l,,;:'::t :',:;:":
di'ftci.n, alt.T thcvwcr ' "" " r t'u' tciiii
bt,. ,r„.n, ,|,an,n„nMn. e, (i.lVli,,,," '"{,;';,
H th,. c nuyh, not «,„.,.i,yi'„^, «ul„l..a ,„"' h
'--. a« an e,,„ival..nt tl/Lr; rrS
c<|uiv..'Hnt „. i,„S,d,„;;; '• Thi,' -a iaf^";' "?
n.™„,.,,,,.,n,,,,.u,e,,n,baiii;,':/:r ;.,;:
(joh;.,,,, ui th,.sc|, assacca; alt(i„nph f ,,.
ordinat,„n,.,eoOurLlno!;;^;, iViV''" '"'■'" '"^
In rogani t„ his .Inticvs, the mMvixvm «■„» „,
hrst, no ,l„uht, little m„re than w) at I- ,
n>,.nrte.i, one u„,lor the ,!ea";;." '*„ ^ 7,':!
deacon hpoeial .iutiea, however, were so n
a»s,gne,l to him Sud. were, to su,,,lv water
th. ,,ri,...t >n which to wash his Immirat the
.I.l.o.nte.l tune in the o.Iice Olpost. cS vil in
lioal ConstUulions fviii n it i. ' ■ '1'"'f'"-
■leacon, should staLd at !he^ . , ;':r . ^^'^n'
enterej, so that no one even of tlie faithf,,!
»lionl,l go m or out durint; the re.ita i„n „t »h
solemn part of the otliccf The vh |' of th '
duty presently devolved on the sub clS
Dion. Areop. £cc. Ifierarch. v 5) I,, ,hT K
of t e Xicene council, part 2, Jr) re ou ed tt
<^P^rr,,. It was the proWnre of the TaTt to
remam at the narthex of the church ,,n,l*h
to keep order a. peojde went out „m in • ?
JoUodepart fron/thl doorr'^lllThVl^'v' :^
. hL. ^ ^ . """' "'^ Laodicea, cans. 20-22 a
P"r,Lro7iorl^Jr,r.,l,%'l-" f- the
^rtLtt-rrr'^^"^'^^^-"'^^^- the
SUDIVTRODUOTAE 1939
the 1 ..tor , . „rt, r „ '■? ^""""-'"I.V read hy
i"'i"'.''it.^:;;.t :;' :,''t;'""''''V'''''" ''''■■
""I'dearon readii IK ' .. '"' I"''"'*'''" "' the
earlier thar.:'^/,',,;;C'''-''';t'-t™.ed
''"'' ""t heu'in till t ,. H K • . '"'■'""' "">•" "
"t the l^nni!;; 1?' r,;^:';;^, A."..iHrius.
injj Jrownl ""''"""•'• «l"'li "«s the, pai„.
^v'-ub„/; ';v;r;.'''"v" ''•■'•■''' ''''''-'^
vlii. 11, I' Mar, n !'"' '"^'^'"■''' '^"''*'-
^■-^.'vK4;t';rn::L&;;^;i::.|-n'>"-
i:'t;rii"'^;7hrvr"'V"'''-'"'''"^
there were seve'.tl '''' ""^ '^'"""'""ti.'-l.le
reJl';r;t;:^::;;';~''"''r:''''^''"'""
'h- l.ri.. „,^j";; ^^ ; ■■'I'l'""'!-'' to attend ou
"^h^-eleCn /',^^^;;>f'^M'01..-hi„,sel.;
hi-' ve„nn.nt.s. &c. O i. rH''"^''' '" ^'''""K'
"> •."'■nher, then seve N ^ r? "■'"7 '"'""
fron, the conncil of r „ • ' 'l"'''' "' '■* ^vi-lent
'■■'me to he ,,Li Mr!) ' "''P""" ""'^ had
«>-der. [Ou„;;i[""E.J "■■' "' "'tcnnediato
the first council oV'tok! rj., "''4tr"'l" ,"'
SnZ"^'"^:i'''^'''"'*'-«-«^he';e,l ^[
porn tt^ftoti 'ttr T'"'"''""' ""* to h
the thirt en cln ,L .,f T "' "'"'f '":•" "><>'"
we learn that n ,• j ^^ Z''\'^ '" ?"""'
suhdeacons. Sundry e,,?*! '"' "'''''''ned
«regorv the Great L' '''"■'' ""■''""' ''V
we gather that h ul "of'"?'!''' *''■'"" "'"'^h
in Home, but Ic so i„ sf 'l ""/ ""' ^f''^'
made arranzemen , L „ I' '"^"^ O'-eg'-ry
And as "desre ./,.,'■■''*" "'•."" "> ^''t'-'e-
the subclLonate bv , "7 "'"' ?'"''™''' ^" ^^«
"the holy orders"- sub len' '""^T'^ '""""S't
the .sacrai^iunj^nd 't ThrhoK-"'' ""," ""'"
.-.novating o„ the canons o th'e .^oun^n: o^ ''"
hage, and of Agde (can. OH). (cTIZImp
I'h. i. Ind. ix. i:p. 44, &c.) ' ^ ■ ""'S-j-^- ^rp.
females, not relatld by E TL "'»'T''^«'),
pea of spiritual relatfons^V t'/l'l^' '^
clergy, occupyim; not onlu Ik , f" the
|he same ro!,^,, a'nd^trn^'Lme^r; w';;^^' ""
ious rashness, often productive Tt'tK ''""
scandals, the same hl\nv ,' *'"' Sf'«»e8t
monly some »f the^cn-" r«/ • "'"'''' '"""
church, "whom" in-Th» 1 "'«'"^ "^ the
"they that ent rtaiaed them""'\ "'". '""g'""".
only with a ohasteX: ..''The'ru^ui •■'' '\'"''
ever, which this injudicious customT""'' ■''"*•
were so grave, and L eviire^ultK^nTbu''
123
:I1
lOiO
8UBINTR0UUCTAB
thdt the nrnctlc* recelveil the steriicit oomlom-
BRtions of the rhurch. How (li-cply it wnii ructDil
In huinnii n:iture li ovidi-nt tVcmi its sprinniiii; ii|>
kgnin nnil at(iiiii in niiitnot'eci'leiiinnticiil tviiiurua,
tnil ri!<iiiirinj[ t" tie ii'iirfusml by rii|watiMl cBnoiu
of i:ouniiU. Oiii! "f thu imrlicKt miticim of this
clone intercimrse between tlu) sexe*, cliiiilteil witli
• reli({i""« siiiK'tinii, ociurs in thi' Shi'/i/wrd iif
Jlenins (lib. iii. tiiiiil. ix. § 11). The viiKins ot'
the vision invite him tu «tiiy with them. To his
Question, " ubi nmnebo ? " they reply " nobiscum
ormioii ut piiter, nun ut miiritiis," which put
him to the blush. He iiceepts, however, their
invitntion, iiml yassea the niifht with them oiit-
tiile the tower, lyin){ in the niiddle of the virgins
on their "tunicne liuteiie," the whole night
bolng spent by them in pmyer. This |i(i«.sna;e,
though, as Hefelu remi\rl<9, Inconsistent with
the eiirly iliite onco nsslgneil to tlie " Shephenl,"
proves the existence of this pnuticu in the 'Jml
century. As enrly as the council of tlvira, A.n.
305, Clin. 27, i\ bishop or any cleric was forbiiUlen
to have any female residing with him except n
lister or daughter, "extraneam ne(iue ([uam
habere placent " (Lnbbe, i. 97.'!). The council
of Ancyra also by its 19th canon, A. I). ;)14,
forbade virgins to hold intercourse with males,
auytpxofi^i'af i>t 6iSf^(pdi (i.abbe, i. Hlill). The
third canon of the council of Nicaea was direct»d
against this practice, forbidding any cleric, either
bishop, jiresbyter, or deacon, to have any such
female to reside with them, but only their
mother, sister, or aunt, whose natural relation-
ship would disarm suspicion, jxi) i(uvat irvytla-
UKTOV (%''>' f^V «' M^ "P" firrrfpa fl aSf K<piiv
1) 6ttav (Labbe, ii. 29). These "sublntroductae "
were also condemned by the third and fourth
canons of the first council of Carthage, A.D. 3 '.8,
(>.'). 715), the seventeenth canon of the third
council and the forty-sixth of the fourth, as well
M by the second council of Aries, A.D. 452,
can. 3 (iA. iv. 1011); and of Lerida, A.D. 524,
can. 15 (i6. iv. 1013) ; the first council of Seville,
A.l>. 590, can. 3 (ii. v. 1589), and the sec^ond and
third of llragft, can. 15, and le.x. 19 (ft. v. 838,
909), and the second (can. 3) and fourth (can. 42)
of Toledo (ib. iv. 1733, v. 17lt)). The council of
Antioch also, by which Paul of Samosata was
deposed, A.D. 309, urged among the reasons for
his degradation that liis clergy had received
into their houses " avvttaaicroi yvpaiKft, as the
Antiochenes called them " (Kuseb. //. /i. vil. 30).
In spite of ecclesiastical censures, however, the
custom continued to flourish to the great scandal
of the church and the demoralisation of those
who adopted it. The frequency of the recur-
rence of its prohibition by the Spanish councils
proves its prevalence in .Spain, where it was
practise I by the Friscillianists (Braccar. li. can.
15, Labbe, v. 838). How intolerable the practice
had become Is evident from several passages of
the writings of Cyprian, who jiraises I'omiionlus
for excommunicating a deacon who had persevered
in it in sjiite of episcopal warning (Cypi-ian,
Epiat. 62 [4] ad Pominmium; Kpist. 6 [14];
Epist. 7 [13]). The grossly indecent lengths
to which it was carrisd by some called forth
•Jerotr.p's mr.at p.".werfiil vitiipcratinn (^Ep. nd
Eitstoch.). " Unde in ecclesias Agapetarum
pestis introiit? Unde sine nuptiis allud nomen
uxorum ? Immo unde novum eoncuhinarum
genus ? Plus inferam, unde meretrices univirae ?
8UBINTR0DUCTAB
Qua* eitdem domo, ano cubi :ulo, larpc ano
tc^nentur et lectulo; et >ui|iii'iosos noa vocant li
nli'|uii| eiistimamut . . . cum in eidcm pro-
posito ease simulant ijuai'iunt alienoruiii spiritaln
s(datium utiloinl hahearit lurnale i ouinierciuin."
Anil in his letter to Oceanus, li; I'lV.i Clirirtmtm,
he oriliiius that if any one after his warniiii^ii,
" agapeias amplius (juam Cliri^tuni quuesieiit
amore," ho is to be convened according to the
rule of the syniil, and the Nicein! canons rend to
him. Among the letters of Kasll is one to t
presbyter, by name Pa.,gorius, an old man oi
seventy, threatening that, unless he disniissinl
his " subiutroilucta," lie wnuld depose him Irorn
his otllce, and if he ventund to exercise iu
functions he wmill excommunicate all who
recognised him (llasil, Ep. 55 [108]). U.imI's
brother (iregory Nyssenalso con lemns thosewlid
openly cohaliit with women, and give the nuniedf
sisterhood to aiu h cohaliilation (Ik Virij. c. 'j:)).
We learn from (iregory Nazianzen that nut
only were clerics In the haliit of h.aving leiiiujus
to reside with them, but that lailies, who yt».
fessed celibacy, also had tffeir auvtiaaKToi otih«
opposite sex. la his advice to virgins he s.iys:
apfff^a navr* aXtuv* mvti<raitrov Ei ^aAitrra
and he expresses his suspicion of this question-
able relationship in the following Hues :
rovf a fTvvtuTaitTOv^ wf 6ij ^d(TKov(Tiv airaiTtt
ovx old* <l T< Y'^^V ^uttrafitVt cir' ayofiotc
OT^aofltft ft Tfl tkiaovr^ ittvKdiotitv ov yap lyuyi
KtfV fif Ktyi)Tt Koucuf ffpayjua To£' aiviaofjiai.
We see from the words of Jerome, "coeiibem
virgo spemit germanum, fratrem quaerit et-
traneum " (Ad Eustoch.) that this indecnioui
custom was also in vogue among the religloui
ladies of the Western church.
On his appointment to the see of Constmiti-
nople, Chrysostom found " subintroductae " pic-
vailing to the most scandalous extent anioiii; liij
clergy, and the unpojiularlty which ciilminatfrl
in his deposition and exile had as one of Its tint
moving causes the stern deterntlnatlim with
wlilch he endeavoured to put them down, and thif
I witheriiig sarca-sms he jioured out upon tlieni. It
ajipears from the two homilies delivered by him,
•' do lis ipti suliiiitrijdiwt'is vir.iines halvnt," that
the clergy who adopted this practice degnnlnl
themselves Into '•camluTi sorventi" to their
imperious mistresses, carrying their ciishinii!,
smoothing their sofas and easy chairs, providing
delicacies tor their table, and humouring thtit
whims, to the complete disregard of tlieir sncred
character and the neglect of their clerical duties,
The voice of the church having proved Insulli-
cient to repress the spreading evil, the civil
power was called in to legislate against it. A
law of Honorlus and Theodosius 11. (tW. T.'erd
lib. xvi. tit. ii. de Episc. leg. 44 ; Cud. Jiut.
lib. i. tit. iii. leg. 19) expresses its strong ili^
approbation of this " consortium .sororlae npi" Hi-
tionis," and forbids the clergy of any decref
whatsoever to have any females residing «ilh
them, except mothers, daughtere, and sisters,
with a special reservation for wives sa.irrifi
before their husbands entered holy orders, "nm
ante sftcenlotium maritorum legitimura nieruen |
conjugium." The words of the law are ' qiilcum-
que igitur cujusconque gradus sacerdutio I'ulci-
8C
nn'ur, vel clerica
neHriim ajhi i,,,,
cognosinntj hki'. ,
ut niBtres (ili.i, „,,
luaruni sept,. ,.„„(
ever, obstinately «
denounced by ti,o
vain. The scimd
Home undi>r p„|,u /,
8th ci'iitiirv repeati
Nicene council, „|„|^
with as little ede
iuhinti-..dii,;t,is mu
aadeant habitare ni
Jiroxiinilnteni generi
VI. ii. 13; lievi,,.,,
pp. 45-47, lA. p. j7H
!'• ^'18 s,/.; (/„ s,/nis
m c<m. ;i Xic,(cn. ;
Theod.; A'ovfll. V23,
SUH80RIPTI0J
SUBSELLIUM.
israo sense are saM
(*i;tCM«t (uwowiS,ov),
clusively ajijilied to tl
our .Saviour on the
footstool or any rest I
earliest time persons
ri-presented, when sea
iipoo n sHi,)cllmm. Thi
ing to Clement of Alex
invented by the Persii
iltxil to Helen and to
'••Uri). In Christian II
IS assigned to God whe
ofCnin ami Abel (Uottt
"xxvii.) ; to our Lord ^
hu disciples (Perret, C<
2-*): and to the Virg
[iri'scnting their offeriii
nttiii-e, xl).
Kpiscopal chairs alw;
and Christians generally
» matter of humilitv, ai
fw bishops. In this I
tu>todiiuM(i;;,. ,„//;,„,
i>M. (lea Antiq. ohr^. 8,
8UBSTKATI. [Pen
SUBURBIOARri (E
Of this term, in connexior
wcrs In the sixth c.in
W as given by Ru,i,
te'ra. 1.6), decreeing that
™" '-OTtinue to be obser
and at Rome, whereby the
HiUn)oftheonecityex.
eht over the churches tl
lie metropolitan (or pati
«"r"theMiburbicariarcl
•^leiandriam et in nrbe Roi
«"-otiir, ut vol ille Aeg
W. XXI. 225 ; MansI, ||.
•r^ndmg decree of the iou,
"rae expression occurs • " J
! MIM Romae epi^opus hat
8unacRn>T[(^M
vain, Thi. «,., ,„„| Jn.m f ,L ""'hnnti,., i„
^'- "-'^"■tJt:, ,,i:S;;;;'';:'h«
with n» ttiB ./li.,.f ,. , „ ' ""''"^* ""''w".
pi). 45-47. iV. I, I7N. M [ . '"'"• !'• "'"10/.
BUBSOIUPTIOX. [SuPK«ac«„.i!;:3''^
.«'''S';^J^^Lr«:/-!!- — in the
our Saviour on the crosl rl ,, *^"'' "'^
footstool „r any re>t rTZ fee "'an , fr"'"?^ "
earliest time persons of rank n.' ""'' '^f?'" "'e
in. to Clement of Ale":," aV^rTi^r"'''"
invfuted (jythe i'eraian, „^ "^'"••.'. 1»). was
•>~i I. ii.i.,, .. Tf],. '.7™,'.'"' •,'■""'•
P^;;euU,^^ their offerings (BoUa^ Sl^
.-ttc.orLsir;i\^«r
for bishops. ;n this ,„irir i "® honour
tu.toehiuJ, ^E,. ..itZr„ ii^r^Mar '""'
SUBSTBATI. [PKKrTEKCK,p.,593.]
«f this term, i„ cinnTxion tw h ehu'rcf ";' ""
"^.'■'"rs m the sixth cnnon of ti," '"' r^'
Jiicaea as given bv R , X <■ , '^"""'^'' "f
'lisll eontinue to he !,h ,^^ T'""^ <-''"*'"« "
-i »t KomTwlr b?rho';a r^i^r^h ;"''•""'""'
HiUn)of the one oitVll ^r"'^^^'^ ("r metro
"5ht over the chuichL tK''"''l* ^""""^ o^'"-
'^e --tropoHta? :r'Vt iar"lwf fP'"' ."" '^
7 " the MiburbiiriaHhS, " ./et'! ;""•"■,'
U'-WeepiCuVhaS^^i-----
HUaURDtCARK 1941
""lli-tu.i:, S. net°'^?7 r'"'."'^''"" ^•"""
(ii) whether the "sMpowK^^^^^
w.iH lh,.t of „ ,„ tVia ■ h '" *"' ""'•'•i-l
rnrt^T illust,"«ti',',n o.'^h?''"'""/"""" «"'"■■''«
««ys that ,ho "; .e . f "rh "[ '*': •;'•■"• "
wh.'ther patrimon I L "'"' '""'Ih'I estate.,
<^"i "fully |,r..,n'?.,: ™l'yh"M. mu>t U
an.l In.Sirilv". " N,,n , 1 ''";'''" "••'■••i"'ries
-'I "tMiM pVr ,«4,;w,"rJ/." ''"': ''^''i-*"' "'"turn
"<"•« it seem li Lu ^ "'' ^'^''"'^' "• >■ ")•
''i''ariao regi Ue "V^ ' ' r"' "'"» ">« ""ul-m-
'li'tiiet Koverne hv H t"'" ""■'"''^"' *" th.
"cMistos Vl H-a L''" r!'^"'-"'» ^''I'i" oj
"f August. ;:ml"r,^;'" '^'"'^''. '""" Mi« time
r»niuAomi{ome(/;J :;rn^'.^'*:v"''-'
f>/-n., Jun/m'l mo) •^•' """■■"•-'-.
'•"ther to eontemnlare li'r .^' '"'^ "I'l'-ars
Pire -'tablish d 1. tVmt Ln!""'""" "^ "' ' '""-
which "Italia" w, oil"'.'"''' •'-'conliui; to
"hich comprte,! n .'h'::r/^,' ^'l:^'' ""•--'«.
" -bu,bi,„riae' .egi; ^s'l-'tZ d'd/''":" "^ '"«
provinces of the /LJ„ „• - ""'" "•« '""
I. Ounpani,,; f T !ZlnT,','\'': *'''<='' *«"-
[icenum AnnoLiri n ' 1 '"hj itH'"'"'! " ^^"'"
4. Valeria, .5. SanHuum^• Apul 'r„;;f7V'^'>'
". Lueania and liruttii . a «" ' """ ^ alabria ;
10. Corsica. To t|^"' ' !' "'l^'^- ' ^- ^^''ini''
Pression in the der ?h '"■"'""'"' "^ "'« ''■'-
«icilia presents a ^Li. 17b''''"' ""'"""° ^'^
""l-orable, dilHculty *" ' ' ''^ "" "'*■>"« in-
prSr;t't;;& i!"" t^« ^- inter.
, having at hJt'the a^'nuL'"' ;*'''"'"»''' "'
to Jefend them " M„/-f iv '^' I"-"l'"''ility
' (»• "•Vii^^tinguishe.s ^w n'>;ubur^; ''"T>^'
""rbicariae," holding th,t th» r ™'""' ■'""'
note., the ten proving th'r.. "''"!'' *""> 'i<'-
of the '-praenns J;br' '" ^■' "'^ '«"ito.y
her hand (J„„. ;i2,5 c„„ "'"".'"'• "" the
that these tlrms were' of fir: "''>' '^'"'''''«"
a'.'l both denote treyet wid r™'"" ' K'""^""-'.
hound by the "leges frlm"^^".?' l''"^'°«"
''>-;i;itaiwitheofn\[^"r;-re *"^"PP'^
'"•ganisatiou of the en j ,1* ""'' •"=^''-'^i«>tical
M.l.pose that the te2''l'"r' ''""<^»lt «•>
have been used in the h ""•'.'"'"'■•''"•••e " could
from that in vh h ft is eTt '" ^.'^'''''''^-nt -sense
we are thus led o the ionT'^.^''^ ,^>' •'"'i'"'; and
of Nieaea rceogntd'JhTSr'l.f tt P 7"""
Home to e.xercise over the f „ ■ '"'''"P "^
lioman diocese nr vl^n-i ,1^ ^J""""'' "^ "">
'ity corresponding to th« 1 ''^'"■"i^''"' "utho-
«rch of Ale.,and?fa„v,r ?4"r™ ""^ "'^ '"""-
Hot.v Ordkrs.] That W- Cf "^tkowlita!^,
mediate iuris,li,.»,nl *'''*'*''y wercised im-
provincela:'' h rthreo:r[b''''''\'"" "'■'=' *►■-•
-'vetust^conlVete'-i^-tL^escribed
6 la
I
IP
■^4.
¥.
s
1942
SUCCENTOR
covmcU of Nicaca, is contrary to all probal'iUtT
(I'OPE, iv, 2). U- li- M-]
SUCCENTOR (Latin, siiccentor ; (Creels iito-
^^vnrns; Sicil. smcUmtro). It h nut ...asv to
i!av wl.en this woi-a or the corresponJing oihte
fii-st came into use. Hut it was known to
.loiinues ,lo Jiinua, who (Inishoa his Catho icon
in 1280, tor ho (lescrihos it thns: "Qui in et-
closia post praiicontorom sive principalem can-
toreni subsiMiucnter can.Mido respon.lct, vol .iin
facit oilicium priudpaliter in ehoro .sinistnf.
But althoui'li tlio word does not become at
all common' till later times, still it seems quite
clear that it was known in early davv< ; for it is
n;,med bv St.. Augustine : " I'raeoentor scl c t
qui .-ooem pn.emittit in cantu, M.ocentor autem
qui subsequenter canendo respondet {l.narr. m
Ps. 87, 1). Tliis is the earliest known passage
in which the word occurs.
Some idea of what was meant by the term
" snccent " (succineve) may be gathered from he
following passage, in which St. Basil describes
the antiphonal mode of singing the Psahns in
vervearlv days:-" They sing them alternately,
divided into two choirs. Then having entrusted
to one to begin the tune, the others f-ccnt.
(6;r„xo0<r., s^fccinunt, Ut. Tr. I- p. 0.3 (al. 207)
ad Cler. Secoacs.) , r% „™„
The Greek word which is given by Ducange
as the cnuivalcnt of succentor, is found in a
passage of the interpolated epistle of Ignatius
to the Philadelphiaus : t(s yAp f'M' «7^ • • •
i.K\' iis (TvdTpariwTVS UM"". i^oipievvTOv raitv
iitix"" (Oxon. 1044).
The passages already quoted point to this
officer's dutyof "sucoenting" in the service of
the church. In subsequent times, when the
office became a dignity in the greater churches
another character was superadded to him in that
he was made the representative of the precentor
in his absence. It is observed by Magri (//icro/cx.
g v. Cantor) that in many churches of trance a
festival of the first class is caWal festum canturis,
because it then belongs to the praccentor (cant^or)
to arr.inge the service (otRcium oidmare) ; while
a festival of the second class is called fcstum
succentoris, because then the same dnty foils
upon the succentor. ["• '• ■*-J
SUN
SULriCIUS (1), .'an. 17, bishop , oommcmo-
rated at Bourgcs {Mart. Usuard.) ; .bin. -'0
(Nolker.). [•-"• " J
(2) Apr. 20. [Servilianus.]
SUCCESSU8, Apr. 15, martyr of Saragossa
(Mart. Notker.); Apr. 16 (Usuard.)-
8UCCINCT0RIUM. [Girdle, p. 728.]
SUDABIUM. [Maniple.]
8UES8I0NEN8E CONCILIUM. [Sois-
B0N8.]
8UFFETA, COUNCIL OF (Suffetanum
Concilium), a.p. 524, where St. Fulgentnis
yielded the presidency to bi.shop Quodvultdeus
who had disputed it with him at a previous
council. (^L'Art dc vi'nf. les Dates, i- 150.)
^h. b. rl. I
RTTFFETTTLA. COI'NCIL OF (Sufpetu-
LENSE Concilium), A.I). 418 (?). The only record
of this is a canon attributed to it by Ferrandus,
(Mansi, iv. 439.) [E- S. Ff.]
8UGGESTUS. [Ambo.]
SUN (see Moon). Martigny states, on Beit-
tari's authority (taw. xsxii. Ixxvi.), that the
two colossal masks or grotesque tacos, s..mo-
times observed at the angles of ancient sarc"-
phac'i, are intended to represent the sun mv\
noon. In this sense thoy have the same inip.,vt
of the seasons, as denoting the meting-oiit i,f
human life. Such faces or masks occur, ot all
events, on the altar of the Basilica of S. b.nniz.,.
fuori-lc-Muraat Home, which resembles an aii( iPiit
sarcojihagus in all its details of ornament (( iam.
pini, \'ct. Mon. c. 1, tab. xlv. iig. 4).
The sun appears on the well-known \ atican
sarcophagus, with the history of .louah and tin
double sea monster (Bottari, tav. xlii.) with rays
and a nimbus (see Barker. Fliot. 2(l05). (in a
■ lam]! referred to by Martigny in the colhitinii
<if Saute Bartoli (l.utrrn. anikii. part iii. N.i. ■»),
the sun an<l moon accompany the Good Shepher.l,
perhajis representing time and eternity, as is
suggested by the Abbe Cavedoni {Rajijm'jUo dtlk
Ari. ChriH. p. 32). Or they may probacy U
placed with thf Good Shepherd, for the same
varied reasons which account inr their prescne
in so many of the early crucifixions. Kither,
which is possible, they denote the two natures if
our Lord, or they give the idea of a presence and
attendance, as it were, of the powers of nature at
the central event of the worM, and remind "I the
eclipse and darkness of that day. Both sun an.l
moon occur, at all events, in the crucitisinn cf
the Lnurentian or Rabula MS. of Horeme
[Crucifix, p. 51.5]. So in the 9th centiin
MS Bibliothf^que nationalc, No. 510). On tlie
gates of St. Paul (R. de Fleury, ii. pi. 8b). as
angels. So in the majority of Sa.'ion and Irish
MSS. ; on the diptych of Rambona, as half.
kngth figures [CliUCiFlx, p. 51.5]; on the t^si
of Velletri (Borgia, de Citice Vclitcrna), as laces;
so also in the wall painting of the ceniotery i4
pope St. Julius L (Bottari, t. Ixxxii.). The
tirches borne by the figures of the diptych ..f
Rambona are a singular instance of Ijarbarie
return to classical treatment, quite in kfiiiiij;
with the almost unique addition of the wolf and
In the classical revival of Charles the Great
and Alcuin, for such in MSS. it really wn-. the
sun and moon become figures in chari..ts. the
sun drawn by horses, the moon by oxen. The 1
Bible of Ct. Vivian in Count Bastard's seoiiJ
volume, contains a beautiful example of FiaiiK>»
or Anglo-Greek fancy [Moon]. In the JIS. -i
Joshua, 7th or 8th century (Vatican; d'Agincoiirt,
Pcinturc, vol. v. pi. xxviii.) the sun stands sljl!
as an 8-rayed star, and th- moon on the 'ih:\
side. This had been long before repiwenteJ u I
the 5th-century mosaics of St. Maria IhnM'.l
at Rome. The Utrecht Psalter has a sun aaJP
moon on its frontispiece; at the heading of im
Song of the Three Children, at Pss. cxxsviii.anJI
oxli'ii. as two heads, one wearing a crnwii oil
s|iikeh or rays, the other a orevpnt ; k-'' '"
Ps. rxxi. they are represented as shooting "s
arrows and hot, burning coals" on the faliil
tongue. They are not present at the Cnicitixittl
inl's. cxii. [K. St.J.T.]l
SUNDAY
SUNDAY. [Lord's Dav ; Wckk.]
BUNUAY-LETTKR. [Kast.r, p. 593.]
SUNDAYS, NAMES OF. [V.iAn]
SIPEUIirMERALE. This w,„d is pH-
man y used .,., juristic Latin f„r thee,,hJ.V
the . ewish h>gh-,,riest, e.va,tly tr...„,lat „. 1.
iw:.^., of the AX (seecvy. K-vodus .vxviii."4 6
4W.: Kal,,;uu,., JIaurus, de lust Cicr. i. 15.
I'lilrol. evil. 30f3). ■"
Tlie meaning of the wor.l having thus been
tixed. >t seemed only natural to later liturS
wn ers, who saw in Christian vestmeu '^ h
reproduefon of the Jewish, to (i„d a Christian
reprosentat.on of the epho,!, and to call it i !
tins name. Accordingly the amice [A.Micto] wal
? ^- 10 J'^' "'.(«^'e <■■■!/■ I'seudo-Alcuin, ,/o W
^(i(^i l.c-l., Patrol, cli.v. 9yi|) '
Ti.e word is also used for 'the archiepiscopal
pa hum [RVU.IUM], as by Gregm-y the (Jre^r^
.f'.- ''>'•.«• 1-t; /''rf'W. l.xxtii.\>.1 . S
l.b. ..i!o;,6 471 [a lung ,, notation f „,7,he
prece, mg work] ; |,b. vi. 04, rt. 848), and in the
CMcctnno, ot Au.astasius Bihiiothecarius (/,W„«o
moUomsm S. Maximu,n ; P.,truL cxxix. 010)!
I ■ L '^ m' ""-' '••""•''^Pon.ling G,-eek word
Is a-MO^.ip.0^ [O.VOHIORIO.V]. Kcr further refe-
rences see Duoange's Glossary, s. v. [!{. «.]
SUPEBPOSITIO JEJUNir. An addition
ot one last to another, causing two, three, or
\ I . "''f """<•■". ^^as known in the Latin
m the Greek by in4pe,,ris. Such lengthene.l
periods lasting were termed i^.p^V.^o
Jaepa,, and the correspon,Iing verb ^^Jt^Z^.
Mai su,^rpo,icre. This superposition of one
Ji) (d abstinence on another might take „lace
at any time as an act of e.xtraonlinarv .levotion,
but It was most commonlv practised in ll.dv
Week, as a preparation for the Kaster solem-
nities especially on Good-Friday and Easter Eve
winch were very usually kept as a continuous
ift. Ihis practice is called by Tertullian
'jejunia conjuugere " ((fe Paticnd, c. l:i), and
sahbatum continuum cum jejuniis parasce les "
[deJejm. c 14). It is referred to by Cvril of
Jerusalem (Gi^cvA. xviii. c. 17) when he' gives
the vi,,pe«Ti, TVS I'var^ia, rh vapacrKiufis
as a reason for shortening his addressriestT
ould exhaust the catechumens. Ep phanius
also when speaking ef the observance of th L
week, states that all Christians observed it i.tL.
fo^ayl<f, ,.0. taking bread and water ami salt, a"l
at on y in the evening, but the more ea nest
p.isse,l the greater part or the whole of the
«ek ,n perfect abstinence: „i ^^ovSaTo^ 5i:rAa,
V fl5o^aSar..«(L|uphan. /■pi,,u. FiU. tom. ii.
]'f-\. (.. 18) Dionysius bishop of Alexandri'i
in .s canonica epistle (can. i. apnd Uevereg
i'lnJcet. t.(!m. 11 n "A nsno tK
,,.„ , 1 '' "^''s tnu •same terms.
v«pnM„, a„, On^pe^a.s when speaking of
those who prac.se special abstinence during this
week some adding two days together, some
three, some four, some the whole six, while
SUPERSCRIPTION 1943
FrThv?,',Vs^'/"1 "^ ""l-l.-ition only on the
fri.lav ai d .Saturday, an,l think thev have done
aS.;eatih,,,giaheyhohiout,iJl break of v
flnf 1 iv r"i"'"1' ''*"' ' <""'m,atio„ of the fas't
sC, ; i" ''■■'•^''"■•'"S Hcdy Week is termed by
As has been said, neither the term nor the thing
«-as,,ecul,artoHoly Ueek.but was ap.dic.ld o
"">• period of special alistinen,... S , Ev ' , ,"
1 alestiue, observes, „/ ,rjAAa«,r ras ««Ao«ufV«
rh,,™"' '''""'""' (.(^' ^" '■ -')• ""'' ^^ict"
hi,, '^"'"■■•l":"^"" '"• abstinence for two
dajs 1 succession ; • ratio ostenditur4uare us,.ue
,; I T' -y'""''' "1""' ^'''""^ //''■'• /^''. >• 10:i)
' m the Acta M.rt,r,.n Aunu.larn,n, c 8, we
^"■1 "contmnatis ,n can^ere geminis jejun is "
duph^,tum (Hieron. K/Mtaph. Panlar, c. 1) The
,.rolo„ga,,on of the Friday's fast thr'ough Satur!
.« , whu.h we learn Iron. Augustine (A>„-.t. 80),
had b come cu.stomai-y in his time in th'e church
ot Lome and in some of the African and Spanish
S^::^"" Tr"'r^r"'^>- ''''''"'« "•■"-^-
Hon ;• .1. " ''"V'''" ""** "■'"*' »ith the excep.
hnlth' L '";,"'^f "' ''"'-^ ""'' August tv
CO , ," ""i fr- -•*' "^^"•"'•'■n. placuit
mus, and can, -,i, "jejuniorum superi.ositionem
per singulas menses placuit celebrari." [E.T]
SUPEHPOSITIO SILENTII. This et-
t ™'Gre.f '•"" ,"' V'*' ^'''•^'^- '^••) that G go,;;
the Great in his letters use.l to address all
.tiToro;','™""^? "■"* f«""»-mnisters ■'
„' ,. I '" "'■''''■' "^ "J-a'-ly beloved
Cdon^C!'' H.'''""''""'>''^^'>■~'
to th "" r '■ n ' """? r'''-'>' "^ «'l»ivalent
lotnc sii and "madam" of mo.lern corro.
poudence. According to the common forms ot'thj
Koman court preserve,l in the L.nKU D unv s
let ers to the liyzantine emperor are ,0 be
f\mrl,st■,..^ 'n • ^h' St'; to .an empress
CAugustae), " Domin.ie piissimao Hliac:"toa
exarch";." "[••'"""^ ''"'""■•'""' ""sequ'ii,'*''an
"inch or a king," "Domino escellentissimo
atjiue prae-excellentissimo Hlio ;" to a "^
Oomino eminentissimo filio." This is so ft,
in accordance with (Iregorv's nract ice fh .
''.lominus'-formspartofaVt^es ei^'LS'
to laymen given in the Liher DInrL, b n ,„e
Zb'i'bu" the" ''""";•';' '""" '-^""^ *'■- '^ ™- '
1 iob.,bly the pope did m,t communicate directly
With interior persons. [Loui,, p. io41.]
!l
'J.
I".
i'fi
.tIiii
..Hi
m
the tZ^r '.,""' '^""" "f "'''"•''^•' 'n^y bo seen h,
MM «• f l^' """"'•'''''. -^n. ,134, ,0 Kl„g Edwin In
Bed,^ //.,(. ^n»!. 11. 17. Popo Donlfiue IV a DM.
wrote to Edwin as " glorloso regl " ^ii,. ii lij^" "■ "''
1944
SURIEIj
The subsi;rii)tions given iu the Ltbcr Diarnus
(lib. ),) are: to an emperor, " iilissiimim Domini
inijiorium gratia superua cu>toiliat eiijue omnium
gcutilium colla substeruat ; " to an empress,
" vestrae piotatis imperium gratia superua eus-
t'lJiat, ilomina filia;"to a i>atriciaD or count,
" incolumem exeellentiam vestram gratia superna
custodial, domine lili;" to a consul, " Deiis te in-
columem custodial, domine tili." Of ecclesiastical
persons, a patriarch is addressed by the pajjal
chancery as "dilectissimus irater;" a bishop as
'• dileotissimus nobis;" a presbyter, or one of
lower rank, as "dilectissimus filius;" while to
au archbishop of liavenna the supcrscri)itiun is
'' reverentisstao et sanctissiuio fratri coei>iscoi)0,
servus servorum Dei." The subscrijition is in
c^ich case " Deus te incolumem cu:<todiat," with
the addition " dilectissime fratcr, tili," &c. as the
case may be. To the pope himself the sujier-
icri])lion used — at least by the clergy of a sub-
urbicariau church — is "Domino beatissimo
jiapae," or " Domino sancto " (Z.16. Diuni. ii.
titt. 1 and 3). [C]
SURIEL, archangel, July 15 (_Cal. Ethiop.).
[C. H.]
SURPLICE. The surplice (supcrpcUiccnm)
is a late modification of the alb with loose
sleeves. There appears to be no trace of it
before the end of the 12th century, so that the
history of it does not fall within our period.
[R. S.]
SURSUM CORDA. [Preface, p. 1693.]
SUSGEPT0RE8. [Sponsors.]
SUSPENSION. [Orders, Holy, p. U96.]
SUSANNA, Aug. 11, martyr under Diode-
tinn; commemorated at Home with Tiburtius
(.l/(!)(. Bed., Usuard., Adon., Vet. Mom., I/icron.,
Notker.). [C. H.]
SWEARING. [Oath; Perjury.]
SWINE, MIRACLE OF THE (in Art).
The only instance of a rejiresentatiou of this
miracle (Luke viii. 27) given by Martigny is
from a mosaic of St. ApoUinaris at Kavenna, iu
which the possessed kneels at the mouth of a
cave or tomb (Mark v. 3) and stretches out his
hands towards the Lord, who stands before him,
ninibed, while in the background the swine are
rushing towards the sea (Jlartigny, Dktion-
nalrc, p. 241, ed. 2). [C]
SYMBOLISM. SvnPo\ov means a sign by
which one infers or knows a thing. It will
apply in fact to any object by whose means we
get a new idea of comjiarison, which is substi-
tuted in our own thoughts, or by general con-
sent, for anything eh' ; the substitution of n
more obviovis or familiar idea, drawn, written,
or spoken, for^a more recondite or important
one, is necessary to human instruction or com-
munication, in spite of all its various dangers
of misapprehension or misapplication.
1. b'yii<l>otism uf DccuiiitMtt. — Ihe idolali'cius
misuse of picture-symbolism within the body of
the faithful itself, seems not to have alR-cted
the Christian church very severely for the first
throe centuries.
SYMBOLISM
(ex) The strong expressions of Tortullian ((fe
/i?oWa/n<(,iii.)are directeil against paganism. ;uid
in his anxiety to pi'event any tampering witK
it, he objects to all images and reiiresentati.riis
indiscriminately, and considers the painter's i\rt
unlawful, but it is evident that he virtually
OKcepteii the scriptural emblems, such us
Clenjent's list (I'lwdmjoij. iii. 11, § ;)9 ; sts.
Gkms, p. 712), and the figure of the liiiiij
Shepherd. He is obviously not thinkim; uf
them at nil, and indeed has to make an i-xn]].
tion in favour of the brazen serpent soon iUUT
oiie of his most sweeping statements. In the
primitive church it was so practically un^Kr-
stood as not to need statement, that imaizif in
painting or carving, made for the sake of lun-
veving instruction, are an entirely dilliieiit
thing from images intended for use in pr.iytr.
The subject of I.maoks is already treated [p. J^l:;].
The repugnance of the ,Iews to the use of miiijes
extended, after the time of the Maccabees, even
to the making of the form of any living thinu;
and this would account of course for the sticmg
feeling among Hebrew Christians against Ijnth
symbolic and direct representation, if it invulvej
the use of images resembling living beings in
any place of worshij). This [irohibition has
been adopted in its fulness by Islam. Asiiiii,
recently converted heathen would often liave
nearly "as strong a detestation of the idnlatruus
system which they had escaped from. Syniljuls
in the second or a subsequent generation are i\\A
to beccjnie, first, conventional realisms, then por-
sonificntions, then idols.. In the middle ages, the
cross, from being in the Gth century the syniU 1
of Christ's person, became an object of wurship
in itself, no longer an emblem of the lil'e auj
death of God for man. This degeneracy of sym-
bolism has exercised the church from the 4th
century at least, and ran a iiarallel course in the
Christian church and in the Hebrew. For as the
Hebrews were always tempted to worship the
images of the nations among whom they livtil,so
the Christians were tempted towards saint wor-
ship, as a traditional reproduction of the ancient
Greek hero worship, or of Itonian adoratinn uf
the manes. All mankind have a tendency either
to turn symbols into images or actual fetiches,
or to substitute beautiful personiticatinns, nr
jiortraits of divine or sacred persons, for ancient
conventional symbols of the entirely unseen
presence of the Lord. Kevertheless, however
dangerous tendencies may always exist in iniai;o-
symbolism, carved or painted, very few sy.stenij
of worship. Christian or gentile, have t(t!illy
resigned its use. That the Hebrew dreiul nf
images in the apostolic days by no means pre-
vented pious Hebrews from using picture-
ornament is proved once for all by the .Jewish
catacombs (Parker, /'/loi. no. 1100, lllil). The
seveu-brauched candlestick was painted in red or
scratched in the mortar of every locuhis. tine of
them was adorned with human figures, tiowerj,
and binis, including the peacock, al'terwanl!
adopted as a Christian image. The earliest part
of this cemetery dates from the Augustan aw,
but part is as late as Constant ine. Tlie Christi.iD
picLurial or jjrajihic system was a convcnienrc i:
teaching. Those who could not read, ami por-
hnps could not well understaiul the laneiiai:!
used bv oral teachers, had the pictures nl' eur
Lord, his miracles and history, to help them.
SYMBOLISM
and ancestral, an/the hnml f «;»« domestic
in death belo^K d o it . 77'"!^' "*'''°''*'
expectation of another life LI f *'"' "'""*•"''
illustrating both largdj t" llem ^'r""''""'
its tombs. The Hoimin ."f,"'"'''*^'" a"J sign in
the dead led them o mvl , rr^n "'"''"«'' ''"'
sepulchres ; and^the" 'd: o? „? -^S Vf
m ancient Etriiria and »T„ • . '^""'*«
Rome, bears im;:;tan ' .wts^to'' the'''"'*'""
nenceof national custom, and the Jm '"T"-
tion by the church of nm ("k • .^ "'"'"gndop-
ifon,/itwa.,.i^tir;;^™^-jy;;^bolism,
important be'a'ring on tM ' roint"'"n ""' ^'li''
interior of the t.fmb of the SVn *^°' " ^^e
discovered and despoilfd * ^'"^1^°^^ \^^ th"
has chiefly architeotiiml ^^ "'riusiv. Ihis
from its '.arc,iaJ„:,TocT'7h'"^ '"'"•='»'
of Christian burial Tn after 7 P'^l'^types
burial vaults of Tarqu^nif whinh^'' ""' ^''^
contain symbolism^T h ' gtve'tlTn?!? ',''
mg .mmortality and retribution Th»' t ■'"
there, led away iamenti. rVo ; -t '""' "
dark yet beautiful "oAlS'ZV?'
orDaran^Niirr^'"^- •^•''- - l^t ^
jubjecitot^'lhtr^'icomtnrer"'''"
be no doubt that this earlier sen,, It, ^' "*"
with its notes of future [f! ^^"Ichral art,
already naturalised and nf' T'' '"'''^"'^'O'^.
Rome, made it easier f"r he 1 ,'^"\'=''"*«ries in
pictu,'e..syn,bolism In toml, '^ ''""''*' '" "^«
of't^l"r''r'?rgll'sSm" ^^""'^"''■^■" *^ *'"''
as follows :-(!nai„Te,?ofT'" I" '"'^''' ''^'-'"
rian imagery, passed t^ he ffi" *"■ ''."^-
were there found tc ' ;, l i T, ^Y^iem,
idnlatrv of the rac s who h .1 ?* l'"^^^ *° ^^e
posed permission of symbolic imT \ *^'
-re was inherited f^ th "iZw cWch-
the cherub c images nn,l th^ >^"»«w cnuich :
•doming the tomb-chaml.':' ^^ 7-'' °"
eatacomb,: The Ar Ta .'s b*'/"'"*'"!' '» ^^e
known life bev^n tl "grav.. "Kh""/"-
«t forth a known one. ' ^^"^tmns
SYMDOLISM 1945
The following is a list of the symbols most
frequently represented in painting or sc^lp-
Mo't ll"" '^''''^ "^ '^' fir^t ^"'^n conturiel
under Oin'Tr*''''"'"^ '° "eparate articles, o;
uuaer (jj,D TtsTAiiEur in Christian Art nr
under Paganism in Christian Tht '
A and u n,
Abel with Cain "ippocampua (Jonah)
Ab^olin^heactofsacriflce HoTo
Abr^.„ wUh the Holy r^^le^-*
Three
Adam and Eva
Anchor
Angels
Apples
Ark
fiethlehem
Bird
Bread
Calf
Car, Cart, Chariot
Ca .K or Dolium
C<wk8
ChiUren, The Three Holy
Corn
Cross
Daniel
Dolphin
iJove
Dragon
Kagle
Ji^g
Elijah
Firmament
Fir-tree
Fish il^BvO
Fish, pictorial
Fisherman
Fouiitiln or well
Furnace
Goat
Gourd (Jonah)
Hand
Hare
Job.
Jonah
Jordan
as River-Ood
Joseph (Patriarch)
Lamb
Lion
Lyre
Mlllt or Milk-pall
fllonogrom
Moses
Net
Olive
Orante
Orpheus
Palm
Poacocfe
Phoenix
Pilate
Rid Sea
Rock
Seasons, Four
Serpent
Susanna
Sheep
Ship
Stag
Shepherd, The Good
Sirens
Trlinglo
I'lysses
Vine
Whale (Jonah's).
Symbolic personifications occur not „nft..
the frequent repet t," of A; r"' '"'*'""^'''
t me of .N.ght occurs in a Bible of the Qth^.
10th century in the Bibli„H,L; ,i , P "f
torch. Itisabeantifulreproditctionof Z,i,,l
moon, drLn ^eate'iT^b'y LL':-i\::i
1946
SYBIBOLISM
are fuuiid in the liiljle ot" Chailps the Bold
(/'k/i/i ■././)•. Sacra). [I'r.itiO.Nil'lc'Arici.N.]
The riiiiije iif nuthoritii's on tins suliject is, of
course, very wiile. The Ijest niamiiils, iii'rlia|in,
are those of Alt {llciUijcnbiUU'i; lierlin, 184.')),
Dr. Piper's Mythuloijio d. c/irintl. Kunst, ujul
Merz's ortiele, " Siiiiiliilder," in llerzoij's A'/i-
cycliiplhlk, 15p. Milliter's Sinii'>ililir (IS-')) is
strongly cunimended. The AIjIk; Aiilier's f^i/m-
botisnuj rilijicux is ample, and perhaps verliose.
The author may refer to a book called Art
Toac/uw/ of the Primitive Clinrch (S. P. 0. K.
187;i)- ''"h" proper authorities for the art
of the Christian cemeteries will he found under
("ataCOMIB. Prof. Westwood's worlds contain
many facts relative to JISS. Arins;lii's iixlex,
in lioma Suttcrmnca, contains an excellent ()c-
count of early Christian syniljolj, with quoted
authorities, for the most part. Lord Lindsay's
work, with references to l)'Ai;incourt's plates, is
an eiiually liriliiant and accurate manual of
Christian art and symliolism.
II, ."•'vni'io/ZsHi uf Cunstrwtinn. — Hitherto we
have heen considering syniliolic ideas as con-
veyed by sculpture or paintini;. But we can
hardly pass over the indirect or less denionstrahle
syir.ljohsnis of arcliitecture, or the relit;ious or
spiritual meanings attached to styles and fea-
tures. What siiiritual i leas did, or do, certain
styles of building, in fact, convey to n com-,
peten' number of competent witnesses? and how
far, by the builders and contrivers, were the
styles or features intended to convey spiritual
or any other special ideas?
Id the first jihue. Ihe church or temple itself
U iu nil cases a . embolic object, as indicating
an unseen object o more inijiortance than itself.
All its splendour, all its grandeur, is in the
nalu'eof tb'ngs c' oleniatic of a house not made
wiih ha^ids, .Symbolisms of the altar, and all
in which the idea of sacrilice is involved, are
aiiil(e.' for the theological rather than the ar-
tistic lieuartment of this work. We are con-
cerned only with the constructive form of sacred
buihlings, whether designed by the ingenuity
or piety of the builders, or inherent in the
structure itself. Decorative symbolism is an
addition to structure, unmistakably planned and
intended by those who paint or carve ; while to a
great e.itent constructive symbolism seems to
di;pend on resemblances observed after the fact,
and analogies which the original builders may
i.ot have thought of. The features of a building
typify or indicate the needs for which it vi'i s
raised, or in honest architecture they ought to
do so.
The simple constructive arrangements of the
earlier Greek temple, passing through all the
vicissitudes of time, climate, barbarism, war,
and peace, developed into the Christian, even
into the Gothic church, by a steady natural law
of progress, which some call decadence and
others development. The essential parts are
always the phu'e of the god, and the place for
his ministers, with space — "temple," or "en-
closure" — around, roofed, unroofed, or clois-
tered, for his people to stand before him. In
the llebr«.-w temple there was strict classi-
fication ; all the chosen people were sacreil,
and had their exclusive court ; and the dejinrt-
meut of the priests was divided between their
inner cloister and the sanctuary where the
SYMBOLISM
ministering course were employeil ; but the Ilnli^
(if Holies still reniaineil, where the bright iii'ss of
(toil's presence had appeared. The later syim-
gogiio has its choir, .sanctuary, and symbolic
ark or chest as a nemorial id' the ark of the
covenant, occuiiying the ,IeriiMiIi'in end id' the
building.as the Christian altar is ]ilaced at II15
east. [UlilKNTAriD.N,]' The coustrintion uf
a Christian church then is in itself sytuljolie,
like thiit id' all other temples. The meanings
i.ttached to various (larts of it, or to the hui'i.
zoutal or vertical style of its arehiteiture,a]ipear
to have sprung up gradually from devout iiiiaeii-
natiniis of various tiiiies. The form of the church
is traceable in all cases either to the Ba.-iliea, nr
the circular buildings, baths or telll|ll•^, .4'
which the Pantheon is the grandest type re
niaining. The church, in the lirst iustaiiic,
occu|iied the bnsilic.is, or her builders adiipteil
heathen construction, as they did heathen jiaiiiting
and sculpture, llut they lost no time iu luii.
necting meanings of their own with the building
and its ]iarts. The ship-symimlisin is I'idly
carried out, when resemblances are coiitriveil
iu the form and arrangeineiits of the aitual
structure; and this is certainly indicated iu the
well-known passage from the Aiiostoliial ('nn.
stitutions. (^Apoat. Const, ii. c, 57, ed, Cotelerii,
tom. i. p. 263.)
There was an important symbolism connected
with the cry])t of the basilica, which coniiocts
the larger churches with the primitive wor.-hip
and celebrations in the catacombs, and may pru-
bably be coeval with the Hook of Hevehitinii.
The altar of a cubiculum was originally the talile.
tomb above the remains of a martyr [('ah-
COMIIS]. It is scarcely possible not to connect
this with the passage in Kev. vi. 9, rel'erring to
the souls of the faithful to death, who cry
from bebn/ the altar; nor with the jiarallel
use to which the crypt (or prison cell) of a
lioman basilica was converteil. In Christian
hands the crypt became the tomb of the martyr
or saint to whom the church was dedicatwl,
and its altar was placed directly above his .sar-
cophagus or grave. Lord Lindsay says the
theory of an ancient church i)resuuied it to Ije
built over a catacomb, but it seems piol.ahle
that the catacombs were often opened from
churches or their area (see s. v.). An altar iu
later days could not be consecrated witliout
relics.
The arch of triumph, between the central nave
and the sanctiuiry, in the Christian lj;isi!ica-
church, was figurative of the transition through
death, and the decoration of the ajjse and tribim
are often clearly intended to give the idea "f
heaven or the ajiocalyptic Jerusalem, with the
Presence of God [Mosaics]. See Art-JWifliinjiof
the Primitive Church, p. 1(53, by the author ot
this article.
This is matter of decoration; and the con-
structive symbolism of the simple or Roman
basilica goes no further. But in Byzautiura,
during the early splendour of Constantine's great
works, the Eastern or absolutely Christian form
' The Introiluctory essay to a trnuslatlon of Ikxlt I
of Uurandus of Mende's Itationale IHiiin<irum '//(idumn
by Nealo and Webb should be read by all who ni.il
for full enumeiatiou ot symbolisms in chuich conBtmt-
tlon.
SYRIBOrUM
of church was „,!„,,(,.,,, „,„, ^^^, , ,
t,,™hy l,..,„j, .,„■,,,, i„ t,,„ ,.,„,„^ „ h " "
tral ..upola invuhvs all tl „ "i "' V ■■""■
ti..ii aii'l soarin.r viut, i • u ^ '.'' ""l'"'''-
cU,n„.,l. aln,:"r ,;^" ?,'""■"«''-• '-n
lu .1 I'xcliisivo iii'iiiifrtv I, I,-
n^ .m :t ''i,,r::/;;i,:r' "'• ^-"-i-f
BWtt.ping aii.l .•li,nl,ii,e .■urvcsuCa.vl.l ,
w'"' i'li..; u;\i.",: ,:z/:,'^
ot |iiiTS ami aivhi;s. The svml, I; "'>"".*^'s
.i™--bo.n.o..o.,„^!'.;j::';i;:-;;:;:i;;r
as well as I,v the ,,„i,„e,| areh «„,1 s,l v.'a,?l
or,.o„n,l a.v|„t,.,.ture is not noressari • ^;,v
lin?, hut a,lai,te,| i„ tluMirst in.stan,.e t , ,h .
o.ah,,telin,ate,anaea,,al.le.!n i,:^^,t;
by n,„i,/u,.at,„„H of the a.vh an,l vault 'th
needs .,fanv..„„ato. Without ,l,Ah [^ ,
d" n. nsrhtlj- ,le...or„te,l, an,| .e..„ (V,,,,, wit ij
ami ,ln,.s scvn; as Lo.M Li,„|,„y A ' ^' V
e-q™. , M.to i„, nity uu, the vault it heavou Vi
beautiful corollary, that it is the emh e",,; ,r
heavon, as the cross-structure on whi h r„
■^ the type of suilerins "b.lion e , ,. ^n "t
en,i ,s bu.lt u,, or edifie,! to reach h,.. vcV L i ,^
hest an. truest spirit of ancient ,'e,.-
and he a Ids, m ji n.ito, thp remark tl,„f j '^ '-\'
."■ten-ldes, l,oth Christian rnt,',^v.:eTe
q-e„tly pa nted a.ure and powde re (v th sU rJ
to cnnvev the same idea "imstais
t.r?a« ttv'^'"."'"''''"' "'■ P"">*«^» "^'hitoc.
ture aie fai beyond our period. [K. St. J. T.]
SYNCELLUS I947
i An.l.Coi ect T I ' '""i"<'"lh.cta
raxv,.ldscuu.\vhicl, le ,|X;r's'' /':°
l";''IT'-lya|Tliedt., /hose Is ;„,r^'7;'""
wh,H,o,ten,,ccuriuKastern,: :, ;';;;;;-
(/<,■
(ioar.
O'^rinus, „„ .„,,,,^.
J:udwl.,:i. W. 4f!, 47). - (-p -J. ^^,V
SYNAXAIJIA. [M.:no..o„»;m.]
thfSf ^"f;' (''--f-^'-)- The lives of
^.■u,:::;''!;,;^, ■;:;-, ;:|-;-| -ranged i„ the
"^tracted and puldi l"u ^^ tr^' "?""'""!''
»-PHra.on,r,^,,th:;n]:K.r"''7K:iru".f
6YMB0LUM. [Ckeed ; Tuaditio.]
SYMEON. [Simeon.]
8YMMKTRIUS, May 26, presbyter, „,artvr •
e.an,e,uon,ted at Kor., (^Malt. uiuard.^^Ad-,;.;
ri-us in the Gothic Miss:;r!vL,r £'■;"'',
as, or h,s natale(the .lay unname. lam he
^ft^/.iwi.^' ^''''■^■^ •'"- 27 (guard.;
iS^^^f^L^a^faS^^
"■as als.,entitle,l a synaxis M „t ' ' 'i "•
-latutinorum ^^ av^ n , " "f'tinalis or
l'-399); ".,nae syuaxls (r,. saee. v. p. 1,^ ' '•
(c) Aue.|uivaleutterm foreuchari ti.. r/r
Arcop. ,/. fcc/c... ///,.,■„.. lib. cap n * "f^"'"''*
liiento synaxeos <in.. ,.,„„„•'• ' '''- •'*"^'''a-
(.1) Jn Tr, ,? ^"'"" '"""""' '''/"'^'m).
1948
BYNDICUB
to a piissago cited by Suicer, once gave rise to
an unsptmly Bcjimbble nt the IVntocostiil cole-
briitiim (("iMlin. Curopnl. p. 112, cil. Uimu). The
cbiof ol' the "syiuM'lli" nt Constiintiiiniile was
callcti KparonvyKtWos T^s n(yd\vs ixKXijalas,
corni])tiHl into irpoiToauyyfAos {I.itury. C/u-i/s.) ;
he raiikoil next to the patriarch, whose spiritual
director he was, and whose confessimis he heard.
He )iad roo.us in the archlepiscopal palace, or
when the )>atriftrch resided in a monastery, a
cell adjacent to that occupied by him. C'edrenus
states that the "protosyncellus" before his ti.ne
had \i8n:illy succeeded to the patriarchal throne
on its vacancy. (Goar, Enchol. y. 1 12 ; Siiicer,
suh i-oc. ; Ducange, su6 voc. ; Codin. Atmotat. pp.
112, 377.) [K. v.]
SYNDICUS. [Advocate.]
RYNETUS, Dec. 12, martyr at Rome in the
Mign of Aurulian (Basil. Alcnol. ; Menol. Graco.
Sirlet.). [0. H.]
SYNOD. [Council.]
SYNODICAE EPISTOLAE. [Council,
p. 475.]
SYNODITAE. Monks are called Synoditae
In the Theodosian Code, from their living in
communities {(tvv6Sois) [Coenobium ; MoNAS-
TKP.y]. [C]
SYNOPSIS (^uvvottiis). Any abbreviated
compilation from the larger Otlice Boolis of the
Eastern churcli and from other sources for
private use. [t. K. W.]
SYNTHRONUS (o-wepovoj). The name
gii-en to the chancel seats round and behind the
altar in the Greek church, in use by the olli-
ciating clergy during the Liturgy, &c. The
Throuos, or chief seat, the bishop's throne,
occupied the ceutral and easternmost position
behind the altar. It is marked G on the ground
plan of the church exhibited in Goar's Eucholoj.
p. 13. [F. E. W.]
SYNTYCHE, July 22, Phil. iv. 4 ; comme-
morated at I'hilippi {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet.
Bom., Notker.). [C. H.]
SYRINX. Aa in numberless instances in
ancieut Tugan art the pipe is the regular
accompaninieut of the sheplurd, so the Good
Shepherd is, in Christian art, often represented
with a pipe of seven reeds or straws. So netisnes
he is holding it in his hand (IJottari, Scutture
e Pittuic, Ixxviii. cv. cix.), sometimes he holds
it to his mouth (Perret, Cat. do Jio^ne, v. pi.
Ixviii.), sometimes it hangs on his arm (Bott.
chix.), or at his side, suspended by a strap over
the shoulder (i6. clxxiv.); again, it is to be
seen lying at his side, as on a fragment of ancient
glass in the collection of Buonarroti (^Osserva-
zioni, &c. tav. V. 2).
This primitive musical instrument, with which
ehepherds were supposeil to call back their flocks
to the told, like other pastoral emblems, soon
began to be used in an allegorica' sense by the
savlv f;!f!-.i''.'a. Thus Gregory Na.'ianzeu (Or.
28, 43), after describing the anxiety of a
shepherd, who, mounted on an eraiuence, fills the
air with the melancholy strains of his pijie,
recommends the spiritual p<\stor to follow his
TAlJULAIilllM
example aud try to win simls to Goil by per-
suasion rather than liy furce, to use the pipe
rather than the stall' (^'artigny, Vkt. ilcs Anlii.
chirt. 8. v.). [K. C. II.]
SYROI'HOENICIAN, THE (in Aur). The
Syrii|)hoenician supplicating the Lord to heal her
daughter (Mat*, iv. 21 IV. ; Mark vii. 24 ll.) is
thought to bo represented in a bas-relief nl a
sarcophagus from the Vatican cemetery (II^jmo,
Huma Svtt. p. 65 ; Martigny, p. 1(32. 2nd ed.)
The woman, rejiresented of small size, kisses the
hand of the Lord, while an apostle behind her
lays his hand on her shoulder. The iil ntiii-
cation of this figure with the woman of Canimn
is however by no means certiin (Martiguj, hict.
dcs Antiq. chrtft. s. v. Chanane'cnno). [C]
SYRUS, Sept. 12, confessor; commemoiatcj
with Eventius at Ticinura (J/ar<, Usuard., Adin.,
Vet. Horn., Notker.). [C 11.]
SYSTATICAE EPISTOLAE- [Commeh.
DATORY LEITEBS.]
TABITHA (IN Art). The subject of the
resurrection of Tabitha is not to be found, as liir
as is known, on any liomau monument, but two
instances occur in France. One of these is on
a sarcophagus, supposed to bo of Sidouius, liislwp
of Aix, seemingly as early as the 4th cohtury,
and still exicting in the crypt of St. Jladcltine
at the abbey of St. Maximiu {Monuin. nlat. i
8" Madekitu:, t. i. col. 7G7). iu agreement
with the Scriptural account, St. I'uter is
represented standing and hoMing out his hiiid
to Tabitha. The bed on which she is reijr*-
sonted sitting up is furnished with curtaiui
suspended by rings from a rod, and uear it tivo
children of unc jual height kneel and extend
their hands to the apostle in token of gratitude,
Ou the otlier side of the bed is a front view of
two female flgures in a dress very like that of
modern nuns, which is sujiposed to have been
the dress of widows in the earliest Cliristian
times. These two figures are of course intenJed
for the widows spoken of in Acts ix. !i9. Tin
other instance referred to repeats all the leatiiies
of the one already described, and is to bo seen
on a tomb in the museum of Aries, No. 7i). Tlie
same subject is also found on a sarcophagus in
the cathedral of Fermo, with this dilteroiice of
treatment, that all the persons represented ar«
taken from the Acts of the Apostles, aud are in
some way connected with the life of St. Peter.
(Martitcny, Diet, dcs Antiq. chrift, s. v.)
[E. C. I!.]
TABULARIUM. A name sometinios given
to the muniment-room of a church iu which the
archives were kept. It was ordered iu iho ieci;-
lation of Justinian, and afterwards in that of
Chifflemagne, that documents of special iiiipoit-
ance should be deposited in the tnbnlariii of
churches. (T. Eckhart, Schcdiiisma (/<■ 'IWmlam
Autiiuis, 1717; J. C. Beheim, cfe ArcMds sixt
I'cAulariis Vet. Cltristian. Altorf. 1722.) [C.j
TAI
TALIOXIS Ll
KENT, )). 4(J9.]
TANIST AlihJ
laws of Tnnistry,
(Reeves, St. Adamnc
exercised a certain
ten u it, Ann. Tiij. j
H'b. Script iv. 224),
(Slicne, FurduH, ii.
2()5 S(i., 274 s((. ;
inc. /r. iii. liOO.)
TAPERS. [LiGi
TARACIJS (Tri;
with I'riihus .and An
persecution (Mart. I
Kotker., W.ind.) ; Oc
Bi/zimt.); Sept. i;7,
liny L! iu Palestine
Notker.).
TARASrUS, Feb.
tinople (Basil, JUeno
Grace. Sirlet.).
TARBUA, Apr. 2
Sapor, sister of bisho
Nutker.).
TARRAGONA, C
co.vKNsiA Concilia).
limits.
1. A.D. 4t)4, to cei
Calahorra, for ortlain
and to appoint to th'
vacant. The alleged lo
po|)e Hil,\iy have been
iioinan synod of the yi
957).
2. A.D. 516, when
cipline were passed, to
John, bishoi) of Tarraeoi
53'J-4U.) *
TARSUS, COUN(
Co.vciLiA), A.I). 431 am
Jeveral Ijishojjs returnii
met mill deposed St. Cyr
who had been sent thit
tphesus against the E.ii
the secimd when Ilel
Tareus, and several of h
aJhesion to the peace i
Antioch and St. Cyri
Kestorius. {lb. p. II79.
TATIANA, Jan. 12,
tvr under Alexander S
Cal. liyzant. ; Mcnol. Gr,
TATIANU8 (1), Ji
memorated at Aqniieia
(•i/iirt. Usuard.); Mar. 17
(2) .hily 19, martyr;
Maredonius aud others at
«l;'- 12, with MaceJoniuf
ulwii, tht place not nan
let.).
TAURINENSE CON
TAURINUS, Aug. r
"• {.Mart. UsuarJ., ,
TALIONIS LEX
[C01tl>01lAL Pu.NJSIi.
TAIJOXIS LEX.
MENl, Jl. 4(Ji).]
TANLST AU13AT, aoomling to the Celtic
TV. DEl'M
TKCLA. [TiiKciA.]
1949
TAPEJ{S. [Liqiito; Paschal Tapeu.]
TAIIACUS (TiiAUAcus') O.' 11 .
with .V,,,n.aJA„,,ro^i:^;i £-';,, \X>:
Notker., \Va„.i.); Oct. 12 C >/„} r,'/'
^,.,«^); sc,,t. .7, Oct. 9 Oct. ir(^;.;.if:
May l,.m Palestine (/y^,-,,,,), Apr. 6 (//,":i.:
l^o.Kcr.;. 1^^, ji^
TARASrilS, I^.b. 25, patriarch of Cn.sta,,-
TAIUiUA Apr 22, ninrt.yr In Persia „„Jor
Sn « M.ster of b,»h„p Si,„,„„ (j^,„,^_ ^,J^^^
^" '■ [C. H.]
TARRAOOVA, COUNCILS OP (Takba-
OOX|^s,A Co.Nc,UA). Only t«o fall within om-
1. a.d. 4tJ4, to censure Siivann,s, bishop of
Clahorra, for onlaining out of his ,ii,„lse
and to app.)nit to the see of JJ.ircelonn tho,l
vn-ant The all-.^e,! letters fron, this Z ;„.,'' ^
rp Hilary have been noticed uu.ler an alleJa
Konmn syuo.l of the year following (Mansi, vii.
2. A.D. ,516, when thirteen canons on dis-
ciphae ux.re ,.,ssed. to which ten bishops under
Jo n b.shop of Tarragona, sub.scribed. V/T, "ili
J,)J-4b.; pj^^ y^ ^. ■
TARSUS, COUNCILS OP (Tarsensia
tetUA) A..). 4;J1 and 43,^ The \^r wh n
«voralb|shops returning from Coustan.i",,, le
met and deposed St. Cyril and the seven b h, ,
^bhad been sent thither from the con,^ ci of
f..c,su,s „,;aM,st the K.asterns (.Mausi, v. luj".
•fte ,,eo„ud when Helladius, n,otropolit,.n 'of
TATIANA, Jan. 12, Roman deaconess ninr-
tl r'^'- /'",'""'<»• Severus (Basil JC/"
Cd Biizant. ; Mcnol. Grace. Sirlet.) [t^' h j '
hv™iS^!;'ll.,!'';f7"''''>'-->"™-
(iVc,.|( ha. „ ; .'^'"^""g'' '>'> version of it iu
1 Ule doubt fh-*:'! ^"'" ""■' ^^'•"' ''"■■•'' ^f" 1'9
nom oieek or Orienta sources Taking n„H
iirst ten aie closely connected with the Kucha.
hlt-l^ •^I'-^'Inno Mi.anuscript. Of the
T:\ "V '"!''"' *''"^« numbered 2.! 2,1 are
Deusiiatrnm „ "iionedictus es Domine
™"il..ire this. fo..efher vhh ll , " "'"y
25 o,! ^tiii '"■>.'-i."<' "ith the clauses 24,
itaO' Kao-n,,, TJ^tpax «CAoy,j<ru «
Kai a.^tao, TO o^OMoi <,„„ ,[, ^v amva
a.'OM«PT^ro« «uAaxe^.,a. ^^i^ ^
"a^iir lr'tf^^'°'.^"■"'"*-*--''-
{Mart. Usuard.); JIar. 17(Notker)
^^1^ With Macedonius^^'^tffi^^^:; i ;
J Juhan, the place not named (Jfo,o/. 6',wo.'sir-
TAUEINENSE CONCILIUM. [T^'v ]
di.t:f'iL!rtr"hKvt-^-'^-
generally, nil the copies n.rthe n ^'"''^'"S
i"'-l'"liug our clausi 21 "bu he '",'•''' '",".'"'
«:i (a Romau psalter) ".fter 21 . ^ "V™" '^'^-
00 oj 1' . -'' '"'t-r Jl, has on V 24 '>^
^-1 ii, ccnclui ne with fho i- i / ' »
above Tbit ;„ -f • . " l'™edictns es, ,as
"' ami ,0 f ' " "'"'*•' «lt"gother 20, 27, 28
contain: ,g'"het^:i^;^^':^tr"''"'"^''
i» the Te Deuni clause •'] 05 L ' ™""-'', '"""»
thus-9'J 94 1. ,. " ' ''•^' -''' -9. and reads
book edited ,;';;^t:;i£'-,,!^^'>«^hym„.
logical aud Celtic Societv n Voi -^"t'""-
the hymn contained in the 'An!- >' "'"' '»
=K'LiK^H'&^.^^-
™utl>ublin. Atthe'^ld:?;^,'^^'™
lodd. Book ot Hymns, 1,. 19, i, the foli.wing:
I >1
1950
TE DEUM
,1 in
; til)i
"T<' PiitfrnnloraimHetenimn; to semiiitornnm
filhiiTi iiuuarainiis ; ti'(ni(.' s|iiritiiin ■.nnctiiin in iinii
diuiiiitiiti^ -iili.-.tnnti,i niiinciiliMTi cMUiriteiniir. Tilii
uiii IliMi ill TrinitutL' Ueljitiis liiu Iin ct griiti;is
ri't'ei-iMniis lit te iiiccssiiliili unn; Iniidare iiieri',-
amur piT wturrm soculii." Thi'si- words nlsii
occur in the l'"riuicisci\a >I8., Init tlioy are not
an'aii!;c>il in vtr?.iili.'s iu th« ll■i^h hymii-bniiit.
The (irdor in the liimgnr Autiidi(iniii-y is the
same as iu the Irish hynin-Imok. According to
Muratori, the "Te I'litreni adoranius " is not
found in this Antiphouiiry ; liiit towards the
end of the MS. there are some curious (Vagments
sewn toi;ether (not noticed by Muratori),
amongst which the above address to the Holy
Trinity is inserted, and also another, which is
identical with it as ftir as the word conlitemur,
and then proceeds : —
'* Tibi Trinitas laudes et gratias roferemus ;
tibi uui I'eo incessabilem dicimus laudem ; te
patrom ingcnifuui, te filium unigenitum, te
spiiitum sanctum a patre [ct filio is addi
the mai-gin] procedentem conle credimus
iniestiuiabili incoinprehensiliili omnipotonti deo
qui regaas in aeteruuni."
The result of this investigation seems to bo
that the Te Ueura, even in its earliest form, was
regarded, like the Morning Hymn of the Alex-
andrine MS,, as a hymn sung to the Holy
Trinity, even though the work of our Lord
predominates in its latter clauses.
The earliest notice of it that has been
discovered is in the Rule of Caesarius (about
A.D. 27). According to it on every Sunday tliere
were to be first six missie or prayers ; these
finished, the Matins were to follow. Kxaltabo
te (Psalm c\lv.) ; then Contiteniini (cxxxvi. (?) ;
then Cantemus Domino (the canticle in l^xodus
xv.); I.auda, anima mea (Psalm cxlvi.); Beiie-
diotio (the Beneilicite omnia ojiera Domini
Dominum) ; then Laudate Uominum de caelis
(Psalm cxiviii.) Te Deum laudamus, Gloria iu
excelsis, and the Capitellum. The Rule of
Aurelian was somewhat similar. Columbanus.
who was connected with the Irish liangor, and
founded the monastery of liobio, where the
Bangor jVntiphonai'y came from, does not mention
the canticles or Te Deum in his rule; but it is
worthy of notice that this Antiphonar) gives
the hymns Canticum, Cantemus Domino, Bene-
dictio 'triuin puei-ontm, Benedicite, " llipmmm in
die Doininico, Laudate pueri Dominum ; laudate
nomeu Domini ; Te Deum laudamus " in the
order of the rule of Caesarius. Only the intro-
duction to the Te Ueum is furnished by the two
verses of Psalm cxii. instead of Psalm exlviii. :
the same two verses which precede the Te Deum
in the two Irish hymn-books.
Towards the end of the Bangor Antiphonary,
as given by Muratori, are series of five or six
sets of short prayers to be used after the Can-
teirvis. after the Benedicite, after the Laudate
Dominnm de caelis, and after the gospel. In-
ternal evidence shews that the Laudate iJimiimtm
de caelis included here the To Deum ; and the
prayers furnish a beautiful illustration of the
Rule of Caesarius.
Columbanus died about 015, rae^ariiis abnut
54'2, but there is one expression in the Te Deum
which seems to carry us back to an earlier date.
We refer to the phrase " suscepisti hominem,"
for such was the universal reading until Abbo
TE DEUM
of Fleury altered it to " susccpttirus." There
are two "readinijs of the verse. The two Irish
manuscripts read, " Tu ad libirandiim muuduni
suscepisti hominem." All the other cdd copicj
which have been examined omit the woni
" niundum." In either case thti verse nieM'is,
"Tliou didst take upon thee man" or "r man'"
either" to deliver him" or to "deliver tli.i
world." The phrase "su.Hcepit hominem" was
current in the time of St. Augustine, but wiMit
out of favour after the Nestoriau controversy ; it
gave Wi'.y to the phrase "ailsuiniisit Iniiii.iiii.
tatem " or " hiimanain naturam." (We fin I tlie
words "ad lilierandos homines" as desi rii.iii(»
one object of our Lord's Incarnation in .Vugiis-
fine's letters No. 137, § U). We conceive that
so far there is suHicient evidence that the wonls
of the hymn may date from the time of St.
Augustine.
The titles which we find prefixed to the hymn
in various psalters are interesting in theniselvi'j,
and may perhaps throw some light upon tlie
localities where these iisalters were written. Tlic
hvmn is not fouml in the oldest (isalters, asiii thiis«
at Bamberg and Verona and the original Vespasian
A 1 (wliicii no doubt Oelonged to St. Augusttiii.''j
monastery, Canterbury, and which was placed in
a kiu-1 of recess or shelf over the high altiiv on
the su|iposition that Augustine brought it I'nim
Koine, a present from Gregory the Great), ur
the original Galba A, xviii. It is found in
several psalters written in the 9th centurv.
The title" Hymnusin Die Dominica ad matiitai."
or " ad matutin. in die doniiiiica " is piefixed to
it in Marinus' pnalter at C. C C. Caiiil]ri<li;e
(N'o. 27S) ; in the beautiful psalter of Chailestiie
Bahl at Paris; one at St. Gall, 1.5; auofhci- at
C. C. C. 4-11 ; .and the second [lart of Gali.u X,
xviii. In the beautiful volume at Oxfovil. Douce,
59, it is entitled " Hymnus iu Die Domini.ii."
In the latter part of Vespasian A 1, in Claudius
C. vii. (the Utrecht psalter), Harleian '290+, ami
the ([uadripartite psalter at Bamberg it is calW
simply " Hymnus " or " Ymnum in niatutiiiis,"
or otherwise to the same effect. In tlie last-
named psalter there is an attempt at a Greek
version as far as clause 12, when it ceases. In
St. Gall 20 we find the words '• hymnus Joiiiin.
pro noct. hoc est ante lectionem evangelii,'' ami in
Arundel 155, "hymnus doms. noctuina laiiJ.
can." In the former as well as iu St. (iall;;3
(Folkard's magnificent psalter), the words "Te
decet laus, tedecet yinnus, tibi gloria, iloiiiine,
patri et filio et spiritui sancto in saecula saecu-
lorum. Amen," are at the end of the hymn. In
what is called Bacon's psalter in the '.,'ainbriiige
University Library it is entitled "Hymnus
optimus." In Reg. 2 B. v. at the liritisii
Museum " oratio pura cum laudatione." In St.
John's College, Cambridge, c. 15. " laus angelica."
Then we come to a series in which the title is
prefixed, " hymnus queni S. Ambrosias et S.
Augustinus invicem condiderunt." This is
found in Vienna, 18G1 (the famous psalter sail
to have been sent by Charlemagne to Hainan:
Daniel " confesses that he had always susiiecteil
that additions were made at the end of ihii
psalter bv a later hand"), Vitellius E. xviii.; St.
Gall 2-i (Folkard's) and 27. This or some efJi-
valent title prevailed in later years. In a iisaltei
at Salzburg, A. v. .SI, " hvmnus Augustini. In
several notable psalters such as that iu the grett
TEKLA IIAISIAXOT
Voni<o Bil.l,. „„,! ,.,„,;, n,iri, C. C n 301
Lainl.ah 1<I7. yal/.l,„rit A v Hn t -.•»•''.
title nri.ri... 1 'I'l i ■ , , ' '*' *""^'' 's '"O
"'...'' lus ,.t t'- ^ "•' ''>■'""« !>"«
til>hop Usshcr sciMiiH to liave 8...n f.-„
Si'i:l;;;:~:-,-;;;Si3£'-i;
^Mll .SCI \ KKTI KM Dn:,, . [,0.M1N. Al> 51 \ 1 IT "
am thoroare t.vo MSS. nt ^'lor.n, e 'h't ^'i
"S .\l„,n,lii •• ;,'""'' ■^'-•'I'liti monachi,"
sprilinli'lli^tl.Lallrir''"'''^ - .■honetic
riicso nieinoranda may P"8.sililv assist in fl,„
effort to trace thoso manuscript., t^o tl iro ,Vi n
n tZ n, . rr' "*f''°« »^''t'' "'e accent (jivcn
vigils of the .S,„ ,1 ' it ch ; l"7 " "" '^"
ton«;..-„.isi„terLunl''^0 C,^Xr:::
wa,s the same, though the name was alte^^e.l It
h Je 'recalle,,"7" ''"'■''"'"•' '''•"•'"''""■m chorus -
h.y recalled to many min.ls the beautiful uag-
m,.^ "im:"'' ''^^•^•■•ia^•. treatise / X-
f «a^, "ilhc apostoloruni gloriosus chorus
.11.0 pro,,hetarnn, e.xultantium numerus il i c
"";•"•""' ■'""'"'^■■■■'''ilis populus." ' '"
Ihe J'- Dewnl.mJamus is mentioned twice bv
r5 • Bu't^hi t' :tv ^^v-"''' tei'
''s:sc;pisa" '" '"' *"" '^^^ »«J-nizod in the
|_C, A, S.J
TEMPLUM
1951
TKKLA IJAIMANOT, Aug. 17, Dec 20
apostle of monachism in Kthiopif (Ca/. miop^'.
TeLKNSI or ^,.;,.Lt.N-8K CONVIUUMj, A.D 418
J\e have ten canons attributed to this council
^;Femndu,,and nine, by no mean denUc^
p-t:a--r-7Er5
Sstt-hSKsai^
lection: nnr a''e fho mov™!n„i r '".'""•" <-<"-
Ifttoi- in V 1 ™*'g"ial references to this
tei ,n ferrandus of any value, as Ferrandu
^,„ I '■^? 1""t«8 the exact words of the
council, and never of the pope, where the two
So.., Wand.); Ja^n. 2 (Flo^NSerO fe H.f
tallf im'^'^^^^"^''^' Terapestuarius, Tempes-
Wiim immissor, N^poSt^^rvs. By the last
word Balsamon iCo,n,nent. inConc.Trul an can
uS" blTh ' " 'r'' '/ observation o'f the
«iond8, but the earlier author of the Qm.'stiones
:!- -. m:;kes it i.|,.„ti,.arw,H t.,^:^^^,
who .„ ,,,,,''' '''r.''^' '''■'""''''•'' "tl-t they
oCrnvf "•'PoS.axfTa, omtnvn l,v means
I'ii:. ; :.;:r';i::'v H^*'"''..'? ' ■'"'' --^"
diMlarJs fl . V ""■ "f< "»*ta.itiiis,;i,57,
'<i^t;r,^ 'U;;;:;;.:t';"'""^ "•'■";'--"»
♦ „ !,„ 1 ' ^^' '"l- f'rii'ncp, whicll sconia
vi„;l, ;V..;Xr'''' ■-rr'";' ■'" •'''"'''-
=;:*':;;;';■;;•;:■£■;"■•»":: ™.S
to be on bread and water {Mus. Ital. i. m)
TEMPLUM for a Christian church t thl
Christian writines of tho fi^* lu " *"*
"temidum" Zin* • ■. ^^ ^^^''^^ centuries
VVhe.ever Wj or "templum" occur with a
Ignatius w^,.;^;j^^l:;^^i2t,s::
^i^=rs^n^t^-:-fci^
ordinate to the spiritual. The eaWy .h hers "re"
.,„>. ■ » , "<;arr ot Ltiristian Tri/euuoTivAt
i^?:^it:i^^S:iSt[
to admu tr'"" """^•'"•^ ' " ^"- ""-h mo"
to admit evil passions into the true temnle nf
his heart! do Fid.et Sumhol, o. 7). Pass"!' are
however, to be found in which •' temp u f " Td
.a .are unm stakably used for a sacred cLstiaJ
(/- s'n «» TT' *''i""S to Alarcellina '
Alt V\ ^P. ""•*' "^ the new basilica beinp
demanded of him for Arian worship, "rl,ond?
templum Deiasacerdotetradinon p sse/' ' uj:
i
* Cumeanus Hyeus., a.d. 630.
1P82
TENEBUAE
tniitiii:( nl«i) (<le fnst. lib. v. c. 2) states thnt nt
the tinifi he w.is auimnnneil to Hithyiihi to tonch
oratory " the temple of Ooil wns overthrown."
The woril fotit is aim) of frequent oeciirreiiie
In the later books of KuKebius's K'rlcsiaatical
Ilislnr;/ for the chtinhes rebuilt after the per-
lecutioii, tv;. vtui^ aJflit iK piBpwv tU S^os Sirt ipof
iyftponft'ovj (If. /.'. lib. X. c. 2), Rml snys of thnt
erctteil by r,iulinu9 at Tyre, Vfiis <jiiAair(<i'ais
iaKfiaTTo (Aii/. c 4). Many other examples are
rcfcrreil to by Uingham (Vi'll. 1. ti). [K. V.]
TEXKBRAK. The ollice of Matins and
Lau Irt in the last three days of Holy Week, at
which a trianijular candlestick with fifteen
candles is nseil, one of \vhi<;h is extinguished
after e.-xh psalm. The last one is, however, held
behind the altar durii.g the lienedictus, and is
then brought back to typify Christ's resurrection
from the dead. Allusiuua of Alcuin an<l Anin-
larius prove such an office, with local variiitioiis,
to have e.\isted in the 8th cent. (Martene, de Ant.
£c. Hit. iv. xxii. § 2). [F. E. W.]
TEKCE. [Hours of Prayer.]
TERENTIU8, April 10, African martyr
under l)e<iu8 (Basil. Mi'tiol. ; Cat. B\jzant.)\
Apr. 10, Oct. 28 (Mcnul. Oraec. Sirlet.).
^ [C. H.]
TERMON, receiving etymologies more or
less fiincil'ul as terra immunis, terre-moine or
terra mimachorum, and the Sanscrit tanrum, is
pr<ih:ibly the Irish form of the Latin terminus,
and was originally the name given to a place of
sanctuary, marked off by its stones set up as
boundaries. Hence it was apjilied to all lands
belonging to a sanctuary, and more generally to
all church lands. As such the termona were
entirely free from secular control or interference ;
they might be mensals to the bishop or monas-
tery, or let to tenants for maintenance, service,
or money rent, and he who had charge of the
termon lands was called the ercnach, whose
Importance is shewn by his name being often
found in the Irish annals. The immunity of the
termons from all lay exactions was affirmed by
the council of Cashel (c. 4), A.D. 1172, as an old
right that had been encroached upon by the lay
lords. In the year 8,31 {Four Mast.), and again
in 844, the Irish annals record the burning and
pillaging of the termon or terra immunis of St,
Ciaran at Clonmacnoise. The presence of a
termon is frequently found in the nomenclature
of Irish to|>ogr,iphy. (Ord. ^urc, Londonderry,
50, 208 sq.; Ussher, wks. 3ci. 421 sq. ; Val-
lancey, CM. de Seb. Hib. i. 132-3, 1,58 sq., 179
sq., 2nd ed. ; Lanigan, Ecd. Hist. Ir. iv. c. 26,
n. ", c. 29, § 3; Robertson, Scot, under her
Early Kings, i. 329 sq., ii. 409; Killen, Eccl.
Hist. Ir. i. 109 ; Girald. Camb. Hib. Exp. i. c.
35, wks. V. 281 sq.; Ware, Ir. Ant. o. 17 ; Four
Mast, by O'Donovan, i. 447, 471, et al. ; .Joyce,
Ir. Names of Places, 2nd aer. 208-11, very full
and apposite.) [•'• G-]
TERSANCTU8. [Preface, p. 1696.]
TERTIUS, Dec. 6, martyr; commemorated
In AlViia with Dionysia, Dativa, and others
[Mart. Usuard., Aden.", Vet. Mom.). [C. H.j
TERTULLA, Apr. 29, virgin; commemo-
rated with Antonia {^Mart. Usuard., Adon.).
[C. H.]
THEATRE
TESIFOX (Ctksipho.n), May 15, bishop of
VcTgium in Spain (Mart, Usuard., Adon., \'et.
AVhi.). [C. H.]
TEBHELTil. A word occurring in th» life
of Cai'sarius of Aries by Messianus and .Stephen,
published by Mabillou (Ai:ti Ninn'tnniin onlinU
Hcniili'ti, vol. i. tj72), who explains (nnt. in
he.) ihi word as meaning "quadrati pi.oniciili
fovendo stomacho appositi. ' S-jo also Dusange'i
Qtossarij, s. v. [Ii. .S.]
TESSERAE. In thn time of perseci-ticm,
Christiaus recogntsed each other by secret sii;;Ds
or symbol 1, whether spoken as watcliwonls ur
pictorial. [GK.M3 ; RiNos; Si:al«.] Siimd
tablets engiiived with such symbols were callcU
tesserae. Tesserae were given in particular t»
the newly baptized (tesserae bfijitisiiuiles), anJ
the small lish of bronze or crystal which are
frequently found, are believed to have scrvoj
this jiurpose (Kisil, p. 674]. It seems also
probable that Christians, like their pagan fore-
fathers, gave tesserae to eacn other as pledges of
friendship (Martigny, Vict, dcs Antiq. ehr^
s. V. Tesstres), [C]
TETRAPODIUM, a term in general use for
any table with four feet; in special use for tho
table on which the bread and wine for olilation,
the oil for consecration, &c., were placed in the
Kastern Church. It usually stood near tht
iconostasis on the north side of the holy dours.
[F. E. W.]
THADDAEU8, apostle, June 19 (lliisil.
3fenol.); June 19, Aug. 21 (Mcnol. Graec.);
.luly 20, Nov. 30 (Cal. Armcn.) ; Aug. 20 (C,J.
Bytant.) ; Oct. 28 (Bed.). [C. II.]
THADDEU8. [Judk, p. 891.]
THALASSA. e^Aoiro-o or JaXacraltiov, Ti\t
aylas ri)airfCris is the name given to the hollow
recess beneath the altar of a Greek church, used
for the same purposes as the Western piscina. A
detailed description of its shapes, ornamentation,
and use is given in Goar's Euc/ioloij. p. 1,'j.
[F. E. W.]
THALELAEU8, May 20, physiciim at Ana-
zarbus, martyr under Numerian (Basil. J/cno/.;
Cal. Byzant. ; Menol. Grace. Sirlet.). [C. H.j
THANKSGIVING. [Eucharist, p. 624.]
THARSICIU8, Aug. 15, acolyte, martyr at
Rome ; commemorated on the Via Appi:i (Mart.
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Horn). [C. H]
THEATRE. The objections of the te.uhers
of the early church to the theatrical profession,
and the reasons on which those olijections were
chiefly founded, have been partly stated under
Actors ; it will here consequently be nccessar;'
to consider simply what the church taught, and
on what grounds, as regarded the lawfulness of
witnessini] such performances.
Here the maxim enunciated by the author of
the treatise, de Spectaculis, that it was unlawful
to witness what it was unlawful to do, "pro-
hibisit enim spectari quod prohibnit geri"((fe
Spect. c. 4; Migne, Patrol, iv. 340), would
supply a ready solution of the ijuestion ; nor is it
necessary to inquire what was taught as to the
desirability of being present at grossly imroonl
and indecent perfi
bytheeaily fatli..]
341-4 ; Tatian, un
<le Kpeetteiil s, ,■,.,
above treat I, c! da t
to Cyprian, observ
laufiil to teach whr
?41), and declares
sights to witn.,«.s,
around, ti.e risio;^
of the twiukliuir
Cii-it. Dei, ii. 8),^
between thec.iarae
Biid conioiiips or t
plays being, he sa'
language, while the
in a scheme of libe
his Cun/r^siijiis (iii.
«nce8 he had hiini
atqnetragica,"and
«3 " vel aiitiquao 1
clearly iniplius that
Its grcpiind.
That the stage mig
moral losaons was n t
to the primitive ch
summarily dismissei
c. 27), who advises t
look upon whatever
Jiscern in stage pm
than " droj.s of honi
of toads "(.Migne, i. i
the recognificju of Ci
Diajdrity of the j)op
Christian, it was foui
suppress such exhibit
the games and combi
ititute.l very nearly t
the lower orders (Ar
e, 4). Hence the ut
«]ilii'nr.'i to have b'»n
of the actor among CI
as fnras possible the po
performances. The tw
canons, recited nt the
year 419, forbids that
shall lie given on Sui
sacred in the Christin
is the case, and especii
goes on to say, " the n,
the church," "populi ,
•otlesiam conveniunt.''
these performances i
mnjority is, however,
fact that the same cano
shall not be compelled
oporfere etiam quemqi
w haec spectacula " (.M
the council of Aries, a
forbidden to take p,irt
P'sys, but nothing is
present as spectators (;
'^naliewjesv/t. ii. 28 t)
in his d,iy the theatre 'ai
than even the celebratioi
"artyrs(*,,,„. 8.|. Mi
In the East the untiri
'-kry-r-Un attacks these
%ne), ii. 337, 682; U
.".«b;viii. 120, 188,^
I" wbich he indulges, cl
"""ng the Christian corni
THKATRF3
»nd indoinnt nerfi.nnn., i> l THEATRE IO53
Krai': S;rB -^^V';- ' S,£-'";r7:,i::rr' - r* -.-
t» rvpri,.,,. ol..eivcs tlm .i' ""''>' ""•'•'''"t--"!
l«>vr;,ltnt,w,..h h« V' t^ ,1, I '"',""■""•" it WHH
Cii-it. Dei ii H»' K • '^I'Siiwtinn (,fc
.- ho ha,. ii:j/'\x^;''„^he^,,..,w
Its jtHMMul. " ""'•"^"' J''"""" "till hc-hl
;,:^.si!rhr^»:'r;^j:;^^^-^'>-Md;;
of the a.a„r amo„^ Christians ^Lf T'"^"'"''""
.s ftras possible the pop' iri^ro, L/h"':*"'"^
L,„„, recite,! alth * " -Tof ( ° .""'-V''''-""
rear 419, forbids that " s » ' ^'"■,"'«g<' 1" the
shall l>e eiven on s? ,"'''""••"''> theatroruni "
goes on to say, « the ,,eo, I„ Lr!"'?^ '^I^ ™"""
I hul'it.sacMiiiivdin ivit.w "■""."■ '" ''""■'■'" the
'""iti- of ,, J, J^-^'; •;;""/'!"' '--oppor.
V'l"r:,, h. L"'?. \'?i ' ?'"'''tn™l applause
th..t -ally rh ;,.:"■; ^r r\ ■'""" "" '••^^
words .,fhVri„t„r,.fi,, '"'''•""'^' to the
th''-i"-s"«!w;;t,':,^::/Sr''''''"i-king
n;>Haioonery,;n;ih;;;:;h :';■;;"''"'"'«'"«
t'.-'n^':;,!::;!^:::?""''?'^^ -'''-'''-»-?
-';.i-.i,,!:r'i^d!: ;'':■' £'i,i''^''''-"'''/
""''.'"•'■^ the character! tirvi.,. f ' ,":'.'""^
performanoe when lu i. „ . .1 ''"''' ^""^ "^
h">-^' .... .■i;fht to ha e t^T "'",' *''"i^tian,
of the cir, us tL ^ , • ^'l """' '■^' iti>..ent
•-...•ityof;i;:\, ;, ;;;[;^-;;'the.h..atre,the
'^nim, and the l,m rv ! '^l' ", "^"i;""'ty of the
r^»; Ali.n,., Ivv:; ^4 m^N''''^ ■'■'■'""• -^i^-
I when describinsr tho Z.-lt "?"'" ^"Ivinn,
fi"» •'•■^'...■thVrd ^Tr.''''''-^ '''''■"'«■
Vandal.,, savs that 'I,! I T""."" "'' ">«
i'»l'" red in tho , 1 ov ■ - '■'""■'••'' "' <''i''thaee
the ,s,,;t„r "hts ,f Vh 'T''' "^ ""^ ^■"■'"» ""J
vi'ti...s of the V ;,^, ;•"''•''-«"•'. while the
'^^ity, the victinis of the l"''"' "'■':'"" ^^e
within •• (Jo Gnh. Dci\; fn X" ''^''''"" hod
ft-o.i. other passages besidc'stL ■ " "."■"h'.hle,
the exhibition of Jl. h ?• T 'T«"'"^' 'hnt
lilt lune o( Honorius
t^y -"^0 the^utzn.^':^- - -r- 1 s^risti Bf .-rit t:;!S
n..Hles of ..o,;,li 't " ! .f!.'!""™ I" the ,lifler„>t
n."<les of V ia n^.^^''""™ ^" ^^e .lifler^n.
■"..s has recenth b ee, • .^"f ■"•>» "hich Jla.vi-
".nflicts of n,n, vUh "'^' '■''l'^'^'"")' the
that the result is fn. , I. T'^'' •'"^' '"'plies
He regrets that Ar„''""f '^^'*"' *" the man.
ions uoro ni,„..i ^ ' '^""n
oportero etiam '' ^ " ; Jl^-- 'hen,,--, nee
p%», i::u';ott„"' ' snid'to'if TT. °'
P«sent as spectators (M^nsi vii ss' •"'h^T^
i" Ms day the the„tr;'„ff' . f ^'■'"" '"y" 'hat
"i^-'»);viii 120 188 X ■) '. M.^b( vii.
"ng t,nie alter their couversiun, not, in
-y-he.MW.;:r:'-^:~"'»;-h^
fe^^i^):-^ to withdr::;:";^^---
that fathers ^f'fr:" ,■;';' t^im''^''''"" "">■'
ma ridieulons light (c/.^;;!' ""^^ .""CT-"^
; 41). Augustine assoeiat^!, su^h ;;Xt ;';■
hav. IVu-bidden th^ ll^^SX" ■ l"-!'" «"»
VVe hnd no traces of thn„»,.i 1 ' -''
i
1064
TIIKHAEA LE(HO
fact, until til"? iintitutioii of the roli(ti"ii« jilnyt
Cfthf tiihl.ll.. agta. L''- "• *'•]
THKIJAIIALKOIO, S.pt. 22 (U.../. \\,:\.,
Uiunnl., Ailtiii., IVi. /I'wii,, //hcmi., NiilkiT.,
Wau.l.). [<'• •'•]
TIIKCLA (Ti;ci.A, Tkola) (1), Sept. 23,
Tirj,'iii, '• I'li'tiiiiiiirfyr " ipf Iinnimn, ilNclpli' of
St. I'aiil. Ijiiiic'l lit Sclciiclii ill Uiiuriii (M'irt,
hv\., t'Miiiril., All.. 11., lliiruii., ^l'^ A'""!., Jlmn.,
Ni.tli.'r., Wiinl; Hull, ylc/.i .S'.?. .Si.pf. vi. rM);
Sept. '.'4 (ll;iail. ,Urt.o/. ; MnwI. </;v(i.u Sirlit.) !
J/,l/•^ //i.c"ii., follimcd liy Ni.tliiT, nirntldns liiT
ngiiiii iiuIimKuIj. '.".', ill ciiiiiicxiiiii witli Miuiiu"lift,
anil Hole's iiK.'ti'iciil inartyinli.gy OMiiijns licr,
if till! Hniiu', to Nov. 22. 'it must lie tliis .St.
Thcoln the ninrlyr in whoso mi'movy .lu^tiuiaii
built II rlnii"li lit Coiistiinlinople nt'iir tlio
Jiiliiiii nato (I'roiop. Ik- MUf. \\h. i. nip. 4, oil.
Diii'loit', p. I'.M)), unci whose churrh or /iOfiri'fiw
Is nil ntioiioil in tlio prid'aco to thi; l.'idth Novul
of .liistini.Mi (Diiinnge, CpuHs. C/irUt. lib. iv. pp.
104, i:!:l, 0.1. 172'.)).'
(2) .'lino 1; commomnrntoil with Zosimun at
Aniioih (///(Ton., Notlicr)! l>cc. 20 at GiMoha
In 'riiruco (//iiro/i.).
(3) .hine 9, ninrtyr in Porsia in tho 4th oon-
tury with Miirianino, Martini, aiil Maria (Uoll.
Aciii .W. .luD. ii. 17.i). I
(4) Aug. 19, martyr with Agnpins at Gaza
(Basil. M:mol.; Mcnul. Grace),
(5) Oet. 8, virgin martyr with Barbara ancT
Polagia (Cut. Aniwn.); she may be the coin-
pnuioii of Andropolagia at Alcxamlria on .Sopt. li
(iknal., Grace. Sirlot.). [0. II.]
THKNES, COUNCIL OF (Titenitanum
CoNLii.uM), A.n. 418(?). Tiiroe canons pre-
serveil by b'ennmlus alone vouch for it. (Mansi,
iv.440.) [K.S.Ff.]
TIIK0CTISTU8, Sept. .<?, monlf, "our
fatlior," companion of Kuthyinius; martyr
under Ma.\iini«n (Cu/. liytant. ; MmuI. Grace.
Sirlct ). [C. H.]
THEOD0LU8. [Theodulus.]
THEODORA (1), Mar. 13; commemorated
at Niraoa with Theuseta and others (J/arf.
Uauard., Adon., Vet. lioin., Notkcr.).
(2) (Tueodata), Apr. 1, martyr, sister of
Hermes (Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Notker. ;
Boll. Acta Sli. Apr. i. 5).
(3) Apr. 28, virgin martyr with Didymus at
Alexandria {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Horn.,
Notker.; Uoll. Acta SS. Apr. iii. r)72); May
27 (Basil. Meml); Ap. 5, May 2(> {Mcml. Grace.
Sirlet.); Jan. 12 (Cal. fiytant.).
(4) Sept. 11, cout'essor at Alexandria in the
time of the emperor Zeno (Basil. MenuL; Menol.
Grace. ; Boll. Acta SS. Sept. iii. 788). [C. H.]
THE0D0RETU8, THE0D0RITU8.
[Theodoui,s(11).]
THEODORICU8, July I, confessor at
Reims (Mart. Usiiard.). [^^ H.]
THE0DORU8 (1), Dcs, of Euchaita,
general of Licinius, martyr; conau) raorated on
THE0D0RU8
.Inn. 12 (Cat. It^itant.); Feb. 8 (Cal. flinant.]
IliiMil. .Vcnul.); Fob. 7 (Itnll. A.I'.^S. Fob. ij,
o;i); Juno (<, tnuislatio (Bii-il. .Mrnol.; Mcwtl.
(Ira,;: .Sirlol.). It wiit prnbiiMy thin »aliit nr
tho frilliiHini{ til wlioiii tho ihiirch of St. Tln.j.
ilnriw, orootod by St. Holona iit ('iin»tantinii|.l..,
was lU'iliiatod (CddiinK, l>e Acillf. p. ;l« ; I'iinfi.
pini, J>c Acditirils, y. 17(1), ii> woll as tint
oi-octod by .lii,-'tini in (I'riu'cip. J)c Acilif. lib, i.
cap. 4 ; liiiciiiigo, C/hjUs. C/irht. lib. iv. p. l:ij).
Tlioro was likowiso at ('iiii»t:intiiioplo in .'i,".'! 3
nioniiHlory of St. Tl doriii (Miiiisi. viii. im' 11).
On till' liistiiution botwoon this >.aiiit ami ino
I'lillowiiig Bull. Acta SS. Fob. ii. 2:t may be
oiuisiiltod.
(2) Tino, of Amasia, soldior, iiioi;aliim;irtyr
at Ili-railoa, undor Miixiniiaii; coniineiiinivitirl
on Fob. 17 (Oil. nii-.ai'l.; I'm-il. .Mcii;/.; .V. ivi.
Grace); S,^\■.'^ (.Mart. Bod.. Flnr., Usuanl., Adnii.,
J'liin.); undor the sanio duy \'ct. Kmn, .Mart,
and NV.ind, probably inoiiii this saint, lie ii
coiiiinomoratoJ in the (irogurinn SacrannMiliiry
on .Nov. 9, his name np|.eiiring in the I'ulK.t,
Supor Oblatii, and Ad Cmnplondum.
(3) Patriarch ot Alexandria, ccunmemuritel
on Feb. 1, Miir. 9 (Cal. IMi<ip.)\ Dee. « (Basil
Mcnul.) ; Sept. 12 (Basil. Mcuol. ; Mcnol. Grace;
Boll. Acta iV.S. Sopt. iv. 10); under .Sept. 2 the
Mart. J/icnm. )ir bably moans the same.
(4) Mar. 20, bishop of Pentajiolis in l.ihya,
martyr; cnniniomoratod with the doncnn lliere-
nous or Ironaons and tho roador.s Sorapinn imj
Aimnoniua (Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vcl. ii'ura.,
Notker. ; Boll, ^c^i SS. Mart. iii. 617).
(6) Tmciii.NAS, Apr. 20, solitary near Con-
stantinoido (Basil. Menol. ; Cal. /li/iant. ; J/t)ii;(,
Grace. Bull. Acta SS. Apr. ii. 7.">t3).
(6) SlciMTES, Apr. 22, bishop, "nnr hely
father" (Basil. Menol.; Cal. ISyzant.; Menol.
Grace. ; Boll. ^lc<n SS A|ir. iii. 32).
(7) Sanctificatus, May 15, disciple i.f
Pachomius (Basil. Mcnol. ; Menol, Grace).
(i) July 4, bishop of Cyrone in the roisni of
Diocletian, martyr (Basil. Mcnol.; Mewl Or.;
Mart. Horn. ; Boll. Ada SS. Jul. i. 19).
(9) Sept. 19, archbishop of Cantort iiry. Itii
inf-rrod by the Bollnndist Cleus ( ;,(,( 55.19
Si'i'l. vi. 5.")) that Bede, who rccor ■■; the liiiy of
his death, Sopt. 19, must have taki u it fi'om the
calendars of the church, thus aliording iiroufrf
Theodore's early beatilication. The iul'irenwis
not contirnied by Be lo's own martyrolngy, whicli
omits him. Theoilnre does not occur in anv
of tho early martymlogies, nor in the J/arfi/r-
olo,/ium Roinanus o( 1198, Venice; but it appear)
in those of 1576, 158'), and all later dates.
(10) Martyr at Porga in the reign of An-
toninus; commemorated Sopt. 21 (Basil. .Mcnol.);
Apr. 19 (J/cno/. G^racc.); Sept. 20 (Mart.
Mom.).
(11) (TllEODOREXrf?, THEODORITUS, TllEOM-
RICLS, TllEOnuLCS), presbyter of Autiiich,niartfr
under Julian ; commemorated Oct. 23 (J/jr(.
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Horn., Rom.); Mnr. S
(Flor., nicrm., Kotker., -"iud, ; IV'll --I"'' •"
Mart. iii. 449); Oct. 22 (Notker. ; Nov, 24 j
(Mcnol. Grace); Mar. 2 (Ba-il Mcm.)\ Mir,
29, Apr. 10 (^Hierm,). On the variety of naiiia |
Tli
imi attomptu (o di,!
SS. 2;i 0,t. X. ;)2,
(W) Nov. ;i, |,i,hn
(18) Sriifur*. ,.,
(Basil. .Mcnol. J M.-n,
•(14)IW, 14, cimr
Driisus and Zosinms
Rom.).
(H)ORArTlls, ..J,
on Dec, li7 with Then
opponents „( the ie„n,
(18) Patriarch nf 1
rated Dec, '.'8 (Basil. .
THKODOSIA, An
Diiiclotiau, at Caesai
I'luard., Adi.u., Vet
Cal. Jli/zaitt.).
THEODOSITTS (1
"holy father," cir. 48;
(2) Kmpcror, commi
March 2 (Cal. miiiop.)
(3) Patriarch of Al
EthioiK).
(4) (TiiEoriOTirs), O
with Lucius, Marcus,
OB the Via Salaria (Mm
THE0D()TA(1),J,
(lotus under Irajan (Has
Sirlet.). ^
(«) Martyr at Nicaea
ujder Dincletian; comi
(•'('"•'• Usuard., Adon.,
i^^y'i^{Cal.}{,izant.);
It IS probably this Theoil
™ (leilicated in the He!
.'tantinoj.le (I>r(icop, Oe
p. 190, ed. Dindorf. ; Du
lib. iv. p. 10,i).
(8) Of Pontus, man
I **''«nis, commeinorated
Socrates on Oct. 23 (Ba
I (ileml. Grace).
THEODOTIOV (1)
Cleop,itris. ,„,rtvr with "
' ««<l"Di,„|,.,,;,n(Ba8il, V:
I J?VI"°? -"' '"•"■'y in <
probably the same as TiiKo
I '*"""'■ 1'1"'>' a Theodotioi
THEODOTIUS, Oct. 2.
, THE0D0TU8 (1), j,
WoD., //„..on„ Notker, Ror.
J (2) 01 Cyrinia in Cyni
Itamius; commemorated
Xfmt); Jan. ]9 m„
lf«. Boll. Acta SS. Mai,
I "^*\"">»Theodotuso
lo^rterewasamonaste;
l'"^J6(.Mansi, viii. 906 E)
■sled on Feb. 19 and Sent
■ CHiUST. ANT—VOL. U
THE0D08IA
»n.| ilfti'mpts to i|i,tlniri,l.l, .k
TrrEovAS
(H)i»e(. 14, cmirni'innrnto,! .1 An»i u • .
(Ifl) ORAPTITg, "holv flltli«i."
THKODOHIA, Anr 2 vir„.
THKODOSIUS ri> T.n It r.
'')'"l.v rather," Jr'/sVcaVii!;-;""^'''-''''.
o»'HeVMS;,„Ha(:i^.l^S;^;:~~.
It is probably this Ther«l,Vn » ^l ''' ^'^''""'•i-
wa,de.li™te;ii„the H^M «"'"'""' church
-Irmm. places a ThpnH„l Y ^^'J- ^ ^e Cal.
1 a iheodotion under Oct. 22 also,
1955
(4) .run«7. [T.if;i,iK)i„m(i2)T
J)."... Ii.,.nar,yr.tA„,i,,,.h(.,A,,,. .Vy
crm;.iii::;/.'^;,::;;:':^"'"" -^ TH-Kioru, ..r An.
t7i'M.^iv:i!;t,;;::'5;:,^'^^j;-'Hu,pre,.
pi.i'!!nim;:'at'i,:s^'",';;''' <?;■'"'•■'♦"'-'<-•
Wand.. /^,„„.): ^- ''"■'• ^"'""■'1 . A.ln,,.,
THEOnr^^r^SM^ r ,.
7 '-'• Niiu. (iJi,^' '^."^ J V(^;'' ;'/«'"'«'.
[•U7). "Tlet.; Boil, ^.fa ^^y j^^^ .'
™fu)];'' P^'^y""- "f Antioch [Theo.
4'lt!;:;t'Th":i"r:i;:ij;t'' ">« •■-o-
^otker., if„.<. ^^„,) "An, 5 rrJ"X""" '"'"■''
' 'hmr^mSr C:iatH TJ h .'"''• '""""■" «"<«
T^Snt/;h'bEj^I-^^-.-rt,r„„,„
I ^J'oron., Notker, Wan'l , ''""•' ^ "'■ ^"«-.
^-A ; ...,.., ,v,.... .],,:;; W-i- (Basil.
^-"".^-translnN b/c lon'v^ V""" (^''"•'•
-ffw.., Adon.). ' * "^ ^'» I^timi (Vet.
G'-"<'<- Mart. Ji!Z,p' ""'^ ^»'""'"» (Mcnol.
THEODOTIUS.Oet.2.. CTa.onosS f^j
, THE0D0TU8 m i,n ^
Jhve been this Theodoti.» n^ Ik ^- ^' '"">'
I'lnonr there was « ml * *''* ""' '" whose
^ ^6 (Manirv" * gTsT)!''^ "' Constantinople
H''ASSot:t;A'"f™T ^'"^ ^'"^'-"H'-
I CUBIST. ANT.—voL. U.
eiS '.l'i:eVs'i; a'i "'''' ^'«t""'i'>- and
(Basil. Jf™„,, ^,;4!«^|;;;,5h« re,gn of^De^iu,
J-i". 4 (Notker.). '^'^- "''■"'• «• 133j ;
THE0GNE8, A«. 21 m. / "^
mother Bassa and brofher, 'a "'y' '''"' '>'''
in the reign of ^Vimh.nk^f^?/ ""'' ''''t""
-- —"t. Rom.). '^^, jjy
and^rSffil^jy «S- 23. Pi*"""" "^ "^'e-
Ethiop.). ^ ^" *» °'»)» Dec. 28 (C<*.
124
h'/k^
1956
THEONILLA
(2) Jan. 4, martyr with Theopemptus in
Cilicia under Diocletian (Basil. Menol.) ; Jan. 3
or 4 {Mc-nul. Graec. Sirlet.) ; Jan. 3 {Afart.
Rom.; Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i. 127); Jan. 5
(Daniel, Ctnl. Liturg. iv. 260) ; Jan. 5, called
Thomas {Cal. Byiant). [C. H.]
THEONILLA, Oct. 29, martyr in Cilicia
under Diocletian (Basil. Menol.). [C. H.]
THEOPEMPTUS. [Theonab (2).]
THEOPHANES, hegumenus, confessor for
images under Leo Armenus, commemorated on
War. VI (Basil. Menol.; Cal. £yzant.; Mart.
Jiom.; Boll. Acta S8. Mar. ii. 213); Oct. 11
(C'a?. Bi/zant.). See also under TllKOUORUS (15).
THEOPHANIA. [F.piphanv.]
THEOPHILUS (1), Junior, Jan. 30, martyr
nnder the Mahometans in the time of Constan-
tine Copronynius (Basil. Menol. ; Cal. Byzant).
(2) SCHOLASTICUS, Feb. 6, martyr at Caesarea
in Cappadocia with Dorothea {Mart. Usuard.,
Adon., Vet. Bom., Hieron., Bom.}.
(3) June 26, bishop, martyr with Philip and
others at Laodicea {Syr. Mart.); July 28
{/Heron., Notker.).
(4) July 2."?, martyr with Trophimns under
Diocletian (Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Oraeo. Sirlet. ;
Mart. Bom.).
(6) Sept. 8, martyr at Alexandria with
Ammon, Neotherius and others (Mart. Usuard. ;
Mart. Rom.).
(6) Oct. 2, monk, confessor under Leo Isaurua,
(Basil. Menol. ; Mart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS.
Oct. i. 492) ; Oct. 2 and 10 {Menol. Or.).
(7) Oct. 13, bishop of Antioch {Mart.
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Notker, Rom. ; Boll.
Acta S3., Oct. vi. 108).
(8) Oct. 14, patriarch of Alexandria {Cal.
Ethiop.).
(9) Nov. 3, martyr at Caesarea in Cappadocia
with Germanus and others {Mart. Syr. ; Mart,
Usuardi, Adon., Vet. Rom., Hieron., Wand.,
Rom.) ; Nov. 12 {Hieron.).
(10) Dec. 20, martyr at Alexandria {Mart.
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Rom.).
(11) Dec. 28, deacon, martyr under Maximian.
(Basil. Menol.). . [C. H.]
THEOPISTE (Theospib), martyr with her
husband Eustathius and her sons Agapius and
Theopistua or Theospes, in the reign of Trajan ;
commemorated Sept. 20 (Basil. Menol. ; Menol.
Graec. Sirlet.; Mart. Rom.); Nov. 2 under
Hadrian {Mart. Usuard.). [C. H.]
THE0PREPIU8, Aug. 22, martyr, com-
panion of Agathonicus (Basil. Menol.; Menol.
Graea. Sn\et.). [C. H.]
THE0TECNU8, commemorated en Oct. 4
{Syr. Mart.). [C. H.]
THEOTICUS, Mar. 8, martyr with Arrianus
at Antinous {Mart. Usuard. ; Mart. Rom^).
[C. IL]
THEOTIMUS, Nor. 5, martyr, companion
of DomninuB under Maximin (Basil. Menol. ;
Mart. Rom.). [C. H.]
THEVIS, COUNCIL OP
THEOTOKION {e(oT6Kiov). A tropnriura
or stiehcron in honour of the Virgin JMarv,
of frequent occurrence in the sacred offices of the
Greek Church, into which it is stated to have
been introduced after the condemnation of the
Nestorian heresy. Its occurrence is sometimes
indicated by the marginal mark 6. [F. E. ^\.]
THERAPEUTAr.. The ascetics mentioDe.l
under the name of OtpoKtvrai by Philo {de ViUi
Contempl. c. 4) were (it can scarcely be doubtoil)
a development of the same tendency of Jewbh
thought which in Palestine produced the
Essenes [DiCT. OP THE Bible, i. 583]. There
would be no need to notice them in a work en
Christian Antiquities, were it not that Eusebius
(//. D. ii. 17) takes them to have been a Chris.
tian sect which retained some Jewish customs.
The supjiosition, however, that a Christian sett
could have been formed in Egypt before the
time when Philo wrote his treatise is destitute
of all probability, and his language in no way
favours the supposition, [C]
THEBISTBUM (eipiaTpov). A dress or veil
for female use, specially adapted, as the name
shews, for summer wear. The Greek worj
occurs several times in the LXX (Gen. xxiv. 65,
xxxviii. 14, 19 ; Cant. v. 8 ; Isa. iii. 23), in all
cases for one of the two Hebrew words Sj'J/V.
Til. In Gen. xxxviii. 1.4, Isa. iii. 23, the
Vulgate reproduces the Greek word. See Jerome
{Comm. in Isa. 1. c), whose remarks are also cited
by Isidore {Etym. xix. 25. 6 ; Patrol, hisiii.
692). [H. S.]
THESSALONICA, COUNCILS OP
(TiiESSALONicEssiA Coscilia), a.d. 649-50.
Two seem to have been heid in consecutive jeavs
by Paul, its Monothelite bishop — one for con-
firming his heretical doctrines which he then
embodied in a letter to be sent to pope Martin,
the other for dealing with the reply made to
him by that pope. (Mansi, x. 785 ; L'Art it
v€rif. les Dates, i. 155.) [E. S. Ff.]
THEUSETA, Mar. 13, martyr at Nicaea,
commemorated with Horris and others {Mart,
Usuard., Adon., Notker., Hieron,, Rom,).
[C.H.]
THEVESTINE, COUNCIL OF (TiiEvt*
TINUM Conoilium), A.D. 362, held by the
Donatists, whom the emperor Julian had given j
leave to return, at which Primosus, bishop of |
that place, protested in vain against their ex-
cesses. (Mansi, iii. 374.) [E. S. Ff.]
THEVIS, COUNCIL OF (Thevixense I
Concilium), a.d. 536, when ten bishops under
Nierses, catholicos of the Armenians, rejected
the council of Chalcedon, and declared for the |
Monophysite doctrine, thereby separating them-
selves from the church (Mansi, viii. 871). Mansi I
(ix. 771) reports a second council, which, hos-l
ever, he miscalls, at this place, whore the a"
tion to the Trisagion — Qui crucifxm es pro miiii I
—was confirmed, a.d. 562. The authore of I
L'Art de v€rif. les Dates report a council « j
another place in Armenia, called Tibcn, ten yK!.": |
before, confirming all that had been done by I
Nierses and the ten bishops of the first council I
(i. 152.) [K. S. Ff,]
TH
THOMAS, SI
Festivals of. i.
Thomas is merely
twin, with a Greciz
that the apostle mu
niime. This is give
(Hist. £c<:les. i, 13
Doctritic of the Ap,
Syriac Documents),
correcf, it would be
other Apostles of t
should thus be take
distinction.
Who the other <
impo.ssible to guess.
Thomas is ahvuys c'o
theiistsof the Apost
it has been argued
other brother. Agaii
Cotelier (Apost, Const
St. Thomas and his s
Antioch was the nativ
has been argued by Th
that the autiior oV th
tied Thomas with Jndf
Here we might cite
Isidore, that Thomas
guam Christ i gemiuu
{ie Ortu ct Obitu Butr,
152).
Save the mention of
A|)o.stles, the only allui
Testament are to be
liv. 5 ; XX. 25 sqq.
The general teuonr
hira with Edessa and
Hist. Eccles. i. 13 • iii_
Socrates, Hist. EccL. i
m//A26, §2; vol. xii
of the graves of Peter, i
jis being those whose loci
he does p.-c specify the
the current tradition, S
at Edessa mav be inferi
Exles, iv. 18,' cf. Sozom
who speaks of the spie
there (ixafyripiov). Somi
India as the scene of
(Greg. Naz. Orat. xxxiii.
in- Sophronius, iu an A
mtnlms of Jerome (vol
Thomiis preached the Go
Jleiles, Persians, Carmaui
Inans, and Magians," n
(.alamina in India. The
wrk in India also fc ;■.-;-.- f
Ihomas. already referred )
« w by uo means clear
Pret the name Indi.i. Ti
cflen used in a somewhat 1
aropminds for believing
affhoniastobeArachosi^i
Kgions, lying westward of
OP Chhistia.v Hioor.u.,,,
« other hand, we (ind 1
' euame of St. Thomas wi
'■"Im When the Po,
nnder Vi„:o,, ,1,, p
T;^"^ in reaching Indi
»»t apparently in ^.D.
Wongins, to a f„I|y Jevel
«7aocieat church.
THOMAS, ST.
twin, with a Gmied ,».. " "'"'"'^ '""'• ^
that th. apo,,t,;:r„ rh'^'inVV^ "'"■'""?
Diime. This is she,, n„ r„^„ , "■ r^'^'J^al
correcf, it would be v,.,:. ^' I'l'"^'ng this to be
other Apostles of thp^n ■""?'/''"' »''h two
should thus be Lt\77l •'"•'"^ •■'''^"■^'•''g«
distinction. °^ * convenient means of
Who the othei- twin wis if ; t
impossible to guess Vr^.l '^ °^ ="""«
ThLas is always counlor-.\'"'c'^^"'' *''"t St.
the lists of the ipo l"^' u ZX.^'' !'"V""" '-
it h.s been argued ha it m,?,u''"« «<'^P«'».
other brother. Again tLp *'.''"^«*'' was the
St. Thomas and hi^ sistt ' ' ""'"> ^'"^""^ «''
Antioch was the n'tive n ^^f I ""'' "''^ that
ha. been argued b'Tl'^^^'i'-^.^f'-tle. It
that the author o'f thl ., . f '^°'"««. P- 95)
fied Thomas w th Ju hs Z"?'^^k'' ^"'' ''''^"ti-
Here we n>ight d e tb ' •^'-''' "^ ""^ ^"''J-
Isidore, that ^hon^ ^vL'^.. ,^"™"? ----^ "f
giiiim Christi gemiuur n. "'" • ^^''t'"'"" Hn-
(<fe Ortu et 06,n ".": yT"!/']' r'"" "
152). ' "■ '* > -latrol. Ixxxiii.
The general teuour of early fra^j^-
Hm with Edessa and with y.!^K"'?."'"'°"=*«
^«<. locales, i. 13 -iii Yr, •,,!"" (Eu«--'bius,
Socrates, //.-.I •iX'lof^rh ^'''"^. ^''^'"^'
klleh. 26, § 2; vo Vii .^SS ST"°'? f^^"'"-
of the graves of Pe er pf l ' r u '""1"'^ 'P'^"'^"'*
. beial those whltlo'ea' ;\vt'k'a:wn ''tT'^'
he does r. c specify them TW ' ■""=''
the runent tradition St Thn™^ '"^'='^':'''"S to
.t EJessa may be rftrred frZ '^ ''"'. '"*'^"«'l
trians, and W.agians"" J^d ' "y^^f'^ns Bac
Wnmina in indir The st,,rv o t " a'""' , "*
"■orli in India also fc- th F • tH'^P'"'tle's
Tl.«ma,. already ref^mi to " °^ '"' ^'••"' °^
Pr't:;e^rS.:'-;^;wearetointer-
"f- "-> in a somewhat'v gu'et '^ .f th'"^
«?r„unds for beliovin? th» L r ^'.. ? *''*''*
«Sions, lying we^rd'fTh '?'' "'='Shbouring
<^« other hand, we Hnd T;I? '^ '^ -■^^- ^n
tke name of St Th traditions associating
unJer V=„,. ,,, V P»'t''gue«e expeditions
«*eded-i„ reaoSuTln^^ ^u^'" ''« ^'«'»'al
(fiM appaientv i7'°n "'/-''/>: f"""'' 'here
Wongin'/to ;^,-,,,r^ ^"; '^^"^) Christians,
veryLcknt^chu ci^ ^'"'^"^'^ ""'» "hviously'
THOMAS, ST. 1957
Thlm" „?\t ;■" « """^J the apostle St.
«« « di.sthct Zrph "■' "?''- "till .surviving
"ehristiar„f 'st'"'TT ""'J."''"'"^ '"'-^" «'
occupied by these Lh"" ''he district
on the we,s{',„r,rie'l, 1' """' ,P"' "t'jialabar,
i-iia, between t it n nth' '"","'"" ''^'''^'^ity o f
"'■"orthlatitud Wi>h th"-' ,'""'"■''> f"'-"l'"'^
we have nothi. ' to i K ''"':'"-''"'^ ^"'"-•'■aily
■n-ty be bestowed on he I ' "j"' " ^'■''''" "'"i^e
with the ap^tle ro„ tI'"^r"'-'^''"'S'hem
see As.semani, Z/* 0, v, ^•."'''J'-•'^' generally,
^«<te; Howard, 2t!ct;.f ^''"•:'*'"""«'»« rf<.,
to claim the S a 'au;'hV' ^""''^'^ '"-' ™^^h
perhaps, none thflesr,sh""'''''"^>'; 't is,
F«"ndlessnes,s, but this lattTr'"''";'''^'-''-''''"
it would app^-sr h ,« j "■"' °^ '-"-^huess,
than the formeirwl,''""'^ "'"''" .i"^ti/iablj
from the vagueness of tb^' "'T i'^ inconclusive
of ''^ntaeuifs's jo ,uey hirh"'" A?'""' '^" '^tory
^'cclrs. V. IO);''!m| 7he m"' ^"^«hius, mit.
" Metropolitan' o">erS and't'h '"'"?T '''' ''
among the signatories of tb»V ?,'''•''' '"'''■■''"
We come lo omethin:^ ^""f o*" ^^'i-^aea.^
in the narrative Tr ^ undoubted, however,
visited India in'/^e.™"' "''''■•"l''<^"'^tes, who
;> the island of CwL^T^lT "Jl"' "'"'' "^.
--^><.) India, wtto"£^^; ''"•''""
there is a church of rbvi *■ *^"'"° '''.
clergymen an,l b liever, [^ m",% '"'"' ''"'h
'n like manner, whe.e the n ''"'''"' (W"^*)'
anJ in the plac^e c-,lied r ir ''''" ^'"''' ■• ■ ■
bishop, ordained am sent ^"•'''p""-''" '' "'^o ,.
169; cf lib. xi.^4 tl8 •' f :^'- ^''- '"^•"•'"•
Sigholn, and Ae helsTan J" ""' ^"' ^'■'"t"rv
Alfred with alnw to Rom„ """? ''"^ hy king
S*:;n^"^^ti!!'£^:f^'^^^^^^^
Southern Ind a. where g ° 1^ *''' P'"^« '"
hare been martn-ld r ib i l 'J'f '"'"' ^^'J to
CoKVule-snotervll^ih^V'd )''^'''"^«-
st.'TLmi?^'br t;f ?r r ^"-''-^ ^^
the 6th century, anS w "hi '""=\''«hnitely to
still earlier date which b ''^'^^rences of a
sarily apply. '/,,lt\th ,"'"'' ''" ""' "'-'O''^-
of the %^,stle' hibouiV'f 'S'*^" ''•'"""""
the foundation of t lie Jfll ^>"'^"' '"'"'^'^
Thomas Cana, wL '"„ il^t'l."'',"'''-'' '" ""^
portant part in th. h / ^' ^oro an im-
branch. of the church ''t^''^"^ """^ '"^tant
ality, howev.^^., are'^much dif't'.""^ ""''"""
one account make, hTm ''"'1'"''-'^' 'or while
places him at anv rat he?" ^""^'"''n. and
op. at. p. 444) Ihink Av ^'- "• ^■■'^etnani,
Aramaeau, and fix tt d ^ ^'V"" *■'"•"• '"'
«th century, when he t "' '^' ""-^ "'' the
NestorianpIiriai::i;:^?,r^;:--t^hy^the
The reference to a mentinn „f t„ji ' '
a ml««ke ; and even aTZZVT.T"'"' """""her
remwnfor thinking -hat t£r?i,L ^ '""" """'" ^"^
between the name of , e co, , . r^i^'T, "'"" '""^""'"'^
a Place (PUra. ^.o^aSr:!.?^ tt^ "'
6 K 2
1958
THOMAS, ST.
be considered as proved, then whatever share
this later Thomas may have had in the ilevelii|i-
ment of the Malabar church, he clearly cmild
not have ^jeen the founder,'' since the testimony
of Cosmas shews that Christianity was existing
in Malabar more than two centuries before his
time. In this uncertainty we milst leave the
matter, merely observini^ that if it be proved
that the word India in the apocryphal Acts is
used in a different sense from that in which we
now use the word, still this only touches the
main question to the same extent as if the Acts
had called the region, e.//. I'arthia, in whicli case
we should have had two distinct claimants, not
necessarily altogether antagonistic.
We conclude this part of our subject by re-
marking that the common form of the story as
to the apostle's remains describes them as trans-
lated from India to Kdessa, where they were
buried (Mart. Rom., Usuard, Bede). The first
named Martyrology speaks also of a later trans-
lation thence to Orthona in Apulia.
It may further be noted that wl-ereas writers
who refer to the manner of St. Thomas's death
at all, invariably speak of it as a violent one,
Clement of Alexandria cites Heracleon the
Gnostic to the effect that Thomas was one of
those who died a natural death {Strom, iv. 9).
2. Festirals. — It seems probable that the ob-
servance of a festival of St. Thomas first arose in
the Kast and thence passed to the Wjst. Perhaps
the earliest testimony to which we can refer is
a Homily, cited as Chrysostom's by two early
councils,' but which editors have long decided
not to be his, from the marked inferiority
of .style (v,l. viii. 624-, in Spuriis). Still
Tillemont's arguments, to which Montfaucon
assents as at any rate probable, tend to shew-
that it would have been delivered at Edessa in
A.D. 402. The Homily is evidently delivered
before the tomb of the Apostle (ytpoi/Tt! koI
i/foi ■^otr7riitTOfi,4i> <rov T(j) Ta(p^), and is distinct
evidence of the existence of a festival (cf. also
Socrates, I.e. ; Sozomen, I.e.). The two historians
sjieak of the splendid church of St. Thomas at
Edessa and of the emperor Valens's vi-sit to it.
The author of the life of St. Kphrem (oh. circ.
A.D. 373) tells a story of the healing of a para-
lytic before the doors of this church (Assemiini,
Mibl. Or. i. 49). About twenty years after St.
Ephrom's death (year of Greeks 70b = A.D. 394),
there took place, according to the Edesscne Chro-
nicle, the translation of the colBn of St. Thomas
to the church dedicated to him in Edessa. The
d.iy is specified as August 22 (op. cit. p. .399 ; cf.
also p. 403, where the prefect Anatolius is .said
to have made a silver coffin for the apostle's
remains). The celebration of the festival in
Edessa is dwelt on by Gregory of Tours (c/e Gloria
Mdrtijrum, i. 31 ; Patrol. Ixxi. 73.3). By him
it is said to happen " mense quinto." If this is
taken according to Western reckoning, the 5th
month would be July, and, as we shall see, on
July 3 is a commemoration of the translation
b No weight at all need be given to the claim on
bch.ilf of till- Thomas, mentioned liy Theodore! (ITaevet.
JPob. lamp I 2(i; /^a(roJ. (jr. Ixxxii. :)»0), as one of itie
three nilsslunury ilisciples sent out by Manes, India being
asslKiK- 1 as his pruviiice. It is a suflli'lent onswer to
say that no tnice of Maiilchuclsiu was seen, when the
Ualobar ChrUtiaua became known to the outer world.
THOMAS, ST.
in the Western church. Ruinart, however (mt.
in lot:), appears to refer the 5th to the Syriac-
reckoning, so that counting from November, the
5th month would be March. We shall presently
mention a commemoration of the Apostle in this
month in the East.
The earliest definite reference to a festival other
than the local Edessene one, carries us back to
the middle of the 5th century. Theodcmt
{(iraec. Ajf. Cur., Scrm. 8; Patrol. Gr. Ixx.viii,
1033) speaks of tlie change of the old festivals
of the heathen g"ds, into those of I'eter anj
Paul and Thomas (the only three apostles men-
tioned), and other s;\ints.
As regards the West, the earliest reference to
the cu/tus of St. Thomas in any way is, so hr
as we are aware, to he found in a sermnn nf
Giiudentius (bishop of Briscia at the btHriiuiiiio
of the 5th century), on the occasion of the
dedication of a church {basili-a concilii .Sin--
toruiii). The good bishop claims to have iioquiiej
for this church relics of St. Thomas and tliree
other saints (Srm. 17 ; Patol. xx- 959).
It may fairly be assumed that the festival tf
St. Thomas was but gradually, and not till ji
comparivtively late date, recognized in the
churches of the West. This may be int'errel
from the absence of any mention of it in e. ;;.
the an(!ient KateiicUirium Carthofjiiicnsi', the
lioman C.ilendar of Fronto, the Leonine Sacra-
mentary, and some forms of the Gn.sjnrian'
Saeram'entary ((,'. </. Old. Ife/). Sttec., Calensis),
Mabillon's Lectionarium Luxovieiise, the Gothico-
Gallic Miss.al, the Orationale (JoMicum, ^i;., re-
presenting North Africa, Rome, Gaul, and Spaio.
It is found, on the other hand, in the Gelasian
and in some forms of the Gregorian Sacranieu-
taries, the Mozarabic Missal and Breviary, the
.Marti/roloijium Nieronumi, &c. In these St.
Thomas is commemorated on Decembci- '21,
the commemoration being undoubtedly of the
martyrdom, though, as we shall see, in som?
cases it has been referred to the supposeil trans-
lation of the Apostle's remains from India to
Edessa.
In the last named of the above cited autho-
rities, besides the main Western festival on
December 21, several other commemorafinns are
given. As regards this chief festiv.il, it may lie
noted that while the reference to it in the ll>l
of festivals of Ayiostles, which forms a prolngiic
to the Martyrology, speaks of it as " natalis
Thomae Apostoli qui passus est in India "{Pair4.
XXX. 451), the notice in the ordinary course of
the Calendar gives " in Mesopotamia, natalls et
translatio sancti Thomae Apostoli qui tianslatu*
est ab Indis, cujus passio ibidem celobietur"
(it). 501). We further have on December ii,
" in Edessa, translatio corporis S. Thomae
Apostoli I " on February 9, " depositio Thomae," ■
if this be the Apostle (i6. 457); on May9,s
commemoration of SS. John, Andrew, and
Thomas, at Milan, in the "basilica ad iwt,im
Romanam" (ih. 471); on June 3, a festiv.il of |
the "natalis" (i6. 47G); and on July
Edessa . . . natalis et translatio corpuris S. |
Thomae Apostoli ..." (»6. 479).
In the other documents cited, Decemher 21is I
the Natalis iu the Gelasian and Gregorian Siicn- j
« Menard gives the mass for the d&y, but Pamelim pa» |
It In brocKots (Litiirgg. Latt. II. 3«4).
mcntarics, the mi
instance, we havi
Bcde (Patrol, xci
" Bis senis caci
The metrical mart
(Patrol, cxxi. 62i
lation,
" Translari Thoi
and the martyrol
(Cod. Lucensis, th
(Cod. Corbeiensis
combined. The
last martyrology
day really associf
the Western chiin
liecle, Usuard, Ma)
two commemoratio
In the Greek d
Thomas is comme:
(■ g- in the metrii
Papebroch to the .
notice for the day
lia/cpoiiTty 4v ficrp (
P'llni.). It may i
Sunday after Eastt
known as the Sund
subject of the gos
strictly to be called
I'entccostiirion the i
full, as KuptaK)] rov c
nv aylou i.itoarA\o
Si/ruwarion as Kupu
gosjwl is used both
6, St. John XX. 19-3
In the calendars
given by Assemani (j
645 sqq.), March 31
menioration of the
August 22 conim
Apostle," with a reft
ol'oneof them; and (
commemoiv.tion, but i
'n the calendars
Ethiopic churches, g|
meniorafion of St. Th<
on September 9 (o-i I
by the latter church
note "apostle of Ind
both churches on May
3. Apocryphal Lite
g»sF', bearing the c
'iirrent in early times.
reeensions of it in Gi
Latin form, the Latin a
jjsving first been pu
fne gospel is apparentl
mi ^^""''- '• 20); a
iMosophumena meutio
-ym. Gr. xvi. 3134),
^>iii{ffist.£ccles. iii. o
'" speaking of it, ass
nmsionary-disciple of J
aheady reJ-rred (Catcc
'•"m.593;cf. Catch.
Move-nicntioned refero
absurd. For furthpr
Al■OCRVPHA^ in J)i,t.
>*f have iiLsoActs of 1
ailo, and since by Tisc
^"mmmation of Thorn
THOMAS, ST.
,batPainelii»[«» I
mentaries,themnrtvi'ology„fBeJe &. « <•
instiince, we hai-,1 iA .1 ^-^ ',"™«) «c. So, for
" B'» ^"'^ caelum c«p,t conecendoro Thomas "
lation, ^' "'*■"■ ""^ Jay to the trans
"TransU.iThomaecelebretduodennshonor.m..
and the martyroloey of Uk,,.,.,! v, •
(Cod. LiieeiiMs, the tr^l 1 . • *"" "> ""^ ^'S.
(V»d. Corbeien.'.;, he twr'/"'' "^ "-"-er
combined. The tr. p%«; u """'""'"•«''o»8
last n>artyroJo7y llZiX ' ■^"'^'i''''' "^ ""is
the Western chn 'oh i, , i . . t>-"n.-iation in
y;^L''toT':irr^^^«'"'^^^^^
notice for the day l"^"'"'"''""! ^f *'»>'' »''«
uv^afte'Se^r''^' '■"!'''"• ''''^"^"fi-t
tuo«.„' at the Sun ;:V St tho™ "'f '^'"'"'''
subject of the gosJl Ti i h '' '^""" ">«
strictly to be cille I » „„ ;• '"'^*'«^er, is not
full,.is/cup,a«},roCAvTL!! *''l.'^''y. '** g'ven in
Sm^<'non as «„p.a«^ ';'^' q" 5''"'^* "> '^e
cosM is used hnth ^Jn!" ,'""'"'• ^he same
6, St. John „. 19-31 ''"^ "'"' °" October
Jn the calendars of thp *,.■»,•
given by Assemani (BM Or J^J"!!'.''""' church
645 sq.,.), March 3^ giv „ in both'^r' '' '''•
memoration of the " ,„. ,'.°-''"'i' "»« a com-
August 22 conicmoratef "T '''"""'\'"
Apostle," with a refci-!!, f r , ^''0^"" the
o.^oeofth7^,\'f:ro:tb"e''6'i:i:ttotr
Ethiopic churches, givl^ jUTI"? ""''
memoration of St. Thomas hv thl f ' .'^'""-
on September 9 (Jll7AetAr" '^""'"^
by the latter church ot Octbe?rw':-th''tl^'
|>«te "apostle of India" fA D Soi/ ^ V^*
both churches on May 21 (rp.'^,3 ""-l ''^
.tA":^iLrthfrr:vit%r'^^'''''«'
current in early times Tl,., Thomas, was
reo^Dsions of [ n GJ-eek ^1*"'' '^" '"'*"'"^'
THKONE
I9ji)
^" abridge.! form i. '"''''"' P"' " '"'rt.
eius, cU-x yt-Lt ^.V y'*" ^"'•- '"•' '" '"■"'"•'•-
and we have aT Vh i''" ' '• "^l"' ^^'^ "Sq-),
Acts edited bvDr w iT ' ^^ ''^ '''«
Thomas are mint; „' .^V'*'''"- ^''« ^cts of
47; P«<ro). «r"li" stV^ f^''^'""""' <^'^^'^-
is named in the ' » '•/ . ." 'f*P'<'5oi ©c/uo
not certainly, the sL Ik'" ''''"''''^' "-""gh
Gospel and Acts of T ^"^ •^"'^^^'i,?- Both
the council that sat .rr^'''" .^"J^ned by
ihomas, uo longer vMunt \,t '^'^'f'afion of
the same time 1„ \h„ 7 "*?? oondemncd at
(lib. viii. 21) he on, /r'"'"-' Co«*'''«''o«*
-b.deaconsii;';er^rtos" 'u"'"' ''"P^'"'' '»
For furfho,. „ : " '" *t. i homas.
ThomVs'^f ,rm:rbV''%^"''j''^^' "^ St.
^•"l- V. part i o roT "^"'•'''''<^Ji:irchc,
vol.iii. pp. 219 suo f'"^'!^'""' ArcMoloyie,
the liolla'u'dists do i?,; avan ,f t •^'''"'■■""■'"" of
Advance. .. yet farrer-^^trhi'SoTSrr^
;^'MA8 (1), Jan. 5. martyr, p^
patriarch of Constantinople
V ->far. 20,
(Basil. Menol.).
l>a»iel, Corf. Z.<4,;: 262) '^'" ''*• '
Ro^i'*\^''°''*!^''"""'"e'norate.l on Dec 91 /-j*-
wed., Usuard., Adon F,./ p! J, ^ (-W«rr.
f"-); on this day 'hL„al2' •"'■"".' ^'""^•'
the Gelasian Sacramental v hi I' "'"'"''""'^ '°
>n the Collect and SecJe,- 'a ' T' Wearing
to him was built and \, o;n^. r'"""^ '''^'''^«'«'»
chus in the Vatican b;.^; A ^^ P"!'" ^ymma-
[C0N8TANTINOPLB
THREE KINGS. rKp,p„,,,. „,,^,
to™Su^pfeA;-p?-r;f"^- ''^'->- " -'
l--ohaiebeerSuXea^;\-;--
, I
1960
THRONE
THROVE
indiscriminately for the sent of the bishop, and
" throne " was even employed for the benchca
on which the presbyters sat. At the ]m'sent
day we use the former won! when we speak of
the bishop's seat in his cathedral church.
A distinction, however, has existed both in
the use of the words and in the f i;ts theni-
Eelves ; " cathedra " being the mor proper ex-
])ression for the chair of a bishop, throne for
that of an archbishop, a patriarch, a pope, or a
sovereign prince. A good though late example
of this distinction is all'orded by the words used
in the consecration of the pope of Rome when
already a bishop, before he is placed in the
papal seat by the senior cardinal bishop : " Deus
. . . rcspice auaesumus projjicius huiic faniu-
lum tuum N. quern de huniili cathedra violenter
sublimatum in thronum ejusdem apostolorum
principis (i.e. St. I'eter) sublimamus" (Marcel-
lus, liituwn Ecvtea, &c. libri tres, p. x . Ven.
151;".).
That there was a distinction between the
material throne and the cathedra we may learn
by coni|iiiring the representations of the former
to lie fiund in mosaics in Uome and Uavenna,
and in sculpture in marble and ivory, with
existing examples of cathedrae ; of these last
several are to be found in the basilicas at Rome,
often ancient "sellae balneares," of marble, of
moderate size, with arms, rounded behind, and
with a low, upright, back linishing, with a
curved outline. Such are the cathedrae in the
churches ol S. Stefiino Kotondo and SS. Nereo
ed Achilleo at Home. The chairs in the cata-
coml;s hewn in the living rock, and that in
which the figure believed to represent Hip-
polytus, bishop of Porto, is placed (now in the
museum of the Lateran), are all varieties of this
form. The ivory cathedra at Kavenna, believed
to date from the time of Justinian, is of nearly
the same type, but has a much higher back.
The cathedra in St. Cecilia at Rome is formed of
n>'irble slalis, but is of the same type.
If, however, we examine the mosaics above-
mentioned, we find that objects symbolical of
our Lord, as crosses, or figures representing
Him or the Virgin Mary, are placed on sfats of
a dilierent type — that of a wide seat without
arms, and usually with a low, straight back.
This type, it would seem, was derived from the
Konian bisellium, a seat of honourable distinc-
tion, which was a sort of wide stool without
arms or back.
The cnii)eror Theodosius and his sons Arcadius
and Honorius are represented as seated on such
5eats on the silver disk at Madrid. In the
mosaic, probably dating from the 4th century,
in the apse of Sta. Pudenziana at Rome, the
throne oji which our Lord sits apjiears to have
a low, straight back ; and in th^ mosaic on the
triumphal arch of Sta. Maria Maggiore, in the
same city, the infant Saviour is placed on a wide
Seat with low sides and b.ick. This I'osaic riro-
bably dates from tin- 5th century. In th«
church of SS. Cosmo and Damian — a mosaic
which cover* the surface of the wall in front of
the apse — hiis on the summit of the arch a
figure of tie holy lanil) idiiend on a throne,
represented aa a wide stool richly ornamented
and furnished with a cushion, but without sides
or back. Thii mosaic dates from the Gth cen-
tury.
The distinction between the two forms
was, it would apjiear, not rigidly kept up,
thrones being sometimes furnisheil like cathe-
drae, with arms and backs ; but it will gei;criillv
be found that down to the mediiicviil pi riuj
bisho|)S are usually represented in works I'f ;rrt
as seated in chairs with arms and backs, while
sovereign princes often appear as oci upyiiif
srats without sides, though furnished with
backs. Good examples will be found in i)lnt"S
Ixvi.. Ixvii. of Agincourt's 1/istori/ uf Art hi/ ita
MonvmcntSy section " I'ainting," particulnrlv
figs. 2-7 on the former, and i on the latter p;ii;i>.
In the first the countess Matilda and Iht
ancestors are shown; in the last, the eni|iinir
Constantine. All these are taken from JIS.S.
of the 12th century.
It seems probable that thrones were con-
structed without arms, in order that as fluv
were intended for the use of ])ersons of tlj
highest dignity, on occasicjus of great wleiiniitv,
when dresses of the utmost richness would be
worn, the stift' or voluminous embroidereil mhes
of the dignitaries who occupied them might he
conveniently disposed and fully seen, ]«rssil,lr
also the tradition of the form of the Ituiuiin
bisellium may have had its infiuence.
No example of a true throne, constnietoj
within the period embraced by this work, has
beendcscribed,but one probably very little lati'riii
ilate has lieen |)reserved— the so-called cathccha
Petri — which is kept in a repository in the wall
of the apse of the Vaticin Basilica at Kunir.
This chair, after having remained shut up fur
many years, was exhibited in 1866 on the dir.v
sion of the centenary celebration of the mar-
tyrdom of .St. Peter, and was carefully exaniiiicl,
among others, by that distinguished anti.|iinry
and student of Christian art, Padre Kal'aelle
Garrucci. The legend that it had been the curiile
chair of the senator Pudens, and bestowed \>\-
him upon St. Peter, is evidently erroneous, for t'lo
chair bears no resemblance whatever to a turule
chair, which was fashioned in such a nianiuv as
to fold up like many garden chairs (u. a paper mi
the '' I'"auteuil de Dagobert," by M. Len<irmai'.t,
in the iirst volume of the ih'lanf/es (fArcMif
/u;/iV). It is a chair without arms, but with n
back finishing in a pediment. On the front, h-hw
the seat, are fixed some carvings in ivory, Ijiit
these are additions, not part of the original di-
corations. What, doubtless, are original, are the
bands of carved ivory which are placed perpen-
dicularly and horizontally on the front anl
back, and on each side of the pediment. On
these are sculptured various gronjis of Harriers
fighting with men and with beasts, monstrous
animal figures, and the like ; but the niist
remarkable subject is a half-length figure of an
emperor which Padre Garrucci believes to repre-
sent Charles the Bald. No figure or synilml "f
a religious character is to be found in these
carvings ; and from these facts it liiis been in-
ferred that it was probably a throne niado fer
or presented to Charles the Bald at the time if
his coronation at Rome, A.D. 875. It nuiy be, at
any rate, safely asserted that neither its mn-
atrnction nor its ornnment.ation indicates that it
was constructed for a cathedra (v. IVo Mtimirs
on St. Peter's Chair, published by the Society of
Antiquaries, 1870).
Thrones are to be found on works of art so
represented as
elements of th
the throne ; an
in the " Fautei
Louvre (v. wooc
seen, that, in add
the form of an X
in lions' heads. C
throne on which t
as to shew that
manner. M. Leno
in question is pr(
sovereign whose r
The curule chair,
form, was eviden
«t(#ium or faldstoc
by a bishop or abl
that the use of s
bishops in recognii
office.
In a painting in
at Rome (v. Marric
pi. XV.), St. Peter i
as occupying such
seated on an elevate
with a high back,
nimbi surrounding
drawing is good, thi
an early period.
. THURIBLE, s
incense, called also
inceiisorium, fumir/a
usually made of prec
no more than an o]
a pierced cover wai
eventually chains for
ever, are not found ea
An example of this
chains, is given by M
the Nativity at Betl
de la Terrg Sainto,
tab. xxxiii. There i
the Apostolical Const!
or filver, of large s
precious stones, ocru!
stasius among the gi
the Vatican and otl
take one ex.-imjile. (
Mve presented to the
THURIBLE
tk .u •-"rule or inldine chn r nml nf
VtBtanU de Dajobert.
Men that in addition to the folding-pieces in
. iW heldr O' ''"" "'"' "P^S*-'' «"'»"-«
n lions heads. On many consular diptvchs the
LrsTe:';hat''v"""' ''*' '^ ^" -p-- '^
11 - ^r T "' " "''" 'constructed in like
manner M Lenormant considers that the chair
m question IS probably of the period of tie
sovereign whose name it bears (I,,. 622-6;i8^
The curule chair, in its simple and primi ive
form, was evidently the iioilel nf fh„ f i.-
.t*um or faldstool,'the ,^HMe seat occm' d
by a bishop or abbat. ii. Lenorman su Z es
hat the use of such a chair was alloJid to
bishops ,n recognition of the dignity of thJr
in a painting in the cemetery of St. Callixtus
pl. XV.), St. Peter and St. Paul are renrpseiiteH
a. oooupying such seats, while our^^wru
Kl^SiXtt-rtai^^lfeyS
a?:rV%S:' *'"'"•-'"""« '^-'^"^f^^^^^^
THURIBLE, s censer, a vessel for burning
mcense, called also th,/miaterium, Munb.S
mcensormm funwjat.Hum. The thxi^bTT wTs
usually made of precious metals, and was at ftVst
no more than an open dish or vase, to which
a pierced cover was subsequently i.lded and
m :re,!;f;'"V"'r'"^'"=' *"«- '-' 'how!
ever, are not found earlier than the 12th ceutui^
An example of this date, suspended by thre^e"
hams. IS given by Martigny from the church of
the Nativity at Bethlehem, D« Vogue, ^v^^L
Ju'a ;• ^J^"" " "" mention of them in
ct^""'? ^""^"'"'ion^- Thuribleso> d
1. '."'^ '"'■«•' "^«' »"d ornamented with
precious stones, orcnr verv fVP.i„.r.tly in ina
a«,us among the gifts m'ade by the' popes to
h Vat„,,„ , „^^^^ Roman basilicar To
take one example. Constantine is recorded to
!»« presented to the Lateran two thui^bles of
TIBURTIUS 1961
otl!e'r"'nVbl' '"^r'''/"" ^'='"«'""« ■''^•''^•. the
t'uiriuVs am n. the iifu 'of "('■:■""" «"'''^'»
vSsKtt^?£i^?--:
he swung. ' "° stationary, not to
^•^mS^'^Z " ' ""'•<■" »
According to Amalnrius (lib iii c 18i « tk
ribuliimanteKvanaelii.m,,;,^/* ■ -•' "''"•
odor suavitati iriVn^l"^ • ""■• ''''''V'''"^''"
fioatus praedi atur^" IvT T '".'" ,""'"'" •^''"'-
wismiLho.^r:«,ij-,:^:^;;'-t^-
.'eSJKS^^-,JS^--ntSe:-^.
two or three 3 " f hV' "" ''*«'"• ^"^'"^
L". M.J
liill
n fl7^ in ,,.1, ,"'?'•> i-/'Mis. C/i;vs<. b. iv
^S ;:; £:Lipie ^i^::™ ri;:! ;
''b- I. cap. 4, p. 190, Bonn ) ' ^"''■^-
Bed^, Usuard., Aden., /.^.on.. Notki: a,';';
^ [CH.]'
TIARA. [Mitre.]
and Maximus (Mart Bed., Usuard.^A Ion. T.T
t.samedaviatheLeJni;;a'^Lrn;a;r':^^
tthl n' «'-«gonan, where his n.me appears
tor his natalis in the G^egorila Antij hon^'"'"
m
1062
TIGRIDE8
(2) Aug. 11, martyr, son of the pri^fect
Chromatius, commemorated at Rome " inter
Duas Lauros " (Mart. Bed., Usiiard., Acton., Vet.
Rom., IJierun., Horn.'); his natalo is kept this
day in the Gelasian Saci-anientary, his name
occurring io the Collect, Secrcta, and Post-com-
munion. Also in the Gregorian Si>,ranientary,
his name occurring in the Collect and Ad Com-
p'.endum.
(3) Sei)t. 9, martyr, oommemornted in Sabi-
num with Hyaciuthus and Alexander (Mart.
Usuard., Aden., Vet. Rom., Hieron., Notker.,
Rom.). [C. H.]
TKiRIDES, Feb. 3, bishop, commemorated
with bishop Kemedius at Gap (Mart. Usuanl. ;
Mart. Jficron., naming him Eporteredus ; Mart,
Rom., 'i'igides). [C. H.]
TILSAN. [Planeta.]
TIMOLAUS, Mar. 15, martyr -with Agapius
undtjr Dioc'letian (Basil. Mmol. ; Metwl. Graec.
Sirlet.); Mar. "4 (Mart. Rom.). [C. H.]
TIMON (Tiiimon), Apr. 19, one of the seven
deacons, said to have been a martyr at Corinth
(Mart. Usuard., Vet. Rom., Adon., Rom.) ; July
28, commemorated with Prochorus, Nicanor,
Parmenas (Cat. liyzant.); Dec. 30, as bishop df
Bostrii and mai'tyr ^Basil. Meml. ; Menol. Grace.
Sirlet.) [C. H.]
TIMOTHEUS (1), disciple of St. Paul, com-
memorated by the Greeks on Jan. 22 (Basil.
McHol. ; Cal. By. it. ; Menol. Graec. Sirlet. ;
Mart. Usuard.; Daniel, Cod. Litunj. iv. 2ol);
by the Latins on Jan. 24 (Mart. Bed., Adon.,
. Vet. Rum., Notker., Rom. ; Bdll. Acta SS. Jan. ii.
5()ti) ; at Kphe.sns, Sept. 27 (Hieron.); his trans-
latio commemorated at Constantinople, May 9
(Mart. Rom.).
(2) Patriarch of Alexandria, commemorated
on Feb. 7 (Cal. Ethiop.; Daniel, Cod. Liturq.
iv. 253).
(3) Ap. 6, martyr with Diogenes in Macedonia.
(Mart. Usuard., tlieron., Notker., Rom. : Boll.
Acta SS. Ap. i, 537.)
(4) Martyr commemorated with Maximus at
Antioch on Ap. b (Mart. Syr.).
(5) May 3, martyr in the Thebaid with his
wife Maura in the 3rd century (Basil. Menol. ;
Menol. Gr. ; Cat. liyzant. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturg.
iv. 258 ; Mart. Rum. ; Boll. Acta S.% Mai. i.
876).
(6) May 20, martyr, coupled in the Sjrian
3Iart!/rulo ly with I'olyeuctus, and may be sus-
pected as identical with the following.
(7) May 21, martyr with Polius and Euty-
chius in Miniritania Caesariensis (3Tart. Usuard.,
Adon., Vet. Rum., Hieron., Notker, Wand., Rom. ;
Boll. Acta SS. Mai. v. 4).
(8) June 10, bishop of Prusa, martyr under
Julian (Basil. Menul. ; Menol. Graec. ; Mart.
Rom. ; Daniel, Cod. Litwg. iv. 260 ; Boll.
Acta SS. Jun. ii. 273). This was probably the
martyr Timotheus to whom two churches at
Constantinople were dedicated, mentioned in the
Menaen, but their period or origin not stated
(Du Cangc, Cpolis. Christ, p. 115).
(9) June 20, martyr at liome with his brother
TraiDATES
Novatns, disciple) of the apostles (Mart,
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Notker.).
(10) Aug. 22, martyr at Rome in the time
of pope Silvester, commemorated on tlie Via
Ostiensis (.Mart. Metr. Bed. ; Mart. B^J.,
Usuard., Adon , Vet. Rom., Wand., Rom. ; I',oli!
Actii SS. Auir. iv. 534). Mart. J/icnm. makes
the saint of this day and ci-niotory the disciirl,.
of St. Paul. The Gregorian Sacranientary cum-
memorates his uatale on this day, naniini; lum
in the Collect and Ad Complendum. Tlie (ir...
gorian AiUiphonary hsa an anti|jhon for the joint
natalis of Timotheus anu Syniphorianus.
(11) Aug. 23. martyr with Apollinaris at
Reims (Mart. Usuard., Adon., Wand., Rum •
Boll. Acta SS. Aug. iv. 573). '
(12) Sept. 8, martyr, commemorated with
Faustus at Antioch (Mart. Usuard., Hicrm.,
Rom.).
(13) Nov. 5, companion of Domninus ami
Theotimus, martyrs under Maximin (Basil.
Menol.). [c. H.]
TINTINNUM, a bell (v. Bell). The verses
by Tatwine, arclibishop of Canterliuiv (a.u.
731-734), alluded to in the ai'tiole Bell, run as
follows : —
Pe TiNTraNO.
Olim dictabor proprlo rognumine Caesar
Opiubantcjiio lueum proceresjani ceniere vultum
Nunc aliter versor supei'ls suspensus in uuris
Et cacsus Cdgor lale persolvere planctuni
Ciirsibus liuut tardis cum adliiic torn turba recjrrlt
Mordeo moidcntem labrla roo.\ deutibus absciue.
From these verses it would seem that in the
earlier part of the 8th century it had Iftcome
customary in England, as on the Contiiu-nt at a
still earlier date, to hang bells of consi'iemhle
size on the exterior of churches in ordiir that
the congregation might be summoned by ihi-ir
sound. Alcuin (ob. 804), describing the'woiks
executed at York, says (Ojxra, ed. Fiiibeii, ep.
171), " Videtur condignum ut domuscul.i clw-
carum stagno teg:itur propter ornamciitiim et
loci celebritatem." The "domuscuia" in this
instance would seem not to have bi;en a tower,
but rather a small separate edifice. Bells,
according to W ilafrid Strabo, who wrote in the
early part of the 9th century (de Ennl. et
/ncreinent. rer. Feci. c. 5), were of two kinds,
" fusilia," and " productilia," the foiiuiT oast,
the latter of sheets of metal, joined by rivtts
and hammered into form, in the niiinnor of the
early Irish hand-bells. The " tiiitiiinuri" tf
which archbishop Tatwine wrote was of the
former class, and it should seem forme I out of
a bronze statue of some Roman emperor. Few, if
any, bells of this early period (if we excejit the
small Irish hand-bells) are probably auw in
existence, but Filippini is quoted as stating in
his history of Corsica that a bell, bearing the
date A.D. 700, had been found in the old camps-
nile of the church of S. Maria dell' Assunzione
near St. Florent in that island; it does not
apjiear what was thr size of this bell. [A, S,]
TIRIANUS (Trajascs), martyr, cr.mraeir,.-
rated on June 7 (Syr. Mart.), [C. H.]
TIRIDATES, king, commemorated June 29
(Cat. Armvn.). [C. H.]
TITHES (5fVa
any evidence of thi
fore the end of the
cation of .Selden's
the generally previ
were dun do Jure di
the beginning, thi
church was tree fr<
not only lacks the
but is opposed to
mainingof the prac
the same jiasssages
sides of the contro
upon the actual exp
evidence must be qi
ill the 1st centur
there is no evidenc
When the collectio
brethren in Jerusalei
"according to his al
churches of Galatia
dered to give "as
(1 Cor. xvi. 1, 2.) 1
where St. Paul touch
church, there is no n
other fi.ted proportioi
due.
In the 2nd century
upon a deh'uite propoi
spirit of Christian lov
says that our Lord ci
the law, and in place
sub.-titute principles ;
'thoushiilt not comm:
men not to lust (Mai
'thuu shalt not kill,'i
instead of p,tyin,j tithe
tk/,o:,r." Thus did C
ot slavery." So again (
the servitude of the la'
duir. of thesonship of C
reason, whilst they (I
siJertho tithes of their
they, on the contrary,
freedom, decree to the u.
vhicli they /i((re~jovful
nhat is less, inasmuch
hojie." ^'..t in iv. ;>o, i
vite^li. ' on tithes, he
Uuminus Loviticam subs
In the 3rd century,
Cameron), advocating th
nifiitions tithes also, not
l-ut as a limitation whic
«ed. He quotes Matt.
you, siTibes and Pharis
|«y tithe of mint, and a
tave omitted the weight
JU'lgmeiit, mercy, and fa
tave done, and not to k
Hut il you say that He
"feremo to the Pharisee
Mar Ilmi a nin guying t(
your right, „sne8s shall
Mss of the scribes and P
Mcenter into the kingd(
ben He wishes to be di
"* "•i8l>''» to be fuJHUed
greater abundance by t
Ue does not wish to be dor
tos not command the P
fl«w then is our righteouf
TITHES
ru/e the «"<i of the 4K:l';?'"r„Vf /^''"\''/
the irenerii V iiivviii;,.™ ■ '■ •'"'"^^i J^.a. 1018,
were due rfJ^„';Xt!*nn!i'r" ":"' """ ^''^"^
church w.s .fee fr«f„ ^ /Ju . „ '" Th"'' "• "'''
not ouly lacks the direct ^0, I; T "'"""""
but is oppcsed to thelew uut„ . "'i'"'""^''
jnaiaing of the practic!- oahe'e^^^^ I, l";*^ T
the same nasssmri.a i,a„„ u "=""/ muicn. As
«ae. of th'e" oXver 'Z'^T:':', T '''!'
upon the actual eAuresairm. K "'.'' '^"''"-'"''^
evidence ..ust be qCtedTn Vin' '""" ""^'""""'
t>.e.Vi;i:'erdoSo'f 1""."""^'' »•>■'"■ *"«'
When the collttirn I'^J W ^I ''""^''
brethrenia Jerusalem at A„^,„K "L ""^ P"'""
"according to his abTli J^.l^'roov" ^7
churches of Galatia and of CoHn?h ^ '° ^'''
dered to give "as SL '*""'''" ">■-
(1 Cor. .xvi 12 ) In th« • fr^""''^ him."
lhereStPau'll^uoi:3tX';i;ancr"ort\^''
church, there is no mention of tiH,„o / *""
.-..•/^.edproportionashl/plSl^lS-J
s/irit of Christiin"4"'"jr:n:eu: 7' '"^^ t^^
says that our Lord cam/tl '',• '^- -7>
the law, and in p ace of deHnT'"' '"''' *^'«°''
substitute principles "and thp'/'""-""""''^ ">
'thou Shalt not commit adultervt" '"'"-''"' "''
ot slavery." ^aSi "t f l""''^' " '''^ ^''*^''
the servitude «; ?lf;Ta 7;/! of'vUh T?'''
dorr, of the son^hip of Christian' 'I , .•' '^T"
reason, whilst they (the Jew;^ n H "'" """
siJerth.tithesoftLirpropenv J?'' *" ""I"
thev, on the contrary 17 ^^ '•onsecrated,
f^edom, *c..TS j^; i"iKf ;;"""'
what is less, inall^u^h V"t? haVr"« ?'''
houe " v-,.4 ;_ ,• , ,,„ ,•" '""^y have-a greater
In the Jrd century, Orieen /•//,„„■ •
Mse enter into fho n j ""sees, je shall in no
•^rHewirtwrefyThriij""'
our righteousness abounding more
TITHES IM8
|SnStlltS!n.f^.P^T-'-'-""'r
otler first-fruits to h '"'' ^^"^
•eparated for he Lev> ^"?*,''' "'"' ''"'"^ l-e
ofthesethi;^,„^„";'::'J^V''V'''T«"''"«
that the ..riest kml. ^J*.'^^'"*"'* 'he earth
Levite is ignorant 0/ h "° u'"* "*" "«■'"' the
"ot percei,^ hem " ^^^^ '"'"' """ ''«''-'
Tiiat Origen did nnf ' ,'"■.'"''• '" <''«'"«>n.)
give his j„.V;: t u "tHher< """•?"""«' '»
the incidental way i "h !h .. ^''"^'""' ''•"«
to, and from his ^•21^''^ ^'^ "" "^'"'^
,■"/- no n,eu,ionotZn""rV'' ">:'■'''*
'effereutes mandatum de iSitil T '^"""""'
pecorum debere etiam KP,.„nV ''■"«""' ^el
writes to dissuade . nre.hv; *''^?"""»' ^t^ I'a'nel.)
position of gu" d,an on^/r'^'°'"'*'^'^*l'""K'he
clergy are sfp^' froV a'll r"',''' I''" "">
The tribe of Levi L 1 ■ 1 *'"^^"''"" hnsiness.
^^m-orted by t hes that 't"^'"''""'t »"" --"
themselves entirelv f',, . *^'>' ""'ght devote
plan and form is ,,,1 orJ'"' 'T''' ' " "-« »m"
'•'"rgy," thaT h y mav n"t1 '\"'^''"^ *" ''he
thpir sacred duties but r'^ ' "^'^ ^""^
W/«s C'sed in bono, e snort ?.'-''"^^' "* '' '^^''^
the .Itar. Here the .\^ ^ ""' '''^''"^ from
I is decisive against th, „n '^\ '?''""'" <•'*«"*«
' logal due, fo^ de i,te'nJiT"*f "^'"^ ''=»«"d
not be tanquam d c mae"^ Th"" '*-.«"' ''"•=' '-'""''J
identity in\he nfetrd" > si'^.V' '""'^"«^' "">*
giwr;",,5 ^""""'^ '"'^ '-'-tion of alms.
houses and estati" but n„ f^^ *"« ^•'"'ng
w« give not e™; tithes InT "I!'' P^tri-^ony
bids us sell, v^ lle'^K^^^"' ">« Lord
creasing." ' "" ""her bu^-ing and in-
anJten7:rf:t'*he fact, of payment,
reterence is n.'tto annH '^ ^'""''' *"'' 'he
Perfy: "wee ve n>. ' l"""'"*' hnt to pro-
estates." ' "" ""* '^''«" P^y tithes on our
noS'e'J^a'f of Utts''/ '"* '''''' -"»""-
<■« jure iivino th g? thrh;d"""""™ '^
saymg so, had supI, t .Y ^^ occasion for
ohurc^h, or had fth™ " " "P'"'"" °^ *he
legally'due; theyt^„^^";':'»"y h'-'en P"''^ «"
hort to aim Ji4g thev L""'^ ^T'^-^''^ «"
hearers to giv^ tithe's. ^ '"''"'■* *heir
'-e't:g:;:r£vl';/-,t;prT«- ^^i-^h can
«hew thft tith we"; paiiTs a f ,^""'''i^t^'y *<>
ment was considered nee ssiL^' ":^'"" P-^-
early times a tenth was foTYn''.^ *^''^- ^°
adequate pr„por?Ln. Sus" n ll^nlrti n'^ '■'"
Cypnan all make some reference ] f''"^
hnanoe,butinnoDeofthemareti^h» t""''^
as a source of income ^' mentioned
God, let the hi,ho„ as 1 n *h^-, '•'o"'"!*"'! "f
1964
TITHES
TITHES
ixi., and lih. viii. cap. xxx., which regulate the
dispofial of titht's.
St. AintiMse (f!enno xxxiv. in fcn'a 3 pnst
prim. diim. i/u idr.) aaya, " Oml has reserveil the
tenth [lart to Himself, and therefore it is not
lawful for a man to retain what Ood has re-
served for Himself. To thee He has given nine
parts, for Himself He has reserved the tenth
part, and if thou shalt not give to God the tenth
part, fiod will take from thee the nine parts."
So in a sermon on Ascension Day, '• a good
Christian pays tithes yearly to be given to the
poor." (Cf. ill I.nnwi xi. 7.)
Epiphanius {liner. .lO) argues against those who
kept l-jister according to the .lewish law for fear
of the curse of the law, though in other respects
they agreed with the church. The curse, he
says, refers not to the case of the passover only,
but also to circumcision and tithes. Thus he
implies that the law of tithe was not binding on
the church any more than the law of circumcision,
and also that it was not observed by those whom
he was addressing any more than by the church
at large.
In the .'ith century, .Terome on Malachi iii.
says, " What we have said of tithes and first-
fruits, which of old used to be given by the
people to the priests and Levites, understand
also in the case of the peoples of the church, t»
whom it has been commanded to sell all they
have and give to the poor and follow the Lord
the Saviour. . . . If we are unwilling to do this,
at least let us imitate the rudimentary teaching of
the .lews so as to give a part of the whole to the
poor, and pay the priests and Levites due honour.
If anyone shall not do this he is convicted of
defrauding and cheating God."
In an epistle to Nepotianus, Jerome writes,
" If I am the portion of the Lord, and the line
of his inheritance, and do not receive a portion
among the other iribes, but as if (nuasi) a l.evite
and priest live u]i«n tithes, and serving the altar
am supported by the oblation of the altar." His
language is cle^irly metaphorical, and not a
precise statement of a fact.
Augustine (I's. 146) gives conclusive evidence
that tithes were not yet regarded as a legal due
" Cut olf, therefore, something first, and assign
some fixed portion .... tako o.Tsome consider-
able part of your income ? Tithes will you ?
Take off tithes, although it be too little (" deci-
mas vis ? decimas exime "). ... He beyond
whom your righteousness is to abound, gives
tithes ; you, however, give not even a thousandth
part.
In Homily 48, Augustine says that the present
excessive taxation is laid upon them because
they do not give to God the things that are
God's. "Our ancestors used to ab nind in
wealth of every kind for this very reason that
they used to give tithes, and pay the tax to
Caesar. Now, on the contrary, because devotion
to God has ceased, the drain of the treasury has
increased. We have been unwilling to share the
tithes with God, now the whole is taken away.
Alms ought to be paid according to the measure
and quantity as it is written (Tobit iv.) ' As
tht'U shalt have, give aim- ; if thou shalt have
little, from that little impart to the hungry.' "
In his sermon to the brethren in the wilderness
(Senn. 64), he warns those who till the earth not
to defraud the church in the matter of tithes, nor
anv other, however they may live, lost they los«
all'.
A spurious sermon, attributed to Augnstina
{do Tempore, 219) is wholly on the duty of pay.
ing tithes. God who has given the whole con-
descends to demand back the tithes. This Is
enforced by Malachi iii. and Exodus xxx. Oud is
wont to reduce to a tithe those who withhuld
tithes. For tithes are sought as a debt, and he
who has refused to give them has invaded the
|iroperty of other men. He, therefiire, who
wishes to gain reward or to merit indulgence
for sin, let him pay tithe, and out of the nine
parts as well, be zealous to give alms to the
poor.
Other spurious documents are — a canon of
Damasus, a letter of Jerome to Damasus. and
later, a decretal of Gelasius, and some cauous of
Orleans and .Seville (Selder, ch. v.).
Chrysostom {Hum. iv. in Kph. ii.) snys that
the Jews paid two tithes, whereas, now, a man
observes to him with astonishment, " So-iind-so
gives tithes ! Is not this shameful ? If umler
the law it were dangerous to neglect tithes,
consider how great a <langer there is now."
Some writers quote also Horn. xxxv. in Gnwsim,
and Horn, xviii. on the Acts; but in both these
places decimas is found only in the Latin transla-
tion for airapxds.
A homily on Luke xviii. 12, attrilmfcil to
Eusebius of Emessa (c. A.D. 4;iO) says that the
payment of tithes is a very good and landable
practice.
Cassian {Collat. Ahbtit. Theomie xxi.) tells ns
that in Egypt many persons offered titho^ and
first-fruits to the famous old man, abljiit John
(c. 1). This is the earliest insta.ice of the gift
of tithes to a monastery. Yet they were not
regarded as legally due, for (c. M) the righteous
shew that they are not under the law by exceed-
ing the legal tenth (cf. c. 6); and Christ liids us
not to pay tithe, but to sell all (c. 7). Vet, in
c. 25, he says, that by the law of Moses a
general precept was promulgated (" universo
populo "), and we who are bidilen (qui piaeoi-
pimur) to pay tithes of our substance should
also pay tithes of our time, and observe the
lenten fast (cf. c. .S3).
Isidore of Pelusium (c. A.D. 44ii), lib, i. Fpist,
317, writes to count Hermin that he li. fcnt
honour to the Lord by paying liist IViuts and
tithes, and will, as a reward, enjoy much pro-
sperity here and eternal happiness hereafter.
The evidence belonging to this period would
seem to shew that payment of tithe was first
regarded as a duty soon after A.n. 350. llythat
time the idea generally prevailed that the priest
of the Christian church had succeeded to the
olfice of the Levitical priests,%nd consef|iieutly
to their rights and privileges. Ambrose was
le first exponent of this duty. Augnstineand
.lerome waver, partly influenced by the new
ideas, partly mindful of the perfect freedom of
Christian charity. In the East this doctrine
seems to have made very little progress ; Chry-
sostom shews that it was rarely practised.
Epiphanius completely rejects it. Eusebius can
say F.-. more than that it is a good practice,
Isidore is grateful ; even the monk who accepts
and enjoins tithes is mindful of a higher law
than the Mosaic.
Caesarius of Aries (c. A.D. 490) * Elemt.
i savs nr
J/nni.
but lielonging i
have is from' G
give to the poor
he quotes chie/l
( i'ila 6'. Seven,,
that in I'annoni
"quod mandatuti
sit," was taught
which happened
merit of neglect (
were threateninj
their savage habi
tithes (Greg. Tur
(.v.n. 544),'in hii
what iJrcjportion
olii'r to God. Th(
half [referring
quanti erit is qui
In a synodical I
council of Tours,
exhorted to follow
payjithes.
Thus for two h
the obligation of ti
but still remained
forced by any decri
At length, in A.
eager to take away
church, recites how
the payment of titl
left free to their
Christianorum cong
todivit iutenierataa
prnevaricatores leg
ostenduntur, dum ei
adimplere negligunt
all are to pay tith
spend also in redee
poor. All who refui
cation.
Selden says this
collections. Agoban
writes as if he had n
Great {/fom. xvi. in
bidden by the law t(
strive to offer Him al
*out A.D. 660, Ma
forms relating to lam
charging land with ti
nortntions of the cleri
permanent results.
Towards the end of
the custom of making
upon land. The cour
813) orders « ut eccles
nee decimis nee ulla
This does not require a
would fully satisfy " a
In. A.D. 680, " decim
that is, a tithe of smal
Wolph's Court— was :
»' Arras.
The Ethiopian Jfissal
this time, has a form o
"sqniobtulerunt muu:
«t super omnes eccic
rnrfiitiarutn decimaru
«gnum et monumenture
„„;■['•/'''?• Eodbert, bis
Wed for his charities, s
^^■^■'v,29),he used/ai
TITHKS
have is tv;,,^. , '^ ,/ 7'-'''; ''"t «l»o nil we
he 'lu-tes ohiuliv t'r, n V ?'' ''■''•"■"■. "here
that in I'nmionin til' ^ ^' ''' •*"• ^"J- "")■»
sit- was taught there I^t o s\ nf "T";'"'"""
wh.ch happened was thought tTefK^ '""-T
ment .„■ neglect of tithes. \Vhen th! r ^'T'^'
were threatening Italy one in./ I"^"'''^'
their savage habii ['that h v '••'> «'"'•■" "'"
tithes (Greg. Turon v fir a ^ ''"^ ""' 1"'^
what proport on nf !,,■= „ i >l"t3iinn ij aslcs
half [referring to Za.:; '^./j ^/h" gj-s
quanti erit is ,iui ne dp.in,„,>, , ■ i '"'thing,
In a synodiil letter riU.'^f'^'J,;™'"'''*''''
council of Tours a nr. 7 .?"''"■ "'e «econd
exhorted to /ollow' th; ^Sle o/ a';"''^''"' "■•''
pavjithes. Mnniple of Abraham and
the''o;';iga;i„!.7ft'ith"fhaVr"' *\^'^°^*''- ^^
hut stilf reniald' ,i1 Z ™" =7 ''^ -X-
forced by any decree of{.mplr ^or ! I'ci, ""^"-
At length, in a.d. 585, the councilor in
eager to takeaway the cau Ls nf th ^'!'"'"'
church, recites how the d^ L 1 ^ ''"eay of the
the raj^ment of ti hes thtt he T" ""'' ""^'""^
left free to their stored' VutLs'^J'i.rJ')* '"
Christianorum conirpri«» u„ -7 ' '""^ '"g'^s
to-livit intemeratlf ""i'% 3'-"'-, --
praevaricatores legum pe e Chw r ''""'"*'"'
ostenduntur, dum ea Tn^f^- .^.'^"''''«n' onines
adimplere neglL^nt •? Wh 'T'^r""^"" «""'
.11 are to pl^t" " hes, ^hil^^'r '^ ""^ ''""'^''
spend also in redeemin<r .inf ^^ P"""'*' '"«y
poor. All who'S'afe X'tor;""^' '''
cation. '* '" excommuni-
coiSi'^'i^otrrrhJ^ rr* '" *'-« <""-'
writes as if he had ne've^ seTnIt '' «:' """'".Jy
Great (//om. xvi. m ^ J 'T' ' " • "T'^ *'''
bidden by the law to mTtifh? / "^^ ^^ ■"■«
strive t/offer Hi^ al'Shlfo'^ay?'^:'''^'-*^' «"
wL^ti:;gi„^a?;-arH:r''^''^\-"'^s"'
charging land%vith?rthe But th-" *"'''" ^""
hortations of the clergy begau at ^t "to''*" V'^"
permanent results. "««" at last to produce
Towards the end of the 7ty. « 1
"»qu. obtulerunt raunera smu.;,,. ^"?''™"'' f?
!l-per o.nes ecXsiL^Scrr^in
l""iitarum Jeciinamm .,-»*• """ ■'"(tcet
•igwmetmonumentur' ^ """ '"^''°°"
"o'ed fofhist'aH^L'l'Tb;^^ '■■°'^'^"">«' --
«-'v.29),he u.ed, according to the law of
TITIIKS
1965
i>« 7W. '.,9' :Jr''"' ^he spurious sermon
Also in „ ^ "^^ ■'"^"■« Augustine).
goods^s CC, ^tTl? I'V'^"-'' '■^"' '^'^
to surpass the Jew^'. " '*"'* 'wo-tenths, so as
Kuidatll gJa'asKth""'^?' *" *'"' "''''- "f
A.n. 750 hfgiv s L h« '!b :■■ *f""-'-^ ""'• i»
tithe of londf ''""''^'' "'^ ^^'^ ^"»'«»on a
ChlrtidgSfir/rj "'^ ''-^ ^h"*
in A.D. 740 and thrtl ' *" ^'' ^'"^^**
»ynod of Ka'trsbin,':' o'^V"*^ '""'"^'^'^ "'» ^e
•>en;^a^:ii;^'7cLSu;r''"V"^"*^-
clergy as receiving tithes '^' '^""'^' "* ">«
tithes and wri e down'fh» f""'' "'/ *" "*•■«!»«
P«y them ; they ar to be d.V ? /•""'"'^ ^^••"'
parts— for church nr,!L divided into three
the clergy. No qq rlf ."*' f" *'"^ I'""'- f"r
tithe. ITo lOOollff" *",*'"' *'"^"''-' '"^^ "f
"horting atSe'tl'rid^K"->--Se
income. f^*'" "' "'' sources of
were "^fll S? ^orntrrn/mV^ '''""' ^""-^
Micon seems to hi. k ^' *^"'' "'^ ™"»n "f
own province felt "Tn '^^'f ! '^^•'" '" "«
coerce the reluctant ''^ determined to
use other than the mild™ mith' V '^"'^>' *"
and warning. methmis of persuasion
titSl;t^;h'';:::!„^^,.--,^^"concer„i„g
quoies thfiaw LTSchf a^t'"'f ''^- "■''•)
be paid of everything' '""' '"^''' ''^^e to
titC-„/S, XpSf the tt ^^'■""^' ««-
of Kthelbert. ^ ^* treacherous murder
The council of Friuli * n 701 /
says that there is no be ter'tr. ^"'*""" "^)'
tithes than JIalachi iii * ""« concerning
The council of Frankfort, AD 7q4/-„„„
orders all who hold benefioes of f h^ , " ""V'^'
pay tithes and nintk. T *"•' church to
th(lawfrithhe"'to!h'e"trcT^'"»° " '" W
bisho'J 'oTlyonf Ltn^'r'" P"™'' ^^"I'-J.
tion o'^churJh revenue p 27«^ "" ""^ *,'"'""^»-
that before his tirn» .! ^^ .^' ^-^Pressly denies •
had determined r^ 7'^"°'* " '^'''"^ '"""'era
necessity Froihilno'v ''T'^''^ '^ ''"^ "f
'7- 'lom his position he must have had
1966
TITULU8
♦very opportiMity of knowing th« canon of
tlicon. About the n»mo time Alfuin (I-^fist,
vii.) [jri'ssL'S upon Charlca the Great the in-
expediency of exacting tithe from such weak
Christians as the newly conquered Huns. This
he could scarcely do if tithes were generally
regarded as of divine obligation.
Though the payment of tithes was always
based upon the law of Moses, the duty wits
extended beyond the Mosaic precept (cf. I.uke
xviii. 1'2).
There was no limitation as to the kind of pro-
perty of which tithes were paiil.
Origen spo;iks only of annual produce ; Am-
brose, of grain, wine, fruits, cattle, business,
huntinj; ; Augustine, of income, of annual fruits,
or daily gains. The spurious sermon commands
tithes of anything whereby the man lives — war-
fire, business, or trade. So an epistle of the
bishops of the province of Tours, A.D. 567, ex-
horts payment of tithes of all property, and
even of slaves. Eadbert, bishop of Lindisfarne,
gave tithes of fruits, quadrupeds, and clothes.
Similarly, whereat the Mosaic law granted
tithes to the Levites, in the church they were
claimed not for the clergy alone, but for the
poor also.
The persons for whose benefit tithes were
given were the clergy, says Irenaeus ; Jerome, the
pool', the priests and Levites. The Apottolic Consti-
tutions claim them for the orphan and the widow,
for the poor and the proselyte ; " for the other
clerics " (the bishops, priests and deacons were
to be sujiported by the first-fruits) and for the
viigius. The council of Micon decrees them for
the clergy, the poor, and for the redemption of
captives. In Cassian, we see tithe paid to
monks, and in a capitulary of the fourth year of
Ciuu'lemagne to mooasteriea.
Thus iu two points the odvocatei of tithes
went beyond the law upon which they based
their claim.
At what time parochial tithe* were separated
from the mother church and alfixed to the
parish church does not appear. Selden (chap,
sii. o» lithes) says that in the Saion times we
find " ecclcsiae " simply, and not until the
Morman dynasty " ecclesiae cum decimis."
See Selden o» Titliei ; Tillesley's Reply to
Selden ; Spelman on Tithes and Concilia AniiU-
caaa ; Thomassin, part iii. lib. i. [J. S.]
TITULU8. (1) In pagan usage an inscrip-
tion on a stdne ; later, the stone which marked
the boundary of property.
(2) In the time of Trajan it meant the limits
cf the jurisdiction of presbyters at Rome. This
is the germ of that meaning which title bears in
ecclesiastical practice.
(3) Sphere of work for orders. [Oeders,
Holy, p. 1486 ; Parish, p. 1556.]
Closely allied to this sense of Titulus is the
application of the terra to some churches in
Rome. Some of the churches there were called
tUuli, and some were not. Of pope Marcellus
(A.D. 308), it is said he appointed in the city of
Rome twenty-<ive " tituii, quasi dioceses." This
la.°.t eipression might suggest a corre^poDdence,
with the idea of " mother churches." And this
would support Bingham's view, which he takes
from Mede (Discourse of Churches), that the
same titulua was given to certain churches,
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OP
because they gave a title of cure or denomina-
tion to presbyters to whom they were i<iiiinntt?d
(Uingham, Ant'i/. viii. i. 10). Succeeiliut; p"iii'«,
— Silvester, lianiaMis, InniMeiit— appointed each
a titulus iu lionie ; so that in the time of Alex-
ander the Third, thi v are spoken of as beiiip
twenty-eight in nunit/er (Anast. Vit. I'unlii,),
Another reason for the name titulus, as n|>|>lii'i|
to the church, is suggested by Barcjnnis (an. I I.'),
The sign of the cross, whic h was inscribdd upun
them, was the titulus by which they were
known to belong to Christ, just as imperial pru-
perty was declared to be such by the imjwrial
mark (titulus Jisculis) alfixed to it.
From meaning the whole church the term
titulus was sometiuii- applied to a part nt' the
church, (a) a chapel in which the bones nt a
saint reposed, and (b) the sanctimry (jiresby-
terium, /Sfjfto) or part which contained the altar.
The churches called tituii were distiiiguishel
from the others, which were ailed lianmnie,
oratorio ; and, as being the principal churches of
the city, were called tituii cardiuales or siiii|ily
cardinoles, the priests who were attachivl to
them being called presbyteri cardinales. See
Cardinal. [H. T. A,]
TITUS (1), disciple of St. Paul, commeino.
rated by the Latins on Jan. 4 {Mart. UsimiiI.,
Adon., Vet. Sum., Notkcr., Horn.); by the Greeks
on Aug. 25 (Uasil. Menol. ; Menol. Graec. Slilet.;
Cat. Ethiop. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 261)),
(2) Martyr at Nicomedia, commemorated on
Jan. 25 (Syr. Mart.).
(8) Apr, 2, TliAUMATURQUS, confesser for
images {Cat. Si/zant.; Menol. Graec. Sirlet.j
Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 256) [C. II.]
TOBIAS, martyr at Sebaste in Armenia umler
Licinius, commemorated on Nov. 2 (Basil. Maiul. ;
Mart. Rom.). [C. H.]
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Toletana
Concilia). No less than 21 councils are saiil to
have been held at 1 '"do, between A.D. 400 aiiil
701, when they were stojiped as abruptly by
the invasion of Spain by the Moors, as they had
commenced on its conquest by the Visigoths.
But the genuineness of the two first, as now
given, is more than doubtful, for the reasons
which follow. The authorities to be cousiilted
more particularly, besides Mansi and Helele, are
the Collect. Max. Cone. Hisp. by Cardiual Agiiirre
(Catalan's ed.) ; Collect. Can. Eccl. Hisj). hy
Gonzalez, Madrid, 1808 : and more recently,
with notes by M. Tejada y Ramiro.
(1) A.D. 400, or, as another reading has it, 397,
when 19 bishops are said to have met and passed
20 canons. But appended to these canons is, lirst,
a rule of faith followed by 18 anathemas, which,
as we shall see, was made by a later and soiithciD
council. Some professions come next, which are
called the professions of bishops Symphosius aad
Dictinnius, of happy memory ; who certainly
would have been dead by then. But, again, the
definitive sentence, which comes last of all,
must huve been passed during their litttinK.
Now, the two first documents, necessarily, can
have no connexion with a council of this date;
nor the third, for another reason, viz. that
neither Symphosius nor Dictinnius appear amnnj
the subscribers to those 20 canons ou discipHue
that come first. Nor, lastly, can pope Innoceut
TOI.f-
have correspiinil
siippi.seil til havi
fi'f he was nut i
On the ntlier hi
whu "lis r temi
C/in,ni,t,u (.Miiji,
the pnntilii'ate
biah.pjis met at Ti
a'tn, Syinphosiii
liisho|is of the p:
iiiliscribed to th
whum they had i
ances of eiclesiaf
and Ortigiiis, bis
cvilc.l by the I'risi
pirt." This Stat
uaiice to the third
whatever to the 2-
it is of course qui
which Syrnphimiu)
t' have passed ci
these. True, the
Orticius, who subs
is said by the presi
thing special in h
these canons bears
3rd i.f the first co
but it might have
years later as 21 ye
the f/iKjiidianun sa
affords a fair pri
frame.! in .Spain (1
there is a curious
names of the last 1
Esiiperantius and E:
with whom Innocen
p. 1038), which will
mind further on. A
Mansi, iii. 997-1015,
de Verifier tea DaU
attempting to expls
recent jditor of Sp
Ramiro, discusses at \
Aguirre, but alike fa
(2) A.D. 405, ac(
llSl). and Ciive (/;
according to others, i
is, of bearing out t
already noticed. But \
in either the Isidoria
collections ; and 2, no
Innocent by Dionvsiu
«i 3, this letter 'in \
Isidorian collections is
Toulouse, and is muc
"plicit on disorders ii
version „f it publishi
collection of the synoc
aoubt which deserves
thesynoil. The simila
01 the last subscriber to
council, aud the bishor
lonocent corresponded
Mt, and is worth consid
Isidonan and pseudo-I,
;«ond council of Tol
527, when 8 bishops ni
out betwfipn this .isid
^■D. 405, another of a.
"lentical with a general
[•"sed to have been hel
iMerted(Mansi,ri. 491-4
TOLKDO, COUNCILS OF
have corrc'DiKiniiu,! wifl, ♦).;.
>»VV^'"i t,. have |„ u Vm ■■'"""•''• "' h" '■'
On tia. nth,.,, h [, ../""'• '"'"'wiinls.
the P"nti,l;r;^':v:a«^,f;•'.v'''''•'''■™«
hUh„,,«n,et,,tr„k.,l, • ri ,' " '■'"""•" "'■
W^l'-l-o^te' „v ;.l '',V'ir-^ «'."' "ther
ances of c. clcsinsH..,.! 1' • V- ' ""*''"» oliserv-
o.vile,l by the •ri,,"l L i: "'"■• **''" '""' hcen
part." 'I'hi, ,tae^ '';:,:,•'''' '"■'"«':'" ■""' to"k
nance to the th r,| o fth J^ ^"""^"'" """"«-
whatever to the-^o'i:;::::'-"':::',;;::-'"
t'' have paUl ano is 0^^ M,^"" '''"'•■'•-'''*
these. True, th^rr ". 1 T'''''',T' • ^'''^ ""»
Orti,.iu.s, who ,ub ™rih 8 „ t '' ?'""'"'• "
thing siwtml m his cas,. i , ■ .L ' ""y-
these cauous bearsa ,lo,"« '^^'"''.'''•e Uth of
p. 10.18), which will at le^t hi i^ f,""' *•
mind further on. All he „iee I "*""'« '"
Mansi, iii. 997-1015 whi.h ' " 'I,"'''' K""" by
attempting to exntfn? ^ ;-"»'u»e further, i„
-^fro^fch"elJ^;t.^Jrt
liamiro, discusses at ereat b.imH, \c! "J™.* ^
Aguino, but alike ,R 'A, ^"^'J'""'
according to others^ fof th^e'me e 'Z^JZ
,0 beanng out the letter of' Sut
already noticed. Buta.i 1 ,.,..., u '"""<=«"' i-
in eith'pv fho tV , .'^^^ '• "" such svuo. occurs
V'7 «.), L . • , '^"''^'^" """s not till A D
.*;B.405, another of a „ 447 P^;.;^ ^'f'"-'" "'
Identical with a genera councilors •'"'"" ""
.P^ed to have been he ,1 tWs vel T""' T^*-
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OP 1967
!-•«•!) i l.f '"""' «'•■';"''"'« to M.insi, V.
'■""thotofA.D ?.7 y k''\|'' 'T" ''"". '"'»
"f it are far V„ , .i ' ""' ""'"" '"'"' '"'"nnt,
S^?i^s^7"v"""-^S"th;n;^
^-Ki^ti.t^^ssr^:!;:;^';:"'^--
"" the observance of 7h<.u ','•""""" ''"""«"■.
the hb.spl,en •;' f t hetrel; 't '"V'','""' "^
"alii.ians, however 'r', ,1 ';' :''"'! «»"••
assent (.Miu'rie ,V, Hko^o , 'i-eacherom
'■'.rwarde.! hi, writhT, ie ins hrV ""•?/'"'
, to a svnod of (iailieia hv„ „ . r, "«'"">"«
' Turriblns, and tha" b ^1": ^V 1' ' rT" ""j
'arrngona, Carthagena', l" rtujal 1! "^''"'".''f
the I'risciiiiturs 'th h'^.r s^r' n'r'."'*
then bishop ,.r liraea in I r^i . I^aleoniu,,
tius thus nialces'iWrth ■,.""'"''"■■ ^"^'•«-
but a courier of St t'""*"T.''"'P™'l^»t..
"otary. Ho s'a - f urti ' t" t "th"^''"'';- ''"* ^
«Es!biHh"^^'^^^^^^^
:7o^,::^Xi^/!rrxS:r:;^^i
^yiftoT^ir„;xa;fc^t?
<d books addressed to Sf i I ' ''''"' ''"*
and -i..ious"uho;i?.*;4L^i'„";r' ''r'
nients his see i- ..j„=. ^ ""'"" '^"01-
the second of the e Tstler' "fT')' >''"' "-at
himself is addretd'll ^'":''«"J '" Montanus
c.'cp.scopm rVert (Mansi viii Tqn '. k "f-"""
Aguirre must h ivr ( L^ <' "'"'"'' 'cardinal
noticed. Thsclumsvf "'''I'l^""-? »"* to have
been eoncict:i''rf ^/'; f;'-^'^"'^^ Tf have
alleged lett^ of ^Tu riWusTo'' ("" "'"^ *'"' '
Idatius (Mansi, V 13021 «nH-* -n?""'"' '""l
while both aff;cl- he L"a' nTl" '" '''"! ^^at
reallv more p.-^i .v.L??'^*'..'" *""«' ™e is not
more rea«,n ?oi M. • ?'""■ ^''"■"^"■» had
avow(7vr49iw!,r'P!?.'"°*'>an ho liked to
l!)fl« TOI.KDO, Cf)l VCILS OK
in any nl'tlit'iiii ilnciiments, ia tl)pr« tlif Kinalli'flt
•vlililite I'lir a sec.iiiil lyiiml (if Tolcilci liclnri' A.I).
6J7 ; mill m l'»r tliu r<:U uf the hIIi'i;im| »v | ot'
tliitt ilati', liisiili's Ipi'iiin prnjiiilioeil l.y tlie twii
K'ttcis ftsiriliid t(i its |iic^Hiili'iit, thi-y lictniy Car
too iniirli ii|h!i iai |iluii>liiiK t'ur thu nieli'i>|Mflitiiii
riijliU lit' that Ki't! til iii8|iire cniiM Imice. (Ciinip.
Canl. Aijuirn,', />i.M. 'mn, iii. 4a i.t !i(.i(. ; art.
Oai.I.ICIA, CdunciI. , p. 708 ; and thu ttllejfed
«yr)i»l ol'T. A.D. mo, ukIuw.)
(3) A.I). Smi. Of this ciniiicil thorn oan be
nil iluiilit wliatavor, «X('u|it as in its lii'injf the
thii'il, mill as to its pri :i'i|inl rulint; having Im>i>ii
fijiiiiili'il on a niisappri'iiiinsion. An liH liisluipsur
their reproaentatives Huliserilii'il to it, every see,
whi!tlier iif .Spain, l'iirtiij;al, or Narlioiiue, then
in e.<istiMii'e, imist have hcen represented there ;
and as each bishop in subtrribing appemls the
name dI IiIh -ne, the snbsoriptioii.H are worth n
careful study. It is the metropolitan of Merida
who subscribes suoond — /vr/ia/is as being the
olde«t —and the metropolitan of Toledo suliHiribes
third; but he who subsiribcs first is the king.
Rercared, king of the Goths, summoned it to
celebrate his own conversion, and that of his
queen and people, from Arianism ; and he and
his queen commence proceedings in it by making
, profession of their orthodoxy, and reciting the
creeds of Nicaea and Constantinople, as the
faith professed by the Catholic church throughout
the whole world, and then subscribing to them,
and to the detinitiou of the council of Chalcedon,
in their own names. In reciting the creed of
Constantiniiiile, translated into Latin, they insert,
according to the reading of some MSS. the words,
" aud from the Son," in describing the Procession
of the Holy Ghost. Eight liishops, a number of
presbyters, deacons, and of the high nobility,
convirrts from Arianism, likewise, follow with
their profession ; in which besides reciting tlie
two creeds, and the definition of Chalcedon, like
their sovereign, they anathematise twenty-three
different errors, the third of which is that of
those who deny the Procession of the Holy Ghost
to be from the Father and the Son. Regulations
for discipline come next by order of the king,
embodied in 23 lengthy canons. Among the
bubscribers to them, and to the acts of the
council in general, are those bishops whose
abjuration had just been made, with the king at
their head, who subscribes first ; and as no king,
probably, before or since : " I, king Flavins
Reccared, in confirmation of these matters, which
with the holy synod we have defined, have
subscribed." Each bishop after him meekly
says, " I have subscribed assenting to these
coustitutious." So that this addition to the
creed, aud doctrine involved in it, was originally
defined, in pojnt of fact, by a convert prince
at the head of the same council that received
his abjuration. On the other hand, in the
2nd of these very canons we read : " The
holy synod ordains that throughout all the
churches of Spain and Gallicia, according to the
form of the oriental churches, the creed of the
council of Constantinople, that is, of the 150
fathers be recited, so that, before the reading of
the Lord's prayer, it may be intoned in a loud
voice by the people before communicating."
Thus it would seem, that in anathematising the
opponents of the twofold Procession of the Holy I
(ihost, the council never really contemplated |
Tor.nnn, corNcii.s op
interpolating the creed ; lint meant in all honcstv
to aiihi'iv to the form of it then med in the
Kast. If, therefore, the interpolation of tlin
creed dates f'roni this conmil, it was as ignonint
an interpolation as its defence has been. At I lie
same time the doctrine meant tube exprcissed !<■
it h.'id been previously laid down in the rub' if'
faiti transmitted to halconius, and endorsid in
the so-, ailed letter of Leo to Turnliius ; mil. .<
these di«unieiits have likewise received ndditiiiis.
Hut how, on the other haml, is the oniij-ii 11 ,.f
all red .'iice to the lil'th cmincil by lii'ciari"! .-n I
his bisliops to be explained? Having I n h, l,|
A.D. .'i").'!, it was then thirty-six wars oM. .".nj
the pen of St. (ircgory the Great with whi. h ii,.
congratnlateil his friend Leander on the cnnvir-
sion <if Ueciared (Kp. i. 4't, truliit. \\.\ mint
have been ilip)iei| in the same ink with wliiih he
wrote to the Eastern jiatriarchs shortly bt li-i" ;
"(Juintum concilium finritrr veneror " (I'l, /)
'2,:^). Leander was in all probability granilsin i'
TheiMloric, king of the Ostrogoths, and eiliii;itMl
in his dnniinions. He may thus have side.! » iih
the bishops of A(|uiUia and Istriaon that siilii.if,
rather than with Home. At all events, luitlur
at this, nor any subsequent council of Toliiln,
was the fifth council so much as named. I'ri-
ccedings were wound up by a glowing reviiw if
them in the shape of a homily from Linmlir
metropolitan of Seville, who bad acted ns liifir
to the king, and corresponded with jiope flrennrv
whom he had known at Constantinople (iMausi
i.x. 997-1010).
A.n. 597, where Massona, metropolitan (,(
Merida, subscribes first again ; the metroiiolit.in
of Narbonne, second ; the metropolitan of 'riil,..!!.,
third. It is called a council of 16 bishops, Imt
only I.T subscrilio. And it passed only 2 cnm ns,
the 1st of which, relating to the celibacy of the
clergy, cardinal Aguirre says, " diffiVilliimis
intellectu est," but he omits to add that this
council is unknown both to the Isiderian aiil
pseudo-Isidorian collections, and has not lnon
known anywhere as the fourth council. It is
transcribed from Loaisa by Mausi without 1 "in-
ment (x. 477).
A.n. ()10. Bnt this, again, with the nllei;!'!
edict of Gundemar confirming it, is iinknuwn
to both Isidorlan collections, like the l.ijf,
besides which, the plea set forth in it for the
metropolitan rights of this see shews too p.nl-
pably the use which it was designed to serve,
and this its reference to the alleged council under
Montanus only further confirms, so tlint even
Mansi says its genuineness is a ([nestiou which he
leaves to the most learned to decide (x. .ill).
Nothing else purports to have been discusseil at
it ; the petitions appended to it are, therefure,
beyond explanation.
(4) A.D. 6r(;l, which is called everywhere
the fourth council. Here the metnipolit.na
of Toledo subscribes only fifth, aud the
metropolitan of Merida third, after the nietn-
politan of Narbonne ; while the metropolitan (f
Seville, St. Isidore, who had succeoiled his
brother Leander in that see, presides. If
passed no less than 75 canons, and no less than
69 bi«hops or their representp.tive.'i .tiihs,"ri!.8j
to them. The first, headed " De eviJenti
Catholicae fidei veritate," dogmatises on the
Trinity and Incarnation in language that every
now aud then exhibits phrases common to the
TOLKl
.Athsimsian creei
est Catholicae ecc
conservaiiius atq
firniissinio custml
l^ebit. . . ." ■!•)„
for divine service
ordo orandi atque
Illspaniam atque
modus in missar
vesjiertinis matuti
ultra in nobis ec
uuii fide continei
antiqui canones de
viniia et |isallend
luetiidinem teueat,
whatever to the
church of any co
either canon. If, ,
the .'Ird, councils
juxlii nntii/wi iHiti
least be held uiice,
case may re(|iiiro.
conceived in the
book I i' the Bible
librum multorum
lynodica sanctorutr
creta Joannis eva
et inter divinos li
rii'it. . . ." The !
jacerdotum," leavei
untouched, and is
108 igitur et inimi
laeerdotes, nee ulb
pollui. . . ." The ,
urJiiianees about J
Judaeis hoc praece]
deiiiceps ad creden
euim tales inviti sah
Integra sit forma
seventy-second says
been emancijiated ".
tegantur;siveinstat
culioquoil habere nosi
of .St. Isidore airord t
hensive character of
611-50). Compare,
what is said of Sisebu
(J) A.n. 6;!6, " Di
paniae" is what t
«nd it is a fact thi
provinces of Tarrag
bonne figure among ■
all the rest of the
sented bishops were si
metropolitan, Eugenii
time, subscribing "first
vinoiis," whether regi
di'l homage to the oc
politan was present.
Mlf ; " Dei miserati
provinciae Carthaginia
contrasting with his ni
.vears afterwards, wl
eclipsed. All of th(
have reference to existi
(Mausi, X. 6538-8).
(8) A.D. 6,38, when ti
0"nne presided, m<X i-a
sfter the metropolitai
we then metropolitai
Ao less than 53 bish
wtim, subscribe to tht
TOr,Kno, COUNCILS OP
Ml < atiiiiliiiiB (,•((■ 1 s 11,. H,l... . i,„ ,. •••"K.
< I n-il IB Jill Iftfltl IllllMWlirtlnf II If
ultra iu „„|,i, ^^,, I,, ',,,"' "" ' ""« ' " ""O »it
«nti,,ui ..,.„„„„, .lo.reverunr '„ """" ■••'
.uetu,li.,e„ teuoat ^'"!» "'"' ' pirom c„n-
whatcvor to t e o'.ton., „^ '"■""■'" "•"^^""■"•«
the ,lr.l, cdunciln cnnridt meet twi,.,. . '
l«.t l,e ,.ef„ J„„, KenolXrVr , L-'"' ■'- the
case nmy re.|tiire. All the „fl,„i ' "
l-k. the liible tin, ^th ;„■,.«(/''", ''"!'
lif.run. nu,It„r»,„ c.^iHorC'-auet iu'':;
untouched, »„,| i, o„n euT av T.r;^^"
..« iRitur et iinmaculatog d'oet n,.! """
«a.er,lotes, nee ullo eos fomi?!.- • ""'"''''
P"ll"i. . . ." The r,7th rmn "" "'"'«8'»
T I • 1 ''•-ws in these worrls • ** rii»
inugra sit f»rma juatitiao. . ." Kr,,\ \C
^venty.seeo„d saya „f th„so slave, who hive
been einanc pated « A ,.„;„. ni. . ,"? "''^®
sented bishops were auffraeans of T^I i \
metropolitan E„,enius. if "u ."^^ "' "^7^-,^
time, snbsenbiiijr first. The ",,;''"■ ^ ""*
vinoiis." whether regular o? not I '' P"'
^W homage to the !•, tJio^n N^ ri^al' "T'
HUanw. present. Kugenius'I'ub" Id" li:
leia^'^artSr!.!:^'''*-- -'3:;^
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF 1969
sSi i^Jfr-^v'-^-
this time 4rthe„.-tr ',•;''''■'• '■''■. "-"t
(A"toniu»,4ohl!;\,:;:: ';„r' ;:;:,,:;; 7!^!
the previous couiuil, and < le ' 7 "t '"°!
b"enl„sj„ui„r. Thus the h -of ,, Xt "?
winons were hm...,! ,.„ u • . ■'• ""' *^
Ut of them Zead f " "'T'""' «"'' t^o
is hea,kv , . De"/f 1 '' "P""nding the faith,
le.mtk T " ''"'-■iissed at very treat
S't St;';lTb'"" "^ niore^ftln*
-tivef.tertS:^'\^L^tr;'?;?r;^
certain duties ascribed to ,r,.h i . ™"'*
t>me, signing between bishops and tLir «
i:::h:r^^is'rerS::;£^f»r^
^.X^J^diiKsHS r "
ai...: de les entendre." „l,f" '!.??'' "'-^pj^'J'^
- " viiat ,ney say of themselves- .V 7 ,'" »'""'"P"latai form, were n,
vil, "r");;* '^"^ 2 or 3 bishops of the " /^V''' " ''''^"^ ''* »' «?'"'S q^I.'est
nces of fairngoua, Portugal, Ld Nar- T ,- ■ "' ?*''"''^'''" " tL autho V„f >
■e hgure amoug the suliscribers to it • f?,^ * '.'"■'-'"''" '« ^"fe' trnlv sav • , > Vi .
the. rest of the 24 subscriWn" *1'*.L,^."* ^ thoir representatives subSedo ft'"'"'
King Recesvinda heads them with ,Li!i. """
(8) A.D. 655, where the second Eueeniu, »«h.
scribes tirst, a.lopting a new stWe ° P •
giStli ig^ill
'cHpse.!. All of the .! * '"'" *»»'■>
h-i reference tolilSng'dirde" l':The''Tf
(Mansi, X. 6538-8). "'""raers m the state
bo^!ip:!;il'^':;';«1;">e metropolitan of Nar-
«^-[he metrrp^lita;fTB;t.nS ^^''
other metroHitan^was^preT" Si!; "°
canons all on discipline, werCssed. and stn:^
8^aM;atsanf;t^r:{;;,;;irtl:^^i
heading of the last canon, "Ut bapthat rnd» •
cum episeopis eelebrent dies fest? hews wha\
^ uajs 01 M. Isidore (:iJaiiai, li. 23-32).
ifj
1970 TOLEDO, COUNCILS OP
(10) A.D. 6,')6, when 3 metropolitans were
present, ami the second Eugenius again presiiies
and signs first. This was the tirst general
council at which this had occurred. Only 7
canons were passed, and 20 bishops and 25
episcopal representatives alone subscribe to
them. Vet this council deposeil Potamius,
metropolitan of Braga, whose name appears
among the subscribers to the eighth c(runcil,
on his own confession of a crime committed
by him, and appointed Fructuosus, one of liis
suffragans, in his stead. It also transferred
the festival of the Annuneiaticm to Dec. 18,
by an e.tjjreis canon, on the ground that it
clashed so frequently with Lent or Easter that
its due observance was compromised (llansi, xi.
32-46).
(11) A.D. 675, at an interval of ni.ieteen years
from the preceding one, during nine years of
wnich the see of Toledo was tilled by St. Ilde-
fonao, nephew to the last prelate, and pupil of
St. Isidore. Why no council should have met in
his day is a question to which more than one
answer might be returned. This, however,
is what the 16 bishops who met under his
successor, Quiricius, on this occasion, say on the
subject : '' K.ramus hue usque pro labentis seculi
colluvione instabiles, quia annosa series tempo-
rum, st^itractd (uce conciliorum, non tam '•itia
auxerat, quam matrem omnijm errorum igno-
rantiam otiosis mentibus ingerebat." This is in
the preface to their own proceedings, which ends
with a lengthy paraphrase of the faith of the
first four councils, and is followed by 16
canons, the 6th of which begins as follows :
" His a quibus Domini sacramenta tractanda sunt,
judicium sanguinis agitare non licet." Yet the
very next canon contemj.!ate3 bishops pro-
nouncing sentences of exile and prison against
offenders, if nothing worse (Mansi, xi. rJ9-152).
(12) A.D. 681, at which king Ervigius was
present to open proceedings and m.ike known his
wishes, Julian metropolitan of Toledo subscribing
first, the metropolitans of Seville, Braga, and
Merida, being present, and subscribing after him
to 13 canons then passed ; in the Ist of which,
after » profession of the faith of the first four
councils, and a recital of the interpolated creed,
the resignation of king Wamba and the accession
of king Ervigius is declared to have been duly
received and authenticated. Whereupon both
acts are confirmed by thr, council, and all who
had taken oaths of allegiance to the one are
released from them in favour of the other ; " Le
premier exemple d'une pareille entreprise des
evcques," as the authors of L'Art de Verifier les
Dates say of it. The pendant to it is contained
in ;.ie 6th canon, whose title luns thus: " De
concessa Toletano pontifici generalis synodi po-
testate, ut episcopi alterius provinciae cum con-
niventia principum in urbe rcgia ordinentur."
The 9th canon enuraerateb and ordains a ' , ries
of severe enactments against the .lews to be
made more stringent than ever. By the 10th
protection is assured to all who have taken
sanctuary: the 11th shews that worsb- -ners
of idols were by no meaus extinct in ;jiain
at that date. Thirty-five bishops, 3 repre-
Bcnr.-.tivcs of absent bisho])3 and abhats, and
15 nobles, subscribe to them. Afterwards, in
the editi(m8 of councils, fidlows in edict of
king Ervigius confirming them all. But in the
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OP
Isidorian collection the first part of this edict ia
omitted, and appended to the second is the long
edict of king Gundemar, said to have been issued
in confirmation of the alleged council of a.d.
610, neither of which, as stated already, were
before given in this collection, each setting forth,
the privileges of this see. In the psendo-lsidorian
collection only the second part of the edict of
kiug Ervigius follows these canons, and that of
Gundemar appears nowhere (Mansi, xi. 102S-
1044).
(13) A.D. 683, when king Ervigius was again
present, and retired after stating his wi.shes and
handing in his address. Thirteen canons or
chapters, as they are called from the tenth
council onwards — and their length alone war-
rants the distinction — were then passed, after
the faith of the first four councils ha I been |iro-
fessed and the interpolated creed recited, deter-
mining civil questions with as much freedom as
ecclesiastical, and beginning with them in fact.
Canon 6, which concludes this branch, forbids any-
body to marry the widow of the king. Canon 9
confirms the twelfth council anew, while reciting
the confirmation given to it at the time by
Ervigius. The subscription to them of .Julian,
who subscribes first, is peculiar: "Ego Julianus
indignus sanctae ecclesiae Toletanae netropoli.
tanus episcopus instituta a nobis definita sub-
scripsi." All the rest, 3 metropolitans and 44
bishops, merely subscribe their names and sees.
Eight abbats, 27 representatives of absent bishops,
2 of whom were metropolitans, and 26 iiHblea
complete the list. Kiug Flavins Ervigius follows
with his ratification (Mansi, xi. 10.')9-1082).
(14) A.D. 684, when 16 bishops of the
province of Carthagena met under .Julian of
Toledo, their metropolitan ; 6 abbata, and 2
representatives from each of the metropolitans
of Tarragona, Narbonnc, and Merida ; 1 from .ach
of the metropolitans of Braga and Seville, and
2 from absent suffragans of Toledo, being also
present and subscribing. They had been ordered
by king Ervigius, as they say in their 1st canon,
to assemble t\i\i,s,obconfutandumApoUiiMris (to/raa
pe.'tifertim, concerning which a communication
had reached them, a Romano praesula ; so that
whatever they might decide thereon *he metro-
politans of other provinces, apprised of it by
their representatives, might be able to enforce
by means of their own provincial synods through-
out Spain and Gallicia. They therefore proceed
to discuss this question in all its bearings, quihus
llomanae sedis j ^ramus Uteris invitati. Ths
2nd canon adds that the courier of the
Roman pvoli-te had also brought with him ths
acts of a council held at Constantinople under
the then Emperor Constantine ; and that by the
courteous letter of the pontiff of ancient Rome
they were invited, ut praedicta synodalia instituta
ifuae miserat, nostri ctiam vigoris imnerent
au<:toritate suffulta ; omnifmsque per nos siib
regno Bispaniae consistentibus patcscerent ditvl-
qanda. This task is accordingly taken in hand
by them forthwith ; and finding these acts,
on examination, to be quite consistent with
the faith of the four first councils, they resolve
as follows in their 7th canon : " Post Chsl-
cedouense concilium base debito honore, loco, ct
or' ,'.e, coUocanda sunt: ut cujus glorioso
themate fulgent, ei et loci et ordinis coaptentur
honors." Kven so, they cannot let the oppor-
TOLEI
tnnity slip of do
themselves, whicj
the exclusion of
difficult to say w
by Roman Catholic
or the pa])al epist
this council we lei
the sixth council
from the then p
necessitates their
Latin under his an
templates and his o
(Mansi, xi. 1047,
considered it.self fr
them on their bei
this council, by iti
distinctly testified
of the fifth couni
epistle to the bisho
particularly the ac
named five univeri
above, council unde
the papal epistles
bishops and their
demnation of Hono
council formally ut
successor. G. Loa
genuineness of thes
the MS. containing
to him, of the nex
useful for throwing
why were they not a
but one and passes o
for another (i6. i085-
prints them tinddly v
Others content thei
them spurious or int
(Mansi, ib. 1050-10,'
Councils op, p. 446]
council by the king
V>. 1085-1092).
(16) A.D. 688, whi
opened proceedings, a
withdrawing ; after v
their adherence to 1
councils, and recite th-
then proceed to thei
curious in the extreme
had sent a work enti
stantiis, to Rome, whi
diet II., bad criticised
•gainst. He had 1
eipreision in their
which had accompani
hesitatingly vindicates
the fathers, and in re
»ith caustic vein : sic
<wi sunt defenderc, hin
im vera sunt ignora
Mother is settled in th
equal freedom, relatic
formally released from
tions to which the late
marrying his daughte
politans, 55 bishops, t
oetropolitan and 4 mo
"rl"' '^''"'^^' ^""^ ''
-.mgs on rsch head.
^nfirm. them by a sp
(18) A.D. 693, when
prwent, opened prweedi
OBEUT. A^T.— VOL. I:
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OP
from the then Jopo L^o fl wS 7 ^''"'''
neceasitates their havinl K ' . ^ ."'^ "'"'"''
Latin under IL^'J:^ IT^' ""'
tenii)I,ites«n,ihi« ' V^TL' ," "^n letter con-
con.,.ereait.,rrr:;:;^L,Ln:i^^;-—
distinctly testified its rnntfn,?L ^ *'"'"''
e ik i/-ii continued non-nccentanr>o
of the fifth council thm.rrK »u '"•^'-piance
named five universal councils in addition Z^
above, counci under Reccared, A.D. Vg Frl
he papal ejnstles we learn that the SpS
bishops and their king Ervieins had/hi
damnation of Honoriuf of IZl b? tie s nh
council formally notified to them by his then
successor. G Loaisa dares not in pugn the
genuineness of these letters; on theSrary
? ?; L*'"' ""''■* pope. Benedict II.. no lesi
useful for throwing light on this counc If so
why were hey not all published ? JIausi pr nt^
but one and passes off one of the letters of ri!
tinTt"^:*- ^.^;?-10««)- CardinaUgui e«
Cs cCn;i^''^""*''^''■•'^f'•«'"Wm.elf.
Others content themselves with pronouncine
hem purious or interpolated in general term!
(Mansi, ^b. lOM-1058, and Constantinop™
™,n -.'^ ''f.; P-, ^''^- No confirmationof th^
council by the king a apnended f^ if Af ■
(6. 1085-1092). "PPenuea to it (Mansi,
(16) A.D. 688, when king Eglca was present
oi«ned proceedings, and handed in an address on
withdrawmg; after which the bishops ret, a""
their adherence to the faith of the fir," four
councils, and recite the interpolated creed TW
hen proceed to their real business, which is
uncus in the extreme. Julian, their p7es deni
had sent a work entitled LibJr de tril^T^
to^«, to Rome, which the then pl;triW
gainst. He had likewise condemned one
TkT. '" ^^'" "'^^ dogmatic profession
which had accompanied it. The council .n
hesitafjngly vindicates both by pasTg" ' fr"m
t e faUiers, and in re-affinning fhem'lerve"
»ith caustic rem: skvt nos Zn vudebit mZ
^ sunt defenderc, hin, foTsoTl^Mt
mvera sunt ignorare. TMs^iZm
another ,s settled in the same breath and wift'
equal freedom, relating to th/k ng"° hI'^s
formally released from intricacies In the «,nd -
ma mnf m' t 'f " ^'""^ '""^ bound hron
S.^5 hi.h"^''*?.- ^"'^ *''«° 5 metro-
n onoliti aT' *^* representative, of 1
netropolitan and 4 more bishops, 8 abbats S
T:':^"m "."^'^ nobles'subscrZt'it.'
confirm. T'l. I, °°'"^- Naturally king Kgica
(16) A.D. 693, when king Eclca war „„,.„
TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF 1971
address on withdrawing, after which tho u u
ti^t:^d7cj;i::^^^|'F^ rr^ '^'*''"
statement o/The r\'^' t* vhic'h^fh'"^"""*'
criticised by pope BenedL ,r '"""^
re-alfirmed. At its close Ti [^ T™ "'"""o
the communion h^'c trcr'; t'''''' ''"^
^«<fo.on..;.S^:„„^«,,,f.;;. headed ^J
praise to a late ord nance of he kinL^l '""^'^
■ts object, ,uatcn,,s aut ZZlLZTl"'
then used for the Kucharist in f "T-nonly
ruling thereon. The g f ' iT n°' '*' ""^
Prolis reqitie- the Ofh n o' , ^^ """"""I*
the -etropo iC of NarbonnT"".''''"' *''^»
.vented from being present Zu^'l" """ ^''^
in convening his suff™m . '?'" '"' """^
chapters, which kinlff *"!. '"^'"'''* *° ^''^se
All the new y.ap3nted ^^T^'^T '"""^™^
Feli.x at thdr head In^ '"etrcpohtans, with
Merida, whoTloS^n? s Itar TI'T "
5 abbats, 3 representatives of ab'pnf 'w t ^"^^
commence their nart h^ ^ •!■ ' *"^ b'shops
relating to the faith «n^ 17 *'' matteu
ecclesia'stical Latte™ toTh'e eSior;""" ,"
persons. Indeed of fu "a ° "'^^ecular
only the 7tt thich* i herd^dVTJT^''
bekfpt oikedin Lent »"„ . '"'P/'''*"'^' "'e to
for some grave ^U8eB?'H"1 ?T^ "^^P*
of the fe!t onTaundyVhtsS'lrrtj
^^r;:^tr~t&"r^^
litanies in everv mnn»K > .v S"""*' o^e of
with which St. I.idore,*£<j,„. vi." 75-81
125
i.if'
ii:
1972 TOLERATION, EDICT OP
may be profitably compared. The heading of
the 8th is Da Judaeontm damwdionc. The
usual confirmation of these canons by the king
follows ; but there are no subscriptions to them
(Mnnsi, xii. 93-108).
• (18) A.D. 701. — But there is no earlier
authority for it than that of lloderic, archbishop
of Toledo in the 13th century ; who merely
mentions it to add, tamen in corpora canonwn
non hnlxtur, without giving any particulars of
it himself (Jranai, xii. 163-104). After this there
is but one more real or conjectural council of
Toledo till A.D. 1088, at the earliest, and this-
is vaguely called by most a " council of Spain ; "
but as it had Elipandus of Toledo for its presi-
dent, Mansi thinks it may have been held in his
metrop(di3. The date assigned to it by him is
A.D. 793, and it is said to have declared in favour
of the news of its president on Adoptionism,
and to have defended them by testimonies from
the fathers in a synodical epistle addressed to the
bishops of France, subsequently refuted at
Frankfort (Mansi, xiii. 857-858). [E. S. Ff ]
TOLERATION,
p. UL'S].
TOMBS, TOMDSTONRS. From the earliest
times the bodies of Christians were interred in
places open to the sky (CKMErKRV) and in sub-'
terranean burial-places * (Catacombs). The forms
and arrangements of the tombs in the catacombs
of Rome and .ilso of Naples are sufficiently de-
scribed in the latter article. Those in the cata-
combs of Syracuse, Taormina, Malta, Canopu^,
and Alexandria, '■ are likewise alluded to and
hardly require further mention here.'' In the
following article an endeavour will be made
briefly to notice —
(.\) Various kind . of tombs, excluding tho.se
mentioned above, found in dilFcrent countries.''
(B) Objects found therein.
(C) Select sepulchral inscriptions of all kinds,
wherever found.
EDICT OP [Maetyb,
• M. dc Uossl (Rom. .V/«. Crist, t. I. p. 8J, Kom. 1864)
announces his preparation lor n gonenil work on Christian
tombs of both these classes. This most important work
has not yet apprared, so fur an tlie writer U aware.
» Christian cat;icoml)s occur also In Milo (Mi los), In
wliich viriulllon tn-criptions, probiibly of the 4th
©■ntury, as well as a small tlUe, have been found.
(Bockh, (7 /. O., w». 92SS-9J9(1.)
• It should perhaps just be montlonrd that in countries
where cjitncombs were unknown, some few si^pulchral
chambers Iiuve been discovered underground. De ItossI
mentions one found at Rhelms In 17 8, adonied with
piclnre«, whicli have perished ; and another at the same
plnci' which was found and destroyid in l.sn (ftom. Sott.
1. 1 p. 100) : see also U Blant {Manud, c. I.\.) for a ^ub-
terraneun chanibir at Mouimartre, umler a m.irtyrium.
In I'ulestlne, again, we have on example of the same
•01 1; tt suliterranean chamber thiity feet long, twelve
wide, and tight high was discovered in 1864 nearSalda
(Sidon). On the Interior of Its whiied wnlls various
figures were drawii in red, and an Inscription was
written all ronno below their up|ier edge, which ncorded
.that the chamber was made " for the memory and the
repose of Anartms and his lirother John ;" with two pas-
•ages quoted from I's. xxlii. and 1 Cor. xv. The date
»Uo given In the Inscription is rather mutllat«l. but
probably ourrwijiouds to A.u. t>4i (Bockh, V. I O
DO. 9153). ■'
■i Inscriptions In connexion with the particular tombs
nenil< ni.'d jst included under this sectioo.
TOMBS
It may be advisable, however, to make a few
preliminary remarks.
The ancient Koman laws of the twelve tables
and those of imperial times, from Hadrian to
Diocletian, strictly forbade burials to take pl.u.e
in Rome and in (Hties generally (see the laRi
quoted by Bingham, Antii. XXllI. i. §2). The
Christians do not appear ever to h.ave hcon
charged with transgressing these laws, hut
rather objected the transgression of them to the
heathen. It must consequently follow that we
cannot expect to lind tombs in city churches or
in any grounds contiguous to them during the
first three centuries. [Ciiurchyauds.] thiri'
is, in fact, as yet no literary or nr<'hai'olo£;iiii
evidence to shew that any Christian burial touk
place in a church, or that any .sepulchral monu-
ment was placed in or even near to a chunh
before the denth of Constantine (Bingham, m. s. ;
Muratori, Anccd. t. i., Dissert, xvii. pp. \»C
189).'
Neiiher does there appear to be a single well-
authenticated instance of any burial, nor of ;inv
tomb properly .so called, in any city whalere'r
during the same period. For although it is
stated by Eusebius, following Hegesippus (Ilht.
Keel, lib, ii. c.'2.3), that James the Just, the brother
of our Lord, had a tombstone (o-t^^t;)' ereetod to
him close by the Temple at Jerusalem, on the
spot where he was martyred, yet it is Car more
pvobable that he was buried on the Mount of
Oiives, at no great distance indeed, but oufsido
the city walls. This was the opinion of others
mentioned by St. Jerome {lib. de Vir. III. c. '.');
and it appears from the Gospels that it was the
custom of the Jews to bury oufc.ide the pre-
cincts of cities. (Luke vii. 'l2; John xix. 42'
coll. Heb. xiii. 12.)
For these three centuries we have very few
sepulchral monuments remaining, with the excep-
tion of those in the Roman catacombs, though
" De Rossi's work on the Eonian Inscriptions of the
first s'x centuries shows no sepukhral slab |ilaccd, or
presumed to liave bwn ever placed, in a church or
basilU'tt during the first throe centuries. Thorp m,
however, many cpltophs of tlie 4th c<ntury now or
lately to be seen lo Roman churi-hes or baslllras bill
very few can be counted upon as being In thilr original
sites. One m rble shib was found adheriig lo lis »epiil.
chre on the pavement of th. basilica o'' St. .Ule.xanileron
the Via Nomentana (a.u. 396), and another (a.d. 4i 21on
that of the subterranean bisillca of ,St, Hfrnipp (Pe
UossI, Nos. 438, 507). Sorae appear to have l)een tatpn
from the catttconihs (see Nos. 80, 153, 182, ls6, 221); Iral
'0 Kossl considers that this Is not the case wi'h others
(Nos. 149, 184). The uroatest number liavo occurred in
the pavenmnt of the basilica of St. Paul on th.' Vlu Ostl.
ensls; It was built, according to IlUb-ch, a d. 3H. bul
some of the slabs bear earlier riatrs, the narllisl belnn
A.D. 346 (see Nos. 88, 98, 204, 209, 240, 316, 371), con-
seqiienlly the i-Irtbs have been moved from thrlr original
sites. This may also have lieen the cose In many other
instances.
An early example of a liurlal In an African baslllfa
will be found In the Oiosaic of Keparotus, a.d. 476 (see
below).
Slabs beautifully decorated with foli.ig-, flower^, etc.
occur In the church of Uriord. a.d. 487 (Le Jil.inl,
no, .379, pi. 43), and in the nave of ihn cathedra! i
Valson, A.u. 615 (Ixi lllant, no. 492. pi. 66).
' For the form of the otvAt) see liict. dr. mid Pm.
Ant. 8. v. " Funus.;" but the word appcors to be OMJ
Bomewhat vaguely.
there is abundar
places of various
parts of the I 'hri;
ments were doul.
of i>ersecutioti (
the few whi h ro
tlons ni.'ide in tin
De Rossi thinks
sori]ition (.see Vi
That of Caesaren
is unquostionablj
§ iii. / G' meter i s
At Rome, ami
several centuries
some were Christ!
by the sides of tl
the city. 'I'hns
naris (Epist. i. 5,
St. Peter was oi
church being sti
standing over it.
apostle was bui'ied
the Tiber, and tha
Via Ostiensis, thre
the city (ii. s. c. 1
of the church of
speaks of these to:
apostles "(Kuseb. i
removed about tli
combs, lest some ii
thetn at that time
ap. Pearson, Antuil.
fact of their remove
have been of verv c
probably have beei
Some other monun
burial-places in th
which have come i
noticed below under
"Quum antiquiti
nins {Hit. Sep. Mu
"tantum e.vtra urbc
corpora sepelirenttii
urbes ad teinplorum
plis sppeliri mos inv?
ciiimples of buri.ils i
we jiroceed to cite : t
buried in the porch o
at Constantinople, c
earliest known e.va:
emperor Honorius v
St. Peter's church ai
wife Maria inside th
king of the Lombards
of St. ,Ioha the Bap
tbiirius in the basil
Paris; Brunichildis,
the church of St. A
Slartol and his son
St. Denis at Paris ; CI
of St. Alary at Aachi
stone bearing his nan
is still to be seen. 1
■nany popes after him,
«t Rome ; St. Benedic
ksilica of St. John t
character of their t
Mbly in most cases o
>«•• (PMudo-Chrysost. de
"t toed.).
to make a few
TOMBS
there is abumlant evMence that npen-nir burml
pliices of vanoHs kinds werp then n L, i.
parts of the <hri.sfianw„rld m1"(TZ "'-^
ments were J„ubtles. ,|e' rm-,. i ^ IT '""""•
§ 111. / a-«,cto',' sopra terra.) '• '•
At nonie, ,,n,l i„,lee,l everywhere else fi,^
Mvei-al centuries," many tomb „/ else f, r
some were Chnstil.n,"""^ e m'tti in h"' 7*"';''
1^ .he sides ,^ the 'vri.:^:^^:^:^::^'::^,
the city. Thus accrclmi; to Si.lonin V, 1
nanB(^...i.5,ed.Sin4th^bS^^^^^^^
St. leter was outside the walls of J , » ,'
church l,e,ng still, in his time (a.d 470)
standing over it. St. Jerome says th t th I'
ap«sUewasM,n«ii„theVia^Viun,hnU e,*':
the fiber, and that St Paul ,u,„ 1 ',", .*J''ii'l
^aO^tiensis, three ;,!nI':!t;;:tXi"s'f
the citv (tus. c. 1 nnri « r,\ ^' • S''ies ot
ortheUurcho^"^;!„:;;l,:,-;:-<:-'^y{-
removed about the year 2,"8'il?h7:rtr
them at that time of persecution (l^ep Murt
/I. Pearson, Anml. Cyprian, p. 62) '/lie v rv
act of their removal ,hews that they could n„i
have been of verv considerable si.e. Th,!y nnv
robnhly have been clppi bearing inscriLons
Some her monuments belonging to o/,en."i,;
brial-places in the neighbourh<«d o^lton^
which have come down to our times », I 1
noticed below under Itair ' ' "^'" ""=
mn'A*'? t'TM^'f ■^«y^.O■'»Ph"u, Panvi-
nins (Kit. bep. Mart. c. v . ed Pnl ir,.ciN
"Uatum extra nrbem i„ coemi e'ii^tn h 2
corpora sepelirentur, pace ecclesiae data nf,^
urbesad teinplornm li,'„ina, posted fntsis t"en
plis sepelir, mos invaluit." He then gives n anv
examples of burials in ordosetochurfie S
we proceed to cite : the emperor Constant ne As
unod in the porch of the temple of the apos
.t Constantinople, and this is probably the
earliest known example of thi kind • the
nipeior Honorius was laid in the p rch of
St Peers church at Rome, and his espoused
wife Maria inside the same church RnH,
fh. .John the Baptist at Pavia; kin? Clo
£"'" '.''^.--"-of St. Vi'ncentfus .;
I'aris Brunichildis, queen of the Franks in
he c urch of St. Martin at Autun; Charl s
Jartel and his son Pepin in the church of
fSt'-w'T'l' ?"'-"««"« in the churc;
M. Mary at Aachen, where a large tomb
" ii Trbf '" ""T ""'y- ^•-"O'^'mS
i« "till to be seen. Pope Leo the Great and
many pope., after him, w^re buried in St P^t^^s
t .K™e; St. Benedict, abbot of Casino, in the
t Mlica ot St. John the Ba,,tist. Bu? if he
haracer of their tombs, 'which were pro
Wly >n most case, „f g^e^t n-..gnihTeace,' wc
TOMBS
1973
have many fine ChiistiL ' ^ ^^^"'^ ««
ing from the" 4tb!^ examples yet remain-
les. ela^ r, tely cul"- ; ;''7 ^"^^^-^ri., „,ore or
^vithstandiugll^:"'*":; f-^P'''''^'^^ Not-
some othei,,%vhich ,„ " 'u ''!• "»"""'• ""^
were several laws «r "' § *'"]> "'cie
'•■""wingc ntu^^ "LrTT "^ ""■ -^'l' •■""'
ce,,h-ons(G. ,":' \/^X:-^';:;/"f i"S ' un e.x.'
XXIII. l\i 4 7'f 8^"'\^;^'-"'-. "• H ; I'lii^-ham,
about this time mmvn ^''"""""""""bt tha
ta-eous o r- ^ ^ ^"'"'"' ^n-i'l-'i-od it a-'van.
tio..» thi,f :;„ , :.«f^,',- ^ ;.f ce„t„ry .sane'
l-orJ for thenf" (S: Th if; roT'l^ *^
of this oninion in ;- r ? '' '" V'e
tinned to'^be mal not "l" '"'"h*''''*'""-^ con-
down to the tin! of fb f ' "' '"J" ''^"■" "^'•'.
"1- as late a AD 107? T^'"' '^""'^^ *»"
Winchester under fanl' ,'1 " '""""^ "f
ninth canon that. Mrr.""^ '^"^" 'n its
timeof Boniface VI/r^K !"?!: T " •"'"' ">«
century, that t wi ' t"' '^' ''"''' •"" »''« '•''h
thing for n'en to b T ? "^ "' » '^•""'™arv
thei' ance' ,rs I,; Tl'b" '^.'"'■'■'' r'^"'-'''
tol^^lril^clf tLrj:-i:iiJ;« -''> 0^ any
iately been in existence. *' "■■ ^^'' ""'
(A) General Character of CArhfinn r-. ■
Italv.— Christian tombs of a very eark.„„,.; 1
memoir entitled //7-„,o«/o,fe7y',t)i:
^;ps-r^-2:f-;--^
"quia nlmlsmaedlbus6,crn„,,,^ " '^ """•'''""'••
moles -ugoLantur. ut prlrr"'T '^^"'""""l'"'
ton relies /eVriltuC'?,^^*''''''''''"" "'"^'- "''^"
ennrr..'^ e';r.^.'rT.r''*Tbft'""~
6 L 2-
H
1974
TOMBS
U toro anticlie memorlc Cristhne, in wliich he
says that he wns ilesirnus to find a cippus which
ha I Iji'eii trnn scribed Ijy l-'abiTtti, ami hail been
steu iiiiiny years later, not bearing.' 'he jjatern
Hiiil siinimlum so frequent on pagan eippi, but
two anchors, symbolical ot' Christian hojie, n de-
vice fonnd on the tombs of the Catacombs. It
ruQs thus: C/. Irenko \ fitio dv'cis \ simo cl.
Ert'i I ches ms ct cl. I'o \ thvmvnvs jxi \ tcr et
Dcoia Ml) I finit vuitcr fccervnt (p. 98). It liad
been found at Cianipino, in the vicinity of Tuscu-
)um. The account of his successful exploration
is very interesting (pp. 99, 100).
De Rossi s .icquamted with only one other
cijipus bearing the Christian symbol of the
anchor. It seems now to be known merely by
the licfcription contained in a MS. of the Va. -
can (6039, f. 262 verso) : Cippus in hortulia 8.
Si'hastuiM extra muros I'. K. (Petrus Victorius)
scripsit. It reads : Marccllae \ sanctissi | mac
feniin \ ae Alvnni I anvs fratc \ r. Below which
are two anchors, that on the left being reversed.
'■The cippus form of the monument, remarks
I)e liossi {U.S. p. 99), "if, aocor .ing to all or-
dinary rules, it excludes a subterranean origin,
does not necessarily exclude its Christianity,
because we know that Christi.in sepulchres still
exiit above ground which are in the form of
cijipi " {Btih. di Arch. Crist. 1864, pp. 2.5-32).
But besides isolated tombs in fields or vine-'
yards or by the sides of the public ways, we
have in the suburbs of Rome several cemeteries
around basilicas which were apparently executed
about the 4th century. De Kossi has observed
tiaces of such in various states of preservation in
the field above the cemetery of St. Callistus, and
in the Agro Verano above that of St. Cyriaca,
and in other places. He describes at length and
gives a figure of the necropolis above ground
under which is the catacomb of St. Callistus
{Horn. Soit. lib. iii. pp. 393 sqq. tav. xxxix.). It
consists of an assemblage of deep oblong chambers
of different dim- sions formed by walls m,ide of
miiord tufa and .ick, intersecting etich other at
right angles, the tops of which are on the level
of the ground. The covers and the bottoms of
these chambers were sometimes composed of
niai-ble or granite slabs, the lateral walls being
left rough ; within them bodies were placed one
above another in difl'erent manners, which De
Rossi describe^ Sometimes they were only
6o|iarated by a stone slab, sometimes the bodies
were placed in distinct sarcophagi ; eight or nine
corpses were ordinarily placed one above another.
It would appear that only a very few inscrip-
tions, unimportant and undated, have hitherto
been found ; but the cemetery may be referred
to the fourth or fifth century from the style of
the work of its walls.' He also found above the
crypts of St. Lucina a few chambers or fosses,
not subdivided like these into horizontal planes
and receiving the corpses in their empty spaces,
' With this necropolis Do Rossi compares a very per-
fect example of an abovc-nround cemetery which has
lately been fonnd at Portogruaro, the ancient Julia Con-
conlla, In Venelia, the excavations of wblcb hod not in
1S77 been completed. Saroophagi llo on the snrfttce of
the ground, and the InBcrlptions at present discovered
appear to be of the fourth ceninry. For some account
of It see De R-ssl (Buti. l»73,pp. 80-82 ; and for »874,p.
1»3 sqq. tav. U. aud Jiom, Sutt. (1877), turn. Hi. p. ate).
TOMBS
but left open like a well and having locnli ex-
cnvateil in tl.oir sides, precisely as in tho
Cataconilis («. s. ;•. 404). He gives' in line an at-
connt, in tl'o first volume of his /iis:n'jit, C/ti-i.~t.
Urb. Jiom ■:>. 108), of a cemetery attai'h. J to
the Vatican basilii".\, which was accldeutallv .lis.
covoreil in the following manner. On Si'ptiMiil.'r
6, 1G89, ahorso trod iipon and broke tlie stnno
which covered the o|)euiug to the graves brluw.
Beneath wns found a white marble sarcopliMgiH
between seven and eiijht feet long, three Vwt
broad and three feet deep, composed of suvorai
piece ■ joined by mortar ; tho body, jilaced tlurein
on its back, was swathed and embalmed. I'.el.nv
this, divided from it oy a partition about nino
inches thick, was discovered another oollin of the
same size ami with similar contents. On the iusiie
of the lid of the latter was found an inscriptinn,
who.se date corresjionds with a.d. ."09. (Jtht-r
coffins again were discovered below this, but the
excavations were not thoroughly carried out.
The stone, as frequently happens, was broken in
pieces and part of it built into a wall. iJe Kossi
describes the whole inscription from Clanipini
and iud^c.-ites by his plate the small pi.niin
still surviving (see his no. 'Ul, p. 108). He also
gives (/,'om. Sutt. t. i. p. . -• ' ,-ra„, jlh,,.
trating this mode of sei>ultu-c'. Collins thus
jdaced one above another in strata have nut, so
far as De Kjssi is aware, been observed in Africa
or in Uppir Italy or in France, or in any other
country wiiere subterranean cemeteries were un-
known.J The arrangement indeed is substantiiilly
the same as that which is adoi)ted in the cata-
combs of Rome [Catac'Cmus, in Vol. I. p. 31.i].
Some very singular tombs have been t'ouud
in the north of Italy, at Bresci;i, Verona, aoj
especially at Milan, below the floor of the hasi-
lica of Fausta. Contrary to the rule which
obtains in the Roman catacombs, the tombs are
decorated with paintings in the interior; thev
are constructed of masonry, and their narriiw
walls are adorne " ^ 'he inside with images anj
symbols traced m -olo' 's. Th^y have been
assigned to the ages o( > .secution, but althouoh
this opinion can hardly be maintained, their
style is in all likelihood a survival fnim Lhe
times when it was dangerous to allow signs of
Christianity to be seen outwardly (De Rossi,
Som. Sott. t. i. pp. 100-101, and references).
A few words should be said in conclusion of
the two principal forms of the sarcophagus which
are found in Italy, and also in other countries ;
(1) the oblong chest or coffin type, with fiat
lid; the ends are -enerally sc.uare (De Rossi,
Hum. Sutt. torn. i. tav. xxx., two examples — one
sarcophagus isquite plain; the othersl.ghtlrorri.v
mented) or more rarely rounded (D'Agiiicourt,
IHst. de I' Art, Sculpture, y\. iv. nos. 2 and 3, biith
sculptured) : (2) the cottage type (a capanna
of the Italian antiquaries), with lid like a root',
(Le Hlant, Inscr. Chril. Gaule, \)\. 78, quite
plain) ; the roof ridge is sometimes truncated to
admit of an inscription being placed thereon (Le
Blant, u. s. pi. 22, no. 139, nearly plain ; D'Agli.
court, n. s. pi. {•
writti-ii on the i
tlie si.le (IJiJi'kh,
base of the trif
times ornament
(Ilockh, u. s.)
of a single sfon
were also used it
sort. iSoe varioi
in .SCL'Ll'TURE.
Fra.nci;.— Afti
most abounds w
aud slabs. But of
paratividy few tel
stances under wh
qiieutly unknown,
observations and ]
and figures, come;
were three forms
Gaul accompanied
tombs; (■_') comei
eitner lielow the >
ing on the soil ;
sauoluaries of si
(JIiiHiicl. pp. 14+,
t\.'0 examples shal
borne In mind thi
script ion of flaul v
than the 4th centu
(1) fsolated Tun
lation was to be sei
phius, at Sainte-Crc
405. It bears the
i He mentions, however, as an exception, thi dlspn
Hon of the sarcophasl In the church of Vipnne. s.
Gcrvals furnishes another exception. (For both lhe«8
ttc. below.) SilU he thinks it not improbable that thli
modi' of bnrlnl may have been Introduced lnt« otbcr
ports of the llomau Cbriatlau world.
Another and a vei
Isolated tomb occurs
visited in the 17th
it, as the burial-pin
"orlption is in elegif
person buried, Alethii
singular that it con
tinctly Chri»ti8n feeli
is prose, jirobably in
coasiihate of Pauliuus,
invaded Burgundy, to -
niii'lc in line seven. X
containing the inscrip
« coraiiion form, is figi
IM. ph64, no. 391), p
Of the sarcophagus is e
To:»rBs
base of the triangular on.l oC the iid i'/,„n,t
Umes (irnatnente.l with m-rotc'r!, li !
ofasinglo.L^t^frnlC ;',,r\,7iIo:
were also used iu the constrnVtion ' f ,. '^ ,
hSc.u:^'""' "-"'"- "^--.ha/gi^
au.i.iahs.B„t„nh.:,eS„:';;;:ttrr
lurnf iv.ly tew tell their full .t„rv Th '
stances ,m,ler which thev vo p V ' ^ "'^'^"">-
quently unknown. M. Le -Bhnt Jw '"'i 7- ^'^''-
observations an,l par Iv b e. ,X' L ' l'^ 'V
and figures, come' to 'the conc"u ion Thf >'''''
were three fnnns of Ch.Li?" l "°, *"'' ''""•"
G.,iao.,.,,aniedC'it:;:;^^.rorc;:;^:;
tmnhs; (2) cemeteries, where the tnL
ouner helow the surfac'o o?Yhe g, „ h' • mt"
.ng on the so.l ; or (3) tombs duster dabmt
sanctuaries of saints, or place.I inTk
(J/.m«W. pp. 144. ,4,5) Of each If h '''"'
h,. examples shall no!; ,. . Z ^ f '?„:."! ,""•
borne m mind that no Christian 'emh, I ■"
scription of Gaul whose date iVL '"','""
than the 4th centurv '"''''° " "'"■""
(1) few 7bm'«._An example cf this is„
latum was to be seen in the monument of Aid
pliiiis, at .Samte-Croi.x.du-Mont 'I'L i T •
m. Itbearsthetoll^Lc'SV"""-
TOMBS
1975
Deposiiio Adelfi . . . . , „,<^^ ^
f< rrsam I f (mater f).
^TS^^t^l'^^™^^?"^^'-'
"I'.lle (I'in.scription) etait," «.ays M. Jouannet
'encore en p ace il y a quelquei ann^es a , ,Te I
csco,eau.x de V'iole dans les vignes du Pey a
prJs de la vote pub que. Elle dtait L '. '
m- h grnnde face din tombeau clst^ fi; '''
moliilons a ohaux et 4 sable, et qu "^^ ' ,,.""
encore ,m squelette "(quoted by Le Blant v ; ^
It ^ould appear prXble thit a o nsi ie .nble
number of the smaller e.tant inscriptions n
mrbk of square or oblong form have' been ht
into the tombs or sarcophaei or int„ fk n
near them, both in Franc^e and in .tlns\th.
;ountr,es (Do Ko.i, J^om. Sott. ."1:^"*^;
Another and a very curious instance of an
•/'. "";• b""al-|>l,ice of a saint. The in
«pt,on ,s in elegiacs, and the natne „? the'
persoa buried, Alethius, is read in acrostic It i
^l»g;;l^.r that it contains no evidence of di '^
iMtly Chri,tian feeling. The l-.st l,n« Ih t
'^ prose, probably indicate Ithe date 'of h
consnl,iteofPauliaus,A.D 5:54 when tV» v ^'
maded Burgundy, to'whi^h atij itVe , "t
m:«le ,„ hue seven, The !id uf the sircml ,
Jf..de^ Bolssleu (fnscr. Ant, d. Lyon, no. evil.
The epitaph runs thus:
(-) Ci'r>ietcries.
™anv year, „ri ™:,'.'''' ""' '!i»™vered not
eophagiir!::^'^„::i:'::roftr';^,:!rr:;;
With the exception of one which f„ . ""^
8ur-.Sa6ne, have reveal,.,! '^,"'"' "'='?'^ ^-''-ilons-
Of the inscribed stone, whthtLn."'" V'
chance the greater number we "7; ed ^^
among them was found the erre,t dated in
cr,pt,on yet discovered in Franci" ing f ;„■
least as early «s the beginning of the Jiv;h
century (Lo Plant. !-. .,. iS\ r, ; no -i. '^
p. 20, no. ;!81). ■ • ''l'- ,no. u,4j aiso
(6) \\%re the Sarcopha;,i n-ere reslitu, on t',«
^o^/._Such occur at Ali.camps. near Arl in
great numbers, f.e Bia„t .,/„„,^^ „ '.1,^
I obverse, that the mass of tombs herf Ltruok th,^
1976
TOMBS
eye« of Dante and Ariosto with 1 .uivraent. (Tnf.
ix. 112, 115; Orl. Fur. ixxix. st. 72.)
l.e Want mentions an inscription engraved
" sur le versaut du couvercle d'un sarcoj ixage
de pierre." Tliis cover, in form of a roof, is
also marked with a croRS pattA rudely traced
with the point (u. «. t. ii. p. 271, no. 535). It is
undated, Another insori))tii)n from the same
place belongs to A.D. 541 (U Blant, «. s. p. 272,
110. 537). De Rossi also mentions having
seen at Aliscamps collins of calcareous stone
with covers of the same shape inci.sed with the
chrisma and various forms of crosses, as well as
lead coffins to contain the body {lioin. Sott. t. i.
p. 95). When Mr. Kairholt visited Aliscamps in
185(3, he remarked that, m s\nte of the numbers
of sarcophagi that iiave been carried thence,
hundreds still remain ; and that for nearly a mile,
as the visitor walks from Aries to the old church,
he jiasses between xo-m ■•f Uoinan tombs lying
three and four deep ou ecch side of him. The
best tombs have bi vi .arried tr the i/i.i.i<iViv5i ; a
few of thoM that remain have scii'ja'rei in-
scriptions; some bear the insignia of iii- ijofes-
siou of the dead which they contained, ■•£ ,va«;e
the carpenter's adze and t'le mason's plumb and
line appear; but the luger number have 'Si'i
Christian monogram only. A sketnh of ■ h(
general appearance of a part of the ,>>met(:V\' ;■.
given (C. R. Smith's Collect. Ant. vol. v. pp."-;:;,
44),
At Sivaux coffins or sarcophagi, tngravud witli
B cross or chrisma and be;iring a simple naiiic,
h.re been found on an old buryiug-ground
{(.h'lnp de sepulture). They sii-^m to be of the
6th century, or thereabouts, and among them
are somi- which appear to be pagan (Le Blant,
«. s. t. ,>. r.p, 357-359 ; nos. 576 A— r."t3 b). Some
of the munuments of Aliscamps and of Sivaux
have been drawn by Beaumiin^, but not very
correctly (Le Blant, u. s. t. i. p. 25).
(3) Burials vi Churches and Sanctuaries. —
From the apse to rue middle of the nave of the
ancient church of St. Peter of Vienne have been
found beneath the surface aa important series
of Christian tombs, and more recently others
reaching down to the threshold between the
church and the jjorch. Towards the altar, where
tiio i»lics iif the martyrs were preserved, they
were more numerous, and in the choir were two
or three deep ; but not so near the entrance. The
Collins had been old pagan sarcophagi, or made
out of the cfe'dm of ancient buildings. The in-
scrijitions, mostly cut in marble, have often been
let into the stone which re-covered the tombs
(Le Blant, «. s. ii. p. 581 ; see also De Rossi,
Ifoin. Sott. t. i. p. 95, and the reference). They
belong, certainly in part, and probably all, to
the 6th century. Among these broken relics
was found a pi.'^-'^ of the epitaph of Sylvia,
wife of the patrician Celsus (A.D, 579), of which
a complete copy exists in a MS. of the 9th
century (I^ Blant, «. s. p. 582, and Mamiel, p,
219). A great number of Gaulish iuscriptious
shew that tombs were placed under the protec-
tion of the graves of martyrs (Le Blant, H, s. t.
i. p. 397 ; see also his Manuel, pp. 146-148).
The tomb of Hilary, bishop ot Arle-s, who died
in 449, was formerly in a subterranean chajiel
of the church of St. Honoratus at that pl.ace.
It is a sarcophagus of white marble, and the
inscription is written on the tiiuugular.find of
TOMBS
the lid. It is now preserved in the museum.
It reads: Sicio | ^fi:ic(oe Ic | ;/is untcatis | (f'll-
lowed by a leaf) tlilarics (between two ddv.'s)
Ate qriiscit (preceded by chrisma, followcil by
vase) I (Lc! lilant, m. s. t. ii. p. 2,)2, no. 51,"). pi.
69, no. 4M; De Uossi remarks on the beauty u/
the marble arcnphagi with Christian sculjituies,
ri-presentin:r scenes of the Old aud New Testa-
iniuts, whic, are to be seen at Marseilles, .\ilcs,
A'ismes, Avij;i(on, and other cities in the scuili of
France (u. s. p. 95).
Zacharias, third bishop of Lyons, in the ' "-
ginning of th( :^rl century, iail ih.- first fouml,,.
tion of a celta 1-nown as th^ r'nircli of the
Maccabees, and in u'ter-timesai t'lH- "hurch of, St.
Justus, It w :\.s fj-jviinally unc'n^.'ound, being
a kind of rrypt which was careful) v concp'loj
from the knowledge of the pagans; I'lcrein •,. .re
deposited the rcmairs • f the illustri'^u,. ma:!vrj
of i.yi'us, with St. h-euaeus at their heal, 'in
the niins of this church were found in the ^ir
173(1 several Christiau sepulchral sl.bs ofm.;'i'le
belonging in part or eiiMrely to the 5th ccnta y
(Le hhtnt, «. 5 t. i. pp. 39 sqq.). Tlie two
, I'.-ii'Jwinpr arc Uinongthe most important: —
j (1) Flovivs Fiori [ni's] | ex tribvnis qvi vixit |
I Ktfjinta ■■•t I septim miUtavi (sic) mn. \ trijinUi
"A tujvem pjsitv fsic) ) est ad saiwtos et pro \ lx\tn
annorui:., •Ixiin ] et octo hie commemo | ra [t'm fit]
santa in edcsia Lvgdvnensia I id Calouhs Au.i.
(Le Blant, no. 41), ''
Date probably of the 5th century, the a id
(ante diem primum) for pridie being a formula o(
that age, (See Le Blant, «. s. p. 338.)
To Florinus, a tribune, buried beside the tombs
of the saints or martyr? of Lyons ; entered as a
military probationer, when eighteen years of
age ; mention'' ' during diviue service in the
diptychs, or li >{ benefactors to the church.
This inscrip^.an is interesting as nientioning
the military profession of a Christian. Othtis
have been diligently collected by Le Blant (m.s,),
(2) fn hvc loco (for h\tnc locum) rcqvievit
Levcadia \ deo sacrata pvclta qui (sic) litam |
svam provt proposverat \ ijessit qvi tixit a/iuoj
xvi tantvm | boatior in duo condcdit meniem \ jist
consv Thevdosi xiii. The chrisma between two
doves facing each other (Le Blant, no. 44).
Post consuhitum Theodosii xiii. gives a,d, 430
for the date.
The qui twice occurring as feminine marks the
transition to the French qui.
Le Blant's remarks on the three forms of
Christian burial in France ai)i)ly to se])ukhrej
in France of an earlier date than the 8th centurv.
There is however another class of tonibstocei
which he does not notice, belonging, in part at
least, to a somewhat later time, but not al-
together too late to be noticed in the present work.
Le Men (in Jievue Arch. vol. xxix. p. 89, tor
1875) observes that at au ancient periol, about
l*"'. h, 9th, or 10th century, it was cust ■'
i' ' -ver Brittany to mark the graves oi >■
p- ■ persons by a long stone set ir.
gnniiid having the foi-m of a pyramid or
cated com', often channelled from top to botti i,
sometimes surmounted by a cross of stom', aiv
frequently having a cross patt6i incised on oii.
"^.y
•''U
fiice.'' They
some few rec
i'.rc vury n i,-,-
liii'ian and
•Jt'ibbs (Ci/ 11
■";-,OI;nt of 6(,,
i vL?. one or
c.M'ly as the £
they aii "n': •
to a'- certain ti
Sl"AI.N.-.-A
chral inscrip
removed from
staiices under
been recorded.
ir Hies of inter
the count V w
All the f'iire
occur here .ii.'ifl
Op'.ii.iiiis I'as
Villafrau: a ^b
ti.Ds'ructed of
niai-i.le slab, b
Imes, dated by
(Hiibner, Inscr.
Christian ccmei
rosa, about half
(Ilurco). Full
brought thenc(
century, are to I
We have an e
sanctuary at Al
is an ornamenti
bishop Gregory,
chrisma, combiin
a circle. On e
One above anuthf
mences with the
shews that the
mediate connexi
standing in the
century by kin;
which was'proba
a more ancient
Fine sarcoj)hagi
subjects, probabl
have been found i
et Sarago.ssa (Hiii
Germanv. — Fc
follow, we are inc
Augsburg there ii
quern dudum Afn
soleum sibi suis
writer of the 15tl
following some n
lies buried in a sa:
similar to those of
of the present cei
contain a plate oi
Roman uncial chai
cation of Christian
suffered in the Dio
' Ruinart on Aug
- sarcophagi of
'- i-iption whatev
•Si. Gereon and in
At Trier likewise
of SS. Paulinus and
' Christian symbols
f«iinion, In the depai
'tOdan and Stutbs, vo
'. gives A.D. 430
linine marh the
TOMBS
to :^.ertain I'eir ^v? '^^ll ™''^^' examination
stauces nn.l.T which tht v „ ' I V j''^'""''""'
been recorded. Jtis, ,,, I'u '^"""'^ ''?'« ="'
ir Hies of intermt" ! .h ' "m'',''""' """ '^e
vSii.,„„„ ., cSLh'hz:"'"'-'"'' "
rosa alir.i f h.^ie i uistovcied near Asque-
sanctuary at Ah.la'de, Kio^ S vCe th"r:
:.:abivo a^n^h^f ^W:t«"iptio7 '"h^'r^""''
mences with the word/''r hi' ♦ ' ^'^ '"'"■
shews that fl,„ """^ tvmvlo iacet,"
snews tliat the appus was once placed in im
mediate connexion with the eravp If •
standing in the chapel, de,liS"in th ^S
century by k ng Ferdinand to thi" GrcJorv
which was probably erected on the ame sfte as
a more ancient chapel (Hiibnor, «. Tno 6oT
tine sarcoiAagi, sculptured with cHntumi
subjects, prob.bly of the 5th or 6th cen u !
have been found in the n-r,.* „f century,
at Sara^ossa (mCXTn:[l''r ''""'
GERMANV.-For thefewnotices ^/tombs which
;s£r zrair s'sf ■ ■'"•
caZ" rr-i" ^l-^-o^t^^. but without any fnd^
sun.iea in the Diocletian persecution. ap<'ordin<r
^Rumarton August 7, 'a.d. 304 'rh r 2
sarcophagi of the same kind without anv
TOMBS
1977
'J<taaadStubb».vol.U.p sSinote. ^'^
and the references^ At .i,„ ^^' ? ' "'' ^^>
Blant observes o....;„.. 1 '""'" l''"™' «» ^e
Christian and ;„,. n t-m,." ™""""^ '" "'"«''
nfiL /• |"ig.in tombs were mixed- nn m.o
va tttTo" thi'Tf ^^ ?"'«' "^ "hite-m?.r°b
againlt "hl^sfd ' ah Ifd^ "thi:.''^',"" "'^^
iatheformofarooJ\ii^„^^^^^^^^^^
eo«in(the„£„/^y^£^-wo^^
e.or.;:f^(^------.^;^c^
and from it our modpm n.,ii " ^'^'/' '^- -"; .
8 " ' '"•'■ '■"""■ "'■«• -feA rp- J»-
generally very rude i^ fo,™ "5 "'~P'""-^''"»'"'<
most part of neirlv fhl^ -"e oui-suhd, f„r the
pests (Hubne^ «. ,. nos. U, 21, 102, ij),^'
1978
T05ID3
nsed lor stiles, or bridges, or door-silla (lliibner,
U.S. nos. 17, 29, lul).
Tho number ipt' Cdrnl^h pillnr-stones bearing
inseri|iti<ms I'liliuij within our period, whoso
Chrintiiiaity can bo touuted upon, is extremely
small. (See lliibner, u. a. nos. l-i;2 ; Haddan
and .Stublis, Cuuiicila, vol. i. pp. ItJJ and 10.).)
In Devonshire there aro no stones indubitably
Christian bL^arinc; inscriptions ; but stone
crosses not insiTibod, which are considered to
be Christian, occur in several places hero and in
Cornwall.
In Wales, pillar-stones with Christian inscriji-
tions .ire much more numerous. On one of them
Paulinus is commemorated in two barbarous
hexameters ; he is presumed to be the bishop of
that name who liveil abnut the middle of the
6th century, .nnd who taught St. David and St.
Tilo at his college of W'hitland. Another men-
tions IJncrt, who is supposed to be tho same as
SCIiElPliAL
1*
Eirimadrine FUUMtone. (Stoart.)
the last bishop of Llanbadaru in the first part of
the 8th century (Haddan and Stubbs, Councils,
vol, i. pp. H34-1G9, 625).
In Scottish and English Cumbria there are
very few inscribed tombstones whose Christianity
is certain, but uninscribed crosses, some orna-
mented, have been found in churchyards in
Cumberland, in Wigtonshire, and about Glasgow.
TOMBS
At Kirkmndrine in Wigtonshire, however, there
was in tho obi churcKyard a stone bearing lii^
chrisma on the upper part of both back aui
front. On the front tlie A W oi is placed above the
chrisma, which is enclosed in a cinde, and beluw
it, " Here lie the holy and principal priests, ^.e,
Viventius ami Majorius." it is probable thai it
is of the &th century, and commemorates priests
connected with St. Muiau. This stone, aD^i
another bearing the chrisma and the name of
Florentius, were lately useii as gati- posts in the
wall of the burying-grouud (Ihibner, u. s,
nos. 20.'), 206 ; iluddau and Stubbs, u. a. vol. ii
pp. 51, 52).
nmmm
'\T\mm\i
,|«miNNii
I'MHIHmiF
The B«wca8Uo Oroad. (Stepheiu.)
There are very few pillar-shaped monuments
inscribed in the Anglo-Saxon language; ons,
apparently sepulchral, has been found ne;i.'
Caraelford in Cornwall, but the meaning of the
inscription ha-- not been ascertained (Hiibner,
u. s. no. 16). 'ihe Saion tombstones .are priucl-
pally of two kinds — stone crosses with long s;m
and short urns near the top, sometimes highly
ornamented with
scribud with 1!,|„
crosses very simjl,
below), and vith
Sjdendid Kunic cro
than one of our ear
to Oswin king of
rejlds only " A/tei-
Collingham, V'„rksl:
Cumberlan.l, was e
A.D. 670. Tlie top
have been broken <il
teen feet and a half,
been originally mo
b'l)on it are ligure
lamb, of the .Savio
a bird (hawk?). (
are vine-bram 'les an
also Kunic insi-riptii
wliere tho figures
longest in.-cri|)ti,.n oi
heiicon (pilbir) was
mimed " nftcr (to) \
mil of Osif,/." The
cross is prelixed, is
till." A third, the l.'il
is to Kadulf (A.D. 70
ment only remains,
is lun.i 'A'mlu/f's ,7,
Mijrehih mule nw, 11
Stejiheas' Hunlc Mom
A more humble, but 1
any of the foregoing,
a cliurchyard by som'f
grave. Its date is si
and 7hO, and it rea.
Cunibnlth; God bless
unother cross, about
fnun I at Kalstone N'or
iuscn'ptiou written t\
in lioman characters;
a-oss found at Dewsl
a Saxon inscription, w
tei's, it probably bel
cent- 1 y. (See fig. p. ;
request prayers for th
phens, n. s. i)p. 375, 4o(
Sarcophagi were not
S.uons;°> one of the ,
Greek cross on the sidi
at Dewsbury (Fosbroke,
p. I:i2, with fig. from G^
The lid of another, roii
beirlug a peculiarly for
inscribed in Runes, Ku
discovered at Dover (Ste
,oi' H"rtlepool, in Durl
iVii, the cemetery which
church of St. Hilda. Se
7?), some with Runes ai
icriptions, were dug Tip ,
thirty yards distant fro
horc crosses, with or w
athor the name of the i
Milition of a request for
!>ome are sai ' to have
fMii half >...>,wthe sui
"5c a piiiuw under th<
■ For two Roman sarjophae
K Christian, see ScoiPToaE.
Tojins
-- very .„■;:;■<:■:, :vx"^^irr''
below), ami vith r,.,i„ •''",'," ""■ 'nsh (see
Sl.lenJid hLc L^XZ """''•• '■'""■■■"•t.M'».
than one of ouVea 1 lin'?.'^'"'-''' '••'•'••^*'''' """'»•»
reads ou V "/</•/,,,./»„< ,, . . . "■ '''1. now
Cumborlan.i, w„s oreete.l t^k n 'a .f rtrT' ''.'
A.n. b70. TI,o top and both u-ms ,f h ""
have buen broken oil'- it. ,, . . ""- ""^•''
toon fc.„t and , ha and t'^^"" ^"'^'' " *"""■-
L'l>«n It are fi.rures of John »l i. ■ '"^''■
lamb, of th. S^Wom- „n f ' '^"'f "■'"'
Ugost m>..Ti,,ti„„ on this side tells ntb.f .1
l^^acon (pillar) was ere..ted bv tl,"
named " after (tn) \l,.('n',K ^ ! " '"'''"""'
cross is pro u-d t . ;' ""''' '" "'hi^'h '•
Stephens' /,■„;.■,; Alonu.uJ/, ZmZ ^f-u
A more humble, but better ./e.ed ol ', /k ^•
any of the fo,.g„ing, ,,„ fiu^d t .an;," ^i;:
» churchyard by son.e .„en who were dic^in,/^
another cross, about aT' 700 ♦ '^'^•JS"^?' "^
found at KaKt;,ae NWth'lb'eHind" h s^f T'"'
inscnpt ou written twip„ '''""> ,n«>' ■' .S;u.,u
i» noman eharac'rs' "nd s^'-irnf"' t°
O'oss found at Dewsbuiy in U i .' ''\"' "
«quesi pr^,ers f/^hfso;^. of" he'rad'rs^te^
plu-ns, „. s. pp. 375, 456, 464). ^'^""
b^^'nu? a peculiarly formed cross, on with ^s
inscribed in Runes, Kitil Urnn llth ;
di„datDove.'(^^::.t^^?^--
At Hartlepool, in Durham, ^-as foind n July
J.'), scne with Runes ard"sie"hf Uifm-
Zr::r\ <|"S«P about one bund ! ,a'n"j-
uirty yards distant from the church r\!
Ja half °X " ^r '^".""'' "^'•«« f-^o'
.? "'','.' '■-'"^^ the surface of th» =oil -u-h
"^^•apuiow under the head of "a' .keletoa
TOMBS
197d
t."c^:L:rr„.:;;r^ '" B:ng,„„,.p,3umea to
placed north and south r\, i
^va. only a foot „ ... n'^""' "'' ""'■»«
a half by h " a, a : U- "T^^"'' ''""" ""J
';• (-• II) Ujciit ons thit iKo a ^ •
times burie.l the dead in / t'-"""' '"""^•
P<'''haps allude to a il "" ''"'""■'' "'"' '"'y
'"■the boria of Scbl '■'''"";."' "' *>'" ■■"■'•""»'
(St-phens,".; ..p''^"*';,^:"!:'" the Kast .Saxons
tn.elthat'stoneiLcHb,;;':^,' . " '"^'^<^' '^
should be oriKinalK , 1 i r ''"' ""'' " ""*■."
Saxon tombstones with f „n„ i '
occurred in variour,„r\s f l""?'''"""'" '""'«
in Vorkshire. On t'v , 7 ^-"■^'^""'' """'tly
of a cross we ha e Z^T'"'' l-'-haps ph-ces
abbess of Hacln..,,. , .u'"'" "' ^^'--lill'nrga,
invoked f.; her r^s: r^ I'*''-\P'-ayers fre
n;;^ofthe«thc:^:;;(|^Z-V'?ts^"{^;r
&SS'--»=n.ii:;rs
Xd5te£tS^
Killpeacan f„„v T I"™'' h?ve been foonC at
Tippera V ,?„ i,n i"""^' '° ♦'i" ^"""'y of
^"i-o/«n^dah:;!"^^h::f;^:^,r'"«
in? letter as above H ' ?'"""'' ^"i^- 'ho.se bear-
sopnlch.-, hor ' ""V^PPW to have been
ii«S™^^^'--Si:^
-oni:mrt ' ctsin^Harrb'- -' r^"'^''-!
been sometiu's find ■..£''' T^"''' '^^"'
m:n2errtTnTh::;ruSr„tr'' "1^ »'"" -«■
«hlre, it Is supposed to n"tjTh" '''.''™'''"'=^-
letters on the other sWe ANmVm 1 "'"'"'^ '"«
plained (HUbner, « , no m" ^ ^' """^ ""' '"=™ «"
i. : ct eterr; '"'Z 'ru.™ ' T"'^ "^ ^'""'™- "-«
which was , , ,ralt 'f™ "^ " ^'^ ''"<^"''" '^''"''h
eays Dr. S. i, ku,C • f '°'"""'' " ''"'a^ "'ones,"
dL-U of th- 1^^r\ • l^T"'' "' "0'se8.an<l the
terraces, give an apwlrr.ff^-'"'"'^ '"PP""'''' '"e
1980
TOMBS
alwajrs laid flat upon the surface of th» soil, or
in thi! lliHir nf a church or other saen- 1 building
ovtT the body of the deceased. The bi h?f reijuest
which most of them contain to ]>ruy fVr the
deceased seems to shew that they could not have
been buried along with the corpse, but niun'
have been visible to the eye, Tlie gnater par;
of thi'in have Ijeen brolien, so thiit it is imi
siblc to ascertain the dimensions act nrately. ^
few are nearly perfect, and their dimensions are
approximately as follows : — 27 indief by -0
(vol. i. pi. xviii. tig. 47) j 32 inches by \6
(p'. xix. lig. 49); 40 inches by 'JO (pi. .\liii.
fig. 108); 5ii inches by 20(vol.ii. pi. w. tig. ;!");
33 inclies by 12 (pi. xvi, fig. 34). The gr^at
ancient cemetery of Ireliind was n Clonmacuois,
or Cliiaiii, la King's Couniy, and jirinces and
nobles desired to be burieil there for the sake of
the intercession of the patron su:nt Ciaran, who
built the monastery at that pbic^ .ibout the year
544. An aucicnl Irish poem , , miks of men
" sleeping under the Hugs of C'lii nn." Many of
these tiags of line work h ive b cr met with in
digging graves and durin , I'ccnt excavations
(.Stokes, u. .V. vol. i. pp. 4, 5} Another singularly
beautiful stone, probably ol about the 9th cen-
tury, the time •' ^vhen lri>li it was at the
highest point, still lies half-buried in grass in
the churchyard of Durrow " in tlie same cuinty
(Stokes, u. s. vol. ii. p. 57). At Termonfcchin,
near Drogheda, in the county of Louth, a native
stone was found in the clay floor of the c* urch
when it was excavated about ten years ago. It
bears a Greek cross, and a very early Celtic
inscrijition, entreating prayers for two persons
named, " who made the stone fort " (Sti>l.u.-i, u. s.
vol. ii. p. 70)- Some sopuirhral stones. were iis-
covered in a church of the 12th century at
Mona-incha in the county of Tipperary, which
appear to be greatly older than the building
itself, and may have been laid on the floor of
an earlier structure on the site (Stokes, u. s.
vol. ii. pp. il.'i-37). Miss Stokes remarks that
" while the standing crosses " (none earlier than
the 10th century, as it would appear) "through-
out Ireland are much alike, there is a marked
dissimilarity in the sepulchral slabs found in the
different ancient burial-grounds throughout the
country " (Stokes, u. s. vol. i. p. 8). These were,
in perhaps every instance, marked with a cross
of some kind. Sometimes a simple Greek cross
Tombatone leadli.;: Culnuui tiie Poor." (Suiked.)
precedes a proper name, as that of Colr.tan at
Clonraacnois, who died A.D. 661. The Ogham
following the name answers to the Irish word
buc/d, i.e. poor (Stokes, u. s. vol. i. p. 16 j.
Sometimes an ornamented Greek cross has a
circle about the centre, and each arm is termi-
nated by a semicii'ciei as that of Coloiuban, u ho
TOMBS
died A.D. 828 (Stokes, u. i. vol. I. pp. 16, 1«,
id. 1. fig. .1; see also Vol. 1. p. 847). Bv* the
l)eiuli'<T!y l.rs.i ' ^rm is the Latin cross having
a c t!' Ill/ nt the i rre, of which the .iirlitst
p I i ct e!ia;o|i! • seen ou the slab ol Ouindless
.It Clonm .' nolo ; he died A.n. 724 (>tokes, u. i,
V"I. 1. |). 18). Crosses, both Greek and 1-itin,
are sometimes enclosed in parallelogr.'uiis. Kur
the various details of ornamentation, see Stokoa,
U.S. vol. ii. pp. 138-140.
liespecting the tombs of other countries, n
very few words must suflice. In most of them
they apiM'ar to be of much the sno'e genund
character as those wh! !< ,'. . . .dremly
mentioned. There are ctppi in Egypt (lioeckh,
no. 9131), in Asia Minor (W. no. 9165), as will
a.s in Greece and the adjacent islands (W. no. 9,J11
sijq. nof 9292, 9299). Sarcophagi appear to
have been general throughout Asia Minor (id.
nos. 9206, 9264, 9283), and have been fniud in
considerable numbors in the cemeteries of Cory-
cus in Cilicia (ii/. no. 9163, with fig., siicj.). Tiny
occur also in Africa, one sculptured with the
Good Shepherd between sheep Keiiier, Inscr,
Horn. <k I'AliU'rif, nos. 2293, 4031).
It IS curious to observe that the columns of
the peristyle ^t the Parthenon have Iwen
converted, so to say, into Christian tomb-t"ni's.
Upon tliem are inscribed in situ a great iiuiiilnr
of Christian epitaphs, the earliest of wliiih
appear to be of the 7th an' 8th centuries, while
they go down as low as tl' 14th («/. nos. 9iio0-
9421). Their geh lineness, however, has been
lenied (Hitter, de.Cump. 'lit. Christ, p. 2).
Cemeteries were attached to cliurches or
monasteries in Nubia («/. no. 912:^) and in A.-ia
Minor {il. nos. 9249, 9268).l burials in churi h. s
perhaps occu red at Constantinople and in Tho-
saly (I'l/. 9447, 9424),' but appear to have hwa
rare throughout the East generally, at all evculs
in early times.
Tombs excavate 1 in rocks occur at JerusaKa
ail 1 elsewhere. On the side of the miMiiitiiia
culled the Hiil of Olience facing Mouui /j^u, a
series of subterranean chn ibers have been cut
lit, each ciiiit'iining one i more repo.sitories for
dead, ' ed in thi ick of the i-ides ol
tii. .• chambers. M. Clermont G;miK;..ii has
lately disco'ered here several small sarcophii?!,
or rather ossuary chests, some bearing Hehnw
and sni;i» Greek inscriptions, in which the mime
of • . dc -.ised is accompanied by a cruss ; th'
he thinks, are almost coe\al with Christianitj
in Palestine (De Rossi, Hul/. 1874, ])]>. 15o-lJ8;
Quart. Statem. Pat. Expl. Fund, 1874). Orer
the entrance of some of the"; i iciires are Greek
inscriptions, to whicl crjsst- are Usually ! re-
fixed. One of th. s over ^he door of the
chamber approprin ) J' '"iniah, a monk if
the monastery of The (/(?. no. 9139).
These tombs are hout anient, and ars
supposed to be ea, ..r than .- n.i other sepul-
chres at no great distance from them at Accl-
1 Hamilton (RetearcheiinAiia minor, p. 3901 ."iiystlut
the columns and capitals tn this burial-groun<l ut .Nofn
Kl^tii fii (tslr.ti.'i r,-p {Jy^aritiri.'. Th'"!^ t*'ni)>4 ir-ii" h v.^
been of a considerable size.
' The epiuip'n at Constantinople Is upposed to be
of about tlie 6th century. That at Liimia in Tiiesiuly
of about the 4tli. (juery: Are they in their origiiul
sites?
damn. In som:
probably be ol i
are ancient p.ijji
of tlie chambers,
others with nini
Travels, vol. ii. .
441-44.1). .S,,,,u'
Syria (IJiieckh.u.
Asia Minor (W, n
(no. 94rji)).«
We have aiid oi
monuments of a .s
memory of Chris
of the enijiress He
Ic'um at liimie of
emperor Coustauti,
domes; of the cru
I'lucidia at liavcni
leum of Theiidoric
for these see Ciia
known works of I
where figures will
few otiiers still ,
mausoleum of St.
of gigantic size, st
not far from i.c a
Callistus (Oe lioss
tern. iii. ji. 405).
considers to belong
other companions r
above the cem'eter
he.vagonal form and'
"■'•f ')• Hej;
dfs. nocu by St. On
nal form surmoiinte
472). It cm bar
more Christian ,t|
architectural i-luuin
are several iinperi
5th centuries (i.,r
c. 4) direi tod ai;,iins
general; one ,.(' Com
tiou of columns am
Constantiiis fiie d..,!,
sejuilchral buildings
laws were issued ti
without religious disf
spared no expense i.i t
see tlie j.assago from
B. Objects
The Christians, in c
ncinhbuiirs, were in th
■ '..jjects ill the tomb
A Christi lu motl'-e is
selecti. u, .-ilthough to
been inn i... need by
Many of them have
muntioued [ODSi,.^uiiij
a variety of jiers.m.il <
the toilet are ainoDwi
""inly foun.l. The wi
■hiis placing gold
became Indeed everyw
taperiai , iict, ftiough
■ '-■ ■••.:;:! mciltloiis til
catacombs of Rome are to
In the Cyrenaica, and tht
oo'urs In a chamber pjccavi
(Km. Sou. vol. i. p. 100).
TOJIBS
(no. 9450).
•-"'" '" '"'"le of (Jou.taiitia, a duu^'htei- nf fl,«
for the.,^ soe CllA...;!., C.iuncil, nl»o ,V v'h'
known works of Hub.soh, Quast ,wH%W„'^,'
« g.S..„t„,. si.e, stands beside the ''.pa UW
B. Objcota found in Tombs.
.i^f^'lf""""^' "'.'^"""""n with their heathen
its contents: ,. ve"^ Z^CT""^ T"T "^
3r..c^„ ,,.„une Mhei;:o^s -; , ^ ..tted n,. with .o.T ;;;;<- .r.'ar:";:?
t,„; Li — ' -"""""u niin tneir neathen
neighbours, were n, the habit of ph,ci„g a Vade ?
-jee . n, the tombs „f their departed fri i |Y
^1 ■u''ri,r''K " ^°T'"""-^ evidentin h ■;
« vanetv of p„>. . .1 ornaments and ar'ticlef of
till]" -'-^^^ttbe objeet. Ist':;,"!
niy K'lin.l The waste to whi. Ii fho oustom
! y "' ^ ''"*' «^»"S'' not always enforced, was
! r~ "■
^f ^"'i'"'"' ."':" P'""™» "1^ "i"«e in •
aaorned wi.h .^n^^l^lj^^^'^ -f'-
-a and ^-^eCt (^':^rl:'^^^":rs^t;;:
gems, earnnss of precious ,t«„ ,aHl L s of
So,_oo, ,,„otins Sarins i King, GnJics T'J''
^.-.ndi^Si'r'iot^f'r'*'' r^^
nteut'^'of 11?,' ''"' '''^- *•-• the'spl nd d
c^itMonbs a ,• concerned, these objects are euii-
meruted under Catacombs, Vol. I. p 8 + sl
nK Mnrtisny /,,V;. ^„t_ ^hret. nde bbie s
■ Vi-o/i. 5o«. t. 111. p. 3o:., for iun„v.ssiou,
abbe Greppo pos.sessed ^ sil,4l- hair'-Jin\f^U
• \'20 M • "'• P'- ^^'-no- 5, and vol.
posel of tvn nn'^"': "•'•^' ^ 1""'^""'. com.
r ■ rcle of . ry^-^^'""^-- J"i«<l together by
a iirtle ot gold ornamented on the ed<'o with
the''t:rb'': 'm"" '"V'''"'^' -^^ d^coi^a ,
HO.NORI I MAHIA STILICIIO I SEIiKVA I VlVATm
ontheothersTiucao|sEj.N-;.n,l;^l;:™'
1 EnCIIERI j
ViV.iriu
I fteu .,s as i,rie.ts were accustomed to combfC
1982
TOMDS
hnii- li. fore ci-k'bvatiug the Kiii:h»ri»t (Xfartlgny,
U. a.'i I'ULIlIp'. •. V. I'crti'lt).
Vi'stiiii'UU aii> nlwi l'iH.|Ui'iitly fouriil in toiiiliK :
for Miii'hi si'i' mIiiivi' ; Uir I'uiHt.iiitiiH', vin, was
plai'<Mt ill a gnl'l ciilliii, I'liitla'il in t\h> iiii|iri'ial
)iiir|ilu ami iiavini; a >liii<lvni i>ii h\» hua'l, hi'o i.us
Vit. t'unnt. lib, iv. i:. Uii ; aiiJ t"iir Cliaili'iiia;:iii',
tthu \v< (Iresned in liiit innieriiil rolics, see Ar-
chiicfili'.j, (, u. s. Military men Wfif ImriiMl ia
military jfainii'iil.t ; St. (Ii loan wai I'lutheil In a
niililii'r's [lUiple cidivk anil bl.u.k lijatluT bi'lt
(t'MHul, '(. s. pji. 9J, 11(7). Sit' mure oq this
Biitiji'ct Ki-'ierally uuiler OiiSKgLua or Tin;
Dkau, § V. p. U:;:^.
TliM insljjiiia (it'olllci' of those interre.l therein
have i'l"t' n bucu liamil in tiinibs. Sebcit, kiug ul'
the Ka>t Anijles, ua-> buiieil with his royal riibc»
anil tluiiiib-rinj; -et witli a ruby ; while Churle-
mii^ne liail lii.i sw'ini i;irt at his siite, au<l <i|i|>o-
fite to him were susjioniled his guMen i-ceiitre
ao'l giilileu shiel.l, whiih had been oonsefrato.l
by iiiiptf Leo III. (Archticoloiiiii, u. ».). Ki'eli'siasties
wei'i! also sonietinio buried with the synibula nf
their olliee. lu the last eentnry the tomb at
Clonmauuois of St. C'iaran (died A.u. 544) was
opeiieil, and nnioiii,'Ht other things his chalii'e
ami crozier were found therein (Stolies, Iris/t
C/trist. Inscr. vol. i. \i[>. 1, '•'>). A pectoral cross
of lead and a small ctialioe were fnund among
otlu'r objects in the grave .t liirinus, bishop of
Dorchester, wlio died A.I). (i.)0 (Siirius, do Vit.
SiUict. Ilec. 3, vol. vi. p. 220, Ven. 1081). And
when the tomb of St. t'uthbert, who <lied C87,
was opened in the 12th century, an onyx cha-
lice was di.scovereii besiile his boily [C'iiai.ick].
To descend to peoi)le of lower rank, impleinents
of hamticraft, some of which have been mistaken
for instruments of torture, have been fouml in
the loculi of the citacombs [Catacomiis, Vol. 1.
p. 314].
Laini)s, pottei \ , and glaas of various kinds have
occurred both in the in-ide and outside of tombs
in many parts of the Christian world [Oata-
COMIK, u. s. ; Lamps, I'OTiKttv, Gl^vss]. Bay
leaves have also been found under the head of
the^corpse or elsewhere in the collin ; they were
placed there in token of triumph over death
(Martigny, u. s.).
The instruments by which their sutferings
wore inflicted were sometin)es placed within
the tombs of martyrs [see Ohskquies, p. 1434],
Mavtigny has collected references to other in-
stances. Leaden rolls containing the acts of
their passion have also been found buried with
martyrs (Boldetti, Cimit. pp. 322-324, and tav.
ii. no. 3).
Perhaps the only other objects discovered in
tombs which need be mentioned hero are coins and
medals. The first Christians, says Bosio, when
they buried martyrs, were accustomed to bury
with them the coins of the emperor under whom
they sufl'ered {Rum. SM. lib. iv. c. 31). This
may explain the finding of coins of Diocletian
in the tomb of Cains, bishop of Rome (a.d. 283-
296. Boldetti, Cmrt. pp. 102-3). But in a single
tomb of the cemetery of St. Agnes, Buonarotti
counted move than ten coins of dilferent emperors
of diiVerent times (Buon. Vetri orn. di Fiij. Fref.
p. xi). Rm' m money of various periods has
also been fiuu 1 in the Christian tombs of Gaul
and Germany (Le Blant, Tnsc. Chr(ft. de la Gaule,
t. i. pp. 210, 345; Boldetti, Cimit. p. 644).
TOMBS
Colni and medals have likewiso been loen fixed
ou the outside ul tomlis In the cata> ombs, peril ips
for the sakt nf r^icignltiiai only (limai <).iMrr<ii.
adjira ak: ikii: I. referred to by .Martigny, u. s,
amiing other aiithoritirn). Tlieir iiiipre^siiinj
have s.inU'tinieH remained on tlie mortar, clearly
shewing thti typot, after the coins have vanished
(De I ia«i, Horn. &,tt. t. lil. pp. au3, 3011).
C. Si-ht .VepiUi:hr,il [naorij^tions.
(.See alsoCATACOMim, Vol. I. pp. 303-4-7-8-11.)
The small collectiiin here given has imme liati;
reference to the artiilo on JNSciiirno.ss (V'.pI. I.
pp. HH-H62). Those which are there lii^uivd
(pp. H4y, «t7) will all be found written out aad
in some cases translated below. They »» 'lo
selected ml■^tly with a view to illustrate the
dilferent styles of palaeography and the dilli.Teiit
synileds exhibited in dilferent epitaphs. They
likewi.e serve to illustrate the general subject
of the ]'resent article, which contains a few
ndditiiinal figures; one having synibnls nut men-
tioned or represented above (pp. 847, 848). Tho
folhiv/ing selection and the examples already
cited in this article have been chosen to illustrate,
so far as cuuld be d.ine by a limited number, the
various points of interest which epitaphs preM-nt,
such as their dilferent ages, styles, graioinatia!
peculiarities, contrntions of words and iiiiidesnf
dating, as well as for their intrinsic histiaiial,
ecclesiastical, or doctrinal importance. Thus
the three earliest known dateil lascriptions, all
in llonie, are here given, as well a.s the earliest
of those ill (mr own ciamtry, which belong
to the latter part of the perio.l comprised in
this work. Examples of tho varied forms uf
cninposition will here be found, ineludiiii; the
mo^it ancient, wliich have much in ciinunun
with pagan epitaphs, and those of several deiiiiite
Christian types which dilfer in dilferent countries.
A few instances of the solecisms, incorrect s|iell.
ings, and peculiar uses of words as well as n{
the contractions of words (see iNSCiili'Tioxs, §§
V. vii.), occur in tho epitaphs now given at
length. The different modes of dating by oiu-
sulates, post-consulates, indictions, eras of pro-
vinces, reigns of kings, or cyclic perimls of time,
will also here be exemplified (see M. s. § vi.).
tl. Italy.
1. (De Rossi, Inscr. Urb. Rom. no. 3, p. 7.)
Found by Boldetti in the cemetery of Lucina
on the Via Ostiensis.
8ERVILIA . ANNORVM . XIII .
PIS . ET . BOL . C08S .
ServHia, 13 years old, (buried) in the consulate
of Piso and Bolanus. — Piso and Bolnniis were
consuls A.D. 111. Tho earliest complete Chris-
tian inscription yet found.' The place of finding,
the omission of D . M . and the simplicity of the
diction, unite in proving that the epitiph is
Christian. After this no datpd Christian in-
* Only two earlier are given by De Kossl, both very
incomplete: one, .v.D. Ii, a fragment n:- -'■'■:■; !'■■>
burials In one tomb, from the Catacombs, p 15 only
[KALf A]VO , VESPASIANO inCOS. || . . . . [K.M- .'] US .
(p. 1). The Other, a.d. 107, from tho cemetery of
Lucina, reading in one (the last) line n. (i.e. anu[oriiml)
XSX, BTOA . ET . SKKEC . COSS . (p. 3). *
•criptli^n of Rcme
ever) has been fuu
a- (I'e l{..>si, „.
St. Jurines.
Tl. CI.. MAIICIA.NV
dlLNKLIA. llll.AH
L"JHNKI,IAK. fAVL
nx'R. (fecerunt")
(dies)
vi/l. pe:c. (dccess
VBU. COS.
A fish and an an
L'rbanus were i,,]
Claudius Marciann,.
nuiiiimi; they ha\e
»ny Christian epiti
the 3rd ceuturv. T
bearing Christiuu sy
3. (De J{os.si, tl. s.
INSCKII'TIONS, Vol. I
cemetery of Satuinii
Jiaialed in vermilion
separations of winds.
L(ilin Inscription i
KOCOYAE KAVZ
NfiNEIC
NOBENBPEIBOY
AOYNA XXIIII
AEYKEC 4)EAEI
CEME noCOY
EA EICnEIPEIT
CAN Km TOYO
PnM LV
EA MHcnpnN
Or, in Roman chara
KOSVi.K (consule) klv
1:D (et) PATKIIXO NONi
NOBKNllRlcmOVS (N(
BK.Ni:iii:s (Veneris) i
LKVKIS PIIICLKIK (fill
Hi;ssKMK (carissimai;
ED (et) ElSl'KIRKITO
8ANKT0 (sancto) TO'
tua) ANNVOHO.M (ant
ED (et) ME80BO.V (me
nim) X.
In the consulship of {
the nones of ^^ovembcr,
Kriiiny, Nov. 5), M,' h
I'Oices (Lucens?) crec\
Awj/dcr, Severa, and to
ajjcd filty-fite years, elei
Date A.D. 269.
"The infieiions of thi
appear also in an epit.ap
Its Greek origin, alinosi
rseters in which it is
July 1864, p. 233). Th
tw has its parallel in ,
JIt<.'aiil, Christian ICpitai
This inscription has bi
Lupi s special treatise th-
tor the mode of datiii
Md Prolegom. cap. De CJ
' The mention of the persi
Pneral in pagan Inscription
Oawe among Christiana.
TO.MBS
TO JIBS
1083
Tl. Ct.. MAIICIA.VV8. ET
CltNKUA. IIILAlilTAS. '
VIII. ..re. (decesslt) x. kau av(. mat ..,
VKII. CDS. **"*• "**• ET.
A fish niid nn anchor liulnnr »t ,
UrLam. w...,. n^!:: /J T' 8.4 " "^l"; ""'
l^:;";th:ri;;:;';r:.T^"'^«'»<'th^"n
btui:, (^:Sm 41;;;''" ^'"■'"''' "-'•''""•"
l«mli(i in veiniilion: the DolnUH. n . ^ '
/;.<//« /mcn>/,„„ ,•„ Gf^,,^^ characters —
'K^E^c' ^^^^^'" EZi OATEPNO
'°aEIT^S^ ^^"^ BENEPEC
'c^M^^ n^^c'o'ilr^^HPE KAPEC-
EA EICHEIPEITn
''pnK/''^'" MOPTOYA ANNOVn-
EA MHCnpQN XI /iEYPQN' X.
Or, in liomnn charu'ters :—
KOSVIK (consule) KLvnElo (Clandio)
KD (et) PATKIl.VO N<,NKI8 fnonis) ^
KOBKNiminnovs (N„vombribus) deie (,r..^
ED (et) EISl'ErRKITO (ispirito Vot • ■. •^
tun) ANNvono.M (annoiuDi) i v ^ ^
'"■■Sx*"^'"'" (""-'"^'""'^ -^''>^^-v (.lie-
In the consulship of ClauduLo n«,? d t
^n„htc\ &.,«.a, U7/4 hoi ll ^%*f rf
pt^atr^t£?S¥?
this inscription has been rende'red f„m , i,
Wi8s,«.cial treatise thereon """' ''^
for the mode nf .-)atiii.> --n n- r- ••
£'^:zz °f,SfoTbu?Lr^ro;:'^, '<'- -
V„t ^1 ."«!'."• *• °°' 2''. P- 27. Engraved lo
S. I ' . •*'\> '•'"""' '" ""' '-enu.t,.rv of
afl, 'r;"","' ";""^'> '" "^«''lthotal,l,.t-\va!
' t| X It,, the l,„„l„,, to which a bloody (?) ve»»el
Simprteh, who ten, „ho xrctl »,„«,,/ fie ai
b ."K « a ,in,,,Ie dl.j.oMtion), dU-J on tlu th^.
a!d: '"is! """''"'^'"'' "/ -^:'"^<"> w (/.,//„; (i.e.
name .see IN8oiii,.„on8, Vol. I. ,' 8,vJ.^^ ^^
5. (He Kossi, i(, » 11,, ii<|)\ L._„ . ,
D M
LKOi'ARnvg yi;i yiXIT [A.NXOS 1
l;r MKNSKH N (,„„„.■.„) X. ..TO k (Reddidit)
EI.ArV8 tsi VIII JDVS AVO. [OONS 1
AVO ■ ■■'
The great interest attaching to the fraement
Mani«^y,W:^;'l^«^
»''sly oxi,lH.ned; .ither as being enijravH bV
tonecuttei-s on th. blank stones in adnrnee
hefoie they were .,,1,1 (or aetual uso,„r as?re!
£.S:;i-ii^--:i,S::d
pvjost, is from the cons'ula/e of some en,:
Ltatu- .r * 'r'""'"y of Callistus an,l Prae-
one bee';, fC% ^ •""'■^''' *"''''^*- ^^hich had
once been the side of a sarcophagus ; the orieinal
■nscription having been obliterated \~ ^
mwtius)Heraclms, quifuit m .v^lum (sae-
culo) an{nos) xix, m^enscs) uL uiies) x.^kcft
.tr.Tl/"tr^ ^-U.)S pa'reSeO
sm ct jlio suo benemercnti in viact) Decesit
corns (consuMus) (i.e. Feb. 7, a.d. 338).
disS™' Zl-J''''^"^ ;°'° ''^^•«" ec'='esinstioal
a a -e^fier . !k°"' ""'' H"n''lius was attached
as a le.ider to the second of t hese.
iliis in.scriptinn she"-" tt ,! - en
j^^^poHitslandma^ks^:;;;^^^:;-™-
chr mrr,^f .?''''''TJ ^''"^'^ '^^ '^yn'l'ols of the
chnsma (of u„u.ual form), the dove, and palm-
P 84ti ■>"' ^^i \'- ""• ^^- ^"Sraved in Vol. I
P- JHb.) l,rom the cemetery of Theodora.
1984
TOMBS
Constantio Awj. II. et Constanti Attg. [Conss]
Nonis Veccmli. Vtaudianua dumit in [jiuce] (i.e.
Dec. 5, A.D. 339).
Princiiially remarkable as a piece of rude and
hasty iialaeiigraphy on mortar.
8. (L»e I^os»i, Hull, ai Arch. Crin. 1863, p. 17.
Engraved in Vol. I. p. 847.) Discovered in front
of the siiuare crypt in the cemetery of Praetex-
tatus, Koi) 3.
Bcatissimo 3Ii.iriyri Januario Damasus Episco-
pus fee t.
Date of inscription determined by the pontifi-
cate of Damasus (A.D. 366-384). (Jauuarius
was martyred in 3u5.)
from a few fragments De Ro«si happily re-
stores this inscriiitiun, which iy - 'itten in the
beautiful Damaaine chai-aiter.
TOMBS
later period by Pope Symmachtts or Vigilius, or
Jolin III. (a.u. 4ti8-o ( 3),/y«>ici m tlui cemetery
of at. Cultistaa.
The restored inscription itself, beautifully
written in vermilion, required the restoring
baud of De Rossi, who has pieced all the frag-
ments together, and has thus obtained the whole
epitaph, with scarcely the loss of a single letter.
In addition to this, nine morsels of the original
inscription written in the splendid calligraphy
of Damasus, ov rather of his artist Philoealus,
i wpie obtained, and their places were of course at
' once deterndntd from the restored inscription
(De Kossi, «. s. t. iii.). This was one of those
epitaphs which was known in MSS. from the
transi rijits of Alcuin's scholars.
The restored iniicription is bounded on all
Fragmdnts of orl^al Damnsinfl Inwrlptfon to EnseMai. (Pe Rnpsi.l
lEVSEBIVSMISEte
f^BAyk^V^SCQfVS^^EClT "i^-
" iiminaflere/ ||
^AKrESI^PyLY^(35sCENTFVTidKE^ / 1
SEDlTIOGdEJ^BEU^nkC^DI^ '
LCYMREGTORS &YMlfco^EgiU^
IEYiSEBIOEPIS£OPOETMAfeK.I
Thp HAmf Iiiwrlptl n re-t>re-1. (r)e RosmI.)
9. (De Rossi, Roma Soft, vni ii. p. 191 sqq.
tav. iii. iv. ; Brownlow and 'orchcote, Eotn.
Sott. p. 170, pi. ii. iii.).
Epitaph of St. Ettsebius, biakop of Xoine (A.D. 310),
composed by Damasus, but restored at some
les bv two others, in the second of whiffe i
the !■ 'ers are plr.ced columnwise below each
o'liev. Above and below we h.'4ve : —
+ Damasvs episcopvs fecit | Ersebio episcop «l I
martyri.
On the right and
Fvn'irs Dionysivs Fit
mixsis fiappac cvlt
For Damisis pip/
mipnpac, a phrase C(
{u. s. p. 2ilO).
The te.\t of the
ccrrui)t, runs thus
are given below:
omitted on the stont
" Her.iclivs vetvit Ii
Evsebivs miseros t
Scinditvr [in]"pai
Se.litir., oaedos,'' bt
Exemplo j),iriter p
IntOijra cvm rectoi
Pertvlit cxilivm [c
Litore T[r]inacrio'
(a) Ithsos. (I)) sum.
in the Diimasine fra"
visible, possibly orij
have iieen obliterated
The whole may b
•bllows :
"Damasus, Bishop,
Bishop and Martyr."
" furius Dioni/fius j
lover of Po))e Bainasus
^ " Ileracl'us forbad t
tins. /Cuscbius tatiqht i
for their crimes, the p
and u-ith increasing fur
fyi'tihy, discord, and
[the i.ope and the hen
cruelty of the tyrant
preserving the bonds of
his exile with joy, loc
j'like. and on the shore (
and his life."
The inscription (tran:
Brownlow and Northco
the .'severity of Heraelius
would f;iin close the d
apostates, in contrast w
of Kusobiu.5, ,nnd to the
po)mlace about the mati
10. (De Rossi, Imcr.
graved in Vol. I. p. 84;
ofCommodilla, Rome.
Petroniae dignae cojw
amis (aunos) xxi. et fci
I. dies V. [Dqiosita est} I
ps (post) conss {consu
hquiti. Crsus maritus t
fecit. Ccsqnet (quiescit) i'l
The year after the con
'he year after Gratian's
"niler ;)75 a.d., whea (
(DeRossi, M. s. Proloi. p.
svmbolise conjugal alfecti
'Win is an oranto.
11. (Do Rossi, Inscr.
mm the ruins of the I
ina Via Ostiensis.
OAVnKNTIVS PRESI). 81DI
frcoNrvoisvA! .jkverai
TOMBS
On the right an.l lefti
Ftrivs l>!,m,jsivs Fihcahs scribsit fscrinsit^
nutsis mnnmi «•// /„.... . \ ^"1""^;
TOMBS
Da
m^isis pappac cvttor „tqvc- amaM f amator)
(Tfp 200) '" ™''' ^^ °*''^'' authorities
The test of the restored inscription a little
coHMipt, runs thus when correote, th'e e rro
are gn-en helow : the. letters in brackets are
omitte.i on the stone. "racKets aie
" Heracliv. vetrit lapses' peccata dolere,
tv.seb,vs miseros aocvit sva" crimina Mere-
1985
v
l!.XL'ni])
lo piriter pvlsi feritate tvrauni,
Int.^n-a cvm re<tor servaret foedera piu-i,
Litore l[r]inacno> mvudv-m vitamq. reliqvit."
(a) W«o.. (/>) sum. (<,.) in, omitted here, occurs
-Ihi! "'-ir ♦^'•''^^"'•'"t'- (rf)m.rf.onlvnov
-.Mble, possibly originally caede. (.•) d nmv
have been obliterated. (/) Tinacrio.^ ^^ ■
follows:' '"^^ ^^ "I"'^''^"' '" English as
';Dmmms Bishop, set up this to Eusebius
Bishop and Martyr." -^"'toiMs,
"f'urius Vioni/sim Filocalus, a worshivmr and
lover of Po,>e Da.msus, wrote this." ^^
" ireracVus forbad the lapsed to grieve for their
Prmeit crmies. The people were rent i,,to parties
anduM mereasinj fury began sedition, slfZer
p:l''t.:^'J, discord, and strife. StraidLn, htl
cruelty of the tyrant, althouqh the pope ua.
pmcrung the bonds of ,^na iLolate.^ffe bore
hs exile unth joy, looking to the Lord as hh
&1^" '"'^'^^'•^ of Sicily gave upLZoHd
The inscription (translated as above by Messrs
Brovvnlow and Northcote, u. >. ,, 170) refeA t „
the seventy of Heraclius, who foib.v -"g NWian
wouW fam close the door of lecr. . iliatTon to
apostate^s in contrast with the ...o.cH'a endue?
of Kuseb.us, ,nnd to the excited feeiingsTf thi
populace about the matter i„ dispute. ^ '
,}l:^ vTH ^"'"■- ^'*- ^'"''- f"- 251. En-
graved m Vol. I. p. 847.) From the cemetery
oftomraodilla, Rome. ^cmeiery
Petroniae dignae cojugi (sic) que (quae) vixit
mis (annos) xxi. et fecit \u,i Lp^TeVilZesi
Zn '' (oonsulatus) Qratiani tret
Zf'r '-'T, "Y"-'*'" «'■*' «« ''^'^enti compari
ficit Cesqwt (quiescit) in pace. ^
The year after the consulate of Equitius and
'■"«;«"" Gratian's third con^uhrVS
5eRo;?/;%^^^' '■'"^ ^--^ -° --^-i
vmbol 1' •• ^^7'" t P- '"• '• The two doves
f/om the ruins of the ba.siliM of st P-u! in
inaViaUstiensis. '"
FKMINAE QPAF VIXIT ANN. XLII. M. „I D X
i>".:::Lt(i:e.'';.n. 389^"''''^ "■'■ ''^''^''" «"<^
in Home, In whi'h?^ n|a the wife" T T''^^
i^ the speaker, occur the "t if^l'Ll- "™"
^^mlV.PT'' ^''"■'""'«' f''"^' P^oris,
, Farcite vos laorims, dulces cum conjLe natae
Viventemqiie Deo credite Here nefas '
J, 1 etronia, a deaam'i n;t r u i \
IS sinful to weep for one who lives in God
Jb^-.^tr^ai^Slt^Pr-^-that
'nined in the same tomb in a.d. 484 and An
KT.vcn-s I. P.M^c;r(cSe)^;S;^-j'
Ci/CT,w sow <o ^nny« ap/ace/or three bodies
^here both Cahilius and Lucius hid alreadTb2
n^^
flAVDKNTIVS PREsn. SIDI
Remarkable for the accompanying symbols-
the chnsma, the balance (cf. Dan. v. ^7) the
f'A, the Jewish candlestick (a Jewish frneral
ornament), the house (the last dwelTiL ace S
the departed), and the mummy (LazCs ?)
I n 84- ^^^■ ^°'''' '.'■•'• °- ^*^^- ^'g""-'^ in Vol, L
p. 84,.) Engraved ,n a small tabeila coemeierialis,
fuund m s,tu attached to the /oeu/i« in f" »
RZt' "' ''• '""^"'^ "" *"« LTbt: v„;:
dered'l'""'^*'"""'' '''"="Pt'«° ""ay be thus ren-
^c,m e< rfi^s (tern et novem, perii septitno cajl.
das Augustas, Hmorlo sexies Auyusto.
1986
TOMBS
Sv.vies. 3c. consulc, i.e. A.D. 404-. Peril h
pi'oiialily ii preterite; but TfXfUT^I occurs in ii
Synicusau inscription, A.D. 408. It is one of
sevcrnl pagan words whicli survived in Christian
times.
De Rossi does not give the size of tins little
slab, whoso breadth does not very much exceei^
its height. Mr. Burgon remarks on the great
ditfcreuce in size of the early Christian grave-
slabs in the catacombs of Home, "some three or
four feet long, yet ranging in height from a few
inches to two or three feet, and some only a few
inches across, either way " (Letters from Rome,
p. 175).
Remarkable no less for its rustic palaeography
than for its rustic spelling. '
2. France.
1. (Le Blant, Tiiscr. C/iret. de la Oaule, no. 58.)
Lyons, in the underground chapel of St, Ire-
naeus : —
PROCVLA . CL. FEMINA
FAMVLA . DEI .
A . TEURA . AD MARTTBES
Considered to be of the 4th century ; punctua-
tion capricious.
Famuli Dei. This expression, though occur-
ring elsewhere (see Vol. 1. p. 8-4-8, b), is found
in the e)iita]ihs of Gaul and Spain only, and
seems to bo therein applied exclusively to the
dead (he Blant, Manuel, pp. 10, 11). The last
line indicates that she has joined in glory the
martyrs beside whom she lies buried.
2. (Lc Blant, u. s. no. 145.) From St. Kloi in
Upper Normandy, where eight other Runic in-
scriptions have been found : —
riGOMIR : SKN : HAGES[S]
IN : FRIIiDE :
K0NOUN& : CLOUDOOnlQ
C0N80UL :
(fn Runic characters.)
Ingmnar, son of Ilaijen, in peace. King Clovis
being Censul.
The date is A.D. 510. A confirmation of the
statement of Gregory of Tours ; " Igitur Chlodo-
vechus ab Anastijsio imperatore codicillos de
consulatu accepit " (Hist. Franc, lib. ii. c. 38).
The absence of the n.ime of Clovis from the
Consular Fiisti had caused Gregory's accuracy to
be doubted (Le Blant, u. s.). Perhaps the ear-
liest Christian Runic inscription whose date is
known.
Bonle Epitaph, itated b; th« Oonsnlau of Olotiik
3. Spain.
(Hubner, m. s. no. 117. Figured in Vol. I. p. 847.)
A long marblj tablet fumed in an ancient
TOMBS
wall near Arjona in ."^pain : remarkable for the
manifold ligatures of the characters composed.
(1) -I- JIARIA FIDEL13 Clin(lST)l IN VITA SUA
(2) H(U)NC DILIlJENS LOCUM, IUIQ(U)E SUSIMCM
M(AN)i;NS? ET R(E)liUS?
(3) QUATL'OR DENI UNO SUPERVIXIT ANNOS ;
CUM rEN(l)Ti;N-
(4) (ti)a ue(j(e)ssit in pace d(ie) vn id(us)
MARTIA(S), SEUUNDO R-
(5) ECCISVINTI REONAN(TIS) C(UM) PATr,(E)
rR(lN)ciPl3 ANNO. (Hiibncr's te.tt.)
-f Mario, a faithful servant of Christ, v/m
loved this place (a church ?) in /ler life, and tliere
at last remains and reposes (read requiesccns rather
than rebus), overlived fourteen years by one * * *
(month or day). She de/xirted icith jienitence m
peace on the ninth of March, in the seconi year cf
Eeccisvintus the prince rcignimj with his failur
(ChiiulasviTultis), i.e. A.D. 650.
This appears to be the sense of this puzzling
inscription. The second line may possibly
corrupt i in the third is some omission.
4. Germany.
1. (Le Blant, m. s. uo. 226.) Found at Trier,
now in the Museum of Porta Nigra:—
UIC AMAN
tiae in pace
hospita c
ARO IACET.
Two doves facing, the chrisma enclosed in a
wreath between them.
Here the pilgrim body of Amantia lies in peace.
The letters are neatly foi-med, and also the
birds : perhaps of the 4th or 5th century.
For Amantia see Vol. J. p. 853. The be.mti-
ful e.xprevsion hospita caro implies that heavpD
is the Christian's true home : and the same tiling
is more directly said in the Ad coclum praeiiwii
opes in an ejiitaph suspected to be written bv
Venantius Fortuuatus, who uses various enuiva-
lent expressions (Lc Blant, U.S. no. '218).
5. Great Britain and Ireland.
1. 'Haddan and Stnbbs, Counc. and Ecrl. Doe.
i. 164 ; Hiibncr, Inscr. Brit. Christ, no. 8:;.) Oil
a stone found at Pont y Polion, Cardiganshiie,
in five lines : —
8ERVATVB FIDAEI
PATRIEQVE SEMPER
AMATOR mC PAVLIM
V8 lACIT CVLTOR PIENTI
SIMV8 AEQVI.
Meant for two hexameters. Paulinus, the In-
structor of St. David, was present at a synod in
Wales held before A.D. 569. An inscription in OH
Welsh relating to St. Cadfan and king Cyngen
is in n similar stylo find about the same dat«
(Haildan and Stubbs, «. s.).
The other early Welsh Christian inscrip-
tions, presumed to lie between A.D. ,^iOO and
700, are very short and mostly barbarous. No
prayers for the dead in any shape occur In
any of them ; little more th.an a ' ic facet (often
barbarized; and the name of the pj-rsun fauric.i,
the name of the father being sometimes added.
The stone sometimes has a cross within a circla,
Three will suffice for this place : — (1) Poriw |
hie in tumulo ja<
On a stone bear!
cnmpanied by a
centre of the st(
inscription in (
flius I Cunoceni (
peculiar form. (
eon\yeries la\pid
(Pastent) only.
1«4, 169; Hiibne
2. (Bentham's
p. 846.)
" Found some '
EI7; the stone w
base of a cross ii
and 14 in. thick
part is a square
with lead another
and then broke ol
in a cross. The ii
of the stone is this
. . . Only one I,
the rest being puj-e
Sow in Ely Cathed
achiis magni meriti)
dreda, whom he aci
on her first niarri;
H- E- iv. 3). H,
reason, thinks this
169).
3. (Archaeologia, \
■ •T. Kowler in For/!
with more correct fij
eRb
ld(
Saxon Eplloph at
Found some years
Dewsbury, Yorkshire,
7 fl'^'mingwav. Frai
ot a cross (apparently)
<»; frur inches across
10 ija-xoii (modified Rom
•• . RHTAE DEICUI
film I DDAD D j AER 8.
U. or A', set up this ii
£" (™"nument), aft
'd jor the Sua.
J^;^li>ro^v name is ;
W 7th century or son
(»•»• p. 464) observe.
•^HniST. ANT.— vot. ,.
flXlT ASNOS;
IE) VII ID(U8)
enclosed in s
TOMBS
com,,aaie,i by rfon/.T """""■ " "'''"^'^ ('"^-
centre of fh7st„ne -fn,. ^.k''"'"'"'^ •*"^° the
inscription „rhal"'' I' '^ f fl'-'^^^'^nt (?)
(Ws<«,0 only m„,n '"^r ••''^" 'he n«me
9 ru '""'',''"• «• "•■ pp. 14-55.) '^'^
^2.JBentha™-.i7y,p.51. Figured in Vol. I
in a cross Th! ' • • P^^ably terminated
if Sone S„"!!:'l'"°" '^''-h fills one side
TOMBS
1987
tKX^Vt:^"*" "-«»-- than
p. 847.) '^^ ' !"• ^- Engraved, Vol. J.
I + LVCEM.TVAM.OVINO.
DA.DEVS. ET.EEQVIE.
. AMEN.
octo „^rU rnenti) was the stewarJot' eZ"
3. {^rc/5a^o%!a, vol. xxxir. p. 437, pi xxxv ■
S««on Epitaph a. De».bur,. (p„„,„,.)
<'facr«s,(apparentlv^d, fk . * I'l'l'"' «""
i»Sa..n(rnodified"Rra;),SinC;„£!
hni,. \V., "'"V' "A"^ (nn account of^ /A.
A^zlt: '^ '■"Pu"'"""'- ''■•"'"'b'^ of
ki , ^ri\ T "^ «"mewhat inter. Stephens
Ob do Cholumbos.
!.<?.. Pray /or CWot/Aw.
There is HtulCu .t l^i': ^IhT^T '"J""''
whose death in a.d rAi^t, ""^ ^"'""'banus
'laeni, /bbatis Clon< •''":;.''''"''„"'" ^''''•.''-
where a monastnrv- ,vnJ c > . '-''""""onois,
The.r.u,;t!^>„::TS:i:r^rs
Clomn'ici' ; Tit tZf: '"■ '■ P-i^>' '"'^ «'
epitaph of an'abbat "d edlTm \l 'M'"
»wmn )oLr,c r I/™-' ^"^'^M fir an.
Sr=:;--i-p-fVt^-^-.::
6. Gbeecb.
1. (Bockh a I. G. n. 9303).
Island of Salamis in Greece.
+
7OIKOC AIWNIOC
ATAGODNOC ANA
TN l^A! EYctHMIAC
.^N AVCI ©HKAIC
lAIA fcKACTU) HMOON
f ^tZi^ TWN lAICUN
61 €T€POC TIC TO (A)
MHCH COJMA KATA
©€C©£.| eN TAV0A
HAPeZ TCUN AVO
hMCxJN AOrON ACx)
H TCO 36Cx) KAI A
NA06MA HTtO
MAPANA0AN
!fll
I,
-" 4-1
1988
TOMBS
TOMBS
2. (Biickh, 11. .1. n. 9439.)
Thessnlunica—
Ka\6Ktpos Vlait(S6-
vt K( ' KaV) iaifftyeviif, roil
yKuHVTiiroii yai/eti-
(Tin, T^ Koi/irjriipiov Has
hvatniuTtuss. A fish below.
Caloca.-rus made this for Macedon and Sosi-
fjcnia, his sweetest parents, as tlieir resting-place
(lit. ceDuiterji) till the resurrection.
The form of the letters (often lignfed and
Bcaroely ciipiible of being represented by types)
and the style of this beautiful inscription are
considered to point to the 2nd or 3rd oeutui-y.
•
7. Asia.
Bockh, a T. G. n. 9148.
Kzr.i (Zorave) in Syria : above the entrance to
a mausoleum.
rEPONTlOYII yVXHIl CWZECOU)!!
Afnij the soul of Oerontius be Mved!
A very uncommon formula.
2. (Hackh, «. s. n. 9180.)
Corycus in Cilicia in a cemetery, on the lid of
a .sarcophagus, upon which are four crosses.
fl^KT) Sia<p(poi/\\iTareopylov\\KVfyroKa\\iri\ov (cor-
rected text). Staipepavffa is often joined to
B^K-ri and a<iijj.arodi\Kr) in various Asiatic tituli j
it appears to moan particular or peculiar, i.e. in
whicfi no other body must be laid. KvproKairriKos
is a fishing-tackle seller. The trade of the
person buried is frequently named in the
sepulchral inscriptions of Cilicia and other
provinces of .\sia ; thus we have a brazier, an
oil-seller, a patter, a seaman, and several others.
The inscriptions of Corycus appear to be of the
5th and 6th centuries.
The most curious example is from Ancyra m
Galatia, where Theodorus is described as being at
once a presbyter and a silversmith (Bockh, C. I. G.
n. 9i.'i8). Dr. McCaul gives L.atin examples from
the catacombs of Rome of the mention of the
secular position of various persons buried there,
as count of the household troops {comes domesti-
corum), lawyer, prefect of the city, physician,
baker, gardener, ex-quaestor, prefect of the
market, keeper of a public granary {Chnst.
Epitaphs, pp. 28-36). M. Le Blant, therefore,
must be understood with considerable limita-
tions, " Des indications courautes sur les epi-
taphes des paiens, la filiation, la patrie, la con-
dition sociale. la profession . . . ne figurent
point, pour ainsi dire, sur les inscriptions chr^-
tiennes de langue lotine " {Manuel, p. 20). The
inscriptions, however, ' where a profession is
named, seem to be nearly, if not always, later
than Constantme.
Representations of tools belonging to particu-
lar trades liavp been mentioned above as occurring
at Aries, and there are other examples in the
Catacombs at Rome (Martigny, Diet. a. v. Insi)-u-
meuis).
Slaves and freedmen are occaiionally men-
tioned in Christian inscriptions, s 'me of which
appear to "op very ancient, one is criainiy iiefore
Conntantine ,,Le Blant, /. C. 0. ton, i. pp. 119-
121. De Rossi, /. C. U. B. u 5, d ited a.d. 217.
£dinburgh Ecmew, u. s. p. 240).
8. Afbica.
1. (Renter, tnacr. Pom. Alijifr. n. 3701, p. 448.)
Orl^ansvillc, Alijeria; designed in mosaic in
the pavement of a basilica.
MIC REQVIES
CIT S.A.NCTAE MKMO
KIAE PATKR NOSTICR
RKI'ARATVS E. P. S. QVI FE
CIT IN SACERDOTIVM AN
NOS Vim MEN XI "JT PRE
CE8SIT NOS IN PACE
DIE VNDECIMV . KAL
AVa PROVNC . CCCCXSX
£T SEXTA
//I'c requicscit sanctat memoriae pater noster,
Jieparatiis episcovus, qui fecit in sacerdulium
(sacerdotio) annos IX, menses XI ei praecessit
nos in pace, die undccimu (undecimo) Kalcndas
Awjustas, P'-ovinciae [anno] quadrinjenteaimo
triccsimo et sexta (sexto),
" Here rests our father of holy memory, Re-
paratus the bishop, who passed in his ))riesthooJ
nine years, eleven months ; and went before us,
in peace, on the eleventh day before the Calends
of August, in the 436th year of the Province,
«'. e. July 22nd, A.D. 475." (McCaul's Transl.
u. s. p. 37.)
The years of the secular life are entirely
omitted, those devoted to God alone being men-
tioned. (Le Blant, Manuel, p. 10, who refers to
many other examples in Gaul and Italy.)
2. (Renier, «. s. n. 4026.)
A marble slab, found to the west of Cherchel,
near Caesarea, in Mauretania.
IN MEMOBIA. EORVM
QVOBV.M CORPORA IN AC
cvuiroRio HOC skpvi.ta
SVNT AI.CIMI CARIT.ITIS IVLIANAE
ET ROQATAE MATRI [s] VICTORIS PRESnVTE
Rl O.VI II. NC LOCVM CVNCTIS FRATRIB. FEa,
(fecit ? see fecerun above, Italy, n. 5).
Remarkable for the word accubitorinm (i.e.
public cemetery or area), and also for the word
sepnlta, which has been thought to be unlinown
to Chri.sti.an epigraphy. [IsscRIPTloxs, ]). 851,1
Perhaps of the 3rd century, to which several
inscriptions in this region belong.
3. (Backh, C. I. G. n. 9114.) .
From Kalabscheh in Nubia.
[E1N0AKATAKCEI]
TeHMAKAPIA
oicAYPiAereAew
0HMA0YPAIN
AIK (««• Ug.) H^eCANAHAV
CONTHNTYXHN
AYTHCENKOAAI
niC («oA>ro«) ABPAAMKAI {Utt.lig.)
ICAAKKAt (nsl»fore) lA
KUJBrENITO
AMHN t
Here lies the blessed Tliisauril. She ms mA
perfect on the fourth day of the month Aihyr, i«
the eighth indicVon. Ood, rest her soul in lln
ijQc/itrie nf Abrahni^ Isaac and lacob. &^ '''* '■
be I Amen.
Probably of the 5lh or 6th century. Another
very similar inscription from Nubia (n, 9120}.
gives the date (r
the martyrs, \i
489. TheEgvp
these prayerful
the ancient litu
considers that tti
quite peculiar to
Judaeo-Christian
TOVSURE.
the head wholly ,
modes to be herer
the earliest times
holy orders, or to
and an outward
persons who subi
ecclesiastical law.
pretations of the t
ritualists (Amalar
Isidor'. de Eccles.
InstitHt. Cleric, i. ;
was believed to be
thorns. Bede spet
the yoke of Christ
semUing the thorn
head of Christ"
fanciful reasons wh
duced .St. Peter to i:
by Kaban. Maur. (.
fnnn).
The act of tonsur
the bishop in the ca
the case of a monl
mi rikish corona beir
ofa secular priest.
the performance of t
priest of the church
took place (in the chi
and even by the car
adf (Gi-eg. Tur. Hist
and .Syria it was the
to shave the heads of
the monastic profesi
SiMuaiu) ; but such
valent in the West,
"«■ of Theodosius tli
/->•«'■. leg. 27). [Or
It has been stated
ference to the clerici
very early periocj, and
Christian church. ]
ri'gulati(jns do not de
liiler and technical st
merely injunctions to
'Oi'g hair, and have bee
service by eager advo
the coronal tonsure.
.litributed to Anicetns
■digne, II !h. Pat. L 4.
l'"lie Diimasus {Kp, Viii
t-'arthag. can. 4t; Op
P' ''8 ; Hieron. xiii, in
liiis's description of St.
-■!■ the clergy at Cart ha
"l^Mn rataartes compe
''rcrates's degcrintion of
■.'•ostites hair^ when
'i'"nk, iv xpv Kttpif,,
'■>agrius's descrijition
a«rc!anus {Hist. Ec. i
r»> fiy^\
-ft-
TONSURE
Judaeo.Ch,isti,,a orS ^ "'''»• '"'d^.^'re of
theTe^f Sy oJil^ranri:! "' *"" 'f"'
modes to be hereafter mpn^' /T^ '""' "'^ ">*
eoclesiastioal laT jjL ** ^P^'Hioh under
Isidor. (fc jFoofes. Off. i 4. l!„iL ,; • /
was beliP,-P,lT; ' ■ ^^ """'' '•■"•cular shape
The act of tonsure was solemnlv performed h^
oas^:f'V™ T "i''"''' li/theX't n'
me case ot a monk enterinsr a nionasteiv fl,=
nu nk,sh corona being somewhat la ger than tha
ofa secular priest. Instances are 0,7 record of
the performance of the tonsure bv .b„ Jk !•
I'liest of the church with," which fh! """^'"""S
-k place (in the churel of St M^rt o7Tr,:7
■Id ^yna .t was the custom in St. Jerome's time
t;i shave the heads of vircrins on their^L
.h..n.onastic profession IhIZ.X TcTJ
& ,.,-^,;0 ; but such a custom never became Z
ulTfV^t '^^'^''.'^"'^ ^^"^ eondemnerb a
i.™ of Theodos.us the Great (Lib. xvi..,it. 2^/^
T0N8UEE iggg
the admission to holy orders of «!f r
of Auxerre in the 5th century (V^/r""'"
«f Aries in the «tht,,/(Lf2'"r"':
Ihe phraseodgv of some „f .u ' ^'li-'.)
consistent with^-bu d s n t n "' ''"f "«'''' '"
the employment of ,h ,rl , "r"""''^: i"'"'''
indisputable evidence for whihT'L ""^ '''•■"'
mosaic representati:,, "„T's' "A *,''-"""T
l^nvenna (Ciami.ini IV/ 1/ ..'M'ollinaris of
41 of the fourth ;„,;■! f'v W") ""'' '•■'"'•
whichorderedthat-o J,, it;':. ^•''•^■■^■•^).
r.us capite toto, .nferius s 1 ^ v „ h'"''' '"'"■
l-ehnquant." A similar rl .■ ""ronain
C-cil.yuinisext.:":'«;^^f-J^ given in
ihe custom of fK„ .,...'.'. ''•^•^"'•
imnic to the clerical cut of hair date from r
m- early period and are almost coe^l v, hThe
Chnstian church. But the earlier of 7w
-Rulations do not describe the Jurt ip't^
late,- and technical sense of the term b,^ !.
merely injunctions to the cle,4 noT'to
!o.^ghair, and have been erronSypess«in?o'
|"nce by eager advocates of the^'itTqu ; "f
r- r." ^T"''- «"'•■'' "'•«' the d,>ctions
mUamasus(Ap.Viii.u:a 36^811^^:, a'
arhag. ,„,, 4t; Optatus, c. Par^^n \nT^
p. M H,eron. .x,„. .■„ ^j,*. , 44 ,, ;'
S;t^;rrc^^„5r--hi^'-e^::::>
" IW:„a c»«»ri«8 compescHur ad breves capillos," I
PtritUph. .xiii.
Socr»tes'sdeiiciiiit;.,nnf», ».r... ,. . ,. I
^ponate. hai,rwL;;h;-;;e;e^1^i:j":j
m»nk ;,^ ;^.^<^ K€,p(£;u«yos (//,><. Ec. iii iv
*■ ""■ ■"'•• '"• ^^;; the account of
ntuaL;:ri^: tn'Z-l^d V'lh' "^ ">-*
from the Na^arites, i, order that^"! ^' -T*''"
I d.cated themselves to Go •« " .v '"l" ''"-
! distinguishe.l likewise bv f h,. < " '"'^''t he
The resemblance ,„,f '^: ';"''" '^^ hair.
Na^arites cut off thei ha r ^t Z';'"' ^ '^'
of at the commencement / '''"•'*'' "'«tead
^"'- Off. i. 4 Ale," . ,/ /)• "/T^ ('''^''ore, de
p. «' i Ka>'an.'Ma':;;:;'>.,;^,f ;;^%^;dit. Hittorp.
■>■ 28), a theory vS,t,r!r''-',^'f '"'"■■ ''"'■'■
«s possible bui no? uVm," LT;;^, '^>- ^">^''ari".s
wisely leaving the i,.igr„f "hi ^ "'"'''"^'"' ^■^■
question like the nJh u *he toi.sure an open
(*^Vc/c..'oV|'i!5" i .'"9 ■''.f '''^. '^""k "f Job
improbable that either tl,,. .'? '-■""'■*'^' ""ost
cessor,s during the pe,". T',[^'' '" '^''^ »"c-
should have received an . ^? ("■■'^'''-'''tions,
might at any moment k",1 tor' r"'^ "'"'-■'■
i^ientification as th Jeade ' '^'^ '^^'P'^^'''"" «»J
the members of which ,v„,n "■'''«'""» ''"''v,
ment of torture' o;''„rd?ah''"^';^'\" '"""f
express testimonv of H„ ■ " ""^e the
,-ereweretCdlti£'-£-Ja
of the head behig ttd cLrt ''•^"';' '""
crown of hair beiL left fn ' ' " '"''-■''^ "'•
brea.lth this coronaf t n! """' """""d it. In
the gcdden crow 1 h '','*'•'''.''''''' " '" ''* '"^^
,i^in^(isido;::vS'Kt'''''i''^''^"''"^
paiiV!;:;,r:;:-[;-^,'o,,^ure,^
selected to boTrchbi on of T" }\'"^"'' '^"^
668) he was obliJeaT; L"f <-anterb,,ry (A.n.
his hair grow in snob ^""'' "'"""" to let
him to re^c^i Vtl,e / T"'"' "' "-""l'' "^nnble
manner, "rhV,:rr \""T' '" ""^ "»'"«''
received the ton u ' /s?Tn::f-^" ?"'"''"'^'^'"''
~^St'T-''^"S^:;^tf^'/r
^f;; I He Celtic tonsure, known a, Kf 11 •''
in use m the Celtic ,.),„,. TA '' ''"hi' s,
Ireland. It consisted nV^'"™',,"''"''"' "-"i
, front of a lintrw;! "ef K,f J^'t 'i'
from ear to ear The An i i ""' '""'"'
attributed this fo,.m If i "^"Slo-Saxon church
|their«m,on*n-:i<-w'-*^;"'^''''' '" "'« n^on^
i discussed the "sub'iect „♦ V ''^i'^ .'^"''«t '•"eoilrid
SI. Aug, L, otff ,,"°; '""".«*! '""J »v
eii a
'I
f;;
1990 TORMENT, PLACE OP
sure formed the subject of the most Irequent
and violent controversy in England during
the 7th and 8th centuries. There are traces
of the same controversy in France, where a
Snxon colony at Bayeux had copied the (.'cltic
tonsure from the Bretons before A.D. 590 (Greg.
Tur. Hist. Franc, x. 9), and in Spain, where a
tonsure like the Celtic was condemned by Cone.
Tolet. iv. A.D. 633, can. xli. [Further details are
given by Bede, //. E. iv. 1 ; Gildas, EpUt. ii. ;
Aldhelm, Epist. ad Geruntium in Haddan and
Stnbb!", Councils, &c. iii. '268; Mabillon, Ann.
Benedict, i. 528 ; Act. SS. ord. Betteil. saec. ii.
pp. 119-20; Chamillard, de Corona tonsura it
habitu cleric. ; T>?artene, Je Aittiq. E'clcs. Hit.
torn. ii. p. U, vAHt. 1788.] [F. E. W.]
TORMENT, PLACE OP (IN AuT). The only
represontatio-.is if any place of bodily punishment,
beyon'i the ^ravc and in the spiritual state, which
the v. riter Itnows of as possibly within our perio!,
are thi hell of the Torcello mosaics, and tUt
nnmeiT.ns piis or rapidly sketched infernos, gene-
rallv with ministering demons, found in tha
Utreoht Psalter. [See I{l':.sURnKcnoN.] The
writi r counted eighteen in the first half of that
extrrtordinary work (see woodcut). But the
uiitps of both these dnctiments are very doubtful.
It is particiOarly curious in the Utrecht Psalter,
that there (for the first time in Christian ima-
gery as far as he knows) the mouth of hell is
sometimes an actual mouth, belonging most
From the Ulracht Fuller. Hell.
frequently to a monstrous head, somotimos qnasi-
human, sometimes nearer the (ish or serpent-
monster of the Giottesque infernos. The idea may
be derived from (he vision of Er, in Phito's /ic-
public, bk. x. The souls in that alli'gory who have
passed round the circle of the rivers of punish-
ment are aUowed to try to leave Tartarus by
its mouth ; which lets them pass, if their
purgation is complete. If not, it roars horribly,
and the sinnei has to go back and repeat his
circuit of Phlegethon and Corytus. but this
subject is not really a part of (christian icono-
graphy, even of the first millennium. It came
into promiuencc with races like the Lombard, ac-
customed to every form of slaughter and terror,
and also full of inventive genius. [K. S. T. T.]
TORPES, May 17, martyr in Etruria under
Nero (^Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Horn., NoiVer.,
Horn.). [C. H.]
TORQTJATU8, May 15, bishop of Guadix,
one of the seven apostolic Ii ,hops .^ent to Spain
{Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. I'nm., Notker., Sum.).
TORTURE, INSTRUMENTS OF. [CaTA.
CCMliS, p. 314.]
TOUL, COUNCIL OP (T-jllenre Con-
CIL'UM), A.D. 550, held by order of king TheoJe-
TOWER
bald to support N'icetius, metropolitan of Treves,
in whose province Toul lay, in his struggle with
persons excon^'nunicated for incestuous acts.
(Mansi, ii. 147-50.) [E. S. Ff,]
TOURS, COUNCILS OP (Turonensh
Concilia), a.d. 461 and a.d, 5H7. Both remark-
able for the length of their disciplinary canons ;
the first, at which thirteen were passed, to which
Perpetuus, bishop of Tourp, and seven bishops, a
blind bishop through his presbyter, and Thalas-
sius, bishop of Angers, on their being communi-
cated to hiiu, subscribed (Mansi, vii. 94'i-8) ;
the second, at which no less than twenty-sovon
were passed, and subscribed to by Euphronius,
bishop of Tours, and eight others (Mansi, ix. 789-
814). Both were celebrated in honour of ."st
Martin, but the latter was held in his church, iw
though it had been finished in the iutervai
between them. [E. S. Ff.]
TOWER. We have now so long been ac-
customeil to see a tower cither attached to or
immediately adjoining a church, that many poi-
sons would be disposed to make the preseoce of
a tower the distinctive mark of a church, unl
its absence that of. a chiipel. Such, how- vor.
would be a very great mistake as regards th.;
i'hurches of the earlier centuries of Christianity.
Until bells came to be in general use a tcwer
would have served no other purpose in connciioQ
with a church than that of a place of security
for the servants and treasures of the church in
the event of an attack from brigands or enemies.
Towers, therefore, did not in the earlier agos in-
vari.ibly form part of the design of a church.
In the centre of cruciform churches towen
may, however, have been erected rather for
a;sthetio reasons than for any special use, as tiii
raising the central part of such a church obvi-
ously greatly adds to itsbenuty and dignity. The
germ of the central tower m.ay perhaps he fouB I
in such buildings as the sepulchral chapel of
SS. Nazzaro ancl Celso at Ravenna [Ciiapf.l, p.
3i6], built before a.d. 450, where the inter-
section of nave, transepts, and cha-"id is covero'
by a dome enclosed in a low square tower.
It has been shewn in the article Bkll thai
bells, and probably bells of considerable size, wei-'
well known in Gaul and England in the (Slh aiii
7th centuries, and in Italy doubtless they were
kuown as early, if not even earlier. Towers
were of course familiar objects, and it may
easily have occurred to some ecclesiastic or
architect that a tower adjacent or anner.ed to a
church would afford a convenient means oi >«
hanging bells that their sound would travel
freely.
The earliest examples. of towers conncfteJ
with, oi adjacent to, churches would seem to le
the towers of some of the churches at Ravenrr;.
Hubsch(4/tcAcisi/. KIrchcn) as<^erts that thclow,:
part of the tower at the cathed. -»! shews tlit
:• is of the same date (vs the adjacent baptislrf I
(attrfouieu to A.D. 425), bv the fact that A>.
quality and form of the bricks, and the maoDT j
in which they are 1,.;.!, r'c idonti.;al inttietwij
tb* square towf of ri Fr.nncesco (see woodcut)
and the circular one at S. Giovanni Evangeli<t>]
date from the I.ittcr part of the 5th centnrsf
and that at S. Apollinaro in Classe (v. Cm!»c«.|
p. 37'J) from the
church (A.I). 568).
On similar evit
that jjart of the ti
Lorenzo at Kome a
Certainly no one v
tlie character of bi
il.itcs of buildings
the ojiinion uxpresi
earliest documentai
Tl
'4
Tower of a 1
« tower in connexior
v.ould appear to be
Pont'ficalii of the tow
in, (A.D. 768-772) at
bells were placed " t(
and people to the serv
is given by Ducang.
all editions of the Lii
certainly seems to p
ff a practice which )
about it.
In the life of pope
the Liker Pcntif., i,\
chnrch of St. Ancire-.,
panile tt posuit c.'npf.i
if there were some, hin;
nmrkable in the fact i
to strike the bel!. Th,
there are nearly thin
which are of earlier d
the existing bell-towers
""cptinns, of later datf
tion of the construction
"1 the Liner Pontif., wl
letail ui-'on the works
.'wpes to the various ci
make it almost ceitair
Wire, it was not until j
tliat a tower was deeme<
»j-liiinct to H ctiurch ; an
Mer chur,ihes in that ci
<i»y nnturnished with si
churthes (built 827-82'
TOWKK
(h,?t"„„"rr.'f''iY'-"'i''''""' *!;'-'•'""« writer thinks
hat i^nrt ol^ the t.nvers of S. I'udenziana ami .S
(.crtainly no one who knows h.,w safe . p„i,l,
.ne charaotor of brickwork at Ko„,e U a, to
.latesof bu,l,i.nss w.ll be .iisposed to disregard
the opm.on expressed by Herr Hubsch, but the
earliest documentary evidence of the building of
TOWER
1991
Tower of a Tnmcesco, BaveniiiL
(Fruo. UlU»M,AlUriu. «™««,.)
« tower in connexion with a cnurch at Koine
>.oud appear to be the mention in the /Jber
11 (A.D. 758-772) at St. Peter's, in which three
bells were placed "to call together the clergy
«i.d people to the service of G, d. " This JZli
IS given by Dueang,, but does not a , "a i,
nil ed, ions of the Li>,cr Pontif. If genuine it
cer a,„Iy ,,e,„ t ,,, ^„ \^^ in'troduction
♦t,!")-;' "S "LP"^* ''«" ^^- (*■"• 847-855) 'n
cniircti of St. Anure-,, .' c ^nostle " fecit vnm.
j.an,le a posuit c,..npr.nam c„,„ n,«;!..o a reo ""
.fthere were something ruber unusuai and re -
rM \u' u^H^ ^'''*' "' » *'«"""«r being .Jed
strike the be !. Th. fact that while atVome
Soh are r""'-',.*'":;*^ '=''"^'^'"^^' r'.rtio.sof
ivh.ch are of earlier date than a.d. 800, while
the existing bell-towers are, with very doubtful
"7* ""'. of later date, and that no e^arly men
m he LoerPonUf., which enters into such full
is T,l '^' ^'"K^"'^'^ by vhe successive
S i^ alllf"""! ?*""".'=''«•• ^""W seem to
thatTw^ ■"" r''' V'^P^^tivelv late date
ftat a tower was deemed to be at al) «n e...n*i»i
Mer churches ,n that city remain to the present
n-n.ur„ished with such an q.pondage^ Co
churches (built 827-824), Sta. C cilia tnd s7a
part of the original plans ; in the first case, it I,
It has been ra.se.i on the end of a transept
aJ.uL71 ^W"'!''"' "bove mentioned are all
detached from the neighbouring churches W
towers forming internal parts of cl urcl'es of
very early date are to be fo'und in ce a Svna
,. I L ^*"'^b8, from Comte de la Vogiie'a
work, shews the three-storied tower which
form, part of the favade. This chu^ h, CWe
de la Vogu.! says, is probably of the 4th bu?
cannot be later in date than the 5tt century
to the q,h ■. '" «?"'«"th'"-ity attributes
to the 9th century ; here are two western
towers, which, however, do not rise abme the
Towers were, it would seem, built as portions
of churches in England at an' early datlf' a
square tower annexed to the nave is to be found
at Bnxworth .n Northamptonshire, whi.h there
eeTui rt"r' '''"'f'"' belio'ving u/ha,
by the Rev r'^- t'^ll^^ <"• *^^ ^<""'"'' &^'-
JHSt. of C/insttan Architecture, p. lyo) ti...
the existing building is rcally^f an ear?y
date I., the more probable as the head of an
original window in the wall between h tower
and the nave has been altered by the insertion of
to^s'-thu: terT ''''''• ''''''' by'tTotTu:!
IZ' f .u """"""» 'S supposed to have been a
part of the repairs effected after a.d. 870 Xn
hvZ t l""'-^' ?'"""P''= "*■ a '"«•«' is afforded
toiver IS m the centre, resting on four semi-
.•ircular arches. No historicalor documentarv
date from which the period of the erection oY
this church can be inferred have been brolht
U buiul ^ to those of which the adjacent pharos
Another feature these churches have in com-
Dover'TftT'"? f '-«« -^^- measuring, "t
5 f 10 in h ''{P^-''' ^ '"- '^"^ "t "rixworth
\ LL^fl ^V ^^- f '°- ' ^^''' 'limensions much
exceed those of windows of churches of thJT
proportions of the llth or lo;^' nt .HerZ
this ,s wh. is just to be found in the churches
at Komo earlier than a.d. 1000. Windows mnv
be seen in some of these, e.g. the cleres , rrof
S. Lorenzo fuor le Mura f772-7qs ?■> .„T »..
w ndows in the transept ^f St. Sde't^n-
«-i4); which approach very closely in sL
C^K ."'ir"^ construction, to those of Brix."
worth and Dover. In Rome the great wimlol
cCcV'p"''*^ -ith pierced mfrble sTab" Z
Churches ■««-_"« before a.d. 1000, Arch.eotogZ;
vol. XI.). In tngland wood may probably have
served m place of marble, and thf anertlLr^Q
^^,.„,,,, ,,5 ,,„^j ^.^.j^ ^^ u
ransparent substances, or even ^ith glass the
old t7«1' ^"J" *"*=•' P"'""*" ^'"' ^ we are
Ibllt Id «7'.' 'T-'^^'"^ 'y S^-e-l'^'- bishop
«bo„t A.D. 675. It IS pos«iW, that in both thm
mn
f- rsfl
1992
TRACT
cases the towers may have lieen Iniilt with the
view iKit only of hanging bells, hut also as afl'ord-
iiij; places of security for the treasures of the
I'hunh niiil its ministers; some of the latter may
even have dwelt in them, as was so freijuuntly
the case in Ireland during the middle ages.
The history of the detached slender circular
towers with conical caps, which are peculiar to
Ireland, was very carefully investigated by the
late Karl of Dnnraven, and his notes and con-
clusions have been well edited and couunented
on by Miss Stokes, who expresses an opinion
based mainly on the character of the masonry of
tlie towers, and its correspondence with that
of buildings, the date of which can be approxi-
matively fixed, that none of these towers now
existing in Ireland can be believed to date from
an earlier period than the latter part of the 9th
century, lint see Kound Towkiis.
The foundatiinis of two circular towers, one on
each siile of the altar eml of the old cathedral at
Brescia, still exist ; the date of this church has
not bc^en ascertained, but it may be as early as
the 8th century. Hiibsch (Alt - ChristUchu
KInhcn) places it between 600 and 7,')0.
Acconling to the restoration suggested by the
same author the original plan of S. Lorenzo at
Milan comprised four towers at the angles of
the buildings ; this church is hot later than the
tith century.
In the church of Komain Motier in Switzer-
land, which was dedicated iu 751), is a low but
perfectly-ileveloped central tower, and it seems
not unliiiely that if we had more examples of
this century in existence we should find that
then or afterwards, on this side of the Alps at
any rate, a tower, either central or at the west
end, fre.iuently, if not even generally, formed a
p(M-tiou of every important church. We find,
however, in the plan prepared for the monastery
of St. Gall [Church, p. 383] about 820, only
two circular towers, one on each side of one of
the apses, and connected with the church only
by narrow passages.
In the dome at Aix-la-Chapelle we have at
the west end a tower-like building flanked by
tw;o circular towers containing staircases.
Several churches ii\ France of' about the same
date IS St. Martin at Angers, founded in 819,
and (itrmigny-sur-Loire, dedicated in 800, have
central towers.
In the countries where the Eastern church
was predominant towers do not appear to have
been built in connexion with churches until a
late period. An exceptional instance is that of
the erection of a bell-tower at St. Sophia, in
Constantinople, between 8li7 and 880, by the
enii)('ror Basil, to receive bells sent to him by
Orso, Doge of Venice ; at no time do they appear
to have been commonly built. The central
cupola is, however, in the mediaeval churches of
the Byzantine type so much elevated as to pre-
sent something of the appearance of an octagonal
tower. [A. N.]
TRACT, [Gradual, § v. p. 747.]
TRACTORIAE. [Council, p. 475.]
TRACTUS. [Psalmody, p. 1745.]
TRADES (includiag Professions). Theonly
pursuits ab.iol utely interdicteil by the church were
TRADES
those nssoclateil with iilobifry, such as statuary
nnd )>ainting (so far as they inv(dvcd th'i)
fasliioning of id(]ls or the representation of false
divinitins), or those of a directly immoral ten-
dency, such as the theatrical profession, as pr.u;-
tised in these times. [AcTOlW, Tiikatuk.] Ter-
tullian (Jf IdvMat. c. 0), in condemning the trade
in idols, replies to the supi)osed excuse : " Faiio,
scd nou colo," by asking how it is possible "to
liisavow in speech what we confess with the hiuid,
to destroy with words what we construct by our
actions, to ])roclMim but one Oo<l an<l to I'niiki!
many?" The artificer, he allirnis, is even nimo
culpable th:in the priest: "plus es illis ijuani
sacerdos, cum \w.v te habeant sacerdotem "
(.Migne, i. titjH). On like grounds, he condemns
with eqinil severity the trade in incense, a pecu-
liarly* lucrative one in his day; and he cnn-
cludesthat every art, pr(d'ession, and trade whjili
ministers to idol worship is itself a species of
idolatry.
As regarded other ordinary modes of mom v-
niaking, they were in no way looked upon by thij
early church as incompatible with the dntii's uf
the Christian life. Tertulllan, when repndialing
the notion that Christianity involved a witl-
drawal from ordinary society, .~ays {Ai>ul. c. 4J),
" we carry on trades among you " (i.e. aiiinri,'
the pagan world of the 3rd century). Eusi'bius
(/'««!. Evimij. i. 8; Migne, Series UnwM, xxii. ;iu)
says that the pursuits of agriculture, of tin'
market-place, aud of civic iudustry genenillv,
are perfectly compatible with a God-fearin;; lii.:.
The only requirements of the church, indeed, in
these relations, appear to have been honestv au4
moderation. Tertullian (ifc I'atientid, c. 7) cim-
trasts the impatience of the pagan trader umlir
losses, and the eager desire of gain which seenieil
to hold it preferable to life itself, with the
Christian view wliich teaches us to prefer our
spiritual welfare to the ac(iHirement of weiilili
(Migne, i. 1262 ; Cyprian, cle Oral. Ikim. c. 2(i)
Cyprian {dc Lapris, c. 6) states that niauv
bishops iu his time had abandoned their s.a(re'l
profession to seek the accjuirement of wealth in
distant provinces, attending markets, imd even
lending out money on usury: "negotiationis
quaestuosiie nundinas aucujiari .... uiuris
multiplicantibus foenus aueere " (Migne, iv.
183). ^ ^
It is, however, to be remembered that, acconl-
ing to the traditions of the empire, all trades
wore looked upon as unworthy of a free cilizra
and, to some extent, disreputable. It is probabK',
therefore, that in the earlier centuries they weie
largely carried on by Christians. Justin Martyr
(ad y.cruim et Serenam, c. 17) repudiates tiio
notion that Christians should be ashamed ti'
labour for fear of sinking in public estiuKitiim.
The Apostolic Constitutiotis (iv. 11) enjoin that
children shall be taught some useful art. The
legislation of the state, after the recognition ul
Christianity, does not appear to indicate a jester
sense of the dignity of labour ; and the removal
of the capital to Constantinople was followed by
a marked decline in the commercial prosperity'!
the empire. ''The humble and honest occaiw-
tion of t.he shr-.:-Jiss::or," ssy^ Fir,!;--- "-K
treated as a dishonourable profession, *»i iii>
condition was rendered doubly contem|itil'i«. H(
was made the serf of the con—ration in -aii-'ii
he was inscribed, and his iuduttry was t'ensreJ
by restrictions h
in pov,.rtv"(//i«
Cod. Theml. IX.
HexMnieron) says
i« aware that t
audience a good
to their work, an(
him to shorten hi
22). It is eviden
fulness in which
often made coniir
Christian. August
verse of P.salm Ij
ami adopting the
" for I am not a
men " — renders th
" negotiatores," ai
tores, et mutent \
point out that tra
incompatible. He
urge in his defence
his hire ; and that
from a di.stance to
entitled to a profit.
is not the point inq
de perjurio ; " and
not inherent in the
the vendor. Re ad
what he has giver
what h> demands
enim dicere, Tanto
placet, erne." He
acted thus would g
He alijo rebukes wi
phase of mercantil
example, when a sho
for a pair of shoes,
time; but, on receiv
first order asi<le an
(Migne, xxxvii. 886^
In the West, by a'
not be very clearly d
5th century a reniar
in the respect paid t
formerly carried on i
are to be found, es
cities of Gaul, in the 1
themselves in corpor
their interests ((Jui
52).
The following exar
from various collect!
catacombs and elsew
occupations pursued 1
centuries: —
Of a " rationalis
('\ringhi, i. 400) ; of
shields (i7), 117); of i
svi. 14), of silversmit
wpidui-ies, i)otter.s, tan
colliers, and lisherm
AlJfst. p. 18-1.), Mar
(f«<. p. 26) gives an i
of barley, and (p. 28)
linen-weaver. De Ro
with that of a bakei
that ,.f a .* ...j^A^ii , .
found after the huh a
J^elliix patron of the ci
'•wi,' is given bv Mu
»iso epitaphs of one
TRADES
IS rtwnre timt there are present nmi.nir his
^ayama,^ T,x^».) who arc wanting to g,t\lZ
to then- w„rk, a.„l are consequently anx o."7,r
h.m to shorten hi, discourse (Mig„V&Tx,x
f,flts •"'"i.'^'l.'' '""'"^"'"•' '*"»' ">« "n ruth
fulness ,n which traders habitually i„,lu"KeJ
often ,„a,le commercial pursuits .lidlul "or a
Christian Auirustiue, i„ commenting on the 15th
verse ot Psalm Ixxi. (Septuag. Vers. No Ixx )
an; a opfng the reading of 'the Septu'g nt-
for I am not acquainted with the wavs of
men -renders the Greek word »p«warT/i, hi
"negotmtores," and says: " Audianf n.?,t,a^
tores, et mutent vitam." He then proceed o
pomt out that trading and truth-tell ng are not
neompatible. He supposes the ''negotiator" o
u -ge m h.s defence that the labourer is woithy of
hs hire; and that bringing, aB he does, h.s Xs
om a distance to supply a public want, he is
enft ed to a profit. But this replies August ne
de perjuuo and he maintains that the vice i^
h 'vfnlr '"''"''-"-';;'-■', but is the fault .! f
Ih, h r ^- "'^"T" '"''" t° '^"''fess candi.lly
what he has given for his wares, and to a e
what h. demands as his fair profit" "Pos em
on,m d.cere Tanto emi, sed t'lnto ;cnd.,n "
«td ihu^w uif '';■?'' """ t-"J-"'' «■!
acted thus would greatly increase their custom
He aKo rebukes with severity another com mmi"
phase of mercantile disingenuousn 1"; a
example, when a shoemaker, on receivingan ^rj r
f r a pair of shoes, promises them l,y! certa n
time; but, on receiving further orders, puts th"
hr.t order aside and disappoints his customer
(Migne, xxxvii. 886). "'!> customei
In the West, by a series of changes which can-
no be very clearly discerned, we (ill tia in X
5th century a remarkable change ha.l taken place
m the respect paid to labour. Trades and crafts
omerly carried on almost exclusively by^l^^^^^^^^^
aie to be found, esneci'illv in n, ...
cities ofGaul, in the hSs'fce „ n^ .To"uni'{:
emselvesin corporations for the piXtioTof
th..r interests (Guizot, Hist. Oe l\ ftS. i!
TRADES
1993
so.tu. (1 oldetti, p. 4K, :• a "confectorarius "
or pork butcher (Murato, ■ cmliv. 5) an I Hn,l
rom Oruter (ccclxi. 5) that' the " on L oiarii "
formed a cor,,oration along with the " su..r i "or
dealers in swine; of a "capsarius" (M .chi
p. in or keeper of the clothe., at a public bath •'
of a sculptor, with design of his chi 'el and'
puncheon (Kossi, i. 188); of a raiiUer wi?h
similar des gns ofcompass puncheo'n? irb'ruThe,
(Marnngom, ^c<„ S. Vi,t.\. VJM • ,,f ' " |,|i'
measurer of corn, accompanied by d2ns^ of a
"•"^"'ll'^""."^ wheatfand a LaSg rod
I.upi, Sev. EpiUxph. p. 51); of a "fabei " w h
the a.o.gn of a shovel ; of a Chri a^ |T|l
KVrUA 8.LKUC,A.VE, on whose to b "her Is'
pp. -8, m ; designs ot combs (j/,. ,„, oV oo ^ln^
.U^signate " lanarius pectinarius'" FibrVt'ti^X?
Ant. h^plu^. p 574) shews us a poor "co oi.ih "
se'i":; „n"o"f ''''"' (''• 'i'-) S'^-" "^ 'he re "e-
sentatiun of a .sower. Warini {hcnz. Alhm.
p. 188) supplies us with the only known examX
ot a " pincerna," or cupbearer, fh.m.h I.an.i?*/'
ften hi ed by Christians. The " fos.snres." who
prepared the tombs in the catacombs, a e fie-
quently represented by a spade, or some other
.mpement of their pi^fessi^n (hoKlet ^PP 5'/
09,, b5 ; Perret i. 30). Boldetti (p. 184) iives \
« ^ii^'l'^i.!'!.^^^'''^''"'''.- designed, fW
catacombs and elsewhere, whi^h i^li ?;, ^ L
cce.p,^,,,.s_,,ursued by Christians in'^rlue:
rA^Ll" -"Inl'?"""?'" "'■ collector of taxes
hi ;;•;• uT?.' 1 ? ",-"'«i-V' or make" "f
sW la/nf • ^' '■ 'i'"'"'* '■' purple (cf. Acts
XM. 14), of silversmiths, blacksiriithi^ carnenH.™
apianes, potter.^ tanners, tent-make'rs? veav s^
TJ'r}\l^^■^ '"■'*" (^"""'"^'i' delle Arte
linen-weaver. De Rossi (\ 9io\ J • ^ ' '
1« .pl»pb.„f o„ !.„,!,„.■ vLi'l
» I 1- .. : ■ ' ci .liiiueu as aesiirned fnr
a den isfs instrument for extracting terth w ith
an extracted tooth by the side. ' ^
The evidence with respect to professions ha,
militir' ""/"I^'y '''"^"^"' ^igniHcan Th
^p Held in^S^'hoitl^a J^^
Christians in these, during the earlier contuHe,
are comparatively rare. In the leg, , e son
there occur the names of Minucius I'el l he
senators Hippolytus and -^.o In ius ( 4'ldin
Pracj. in Minw:. Fel.\ and TerfnlllJ ^"" V"-
to Eusebius (H. J?. V on wn, , ' ".'t'"','''??
k: I 1 1 « ^ -'' *™* distinguished bv
his knowledge of Roman law. De Rossi n 64^
gives an inscription on the tomb of a rLriittn^
junsconsult, which records that he was ht u;^^d"
hy the friendship of Constantine durincr the
emperor;s sojourn in Rome. The pro^ssbn of
the healing art, often adopted by sh ves, appears
The ":,ne"oV St""L l^T'^" *'""'"'" ^^'^' '^"-
Boldett L 41H ., ."' ""'^' ^"KS-^^t^ i'^eif-
Doittett (p. 41b e< /,ass.) gives a large number
of inscriptions of this class* Reiaesiufgivrthe
ep, aph of one Alexander, a pnysicianf who i,
MATKOr%^T ^"^o^ANOC KAl'nNET-
MATIKOC (SmtcKi. 898 v^ tho l..»t„«
bably denoti..g^ha^ he tllnilValLro}
empirics who in their diagno4 profess to refer
e^ cry symptom to the ,r«,Va. Aringhi (i 415)
g.ves the epitaph of one Timothy, ^ V/^rch-
mtrus" or -princeps medicorum,"a„ officer who
was a so physician in ordinary to the en peror
Christian freedmen appear as discharc^inc in the
service of the emperor or of sen.tons th Irti «'
^POft. p. 250), of "hbrarius" or copyist; of
tabellarms - or courier who carried despatcBes
(Passionei, 124, n. 84), of "arcarius" or trea-
surer, and "cubicularius"or groom of the b2
m
1994 TRADITIO Sy?.iBOLI
TBADITIO SYMDOU
chnmber. Luoian, heail of the " (^uliictiliirli " of
Diochaian'H piiUtcc, wns iimtrumental in the con-
version of many to the Christian Oiith (Tille-
nioiit, lliat. Keel, v. 7, 8, IMd)- •'^'i iuBtani-n of
a Christian hohling the office of " scrinarius " or
keeper of the archives, an important function,
and one involving conKiiler.tliie attainments,
occurs in Annuhi (i. 41;)). The futlier of St.
Basil was a teacher of rlietoric e<|\ially famed
for his I'loqucnce and his Christian virtues.
The profession of a "grammaticus" was not
common among the earlier Christians, probably
on account of its association with paijan observ-
ances (see Sciiooi;8). Oe Rossi (i. VUl) gives'
us thi' ejiitaph of a " magister ludi " and also
(i. Ill)") that of a "magister ludi litterarii.''
The military profession, though often disavowed
by certain sects and by imlividuals, does not
appear, at any time, to have bcin actually for-
bidden by the church (see Wau, and, for other
points connected with the whole subject, Com-
merce). [J. B. M.]
TRADITIO SYMBOIil, the solemn delivery
of the creed to the catechumens as their baptism
drew nigh. We only read of it in connexion
vith the more numerous baptisms of Kaster
Eve, but it is certain that a similar discipline;
prevailed with reference to those of Whitsun
Kve. At Home it took place on a day appointed
by notice in the fourth week of Lent (Ordo
S rutinii, 6, in ^fus. ftal. ii. 79). VVednesdav
was the usual day (Assemani, Cixltix Litnr , .
93, " feiiaiiuarta, sen illaferia;" see Ama': >i ■,,
lie Keel. Ojr. i. 8; Onlo R'in. in Hitto; -, ■
Eecl. Cadi. Off. 31, ed. 1). At Milan t!.( .•■ro
was given on Saturday in I'asiio'.. V'-'i.eS
(See SaiiiiatuM, &c., p. 1K'!7). in '- ,
before the Homan scrntinium and other n. ^
were forced on the national churches {CnpU.
Jiei). frimc. v. 372). Palm Sunday was th(! day
universally observed. This appear^ from the
internal evidence of the "Missae in Symboli
Tr.'iilitione " in the Galilean sacramentaides,
which refer to the entry into Jerusalem (Miss.
Gotk. in Lit. Gall. ■235; Miss. Gall. Vet.ib. 3-tti ;
Sacram. (Sail, in Mus. Hal. i. 314), and from the
thirteeuth canon of Agde, a.d. 5(i0. The lessons
or Palm Sunday in the Galilean lectionary {Lit.
Gall. 127) are obviously chosen with an eye to
this rite (Jer. xxx. 1-34; Heb. x. 3-34; John
xii. 1-24). In Gothic Spain it took place on the
same day (Isid. Hisoal. de Keel. Off. i. 27), but
not everywhere in Spain; for the council of
Braga (now in Portugal) in 572 (can. 1) says
that the creed is to be taught the catechumens
"in the twenty days" before their baptism.
Tlie traditio, then, was some three weeks before
Easter, in which the church of western Spain
seems to have agreed, or nearly agreed, with
the churches of Greece and Asia. There has been
a controversy about the time of the traditio in
proconsular Africa. The Benedictine editors of
St. Augustine infer from his language in Serm.
212 " in Traditione Symboli," that it took place
"die ante Pascha serius ocius quinto dicimo "
(note u. s.), while Martene argues from the same
premises that it was "sahbato ante dominicam
quartan) quadragesimae " {De Ant. Keel. Rit. I.
i. 11, n. 11). The redditio or repetition of it to
the bishop was eight days later when the cate-
chumens received the Lord's Prayer, and again
on Easter Evo before their baptism (Aug. IScrm.
58, §§ 1. 13).
We have also less precise information on the
practice of the Greek and Oriental churches than
on those of (iaul, Sjiain and Italy. St. Jenunu,
A.D. 397, writing in Palestine, saV't, " Constietudo
RUtem Rpnd nos ist usmodi est, ut his )iii
baptizanili s\nit per xl. dies jiublice t idaums
sanctam et adornndam I'rinitateni," Fiian this
we should infer that the creed was deliviri'd at
the beginning of Lent, unless, which seems im-
probable, it was only imjia'ted piecemeal during'
the whole course of it. We lind Cyril of Jeru-
wilam, A.D. 347, explaining the first article of it
in his fourth catedo^tical lecture delivereil imt
far from the beginning of that season, and hi
the fourteen that follow dealing with doctrinei
tlusively Christian.
The only early notice of time in the church «f
CNmstantinople with which I am able to meet
occurs in the statement of Theodorus Lector,
that before the time of Timothens, A.U. 511, the
Nicene creed was " recited only once in the year,
viz. on the h(dy day of ))reparation (parasceve)(jf
the divine Passion at the time of the latechisings
held by the bishop " (/fift. Keel. ii. 32). We can
only suggest that the Apostles' creed was used
in earlier catechisings by the priests.
The delivery of the creed was in the Latin
church preceded by ft short address, "priieliitio
symboli " {.Saeram. Gelas. ; Assemani, Oidex
Liturq. i. 11; Ord. Sirnt. 6, v. s. ; Misi. Gall.
Vet. in /.it. Gall. 339; Swram. Gall, in .V«3.
ftal. i. 310. Comp. Catech. (Iraec. Ass. 111).
It was afterwards explained in detail. (.\iic.
.'erm. 214; the Saeratncnt'irics, u. s.). !<t.
.lUgustine has three sermons (212, 213, 214)
"in Traditione Symboli;" but the office books
give forms to be used on the occasion.
According to the earlier Roman ritual the
creed was said in Greek over the male canili-
dates, and in Latin over the fenuile (Maiteiic,
t«. s., L i. 12, ord. 2 (MS. Gellon) ; I'ontif. i'ieUa.
i'>. ord. 3 ; ord. 4, ad SertU. MS. Wertin. iV kc).
In the Galilean it was said in Latin only, but
over each sex (i/i'sa. Gall. Vet. u. s. 340; Jesse
Ambianensis, de llaptismo, § 1). In theGelasian
Sacramentary, as we have it, it is given b(jth in
Latin and Greek, but both are said over all the
candidates.
The day on which the delivery took place was
called by the Latins " Dies in Apertione Auriiira "
{Steram. Gelas. i. 34; Murat. i. 537 ; Miss. Oali.
Vet. in Lit. Gall. 342 ; Jesse Amb. u. s., 4c.)
It had a proper mass, " Missa in Symboli Tradi-
tione " {Miss. Guth. u. 8. 235; Gall. \d. 'M6\
Sacrim. Gall. u. s. 314 ; Miss. Aiiiljros. u. s. 3.!6).
The creed used was at first everywhere a form
identical with or closely akin to the Apostles'
creed {Miss. Gall. Vet. u. s. 3*8; S'ler. Gall.
u. s. 312; Isid. Hispai. de Keel. Off. ii. 22;
Raban. Maur. dc Listit. Clcr. i. 27 ; Ord. Horn.
Bernoldi in Hittorp. de Eecl. Off. 32, eil. 1;
Ordd. 9, 10 in Martene, «. s., " Credo in Deum,"
&c.) ; but when the Nicene creed was generally
adopted into the liturgies it was also chosen in
many churches for the instruction and profession
of catechumens (see for the \M\x\.,^aercim. Geliil.
Assem. u. s. 11; Greg. •6. 22; Ord. Serui.^l;
Ord. 5 in Martene, u. s. ; for the Greek, Assem.
u. s. 114, 138; Armenian, ib. 172; Syrian, 212,
238, 252, 271). There is early evidence of the
r'r«ek use of t
tiieodore iilreii
•tantinopl.., a.
»yn)l)(d in whii
tizo " i Kpi.sl. ^s
Some monks ii
liie same jilace
in the same
Caesar Basilisc
"The symbol o(
we and all wh
been bapti/ed "
The Copts use i
the Three I'urso
In one Latin Ore
Deum " or " Cri
u. J. ord. 4).
TRADITOR
the Diocletian [
Bibles, and sacrei
Cypriani mortem
cum facta est,
(litores " (Aug. a
The charge of bet
in turn against
tists (Aug. JJpp,
iviii. I'j; Cuntn
council of Aries, ,'
ately after the j
clergyman convi(
manifest acts, of
sjicred Scriptures
names of th breth
traxquill:
Kome under Dioc
Ailon., Vet. Rum., .
Sirlet.).
TRAN8ENVA
senna " stands for «
either a net or snai
Jla-chif, iv. «, 22;
7, 10), or a wicker 1;
imitating that foi
applied to a curved
ture of a window
hindering those out
by the Greeks Sikti
arrangement is to
Sylvester, below thi
in i;<Miie. " Per tj
common Latin iiro
Oratm; lib. i. c. 35)
I'aulinus of Nola
senna" as adapted
laelis^imo vero coi
«||«iitur tribus an
transenna"(Ays/. 1:
In Christian Antiq
plied to the carved i
^ fill ujj the opening
churches and oratorie
the secular basilicas,
"ample has been foun
'basilica Jovis " on (
protc.-t the shrines .,f
handling, while thei
Mysterious view of i
f owed handkcrchie
brcndea " to be put (
TrtADITORES
th.^ Mflin.. nlnce (ad ilti? .t,, .,'""' *'
;;• th« ™'„,e man ;;'%.' ';y,rt;"-'7-''
we and all who hive h Ik-vV,;; """ *'"'^^''
.^rhr,v::oL':!^'[i,'r'!i"'^''"'"'«'"''^^'"
Deuin " <!,• iiiv .1 • Vi K'^*-"! 'CieiO m
Hord 4) ''" ""^""'" ^""■""(Mart.M,"
'■ [W. K. S.J
io turn against thV ?»; , 1 ' '.l ,%r j''^'^''
council of Ailcs, A.n. 314 r \Jf , , '^^'^ '"'"'
in licnie. " Po, tml M«rtino ai M„nti,
oom,n,.ri.a.i„ ,,j'v"r"r r'-'*^"/ " «•"■'"
O-'W, lib. i. 35) ' ^"""'' '" «««'•« (<&
"la..is.in,„ ^et^'els et,: tr.Th" TT''
«|i«>'tur tribii, arc, ,„ . ""'-''-' •'"'"'''■■a,
'7-na"(4:,,"I^^^-J- l-'lucente
the 8ecu ar basili,-,, if u- J '" *'"''"' «*
"ample has been fni-'n/ *,"'''"'' "" "•'•^''^"''nt
"basi ica Jovi, -i^ In 11'" L''? '^'^'"""y "-^^"vated
handling JhTth V ,r"J'^''-^ '™m .00 rude
TRAN8ENNA 1995
rt ^t:^'';/^/'^-ea„a ;' discovered
i)e i'o.s.siVy ■" c;^,S^■':^„,?•" '""^'i^hod bj
Northcote ed. 2 pi Vx bj, s a" '^ '"■""'«• "^•
ti'.n of the end of t le ivd "'""- """''r^
«Q earlier one I'artiallv obliterated IvL.K
former we Itain tK..t ;. """"-'"ixi. from the
0', «» the later in.scriptior record 1 I .s..e.ss,on
named Severn, uhn, ",'''' ''>■ « I'fncon
i"-stead of V rtl,u " '^^'""'^''•V^''* '* lu,ri^„„tallv
permission of pope Marcellinu ' T '/ .T"''
•'ennii," which is one .,f ele i n i • """"■
fi feet bv 3 feet Tb„ ;, *■ . '''"'«"• ""^a^U'-es
"^l-.ngib /-.he ',,;:'■'' ThTi"" "'"'■'''■■"
" transennae " of the " c LlM" 'tT ."' *''«
"f what is knnJn '""'^'•"' nndofthealtar
•^tilUeen at St n .'" ""' " '^""fessio " U
»<.en at ht. Clement's. IVrret u-lio., 1 „ »•
ful cxan,plcs fron, St. IViscillaand It.u'ZT
""""■■•""• ^''^-*-"— (i...U.»w^u„„^
The life of Stephen IV. rAn»=t,, -4% «• ,
fti> instance of the use of ,r~'""' S ','4) afford*
-meming as a fence A LT ,''""''^ '" "'' «"*
Pertns, who ha,I fled for'^.Lf ■''" "'l"""^ ^'"'de-
ft- Mary ad MaAvrt ^/T^r''?''"^'' "'
thrown "inxta trnn .:, a^ngged out and
where hi. oi^f^ereduroT """''' ^''^'^^-V'
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23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580
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u.
1996 TltANSFIGURATION
Martigny (sw4 voce) presents a beautiful and
elaborate example of a " transenna " from a
church at Cherchel, in North Africa, with the
letters A and OJ forming elements of the lattice
work. [K. v.]
TRANSFIGURATION (in Am). This event
in our Lord's history had no place in the
ordinary cycles of art representations in the
early church. It occurs, however, two or three
times in mosaics, and has been found in some
minor works of art. The most remarkable is
that of the Gth century at St. Apolliuare in
Classe, already described in the article MOSAICS
(p. 1333j. Here the representation is almost
entirely symbolical. A jewelled cross within a
circle of glory occupies the central place, on
either side demi-figures of Moses and Elias float
in clouds, while three sheep nmnng the trees on
the hill below represent tlie aiiostles. The Trans-
figuration is also depicted in a mosaic of the 6th
century in the chapel of the convent of St.
Catherine on Mount Sinai (La Borde, Voyage
dans CArabie), and in an ill-designed clumsy
work of the 8th century in the church of SS.
Nereus and Achilleus at Rome (Mosaics, p. l;!33).
Martigny states that Millin mentions the subject
being found on a sarcophagus at Ostia, but he
gives no reference to the place. Raoul I{ochett»
speaks of it as being seen on a lamp discovered
in a catacomb at Corneto (see also D'Agincourt,
Scupt. Ixii. no. 24, 28). [E. V.]
TRANSFIGURATION OF CHRIST,
commemorated July 14 (^Cal. Armen.); Aug. 6
{Cat. Byzant. ; Cal. Ethiop. ; Basil. 3fenol. ;
Menol. Grace. Sirlet. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv.
265 ; Mart. Rom.). [0. H.]
TRANSITORIUM, the anthem sung after
the communion (see C'OmmuniO, p. 412) in the
Ambrosian liturgy (Radulphus Tungr. de
Canonum Ohserv. Prop. 23, in ifar. liihlioth. Vet.
Pair. xxvi. 319). It is so called because, while
it is being sung, the priest leaves his place and
" transfert missale ad aliam partem altaris "
(Ruhr, in Missali Ambr. A.D. 1669 ; Martene,
de Ant. "Eccl. Hit. I. iv. 12, n. 3). See an
example in Pamelius, Liturgica, i. 305.
[W. E. S.]
TRANSLATION [Bishop, p. 225 ; RioJCS,
p. 1772.]
TREASURER. [Oeconomus.]
TRECENSB CONCILIUM. [Troyes.]
TREES IN ART. The trees so frequently
seen in the early Christian mosaics and frescoes,
and on gilded glasses, sarcophagi, and other
objects of art, are commonly, as liosio acknow-
ledges (lib. iv. c. 44), simply ornamcDtal acces-
sories devoid of any symbolical meaning, though
in some cases it is probable that we may not be
wrong in regarding tl\em as ty|iical of thu Tree
of Life, an emblem of immortalitv, and of Chris-
tians as trees of the Lord's planting. This is
certainly the case with the piilm-tree. [Palm
Tree.] The trees between which the Good Shep-
herd is often placed, sometimes with the .iiijuncts
of birds and a milk-pail (Perret, Catacoinbes, V.
pi. xlviii., Ixxvii. ; Aginconrt, iv. vii. 1(1), maybe
safely regarded as decorative, though a symbolical
■neaning may be easily read into them. The
TRIFORIUM.
same may be said of the trees which accompany
the raising of Lazarus, sometimes growing out
of the tomb (Buonarruoti, tav. vii. 2) or in part
of it (Bottari, tav. vii. 2), and of those betvyeen
which the " orantes " often stand ; sometimes
with a lamb on either side (Perret, V. v.). St.
Agnes is so depicted (Buonarruoti, tav. xviii.-
xxi. ; Bottari, tav. xcvii. 4). The symbolical
reference is more unmistakable when a tree or
a branch is depicted between A and 00 (De Rossi,
Rom. Sutt. torn. ii. p. 323), and where a green
tree, rich in flowers and fruit, is opposed to one
that is dry (Le Blant, /nscr. Christ, pp. 390, 394,
409). Compare Paradise. [E. V.]
TRENTALS. [Obseqdies, xxxi. p. 1437.]
TREVES, COUNCIL OF (Trevireiise
Concilium), a.d. 385, at which St. Martin was
beguiled into being present, when Ithiicius, the
accuser of Priscillian, was acquitted, and Felii
ordained bishop of Treves. (Mansi, iii. 679-
84.) [E. S. Ff]
TRIANGLE. For this emblem, which is
rarely used in the early church, and has been little
noticed in consequence, Martigny refers almost
entirely to a learned article liy M. de Rossi, in
the Spi'ilegium Solesmcnse, vol. iv. p. 497, on
some inscriptions from Carthage.
A>ev 'A.'
Trtuigle. (Martigny, p. Ml.)
These examples are almost the only ones kno' ,ii,
[See Monogram.] The first will be found in
Aringhi(/ton. SM. i. p. 605), the second and third
are Lupi's (&u. EjAtaph. pp. 64, l(i2"), the Ici.rth
in Boldetti's Cimit. p. 402. The fifth and sis>h,
with the monogram and enclosing the A ami a
were found by De Rossi in a MS. of the Barherini
library, and published by M. E. Le Blant (tor.
ch,et. di la Gaute, t. i. p. 107), the last is on the
fifth of the former's African marbles (in the
Spicilegium).
Three fishes arranged in the form of a triangle
are represented in Jlunter's SinnhUJei; p. 49. tab,
i. 26. And, as Martigny observes, all the triangles
are closely connected with the Monogram, the
special svmbol or name of the Second I'ersunol
the Holy Trinity. [R. St, J, T,]
TRIDIMAEUS, Mar. 1, martyr at PergJ
with Nestor under Decius (Basil. J/eJio/,).^
TRIBUNAL. [Immunities; Jurisdio
tion; Law.]
TRIFORIUM. It is defined by Ducange «l I
a kind of gallery or arcade, which is carried »li
round a church, in order to furnish means of cir-
culation about the churc^h above the }irin.i;*l
arcade. The same writer derives the name from
the fact that in the earlier forms of the triforiuB
the wall had a trii)le perforation between etti
pair of the great columns below. Structurallt |
TRINITY, THE HOLY
de r Architecture « ^\l I (.i>ict,onn<ure
Roman basilica tJ.T\, '"\*"'' "'"''y of the
English archaeologTsu"'B^,iaesYt: :'"'"'•'= .^^
passage to which Dmp^„„ '* pui'pose of a
tViforfun,, vZLlZlV sTZVf" •1'"";' '''"
used for the congrceationTn ft, ? " ''''"8
drals 0,. the ooeJJ:^^^'!':^;'^''''-
TRINITY, THE HOLY (iv £7" Vh
p;ct«..ia>r:,:LSu:.':?'i;;ji^^;^-,fv
.S:r?eZr:^Yr»'- ^'^- --f
H„. *i ''''a™!"'-'' are not common.
represented in a mosaic n(-%V- «"' " "*
« «ork of the 5™° entui ; Ir'" ^"?^'r'
Itonim. I. tab li I) ^ (Cmmpini, Vet
^y's.:!ix:r^^i:'':/ri^;;[ the Lord
over His hea,' 1; r ^^7" ""'''^"J' » ^Town
-.nUer..rraS"me: ttl'rd^^^r O-^-
^y .•epre.s.nting''lre Trti^A^Hrg;!
rhe'Lun:!? of thr4th'''^ r-'' '° '" »'
tic^Sl?fhe^?'f '""^ ^"-^ '>''*''« «'^-'=l«^i«-
offines fro,, S. .f •"" t""""^ ™ntaini.,g the
, ,. ."'"".^oi""agesinia Sunday to liaster-Fv*
It derives its name from the fact thi wh i
hymns in honour of our Lord the R V M 1
TROPHIMU8 1997
»S"f.'£Ki;';t Stars''''"'™
It derives its no™, <• * , '''''"^ t-'itrance.
wording, -Co, ^e/''""' ">« nature of its
r5. e.las i^^AoJavV:^ vfri [sTaidToT""
been first introduced into the if i'"
leign of the vounwr T i liturgy in the
it fs probalirS If'^-LT'^f V'"'
<le Fid. Orthodox iii 10^ i ! ^•',"""- '-'""'"■•'C-
Antioch (Ob wV^idl?;h '^'^thc Fuller at
pass^ addi*^ nrriL"!-*™'--'! '"is ?MtrU
TRIPHO. [Trypho.]
A.io- Vet. /om%:i,'S.rT- ^uf
L'-.rd.,Ad:n.rt"i;5'"" "' ^'"".y^jf
'"?XTSs ?'' '^"••'' °-- '-"" <"'-
^> '-nan ancient To^„rsrh':;;i.^^;,f'p;o::bf
passian addi ton by rertinrx? ?! "" ' ■""■
neither phrase oht.Hn ^ '^"'■'*^'"'"^*'';''ut
a.tho„ght:-^tni^^
times confused, seeVKKKActp "69^'."° " "■""
the''S^rch"aUhfa1t'^«- /"; -- g^-^Ii
church ofSt/K's fe"'"' "tho original
name is also J^nded to thet^ T "u "^ "">
a|«e. These arches are „ft!,^ "' "''''' **♦' 'he
^ [C- H. I
offices of the Easterrdlrcf (tie"' j" l,'"
Eastent Church, Introd. pp. 832, 91^) ' ^■'
TROPHIMUS a) Anr U . ^^' ^ ^"^
« , Daniel, Cc/. Z.^u^iv 257^'d;;^2q' '
.
1998 TBOYES, COUNCIL OF
'(4) Sept. 19, martyr with Sorapion, or Saoon-
tius, and Doryracdon, under Probus (Cci/. Byxant. ;
Basil. MenoL; Menol. Oraec. ; Mart. Sum.;
Daniel, Cod. Litwg. iv. 269). [C. H.]
TROYES, COUNCIL OF (Trecense Con-
CIUUM), A.D. 429, from which Lupus, bishop of
Troyes, and Germanus, bishop of Auxcrre, were
Bent, at a request of the British church, on a
mission into Great Britain to assist in confuting
Pelagianism. (Mansi, iv. 643; Haddan and
Stubbs, Councils, etc. i. 16-18.) [E. S. Ff.]
TRUDO (St. TnnrEs), presbyter and con-
fessor at Hasbanium (Haspengaw), commemo-
rated on Nov. 23 (Mart. Usuard., Hiercm., Wand.,
Bom.). [C. H.]
TRULLUS, a Latinised form of the low Greek
rpovWa. or rpoCWos = e6\ot, a hemispherical
roof or dome. The covering of the cupola of the
church of SS. Cosmas and Uamian at Rome by
j)Oi)e Snrgius I. is thus recorded in Anastasius
(§ 163), " truUum ejusdcm ecclcsiae fusis chartis
plumbeis cooperuit et muni vit." The anonymous
writer (de lo:is Uierosol. § 1) describes the
church of the Holy Sepulchre as being crrporyu-
Ao«i5)/s, and as having TpovXKas iio. The
Quinisext council has gained the name of
"Trullan" or "in truUo " from having been'
held in a large domed hall in the imperial palace
at Constantinople (cf. Ducange, Cwistantinop.
Christima, lib. ii. c. 4, § 20 ; lib. iii. c. 33).
[CONSTANTINOl'LE, COUNCIL OF (34), p. 444.]
Codinus gives the name " trulla " to the silk
cap or turban worn by the chief imperial secre-
tary (De Ojfic. c. iv. p. 22, ed. Bonn). [E. V.]
TRUMPET. The Egyptian monks appear to
have used a trum])et as the call to prayer, pro-
bably in imitation of the trumpets by which
the Israelites wore summoned to their solemn
assemblies. Thus Pachomius {liegula, c. 3) bids
every monk tn l-ave his cell as soon as he heard
the sound of the tiunipet summoning him to
divine service. And the same usage is men-
tioned by Joannes Climacus (Scala Paradisi,
Grad. 19) as prevailing at the convent on Mount
Sinai in the 6th century. Perhaps the custom
was then general in Egypt and Palestine (Bing-
ham, Antiq. VIIL viii. 15; Martene, de I'it.
Antiq. IV. ii. 9). [C]
TRYPHO (Tripho) (1), Jan. 4, martyr in
Africa with Aquiliniis and others (ilfari. Usuard.,
Sieron., Adon., Notker., Rom.).
(2) Feb. 1, martyr in Phrygia under Deciug
(Basil. Mcnol. ; Menol. Qraec). At Constanti-
nople were two churches dedicated to him by
Justinian and Justin II. respectively (Codinus,
tfe Aedif. p. 5, p. 100, Bonn ; Prccop. de Aedif.
lib. i. cap. 9, p. 201, Bonn ; Du Cange, Cpolia.
Christ, lib. iv. 140), and in 536 a monastery is
mentioned (Mansi, viii., 907 c).
(8) July 3, martyr with ten others at Alex-
•ndria {Mart. Usuard., Hieron., Rom.). [C. H.]
. TULLENSE CONCILIUM. [Toul.]
TUNICA. Any description of the tunica in
it8 ordinary classical sense is foieign to our pur-
pose; and its diminutive tunicelta (whence the
English tunkle, and less correctly tunacle) does
TURRIS
rot occur within our assigned period, i 'slater
special use Iting for the vestment of tl e sub-
deacon at the Eucharist (see e.ij. Durandus, Rat.
Piv. Off. iii. 11. 3).
One or two instances, however, of the word
tunica in early Christian writings must ba
noticed. The fumca was one of the articles of
dress provided by the Rule of St. Benedict for
his monks (c. 55, J'litrol. kvi. 771). It seems
to han-e been much the same as the Colo'ilon (see
the article), a tight-fitting garment, short-
sleeved or sleeveless. Later on, we find the
tunica as an article of sacerdotal dress. Here it
is a kind of upper shirt, worn over the camisia,
and of course under the casula. Two tuniute
might be worn, an ujiper and an under one
(Amalarius, de Die. Off. ii. 22 ; Patrol, cv. 1097),
The word often occurs in the Vulgate as a trans-
lation of x'Tiii', and thus our Lord's " coat with-
out seam " becomes tunica inconsutiUs. For the
legend in connexion with this, see e.g. Greg.
Turon. de Gloria Martyrum, i. 8 j Fredegarius,
Chronicon, c. 11 (Patrol. Ixxi. 712, 614).
[R. S.]
TUN8I0 PECTORIS. (1) St. Augustine
more than once alludes to the beating of tlie
breast by priests and people at the recital of the
petition of the Lord's Prayer, " Forgive us our
trespasses " [IX)rd'8 Prayer, p. 1058].
(2) It was also usual in some churches to
beat the breast when the Agnus J)i was saU
(Martene, de Rit. Antiq. i. 158, ed. Venet,
1783). [0.]
TURBO, Jan. 17, martyr with Speusippiis
and his brothers (Basil. Menol.). [C. H.]
TURIANUS, bishop and confessor in Brit-
tany, commemorated on July 13 (Mart. Usuard,,
Rom.). [C. H.]
TURIN, COUNCIL ()¥ (Taurink
CILIUM); A.D. 400 or 401, assemble.' e
request of the bishops of France, ibr c .ig
a difference between the metropolitans o' .;rles
and Vienne respecting the primacy which eacli
claimed. Eight canons are emboilicd in theii
svnodical letter. (Mansi, iii. 859-66.)
•^ [E. S. Ff.]
TURRIS, a pix of precious metal for the
reservation of the consecrated bread in the
Eucharist, formed in the shape of a tower, as
other similar vessels were fashioned in the sh-ipe
of a dove (Dove, Eucharistic). In the Greek
church Tvpyos was used for the ciborium (Du-
cange, Const. Christ, iii. 62). Paulus Silentiarius
writes of St. Sophia (ii. 303),
Xpvo-tlii; t' ti^iJirjpSt wavaypdvnio Tpairf'fi?
ai7ir<r(x tifniici^tvtoy it >|epa mipyot iviarr).
Smaller towers were employed as rcliqu.iries,
Not unfrequently the dove and the tower were
conjoined. Conical vessels surmounted by «
dove appear in the 6th century mosaics at
St. ApoUinare in Classe at Ravenna (Ciarapni,
Vet. Mon. ii. c. 12), There is also a doubtful
example on a sarcophagus (Bottiri, tav. xii.).
The two ore constantly united in the catalogu'S
of presents to the Roman churches in Anastasius;
e.g. Hilary gave to the Lateran " turrira argm-
team et columbam auream." Martene ststei
that towers were hanging in his time in tow
TUSI
of the Roman 1
i.). Gregory of
"accepta turre d
nici corjions hab
gressiisque temp
The will of St. J
ii.) enumerates '
chalices and vel
church furniture
Galilean liturgy i
r. col. 9,5) says thi
in towers, "qh
similitudinem tu
sufficiently far-fei
Mabijlon (Afus. It
" benedictio calici
cdebraturi sumu;
supplies a referen
desiring " turrioi
fabricari " (Flodoi
TUSDRUM, 1
COUNCIL OP
marginal referencei
CO.NCIMUM), A.D.
ginal references to (
and from words in
Telepte, A.D. 418 ;
TYANA, COU]
CILIUM), A.D. 3(56
Sebaste, deposed at
to be restored to hi:
was only followed
393-8.)
TYCHICU8, dc
commemorated at 1
L'suarJ., Adon., Vet.
Sost hones, Apollos,
ilcnol.). '
TYPICON (t,;,
(a) One of the eccle;
church containing tl;
the performance of i
Liturgy, the Hours,
rariati(jns to be obi
days throughout th(
»esscd its own typii
iviilely accepted was
for the monks at Jei
vised hySophronius, i
and John of Daniasi
g'ven by L. Allatius
^'sscH. p, 1, Hamb
aistcrn Ch;rch, Intro
il>) Typica is also t
selected from the Psal
festivals obs'irved in tl
ofourLor,! and the,
'Uil directions are jri
pp. 124, 186. *
TYRAXNIO, Feb.
feleus, and others i
Usuard., Xotker., Rom
TYRE, GOUNCIJ
«8U Concilia), a.d.
518). Of these the fi
or haviiicf deposed St
wnt turned out utterly
TUSDRUM. THYSDRUS
of the Roman basilicas {de Ant. E-cl Rlt HI.
The will of srlmiilrM h n" 'T'''"-*'*'-"
ii.) enumerate; <.7u?:/^'?„^'"7' ^"'"''f- *"'"•
chalices and velvet .nvL' '"^ether with silver
church fur, ture Th..'"^''-""""^ *'''^""»'
Galilean liCydven bv aC '""/f ''''' ""'=■«'>'
v. col. 95) says^/hf the btf of ^h^' ^"f •'^'"- """•
in towers, "n„i, °„'7 i''^ '•"'''l '""ricd
similitudinem tu ris r,"'""^'""'" Domini in
marginal references to Ko,.,.„„ 1 -n' '" *"*
ginal retereiettictil't ^lyrrKertnT"
and from words in the nJf,?. ♦ A"""''"''
Telepte, a.o. 418Tbut sLtS: Itil""""' °^
Sebastetdepos-edtfihe y^Ido'fMen;^'*''""^ k°'
to be restored to his see wMnK *"•=''*«■"»• ^""ght
w«. only followed by hUehr'^rM' ''■"'•■'■'
303-8.) •' rei.ipse. (Mansi, iii.
TYCHICU8, deacon, disciple of Sf p,,i
commemorated at Paph^s on Tpr oo'v^" '
Isuard., Adon., Vet P„,„ r. x*^ V"" \^<"^t.
sensed its own tvpicum but th ^ ''v^''^ ^"^
^.n,.y..Ai,.iur;:iASi»^£».:
«e'-elrm rh:";sa^t ToT' ^"""^^^ '" ^"-
festivals observed in thTr!» I >'""«.''" '="''8'°
of our LonlaTd the B^%^ '' "I'rN? '"'"""
Full directions are eiv;n in r <^" '«t'^rPoti««-
[F. E. iV.]
TZANQAE
1999
U^uard., Xotlc^elX";."" ^'^'^''-^J''^-'.
TYRR, COUNCILS OF fTvnix t
EN-8U Concilia^ * n q^- U ^ nu or Trtsr.
M8). Of 'h e^lhe firsrh.,s*-h' *''' """* '^■''•
for having .leposedSf i». ^'.'"""' ""to^ious
have been summoned for nn nfi,.,
to condemn him must hav. k P^P"'" ^f"'"
time from the facMhlf !f T ^''^'"' «* the
of his enemies All thl , ^'^ '''''"^ '"""Po'ed
tenth sfssion oahe oundfof rl 't^* ."'""■ ""''
W. 497, and vii. 197 et e/> ™ "1! ^ 'i"'"'
the orthodox acts of . councluf r„n ?"" >^''^
three months earlier were "J„^"''^'''n"»«Ple
synodical letter of Fn!nr„„f '""1™*''- ^^^
and the other bi:hopt"artml"P V''"^
at the fifth session of ^ I,f ' ^^^ rehearsed
tinople under «„as To"" S^^'^M ''''"'"'"-
577 and 1073-82 • comn 1^; o ^^'°"'''' ^"i-
"- , comp. art. Councii.s of C )
TYRSU8. CTiiVRsus.] l^-^-^
firs/ a;parT,^;"n^&a "(wHh "the ''" f.""*'
zanchac) in the letter of the erilor ol^f- '"*
fob. A D 1AK\ „.. 4 1 I Z, """peror Uallienus
which h;e,u4re;'iKf''"'"' ''""'"' -
sent to Claudks wbn ^. "^ Presents he had
thicks (a,. I'arthicS'parta i:.?^"r!7?, ':^-
«■ 17; where see S«lnLi"s' notej Th. /"jf ''
foreign origin may be inferred" InH J Ik*,''"'
use of orarii rSTori.1 «n,i / ''^i) 'orbids the
, 20; Ubbe, V iS Ak rtTfh- ° ""'L*'' (^"•
' of the first council of Mac "n A d 58n tb 7^*'
clerey shall not ,„» " "., ^ °'^ '"*' ">«
{™n^^5, Laibe^v. 968)."'''"""="*" "«-"'«"»••
(Tp«K,J,;,«s),b ajjj A„, °" ""*e o(:cas,on8
.nade then/for the^mptt t^ cIlTe "."^^t"
not Tfarfdoioi, as in the case nf n^L. ^? '
"8 read ",«„„pi8 aut ,agU" iUxi^Tt^l '•y R.luzms
«n.l, further, he whole of th , „. , f,^ ' '• '"*)i
l8 consldore^l bv I'crt. „ J "' ""' <^«Pl'"I»rlef
2000
UNCTION
Sophocles (Greek Lex. of Homnn and Bi/zantine
periods, «. v.) derives it from the Teutonic word,
which iippesrs in Knglish in the form shitnli.
For further notices, see Ducange's Olvssiiries,
•• VT. [R. S.]
UNCTION. I. Op Persons.
(1) Of Catechumens, — (a) The practice of
anointing catechumens in Africa on their first
reception appears to be implied by St. Augus-
tine when he says, in reference to the anointing
with clay in .)ohn ix. 6, " When He anointed
him, He perchance made him a catechumen. . . .
{Tr^ict. 44. in S. Joan. Ev. § 2). A Roman
council assigned to the age of Innocent (402-
416) decides, in reply to a question of some
Gallican bishops, that it is sufficient to use
the " exorcised oil " once before the day of
baptism, viz. "at the third scrutinium "
(can. 8). In Spain, Isidore of Seville, 610, who
distinguishes between the catechumens and com-
petentes, says of the former, "These are first
exorcised, then they receive the salt, and are
anointed " (De Eccl. Off. ii. 20). So Ildefonsus
of Toledo, 657 (/)« (7o,/ni«. B ipt. i. 2!) ; see
Hincmar, E/iist. de Baptisino, 7 ; Hard. Cone. v.
417). There is no trace of this rite in any
extant Ordo Scrutinii. See the collection in
Assemanus, Codex Liturg. i. 53-104. Only one
Ordo ad faciendum Catechumenum out of ten
printed by Martene {De Ant. Eccl. Bit. I. i. 7)
preserves this unction (Ord. 6) ; but there not
the cars but the breast and shoulders are
toiched, as in the later pre-baptismal unction.
(6) In the East we early hear of an unction
with exorci.scd oil immediately before baptism.
Thus in the Apostolical Constitutions (vii. 22) :
" Thou shalt first anoint him with holy oil and
afterwards baptize him with water " (compare
iii. 16). St. Cyril of Jerusalem, A.D. 350 : " Being
stripped, ye were anointed with exorcised oil
from the hair on your head to the soles of your
feet. After that ye were led by the hand to
the holy font of baptism " {Catech. Myst. ii.
3, 4). So Chrysoslom {ffom. vi. in Ep. ad
Coloss. § 4); Pseudo-Dionysius (de Eccl. Hier.
ii. 7) , the Secoiinittuns of Pseudo-Clement
(iii. 67). This "anointing with holy oil " before
the bajjtism is mentioned in an Egyptian story
told by .lohn Mosehus, 630 (Pratum Spirit. 3).
In the Greek church there is still but one
unction with exorcised oil, which takes place
immediately before the baptism (Goar, Euchol.
354; Asscm. ii. 141). With this agrees the
Arabic oiKce of the Greek Melchites (Assem. ii.
149). The Armenians have no such unction
now. They had it, however, in the 8th century,
as appears from a canon of John the Catholic
printed by Mai, in whirih " the oil of catechu-
mens " is expressly mentioned (Ifova Collectio
Script. Vet. x. ii. 304). In the Coptic church,
when its constitutions were compiled, there
was clearly but one unction with ejor«i.scd
oil during the previous part of the baptismal
office (Apost. Constit. Copt. ii. 46 ; Tattam'a I
ed. 57 J Boetticher's Gr. Tr. in liunsnn's Anal, j
Antenio. ii. 467) ; but in the Coptic order
UNCTION
of baptism, as we u.^v" it, there are two
(Assemani, Codex Litnrg, i. 148, 16;i). I'he
Abyssinians u.se the same order. Tliere are two
also in those of the Nestorians (ibid. i. 204 ; ji,
21 1), of the Syrians (i. 239, 254, 272, and ii. 224,
234, 240 ; ii. 253, 259, 285, 296, 302, 304), and
of the Maronites (ii, 332, 349). In the former of
these unctions tht Syrian priest uses his thumb
(i. 239 ; ii. 285).
We infer from the narrative of John Moschog
that both sexes were anointed over the whole
body (frat. Spir. u. s.) ; and the rituals make no
distinction when they prescribe the unction of the
whole. See Goar, Ewhul. Gr. 354 ; Ordo Nestni;
Assem. ii. 211; Syr. 224 (Antioch.), 2.!4
(Hieros.); 240, 259, 296, 304, 349 (Mnron).
The Office of Philoxenus (240) expressly orders
it in the case of females.
The unction of which we are now speaking
appears to have been of much later introduotiun
in the West. It is not noticed by the .Sjiani^h
writers (Isidore, 610, J)e Bapt. in Eccl. Ojf. ii.
24; lldefonse, 657, De Coijn. Baj.t. i. Ill, in
Baluz. Misc. Sacra, torn. ii.). The earliest
witness in Gaul is Caesarius, who died in.'il'J:
" All who are presented to the church for saving
baptism receive both the chrism and tlie oil of
benediction " (Serin. 22, § 2). Germauus of
Paris, 555, mentions an unction that took plaop
when the creed was given at baptism, but hi- is
singular in speaking of it as an unction with
proper chrism : " Catechumenis (sic) chrismnte
unguetur." This he expressly says was ma;ie
with balsam (Epist. ii. Migne, Ixxii. 96). The
mistake in using chrism implies that the rite
was quite recently adopted. We next read nf
this unction in the Besan,on sacramentary t'mnni
at Bobio, which is assigned to the 7th century
(Mus. Ital. i. 324). Another probable Galilean
witness is the author De Sacramentis : " Thou
didst enter . . . Thou wast anointed as an at hitte
of Christ " (i. 2). This dates from about 74'i,
if Ambrose of Cahors be the writer. It appears,
however, in the Gclasian sacramentary {Liturj.
Rom. Vet. Murat. i. 563), our copy of which is
of the time of Charlemagne, and in some copies
of the Gregorian of the 9th century (JIurat. u. s,
ii. 61 ; Pamel. Liturgicon, ii. 264; Gerbert, Mumm.
Vet. Liturg. Alem. i. 83; not in Menard, O/i/).
Greg. Ben. iii. 70, or Rocca, Opp. Greg. HU.i. v.
111). We find frequent mention of it by Galli-
can bishops using .the Roman rites at the close
of the 8th century ; as Theodulf of Orleans, 794
(/)c Ord. Bapt. 10) ; Leidrad of Lyons, 798 (Dc
Sacram. Bapt. 2); Jesse of Amiens {Epist. dc
Bapt. c. De Unci. Pect. &c.) ; Magmis of Sens
(de Myst. Bapt. ad Car. Magn. printed in Mar-
tene, de Ant. Eccl. Bit. i. i. 17).
This unction, as we have already mentioned, is
prescribed in some of the Roman Orders of Bap-
tism. It appears also in the Ordo ad Serutinlum
printed by Assem. Cod. Lit. i. 102, and the
earliest Ordo A'oTWi/itts by Mabillon, Mus. It.il.
ii. 24. It is found in the modern otiice of Jlilan,
but as it comes before the exorcism of the child
and the giving of the salt, it is rather in the
place of the ancient unction of the catechuraen
than of that of the compnt^Rt. R«c Asr.era. a !.
ii. 44. As we might expect from the silence of
Isidore and IMep^sus, it is not prescribed in
the vitwl of the Goths of Spain (Miss. Mozar,
Leslie, 18?), nor do we find it in the Gothio^
Galliiiin missal
Old Gallican (rt
in which it ajjpi
taryofBesanvor
too, that wherei
directs presbytei
their bishop (C
Pepin, who deg
744 orders them
and oil " (c. 4, it
For the fonn
must refer gener
tene and Assen
selves with that
" I anoint thee w
Christ our Lord
«. s. i. 102).
(2) The Unctii
— According to t
deacon and the ne
the i)resbyter a
with the oil of
thee with an am
name of Jesus C
ii. 46, Boetticher'
Antenic. ii. 467
Copt. 59). This
mistake not, for t
unction by the
baptism is menti
before we hear fro
diately preceded it
was used (as evidei
above cited no dis
material exorcised
the chrism being (
early writers who \
compound (nipov) \
which soon approi
"chrLsma."
The first Latin w
tullian, 192: " Hai
are thoroughly anoi
after the ancient ri
to be anointed unto
a horn " (De Bapt.
(comp, Adv.. Marc.
Cyprian : « It is als
person be anointed,
chrism, i.e. the uhcti
God, and have the
that is a thank-offori
titles of the prnye
Constit. Apost. vii. 2
those who are baptiz
hallowed on the alt
De Mi/stcriis, the w.
('■• 29) ; Jerome (Dit
tine (de B <pt. Don. y
Trin. XV. 22, § 46)'
(Epist i. 3); Isidorl
!'• 25) ; Ildefonsus ,
[• 123); Caesarius ((
l;8o); Pseudo-Ambw
Ineodulph (de Ord.
Sacram, Bapt. 7) •
'P'iny(Mj«. .ffijt. xiii
•]™ gentl se debet." He
™ "nngucntum regale"
'«««iibledtheM,;poKofthe
UXCTIOJf
in which it am,™. , fh. « ° "n'y."«"ic«n book
taryofBe.anT!r(r/);JrX r"'''"T
too, that whereas a law nf P.Vi •'' • * '"'""'"•k,
For the formulae used at thin nn„f
z:f :f7f """"? *° theiitti„:r ';Vr! '
tene and Asseman as above cnnt^ZZ
se ves with that anciently elwed'"^ ''"^■
"I anoint thee with the oil nW ^.. '. '*"'"* =
Christ our Lord unto 1 fe"' vl ^Tn '"" rV""
«. «. i. 102). <=ve"astmg (Assem.
(2) 7'Ae Unction of the Bavtiyprl ,nn ri. ■
-According to the older Cop c rite tfi"?;?'
deacon and the neophyte " came out of 'fh„ . '
the presbyter anointed him /-.K T"*"'
with the oil of thaSivir .1 "fPhyte^
thee wHh an anointingf'witg' r?l/ Tthe'
unction by the officiant immedfateTv „rf
»pt,sm is mentioned by U^ wrS tZ
d^i'ItXTreS/r It''-"' •'^*''"* whlcTlmme!
above cite,l no distin'ctiont"^; bVtwertt
niatena exorcised and that ble.v .d for chrbrn^
hechnsm being termed oil merely by several
early writers who will beonoto,!. k. * ^ ""^"ai
cornpound (,.,„.) J! ^dt f d' f^".^ ^e fe ^
" chHsr- ''PP'"P»«*«'l t" itself the name o'f
tuintn''lt2^"»H::.'"^''' *" this unction is Ter-
a^.^';?h.yS^-^-\;i:ssr
after the ancient rite, in which they werrwrn;
&fi^tt;^-„-^-f|;s
person be anointed, that hav n^^recdv^S^'the
chrism, ,.. the unction, he mav bf an anoTnted of
God and have the grace of Christ. Moreover
ht IS a thank-offering (eucharistia : comp the
those who^re bapti/ed tfe tliitt^^T tS
hailowed on the altar" (Evist 7in r
(V. 29); Jerome (Dial. ado. I.ucif S q-i a
". 25 ; lldefonsus of Toledo (de Cogn. bZ
^12^); Caesarius (d. 642) (Serm 22 S?^
Fortunatus (living in 600Wi T i . r.' § i'
Theodulph (de Ord Jinr,t tT"'"- "',■/■ p o);
. '""■'"• '^! Jesse (JEpist.-ad Sacerd.
UNCTION
2001
* Pliny (Wa(. ffui. xlli. n javs •■nn..,. . „
nmgonti se debet." He al^.^^;. ^"S"""*™ P«™«-
"-n.bledtheMvpo.lf.IeO^e^teh^''^^.'"'' C^). "hich
S: fl MT-'^f.n^'^'*'''^)' M-S'"" (!"'-rtene
^'^c 5;;^ ^^y^'^^ ^ Mif;r
I Am„larius\he arJ-hlL'p 2 '^^."^ J^rs'
duSwrirtChrd'-To'T' '^r ^"^o-
orieVvrM^i* :°j/j:.« -- ; - « ««;,.«„•
the Milanese Office "the erf ' •'^ff'"' '.'• "^ '
The Besanvon Sacrn^ie^ry S 4o^)1rn:*- t'^'
m having "in fmntes eZ" ri- P^*^"''"
^)£i?''"'^'^-'tt.^^'
from the unctTon of^h^ ^^""\'?'l''^"""=*
diatelv follownrf .• ^^ ''*'"' '^^"'^ 'mme-
i. th7chur h !?;P"™' '^'""« to be practised
mmm
mmmm
V 2 F V r !■ ? (^'"""'- '" Ps. cxxxviii.
V. ^, b.\.). Fortunatus, 560 is thn fi!lV
Galhcan writer who is a rnn.Z . ""'
I'obes, the dav aftpr »K I ,\ "'^"' ^'"''e
with chrism and wbil 7 ^'"^ '''"^ '"""''*«'l
the,rforeheJ(|^/,-:^^e^^^^
t.^n' i^ -ntio'rt^^ir iru ■'* ^-f -
COcem i ii Q\ o^ I'ortunatus in a hymn
31), In the fifh ceutniv .1, ^- ' ^'''"^- ''■
bly universal in he Vest' Th "^ ^^°^^
H^y Ghost is alsotnl:^^, S t. impo', !
Later w.tne.ses towardslhe cloi of out peS
2002
UNCTION
aid bnyoud It are Theodulf (cfe Ord. Bapt.
17); U'iilrnd {de £apf. 7); Jesse (do Bapt.
c. De Cunf. Episc); Ainnlariiis of Metz (ile
Jiccl. Of. i. 27); Rubanus Mnurus (rfo Instit.
Clcr. i. :)0).
In France the general adoption of this practice
met with a checit from the council of Orange in
441 : " Inter noa placuit semel chrismari." « If
the chrism had been from any necessary cause
omitted at baptism, the bishop was to be in-
formed that he might supply the omission
"Nam inter quoslibet {nl. nos) chrisraatis
ipsius non nisi una benedictio est; non ut
prapjuilicans quicquam {al. dice), sed ut non
necessaria habeatur repctita chrismatio" (can.
2). This decree was adopted by the council
of Aries in 452 (can. 127). The testimonies
of Kortunatua of Poitiers and Gregory of
Tours show that the rule of Orange did not
prevail over France. That it obtained largely
and survived to the time of Charlemagne may
be inferred from the silence of certain authors,
who speak only of the imposition of hands in
their description of confirmation. Thus Al-
cuin, after an account of the rites of baptism :
"Novissime per impositionem manus a summo
gacerdote septiformis gratiae .Spiritum accipit"
(^Epist. 90 ; sim. De liitpt. Citerem. ad Oduin.).
So Magnus of Sens, using here the same words ,
as Alcuin, but adding much of his own(Martene,
de Ant. Eccl. tiit. i. 17), and an anonymous copier
of Alcuin (ibid.).
We see from several of the foregoing autho-
rities that the forehead was anointed at confir-
mation. This was done both in the East and
West, but in the East other parts are anointed
also ; as the eyes, nostrils, ears, breast, hands,
and feet among the Greeks (Goar, Kuchol. 'Abb, 6).
or, as in some MSS., the eyes, nostrils, and ears
only (.359, 3G0) ; one omits the feet only (362) ;
another omits the hands and feet, but prescribes
an unction of the back (368). Cyril of Jeru-
salem mentions the forehead, cars, nostrils, and
breast (C'atech. Myst. iii. 3). The Copts and
Abyssinians anoint the forehead, eyes, mouth,
ears, hand, breast, knees, feet (the soles), back,
arms, and .shoulders (Assem. iii. 83 ; — compare
a purely Abyssinian order. 111) ; the Armenians
the forehead, ears, eyes, nostrils, mouth, hands
(together), breast, shoulder, feet, shoulder-
blades, saying a proper sentence over each
(ibid. 119 ; see Vartanes, Besp. 2 in Mai, Script.
Vet. Xov. Coll. X. ii. 271). Most tf the Syro-
Jacobite orders prescribe an unction of the
whole body in both sexes, but they all begin
with the forehead (154, 160, 163, 169, 175,
184); one (148) mentions the forehead and
' A couplet ftom an Inscrlptli'U to the memory of a
bishop iiaiiiptl Mareas found in a church inRome(aruter,
Corput Jnicrip, 1116) has been quoted In the some
sense :—
' Tuque sacerdotes docuisll c hrisraate sancto
Tangere bis nullum Judlce posse Deo."
It is, howevor, dlfBcuIt to believe that an unsuccessful
attempt to Iniroduce the Giilllcan restriction into the
Buburblciirian dioceses would have been recorded with
apprn!«iiia:i In Rome itself; am! ns the context speaks
of conflict with misbelievers, we ruther understand that
Mareas maintained the Homan rule not to give unction
to heretics who Joined the ihnich. See Morinus, de
Sacram. J'oenit. ix. 10.
UNCTION
windpipe only. The Maronite bishop anoints
the forehead, the priest the head onlj (1H7).
The Melchites, the forehead, ears, hands, feet,
breast, shoulders, nostrils, palms, knees, legs,
back (227). The apostolic imposition of hands
is lost in every Syrian order. On the othex
hand the Nestorlan books do not prescribe the
unction at all (ibid. 138 ; Badger, Sestorians,
ii. 209) ; from which we infer that this unction
was not universal when they left the church in
451. When this rite found its way into the We.^t
the frontal unction only was adopted, probably
because none other was then practised, at least
over the greater part of the East. See Sacram.
Oelas. Murat. Liturg. Rom. Vet. i. 571; Sacrum.
Gregnr. Codd. Elig. in 0pp. Greg. iii. 74, ed. Ik'n.,
Cod. Vat. U.S. 112; Pontif. Egbert; Surtees
Soc. no. 27, p. 7 ; &c.
The Romans used the thumb in this unction
(Sacram. Greg. Codd. Elig. Vat. u. s.), as they
and the United Maronites (Assem, iii. 187) do
now. In theory the minister of this rite was
the bishop. In the West it is expressly confined
to him by the author of the Epistle to Decontius
(A.jpp. Innoc. I. i. 3), Gregory I. (Ep. iii. 9), the
Council of Seville 619 (can. 7), lldef.mso of
Toledo 657 (De Cognit. llapt. i. 131) ; Theodore
of Canterbury (Pvenitentiale, iii. 8, in Stubbs and
Haddan's Councils, iii. 193), Theodulf of Orleans
(de Ord. Bapt. 17), &c. ; and recognised as his
proper office by all, as e.g. Cornelius, a.d. 251
(Euseb. Hist. Eccl. vi. 43), St. Jerome (e. L\Kif. 4),
Isidore of Seville (De Eccl. Off. ii. 26), Jesse of
Amiens (u. s.), &c. See also the Sacrameutaries.
Nevertheless some liberty was allowed even at
Rome. In Sardinia it had been the custom for
priests to anoint the head after baptism. Grr-
gory I. forbade this, but afterwards, in 593,
modified his prohibition which had given offence:
" We acted indeed according to the old custom
of the church, but if any are really distressed
about this matter, where bishops are wanting,
we permit presbyters also duly to touch the
baptized on their foreheads with the chrism "
(Epist. iii. 26). In Spain the council of Toledo,
so early as 400, had allowed the presbyter to do
this in the bishop's absence ; and even before him,
if he commanded it (can. 20). The latter liberty
is also given by a, canon in the collection of
Martin of Braga, a.d. 569 (c. 52). In France,
as we have seen above, the unction by the bishop
was from the 5th century to the 9th considered
a needless repetition of that by the |)riest im-
mediately after baptism. Pseudo-Bneda (m
Psalmo 26 v. 1, Comment.) asserts that the unc-
tion "quae per manuum impositionem ab epi-
scopis" is the same with that last mentioned,
adding " propter nrrogantiam tamen nou con-
cessa est singulis gacerdotibus sicut et multa
alia" (Baed. 0pp. viii. 558, ed. 1563). That
one of the chrisniations was originally regarded
as a substitute for the other, or otherwise con-
nected with it, may also be inferred from the
tradition that Sylvester, a.d. 314, permitted
priests to use the chrism after baptism, lest the
person should die without any chrismation
(Anastas. Siblioth. Vit. Punt. 34).
In the East, also, the bishop was considered
the proper minister of this unction (see Dionys.
Hier. Eccl. iv. 10 ; Maximus, Scholia in H. E.
ii. 78) ; but there the liberty which Gregory I.
permitted in a special case was extended to all
priests. Hilar
Epiat. lid Ep/i, \
Egyptians jircsb
not present " (c'
rt Nm. Test. lo
In the Apiistolici.
than the bishof
Hipoy" after hi
century Photius
give the unction
baptize (Epist. j
Philadelphia, wh
the privilege of I
Church consider:
only, but to presi
of baptism " (in
The bishop is, ht
minister of the i
the priest applies
[(;HRi8.M]. To tl
Damasus, Epist. 5
8; Gela.sius, 494,
Hl-spal. 619, cap. ;
Cunc. Worms!. 86
Information resj
which we have trc
Id them, may be (
aid many others.
Sit. ii. 42, Slediol.
Mi., Med. 1618;
lert. de iis pews gi
gendi, in his Advers
Luc. Holsten. Dissei
Bacram. Cimfirm. a
printed in Morini
Jo. Dallacus, de D<
frm., &c., Genev.
Sacram. Confirtn. i
1750, a reply to Da
TEjlise, ii. Rom. tu
TTNCTION
ft Nov. 'Jcsl. 101, ,r»biil)ls; l.vViI '«'"'""• '''<■
century Photius aHirms the rfu-M r -^^ ^"'
pve the unotion of ^^.^fi™,!"^'' ^'^1^ ! !°
baptize (/,>rf. j;^ / . j3 "° «« ^7 .*? '"
Philndeli.hia, while aware thJfl\ "^"i "'^
the pn^ app, j;:^.^C-^^;;- Jhleh
8; GeaMus, 494. En nrl ;.'.„•.„ r *•"■ ^*A can.
Hi.pal 619;c..p;7t's;n'od:^;^:giS50 ^^^^^^^^^
Cone. Wormat. 868, can. 2. ' ' '
Information respecting the several unction, nf
«ir. 1., Med. 1618; M. Larroqimnus, Ilrcria Bio
mo a reply to Daille; CI. Dc vTrt ci^ri *
m rr ;•' *''«>"«'■ an answer to De Vert
(4) Um-Uon of //e««,V5. - Heretics who;e
baptism was considered invalid, on whatever
on«nin,„„sl, b, .hVcSi of^tth7gV";??
250, in the case of heretics whnK» k„?.^ ' '
.fterwards allowed by'th ^"4 "'^^6^
TBM, Iteration op, p. 179 ^''^ ^^P"
.ratoiued T/' "T*^"' '^'"'»« »'«P«»m
was artmitted, but who were not confirmed
The Novatians "did not confer n,„ ™°"™7-
ohrim on those whoV ty £ti ed -T \°\
«couat," says Theodo eL^ " the mit J^m''
Hteemed fathers gave coland toTo nt ifi
Wreceived'them from heTet'l^"** "• '^"^ "'"'
Jdniitted'wtihth'e-sil' SroThid""' "•
ft,^ ^ P„ 7I j-n'^ Cy^nm (_/:pist. 71, od
&txa^£:ics^-t:
UNCTION
2003
i?iL§V^-'«'^^'"-«3,Vigi,i„,5;,8.
to 'thoV'":r,.'rrn7', '"'''' -'^i- -k"-!
heretic, only "rhe^ltomlh.T ''"''.*'^'"^ '''
g"stine, suM,osi,g hat tl f, '"""•"«'• ^u-
right form had b ..,, „ 1 ',"'""" '"""'■'■ ""d
firlt with ir^ OS t" TIT^'k^'V" '•^'™'^^'' "
Stephen in Cy ,rian Iw 7l^Z\"7'/r (""
and unction ' S "2:; re'^tM*' '"'^"'^"'™
<-'hangc i., the coum.ii ?r,- "'""''' *" t^e
P'«ce%o early as- 'l?*^ r*''™"' ^'^'^^ »-»»•
This oouncrdfre; Vbi'v ™ "»« '-^ 372.
«lmll thus commun ate Tt th, h 1 ^^ ^' ''"■""°'
fcau 71 si„ u. I. ., ""^ ""b' niy-iterv "
Knmtit^e,, A ,u' rii '^^'/r'f ''^ '"^'"''^
'^^noiDtedb^Kithf^t„;fi'''''''''''^» '» l^*
mysteries" (/-I ^«/ i, " / 7 '" "'''"■'""-■'' 'ho
to the orthodox r L , ""■ ^"'^''' ^h" <••«"«
heterodo/v by a ^han.e' 'r'^'f' "" »° '"•
baptism by the- unc ,on ff t°h T',"^' /' '" ^is
his ordination bv »Z • •''"'>' '"''""'' «» t"
l^^garded their baptisms as def'c vein f^vTl 1
itonlvreauii-eH *Kof A ■ .. '"'e 'n ronn : but
li... '..?. to N.™ ■"'■ ?;~'";"-. sib-
verte from these five seL """'""'■ ^'"^
inTrullo, a.d. 691 reXm.j 7?^". ^'"' ''''"°"'
Heresf 4 ii ^^ Vux ,'° *''* """'iole an
ofaSioVc'i.L^v'.'^VS.""' ^'*''™ ^°™
saying in 600," the wJfLT . Gregory L
^^Wl on of the hS,'CThe^Erb'!?'
-xs^i^^^aSs-^r^^
I.uMiv«iouof JrrsectMr?^^;
127
2004
UNCTION
baptized in the nnme of the Trinity, were to be
reci'ivod into the church " with chrism nml ini-
posiiion <if the hand" (cann. 1((, 17). Kiuistus
of Uhegiiim, 475 {Dc Untt. IM et Mb. Arh i.
15), taught thnt unc thus Impti/ed waa to be
"judged to be HO washed by the operation of
grace, that he need only to be clothed with the
benediction of the chrism." The author Di: Kc-
clesiiiaticis DopnuticU {'12 al. 5'.'), sujiposed to be
Qennadius of Mnrseilles, 41)5, says tliat all who
have been ba])tized in due form and matter by
heretics should, if able to answer for themselves,
"bciiii; alrca<ly purged by the soundness of their
faitli, be confirmed l>y iniiiosition of the hand ;"
but that those who cannot answer for themselves
should be presented by sponsors as .it baptism,
" and so being Ibrtilied by imposition of the
hand and the chrism, bo adi.iittod to the mys-
teries of the Eucharist." The (iallican council
of Kpaone, A.n. 517: "We recpiire the pres-
byters for the safety of souls, which we desire
in all, to aiisist with the chrism lieretics who are
given over and confined to bed, if they seek a
sudden conversion. Which let all desiring to
turn know that they must, if in health, seek from
the bishop " (can. 16). Examples of such chris-
mation in France are found in Gregory of Tours
{Hist. Franc, ii. 31 ; 34 ; iv. 27, 28). The same
discipline prevailed in Spain. " Heretics," saya
Isidore, " if they are proved to have received
baptism in the name of the Father and of the Son
and of the Holy Ghost, are not to be baptized a
second time, but are to, be purged by chrism
only and impsition of the hand " {De Eccl.
'Off. ii. 24). The council of Seville in 619 says
rthat it is not lawful for preshf/ters to sign the
'ft>r«head of the baptized with chrism (can. 7).
For instances of the practice see Greg. Tur. Uixt.
Franc, v. 39; ix. 15; and Keccared at the
. council of Toledo, 589 {Cone. Hard. iii. 471). In
the 9th century wo hear of the same rule from
Walafriil Strabo (de Rcb. Eccl. 26).
(5) Unction of the Sick. — The Apostles anointed
many for whose recovery they prayed (St. Mark
Ti. 13), and St. James (v. 14, 1.")) recommends
the same practice to "the elders of the church."
It was followed by very many, both laymen and
women, in every part of the church. E.g. a
female saint, Eugenia, is said to have healed a
sick woman by anointing her with oil (Vita, II,
in Rosweyd, 343). We need not stop to prove
this at length ; as it will be conceded that they
who could do the greater, viz. bless the oil (of
which see many instances in Oil, uses or (3), p.
,1455, couM certainly do the less, viz. apply it
when ble.s.sed. The oil blessed liy St. Monegund
on her death-bed was necessarily used by others.
It is more important to shew that this liberty
remained, when the oil was no longer blessed
by laymen and women. Thus P,'!eudo-lnnocent
(I p. ad scent. § 8): "Being made by the
bishop it is lawful, not for priests only, but for
all Christians to use it in anointing in their own
•need, or that of their' friends." Caesnrius of
Aries, 502 : " Let him who is sick receive the
body and blood of Christ, and then let him
.anoint his body " {Serm. 66, § 3). In an epi-
demic he recommends a person to " anoint both
himself and family with blessed oil " (.Slirm. 89,
f 5). St. Eliglus, 640: "Let him faithfully
leek the blessed oil from the church, wherewith
.0 aooiat his body in the name of Christ " {De,
UNCTION
Sect Cnihol. Convers. 5). This liberty is ncng.
niscd in an old pontlKcnl of Kouan, in which th<>
bishop is said to " bless the oil for the sick an<l
for the ncople " (Note 282 in lih. Sai-ritm.
Ort<for. Menard). Notices of the rite in the Hth
ami itth centuries sometimes leave it uncert.un
whether the priest anoints the siilj hiuHcll',
though the unction and comniunion arc Imth
mentioned. E.i. Thoodulf of Orleans, 7li4:
"When the sick man'shall have been anointed,
with prayers, &c., then let the priest give iiim
the peace ami communicate him {G./iitutun: ii,
in Baluz. ; Miscell. ii. 104, ed. Mansi). With
this compare Cone. A(|uisgr. 8.16 {Ve Vita Infrr.
Ord. r. 5) ; Cone. Mogunt. 847, can. 26 ; Hernr.j.
Turon. 8.58, cap. 21 ; Isaac Lingon. 8ij9, Cawmei,
i. 23; Capit. Re;/. Franc, vi. 75; the artidcs
of visitation (n. 18) preserved by Uegiiio {lie
Disci/ill. Eccl. p. 2.1, ed. Ualuz.); " lieile " cit.",|
Hiid. i. 119; &c. Not till the midille of the Otii
century, if t mistake not, do wo meet with any
express injunctiim to the priest to iHTlorm
the unction himself. Then Hincniar, 8.')2, savj
to his clergy, " Let him himself both anoint
them with the sacred oil and communicate thim "
{Capit. 5, Labb. Cone. viii. 578). I!icult'u,s at
Soissons, 889 : " It is the duty of presbyter.* to
anoint their sick with holy oil " (c. 10, Uml. ii,
419). So Leo iv. 847 {Ve Cura l'a.it<mxti, H.
viii. 34), and Ratherius of Verona after liim.
928 {Synodica, il>. ix. 1271) : " Oleo sancto inun-
gite et propria maiiu communicate "), aivl the
three Admonitiows Synodalea printed by linluze
in App. to Regino {De Discipl. Ecclcs, 603, tiOS,
612).
The restraint of the unction to the prie.st had
momentous consequences. The original inten-
tion of it in relation to the healing of the bi>ljr
was practically forgotten, and the rite cnme to
be regarded as part of a Christian's immediate
preparation for death. Hence, in the 12th cen-
tury, it acquired the name of the last unction,
" unctio extrema," (Peter Lomb. Sentent. iv. 23),
I.e. as the Catechism of Trent asserts (P. 2, De
Ext. Unct. 3), the last of those which a mau
received from the church. In the lllth it "as
placed by schoolmen among the seven rites to
which they then limited the application of the
term " sacrament " (Thomas Aquin. .Summi,
snppl. ad P. iil. qu. 29). See Martene, de Ant.
Eccl. Bit. I. vii. 1, § 2 ; Xotitia Eucharistim,
1011, 2nd ed.
The order in which the sick were anointed
and communicated was changed more than once.
The earliest extant notices(Cone. Turon. in Regino,
i. 116 ; Caesarius. u.s. ; Eligius, u. s. ; ii;c,)putthe
communion before the unction. This is what
we might expect ; for when recovery -from sick-
ness was the object of the unction, the suHbrer
would naturally prepare for it by communlcatlni;.
On the other hand, when they had recourse to It
only at the supposed approach of death, It w«!
put at first before the comniunion, because that
had always been regarded as the jiroper viati-
CDM, the last preparation for departure. This
was the common order in the' 9th and 10th cen-
turies, as we learn from " Bode " in Regino, Leo,
Hincmar, &c. already quoted, and from nesri.r
every Ordo Ungendi in Martene, de Ant. Eil.
Eccl. I. vii. 4. See also the first Admonitio Si/tio-
dalis cited above. At length, however, extreim
unctio waa supposed to mean unctio in extmm, j
•nd men rei
new motive.
Inst rite of i
this; but v
Illustration,
and cominun
nitio .^i/mnlit
inverted wi(
reading is, "
•aero iriuugal
ordo given 1,
Is an Amiens
4 ord. 27). J
of England,
life of .St. Hll
pore l)onilnic(
oleo "(!•,/„, ,
It has been
for more than
"te; liiit the
or Oiientnls o
9th century.
utrliisijuc- Eccl.
Concord. Eccl.
however, exam
£■:/■ St. ci„tii
lum inunctft s,
§ li>, Boll. J„„
unction of St. I
Boll. Aug, 25).
In '850 the syi
presbyter of tl
neighbouring p
can. 8) ; and tj
some of the an
"unus ex sac(
sac'>rd(ites ").
The Greeks i
three crosses wi
out of the am
and dress and i
(Theodiilf, U.S.).
IS this also infi
was to anoint th
the back of the
neck, shoulder-bl
('!>.). The same
English pontifical
Mart. M.S. Old. 1
Troves, 850 (Ord.
throat, the latter
with the oil on ev
We need hardl
tent could not be
had been " reconc
body and blood of
On Maundy Th
were provided bel
ings of oil for th
people, who probab
»' it, took much ol
had been blessed,
about 730, says » J
lus olfert " (§ ao, J
sian Sacramentary i
'<^W" {Liturg. Rom
■rejorian: "Ampu
('««/. il. 55).
On some points .
»e are at a disadva
-itholic authors, e
tJNCTlON
...uni.m i„ ,K. 1" '"'"'•..'"f? "nation
ONCTION
2005
i'feofSt. ini,|„g,,n,| ^/h/T/^^ '"■""■» "1 th..
P'-re Dominic, ,ibi dn „ ,!„ "I '"""''>'' "''"'-
rite; ln.t there i» „„„!.!, *- "''■»'^"' «' "li,
«rOrio„.„l.oCo V I ;, h'"^'' ' "' "^« «"''^-»
0th century. See le AM »"'""", ''^"'"■'•' ""^
however, e.xiimnlea o,-..,,.. r *"" ^^*'''t,
§ li», Boll. Jnne3) Wa/w:''' ^"'''*"'"'' '''■
unction of «t Hiine:, oni V" '"■"■*«"' nt the
B"ll. A„g 25) ShuW ;."• ".'" ^ '?'' ''■'• 20,
preabyter';;^th fpt,'""'' ^f -'' '>"" "the
neighbouring pre,&" also •• Sv '"p"' '^"
cnn. 8) ; nnt tram, nf »i ^^> "• Kegmt o.
r-fthe'J:S^'il^-^™-^..in
thr?e'cro:::'w/t"h t ''/" "^^."'"-^ ■"-'« only
o«tofthrr;,,tel;;t\^,>r
- this aisIinU? .'S' th t:?- "■'" '^"'
wan to anoint the cvehrovTc """ I™'*'*^*
the back of the hn,f rth„ '<■ TV?"'*'''"' "P''
neck, ..ho„l.l,.r.bIa,re n'a'S ^X'^'""'' *"•<"•'''
(*•). The same de ta Is are . . -'•"* "^ P"'"
English pontlHcal of al:; ^"slonf^V'' "'l'
.Mart. M.S. Or.|. n nnd i,, Vk f <• ^ '^- ^^""n"'-
Troves, 850 fOH SV 1 il"'."'^ Pnulentius of
throat.\he iZrttVbre V'^A T" "'""'' "'^
with the oil on every J ,rt ""'" '^*" """^-^
te^™uMl^^'^Sd"i^'':'j'P"''""P-'-
had been " reconeiLd hv K ''""'" """' he
^;^y«nab,ooa"::^S^^t!'-— 0^^^^
wore^S£^'etS^brtr''^'''- ""'
ings of oil for tho sick „eL ^ ''"8^- o*'"-
people, who prob,,bIy,Ts'w: nfe 'S\?^ ">«
of It, took much of ;♦ k '., . ™ ""="■ "se
ha^l been b^s^d The e^^hTs' Oh''"^ ""'=' "
about 7.30, sav^ « RBm. r ". ^ "*" K»mnnus,
l-"ft"&S';^"iir5"''^;:^?;r
mn Sacramentary has " Benorf ,.^i„ i • . ^''^
(Vona^_..A.pulL:e ,uas Jii^^),^^?
^-•tholic authors wth«'"/''"'"""'K f^'"'"'"
"uwors, aa they draw no clear line
-Sn;.s:r:!f-s^riin
(<u^^;theu;io :'fe''"7<- ''■■■''•
-n.ury iu.l,? fh'^hr.n ''';;'''•"'.••'•''••' ''^
to receive this oil fn,,. .K V ''* '""'" ""«''*
-noint alta,tt „ 1 „^" '''»''"P». "P'l with it
X n,::^;;^^^ -- „at; "rciiz, a
«ltar itself with H, r'^^"' ? '^'"' «' ">«
consecrated by a b h„,! ^T" 'i^'" "" """^'i''
»l«b by anointig U wi' h & "'"'. ""'?«» "-e
'lip« his thumb, ^raviZVov^r»h'" ''•"-''.V ''"
which he had before desf-rLi" .^^ """" '""■»
cn.ss, and that h« , „ k^ '" "'" '^"" «'' «
while versiK ft. m'ThV ,Ss"f '"^ '"^""■
re.sponsories." After wh I ?' ''^"""' "'"^
ftlt'rset before us h«th k *!* "'J'"' "''"^'■»
nn,l sealed fn the Name ■' Ir^'r^T'^' ''""'"*^''.
practice has de.scen ^ to^h^ ' '.'' ^^>' ''"'••
whose office direct, h. K k """''■'■" '^''^o'^".
of n chur h o ,our ' / P "' I'"' ''-^''^"tion
tross it thrice with L'^'"' °°. *^ ^'"''' '""l
"t the crosses to anoutrrho? '^''" *•""'""'"«
The pillars and .side " th' 7u ' "PP«'- surface,
crcsed with chrism A "."■" *''*'' """«
with it on every c^ium^ ZT f "''" """^^
church (Goar. IJasTv-s")' ft'". " '1'
nl.so used at the consecration nf J .■ ''*"''™ "
fore as well ». netlTu- "' ^"'""wjim be-
and cerolsti^ (S.%'487 Wr^"" /^'^
same use of oil in the WWfr tu^?"" "^ 'he
of the 5th century T *^' '""«' P'"*
/fc'mVy on m" 47^ "■■"';'>< f indeed the
ascribed to EusebiusV.^''' u''-'^^'' ^<'"'''^''*<
savs "If !. I '■ J . 'council of Agde, 506
^-iflea ehrtsninti. ,n™..i_. .'^'t«m nui In-
."ly».i./^.,, ,'SSl* "r''."' ■'»"' 5»5
« N 2
2006
rNIVh^iKITIES
8 !0, aftor ultlng hii nctlon, Mjri, "Th« Chrln-
tiiiii lellKliiii, InkiuK rxniiiplK from the niicieiit
tmlitiiJti i)( ihi! father*, . . . cri'ifii iiltniu, mil
|HMU'H nil oil MiFin, and aiiointt tliim witli tlii'
iii'>.^t huly ohriaiii, nil I rnnn tin- aclt ami vow.-i
of till' ftforusaiil .lacub "iiijj- n iiiulo'ly tc t'lirist "
(lib. iii. caj). '.'3). ('iini|uiri' IVtIiiiuua Miuiiiih
</. Instil, Ctfric. ii. 4.'i, ami W'alaCr. .Stnil.ii, (A'
/■(,''), I'ci-I, 9. This niition in iiichtTvi"! in tho
oil Kiit(Iiah |iiiiilifii'iilii. Sec KciniKlua of
Aiixciro (tie iJelk. Kivlei. H) on the i|ui»tii>n,
''t^uijhif(m.'tuiin variaUm tlono Altmis?" At'tiT
tho ii'ietion uf the altar, thn l)i>hu|i ijuing njuiij
tbtf rhnrch signs the wallit with i lirisiii, iiiiliitf
his thumb {I'vntif. K,|{hprti Klior. in Martcne, ilo
Ant. Ecd. Kit. il. l;l, Ord. •>). Conip. the
Kiijjlish pontidcal preNcrTi'd at Juniii'ces {ihid.
Old. ;i), thaWdfDuiistan (Ord. 4), mid tln-(inlli-
can I'lmtilicals of Rhidms, Noyon (Ordd. .''i, tl), &c.
K);ht<rt givua n furni for conseornliug a |>ati'ii ami
chali."* with unction (Mart. M. a., but at length in
the Surlccs Society's edition, |i. 47. (.'oinp. Mart.
Or Id. 1, ,1, 4, &c.). The blessing of the chnlico
fi Hows, and here Dunatan only of tlioHt* whom
w e have cited orders it to bo iiuoinlcd. Dells
werj also anointed with chrisui when blvubcd
(Surt. Soc, 118 ; Mart. u,t. Ord. 3).
[W. E. S.]
UNIVERSITIES. [Schools.]
UXLE^VVENED BREAD. [Elkments.]
Un BANUS (1), Jan. 24, one of three children
niart\red with Uabylna at Antioch under Itetiub
(M irt. Usuard. ; Mitrt. Rum.).
(8) Apr. 16. [Sarauossa, MAUTrns of.]
(3) May 25, pojie, ra.irtyr, commemorated at
Knme on tho Via Nuuicntano, in the cemetery
of Praetextatus (Mart. Ik-d., Usuard., Adon.,
Hieron., Vd. Hum., Jiom., Wand.; Boll. Acta
iSW. JIai. vi. 11), commemorated on this day in
the Gregorian Sacraniontary, which mentions
hiti] in the collect.
(4) July 2, martyr, one of tho companiona of
Ari^to in Campania (Mart. Usuard., Adon., M.
Mom., Hum.),
(6) Sept. ft, martyr with Theodorux, Medim-
nuH, and eighty priesta and deacons under Valcns
(Mcnol, Oraec, Sirlet. ; Mart. Bo>n.).
(6) Oct. 31, commemorated with Stachys and
Amplias, disciples of the apostles (Basil. Mcnol.;
Meiiol. Or, ; Mart. Som.). [C. H.]
UBCEOLA -US. A pit<;her for wntaining
water for ritual use in the Eucharistic service,
whether for washing the ministrants' hands, or
for cleansing the vessels. In the ordination of
acnlythes the delivery of an "urceolus" formed
part of the ceremonial : " accipient urccolum in
quo datur eis pntestas infundeiidi aquam in call-
ccm dominicum " (Steiih. Eduens. lit: de Sacr.
Altaris), In Lanfrancs Epistles we (ind "vas
superius unde lavandis manlbus aqua inlunditur "
{Cantmr, Ep, 13). [E. V.]
URGEL, COUNCIL OP (Urobllense
CONCILICM), 4.D. 799, whore Kelix, bisho' of that
•ee, was condemned by the French bishops sent
by Charlemagne to sli in jujguieut o'n him
'^lansi, xlli. 1033). [E. S. Kf.j
UBSAdUS, Aug. 16, confessor at Nicaea
tSUBY
under Llclulus (Mart,, U»uarJ., Adon., V*L
Mom.). [C. H.]
rUSICINr8(UK»iNDi)(l),Juno lit, martyr
at Kavenna (Mart. Usuurd., Adon., 1V(. Jiom.,
A'OHJ.).
(8) Nov. tl, bishoji of Bourges, coufo»''or(JAii-<.
llsuurd., Kliir., Adon., Jlum.). [(,'. 11.]
ITRHICIITH. Au«. \\ tribune of Illyri. urn,
niart.yr under Maxiniian (U.mil. Mcnol.); Aug.
14(J/('no/. liriux: Sirlet.; Mirt. Hum.).
fC. H.]
URHMARUK, bi'.ho]!, confessor; coimnc'nio-
rated in thn monastery (d'Lohbes, Ajir. I!i (.l/'lr^
IJsunrd. ; Mart. Jiom,); Ajjr. 18 (Boll. Ad<i SH
Apr. ii. &,'.7). [C. 11.]
I'RHUl.A, Oct. 21, martyr with eleven
thoiiMiud virgins at (,'ologiie (jlirt. limn.); tho
virgins williout Urhulu In some JISS. of Btilt
and in Waudalbert. [C. H.]
I'llSUS, Spj.t. 30, commemorated at S<iln.
thurn or Soleurn with Victor, iiiaityis of tha
Thcbau Icijiuii (Mart. Usuard., Adon., Hum.).
[i'. 11.]
U8TAZADEH, Apr. 21, martvr In I'ursia
(Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rum., kum.).
USURY. In (he early church, the austere
morality inculcated by its teachers and tlie c^nin-
parntive seilusinn of its members from ;nter-
course with the worl.l and participation in lli«
more equivocal methods of «ii(iiiring weiltli,
I'ombined to cause the calling of the usurer, and
even the occasional lending of money /or imijiom
of gain (whether to fellow Christians or to
strnnger.s), alike to be regarded as uuliwfiij.
■Such procedure, whether systematic or excep-
tional, was accordingly altogether condenuieil;
passages such as Exod. xxii. 24; Levit. xxv. M,
;!7; Deut. xxiii. 20, 21 ; Neh. v. 7, 10, 11 | V».
x\v. 4, .I; liv. 12; St. Luke, vi. 34, 35; iic,
being regarded as decisive of the .Scri|ituiHl
teaching on the subject. This view contiiiucil,
for the most part, to prevail long after tlie 8lh
century. The schoolmen unanimously rniscd
their v(dce against usury in any form (linnaven-
tura, ad Sent. Iv. xv. 2, art. 2, quae.st. 1, 4;
Aq»ina.s, k'umma, II ii. 78, art. 1). The pnssage
in the New Testament (Luke xix. 2:1) which
ajipcars to countenance the practice was expliiined
away by Aquinas by sujiposing that money ,is
referred to in this parable is to be understood
only in a metajihorical and spiritual sen.se. The
Reformers (I.ut her, Melanchthon, &e.) also held
that the teaching of the Mosaic law left no doubt
tm to the obligations of Christians in this matter.
The practice of usury under the Empire olfereJ
however peculiar temptations to the clergy, from
the fact that it required no previous aciimiintanoe
with any craft and but little knowledge of torn-
mercial aliairs. On the other hand, it was liable
to abuse which involved great moral wrong ; the
legal rate of interest was fixed at twelve |)er
cent. — " usura centesima," * — but in the time of
• /.«. one per cent, per month. Tbis law wad rp-
enacted by Constanilue only a month before the cenndl
of Nicaea, a fact whi h, as Professor Funk obsenes,
shews that the probtblUun of the church omld have ii«l
bnt very partial effect (Cod. Tlttott. I. Ii 'i3; Funk
duck, du KircMivhen Zimttrbotei, p. «).
<^ '•}•:«. torn
M much a<
yivn Mi»f»iv,
/il/ru'cj, — "i
even l,y the
ny. th" Msu
wlio h |.| a ivi
hv tliivisliliig
Mat. ii„|„,
688).
A|"illoiiiin
the leulii,^. „
other iiiil.nvl
tcai'liers of III
driniis (.s"',u,„
Mon.ilc law)
Interest to tl
"bn.th,.r" a
i/t'i'yi'uviwcTf
(Mi'C'ic, ,',, viii
(sviii. H), an I
Ol.l Tc,i,,„|,.||(
('(7c. .M,„x;„n.
48) cites the
and I lent, xxl
aih. ilfiU. Di'u
of tlie Usurer
even tiion^rji |,
amount tiiat t
en;iMe bini to i
niMin "(.Mij;ne,
vi IM) rl;i.s,seH
that no ni.in sh.
to another whi
says, the kimlly
is .is one who [ii
— "qnocl ,,i,i f,
•Iteiiiis necessit
But whilo it
that ill the |,rac
Clllcateil liy fill,
C(irri's|iond'in.,' ol
rity, the evidenc
fro,|ii.'ntly,||sr,.jj
theacciiiint ^'ivei
Calli^tus and his
pursue I tho call
Anal. AiUe-Sica-
tise (I; Lupsis (c. i
among the " I.j
oliice, 'Mieina ]
turned their attei
H'anleriug about
mnrkMts lor the sn
Ml'it.il liy len.ling
"w^'oti.ationis q
!«"•'.... us
•ugere"(MiVnp, I
It is siippilsed b
we ni.iy infer frc
CyiiriMii's time nt
chur.h on the la
'r'l"'''ii's, however,
that the above bisl
•cib'si.istical contr
lion of which we
•"''joci is that oft,
rjlii,.!. .1;-. I ., .
r.-.-tj ;nai
•re til he debarred f
formamdiviuitusdi
(Mansi, Cone. ii. 47
««« (? ann. 320) i
T-fll'HY
wli" li li a witu nii.l ,.(iil , I ' ' """
688). ' ■<" • '"''"'• <''•"»". Iviii.
b« l,Mi.li>„f ..p ■....:. !• /'■ ''• "') "num-rMtn.
■'•' "no ain.iiij;
nai'n?
2007
..noum that ti„. l,.g:,| rnto , "•,,., St ,
t'.at;U!::';:^t;:orthrrtt': '" r''"-
C.,l,.atn,l I.V- tl,,M,.a,.|ychun|> I ""''V' '»-
my, the ovi,r.M..„ puiniy ,,,:;;■';' ■--
.:„, ... , . ', '.'.' '• ■'' ')• • ,vi.n.-,n, m hi., t,.„a.
! homlnom incintiiin f,«
'liHiiitiir «.'«.(iMiil(,,.ra!
n-n alitor \.or,r,n?*v!;T'^ "T""' *■*' '■^""
Althoii^l, thi. nwHhi„im of tho mcrrnntil.
•front (/a™. ■>, A .'i, J ,. • ■^"•, .""Nil 'he
' V>>it xvi ,^ '••;"•). /'••"SO'-y "I'N'azianziim
■14, l.' Chry.soHtom, Matth. v. 42: OroL-'rv , f
0,1 **!, i ■ '■'• "•'.^IwtiMi,' tlieii' .liviiio
tu n '1 ,h ■""» '"■'."^"■•"'i""« '"i'tempta." hn 1
-..s|^n..sa^r;t'r ;•;:---£
C8 ta l,y lon.lm.sf ,t out at co,„j,o,„.,l iut.,; -^
It 1.^ «iii,pos..il by Hef,.|,. (n<-:trilic I -qx tj, »
we may infor fro.n thi. Li^dyl\tl^t
lilxTty, an,| vou rondomn him to slavorv I " \>\
^r;i;:s,3;;-^lo2:s.i;^;i
St, 1 .n force I..„ tho (iroat. in hii lo " ^
hv , • 'iF """"■"■'"<■« •'^lo.l the pr .hil.iVi „
b> l.n.l.ng their money in the name of ano h.r
ami doWaroB this to be e,i„allv forbid.le Ife
amen s hat even laymen/who' wish to « en-
»H crej Chnst.an.s, shoul.l ,,r«etise the , n,-e,>
'•all..,,,--.. q„„,| et i„ laioos ea.lere, qni ( h ,.
In^ltZir""""'! "' ^'""^'"'■» By»nllnc torn, f„,
internet half as much as the caj-iui, or 160 per cent.
2008
USURY
Ktt\ov<Ti) to take interest for lonns, and contrasts
the usurer's craft with that of the husbandman,
the grazier, or the artisan, affirming that his
gain is a harvest reaped without the aid of soil,
plough or rain {in M'ttt. Horn. Ivii. ; Migne,
Patrol. Qraec. Iviii. 557).
The conditions of modem society and commer-
cial life have involved sucli a revolution in the
conceptions respecting the emi)loynient of capital,
that the arguments whereby it was sought to
justify the Mosaic condemnation of usury now
ajipear scarcely intelligible. It was objected
that usury was an infringement of equal dealing,
because more was given by the borrower than
he received, — that it was ruinous to many, while
serviceable to but few, — that it was oppression
of the poor man under the guise of rendering
him a service (August, in I's. xxxvi. Serm. A;
Ambrose, de Offic. iii. 3;. C'hrysost. in Matth.
Horn. 56). When it was asked, as an e.\treme
case, whether tho man who lent a bushel of corn
to his neiglibour, frori which the latter reaped
tenfold, might not j islly claim to share equally
in the gain, Ji -mie replied by citing Gal. vi. 7,
and by a quibble worthy only of a professed dia-
lectician (cut Eioch, vi. 18 ; Opera, ed. Migue,
vi. 17t)). This excess of stringency produced its
natural results and evasicm was frequently re-
sorted to. Ambrose (Je Tubla, c. 14) states that
it was a common practice fur those who lent
money (especially the wealthy) to receive the
interest in the form of goods.
The canons of later councils differ materially
in relation to this subject, and indicate a distinct
tendency to mitigate the rigour of the Nicaean
interdict. That of the council of Carthago of the
year 348 enforces the original prohibition, but
without the penalty, and grounds the veto on
both Old and New Testament authority, " nemo
contra prophetas, nemo contra evangelia facit
sine periculo " (Mansi, iii. 158). The language,
however, when compared with that of the council
of Carthage of the year 4-19, serves to suggest that,
in the interval, the lower clergy had occasionally
been found having recourse to the forbidden
practice, for the general terms of the earlier
canon, " ut non liceat clericis fenerari," arc
enfurced with greater particularity in the latter,
"Nee omnino cui'iuam clcricorwn liceat de
qualibet re foenns accipere" (Mansi, iv. 423).
'i'his supposition is supported by the language of
the council of Orleans (A.D. 538), which appears
to imply that deacons were not prohibited from
lending money at interest, " Kt clericus a dia-
conatu, et supra, pecuniam non commodet ad
usuras " (i6. ix. 18). .Similarly, at the second
council ofTrullanum (A.D. 692) a like liberty
would appear to have been recognised among
the lower clergy (Hardouin, iii. 1663). While,
again, the Nicaean canon requires the immediate
deposition of the ecclesiastic found guilty of the
practice, the Apostolical canon enjoins that such
deposition is to take phice only after he h.as been
admonielicd and lias "lisregarded the admoni-
tion.
On the other hand, at the second council of
Aries (A.D. 45*), we find tbat such an otl'ence
on the part of an ecclesiastic was requirod t" b«
punished not only by deposition but also by
e.\communication, " dopositus a communiono
alienus fiat" (Mmsi, vii. 8S0).
Cfenerally tpeakiog, the evidence points to the
USURY
conclusion tli.tt the church imposed no penalty
on the layman. St. Basil {Ep st. clxxxviii. can.
12), says that a usurer may even be admitted to
orders, provided he gives his acquire I wealth to
the ])oor and abstains for the future from the
pursuit of gain (Migne, Patrol. Graeo. xxxii
275). Gregory of Nyssa says that usury, unlike
theft, the desecratiuu of tombs, and .sacrilege
(ifpoo-uAia), is allowed to p:iss unjiunislied,
although among the things forbidden by .Scrip-
ture, nor is a candi late at ordination ever asked
whether or no he has been guilty of the practice'
(.Migne, i!>. xlv. 2:j:i). A letter of Silduius
Apollinaris (Epist. vi. 24) relating an exju'ricnco
of his friend Maximus, appears to imply that no
blame attached to lending money at the legal
rate of interest, and that even a bishop might
be a creditor on those terms. We find also
Desideratus, bishop of Verdun, when apidviiig
for a loan to king Theodebert, for the relief of
his impoverished diocese, promising rep.iymont,
"cum usuris legitimis," an exju'ession which
would seem to imply that in the Galilean church
usv-y was recognised as lawful under certain
conditions (Greg. Tur. I/iat. Frani:. iii. 34). So
again a letter {Epist. ix. 38~j of Gregory the
Great seems to shew that he did not regard the
payment of interest for money advanced by one
layman to another as unlawful. But, oii tlie
other hand, we find in what is known as arih-
bishop Theodore's Penitential (circ. A.)). OIH))
what aiipears to be a general law on the sulijo<'t,
enjoining "Si quis usuras undecunque exeg^rit
. . . tres annos in ))ane et aqua" (c. xxv. ;i); a
penance again enjoined in the Penitential of
Kgbert of Vork (c. ii. 30). In like manner, the
legates, George and Theophylact, in re|iiutiiig
their proceedings in England to pope Adrian J.
(A.D. 787), state that they have pruliibited
" usurers," and cite the authority of the Psalmist
and St. Augustine (Iladdan and Stubbs, One. iii.
457). The councils of Mayeuce, Kheims, .and
Chalons, in the year 813, and that of Aachen in
the year 816, seem to have laid down the .-anie
prohibition as binding both on the clergy and
the laity (Hardouin, Cone. iv. 1011, 1020, 1033,
1100).
Muratori, in his dissertation on the subject
(AntiJiitd, vol. i.), observes that " we du not
know exactly how commerce was transacted in
the five preceding centuries," and consequently
are ignorant as to the terms on which loans cf
money were elVected. A later period shews us,,
to use the language of Mr. Pearson, "the nmral'
guides of society, on the one hand, endeavouring
to enforce a law which was, without abatement,
the law |)rescribed originally for the Hebrews in
Palestine ; while, on the other, foreign wais,
foreign commerce, and the perfectly uner|nal
division of land, were introducing entirely new
conditions of life, which could not be satisliod by
the provisions designed for a nation living under
totally ditlerent circumstances" (T/ifories on
Usury, ]). 16). See also Funk, Gesch. des Kirch-
lichen Zitisverbotei, Tiibingen, 1876.
[J. B. M.]
■■ A can n of the cor.ncil of Agde (a.d. 506) : "S..il-
ilonarlos nunquara onlinandos, ticut nee umrariM,"
etc., pp'l'nbly pulnls to a disti'iciion drawn liy ih«
churcli beiween the prolessioual usurer and tlio.se who
oulj' occu8lonaU> practised usury (.Maust, \ ill b36).
VACANCY.
bishoji's death
and outrage, wh
made successiv(
unsuccessful (.()',j
There are thrt
tinct in any dis
vacant benerice, 1
the property of
revenue of the bf
and (.3) the incor
half a year — oft
The twenty-ei
Chalcedon, a.d. ■!
not lawful for cle
bishop to seize wi
forbidden by the
Apost. 40 ; Curt, j
Antiochene canon
the private prope;
estate of the see
to protect.
A canon such
sometimes took p
" This also is deter
summoned from th
clerics keep rapaci
or whatever is in
to the bishop, in
utensils, vessels, jii
property altogethe
robbers." (Cone. Va
524).
By the following
the kindred of a i
firbidden to touch a
of the metrojiolitar
They were require;
of his successor. Th
should touch S(jmeo
might have got mix
to his heirs. Othe
eft'ect are laid dowi
the ninth councils
'aw (1. 5, t. i. c. 2) e\
should at the comn
verify the inventory
The second counc
enacted that the 1
funeral should denia
cessariam nihil jiret
E.ime council also pr(
theprefcyterstogethi
residence (domum cccl
inventoried (deseripU
lersons. So strict i
wards issued by Gri
even the cost of the
out of the episcopal pi
From a canon of th
It appears that on the
goo'ls and those of hi
"■istfdy of the clergy,
the custody of the met
Ihem to the successor i
Besides the visiting
•fcndeacoD is often
tACANCY
and outrage, which the church n"!:' trZ
made successive and ("it m.iv l,„ 1 1 1/
unsuccessful eflbrts to restrat^ "'^'^''^^ ""*
There are three factors which must h^ t. . r
tinct in any discussion about trlpertfof't
half a yoar-of the new incurZ?^ S) "
The twenty-cghth can,fn of the cou,> dl of
Chalcedon, a.d. 451, stands thus- "TW if •
not awful for dergymea after tte'dealhf t ti'r
bishop to seize what belongs to him « h«llL
forbidden by the canons of old time" fo r
Apost. 40 : Can Antiorh •M\ ». ? *■ "' ^'"*-
f ioche„; can'on^ho^1i,S/,h'etrTh:t* it''^
A canon such as the following shews wh„f
Jomet,mes took place on the voilance V a .e"
1 his also IS determined, that on a bishnn'= I ■
summoned from this world at the W ' Idj h,"/
erics keep rapacious hands from nl furnftuS
or whatever ,s i„ the church house or bln^s
to the bishop, in books, valuables (snecie3
utensils, vessels, produce, llbcks, anim 1, or all
property altogether, and plunder no h Llile
robbers." (Co,.-. ValenUnul Uispan. cj I, A.D
By the following chapter of the same council
of his successor. The reason assigned is lest th!.
should touch some of the oilicial p" ,pertv vhic^
Tot t^r^:' '-''' ?" -p^iheS
.L;» 1 • . .'^ P'-ocautions to the same
£l^h i^ntLr^xhr v;:t5
a^^h;;;i;;:;:::^;s^?t-" "^
venfy the inventory m„rb'h°:pt>etsr'^
i'r^"^i4r-,^tr^;^>
fuueral should demand " praeter eCns^m n."
cessanam nihil pretii pro fatigatione -" tT
^.jme council also provided that'h should S
e preftyters together and, going to the b'hop"
residence (Jomum cccleslae), should leave it when
mventoried {deseriptam) the custody of 2
4*r»ons So strict were the dii-ect "nJ after
wrJs issued by Gregory the Cr^Tlt J .
"•eu the cost of the inve^ntory m ^ht he" T'
out of the episcopal property '^^''* ^' ^''^"'
From a canon of the Trullan Council (c ^•^\
■tappers that on the death of a bishop his ow„^
goo s and those of his church were TudrrTh^
•■.-tujy of tnc cloi-gy, or in default of that under
t custody of the metropolitan, who shall gt
mem to the successor in the see
Besides the vi.siting bishop or the clei-irv th.
VACANCY 2009
guardian of the vacant see. •' Patrim„„,- 1
O'ae in gubernatioue rchidinlonT • ""f'"
ecclesiae constituto," savsrFn 7? '"'"'i^*""
to"t;.k?ten; r ; Cgr^^'iri'f^v'.'''^''"^
see Liber Diurnus^'7 tit 11 ' ''"'""'*'
same'Toundl T^rlsUoJ''' T^' °^ *»>•
ing conciusion Is ' „ %t2t:"T.t 'f °^-
under this head at t),„ V ^ °^ *'''' '=hurch
under specious pretences „« f». • n"" "^""^
sf s^ion of tie cunrJiansKii. nfti: ^ \ ° P*"*
k. W] .h,„ ™.fir.,i,,n. ,d',,ST
Jecrees of th s council ,.f l>oJ? ^ "^' 'k*
10 wm..irih, Sof »!•. ' ":'"■ "• ""•"■•
(.^^^.^.'^^^sr-r-ns
«tory told byGregtyT/T uS'S^yrTs;
The clergy of Marseilles comb n'd with" \l^'
governor against their bishop TKv^u *''*
arrested, and the clergy the„Ll ^u^''^ '^'"
residences of th7 b Jo^ ^TlT '"""«'''' "«'
his property iutr.H, 'V^ "'"^' " "id upon
j-iujjeriy, just (adds the narrative "> ni if th«
bishop were a ready Hpi,1 Tk- i- -^ '"®
Rome is that recorded bv a nr/''"^ T"'''' '°
' of the pillage onhtSehS'Zh^n'LV''^
on the accession of Severinus. "''" '^''*""'"'
suS:trtin\\",^«cJlf ^^ "'- *^«
not pretend to have ai,; ri^ht, ^r''"'"^" '"'^
property of dece::ed1^shS' ."„!:„ tL"" ""'
-eds of vacant sees. This ';, Lr.m^tUX
Tours n"lo'"'"for','fr S"'"^" ''^ 'Jregory S
w:rd^t d\'-nd^' iie*l''7; t c^' ^"' "'■^'■"^
of money were foun Tb" J '^''^^^'^rge sum,
portion ,f it;fe\„] t^^goZnT tlS
means; the rest was left. Again, BauL ^i
2010
VACANTIVI
Jixteenth bishop of Tmirs, was onnbloil to (Jin-
tribiito nm(inc;st tlio I'lxir n very lnri;o sum oi
moiiov (" tiiuiilius (ni.'uii vi>;inti niilliu suliild-
riini "), whi<'h his |iroiloiossor lin.i li't't.ninl wliicli
clenrly lia'l "nt I'.si'hoiiti'il to the crown.
Tho li'ttor of Oii-Pijoiy tho (iioat to the cliTsiv
«nd pcojilo of Hortonn (lib. iii. /•.'/). :li1) is a gooil
ipeciiuon of his ai'tion diiriiii; a vncaiuv. " Wo
solemnly ilelegnto tho vit-itation nt the '(h\-ititiito
church to our brother and co-l)isho|i, Ilarbnnm.
To wh<ini we have ijiven in cluirsjo ' ul nihil ile
reiUlitn, ornatu, miilisteriisiino a iini"|nani nsur-
jmri patiatur'. ... We have i,'iven him licence
to ordain priests and deacons, if need l)e," &c.
In another <aso (Mb. iv. A'/;. IJ) he direits that
the bishcp-visitor of the church of Agriitentnm
should receive the same income for his service's
as the ret;ular bishop would receive. At times
the arrival of tho visitor-bishop was the occasion
of a scuiiiidile. How pope (lrei;ory dealt with
.Huoh a dilliculty may be seen in his letter to
Leontins, who was male bishop-visitor of liiinini
(Lib. iv. /C/j. 42). [VisiTAiiiH.]
In reply to the claim that has at tinn-s been
made of the right of tho pope to the "spoil " of
a vacant sec, Thomassin qnotes words of (iresjory
the (ireat addresse<l to C'onstantins, bisho]) of
Palermo, who was made visitor of the (■hnrcli of
Terracina (lib. vii. JJi), IT)); "Mobile veni prae-
dictae ecclesiae I'acta subtiliter V(dumus ■lescribi
notitia, nobis(iue transmitti, nt ex hoc rinid fieri
di'beat, au<tore Domino, di-ponamus." The
French writer arj^ues that (!reir<iry would not
have considered at his leisure how it should be
disposed of, if it had belonj;ed of riijht to his
own church; and he conclud that all the
"spoil "of a deceased bishoji, and all the revenue
of the vacancy belouffs to the clergy in common,
and the succeeding bishop, whilst eccdesiastirvil
superiors and worldly magnates can pridcnil to
no other glory than that of giving iirotection to
the canons and liberties of the chunh. llishops
lest neither spolia nor djjiorlu^ nor 'iniuitv ; ami
bishops in their turn preserved the di'/nrtuH of
vacant parochial cures, handing them Ihithfully
to the new incumbents (Diii:ipline Ua I'A'ijlisc,
pt. ii. I.iv. iv. 0. 2t!).
That [lortion of the episcopal revenue which
fell to the crown during a vacancy was known
by the name of rcpilia (Diuauge, s, ?).). When
the bishop was dead, it w.as said to be npert i
("regalia est aperta"), and it so continued until
hia sni.ce-^sor was appointed, when it became
dansn. The act of homage or allegiance on
the part of the successor preceded tho delivery
of the regalia to him. [H. T. A.]
VACAXTIVI, or, In fho Greek form, /3o-
kAvtiBoi, were clergy who were found in other
dioceses thin that in which they were first
ordained, with letter^ from their bi-hop. Against
snch frequent decrees were mnde. The tonncil
ofAgde(c. .52 forliids communion to be given
to sach wandering clerk?, and thi^ is repeaterl
by the council of Kjiaon (c (i) ; the council of
Valentia (C. I'aleniin. e. .")) ..rder-; snch w.indererH,
if contumacious, to be deprived both of commu-
oion acd of orden (Bingham, Aiitv/. Vi. iv. .')).
[(J.]
VAISOX, COTJVCirS OF (Vaskssia Co>r-
CILIA), \.r>. 442 and A.D. H^'.t. Formerly there
were thought to hare been three. 1, Which some
VAT.KNTIVA
make the second, "apud Auspicium episoopnm
ecclesiae cathcdicae," s:\ys the title, which w.is
thi! favourite style of the bishops .if Konie, when
ten canons on discipline were pic^icil, but no sub-
scriptions to them have been preserved (iMan^i,
vi. 4,"il liO). 2. Which some make (he thirdr
where four intercstiuif canons on rilu.il one
relating to the reading of homilies of the fathei-s
by deacons when no presbyter co\ild be got to
preach; another to tlii' saying of the Ai/nf
c/c'isoi/, the Kinclus, S :iftu^, .StiiiVii.v, the f^hiil
I'liit of the lioxidogy, and recital of the nnine of
the pepe fur the time being in divine service -
folliiw the lirst on iliscipljui', with the names «f
Si. Ciesarius of Aries aud eleven (dher bishoiu
alli.ved to them. (/). viii. 7i!,">-S,) [K. .S, Kf j
VAKASS. Tlietvaka^s is a vestment or
ornament peculiar to the Aruieniiiii chui.h.
It bears a certain rci-mblauci' to the nnnie,
but has a brea-.tplite .ittachcl to it, as in tho
case of the .lewish hii;h.piicst ; the naiuei er
ligurcB of the twelve iiposth's repl.iciug ih.wo
of the twidve triiies (\eale, Enftcni Cfiun/t,
Introd. p. :iOi> ; Mal.m, /■H'n-:!!/ "f tlw AnwiiMn
CImivh). It is duubllul whether we are In
view this as a direct imilntlen of the .Imviih
ephod, or as really a iiiodilicalion ef Hie
.Western airdce. The Arnienjuns theuisclvej
maintain the .Jewish origin id' lh« vestment,
but the Armenians have borrowed so luiich
A'nm thi^ lioman cluuch that the latter is hr
many thought the nmre probable view. In \
recent work by a Midchitaiist of St. \m,,h~i^,
anil therefore of the Konian lomiriuiiiou, Ihu
vaka.-.s is described as "a large I'ldiar of pre-
cious stull', to whiidi is attached tlo'aioiee"(Nsn.
verdens, The Armeaiiin ('liHiiili, p. 41:'.). [It. ,S.]
VAIiKV(;iO, Cf)UN(;ir,S ok (VAi.nNnff*
f'oscii.iA), A.l>. ;!74, A.n. ."i.'(o, and A.D. :m.
I. When thirty bishops, acconllng to sonic ,M,SS.,
met — it is net clear uieler whose pri'sldeney—
passeil four canons on discipline, hihI leldnsseil
two synodiciil letters, one to the liishopi of
Franco, the other to the clergy and peeple of
Kn'Jiis, inviting attention to their fmirili ciuion
respecting candidates for th>' episcop.ite, |.rirst.
hood, or diaconate (.'Vliinsi, iii. 4!il .'ei'i), 2.
Where the doctrines of freewill aud gr:\(e were
discussed with referr'nce to .St, (liiciriiis of
Aries, who was prevented from attending it I7
ill-health, but deputed able representatives to
express and defend his opinions (ih. viii. VJ.'I-*)).
■i. When the donations of king (inntranin iiiel of
his wife and daughters to dillerent chiircliei
were confirmed bj (.eventecn bishops (M, ij.
';■>.'>-«). [(•:. ,4. Kf.]
VALPINH, Feb. 16, deacon, martyr with
I'amphilus, JSelcuciiis and I'.iulin. at i)aesare»
under Diocletian (lla.su. J/pno/. ; M'lrl. Ilicrim,).
VAI.ENTfA, COT;\(jrL OP (Va(,kxT7»(,h
(V).V(;ir,i[;M), a.d. .'>K;, where six ehiptPMon
discipline were drawn up by six bi-ihops, und nil
archileacon representing a seventh. (Mansi, riii.
•Jl0-'2-i; but he suggi^stg a later date |"i,r It oi>
thn n.-Jt p^.g^..) [■•; ,H, W-
VATiKNTTVA, mnrtyr with Thea ml Puntos
at (lae-area, under Maximin ; commomonled on
.fnlv \h (Fiasil. .\f,nf,t.; Menol. Oraec. Sirlrt.);
July 25 (^M'lrt. Itrm.). [C. H.j
VAT,KVT!m'8
VAT,KVTIM-,s (1) ,,vi, ,,
till"" .•"nMn..ni..,.,„,.,| i,, ,|,„ '// V ^ "'""■
<-lHiiv|, in'h,,' |„,„„;„, ' I', ' I'""/ •'" I.-I a
«.--;. ';^f"!;;:t'i;;:"-;;;v:::;-
/^7.i i^.ii:1y;;'"x^.C' ;••/ 'n ''•■', ^'■•V''-'
to Hnidiiiiis (/ ,. ) u i' I "■.,'■''• '^''"r.lih-;
|"M,-rnmn,M„in,/T;''''v'',' '■''''• ''"''''''•
A -"-..,. t[ ;;::,; ^^-(''^"•'•i'---.!..
u-su.,,..!., ///„.,.„,, /,::'.;,: «'"' Agv„.„i.^^(,,r„.
vrns
2011
VAItI'M AK(JYI'l'r('| 4 .,111
\V;,„,|) "•'"'■•"'"•. /"»"■)! (W. i!(l(Nntl„.,.,
fills |.|-M,.|||',|ll|
'ViTl' nC (Intli
VAr.KUfANJlH (1), ,,„„, ,,0, ,„,,^,,,,. ,
(N-^tk.,..;Z!5: '^'""■^' "'■ "' '^■'-•i-'""'i.n
-" .'.".. -r ,.„ ,i„., ■„»■ :i;, „;,s
"■ Ml,' .Itsk-vciln M SI. S.,|,|,i„'.
". «;''l. '""lM"i.l..n..| will, „.,,!,
'"'■''■ ''"""• 'M'll'l lU, ('Mnun).
•'•■""""i-.tii..MKk "!ir?::l '"Vi-;»''"""^'f
-'''-iiu.si,i,i„;\]; '7; :!;!;' •;!■•«''?
-i-ii/i.Mn-.,„, ^'w/hM ;;''''':;;;V'''
ii'V:;:r'::L!::;\i:;;r!S/:;;:''r
:i;;;-:'-,;^-, ,,,,,, ,:;^H,;;';:;:^l^J»
v..ii,„„i ,.„.., ;L ,'' ♦'"■""■"-^"„w.i,;,ii,.9
;:;r-';-.-;i " ^rth'^^^K. ;r,;r',:; i:'^
fno upvi'iKii („ (i(n) Af ,1.., ' ' """r9
'l"nf',n nl thf sn„,<. Ii„„. ,|,nf, t|„ ' i t i . *
fiiaoft.l (,,.),!. I). Tl. . „t " '""■ ""
2012.
VENANTIU8
VERSE
deacon then takes the asterisk and puts it cross-
wise over the disk, ami havinif sponsted it on
the (i\r]r6i>, he covers it with the ai/p, and it'
there is no fan he fans the holy things with the
paten veil (p. 097). After the ]iriest has com-
municated he sponges the cup and his own lips
with the veil (p. I(i02). After the deacon has
communicated he sponges the disk over the cup,
and covers the cup with the veil, and rejdaces
the asterisk and the veil over the disk (p. 1003).
Finally, after the washing of the cup and
cleansing of the disk he covers the holy
things, the cup and the disk with the veils,
according to custom (p. 1004). The form of
consecration of disk veils in the Coptic church
is given by Renaudot (Litwg. Orient, i. 30+).
[E.V.]
VENANTIUS (1), Apr. 1, bishop, martyr
(ilart. Ilsuard., Adon., Notker., Rmn.). There
wtjs a monastery bearing the name of V'enantius
at Constantinople in the Gth century (Mansi,
viii. Inri6 I! ; Du Cange, C/xjUs. Christ, lib. iv.
p. 162). The oratory of St. Stephen in the
Vatican basilica is said to have been called also
that of Venantius (Rasponi, de Basilica Vaticana,
p. 234; Ciamjiini, dc Sacr. Acdif. p. 17).
(2) Abbat, commemorated at Tours on Oct. 11
{Mart. Klor.); Oct. 13 {Mart. Usuard., Mart.
Bom.); Oct. 23 (Notker.). [C. H.]
VENETICUM CONCILIUM. [Vannes.]
VENITE. [Invitatoeium.]
VENTRII.OQUUS. The " master of obh "
was frequently called ventriloquus, iyyaiTTpi-
fii'floi, tyyaiTTpitiavTi!, crrepi'd/iaj'Ti j ; though the
Hebrew.'!, according to Bochart, "ariolum id
genus uon ex ventre, sed ex axillis vocem emi-
sisse siiniuiant " (Hicroz. jii. 5). To prove this
he cites tlie Talmud in Sanlwdrim 7, the gloss
on it, and Rabb. Selomo on Deut. xviii. 11. Mai-
monides (de Idol. vi. 2) says that these diviners
after certain ceremonies appear to be " consult-
ing another person, who speaks with them and
answers their questions from the earth in a very
lo V voice, which they cannot hear with their
ears, but only ])erceive in their mind "; or tiiey
" fumigate the skull of a dead man and sing
charms, until they hear a voice going hefore
them coming out of their armpits, and an
answer is given them." It is evident, at least,
that the voice was generally traced to some
part of the person. Thus Plutarch says that
"the ventrilo'jui [formerly called Eurycleitae,
from Eurycles a soothsayer; see He'sychius,
Suidas] are now called pythons" (de Orac.
Defectu, Reiske, vii. 632). The italic ver-
sion of Lev. XX. 27 gives " ventriloquus "
(Sabatier) ; that of Isaiah viii. 1 9, " l^ui de
terra loquuntur, qui de ventre clamitant." So
the LXX render obh by 4yya(rTpifivOos in Lev.
xix. 31 ; XX. 9, 27; 1 Sam. xxviii. 7, 9; Isaiah
iliv. 25 ; &c. That such diviners were ventri-
loqui in the common belief appears also from
various ancient writers. Origcn atfirms that
some "from the earliest age have been under
the influence of a demon, whom they call
python, i.e. a ventriloquus " (dc Princip. iii. § 5) ;
an <))iinion noted by St. .leronie as unsound (Ep.
124, ad Avit. 8), but only as to the early posses-
sion, for the latter hiiiself paraphrases Is. viii.
9, thus, " Quaerite ventriloquos, quos pjthonas
intclligimus " (Cumment. in loe.). Gregory
Nyss. says, referring to the witch of Endor,
"One form of deceit was that 'of the ventri-
loquus, whose magic art was skilled to drag
back to th« life above the souls of the departed"'
(do Pythonissa Ep. i. SOU). See also Tertullian
(de Animi, 57) ; Jerome in Eze/i. xiii. 1-9 ;
Qiuiest. Christ, ct Eiisp. inter Vpp. Just. 51. .'52 ;
I'ionius in Ruinart, Acta Sine. Mart. 124 ;
Isidore, iii. 370 ; Eustathius Antioch. de Engas-
trim. 30 . [W. E. S.]
VENUSTIANUS, Dec. 30, martyr with his
wife and children under Maximi.m ; commemo-
rated at Spoleto with bishop Sabinus (Mmt.
Usuard. ; Mart. Vet. Pom. which states that his
l)assion was on Dec. 7, and the festival of his
sepulture on Dec. 30). [C. H.]
VENUSTUS, May 6, martyr, commemorated
with Heliodorus in Africa (iV/eirt. Usuard.; Mart.
Pom.). In Mart. Jlicron. both names occur on
this day in a numerous list, Vcuustus at Jlilaa
and Heliodorus in Africa. [C. H.]
VERANUS, bishop, commemorated at Lyons
on Nov. 11 (Mart. Usuard., Adon., llicrnn.,
Pom.). [C. H.]
VERBEKIES, COUNCIL OP (Vermeri.
ENSE Concilium), a.d. 753. Several canons on
discipline are found in Oratian and elsewhere
given to a council at this phace, which is thought
to have met in the tirst year of king Pepin, and
been attended by him. (Mansi, xii. 365-8.)
[E. .S. Kf.]
VERIANUS, Aug. 9, martyr at Colonia in
Etruria under Decius, commemorated with
Secundianus and Marcellianus (Mart. Usuard.,
Notker., Rom.). [C. H.]
VERISSIMUS, Oct. 1, martyr at Oliseponi
(Lisbon) with his sisters Maxima and Julia
(MaH. Usuard., Mart. Pom.). [C. H.]
VERN or VER, COUNCIL OP(Veunense
Concilium), a.d. 755, held by order of king
Pepin in his palace there, when twenty-live
canons on discipline were published. (ILinsi,
xii. 577-86, who thinks, however, it should be
dated A.u. 756). [E. S. Ft'.]
VEROLUS, Feb. 21, martyr, commemorated
at Adrumetum with Secundinus, Servulus, and
others (Mart. Usuard., Mart. Pom.). [C. H.]
'VERONIO.'K, commemorated at Antioch on
Apr. 20 with Prosdocius and Romanus (Mart.
Si/r.); Apr. 15 at Antioch with I'rosducus
(Ilicron.); July 11 at Antioch with Prodixaand
Speciosa (MaH. Iliervn.); the m.atron of Jeru-
salem so called is said to h.ave been comme-
morated at Rome on Feb. 4 (Boll. Acta SS.
Feb. i. 451 f). [C. H.]
VERSE, VERSICLE. A short verse or teit
said by the priest in the course of the liturgy or
the divine office, to which the congregation
replied in another aiioi't verse or text caiW
a Response. Some of these versicles, as the
Sursum Corda in the liturgy, and the " liiiu-s in
ailjutorium," which occur? at the couuiiencenient
of all thu Hours, are of great antiquity. The
VERTTLAM
Utter ia mentioned by Cas • (C II VESTRY 2013 .
an,UntheruleofSt. Renedict^c" p. xf Mediaeval !V* '"''" '"'"^^ ""^^ """>' nld-fashioned
mav be seen in the AntL n i ,^ speciinen
Martene (,L AnUn Ecchl JlfT' '^••"""'l ''■^■
P,lit 17SS1 PL '''"^'- -«''• torn. 111. „. o-()
e.lit. 1788). Their rationale and the Vit, „
T^^'=i:^\^7^'Y "' .'-«"' i- -t alar :
eluded, was hoi:;!; c;;;:srfctiir^,:!^:;?^^-
VERULAM, COUNCIL OP /v,' '^^ ^^"^
ESSE CONCILIL-M), AD 793 nV* fV?°''^'"-
Oflh, archbishop lllinZt and tl-teo Lur"'
Were whom the foundati'on of the fbbevof S '
Will.iu.^yHadd:ninSbs!fcoo"-'"'
VERU8, Deo. 2, martyr in Af-i ""^ ^■/*!'^
brother Securus (ArtulLllf''''' ^^''jj!]
VESPERS. [Hours of Pravfp. n^„„
THE Divide.] i-K^VER, Opfice, t^^T J/- "-'""o be a„y reasonable doubt
If we
nf fi,' ■• ";; •-■■""...u >estmentj
(A n OTn r • >""'"' '•''"""■'' "f Toledo
;|;eAU,,hesnp^:::e!tr^ hi; ^^^r-aiiS
both, as ha been alieu, \"^*"''''^' "«'""' «"«
id^r^S-^^^-Si-t
t^at ;n,u.h^Thifras''4:r:rrii*= '■-';'
[C. H.]
of ordinary life pre7ale„^i \T '^■"""J ''''^ ^ress
Christianity Th^elS ^heo^^ d" ^nT,: ro"'
bably meet with any wide-snreaH 7 f ' °'
the present day. Some of thil V u'"''*"'"-''' "*
store ' """''''"* '""^ ^^« k"ow as the
J-mnjischcn Gcatuler in bis c ., •• ' '*
' ^ [R. S.]
", ;....;...u. .nus„ Whereas in the LeviticaT I T'^^^^^^'^^^'''^^^^^
pnestlv dress the e'tment nf Ji • ^'^^""^''1 \ Amona the excdmfl nf ^,7 ■.', ^^''^"^P"'"-)
wrked, we haye em-rreason r'. 'f. '''^""S')- "PaHnln to which thes??'''' "^""''^ '''' ""
.^_dress worn by th/ S^^ « ^ ^^t Some writers tat'lt^tV^ J^"!;!!''^^
"ace* of a use of n nffl Ti'' V^,'"*"'^"'''"''^
I« of the ChH H T hwd-dress on the
'*"-! girdle o^hoS/S 'ii*? *"=
•Pl-^ar, for the girdle is not mot with "''"
"ised Christian vestment ^illihpB^K """'K-
i the^in?*^'' A^"*'' '^'■O" "•« ««>"« to
™Je h": " ^-^ /[the secular dress worn
'i«itv, .-e are It on ^^'.""^ ""!«'' of Chris-
.f -iV' ."/ ^■^" once met with a lar-^e amn,-nt
,;'--cnco in the form of the dres^eVand 'L
M'ttta^h!:?'"""'".'? '^' 1^' century and
Some writers take U ?''^ ™' '^'"''' "PPl'^'J.
itself, ^h'iLTothet e'^f oXoilt;"""*^"
dj^tinctbuiidin,. (see^iSr:"^:;^^;!
We find thp.t in earlv na .v ,v,„j j
only the vestments but^C the f r "' "^"^'l \°*
;s..'" S vs •. «*'■''"■■' ■■'■
ft 571^ .< ^ " S'^'"^ l"/ pope John jn
(T o7ci), ex sacro nostro vestiario " fv„
the Great, when he would Iw-J ■ ■ ^"^^g"'?
nngel wh^ appeared to him in thV""' '" 9'
shipwrecked 'sailor, was info ".dirtb' "
however, a^ well as in i^^ra/^.t^ o^X'
"f:'^;=alif^^:Kr'^?"-:
SiL:re:^iS:^---«";«'or
2014
VEXTLLIJM
found in the fact that it was iised aa a plncfi of '
meeting;. l'"roni tliia it may be inferred thnt
the estry was sometimes a ijIbi.'C (if eonsidornble
size. The third, fdurth, and filth councils of
Carthago were 8[iol<en of as in sccrctario lutsi.iata
restihit'te. The synod nf Aries was held " in
secretario ecclcsiae." Tin- same is true of a
multitude of other councils. Just as the modern
word vestry means both the [dace where a
meeting is held, and also the assembly or session
that takes place there, so we rind a similar
transition in the Latin word sc ivtarium, which |
at tiires means a part of a church, and at times ;
a session of a council held in that part. Hence .
we got such phrases as " secretarium venturuni " \
for the " coming session " (see Cottc. Horn. ii. act.
1 ad tin.).
There wore some other uses to which the vestry
Wa;- at times appropriated. Du Cangc (in Paul. ,
Silent, p. v)94) .-^hews that it was sometime-i used ;
as aplace of eonlincment I'ordeliniiuent ecclesias-
tics, and pope Gregory II. in a letter totliooui|ieror
Isanrns contrasts the actions of a secular with
that of a spiritual judge. The fonncr confi.scates,
hiinL'^i, beheads; but the latter places the gospel
and the cross about the culprit's necli, shuts him
in the vestry, and puts facing in his stomach,
vigil in his eyes and doxoiogy in his mouth. .
Sometimes the vestry became the lodging of
an ecclesiastic. Sulpicius Severus relates that
St. Martin had his lodging " in secretario eccle-
eiae,'' and that after his decease all tho Virgins
burst into the .np.artnicnt, licked the several spots
where the saint had sat or stood, and appropriated
the straw upon which he had lain, bingham
(v4nii7. VIII. vii. 8) shews that the vestry was
also called nceptoriuni and salutiitorium, as being
the scene of pastoral intercourse between clergy
and peojilc. [H. T. A.]
VEXILLUM. (1) The princijial Christian
banner has already been described under Lauaisum.
From an ancicut period banners were carried in
processions, the bearers of which were called
DracONARII or rc:cillifcri. When Gregory of
Tours {Hist. Frano, v. 4) s)ieaks of a procession
to a basilica "post crucem praecedentibus
eignis," we are no doubt to understand that a
cross headed the procession, followed by banners.
Similarly Homrius of Autun (JlcmtiM Aniiiuxe,
i. 72) says, "ante nos crux etvexilla gernntur."
An old use of Sarum ordered a banner of sack-
cloth to be carried in the procession at the
EeccjHciliation of Penitents. (2) The word
texillun is sometimes applied to the processicmal
cross itself (I)urandus, Innocent III.) [C]
VIATICUM. This word, which occurs fre-
quently in classical authors denoting " provision
for a journey," is, together with its Greek
equivalent i(p6Sioii, often used in early Christian
writings to denote tho Eucharist, generally, but
not always, as the communion given to a sick
person before impending death. "This mystery
is -ometimes called 'viaticum,' because, if any
one enjoys it on the way, he will arrive at that
life which he already has within himself" {Cur.
M'tH-Wi. vii. 101). " This word ' viaticum ' is
the name of commimion, that is to say, ' the
guardianship of the way,' for it guards the
eoul until it shall stand before the judgment-
teat of Christ " {Sijnodm Ilibernensis, lib. ii. c,
16, Wasserschleben's edit, p. 20).
VIATICUM
The phrase rk i<piSia rov 0tov is used by St.
Clement in a passage (Kp. 1 ad Cor. caji. ii.)
which need not necessarily bear, although it is
not incapable of bearing, a Kuchariitic rel'ercnce,
but which is usually interpreted as involving a
general refersnce to the "doctrines and moans
of salvatiipu," .as where tho same jihiase is ii.od
by St. basil (/i)>. Ivii., cc.xlix. ad Meiet. toni. iii.
pp. 157, il84-) and by St. Cyril of Jorusaloni, of
faith {Him. (Mtcdwt. v. § li!). T'l*-' pfiiaje
i<p6Siov fa7;s aiSiov is employed by St. ClonnMit
of Alexandria {Strom, vi. ii'o), wliich is like tlie
words i<p6Siuu i<iris alaviou, which occur in the
liturgies of St. James, St. llasil, auil St. Jlaik,
with a necessarily Kucharistic meaidng (in llie
Prayer of Thanksgivini;, Hammond, /.(7i(y'/"'S ''li-'-
p. IsH). Bede, in hia acc(umt of the deat'ii-licj
of Caudmon, s]ioaka of his la~t conimuni'.n as
" caeleste viaticum " {H. E. iv. 24), and (b'scrilips
its reception in his hand. Anialarius spcalis of
the "viaticum moriontis" {d>j /.'cc/. Off. iii. :i,'i).
The expression f<pASiov rrji narvpias occurs in
an Eastern formula of indult^'Micc (Hoar, Eiicliolofj,
p. G8J). The e.irliest extant conciliar dirci|i,in
on tho subject is can. xiii. of the council of , Nice,
ordaininc; that "none, even of the lapsed, sliali
be deprived of the last and most uoiossary
viaticum (toC TiXevraiuu Kol a>'O7itai0TaTi)ii
i(j)oSiuv), but let the old canonical l:nv le
oii-erved ... let the bishop, nimn examimition,
give the oblation to all who dosiro to piirtake of
the Eucharist upon tho point of death." This
direction is re-enforced in varying ph^a^ooIogy
by the following councils : iv. Carth. cc. 70. 77,
79 ; i. Araus. c. 3 ; ii. Vasons. c. 2 ; OerunJons.
c. 9 ; ii. Arelat. c. 28 ; Agath. c. 15 ; Epaon. c. liii ;
iii. Aurel. c. 6 ; i. Matisc. 12 ; xi. Tolet. c. 11.
By all these canons the admiuistratiou of tlie
viaticum is enjoined, even to apc^statos anj
parricides, without waiting for the fnltilnient
of the incurred course of penitential discipline,
although stipulating for its couiijlotion in cass
of recovery. Another relaxation of chnrdi rule
lay in the fact that it was porniittc I to be
received by persons not tiisting. Cardinal Buna
calls this exemption a " praxis ecclcsiae uWque
recepta," but gives no authorities for his state-
ment {Rcr. Lit. i. c. xxi. § 2). Alcuin refers to
its immcJiuto administration in such cases as a
" lex antiqua rognlarisciuo " {Je IHv. Cjf. p. 79,
edit. Hittorp.), but the abolition of this forraal
pre-rei[uisite of fasting seems to be a tacit
inference or unwritten custom rather than an
explicit dispensation resting on conciliar enact-
ment.
The language of the canons recently quoted
throws no light on the question whether tlie
death-bed Eucharist invidved reservation or
otherwise ; but there is plentiful evidence from
other sources that tho dying person was u.suallj
communicated from the reserved sacranicnt [Re-
Skrvation]. It was carried in a vessel called
a CllRlSMAL [p. 356], and various penalties
were assigned by St. Columbanus for droppiBg
it accidentally, or leaving it iiehind through
negligence {licfi. Coenob. xv.). The capitularies
of Charlemaene order that " the priest sliould
always have the Eucharist in readiness, tlial
if any one is ill, and if a child is ill, he may
communicate him at once, that he may not Jis
without communion "(lib. i.e. Itll). Sometime*,
but rarely, there seems to have been a private
and special lelebr
man's house. Pau
had an altar in i
consecrated the I
death (Uranius,
possibly the obje
Ambrose to oiTer
at Kome (Panlin.
Binghiini witiiouf
chap, xlvii. P;,uli
reserved Eucharist
It has been a siil
viaticum was adu
kinds. Bode doscr
"viatico Dominici (
although the won
communion have b
refer to one kind
piiero do eodem s
jxirtiatlitm defcrri
The same inference
language in which t
described by Euseb
the decision of the
use of the singular
evidence is suppjjp,
reserved Eucharist f
"nblatissnpersancti
Anqlo-Sa.ron Church.
tallies with other \
6ick ])crson was usii
species (Coacil. Tolel
Ecck'S. Discip, cap.
of the reserved sacra
its corruption in tho
possibly points to
reservation of both
custom of the simu
both reserved elemen
'»% of the formulae
•ervice-books, e.g. iu
munion of the Sick ii
Dimnia, and Jloling: '
Bostri Jesu Christ!
animam tuam in vit
Dimma, fol. 58 b),
1 Domini nostri .Tesu C
Titam aeternam "[pen
Deer] {Hook of MoUji,,
The formula in an
quoted by Gerbertus (,
still more explicit : " (
Christi, sanguine suo ii
te 8b onmi peccato."
Here there is alitera
of tlie council of Tours
in reference to the vial
intincta debet esse in e
titer presbyter possit (
Mnguis Domini proficia
utwg. Alcman. disquis
*M a curious provisic
tone. Carthag. can. 76 :
incase of extreme ini
might be communicatee
the chalice, its liquid CO
bis mouth when he was
food,
. It was the office of t
;j«ticum to the dying, ,t
the tucharist to the al
^W{Apot. i. 63); but
VIATICUM
reserved tuchari.,t). ^
It has been « 8,,bjoct of discussion whctlier the
communion have been sometimes inter, re ed to
reier to one kind onlv "sim„l V • .• .
The same mlerenee hits beei. drawn Vem^ ,V'
U..E...5. I, .ja He ..,.m™iTs",, ..' ;
Si;:;-:;;;,-™ -s; S
A>ylo.Saxon Chnrch, ii. p. L edit 1858^ 'TV '
talies with other nnd'direa vidlte^-th«t '^
orthe reservil ^^^.n'^L^^l.utd t^^^
posMbI} ,x,mt8 to the twofold but con ohit
reservation of both elements. The vl^^
mtom of the simultaneous administration ?f
K orrhetrf'r"^' " -^-^^^^^^^^ort
»,?ot the formulae m several ancient Western
.Domini' nostri .T^ ChriS etrsit^'tifr'^n
t;i' ?;;"r;;;rPerpet«am et sllutem; 5^'* }
torj (^ocA o/i(/ofe;, ad fin. Ev. S. Mat.) ^
nJt„ I IP? '" "^ '"'^'«°' Ambrosian ordo
qnoted by Gerbertus {Liturq. Alcmn ii 487^70
... more explicit: "'corpu's Donr'n "stt 7esu
thr sti, sanguine suo inlitum iutinctum, mundet
te ab omni peccato." ' ™""'l''*
Here there is a literal compliance with an order
of the council of Tours (k d 81 'ii J\!-l ? f
in referen™ fn tK. • J " , •'' ^'"<^" enacted
tnta debet P« •""'""" '•"" "^''«'' °Watio
luiincia debet esse in sangu ne Christi ^,^ „«,.„
VICAR
2015
p?h?rSt^':::T,[::^^/'^„^^rr^^^
byKus,.bi;.(^'l'^^'^''":^-;;-''--'^d
emiilov nnv n„„, . <• '"'^ permisfion to
(Cout.il.',e,nns :,^«;'/ "/ .»'"= Ir^h.rist
visitation nrticiA iml : ■ '"'^ ^"■'''■'l later
that the cust mVV ^'"'"-"P"! iU'iuiries prove
and"c::;\::,s...f ?httr "-"^ '^*'' "-"'''^
have pre..eded he 1 ' ',^""' "■'"«".^ *»
the;.ejb:;'l';:a;:;:^„i''""' "^^ ••--«^
".so. So„>et • , OS the od "■"■'■' "'' "'^"'^^••"•".v the
evident for e.'r]yusteonX- "'":'' ,""' "'^
pare UxcnON, p. "004 ■'• ^°"^'
tajiii s;"'.„s,''t; .rr'"" ""• "■
„ . • cwnt. xl. de Bapt. p. 644, edit. 1630}
Tii cum to he d" • °^ *''? •'*'"=•"' *" ""^vev the
'he Sarist to^bf' 1! '' ^^ V' <J»ty to'take
time (in^ i 6°,^*''t *^.«"* '° Justin Martyr's
U4P«. I. 63) j but ID oasM of emergency
Suioeri7^.1^.^.Xo^^Hj]iy63d-,
bisrop^™l?SMf '^'•.'"?^*"''- "f J"^'"^
translatio (Zker ) • De '"u :.' "^^ ' ^"*- ■'^•'•
(^.r^ Floi-. ; Zl iV' "^"P"^"'" fj'l-^
VIBIANU8 (BiBuvus), Aue og j,i.K
confessor at Saintes (W;,'i;.L;£ ^o^;
more or less to the "Vicar k!."".'-''^™'''"^
*■ . -.'ed s sc rOeS-S' s
..,1. tb. c,u»„,„„S '»> . £./^7S-
£016
VICTOR
general to the patriarch. For episcopal assist-
ants, see Co.vnjUTOH, p. 398. (Binterim, Dcnk-
vMrMjhitcn, BJ. I. Th. ii. p. 415 ff.; Alte-
•errae Asceticon, il. 13), [C]
VICTOR (1), Jan. 22, martyr, commemo-
rated at Kmbrun with Vincentins and Orontius
(Mart. Usuaid., Notker., Horn.).
(2) Jan. 31, martyr, commemorated at Alex-
andria Willi Saturninus and Thyrsus {Mart.
Uauard., llierun., Rom.).
(3) Corinthian martyr under Decius, commemo-
rated on Jan. 31 with Victorinua, Nicephorus,
Claudianus, Dimlorus, Serapion, Papias (Basil.
Menol.) ; Jiin. 30 {Mennl. Graec. Sirlet.). Feb.
25 un ler Nunierian in Ejjypt (Murt. Usiiard.
Vet. Rom., Adon., Notlter., Rom.); Apr. 5 {Cal.
Bjizant.; Mcnol. Qraec); Mar. tJ at Nicomedia
(f Heron.); Mar. 6 at Nicomedia with Victorinus,
having been tortured three years with Claudi-
anus and his wife Bassa (Usuard., Vet. Rm.,
Adon., Rom., Notker., Wand.; Boll. Acta SS.
Mart. i. 423).
(4) Mar. 30, commemorated at Thessalonica
with Domninus {Mart. Usuard., Hieron., Notker.,
Wand., Rom.).
(6) Apr. 1, martyr, commemorated in Egypt
with Stephanus {Mart. Usuard., Hieron., Rom.y;
Mav 8 (Usuard., Hieron. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mai.
ii. 299).
(6) Apr. 18, martyr under Diocletian, com-
memorated with Acindynus, Zoticus, Zeno,
Severianus (Basil. Menol,); Apr. 20 {Mart.
Rom. ; Mcnol. Graec. j Boll. Acta SS. Apr. ii.
747).
(7) Apr. 20, bishop of Rome, martyr {Mart.
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom,, Hieron,); July 28
(Boll. Acta SS. Jul. vi. 534, where see the
natale discussed j Aug. 1 (Flor.).)
(8) Mauhus, May 8, martyr under Maximian,
commemorated at Milan {Mart. Usuard., Adon.,
Vet. Rom., Hieron., Wand., Rom. ; Boll. Acta
SS. Mai. ii. 288).
(9) May 14, martyr with Corona under An-
toninus, commemorated in Syria {Mart. Bed.,
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Hieron., Notker.,
Wand.; Boll. Acta SS. Mai. iii. 2<)5); else-
where Feb. 20 {Hieron.; Boll. Acta SS. Feb.
iii. 173),
(10) July 21, soldier, martyr at Marseilles
under Diocletian {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Hieron.,
Vet. Rom. ; Notker., Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jul.
V. 142).
(11) July 24, soldier, martyr at Merida with
his brothers Stercatius and Antinogeuus {Mart.
Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Notker., Rom. ; Boll.
Acta 55. Jul. V. 535).
(12) (Victories, VieruRias, Victurus), Aug.
25, bishop of Le Mans cir. a.d. 619 (Boll. Acta
SS Aug. V. 140).
(13) (ViCTORius, ViCTURlus), Sept. 1, bishop
of Le Mans, cir. a.d. 690 {Mart. Usuard., Hieron.,
Flor. ; Boll. Acta SS. Sept. i. 220).
(14) Sept. 10, martyr in ,\fric.i in tho time of
Decius and Valerian with Felix, Litteus, Poli-
anus, and others {Mart. Usuai-d., Adon., Notker.,
Som.).
(16) Sept. 10, martyr with Sosthenes at Chal-
VIOTORIUS
cedon {Mart. Usuard., Vet. Rom., Notker,,
Wand., AW.).
(16) Sept. 14, martyr with Cyprianua Crei-
ccntianus, Kosula, Oencralis, and others {Murt.
Usuard., Adon., Rom,),
(17) Sept. 22, martyr of the Thobacan Legion
{Mart. Usuard., -Hieron., Rom.). [Thebaea
Lkoio.]
(18) Sept. 30, martyr with Ursus, both of the
Thebaean Legion (U-uard. ; Mart, Rom, ; Bcill,
Arta SS, Supt. viii. 201); his translation com-
memorated at Milan {Murl. //icn^n.),
(19) Oct. 10, martyr in the territory of
Cologne {Mart. Bed., Usuard., Hieron., Notker.,
Wand., Uoiii.),
(20j Nov. 11, martyr under Antoninus, oom-
memorated with Mennas and Vincentius (Basil,
Mennl. ; Menol, Graec. ; Daniel, Cod. Litur<j, iy,
274).
(21) Nov. 13, martyr, commemorated at
Ravenna, with Solutor and Valcntinus (.l/iir(,
U.suard., Hieron., Vet. Rom., Rom.) ; Mar. 26
{HiC'-on., here calling him Pictor; Boll. Act(i
SS. Mart. iii. 617).
VICTORIA (1), Nov. 17, martyr with
Acisclus at Cordova {Mart. Usuard,, Adon.).
(2) Dec. 23, virgin, martyr under Deciu.s, com-
memorated at Rome {Mart. Bed., Usuard., Adon.,
Hieron., Vet. Rom.). [C, H,]
VICT0RIANU8 (1), Mar. 23, proconsul of
Carthage, martyr under Hunneric,commemiiri\teJ
in Africa with Frumentius {Mart. UsuiiiJ.,
Adon., Vet. Rom., Horn. ; Boll. Acta SS. Mart.
iii. 460).
(2) May 16, martyr vith Aquilints in L^auria
{Mart. Usuard., Aden., Hieron., let. Rom., Rm,,
Notker.). [C. H,]
VICTORICUS, Dec. 11, martyr under Maii.
mian, commemorated at Amiens with Gentianus
and Fuscianus {Mart. Usuard., Flor,, Hieron.,
Wand., Rom.). [C. H,]
VICT0RINU8 (1) Mar. 6, martyr at Nico-
media {Syr. Mart.). For references to him as
the companion of Victor and commemorated with
him on other days, see Victor (3).
(2) Apr. 15, martyr under Trajan or Nerva,
commemorated in Italy with Maro and Eiitychej
{Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Notker.,
Rom.).
(3) July 7, martyr, commemt/rated at Rome
with Nicostratus, Claudius, and others {Mart.
Usuard., Adon. Vet. Rom., Rom.).
(4) July 19, martyr, commemorated at Synnadi
with Macedonius and others {Si/r. Mart,),
(6) Sept. 5, martyr, brother of Severinus, com-
memorated at Rome {Mart. Usuard,, Adon., IVf.
R'ln., Notker., Ram.); on the nuestion of his
identity see Boll. %cta SS. Sept. ii. 489,
(6) Nov. 2, bishop of Poic'tiers, " episcopnj
Pitabionensis," martyr in the Diocletian persecu-
tion {Mart. Usuard., .■Vdon., Rom.).
(7) Nov. 8, one of the four crowned nmrlyri
[CORONATI QuaTUOR]. [C. H,]
VICT0RIU8 (1), May 21, martyr, com-
memorated at Caesarea in CappadocJa with
VICTURUS
(8) Alls. 2.^ [Victor (12)].
(8) Sui.t. 1 [Victor (i;j)].
^^ VICTURUS or VICTURIUS [V.crroR (12),
(2) As a i.rei,nn,ti„n for the greater fctivals
v.g.ls were nb.erve.l in churches for the Zle
cailea by the Greeks iraf^uxUcs, by the latins
rerviipli,,, or /'cntoctatiom-s Of such Vw
p, ed. iMontfauion), "See fhp h^\l .1,/
long vigils linking .lay to day " teh ^'^ "
preceded not onIy%he'great ttivaK tuc^ ' :
taster and 1 entecost, but also the Sabb. 1 an,
the Lord's Day (Socrates, /A /;. vi. 8) H t
ospecmlly in the case of a martyr tta» U
custom of the faithful to ,,«'[. night pre
ceding his festival in the church which^covfred
h.s remains, or in one dedicated to him Thus
Chrysostom (f/oin. c/e Martiir ii HriS n^
watthings (5,0 toii/ wavvuxiSuv ri./ Unr„A
Against such watchings at "[he endTf thT" i'
cen ury Vigilantius (Hieron. c. Vinitant d ^'f
Vallarsi) prot.ste,!, as giving occa n fo.^ ■ *'
and disorder, and JeroL d^c' "hem ^wih
C-lHst.v. 17, in bii-mondi (Ipp. Var \ ^fi^^
describing the celebration of thf annTv'emry !^f
St Justus at Lyons, mentions the prece'L^
vigil "We went to the church," Kvs^
"before dawn ; there was a concourse of b?th
antiphonally by thf mt^ks ''::^ ZT^dl
. separated, going however to no ereat ,lUtn,J
to be ready for the third hour [nine oVcki„'
the mornmg], when we were to^'oin w th the
priests m the divine office." Here the vLil
appears to have begun at an I y hour lj
the morning, not on the evening preceding fb!
estival. Such vigil-olKces consift d ^^r "fye,t
Lectioks [see p. 252] and iisalnis and at l„ *'
occasionally included' P-'eaihing (0^1.1 ff
^^ennon. 285 and 300.^n^ Augiltbet
th JtLir'Ti'''"''' .^'•^""'"^ "'^"t'"n» between
the vigil and the service of the day was a cTse
of great disorder, there was often ZiciLatd
mging not only in the neighbouring Ks
bum the out-buildi„gs o^he chnr.h,l„d Ten'
nthe church itself. As earlvas the year 305
IXpii?/-''';"'' ^" ''^ i'-hibit^erwom n
irom keeping v,gil m cemeter es on account (
iCi::;ir^/V''"''^^'""-°^'^-gS:en
S"t:kK'-;t';:igrs-.^'';z;'r
*gf^^V^iKl54Uot^'':r^tKf
wquiry from Theodore oi Canterbury, complain-
VIXCENTIU8 2017
' S^e;;,itirr:!gr'' ^'^'^'^ ""« •»'"-
faslin'rvvn'' '" "'."'^ '*'"''' "" i"'>i'"tion that
I '"1 n ihr"^'"? •'^"/'s"• ^'hry--st„m
after the ea«h ''"""'y .J-^'ivered at Antioch
"leak a if f, »;»""'"' ("" ^'« "•>• '"^ms to
vie hit hfr -^ "■"" ^""■"■'^tod with tha
h urn l^ti i T "" " V'^ '^l'^'^'"' ««'»»i"n
the V.h^ . I'erpetuus, in the latter half of
I vhiJh t,n.""7' ","■"'"''"' ♦•"-• '■"^'^ "■"' vigil
Which «e,e to be observed throughout the year
an h .'^,""•'•'"K '" i".li.ate that h' fa^^
"^^/■i&^tiirtj--.^-
^r a divine myste^'li;^^.*^,^ rS.r
V r in \? ' .''f'^''* •'"' Assumption of the
to bcoSVeW !;isT':f°;:ij'/ r :^»'.'-'«
vicili'iriinil w >i.?il-fasts (jejuna
... I..., .v/;,i,f is S:v~v'4;.'-~i
of Gregory, p 6(i4 ^«M<"wr,us
Adnn ^^u- '^' '"''^*^'" *' <^"''b'-e {Mart. Usuard
Adon., ^,..o„., ifom.; Boll. Acta 55. Apr t'
t?'Bo,rr;;,i^rT;:iU'^2'ai)^"'"-'^'*^-'
o^tUtrT!bSxrr:ti:*i«
I..^ if«m., i?„,„.); Jniy 2,3 ^//«,.<„,, Not'ker)! '
(8) Aug 2o, martyr under Commodus com
vvilh^vPf*" "' fl'^u'" "* ^vila, commemorated
MeS^'T^cJo; ""^-'l' '"' <"•"""» ^ith
sennas, \ ictor, btephanus ,il. Metwl.-,
2018
VINE
ifewil, Qnvc, Sirlet. ; Doniel, Cod. Litui-g. iv.
274).
There was a church named nfter Pt. Vincentiiis
at C>iiiMt:iiitinii|ilo in the r>'i^n of Juiitiiiiuii
(Thenph. C/irumii/. ]). Utt), ami. A.C. 650; Uu
Cftiige, t'jiulis. Ciirist. lib. iv. \i. lUti). [C. II.]
VINK(iN Art). (.See .John nv. 1; Psiilin
Ixjiix. ; Isainh v.). The vine i.s the must undent
suljjoit if I'hristinn (irt, |ierhn]i8 without >'.\ee|it-
iujj the Good Shejihercl, with whicli it is so fre-
quently comliinod [.see SllKIMIKIll), TIIK (icxili].
It i.^ one of the forenio.st of the symbols chosen
by our t.ord Himself from the n.itural things
around Him, iis the nnciiMit vines on Mount Olivet
(till remind the traveller. Its earliest examples
x?^CE^
Ko. 1. Pmm a tomb tin the liatia Way, (Boltari, lar. icUl.)
in Christian fresco are probably the vine of St.
Domitilla [Khesco, p. 69.3], and those of St.
Pr.ietext.it us (i!».). The stuccoes of the tomb on
the Latin Way, woodcut No. 1 (Bottari, tav.
No. 2. OalliitlM Cataaomb. (Botlarf, Uf . tidr.)
xciii. ; Aringhi, ii. 29), certainly existed in
Bnsio's time, though now unknown, and seem
to have been of the 2nd century. The great
riD« of the Calliztiue Cemetery (woodcut No. 2)
VINE
Is probaVily of high antiquity, and Is the best-
known instanie of the graceful naturalism of
the Christian clasHic style of <lecoration (liottari,
tav. Ixjiv. ; Arin;;hi, i. .'itiii). In mosaic, the
vines of St. Constant ia in Konie are perhaju
the earliest exampli' (see I'arker's MoHnii's of
lltniie and K'treiiiin. and a fine fac-simile in the •
.South Kensington .MoMiim). The vine of (jalla
I'lacidia'a tomb, \vuodc\it No. 3 (combined, like
. S. Tomb of Oalla Flaiidla. iFarkn'a Mnain (if Bam
nwl i^.tvnmi.)
most of the others, with the Good or Royal
Shepherd), dates about a.d. 450, and is highly
interesting as compared with the stuccoes aod
also with the Calli.xtinc vine.
The three modes of treatment are so distinctly
related to each other and to the Domitilla
example, and give so clear an illustration of the
progress or retrogress from classic naturalism to
Byzantine formalism of the highest order, still
retaining classic beauty, that woodcuts are
given here to illustrate them.
It is surprising to sec how far the vine hu
shared th« fate of the Good Shepherd, so as to
Mist no more as a sacred emblem after the first
five or six centuries. Its heathen or ethnic or
human use went on ; but the use of the vine
becomes idly decorative, in churches and houses
alike. However, its sculpture is a little later
than its painting, and as imjiortant. The por-
phyry sarcophagus of St. Constantia (Aiinghj,
ii. p. 157) has been photographed by Mr.
Parker. See Aringhi, i. 307-9, ft r vines on un-
questionably Christian sarcophagi, St. Constan-
tia's being by no means certain. ,Sce also Parker,
No. 2917, for a quaint and beautiful sarcophagus,
evidently by some zealous and ingenious work-
man, perhaps of the 3rd century, who cared
more for his subject than for the exemiilaris
Graeca of his art. Again, Bottari, i. p. 1. There
was, in 1871, a curious sarcophagus in St. Vital*
at Ravenna, where the mind of the sculptor
seemed to have been bent on the vine and the
acanthus at the same moment. The vine of the
columns of Torcello is a late type of Graeco-
Byzantine work of the highest order (^Stuncs vf
Venice, ii. plate 3),
For the vine or grapes on lamps, see Aringhi,
i. 617, for two examples, also ii. 648, with
the Good Shepherd. Grapes are cut on tombt
"f various kir
Pahr.'td, .'i.sij
reserntilanco h
kind nt f.ynnj
AV'"", l84iJ-,5.
fiet. of the /,
this he inters H
the symbol ea(
rence 'to a IVon
a glass in (7arru(
inscription, " Ii
which w.iiihl ee
and histcirical s
Millin, Muu ,fc /
for Gallic sarcop
Nevertheless,
obvious truth,
vino or its frni
historic symbolii
The first written
is that of Pascha
pore ct Sani/uine
ed. Colon. ' He i
genii with ears ol
bearing grapes, ol
Aries sarcophagi!
Pl- Iviii. No. 6).
Royal Library at
52) with ? vine-8
ears on each side,
elements. But ti
Christian symbolii
Lord's words in J
His servants are tl
while they abide ii
VIRGINS. It
tlie 2nil century I
offeeling in favour
on the part of b
tendency is not fom
in the Kpistle of I
though under alleg.
of Hermas {Sim. !
(jpol. i. 15) speaks
of sixty and .sevent
discijdes of Christ ,
themselves uncorru]
«• 32) uses almost
(mfe. Oraecos, 32,
Gentiles their taunts
theendofthecentu]
relation of Christian!
prominently into di
prevalence of Monti
ofTertullian, cfe VeU
Matione Castitatis,
forth by a zealous ad'
tion Oi-igen (c. Cel
Unstmns who dedic
of virginity for the s,
lie pa?^n piiestesses
»ke of worldly hone
probably for the firs
"e Idea that virginit
«arri..ge. Clement o,
558) and Tertullian (,
«gree with those who
or -•,.i.:.ft.;,aod above
h«t "facile est non
Jut Cyprian gives the
{'■g.-Deiffabitu r,rv c
CHaiBT. Am.~~YQU 1
VIR0IX8
i"»ori,,ti„„, " I )l ';;,"!•,"• ,^"- 9). with the
which' w„u'l<I cert /„rn ' ".'k''" '"'"' '•'""■''"
and hiHtoricnl sen,,, nf ?i "" »'"Tnnifntnl
for Onllic sarcophagi ' '^ '"• ^' ""*•'"•«,
obv1:rSh:'th"e.Sfr'7-^ '«'""^' -''"
vino or it, frnit ist tr rK" "'""""'^ "^ "'«
historic .ymbolism of thi "" '" '"•'«'■"«' -"•
The first writtenTvi enc' oK '" T'l '""'■
■" that of Paschnaiu in the 9th^. '':'""• ''/ »"■"'
Wal Library «!■ tS" PeVet r'*^'' !" "'^
52) with ,. vine-stoct »; 1 ' "^-.P'- "^i- N«.
ea™ on eachViTe Both tLfe"'""' '"'''"K ^»'•''-
elements. But the re„I *''*'^""'y l-'i'it to the
Christian symbo ,s„TthT"'"^ "^ *''« ^•'"'^ "^
Lord's words ,nsT / K "' '""«"='' '» ^Y <mr
His servants^ : th> brlVel-h "' "Z''^'-'-'
while they abide in Him *'' ^'^'(^^i'^l \^^-
VIROINS
2019
the^SySr/VheSTro?"* '""/'■« •=-"" »^
offeelinginfavTurof Ah » " '.*™"S «»"-«'>t
oa the part of both 1 ""''! ''•"» ""''""»?«
tendency Is not found in n "'"'. "T^"- ^h's
in the fcpistle of B«,.„!k ".'""* "^ '^"'"e. "<"•
though u^nder alL!r c« tn,^"' "..'' "PP"'""'-
of Hermns (5im 9 To ,,?' "■,'^'' Shepherd
(Apol. i. 15) 8^,?„k3'„f'^'.„\'>- J"»ti« Martyr
of "i'ty and srventv ve- ^^""^'' ""^ '"'""«"
disciples of Chrlt lince inf"''' '"'° ''"^'' l"=^n
them'selve, unc™^^^^^ '•"^'^ kept
«■ 32) nses almost similar ^■'^'°'''" ^^H"*-
Gentiles their taunts at rhli^- '"'' "P"" ""e
the end of the centurv t h. t 7° ^'"-g'n'ty- At
relation of Chnstianit Vf„ "'"*'' Question of the
prominently ^^ro'^dllrrV" •''""^'''
prevalence of Montanism . 7- "? ''"'^ ""d
"fTertullian, * VvSV? V" ""' "•«»''»"
*<»<«<.W CmtiiatT^^ IT"'^' and d<, Ax-
forth by a zealouf adroi:te tt?' "7 '' ««'
tion Origen (c. 0^/, 7^8? '""' 8«0"«-
Christians who ded^at J' thti T''"''' '''^
of virginity for the sake of •■••^'"' '° " "'"«
"■0 Pa?^.a pries esse, who di?so"^ "*i^ ^'"^
»ke of worldly honour t r °°'^ '^"' '^^
probably for the Tst iimo »?^™° ""> '^■"'.
tl>e idea that rirsinitt " ' .'''«, "P"-«»»ion of
»«rriage. Clement'?* 'i^f'f h'gher than
"8) afd TerSn a/fe'T if" '' P"
»Pee with those who nlace^'. '• } "PP**"" *°
" -iiowhood above &r""^.=°"'*"'^°«
;kat "facile est non «£»« ^ "" i*"" 8'-°'">d
lit Cyprian gives th.K*" ''"°^ oescias;"
('.9. De ^XV4 ?fc"^t,''*,.r'SinitV
CHaisT. AjfT.— v^ li. ' -^ ''^''^frt. c. 26J.
whe,.e,?H' Widows .."r'': "'«""''"l'h"r. that
"f .acrifice, virgiu,; „ thT* '""^ '"' "'"""
altar upon whi,rw„ !„r'td ".T"^"""' »h.
'"8 "f in.ense (cC. ^ ' 2 of^' '.""'-
may bd noted «s „n,, „f ,{;•..• ' "'' ' **• '' ! 't
the earlier and 1 h l" ''""'■"""•« ''ctween
C""sti.uti,,ns Vha ' rt"',/''"' ^'"■^'""-'»
wi.iiws.y vii-i.l,. . 1 'he order ix l
later bo^ks'.hl;*:';;;;;.:";^""' "-a third a,'i
Hpe.-k8 of the f,,ct that g| Wh ofT, „i ^"''""'■'i''^
vows of pe,.p„t„„l vir^ nitv „ ■■ 'l'^ """^
P"wer of ('hrst in ,„f ." , "'' " .l"'""f "f the
•'erusalem {Ctt chci. 4 21 f ^ T''.' > ''i' "f
-ypri.m (rf« y/„w„ l,>,,;„ ,:'o^'. "*^; '"-'"wiug
>'/"«<. 107 rr,7) ad It, ■ • '^^ "iL'ron.
/^>.>M50),sVeVks1ff;;Vh; ;'•,'• /"'^''•''•
vows as living a life I L , .. ,'""'^''" ""'i'
Y ^^"h "'e exc',, in ^h ':„,■' "" ""«"'»'
P- G. vol. xviil. 27 so, h ^P''"'""' '■» '^'iS""
"f virginity whicl?',! !"'««•"■'""'' !"•"«■»
literature a^ro a Im st ar^H '"" '"'"« ''"er
the genuine a:." o hLhfJ Z, ■''''" "''r'" f™'"
'our centuries; those rUin^*^'' l^ "'* "'•"'
tain the gem of tho n( f ""i"iibte,lly con-
■> a sigf.if^a, t l^.!.t " ,';.';t''''^'tP'"^'?'^ I'-t it
•levelopments require I the • ^"' "'™'-' '"'er
fathers, spurioXatLsLdr'T" "^ ""■' -'■"■""
<■• ff. those of St. A^h anas " i ,- * '"".■""'"•""•«'',
t- G. vol. i.,viii. 251, and of «! i V '^"'''
Bened. vol. i. ,,.618 Th. ' ""'' ^'/"- eJ.
the church seem»VA * '""''* ''"''er view of
which t e A, Tol ca Con'T?!^ '» the language
n>outh of ti,e"aSe'"Ab:rv''''' '"'"'''»
have receive,! no iommandmen, i .""^'''''y «e
it a" a vow to thosHho wi^h''» "' T" P"""'
thi» upon them-tl^t the; make' n""'^' "''^^
fession rashly. Fn, ' u "^' "">" Pw-
profession, doing w^rks thT " '"'" '""''•= ■'
profession mu.t Xw that T """''1;^ "^ ^'^
true. nn.l that it is m,l t„ ' .V "k P^fe^sian i,
religion, and not o"^t a .1^ '"'""'' '■<"•■
{Con,t. Apost 4 14) "''"° "'""'iage " '
selvSl'^lriTSyi:^^- -devoted them,
"separate class or^'ol'"t lb 'T *^ '■°™
the single pas.,age of the <,e^ •'*""'''• ^^
proximately genuine let'er „f ?"'"e. or ap.
refers to them, thrare Innn, /r"""^ ^^''^
with wi..ows (:,dx;;:. «' jr^Th'^r^''"?'"""'
passage is obscure, and h^ LJ^* '"* "•' the
Jiscussion; the view here fi? T '" "u-^h
in Gebhardt and Cn„ek's j^!/? '^'''''* "^ ^^n
"■ P- 95, which i,rrLl'^*;^^''"'"'-f««!.
glostonth c,rLludn7i^ '-■'""'™«'' ^Y thi
Polated epistle, an'd a so^ TvT' l" '^ '"'«-
^A'V.),p. c. 15). Polvcarn fl, ^?.":'''-%"'"- "i
treats in snciessi^^rf'l t w& "• *' '^
men, and virgins, which m^t' ZZ'' ^°""*^
'ndication that vireius hid r,^ "''*'' "' «■>
the distinct statuXhich tK "f ^"^ '"•■'I"'>eJ
for do they app ar tThave h„'J ""i"""'^'^ •""' !
the time wlhen'^ihe earlie.llt ,f " H 1 '""'".' 1
Constitutions were written". „ ■ ^po^oiual
certain evidence of the, I^' " """^ ""y
distinct "ordo" un n tLe 4t7 "T"^'"^ "'' »
order of "holy rir.ns" „r « r't'^- ^his
128
2020
JcraaAleok (aoiM/m. H. E. i, 2\ Socrat. H. K. 1,
]7)f «•>">.»# (ha emprt'iiB lli-li'iiu amunibleil {l,vm
A«4 #rair.#() on thum iitiujUHT; in I'lMMia (Soxmn.
ij, II, 12); fl' Alcxnndriu, where CoriBtantlne
^iVt^* Rfbw thi ,1 "ath of AriuH, to thv '-'rkii
^il h.!^ rti^glnii," Bnjwjniiii? ijuiotnoM {itiiii. .:, . ' );
iinJ ii >f«eo«NiHm (i/)!!*. (J, ii^). Their exinttiu.,
U iil.M) ium<''''' |V( (^ ' ''»et th'»t Coii»tantine Ji-
rccieil iivi.viu. luljc • nt.""touuikenD iiiniiml pro-
vision Inr th«in as well a.i tar willow* (lucurt.Auot.
lie i:iin»tiint. lip. iUeoet, i'ur/iua J^'iiim, p. 106).
The oxtiMU 1)1' tlit'ii' uxisteme iimy b« moHiiureil
hy tlie violeiiii' of the Arijin miction ugainst
thi'iii ; wliatt'vir was pri^ml hy thu C'utholii;
jiailv .v,i^ protaiii'il by the Arian piiity ; »uil
tliis (iiin|ianitively new iintitutiiui ot' «u onli'r
ol' holy vivninit iieeiiiit to have exiiled an eipeiial
epirit ol' antat;oni»in. The iii(ii);nitie» to whii'h
the virgins were i.ul)jecteil lire nientioiioii by m«uy
contein|iiirary writers, «. i/. St. Atlmiiiui. A'/.i»<.
Knciid. c;. H, AiidI. iui Cuimtimt, Imp. c. WA \
Socrat. //. A'. 2, 'J«i .S. Hilar. I'ictnv. ad CotutaHt.
Anil. i. ti, ami /'nu/m. //i»<. 'i, 3; a, 9, «[>. Wigne,
1'. L. vol. X. pp. 561, eaa, 665 j S.Orej?. Nhjubuz.
Vi;U. 4a lit huil. Jiatil. M. c. 46, p. «U5 ; ami
Or,it. aa, c. Arutnua, c. :i, p. 605. A limiUr
infeii'uce may be ilriiwn from thu iMiijan reaction
miller Juli.vu; that ,iart of that reaction w»h
(lirectcil ai^aimt this institution of virginn is
clear f'oin S. (ireg. Naiianr. Omt. 4 ; c. Julum. c.
87, p. \'i\, and Sozoni. //. E. 5, 5. who ineutionit
that Julian went so fur as to rei|uire virgins and
willows who, under the regulation of Constantine,
had received allowances from the state to refund
them. After this time the references to them
are frecjucnt. Buiiil (EpiU. Canon. 2 ad Am-
philiKh. c. 18) and Cyril of Jerusalem {Catccluii.
4, 24, p. 64) speak of rh riyiut. riiv iiapBivuii ;
and, probably about the same time, the spurious
epi.stles of iijnatius spealc of rh aiarnna tuv
vapeifwy (ad PIUUpp.K. 15) and exhort C'hrietians
to lionour them as cunsecrnted to Christ (ad
Tars. c. 9). As an " ordo " or class they were
rh riyfia rSiv rapBtyuv (S. Basil, Kpi.st. Canon.
2, ad Amphiloch. c. 18 ; S. Cyrill. Hierosol.
Catccltes. 4, 24, p. 64; so, probably about the
same time, rb avarr\na tuv nofiBivuv Pseudo-
Ignat. ad I'hitipp. c. 16. As individunU, they
were, like tiic Virgin Mary who was constantly
he'd before li ■ m as their pattern, "handmaids
of the Lord ' (ho<i\i\ rov Btoxi on a tombstone
at Smyrna, A.D. 540; Corpus Inscr. Graec. no,
9277 ; of. ihid. nos. 9286, 9324, 9448 ; so in the
West " puella Dei," 1 Cone. Tolet. c. 6).
It is not clear by what e.xtcrnal signs the vow
of virginity was indicated in the first three
centuries. There is no mention of any special
ceremony, and the fact of Cyprian writing an
exhortatory treatise, De I/alntu Viryinum, in
which he urges those who had taken such a vow
to have nothing to uo with worldly ornaments
(" quid istac run; rreno cultu et cum orna-
mentis," c. 5), she thai as yet there was no
special dress, jiut . ^h': rciTse '.f the fourth
century two ext^••^al ' .' he ^o,./ came to
be adopted, the wo.' ;•-< > • '.a/'x-co! .v.ed dress,
and the ceremony •.:' : i:i:v ■*>'■ ■ vitii a veil.
The first of these WMcb-it •!;-';a,'lv adopted inthi
time of Jerome : " 3;>if,j v'--- ''^^' cum futurair
vlrglnem spoponderir palla tii.iica earn induere
et furvooperire pallia, auferre linteamenta; . . . .
al^a veiu e coutra videtur" (S. Hieron. £pi»t.
vnifuxs
]2fl (<IH)a(<a<M4nil. Tol. 1. p. 961, ed. Vallan.i
cf. i'l. Epft 10? <.'>7) ad LeUm, c. 5, vol. i.
p. Unaj Jipuit. i* (21) ad Miinellam, vol. 1,
J). 129). A few years l«ti>r I.eo theiii-eat K|ieaki
of ■■ virglnllatis pro|HMituiii Hti|ii« babituni," lu
though liy that time the adoption of a MpiHiil
dress had Wcome usual (S. l.eon. M. /-.'put. Iii7,
aj Jlwtw. Carbon, o. l.^, vol. i. p. 1426). Such
n I hangii »(' ''"««• Was not only a vcduntary net,
but was not ue<.e»»arlly attended by any »|ieiial
ceremony: a Spanish council of the seveulh
century forbids any who have adopted it to
return to thu secular life (10 * 'one. Tolet. A.ii,
tibii, 0. 5X but this stern rule iloes not appcsr
elsewhere, and the fact of its being enacted and
of the severe penalties by whith It had to be
enforced, shews that it had not up tn that time
boeu universally recognised even in Spain. The
second mark of the adoption of a vow of virginity
seems to have arisen out of the metaphor whirh
is found as early u th" time of Cyprian (e.g.
EpM. 4 (62), p. 472, ed. Hartel), and which ii
treated as a common expression by Athannsiiii
(Apol. aii Cuustaniin. Imp. c. 3.1), that a girl who
had vowed virginity was a " bride of Christ."
The poetry of the metaphor (which survivei
e.ij. in .Methodius, Cunv^v. Deo. Viry. Oral. 11, c. 1,
p. 20V, where the virgins sing a hymn with the
beautiful refrain, n/iupU, iwai>rdvm troi) was t raiiH'
lated into visible acts. The virgin was publicly
vested with the bridid veil (" tlamineum Christi,"
S. Hieron. E})i-t. 147(93) ad Sibiuian. vol. i.
p. 1090; Epitt. 108 (80) ad Eustoch. vol. i.
p. 723). This was a solemn and irrevocable net.
It could only be performed (a) by a bishop, and,
(6) apparently, nn a great festival ; for the latter
point, cf. All . ios. Exhort. Vinjin. c. 7, vol. il.
p. 288, " vcuit paschae dies, in toto orbe baptismi
•iicramenta celebrantur, velantur sacrae rir-
gijies ;'■ Oelasius, Epiii. ad Eptsc. l.xuxm. = Pecnt.
General, c. 14, ap. Hinschius, p. 6ii2, allcwi
Epiphany, Easter, or the Nativity of an apostle;
for the former point cf. S. Hieron. Epiat. 11)0
(97) cd Uemetriad. vol. i. p. 976, scio quod a.!
iraprecationcm pontificts Hammeum virgiiiiilera
sanctum operuerit caput; the absolute restric-
tion of the veilii.g of a virgin to a bishop boloagi
to an African council of uncertain date, 2 Cone.
Carthag. c. 3, and to later times, 2 Cone. Hispal.
A.l>. 618, c. 7, Cone. Rotom. A.D. 650, c. 9, 6 Cnnc,
Paris, A.D. 829, lib. \. c. 41, 43, in all of which
presbyters are prohibited ; Caroli M. Cnpii.
Aquiagran. A.D. 789, c. 75, prohibits abbessc ■ mi
the other hand 3 Cone. Carth. c. 36, I,
presbyters ti ict with the consent of the bishi
The reason tor this restriction to bish ■ i
probably the desire to uphold the digni i ■
profession of chastity ; it was fitting last iim
"sanctiores purioresque hostiae," who were thus
offered upon the altar of God, should be offered
" per summnm sacerdotem " (Epist. ad Claudiam
sororem de Virgiititate, c. 1, ascribed erroneously
to Sulpicius Servlus, and printed by Halm as«n
appendix to his works in the Vienna tVpiH
Script. Lat. vol. L).
The act of veiling came to be accompanied
with ceremonies. Basil speaks of the vow being
rtken " before God and angels and men, the vell^
x:t&!e gathering .if clergy, the holy band "f
virgi' *, the assembly of the Lord and the church
of th" saints " (S. Basil. Epist. 46 (5) ad Virg.
LajH f. 136). Augustim seems to imply that
VTKOINS
»l Mign-, r. I,. v„|. ,,,111. «4,r "v»l,,t|
;i:dr';;:.T''""''"'r'**i''"'''"' •'-"'^'-
VTR'fVS
2031
(!...„ I ■"""»• 1 m a,, UK. ihiirtJiei of li„<t.
ii'imn a,,. A!,„atori Lit. l{,.,n IVY l I ■
J^ 400 whie,. .... the r„„.t h/^-c, '^^ .^ wuj;
h,. ,..,n,n« t««,ra.,„.nt«ry, ,««. vol. j. p 7,9
n -H. .h'T'"'," •"t"'''""«''"«ry, .W. ,1 ii'
.nd with ..n,e r.,hne,l Hir'S;^ ?» f'X'
tho'o'w'hnT.!.*'^^'"'"""" '"^'in-^tion between
those who ha.1 "changed their ilres," „„ 1 ,u
who.,ad.M,ke„theVthattrth«llu:r
there w«, „ l„nit of age. Ba»il (/»? O?,"/
("-"•lt.es. (yprmn ,pol>e of ,„eh an one a"
.ixteen or seventeen. i„„re n en i, 'rt^t t 'i'.""" ">-"•'''-' ^'hri-ti ndnlt^-m" ol "I^Z
hi- t»ne there was a e„nf,.,„.„ .'T/"".'" '''-!/'"•«• 2" »"'! A>/»^ 4(62), edJfartel,/47H"
hi- t»ne there ,va, a cntroversy whethe, the
veiling of virpin, „houl,J not be deferred ,.nti
they were of mature years, an<l deciderth f
inpe ot tune (h. Anibroa. de Vir.imitate c 7
v"l. M. p. 223). But in the course 0, 4 «,th
century the civil law disallows the re line „f
virgins until they are forty years old, a7d enits
that any one who causes Rviririn to T t! I ?
:::r(tu^%r'».''«'--''"'yoVti
goons (.-Novell. Majorian, t t. 6 c 1 8 1 o
.CvotL;'^ii;^:,Zcn"c;^-H-«-^-
p. 209)' fix tii'e age kfi^-vS'^'Va;'-
-lonists made a -liftinction t. v n' (,/"t
,t t,. » ^ ^ ' ("" velum oonsecrationis "
■ ^:/*> '■^'"'" Prnelationis" at 8i:<tv-
'; I ;"'"'" '^'•"^'n^ntiae," which wa, proper t,!
«i'low8,anJ for which no age is snPc«li^V
.. i,..n,„.i':,tio, c.i. Antwerp, ],=.8I r, ,t,:
Et:;ri^'''^' "• ^' '^^. P- tht l^-'a
In order to pwtect the rirginity of those
I'lft/i'i
nn.i »i, 1. ' ~' 'v"'yi eii. iiariei, p. 47()>
and the phrase was often repeated, e „ hi
!•«, biit Augustine repudiates it, an,I will n t
"""7 ''"""'"■•••■"g- after a row of conT'en'e
.. adultery (rf« /u.no IMuiMis, c. 10). " "'the
Oreat treats it as a case of "praevaricat ,?" n!
IS), but both Jerome („do. Jmin lib i i%
I Z- '^' 1- ''""'"•^ > """ oeia-si'is'c;:), ; :
9. arf i-^jisc. /,«wm. c. 22) ani.Iv tn if ikI
"tronger term "incest." The civil law lit
n^arriagc with a dedicated v gU peia7. Con
st-nt.nus in :«4 (Cod. Thoodos. i 25 T) ekacted
a v-vere penalty upon those who „,ade itt" mpt,
^. HUtthe, ■' '":''■•»'"»»• whether with or
« It, out then- consent; ten years later Jovian,
>n the counter reaction against what had
happened under Julian, went so far „""« enact
th It even the solicitation of « virgin or wXw
cap al(Cod Iheodos, 9. 25. 2, Sozom. If. Ef
■ . ); but the euactment, though preserved T„
excessive severity, since in 42f/ Honorius and
Iheodosius uoposed the mild.r, though still
... ere jK-nalty of confiscation an'd depo'rtation
nen uTfT' .^''^■'^^"- '"• 6- 1- 4, re-enacted the
P lultv ot ,I.,v,an, with the addition of confisca-
"X .l tv-^"''".''"t" Co'tes follow the prin-
two Ep,t,mes of the Visigothic Code i-unish the
v,rg,n or widow as well as the man (i.^
XomamV,s>gothomm,,d. Haenel, p. 19.5) -tht
lawsof Luitpraad make fo.'-eitui-e the p'nalt;
6 2 '
2022
VIRGINS
of marriage even with one who has been
dedicatt'J by her parents, or herself taken a
vow, without liavint; been veileil (Leges I-iiit-
pranili, c 30, a.d. 723, in Gengler's Gcnnunische
JiecltUdenbndlcr, p. 55G) ; the Bavarian code
VMikes the penalty for such marriage twice
the ordinary composition fur the abduction of a
married woman (Lex Uaiuwariorum i. 11, textus
primus, ap. Pertz, Leyum, V(d. iii. p. 276) ; in
the Frankish domain, Lothair L simply forbad
Bucii marriages (Chlothacharii 1. Cunstitut. c. 8,
A.D. 560, Pertz, l.mjum, vol. i. p. 2) ; but
Lothair IL made even the attempt to marry
capital (Chlothacharii II. Edict, c. 18, A.D. 6U,
Pertz. vol. i. p. 15). The ecclesiastic.il penalty
for virgins who married was excommunication,
for a longer or shorter perio I. The leadins; enact-
ment' of a general council is that of Chalcedou,
0. 16 ; of local Western councils the chief enact-
ments are the following. The council of Elvira
A.D. 30.'), c. 13, condemns them to perpetual
excommunication ; the first council of Valeuce,
A.D. 374, c. 2, will not admit them to penance
until after the lapse of a long time; the lir^t
council of Toledo, A.D. 398, c. 16, will not re-
admit the oftender to communion unless she
lives, even during her husband's lifetime, a life
of continence ; the first council of Orange, A.D.
441, c. 28, treats the olfence, as Leo the Great
had done, as a case of " praevaricatio ; " the
second council of Aries, A.D. 451, limits the
excommunication to those who were above
" twenty-five " years of age ; the council of
Vannes, A.D. 465, c. 4, treats snch a marriage as
adultery ; the council of Lerida, A.D. 523, c. 6,
treats it ag " stuprum ; " the third council of
Orleans, a.d. 538, c. 16, treats it as " raptus,"
and makes the excommunication perpetual : so
also the second council of Tours, A.D. 567, c.
20, the first of Macon, A.D. 581, c. 12, and the
fifth of Paris, A.D. 615, c. 13. So also in Spain ;
the sixth council of Toledo, A.D. 638, c. 6 directs
those who persist in such a marriage to be
" banished from all Christian society, so that
not even talk be had with them." (The canons
seem always to avoid the honourable word for
marriage to be used in reference to such cases ;
but that " rapere " v used not in its ordinary
civil sense, but only to cast a stigma upon such
marriages is shewn, e.g. by the council of Reims,
A.D. 625, c. 23, which, implies that the "raptor "
sometimes had the king's consent, or was
supported by other legitimate authority.
* *^ [E. H.]
VIRGINS, THE WISE AND FOOLISH.
A curious painting of an arcosolium, in which
the part of the parable relating to the wise
virgins is unquestionably treated, was found by
<Bosio in the cemetery of St. Agnes at Rome
(IJottari, Scult. e Pitt. &c. tav. cxlviii.). In the
centre is a woman in the attitude of i)rayer,
probably intended for the person buried in the
tomb, robed in a dalmatic, with two bands of
purple down the front. At her feet, representing
the soul of the deceased, is a dove with out-
spread wings, and as if listening for the voice of
her mate (Cantic. ii. 10). On the right of this
female figure stand the five wi=e virgins, simi-
larly clad in dalmatics with purple bands, each
bearing in her right hand a torch, and carrying
in her left by the handle a vessel of oil (St.
Matt. XXV. 4). The leader of the five, who is
VISITATION
knocking at the door of the room where the
feast is going on, has her torch lighted. On the
left of the praying figure five other women, also
intended no doubt for the wise virgins, are seated
at a table on \, Inch are two dishes, a flagon, and
two loaves.
There is also in the cemetery of Cyriaca, a
painting in fresco of the .same subject, more fully
treated, the foolish virgins being also represented.
They are standing on the left hand of ths
Saviour, easily recognizable by their extinguished'
torches and down-cast looks. Our Lord, turning
to the wise virgins, points out to them the
heavenly feast to which they are invited (De
Rossi, Roma Sutt. p. 76). De Rossi thinks that
this fresco, so far unique of its kind, indicates
that the tomb is that of a virgin consecrated to
heaven ; a conjecture deriving much probability
from a trustworthy tradition of a convent on the
same spot. The sarcophagus under the fresni
exhibits on its front face a figure in the attitude
of prayer, v hile two other figures of saints,
thought tn 'je intended for SS. Peter and Paul,
arc drawing back a curtain and ushering the
soul into paradise (Martigny, Diet, dcs Anti'j.
Chrit. s. v. ' Vierges FoUes,' &c.). [E. 0. H.]
VISITATION. The right of personal
visitation appears to have been considered as
inherent in every office that conferred authority
or imposed responsibility for the maintenance
of discipline. Thus it 'belonged (i) to metro-
politans in their provincei. Bingham (Antiqui-
ties, ii. 0. 16, § 18) thinks that the right of
visitation is implied in the ninth canon of the
council of Aniioch, A.D. 341, which asserts
that the metropolitan received the care (t)|i/
ippovTlha kvaZix^"^'") of all the dioceses in his
province. But the wording of the canon, which
goes on to assign as a reason that all men
who had any business in hand visited the
metropolitan city to transact it, seems rather
to point to s<ime supreme power of jurisdiction
to be exercised in the metropolis itself, as
having been in the minds of the framers of
the canon (cf. Bracar. II. c. 4; Bruns, Cone
ii. p. 44). Clearer language is employed by the
council of Turin, A.D. 401 (Cone, r./tfn'neme,
c. 2), which, in deciding between the rival
claims of the bishops of Aries and Vienne to
the office of metropolitan, decrees that each
should visit the churches which were contigu-
ous to his own see (eas ecclcsias visitet qu.is
oppidis suis vicinas magis esse constituat). The
council of Le;;tina, A.D. 743, or Boniface {Ep.
Ixx.), decrees' that it is the duty assigned by
the canons to metropolitans to look into the
lives of the bishops of his province and the way
in which they discharged their duties. Occa-
sional notices of metropolitan visitations are
met with in early writers. Thus Possidoniiis
( Vit. August, c. 8) speaks of Megalius, primate
of Numidia, arriving at Hippo in the course of
his visitation tour, and Bede {Ifist. Eccl. iv. 2)
speaks of Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury,
as passing through the whole island, ordainlnj
bishops where they were needed and scttiug
right all things which he found in disorder.
(ii) But the duty of visitation especially
belonged to bishops in thidr dioceses. [Bisiior,
p. 232.] The councils were continually lay-
ing down rules for the punctual' performance
< .u. J . VISIT ATOB 2021
Int^od"'^ '"' •^'^«'""« '•>« ^"-- to be I be .cco.panied b, the ,..p„i„ „r count f
(,0 V...atio,,, .e.e to be he,,, ,e.,. J ^l!'^ ^'Z '^ '^ ''^^^^'^(<:'^
transa
(<i) Visitation, were to be held yearlv in
every parish. The .^m.il of Lugo, a.d. 509
(Cum. Luccnse, Lnbbe, Com;, t. v. n 874^
orders a new division of the dioceses in ftil-
im, on the ground that in their present con-
.l.tion they were too large to ad.nit of a yearly
v,s.t«,on The council of Tarragona, a.Hi^
(c. 8), orders that the bishop should make
yearly vsitafons to provide fo^ the ieparation
of such churche, a, had fallen into bad repah-
The second council of Braga, a.d. 572 c ►
( iruns, Cone. ii. ,39), orders that the bishop
he first day, ,n.iu,,e how the clergy performed
the.r duty, .n order that where it was neces-
sary he might >nst,uct those who were ignorant
especially with reference to the canonical u?es'
(«r tho exorosm and instruction of catechu!
n,ens durmg the twenty-one days before their
bapt,sn>. On the second .lay he was to assemb e
the people and m.struct them in their duties
both as to belief and practice. No e.xpres
mention >s here made of an annual visitaVioT
but >t appears .mjdied. Probably the e.Tpente
of a visitation e.vtending over two days'^ were
tTnl-aZ^T^A'' '^' «'"W- for the seventh
counul of ioledo, a.d. 646 (c. 4), enacts
amongst other precautions to prevent e.xtortion
hat no bishop shall remain in anv parish dn „;
his visitation for more than a single day. Pro-
bably many parishes were desirous of altogether
Z'n !7r M "T"''' "^ ^^' visitation, since the
council of Merida, a.d. 666 (Cone. Enurit c. 11)
speaks of certain abbnts and presbyters who
had obtained e.xemptions (absolutioiiem) from
former bishops and orders that whenever "
bishop arrives ftr the purpose of visitation he
should be received with due honour, and a
reasonable provision for expenses. The annual
visitiUion IS provided for in the fourth counc
fJ"X\ ^-"/.f'^^ («■ 3«). which onk
hat a bishop shall visit each of the parishes in
■IS diocese every year, for the purpose of seeing
hat the churches are in proper repair ; but if
he himself IS prevented by ill-health or by the
pressure of other duties, the visitation might be
performed by one of his presbyters or deacons
who shovld inquire into the condition of the
churches and the lives of the clergy. This ner!
mission of visiting by deputy appears to h"^"
rt Mn' "" ^* ""'1 the coimcil of Mean.'
terns ot the strongest condemnation of an in-
iquitous custom (reprehensibilis et damnabilis
consuetudo) which had arisen among some
ishops of never, or scarcely ever, visiting^
pe son the parishes under their jurisdiction.^
(D) Ihe canons above quoted sneik r,t ♦!,„
Shv ;:: z '"^-'r ^^^^^^<^^^
chieriy in the inspection of the fabric of thi
hurches, and the maintenance of discipl ne
mong the clergy Other duties were add da
later penod. The council of Leptina, above
quotd, decrees that the bishop'i visitation
"|"..b be held anmmlly, for tho purposes of
mimstering confirmation, instructing the
P ople, imuiring into the morals of the clergy
nd searching out and prohibiting dl S
customs. To add weight*^ to his althority^in
Utv. It. wa« „ I 1.1 .1 . , .•' :'
,H,„.... « ^ . "••■i.-nsor ecclesiae " i
'•'' (.LaObe, Concilm, vi. p. 15,34. ,„„ .,,,.„
C;;rlem'■'^'^■""''^I'• '''^' '"''" CHpitub rief of
"-luirlemairne, vii. cc. 94 Qi-, ion '..fir .,
^ that the bishop .hair^it':;. iV^'pari h'in"'!,:
ZT<\ '.'"l""'ng into the morals of his
I '• :''": ^''"■•l'""»S any pagan ,,rac,ic,.s hat
}tt lingered among the peojde, and (A,m iii
60) of correcting any opju'cisi,,! or or u iion
"i^fi/rt'tof ' ""'''r '"•j"''^-- 0"™''e"
«eie hist be reproved and admonished by the
'.^hop, and if this filled to produce reformation
to be reported to the eini.emr "•^^atwn
co,dlcIe,r«.itt'f''"""' f''"-""' ♦" have been
CO ducted with large and .iccasionally e.Ntniva-
gat expenditure. Some excepti,ms are recorded
;Tn tW ."''"""^ ^''^^'"^- 2) ^vrites of St Mar-
tin that he went round his diocese chad in a
St. ch.i .^^t!nf ^i';;i„?^Th^rr
dEs'tb"''?" """ "1 ^''■""' "" 'he country '
d tnas, the farms and villages and castled
ns Lncr '''"'-"'."''y -»'^'l - exceptioli'a
fXX ii 8 7!. •"'''''"> ? 'he other hand
nV,}'; f T*^' " '""l to have been invariablv
a tended wh le on his visitation not onlyul
b o^the „[ ""r^- ''"' hy a considerable nun'!
6er of the la ty, " non j.aucos ex plebe." For the
measures taken by later councils to check the
oppressions and ex.-.ctioDs for which visitation^
'"T-r^\'^' «^ouse, see ProcuuItioxs. "'
• (ill) Archdeacons also had the power of hold-
ng visitations, but the ,,ractioe seems to have
been of gradual growth. Isidore of Seville
(A/f*. cut Ludifred), after defining the ordi, a y
duties of an archdeacon, adds that he inv s j-
o'f the'VC' V'"' ""f'""V'the condition
ot the fabric and ornaments of the churches
to th^e H b'""''t r""^'''^' ""'• ^-"^^ his r ,
to the bishop, but notes that this is done by
Cr'ofPr!''" u"™ J"^^'""'' «I'i«™Pi-''
Hincmar of Rheims, however, in his Precepts to
Archdeacons, c. 1 (0pp. jj. 'p. 728) X of
heir visits to country parishes, e hef in hts
v"rnI;t"'ofM''''"""^"1' "^ '^-^h visitation
r^ .'J- ^■^' •■""' PRtlCURATIONS).
(iv) fhe right of visitation appears to have
been claimed in some instances by tl e cfvil
SZ'V?,,?^ T™" "f Chalons (cS^
of the coll ? ;''™'^».^ith great indignation
riVM of "f ."'^ '"'■'''° J"''S«» "'ho claimed a
Ztl ''^^.'■^' ■■*'"'■> o^-«'- all parishes and monas-
teries .sul,ject to episcopal superintendence, and
emanded provision for their expenses, 'p,"-
bably thi.s claim aro.se from the pracf™ above
mentioned of associating the ciWl "defensor
cccl.^,ae"with the bishop, in order to p vl ^
for the more elToclual suppression of pagan
customs. [Missi UOMINICI.] [P 0.]
ym-VkTlO^ OP THE HICK.
TiON, |,. 2(100; Viaticum.]
[Usc-
-.,...„. ^„ „,,u weignt to hs authoritv in »n „-.» ;„ ,r ,••■•■•■■";'"'">=» "' a vacant see, or
.^.' la^t dut,. it wa. provided that he ^.Z \ ':^;^^\r^^:: X^;^ ^^l:^
JJT^'^^^- t ''■'h"? temporarily ap-
to act in the place of another bishop when in-
canacitated hv iliriA.. ^> i..! j_ ^ .^r '"
2024
VITALIANUS
eal censure. See Intkrcissop.. An old foimn-
larv relatini/ to the cleitinn of (i liisho]), quotuil
by bu Ciiiige fiom the Spicilciiium Acheriense, turn.
viii. p. 15+, providea th:it the bishop who had
been in charge of the t'linenil of a deceased
jirelate (" tiimulutor ") should be the " visitator "
of the vacant see, and take charge of the pro-
perty in or belonging to the church, the
appointment to be made by the metropolitan.
The council of Riez, A.D. 4;t9 (Coiw. Sei). c. 6),
orders that in case of the death of a bishop, no
other bishop should approach the cathedi'al
church at the time of the funeral, except one
from a neighbouring see, who should take charge
of the see in the capacity of a "visitator" —
"visitatoris vice." The use of the word seems
^specially to belong to the Western church. It
is of fre(iuont occurrence in the writings of
Gregory the Great. Thus (A>. ii. 25) he
appoints Leontius to be "visitator" of the see
of liiinini in consequence of the ill-health of
the bishop, and (1. 15) comm.inds Balbinus, and
(I. 51) Kelix to go as visitatores to certain
churches, mentioning that their chief duty was
to provide for the ordination of the clergy.
Hincmar of Rheims, in his epistle to the bishop
of Laon, expressly claims the right, as metro-
politan, of appointing a visitator " to the care of
a vacant see (see Thomassin, Vet. ct Nov. Eccl.
Disci]}, ii. 2, c. 21, § 9), The word irfpio5«UTT}j
U sometimes translated visitator (see Bruns,
Canon, note in Cone. Litodic. c. 57), but the
otlices were essentially distinct. See Perio-
pnuTES, Vacancv. [P. O.]
VITALIANUS, pope, commemorated in_
modern martyrologies on Jan. 27 {Mart. Rom.;
Boll. Acta iiS. Jan. ii. 780). [C. H.]
VITALICUS, Sept. 4, youthful martyr with
two others, Kufinus and Silvanus {Mart. Usuard.,
Kotker., Horn.); Vitalica {Jiicron., Vet. Mom.,
Adon.). [a H.]
VITALI8 (1), Jan. 9, martyr, commemorated
at Smvrna with Revocatus and Fortunatus
{Mart. 'Usuard., Wand. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jan. i.
5iJ7).
(2) Feb. 14, martyr, commemorated at Rome
with Felicnla and Zeno {Mart. Usuard., Adon.,
Bmn., Notker.; Boll. Acta SS. Feb. ii. 743).
This is probably the St. Vitalis commemonited
in the Liber Antiphonarius of Gregory, p. 693.
(3) April 21, one of the companions of Arator
{Mart. Usuard., Adon., Hieron., Notker, Rom.).
(4) Apr. 28, martyr, commemorated at
Ravenna {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Rom.,
Notker., Wand.).
(5) July 2, one of the companions of Aristo
{Mart. Usuard., Adon., Rom.).
(6) July 10, one of the seven sons of Felicitas,
martyrs at Rome {Mart. Bed., Usuard., Adon.,
Hieron., Notker., Rom.).
(7) July 23, bishop, martyr, commemorated at
Ravenna with ApoUonius (Basil. Menol. ; Menol.
Grace. Sirlet.).
(8) Sept. 22, martyr of the Thebaean Legion
{Mart. Usuard., Micron., Rom.).
(9) Nov. 3, martyr, commemorated at Caesarea
in Cappndocia, with Germanus, Theophilus, and
Caesarius {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Hieron., Vet,
Rom., Rom.),
VOLUME
(10) Nov. 27, martyr, c(jmniemoratcd with
Agricola at liolngna {Mart. Utuard., Adon.,
iheron.. Vet. Rom., Wand.). [C. H.]
VfTUS (1) (Vmus), .Ian. 20, martyr, com-
memorated at Nicomedia with Cyriacus and
others {Mart. Syr.).
(2) Jan. 15, martyr under Diocletian, com-
memorated in Sicily with Modestus and Cres'
centia {Mart. Bed., Flor., Usuard., Adon., Vet.
Rom., Wand., Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. .luu. ii.
1013); in Lucania (//fccoH.) ; commemorated »n
this day in the Gelasian Sacramentary, and
named in the collect and post-communion.
(3) Jun. 26, martyr, commemorated at
Nicomedia {Mart. Syr.). [0. H.]
VIVIANA (BiBlANA), martyr, comme-
morated at Rome on Dec. 2, with Faustus and
Dafoosa {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., No,!,.),
[C. K.]
VOCATORIUM, an invitatory. [Invita-
TORIUM.] " In oratorio versum non diciint, noc
vocatorium " {Ordo Off. in doino S. Bened. ante
Pascha, in Mabill. Vet. Anal. 151, ed. 2).
[W. E. S.]
VOLUME. The " r.ill of a book " {volniwn)
was composed of leaves of papyrus or parchment,
glued, or otiierwise fastened, end to end, and
rolled, as its name implies, r<nxn(l an axis. Lihri
and codices, on the other hand, derived their
names from the material of which they wore
formed, and were put together as books are nmv.
Donati {de' Dittici dei/HAnt. p. 17) gives a chaw-
ing of a volume rolled up and fitted with all
requisites for use and prote<.tion. The fittings
of a volume, as seen in a drawing given by Jlont-
faucon, were a stick to roll it on, with a boss or
knob at the left hand of the MS., ami projecting
a little way beyond the right side of it, so as to
furnish a handle ; a cover of vellum fastened
with strings or straps at either end, and a slip of
thinner vellum glued on, with the title of the
book written on it. Volumes were sometimes
called by a name of similar origin, rotultu
(Durand. Ration. Div. Off. i. c. 3, n. 11).
I. Among the Greeks and Romans, a vcdume in
the hand was the mark of an orator. Polyhym-
nia, the muse of rhetoric, is always represeiifej
in this way, and the same mark of distinction is
given in statues and bas-reliefs to senatdrs .ml
other great men. In the museum of the Vatioan
there is a statue of Augustus, with a volume in
the left hand, and making a rhetorical gesture
with the right. Among the early Christians the
use of the volume as a symbol seems to have
been more general, though apparently always
confined to persons of distinction, and its signili-
canco more varied and subtle.
1. It was used iu representations of the first
person of the Trinity. Bottari {Smlt. c Pitt.
Ixxxiv.) gives a drawing of a sarcophagus from
the catacombs, in which the Father appears as an
old man standing up, with a volume in his left
hand, and his right stretched out after the classi-
cal manner, and representing an orator towariU
Moses, whom he is ordering to put olV his shoes
before he approaches the burning bush.
The hand alone bearing a volume is sometimes
met with as a symbol of the Father, as in a
bas-relief of the 6th century representing tlw
VOLUME
Imptism of Agilulfus, king of the Lombards
CCmmpini, Vet. Mon. ii. tab v.)
2. The patriarchs and prophets of the Old
iestament are represented with the volume iu
hand (Durand, quoted above). Moses appears
on sarcophagi thus represented (Bottari, ,*»«.
ePitt. xhx et pass.) only when he is striking
the rock, which looks as if the volume were in-
tended as a mark of the divine power granted to
him to work miracles for the people. In some
engravings the volume is not in his hand, but in
the space behind his head (Garrucci, Vetri Orn
&c. tav. ii. 10).
3. Our Saviour is almost always represented
in mosaics and in the bas-reliefs of sarcophagi
with a volume in his left hand. The voluine
IS shewn unrolled (a) when he is addressing St.
reter (as on a great number of sarcophagi), and
there is a remarkably clear example of this
treatment in the mosaic of St. Constance, thought
to be due to the munificence of Constantine
(Ciampini, de Sacr. Aedif. tab. xxxii.) ; the phv-
lactery which he presents to St. Peter is also she Wn
unrolled, and inscribed with the words Domimts
pacem dat, intended, of course, as the apostle's
commission as preacher of the gospel of peace(Eph
VI. lo). (4) Our Lord also bears the volume when
he IS teachinT (Bottari, ScUlt. ePitt.&c. cx.xxiii •
Allegranza. Vcur. Mon. di Milano, tav. i.), and
when he i; '; outing with the doctors (Aringhi,
Horn. SM I. 579 i Ii. 213) [DocTOns, Chiiist
WITH THE]; „nd On this occasion he has a
c.f ^L,,!""^' '"PPOseJ to contain the books
ot the Old Iestament, to which he may make
reference m his discussion. When a miracle is
being wrought the volume is always represented
rolled up, as in the healing of the man born
olind (Bottari, Scult. e Pitt, cxxx^ii.) ; of the
paralytic ((4. Ixxxviii.) ; the changing of water
into wine (ih. Ixxxix.); the healing of the
woman with the issue of blood (i6.). But in
some representations of the raising of Lazarus
(Bottari Somt. e Pitt, xxxii. xxxvi.) the volume
IS unrolled, with the probable intention .,f sym-
bolizing the revelation of the glory of God (St
John XI. 4), and of " life and immortality
through the gospel " (2 'i'im. i. 10). But, for
some reason as yet undiscovered, the volume,
which IS an invariable accompaniment of a
miracle m the sculptures of sarcophagi, does not
appear on glass or iu the paintings of the
catacombs. In the museum of the Vatican there
is a beautiful fresco brought from the catacombs
exhibiting, as far as is known, the only ancient
representation of the Last Supper, and in this
the.Mviour appears with the rolled-up volume
in his hand.
4. Where a volume appears in the hand of
St. leter or St. Paul, it is supposed to repre-
sent his own writings ; but when, as sometimes
on ancient gilded glass, a volume is placed
between these two apostles, it is supposed to
symlwlize the unanimity of these apostles and the
Identity of the gospel preached bv them. The
golden crown by which it is generally surmounted
18 pri.bal)ly intended to indicate its royal origin as
the gnod news of the kingdom of h.->.ivpr, (.^t
Matt IV. 2;(). Mosaics often exhibit these
apostles with the volume unrolled and showing
extracts from Scripture referring to some
remarkable event in their lives ; thus, in the
•fse of the ancient Vatican, St. Peter is repre-
VOLUME
2025
sented (Ciampini, de Sacr. Aedif. tab. xiii.) with
a phylactery in his hand inscribed with his
memorable confession (St. Matt. xvi. l(i) j"
he,?T'iT''' ■^'•P""' "I'P""" «t»»'linff hy
n hT, hi rT "^ *'■« Saviour with a vofun ^
m his hand bearing the word. " Mi/u vivere
Chnstus est " (Philipp. j. 21)
sJiJl^T"^^"'' *" * '"'''^' "' '■'»""' repre-
sLn of their """*•"'• """^ bas-reliefs with this
sign ot their commission to preach the eosnel
(.Annghi Horn. Subt. passim ;Bosio, Zn^Zt
passim i Ciampini, Vet. M,m.\. i. tab. Ixv ), ami
he Saviour commonly stands in the midst as f
i:.rp.tt'"^ '''^■" (^■"-' ^^^'- <^ '«
«. In the more ancient monuments bkhops
as depositaries of the word, bear the roll „ the
ab xTit\ r 'l' ""r't. (^'''""P'-'- »''■«• ^'^"^ «
/;o;/; l'.,n''o '■'*' ^^"'^'a'- 'i. * CM. Joan.
Bupt. pp. 2dO-2tiO), and paintings of a later age
onTi::: „'r'h™i"^ '"""/• ^■•"P-enta^i'on
on glass of the hgure of St. Cyprian fsuelt
Cr,pranus)fronithe catacombs has^Vhe r IMn
at the leet (Garrucci, Vet. Ormt. xx. 6). Kepre-
sentationsof Justin and Timothy mav be cHed
as instances of similar treatment (ib. xxiv 3^
the latter having always on ancient glass a
the t^ "'"\,''°'"';1 ''™-'> P™^"''« «"" ion
to the two epistles addressed to him by St. Paul
the leftT""/.."'' "''" '«P'-««<^"ted bearing in
the left hand the same badge of their ministrv
Buonar,.ti ( Vet. Or.u.t tav^vi. 2) gives a'l'faw':
ing o( St. Lawrence from a glass bearing the
volume, and seated between Ss' Peter and Paul
who ajipear to be teaching him. '
of the Scriptures to the congregation, always
appear with the volume. A gilded glass, g v n
by Buonarotti (,-6. tav. xvii. 1), preserve wla?
appears to be a representation of the ordination
0. two youths as readers, who both bear the
I volume in their hands.
I 9. In some sepulchral monuments, especially
bas-rehefs of douhlo sarcophagi, in 'which the
marriage ceremonies of the deceased are com-
memorated (Bottari, Sam. c Pitt. &c. tav. cxxxvH.;
Maffei, K.,-o». Itlust. part iii. p. 54) the bride-
groom holds a volume m his hand supposed to
be the nuptial contract. Sometimes three or
four volumes stand on end at his feet, possibly
mdicating the various olHces or magistracies he ■
may have held. Volumes of this kind are said
to have been borne by slaves after patricians at
Rome ; and when they appear, as they sometimes
do, on glass (Buonar. Scult. e PHt. tav. xxviii •
Garrucci, r.*. Ormt. xxvii. 1). and on tlie'
shields and sarcophagi, it is probable that they
are merely a mark of the dignity of the person
commemorated, as he has almost always, in such
cases, the senatorial badge of the broad purple
ir. Besides these volumes borne in th" hand
by divers personages ai*l for various rea^sons, a
great many are found on ancient glass ((*,.rrucci,
}et. Ormt xviii. 5, 6 ; xvii. i. 5. &c.) to which
It IS rtit.irull to assign any certain significance.
Buonarotti (tav xx.) gives a representation of
&t. helicitas and her seven scms between two
volumes supposed to signify the two volumes of
S-M'ipture, for the truth of which martyrs shed
their blood ; and Bottari (^SctUt. e Pitt, tav .xix )
2026 VOTIVE OFFERINGS
VOTIVE OFFERINGS
preserves a figure in tlie altitude of prayer, with
two volumes tied togetlier on one side and
an eucliaristic cup on the other — a symbolism
of which the meaning is obvious enough.
III. Although books, as wo 'inicrstand the
term, soon began to be used for the reading of
the gospel in churches, volumes, strictly so-called,
were, for some timt, retained for the prayers
and ritual of certain ecclesiastical functious.
Cardinal Cassauata had some of these volumes
of >\3 late a date as the 9th and 10th centuries,
containing the forms of the ordination service,
tlie ritual of baptism, of the blessing of the
font, and of the paschal candle (Martigny, ])kt.
des Aiitl'i. Chr^t. a. v. ' Volume '). [K. C. H.]
VOTIVE OFFERINGS, "votiva," "quae
Sanctis cj; vuto aut veneratione oli'erebantur "
(Muratori), The custom of bringing olferiugs
to Christian churches in acknowledgment of
some signal deliverance from peril or illness or
of s^me other answer to prayer, with the design
of per]ietuatiag the remembrance of these divine
favours, became widely prevalent in both the
Eastern and Western churches at a very early
period. While the observance undoubtedly
offers a strong resemblance to the same custom
as known to pagan antiquity, it was held to be
sanctioned by Scripture ; e.g. in such passages
as Exodus xvii. 4; Ps. cxi. 4. It ultimately
became closely associated with the veneration of
the tonil)S and relics of martyrs, wliose inter-
cession and aid were frequently implored. Au-
gustine seems to have sought to divest the
practice of the superstitious notions with which
it was already becoming connected in his time,
by pointing out that such offerings, " apud me-
niorias sanctorum martyrum," ought to be
lookea upim as really offered to God (6'erni. 273 ;
Migne, l\drol. xxxviii. 1251).
The sanie father is the first who distinctly
lays down the theory that such offerings must
be nuide in churches. As quoted by Prosper of
Aqnitaine, he says that the best oll'ering we can
make to God is thai of ourselves, and as the
image of Caesar was to be given to Caesar, so
the image of the l>eity is to be consecrated to
Him. We have however not only to consider
what we can ofter and to whom, but also
xolure our offering should be made, " quia veri
sacriiicii o.xtra catholicam ecclesiam non est "
(0)wri, fid. Migne, x. 1800). It is in harmony
with this view that we find the 20th canon of
the coliiition ascribed to the council of Nantes
(A.n. t!(iiJ) forbidding the oftering of vows or
presenting of candles or any other offering for
the restoration of health in any other ]ilace ex-
cept Christian churches : " NuUus votuni faciat
aut ciindelam vcl aliquod ramius pro sanitate
sua rugaturus alibi deforat nisi ad ecclesiam
Domino Deo suo " (JIansi, Concilia, xi. 59-61;
Jligne, Ixi. 84(j).
Similar otlerings were made by virgins on the
occasion of their consecration to the service of
the altar, with the |)rnyer that they might be
enabled to keep invi(date their vow of virginity.
In the ancient Sacramt^titaritini .atti'ihutcd to
St. Leo (Migne, Iv. 3S), we find in the appointed
service for such occasions, " Otl'erimus tibi,
Domine, iireces et muncra." Gregory the Great,
in his Lihcr Swnvnentorum, speaks of the relics
of a martyr (those of St. Laureutius) as them-
selves a kind of offering, "votiva martyria "
(i6. lixviii. 1251); and on another occasion,
when referring to an instance of a wife who
presented offerings at the altar for her husband's
recovery from sickness, styles them a "saciifi.
cium " (Diiil. iv. 67).
The extent to which the practice prevailed
both in the ICast and in the West in the 5th
century, is sulficiently proved by two writers —
Theodoret and Paulinus of Nola. Of tlie-.e, the
former, in a remarkable passage, exultingly
describes the honoui's paid to the tombs o'" the
martyrs in his time — and the tombs themselves
as objects of universal admiration, sple.nlidly
adorned, and radiant in every part. " To these,"
he says, " we repair not once or twice a year, or
live times only, but frequently and in greiit
multitudes {iravriyvptis'), addressing often, each
day, hymns to Him who is their Lord. And
those who are in health pray that their health
may be preserved ; those in sickness, for relief
from their malady ; the childless, for children ;
the barren women, for otfsjiring ; while those
already thus blessed, pray that their sons
and daughters may be endowed with desirable
gifts." He then goes on to describe some of the
otlerings (ocofl^j^aTo), as consisting of models
of arms, legs, eyes, &c., according to the allected
part, and fashioned out of gold, silver, or wood —
" for the Lord," he says, " acce))ts both small and
costly gifts, estimating them by the capacity of
the giver." He describes other oll'erings (pro-
bably tablets) as recording the virtues of the
martyr.i, " but their virtues," he says, " prove
that He who was their God was the true God," — .
r] Sh ToiriDV Sivafiis rhy rovrwv &ehv iL\ri6ifiv
aTro<pa(v(i @f6v (Graccantm Affect. Curnt, ;
Migne, Pat. (r/'oec. Ixxxiii. 922). At the council
of Lestines (a.d. 743) the offering of models, such
as those which he describes, was condemned iis a
pagan usage (see Paganism, hi. ii.).
The references to the practice in Paulinus
give evidence of a still more superstitious con-
ception of its efficacy. He describes in his four-
teenth poem (i/e S. Felice Natnlitium Cavin. iii.) the
assembling throngs apd the donors as hanging
their votive offerings to the pillars of the church.
He then proceeds to narrate three stories,
which enforce the necessity of faithfully obsep-
ing such vows. The first is that of an in-
habitant of the town of Abellina, who, having
vowed a pig to St. Felix, brought his otforing to
the shrine of the saint, but endeavoured to evade
the genuine performance of his vow by killing
the pig and simply giving the entrails to the
poor of the church, himself carrying off the
carcase. On his journey home, however, he was
thrown from his horse, and smitten with ap-
parent paralysiii, but having been carried back
to the church, he there implored the forgiveness
of the saint, and ordered the whole larcase to be
divided among the poor. Whereupon he was
mirai.'ulously restored to the complete use of his
limbs and to his former health (Migne, Isi,
439-501).
The second 'instance is that of some peasants
of Ap'.ili.a, who, having reared a fat sow .iiiii
dedicated it to the same saint, proceeded to drive
it to the church. The animal however suc-
cumbed to the fatigue of the journey, and was
unablo to proceed. Full of anxiety lest they
should seem unfaithful tu their vow, the pioiu
vows
peasants hasteneil to select on*, n, »» ■
smaller size, and with th ''"* '"8' "^ «■
similarly ,i:f,ie,tea t„ St fIJ;' %'"-""". *""' ^^■'-■"
in.iyvoiunt..yvict„.;:[";i;'e:i:,^7;h:r;:
vows (.i;,^, .Wotum "). "in,PsoH,^^
a vow s usiiallv tPi-mo,i • ' 1 • ^"^ripture
tine £),. iix., «rf P<„^,>,„,„) "'* ''"''y (A"g"»'
The earliest example of a riiv:=t;„,
proceeding derived rom Old T f T"'^' "
cedent, i/ that recorded of St ^f'T"^ P'-^
mli la ,- '^"-"'ut-u or St. i^aul iu Act'!
the m<,nk- or the anchoHte th» ^''"^'''""^ "^
martyrs and of their relic a^n-t J?"^'"'"" "^
I%rin,ages to shrines nd' n"! s f :':l;''!,"°'^
-^:^S ££i- -F^^""
never to have been calle/^ 1. esU n"" A,"';'"'""
>^itl."p,m,:;i^CS'^"r^''"'""'-''^e<;gnis^
^uR. n. 14; Lotelerius, i. Myn
»o\vs were distiu^uished as Cl^ ""■ *
-alia," or those afp„i4 ^^l^ ^^V^
VULMARUS 2027
K;::r,j:^<;-/h''- having re/erence
also di^tinsu shed n« "'"",';"'" ' ""^^ *"<'
"''^'." -r vows t!k,.n f '"''P''"" ""'* " '^'"P«r.
the " v,,ta r,.!l ' '^iff speciHed time. Among
those of „L' ■:""''". ^/ ■"""' "■"""»>. werf
of Poitiers sr.'!)™" '^'•""'' '■''^'"■g- "ih,ry
^H'oris, cJuati^ZTr"'^^ '""' '•■""te-ptus
(IJigne, ix 18+ """"''"'' Jejunii tolerantis "
uot to b baSrd "n^?""" "''^"^^ ^''"■"''■"'"
willnot, hesav tn^.Tr "?« '■""■^' *'"'• they
-aided 'stre^^rh^^'N^rs'::^ "^"•'■'^'' ''^ "'^"'
dum; non cnin, v!,.ii " P'^^" «" ''oven-
"i" "mrried neoX nf^ "^' !° *"■' »""«' those
other or of'ah nnen.pT-'""""' ''''"'"^ '" ^"''^
with each other ,ftK "", f*^'""' intercourse
I'italitv to all';!,;'^^''''""''^"' <^^tend hos-
th...ir hou es, f he^s t"' ^'"'T "PP'--'"ching
to the poor a ,i .,1"' *" ^'^'V'" th.'ir propei^ty
ligious'mro-:";!/!'^-';" "'--•^ive/thr re^
cen^trwS'r<::;'r'h"'^;°*'^^-^'-
vi-'ifinity. Those wh, '^^ ^'" """ "^
their names en er. 1 • '"'"""'f ""'^ ^'"^^ had
el>urch,„n5 c rt\iTnth' "7"'\ ^'^t by the
-rved/callated rrSr'th'e''''r ''"'' "'•
■mpressive (Socrates, /V Ji If 7"°^ '""?
-?".«•(/. iii. 16 1 ThL i; f' ' '-hrysost. Je
personal vo\7was L^t 1^ ""'"'■' ''''^" "^*''«
Tours (A.D 567) m t ; ^u^ second council of
JuJiois auxilio separetur" At -^'r" ''''■"^
ber;Vo''eTBcl'c:!'l>?"tT''"'"^' ^^^ ^^'J »<•
aocompan d • v^ th oh ^^''" '° ". '^''"'•'''' """J
ligious'^ ritct Vhu Sr"r plitif^'" h"-
conimenting on Ps. Iv (\w\ i '*'" ' '*■'"">
are of use onlv uh ' "' ', *''■" 'hat vows
'■acter a, d t at " "."''-'T' ^''"' '^is cha-
I V ;. fi': P- J't9'' ; PiLORiMAOE. V. rax p Kiss
j \ '».Tl-NS, and VOTIVK O^^FEHWciS. '[J ^li JI ]
|uI^[™^W8, Mar. 20, confessor p„;, '
i{mJ
S028 WAFEB
w
WAFEK. [Elements, p. 603.]
WALEllICUS, confessor in Pagus Vinna-
censis (or Vineniacu.i") in I'icai'ily, commemorated
Dec. 12 (Miirt. UsuarJ.); Apr. 1 (Notkor. ;
Boll. Acta SS. Apr. i. 14). [C. H.]
WANDREGISILUS, confessor in the neigh-
bourhood of Rouen ; curamemorated on July 22
(M,irt. Usuard. : Boll. Acta SS. Jul. v. 2r,ii).
[C. H.]
WANTI. [Glovks.]
WAR. The question of the Lawfulness of
war, lis it presented itself to the early <hurch,
assumed a twofold character: (1) whether a
Christian prince could rightfully embark iu any
war ; (-') whether a Christiau subj.;ct was
bound to render military service. On both
points the decisions of successive teachers of the
church exhibit a material dillerence, a ditference
mainly to be explained by the altered relations
of the church to the civil power
During the first three centuries the considera-
tion of both the above questions was necessarily
complicated by the facts, that the soldier in the
Eoniaa legions would be compelled to bear arms
in the service of a state professedly pagan, and
that military service was closely conjoined with
the ceremonial of pagan worship. Hence to
both questions the more austere teaching of the
church rejoined with an unqualified negative,
and the words of Christ (Matt. xxvi. 52) were
adduced as placing the matter beyond dispute.
If, as some critics maintain (Hefele, Bcitrdije,
i. 21), the language of Justin {Apul. i. 14) and
of Athenagoras {Lcgatio pro Christ, c. 35) does
not necessarily imply a general disapproval of
the profession of the warrior, the writings of
Tertullian, both before and after his conversion
to Montanism, contain pa.ssages which are suflfj-
cicntly explicit. "There can," he says (with
allusion to ordinary military service) " be no
harmony betweer. the divine and the human
oath, the standard of Christ and of the devil, the
camp of light and the camp of darkness ; one
goul cannot be claimed by two masters, — by God
and by the devil " (do Idnl. c. 19). His treatise,
do C'-runa, called forth by the incident of the
Christian soldier who refused to adorn himself
with the laurel wreath a.«8ociated with pagan
observances, is well known. He there declares
that merely to wear the wreath alone constitutes
an act of idolatry — '■ Ita et corona idolothytum
efficitur" (dc Corona, c. 10). As for the mili-
tary profession its,;lf, " Can it," he asks, " be
lawful to handle the sword, when the Lord
Himself hath declared that he who uses the
iword shall perish by it ? Shall the child of
peace engage in liattle, when he looks upon even
the strife of the law-cnnrts ^^ unseemly ? Shall
he who avenges not even his own wrong.s, con-
eign others to prison and to chains, torture and
punish them ? " (i6. c. 1 1). In the same spirit the
martyr Maximilian (circ. A.D. 'J9o) says. "Mihi
npa licet niilitare, quia Christianu^ Gum "
WAR
(Rninart, Acta Martyr, ii. 209). So again
Clemens of Alexandria (i. p. 289) asserts that
they who seek peace have no need of the sword
or the bow.
The opinion of Origen ia less distinctly pro.
nounced. In two passages (adv. Ci'/s. v. Xi ; vii.
26) he appears to support the view of Tertulliiin,
and in a third (iVj. viii. 73) he puts forward the
theory that Christiann, as a race prcitVsseilly-
devoted to the service of God, cannot justly he
called upon to bear arms. The pfigan priests,
he urges, are exempt from such service, ami,
on like grounds, Christians claim a similar
immunity. " We could not tight under the
emperor," he says, "even if he should seek to
constram us ; but we Hght for him when in mir
own camp (tSiov (rrpardirfSov evcrflSeias) we
oHer up prayers on his behalf" (Migne, l'<itri,l,
Graec. xi. 797). This .argument, it is to be
noted, appears iw a I'ejoinder to certain criticisms
of Celsus, who, in the opinion of Gibbon (eil.
Milman and Smith, ii. 189) had exposed a wak
point in the Christian theory: "the pasjans
very frequently asked, what must be the fate of
the empire, attacked on every siile by the bar-
b.iriaus, if all mankind should adopt the pusil-
lanimous sentiments of the new sect ? " Lic-
tantius condemns war on purely philosophic
grounds. The aim of the wise man, he says,
should be not to engage in combat, the issue of
which must always be doubtful, and thereliy to
annihilate ("toUere") his foe, but to do away
with the cause of disagreement itself (Z>/r. Inst.
vi. 18). Origen himself, in a fourth pass;ige,
appears to allow that defensive war is ju-titiiible,
and somewhat quaintly suggests that the mode
in which bees carry on their wars may perhaps
serve as an example trpbs Tohs Sinaiovs koI
rerayfifvovs iroheiwvs (adv. Cets. iv. 82).
It is tolerably certain, indeed, that wh.iterer
may have been the prevalent theory of the
church during the first three centuries, maoy
Christians at that period served in the armies
of the empire. Tertullian's own expressions,
"vcstra omnia implevimus, urbes, insuias, cas-
tella, municipia, conciliabula, castra ipsa " (.1/*;/.
c. 37); "navigamuset nos vobiscum milititnim"
(ib. c. 42); and the story which he tells of the
" legio fulminatrix " (a<l Scapulam, c. 4), are
decisive evidence to this effect. We find again
from Eusebius (//. E. viii. 4, x. 8) that in the
time of Diocletian the number of ('hristian
soldiers was considerable, and that many ullicers
were consequently called upon by the cnijioror
to choose between a return to paganism and
degradation from their posts.
The important evidence ntTorded by Christian
inscriptions might, it is true, seem at first sight
to contradict these statements. Aringhi (Aidi'i.
Christianae, i. 430) gives an epitaph of a soliiier
of the time of Hadrian, and (ii. 170) that of a
soldier in the praetorian guard ; Boldctti {Osscr-
vaziuni sopra i cimitcri. &c., ]>. 432), one of a
VKTEllANUS EX PROTEUIORIUUS (? " Jirotootorio-
rilius "), and also (p. 415) one " I'yrrho iiiiliti,"
and (p. 416) that of one who is described aj
" felicissimus miles." Marangoni (.Art. R Vid.
p. 102) gives us that of a centurion, and Kuinart
(^Act. Mart. i. 50) that of two brothers, Oet\iliiis
anil Amautius, who were military tribunes ur i.r
Hadrian. Le Blant, with the view of arriving
at a more precise estimate of the evidence thus
WAB
results exhibited in throe collections of n«ir«n
(Kunes us ,S,v/,%. /„scr,><. ^„<,V/. • steiner C«/
Inscnpt Rum. MU-ni ; Womnisen; A.S W
ID beguier (/,iscnp<. Antiq. Index). This com-
l.ar..ou has shewn that while the ,Lau emta, I
ner Tn, A' "f »•.''''."'«. or an averasje of 5-42
4734 in n,,.*; ''"""" ''"'"l''''^' "^'miting to
pel cent. He oilers, however, what mav he
accepted as a reasonable explanation 7th s
disparity and a s.i.Iicient solution of the apparent
incompatibil ty with the historical evidenrTho '
early Christians, he considers, accepted nilitarv
service much as they did the iLtitu „„ o^f
slavci-v, nanie y as a p,mc.l ,..a...rt/ A how-
ever, the Christian slave would not sui^Jr the
recording ,n his epitaph that he' had been th^
As soon, however, as Christianity received the
recognition of the state, niuch ^of this eart;
Bcrupulosity began to disappear. The )P in-
scribed by Constantine on his stan.lard, and the
subsequent appearance of the Cross on the
.mperial eagles, mark the comnieucement of this
Nica t fif 1 1-Jt'>^«,>"m of the council of
JSaata (it we accept the version of Rufiuus^
inposes thirteen years' penance upon those who
.avmg abandoned the military confession were'
i">l"oed again to embrace it: .<Q„i veio proX
confessionem militiam abjecerant et i-mr "^ J
ham- ahiBr,.n» t, i ""J-^Lerant, et rursum ad
ge e're" etc VM".s' '^"''" """'' P-x'-i'-^"*!"™
gueie, etc. (Mansi, Cmc. ii. 703). Hefele
however, maintains that this canon is t„ be
aken :n immediate connexion with hat by
which It IS preceded, and that it refers „„ly to
the soldiers under the emperor Licinius, wh^ I^
Chnstians resigned their posts rather than tak^
part m pagan sacrifice, but subsequently fVom
mercenary motives returned to the' ranks an"
(nemoi/e,!. J2; CuncUwiesch. i. 399)
a » that soldiers after their term of military
menr:f'';r'' "" '° f"'^^^'"'^-' ^-n^ hi
ve^ But Hef'lT« '>"'*"» '"'"• *'•"" '^hole
fZw-b^rn" f tTol'lotthf "'* '^^
■ , '"""» upon the passacre also
a conveying rather an expression of opronon
he part of the writer than an express injlnction
and maintains that it does not imply ■'that st'
Basil held all war to be unjustifiable. ^
Chrysos om nowhere actually condemns the
ol, ler scalling, although (7/o«.. tn Matt. 61 n. 2)
h. i:u„ent=, the temptations to violence and the
^e£a^^m1hJ^;SuW^SS:
writings of Augustine. In his letter to Mai!
WAB
2029'
d!mrLfr'' '•''^^' ^^ "^y^ *•"" if Chri,tianitr
<lenian,Ied the condemnation of all warfare the
ki. vl". '" ^''^ ^"* ^-*— * -eeklnHo a
bv Ir' ^" f/"';'"""" "■»"''' h«ve been directed
advicc , !""""'•■« /''"'' profession; whereas the
advice he gave them was to be content with
non i,r h "' ""^m" P'^^^Pi'. '"ilitare uti,,ue
non piohibiiit" (Jligne, xxxiii. ,'-,;!2). In ths
^ZlwcL'r'^V''' "' '^ fathor tmc'.m-
se»eieij chastises the son whom he loves so in
dealing with diderent nations, the Unman ;^wr
may be compelled to consider what is for their
dtfe "■"*'""■ """^ "■'^^" ""•■>• -""''• "'ems v^
desire,-" quorum potius utilitati couMilendum
St quam voluntati " (il, xxxiii. 5,)1). Kl ewl le™
h« says that ambuscades and other d^cCn™
>n Hcpt. bk v.. ; Migne, xxxiv. 781). H, draws
aso a distinction which subsequently be 'me
clas-sical, between just and unjus wars. T, t^e
former class he includes wars under aken to
whra"ni:hh'"""""«^' '"'' fo' inttance:
When a neighbouring state has neglected to
make reparation for injuries infiicted^y any of
ts oit zen.s, or to make restitution of , i3ty
wrongfully seized. A war entered upon for tS
purpose of chastising the undue arrogance of
aun rbLn:-'"'-""'' "ubjugandam mortal nm
auperbam, -may even be looked upon a,
Altered upon " Deo auctore" {cont. F<,u7 o 75-
Migne, X ii. 447). A Christian man n y klht
even under a sacrilegious king, provided fhut
'Wra ir"'' "'"'" '■■'" P-sonally s „„'
contra Dei praeceptum " (,-6.). Augustine
encouraged Count Uoniface in hirva nt
not to think that "no one who wages war caa
please Go<l" and cited for his enfouraVemen?
the examples of king David and Cornelius the
oentunon (J^pist. 189; JJigne, xxxiii. 855)? '
These and similar utterances of this father
would seem to have determined the theory o?
A ."''i' f^"' his time, and it is easy to
understand that the views 'to which he g^ves
expression would bo further enf„r,,.ed by the^ ae?
that a large proportion of the wars of Chnsten-
dom were carne,i on against the ,,agan or the
bards, the Saracens, and the Turks, and thus
represented a struggle in which thL cvistei "e
not merely of the state but of Chris hty
Itself was in peril. The words m which hi
seeks to reassure the conscience of Count Boni"
face are quoted as authoritative by Hmcmap
(* £e</,s persona et re.jio mini^terio, c. 10 ' and
the moral dstinction which he drLws b tween
d Uerent kinds of war is reproduced and fur he?
elaborated by Isidorus. The latter, in his
_£ //mofoyw(bk. xviii.),_the standard authority
atter the 7th century, with respect to the tZl .
t.ons of the church to secular matters.-distit
guishes wars as of four kinds: (1) ust 2i
unjust, .^) civil; (4) "plu.sqi,;-"': v'j, '"
His defimtion of the first coincides with tha ;f
Augustine, to which he adds. " aut propulsin
dorum hostium causa." Unjust wars'he' tea
as those undertaken from passion and without
adequate cause. No war can be ju^t save thai
which IS undertaken for the purposes of inflTcN
>ngjustpuni»hment (" ulciscendi causa ") or^
2030
WASHING
order to repel aggresuion. As an instnnce of (.1)
he cites the war between S\\h\ aud Mariua; ul'
(4) that between Caesar and I'onipey, who were
not (inly " cives " but also " cogmiti."
The cflorts of the church, alter the time of
Augustine, were mainly restricted to repressing
the far from infro(iuent endeavours of the clergy
themselves, in tinids of special danger and
excitement, to participate in the strife of the
battlefield. That such service was wholly
unbecoming their profession does not appear to
have ever bnen seriously denied. War was
always regarded by the cliurch as distinctively
the concern of ihe laity ; and Eusebius {Dcin.
Emtifj. i. 8 ; Migne, J'atrol. Oraec. xxii. 29-30),
in drawing an elaburate comparison between the
nvocatiuns permissible to the ecclesiastic and to
the layman, specifies as among those that belong
solely to the latter, the carrying on of just war-
fare, — rots Tf KaTct rb Slxaioy arpartuunivois.
The 7-tth of the Apostolical Canons requires
that any bishup, jn'iest, or deacon devoting him-
self to military service and aiming at combining
it with the duties of his otRce shall be forthwith
degraded from his ecclesiastical rank, on the
principle of giving to Caesar the things that are
Caesar's and to God the things that are God's
(Bunsen, Analcct. Antc-Nic. ii. 31). The
council of Toulouse (A.D. 6;f3) directs that those
of the clergy who venture to take up arms "in
quacumque seditione " shall be similarly treated
aud sent to do peuance in a monastery,— " in
monasterium poeuitentiae contradantur " (Mansi,
X. 630). At the council of Meaux (a.d. 845)
the clergy were forbidden either to engage in
military service or even to carry arms, " armati
inccdere," under pain of deprivation of office as
"sacrorum canonum contemptores et eccle-
giasticae sanctitatis profanatorea " (t6. xiv. 827).
But notwithstanding these and similar pro-
hibitions, we find po|>e Nicholas I,, in the year
865, remonstrating with Lewis the German and
Charles the Bald for allowing many of the
Prankish bishops to absent themselves from a
synod for the purpose of joini.ig in the defence
of the coast against the Northmen, — "Cum
militura Christi sit Christo servire, militum vero
saeculi, saeculo " {Epist. 83 | Migne, cxix. 9'22).
[J. B. M.]
WASHING. The principal ceremonial ablu-
tions anciently used in the church, besides
baptism itself, are : the washing of the heads of
the catechumens on Palm Sunday [HoiiY Week,
p. 780], and of their feet, and sometimes of
their whole bodies, on Maundy Thursday
[p. 1160] : the washing of the feet of the newly
baptized [Bapi'ISM, p. 164] ; the solemn washing
of an infant seven days after baptism (Martcne,
de Sit. Antij, I, i. 18, Ordo 26) ; the washing
of the hands of those who entered a church for
worship anil communion, and of the ministrants
in the celebration of the holy Eucharist [Hands,
Washino of, p. 758; Lavado, p. 938]. For
the ablution of the vessels used in holy com-
munion, 80 far as it is found within our period,
I. 1756.
«ee Purification of Altab Vessels, p.
WATCHERS. [Acoemetae.]
[C]
WATER, HOLY. [Holy Water.]
WATER, OEDEAL OF. [Ordeal,
p. 1468.]
wi;ek
WATER-VESSEI..I!. lIoLV WAtiai must
of course have required some vossil to rcruive
it, and very ancient vessels destineil for this use
are believed to be still in existence, Itnlditti
(Osservatii/ni, p. 16) declares that he had seiMi in
the catacombs certain round vessels of marble,
terra cotta, or glass, placed on pillars at such a
height as to be easily reached by the hand.
Such a pillar, which may have sujqjorted a
water-vessel, is found at the entrance of an
ancieut subterranean chapel at Chiusi (Cavedoni,
Ciinit. Cuius, p. 'JO). The well-known iialiii-
dromic inscription, NIM^ON ANOMHMATA
MH MONAN OH-IN, which is found on a va>e
discovered at Constantiuo]ile in the last century,
and also (in an incorrect form) on one nmro
recently discovered at Autun, is thought to in-
dicate that the vase had been used to hold holy
water. There is in the church of SS. Mark and
Andrew, in the island of Murano, a well-pro-
portioned urn of Parian marble, brought by the
Venetians from Greece, which bears the inscrip-
tion — A NTAHZATAIW YZJ^nP META
EYct>POZYNHZ ;OTI 4>nNH KY EH!
TflN YZ^ATHN (Isaiah xii. 3; Ps. xxviii.
[xxix.] 3). This is also thought to have been a
holy water vessel (Paciandi de Balneis, p. 141 ;
figured in Martigny, p. 263, 2nd ed.). Guri
(Thes. Diptych, iii. suppl. pi. xxv.) has figured
an ivory vessel, bearing in relief the holy family
and the four evangelists, which is believed to
have been a portable holy water vessel, liut
perhaps the most curious of all the vessels of
this kind which have been discovered is a leaden
vessel, from the district of Tunis, bearing the
inscription — ANTAHCATE YAWP MET
EY<t)POCYNHC. Within a border formed
partly by the inscription itself, partly by
branches of the vine, are two rows of figures.
The upper row displays the Good Shepherd
between a palm and a gladiator, who takes the
wreath of victory from a cippus or low pillar;
and a praying figure between a palm and a
winged Victory. The lower row shews, twite
over, the cross placed on a rock, whence issue
the four rivers, at which a sheep and a stag —
the Jewish and the Gentile Church — queuuh
their thirst. This vessel is figured in De Uossi's
liultctino, 1867, p. 80, and in Martigny, p. 264.
(lomjiare CoLYMinaN, FonsrAiKS, Nymphaklm,
Phiala (Martigny, Diet, dcs Antiq. Chre't. s. v,
Eau Benite). [C]
WEDDING. [Marriaoe.]
WEEK (in New Testament, <ri$^Ta and
(rdBParoi', in the phrase /ula, or irpcsTTj, <ra0-
pdruv or (raj3/3<(Tou, SiuTfpa a. k. t. A. ; i/3-
8o/«(r, hebdomcts and hebJmnada ; septimani, first
so used in Cod. T/ieodos. xv. 5, 5; latcrculus
septem liierum, TertuU. ad Sat. i. 13). For the
measurement and notation of time, the Christian
communities, as they formed themselves in the
various provinces of the Roman empire, had, in
the existing local or national method of
"dating," all that was needed for ordinary
secular purposes. They had but to retain the
received calendar names of day and month, and
the current notation of the year expressed in
terms of an " era," or by name of consuls, and
the like. The requirements of Christian worship
brought with th«m certain modifications of the
WEEK
theV;;;,tiA,, '•'■■'*'«'■'■"■' ""•' '>"'" these
Alron « : ':;:'r "'^'•"''''•■■> ">« Jewish week,
by n,.,-.|^:.;r^ ;!-;; -- vvi'lely known
aa a inon.sure of time 2. ),; ^ i" """" ''"'•
innih,tion. wi: ut one of , ' '• '" " •'"*^'"''
i-p-^-i into i^:mer„,th''';';f,t^"'chH't""'
derv,.,| fioni l,.,vi K '■'<^*.— The names
iittit^ir^'^^^^^"--^-"-;
Tr'n;;:eS"-:?::^S;?:^^^''<-t;!-^
i>. 119 «</,/««««,■. To-Ih ^ ' ^'- A"g"»t'ne,
(^-(/^.4;:ett';rt ^;S'
the parnsceve ^^i, „a00drov ■ the t!^
gmrta, scxta sabhati fTertull « A ^'"'"'
in use fof the da^s of the wet ^T ™"''
<ri08arou-, the L?t"' JLTT' .''«'«"^«''^.
»««.„,/ This'ei.^ ti,.{i r,e""f ZT"'
fern is variously expla nel Fep.a 1 Th""
Z^H.oh„„4 t.'^'i^^^)!'' '»"--«. ^- ^•
, "B"ai, not a relieioHs nstitiitp Tk. * '
""•„. ,8, the locus classluZXllZJ-^r^::
W^K
p^4^ Kr;htr^fe7-'-'^°'''''^-™"'"f''''«
no trace of eu^' a w^k o Jn le,f """" '" """^P'- ""'
<^ a wccg, civil, religious or astrological,
2031
I Ideler, /^rff . dor Chron. u. . , anj ii 1 T7 • f ,, t
tweiity.four hours of each il' '^ "' ""*
rise, w;,s assign,.,! t one „f . ' '^"-»""""«,'" »"n.
taken in the t'h 're elv 1 , r l*; "s':'" "'"""•'"-"
Mars, Sun, Mere, ry, V .'''V "'"' ''''''''"'
;;;thout interrupiii: ^.:;;ri f-";„---ea.
tie hrst hour at startine (,f'»h„ • , '
th.t of Snturn, that p , "^ "'rte r'" ?."'
whole ( ny, the eighth HCf ., "«'^^"t of the
hours beiig ul? hiJ- th""' '"•^"♦>-»™"n'i
Jupiter; twtntt:fi,urth'M' ***'^'">'-thir<l has
Hlth, or'first o/t e" 'owi"; 'l ""'' "'^' '»"»».^-
who, therefore, T-^Zf^y^'' T'"" '" '""'
the day. Thus the ?f .' ^"''"' *>'" '"""«■ to
the sun's, he twentv^M/l"'T"'' '""" ''"'"K
fall to Me'reury an , V^*„^ -^tn"! . '7'">:''''"rth
the following Ly tl mI; r Lt ;"' 'r "'
and so on to the seventh • «r»ri , ''""<«;
this nstrologieal scheL, 'h 'rj ""-^i. 'j"
week IS Saturday. r)i„„ r," . / x > "' ""«
that the practice of n„ ■ ^f '■^' "''» '"ys
-even plnnHs houl i T^ ''''^'^ ^''"'"^ the
known," hHUomein^*' * *"' ''""' """ersally
must be undLro^'t"^ speak T^ ""' ''"T""-^'
sion. It was cerTainlvTn V ^'"""^ '^''^'"•
time. ''P.>mpey"h^avs .%!""« ^''"'« '''"
siege of Jerualemfnc «-^;„' , T'lf'""' *'"«
" day of Saturn "m.„k '»" '»'!■)• Jnename,
stitute fo^ a «'abS »*''«"" ^''""'^ "^^n sub!
contemporary recSs J ''?'''n'^''>' " "' 'he
S«sius.%Jut^arTy nou t?TK u'""^"^' '"'''
clearly identiKe. Sa urday w!lh h "' ^'^ ■'', '^>
auspicious .Jewish sabbath-"iu "e :-"'''"'^°'' '"-
satusavesaut ominadir-i Sitn^ ^ "" '''"'-
tenuisse diem" (comT Ovid J'' "j' '''''■'■'"' '"''
"rebus niinusaptS„jir^i,:Vrl-- '" *^'-
tima festn Syro ") T..!-f /„ " '^alaestino sei)-
some i,n,^iL' 1 the J w, "' f f ' ^^ "*> ^''J'^ *h"t
been in iL^ur of X^K ''''■'■"''" ''''^«
reign of N>n-a (>•<.„ "i"l'm"."V"t^ '" '^e
reserved his rhief •Zni»"" ' '^^hnt Vespasian
"day of Saturn "nwi,h"'^r '^' ^7' '"'"• "'e
them to ,lo any work 1 '"" ?''"^''"' ''"■
time of Dion JJIZ' 'i"'^"" 'his and the
monies to eaiSioroftr ?''"''•''" "'^''•
to the days of t^ Jew l i plfetary nan-es
Tertulliai and hl""'f„,"""^'' '" ■'"^tin Martyr,
Alexandria. 7>Larch's orr'""'^' !^''<=""'"' "^
unfortunately lost .» ^^' ''"'^'- '*'• '!"• A is
doubtless arising out of the wo t^T^ '"^''^ '
tions, which relate LL, 'wo preceding ques-
the plane ary week w^t '""''' f '''""'' ''hat
earli in our era is further °' "It"'' '" "''''''
2032
WEEK
WEKK
Jiijiiter, Venui, it. In the order of the w,i-k-
davM ; hIhii nn nnriont briinzn ro|iri'!*ent9 thr miine
srven ilMltles, likewise liitijinnint; with .Snturn
(Miintfiiui-dD, Aitti'i. Ijxpt. Su])!)!. i. jil. 17, [p. ;t7 ;
J. <'. Hare, w. s p. HI).
Ijtrly Christian writers ti8e the planetary
nanii'H, Cur the innat part, only in their ap<il»j;ie»
anil other ndilressea to the heathen. Thus
Justin Martyr, n. s. niimeB the KpoinK'fi ami ^?|A(ou
Saturday and Sunday; and 'iVrtull. AiKil'nU't,
c. lU, " Aeijue si dian unlis laotitiau induljrouius
alia lonne ratiime qiiem de relii;ione solis,
seciindo loco ab eis sunius qui diem Sutunii otio
et viitui dei'ernunt, exorbitanteset ipsi a .ludaico
more, quetn ignorant ;" the same matter is more
fully cKpressed in iid Niitiufies, i. 13. In the
Codex alsci solis dies often oociirs, but v.ith
expressiiins <if honour attached ; thus, in a law
of Constnntine (C(x/. Just. iii. 12, (fc feriis, 1. H,
A.I). MJl), " Omnes judices urbanaeiine plebes
et cuuctarum artium otTicia venerabili die solis
quiescant;" so Cud. TUeod. ii. »i, rft/cnisl. I (same
year), "(liem soils vcncratione sui celebrcm ;"
and ihitl. viii. 8, 1. .1 (a.d. .'!80), "Solis die (jiiem
dnminiium rite dixere majores." In addresses to
Christians, when the planetary name, Sunday,
is used, it is usually with a mystical or alle-
gorical reference to the creation of light on the
first day (alluded to in the passages of Barnabas
and Ignatius, and clearly expressed in that of
Justin Martyr, given above. Compare Leo the
Great, Kp. Iiecrct. 81, c. 1), or to I'hrist as the
Sun of Kighteousness. So St. Ambrose, Serin, (i'2 :
" Doniinii« nobis venerabilis est atque sollemnis,
quod in ea Salvator valut sol or ens discussis
inferorum tencbris luce resurrectionis emicuit :
ac propterea ipsa dies ab hominibus sacculi
IHes S'ltis vocatur, quod ortus cam Sol Jiistitiae
Christus illuminat." Gregory of Tours {Hist.
iii. 1.5), " Ecce adest dies solis: sic enim barbaris
diem dominicum vocitare cousuetudo est." Cle-
ment of Alexandria {Strom, vii. 12, § 75) finds
a mystery also in the planetary names of the
stationes : " The true Gnostic knows the aenig-
mitttx of the tetras and parasceve, our fasting
days : to wit. that these being the days of Hermes
and Aphrodite, he shall fast, his life long, for
covetousness and carnal lust." The planetary
names occur in some Christian calendars, and all
through the Fasti Consulares Anonymi. from
A. u. c. 246 to 1107, in which to the consuls of
each year is appended, together with the moon's
age. the week-day of 1st January: e.g. v. c.
1107 [= A.D. 351], " Constautio VII. et Con-
stantiolI.5nt.xxi.;" meaning that the 1st January
of that year was Saturday (Norisii 0pp. xi.
f)9o sqq.). And even in Christian epitaphs, as in
the ftdlowing (ap. Noris. /. c. 686), of A.D. 457,
in which Paschasius is said to have been born,
" Dies paschales prid. Non. April, die Jobis," i.e.
."in the paschal days, on 4th April, Jupiter's
day." By the generality of Christian's, however,
the use of these heathen names was avoided.
Indeed Philastrius (or Philaster), contemporary
and friend of St. Ambrose, cir. A.D. 380, in his
work De Haeresibus, condemns the use of the
planetary names as heretical. Isidore of Seville,
A,r>. .W.'S {K!i;m. v. 30), h.".vir.g expl.iined, for
the benefit of the unlearned, that " the first
day of the week, the una sab'niti of the Hebrews,
is with us dies Dominvtis, which day the Gen-
tiles have dedicated to the Sun ; the 2da sabbuti
our 2ih feria, by them of the world is railed
dies f.Uiiiie," etc. goes on to say, that onu does
best to comply with the ritn^ .(l7l■^^(l^^■ »,i liy
which the days are called ferine; and that if one
of the heathen names shixilil chnm e to esciipeiiiie'H
lips, it should be considereil that those wlmse
names the | ajnns have given tn the week-duyj
were human brings who, as benidactors of man-
kind, received divine honniirsand were translated
into the heavens, so that it Is no sin If their
names do, now and then, happen to be used by
us. Conip. Beilae de TemjK/rum Jliitioiie, c. li.
[H. h.]
When the Latin came to mingle with fho
Teutonic races, the Lnf. roughly tiansj.ite.l
the names of the Teutonic g"ds bj nnnies i,f
deities with which they were familiar (Tacitus,
Ocrm. 9; Ann. xili. 57; 1/tat. iv. 64), and (nn.
ver.sely the northern trilies found (as tiny
thought) Teutonic ciiuivalents fur the name-, in
the Komnn Pantheon (Grimm, T>eittsrlie Mi/tlui-
tofjie, p. 108 ff. 2nd ed.). Hence the ilays of the
week received names which were thoii;;ht ec|iii.
valent to their classical planetary dendininatinns.
This fact renders It highly prol.alde that tiie
week was ailopted by the nortliern tribes In pii-
Christiaii times ; for if it had been received tVi.m
Christian missionaries, they winild scaiccdy have
adopted a nomenclature which tended to pcr-
petiiiite the names of the very deities wlm-e
worship they sought to abcdish. Butli William
pf Malmesbury (6'es<a i?(v;, p. 9, ed. Savile, liiiU)
and Matthew of Westminster {Flores, p. H.')
make Hengist .say to Vortigern, tliat the .Saxons
gave the name of Woden (as eiiuivalent to Mer-
cury) to the fourth d.iy of the week, aiil uf
Kreya (as equivalent to V^enus) to the sixth.
Further, the name of Tlus or Zio(ety.'.ioli ijlcally
connected with Sanscrit Diaus and <. ei ^ ZtiJs)
was given, as ei|uivalent to Sl.irs, t.i the third
day ; and of Thor or Don^r, as equivalent to
Jupiter, to the fifth. Saetere or Sater (fnnnd
in Saxon Soeteresdiy, Frisian Si/ttTf?ci*, etc.) seuina
to be no more than the Teutonic way of wilting
the Latin Snturnxis. .Sol and Luna were sliniily
translated into Sun and Moon. Hence arose the
Teutonic and Scandinavian names of tie davs
of the week, which are still preserved coinphte
in English, Danish, and Swedish. In modem
German Samstag ( = Siibhatstai/} has di-placod
Saturday, and Mittwoch Wednesday. In the
Romance languages, the first day of the week has
a name derived from Dies Dominiea (Ital. linitv-
nica, Span. Domingo, Fr. Diinanclu:), and the
seventh day one derived from Sahbatum (Ital.
Sabbato, Span. Sabailo, Fr. f^amedi = Stthbati I)irs).
The Slavs, Lithuanians, and Finns do not appear
to have adopted the planetary names ; they
simply number the days, making Monday the
first day, and ccmsequently Sunday the seventh.
(See further in Grimm, D. M. p. Ill fl.). [C]
The Sumlaif Letters. — From the earliest times
after the introduction of the Julian calendar, ne
find the first eight letters of the aljihabet A— H
ranged in unbroken succession against the days of
the months, from 1st Jan. to 31st Dec. (monu-
mental calendars collected by Gruter, nnd by
Foggini, are enumer.ited by Idelcr, Hc.ndlr.ch. ii.
135). These letters marked the nnndines : vh,
on whatever day of January the first nundines
fell, the letter of that day marked the nundinal
days throughout the year (except in leap year,
wiirppiNo
when after 24th F.'b. the letter fell back one
plaeo, <.,,/. from U to A). Kamiliar an thi» ar-
r«Dg.-ment must have been to Chrlstiuus livinB
n or near Konie (or wherever the nuihlincs were
TVL ,.' "'■■""'?'' **"** theydi.l not earlier
apply the like arrnnKement to their cecleslnstiral
cnlen.lar.s, (or inarkinK the Sun.lays of each year.
It ,l\"':t ""'" r'""" ''"'" «"" ">« council of
Nice that the b»n,lay letten. are fir«t met with,
V 2 in the calen.lar of the reign of Constanfi.i.
edited by I.an,beeiu» in the miUHeo. VM^m.
t. IV., in whieh, si.le. by si.le with the old eight
nun.liiml are ranged the «ev<-n dominical letters,
qim nulla anti,iui,)r dominioalium characterum
memoria extat," 8ay« cardinal NoriH (,le C,„:lu
}><,scM, Jianumite, 0pp. t. ii. col. 786). See
further, Kastku, jj. 593. [h. B.]
WHIPPINa (1) For tho u,e of the Ia»h or
of rods as n punishment, whether c." monks or
otiiers, see CoKi'oriAi, Punishmknt, p. 4U9.
(2) Whipping was also used as n penitential
M'".*!; . '-''"^ " '"'•''"*«^ "^"'''"'t I'lrdulph
^t7.17), that in Lent he bared his whole bo.'v,
and commanded his disriple to beat him with
lids pinl'illon, Acta SS. Dencd. iii. :,'A^). ]„
the lenUentuU of Cumraean {Wasserschlehen.
BMnumjen, p. 4fi3) one of the methods of
redeeming a year of penance is to receive three
hundred .strokes of the rod on the bare body.
And there are many instances of the use of the
lash for penitential purposes in later times.
(8) The discipline of the scourge applied by a
man to his own back probably does not fall
withm our period. For though Gretscr (IM
bpontaneii DisapHmrum acu Fh^ellonim Ci-V'-e)
claims to have produced proofs of the exiaence
of this practice from writers as early as the
fourth century, his proofs are either from
spunous writings, or fail to prove the matter in
hand i>omc of them relate to the beating of
the breast puNsio Pectoris] as an indication
of penitence, which is a very different thine
from whipping (Zflckler, OescAichU der Ashsl 1
p. 38 S.) P^j
WIDOWS
2038
took place on F.a»tei-F.ve the albi were taken off
on the first .Sui„lay after Easter, the /Mmimca
jn aftu df/HjH.tii. This ceremony appears to
have taken place in the lacristy or vestry
attache,! to the baptistery, where they wer.
washed In water blessed for the i.uipo.e.
What became of them after this is not /iiiit*
clear. In some cases they seem to have been
preserved in the church or by the sponsor; for
a certain deacon Mnritfa (Victor Vitensis de
lernec. \,m,lal. v, !)), prcnluced as « witness
against his godchild Klpidophorus, who had
fallen into Arianism, the sabana which he had
received at baptism. In other cases the bap-
tized person seems to have retainc ' it, for we
read that St. Anthony of Kgypt, in the prospect
ot martyrdom, appeared before the judge in hit
baptismal alb (Martigny, IMH. ch„ Antiq.
thret. 8. y. Aube; Suicer's Tl^cmnrus, ». vv.
ha^l.lr|>o<pap,u,, Kfvxt>iioviu\ Menard, note 327
on the (irei,vrHm Hitcramenlary, p. 356). [0.]
WHITSUNTIDE. [Pkntecoot.]
WHITBY, COUNCIL OF (Pharense Co.i-
CILIUM) A.D 664, when the conference men-
WK ) ^ Z"^! *"=""=«■> ^°'""">' Agilbcrt,
Wil'-nd, and others in the presence of king
fnor^'J'"'"" ''y H»ddan and Stubbs, iii.
100-lOb). [-j; s_ j,,^^
WHITE 0ARMENT8. The white r«be,, or
alks m which the baptized were clothed as soon
as they issued from the baptismal waters, are
frequently alluded to by ancient writers. See
for instance, the poem De Hcsurrectione Dommi
attributed to Laotantius ; Paulinus of Nola.
r!^.A 'if f^ ^Z- ' ^y" "^ Jernsalem^
Catech 3fystag. ,v. 8; Ambrose, de Mustcriis,
c. 7 [Baptism, p. 163]. The conferring of the
white robe was accompanied, according to the
Gregorian Ordo Baptizandi Inf., by the words:
Accipe vestem candidam et immaculatam.
q;;™ perferas sine inacuiu ante tribunal Domini
Nostri Jesu Christi."
It was the almost universal custom of the
church that the white baptismal robes were
worn for eight days, so that when baptisms
WIDOWS. It is clear that the care of the
fatherless and the widow formed in ear y times
an important department of ecclesiastical ad-
mimsira ,on Among subnpostolic writings the
Shepherd of Hennas is conspicuous for the
prominence which it gives to the subject, re!
pea edly cnjoming .t as a Christian duty (^ManJ
8, 10; ikm. 1, 8; 5, 3), and contrasting the
plunder widows and orphans'- with the goJd
bishops who shelter and protect them (Sil 9.
rl',i;'» ' V ^\ ^S""*'"' "'akes it a reproach
against certain heretics that they neglected
widows and those who were in distress (ad Smym.
c. 0) and urges Polycarp not to neglect widow,,
but to make them his especial care {ad Pvluc. c.
4) Polycarp himself urges the presbyters of
Ph Itpp. not to negltK^t the widow, the orphan,
■md the poor („rf mUj.j,. „. 4) and Ssing
8 me aphor which was not unfrequently Z
peated, and which ,s of imj.ortance in relation to
his conception of the Christian sacrifice, he
speaks of widows ,« being "an altar of sacri-
hce (evata(rr^pioi,, iOui.). In the older dis-
pensation the offerings which were presented
to God were oflere.1 and partly eonsume<l upon
the great altar of the temple court, fmt under
the new dispensation they are distributed amone
widows and others who were in need (so Cm J.
Apo,t2, 26 ; 4, 3 ; Pseudo-Ignat. ad Tars, c 9
Tertull. arf Uxor 1, 7). Justin Mariyr (Apof.
. b7) places widows and orphans fi,,t on the
list of those to whom the oflerings of Christian
assemblies were distributed by their president.
The Clementines (fpist. ClemaU. ad iLvb. c. 8-
cf. Cotist. Apost. 4, 2) make it a primary duty of
presbyters to stand towards orphans in the place
of parents, and towards widows in the place of
husbands. In the earlier books of the Apostolical
Constitutions the references are freJuent : so
great was the care which was taken cf widows
and so liberal were the offerings which they
received, that some of th.-m f^harar!,.«ly abused
their privilege and made their widcwhood a
profitabe trade (^p^ao-Zo, 3, 7, 13 13: cf.
Pseudo-Ignat. ad I'tiiladcl/jh. c. 4).
In order to entitle anyone to recel re relwf
widowhood seems to have been ol kseU t
2(034
WIDOWS
WIDOWS
•iilTK.ii'nl qiinlKii-fltliin. The niimln'r nf wiilciws
thiiK I'l'lii'vuil win liii');i>. Coriipliiia (if Itoinn, in
thp iiiiilillii 111' tlic Mill t.intiiry, MiVH thiit Bt Kmiie
the widowH ami iitliiMf whu \vi'i-e in ili«tri'<a
Bniminti'cl to (it'tocn huuHteil {Kj>M. Oirml, ny,
Kiisel). //. /•.'. 6, 4;i) ; uD'l OhrymHtom ri'i lti>ii«
tho iiunilii'r nf wiii.iws nml virgin* who weri>
tiip|iiirii'il liy the cniHimi'atively jmor rhiirch of
Antiiich Ht three thuuKiuul (S. tlhrvioHt. /fmn.
in M,iU. 00 (07), c. M, bil Migne, I'.'O. vol. Ivli.
0;tO).
Of the willows who were thus the ohjeiits of
cure to the church (iiruei's, Home were fdrniHlly
fnrollid on the KoTtlAiryai, or list of churih
menihi'rs, as a ilistinct class or "orilo"; (the
Clementines, Jti'i-Di/n. 0, 15, floin. 11, 3'), at-
triliiite the forinfttinn of this "onio" to St.
Peter). Hnt even at the time at which the
I'ftstnral Kpistles were written it is clear that
restrictions wei'u placeil up'in iidniission to that
class. It is laid down in 1 Tim. v. 9, 10 that
a wrdiiw is not to bo entered on the church-roll
(KixTa\fy(tr6w) "under three-score years old,
having been the wife of one mnn, well reported
of for good works, if she have brought up
children, if she have lodgiil strangers, if she
have washed the saints' feet, if she have re-
lieved the ndlicted, if she have diligently
followed every good work." These restrictions
seem to have been consistently maintained in
the early church. They are elaborately re-
peated in the Apostolical Constitutions, 3, 1, 5;
Origeii (in Joann. torn. 32, c. 7, vol. iv. p. 422,
ed. Dularue) shews that stress was laid upon
every part of them by arguing against too
literal an interpretation of the clause " if she
have washed the saints' feet," the omission of
which, he says, must not be taken to exclude a
widow who, in her time of prosperity, shewed
hospitality to the brethren in other ways;
Tertullian (ile veland. Virg. c. 9) shews that the
restrictions of age and monogamy were main-
tained in Africa; and Ambrose implies that they
existed in his time in Italy (Hxhort. Viri/in. c.
4, 2.!, vol. ii. p. 284, where Juliana of Bologna
speiiks of herself as being "adhuc immaturam
viduitatis stipendiis," i.e. not yet sixty years
old ; so Je Vidiiis, c. 2, 9, vol. ii. p. 188). There
was sometimes the further restriction that a
widow must not have children or grandchildren
capable of supporting her (Ambrosiast. m Ejjist.
J. ad Timoth. c. 3, in the Append, ad op. S.
Ainbros. p. 295) ; but in later times the re-
striction as to age was sometimes waived (^ittatt.
hccles. Antiq, c. 101, " viduae adolescentes quae
corpore debiles sunt suniptu ecclesiae cujus
viduae sunt sustententur ").
The possession of the qualifications which are
mentioned in the Pastoral Kpistles did not, i/)so
facto, entitle a widow to a place on the church-
roll. She had to be definitely appointed
lKti9iaTivta6ai, Const. Apnst. 3, 1, Aiar. KK-fi/i. 2 1 ;
KaTaTdaaiaSoi, Const. Apost. 8, 25 ; both which
Words were in ordinary use for the ordination or
appointment of clerks; see OuniSATlos). It does
Hot ap]>ear by whom the appointment was made,
Chrysostom (de Saccrdot. 3, 16) counts the
selection of fit persons among the burdens of
the episcopal ottice ; but there is no evidence
that the right of appointment was confined to
bishops.
The " order of widows " (" ordo viduarum,"
Clement. Hfcoijnit. fl, 15, t^ Tiy^a rSiv wpur,
Phcu In-lgnat. nd I'hilipp. c. 15; t^ xif"""^"!
Clement. Ilmnit. 11, 35; dimt. Apnsl 3, I; H,
25) which was thus formed was evidently a
small class in each community. One of the
earliest collections of ecclesiastical ri".{ulatli<ns
fixe the number at three (AioTo-yol KA^/*«>^oi,
c. 21 (24), ed. Pitra. .Ains /.(v/ci. (//•.«•'■. Afomi-
trwntii, vol. i. p. 84 ; Lagarde, /una AV. Vci. /{I'li'piin;
p. 74; Hilgent'eld, t\ovuin 'J'v ttinu'nlnin ixtrii
(•(inoncm rfcvptum, fasc. 4, p. I'll), but it had
ecclesiastlriil rank (VKxAtjirioiTTiK)) ti^);, Origin
in Jixvin. torn. 32, 7, vol iv. ]i. 4'.'2, ed. I'llanii'),
and it is enumerated as co-ordinate with, and
therefore distinct from, both clerks and lavimu
(Const. .\}mst. 2, 25; 3, 11, 15; 8, 10, 12,' 2^t).
Its members were supported out of the chunb
otlerings until about the time of the council of
•Mcaea, when Constantine sent a rescript to
provincial governors, ordering that they should
for the future receive an annual provision in
common with the church virgins " et aliis i|ui
divino ministerio erant consocrati " (Imert. Auct.
do Contiint. np. Haenel, Corpus Lfijiua ah /nijunit.
Homanis ante Justinianuin Intinnn, p. I'.lii).
Julian abolished this provision and cmnpilled
those who had received it to refund it (.Snzom.
//. K. 5, 5), but his successor, restored it ; ami
Theodoret speaks of it as existing in his own
day (Theodoret, Jl. E. 1, 11).
The duties of the widows who had thus a
separate placa upon the church roll were of two
kinds. For some of them the model was the
Anna of the Gospel " which departed not from
the temple, but served God with fastings ami
prayers night and day "(St. Luke ii. .'(7, referred
to specially in Const. Apost. 3. 1 : cf. S. I5a-il,
Epist. 174 (283), p. 201): others were employed
in the gooil works of nursing the sick, urg ni; the
younger women to live chastely, and, without
teaching the mysteries of the kingdom of floJ,
making converts of heathen women. The lead-
ing early rule is Aiar. KA^/u. c. 18, referred to
above, "Let three ^vidows be appointed; o(
whom let two continue in prayer for all whc
are in trouble .... and let one attend to those
who are being tried by illnesses, ministering tc
them, and vigilant, and reporting their neces-
sities to the presbyters." This rule is rejieated
in the Jacobite canons of Gregory Barhehraeua,
cap. 7, sect 7, ap. Mai Script. Vet. Sov. Coll. vol. x.
pars ii. p. 50, and in the Coptic Apustoliciii
Constitution^, ed. Tattam, p. J4. A more pre-
cise account of the duties of a widow, especially
in regard to " those who are without," is given
in Const. Apost. 3, 5 : cf. Clem. Alex. Strom. 3,
p. 536, who traces back this part of the ministry
of women to the times of the apostles. Origen
(in Isiiiain, Horn. 6, vol. iii. p. 117, ed. Delanie)
sjieaks of their duty in relation to younger
women ; Tertullian (de Vclund. Virr/. c. 9) im-
plies the existence of a similar duty, in giving
as the reason for the restriction as to age ami
having borne children, " ut facile norint ceteros
et consilio et solatio juvare." The leading
Western canon in Siatt. Ecclos. Antiq. c. 103,
" viduae quae stipendiis ecclesiae sustentantur
tarn a,ssiduae in del opere esse debrat ut et
mcritis et orationibus suis ccclesiam aajuvent."
(It is interesting to find an allusion to the work
of widows in the satirical account of the Chris-
tians which is given by Lucian, de Morte Pert-
WIDOWS
incuitatLil hut tliBie nro no f.itiiiii trncBn nf
::ts;r;""^" =!":*;";-'
yi.ir8 ot Hgo „r who wei« ia nw.l of sui„„,rt
from It «„ early u, .he tin,. ,,f Chrvl'tom
;/.,«. rfc. \.J,u,, Op. torn. iii. p, .t'';!, . 1 J 'r;
the »tr,.n^ f.„l,„« «g„i„,t .,eoon,| nmmaces
which tn«,„f.>fo,| itself in tho ,.oum ,f th.
.looml c-ntury. It c.tno to l. co„ J., v
nientonou. f„r « wonmn who h,ul lost h r hu,
bun,l, not ,ner,,Iy to abstain ft- „"
nxurmKo hut to take » vow 6f ahsti,,, ncx n
el.ewhc.re speak, of thc^ I grao^ "f ^i^2^
a^ a plant ot s,..cially Christian growth L
Ivang.scc. Luc. lb. ,1 IH i, iio,-,. »,,"''" v'"
J«, p. lOo). St. Jerome's circle of uoble ladies
aliomc con a.ned several who ha,l taken upo"
hcm,elvc,s tne vows of widowhood, „ud hh
et ers eonta.nmany commendations of those wlm
tr ^- ^^y>' '" ""« who was waverine in
Keflet daily that you will pne day die an,
Z . ^ ^""""' P- 2«^)- St. Augustine
aUo wrote a treatise />. B,„„ ViduUati, (A gne
F. L. vol. xli.); in it he does not agree with tsi
Novat,«usaad Tertullian that secomlm «age
are always to be condemned (<•. 4), nor even with
l!.ose who thought that the second narr"? of
mdow who ha.1 taken a vrw of coutinenTwas
aJ Itery (c 10), but he strongly urge.Mat
Uken It they should persevere (o. 19) *
wilaT?'* "'"'u'' '"••■"'nation of the virtue of
»i.io«hood was hat a large number of w dows
took the vow. But some of those who didlo
wear to have be.n influenced only by a desire
gam greater freedom and to have a decent
doke for nsciviousness. The civil law, which
hi »t lirst supported the ecclesiastical tencrency
.7 ^^.P^^'l^d to check it. Majorian enatLT
fterrectrng the abuse of the vow of ^dow'
hood, that childless WiHn». nn^„. Z_._ J^"^"^'
WIDOWS
2035
holy orderi, or. If already in oraer., Inollgibl.
' m red again, , he was liabl.. to jK-rpetiial seclu.
,' "' « '''"veiit. A curio,,, ii.,{:,n..e of th.
''"■ n,le Is artorded \,y Oiegory the Oreat*
M,„l u ; '""' """■'■''••'' "K'i". h*l been
m ,:; it '"^ "f'"'^ l>u.iislM„.;t of sedu
r'e hi W'" ''',•"^"'•'■'•-1 t'wit her huslmnd,
Hlore his d..ath, had Iv.i^-ned his olli.e ; whore.
s robabl.. that m„o„g the Teiitoni ■ '..eoplo
llie ecclesiastical ten.lencv was fostered by tho
^^:!fTT\r"f """■'"'»■"'' ^^hich is „ n"
ox| lessed bo^h ,„ the Teutonic cod.'s and in the
M.;mii,g,,m capitularies (of. Walter A'ulcA^
,,,,'" ^^"'" 'hnt for several centuries widows
uZ^'tf "'".'•"r '^"« '•'■e^' to live, as tbey hT.
>ed befoie, in their own houses, liut by the
" ^'"''. ""' '^I'i'in, that the only safctv from
tem,,tation lay in their living, as viiW ,md r
I « vow usually lived, in monasfeH s fn .. 48
I'l'in and the Galilean clergy put the rmal
uestion to pope Zachary" whfthc'^ wi.b'w S
whiVI .k"' '"'" ''""•'" "'"''' ""'" their souls,"
to nhich the pope gives no detinite answer but
Scha Pan A '7'.^^" ■'"''«•"«"' "^ ^^^
Ll(;-0(mUS, vol. I. II 4K oml Mi.>n > r 1 ...
84^ fn ,u ■ f ','.'*"'' *''^"^'l- L. vol. XCVl.
04J. In the following ceuturv the 0.]li,.»n
church abolished the option Z.h, thou/h d^
couraged had still continued to Txlt and
niow'e'r?^'""'' -•'— houldri'ong"e
some other res.4ts,p:,;i;2;iasi:;^:;:p:,:3
wilts rV"'''^,''"'"*' ""'^ "'■"»«J ti' allow
« idows to be forced into monasteries fNicol I
iX ■ the" f'""'tely the Gallican rule proJ
vailed , the taking of the vows of widowhood
•n'pl.ed entrance into a monastery; the order ^f
«.dows was merged in that of^,uns, Td a'
n ay be gathered from the omission of -the ^ite
of benediction of widows in the later Sacra-
nientaries, at length disappeared altogether
walaA^i ,',"''' "^"'! '"V P-l-tualiidowhood
was accompanied by the adoption of a dress
rtarv^V r'"'''y •»'«'-• f™™ tl
coir7sH"'' ""i^-'" "" "'"t^rialand ifa
colour (h. Hieron. Xuist. ,S8 ad M,,rnM „..i : °
coln,7rV\: H- l/.'" '" material and
colour (b. Hieron AVsf. ,S8 ad Marccll. vol. i. p.
171 « A """""• '--'i^st- 'IB aa Marcclt. vol. i
174, 6. August. Epi,t. ccLvii. 9; ap. Migne, P. u
vo . xxxiii. 1081). The assumption^ of thrs'
the w ulow herself, unattended by any ceremony :
but ,t soon became usual to give greater
emphasis to the vow of which it wa^sthe^ token
by making it in the presence of a bishop Even
this wju,,„ the first it^tance a private'and no?
" public ceremnnv . <V,. tK„ n.^^ .. '
----. .>.^.„,ug luB uuuse 01 the vow nf tvi.l,,,.. .l- .* . ^ presence
W, that childless widows under forty y!l of n *^y '" ''"' ^''' ™'«°««
•«e must either marry ..,3ir ^. (v/fl'n? if •' " P"'''" ceremony; for tV «•••! po-nrM ,r
property to th« ....Kll-'e!"/; ,t:!*^," t'j-^f '^'-^ ^'-mge a.d. 441, c." 27, speaks onl^'of'-Xtatis
sorvandae professioneii coram PnU„ J „ .il.
San£!^'-"''-^*-''-'-Pove^ste°yS
But ultimately, in the West, the act wai
attended with a ceremonial for which proyisT™
129
2036
WIDOWS
is made in most eai'ly ordinals. This was
especially the ciise after the idontification or
confusion of the order of widows with the order
of deaconesses. In early times, and probably
always in the East, the two orders had un-
questionably been distinct. (1) Their functions
were distinct, widows being employeil in prayer
and in tending the sick, whereas deaconesses
had the special duties of assisting at the baptism
of women, and of guarding the church doors.
(S. Epiphan. Expos. Fill. c. 21, p. 1104-, I'seudo-
Ignat. ad Antioch. c. 12, Const it. Aj^ost. 3. 15).
(2) The mode of appointment was dill'erent,
deaconesses having imposition of hands, which
widows had not {Const. Apost. 8. 18, 29). (3) ^
The Apostolical Constitutions state it as a mark !
of a good widow, that she suliordinates herself i
to the deaconesses as well as to the presbyters
and deacons (Cons*. yl/)os<. 3. 7.). (4) A deaconess
might be a virgin {Const. Apost. 4. 17, Sozom.
//. E. 8. 23). liut it is clear from the enact-
ments of the council of Epaon, a.d. 517, o. 21,
and the second council of Tours, c. 21, fifty
years later, that in the Prankish and Burgundiau
kingdoms the distinction had come to be dis-
regarded. It may also be noted that the
Stixtnta Ecclesiae Antiijtta, c. 12, give to widows
the same functions in the baptism of women
which in the East were assigned to deaconesses.
It was a natural result that many parts of the
rite of ordination were common to widows and
deaconesses. The earlie* ritual is that of the
Missale Francorum (Murutori l.iturgia Rom.
Vet. vol. iii. p. 463), which consists of two
parts, (1) the benediction of the widow's clothes,
(2) the benediction of the widow herself. For
the first part two prayers are given, which are
found also in Egbeit's Pontifical (ed. Surtees
Society, p. 110); where two other prayers,
" Deus qui vestimentum salutare," . . . " Deus
bonarum virtutum dator," . . . are added,
which are also found in the text of the Gregorian
Siicramentary (as given by Muratori, vol. ii. p.
78.J), and in the Codex Mafleianns ( il>id. vol.
iii. p. 103), for the consecration of the vestments
of either a widow or virgin. The second part
consists of three prayers, (•>) " Consolare Domine
banc famulam," .... which is ■ found also in
Egbert's Pontifical, p. 110, in Hittorp's Ordo
Somanus, p. 149, in the Gelasian Sacramentary
(Muratori, vol. ii. p. 380), and in the Codex
M lifeianus {ibid. vol. iii. p. 109) ; (6) " Domino
Deus virtutum coelestium,'.' .... which is
found also in Hittorp's Ordo liomanus ; (c) Deus
qui Annam filiaui Fanuelis," .... which is
partly found also in Egbert's Pontifical and in
the Missale Gallicanura Vetus (Muratori, vol.
iii. p. 507); and which in Hittorp's Ordo
I omanm. p. 144, forms p;irt of the ollice of the
consecration of a deaconess. Egbert's Pontifical
adds another prayer, which is omitted from the
other ordinals at the consecration of a widow,
but occurs in Hittorp's Ordo Ix'omnnus, ibid, in
the consecration of a deaconess. The rites of
imposing the veil and of placing under the
bishop's ban all who disturb the peace of the
widow or deaconess are identical in the two
cases in Hittorp's 0;-*j, pp. 144, 149; in each
case, it is the deaconess or widow herself who
places the veil upon her head. This point is
of some importance, as interpreting and illus-
trating the Western • kIo that no bishop should
WIDOWS
veil a widow ; (Gelas. Episf. 9 ad Episc. Lucan.
c. 15, Dccrctnin General. a\>. Hinschius, /'ecretales
Pseudo- hidorinnae, p. (352 ; repeated in Cone.
Rotom. c. 9, Karoli M. Capit. A'/nisjran. a.d.
789, c. 59. The rule seems sometimes to have
been interpreted as prohibiting the veiling of
widows at al' ; its meaniug appears to have
been that only bishops i ould veil virgins, aiiii
that onlv presbyters could veil widows; so
6 Cone. Paris, a.d. 829, lib. i. c. 40).
A widow who after thus making a solemc
profession of continence broke her vow. was
liable to severe ecclesiastical censure. Gelasius,
Decrotum Generate, c. 21, nt tnpra, had Ijocn
content to leave such an one to the judgment of
God. But the African, Spanish, ami Gallican
councils imposed the penalty of a more or
less lengthenetl excommunication; t^tat. Kaks.
Anti'j. c. 104, 3 Cone. Tolet. c. 10, 3 Aurel. c,
18, 4 lolet. c. 50, 5 Paris, c. 15, 6 Told. 6.
The Eastern i-ule visited adeaconess who marriej
with death and confiscation {Nomocanon, tit, 9,
c. 29, ed. Pitra, Jur. Ecct. Graec. Mon. vol. ii.
p. 564).
It is i)robable that at one time, in the East,
the senior widows had as such a distinct rank
and distinct functions. As women had their
own deaconesses, so also they seem in some plates
to have had tlieir own presbyteresses. The
references to them are few in number. The moit
important is that of the apocryphal ,4<'/(i d
Martyrium Matthaei, o. 28 (ac<'ording to the
Paris MS. as edited by Tischendorf, Acta Apt-
stolorum Apocrypha, p. 187), which speaks if the
apostle lis having ordained the wife of a certain
king as rrpta^ims, and his son's wife as deiiconess.
Tlie Council of Laodicea, c, 11, implies their
existence in its prohibition of their nppointment
for the future; but this prohibition must be
held to refer to their functions, or to their pliice
in church (irpoxafltj/itVo?), and not to their
existence as a class, since they are distinttly
recognized in the Apostolical Constitutions as
being co-ordinate with widows iind virgins (2, 57),
though inferior, to deaconesses (2, 28), and also
since Epiphanius {I'.vpos. Fid. c. 4, p. 1000),
arguing against the Collyridians, states that the
church gave the title irpetriSunSos to the elder
widows. The earlier Western collections of canons
understand the Laodicean canon iis referring to
' mulieres quae apud Graecos preshi/terae appel-
lantur, apud nos autem vidiuie scniores, converNae,
et matriimlariae ' (Fulgent. Ferrand. llrai<it,
Can<m. 221, ap. Migne P. L. vol. Kvii. OtiO; lo
I.-idor. Mercat. ap, Migne, P. L. vid. cxx.v. 287):
and a canonist of the 10th century, wliose source
of information seems to be lost, speiiks of them
as having the power ' praedicandi, juhcndi, vel
docendi '(Atto Vercellens. Epi t. 8, ap li'Achery,
Spicil'yiwn, vol. i. p. 438). it is probable that
they were also to some extent recogiiizHd in the
West : for although iu many places, <v/. in St,
Greg. M. Epist. 9, 7, p. 9.il, the term ' preshy-
terae ' may be only used of the wile of a [iresbytfr,
on the other hand Mabillon's Ordo liomamis,
ix. p. 91 and Hittorp's Ordo PuiiumHS, p, S8.
make a distinct provision for the benediction
' presbyterissaium atque diaconissarum,' In-
fortunately, however, these references, though
clear and sulhcient to establish their eiistence, |
stand altogether alone.
It may be added, partly in explanation of the
WIGS
Le 15;,s ami W„ 1 ■ •. '.'^l'"''^''''*' insoriptioii in
Cotlamim in I'lirveii ^^Z ' ^Z''""'* "'
an abs„,.,l sketch of the li. ';rrr'''"' ^"'"^-^
othe,. passage (rf. Cuitu Fo mm.': „V" the
monstrosu.es of twine.l an.l stitche.l ha r " wh ch
wore in vogue, ami Jerome, in a lettei 'to m1.
cella (xxiii ), pointedly .ll.l.le" ' JThe tit
wearm. wgs an,o„g uon,en " who wi h f ,1s
ma- malce an e.liri.e of their heal." In he
nn,i .s a great help in determining the date of
these monuments. ^ TE C HI
WILLS
2037
I. '^'Capacity to b-qumtfibv Mia.
in ,1 '^"^"'•"V '" 'a*e «n<fcr a Will
IV. ifisceltaneou, Proviiions.
V. Auccession by Intestacy
also I'RoPEitTy OP Tilt.- n,,.,^ * , -> '™
^ ?7ie Capacity to bequeath by Will
In France.-My the seeond canon of the',,econd
ns (A.n .^R7^ l,:.l . .
on Am-'ow^ ^}'t^ "t^o'-fc. commemorated
on Api. 24 {Mart. Motr. Bed.). m H 1
WrLLEBRORD, bishop of Utrecht rom
~.;^m Prisia No.% ,^| -
L<^. H.J
WILLS iTostmnent.,). The rules of eecle-
c.mnot be collected in anv svstcmatir nr I
n>".-oment, as they are for the most part („ the"
«• •! Iw upon tnc siihjHct has been, to a lar>^P
e ont, incorporated into the canon C of he
Pfnod subse,,uent to the limit of this articl.-!
an.i It s « natter of some di.Rcn tTto T ^
tangle from this great m„5s of legislation I ^"e
"I'l'roprrate to themse ves or their chii,-,.K o.,-
'XDVT' V/'V" "nothercht -' "^
in tUe Atrican Chwxh Accordinir tn «♦ a
gustine the right of giving oirteTving t will
cent. Frp"^''^ '■'■'"" "•' ''''"^'■'^'»- (L^
conti. hp. Parmeniani, 12) '
Umlcr the Mperial Law—lh^ duty of be-
queathing property to the church was enforced
n the amplest terms and facilitated by Con tan-
t ne m a.d. .321 (Cod. Thcnd. 16 2 4/ f"' *\
h'story of this Constitution, s'ee the .foTe tf
Ootho red, and Thomassinus (.3, I, 16 and IsV
Kinir a '2" ir r'^'-'y '"<= """« of
Justinian (1, 2, 1). As regards its extent thi,
better opinion amongst civilians would appe;r to
Thi ' , f 7\ '''"' ""' "therwise that ri^rht
imrn:;i'rer-:7«"P""th*i
and .summarized in th no es of C'7'""'«»
(Antwerp, 18o9) ^'"' .''Muwen
(TTxiL ^"/'-:" by a constitution of Leo
(A.a^470), inserted in the Code of .Justinian (l"
Valentinian..o.[,r("^„,^^J7-;5 "'
This was extended so far as regard. tK.
A^7). Phis last constitution was two month,
^.1 I u .'/• '^^- ^'^^^ cnnstitutifliis were ahro.
gated by Mavrian in .VD.45,^, (.V„„. Ma.rt) TU
Theod.,sins.ini^.^,%;.^'^rn'"^;::
disability which was exten led by the same „m
peror t„ r , , , ^^^ y,^e saine «
win V' . "■?''' "' «''■"•? and receiving br
will was restored to and taken away from t^ese
6 p a
2038
wnxs
heretics several times during 'the subsequent
forty years, Tlie seventli book of the liistory
of Sozonien illustrates these chaugos of imivoiial
policy and feeling.
Atlcngthin A.D. 4'J8 a (•oitii)rehensi\o constitu-
tion wa'iiiroinulgaled by Theodosins the younger
(Old. Tli.jd. 16, 5,65), which oonlirnied the loss
of testamentary rights in the case of twenty-
three classes of heretics mentioned therein by
name. These penalties were confirmed by Jus-
tinian in his code (1, 5). In the 129th Aovcll.,
A.D. 559, he grants privileges to tlie Saniarifani,
but these were taken away by Justin in the 144th
I^'ovotl.
By a constitution of Valentinian in A.D. 426
{Cod. Theod. 16, 8, 28), two privileges were
given to the converted children of Jews. In the
first place they could not be disinherited or
passed over by their Jewi.sh parents, ner given
less than they would receive under an intestacy.
Secondly, even if they were disinherited for n
crime against their parents, they were still to
receive the qvarta Falcidia. In the code of
Justinian is inserted a constitution of JIaroinn
(A.D. 45.5), enabling women dedicated to religion,
in the technical sense, to bequeath their projierty
to ecclesiastical purposes (^Cod. 1, 2, l.'i). Jus-
tinian himself in A.D. 5.S8 forbad to monks the
right of making a will (Nov, 76, 1). In the
123rd Novell, (a.d. 546) lie secured to presby-
ters and clerks of inferior orders the right of
bequeathing their property {Nov. 12.1, 19).
Under the Barbarian Codt'S. — Hy the laws of
Luitprnnd, king of the Lombards in A.D. 721,
minors under eighteen years of age could bequeath
a part of their properly in favour of churches
and hospitals {Davoiul Oujldou, vol. ii. p. 61).
11. Tfu! Capacity to take under a Will.
In Francfi. — By the 6th canon of the council
of Agde (A.D, 506) followed by the 20th canon
cf the council of Rheims (a.d. 62,5) property
bequeathed to a clerk was considered to be
bequeathed to his church.
In the African Church. — It had, in St.
Augustine's tim, become a rule that the church
should receive no estates given to the great
detriment and prejudice of common rights, as if
a father disinherited his children to make the
church his heir ( Augustine, Senn. 49, De Di-
versis; Possidius, Vita Augwtini, c. 24; cited by
Bingham, 5, 4, 13).
By the 13th canon of the third council of
Carthage (a.d. 397) bishops and clergy were for-
bidden to bequeath their property to non-Catliolic
Christians, even when blood relations. By the Slst
canon in the Codex Eccleaiac Africanae (a.d. 419),
bishops who appointed heretical or pagan heirs
were pronounced anathema, and removed from
trte roll of those whose names were recited as
priests of God. The same penalty was inflicted
if by hts dying intest.ite the property of a bishop
should devolve on heretics or pagans.
Uniler tlto Impeml Law. — Justiniau permitted
the disherision of herctic!\l children by their
parents in the 115th Novell, a.d. 542, and of
heretical parents by their children (3, 14 ; 4, 8).
In A.D. 546 he forbad the dishorision of children
by parents and of parents by children by reason
of their embracing a monastic life {Nov, 123,
41). He also directed that if a person had
entered a monastic life, and had died before
WILLS
dividing his property, his children omy too* <•
purs hyitima, the rest of the property piing
to the monastery (Nov. 123, 38). Parenth wore
not allowed altogetiier to disinherit children
taking orders or entering a monastery, as appears
from a Constitution of Justinian, A.D. 5;i4 {Cod.
1, 3, 65).
III. The Property tchich may ho made the Subject
of a Wil/.
In the ICast. — The council of Antioch held
in A.D. 341, in its twenty-fourth and twenty-
fifth canon.i, jirovides for the separation of the
lirivate property of a bishop from the property
of the church under his care, so that the latter
might not be bequeathed by him with his pri-
vate pro)ierty. [On these canons, and the ajio-
stolic canons on the same subject, see Alikna-
TION, p. 51, col. 1.]
A case in which this law was disregarded will
be found in the acts of the council of Clialcc-
don (A.D. 451). Four presbyters of the cliurch
of Kdessa apcused their metroijolitaii, Ibas, of
conniving at tlie misconduct of his suHragan,
Daniel, who had bequeathed ecclesiastical pro-
perty away from the church.
In France, by the thirty-third canon of the
council of Agde (A.D. 506), if a bishop, not having
children or grandchildren, did not make tlie
church his heir, his property was to be mulcted
of a sum equivalent to that spent by him out of
eqclesiastical revenues on other objects; but if
he left descend.ants, they must indemnify the
church out of the inheritance. The canons
numbered forty-eight and fifty-one (but wliich
are of doubtful authenticity) forbid bishops to
leave to heirs or legatees any church property.
This provision as to legacies is found in tlie
seventeenth canon of the council of Kpaon (a.d.
517), but it excepts cases where the tcst,itor h^a
given an equivalent out of his private jiropeny.
In Spain, the first canon of the first council
of Seville (a.d. 590) repeated the above-cited
thirty-third canon of the council of Agde.
Under the Barbarian Codes. — ^The laws of Aistul-
phus (A.D. 749) gave exceptional validity to wills
in favour of holy places. In the laws of the
Visigoths provisions will be found for restraining
the cupidity of the heirs of bijhops and other
clergy {Duvoud Oyhlou, vol. ii. p, 151, vol. i.
p. 163).
Upon the whole mnttex Van Espon (Jm
Ecclesiiiiticwn, 2, 4, 1, 8; draws the conclusion
that in the ancient canons it was forbidden to the
clergy as well as to the bishops to bequeai,ii any
property which they had acquired from the
church.
As to the operation of the Lex Falcidia upon
bequests for church purposes, see PROPEUxr
(p. 1731), and Ferraris, Bibliutheca sub voce Leya-
turn, sees. 137-138.
IV. Miscellaneow Provisions.
In France. — By the fourth canon of the first
council of Vaison (a,d, 442 ^ any person as an
infidel who should keep back the rifts of the
faithful departed, was to be c.st out of v.*!'.
church. This canon was '.''Dcated i,i the
twenty-second canon oT the third couniil of
Orleans (a.d. 538). The fourth council "f
Orleans (a.d. 541) simply provides in canon
fourteen that property left by a lawful will t»
WILLS
WOMEN
2039
Pi.rh! '^"' "'•/■'''■'■■"» <^'{""-^A it w«s f„rl,i,l,le„ by tlio
eghoenth ,.,„.„„ of the »„<„<„ /V, cfc,/,,. i,^,'.
V- that ,. l,.h„p should a..oe,,t „ g„avdhu.l,i,,
<-nm!,.;i'"'/'',M''r *J"' •'''^''""' ™"^'" "ftlie ninth
dcH ,.,,«.,! iMshop were forhiddcii t.Mleal with hi»
l'.-.T..rty without the c.,„„.„t nf tho .i'.'fo"
IH.Iitan and in thu case of the clergy without the
consent of the lisliop. ^^
bJiU^I't"f ft" "".'^ '.""""'^' enactment not
«o uld seen, to l,e the second answer in the
d,M o„ne of archbishop K^bert of Vor]< (a.d.
7.).--/0(,; see Haddan and Stubbs, vol. iij
p. -JO.tJ, where he direcis the cler'.y u ,t o
Lccon.o witnesses of nnncnpatory wills^xcept in
conii.any wjth otiici' persons. '
Uu/cr the fmjmul L ™.-TI,at the dertrv
Bhou d presume to decide upon testamentar •
que^tions .seemed to Justin „ most improper nci
-"a.M.rdnm etenim .derici.s est, in.mo' etian
oiii.robnosnm, si perito., ,se voluit ostcndere dis-
cep atnmum esse forensium," and he forhad it
(A.n. ,,J4) un,Ier a heavy (ine. (0,d. 1, .1 41 )
Jnst.man ,n a.d. .VJH gave IdO yeai's as the
limit of actions upon legacies to ecclesiMstieal
purposes (Co,/. 1, 2, 24]; but he a l
r duced ,t to forty years, except in the case of tie
church of Koine (.Vow. l;il, fi).
Justinian in a.d. 5;!0 promulgated a lone
constitution (Co,/ 1, ,<!, 40)', Imposing uj^on "^
bishops, and m their default upon the nietr,.-
politans, the duty of looking after the proper
applicat;on ol Oe<iuesta to pious uses
Two ..ars later he exempted hcjuests hv the
clergy 01 their "peculium r,uasi .astrense "-from
any '.luerela inofriciosi " (,w. 1, 3 50); but
12;' '/,';?■''"'*'''' '""' '"''<"' ««"y A-D. 54ii (.Voo.
There are provisions in a constitution of
J mi.an of ad. 5.!0 for determining the con-
stiuction of wills when the object of the testator's
bounty ,s obscurely indicated-.v/. h.."iue.ts t,.
Our [.ord are to be hel.l to be' given to the
church of the town or neighbourhood of the
ehlnT ' \'T'^\^Z archangels and martyrs to
churches dedicated by their name in the town
or ne ghboui-hood, failing such to the church so
name, m the metropolis. If there are more
churches than one of the samenametho int.mtion
of the testator must if possible be nscertnincd ; if
th,s cannot be done, then the poon-st chuirh is
h,, chosen (Corf. 1, 2, 20). [Kor the further
legislation on this subject in the 131st ^ov,;ll
Bee I'ROPKRTr OP THE ClIURCII.]
V. f'wcessioH hi/ Mestari/.
In the earliest times the heirs of the clergv
Wh..thcr bishops, presbyters, or others of infiTku;
order succeeded in case of intestacy, as apoears
Ir'H ;' ™n""^"l'"" "f" Vaieufinian, a.d.' :i;i4
(tori. I, d, 20), in which no distinction ni)nears
Care was however taken that the priv./te pro^
reity.f bishops .sh.iuld be separated fr.m, the
riT f'?.'""^' ^^"'^ '^'y '"l"'!nistered in
right of their .ees, so that the former alone
should pass to the private heirs. (See Cone.
Aiilio.h. A.D, :)41, cap. ■.'4; Cone. Chalc. a.d.
4.)1, caji. 22.)
In tlo. liih century the canons of councils,
which directed bislo.ps to make the church their
hoir in default of is.-ue, atiected to the san.o
"■Ntent the su,.,,.ssion by inte-tacy (see Cone
Agatl, A.r, ,M„i ,;ap. ,:;i). ij,„, ,„i., restriction
11.1 uot.ipply to tlic pr.^crty of the clergy bel-w
ttenip s were wont to l,e made to e.xclu.le th«
nrsot thcdeiy. Tliesevculh canon of the
litth ,.,,„„., I 0, l.a,is(A.D. 015) was directed
against this ahlls(^ ■
The contrary practice, by whii'h the heirs of
u estate bishopap,,ropriated cliurch property,
seems to have been especially felt in .Spain, and
canons of several .■.uincils are concerned with it.
sui.pres.ion. (Cone. Tarracon. a.d. ',U, .'ap. 12';
Un,.. llerd,,nsc,A.D.o2:!,cap. ult.) By degrees'
ho moyeab e pro|,erty of intestate ecclesiastic,
as claime.1 by the church on the pretext that
lis property had been .„,.,,ui,ed from church
I'lOj eitj. Uiis cl.iin, was styled the ms nmln.
hfiorderofMi.cession to the property of in.
testate clergy ,|,d not dilfer from that of laymeff,
except as r,.gar.ls the children of those ,de,gJ
wh,. were torhidden .to marry. These children
; ; ^ 1 '',;'''■'' '''■'■" ^""■™'' »" < I'eir mother's
'■"Portv. It a clerk died intestate and left no
x'lrs his property went to the church which ho
had .s.Tved. ((W. I, ;t, 20, a.d. :i;)4 ; AW l:!I
cap l.{, A.D. ,Vl,-i; 0,,,it. Carol, lib. 5, ea,>. ]7i.)
. I assing to the rules which govern the succes-
sion by clerks to the property of intestates, (hey
succeded in the s.ame manner as laymen (C»/.
1, J, ..I., I) and their professional earnings were
not luought into compulati.m (Ox/. l,;t, .'U)
The same law applied l,oth to seculars and regu-
ars (CW. , 3, .-^0), but this was afierwirls
altered, nn.l the community succeeded to the
rights ot regulars. (A'or. 5 and 123, cap. 3,S )
M.'e upon the succe.ssion in intestacy Boehmer
./«s Kx'fsmt. Protect, lib. .3, tit. 27. '
[Besides the articles and authorities cited in
this arti.de, and the commentators on the cited
pas.sages of the civil and canon law, the following
authorities may be consulted. Van Espen, ,/,,,
Ucksinsticm,, vol, ii. ; Keillenstuel, .fm odnoni.
ctm, vol.111.; I'hotii A mocmon, tit. 10- The
m''o, "lestamente"; Ferrari.,, imihder.t,
' restnmentum"; Walter, Kirchenrecht, 262-
isingliam, ClimtUm Antiquities, 5, 4, 5-9, 6, 2, O.j
WOMEN. Certain feature, in the ,lom'!lic
and social influence of women among Chrisfian
communities will he found treate.l of i„ the
ar u le on hociAL Lii-i.;. It is proposed here to
notice some of the spe.dal points of dillerence
in the (..hri.stian, as compare,! with the nairan
cmception of woman's character and duties
!he e.".t,mate .-.f w-manhood in tl„. ..«rli..-t
hrislmn literature exhibits n remarkable con-
trast to that of pagani.sm. as both attaching far
more importance to female mo,l«sty and
cnastity, and, at the same time, greatly en-
h.nnciDg the ,lignity of the female character and
enlarging the sphere of woman's activities. Th«
2040
WOMEN
W051EN
Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians
speaks of the liusbands whom he mldresses, as
exhorting their wives to the itiscliarge of their
duties with a blnmeless, grave, ami pure con-
scientiousness, iinil in 11 spirit of conjuiiiil
aflection, ami also teaching them to superintend
domestic matters with dignified decorum (<r«fi-
vdij) [c. i. ed. Dressel, p. 48]. In the »anie
manner, I'olycarp (ad Philipp. c. 4) exhorts
the Christian wives of Philippi to live in the
faith, in love and purity, to duly honour their
husbands, and to instruct their children in the
fear of the Lord, Second marriages being
systematically discouraged in the early church,
the advice given by the same writer to the
widows Eeems directed against the faults to
which women, wlien lone y and unemployed, are
specially prone — ''calumny, speaking against
their neighbours, bearing false witness, and
Rvarice" (ed. Dressel, p. 38 1>.
The a<lvice of Tertullian (uii Uxorom, bk. ii.
c. 8) that a woman .should not refuse to marry
one slightly below herself in station, provided he
is likely to prove in other respects a good hus-
band, points iirobably to the existence of a
certain social ambition among those to whom
hi« treatise is addressed, which he considered
un'..'?rthy of the Christian character. As con-
trasted with the cruelty which too often
disgraced the privacy of pagan hou.seholds, we
fin ! Chrysosto.".! observing that it is a shame for
a !;i in to beai, his female slave, much more his
wiie (m Epist. i. ad Corinth. Hum. '26 ; Wigne,
Putrul. Grace. Ixi. 212).
The teaching of the most enlightened of the
fat-icrs was und lultedly to the ell'ect that there
was no patiiru' icfiriority in the woman to the
man. Th''odor *. (Gruec. Affect. Curat, bk. v.)
insists emj)hi'tii -Uy on their exact equality, and
cny tliat God .i ;ide woman from man iu order
that the 'endemies and action of both might be
h •rmoni(.us. Sometimes, indeed, he ob.serves,
woman has been found superior to man in en-
co'intering adversity (Migne, Ixxxiii. 83t>).
Chrj'sostom (1/oin. Ixi. 3) says that no one is
more fit to instruct and exhort iier husband than
a pious -vonian This concejition difl'eied, how-
ever, materially from that of Plato (licpvh. v.
p, 455), in that while the Greek ]ihilosoj)her
sought to obliterate the ordinary distinctions
between the sexes, the Christian father held that
nature assigned to woman her sjiecial and dis-
tinct province of activity. Chrysostom, in a
passage of singular beauty, gives us a com-
parison between the duties of the wife an { those
of the husband, the former being rejircsemed as
in some respects the more dignilied ; for while
the husband is described as engaged in the
rougher work of life, in the market or the law-
courts, the wife is represented as remaining
Ht home and devoting much of her time to
prayer, to reading the Scriptures, koI tj) SAAp
^i\oao<pia. Wlien her husband returns, harassed
with his labours, it is her function to cheer
and to soothe him, ntfiiKuitrdV outoS tA ittfnrh,
Ka\ S7pia Twv KtyyiaiiHv, so that he again
goes forth into the world purified from the
evil influences to which he has there been
exposed, and currying with him the higher in-
fluciices of his home-life (m Joann. Horn. Ixi. ;
Migne, lix. 3'^ll).
The participation of young females in the
exercises of the palaestra and in races, com«
mended by i)agan theorists (Orote's H to. iii,
217), is condemned by Clemens of Alexandria
(I'acd. iii. 10) as altogether repugnant to tho
notions of female modesty (.N igiie, viji. OL'fl).
Chrysostom (in Mntt. Hum. i.) contrasts the
diil'ereuce in relation to the.se ]ioints betneea
Christian and pagan teaching, and even gnes so
fiir as to atlirm that true virginity was a notion
which paganism was unable to realise (Migne,
Ivii. 19).
At the same time we have satisfactory evi-
dence that this exalted conception of the female
character and female duties did not involve any
renunciation of lier humbler functions. Clemens
says that it is right that women should employ
themselves in spinning, weaving, and watihirig
the bread-maker (rp TrtTTOiiirj;), and fli.it it is
no disgrace for a wife to grind corn or to super-
intend the cookery with the view of jileasing
her husband (Migne, viii. 626).
The excessive luxury of the 4th century would
seem however to have been not less fatal to the
maintenance of this higii ideal than to other
features of the Christian character. Amedue
Thierry says that, by one of those contradictions
which "deroute'nt la logique des idtVs," Chris-
tianity itself, essentially the religion of the poor,
conspired to give to the manners of the Western
empire a degree of effeminacy unknown in imgan
tiirjes (Saint Jer6in«, j>. 2). Chrysostom de-
clares that many of the ladies of Constantinople
would not walk across even a single street to
attend cliurch, but required to be conveyed for
the shortest distance (m Matt. Horn. vii. ;
Migne, Ivii. 79). When there they were to be seen
with their neck.s, heads, -srms, and fingers lo.ided
with golden chains and rings, their ])erson3
breathing precious odfjurs, and their dresses of
gold stuff and silk (Milman, Hist.of Christianity,
Ilk. iv. c. 1). Others, again, aftected masculine
apparel, and seemed to blush for their woman-
hood, cutting shoi't their hair, and ])reseiiting
faces like those of eunuchs — " impudenter
erigunt facies cunucliinas " (Jerome, Kpist. 18).
According to the same authority, the greater
facilities po.sscssed by eecle»ia.stics for gaining
admission to female society was an inducement
with some to become priests — " ut mulicies
licentius videant" (i6.). Elsewhere Jenaue
strongly dissuades the clergy from accustoming
themselves to private interviews with those of the
other sex, — " Solus cum sola, secreto, et absque
arbitro vel teste, non sedeas " {EjHst. 52 ; Migne,
xxii. 260).
The exaggerated importance attached by
•Jerome to the unwedded life, as one of superior
sanctity, seems to have led him to dwell so'.ne-
what harshly on the weaknesses and woHdIlness
of many of the wealthy matrons of his day. He
represents tiiem as given to excessive personal
adornment, and bestowing much of their time on
preparations for feasts and other household
matters. When, however, we find him enume-
rating such obvious duties as "dispensatio
domus, necessitates mariti, liberorum educatio,
correctio servulorum," as prejudicial to the
higher interests of the soul, we pei'ceive tiiat
his tone is that of one to whom the ascetic life
alone ajipeared adequately Christian (de , y,
] 'irtj. c. 20 ; Migne, xxiii. 228). On the other
hand, it is evident that the state of Koiuan
WONDERS
rendered it exceptionally
•ociety at this time
dHne„^tforc;hri.,i.„;„-;*7o'o;;^:7h:7.n';l
th'ulr'"^ 'n" ■' '■"''*'"™ '"'" '•"">• practice.' Of
th s Mar.ellas retirement to her mansion in the
suburbs, as deseribod by the same father, fs an
md;cat.,n. He depicts the very different future
which her mother Albina haddesi>;ned for her-
a sp eudid niarriage and the possession of great
wealth ,vh,le the daughter rarelv issued fn,m
her seclusion save to visit the churches of the
apostles and martyrs, especially those least
frequented by the multitude {Epist. 9;i). The
mistresses of large establishments, according to
Jerome, were often ex,,osed to excel.tional temp,
tations ; and he states that young widows wou d
sometimes consent to marrv even pagan hus-
bands ,n order to avoid being plundered by
dishonest stewards and to escape the anxieties
inseparable from the management of a large
househoM, thus bringing home to their children
by a former marriage "not a guardian, but an
enemy ; not a parent, but a tyrant " (Epist. 64 •
Migne, xxii. 'Jill). \ t">„. ot ,
Among other indications of the confusion and
demoralisation characteristic of the 5th cen-
tury must be included that laxity of church
discipline which permitted the performance of
public religious rites to be sometimes entrusted
to women. In the twenty-first canon of the
collection ascribed to Gdasius this is. spoken of
as evidence of the "contempt" into which
religion had fallen - " audivimus . nt
feminae sacris altaribus ministrare firmentur
et cuncta quae non nisi virorum famulatu
deputata sunt, sexum cui non competunt
oxhibere" (^Migne, Ivi. ili)). ^
It is generally assumed, though on somewhat
scanty and doubtful evi,ience, that at the Pdod
I'h ="°Y"-"-'"«" "f the Teutonic nations the
regaid for female chastity and the respect paid
the sex were greater among pagan iommuni-
ties than among the Latin races. But however
this may have been, it is certain that the views
inherited and han.led- down by the Western
church with regar.1 to " the peivsonal and pro-
priety lib rty of women " were greatly superior
to those that find expression in any of the
barbaric codes. Something of this feeling seems
rtilected in Jerome when {Epist. KiO) he cen
sures parents lor their too commoa practice of
leaving deforme,! or otherwise unmarriageable
daughters ina,lo,|uately provi.led for (Migne
ZJ^^- r'\' '-'''"'•^'''" ^"^^ s"- "'"y
Maine, "conferred a great benefit on several
generations by keeping alive the traditions of
the Koman legislation respecting settled
property ; • and he points out that Christianity
was really carrying on the tradition of the
Konian lios. I'lie formula of the n.arriaee-
service, " With all my worldly goods I thee
endow, IS one, he says, "which sometimes
puzzles the tuglish lawyer from its want of
correspondence with anything which he finds
among the oMest rules of English law " (Earh
IM of Lis^Uuticis, p. 337 ; see also De liroglie,
njliseet r Empire, I. ii. 273, and EclairXe.
"^"'^)- [J. aw.]
WONDERS
2041
»" compact homogeneous whole. They form
hemselves into distinct groups. One group
h;;v.ng for it, object the conversion of' Z
htathen, gathers round notable wonder-worker.
"' pagan countries, such as Gregory of Neo-
caesarea (Thaumaturgus) and Martin of T.2.
Another grouji, or other groups, of n.iiacles
or h:,do;''•'"^K" "^^ ^"w^^' "^ ^^^'^'^^
the F,n.7' f ''" 'T'^ ">" K"'" '"-'1<^ "f
brose Tn Tk °\u^''. "''^'""°' ''"'-•homius-Am-
and of lat V^^*-'*'-' ""'' "^■'"'^ «f '«^'""- ""te
position nf..™'1 '" '^''■■"''' "'"PP'^^" "'^ i-^t"-
de livrn ''"i "'""''' '" "'•-' ''"™ "f 'narvellous
delnerances under crelties infiicted by Vandal
tyrants ,„ A rica or Lombard invaders in haj
Other miracles vindicate the sanctity of images
or co,.,,emn the conduct of the'lcom.ckst
Others again, whose object is to gloiify the
enterprise and attest the piety of foii . le^rs of
— er.es, cluster thickly' rou'nd a Cl or
Colimban, amidst a galaxy of lesser wo-ders that
s. n s Tl'"'' ,"'^.r""'"^» "' 'he acts of the
e? 'l c '^'»-^-!'h««t'"n, as bringing out the
ethical features of the miracles an.! their relation
to important events in church history, may weM
be borne in mind and allowed, so to Tpeak t„
runpa,.^, ,vith a more methodical a~-
srhtr" "'''''='' "^ =''^'' <='-■'■? »^^^
I. »onla-s wrought hy Living Saint,.
II. /?.7 J!tlics.
Ill Ity the Kuchariit.
IV. l.y Pictures and Jmaget.
V. By Celestial Viiitants.
VI. Apart from human or angelic Agency, vr the
oixne-named ^tant. ii> " ^m
WONDERS (miracula, signa, prodinia, por.
tenta-eav/xara, 9a,-urf<na, ffv/^ua, 'Svpafxe,!,
■ripaTa, Tap&So^a). The reported miracles which
i»l. withm the limits of our period constitute
n adopting for the purpose of further classifies.-
tion the division of miracles into those of
beneficeiice and power, we do not regard these
wo heads as denoting distinct kinds of miracle,
but simply cla.sses, in the first of which he
beneficence of the object and in the sec .nl the
r:::; "^ft' n^^""""" '^ "'^ dominant 'de'
Miracle, of beneficence are also those of power-
Jw<iM€»-although miracles classed as those of
pov.er are not miracles of beneficence. Again
miracles of either class, but especially fhufe of
power, will a,,pear as signs-<r„'..r„_';r pledge
of a superhuman mission on the part of the per-
former, ,.e. when they are wrought by a living
Sum-- I;;'*"""" ""''' \'"'"'' "''o-nientf
urtutum attaining as such to tlie hicrhest
'','•;?'"'« th« ethical, character of a miracle
al hough both cla.sse, of miracles may degXrate
into mere wonders-fiaiVara, r^plal"a\C
forth simp y wonderment and amazement (sef
Irench, Notes on Mir. Introd.).
I. mnders wrowjht bij livinj Saints —Whether
by direct means, such as invocation of
nf hJTt' '"'''>■':'■' ».iS>'i»g of the cross, imposition
of hands; or indirect, such as sending to the
sick .saints garments or other garments, bread
0.1 or ww^ter which had been blessed by ^aiiit"'
One of the first point, that strike us in the
earlier notices of miracles which have reached
us from the fathers is the absence c.f .I'l , lsi„H
on the part of the writers to the performance of
the miracles they attest, and of all mention by
name of those who wrought them. Thus
Clemens Romanus states that t.iere was a
plentiful outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon all,
2042
WONDERS
ond Ignatius, in hfs letter ftdilrcssed to the
church of Sniyinii, says that church was merci-
fully blei.»ed with every good gift; and they
refer without doubt to niiraolan that were going
on in the churcli, but they do not arrogate to
themselves individually the jiower of overcoming
the laws of nature, or specify any by name wlio
possessed such a power, in w hich latter respect
they stanil in strong contrast witli the chroniclers
of the acta of later saints. As to the gifts here
spoken of, they ai)i)eared in' the form of the
following powers: the casting out of devils,
healing of diseases, rai^ing the dead, speaking
with tongues, the prevision of events, and seeing
vision-!, the three first kinds being miracles of
beneficence, the three last of power ; the first
finding their parallel in point of character and
the sphere of human life they affect in the evan-
gelical miracles ; the last their source in the
promises of our Lord and the predictions of Holy
Writ.
1. Miracles of beneficence. (1) Exorcism and
healing ; (2) Raising the dead ; (.3) Deliverance,
protection, sucfour.
(1) Justin Martyr says that Christians in the
name of Jesus cast out demons from those whom
pagan enchanters could not cure {Apol. ii. 6).
Amongst the deeds of mercy which the true dis-
ciples of Christ performed in His name, Irenaeus
specifies e-xorcisnis and cures of the sick {Contra
Hacr. ii. 32). Cyprian writes, "0 si audire eos
vellesquaniio a nobis adjurantur et torquentur"
{Ad Deinctr. xv.). TertuUian, " Place some pos-
sessed person befjre your tribunals; any
Christian shall command' that spirit to speak,
Who shall as surely confess himself to be a devil
as elsewhere he will call himself a god falsely "
(Apol. 2;i). And again, ''Devils we not only
despise, but both overcome and daily expose and
expel from men, as is known to very many "
CAd Scap. 2 ; cf. also Apot. 37). [Dejioniacs ;
Ejjoroism.]
When we pass from this general testimony of
the early fathers respecting the existence of a
miraculous agency at work in their days to thd
more detailed accounts of later miiacles, we learn
more as to the means by which the miracles
were wrought. We gather that on the whole
these means were much the same as those which
the apostles themselves and the saints of their
time made use of, who on their part were guided
in some measure by the example of our Lord, viz.
in respect of prayer and the imposition of hands
(Mark vi. 41, vii. 34; John xi. 41; Mark vi. 5),
and in some measure by the piactices He enjoined,
viz. the anointing the sick with oil, and the use
of His name (Mark vi. 13, xvi. 17; Luke x. 17),
although, as we may see from Acts v. 15, 16,
xix. 12, they did not restrict their methods of
workir.g cures either to the divine precedents or
precepts.
Taking first the miracles of exorcism and
healing which were wrought by direct means,
viz. invoc.ition of the name of Christ, prayer,
signing of the cross, and imposition of hands,
we find that some of the earliest of which wo
possess any detailed .account are those which
Gregory, bishvp of Ncucaesarca in Pontus,
wrought in the 3rd century, but the record of
which belongs to the 4th century and is due to
Gregory of Nyssa, who is said to have received
his information from bis grandmother Macrina,
WONDERS
As being less notable than the miracles of other
kinds whiidi the saint wrought, we shall only
refer to his exorcism of an evil spirit from a
youth by imjiosition of hands (Newman, on
Miracles, p. xxviii.), and to his ndraculous heal-
ing of the plague-stricken in Neocaesnrea (Kleury,
liv. vii. c. 11). Of the miracles of this class
which the cMrlicr K:istern monks wrought, those
of Antcnyand Hilari.m may stand as examples.'
St. Athanasins, who wrote the life of the first-
named monk and was his personal friend, says
that "everywhere he had hail an anxious desire
for truth " in the accinints he had given. Of
Antony's exorcisms we may name the instance
of a boy whom he cured in a fishing-boat, and
of whose state of pos-cssicju iuctiiaiions wore
given by the presence of a foul ."touch in the
boat (Newman, on Mir. xxxi.), and of a girl from
whom he ca>t out an evil spirit at Alexandria,
whither he had gone iu his cl.l age to support
the party of Athanasius (Kleury. xi. 41); and o(
his cures that which he wrought in th-; desert
upon a man adiicted cither with Djiilepsy or mad-
ness, not by any means ho employed on the siiot
but by bidding him to go to Kgypt, and assuring
him that he would there be healed (Newman, on
Mir. xxxi.). Respecting the nnracles Hilarii.n
wrought in Sicily, which island was together
with Palestine the chief scene of his wonders,
we have the testimony of a Jew, in Hreece, who
reported that "a prophet of the Chi 'iaus had
^appeared in Sicily and was doing so many
miracles and signs that men thought him one ol
the old saints." Jerome, who wrote his life,
records the following miracles : restoration of
sight to a woman who for ten years ha.l been
blind; a cure of paralysis; another of drojisy;
exorcising the possessed— even a camel vho in
its fury had caused the de;ith of manv (Newman,
on Mir. p. xxxii. ; Jerome, t. ii.). Of his e.\or-
cisms we may specify one as remarkable for its
being foUoweil by the olfer of a sum of money
on the part of the m.-^n who had been dis-
possessed, and for tlie saint's rejily that his
acceptance of it would surely bring back the
possession; and another as notable for the
capacity which the energumeu disjdayed, on the
occasion of his cure, of speaking iu Syriac and
Greek, of which languages he, being a Frank by
birth and uneducated, had no knowledge (Kleury,
Turning to the West, we find in the 4th cen-
tury St. Ambrose curing a woman of palsy, lay-
ing his hands on her iu prayer, while she touched
his garment (Pauliui Vit. S. An.bros. in Apjiend.
2, § 10), casting out evil spirits, and on the other
hand causing for his misdeeds a thief to be re-
possessed (Vita, 43; Kleury, xx. 20), and St.
Martin of Tours delivering a slave of a devil, and
healing a leper at Paris (Sulp. Sev. Vitt, IG, 19);
and in the foUowiug century Germanus of
Auxerre, at Aries, curing a prefect's wife of a
quartan ague ; at Alenia, bestowing power of
speech upon a girl who had lost it for twenty
years ; at Autun, healing a girl of a witliered
hand ; in England, a boy of contracted limbs ;
at Milan and Haveuna, casting out evil spirits
(Ada SS. ad d. 31 Jul.; La lie du ynirui Si.
Germain, par Dom Viole, a.d. 1654).
As examples of exorcisms and cures wrought
by indirect means -viz. the sending to the sick
the garments of saints, or other garments which
WONDERS
note«.,rlh>- n. uHimtivo of the obstnclc-s wh h
srinatj con ,1 ojipose to the salutary exeroisp nf
thaumatui-jf ,. ffiits tk„ ,„„.,i, "}''^"ye ot
., "Il"";it to I.)' n limn w lose danehtei- hn.l »,.
wainin, M,„ „t the .anie tim'^Lt he\ "In:;
he should U..tnw „iK,u it would be of «,«-■" I
89 long as his daughter continued to live sU f
ife Accrdingl., the girl was not cure
t5-t\sx'K- t"•^"'"■'•
put mg luto her mouth a few dro,," „f tt likl
1 (bulp. «ev. ra., 17). Tiireads fraved from
St. Jiart.n'. garments healed the disea" cd when
wound round the neck or finire-, .,n „ \J\
wHtten hy the saint cured „ ,"'; :ftt:^ th^n
laid ujion her chest ( m, IQ •<(n Z '
which Gerinanus ohtl!: ha^ r^Z Z'^
.mgle nignt cured a demoniac when oiun Id w,'
ur»u It; ami « barley loaf which the hi ,
had blessed and sent to the em,,ress I'laci L
possessed, and for a long while ret.'ined, wonder!
«;?rk.ng properties (^Ata .-,3. ad d. ;U J„I
A miraculous cure, occurring in the 4th cen-
ury, deserves notice, as having been wrought bv
the performer of it upon her own persof and
r ::^s?^--7i;^^n:;S
for the cure of which she had, from m ti es of
h. tit^ ?'V '" °''P"'''"°" t" *''« •^'iniest r"
f ol her mother, persistently refuse.l to
1 ?7r'^"*^ ?''""■'' "'''• ^"« n>''i'nini,' having
pssed the mght in supplication, she gahe eel
rem the floor a little dust upon which her tear
had fallen and applied it to her sore, begging at
ho same time her mother to make the sgn of
he cross over the diseased part. The res, t was
»n -mmediate cure ;-a slig'ht scar, howe^ I"
n llustration of the ethical aspect in which
miracles of beneficence might hi viewed bv
tho^e who were the subjects or witu ««, of
WONDERS
2043
;S;rS;;^^>^l! -" "^ '-.-andin.
Who lived
,' J ""»u me cure or inn
?;n;wii;:t''t^'S"'"v '"""-" ''-^
Terobo, the m of a ^ «"'!"-y',"-'»"Sht upon
'•'■»ulted in he n •^'".''"■"'"•' '••hicf, and which
have reached s I„ • "^ *•" '"""'^' "'^"^^
of workiuTc .;/, f |L^'"''".*''7 the power
the (ith, 7th a^id «.h 1 '''"" ''""''"■»hcd in
i"'--jns,'':;arLftr-'™:„/'':'''7':'-'
'K'-s, dc.-ifness, 1,,-s of Ze '^'l ' ^''''' '''""'■
--.ther diseases'lr iiSr:— ',^°
\vh <:h, occurring no ess fivouentlv fK •
which nionkran'Vi "';;::■'''" ';"""r """
nccideiits such as thnt^ l" ""'""•^"'. while
■selves were e7p. sed i h !"^ "'""''^ "'"'"■
".ncultnrall ;3-,^^^^^'-™""'-"'their
cleaving ,ogi!^t:^uS;nou:;i^ ,^7^-
M-^.ln-:aHH^'- ^
cures we ha!; on vt"f uT''^'^ CM T'"'^^
i'':^'-y Norw^.lTav 'Zmvk';^"r
tribution of these niiraciiir pol'" *,''!' ['':
lead us to an op^^'S^M^uT^'' '"'','>'
'lunng the 6th cei t,, ,v Ti . ' '"'" "''"'i'h',
cised in the matTor V l''"""."'t'"-g)'- "» •■•xerl
shone hrightUMn .:,;L ZT'" '""' /'™""=''
and bishops-as fn ] ,'i ^ ''"f""' "* "'""ks
PopeGrel:rvT/'v:'t^'''"*^^-:'t':'^«of
;„!• I ,. - Jears (Cori(;'a /face, i 3o\ i-
ndividual instances of this wondT,^ f\ •'"
Antio^h in the biocl ti' n ■'•"' martyrdom at
(A.« ..^id'd'ist.^ T'Ci- "ff ^^""'
restored to life « catechumen who "ddSTn
his monastery unbapti.ed, by throwing hl'itf
2044
WONDERS
upon the (load body and praying earnestly fur
Its restoraticiii (Newman, on Miraolus, p. sxxii. ;
from Siilijichis Severiia, who sutjseiiuently knew
the subject ol' this miracle, and asserts that he
lived for many years), and on another occasion
a slave who hail handed himself (i6/(/. p. xxxiii.).
Hilary of I'oitiers raised a child to life who hr.d
died unbaptized (Fortunatus in Migne, Patrol,
Lat. ix. lUd ; Acta SS. ad d. 13 Jan.). Marcellus,
abbat of a monastery of the Acoemetae, near
Constantinople, A.D. 440, a monk (Kleury, xxvii.
30), and Gelasius, abbat of a monastery in
Palestine, A.u. 452, a child (Kleury, xxviii. 1)8).
Germanus of Auxerre, when at Kavenna, raised
B man from the dead (ylcta SS. ad d. 31 Jnl.;
Vie (in ijrund 8'. Gernuiiii, par Dom Viole) ; St.
Benedict of Nuisia, a boy (Greg. M. Dial, ii, oJ);
St. IJavo of Ghent, A.P.' iW>'3, a man {Acta SS.
lien. saec. ii.) ; St. Walaricus, abbat of a monas-
tery on the Somme, A.i>. G-2, one who had been
unjustly hanged (ibiil.) ; St. Wulfrani, bishop of
Sens, A.D. 7ii(), live Frisian youths who had been
hanged as a sacrifice to the gods {Acta SS, lien.
saec. iii. pt. 1).
(■'i) Miracles of deliverance, protection, suc-
cour — called forth as they were by the dangers
and vicissitudes to which men were constantly
exposed, and the various needs to which they
were subjected— aflbrd a series of wonders which,
ranging downwards from the deliverance of
cities from siege or assault, or of districts from
inundation, to the multiplication of corn in a
granax-y, or of wine or beer in a cask, dilfer
widely from one another in respect of their object
and importance, and the sphere they allect, and
at times degenerate into little else than a dis-
play of miraculous power for its own sake —
therein betraying their lack of the requisites of
a true miracle: "miraculum si pi.i utilitate nut
necessitate caveat, eo facto suspectum est "
(Gerson, de Distinct. Ver. Mir.).
Of miracles of this class no instances are given
us by the early fathers in their general notices
of the deeds of mercy wrought by the true dis-
ciples of Christ, and we have to pass on to the
more detailed accounts of later times. The rais-
ing of the siege of Nisibis well illustrates the
protective power which living saints were en-
abled to exercise. Sapor 11, of Persia was
besieging the city. The inhabitants in their
alarm appealed to their bishop, St. J ,nes. In
answer to the supplications he oli'ered, swarms
of gnats attacked the besiegers, their horses and
elephants, irritating both the latter to such a
pitch of frenzy that they broke loose. To in-
crease his discomfiture the Persian king mistook
the bishop, when he appeared on the walls in
his purple and with his diadem on his head, for
the Roman emperor, and thereupon raised the
siege {Acta S>'. ad d. 15 Jul.). Accoi-ding to
Theophanes {Chroiuxjraphia, pp. 52, 53) the
bishop's prayers had the further result of bring-
ing- famine and pestilence upon the besiegers
when returned to their own land ; with this
miracle we m;iy compare the deliverance of Paris
from the Huns through the prayers of St. Gene-
vi^ve {Acta SS. ad d. 3 Jan.). The miracle
wrought by Gregory Thaiimaturgus on the banks
of the river Lycus furnishes an instance of the
exercise of this power in another direction. The
bishop having been appealed to by the inhabi-
tants of a certain district to deliver them from
WONDERS
the calamities to which they were from time to
time exposed through the overflowing of the
river Lycus, made a journey to the place, and,
invoking the name of Christ, planted bis stall' at
the particular spot where the stream was wont
to burst through the mound which had been
erected on its bank to prevent its encroachments.
The stall became a tree ; the water rose as usua'.,
but henceforth never passed the tree ((ircgory of
Nyssa, t. ii. i)p. 1191, 9S)2). This miracle had its
ethical result in the conversion of the inhabitants
who were heathens (Newman, on Mir. p. xxvii. ;
Fleury, vi, c. 14). Similar miracles were
wrought by Hilarion at Ei)idamnus (Gretser, de
Cruce, ii. 6:i), by Severinus, A.D. 47.'), in Nori-
cum {il>id. Acta SS. ad d. 8 Jan.), by Kridian,
A.t). 678, at Lucca (Greg. M. Did, iii. 'J), ami
by Attala, A.D. (327, a monk of bobio, in Italy
{Acta SS. Hen, saec. ii.).
As a rule the miracles we read of as belonging
to this class were conlined to a narrow sphere of
benericence, having been wrought for the good
of small communities, and frequently individuals.
Thus we find St. Hilary cleansing the insula
Gallinaria (Is(da d'Arbenga) of serpents (Fortu-
natus in jligne, J'atrul. Lat, ix. 190); St.
Martin of Tours, when in his missionary zeiil he
had set fire to a heathen temple, successfully
repelling the flames from an adjoining house
(Newman, on Mir, p. xxxiv.) ; St. Maur walking
on the water to save the life of his friend
Ptacidius (Greg. M. Dial. ii. 7); Germanus of
Auxerre restoring a stolen valise to its owner
{Acta SS. ad d. 31 Jul.; Vie du. ijrand St, Ger-
main);, St. IJenedict of Nursia (Greg. M. l>ial,
ii. (i), and Leutfred, abbat of a monastery near
Evreux, A.D. 738 {Acta SS. Ben. saec. iii. pt. 1),
causing iron to swim ; Honoratus, abbat of Fondi,
A.D. 5.iO, by the sign of the cross, arresting on
the hill-side a huge fragment of rock which
threatened in its fall to overwhelm his monastery
(Greg. M. Dial. i. 1 ; Gretser. de Cruce, iv. 57).
In special connexion with their needs, whether
on their missionary journeys, or at home, we
may note the miraculous power monks possessed
of causing water to flow in dry places by the
simple expedient of planting a staff in the t;round
or of striking it, or, as the ca.se might be, the
rock with a rod — examples of which we lind in
the lives of Kicharius, abbat of Centulles, a.d.
645 {Acta SS, Ben. saec. ii.), Furseius of l.agny,
A.D. 650 (t6i(/.) and Wulfram of Sens (.df^ii SS.
Ben. saec. iii. pt. 1) — , as well as of multiplying
wine or beer in the cask — of the exercise of
which gift numerous instances occur in the Acta
S3. Benedict.— t\n<\ of quenching the flames
when fire had chanced to break out in a monas-
tery or convent, as may be seen ir. the Lives of
Sulpicius of Bourges, A.D. 644 {Acta SS. Ben.
saec. ii.), and Leutfred of Evreux {ibid, saec. iii.
pt. 1).
2. Miracles of power, wrought, (1) In con-
firmation of Christianity, (2) of orthodoxy, (3)
In punishment of evildoers, (4) In illustration
of gifts bestowed upon men in reward for piouj
enterprises.
The ethical character which attaches to such
iniiacies as iiud a place in one or other oi' these
categories proves them to be not only exhibitions
of power {Svfdnfis), but also signs (o-Tijueia).
The forms which miracles of power assumed
in the early church were, as has been said, the
WONDERS
speaking with tongues, prevision of event., and
thu seoinj; ol visions. With reKnnI to the Kitt
o( tonKn,.,_„„„ „,• „„ ,„„^ c»nlinu«n<.c in the
church— It may Millice to quote the worils „f
irenacus : «a9c!js sal iroA,A<ic d»co,V«i 45«A<^i,/
^v Jf; iKi< \niTi<f upaiprtTtKa ^x'ii'Tari/ Kal woi-ToiSo-
irois 7A.ai<r(rait \a\u{,vrwv: iind with reMird to
that of jirevision— (I gift which on the c.ntrnrv
was long continued to the saints of the Church
-we miiy give, as far as primitive times are
concerned, the testimony of the same writer-
01 it np6yi,ua;y (x"""' Tiv fttWSfuo (Omtra
Ihcr n. -.Vi). The gift of .eeing visions- -one of
no shorter duration, hut of far wider signiHcnneo
than the Inst named— we reserve for considera-
tion by itself. (If other miracles <,f power such
as later saints wrought, whether as signs or as
simple wonders (Tf>aTo), and of which ixnmples
will now he given, we find no mention in the
writings of the early fathers concerning the
church ot their times.
(1) Amongst miracles wrought in confirma-
tion ot Christianity we may place those which
dregory Ihauinaturgus performed upon the
occasion of his being forced, through storm and
the approaching fall of night, to take refuge
together- with his companions in travel, in a
heathen temple which hajipened to be famous
for lis oracles. Hnving invoked the name of
Christ and signed the cross, the bishop, we read
spent the night in praising God. In the morning
he priest of the temple found upon his arrival
that the demons had forsaken their shrine
Gregory informed him that he could bring them
back as well as o.vpel them. Challenged to per-
form the lormer feat, he wiote upon a piece of
paper the words "Gregory to «atan-Unter,»
and handed them to the priest who placed them
upon the altar. Forthwith the demons gave
evidence of their return. To .satisfy the priest
still farther as to the truth of Christiinity,
Gregory accepted a challenge to move, by means
of his word alone, a large stone which hai.pened
to lie near. He at once moved it, and thus eon-
yniced his oj.ponent ^Newman, on Mir. xxvi )
Hilarion wrought a remarkable miracle of this
class at Gaza. A Christian named Italicus, who
bred horses for the chari..t-races, applied to
Hilarion to help him against a rival who mmle
use of masic to check the speed of Italicus's
horses, and thus to .secure the victory for his
own steeds. The saint, although at first unwill-
mg to lend his aid in so trivial a matter, acceded
to the request and sent Italicus the vessel he
was wont to use in drinking filled with water
wherewith horses, chariot, and charioteers Were
to be sprinkled. This done, the Christian's
horses, rlymg like the wind, easily won the race
W hereupon the pagan party raised a loud shout :
<l IWS}-'^'^'"-' S"'') 's conquered by Jesus
thiKst (Henry, xxl 17; cf. Hieron. l-p. 7, acl
Lad.). Of this class also is the miracle St,
aiaitiu of lours wrought, in answer to a ch.il-
lenge from a pagan, in averting from himself bv
the sign of the cross a falling pine (Sulp. Sev.
I i^a Mart. 10 ; Kleury, xvi. 31).
(2) As confirmatory of nrthndovy we imty
note two miiacles which St. Arnnlph, who was
put to death at Kheims in the beginning of the
Mh century, wrought when in Spain. Having
received a command from the king of the Visit
goths, who wished to test the saiuVs powers, to
WONDERS
2045
rid the land of aserpe-.t whose breath was of so
herya nature as apparently to .liy „ ,", /;
St Arnuli.h was conducted » the sen,, nfs „i^
where he laid his stola . . the h 1 , f ^kI
n."nster, and bidding him' folW I ,? hiiu o
ap,mdand.;ud,adehii„e..er,„K,„voit r?l nee!
pomi lay the body ot a man who had died a
v."lent death. Upon the saint's app" .,d the
'lead man prayed to be delivered fron hi mise!
rable resting-place. St. Arnulph at ,i ic'e "nZ
h.." and buried him in a fitting grav Uet
"...■acles made such an iniprcsM,:;, .^on ihc king
•md his courtiers that they forsook their A rim-
..ynd^.,,ted the Catholic A.ith(l;);':^
(■■)) As an example of a miracle wroueht in
"S,. nncn &t. Willibrord, a.d. 7;;st. was on a
niissionary journey, he with his com,..,n"so gh?
rest <,ne day ^n a field. The owner ,f the and
p oceeded to drive him away, refusing li ' "„
his remonstrances or to drink wFth him in
'•tin:'nr''''V-'' ■'"'■'■"•" i''^'^'"''-'' ''-"'-"
Ul ink not Conse.,uently the man lost tho
power of drinking while snileriug all the pa. L
of th r.st, nor did he regain it till he had con-
fessed h.s sin to the saint upon his return, the
courseofayea.(.lc.,^..V.sa:c!i;i" .*K
men for their enterprise and piety, we mav
refc.r to the miracles of powei S lencXt
found m the second book of pope Gregory's
/Ma^^ucs, eg. the saint's defeatM an at . p
detection r""° ^'".("' ^^' ^'' >""acuh..,,
detection of an infraction of the monastic rules
on the part of some of his monks (ii. V'), and of
theft on the part of a messenger (ii. 8) Ms
enabhi^ two monks to carry a heavy f aj.'nen
of rock (11. 9); with which miracles we mav
compare othei-s of the same class wrought by
St. Colnmban (Acta oS. lien. saec. ii ) ^ ^
As instances of n.iracles of power fallincr jn
none „ ^he above categories an.i a .rin"
aher in the ight of simple wonders, we m"?
ote the follow,,^: St. Jlacarius the elde... Til
■Ob, causes a human skull he found in the
d ser to speak (Acta SS. ad d. 11 Jan. ; inA"
xiu. d8), and bevennus of Noricum, a.d. 475 a
dead priest (Acta SS. aJ d. 8 Jan.) ; St. Mary he
'■^gyidian, A.D. 421, after sign , g the ^cioss
walks on the waters of the Jordan (A. Butlers
L^vcs of the Saints, s. v.); Hermenlandus, bba
of a monastery near Nantes, a.d. 720, by the
use of the same means lights his lamp (AcL SS.
f nMf,"'- '''• '•''• T'' «'• G^J"'*! of lirussels
8 Jan), while ikewise after prayer two monks
of Bob.o are able to carry the trunk of a large
tree (Acta SS.Ben. saec. ii.). *
Befwe quitting the subject of wonders
wi-ought by living saints we 'shall do well „
note first, the aspect ia which the workers
of miracles regarded their achievements, and
he causes to which they attribut..d k^m
Wncn no answer was accorded to his pray'ers
respecting the cures he was called upon to L!
orm, lachomius used to con.fort himself with
the reflection that often God shews more favour
in refusing than in granting our requests
(Heury, xv. 60). Germanus of Auxerre-displayed
2046
WONDERS
R like luiinility in attribiitiii({ the ciiren he |
wcirKi'.l to tliu iiK'iiiis he einijluyeil, iiiiil not li'ii^t
to the ruliii lie bene ftljout his iiirscjn ( I'l'a Ju
gmiul St. Oeriwiin, jmr U^m Vinle). Setnuilly,
we may note the luknuwleilijineut (pu the pnrt
of thii>e whi) fully helicveil iu aii'l theiiiBclves
recdiile'l cimteiiii'uriiry iiiinicles, that thuse who
wruiight them were linhle to he invliily elateil
by their own perfornmuces. Thiis ynya (iregory
remiii.U Aui{u»tine, in rniii"'i:t of the miracles
that Haint Iwnl wronglit in KiiKhinil, that the
workiiii! of miracles vvcs no reniii>ite fur obtaiu-
iog u [ilace iuncini^st the elect (/Vp. xi. 28).
H. WonJi'ra wrowjht by Relics.
The relics of a saint perpctuateil the benefits
which the saint himself ilurinj; his lifetime hail
conferreil upon those who stood in need of heal-
iD){ or sucecair. [Ki;i,ii.s.] The translation,
again, of a sr.int's body, for the piiriioso of
obtaining for it a, safer or nioro honourable
re^ting-lJlaoe, frcjuently ijave ri^e to a displiy
of its tlianmatur);ic virtues (tv/. Trnnslatio S.
Severini, AcU 6>'. ad d. 8 Jan.). We must
note that, unlike those which were wrought by
living saints, nuraclcs due to relics form no
Conti"iuuns chain reacliing fr m the earliest to
the latest portum of our period, originating ns
they did in the latter half of the 4th century.
The church, however, was prepared to believe
iu the working of miracles by relies through
the operation of various causes: first, by the
regard she had long paid to the remains of
mr.rtvrs ; secondly by the a3.-;ociatiun of these
remains — placed as they were beneath the altars
of churches— with the mysteries: " Episeopus,
qui super mortuorum hominum, Petri et Pauli,
secundum nos,os.-a venerauda . . . oU'ert Domino
aacrilicia, et tumiilos corum, Chri>ti altaria ar-
bitratur" (Hievonyui. i;. ude. Vijit. p. 153);
thirdly, by the prevalence of a notion, of heathen
origin, that the souls of the departed lingered
about tlie graves iu which the bodies rested
(Lactant. ii.' 2 ; Greg. M. DM. ii. 38). Perhaps
also in accounting for a readiness to believe in
the virtue of that which was inanimate and
posses>ed no powers of volition, we must not
wholly eliminate even from the mind of the
populace the cll'ect of the teaching of philosophy
that the Deity Himself wrought by inherent
Virtue rather than by will-^i^irfi ov ff>vK-fi<Tti ;
— while as an intiuence acting immediately and
most elfectually in bringing about this belief we
must place the example of notable men such as
Ambrose, Augustine, Basil and Chrysostom. _
1. Miracles of beneficence. (1) Exorcism,
healing ; (2) Raising the dead ; (3) Deliverance,
protection, succour.
(1) Exorcisms and miraculous cures wrought.
1. By the bodies of saints. 2. By objects
brought into contact with or proximity to the
bodies of saints, living or dead. («) The gar-
ments of saints ov other objects po.sscssed by
Biiints. (h) Cloths laid upon the bodies of
dead saints, (c) The candles which illuminated
or the lamps which were suspended above the
tomh of ft saint. (<i) The du8t which gathered
upon the tomb. («) Water with which the
tomb was washed. (/) The fabric and furni-
ture of the church which held the relics.
1. By .saints' bodies.
Many miracles were wrought by St. Stephea'a
WONDERS
relics.* And first upon thcdr discovery at C«.
pliiirgamala near Jerusalem, in conseiiuencc of j
twolidd revidation. The town of Calama hid
possessed relics of St. Stephen f.ir about iM^ht
years, and that of Hippo for less than two viirs,
when St. Augnsliue made the a-xeitiou thiit
niiiiiy books would have to be written in ordor
to recount all the miracles id' nealiiig— to s;iy
nothing of others — which had been wrouijht \'f
means of these relics during this space of time
ill the two 'istricta of (.'alania and lli| p", and
that of those which had taken place iu tli^' l.ittcr
district alone nearly seventy accounts lud
already been written (/)<,' tVr. hi, xxii. 8, § JU).
For further examples of miraculous ciiies
wrought by saints' bodies we may refer to thu
fullowing instances : the cures which took plan
at Milan, after the discovery made by St.
Andirc.se of the bodies of SS. f!crvii.<ius and
I'rotasius, of the bliml Severus [Itiaics,
p. 170y], anil of demoniacs and other sick
people upon their touching the cloths whiuh
lay upon the relics, or by means of the shadow
the relics cast when borne through the stnrts
of the town (Ambros. £p. jxii. 9>; the healing
of a leper at Alexardria by the body of Idishii,
A.D. 45ij (Theoph. I7t3); the cure of a blind
man who on touching th' covering of the bier
of St. Theuderius found blooil How from his eyps
and r ceived sight (Ado Viennensis in Mii,'iii',
Patrul. L it. cxxiii. 4+7) ; of a blind woman at
the funeral of St. Aigulphus of Levins, a.d. 075
(Ada SS. Ben. saeo. ii.) ; of live blind persnns
and two with shrunken limbs, at St. Martin's
tomb at Tours (Oreg. ruron. dc Mir. Mirt. i. 12,
2.'" ; ii. 44, 58 ; iv. 42) ; of a palsied imin at the
tomb of Germanus, bishop of Paris {Vo Ghrid
Confessor. 90); frequent cures of ague at the
tomb of St. Geneviive (i6. 91); one of tooth-
a(!he at that of St. Medard near Soisaons (ih.
95) ; and various miracles of healing wnnight
by St. John Baptist's head at Emesa (Theoph.
66.5).
2. By objects broughi into contact with, or
proximity to, the bodies of saints, living or dead,
Miracles wrought by such means were, accorJ-
ing to Gregory the Great, likely to m:ike a
deeper impression upon the popular mind than
those which were wrought by the actual bodies
of saints (^Dictl. ii. 38); and' for this reason: in
the latter case they might be roiravdnl as
wrought, in answer to prayer by the saint him-
self whose spirit was supposed to hover about
its former tenement.
(a) Saints' garments or possessions.
The tunic of St. John the Evangelist, preserved
in Rome, worked many miracles ( Vita Ore:;. M.
auctore Jo. Diacono, lib. iii. 59). The shoes of
St. Gall, A.D. 646, healed a man, to whom they
were given after the saint's death, of coutrarticn
of the limbs (^c*i SS. Den. saec. ii.) : those of
St. Cuthbert, a.d. 687, one afflicted with paraly-
sis (ibid.). The bed on which St, (lovtrude,
abbess of a convent at Nivelles in Br.ibant, A.D,
058, had been wont to sleep, wrought cures
{ibid.), as did also the fringe or threads of a
• So many Indeed were wrought In the conrsc of the
oges 08 to give -ise to a proverb • " Who( vet prcteods to
ha\e read all the miracles of St. Stephen, he liei"
(Freculphus apud Basnage, Hist. dM Juifl, torn, Tli
p. 249, UibboD, xxvlU.).
WONDERS
ch«..:ble which NicetluH. li.hop of LyoM, had
key, of M. IVter wr.M^Mit ,„„ny cur.., ut Rome
",ni«T o..;;r,,» ,,„.i,„„ n.ultis .„lent rniracu i,
('0 Cloth. l«i,| ,„„„, the h„di,.s „f ,1„;.,1 g„i„t,
trnmth.,h,,l,itn^vK«r.li„K,.l,,th,(li,,,^M li
wh.ch hu,l ,0,,. i„i,l „,,„n thehoL l™,
Mint, in order t„ obtain virtue from then
th»»e 01 the ho,ly ,t«elf, it i, fre,iu..ntly difficult
m the ah,e>K.e of „ny «,.eci(ic turn,, to detern e
■vhethor ,he terms g..„erHlly „.,d to desig nte
reho. r .fer to the actual r<.„,„in.s „f ,hc «ai ,t,
0. to object, which had been brought into c' u-'
»ct nith or lu-oxnnity to them, and nmnn«,t
the« to relics manufactured, ,o t" M,e.,k IRe
the brandea. To^ive an instance of cl ths't i
!;""r"'"r\,"!"' '•''"'■''' '-■'""'^ ""« l^'i' ' on
t etaceofMeIeti„,ofAnli„eh,on tne o ens „n
of his funeral at Constantinople, a.d. 381, «n
distributed amongst the people as ,,rophvlaVti"
^'^jy- !rfP' And in a less form, 1 , u "
hamlkerchie s (oraria) and garment, in use w .
cast upon lelics, e.,j. upon those of SS. Gervasius
.nd 'rotasius (Ambr. Ep. xMi. 9), („ SerZ
invest them with remedial properties. We read
.so hat threads frayed froi!, „ handke rj
fHcieterKimn) wh,ch had been used to cover the
lace of jv.cetius, bishop of Lyons, on the da/ of
hi. death, when laid upon an altar, cured an
*ftarviii.T^*'^°'''''(«-S-T--i"
(0) The candles which illuminated, or lamns
[Oil, Ho'rv.r^' "'"'•* ""' *"'"'' °f « ^aii-t.
(d) The dust which gathered upon the tomb
he ordinary methou of administering which was
to give It mixed with water as a drink
Dust from the tomb of St. Hilary of Poitiers
was the means ot cleansing two lepers, behtowing
.ight upon a blind peraon, and soundness of limb
npon two persons afflicted with withered han 's
(tortunatus ,n Migne, Patrol. Lat. cxcv. 6, 7j
Act, 6. ad d. 13 Jan.). Dust from the tomb of
maityrsm Lyons when gathered in a spirit of
true faith, cured the inhrm (Greg. Turon de Gl.
Martyr,. 50) as also that from the tomb of
SS ad d 12 Man) By dust from gt. Martin's
tomb at Tours Avitus, bishop of Auvergne, and
wo youths got cured of fever, several persons of
dysentery, and Gregory of Tours himself of a
violent fit of taceache, of the pang, of which the
bishop betrays a lively remembrance in the
eulogy he passes upon this particular form of
he Turonensian relics: "0 theriacam inenarra-
bileml pigmentum ineffabilel antidotum
audabile I Opurgatori um, ut ita dicam.coeleste I "
(de Mtr. S. Mart ii. 51 ; iii. 60).
(<) Water with which the tomb was washed.
During the prevalence at Tour, of the epidemic
already mentioned, several person, were cured
dysentery by the water with which St.
Martins tomb was washed in preparation for
taster (Greg. Turon. de Mir. i Mart, ii sn
Similar curative virtues attached to the water
with which the corpse of a Mint had been washed :
astance the cure of a demoniac bv this means
^fn rt 'fl; '"*'• f ' '■'■'-^ ^- C^thba-tC).
JU It, [?•"•"=, .an-l furnitur* of the church
which held the relic*.
WONDERS
2047
A boy .ulfcring from the effect, of a imi-oneJ
kn^wn . r '?• '," ''"■"'•''"■'^■" with a well-
fhKl ■;"«""' '■"*'"""• l"-"V"K'"t alike in
hcUt ,,,,, West, and alluded toby Chivs"
?h" h d' t^l:^^ Fostrate upon the
.k • , Vatican ha.-i ica in llonm In
the noiL'ii loiuhooil ,,( u.,,. I ' '" """ii!- in
:f^!.f:^^7-'rV"'-''«'i''^^H,.'^;
o th . door o( a cimpel which was dcdicnt,.! tb
T.nn":'"!'/'""-",!"^'' ^'■'''' hi^ relics (J eg
(-) liaising the dead.
meau's ,7 v' l'''"-^ "'i**"^ ^""'^" »« «'>-""Kht by
m,M 11 .h '''r" '"■•^'^'^'l'' l''^- 'fo tlKsewe
T 1101 ^' rTr "^ '^'^ '■'^^"^viive of l>aris (Greg.
Jiiion. (fr (jI. Confess. 91). ^ *
Ti? !'•''' *''!'"""'. I'l-'-tection, succour.
Ihe belief,,, tl,« ,tr „,. ^^,,
whelhei- for the individual believer or the Xu
r-l'ulation of a eity, deliverance from or „ ot
t.on nga.nst ..II i.|l», ,vas equally prvnei.nJ
J;^£r";:u;:;!::^-t:;'""'•^«'"^^^"'^«^^^
the^f„habir,:r "i ',!"' ^'^'"'^' «" ^-y °"'« that
rPATRov^ i ".' ? ^"'^^■S""^'" to their city,
nf t-f ■? "'■''?'^ '° 'he same light the neonle
James, attributing, indeed, to the removal of
fe^(Kie;::;*^^"^^'^^^''-nr'ti:^
^s e.xain,des of actual deliverance fVom danger
arising respectively from hostile as.sault, iX!
men i^n'thTfn ""!'"'""'• "'"^ '^"'"-' -« "'"y
Kellioustr'T "''"'''='''• ^'h-^n a band
of St sil? '»"''''^,l'««n:ii"gtothe monastery
altaek A '° ^ "'"''"'« """^ "" their way to
attack the monastery, they were seized wi.K
L indness, and unable Vo rea^hTh'i- i ,ati n
11 , de hverance of the abbat and his party was
att.ibuted to the presence of the relics of S
of To',, »r^' '"'T^^' '" 'he time of Gregory
of lours, the populations of several districts oY
Gaul were visited with a plague of an infea ous
character, amongst these, thf province of P ma
bv vrtu'e^fr^'^f '''''""^' ''»«-''^-«^- «-'h*
giuss tomb, which was carried in procession
with the accompaniment of crosses anToind les'
round the towri (Greg. Turon. dc Ot. ConfjTll)
Gregory himself, when the disease had reached
Auvergne sought and obtained protection
against i at the tomb of St. Julian r^X
Martyr, ii. 45). On the occasion of an nunda:
t,on, caused by the overflowing of the Ad^ge at
Verona ,n the 6th century, a largTtTowd
assembled in the church, ancf 'before fheZj
of St. Zeno, bishop of Verona {Martyr. Horn
12 April.), to beseech his protection. The wa*e«
surged up round the edifice to the height of the
windows, blocking up the door, but did no?
penetrate into the church nv endanger ihe !iv^
of the supplicants (Greg. M. Lial.iii. 19). By
the erection of a shrine with the usual accom-
paniment of relics, the frequenten, of a festiv"]
^tJjr^l T '^ Cevennes, were delivered Im
storms which had become a matter of oertaS
2048
WONDEnS
WONDERS
occurrenre nn the occnilon (Oreg. Tiiron. (to 01.
Con/. 2).
Hc^i.lt's sftording (l»Uvei'»nc» from, «nil protec-
tion ngiun»t, ilia, relics could confer |io«itiv(! Ijenc-
fits. Tlius lit Nursia in Umbrin, tin; caiTyinn "^
thu riiliii of Kiitychiiis, forniiMly iiblmt of h ncinh-
boiiriiij; iiioii.i ti'iy, rouii'l the; (ii'l.U, in scnsonn
of ilruutflit. invariiilily priMluccil rain (fire?. M.
Dill/, iii. ir>).
This (ii'liuf in the miraculous virtues of relics
led to tlie practice of ci\rryin({ relics, as tho Jews
of old their ark. into h.ittle. Thus tho Krankish
princes rciinircd their army chaplains to carry
them at the head of their forces (Carlonmniii,
ciipit. i. ami. 74J, c. 2; Caroli M. capit. viii. anu.
8ii,l); C'liiliFcric linl them carried before him
when hi! entered I'aris ((ircg. Turon. vi. 27);
and an Kastcrn kin^;, acc<pr<ling to n story (ire-
giiry id' Tours repents, went so I'rr as to insert
the thinnl) of St. .Sergius in his own right arm,
and WMS able, as a reward for his faith, by
raising his arm, to conquer his enemies {Hist.
vii. :!1). And apart from this public and ollicial
use of relics, many were wont to carry them
about their person for their own individual pro-
tection atriiinst dangers in general, especinlly
such as might arise in travelling. Gregory of
Tours illustrated the practice and the benefit
resulting from it in his own case. When he was
on a jiHirnoy from Burgundy to Auvergne, a
thunderstorm came on. Plucking some relics
he curried from his bosom he held them up in
the direction of an ominous-looking cloud. The
cloud parted in two, and no harm betell the
travellers (ilc Gl. Martyr, i. 84). Upon another
occa.sion he extinguished a fire by producing a
cross, which contained relics of the Virgin, the
Apostles, and St. Martin {de Gl. Martyr, i. 11).
In (iregory the Great's epistles frequent mention
is made of relics being sent by that prelate to
•various individuals, amongst these to Childebert,
Recliared, and Constantina, the wife of tho em-
peror Maurice, wliich were to be worn round the
neck a> safeguards against.physical ills, and for
the sake of the spiritual benefit they were calcu-
lated to bestow, e.ij. (1) keys of St. Peter, toge-
ther with which, as a rule, was included a
minute portion of his chams (Ep. i. 20, 30, 31,
iii. 48, vi. (5, ix. 52, 122, xii. 7); (2) chains of St.
Paul, i.e. particles filed off from {Kp. iv. .in);
(3) crosses, containing relics, e.ij. (n) particles of
St. Peter's chains (Ep. iii. 33)i (6) wood of the
cross, and hair of the Baptist {Ep. i.T. 122) ; ( I )
the gridiron, i.e. pieces of, on which St. Lawrencu
was tortured to death {Ep. iii. 33). With this
use of relics as safeguards we may compare the
like practice of wearing a portion (lectio) ot' the
gospels suspended round the neck for the sake of
protection (.Fo. Chrysost. tom. xix. ad Antioch.),
and of placing one on the head to obtain a cure
(Aug. in Johan. c. 7).
2. Miracles of Power wrought by Relics. (I)
In attestation of the righteousness of the inno-
cent, and the guilt of the wrong-iloer. (2) In
punishment of those who treated relics with
contempt, and appearing in either case in the
light of signs.
(1) Gregory of Tours reiates the two following
instances : A priest who had taken refuge in the
church oT St. Slartin at Tours, and was there
put into chains, was proved to be innocent by
the fact that his chains fell off iiim, and could
not b« made tn remain on him when rep1ac«i|
(ill' .Mir. S. Miirt. I. 23). On tho other hand, a
priest who had falsely asserted his innociiiii;
before the tomb of St. M uiniiu in Tiuves fell
down dead (ifc 01. Ciinf. till). For a siuiii.ir in-
stance occurring in Uuurges, see (ireg. Turon. lA
III. Miirtijr. i. 34, and lor another in Miliu,
Kleury, kxi. 54; and cmiiparc pope Gregory's
words: "Ad exstlucta nanii|ue eorum corpiiiia
. . . perjuri veuiunt et d.iumonio voiantiir"
(Dial. iv. ti).
(2) The power of relics to punish those who
treated them with contcuipt is thus illustniti'l.
When the relics of St. Habylas, bishop of .\ulli« h,
bad been removed at the emperor .luliin's inm-
maud from Daphne, where thiir presence wa>
supposed to render dumb the oracles of Apoilii,
the tcuiplc of Apollo caught lire, and no traits
of it were left, A.D. 3, '.4 (Uiif. i. 35, 30; Soznm.
V. 18, 19; Theoph. pp. 7il, 77). During the
troubles witli which the t)th century drew t.i \U
close in France, a basilica which stood near
Agen, on the Garonne, and held the relics of the
martyr Viucentius (of that town), was set on fire.
Uf those who had done the deed, some wero
seized with madness, some were scorchcl with
lightning, some inflicted wounds on themselves,
some drowned themselves in tho river, ami
others were tormented with various diseases
(Oreg. Turon. vii. 35; de III. Mwtyr. i. lii.^).
We read of similar judgments in the instame
of a count, who threatened to fire St. Martin's
basilica ((ic' Mir. S. Mart. ii. 27); a councillor
who had suggested tho partial demolition of a
church (de 01. Martyr, i. 9J); a man who nes;-
lected to dtliver relics when warned in dnams
to do so (i. 42); a queen who stole some (Kiilins,
33-38 ; Uobertson, Ch. Hist. ii. 117) ; a l.iinili;ui|
who was about to make an incision in a kev of
St. Peter's (Greg. M. Ep. vii. 20); a band of
Lombards who attempted to drag some monki
away from a tomb (Dial. i. 4).
Other miracles of this class may be regnnled
in the light of wonders, aii'h. for instance, ai
indicate the possession on the part of relics of a
power (I) to postpone, with reference to them-
selves, the process of decay. Thus lliKirion's
body ten months after death wis wholly free
from corrujition and gave forth a sweit fra-
grance (.ler. t. ii. ; Newm.in, "H Mir. p. xssii.).
When the body of Amandua, 1 Uhop of Maestrichf,
A.D. (579, was translated, I ity years after its
burial, it was found to linv so little perished in
the interim that blood flawed from the gums
when some teeth were extracted, while the
heard and nails had actually grown (Ada SS.
Ben. saec. ii.). See also in reference to St.
Kuphemia, Hvagr. ii. 3 ; Fleury, xxviii. 1. (2) To
increase in bulk, e.i/. : Some dust taken from St.
Jlartin's tomb at Tours so increased in quantity
as to fill, and even force its way through the
lid of, the box in which it had been plmeii
(Greg. Turon. viii. 15). (.3) To exercise s will
and purpose. When the corpse of St. Thin-
derius was borne out to burial, it coulJ W
moved in no other direction than that of the
saint's mon.istery (Ado Viennensis in Migne,
rtirol. Lai ■.-:;::!. 418). (4) To vindicate their
sanctity. Gregory the Great alludes to » story
current about his predecessor St. Leo, who. to
convince some wlm were sceptical on the subjeit
of such relics, tore a " brandeum " with a p«iT
WONDFRS
flf.J'!i"7r ••''''":" ""> ""' '►"" ""»''<' M.mrt '
WOVDKRS
2049
partly tr,„n ,t, ,„ti,„at« ,.o.u,,.xi„„ n, „ ,n„rk ., f
(t;r ' ".'••.":'"''-r'''l' «ith the ,l.,..tri„.., , r»he
Uthnhr laith, tl,.. n,ir„.l,., wlmh w.t,. wrmurM
by tl,. Ku.h,.n-ta,,,„.„r in th,. li^ht ofZ ,^,,
olten nn, i„ th.. i^rht ,.l works „C merry, wherons
or th,; n„.„„H we h,.v.. hithort,, n,.ti,...,l, niirnH f
th n,MH,h., the Kuuh«ri«t wr„u^ht, it « r „!
Cah"|-T.K •'"■'■"""■'"• '"'»'«» that of
C. h„l„. ,„, h ,„ .„„tr,v.li8tincti„n to the Ho
heilt;;:.'::^'''"''"""^ '•'"''-'''-■ »f-
he«li„^j''r.'ri,''r '""'"''•«"^'' (I) Exorcism,
he« n,K , (.') Delu-ermiee, pr„teotio.,, succour.
c|n.^,s.rup.Jr::w.;iir?;l:";:;ii;^-
bi8h..|, ., the SHUio 8ec, A.t). 644, revived whc,
coiK.ct with (lemons (,7,/,/.). The .l„ve» „,„l
cattle ,„• a tribune at \li,,,;„ wire hZ C^
^«?o.^L'tri7ciil
^r^:i;-r^:ir:rii:rrkrc:^
tomary to .l,.str,bute amon^.t the young ..hil, ren
of Christian parents such Irasments "f th^
m- ru;^t " "'"?'"^^ ^'■'" "»■""'"-'"
LU Ux.iAh.] By acoiclent g Jowiah rliiM
mingling with hi« Chfi.fi,,, eoni^ons I
ah: o7 th! h"'" "' ,"'T, •■'•"«"'-'''• ''he
lather ot the b.>y_a glass-blower by tr.i.le-
was so enrage,! that he shut his son into his
(urniice in or.ler not only to kill him but t
destroy al traces of him/ The child hot V
was saved and the miracle had its elhi, .
result in he conversion of the mother, who was
baptized together with her chihl (Mi, „",/„/
des I'roph. et cUs Mime. t. i. „ ,; , -n!:
virtues of the Kucharist, as a means ,„ ,J '
extended even to the dead. A young n,..„k in
St. Benedict's monastery, who had gone on a
visit to his parents without obtaining he
customary blessing from the saint before fit-
ting the monastery, died on the dav of h L
return. After burial his body was found /,!
have been displaced and, wheif rXri j «ta ;
displaced St. Benedict then ordered it o
be buried with the Host laid upon t, aft r
^L';: ii.''!).'"'"' '■"f""'^'' '" P""^" (««g »!■
2. Miracles of power wrought (1) In condem.
nation of immoralitv ; (2) of hern.- ^onaem-
(i; Gregory of Tou'rs refates Vhat as a deacon
fTTi: ".r-l'holy life-was one day earivZ
the Lucharist into a church, the bread Hew' uit
01 his h8nd.s and placed itself on the altar (7^'
Glorui Martyr, i. 86). In the time of St
=^::;;;i;;:i;r;,r':r.-;,:i-'i
b'»hop who was otilciating «„ ,he ,." .j , '
;-;-,. A !itoi;L:;t!? ,■;;:::;; ^11^:
""'.■''"■ "■• »'J™ 1,. K(irt,.,i.ii,' I ',,,,■
K;.v.r;i;ri.;;;u;r,,r.'!r /;;:£;
«=.:;:;:;,;;:£*£;: s?5
tunied into stone (So.omen. viii. .', T , ,b V.?'
01 lours (//i,s^. V. oo .1 1, , h ""«•
»bed blood when bi;kej """ """"'""
LKMKRVAriON] was credited with similar if ont
|i»iuiKen ot in communion An ,., „ !■. .•
~".' grace, it wriinVuitrrit';;!!,:
whatever motives with inditlerence s t IT
xeen from the following incident ' % "'^
named Marsius upon rece 10^/1; i r''."P
from the h,,n,ls 0} MeClslhlo'lJ^r
st'A;:S:ir(r!^"T'^^!i';[^':]r"p"-
the miraculous eiieci • bai.t ,m n,^ ^ ""-'""""■
relates ■ „ .„ /? Augustine further
"t« (§ 5). Iheojihanes records a similar
- ' ^ ^ t h, , ,„tance of a Jew ( C/,rono.,r„ph. 27)'
after t^e'Arinf" " ^'P'''" "^ ™'«<^h"">en
suddenly dried up (a.LPap/, '^^y' '"'""'
IV. ir«.V,Ts wroyht by Pictures and rimge,.
saims ''"■""■'" """^ '"'"«"' "'■ ""' '-"••d »-d the
one argument put forward in falour o^f the S
virtues. Heaven, it was urged, had wroucrhf
many miracles by means of picture. Cur had
ratvP .: J, *•''' •'"■'port plea,ls fiermann.
patriarch Constantinople, in a letter addiCd'
A.I). 7Jh, to rhomas, bishou of r'lau.^^,..,^p_'
(Acta Vynril N.caen. ii. Actio 'iv. in iUnZm '{
Such miracles, however, were confined to 1'!.
sentation. of our blessed Lord and the saints^
/ON V. ""■''^'™ of beneficence. (1) Healinir •
(2) Protection, succour. ^ '' "^'""'K >
(1) A picture of the Virgin Mary at Sozopoli.
2050
WONDERS
in Pisidift was wont to shed, at the point where
the haud of the \irgin was repiesenttd, T swect-
Pinelliug ointment. To this jiicture (iernianus
e-ipecially alluilus as one whose niiiMi-ulnus
virtues wore attested by numerous witnesses
(Miinsi, xiii. ; Kleury, xlii. ■-'). Kor the statue
nt (Jaesarea I'liilijipi, see Jesus CriMST, Kkphp;-
SKSTATION OF, ]\ 877. Au image of our Lord
on the eross which .«tood near tlie great gate
of the imperial palace at Constantinople was
supposed to possess miraculous virtues, and in
fact was believeil to have wrought a cure of
hemorrhage similar to that mentioned in the
Gosjiels. To the adoration paid to it on this
spore it owed indeed its destruction by the
emjieror Leo III. (JIaimbourg, Uistoircde ni&esie
dc'S Iconoclast's ; Fleuvy, xlii. 3). John Damas-
cene, after praying before an image of the Virgin,
had his right hand, which had been cut off,
miraculously restored (Robertson, Ch. Hist. ii.
U, 85).
(2) The victories which Heraolius won over
the I'ersi.ans were attributed to the fact of his
carrying at the head of his legions images of our
Lord and the Virgin Mary (llaimbourg. «. s. ; cf.
Fleury, xxxvii. 3); and the repulse of a Saracen
army from the walls of Nicaea, A.D. 718, to the
possession by that city of images of the saints'
(Theoph. 624, 625). For the destruction of the
war machines cf the Persians nt the siege of
Edessa, A.D. 621, by means of a portrait of
Christ; see Lmaoics.
2. Siiracles of power.
A Jew stole a picture of our Lord from a
church, and in token of his contempt for and
hatred of the Person it represented, trans-
fixed it with a dart. Forthwith blood began to
flow from the picture, and iu such quantity as
to cover the .Jew from head to foot. Whereupon
he resolved to burn it, but the blood it had shed
enabled its rightful owners to trace and bring
condign punishment upon the thief (Sigeberti
Gemblac. Chronkon, A.D. 560 in MignCj Patrol.
Lat. clx. 105).
(6) Images of the cross.
As the portrait of a saint became endowed
with miraculous powers by reason of the holiness
cf the individual therein portrayed, so repre-
sentations of the cross obtained as such some
measure at least of the virtues which attached
to the true cross itself. Miracles of bene-
ficence, healing, protection, succour, are attri-
buted to Kiich ordinary crosses, exactly similar
to those attributed to the true cross itself. See
Gretscr, do Cruce, and his Jlortua Crucis.
V. Wotvlers v:rought by Celestial Visitants.
X. Miracles of beneficence. (1) Healing;
(2) Deliverance, protection, succour.
(1) St. Cuthbert, bishop of Lindisfiune, A.D.
687, was cured of weakness in his knee by an
angel who appeared to him on horseback (^Acta
SS. Bin. saec. ii.); and a nun in a convent at
Pnuvilly, in Normandy, of an ulcer in her throat
after the hand of some invisible personage had
been placed in support of her head, and a vision
had been subsequently accorded to her of one
clothed in the white robes of a virgin ( Vita ''!■.
Aastrebertae, Acta SS. Ben. saec. iii. pt. 1).
In short we may say that whatever wonders
were attributed to living saints were also attri-
buted to celestial visitants.
W0NDEB8
As wonders wrought by celestial visitant' w«
mav class (n; the presentation by them of gifts,
e.'/.'of a magnificent vestment which the Virgin
Mary presented to lldefonsns, bishop of Tcdo>lo,
to be worn ou her festivals, in reward for his
defence of the doctrine of her perpetual virginity
(liaron. ad ann. 657. 53, 56 ; Kobertson, ii. 58) ;
('i) directions given by angels in visions or
dreams respecting the building of churches or
ninnastcries in all instances in wliioh the
miraculous was not confined to the apparition
itself. Thus when ihe archangel Michael had
thrice a])iicared, A.D. 709, to a bishop named
Aiitbertus, bidding him found a church to his
honour on the mount now known as St. Michael's
mount, on the co.ast of Normandy, the bishop
found i'. confirmation of the sujievhuman nature
of the behost in the fulfilment of an appointed
sign, and further in8tr\icti(m as to the exact
dimensions of the church in its lines being left
untouched by the dew which covered tlie top of
the mount (Appar. S. Michaelis, Acta SS. lien,
saec. iii. ])t. 1).
VL Wonders wrmifjht apart from Human or
Angelic Agency or the above-named Means.
Wonders of this kind, consisting as they do
largely of instances of providential interference,
whether merciful or punitive, rank iu a ditfcront
class from those wrought by saints or their relics,
or by sacraments in contradiction to the laws of
nature. Those, too, which are best attested are
perhaps the least marvellous, although in dif-
ferent degrees — those which are most miraculous
rest on manifestly insufficient testimony. Suih
phenomena as the fall of a shower, the death of
an heresiarch, the interruption of a work by
storm and volcanic disturbance, the apparition
of a cross in the sky, may no>f be viewed, some
as special providences, others as extraordinary
coincidences ; but at the time of their occurrence
they were one and all unquestionably regarded
aa interpositions of Providence, intended to sujiply
the needs or to confound the enemies of t!ie
faithful ; and as such it is probable that they
were deemed no less miraculous than many
wonders wrought by living saints or by their
relics after them ; while many possessed the
advantage of being widely known, whereas the
knowledge of the others was often confined to
the narrow sphere in which they had been
wrought. With regard to such wonders as were
rather of the nature of marvels or prodigies, it
was dificrent ; of these some were in a measure
signs, denoting as they did the piety of a saint
when living, or the holiness of his memory when
dead; many, however, were devoid of all ethical
features, and provocative only of wonder, while
few were well attested, resting as they often did
on the authority of monkish traditions, or the
testimony of solitary witnesses.
(u) Miraculous occurrences.
1. Miracles of beneficence. (1) Healing; (2)
Deliverance, protection, succour.
(1) A body of Catholics living at Typasa in
Mauritania, A.D. 484, for the crime of holding
assemblies and refusing to communicate with an
hBretical bishop, had their right hands ampu-
tated and their tongues cut out by the roots by
order of Hunneric, the Arian king of the Vandals,
The miracle lay in the fact that on the third day
they were able to speak as before. Three at
WONDERS
tit. 30), „„,. cofn M ■'"''""'»" iCod. Justin, i.
articuJ.te in the ca^e of tome of thp™''''"''^ '"
who ware living in lu-. '"*'** martyrs
living °l"^e(.n tnrough having npsed into nril
was fixed at s:^t/(V:tU"vL"'".''""l7y''
Patrol. Lat. Iviii 245 fJihK °"' '° *"«"«>
band of five CatholicTlaves °„ Afri'"''''-''".'* 1 "
having been beaten nnf^I! i, .^ '^^°> »"«'•
against the QuXi hf» H ' """ ""^'"^ ''■"
.uffered greatly owiSg o t^e "hV;'" T?'""
Sn fellt'th ; "kn'esTnV" *'* ^'"-«
rain fell, refreshing and ^^ilX'^'^ower o(
army, but terrifvin? aJ Ii.i -^ l " ^°"^'">
to whom it had Zved 1 ZT'7.l^' ^^^y^
^:^etE~H^^^t-
edon" from «k,> '"* thundering
icjjiou irom th'j occurrence n« if ,i. i
existed and was .-.j old as the H™. e\ '"^^
Baronius's explanation Um^ mo^s ^Tt'T'
Christian soldiers were in aU Z,\ I '.V'"'* ""^
mn.; M.gne, iJ.rf. cfc^ j^v. t i. p 759^ "•"
^ "'""P'^ ' of protection afforded to indivi-
W0NDER8
2051
' Tbese cases of recovered m^j^ .*„ _,,„,, ,. ^
ISO tongue Ijuve h«.n in„..ii VVi niutilation of
bytbeHon/E TwWeJrX^r' '" "P^'"' treatise
la n,«,.m times luthemlcTl^ b^«Vl^ ^"'™' <=«•«'
|o;h,ch person, .,^ -atXn"Z:r.':
CUBIST. ANT.— VOL, u.
b"hop:;-ni"rn^ loo irr °' ''■^"''-"
S • VI, 1^3 ?''V''''''"''"' '■''" P''^"'-^ Snip.'
in The! 0,-it^ ,t™%'";'-. a young O^tholfc
I from their hi 1 'l""*^ '""'«' ^^"e freed
invoking ChS%^"n" ''«°'"« *'"' "■"-'"'"J
! tection aK.'ii'th&;Cs'o> p"^- °'" Tj
an example in the in . ^"'^'=ts of poison we hnd
Canusiur, A ^^t "'^•'"^■^ "f Sabinus, bishop of
of Samson, fchop'^'l'.T a n /g " "-• ') f^
un..er oir" mslalW If " i^X'T ^rT"'
want, in the instances .f r}^ or absolute
marching against thTvi-.K"'"' "'''"• *^'"-''>
guided to tife r°'cht 1, e f "''• *'•"' ''"''" I"'"'')-"
t by a stag whi^h'tSr^t "1;^--?^ "" ^n''^-''^
- ^r^«d::^^ Sp-o;^;
^S^S^SrSV""^-'-'^-
Marvels. *^ ' ^^^ Pumtive ; (2)
on^lL'^rebuildinS the'Teml'T^ """/"'"
The emperor Ji linn 1,. • P'® "^ Jerusalem.
rebuildmTo the l"empt f,'"° °"^"'' '"' ">«
superinte'ndence of the'^'^^o r't"o^ htV'^'f' "'^
a'^f^'arco^'r-"'^ '" "«^ inwtiio'nnrrhe'
anrai"/ h Lr'^^c^ompHsr"".''^ "' ''""-'-
the marvelloi" maZ? n w^i,^\C''^'"*'^ ""'
nterrui.ted am] »Ko • '".*""," the work was
we lea/n the plr Suir'll'r'^"^ "'""^'«'''
some from anothpr a ' u^f *."'" ""^ "'"'er,
an earthquake followed T^ f n5 "'^.^"'"'i'^men ;
ticn of the old 'wl J;n-''''"S.^P *''« '^"""''a-
tions and causing ZftlfC,!''' "«^^ "O"^"'
the public portic^oe, beneath S^.V'^''^'"^^
Ammianus JIarcellinus (Hist xxr u ^'/"^
ater historians RufinusVX i 37^'/"^°^
("i. 20), Sozomen Cv 22>> Tl,!n.) fV' Socrates.
-•..20)!' See Wait S's Sr? ^^^L^' '
xxin ; Newman, <,„ if,v. chxv . 'wi^n n'- ^*
des Mir. t. ii. p 1 1 15 Wit K ' /''«"«' -O'c^ .
of Arius, the'eUI ts ZZ'hXV^l''
co5oxio;;'a^"i£ : - .;:!or "t^-
sutni"? r^"^ an Arirbsh'op who wi
ffii^'iS^^'^fe-lfwayi^-
man who, when couierfeititi1,i:'ine!s^;t to
130
2052
WONDERS
instigation of an Arian bishop who wished to
display his pretended powers of healing, became
actually blind (Oreg. Turon. ii. 3); and pope
Gregory's account of th« prodigies which at-
tended the re-consecration for purposes of ortho-
dox worship of an Arian church at Rome {Dial.
iii. 30). For further examples of Divine judg-
ments — for as such they were regarded at the
time (Socr. vi. 19 ; Sozom. viii. 27)— we may
refer to the various accidents, unwonted illnesses
and sudden deaths which took place at Constan-
tinople, k.D. 404, after the persecution which
was raised against St. Chrysostom (Kleury, xxi.
48). Tliat Divine visitations were not confined
to this side of the grave, see Greg. M. Dial. iv.
51, 53, 54.
(2) Amongst marvels which were not specially
connected with saints were the circumstances
which led to the development of the angelic song,
the Greek Tkisaqion in the reign of Theodo-
siua II. A child at Constantinople was caught
up into the air, and on his return in the course
of an hour reported that he had heard the
heavenly host singing, iyios i &(hs, fiyios iVx"-
phs, S710S aflacoTo'j (Mansi, t. vii. p. 1041); th»
fall, at Alexandria, of statues from their pedestals,
proclaiming the death of the emperor Maurice
and his sons (Thenph. 450); the filling of a
piscina with water through some unknown
agency (Greg. Turon. de Gl. Martyr, i. 24) and
the mysterious strewing of the pavement before
a saint's tomb with roses <_De Mir. Mart. ii. 46).
(6) Miraculous appearances.
" They have visions," writes Irenaeus (^Contra
:Hacr. ii. 32), "when enumerating the gifts
; jMWsessed by Christ's true disciples In his day."
To quote tho words of a historian who does not
err on 'he side of credulity, "it is impossible to
overlook the clear traces of visions and inspira-
tion which may be found in the early fathers "
(Gibbon, c. xv.). As the exercise of powers of
healing and exorcism constituted the chief
mode in which the early Christians exhibited in
an active form the miraculous gifts which had
been imiiarted to them for the good of others, so
were visions no less the channel by means of
which they became passive recii)ients of BU[>er-
naturiil communications vouchsafed to them for
their own edification and guidance. Thus the
purport of visions was sometimes to allay the
foars, to solve the doubts, to direct the steps of
those who were in trouble or dilKculty, some-
times to odmonish the guilty, and sometimes to
forewarn of approaching calamities. Nor were
they restricted to those who are supposed to be
the" fitting recipients of communications of this
snrt— the hermit in his cave, or the monk in his
coll— having been vouchsafed to men in general,
to the young and old, to the lowly ns well as to
the great. During the first ages they constituted
an important means towards the conversion of
the pagan from his heathenism, the heretic from
his schism. Tertullian writes: " Major paene
vis hominum e visionibus Deum discunt" {De
Anhiui, 47), and Origen, " Many have come to
Christianity through the medium of visions
which occurred to them while awake or in
dreams " (Contra Cels. i. 46).
I. Apparitions of Beings. (1) Angels; (2)
Daemons; (3) Departed Spirits; (4) Living
Saints.
' (1) The appeamnccs of the nrchangel Michael
WONDERS
« qui universalis ecclesiae a Deo patronus et
protector est institutus " — were numerous both
in the East and the West, e.(/. near Byzantium,
near Colosse, on Monte Gargano, A.D. 500 circ,
in Normandy (see above), A.D. 709 (Martyr. Rom.
8 Mail). An angel appeared to St. Theuderius
directing him where to erect his monastery
(Ado Vienn. in Migne, Pair. /.at. cxxiii. 447);,
two angels to Furseiug, A.D. 650, admonishing
him as abbat of a monastery that monks should
pay less attention to the mortification of the
body, and more to the cultivation of a humble,
contented, and charitable disposition (Kleury,
xxxviii. 28).
(2) As examples, we may take first the appear-
ances of the evil one to St. Anthony in the guise
of a woman, then of a black child ; as a monlc
with loaves in his hands, when the saint was
fasting ; as a spirit calling himself the power of
God, and lastly avowing himself to be Satan;
and secondly, the api)carance of demons to the
same saint in the form of wild beasts and
serpents uttering horrible cries (Newman, on
Mir. xxix. ; Fleury, viii. 7).
(3) First of scriptural saints. St. Stephen
appeared, A.D. 420, to Pulcheria, sister of
Theodosius II., infonning her of the safe arrival
of his relics (i.e. his right hand) from Jerusalem
(Theoph. 133, 134) ; St. Barnnbas, A.D. 484, to
Anthimus, bishop of Constantia, in Cyprus,
revealing to him the resting-place of his body,
nea- Salamis, in that island (Fleury, xxx. 19).
Secondly, of bishops and abbats. St. Ambrose
on the night, being Easter Eve, on which he was
laid out for burial appeared to the newly-baptized
infants, varying the manner of his appearance,
but to the parents of the children remaining
invisible, even when pointed out. Again, on the
day of his death he appeared to saints in the
East, praying with them and laying his hamls
upon them, while in Florence he was frequently
seen after his death, praying before the altar of
a church he had built in that city (I'aul. Vita,
48, 49, 50; Fleury, xx. 21). St. Benedict
appeared after death to an abbat and prior of hia
order at Terracina instructing them as to the
idan of a monastery they were about to build
(Greg. M. Dial. ii. 22).
(4) As an example of the a])pearance of a
living saint we read that a child who had fallen
into a well was found sitting upon the surface
of the water, and that his account was that St.
Julian Sabas who at the time was being enter-
tained by the mother of the child had appeared
to him and borne him up (Fleury, xvi. 28). We
find a similar story in the life of Theodosius of
Palestine (Acta SS. ad d. 11 Jan.)
2. Visions of Purgatory, Hell, Heaven.
A vision the martyr Perpetua (Martyr. Rom.
7 Mar) had of her brother, in whose behalf she
had been moved to pray, first as suffering and in
a place of darkness, and then ns comforted nod
surrounded with light, has been supposed to
re'cr to a state of purgatory (Robertson, i. 68 j
Milman, ii. 221). As indicative of the punish-
ment of the wicked, an abbat in Auvergne had
a vision of a stream of fire, and of men immersed
in it bitterly bemoaning their sullcrings. Thrsj
had lost their footing when crossing a narrow
bridge which spanned the stream, and were men
who had been careless in the discharge of
their spiritual duties. After this vision lh«
WONDEBS
a cloud shining beyond th« I-k. "':"'"'"'"* ''>
(Greg. Turon. vii. 1).
3. A,,paritions of Crosses. (1) in the air- 0\
s?<m<m<; (i. 28-82) but nnl Vill ♦ 1 -^ ."-^ ^'"'■
«ftor tvl " ""' "" t«enty-s x venrs
alter the occurrence miH iui,;,.k u '^'■^ ;;""s
and Rufinus in a dream, alth'Sr^ hi'
authority of Kusebius they „ so ^
appantion in the sky. In /p„ne^j ! ^ ] ,,^
immedmtely after the victory the spanker uK
n|-ngers"(,;t'i!::^^''^o'^£
alludes to a medal f.Tf»nt i„ *i.. .'."''• ^'bbon
ftW>nt became strirtnr in .i, , . WONDERS 2053
n^esof Jtr'^S'■^'";*''""'""'''^-'•-
Constautiu,.,,le , ;,e in the '"l" .'""'''''• «'
the third jU; T the f' '-'"""•■'■ '"
(Greg. Turon. 'viH"' *''* ''S"' °* ^"n «' moon martyrdon'/^hi h t '.k";;;" ^"'f >" ''^^'''''-e her
3. Apparitions of cLes. n. Tn .. ... .. ^;,K't;'T^ ^^'^^^^^^^^^ ^S
gar^nl't ^ ?'t: " .^r ri'r'"'-^ " ""^'^^
'eniperorJuliantX, erinTimv'" '1T' "'"
appeared laden «.i»k -^ '"yricum the v hes
vfitage lad ;k , '1";;'1'« S';"!'-. "'"-ugh the
from them 'u :t"t\e^'prnu'S\h:V'''''"'
posed to portend that f hi ^ '"!"' "'"^ «"P-
i'-atu^../i:X:^;:^:-t;:^;7^
{he^ky^r"s;:/''f,'""v--"-^
rebuild the temT. e ^,5 "'"'"' ""'="'1'' *»
appearance on t"e' bale's nnr"'"'""""^' ''>■ *''«
of crosses which w:;^"l;^i::!„f™-J,^';-;?
■Th2or"iii%";):r:'=^n'''' » ""■'-'-•
iii. 20) Nor wish nf ** ''"*'"-'^'' ""^ (Socr.
Jerusalem being s on ^^T"??""" ™"fined to
cities like;iso ("rheol 8^ .,11'"'' T' "*''"
Jtwnrf. i. 537) See v« ' *''""• ■^'^'- C"""*-
Migne,i>i^:i/j^>\^77,- ""t'r- "''"'■'■'
i:^thefigure;;h:=r;:^^r-;^S
the skv «f tJ,. ' V • ' " "™' appeared in
human wisdom, but upon the sensible^rrooft of
W This" l"""'"'"" " ('>'•"' ^/'- -^ CoJt^np]
Of this phenomenon Cyril, then patriarch of
Jerusalem, wrote an account in '."""" "^^ "t
Coiistantius, who at fh« .• ^^ emperor
against Max.ntius n Pnn ' "'"f ''e''*'°S
according to Ph'iirs'torgiu^TS.'^i^rii S'
nf »K„ /'i. • i. 1, 6 """ the encouraeement
ot the Christian host (Thennh fio a-i . li-
I>ic'. des Mir. torn i 247\ 'r„ ".^ ' ' ^''S"«-
Pf the cross in Vh„' t ^" " ""^*'" appearances
Gritser^rn" . !:''twi't::..'::tj *!;"\'"""'-^. '"'''■
the 4th rpnt,„.„_r " '^"^ bcgim,i„s, of
i^fnir^nUr^^r-^a^^j^p
that country, and hi- hi= c„ii """aws, K.ng ot
occasion of fh!.!, i? . tellow-converts on the
tc «^ "h Ore J^^v N "f^*'™- ,^'''''''""= """ther,
"•" Gregory Nazianzen alludes (Orut. v. 7),
«— —^—-^ nmcii prevailed '
turn the capital into a desert Th-. p' .T ,•"
The above classification of apparition, nn,I
2054
XANTIPPB
Perpetua was sustnined in prospect of her mar-
tyrdom (Rob. i. 68), and for their use as prog-
nostics of approaching calamity we may instance
those which were vouchsafed to the church in
Africa, A.D. 480 circ, to prepare her for her
persecution by the Vandals {tb. i. 500 ; Vut, Vit,
ii. 6).
Lastly, in the eyes of the monkish and episcopal
chroniclers of the dark ages c ttial or atmos-
pheric phenomena, such ae .mets, meteors,
displays of the aurora borealis, wore the aspect
of " wonders" (prodigia), especially when coin-
cident with or preceding the deaths of saints,
e. g. St. Liudger, A.D. 809 (^Acta SS. Ben. saec.
iv. pt. i.) or princes, e. g. Theodebald (Greg.
Turon. iv. 9) Merovcchus (v. 19), Gundobald
(vii. 11), or the occurrence of plagues and pesti-
lences (iv. 31). Certain concomitants of these
phenomena, such as a shower of blood from the
clouds besprinkling the garments of men anJ
the interior walls of a house (vi. U), and the
conversion of the water of a ponu into blood
(viii. 25) do not it is true belong to the same
Bbturai order of things. [C. G. C]
YEAR
Christians for spiritual ends, to its practice br
the heathen athletes for earthly victories ((*»
Jejm. cc. i. ivii.). UviMXpayuv is employed of
the Lenten fast in the fiftieth canon of the
council of Laodicea, A.D. .')90 ; of the fast in Holy
Week by Epiphanius (Compend. Doct. Cath. vol.
ii. pp. 295, 296, 361, ed. Paris, 1622), when bread
and salt was the only solid food allowed, and water -
was drunk only in the evening. For the varieties
of practice which existed with rtgard to fasting
in the early church, see Socrates, Eccles. Hist.
V. 22; Balsamon, Epist. de Jejiin. in Cotelerii
Eccles. Oraec. Mon. torn. ii. p. 498v edit. 1681.
[F. E. W.]
XYSTU8 (SiXTCS IL), pope, martyr, com-
memorated on Aug. 6 (Marl, Met. Bed. ; Mart.
Bed., Usuard., Adon., Yet. Eom., Horn.).
[C. H.]
X
XANTrPPE, Sept. 23, commemorated in
Spain with her sister Polyxena, disciples of St.
Paul (Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Oraec. Sirlet. ;
Mart. Som.). [C H.]
XENODOCHIA. Guesthouses for the re-
ception of strangers and pilgrims. [HOSPITALS.]
There were four such of ancient foundation in
Rome, which, having fallen into decay, were
restored by pope Stephen H., A.D. 752-757, and
furnished with all things needful both within
and without. He also founded a " xenodochium "
where a hundred poor men were fed daily
(Anastas. § 228), and built two without the
walls near St. Peter's, which he attached to the
ancient " diaconiae " of the Blessed Virgin and St.
Silvester {ibid. § 229). Pelagius H., ad, 5.'>7-590,
converted his own house into a guesthouse for
poor and aged men (ibid. § 112). Belisarius, o.
540, erected a "xenodochium" in the Via Lata
(ibid. § 102). We find these Roman guesthouses
distinguished by different names, probably those
of the founders, e.g. "xenodochium Valerii"
(§ 274); "xenodochium Kirmi," containing an
oratory of the Virgin (§ 38.5), and adorned with
gifts by Leo IIL (§ 402); and the " xenodochium
quod appellatur Tucium," containing an oratory
of SS. Cosmas and Damian (§ 408). [PiuiRlM-
AGE, § vii. p. 1641.] [E. v.]
XENOPHON, monk, "holy father," cir.
520, commemorated on Jan. 26 with his sons
Arcidius and Joannes (Basil. Menol. ; Daniel,
Codex liturg. iv. 251). [C. H.]
XEROPHAGIA (^riixxpayla, aridtH vict'Jt-,
dry tood). This word, as expressive of the act
or habit of living on dry food or a meagre diet,
is in common use hy ecclesiastical writers, both
Greek and Latin, to denote the Christian rule of
fMtiug. TertuUian compares its adoption by
YEAH, THE Ecclesiastical. The object of
this article is to supplement that on Calendar
[p. 256], by giving a complete account, accord-
ing to the principal calendars, of the arrange-
ment and designations of the several Sundays of
the ecclesiastical year, as aTso of thu Festivals
in the weeks corresponding with them.
This Calendar presents an abnormal number
of Sundays (57), in order to shew the full
arrangement of these for both an early aud
late Easter, according to the position of which
festival some either of the earlier or of the
later Sundays in the Calendar would need to be
omitted ; it must be remembered, however, that
in different years the correlation of Sundays
would vary, inasmuch as those, whose place
depends upon that of Easter, may occur more
than a month earlier than in our Calendar,
while other Sundays, dependent upon fixed festi-
vals can only be a few days earlier or later
in the year. While care has been taken to
exclude festivals of later origin than the 9th
century, the alternative names (mostly Latin) of
festivals and Sundays, the precise period of the
origin of which is uncertain, have generally
been included, on account of their common use
in early and mediaeval documents; and the
Latin introits are also given for the same reason.
Besides other obvious abbreviations the following
have been used :— D. Dominica dies, Hebd. heb-
domadn, Sab. Sabbatum, fest. festum, ninrt.
martyr, com. companion. An alphabetical index
to the names of the Sundays and festivals is
subjoined.
The chief authoritieii used in the compilation
of the Calendar are : the ancient Roman (Eom.)
and Greek (Ur.) Calendars to be found in
AUatius (de Domin. et Hcbd. Oraecis); the Am-
brosian (ArrA.) and Mozarabic (Moz.) Calen-
dars; the Sacramentary bearing the name of
firsirorv the Great (Qreg.) ! the Armenian (4rm.)
and" Georgian (Oeorg.) Calendars; the Uuthio
(Ooth.) Calendars in Migne (Patrolofjy); tin
Syrian (Syr.) and Nestorian (Nest.) in EtheiiJge
(Syrian Churches) and Assemanus (Bibl. Orient.
iii. 2, 380) i for the British and Irish (Br.)
YEAB
G.illican (^a„U.) aud Gorman {Oenn.) churches
been made to ^eale (/«<;. <„ 7/,s<. j^^st. Church)
Dates, and Ducange {dhsaurium).
YEAR
2055
Dominical and Weekly Calendar,
from Christmas to the following Chhistmas.
I. F. I. eve (sc. of the Sabbath) after the NATn-.ir, XM.
VI. of II. I cntecost (the 60 days before the Arm
Nat,yity. Jan. 6), Ann. Intr.. Hum medium ^Z-
W. Media septlmana, quarta Sabbatl (week)
F. II after the NAiivirY; the Virgin Mary (all the
Slt^rZ.""" ""^' ''""' '^""-'""^il'elr
II. 8. trnfraoctavamClrcumclsionis], before the Llgh is
(^po To,^ «u,tu,m), Cr.j VII. of II. Pentecost, i. before
lelvaX'"'^™-' "^ ''""■" ^•"'"- ') ' ~
F. I. of the EpiPHAinr ; John Bapt., Nea
ill. 8. I. post Epiphaniam, Kom., Ambr Arm avj./
after the Light*. Or. , .. p„,t iheopha„Cffr^ '
• Dispumtio cum doctorlbua. Mr., L excel^ So
M Dies pordlta (the Christmas ^east iSnTove?).'
I'lough and Rock M.. Dlitaff's day ^ '''
F. n. of the Epiphanv. aps. Peter and Paul. Nat.
IV. S. n. post Epiphaniam. Rom., Arm, Neit ■ xi. „f
Luke, or of the -Ten Lepers, Or. ;To t^tlVafEpi-
S^uTgenL's""" •^-''"^'"■"- ^""•- omnia te^
V^li'm"^.."'! KpiPHANT, TV. EVANQEI.I8T8. JVe.i.
V. 8. m. post Epiphaniam. Rom., Arm., Xett.: xiv
lit A, ''7' r'^.^""*"" (Candlemas, F b. ^"
Intr., Adorate Ifemlnum. ■'
^\m^! ""'. ^"""^^^ S'OP'"'" tie first mart.
VI. S. IV. post Epiphaniam. Rom., A,-m.. A%,«. , xv ol
F V «; »;■ V'^-h-ous. Or. Adora.. «v:..nium
F. V of the Epiphant; niodorue. Theodore and xVes-
torius. doctors of the Greeks ; Nat.
VU. 8. V, post Epiphaniam. Rom., Am,, Nat • xxn
of Matthew. Or. Adorate tertium. '
\v' m"".,^:' "'"" ^™**'' "f "'^ Ninevltes; Aiat.
W. Monk Anastaalus, Rom.
Th. Thanksgiving. Nest.
F. VI. of the Epiphany; the Syrian doctors. Epbraem
Narse... Abraham. Julian. John. Michael. JobfS
and Barsuma; Nest. ' ^
TUI S. VI. post Epiphaniam. Rom., Arm., Nat. , xii
of Luk^ or of the »Publican and Pharisee Tri^
dIonorProsphoneslmus S.. Or. Adorate qlrtum
WeeK Prosphonesimus (,rpoa«u,^a.^.o.^ Cr. i ob.
served as a last (Artziburh-) by Arm
P ."m** r.^L""' "'"*""'^ "' "^^ 'n this week. Or.
F. VII of the Epiphant. patr. Maraba i Nat.
oa. Alieleuaticae Exequiae.
iX. S, In Seituaoesima. Rom., Amb.; vir. post Epi
PHANiAM, Rom., Arm.. Nat. ; of the .Prod^ai L"
Gr.; Lost S., Alleluia S.. Carnisprivium, I^lvlcl"'
n umMocrdotumifestum Reposlil„ni,(sc. Allelulae)
1: .f. r "'v""*":- A'leluladlmlssum or clau.um.
wtkif 1 "' ^J?"'""- ^""••.a^u-ndedernntme.
^\eek of Apocreos (dird(cpt<ucV Or.
M. Blue M., Oerm.
F. VIII of the Epiphant. the xl. marts.: Nat.
oa. of ApocHEOB. Or.
X. 8. In Sexaoesima. Amb., Rom.; vm. post EYipha-
. lltl^'^' ^.r™-, -■*'"'•! of Apocreos (orCarnis-
prlvlun, ,5 the l^t day of eatiug meat), Or
(Khomltha.gheblsa)g«>rg./nfr.. Exsunje Domlne:
porUon, of (he w-rvloe. for tbe day; frequently the
euyeot of Oospel or Lesson, as well i the Intro thu^
furnishes a UUe to the Snnday "»» inircii, thus
Week of Ttkophaocs {rvi,o4.dyo,). Or.
t- IX. of the Epiphanv, conim. of the Departed i Nat
Sa test Ovotun ; S„bU.:um In xii. lectlGnZ '
SI. 8. in Qlinqlaoesima, Amb., Rom. ; ix nost Fpi
eX*c"h^"":' "' 1>'-.uo™ (as'tLe iSTday oJ
eHting cheese), Aiwtyrosis, Tyrlne, Or ■ Cheese 8
Wueliereth). oeor,.; s. before the Fast "m J
Driver *"""•■ '^"""VE S.; E.vcrnali„m, Carnls-
prlMura novum; Clerl«„um vel Domlnor-im BacI
We k , oT h^ T ""r'"""'- ""'■■ '^^ "'"
rh„ . V s '^*" (™n"iienclng this day). Or «
Ch-te (casta) W.. Cleansing W.,' inter duoiS..
M. Collop M.
t' On»I' ^"'^'^'""•lesferhie; Shrovetide.
nrenflT""", """"'" ^-'-^'nentrannus, Carem-
Clever &TuX''^'"- ^™'--
sa. habbatum post cinerum.
f,fi iJ," '^""f "•"■«""«. ^'"J--. Jfozar.; ,n Quadrag.
(«d Lateranis), .Rom.; Caput Quad,agosin,ae, GM-
Quadrag. Intrans, Dominica quadragTnta, ,!'of he'
wo^h, ."°'~"' ^- <f^'"» '"^ restoration of image
Week ri. of the Fast. Cr. ; Brandons. Br. ; Chaste W
M. I. day of the Fast. OothcHUp., R,m.,a^Tlntr'
Sicut oculi servorum. ^'' •
tI: L?n'^-. ^'"""""^ ^''■"^^"'^ J^'^'-^y.
XIII. 8. II. In QUADRAQESIMA, •Samaritanae. Amb ■ t
Jiensis priml. Ro«.. ; „. .f the Fast, »r. ;^i„.T„ ihe
Fast, ^m.. A'e»«.; of the »ProdlBal Son 7,1 .
Omanaeae. de •TransflguratlonV; plst Fiei'^^
Ignes. Intr. Reminiscere. *'
Week III. of the Fast, Or.
Fast, of the Adokation of the Cnoss (2T«„poro„,.
•Umust Steward. Arm.; de 'Abrahame \Jm6 .
•I^aemonl, mutl; Adorandae Crucls. Cn. toll
Week of the Mid Fast (m/o,, toI. ,^„„i,, ^.,„^..
MoO, /?r.; septlmana media J^uniorum Pi^Z^
W. Dies magnl Scmtinll. "-"."luum.
''^■f^;^^^'' '^'-''''''"Of '"A. ^mft.. Bom.; rv. of the
Fast, Or.; v. in the Fast, Arm., Nat.: of Se
•Un^us Judge. Arm.; Don-.. M.iiat.te Vor.rl
Media Vuadr«gl„ta.M.D Lknx, Brogad (B aggot S.
SimnelS.. /,r.; .CaeciNali.^m(,., de •pfnlbt^
iioms. /ni--.. Laetare Hlerusalem.
gt'm'ae.'" "' *'*"' '''•' "^"^ '"^'»" <J>^™-
W. Dies caecl nati.
Th. •Jljgnlficet.
Sa. *SltiAte« venlle ad aquam.
*^\"h?" p': !" '^"•'«*"*^"' A. ^wk.. «om., ifcrar. j v. of
the Fast, Or.; vi. Ir. the Fast, .'.rm . Nat : of
the .Entry of Christ, Arm. ; de'Lazarc, ^m" .isti
aun dies; neposituatfmtr the replacing of Ir,-,sg«-
M^i.n^ Mediana octava, I). quintanSe (sc S.'
ante Palma, In Passio.ie Domini. Passioi, S.. Bkck
S. Care or Carting S. Intr., Judlca me Deus.
Het..pl^n^ ''■' ""•""'""^ '^'O" ''■•
^.^' ^'V'thlstl. Resckeeotion of LAZAntrs. Or
-irm.; bab. vacans, ante ramos palmarum, datlonto
2056
YEAR
clcnmoHynae vel fernicnti, in Tradltlune Syniboli;
Maiidatum pitupiTum.
XVII. S. VI. In (ji ADRAOKSIMA, AfoBi. ; VII. of lUe Fast,
Arm. ; Olivaruni, Amb. ; Palm 8. (iwi' fiattuy), dr.,
Arm. i Prostllutlun S. (•Bzobl.na from Mary Magda-
lene), Georg. ; do Tradltioiie Symboll (CatechumeiiB
then learning the Creed), Motar. ; Hosanna S., yat. f
In raniis Palmaruni, Oreg. ; Raraalla. Oschophoria ;
dies Palmaruiu, getitatiunls I'almarum, Oi,annae;
Indulgentiae, Pascha pctitnm ve' cumpetentiiim;
llroncberlae, Callcts, Capitllavlum : Pa^cha florum,
Verbenalla: D. I^azarl. Intr., Domlne ne longe.
■ Week. Hdly and Grkat AV., of the Redeeming
PaHSion (fftitrifpiov ndOov^), Or. \ last of the Fast,
Utit. \ Hebd. Poenosa vel I'oenalls, Laborioso, Magna,
Mf^or, Aulhentica, Crucls, Indulgentiae, Muta.
tjuiiidena (Cjulnquenna) Pascbae (including also the
week after li^aster).
M. Ffst. of the Crbation of the World, Arm.
M., Tu., and W. Dies 'liamentationls.
Tu. Holt and Great T., Gt. \ last T. of the Fast
Ktit. \ Fest. of the Deluoe, or Ten Virgins, Arm. ;
feria in. magna vel mi^or.
W. Fest. of the Destkuctios of -jODOK, or the Be-
trayal, Am. ; Succlnctlo Campnnarum.
W., Th., and F. Tenebrao; dies Muti.
Tb. Fest. uf tbeMysTiu dupfER, Ai-m.; natalia Callcis,
Coena D>mlnl, Mandatl dies (Manndy Th.), dies
Jovis in mandate; Th. of the Pascha, Nat.\ Pec-
catrix poenitenttalis, AbsolutionU dies, Capitu-
laviuin, dies Vlrldliim j Green, Shere orSchlre, Chare,
and Good or Holy Th.
F. Day of Salvation (to <»-mt^(xii). Day or Pascha of
the Cross, Gr. j great or holy Pueparation (Para-
scevc, iropo(r«fv^), Gr., Lat. ; Passion and Mystery
(eucbari^t) of the P.ischa, Nett. ; Coena pura; Good
F., Br.; Care F. (Charfreylag) ; Biduana, Veneris
t dies Adoriitus, Mortis Christi ; fest. Compassionis vel
VII. dolorum V. Mariae, Ibledo.
Sa. Holt an' "reat Sabbath, Or.; Sab. Sanctum
( (Paschae), Ji....». ; Great Sab., Rest of Christ (Reqnies
Domini corporis, Lat.), Neit. ; fest. of the Burial,
Arm.; Sab. Ijumlnum; Benodlctio (Praeconlum)
Cerei et Fontium; Mox socrata velsancta; Easter
Eve.
XVIII. S. Easter S., Pace or Paas day. Journey Fes-
tival, Br.; D. Sancta in Pascha, Horn. ; Dies Sanctus
Paschae, Amb. ; D. Sancta, Greg. ; Dies Dominlcus
(kot' •fox^c), TtHul. ; Resubrectiokis, Amb., Gr.,
Xat. ; Pascha, Arm., Gr. ; Bright S. (Aofiirpi), Gr. ;
8. of Sundays, Hut.; Annus Novus; dies B>-galls;
fest. Azymorum; Pascha bonum, camosum, com-
municans ; Prima Dominica, Primum Pascha.
■ Week of the Renewal (itoxaii^cTifiot), Or. j of the
Sabbath of Sabbaths, Nut.; in Albis, Greg.; infra
Albas Paschae, Hei>d. Albana; dies Bont et Neo-
pl)ytoruni, i<'eriatae vel Ferlatl.
M. Paschulis dies; All Souls, Arm.
W. Pascha medium.
' F. All Confessors, Nat. ; ad S. Martam ad Hartyres,
Bom.
• Sa. Sab. in Albls, infra Albas; i. peat Foscha;
Lawson Eve, Br,
XIX. ■ B, Octava Pascbae, Rom., Uotar. • Clausnm
Pascbae, GotKico-Gall. ; In Albig Depositis, Amb. ;
New S., Arm., Or.; Anlipatcha, S. of 8. Thohas
(KuinJ, Mil Kvpiojc)) ToO oi/Tiira<rxa, i(n»Ao^>iins toC
»MMo. also ieuTfporrpupTi)), Or. ; S. after Pascha,
Nett.; Octava Infantium; Doni. post Albas vel hi
Alliisj Pom. Infcrius (Low S.), Mensis Paschae,
Missae Domini, Alleluia. Intr., Quasimodo genlli.
Week of Antlpascha, or ii. after Pascha, Gr.
M. W. and F. J^unlumbanni, bannitum, vel magnum.
"XX. S* "• P"st pA3CJi.\, Am,b., JVcfft.; 1. iJ^^t c<tftvas
Paschae, Rom., Greg.; i. post olausum Paschae i
■ III. after Pascha, of the Ointment bearers {n>v /ivpo-
^ofiav, who anoinieil our Lord's body), comm. of
Joseph of Arimathaea; Green S., Arm.: trium
'- •eptimanarunv Paschae ; post Ostensiouem reliqul-i
YEAR
arum; Mapparum albarum; Mirabilla Domlne,
Pastor Bonus, intr., Miserlcurdia Domiid, el Uuam
Domini,
Week III. after Pascha, or of the Ointment Bearers,
Gr.
XXI. S. III. post Pascha, /Imft., JS'eif.; ii. post octavam
Paschae, Bom.; ii. post clausuni Paschae, Dimil-
nlcum II. post Pascha; iv. S. after Puscha, of tiie
•Paralytic, Gr.; Beautiful, or Red S., .inn.; •Deus
qui errantibus. Intr., Jubilate omnis terra.
Week IV. after Pascha, or of the Paralytic, Gr,
W. Feast of Mip Pentecost begins, lasting a week.
Or.
XXII. S. rv. post Pascha, Ambr., Neit.; m. post
octavam Paschae, Bam. ; in. i>ost ciausum Paschae ;
V. after Puscha, Arm., Gr. ; Mid Penteco.st, Gr. i
of the 'Samaritan woman, Gr., Lat. Intr., Cautute
Dumino.
XXIII. 8. V. post Pascha, Amb., Nttt.; iv. p t
octavam Paschae, Riym. ; iv. post cluusum Poscli ;
VI. after Pascha, Arm., Or. ;• of the *Blind Mwi,
Or.; Dom. Rooationum, vel ante Ll;anla8; lest.
Evangellsnil. Intr., Voceni Jucundltatis annunciate.
Week of the Ascension, Gr. ; Hebd. Crucium; Pruces-
gion, RooATioN, Grass W.
M., T., and W. Gang days, Br. ; Rogation days,
LiTANiA minor, Triduana ; Jtjunlum Ascensiouis.
T. End of Pascha, Or.
W. VIgilia de Ascensa L ,mlnl. Bom.
Th. Ascension of our Loud, Bum., Arm., jVerf,,
(afoATgi^tt) Gr. ; Episuzomene (c<ri(rufo/xen)), Ccijijxt-
doci'a.
F. I. of the Ascension, Nat.
XXIV. 8. post AsDENSioNESi (Asccnsa Domini, B(n\.),
Amb., Arm., Nett. ; vii. S. after Pascha, of tlie
cccxviii fathers of the council of Nice, Gr.; vii.
in Easter, ii. Palu S., Arm. /ntr., Exaudi Domlne,
Week. HeM. Expectalionis.
Tb. David of Garedj, Ceorff.
F. II. of the Ascension, Neit.; All the faithful
Departed, Or.
Sa. Sabbatum ante Dkscenscm Fontis, Oreg.; jeju-
nium Sab. Pestecostes ; Sab. xii. leetionum ; in
Albis, prima viii. dierum Neopbytorum, Albaa
Pentecofltes.
XXV. 8. Pentecostes, Amb., Arm., Nest., Gr.\ P.
sancta Pentecostes, Bom. ; Quinquageslma, UaU. \
Pentecoste coUectorum ; fest. Spiuitus Sancti; Ii.
Alba (White S.) ; Cbarismalis dies ; Rosallo, Uosii-
ceum, Rosarum.
Week I. after Pentecost, Or. ; Pentecostmas W.
M. Ftst of the Apostles begins, lasting vii. weeks,
Nat.
W.i F., and Sa. J^uninm aestivale, Ember Days;
Pentecostes Media.
Th., F., and Sa. Rogation days, Ssain.
F. Golden !•', i. of Pentecost, Nest.
XXVI. 8, I. post Pentecosten, Amb,, Gr. ; fest S. Tni-
kitatis, Amb.\ Dom. octava Pentecostes, Bam.; i.
8. after the Descent, Arm.; i. S. of the Apostlts
Nest. ; \. S. of •Matthew, of All Saints, Gr. ; Urn-
ductus Pentecostes; Dom. Duplex, i. aestatis ; *l<eus
omnium exaudltor, *Domine in tua misericurdin,
•Spiritus Domini replevit Intr., Benedlcla.
Week II. of Matthew, Or. ; Hebd. Trinltatls, Duplex.
T. Fast of aps. Peter and Paul begins, Gr.
F. II. of Pentecost, Nett.
XXVII. 8. "• post Pestecosten, Amb., Bom., Gr.,
Mosar.; u. after the Descent, Arm.; ii. of llie
Apostles, Nat. ; ii. of •Mattheu', of the *Teacl!iri(!
of Christ, Gr. ; I), trium septimananim Pentecostes,
in Quindena Pentecostes. Intr., Factus est Domini e.
Week III. of Matthew, Gr.
XXVIII. 8 !!i. post Pkntwxwtew, Amb., Bim., nr.\
III. after the Descent, Arm. ; lu. of the Apostles,
• So Allutlus; the Synaxaria and Triodlon makotl.is
8. the filth, and accordingly the previous Sundaj 9 ulltr
Fa^ha one less in their number.
TEAB
m. of •Mitihew, Or. Mr, Rcpice
Kut.;
nic.
Wetit tv. of Matthew, Or.
after the Descrvt, Arm.; iv. of the Ai-obtlkI
A..*., n. of ..Matthew, of the .Centurion. ar°']nl^
afifr'th r' ''''"'«'««™. ^"ft- -Rom.. Or.; v.
afl*r th,. Itoct:«i, Arm.;y.ot the Afohtle,, ^< •
Exi:s„':: "' '^^ *'''"' ^•""-- '••'• ' '-•;
.h'„7>' "^ I'KNiEcosTKN. ^m6., Or.; v,. after
the DE8CENT. ^rm.j vi. of the Apo^tlf.^, conim o
i'parllv."^'"''/"'-' "'• "' 'Ma-thew. of\e
F. The Lxxii. Disciples, JVejt
v^vm"-™- "' "'-" "'"' N-^* Covenants. Arm.
•Matthew of the .Two Blind Men, Or , , l,
Slmmeb, fea»t of All the Apostles. Ifett : ToIns.
F.aj,HAT,oNS..^r»., /„/r.,Omnes gents.
M. All .Souls, Arm.
'""Nislbiry.^f '"""' "' '""""--^ ~'"'°- «' -f-" Of
^^^m';.?' '"'; ■*'' Pkntecosten. ^m6., Or.; vm of
•Ma thew. of the .Five Loavosand Tv„; Fls e, "^
n^f SUMME«. y«t.. II. after the ThansfigcuatVon
.dnn. fiitr., Suscepimus IXjus b
^^^,{^1?- "^ f"" Pi'.NTEcoerEN. Amb., Or.; ix of
•Alatthew, of .Walking in the Sea, Cr.; i. po^t
A««., m. after the Iuansfioubation, ^rm. jDom
Relkjuiaklm. mr., Kcce Deus a<yuva me.
Week X. of Matthew, ffr.
^^^y." ''u '^^ '"^' ''"■"tecosten, Amb., Or.; x of
•Matthew, of the .Lunatic. Or.; iv. of Suumek
A^..^; IV. allor the TaANsFiouHA^ov. i,m /",?'
Dum clamarem. ..»'"•. Jnti.,
M^Fast of the Assdmption begins, lasting xiv. days.
^■"'^.m'..?' ^^- "^^ P^CTECOSTEN. Amb., Gr.; XI of
•Matthew, of the •Parable of the King. Or- v
of bt-MMEK, iv««,( V. after the Tban^fioubaiion;
Arm. Intr. Oe\xa In loeo sancto.
F. Samonas and soi:^ marts.. ..Vwt
^"''''i«".;.^' ^"- P"" Pkntecosten, ^mft.. <;,... xi, o
•Matthew, of the .Rich Man questioning Jesus, 6r;
^ of &,;m«e«, .v««.i VI. after the Tiuinsfi^usI-
TiON, .4rm. /n*r., Deus In ac^lutorluni.
Week. Fast of the Assumption, /irm
F. comm. of Habban Moses Keth ,&0„ra. John Bar
YYV^^fo- """ P""'- ^""~" Barsaba and com. , K,"
XXX VII I. S. xiii. post Pbntecosthn. Amb. Gr • xm
of .Matthew, of the Tarable of the Vineyard', ffr. ';
11. of fe MMER. ^-««. , As.uB.-T,ON S.. Arm. Mr,
Rcspice Domine. '
M. Fast of Elijah or of the Cnoss begins, lasting vii
weeks, Nat. ; All Souls. Arm. - "' "8 ^ «.
^'"'Vm'.,?' '''^'' •?'"!; ''""■'■'•■cosTES. Amb., Or.; xiv.of
♦Matthew, of the •Wedding Guests, Or.; i of
tLijAH Nut.; ,1. after the Asscmpiion. Arm.
Intr., I'roKctor noster asnlce Deus n
F. comm. of Cathollcus. .Ve««.
XL. S. XV. post Pentkcosten. Amb„ Gr • xv nf
n''o"Kli;;.h ' fe /Lawyer questioning iesus. ffr
n. 01 t Uah, A..(.i Invention of the Girdle of V
Mahv, A,-m. Intr., Incllna Oomlne aurem tuam.
YEAB
2057
" The Sundays which follow June 29 are sometime.
numl«re.l "post Natale Apostolorum" r/fo«° &!
Peter, p. itiri. '■ ■'■ °'^''
« No name is given to this and the following Sundays
In the Mozarabic Calendar. """uujb
" The Sundays which follow Aug. 10 are sometimes
numbered " post S. Laurentll " (^Kom.) *"»'«""«•
^^^'Jr "V^ •?"' Peniecosten; iii. of ElMah, Ne,t ■ s
tetore the Exaltation of Holy Cross, o,- s tofo«
We "^ FaTV^.?",- ';;"■■• ""*'"« "eTDomlne
Yii. - *'"""f""'yCttoss, ^rm.
wtekT'ofTukt'ff;-"""""'^'^'"'-
M. All Souls, Arm
'''^'i^iLTGr"'T rT'^'^"' '• <" '!""'«■ »' «he
AW iT „f,; u f^'-"^"- " of the Invention.
M. w' and F ' "'^ ^loss^™- ^"'r.. Da pacem.
^^^^hr^g.rtL;e::;/r™r--''^--«™-''^
,^ V ' "',"• ""*'■ ''^x^coST. n. of .Luke, of .Uve
^uirE'gt'su'm."''^' ""'^ "''""''• ^"»' ^""-^ «*"-
F. IV. of t',.. Intention, of the last we-k of Elijah
V, v7T' "'"' "^"" f"°f^- Eiy»h, A'«r •
4.Lu''offll!f:;''''"'"^'''"' •"• of •'""'o. of the
^.ft^r^ii > r. ^*"' '"■•' '• '^^ of Mosi.:s, ,Ve,(.i v.
after llolyCRass, Arm. Intr.. In volunta e tua.
T. of ^ . week after Holy Cross, comm. of Ananias of
Damascus, Matthias, Barnabas, Philip Stemen
SII.AS, and SiLVANcs, and xii. AiItleI lirL '^■
W^of .. week of Hoses, comm. of Elhi o7Hlrta ;
^^ M-.'.h'm'"'- "."f '^'•™™«^- V. of .Luke, of the
XT VIM ^ ^^ ^''"'"' ^""' ^"''■- S' In.quitates.
. L?;-"""/'' 1"" '•''^"'^™«^. VI. of .Luke, of the
•l)emon.ac Legion. Or.; m. of Moses, Net.; vii!
cogTto "^ <^""^^^"»' ^«''-. Welt Itomlnus E^
M. Omnium hdelium Defunctorum, Amb.
.R,S'r^''n'''^f!'' ''*""<="'*■'■ "I. of .Luke, of the
.Uulers Daughter, Or.; ,v.' of Moses, Nat.; viiu
afer Holy Cross, ilrm. <»'.| vui.
Week vm. of Luke, Cr.
L. 8. XXV. after Pentecost, vm. of .Luke, of tho
F. comm. of Eugenlus and com. ; Nest.
t'""'!: ""*■■ '■"'"WST, IX. of .Luke, of the .Rlca
I ,T ^''"' '"■• ' "• """ "0" Cross, Ar,a
Lll. S. XXVII. after Pentecost, xiii. of '.Luke Gr ■
^ In^ ADVENTf, Amb.. Uotar. ; xi. after Holy 'cbjo^\
I ,^^''^ ^^^ *"■ ^''™'"' Pektecost. Arm.
LIII. 8. xxviii. alter Pentecost, xiv. of .Luke Tr •
n. In Adventu, Amb., Mozar.; v. ante NatHlem
^minl ffr.,.; ,. „f the 3eco;-d P^^TEC^^f ;T
before tlie Nativity. Arm.
''^^;s^.J; t t"]'^'"'- "'^- ' '• of '"« ANNnNCUTIOK.
(S.bora ATes^i „,. ,„ Adventu. ^m6.. *<„ar. , ,v
XV. of *I.uke, of */acchaeu8. ffr.; ii. of the Second
Pentecost, v. before the Nativity. Arm.; *Zl.
clcnsalonge. /n(r.. Ad te levavl.
^M:rtlnrv^"par,^.''" ^'''"''"''' *"'«'^»«-'- «"
">«"!' "' "'*^™"™'*™''l*8'n«. lasting.v. weeks.
LV. 8. II. de Advfj,-tu; ii. of the Anvuxciation. Nest.,
".ante Natale Domini. Ji„m., Arm.; ,„. ante
Natalem. Ureg.- iv, !n Adventu, An;b., Mo^^r-
• The Sundays which follow Sept. 26 are sometimes
numbered " post S.Cyprl.n.-C^foi,.). «'"«'"'«'
as re^qtinr'"" "' ""^ ^'"'^'" """^ be les. Uuu. four
2058
TEAR
YEAR
XXX. after Pp.xtkcost, x. of *Luke, of tbo •Woman
with a Spirit of Inflrmlty, dr. ; ill. of the Skounu
rKNTKCuuT, ilrm. ; D. de Jerusalem, /ntr., I'opulun
8lon.
liVI. 8' "•• d* Adventu; m. of the Annunciation,
Aut. i III. ante Natai.e Domini, Kom., Arm. ; ii.
ante NaUilcm, Oreg. ; v. In Adventu, Amb., Mmar. j
XI. of *Luke, of the *Weddlng iJucste, of tho holy
Forelatliers, Or.; iv. of the Skcond Pkntecost,
Arm.
Vf. Ad •Aijgelum.
W., F., und Sa. (of i. complete week before Christmas).
Jejunlum hlt^male iv. teniporuni, Embt-r days.
Sii. Sabbatum de Oaudete ; Sab. xii. Ii'ctlonuni.
liVU. B. >v. de AuvKNTU ; iv. of the Annukciaiion,
Aett.; I. ante Natalem Domini (D. vacat Cod.
Col.), Oreg. ; ii. before the Nativitv (Jan. e), v. of
the .Second Pentecost, Arm. ; vi. In AdM-iitu,
Amb., JUoiar.; S. before the BiiiTii of Chhist, <!r. ;
Doiuiiiica de ; 'Canlte tuba. Intrs., Mi-mento mel,
Rorate Coell.
Week, llebd. de Excepto.
INDEX OP NAMM OF SUNDAYS, ETC.
The lioman numerals refer to the preceding list.
Abrnhanic, P. de, xlv
Absolutionis dies, xvil
Adorate Itominum, v, vl,
vll, vlU
Advrntu, Domlnicae In
(di'1. lii-lvil
Akalbi^ti Sabbatum, xvl
Alba Dominica, xxx
Albiina IhIxI., xvlll
AlbiM, I >. post, xix
Albas PoBChae, Infra,
xviil
Albas Pcnte(08te8, xxlv
Albls, In, will
Alleluia, xix
Alleluia clausum, Ix
All Saints, S. of, xxvl
An!{''luni, ad, Ivl
Annunciatliin. Sundays of
the, liv-lvil
Annus Novns, xvlll
AntPciiieroles ferlae, xl
AntlpuKcliA, xix
ApocrtHjs, ix, X
Apu>tk'S, fast of the, xxv,
xxxl
Apostles. Sundays of the,
xxvi-xxxi
Ap"tyro»i.s, xl
Arcldtrlolini, festum, Iv
Artzilmrliin, vlll
Ascensl mm, I), post, xxlv
Ascen.ioii of Christ, xxiil
Ash Wednesday, xi
AsplcU'ns :i lunge, llv
Assumption Sunday,
xxxviil
Autiientica hebd., xvll
Azymurum ftstum, xviil
Bacchanalia clericorum vel
doininorum, xl
Kanni, vel b:\nnitum, J«Ju-
niuni, xix. xHv
Heamiiul Suiulay, xxl
Benedlcta, xxvl
Betrayal, K. of the, xvU
Biduaiia, xvll
Birtli or Christ, 8. Iiefore
the. Ivil
I!lac!t Sunday, xvl
Blind man, S, ol the, xxlll
Blind men, S. of the two,
xxxli
Blue \t<,ndny, Ix
BonI die.'i. xviil
Braggnt Sunday, xv
Brandnnum dies, xll
Bright Sunday, xvlll
Brunchoriae Dominica, xvll
fiurarum dies, xll
Burial, P. of Ihe.xvU
Caecl nati l>ominlca, xv
Callcis Dominica, xvll
Campanarum succinctlo,
xvil
Cananaeae, xll
Canddas, D. ante, T
Canlte tuba. Ivil
Canlaie Iiomlno, xxll
Crtpitllavtnm, xvll
Caput Jejuiili, xl
Oaramentrunniis, xl
Care Kriday, xvll
Care Sunday, xvl
Curling .Sunday, xvl
Games tollendas, D. ante,
xl
Carnlsprlvlum, Ix, x
Carnlsprlvlum novum, xl
Carnlsprlvlum vetus, xll
Csta Ijebdomada, xl
Centurion, S. of the, xxlx
Cercl benedlciio (praecon-
lum), xvil
Chare Thurgilay, xvll
Charlsmalis dies, xxv
Chaste work, xl, xli
Clitese Sunday, xl
Cilicli dto, xl
CInernm dies, xl
Cli'cumclsl.mls, D. iatn
octavam, II
CIrcumdederunt me, Ix
Clausum Pa.-chae, xix
Coena Oomlhi, xvll
Cocna pura, xvll
Colliip Monday, xl
Communlbus, ferlae in,
xlvl
Composaionis V Marlae, F.,
xvll
Conductus Pentecoatos,
xxvl
Covenants, Comm. of Old
and New. xxxi
Creation of the World, F.
of the, xvll
Crow, day ot the, xvll
Cross, fast of the, xxxvlll,
xll
Crosa, Pascha of thr
xvll
Cross, S. before holy, xli
Cross, 8. of the Adoration
ol the, xlv
Orn««, Smidayg alter holy,
xlili-lli
Cross, Sundays of the In-
vention of the, xlil-xtv
Daemonlamuti Dominica,
xlv.
Da pacem, xUii
Datlonia eleemo^jmac Sab.,
xvi.
Docies quadratum, xl
Deluge, F. of the, xvll
Descent, Sundays after,
xxvl-xxxl
Deus In aiyutorlum, xxxvii
Deua In lucu sancto, xxxvl
Deus omnium exaudltor,
xxvl
Deus qui errantlbus, xxl
DeuteroprolB Sunday, xix
Dicit DoininuH, xlvlll
DistafTa day. III
I lectors, Christ with the. III
Domine In tua nitscrlcordla,
xxvl
Domine ne longe, xvll
Dominica vacans, II, Ivli
Dominicus dies, xvlll
Doniinua foitltudo meo,
xxxl
Domlnus lllumlnatlo mea,
XXIX.
Dum clamarem xxxv
Dum medium sileiitium, I
Duplex Dominica, xxvl
Easter Sunday, xvlll
Kcce Deusadjuva me xxxlv
Elijah, font ot, xxxviii, xlv.
Elijah, Sundays of, xxxlx-
xiv
Ember days, xli, xxv,
Ivl
Entry of Christ, S. of the,
xvl
Epiphanlam, Domlnicae
ipost, lll-xl
Eplsozomeni', xxiU
Esto nilhl, xl
Kvaiigeliami festum, xxili
Exaudi Domine, xxlv, xxx
Excarnalium, xl
tacepto, hebd. de, IvII
Expectationls hebduinada,
xxlv
Exsurge Domine, x
Factus est Domlnus, xxvii
Fast, 8. of the entrance in,
xl
Fast, Sundays of the, xll-
xvll
Felicissimus dies, xvlll
Ferlatae dies, xvlii
Fcrnicntl Sabbatum, xvl
Fishing, 8. of the, xlill
Five loave- and two fishes,
S. of the, xxxlli
Focorum dies, xll
Focos, 1). post, xlli
Fontanis, 1). de, xv
Kontlum henedlctio, xvil
Forefathers, 8. of the holy,
Ivl
aalllael, xvlll
Gang days, xxlll
Gaudete, Sabbatum de, Ivi
Gaudil dies, xviil
Goldfn Friday, xxv
Good Friday, xvll
Good Thursday, xvll
Grass week, xxlll
Great Sabbath, xvll
Green Sunday, xx
Green Thursday, xvit
Holy Sabbath, xvll
Holy week, xvll
Holy day, xll
Holy Thui'sday, xvll
Hosanna Sunday, xvll
Ignes l>. post, xill
Inclina Domhie aurem
tuam, xl
Indulgentiae dies, xvil
In exoilso thronu, 111
Infantlum octav a, xix
Inferlus Dom., xix
Inflriiilly. "J. "f tlii' Woman
Willi a spirit of, Iv
Invention, Fridays of the,
xlil-xlv
hu'ocavit me, xll
111 voiiiiitate tua, xlvl
Istl sunt dies, xvl
Jerusalem, Dominica de,
XV, Iv
Journey festival, xvlll
Jubilate oinnis terra, xxl
Jiidica me Ihus, xvi
Justus es I>omine, xlli
King, S, of the, xxxvi
Ijiborlosa hebd., xvll
Ijietare llierusaleni, xv
Lamcntutionis dies, xvll
l,,awson Kve, xvili
l,4iwyer questioning Jesug,
S, ofth", xl, 1
Lazarl Dominica, xvl, xvll
lAtarus and the llich ,Man,
xlvii
Ix-glun, S. of the, xlvlll
Lent, xl
Lcvavl, llv
l/ep rs, S, of the Ten, Iv
Lights, S. after the, ill
Llgiiis, dies de, xll
lost S., ix
Ijove to Ki lemles, S. of, xllv
Low Sunday, xix
Luke, Sundays of, iv, v, vl,
vlii, xliil-lvl
Lumlnuiu Sabbatum, xvll
Lunatic, S. of the, xxxv
Magna hebdumada, xvl,
xvll
Magnlflcflt, XV
Magnum Jijunlum, xix
Mi^or hebil., xvll
Mandati liies, xvll
Mandatum pauperum, xvl
Mapparura albarum iJom,,
XX
Matiliew, Sundays of, vll,
xxvi-xl
Maundy Thursday, xvll
Mcdiana Dominica, xvl
Media HenUio.tcB, xxv
Media S'ptimana, 1
Memento mei, IvIl
Jlid-Fast, -siv
iVIld-Leiit Sunday, xv
Mid-i'entccost, feast of, xxl
Mid-Pentecost S., xxil
Mirabllia Domine, xx
Miserere niei Domine, xli
MIsericordia Domini, xx
Missae Domini, Dora., xix
Moses, Sund,iV8 and weeks
of xlvl->.'
Motlieiing .Sunday, xv
M.uta lii'bdoiiiada, xvil
Mystery of the I'asclia, xvll
Natale Domini, i D. post, 1
iNatalis caiicis, x^ ii
Nativity, Sunday.s before
the, lili-lvii, I, Ii
Neophytoruiii dies, xvlll
New Sunday, xix
Nice, S. of tiie fathers of
the council of, xxiv
Nlnevites, Prayer of the, vii
Nox sacrata vel sancta, xvil
Oculi nicI, xlv
0, Dominica de, Ivil
Ointment Ifcarers, S, and
week of the. xx
Ollvurnm Dominica, xvil
Onitiesgeiit s, xx\il
Omnia quae fecisii, xlv
OmiilB tirra, Omnes genten,
iv
Orthodoxy Sunday, xU
Osannae dies, xvll
^cophorla, xvll
^orrm, festum, s
ZABULU8
i'«ced«y, xvlU
;a mm, D, ante, xvl
. «lm Sundsy, xvll
■«lin Sunday, Second, xxlv
•uibUD, 1), do, XV
"xx/i""' **• °' """■ "'•
v-aacave, xvll
•«!■«. xvlli-xxlll
J-scha florum, xvU
■»<>i"imllii, xvl
uwicin Sunday, xvl
etor bonus, xx
^irlx poenltentlaUs,
UlWCOSt, XVllI, XXV
«iteco8t^n, Domlnlcae
post, XXVl-lv
Wlecost, Fast of Second,
'entocoet, Fridays of, xxv,
fiiteoost, Sundays of tho
Second llil-lvll, I, a
ftrditi dies. III
I'lough Monday, III
Poenalle hcbd., xvU
PopiiluB Sion, Iv
'■"■^PjiraHon, great or holy,
Prlvlcamliun aaccrdotuin,
Privlleglau Dominica, xil
I roccsslon week, xxlll
Prodigal Son, S. of the, Ix,
Prosphoneelmus, tHI
Trostltiitlon Sunday, xvll
Prot, ctor noster, xxxlx
U)llcan,S.ofthe,vlll
Pulobra dies, xvill
Pulverls fcstuin, xl
''"'ilx^^'"*' """'"'CM in,
Quadnigeslnia parvn, llv
gu|idrage8lma & Martini,
Quatuorteinpora,xil,xxv,
Quindena Paschae, xvll
Qulndena I'entecoHtes, xxv
guindenaPenteco8te8,0 In
xxvil ^ •
Qiiinquageslma, S. In, xl
Quiiiqueiina I'aschae. xvll
yuintana Dominica, ill
Wulutanae Dominica, xvl
Ramalia, xvll
Ked Sunday, xxl
Itefectlonls, Dominica, xv
pj?uiis dies, xviil
xx""'"™"' ^"n'oK
Rellqularum.D.postosten-
Bionem, xx
Ecnilnlicere, xlll
Etuewal, xvill
lippoditionis festum. ix
Kppositus, xvl
R-splce Domine, xxxvlH
Ke«pice Tn me, xxvil
Best ot Christ, xvlt
" xvlVr"""'' '^'"'"'«'
lltiihmanquertlonlngJeBus,
S.ofthe, xxxvll
KIchman, S. ofthe, II
liock Monday, |||
I K'-gatloii days, xxlil. xxv
JJogationum Dominica, xxlil
I ttosarum. I>„niinica, xxv
Kiders IMughter, S. of the.
SablMth of Sabbaths, xvill
>«bbatl quartu, 1
Sttbhatum, in xri lectloni-
bus, X, xxiv, Ivi
S<ibbuturn vacjins, xvl
S^"»P"P""%<'«.im,xllv
Salvation, day of, xvll
Samaritan woman, S. of the
Xlll, xxli '
Sniicta l>ominlca, xvill
Sancti die*, xl
SamtumSabhatum, xvll
Scrutlnii, dies magnl, xlv
Septuagcsima, S. In, lx
Scxageslnia, S. In x
Shcre day, xl
I "'"'■'■e Thursday, xvll
Shrovetide, xl
Siciit ocull servorum, xll
Si iniquitates, xlvil
•Siniiicl Sunday, xx
Siticutos veuJto adaquam. xr
S<Al"m,F.of, xvll ■*'""' ^
Sower, S. ofthe, xlvi
Spiritus SunctI f^tum, xxv
Splritus Domini, xxvl
Susceplmus IX'Us, xxxlll
Symboll, D. do truUltlone
ZEXDO
2059
Teaching of Christ, S. of the
xxvil '
Tenebrae, xvll
ThaukHglvIng Thursday, vll
1 ueophiinliim, i D. tKwt. ill
Ihomas, S. ofSt., xlx
1 ransflgurailone, i>. de, xiii
TransBguratlon Sunday
xxxll •"
Triduana, xxlll
filniiatls festum S., xxvl
Triodion S., viil
Two Daemoniacs, S. of the
XXX • '
Tyrophagua, x, xl
Unam Domini, xx
Unjust Judg,., S. of the, XV
Uijust Steward, S. ol the
xlv '
Veneris dies adoratus, xvil
verben.ilia, xvil
Vineyard, S. of the, xxxvlll
Virgins, F. ofthe Ten, xvil
Votem Jucundltatis, xxlll
Walking on the Sea, a of,
xxxlv
Wedding Guests, 8. of the
xxxix, Ivl •
White Sunday, xxv
Widow's Son, S. of the, xlv
Zacohaeus, S, of, vl, llv
[E. B. W.]
z
^S oft/T''' °^" '■"""d '° the
|xam,,Ies i„ Warl^Js^Z ^6.1 '"""'
oidSriKot, and in 1 «nl ' i'*°V^ot a
M-netru, = diamet" ,. '? ^'"=?*' = ''i«™ni,
Ambrose, who^de.i 'unc^s Zr"" f *"''">' *■>
thnn"p.itersuusS' yZt ^""^ ""'"'>
immobil 8 ueralut "rnJ .'.""T" • • • aniniiis
(fnstit. ii. 14 n ,,„ "* • • • coi-rumperct
Usuan .. Adon Vm r> ^ "'^ ^"S- ^i (Mart.
Aug. iv. 555) ^°">'>-^om.; Boll. Acta SS.
(sfr.Ml'tO '"'"'^'■' ''<""'"«""'^«'<"' «t Antioch
Fob^^'^Tff ^"',r p Ba- -rr 'T^^^ "'»«
Grace. Sirle . iTanfeV C^^-r^'^'-^ ^'^'"''•
L)-Sy(KCS;-'-of the martyrs of
Atj^xrzy ^' ^'^''^-«''-
(4) Sept. 5 son of Barachias (Cat. Ethiop.).
U»ua.d., Aden., Vet.Zm'ttni^^l ^ '
ZEBENNU8, Jan. 1,3 n,arfv ^^- "'^
rated at Antioch '(5^°; i^;^.7"y eommemo-
ZELLA, COUNCIL OP. [t.^kptV]
ZENAS. [Zeno(3).] ^^'^'^
55ENDOgJj]^ jU;,pI.). The name in the
6 R
2060
ZENO
of iSt. ThotnAs In Southern India the term iando
ii Htill used (Hownrd, Christiana of St, Thi>mas
and their Liturjiet, p. 133). See alao I'ftyne
Smitli's T/iesiiurus Syriacus, s. v. [R. 8.]
ZENO (1), Jnu. 19, Feb. 23, martyr, com-
meinonttuil at Nieaea with Conconius and Molan-
ippus {Mart. Si/r,),
(2) Apr. 18, 20 [Victor (6)].
(8) JuD. 23, martyr with Zcnas under
Maxiraian, commemorated at I'hiladelphiii in
Arabia (Ita il. Menol. ; Monol. Graec. Sirlet. ;
Hart. Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jun. iv. 474).
(4) .July 9, martyr, commemorated at Rome
with ten thousand two hundred and three others
{Mart., Usuard., Adon., Vet. liom., Notker.,
£om. ; Boll. Acta S8. Jul. ii. 687).
(8) July 15, martyr, commemorated at Alex-
andria with Philippus, Narseus, nod ten infants
(Mart. Usuard., Notker., Horn.).
(6) Dec. 20, martyr, commemorated with
Ammonius at Alexandria {Mart. Usuard., Vot.
Rom.).
(7) Dec. 28, martyr under Maximian with
ludes, QoriEonius, and Petrus (Basil. Menol.).
[C.H.]
ZBNOBIA. [Zenodius (3).]
ZENOBIUS (1), presbyter, martyr under
Diocletian, commemorated at Tyre, Feb. 20, with
Tyrannic {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Rom.) ; he may
be the presbyter Zenobius, martyr, " in the last
persecution," commemorated at Sidon, Oct. 29
{Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rom., Wand., Rom.).
(2) June 12, martyr, commemorated in Isauria
{Syr. Mart).
(8) Martyr with his sister Zenobia, com-
memorated on Oct. 30 {Cal. Byzant.; Menol.
Graec. Sirlet.; Daniel, Cod. Liturg. iv. 273;
ifart. Rom.); Oct. 31 (Basil. Menol.). A
monastery called after Zenobius existed at Con-
stantinople in the Gth centurv (Mansi, viii.
989 a; Du Cange, Cpolis. Christ.' Uh. iv. p. 141).
(C. H.]
ZEPHANIAH, prophet, commemorated on
June 28 {Cat. Ethiop.). [C. H.]
ZEUGMA, COUNCIL OF (Zeuomatense
Concilium), at 432, at the instance of Theodoret,
bishop of Cyrus the historian, to whom the
peace re-established between John of Antloch
and St. Cyril of Alexandria was not acceptable ;
but no details of what was done there have been
preserved (Mansi, v. 1161), though the authors
of L'Art de v^rif. lea Dates affect to supply
them (i. 146). [E. S. Ff.]
ZOA, July 5, wife of Nicostratus, martyr,
commemorated at Rome {Mart. Usuard., Wand.,
Vet. Rom., Adon., Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jul. ii.
221). [C. H.]
ZODIAC, SIGNS OP. A drawing is given
by Boldetti (p. 500) of a bracelet discovered in
a Christian burial-place engraved with the con-
ventional symbols of the signs of the zodiac.
This is reproduced hj Martigny (art. Zodiaque),
Z0TI0U8
who sptaks of the extreme rarity of examplci
of this nature. [E. V.]
ZOE, May 2, martyr with her suns and
HesfHirus in Italy under Hadrian (Basil. Menol.
Menol. Gracr. Sirlut. ; Mart. Rom.). A magniti-
cent church was dedicated to her at Con-
stantinople by Justinian (Procop. do Aedif. lib.
i. cap. 3). [C. H.]
Z0ELLU8 (1). (ZuELua, ZoilcsX May 23,
mortyr, commemorated at l.ystra {Syr. Mart.).
(2) May 24, martyr, commemorated with
Servilius and others in Histria {Mart. Usuard.,
Vet. Rom., Adon., Notker., Rom.); Zebelhn
{Ilieron.). Ado names him .Iokllus.
(8) Jun. 27, martyr, commemorated at Cor-
dova {Mart. Usuard.i Adon., Notker, Wand.,
Ram.). [C. H.]
Z08IMA, July 15, martyr with her sister
Bonosa and Eutropius, commemorated at Portui
Romanus {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet. Rum.,
Notker., Rom.). [C. H.]
Z08IMU8(1), .Ian. 4, Cilician monk, martyr
with Athanasius Comentaresius {Cal. Byzant. ;
Basil. Menol.) ; Jan. 3 {Mart. Rom.) ; Jan. 3 or 4
{Menol. Qraec. Sirlet. ; Boll. Acta S3. Jan. i.
128).
(2) Jan. 21, bishop of Syracuse {Cat. Byzant. ;
Basil. Menol.); Mar. 30 {Menol. Qraeo.; Boil.
Acta SS., Mart. iii. 837).
(3) Juno 1, martyr, commemorated with
Octavius at Antioch {Syr, Mart.) ; with Tctla
at Antioch (Notker. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jun. i. 42).
(4) June 19, of Apollonias, martyr unil«r
Trajan (Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Graec. ; Mart.
Rom. ; Boll. Acta SS. Jun. iii. 812).
(6) Sept. 28, martyr under Diocletian, com-
memorated with Alphaeus, Alexander, Mamus
(Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Graec. ; Mart. Rom.).
(6) Dec. 14, martyr, commemorated with
Drusus and Theodorus at Antioch {Mart. Usunrd.,
Vet. Bom., Adon., Rom.).
(7) Dec. 18, martyr, commemorated with
Rufug* at Philippi {Mart. Usuard., Adon., Vet.
Ram., Rom.); "-c. 17 (Wand.). [C. H.]
Z0TICU8 (1), Feb. 10, martyr, commemo-
rated at Hume with Irenaeus, Hyacinthus,
Amantius {Mart. Bed., Usuard., Adon., Vet.
Rom., Rom., Notker.).
(2) Apr. 18, 20 [Victor (6)].
(8) Aug. 21, martyr {i^jr. Mart.).
(4) Aug. 22, martyr, commemorated with
Agathonicus (Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Qi-ntc.
Sirlet. ; Mart. Rom.).
(6) Oct. 21, martyr, commemorated with
Dasius and Gaius at Nicomedia {Mart. Syr.;
Basil. Menol. ; Menol. Graec. ; Mart. Rom.).
(6) Dec. 23, one of ten Cretan martyrs under
Decius (Basil. Menol.). '
(7) Priest, founder of an orphanage at Con-
stiintinople in the 4th century ; commemorated
on Dec. 30 {Cal. Byzant. ; Daniel, Cod. Liturg.
iv. 278) ; Deo. 31 {Metwl. Qraeo. ; Mart. Rom.).
[O.H.]
THE EXD.
lorated with
., Adon., Vet
[C. H.]