•VJdlfri* 
 
 Fi|rti-*a e<or*ttl> 'or il>r "i^bi'i' 5e>i]«t H;ttin «f Enf li'id I Cantdt bv tua Cop^.^'irk C« "Limitta 
 
^istorj) primEf. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 
 ENGLAND AND CANADA, 
 
 * WITH . 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 HINTS TO TEACHERS. AND BRIEF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 • B 
 
 G. MERCER ADAM, 
 
 AND 
 
 W. J. ROBERTSON, B.A, LL.B. 
 
 ^ttthomcb ig the dbucation ^e^jitrtmcnt of ©utaiio. 
 
 TORONTO : 
 
 THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED, 
 
 9 FRONT STREET WEST. 
 
 1886. 
 
?\1 
 
 1 1 
 
 Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in tne year ohe -rtix usand eight 
 hundred and eighty-six, by the Minister ok Education for 0«taRio, in the Office 
 of the Minister of Agriculture. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It is useless to expect a teacher to instil into the minds of his pupils a 
 love of historical reading and research, unless he himself appreciates and 
 enjoys 'the study, and is fully alive to its educational and political value. 
 The apathy or distaste so frequently exhibited by pupils when called upon 
 to master the most elementary historical facts is largely due to the super- 
 ficiality of the teacher's knowledge. Without a good acquaintance with 
 the subject he can make it neither profitable nor interesting. 
 
 " History is past politics." This maybe accepted as a 
 History and fairly correct definition, if we enlarge the ordinary concep- 
 tion of "politics," so as to comprehend all the facts con- 
 Jiected with the moral, intellectual, and social life of a community. His- 
 tory deals with something more than the struggles of contending princes 
 for power and fame ; its main incidents are not battles and sieges. Nor 
 is it limited to the discussion and explanation of the varying fortunes of 
 great political parties. It includes these things ; but it includes also 
 many other matters of equal or even greater importance. It aims to reveal 
 to us the joys and sorrows, the triumphs and defeats, the virtues and 
 vices, of the different classes that make up a nation. It tells us how 
 rude, semi-civilized tribes and peoples develop into powerful common- 
 wealths, enjoying the advantages of good government, pure morals, high 
 culture, and literary excellence. It tells us, too, of the gradual or rapid 
 decline of great monarchies and strong republics ; and shows us the reason 
 why one nation prospered and another sut.ered ruin or disaster. 
 
 History also gives us ample opportunities of studying human character 
 as manifested on an extended scale. The wise and the unwise, the just 
 and the unjust, the cruel and the merciful, the pure and the impure ; all 
 kinds of actors on life's stage are placed before us for moral discrimination 
 and judgment. Rightly studied, history teaches us to admire and esteem 
 the brave, the honest, and the self-denying ; and to despise and condemn 
 the cowardly, the base, and the selfish. We are led to see that virtue 
 preserves and strengthens a nation, while vice inevitably causes decay 
 and weakness. Not the least of the important uses of history is its ten- 
 dency to broaden our sympathies and to enlarge our views of human life 
 and action. History, then, is a great teacher of morals. It is, also, a 
 powerful means of developing the intellectual faculties. It leads us to 
 compare nation with nation ; institutions with institutions ; laws with laws. 
 It prompts us to discover the links that connect events apparently isolated ; 
 In other words, to find causes for effects. It helps us to estimate the value 
 
IV PUKFACE. 
 
 of proposed laws and constitutions ; for by careful rea<ling and wh)q {general- 
 izations we are, to a certain extent, able to discover tho character of tiie cus- 
 toms, laws, and systems, that produce beneficial results, or the contrary. 
 
 In particular is the history of England and her self-governing Colonics 
 of value to us. England, it has been well said, surpasses all nations "in 
 the unbroken continuity of her national life. . . . That to which thc- 
 mind of the nation has been turned from its birth ... is the work- 
 ing out of a political constitution combining Roman order with Northern 
 liberty, and harmonizing the freest development of individual mind and 
 character with intense national unity and unfailing reverence for law." 
 
 If, then, History is such an important study, how should it be taught 
 and what should be taught to enlist the interest of students and induce 
 them to pursue it successfully? 
 
 As to the subject matter of History ; customs and habits, 
 should be "^^ character and its influence, laws and forms of governments, 
 tauffht, and causes and effects, must all be thoroughly discussed and eluci- 
 be^tauL'ht! ' dated. The physical, mental and moral qualities of races ; 
 the influence of climate and geographical position ; the de- 
 velopment of religious and civil institutions, cannot be neglected in any 
 philosophic treatment of history. But it does not follow that all these 
 topics should be taken up with young pupils at the outset. On the con- 
 trary, many of the most important questions with which a philosophy of 
 history deals must be deferred until the teacher has succeeded in arousing 
 the interest of his class, and until sufiicient mental power has been acquired 
 by the pupils to enable them to grapple with comparatively difficult prob- 
 lems. 
 
 As to methods of teaching, one remark applies to them all. It is of 
 the utmost importance 'hat history should be made interesting, and, if 
 possible, fascinating. To do this, all available means must be used to 
 produce vivid impressions. Tales, anecdotes, poems, maps, portraits, 
 wood-cuts, may be employed with good effect to quicken the imagination 
 and excite .the sympathies. Descriptions of the traits o; character and 
 personal appearance of remarkable men and women, vivid narratives of 
 their deeds and achievements, generally arrest the attention of the young. 
 Draw from your readings in poetry and fiction illustrations of the subject 
 in hand. Shakspeare's historical plays ; Scott's Waverley Novels, espe- 
 cially his Ivanhoe, The Talisman, and Keuihvorth, are ex^^mples of works 
 not strictly historical that throw strong side-lights upon important charac- 
 ters and events in English history. But the teacher is not confined to 
 anecdotes and illustrations drawn from fiction ; abundant material is to be 
 found in the records of the romances of real life. No more thrilling or 
 absorbing narratives exist than Parkman's histories of the early settlement 
 of Canada, 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 The order of treatment of the various topics with which history t'eals 
 must be largely left to the individual teacher. The following suggestions, 
 however, ii^ay be of some service : — 
 
 (i). On tbe first reading of a period, minor events, names and dates, 
 should be passed over, and attention directed solely to great facts and per- 
 sonages. The reason for this course is obvious. Too many details over- 
 load the memory, produce confusion of thought, and destroy the perception 
 of historic proportion. 
 
 (2). The leading features of a period having been mastered, the teacher 
 may proceed to show how events are connected as cause and cfTect. In 
 this work the pupil should have an important share. He should not be 
 ^Li/t/what are the causes and what the effects of certain events and actions; 
 but he should be encouraged and assisted to draw conclusions for himself. 
 This encouragement and assistance can best be given by a judicious system 
 of questioning. Questions of a thought-provoking character, simple and 
 concrete at fust, but gradually leading up to wider and witler generaliza- 
 tions, should be given after the story of the chapter or period has been 
 learned. 
 
 (3). When the pupil has obtained a thorough knowledge of the prin- 
 cipal facts of a period, and has acquired some power of connecting events 
 in their chronological and causal relations, the teacher may go on to ex- 
 plain the origin, the growth and influence, of those laws and institutions 
 that have materially affected the national life and well-being. This will 
 be found a difficult task, especially when the pupils are young ; and it 
 cannot be accomplished at all if the teacher has not a clear and well- 
 defined knowledge of the subject. The only way that ideas, such as are 
 involved in constitutional history, can be brought home to the mind, is 
 by drawing illustrations from familiar facts. For;:unately, English institu- 
 tions have been of slow growth, and have never undergone radical change. 
 " The same habits of local self-government, which are so much at the 
 root of our political character now, held together English society in the 
 county, the hundred, the parish, the borough, when the central govern- 
 ment was dissolved by the Civil Wars of Henry III., the Wars of the 
 Roses, and the Great Rebellion. " The institutions under which we now 
 live do not differ so widely from thoi;e of the Anglo-Saxons as to render it 
 impossibl'- to explain and illustrate the systems of government possessed 
 by our forefathers. 
 
 (4). Descriptions of the social life of the masses —their material, moral, 
 and religious condition at various stages in the national development — 
 literature, and its relation to the thoughts and tendencies of the age — 
 poetry and politics, how they act and react on each other, are topics of 
 great educational value. Discussions having for their object the elucida- 
 tion of the reflex action of the literature and the tendencies of the age may 
 
Vi * PHKFACE. 
 
 well bo deferred until the pupil has acfpiircd considerirhle maturity of 
 thouj^ht ; but descrii)tion3 of the customs, habits, and social condition of 
 the people at any given period may be interwoven with the thread of the 
 history, and, like tales and anecdotes, may be employed to give the pupil 
 vivid and i)ermanent impressions. In dealing with these latter topics. 
 Green's "History of the English People" will be found invaluable for 
 purposes of reference. 
 
 (5). History abounds with more or less important details. These, if 
 time and circumstances permit, may be gradually supplied after the frame- 
 work has been thoroughly put together. Hut they should not be taken 
 up until a clear and orderly conception has been acquired of the bold 
 outlines that mark an age or an epoch. 
 
 To assist the teacher in selecting the most important facts, and to sug- 
 gest topics for explanation and instruction, hints and references have been 
 prefixed to each chapter of the following pages. The teacher must not, 
 however, conclude that full directions have been given as to the subject 
 matter and method of treatment. Much has been and must be left to his 
 judgment as to what topics can be treated with satisfactory results. In 
 addition to hints, it has been considered advisable to insert questions based 
 on the different chapters. These questions are, by no means, exhaustive 
 of the contents of the chapters with which they deal ; they are intro- 
 duced to assist the teacher in choosing the proper kind for examination 
 purposes. It will be noticed that many of them are of considerable diffi- 
 culty, and require powers of generalization not possessed at the present 
 time by the great majority of Fourth Class pupils. The Authors are, 
 however, of the opinion that too little attention is paid to the development 
 in this particular of the minds of Public School pupils. They believe that 
 comparatively young pupils can be taught to deduce general conclusions 
 from the historic facts placed before them. The process of mental 
 development is, however, often slow and tedious, and the wise teacher will 
 not, as a rule, make use of such questions as are appended until after a 
 great many simple and concrete questions have been given and answered. 
 
 The maps and cuts, it is hoped, will aid the teacher in his recitations, 
 besides giving the pupils more realistic and vivid conceptions of leading 
 events and personages. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to say that in the following pages only the 
 merest outline of the history has been attempted. In the Canadian 
 Primer, especially, is this the case ; the narrative being confined, in the 
 main, to events occurring in what are now the Provinces of Ontario and 
 Quebec. 
 
 THE AUTHORS, 
 
 Toronto, May ist, 1886. 
 
CONTENTS: ENGLISH. 
 
 GHAPTKK. PaQR. 
 
 I. — The Coming of the English „ i 
 
 II. — The Coining of the Danes 8 
 
 III. — The Norman Contiuest . . 12 
 
 IV.— The Feudal System 15 
 
 V. — The Crown, the Church, and tlie Darons 22 
 
 VI.— The (Ircat Charter 28 
 
 VII. — Growth of Parliamentary Government 33 
 
 VIII. — Con(|uest of France , 41 
 
 IX. — The New Monarchy 48 
 
 X. — Tlie Kefonnauon 54 
 
 XI. — Tlie Reformation (Continued) 61 
 
 XII. — The Struggle between the Crown and Parliament 67 
 
 XIII.— The Great Rebellion 76 
 
 XIV. — End of the New Monarchy 83 
 
 X.V.— The Revolution Settlement 91 
 
 XVI.- Half a-Ccntiiry of Whig Rule 100 
 
 XVII.— The Crown and the Colonies 108 
 
 XVIII. — The Struggle against Napoleon 116 
 
 XIX. — An Epoch of Reform 125 
 
 XX, — Growth of Democracy 131 
 
 CONTENTS : CANADIAN. 
 
 Chapter. Page. 
 
 I. — Early Settlement of Canada 141 
 
 II. — Conquest of Canada 146 
 
 III. — The Quebec Act {1774), and Constitutional Act (1791) 157 
 
 IV.— Warof 1812 165 
 
 V. — The Rebellion of 1837, and the Act of Union (1841) 173 
 
 VI. — Confederation 1S2 
 
 VII. — How we are Governed 19^1. 
 
[Teachers jniyht coiisult the following v^orls. 
 
 Green's Short History of the I'".iii,'lish I'coplc, 
 
 '• The Making of ICuyland. The Cofuiuesl of Kni^Iaiul. 
 '* Rcadin^js from Enjjlish History. 
 
 Tail's Analysis of Green's History. 
 
 Freeman's Old English History. 
 
 " Short History of the Norman Conquest. 
 
 Scarth's Roman Ikitain. Maclear's The Celts. Rhys' Celtic l^ritnin. 
 
 Grant Allen's Anglo-Saxon Britain. 
 
 Bright's History of England — (i.) Medieval Monarchy. 
 
 (2.) Personal Monarchy, 
 (3.) Constitutional Monarchy, 
 
 Douglas Hamilton's Constitutional History of England. 
 
 Stubbs's, Hallam's, and May'.* Constitutional Histories. 
 
 Gardiner and Mullinger'sJIntroduction to the Study of English History. 
 
 Wills's Synopsis of English History or Historical Note ISook, 
 
 Ackland and Ransome's Skeleton Outline of English History. 
 
 Cassell's Cyclopaedia of English History. 
 
 Smith's English Institutions. 
 
 Knight's Popular History of England. 
 " Half Hours of English History. 
 
 Thompson's The " Victoria " History of England. ,. 
 
 Macaulay's and Froude's Histories of England. 
 
 Lecky's History of England in the l8th Century. ^ 
 
 Molesworth's History of England from 1832 to 1880. 
 
 Mackenzie's The Nineteenth Century, and "America." 
 
 McCarthy's History of Our Own Times. 
 
 " Four Georges. Thackeray's Four Georges. 
 
 Thackeray's Esmond, and The Virginians. Scott's Waverlcy Novels, . 
 
 M. Creighton's Epochs of English History. 
 
 Highways of English History, Edited by Louise Creightou : 
 
 Creighton's The Government of England. Social and Religious His- 
 tory of England. 
 
 Sitwell's Growth of the English Colonies. Relations of England with 
 Foreign Powers. 
 Epochs of Motlern History, Edited by C. Colbeck and E. E. Morris :" 
 
 Johnson's Normans in Europe. Seabohm's Era of Protestant Revo- 
 lution. Stubbs's Early Plantagenets. Morris's Age of Anne. 
 
 Gairdners Houses of Lancaster and York. Ludlow's War of Ameri- 
 can Independence. 
 Creighton's Age of Elizabeth. McCarthy's Epoch of Reform, 
 Parkman's Historical Narratives. Archer's and other Histories of Canada. 
 
PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY Of ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH. 
 
 [Hints to the Teacher.- -Give a brief accnnnt of iho Romans, their character 
 and c.onquosta, referring ettiiecially to tho causes of their iuvaHions uf England. Qiv« 
 fuller details of British customs, religion, and civilization. Tell the pupils something 
 about the Teutonic, Keltic, and Slavonic races. Oo more fully into the changes and 
 improvements miulo by the Romans Ln Britain, drawing attention specially to the 
 introduction of Christianity. Flxjilain w)iy the Britons, when tho Roman soldiers 
 were withdrawn, could not defend themselves. Statu clearly the peculiarity of the 
 English conquest of Britain ; and tell what kind of men the English were physically, 
 mentally, and morally. Enumerate the names given to the British Islands, and explain 
 their origin. Call tho attention of the pupils to Tennyson's Idylls of the King, and the 
 tales about King Arthur. Show clearly that the Anglo-Saxons had many of the cua* 
 toms that we now have. In connection with the introduction of Christianity, relate 
 the story of Pope Gregory and the English slaves ; also other interesting incidents, 
 such as Cowper's " Boadicea " (4th Reader), and the story of Caractacus at Rome. 
 
 iJeyirrenc«a .—Freeman's "Old English History," Green's "History of the English 
 People," Maclear's "The Celts," and Scarth's " Roman Britain."] 
 
 1. Boman Conquest.— When the British Isles first become 
 known to history the Romans were the great conquering people 
 of Central Europe. So much were they dreaded, and so well 
 had they learned the trade of war, that many countries were sub- 
 ject to them. About the years 58 to 54 before the birth of Christ 
 their armies had overrun Gaul, which we now call France ; and 
 their leader, Caius Julius Cj*:sar, was eager to extend his con- 
 quests to Britain. This he did in the years 55 and 54 before 
 Christ ; and from Caesar's account of his invasions we „ 
 get our first exact knowledge of the country. The invasions, 
 great Roman general made a brief stay in the island, • • • • 
 and then withdrew to Gaul, after punishing the Britons for giving 
 aid to their kinsmen on the continent in fighting him. Nearly a 
 2 
 
d PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. I. 
 
 hundred years afterwards the Romans again landed on its shores ; 
 and in spite of the resistance of the Britons, under 
 
 under Emperor their leader Caractacus, the invaders overran the 
 
 AD^'is'' whole south-eastern portion of England and con- 
 
 quered the country as far north as the Firth of Forth 
 
 and the Clyde. For over three hundred years the Romans were 
 
 now to rule Britain. 
 
 2. Character and Customs of the Britons.— The inhabitants 
 of Britain were mainly of Keltic origin : their language is still 
 spoken by many of the Welsh, Irish, and Highland Scotch of our 
 day. They were a warlike people, and their bravery was well 
 shown in the defence of their country, particularly under Carac- 
 TACUS and Queen Boadicea. The latter headed a native army 
 which for a time was the scourge of the Roman troops ; but in the 
 end the Queen was defeated and some 80,000 Britons were slain. 
 Grieved at the loss of so many of her people, Boadicea put an end 
 io her life by poison. The Britons were an idolatrous people, 
 worshipping the oak and mistletoe, whose priests, called Druids, 
 offered human sacrifices to their gods. The Southern tribes 
 cultivated the soil, were familiar with the use of metals, and had 
 acquired some knowledge of trade from the people of the main- 
 land, who came to the mines of Devon and Cornwall to get sup- 
 plie-s of tin and lead. The tribes of the interior were hunters, and 
 lived on what they could kill or trap. They dressed themselves in 
 the skins of wild beasts, and at night sheltered themselves in caves 
 or in wicker huts in the great forests that clothed the land. Like 
 the Indians of America, the British tribes were governed by their 
 6wn chiefs, and were often at war with one another. 
 
 3. Roman Rule, (A.D. 43-410).— First among the results of the 
 Roman occupation of Britain was the opening up of the country. 
 Great military roads were cut through the dense forests, north as 
 far as Scotland, and west into Wales. These roads are still high- 
 ways of communication in England. With the building of the 
 roads, adjoining lands were tilled, swamps were drained, towns laid 
 out, homesteads reared, and an advance made in agriculture. 
 Another, though a later, result of Roman rule in Britain was the 
 introduction of Christianity. With its coming, churches were built 
 4nd monasteries founded, and a learned class sprang up whose 
 
A.D. 410-467.J THE coMiNO of the English. S 
 
 influence was refining. But if we except the introduction of Christi- 
 anity, the influence of Roman civilization did not extend very far. 
 It produced little effect on the rude life of the people. In the cities 
 alone was the Roman or Latin tongue spoken, and there, only 
 among the higher classes. 
 
 4. Departure of the Romans.— Though Britain had been under 
 Roman rule for over three centuries, many of its western and nor- 
 thern tribes were far from being subjugated. The fiercest enemies 
 of the Romans were the barbarous tribes of the north, called 
 PiCTS and Scots, the former living in what is now Scotland, and 
 the latter in the north of Ireland. To secure themselves from sur- 
 prise, and to keep these tribes in check, the Romans 
 
 erected two immense stone walls across the island, and waiis under 
 
 built at least fifty walled towns, numerous inland mill- Hadrian and 
 ■' ' Antoninus. 
 
 tary stations, and several fortresses on the coast. But 
 these precautions did not prevent the inroads of the Picts and 
 Scots ; nor did they save the Romans from the attacks of their 
 other enemies who roamed the sea. Towards the close of the 
 third century, the frontiers of the Roman provinces on the conti- 
 nent were similarly threatened, and to save these more important 
 possessions the Roman troops gradually left Britain, the last of 
 the garrisons being withdrawn from the country in A. D. 410. 
 
 5. The Coming of the English.— After the Romans abandoned 
 Britain, its inhabitants, being unfitted for self-government, fell 
 back into their savage ways, and their country became a prey to the 
 pirate Saxons of the Northern Sea. The Saxons were a race of 
 hardy seamen who inhabited the northern coasts of Germany, and 
 were at first called in by the Britons to aid them in driving back 
 the turbulent tribes of the north. But these rovers of the sea were 
 not content to be hirelings. They, too, became the enemies of the 
 Britons. The Saxon tribes that first secured a foothold in the 
 country were under the leadership of two brothers, ^^^ .^^ 
 Hengist and HoRSA. They came from Jutland, the founds the 
 peninsula of Denmark, and, with their wives and domofKent, 
 families, settled in Kent about the year A.D. 451. ^•°- **^- 
 Later on, these JUTES, as they were called, were followed by the 
 two other branches of the same family, the Saxons and the 
 Angles — the common home of all being the low-lying lands 
 
4" tUBLtC SCHOOL ENOLlSIt ttlStORT. [Chap. 1. 
 
 around the Baltic and the North Sea. The Saxons founded settle- 
 ments in Sussex and Wessex ; while the Angles took the land on 
 the east coast from the Thames to the Firth of Forth. All these 
 tribes — Jutes, Saxons, and Angles — were afterwards known as the 
 English. 
 
 6. Nature and Scope of the English Conquest-— The English 
 Conquest, though gradual, was complete. The Britons were 
 either destroyed or driven back into Cornwall and the highlands 
 of Wales. Almost every trace of the Roman occupation of the 
 country disappeared. Even the cities were deserted or laid waste; 
 but English settlements sprang up rapidl/ over the country, for the 
 invaders came in hordes and overpowered all opposition. As time 
 passed, these settlements grew into kingdoms. Within the space 
 of one hundred and thirty years (A.D. 457-582), seven Saxon king- 
 doms were founded, each in turn striving for the sovereignty of the 
 whole. These were named Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Nor- 
 thumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. At the close of the eighth 
 Union of the century three of the kingdoms had absorbed the 
 
 Saxon king- others ; and by the year A.D. 827, after much war and 
 doms under ,,,,,, 1 1 t;^ • , r 
 
 Egbert, bloodshed, the supremacy passed to the Kmgdom of 
 
 A.D. 827. Wessex, and what is called the Saxon Heptarchy 
 
 came to an end. This happened in the reign of Egbert, in whose 
 
 day the country became known as England, the land of the 
 
 Angles, the most numerous of the Saxon tribes. To this period 
 
 belongs the legendary King Arthur, of whom Tennyson, the poet 
 
 laureate, has written in his Idylls of the King. 
 
 7. Customs and Character of the English.— Clinging to their 
 old ways, and not mixing at all with the Britons, the English main- 
 tained in their new' home the laws and the customs which they 
 had brought from their German fatherland. The tribes settled at 
 first under their chiefs, or leaders, in village communities gener- 
 ally apart from one another. The land upon which they settled 
 was parcelled out among the different families that composed the 
 tribe. As the several tribes spread over the country, the necessity 
 arose for combining together for conquest and protection. This 
 in time led to their formation into political communities. The first 
 demand was for a leader in war; the after demand was for a 
 ruler and counsellor. When the leader arose he became, first, the 
 
■■> 
 
 The Coming of the English- 
 Britain's GcnMAN Invaders. 
 
6 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 _, EAST 
 ^GLIA 
 
 (Vloucester 
 
 fFaithado 
 
 .'Albans 
 
 /\ColchBSter*^ 
 
 cCessEx 
 
 
 
A.D. 597.] THE COMING OP THE ENGLISH. f, 
 
 ealdorman, as he was termed, and, as the communities knit 
 together and formed petty kingdoms, he became the overlord, q- 
 king. The succession to the Crown, however, was not yet here- 
 ditary: at first the nation chose for king him who seemed most 
 fitted for that honour and trust. In this way had the Saxons been 
 accustomed to make choice of their Wise Men, or Councillors, 
 and of those who led them to battle. This mode of election lives 
 on in our day in the choice we make of our representatives to 
 parliamentary and municipal office. In many ways has Anglo- 
 Saxon custom come down to us. Our limited monarchy, our 
 parliament, and our county and township systems, are all of 
 Anglo-Saxon origin. In character, also, we inherit much from our 
 Anglo-Saxon forefathers. In large measure we possess their 
 steadiness, industry, energy, enterprise, love of freedom, and dis- 
 like of arbitrary restraint. In other ways, happily, we have not 
 copied them. The Anglo-Saxons were fierce, bloodthirsty, and 
 revengeful. 
 
 8. Introduction of Christianity among the English.— The 
 
 Saxons for some time after they came to England held to their 
 idolatries ; for they were a pagan people, though they believed in a 
 Future State, and in a Paradise where bravery v/ould be rewarded 
 by unstinted carousing. They had numerous gods, the names of 
 some of whom are preserved to us in the days of the week. Wed-, 
 nesday, for instance, is Woden's day, from Woden, the chief god 
 of the Saxons. At the request of Pope Gregory, Augustine 
 came, in A.D. 597, to the Court of King Ethelbert 
 
 " To break the heathen and uphold the Christ." 
 
 There he met with marked success in his missionary work, thp 
 influence of which on the barbarian English was early seen in the 
 growth of their civilization, and especially in the elevation of their^ 
 condition and the advancement of learning among them. * 
 
 [Examination Questions.— 1. Why did the Romans invade Britain ? ,;* 
 
 2. Describe the character, religion, and customs of the Britons. ' 
 
 3. Point out clearly the effects produced by the Roman occupation of Britain. 
 
 4. Give an account of the "coming of the English," and their conquest of Britaiu. 
 In what respect did this conquest differ from other conquests ? 
 
 5. Describe the character, customs, and mode of government of the Anglo-Saxons.] 
 
PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. II. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE COMING OF THE DANES. 
 
 [Point out that the Danes were of the same stock as the English, and mention other 
 countries that suffered from their invasions. Relate incidents in the life and career of 
 Alfred— sucli as "burning the cakes," and tell of improvements he introduced among 
 his subjects. Give an account of Dunstan and his influence. Malce as clear as possible 
 the kind of government, and the system of administering justice, possessed by the 
 English. 
 
 References: — Freeman's "Old English History," Grant Allen's "Anglo-Saxon 
 Britain," and Green's " Short History " and " Readings from English History."] 
 
 1. England attacked by the Danes.— To the north of the old 
 
 German home of the English lived the Danes, or Norsemen, 
 
 who were of the same race as the English, and who, like them, were 
 
 accustomed to lead a roving life on the sea. About the close of 
 
 m^ ^. „ the eighth century, under their ViKiNGS, or chiefs, 
 The Norse Sea- , ° ■" . r i /• 
 
 kings ra' age the Danes pounced upon one portion after another of 
 
 *^ ■ the Saxon kingdoms in England, laid waste their 
 
 coasts, and murdered the people. After Egbert's death they over-^ 
 
 ran many parts of the country ; and by the middle of the ninth 
 
 century they had succeeded in occupying several of the minor 
 
 Saxon kingdoms. 
 
 2. Alfred the Great (871-901).— Alfred the Great, who was 
 one of the five grandsons of Egbert, all of whom reigned over por- 
 tions of England, is the one monarch 
 who brightens the early pages of Eng- 
 lish history. When he came to the 
 throne the Danes were still the scourge 
 of the land. Having been defeated by 
 them under their leader, GUTHRUM, 
 Alfred fled for safety to the marshes 
 of Athelney, in Somersetshire. Here, 
 however, he collected his forces, and 
 before long succeeded in routing the 
 
 Alfred the Great. Danes at Edington. By a treaty made 
 
 at Wedmore, Alfred surrendered to the Danes the Kingdom of 
 East Anglia, on condition of their becoming Christians and living 
 
A,D. 901.] THE COMING OP THE DANES. §• 
 
 on friendly terms with his people. During his years of peace Alfred 
 did much to promote learning, while he sought at all times to rule 
 his kingdom wisely. He restored order in the land, and built anew 
 the churches, tbi monasteries, and many of the cities which the 
 Danes had destroyed. His whole life was devoted to the good of 
 his subjects and to the improvement of their social condition. 
 
 3. Alfred's Successors— Towards the close of his reign, Alfred 
 had once more to beat off the Danish raiders. In A.D. 893, a 
 mighty force, under a chief, named Hastings, attempted a landing 
 in England, and for three years ravaged the coasts. But Alfred 
 had by this time got together a large naval force, and was thus 
 able to keep off the invaders. At his death, his son, Edward 
 THE Elder, succeeded to the West Saxon crown. In his reign, 
 and that of his son, Athelstan, all the land was recovered from 
 the Danes that had been given them by Alfred. In the following 
 reign of Edmund, the Magnificent, the kingdom of Strath- 
 clyde (originally the western half of Britain, from the Clyde to the 
 Dee) was abolished, and a part of it, Cumberland, given to Mal- 
 colm, king of the Scots, as the price of an alliance with Wessex. 
 The next reigns were brief and uneventful, until we come to that 
 of Edgar, the Pacific, under whom the Saxon power in Eng- 
 land reached its greatest height. The king's chief adviser, and one 
 of the most prominent personages of his time, was Dunstan 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, who lived during the reign of five kings 
 and was noted for his many reforms in the Church and the State. 
 
 4. Government among the English.— The English were now 
 making some effort to become a well-governed people. Regard for 
 law and justice, however roughly they were at first administered, 
 was one of the chief characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon. For acts 
 of wrong-doing there were Courts to try culprits and to secure 
 justice to the injured. The way in which the country was par- 
 celled out determined the size and the character of the Court. A 
 small community, with its limited holding of land, had a small 
 Court ; a group of communities, with a large holding, had a large 
 Court. At the head, and over all, was the chief Court and Assembly 
 of the nation. Let us try to make all this clear. When the Eng- 
 lish settled in the country, portions of the land were divided 
 ^mongst the tribes who conquered it. Every free nlember or 
 
10 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. II. 
 
 family in the community had a share. All the land not divided 
 among the tribes was the common property of the people, and was 
 known as \\i& folkland. The land of one or two families combined 
 to form the tillage or township. AJnumber of villages were grouped 
 
 into a hundred^ so-called, it is supposed, because at 
 hwtitu^fons! ^''^* '^ ^^^ made up of a hundred or so households, 
 
 each sending one armed man to war. The village 
 or township managed its own local affairs ; but in greater matters 
 it sent cases to Ihe hundred-moot^ or Court above, which sat at 
 least four times a year, under the presidency of the alderman^ or 
 chief officer of the district. The next higher Court was the shire- 
 moot^ or county Court, which was presided over by the alderman 
 and bishop, with a shire-reeve^ or sheriff, to collect the king's 
 dues. Over all was the IVitenagemot, or supreme council of the 
 nation, in which sat the bishop and the king's household officers, 
 with the alderman, or earl, from the shire-moot below. The 
 IVitan, as it was commonly called, was presided over by the king, 
 and was composed of men who made war, shaped the laws of the 
 kingdom, elected or deposed the king, and shared in every act of 
 government. The lower Courts were held in the open air ; and in 
 all of them the punishments imposed for offences were fines, out- 
 lawry, whipping, mutilation, branding, or death. In the case of 
 punishment by death, the men were hanged and the women were 
 drowned. When fines were imposed, failure to pay them reduced a 
 freeman to slavery. Proof of innocence or guilt was taken by ordeal 
 of fire or water, a test which was applied by making the accused 
 either carry a red-hot iron a certain distance, or plunge his hand 
 into boiling water. If the burns were healed after three days, he 
 was pronounced innocent ; if not, he was found guilty. Proof was 
 also taken by compurgation^ a process by which the accused might 
 clear himself on bringing forward witnesses to prove his innocence, 
 and the weight of whose testimony would be determined by his 
 rank. Among the king's officers were his military followers, after- 
 wards known as thanes. These thanes, or servants, became very 
 powerful in the State ; for, as the king's power grew, he conferred 
 titles upon them and made th'^m rich grants from the folkland. 
 
 6. Conquest of England by Sweyn, of Denmark.— The ever- 
 vigilant D«nes were always ready for an attack on England. Led 
 
A.D. 1035.] THE COMING OP THE DANES. }^ 
 
 by SWEYN, King of Denmark, these Northern pirates again harried 
 .16 land. As a cheap defence, Ethelred II., who had been made 
 king, adopted the plan of buying them off. }3ut this had just the 
 contrary effect, for the more money they got the more they wanted. 
 Amioyed by his troublesome foes, Ethelred put the Danes who 
 had settled in the country to a general massacre. MasHacreof 
 Among the slain was Gunhilda, sister of the king of j^.^Bj^^.^'d^ 
 Denmark. Enraged at Ethelred's foul act, Sweyn re- A.D. looz. 
 peated his invasions of England ; and in A.D. 1013, he came with 
 a great army, accompanied by hib son Canute, or Cnut, and made 
 himself master of the country. Ethelred then fled from the king- 
 dom, and Canute, after fighting many battles, was made king. 
 
 6. Canute's Reign, (1017-1035).— The English Crown, for the first 
 time, now passed to the Dane. Though Canute still held the Danish 
 Crown, and was able to add to his possessions Norway and part of 
 Sweden, he preferred to rule in England. His early life had been 
 wicked, but his rule was wise and just. His idea of good govern- 
 ment was that it should be approved, lather than feared, by the 
 people. The beautiful story of Canute's rebuke to his flattering 
 courtiers, on the seashore of Southampton, well indicates the char- 
 acter of the king. On one occasion these courtiers, thinking to 
 flatter him, said that his greatness was such that even the sea 
 would obey him. To chide them for their folly he had a chair 
 placed on the beach in which he seated himself when the tide was 
 coming in. As the waters flowed towards him he bade them 
 retire. But they continued to advance and surround his chair. 
 He then turned to his flatterers and reminded them that his power 
 was nothing compared with that of Him who alone could say to the 
 waves, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no farther !" To lighten the 
 cares of government, Canute divided England into four great earl- 
 doms, and over two of these he placed the English Earls, Leofric 
 and Godwin, who, with their sons, were io play an important part 
 in the later history. For twenty-five years Canute and his sons 
 ruled over England. 
 
 [1. For what is the reign of Alfred the Great remarkable ? 
 
 2. How was justice administered among the English? Explain ordeal and compur- 
 gation. 
 
 3. Give a brief account of the Danish conquest of England. 
 
 4. Describe the character of Canute's rule. 
 
 5. What traces still exist of the settlement of the Danes in England ?] 
 
12 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. Ill 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 [For expanding and illuatrating this chapter, Freeman's " Old English History" and 
 "Norman Conquest" will be found very valuable. The accounts of the death of Earl 
 Godwin, of the influence of the Normans at Court, of Plarold's shipwreck and oath, and 
 of the battles of Stamford Bridge and Hastings, are most interestingly given, and the 
 teacher should relate them for the pupils. It should be clearly brought out, also, that 
 the Normans were of the same race as the Saxons and Danes.] 
 
 1. From Canute to Edward the Confessor.— When Canute 
 died a bitter strife broke out among the great Earls whom he had 
 set up, as to which of his sons, Harold and Harthacnut, should 
 succeed him. It was first agreed that the kingdom should be 
 shared by both brothers ; but as Harthacnut stayed in Denmark, 
 Harold was put on the throne. Harold's reign was a cruel one, 
 but happily it was short. He died in A.D. 1040, and then Hartha- 
 cnut was sent for and became king. During Harthacnut's reign 
 the king brought his half-brother, Edward, a son of Ethelred, from 
 Normandy, and had him live with him at Court. On Harthacnut's 
 sudden death. Earl Godwin, who was now all powerful in the land, 
 persuaded the English people to make Edward king. French 
 
 influence began to be felt in England when Edward, 
 Norman *^° THE CONFESSOR, as he was Called, ascended the 
 England* ^ throne ; for he had been brought up in the home of his 
 
 mother, Emma, of Normandy. The Normans were 
 a people, who, when the Danes first invaded Britain, had left Nor- 
 way to settle in the North of France, and were soon now to ccme 
 and take up their abode in England. As the Danes, when they 
 settled in England, became English, so the Normans, when they 
 settled in France, became French, spoke the French language, 
 and were brought up in French ways. 
 
 2. Edward the Confessor, (1042-1066).— When Edward came to 
 the throne he brought with him from Normandy many foreign 
 priests and nobles who had been his favourites at the Norman 
 Court. These Norman companions Edward enriched with Eng- 
 
A.D. 10C6.] THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 13 
 
 lish estates and raised to high honour. The kinj; knew little of 
 the English people, whom he had come to rule, and who disliked 
 the favouritism shown to strangers. But as Earl Godwin, who 
 was greatly liked by the English, was the real ruler 
 of the kingdom, they were content for a while to let ft,?,VEdwrra'« 
 Edward keep his Norman friends about him. God- ^\^"^Yn 
 win, however, hated the Normans ; and the people's 
 dislike of the latter grew as the king continued to favour them. 
 Presently, some trouble broke out between the citizens of Dover 
 and a brother-in-law of the king who had come from France to 
 visit him. When the king heard of the affray he ordered Earl 
 Godwin to punish the citizens ; but Godwin refused, and the king 
 banished him from the country. In Godwin's absence things 
 went wrong in England, and the people clamoured to have him 
 restored to his estates. Hearing of this, Godwin, and his sons, 
 who were outlawed with him, gathered a fleet and sailed for Lon- 
 don, to bring the king to terms by force of arms. There the people 
 joined them and compelled the king to dismiss his Norman favour- 
 ites and restore Godwin to favour. Shortly afterwards. Earl God- 
 win died, and his son, Harold, succeeded to his father's earldom. 
 
 3. Succession of Harold.— Early in the year 1066 Edward 
 died, commending his kingdom to Harold, Earl Godwin's mighty 
 son. Edward's rule, though feeble, was well-intentioned, and his 
 laws were just. He was devoted to the church, and the monks laid 
 his body in what, since his canonization, is known as the shrine of 
 St. Edward the Confessor in Westminster. West Minster had just 
 been founded by Edward, and his remains were the first to con- 
 secrate the famous Abbey which for over eight hundred years has 
 been the last resting-place of England's kings and kingly men. 
 Though the WiTAN was willing Harold should be king, there were 
 two to contest the throne with him. One of these was his brother, 
 Earl Tostig, who had been exiled ; the other was ^^ . , , 
 
 ' ' Danish and 
 
 Duke William, of Normandy, who claimed the Noman rivals 
 throne on two pleas: first, that it had been promised 
 him by Edward, when he paid the king a visit during the exile of 
 Godwin ; and secondly, that Harold had sworn to support him, 
 as the price of his liberty, when Harold was once a captive in 
 William's kingdom. Harold's answer to the rival claimants was 
 
14 PUBLIC HCHOOL IBNOLI8H HISTORY. [Chap. III. 
 
 that he had been chosen king by the Witan. This answer satisfied 
 neither Tostig nor William. Both determined to fight him for the 
 throne, and with that purpose each prepared to invade England. 
 In the meanwhile Harold was made king. 
 
 4. Battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac— No sooner was 
 
 Harold elected king than his banished brother, Tostig, with the 
 
 king of Norway, whom Tostig got to join him, landed with an army 
 
 „ X.. -r,. in the North of England. Harold went against the 
 BattlnofStam- 11, 
 
 ford HiidK»% mvaders, and utterly routed them at Stamford Hridge, 
 26th Sept., 1060. ^^^^ y^^^ p^^j^ ^^^^j^ ^^^^ ^j^^ j^j^^^ ^^ Norway 
 
 were slain, the latter finding a grave, as Harold of England had 
 promised him, " in seven feet or more of English ground, for he 
 was taller than most men." The next day Harold made peace with 
 the Northmen, and they at once sailed back to their homes. Rid 
 of his enemies in the north, Harold had to hasten, a few days 
 afterwards, to meet William of Normandy's forces in the south. 
 The Normans disembarked a large army at Pevensey, in Sussex, 
 and marched upon Hastings. There, on the hill of Senlac, Harold 
 had selected a strong position for his troops, and awaited the 
 Battle of Hast- approach of William. The Norman forces soon faced 
 ings, or Senlac, the English, and William determined to storm the 
 
 fought 14th ,r,,,, r^, r ^ , ^ 
 
 October, A.D. defences they had thrown up. The fate of the Eng- 
 lish was to turn on the result. The fight began by a 
 Norman minstrel riding up to the palisades of the English, singing 
 a battle-song, and tossing his lance bravely in the air. After this, 
 on came the Norman archers and the Norman knights on horse- 
 back. Both were repulsed, and the battle seemed for a time to go 
 against William. But William made a feint by withdrawing his 
 troops, and the English, thinking the enemy had taken flight, left 
 their defences and pursued them. Suddenly the Normans turned 
 upon their pursuers and hotly drove them back. After long fight- 
 ing, Harold was wounded with an arrow in the eye, his personal 
 followers were slain, and his army, dispirited, turned and fled. 
 The day was won by Duke William. 
 
 5. William the Conqueror comes to the Throne (A.D. 1066).— 
 
 The death of Harold and his chief nobles, at the disastrous 
 battle of Hastings, left the English forces without a leader to rally 
 them against the invader. Harold's brothers had fallen with him 
 
A.D. 1066.] tHR FEUDAL SYSTEM. ' 15 
 
 on the field of Senl.ic, and the descendants of the ^reat English 
 families of Godwin and Leofric were ill-disposed to peril their own 
 interests in the northern parts of the kingdom by fighting against 
 the great Norman. Everything favoured William : his own duke- 
 dom of Normandy was just then free from trouble; his great nobles 
 were willing to be lured by the promise of estates in England ; the 
 other continental rulers consented, if not to help, to be neutral ; and 
 the Pope at Rome had espoused his cause and sent him a hallowed 
 banner. But, though he had slain the king and defeated his forces, 
 William had not yet won England. The English naturally looked 
 for a successor to Harold in one of the royal line, and, as the 
 Witan had assembled, they chose for king Edgar the Athe- 
 LING, a descendant of Ethelred II. But, as Edgar was a mere 
 lad, many of the English refused to acknowledge him. Meanwhile 
 William and his Norman army captured the southern towns in the 
 kingdom and marched upon London. The citizens grew fright- 
 ened, and a deputation of them, with Edgar and the chief nobles, 
 came to make submission to William and offer him the crown. 
 This the Conqueror accepted, after feigning to refuse it, and enter- 
 ing the capital, he was crowned on Christmas Day, A.D. 1066. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 [Explain the effects produced by the Norman Conquest on the langnage, customs, 
 laws, and national character of the people of England. The English Game Laws had 
 their origin in the reign of William I. ; give some idea of their character, aitd the 
 manner of their enforcement by the Normans. Explain more fully the nature of the 
 dispute between Anselm and Henry I. ; also the law reforms carried out by this king. 
 Call the attention of the pupils to Dickens's " The White Ship " (3rd Reader). 
 
 R^enncu: — Freeman's "Norman Conquest," and Green's "Short History."] 
 
 1. Settlement after tlie Conquest.— At first William seemed 
 disposed to rule England kindly ; but under the soft glove was an 
 iron hand. For a long while he met with armed resistance, 
 which, in later years, he put down with great cruelty. The people 
 
16 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTOllY. [Chap. IV. 
 
 feared him, and they disliked the foreign nobles who came in his 
 train. This dislike was increased when the King made \\i&/olkland 
 
 the property of the crown, and took the estates of the 
 the Foikiand English nobles who had fought against him at Hastings 
 Engli8h*e8tote8 ^"^ ^^^^ them to his Norman barons. He allowed 
 
 some holders of estates to get back their lands on his 
 receiving a money payment from them ; but much of England was 
 treated as a conquered country, and the people were ruled as rebel- 
 lious subjects. Even to his own followers, though he shared with 
 them the spoils of the conquest, William was suspicious and harsh. 
 Nor did he confine his rule to the State : he took upon himself to 
 govern the Church's affairs also. The English bishops he dis- 
 placed, putting foreign clergy and chaplains of his own in their 
 stead. His chief adviser was Lanfranc, an Italian priest of 
 great piety and learning, whom he had brought from an abbey in 
 Normandy and made Archbishop of Canterbury. But William held 
 a tight rein over both the clergy and the nobles, and, despite the 
 Pope's interference, in England he was head of the Church as well 
 as of the State. In William's reign there began to be built those 
 fine Norman castles which are still to be met with in England, and 
 which were long the seats of personal and territorial oppression. 
 
 2. Norman Rule and Influence.— The conquest of England by 
 William, a foreign prince, accompanied by foreign nobles, naturally 
 altered, in some degree, the manners and customs of the time, and 
 introduced changes into the social life of the people. Though Eng- 
 lish laws were still in force, they were interpreted and administered 
 according to Norman ideas and customs. But William wished to 
 rule as an English king ; and though he brought with him French 
 ways and the French tongue, their effect was comparatively slight 
 on the laws and the speech of the English. The reason of this 
 was that the people, though conquered, far outnumbered their con- 
 querors, and in time were able to recover much of their old power 
 and freedom. At first, between the English and the Normans 
 there was great bitterness, but time did much to soften 
 becomes an this feeling ; and in the end both races in England 
 AnRio-Nonnan became friends and were blended in one people. 
 This blending of the races was good for England, for 
 it made her a nation. Not only did it awaken the country to new 
 
A.D. 1066.] THE PEtJDAt SYSTEM. 17 
 
 life and vigour, but through the chivalrous spirit which showed 
 itself in military exploits, it gave grace and elevation to the English 
 character. Another efifect of the Conquest was to bring England 
 into closer relations with the other nations of Europe. The result 
 of this was seen in the extension of commerce, in the growth of 
 both the seaport and the inland towns of the kingdom, and in the 
 stimulus given to all sorts of handicraft and skilled labour. " To 
 Normandy," it has been said, "we owe the builder, the knight, the 
 schoolman, and the statesman." 
 
 3. the Feudal System.— William's coming to England brought 
 with it, in a modified form, what is called the Feudal System of 
 land-tenure and government. The germs of the system already 
 existed in England, for under the Saxon kings the thanes held lands 
 which were given them as the rewards of military service. But the 
 system introduced by William from the continent was in many 
 respects different from that known to the Saxons ; and as it greatly 
 influenced the social and political life of the English people for 
 nearly six hundred years, it will be well to see just what it was. 
 Briefly, then, feudalism meant one man's becoming the 
 vassal y or servant, of another, by acknowledging him deflned.^™ 
 as his " lord," and by swearing to be his " man," and 
 to aid him in war. For this service the vassal was taken under 
 the protection of his lord, and was given a grant of land from the 
 estates which his lord held from the king. The "lord" or "baron" 
 owed the same duty to the sovereign that the vassal owed to his lord. 
 Under William — such was his claim — all th» land belonged to the 
 king, not as representing the people, but as sovereign feudal lord, 
 by right of conquest, and by election by the Witan, as the successor, 
 as he styled himself, of Edward the Confessor. Of this land the 
 king gfranted estates, called manors or baronies, to the more dis- 
 tinguished of his followers and fighting men, who were called 
 barons and knights. Land thus held from the crown was called 
 a fief, a feud, or a tenure. The barons who became tenants-in- 
 chief of the king had to render annually certain military service, 
 together with their retainers, or personal followers, and were liable 
 to pay sums of money, called aids, for any expedition undertaken, 
 or extraordinary expenditure made, by the king. This money 
 payment was also exacted on certain occasions by the lords from 
 9 
 
16 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. IV. 
 
 their vassals. The land was cultivated under its feudal holders, 
 lay and clerical, by villeins, or small dependent farmers, and , under 
 them, by serfs, or slaves, who had no rights as freemen. To prevent 
 
 the barons from becoming too powerful, and thus giving 
 modiflcation him trouble, William scattered their holdings over the 
 s^^stenf ^"^*^ country, and took care that no large estates should be 
 
 close to one other. He also compelled their followers 
 to sviQ,zx fealty , or loyal promise of service, to himself before render- 
 ing fealty to their lords. By these, and other similar precautions, 
 William lessened the power of the barons, and protected the people 
 from the oppression of those who were over them. The old Saxon 
 machinery of justice, the hundred-moot and shire-moot, was retained, 
 but to it were added an Ecclesiastical Court, for the trial of cases in 
 which the clergy were concerned, and a supreme tribunal, called the 
 King's Court, which met wherever the king resided, and which 
 tried all important cases, and heard appeals from the Courts below. 
 The WiTENAGEMOT, or Council of Wise Men, was superseded by 
 the Great Council of bishops, abbots, earls, and barons, which 
 met at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. 
 
 4. Risings against William I.— William, though made king, 
 had, so far, gained possession of only a portion of the kingdom. 
 
 All the north and west of England 
 was as yet unsubdued. After his coro- 
 nation, William went on a visit to 
 his duk'.'dom of Normandy, and in 
 his absence appointed as regents his 
 half-brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, 
 and William Fitz-Osborn, a trusted 
 Norman follower. While the king 
 was gone the people rose in rebellion ; 
 and on his return he proceeded, with 
 William the Conqueuor. great cruelty, to put down the revolt. 
 The most formidable risings were in Northumberland, where, at 
 various times, the Scottish king, Malcolm III., the youth Edgar 
 the Atheling, who was to have been king in place of William, and 
 ijie Danes, who had come with a large fleet from Denmark, all kept 
 ap a bitter strife. William's castle of York, meanwhile, 1^11 into 
 the hands of the revolted English, and 3,000 Normans who formed 
 
 ^ 
 
A.D. 1087.] THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 19 
 
 the garrison were murdered. For this there was a frightful reckon- 
 ing. First of all, William got rid of the Danes by bribing them to 
 go back to Denmark. Then he turned upon the English, recovered 
 York, and put the whole country to the sword. The 
 peasantry were mercilessly slaughtered, the towns and harrylng^of the 
 villages were burnt, the crops were destroyed, and, for Nortii, m the 
 the space of sixty miles, the countiy between the H um- 
 ber and the Tyne was made a desert. More than 100,000 people 
 are said to have perished from William's vengeance. In other 
 parts of England he had trouble for a time. A gallant stand was 
 made against him by Hereward, a Saxon thane, who had 
 established, in the Isle of Ely, "a camp of refuge" for English 
 fugitives. But this resistance William quickly put down. The 
 Scottish king and Edgar were also forced to submit. 
 
 5. William's Later Years and Death. —For a while William's 
 strong arm and stern rule secured him peace. The people feared 
 him ; and with the help of Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, he restored the kingdom to order. During this period Wil- 
 liam, who loved hunting, turned into a preserve for game a large 
 district in Hampshire, which came to be called the New Forest. 
 For this purpose he wantonly destroyed many villages and churches 
 over an area of thirty miles, and made severe laws to protect the 
 game. In other ways, also, William governed cruelly. In par- 
 ticular, he laid many and burdensome taxes upon the „, „ 
 
 . . The New For- 
 
 people. To enable him to do this he caused a survey estandDomes- 
 
 to be made of all the lands in his kingdom. The ^^ ° 
 
 volume in which this is written down is called Domesday BooK, 
 
 for the decisions and judgments recorded in it were claimed to be 
 
 as unalterable as those in God's book of doom. In 1087, war 
 
 broke out between William and the king of France, which William 
 
 conducted with his usual severity, and which lead to ^ ^^ ,,, 
 - . , , . . T , . , T, /• , • Death of the 
 
 his death m Normandy, m the same year. Before his Conqueror, 
 death, he gave the dukedom of Normandy to his ' ' 
 eldest son, Robert ; to his second son, William, he willed the 
 Kingdom of England ; and to his third son, Henry, he made a gift 
 of a large sum of money. William's rule had been so pitiless that 
 when he died his courtiers left his body unburied ; but, through 
 the compassion of a poor Norman knight, it was removed to Caen^ 
 
20 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. IV. 
 
 where, after some difficulty about the payment for the grave, it at 
 last found a resting-place. 
 
 6. William II., or Rufus (1087-1100).— The Conqueror was suc- 
 ceeded by his second son, William, who was called Rufus, from 
 his ruddy complexion and red hair. In his reign there was much 
 strife, owing to the barons' wanting his brother, Robert of Nor- 
 mandy, to be king. Besides trouble with the barons, which broke 
 out in two successive revolts, William was harassed by the Welsh, 
 and had twice to fight Malcolm, king of Scotland. The Arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury, which had become vacant by the death of 
 
 Lanfranc, was given to a very learned man, named 
 Anselm made 70 , . . 
 
 Archbishop of Anselm. Anselm, who was modest m his ways and 
 pious in his life, did not want to be made Archbishop, 
 for the king had become very licentious and despotic. But, having 
 once accepted the position, he sternly reproved William for his 
 sins, and rebuked him for interfering with the affairs of the Church. 
 This led to a quarrel, which resulted in Ansclm's leaving England, 
 and in the people's being grievously oppressed, for in this good 
 man's absence there was no one to restrain the king. But one 
 day, while out hunting in the New Forest, William was found 
 dead with an arrow in his breast, shot by some unknown hand. 
 In this reign we first hear of the Crusades, a move- 
 ttTe^Cm^eB. "^^nt which began in pilgrimages to Jerusalem, but 
 which soon developed into a series of wars against 
 the Turks, who were in possession of the Holy City. To ' -in one 
 of these, Robert of Normandy had mortgaged his dukedom to 
 William, and when the latter died he was in Palestine with the 
 Crusaders. 
 
 7. Henry I. (1100-1135).— William Rufus was succeeded by his 
 younger brother, Henry, surnamed Beauclerc (that is, "fine 
 scholar"), because he was very learned for a king in those days. 
 Henry made great haste to have himself crowned, for he fectred the 
 return from the Crusades of his eldest brother, Robert, who had 
 expected to be made king when Rufus died. To secure himself in 
 the throne Henry bribed the nobles with grants of money, and the 
 clergy he won over by appointing many of them to high office, and 
 by recalling to England the exiled archbishop, Anselm. To the 
 people he promised good government, the restoration of the laws 
 
A.D. 1135] THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 21 
 
 of Edward the Confessor, and the undoing of the wrongs from 
 which they suffered. These promises were written down in a 
 Charter, the first document on record of a solemn compact 
 between the king and the people, which ensured to 
 the latter their rights and liberties. When Robert ueSy\?^ 
 returned from the Holy Land he crossed to England 
 to claim his rights, but Henry agreed to give him a pension, and to 
 leave him in possession of Normandy. Later on, however, Henry 
 broke this promise, by invading Robert's dominions ; and after 
 fighting a battle with him he took Robert prisoner and confined him 
 for life in England. Henry now assumed possession of Normandy, 
 but Robert's son, William, gave him trouble in holding it ; and 
 another battle was fought near Rouen, which Henry won. Shortly 
 after this, Henry had to mourn the drowning of his son, William, 
 by the foundering of the White Ship on the passage from France. 
 
 8. Henry's Quarrel with the Church.— Early in his reign 
 Henry had a difficulty with the Church, which arose from his 
 desire to have Anselm, in feudal fashion, do homage for the lands 
 of his See. As this would be an acknowledgment of the king as 
 head of the Church, Anselm refused to obey. This led to a second 
 long exile for Anselm. Finally the matter was settled by Anselm's 
 consenting to do homage, and by Henry's abandoning his claim to 
 invest bishops and abbots. Under his able adviser, Roger, bishop 
 of Salisbury, the king extended and improved the machinery of the 
 local Courts, appointed judges to travel on circuit, and took the 
 administration of justice largely out of the hands of the barons, 
 placing it in the hands of his judges. The Exchequer Court, for 
 the collection of the revenue, was also organized, and 
 a judiciary created, whose administration of the laws organization 
 was more in the interest of justice. But death called 
 Henry suddenly from his great work ; a^nd he left the crown to his 
 only daughter, Matilda, who he hoped would succeed him. 
 
 [1. Briefly relate the principal events from the accession of Edward the Confessor to 
 the Battle of Hastings. 
 
 2. Point out the effects produced by the Norman Conquest on the people of England. 
 
 3. Explain what is meant by the Feudal System. 
 
 4. What concessions did Henry I. grant the people of England ? Why are ihese 
 important? 
 
 5. What important change was made by Henry I. in connection with the adminis- 
 tration of justice?] 
 
22 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. V. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE CROWN, THE CHURCH, AND THE BARONS. 
 
 [The reign of Stephen is remarkable for the sufferings inflicted by the feudal barons 
 on the people. Show that a weak government was the principal cause of this disordei 
 and oppression. The story of Thomas a Becket should be dwelt upon, as illustrating 
 the character of the struggle between the Crown and the Church. The Conquest of 
 Ireland, Henry II 's legal reforms, and the effect of the Crusades on Europe and Eng- 
 land deserve attention. Special prominence should be given to the establishment of 
 law courts, the Grand Assize (the forerunner of the modern jury), and the system of 
 travelling justices. Describe the ordeal of battle. Read with the pupils the " Archery 
 Contest," from Scott's Ivanhoe, and *' King Richard and the Nubian," from The Talia^ 
 man (4th Reader). 
 
 References: — Green's "Short History," Freeman's "Norman Conquest," Johnson's 
 "Normans in Europe," Coxe's "The Crusades," Tennyson's and Fronde's "Becket," 
 and Scott's Ivanhoe, and The Talisman.] 
 
 1. Reign of Stephen of Blois (1135-1154).— On the death of 
 Henry I. there came a long period of confusion. Henry's 
 daughter, Matilda, though promised the crown, was forestalled in 
 the possession of it by Stephen, Earl of Blois, grandson of William 
 the Conqueror. How Stephen came to be chosen was this : the 
 people, ever fearing the barons, and wanting some one able to 
 oppose them, objected to the rule of a queen. The barons, on the 
 other hand, disliked Matilda, for she had married Geoffrey of 
 Anjou, who, with his following of Angevins, or men of Anjou, 
 was always at war with Normandy. To obtain the throne, Stephen 
 had to make concessions to conciliate those who otherwise might 
 take up the cause of Matilda. The barons taking advantage of 
 this, and spurning the king's feeble authority, set up a reign of 
 anarchy. They robbed and plundered, and from their Norman 
 castles grievously oppressed and tortured the people. To add to 
 Battle of the ^^^ disorder. King David of Scotland, who was related 
 standard, to Matilda, invaded the kingdom ; but he was routed 
 
 NorthaUerton, at the BATTLE OF THE STANDARD, For fourteen 
 
 A.D. 1138. years the country passed through the horrors of civil 
 war. Fortune was fickle in the long contest, for at one time 
 Stephen was captured and Matilda declared queen ; at another, 
 Matilda was shut up by Stephen's forces in Oxford, and to save 
 her life had a romantic escape. The struggle was marked through* 
 
A.D. 1154.J CftOWN, CHUKCH, AND fiABONS. 
 
 23 
 
SI4 • PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. V. 
 
 out by every kind of outrage, which the hired troops brought from 
 the continent by both parties took a grim pleasure in committing. 
 Finally, Matilda had to withdraw to Normandy. Six years later, 
 however, the quarrel was taken up by her son, Henry of Anjou, 
 whom Stephen was compelled to acknowledge heir to the throne. 
 In the following year Stephen died. 
 
 2. Succession of Henry II.— The accession of Henry H. marks 
 the beginning of the rule of the Angevin or Anjou Kings, some- 
 times called the Plantagenets. The latter title is derived from 
 the Latin name of the common broom of Anjou (the planta 
 genista), a sprig of which Henry's father, Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, 
 used to wear in his helmet. Henry's French dominions were 
 
 larger than those of the king of France, of whom he 
 and^pe^sonai '^'^^^ ^ vassal ; for they extended from the EngHsh 
 qualities of Channel to the Pyrenees. From his mother he in- 
 herited Normandy ; and from his father, Anjou, 
 Maine, and Touraine ; and by marriage with the Duchess Eleanor 
 of Aquitane, the divorced wife of Louis VIL of France, he obtained 
 the great duchy of Guienne. To govern these wide-spread domin- 
 ions, and to restore peace and prosperity to England, was a heavy 
 task for the young king. But he came well fitted for his work ; for 
 he possessed a strong frame and great powers of endurance, 
 together with a natural energy, ambition, and force of character, 
 which enabled him to overcome many difficulties. 
 
 3. Political and Legal Reforms of Henry II. — Henry's 
 special claim to notice, as well as to the gratitude of all English- 
 speaking people, is the care he took of the rights of his subjects, at 
 a time when freedom was well nigh strangled by the tyranny of the 
 barons and the arrogance of the Church. On his accession Henry 
 disbanded the foreign troops which had been used in the Civil 
 War, and cancelled the foolish grants of land and money which 
 Stephen and Matilda had given to those who had fought in their 
 cause. From the barons he took away much of their authority and 
 pulled down their castles. Order was restored by the appointment 
 
 of royal commissioners to administer justice. Itinera 
 on*circuit.°* ^'^^ justices were regularly sent out through the land 
 
 to hear complaints, try wrong-doers, and decide points 
 of dispute about the revenue. In his reign was created the Court 
 
A.D. 1164.] mowN, church, and barons. 25 
 
 of King's Bench, for the trial of criminal causes, and for the con- 
 trol of the lesser courts established under the Saxon kings. 
 Another institution of Henry the Second's reign was the Grand 
 Assize, a court established to settle disputes about the ownership 
 of land in a more sensible way than the ibrmer , ^thod, by ordeal 
 of battle. From the establishment of this ce ui nas sprung our 
 system of the " Grand Jury " ; for it was Henry's plan to summon 
 by the sheriff four knights of the county, who were to elect twelve 
 others, and the sixteen were to sit and try cases about disputed 
 property, and to decide upon what other cases were to be referred 
 to the king's travelling justices. In Henry's reign the Great 
 Council was more frequently summoned and consulted than had 
 previously been the case, though as yet it had no popular, or repre- 
 sentative, character. 
 
 4. The Story of Thomas a Becket.— The conflict between the 
 Crown and the Barons was now to extend to a conflict between the 
 Crown and tb« Church. Under Henry II. the latter had a firm 
 assertor of its rights, who was to give the king much trouble. 
 This was Thomas k Becket, who for the first six years of Henry's 
 reign was his chief adviser, the chancellor of his kingdom, and his 
 bosom friend. liecket was a man of great ability and of iron will. 
 He was liked by the Church, and was also a favourite with the 
 nobles, for he was skilled in all learned and knightly accomplish- 
 ments and courtly arts. On the death of the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, Henry, thinking to get better control of the clergy, appointed 
 Becket to the vacant See. But Becket, as soon as he was made 
 primate, changed his manner of life and would acknowledge no 
 sovereign but the Pope. Presently a dispute arose over the ques- 
 tion whether clergymen who had broken the law should be tried by 
 the civil courts or by those of the Church. Becket claimed the 
 right to judge the offenders ; while Henry insisted that they should 
 be brought before the King's Courts. To settle the matter the 
 king summoned a council, at Clarendon. The result of this Coun- 
 cil was the passing of certain laws which affirmed the _ ... ^. 
 
 t^ o ^ Constitutions 
 
 fang's power over offending pnests ; and to these of Clarendon, 
 laws Becket, though he at first refused, subsequently *"" ' 
 assented. Before long, however, he repented of what he had done, 
 and sought and obtained from the Pope absolution for his offence. 
 
26 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. V. 
 
 Meanwhile, thinking his life in danger, the Archbishop fled to 
 France, and for six years remained in exile. At length a reconcili- 
 ation was brought about ; and, though the cause of quarrel was 
 left unsettled, he returned to England. But no sooner was Becket 
 back than he began to exercise his clerical authority. He deposed 
 several bishops for consenting to crown Henry, the king's eldest 
 son, claiming that none but the Archbishop of Canterbury had a 
 right to crown the king. Hearing of this, the king, in a fit of 
 anger, cried, " Is there no one in my kingdom who will rid me of 
 this turbulent priest ?" Noxt day four knights left the king's court, 
 
 which was at the time in Normandy, crossed to Eng- 
 Thonuw h land, and murdered the Archbishop in the Cathedral 
 29*^A^D ^T/'. ^^ Canterbury. The murder horrified all Europe, and 
 
 the king himself was grief-stricken over the result of 
 his hasty words. Afterwards, indeed, he thought it necessary to 
 do penance at the murdered prelate's tomb, and to ask the for- 
 giveness of the Pope ; for his sons and nobles rose in rebellion ; his 
 wife, Eleanor, embittered his life ; the King of Scotland invaded 
 his kingdom ; and Louis VII. of France sought to overthrow his 
 power in Normandy. But, though Henry triumphed over the 
 enemies of his country, the unnatural conduct of his sons brought 
 him constant trouble and finally broke his heart. 
 
 5. The Conquest of Ireland (1171).— Before the death of 
 Becket, Henry had given permission to some of his subjects, notably 
 to the Earl of Pembroke (commonly called Strongbow)^ to engage 
 in military adventure in Ireland, which was then distracted by the 
 rivalries of some of its native princes. The island had been 
 peopled by the same Keltic race as had settled in England ; and, 
 like England, it bad been repeatedly ravaged by the Norsemen. 
 In the time of Henry it was divided into five petty kingdoms, 
 whose chieftains waged cruel war with one another. At the re- 
 quest of Dermot, King of Leinster, " Strongbow," and two other 
 Norman knights, had come over with a force from the West of 
 England and helped Dermot to conquer parts of the island and put 
 down his enemies. "Strongbow" married Dermot's daughter, and 
 on his father-in-law's death succeeded to his possessions. But 
 Henry, who was jealous of " Strongbow's " successes in Ireland, 
 went over with an army and landed at Waterford. Here many 
 
A.D. 1199.] CROWN, CHURCH, AND BARONS. 27 
 
 of the chiefs made submission, and he took possession of the lands 
 that had been won. With this formal possession of the island, 
 Henry returned to England, and left it to the misrule of his Nor- 
 man barons. For centuries afterwards Ireland was a prey to 
 lawlessness and crime. 
 
 6. Richard I. [Ooeur-de-Lion,] (1189-1199).— Henry II. in ths 
 last year of his life, was forced by his sons, Richard and John, into 
 a war with France, and obliged to 
 make a humiliating peace. Grief at 
 his troubles brought on a fever, of 
 which he died in Normandy, with a 
 curse on his lips for his rebellious 
 children. Henry's eldest surviving son, 
 Richard, who, for his bravery, was 
 called Coetir-dc-Lion^ or " Lion Heart," 
 succeeded him. Richard was little of 
 an Englishman, for of his ten years 
 reign he did not spend more than six Richard, Cceur-de-lion. 
 months in England. During nearly the whole of this period he 
 was either absent in the Third Crusade, or engaged in profitless 
 wars in France. Richard was more soldier than king, and as his 
 ambition was to win glory in ♦^^'^ Holy Land, he drained his king- 
 dom of money to gratify his object. His urgent need for money 
 was, indeed, the means of advancing the people ; for to raise funds 
 he sold all manner of offices; gave permission to his barons to 
 make transfers of land ; and allowed the now growing towns to 
 purchase municipal rights and other privileges. Richard's expedi- 
 tion to Palestine, though marked by notable acts of skill and bravery, 
 cost him so much blood and treasure that he was fain to return 
 home, with but a sight of Jerusalem, and with nothing to repay 
 England for her outlay but the advantages obtained from contact 
 with the civilization of the East. On the way back to England 
 Richard was taken prisoner in an Austrian city and confined for 
 over a year by the Emperor of Germany, who released him only 
 after the payment by the English of an enormous ransom. The 
 remainder of his reign was marked by a revolt in England against 
 heavy taxation and the overstraining of the power of the Crown ; 
 by strife with his urother, John ; and by a petty war with Philip of 
 
28 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 France, in which he lost his life. In an attack on the Castle of 
 Chaluz the king was slain by an archer, and the crown passed to 
 his brother, John. 
 
 [1. What l8 notuworthy In tlio rol(?n of Stephen ? Explain fully. 
 
 2. Who was the first Plautagenet king? What 1h the origin of the word " Plautag- 
 enet"? 
 
 8. What did Henry II. do to make the goToriiment of England better and utronger? 
 
 4. Tiil till! Htory of tiio Conquest of Ireland. 
 
 6. Wliy did a dispute ariao betweijn Henry II. and TliomaH a Decket? How did It 
 end ? 
 
 0. Point out any efTects of.tbe Oruiiaded on Uuglaud.J 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 THE GREAT CHARTER. 
 
 [The character of John, his abuse of authority, and the stops taken by the barons to 
 control him, should be clearly brought out. The importance of the provisions of the 
 Magna Charta ought to be dwelt upon and illustrated. The gradual introduction of 
 Parliamentary government, and the great part played by Simon de Montfort, in securing 
 the liberties of the English people, deserve careful treatment. Also, exi)lain interdict 
 and excommunication. Read with the pupils Dickens's " Prince Arthur " (3rd Reader), 
 and the scene from Shakespeare's " King John " (4th Reaier). 
 
 R^ercncea .'—Green, Freeman's " Norman Conquest," Bright's " Medieval Mon- 
 archy," Stubbs's " Early Plantagenets," Creighton's •' Simon de Montfort," and Shakes- 
 peare's •' King John."] 
 
 L King John loses tlie French Provinces.— The right of 
 John, sumamed " Lackland," (for, unlike his brothers, he held no 
 estates from the Crown), to succeed to the throne was questioned. 
 Some thought that Prince Arthur of Britanny, son of John's elder 
 brother, Geoffrey, should be king ; but, as had happened before, 
 the English people chose the man rather than the boy. Philip of 
 France, however, stood by Arthur when the latter clairaed from 
 John both England and the French provinces. While John was 
 iti Normandy, fighting for his possessions, Arthur fell into his 
 hands, and in some unnkown manner was put out of the way. 
 Suspecting John, who was treacherous and cruel, to have murdered 
 the youth, Philip, as sovereign lord of France, summoned him to 
 answer the charge ; but to this John paid no heed. Philip, there- 
 upon, declared John to have forfeited his French possessions ; and 
 most of them were at once severed from the English crowo. 
 
A.D. 1214.] THE GREAT CHARTER. 29 
 
 Though seemingly a loss, this was really a gain to England, for 
 the kings were now shut in to the care of their own island domin- 
 ions, and the Norman nobles had no other country to divide their 
 allegiance. 
 
 2. The Pope's Interdict (1208-1213).— In 1205, John got into 
 difficulty with the Church and the Pope over the appointment of a 
 new Archbishop of Canterbury. To fill the See, the monks chose 
 one man ; the king another. The matter was referred to the Pope, 
 who set aside both elections, and appointed a learned English- 
 man, named Stkphen Lanc;ton, who was then at Rome. The 
 clergy accepted the Pope's choice, but the king would not, and 
 in anger he expelled the monks of Canterbury from his kingdom. 
 For this the Pope laid England under an Interdict^ which deprived 
 the people of the services of the Church ; and for six years no 
 marriages were solemnized, nor were people buried with funeral 
 rites. But John cared so little for this that he robbed the clergy 
 and drove many of them out of England. The Pope now excom- 
 municated him ; and when this had no effect upon the defiant 
 king, he declared the English throne vacant, and got Philip of 
 France to prepare to invade the kingdom. Alarmed at this, John 
 made haste to submit to the Pope ; promised to pay him annually 
 a large sum of money ; and,, at Dover, laid his crown at the feet 
 of the papal legate. The king now acknowledged Langton as 
 archbishop, and the 'Excommunication' and 'Interdict' were 
 withdrawn. 
 
 3. Signing of the Great Charter.— When the Interdict was 
 removed, John wanted to go against France and recover Normandy. 
 But his barons were sullen and refused to fight out of England ; 
 and the people gave him no support, because he had acted tyran- 
 nically and had humbled the nation by accepting his crown from 
 the Pope. John at first contented himself by sending to the assist- 
 ance of the Count of Flanders, who had been attacked by Philip, 
 a fleet, which won an important victory. But the defeat of his 
 German and Flemish allies at BouviNES (1214), compelled him to 
 make a truce with France. Towards the close of the year the 
 clergy and the barons became restive under John's continued 
 tyranny; and, at the call of Archbishop Langton and the Earl oi 
 Pembroke, a meeting was held at Bury St. Edmunds to enforce 
 
30 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 their rights. At a private gathering of the barons, in the previous 
 year, Langton brouj^ht forward the neglected charter of Henry I., 
 and it was resolved to ask the king to act as he should and stand 
 by its provisions. To give the resolution effect the barons drew 
 up a charter of rights, which they were determined that John 
 should sign. Things had come to such a pass that everyone felt 
 that a rigid check must be put upon the king's power, and some 
 guarantee given to the people that their rights and liberties should 
 be respected. John, however, would have none of the charter. 
 But the barons were in earnest ; and rallying their forces, they 
 made war upon him and took possession of London. John, who 
 had at first stormed and then shuffled, now that his crown was in 
 danger, met the barons at Runnymede, and there 
 Gniat Charter, signed and affixed his seal to the Great Charter. 
 i'lrms' '^^'^ famous document was, in the main, but a re- 
 capitulation of rights and safeguards heretofore won 
 by the English people ; but these now received from John an 
 emphatic confirmation. The provisions of the Charter relate to 
 the Church, the barons, and the people ; but its chief stress is on 
 the relation between the Crown and its subjects. The Church 
 was to be free and possess all her privileges. The barons were 
 to be protected from unjust taxation, and to be more fairly dealt 
 with as tenants of the Crown. The people were not to be im- 
 prisoned, outlawed, dispossessed of their property, or otherwise 
 punished, save by the judgment of their peers, or equals, or by 
 the law of the land. Justice was not to be sold, delayed, or 
 denied to any man ; and all should be at liberty when they pleased 
 to go in and out of the kingdom. London and other towns were to 
 retain their privileges of trade ; and taxes were not to be levied 
 without the consent of the people. Twenty-four barons were 
 named to see that the provisions of the Charter were carried into 
 effect. In this great document, which gives security to the life 
 and property of the subject, the English people had for the first 
 time laid down in black and white the '' main points of the Con- 
 stitution and the several rights and duties of king and people." 
 
 4. War with the Barons. Accession of Henry III.— Though 
 John had signed the Charter, he had no intention to do what it 
 required of him. In his anger at being compelled to sign it, he 
 
A.D. 1250.] THE GREAT CHARTER. 81 
 
 appealed to the Pope, who declared it null and void, and released 
 
 the king from his oath to respect it. John then got his hired 
 
 troops together and made war against the barono, laid waste their 
 
 possessions, and ravaged the land. Many of the barons, in despair, 
 
 offered the crown to Louis, son of the king of France, and got him 
 
 to come with an army to help them to fight John. But others of the 
 
 barons did not want a foreign king, and for a time they ^ „ . „. 
 
 ,,,,., r , , rr^, . • , Death of King 
 
 took Johns side of the quarrel. The kmg, however, John, i9tii Oct 
 
 died in 1216, and England was saved from the danger ' ' 
 of another foreign conquest. The king's death reunited the barons, 
 who all now took the national side against Louis. Louis, unwilling 
 to give up his chance of the Crown, continued to fight ; but his 
 army was overthrown at Lincoln and his fleet defeated at Dover. 
 Thereupon, he returned to France. John was succeeded on the 
 throne by his young son, Henry II L, who was crowned when but 
 nine years old. The government was first placed in the hands of 
 the good William Mareschal, Earl of Pembroke, who was 
 made regent. He was succeeded in the Regency by Huhf:rt DE 
 Burgh. Under these and other able men who lived in Henry's 
 long reign, England, though she suffered much from the king's 
 mismanagement, made great strides towards constitutional govern- 
 ment. In particular, during the king's minority, the „ . ^ , 
 Charter was three times confirmed, and also recognized Burgh's 
 by the Pope. The French adventurers who had been "^*^''"™^° • 
 in King John's service were expelled from the kingdom, order was 
 restored, and the aggression of the Church restrained. When, 
 however, the king came of age, he interfered with Hubert de 
 Burgh's wise government, and drove him from office. 
 
 5. The Provisions of Oxford.— Henry, when he became his 
 own adviser, did not know how to rule. He mismanaged affairs, 
 and brought into England many foreign favourites, relatives of his 
 mother, whom he made rich and raised to dignity at the expense of 
 the barons. What Henry had to give away went to foreigners ; 
 English heiresses were married to Frenchmen, and 
 even French women were brought over to marry the foreign 
 rich wards of the king. English laws were disregarded 
 by these people, every extravagance was indulged in, and the 
 country was burdened with debt.' At length, the English nobles 
 
3S I»tJfiLTC SCttOoL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 determined to put an end to the king's misgovernment and favour- 
 itism. Under the leadership of SiMON DE MoNTFORT, Earl of 
 Leicester, who had married the king's sister, the barons met at 
 Westminster to protest against the king's burdensome taxation, and 
 to demand that the administration of the kingdom be placed in the 
 hands of twenty-four nobles. Later on (A.D. 1258) the National 
 Council, or Parliament, as it now came to be called, met at Oxford, 
 where the king and the barons jointly agreed to a commission to 
 reform and conduct the government. A Council of State was 
 formed, consisting of fifteen members; and what are known as the 
 Provisions of Oxford were produced. These Provisions — 
 
 which were accepted and sworn to by the king and his 
 of Oxford : son, Prince Edward — required the royal castles to be 
 by th™Baron8 P^^^^^ ^^ the he '.ds of Englishmen. Parliament was 
 
 to meet three times a year, and to be composed of the 
 fifteen councillors and the twelve members representing the barons. 
 Four knights were summoned from each county to declare its griev- 
 ances ; sheriffs were also to be elected ; and an account of the 
 public money was to be duly rendered. 
 
 6. The Barons* "War, and the First Parliament.— The arrange- 
 ment made by the Council at Oxford, unhappily, did not last long. 
 Jealousy and dissension broke out among the barons, part of them 
 holding by the great Earl, Simon de Montfort, and part by the 
 king. Meanwhile, the people began to assert their rights, and the 
 growing towns now exercised an influence on public questions. 
 London and the chief towns ranged themselves on the side of 
 
 Simon de Montfort, and a pitclved battle was fought 
 prisraer at°he ^t Lewes, in Sussex, in which the barons were vic- 
 A D^^i264^^^*' torious, and the king and his brother taken prisoners. 
 
 Simon de Montfort now ruled in the king's name ; 
 and as he wished to use his authority righteously, he summoned a 
 Parliament. To this Parliament, for the first time in the national 
 history, were summoned deputies from the cities and boroughs, 
 also two knights from each shire, in addition to the great barons 
 and prelates who alone had hitherto composed the councils of iiie 
 kingdom. This memorable Parliament met in January, 1265. 
 
 7. Death of De Montfort and Henry III.— Simon de Mont- 
 fort's Parliament, though intended to solve the difficulties of the 
 
A.D. 1272.] PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. 3d 
 
 time, did not bring peace to the kingdom. His growing ambition 
 and arrogance offended many of the barons, who disliked to see the 
 king in the absolute power of a subject. The king's party gradu- 
 ally gained strength, and resort was again had to arms. Prince 
 Edward, the king's eldest son, who also had been a prisoner of 
 Earl Simon's, escaped from his guard, and placing himself at the 
 head of a strong party of royalist barons, attacked De Montfort's 
 army at Evesham and slew the great Earl and his _ „ ,, ^ 
 
 ' . , , . . De Montfoi-t 
 
 sons. After this, the kmg's authority was restored ; slain at Eves- 
 but De Montfort's withstanding of tyranny was not '' " ' 
 forgotten by the people. In 1272, Henry HI. died, in the fifty- 
 seventh year of his reign, and was succeeded by his son, Edward I. 
 
 [1. What uhould we admire and whai should we condemn in the character of John ? 
 
 2. Why was the loss by John o his French possessions a gain to England ? 
 
 3. State the principal provisions of the Great Charter. Give an account of the 
 struggle by which it was obtained. 
 
 4. Whendid the First Parliament meet? Who summoned it ? What persons com- 
 posed It? Narrate the events that led to the summoning of this Parliament. 
 
 6. What is the meaning of " interdict/' " exoommu ■ ation," " peers," " wai-ds" ?] 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 GROWTH OF PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. 
 
 [The leading facts of this chap*«r are the conquest of Wales and Scotland by 
 Edward I. ; the growth of the power of Parliament under the same king ; the War of 
 Scottish Independence in the reign of Edward II. ; the beginning of the Hundred 
 Years' War, and the Black Death in the reign of Edward III. But, in addition to 
 these, the teacher should relate some of the interesting tales and incidents connected 
 with the lives of Wallace and Bruce, and with the battle of Bannockbum. The Ex- 
 pulsion of the Jews in the reign of Edward I., and its cause, ought to be taken up. 
 The battles of Crecy and Poitiers are deserving of more minute description, as they are 
 among the first battles that illustrate the superiority of English yeomanry over French 
 chivalry, and of foot soldiers or infantry over mail-clad cavaJiy. The story of the 
 capture of Calais should be told. Let the pupils read the poem, " Bruce and the 
 Spider" (3rd Reader), Brace's Address, and Scott's account of the battle of Bannock- 
 bum; also Stanley's "The Black Prince at Cressy" (4th Reader). The Black Death, 
 and the change it produced in the relations between labourers and employers, together 
 with the crael and unjust provisions of the Statute of Labourers, should be noted ; also 
 Wyclif and his work. The teacher should explain what Is meant by an impeachment. 
 
 Referenc^^ -Green, Bright, Edith Thompson, Pearson's " English History of the 
 XlVth Centi..^," Warburton's "Edward III.," and Rowley's " Rise of the People."] 
 
 1. Character of Edward I.— Edward I. had learned the lesson 
 of the struggle between king and people, for the confirmation of 
 4 
 
S4 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 the rights embodied in the Great Charter ; and these rights he did 
 much to make secure, Edward was a thorough Enghshman, true 
 
 to his word, loving fair dealing (especi- 
 ally in the early part of his reign), with 
 an open, manly character, a soldier's 
 courage, and a statesman's wisdom. 
 Having travelled much in the East, 
 he had a wide knowledge of foreign 
 lands, men, and institutions ; and under 
 him England prospered as it had never 
 done before. He has been called the 
 " greatest of the Plantagenets," for in 
 Edward I. his reign he endeavoured to make the 
 
 whole of Britain one united kingdom, and to give the people repre- 
 sentative government. 
 
 2. Conquest of Wales.— England at this time had only nominal 
 sovereignty over Scotland and Wales. Edward wished to make 
 this sovereignty real ; and when he was crowned he called upon 
 Llewellyn, one of the most powerful of the Welsh princes, to 
 do him homage. Llewellyn refused ; but Edward made war upon 
 him and forced him to submit. Five years later (A.D. 1282), 
 having been stirred up to rebellion by his brother David, Llew- 
 ellyn was killed while opposing the passage of the English forces 
 over the Wye. David, after a time, was captured, tried as a 
 traitor, and hanged. Wales was now annexed to the English 
 Crown, though it was not until Henry the Eighth's reign that it 
 formally became a part of the kingdom. During the campaign 
 Edward had a son born to him at Caernarvon, in Wales ; and to 
 please the Welsh the infant was made Prince of Wales, a title 
 '.vhich has ever since been borne by the eldest son of the English 
 sovereign. 
 
 3. Conguest of Scotland.— Edward's attention was now turned 
 to Scotland, which was at the time disturbed by contests among 
 the Scottish nobles for the Crown, the king, Alexander HL, having 
 just died. Alexander's grand-daughter, Margaret of Norway, was 
 next heir to the throne. Edward wished his son, the Prince of 
 Wales, to marry this princess, and so unite the English and 
 Scottish Crowns. Unfortunately, Margaret died on her way from 
 
A.D. 1307.] PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. 8$ 
 
 Norway to Scotland ; and the Scottish people, fearing civil war, 
 called on Edward to decide which should be king among the many 
 rivals for the throne. The two nobles whose claims by birth were 
 the strongest were John Balliol and Robert Bruce. After 
 weighing the matter, Edward gave his decision in favour of Balliol, 
 though he first demanded of the Scots the acknowledgment of his 
 right to settle the dispute, not as an arbitrator, but as sovereign 
 lord of Scotland. This right of the English kings was with ill 
 grace acknowledged, and Balliol obtained the Scottish Crown by 
 becoming the vassal of Edward. This vassalage soon grew irk- 
 some to Balliol, for some of his people appealed to Edward against 
 decisions in the Scottish law courts, and Edward summoned him 
 to answer these appeals at Westminster. Taking advantage, how- 
 ever, of Edward's war at the time with France, Balliol refused to 
 obey, formed an alliance with the king of France, and 
 began the War of Scottish Independence. Ed- s^cottlsh 
 ward at once marched into Scotland, routed Balliol's V'^^^.Jli'l^'^"®' 
 
 ' A.D. 1295. 
 
 forces, and placed his kingdom under a Regent. To 
 humiliate the country still more, the Scottish crown and coronation- 
 stone were carried off to London Next year the Scots again rose, 
 this time under Sir William Wallace, who, after defeating the 
 English army near Stirling, became the idol of his countrymen. 
 But Edward himself routed Wallace's forces at Falkirk (A.D. 
 1298) ; the patriot chief was driven a fugitive from the field ; and 
 being betrayed into the hands of the English met a cruel death 
 on the gibbet in London. The conquest of Scotland was now 
 supposed to be complete. But Scottish love of freedom again 
 asserted itself; for, in 1306, there was another rising, under 
 Robert Bruce, the grandson of Balliol's rival. When Bruce 
 was crowned, Edward once more marched northward to subdue 
 the intractable Scots. Taking ill, however, by the way, he died 
 July 7th, 1307, and was succeeded by his son, Edward IL 
 
 4. Confirmation of the Charters.— At intervals in the war 
 with Scotland Edward L had to engage in contests with France. 
 The expenses of these wars led him at times to resort to arbi- 
 trary measures to raise money. But he did not wish to obtain 
 money wrongfully. Much, however, was needed for the country's 
 wars ; and he thought that the people should trust him fully, 
 
36 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 and give him the sums necessary to conduct them. Heretofore 
 money had been obtained by levies on the barons, by demands on 
 the clergy, and by taxes on the towns and on merchandise. 
 Edward, who had begun to recognize the right of the representatives 
 of the people to share in legislation, took a step further, and con- 
 cluded that he could get the money he wanted with the consent of 
 
 all classes in parliament. He, therefore, called what 
 Modd ' is known as the Model Parliament, for in it, be- 
 a*d"i296 *' sides the bishops and barons, sat representatives of the 
 
 citizens and burghers, together with the lesser knights 
 and inferior clergy. This Parliament voted the king's needed sup- 
 plies, on the principle he had himself laid down, that " common 
 dangers must be met by measures concerted in common." But 
 though calling on Parliament to grant the money he needed, Edward 
 had not as yet agreed to refrain from raising money without its 
 consent. Being in want of more money, he set aside the rights 
 of clergy, barons, and people, and demanded large grants for his 
 wars on the continent. These demands were refused. A Parlia- 
 ment was called (A.D. 1297), at which, in the king's absence in 
 Flanders, the Prince of Wales and his Council presided. By this 
 assembly the old Charters were confirmed, with this important 
 addition, that the king should take no money from his 
 
 SUBJECTS except BY THE COMMON CONSENT OF THE REALM AND 
 
 FOR THE COMMON PROFIT OF ALL. This new and important 
 clause in the Charter was subscribed to by the Prince of Wales, 
 and later in the year was ratified by the king at Ghent. Thus 
 Parliament obtained full control over taxation, and the long struggle 
 for the charters came to an end. 
 
 5. Edward n. and the Ordainers.— Edward H., unhappily, was 
 a different man from his father. He was utterly unfitted to rule, 
 for he spent his days in foolish pleasures, in company with wild 
 and reckless companions. Of the latter Piers Gaveston, a Gas- 
 con knight, was the king's favourite. The late king had banished 
 Gaveston as no companion for his son ; but Edward, when he came 
 to the throne, recalled him, and gave him his niece in marriage. 
 When, too, Edward went to France to marry Isabella, daughter 
 of Philip the Fair, he made Gaveston Regent. All this annoyed 
 the barons, who were angry at the king's neglect of his duties, 
 
A.D. 1327.] PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. 37 
 
 and did not like these honours being paid to a foreigner. When 
 remonstrated with on his conduct, Edward yielded so much to the 
 barons as to send Gaveston to Ireland as governor. But before a 
 year passed he reca'^^d him and reinstated him in power. Parlia- 
 ment now took the matter up, decreed the banish- . 
 
 i. Appointment 
 
 ment of Gaveston, and made Edward consent to the of the Loida' 
 
 appointment of a council of peers, called Ordainers, ^ *>'!«"• 
 who were to govern the kingdom. Gaveston was accordingly ban- 
 ished ; but, being recalled by the king, he was seized by the barons 
 and beheaded. 
 
 6. Bannockburn.— Edward I., on his way northward to chastise 
 the Scots for electing Robert Bruce their king, had charged his son 
 to carry on the Scottish war. But Edward II. allowed seven yecars 
 to pass before fulfilling his father's dying commands. Meanwhile 
 Bruce had won back all the Scottish strongholds except Stirling, 
 and it was now in peril. To save this, his last garrison in the 
 country, Edward was compelled to go north at the head of a large 
 army. Arriving at Stirling, in June, 13 14, he gave 
 
 the Scots battle at Bannockburn. But Bruce had Bannockburn, 
 chosen his ground carefully and well, and the result ' 
 
 was that the English were routed with terrible loss. This victory 
 won for Scotland her independence. 
 
 7. Deposition and Death of Edward II.— England was now 
 in a miserable plight, for, in addition to national defeat, famine had 
 broken out in the land, and terrible diseases followed in its train. 
 To add to the troubles, Edward again took up with unworthy ad- 
 visers, the DeSpensers, father and son. After a fruitless struggle 
 of some years against the king and his favourites, the barons 
 found an ally in Queen Isabella, who had formed an intrigue with 
 a noble, named Roger Mortimer ; and together they led a suc- 
 cessful revolt against the king, and overthrew the DeSpensers. 
 The king was deposed by Parliament, imprisoned, and after a 
 time cruelly murdered. His son, Edward, a youth of fifteen, suc- 
 ceeded him (A.D. 1327). During the minority of Edward III. the 
 kingdom was for a while under a nominal Regency, composed of 
 bishops, earls, and barons. The real power, however, was in the 
 hands of Queen Isabella and her favourite, Mortimer. But the 
 youp^ king, in 1330, became his own master, and, resenting the 
 
38 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENOLISH HISTORY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 conduct of his mother and her paramour, had the latter seized and 
 brought to trial before Parliament. Parliament, on the ground of 
 treason, decreed the death of Mortimer, and he was executed at 
 Tyburn. , 
 
 8. War with France.— We now reach the time when what is 
 termed the " Hundred Years' War" begins. The general cause 
 of the war was, on the one hand, the desire on the part of France 
 to wrest from England her French possessions ; and, on the other, 
 the equally strong desire of English kings to recover Normandy 
 and other provinces which had been lost to the English crown. 
 The immediate cause of hostilities was the aid Philip VI. of France 
 had given to the Scots in their struggle against England, and his 
 desire to seize the English possessions in the duchy of Guienne. 
 These possessions the English kings had hitherto held aj. vassals 
 of France ; but Edward, when he decided to go to war with Philip, 
 set up the claim not only of a right to Guienne, but of a right to the 
 throne of France itself. This claim he based on the fact that his 
 mother w^s the sister of the late king of France, whilst Philip VI., 
 who now reigned, was only the late king's cousin. But the French 
 denied the claim, maintaining that a woman could not rule in 
 France, and that no man had a right to rule there through his 
 mother. In the war thus provoked, English arms had for a time 
 its triumphs. In 1340, Edward won a naval victory off Sluys, on 
 the coast of Flanders. After this success, there was a pause in the 
 struggle until 1346. In that year Edward and the English Parlia- 
 ment resolved to conquer or to cripple France. The king with an 
 army of 30,000 men, and some pieces of artillery, which appear to 
 have been now first used by the English, landed in Normandy, 
 destroyed the chief commercial towns, and took up a position at 
 
 Crecy or Cressy, a village near the Somme. Hither 
 Cressy, came Philip with his host of 120,000 men, including the 
 
 AD 1346* ^^^^ chivalry of France, and a large force of Genoese 
 
 crossbowmen. Edward's army, though much smaller 
 was more efficient and better handled, its strength lying in its 
 compact bodies of foot soldiery and skilled English bowmen. 
 The battle was begun by the troops under the king's young son, 
 Edward, the Black Prince, who won his spurs by conspicuous 
 daring. Then on came unwieldy masses of mail-clad French 
 
A.D. 1356.] PARLIAMENTARY OOVERNMENT. 99 
 
 cavalry, which the sturdy English and Welsh bowmen quickly put 
 to rout ; while the Genoese bowmen met a more signal defeat at 
 the hands of the English archers and spearmen. The French 
 nobles courageously continued the fight ; but nothing could with- 
 stand the shower of well-aimed arrows that was rained upon them ; 
 so, baffled and broken, Philip's army turned and fled. After the 
 slaughter that ensued, the heralds appointed to go over the field 
 reported the death "of eleven French princes, 1,200 knights, and 
 30,000 of inferior rank." On winning this victory, Edward marched 
 to Calais, which he besieged by sea and land ; 
 though the place did not surrender for nearly a year sumnderof 
 afterwards, when starvation compelled the brave a'd''i347 
 citizens to open its gates. Having turned the French 
 inhabitants out of Calais, Edward filled it with his countrymen ; 
 and the town remained under English rule for more than two cen- 
 turies. 
 
 9. Peace of Bretigny.— After the fall of Calais, the scourge of 
 war gave place for a time to the scourge of pestilence. A fearful 
 plague, called the Black Death, visited Europe, and 
 carried off, it is calculated, one half of the population. Death, 
 In England its ravages were frightful, particularly in ' ' 
 the large and crowded cities : in London alone nearly 60,000 were 
 swept away. In 1355 the French war was renewed. Philip VI. 
 was dead, and his son, John, sat on the throne. The Black Prince 
 was now ruling Guienne and Gascony for Edward, his father. In 
 1356, he led an expedition through the South of France, which he 
 ravaged with fire and sword. Turning northward, with a small 
 force of 12,000 men, he met, at Poitiers, the French army of 
 King John, nearly five times as strong. Though far 
 outnumbered, the Black Prince did not decline a poitiers, 
 battle ; and its result was a victory as great as the ^^^ isse*' 
 one at Cressy. The French king and his son, with 
 many of the nobles, were taken prisoners ; and the former accom- 
 panied the Black Prince on his triumphal return to England. But 
 this victory was of little good to England, for after 
 much negotiation only a temporary peace was con- Bretigny, 
 eluded, and its terms were evaded by the succeeding 
 French king. By the Treaty of Bretigny Edward renounced 
 
40 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chiip. VII. 
 
 his claim to the French Crown ; while John gave up to England 
 Guicnne, Gascony, Poitou, and the important town of Calais. 
 France also agreed to pay a large ransom for the release of John ) 
 but the French failing to keep this promise, the king honourably 
 surrendered himself and died in London. 
 
 10. The Good Parliament. -The latter years of Edward III. 
 were full of sadness and gloom. The old king partially lost hig 
 senses, and became the tool of low and vicious favourites. During 
 the Black Prince's absence in France, John of Gaunt, or Ghent, 
 the king's fourth son, took the leading part in the management of 
 public affairs. His government was so bad that a few years after 
 the return of the Black Prince it was decided to summon a Parlia- 
 ment to remedy the prevailing abuses of corruption and extrav- 
 agance. This Parliament, known as the Good Parliament, had 
 the support and active assistance of the Black Prince, who 
 though broken in health, and actually dying, was anxious to re- 
 store good government to England. When the Commons met 
 they proceeded to impeach^ or accuse before the Lords, several 
 of the king's officials, and banished from the country the king's 
 favourites. This is the first instance we have of an impeachment^ 
 and it shows the power the House of Commons had now acquired. 
 Unfortunately, the death of the brave and good Black Prince 
 brought John of Gaunt again to power, and with him returned all 
 the old evils that Parliament had sought to remedy. In the follow- 
 ing year (1377) Edward III. died — neglected and deserted in his 
 last moments. He was succeeded by his grandson, Richard II., 
 the son of the Black Prince. 
 
 11. John Wyclif (1324-1384).— In this reign and the beginning 
 of the next, lived JOHN Wyclif, a famous Oxford priest, who 
 preached against the abuses that had crept into the Church ; the 
 extravagance and idleness of the higher clergy ; the corrupt lives 
 many of them led ; and the interference of the Pope in the affairs 
 of the English Church. In his later years he opposed many of the 
 doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, and in consequence was 
 accused of heresy ; but the influence of powerful nobles, like John 
 of Gaunt, shielded him from harm. He translated the Bible into 
 English, and sent forth " poor priests " to teach the people to read 
 it His followers were afterwards known as Lollards. 
 
A.D. 1381.] CONQUEST OP PRANCE. * 41 
 
 (1. Show how Edwnrd I. wan fitted to make a good king. 
 
 2. Wliy did Edward I. invade Scotland ? Tell the story of the War of Scottish Inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 3. Show tha' Parliament in the reigns of Edward I., II., and III. became very pow- 
 erful. 
 
 4. What was t'lo canan i)f the " Hundred Years' War"? What great vtet.orlen were 
 won, and how, by the English, in tlie reign of Edward III. ? What treaty for a while 
 closed this war? 
 
 6. Point out any important results produced by the Black Death. 
 
 6. Who was John Wyclif ? Why la he mentioned in history? Why are his followers 
 caUed"LoUard8"?J 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE CONQUEST OF FRANCE. 
 
 fWat Tyler's insurrection and its cause are important points to be explained and 
 illustrated. The persecution of the Lollards, and the risings of the Percies in the 
 reign of Henry IV., the Conquest of France by Henry V., and the romantic achieve- 
 ments of Joan of Arc, should be dwelt upon. The character of the " Wars of the Roses " 
 should bo pointed out, and their cause clearly stated. Explain " Papal Bulla " and 
 " Statute of Pramunire." 
 
 References .'—Qreen's "Short History," Bright, Edith Thompson, Shakespeare's 
 Richard II., Henry IV., Henry v., and Henry VI,] 
 
 1. Richard II. and the Peasants' War.— When Richard II. 
 came to the throne the English were exhausted by war and griev- 
 ously taxed. To add to their burdens they suffered also from the 
 exactions of the nobles and landowners. Against this class- 
 oppression the peasants rose in revolt. The Black Death, which 
 thinned their ranks, had made them discontented ; and some of 
 the Lollards, or followers of Wyclif, had incited them to rebel 
 against the rich. Hitherto the condition of the villein, or serf, 
 had been one of great hardship. He now endeavoured to better 
 his lot, by breaking the old customs which bound him to the 
 soil, and by demanding pay, instead of protection, for his labour. 
 But the grievance he specially complained of, was the imposition 
 of a poll, or head-tax, a tax which was necessitated by the extrava- 
 gance of the rulers and the outlay on recent wars. Objecting to 
 
42 • PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH IIISTOIIY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 this poll-tax, the peasantry, to the number of 100,000, he.ided by 
 m._ „ . . «i Kentishrnan, named Wat Tyler, assembled near 
 Revolt, London and committed all sorts of excesses. Here 
 
 Richard II. met them, and after listening to their 
 grievances, promised that they should have redress. With this 
 assurance most of the peasants returned to their homes. On the 
 following day, however, Wat Tyler, behaving himself insolently, 
 was killed, and, but for the king's courageous interference, there 
 would have been further trouble. After the disturbance had been 
 quelled, the promises were broken, and about 1,500 of the rioters 
 were put to death ; but the uprising was not altogether fruitless, 
 for after this the condition of the peasant gradually improved. 
 
 2. Government of Richard.— During Richard's minority the 
 affairs of the kingdom were for a time in the hands of the king's 
 uncle, the Duke OF Lancaster, whom we already know as John 
 of Gaunt. Subsequently, the administration was assumed by 
 another uncle, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester. Richard and 
 his uncle, however, did not agree, for Gloucester was jealous of the 
 king's favourites and endeavoured to check his extravagance. 
 Parliament twice interfered, and had Richard's favourites dismissed 
 and some of them put to death. In 1389 Richard became his own 
 master, and removed his opponents from the Council. But the 
 feeling was strong against him ; for, having treacnerously seized 
 the Duke of Gloucester, he had sent him to Calais, where he was 
 mysteriously murdered. Of those who opposed the king, the only 
 nobles left were the Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk. The former 
 was Richard's cousin, Henry of Bolingbroke, the eldest son of John 
 ot Gaunt. A quarrel having broken out between the Dukes of 
 Hereford and Norfolk, the king took advantage of the trouble 
 and banished both of them from England. Richard, now rid of 
 opposition, for a while ruled despotically. 
 
 3. Deposition of Richard—The effect of Richard's tyranny 
 was to turn the people against him, and to cause them to look for 
 relief to the popular favourite, Henry, the banished Duke of Here- 
 ford. When Henry's father, John of Gaunt, died, Richard 
 seized his estates, and this roused the popular sympathy for 
 Henry. While Richard was on an expedition to Ireland, Henry 
 returned to England to claim his estates, and was everywhere 
 
A.D. 1414.] CONQUEST OF FRANCR. 43 
 
 received with gladness. He was instantly joined by the great 
 family of the Pcrcies, whose chief was the Earl of Northumber- 
 land ; and marching towards London he found himself at the 
 head of a force of some 60,000 men. When Richard heard of 
 Henry's return, he came back in haste to England, hut only to 
 fall a prisoner into the hands of the Earl of Northumberland. 
 Parliament now assembled and deposed the king, on the }/ .and 
 of tyranny and bad government, and, in a fit of Henry iv. 
 enthusiasm, gave the Crown to Henry. Richard was ?Ke'|^'"|,'' p° 
 confined in Pontefract Castle, and in the fashion of A.u. i3»9. 
 the times disappears from view. 
 
 4. Reign of Henry IV. (1399-1414.)- Henry, of Bolingbrokc, 
 succeeded to the throne as Hknkv IV. He is known as the first 
 of the Lancastrian kings, the title being derived from the duke- 
 dom of Lancaster, which he inherited from his father, John of 
 Gaunt. Had the strict rule of succession been followed (Richard 
 H. having no children), the grandson of an elder brother of Henry's 
 father would have come to the throne. But Parliament gave the 
 Crown to Henry as the head of a party in the State ; and this sup- 
 port of the national council induced the king to act in accordance 
 with its wishes. Parliament, however, did not restore peace, 
 though it readily supplied the king with money, and in doing so 
 strengthened its own position. Henry had many enemies among 
 the barons in England, who were encouraged by the Scots and the 
 French. His whole reign, in fact, was full of trouble. A rebellion 
 broke out in Wales under OwEN Glendower, who sought to 
 gain his country's independence ; after which there was a rising 
 of the PERCiiiS, of Northumberland, who had taken offence at 
 Henry, and, allying themselves with the Scots and the Welsh, 
 desired to depose him and put the legitimate successor on the 
 throne. But Henry triumphed over all his enemies, with the aid 
 of his son, the Prince of Wales, who, at his death, in 14 14, suc- 
 ceeded him. 
 
 5. Accession of Henry V.— Henry V. had come to the throne 
 with some military renown, for he had distinguished himself in 
 battle against his father's enemies. As the "Prince Hal" of 
 Shakespeare, if we are to credit the poet's version of his character, 
 we ro'^'st believe him to have led a riotous life when a youth. If his 
 
44 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 early companions had been foolish and disorderly, we know that on 
 his accession to the throne his counsellors were noted for their wis- 
 dom. Possessing the energy and ambition of youth, with a passion 
 for military glory, and caring little at times how it was gratified, 
 Henry wasf in many respects, a king after an Englishman's heart. 
 France was now distracted by the faction fights of rival princes, 
 and Henry determined to revive the English claim to the French 
 Crown. In the year 1415, he conducted an army into France, 
 
 T, XX, . besieged and took Harfleur, and on the fatal field 
 
 Battle of ° ' 
 
 Agincourt, of Agincourt, totally defeated the French. The 
 
 26th Oct., 1415. , ^^ ^ . ^ .. ^ ,, 
 
 latter great victory was a repetition of the successes 
 of Cressy and Poitiers, for thousands of Frenchmen were slaugh- 
 tered by the English bowmen. Fourteen thousand were taken 
 prisoners, while some ten thousand, including the flower of the 
 French nobility, lay dead on the field. After the battle Henry 
 returned in triumph to England. 
 
 6. TheLollards.— Henry's reign was disgraced by the persecu- 
 tion of the Lollards, or W^clifites. Their leader was Sir John 
 Oldcastle, usually known as Lord Cobham. In early life he had 
 been a companion of the king, and Henry's friendship had often 
 saved him from trouble. But having conspired against the king, 
 the great Lollard chief was seized and put to a horrible death. 
 Oldcastle's martyr-fate was the fate of many thousands of Lollards, 
 for in the previous reign persecution had broken out actively 
 against this sect, and a ciiiel law had been enacted, condemning 
 persons accused of heretical opinions, — that is, holding views con- 
 trary to those taught by the Church, — to be burnt alive. On the 
 other hand, owing to Wyclif's teaching, the Papacy had to forego 
 the right to dispose of Church livings, impose taxes, and intrude 
 foreign priests into English churches. In a previous reign ParHa- 
 ment had passed an Act limiting the Papal power in England and 
 vindicating the right of the State to prohibit the admission or 
 execution of Papal "bulls," or briefs, within the kingdom. This 
 Act, which was passed in 1393, is known as the Statute of 
 Pr^munire. 
 
 7. Conquest of France, and Treaty of Troyes.— After the 
 
 battle of Agincourt, France was still torn by the factions who were 
 striving for power under the imbecile king, Charles VI. In 1417. 
 
A.D. 1429.] CONQUEST OP FRANCE. 4ft 
 
 Henry again successfully invaded France. In his conquest of the 
 country, he had the sympathy of the Uuke of Burgundy, one of 
 the contending parties for the French crown. But this Duke was 
 treacherously murdered by his opponents, the Orleanist party, 
 and the Burgundians, in revenge, agreed to grant all Henry's 
 demands. A Treaty was accordingly signed at 
 Troyes, whereby Heniy was to be Regent until the Troyes, 
 death of Charles VI., when he was to succeed to the 
 French throne. In accordance with the treaty, Henry married 
 Catherine, the king's daughter, and entering Paris, assumed the 
 government. He then crossed to England with his young bride ; 
 but a victory of the Dauphin Charles, over the English troops 
 brought him again to France. Henry drove the Dauphin beyond 
 the Loire, and then returned to Paris, near which he shortly after- 
 wards died, A.D. 1422. 
 
 8. Loss of France under Henry VI.— The long minority and 
 weak mind of Henry VI. made it necessary to appoint others to 
 rule in his name. The care of the king's person was given to 
 Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester. The Duke of Bedford, 
 an uncle of the king, was made Regent of both France and Eng- 
 land, while, during his absence in France, the Duke of Glou- 
 cester, another uncle, held the governing power at home. Almost 
 immediately after the accession of Henry VI., the French king 
 died, and Heniy of England was proclaimed at Paris King of 
 France. Meanwhile, the Dauphin assumed the title of Charles 
 VII. ; and the country was thus claimed by an English and by a 
 French king. During the first five years of Henry's reign, Charles 
 VII. was repeatedly defeated by the English troops, under the 
 Duke of Bedford. In 1428, the latter sent an army across the 
 Loire to lay siege to Orleans. When the place was about to fall, 
 it was almost miraculously relieved by a young peasant-girl of 
 Lorraine, named J CAN OF Arc, who came to be called 
 the ** Maid of Orleans." This maiden, believing her- rjuses" he sfege 
 self to have a divine mission to save her country, was ^ d'^^1429' 
 brought before Charles VII., who allowed her to lead 
 some of his troops to the relief of Orleans. Passing by night 
 through the English lines, she succeeded in throwing supplies into 
 the beleaguered town, and so raised the spirit of its defenders that , 
 
46 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. Vlll. 
 
 they made repeated sallies and compelled the English to abandon 
 the siege. Two years later, Joan of Arc fell into the hands of 
 the English, and after trial on a charge of sorcery, was cruelly 
 put to death at Rouen. The English now gradually lost ground 
 in France. On the death of the Duke of Bedford, disputes arose 
 in England over the prosecution of the war. Different views on 
 the matter were held ; but the peace party prevailed. During the 
 truce that followed, Henry married Margaret, of Anjou, and 
 resigned to her father his claims to that province. Presently, both 
 Gloucester and Beaufort died, and two new rival parties arose in 
 England, one of which allowed the French to regain all the Eng- 
 lish possessions on the continent save Calais. These new rival 
 parties bring us to a disastrous period in the history of England. 
 The one was led by the Duke of Suffolk, who headed what was 
 called the Queen's party ; the other was that of the Duke of York, 
 the next heir to the throne. 
 
 9. Wars of the Roses.— For the next thirty years (1455-1485) 
 England was to be distracted by the Wars OF THE RoSES. Such 
 a conflict as this was, is termed a "civil war ; " that is, a war, not 
 with a foreign nation, but between two sections of the same people. 
 It was, in this instance, a war between two rival factions of English 
 nobles. It had its origin in the struggle for the crown, between 
 those who sought to maintain the rule of the Lancastrian kings 
 and those who sought to put one of the House ot York on the 
 throne. At first the friends of the latter only wanted the Duke 
 of York to govern England, instead of the favourites of Henry VI., 
 or rather of his clever wife, Margaret. But in time, as the quarrel 
 went on and much blood was shed on both sides, the Duke of 
 York claimed the throne by right of birth ; and though he was 
 himself slain in battle, his son Edward was given the crown. This 
 was conceded not on account of his birth, though his claim on that 
 score was good, but because he was an abler soldier than any on 
 the Lancastrian side, and because the people wanted a king who 
 was strong enough both to keep order and to govern. The badges 
 chosen by the two parties gave the struggle its distinctive name, 
 " the Wars of the Roses ;" the symbol of the Yorkists being a 7vh'/e 
 rose, that of the Lancastrians a red rose. In the varying contest 
 between the parties, Henry VI. was taken prisoner at North amp- 
 
A.D. 1460.] CONQUEST OP PRAVOR. 47 
 
 TON (1460) by the Duke of York ; but later in the same year the 
 duke was defeated, and being taken prisoner was executed by order 
 of the queen. In subsequent battles, however, his son avenged 
 his death ; the king was deposed, and Edward IV. came to the 
 throne. Henry escaped to Scotland with Queen Margaret and her 
 young son. 
 
 10. Chaucer (1328-1400).— From the time of the Norman Conquest 
 until about the middle of the fourteenth century, Latin and French 
 were the languages chiefly used by the educated and Court classes 
 of the English people. In the reign of Edward III., however, so 
 much had the use of these languages died out among all ranks, 
 that a statute was passed making English the language of the law 
 courts. So far, no great piose or poetical work had been written 
 in the language of the people ; but about 1385, Geoffrey Chau- 
 cer, a favourite at Court, and a friend of John of Gaunt, wrote 
 his famous poem, "The Canterbury Tales," in one of the English 
 dialects. These Tales are supposed to be told by a party of 
 pilgrims of different ranks and employments, on the way to the 
 shrine of Thomas a Becket. This poem, one of the greatest in 
 our literature, helped to fix a standard for the English language 
 and gave an impulse to English poetry. Chaucer has, therefore, 
 been aptly termed " The Father of English Poetry," just as Wyclif, 
 by translating the Bible into English, is known as " The Father of 
 English Prose." 
 
 [1. Give an account of Wat Tyler's insurrection, and the causes that brought It 
 about. State the princip d provisions of the Statute of Labourers. 
 
 2. Give a brief account of the events that led to the accession of Henry IV. 
 
 8. Is there anything in the reign of Henry IV. worthy of particular notice? If so, 
 what and why? 
 
 4. Why were the English for a time able to conquer the French? State the terras or 
 the Treaty of Troyes. 
 
 5. Sketch the life and work of Joan of Arc. What was the cause of her success? 
 
 6. What was the origin of the nnme " Wars of the Rosins" ? What is peculiar about 
 this Civil War? Wliat led to it? Name the principal battles fought, and tell how the 
 war ended. 
 
 7. Wlio was Chaucer? What effect was produced by the publication of his poems?] 
 
48 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTOUY. [Chap. IX. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE NEW MONARCHY. . 
 
 [To make this chapter interesting, it will be necessary to relate anecdotes connected 
 with prominent actors in the events of this period : Edward IV. 's marriage, Warwick's 
 power and magnificence, Queen Margaret's courage and endurance, and Richard III.'s 
 cruelty and perfidy, furnish material. At the same time, it must be pointed out, that 
 the character of Richard III., as handed down to us, was painted by his enemies, the 
 Tudors. The matters of historic importance to be carefully exiilaiued are the estab- 
 lishment of the New Monarchy, its chief characteristics, and the reason wliy such a 
 monarchy came into existence. In the reign of Henry VII. some important laws were 
 passed ; show their importance. During the period covered by this chapter, what is 
 known as the " New Learning" had its birth. Point out the causes of the revival of 
 learning and quickening of the national intelligence. The names of Colet, Erasmus, 
 and More, are worthy of being brought into prominence in connection with tliis move- 
 ment in England. 
 
 References: — Green, Edith Thompson, Bright, Ilallam, Shakespeare's Richard III., 
 and Gairdner's "Houses of Lancaster and York."] 
 
 1. Bamet and Tewkesbury.— Before Edward IV. was crowned, 
 
 he had to overcome a large force in the north of England which 
 
 was still loyal to the last of the Lancaster kings. This, however, 
 
 he was able to do, with the help of the great Earl of Warwick; 
 
 for at the battle of TOWTON, in Yorkshire, the army of 
 
 Towton, 29th Henry's wife, Margaret, was utterly defeated. Though 
 
 ^hfcMmt^^' owing his crown to Earl Warwick, who was called "the 
 
 Edward IV. on Kingmaker " (for he had put Edward on the throne), 
 the throne. ^ ■, , , ,. . r i •• i- ir , • 
 
 Edward had no intention of submittmg himself to his 
 
 authority. A pretext for a quarrel was soon found in Edward's 
 
 marriage with the widow of a knight who had fallen in battle on the 
 
 side opposed to the king. Warwick, angry at the marriage, and 
 
 seeing his place at Court filled by the queen's friends, headed a 
 
 rebellion, in which Margaret, Henry's wife, joined ; and together 
 
 they succeeded in putting Henry again on the throne. Six months 
 
 later, Edward, having raised a small force on the continent. 
 
 Battles of returned to England, and defeated first Warwick at 
 
 Bamet and Barnet, then Margaret at Tewkesbury, and at once 
 
 AprilandMay, recovered the crown. Edward had little scruple in 
 
 ^^^^' getting rid of his enemies. Warwick had been slain 
 
 at Bamet; the ex-king was confined in the Tower of London, 
 
A.D. 1483.] THE NEW MONARCHY. ' 49 
 
 where he shortly met his death ; Margaret was ransomed by the 
 king of France ; while her young son was stabbed by the king's 
 brothers, Dukes Clarence and Gloucester. 
 
 2. Character and Policy of Edward IV.— Edward on coming 
 to the throne had all the qualities of a popular ruler ; he was hand- 
 some, brave, energetic, fond of state, and pleasant-mannered in his 
 intercourse with the people. As time passed, however, he became 
 cruel, selfish, sensual, and despotic. For the people he always 
 professed to care, though he really thought more of their money, 
 and knew how to get it. From rich subjects he demanded money 
 as a gift, and these gifts he called benevolences, because they were 
 supposed to be given willingly. Parliament was seldom asked for 
 supplies, as, by means of benevolences and seizures of the property 
 of those who had opposed him in the Wars of the Roses, the king 
 obtained all the mor.ey he wanted. Besides, he engaged in trade, 
 taxed the clergy, and exacted fines from the feudal lords. Edward 
 became independent of his Parliament, and seldom consulted it. 
 How this came about has to be explained. 
 
 3. The New Monarchy.— In this reign we come to an important 
 period in the history of England — a period which is marked by a 
 change which came over the rule of the king. The chief cause of 
 this was the Wars of the Roses. They had killed off almost all the 
 great barons, whose feudal power had enabled them to place re- 
 straints upon the crown. All classes of subjects were weary of 
 strife. The trading classes wished for peace and orderly govern- 
 ment; the Church was weak and sought the protection of the 
 crown ; while Parliament, which now consisted of newly-created 
 nobles, small landowners, and merchants, was neither willing nor 
 able to oppose successfully the power of the king. Hence, there 
 now arises what is called the New Monarchy, a system of per- 
 sonal rule by the kings, which under the Tudors grows into 
 despotism. " ' -' 
 
 4. Richard in., (1483-85.)— The dissipated life which Edward 
 IV. led brought him to an untimely grave. He left behind him 
 a number of children, three of whom figure in history. These 
 are his two young sons, Edward and Richard, and a daughter, 
 Elizabeth, who became the wife of Henry VII. The elder of the 
 boys, a lad twelve years old, was proclaimed king, with the title of 
 
 5 
 
t)0 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. IX. 
 
 Edward V. His uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, whc • 
 was appointed protector of the kingdom, got possession of the lad 
 and his younger brother, and had them lodged in the Tower of 
 London, which was then a royal residence as well as a fortress and 
 State prison. It was given out that the children of Edward IV. 
 were illegitimate, and that Richard was the proper heir to the 
 throne. The Duke of Buckingham, a friend of Richard's, having 
 talked over the citizens of London to this view of matters, then in- 
 duced a body of bishops, nobles, and commons to come to Richard 
 and ask him to accept the crown. After a show of reluctance, 
 Richard consented to be king and was shortly afterwards crowned. 
 The next step of this crafty usurper was to have Edward's two 
 children murdered in the Tower. The young princes are said to 
 have been smothered with pillows in their sleep. 
 
 5. Bosworth Field.— The natural result followed : Richard's 
 crimes were the cause of his overthrow. No sooner was Richard 
 seated on the throne than a conspiracy was hatched to get rid of 
 him. But Richard was wary, and many feared him. Conscious of 
 the weakness of his position, Richard sought to conciliate those 
 likely to oppose him and tried to rule honestly. Though a crafty 
 and cruel man, he could be generous and just, but no good trait in 
 his character could wipe out the memory of his misdeeds. His 
 appearance, we are told, was against him, for he is said to have 
 been crookbacked and otherwise deformed. But this picture of 
 him is not unlikely to have been inspired by horror of his acts, and 
 is probably exaggerated, if not untrue. His measures of reform in 
 Parliament, at any rate, commend him to approval, and his numer- 
 ous enactments in aid of commerce were politic and wise. Among 
 his measures of Parliamentary reform was his doing away with the 
 forced loans, exacted under the name of benevolences^ and this 
 system of levying money was declared illegal. When Richard 
 usurped the throne, there was living in exile in Brittany a descen- 
 dant, on his mother's side, of John of Gaunt. This was HenrV 
 Tudor, Earl of Richmond, now head of the House of Lancaster. 
 Those who conspired to get rid of Richard proposed that Henry 
 should marry Elizabeth, the eldest daughter and heiress of Edward 
 IV., and thus unite the Houses of York and Lancaster. The young 
 earl assented to this, and the Duke of Buckingham took up arms 
 
A.D. 1487.] THE NEW MONARCHY. 51 
 
 to aid the scheme. Before it was ripe, however, Buckingham was 
 captured by Richard and beheaded. To defeat the plot, Richard 
 now proposed that his own son should marry Elizabeth ; but this 
 was foiled by his son's death ; and Richard, getting rid of his wife, 
 proposed that he should marry Elizabeth himself This proposal 
 hastened the movements of Richmond, who presently landed with 
 a small army in Wales, and advanced against the king. The 
 latter at once prepared to meet Henry, though he grew alarmed 
 at the way in which the enemy's forces increased and his own 
 seemed to become disaffected. The armies met at BoswORTH, 
 in Leicestershire. As the crisis of battle grew near, more than 
 6,000 of the king's forces, under Lord Stanley, went over to the 
 enemy, and Richard's position became desperate. By 
 personal daring the king tried to make up for the loss nosworth 
 he had sustained ; and in the battle he furiously sought auI*^'x48^ 
 to close with and cut down his rival. But in the hand- 
 to-hand conflict that ensued he was himself slain, and the crown 
 passed to Henry Tudor. With this fight on the field of Bosworth 
 the Wars of the Roses came to an end. 
 
 6. The First of the Tudors.— True to his promise, Henry VIL 
 married Elizabeth of York ; but he delayed her coronation, 
 and in the early part of his reign treated her with neglect. This 
 offended the Yorkists and got him into trouble. His wish was to 
 rule by right of his own claim to the throne, rather than by the 
 stronger claim of his wife. The doubtfulness of his own claim 
 caused various plots to be hatched against him for the possession 
 of the throne, two of which are curious. The principal figure in 
 the first of these plots was a boy, named Lambert Simnel, whom 
 the Yorkist leaders got hold of and gave out to be the 
 Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence. The Warbeck's 
 hero of the other plot was Perkin Warbeck, who i"£"i487-i492 
 represented himself to be Richard, Duke of York, one 
 of the sons of Edward IV., who were supposed to have been 
 murdered in the Tower. Simnel raised a small army, but was 
 defeated and captured. The king pardoned him, and employed 
 him as a scullion. Warbeck, who gave Henry more trouble and 
 received a stronger support, was, after a defeat at Taunton, cap- 
 tured and executed. 
 
52 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. IX. 
 
 7. Character and Policy of Henry VII. -Henry VII. gave 
 the country peace and a measure of prosperity which it had not for 
 some time known. Under him commerce flourished and England 
 took her share in the maritime discoveries of the period ; for from 
 the port of Bristol John and Sebastian Cabot set out on an 
 expedition, in which they discovered Newfoundland and the 
 Labrador coast. Personally, Henry was of a cold and reserved 
 nature, with none of those winning ways which attract the people. 
 He governed shrewdly, and, but for his avarice, with wisdom. 
 Love of money was his chief vice ; and this led him to exact ille- 
 gally large sums from his subjects and to hoard them like a miser. 
 These exactions took various forms ; sometimes that of benevo- 
 lences, and sometimes that of heavy fines imposed by his unscru- 
 pulous ministers and unjust judges. The fines, it is fair to say, 
 were exacted from friend and foe alike. His greed of gold was 
 such, that, on one occasion, he obtained money from Parliament to 
 carry on war with France, and a short time after took money from 
 the French king to withdraw from the country. A like greed led 
 him to plan a marriage for his eldest son Arthur, with Kath- 
 arine OF Aragon, a wealthy princess of Spain. After the mar- 
 riage took place Arthur died, and to keep Katharine's rich dowry 
 in the family and retain the political alliance with Spain, the 
 king caused his second son, afterwards Henry VIII., to marry 
 his brothei-'s widow. His eldest daughter Margaret he married to 
 James IV. of Scotland — by this act preparing the way for a union 
 of the English and Scottish kingdoms, and at the same time 
 securing an ally in the king of Scotland. 
 
 8. Important Statutes.— Parliament was little consulted in this 
 reign, and, from the lack of men to look after them, regard for the 
 people's liberties began to grow less. This indifference quite suited 
 the king, for it gave him the opportunity to amass money and 
 reduce the nobles to submission. For this latter purpose the Court 
 of the Star Chamber (so-called from the place of meeting) was 
 reconstructed for the trial of offences against the State, though its 
 punishments were limited as yet to fines and imprisonment. Pun- 
 ishment by mutilation and death was the odious practice of a later 
 and more despotic era. In Henry's reign were passed some good 
 and useful acts. One of these was a statute which defined more 
 
A.D. 1491.] THE NEW MONARCHY. $$ 
 
 clearly the law of treason. One important provision was that a 
 subject, obeying the king in power for the time being, should not 
 be deemed guilty of treason when the rightful king came to be 
 restored to the throne. Another statute abolished Maintknance, 
 or the right of the nobles to keep an unlimited number of retain- 
 ers, or fighting men, in their service. By the Statute of LiVERiES 
 each nobleman was taxed so much per month for every armed 
 retainer he kept in his pay. By these and other vigorous measures 
 of the king, the power of the nobles was curbed and order and 
 good government were secured. 
 
 9. William Caxton (1410-1491).— Learning, which hitherto had 
 been the exclusive possession of the Church, was now spreading 
 among the nobles and wealthier commoners. Travel and inter- 
 course with other countries aided the intellectual advancement of 
 the people. But much was due to the art of printing, which was 
 introduced into England by William Caxton in the year 1469. 
 This great invention wrought a marvellous change in the social and 
 intellectual life of England, for it set books into circulation which 
 had heretofore been in manuscript, and spread a love of knowledge 
 and gave the means of gratifying it. In Henry's reign the English 
 tongue became general throughout the kingdom ; and for the first 
 time it was formally made the language not only of debate but of 
 the statutes passed by Parliament. 
 
 [1. Why was tho Earl of Warwick called the " Kingmaker"? 
 
 2. What is meant by the "New Monarchy"? Explain fully how it came into 
 existence. 
 
 3. What was the character of Edward IV. ? Point out what you think good in him, 
 and what bad. Explain " benevolences." 
 
 4. How does history represent Richard HI. as a man, and as a king? What reasona 
 are there for doubting that we have a correct description of him? 
 
 5. Why was Bosworth Field a very important battle ? Relate the events that led 
 to it 
 
 6. Mention any important laws passed in the reign of Henry VIZ., and show why 
 they were important. 
 
 7. State the cause of the Revival of Learning during this period. Name any great 
 men who took an active part in promoting the New Lieaming, and tell what they did.] 
 
6i 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. X. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 [This chapter opens a period of great Importance in English history — the period ol 
 the Reformation. The Reformation movement in England was closely connected 
 with that on the continent. Hence, Luther and his work must receive attention. 
 So must tlio circumstances under which the movement began and developed. Id 
 England tlie personal influence of the monarch had a great effect on the religious atti- 
 tude of the nation. Show how this happened, and illustrate by reference to the 
 different rulers. Explain clearly the nature of the various changes introduced in the 
 Church by Henry VIIL, Edward VI., and Mary. Delineate the characters of such 
 prominent individuals as Henry VIII., WoLsey, Cranmer, Fisher, More, Thomas Crom- 
 well, and Anne Boleyn. Point out the great power possessed by Henry VIII. in Church 
 and State. As stated before, wherever possible, introduce anecdotes and illustra- 
 tions, to make the study of the subject in hand interesting. Read with pupils Aytoun's 
 " Edinburgh after Floddeu " (4th Reader). 
 
 References: — Green, Bright, Froude, Hallam, Shakespeare's Henry VIII., Tennysou's 
 "Queen Mary," Motley's " Dutch Republic " (for character of Philip of Spain).] 
 
 1. Henry VIII.— On the death of Henry VH., in 1509, his 
 eldest surviving son, then in his eighteenth year, succeeded to the 
 
 crown as Henry VHI. Henry, when 
 he came to the throne, had all the 
 advantages of youth, good looks, pleas- 
 ant manners, and many accomplish- 
 iiiients. To add to his popularity, the 
 I gay young king united in himself the 
 rival claims of the houses of York and 
 Lancaster. As he grew older, his strong 
 self-will often broke through all re- 
 straints and he gave rein to his pas- 
 Henry VIII. sionate and lustful nature. Shortly 
 
 after his reign began, a great religious movement known as the 
 Protestant Reformation took its rise in Germany, under the 
 leadership of Martin Luther. Luther commenced by preaching 
 against certain practices in the Church of Rome, and step by step 
 was led to reject many of its doctrines. Those who, like Luther, 
 protested against Roman Catholic doctrines and practices were 
 called Protestants. In a short time Protestants became very 
 
A.D. 1530.] THE REFORMATION. " 55 
 
 numerous in many parts of Europe, especially in Switzerland, Hol- 
 land, and Germany. Henry at first opposed Luther, and wrote 
 against him and in support of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. For this service the Pope rewarded Mm with the title of 
 " Defender of the Faith,'' a title still worn by the sovereigns of 
 England. Not many in England, at the outset, became converts 
 to the new faith, although there was, and had been for some time, 
 a strong feeling against the vicious lives of many of the clergy and 
 the interference of the Pope in English affairs. 
 
 2. Henry's Foreign Wars.— In the early part of his reign Henry 
 engaged in costly and needless wars with France. His motive 
 was partly a wish to recover possession of England's former pro- 
 vince of Guicnne, and partly a desire to figure prominently among 
 the great princes of Europe, who were contending for supremacy 
 on the continent. In 15 13 he invaded France, won a battle, and 
 besieged and took several towns, to release which Louis XII. 
 had to pay England a large ransom. After peace was declared, 
 Henry gave his sister in marriage to the old French king, Louis ; 
 but the latter soon died, and was succeeded by Francis I. While 
 Henry was in France, James IV., of Scotland, pursuing the old 
 policy of the Scots, invaded England ; and at the foot of the Cheviot 
 Hills met an English army, under the great Earl of SURREY. 
 Then ensued the battle of Flodden Field, one of „ _ 
 
 /- 1 • 1 Battle of 
 
 the fiercest fights m the many wars between the two Flodden Field, 
 kingdoms. The slaughter of the Scots was great, for ' ^^' '' 
 10,000 men were killed, besides the king and the flower of the 
 Scottish nobility. For this brilliant victory Surrey was rewarded 
 with the title of Duke of Norfolk. 
 
 3. Cardinal Wolsey and Anne Boleyn.— In Henry's time 
 England's foreign and domestic affairs were largely under the rule 
 of one of the most remarkable men the English Church has 
 ever produced. This was Thomas, Cardinal WOLSEY. He was at 
 once courtier, diplomatist, and administrator. Of humble origin, 
 his abilities advanced him one step after another, until he became 
 Archbishop of York, Papal legate for England, a Cardinal of the 
 Church, and Lord High Chancellor of the kingdom. He lived in 
 great state, had a princely retinue, and for a time ruled, under the 
 king, with almost despotic authority. In European affairs he 
 
56 PUBLIC HCHOOL ENOLISH HI8T0RY. [Chap X. 
 
 exercised much influence, for he had unbounded ambition, great 
 talents for intrigue, and an intimate knowledge of statecraft. 
 Great as was Wolsey's influence, Henry, liowever, was no puppet 
 in liis hands, as will presently be seen. The king was struck by 
 the beauty of a lady of his court, named Anne of Holp:yn, and 
 wished to marry her. To enable him to do this he sought to be 
 divorced from his wife, Katharine, on the ground that it was sinful 
 to marry a brother's widow ; and he applied to the Pope and to 
 Wolsey to further his wicked ends. But both, though for different 
 reasons, refused to grant him a divorce ; the Pope, fearing to 
 offend Katharine's nephew, Charles V. of Spain, now Emperor of 
 Germany ; and Wolsey, for political reasons, wishing the king to 
 marry a French princess. Heniy, thus thwarted, became angry 
 with Wolsey and the Pope ; and from Wolsey he took away 
 his offices, stripped him of his wealth, and charged him with high 
 
 treason. On his way from York to London, to answer 
 \^^iH"y'dies in the charge, Wolsey fell ill, and died on reaching 
 mli'^Nov I5'i0 Leicester Abbey, with the following lament on his 
 
 lips : " Had I but served my God as diligently as I 
 have served my king. He would not have given me over in my 
 gray hairs." The king, accustomed to have his way, divorced 
 Katharine in his own courts, and married Anne Boleyn (A.D. 
 1533)- 
 
 4. Henry becomes Head of the Church.— Henry's quarrel with 
 the Church enabled England to shake off the authority of the 
 Pope. Henry, in truth, cared more for his own authority than he 
 cared either for Protestantism or for Roman Catholicism. But it 
 was to Henry's advantage to separate the Church of England from 
 the Church of Rome ; and he did this by a series of assaults on 
 Papal authority in England, by prohibiting the Pope from drawing 
 any revenue from English benefices, and by compelling the clergy 
 to acknowledge the king as Protector and Supreme Head of 
 THE Church. This severance from the Roman Communion took 
 place A.D. 1534, and was brought about by the aid of Parliament, 
 the Bishops and clergy, and under the advice of Thomas Crom- 
 well, the king's Vicar-General, and Thomas Cranmer, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. For refusing to take the oath of the king's 
 supremacy many illustrious persons lost their lives, among whom 
 
A..D. 1540.] TIIK REFORMATION. 97 
 
 were Bishop FisHKR, of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, the 
 kinjj's Chancellor, and one of the most learned men in Europe. 
 On the ground that they were improperly conducted, many of the 
 religious monasteries throughout England were abolished, and 
 their property and revenues seized by the king. 
 
 5. OromweU's Rule.— Under Cromwell, who had beer one of 
 Cardinal's Wolsey's secretaries, and through whom Henry exercised 
 his supremacy in Church affairs, the Reformation movement in 
 England made much progress. At Cromwell's instigation, not 
 only were the monasteries suppressed, but the Bible was ordered 
 to be translated and read in the Churches in the English tongue. 
 Unfortunately, Henry could not be trusted to give steady support 
 to any particular political or religious policy. At times he was as 
 hostile to Protestants as he was to Catholics ; and he was utterly 
 reckless in his treatment of his ministers, sacrificing them without 
 the least compunction. Two instances may be cited which illus- 
 trate Henry's changeable policy in Church matters, and his treach- 
 ery towards his ministers, immediately on the suppression of the 
 monasteries, the king ordered a law to be passed, known as "The 
 Bloody Statute," which consisted of six articles, affirming the 
 truth of the main doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, and 
 threatening with torture and death all who refused to subscribe to 
 them. The other instance of Henry's fickleness was his treatment 
 of Cromwell. Counselled by the latter, the king had married his 
 fourth wife, Anne OF Cleves ; but taking a great dislike to her, 
 he had her divorced, and Cromwell, for having suggested the 
 marriage, was condemned for treason and executed. 
 
 6. Power of Henry in Church and State.— The religious 
 differences of the time showed Henry's cruelty and despotism. 
 Protestants were burnt as heretics ; while Roman Catholics, as 
 the humour took him, were imprisoned and hanged. But neither 
 the gallows nor the stake could prevent the people from thinking 
 for themselves : not a few adhered to the new faith, though it was 
 drenched with blood, and many clung to the old beliefs whatever 
 fate befel. In State affairs Henry had almost absolute power. 
 Parliament, in the main, was a tool in his hands : it gave him, 
 with two notable exceptions, all the money he wanted, and on 
 one occasion it absolved him from his debts. It recognized alter- 
 
68 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. X. 
 
 nately his marriages and divorces, and repeatedly altered the suc- 
 cession to the throne to suit his wishes. It passed Acts which 
 sent his discarded favourites to the block, and gave his proclama- 
 tions the force of law. But Parliament, on the whole, gained by 
 his rule, for the king's habit, particularly after the Reformation, of 
 appealing to it in aid of his measures increased its influence ; 
 while the withdrawal of the abbots from the House of Lords, owing 
 to the suppression of the monasteries, increased the power of the 
 lay element, which in both Houses was more favourable to consti- 
 tutional government. Henry's death gave Parliament an oppor- 
 tunity to recover some of its old authority. The king died in 
 1547, bequeathing the throne to his three children in succession : 
 (i) to Edward, Henry's son by Jane Seymour; (2) to Mary, 
 daughter of Katharine of Aragon ; and (3) to Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Anne of Boleyn. All in turn came to the throne. 
 
 7. Edward VI. and the Rule of Somerset.— Edward VI. came 
 to the throne at the age of nine, and reigned for six years. During 
 his short reign the country was under the Protectorate, first of the 
 Duke of Somerset, brother of queen Jane Seymour, and after- 
 wards of the Earl of Warwick, who became Duke of Northum- 
 berland. Under Edward, or rather under the Protector, Somerset, 
 the Reformation in England made much progress, though it con- 
 tinued to excite differences of opinion and even rebellion. Somer- 
 set, with Archbishop Cranmer's assistance, passed an 
 Uniformity, Act for securing uniformity in the Church's service, 
 
 A D 1549 . . 
 
 * ■ and introduced the English Prayer Book into the 
 Church. Though these Acts had the approval of many good 
 people, among whom were the great Reformers, bishops Ridley, 
 Coverdalc, and Latimer, there were not a few in England opposed 
 to the new doctrines, particularly among the Catholics of the north 
 and the west. The latter stirred up bitter feeling against Somer- 
 set, who at times acted with little wisdom or moderation. He pro- 
 cured the repeal, however, of the " Bloody Statute" of Edward's 
 predecessor, and cancelled the oppressive statutes against the 
 Lollards. But he was unwise in his attitude towards Scotland, 
 which he attacked, that he might force the Scots to give the 
 young queen, Mary, in marriage to Edward VI. In this he failed, 
 though he defeated the Scots in battle ; but the latter sent Mary 
 
A.D. 1553.] THE REFORMATION. 
 
 to France, where she married the young Dauphin. After this, 
 trouble increased in England, partly through the intrigues, which 
 were brought speedily to an end, of Somerset's ambitious brother, 
 Lord Seymour, and partly from the social changes that were going 
 on in the nation. These changes came about from hard times, 
 and from the rapacity of wealthy landowners, who, in acquiring 
 property, turned the poor labourers, with their families, out of 
 their homes, and left many to beggary or starvation. Their condi- 
 tion was made worse by severe laws passed by Parliament against 
 begging, and by the iacK of the aid which the poor used to get 
 from monasteries. The situation drove thousands to riot and 
 rebellion. Insurrections for a time were rife in Cornwall, Devon- 
 shire, and Norfolk ; but they were finally put down with great loss 
 of hfe. The blame of these disorders fell upon Somerset, and 
 much dissatisfaction was expressed with his government. This 
 feeling broke out in Council, where Somerset's enemy, the Earl of 
 Warwick, defied him, upset his authority, and finally had him con- 
 demned and beheaded. _ 
 
 8. Lady Jane Grey.— Earl Warwick, now Duke of Northumber- 
 land, succeeded to the Protectorate in the place of Somerset. The 
 boy king was in ill-health and not likely to live. Northumberland, 
 knowing this, schemed to get Edward to alter the succession in 
 favour of his daughter-in-law. Lady Jane Grey, great grand- 
 daughter of Henry VI L, thus setting aside both Mary and Eliza- 
 beth, the rightful heirs to the crown. He succeeded in his 
 design by playing upon the young king's fear that the Reformed 
 Church would suffer, if Mary, who was a Catholic, should succeed ; 
 and shortly afterwards (A.D. 1553) Edward VI. died, and Lady 
 Jane Grey, in spite of her own protests, was proclaimed queen. 
 But the English people did not like to see Mary Tudor defrauded 
 of her inheritance ; moreover, they had kind feelings towards her 
 on account of Henry VIII. 's ill-usage of her mother, Katharine of 
 Aragon. So they rallied round the true heir, and dethroning Nor- 
 thumberland's daughter-in-law, crowned Mary. For his wicked 
 ambition, Northumberland was executed, and the unfortunate Lady 
 Jane Grey and her husband also came to the block. But Mary's 
 accession to the throne brought great trouble to England. As a 
 Catholic, she repealed all the laws in favour of the Protestant 
 
60 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTOBY. [Chap. X 
 
 religion, restored the Catholic bishops to office, and began a religi • 
 ous persecution on account of which many have given her the 
 name of " Bloody Mary." 
 
 9. Persecution of Protestants.— One of the troubles of Mary's 
 reign was her marriage, in 1554, with Philip II. of Spain. The 
 alliance was very unpopular in England. The people were alarmed 
 to have the queen, already a rigid Cathohc, connect herself with 
 a prince of the most Roman Cathohc country in Europe, So great, 
 indeed, was this alarm that several insurrections took place, the 
 chief of which was Sir Tho.iaC ^v^yatt's. These led to the 
 imprisonment and death of many influential people who had taken 
 part in them, and threw Mary entirely into the hands of the Papal 
 party in England that had encouraged the marriage. Her mar- 
 riage strengthened Mary in her resolve to bring about a reconcili- 
 ation with Rome, and to restore the Church property in the 
 possession of the Crown. But she could not induce Parliament 
 to restore to the Church the lands and goods that had become 
 private property. She rebuilt, however, many monasteries at the 
 public expense, and did what was in her power to replace the 
 Church in its old position of wealth and influence. The Statutes 
 against heretics were revived, and hundreds died at the stake for 
 the Protestant faith. For these atrocities the queen's adviser, 
 Bishop Gardiner, was partly responsible. He was aided in his 
 infamous work by Bonner, Bishop of London, in whose diocese 
 most of the burnings took place. Among those to suffer martyr- 
 dom for their faith were Archbishop Cranmer, and bishops Hooper, 
 Ridley, and Latimer. The two latter were bound together at one 
 stake, at Oxford, in 1555 ; and as the fagots were lit, Latimer, 
 addressing his fellow-martyr, cried : " Be of good comfort. Master 
 Ridley, and play the man : we shall this day light such a candle, 
 by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." 
 Philip induced Mary to join him in a war with France, the result 
 of which was that England lost Calais, her last possession in 
 France, (A.D. 1558). In the same year Mary, having lost the love 
 alike of husband and people, sickened and died. 
 
 [1. Under what circumstances did Henry VIII. come to the throne »' Why was he 
 popular with i\e people ? Compare his character at the beginning with his character 
 «t the close of bis reign, and accotint for the change. 
 
A..D. 1558.] THE REFORMATION. 61 
 
 2. What caused Henry VIII. to separate from the Church of Rome ? What steps 
 did ho take in doing so ? 
 
 3. Describe the character of Wolsey, and relate the principal incidents in his career, 
 
 4. Who was Thomas Cromwell ? For what is he famous 1 
 
 5. Why were Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher put to death? 
 
 6. Show that Henry VIII. had great power both in Church and State. 
 
 7. What kind of government had England during the reign of Edward VI. ? What 
 was the condition of the labouring classes ? 
 
 8. Mention the principal events that took place in connection with the Reformation 
 in England during Edward's reign. 
 
 9. What is to be admiied, and what condemned, in the life and character of Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer ? 
 
 10. Point out what you think is most worthy of notice in the reign of Mary.] 
 
 CHAPTER XI- 
 
 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 (CONTINDED.) 
 
 [The great figure in the period covered by this chapter is Queen Elizabeth. Her 
 character is an interesting study, and the teacher will find vivid and life-like descrip- 
 tions of her in Green, Fronde, and Lingard. Next in interest comes Mary, Queen 
 of Scots. Her life abounds in romantic incidents. Relate some of them, and read with 
 pupils Henry Glassford Bell's poem, "Queen Mary." The great work accomplished 
 by Elizabeth in securing the peace, independence, and prosi)erity of England; the 
 final triumph of Protestantism in England ; and the wonderful activity and intelligence 
 displayed by Englishmen in all spheres of thought and labour, are the princijjal features 
 of this reign. The literary activity of the age, as shown in the works of Spenser, 
 Shakespeare, Bacon, Raleigh, and others, should come m for mention. It was an age of 
 high purpose and chivalrous action. Illustrate this by anecdotes about Raleigh, Sir 
 Philip Sidney, Essex, and others; and read with pupils Macaulay's "The Armada," 
 and Tennyson's "The Revenge." 
 
 iJe/ereracea;— Green, Fronde, Hallam, Lingard, Crcighton's "Age of Elizabeth," 
 and "The Tudors and the Reformation," Strickland's "Queens of England," Scott's 
 '• Kenilworth," Swinburne's "Chastjlard" and "Bothwell," Burton's "History of 
 Scotland," and Seabohm's " Era of the Protestant Revolution."] 
 
 1. Character and Work of Elizabeth.— This reign opens the 
 renowned Age of Elizabeth, an age distinguished for stirring action 
 and great literary achievement. Elizabeth, who was twenty-five 
 when she came to the throne, was energetic and courageous, clever 
 and well-read. With her Tudor blood she inherited her father's 
 pride in the kingdom, and had much of his imperious ways and 
 haughty manner. Though fond of grandeur, and possessed of a 
 woman's love of flattery, she did not care merely for these things ; 
 
62 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL EKGLISII mstORY. [Chap. XI. 
 
 she worked hard for the good of her people, and was careful in 
 
 choosing the men she set over them. 
 Coming after her Catholic sister, Mary, 
 she had a difficult task in bringing the 
 kingdom back to Protestantism ; and 
 the difficulty was increased by the 
 many plots during her reign to remove 
 her from the throne and give a Catho- 
 lic the crown. But she was well coun- 
 selled by her life-long adviser, SiR 
 William Cecil (Lord Burleigh) ; and 
 QuEKN Elizabeth. j^gr own moderate views in religion 
 
 removed many thorns from her path. Her first step was to close 
 the courts for the trial of heretics, and to release those who had 
 been imprisoned for their religion. The exiled Protestants then 
 returned to the kingdom, and those rallied round h?r who had held 
 aloof from the Court during the persecutions of Mary. In the 
 religious ferment of the period there was need of moderation, for a 
 Protestant England was then jealously regarded by the great 
 Catholic Powers of Europe, Italy, France and Spain. Elizabeth 
 had no love for war, and was long careful not to emljroil the country 
 with the princes of the continent ; but to keep out of trouble she 
 had to be watchful of the plots against her, and diligent to see that 
 England was kept strong and independent. Elizabeth's hand was 
 repeatedly sought in marriage, but she lived and died a " Virgin 
 Queen." 
 
 2. Completion of the Eeformation.— On Elizabeth's accession, 
 the clergy, who were strongly Catholic, sullenly regarded the coming 
 of a Protestant queen. It was with difficulty a bishop could be got 
 to crown her, for the Pope refused to acknowledge her title, and the 
 Kings of France and Spain were in favour of putting her cousin, 
 Mary, Queen of Scots, on the English throne. When, how- 
 ever, Parliament met (1559), a devoted majority in both Houses 
 eagerly supported Elizabeth in proclaiming the Supremacy of the 
 Crown. A revised Prayer Book and the Thirty-Nine Articles of 
 Religion were put in circulation, and an Act of Uniformity was 
 passed which forbade all worship not in accordance with the 
 Liturgy of the Church of England. The clergy who refused assent 
 
A.D. 1565.] THE REPORMATION. 63 
 
 to the new order of things were deprived of their livings and others 
 put in their place. A Court cf High Commission was also formed 
 to manage Church matters and especially to enforce conformity, 
 by fines and imprisonment, to the Established Church. The exer- 
 cise of this latter power was the cause of much unjustifiable perse- 
 cution. Protestantism again became the law of the land and the 
 work of the Reformation may be said to be complete. Among the 
 returned Protestants, who during the persecutions of Mary had 
 sought refuge on the continent, were many who came to be called 
 Puritans, because they desired a. purer form of worship than that 
 established in the kingdom, and refused lo conform to many of 
 the practices of the Church. Against these Puritans, whom Eliza- 
 beth disliked, the Act of Uniformity was put in force with great 
 rigour ; but they adhered doggedly to their opinions, and their 
 love of civil liberty added many to their ranks. On the other 
 hand, trouble came from the Jesuits, a religious Order in the 
 Roman Catholic Church that had arisen in Spain a short time 
 before, and did much by its zeal to check the progress of the 
 Reformation not only in England, but on the continent. 
 
 3. Mary, Queen of Scots.— From the time Elizabeth was 
 crowned, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, gave trouble to England. 
 She had married the Dauphin of France, who in 1559 became king. 
 As a descendant of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VH., she 
 was next heir to the English throne ; and this led her husband to 
 style himself king of France and England. Elizabeth took great 
 offence at this, for she feared that Mary would try to seize the 
 throne. Mary's husband, however, died in 1 560, and the following 
 year she was invited to Scotland and became queen. The year 
 before, Elizabeth had been asked to interfere in a civil war in Scot- 
 land, which had broken out between the Catholic party and the 
 Scotch Reformers under John Knox. An English fleet was sent to 
 the Forth ; but peace was made at Edinburgh, and the French who 
 had aided the Catholics left the country, and Elizabeth withdrew 
 her fleet on the condition that Mary should make no claim to the 
 Enghsh throne. In 1565 Mary married her cousin. Lord Darnley; 
 but the marriage was an unhappy one, and the Scottish queen got 
 foolishly entangled with a favourite, ihe Earl of Bothwell, who 
 murdered Darnley and married Mary. This led to a rising among 
 
64 PUBLIC School English hlstory. [Chap. XI. 
 
 the Scottish nobles, who made the queen a prisoner, and gave the 
 crown to her son, James VI. Mary afterwards escaped to England* 
 and Elizabeth, fearing that her presence would lead to plots against 
 her life, kept her for nineteen years under watchful restraint. 
 During these years, in spite of Elizabeth's jealous care, many plots 
 were put on foot to give Maiy her liberty and place her on the 
 throne. Finally, becoming involved in a plot known as the Bab- 
 ington Conspiracy, she was beheaded at Fotheringay Castle, A.D* 
 1587. The justice of her fate has long been a subject for dispute ; 
 but it must be acknowledged that, while Mary lived, England was 
 always in trouble from conspiracy and threatened invasion. 
 
 4. The Spanish Armada.— In Elizabeth's reign the spirit of 
 adventure among her people showed itself in Er gland's commercial 
 and naval greatness. Spain, at the period, was the chief trading 
 nation of Europe ; and in the New World her mariners were enrich- 
 ing their country with the wealth of South America and the West 
 Indies. England caught the excitement of the time, and many 
 expeditions left her ports to engage in discovery and to pillage 
 Spanish ships. The latter acts were bitterly resented by King 
 Philip, who also suffered from English interference in the Nether- 
 lands, whither Elizabeth had sent her troops to aid Philip's Dutch 
 subjects in throwing off the Spanish yoke. Philip was further 
 exasperated by the loss of eighty vessels in the harbour of Cadiz, 
 which were destroyed by Sir Francis Drake in a descent upon the 
 place, "to singe," as he said, "the Spanish king's beard." In 
 retaliation, Philip having got a great fleet together, which he called 
 the Invincible Armada, sent it in 1588 to invade England, with 
 an army on board of 30,000 men. To meet the invasion a land 
 force was organized in England under the Earl of Leicester, and 
 a fleet under Lord Howard, of Effmgham, cruised about in the 
 English Channel. When the Spanish fleet came in sight it was 
 engaged by the Lord High Admiral, and many of the largest gal- 
 leons were destroyed. Other portions were burnt by fire-ships sent 
 into the fleet over night. On this a panic seized the Spaniards, 
 and Sir Francis Drake boldly attacked and routed them. A strong 
 southwesterly gale now sprang up ; and the Spanish admiral 
 thought to escape the English by sailing round the north of Scot- 
 land, and so reaching Spain. But the fierce storms of the North 
 
A.D. 1601.] THE REFORMATION. 65 
 
 Sea made terrible havoc with the lumbering Spanish ships, and 
 only a small remnant of the ill-fated expedition was able to reach 
 the harbour of Corunna. Thus ended, in signal failure, the 
 Spanish invasion of England. 
 
 5. Rebellion in Ireland.— Naturally enough, the loss of the 
 Armada did not lessen Philip's hatred of England. Though Eng- 
 lish valour on the sea had defeated his schemes of invasion, he 
 gave encouragement to a rising in Ireland under O'Neill, Earl 
 OF Tyrone, which for five years annoyed England. The reason of 
 the rising was the hatred caused by English misrule, and increased 
 by religious differences. To put an end to the rebellion, Elizabeth 
 sent an army to Ireland in 1599 under her favourite, the Earl of 
 Essex. But Essex, unable to crush Tyrone, made a truce with the 
 rebel, and, against Elizabeth's orders, returned to England and 
 pushed his way into her presence. For his presumption, Elizabeth, 
 though partial to him, forbade him the Court and deprived him of 
 part of his income. Essex foolishly resented this, and conspired 
 to overthrow her ministers, whom he held responsible for his losing 
 the queen's favour. But the plot failed, and Elizabeth was reluc- 
 tantly compelled to order his execution. The Irish rising was put 
 down in 160 1 by Lord Mountjoy, and a Spanish fleet which had 
 come to assist the rebels was defeated. 
 
 6. Parliamentary Government under Elizabeth.— The strug- 
 gles through which England passed during the Reformation greatly 
 developed the national life and were not without their influence on 
 Parliament. The effort to free the nation completely from the 
 ecclesiastical power of Rome, and the necessity for legislation to 
 protect her person from the dangers of conspiracy, compelled 
 Elizabeth to resort to Parliament. This, of course, increased its 
 influence. For money, however, Elizabeth had no need to come 
 to Parliament during the greater part of her reign. Her own 
 economy made her content with little; while the expenses con- 
 nected with the threatened invasion and the wars in Ireland and 
 the Netherlands were readily met by the people. Under the Tudor 
 kings Parliament had been very submissive ; but under Elizabeth, 
 its Puritan section, in particular, was more independent ; and the 
 queen's cleverness and moderation led her to see that at times it 
 was best to yield. One important concession she was obliged to 
 
 6 
 
PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XI. 
 
 make, in the discontinuance of Monopolies. These were privi- 
 leges granted to Court favourites or to others, in return for a money 
 payment which conveyed the sole right of selling some article or 
 of engaging in some foreign trade. This spirit of independence in 
 the Commons also showed itself in its objecting to the creation, by 
 unconstitutional means, of new parliamentary boroughs, and to 
 Court interference in elections. Parliament also frequently urged 
 the queen to marry ; and although Elizabeth resented any interfer- 
 ence in this matter, she was compelled to acknowledge its right to 
 give advice on a question involving the peace of the kingdom. 
 
 7. Spenser and Shakespeare.— The enterprises of the time, 
 together with the religious controversies, had a marked influence 
 on literature. As feudal oppression passed away and superstition 
 decayed, the energies of the people awoke to new life. The spirit 
 of adventure abroad had made the New World known to the Old, 
 and the East India Company, which was formed in Elizabeth's 
 reign, opened up the East to commerce. While these forces were 
 at work, thanks to the founding of the Grammar Schools and 
 Universities, the thirst for knowledge increased, and England rose 
 to unexampled literary greatness. In the reign of Elizabeth 
 Modern English took its rise. Its great writers are Sir Philip 
 Sidney, Sir Walter Raleigh, Richard Hooker, and Francis, Lord 
 Bacon ; the splendour of the period centering in its two chief 
 poets, Edmund Spenser and William Shakespeare. In the 
 musical flow of the Faerie Queen, as well as in its moral beauty, 
 English verse was crowned by the achievement of Spenser. The 
 poem is an exquisite allegory, describing the warfare of twelve 
 knights against all forms of evil, which in the poet's pages become 
 real personages, and contend with the knights who represent the 
 chief virtues. In the works of Shakespeare, who is indisputably the 
 first of English dramatists — if not of all dramatists — literature was 
 immortalized by a marvellous creative power and an unsurpassed 
 genius. His chief productions, however, more properly belong to 
 the next reign. They consist of some thirty-five plays — tragedies, 
 comedies, and historical dramas. 
 
 [1. In what condition did Elizabeth find England when she became queen ? 
 
 2. Give, as well as you can, a pen-and-ink portrait of Elizabeth with respect to (1) 
 personal appearance and accomplishments ; (2) moral qualities ; (3) mental qualities. 
 Compare her with Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 
A.T), 1603.] CROWN AND PARLIAMRUT. 67 
 
 3. What policy did Elizabeth pursue to give England peace and prosperity? Show 
 how she succeeded. 
 
 4, Why did Philip of Spain send the Armada? What was its fate ? 
 
 6. Show that England during this reign made great advances in trade and commerce. 
 
 6. Who are the great Elizabethan writers? What caused the wonderful literary 
 activity in this reign? 
 
 7. What is meant by the statement that Elizabeth's reign marks the beginning of a 
 new state of affairs in England? 
 
 8. Tell the story of the imprisonment and death of Mary, Queen of Scots 
 
 9. What position did Parliament occupy in this reign ? Mention any facts bearing 
 OQ this point.] 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN CROWN AND 
 PARLIAMENT. 
 
 [The Great Rebellion was the result of a conflict between the Crown and Parliament, 
 which began in the reign of James I. Hence, every step in this struggle should be 
 traced. The early training of James I. ; his mistaken ideas of kingly authority ; his 
 want of tact and political wisdom, are points all bearing on this question. The per- 
 sonal appearance and character of James are graphically described by Green, and this 
 description should bo given to the class. The difference between the Tudors and the 
 Stuarts, 03 stated by Macaulay, ought to bo pointed out. The Gunpowder Plot, its 
 cause, and incidents connected with its inception and discovery, are worth mentioning. 
 The character of Charles I. should be studied and delineated. The provisions of the 
 Petition of Right ought to be carefully explained. Buckingham, Sir John Eliot, 
 Hampden, Pym, Falkland, Laud, and Strafford are the grc.it men at this stage of the 
 history ; as graphically as possible put their prominent traits before the pupils. The 
 teacher will find in Macaulay's "Milton," and in Green's 'Short History," vivid des- 
 criptions of the Puritans and their opinions ; give the substance of these studies, illus- 
 trating by reference to Milton, Bunyan, Hutchinson^ and Cromwell. These hints do 
 not exhaust the points in this chapter to be taken up ; but the headings of the para- 
 graphs will suggest other topics. Read with pupils Mrs. Heman's " Landing of the 
 Pilgrim Fathers " (4th Reader), and refer to Longfellow's "Evangeline " for a picture of 
 the Puritans in New England. 
 
 References: — Green, Macaulay's Essays, Ha'lam, Goldwin Smith's "Three English 
 Statesmen," Mrs. Hutchinson's "Memoirs oi Her Husband," Carlyle's "Cromwell," 
 and Forster's "Statesmen of the Commonwealth."] 
 
 James I. (1603-1625).— Queen Elizabeth, fearing plots against 
 her life, would never say who was to succeed her. It was well un- 
 derstood, however, that as she was the last of Henry VIII.'s family, 
 the crown was to pass to James VI. of Scotland. When Elizabeth 
 
68 punLtc SCHOOL enolisii history. [Chap. XII. 
 
 died, this was what happened ; and the Scottish king, son of the 
 unfortunate Mary Stuart, and great-grandson of the eldest sister of 
 Henry VIII., succeeded to the throne as James I. OF Great 
 Britain. Though the two kingdoms were thus united, each had 
 still its own Parliament, its own Church government, and its own 
 laws. James was gladly welcomed to the throne, for the people 
 had long desired the union. He had good natural abilities and 
 was well educated ; but the seclusion of his early life had made 
 him conceited, as well as careless of his appearance and awkward 
 in his manners. On coming to the throne, James had the good 
 sense to retain Elizabeth's advisers ; but being fond of flattery and 
 vulgar in his tastes, he made himself free with unworthy favourites, 
 and was very much under their influence. 
 
 2. The King and the People.— James brought with him from 
 Scotland exaggerated notions of the king's authority, regarding it 
 not as a trust derived from the people, but as a right divinely 
 bestowed, and therefore independent of Parliament and beyond its 
 control. The Tudor kings, we have seen, were very despotic, but 
 the times were stormy and full of danger, and the people were 
 content to be ruled with a strong hand. Of late, however, a 
 change had come about. There was now little fear of enemies 
 within or without the kingdom, and the power the people had 
 parted with they now wished to recall. If James had reasonably 
 met their views, there would have been no trouble ; but the king, 
 while he was weak and cowardly, was stubborn and conceited. 
 Towards two of the religious parties in the State he at first pur- 
 sued a temporizing policy, which pleased neither and got him into 
 trouble. These parties were the Catholics and the Puritans, both 
 of whom expected favours from him. The former looked for his 
 support as the son of the Catholic Mary ; while the latter, being 
 the strong party in Parliament, and the one that had got him the 
 crown, expected that he would take their side. But both parties 
 were disappointed. The Catholics he offended by speaking of them 
 as disloyal ; and the Puritans he disliked because they wanted to 
 get rid of bishops, and introduce changes in the Church which he 
 thought would interfere with his own power. Nor would he let 
 Parliament meddle with Church matters ; so there was much dis- 
 content in the kingdom. 
 
A.D. 1GI2.] CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 69 
 
 3. Gunpowder Plot.— Early in 1604, James presided over a 
 
 Conference of Bishops, which he summoned with a . 
 
 , ,,, , . ,• T-. • . Hampton Court 
 
 View to settle Church matters m dispute. But m the Ci.nforence of 
 
 Assembly the Puritans were in the minority, and the * "^** 
 king took advantage of this to browbeat them and to declare his 
 religious and political creed in a phrase he was fond of using, " No 
 bishop, no king." One great fruit of the Conference was a new Eng- 
 lish translation of the I5iblc, which was completed in 161 1. This is 
 the Authorized Version of the Scriptures now in use, and is dedi- 
 cated to King James. No sooner had James left the Conference 
 than he issued a proclamation ordering all Jesuits and seminary 
 priests to leave the kingdom. This greatly enraged the Roman 
 Catholics, and a plot was formed by a number of them, headed by 
 one Robert Catesby, to blow up the Parliament House, with the 
 king and the Commons who had taken part in passing the law. 
 The conspirators bound themselves to secrecy, and a Yorkshireman, 
 named Guv F'awkes, who had been in the Spanish service in the 
 Netherlands, was employed to do the dastardly deed. It was 
 
 arranged that the mine was to be fired at the opening „ 
 
 /. T, ,• 1 , , , r Gunpowder 
 
 of Parliament, and access was secured to the vaults of Plot, Nov. 6, 
 
 the House to enable the conspirators to lay the train. 
 
 Luckily, however, the plot was discovered in time to prevent its 
 
 accomplishment. Fawkes was arrested and put to the torture of 
 
 the rack to force him to disclose the names of his associates ; but 
 
 though he refused to tell, they were subsequently found out, arrested, 
 
 and executed. After this, very severe laws were passed against 
 
 the Roman Catholics. 
 
 4. The Spanish Alliance.— In 161 2, death deprived the king of 
 his adviser, Robert Cecil, son of Elizabeth's minister. Lord 
 Burleigh. He was succeeded for a time by a worthless favourite, 
 named Robert Carr, who in turn gave place to George Villiers, 
 whom the king created Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham 
 gained great power over the king, and all the principal offices of 
 State were filled with his creatures. This gave much offence to 
 the nation, for he was arrogant, dissolute, and extravagant. Under 
 his influence the Court became very corrupt, and positions and 
 honours were shamelessly sold for money. The judges were com- 
 pelled to decide cases as Buckingham dictated : even the Lord 
 
70 PUBLIC SCHOOL EJfOLISII HLSTORY. [Chap. XII. 
 
 Chancellor Bacon leht himself to carry out the wishes of this 
 insolent favourite. The influence of Ikickinyham was seen in the 
 effort James made to form an alliance with Spain, by marrying his 
 son Charles to the Infanta. To this match the English people 
 and Parliament were strongly opposed on both national and re- 
 ligious grounds. The marriage negotiations failed, but not before 
 they brought about a serious quarrel between James and his Par- 
 liament. A short time after the match was broken off, Charles 
 married Hknrietta Maria, the daughter of Henry IV. of France. 
 
 5. Beginning of the Struggle with Parliament.— The threat- 
 ened Spanish marriage, and James's unwillingness to take active 
 part with the Protestants in the religious war then being waged on 
 the continent, showed how much the king and the people differed 
 in their views as to what was good for the nation. The discontent 
 with James's rule was increased by his disregard of Parliament, 
 by his illegal exactions of money, and by the issue of arbitrary 
 proclamations, one of which fo-bade the king's subjects to speak of 
 State affairs. But James's financial necessities compelled him to 
 summon Parliament, and the Commons took the opportunity to 
 state its grievances and assert its rights. The House drew up a 
 Protest of the Protest, in which it was declared, that "freedom of 
 Commons, and speech and the privileges of Parliament are the un- 
 
 asseriion of ,,,,.,., i • i • /• , , • .. 
 
 its rights, doubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of 
 
 A.D. 1621. England." The king got angry at this Protest, and 
 sending for the journals of the House he tore it out and dissolved 
 Parliament. He also committed to prison the leaders of the Com- 
 mons and two members of the Upper House. These acts, however, 
 made Parliament more determined to assert its rights, and this it 
 did by passing an Act making Monopolies illegal, by impeaching 
 or bringing to trial the king's ministers, and by forcing on James a 
 war with Spain. Next year (1625), while this fruitless war was 
 going on, and he was still at issue with his subjects, James died, 
 and his son, Charles I., came to the throne. 
 
 6. Colonization of Ulster and New England.— Early in James's 
 reign (1608) the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland again broke out, under 
 a new rebel chief, the Earl of Tyrconnel. But this rising fared no 
 better than the one in Elizabeth's time ; its leaders had to flee 
 frpm the country, and their large estates were taken possession of 
 
A.D. 1628.] CROWN AND Parliament. 71 
 
 by the Crown. On these forfeited estates James causer' a large 
 number of English and Scotch to settle, and the colony in time came 
 to be the flourishing Province of Ulster. Puritan colonization, 
 in the same reign, extended to the New World. In 1620, a band 
 of English Puritans, known as the PlLGRLM Fathers, sailed from 
 Plymouth in the Mayjlouicr^ and settled on Massachusetts Hay. 
 These Puritans were mainly English refugees from persecution who 
 had for a time lived in Holland. Ten years later, their numbers 
 were largely increased by another emigration of those who sought 
 on the American Continent the religious freedom they were denied 
 at home. 
 
 7. Accession of Charles I.— Much was hoped from Charles 
 when he became king, for, unlike his father, he was dignified in 
 appearance and decorous in his man- 
 ners. Had James, by his arbitrary 
 acts and extravagant notions of kingly 
 power, not roused the temper of the 
 nation, Charles might have made an 
 estimable ruler. But his son, too, had | 
 exalted notions of the power of a king ; 
 and the antagonism between the Crown 
 and the Parliament made him stand 
 firmly on what he thought were his 
 rights. The circumstances of the times Charles I. 
 were also against him. His father had left him a legacy of debt, a 
 war with Spain, and an unpopular minister. Religious animosities, 
 moreover, were still rife ; and by marrying a Catholic wife Charles 
 had added not a little to the prejudice which afterwards showed 
 itself against him. Subsequent troubles also showed that he was 
 impatient of opposition and lacking in sincerity. 
 
 8. Petition of Bight. — When Charles's first Parliament met, his 
 popularity had waned. Buckingham was still his adviser, and the 
 foreign policy of this minister and the young king was distrusted by 
 the people. The war with Spain was badly managed, and an expe- 
 dition to capture Cadiz turned out a failure. Parliament, therefore, 
 voted money very sparingly until it saw how it was to be used. 
 Charles urged that more money was wanted, but the Commons 
 were firm and refused to give it. Thereupon he dismissed ParU^- 
 
72 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENOLISn HISTORY. [Chap. XII. 
 
 mcnt, and to raise money resorted to the old custom of forced 
 loans. Next year a new Parliament was called, which was quite 
 as hostile to the king. After protesting against the levying of 
 money without the consent of the Commons, it proceeded to 
 impeach the king's minister, to save whom the king again dis- 
 missed Parliament. Before the third Parliament met, in 1628, the 
 king, under Buckingham's advice, had foolishly added a war with 
 France to the nation's troubles. He had also continued his illegal 
 taxation, thrown the leaders of the Opposition into prison, billeted 
 his soldiers oppressively on the people, and exercised martial law. 
 The third Parliament, still more determined that the king should 
 govern by constitutional means, compelled him to sign the " Peti- 
 tion OF' Right," which condemned his illegal acts. On the signing 
 of this document, which is considered the " second Great Charter of 
 the liberties of England," the Commons voted five subsidies ; but 
 a short time after, the king renewed his efforts to raise money 
 by illegal means, and the Commons remonstrating he threw 
 nine of its members into prison and angrily dissolved Parliament. 
 For the next eleven years Charles governed England without the 
 aid or check of a national council. 
 
 9. Ship-Money. — Matters fast became worse. Instead ot gov- 
 ernment by Parliament, there was now the government of the king. 
 The instruments of Charles's personal rule were, in political matters, 
 the Court of the Star Chamber, and in religious matters, the Court 
 of High Commission. At the head of these were new men whom 
 the king had won to his side ; for nfter the Third Parliament was 
 dissolved, the Duke of Buckingham, when about to lead an expedi- 
 tion to France, was murdered by a disgraced officer of the navy. 
 His successor, Sir Thomas Wentworth, had been at one time 
 a staunch supporter of the cause of liberty and an active oppo- 
 nent of Charles in Parliament. On the death of Buckingham, 
 amoition had led him to desert his old party and espouse the 
 
 cause of the king. Appointed Viceroy of Ireland, in 
 anTLa'ud^' ^^33» ^^ established a military despotism in the island, 
 
 and encouraged Charles to carry oui a like obnox- 
 ious rule in England. Despotic government, too, was established 
 in Church affairs by William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury ; 
 and the Puritans were the first to feel his cruel oppression. The 
 
A.D. 1640.] CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 78 
 
 ingenuity of these ministers devised a new way of raising money, 
 which was put in force by the king. This was the revival of an 
 old law, which called upon the seaports and maritime counties to 
 furnish ships for the defence of the coast. But instead of ships, 
 a tax, called Ship-Money, was levied upon every county. A 
 gentleman of Buckinghamshire, named John Hampden, had the 
 courage to resist the imposition of the tax, and to test it? legality in 
 the courts. Thougii the judges, by a small majority, decided tlie 
 case against him, the whole nation was roused by a sense of wrong, 
 and many of the best men of the country came patriotically forward 
 to contend for their rights. 
 
 10. Scotland rejects Episcopacy.— Charles, seemingly bent on 
 
 his own ruin, took Archbishop Laud's advice and sought to force 
 
 upon the Scottish nation the forms and service of the Episcopal 
 
 Church in England. This was very obnoxious to the Scotch, who, 
 
 since the Reformation, had almost wholly become Presbyterians, 
 
 and were opposed to Church government by bishops, and to the 
 
 use of a book of Church service. So strong was the feeling against 
 
 Laud's interference wif iheir mode of worship, that at Edinburgh 
 
 a riot broke out in one of the Churches where the Episcopal service 
 
 ivas introduced ; and the whole country banded itself together to 
 
 resist what was looked upon as a form of Roman Catholicism. To 
 
 give unity to their action, the Scottish people signed a NATIONAL 
 
 Covenant, in which they agreed to resist Popery and j,^^ Scottish 
 
 all religious innovations, and to support each other in Covenantera 
 ... -^. ,,-,, 11 take lip arms 
 
 their resistance. Episcopacy was abolished, and when against 
 
 the king wished to force it upon them, the Scots took up 
 
 arms and marched southwards against him. But though he had 
 
 raised an army on the borders, Charles had no money to maintain 
 
 it ; and, negotiating a temporary peace, at Berwick, he proceeded 
 
 to London and summoned his fourth Parliament (April, 1640). 
 
 11. The Long Parliament (1640).— The fourth, or as it is called 
 the Short Parliament, did little for Charles ; for no sooner did 
 it meet than the Commons, under John Pym, a famous leader of 
 the time, proceeded to complain of the country's wrongs, and of 
 the arbitrary acts of the Courts of Star Chamber and High Com- 
 mission, which were taking away the rights and libe'-ties of the 
 people. To stop these complaints, Charles dissolved Parliament, 
 
74 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XII. 
 
 but later in the year he was compelled by his need of money to call 
 it together again. In the interval, the Scottish army crossed the 
 border and marched into Yorkshire, where an agreement was made 
 with Charles to refer matters in dispute to the Parliaments of the 
 two countries. So the king rtgain summoned what came to be 
 known as the Long Parliament, on account of the long time it 
 lasted. This memorable Assembly, which was warmly supported 
 in its acts by popular feeling, now determined to settle the question, 
 which should govern t?ie country — the king or the Parliament. Its 
 first act was to impeach and bring to trial Sir Thomas Wentworth, 
 now Earl of Strafford, who had returned from Ireland to aid 
 the king with his counsel. Strafford was declared a traitor by 
 Parliament, and was condemned to death and executed in May, 
 1641. Archbishop Laud was also impeached, and for the present 
 was sent a prisoner to the Tower. The next step was to pass Acts 
 requiring the assembling of Parliament at least once in three years, 
 and to prevent its adjournment or dissolution without its own con- 
 sent. Statutes were also passed forbidding the levying of ship- 
 money and illegal customs duties, and abolishing the Courts of 
 Star Chamber and High Commission. 
 
 12. Attempted arrest of the Five Members.— Charles's posi- 
 tion, though full of difficulty, for a time looked brighter. The 
 Commons, in its zeal to effect reforms, was carried into excesses, 
 which alienated some of its members and drove them to sympa- 
 thize with the king. By granting to the Scots what they demanded, 
 Charles had produced peace in the North, and given hope in 
 England that he would now be more yielding. This expectation 
 brought him further support, particularly of those who thought that 
 the Commons had gone far enough in asserting its rights, and who 
 feared to plunge the country into anarchy. Two political parties 
 thus arose in Parliam.ent and the country, the one (known as the 
 " Cavaliers ") taking the Royalist or king's side, and the other (the 
 " Roundheads ") taking the popular or Opposition side. On the 
 king's side were ranged all the Roman Catholics and most of the 
 nobles, clergy, and country gentlemen. These were led in Parlia- 
 ment by Lucius, Lord Falkland, and by Edward Hyde, Earl 
 of Clarendon, both of whom had formerly opposed the king. 
 On the Opposition side were the Puritans and Nonconformists^ a 
 
A.D. 1G42.] CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 75 
 
 few of the nobility, and many able but austere men of the merchant 
 and middle classes. Their chief leaders were the great common- 
 ers, Hampden, Pym, and Oliver Cromwell. The two parties 
 were pretty evenly balanced in Parliament, though the Opposition 
 now gained strength by the breaking out once more of a rebellion 
 in Ireland, which was marked by great atrocities inflicted by the 
 Irish Roman Catholics on the Protestant settlers in the island. 
 In this new outbreak Charles was suspected of having a hand, and 
 violent discussions ensued in Parliament over the matter. The 
 Opposition brought forward a Grand Remonstrance complaining 
 of the king's misgovernment since he had come to the thi ->ne, and 
 expressing distrust of his acts and policy. The Remonstrance was 
 passed by a small majority in the House, amid great tumult, and 
 was printed and circulated throughout the country. This produced 
 a reaction in favour of the king, and, taking advantage of it, he 
 proceeded with a small body of armed troops to the House to 
 arrest five of the prominent leaders of the Commons. But the 
 members, being secretly advised of the king's coming, had taken 
 refuge in the city, and Charles was foiled in his attempt to get them 
 into his possession. The king's treacherous and flagrant violation 
 of the privileges of Parliament roused it to fury, and created such 
 excitement in London that the king fled from the city and took 
 refuge in Hampton Court. The queen was sent to Holland, and 
 Charles now proceeded to the North to muster his forces for the 
 coming strife, while Parliament prepared for armed resistance. 
 England once more was to be distracted by civil war. 
 
 [1. What claim h,ul James I. to the throne of England? 
 
 2. Compare the Stuarts witli t)io Tudors. 
 
 3. DcHcrihe the pcrnonal and mental piiculiaritles of James L 
 
 4. What views did James L hold of the power of the Crown? Show how these 
 views afflicted his relations with Parliament 
 
 6. Mention the principal causes that led to the disagreement between James L and 
 Parliairient, 
 
 6. Point out the exoellenoes and defects in the character of Charles I, 
 
 7. What were tlio main provisions of tha Petition of Right? Show why they were 
 needed, and how thiiy were obtained. 
 
 8. What line of conduct was pursued by Charles I. between 1629 and 1640? 
 
 9. For what are the following persons famous : — Bucliingham, Sir John Eliot, Hamp- 
 den, Pym, Laud, and Strafford? 
 
 10. What led to tlio assembling of the Long Parliament? What important laws did 
 it pass? 
 
 IL Sketch the events immediately prior to the outbreak of the Civil War.] 
 
76 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Ch»p. XIIX- 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE GREAT REBELLION. 
 
 [The central figure of this ])eriod is Cromwell. In Carlylo's " Cromwell " will be 
 found the most life-like portraiture of the " uncrowned King of England." For 
 different views of the justice of the sentence carried out on Charles I., read Hallam and 
 Macaulay's Essay on Hallam. The principal battle-fields of the Civil War are located 
 in the map on p. 78 ; the teacher should point them out. Cromwell's rule, generalship, 
 and foreign and domestic policy, require explanation and illustration. His treatment 
 of the Irish, and the contradictory opinions held by different authors regarding hia 
 character, may be briefly alluded to ; but anything in the shape of an elaborate dis- 
 cussion shouid be avoided. It may interest the class if it be shown that Cromwell was 
 far in advance of his times in his ideas of parliamentary reform and religious tolera- 
 tion. Milton's Sonnet on Cromwell should be read, also Aytoun's " Execution of Mon- 
 trose " (3rd Reader), and Scott's " Woodstock" and " Legend of Montrose." 
 
 References .-—Green, Hallam, Macaulay's Essays, Carlyle's "Cromwell," Gardiner's 
 " Struggle Against Absolute Monarchy," and Bissett's " History ot the Common- 
 wealth."] 
 
 1. Oivil War.— Before the sword was drawn, Charles was asked 
 to consent that the mihtia of the country should be controlled by 
 
 Parliament. But to this interference 
 with the rights of the Crown he and 
 his counsellors would not agree ; and 
 rallying about him, in 1642, what 
 forces he could obtain, he set up the 
 i royal standard at Nottingham. His 
 own headquarters he made at Oxford. 
 The king's army, which soon num- 
 bered 10,000 men, was commanded 
 by the Earl of Lindsay and Charles's 
 OL™^cJwiIwKLu nephew, Prince Rupert. It was drawn 
 
 mainly from the north and west of England, and its chief strength 
 lay in Prince Rupert's Cavaliers, a dashing body of mounted 
 nobles and gentry. The Parliamentary army, some 1 5,000 strong, 
 mustered at Northampton, and was placed under the command of 
 the Earl of Essex. The ranks were filled by the yeomanry of the 
 south and east of England, and by the stout burghers of London 
 and the large towns. To these were afterwards added a body of 
 
A.D. 1645.] THE GREAT REBELLION 77 
 
 Puritan troopers, known as Cromwell's Ironsides, whose stubborn 
 valour and zeal for the Parliamentary, or, as they deemed it, God's 
 cause, made them almost invincible. Oliver Cromwell, who 
 raised this body of honest and fearless men, was a prominent 
 member of the Opposition in Parliament, and the leader of a 
 branch of the Puritan party called " Independents." This sect 
 maintained that every Christian congregation was an independent 
 Church of itself, and therefore free from the control of either bishop 
 or king. The great part Cromwell was to take in subsequent 
 events we shall soon see. The Parliamentary side had some 
 assistance from the Scots, who in 1643 entered into a Solemn 
 League with Parliament by which Presbyterianism was to be 
 introduced into England and Prelacy abolished. This compact 
 was for the time carried out, and an incident of its history was an 
 Assembly of Divines at Westminster, which drew up what is known 
 as the Scottish " Confession of Faith." To Scottish influence in 
 Lone' "> at this time are due the cruel ejection from their livings of 
 many of the English clergy, who refused to accept Presbyterianism ; 
 and the subsequent trial and execution of Archbishop Laud. 
 
 2. Marston Moor and Naseby.— The early battles of the civil 
 war were one at Edgehill, in Warwickshire, and two at NEW- 
 BURY, in Berkshire. No important results attended these battles, 
 except the loss of two of the king's commanders, Lords Lindsay 
 and Falkland. In a skirmish at Chalgrove Field, the Parliamen- 
 tary side lost the famous patriot, John Hampden, one of its principal 
 leaders. The decisive engagements of the struggle were the 
 battles of Marston Moor (1644), and Naseby (1645). In the 
 former, Cromwell's well-disciplined troopers, after a severe contest, 
 overthrew Prince Rupert and his cavaliers ; in the latter, Cromwell 
 again routed Charles's army, with the king at its head, and com- 
 pletely ruined the royal cause. At Naseby, over 5,000 prisoners 
 were taken, with all the artillery and baggage and the king's 
 cabinet and private correspondence. After this crowning victory, 
 General Fairfax, who had succeeded Essex in the command of the 
 army, subdued the west, and proceeded to invest Oxford, where 
 Charles had taken refuge. On his approach, however, the king 
 escaped from the town and gave himself up to the Scots, who were 
 besieging Newark (1644). 
 
78 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. Xlll. 
 
 3; Execution of Charles I.— The surrender of Charles to the 
 Scots showed how hopeless now was his cause. His supporters in 
 Scotland had been beaten in battle, and the Irish who came to his 
 
 Battle -FiCLOa 
 
 or the 
 
 Civil War. 
 
 assistance had also been overcome. But Charles still hoped for a 
 way out of his difficulties, thou^^h he would make no concessions 
 to Parliament. His opportunity he thought would come, in a 
 quarrel between the Presbyterians, who were strong in Parliament, 
 and the Independents, of whom the army was mainly composed. 
 Though these two parties strongly differed, the king gained nothing 
 
A..D. 1653.] THE great rebellion. 79 
 
 by the strife. Meanwhile, ParHament proposed to the Scots to 
 surrender the king, on its guaranteeing a large sum of money as 
 their arrears of pay. This proposal the Scots accepted, and they 
 returned to their homes after delivering the king to the Parliamen- 
 tary Commissioners. Now commenced a struggle between the 
 army and the Parliament, the latter desiring to disband the forces, 
 and to deprive of their commands the officers who were members of 
 the Commons. Meanwhile, the king had been seized by the army, 
 the leaders of which proposed to place him on the throne on 
 favourable terms. Charles pretended to listen to these terms, but 
 at the same time intrigued against the army. Becoming, however, 
 alarmed for his safety, he escaped from his guards and fled to 
 Carisbrooke Castle, in the Isle of Wight, but was once more 
 handed over to his enemies. His flight was followed by a nev; 
 rising of his friends, and the Scots invaded England. But Fairfax 
 put down the royalists, and Cromwell defeated the Scots ; and 
 thereafter the army marched to London to visit its wrath upon the 
 Presbyterian section of Parliament. The members composing this 
 section were expelled from the House ; and the king, being held 
 responsible for the renewal of the war, the Independent minority in 
 the Commons (known as the " Rump Parliament ") brought him to 
 trial at Westminster, and in January, 1649, Charles was condemned 
 and executed. 
 
 . The Commonwealth (1649-1660),— A thrill of horror went 
 through the nation on learning of the execution of Charles. The 
 kingly dignity with which he had met his death aroused the 
 sympathy of the people. This sympathy increased the diffi- 
 culties of the faction in Parliament, consisting of less than eighty 
 members, which now proceeded to set up a Commonwealth. 
 But it went vigorously to work and abolished the House of Lords, 
 and declared the ofiice of king "burdensome and dangerous." 
 Government was carried on by a Council of State, with Cromwell 
 and Fairfax in command of the army ; while a revenue was raised 
 by imposing fines on royalists and by selling their estates. Fresh 
 outbreaks in the interests of the Stuart cause for a time occupied 
 the attention of the new government. There were risings in Ireland 
 ai, ^ in Scotland, and in the latter country the eldest son of the late 
 king was crowned at Scone as Charles 1 1. To repress these risings 
 
80 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. Xlll. 
 
 Cromwell was sent as Lord- Lieutenant to Ireland, with an army of 
 9,000 men. With this force he stormed Drogheda and put its 
 garrison to the sword, sacked Wexford and Cork, and subdued the 
 country with ruthless severity. Cromwell then returned to England, 
 where he was thanked by Parliament and made Captain-General 
 of the armies of the Commonwealth. The Scottish disturbance 
 now claimed his attention ; and with a force of 16,000 men he 
 went north and routed the Scottish army at Uunbar, taking 10,000 
 prisoners. After this defeat all Scotland submitted to General 
 Monk, whom Cromwell left in charge of the country. Meanwhile 
 Charles IL, evading Cromwell, entered England with a large army 
 of Scots, and got as far as Worcp:ster. Here he was overtaken 
 by the victorious Cromwell and utterly defeated, the young king 
 with much difficulty escaping to Francj. 
 
 5. Cromwell, or Military Rule.— After the victory at Wor- 
 cester, which Cromwell in his religious way of talking called " God's 
 crowning mercy," the whole nation came under the militarj^ rule of 
 the great soldier of the Commonwealth. Parliament, although it 
 had ceased to represent the nation, refused to dissolve itself, so 
 Cromwell, in 1653, went with a body of soldiers to the House and 
 turned the members out and locked the door. He also dismissed 
 the Council of State and appointed a new one in its place. He now 
 tried to set up a better Parliament, composed of men of his own 
 appointing, and friendly to the army ; but this Assembly, called by 
 the cavaliers the Barebones Parliament, after the name of one 
 of its members, found its duties too difficult, and resigned its trust 
 to Cromwell. Before resigning, however, it appointed a new Coun- 
 cil of State, and this Council proceeded to draft a Constitution, 
 known as the INSTRUMENT OF Government. Under this 
 "Instrument" Cromwell was made Lord Protector of the 
 
 Cromwell made COMMONWEALTH, and was given a Council of twenty- 
 Protector under one members, by whose advice he was to be guided 
 the Instrument ... ' . „ . a r t 1 1 T^ 
 
 of Government, m foreign and domestic affairs. A freely-elected Par- 
 ■ ■ ■ i lament, consisting of four hundred members from 
 England, thirty from Scotland, and thirty from Ireland, was called. 
 This, the first United Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland^ 
 sought to place he government upon a constitutional basis, and in 
 SO doing quest oned the Protector's authority. Cromwell, annoyed 
 
A..D. 1658.] THE OREAt REBELLION. 81 
 
 at this opposition, dissolved Parliament and thus ended all show 
 of legal government. England was now divided into ten military 
 districts and governed for a while under a strict but just military 
 rule. In 1656 a second Parliament was called, which proposed to 
 make Cromwell king, and have him create a new Mouse of Lords. 
 The latter Cromwell called into a short-lived existence, but the 
 offer of the crown he reluctantly refused, as the army was opposed 
 to the restoration of monarchy. 
 
 6. Home and Foreign Policy.— While Cromwell was making 
 these vain efforts at governing through Parliament, his militaiy 
 administration was vigorous and successful. Order was main- 
 tained throughout the country, and the people enjoyed a large 
 measure of civil liberty. Religious liberty they also enjoyed, for 
 Cromwell, though a rigid Puritan, was very tolerant towards the 
 various religious sects, except the Roman Catholics, who wanted to 
 put a Stuart king again on the throne. The Protector's foreign 
 policy bore the marks of his strong personal rule, and gained for 
 England a high name among the governi^^g powers of Europe. 
 This was first brought about by a war with England's commercial 
 rival, Holland, and then by a war with Spain, in both of which the 
 English Admiral, Blake, won great victories at sea. By these 
 triumphs not orly was the English flag respected, but England's 
 influence, especially after the war with Spain, was made to tell in 
 lessening the persecution of Protestants on the continent. At 
 home and abroad, Cromwell's name, though not loved, was re- 
 spected, and his stem and vigilant policy set England at the head 
 of the Protestant interest in Europe. 
 
 7. Restoration of Charles 11.— The burden of the nation's 
 cares, added to domestic affliction and anxiety to ward off attempts 
 upon his life, told upon Cromwell's health, and he died on the 3rd 
 of September, 1658. His easy-going and incapable son, Richard, 
 succeeded him as Protector. But the strong hand being removed, 
 the struggle again broke out between the army and the Parliament ; 
 and the latter, which had been summoned on the death of the 
 founder of the Commonwealth, had no sooner met than it had to 
 be dissolved. The army compelled Richard to resign the Protec- 
 torship, and the Long Parliament was restored, but only to meet 
 the fate of its predecessor. Disunion among the army officers, 
 
 7 
 
82 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 however, brought a sohition of the (lifficulties, and saved the 
 country from anarchy. General Monk, who was in command of 
 the army in Scotland, now marched with his troops to London and 
 declared for a free Parliament. This step everywhere met the 
 approval of the people. The Long Parliament was again sum- 
 moned, and its members decided to hold a general election, the 
 result of which was the return of a House of Commons friendly to 
 the royal family. The old peers also returned and took their seats. 
 The combined Houses, known as the Convention Parliament, 
 met in April, 1660, and invited Charles H. to return to England 
 and be king. This invitation Charles accepted, and promising a 
 general pardon and religious toleration, he was restored to the 
 throne of his ancestors. 
 
 [1. How were tlie English i)eoi)le divided by tlie Civil War? 
 
 2. NaiiH' the principal battles of tliis war — give their dates and localities, and state 
 the circuinstancea under whicli tiiey were fought. 
 
 3. Who were the "Ironsides"? Wliat was their character? Name any great battles 
 they won. 
 
 4. Why was Charlesi I. executed? Was his execution justifiable? Qivf; reasons for 
 your answer. 
 
 6, Why did Cromwell and his soldiers use such severity in suppressing the rebellion 
 in IrelaTid ? 
 
 6. When did the/.r«t united Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland meet ? Undei 
 what circumstancjcs was it summoned, and bow many members composed it? What 
 led to its dissolution ? 
 
 7. Show that Cromwell was a great general and ruler. Describe his character. 
 
 8. What jiosition did England occupy among European nations under the rule of 
 Cromwell ? 
 
 9. W^hy did not Cromwell become king of England? Would it have been well for 
 England if Cromwell had accepted the crown ? State your reasons. 
 
 10. What led to the restoration of Charles II. ? What is meant by a " Convention 
 Parliament"?] 
 
AD. 1660.] END OP THE NEW MONAUCIIV. 
 
 83 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE END OF THE NEW MONARCHY. 
 
 (The Restoration was followed by a Htrong riiaotion at Court and among the higher 
 clussea against the HturiineHS of Puritan inurulity. The stage and the fitHhiouable 
 literature of the time reeked with vine and profanity. Kxplain to tlie pupils tiie cause 
 of this reaction. Describe the character of Charles II., as given by Green and Mac- 
 aulay. In addition to explanations of tlio important Acts and Treaties tliat marlt tliis 
 reign, point out the far-reaching eifects produced by the Act of Uniformity. Tlie rela- 
 tions between Charles II. and the French king, together with the various influences at 
 work to make England a dependency of France should be detined and illustrated. Tlie 
 character and career of Shaftesbury and Clarendon are deserving of notice. In the 
 reign of James II. the various causes that led to the Revolution of l(i88 should bo 
 carefully explained. These causes were the character of Janus II., the violations of 
 the Test Act, the attack upon the Universities, the trial of tlio Seven Bi.shops, the birth 
 of James the Pretender, and the general fear of the overthrow of Protestantism and 
 civil liberty. A good deal of interest may be given to this chapter by relating stories 
 and anecdotes about Shaftesbury, Monmouth, Russell, and other prominent persons. 
 Read with pupils Aytoun's " Burial-March of Dundee," and refer also to Scott's " Old 
 Mortality," as illustrating the period of the Covenanters. 
 
 References:— Qreen, Macaulay's " Comic Dramatists of the Restoration " and other 
 Essays, Hallam, Hale's " Pall of the Stuarts,'' Pepys' Memoirs, and Dryden's Abaalam 
 and Achitophel.] 
 
 1 Re-Establishment of the Church and the Monarchy.— 
 
 The coming to the throne of Charles 1 1, was hailed with joy by all 
 classes, save by the Puritan soldiery. 
 The latter were paid off and dis- 
 banded, with the exception of three 
 regiments, which formed the begin- 
 nings of the present standing army of j 
 England. The young king's graceful 
 manners made him at first a favour- 
 ite with the people ; and the return 
 of the Cavaliers dispelled the austerity 
 and gloom that had prevailed at 
 Court under the Protectorate, But CiiAULEs ii. 
 
 the king's love of pleasure and his licentious habits lowered the 
 morals of his Court, and introduced the reign of unblushing vice 
 and gross extravagance. Caring only for his pleasures, he man^ 
 
ft4 PUBLIC SCaOOL ENGLISTI HISTORY. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 aged, however, to hold his own with the various parties in the 
 State, though often by a shameful disregard of duty and honour. 
 In religious matters he was very insincere, for, though professing 
 Protestantism, he was at heart a Catholic. Nevertheless, he set 
 up the Church of England services, restored to the clergy the 
 livings they had been deprived of during the Commonwealth, and 
 recalled the bishops to the House of Lords. Parliament, more- 
 over, put in force many cruel laws against the Protestant Dis- 
 senters, as they now came to be called, for they dissented from 
 the mode of public worship forced upon them by the State Church. 
 
 Dissenters were also shut out from holding public 
 Conventicle,' office, forbidden to assemble themselves in their own 
 AWe^cts meeting-houses, and their ministers were restrained 
 
 from teaching, or from coming within five miles of any 
 corporate town. In Scotland the Covenanters, or Presbyterians, 
 were fiercely persecuted, and forbidden to meet for purposes of 
 worship. 
 
 2. Foreign Policy.— In 1665, England, provoked by the com- 
 mercial rivalry of Holland, went to war with the Dutch ; and for 
 two years much blood and treasure was spent with humiliating 
 results. This was chiefly owing to Charles spending on his own 
 pleasures part of the money Parliament had given him for the war. 
 This so crippled the English navy that the Dutch fleet was able to 
 make its way up the Thames and blockade the port of London, 
 after which peace was declared at Breda. During the period of 
 the war London was devastated by a great plague and a calamitous 
 fire. To free himself from dependence on Parliament for the 
 money necessary to the gratification of his desires, Charles entered 
 into a secret and shameful treaty with Louis XIV. of France. 
 Its occasion was this : Louis wished to get possession of the 
 Spanish Netherlands, and to secure the aid of Charles in carrying 
 out his designs had assisted in bringing to an end the war between 
 England and Holland. But when peace was declared England 
 entered irto an agreement with Holland and Sweden, called the 
 Triple Alliance, for the purpose of checking French aggressions 
 in Flanders. This alliance, though very popular in England, was, 
 however, practically set aside by the king, who was annoyed by 
 the watchfulness of a strong party in the Commons opposed to his 
 
A.D. 1679.]" " END OF THE NEW MONARCHY. " ' 85 
 
 extravagance and jealous of France. Charles entered into private 
 
 negotiations with Louis XIV., the result of which was a secret 
 
 treaty between the two kings, called the Treaty of 
 
 Dover, by which Charles agreed to become a Roman Treaty of 
 
 ' ** Dover, 1670 
 
 Catholic and to support Louis's renewed attacks upon 
 
 the Netherlands. Louis, on his part, was to pay Charles ;^2oo,ooo 
 
 a year, and to give him the aid of 6,ooo French troops, should any 
 
 opposition to the compact be met with in England. In accordance 
 
 with this treaty, England, in 1672, declared war against Holland, 
 
 but, after two years, peace was made. 
 
 3. The Test Act.— The first step of the king to enable him to 
 earn Louis's money, was to suspend; by what is called a Decla- 
 ration OF Indulgence, the operation of many statutes against 
 Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters. Parliament viewed 
 the wholesale suspension of these Acts as an infringement of its 
 rights, and compelled the king to withdraw the " Declaration." 
 It then proceeded to pass a Test Act (1673), by which persons 
 holding office, civil or militaiy, were forced to acknowledge the 
 supremacy of the Crown in ecclesiastical matters, and to take the 
 sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England. The 
 result of this Act was startling. Many Catholics were driven from 
 office, including the king's brother, the Duke of York, who held the 
 position of Lord High Admiral. Rumors of " Popish" plots and 
 uneasy suspicions about the king's secret relations with France 
 became prevalent. One of these plots was said to have been dis- 
 covered by an expelled Jesuit priest, named TiTUS Oates, who 
 gave out that he knew of a conspiracy to massacre the Protestants, 
 murder the king, and put James, Duke of York, on the throne. 
 This worthless fellow's story was unfortunately believed, and the 
 nation becoming panic-stricken, many innocent people were put to 
 death. 
 
 4. Habeas Corpus Act.— The Parliament of 1679 is memorable 
 for the passing of a measure for the better securing of the liberty 
 of the subject. This measure is known as the Habeas Corpus 
 Act. Arbitrary imprisonment had been forbidden by the Great 
 Charter of King John, and again by the Petition of Right under 
 Charles I. ; but various ways had been found to defeat the end 
 aimed at by these laws. The provisions of the new Act made it 
 
86 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 unlawful for any one to be long detained in prison except after due 
 trial, and gave every prisoner the right to be tried within a certain 
 time after his arrest. The object of the Act was to prevent all 
 evasion or delay in bringing any one to trial who had been com- 
 mitted to prison ; f^v^r iV compelled a judge, on application, to issue 
 a writ of Habeas Corpus^ which is directed to the gaoler, ordering 
 him to produce the prisoner's body in Court and certify the cause 
 of his imprisonment. 
 
 5. The Exclusion Bill.— In Parliament popular dread of Roman 
 Catholic influence in the State led the Commons to pass a measure, 
 called the Exclusion Bill, to deprive the Duke of York, the 
 heir to the throne, of his light of succession. The measure was 
 hotly contested by the two political parties in Parliament, who 
 came to be called Whigs and Tories, names which correspond to 
 Liberals and Conservatives of the present time. The Whigs, 
 who were the opponents of the Court party, supported the Exclu- 
 sion Bill ; while the Tories, or royalists, opposed it. The term 
 Whig^ meaning sour-milk^ was an opprobrious epithet applied by 
 the Cavaliers to the sour-visaged Puritans ; and the term Tory^ 
 originally meaning an Irish outlaw or robber, was the nickname 
 applied to the ardent loyalists. The Bill passed the Commons, 
 but was rejected by the Lords, when the king dissolved Parliament. 
 In the two succeeding Parliaments the Bill was again brought for- 
 ward and met the same fate. The violence of the opposition pro- 
 duced a re-action throughout the country in the king's favour, which 
 he took advantage of to make serious encroachments on the rights 
 of cities and towns wherein the Whigs were powerful. This led 
 to a conspiracy's being formed by the Whig leaders for the defence 
 of their righ-s and to prevent the Duke of York from coming to the 
 throne. The leader of this conspiracy was the Earl of Shaftesbury, 
 who with Lord William Russell, Algernon Sidney, and other promi- 
 nent Whigs, espoused the cause of the Duke of Monmouth, a 
 natural son of Charles II., whom they wished to make king. Con- 
 nected with this conspiracy was a minor one, known as the Rye 
 House Plot, which was concocted by unscrupulous subordinates, 
 ".id which had for its object the assassination of the king and his 
 brother, the Duke of York. Both plots were discovered, and most 
 of those engaged in them met their death, Monmouth escaped 
 
A.D. 1688.] END OF THE NEW MONARCHY. 87 
 
 and was subsequently pardoned ; Shaftesbury sought refuge in Hol- 
 land ; while Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney came to the block. 
 The failure of these plots was followed by a cruel persecution of 
 the Whigs, and of those who had humiliated or thwarted the king. 
 The Duke of York, who in spite of the Test Act had resumed office, 
 took part in these severe measures, and abetted the king in his 
 policy of establishing an arbitrary government. The death of 
 Charles, in 1685, fortunately intervened and saved England from 
 utter despotism. James, Duke of York, came to the throne with- 
 out any opposition. 
 
 6. James II. (1685-1688).— James II. had all the Stuart love of 
 arbitrary power without the wit to use it wisely. In some respects 
 he was a better man than his brother Charles ; but he had a more 
 cruel disposition, and a fanatical zeal for Popery, which alienated 
 the loyalty of his Protestant subjects and finally cost him his throne. 
 On his accession, he promised to maintain the established govern- 
 ment both in Church and State, a promise he immediately broke 
 by attending mass and filling the army with Catholic officers, in 
 violation of the Test Act, and by the illegal use of the dispensing 
 power, which relieved those whom he favoured from the penalties 
 of the laws. Soon two insurrections broke out against him — one 
 in Scotland, headed by the Duke of Argyle, and the other in Eng- 
 land, led by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth. Both failed, and 
 gave the king the opportunity to take a cruei vengeance on those 
 concerned in them. The Scottish rebels were defeated in Dum- 
 bartonshire, and Argyle was taken to Edinburgh and beheaded. 
 Monmouth's army was overthrown at Sedgemoor, and the Duke 
 met his doom on Tower Hill. On the failure of Monmouth's 
 rebellion, James disgraced his humanity by encouraging the atroci- 
 ties of Judge Jeffreys in the trial of rebels at what is known as the 
 " Bloody Assizes," and by permitting the brutality of the soldiery 
 in the disaffected districts of the country. 
 
 7. Trial of the Seven Bishops.— The king continued his efforts 
 to make England a Catholic nation and to deprive the people 
 of their civil and religious liberty. Catholics were received by 
 hir with unconcealed favour and given offices in the army and 
 Church ' 1 defiance of the law. He also appointed them to high 
 positions in the universities ; going so far as to expel the governing 
 
88 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 body of an Oxford College, because it refused to accept a Roman 
 Catholic as its head. The king now endeavoured to bribe the 
 Nonconformists to aid him in showing favour to Catholics, by issu- 
 _ , , ing a Declaration of Indulgence, which allowed 
 
 Declaration of ° , . . i j tt 
 
 Indulgence, all men to worship as they pleased. However just 
 
 ■ we should now think this law, at the time it inter- 
 
 fered with the rights of Parliament, and was objectionable to those 
 who rigidly supported the national Church. Even the Noncon- 
 formists opposed the Indulgence, as they saw that under the guise 
 of toleration it cloaked James's desire to advance his friends, the 
 Catholics. But James insisted on the Declaration becoming law, 
 and ordered it to be read in all the Churches. To this many of 
 the clergy objected, and seven bishops petitioned the king to with- 
 draw the illegal Declaration. For this they were charged with 
 publishing a libel, and James had them sent to the Tower. The 
 bishops were afterwards brought to trial and acquitted, and the 
 nation rejoiced at the victory over the king. 
 
 8. Invitation to William of Orange.— In the midst of these 
 affronts to the Chu^-ch and the nation a new cause of Protestant 
 alarm arose in the birth of a son to the king. This child, on whose 
 parentage a doubt for a time was cast, was subsequently known as 
 James, the Old Pretender. The people were determined to 
 have no more Catholic kings to rule over them, and their leaders, 
 driven to despair, resolved to ask William of Orange, who was 
 head of the Dutch Republic, to come and help them. Prince Wil- 
 liam, who was James's nephew, and had married his daughter 
 Mary, was deeply interested in English affairs ; and as he was 
 the great defender of Protestantism on the continent and an oppo- 
 nent of the aggressive policy of the French king, the mass of the 
 English people naturally looked to him as their deliverer from 
 James's tyranny. A formal invitation was sent to him by the 
 great Whig leaders, in which all classes of the country, save the 
 Catholics, joined. This invitation the Prince of Orange accepted ; 
 and he presently set out for England with a large military force. 
 Before he landed James recalled his Declaration of Indulgence, 
 and sought to win back popular favour by returning to constitutional 
 government. But the English people had no confidence in his 
 protestations, and refused to accept this lat^ repentance, 
 
A.D. 1688.] END OF THE NEW MONARCHY. 89 
 
 9. Landing of William of Orange.— William of Orange landed 
 with his anny in England on the sth of November, i688. On his 
 appearing, a Declaration was pub- 
 lished stating that he had come as 
 husband of Mary, the heir to the 
 Crown, to protect the rights and liber- 
 ties of the English people, to give 
 them a free Parliament, and to aid 
 them in settling the succession to the 
 throne. William was warmlv wel- 
 comed by both Whig and Tory 
 leaders, by the masses of the people, 
 and by a large portion of the king's Wiluam and Mary, 
 army that had left James to join William. Thus deserted, James 
 fled to France, and though he hoped that Louis XIV. would aid 
 him to recover his throne, he never again set foot in England. 
 William now entered London, and assembled a Convention 
 Parliament, which, after some discussion, declared the throne 
 vacant, and settled the Crown upon William and Mary as joint 
 rulers. A Declaration of Rights was drawn up and presented 
 to WiUiam and Mary. This Declaration recited the acts of mis- 
 government of James, and asserted the ancient rights and liberties 
 of the subjects. It denied the right of the king to levy taxes, to 
 exercise a dispensing power, or to maintain a standing army with- 
 out the consent of Parliament. It claimed the right of freedom 
 of election, and freedom of debate, and ended with declaring Wil- 
 liam and Mary King and Queen of England. The joint sov- 
 ereigns subscribed to the terms, acknowledged that the powers 
 of the king were founded on law, and accepted the crown as a 
 trust from the people. The Declaration, after receiving some 
 additions, was turned, in 1689, into a statute known as the Bill 
 of Rights. 
 
 10. Change in the Character of the Monarchy.— The Revolu- 
 tion of 1688 marks the close of the long struggle between the 
 Crown and Parliament. With it the New Monarchy ends. 
 Henceforth the monarchs owed their power, not to hereditary or 
 Divine right, but to Parliament, which determined by what rulers, 
 by what laws, and on what conditions the country was to be 
 
90 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XIV 
 
 governed. " An English monarch is now as much the creature of 
 an Act of Parliament as the pettiest tax-gatherer in the realm." 
 
 11. John Bunyan, and John Milton.— Under the Stuarts, in 
 spite of political turmoil, the literary spirit developed and gathered 
 strength. During the early portion of the seventeenth century this 
 was notably the case. The period of the Civil War was not so 
 favourable to literary progress, nor was that which followed the 
 Restoration helpful to morals. The literary productions, especially 
 the comic dramas, of this latter period are note d for their foulness 
 and wanton disregard of ordinary decency. The century, however, 
 gave birth to two writers of undying fame; One of these was 
 John Bunyan, who wrote the Pilgrim^ s Progress while imprisoned 
 for twelve years, on account of his religion, in Bedford Gaol. The 
 other was the great Puritan poet, John Milton, author oi Paradise 
 Lost^ and many important prose works on politics and in defence 
 of the Commonwealth. Milton lived between the times of James I. 
 and Charles II., and was employed as Latin Secretary by the 
 Protector Cromwell. Paradise Lost, the greatest of epic poems, 
 was written in poverty and blindness after the Restoration. It was 
 first published in 1667, and is considered "probably the noblest 
 monument of human genius." 
 
 [1. How far did the natural inclinations and foreign experience of Charles II. fit him 
 for the Icingship ? Sketch his character. 
 
 2 What promises did Charles II. make when he came to the throne, and how did he 
 carrj' them out ? 
 
 3. What relations existed between Charles II. and Louis XIV. during the greater 
 part of tliis i-eigu? Give illustrations. 
 
 4. Point out the eflfect produced by the Act of Uniformity on the Established Church. 
 M( ntion any other Acts passed in this reign against Dissenters and Roman Catholics. 
 Why did Cliarles IT. consent to these laws ? State their principal clauses. 
 
 6. Give the provisions of any good laws passed in Charles II. *s reign, 
 
 6. What was the Exclusion Bill ? Who sought to make it law ? What bbiiider did 
 he commit? How did the struggle over the Bill end? 
 
 7. With what feelings did the English accept James II. as king? Why? 
 
 8. Trace the various steps taken by James II. to restore Roman Catholicism in 
 England. 
 
 9. State the main causes of the expulsion of James II. from the throne. 
 
 10. Name the principal clauses of the Declaration of Rights, and point out their great 
 Importance.] 
 
A..D. 1689.] THE REVOLUTION SETTLEMENT. 91 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION SETTLEMENT. 
 
 (The Revolution restored the older character of the kingship. Green says that "an 
 English monarch is now as much the creature of an Act of Parliament as the pettiest 
 tax-gatherer in the realm." Explain this by reference to the Bill of Rights and the Act 
 of Settlement. Point out all the important provisions of these two Acts. Dwell upon 
 the physical, mental, and moral characteristics of William III. and Marlborough; and 
 3how that this period is marked by gre,\t political profligacy and treachery. Party 
 Government had its origin at this time : explain the nature of such government, and 
 lead the pupils to see why it came into existence. The Act of Toleration, the Mutiny 
 Act, the new method introduced of granting money for the public needs, are prominent 
 features of the reign of William. The War of the Spanish Succession had some impor- 
 tant results — a very noticeable one being the overtlirow of the French ascendancy in 
 Europe. In accomplishing this the Battle of Blenheim contributed materially. Other 
 points of an interesting character are the Massacre of Glencoe, the Siege of London- 
 derry, the Battle of the Bojme, the Treaty of Limerick, the condition of Ireland after 
 the Revolution, the escapades and exploits of Earl Peterborough, the influence of the 
 Duchess of Marlborough and Mrs. Masham on the foreign and domestic policy of Anne. 
 The Union of England and Scotland, its causes, method of accomplishment, immediate 
 and ultimate results, must be fully dealt with ; also the other important Acts passed 
 at this time. 
 
 References :—QTeen, Hallam, Macaulay's "History of England" and Essay on "The 
 War of the Spanish Succession," Mackmtosh's " Causes of the Revolution of 1688," 
 McCarthy's "Pour Georges," Morris's "Age of Anne," Thackeray's " Esmond," Scott's 
 "Rob Roy "and "Old Mortality," Rowley's "The Settlement of the Constitution," 
 Stanhope's " Reign of Anne," Ashton's "Social Life in the Reign of Anne," Coxe's 
 "Marlborough," and Fronde's " English in Ireland in the 18th Century."] 
 
 1. William in.— To William, by agreement, fell the duty of 
 governing. It was moreover arranged that if either William or 
 Mary died, the survivor was to continue to reign ; and when both 
 were dead, the crown, in default of children, was to go to Mary's 
 sister, the Princess Anne. Such were the terms of the succession. 
 In many respects Mary would have been th&more popular ruler, 
 for she was attractive in her manners and thoroughly English in 
 her ways. William, on the contrary, though he was an able states- 
 man, a skilful general, and a good man of business, was cold, silent, 
 and austere. His word, however, could be relied upon, and his 
 moral character was good. The great object of his ambition was 
 to curb the power of Louis XIV. on the continent ; but in this he 
 was not very successful on the field, though he formed alliances 
 
92 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XV, 
 
 against France which partly answered his purpose. During his 
 reign the Jacobites (that is, those who clung to the fortunes of the 
 late king, James) plotted against him perpetually, and doubtless 
 from this cause he was unwilling to make intimates of his English 
 counsellors. The mutual distrust that existed for a time between 
 William and his advisers led him more than once to threaten to 
 return to Holland. His wish that his ministers should be drawn 
 from the ranks of Whig and Tory alike increased his difficulties, 
 and he was afterwards compelled to accept his advisers from the 
 ruling party in Parliament. 
 
 2. Important Measures.— While William's mind was occupied 
 chiefly with foreign affairs, Parliament used its opportunity to 
 secure for the House of Commons the supreme power in the State. 
 This it did by passing the Bill OF Rights, which contained 
 the provisions of the Declaration of Rights, with the important 
 addition that the monarchs of England should henceforth be Pro- 
 testants. The Commons, now for the first time, limited the money 
 supplies to the estimated annual requirements. The mutiny of a 
 Scottish regiment, which objected to be sent on foreign service, 
 gave it the opportunity to regulate army affairs. By the passing of 
 the Mutiny Act, the Commons not only subjected the army to 
 martial law, but prevented its being kept in existence, without the 
 consent of Parliament, for more than a year at a time. A scant 
 measure of religious liberty was also given by Parhament, in the 
 Bill of Rights Toleration Act, which granted freedom of worship 
 Mutiny Act. to Nonconformists, but excluded Catholics and Uni- 
 
 Toleration Act, , . i,.. 
 
 and Act of tarians from its benefits. In addition to these im- 
 ™°®' portant measures, William issued in his own name a 
 
 general pardon for all political offences. This measure is known 
 as the Act of Grace ; and was specially designed to conciliate 
 the Jacobites. 
 
 3. The Revolution and Scotland.— The Scottish people, glad 
 to get rid of the Stuarts, accepted William and Mary's rule ; and 
 the Scotch Parhament drew up a Claim of Right, requiring the 
 abolition of Prelacy and the establishment of Presbyterianism — a 
 claim which was granted by the joint sovereigns. But King James 
 had a reckless follower in John Grahame, of Claverhouse, now 
 Viscount Dundee, who had been active in persecuting the Covenan- 
 
A..D. 1690.] THE REVOLUTION SETTLEMEKT. 93 
 
 ters in the two previous reigns. Dundee gathered a number of the 
 Highland clans to oppose the authority of William and Mary, and 
 while the royal troops were on their way northward, he fell upon 
 them in the Pass of Killiecrankie and put them to the sword. 
 Dundee, however, was killed in the fight, and the Highlanders 
 dispersed to their homes. To bring the clans under subjection, a 
 proclamation was issued at Edinburgh requiring them to take the 
 oath of allegiance before the last day of December, 1691. All did 
 so, save the Macdonalds of Glencoe, whose chief postponed his 
 submission until after the day appointed. Advantage „ 
 
 ' ,^^ , ° Massacre 
 
 of this was taken by the English Governor m Scot- of Glencoe, 
 
 AD 1692 
 
 land, who conspired with the Clan Campbell, bitter 
 enemies of the Macdonalds, to get authority from William to 
 punish the latter as contumacious rebels. Concealing the fact of 
 the subsequent submission of the clan, an order was obtained to 
 "extirpate" the Macdonalds, which was partially executed in the 
 most heartless manner in the depth of winter. The butchery is 
 known as the Massacre of Glencoe. 
 
 4. The Subjugation of Ireland.— Taking advantage of Catholic 
 opposition in Ireland to William and Mary, James H. came over 
 from France to subdue the loyal Protestants of the north, who had 
 taken refuge in Enniskillen and Londonderry. For four months 
 the inhabitants of the latter maintained a heroic defence against 
 the French forces of James and the Catholic troops of Tyrconnel. 
 The place was finally relieved by the arrival of some English ships 
 in the river Foyle at the moment when hunger was about to compel 
 Derry's brave defenders to surrender. On the same day the Pro- 
 testants of Enniskillen gained a victory over the Irish troops at 
 Newton Butler. The following year William crossed to Ireland 
 with a large army, and met James and his forces on the river Boyne, 
 not far from Drogheda. On the ist of July, 1690, was fought the 
 Battle of the Boyne. James's troops were de- 
 feated and the deposed king fled back to France. The the Boyne, 
 Irish held out determinedly in Limerick for eighteen ^ ^^> 
 months afterwards, when the struggle was brought to an end by 
 the Treaty of Limerick, and some 10,000 Irish troops took ser- 
 vice in France where they distinguished themselves as the " Irish 
 brigade." The Treaty of Limerick, though it guaranteed religious 
 
94 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XV. 
 
 liberty to the Roman CathoHcs and an amnesty to those who sub- 
 mitted to WiUiam, was not ratified by ParHament, and the cruel- 
 lest oppression was afterwaids indulged in. The Irish, to the 
 present day, have neither forgotten nor forgiven this period of 
 wrong. 
 
 5. War with France. — On William's coming to the throne he 
 persuaded Parliament to join the continental confederacy against 
 Louis XIV., and war with France was at once declared. While 
 the king was in Ireland, the French had defeated an English fleet 
 off Beachy Head ; but two years afterwards this disgrace was 
 wiped out in a victory over the French at La Hogue by the com- 
 bined fleets of England and Holland. When the French met with 
 this disaster they were preparing to invade England in the interest 
 of the exiled Stuart king, who, trusting to creachery among the 
 officers of the English navy, had collected a large army with the 
 view to make a descent upon his former kingdom. The destruction 
 of the French fleet was a fatal blow to James and his cause. For 
 the next five years the war was carried on against France with 
 indifferent results. At length, after numerous indecisive engage- 
 
 „ . , ments, peace was declared by the Treaty of Rys- 
 
 Treaty of V. , . -,- 
 
 Ryswick, WICK. By this treaty France gave up all her conquests 
 
 *'^' ■ in the previous twenty years, acknowledged William 
 
 as king of England and Anne as his successor, and promised to 
 
 cease to aid James in his efforts to recover the English throne. 
 
 The war with France so impoverished England that the nation 
 
 had to borrow money. This was the beginning of the National 
 
 Debt, and led to the founding of the Bank of England. 
 
 6. The Act of Settlement, 1701.— As Queen Mary had died 
 childless, and the Princess Anne, the next heir to the throne, had 
 lost all her childrenj a new arrangement with regard to the succes- 
 sion to the throne became necessary. In 1701 Parliament passed 
 the Act of Settlement, which provided that on the death of 
 Anne, who was to succeed William, the crown was to go to the 
 Electress Sophia of Hanover and her Protestant heirs. Sophia 
 was the Protestant nearest to the Stuart Hne. She was one of the 
 children of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., and had married the 
 Duke of Brunswick. But this important Act did more than estab- 
 lish the Protestant succession to the throne. It contained articles, 
 
A.D. 1702.] THE REVOLUTION SETTLEMENT. 90 
 
 for instance, to the effect that the country was not to go to war for 
 the sovereign's foreign possessions ; that foreigners were not to 
 receive grants or to hold office from the crown ; that ministers 
 were to be responsible for the sovereign's acts, and were not to 
 be saved from impeachment by pardon under the great seal ; 
 and, finally, that judges were to be appointed for life and good 
 conduct. 
 
 7. The Spanish Succession.— Charles II., king of Spain, was 
 at this time near his death. There were three claimants for his 
 dominions : the Dauphin of France, the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, 
 and the Emperor of Germany. Whatever happened, William did 
 not wish that the power of France should be increased by any por- 
 tion of the Spanish dominions falling to it. Jealously careful of 
 this, he made two Partition Treaties, in 1698 and in 1700, 
 disposing of the Spanish possessions, by agreement v/ith Louis 
 XIV., the French king. By the last of these treaties the Spanish 
 crown was to be given to the Archduke Charles, the second son 
 of the Emperor ; the Electoral Prince whom William had at first 
 favoured, having died after the first treaty had been made. But 
 the king of Spain upset these treaties and disappointed the various 
 claimants by leaving the crown to Philip, Duke of Anjou, son of 
 the Dauphin, and grandson of Louis. This was a great blow to 
 William, particularly as he was then unable to get his Parliament 
 to go to war with France, for it was angry with him for making 
 the treaties with Louis without its knowledge or consent. All he 
 could get Parliament to do was to form a Grand Alliance of 
 England, Holland, and Germany, to prevent the union of the 
 French and Spanish crowns, and especially to keep France from 
 obtaining the Spanish Netherlands. Soon the necessity for this 
 Alliance was realized by the English people ; for, on the death of 
 James II., in France, Louis XIV. acknowledged his son, the Pre- 
 tender, as rightful king of England. This created such indigna- 
 tion throughout the kingdom that William had no difficulty in 
 getting the new Parliament he had summoned to vote money and 
 soldiers to prosecute a war with France. But William's health was 
 then declining, and before war could be entered upon, he met with 
 an accident which in his enfeebled bodily condition ended his days. 
 He died, in 1702, after appointing the Duke of Marlborough 
 
96 PIJBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XV. 
 
 to the command of the Allied armies in the War of the Spanish 
 Succession. 
 
 8. Marlborough. — William was succeeded in the throne by "the 
 
 „ good Queen Anne," a woman of amiable disposition, 
 Accession of ° ^ ' , ^ . ' 
 
 Queen Aune, but weak and indolent. She had married Prince 
 George of Denmark, and by him she had a large family, 
 all of whom died young. The real ruler, at least in the early part 
 of her reign, was John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, one of 
 England's greatest generals. His wife, the Duchess of Marlborough, 
 was a great favourite of the queen, who was much under her influ- 
 ence. Marlborough was the one man in England who appreciated 
 the importance of William III.'s foreign policy, and was well fitted 
 to carry it out. His character has always been a puzzle to the 
 historian, for with great gifts as a soldier and statesman he had the 
 meanest vices of avarice and treachery that could disgrace a man. 
 His military genius and skill in the management of the mixed 
 nationalities composing the Alliance were, however, of the highest 
 service in the war. In conducting it, he had the hearty support of 
 Anne and the English nation, though towards its close he had to 
 contend against many political enemies in England, and all through 
 had trouble and annoyance from timid allies in the field. It is said 
 of Marlborough, that " he never besieged a fortress which he did 
 not take, or fought a battle which he did not win." 
 
 9. Blenheim. — During the early years of the war, Marlborough 
 was in the Netherlands, where he captured some important towns. 
 His first great battle was that of Blenheim, in Bavaria, in which 
 he had the able assistance of Prince Eugene, of Savoy, who had 
 joined the Grand Alliance. The French king's design was to move 
 at once against Austria j and Marlborough anticipating the move, 
 „. marched his army to the Danube and gave battle to 
 August 13th, the French. The result was a decisive victory, for it 
 
 cost the enemy some 30,000 men, and for a time broke 
 the power of Louis XIV. At sea, in the same year, the English 
 added to their laurels, by the capture of the great Mediterranean 
 fortress of GIBRALTAR. The following year was noted for suc- 
 cesses in Spain, the chief of which was the taking of BARCELONA' 
 Marlborough withdrew to the Netherlands, where he conducted a 
 vigorous campaign against the French, and won three memorable 
 
A.D. 1709.J THE REVOLUTION SETTLEMENT. 97 
 
 battles. These were Ramilies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and 
 
 Malplaquet (1709). The result of these victories 
 
 was to force the French to abandon Flanders. But oudcuardc!, 
 
 party struggles in England now turned public atten- and^Maipla- 
 
 tion away from the war, and political intrigue brought 
 
 about the recall, and subsequent dismissal, of Marlborough. 
 
 10. Union of England and Scotland.— Meanwhile important 
 changes were taking place in the relations between England and 
 Scotland. In William's last message to Parliament he had asked 
 it to consider how the union of these two countries could be brought 
 about. But many difficulties stood in the way, arising out of the 
 tiading jealousy of the English and the often unreasoning patriot- 
 ism of the Scots. Though these countries had for over a hundred 
 years been under one sovereign, there was little national blending 
 and much jealousy of each other. Finally, however, an under- 
 standing was come to ; and in 1707 the Act of Union was passed 
 which made the two nations one. By this Act the two countries 
 were to form one kingdom, under the name of Great Britain, with 
 one Parliament in England, to which the Scots were to send repre- 
 sentatives. The Scots were to recognize the heir of Sophia of Han- 
 over as the heir to the united throne : out they were allowed to 
 retain their national form of religion and their courts of justice, and 
 were given equal rights with the English in the matter of trade. 
 The " Union Jack," bearing the crosses of St. George and St. 
 Andrew, was adopted as the national flag : the cross of St. Patrick 
 was introduced on the union with Ireland in 1800. Owing, how- 
 ever, to the prevalency of Jacobite feeling in Scotland, half a cen- 
 tury was to pass before the country began to reap the benefits of 
 union. 
 
 11. Party Government.— The late king, William, as we have 
 seen, was at first anxious to form a mixed government, by drawing 
 his ministers from the ranks of both Whigs and Tories, But this 
 he found to work badly while the majority in the Commons 
 was of one party stripe. So, taking the advice of the Earl of Sun- 
 derland, an able but wily minister of James II., William endeav- 
 oured to form a Whig ministry, which he succeeded in doing 
 in 1695. From this date the-principle was recognized of GOVERN- 
 MENT BY Party, the composition of the ministry being determined 
 
 8 
 
9S PUnLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XV. 
 
 by the poUtical complexion of the majority in the Commons. The 
 Government for the time in power thenceforth became more im- 
 mediately responsible to Parliament. At this period another 
 important change in the executive of the nation came about. Hith- 
 erto the king had aided in forming- the policy of the Government 
 in the Privy Council, and personally took part in discussions deter- 
 mining what that policy should be. But under the party system, 
 with ministerial responsibility to Parliament, this interference by 
 ihe king could not be permitted, and the ministry of the day 
 assumed the direction of affairs, and formed what is now known as 
 the Cabinet. " This institution of party government is simply a 
 committee of the Privy Council, in which all the chief ministers 
 have seats. It forms no essential part of the Constitution, but has 
 been found advantageous in the practical administration of the 
 affairs of the country." 
 
 12. Fall of the Whig Ministry (1710).— The two parties in the 
 State — Whig and Tory — differed, not only over Church matters, 
 but also over the prosecution of the war. This made the political 
 game very keen. The country, however, grew tired of the war, 
 and the Whigs, who were its main support, became very unpopular. 
 A circumstance now happened which inflamed public feeling 
 against them. Dr. Sacheverell, a violent Tory clergyman, preached 
 a sermon in St. Paul's Cathedral, in which he railed at the Whig 
 Ministry and all Dissenters, and even cast reflections on the prin- 
 ciples of the Revolution. For this clerical indiscretion Sacheverell 
 was foolishly prosecuted by th*^ Whig Government and punished, 
 and this increased popular clamour against the ministry. The 
 queen, also, took sides against the ^Vhigs ; for though, under Marl- 
 borough's influence, she had previously favoured them, her own 
 preference was for the Tories. The result of this adverse feehng 
 was the dismissal of the ministry, and the formation of a Tory 
 administration, of which Robert Harley, Earl OF Oxford, and 
 Henry St. John, ViSCOUNT Bolingbroke, were the leading mem- 
 bers. Marlborough was now dismissed from his command of the 
 Allies, accused of receiving bribes from army contractors, and found 
 guilty by the House of Commons. 
 
 13. Death of Anne (1714).— With the accession of the Tories to 
 office, the War of the Spanish Succession was brought to a close 
 
A.D. 1714.] THE REVOLUTION SETTLEMENT. 99 
 
 by the Treaty of Utrecht. This treaty secured peace and the par- 
 tial attainment of the objects sought by the war. Spain ceded 
 
 to Austria the Netherlands, and to England, Gibral- 
 
 ° ' Treaty of 
 
 tar and Minorca. France acknowledged the Protes- Utrecht, 
 tant succession in England, agreed that the crowns of ' ' 
 France and Spain should not be united (although Philip, Louis' 
 g'andson was left on the throne of Spain), and ceded to Britain 
 Hudson Bay, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. But the Tories 
 cared little for the late king's European policy, and their Jacobite 
 sympathies had by no means died out. Many of them looked 
 coldly on the coming accession of the Elector of Hanover, as this 
 would increase Whig influence in the country and probably drive 
 the Tory party from power. So they intrigued for a while with 
 James, the "Old Pretender." This caused dissension in their ranks 
 and led to Bolingbroke's supplanting Oxford in the queen's favour 
 and finally to Oxford's dismissal from the Cabinet. Bolingbroke, 
 having now his own way, renewed his efforts to secure the Pre- 
 tender's coming to the throne. At this critical juncture Anne sud- 
 denly died, but not before she defeated the plans of Bolingbroke, 
 by placing the Treasurer's staff, the wand of office, in the hands of 
 the Duke of Shrewsbury, one of the Whig leaders. Prompt and 
 successful measures were at once taken by the Whigs to prevent a 
 Jacobite rising, and by this timely action the country was saved 
 from civil war and GEORGE I. quietly seated on the throne, 
 
 [1. Why was William IIL an unpopular king? Describe his character nnd aima. 
 What great qualities did he possess? 
 
 2. Wliat clause did the Bill of Rights contain that was nut in the Declaratiou of 
 Rights? State the principal provisions of the Act of Settl>iuent. 
 
 3. What important change was made in the character of the monarchy by the Bill 
 of Rights and the Act of Settlement ? 
 
 4. Give an account of the principal Acts passed In the reign of William III. 
 
 6. What is meant by the "Massacre of Glencoe, "Siege of Londonderrj'," and 
 "Treaty of Limerick"? 
 
 6. Explain what is meant by " Party Government," and show how it arose. 
 
 7. Describe Marlborough as a man, a general, and a statesman. 
 
 8. What were the causes of the War of the Spanish Succession? 
 
 9. Why is Blenheim a very important battle? Mention, with dates and localities, 
 other great battles won by Marlborough. 
 
 10. What caused Marlborough's downfall? Explain fully the influences at work. 
 
 11. What statesmen made the Treaty of Utrecht? State its main provisions, and 
 show how far it secured the object sought by the allies. 
 
 12. What great danger threatened England during the last years of the reign oi 
 ▲nne? How was it avoided ?] 
 
100 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. (Chap. XVI. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 HALF-A-CENTURY OF WHIG RULE. 
 
 [The leading feature of these two reigns is the long rule of the Whigs. It will be 
 necessary to explain the cause ot this. Full information can be obtained by a reference 
 to Green's "Short History." The first two Georges were unpopular. Show why tliey 
 were so, and indicate the reasons of the failure of tlie Stuart risings, in spite of this 
 unpopularity of the Hanoverian kings. Walpole, Boliugbrolie, and the elder Pitt, are 
 the prominent figures ; it will add to the interest and value of the chapter to give a 
 comparatively full description of these men. Green's History deals with Walpole and 
 Pitt, and McCarthy's " Four Georges " gives a very good picture of Boliugbroke. Point 
 out the characteristics of this long Whig rule, its effects on public morals, national 
 prosperity, and religious toleration. The great religious and moral revival at the close 
 of the period deserves a more extended notice. For the results of this revival, see 
 Greeu. The different foreign wars in which England was engaged, especially the struggle 
 between England and Franco in India and North America, and the vast and far-reaching 
 results flowing from them, are well explained by Green. Minor, but interesting points, 
 are the method adopted by the Government to restore order in the Highlands of Scot- 
 land, Pitt's wise policy of forming Highland regiments, and the passage of the i^epten- 
 nial Act (still in force). Many interesting tales are connected with the Stuart risings 
 in 1715 and 1745, especially with the latter. Flora Macdonald is the heroine of 1745 
 The Lxcise Bill of Walpole and the South Sea Scheme, will require additional explana- 
 tion. Read with pupils Macaiilay on "The Conquest of Bengal" and Warburtjn on 
 " The Capture of Quebec " (4th Reader.) 
 
 iJeAre?ices.-— Green, Hallam, Lecky's "History of the 18th Century," Leslie 
 Stephens' sketches of the 18th century, in his " Hours in a Library," McCarthy's 
 "Four Georges," Thackeray's "Virginians," Sir Horace Walpole's "Memoirs," Tyer- 
 man's "Life of John Wesley," Macaulay's Essays on "Lord Olive" and "Warren 
 Hastings," and Parkman's "Montcalm and Wolfe;" also, Scott's " Waverley," for an 
 account of the Pretender's rising in Scotland.] 
 
 1. George I., (1714-1727).— When George I. assumed the English 
 crown he was over fifty years of age. He had spent his Ufe in his 
 beloved Hanover, which he was loth to leave, and to which he was 
 always glad to return. In England he was never popular, for he 
 was ungraceful in his person, cold in his manners, and coarse in 
 his tastes. He had, however, been trained as a soldier, and had 
 a soldier's orderly methods, and gave diligent attention to public 
 business. As he was wholly ignorant of the English language he 
 took little part in governing ; and the affairs of the State were 
 conducted by his Whig ministers, for whom he had naturally a 
 
A.D. 1715.] HALF-A-CENTURY OP WKIG RULE. 101 
 
 preferenct. So far as he had a pohcy of his own, it was one of 
 
 peace. The people looked upon him as a necessity to be borne 
 
 with, for his coming saved them from the rule of another Stuart 
 
 king and the controlling influence of France. Now began a long 
 
 period of Whig rule, for the Tories were tainted with Jacobitism 
 
 and were distrusted by the people. At the close of Anne's reign, 
 
 the Tories, as we have seen, had been intriguing with France and 
 
 the Pretender, and for this the new government pro- 
 
 j , , -, . ,., , .1^^,^,. Impeachment 
 
 ceeded to brmg their leaders to trial. Oxford, Boling- of the Tory 
 
 broke, and Ormond were imperxhed for high treason, ^* '^^^' 
 
 but the two latter escaped to France, and Oxford was committed to 
 
 the Tower. Two years afterwards, however, Oxford obtained his 
 
 freedom, the charges against him having been abandoned owing to 
 
 disagreements in Parliament. 
 
 2. The Jacobite Rebellion of 1715.— James, the " Old Pre- 
 tender," was still agitating his cause in France, and with the aid of 
 Louis XIV. now attempted a rising in Scotland. Luckily for Eng- 
 land, however, Louis XIV., the " Grand Monarch," as he was 
 called, died before the plot was ripe, and the Pretender entered 
 upon his daring purpose without his assistance. The Earl of 
 Mar was the first to raise the standard of revolt. This he did in 
 the highlands of Perthshire, where 10,000 men responded to his 
 call, and soon the whole north of Scotland was in arms for James. 
 But the Duke of Argyle, who commanded the royal troops, was 
 able to reach Stirling and there checked the rebel advance south- 
 ward. Excited by the rising in Scotland, a number of nobles and 
 gentry on the Border declared for the Pretender, and with their fol- 
 lowing marched south as far as Preston. Here they were opposed 
 by an English force under General Carpenter, and were compelled 
 to surrender. On the same day, Argyle met Mar and his high- 
 landers at Sheriff-Muir, near Dumblane, and though the result 
 was indecisive Mar retreated and left Argyle in possession of the 
 field. Amid such discouragements, the Pretender, accompanied by 
 Ormond and Bolingbroke, landed in Aberdeenshire and joined Mar 
 at Perth ; but the highlanders melted away from Mar's camp, and 
 James, seeing his cause lost, fled back to France. Among those 
 taken in arms at Preston were Lords Derwent water and Kenmure, 
 who were beheaded for their treason. Some thirty others also 
 
102 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVI. 
 
 suffered death. Thus ended the Jacobite rising of "the Fifteen," 
 as it was familiarly called. One result of the rising in 17 15 was 
 
 the passing of the Septennial Act, which extended 
 S^me! '^°*' '^^^ duration of Parliament from three to seven years. 
 
 Though designed as a temporary measure, to avoid 
 holding new elections while the country was disturbed by Jacobite 
 intrigues, this Act still remains in force. But while seven years is 
 the life of Parliament in England, it can be dissolved by the sovereign 
 on the advice of the Prime Minister at any time within that period. 
 
 3. The South Sea Scheme.— The country was at this time con- 
 vulsed by wide-spread ruin, caused by multitudes speculating in the 
 shares of a company of merchants trading in the South Seas. The 
 Company had assumed a large portion of the National Debt, and 
 had agreed, on being granted a certain monopoly of trade in Spanish 
 America, to become the sole creditor of the State on advantageous 
 terms to the nation. The public were invited to take stock in 
 
 „ ,, „ the Company : and such was the temptation that a 
 
 South Sea j . j u i. v^ j 
 
 Bubble, mad rush was made by everyone who had money to 
 
 invest, to buy up and trade in the shares of the concern. 
 Under the excitement, hundred pound shares soon rose in value to 
 one thousand pounds ; but a panic seizing the market, they speedily 
 fell to almost their original value. The loss was tremendous, and 
 thousands of families were reduced to beggary. The spirit of 
 gambling showed itself in the formation of many " bubble com- 
 panies," and this increased the disaster. Parliament took prompt 
 measures to punish the directors of the South Sea Company and 
 relieve in a measure the stockholders ; but the effects of the finan- 
 cial crash were long felt in the country. 
 
 4. Walpole. — At this crisis, England's "first great commoner," 
 Sir Robert Walpole, did much to restore the national credit 
 and bring a return of confidence to the country. In 172 1, he became 
 Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury, and for over twenty 
 years held the reins of government. His methods of governing 
 were, in many respects, vicious, for he freely bribed members of 
 Parliament whom he could not otherwise induce to support him. 
 But he was an able administrator and skilful financier, and did 
 much to give the country peace and increase its wealth and pros- 
 perity. Walpole's proud temper and love of power led him into 
 
A.D. 1739.] HALF-A-CENTURY OP WHIG RULF 103 
 
 frequent quarrels with his colleagues in the ministry, and drove 
 many of the leading Whigs into opposition. This weakened his 
 otherwise strong administration, and in time forced him to resign. 
 
 5. George II. (1727-1760).— In the summer of 1727, while travel- 
 ling in Germany, the first of the Georges died of apoplexy, and 
 was succeeded by his son, George II., then in his forty-fifth year. 
 Like his father, George was much attached to Hanover ; but his 
 residence in England had made him familiar with the English 
 language and with the customs of the people. Like his father, too, 
 he was avaricious, obstinate, and licentious, and had a violent tem- 
 per. He inherited also a partiality for the Whigs, though he had 
 no love for Walpole, and but for the good sense of the queen, CARO- 
 LINE of Anspach, would have removed him from office. For the 
 first ten years of George II.'s rule, England made an unchecked 
 advance in industry and wealth, and, during the peace with Spain, 
 largely extended her commerce with the Spanish colonies. This 
 trade led to extensive smuggling, which Walpole endeavoured to 
 stop. To collect the duty on wine and tobacco coming into the 
 
 country, he proposed, by an Excise Bill, to levy ^ , , . 
 , . • , , 1 , , Walpole's 
 
 the miposts m the warehouses where the goods were Excise Bill, 
 
 • • AD 1733 
 
 stored, mstead of collectmg the duty through the Cus- " ' 
 toms, when the articles were landed in port. But this mode of 
 collecting the revenue raised a great clamour, and to prevent 
 bloodshed he abandoned the measure. Had this Bill become law, 
 its effect would have been to diminish smuggling greatly, and to 
 increase English commerce. 
 
 6. Fall of Walpole.— As years went by, it became clear that 
 the nation was not satisfied with its rulers. The people became 
 weary of the system of corruption practised by Walpole and his 
 colleagues, and, although the country enjoyed material prosperity, 
 it began to long for a policy of political activity. Presently a war- 
 feeli:ig broke out against Spain, which the Opposition fomented, 
 and to which Walpole and his colleagues had to bend. The 
 occasion was the determination of English merchants to carry 
 on a forbidden trade with the Spanish Colonies in America and 
 the West Indies. Severe measures were taken by the Spaniards 
 against all found engaged in this illegal traffic. This led to war, 
 which was declared in 1739; but as it was unsuccessfully conducted, 
 
104 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVI. 
 
 Walpole's administration was held responsible. The ill success of 
 the war was a strong cry with the Opposition, and in the elections 
 of 1 74 1 Walpole fotmd himself shorn of his strength in the House. 
 He struggled on, however, till the next year; but being then unable 
 to command a majority in the Commons, he resigned office, and 
 the king created him Earl OF Orford. Three years afterwards, 
 "the Great Commoner" died. 
 
 7. Battle of Dettingen (1743).— At the period of Walpole's 
 downfall, England took sides in another outbreak on the Conti- 
 nent, known as the War of the Austrian Succession. In 
 1740, Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, died without male issue ; 
 but previous to his death he had obtained the consent of the 
 European Powers that his daughter, Maria Theresa, should 
 succcc'd to his Austrian dominions. On his death, however, the 
 agreement was broken, first, by France and Spain, who supported 
 the claims of the Elector of Bavaria, and then by Frederick the 
 Great, of Prussia, who laid claim to Silesia. England espoused 
 the cause of Maria, and having voted her a large subsidy, sent into 
 Germany a combined army of British and Hanoverian troops. 
 This army, unfortunately, was caught in a trap by the French, but 
 was saved from destruction by the personal courage of George II. 
 and his son, the Duke of Cumberland, who overthrew the French 
 forces at Dettingen, on the river Maine, and drove them out of 
 Gennany. This was the last occasion on which an English king 
 commanded his troops in person on the battle-field. The war went 
 on until 1748, when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle brought it 
 to a close, Prussia retaining Silesia. France then recognized the 
 illustrious Maria Theresa, who, with her husband, Francis I., had 
 become joint sovereigns of Austria. 
 
 8. The Young Pretender (1745).— While England was engaged 
 in the European war, Prince CHARLES Edward, son of the " Old 
 Pretender," thought the occasion favourable for another Jacobite 
 rising in Scotland. Landing at Inverness with a small personal 
 following, he induced the Highlanders again to take up arms in 
 the Stuart cause, and marched southwards with an imposing array 
 of clansmen. At Prestonpans he met and defeated the royal 
 forces under Sir John Cope, and then took up his residence in the 
 ancient palace of Holyrood, in the Scottish capital. Here he held 
 
A.D. 1756.] HALP-A-CENTURY OP WHIG RULE. 106 
 
 hie[h carnival, the Scottish nobles with their ladies being greatly 
 
 enamoured with the youth and beauty of the "gay chevalier." 
 
 After loitering some weeks at Edinburgh, Charles Edward, at the 
 
 head of 5,000 n^en, now entered England, where he expected to be 
 
 joined by English Jacobites, and to march on London. But in this 
 
 he was disappointed, and at Derby he was compelled to return to 
 
 the north, closely followed by new musterings of the royal troops 
 
 under the Duke of Cumberland. At Culloden MoOR ^„, 
 
 Culloden 
 Cumberland met and defeated the rebel army, and Moor, 
 
 Charles fled from the disastrous field and his adherents ^" ' 
 
 were mercilessly put to death. The cause of the Stuarts was now 
 
 forever lost. The young prince was for over five months a hunted 
 
 fugitive ; but the romantic devotion of a Stuart sympathizer, named 
 
 Flora Macdonald, enabled him, despite the large reward that was 
 
 placed on his head, to escape to France. Driven thence, he took 
 
 refuge in Italy, where he fell into dissolute habits, and died at 
 
 Rome in 1788. Many Highland chieftains who espoused his cause 
 
 came to the block, while the clans were disarmed and forbidden to 
 
 wear the Highland costume, and the clan system was broken up. 
 
 Military roads, which penetrated the Highlands, were now built ; 
 
 and this not only reduced the clans to order, but opened up means 
 
 of intercourse with the lowlands which produced the happiest 
 
 results. 
 
 9. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763).— During the eight years' 
 peace with France that followed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 there had been considerable ill-feeling between the English and 
 French colonists in America and in distant India, which led to a 
 renewal of hostilities between the two countries, on England's 
 taking the side of Prussia in the Seven Years' War. This war 
 had broken out between Frederick the Great and a Confederacy 
 of European Powers, consisting mainly of Austria, Rrussia, Spain, 
 and France, the object of the Confederacy being to crush the 
 growing power of Frederick and to partition Prussia. Between 
 England and France, aside from European complications, there was 
 cause enough for war, in the desire of both nations to settle who 
 should be the masters of India and North America. On the latter 
 continent, France had colonized Canada and Louisiana, while Eng- 
 land had established colonies along that part of the Atlantic coast 
 
106 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVI. 
 
 which separated the French settlements. To connect the latter, 
 and to exclude England from the great fur-trade of the interior, 
 France proposed to erect a series of military posts from the Niagara 
 river to the mouth of the Mississippi. This proposal was naturally 
 resented by Britain and her New England colonies, and m 1755 
 the conflict began by an attack on the French forts in the Ohio val- 
 ley. The English, however, were not successful, and their general, 
 Braddock, was mortally wounded and his troops defeated while 
 marching to attack Fort Duquesne. This disaster was atoned 
 for by subsequent successes in the neighbourhood of Lake Cham- 
 plain, and by the capture of LouiSBURG by Amherst and Wolfe. 
 Next year came thv^ crowning victory, the Fall OF 
 Quebec, QUEBEC, and the sunender by France of the whole of 
 
 ■ ■ ■ Canada to Britain. Joy at the capture of this strong- 
 hold was saddened by the deaths of the gallant British commander, 
 General Wolfe, and the equally gallant defender. General Mont- 
 calm. In India, English prowess met with like good fortune and 
 decided the question of supremacy. There, the East India Com- 
 pany had founded settlements for purposes of trade, which gave 
 promise of extending to an empire ; but France, jealous of her here- 
 ditary rival, endeavoured to snatch from her the prize. DuPLEix, 
 the French Governor of Pondicherry, captured Madras, and by 
 intriguing with the native princes, attempted to make French power 
 supreme over the country. In this ambitious scheme he was, how- 
 ever, checkmated by Robert (afterwards Lord) Clive, who from a 
 clerkship in the East India Company rose to be one of the greatest 
 of English generals and the saviour of India. Clive captured 
 Arcot, and in 1757, when the sovereignty of Bengal was in peril, 
 he won a great victory over the native insurgents at Plassey, which 
 made Bengal a British province, saved the English residents from 
 massacre, and laid the foundations of British rule in India. In the 
 previous year occurred the atrocity of the Black Hole, at Calcut/;a. 
 One hundred and forty-six Europeans were one hot summer night 
 thrust into a small cell not twenty feet square. In the mominjj it 
 was found that only twenty-three suivived ; the rest had been 
 suffocated or trampled to death. 
 
 10. The Elder Pitt.— Much of the success of the British arms 
 at this period was due to one of England's greatest statesmen. 
 
A.D. 1760.] IIALF-A-CENTUUY OP WIIIQ RULE. 107 
 
 William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham. Pitt entered Par- 
 liament in 1735, was one of the chief opponents of Walpole, and 
 from 1756 to 1761, save for a brief interval, was the ruling spirit of 
 the government. In 1756, he was made Secretary of State, and 
 d\iring the Seven Years' War his vigorous and large-minded policy 
 did much to restore England's military fame abroad and add to 
 the laurels of the nation. His nobility of character and lofty, un- 
 sullied patriotism, together with his great talents as an orator and 
 a war minister, won him the respect and affection of the people. 
 His steady advocacy of the rights of the people, his passionate and 
 almost resistless eloquence, and his marvellous power to animate 
 and inspire a desponding nation, earned for him the title of " The 
 Great Commoner." 
 
 11. Rise of Methodism. — The reign of George H. is memorable 
 for the rise of the religious body known as Methodists, so called 
 from their orderly or methodical manner of life. The denomina- 
 tion is also known as Wesleyans, from the name of their founder, 
 John Wesley. Wesley, and a co-labourer, named George Whit- 
 field, were educated at Oxford and ordained as clergymen ; but 
 the zeal of the national church having been almost quenched by 
 the worldliness of the times, they started a movement to rouse it 
 from its apathy. Discarding the formality of the Church's ser- 
 vices, they held religious meetings in the open air throughout Eng- 
 land, and gained an immense influence over the masses. In this 
 laudable work they encountered much opposition from the digni- 
 taries of the Church ; but their labours awoke the latter to new 
 life and gave a fresh impulse to religion. At Wesley's death, in 
 1 79 1, his followers numbered over 7S,ooo in England, and as many 
 more in America. 
 
 12. Literature since the Revolution.— The period covered by 
 the reigns of William III., Anne, and the two Georges was proHfic 
 of great writers in both prose and poetry. To this age belonged 
 Addison, the gentle humorist ; Swift, the bitter but powerful 
 satirist ; LocKE, the philosopher, and Bolingbroke, the brilliant 
 pamphleteer. Of the poets, Pope, with his smooth but artificial 
 versification, has won for himself an enduring place in English 
 literature. His principal poems are the Rape of the Lock, and the 
 Dunciad. Later on, Goldsmith and Johnson became prominent 
 
108 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORV. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 figures among the literary men of the eighteenth century. Gold- 
 smith was a fertile and charming writer of both prose and poetry, 
 but his fame rests mainly on his novel, The Vicar of Wakefield 
 and his poems The Traveller and The Deserted Village, John- 
 son's best known work is his English Dictionary ; but as a man 
 and conversationalist he lives for us in the pages of BoswELL, his 
 biographer and admirer. 
 
 [1. Mention tho principal incidents of the rising of 1715. Wliy was it unsuccessful? 
 
 2. What occasioned tho passage of the Septennial Act? What change did it make 
 in tho tenn of a Parliament ? 
 
 8. Explain what is meant by " South Sea Bubble." Show how it arose, and how it 
 ended. 
 
 4. For what is Walpolo noted ? Describe his methods of government, and tho poli(!y 
 ho pursued. Give an estimate of Walpole as a statesman. 
 
 6. Under what circumstances, and with what success, did the " Young Pretender" 
 raise an insurrection in Great Britain ? 
 
 6. What means were adopted to restore and maintain peace in the Higlilands of 
 Scotland ? * 
 
 7. Point out the influences that drove Walpolo from power. 
 
 8. Describe William Pitt, as an orator, a statesman, and a minister of war. 
 
 9. State, with dates and causes, tho jirincipal battles of tho Seven Years' War. 
 
 10. Why were the Whigs able to hold office during the reigns of George L and 
 George II. ? 
 
 11. Compare the Hanoverian kings with the Stuarts.] 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 
 
 (The character and early training of George III. furnish a key to the coniiicts, dis- 
 content, and disasters of the tlrst part of this reign. It will be necessary to show how 
 George III., by creating a " King's Party," by corruption, intimidation, and the 
 exercise of a low cunning, carried out the advice of his mother, " George, be King !" 
 The frequent changes of Ministers, the humiliation and dismissal of the elder Pitt, the 
 conflicts between Wilkes and Parliament, the struggles for a free press, and the loss of 
 the American colonies, are incidents in the career of a narrow-minded and obstinate 
 king, who sought to make responsible government a mockery. The teacher should 
 give great prominence to this idea, and, by examples and illustrations, leave a vivid 
 impression on the minds of pupils. The character and career of the profligate, versa- 
 tile, able, and almost fascinating Wilkes, will, if properly treated, add much to the 
 interest of the chapter. Other great names that stand out in bold relief are Washing- 
 ton, Fox, and the younger Pitt. The sad fate of Major Andr6 might be told ; also 
 other interesting stories of the American War of Independence. The cause of this 
 revolt must be carefully explained. The teacher will find in Green a statement to the 
 effect that the Conquest of Canada inevitably led to the independence of the American 
 colonies. Explain this statement, and give the terms of the '^eaty that handed Canada 
 
A.D. 1762.] THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 109 
 
 over to Engliuid. A refurouce to th<! KraiitliiK of Home Ilulo to Inlaml in 1782 will l.o 
 in i>lace. Green, and May'H " ConHtitutionul History" are among the Ix'st and moat 
 readily available works on thia jioriod. 
 
 References .•—Qrtmn, May's "Constitutional History," Trevolyan's "Life of Charles 
 James Fox," Rae's "Wilkes, Sheridan, and Fox," Payne's "European Colonies," 
 Doyle's " United States " (in Freeman's Historical Course), and Mackenzie's "America."] 
 
 1. George III. (1760-1820).— George II. was succeeded by his 
 grandson, George III., who came to the throne in his twenty- 
 third year. He was the first of the 
 reigning Hanoverian family born in 
 England, and was educated under the 
 tutelage of a Scotch Tory, named Lord 
 Bute. From Bute and his mother 
 the king imbibed his political views, 
 and these led him to get rid gradually 
 of his Whig ministers, and to form a 
 new political party opposed to the 
 Whigs and willing to assist him in as- 
 serting his own prerogative. "George, George III. 
 be king," was the constant admonition of his mother ; and the 
 lesson he early learned showed itself in his taking the reins of 
 government into his own hands. Though George III. was a man 
 of but ordinary understanding, he had much good sense and con- 
 siderable tact in managing men and things. He was honest but 
 stubborn in his convictions, lived a good life, and during his long 
 reign was actuated by a sincere desire for the well-being of the 
 nation, though his mistaken policy brought it disaster. 
 
 2. Treaty of Paris.— In 1761 "the great commoner," Pitt, who 
 by his vigorous war policy had brought much glory to the nation, 
 met with strong opposition from the peace party in the Cabinet, 
 led by Bute, and supported by the king. Pitt, so far from accepting 
 peace with France, which was now proposed, wanted to prosecute 
 hostilities and make war also against Spain. But being over- 
 ruled in this, he resigned the Secretaryship of State and was suc- 
 ceeded by Bute. Next year, however, the Government was obliged 
 to adopt Pitt's views and declare war with Spain, for she had 
 joined France in a compact against England. The Duke of New- 
 castle, who was nominally head of the Government, now resigned, 
 because he was not consulted in matters of policy and patronage, 
 
110 IMJIU.K; HClIOOTi ENOLIHII IIIHTOIIY. [(/liaj). X VII. 
 
 and Lord Bute bcrainc Prime Minister. iUit these changes in 
 the ministry did not please llie people, and when llic 
 
 A^u,*'i7o"''''^'"' ^V'^"" ^'^^ brought to a close by the TkiCAi Y oK Paris, 
 liuLe became the ])est abused man in the country. 
 Frightened at his unpopularity, he resigned, and was succeeded 
 by (iKOKOK GkKN VILLI-:. Hy the Treaty of Paris England kept 
 her con(|uests in North America, and gained a number of islands 
 from France in the West Indies. The terms of Peace, though 
 lauded by the king in a speech on closing I*arliament, were bitterly 
 inveighed against in and out of the House, as they inadecjuately 
 compensated England for her outlay on the Seven Years' War. 
 The national debt had doubled during the period, and now ex- 
 ceeded one hundred and twenty millions sterling. 
 
 3- John Wilkes- — A circumstance now happened which showed 
 the growing power of the newspaper f)ress, though it had hardly 
 yet freed itself from legal trammels. John Wilkks, a j)rofligate 
 member of I'arliament and publisher of a paper called the North 
 liriton^ had, in 1763, severely criticized in his journal the terms of 
 peace with France, and had denounced Hute with great scurrility. 
 For this he was sent to tlie Tower by Grenville, the Prime 
 Minister, under a i^encral warrcmt^ (one in which no person is 
 named); but being a member of Parliament and as such free from 
 arrest, he was set at liberty by the Lord Chief Justice. Subse- 
 quently the Courts decided that ''general warrants" were illegal 
 The Commons now took up the matter, and declared the comments 
 of Wilkes seditious. Popular sympathy was, however, on his side, 
 and he was emboldened to bring an action against the Secretary of 
 State for illegal imprisonment, and was awarded a ;^f,ooo damages. 
 Hut Wilkes had now to stand his trial for libel. lie was found 
 guilty, and having (led to France, was outlawed. In 1 768, however, 
 he returned to England, and was three times elected member for 
 Middlesex, but the House refused to receive him. Meantime he 
 had become the popular idol and the representative of liberty, and 
 great rioting ensued over his case. Finally, in 1774, he was allowed 
 to take his seat. During this exciting jjcriod appeared the famous 
 "Letters of Junius," which attacked the malatlministration of the 
 times, and were directed jjarticularly against the Duke of Cirafton, 
 who was now the leader of the Government. 
 
A.D. 1705,] TIIK CROWN AND TIIK COLONIES. Ill 
 
 4. The Crown and the American Colonies —Meanwhile, the 
 
 Grcnville ministry ])(:r.'uno involved in serious difficulties with the 
 North American Colonies on the (juestion of taxation. The Seven 
 Years' War, wliich had l)ecn wa;,'ed chiefly for the protection of 
 these dependencies, had left a heavy liurdenof debt upon England. 
 To meet this debt in part, (irenville proposed to levy 
 a S'lAMP Tax upon the American Colonies, now aj)"\V(!6.*' 
 thirteen in number, with a pf)pulation of two million 
 whites and half a million blacks. But the Colonists objected to 
 h(;ing taxed witlu)Ut their consent, and without representation in 
 the British I'arliament, and declared that they were sufficiently 
 oppressed by the burden of Customs' duties already imposed 
 upon them. The Stamp Act was nevertheless passed in spite 
 of the protest of the CoUmial Assemblies ; but the obnoxious 
 measure met such opposition in America that, at Pitt's ur^amt 
 solicitation, it was withdrawn. I'arliament, however, passed ano- 
 ther Act declaring' Us authority over the Colonics in matters of 
 legislation .and taxation, and this increased the soreness of feelinj^ 
 in America against the mother country, 'i'he irritation was far. 
 from being allayed when a subse(|ucnt administration unposed 
 various small Customs' duties on American imports, but chiefly 
 ujjon tea. In retaliation the Colonists determined not to use this 
 article. The spirit of resistance was soon now to take a deter- 
 mined form ; for, on the one hand, the king and his ministers stub- 
 bornly insisted on JCngland's right to derive some benefit from her 
 Colonies ; while, on the other hand, the Colonists as stubbornly 
 held to the principle of no taxation without representation, and 
 ujjheld the riglits of their own Assemblies. Meanwhile, the (iren- 
 ville ministry had passed away with its successors under the 
 leaderships of Lord Rockingham and the Duke of (frafton, and 
 was followed by the administration of Lord North. Pitt, whf) had 
 become Eaki, of Cmaimam, was for a time a member of the 
 Grafton ministry, but resigned on the plea of ill-health. I'artly 
 recovering his strength, he became a vehement opponent of Lord 
 North's Government. Throughout the trouble with the Colonists, 
 he was a staunch supporter of their cause, and in Parliament 
 eloquently denounced arbitrary measures against them. 
 
112 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 5. American War of Independence —In 1773, the Colonists 
 were finally estranged from the mother country by the arrival in 
 Boston harbour of three ship-loads of taxed tea, which the Colo- 
 nists refused to receive ; and, as the English governor of the 
 colony would not consent to the tea being returned to England, 
 
 MAP OF THE 
 THIRTEEN 
 
 OnCINALAMERICAN StUTES 
 
 the cargo was thrown overboard into Boston bay. For this act the 
 English government closed the Port of Boston and took away the 
 charter of Massachusetts. Troops were also sent out from Eng- 
 land, and on their arrival the Colonists banded themselves together 
 for armed resistance. Next year, a Congress assembled at Phila- 
 delphia, which, after English fashion, issued a Declaration 
 OF Rights, followed two years afterwards by a Declaration of 
 
A.. I). 1783.] THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. Il3 
 
 Independence. George Washington, of Virginia, an able officer, 
 was chosen by the Colonists to command their forces ^ , . , 
 
 , •' Dectlaration of 
 
 m the commg struggle. The first shots of the war were indeiuiuienco, 
 fired in 1775, '^^ ^ skirmish at Lexington, and in a * " 
 battle at Bunker Hill, near Boston, where the Americans were 
 repulsed, though at serious loss to the English. In the same year, 
 the Americans invaded Canada, captured Montreal, but failed in 
 their attack upon Quebec. New York was occupied by General 
 Howe, in 1776, and in the following year Lord Cornwallis defeated 
 Washington at BrANDYWINE, and took Philadelphia. A month 
 later, however, the tide of fortune turned in favour of the Colonists ; 
 for France lent them aid, and the English general, Burgoyne, was 
 forced to surrender, with 6,000 men, at Saratoga. This disaster 
 led the English to see that the war with their kinsmen in America 
 was a mistake, and overtures of peace were talked of in Parliament. 
 But the entry of France into the quarrel brought about a renewal 
 of hostilities, urged on by the Earl of Chatham, who though he had 
 opposed the taxation of the Colonies would not hear of the dis- 
 memberment of the Empire. While making a powerful speech in 
 the House of Lords, against a proposal to make peace with Am- 
 erica, the venerable statesman fell in a fit upon the floor, and died 
 a month afterwards. But the struggle with the Colonies went on 
 with slackened energy, for war had broken out with France, 
 Spain, and Holland, owing to England's persisting in her right to 
 search the vessels of neutral nations ; and England having these 
 combined powers against her, had to limit her land operations to 
 the Southern States. There, in 1781, the English arms met with a 
 crowning disaster. Lord Cornwallis, for a time successful in the 
 Carolinas, had withdrawn his forces to Yorktown, Virginia, to 
 await supplies and reinforcements from New York. While there a 
 French fleet entered the Chesapeake and shut him in from the sea. 
 Washington, and the French general, Lafayette, then surrounded 
 him on land, when he was forced to capitulate. This event 
 brought the war to an inglorious close, though the 
 misfortune was relieved by victories at sea over the of 111^ United 
 fleets of France and Spain. Two years afterwards, by ed? a^d'ITtS" 
 the Peace of Versailles (1783), Britain recognized 
 the Independence of the United States of America. 
 
 9 
 
114: PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 6. Home Rule in Ireland-— The unhappy condition of Ireland 
 again demanded attention. Influenced by the revoh of the 
 American Colonies, and suffering from the illiberal policy of the 
 English Government, the Irish demanded relief in matters of trade 
 and religion. Their trade was vexatiously hampered by the com- 
 mercial jealousy of England, while Catholics were still under the 
 cruel and oppressive laws of William III. The English ministry, 
 uneasy at the disaffection in the island, made some important con- 
 cessions. In 1778 the penal laws throughout the kingdom against 
 Catholics were relaxed, and in 1780, through the mediation of 
 Edmund Burke, one of the ablest statesmen of the time, many of 
 the restrictions on Irish trade were removed. Two years after- 
 
 wards, a more important concession was granted, the 
 Ireland, legislative independence of Ireland. The credit of 
 
 A D 1782 • • 
 
 ■ ■ ■ obtaining this concession is due to HENRY Grattan, 
 an able orator and member of the Irish Parliament. But this 
 measure of home rule brought little relief to CathoHcs, for the Irish 
 Parliament was wholly composed of Protestants, and religious 
 toleration was as yet little understood. 
 
 7. Pitt and Fox.— With the close of the American War of 
 Independence came the break-up of the Government under Lord 
 North, and the appearance of two young statesmen destined to 
 become leading figures in English political history. These were 
 the younger Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, and Charles 
 James Fox. The latter, the senior of the two, had been for some 
 time in Parliament and had held office, though throughout the war 
 he was a powerful antagonist of the ministry. In 1782- 1783 he was 
 Secretary of State ; but for the next twenty years he was in opposi- 
 tion to the younger Pitt's ministry, and as leader of his party 
 displayed great political sagacity and marvellous powers of debate. 
 Pitt entered Parliament in 1781, when in his twenty-second year, 
 and was made Chancellor of the Exchequer in Lord Shelburne's 
 Cabinet. In 1 784 he became Prime Minister, forming a government 
 from members of both parties, which ruled the country for the next 
 seventeen years, in spite of opposition from the combined phalanx 
 of Whig orators — Burke, Fox, and Sheridan. Pitt's great ability 
 carried him successfully through a trying time for the country, 
 giving it peace, so long as that was in honour possible, and advanc- 
 
A.D. 1784.] THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 115 
 
 ing its commerce. He also endeavoured to raise statesmanship to 
 a higher plane, to purge politics of corruption, and secure reforms 
 in and out of Parliament. 
 
 8 Affairs in India. — While England was losing her colonies in 
 America, she made large acquisitions of territory in India. After 
 the destruction of the French power in the Carnatic, the English 
 gained almost the whole sea-coast from Madras to Bengal. The 
 latter province was now consolidated with Bahar and Orissa under 
 the rule of the East India Company, subject to the control of the 
 Crown. This control was established by an Act passed in Parlia- 
 ment in 1773, for the better regulation of affairs irvthe East Indies; 
 and under it Warren Hastings was appointed Governor-General 
 of the British possessions in Hindostan. During Hastings' able 
 rule, which lasted till 1785, British power rapidly extended over the 
 country and a vigorous administration was established. Unfor- 
 tunately the latter was accompanied by many oppressive acts for 
 which Hastings, on his return to England, was impeached and 
 subjected to a lengthy trial, which, however, ended in an acquittal. 
 In 1784 the English Government wisely again interfered with 
 Indian affairs, and Pitt passed an Act of Parliament „.,^. , ^. 
 
 ' ^ Pitt 8 India 
 
 which set up a Board of Control to regulate the Bin, 
 political doings of the East India Company. This 
 method of double government lasted till 1858, when the Company's 
 rule was superseded by that of the Crown. 
 
 [1. Give as faithful a picture as you can of George III. when he came to the throne. 
 Why was he more popular than George I. and George II. ? 
 
 2. In as brief terms as possible state the policy of George III. How did he succeed 
 in this policy, and what means did he employ ? 
 
 8. Who was John Wilkes ? With what great questions was he identified ? 
 
 4. Give the terms of the Treaties that closed the Seven Years' War. 
 
 6. State the causes and the results of the revolt of the American Colonies. 
 
 6. Describe the characters of Washington, Fox, Burke, and Pitt. 
 
 7. What part did Warren Hastings take in the extension of the British Empire? 
 Why was he impeached ? 
 
 8. Under what nircumstances did Ireland obtain Home Rule ? How far was Ireland 
 governed by her people at this time ?] 
 
116 PUHLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE STRUGGLE AGAINST NAPOLEON. 
 
 [During tho first part of tho Napolconin war, tho prominent English statesmen are 
 Burke, Fox, and Pitt. Tho several i)arts played by these great men in the European 
 drama should bo noted. The horrors of tlie French Revolution, its causes, and the 
 chief actors in it, are depicted with marvellous power by Carlylo in his " French 
 Revolution." The one figure that towers above all others as the outcome of this 
 upheaval, is Nai)oleon Bonaparte. His selHshnoHS, cnielty, and jirodigious self-confi- 
 dence, are well described by Madame de Remusat in her *' Memoirs." Stories without 
 number, about Napoleon, exist: some of these should be related to give an insight 
 into his character and genius. As a military commander he can be compared with 
 Alexander, Hannibal, and Cajsar. Napoleon's great antagonist and conqueror, the 
 Duke of Wellington, will, at a later period, appear on the scene as a statesman ; but 
 hero ho must bo discussed as the uniformly successful general. Nelson, and Sir John 
 Moore, rank high among British heroes ; hence, the Battle of the Baku;, and the Burial 
 of Sir John Moore should bo read or recited. Among the most thrilling of all the 
 episodes of this terrible struggle is Napoleon's invasion of Russia and tho burning of 
 Moscow. Scarcely less important than tho Napoleonic war is the condition of England 
 and Ireland, and the policy pursued by tho various Tory Governments. The rebellion 
 in Ireland, followed by the Union of Great Britain and Ireland, the distress and dis- 
 content that marked tho close of tlie war, and the severe measures taken by the Gov- 
 ernment to repress agitations favourable to political reforms, are imi»ortant matters, not 
 to be passed over lightly. The various philanthrophic movements with which the 
 names of Howard, Wilberforce, Clarkson, and Romillyare so honourably connected 
 need fUrther explanation. Tho literature of this time, and its relation to contemporary 
 events, should be referred to and illustrations given. 
 
 7J«/erence« .•—Green, May's "Constitutional History," Madame do Remusat's "Me- 
 moirs," Carlyle's " French Revolution," Napier's " Peninsular War," Alison's " History 
 of Europe," Houthey's " Nelson," Russell's " Life and Times of Fox," Burke's " Reflec- 
 tions and Regicide Peace," Goldwin Smith's " Three English Statesmen," and Coflln's 
 "War of 1812." Tho Erckmann-Chatrian novels vividly illustrate the Revolutionary 
 epoch in Franco ; see also Victor Hugo's " Ninety-three."] 
 
 1. The Prencli Revolution (1789-1795).— The year 1789 saw the 
 outbreak in France of a terrible revolution against a despotic 
 monarchy, a licentious nobility, and a corrupt clergy. All show of 
 legitimate authority disappeared, and Paris became the scene of 
 the wildest excesses of an irreligious and frenzied populace. The 
 Revolution began with the destruction, as a hated symbol of 
 tyranny, of the Bastile, or State prison ; after which the infuriated 
 leaders of the movement proceeded to overthrow the monarchy and 
 set up a Republic. By the year 1793, a veritable "Reign of Terror" 
 
A.D. 1798.] TIIK STRUaOLB AGAINST NAPOLEON. 117 
 
 had set in, and thousands of the aristocracy of France were pitilessly 
 put to death, including Louis XVI. and his beautiful Execution of 
 queen, Marie Antoinette. The Revolutionists then tho King and 
 
 /villi • 1 • i- , Queen 
 
 onered to lieip other nations to recover their freedom ; of Prance, 
 and, to stem the tide of anarchy which now threatened ' ^ 
 Europe, England joined Austria, Prussia, Spain, and Holland in a 
 war against the new republic. At first, the effect of the f evolu- 
 tion on England was to create sympathy for the P>ench people, 
 who had long suffered from the oppression of their rulers. But the 
 frightful excesses of the T'aris mob led to a revulsion of feeling ; 
 and when an invasion of England was talked of in I'aris, the 
 English loyally stood by Pitt, the Prime Minister, in supporting the 
 PLuropcan coalition against France. This change of feeling was 
 greatly due to the publication of Edmund IJurke's " Reflections," 
 which contained an eloquent attack on the principles of the Revo- 
 lutionists, and did much to stay the advance of democratic senti- 
 ments in England. 
 
 2. Naval Victories.— England's successes during the first period 
 of the war were won at sea. An anny had been sent into the 
 Austrian Netherlands, under the king's son, the Duke of York ; 
 but it failed to prevent the French conquest of Belgium and Hol- 
 land. The English took possession of ToULON, but were com- 
 pelled to abandon it, though the fleet captured CORSICA, the island 
 home of Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then rising into fame. 
 In 1795, Prussia and Spain withdrew from the Alliance, and the 
 latter, with Holland, joined France against England. This act 
 cost the Dutch the loss of the Cape of Good Hope and other 
 possessions in the East and West Indies. The following year, the 
 French, under Napoleon, conducted a successful campaign against 
 the Austrians in Northern Italy ; but an attempt by General Hoche 
 to invade Ireland failed. In 1797, the outlook for England became 
 a gloomy one, for she was left to contend almost single-handed 
 against France. But the gloom was partly dispelled by the bril- 
 liant victory of Admiral Jervis and Commodore Horatio Nelson 
 over the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, and by Admiral 
 Duncan's defeat of the Dutch off CAMPERDOWN. In 1798, 
 Napoleon having gone on an ill-fated expedition to Egypt, Admiral 
 Nelson followed the French fleet into the Mediterranean, and at 
 
118 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 Aboukir Bay fought the famous Battle of the Nile, and ahnost 
 
 totally destroyed the navy of France. Presently a 
 Battle of •; / ,_■',,. . . ^ 
 
 the Nile, new danger threatened England, in an armed league 
 
 ■ of the northern nations, Russia, Sweden, and Den- 
 
 mark ; but this was happily broken up by Nelson's bombardment of 
 Copenhagen and the destruction of the Danish fleet. England 
 now, however, grew weary of the distracting and costly war, and in 
 1802, trusting to the good faith of Napoleon, she 
 Amiens, Consented to the hollow PEACE OF Amiens. The 
 
 ■ ■ Peace only enabled the ambitious Napoleon, who was 
 now elected Consul for life, to mature his plans for further strife. 
 
 3. Union of Great Britain and Ireland.— To the general dis- 
 turbance of the period Ireland contributed its share. The country 
 had scarcely ever been free from revolutionary agitation. Taking 
 advantage of the proffered aid of France, a body of men, called 
 the United Irishmen, endeavoured to free the island from Eng- 
 lish rule and to set up a republican government. This new Irish 
 rising took place in 1798, and was marked by great atrocities on 
 the side of the rebels as well as on that of the English and Irish 
 Protestants who took part in crushing the rebellion. The French 
 fleet brought over an army to assist the Irish, but was scattered by 
 a storm, and not a soldier landed. Later on, another French ex- 
 pedition was fitted out ; but though it entered Ireland, it was sur- 
 rounded and compelled to surrender. The English Government, 
 anxious to prevent continued bloodshed, sent Lord Cornwallis to 
 Ireland as Lord Lieutenant, who did all he could to stop the strife. 
 Pitt now strove to bring about a legislative union of the two coun- 
 tries, and by dint of bribery and other influences, 
 Greaf Britain the Irish Parliament ceased to exist and an AcT OF 
 Ti^no!?,'*'^' Union was agreed to and became law. To cement 
 
 A.l). loOl. , , '^ , 
 
 the union, Pitt endeavoured to iiAtroduce a Relief Bill, 
 
 on behalf of the Irish Roman Catholics 5 but the king stubbornly 
 
 opposed it, and Pitt, in consequence, resigned. His government 
 
 was succeeded by the Addington ministry, which held office for 
 
 Jhe next three years. 
 
 4. Death of Nelson. — During the Addington Administration, the 
 second period of the war with France began. The peace of Amiens 
 had not been two years signed when Napoleon found a pretext forri 
 
A.D. 1806.] THE STRUGOLE AGAINST NAPOLEON. 119 
 
 quarrel in England's delay in surrendering Malta, in her harbouring 
 French refugees in Britain, and in the outspoken comments of the 
 English press on his ambitious designs in liurope. In 1803 war 
 was declared by England, whereupon Napoleon promptly seized 
 all the English in France and made preparations for a great inva- 
 sion of England. At this new danger, some 300,000 volunteers 
 were enrolled in England, and her naval commanders from their 
 " wooden walls " kept a sharp look out on the coasts. Pitt resumed 
 his post of Prime Minister, and by his skilful diplomacy formed a 
 new alliance with Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Spain still co- 
 operated with France. Meanwhile the French fleet, eluding Nel- 
 son's vigilance, sailed from Toulon, and, joining the Spanish navy, 
 set out for the West Indies with the design of drawing Nelson 
 away from British waters. Succeeding in this ruse, the French 
 Admiral then stole back with a squadron of sail, but was met off 
 Cape Finisterre by some British ships of the line, which so crip- 
 pled his fleet that it was obliged to seek Cadiz for repairs. Nelson 
 had by this time returned ; and, in October, 1805, encountering the 
 combined French and Spanish fleet in Trafalgar Battle of 
 
 Bay, near the Straits of Gibraltar, he gave the signal Trafalgar, and 
 
 ' 7 o & death of 
 
 for battle and at once bore down upon the foe. Hoist- Nei«on, 
 
 ing his famous signal, " England expects every man 
 
 will do his duty," he led his own flag-ship, "Victory," into action, 
 
 and ere the day closed had utterly vanquished the enemy. In the 
 
 engagement the great English admiral lost his life, but saved his 
 
 country from invasion and made Britain again supreme on the sea. 
 
 5' Austerlitz- — Though beaten at sea, the French, owing to 
 Napoleon's marvellous generalship, continued supreme on land. 
 Marching his " Grand Army," in 1805, into Austria, Napoleon 
 compelled the surrender of 30,000 Austrians at Ulm, and entered 
 Vienna. Proceeding now to Moravia, he reached the crown of his 
 successes, in a victory over the Russians and Austrians battles of 
 at Austerlitz : and the next year he utterly crushed AuBteriitz 
 
 . . and Jena, 
 
 Prussia at jENA. From the Prussian capital he then a.d. I805 
 
 issued his famous BERLIN DECREES, declaring the *"*^^8<'^- 
 
 British Islands to be in a state of blockade, and ordering the ports 
 
 of Europe to be closed against their commerce. England replied 
 
 to this act of the temporary dictator of Europe, by forbiduing any 
 
120 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 neutral Power to trade with France or her allies. The effect of 
 these war measures was injurious to English commerce, and some 
 years afterwards they led to further trouble with the revolted 
 American colonies. The shock of these disasters to the allies of 
 England broke the health of England's great statesman, Pitt, and 
 hurried him to an untimely grave, whither he was shortly followed 
 by his great rival. Fox. 
 
 6. The Peninsular War (1808-1814).— Napoleon, not satisfied with 
 his successes on the field, now began to set up and pull down kings. 
 His brother, Joseph, he put on the throne of Naples, and another 
 brother, Louis, he mane king of Holland. Presently he set covet- 
 ous eyes on the crown of Spain, and deposing the king, he trans- 
 
 ferred Joseph from Naples to Madrid. But the Spaniards rose in 
 arms and drove Joseph out, and then called on Britain to help them 
 to restrain Napoleon's aggressions. England replied by sending 
 an army to Portugal, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had 
 distinguished himself in India, and who presently won the title of 
 
A.D. 1815.] THE STRUGGLE AGAINST NAPOLEON. 121 
 
 Lord Wellington. This great soldier began his successes in 
 
 the Peninsular War by defeating the French at Vimiera, in 
 
 August, 1808. For a time his operations were interfered with by 
 
 the timidity of Spain and by the lukewarmness of the English 
 
 ministry, which cost Sir John Moore his life in the jj^^^jg ^^ 
 
 famous engagement at CORUNNA. But in the follow- Comnim.and 
 
 „, „. , , , , ,. . , death of Sir 
 
 mg year Wellmgton was able to march mto Spam and John Moorf, 
 
 win the battle of Talavera, inflicting great loss upon ■^""' ^*' ^^^^' 
 the French, though he was compelled to withdraw again to Portu- 
 gal. Here he won the battle of BusACO, and entrenching himself 
 behind the lines of Torres Vedras, near Lisbon, he defied the 
 French general, Massena, with his 80,000 veterans. The next year, 
 the British, issuing from Torres Vedras, won in rapid succession 
 Barossa, Fuentes D'Onoro, and Albuer a. In i 8 i 2 Wellington 
 pursued his victorious career by capturing the two border fortresses 
 of ClUDAD RODRIGO and Badajoz, and by inflicting a ruinous 
 defeat on Marshal Marmont at Salamanca. The next two years 
 shed additional lustre on the British arms ; for, at Vittoria, 
 Wellington scattered the French to the winds, under King Joseph 
 
 and Marshal Jourdan, and overthrew Soult and his „ ^^, , 
 
 . . Battle of 
 
 forces at Toulouse. By these victories the French Toulouse, 
 were driven across the Pyrenees, and the campaign ^" ' 
 in the Spanish Peninsula was brought to a close. Napoleon, 
 meanwhile, had undertaken a disastrous expedition into Russia ; 
 and had led a new army into Germany, where he met with a crush- 
 ing defeat at Leipsic From Saxony he fled back to France, with 
 the allied forces of Russia, Austria, and Prussia at his heels. 
 Entering Paris, in 1 8 1 4, the Allies compelled Napoleon 
 to abdicate and retire to the island of Elba. England, Napoleon to 
 grateful for the peace, hastened to bestow upon Wei- ^^D^^igu. * 
 lington the rewards of victory. He was created Duke, 
 and received the thanks of the British Parliament and a grant of 
 half-a-million sterling. 
 
 7. Waterloo.— Early in the year 181 5, England's dream of 
 peace was rudely disturbed by Napoleon's return to France, the 
 dethroned Emperor having escaped from Elba. Once more he 
 was at the head of his legions, and the Great Powers instantly 
 allied themselves to crush him. Wellington with an English army 
 
122 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 entered Belgium and sought to effect a junction with the Prus- 
 sians under Blucher, Napoleon, divining Wellington's purpose, 
 dispatched half of his army, under Marshal Ney, *o attack the 
 British, while he himself attacked the Prussians and beat them 
 at LiGNY. On the day on which this battle vas fought, Welling- 
 ton met the French at Quatrk B*iAS, and though Ney strove for 
 hours to force his position, the attacks were gallantly repulsed* 
 The English now fell back to Waterloo, and with their Hanoverian 
 
 „ ,„ . and Belgian allies waited for the Prussians to come 
 
 Battle of ^ 
 
 Waterloo, up. Here, on Sunday, the iSth of June, 1815, was 
 
 ' ■ fought the decisive battle of Waterloo. The oppos- 
 ing forces were numerically well matched, each side having on the 
 field from 70,000 to 80,000 men. After a stubborn, all-day contest, 
 the French were defeated, with a total loss of nearly 40,000 men. 
 The loss of the allies was close upon 15,000. Napoleon escaped 
 from the field, but a few weeks afterwards surrendered himself to 
 the British, when he was banished to the island of St. Helena. 
 There the disturber of Europe died six years afterwards, and 
 England for the next forty years enjoyed almost uninterrupted 
 peace. 
 
 8, War with the United States (1812-1814).— During the later 
 years of the struggle with Napoleon, England was unhappily at 
 war with the United States. The cause of quarrel was England's 
 claiming the right to search American vessels for seamen to serve 
 in the navy and to impose restrictions on the commerce of neutral 
 nations during the war with France. Though England cancelled 
 the Orders in Council which occasioned the trouble, the United 
 States, resenting the interference, declared war, in June, 1812, and 
 invaded Canada. The Canadians with much spirit defended the 
 colony ; and for nearly three years the unequal struggle- was main- 
 tained along the frontier. York (Toronto) was twice captured, 
 Niagara was burned, and a small British squadron on Lake Erie 
 met with defeat. The Americans, on the other hand, suffered the 
 loss of Detroit, Oswego, Ogdensburg, and Forts Erie and Mackinaw, 
 and were routed at Queenston, Chippewa, Chateauguay, Chrysler's 
 Farm, and Lundy's Lane. On the Atlantic seaboard, Washington 
 was raided, and a British cruiser, the Shannon, won a naval duel with 
 the American ship Chesapeake. Happily, the unnatural conflict was 
 
A. D. 1814.] THE STRUGGLE AGAINST NAPOLEON. 123 
 
 ended in December, 1814, by the Treaty of Ghent, though not 
 
 before an attack upon New Orleans had been repulsed ^ , . 
 '^ ' Trciity of 
 
 with great loss to the British. Ry the treaty, mutual oiKint, 
 conquests were restored, though the ground of quarrel, 
 the right of search, was left undecided. 
 
 9. Social and Political Reforms— The cessation of the long 
 period of strife, though gladly hailed by the people, did not bring 
 immediate relief to England. The war had raised the national 
 debt to nearly nine hundred millions, and brought distress and 
 misery in its train. Masses of the people were unemployed, wheat 
 was dear, money was scarce, and bread riots were plentiful. The 
 distractions of the war, too, had delayed many necessary reforms, 
 social and religious ; and political meetings, seditious writings, and 
 general discontent showed how urgently they were needed. In 
 spite of all this, the nation was making progress, and only peace 
 was wanted to ameliorate the condition of the masses and ensure 
 the return of "good times." The power-loom and spinning- jenny 
 had been invented ; steam had been introduced ; canals had been 
 constructed ; coal-gas had been first used for lighting ; and all 
 manner of beneficent activities were at work. Popular education 
 and the newspaper press were also adding to the general enlight- 
 enment, while religion had gained a new auxiliary in the Sunday 
 School, Nor were individual philanthropists lacking, to battle 
 single-handed with some great evil, and bring redress. Of these, 
 three names stand out in bold relief— Howard, Wilberforce, 
 and ROMILLY. From 1773 to 1790, the philanthropist, John 
 Howard, had been looking into the condition of the prisons 
 throughout Europe. He found that gross abuses existed in con- 
 nection with the management of these institutions, and that great 
 brutality was often shown towards the inmates. Prisoners were 
 detained without having been convict d or brought to trial, be- 
 cause they were unable to pay the fees the jailor demanded. 
 Vice, filth, and disease prevailed in very many of the prisons, not 
 only on the continent but in England. By calling public attention 
 to the facts, Howard was able in great measure to remedy this 
 state of things. Another crying evil at this period received public 
 attention, thanks to the humanity of a member of the English 
 I^arliament, named William Wilberforce. A decision of Lord 
 
124 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XVIII, 
 
 Mansfield, in 1772, affirmed that if a slave lands on English soil he 
 becomes free. Wilberforce's labours gave practical effect to this 
 
 judgment of the bench ; for by his instrumentality an 
 Slave Trade, Act was passed in Parliament, in 1 807, forbidding the 
 
 horrid trade in slaves, though freedom was not given 
 to those in the British colonies of the West Indies until 1833. At 
 the beginning of the century beneficent reforms in other directions 
 were also secured. The efforts of Sir Samuel Romilly, another 
 member of the House of Commons, were early directed to the 
 improvement of the criminal laws of the kingdom, which had been 
 put on the statute books in the cruel times of the Plantagenets and 
 Tudors. The severity of the criminal code was such that death 
 was the punishment of anyone who picked a pocket of more than 
 five shillings or robbed a store. Gradually a wiser and more 
 merciful spirit actuated English legislators, and the number of 
 crimes which sent victims daily to the gallows was in time reduced. 
 
 10. Literature of the Eeign of George III.— During the last 
 twenty years of the eighteenth century, the poet, William Cowper, 
 produced his more important works. Cowper, whose poems are 
 mainly of a religious and didactic character, rendered an important 
 service to English poetry by breaking away from the artificial but 
 polished versification of Pope and his imitators, and by bringing 
 poetry back to truth and nature. The successful revolt of the 
 American colonies, followed shortly afterwards by the terrible up- 
 rising of the oppressed masses of the French nation, had a powerful 
 effect in spreading democratic ideas among the educated and the 
 literary men of Europe. Among those who came under the influ- 
 ence of these ideas were the English poets, Southey, Coleridge, 
 and Wordsworth. These writers are known as the poets of the 
 " Lake School," mainly because they all lived for a time near the 
 lakes in the north of England. Wordsworth, the head of the 
 School, introduced into English poetry a distinctive type and 
 method of treatment. His poetry is largely devoted to a minute 
 and faithful description of the common incidents of life, and of 
 nature in her various aspects. Towards the close of the reign of 
 George III. appeared a great name in our literature, that of Sir 
 Walter Scott. Scott first became popular as a poet, but what- 
 ever fame he won in that character was speedily lost in the universal 
 
A.D. 1811.] AN EPOCH OP REFORM. 125 
 
 admiration he excited by the production of the celebrated Wavcrlcy 
 Novels. Scott's fame as a noveHst has suffered no diminution by 
 the /apse of years : he still stands at the head of the writers of 
 fiction, not only of England, but of all countries. 
 
 [1. State the principal causes of the French Revolution. Show how England was 
 drawn into a war with France. 
 
 2. Compare the views of Burke, Pitt, and Fox, with regard to the French Revolution. 
 
 3. When did Napoleon first come into prominence ? Mention some of his earlier 
 successes. 
 
 4. With what victories are the names of Nelson, Admiral Jervis, Admiral Duncan, 
 and Sir John Moore connected ? 
 
 5. Briefly sketch the principal events of the Peninsular War. How did this war 
 arise, and how did it affect Napoleon's power ? 
 
 6. In what battles were Prussia, Austria, and Russia, respectively, defeated ? Give 
 dates. 
 
 7. What was the immediate effect of the Napoleonic war ori English trade and com- 
 merce, and what the ultimate effect ? 
 
 8. Give as graphic a description as you can of the battle of Waterloo, and show that 
 it was a very important battle. 
 
 9. Show how the Revolutionary feeling extended to Great Britain and Ireland, and 
 describe the methods adopted to repress agitation for reform. 
 
 10. Under what circumstances did Ireland enter the Union ? What were the pro- 
 visions of the Act of Union of 1800 ? 
 
 11. Why did England and the United States go to war in 1812 ? How did this war 
 end? 
 
 12. With what movements are the names of Howard, Wilberforce, and Romilly, 
 identified?] 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 AN EPOCH OF REFORM. 
 
 [Tliis is pre-eminently the epoch of Reform. Within the period of ten years, we have 
 the Repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, the Roman Catholic Emancipation Bill, 
 the Reform Bill, Abolition of Slavery, Reform of the Poor Laws, and of the Municipal 
 system, not to mention a number of minor but useful measures. Tlie cliief interest 
 centres about the Reform Bill of Lord John Russell, for mainly through the passage of 
 this measure were other reforms possible. It will be necessary to go into greater 
 details about all the measures we have mentioned, and it is advisable to point out the 
 fact that the Reform Bill was passed only by the threatened exercise of the royal 
 prerogative, to create peers in sufficient numbers to carry the Bill through the House 
 of I,-''vd8. This power of creating peers is a safety-valve of the English Constitution. 
 A t Sew of the long and eventually successflil struggle to abolish slavery, would be 
 
126 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap, XIX. 
 
 here in place ; also explanations of the working of the Poor Laws. Among prominent 
 persons, wb find George IV., William IV., Queen Caroline, Lord Brougham, Canning, 
 O'Connell, Earl Grey, Lord John Russell, Wellington, and Peel. Of these, the most 
 interesting are the brilliant Canning, the eloquent and impulsive O'Connell, the ver- 
 satile and courageous Brougham, the conservative Wellington, and the prudent, patri- 
 otic, and wise Rnssell and Peel. Some mention should be made of the War of Greek 
 Independence, and the French Revolution of 1830. The first of these events is con- 
 nected with the name of Lord Byron, the poet ; whilst the second seriously affected 
 public opinion in England, and hastened Parliamentary Reform. 
 
 JJe/erences .•• -Molesworth's " History of England," May's "Constitutional History," 
 McCarthy's " History of our Own Times," and " Epoch of Reform." Mackenzie's " 19th 
 Century," Earl Stanhope's " Memoirs of Peel," "Greville Memoirs," Thackeray's and 
 McCarthy's " Four Georges," Fitzgerald's " Life of George IV.," Martineau's " History 
 of the Peace."] 
 
 1. George I V„ and Queen Caroline. -In 1811 George III. be- 
 came incurably insane, and the Prince of Wales was proclaimed 
 regent. Nine years later the poor king died, and the courtly but 
 immoral prince, whom his flatterers called "the first gentleman in 
 Europe," came to the throne as George IV. His accession took 
 place at a time of much disaffection, owing to the depression of 
 trade, the burden of war taxation, and the indifference of the 
 government to reforms which had long become urgent. Public 
 discontent soon found a subject upon which to vent itself. This 
 was the unhappy domestic relations of the king, who, in 181 8, had 
 separated from his wife, Caroline of Brunswick, and now re- 
 fused to let her be crowned as his queen. To the popular mind 
 Queen Caroline was an injured woman, and this just feeling was 
 intensified when the king bade his ministers bring into the House 
 of Lords a Bill for Divorce, on the ground of unchastity. The 
 queen was ably defended by Lord Brougham ; but the bill passed 
 the House of Lords, though by so small a majority that it was, to 
 the great joy of the people, abandoned. The unfortunate queen 
 presented herself at Westminster Abbey on the occasion of her 
 husband's coronation, but was refused admittance, and this indig- 
 nity so broke her spirit that she died a few days afterwards. 
 
 2. Catholic Emancipation (1829).— Other agitations occurred 
 at this period, in connection with the efforts of an aggressive Radi- 
 cal party to press measures of reform upon Parliament. But these 
 agitations were partly allayed by returning prosperity, and by the 
 adoption, through the influence of Lord Canning and Mr. Huskis- 
 SON, of measures lessening the restrictions on trade and commerce 
 
A.D. 1829.] AN EPOCH OF REFORM. 127 
 
 followed by the long-sought removal of the unjust laws against 
 Dissenters and Catholics, and, later on, by a reform of the system 
 of Parliamentary representation. Some of these measures were 
 wrung from unwilling administrations, whose chiefs, fearing the 
 advance of revolutionary principles, had long opposed them, and 
 were supported in their opposition by the king. But Catholic 
 emancipation was a measure of justice that had so long been with- 
 held that rebellion seemed imminent had it not now been granted. 
 Already a formidable organization existed in Ireland, led by 
 Daniel O'Connell, an eloquent Roman Catholic barrister, whose 
 object was to secure political freedom and the repeal of repressive 
 Acts against Catholics. In 1828, a Bill was passed Abolition of 
 
 freeing Protestant Dissenters from the disabilities to the Test and 
 
 ,rr. ^ ^ Corporation 
 
 which they had been subjected by the Test and Cor- Acts, 
 
 AD 1828 
 
 poration Acts of Charles II., that had closed the public ' " 
 service to all but members of the Church of England. But Catholics 
 were still prevented, by the Disabling Act of 1678, from sitting 
 in Parliament unless they disavowed the chief doctrines of their 
 Church. It was to remove this disability that O'Connell and the 
 Catholic Association laboured ; and the election of 
 O'Connell just then to the House of Commons com- cathoifc° 
 pelled the government to pass the Catholic Relief ^ITt'^A KS 
 Bill, which enabled Roman Catholics to sit in Par- 
 liament, and, with some minor exceptions, to hold office in the 
 State and in the army. The Bill was introduced by the Tory 
 administration of the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, 
 and was carried through both Houses in March, 1829. But the 
 \neasure was for a time so unpopular that it cost Peel his seat in 
 Parliament, and in the following year helped to drive the Tories 
 from office, and bring back to power the Whigs — or Liberals, as 
 they now came to be called. 
 
 3. Death of George IV., and Accession of William IV.— In 
 
 the midst of these s'^ruggles for religious equality and parliamen- 
 tary reform, the king vi.ed at Windsor, whither his unpopularity and 
 bad health had driven him. Many are the blemishes on George 
 IV.'s character. The little of good in him was sadly marred by 
 sensual indulgence, cowardice, and falsehood. Having left no 
 heirs, he was succeeded by his eldest surviving brother, William 
 
128 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 IV., known as the " Sailor King." William was sixty- five years 
 old when he came to the throne, and reigned seven years, during 
 which his warm heart and genial manners won him the love of the 
 people. 
 
 4. The Reform Bill.— With the accession of William IV. came 
 up once more the irrepressible question of the reform of Parlia- 
 ment. Wellington, who was Prime Minister, and opposed to the 
 movement, had to give way to the reforming spirit of the age ; 
 and a new administration took office under Earl Grey, who had 
 long advocated reform. The great evil complained of was that 
 the rising manufacturing towns and large centres of population 
 were unrepresented in Parliament, while many members were 
 returned by boroughs which were completely under the control of 
 some great lord or wealthy man, who owned the landed property 
 in the borough, and was thus able to nominate any person he wished 
 as a representative. These nominations were openly bought and 
 sold ; and some of the greatest men in political life owed their 
 seats in Parliament to this system of purchase and nomination. 
 Electoral rights were exceedingly varied ; in many towns the right 
 being confined to a small and often corrupt body of men, called 
 the "corporation." As instances of defects in the parliamentary 
 representation of the time, it may be said that one of these so- 
 called boroughs contained a single house ; "its owner, if he chose, 
 might send his footman to the House of Commons. Another 
 borough was a phantom — Old Sarum, on Salisbury Plain, a city 
 in the olden times, now represented by a field or two and a clump 
 of trees. The owner of the trees and fields sent up two members 
 to sit and legislate at Westminster !" To remedy this state of 
 things. Lord John Russell, a member of Earl Grey's cabinet, 
 brought forward a measure to adjust more fairly the representa- 
 tion, and bring the composition of the House of Commons into 
 harmony with the altered circumstances of the country. Russell's 
 Reform Bill was introduced into the House of Commons in 
 March, 1831 ; but being defeated on its second reading, Parliament 
 was dissolved and a new one elected. In the next Parliament the 
 measure was carried by a large majority in the Commons, but was 
 thrown out in the Lords. Its rejection created great excitement 
 in the country, which warmly resented the resistance of the Upper 
 
A.D. 1832.] AN EPOCH OP REFORM. 129 
 
 House to the popular will as expressed in the Lower Chamber. 
 In the following session, however, after many weeks' stormy de- 
 bate, during which the ministry resigned but were 
 recalled to office, the Bill was passed by both Houses Bin*i|D°i832. 
 and became law. By its operation, over fifty boroughs, 
 which had previously returned two members each, were dis- 
 franchised (that is, deprived of representation in Parliament) ; 
 while one member was taken away from each of thirty other 
 boroughs. On the other hand, sixty-five new members were given 
 to the counties ; twenty towns were for the first time represented ; 
 and as many more, having large populations, were each given two 
 members. The franchise was also extended ; for householders, 
 paying an annual rental of ;^io, were now entitled to a vote in the 
 boroughs ; and tenants of land of the annual rental of ^50 were 
 given a vote in the counties. Similar Acts were passed for Scot- 
 land and Ireland ; and throughout the kingdom the middle classes 
 now came to have a voice in the governing of the country. 
 
 5. Abolition of Slavery.— After reforming the representative 
 system, Parliament undertook another memorable measure of this 
 reign. This was the Abolition of Slavery in the British depen- 
 dencies. The earnestness which characterized the legislation of 
 the time is clearly seen in the passing of this beneficent measure ; 
 for, to give effect to its provisions, Parliament voted twenty millions 
 sterling to compensate the slave owners of the British West Indies 
 for the liberation of their slaves. By this Act, which was passed 
 in 1833, some 800,000 slaves obtained their freedom, and Britain 
 purged herself of the guilt of trading in, or holding as chattels, 
 human beings. 
 
 6. Other Kefonus- — The legislation of the period was marked 
 by the passing of several other important measures, one of which 
 was the reform of the POOR LAWS, which had come into existence 
 in the reign of Elizabeth. In many districts of the country 
 pauperism had become alarmingly prevalent ; and labourers, in- 
 stead of earning a fair wage, were let out to employers at a few 
 shillings a week, while their families were supported by the parish. 
 This vicious system of relief, which encouraged indolence and vice, 
 was forbidden by the new POOR Law Act, which came into force 
 in 1834 ; and henceforth those who were able to work, and pro- 
 
 10 
 
130 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 fessed to be unable to find employment, were required to enter the 
 workhouse and do a certain amount of labour for each meal. The 
 effect of the Act was to relieve the Poor Rates of heavy burdens 
 and to raise the peasantry in the scale of industry and self-reliance. 
 In the following year, another wise measure of domestic reform 
 was passed, the Municipal Reform Bill, which provided for 
 the better administration of justice in towns and boroughs, and gave 
 to the ratepayers the right to elect town-councillors, who were 
 privileged to choose their own chief magistrate and other local 
 officers. Other reforms restricted the labour of children in factories 
 and provided for their education ; further modified the severity of 
 the Criminal Code ; and secured a reduction of the Paper Duty, and 
 the consequent extension of the influence of the Press. While Par- 
 '"ament was laudably engaged in effecting these reforms, William 
 I V , died in June, 1837, and was succeeded by Victoria, the daughter 
 of his deceased brother Edward, Duke of Kent. This event 
 severed Hanover from the British Empire ; for, by the Salic law, 
 a female is not allowed to occupy the Hanoverian throne, and it 
 passed to the Duke of Cumberland, a brother of the late king. 
 
 [I Describe the character of George IV. Give incidents in his career bearing on 
 your description. 
 
 2. In what condition were the labouring classes at the accession of George IV ? How 
 did their discontent exhibit itself? 
 
 3. What led to the repeal of the Test and Corporations Acts, and to the passage of 
 the Roman Catholic Emancipation Bill ? 
 
 4. Sketch the incidents connected with the Reform Bill of 1832, and show how the 
 House of Lords was compelled to pass it, 
 
 5. What changes did the Reform Bill make ? State the principal clauses, and point 
 out what classes of the community were affected by it. 
 
 6. Write explanatory notes on the Abolition of Slavery, Reform of the Poor Laws, 
 and the Municipal Reform Bill. 
 
 7. What effect had the i)assago of the Catholic Relief Bill on the political fortunes of 
 the Tory party ? Show why this effect was produced. 
 
 8. Mention any foreign events that affected English public opinion in the reigns of 
 George IV. and William IV. 
 
 9. What do you consider the prfn'ilpal features in the characters of Brougham. 
 O'Coouell, Wellington, Russell, and Peel U 
 
A.D. 1837.] GROWTH OP DEMOCRACY. 131 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY. 
 
 [The Reform Bill of 1832 extended the franchise to the middle classes, but left out 
 the great mass of the labouring population. The Reform Bills of 1867 and 1885 have 
 given the right to vote to nearly every male adult capable of exercising thaii right 
 intelligently. In addition to the extension of the franchise, many anomalies in the dis- 
 tribution of seats have been corrected. The great feature in the reign of Victoria is the 
 growth of democracy, or government by the people. That the welfare of tlie masses 
 is constantly sought in legislation, is shown by the Repeal of the Corn Laws, the 
 extension of the Franchise, and the passing of Educational Acts giving almost free 
 elementary education to the people. Besides, many important sanitary laws and a host 
 of minor measures have been passed, all intended to protect the riglits of mechanics, 
 operatives, and labourers of every description. The teacher in dealing with this, 
 generally the least known period in English History, should devote considerable time 
 and attention to Irish affairs— as very important legislation has, to the present date, 
 taken place with reference to the Church and Land questions in Ireland. The Chartist 
 agitation deserves notice, inasmuch as most of the Chartist demands have since been 
 granted by Parliament. It may be necessary to give more details about the Reform 
 Bills of recent date, and the Com Law agitation. Modern literature ought to receive 
 more extended notice ; also modern material and scientific progress. Abundant mate- 
 rial for interesting tales and descriptions will be found in connection witli the Crimean 
 War, the Indian Mutiny, and the romantic career of General Gordon. Read with pupils 
 the poems Zlebane, and The Road to the Trenches (3rd Reader.) For life-like studies 
 of great public men, read McCarthy's " History of our Own Times." The teacher 
 should make the pupils acquainted with the personal characteristics of Cobden, Bright, 
 Peel, Russell, Palmerston, Disraeli (Beaconsfteld,) Gladstone, and Prince Albert. 
 
 References .'—May's " Constitutional History," McCarthy's " History of Our Own 
 Times," Mackenzie's "19th Century," Molesworth's "History of England," Martin's 
 "Life of the Pnace Consort," Morley's "Life of Cobden," Ashley's " Life of Palmerston," 
 Trevelyan's "Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay," Kinglake's " Crimean War ;" and 
 Mrs. Oliphant's, Taine's, and Morley's " English Literature."] 
 
 1. Queen Victoria.— The Princess Victoria came to the throne 
 In her nineteenth year. The young 
 queen had been carefully educated by 
 her mother, the Duchess of Kent. 
 She brought to the duties of her elevat- 
 ed position a discreet and virtuous 
 mind, good business habits, and a 
 hearty desire to promote the well-being 
 of her people. In 1840, Her Majesty 
 married her cousin. Prince Albert, 
 of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha, upon whom 
 she subsequently conferred the title of Qdeen Victoria. 
 
 Prinee Consort. The union proved a singularly happy one, and 
 
132 PUBLIC. SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XX. 
 
 the intelligent aid Prince Albert gave the queen in her duties as 
 a constitutional ruler was of much benefit to the nation. 
 
 2. The Chartists.— The beginning of the queen's reign was 
 marked by much political disturbance, owing to distress among the 
 lower classes, and to the agitations of a number of Radical reformers, 
 called Chartists, because they embodied their demands in what 
 was termed a " People's Charter." Among other things, the Chart- 
 ists demanded that every man should have a vote; 
 
 fheChSSr?^ that voting should be by ballot, (instead of "open 
 voting," which led to bribery and intimidation of elec- 
 tors) ; that there should be annual parliaments, and that members 
 should be paid for attending them ; that the property qualifica- 
 tion for seats in the House of Commons should be abolished ; and 
 that the country should be divided into equal electoral districts. 
 Some of these demands have since been complied with ; but, at 
 this time, they were so violently insisted upon, and with such 
 seditious language, that the Government resisted them, and pun- 
 ished the leaders of the movement. At a later period (1848) 
 Chartism again reared its head ; but the wise measures of Gov- 
 ernment in the direction of Free-trade, and the growing confi- 
 dence of the people in the way they were governed, deprived the 
 movement of its revolutionary character, and ranged against it the 
 forces of law and order. The disturbance soon subsided, and 
 many of the abuses complained of by the Chartists and other 
 agitators of the period were in time met by peaceful and effectual 
 remedies. 
 
 3. Repeal of the Corn-Laws.— Side by side with the Chartist 
 agitation went for a time that for the Repeal of the Corn-Laws. 
 These laws imposed heavy duties on the importation of foreign 
 grain, and this made bread dear and created discontent, particu- 
 larly among the poorer classes. In 1838, an Anti-Corn Law 
 League was formed in Manchester. This organization, with its 
 zealous leaders Richard Cobden and John Bright, did much to 
 make free-trade principles acceptable, and eventually secured the 
 abolition of protective duties on breadstuffs. At first, the League 
 met with much opposition, for it was argued that English agricul- 
 ture should be encouraged, and that protective duties were neces- 
 sary to make the home-growing of corn profitable. But more 
 
A.D. 1855.] GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY. 133 
 
 enlightened views at length spread, and so influenced public 
 opinion, that Parliament was forced to grapple with the question. 
 The failure just then of the potato crop in Ireland, which caused a 
 famine in the island, gave force to the arguments of the free-traders 
 in corn and hastened the action of Government. Sir Robert 
 Peel, the Conservative Prime Minister, was at first unwilling to 
 move in the matter. Finally he introduced a Bill in Parliament to 
 Repeal the Corn-Laws, which was carried in June „ , .„ 
 
 „ , , , . • , , , , 1 , . Repeal of the 
 
 1846, though It met with a lengthened and bitter Corn-Laws, 
 
 opposition. This triumph of sound policy brought to 
 
 the millions of the British peo^Je the boon of untaxed food, though 
 
 it led to the downfall of Peel and the ministry that was responsible 
 
 for the measure. 
 
 4. The Crimean War (1854-1856).— The peace which had lasted 
 with but little interruption since the battle of Waterloo was now 
 (1854) broken by a war with Russia. The cause of the war was 
 the quarrel of the Russian emperor Nicholas with the Sultan of 
 Turkey, because the latter refused him the protectorate of the 
 Greek Christians in his European dominions. But Nicholas's real 
 object was the dismemberment of Turkey. To this England would 
 not consent ; and for the security of Europe she declared war 
 against Russia. In this war she was joined by France, then under 
 the emperor Napoleon III., and, later on, by the small kingdom of 
 Sardinia. The chief scene of hostilities was the Crimean peninsula, 
 in the Black Sea, though the English fleet operated ^^ 
 
 in the Baltic also. One of the first events of the war Alma, 
 was the Battle of the Alma, in which the allies *'^ ' 
 forced the Russian position on the heights of the river of that 
 name, and then invested Sebastopol. To the south 
 of this Russian stronghold, above the harbour of inkermann, 
 Balaklava, occurred the famous English cavalry ^^^ |^ ^^5*^ 
 " charge of the Light Brigade ;" and shortly after- 
 wards was fought the Battle of Inkermann, won by the com- 
 bined forces of England and France. These engagements were 
 followed by the lengthened siege and bombardment ^ tu f 
 of Sebastopol. The English troops suffered greatly Sebastopoi, 
 during the severe winter of 1854-55. Finally the ^^ '' 
 defences of the town and harbour were taken by storm, and the 
 
134 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XX. 
 
 war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Paris, in March, 
 1856. By the treaty the Christian subjects of the Sultan were 
 placed under the protection of England, France, Russia, Austria, 
 and Sardinia ; and the Black Sea was closed to the Russian iw 'it. 
 
 6. The Indian Mutiny.— In the following year (1857) occurred 
 a Mutiny of the Sepoys, or native troops of India, in the service 
 of the East India Company. A variety of causes led to the revolt* 
 the chief of which was the fanaticism of the Hindoo soldiery, 
 coupled with native dislike of English domination. Trouble broke 
 out first at Meerut, and then Delhi was seized by the insur- 
 gents ; after which a horrible massacre of Europeans 
 Massacre of ° . / 
 
 Cawnpore, took place at Cawnpore, and the British Residency 
 u y. • jj^ LucKNOW was besieged. To relieve the latter and 
 quell the rising, Sir Henry Havelock marched with a body of 
 British troops from Allahabad, routed the forces of the chief rebel, 
 Nana Sahib, and, reinforced by Sir James Outram, fought his 
 way to Lucknow. Here the British relieving forces were them- 
 selves besieged by masses of the insurgents, until the opportune 
 Relief and arrival of Sir Colin Campbell, afterwards Lord Clyde, 
 
 Capture of when the mutineers were suppressed and punished, and 
 
 Lucknow, - ,*,_,. 
 
 Nov., 1857, the country was restored to order. The mutiny was 
 
 arc , 858. made infamous by brutal outrages and massacres, com- 
 mitted on European men, women, and children. It is calculated 
 that 50,000 native troops took part in the rebellion, and for a time 
 there was grave danger of Britian losing her Indian Empire. In 
 the following year, an Act of Parliament abolished the East India 
 Company's rule, and transferred the government of all the terri- 
 tories to the Crown. The country is now governed by a Viceroy, 
 assisted by an Executive Council, under the control of a member 
 of the British Cabinet, the Secretary of State for India. 
 
 6. Beform Bill of 1867.— The extension of Parliamentary repre- 
 sentation continued to be the pressing want of the period, owing to 
 the fact, that the Reform Bill of 1832 left large numbers of the 
 working-classes unrepresented in Parliament. From 1859 to 1867, 
 the matter was repeatedly brought up in the Commons and agitated 
 in the country ; and two administrations fell in endeavouring to pass 
 a measure of Reform. The second administration which was com- 
 pelled to resign on this measure was that of Lord John Russell, 
 
A.D. 1881.] GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY. 135 
 
 a great leader of the Liberal or Whig party, whose Bill, introduced 
 
 in the Commons by Mr. Gladstone, was defeated in 1866. Next 
 
 year, however, the Conservatives, under Lord Derby „ 
 
 Second 
 and Mr. DiSRAELl, succeeded, with the aid of the HiformDUl, 
 
 Liberals, in passing the Reform Bill of 1867. By " 
 
 the provisions of the Bill votes were given to all householders in 
 
 towns who paid Poor Rates, and to lodgers occupying rooms with 
 
 a rental of ;^io. In counties, the franchise was conferred on those 
 
 who paid a rental of at least ;^I2. A redistribution of seats was 
 
 also made, and additional ones were created, so that the large 
 
 centres of population might be more fairly represented. A like 
 
 readjustment of the franchise was made in the following year in 
 
 Scotland and Ireland, the former receiving eight, and the latter 
 
 five, additional members. In connection with elections, it may 
 
 here be said, that, in 1872, the Ballot Act came into operation, 
 
 which established a system of secret voting by ballot (votes being 
 
 recorded by means of voting-papers), instead of the old method of 
 
 open voting. 
 
 7. Disestablishment of the Irish Church —The general elec- 
 tions of 1868, held under the new Reform Acts, placed a Liberal 
 administration in power, with Mr. Gladstone as Prime Minister. 
 One of the questions which brought his Government into office 
 was the Disestablishment and Disendowment of the Irish Pro- 
 testant Church — a new measure of justice proposed by Mr. Glad- 
 stone for Ireland. By the Act of Union (1800) it was provided 
 that the churches of England and Ireland should be united into 
 one Protestant Episcopal Church ; but as this was the Church of 
 the minority of the Irish people, it was considered a wrong to con- 
 tinue to maintain it as an Established Church. Mr. Gladstone 
 accordingly introduced a Bill in Parliament to disconnect it with 
 the State, and put it on a footing of equality with the Roman 
 Catholic Church in Ireland. The Act was passed in the session 
 of 1869, and came into force in January, 1871. By its provisions, 
 no Irish bishop now sits in the House of Lords ; while part of the 
 
 revenues of the Disestablished Church are devoted to , . ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Irish Land 
 
 relieving distress among the poor m Ireland. Sub- Acts of i870 
 
 sequently, Mr. Gladstone, by his two Irish Land 
 
 Bills (1870 and 1881) has done further and substantial justice to 
 
136 PUBLIC SCHOOL EN0LI8H HISTORY. [Chap. XX. 
 
 Ireland, in recognizing the right of tenants to compensation for 
 improvements made on their holdings, and in securing for them a 
 greater fixity of tenure and lower rents. In large measure he has 
 removed the grievances of Irish agricultural tenants, though the 
 country remains in a restless and troubled condition. 
 
 8. The Education Act (1870).— Among the important measures 
 of recent years must be mentioned Mr. Forster's Elementary 
 Education Act^ whioh made provision, through the machinery of 
 local School Boards, for the thorough, systematic education of 
 all children between the agei> of five and thirteen. This work is 
 undertaken mainly at the public expense, the Act empowermg the 
 School Boards to erect and maintain schools out of a rate levied 
 for that purpose. Hitherto the education of the children of the 
 poor had been carried on through the voluntary efforts of the 
 Established and other Churches, and of certain societies ; but by 
 the more efficient system set up by Parliament the great work of 
 dispelling ignorance and fitting the youth of the land for the prac- 
 tical duties of life is now undertaken on a comprehensive scale as 
 a national duty. 
 
 9. Recent Minor Wars— England's extensive commercial and 
 political interest abroad, and her leading position among the nations 
 of the world, have led her in recent years into various minor wars. 
 A few of these may here be briefly mentioned. In i868 occurred 
 the Abyssinian War, rendered necessary for the liberation of 
 certain British missionaries and others, whom the king of Abyssinia 
 had captured and unjustly imprisoned. After overcoming great 
 natural difficulties, a British expedition at length made its way into 
 the heart of Abyssinia, and stormed King Theodore's rock fortress 
 at Magdala, and released the captives. In 1874, occurred the 
 ASHANTEE War, on the Gold Coast of Africa; in 1878-80, a war 
 in Afghanistan ; and in 1879, a war in South Africa, against the 
 Zulus. These wars were undertaken either to assert Britain's 
 power in the protection of her subjects, or to maintain the integrity 
 and peace of her vast Colonial Empire. Similarly, England became 
 involved, in 1882, in a WAR IN Egypt, which has had a rather 
 unfortunate ending. A revolt of the Egyptian troops, under Arabi 
 Pasha, threatened the seizure of the Suez Canal, England's high- 
 way to India, and to protect the canal, England sent her fleet to 
 
A.D. 1885.] GROWTH OP DEMOCRACY. 137 
 
 bombard Alexandria, then held by the rebels, and an army to sup- 
 picss the revolt and occupy the country. When this was accom- 
 plished, troul)le broke out among the native tribes of the Soudan, 
 led by the Maiidi, and England was drawn into further fij^hting, 
 with the view chiefly to relieve an English officer, named (General 
 Gordon, who was sent into the interior on a pacific mission for 
 the Government. Unhappily, Gordon was killed by the natives 
 at Khartoum ; and the British Expedition, owing to the unhealthi- 
 ness of the climate, returned to the coast and was recalled to 
 England. 
 
 10. Extension of the Franchise. — Very recently a further 
 measure of Parliamentary reform was granted by the Liberal 
 Administration of Mr. Gladstone, which gave the franchise in coun- 
 ties to all householders and permanent lodgers on the same con- 
 ditions on which the franchise had in 1867 been given to boroughs. 
 This was effected by the Franchise Bill of 1885, the passing of 
 which caused great excitement, and led to a collis- 
 ion between the Commons and the House of Lords, Redlstrfbu^ion 
 which was overcome by judicious concessions. The ^''^' \'^^^ 
 measure enfranchises the bulk of the working-classes 
 
 and gives them a substantial interest in the legislation of the 
 country. The proportion of votes to population is now about one 
 in seven ; while before the passing of the first Reform Bill, in 1832, 
 it was one in fifty. The Franchise Bill was accompanied by a 
 Redistribution Bill, which increased the number of members of 
 Parliament and effected a greater equalization of electoral districts. 
 
 11. Character of the Period.— In no other age of England's 
 history have such giant strides been made as in this, in all that 
 contributes to the security, the comfort, and the prosperity of the 
 people. Science has made wonderful discoveries, J^iven powerful 
 aid to manufactures and commerce, and contributed richly to the 
 thought and the activities of the time. The various applications of 
 steam-power and of electricity, and the many inventions and other 
 adaptations of the period, have wrought a revolution as marvellous 
 as it has been beneficent. The progress of education, the spread 
 of knowledge, and the growth of the influence of the press, are 
 the chief glory of the age and the most remarkable instances of its 
 tendencies. These great agencies of enlightenment not only have 
 
138 PUBLIC SCHOOL ENGLISH HISTORY. [Chap. XX, 
 
 had their effect in contributing to the mental and moral advance- 
 ment of the nation, but have been instrumental in reforming 
 abuses, in giving birth to countless philanthropies, and in elevating 
 and enriching the life of the people. Nor has their least effect 
 been produced in the domain of legislation. By the reforms in 
 Parliament, democracy has fairly entered upon its rights, and the 
 masses are now, in the main, honestly, wisely, and happily gov- 
 erned. 
 
 12. Literature. — The Victorian era has been productiv(; of many 
 great writers in almost every department of thought. The period 
 is rich in men, and if they do not stand out in relief like Shakes- 
 peare, Milton, and Bacon, it is because they have as yet only a 
 contemporary reputation, and because culture is more generally 
 diffused, and the average intellectual ability is higher. In his- 
 torians, divines, poets, novelists, essayists, journalists, scientists, 
 and critical and philosophical writers, the nineteenth century can 
 count men of high excellence, untiring industry, and praiseworthy 
 devotion to literature and to special pursuits. Among the more 
 eminent names, those of the poets, Tennyson and Browning, 
 deserve especial mention. The latter, if too metaphysical to be 
 popular, is not the less worthy of the student's attention for the 
 profound thought that underlies his often rugged verse. Tenny- 
 son's lyrical sweetness and broad sympathies, on the other hand, 
 make him a true singer and master of his art. In history, the chief 
 authors of the period are Hallam, a learned writer on the English 
 Constitution ; Macaulay, a brilliant essayist and historian of 
 England in the seventeenth century ; and Carlyle, a philosopher, 
 biographer, and annalist. The latter's best known works are his 
 biography of Oliver Cromwell^ and his history of the French 
 Revolution. In fiction, the three most distinguished names are 
 Thackeray, Dickens, and the accomplished lady who has 
 written so well and thoughtfully under the pen-name of George 
 Eliot. All the authors whose names we have mentioned are 
 dead, save Tennyson and Browning, who remain the great living 
 representatives of that grand English poetry which has done so 
 much to elevate the national character and refine the human heart. 
 
 [1. What claim had Queen Victoria to the crown ? What has been the character o. 
 her rule ? 
 2. Name the six points of the Charter. How many of these have since l)ecome law ? 
 
A.D. 1886.] GROWTH OP DEMOCRACY. 139 
 
 3. What caused the Chartist agitation, and how did it end ? 
 
 4. What were the Corn Laws ? Relate the principal events tliat led to tlieir Repeal. 
 Has England Free Trade now ? 
 
 5. How did the Repeal of the Com Laws affect the political position of Sir Robert 
 Peel ? Mention any other instance in which Peel acted against the wishes of his party. 
 
 6. Briefly state the causes and the results of the Crimean War, and of the Indiiiu 
 Mutiny. 
 
 7. Give the provisions of the Reform Bills of 1867 and 1885. 
 
 8. What important legislation for Ireland has talcen place in the reign of Victoria ? 
 
 9. Describe the principal characteristics of Peel, Bright, Disraeli, Paliierston, and 
 Gladstone. 
 
 10. Show that the leading feature of the age is the " Growth of Democracy." 
 
 11. What great inventions have been introduced since 1840? 
 
 12. Give an account of the principal English writers in the 19th century?) 
 
L. 
 
PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 EARLY SETTLEMENT OF CANADA. 
 
 [Hints to the Teacher.— The teacher is recommended to supplement the con- 
 tents of this chapter by reading or relating to the pupils interesting tales or anecdotes 
 connected with the early voyages of discovery of the English, French, and Spaniards 
 to the New World. Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New World," and Pres- 
 i^ott's histories of Mexico and Peru, might be consulted. The Indian tribes of North 
 America, especially the Iroquois, Hurons, and Algonquin?, should receive considerable 
 attention. Their physical appearance, character, habits, customs, and religion should 
 be explained and freely illustrated. For an animated and full description of the prin- 
 cipal Indian tribes consult Parkman's " Jesuits in North America." Read with pupils 
 Irving's "Discovery of America," and McQee's "Jacques Cartier" (4th Reader). 
 
 References: — With row's, Archer's, Bell's Garneau's, and Christie's histories of 
 Canada.] 
 
 1. Discovery of America. — The honour of discovering America 
 belongs to Christopher Columbus, a Genoese mariner, who, 
 towards the close of the fifteenth century, sailed from a port in 
 Spain in search of a western route to the East Indies. Before 
 Columbus's day, the existence of a Western Continent was a 
 dream ; though, as early as the tenth century, some hardy Norse- 
 men are supposed to have crossed the Atlantic, by way of Iceland 
 and Greenland, and discovered Newfoundland and the north- 
 eastern coasts of America. In A.D. 1492, Columbus first sighted 
 San Salvador, one of the Bahama Islands, and in ^ , , 
 
 1 1 11 Tir T 1- Columbus 
 
 subsequent voyages he explored the West Indian discovers 
 
 archipelago, the Gulf of Mexico, and the coasts of the '^ ' 
 
 mainland. The appearance of much of the American continent at 
 
 this period was not unlike that of Britain when Cassar landed on 
 
 its shores. It was covered by dense forests, in whose recesses 
 
 roamed wild animals and equally wild and savage tribes. The 
 
 latter Columbus called Indians, in the mistaken notion that he 
 
142 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. I. 
 
 had reached the East Indies, then looked upon as a land of fabled 
 wealth. The fame of Columbus's exploits stirred all Europe and 
 excited other adventurous spirits to engage in exploration. One 
 of these, Amerigo Vespucci, a native of Florence, followed in the 
 track of Columbus, and rather unfairly succeeded in giving his 
 name to the continent. Meanwhile, Henry VII., of England, had 
 aided the Cabots, father and son, to fit out two expeditions from 
 
 Bristol, to explore the coasts of the New World. 
 John and Se- The result of these enterprises was the discovery of 
 a!d"*1497-98.*' Newfoundland and Labrador, and England's claim 
 
 to the possession of the greater portion of the North 
 American continent. France, about this time also, entered the 
 field of New World discoveiy, for in the year, A.D. 1524, Ver- 
 AZZANl sailed down the eastern coast of America, and named it 
 New France in honour of the French king. Ten years after- 
 wards, maritime enterprise disclosed the noble St. Lawrence River, 
 and the eastern portion of the great domain which we now call 
 Canada.* 
 
 2. Jacques Cartier.— In 1534, Francis I., of France, sent 
 Jacques Cartier, a famous sea-captain of St Malo, to prosecute 
 discovery on the north-eastern coasts of America. Cartier sailed 
 to Newfoundland, and, entering the Straits of Belle Isle, found 
 himself in what is now known as the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Land- 
 ing at Gasp6, he erected a cross, bearing the arms of France, to 
 mark his taking possession of the country for the French king. 
 Next year, Cartier came again to the country, and learning from 
 the Indians of a Great River that ran through Canada, he 
 determined to explore it. Entering the Gulf ON St. Lawrence's 
 Day, 1535, he named it and the river he now proceeded to 
 ascend in honour of that patron saint. In September, he arrived 
 off the headland, subsequently called Cape Diamond, and the 
 Indian village of Stadacona, near by what is now the city and 
 citadel of Quebec. Continuing his voyage, Cartier reached 
 Hochelaga, a palisaded village, situated at the base of a forest- 
 clad mountain. This he called Mount Royal, whence the 
 
 * There Is a little uncertainty in regard to the origin of this word "Canada." 
 Some derive It from the Spanish words Aca Nada — " here is nothing"; while others 
 af&rm that it is a modification of the Algonquin word Kanata — " a cluster of huts." 
 
A.D. 1541.] EARLY SETTLEMENT OP CANADA. 143 
 
 modern name, Montreal. After a brief stay, Cartier returned 
 to Stadacona, where he and his crew spent the winter. In the 
 spring he set out for France, where he had to wait some six years 
 before he again got permission to set sail for the new found conti- 
 nent. In 1 541, Francis I. appointed the SiEUR DE ROBERVAL 
 Viceroy of Canada, and commissioned him, with Cartier's assist- 
 ance, to found a French colony in the country and open up trade. 
 Unhappily, neither Cartier's nor Roberval's expeditions were suc- 
 cessful, and France ceased for a time to contest the field against 
 a savage people and an arctic winter. 
 
 3. The Indian Nations of Canada.— The native races of Can- 
 ada are of Algonquin and Huron origin. At an early period, 
 tlie Iroquois seem to have been allied to the Hurons, for both 
 nations have been traced to one parent stock. But history knows 
 them for centuries only as cruel, bitter, and relentless foes. The 
 ancestral home of the Algonquins was the region lying between 
 Lake Superior and Hudson Bay, though scattered bands of this 
 tribe roamed along the shores of the St. Lawrence to the Atlantic, 
 The Hurons originally occupied the territory extending north-west- 
 ward from the mouth of the Ottawa to the inland sea which bears 
 their name. Within historic times, however, they formed settle- 
 ments in the Matchedash peninsula, between Lake Simcoe and 
 the Georgian Bay. The Iroquois, or Five Nation Indians, as 
 they were then called, after their separation from the Hurons 
 found a home in the western part of the State of New York, 
 and from there, for nearly two centuries, harassed the French 
 colony and its Huron allies by incessant, murderous raids. Among 
 such savages — the Red men of the American continent — had the 
 French come. War and hunting were their principal occupations ; 
 they stalked the game through the gloomy forests that overspread 
 the land and enriched the colony with the wealth of the fur-trade. 
 For the pursuit of this trade these " children of the woods " were 
 admirably fitted. Their every sense and instinct seemed to be 
 trained to its acutest point, while tribal wars had inured them to 
 1 -dship and developed in them the highest virtues of endurance 
 and courage. 
 
 4 Ohamplain. — From the period of Cartier's and Roberval's expe- 
 ditions, nearly fifty years elapsed before France renewed her efforts 
 
144 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. I. 
 
 to colonize the New World. About the year 159S the lucrative 
 fur-trade began to be encouraged by Henry IV. of France, who 
 in the brief respite from religious wars was turning his attention 
 
 to colonization and commerce. In 
 1603 Samuel de Champlain, a 
 French naval officer of high character 
 and chivalrous instincts, made his 
 first voyage to Canada in company 
 with PONTGRAVE, a merchant of St. 
 Malo, and together they pushed their 
 way up the St. Lawrence as far as 
 the rapids above Montreal, which 
 Champlain named Lachine, (d^ la 
 Chine) for he thought he had at last 
 Champlain, found a waterway to China. In 1608 
 
 he proceeded to found at Stadacona a fixed trading-post of the 
 merchant company in whose service he had again come to the 
 country. Champlain brought with him among the 
 founded, A.D. colonists a number of artisans, who, on the magnificent 
 headland of Quebec, erected a fort which was to 
 become the refuge of the sadly-menaced little European colony, 
 and was long the centre of French influence and dominion in the 
 New World. After establishing at Quebec this rude outpost of 
 Old France, Champlain set out to expiore other portions of the 
 country. In this he was unfortunately brought into collision with 
 the Iroquois, the inveterate enemies of the Algonquins and Hurons. 
 Proceeding up the St. Lawrence, he met some warriors of the latter 
 tribes, who promised to aid him in his explorations and to trade 
 with his people if he would help them in their conflicts with the 
 Iroquois. To this he thoughtlessly consented. En- 
 Lake Cham- tering the Richelieu river he discovered the lake 
 French^S-^™* which bears his name : here, or rather in the neigh- 
 counter with bourhood of Lake George, Champlain, with his dusky 
 the Iroquois. , -, , ■ r- • 1 1 t • 
 
 allies, had his first encounter with the Iroquois 
 
 braves, and was compelled to witness the accustomed atrocities 
 committed by one Indian tribe on the capiives of another. Some 
 years later, (in A.D. 161 5), he joined a war-party of the Hurons, 
 whom he had gone to visit in their homes on the Georgian Bay, and 
 
A.D. 1635.] EARLY SETTLEMENT OP CANADA. 145 
 
 with them haa a further encounter with the Iroquois. This second 
 act of hostihty on Champlain's part proved most disastrous to the 
 French, as it led the Iroquois to ally themselves with the English 
 on the seaboard, and together, for many long years, to harass the 
 newly-formed colony. But its consequences were more dire, in its 
 accustoming the Indians to the use of fire-arms, and in putting into 
 the hands of the native tribes an additional and powerful weapon 
 to gratify their lust of blood. 
 
 5. Company of One Hundred Associates.— The rivalries of 
 various commercial companies, and the conflicting colonial policy 
 of France, seriously retarded settlement, and were a great vexation 
 to Champlain. In 1627 Cardinal Richelieu, Prime Minister 
 to Louis XIII., cancelled the old trading-charters, and estabhsbed 
 the Company of One Hundred Associates, with power to 
 trade th-oughout New France, from Florida to Hudson Bay. By 
 the terms of the charter the " Hundred Associates " were given 
 the sole right to engap^e in the fur-trade, with control over the 
 shore and inland nsh' ig, and of all commerce with the French 
 settlements in the country. In return for this monopoly, the Com- 
 pany agreed to carry out mechanics and tradesmen to the colony, 
 to settle, within a specified period, some six thousand colonists, 
 and to make provision for the support of a certain number of 
 Catholic clergy. The French king, at the same time, made Cham- 
 plain Governor. Unfortunately for the colony, its seemingly bright 
 prospects were marred by the outbreak of a war between France 
 and England, and the despatch of an English expedition, under 
 Sir David Kirke, to capture Quebec and hold the country. Kirke 
 appeared twice before Quebec, and on the second occasion (A.D. 
 1629), compelled Champlain to surrender that stronghold, and with 
 it the whole territory of New France. The English held the coun- 
 try for three years, when, to the joy of Champlain, it was restored 
 to France, by the Treaty of St. Germaine-en-Laye. Becom- 
 ing master again of the colony, Champlain redoubled his efforts to 
 establish French doftiinion in the New World on a stable basis, lO 
 pacify the dreaded Iroquois, and to extend among the friendly 
 Indian tribes the religion of the Cross. But, on Christmas Day, 
 1635, this great work was interrupted by the death of Champlain; 
 End the colony long mourned its founder and noblest administrator. 
 1). 
 
146 ptruLic SCHOOL CANAntAK history. [Chap. II. 
 
 fExamination Que^itions. — Uelute the priiiLipal events connected with the 
 discovery of Caniula. 
 
 2. Describe the character, custoiua, liahits, and pliyaiuul characteristics of the prin- 
 cipal Indian tri1)cs of Canada. 
 
 3. Point out the regions inhabited by the Ilurons, Algonquins, and Iroquois, respec- 
 tively. 
 
 4. What great services did C'haniplain render Canada? Show the importance of his 
 rule. 
 
 5. Under what circumstances did the French first come into contact with the Iro- 
 quois? Point out the effects i)ro(liicf(l by thesu acts of hostility. 
 
 G. What led to the formation of the " Company of One Hundred Associates " ? How 
 did it fulfil its obligations ? 
 
 7. Under what circumstances was Quebec first captured by the English ? How long 
 did they retain it, and why did they restore it?] 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CONQUEST OF CANADA. 
 
 [The period covered by this chapter abounds in im]X)rtant and interesting facts. 
 The teacher should dwell on the causes of tlie slow progress of the French colony, the 
 heroic self-sactrifice of the French missionaries, the discoveries of explorers like La 
 Salle, and the principal incidents connected with the Conquest of Canada in 1759. 
 The pupil should be given a clear idea of the social life and various occupations of the 
 inhabitants of the colony ; as well as of the form of government existing in New 
 France. Prominent men like Fronteiiac, Bishop Laval, Montcalm, Wolfe, Sir Wni. 
 Johnson, &c., should be noticed. Narrate the story of the Expulsion of the Acadians, 
 as found in Parkman's " Montcalm and Wolfe." Read with the pupils Parkman's 
 "The Heroes of the Long Sault" and "The Heroine of Verchferes" (4th Reader), and 
 Reade's poetic version of the latter ; also, Warburton's " Capture of Quebec " (4th 
 Reader). 
 
 References : — Parkman s "La Salle," " Frontenac," "Jesuits in North America," and 
 "Montcalm and Wolfe;" also Kirby's "Le Chien d'Or," and Lesperance's "The Bas- 
 tonnais."] 
 
 1. Indian Wars. — After the death of Champlain the little French 
 colony on the St. Lawrence made slow progress. During the first 
 half of the seventeenth century the history of Canada may be 
 said to be little more than the chequered history of the French 
 Missions and the frightful record of Indian marauding. As yet, 
 " France in the New World" could boast only of a few trading and 
 military posts, and a limited tract of rudely-cultivated land, in the 
 hands of poor Seigneurs, who carved out their little wilderness 
 holdings on the model of the feudal estates of the mother country. 
 The Hundred Associates had made no serious effort to people the 
 colony ; nor was much accomplished until the company's charter 
 
A.D. 1G60.] CONQUEST OP CANADA. H7 
 
 was cancelled, and the rule of the Fur-traders gave place to an 
 administration by the Crown. After the first English conquest, the 
 colony owed its renewed life to the Church rather than to the 
 soldier or the settler. The Jesuits, with heroic zeal, established 
 several missions among the Indians, and founded at Quebec and 
 Montreal a number of convents and religious seminaries. But the 
 tribal wars of the Indians hindered their work, and through many 
 eventful years seriously jeopardized their lives. Soon danger 
 pressed the colony from all sides, for the dreaded Iroquois were ber.t 
 on its destruction, and no overtures could appease their wrath, or 
 turn them from their bloodthirsty designs on their Huron kin and 
 the unfortunate French who had become their allies. Their enmity 
 finally manifested itself in a design to exterminate the Hurons, in 
 their villages situated between Lake Simcoe and the Georgian Bay. 
 There the French priests had established missions and were striv- 
 ing to win them to Christianity. In 1648-9 the blow fell on the 
 Huron settlements with sudden and appalling force, and the out- 
 posts of the Church were engulfed in the common ruin. The 
 whole Huron nation was almost rooted out and their country laid 
 waste, while the Jesuit Fathers were put to death with fiendish 
 ferocity. Only a small remnant of the Hurons escaped slaughter, 
 and abandoning their country fled for succour, by way of Lake 
 Nipissing and the Ottawa, to Quebec. In 1660 the whole colony 
 was only saved from destruction by the heroism of a handful of 
 Frenchmen, who, though they sacrificed their own lives, for eight 
 days kept the ruthless Iroquois at bay on the Ottawa, and inflicted 
 such losses upon them that they returned to their homes discom- 
 fited. 
 
 2. Royal Government. — The deplorable condition of the colony 
 having at last won sympathy in France, its affiairs were now placed 
 in the hands of a Supreme Council, appointed by the king, 
 with a number of officers Avho were sent out to look after its tem- 
 poral and spiritual welfare. These were (i) a Governor (M. de 
 Mesy), (2) a Royal Intendant (M. Talon), and (3) a Bishop 
 (M. Laval), each of whom was invested with some share of sov- 
 ereign authority. The Governor, who represented the king and 
 was the medium of communication with the Crown, was admin- 
 istrator-in-chief, and had special charge of the external relations 
 
148 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAy HISTORY. [Chap. II. 
 
 of the colony, and absohite control over the military force des- 
 patched from France for its protection. The Intcndant was 
 entrusted with matters pertaining to finance, police, and justice ; 
 and the Bishop had charge of ecclesiastical affairs. All three sat 
 in Council, of which there were five other members, whose duties 
 were to try civil and criminal cases, and to administer justice, 
 according to what is called the Custom of Paris, an unwritten 
 legal code established by long usage in France. The Intendant 
 (M. Talon) by his energetic and large-minded policy did much to 
 advance the agricultural and commercial prospects of the country. 
 Through his instrumentality the colony revived, and its com- 
 merce, which had fallen into the hands of another company of 
 monopolists, was in time set free from many of its obnoxious 
 restrictions. 
 
 3. La Salle. — Before Talon quitted the country, he took steps to 
 extend the dominion of France in the New World towards Hudson 
 Bay, and westward, in the direction of the Great Lakes. In 167 1, 
 he despatched a royal commissioner to Sault Ste. Marie, at the 
 foot of Lake Superior, to assemble the Indians of the region and 
 induce them to place themselves under the protection, and aid the 
 commerce, of the French king. While thus engaged, the commis- 
 sioner heard of the Mississippi River from the Indians ; and 
 Talon entrusted the task of tracking its waters to Father Mar- 
 quette and to M. Joliet, a merchant of Quebec. With infinite 
 toil, these two adventurous spirits reache A the great river they were 
 in search of, and explored it as far south as the Arkansas. Here 
 unfriendly Indian tribes compelled them to return, without being 
 permitted to trace the stream to its outlet. This, however, was 
 accomplished in 1682, by Robert de la Salle, a daring young 
 Frenchman, who descended the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and named the whole country Louisiana, in honour of Louis XIV. 
 To undertake this enterprise. La Salle had been given a grant of 
 Fort Cataraqui (now Kingston), which Frontenac, the Gov- 
 ernor, had erected as a trading-post at the foot of Lake Ontario. 
 In this neighbourhood. La Salle built several vessels for pursuing 
 the fur-trade round the lake, in one of which, in 1697, he sailed for 
 the Niagara River, where he erected a fortified trading-post where 
 Lewi'-i.on now stands. In the same year, after passing the Falls of 
 
A.D. 1682.] CONQUEST OP CANADA. 149 
 
 Niagara, he built a vessel, and in it proceeded to explore Lake 
 Erie and the waterway to the west. The next three years La Salle 
 spent in prosecuting discovery, and opening trade with the Indian 
 tribes round the upper lakes and in the rivers and straits which 
 connect these waters. Finally, in 1682, he launched his canoes on 
 the Illinois River, and proceeded to trace the Mississippi to its 
 mouth. • 
 
 4. Frontenac. — While these enterprises were extending French 
 sway in the west, Count Frontenac, the ablest governor since 
 Champlain's day, was administering tKe affairs of the colony with 
 an iron hand. Frontenac was of noble birth and commanding 
 bearing. His administration was vigorous, though autocratic, and 
 at times capricious. While he remained at the head of affairs the 
 Indian enemies of France were kept in subjection, and had a 
 wholesome fear of his name. Even his colleagues feared him, for 
 he would brook no opposition in the Council, and this led to violent 
 quarrels between him and the Bishop and the Intendant. These 
 discussions arose over the question of the liquor traffic with the 
 Indians, which the Governor, as a matter of policy, permitted, but 
 which the Bishop and his clergy opposed. The matter for a time 
 was settled by the recall of both the Governor and the Intendant. 
 Meanwhile M. DE LA Barre was sent out to the colony as Gover- 
 nor, and about the same time the English appointed Colonel DoN- 
 GAN Governor of New York, a colony which they had taken from 
 the Dutch. Under Dongan, the English on the seaboard began to 
 extend their trade into the interior of the continent, and to divert 
 commerce from the St. Lawrence to the Hudson. This gave rise 
 to keen rivalries between the two European races, and led the 
 English to take sides with the Iroquois in their enmity to the 
 French. The hatred of the Iroquois for the French was at this 
 period increased by the conduct of Denonville, the successor of 
 De La Barre. At a friendly meeting of Iroquois chiefs with De- 
 nonville, at Fort Frontenac, the Governor caused fifty of them to 
 be seized and put in irons ; and, to humour the whim of the king, 
 they were sent to France to work on the galleys. Nor did De- 
 nonville's perfidy end here. Declaring that the tribes of the Five 
 Nation Indians could never be conciliated, and that it was well to 
 extirpate them at once, the Governor proceeded to put his fell pur- 
 
150 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. II. 
 
 pose into effect. With a force of two thousand men, in a fleet of 
 canoes, he entered the Seneca country by the Genesee River, and 
 for ten days ravaged their homes and put many of them cruelly to 
 death. Returning by the Niagara River, he erected and garrisoned 
 a fort at its mouth, and then withdrew to Quebec. A terrible 
 revenge was taken on the French colonists for these infamous 
 acts. The Iroquois descended like a hurricane on the colony, and 
 at Lachine, a little way above Montreal, more than a thousand 
 Frenchmen were surprised over night and massacred. Fort 
 Niagara was razed to the ground, and Fort Frontenac, having to 
 be abandoned, was burned, together with the trading vessels and 
 stores in the port. The colony was now in the greatest jeopardy, 
 and news of this reaching France, Count Frontenac was immedi- 
 ately reinstated in the governorship and despatched to Canada. 
 With him were returned the Iroquois warriors who had been 
 iniquitously captured and taken to France. 
 
 5. Weak State of the Colony.— With Frontenac's return, how- 
 ever, the colony took heart, and his active mind infused new 
 life and vigour into the administration. His first care was to 
 endeavour to restore tranquillity to the country. To bring this 
 about, he saw that he must first punish the English colonists on 
 the seaboard, who were the chief cause of the enmity of the 
 Iroquois. With this design, he caused three separate expeditions 
 to be fitted out, of French and Indians, who by stealth fell upon 
 the border settlements of New York, Maine, and New Hampshire, 
 murdered or took captive many of the settlers, and committed 
 frightful depredations. These marauding expeditions roused the 
 vengeance of the English colonists, and they retaliated by organ- 
 izing a land and naval force to invade Canada. The former 
 moved upon Montreal, by way of Lake Champlain, but accom- 
 plishing nothing, fell back upon Albany. The naval expedition, 
 which was commanded by Sir William Phipps, sailed for 
 Annapolis basin, in Acadia, and took Port Royal. Later in the 
 
 year, the fleet appeared before Quebec, and demanded 
 Phipiw fails to ^ts surrender. Frontenac returned a haughty reply to 
 A D ^690*'*'' *^® demand and opened fire upon the New England 
 
 ships. Phipps now disembarked his land force, and 
 essayed to take Quebec by storm. In this, however, he failed, and 
 
A.D. 1745.] CONQUEST OP CANADA. 151 
 
 the city's assailants were driven in confusion to their boats. Smart- 
 ing under his defeat, Phipps drew off his fleet and returned to 
 Boston. 
 
 6. De Vaudreuil. — The succeeding years, after the failure of 
 Phipps's expedition against Quebec, saw the continuance of the 
 bitter strife between New France and New England. In this 
 cruel warfare, the Indians ranged themselves on both sides, and 
 embittered the struggle by their savage atrocities. For a time, 
 the Treaty of Ryswick gave relief to the colony and a tempor- 
 ary cessation to the Indian feuds. But the " War of the Spanish 
 Succession," in Europe, again embittered the two nations, and 
 plunged the colony in a new ferment. In 1703, the Marquis de 
 Vaudreuil became Governor, and for the next ten years, with 
 much success, defended the colony and advanced its interests. In 
 17 1 3, peace was declared between France and Eng- 
 land, and was ratified by the Treaty of Utrecht, utreciit, 
 
 By this treaty, France was permitted to retain Can- 
 ada, including Cape Breton, and the islands in the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, though she had to surrender Acadia, Newfoundland, 
 and the Hudson Bay Territory. Canada now enjoyed an interval 
 of repose, in which she greatly increased her population and 
 extended her trade and commerce. 
 
 7. The Disputed Boundary Lines.— France and England were 
 now to decide the question which should be supreme on the North 
 American continent. The whole interior was claimed by France ; 
 while the English were shut in between the mountain-ranges of 
 the Alleghanies and the sea. But the English colonies would not 
 be hemmed in either by Nature or by France. Their hardy sons 
 sought adventure and gain in the Far West, while not a few for this 
 purpose pushed their way to the St. Lawrence and the lakes by the 
 waterways and woodland valleys of the continent. The French, 
 resenting this intrusion, began to erect a series of forts, to mark 
 the boundaries of then* possessions and conserve the inland fur- 
 trade. Already, in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, the 
 
 first scene in the opening drama had been enacted at of'Liumimr^ 
 Louisburg. This stronghold in Cape Breton, which Jjy ^"^ DT745 
 guarded the marine highway to New France, had sur- 
 rendered to the forces of England and her colonial levies on the 
 
152 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. II. 
 
 Atlantic. French pride was hurt at this disaster and the loss of 
 the important naval station in the Gulf. To recover the lost pres- 
 tige, Count de la Galissioniere was sent as governor to 
 Canada. This nobleman's extravagant assumptions of the extent 
 of the territorial possessions of New France, however, offended the 
 English colonists and roused the jealousy of many of the Indian 
 tribes. Nor was this feeling allayed when France, by the Peace 
 OF Aix-LA-Chapelle, recovered Louisburg, and when her boun- 
 dary commissioners claimed all the country north of the Bay of 
 Fundy as not having been ceded to England by the Treaty of 
 Utrecht. 
 
 8. Events preceding the Conquest.— Hostilities between the 
 two nations were precipitated in the valley of the Ohio by the per- 
 sistent encroachment of the English. To stop this intrusion, the 
 French, in addition to other inland posts, built a fort at the junction 
 of the Alleghany and the Monongahela — tributaries of the Ohio 
 River — and named it Du Quesne, after the new Governor of 
 Canada. The English colonists of Virginia, about the same time, 
 erected a fort in the vicinity, and despatched a force to garrison it 
 under a young officer, named George Washington, who was 
 afterwards to play an important part in the history of the Anglo- 
 American colonies. A collision between the two races here soon 
 occurred, and FoRT Necessity, the English post, surrendered to 
 the French. The English on the seaboard considered this the 
 signal for a general conflict, and at once prepared for war. In this 
 they were aided by the mother-country, then drifting into " The 
 Seven Years' War" with France. In 1754, England sent out a 
 couple of regiments, under General Braddock, to co-operate 
 with the colonial forces in occupying the debatable territory and 
 in keeping the French in check. Military reinforcements were 
 also sent out by France, under the Baron Dieskau, a Dutch 
 general in the French service, accompanied by a new governor, the 
 Marquis de Vaudreuil, the second of his name to occupy that 
 office. At a meeting of the English colonial governors it was 
 decided to attack the French posts on the Ohio, on the Nirgara 
 River, on Lake Champlain, and at Beaus6jour, in Acadia. In the 
 Spring of 1755, Braddock left Virginia for the Ohio, with some 
 two thousand soldiers, part of whom were provincial levies. Cross- 
 
A.D. 1755.] CONQUEST OP CANADA. 153 
 
 ing the AUeghanies, he reached the Great Meadows, where he 
 pushed on with a portion of his force to FORT DU QUESNE. The 
 French, learning of the approach of the EngUsh, prepared an 
 ambuscade for them in the woods, into which they fell and were 
 routed with great loss. General Braddock, who though a brave 
 
 Lake Country and WsaiBEN Forts. 
 
 officer was not accustomed to bush warfare, was killed and the 
 survivors of the expedition were saved from destruc- 
 tion by the skill and bravery of Washington, who S^croa'port 
 accompanied the column. Dismay seized the British ^^^^^^^%f 
 colonies on learning of this disaster, though English General 
 successes in other parts of the continent, in some /jy^ 1755; 
 measure, atoned for Braddock's defeat. Beaus^jour 
 had fallen before an expeditionary force sent out from Massachu- 
 setts, while Dieskau was routed and made a prisoner near Lake 
 George by Colonel, (afterwards Sir Wil.TJAM,) JOHNSON, in com- 
 mand of the colonial militia and a band of Mohawk warriors. 
 
154 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. II. 
 
 9. Capture of Quebec— For a while the advantage in the strug- 
 gle in North America was on the side of France, though the pre- 
 ponderance of population was vastly on the side of the English 
 colonies. Louis XV. had one general in Canada worthy of the 
 gallant race from which he had sprung, and who strenuously endeav- 
 oured to uphold the fortunes of his country. This was the Mar- 
 quis DE Montcalm, a cultured and 
 far-seeing French nobleman, whose 
 ability and enthusiasm in the profes- 
 sion of arms had procured for him 
 the chief military command in Can- 
 ada, and who was now seeking to 
 expel the English from the colonial 
 possessions of France on the conti- 
 nent. But unfo' tunately for his coun- 
 tiy, Montcalm was ill-supported by 
 Old France, and his difficulties were 
 Marquis de Montcalm. increased by the maladministration 
 
 of affairs in the colony. Despite these drawbacks, he was for 
 some years, however, the means of protracting the gallant struggle 
 in America, and of bringing many disasters on the English arms. 
 Concentrating his forces in the neighbourhood of Lake Cham- 
 plain, he attacked Fort William Henry, on Lake George, 
 and with a body of Indian auxiliaries from the Ottawa forced 
 the English to capitulate. This victory was marred by horrible 
 Indian atrocities on the English prisoners of war, which Montcalm 
 was unable to prevent. During the year 1757 Montcalm acted 
 solely on the defensive, while the English, having incompetent 
 generals, accomplished little, and failed in an attempt to wrest 
 Louisburg from the French. The following year, however, Wil- 
 liam. Pitt, "the great English Commoner," was called to the 
 councils of his nation and infused new vigour into the war, which 
 had now been formally declared between the two countries. Pitt, 
 aiming at the extinction of French power in America, 
 surrendera to fitted out a fleet of one hundred and fifty sail, under 
 A.D^im*' Admiral Boscawen, with a land force of some four- 
 teen thousand men, under General Amherst and 
 Brigadier James Wolfe, and despatched both to Canada. The 
 
A..D. 1759.] CONQUEST OF CANADA. 155 
 
 first operation was the siege of LOUISBURG, which surrendered with 
 some five thousand prisoners, and in«the capture of which young 
 Wolfe highly distinguished himself. Later in the year, the French 
 were compelled to abandon Fort du 
 QUESNE, in the Ohio Valley, which 
 the English now named Pi'iTSBURG, 
 in honour of War Minister Pitt ; and 
 Frontenac (Kingston), the marine 
 arsenal of the French on Lake On- 
 tario, surrendered and was destroyed. 
 The effect of these losses was dis- 
 heartening to the French, though 
 before the season's campaign closed 
 Montcalm defeated the English, un- 
 der General Abercrombie, in an «'='"''^*^ ^"'''^• 
 attack on the French post on Lake Champlain, afterwards named 
 Ticonderoga. When the season of 1759 opened, the English 
 were ready to resume operations with spirit and effect. 
 Amherst's army advanced upon Crown Point and occupy Ticon- 
 Ticonderoga, from which the French retired, and Sir capture^'^'^ 
 WilUam Johnson captured Niagara, and drove the Niagara, 
 French from the lakes. Wolfe, now General of the 
 Forces of the St. Lawrence, sailed in June with his army from 
 Louisburg to Quebec. With Wolfe came his brigadiers, MONCK- 
 TON, Townshend, and Murray ; and in command of the fleet 
 were Admirals Saunders and Holmes. Disembarking his army 
 on the Isle of Orleans, and on the eastern bank of the Montmo- 
 rency River, Wolfe proceeded to view the bristling line of French 
 defences along the Beauport shoals, and the towering red-rock 
 fortress, the possession of which was to change the destiny of a 
 continent. The young general was appalled at the formidable 
 task he had undertaken, and many long weeks passed in 
 various assaults which ended in discomfiture only. To capture 
 Quebec seemed to Wolfe hopeless, and the consciousness of this 
 helped to bring on a fever which long prostrated him and weakened 
 his already enfeebled frame. But his heroic spirit was undaunted ; 
 and, recovering his strength, he daringly grappled with a project 
 which led him to victory and to a victor's grave. This project was 
 
156 
 
 PUBLIC- SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap, II. 
 
 to scale the almost inaccessible clififs of the citadel and gain the 
 Plains of Abraham, in rear of Quebec, and there to bring Mont- 
 calm to battle. Orders were issued to have the fleet in readiness, 
 to make a feigned attack on the Beauport shore, while the bulk of 
 the army was to move up the river, drop down again over night, 
 climb the precipice, and form on the heights to attack Quebec from 
 the rear. The night of the 12th of September saw this daring 
 scheme put into execution, Wolfe, with a premonition of his fate, 
 as he moved down the river in his barge with muffled oars, repeated 
 
 OBiEAKSi 
 
 SlUQB OF QCKBEG. 
 
 the line from Gray's Elegy : — " The paths of glory lead but to the 
 grave !" The dawn saw the English army massed in position on 
 the Heights, and the surprised French army, under their brave 
 leader, Montcalm, gallantly marched out to attack the invaders. 
 Brief was the struggle that followed. The English reserved their 
 fire until the enemy was within forty paces of them, when they 
 poured a deadly rain of bullets on the advancing French and Cana- 
 dians, and the Scottish regiments charged with bayonet and broad- 
 sword. The native militia broke and fled, and the veterans of 
 
A.D. 1774.] THE QUEBEC ACT, ETC. 157 
 
 France, after stubbornly contesting the position we|;e compelled to 
 fall back and seek refuge in the citadel. The commanders of both 
 sides fell mortally wounded, Wolfe dying on the field, and Mont- 
 calm breathing his last on the morrow within the walls of Quebec. 
 Three days afterwards Quebec surrendered, and the 
 flag of Britain supplanted the emblem of France. In Quebec, I7th 
 the ensuing winter, the city was held by an English *^^^ '' 
 garrison, under General Murray, and in the following spring it 
 narrowly escaped recapture by De Levis, at the head of seven 
 thousand men, who had come from Montreal to attack it. The 
 timely arrival of a British fleet saved the now British stronghold, 
 while Montreal was in turn invested, and that post and all Canada 
 surrendered to the British Crown. Three years afterwards, the 
 Peace of Paris confirmed the cession of the country ^^^^^ ^^ 
 to Britain and closed the dominion of France in Canada. P'1"s, 
 
 A.D. 1763, and 
 
 In the mterval, a wide-spread Indian rising, under Conspiracy of 
 PONTIAC, chief of the Ottawa confederacy, threatened ^^ ^'^^' 
 the stability of the English conquest ; but in 1764 the conspiracy 
 was stamped out, and the Indians in time became the firm and 
 trusted allies of the English. 
 
 [1. Explain the causes of the slow progress of Canada under the French regime. 
 
 2. Give some account of the endurance and self-sacrifice of the Jesuits in their 
 efforts to Christianize the Indians. 
 
 3. Mention the principal officers appointed by the King of France to govern Canada, 
 and explain the nature of the duties of each. 
 
 4. With what discoveries are the names of Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle identified? 
 Mention the circmnstances under which these discoveries were made. 
 
 5. Narrate the principal events connected with the rule of Frontenac. 
 
 6. State the principal grounds of dispute between the French and the English 
 colonists in North America. 
 
 7. Outline the plan of the campaign which ended in the Conquest of Canada. 
 
 8. What difficulties had Wolfe to contend against when endeavouring to capture 
 Quebec ? Sketch the battle of the Plains of Abraham.] 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE QUEBEC ACT (1774), AND CONSTITUTIONAL 
 
 ACT (1791). 
 
 [The terms of the Treaty of Paris, and the provision it made for the religious and 
 political rights of the people of the conquered Province, should be explained. The 
 causes that led to the passage of the Quebec Act, and the Constitutional Act of 1791, 
 as well as the provisions of these Acts, are deserving of notice. The teacher should 
 
158 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. III. 
 
 carefulli' point out the defects of these measures, especially of the C<mstif,utionftl Act; 
 but to jjive the pupils clear and accurate conceptions, it will be necessary to dwell on 
 the character of the laws and customs in force in French Canada. These explanations 
 should include the nature of Scii/norial Tenure, and the relations between the Seijrneur 
 and the " htibitant." The teacher will find comparatively full information on these 
 points in Watson's " Constitutional History of Canada." 
 
 iJe/erenccs;— Archer, Garneau, Withrow, Jefifers, Christie's " Lower Canada," War- 
 burton's "Conquest of Canada," and Rycrson's "Loyalists in America."] 
 
 1. Military Rule.— With the conquest of Canada by the Eng- 
 lish came a period of Military Rule, which extended from 1760 
 to 1774. The Httle colony of France on the St. Lawrence, when 
 it passed into the hands of its new masters, was divided for the 
 purposes of government into the three old territorial districts of 
 Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal. General Amherst, 
 commander of the English forces in Canada, became Governor- 
 General, and was assisted in the administration of affairs by a 
 Council, composed of military officers, in which was vested the 
 power of making ordinances and enforcing the British laws now 
 introduced into Canada. This system of military rule, which was 
 established by the King's Proclamation, was a provisional one, 
 designed to secure the pacification of the country and to encourage " 
 English settlement. It was promised that, by-and-bye, Canada 
 should have self-government, such as the colonists on the seaboard 
 enjoyed ; but just then, when the sword was hardly sheathed, it 
 was thought premature to give the colony representative institu- 
 tions. The French and their Canadian compatriots readily sub- 
 mitted to " the new sovereignty which the sword had imposed on 
 them," and in becoming British subjects they were secured in the 
 possession of their property and the uninterrupted enjoyment of 
 their religion. The French civil law was for a time abrogated, 
 British laws though it is doubtful whether it ever ceased to be in 
 
 first intro- force. The ancient criminal law was, however, super- 
 duced into .... -^, ,. 
 
 Canada, seded by the crnnmal law of England, and the admm- 
 
 * ■ ■ istration of justice was taken out of the hands of the 
 
 Seigneurs. In this change the simple French inhabitants largely 
 
 acquiesced ; for though it introduced a system of which they had 
 
 no knowledge, and which, being in a foreign language, few of them 
 
 understood, it relieved them from the harsh and arbitrary rule of 
 
 rapacious government officials and local superiors, which had long 
 
 oppressed the country and retarded its development. Restraint 
 
At). 1774.] TIIR QUEBEC ACT, ETC. 16d 
 
 was also placed upon the clergy in exacting tithes and other eccle- 
 siastical dues, formerly levied on the people. By the conquest, 
 England had made large additions to her territory rather than 
 added to the number of her subjects. The population of the whole 
 of New France, on the fall of Quebec, did not exceed sixty-five 
 thousand, while that of the English colonies on the Atlantic was 
 close upon two millions. This inequality is accounted for by the 
 widely differing modes of French and English colonization. French 
 colonization was feudal and semi-religious ; England's was charac- 
 lerized, in the main, by the escape from these Old World bonds, 
 and from many things that impeded the exercise of civil and 
 religious rights. In Canada, officialism and trade monopolies 
 had well-nigh strangled commerce, while the rapid settlement of 
 the country was retarded by the intolerance of opposing religious 
 opinions. But with the conquest and the British additions to the 
 population, the energies of the colony awoke to new life, and the 
 change had a stimulating effect on the French inhabitants. 
 
 2. The Quebec Act.— The intrusion of English Protestant sett- 
 lers soon led to rivalries in race and religion ; and the French began 
 to look with a jealous eye on the Anglicising of their civil and 
 religious institutions. A conciliatory policy on the part of the 
 Lieutenant-Governor and Council helped to prevent a rupture be- 
 tween the two sections of the colony, but as time passed increasing 
 disaffection and hostility began to be manifested. The French, 
 keenly sensitive to the fact that they were a conquered people, and 
 being disabled from holding positions of responsibility in the 
 colony, resented the sweeping away of the laws which for a century 
 and a half had been in force in the country. The English, on the 
 other hand, grew restive under the rule of the Governor and Coun- 
 cil, and clamoured for a Representative Assembly and the perma- 
 nent establishment of British law. At this juncture the English 
 colonies on the Atlantic quarrelled with George III.'s government, 
 and showed signs of withdrawing their allegiance to the mother 
 country. The position was critical ; and to remove the grievances 
 of the Canadians, and confirm their attachment to Britain, the 
 English Government took the advice of Sir Guy Carleton, who 
 had succeeded to the governorship of Quebec, and restored in the 
 province the whole body of French civil jurisprudence. This 
 
160 fUBMC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTOIIY. [Chap. III. 
 
 action was in sharp contrast to the policy of England towards the 
 colonies on the seaboard, and gave great offence to the English 
 settlers in Canada. The measure which granted this concession 
 to the Canadians, is known as The Quebec Act, of 
 1774. By its provisions, the French Civil Code be- roTtoredhi 
 came the law of Canada, though the English Criminal 9'n^i7T4 
 Law was to remain in force. Provision was at the 
 same time made for extending the boundaries of the province 
 to the Ohio valley ; for the maintenance of the Roman Catholic 
 religion ; and for the establishment of a Legisla riVE Council, 
 to be composed of not less than seventeen and not more than 
 twenty-three members, of both nationalities. This action of the 
 Imperial Government was a politic stroke to secure the adhesion 
 of the French Canadian colony at a time when those on the 
 Atlantic were wavering in their loyalty to Britain, and were soon 
 now to take up arms against her. ■ 
 
 3. American War of Independence.— For a number of years 
 the relations between England and her American colonies had 
 been strained to the point of rupture by trade restrictions imposed 
 by the mother country and by the attempt to levy taxes to help her 
 to defray the expenses of the French war and maintain her 
 increased civil and military establishments in America. This 
 unwise policy arose from the mistake of considering the settle- 
 ments of the New World as colonial possessions to be held solely 
 for the financial benefit of England rather than for their own 
 advancement and material well-being. In 1776 thirteen of the 
 colonies Declared their Independence, under the desig- 
 nation of the United States of America. While the Phila- 
 delphia Congress was in session, it invited the Canadians to join 
 those we now term the American Pp:ople, in throwing off 
 allegiance to Britain. But Canada remained loyal and refused 
 to rally to the standard of revolt. This passive attitude angered 
 the Americans, and they determined to invade Canada and wrest 
 it from the British Crown. In 1775, two expeditions were fitted 
 out for this purpose, one of which seized the forts on Lake Cham- 
 plain, the gateway of Canada, and, thinking that the Canadians 
 would offer no resistance, proceeded to invest Montreal. Another 
 expedition advanced upon Quebec. Montreal, being indifferently 
 
A.D. 1783.J . THE QUEBEC ACT, ETC. 161 
 
 garrisoned, surrendered to the Americans, but the attack on 
 (2uebcc failed after some weeics' siege. The Amcr- yu,.r^.u(ier of 
 lean general, Montgomery, who had formerly fought Montreal, and 
 
 1 -«ir ir 1 Ml 1 • • 1 • 1 , defeat of tlio 
 
 under Wolte, was killed m stormnig the citadel on Americans at 
 the 31st of December; and the discomfited American ^""^ ^^" 
 force was in the following summer driven from the country. 
 Meanwhile, the straggle in the United States went on with vary- 
 ing fortune, until the British, under Lord Corn- ^^j , . , 
 WALLIS, surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781, Revolutionary 
 and the war was brought to a close. The Americans of Versailles, 
 achieved their independence, which Britain acknow- " " ^^^^" 
 ledged by the Treaty of Versailles, in 1783 ; and an adjust- 
 ment of territorial possessions gave to Canada its present limits. 
 
 4. United Empire Loyalists.— In this unhappy strife there were 
 many in the new-born Republic who either refrained from partici- 
 pating or took the loyalist side in the conflict. These were called 
 United Empire Loyalists, for they clung to the unity of the 
 Empire and refused to ally themselves with their fellow-colonists 
 in their revolt. When the war was over, those who took up arms 
 on the loyal side found themselves in a hopeless minority, loaded 
 with obloquy, and subjected to indignity at the hands of the victor- 
 ious Republicans. Rather than live under these humiliating con- 
 ditions, some of these loyalists returned to England ; but the most 
 of them, preferring voluntary expatriation in Western wilds to 
 living in a country that had become independent through rebellion, 
 sought new homes for themselves in Acadia and Canada. Their 
 act was not lost upon the home government, for the latter senf 
 instructions to Canada to make provision for their reception and 
 settlement, and for the mitigation, in some measure, of their trials 
 <ind privations. This provision consisted of seed, farm imple- 
 ments, tools for building purposes, and food and clothing for a 
 year or two after settling in the country. To make good in part 
 their losses, the British Government also voted some three millions 
 sterling, to be divided among the in-coming settlers, and gave them 
 munificent grants of land, chiefly in the western portion of the 
 country, the then virgin province of Upper Canada. Here, as well 
 as in desirable locations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 
 streamed in the loyalists and their families, to begin their sad 
 12 
 
162 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [CllJlp. III. 
 
 experience of exile in the wilderness. It is calculated that about 
 ten thousand, in the Maritime J'rovinces, and nearly twenty thou- 
 sand in what is now named Ontario, were added to the British 
 population of Canada by this loyalist emigration. By their coming, 
 Western Canada — chiefly on the banks of the .St. Lawrence, on the 
 Bay of Quintc, in the Niagara District, and round the shores of 
 Lake Ontario — received that contribution of brawn and muscle so 
 essential to the carving out of a new province and the founding of 
 a strong and enduring community. 
 
 5. The Constitutional Act (1791).— While Canada was gaining 
 this important addition to her British population, the political con- 
 dition of the French province was by no means satisfactory. For 
 some time after the Revolutionary War, the Province of Quebec 
 was under the strong hand of a military Lieutenant-Ck)vcrnor (Gen- 
 eral Haldimand), who, with a despotic Legislative Council, admin- 
 istered affairs in such a manner as well nigh brought about social 
 and political chaos. An oppressive militia law was put in force, 
 while military arrests and illegal imprisonments irritated and im- 
 poverished the people. Nor was relief to be had from the courts, 
 for the legal tribunals, if not closed, administered the laws after 
 so uncertain a fashion, partly in one language and partly in another, 
 that few of those who were wronged could get redress. Fortu- 
 nately, however, Haldimand withdrew to England, and in 1787 
 Sir Guy Carleton (now Lord Dorchester) returned to Canada, as 
 Governor-General of the whole of the Provinces of British North 
 America. Haldimand's last act, by compulsion of the British 
 authorities, was to give his assent to the passing of an ordinance 
 by the Legislative Council, introducing the English law of Habeas 
 Corpus^ and, in civil cases, trial by jury. Lord Dorchester, whose 
 conciliatory manner well qualified him to restore peace and political 
 harmony, was now appealed to by the British residents of Canada 
 for the extension of British law into those portions of the country 
 not yet organized for judicial purposes, and, above all, for the 
 institution of representative government, in lieu of the irresponsible 
 Council established by the Quebec Act. Numerous petitions, urg- 
 ing the granting of this latter boon, which was already enjoyed by 
 the people of the Maritime Provinces, were forwarded to the 
 Imperial Government by many of the English inhabitants and by 
 
A.D. 1791.] THE CONSTITUTIONAL ACT. 163 
 
 a few of the French who were in sympathy with liberty and legis- 
 lative freedom. In time, these petitions were received with favour 
 in England ; and a nevv scheme for the government of 
 Canada took definite shape in the English Parlia- ^"""'"K Vf ^'^o 
 
 ment, by the passing of a measure known as the Act, aud tho 
 _. A//> \i-i 11.1 division of tho 
 
 Constitutional Act (of 1791), which repealed the cDuntry into 
 Quebec Act, and divided the countiy watered by Swer Canada. 
 the St. Lawrence and the lakes into two separate pro- 
 vinces, called Uppicr and Lower Canada. The Ottawa River 
 became the boundary line separating the two provinces. By this 
 division of Old Canada, it was hoped, that existing causes of con- 
 troversy between the French and English would be removed, and 
 that the two races, with their diverse religions, would have ample 
 scope for development, each after its own fashion, and in the 
 unrestricted enjoyment of its own religion and laws. To each 
 province was given an administrative body, composed of a Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor and an Executive Council, with a Parliament con- 
 sisting of two Houses — a Legislative Council and a Legislative 
 Assembly. The Governor, his Executive Council, and the Legis- 
 lative Council, were appointed by the Crown, while the representa- 
 tives in the Legislative Assembly were elected by the people. The 
 laws were made by the Assembly, in conjunction with the Legis- 
 lative Council, subject to the approval or assent of tiie Lieutenant- 
 Governor. The latter's advisers, the Executive Council, usually 
 had seats in the Legislative Council, or Upper Chamber, as it 
 came to be called. In both provinces, the Criminal Law of Eng- 
 land, and the Habeas Corpus Act, were introduced ; but in Lower 
 Canada the French Civil Law and its peculiar land-system — that 
 of holding property by Feudal Tenure — were retained. In Upper 
 Canada Feudal Tenures were abolished and Freehold Tenures in- 
 troduced. In other words, Upper Canada, in the matter of Civil 
 Law and its usages, became wholly English, while Lower Canada 
 remained altogether French. In both provinces a like provision 
 was made with regard to religion. In the Lower Province, the 
 provisions of the Quebec Act, for the maintenance of the Roman 
 Catholic religion, were retained ; while in the Upper Province, 
 one-seventh of the Crown lands were set aside for the support of a 
 Protestant clergy — an enactment which afterwards wrought much 
 
104 PUHMO HCMJOOL fJANADIA.V IIIHTOKY. [Oliap. TTI. 
 
 trouble. An agreement was also coni'; to between the two prov- 
 inces, to share the revenue derived from customs duties on impf^r- 
 tations arrivinj,' at the Lower Canada ports. Upfjer Canada, at 
 first, rcceiv(;d {me-e//f/i//i orAy of \]h: impost, but this was afterwards 
 increased to one-jijtk. 'flic share of the Upper Province, a year 
 or two after the passing; of the Const itution;il Act, was only .$5,fxxj, 
 while, in ifiio-so great harj been the progress of the coimtry — the 
 revenue rose to nearly .$3o,fxxx However well meant was the Con- 
 stitutional Act, it must be said that it was far from allaying discon- 
 tent among both sect ions of the people. The French in the Lower 
 Province, though in the majority in the Legislative Assembly, were 
 scarcely represented in the P>xecutiv(;, and had little or no influ- 
 ence in the practical administration (»f affairs, the gf)V(;rnment 
 offices being filled with i'.nglishmen. On the f>ther hand, the J'.ng- 
 lish in the Upper Prf;vince were dissatisfied with the division of 
 the country, as it placed commerce the French having command 
 of the St. Lawrence -under the control of thr; Legislature and 
 peo[)le of Lower Canada, iiut the main defect of the measure, as 
 will afterwards bo seen, was the Cnjwn-nominaled Legislative 
 Council, whose despotic acts long retarded the develo[jment of the 
 country and caused bitter politifal strife. 'I'hf; gov(;rnment in both 
 Provinces, moref)ver, was unfortunately made responsible, not to 
 the representative Assembly, but to the C"oloiiial <Jfficein iMigland, 
 Another defect in the Act was I'.ngland's retaining the power to tax 
 the colonies and dispose of the Crown lands, an unwise interfer- 
 ence with the people's rights, and svith the control which ought to 
 have been vested in the local Assemblies. 
 
 [1. Oiv«i the tcmiM of the treaty whicih iiumIc! C'ikkuIh a Urlf.lMli F'rovirioe. 
 
 2. What, klrifl of (^'iv«!rnin<'fit. fxlHtyd in C'ariii'lii h<'t,w<r»'ri i7'iOiiii(l 17747 
 
 .'{. What, ■ •'! t,') t.h(! paMMa;<<! of (,h<! (^iiittici; Ai'tV Ht.iif,*; it.M {trinripiil proviHJorm, anrl 
 wtiow tiow far It HaUMfh;'! the f '.iitiMllan jm!OJiI(!. 
 
 4. Hket<:h the hiu/liriK lii('i<h;ritH of t.tie Arnerican hivuMion of ('unaila hi Vilti. 
 
 f). (live an a^'oiinl, of ttie H(!f,Ueinf;iit, of th<; l,'nif.«'<l Knijilrc I.oyahHU hi f'aniula. 
 
 f). (y'lidirr wfialciriMKiiHtancirH wan the CV>nHtil,>itioriul A<'l. of J7i)l l>aHHe<l? i'olntoiit 
 the (h!fe«rtN of thiM A'lfc, and Htat,e itx mora hn|iort,ant olaiiwiN, 
 
 7. What, iH meant, ti> HtdifnurMl Ti'unre? Htato any imrtl»nilttr« hi wtileh Frerifih 
 Civil Lrfiw dlflerit from J)ritL~h (Jlvil Law. J 
 
A.T). 1702.1 • WAfi OK 1812. 105 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 WAR OK 1HI2. 
 
 (Tlio rnrly HPt,t,IpTn«>rif; of TTpyicr f'drm-dn,, Uw \uiriMi\]m r.nnnffi.i'il t.hf^rfwlth, t,lin 
 fJlfI<,T<;rit klri'lH of iiriiiii«rantH, and Mi<; Hofiiil life iifid i:\iHUiiuH i)1 th<! Province, iiro 
 worthy of r«!<;f;lvlri>f hjh-i-M niUiMon. Point out tho ()hara«;t«!r of Uw h-KMiMou of 
 t.lui flrMt Parliianciif.M of i;ppcr iinil Lower (;ruiii<lii, Kxpluin Um CMiiiHeM f»f f,he War 
 of IHI'X, (inil ill!' ri'fiMoriM of (,he fiiiliire of the Ariierieiin inviuion of (Uiuwla; ono reiiHon 
 tielnif t.lin fioHt.illty of f,h<! New KnjflfirHl H(.at,<!i« to thd war. Arnoriif the; many hravo 
 men who <llMf,lnK-nlHher| thernMelven on the (laniwllan Ml<le, Hr'K'k, l»(i Halalierry, and 
 TeenmHeh, Mt.iind 'nit promhierit : their ;(re(it HervleeH Hiioiild he fully reco«nl/ed. Of 
 the hattleM, t/ueetmton lleii^htM, Moravian Town, ('hatemnfuay, and Liindy'H l,ane, are 
 the moHt important, liejul with pupil!'. KyerMon'rt " KoiinrlerH of I'piwr r'anmla" 
 (Fourth Header). 
 
 JlffiTfiircM: i'i,t]\u'H "War nl l><l',i," WIthrow, MeMiiJIen, and Oarnean'M MlHt/)r!(;H, 
 <-'anni(T'H "Hettlement of Upper Oariada," and Hi;sutil\i\K'H "Toronto of Ol<l.") 
 
 1. Founding of Upper Oa oda.— Tin; lJi)|)(-r Province now 
 ni.'iflc r.'ipifl proj^rr-ss in llio i.cttlriiifnt of its lands, :ui(] in Uic 
 flcvclf)|)in(:nt of its n^sonrrcs. Previous to the passing of tlio Con- 
 stitutional Act, the whole region west of the Ottawa was an almost 
 unbroken forest. A few Loy.ijist settlements h.'id been formed on 
 the Upt)cr St. Lawrence, on the I'.iy of (^iiinto, on the Niagara 
 frontier, and down the Detroit River. Besides these small and 
 scatt(;r(rd comtnuiiities therf; was no white population in the coun- 
 try. If we ex( <pl King-Ion, wiii(h Lord i)or(;hcster wisherl to 
 make the capital, the only place of iuiporlance in Upfjcr Canada was 
 Nkwakk, which, from its eligible site at the mouth of llie Niagara 
 River, naturally became the cradle of the settlements of the west- 
 ern province. Ilillirr, in 1792, c.inje Lieutenant-Colonel JoiiN 
 (iKAVKS .SiMfiOK, who liad b<;en app<»intff| Lieutenant-Covernor of 
 Upp('r (!an;ida, and who now pro(:<-cdcd to siuiunon the f'"irst Pro- 
 vincial Parliament and admini'.U^r the affairs of the infant rf)lony. 
 Though Newark ^Niagara) had some ( laim to Ixitome the perma- 
 nent capital, its nearness to lJnitf;d .States territory and thedang<;r- 
 ous proximity of Port Niagara, which liad now been j(iven up to 
 the Americans, led (iovernor Siuuoc to make choice of York 
 CIDkonio) as the scat of (Government. It was at Niagara, how- 
 ever, that the first Parliament of the Province met. It consisted 
 
166 ^ PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. IV. 
 
 of an Upper House of seven members, appointed by the Crown 
 for life, and a Lower House, of sixteen members, elected by the 
 people. The latter were chosen, in the main, from the farming 
 and trading classes, the professions, as yet, not having much foot- 
 hold in the province. The legislation of this primitive parliament, 
 though unambitious, was adapted to the wants of the country. 
 One of its earliest measures was the introduction of the Civil Law 
 of England and Trial by Jury. Other measures made provision 
 for the erection of court-houses, jails, and such other public build- 
 ings as were required in the various districts into which the pro- 
 vince was at the time divided. These districts were subdivided 
 into counties, and each of the latter had its jail and court-house. 
 To the honour and credit of the legislators, an enactment was 
 passed abolishing slavery in Upper Canada. In the previous 
 year, (1792), the first Parliament of Lower Canada met; but its 
 legislation was impeded by race and religious jealousies, and by 
 angry discussion over the autocratic acts of the Executive and 
 other political misdemeanors. In Upper Canada, the affairs of 
 which must specially concern us, the ever-active Governor Sim- 
 coe hastened the work of laying out the town of York, opened up 
 inland communication, including a roadway to the northern lakes, 
 and personally visited every part of the now fast-growing province. 
 He also set in motion the legal machinery of the Province, and 
 periodically returned to Newark, to summon and prorogue Parlia- 
 ment and direct the affairs of State. In 1796, however, this bluff 
 old soldier and sturdy representative of the king was transferred 
 from Upper Canada to San Domingo, and the young province lost 
 the services of one who had given the colony his eveiy thought. 
 
 2. The Coming Storm.— After the withdrawal of Governor Sim- 
 coe, the Upper Province came successively under the administra- 
 tions of Hon. Peter Russell, President of the Council, and 
 Lieutenants-Governor Hunter and Gore. Under Russell, in 
 1797, the seat of Government was transferred from Newark to 
 York, and the infant capital began to grow apace. As the century 
 crept to its close, other parts of the province were invaded by 
 courageous settlers, who took up land and proceeded to build 
 homes for themselves and their families in the woods. From these 
 homesteads were ere lon^ to come forth the men who were to guide 
 
A.D. 1812.] WAR OF 1812. , 167 
 
 the destinies of the country- and become notable figures in the 
 provincial capital. Parliament voted considerable sums for the 
 construction of roads and bridges, for extending postal facilities 
 and the means of communication with the outer world, and for 
 the opening up of new sections of the country. Laudable pro- 
 vision was also made for education and the intellectual needs of 
 the province. In i8ii, Governor 
 Sir Francis Gore returned to Eng- 
 land, and Lieutenant-General Isaac 
 Brock became President and act- 
 ing-Administrator of the province. 
 In this year the growing hostility to 
 Britain shown by the United States, 
 which had never got over the bitter- 
 ness of separation, rose to a flame 
 over some unauthorized acts of Brit- 
 ish naval officers in command of General Bkock. 
 vessels on the Atlantic coast. Previous acts in asserting England's 
 " right of search " on the high seas, for deserters and contraband 
 goods, which the United States had resented, had intensified the 
 ill-feeling between the two countries. Britain was at this period in 
 the throes of a European conflict which was putting Anglo-Saxon 
 pluck and hardihood to the severest test. She was thus ill- 
 prepared, as she was loath, to undertake a new war on 
 the American continent. There was but little justifi- by'the'^Aimfr- 
 
 cation for the invasion of Canada, and the step was ^^'*"''' ^f*Jj 
 
 ' ^ June, 1812. 
 
 opposed by a considerable portion of the American 
 people. Congress, however, declared war against Great Britain, 
 and took instant steps to invade Canada. Canada, with equal 
 promptitude, proceeded to call out her militia, and determinedly 
 braced herself to resist invasion. 
 
 3. War of 1812.— The total population of Canada at this time 
 did not exceed 300,000, of which number only about a fourth was 
 settled in the Upper Province. The regular troops of all arms in 
 the country did not quite number 4,500 men, less than a third being 
 in Upper Canada. With this small body of troops Canada had to 
 defend a frontier of over r,5oo miles, threatened at many points by 
 a large and fairly disciplined army, with a population to draw 
 
168 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. IV. 
 
 upon of nearly eight millions. Yet such was the spirit of her sons 
 that, hopeless as seemed the undertaking, she did not hesitate to 
 take the field at the first signal of danger. Within a month after 
 the declaration of war, the American general, Hull, with an army 
 of 2,500 men, crossed the Detroit River and entered Canada. 
 Later on, at other points, the country was invaded, namely, on the 
 Niagara frontier, and in Lower Canada, by way of Lake Cham- 
 plain. On learning of the invasion of the western peninsula. 
 General Brock called an emergency meeting of the Provincial 
 Parliament, despatched some companies of the 41st Regiment, 
 then in garrison at York, to Niagara, and thither, within a few 
 days, followed them. Colonel Proctor, with the remaining com- 
 panies of the 41st, was ordered to reinforce the troops at Amherst- 
 burg. With the 3rd Regiment of York militia Brock himself 
 set out, on the 6th of August, for Amherstburg. Here he was 
 joined by the Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, with whom and his 
 Indian followers Brock concerted measures for the capture of Fort 
 Detroit. B" this time General Hull had withdrawn his army from 
 Canada, and retired upon the stronghold of Detroit. Promptly 
 carrying out his project, Brock put his small force in fighting 
 aiTay, and crossed the river into Michigan. Before assaulting the 
 fort, he summoned the garrison to surrender. The summons, to 
 Brock's surprise, was complied with, and 2,500 American soldiers 
 gave up their arms. Elated at his unlooked-for success, and 
 enable 1 by the capitulation of the fort to arm more efficiently the 
 Canadian militia, he resolved at once to return to York, thereafter 
 to cross Lake Ontario and sweep from the Niagara frontier other 
 detachments of the enemy. By the 27th of August, Brock and 
 his troops were back at the capital, where they v/ere received with 
 the warmest acclaims of the populace. Unfortunately, when about 
 to set out again. Brock's design to prevent the enemy from massing 
 on the Niagara River was for the time frustrated by an ill-timed 
 armistice, which had been agreed to by Sir George Prevost, 
 who held supreme command in Lower Canada. This delayed 
 action till the following October, and gave the Americans time to 
 concentrate a force, of some 6,000 men, under Van Rensselaer, 
 in the neighbourhood of Lewiston. At daybreak on the 13th the 
 advance guard of this force effected a landing on the Canadian 
 
A.D. 1813.] WAR OF 1812. .169 
 
 bank of the Niagara River, despite the heroism of its defenders. 
 
 General Brock, hearing at Fort George the cannonading, galloped 
 
 with his aides-de-camp to the scene of action, and at once found 
 
 himself in the thick of a desperate onset. The story is a brief one. 
 
 Two companies of the 49th Regiment, with about a hundred of 
 
 the Canadian militia, had for some time been holding the enemy 
 
 in check, when the engagement suddenly became general. A 
 
 portion of the invading force, gaining the heights unobserved, 
 
 from this vantage-ground began to pour a destructive fire upon the 
 
 defenders. Brock, with characteristic gallantry, in- g.^^jg ^f 
 
 stantly placed himself at the head of the troops, with Queenston 
 
 • r ^ •,- ■ r ,r 1 , Heights, uud 
 
 whom were two companies of the militia of York, and duath of 
 
 hastened to dislodge the enemy from the heights. ^^^' ' 
 Conspicuously leading the storming-paity, and with the cry, " Push 
 on the York volunteers !" on his lips, Brock was struck by a mus- 
 ket-ball ar ' fell mortally wounded. Maddened by the death of 
 their heroic leader, the troops twice essayed to clear the invaders 
 from the flame-clad heights. Twice, however, were they driven 
 back ; and the gallant column, of barely three hundred men, was 
 compelled to retire upon the village and wait reinforcements. Pre- 
 sently these came up, and under General Sheaffe they now out- 
 flanked the Americans, and drove them over the precipice, or on 
 the brink of the river forced them to surrender. Victory had once 
 more rested upon British arms, though its lustre was grievously 
 dimmed by heavy losses sustained by the victors, and by the death 
 of Sir Isaac Brock, their loved commander. Three days after- 
 wards they laid his body temporarily to rest in a bastion of Fort 
 George, and the Canadian people mourned for the dead hero. 
 
 4. Campaign of 1813. — The success won on Queenston Heights 
 was a serious blow to the Americans, for nearly a thousand men 
 surrendered to General Sheaffe. With the spring of 18 13, however 
 the Americans renewed their military and naval operations against 
 Canada, and the water boundary between the two countries became 
 for a time the chief scene of hostilities. Towards the close of Feb- 
 ruary, the Legislature of Upper Canada was called together by 
 General Sheaffe, the provisional administrator, and in concert with 
 Sir George Prevost and the Parliament of the Lower Province, active 
 measures were adopted and money votes passed for the continued 
 
170 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. P^". 
 
 defence of the country. Efforts were also made to strengthen the 
 weak marine on the lakes, to command which Sir James Yeo had 
 arrived at Kingston. But the Americans were earlier prepared to 
 renew hostilities, at least on the water. They had also planned 
 demonstrations by land, both in the east and the west, with the 
 hope of recovering their lost military prestige, and of effacing the 
 recollection of the previous years' disasters. The opening year's 
 hostilities, however, brought defeat to the Americans, for at 
 Frenchtown General Proctor inflicted a heavy blow on the Am- 
 erican "Army of the West;" and in the east. Major Macdonell 
 and his Glengarry Fencibles took Ogdensbukg at the point of 
 
 Ottawa ^i^ji^\ jp * 
 
 Chryslers field ^.^<<^^' J,^ \^ 
 
 /a] L /Uilurllnlton . , 
 
 Kingston ^^^y ^ 1 ' ' '' 
 
 Sacketti- i\ 
 
 Harbor )] 
 
 it,_A * .i. r'i I I I I II I II rmi f' t •• 1 1 
 
 OODENSBURO AND CURYSLEll'S FARM. 
 
 the bayonet and drove its defenders from the town. On Lake 
 Ontario, on the other hand, the Americans had the advantage ; for 
 York was besieged and surrendered to Commodore Chauncey and 
 General Dearborn. After the submissicm of the capital, Chaunccy's 
 fleet set sail for the mouth of the Niagara River, and the British fort 
 there, though gallantly defended by a small force under General 
 Vincent, was abandoned, and its garrison fell back on a strong posi- 
 tion midway between the Niagara River and Burlington Heights. 
 
A.D. 1812.] 
 
 WAR OF 1812. 
 
 171 
 
 TnB Niagara Frontier. 
 
 The loss of Fort Georg,5 was, however, more than atoned for by 
 Colonel Harvey's heroic 
 midnight attack and dis- 
 persion of the American 
 force at Stoney Creek, 
 and by the romantic re- 
 pulse by Lieutenant Fitz- 
 gibbon, with a handful of 
 Canadian militia and In- 
 dians, of Colonel Boerst- 
 ler's command at EiEAVER 
 Dams. On the lakes, how- 
 ever, the Americans had for 
 a time the advantage, for a 
 second descent was made 
 upon York, when the Parlia- 
 ment Buildings and much 
 of the town was given to 
 the fiames ; while, on Lake 
 Erie, the American commander. Perry, routed and captured the 
 British squadron under Commodore Barclay. This brought on 
 
 another disaster in the west, for the British land force, 
 
 ' 1-111 Loss of the 
 
 under Proctor, being cut off from supplies by the loss British fleet on 
 
 of the fleet, was compelled to withdraw from De- ^ " "*'' 
 
 troit and Amherstburg and to fall back on the interior of the 
 
 western peninsula. Here the retreating British and Indians were 
 
 actively followed by General Harrison and an American force, 
 
 four times larger than that under Proctor. The latter, harassed by 
 
 his pursuers, gave them battle at Moravian Town, jjjjjagtprof 
 
 on the river Thames, the result of which was dis- Moravian 
 
 Town, and 
 
 astrous to the Canadian troops. The brave Tecumseh death of 
 was killed, and a large portion of Proctor's army was 
 annihilated, only a remnant escaping to join General Vincent at 
 P vrlington Heights. The western peninsula for a time now fell 
 into the hands of the invaders. Against this serious loss in the 
 west is, however, to be placed the signal victory at Chateauguav, 
 in Lowe\ Canada, gained by Colonel de Salaberry, and some 300 
 Canadian Voltigeurs, over General Hampton's division of the 
 
172 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. IV. 
 
 American "Army of the North." This success, and the brilliant 
 
 one which followed it — on Chrysler's Farm, by the St. Lawrence 
 
 — more than counterbalanced the loss to British and 
 Chateauguay, . . 
 
 and Chryaier's Canadian arms in a period of great hardships and 
 much bloodshed. The year closed, however, amid 
 woe and desolation. The American general, McClure, in com- 
 mand of the captured stronghold of Fort George, being hard 
 pressed by Vincent's troops brought up from Burlington Heights, 
 decided to winter in Fort Niagara, on the other side of the Niagara 
 River. Thinking his safety even there endangered by the prox- 
 imity of Newark, he committed the inhuman act of turning out of 
 their homes in the depth of winter about one hundred and fifty ' 
 families, including four hundred women and children, and fired the 
 town at thirty minutes' notice. For this barbarous act the Ameri- 
 cans were held to a terrible account in the reprisals which instantly 
 followed — the surprise and capture of Fort Niagara, and the con- 
 signing to the flames of all American villages from Lake Ontario 
 to Lake Erie. 
 
 5. 1814, and Close of the War.— There is little to record in the 
 events of the year 1814, save the failure of the British attack on 
 the strong position of the Americans at CiIiPPEWA, and the crown- 
 ing success of the war, the battle of Lundy's Lane, 
 Lundy's Lane, near by the Falls of Niagara. Here, on a midsummer 
 1814*^"'^' flight, for six hours, the opposing forces stubbornly 
 contested the field, until victory rested upon the 
 Anglo-Canadian arms, though the loss was heavy on both sides. 
 With the battle of Lundy's Lane the War of 181 2 may be said to 
 have practically ended. On the seaboard, in the previous year, 
 there had been a naval duel between the Chesapeake and the 
 Shannon, the former, after a desperate conflict, becoming the prize 
 of the British flag. In August, I014, a British fleet appeared in 
 Chesapeake Bay, and, landing a force, captured Washington, 
 and ruthlessly gave the Capitol and other public buildings to the 
 The Treat flames. Subsequently, at NEW ORLEANS, the British 
 
 of GL-iit, and met with a reverse, and the protracted struggle was 
 war, 14th brought to a close. The Treaty of Ghent termi- 
 Dec, 181 . nated the war, and left Canada in possession of 
 Britain. The country had been devastated, innumerable homes 
 
A.D. 1815.] THE REBELLION AND TUT ACT OF UNION. 173 
 
 made desolate, and thousands of lives sacrificed, in an inglorious 
 attempt by the American people to subjugate Canada, and supplant 
 the Union Jack by the Stars and Stripes. 
 
 [1 Mention any causes which promoted the rapid settlement of Upper Canada after 
 the passaf^e of the Constitutional Act of 1701. 
 
 2. What different classes of early settlers made their homes in Upper Canada? 
 What parts of the I'roviiK^o were first settled, and why? 
 
 3. State any important measurers passed in the First Parliaments of Upper and 
 Lower Cana<la. Where did those Parliaments meet? 
 
 4. Point out the causes that provoked the War of 1812-14 ; also explain why the 
 Americans were unuiccessful in their atteini)ts to cori(|uer Canada. 
 
 ■'i. Write explanatory notes on tlic followin^f battles : (^ueenston Ileij^hts, Lundy's 
 I^ane, Moravian Ttnvn, ChaLeauifuay, and Chrysler's Farm. 
 
 6. What treaty hrou(,'ht this war to a close? Show how far this treaty settled the 
 jfrounds of dispute that occasioned the war.] 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE REBELLION, AND THE ACT OF UNION. 
 
 [Explain clearly, but concisely, the nature of the political difficulty that arose in 
 connection with the Clkiuiv Kkskrvkh ; also the character of the rule of the Family 
 Compact. Tlie RKiiKi<f,i(>NH of 1837-38, in Upper and Lower Canafla, are deservinj^ of 
 careful and exi)licit treatment: the causes producini,' tliem, as well as the results 
 flowing from them, should be thoroughly explained. In (fivin;, the terms of the 
 Union Act of 1841, point out the defects which led at a later date to a political dead- 
 lock. Lord Durham's Report is one of the most important documents relatinj^ to our 
 history: its chief clauses should he outlined. Some account should be ffiven of Sir 
 Francis Bond Head, Wm. LytJii Mackenzie, Dr. Kolph, Papineau, and Sir Allan McNab. 
 Explain clearly what is meant by the establishment of Rehi-onhible Government. 
 
 Reference a : — Dent's " Last Forty Years" and " Canadian Rebellion," Lindsey's "Life 
 of Wm. Lyon Mackenzie," R^erson's "Story of My Life," Sir Francis Hincks's "Remin- 
 iscences," and the Canadian histories already referred to.] 
 
 1, Immigration. — Canada now hailed with fervour the return of 
 peace, and set herself the task of laying anew the foundations of 
 her material advancement. In Upper Canada the militia was 
 disbanded, and many of the troops of the mother country bought 
 or were granted their discharge. These, with the new immigrants, 
 to vvhom the British government had given free passage to the 
 colony, settled on the land or engaged in various other industries. 
 The increase of population soon brought its results, in the further 
 opening up of the country ; in the improved facilities, of communi- 
 cation, including the construction of the Lachine canal and steam 
 transit on the lakes ; in the development of the lumber and ship- 
 
174 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. V. 
 
 building trades ; and in the provision, first made in 1816, for 
 
 education and the foundini,' of the Common School 
 Common . ° 
 
 School System System of the Province. Money was also set in cir- 
 ' ■ culation, by the Government promptly redeeming the 
 "Army Bills" which it had issued during the war, and by the pay- 
 ment of pensions and war-grants to those to whom they had been 
 awarded. Banks were established by law, and large sums were 
 voted by Parliament for the construction of public works, the build- 
 ing of roads and bridges, and other purposes of civil government. 
 While the country was thus making satisfactory material progress, 
 its political condition was deplorable. In both Provinces public feel- 
 ing was aroused over the irresponsible character of the Executive 
 Council, and found vent in many stormy scenes in the Legislature 
 and in angry outbursts in the press. In Lower Canada, the English 
 minority were indignant at the misappropriation of public funds and 
 the high-handed acts of the Governor and the Executive. In the 
 Upper Province there was a plentiful crop of grievances. Among 
 these were the scandalous system on which the public lands were 
 granted, and the partiality shown in the issue of land-patents and 
 other favours in the gift of the Crown. Immigrants from the United 
 States, being tainted as it was supposed with republicanism, were 
 the special objects of official dislike and the victims of legislative 
 injustice and wrong. Oppressive laws were passed against them ; 
 and an Alien Act was rigorously enforced, which for a time 
 deprived them of their political rights, excluded them from the 
 privilege of taking up land, and subjected them to many indigni- 
 ties, including arbitrary expulsion from the Province. 
 
 2. The Family Compact, and the Clergy Reserves.— The chief 
 authors of these abuses were the members of the Executive and 
 Legislative Councils, who, by their close alliances for mutual 
 advantage, came to be known by the rather sinister designation of 
 The Family Compact. For the most part, they were of United 
 Empire Loyalist descent, men of influence, occupying good social 
 and political positions in the Province — many of them being con- 
 nected Ijy family ties- -and having at their disposal offices of emolu- 
 ment and other Crown patronage, which secured for them a 
 strongly attached but not always a scrupulously honest following. 
 Among the questions that agitated the Province at this time was 
 
A.D. 1829.] THE REBELLION, AND THE ACT OF UNION. 175 
 
 that of the Ci.ergy Reserves, as the Executive excluded all 
 denominations but the Church of England from participating in the 
 provision made by the State for the maintenance of the Protestant 
 religion. By the Constitutional Act of 1791, one-seventh of the 
 land was set apart for the support of a Protestant clergy. In 
 Upper Canada this land appropriation amounted to nearly two and 
 a half million acres. The position taken by the Executive Coun- 
 cil, by the Tory party in politics, and by the Anglican denomina- 
 tion, was that the Crown had made this land appropriation for the 
 exclusive benefit of the clergy and adherents of the Church of 
 England in Canada. This view of the matter was long and bit- 
 terly contested by the Presbyterians, by the Methodists, and by 
 many of the Roman Catholics. Efforts were made to secure 
 part of the proceeds of the sale of the lands for the benefit of 
 other denominations. These efforts were defeated, however, by 
 a counter-proposal to devote the surplus funds to the purposes 
 of education, and, in particular, to the founding and endowing of 
 King's College at York, an Anglican University. In 1836 a fur- 
 ther disposition of money derived from the sale of the Clergy 
 Reserves was made by the Govcrnor-in-Council, by which fifty- 
 seven rectories of the Church of England were erected in the 
 Province and endowed with extensive and valuable lands. This 
 act of the Government was considered a gross violation of the 
 rights of the people, and added greatly to the general indigna- 
 tion and discontent. In 1840, as the result of continued agitation, 
 the Church of England was deprived of its exclusive interest in 
 the Clergy Reserves, and the claims of the Church of Scotland, 
 the Methodist body, and other denominations, were in part recog- 
 nized. 
 
 3. Canada Trade Act.— While the people of Upper Canada were 
 thus striving to bring about reforms in the administration of affairs, 
 commerce was extending its domain and the country was being 
 rapidly settled. In 1829, the Welland Canal, which had been 
 projected by the Hon. W. H. Merritt, opened up a highway for 
 commerce to the upper lakes and tapped a wide area of thriving 
 settlements in the Far West. As yet, however, the revenue of 
 Upper Canada was inadequate to the growing needs of the pro- 
 vince, and trade was much impeded by the shackles placed upon it 
 
176 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. V. 
 
 by Lower Canada. This latter circumstance was the cause of a 
 long and bitter quarrel between the two provinces, Upper Canada 
 justly complaining that it did not receive its fair share of the revenue 
 derived from the duties levied on goods entering the country at 
 Lower Canada ports. With the design of remedying the grievances 
 complained of by Upper Canada, the Imperial Parliament passed 
 a meajiure, known as the Canada Trade Act, which readjusted 
 Upper Canada's share of the customs' duties levied by Lower 
 Canada, determined what these duties should be, and provided 
 for a more equitable and prompt payment of the Upper Province's 
 proportion of the revenue. Meantime other causes were at work 
 which produced disaffection within both provinces, and finally led 
 to rebellion. In Lower Canada, there were burning questions con- 
 nected with the administration of the affairs of the province, which 
 for some years had been in improper hands and independent of legis- 
 lative check or control. Abuses grew as the Governor screened 
 delinquents from the consequences of their misdeeds, sided with 
 the dominant ruling party, and resorted to unconstitutional acts in 
 making unauthorized disbursements from the treasury. For years 
 the great game of the political rulers was to thwart the Assembly 
 in its effort to obtain control of the revenues. In Upper Canada, a 
 somewhat similar state of things prevailed ; and matters became 
 worse as the reforming spirit of the time sought to remedy them, 
 
 4. The Eve of Rebellion.— Among those to take a leading part in 
 the poHtical discussions of the time were Louis Joseph Papineau 
 in the Lower Province, and William Lyon Mackenzie in the 
 Upper Province. Both of these men desired to wiest the govern- 
 ing power from the hands into which it had fallen, to puige the 
 political system from corruption, and to remove the abuses which 
 had crept in with irresponsible government. The despotic " Family 
 Compact" in Upper Canada was the special object of Macken- 
 zie's hatred ; and long and bitterly he denounced its high-handed 
 acts, and through the press issued many inflammatory appeals to 
 the people. Being returned a member of the Assembly, he made 
 use of his position in the House to expose abuses, agitate reforms, 
 and give voice to the country's appeal for responsible government. 
 So trenchant were his attacks on the governing party and so violent 
 was his attitude in the House, that he was five times expelled from 
 
A.D. 1837.] THE REBELLION, AND THE ACT OP UNION. 177 
 
 the Legislature and as often returned by his constituency. Equally 
 fiery were Papineau's attacks in the Lower Canada Legislature on 
 the Executive of that Province and equally earnest his efforts in the 
 cause of reform. Elected Speaker of the Assembly, Papineau 
 became so obnoxious towards the Governor and his Council that 
 the Governor refused to acknowledge him as the mouth-piece of 
 the House ; and the Assembly sustaining Papineau, it was pe'tu- 
 lantly prorogued, and legislation for a time came to a stand- 
 still. Meanwhile, political agitation was continued at public meet- 
 ings and in the press ; and a memorial of grievances was drawn 
 out and forwarded to England, imploring the aid of the king and 
 Parliament. The Imperial authorities, wishing to avert strife and 
 conciliate the people, sent out a Commission of Inquiry, which 
 however failed to accomplish anything. Parliament was now sum- 
 moned ; but the Lower House refused to vote more than temporary 
 supplies unless a radical change was mad? in the Constitution. 
 The changes desired were, that the Executive Council should in 
 some measure be responsible to the people, and that the Legislative 
 Council should be made an elective rather than a Crown-nominated 
 body. As these demands were not complied with, the next step 
 was rebellion. 
 
 5. The Outbreak. — In Upper Canada the disaffected were in 
 close sympathy with the movement in the Lower Province, which 
 now sought to cast off allegiance to Britain and secure Indepen- 
 dence under a Republican form of government. With the arrival 
 of a new Governor — Sir Francis Bond Head— for a while there 
 was hope of concessions being made, so as to avert rebellion ; but 
 the hope was speedily doomed to disappointment. The Governor, 
 indignant at some disloyal utterances in the Legislature, dissolved 
 the House, then in session, and threw his influence into the elec- 
 tions against the agitators for reform. This act brought on a 
 crisis, which was hastened by the outbreak of riots in Montreal, 
 and by risings in other parts of the Lower Province. To deal 
 with the Lower Canada insurgents — the leaders of whom were 
 Papineau and a Dr. Wolfred Nelson — the troops were with- 
 drawn from Upper Canada, the Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, 
 and martial law proclaimed. The governing function was at the 
 
 same time assumed by a Special Council and the Legislature set 
 13 
 
178 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. T. 
 
 aside. The military were enabled to suppress the risings, and the 
 leaders were for the time either outlawed or banished. In the 
 following year, aided by sympathizers from the United States, there 
 was a further outbreak ; and at various points the rebels — or " Sons 
 of Liberty," as they styled themselves — came into collision with the 
 troops and were finally defeated and dispersed. In the L'pper 
 Province, thanks to the efforts of Mackenzie, Robert Baldwin. 
 John Rolph, and others, many grievances had been redressed 
 and concessions wrung from the Council. But the irresponsible 
 Upper House defeated much of the legislation originating in the 
 Assembly, and continued to resist the popular demand for respon- 
 sible government. Other arbitrary acts of the ruling body pro- 
 duced wide-spread disaffection, which now broke into flange ; for 
 Mackenzie, with a number of followers, taking advantage of the 
 withdrawal of troops to Lowe: Canada, determined to march upon 
 Toronto, as the provincial capital was now called, and to proclaim 
 a Republic. Early in December, 1837, about four hundred insur- 
 gents mustered on YoNGE Street, about four miles from the city, 
 with the intent of seizing the capital, ousting the government, and 
 setting up independent rule. Want of agreement among the leaders 
 of the movement delayed action, and gave time for the assembling 
 of loyal subjects for the defence of the provincial capital. At the 
 first signal of danger. Colonel (afterwards Sir Allan) McNab 
 hastened from Hamilton with a body of militia, and within a few 
 days these loyal troops and a Toronto force met the rebels at 
 Montgomery's Tavern, near by Mackenzie's rallying-place, 'ind 
 defeated them with heavy loss. Mackenzie, by the aid of friends, 
 escaped to the United States ; and the government proclaimed 
 him an outlaw and offered a reward of a ;^ 1,000 for his head. In 
 the London district there was also an abortive rising, which was 
 speedily repressed, and for the moment quiet and order were 
 restored. 
 
 6. The " Patriots."— On Mackenzie's flight across the frontier, 
 he was received with open arms by American sympathizers 
 and Canadian refugees, who proceeded about the middle of 
 December 10 take possession of Navy Island, in the Niagara 
 River, a short distance above the Falls. From this por- 
 tion of Britisn territory, Mackenzie proclaimed Upper Canaaa a 
 
A.D. 1838.] THE REBELLION, AND THE ACT OF UNION. 179 
 
 Republic, set up the Flag o Liberty, and proceeded to establish 
 a provisional government. Hither came Colonel McNab and the 
 troops, to keep a watch on the doings oi the rebels. An American 
 steamboat — the Caroline — had been impressed into service by 
 Mackenzie and his republican filibusters, and lay moored across 
 the river at Fort Schlosser. This craft and her crew McNab gave 
 orders to surprise and capture, and a midnight expedition, under 
 Lieutenant Drew, of the Royal Navy, set out to perform the task. 
 The vessel was boarded, her crew landed, and she was then 
 towed into mid- stream, set on fire, and, being caught in the cur- 
 rent, was abandoned and allowed to drift over the Falls. After 
 this mishap, the "patriot" army left Navy Island, and, breaking 
 up, threatened the i. vasion of different portions of Upper Canada. 
 One of the chief poin s of attack was Prescott, on the St. 
 Lawrence, where a body of adventurers landed in the autumn of 
 1838 and ensconced themsjlves in an old Windmill near the 
 town. From this they were dislodged by loyal troops, though not 
 before some forty of them were killed. Later in the year, a large 
 body of American sy:n;xithizers crossed the Detroit River and took 
 possession of Windsor ; but this and :ther incursions from United 
 States territory were fruitless of results, and the Patriot War 
 soon came to an end. In the following spring, some two hundred 
 rebels, who had been taken prisoners, were brought to trial for 
 treason and were condemned to death. Only a few, however, were 
 executed, while the remainder were either banished from the coun- 
 try or pardoned. Those who were banished were subsequently 
 allowed to return to their homes, and a like indulgence was granted 
 in time to the leaders of the rebellion — Mackenzie, Papineau, Nel- 
 son, and George Etienne Cartier. 
 
 7. Lord Durham's Report.— In 1838, while the country was in 
 the throes of rebellion, the British Government commissioned the 
 Earl of Durham, an able statesman of the Liberal party at the 
 time in power in England, to proceed to Canada and report on 
 the state of affairs in the colony, and to fill the then vacant office 
 of Governor-General. During his brief rule, Lord Durham endeav- 
 oured to allay political commotion and soften the asperities of party 
 strife, and with laudable motives stretched his authority on the side 
 of clemency in dealing with the rebels. His acts, however, did not 
 
180 PUBWC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. V. 
 
 meet with the approval of the British House of Peers ; and its 
 
 members having passed a resolution 
 declaring that he had exceeded his 
 powers, he resigned the Governor- 
 Generalship and returned to Eng- 
 land. But before doing so he trav- 
 elled extensively through the pro- 
 vinces and made a close study of the 
 causes of the rebellion, the results of 
 which were embodied in an elaborate 
 and statesmanlike REPORTwhichwas 
 Lord Durham. submitted to the Imperial authorities. 
 
 This able State paper the ministry made the basis of certain politi- 
 cal, changes in the Constitution of the colony, which were of lasting 
 benefit to Canada. Among the suggestions in the Report was the 
 recommendation that a Legislative Union should be formed of 
 all the British American Provinces, or if this was at the period 
 impracticable, then that the two Canadas, at least, should be united. 
 An intercolonial railway, connecting the provinces, was also sug- 
 gested ; and in response to the appeal of the people it was strongly 
 urged that the . ecutive Councils should be made responsible to 
 the Assemblies. Reformers and the friends of responsible govern- 
 ment were delighted with the suggestion of making the Executive 
 responsible to the people's representatives in Parliament. Lord 
 Durham's suggestions were however strongly opposed by the 
 " Family Compact " in Upper Canada and by the governing party 
 in the Lower Province, both of whom foresaw in the threatened 
 changes in the Constitution the termination of their despotic rule. 
 The Imperial Government, though it acquiesced in the idea of a 
 legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada, did not then favour 
 the principle of making the Executive responsible to the popular 
 Chamber. Meanwhile, the Hon. Mr. Poulett Thomson was 
 sent out as Governor-General, with instructions to bring about a 
 legislative union. 
 
 8. The Act of Union (1841.) — Mr. Thomson's task was a diffi- 
 cult one ; but it was delicately performed ; and the Union Act 
 was passed by the Upper Canada Legislature and by a Special 
 Coimcil in the Lower Province, the Imperial Parliament ratifying 
 
A.D. 1841. J THE REBELLION, AND THE ACT OF UNION. 181 
 
 the measure. The \ct went into force in 1841, and Upper and 
 Lower Canada were united under the name of the Province OF 
 Canada, with a single Pariiament, consisting of a Legislative 
 Council and a Legislative Assembly. The former was composed 
 of twenty members, nominated by the Crown, and the latter of 
 eighty-four members, elected by the people — each province having 
 equal representation in both Chambers. The governor had as his 
 advisers an Executive Council of eight members, who, if they had 
 seats in the Assembly, were required when summoned to the Council 
 to be re-elected by their constituents. It was also provided, that 
 when the Council '10 longer commanded a majority in the Assembly, 
 it ceased to hold office — a provision which practically secured the 
 long sought boon of Responsible Giovernment. The whole revenue 
 was placed under the control of the Legislative Assembly, which 
 agreed to vote $300,000 annually for the working expenses of the 
 government. The proceedings of Parliament w^ere to be recorded 
 in both languages and their use in common allowed in debat.5. 
 The judiciary were also to be appointed by the Crown for life. On 
 the re-union of the provinces, a general election took place, and 
 Kingston, for the time being, became the seat of government. 
 The Lieutenant-Governorships were abolished ; and Mr. Poulett 
 Thomson, now raised to the peerage as Lord Sydenham, was 
 confirmed in the Governor-Generalship, and a new era dawns upon 
 Canada. 
 
 [1. Write explanatory notes on the following: Family Compact, Clergy Reserves 
 Question, and Canada Trade Act. 
 
 2. Point out the causes of the Rebellions of 1837-38, in Upper and Lower Canada. 
 
 3. Sketch the principal events of the "Patriots' War." 
 
 4. Describe from your own point of view the characters of the following men : SHr 
 Francis Bond Head, Papineau, Wm. Lyon Maclcenziu, and Dr. Rolph. 
 
 5. Explain the nature of Lord Durham's Report, and show its political importance. 
 
 6. State what is meant by Responsible Government. How far was it recognized in 
 the Act of Union (1841)? 
 
 7. What IQnglish statesman was sent to Canada to bring about the Union of the two 
 Provinces? By what means did he succeed? 
 
 8. What important public works were constructed during this period?] 
 
182 PUBtIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CONFEDERATION. 
 
 [The principles of Responsible Government in Canada were not for some years after 
 tlie Union fully acted upon. In connection with the efforts to obtain this boon, the 
 political crisis during' the rule of Lord Metcalfe is of more than ordinary interest and 
 importance. The principal events prior to Confederation are the re-modellin{f and 
 extension of our Educational System under Dr. Ryerson, the secularization of the 
 Clergy Reserves, the abolition of Seignorlal Tenure, the Reciprocity Treaty, the politi- 
 cal dead -lock which resulted in a temporary coalition of parties and the framing of the 
 B. N. A. Act, and the Fenian Raids. The hostility of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia 
 to Confederation, and the means adopted to bring them into Confederation, may be 
 compared with the hostility of Scotland and Ireland to union with England, and th« 
 means adopted to accomplish the desired end. The teacher should carefully explain 
 the terms of the Act of Confederation, referring specially to the relative powers of tht 
 Dominion and the Provinces. Since Confederation, the Washington Treaty, the Rie[, 
 Re.jellions of 1870 and 1885, the Pacific Scandal and building of the Canadian Pacifit 
 B. R., and the adoption of a Protectionist policy, are the events of most prominence 
 Among the prominent public men, now deceased, are Robert Baldwin, Lafontaine, Si'^ 
 Francis Hincks, George Brown, and Sir George E. Cartier. Lord Elgin and Lord 
 Dufferin rank high among our Governors. 
 
 References: — Dent's "Last Forty Years," Sir Francis Hincks's "Reminiscences," 
 Mackenzie's "Life of Hon. George Brown," Collins' "Sir J. A. Macdonald," Stewart's 
 "Administration of Lord Dufferin," and the ordinary Canadian histories.] 
 
 1. A Period of Reconstruction.— After the rebellion the united 
 Province of Canada set itself the task of bringing order out of 
 chaos and ol giving unity and strength to the young nation. 
 Many measures of internal amelioration and development were pro- 
 moted in Parliament. One of the most important of these was a 
 Bill establishing the Municipal System of local 
 government in cities, towns, villages, townships and tiuj^Munkiipal 
 counties, with power to levy taxes for local improve- ^^iJ^J^i 
 ments, to provide the machinery, and pay the cost of 
 local administration. Provision was also made for extending and 
 maintaining a System of Common-School Education ; for the 
 founding and endowing of King's College (now Toronto Univer- 
 sity), Upper Canada College, and other educational institutions. 
 Money was also appropriated for the extension of the Canal Sys- 
 tem, the construction of Colonization Roads, and the building 
 of Public Works. In 1842 was settled another disturbing ques- 
 
A.D. 1844.] CONFEDERATION. 183 
 
 tion, which was long a source of international irritation namely, the 
 Disputed Bouni/ ary Line of New Brunswick ana the State of 
 Maine. Between the British province and Maine lay a considerable 
 area of teiritory, which was claimed by both Canadian and American 
 lumbermen, and was the cause of frequent and sometimes serious col- 
 lisions. To prevent further comphv.ation, the British and American 
 governments made the matter the subject of a friendly negotiation; 
 and each country appointed a representative to look after its interests. 
 Lord AsHDURTON acted for Great Britain, and Daniel Webster 
 for the United States. The result of the arbitration was to give, 
 of the total twelve thousand square miles, seven thousand to the 
 United States and five thousand to Britain. The 
 decision, which did great injustice to Canada, was Treaty de'nues* 
 embodied in what is known as the Ashburton tho boundary 
 
 between New 
 Treaty, which also fixed the boundary line northward Brunswick 
 
 to the St. Lawrence, and westward through the lakes 
 
 to the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods. A clau„e in the 
 
 Treaty also made provision for the Extradition of Criminals, 
 
 convicted of certain offences committed in either country. 
 
 2. Sir Charles Metcalfe, and Lord Elgin.— In 1841, Lord Syd- 
 enham died, and after the brief administration of Sir CHARLES 
 Bagot, the Governor-Generalship was in 1843 assumed by Sir 
 Charles (afterwards Lord) Metcalfe. Sir Charles had held an 
 important office under the Crown in India, and his diplomatic train- 
 ing in the East led him to look with disfavour upon Responsible 
 Government, which he deemed incompatible with the dependent 
 position of a colony. He rigidly upheld the prerogative of the 
 Crown, in its distribution of patronage and appointment to office. 
 Actuated by these feelings, he made some appointments without the 
 knowledge or consent of his constitutional advisers, who in conse- 
 quence resigned office. After governing some time without respon- 
 sible advisers, Metcalfe formed a Tory ministry and made a personal 
 appeal to the country, which resulted in the return of a small Tory 
 majority to Parliament, and the formation of a ministry, under Mr. 
 William Henry (afterwards Chief Justice) Draper. During 
 Lord Metcalfe's governorship, the Rev. Dr. Egerton Ryerson, 
 who had been at the head of Victoria (Methodist) University, 
 was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for Upper 
 
184 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Canada, a position lie was to hold with great profit to the country 
 
 and honour to himself for a period of over thirty years. 
 
 son^ttppointcd Under Dr. Ryerson, the present admirable system of 
 
 Cliief Superiu 
 
 tendent of 
 
 Education, 
 
 organizes 
 
 tlio Pulilic 
 
 Canada, 
 A.D. 1844, 
 
 Public and High School education was established, 
 with the generous aid of Parliament. Shortly after 
 this, failing health compelled Lord Metcalfe to resign 
 of Uppe/** *^"' the Governor-Generalship ; and after a brief interval 
 he was succeeded in 1847 by Lord Elgin, a son-in- 
 law of the Earl of Durham, and a statesman of great 
 sagacity and experience. With the coming of this nobleman, 
 
 Responsible Government may be 
 said to be now fully and firmly estab- 
 lished, for he was commissioned by 
 the Liberal ministry in England, who 
 bad appointed him, to announce the 
 REMOVAL OF THE CUSTOMS DUTIES, 
 favouring British manufactured goods, 
 heretofore imposed by the Home 
 Government on importations enter- 
 ing the colony ; while his own policy 
 LoKD Elgin. led him to pay deference to the 
 
 wishes of the people and to guide himself by the counsels of 
 those only v/ho enjoyed their confidence. Unfortunately, Canada 
 at this period was in no position to profit by the conciliatory- 
 attitude of the new Governor. A new and burning question 
 had for some time agitated the country. This was the proposal, 
 which had been repeatedly brought before Parliament, to com- 
 pensate those persons in both Provinces who had suffered destruc- 
 tion of their property during the rebellion. In 1846 the Draper 
 Ministry submitted a Bill in the Assembly to indemnify Upper 
 Canadians for their losses ; and the French members agreed to 
 pass the measure on the understanding that the claims of Lower 
 Canadians would meet with like justice. But Lower Canadian 
 losses were at the time only partially compensated ; and after the 
 defeat of the Draper Ministry, in 1848, on the question of full Com- 
 pensation and Secularization of the Clergy Reserves, 
 and the formation of the Baldwin-Lafontaine Liberal Govern- 
 ment, the matter came up again at th^ meeting of a new Parlia- 
 
A.D. 1849.] CONFEDERATION. * 186 
 
 ment in Montreal, in 1849, when the proposal met the fierce 
 resistance of the English-speaking Tories. It was held by the 
 latter that the bulk of the Lower Canadian claims were those 
 preferred by " rebels," and that therefore no compensation should 
 be granted them. Notwithstanding this opposition, the Refonn 
 Government, now in power, passed a measure authorizing it to 
 raise ;^r 00,000 to indemnify Lower Canadians for their losses. 
 So unpopular, however, was this action with the Tory party, that 
 the Governor-General was deluged with petitions praying him to 
 withhold his consent to the Bill ; but this Lord Elgin 
 refused to do, and the measure became law on the ov'Jr^the 
 26th of April, 1849. For this act, His Excellency, on ^X'ufo"/*'** 
 leaving the Parliament buildings, was hooted and Losses Bill, 
 insulted by an angry, turbulent mob, which as night the Parliament 
 came on wrought itself into a high fever of excitement A^D.^^isfg' 
 and proceeded to attack the Legislative Chambers. 
 Both Houses were still sitting. A party of armed men broke into 
 the Assembly Chamber, drove out the members, destroyed all 
 movable property, and ended by applying lighted torches to the 
 buildings and burned them down. With the Parliament buildings 
 the Library and the State Records were consumed. Time allayed 
 the excitement ; and though vigorous protests were sent to England, 
 asking Her Majesty to disallow the Rebellion Losses Bill, this was 
 not done ; and the menace of a new uprising spent itself in talk. 
 Imperial displeasure towards the rioters was shown in the British 
 ministiy's approving of Lord Elgin's course, and in the removal of 
 the seat of Government from Montreal. For a time Parliament 
 met every four years alternately in Toronto and Quebec. In 1858, 
 Ottawa (foi-merly Bytown) became, by the decision of Her 
 Majesty, the capital of the Canadas, and at a later day it was 
 made the permanent seat of Government. 
 
 3. Measures of Progress. — Immigrants continued to pour mto 
 the colony ; and the opening of railways and the extension of 
 steam transit on the rivers and lakes gave facilities for settle- 
 ment over an ever-widening range of country. The mother coun- 
 try also granted to the colony commercial freedom, and opened 
 her ports to the untaxed lumber, grain, and other products of the 
 west. Canada was thus enabled to trade with foreign countries. 
 
186 PUBLIC? SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 to give in exchange such of her products as she could find a mar- 
 ket for abroad, and to employ her merchant-marine in the carrying- 
 trade of the continent. One marked instance of the concessions 
 of Britain to Canada at the period was her consent to the colony's 
 negotiating a treaty with the United States for the mutual ex- 
 change, free of duty, of the natural products of the farm, the / orest, 
 ^ „ , the sea, and the mine. This Reciprocity Treaty, 
 
 TheReclpro- • ,, , • , . « , 
 
 city Treaty of as it was called, was negotiated in 1854, and was to 
 continue in force for ten years, after which it could be 
 terminated by either of the parties giving a year's notice. By it 
 the United States had the privilege of fishing in the coast waters 
 of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and the Maritime Provinces, with 
 freedom of access to the Upper Canada canals. The treaty, 
 though of manifest advantage tc both countries, was terminated by 
 the United States in 1866; and Canada sought markets elsewhere 
 and new outlets for her surplus products. During Lord Elgin's 
 administration the Canadian Parliament disposed finally of the 
 Clergy Reserves controversy, by passing a measure decreeing 
 the separation of the State in its relations to any particular Church, 
 and by making provision for the clergy in possession of livings en- 
 dowed by the Crown. When this had been done, the balance of the 
 moneys derived from the sale of the Clergy Land Re- 
 Secuiarization serves was divided among the municipalities, accord- 
 Reserves, and ing to population, to be applied either for purposes of 
 abolition of the , . r ■> i • . t . i 
 
 Feudal Tenure ec ' /;ation or for Jocal improvements. In the same year 
 
 ^dTism. (1854) Parliament also abolished, by the Seigniorial 
 Tenure Act, the feudal system of land tenure pre- 
 vailing in Lower Canada, and made compensation to the Seigneurs 
 for the surrender of their rights and privileges, which had been 
 granted them under the old French law. This measure was a 
 great relief to the small farmer and land-tenant classes in the 
 Lower Province, who were now freed from the privileged levies of 
 the Seigneurs and enabled to acquire possession of the lands they 
 tilled and occupied. Other measures of Parliament at this period 
 indicate the continued progress of the country and its political 
 development. In 1853, the number of representatives in Parlia- 
 ment was increased from 84 to 1 30, each province returning sixty- 
 five members. In 1856, the elective principle was applied to the 
 
A.D. I860.] CONFEDERATION. 187 
 
 Legislative Council, a reform which changed that formerly nom- 
 inative body into an elective one, on the death of the then Crown- 
 appointed members. This reform was followed by an agitation for 
 Representation by Population, which sought to increase the 
 number of Upper Canadian members in the Assembly so as to 
 correspond with the increased population in the Upper Province. 
 The population of Upper Canada was now close upon 1,400,000 ; 
 while that of the Lower Province was some 300,000 less. In i860 
 Canada was visited by the heir-apparent, H. R. H. the Prince 
 OF Wales ; and in the following year Sir Edmund Head was 
 succeeded in the Governor-Generalship by Lord MONCK. 
 
 4. The Britisli North America Act.— The demand in Upper 
 Canada for representation in Parliament in proportion to its num- 
 bers met with bitter opposition in Lower Canada, and along with 
 other previously mentioned causes threatened the permanence of 
 the union between the two Provinces. Party strife increased these 
 discords ; and the far-seeing began to look in other directions for 
 a solution of the difficulties which now pressed heavily on both 
 sections of the community. Then was revived the suggestion, 
 made at an earlier period in the country's history, of a more 
 extended union among the British Provinces of North America. 
 International complications between the mother country and the 
 neighbouring Republic, arising out of the War of SECESSION, 
 which had now broken out, gave increased force to the suggestion, 
 and brought home to the minds of the people the advantages of 
 a closer union of all the British communities of the continent. 
 At this period thei were seven distinct colonies in British America 
 owning allegiance to Britain, each — if we except the two Canadas — 
 having its own political system and separate government. These 
 were the Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, the two Canadas, and the Crown colonies of New- 
 foundland and British Columbia. As early as i860, the Hon. 
 George Brown, founder of the Toronto Globe, and an able and 
 prominent leader of the Reform party in Upper Canada, moved 
 two resolutions in Parlif.ment, which met that year in Quebec, 
 affirming " that the existing Legislative Union of the Provinces 
 (Upper and Lower Canada) had failed to realize the anticipations 
 of its promoters," a ^d recommending "the formation of two or 
 
188 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 more local governments, to which should be committed all matters 
 of a sectional character, and the erection of some joint authority to 
 dispose of the affairs common to all." These resolutions were at 
 the time defeated ; but two years afterwards, when legislation came 
 to a stand-still, in consequence of the strife gf parties, which were 
 now very evenly balanced, the "joint authority" scheme was acted 
 upon, and a coalition government formed, which warmly advocated 
 a confederation of all the liritish Americm provinces, and held a 
 series of conferences with the view to bring about the desirable 
 measure. This proposal for a Federal Unioi; was very oppor- 
 tunely brought before the leading public men of the various sections 
 of the country, for at the time the Maritime Provinces were contem- 
 plating a similar unitm among themselves. In the two Canadas, 
 some such measure was felt to be a necessity, in order to extricate 
 parties from the dead-lock which had come about, for neither of 
 them could command a sufficient majority in Parliament to enable 
 it efficiently to administer affairs. The project continuing to 
 engage the attention of Canadian statesmen, a Conven riON of 
 
 representatives ffom the various Provinces met in 
 Confederation o/- /- . . /-■ n • i^ ^ i i i i 
 
 Conveiitiormat 1 064, first at Charlot'JETOWN, Pnnce Edward Island, 
 
 S(rQuJi>^t-*'' '^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Quebec, to discuss the feasibility of the 
 Sept. and Oct., scheme and finally to arrange the terms of the con- 
 templated union. Next year, the Canadian Legisla- 
 ture adopted the union resolutions, which by this time had received 
 the hearty support of the Imperial authorities ; but in the Maritime 
 Provinces the Confederation scheme as yet failed to meet the 
 approval of the people. Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland 
 withdrew from the negotiations ; and the latter colony still main- 
 tains its separate political existence. In Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick there was a strong popular opposition to the scheme. 
 So strong was this opposition in Nova Scotia, that, although its 
 Legislature was induced to endorse the scheme, at the ensuing 
 elections held in that Province the most of the Unionist candi- 
 dates were rejected, and fruitless efforts were made at a later date 
 to get the consent of the Imperial Government to withdraw from 
 the Confederation. Delegates from the various Provinces now met 
 in London, to arrange with the Home Ciovernment a formal basis 
 of union, the result of which was the passing in the Imperial Parlia- 
 
A.D. 1867.] CONFEDERATION. 189 
 
 ment of the British North America Act, and the ratifying of 
 the Confederation of Tiiii British American 
 Provinces, which was to take effect on the ist of Siiament 
 July, 1867. The union embraced the four Trovinccs llT"? *v,°_x.. 
 
 •'"".' . Britmli North 
 
 of r,ova Scotia, New Brunswick, Upper and Lower axmitU-h Act, 
 Canada, under the designation of the Dominion of Dominion of 
 Canada, with a single, Federal Parliament, and Sul^m?!'^'^' 
 four Local Leoislaturks, with jurisdiction over 
 local matters in the several Provinces. The name of Upper Canada 
 was changed to ONTARIO, and that of Lower Canada to QuEUEC. 
 Provision was made in the Act for the admission of other Provinces 
 which might afterwards desire to come into the union ; while the 
 Imperial Government guaranteed a loan to Canada of three mil- 
 lions sterling to aid in the building of an Intercolonial Railway 
 connecting the Maritime Provinces with the two Canadas. Lord 
 Monck became the first Governor-General of the Dominion ; Lieu- 
 tenant-Governors were appointed to the several Provinces ; elec- 
 tions were held under the new constitution ; and the first Dominion 
 Parliament met in 1 867 at Ottawa, the seat of government, with 
 Sir John A. Macdonald as Premier. 
 
 5. Canada since Confederation.— With Confederation passed 
 away, in some measure the enfeebling section.al rivalries which 
 had so long retarded the progress of the country and exercised a 
 baneful influence upon politics. In Nova Scotia, the new regime 
 was for a time regarded with disfavour ; but opposition finally 
 yielded to the dictates of reason and patriotism and the granting 
 of " better terms." In the following year, Lord Lisgar (Sir John 
 Young) became Governor- General ; and during his administration 
 some delicate international questions, affecting the relations of 
 Canada and the mother country with the United States^ came up 
 for settlement. These questions were a legacy of the American 
 Civil War, and arose chiefly out of the acts of the Confederate 
 cruiser, the Alabama^ for which the United States held Britain 
 responsible — the vessel having been fitted out in a British port, and, 
 in violation of international comity, permitted to leave on its career 
 of depredation without the interference of the Imperial authorities. 
 The matter was complicated, so far as the Dominion was concerned, 
 by the counter-claims of Canada, fi"st, for the value of fishery 
 
190 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 rights in Canadian waters enjoyed by the United States, and for 
 which, since the expiry of the Reciprocity treaty, the Dominion 
 had received no equivalent ; and, secondly, for compensation for the 
 expense the country had been put to, in 1866, in repelling armed 
 raids of American citizens, belonginfjf to Fenian organizations, who 
 sought by the invasion of Canada to gratify Irish hatred of England, 
 
 and, quixotically, to endeavour to wrest it from the 
 Fenian Raids. British crown. The most serious of these marauding 
 
 expeditions, under " General O' Neill," who had seen 
 service in the War of Secession, crossed the Niagara frontier, 
 in June 1866. Effecting a landing at Fort Erie, the invading force 
 advanced upon the Welland Canal, and at Ridgeway encountered 
 a hastily summoned levy of Canadian militia, which checked their 
 progress, though the militia were forced to retire with considerable 
 loss in killed and wounded. Within twelve hours after the engage- 
 ment, the Fenians withdrew discomfited to American territory, 
 though not before a hundred or more of them were captured and 
 imprisoned, besides their loss on the field. These and other 
 irritating international questions were adjusted by a Joint High 
 
 Commission, held at Washington in 1871 ; compen- 
 Treaty" and sation being afterwards made by Britain to the United 
 Halifax States in settlement of the Alabama Claims, and by 
 
 Commission. ' / 
 
 the United States to Canada, for her concessions, in 
 
 what are known as the Fishery Clauses of the Washington 
 
 Treaty. The amount of this latter compensation — five and a half 
 
 million dollars — was determined by a Commission, which sat in 
 
 Halifax, in 1878. 
 
 6. Acquisition of the North-West.— Shortly after Confedera- 
 tion, the Dominion authorities took steps to extend the country's 
 territorial possessions, by negotiating with the British Government 
 for the purchase of the Hudson Bay Company's interests in the 
 vast region known as Rupert's Land, which for two centuries 
 had been under the rule of that great fur-trading corporation. In 
 1869, Canada obtained the cession of the territory, at a cost of a 
 million and a half of dollars, with the reservation to the Company 
 of its trading-posts and one-twentieth of the land. A difficulty, 
 however, arose in entering upon the possession of the country. 
 The French and Half-breed population of that portion of it known 
 
A.D. 1870.] CONFEDERATION. l9l 
 
 as the Red River Settlement objected to the transfer without 
 
 their consent, or without some assurance being given them that 
 
 their rights and interests would be respected. In the „. „ ^, , 
 ° ^ , Riels First 
 
 haste to take possession, the Dominion authorities had Rebellion, 
 ofifended native sensitiveness, which showed itself in 
 preventing the entry into the country of the newly-appointed 
 Lieutenant-Governor and the machinery of government designed 
 for the erection of a new province. The leader of the obstruction- 
 ists was Louis Riel, a French Canadian, with Indian blood in his 
 veins, who proceeded to usurp authority in the district, and to form 
 a provisional government at Fort Garry. Here, for nearly a 
 year, he set at defiance both the Canadian and the Imperial Gov- 
 ernments, and imprisoned many of the loyal inhabitants, putting 
 to a foul death one of their number. A military force, under Sir 
 Garnet Cnow Lord) Wolesley, was despatched by the joint gov- 
 ernments to quell the rebellion. On the arrival of this force Riel 
 fled into United States territory, and for a time was outlawed, 
 but subsequently he was banished for five years. After asserting 
 its authority, the Canadian Government erected the district into 
 the Province of Manitoba, appointed a new Lieutenant-Gover- 
 nor and organized a Government, with a Local Legislature and 
 representation in the Federal Parliament. The unor- 
 ganized territory outside of the Province was at first ^[g p|.ovi°p 
 placed under the jurisdiction of Manitoba; but, subse- of Manitoba, 
 quently, the North-West Territory was placed tiononhe^ 
 under a separate government, consisting of a Lieuten- Territory! 
 ant-Governor and Council ; and, at a still later date, 
 was divided into the four districts of Assiniboia, Alberta, Sas- 
 katchewan, and Athabasca. As time passed, the same difficul- 
 ties were met with in opening up the North-West Territory 
 for settlement as had arisen in the case of Manitoba, On the 
 colonization of that Province, the half-breed trappers and hunters 
 moved westward in pursuit of the fur-trade and of game. Many of 
 them took up lands for cultivation along the North and South Sas- 
 katchewan ; and when the government surveys were being made in 
 the region of their holdings, they feared they were going to be dis- 
 possessed, and, finding their petitions neglected, assumed a threat- 
 ening attitude towards established authority. To aid them in their 
 
192 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 resistance, they sent for their old leader, Louis Riel, whose term of 
 
 banishment had expired in the interval. On coming, his foolish 
 
 ambition led him once more to play the role of dicta- 
 Riel, andthe ^ , . ,. „ . r. • . . , 
 
 Saskatehewau tor and to excite disaffection. Setting up a provisional 
 
 A.^a"886'. government, he declared war against the Dominion 
 authorities, and at Duck Lake, in March, 1885, 
 incited his followers to shed blood. He then entrenched him- 
 self and his lawless following at Batoche, a half-breed village 
 on the South Saskatchewan, set up the flag and government of 
 rebellion, and instigated a general rising of the Indians. To sup- 
 press the outbreak, the Dominion Government despatched from 
 the older Provinces some three thousand Canadian militia and 
 regulars, under Major-General Middleton, C.B., besides organ- 
 izing in the Territories several corps of mounted scouts and other 
 branches of the military service. This North- West Field Force, 
 co-operating with the local corps and Mounted Police, penetrated 
 into the disaffected region, spread its protecting arm over the 
 many exposed parts of the Territory, and on three occasions 
 encountered the half-breed and Indian insurgents. Batoche was 
 taken by assault, Riel and his rebel-following were captured, and 
 the Indian chiefs and those who had committed pillage and murder 
 were taken prisoners. Law and order were now restored in the 
 country ; and later in the year Riel and several Indians were 
 hanged, and others less criminal were imprisoned. 
 
 7. Admission of New Provinces, and the Canadian Pacific 
 
 R. R.— An important undertaking in connection with the acquire- 
 ment of the North- West was to provide facilities, through Canadian 
 territory, for access to it. In 1871, British Columbia, entered 
 Confederation, but stipulated in doing so that it be connected with 
 the east by a railway across the continent. At first, political 
 difficulties of a party character beset this enterprise, and brought 
 a crisis upon the country, arising out of what is known as the 
 Pacific Scandal. But, in 1880, the Dominion Government con- 
 tracted with a Syndicate of Canadian and European capitalists 
 for the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway ; and to 
 aid the project gave a cash subsidy of Twenty-five Million 
 Dollars and a land-grant of Twenty-five Million Acres. 
 This liberal aid, which has since been supplemented, has enabled 
 
A.D. 1886.] CONFEDERATION. 193 
 
 the company to complete the work in the present year (1886), and 
 to bring the great resources of the Pacific Province within easy 
 reach of the older settlements of the Dominion, and in the line of 
 direct and speedy communication wUh Europe. In 1872, the 
 Earl of Dufferin succeeded Lord Lisgar as Governor-General, 
 and he in turn was succeeded (1878) by the Marquis of Lorne, 
 and the latter (1883) by the Marquis of Lansdowne. During 
 Lord Dufferin's regime (1873), Prince Edward Island became 
 a Province of Canada, and completed the chain from ocean to 
 ocean of Confederated British Colonies. In the same year, a 
 Reform Administration, under the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, 
 was called to power, on the resignation of the Government of Sir 
 John Macdonald, which had fallen in consequence of alleged cor- 
 rupt relations with a company of contractors offering to build the 
 Pacific Railway. The Mackenzie Administration held the reins 
 of government until 1878, when it was overthrown on a Tariff 
 Question which then agitated the country. This was the ques- 
 tion of protection to native industries, foreshadowed in what came 
 to be called the National Policy of the succeeding Conservative 
 Administration of Sir John Macdonald, which still (1886) holds 
 office. 
 
 (!• For what is the administration of Sir Charles Metcalfe noted? Describe the 
 character and antecedents of this Governor. 
 
 2. What important events are connected with the administration of Lord Elgin? 
 Explain why they are important. 
 
 3. Give an account of the extension and re-modelling of the Public School system of 
 Ontario by Dr. Ryerson. 
 
 4. State the causes of the political dead-lock that led to Confederation. 
 6. Describe the steps taken to bring about Confederation? 
 
 6. Of what Provinces did the Dominion at first consist? What Provinces have been 
 added since? Give dates. 
 
 7. Write explanatory notes on the following : Washington Treaty, Fenian Raids, Red 
 River Rebellion, Pacific Scandal, National Policy, and North-West Rebellion.] 
 
 14 
 
194 PUBLIC- SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. fCbap. VII. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HOW WE ARE GOVERNED. 
 
 [This very brief synopsis of " How we are Governed" must be largely supplemented 
 and illustrated by the teacher from his own information. It is desirable to show that 
 in essentials our system of government has been derived from England. Abundant 
 illustrations of its practical working should be drawn from familiar facts. By means 
 of such illustrations it is possible to make clear and attractive many matters which 
 otherwise will be not only obscure but positively distasteful. Explain the meaning of 
 all technical terms, such as Prorogue, Dissolution, Executive, Municipal, Disallow« 
 ANCE ; also clearly distinguish between a Lbqislativb and Federal Union. 
 
 References: — O'Sullivan's "Manual of Government," the British North America Act, 
 Todd's "Parliamentary Government in the Colonies," and Bourinot's " Parliamentary 
 Practice and Procedure."] 
 
 1. Parliamentary System.— The Constitution of the Dominion 
 of Canada is embodied in an Act passed by the Imperial Parlia- 
 ment to give effect to Confederation, and known as The British 
 North America Act of 1867. By this Act, as we have seen, the 
 four older Provinces of British North America (with three subse- 
 quent additions) were united in what is called a Federation or 
 Federal Union, owing allegiance to the British Crown, and 
 governed, as a part of the British Empire, somewhat after the 
 manner in which the people of the British Isles are governed. It 
 is to be remembered, however, that the British Constitution is to a 
 great extent an unwritten one; while that of Canada is mainly 
 contained in the Confederation Act, as the British North 
 America Act is sometimes called. By the latter Act, the Sove- 
 reign authority is vested in the Queen ; though the Ex- 
 ecutive Power is exercised by the Governor-General of 
 the Dominion, and his advisers, the Ministry, for the time 
 being, who possess the confidence of Parliament. The Gov- 
 ernor-General is appointed by the Crown (generally for a period 
 of five years), though his salary — $50,000 a year — is paid from the 
 Dominion treasury. He is the commander-in-chief of the military 
 and naval forces of the Dominion ; and has the power, in the 
 Queen's name, to commute the sentence of a court of justice ; to 
 summon, open, prorogue, and on occasions dissolve Parliament ; 
 
A.D. 188G.] HOW WE ARE GOVERNED. 195 
 
 to give or withhold assent to, or reserve for the Royal considera- 
 tion, all Bills which have passed both Houses ; and, with the 
 advice of his Ministry, to appoint the Lieutenant-Governors of the 
 various Provinces, the Senators, the Judges, aad other officers 
 ander Government. The general, or Dominion, Parliament 
 consists of the Governor-General, representing the Queen, an 
 Upper Hous»e, styled the Senate, and the House of Commons. 
 In them, collectively, is vested the Legislative Power, with 
 exclusive jmisdiction over such matters as " the public debt and 
 property, trade and commerce, raising money on the credit of the 
 Dominion by loan or taxation, the postal service, militia, fisheries, 
 viavigation, banks, currency, coinage, bankruptcy, marriage and 
 divorce, criminal law, public works, and — in common with the 
 iocal legislatures — over agriculture and immigration." The general 
 government is the custodian of the moneys derived from customs' 
 duties and excise throughout the Dominion, which form a Consoli- 
 dated Revenue Fund, and from which is disbursed the expenses 
 of the public service, interest on the public debt and other charges, 
 together with the subsidies paid to the several Local Governments. 
 The Governor- General's advisers, the Ministry — known also as 
 the Dominion Cabinet, the Administration, the Privy Council for 
 Canada, or, individually, as Ministers of the Crown or of State — 
 consist generally of thirteen members, each of whom, with the 
 exception of the President of the Council, has charge of some one 
 of the Departments into which the work of carrying on the Gov- 
 ernment is divided. Each of these Ministers must be a member 
 either of the Senate or of the Commons, and so answerable to 
 Parliament and the country for his share in the administration of 
 public affairs. The Senate — the members of which are appointed 
 by the Crown for life, on the advice of the Privy Council, through 
 the Governor-General — consists at present (1886) of seventy-seven 
 {77) members, apportioned as follows: Ontario 24, Quebec 24, 
 Nova Scotia 10, New Brunswick 10, Prince Edward Island 4, 
 British Columbia 3, and Manitoba 2. The Speaker of the Senate 
 is appointed by the Governor-General. The House of Commons 
 — the members of which need no property qualification, and are 
 not necessarily residents of their constituency or province, though 
 they must be British subjects — consists (1886) of two hundred and 
 
196 PUBLIC- SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 eleven (211) members, apportioned as follows: Ontario 92, Quebec 
 65, Nova Scotia 21, New Brunswick 16, Prince Edward Island 6, 
 British Columbia 6, and Manitoba 5. Sixty-five is the fixed num- 
 ber for Quebec (the Confederation Act permitting of no additions) ; 
 and each province, after the decennial census, is entitled to a repre- 
 sentation in Parliament which shall bear the same ratio to its own 
 population as the number sixty-five ^ears to the population of the 
 Province of Quebec. The House of Commons is elected for five 
 years, subject to dissolution at any time by the Governor- General. 
 With the Commons alone can money-bills originate, and they must 
 first be recommended by a message from the Governor-GeneraL 
 To each province a Lieutenant-Governor is appointed, who 
 holds office for a term of five years. Each province has also a 
 Legislature, composed of one or more branches. Three pro- 
 vinces — Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia — have 
 each one Leg (SLATIVE Assembly : all the others have chosen to 
 add to their legislative machinery a second Chamber, known as the 
 Legislative Council. Local Legislatures are elected for a period 
 of four years ; and, as at Ottawa, there is a Ministry or Govern- 
 ment, with departments presided over by members of the Provincial 
 Executive. In Ontario, the Executive Council consists at present 
 of six members, the Attorney-General, the Minister of Education, 
 the Commissioner of Crown Lands, the Commissioner of Public 
 Works, the Provincial Treasurer and Commissioner of Agriculture, 
 and the Provincial Secretary and Registrar. The Local Legis- 
 latures have power to levy direct taxes for provincial purposes ; 
 borrow money on the credit of the Province ; organize and amend 
 Municipal Institutions ; define civil and property rights ; legislate 
 upon the administration of justice; establish Reformatories, Public 
 Prisons, Asy urns, etc. ; undertake local works, or charter companies 
 for their construction within the Province; and make laws with 
 regard to, and administer the machinery of. Education. Both 
 Dominion and Provincial Parliaments must meet annually. The 
 members of the House of Commons, and of most of the Local Legis- 
 latures, are el'^cted by Ballot. The electors must be male adults, 
 also British subjects by birth or naturalization, and possess a pro- 
 perty or income qualification (except in Prince Edward Island for 
 the Local Legislature). For electoral purposes the country is 
 
A.D. 1886.] HOW WE ARE GOVERNED. 197 
 
 divided into districts, called Constituencies, each of which, in 
 the great majority of instances, elects one member. The electors 
 practically govern the country, for they choose the members of the 
 House of Commons and the Local Legislatures ; and these members 
 by their votes in Parliament maintain in office or overthrow the 
 Ministers of the Crown. Thus Canada, like the British Islands, is 
 in the enjoyment of Responsible Government — the meaning of 
 which is that the Government of the day is responsible to the peo- 
 ple through the members of Parliament they elect to carry out their 
 wishes. 
 
 2. Judicial System.— The Executive authority in Canada is 
 responsible, not only for the character of the laws of the country, 
 but also for their correct interpretation and proper enforcement. 
 These latter duties are entrusted to the Judiciary of the Domin- 
 ion, sitting in the established Courts of Law, and to a body of 
 officers of justice, called Magistrates, who sit in the minor 
 Courts. The Federal Executive, through the Governor- General 
 in Council, appoints all the Judges of the Superior, District, and 
 County Courts ; and their salaries form a permanent charge on the 
 civil list of the Dominion. In no essential respect, however, are 
 they dependent on the mere will of the Executive; nor is their 
 retention in office subject to the will of the people. They hold 
 their positions during good behaviour, and can be removed only by 
 petition of both Houses of Parliament. Their tenure of office is 
 thus assured ; and in this respect the principle is allied to that in 
 England, but unlike that in vogue in many of the States of the 
 neighbouring Republic. While the Dominion Government is 
 entrusted with the appointment of Judges, the Local Governments 
 are charged with the Administration of the laws in the various 
 Provinces. Hence, many of the officers required to carry out the 
 will of the Courts, such as Sheriffs, are appointed by the Local 
 Executive : so, too, are Magistrates or Justices of the Peace. 
 To the Local Legislatures is given the creation and organiza- 
 tion of the various Courts in the different Provinces, with the excep- 
 tion of such Courts as deal with matters affecting the Dominion as 
 a whole. Such a Court is the Supreme Court of Canada, to which, 
 in cases of grave difficulty, matters in dispute may be referred, but 
 the final Court of Appeal is the British Privy Council. To 
 
198 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 either or both of these tribunals controverted cases may be referred, 
 not only by private individuals, but by those acting for the Pro- 
 vinces, in cases of dispute between each other, or between a 
 Province and the Dominion. 
 
 3. Municipal System.— We have seen that the Municipal 
 System of local government in cities, towns, villages, etc., was 
 established in 1841, and that municipal corporations had conferred 
 upon them the power to levy taxes for local improvements, as well 
 as to provide machinery and pay the cost of local administration. 
 These municipal bodies are incorj lorated by the Provincial Legis- 
 latures, and are empowered by them to make certain enactments, 
 termed By-laws, for the management of their local affairs. Vil- 
 lages entitled to incorporation must have a population of at least 
 750 inhabitants. Towns must have 2000, and cities 10,000 inhab- 
 itants, Rural communities have their affairs managed by Town- 
 ship and County Councils. The administrative machinery of these 
 municipal corporations is minutely set out in Acts relating to 
 Municipal Institutions passed by the various Local Assemblies. 
 In Ontario, these Acts provide for the making and keeping in 
 repair of public highways, and for regulating the driving thereon ; 
 for the maintenance of a local police ; for aiding schools, agricul- 
 tural societies, mechanics' institutes, charitable institutions, fac- 
 tories, and manufacturing ei-.tab^shments ; and for the performance 
 of other specified duties. 7'hey are empowered to impose fines for 
 a breach of the by-laws, and to commit to prison for disturbance 
 of the peace or other infractions of the law. These bodies form the 
 local administration of their municipality for the year for which 
 they are elected ; and their members must possess certain property 
 qualifications. They are styled Aldermen or Councillors, and 
 have a presiding officer, who is Mayor, Warden, or Reeve, 
 according to the scope and character of the corporation. The 
 election of municipal officers takes place by ballot, and the electors 
 must have a property qualification. The right to vote for these 
 officers is much the same as that for members of Parliament ; but 
 unmarried women and widows possessing the necessary property 
 qualification can vote for Municipal Officers and School Trustees. 
 
 4. School System— Under the Confederation Act, each Pro- 
 vince was given the right to manage its own educational affairs, 
 
A.D. 1886.] now we are governed. 199 
 
 and to make its own laws governing Education, in so far as they 
 shall not prejudicially affect any right or privilege by law enjoyed 
 by denominational bodies at the time of the Union. Previous to 
 the passing of this Act, the municipalities of the Province of 
 Ontario were divided for the purposes of education into SCHOOL 
 Seciions, whose affairs were managed by SCHOOL Boards. 
 This system has since been maintained. Up to the year 1876, 
 these bodies were governed, under the Legislature, by a Depart- 
 ment of Education, with a Chief Superintendent as its executive 
 head, aided by a Council of Public Instruction. In that year the 
 office of Minister of Education for Ontario was created, and the 
 duties of the Council were assumed by that member of the pro- 
 vincial administration, and his department was made immediately 
 responsible to the Legislature. To this department is entrusted 
 the management of the Public, High, and Normal Schools, and 
 the Collegiate Institutes of the Province ; and the Minister is 
 responsible for the apportionment of the Legislative grant to the 
 schools, for their inspection and efficient maintenance, for the 
 preparing of the programme of studies, for the regulation of the 
 text-books in use, and for the carrying out of the School Law. 
 School Boards have the power to levy an annual rate for the main- 
 tenance of the schools in the cities, cowns, and school seqtions 
 throughout the Province ; and properly qualified inspectors are 
 appointed to inspect the Public and High Schools in the counties, 
 towns, and cities. The cost of supporting both High and Public 
 Schools is borne partly by the municipality or school section and 
 partly by the Local Government. In Ontario and Quebec there 
 are Separate School systems, by means of which Roman Cath- 
 olics and Protestants can educate their children in their own 
 schools, and with the proceeds of their own taxes, aided by a 
 Government grant. The higher education of the community is 
 provided for by denominational universities and the University of 
 Toronto, the latter being almost wholly supported by a land 
 endowment. 
 
 [1. Explain the following terms: Federal Union, Legislative Union, Constitution, 
 Cabinet, Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Functions of the Cabinet. 
 
 2. What proofs does our form of Government afford of Canada's being a Britiah 
 colony? 
 
 3. De«uHbe the elements that compose the Dominion Parliament. 
 
200 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL CANADIAN HISTORY. [Chap. VII. 
 
 4. In what reapectH do the Legislatures of the Provinces of the Dominion difTer from 
 one another? 
 
 6. In what respects does the Dominion Parliament differ from the Ontario Legis- 
 lature ? From the British Parliament ? 
 
 G. Explain how members of the Dominion Parliament and Local Legislatures are 
 elected. 
 
 7. Explain : County Council, Reeve, Trustee, By-law, Minister of the Crown. 
 
 8. Show that Canada is governed by " the people."]