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L STRANG, B.A., ^1 Principal (ronRRTng Cot^i^rotatr Institute *>'■. a /^ EDUCATION. ^^ 1 1 V A - x5^ ^ A.UTHORIZEbsi;QHS]HEyiflfTHBTUBLIC SCHOOLS s OF ONTARIO BY THE MINISTER OF 1 EDUCATION. 1 TORONTO: * •* . ' 1 CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY (LIMITED), > m 1899. PE/11 i c- ^ ^n Intered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the office of the Minister of Agrioulture, by Thb Cvnada Publishing Company (Limited), in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine. IN * "3^^ i ^ ''^ i PREFACE. JN preparing this book the author has tried to keep four objects in view: — 1. To make it full enough to meet all the requirements of the Public School course. 2. To keep it in line with the High School grammar so that pupils entering the High Schools and Collegiate Institutes will have nothing to unlearn. 3. To improve the teaching of grammar in the Public Schools, and to ensure, ou the part of the pupils, an intelligent aud definite knowledge of the subject as far as they go in their study of it. 4. To make the study of grammar promote as directly and efficiently as possible the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly. How far he has succeeded in these objects remains to be seen, but the favorable opinions expressed by several experienced Inspectors and Principals of Public Schools, who were kind enough to read the proofs, and to give him the benefit of their criticisms and suggestions, encourage him to hope that the book will be found to be an improvement on any hitherto used in the Public Schools. In order to allow sufficient space for Syntax and Analysis, find for carefully prepared Review Exercises, it has been necessary to make the explanations as brief as is consistent with clearness. A definite mode of treating each part of the subject is given, and it is left with the teacher to furnish such further explanations and illustrations as may be necessary. Only a few formal definitions have been given. It is difficult to frame grammatical definitions which are at once simple and accurate. It is much more important that pupils should be trained to recognize and distinguish the different classes and uses of words, etc., than that they should be able to repeat formal definitions of the terms employed. Yoang teachers will do well to remember that in grammar, of all subjects, the ability to repeat numerous definitions correctly furnishes little, if any, evidenoe that a pupil has a real grasp of the subject. CONTENTS. PAET I.— The Sentence and its Pabts. Pages 5-46. PAGES. Different Forms of Sentences.. 6 Subject and Predicate 7 The Parts of Speech 11 Nouns 11 Verbs 12 Different Uses of samo word.. 14 Pronouns 14 Adjectives 17 Adverbs 21 Phrases 23 Prepositions 24 PART il. — The Parts of Spe^^'ch, Classification and Inflection. Pages 47-142. * ' PAGES Participle and Infinitive Phrases 27 Analysis of Simple Sentences 29 Conjunctions 32 Interjections 35 Peculiar Words and Classes of Words 36 Classification of Clauses and Sentences 39 Variety of Construction 42 Review Exercise 43 Inflection Derivation and Composition... Nouns Gender Personification Number Case Pronouns... Personal Demonstrative Interrogative Conjunctive. Indefinite Adjectives << Arti.-'^if? Comparison Verbs .^ ' * Transitive and Intransi ■ tive " Passive 47 48 51 54 56 57 61 65 66 68 71 72 77 79 81 82 87 88 89 Verbs Auxiliary 90 Inflections 91 Moods and Tenses 93 The Indicative 93 Shall and Will 97 Emphatic Forms 99 The Subjunctive 10] Can, Could, etc 105 Tho Imperative 106 Finite Verbs 107 The Infinitive 109 Participles Ill Gerunds 112 Progressive and Passive Forms 115 Conjugation 119 Adverbs 124 Prepositions 129 Conjunctions 133 Interjections 138 Review Exercise 139 Part HI.— Syntax and Analysis. Pages 143-179. Relations of Nouns and Pro- nouns 143 Agreement 157 Verbs with Subjects 158 Pronouns with Antecedents .. 160 Sequence of Tenses 163 Adjectives 164 Conjunctions 165 Position 166 Pleonasm and Ellipsis 168 Review Exercise 170 Analysis 172 Review Exercise 176 Passages for Analysis 178 Part IV. —Appendix. Pages 180-186. Sounds and Letters 180 Punctuation 181 4 Capitals 183 Correspondence IS*^ 5-46. PAGES ifinitive 27 nteiiees 29 32 35 Classes 36 ses and 39 n 42 43 [nflection. 90 91 93 93 97 99 10] 105 106 107 109 Ill 112 Forms 115 119 124 129 133 138 139 9. 165 166 168 170 172 176 178 183 isr ENGLISH GRAMMAR, TART I. THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS. 1 . When a child begins to speak it uses at first only single vv rds, which are generally the names of persons or th'ngs thnt it sees or wants; as mamma^ papa^ sugar, drink. From hearing these words often used by its parents or others around it, it has learned to connect the word with the person or thing, and the word, therefore, stands for a notion of idea in its mind. As it grows older it gradually learns to put words together in groups to express its wishes, feelings, and thoughts. 2. Language, whether spoken or written, is made up of such groups, of diifr mother turned pale at the dreadful news. 3. The old man was a. 4. The blind man was old. 5. The weather had been damp all week. G. On the wide lawn the snow lay white and deep. 7, We all felt sorry. II. Write sentences using the following adjectives attributively, then predicatively : Tall, pretty, strong, clear, different, comfortable. III. Write sentences using the fallowing as predicate nouns meaning the same person or thing as the subject : Scholar, river, doctor, answer, city, island. 29. A few words, such as this, these, that, those, each, another, all, some, both, eithe*', are used sometimes as adjectives, with nouns, and so'netimes as pronouns, for nouns. Thus we have. Adjectives : This answer is wrong*. Home snow had fallen. Either road will take you there. Pronouns : This belongs to me, So^m-' were absent. Either Till do. 30. A few other words, such as my, our, his, their, seem to be both pronouns and adjectives at the same time. Thus in the sentence, Tom has lost his knife, his is a pronoun in so far as it stands for Tom, and an adjective in the sense that it moa.iifies the noun ktiife by distinguishing the thing named. Hence, while it is proper enough to consider these words as pronouns, they are usually classed as Pronominal Adjectives. 31. We shall also see that many woMs may be readily used either as adjectives or as nours, and some as adjectives, nouns, or verbs. Thus we have, Adjectives : It was a vet day. That wa? a wrong «»tep. Nouns : Keep vut of the wet. He did me a ivrong. Verbs : He wet the cloth. You wrong the others. Exercise XIV. I. What part of speech is each italicized word ? 1. This plate is not clean, take it away anf* ^^mn i^ 2. He built a stone house. 3. Boys stone squirrels 4. We Jwirw r'^Mrselves at the ADVERBS. 21 fire. 5. It stands on a level with the rest 6. Clear these papers oft the table. 7. You have no right to it. 6. He wore a li/nen coat. 9. They idle their time away. 10. He was shivering with cold. n. Write sentences using the following first as adjectives, then as pronouns: Those, any, each, both, another. III. Write sentences using the following as adjeotives, and then as nouns : Hollow, plain, fat, dark, silver. IV. Write sentences using the following as adjectives, and then as verbs : Open, sound, separate, dry, free. ADVERBS. 32. If now we examine the following, sentences : (a) . He spoke distinctly. The girls have done it carefully, {h). The cars stop here. We looked everywhere. (c) . They will return soon. That happened lately. we see that the predicate in each sentence contains a word that cannot be classed under any of the four parts of speech yet mentioned. If then, as usual, we ask how these words are used, we see that just as adjectives modify nouns, so these words modify verbs, that is, they limit in some way the statement which the verbs make. Thus, in {a) they modify the statement by telling how, in (b) by telling ivhere, and in (c) by telling when. Words used in this way, then, form another part of speech, and are known as Adverbs, from their being used with verbs. 33. Adverbs, however, do not always follow the verbs which they modify. Thus, if we take the sentences : He often does that. I have never seen the house. Lately another instance of it occurred. Presently he walked quietly away. we see that adverbs may stand before the verb, between the parts oi a verb, and at the beginning of the sentence ; and also that several adverbs may modify the same verb. Exercise XV. I. Select the adverbs, and tell what each modifies : 1. He answered all the questions correctly. 2. The family live in Toronto now. 3. Have you ever been in Montreal? 4. We called there recently. 5. That frequently happens. 6. The sun was sinking^ slowly in the west. 7. She walked quietly forward. 8. Well do I remember that day. 9. Speak kindly to the children. 10. Lay the' parcel down gently. 11. Hereafter the rules will be strictly eufovced. n 12 ADVEKBH. II. Write sentonces using the following as adverbs : Always, quiekhj, then, easily, back, sometimes. 34. We have seen that adverbs modify verbs by adding to the statement some limitation as to .nanner, place, or time. A few, however, are used for other purposes. Thus in the sentences : (a). He just touched me. They almost succeeded. (h). He certainly thought so. You will Ukely meet them. The boys had not finished the^game. the italicized words are used to tell in (a) how far some- thing was true, in (h) how far we believe a thing to be true, and, therefore, as they modify the statements made by the verbs, we class them as adverbs. 35. If now we examine the sentences of the following groups : (a). He was very careful. The meaning is quite plain. (b). He did it very carefully. She spoke quite plainly. we see that the italicized words are used in (a) with aajectives, and in (h) with adverbs, to limit or modify their meaning by telling Jiow or how far. It is plain, therefore, that some adverbs may modify adjectives and adverbs. The number of such adverbs is, however, small. An adverb may be defined, therefore, as follows: An adverb is a tvord which modifies a verh, an adjective, or another adverb. 36. We may notice here, too, that some words may be readily used either as adjectives or as adverbs ; as, Adjectives : He owns a fast horse. That is hard work. Adverbs : The time passes fast. They work hard. - Exercise XVI. I, Write sentences using the following first as adverbs and then as adjective,: Daily, better, straight, first, only. II. Select the adverbs, and tell what each modifies : 1. The river rose very rapidly. 2. He walked too fast. 3. It was an exceedingly warm day. 4. She bore it patiently. 5. The cistern was nearly full. 6. We never saw it again. 7. He has probably forgotten. 8. I sent it back twice. 9. The cord is not strong enough. 10. She feels less anxious now. 11. How soon will you start t PHRASES. 23 PHRASES. 87. We ha 76 seen that two, or three, or even more words are sometimes taken together, treated as one part of speech, and spoken of as a noun or a verb. Now, having learned the chief uses of adjectives and adverbs, we may notice that there are very many groups of connected words which, though not treated as one part of speech, have really the value of adjectives or adverbs. Thus, if we examine the following sentences : (a). No men of wealth were present. That was an answer without thought. Resistance hy force is not allowed. (h) . He bore it with patience. We thought so at that time. I left it in this place. we see that the italicized groups might be replaced in (a) by adjectives ; as, wealthy, thoughtless, forcible; and in (6) by adverbs; as, patiently, then, here. 38. Even where we cannot put a single word in place of the groups we can, in most cases, readily see that if we could do so the word so substituted would be an adjective or an adverb. Thus, if we take the following sentences : (a) . He showed me a letter from his brother. The boy behind you is talking. The prize for good conduct was not awarded. (6) . They were sitting under the tree. We shall start after dinner. He went there against my wish. we see that the groups in (a) serve to describe or distinguish the things spoken of, and are, therefore, equivalent, that is, equal in value, to adjectives; while those in (&) modify or limit the statements made by the verbs, and are, therefore, equal in value to adverbs. Such groups, then, are spoken of as Adjective or Adverb Phrases, and they are said to modify the nouns or verbs with which they are used. 39. Examples such as the following : (a). Those in the hack seats can't hear. Some of the children began to cry. (6). They were glad of an excuse. He was careful of the papers. show us that adjective phrases may be used with some pronouns, and adverb phrases with some adjectives. if 24 PHRASES. We find also, as we might expect, that the same phrase may sometimes have the value of an adjective, and some- times that of an adverb, according to the use that is made of it. Thus in the sentence, The flowers in the garden were frozen, it is plain that the italicized phrase modifies flowers, and is, therefore, adjectival, while in The men were working in the garden, it is equally plain that the phrase modifies were working, and is, therefore, adverbial. Exercise XVII. Select the adjective and the adverb phrases in the following, classify them, and tell what word each modifies : 1. He gave us an account of the match. 2. He waited for an hour. 3. She was at the head of the class. 4. He stood between the two posts. 5. Do you know the road to the wharf? 6. This road leads to the wharf. 7. Hang it over the door. 8. It rained heavily before breakfast. 9. Which of these books is yours? 10. We shall wait at the corner. n. Write sentences, using the following phrases, first as adjectives, then as adverbs : In the house. On the table. To the city. From home. During the night. PREPOSITIONS. 40. So far we have been dealing with each phrase as a whole. Let us now observe what kinds of words these pDrases are composed of. For instance, if we take the following sentences : Thoy started on Monday. We stood at the corner. John came for ua. She sits with me. The winner of the prize was absent. This is the road to the wharf. we find that the ^x italicized words which begin the phrases cannot be classed with any of the Parts of Speech that we have yet considered. If, then, we ask our usual question, "What do these words dot" we see that they are used to join a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentence, and to show some relation between the notions expressed by the words that thoy join 11 us the we on, to rela PREPOSITIONS 25 To make clearer what we meau by showing a relation, let us take an illustration. Suppose that we wish to connect the notions expressed by the words put and desk, in He put it the desk, we may fill the blank with any one of the following words : on, in, above, under, before, behind, beside, which will servjC to connect the two words, ,put and desk, and to show a relation of place between the notions they express. So in the following case : She told me that recess, we may use at, before, or after to connect the words told and recess, and to show a relation of time between the two notions. Words used in this way, to connect other words and to show a relation between the notions which they express, are known in grammar as Prepositions, and they are usually placed before a noun or a pronoun. 41. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition is spoken of as its Object, and is said to be governed by it. It is usual, too, to say that the preposition shows the relation between its object and the word with which it connects it, although, as we have seen, the relation is really between the notions expressed by the words. A preposition may be defined as follows : A preposition is a word which joins a noun or pronoun, called its object, to some other word, thus forming with its object an adjective or adverb phrase, modifying that other word. Exercise XVIII . I. Select the pfepositions in the following sentences, tell the object of each, and what it connects it with : I. The dog jumped over the fence. 2. Their mother will be anxious about them. 3. She hid it among the flowers. 4. The entrance to the park was closed. 5. The boys swam across the river. 6. The ground beneath our feet was trembling. 7. The travellers gazed upon the scene. 8. We shall wait for a few minutes. 9. The papers in the desk belong to me. 10. They fell on their facts. II. Classify the phrases as adjectival or adverbial. 42. An examination of such sentences as the following : He will call at the office for the parcel in the morning. After prayers they all went to their rooms. What were you thinking oft Whom w«re you talking tof Show me the house which they live in. ii !l 26 PREPOSITIONS. will show us that there may be several prepositicus connecting different objects with the same verb ; and that while the preposition usually comes between the words which it connects, it may begin the sentence, and may even, especially with some pronouns, come at the end of the sentence. In every such case, however, we see that if we place the preposition before its object and next to the verb or other word with which it connects it, we shall have the proper sense; as. Call for the parcel. Call in the morning Went after prayers. Thinking of what? Talking to whom? We must be very careful, therefore, when we are asked to classify phrases and to give their relation, that is to tell what word they modify or are connected with, not to be misled by their position, but to be guided entirely by the sense. Thus in the line, Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, although the phrase "on the sight" stands beside the noun "landscape," the sense of the line is plainly this: The glimmering landscape now fades on the sight, and, therefore, the phrase is adverbial, modifying /rtdfes. Exercise XIX. I. Select the prepositions in the following, tell what words each connects, and classify the phrases as adjectival or adverbial : I. I left two letters on the table for your mother. 2. The streets were crowded with people from the country. 3. One of them attracted the attention of the boys by its antics. 4. During the winter he worked in the mill. 5. Part of the track was swept away by the torrent. 6. He sent a boy to the shop for a saw. 7. I saw a notice of the accident in the paper. 8. For several years they received no letters from him. 9, Look on the floor under your desk. 10. Whom did you got it from ? II. Write sentences, using the following words as prepositions : With, through, across, along, towards, around, by, amwig. 48. A few words, such as off, on, up, down, require careful notice, as they are used with equal freedom as pre- positions or as adverbs, and it is only by the sense that we can tell whi«4i they are. For instance, if we take the sentences, He jumped off the sleigh. He took off his coat. 11, PBEPOSITIONS. 27 the word off may seem at first sight to be used in the same way in each sentence. Bearing in mind, however, that adverbs merely modify, while prepositions connect, have an object dependent on them, and with that object form an adjective or adverb phrase, we see that in the first sentence o^is a preposition, and in the second an adverb. It will be noticed, too, that when an adverb modifies a verb we can usually drop it out of the sentence, or change its place without affecting the relation of the other words ; while, as a rule, a preposition cannot be left out or moved from its place unless we take its object with it. Thus we cannot change the place of the off in the first sentence, while the second sentence may equally well be written ' ' He took his coat off." Exercise XX. I. Hay whether the italicized words are adverbs or prepositions. If adverbs, tell what they modify ; if prepositions, tell what they connect : I. Pick up these papers and lay them on the table. 2. Put on your cap and bring in some wood. 3. He threw dowti the paper and walked o^the pl^ptform. 4. Time has brought about great changes. 5. I told the teacher about it. 6. He ran doivu the street and turned round the corner. 7. He nearly fell over the bridge. 8. She has turned over a new leaf. 9. Take away the dishes and draw back the curtains. 10. The snail drew in his horns. 11. Call oat the namos of those who are behind you. 12. Within the camp were traitors, without were armed foes. 13. Hold up your heads while we are marching up the street. 14. She was sitting by the window. II. Write sentences, using the following words, first as prepositions, then as adverbs : Before, round, across, since, along. PARTICIPLE AND INFINITIVE PHRASES. 44. Before going farther it may be well to notice that there are other phrases, whiiih do not begin with preposi- tions, but which resemble the phrases with which we have been dealing, in this respect, that they are equal in value to a single part of speech. When we come to Part IT. we shall learn all the different forms of verbs, but in the mcjuitime we may notice certain forms which are easily recognized, and which, though they cannot be used to form predicates, are very often used to begin phrases. Ml 28 PARTICIPLE AND INFINITIVE PHRASES. Thus, from the verbs see and umle we have such forms as: Seeinj:^, having seen ; writing, having written ; which are called Participles, and To see, to have seen ; to write, to have written ; which are called Infinitives. What these names mean, and why they were given to these forms, will be explained hereafter. In the meantime we merely notice the fact that phrases beginning with participles and infinitives are very common, and that they are usually called Participle and Infinitive Phrases. 45. If, however, we look at the use of these phrases, as in the following sentences : {a) . The boys, seeing the dog, ran away. The clerk, having written the letter, handed it to me. I left them writing their exercises. (6) . He gave them a chance to see it. I had no time to write a letter. (c). They all stood up to see it. He was anxious to write a letter. we see that participial phrases are used, as in (a), with nouns or pronouns to describe some person or thing, and are, therefore, equivalent to adjectives ; while infinitive phrases are used with nouns as adjectives, as in (6) ; or else, as in {c) , to modify or limit verbs or adjectives, in which case they are equivalent to adverbs. An examination of sentences like the following : To see it would do you good. He offered to write a letter. will show that infinitive phrases may also be used in the same way as a noun, since we might substitute the word something for either of the phrases. Exercise XXI. I. Select all the participial and infinitive phrases in the following, and tell whether they have the value of aouns, or of adjectives, or of ad verbs : 1. They worked hard to finish it. 2. The men. having finished the work, went homo. 3. The boys were eager to hear the news. 4. They all wanted to go home. 5. Fearing an attack, the soldiers remained in the camp. 0. To have done that would have kept us too long. 7. We shall be Sv)rry to lose you. 8. His object was to deceive them. 9. He likes to watch them. 10. Are you ready to begin the ^amef 11. We watched the children gathering the flowers. 12. I came here to study my lessons. ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. ' MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT. 46. We have now considered all the parts of speech that are usually found in Simple Sentsnces, that is, sentences that have only one subject and one predicate, and we have seen that the bare subject and the verb form the foundation of the sentence. We may now, before taking up the remaining parts of speech, carry our analysis of simple sentences a little further, and see what parts the subject and the predicate may be divided into, what relation these parts bear in the sentences, and what names are usually given to them. Beginning again, then, with the subject, if we examine a number of sentences : as. Several boys saw it. Manfs mother called to see her. Smith, the carpenter, bought it. Toys of all kinds were lying on the counter. Chances to do that seldom occur. Persons picking these jlowers will be fined. Our neighbor's little boy, Willie, hearing the band, ran into the street. we see that the bare subject may be modified by an adjective, a noun, or an adjective phrase, or by two or more of these combined. Such modifying words and phrases may be called Modifiers of the Bare Subject, and the analysis of a simple sentence may at this stage be set down thus, "The chairman's closing appeal to the audience will probably have some effect." Bare Subject, Modifiers of B.S., Predicate, appeal. r (1) The chairman's, 2) closing, \ (3) to the audience. will probably have some efl'ect. EXERCISF XXII. I. Analyze the following sentences according to the plan just given. 1. These books on the desk })oloug to h«'r. 2. Your friend, the doctor, evidently thinkb so. 3. The best time to plant them is in the spring. 4. All the boys in our room study Latin. 5. His mother, hearing the noise, opened the door. 6. The King's youngest brother was plotting against him. 7. The people living in the house became II m ■^oT 30 THE OBJECT AND ITS MODIFIERS. alarmed. 8. Your oflfer to buy it has been accepted. 9. William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England. 10. Knowing this, some ot the boys st^iyed away from school. II. Select all the adverbial phrases and tell what each modifies. THE OBJECT AND ITS MODIFIERS. 47. Before t^ealing with the divisions of the Predicate we must say something more in regard to the different kinds of verbs. We saw in speaking of adjectives that some verbs can hardly be used alone to form predicates (28) but require to be followed by a predicate adjective describing the person or thing represented by the subject, or by a predicate noun denoting the same person or thing: as, The weather grew cold. The children seemed happy. Hit brother Is a doctor. He became the proprietor. We have now to notice that we have another class of verbs which can be used alone as predicates, but which are generally followed by a noun or pronoun representing the person or thing that is the object of the action expressed by the verb. Thus in the following sentences : The heat melted the ice. He struck me. The dogs chased the farmer's sheep. John broke the small blade of his knife. we see that each verb expresses action of some kind, that the italicized noun or pronoun represents the person or thing directly affected by the act, or, in other words, the Object of the act, and that this object may be further described by other words or phrases attached to the noun or pronoun. Although, of course, the act is done by a person or thing to another person or thing, and not by a word to a word, yet for the sake of shortness and convenience we speak of the noun or pronoun as being the ohject of the verb, when what we really mean is that the noun or pronoun represents the person or thing that is the object on which the action expressed by the verb is performed. We may, therefore, take for one division of the predicate the noun or pronoun that is the object of the verb, together ADVERBIAL MODIFIEkb. 31 with any words or phrases that directly modify tiik obi«ct, and we may Bet down the pnalysis thus: *'The early frosts of autumn Lad colored all the leaves of the maples." Bare Subject, frosts. Modifiers of B.S., (1) The, (2) early, (3) of autuma. Verb, had colored. ^^^ M*odifier8?^ } *' ^ *^^ ^^^^^' ^^ *^^ "'^P^^^- ExERcrsE XXm. Analyze the following sentences according to the plan just given : 1. Very few people have read his account of it. 2. None of the boys got the correct answer. 3. To-day's paper gives a full descrip- tion of the building. 4. His sister Mary won the prize for French. 5. Not many men would have done such a thing. 6. Which of you broke the handle of my parasol? 7. The storm during the night did a great deal of damage. 8. The children had gathered a lot of wild flowers. 9. Do any of you remember the little boy's name? 10. The owner of the lot offered to sell it. 11. How many bushels of wheat will this bin hold ? 12. The modest wants of every day The toil of every day supplied. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. 48. Again, if we examine the following sentences : He opened the door quietly. That often happens. They returned to the camp in the evening. She wrote all the names plainly in tht register. we see that we may have, either with or without an object, one or more adverbs or adverbial phrases modifying the verb. We may, therefore, make another subdivision of the predicate, to include all adverbs or adverbial phrases that separately modify the verb, and we may set down oui analysis thus : •'One of the boys answered all the questions coiTeotly in a verj short time." Bare Subject, One. Modifiers of B.S., of the boys. Verb, answered. ""'"ModJgef "'}"""'«'»•«»*'"'"•• Adrerbial Modifiers, (1) correctly, (2) in a very short tim^ % ii i!r ll 32 SUBJECTIVE COMPLBMENTS. KxKBCiu XXIT. Analyse the following sentences according U) the plan given. 1. Two of the girls left their books in the hall. 2. These lazy boys have not learned any of their lessons. 3. Sometimes the older boys take him with them. 4. Havo any of you ever seen the ruins by moon- light? 5. Fearing a storm she carefully closed all the windows. 6. During the night several prisoners escaped in a boat. 7. Most of the pupils had brought their lunch to school. 8. A number of them suddenly sprang into the water. 9. In the evening the older boys went for a row. 10. Probably the rest of the class would like to see it. SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 49, Lastly, if we examine sentences like the following : This knife is sharp. He afterwards became proprietor. The boys will be able to do that. After a time he grew tired of seeing it. My Brown was made chairman of the committee. These papers are of no use. The object evidently was to deceive them. That was you. we see that in addition to the verb, and, in some cases, to an adverbial modifier, we have in each sentence a word or a group of words which, thciigh forming part of the predicate, evidently describes the person or thing repre- sented by the subject. Now, as the verbs in these sentences are verbs of incomplete predication (28), the term Complement, which means something that completes ^ is commonly applied to a word or plirase thus used to com- plete the statement; and as these complements define the subject more clearly we may call them Subjective Complements. Observe that if the subjective complement is a single word it will be an adjective, a noun, or a pronoun ; if it is a gi'oup of words either the chief word of the group will be an adjective, a noun, or a pronoun, or the whole group or phrase will have the value of an adjective or a noun. We may, therefore, provide a sixth and final subdivision for the analysis of simple sentences, and we may agree for convenience to arrange the parts always in the following order: I. Bare Subject. TI. Modifiers of the B.S. III. Verb. IV. Subjective Complements. V. Object and its Modifiers. VI. Adverbial Modifiers. ' ^k CONJUNCTIONS. 33 ix 50. Of these six parts, Nos. I. and III. must, of course, be represented in every fully expressed sentence : the others may or may not be present. It is important to notice, also, that, for reasons that will be better understood after we learn more about verbs, Nos. IV. and V. cannot both be present in a sentence, for a verb that takes the one after it cannot at the same time take the other. A few verbs, however, such as prove, turn, grow, which have different meanings, may be followed by either IV. or V. according to the way in which they are used: as, IV. He turned traitor. The entertainment proved a failure. The weather grew colder. V. He turned the handle. That proves the correctness of my state- ment. He grows beautiful flowers. Exercise XXV. Analyze the following sentences according to the plan given in 49 : 1. These old coins are very valuable. 2. Several of the questions were too hard for the class. 3. Your uncle will soon be the richest man in the town. 4. This little boy found a watch on his way to school. 5. The whole family were at church this morning. 6. His friends will naturally be anxious about him. 7. After all our fears Wednesday proved a fine day. 8. How fresh your flowers look after the rain! 9. How many fish did your brother catch this morning? 10. His father has been Mayor of the city for two years. 11. The foolish boy had spent all his money on candy. 12. May the blessing of Providence rest upon his head ! 13. The audience seemed quite satisfied. 14. His mother felt very sorry to disappoint him. 15. Are these rules ever of any help to you ? CONJUNCTIONS. 51. Hitherto we have been dealing with simple sentences expressing but one thought, and having only one subject and one predicate. It often happens, however, that we wish to connect two or more thoughts, and we shall find that just as we have prepositions to connect two notions expressed by words, so we have a special class of words to connect thoughts expressed by sentences. Thus, if we take the following sentences : She gave it to her brother, and he carried it home. I offered to buy it, but they would not sell it. She kept them in because they missed the lesson. They finished the work before it began to rain. we see that each contains in reality two distinct statements connected by the italicized word, and that these connecting u: <■'■' 84 CONJUNCTIONS. words, as in the case of prepositions, express a relation between the parts that they join. These words, then, which thus join sentences, are called Conjunctions, a word which means ' ' joining together, ' ' and the separate sentences which they connect are for convenienbe called Clauses. 52. Observe, then, that a Clause can always be divided into a subject and a predicate, while a Phrase, which is always equal in value to a single part of speech, cannot be divided into a subject and a predicate. We may now add the following definitions : A clause is a sentence which forms part of a larger sentence. A phrase is a group of related words having the value of a single part of speech, and having neither a subject nor a predicate. Exercise XXVI. Select the conjunctions in the following sentences : I. They all waited till the game was finished. 2. I had no money, or X would have bought it. 3. It could not have been Jack, for he was not at school. 4. We met them as we were coming home from church. 5. He put the nam«s on the blackboard that all might see them. 6. He insisted on starting, though it was raining hard. 7. He covered them, lest it might rain during the night. 8. The stove was so large that they could not move it. II. "Write sentences using the following words as conjunctions to join clauses : Unless, after, if, since, until. 53. Observe that with some conjunctions, especially, if, though, unless, because, since, as, before, after, the clauses which they introduce may begin the sentence. Thus we may say equally well. We need not wait any longer if that is the case, or, If that is the case we need not wait any longer. I would not have gone unless he had done that, or, Unless he had done that I would not have gone. 54. Observe, also, that all the clauses in a sentence are not always fully expressed, and that, especially after and, but, as, than, though, it will often be Accessary for the purpose of analysis to supply the subject and part of the predicate. 56. CONJUNCTIONS. 35 Thus in the following sentences : He had called at the house and (he had) left a parcel. I will do so but (I will) not (do so) at present. It looks much better than (it looked) before. He plays as well as (he) ever (played). He will return to school though (he will) not (return) for some time. the words in the parentheses would usually be omitted in speaking or writing, but have to be supplied for the purpose of analysis. 55. We have said that conjunctions connect clauses, but there are cases in which some conjunctions, especially, and, but J or, connect phrases or even words. Sometimes, where the conjunction seems to connect words or phrases, it is quite possible by supplying words to make it connect clauses. * Thus the following sentences : She sells butter and eggs to the neighbors. He was a man of poor birth but of respectable character. may, if we choose, be expanded thus: She sells butter to the neighbors and she sells eggs to the neigh- bors. He was a man of poor birth but he was a man of respectable character. and the conjunctions may be taken as connecting clauses. In the case of sentences like the following, however: These two are evidently brother and sister. He ate a slice of bread and butter. He lives in that house with the red roof and the green shutters. it is not possible to expand them similarly, and we, there- fore, take the conjunctions as joining words or phrases. 56. Observe, however, ^that in all cases in which con- junctions connect words or phrases merely, these words or phrases have the same function in the sentence. We may define a conjunction, therefore, as follows: A conjunction is a word which joins clauses, or, in some cases y words or phrases used in the same waij in a clause. 57. As some words, such as before, after, since, are used with equal freedom as prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions, and others, like /or, ere, till, as prepositions or conjunctions, we must be careful., before attempting to classify them, to !| A\ se INTERJECTIONS. observe in each case how the word is used. Thus, if we take the sentences : That happened before the close of the meeting. That happened before the meeting closed. That never happened before. it is plain that in the first there is only one statement, and that as hefore connects happened and close, and begins an adverbial phrase, it is, therefore, a preposition. In the second there are two statements, and as hefore connects these it is a conjunction. Lastly, in the third, hefore simply modifies happened, and is, therefore, an adverb. Exercise XXVII. I. Say whether the italicized words are prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs, and^give your reason in each case. 1. They waited till the bell rang. 2. We waited till noon. 3. . haven't seen her since. 4. Since he came we have had better orderl 5. He hasn't been at school since Monday. 6. He will have to leave it, for it is too heavy /or him. 7. Come to my room after recess. 8. He would not go again after he heard that. 9. There was no one hut him in the room. 10. I sent for him hut he would not come. 11. He sank ere the boat could reach him. 12. Ere night all were gone. n. Write out in full the second clause in each of the following, supplying any words required : 1. I have written to his father and told him about it. 2. We some- times use them, but not very often. 3. They will do so if necessary. 4. It is just as bad as before. 5. It is warmer than yesterday. 6. It is difficult to do so, though not impossible. 7. I shall not use it unless forced to do so. 8. Use it as directed in the instructions. INTERJECTIONS. 58. In addition to the seven classes of words that we have now considered there remains still another, consisting of words that differ in one important respect from the other parts of speech. If we take the following sentences : Hallo! who is there? Hurrah! we have won the game. I ran to aid him, but ah! I was too late. Pshaw! that's no use. we see that the italicized words are exclamations, uttered either, as in the first example, to attract attention, or, as in the others, to express strongly some feeling, such as joy, regret, impatience, or disgust. We see, too, that they have no grammatical connection with the other words, and that anc u PECULIAR CLASSES OF WORDS. 37 they do not, therefore, really form part of the seuteuce iu the same way as the other parts of speech do. Such words, then, are called Interjections, from their being just, as it were, thrown into the sentence. They aie, in fact, not so much parts of speech as short, abrupt speeches, expressing feeling rather than thought. Nevertheless, as they are words forming parts of sentences, in appearance at least, it is convenient, and has been usual to class them as the eighth Part of Speech. 59. In addition to these wa^wraZ interjections, which can hardly be used in any other way, there are what are some- times called secondary interjections. Under this head are included words like Behold^ Farewell^ which are often used as exclamations. These may, however, at least in many cases, be treated as parts of incomplete sentences, as, Behold (ye) . (I bid you) Farewell. An interjection may be defined as follows : An interjection is an exclamation expressive of feeling, which has no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. Exercise XXVm. I. Select the interjections in the following sentences, and tell, if possible, what feeling each explresses: 1. Hey! stop that, will you? 2. Ah Tom! those were happy days. 3. Bravo! That was well done. 4. Pooh! what do I care? 5. Ugh! it makes me sick. 6. Heigh ho! what's to be done now? n. Write sentences using the following words first as Interjections, and then as some other part of speech: Hush! Hail! Well! What! Indeed! PECULIAR WORDS AND CLASSES OF WORDS. 60, We have now dealt in succession with all the parts of speech into which it is usual to divide words, and any pupU who has carefully studied what we have said in regard to each, and who will thoughtfully apply the test, What does the word do f ought to be able to classify correctly most of the words in an ordinary passage. We say most, for there are some words which, for one reason or another, he xaay find it difficult to dispose of. i I ''I i\ ,1 1 II 38 PECULIAR CLASSES OF WORDS. Of these some will be dealt with in Part II., when we are again considering the parts of speech, but a few others that are often met with may be referred to here. 61. The words Yes and No, as used in answering ques- tions, are generally classed as adverbs, but they cannot be said to modify any other word. They resemble Interjections in being really equal to sentences, and hence some call them Sentence Words. Others have called them Responsives, from their being used in answering questions. Of course, no is an adverb in such expressions as, " He felt no better," "I'll wait no longer ' ' ; and it may be an adjective ; as, " We have no time for that. ' ' 62. The word there, which was originally an adverb of place, and is still commonly used as such ; as, Stand there till I come back, }p now often used at or near the beginning of sentences Oi clauses with such a weakened force that it is impossible I give it any particular meaning, or to show that it has any grammatical value. Thus, if we take the sentences : Then there arose a great cry. In a few minutes there was not one left. There were several ladies present. • and leave out the word there, reaiTanging, if necessary; as. Then arose a great cry. In a few minutes not one was left. Several ladies were present. we cannot say that we have left out any part of the thought. Even where we could not drop out the there without spoiling the fv^ntence : as, There is no time for another game, we should find it difficult to tell what additional meaning the word gives the sentence. In such car??, then, the word there is now commonly called an ini?oductory Expletive, the word expletive meaning something that "fills out." Observe that when iUtre is used in this way it is wholly without emphasis, and the subject usually comes after the verb. 63. The third case of difficulty is that of words which have a two-fold nature, that is, they do the work of ( ( PECULIAR GLASSES OF WORDS. 39 two parts of speech at the same time. Of these there are several classes. To one of them we have already made a passing reference (30) and we shall now deal briefly with two others. If we examine the sentences : (a) . I sent word to his father, who came next day. He pushed the door, which opened easily. (6). He came to the corner, where he turned to the west. We worked till noon, when we all agreed to stop. we see that each of the italicized words does duty in two ways, first as a conjunction connecting the clauses, and also as a pronoun in (a), or as an adverb in (6) ; and that in fact we may, if we wish, substitute "and he," "and it," " and there," " and then," in turn. Consequently words like who and which are properly called Conjunctive Pronouns, though they are commonly known as Relative Pronouns, while where and when^ and any words similarly used, are called Conjunctive (or Relative) Adverbs, though often spoken of as Adverbial Conjunctions. 64. Even when we cannot substitute two words for the one without making other changes in the sentence, it is not hard to see that the one word really performs a double duty. Thus in the sentence. He handed me the letter that he had received, it is evident that there are really two sentences included in the one, viz.: He had received a letter, and he handed me the letter, and that the word that serves at once as a connective of the two, and as a substitute for letter in one of them. Similarly in the sentence, I was very busy when he called, the word when serves to connect the two statements, *'I was very busy," and "He called," and to modify the verb called. 66. Observe that when who, which, when, where, how, why, ask questions they have no conjunctive force; as Who told you that? Where did you get the book that you are reading? Why didn't you tell me that he had come? w ■ Pi I m 40 CLAUSES AND SENTENCES. ii Exercise XXIX. 1. In which of the followiug eases is there merely au expletive ? I. There goes Mr. A. with his rifle. 2. There was no one in the room. 3. There he stands in full view. 4. Leave it there till we- come back. 5. By that time there will be light enough for us to see. G. There is no one there. II. Select the conjunctive pronouns and conjunctive adverbs in the following : , 1. Which of them did you see when you called? 2. Just remain where you are. 3. Why didn't you answer the letter tha^ I sent you? 4. He would not tell us why he had done it. 5. Who can explatinhow this result is produced? 6. Where is the boy whose dog won? III. Combine each of the following pairs into one sentence by using conjunctive pronouns or conjunctive adverbs : {a). I lent her a book. She has not returned the book. (6). A gentleman bought it. The gentleman lives in Hamilton. (c). He heard the good news. He hurried home. (d). You were working there. You must have left it there. (e). You did not want to go. I know the reason. CLASSIFICATION OB' CLAUSES AND SENTENCES. 66. As we have seen that words and phrases can be classified according to their function or use in sentences, we may expect to find that cLauses can be similarly classified. If we take the following sentences : (a). I gave him the money and he put it in his pocket. We offered to buy it, but he would not sell it. It is not here, or I would lend it to you. (6). She declared that he had taken it. You have no proof of what you assert. (c). I have no patience with boys who do that. He showed me the letter that he reveivctL {d). They will come when you want them. You did not act as you should have done. we see that while in each there are two clauses, the rela- tion between the two is not the same in each. In the three sen tenches in {a) the two clauses are of the same nature, and as neither depends on any woi'd in the other each is said to be Independent. A sentence consisting wholly of independent clauses is called a Compound Sentence. i CLA USES AND SENTENCES. 41 67. On the other hand it is phiin tliat in rnch of the six sentences in (ft), {c) , {d) the first elcUise inMk<'s the main assertion, and the other is in faet equivalent to a single word depending in some way on the main clause. Thus the italicized clauses in (&) are ecjuivalent to nouns stand- ing as the objects of the verb declared, and the preposition of; those in (c) to adjectives modifying hoys and Utter, and, lastly, those in (d) to adverbs modifying will come and did act. In such sentences, then, the clause that contains the main assertion (or question or command), is called the Principal clause, and the others are called Subordinate, or Dependent clauses. Dependent clauses are classified according to their grammatical equivalence ; thus we have Noun clauses, as in (6) ; Adjective clauses, as in (c) ; Adverb clauses, as in {d). A sentence containing a principal clause with one or more subordinate one^s dependent on it is called a Complex sentence. 68. Observe that conjunctions do not form part of either of the clauses which they connect, but that in complex sentences the conjunctive pronouns and con- junctive adverbs form part of the clauses which they introduce. 69. Observe, also, that a subordinate clause may precede the principal one ; as, When lie readied home he was very tired. If I had known that I would have gone.. What he wanted nobody knew. 70. Observe, also, that there may be two or more sub- ordinate clauses in a sentence, and that each may depend separately on words in the principal clause ; as, The gentleman who bought it told me after he had examined it that it was a rare specimen. or some of them may depend on words in some of the other subordinate clauses ; as, I learned afterwards that the boy who found it knew that it belonged to her 42 CLAUSES AND SENTENCES, \ i Sentences that contain two c»i more independent clauses and one or more dependent ones may be called Compound Complex; as, I called his attention to the mistake which he had made, and he promised to correct it. They could not have known that when .they were here, or they would have told us where you were. Exercise XXX. I. Classify the following sentences as compound or complex, II. Select the subordinate clauses, classify each according to its grammatical value, and give its relation. 1. They never stopped till they reached the gate. 2. We called at the office but there was no one in. 3. Put that back where you got it. 4. He returned the book which I lent him. 5. You will have to hurry or you will be late. 6. We overtook her as we were coming home. 7. I don't believe that he can do it. 8. Somebody had left the gate open and the cows had got into the garden. 2. After you went away he told me all about it. 10. I have not heard from him since he went to Chicago. 71. Observe that the same word may introduce different kinds of clauses, and that it is necessary, therefore, to observe carefully in each case how a clause is used before we can be sure of its nature and relation. Thus we have the following : Principal. — Where is the carriage which I ordered? That was all arranged before we started. Noun. — He would not tell where he found it. She does not know that you are here. Adjectival. — This is the very spot where it stood. Pick up the papers that are on the floor. Adverbial. — I left it where I found it. Hold it up that all may see it. Exercise XXXI. Classify the subordinate clauses in the following and give the relation of each : 1. I remember the time when that happened. 2. We could not find out when the stage starts. 3. It was so dark that I could not see the road. 4. The books that we read influence us. 5. When will the names of those that have passed be published f 6. He promised to show me where they live. 7. That house was built before you were born. ^ 8. That I said so is quite true. 9. He would not tell me who gave it to him. 10. Speak out that we may hear you. 72. Exercises in varying the construction of sentences are easily framed and will be found very helpful not only \ REVIEW OF PART I. 48 for grammatical purposes, but also as an aid to composition, by giving pupils a greater and readier choice of modes of expression. ^ The following are given as examples of changes: 1. From Simple Sentences to Complex or Compound : Simple, Complex, Simple, Complex, Simple, Complex, Simple, Compound, Simple, Compound, Simple, Compound, We find traces of it everywhere. We find traces of it wherever we go. I notified him of: your appointment. I notified him that you had been appointed. He left the very day of our arrival. He left the very day that we arrived. Having read the letter, he handed it to the judge. He read the letter and then handed it to the judge. He went home, promising to return soon. He went home but promised to return soon. Without his help I should have failed. He helped me or I should have failed. 2. From Complex to Compound, or Compound to Complex: Complex, As I had never been there I was anxious to go. Compound, I had never been there and so was anxious to go. Compound, He gave a reason but I have forgotten it. Complex, I have forgotten the reason which he gave. Complex, I shall have to punish you unless you do so. Compound, You must do so, or I shall have to punish you. 3. From Complex or Compound to Simple: Complex, He insisted that we should accompany him. Simple, He insists 1 on our accompanying him. Complex, It was so heavy that I could not lift it. Simple, It was too heavy for me to lift it. Compound, They rested for a few minutes and then went on again. Simple, After a few minutes' rest they went on again. Compound, His parents became alarmed and went to look for liim. Simple, His parents, becoming alarmed, went to look for him. Exercise XXXII. — Review of Part I. I. Write three Assertive, three Interrogative, and three Imperative Sentences. * n. Write seven sentences containing two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight Parts of Speech, respectively. III. Classify the italicized words in the following sentences : 1. Water these plants. 2. These plants need water. 3. He plants them in rows. 4. We open the door of the hall. 5. The hall door is open. 6. He does better work. 7. They work better in the morning. 8. He has been here since Tuesday. 9. He has not boon avmy from in m ill I ■''■), 44 REVIEW OF PART I. here mice I came. 10. 1 feel much stronger. 11. ilfttc/i was spoiled by the rain. 12. He gave us a hearty welcome. 13. We welcome you to our house. 14. Your friends will be welcome. 15. That is your only hope. 16. He only laughed at me. 17. It will rain before night. 18. We heard that before you did. 19. A wolf is like a dog. 20. 7 never saw the like of it. IV. Write sentences using close, right, equal, as nouns ; daily, silver, paper, as adjectives ; this, any, both, as pronouns ; wrong, fence, dry, as verbs ; since, down, on, as adverbs ; up, off, till, as prepositions ; that, for, after, as conjunctions. v. Write sentences giving the word round as many grammatical values as you can, and tell the value in each case. VI. Classify, if possible, each word in the following : One day a boy went into a baker's sh >p and bought a twopenny loaf. As it seemed to him rather small, he said that 't did not appear to be of full weight. "Never mind," answered tht aker, "you will have less to carry." "That is quite true," replied the lad, and throwing down three half- pence on the counter, he left the shop. "Hi! Stop!" called the baker, "You have not given me enough money." "Never mind," the boy coolly called back, " you will have less to count." VII. Write three simple sentences containing respectively an adjective phrase, an adverb phrase, and a noun phrase. VTII. Write two simple sentences, using "on the floor" as an adjective phrase and as an adverb phrase. IX. Give one example each of a modifier of the bare subj<3ct, a direct object, an adverbial modifier and a subjective complement, underlining the example in each case. X. Analyze the following simple sentences : 1. At such times the demand for it usually exceeds the supply. 2. The great value of this mineral arises chiefly from its scarcity. 3. The barometer is in this way of great service to mariners. 4. The heat of their climate protects the inhabitants from invasion. 5. The large audience seemed satisfied with his explanation. 6. That little defect in the iron was probably the cause of the accident. 7. Fortun- ately his father was at home that day. 8. Several of the workmen were seriously injured by the explosion. 9. And to the hilt his vengeful sword He plunged in Gelert's side. 10. A little boy with crumbs of bread Many a hungry sparrow fed. Ill REVIEW OF PART I. 4S XI. Write a compound sentence consisting of three clauses con- nected by and and hut. XII. Write three complex sentences containing a noun clause, an adjective clause, and an adverb clause respectively. XIII. Write a complex sentence containing an example of each of the three kinds of subordinate clauses. XIV. How does an interjection differ from any other part of speech f XV. Write sentences containing examples of (a) a verb of incom- plete predication, (&) a conjunctive adverb, (c) there used as an introductory expletive. XVT. Select the adjective and adverb phrases in the following «tanzas, classify each, and give its grammatical relation : A mariner, whom fate compelled To make his home on shore, Lived in yon cottage on the mount. With ivy mantled o'er, Because he could not breathe beyond The sound of ocean's roar. Ten years, in vigorous old age, Within that cot he dwelt ; Tranquil as falls the snow on snow Life's lot. to him was dealt ; But came infirmity at length, And slowly o'er him stealt. XVII. Write out in full the subordinate clauses in the following, and tell the kind and relation of v^ach: 1. When the ice melts in the spring the logs that. have been pre- pared during the winter are floated down to a place where their farther progress is stopped by a boom. 2. An old raftsman with whom I conversed told me that unless these rafts are managed with great care they are apt to go to pieces while they are descending the rapids. 3. If he had known that you were present when it happened he would not have said what he did. 4. The committee that have charge of that matter want to know before they make fin&l arrangements how many of you intend to go. 5. Sadly, as the shades of even Gathered o'er the hill. While the western half of heaven Blushed with sunset still. From the fountain's mossy seat Turned the Indian's weary feet. .: h\ m I 46 REVIEW OF PAST I. XVin. Change the following 'simple sentences to complex or tp compound by expanding words or phrases into clauses : 1. It belongs to a lady of my acquaintance. 2. We know this to be a fact. 3. The breaking of a bolt caused another delay. 4. Can you tell me the meaning of this word? 5. Not having expected us they were not prepared. 6. I doubt the truth of his statement. 7. All its attempts to escape were fruitless. 8. No one will be admitted with- out a ticket. 9. He returned to his native village. 11. Calling his friends together he asked their advice. XIX. Change from compound to complex, and complex to com- pound : 1. He refused to go and I know the reason. 2. He would have gone if they would have let him. 3. The statement is false and he knows it. 4. He promised to return it the same day or I would not have lent it to him. He rejected both the offers that were made for it. 6. I am well aware that such a course is unusual. 7. I was frightened, but you were just as much frightened. 8. If I had not got a ride I should have been late. 9. Do that and then they will be more likely to trust you. 10. Though he has left us we shall not blame him. XX. Contract the following into simple sentences by substituting words or phrases for clauses : 1. You asked me a question and I have answered it. 2. It will show that he is sincere. 3. I could not have done it unless he had helped me. 4. He was so tired that he could not go any farther. 5. He stayed with us while the trial was going on. 6. The one who succeeds him will have a difficult task. 7. There is no reason why they should complain. 8. It is probable that he will do so. 9. Neither this answer nor that is correct. 10. He had been ill and had not been able to finish it. 11. He claims that he was the first to use it. 12. Is there no way in which it can be mended? 13. He applied for a permit but his application was refused. 14. The questions were harder than they usually are. 15. It was reported that he had left town. tp PART n. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND INFLECTIONS. 73. In Part I. we have dealt briefly with sentences and the parts of which they are composed, and pupils that have attended carefully to what has been said ought now to be able to analyze ordinary simple sentences, to distinguish between phrases and clauses, and to classify correctly as parts of speech most of the words in an ordinary passage. We shall now in Part H. take up the parts of speech again, in turn, and consider them more fully, with special reference to the classes into which they may be divided, the changes of form Tvhich they undergo, and the mistakes which must be guarded against in using them. 74. Before doing so, however, it may be well to show what is meant in grammar by inflection, and to distinguish it from two other methods of word formation with which it is sometimes confounded. No doubt all have noticed by this time that nouns, verbs, and some pronouns and adjectives may change their form more or less. Thus, for instance, we find man changing to man's, men, men's they theirs, them cold " colder, coldest break " breaks, breaking, broke, broken These changes, in the body or ending of words, or in both, are spoken of in grammar as inflections. 75. If we observe carefully the way in which these dijfferent forms are employed in sentences, as, for instance, in the following groups : (a) . The man is in danger. The man's life is in clanger. They came to school. We sent them home. I break it. He breaks it. 47 I'll 48 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. (6). One man came. Several men came. I break it now. I broke it then. This room is cold. The other is colder. we find that the change is made to mark some difference either, as in («), in tlie use of the words, or, as in (6), in the meaning of the words. We may, therefore, define inflection as follows : Inflection is a change in the form of a word depending on some change In its use or its meaning. 76. If we examine the other parts of speech we shall find that with the exception of a few adverbs, such as soon, sooner, soonest, they do not undergo any such changes of form as we have been speaking of. Adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are, therefore, said to be uninflected. 77. Two things more we shall discover in regard to inflection as we proceed. (1). The number of inflections is quite small, and is fixed, so that we cannot now form any new ones. A pupil can, therefore, very soon learn all the inflections that ordinary words can have. (2) . Inflection gives us not wholly new words, but merely other grammatical forms of the same word. Thus if we consult an ordinary dictionary we shall flnd horse, but not horse's or horses; xvho, but not whose or whom; tall, but not taller or tallest; take, but not tahes, taking, took, taken. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 78. We said (74) that there are two other methods of word formation with which inflection is sometimes con- founded, and we shall now speak briefly of these. If we refer again to the dictionary we shall find that while man^s, men, men^s, are not given, there are such words as manly, manhood, unman. These are, however, evidently not other forms of the word man, but wholly new words formed from it. Similarly, though speaks, spoke, spoken are not given, we shall find speaker, speech, bespeak, and so, too, we shall find darken and darkness, but not darker and darkest. Th theb that derii darh Th( we f o both Thus ance. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 49 This method, then, of forming new words by putting at the beginning, or at the end of words, or at both, syllables that cannot be used by themselves as words, is called derivation, and words so formed, such as manly ^ bespeak, darkness, are called Derivatives. 79. A syllable placed at the beginning of a word for this purpose is called a Prefix ; as un in unfair, mis in mislead. One placed at the end is called an Affix or Suffix ; as ne.ss in thickness, ly in warmly. There may be a change in the body of a word, as when we form length and linger from long. A word may include both a prefix and an affix, or more than one of either. Thus from fair, appear, civil, we have unfairly, disappear- ance, civilization. Derivatives formed by prefixes are generally the same part of speech as the original words; those formed by affixes are usually different. Thus from the adjective Ijust we have the adjective unjust, the adverb justly, the noun jws>iM he -goat. she -goat. merman. mermaid. ' m man-servant. maid -servant. (3) . By the use of the affix ess to mark the feminine. In most cases this is simply added to the masculine ; as, priest, priestess, but sometimes a little further change is made, usually the dropping out of a letter or syllable; as, actor, actress. The following list contains most of the words in which such a change is made : Feminine. mistress. murderess. negress. protectress. songstress. sorceress. tigress. traitress, votaress. The masculines widower and bridegrootn have been formed from the feminines widow and bride. Seamstrens and vixen have now no correa- ponding masouliue. Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. abbot, abbess. master, benefactor, benefactress. murderer, duke, duchess. negro, emperor, empress. protector, enchanter, enchantress. songster. god, goddess. sorcerer, governor, lad. governess. tiger. lass (forladdess). traitor. marqaisi marchioness. votary, M PEB80N1F1CA TION. A few foreign words that are not often used retain their proper feminine. The following are the commonest : r'.'.l Masculine. Fer .inine. Masc aline. Feminine. administrator, administratrix. czar, czarina. executor, executrix. don, donna. testator, testatrix. siguor, signora. beau, belle. sultan. sultana. Observe that in some cases where we have separate names for the sexes we may use one of them as including both sexes. Thus we may speak of a woman as " a well- known autlwress,^' or as "one of ti^e popular author of the day.'' So, too, we may say, without any reference to sex, A goose is larger than a duck. PERSONIFICATION. 89. Inanimate objects, qualities, feelings, and conditions are sometimes spoken of as if they were endowed with life and sex. They are then said to be personified, that is, "treated as persons," and the change is spoken of as Personification. In such cases the sex depends on one or other of the following causes : (1). The influence of classical mythology, according to which there were numerous gods and goddesses. Thus fVar, Time, Love, the Sun were represented as gods, and accordingly we use he, his, him in speaking of them ; while Peace, Justice, the Moon, the Earth, were represented ns goddesses, and we, therefore, use she, hers, her in speaking of them ; as. Time had laid his hand gently on her. Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war. (2). Certain qualities, such as strength, boldness, violence, have come to be associated with the male sex, and hence the ocean, rivers, and winds are represented as males ; other qualities, such as gentle- ness, beauty, timidity, are associated witli the female sex, and hence a ship, a flower, a city, are generally treated as females ; as, Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountaini ; They crowned him long ago. The ship that under sail Spreads her white bosom to the gale. The same principle applies in speaking of animals. Thus we generally use he in speaking of an elephant or an eagle, and she in speaking of a dove or a hare. NUMBER. 67 (3). Things that are objects of a man's special care are usually spoken of as females. Thus an engine is generally spoken of by its usual attendants as she. We must be careful to remember that while sex belongs to animals, gender refers, propei.'y speaking, only to words, and hencw it is not correct to say "gender is the distinction of sex," or to speak of "persons of the masculine gender." Exercise XXXV. I. Tell the gender of each of the following nouns and give the corresponding gender form when there is one : Hero, friendf niece, peer, mermmd, witch, ram, earl, sovereign, lady, son-in-law, executor, editor, landlord, telle, spinster, peacock, negro, abbess, marquis, czar, lass, seamstress, Mr., bride. II. What sex would you assign to each of the following when personified ? Night, Winter, Liberty, Fortune, Death, Ireland, Toronto, the North Wind, the Mississippi, Nature, a tree, a college. Spring, a lake, Hope. NUMBER. 90. Having dealt with the classification of nouns let us now notice what inflections they have. If we observe care- fully the following sentences : I met a man. I met several men. He drives one horse. He drives two horses. 8he broke this dish. She broke these dishes. we see that when we speak of more than one person or thing we make some change in the form of the noun that we use when speaking of one. Nouns are said, then, to be inflected for Number, and the form that denotes one is said to be of the Sing^ular number, while that which denotes more than one is said to be of the Plural number. 91. If now we take the names of a dozen objects in the school-room and write down beside each its plural form ; as, boy boys slate slates map maps girl girls pencil pencils ruler rulers desk desks pen pens box boxes book books i)i'ush brushes bottle bottles we see that in each case the plural has been formed by adding s or es to the singular, es being added only where we have to make a new syllable in pronouncing the word. 58 NUMBER. If we examine a large number of nouns, however, we shall find that there are many classes of them which have peculiarities that need to be spoken of separately. We shall, therefore, sum up the results of our examination in the following statements : (1) . The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the singular; as, dogs, trees, houses. (2). Nouns ending in s, sh, ch (sounded like tshj, x or z, and most nouns in common use ending in o, add es; as, atlases^ losses ^ dishes , churches y boxes ^ waltzes ^ potatoes. Uncommon words in o and words in io and oo add s merely; as, cantos^ quartos, portfolios, cuckoos; also a few words in fairly common use ; as, pianos y solos , mementos, provisos. (3). The following nouns in / or / the verb are; or as personal pronouns in the possessive case limiting the noun gloves understood. We must be careful, however, not to call them personal pronouns in the objective or nominative. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 105. The demonstrative pronouns, which are so called because they serve to point out or call attention to the persons or things they represent, are all of the third person. The following tables show all the different forms now in use, and the distinctions for gender, number, and case. Those in the first table are very often called Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. Sinirular. Plural. Mm. Fem. Nen. M. F. N. (a). Nominative be she it they Possessive his her, hers . its their, theirfs Ol^ective him her Singalar. M. F. N. it them Plural. M. P. N. (6). Nominative 1 Vhjective J this these Nominative \ that those 106, With regard to the use of these forms the following facts are to be carefully noted : (1). What wo said of the possessive forms of the personal pronouns (103, 5) applies also to those in {a). (2). Observe that the possessive forms ours, yours, hers, its, theirs, do not take an apostrophe. (3). Its, though now in common use, is a word of late introduction into the language, not being found, for instance, in the authorized English version of the Bible. Instead of it his, of it, thereof and other words were used; as, If the salt have lost Ms savor, etc. (4). The pronoun it, besides taking the place of a noun already used; as, T >ent him my knife and he lost it, or representing something indicated but not named; as. Look at that, isn't ♦( pretty T has some special uses whic^h we shall mention and illustrate. DEM OySTRA TI VE PROXO UNS. 69 (a) , It is used a^ a Representative Subject, that is, to represent a phrase or a clause, which woukl otherwist3 be the subject; as, It is not fair to say that. It is strange that we have not heard from him. Somewhat similar to this is its use in the sense of fhe person or thing y even referring to a plural, in such sentences as the following : It is you that is to blame, frost that killed it. It was the rats that did it. It was the (6). It is used as an Impersonal Subject, that is, it does not stand for anything that we can name, but it enables us to make an assertion without reference to any particular subject ; as. It had rained all day. It was growing dark. (c) . It is used similarly as an Impersonal Object; as, They'll have to ^ough it for awhile. He lorded it over them. We ^ad to foot it all the way. (5). The demonstratives this, these; that, those, are also, AS we have seen, used as adjectives. Whether used as adjectives or as pi'onouns this and these usually refer to things near at hand or last mentioned ; that and those to things at a distance or first mentioned; as, (a) . Adj. Take this chair. Pick up these books. Fron. This is my brother. Where did you get these? (6). Adj. Shut that door. Who are those people? Fron. That is my aunt. Those in the back seats may go. And reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 111 this (i.e., instinct) 'tis God directs, in that (i.e., reason) 'tis man. (6). That and sometimes this may stand for a fact mentioned in a preceding (;lause ; as, He missed his lesson ; that is why I kept him. They are both well qualified, and this makes it harder to decide. This iii&y also refer to something not yet mentioned ; as, Listen * i. Note the difference between the other, used in speaking of two, and another, of several ; as, He walked from one end of tb« ball to the other. They wandered from one place to another. 129. Interrogative, conjunctive, and indefinite pronouns may be parsed as follows : Whom does it belong to ? Do yon know the girls whose names are in the list that he read ont. Both were at school to-day, but 1 had no chance to speak to either. whom, Interrogative pronoun, objective case, object of the prepo- sition to, whose, Conjunctive pronoun having girls for its antecedent, and possessive case limiting names. that. Conjunctive pronoun, having list for its antecedent, and objective ease, object of the verb read. both, Indefinite pronoun, nominative case, subject of were. either Indefinite pronoun, distributive, objective case, object of the preposition to. • Exercise XL. I. Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into a single sentence by using a conjunctive pronoun : I. A little boy found it. This is the boy. 2. You want a book. Here it is. 3. That's the man. His horse ran away. 4. You were talking to a man just now. Tell me his name. 5. I wanted to know something. He told me it. 6. I gave him a knife. It cost me fifty cents. II. Break up each of the following sentences into two, substituting demonstratives for the conjunctives: 1. Mr. Smith, who bought it, is a neighbor of ours, 2. A gentle- man, whose name I have forgotten, gave it to me. 3. He brought back the books that he had borrowed. 4. The girl to whom I intended to give it is not here. 5. I could not hear what he said. in. Supply conjunctive pronouns in the following, and tell the case of each : 1. This is all I have. 2. I remember the day it happened. 3. Is that the book you were looking for? 4. He died the year you were born. 5. It was you led me to think so. IV. Parse the conjunctive pronouns in the following : 1. He built the house that you live in. 2. There are only three boys whose names I don't know. 3. The people whom we met were very kind. 4. He showed me what he had done. 5. You can't believe the half of what is told you. 6. You may pick such as are ripe. 7. He has the same answer as you got. 8. There was not a boy in the class but had heard about it. otl 5. ADJECTIVES, 79 V. Parse the interrogative pronoans : 1. Who told you that? 2. What did he say to youT 3. Which of them did you get it fromT 4. Whose turn is itf 5. Whom are you writing tof VI. Parse the indefinite pronouns in the following : 1. He gave those questions to each. 2. Some were bettpr than others. 3. He offered to take both. 4. One hardly kuowK how to act. 5. Neither of them offered to bring any. 6. Then none was for a party, • And all were for the state. VII. Select all the pronouns in^the following story, classify each, and tell in what case it is and why : ** We are told that the mice once held a meeting to consider what they should do to save themselves from the cat. Several suggested plans, but none of these seemed satisfactory. At last it was proposed to hang a bell to the cat's neck so that when she was coming they would hear her and could run to their holes. This seemed to meet the approval of all till an old mouse, that had not spoken before, asked who would put the bell on her." VIII. Correct any errors in the following, giving reasons : 1. Neither of the three boys had seen it. 2. Some of the men which were working in the drain had a narrow escape. 3. This is the best specimen which I have found yet. 4. These two boys are always quarrelling with one another. 5. Have either of you boys a spare pencil f 6. He walked back and forward from one end of the room to another. 7. Any boy what likestodosomay try for the prize. 8. His horse, who was hitched to the fence, got frightened. 9. Whatever were you thinking off 10. Tell us about some of the persons and things which you saw at the Fair. ADJECTIVES. 180. We learned in Part I. that adjectives are words whose chief use is to modify nouns, that is, to limit their application. This limiting, however, may be done in different ways, and accordingly if we examine a considerable number of adjectives we shall find that, like nouns and pronouns, thf v may be divided into different classes. For instancf^, when we talk of ** clever girls, '^ "bravo soldiers," "tall trees,'' "Canadian cheese," "wooden handles," "severe pains," it is plain that the adjective in each case modifies the noun by limiting its application to persons or things possessing a certain quality or nature. Adjectives of this sort, then, which may be said to answer the question "of what sort," are called adjectives of Quality, or QuaUfying adjectives. ii:i :rl 80 ADJECTIVES. Those that have been formed from names of persons or places, or that have come to be applied only to particular persons or places, are called Proper adjectives, and should always be written with a capital; as, French ^ Chinese^ Victorian^ Methodist, 181. Again, if we speak of "several boys,^' **much trouble , " ' fl ve dollars , " ' ' no mistakes , " " second choice , ' ' *'last week,'' we see that the adjective modifies the noun by telling how much or how many of anything we are referring to, or in what order a thing comes. Adjectives of this sort are called adjectives of Quantity, or Quantifying^ adjectives. Under the head of adjectives of quantity we include what are known as Numeral adjectives. These are subdivided into Definite numerals, consisting of (a). Cardinals; as, two^ ten, forty. (6). Ordinals; as, second^ tenths fortieth.. Indefinite numerals; as, many, allj both. 182. Lastly, we have, as we saw in speaking of pro- nouns, a considerable number of words which may be used ab proiioum , but which, when used with nouns, are commonly classed as Pronominal Adjectives. These are often subdivided into other groups; viz., Possessive; as, my, your, its, their. Demonstrative; as, this, that, yon. Interrogative; as, which, what. Distrih :ive; as, each, either. Indefinite; as, all, some, both. It will be noticed that the Indefinites may be classed either as adjectives of quantity or as pronominal adjectives. 188. Observe that this and that have plural forms, these and those, — the only instance in which English adjectives are now inflected for number ; and be careful to avoid tl 3 very common mistake of using the plural for the singular before the words kind of, sort of; as, I don't like theee sort of pens. These kind of people are always making trouble. Obt noun pears ARTICLES. 81 Observe that the mistake is usually made when a plural noun follows. Thus, while many will sav "those sort of pears ^^^ few will say those sort (or kind) of fruit.^^ ARTICLES. 184. The adjectives a, an, and the were formerly clasped as a separate part of speech and known as Articles; and, as they are still frequently referred to by that name, and some special cautions are required in regard to their use, we shall deal with them separately . 185. An and «, which are in reality only shortened forms of one, and can be used, therefore, only with singular nouns, are employed in speaking of A (a). A certain one of a class, not named or specially pointed out ; as, I bought this from a peddler. An eagle had carried it ojf. (b). Any one whatever of a class; as, Bring me a nail. Give me an apple. Hence the name Indefinite articles was given to them. An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound ; as "an egg," "an hour." A is used before a word beginning with a consonant* sound; as "a book," "a hen," "a European," **a ewe," "many a one," "a unit." An is preferred by many good wi'iters before an aspirate A, that is, an h sounded, if the word is accented on the second syllable; as "an hereditary prince," "such an hypothesis." 1 86. The is used to draw attention to (a). A whole class ; as. The fox is noted for its cunning. The rose is her favorite flower. (h). A particular one of a class ; as, He shot the fox that had bet^n Hteallnp: liis chickens. I have kept the rose that you gave me. Hence it was called the Definite article. •>J i i.il II 4 4' -.4 I 82 COMPABISON. The may be used before any noun; as the boy," the honor," ' the houses," "the apples." In cases like the following : I like it the better on that account. The higher you go the colder it gets. the is an adverb, and meant originally by that. 187. Observe that a (or an J or the must be repeated if we are speaking of two objects ; as. The chairman and the secretary are in their places. So "a red and white cow" means one cow, but "a red and a white cow," two cows. Custom has sanctioned, however, such expressions as "the first and second volumes,'' "the third and fourth storeys." Be careful not to insert a or an after sort of, kind of, by the name of. Thuj, do not say, What sort of a house is itf It is some kind of a hawk. This officer M'as known by the name of a dictator. COMPARISON. t ( 188. If we look at such examples as a tall man," la •tall woman," "in tall trees," "a tall man's coat," etc., we see that an adjective does not, as it once did in English, and does in many other languages, change its form for gender, number, or case. The only exception is that, as we mentioned (133), the adjectives this and thai have plural forms. Many adjectives of quality do, however, undergo a change of form peculiar to this part of speech, and to a few adverbs. Thus, if we are looking at a number of lines we may say that one of them is long or short, that another is longer or shorter, and that some other one is the longest or the shortest. This change, which we make in the form of adjectives when we are (comparing objects "vnth reference to the extent or degree to which they possess a certain quality or property, is spoken of as Comparison. (: spol pari| can Gani (! two I com COMPARISON. (( the J colder ated if i ( a red ions as fourth I of, by k. This ?> 1 1 ^n, ' la etc., we Inglish, 3rm for it, as we e plural dergo a nd to a of lines another 3 longest djectlves to the uality or 189. Properly speaking there are only two degrees of comparison, but it has been customary to consider the simple form of the adjective, as long, short, one also, and to call it the Positive degree. The form in er, as longer, shorter, which is used to show that an object has a quality or property in a higher or greater degree than some other object or group of objects is called the Comparative degree. The comparative degree is also used in comparing a thing with itself under other circumstances ; as, It is stronger now than it was before. The form in est, as longest, shortest, which is used to show that an object has a quality or property in the greatest degree of all the objects included in the comparison, is called the Superlative degree. When we name these three forms of an adjective in order we are said to compare the adjective; as, positive, strong; comparative, stronger; superlative, strongest. 140. In forming the comparative and superlative of adjectives observe : (1) . If the adjective ends in e we add only r and st; as, large, larger, largest. (2) . If it ends in y preceded by a consonant, we change the y into i before er and est; as, dry, drier, driest. (3) . If it ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel we double the consonant before er and est; as, hot, hotter y hottest; thin, thinner, thinnest. 141. Not all adjectives, however, can be thus compared. (1). Only adjectives that express a quality which may ))e spoken of as existing in different degrees admit of (com- parison. Hence neither numeral nor pronominal adjectives can be compared, nor such qualifying adjectives as, Canadian, wooden, triangular, dead, universal. (2) . Only adjectives of one sj lable and a few of those in two syllables, chiefly adjectives endi:ig m ?/, le, er, can be compared by adding er and est ; as, Lazy, lazier, laziest. Simple, simpler, simplest. Tender, tenderer, teuderest. Pleasant, pleasanter, ;)lea8rut«st. ..£.i^! :l I i '4 "ill I 84 IBBEOULAfi COMPARISON. i i 1 4 |4 .4 !r \* ij ,4 \« >* j »€.-.. f fill Other aJjectivus vhiuh denote qualities that admit of compari^oT' .<^ti conipai-ed l>y prefixing more and most ; as, Fam< -d, inore famous, most famous. Wonderful, more wonderful, most wonderful. In the case of adjectives of two syllables it is the sound that must determine whether to use er and est or more and most. In some cases either form is quite proper; as, Nothing can ))e commoner (or more comvion). He is the politest (or most polite) boy in the room. 142. The term comparison is sometimes still further extended to include, (a). The use of less and least like more and most; es, This method is less expensive. That was the least profitable of all his schemes. (b). The use of as or so followed by as; as, It is as stronp^ now as it was before. It is not so cold as it was yesterday. Observe that .so is usually preferred to as when the clause contains a negative. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 148. The following adjectives have irregularly formed comparatives and superlatives : Positive. Comparative Sts^.IutlT*. good better j>. ^^ bad (evil) (ill) worse worst much (many) more most little loss least fore f former \ further f foremost, first I furthest far farther farthest late later, latter latest, last old older, elder oldest, eldest near nearer nearest, next 144. in regard to some of these forms observe : (a), ijess is us t J of quantity; fewer of number; aa " LePB than a ton," but " fowar than a dozen." (h). Pr<'^':r ^oHh' t to express remoteness; furthfr to iini)ly soineUiiui; 'ulditiontU ; as, •* He live* Nitliii iwry," but " I have nothing further to *ay." ISBEG ULAU I.OMPAEIS0N. (c) . use later and latest of time ; last of positiou ; a^ "Have you heard the lateit rtport?*' 'His name was last cd the list." (d) . Elder and eldest are eoiifiiied to persons, usually to the same family, and are much less common than aly reused a serious accident in that way, one day. 2. Great richeH oft«»*. bring much care. 3. No other plan will be successful. 4, What auRwer did you get to the last question? 5, Those ^ jys anh vored r11 the questions on the first paper, (j. We had ij wait a long time In a cold room till he was ready to see us. ''■ . She is the best scholar in the French class. 8. Which chur'»h do these ]»eople go to ? 9. The younger children seemed very happy. 10. Few people care to spend their time on auoh thi''<'8. * VERBS. •7 n. Select from the following sentences: (a). Words that are usually adjectives but are here used as nouns; {h). Words that are used here as adjectives but that generally have some other value. 1. None but the brave deserve the fair. 2. He has put a wire fence around his flower garden. 3. They live in a small brick house on the comer lot. 4. The worst is over now. 5. The strong ought to aid the weak. 6. The church bell began to ring. 7. The above items are all correct. 8. He'll stick to them through thick and thin. 9. Did you look at the underside of itt 10. Biug out the false, ring in the true. HI. Compare such of the following as admit of comparison. ^gh't g^7i golden, worse, earnest, weekly, simple, last, several, little, vertical, cautious, sad, unanimous, next. IV. Correct any errors in the use of adjectives, giving reasons : 1. What kind of a bird is that? 2. I can't work those sort of ques- tions. 3. He can write the best composition of anybody in our class. 4. There must have been not less than twenty errors in his exercise. 5. He's the awkwardest looking fellow you ever saw. 6. Which is the shortest of the two routes? 7. There could not have been a more complete failure. 8. Of all other vices that is the hardest to deal with. 9. He ate nearly the third of it. 10. It claims to have the largest circulation of any other paper in the county. VERBS. 149. We have already learned the following facts in regard to words of this class : (1). A verb is a word which, either by itself or in con- junction with other words, forms the predicate of a sentence, and therefore there can be, iu a grammatical sense, no sentence without a verb. (2), Certain forms of the verb, however, known as Infinitives and Participles, such as to see, having seen, having been seen, cannot be used as predicates. (3) . For convenience we regard certain groups of two or more words often found in combination as equivalent to single words, and treat them as parts or forms of verbs, and this, too, even though other words may come between them; as, H? had been sent to school. They have recently begun to make it. Has it never been wen since that f (4). The verb utidergoes more changes of form than any other part of speech, and some of these changes depend on the person of the subject. lili TRAJSSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. jf (5). 8onie verbs take aii objeet after them, and this object, when it is a pronoun with diflPereut forms for the nominative and the objective, must be in the objective form ; as, '* He struck mpy Hence these verbs are said to govern the objective case. 150. We shall now proceed to consider some other points in regard to Verbs. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITHTE. There are several ways of classifying verbs. One of these is based on the fac't that we have- just mentioned, namely, tha^ ome verbs take m\ object after them. If we compare the 8en^ence8 : (a) . The bo}' broke the Htrii^nf . The boy ran away. (&). The birds build their nests. The birds sing sweetly. (c). The sun melts the suow. The sun rises in the east. we see that in each sentence the verb expresses an action. In the first of each pair, however, the action directly aflfects a? 'object, while in the other three it is confined to the person or thing represented by the subject. Verbs used like />ro/v, huihJ, wdts are called Transitive, because the action ''passes across" to the object, while others used like ran, sing, rises, which are not followed by an object, but whi(^h expi i^ss an action that is confined to the person or thing rspresent^ed by the subject, are called Intransitive, or " not passing across. '* This distinction, however, like many others in grammar, is not a permanent one, for many verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. For instance, in the sentences : The string broke. Snow melts in the sun. the verbs hrol-e and melis are used intransitively, the action being now attribut-ed to what in the preceding examples were the objects. So, too, we may say: Trans. The wind blew my hat into the river. Intr. The wind blew from the east. Trans, He opened the door for me. Intr. The door opened quietly. IVans. They played several ^ames. Intr. They played till uoou. TMM fASSlVE VOICE. 89 151. Observe that when we speak of action we include mental actions, feelings, and even the simple idea of posses- sion. Thus in He believes thai story. I understand tl.e explautetion. She hates that sort of thiug. ISg has two sisters. we regard the verbs as transitive, and speak of the following nouns as their objects and as governed by them. In the same way the term intransitive, which is properly applied only to verbs expressing action, has been extended to include verbs that merely denote state or existence ; as, He sleeps soundly. They seem tired. She remained silent. We were sorry for him. Observe that we use the word object in a twofold sense. Thus the thing is the object of the act, but for convenience we speak of the noun or pronoun that represents the thing as the object of the verb that expresses the act. THE PASSIVE VOICE. 162. It may be as well to notice here that transitive verbs can be used m another way, with a different set of forms. Thus we may say : (a) . ThQ cat catches the mice ; or, The mice are caught by the cat. (h). The boys broke the windows; or, The windows were broken by the boys. (c) . That dog will bite him ; or, He will be bitten by that dog. and the meaning will be the same, although expressed in a differciit manner. Observe that in making the change the object becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the object of the pre- position hy. Verb-forms like are caught, was broken, will he bitten, which are made up of some part of the verl) be and what is called the perfect participle of another verb, and which are used when the object of the act is represented as sufferina the act, are known in grammar as Passive ('* suffering") forms, and are collectively said to make up the Passive Voice ; while those representing the subject as acting are called Active forms and make up the Active Voice. AUXILIARY VERBS, I I I if!' ^ •#^ •ft! . •♦! III I * ' 1^ As intransitive verbs have no object, it is evident that they cannot be used in the passive voice, and it is unnecessary, therefore, in parsing them to speak of them as active. 168. We shall have something to say in Part TIT. about certain ways in which verbs that are usually intransitive may become transitive, but before leaving the subject here we may notice two advantages that we gain from having a passive voice. (1). We are able to call attention to an act without mentioning the doer ; as, The letter was found in his possession. (2) . We can vary our ways of stating facts ; as. No one ever saw it. It was never seen by anyone. Exercise XLII. I. Say whether the verbs in the following sentences are transitive or intransitive, giving reasons : 1 . He called at their office . 2 . He called a meeting of the committee . 3. Take off your cap. 4. She rules over a vast empire. 5. He soon became a wealthy man. 6. The teacher rang the bell again. 7. Has the bell rung for recess T 8. A crowd gathered in front of the building. 9. He picked up the papers. 10. She went home at recess. 11. The weather grew cold and stormy. 12. He owns both these houses. 13. ", felt very tired. 14. He felt a severe pain. 16. We know all our lessons. n. Change the verbs in the following from active to passive, or passive to active : 1. One of the girls wrote that. 2. Their mother sends them to school regularly, 3. By whom was that done f 4. He will be over- taken by them. 5. She took three prizes. 6. Has anyone tried the planf 7. All the cheese had been eaten by the mice. 8. We shall admit fio one. 9. He was kept in by the teacher. 10. Did they do anything? 11. He was never seen again by anyone. 12. They often do such things. HI. Write sentences using the. following ]verbs first as transitive then as intransitive: tf»n^, ftwrtt, }kear, return, play, turn, move, speak, dress, change. AUXILIARY VERBS. 1 54. Another classification of verbs is based on the fact that certain verbs, like have (has, had) he (am, are, was^ were J, are used sometimes by themselves and sometimes to make up certain forms of other verbs. INFLECTIONS. 91 Thug, when wo say : He U here. She wag alone. Thej irer* ready. He /Uw a bioyole. She /iotJ a iieter. I /mv« t watoh. we see that the six italicized words are the verbs of the sentences ; while in the following : He is sent to school. She wastnkm home. The pnpUn were warned by him. He has broken it. Thoy had seen ue. I have told him. the same words form only part of the verb in each sentence, and help to make up parts of the verbs send, fake, warrif break, see, tell. In the latter case, then, these words are spoken of as AuxiHary ("helping") verbs, and in the former, by way of distinction, they are called Principal verbs. Besides have and be the following are also used as auxiliary verbs: Do, did, may, anight, will, wouldy shall, should. INFLECTIONS. 155. We have already said that the verb has more forms than any other part of speech. The number of real inflections, however, is not large, for, although verb- phrases, like will see, had seen are equivalent to the inflected forms of other languages, and may, therefore, be conveniently and properly (Massed as forms or parts of the verb, they are not inflections. The following sentences will show the full list of simple forms that any verb, with the exception of the irregular verb be, can have : I know that. Thou knowest onr weakness. He knoweth our wants. She knows her lessons. I knew the aiiKvvor. Thou knewest that fact. It is known by all. Knowing that he was very careful. Of these eight forms three, namely, knowest, knoweth, knewest, are no longer in common use, being confined to prayer and poetry; and in the case of two others, knew and known, the great majority of verbs have the same form ; as, I heard that. I had heard that. He left home. He has left home. It moved. It was moved. SO that most verbs have only four distinct simple forms in common use. i f.. •hi J: itf' ^m, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 140 ^ 1^ l£ I.I u 1^ u& 1-25 III 1.4 ||.6 ^^^s llll^^^ lllll^^^ ^ 6" ► ^> .:v *>>' '^ 7 Photographic Sdoices Corporation :0^ t 9k *m 98 MOODS AND TENSES. In the case of assertive sentences, then, the pupil should ihink whether he is merely foretelling something, or expressing a promise or decision, and use the Predictive or Promissive future accordingly. If he does he will not be guilty of such common blunders as, I will be sorry to leave you all. We will be late for school. I hope we loill be in time to see it. 172. In asking questions observe the following rules: (a). For the first person always use shall; as, Shall I call for you T How shall I know which to take ? Shall we have time to call for her ? (&). For the second and third persons use whichever you expect to be used in the answer ; as, When shall you be able to do it ? Will you go if he asks you T Will there be room for all of us ? Shall this motion pass ? 173. It is evident, therefore, that either form may be cori'ectly used in some sentences, according to the meaning to be convej^ed; as, (a). I ahaJl not be the only one to suffer (a prediction) . I will not be the only one to suffer (a threat). (6) . The race wiU be rowed over again (told as news) . The race shall be rowed over again (a judge's decision) . (c) . Will there be any charge for admission T (asks for infoimation) . Shall there be any charge for admission f (asks for a decision) . 174. The following are the cbief exceptions to the rules given for assertive sentences : (1). In prophecy, proverbs, and poetry we often find shall in the second and third persons, where it is used not to express a promise or determination of the speaker, the matter refen'ed to being beyond his control, but to mark the certainty of the result; as, For thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head and the Lord rfujH reward thee. The memory of thy loveliness Shall round our weary pathway smile. This ijs sometimes called the prophetic shall. (2) . In subordinate clauses beginning with a conjunctive pronoun, or with such conjunctions as i/, when, though, unless, we use shall in all three persons to express a EMPHATIC FORMS. 99 future contingency^ that is, a result that does not depend •on the will, and that may or may not happen ; as, If any candidate shall be detected in copying, he shall, etc. The reward will be given to anyone who shall furnish evidence, etc. The tendency, however, is to use the present in such cases and say, If any candidate is detected, etc. The reward will be given to anyone y^ho furnishes ^ etc. 175. The foregoing cautions in regard to the use of shall and will hold true in a general way in regard to the use of should and would; as, PREDICnVE. I was afraid that I (we) should (not would) be late. We thought that you (they) would be able to finish it. PROMISSIVE. I (we) resolved that I (we) would put a stop to that. _t was agreed that you (they) should be put in charge of it. INTERROGATIVE. Should I be likely to find him at home T Should you be surprised to hear of his failure f Would you agree to that ? Would they be satisfied with that amount ? 176. Finally, as experience shows that the common mistake is the use of will (would) for shall (should J in the first person let pupils remember (1). Never to ask " Will (would J I (we) do or be some- thing r' (2). Never to say "I (we) will (would J do or be some- thing," unless to express a promise or a decision. EMPHATIC FORMS. 177. It may be well to give here two other forms for the present and the past indicative. These are made up of the auxiliaries do and did followed by the simple form of the Vivb (the infinitive in reality), and, written out in full, they are as follows : Pkssext. Past. Sing. I do see. I did see. r Thou dost see. f Thou didst see. \You do see. \ You did see. He does see. He did see. Plur. We (you) (they) do tee. We (you) (they) did see. m I) m m •si ■4l 100 EMPHATIC FORMS. 11'*" •#■• '■ ■• ifl iiiii IT 178. If we observe the use made of these forms we shall find that they are employed mainly for three purposes : (1). In asking questions. Thus, while in older English, and even sometimes yet, we find such questions as, What thinkest thou f Whither went they T we now commonly say and write. What do you think f Whither did they go t (2). In negative statements. Thus, while we may say. He heeds not the warning. They knew not his reasons. we commonly say, He does not heed the warning. They did not know his reasons. (3). To make assertions more emphatic. Thus, if a person doubts the correctness of our statements, we repeat them thus. She does want you. He did say so. From this last use these forms have come to be commonly known as the Emphatic present and past. 1 79. The verb do is also used as a substitute for other verbs except 6e, but in such cases it is a principal verb and not an aiixiliary; as. She knows as much as he does. He took longer than I did. He spoke better than you would have done. 180. Note that good usage allows donH as a contraction for do not but rot for does not. Be careful therefore to avoid such expressions as ^^ She donH seem to care.'' "Is there any hoy that donH know how to do it? " 181. As the verb he differs from other verbs in its present and past indefinite and as it is used in making up the passive and progressive forms of other verbs we give here its indicative mood in full. Pbesbnt. Sing. I am. f Thou art. \ You are. He is. Plw. We (you) (they) are. PSXSSNT PeBFEOT. I have been, f Thou hast been. \ You have been. He has been. We (you) (they) have been. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 101 Past. Siixj. I was. f Thou wast. IYou were. He was. Flur. We (you) (they) were. FUTUBK. Sing. I shall be. • f Thou wilt be. \ You will be. He will be. Plur. We shall be. You (they) will be. Past Pbrfict. I had been. I Thou hadst been. I You had been. He had been. We (you) (they) had been. FtTTUBK Perfect. 1 shall have been. f Thou wilt have been. \ You will have been. He will have been. We shall have been. You (they) will have been. Peomissive Future. Sing. I will be. f Thou shalt be. 1 You shall be. He shall be. Plur. We will be. You (they) shall be. An emphatic present and past for this verb are not used in good English. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 182. The indicative mood, as ,we stated, is used in speaking of facts, or of what we assume to be facts. It often happens, however, that we want to speak of things that exist only in our thoughts, as wishes, purposes, or mere suppositions. Thus, in the sentences: God grant that it he not too late. Thy kingdom come. If he were here he would do so. we are not dealing with facts, and the verbs are evidently from their form not in the indicative mood. These verbs, then, and others similarly used, are said to be in the Subjunctive mood, which may be called the thought mood as distinguished from the indicative, or fact mood. 183. Except in the case of the verb &e, the forms used for the subjunctive are, with two exceptions, the same as those of the indicative, and, owing to the strong tendency of Modem English to discard the mood altogether, few writers are consistent in their use of it. Nevertheless, as there are some uses of it which it seems desirable to retain, and as there is a real distinction of !!i i't'i ir if IK;' i ii tti m ;■'''■ 102 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. meftuing between the two moods even when the form* ai*e the same, we shall try to make plain the most important facts in regard to the use of this mood. 184. Taking the verb he first, then, as furnishing the most special forms, and using the word tense, as before, to include well-recognized verb phrases, as well as simple forms, we shall make three tenses in the subjunctive mood, with two sets of forms for each ; as, Oedinaby. I be. f Thou be. \ You be. He be. We (you) (they) be. I were. f Thou wert. \ You were. He were. We (you) (they) were. PRESENT. I may be. f Thou mayest be \ You may be. Phbasal. He may be. We (you) (they) may be. PAST, I might, should, would, be. r Thou mightst, shouldst, wouldst, be. \ You might, should, would, be. He might, should, would, be. We (you) (they) might, should, would be. PAST PERFECT. I had been. {Thou hadst been. You had been. He had been. We (you) (they) had been. I might, should, would, have been. {Thou mightst, shouldst, wouldst have been. You might, should, would, have been. He might, should, would, have been. We (you) (they) might, should, would, have been. Taking now the verb see, as before, we have : Ordinary. I, thou, he, ■) We, you, they, J see. I, he, \ We, you, they, j Thou sawest. saw. I, he, \ We, you, they, / Thou hadst seen had seen Phrasal. PRESENT. I, he, 1 We, you, they, j^aysee. Thou mayest see. PAST. I, he, \ might, should, would, We, you, they, j see. Thou mightst, shouldst, wouldst, see. PAST PERFECT. I, he, 1 might, should, would, We, you, they, J have seen. Thou mightst, shouldst, wouldst, have seen. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOL. 103 186. lu regard to the use of these teme*, the following facets are to be noted carefully : PRESENT. While the tense is present in form, and is sometimes used with reference to the present, it more commonly refers to the future. Its chief uses are: (1). To express a wish for the future; as, Thy will he done. Happy &e thy dreams! God save the Queen. Perish such a thought I (2). To express a purpose, a caution, or a resolution; as, Let us hurry lest he overtake us. See that all the doors he locked. Resolved that the thanks of the council he tendered to Mr. Smith, &c. (3). In concessive clauses; as, Though justice he thy plea, consider this. There is no place like home, he it ever so humble. (4). To express a cmitingent future, that is, a future event that depends on something else than the will of the speaker; as, I shall do so if it he possible. Unless he give his consent, we cannot go on. By older writers it was quite commonly used also to express a doubt with reference to the present, and many good writers still follow this usage ; as, If that he the case (now), we need not wait. In both cases, however, the indicative is commonly used. It will be seen that in several of the foregoing cases the simple form may be replaced by the phrasal ; as. May Thy will he done. Lest he may overtake us. Though justice 9nay he thy plea. PAST. 186. This tense is past in form only. It has three distinct uses: (1). To express a wish with reference to the present; as, I wish I were in your place. Would that he were here to see it I O that it were possible to do so I I'i I i '.If *< I ■5ll iivjl M ■I 104 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (2) . lu supposing something that is not the case ; as, If I were you, I should he glad to do so. If he knevo that, he would he angry. (3) . In supposing something to happen in the future ; as, If the rope were to break what would you do ? If they did that we should all he benefited. In all these three cases the modern tendency is to use the indicative when the forms are different, as was for were, or in the case of sentences like those in (3) to use the phrasal forms; as, If the rope should break. If they would do that. Good usage is still, however, in favor of the subjunctive were in all three cases ; and it seems especially desirable to retain the use of were in the second case as a ready means of distinguishing between the admission and the denial, or mere supposition of a thing ; as. If that was the case (admitted) there was some excuse. If that were the case (denied) there would be some excuse. He would not go though he was offered, etc. (admitted). He would not go though he were offered, etc. (mere supposition). 187. Pupils may find it convenient to note that (a). Whenever the simple past tense of a verb is in the subjunctive they can substitute for it a phrase containing were; as, If he did (were to do) that I would punish him. If he believed that (were of that belief) he would act differently. (6) . Wherever were is equal to should he or would he it is subjunctive; as, 'TIs time that we were starting. Life piled on life were all too little. 188. The phrasal past with should and would is of very common occurrence, and in conditional sentences is used in the principal clause as well as in the subordinate ; as, If that should happen we should be badly off. It is also used in conjunction with the indicative and the imperative moods ; as, If that should happen, I will let you know (let me know) , sm SPECIAL FORMS AND USES. 105 aud may even be used when the condition is implied in an infinitive phrase, or is understood; as, It would not surprise me to hear that (i.e., if I heard that). \ should take him to be about fifty (i.e., if I expresse(? an opinion). The form might is much less common, being confined chiefly to wishes and purposes ; as, Would that it might prove a warning to him I I did so that he might see better. • PAST PERFECT. 189. The use of the remaining two sets of tense forms of the subjunctive mood may be illustrated by the following examples : If Thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. If we had known that, we should have been able to go, too. If that would have satisfied him, there would have been no difl&culty. OTHER USES OF MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, WOULD. 190. These words, in addition to being used as mood and tense auxiliaries, are also used as principal verbs, followed by an infinitive, present or perfect, without to. May and might, which originally denoted power, now express either permission, or the possibility that something will happen; as, (a) . You may go now (are at liberty to) . I told them that they might go (were at liberty to) . (&). It may rain before night (it is possible). I thought it might rain (it was possible). Should is used to express duty or moral obligation ; as. You should attend to that at once. SJtould we invite her to the party f The secretary should have notified them. Would is used either with the force of & present, to express a wish; as, Wouldst thou kill me t I would that such were the case. or as a past, to express a determination or a hahit; as, I offered it to him but he would not accept it. She would sit for hours, looking at their pictures. CAN, COULD, MUST. 191. These are sometime^ classed as auxiliary verbs, but as they never wholly lose their own meaning, or become -I m i I 4 '5- m II > 106 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD, ; ! H '*' 'I J" •a: li 11' B^: mere mood and tense signs, it is better to class them >^ principal verbs, followed by a present or a perfect infinitive without to. Can (canst) could (couldst) express the idea of power existing in a person or thing, and are quite distinct in meaning from may and might. Note, for instance, the difference between He cam open it if he likes (i.e. he is able of himself to do so) . He may open it if he likes (i.e. he has liberty or permission to do so) . Pupils should, therefore, avoid the common mistake of using can and could for may and might in asking for per- mission or in speaking of permission. Thus, say- May (not can) I leave the room ? He told us that we might (not could) go when we finished the exercise. Can and could may be either indicative or subjunctive : (a). Indicative, I can lift that (am able). I could do it once (was able) . (&). Subjunctive, I hope that I can persuade him (may be able). I could do it if I wished (should be able). Must implies a necessity of some kind ; as, You must finish it before you go. He r.mst have made some mis- take in his work. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 192. The third mood is known as the Imperative, because one of its chief uses is to express a command ; as, Attend to your work. Close your books. It may, however, express a request, a caution, or an entreaty; as. Bring her a glass of water. Beware of pickpockets. Have mercy on us. The auxiliary do is commonly used in negative sentences, and also colloquially for emphasis ; as. Do not forget to call for It. Do show it to us. 198. As commands, requests, etc., are directly addressed to someone present or supposed to be listening, the mood li\^^m FINITE VERBS. 107 tne mis- is used only in th« preient tense and geaond p€