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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mithode. i by errata med to nent , une pelure, I fapon d e. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 SEYI SEVEN YEAES' RESIDENCE IN NORTH AMERICA VOL. I. ■ '.'.ta'^iftiHtS*!" .S(r^ - LONDON PKII'TKD BY SPOtTISWOOnr. AND CO. KKW-STREKT SQCAIIR v / "^ SEVEN YEAIW RESIDENCE IN THE CiKEAT DESERTS OE NORTH AMERICA BY THE ABBE EM. DOMENECn AirastoUcul Missionary : Canon of Montiicllier : Member of the Ponlifical Academy Tiborina, and of the OeoKraphlcal and EtliiioKra])hival Souictics of France, &c. ILLVS'lKATlon WITH rilTY-KlGlIT WOODCUTS BY A. JOLIET, THHKE ri.Al'KS OF ANCIENT INDIAN MUSIC, AND A MAP SIIOWINO THE ACTUAL SITUATION 01' TUE INDIAN TUIBE3 AND THE COUNTRY DESCBIDED BY THE Al^TUOB In Two Yolumea VOL. I. LONDON LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND EOBEETS 1S60 '■^j?^* We rii/ht 0/ Iramlutiun h rofervtil TO Ills LOHDSlllP CIIAllLES THOMAS TllIBAULT, BISnor OP MONTPELLIEU, BOMAN COUNT, ASSISTANT AT TUB PONTIFICAI, THIIONE, COMMANDBB OP THE IMPEBUL OBDEB OF THE I.EQION OP IIONOUB, AND OP THK EELiaiOtrS AND MILITAUY OUDEU OP SAINTS MACUICE AND LAZAKUS, KNIGHT OBAND cross OP TUB IIONOUBABLE OBDEB OP CUBIST OF BOME, OF THE EOYAL OUDKB OP CUABLE3 III. OF SPAIN, AND OP THE OBDEB OF THE UGLY SEPCLCUIiE, ETC. My Lord, When I dedicated my first book to the Bishop of Texas, I discharged a very natural debt. In dedicating the present work to your Lordship, I rejoico in the fulfilment of a most pleasing duty of gratitude. I shall ever remember the great kindness of your reception when, on my return from the New World, I was preaching in France in order to enlist the sympathy of my countrymen for my much-loved savages ; nor shall I forget how you loaded me with benefits which I could only ascribe to the liberal impulse of your own excellent heart. When at a later period, worn out by my missionary labours, I Iried my first timid steps in the paths of literature with no guide or stimulus but stem necessity, your hand alone was extended to me in friendly support; and further to encourage my efforts you raised me to the rank of a Canon of your Cathedral. In thus honouring me, my Lord, you yielded to the generous inspiration of a lofty soul. I was solitary, friendless, unknown ; you saved me from all those afflictions, bestowing on me the protection of one of the Bishops of France, whose admirable eloquence, zeal for the welfare of the Church, and benevolent sympathy towards all who are in adversity, has ever shed the greatest honour and truest glory on the house of God. A 3 VI li Kin CAT ION. My L)nl, loiiviiig othor.s In nWuw in (ho I'also f,'l;in' of iv ilt^M-itfiil li^;lil, yon liiivc l'(»llt)\V(vl, |><>rliii|>.s \iii('oiisoit)u.sW, (lio only nwul llial lonils let mil fifrcal- lU'ss. No Olio Im'Uoi' than your liuiil>*lii|> lias miiii'i;ilooil liow iiolilo is llio task of snioolliiiij^' llic way for youiiu; iiilolloi'ls, and roinoviiii; (lioso olislaolos wliicli (ifli'ii .snbtlito llu'ir ooiii;i,«:o ami Naililtn llioir lioails at llio very onlsol. of llnii' oarocr. \ .in i'olt. llial to tciuli-c assislaiioo to llioai^ who iiro .slnij,'nliii}j: to nitko availuhlo the talonts which (iotl has hoslowoti ii|>on thorn, wliilo Ihoy snslain loo lianl a oomhat with llio niatoriiil (lillloultios of thoir posilion, is \irily lo cou- liuuo tho part ol'ilivnio I'roviiloiioo on oailh. (Jialilnilo, my Ijcrtl, is in ilKoU" so swool a l'o(>linLj tlia! wo oni^lit always to blosh (lioso who inspire il ; linl Ihoro aro sollish anil iiictnisidoralo htniiu;-* will- 'viiom alt I't'clinj^s ai • Init onipty wortis, and to whom tho w(MtJ,hl of grali- tndo iM ill roalily a h(>avv hnrlhon. it is thoroloro not iiy words mo oa^ily ulloit'd, or hy doiiiiU'iil proloslalions Ihat any ni'Mi's gratilndo (ni<;lit. lo Iki nit asiirod, Imt hy posilivo tads, .sponlanoons notions, rosolvos porscvoriii«;ly malnri'd, in .short, hy all Ihosc^ proofs which sprinu^ IVoin u trtu) lioarl and a liim v,i\], and which hoar tho uinnisLtkablc stamp of (rnth, I i i My Ijonl, at the present time, when a pharisaical spirit is endenvimrinj; lo nialij^n yon, hoodless of addiiiu; rays to your j^Iory hy makiiiuj yon share in that onj> -.il' hilterness which was held lo the lips of our Divine Saviour in tho ffurden of (Jeths'.'n'.anc, more lliiin ever should I r<'joioe if, when 1 insoriho your Jjordship's name on the ti:st pai^e of this hook, wiiieh 1 have written to niakt^ known I'le wihlernesses of llio Now A\ «rld and their inhahitants, you should bo ideasel lo acoe|»t this homage as a in'otu" of my deep gratitude for tho bcnedls received at ymir hands, of my sincere admiral ion for your Clirislian and episcopal virlncs, and of I ho re^poolfnl allachment of, My Lord, Your most dt'vol.'d hiiniblo servant, I-:M, DOMKNKCil, TnOI.AUV ("AMl.N OK .MdNirhl.LIKH. rAlilfl, April IHIIO. i>li«la('l('s wliicli tiulsdt, of llu'ir fWliiif,' to uvilo lii'.V siislaiii too M'lilv (() Cdll- rUEl'ACl'; ilcnvoiiriii^' 111 sliaro ill (,lm(, ivioiir ill Uio iii.snril)(^ vDiir iic(ii,s li'i.stiaii and Til 10 llattxM'injji; iumihum- in AvlTicli tlio ])ul)ru' rooiMvod, Iwo yeiu's ji«i;(), my liisl, woi'k, oulilkHl ** Missioiuiry Ad- '» vonlui'os III I c'xasund Mi'XU'o, has iik I Ml iluctnl \nv tocoiitiiui llu' publicalioii ol' my c'tliiio^'raphu'al .stiulics, and o{' (,lu> jucrious luJk's I nlfaiictl during my sojourn in tiK> New World, on tlu* naluns tlu> as|H>i'l, and tlio sin«rniiirity of llu' ;\nu'ri('an dosorls, as likewise with re«i;ard to tliose savajj!;<' trilu's wlu) are as varii'd in tluMr physical appear- ance, as tliev are similar in their civil and relijjfions ortran- isation. America, it must be avowed, is not solely an VA Hoiado (or freebooters and fortuni»-seekers ; it resembles Ihe rrt)mise(l iiatid, whosi* fertility was such that th(» fruits it produced surpassi'd, both in size and beauty, all that the Oriental imap;ination of the UebrewH could conceivi* : but, like thel*romised Land oftr^^criptnre, lew piM'sons have jjjone thither to gather the line IVuits of scienc(\ For many aijjes, the entire of Europe, Asia, and the inhabited portion of A 4 Vlll PREFACE. Africa have been known to us ; and we have become fami- liarised with their history and geography. Archaeologists, geographers, naturalists, and savants have overrun those three parts of oiu" globe, and have initiated us into their secrets moral, historical, and material ; but America is still a vast desert, to which missionaries, merchants, and some rare scientific expeditions have alone penetrated. Its history, its geography, and its geology are yet wrapped in swaddling clothes. It is now three hundi'cd and sixty years since this New World was given us by Christopher Columbus, and much more has been done during that period in extracting its natiu-al resources for the enrichment of our old Eiu-ope, and in propagating the blessings of Christianity among the semi-civilised and the savage tribes of those immense sohtudes, than in searchmg into the mysteries which envelop those popula- tions so worthy of special interest. The efforts that have been made for this purpose are in general tainted with partiality. From vague and insignificant data, inexact and arbitraiy conclusions have been drawn, whose in- sufficiency or exaggeration, if not their falsity, is every day brought to light by experience and more extensive information. Orthodox believers have naturally wished to Ihik the primitive history of America with the bibhcal narrative. Arbitrary in their religious convictions, they have intro- duced this feeling into their discussions, without reflecting PREFACE. IX on the many difficulties they would meet with, owing to the want of historical documents, and the not taking hito account the plausible arguments that tell against them m the logic of facts. Infidel writers, on the other hand, hi ve contested rashly and at random, the biblical narrative. Grounding the motive of their actions, of their thoughts, and of their mode of looking at everythmg, on isolated facts, on information generally superficial and often erroneous, on materials incomplete and of spiu-ious value, they have erected against Genesis an edifice of sand, which the slightest touch of a competent hand would cause to crumble instantaneously. Some pass rapidly over every point that perplexes them ; in their idea the Bible says everything, and whatsoever it does not say does not exist ; they pay little attention to deficiencies which true, honest, and loyal science might fill up. Others, on the contrary, stop at the most trifling difference they find between the facts presented by science and the narrative of Genesis ; and, rather than give themselves the trouble of reconciling this difference by study, or by seeking a judi- cious interpretation of that which at first seems a flagrant contradiction, they loudly proclaim that the Bible is wrong, and that it is filled with historical errors. Men who searcli after truth such as it is, and not such as they would wish it to be, convinced that there is only one truth, inasmuch as there is but one God fi:om whom it emanates, disdain this tortuous path pursued only by i. X PEEFACE. weak minds imbued witli prejudices, be they good or bad ; wisely avoid tliese two extremes, to which tlie impassioned have recourse ; and courageously penetrate into the depths of the unknown, not with preconceived notions, but with a firm desire to arrive at the end of their researches, without allowing themselves to be influenced by their religious, scientific, or philosophical convictions, which are of no avail hi presence of the overwhelming authority of facts. But, m the -commencement of my work, I shall again revert to this antagonism, which has been carried too far by writers on both sides of the question. I say carried too far, because, in the question of the origin of the American peoples, the partisans, as well as the adversaries, of the Bible had only to cast their eyes on a map of America, to be convinced that tliere was stiU too much wanting to enable us to pronounce a sound judgment on this subject ; and that the vast solitudes, as yet almost unknown, might contain many important documents which woidd infallibly throw light upon the question at issue. Like Christopher Columbus, who, on beholding the immensity of the seas, exclaimed, "There must be a continent in the Atlantic," we should have said, in surveying the im- mensity of the deserts, which extend from the Mississippi to the Pacific, " Yonder there must exist monuments and unlmown populations." And in those wildernesses there are actually to be found hierogly[)hical monmnents, PREFACE. XI immense ruins ; white, red, and brown Indians ; Albinos, boarded men, and men without beards ; whose particular types differ from the general type of the tribes inhabiting the United States, Central America, and South America, which latter tribes form the staple of all the ethnological discussions that have arisen down to the present day. America is then, comparatively speaking, a new country, a virgin land, which contains numerous secrets ; we shall even add that many years must yet elapse before it can be perfectly known. The Government of the United States, to its praise be it said, spares neither trouble nor sacrifice to acquire this knowledge : of late years it has sent scien- tific expeditions into the American deserts, whose reports have been most useful to me in the compilation of my work. In giving publicity to this summary of my labours and travels, I have had no other intention than to shed a httle light on the question of the origin of the American people, on the Indian tribes, and on the nature of the countries occupied by the more or less savage populations of the New World. This work is but a detailed programme of what I hope to publish gradually on tliis subject ; I have spared neither fatigue nor labour to give my readers an exact idea of the great wildernesses of America and of the Indian tribes they contain. If I have not been able to derive much help from the books published by some writers who have treated on tliis subject, it is be- i xu PREFACE. I \ cause their accounts are, generally speaking, exclusively confined to the Indiana of the United States. Neverthe- less, I have read attentively the works of all those authors, either to generalise my opinions or to complete my narrative. Messrs. Schoolcraft's and Catlin's publica- tions, those of the Smithsonian Society and of the Ethno- graphical Society of New York, as likewise the re- ports of the scientific expeditions made by order of tiiG Government of the United States, were of especial service to me, which I am glad to acknowledge. I must also express my gratitude to Mr. Alexander Vattemare, founder and director of the International Library, which, thanks to his admirable management, is so deserving of the protection of every government and of the encouragement of every writer. By this means I have had at my disposal several foreign works, which the national libraries do not possess, and which have been of the utmost help to me. The extent of my plan has obhged me to adopt the de- scriptive rather than the narrative style, and I have deemed it advisable to divide my work so as to unite in successive chapters whatever appertains to the same sub- ject. After having treated the subject generally, I have given in detail all such particidars as tend to modify ii;s general character. My object has been to instruct and to uiterest the reader, without seeking to dazzle him by an appeal to PREFACE. xm lis imagination. My task thus simplified has become lasy, and, if my work is wanting in details, I trust lit "svill be found complete in the main, by making [known the great deserts of Ajnerica and the strange [populations that dwell therein. London, July, 1860. Gliince Origin Histor gvatioi Voyan glyplii the CI The I Genera L pire c — Fo of th Anca four . Ohiac tionc Igi-I Cont the' CONTENTS OF THE FIKST VOLUME, PART I. ANCIENT EMIGRATIONS. CHAPTER I. [i lance at Indian Ethnography. — Diifereat Opinions of Writers.— Origin of tl;o Indians. — Ancient Emigrations. — Hiatus in Bible History. — Advantage to be derived from the study of the ancient Emi- grations. — Chronicles of Eolus. — Scythian Emigrations. — Maritime Voyages of the Phoenicians.— Votan. — Explanation of his Hiero- glyphical Manuscript. Votan's an-ival in America 1000 years before the Christian Era. — Indians that he found tliere. — Votan's History. — The Hotise of Darkness ...... Page 1 CHAP. H. [General considerations regarding the former Peoples of America. — Em- pire of Peru. — History of Mamo-Capac and of Mama-Oello-Huoco. — Foundation of Cuzco. — Emigration of Noah's Children. — History of the four Brothers Ayai Manco-Topa, Ayar-Cachi-Topa, Ayar- Anca-Topa, and Ayar-Uchi-Topa. — The Giants or Quinames. — The fotir Ages of the Creation, by the Mexican Authors.— Arrival of the Ohuecs. — Massacre of the Giants. — An-ival of the Toltecs. — Emigra- tion of the four Brothers Balam-Quitze, Balam-Agab, Mahncutah and Igi-Balam, — Dispersion of the Oriental Tribes over the American Continent. — Destruction of the Empire of the Toltecs and of that of the Votanites . . . ... , . . .22 XVI CONTENTS OP CHAP. III. America kno^vn before Chrisioplicr Columbus. ^ Dialogtio bctwppii Midas and Silenus lanno. — The testimony of DiodorTis of Sicily. — Plato's Atlantic. — ion from Seneca. — Discoveries made by the Carthaginians. — Jewisn ^.inigrations — Analogies between the Indians and the Hebrews. — Ihe Canaanitos. — Asiatic Emigrations. — Indian, Mexican, and Periivian Trimiiti. — Irish Emigrations. — Iceland — NaJdod. — Scandinavian Emigrations. — Vinland discovered by Leil- Ilutsramannaland. — Ihe Natives' Traditions. — History of Bioom. — End of the Scandinavian American Colonies . . . Page 41 PART II. AMERICAN ORIGINS. CHAP. IV. The Indians are not Autochthons. — The Animal Kingdom in America. — Eden not the birthplace of the whole Animal Creation. — The Flood. — Species of Animals which have disappeared.— -Fossils. — The different Revolutions of the Globe. — The Human Kacc. — The ;^^Unity of Race. — On different Types. — Biblical Cosmogony. — • Anthropological Classification of the Human Kingdom. — The Indians of the N^ew World ........ 05 cmvp. V. The information extant on the Indians erroneous and incomplete. — The Indians in the United States, in California, and in Columbia. — ^V variety in the American Races. — Anthropological Description of the Indians. — The range embraced by divers Types. — Peculiarities of the various Species.— Their specific Characters. — Their Shape, Features? Colour and Hair. — The Gradation of Colour from the Poles to the Equator. — Human Nature easily acclimatised. — Erroneous Objec- tions with regard to Acclimatisation , . . , .81 THE FIRST VOLUME. XVU CHAP. VI. Influence of Climate on Individuala. — Coloration of the Skin. — Influence of the savage State and of Civilisation on Man. — The Immutability of Types. Modification of Types. — Common Origin of the Human JlfiCQ, Origin of the Americans. — Routes followed by the Races that have emigrated, and their Dispersion through the New World. — Diversity of Languages.— Intellectual and Social Progress of Agri- cultural Tribes who have been favoured by the nature of tlie Coun- try.— Conclusion Page 108 PART III. DESCRIPTIONS. CHAP. VII. Divisions of North Americc. — Northern Prairies of Texas. — First Deserts of the South. — Reptiles and Insects. — The Red River of Texas. — Lakes. — Cross Timber. — Witchita Mountains. — Anecdotes. — Sand-hills. — Canons. — Source of the Red River. — Mirage.— Prairie Dogs. — Soiu*ce of the Ki-chi-6-qui-ho-no. • - The Llano Estacado. — Aspect of the Solitudes on a Summer's Night . 131 CPIAP. VIII. Deserts of the South-east. — Topogi-aphy of the Table-lands, — The Sierras of the South-west. — Fort Smith. — Undulating Prairies. — The Chactas. — Valleys of the Sans-Bois and of the Canadian. — Morning in the Solitudes — Nature of the Soil. — Sha\vnees' Villages. — Evening on the Antelope Hills. — Singular Cave of the Rocky Dell. — The Tucimicari. — Villages of New Mexico. — Peco's Legends relating to Montezuma. — Arrival at Santa Fe ..... 152 CHAP. IX. Deserts of the South-west. — New Mexico. — Information given by an Indian from Tejos i-Tuno de Guzman's Attempt Pamphilo Nar- VOL. I. a XVlll CONTENTS OF vacz' Diwistcr. — Ciillncnn — Father Marcos rle Ni^a'rt Journey DiHCovcry of New Mexico. — VuHquez Coronado'H Expedition. — Taking of Cibola. — The Tignex. — ConciucHt of New Mexico Indian Revolts, — Valley of the Ilio Grande. — Quivira. — Geography of New Mexico. Pago 1G7 CHAP. X. Santa-F(5. — Fandango. — Churches. — Valley, Town and Pueblo of Taos. — Gold Mines. — KealViejo. — Placers. — Tuerto — Santo Domingo. — Valley and Pueblo belonging to the J<;mez — Ruins in the Solitudes. — Canon of Chelly. — Bernardiilo. — Albuquerque. — Acoma . 188 CHAP. XI. Rio of San Jo»6. — Rita. — Laguna. — Navajos. — Agua Fria. — Hiero- glyphical Rock. — Ruins of the Ojo Pescado Zuni. — Ancient Zuni. — Legend. — Jacob's Well. — Moquis Petrified Forest. — Volcano of San Francihco. — Valley of the William. — Curiosities. — The Colorado. — Chemehuevis. — Mojaves. — The Mormons' Road. — Los Angeles 205 CHAP. XIL First Expedition to California. — FortiiSo Ximenes. — Femand Cortez. — R.jdriguez Cabrillo. — Discovery of California. — Sir Francis Drake The Reception he got from the Natives. — Otondo's Expedition. — Father Salva Tierra. — The Jesuits. — Father Junipero. — Bay of San Francis. — Upper California. — Sunset on the Pacific Ocean. — ^Produce of California. — The San Joaquin. — Sacramento. — Gigantic Trees. — The Indians.— The Sierra Nevada 224 CHAP. XIII. Deserts of the West. — Singular Characteristics of the Great Basin Aspect of the Solitudes The Humboldt. — Notes concerning the Canadian Voyageiu-s. — River of the Great Basin. — Lake of the Pyra- mid. — Range of the Cascades. — Fall River. — Oregon. — Its Climate. — The Columbia. — Forests of Oregon. — Fort Vancouver. — Mount Coffin. — Submerged Forests. — Falls and Rapids of the Columbia. — The Great Dalles.— Fort Wahlah-Wahlah.— Clark Fork Source of the Columbia ......... 241 TIIR FIRST VOLUMK. XIX CFIAP. XIV. Lewis Fork. — Tlio Rlue MountainH. — Prairie bolonging to the Nez- I'erces.— Koute of Fort Ilall. — The American Falls or Chutes J'ois- sonnenaes. — VaUey of tlie Bear River. — The Great Salt Lake.— Islands of the Groat Salt Lake. — Desolate Aspect of Nature. — Lakes Utah and Nicollet. — History of the Monnons. — Great Salt Lake City. — The Mormons' Colonies Their Civil and Religious Organisation. — Roads to Fort Laramde. — The Timpamozu Range. — Extraordinary Springs Artemiae Desert. — Chain of the Wind River. — Panorama of the Rocky Mountains. — A few Words with regard to their Confor- mation. — The Land of the Souls of the Indians . . Ppge 261 CHAP. XV. Independence Rock or Register of the Desert. — American Forts. — Desert of the Great Prairies. — Rivers, Configuration and Flora of the Prairies. — Insects. — Salty Plains. — Errors of Writers with regard to the Great Prairies. — Difficulties of Travelling. — The Emigrant's Road. — Populations of the Prairies. — The Nebraska. — Geological Phenomena. — Black Mountains. — Mysterious Noises. — Volcanic Productions. — Smoky Hills. — Mauvaises Terres The Mankisitah Watpa. — Picturesque Hills. — Indian Legend. — The Magic Circle of the Prairies 285 CHAP. XVI. Origin of St. Louis. — M. Laclede. — Cession of New France to England by Louis XV. — Louisiana. — Foundation of St. Louis. — Speeches pronounced by the Missouries and by M. Laclede. — Consequences of the Treaty of 1763. — History of the Colony. — Spanish Domination. — Political Considerations. — Anecdote. — American Domination. — Minnesota. — Discovery of Minnesota. — Upper Mississippi. — Lake Pepin.— La Hon tan's River. — Indian Legend relative to Lake St. Croix. — Prairie du Chien. — Grotto of the Ouakantipi. — Fort Sneliing 310 CHAP. XVII. St. Anthony Falls. — Their discovery by Hennepin. — Indian Legend.— Excursion to the Som'ce of the Mississippi. — Lake Itasca. Mr. W. a 2 t'UM'KtN'l'S Ul-' Rforriwin'Hl.ritrr.- — IMiuu-i-hn-lm.'— 'I'mvorno «lo« Miuux.-— Mmiknto. — .'riir Omiiiu' Kt'gion. -r« Cutvnu do* rmirivw. — \{v\[ Pipe »tMH' 1 Qiuu'i'v. — liKliitti Tnulilit'UN. --(JiHiN'gioul rin'iuxiu'iiu. — Tho hrvilV J l.nkr. — CofrJMi of iIh' Mif>H(iuri. — ■ N'allc)' v( (ho I'ppiT Mi« Hout'i Sliiiiiiig Mouiituiiif*. — - HciuiiUHiTiiooH luui I'itui of our J(iitnu')H ......... Piigo {IJIO I'AUT IV. A N n g u 1 1 1 K M. CIIAI'. Will. \i\\U\H ill |Ih< (Jn'Ht l)t<»oi»N. -— IVmifioii of Auu'vionu Aulitjuilirn, — Stiutlu'rn Autitnutii'w — NortlnM-ii AulitiuUivv*. — Kigurutivo mi- 'l\i toinio Motm ,— Nuial>«'i' nud l)imoitHi«ui» ol'tlio 'ruiuuli. — Aiu'ionl Tuiulirt — Kunrral AltuiK. — StHtiou of \\w 'ruinull. — Anrund I'iiih, -— Dmmuiuu'h, — Olijt'otM (limHivrrnl in \hv 'rmiiuli. — . Arlitiriul MouihIh Uu' Mju'i'ilU'iiig. — KiirhiMuro \Vull».— HiKTvtl I'liu'ldHurt'M.— 'rmitnii UHcil hm 'JVtnploH. — MpuihIh ufnuxt'tl C'lnuiM'fi'i".— Olwrvn joi'U'N. — Signal 'rowciu — Siiatrgival MouiuIm , . , ilOU CIIAIV \IX, Ancirnt KoilificalioJiM. — Tlu'ii' I'lmition. — NaHiiv (tl* llir ancirni I'or tiTfWi'M. — WniuK «>u fill' Kirkiiig. — FiM'tilioatitiHH oC iVlariofIa an«l Ciivlcvillo. — {{uiuM (iC (Mitronolu'tl CaiiipM.— Kuini* in tlir KoiTHtrt.— Aurirnt CiiruH. — l*iu4»l\)»or N«>w Moxioo.— l*n» riutniU».— I{nin» un lln< \{\o \vn\v. — IVtftriy of ihv IMu'IiIoh.— l{uin« in Ou» Aimu'Imm' 'IVvritory.— Axtri' KniiiH nt-ar llu« («ila. — A lirgrniK — KHhira»« (iI'iIh' l'nrl>U>». — Tiatlition Conci'ining the I'lU'liKm. — Ivt'inarkH un llio anoioul Tril>OA and Dt'MvitH nf Iho iSputh wi'Mi . . . *)71 CHAP. XX. Anc'i««nl. W«'ll», — Higli Koa«l». — Toocallirt nf Florida. — (JanK'nu. — Working ol" Salt Min"M, — W«>ikM of Art in\d oIIht hiMcnvrii* » in \\\v Ttinudi and on the Aincrinm Coiilincnt.— Sk('lt'ti>n». — Ornann-ntM,— • SIm'IIh — Stvmi'N. — I'ipoM. — Sctdii'.uri'H.— 'IViTu Cutta SlatncltoM,— TUK nmv VOLUMK. XXI IVfummlcK. — Tlu'lr t^norlptlon. — Ago of tlu> AinoiUum Anti(|uUlo«. — 'lVw«('i» fln' 'ruiuuli. • — . Origin dI' \\w AuwvWmx Anti(|uitio». — (.)|>i4Uoiii«i'i'iliiri'i'i'»t Autliui's.— »lAtuoluHi*in . . THgt' yyu (•nAi». XXI. Ingl_yphlo Dootiiuonlw. — Tho I'iotogmpliy of priiiiitivv IV'oplr. — Th*' (Jmvt -oios'k Innoriplioiis. — 'l\nul>i»U>iu» Hi<'ks.~-lnMi'ri[>(ioUM v( Ni'W Moxioo. — llioi-oglypliio l'wiuli«»gM vf \hv VMwi'ut*, — 'V\w Kooky DcH liuliun I'ictogmpliy. — iWd Skitm. — SynitH>liwii. — Vjuntod SkinM.— Iiuliwn ToUhub.— llorwUUc Sigu«. — CuHolumon 4U0 (•IIAP. XXII. Tiuliiuj SlftilntloN. — Chuwn of \\\v DoriTHsv of tlio liuliun PtiputHtion.— Nuiiioiiolutuiu of thu InUiun Ttilioti • • • « . 121) m LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IH THE FIKST VOLUME. 1. View in the Fall Range Frontispiece 2. Map to face page 1 3. Natui-al Cylinders 129 4. Witchita Mountains , I44. 5. Sand Hills on the Canadian 152 6. Natural Hill 161 7. A Cafion in New Mexico 201 8. Inscription Rock ........ 2O8 9. Falls of the Colorado Chiquito 216 10. Cereus giganteus ••...... 218 11. "William's Valley 220 12. View of the Great Basin 241 13. Pyramid Lake . . . . . . , , ^ 248 14. View in the Walahmette Valley 256 15. Basaltic Towers . , 268 16. American Falls of the Columbia ..... 261 17. View of the Great Salt Lake ...... 265 18. Stansbuiy Island 272 XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE FIRST VOLUME. 19. View of the Upper Mississippi . , • , to face page BOi 20. View of the Minnesota 321 21. View of the Shining Movin tains 330 22. Ancient Amphitheatres 353 23. Artificial Mounds . . . .... .861 24. Ancient Fortifications . . . . . . . 871 25. Ancient Pottery 389 26. Ancient Ornaments . . . . . . . . 390 27. Ancient Pipes . 392 28. Ancient Pipes . . . 394 29. Phallic Idols 396 30. Ancient Pottery . . . . ' . . . .398 31. Copper and Stone Axes ..... . . 400 32. Arrow Heads and Obsidian Knife . ' . . . . 404 33. Indian Inscriptions . . 408 34. Indian Hieroglyphs . . ' 424 3T VOLtTME. to face page Z0\ f . 321 . 830 . 353 I . 861 . 371 . 389 . 390 . 392 . 394 . 396 . 398 . 400 . 404 . 408 . 424 SEVEN YEARS' RESIDENCE IK THE GREAT DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. PAET I. ANCIENT EMIGRATIONS. CHAPTER I. GLANCE AT INDIAN ETHNOGRAPHY. DIFFERENT OPINIONS OF WRITERS. — ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. ANCIENT EMIGRATIONS. HIATUS IN BIBLH HISTORY, ADVANTAGE TO BE DERIVED FROM THE STUDY OF THE ANCIENT EMIGRATIONS. CHRONICLES OF EOLUS. SCYTHIAN EMIGRA- TIONS. MARITIME VOYAGES OF THE PH(ENICIANS. VOTAN. EX- PLANATION OF HIS HIEROGLYPHICAL MANUSCRIPT. VOTAN'S ARRIVAL IN AMERICA ONE THOUSAND YEARS BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. IN- DIANS THAT HE FOUND THERE. VOTAN' "ISTORY. THE HOUSE OF DARKNESS. It is with sentiments of t^" 'ely satisfaction that we perceive of late ^ ^^ ., scorning lo\v uovel writing, ihe reaumg oi wxiiv.^ ^^ ^.. pernicious to sensitive minds, have resuscitated a style of literature full of charm, interest, and novelty, by going to glean their scenes and subjects in the soUtudes of the New World. We join with all our heart in tliis ]'' ^ry VOL. I. B 2 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. movement, which is capable of drawing the attention of the civiHsed world on those poor savages, to whose well- being we had devoted our youth ; this work contains the result of our personal observations, and of our ethnographical studies on the Indians of the Great Deserts of North America : and \ve cherish the fond hope that it may be the means of guarding those who may consult it against the stumbling-blocks of fiction that would make them fall into historical or topo- graphical errors, so very excusable, after all, when re- lating to such important questions and to regions almost unexplored. The Indian nations afford a source of serious study to the observer, who, stripped of all prejudices against those simple men fallen from a better state, strives to discover the hidden motive of their conduct, their mode of living, and the secret that envelops their actions. The Indian, being of a really grave disposition, does notliing lightly. His traditions, his faith, his customs, his ornaments, have all a particular reason attached to them ; they are far from being the whimsical conceptions of excited and ridiculous imaginations. Unfortunately he is but little known ; he has ever been looked upon as the man of nature, or else as a wild beast that only resembles the human race by his exterior forms. For some he is a being only fit to figure in an eccentric romance ; for others, an object of specidation, a mere medium whereby to obtain the valuable furs of the American deserts. And yet it is as useful as it is ciuious to analyse man fallen to the savage state, to examine how, without the help of civilisation, having no other resources than those of nature, he has been able to create laws, a penal code, divers industries, national institutions, and means of pros- less. the attention of , to whose well- ^ work contains s, and of our of the Great lerish the fond ling those who 3cks of fiction rical or topo- • all, when re- regions almost erioiis study to IS against those ^es to discover Qode of livino-, . The Indian, otliing lightly, naments, have they are far excited and is but little the man of -esembles the iome he is a omance ; for ium whereby ieserts. And nan fallen to the help of an those of . penal code, 3ans of pros- INDIAN ETHNOGRAPHY. 6 [perity. The examination of the social condition of the Indians of North America is an important page in the history of humanity. The world has, in fact, an undeni- jable interest in knowing, and following in their results, [the causes of the decline, or of the material and intellec- tual progress, of a people insulated in wildernesses by a [succession of emigrations either voluntary, accidental, or forced, traversing whole centuries without being aided, in its physical or moral necessities, by the help of the civi- ised nations. The Indian theogony and mythology require also special attention, for science and philosophy :an draw from them useful information, with regard the origin and transformation of reUgious ideas and %'aditions. The origin of those peoples is buried in profound dark- less, wliich in oiu' opinion will be removed by degrees as ^cience advances in the paths of the historical discoveries which man's genius causes him daily to make such rreat progress. Distinguished savants of all nations and )f 'all ages have written on the subject of the Indian )rigins, with all the energy of a sincere conviction, based )n positive facts, on precious documents, and on plausible reasoning ; some make the Indians come from Phoenicia, )thers from Africa, others from Asia and from Iceland, inally, others believe them to be Autochthones. The divergency of these opinions is occasioned by the renerahsing of the systems adopted at the present day, md founded on a semblance of homogeneity in Indian )hysiology. This homogeneity does exist, in a shght legree it is trtie, in faith and religious traditions, in customs and costumes ; but it disappears as soon as we examine attentively and in particular the physiognomical types, the mode of existence, and the languages of the B 2 4 THE DESKRTS OF XORTH AMERICA. di/Tereiit tribes. The similarity of religion and of usages among two peoples is not always accounted for by a pai'ity of origin. We, nevertheless, agree with the American authors who reject the Autochthonical theoiy, basing such rejection on a certain hkeness between tlie ftxith and religious rites of the Indians and those of the Persians, the Chaldeans, and the Hebrews, that this simi- litude of usages or of religions is deserving of serious reflection. Still, it is quite certain that two peoples, en- tirely and in all things different one from the other, can, when they find themselves in the same conditions and the same necessities, draw more closely together and resemble each other in manners, customs, usages, and even in reli- gion. We can then draw the conclusion, that all the systems which have been invented to prove that the Indians have but one and the same origin are erroneous, because they only admit of a partial application, and do not include the generality of the race. Facts, on the contrary, demonstrate in a positive manner, that there is no community of origin between the Indians. Some authors, in studpng the history, traditions, psychology, cus- toms, arts, and agriculture of the Toltecs and the Aztecs, ' thought that the Eed-Sldns were a fraction of these two great civihsed nations of Central America ; but as this opinion only tends to increase the difficulty without solv- ing it, Ave will not discuss it. Our iiviction respecting this grave subject is, that North America was peopled by the voluntary or accidental emigrations of Scythians, Hebrews, Tartars, Scandinavians, and Welsh ; that those individuals or families, after hav- ing multiplied, met and united with each other, and that by the intermarriages of the divers races, the difference of the climates, the change in their mode of living, and AXCIEXT EMiaRATIOXS. Several other reasons of a similar nature, tlicy lost their )rimitive character, and formed this heterogeneous com- )ination of colours, habits, tastes, languages, and religions, I'hicli baffles science and the antiquary's researches. We Ivvill prove these varieties of origin by the simple indica- ^on of the historical, physiological, and religious docu- lents, by the traditions, antiquities, and customs of this )eople, with whom we desire to make our readers inti- liately acquainted. We must begin by speaking of tne j^robable, the loubtful, and the known emigrations, which took place America long before its discovery by Christopher [Jolumbus. Histor}% it is true, is rather silent with re- ird to the origin of the most ancient peoples of the rorld, and in particular about that of the American populations. It scarcely records anytliing but the events lat have illustrated nations and drawn them from obU- but duriiig that long interval of time which must ion lave elapsed from the growth of a radical family into a )eople civilly constituted and strong enough to pierce rough the obscurity of its existence by the extent of ts power, a thick veil covers this cradle and this adoles- 3nce of the ancient peoples, which veil is only torn by ragments, and will, perhaps, never be completely re- noved. It is generally admitted that the Phoenicians were the irst who knew the art of expressing thought by writing, ^nd that their manuscripts were destroyed either in the rars that brought on the downfall of the four great lonarchies, or in the flames of the library of Alexandria ; le consequent result jf which is, that the most ancient )ook that has reached ns are the books of Moses. Unfor- tunately the sacred writer only speaks of the Hebrews, B 3 6 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I ii and of tlic nations that had more or less direct inter- course with them. Tliercfore, we must naturally con- elude, that the silence of the Bible with regard to the other inhabitants of the globe leaves an enormous latitude to scientific researches, and to the hyjDotheses that may be made concerning the peoples whose origin is unknown to us. The Bible itself, such as it now is, after so many centuries of revolutions, of changes, and of slavery imdergone by the Jews, presents so many deficiencies and obscurities on diflerent subjects, that it requires the wise interpretation of the Cliurch to prevent its becoming a cause of errors and of scandals ; for which reason all Israelites who had not attained the age of thirty were forbidden to read it. These deficiencies of the Mosaic narrative can no more be replaced, than its obscurity can be made clear by the historical records that have escaped the destructive work of ages ; we must then make up for the documents that are wanting by serious data, based on facts pertaining to natural history, to the traditi^jns of the populations, and to their physical and moral or- ganisation. By studying the emigrations and the aptitudes of the peoples of the most remote antiquity, we can eventually understand the typical likeness that exists between the ancient and the modem ones, notwithstanding the con- siderable distances that separate the cradle of the first from the present residence of the latter. This typical analogy often throws fight on the problem of races, which is so difficult to be solved when merely studied by itself, that is to say, solely in an anthropological point of view. The modifications undergone by the human family on account of the changes of cfimates, of civilisa- tion, of manners, and mode of living, and through inter- ■Mi. ANCIENT EMIGRATIONS. lational intercourse, are quite numerous enough to cause wide cliffbrence to exist between the descendants and their ancestors; consequently we think it necessary to say few words about those intrepid and enterprising popular tions that many centuries before the Christian era orer- m the earth, to subjugate it to their laws, and to enrich themselves by commerce. These lines may, by ieduction, shed a little hght on ethnography, on the origin of imerican antiquities, and on the Indian theogony and uiguagcs. In this account our object is not so much to jertify what we merely suspect, as to adumbrate a few )ersonal ideas to which we have not had leisure to give leir full importance, and which we trust a more patient id able hand will avail itself of to ripen and develop. Although we do not know to what extent we can rely |>n the authenticity of the Chronicles of Eoliis, written in Scythian dialect (Phcenician, according to O'Connor), his manuscript is nevertheless deserving of mention, on iccount of the historical descriptions it contains, ccncem- ig part of the events that occurred during the 1304 rears which preceded the establishing of the Scythian empire, and of which the Bible does not mention one rord. Eolus, says the author of the Chronicles of Eri, ras the chief of a Scythian tribe, and hved about forty rears after Moses, that is to say, 1368 or 1335 years )efore Christ : he composed his book with the ancient traditions received in his tribe. According to this [manuscript, the Scythians dwelt dm-ing one thousand lyears in the country where they were created (Asia). JAt the expiration of that time they emigrated towards jthe south, and having peopled the regions comprised )etween the Sgeind (the Indus), the Ocean, and the B 4 8 THE DKSERTS OP JJOKTII AMERICA. Teth-(jris (tlie Tigrirt), in ?03 rings, or years, they crossed tlie Teth-yi'is, arrived at the Affreidi/-ew (tlie Euphrates), occupied the Tatk-da-cal (the Jews' Iliddekel), and spread beyond the Affreidg-eWy all over the earth, niaintahiing under their sway the several nations of the globe during the space of 1809 years. Did this great emigration beyond the Euphrates extend to America F The Chronicles of Eolus do not say so ; but it is to be remarked that there are tumuli and other American antiquities in the valley of the Mississippi, the origin of which, by careful examination, can be traced to that epoch. When the 1809 years of which the historian speaks had elapsed, Ard-fear (Noah, according to O'Connor), son of Am^ lave (Lamech), supreme chief of the Scythians in Western Asia, was attacked by Eis-soir and fled towards Ard'mionn. Eis-soir was a foreign people, called As- shur by the Hebrews, and As-syrie by the Eomans ; they were the Assyrians, who, under the guidance of Bel (the Jewish Nimrod), invaded Mesopotamia, defeated Noah, the Scythian chief, who took to flight with his com- panions, designated by the name of Noe-maid'eis (no- mads), as far as Ardmionn (Armenia), where Bel founded the town of Ba-bel, in the plain of Shinar, and established the Assyrian empire on the ruins of the Scythian one, more than 2000 years before the Christian era. Prior to its downfall, the Scythian empire extended from the Indus to the confines of Arabia, of Egypt, and of Europe. The tribes that lived on the banks of the Indus were called Indo'Scythians, and those from the confines of Europe Celto-Scythians. The Chaldaic tradi- tions, and the testimony of antiquity, argue in favour of the accuracy of the facts stated in the Chronicleo of EMIGRATIONS OF THE SCYTHIANS. 9 Rolu.s, iiltlunigli tlioir dates are more in accordance with he Samaritan text, than witli that of the Vulgate. In corroboration of this, history informs us that Vexoris, :in<' of Egypt, attacked Tanalis, a Scytliian chief ; those two monarchs were struggUng for tlie sovereignty of isia ; tlie Eg}q)tians having been defeated in a battle, the cythians retiiined the supremacy for upwards of 1500 rears ; it was then that the Assyrians, led on by Bel, ivaded Mesopotmnia, overthrew the Scythians, put an ^nd to the tribute that the different peo})les of Asia paid tliem, and founded the city and the town of Babylon, previous to the arrival of the Assyrians, there were jarcely any other peoples known but three great ones firom the Indus unto the Nile and the MediteiTanean, the jA-rabs, the Egyj^tians, and the Scythians. Although the itter had ceased to be the masters of Asia and of the lown world, they still retained great power after their jfeat, as may be seen in the tenth chapter of Genesis, ^here it is said that Japheth (or Jat-foth, who succeeded Toah), became the father of those tribes that divided the jjlands of nations between them ; and their families were lere the beginning of the peoples who had each their wn language. (Gen. x. 5.) We will not follow the Scythians in their different ligrations in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, but we can [bserve that Solomon's vessels were not only constructed, ut were even manoeuvred by, the Phoenicians, one of the lost enterprising Scythian tribes of Western Asia. Those 3ssels started frequently from Eloth and from Gezer, to and trade with the maritime nations of the globe, le Phoenicians were already celebrated mariners more lan 1000 years before Christ. They had colonised a )rtion of the British Islands 1037 years before the 10 TIIK DKHKUTM OV NOUTII AMtr.UH'A. (I^iivlinn (m^h. hiuI Iim«1 UMvi^:Ml«Ml on (In* iuh^hm tipwmds mot>l will) «MMn|MMif«nu in IIumi* ('onnnoiritil r\iMii>o ihr inhnlnlimts of it (own Ukv Tvro or Hiilnti, Mtl() linl nC Iwo Im'm' prov !)uM',h. ihii if llir OrtMMMMM rilu' 1mm' (o i««noh a ih'fjroc oC intporitnioo (hnl it (\\oi(o(| (ho joMhuiMy oC (hoir tuMj>!i- Imnrf*. WluMi \\\v M^-yplinns ih^oovorod (hiH (ho oiulh did no( md Ml (ho oohnnns of llorotdos. nnd wh I'' '"'••** would (mIvO (Von) (luMn (ho )u«»»»opoly yy( (ho n)Mri(inio (indo ; (hoy v'onsonnonllv diil nil (h,»'V possihly tH)nld (o pro\on( (lu* world l'h>ni knowinjj: iVoni wlwil ronnd'ioH (hoy dnwv (hoir woid(h, !o ti((Min whioh ohjoii i( \h ovon roliHod {\u\\ (ho tnMM(o!' oC m Thtonioinn Mhip imu hor ii!j;round. on porooivinjj: (hn( ho wmm WM(oho«l inul 1'oIIowimI by H (irooinn vof«Mol, I'^roin whM( pcooodo.'M ono onnnol i\'ol wni'prif«od h> (liivi(h Ainoi'ioM. l>on I'VHnoi^oo Nuilio/. do hi N'ogu, Inshoj' of ChiiippuM (Moxioo). luid hoooiuo possoMMod ol' nn iin- TUAVKI.M OV V«»TAN. n il o\«MirNinuN. iIh'v IMl .InsopllUM lij) ' ignnruiM'o Willi li<»m lltp (Irorlvs ivn liko Tyt'' j;«\ nviim onliroly rMpi«>«l hy Uon Ifmnnn ,)rilMruv% mIioKIv tiHor (ho onn«nios( oC Moxioo. ^hn•iMno Mnm-.io lv'ivon>. mul .lohn Jmnos von 'rsohndi. unlhoiM oi' ho I'oniviHH AnlitinilioM, mnmoH |Iiii( (Iu^ oriyjiinl \vm« ioHd-oviMl l>v lii'o on (ho pnhlio Miintiro of Unohuoltni, in i(>'.M. Tlu' (i(io or lV«w»(iNj>ioo(» oC (his io«M»nl oonMi,M(,t ^^\' ^vo sunnros oC (lil)oronl oolontx. \vi(h (lioir mii^Jom paiMllol h onoh o(lu>i"; oi\o toproMonlM (h«» (M«l Condnonl, iloni^- i(o (Mil oi'M. (ho lodor H mImimIm npiijj,h( in (ho ohMp(ort inul llfhon 1(0 nllihloH |o |h»' Now ono. (ho ohnplor is nuirkoil %\ (his NMino '»ijLrn lyin^ (Iiiih f/j . lUMwoon \\\v (wo irpuuoM »nny bo romi (In^ (i(lo oi- Mnl\joo( oC (l>o nunni- K'iip(: " /N'orj/' tlhit / tini i> Sf^rju^nt," Tho Mii(hoi' mnyN k\ (ho (oxi thai, ho i^ Iho (hinl lu^uing (ho naino ol' :JV"avon, (lioro (o kvv\\ on(, \\\n it>la(ivos (ho IoijmmHm; (ha( ho won( I'l'tan Wthnn r/iiriin (o \nlnHf I .'A^>^ and b>ok wi(h him Movon I'ainiliivM Croin lln* laldT 4liiop i (lui( in piisMinj^y (hron^)h Miintpo \\v bohoM al. iiiono* a niaf)nilio<'n( (oinplo whioh was IniiMin^; ihoroj IMl ill hulking I'or his oiIum' broduM's, lli(> sorp»Mi(s» ho * Wo Itojtovo lliori' {« hovt^ nn nntM' (>l* ll\«' .iMinliilut', t«n»l |I»m( ilMloml ol' •" Koini'" tl would Ih» ll^liMu pMl "Iimho Iowii." lui il In »«l>nl>li' llml Vxlun'n vUil look |ili«i'o lioloro lli«> roninloliuu nl' K«>opulations whicii isation by Votan. porary with this uered or driven The difficulties not allow us to i personage in a cannot refuse to but the double him to our view, here were many was given as a ;er him, and who dored by several People f , or of us at times to ibove humanity, 1 their rehgious ntermediary bc- representative of a prince and a ribes of America ANCIENT AMERICAN TRADITIONS. ir cia de Guaxaca, &c. Nueva Espafia, &c. ni a state of barbarism, and to instruct them in law, iligion, government, agriculture, and the arts. The analogy that is to be founei, in the Tzendal Quiche (1 Mexican traditions, between the personages presented (ler the different names of Votan, Cuciunatz, Gukidcan djld Quetzalcohuatl *, would lead us to beheve that at le origin of history, one individual only united in his son this diversity of appellations. Nevertheless, a nparison of all those traditions decides us to admit of of them, Votan and Quetzalcohuatl, the names of icumatz and of Cukulcan, having identically the same ification as the latter. It is, however, certain that it was them, whether heroes, priests, legislators, or warriors, tl^ Central America received the elements of that civi- lisation, which their successors have since brought to so h a degree. The knowledge of one God, creator and ruler of heaven and earth, appears to have been the first dogmas that were instilled into the mind of the populations they had conquered f ; but in ^ traditions that have been handed down to us, the isla tor's name is often mixed up with that of the Divi- y, and, under the symbohcal veils in which primitive itory is wrapped, he who caused the Americans to enter Guc or Cue, in the Quichd language, is the same bird the Mexicans Quetzal. Cumatz signifies snake, as also the Mexican word Co- itl. In the Maya language of Yucatan we also find the same sense ^he word Cukulcan : the whole three signifying a serpent covered feathers ; or, otherwise, a serpent ornamented with the feathers of Quetzal. We say conquer, in the sense of the spiritual conquests that have Be -jeen made by Christianity ; nevertheless, it is our opinion that suasion alone did not suffice to make the people submit to Votan's B, and that the force of arms must have been required to obtain that It. tOL. I. c ong : 18 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. upon a new life, in drawing them from the savage state, is on purpose identified with the Father of the universal creation.* On his arrival in tlie New World, Votan, accompanied by the other chiefs of his race, advanced between tlio thousand islands of the lagune of Terminos. A multi- tude of birds with ghttering plumage gave hfe to these waters, at that time rather shallow ; and tlisturbed by the flotilla that bore the colony, they flew into the air, seek- ing a refuge beneath the shades of the surrountling forests. Wild beasts and all kinds of game were sporting about in the thick fohage and on the green sward that extended luxuriantly along the banks of the sea. In their joy at meeting with so great an abimdance and with such fertihty, the navigators cried out : " U limmil cut:, II lunmil geb ! " — It is the land of birds, it is the land of game. Those words remained long after as the generi- cal name of all that country from Potonchon unto the low groimds of Chioppas. It is doubtless on account ol' their marshy character that they also got the name of Papuha, given by a Mexican author to the first countries that were inhabited on the continent by the foreign colo- nies, and which signifies, in the muddy loaters.f Votan then ascended the course of the Uzumacinta; and it is on the borders of one of the tributaries of this river that is placed the cradle of American civihsation. His sojourn there gave rise to a town, which had since the honour of becoming the metropoHs of a great empire. It was situated at the foot of the Tumbala mountains ; the name of Pachan that is attributed to it is less known than * History of the Civilised Nations of Mexico and Central America, by M. I'Abb^ Brasseur de Bourbourg. f Ixtlilxochitl, Sumaria Kelacion de la Ilistoria Tultcca ap. Kings- borougli. VOTANIDE EMPIRE. 19 tliat of Piilenqu^, whose majestic ruins revealed them- Iselves scarcely a century ago to the gaze of the as- ftonislied traveller.* The name of Na-chan, that is to be found in Ordoiiez's work, signifies the town or habitation of the serpents. 'he Tzendals, amazed at seeing other strangers arriving n large barks and wearing long full garments, gave them ^he name of Tzequil, or "men dressed in women's clothes." Shortly after they had established th'*^^ selves in the )untry, they fonned aUiances with the Tzendal maidens. ^)tan, enlightened and instructed by them with regard the deity, and the government of men, succeeded in tganising the administration of his states, and it is from lis epoch that the foundation of the Palonquean empire ^ny really be said to date.f Ordoiiez assures us that those events took place nearly )ne thousand years before the Christian era. M. I'Abb^ k-asseur de Bourbom-g, without affirming anything, never- Itheless corroborates this date by the following quotation [from the history of the suns in the Codex Cliimalpopoca : "Here is the beginning of the history of the things that [were verified a long time ago ; that, viz. of the distribu- tion of the earth, which is the property of all, its origin and its foundation, as likewise the manner in which the Sim divided it ; there are six times foiu* hundred years, then a hundred, then thirteen more, this day 22nd of May, of the year 1558." By deductmg the years ^hat liave elapsed, we obtain the year 955 before Christ, that is to say, less than a century after the colonisation of Ireland by the Scythians. * See the Histoire des Nations Civilis(5es, &c., by M. VAhh6 Brasseiir do Boiirbourg. f Idem. c 2 20 TJiE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. We ^vill finish tlic c;liapter relating to Votan, by ob- Bciving tliat the traditions of which we have spoken make sufficient alhision to the origin of mysteries, ana- logous to those of Egypt and of Greece, numerous traces of which are to be found among the peoples of America. From thence came, no doubt, the trials by arms of the Mexican chivalr}% which the Spaniards were so surprised to see, i!nd which, after all, were probably but the remnants of the ancient mitiation. It had pre- pared Votan to act the part of legislator and of prophet, which history has attributed to him. On his return to Palenqud, after one of his long joiuneys, he found his people divided. The Tzequils had taken advantage of his absence to usurp a portion of his authority, and to create for themselves a power in the very centre of his states. By his wisdom he speedily put an end to the dis- turbance., at the same time treating his adversaries with lenity. He divided the monarchy into four kingdoms, one of which was confided to the chiefs of the strangers ; they had for their capital Tulhk, the ruins of which have been found close to Ococinco, on the other side of the Tumbala mountains. The rival of Palenque, that town also attributed its foundation to the great legislator. A curious tradition, preserved even to this day among the Tzendales, says that a subterraneous passage of a prodigious length went through the mountain, establishing a commu- nication between the temple of TuUia and Palenqu^, in the vale of Zuqui ; it adds that Votan had this subter- raneous passage hollowed out in memory of the one into which, during his journeys, he had been admitted, as the son of a serpent, to reach unto the root of heaven.* * Ordonez, Fragments manuscrits, &c. THE HOUSE OF DARKNESS. 21 These expressions appear to be equally api)licable to the I institution of the religious mysteries which Votan had esta- l)lishe(lin that temple, hidden ui the ni vine, far away from I tlie gaze of the profane. What strengthens this assertion are the words of the Bishop of Chiappas, r'^^^ative to the ■ sanctuary constructed, by the same legislator, on the )anks of the Huehuetan river, which irrigates the smiling Jvalleys of the Soconusco territory. Placed on an jniinence at a short distance from the Pacific Ocean, ft was destined, according to all probability, to initiate he princes and nobles of those countries into the myste- ies of religion, and its vf st subterraneous constructions lused it to be named the " House of Darkness." The Ipir behig considered a sacred animal, Votan brought it there, that it might multiply in the waters of the river ; and le also deposited, in the gloomy retreats of this temple, |;he archives of the nation, committing them to the care )f a college of old men, called Tlapiaiies or guardians.* He instituted there, at the same time, priestesses, the ^lead of whom had the singular privilege of commanding 3ven the old men. It is for this reason that Messrs. iovero and Tschudi said that Votan's manuscript was Iconfided to the care of an Indian lady of rank, and to a [certain number of Indians that was never to be exceeded. [In the midst of the forest surrounding the House of [Darkness, there soon arose a town that bore the name [of Huehuetan, or the city of the old men, and of which Inothing remains in the present day save shapeless ruins. ;! 1 ): 1:'- ,1, 1 * Ilistoire des Nations Civilisees, &i ., par M. I'Abbd Braasoiir de I Bourboiu'g. o 3 22 THE DESEETS OF NOHTII AMERICA. CHAP. II. OENKHAL CONSIDERATIONS REaAllDlNO THE FOIIMER PEOPLES OF AMF.niCA. — EMPIKE OF PERU. — UI8T0UY OF MANCO CAP AC AND MAMA OELLO IIUECO. — FOUNi i.TION OF CUZCO. — EMlGltATION OF NOAIl's CHILD- REN. HISTORY OF THE FOUR BROTHERS AYAR-MANCO-TOPA, AYAU- CACHI-TOPA, AYAR-AUCA-TOPA, AND AYAR-UCHI-TOPA. — THE GIANTS OR QUINAMES. THE FOUR AGES OF THE CREATION BY THE MEXICAN AUTHORS. — ARRIVAL OF THE OLMECS. — MASSACRE OP THE GIANTS. — ARRIVaL OF THE TOLTECS. EMIGRATION OF THE FOUR IIROTHERS HALAM QUITZE, RALAM AGAR, MAHNCUTAH, AND IGI RALAM. DISPERSION OF THE ORIENTAL TRIBES OVER THE AMERICAN CONTINENT. — DESTRUCTION OF THE EMPIRE OF THE TOLTECS AND OF THAT OF THE V0TANITE3. By studying the ancient traditions, we shall be able to dispei'se, in some measure, the obscurity that surrounds the cradle of the tribes of the American deserts. We shall naturally be obliged at times to wend our way through thorny paths, with doubtful steps, for allegory and the marvellous are frequently met with on our road ; still it is useful to become acquainted with those brilUant images under which the primitive peoples envelope the events stored up in their memory, because they throw more hght on the singidarity of the genius and maimers of the Lidians. . Wlien the Spaniards discovered America they found there two perfectly constituted empires, whose origin, though wrapped in fable, deserves, nevertheless, to be briefly noticed. As the sciences are linked together by kindred ties, so there exist, in the history of the Ame- rican tribes, whatsoever be their degree of civiUsation, ,l)rgai PRIMITIVE AMERICANS. 23 crtaiii connexions wliich indicate former intercourse bc- wc'cn tlie i)0|)iilations of the south and those of the cMtre, between tlie popuhitions of the centre and those f tlie north. True it is, those communications were f an unknown nature, but that they certainly existed ,'ill be seen by the ensemble of this work. From Peni to exico, and from Mexico to the Mississippi, there was an ninterrupted chain of Indian tribes, who associated ith each other, or mutually waged war on one another. I sj)eaking of the Natchez, we shall see that the tribes hich were either enfeebled by combats, or obliged to liee from their neighbours, who were too powerful and too restless, carried off with them the recollection of ll^eir primitive constitutions, and preserved in the coun- tty of iheir adoption all the institutions that were not contrary to their new position ; and it was only when eir geographical situation, the resources, the climate if the country, and ,t thousand similar considerations, ad entirely changed theii* mode of existence, that the aditions of their ancestors became gradually effaced their memorj% and their civil, political, and religious Tganisation taking a local colouring, was nigh completing le separation between the present and the past. Yet this eparation is not as complete as it at first appears to be, for e shall see that in agriculture, in the political system of le Indians, or in their theogony, there still exist j^roofs f their intercourse with the civilized empires of Mexico nd of Peni. The natural tendency of man to believe all that appears onderful, his ignorance with regard to acting causes, e impositions of the Pagan priests, and particularly the dividual patriotism or the collective pride of races, led le majority of the people to believe themselves under c 4 : '! i!iM i! . mi a mmun 24 Till: UKSKllTS or NORTH AAIEUU'A. tlio special protect ion of Ileuven, for they fancietl their eluertaiiis to he of divine origin. For instance, the Peru- vians iniagr.uid that the sun, their tutehir divinity, had sent its cluhhvn, Manco Capaeantl Manui-Oello-IIneco, to reform tJieni. IVevious to tlie arrival of the Incas, em- perors of IVru, and scais of tlie sun, like the Emperor of China, IVru was divi.ied into several nations, either inde- ])endent, wanderingj or fixed, whose restl«':3S character and warlik* liumour caused them to be contimially at vari- an.ce witl \ one another. Totally igiu^rant of husl)andry, and of industry, knowing no nuiral law nor social tie, roaming like the aninuds of the forest, and like them subject to all the inclemency of the seasons, having no one to teach them the means of ameliorating their condition, such was the state < f the reruvians when the sun sent forth two ot its children, on the lake Titicaca, telling them "that they may go wherever they wished, and giving them an ingot of gold, w'liich he ordered them to place on the ground, and bade them stoj) w'i>en this ingot should sink into the earth." When they had reached tlie summit of the Huanancauri, ij; the valley of Cuzco, the ingot sunk into the soil with such facihty that it disappeareil in a moment. Then the son of the sun said unto his sister, who was at the same time his wife. It is in Uiis vallev that our father wishes us to dwell. We must try and draw the people to us, and aceom|)lisli all (he good that our father hath coiuinanded.* From the sanimit of the Iluauancauri Manco Capac directed his steps towards the north, and liis sister, Maina-Oello-IIueco, went towards the south ; they harangued the multitmles, exhorting them to unite ill changing their evil ways, and to receive as a gift from Heaven the counsels an I instructions that they would * GuHciJurt.-.* lie la Vogu. FOUNDATION OF CUZCO. 25 condesoeiul to give them by order of their futlier the sun. Fast'inateil hy tlieirappea ranee, and the resju'et wliieh tliose two extraordinary l)ein«;s knew how to insj>ire, the wan- (leiing tribes followed them to the valley of Cuzco, and (hi" the foimdation of a town. Ciizeo was then the ici'ntral point around whieii radiated tJie Indian popula- llions, so that it beeame the cradle of eivilisatiou in the empire founded by the eelestitd couple, Manco Capac and Uama-Oello-Hueco. These twt) chihlren of the sun est^iblished a social wnum )etween the diilerent tribes of Peru, they organised their forces, and gave a new and lofty turn to their ideas. lllanco (V.pae instructed the men in agriculture, industry, »T.y\ tlie arts ; he also gave them laws, and a most ]K'rfect pohtical system ; Mama-Oello-lIueco taught the Avomen ,^hc ait of spinning, Aveaving and dyeing, as likewise the jllomestic virtues of grace, chastity, and conjugal iidelity. This allegory concerning the arrival on a Like of this inysterious couple, with the object of civilising the Tern- vians, lecalls to our mind the Chactas's and (luckanas's liiadition (which we will hereafter mention), with regard Ito their emigrations towai'ds the south-east of North America. In fact there is scarcely one of the Indian Itribes who have j^vserved traditions of its origin, its civi- lisation or piimitive well-being, that has not the idea of |some kind of emigration. The manuscript left by Montesinos, which is to bo iound at Seville, in the convent of iSan Jose, of the order ()[' ]\lary, begins the history of the IVruvian origins at a nuicii earlii'r i)eriod than Gascilasso de la Vega. Monte- [siiu)s was a native of Ossuno, in Spjun ; he had been t.wico VlsiUtdov of IViu, and travi'lied all over the latter I'ountiy during his sojourn of lifleen years there: ho m m 1 S': m i ' ! i , Hi, Hi'' ii'* il 26 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. I l! visited Pern one century after it had been discovered, and gave himself entirely up to historical researches re- lating to the former empire of the Incas, taking note of all the traditions and songs of the Indians, uniting every- thing he heard said concerning past events, profiting by the unpubhshed manuscripts compiled under the direction | of F. Luis Lopez, bishop of Quito, studying antiquities with such zeal that none of his contemporaries equalled him in archasological science.* Montesinos endeavours to prove that it was at Peru that Solomon's fleets embarked all thc.r riches. But his opinions are so singular, and f" eccentric, that they deserve to be placed amongst the strangest views to which the origin of the American po- pulations has given rise. " Men," says the author, " had become so numerous that Armenia was not large enough to contain them, and the command which God had given Noah to people the world obhged his descendants to separate; each family then went and settled down in the coimtry that best suited it. It was even said that JSToah himself went round the world to assign to each the place where he was to take up liis abode." Ophir, one of that patriarch's descendants, fearing lest the division of land would give rise to quarrels, retired with his family unto the most distant countries. . . . He went to Peru, wliere he estabhshed himself and those who had gone with him. The number of the inhabitants rapidly increased, but they always looked upon Ophir as their chief, and the latter took care to instil into the minds of liis descendants the knowledge of the true God, MWmm !■ : * In 1846 M. Temaiix Compans published, in his American Library, tlie Memoirs of Montesinos, and it Avas in that Library tliat we had to seek out the docimients wc required. THE FOUR BROTHERS. 27 id of the natural law ; lessons wliich were preserved by radition among their children. They lived in peace for )out one hundred and sixty years, having always the par of the Lord before their eyes ; but subsequently, sputes arose about the possession of springs or of pastur- res ; each tribe then chose a chieftain to lead it to ittle, and those commanders availed themselves of the Oportunity to extend their authority. Five hundred years after tlie deluge, according to jtorical songs and ancient traditions, all this region was led with inhabitants. Some came from Chili, others the Andes, from Firm Ground^ or from the south sea, that all the coast was peopled from the Cape of St. lien a to Chili. The first who penetrated into the country came in great numbers from the direction of iPuzco. The Amantas' account says, that they were sd by four brothers, called Ayar-Manco-Topa, Ayar- ichi-Topa, Ayar-Anca-Topa, and Ayar-Uchu Topa, who \qx9. accompanied by their sisters, that were at the same (me their wives, and whose names were Mama-Cora, [ama-Huacum, Hipa-Huacum, and Pilca-Huacum,* The eldest of the four brothers ascended to the summit [f the Huanancauri mountain, and taking hold of the ling that was tied round his head, cast a stone to- wards the four cardinal points, declaring at the same bnie that by so doing he intended to take possession of he country for his brethren and himself. The three )tlier brothers were not satisfied with this arrangement, |,ud thought that their elder brother had acted thus to Require supremacy over them. The youngest, who ac- bording to tradition was at the same time the most skil- lilt M fill 2 I fV, • Sec the History of Peru, by Balboa. I ill ,■ < Hi!)'"!, lil nil I II ' m II '- 28 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. fill, resolved that no one should contend with him for the supreme authority. To effect his purpose, he shut his eldest brother up in a cave, the second was thrown into a hole, and the third fled to a distant province. The fratricide consoled the wives of his three brothers in the best way he could : he announced to them that he wished to found a town, and to be the lord of its inhabi- tants, which was the real motive that prompted his conduct, and that henceforth every one should obey and respect him as being the only son of the sun. Tlie eldest sister approved of this design, u^.d as there were in that place heaps of stones which the Indians called Coscos or Cuzcos, she advised him to make use of them to build his town with. Some writers even assert that it was from thence it derived the name of Cuzco ; others say, that tlie spot on which the town was buL , being at that time covered with rocks, whch it was necesoary to flatten ; and as " flatten " is translated into the Indian tongue by the word Cuzco, or Cosca, they thought that it was the ety- mology of the name of Cuzco. Ayar-Uchu-Topa, also called Pirhua, or Puhua Manco, thereupon assembled all his relatives, who had become very numerous, and ordered them to level the ground, to fetch stones, to construct houses, and to found a town. Wlien any dissension arose between the vassals, on ac- count of tlie arable lands, the springs, or the flocks, he caused the malcontents to appear before him, and then charged liis eldest son, whom he cherished more than tlie others, to decide the case, and make the contending parties agree. The father and son made themselves so much respected, owing to the wise counsels they gave, that the least word they uttered was considered as an inviolable law, which should be obeyed without a miir- DA. th him for tlie e, he shut his as thrown into nee. three brothers ) them that lie 1 of its inhabi- prompted his oiild obey and lie sun. TJie I there were in 3 called Coscos them to build lat it was from •s say, that the I at that time ;o flatten ; and tongue by the t was the ety- '^uhua Manco, had become he ground, to 3und a town. ^assals, on ac- the flocks, he m, and then iiore than the 3 contending hemselves so I \ s they gave, idered as an -liout a mur- THE QUINAMES, OR GIANTS. 29 ur. Ayar-Uchu-Topa was looked upon as the real 11 of the sun, even by the neighbouring tribes, who, itating his example, constructed many towns around uzco. * Tint prince adored the true God under the name of ^atici Huiracocha ; he Uved above one hundred years, iptid reigned sixty ; when he died, he was succeeded by s son, Manco-Capac. Such was the origin of the Peruvian monarchy, ac- ibrdiiig to the Indians' traditions. We shall find in '"pe ]:)rimitivc history of Central America and of Mexico, fH likewise in that of Peru, strange traditions, which agree with the accounts given by the savages of North iinerica (whic' for the most part are allegorical), and which we insert here to show the analogy that exists be- een them. When the first pioneers of civilisation appeared on the ores of the American peninsula, indigenous populations eady occupied the greater portion of the interior gions. It is not possible to say to what nation they longed, but there is reason to believe, says M. I'Abbe !e Bourbourg, that they were of various origins, and that ey difiered greatly from one another in their customs, eir habits, and particularly in their social state. The uinames, or giants, that powerful and haughty race, to honi all the traditions refer, must have been nume- ^cally the least considerable, but superior to the others strength, intelhgence, wealth, the handling of arms, d the advanced condition of the society it had founded. istory states that this race was in possession of the terior provinces of Mexico, of Guatemala, of the pla- au Aztec, and the neighbouring countries of Tabasco, it it says nothing of the origin nor the government of 30 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. the Quinames, though at the epoch of the conquest ot Yutacan by the Spaniards, a great number of well-in- formed Indians alleged tha* Cney had learned traditionally from their ancestors that their country had been peopled by nations coming from the eas^ whom God had de- livered from others by opening to them a road across the sea* Should we consider those giants and that route by sea an allegory, or a tradition of the giants of the Bible, and the Hebrews' passage through the Eed Sea? It is rather difficult to decide this point ; nevertheless it ia a curious fact, that in the Indian reminiscences of North America, the recollection of mischievous giants, or mon- strous animals, that devastated their country, is still quite fresh. The Toltecs' history is the first in the order of tlie American annals, the bases of which are admitted hy the writers, who tried to throw light on the obscure beginnings of the Mexican civihsation. The historians that existed before the conquest, such, as Netzahual- coytzui, Xuihcozatzin, son of king Huitzilihnitzin, and many others, assert that the God, Toltec Nahnac- Hachiguale-Ipalnemoani-Hhuacahua-Halticpac, that is to say, the Universal God, Creator of all things, whom all creatures obey. Lord of heaven and earth, having formed all visible things, created man's first parents, from whom all men descend, and gave them the earth for their dwelling. According to those historians, the world had four ages. The first commenced at the creation, and was named in an allegorical sense Sun of the icater.% because it ended by a imiversal deluge, in which men and creatures perished. The second age was called Sun of the earthy for in many places the soil opened, * Herrera, Historia Gen. de las Indiaa Occid. Ifi'li [CA. lie conquest ot ber of well-in- led traditionally d been peopled I God had do road across the and that route II 3 giants of the the Red Sea? evertheless it is ences of North ^iants, or moii- ty, is still quite le order of the e admitted by n the obscure The historians as Netzahual- ilihnitzin, and oltec Nahnac- oac, that is to things, whom earth, havinc parents, from the earth for ians, the world the creation, of the tcaters, in which men ^e was called 3 soil opened, ccid. PRIMITIVE HISTORY OF THE TOLTECS. 31 (he mountains crumbled, and crushed in their fall the reater part of the men that had escaped from the eluge. The giants of whom we have spoken are id to have lived at this period. The third age was amocl the Sun of the air, because a terrific wind arose. Inch threw down the trees, the edifices, and even the eks. TVie men who survived this disaster, having reeived a great number of monkeys that in all proba- hty were driven by the wind from another country, ought that the other men had been changed into those animals. It was during that epoch that the Ulmecs, or ©hnecs, anived in vessels from the east, and landed in the billy of Vera Cruz, which they found peopled with giants. ft is to them that, in all hkeUhood, shoidd be attributed ^e erection of those congeries of rough stones of prodi- j|ious size, irregularly placed one above another, without ment, so as to form perfect cyclopean walls, which are be found extending from Mexico to the Peruvian outiers, and wliich are very hke the Noraghe of rdinia. The Quinames, or giants, evidently alarmed at the pidity with which their new neighbours prospered in their lony,- subjected them to the hardest yoke; but this ate of bondage was only of short duration, for if the ants had material power on their side, the Olmecs pos- ssed more courage, cunning, and superior genius. To t rid of their oppressors, they invited the principal iefs of the Quinames to a banquet, where they soon toxicated them, and then massacred them to the last lan. Such was the origin of the Olmecs' domination Tor the table land of Huitzilapan. The Quinames race [as almost annihilated, for there only remained a few femnants of it scattered over the mountains, which were I li^ n'i I )v!< *■}■' '-■"1 mi: ?r ■i * 32 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I -M! : also destroyed by the Olmecs a few centuries later.* At a period posterior to the destruction of the Quinamciin empire, the legislator, Zamna, landed at Yucatan, and there acted a part quite similar to that which Votan had filled m Guatemala, after the foundation of Palenque, or Xibalba. lie is also looked upon as the founder of the Mexican knighthood, and it is over his grave that the celebrated city of Itzmal-ul has arisen. After the enfranchisement of the Olmecs, a man named Quetzacoatl anived in the country, whom Garcia, Tor- quemada, Sahagun, and other Spanish writers, took to be St. Thomas. It was also at that time that the third age ended, and that the fourth begun, called Sun of fire, because it was supposed that it was in this last age Dnat the world would be destroyed by fire. It is m this fourth period that the Mexican historian places the Toltecs' arrival in New Spain, that is to say, about the third century before the Christian era. Ac- cording to the Qidches' traditions, the primitive por- tion of the Nahoas, or ancestors of the Toltecs, were in a distant East, beyond immeiise seas and lands. " It was there that they multipUed in a considerable manner, and lived without civilisation. At that time they had not yet contracted the habit of leaving the place of their birtli ; they payed no tribute, and all spoke the same language. They burned neither stone nor wood : but contents 1 themselves with Ufting up their eyes to heaven, and trying to obser\'e the Creator's laws." Amongst the fami- lies and tribes that bore with least patience this Iorl' repose and immobility, those of Canubf and of Ilocab * Ixtlilxocliitl, Historia dc los Reyes de Tezcuco. f The foiincr plural for Tan or Dan, the name of a place. EMIGRATION OP TUE NAIIOAS. 33 lay be cited, for they were the first who determined to feave their country. The Nahoas sailed in seven barks )r ships, which Sahagun calls Ciiicomoztoc, or the seven [•ottos. It is a fact worthy of note, that m all ages the iumber seven was a sacred number among the American jople, from one pole to the other. It was at Panuco, [ear Tampico, that those strangers disembarked ; they 3tabUshed themselves at Paxil, with the Votanites' con- 5nt, and their state took the name of Huehue-TlopaUan. is not stated from whence they came, but merely it they came out of the regions where the sun rises. le supreme command was in the hands of a chief- whom history caUs Quetzalcohuatl, that is to say, ^rd par excellence. To his care was confided the holy ivelope, which concealed the divinity from the human se, and he alone received from it the necessary instruc )ns to guide his people's march. These kinds of divi- [ties, thus enveloped, passed for being sure tahsmans, id were looked upon with the greatest respect and jneration. They consisted generally of a bit of wood, in ^hich was inserted a little idol of green stone ; this was )vered with the skin of a serpent or of a tiger, after [hich it was rolled in numerous little bands of stuff", perein it would remain wrapped for centuries together, ich is, perhaps, the origin of the ^edicine hags mndft se of, even in the present day, by the Indians of the great jserts, and of which we shall speak in the second volume this work. [The Quiches' traditions are more explicit with regard this first emigration, which they appropriate to them- Ives, by endeavouring to prove their origin to be the same that of the Toltecs', from whom they derived their aUsation and their laws. Like the Peruvians, they pi: VOL. I. I ii ! li 84 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. had four brollicra, called Balain-Quitze, or the mveet smilimj t'njer ; Bahmi-Agab, the nhjhl ti<}er ; Mahiientah, a uaine which bears a resemblance to that of the savage chieftains of the North, and which signifies the titjer of the moon ; and Igi-13alam, 'A'^^c with his brothers formed the Quitches' fust legislators. These four symbolical names invariably appear at the head of all the tribes of Central America, from the remotest period until their definitive estabhshment in the Quiche mountains. When they were about to emigrate, one tribe alone listened to their advice, and left with them, but soon afterwards others followed their example ; an irresistible power seeming to draw them on to each other's lands. Unhappily those first peregrinations are, like the ])receding ones, enveloped in profound mystery. There is here another hiatus in his- tory, that includes a lapse of time, the length of which it would be impossible to calcidate, for it has but these simple words to fill it up : " And the places where Balam-Quitze, Balam-Agab, Mahuentah, and Igi-Balaiii. with the houses of Tanub and of Ilocab went to, were called Tulan, Zuy^va, Wucub-Pek, * (the Seven Grottos), Wucub-Ciwan (the Seven Ravines) ; such is the name of the spot where they received gods." . . . And when they reached Tulan, Zuywa, Wucub-Pek, Wucub-Ciwan, they had, according to ai^ient traditions, taken a great journey to arrive there. It is difficult to say where Tidan is to be found, that mysterious land, which has remained engraved in tlie memory of all the nations of North America ; that cradle of science and wisdom where those same nations imbibed, with the elements of a polished life, the art of governing * Being the same thing as the Mexicans' Cliicomoztoc or Cicomoztoc. ther gion [days [the foun EMIGRATION OF THE NA1I0AS. 35 tlicraselves, and received with tlie symboln of their reli- gion, the organisation of their worship. " Four persons," Lays the Cakchiquel mannscript, ' went out of Tulan on Jthe side where the snn rises, and a Tuhui is there to be fe)nnd ; there is another in Xibalba * ; another exists also ivliere tlie snn sets, and it is thence we are comef; and in the places where the sun sets there is again another, iN'liere God dwells. Therefore, there are four Tulans ; it was from tlie ])laces wliere the sun sets that we (Mirne .p> Tulan, from the other side of the sea, and it was at ill is Tulan that we were begotten by our fathers and Baothers." 4' This passage proves that there was a region called •Opulan, in the east, situated on the other side of the sea ; but in what part of the world should it be placed ? This question has not yet been solved. It was this region that ^ecame for tlie emigrants a second cradle after their )ng peregrination on leaving their primitive country, was from thence that the subsequent emigrants directed leir steps at different intervals towards North America. Lt Tulan also took place the discovery of their gods, the rst of whom was Tohil, that is to say, the sun ; it was levnse at Tulan that they acquired science and wisdom so prompt a manner. This passage, taken in a figura- ive sense, signifies that in this town they discovered the [ghts of rehgion and of civilisation. The Cakchiquel manuscript refers to a war in Tulan- lywa, at the end of which the tribes were obhged to oc or Cicomoztoc I ♦ Doubtless the Tulan of Ococingo, situated at two days' joumey Dm Palenque. t Apparently the one of the Valley of Anahuac, forty miles from lexico ; or the one that has been recently discovered in Upper Cali- rnia. n b 2 86 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. inill quit tlieir new country. " Let us fly, my children," said the futliers and mothers, " you are slaves, you bear the biu'deu of all tlie labours and hardships." Then address- ing the chiefs of the lances they added, " You will be- hold with us other mountainn and other valleys. Beyond the other side of the sea you have another country, oh my children ! and there you can hold up your heads." Thus did they speak to the thirteen divisions of the seven towns, to the thirteen divisions of warriors." So they tore themselves from thence and abandoned the east. Tyranny and the wish to shake off an insui)portHble yoke were the motives for their leaving the oriental Tulan. It is not known what route those tribes took at their departure, nor the period of their Noyage, but they do not seem to have remained long united in their marcli. Fatigue, the roughness of the road, and privations of all kinds, often obliged them to separate. They amved one after another at the sea-shore, where they appear to have still roamed about for a considerable time in doubt and uncertainty.* Their crossing the sea is very obscure ; one would say that they had foimd a line of rocks or icebergs, which facilitated their passage. The joy they might have felt at seeing land could not long liold out against the misery and hardships which awaited them on that new soil, for they were perished with cold, and in utter darkness, deprived of food, without knowing whither to diiect their :teps. The strange pages of this manuscript frequently speak of the great obscurity and the con- tinual night in which they remained, not only during tlie passage, but for some time after they hail seen the coast. Shoidd we draw the conclusion, that having left Tulau * llistoiru du8 Nations civiliseee. EMIGRATION OP THE NAIIOAS. 37 cliildren," said you bear the Then address- ' You will be- lleys. Bc^yond icr countiy, oh p yoiu* heads." ns of the seven 01*8." So they (med the east. l)portable yoke iital Tulan. (S took at their e, but they do m their march, ►rivations of all ley aiTived one appear to have ; in doubt and ; one would s or icebergs, they might old out against them on that il, and in utter ing whither to his manuscript and the con- nly during the seen the coast ing left Tulau jal tr.o approoc'li of winter they directed tlieir course to- [wards the northern latitudes, from whence they would have landed in America before the sun had returned. After long expectation, mingled with anguish and lope, they at last beheld the morning star ; whereupon hey immediately luicovered the incense which had ^een brought from the East. That brought by Balam- hiitze was called the incense of MLxtan ; Balam- .gab's was named the incense of Cawitzan ; and the le brought by Mahucutah was considered the divine lcen.se. Now these three alone had incense, which they mt while they advanced towards the East, and they »pt for joy, dancing and burning their precious incense, is sui'prising that the text does not speak of Igi-Balam. isides, does not this incense broaght from MexUin and |Jawitk,im put one in mind of some of the Persian pro- duces ? and JG ii not likely that the divine incense came fom Arabia? And. again, do not those three personages, lis incense and that star, seem to bear testimony of vague tradition of the Jews and Christians with regard the Magi kings? Shortly after the tribes separated, ^r the misery which in those days resulted from le reunion of a great number of families in one )int, beneath an austere cUmate, forced them j» dis- jrse. At that time their sole raiment was made of imals' hides, for they had not yet discovered the means clothe themselves in good stuffs. Their simple and rd life was in some measure similar to that of the bal savages of America. After this separation many tions began to be founded, and the tribes w^ere scat- fed over the American continent, thus forming different pieties. [When the Nahoas had recognised the land they had 9 S m I i ill i !.I ■ ill ^n tv :18 TIIK hKNKUTM OK NOHTII AMICItlC.V. i Imhm) H(Minin|j; rh>in llir iii^<; hill giU'inoiits. luul W'iiW loii^ iM^Mi'dw. Tlirir puwrr liuviufj; nouii luToinr viM'v rnnnid»il>l«« in lli-.ir wlMtr ul' llnt'lnH'-llopiilltm, tlirv iuid ri\*roi\ unil roinpolird llio NmIioms to (jiiit llirii* conntry. A poi'- lion «>r llir tn^Miivr.H roll npon Vnciiltin, und |inl nn ond It) llir /Mtnnu dyiuiNly ; tlir olIiri'M t'niif.MMh'd lo tlio mIioivm of tlir riH'iru' Ocrtni, At M Itiirr |M*riod tiu^y iiNrtMidnl lowmds llu< noi'lli wrsi, und lonndtMl Ninri'MJ kinf^'doinn in llio n( iUmv tliiit llu* lii'Mt Innnnn snciiru'itN look plMco alMuit luc tM'ntMri(y tlio iniMn>tions «>: WMndtM'iiif^ IrilioM lirlon^dn^ to tlh' nriglilionrhood, look into llioir piiy lln* mmmi^o (rihr ol' tln« MixrolmuH. Mow rvci', llulni!i , \\v[v of Niilmull oitf.'^in, to lirip thcni ii^uin.st tluMc nwn Moldii'iH. 'riu'S(* Irihos sprnid tlirn»srlv«>M I'l'oin 'Vvo\[- linju'iin ovrr nil Mrxiro. Tlioir invHsion luMiod Trom ilu m'cond to tlio nixlh tM'f.tury ♦ I' otn' rm. Mcxritlniutl \va> tlirir most crlolnalvd wunior ; it wun iir tluit inviMlml i;ll lli«< liililo Innd ol' llir Aniiiiiniu', intd iIumo I'onndvd im rinpiiH' lliiit lnHi«>d nl>ov<' Tonr ornlnrics. Tin* only town TOI.TKC ICMIMUK. m iiiiit (ilVonnl liiin rivsiHlunn* wiw Ciiillnluiiik ; il was I'ViMi ilhlu'M iVoiu Ins vulour, owinf? (o llu' Nwniups l»v wliit-li is Hunoumlpil uihI iriuliMi'il iiu|»i*<%Mnil>l(\ AHvi !>«'- ir^inj^ lliis Htroiij^lmld lur •» roii^idrruMtt h'njrlli oC linus if WHS ohiiginl («» willuliuw. I lis \yu\y\ NojtMiru in (ho IDiil.'^l <»r ntslioM, wliicii ^m'uw in iilunulanro loiuid llio wn, (*ini!»' rni« '0 ul' tin* 'l\>ltVH'rt iMHMnui' highly IhaniMhing nnih^' tho n ul' (\n»('all t^U'tv.ah'uhnatl, a ('ulhnm-an prini'o, who wH'luul a n«nv rdi^ion, ManrliiUiing' anrit'nlar «H»nl«wion I tlu' rolihavy nf tho j»ii»«M|H. Ilo piosmluMl all kinds wnrlnrt' and hnnuin Mnvrillros. 'rrl/,alli|HK'a pnl him- r at th»' la'ad of tho dissnli.llan, (ho I'osidtMU'o ot'(\;i«ai \\o hinisrirhad ostahlishrd, and retired to (lio* lla, that had Iummi const rncliMl by his Inllowcis. l*Voui MHH' he went to Yncatan. 'rrl/allipoca, his I'orttniato lot \al, all(*i' a lon^i; rci^n occana' ni his 1 1 nin the victim of po| Ml lai- «l iscontcnt, an< I tell ni a oat lie that was ^ivielw<«en the lollowi'i'M «i|' C)nel/.alcul)nall and 'rel/allipoca, snnk Iteiu-alh tin* blow »>!' a new invasion t»4 I M< ii 40 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. made by the Nahoas, who came from the north ; the most numerous among them were tlie Aztecs, the Tepa- necs, and the Chichimecs. It was about the same epocli that the empire of the Votanites, equally enfeebled from divers intestine wars, seems to have wasted away in Guatemala. Towards the middle of the eleventh cen- tury the southern regions were invaded by di. ers tribes of Toltecean origin, such as the Nahuatles, the Quiches, and the Cakchiquels. From that < ' ne till the arrival of the Spaniards, all those countries were successively ravaged by continual revolutions, which greatly facihtated the conquest and domination of the new victors. !i;! 41 CHAP. m. erica known before christopher columbus. dialogue between iidas and silenus. — hanno. — the testimony of diodorus of sicily. -Plato's Atlantic. — citation from seneca. — discoveries made by ie carthaginians jewish emigrations. — analogies between the >ians and the hebrews. — the canaanites. — asiatic emigrations. •p- indian, mexican, and peruvian trimuti. — irish emigrations. Iceland. — naddod. — Scandinavian emigrations. — Finland dis- )VERED BY LEIF. — HUITRAMANNALAND. — THE NATIVES* TRADITIONS.— llSTORY OF BIOERN. — END OF THE SCANDINAVIAN-AMERICAN COLONIES. have treated at considerable length on all that relates |the ancient history of the people of America so as to )ve that numerous emigrations took place, from the thest points of our hemisphere at very remote periods, lOugh a thick veil envelops the origin, the date and nature of those emigrations, which were anterior to historical epoch. As we advance towards the dawn [modem times, this veil becomes more transparent, is at last completely rent in the ninth century. continuing the narrative of those great movements of ies or tribes, we shaU easily succeed in proving our rtion that the population of the New World, such was at the time of the conquest, did not proceed from stock only, but from the contingent of many nations, ig from Europe, from Asia, and from Africa. In con- lence of the absence of documents that would enable us 'ji I p:1 a f fi ® !« I,ii I). I I 42 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I i ! to liiik tlie primitive history of America with that of tlie Old World, we should not reject the diiTerent systems adopted by distinguished writers with a view of giving the Indians a common origin. So far from it, we on the contrary consider each of these systems as the link of| a chain broken by time ; but by dint of labour, re- i searches, and combinations, we shall finish by reuniting all ! those links, by becoming evidently acquainted with the events that occurred previous to the foundation of thu great Mexican and Peruvian empi:3s, and may thereby gradually succeed in filUng up the deficiency which exists in the history of the human race, and wliich separatos the two contuients by a still deeper abyss than that of the ocean. There is now no doubt of the fact that America was not only supposed to exist, but was actually known befuie Christopher Columbus, and even from the most remote antiquity. Theopompus, a learned historian and cele- brated orator, who hved in the days of Alexander the Great, relates, in his book entitled Thaumasia, a dialogue that took place between Midas, the Phrygian, and SileniLs This book was lost, but Strabo speaks of it ; and Alianus, who Hved about the year 200 of the Christian era. gives part of the dialogue, of which the following is the substance.* After a long conversation, Silenus said to Midas that Europe, Asia, and Africa are only islands surrounded by seas, but that there was a continent be yond those seas, the dimensions of which were immense, even without limit, and so fertile was it that animals (jt prodigious size were to be seen there, as likewise \w\\ whose stature was double that of ordinary men, and Avho attained an extreme old age. He added that a grwit • vEIian, Variar. Ilistoriar. lib. iii. chap. 8. f m PIIENICIAN EXCURSIONS. 4S lany large towns were to be found in that continent, 10 of which contained above a iniiUon of inhabitants, iving different laws and customs from those of the jople of Asia, Africa, and Europe ; and finally, that gold id silver were very common on all the smface of that st country. iHanno, who hved before the foundation of Eome, per- |ps eight hundred years before Christ, made a voyage ^ond the Pillars of Hercules, visited the African 3t, and traversed tlie ocean thirty days, keeping west. This intrepid officer wrote an account of voyages, in a book entitled Periplus, which was ited in Greek in 1533 : we have not been able to in this book, but the authors ho cite it draw the elusion that Hanno must have visited America or some le West India islands. Diodorus of Sicily affiims that le Phenicians were cast on the shores of an exceedingly tile island, situated opposite Africa. " With regard to fact," says he, " the Phenicians keep the most profound nee, fearing that tlie neighbouring nations would reap tlie benefit from this discovery, which they wished to ?p entirely for themselves. Homer and Horace also jak of islands situated to the west of Europe and rica. They were called Atlanddes, and supposed to be a distance of ten thousand stadia from Africa. It is ;re that the poet places the Elysian Fields. By these itions one might be inchned to think, and with some 5on, that there formerly existed a great number of islands the Atlantic Ocean which subsequently disappeared ; [t Diodorus of Sicily is still more exphcit, and gives us ^arly to understand that he speaks of a real continent, he adds : " After having left the islands situated be- id the Pillars of Hercules, we shall speak of those li: 5 1 44 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. tliat are much farther off in the Ocean. To tlie . west \ of Africa, and many days' sail from it, a far way from i Libya, there is an immense island in the midst of the sen. Its shores are indented by countless navigable rivers, it< fields are well cultivated and dotted with dehcious gar- 1 dens, and with plants and trees of all sorts." Finally, lie i describes it as being the most beautiful countiy known, with inhabitants who Hve in spacious dweUings, amid every kind of abundance ; in short, the recital madi by Diodorus coiTesponds exactly with that of the first Sj^aniards who landed at Mexico. Plato's testimony, given 400 years before the Clui? tian era, has perhaps still more weight, and deservij quotation. "In those first days (of its discovery) tlie Atlantic was a very wide island, wherein dwelt miglity kings, who united their forces to conquer Asia and Europe, the result of which was a disastrous war, in which the Athenians joined*, with the consent of tin Greeks, and were victorious ; but the Atlantic island wa? suddenly destroyed by a deluge and an earthquake, am that warhke people thus perished in the floods." lie also says in another place, " There existed an island at the mouth of the sea beyond the straits, called the Pil- lars of Hercules ; this island was larger and wider than Libya and Asia, fi'om thence there was an easy passa<:i unto the other islands, and from the latter unto the conti- nent beyond those regions. Neptune settled in this great island ; he named it Atlantic, after his son, Atlas, aiu! divided it among his ten sons. The portion that belli the youngest was the extremity, called Gadir, whicli signifies fertile, or abounding in sheep. Neptune's de • Dovi})tlcs8 their ancestors. '; i , CARTHAGINIAN EMIGRATIONS. 45 fore the Cliri!;- :, and deserve! discovery) tlie I dwelt miglity iquer Asia am! istrous war, in consent of tlit intic island wa? arthquake, and e floods." Ui id an island at called the Pi!- md wider tlian m easy passagi unto the conti- ed in this great on, Atlas, aiul rtion that betel Gadir, which Neptune's tie- }ndants reigned in that place from father to son, ac- j)rding to the order of primogeniture during many enerations." Aldiough this narrative be mingled with fables, we )uld not reject it altogether, for it proves to us that the icients had really knowledge of vast continents situated 1^ the west of Europe and Africa. I Seneca thus finishes the second act of Medea : 1 •' In some few centuries the ocean will unloose The chains of nature, offering to man's gaze Vast continents surrounded by the seas ; Another Thetis* that New World shall find. No more shall Thule be earth's utmost boimds." Aristotle, or the author who has written the book iB(Sfcributcd to him, also speaks of an island placed beyond Straits of Gibraltar, and the most striking feature is, he does not affinn what he states, but alludes to it as meral rumour, an accredited opinion among his con- n^oraries. Here is the passage : — " It is said that the thaginians have discovered beyond the Pillars of rcules a very fertile island, but which is without in- )itants, yet full of forests, of navigable rivers, and funding in fruit. It is situated many days' voyage the main land. Some of the Carthaginians, charmed the fertility of that coimtry, conceived the idea of ting married, and of then going and establishing them- [es there ; but it is said that the Carthaginian govern- it forbids any one to attempt to colonise the island ler penalty of death, for in case it were to become rerfiil, it might deprive the mother country of her Some editions have Ti/ph's instead of 7VtItis, which lias almost \nie meaning, Typhis being the pilot of the Argonauts. : ! § THE DESERl'S OF NORTH AMERICA. possessions ther'j." In a passage of Plutarch, quoted by M. de Humboldt *, mention is made in perfectly clear | and preciyo terms of a great transatlantic continent, and j of a mysterious stranger who came from that distant I countiy to Carthage, where he lived for many years, two j or three centuries before the Christian era. Accordini.' to Cabrera, the first Carthaginian emigration to Ameri(;i took place during the first Punic war. We shall nut speak about the kingdom of Amahnamecan, which tlio same autlior mf^ntions as having been founded m the New Wori'^ by tiie Carthaginians, for that subject would lead us to ; .r. M. i . ibbe ■ Bourbourg in his work on the Civilised Nations of Mexico and Central America, says, that crowd? of foreigners. Frenchmen, Belgians, Germans, and English men, were as much surj^rised as himself to find in certain GuatemaUan villages the Arabian costume of the men. and the Jewish one of the women of Palin, and of tin borders of the Lake Amatillan, as perfect and as gorgcou; as those in Horace Vemet's paintings. This statenieni induces us to say a few words relative to the origin ut the American races attributed to the old kingdom of Israel, that is to say, to the tribes conquered by Salmane ser, and led captive from Samaria, whilst the tribes of Judah, of Benjamin, and half that of Manasseh still ro mained in the kingdom of Judea and in the town; situated on the opposite banks of the Jordan. The learned Kabbin, Manasses Ben Israel, wrote a celebrated work entitled " The Hope of Israel," (pubhsluxi at Amsterdam in the year 1650.) He was the first writer • HumboWt, Examen Critique de la G Ye-Meschica, Ho-Meschica, Va-Mesciiica are frequently repeated. M. Adair perceives in the first syllable of tlus three words the name of Jehovah, and that of Messi;ili, wliich is repeated tln-ee times after. In otlier hymns, yi hear the word aylo, that corresponds with the Ilebie CANAANITES' EMIGRATIONS. 49 dders her as liij mara positively ractised among an analogy be- ir purifications, ler of prayini:, and froin cci- considered im t in general tlu IS of their own g in all the: are frequently yllable of tlicji at of Mey^iali, lier hpnns, yc th the Hebrew I ord El (God) hiwah hydihyra, the immortal soul ; d schiluhya, ,schUuke, schiluhva, resembling the wc^rd haleacK or schiloth, messenger or pacificator. But as wo e not acquainted with the Hebrew language, we leave Mr. Adair all the responsibility of what he advances. The same author adds, that he once heard Indians apply $e Ibllovving expression to a culprit, " Tschi kaksit canaha-, " lou art hke unto a Canaanite sinner. Unfortunately, the writers who have treated this subject m not agree eitlier with regard to the epoch of the emigration, or the route taken by the Hebrews : some make them come directly across the ocean, and land oat different coasts of America, in tlie regions of the trade -wtods and of the submarine currents ; but the majority of these writers think that the Hebrews traversed Persia illd China, and thus arrived in the New World by Bfehring's Straits. One author considers the Canaanites as having been of the first people, wlio, quitting Mauritania Tin- na, sailed to the Gulf of Mexico, and took possession the sea-coast. This idea corroborates the belief of se who ftmcy that the Canary Islands were peopled h Canaanites. Ancient history mentions three distinct turitanias : the Mauritania Tingitana, the Mauritania ariensis, and the Mauritania Sitifensis. The first, ch constitutes the kingdom of Morocco, was called gitana, from Tangis, its capital ; this name afterwards ed into that of Tanja, and was finally changed into word Tangiers, according to M. F. Hawks, translator the Peruvian Antiquities. It would be then from Tangiers tliat the Canaanites embarked, after having n expelled by Joshua; and if we remember the ription found in that town, and wliich we cited in '\ TTi roi... I. K !||!l 50 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. speaking of Votan's travels, we shall see that there iniut have been at a very remote period, some embarkutions of Asiatic emigrants in that })ort. But it is not only to ancient times that we can trace emigrations to America, from the begiiming of the Chris- tian era till Christo})her Columbus's discovery; it may be affirmed that the intercourse between the Old and tlu; New World was never completely iiiterrujited. Before we speak of tlie authentic documents which certify this fact, we shall record here the opinion of many savants who believe that the god Toltec Quetzacoatl is the same person as the apostle St. Thomas, because the surname Didynuis (twin) given to the apostle, has the same signi- fication as the Mexican word Quetzacoatl.* Althougji this opinion appears to be rather hazardous, yet one can- not help being astonished at the extent of the regions traversed by St. Thomas ; it is true th.at some writers do not allow of I lis havmg gone beyond Calamita, a town m India, the site of which is doubtful ; but others assert that he wont as far as Meliapour, on the side of the Coromandel, and even unto Central America. According to Sandoval, a succession of emigrations came from Ceylon, and from tlie south of Lidia, to America, many centuries before Christopher Columbus. Marco Polo and John Banking certify that Manco-Copao, the fii'st Inca of Peru, was tlie son of the great KubUii Khan, and Montezuma, the gnuidson of Askam, a noble mogul from Tangut ; and the celebrated M. de Humboldt is of opinion that the Toltecs derive their origin from the Huns. But the hypothesis which sm'passes in importance all those we have enumerated, is that of M. de Guignes, * Wc leave all the resiwnsibility of tbis Bimilitudu to its aatlior. ASIATIC EMIORATIONS. 51 3amc sigiii- [3t one can- s aatiior. who, relying on the Cliinese chronicles, attributes the Peruvian civilisation to emigrations proceeding from the Celestial Eifioire and from the East Lidies. Recent inveistigations seem to confirm this opinion. In the year 1844 M. Paravey proved that the provmcc of Fu-sang, described in the Chinese annals, is nothing less than Mexico, wliich, according to the same annals, was known as early f.s the fifth century of our era. Caned figures representing Boudlia of Java, seated on a Siva's [head, were fomd at Uxmal, in Yucatan; this discovery, idded to that of the Asiatic statues and shells, of diich we shall speak in the chapter that treats of Anti- 'quities, gives M. Paravey's statement unexceptionable weight. In the same way that the Icelandic documents are of great value in verifying the arrivjl of ihe Scandinavians on the coasts of the new continent, in like manner the Chinese chronicles, preserved in the work entitled Pran y tien, are of equal value in proving the communications that v/ere interchanged between Asia and America by means of the Pacific Ocean. History informs us that a long struggle, which had aidsen between the two religious sects of the Brahmins and the Buddists, was put an end to by Chamons of Thibet emigrating to Mogoly, China, and Japan. If this Tartaric race crossed to the north-western shores of America, and afterwards spread over the banks of the Gila and of the Mis- souri, as Vater's etymological researches would prove, it is by no mear astonishing to find amongst the semi- barbarous nations of the New World, idols, monuments, and hierog ^Dhical writings, the knowledge of the length of the year, and traditions concerning the origin of the world, all of which recall to one's mind the arts and tJie K 2 m '.J Hit t;' w It i!l''i-fl f « M 52 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. !i: ! i H-: religious systems of the ancient people.* Li support of the assertion with regard to the Asiatic emigrations, wc can cite Dr. J. G. Muller's able workf, which shows a striking analogy betweeen the Budda and Brahma religion and that of the Mexicans. Among the oriental Indians, Brahma (the divinity in general) was represented by the Trimurti (which corresponds in some degree with the Christian Trinity), or God inider three ft)rms, viz. Bramah., Vischmi, and Siva. In like manner the Mexicans adore the Supreme Being under the triple form of IIo, Ilmtzilopochttiy and Tlaloi\ which represents the Mexican Trimurti. The attributes of the goddess Mictanihuoatl are perfectly analogous to those of the im- placable and sanguinary Kali. Also the legends con- cerning the Mexican divinity Teayamiqni^ resemble those of Bh.'ivani, who, as well as Kali, was the wife of Siva Budra. Leaving out of view the Peruvian Trimurti, Con, PachacamaCy and lluiracocha, as also the striking likeness that exists between the Asiatic idols and those of Ame- rica, and several other points of analogy to be found in the different religions, we must admit that the worship ol Fo in China, of Budda in Ja]^an, of Quetzacoatl in Mexico, of MancO'Copac in Peru, like the Lamaism at Thibet and the Dschakdschianuim doctrine of the Mogols and Calmouks, are all only branches of the same trunk, the roots of which were in Asia. But none of these conjectures are equivalent to the historical ])roors which the Scandinavians have preserved of their migrations to Greenland and to otluT parts of the American continent. The Icelandic and Celtibeiic inscriptions found on rocks, on stones, and in tombs, in * Sro IIiinilKiIdt, ISIonuiiK'nt.s Aiin'ricains. f Del- Aroxicjiniwlu' Njituiiiiilfrot ]Iiiit/.il(>|Kiclit1i. SCANDINAVIAN EMIGRATIONS. 53 tlie northern and eastern .states of the American Union, confirm tlie assertions of the Danisli archtuologists and writers.* At first tliese insci-i[)tions were confounded with tlie pictographical monuments that the Indians are in the liabit of erecting when they wisli to ])erpetuate tlic reci)llection of their deeds ; but on more serious exami- nation the (hfierence was jierceived, and the arclueologists acknowledged their mistake. Other liistorical data would also lead us to believe that in the Middle Ages Biscayans, and even Venetians, had knoAVii America before Christo- pher Culumbus.f All those navigators nuist have so- joiu'ned there, more or less, to procure fresh provisions or to rejiair damages ; and doubtless a great number of them did not return, either on account of the bad state of their vessels, or because they were charmed with the beauty and fertility of the country. In speaking of the Indian antiquities, we shall see that the ancient people of tlie new continent were more civilised than the Indians of those days, and this assertion pei-fectly agrees with their traditions, which say that at a very remote period their ancestors were more [K)werful, more learned, and more wealthy than the })resent })Oj)ulations. To follow the chronological order of events, we shall first sjieak of the emigrations of the Ires, or tribes from Ireland, who emigrated to Iceland and to America at rather uncertain e|)(K;hs. "The o])ini()n of some savants, riiniilijir vith the antiquities of the New World, Ih that itj in the most ancient documents of Iceland (aa * Sep nliK>, lU'skii filing om clo Swcnska forsani liiigarn fima och ncrwaiciidi' (iK.taml iiti nya wwcrige wdaii ny(' Nt'iItTlaiul ; in 4to., Stockliolni, I7r)!>. t .SI. CJiTgory, in Iiin cununcnl (..i tin.' Epinfli- «.f St. CU'iiK-nf, umiTw MS lliut In-yuml llii' ua'aii (Iktc is andthcr wmld. J(3 •ii S^tiii 1 j; tij li y 54 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. may be seen in the manuscripts) the first inhabitants of that island are called men come by sea from the west, we must consequently conclude that Iceland was not peopled by colonies coming directly from Europe, but by Ires, who at an early period had i)een Iransplonted, and who returned from Virginia and from Caroliiiti, fcliut is to S4iy, by men wlio, after having inhabited Crveat Ireland^ the part of America named the country of the white men, came to settle at Papyli on the ,*,.>\ith- eastern roast of Iceland and in the little isle of Papar, in the neiglibour- hood of this coant." * As to the voyages ol the Lish to Iceland, we will here cite a most importont passage of the manuscript, I)e 'nieni3V,ra orbis terra-, written in 825 by Dicuil or Dicluillus, Abbot of Piihlacht in Ireland, After having H}>okcn of the island of Thule, he gives concerning it the following detiiils which were coni- muni(;ated to him by clerks (clerici): " It is just now thirty years ago since the clerks who had lived in that island, from the calends of Febiiiary to those of August, related to me, that not only during the time of the sinnmer solstice, but even for some diiys before and after it, the sun disa)>pear8 for a short period, and seems to hide hinindf behind a hill, so that even during tliis short absence you are not de])rived of day- light, but can see clear enough to imdertake all kinds of occuj)ations : .... it is probable that if you were on the sununit of a high mountain, you would not see the setting of the sun Besides, those who have written that this island was surrounded by a sea of ice, have evidently de\ iated from truth, as likewise those who jiretended that from the vernal ecjuinox to the autumnal you enjoy * Iluinbuldf, CoHintw, vol. i. IRISH EMIGRATIONS. 55 imintcmiptcdly the liglit of the sun; and vice versi), that you were deprived of it until the vernal equuiox of the following year ; for, the aforesaid clerks, who had rowed towards this island in frosty weather, were able to land on its shores ; and while Uving tliere, tliey continually saw the alternation of day and night. It is true that at a distance of one day's navigation north- ward of this island, thc;y found the sea frozen." "There arc a great many other islands * hi the ocean to tlie north of Brittany ; the ships going under full sail, and wafted l)y a favourable wind, take two days and two nights to go thither from tlie northern islands of Brittany. An ecclesiastic, well worthy of credence, told me that after having sailed, during the sunnner, for two days and one night, in a little ship with a double range of oars, he landed in one of those islands. The greater number of them are small ; nhiK^st all separated from each other by very confined sti . its : t/iei/ were inhabited, about a hundred years axjo, by hermits who came out of our Scotia. f But they are as if they had been deserted since the beginning of the world ; thus they are abandoned by the anachorets, on account of the roaming of the Normans^ but are filled witli innumerable multitudes of liunbs and of divers kinds of sea fowl : we have not found those islands mentioned by any author." M. Letronnc, t^e commentator of Dicuil, relying ui)on these two jKiragraphs, ingeniously proves that the Irish anchor? ts having been driven fnmi the Feroe Islands by the ISormans, began to visit Iceland hi the * TIjc Feroe IslanJa. f Tn flic midilK' agi-s tin; words Ilibcniia mid So()tiii wore applii'd Us liclaiiil iiKlillerently ; if wa« only nboiifc tlic ivigri of Malcolm II. llial Scotland began to bear tlu' lutltT nnnu', R 4 I 1,1. Mi>n : * M i' ! iit ^ '■' 56 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. ;:« t i\\\ •:(! i! !/. second liulf of the eighth century, and that ihoy jn'od there, either in Irish lishery estabhshments, or in mo- nasteries founded by pious hermits, who were f^ag 'i lo surpass virtue even the holy monks of die Thubaid. In the prologue of the Liindnamabok, or book of the origms of Iceland, pruited in Icelandic and in Latin, it is sidd : " Before Iceland was inhabited by Norwegians^ men wore to be found there whom the Norwegians called Papas (or Papaz, fathers) ; they professed the Christiati religion, and were said to liave come by sea from the west; for they left Irish books, bells, and other objects, which were found after them, and which seem to indicate that these men were from tlie west. AU those objects were found in the districts of Papeya and Papyli on the eastern coast. Even in the present day there are English books to prove that expeditions towards those latitudes were heretofore very frequent.* Thus according to the historical documents of Icel.ind, an Icelandic district had been already inhabited, before the arrival of the Scandinavians, by Irishmen who not only visited it, but had actually sojourned there, Now if, as we may conjecture from the testimony of this writer, the things foinid in Iceland belonged to the Irish anachorets who came thither ^'"om the Feroi! Islands, we naturally inquire \vliy the ; as), friars, were called, according to the tradition of tlie countiy, Vestnienn (men from the west), or Konmiir til vestaninn haf (come from the west by sea P) Evidently they were navigators fi'oni Huitramannaland, whose ancestors, at an unknown period, liatl colonised the eastern shores of the New "World. In the latter part of this chapter we shall prove that this assertion is not a mere conjecture, but a positive fact, * Liiiidnnmaltok sivo dc Orig. Inland. Ill), in iJioldg. U i1 NAI>rOi . EXPEDITIONS. 57 • •'.i,-»od upon authentic traditions, and admitted as aiitbontic in the domains of historj' In the second part of the ninth centun/, probably in 860, the pirate Naddod was the first Scandinavian who landed in Iceland, driven there by a tempest, whilst he was sailing from Norway to the Feroe Islands.* " This pirate climbed to the summit of a very lofty mountain on the eastern coast, to sec if he could discover any dwellings. As he found nothing of the kind he returned to the Feroii Islands." These details, supported by other authorities, apj>eared to Torfpeus, and to many other Danish savants, as sufficient to establish that the Feroe Islands were the pivot of Naddod's expeditions ; and they find no difficulty in designating this pirate incola Foereyarum.f in 863, a Dane named Garder was the first who made the Normans acquainted with this island ; and in 874 Ingolf, the Nor- wegian, founded the first Scandinavian establishment there. Such was the insufficiency of the resources af- forded for the wants of navigation by that isolated and forsaken corner of the earth to a noble and vigorous, but poor race, that notwithstanding the proximity of the Labrador, situated opposite Greenland, 125 years passed between the foundation of the only Norman esta- blishment in Iceland, and the great discovery of America l)y Leif The colonists belonging, for the greater part, to the most distinguished and enlightened families of the north, established a flourishing republic in Iceland. The situa- tion of the island, and the intercourse that the young colony kept up, during its early peiiod, with foreign nations, nnist eventually have led it to develop the art of navi- * Codex Flatcyensia, Op. Torfeiiin in Ilis. Norv. t TorfiiMis Arngrimu8, JoaaucM rijuiajus ad lib, Orig. Irlaiul. t ■ i iifl •/l .• 58 TUB DESEttTS OF NORTH AMERICA gation, tlio knowledge of wliidi was an inlicritancc from its ancestors, and afterwards inspired it witli the desire to go and discover other countries beyond the ocean. Already, in 877, Gunbioni, the Icelandic navigator, saw for the first time the mountainous sea-board of Greenland.* According to the Scandinavian manuscripts, in which are to be found the accounts of the Normans' first voyages to America, and which, most proljably, were compiled in the twelftli century by the learned Thorlak llunoUson, author of several ancient ecclesiastical codes, it was an Icelander, and gi-andson to Torfinn Karlsefne, who com- manded the greatest expedition that sailed at that epoch towards the new hemisphere ; from these precious uianu- scripts, it would appear that in 983 the celebrated Ari Marsson of Beykjanes, belonging to the powerful Ice- landic family of Ulfe, the squint-eyed, whilst sailing southwards, was cast by the storm upon the American coast, to whicli he gave the name of Irland it Mikla^ or Great Ireland. In 080 Eric, surnamed the Ked, esta- blisho'l on those shores tlie first colony composed of Ice- landic emi;^rants. This colony was foinided on the south- west coast, in tho country where later, in 1124, was erected the bishopric of Gardar, which lasted for upwards of 300 years.f In tlie same year 980, Byarne Iler- jufson leaving Greenland, discovered the island of Nan- toucket, one degree below Boston, then Nova Scotia, and finally Newfoundland. StimiJ^'^ted by Byarne's accoimt, Leif, the eldest son of Eric the H'^d, purchased a vessel and sailed in the year 100'), w;t]> :ii^'ty-five companions, in search of new dis- coveries. Ii«>ii ai)proaclied the shores already visited by • Tiafji, Discovery f if Anu-ricn liy ':\w Nonnaiw. t iJull oi Pojrt' HicoUw v., ap. Egi.l. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 59 Byamc, and gave Newfoundlantl the name of Litla Hellu- land. He re-embarked and arrived in the countiy situ- ated between Newfoundland and Canada, and called it Mjirkland. At last he landed on an agreeable coast, where a certain German named Tyrker, who formed part of the Expedition, found great abundance of vines, which caused it to be called Viuland, (countiy of the vine, or of tlie wine) ; it is now New England. Leif had spacious houses built in that locality, and named them Leifobudii\ after himself; he then fixed his residence there for some time. In this principal establishment of the Scandinavians, the colonistfc, had often to contend with the Esquimaux, who at that time spread themselves much more towards the south than they do of late. It was in the year 1121 th::t the first bishop of Greenland, Eric-Upu, of Lish origm, undertook to go and confirm the colonists of Vinland in the doctrines of Christianity.* In 1002 Thorwald Ericson, Leif 's brother, commenced a new voyage in the same vessel, and visited the coasts already discovered by his brother ; in 1004 he penetrated near Cape Cod, where now stands the town of Boston ; he had a rencontre with the Skrellings (Esquimaux), and was struck by an lu-row under the arm, from which wound lie (lied. Thorwald was buried in a spot he hhnself had cliosen, and whicli received the name of Krossanes (the point of the cross). In the year 1 OOG Thorstein, Eric's third son, embarked for another expethtion, which was unsuccessful ; over- wliolmed ^vith sorrow, he returned to die in Greenland, without having been able to see the countries that uia brothers had visited. His widow Gudrido married Thor- fiiin Karlsefne, an Icelander, and tlie most celebrated * 'iafn, AntiquitetcH Aimricana*. I m II \ II ; 1:1 4'1' f u •r- :'i 1 1 i i. GO THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. amongst tlie first exj)lorers of America, who, according to the ancient chronicles, reckoned Danes, Swedes, Nor- wegians, Scotch, and Irish among liis ancestors, some of wliom were even of royal blood. At Gudiide's reqnest, Thorfinn resolved on making a voyage with her in the south. In 1007, with the hxA[) of Snorre Thorbrandson, he equipped a flotilla composed of three barks, with a crew of one hundred and sixty men, who carried with them all the necessary provisions to establish a colony. Then abandoning the route that had been followed Uj) to that time, he took a more southern direction, and stopped at the island called Martha's Vineyard, from thence he sailed towards the Avest, and spent two winters in the bay of the Mount of llope^ close to Seconnet, one degree and a half latitude nearer to New York. Unfortunately the friendly intercourse that existed between the Scandinavians md the Esquimaux was not of long duration ; the latter attacked the navigatoi*s with superior forces, and would 'iave comi)letely exterminated them, had it not been for the unlieard-of courage of a woman named Freydis, who rescued them from their enemies. This deplorable event induced Karlsefne to abarJon the plan he had formed to colonise the coasts, and he returned to Greenland m the beginning of the year 1011.* Up to the middle oi the fourteenth century, the infor- mation to be had concerning the progress of the Scandi- navian-American colonies, and their intercourses with Greenland and Iceland is very meagre. The colonists erected on the Eastern shore of Ballin Bay, north-west of Upeniavik, in one of the Isles of the Maidens, three • Hafn, Anti(iuitatoH Anuricana*. EARLY CHRISTIANS IN AilERICA. 61 monuments, witli Eiinic inscriptions, bearing date 1135. According to lltifn, tlie llunic stone was placed on the higlicst point of Kingiktorsoak, " on the Saturday before the triumph," tliat is to say, on tlie 2l8t of April, which was a great Pagan festival, and which was afterwards changed into a Christian one when Christianity was introduced there. One is justified in supposing, from the ninuber of monuments, inscriptions, arms, utensils of all kinds, and human bones recently discovered in the States of Ilhode Island, Massachusetts, and others, that the Nor- man emigrations have been much more considerable than what the Scandinavian manuscr'pts would lead one to believe. As early as the twelfth centurj', Greenland had suf- fragan bisliops from Hamburg. Up to 1418, the Norwe- gian colonists estal)lished on those frozen shores paid to the Iloly See 2G00 pounds weight of morses' teeth, as tithe and St. Peter's pence. In 126G, the priest? of Greenland belonging to the bishopric of Gadar, conducted an expedition of fishermen, who left Baffin Bay to fish from the straits of Ijanctister unto those of Barrow.* In T'.iorfum Karlsefne's historical account, and in the Iceland Landnainahok, the southern coasts comprised be- tween Florida and Virginia are called lluitmmannaland (country of the white men), and even Great Ireland. This statement is in perfect accordance with a tradition of the Esquimaux, which says, that in theu' neighbourhood was to be found a nation of white peojile, habited in white garments, who sang frequently, and make use of long sticks, from the top of which hinig bits of stulls. ♦ Williflmi uober iHland, Iliiitraniimnaland, Gmenlaml, und Vinland. -I A 02 TlIK DESEKTS OF iNOUTII AMERICA. This tradition can he explained from the testimony given by Ari Marsson's grandson, the celebrated Ari Frode, who certifies, " That certain Irishmen assured his uncle, that from the verbal account given by Jarl Thorfinn Sigiirdson, native of the Orkney islands, the name of Ari Miirsson was known in Huitramannaland ; one ver- sion even says he was baptized there ; that this in- trei)id navigator liad great authority in the country, but that the natives did not allow him to leave it ; and that a Catholic population inhabited the same territory. The men clothed in white, the stuffs floating fi-om the top of sticks, and the chants mentioned by tradition, exactly correspond with what we see in the present day in tlie Catholic processions. Jarl Thorlinn's narratives clearly indicate that at an epoch anterior to that of Ari Mai'sson's arrival in Huitramannaland there already existed com- munications between Ireland and tlie north-east of North America. In the same manuscripts you find another account, which changes Jarl Thorlinn's conjectures into certainty. Bioern Asbrandson, surnamed Breidikingakappi, member of the famous league of the heroes of Jomberg, and one of the bravest combatants at the battle of Tyrisvalle in Sweden, became enamoured of Thuride, sister of the mighty cliieftain Snorre Gode of Iceland, and on account of this intrigue was obhged to emigrate in the year 999. He embarked at Ilrannhofen (Sniifellsness) ; drifted by a north-east wind, the vessel was soon out of sight of land, and disappeared in the horizon. For a considerable length of tune Bioern's fate was quite unknown, and every one believed that he had perished at sea. At last, an Icelandic merchant, named Gudleif Gudlangson (bro- ther of Thorlinu, ancestor of the famous historian, Snorre ADVENTURE OP GUDLIEP. 63 Stiirlusoii), wished to return from Dublin, where he was, to Iceland his own country. The 8hi[) in which he embarked was assailed by a violent tempest coming from the north- east, which dashed it first towards the west, then towaids the south-west, and after a long and perilous voyage ho reached an unknown shore. Scarcely had Gudlief landed, when he was seized by the natives, who ciune in crowds to meet him, all speaking a language that re- sembled 7m/t. A venerable old man on horseback^ of noble and commanding appearance, preceded by a stan- dard bearer, directed the natives, and ordered them to bring Gudleif to him ; then addressing the latter in Scan- diiiavian, he asked his name, and from whence he came. On learning that his prisoner was an Icelander, the old man revealed to him that \\v was Bioern Astrandson, after which he set him at hberty, as likewise his companions, advishig them to leave so inhospitable a coimtry as soon as possible. Gudleif returned to Dublin, carrying with him a ring for Thuride, and a sword for her son, which Bioeni had given Imn for them ; and the following year he went to Iceland, where he transmitted Bioern's presents to tlieir destination. This story, written shortly after the events liad taken place, is an im[)urtant i)roof in favour of the o[)inion gene- rally admitted, that Irish colonies existed in Iluitra- niannaland, that is to say, in the Carolinas, and even, in all likehhood, as far as Florida, and that those colonies were established long before Leif had discovered the New World. The last voyage rcgisteretl in the Scandinavian his- tory is that of a vessel which sailed, in 1347, bound for Nova Scotia, to fetch from thence wood for building : tossed by a gale, it was obliged to put into Straumfjoerd, _lm,; . t "' « ■ ■ '; '11 5' 11 M IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // %" 1.0 I.I L;|2j8 |2.5 |5o ■^" M^H ■^ l&i |2.2 - li £ lit Ui Ki u i^ 1.25 1 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" ► V] % 72 /. Hiotographic Sciences Corporation ^.>^ 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-4503 fe :/. \ I G4 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. on the western coast of Iceland. The great plague that ravaged Europe about the middle of tiie fourteenth century, and which particularly depopulated the north, spread also to Greenland. Afterwards commerce with this region became the regal right of the crown of Nor- way. To all these causes of decline was finally added, in 1418, the invasion of an enemy. A fleet, probably be- longing to Prince Zichmni of Friesland, came, it is not known from whence, and destroyed all the colony by fire and sword. Finally, the account given by the brothers Zens, the authenticity of which M. Malte Brun, in his History of Geography, says is indubitable, contains most curious notions about those northern countries. It makes us acquainted with the savages of New England as far back as the fourteenth century, speaks of the more civiHsed nations towards the south-east, and afterwards of pohshed peoples, who understood the use of precious metals, and built towns and temples, wherein they offered sacrifices to theu: idols. This narrative completes thus the historical data concerning the New World, commencing in the ob- scurity of the most remote antiquity, and ending at the epoch of Christopher Columbus's discovery. C5 PAET II. ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN NATIONS. CHAP. IV. THE INDIANS ARE NOT AUTOCHTHONES. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM IN AMElUt'A. EDEN NOT THE B(UTH-PLACE OF THE WHOLE ANIMAL CREATION. THE FLOOD. SPECIES OF ANIMALS WHICH HAVE DISAPPEARED. FOSSILS. THE DIFFERENT REVOLUTIONS OF THE GLOBE. THE HUMAN RACE. THE UNITY OF RACE. ON PIFFL.IENT TYPES. BIBLICAL COSMOGONY. ANTHROPOLOGICAL CLASSfFICATION OF THE HUMAN KINGDOM. THE INDIANS OF THE NEW WORLD. From the details we have just given concerning the diffe- rent emigrations to America, which took place prior to the discovery of Christopher Columbus, it will be readily- perceived that there is no necessity for having recourse to the hypothesis of a special creation, in order to explain the origin of the great population found in the ^ew World, m the fifteenth century, by the Spaniards. If the Lidians were autochthones, we should find, both in their external conformation and in their civil organisation, something peculiar to themselves. So far, however, from this being the case, they appear, with some slight excep- tions, to have borrowed everything — their religion, their manners, their customs, and their industry — althougli in so doing they have naturally introduced such modifications as might be expected from their peculiar wants, their VOL. I. F ' 4 66 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. climate, their geographical position, and the degree of civiHsation which their different tribes have attained. Laying aside for an instant our rehgious convictions, in order to examine with more freedom the different theories and facts, we have been miable to find any plausible ob- jection against the historical veracity of the Mosaic ac- count. The most careful study concerning the origin of the Eed Skins, made on the spot, has confirmed us in the belief that there is nothing in science to contradict the Bible, which represents Adam as the sole stock whence sprung the three great races which fonn the principal types of the human family. America, it is said, is inhabited by a pecuhar people, and by animals which do not exist on the old continent, and, consequently, a partial creation of men and animals must have taken place in that country, having nothing ui common with the antediluvian cfeation spoken of in Genesis. We do not think that this argument admits of the conclusion c^^wn from it, for the presence of these animals, in countries so far removed from the spot assigned by Scripture as the birth-place of the world, is not a whit more strange than the existence of Alpine plants on the summits of the Himalaya. We must, however, confess that the actual configuration of the earth renders it some- what difficult to account for the difference existing between the animals of the two hemispheres ; but this difficulty is considerably diminished, when we bear in mind that the diluvian catastrophe has greatly changed the aspect of the globe, which is no longer what it was before the Flood. Daring the long course of ages wliicli elapsed between the creation and the deluge of Noah, the brute species had quite sufficient time to spread themselves, and pro- i;)agate in the countries best adapted to their zoological c saying Eden, coverc and tl from versal in such presen should tlie wa If E was no creatior press o reindee: of Aus been as with th( Mexico, pical an Mnimals ORIGIN OF ANIMATED BEINGS. 67 pro- )gical organisation, as they must also have done upon leaving the ark. The great communications by means of which men and animals were enabled to pass from one conti- nent to another, were, in all probability, only interrupted by the diluvian cataclysm. But admitting tliat tlie oceans are no long r what they were at the time of the creation, and that those animals, to whose propagation the American climate was the most favourable, might have travelled to the coimtries assigned to them by Providence, by passing over continents which now he buried beneath the sea — admitting all this, yet we do not think that we are advancing anything contrary to the Mosaic account in saying that God did not create all the animal species in Eden. His all-powerful word must have uistantaneously covered with plants and animals the remotest continents and the most distant islands, and have preserved them from destruction by only permitting the deluge to be uni- versal in a relative and successive manner — that is to say, in such a way that the animals which were designed to preserve the greater part of the species now existing should have time to take refuge on those heights which the waters did not reach. If Eden were the birta-place ot mankind, it certainly was not the birth-place of the whole animal and vegetable creation; for the works of God invariably bear the im- press of Divine wisdom, and to have created in Eden the reindeer of Lapland, the lama of Peru, the kangaroo of Australia, and the ostrich of the Sahara, would have been as useless as to people the coasts of Tyre and Sidon with the whale of Greenland, the tortoise of the Gulf of Mexico, and with other fishes which only live in intertro- pical and hyperborean regions. We therefore think tliat animals of every species, both of the sea and of the land. r 2 i» t' l; M ! i- I I; Bl ' ill 68 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. were placed at the moment of their creation in the regions best suited to their zoological constitution and the propa- gation of their race. When we consider the ways of Providence, we perceive that it rarely has recourse to extraordinary means for the attainment of an object whicli can be equally well brought about by means of a simple nature. It is for this reason that we seek to demonstrate, in as easy a manner as pos- sible, the existence in America of animals which are not to be found in the Old World. And, indeed, if it be ad- mitted that th^ species which are common to both conti- nents must have had the same origin, it necessarily follows that the particular species missing in one of those two continents may formerly have existed there, for the disap- pearance of races and species does not constitute a phe- nomenon more difficult of explanation than does their existence. We know that every century witnesses, if not a complete extinction, at least a diminution in the species and roots, or primitive stocks. In France, England, Ire- land, and in other countries, there are turf-pits containing the skeletons of numerous individuals which have disap- peared, and whose fonner existence is only revealed by the discovery of these vestiges belonging to a period more or less remote. America being a comparatively new country, it is not astonishing that we should find there animals which no longer exist anywhere else. If, however, these opinions should be thought too bold and far-fetched the reader may adopt that of St. Augus- tine, who considers that God may have created after the deluge new varieties of animals, in order to people those countries to which, by their nature and physical structure, they were adapted.* Or, again, it may be presumed that * D. Aug. lib. xvi. de Civ. Dei, cap. 7. CONSIDERATIONS ON TIIE FLOOD. 69 God in his wrath, wlieii decreeing the destruction of the animals He had created, made some exceptions, and that *He even spared other just famiUes, like that of Noah, from the general doom. It is true that the text of Scripture is very clear : '' And the "^ ord said, I will destroy man whom I have created from the face of the earth ; both man, and beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the air." * But this text must not be understood in liteml sense, for every man and every animal did not perish in the flood, any more than ev ery soul is necessarily saved from perdi- tion by the coming of Jesus Christ, who nevertheless came to save the whole of mankind. Is it, therefore, impossible that God may have saved from the great cataclysm, which was to destroy every living being, and to cause such per- turbations in our globe, other species of animals and other families besides those contained m Noah's ark ? There exist, both in Asia and in America, elevated plateaux which might have served as places of refuge to such as God had vouchsafed to spare. There are in science as in theo- logy many vague and indeterminate points, which man may examine without incurring the imputation of extra- vagance. It is a positive fact, recorded in history, that Noah's ark did not contain all the animals which peopled our hemi- sphere before the flood ; and it is a fact no less certain, that many species of animals were completely destroyed, either during or before the deluge, and are only to be found now in a fossil state. Fossils are an impor- tant discovery in the theory of the earth's configura- tion before the deluge ; they demonstrate in a striking mamier, the successive periods and the series of different operations which have taken place in the formation of the i: •:' . ! * Genesis. F 3 70 TUE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA J i^fijiii!^ globe, and furnish a pi'oof that the eartli's crust has not always been the same, inasmuch as the ani. Is discovered deeply embedded in its bowels must fonnerly have existed on its surface. It is also to fossils, says Cuvier *, and notwithstanding the limited extent to which they have been studied, that we are indebted for the little we know concerning the re- volutions of the globe. They show us that the layers which contain them have been genily deposited in a liquid, that they have undergone changes corresponding to those of the hquid, that they have been exposed to the air by the withdrawal of the liquid ; all of which corJd not be proved without the existence of fossils. The presence in layers of the bones of quadrupeds, and especially of their whole . bodies, shows that the layers themselves must have formerly existed in a dry state, or at least in the vicinity of diy laud ; and as those animals 'lave disappeared we may conclude with certainty, either siuit those layers have been inundated, or that the dry land has ceased to exist. It is also to these fossils that we are indebted for the confirmation of the important fact of the in oads made by the sea, — a fact we should not have learnt by the mere discovery of sea-shells and otlier marine productions, f Considered with regard to tlielr species, ninety of these animals, at least, are as yet unknown to the naturalist ; eleven or twelve bear so close a resemblance to known species, that it is hardly possible to entertain any doubt concerning tlieir identity ; while the remainder possese'. many points in common with the known species. * Discouvs snr les Revolutions de la Siirfuoe du Globe, t Il>id. FOSSIL ANIMALS. 71 Considered with reference to zoological classification, there are in the ninety unknown species nearly sixty which belong to new genera ; and out of the hundred and fifty species about a fourth part consists of oviparous quadrupeds, and tlie other three-fourths of mammalia. It would, however,, be premature to cbav/ any conclusion from these numbers, for much more money has been made by the discoveries of large species, which are more calculated to arrest the attention of workmen, than by the smaller ones, which are generally neglected, unless they happen to fall hi r.he way of a naturalist, or attract popu- lar attention, either from some peculiar circumstance or from their extreme abundance in certain locahties. Long before Noah, the Ichthyosaurus, the Plesiosaurus, the Megatherium, &c., hiid ceased to exist ; the deluge destroyed other species which were not contained in the ark ; and as the races now existing are in no way modifi- cations of the earlier races found among fossils, we may infer that it is a well-estabUshed fact, that all the created species were not preserved in the ark, as is said in the text of Genesis ; and consequently there being no necessity to interpret this text in a hteral sense, much freedom and latitude may be allowed in making scientific researches, and in estabhshmg hypotiiejes which need not be fettered by Uteral adher«^nce to the Scripture text. We take the liberty of introducing here a passage from Cuvier, which thi'ows some light on the disappearance of the animals of the antediluvian world : " When I assert," he says, " that the couches meubles contain the bones of several genera, and the stony banks those of several species, which severally no longer exist, I would not be understood to maintain the necessity of a second creation, in order to produce the species now existing ; I only 1: 'V. ■ / : 1 t ■ M "^ ■r! 1 1: !' 72 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. observo, that tliey did not exist in tlioso regions where they are now to be seen, and that they must have come thitlier from elsewhere. "Let lis suppose, for example, that an extensive inroad of the sea should cover the continent of Australia with a quantity of sand and other rubbish ; it would buiy the bodies of the Kangaroo, tlie Phascolomes, the Dasjiires, the Peraineles, the Phalaiigers (flyin(j}<\ the Echidnes, and the Ornithorhjiicuscs ; and would destroy the species belonging to all those genera, since none of them now exist in any other country. " If we further suppose that the straits which separate Australia from the continent of Asia should, by this same revolution, become dry land, a road would thus be o])ened to the ele])hant, the rhinoceros, the buffalo, the horse, tlie camel, the tiger, and all the other Asiatic quadrupeds whi(!h would come and people a land where they had hitherto been unknown. " What Australia would become on this supposition, is in reality the state of Europe, i^j-abia, and a great part of j!\inerica, and perhaps at some future period, when other countries and Australia itself are examined, it will be found that they have undergone similar revolutions, — I had almost said mutual exchanges of productions ; for let us carry the supposition farther; and after the emigration of the Asiatic animals into Australia, let us assmne another revolution to have taken place, whicli destroys Asia and the land from whence they sprang ; and naturalists who should observe these animals in Australia, their adopted country, would then be quite as much perplexed to ascertain whence they came as we ai'e to discover the origin of those existing in our own countries. ORIGIN OF THE INDIANS. 73 (( I apply this view of the question to the human "« species In tlie great question concennng the origin of men and animals in America, too much stress lias been laid on the inteq)retation of Scriptural texts ; some writei-s main- taining, others refuting their literal meaning ; if, however, they had sought to explain and reconcile Scripture with admitted tacts and recent discoveries — if they had reflected on the long periods of yeai-s called " days " in Genesis — on the length of time which elapsed between the creation and the deluge, and even on the nature of the great geological revolutions brought about by the deluge — the question would have been greatly simplified, and would not have scared those persons who are content to judge of what they see without troubling themselves to seek for the causes of the phenomena which strike them. The origin of the Indians does not appear to us a more difficult problem to solve than was the precedmg one. It is well known that in men, as well as in animals, the species may undergo changes or modifications, brought about by the gradual operation of internal or external causes, or by crossmg the breed ; and that there is even no species in existence which does not contain a number of varieties. Thus it is that we nowhere find two individuals exactly resembhng each other, and that in the same family we see lame and deaf persons, tall and short ones, different complexions, and various kinds of hair and features. The individual remains always the same, but his external forms vary. All those men who, by their profound leamuig, have acquired a universal and well-merited reputation, and * Cuvier, Discoiirs siav Ics Revolutiona de la Surface du C^lobe. li '! ^^1 b I! '! f^^ : • a ■ 1 } ] 1 I'l '1 1 ■\ ! 1 ■ '.■; .1 -. J; ' 1 • . ' ''I v Ml 1 ■ Xii li 7i TIIK DKSKRTS OF NORTH AMKIUCA. i.-i mn. wlio have studied the diflerent types of the great human ftunily, not in its excesses, its exceptional shaj)es, it8 exaggerations, its peculiarities, but in that which ct)nsti- tutes its essence and integrity, in that which constitutes its distinguishing character and nature, — all these admit the unity of the human species. The only point of con- trovei'sy among the learned is, whether mankind sprang from a single stock, as stated in the Bible, or from several stocks identically the same, and placed at an unknown period on different parts of the globe. After having considered the human species with regard to its physical aispects and the geographical distribution of its existing tyi^es, and also with reference to the changes it has imdergone, owing to extrinsic causes, to the nature of the soil, the meteorological state of the atmosphere, the activity of the mind, the progress of the uitellect, and that marvellous flexibility which adapts itself to eveiy cUmate, M. A. de Humboldt continues to observe, that one species is less Uable tlian any other to be influenced by nature, but that it nevertheless participates to a con- siderable extent in the Ufe which animates our globe. " So long as om* attention was confined to extreme speci- mens of the variations of colour and features," adds this learned -writer in his " Cosmos," " and so long as the mind allowed itself to be prejudiced by the strong influence of first impressions, ethnologists were induced to consider mankind as cx)nsisting, not of simple varieties, but of different races essentially and originally distinct.* The complete absence of any change in certain types, despite the influence exercised by the most contrary causes, especially that of climate, appeared to favour this view, notwithstanding the brief space of time over which , * M. A. de Humboldt, Cosmos, vol. i. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE HUMAN TYIM:. 75 tlie observations recorded l)y liistory extend. Tliere exist, however, on the other hand, still more cogent rea- sons in su{)port of the unity of the liinniin species ; such as the n.umerous gradations in the colour of the skin and in the stnicture of the cranium, which liave been brought to Hght in modern times through the rapid progress of geo- graphical science ; — the analogy observable in the causes which produce degeneracy among other animals, both wild and domestic ; — and tlie positive facts collected concern- ing the limits prescribed to the fecundity of mixed breeds. The greater part of the contrasts which formerly pre- sented themselves have vanished before the learned investigations of Tiedmann concerning the brain of negroes and of Europeans, and the anatomical researches of Vrolik and Weber on the configuration of the Avomb. " K we take a comprehensive view of the dark-coloured nations of Africa, upon which the important work of Prichard has thrown so much light, and if we compare them with the tribes of the South Indian Archipelago, and of the islands of Western Australia, with the Papous and Affourans (Harafores, Endemenes), we shall clearly perceive that the black complexion of the skin, the curly hair, and characteristic features of the negro are not always united in the same individual." * The families of animals and plants, says one of the greatest anatomists of our age, John MUUer, in his " Phy- siology of Man," undergo modifications during their pro- pagation on the earth : within the Umits allotted to the various genera and species they are perpetuated, and become types of existing variations. The present ani- mal tribes have sprung from a combination of diflerent causes and conditions, botli external and internal, which * M. A. de Humboldt, Cosmos, vol. L ii III 70 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. I;'M mi cannot be referred to in detail, and the most strikin.g va- rieties are to be fc.uid among tliose whicli have been endowed with the most extensive means for propagating themselves on the earth. The hnman race belongs to a single species, which does not lose its fecimdity by marriage, but perpetuates itself b)' gen(3ration. It is not a species of a tribe ; if it were, sterihty would attend its unions. Whether we< lopt the classii; cation of Blumenbach, con- sisting of five races, (Caucii'ian, Mongohan, American, and Malay) says again M. de Ilamboldt ; or whether, with Prichard, we recognise seven races (Iranian, Toui'anian, American, Ilottentots and Bushme i, Negroes, Papons, and Alfarous), it is nevertlieless true that these grou})s possess no ty|)ical or i-adical differences ; nor anything which will enable us to make a natural and exact classification. Ab- straction is -iiade of what seems to constitute extreme s}>ecimens of features and colour, without taking into con- pxleration the families of those nations which cannot be included in the above great classes, and which have been designated sometimes as the Scythian, sometimes as the allophylical race. It woidd be as irksome as it woidd be useless to enumerate here all tlie systems, both new and old, invented by the human mind, in order to explain the formation ^ man, and the origin of the various families that people the earth, whose pi ysical types difler from one another. We shall only observe with M. Ilemy Ilollard, that whilst antiquity in the highctit flight of its hitellectual life, but lacking experience and abandoned to the sole resources of its genius, sought to ex})l5iin the causes and the origin of the universe, and only succeeded by means of hypotheses which v/Q,rc soon swe])t away by the j^rogress of science; on the other hand, a small nation in Syria, almost illiterate, and wi since p precise the an the be^ and pre of one ( created only b( simimit being li eveiytli liaving 1 ones. "" first pa^ That G( universa state, to He sepa conmian depths^ o the air might sj vegetatic Creator, liim a col In thi spe(iies ]) per])etua other sp servative Genesis, force the COSMOGONY OF THE BIBLE. 77 tho gin of theses ience ; berate, and with a gcnins Httle adapted to philosophy, had long since possessed on that important question certain simple, precise, and fundamental notions. The fir^^t chai)ter of the annals of this nation opens with tluv a^- words, "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth ; " and proceeds not merely to describe natiu'c as the work of one God, but also as a work gradually and successively created by adding one superstructure to another, and as only being completed by the placing of man on the summit of the edifice. Then for the first time every being had its appropriate place in the great whole, and eveiything was made to harmonise ; the iriforior stories having been constructed for- the advantage of the superior ones. What do we learn from this cosmogony, from this first page of the Bible, which is its own commentary? That God alone had no bt^ginning, that lie created a universal matter, at first witliout form, and in a chaotic state, to which He imparted life, motion, and fecundity. He separated the winters, the atmosphere, and the soil ; commanded the earth to bring forth plants; caused the deptht^ of the ocean to teem with aquatic animals; peopled the air with birds, and created quadrupeds that they might spread themselves throughout lands covered with vegetation. Finally, man proceeded ft'om the hands of his Creator, who, in order to complete his existence, gave him a companion of the same nature as himself. In this system everything is referred to God. Every species proceeds from a special act of creation, and will pen)etuate itself and continue to remain distinct from other species by a law of production essentially con- servative. We may further remark, that the author of Genesis, whilst refusing to recognise in universal physical force the attribute granted to it by other cosmogonies r ;■ if '' 't ■I I'! m 78 THE DESEkTS OF NORTH AMERICA. — viz. the production of living beings, nevertheless con- siders those beings as forming part of universal nature, in so far as they are composed of the same substances. God does not create a special matter for organised bodies ; and in respect to this question, modern naturalists who, with Buffon, have admitted the existence of matter essentially organic from the time of its creation, are not only in opposition to the Bible, but far behind it. Sacred cosmogony shows us the earth as producing and nourish- ing Uving beings, but always at the command of God, who, in a word, formed the human body from the dust of the earth. The veiy fact of the great human family being the superior and final Unk m the system of the creation of which it forms a part, excludes the possibility of its dis- playing so wide a variety as is observable in the other kingdoms which form the inferior and cpnnecting link^. If, however, we examine successively the races which compose the human kingdom, we shall perceive that a great variety of tyj^es is discernible among them, although their number is always and everywhere extremely limited. The naturahst, says M. HoUard, in his work on the diversity of the human family, (who, here as elsewhere, wishes to be exact and to obtain full details,) seeks in the human race that which he finds with more or less ease in the races of the zoological series, viz. the elements of the genus, which are defined by precise limits and susceptible of being numbered and classed, encounters the greatest difficulty in distributing the population of the globe into well-defined groups, and in determinii ;^ the number of those groups. This perplexity becomes but too manifest when we glance over the various anthropological classifications which we ha\ six, Cu Here U neral c] range e knowle( the Ne^ America NortJi A consider and phyi Withe which, h fication c sliort and red, soiiK strongly-! the three The m{ edly bear general as that conti parts of th physical d confined : coveries n not hitlier into which posing the the United view fresh first observ ANTHROPOLOG ICAL CLASSIFICATION. 79 tlie m of i dis- atlier .k.3. diicli at a ougli Lilted, the here, n the se in f the iptible eatcst mto er of ni we bations which have been successively proposed. Blumenbach, as we have akeady observed, reckons five groups, Lacepedo six, Cuvier three, St. Vincent fifteen, Desmouhn sixteen. Here let us observe that the American Lidians are in ge- neral classed in one group, which proves either the wide range embraced by various types, or else a very imperfect knowledge of the different indigenous tribes who people tlie New World. Now, without speaking of the South American Indians, whom some writers class separately, the North American Indians are not confined to a single type ; considerable differences exist in point of stature, colour, and physiognomy. Without taking into account psychological differences, which, however, are not without importance in the classi- fication of races, we find in America tribes composed of short and thickset men ; others composed of giants ; some red, some Avhite, and some black ; ar d besides these three, strongly-defined colours, all sorts of shades, which comiect the three like the links of a chain. The majority of Eed Skins in North America undoubt- edly bear marks of resemblance, more or less remote, to the general aspect which characterises the original population of that continent, as compared with the inhabitants of other parts of the world ; but a cursoiy glance merely reveals their physical diversity, to which our attention will be principally confined in the present division of our work. The dis- coveries made within the last few years, of American tribes, not hitherto described by ethnologists, explain the error into which learned men and naturalists have fallen, in sup- posing the Indians of the Great Desert to resemble those of the United States. But science, by daily opening to the view fresh horizons, is enabled to correct the errors of its first observations by the results of subsequent discoveries. ; I m 1. \. 'n !i \ « h n \-i >,f' I: l:;l 't! 80 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. In drawing attention to the existence of the Zunis, the Jemez, and the Indians, inhabitants of the Pueblos of New Mexico, the Mojaves, and other tribes unknown to ethno- logists, we shall show that the types of those populations differ from those of other American tribes. Too great a desire to generahse the physical appearance of the different nations of the New World has given rise to inaccuracies which prove the imperfection of the f^ys- tems invented by the learned in support of their theories concerning the origin and classification of the human family. We shall not undertake to refute these systems ; but, with the aid of quotations made from different authors, we shall lay before the reader such facts as are recognised by science, so that every one mny be able to form an idea of the various opinions entertained by those who have written on the great question of the origin of the Americans. THE INFi THE 11 A VAI OF TH LIARIT THEIR COLOUI ACCLIM SATION. " The ( speaking disputes might Voltaire great-gr to visit the hon ginians (which great aff nations they mu appears to demo opinion tion of i VOL. I. 81 CHAP. V. THE INFORMATION EXTANT ON THE INDIANS ERRONEOUS AND INCOMPLETE, THE INDIANS IN THE UNITED STATES, IN CALIFORNIA, AND IN COLUMBIA. A VARIETY IN THE AMERICAN RACES. ANTHROPOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIANS. THE RANGE EMBRACED BY DIVERS TYPES. PECU- LIARITIES OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES. THEIR SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — THEIR SHAPE, FEATURES, COLOUR, AND HAIR. THE GRADATION OF COLOUR FROM THE POLES TO THE EQUATOR. HUMAN NATURE EASILY ACCLIMATISED. — ERRONEOUS OBJECTIONS WITH REGARD TO ACCLIMATI- SATION. " The discovery of the New World," says M. Berard, in speaking of American types, " has occasioned ethnological disputes, in which religious zeal has played the part which might have been expected. It was indispensable, says Voltaire, that America should have been peopled by a great-grandson of Noah, and so Solomon's ships are made to visit Mexico. America is to be traced in Plato's works ; the honour of discovering it is awarded to the Cartha- ginians ; and, to confirm the fact, one of Aristotle's books (which he never wrote) is quoted .... In the midst of great afflictions, the Mexicans tear tlieir clothes. Certain nation? in Asia formerly did the same, and consequently they must have been the Mexicans' ancestors." Now it appears to us, that ridicule is not the only weapon required to demoHsh an argument, for it is far easier to turn an opinion into ridicule than it is to furnish proofs in confuta- tion of it ; we are therefore astonished to find a modem VOL. I. o i! 1^ ill ■■■' i ,i • ■' U II •i. !• 11 82 THE DESEKTS OF NORTH AMERICA. author quoting Voltaire as an authority on ethnographic subjects, the more so as we should consider ourselves much to be pitied had no fresh hght been shed on his- tory and geography since Voltaire's time. "The hypothesis ridiculed by Voltaire," addsM. Berard, " has found earnest supporters in our time. The Toltecs and Aztecs, so great in arts, and who covered Mexico with splendid monuments, did not spring from that part of America. Some writers fancy they cen trace their emi- gration from the north to the south, and even attempt to assign a date for the arrival in America of a Boudhist colony from Asia.* " Even though a greater number of historical documents were brought forward to prove this emigration of Asiatics to America, I should not be the less disincHned to beheve that the early Mexicans, who bore a close resemblance to the present North American tribes f, were the descendants of nations to whom they have not the sHghtest physical affinity.^ " Several reasons induce us, on the contrary, to consider the North American savages as an entirely distinct race from the inhabitants of the Old Vf orld. The distinctive traits to be noticed are the peculiar shape of the skull, as pointed out by Morton [crania Americana) ^, and which * If this be an error, why does not our author prove it to be such ? j To which tribes does our author refer ? The red tribes of the United States, the white tribes of New Maxico, or the black tribes of Califoinia ? It is, perhaps, more convenient not to particularise. \ This physical affinity exists so clea,rly, that the Americans are called Indians on that account. § Since this work was published many importan*^^ ethnographic dis- coveries have been made in Peru, and in the deserts of America, which much diminish the value of Mr. Morton's Work. M. Cubi y Soler, in his famous work on Phrenology, completely does away with the im- ERRORS ON INDIAN TYPES. 83 we shall descnbe later ; the prominent nose *, a certain hauteur which pervades the expression of their features f ; and, above all, the moral qualities ; so faithfully described by Cooper,, whose writings in that respect are certainly not romances. J " Who has not been forcibly struck by their taciturnity, their profoimd dissimulation, the perseverance with which they follow up their plans of revenge, the pride which prevents them from betraying the least curiosity, the stoical courage with which they brave their enemies in the midst of the most horrible sufferings ; their caution, their cruelty, and the extraordinary subtlety of their senses ? § It has been truly said, that they seem inaccessible to the gentler sentiments. II We may add, that their idiom bears not the shghtest resemblance either to that of Asiatic nations, or to that of any nation in the Old World." ^ H '!' ii :>* til I wm portance attributed to the development of the facial angle ; that author proves that negroes of very narrow intellect have had the facial angle more distinctly marked than highly intellectual Europeans. * This prominence is not to be found in the Mexicans, nor in many tribes in the west and south-west. f This expression is far from being the rule. \ Cooper's descriptions are faithful as regards the United States tribes ; but not as regards the vast and thickly-peopled countries in the west, of which he had no knowledge. § This has been much exaggerated by romance writers, but it exists nevertheless, and proceeds from the mode of life among the Indians. II Those who have said so are entirely ignorant of the character of the savages ; and we shall be able to prove, not only that the Indians are accessible to the gentle sentiments, but also that they allow outward evidences thereof to escape them. ^ This question is not to be solved so easily, on account of the mul- tiplicity of the different idioms. The contrary opinion to that of M, Berard's seems the most probable. During Prince Napoleon's visit to Greenland, M. de Saulcy of the Institute recognised many words and idiomatic expressions to be foimd in Eastern languages, in the Green- G 2 i 1 !■ ill WW I '■ m m Si THE DESERTS OF NORTU AMERICA. Notwithstanding the moral and intellectual characteristics which establish so wide a difference between the North American aboriginals and the ^^avage tribes in other parts of the globe, two talented writers have arrived at diame- trically opposite conclusions respecting the early state of the inhabitants of America. A learned Swede, Dr. Martins, considers them as the degenerate descendants, re- lapsed into a barbarous state, of nations which were for- merly civihsed ; while Chateaubriand thus winds up the parallel he has drawn between the Anniricans and the Arabs : — " The Americans convey to us the idea of savages to whom civihsation is as yet unknown ; wliile the Arabs appear to be a civihsed nation, relapsed into bar- barism.* " The general rules which I have laid down," continues M. Berard, " apply, as may be seen, to North Americans. I shall now proceed to define the distinctions between them ; but before doing so, I must except a considerable number of North American tribes, who do not share the charocteristics already referred to. " 1. The Esquimaux towards the extreme north, who be- long to the Mongohan tribes, and whose characteristics we are acquainted with.*!* lander's dialect. Gaelic and Hebrew words are to be found ra the dialect of the American aborigines. But we repeat, that a profound disquisition on the analogy between tin languages of the Old and New World is still wanting, and the matter is therefore still left in doubt. * We are not aware what knowledge of the Arabians M. de Chateau- briand might have possessed, but we are satisfied that he knew nothing about American savages, since his writings on the American tribes are pure romances, of which fiction is the staple, while historical truth is but slightly regarded. f This admission is worthy of notice : the Asiatic origin of certain American tribes is not, therefore, such a ridiculous hypothesis as the writer seems to think. whf ERROKS ON INDIAN TYPES. 85 " 2. Tlie Cliippeways, not quite so remotely located as the Esquimaux, and who maj'" hkewise spring from Mongohan stock. Mackenzie, ai all events, asserts that they arc not aboriginal Indians.* " 3. All the tribes which inhabit the Eocky Mountains and the western coast of North America, from California inclusively to the regions inhabited by the Esquimaux. Those tribes bear no resemblance to each other ; the stupid and pusillanimous Californians, with their low foreheads and skins -as black as that of Gui.iea negroes, but with a different cast of countenance to the latter, forming a con- trast with an almost white tribe inhabiting countries much further north. Neither do they resemble the Mongols, wha-ever Desmovdins may say ; for Lapeyrouse says clearly : ' The indigenous inhabitants of Port Fran^ais are not Esqiumaux; ' and the description he gives of them does not agi-ee -with the Mongolian type. " Ha\'ing noticed these exceptions, let me observe, that the vast continent of North America was inliabited by a race or species divided into numerous tribes, but preserving even to the present day the same characteristics that I am about to describe to you. " The skill is of a reddish copper tint, which has given the name of Eed Skins to these Indians. The name, as one may see, cannot apply to all the indigenous tribes, as we have already noticed an ex eption in North America.f South America affords us still more fiequent exceptions. a,- 11^ * Another damaging admission. We must, however, observe that the Chippeways are not a distinct type, since many Indian tribes in the United States favour the same type. f The writer should have said, two exceptions, since he allows that the Califomiana have a black skin, whilst a northern tribe is white. We might v.dd a third, the Soones being Albinos. o 3 "• ' v 80 TlIK Di:SKRTt» 01< NOUTII AMKRICA. On tlio other luiiid, the ivddisli tint is to 1h» foiuul iinioni^ 8onuM)t' till! I'olyiu'siiins ; and thus thi' distinctive trait is not Ht all sullieient, ahhonj^di it tie.* "8 to be ntUeiL* "•The want of pronnnenee in the . ]mt of the Hkull is what distinj^uishes Aiueriean skulls (cntnia Ainericnim)^ nceordin^ to Morton. Seen from behind, the eontour of the occiput is llat towards the piotuberiincc, and swi'lls out from that point to the base of tlu; car. The sides of the skull join one another closely from the purietul protuberances to the vertex, so as to present a conical, or rather a prismatic surface. " M. de Ilund)oldt luus obscn-ed that no race has sucli a retreating, or so small a forehead. In many countries, and also in South America, (he Indians, as is well known, have recoiu'se to pressure to increase the flatness. " The Algonquiris and the Iroquois were the principal North American famiUes, and occupied the great part of Canada, and that portion of the L'nited States which lies to the east of the Mississippi. Tliey included a niunber of tribes and nations which it would be useless to enume- mte, and among which I sliall only mention the Hurons. The tribes called Alleghanians by Mr. rricluuxi, were nearer the somh. Th<) Scioux occupied an innnensc tract to the west of the Mississippi ; they included, amongst othei-s, the Tetons, the Osiiges, and the Mandans.f Many of these sjivages liave most singidar hair, wliich is very long, and of a bright silvery grey colour. P * The presence of Ri'd Skins in Polynesia ift of the highest importance, as province the influence of climate, ibod, and civiliaation on the hue of the skin. f Wrong. The Scioux, the Mandans, and the Osages are three distinct nations, with many material points of difTercnce, both moral and physical. any ,ery KUIioilH ON INDIAN TYI'FX S7 **M. Di'sinouliiis doriviJi^ tlio orif^nriof tho Noith Aini'ri- cans from a raoo whuli luMall.s (/()lutnl)iaii. Mori; rcirciilly, tlio iiihabituKts of tlio rc^'ioiiH north of Califonjia (l)iit mi the Hiimc cojust, and wliicli arc iiicluchid in the vhxnH I have Hj)ccially excepted), hav(! been denomiiiatcid Nootka Co- lumbians. The tribe of Hat heads, anion^ whom the ridiculous practice of (h'formin^ tlie skull, by llattening the forehead immediatcily after the birth, is prevalent, forms a portion of these Nootka Columbians.* Even now their heads preserve that sinj^ular shape, which you can see in our Museum, by the casts of the skulls of the early Peruvians. Dr. Scouler, who revealed tlu; pnx'ess uhvA to obtain this result, has observed that the flat heads were (piite as intelligent as the others, but more subject to apo[)lexy." In the great tract comprised between the llocky Moun- tains and the Pacific Ocean, the pcMiinsula of Alaska, at the COth deg. hit. N., and the Calif(jrnian peninsula, a greater number of tribes, s|)eaking different langu. ^es, and having different usages, characters, and feature?., are to be found, than in any other part of the American con- tbient. Between the GOth and 52nd degrees lat. N. the Indians bear a great resemblance to white men in many respects, especially in the colour of the skin and the thickness of the head. They are very skilfid, and show great taste in manufacturing with a kind of slate very elegant dishes, pipes, figures, and cut ornaments. Their skill is displayed hi their dress, their houses, and their boats, wliich are * It was tlie Chinooks who were in the habit of flattening' the fore- heads of their children. The pr'^ctice was, however, in vogue with many of the Western tribes, and with other nations now extinct. o 4 ^ 11 88 THE DKSKllTS OF NORTH AMKRICA. eqimlty well adapted to their clinuite and to their moile of life. Tlic tribes to the iiortli of Colunibiu, hucIi as the Wal- Inwallju*, tlie Talikiili Uinkvvas, the Tailiailis, the SehslieH, the Chiiiooks, tlie YukonevS, the Cahipuyas, and Nootkaa of Vancouver's Island, are a veiy \v/,\y race. The men are below the middle height, witli tliiek-set limbs, broad faces, low foreheads, and rough, coi)])eiy, and tanned skins. Their moral deformities are as great as their pliysical ones. Their chaleet is exceedingly diflicult, and the harshness of their pronunciation incredible. South of the Oregon, towards California, the appear- ance and disposition of tlie Indians have much analogy with those of the Indians resitUng to the east of the Eocky Mountains ; their principal tribes consist of the Sahaptins, the Waiilatpus, the Shoshonies, the Lituanies, the Shastis, the Palaiks, and some othei-s. Thev are of middhng stature, slight, with long faces, tliin lips, and a soft skm. They are taciturn, cold, and warhke, and love passionately those exercises which require courage and activity. There are no two nations in Eu- rope so chssimilar as the tribes to the north and those to the south of Columbia. The Californian tribes, to whom we have ah'eady referred, are chiefly remarkable for their black skins and the obtuseness of their intellects, which places them beneath every other Indian tribe on the Ameiican continent. They are gentle, lazy, timid, and phlegmatic. The Indians to the west of the Eocky Moun- tains have neither the height, strength, or activity of those who Uve eastward of those mountains. The Oregon tribes have neither the two classes of chieftains — those who govern during peace, and those who command in war time — nor the ceremonies to initiate young men, nor the DF-STRIITIOX OV TIIK INDIAN' TYI'KS. 80 distinction of duns, nor any greut civil or religious festi- vals. What prectHlt'H mIiowh uh that even tliosc autliors wlio consider tljc American Indians as a se[)arate species, and designate them a.s the American race, are nevertlieless ol)hgcKl to aihnit that tlie race comprises several varieties Avhich do not belong to the general type, taken from the lied Skins. As these varieties are yet more numerous than the learned writers who have treated these matters seem to imagine, we shall enumerate i\wn\ later when we enter into particulars respecting the difTerent tribes. At present we shall confine ourselves to the lied Skins, who along with the Negroes form the most powerful objec^tion that can be raised to the theoiy of the common origin of mankind. There arc many points in which the tribes who are scattered from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada, and from the AUeghanies to the llocky Mountains, difler, yet they have a general tjq^e, modified variously, it is true, according to the latitudes and the degrees of civilisation to which different tribes have attained, yet distinguishing clearly these aborigines from all other nations in the w^orld. The angular head is pyramidal in shape, owing to the direction of the arches of the skull, from the eyebrows in front, and the parietal bumps on the sides, to the protu- berance of the occiput. The occiput is flattened below this prominence, and swollen out laterally. The zygoma- tic arch is somewhat laterally spread, as is seeh in the Mongol type. The nasal pits are large, and show a large development of the olfactory. The upper maxillary arch projects, and yet the incisors are not unduly prominent. The imder jaw is rather massive, and its two branches form, not a projecting angle, but rather a curve. The nose. Ml? 1 I -! i ■ 11 i ' * j • il' \\% :fl lj| 1 l| ;'i i ii ,J. 00 THU DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. wliioii is more or less arched, larfi;e, and prominent, is tlie most striking feature of these North American Indians. Tiie eye is in generpl mther ahnond-shaped tlian round, but not large. A copper complexion, straight black liair, sometimes silky, and but little beaixl, complete the por- traiture of the lied Skin. Tlicy generally remain in a most uncivilised state, and their number is yearly thinned by sickness, intom})erance, and desperate wars, the results of their mode of life. They are independent, haughty, gloomy, thoughtfid, and obstinate. Their traditions, the numerous tombs found in thc^e countries, all seem to prove alike a decline, the recollections of former grantleur, and the irritability of a conquered people. Chateaubriand wiis wrong when he saw i.. them the attributes of savages, on whom the future was dawning : on the contrary, theirs are the despairing efforts of failing energies.* But we repeat that the unity of the type which we have described should not be too much exaggerated or gene- ralised. Numerous variations in nations auvl individuals set aside this unity. Sometimes, the profile of the fore- liead and nose is arched hke a crow's, so as to form a crescent ; at other times we meet with a nose almost straight : and again with a broad face, with puffy cheeks, and prominent cheek bones. And then the hues of the skin, even among the Eed Skins, comprise several shades betwixt brick red and olive ; the skin becomes paler in the mountains and among civilised tribes, and the hair then becomes of a chestnut colour, or even of a yellowish * Among motlcm mitliora, who have wiitton about the Red Skins, wo should mention M. llolJiird (irom whom wo liave boirowcd several autluopologioal det4uls), m having given tlie most correct descriptions of tlie Nortli American Indituis. DESCRIl'TION OP THE INDIAN TVPES. 01 flaxen. We do not refer to the Soones, whom we have already mentioned in a note as being Albinos. The aborigines of the Californian peninsula, who live in a scorching climate, on a stony, barren soil, are a type which has no point of resemblance with the North American tribes. A low forehead, sunken eyes, a short nose, flat at the root and wide at the base, ])rominent cheek bones, a rather large mouth, thick lips, a black skin, and long straight hair, with a little beard, make up a countenance which in some respects assimilates to and in some respects differs from the Ethiopian type; it gives one the idea of the stamp of an African climate on a people to whom another had already been ailixed. We shall speak by and by of the moral character of the Cali- fornihns, whose intellect is below tliat of all other Indians in the New World. Before we explain the causes which have brought abo it such great differences in American types, we nuist be allowed some preliminary observations on the standard which regulates tlie variety of types. " Whenever," says Blumenbach, the crc'i.tor of Anthropology, " two beings differ only in those points which may mnse from the action of a determining cause, they nuist be of the same species ; and, on the other hand, those beings who differ so essentially that the differences cannot be referred to determinate causes, are of a diflerent species."* Other writers on the subject give definitions which are neither so clear or so correct as those of Blumenbach, and we n 1 \ ] '' 1 '.1 . I i; ♦ Ad iinam eanrlcmqiic spocicm portinore cUcimns animnntin quodai forma et habitii ita conveuiunt ut oa in quibus difforunt., dogenorcndo wtluiu ortum duxissc potueriut. —-De Generis Ilumani Vanciate NativUf p. 66. Gottingcn, 1795. mm i- 92 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. shall therefore pass them over in silence, although they are entitled to a certain amount of consideration. The distinct differences in varieties of a gentis often produce so strong an impression that we are tempted to fancy these varieties to be different species, forgetting the nature of the species itself. The organic resemblance of the species is so great in the elephantine genus, the equine genus, the cehne genus, and many others, that it seems impossible for any real differences to exist. " Specific character," says M. Hollard, " proceeds from the hfe-springs of the species, and is essentially connected with its preservation." This is confirmed by the differ- ences which exist in the organs more immediately conser- vative, and equally proved by the distinctive character of cognate species, and the iUimited fecundity which at- tends their unions. Thus experiments have taught us that the zebra, the hemione, the ass, and the horse, so similar in their external forms, so widely different in their colour, can produce; yet that their produce are cross-breeds that cannot perpetuate themselves. Zoology, therefore, comes to the aid of the doctrine which asserts that the fecundity which is necessary for the purposes of population is con- fined to individuals of the same species. It is impossible to suppose that two different species, however similar, can found a hneal descendance, since none can be more nearly aUied than the ass and the hemione. Where is the Hne of demarcation between these two animals, of the same species and of the same country, and in whom the only perceptible difference is a black stripe on the shoulder of the one, which is not to be found on the shoulder of the other ? We read in the paper of M. Flourens, " La Quantity de MODIFICATIONS OP THE HUMAN RACES. 93 la Vie sur le Globe," that every species manifests two ten- dencies — a tendency to vary within certain limits, and a tendency to transmit to succeeding generations the modi- fications to which the first generation may have been subjected. If the variations and modifications of the first generation could not be transmitted to their descendants, they would remain individual traits, and would not be the characteristics of a race. It is because they are trans- mitted that they characterise a race. The same writer observes, that external causes, such as chmate, food, and habits, exert a great influence on pro- duction ; because every species has an internal tendency to vary and to transmit the variations. But all these changes in nowise affect the purity of the species, nor its fecundity, since every race of the same species has the same blood and the same germs of fertihty. This anthro- pological fact induced Buffbn to say, " When men, after a lapse of ages, had traversed continents, and determined to accustom themselves to the extremes of chmate, and to people the sandy south and the icy north, such marked changes ensued that the Negro, the Laplander, and the white man might have been supposed to be of different species, were we not assured that the white man, the Laplander, and the Negro, however dissimilar, could yf»t intermarry and propagate in common the one great family of which mankind is composed. The dissimilarity only existed externally, and therefore the changes effected by nature were merely superficial ; and it is clear that all are one and the same man, blackened under the torrid zone, and tanned and stunted by the freezing temperature of t)ie north pole." * * Buffon, vol. iv. p. 110. W ' ■ r ; i' 4i -'?• 1 94 THE DESERTS OF NORTH MIERICA. In short, says M. Flourens further on, there are super- ficial characteristics, and these characteristics vary ; but there is a deeply seated characteristic which constitutes the unity, identity, and reality of the species, namely, continuous fecundity, and this is a characteristic which is unchangeable and never varies. In fact, races are the extreme limits to which variations of the species can reach. Another proof that races thus varied are not different species, is to be found in the fact, that most distinguishing characteristics appear or disappen, according to the dif- ferent positions in which the race may be placed ; and, in the next place, because these races can engender mixed breeds. On this point nature herself can corroborate us, as some few examples will show. We will not refer to the Angus breed of cows without horns, which, like many varieties of domestic animals brought into existence by the experiments of British breeders, are an artificial breed : but has it not been demonstrated that aU our varieties of domestic pigs, of whatever height, shape, skin, or colour, spring from the wild boar, which is thickset, short on the leg, with a big head, prickly ears, armed with triangular tusks, covered with bristles increasing in length on the back, and con- cealing a little wool, and whose natural colour is a blackish grey ? When set at Hberty the domestic pig recovers the characteristics of the wild type ; after the lapse of but few generations the bristles stiffen, a sort of woolly hair grows beneath them, the original colour reappears, the tusks lengthen and thicken, the skull itself, which in a domesti- cated state has a projecting forehead, becomes flatter, and the paws assume that massive appearance to be noticed in the wild boar. On the other hand, no race is more fa MODIFICATIONS OP THE ANIMAL RACES. 95 variable when under the influence of man: indeed its ever-varying appearance is most remarkable. The ass, which we obtain from Upper Asia, is there found in a wild state ; it has altered in point of height, proportions, and coat, yet preserves untouched the marks which distinguish its species, and which consist in a cross, formed by a black line on the back, and a stripe across the withers and along the shoulders. Every variety of the species preserves this characteristic : a fact worthy of notice.* That the specific characteristic should be less obvious than the acquired modifications, need create no astonish- ment, since the latter embrace the extreme hmits to which a certain type is susceptible of being sketched ; that is to say, the entire organisation. Thus animals may belong to the same species, have a common origin, and yet, without losing their specific characteristic, differ con- siderably, in height, in the proportions of the difierent parts, in the shapes which result from the relative development of certain organs, such as the brain and the skull, in the coat, and in coloiu*. Let us now say a few words about the characteristic differences of human types, and show that the differences which distinguish the Negro, Mongol and Caucasian types are in nowise similar to zoological characteristics, but that they belong to the order of what we have denominated in animals, acquired differences. The characteristics which distinguish types the furthest removed as well as the most alike, are the shape of the head, the features, the proportions of the hmbs, but hardly the height ; the capillary system, and the colour of ' i:li ' ^, ;■, Ufl * See Hollard : " De la Diversity des Types Humains." !M 96 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. the skill ; and finally, the genius of different nations, their social s'-ate, and their manners and customs. We intend to examine these characteristics one by one. The shape of the head offers most remarkable variations between the Negro type and the Caucasian type ; and be- tvreen the latter and the Mongol type. In stripping off" the soft portions of the head one can better judge of the oval shape and fine proportions of the head of an European, the flatness and breadth of the head of a Mongol, the length and prognathism of the head of a Negro. This is the only way to judge of the inferiority attributed to the last-named especially, and of its asserted Ukeness to the higher animal species. However, M. Cubi y Soler's recent works show clearly that the system which consists in adopting the facial angle as a measurement of the development of the brain, and finding thus a greater or less gradation of the oviparous vertebrae of the European, is altogether faulty. Besides, the experiments made by the celebrated anatomist Tiedmann, prove that the space occupied by the brain in the skull of an Ethiopian, although it may vary in shape, is of the same capacity as in the head of a Caucasian. Features, notwithstanding the innumerable differences which exist in individuals and in nations, have, it is well known, certain general characteristics, to be found in different degrees, and more or less collectively in great numbers of people. However particular temperaments exercise more or less influence on the countenance and its modifications, they are only to be considered as varieties of the same type. Relative Proportions of the different Parts of the Body. — Anatomical researches directed towards the skeletons of the most inferior races, and those of quadrumanes who most re that spc the pro parts oi Capi greater tion on 1 in every not obs difllers b the bod^ time::' CO as a fleci in the h considers in estim colour, V rule, dar tions to tl in some r is more o descriptic prognathi this sort ( or less ex When to be foui clearly di woolly ha of woolly to have m of cohesio increases t VOL. I. CAPILLARY SYSTEM. 97 by most resemble man, prove to the satisfaction of the learned that specific difTerences cast which are not to be found in the proportions of human skeletons, as seen in different parts of the globe. Capillary System. — This system, which extends to the greater part of the human body, is the same in every na- tion on the face of the earth : now, in mammiferas, it differs in every species, and is constantly marked by peculiarities not observable in human types. The capillary system differs by its abundance or its scarcity on various parts of the body, especially the face ; sometimes it is fine, some- time::' coarse, it is smooth and curly, or crisp and woolly as a fleece, and these differences are especially to be found in the hair of the head. The colour, moreover, varies considerably. Some of the differences are of no account in estimating the characteristics of a race, such as the colour, which in all the great famihes of mankind is, as a rule, dark or even black ; but almost all offer some excep- tions to the rule — exceptions, however, being more frequent in some nations than in others. The woolliness of the hair is more of a characteristic, and is generally mentioned in descriptions, of the Ethiopian type, in connection with prognathism : yet only gradual stages intervene between this sort of hair and the straight, coarse, and to a greater or less extent, stiff hair noticeable in other nations. When seen through a microscope, no such difference is to be found between these two sorts of hair as that which clearly distinguishes, in mammiferoB, ordinaiy hair from woolly hair capable of forming a nap. The characteristic of woolly hair is a peculiar shape, which causes its surface to have more or less roughness, according to its capabihty of cohesion. It has also been remarked that the thickness increases towards the point, not towards the root, or at VOL. I. H il 1 I > V I: iM I 98 THE DESEETS OF NORTH AMERICA. least that the lengths are unequal, and that the points do not taper. Hah', properly so called, is, on the contraiy, more or less smooth, and thicker at the roots than at the points. Now, both hair and wool are to be found in the same race of mammiferai, the one or the other pre- dominating, according to the seasons, and especially ac- corcUng to the species ; but hair alone is to be found in every human race, who all resemble each other in this respect, and the curly hair of the negro is of the same structure as the long and silky hair of the dark Abysin- nian, and the fair Scandinavian, or the stiff and coarse hair of the Mongol. The hair of the human head only differs in respect of its quantity, its length, its fineness, and the quantity of colouring matter which it contains. As regards this last, a gradation of shades may be ob- served between flaxen and dark black ; and of all black hair, that of the negro is most charged with this matter. It has been supposed that its tendency to curl might arise from the latter ch'cumstance. As the same tendency i3 observable in many individuals of our race, it would be easy to submit tliis pecuUarity to the test of experiment ; " but," says M. Hollard, " I doubt whether their result would support the theory." * We must be allowed to attach some importance to the perfect homogeneity -f structure in human hair, since nu- merous facts show that every species of mammifer has different hair. Colour of the Skin and of the Iris — That there are nu- merous variations in the colour of the skin of the human species is well known. They constitute one of the most striking proofs of the diversity of the nations which cover the surface of the globe, and one which has perhaps most * De la Diversity dcs Types Humains. COLOUR OP THE SKIN AND OF TIIK IRIS. 99 nu- has contributed to the distinction, definition, and nomenclature of the ])rincipal races. The series of diflerent tints com- prises extreme tones, such as white, eithc!- clear or of a rosy hue, straw-coloured or coffee-coloured, yellow, olive, copjxir, brown, various shades of black, and intermediate hues too numerous for language to describe. Races are denominated white or black, as if those denominations were really characteristic and defined the c^^act limits be- tween men of a clear complexion and those of all shades of dark complexions. This, however, would be incorrect, since the darkest man may have the same shaped head and the principal features of tlie white man, while great differences in those respects may exist between men of the same colour. It must not, however, be gathered from this obser\'atiou, however important, that there is not a real relation between colour and distinct tyj)ical charac- teristics. Some human types, the prognathic nations amongst others, are always dark-coloured ; while only one race exists which embraces every shade from the white of the Northern European and ebony black. The hue of the skin must find a place among the charac- teristics of various types, because there is a certain regu- larity with wliich it endows types ; but it most certainly is not entitled to be considered a specific characteristic, as has been asserted. Hues of all shades are apparent from the time of birth, and in some races are less liable to be affected by change of climate than in others ; they are not the result of a particular organisation of tiie skin, as has been supposed : a layer, or rather the surface of the down, is the seat, both in man and beast, of a deposit of colouring matter. The difference between races consists in the relative quan- tity of tliis matter : black skins are covered with innu- n 2 m flit 111 i m I li m • t: mi > ■ 'i ■■ -■ r f ■ f ^ ■ it 1 ■ ' if! :^i jM 100 THE DESERTS OF NORTH A.M ERICA. mcrablo frranulations, to say notliing of the cellular tissues, wJiich also contain some portion. Finally, let U3 note the grand point, which is, that colour is always equally spread in all human tj'|)es, and if its shades vaiy, the distributive system is eveiywhere identical. What is termed liveries do not exist ; and if any portion is darker than others, and assumes a light hue in cross breeds later than others, why the same difference, only not so strong, is to be found among white races. " Need I recall a fact," says M. Ilollard, " which shows that imiformity of tints is a general characteristic of the wliole human race : I mean the hannony which exists between the colour of the hair, the hue of the skin, and tliat of the iris. Dark-coloured races always have black hair and an iris of a dark shade ; while the complexion and the colour of the hair in white races always agi*ee : not that brown hair necessarily implies a brown skin ; but at all events the tint which agrees with them is not the same as that which suits fiiir people, — the latter, besides, have almost always blue eyes. The exceptions to the rule arise generally froir. mixtures, with the ex- ception, perhaps, of individuals w4th coaree hair, and of a fiery red : this variety, which must not be confounded with the fair variety shaded with red, have browai eye- lashes and eyebrows, the iris of a similar coloiu-, and a fair Treckled skin. It is a remarkable fact, that in every race some individuals at least are to be found with hair of a reddish hue : it was by no means rai'e among the Greeks and the Jews, and also among the Caucasian tribes. Does this indicate a return to the original colour, as has been suggested ? It proves, at all events, that certain tendencies are common to those races among whom it has been observed." COLOUR OF THI-: SKIN. 101 Negroes arc said to Imvc a wondorfully soft nkiii, and some persoiij liave considered this a cliaractcristic. Tlu- fact is, that it is by no means a general ride, many negroes having veiy rougli skins. This softness^ of the integument is to be found in nations of widely different types. Several philosophers have solved the difficulty i)re- sented by the phenomenon of different human families, by boldly proclaiming that man descends from several stocks. This assertion, however, appears to us to be too dog- matic and too convenient to be admitted without inves- tigation ; and as the phenomena relating to tj'pes and colom's are susceptible of a natural explanation, we shall now speak of the external causes which have determined the general characteristics of American savages, and made of them a type distinct from all other nations. CUmate and the social state of a nation, are the two principal causes which exercise the greatest influence on the epidermal colouring, and the physiological configu- ration of the human body. Changes, brought about by moral or physical causes, only become permanent after long and almost imperceptible gradations, human nature being too delicate to support with impunity sudden and violent cliang(;s. Hence a succession of trifling causes, acting continually and regularly on the same species and in the same locality, are necessary to embody the modi- fications in each generation, and transmit them to suc- ceeding generations, until nature has had time to complete the w^ork of acclimatisation. From the pole to the equator, a gradation of colour may be observed, beginmng with a sanguine complexion, becoming next pink and white, and enduig at black, after u 3 i I P M ) I 102 TIIK DESERTS OF NORTH A '.ERICA. j)ju>siiig through the inteiinodiate stages of brown and olive. If any exceptions to tliis remark are to be found, it is because tlie same distance fnmi tlie sun does not imply in tlie same region, the same temperature, nor the sjune climate. The temperature may be influenced in the same zone, by the mountainous nature of tlie countiy, the proximity of the sea, the nature of the soil, the sUite of agricidtu"", the currents of air, and various other cir- cumstances. Thus it has been ascertained, that on great continents, such as America and Africa, the temperature on the western side is much milder than that on the eastern side in the same latitude.* To imagine that God created men of diflerent colours, because these coloiu's are better suited to the diflerent parts of the globe they inhabit, is ftir more imnatural than to sii])pose that lie gave to hinnaii nature the power to confonii to and acclimatise itself in eveiy country in the world. Did himian nature not possess, as it does, that facu ty of acclimatisation, alliances between two distiint nations, and colonisation of distant countries, the great emigrations of which history speaks, and scientiiic studies on the surface of the whole globe by individuals of the same race, woidd become impossible, and the great social destiny woidd be confined to narrow limits mnvorthy of its Creator. We know that on the contraiy, every century has witnessed great emigrations of population, either tlirough war or commerce, and we see that these people liave not only endured the change, but become naturaHsed in course of time, and prospered as much as in the respective countries whence they came. Modern writers have asserted that certain races camiot • See Stanhope : " Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and FigTire in the Hixman Species." ; k»v INFLUENCE OF TIIK CLIMATK. 103 l)c acclimatised in certiiin countries ; but their assertions appear to us to be inconclusive, for they are groinitled on insuflicient, and sometimes incorrect, data^ and for many reasons are not worthy of the consideration awarded to them. " Li the early part of this century," says M. Aubert lloche, " the English tried to take i)ossession of Saco toca ; but sickness soon dislodged them. Ask them what the ^possession of Aden cos t the in P^yet it is onl situate at the opening of tlie lied Sea, for far uj^wards") they dare not go. Mehemet Ali was so well aware of the influence of the climate on white men, that he sent all the turbulent Arnaut soldiers whom he wanted to get rid of, to perish on the -tArabian coasts; out of 18,000, foiu- hmidi-ed only remained alive at the expiration of ten years ! " " The earliest establishments in Canada," adds M. Louis Fleury, " date as far back as 1523 ; yet in 1717, the European population was less than 27,000 soids ; and in the present day it does not exceed 500,000.* England has spent more than twenty millions sterling, in order to found an Eiu*opean estabhshment at Sierrp. Leone, and that colony has not in the present day more than one hundred white inhabitants, of whom hardly one in twenty are bom on African ground, f European establishments in the West Indies, date back to the discovery of America, and after the lapse of three centuries, the white population of the West Lidian Islands does not reach 300,000 soiUs, * In admitting M. L, Fleury'a figures to be correct, we would call hia attention to the fact that no population in Europe can boast of so rapid an increase as that shown by those figures. "We are not at all sunjrised at it, as Canada is one of the healthiest countries in the world. -^C t What we want to know is, not so much the sum laid out by the British Government as the number of emigrants to the colony. a4 I- u ■:> \ ini TIIK DHHKUTS OF NORTH AMKUlt'A. Jif/'JM 'I'l mioii^st Nvlioiii llioiv are not i)erlm]).s one luiiulivd tillers o 1' llu' soil. '' Al^^eriii ollor.s jiniilojjfous i'xiun])li's. Tlio Cnrtluiloinsation, M. I' «ury I )roee(. ds t () say, " isoiny possi- Ivp hie on the eondition that the tillage of the soil shall he aban- doned 1(1 llu' nativi's, or nuni ol' the same racts and that ihe oeeiij>ation shall be eonfmed to a few elevati'd points, eombinino; altitude with latitude. In the W(\st Indian Islands, in (luiana, in (he Iha/.ils, in the southern portion of till' United States, in the islands of Houi'bon and the Mauri- tius, the soil is cultivatiHl by ne Kuropoans and Africans who havo ro- plaood thiMU. f Kvon had not. tho inaccuracies, rofcrrod 1o in our jirovious notes, entitled us to accept with ilistrust. this author's assertions, we should still have the right to remark, ih.Mt when (lie progress or tin' revi".s«' of eolonisjition is to be taken into consideration, some Jillowa'ico should be made ' r the eU'eets of warfare. I For (he sinii»le reason (hat (he labour of negroes and natives is much cheaper than that of the whiti's; the whites' labour is more iiitol- Jigeut, but their number is inaih'ipiate, iuul i)lan(ers are forced (o have recourse (o negroes and native's. Ir. Ihe southern partM of (lu^ I'niled Stales the morlaI"ly among iho whites is jiroportionably much less tliiin among (he bjai 1. -i. INTLUKNCK OF THK CLIMATU. 105 ^, "III IS.'JO, liritisJi India ivokoncd 100 million oC in- luihitunts, 2010 o f whom wore lAiropoanH. * " In Jill thoso countrios {H)mi)riMi'(l bctvvocn llio two isothermal linos ol' inV'-^Jiy^M. Houilin, " tho oultivution of tho soil can only l)o imdorUikon by Kuro|)oans in thoso i-ogion-^ whoro tho altitude does away with tho eU'eots of tho «j!:oo«rra|)hioal latitude. Tho [Spaniards, after being fii}j;htfully ilooimated on tho Mi'xiean coast, at Vera Cru/, at Aoapulco, and at l*anama, wore obli <«iviliiinH in flu' liuliini Kcrvicc, and nniHf have allogclluT oinilird llic nunihcr «»f (he llrilish ainry, nu'rclianlH, and coloniHls. f The inaocin-ary of this infonnafioii will he soon on oonHuUii\p: the " lliHiory of (lie leng'hened Domination of the .Si>aniarils in those Kegion.s." J: W(\ doid)t. thin fae* mueli ; the more ho as the Mexican climate ia one of the hest in tlie Avorld. § Were thin true, Kuropcans eoiild not inhahit thi> country. We have known Urilish oIliceiH who hav(^ Herved twenty-fivc' yeai'H in Ilin- jlostan, juid who Imve I'eturned to Kni'«>j)e in womU'irnlly good iH-alih. A:/ V 1 ■;■ 1 '!»1| M 106 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. effects of the swamps which surround that town. Miasma may be borne up against, but it is impossible to escape its effects. Those persons who live best, preserve their health the longest, but sooner or later they are certain to suffer." * It would be useless to pursue our investigations on this head, as all the objections urged against acchmatisation are about as weak as those which we have quoted. We say, hke M. Jacquot, cast your eyes on the map of the world, and you wiU find but few countries which are yet peopled by the pure descendants, of autoch- thons : on the contraiy, everywhere we see the northern races emigrating to the south and peopling it. Greece covered Italy and Asia Minor with flourishing colonies. The inhabitants of Northern Asia estabhshed themselves in all the southern parts of Eiu-ope and even in Africa ; the Visigoths and Vandals occupied Betique (Andalusia) and from thence passed into Africa. Philologists and anthropologists agree in ascribing the earliest peopung of the Americas to the inhabitants of Northern Asia who must have crossed Behring's Straits.f Spaniards and Por- tuguese have become perfectly acclimatised in South Ame- rica J ; the necessity of altitude having been exaggerated, since savannahs^ campos^ lianas and pampas are seldom more than from forty to sixty yards above the level of the sea. In the warm and dry portions of New Spain, Euro- peans enjoy good health and remarkable longevity. The bulk of information which we possess, is therefore * There must be many exceptions to this rule ; for we have seen and known old men, both natives and strangers, who have lived in the marshy parts of Itiily, the island of Sardinia, and America, and have never been subjected to the influences of swamps. f They are far from agreeing unanimously on the subject ; yet the opinion, it is true, is very generally received. J This is indisputably true. INFLUENCE OF THE CLIMATE. 107 and the have 111 favour of acclimatisation and justifies M. de Humboldt's expression, "man possesses a marvellous flexibility of orga- nisation, wliich adapts itself to all climates." MM. Jacquot, Joley and Martin say that to form a cor- rect opinion on the question of acclimatisation, the essen- tial conditions of a country must not be confounded with those accidental conditions wliich are easily distinguished from the others on reflection *, and which by sacrifices of men, time, and money, may be removed or at least dimi- nished. Now the arguments brought forward by M. Boudin are all based on accidental causes, that is to say, marshy influences, clearings, poverty, fatigue, insufiicient nourishment, and the neglect of all hygienic practices. * We admit with M. Flemy that this distinction ia vastly convenient, yet it is perfectly practicable. When colonists select a new country, they naturally choose a country which presents a likelihood of enabling them to promote their welfare by developing its resoiu-ces : if, by chance, unhealthy swamps are to be found in the neighbourhood, their first care is to guard against their influence, or to diminish them by draining, or by hygienic observances suited to the countiy. ! ! ll 1 |ii V i" ! M ill •ii. ii ■ . ; 1 108 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. ;3 ^CHAP. VI. INFLUENCE OP CLIMATE ON INDIVIDUALS. — COLOIIATION OF THE SKIN. — INFLUENCE OF THE SAVAGE STATE, AND OF CIVILISATION ON MAN. THE IMMUTABILITY OF TYPES. MODIFICATION OF TYPES. COMMON ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN RACE. ORIGIN OF THE AMERICANS. ROUTES FOLLOWED BY THE RACES THAT HAVE EMIGRATED, AND THEIR DISPERSION THROUGH THE NEW WORLD. DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES. — INTELLECTUAL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURAL TRIBES WHO HAVE BEEN FAVOURED BY THE NATURE OF THE COUNTRY. — CONCLUSION. After having spoken of the possibility of foreign races becoming acclimatised, it remains for us to examine the influence of climate on individuals. The coloration of the skin is primarily attributable to the sun and to heat in general. Indeed, we perceive in the southern parts of our climate, that the face and hands of those persons who are continually exposed to the rays of the sun, assume an olive colour. We have Hkewise remarked in the south, that men who dig sand from the dry beds of rivers, and the Germans and Irish employed in America, in making bricks in the open air, and whose whole covering consists of a pair of drawers, have the portions of their bodies which is exposed to the air of a red similar to that of the savages in the United States. The most ordinary experience proves the powerful effect of climate on the complexion ; the heat of summer tans it, and the cold of winter gives it a ruddy colour. In temperate zones these alternate influences of heat and sists Idles the COLORATION OF THE SKIN. 109 cold correct each other, but when either one or the other becomes predominant, it produces, in proportion to its intensity, an effect more or less permanent, owing, in the one case, to the tension and expansion of the nerves and vital fluids ; in the other, to their contraction and loose- ness. The skin, especially, is pecuharly effected by coming in direct contact with the atmospheric air. The colour and face of the body do not proceed from any sudden impression, but are hke habits, gradually contracted, by slow and reiterated action, which affect nations as well as individuals. These habits are transmitt(;d to succeeding generations, and become strengthened by right of pre- scription ; it is only, however, af^er a long course of ages, or, at least, after a great numb3r of years, that national physiognomy and national customs acquire a fixed, pecu- har, and indehble character. The coloration of the skin is still further heightened by the damp heat of marshes ah low lands, and by the putri exhalations which abound in certain locaUties. Mr. Livingstone, who traversed Central Africa, from ocean to ocean, to the 18° of south latitude, observed among tlie numerous tribes of Negroes he visited, during his long journey, that the skin of those who Hved in low and marshy lands was of a very black and shiny colour, whilst that of those who Hved on plateaux and elevated, or dry ground, was of a brown colour, resembUng the skin of the mulatto. The vapoiurs emitted by stagnant waters, great fatigue, poverty, want of cleanhness, and nakedness, tend greatly to darken the skin. Studies, made by the aid of the microscope, show that the colour of the skin is owing to the presence of white, black, yellow, and red globules, which are found in the cellular tissues existing between the derme and the epi- ih '< 1 I \ MX i r'i 110 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. If, derme ; it can scarcely be crecliied, that so trifling and unimportant a difference could have led men of learning to conclude that the black, yellow and red races are of a different nature from the white. Would it not be more simple to refer this phenomenon to natural causes ? — as to the theories of secondary causes, which produce sucli results, it would be too long to enter on an explanation of them ; and as the reader can consult the works which treat that subject in detail, we shall confine ourselves here to quoting facts. The Jews afford a striking instance of changes produced in the skin by climate. Springing from the same stock, and being precluded, by their laws, from intermarrying with other nations, the Jews, although dispersed over the whole face of the globe, are, in general fair and white in England and Germany ; chestnut-coloured and brown in France, Italy, and Turkey ; swarthy in Spain and Portu- gal ; oUve-coloured in Syria and Chaldea ; and copper- coloured in Arabia and Egypt. What has been said with reference to the change in the skin, may be equally appUed to the hair, the features of the face, and every other part of the human body. The heat of the climate, like that of fire, curls and shrinks the hair, whilst humidity, on the other hand, expands and straigiitens it. Extreme cold contracts the nerves, and dhninishes the stature in the same way that extreme heat renders it slight and weakly. The face being that part of the body which is most exposed, and which, from the earUest age, is subject to the influences of the open air, is also that part which varies most widely in different climates. A tangible proof of the influence of cUmate upon organised beings is to be found in the fact, that cold tends aUke to stunt the growth of men and plants in Lapland as well as Greei ands( in elc lisatic it is, 1 bered Eurof shouk physic Tha of chi admit proteci ing, til and th the raj the mc must b istence, form h dered the cou Civil fluence wholesc well-cu many c human The by the presses breast, nance. I INFLUENCE OF THE SAVAGE STATE. Ill Greenland, and in the land of the Esquimaux. BufTon, and several other writers of the present age, have described, in eloquent pages, the influence of climate, food, and civi- lisation, upon the coloration of the hair and skin. True it is, that these changes are slow ; but when it is remem- bered that it required more than ten centuries to civiUse Europe, it ought not to be a matter of surprise that it should require still further time to change the colour and physiognomy of a people. That the savage state is calculated to increase the effect of climate, while civihsation tends to modify it, does not admit of a doubt. The savage, almost naked, and rarely protected, even by a miserable hut, is continually absorb- ing, tlirough the pores of his skin, the atmospheric air and the exhalations of the earth ; he is also exposed to the rays of the sun, which have upon him an influence all the more powerful, because it is direct. To these causes must be added the fatigue occasioned by his mode of ex- istence, his food, the quality of the herbs and roots which form his ordinary diet ; and, in short, the habits engen- dered by his wants and nature, and by the character of the country he inliabits. Civilisation, on the contrary, tends to correct the in- fluence of climate ; comfortable abodes, suflicient clothing, wholesome and nourishing food, taken at regular hours, a well-cultivated country, and habits of cleanliness, are so many causes which tend to preserve and embeUish the human species. The physiognomy of individuals is likewise influenced by the moral state of society. Every object which im- presses our senses, and every emotion which arises in our breast, affects our features, and is reflected on our counte- nance, as in a mirror. An insignificant face generally P , |i ii m 'A\\ 112 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. indicates an insignificant character and narrow inteHecc in the same way that an expressive face denotes a sensitive and impressionable mind, endowed with all those noble qualities which cc'nstitute man the the lord of the creation. The aspect of a sunny and cheerful country animates the physiognomy and gives it an agreeable expression. In- deed, it not unfrequently happens that the nature and variety of the ideas are sufficient to change the expression of the face, and thus to distinguish the intelligent, educated, and civilised man from those who have remained in an uncivilised state. The refinements of social life impart grace and ease to tlie body and give a mildness to the countenance, whilst, on the other hand, tlie rough labours of the field and the workshop render the person awkward and the features coarse. The truth of this assertion is made manifest by the fact, that we often observe as great a difference between an accomphshed lady and a peasant woman, as that which exists between a European and a savage. Different nations, belonging to the same race, acquire, by their habits, their intellectual capacity, their degree of civiUsation, and the cHraate and nature of their country, a peculiar type which distinguishes them from each other. This peculiarity of types, which is even observ^able among the different classes of the same nation, enables one to distinguish the position and occupation of each individual. In America, a striking instance of this difference in the physiognomy is afforded, by comparing the slaves who work in the fields with those who serve their masters in- doors ; the former retain their wild and African aspect, whilst the features of the latter are milder, their skin less dark, and not so coarse. Having pointed out the causes which modify the human of the VARIETY OF THE IIUxMAN TYPES. 113 species, and divide it into numerous varieties ; and having shown that the human types correspond exactly by the nature of tlie differences that distinguish them, to tlie varieties, or races, which are found in a single animal species, and which are considerably multipUed by the iniiuence of man, we shall conclude this subject by re- futing, -with the author of the " Diversity of Tjrpes," the objections drawn from the immutability of types by those who maintain the plurahty of th<. L uman species. From what we have already said the reader will have observed, that the immutabihty of types is a very general law, which operates not only among those races whose cUfferences are strongly marked ; but also, and alix ost to an equal extent, among those races whose distinctiDus are less palpable. From this law of immutability, which is applicable to the smallest groups of the human family, shall we conclude that the various types of mankind are types separately created and forming distinct species ? If so, let us be consistent ; let us give to that law the whole meaning of which it is susceptible, and let us maintain, not only that the Negroes, the MongoUans, and the Caucasians, are different species ; but also, that there exist in the midst of us several species of mankind, such as the Gaelic, the Kimric, and the Iberian species ; that oiu* Kimric Britons are not of the same species as our GaeHc Burgundians ; that the Basques represent a separate species ; that the Provencals, of Aries and of Marseilles, of Phocidan extrac- tion, are of a different species from their neighbours in the Ligiuian and Languedocian Provence, and from the French of the north. From such conclusions, however, we shrink, as being equally repugnant to our reason and to our feel- ings ; and yet such are the consequences we should be compelled to accept, if we were to view the law of immu- VOL. I. I 1 ) ii:''-fe ■ V, 114 THE DESEKTS OP NORTH Ail ERICA. tjibility in the same light as those who maintain the phirality of the human sp^ jcies. But let us not judge oi' these consequences, and of the theory from which they are derived, by the impressions they make on us. Let us rather inquire whether the law, which tends to preserve the permanency of types, necessa- rily impUes that those types were originally and essentially separate. And first, we would ask, what is the true nature of this law ? It is an act of generation, by which the outward form of the parents is transmitted to tlieir offspring, and by which the children inherit, not only the natmul qualities of their parents, but also then* acquired ones, which last circumstance is worthy of special notice. It is, also, by this act, that individual differences are converted into general differences, and become more pennanent modi- fications. These are undeniable facts, borne out by experience, and the bearing of which is known to every naturalist. Those who maintain the plm^ality of the human species base their conclusions solely on the fact of the immuta- bihty of types ; and not only do they fail to present this fact in its true fight, as being the result of a law of trans- mission, which embraces both natural and acquired quafities, but they seek, by the most extravagant hy- potheses, to exaggerate the permanency of types ; and everything which assigns a limit to that permanency, or proves that the types are susceptible of modification, is received by that school with an air of contempt and distrust. For instance, the following argiunent, which we quote fiterally, is considered as settling the question : " Men inliabiting, during a period extending in all proba- bifity beyond the age of authentic history, islands situated gomg tliree VARIETY OF HUMAN IL\CES. 115 ill tlic same latitude, und placed, as regards climate, in exactly the same condition and even in the vicinity of each otiier, have nevertheless remained up to the present time distinct in colour. Compare these inhabitants of the Vite, Solomt)n, ar.d New Hebrides islands, . dth the Poly- nesians of the Tonga, Otaita and Nouka-hiva islands ; the first are of a sooty colour, whilst their neighboius have not acquired (in all probability diu'ing three or four thousand years) the Ethiopian complexion." * Here, then, we have two distinct races : that of the Oceanic Negroes, and that of the Polynesians, inhabiting the same part of the glooe, and Uving imder a climate of exactly the same temperature, remaining nevertheless chstinct from each other. Eut how long have they thus existed? An answer to this question A\as necessary in order to justify the trouble \vliich had been taken in going so far to ascertain a fact of which more than one example might be foimd at home. As this point, how- ever, is open to every conjectiu-e, it has been coolly assumed that the races in question have Mved together during three or four thousand years. Such is the mode of reasoning, that has be^n termed a decisive argument. Here is another of the same kind : " Most of the Euro- pean countries have witnessed the emigration of portions of their popidation into distinct regions ; and, notwith- standing the length of time that has elapsed since some of those emigrations," says Desmoidins, " neither England, France, nor Spain ever fails to recognise in the colonists the features of the mother cou itry." f The reason that induced the author of the above passage to extend to three or foiu: thousand years the period during which the * B^rard, Cours de Physiologic, torn, i, p. 457. f I^it^* torn. I. p. 461. I 2 ] n m I- II M I 116 THE DESERTS OF XOIITII AMERICA. two principal Oceanic races have lived in tlic vicinity of each otlier, ought to liave shown him tlie insuflicicncy of the example of European colonists, on account of the too recent date of their emigration. For, surely three cen- turies is a very short space of time in the one case, if thirty or forty are required in the other case. Facts so negative, I had almost said so insignificant, as those which I have borrowed fro»n the arguments of M. Berard, might be considered, in some measure, as pertinent if intended to enlighten any one who should think a change of chmate sufficient to produce a complete change in a race ; or who should be so far ignorant of the force with which the laws of transmission operate, as to imagine that they could imdergo a thorough modification in a colony daily recruited by fresh emigi'ants from the mother country. In answering a person capable of entertaining such ideas, one might be justified in adducing examples of the above nature. Of all the pecuUarities by which the types and races are distinguished from each otlier, the most obvious are those that pertain to the coloiu* of the skin, and which in the estimation of some ought to be considered the most important. That such should be the opinion of those who deny the unity of the human species, is to us a matter of suiprise. For the colour of the skin is of all pecuUarities that which is most independent of any other. Not only does the colour of those races that are natiu-ally dark vary considerably, but complexions more or less dark are to be found in every type, and acquire among some of the inhabitants of gur own country as deep a hue as is ob- sen'able anywhere else. It wiU be remembered that there exist among the Abyssinian Semites perfectly black, and among the Indians Arian tribes who unite European fea- VARTKTY OF HUMAN RACES. 117 turas witli most decidedly Alrican eoinplcxioiis. It will also be remembered that amoiit^' the same race the hair and skhi are dark in low plains, and become fair in elevated regions. Such is the case with Hindoos of the Himalaya, the Arabs of the Yemen mountains, and with the Berbers of Mount Aures, in the re^'ency of Tunis. In order U explain the presence of these men with fair ccmiplexion and hght hair in the midst of Kabyle tribes, it has been ])resumetl that the Berbers of Aures are descendants of the Vandals. But this is a mere sui)position, an hypothesis of which those w^ho maintain that a race cannot lose their colour- eagerly avail themselves.* Admitting, however, that the Kabyles are of Vandal origin, that is to say, that they belong to the Indo-Germanic race, I would still ask, how comes it that they have retained their fair com- plexion, light hair, and blue eyes, whilst in the towns of Germany, those of I -nmark, juid in the plains of Switzer- land, from the canton of Soleure to the Lake of Constance, black hau' and eyes are so common ? Unless our advei- saries are prepared to deny the most evident facts, they cannot affirm that the Indo-Germanic lace has every^where returned all the original characteristics of its tj^e. Every tom'ist who has travelled through the Beniese Oberland must have remarked the striking difference which exists Ix-'tween the inhabitants of the valleys and those of the mountain villages. Both in Lower Hash and in Inter- laken I have often met with the swarthy complexion and black hak of the Ligurian race, whilst at a few leagues' distance the population of Upper Hash is usually fair, as is in general the case with the inhabitants of the Swiss Alps. ♦ When told that this is but an hypothesis, " What matters ? " they quietly reply, and then proceed to draw conclusions from that very hypothesis. I 3 ii A-: I •' 'I 118 TllK DKSKUTS OF iSOUTIl AMKIIIC'A. Tluiso local (lifliM'L'iico.s jutvo to hIiow llu; close connec- tion that exists be'tween the altitnde of a country and tiie physical cliaractcu' of its inhal)itants, and tiie possibihty of tiiat character beinj^' tlierehy niodilied. The coiniection between the colour of tlio skin and th(5 latitude of a coinitiy is no less evident, [t is in tJu; t »rrid zone that we niec i with the darkest complexions, which l)econu! f^raduiilly li«^hl('i' in proportion as we proceed towards the poles. J)espitts howeviu', th(! obviousi»ess of tlu;s(( o<)incid(Mices, tlu're are not wantin*^' those who insist on inaintaininf>', that in the huiaan rac(!s colour is an in- herent (juality in no way allected by tlui iniluence of the? Hun, or il" so, t^ a veiy linuted extent, such as slightly tannin<^ the complexion of countiy people, or addin^^ a nhade or two to a compUixion naturally inclined to sonu; particular coh/ui'. Ihit these ])ersons, who ho boldly and HO contemptuously lU^ny the colouriuf^" iniluence of the Hun, forfjjet that nations l)elon«»in souolit to (liiniiiisli tho iuijM)rtun('(3 of tJu' rti'tion of the sua ill (Mjlouriiig thii skin, can only liavu weight witli those wlio take u narrow and exclusivt; view of that action, l)V considering it as tho sole cause of coU)iir, and l)y omittin«4 to take into account tlie circunistaiu^es wliich ai'e favour- al)U!! or unfavourable to its inlluence. But it is precisely those who uuiintain that colour is an inherent (luality in the human races, who fall into the error of taking this exclusive view. Becnust; the brownish colour of the Lap- lander cannot })e ascribed to the excessive heat of tlie sun, it has been infernal that they must always have been of that colour. Unfortunately for this conclusion, it is now known tiiat if the La])landers have a sooty com])lexion, they do not inherit it any more tlian their short sUiture fn>m their ancestors, the T^ii)s ; and we have no rtuison for believing that the latter differed in cohmr from the other members of the Ouralian family — the family to which also belonged the Finns, wlio were the progenitors of the fair Finlanders. Wherever beyond the equatorial latitude the state of the climate is sucli as to subject man to the alternate inlluence of a v^ery hot or a very e^>ld temperature, we nuiy expect to find tliat the skin has been aflected by those influences — the; opposite nature of whiih in n(j way lessens the strong eflect they are calculated to produce. Indeed, the extreme temi)eratures exer(;ise |)roportionably a greater influence on nations who most nearly approach a state of natiu'o. In order to explain the diflerent colours, the various typos, and the medley of races in America, and in the islands scattered over the face of tb<3 globe, and to acctmnt for the phenomena, couibination, and caprit;es of nature, ihero is no need to have recourse to obscure and intricate theories, full of sti'ange n(3velties and trans- I 4 ' . s !- : i; I I Li;| 1 1 ., !;S Vl m i 120 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. parent sopliisms. Such theories are the offspring of a mind baffled in its attempts to comprehend the mysteries of Providence, and biassed by foregone conclusions and prejudices against rehgion. Or, again, they may be the result of a superficial knowledge of the matter hi ques- tion, or a real ignorance of the facts that condemn a system too hn onsiderately adopted. And as the hght which history throws upon the question is insufficient to dispel every obscurity, there are some who, rather than admit the truth of the Mosaic account, content themselves with the imperfect knowledge afforded by conjectures. In considering the objections urged against the biblical cosmogony, we were mucli struck by tlieu' weakness and inadequacy, especially when contrasted with the theories and arguments opposed to them. In concluding his work on the human races, M. HoUard, whom we always quote with pleasure on account of the correctness of his obser- vations, says : — " Some naturalists have thought to refute the system which ascribes a common origin to manldnd, by drawing a fanciful analogy between the distribution of the principal human types over particiUar regions of the earth, and the geographical distribution of the animal and vegetable kingdom into local systems, implying the existence of several central regions around which the various races of animals and different kinds of plants are grouped, and in which they were originally created." Some etlmologists are of ophiion that the dispersion of mankind was too extensive, especially when viewed with reference to those countries most remote from the conti- nent of Asia, to admit of the behef that the world was peopled by means of emigration. Again, there are some who think it more in accordance with tlie principles of pliysiology to consider the human races as having been especifdly created for tlic chmates UNITY OF THE HUMAN EACE. 121 of limal the the arc they inhabit, than to admit the possibihty of their acch- matisation in regions differing so widely as Siberia and Central Africa. A few words will suffice to appreciate these three opinions, equally opposed to the unity of race. That the existence of the animal races should be hmited to particular regions — a fiict which shows that they, as well as plants, have been separately created in different parts of the earth — is perfectly natural, for they consist of species essentially distinct. The animal kingdom is every- where spread over the earth, although its particular species are only found in certain regions, and even the classes which are most numerous can hardly be said to exist in every country. On the contrary, the domain, not only of manldnd in general, but of every species of the human race, extends over the whole surface of the globe, when we cease to view those species as originally distinct ; and, indeed, it would be no easy matter to state the exact number of the regions supposed to have witnessed the creation of their respective races, and to assign to them, precise hmits. But is it absolutely necessary to assume the existence of several primitive centres of population in order to explain the presence of man in every quarter of the globe during a period more or less extended ? Were there any fact clearly establishing, or even affording a probability, that the regions of the earth now inhabited have been, in each case, inhabited during an equal length of time, the supposition in question would be well grounded, and, indeed, could alone account for such a uniformity. But, wliatever the real antiquity of the civihsation of some nations may be, and however long they may have existed, tradition affords far more reason for believing that the human race s[)read itself over the earth by successi\e M 122 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I emigration, than for believing that the earth was simul- taneously peopled ; for man appears everywhere to have led a nomadic hfe prior to settling down in fixed local- ities. It was from the depths of Asia that successive waves of barbarous tribes swept over the Eoman empire, and bore the Vandals onwards to the shores of Africa. The more recent emigiations of modem Europe have carried to every part of the earth races destined to change the population of their adopted cou' tries, and to give them an importance which they have i.or. hitherto enjoyed ; and can we, in the face of these facts, refuse to beUeve in the account given in the Bible, which repre- sents mankind as proceeding, hke the rays of the sun, from a single centre, which it assigns as th^ birthplace of all the human races ? There are too many i stances of emi Indiniis of tlu* iircscnt day. Untortuiuilrly, tilt" iulornuitioii wi* \u\\c v ourcrniii^ llic Asinlii' pnjuilMtioiis is vi'i'y im|)(Mlr«'t.. To th.' rxirciiu' rust, of Asia iIutc exist. h'Wu'H HH uiuMvilis(<(l as those of Aiii«ssin^^ a mild eliniate and a I'eitiK* soil, al)oundin<.; in natural resouri'es, inlluenees the moral I'harat'ter »>!' its iniia l)ilants to a eonsiderahle extent, by diniinishin;^ their physical wants and the lalM»ur n<'«M>ssary to supply iheni, and by leavin;^ niore leisurt' and more strenj^lh lor the developujent of their intt'llectual faculties. Indt'cd, the iHlects of this natural prons of the moon, or the appai'cnt annual rotation ut' the sun. I\atrr thev d the solar year oi' 'M'tO days, then of .^(15, and, linally, of 'M\t) and a iVactional part. That they slumld have observed the passajjje of the sun in the /enilh of Mexico, shows us iliat such observations could «>nly have been made originally iu cv)untrie« situatetl between the ti rooicH. voh. I. 130 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. It is rather curious that the Mexicans, who were un- doubtedly of Asiatic origin, sliould not have brought their civilisation from the mother country, which was yet in a barbarous state, and that theu' civilisation should be pecuharly their own. The tribes in the remainder of Americii, less favoured and not addicted to agricultui'e, never attained the same dejrree of social nnd intellectual development as those who occupied theii. elves in agri- cidtural pursuits. Too indolent to work, they subsisted on the nat'aral products of the country by Jiuuting, fishing and on roots. M. Albert Galatin says, with reference to. this : 12,000 square kilometres of cultivated ground might maintiun a milhon of men, whereas the same space uncultivated would hardly maintain 10,000.* We conclude, therefore, by repeating that it is use- less to have recourse to the supposition of a separate creation in America, a fresh Divine interposition, or any other extraordinary theory, in order to arrive at the origin eitlicr of animals or Indians, or to understand their dUferencos, the kingdoms which have disappeared, their antiquity, tln^u* civilisation, or the variety of American languages. We must admit that the Lidians of the pre- sent day are the degenerate descendants of emigrants from the Old World, who at successive and very remote periods came over to America, voluntarily or accidentally, either in ftunily groups or separately. Our belief is that of the most eminent of the learned who have treated this sub- ject : the divers theories which are opposed to it, let us add, are based on gratuitous and arbitrary suppositions, on local, superficial, and insufficient data, and on prejudices which science caimot recognise. Transiictions of the American Ethnological Society. New York, 1845. 131 PAET III. DESCEIPTICNS. CHAP. VII. i: DIVISIONS OF NOnXH AMEttlCA. — NOHTHEUN PVAIRIES OF TEXAS. — ^- FIRST DESEHTS OF THE SOUTH. REPTILES AND INSECTS. THE RED RIVER OF TEXAS. LAKES. CKUSS-TIMIJER. WITCHITA MOUNTAINS. ANECDOTES. SAND HILLS. CANONS. — SOURCE OF THE RED RIVER. MIRAGE. THE PRAIRIE DOGS. SOURCE OF THE KI-CHI-E-QUI-HO-NO. THE LLANO- ESTACADO. ASPECT OF THE SOLITUDES ON A SUMMER'S NIGHT. The Indians, surnamed the Eed Skins of tlie United States, have been perfectly described to us by the mis- sionaries of last century, in Fenimore Cooper's novels, and the learned writings of many American authors; but these almost annihilated tribes are now more worthy the historian's sympathetic pity than the attention of the modern writer, for the Anglo-Saxons have shrouded Uiem in the wretchedness of a factitious civilisation, which renders these savages repulsive, both in a physical and in a moral point of view. The primitive type of the Indian is only to be found in the great deserts ; that is to say, far from whisky, from the small-pox, and from the American plantations. It is in those deep solitudes compnsed between Texas, on the south, the valley of the Mississippi, on the east, the Bdtish possessions, on the north, and the Pacific Ocean, on the K 2 V H I'. Hi II i i 1 o») TI1£ DESEETS OF NORTH AMEEICA. west, that you should go to study the Indians. It is there that they are to be seen in their primordial character, with their native facidties and their original habits ; in the midst of scenery that is at tlie same time grand, gloomy, and poetic, the stamp of which, in the desert, becomes deeply impressed on man and things. To describe, step by step, those vast soUtudes, which are, nevertheless, inhabited by myriads of men of divers colours, of strange customs, of singular haoits, so different from what we usually see ; where nature changes its aspect at every moment, and where extraordinary phenomena strike the traveller either with admiration or with awe, — woidd be an undertaking quite as toilsome and painfully fatiguing as are the long journeys across boundless prauies, or amidst mountains of overwhelming magnitude. It is then with a rapid glance that we shall go over those immense wilds, only stopping at a few exceptional sites, worthy of occupying om* attention on account of their original details. The central part of North America is divided into two very distinct zones. The one to the east is covered with thick forests, which extend almost without interruption from the Atlantic to the valley of the Mississippi, and even to a distance of 300 miles beyond that river. On all this surface, you seldom meet with the great clearings called glades, save in a few valleys of the principal chain of the Alleghany Mountains and in Kentucky. The forests then make way for the prairi*^s, which, beginning in Texas, ascend from south to north to the hyperborean regions, and are afterwards lost to the west in the waters of the Pacific Ocean. It is this zone, divided in all its length by the range of the Eocky Mountains and of the Sierra Nevada, that is the least known, although it is the most PRAIRIES OP TEXAS. 133 curious and interesting of the New World. It is of this part of America that we shall especially treat. We have already spoken of Texas in our " Missionary Adventures in Texas and Mexico ;" so that we will now only say a few words about its northern part, where the deserts begin. It is known that this new state of the American Union extends towards the Gulf of Mexico, in sandy and swampy plains, which, as they ascend north- ward, become elevated, fertile, and wavy, and are clothed with rich pasturage, on wiiicli graze numerous herds of cattle, sheep, and horses. The mountains only appear in the north and north-west, near the Ked Eiver, the Llano- Estacado, and New Mexico. The prairies are cut up by countless rivers and streams, which are skirted by a double border of forests com- posed of cedars, magnolias, sycamores, plane-trees, ebony, mesquites, tuHp-trees, maples, pines, besides- many va- rieties of acacias, oaks, and other trees indigenous to hot cUmates. The prairies of Texas resemble those of the other great American deserts, yet they are less undulating but more fertile. I have traversed some of them that were sixty miles in length ; they appeared to me hke an ocean of dark stunted herbs, in which not a single brush or bramble obstructed the view, where nothing marked a beginning or an end, and where all was mute and motionless. It would be in vain to seek for beauty in this nature, which is no doubt grand, but possessed of the wild and melancholy character of the desert. The soid is filled with the immensity of the picture, as on the ocean ; but the sea has, at least, the wind and waves to give it animation ; whereas, in these soUtudes there reigns a dismal silence, • gloomy K 3 Mil ^1! i It u ; ' ■ . .A n -i ^ A i- t :-;4 ■T ' [j ], I. '•■ - J 1 i.) 134 THE DESERTS OF NORTH A3HERICA. and sad like that of the tomb, which fills the heart with a darksome and distressing uneasiness in this void re- sembHng chaos. One joiu:neys on wearily tlirough these wildernesses for days together, without hearing the warble of the birds, without seeing anything but the yellow grass, flowers faded by the heat, deer lying carelessly about, and prick- ing up their ears as they look at you with astonishment ; time-blanched bones, some rare tumuli, or sepulchral mounds, gilded by the last rays of the setting sun, or di-owned in the bluish vapours of the atmosphere. Such are the sole monuments, the only traces of man's sojourn in these solitudes. To the west of Texas, between Lavaca and Victoria, between the Eio Seco and the Eio Blanco, are to be seen two plains, with shght undulations going from east to west ; the ridges of the ground resemble, so as to deceive the beholder, the Httle waves caused by the ebb and flow of the tide, — they are long, soft, and even. Here and there, at long intervals, mesquites, with their gnarled branches, display their dark green foliage ; a few clusters of acacias, too, are scattered in a most capricious way about this plain, and appear Uke motionless shadows benchng over a petrified sea covered with algas. These regions are most remarkably fertile ; grass and flowers grow there in vigorous profusion ; and partridge, quail, wild turkeys, and deer, have made of this spot their i'avourite sojourn. On the other hand, rattle-snakes, scorpions, and tarantulas swarm there. They are con- tinually to be seen in the plains, in the woods, on the borders of tlie rivers, in fact, everywhere. It is impos- sible to form an idea of the quantity and variety of noxious reptiles and insects that multiply in the north REITILES AND INSECTS. 135 and north-west of Texas. One day as I was walking beside my cabin, reading my breviary, I crushed, without being aware of it, the back of a serpent that lay in my way. If venomous reptiles and insects were to attack man in those countries, the history of the deserts would be but a long martyrology; happily it is not so, for, owing to the heat of the chmate, the movements of these animals are very slow. You can judge of this fact by the following instance : — A young savage, who was travelling on foot in the prairie of the Leona, stopped under a tree to rest himself. In seeking a commodious spot, he stepped inadvertently on the tail of a rattlesnake that lay con- cealed under the grass. The reptile at once raised his head, and was on the point of darting his fangs into the imprudent youth, when the latter, without losing his self-possession in presence of the danger that menaced him, and from which he had not time to flee, mstantly took out his knife, and let it fall perpendicularly on the serpent's head, which was pierced through and through. But the greatest annoyance to travellers crossing these sohtudes is the tick, a species of bug pecuHar to the prairies. This insect, whose numbers are prodigious, creeps under your clothes, clings to your skin, nestles itself in your flesh, sucks your blood, torments you with an inces- sant itching, and can only be torn from the body with the greatest difficulty. I have often counted to the number of fifty of these insects that took up their abode on my legs, during an encampment of one or two hours. Another torment, inseparable from long journeys in the prairies and great deserts, is the want of water. The streams and rivers in those regions are generally so distant from each other, that the traveller is often without the K 4 iH t t 1S6 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. means of quenching his thirst for days togcilicr. Thirst exhausts animals, and renders them useless, much sooner than it overpowers men ; nevertheless, the latter suffer terribly from this great privation of water : sometimes they fall victims to the heat before their throats, con- tracted by the ardour of the sun, can get refreshed with a cool hqiiid. I have seen m the woods the withered skeletons of unfortimate white people, who died from thirst near a spring or a pool of water, that they fancied was yet a long way off, or to which they had not strength to crav ]. I have often been obhged to stretch myself on . : ji.i - to moisten my burmng hps, by suck- ing the tiny ;ops (hit the night-dew produced on the green-sward of the soiicudes. Without speaking of ferocious animals, there is an- other danger which continually hangs over the tra- veller's head in the northern part of Texas : it ij the arrow and the lance of the Comanches. These savages have been so ill treated by the Americans, since the an- nexation of Texas to the United States in 1850, that they meditate notliing but vengeance against the white faces. The number of victuns who fall every year in this state by the Indians' weapons is so considerable, that no one dares to trust himself alone in those deserts. The Eed Eiver and the lofty table-land of the Llano- Estacado form the northern boundaries of Texas, and tlivide it into portions of Louisiana, of Arkansas, of the Cliickassas and Chactas territory, and of New Mexico. Before 1852, no one had yet gone over these vast countries for a scientific purpose, so that the only informa- tion obtained about them was derived from a few ignorant savages, and from half-civihsed merchants who traded with the neighboiu'ing tribes of New Mexico. RED RIVER. 137 In this latitude, where argillaceous earth, sand, and ferru- ginous deposits give the different waters a reddish tincture, it is not surprising to find that many rivers bear the same name, derived from the appearance of their waters. The Mexicans and Indians of Texas and of New Mexico generally give the name of Eio Colorado to all rivers whose waters are of a reddish yellow ; the Canadian and all other rivers and creeks of Texas and of the New World have received this appellation, which accounts for the mistake made by Baron de Humboldt, Colonel Long, and Lieutenant Pike, in their topography of the sources of the lied River. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the French Government sent out experienced officers f< the purpose of exploring the Eed Eiver, but they did rot e - end their explorations beyond the country occupied by the Natchi- toches of Louisiana. Three years after the cession of Louisiana to the United States was made by the First Consul, a new expedition was organis. J, the object of which was to ascend the Eed Eiver to its very sources. The command was confided to Captain Sparks, who was accompanied by Lieutenant Humphry, Mr. Freeman, and Dr. Custis. But the expedition having left Natchez on the 3rd of May, 1806, met with so many trying difficulties that, shortly after, it was totally abandoned. The one commanded by Lieutenant Pike, in the same year, was not more successful ; so that the honour of this discovery is awarded to Captain Eandolph Marcy, who verified the geographical position of the source of the Eed Eiver, whilst he was making scientific explorations in 1852, by order of the Government of the United States. From its sources as far as Fulton, in Arkansas, the Eed Eiver always directs its course from west to east, then it i 13S THK DKSKRT8 OF NORTH AMKRICA. (loaccnds nbniptly from north to south until it rcarhcs ita inouth in thi- Mi.ssissippi, towards tlie 31" north lat, and the 1)1" 50' \v(\st long.; its toUil length being 2,100 niile.s. With the cxeej)tion of the Witdiita Mountaints the entire coiuitry through which this river pa.sses is but a sjia- cioua plain, interspersed with a few iusigniricant hil- locks. For alnmt 510 miles westward this jvlain is very arid, and almost denuded. TeriiHlical droughts render ngriculture quite impnicticablc in this di.strict, unless a system of irrigation, the exjKMisc of which would Ixj very great, could beinventeil. The Ited Biver continually flows over a bed of fine moving siuul, which rendera it very dangerous to tbnl, particularly for caniages. It tmvcrses the largest bed of bituminous coal and anthracite that is probably to be found in the glolx?. This stratum com- mences at the 28° 4' 51' north lat, and extends as far as the 43°, covering almost all the extent of the region com- prised between tlie 94° 30' west long, to tlie 109**. Its boundaries are the Ilio Grande and the Brazos in Texas on the south, Fort SmitJi in Arkansas on the east, the Nabraska on the north, and the Navajos's countiy in New Mexico on the west, thus extending 1,100 miles from north to south, and 670 miles fi*om east to west Before entering the great prairies of the south-east, the Red River passes through a wood called Cross-Timber ; it is an alluvial soil of most remarkable fertility, on which grow trees of gigantic dimensions. This valley becomes bifurcated in Texas ; its Andth varies from six to thirty miles, and it is 400 miles in length. It seems hke a transition betwee]i tlie civilised and fertile coun- tries, and the deserts which only contain wandering tribes. All this territory is fi-equented by the Comanches and L.\KKS OX THE IIKD RIVKU. J *il) the Kiuwuys, who take thek iiiides iiud horses to gnizc there. From JefTei-Mou, (i little above Fulton, tilmost to the Missi8si|)|)i, may be seen a «ucces.sion of louf^ narrow lakes, which stretch out along the banks of the lied Kiver. These lak(!S, like the; resaran of the llio Gniiide, have, doubtless, been produced by the ravages caused by the Red Kiver, whilst changing beds at the e|X)ch of the in- imdations. These inundations are periodical ; they take ])lace in whiter, and about the months of May or June. The region of the lakes is lonely, but full of channs. Each of these sheets of water Is l)egirt with a broad belt of grass, dotted with (lowers of rainbow colours. Trees loaded with nests, similar in form to small conches, of azure tint, wlu'rein birds have de})osited eggs of a golden yellow, are majestically reflected in these vast mirrors of the cri'ation. Butterflies of emerald and topaz hues adorn the blooming bush. Beetles, with breasts of sa[)phire, hunnning-birds, and colibris, balance themselves rrarelessly, rocked by the brcjith of the breeze over the bosom of flowers that are tinted like the most lovely rays of the setting sun. Chinese* lilacs (Si/ritif/n Chine/hsis) bend over long lines of rose-bushes, which diffuse delicious perfumes; ■whilst the widow-bird and the dove send forth their ])laintive notes from amongst the trees, and the mocking- bird whistles its eccentric song. Their sweet strains, sad and harmoniously lost in the silence of the desei t, reached my ears like the last sighs of a dying virgin, and fdled my heart with profound melancholy. In those great solitudes everything makes a deep impression on man, and stnkes him with awe; he could not remain indiffernit in presence of the glorious spectacles which Nature in her inexhaustible magnificence has placed before him. Unless r It" i" ill m Ui 110 TIIK I)I<«SKKTS OK XOUTII AMEIUCA. I! Hi lie be low-niinu8t: Meridian, 100° O' Ifi" west long., W 3t' OG" nortli Int. To tln' north : Tlio C'hactnH'» Nation. To tho wost : Captain K. B. Marcy, May 2i)tii, 1852." In this spot the Red River is more than GOO yards in width, and its depth is not quite five feet. On one side may be descried the Witchita Mountains, the blue out- lines of which are delineated on the horizon. On the other, in the delta formed by the two arms of the river, are sandy hills of great elevation, which can be perceived at a considerable distance. The soil in this district is a succession of undulating and very sandy prairies, in con- sequence of which they are quite baiTen ; but the borders of the rivers and streams arc generally thinly wooded. The most common trees there are the cotton-tree (Po- jniliis ai\gul(ita\ the elm {Alimts Americana\ the oak (Quercus macrocarpa\ and a few fruit bushes, such as the currant-tree, the raspberry-bush, tlie wild plum-tree (Pru- nus chicasa), &c. Ill WITCIIITA MOUNTAINS. 141 The WitcliiUi Mouiitiiins iiw singularly |)i('turoM(|iU! and boautit'ul; composed of granitcofdiirt'ivnt (U'grct's of hard- riCS8, and of manifold (Colours, tliry rist; al)ruj)tly from a li'Vil plain to a lu'iglit varying froni 050 to 700 feet. Many of tltese mountains ar(! isolated, and Ix^ara res(Mi l)'inH;e to trune^itcd eones ; others, on tlu; contrary, an- grouped and joined together, though still retaining theii" circular form. At a distuni'e their surface seems a» if [)olished, but, near, they n'present huge mttsses of rocks (lonfusi'dly heaped one above the other. Nevertheless in some j)la(;e8 the granite has i)reserved it« primitive position, lied ])orphyry and i)ieces of felsjiar of the same colour arc to be found there in abundance. All these rocks arc inter- veined with greenstone and rpiartz, the latter being gene- rally coloured with oxide of iron. The declivities of the mountains are fiequently cut up by huge precij)ices, which are covered with wail-plants. The plains from the middle of which these mountains tuscend, possess numerous and most magnificent specimens of chalce- donj% jas[)er, and agate. The sources that spring from the bosom of the rocks, or from the greensward, are limpid, and tlie water has a strong taste of alkaline. Matted grass, at least ten or twelve feet long, clothes the soil of the valleys, which are shaded by black chest- nut-trees, ash-trees, cotton-trees, oaks, Chinese lilacs, mes- quitcs, and willows. Buffaioes, panthers, antelopes, roe- bucks, otters, beavers, turkeys, grouse, quail, partridges, and mocking-birds, live quietly together in those sohtudes. Fo i^erly, at the foot of the mountains, were many villages belonging to the Witchita Indians, who cultivated maize ; but since 1850 they have abandoned their villages and spread themselves over the prairies, probably on account I i I i , I rt-n 142 TIIK DKSKUTS OF XOIITII AMKUKA. m of tlio iinnii*sions lundo by llio Coniaiu'hcs. Yot it must have boon ik'li«ihtt\il to dwell in this iv^ion, wlioro tlio air is its pure and sweet a^ the kiss oi a eiiilil, the eliniatc deUciously mild, and the sky ever blue sis an Oriental sapphire; a gentle breeze, too, in sweepinji^ over the ealyx of flowers, eontinually embalms the atmosj)here with their fiagranee; the eedars and Chinese lihu:s exhale sweet perfumes ; and the et)libri, the blue biid, iuul the eardinal flutter from branch to bi-aneh ; lar^e nests are built by birds of prey on tlie summit of the rocks or in the hollows of dried-up quaiijmires; tortoises crawl solitarily to the soft nnu'nuu'injjc brook ; wormwood, amnranthus, and ])urple flowers, blocks of reil granite fi'om which ivy hangs, are visible untler the verdt^nt oaks; whilst light flocculent clouds hover above the toj)s of motionless trees — charming scenes, which Cii])tivate the human soul, at the same time that they plunge it into a deep reverie. The Chactas, t«) whom those mountains belong, never venture there; they fear the Comanches, and prefer cultivating in ])eace their gnnmd within the plains rather than have to encounter these wanderir-g tribes, whom they despise even more than they fear. In the neighbouring prairies arc to be seen i\ great many cylindrical elevations, from thirty to one hundred yards in circumference, and of the same formation as the mountains. To the western ex- tremity of the Witchitas, two of th(>so cylinders are fluted into spirals ; they are thiity feet in height, and foity-live in circumference. One can scarcely explain by wliMt, process nature rears and moulds such huge blocks of granite. All this desert, as far as tlie source of the lli'd Uiver, is literally furrowed with paths traced out by the savages Avlu> gn to New Mexico or come Worn it, a.^ likewise by TEXIAN FRONTIERS. 143 tliose who skirt along the Toxijui tVontlors and tlio hiink-^ of the Ciinadiaii, for tho purpose of hunting tlie bullalo anil eatcliing beavers and otters. The greater nuniber of tliose savages are Conianehes, Wacos, Kiehais, and Qua- jiaws. This hust tribe, now ahnost extinet, derives its origin fi'oni the Arkansius nation, and Hved formerly nine or twelve miles from the Wiiite Uiver. They are men of oonunanding appearance, expert hunters, and brave warriors. It is stated that having, on one occasion, entered the Chikiussas territory to hunt the bufValo, the latter did not dare to oj)pose tlieir invasion, but deemed it more prudent to retire. TheQuapaws' cliieftain, having heard that the C'hiknssas acti'd thus because they had no powder, immediately ordereil the ])rovision of his own warriors to be emptied into a blanket, and having divided it into two equal ])ortions, gav » one to his enemies, and distributed the other amongst his comi»anions in arms. Then a brisk combat took phice, but the Quapaws re- niaineil victt)rs. On leaving the Wilchita Mountains to ascend tho northern branch of the lied Uiver, the geologii'al con- iiguration of the soil I'himges com[>letely. (Granite dis- appears, and is rej)laced by carbonate of linu> and gyp- sum, the bed of which extends from the Canadian to liie liio Grande in New Mexict). In some places this vein is lifteen nules in width, and produces every imaginal)lo viriety of gyi)sum, from the conunon j)laster of l*aris to the purest selenite, blocks of which are to be found that are more than a yanl thick, and yet that are as trans- l)arent lus glass. Here and there are also to be seen hills, that are either ist)lated or in regular groups, varying from 100 to 2r)0 yards in height ; tho greater pai't are of conical form, composed of dillerent layers of ingil, gyp- ■ H< (r If I. ! It I 'Hi |iH 144 TIIK DESKRTS OF NORTH AMERICA. sum, .and lime. Seen afar off, th(^y resemble gigantic tents brilliantly variegated, and pitched in the innnensity of the wilderness to slielter a colossal race. In those regions, as on the borders of the Canadian, you meet with long files of regular hillocks of blue or green clay, surmounted by a kind of palisade in gypsum, similai- to the colonnades of an ancient city excavated fiom the bowels of the eartli, and crowning a dome of verduie. These hills have tlie appearance of fortifications erected by a nati(m of giants. Tiuly may it be said that the works of nature are most rich in wonders, and in the desert those wonders are scattered about with marvel- lous ])rofusion. Towards the sources of the Red River begin the curi- ous eailonfi, a kind of naturul ravines of great depth, con- siderable numbers of which are to be seen tliroughout the entire surface of the great Western deserts. These i-avines leave quite bare the crust of the esuth, which in this spot is composed of several layers of ferruginous grit-stone, and of red or calcareous clny. In the latter are to be found fossil shells of the species IfclU' plchelum^ Surcinca elongata, Ostrca., c^c. Sometimes you also meet in these ravines with large blocks of scoria and other volcanic productions, as likcAvise agate, onyx, chalcedony and wood fossils. As to the neighbouring prairies, they are actually stivwed with fragments of carbonate of lime, jmrtly con- cealed by the grass. Tlie ravines render travelling rather a difficult matter in those countries, particularly for waggons ; the obstacles, being for the most part insiu'- mountable, oblige you to mak. ccmtinual circuits, which cause considerable loss of time. The ennui'< and diflicul- ties of these journeys are often augmented b}^ the want of food, for in certain seasons of the year the buflido and IB: 1 n i f .'f "fj 1 iti' W: 11 1 'if; 1 II i 1 % iirs 'vV. >. ■ ' .;v,'i M^\ M SOURCES OF THE BED BIVER. 145 / deer, which become daily more wild, arc scarcely to be found. The Trappers and Indians allure the cows and buffaloes that are wdthin hearing by imitating the calf's cry ; but this means is often dangerous, for it also / / draws panthers and other ferocious anim als that are always /<^^^ < on the watch near the encampments. Another trial that^^^^,^^ travellers have to endure in these latitudes, comes from the deleterious quality of the waters drawn from brooks and creeks, which aregenerally brackish. Necessity ob- liges you to drink them, and their frequent use occasions bowel complaints that are often very dangerous. On approaching the source of the northern branch of the Eed Eiver, the la^l^er becomes subdivided, deepens gradually, and flows from a series of narrow gorges, formed by rocks of sandstone and argil, 300 feet in height, which are lost in the declivities of the Llano- Estacado. The geographical situation of the source is twenty-four miles from the Canadian, at the 101° 55' west long., and the 35° 35' 03" north lat. Then the best route to pursue for the purpose of visiting the other branch is to go directly towards the south, following the confines of the Llano-Estacado. The geological formation of this country again differs from the one we have already made known. In the rocks the common gritstone predominates, as also veins of quartz, felspar, mica, and serpentine. The soil is studded with crevices, and is quite cut up by deep ravines, and the geneml character of the country is the aridity of a desert scorched by an overfwwering sun. Silex trees are there in great abundance, and the petri- factions are so perfect, that the bark, knots, and fibres are as distinctly perceivod as though the trees were yet alive. Quantities of these i)etrifactions are also to be seen in a VOL. I. L ! \ ; I 1 i 1 1 ; . i ' i m 14C THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. sjlndy plain covered with wild sensitive-plants, and particu- larly with Schrankia augustata. This plain is bound on the north by a labyrinth of sandy mamelons, fourteen miles long, from the summit of which may be descried the tableland of the Llano-Estacado, that rises to a height vaiying from 1000 to 1500 feet above the surrounding countries. In these regions you continually behold the deceitful mirage. The phenomena it here presents are perhaps more singular and curious than in any otlier pait of the world. The difference in density of the atmospheric pressure on those elevated plains causes extraordinary variations of reflection, which make distant objects appear under the most ludicrous and fanttvstic forms ; meanwhile the reverberation of the sun on the surface of the prairies breaks the rays, and reflects the varied colours of the light on the azure of the firmament. At times a crow seen afar off appears tc be a man liopping about, and an antelope takes tlie pre portions of a buffalo or a camel. The imaginary lakes, tlie aerial cities, the rivers and graceful shades that embellish the greater number of these visions, assume, near tlie Llano-Estacado, softer outlines, more lovely tints, a more enchanting and poetic aspect — affording more beautiful representations — so that the de- lusion is complete. Unfortunately inexperienced travel- lers, parched with thirst and overcome with fatigue, soon discover that those seducing pictures are but a fatal lure. The Comanches ciill the south em arm of the Red Eiver Ki-chi-e-qui-ho-no, that is U:> stiy, river of the town of the dogs of the prturies. This name has doubtless been given to it on account of the quantity of those little quad- rupeds {Spermophilus ladovicianus) that inhabit these PEiVIRIE DOGS. 147 solitudes in far greater numbers than in the other Aineri- can wildernesses. I do not tliink tliere exists in the world as stupendous a village as the one which the prairie dogs have constructed for themselves in the plain that leads to the sources of the Ki.-chi-^-qui-ho-no. This village is twenty-five miles in length, and is equally extensive in width, which, supposing it to be almost circidar, makes a superficies of about 625 square miles. From these gigantic dimensions one can easily judge of the numbers of the interestmg population tliat live there. Villages of the prairie dogs are to be found extending from Mexico to the farthest boundaiy of the United States. Li making choice of a site for the establishment of their colony, the prairie dogs always choose an uncovered and rather elevated spot, sheltered from inimdations, and on which grows a stunted weed that is their usual food. It is to be supposed that this quadruped can live without water, for it sometimes takes up its abode in a locality where neither river nor spring is to be found for more than twenty-two miles around, and on gromid where not a single drop of water can be obtained, even by digging a well upwards of 120 feet deep. So that the borders of these villages have, generally speaking, an aspect of aridity and desolation. I'hose little vandals add to this sad appearance by gnawing and devouring all round their dwellings every kind of vegetation ; they only spare a few flowers, the sight of which seems to please them, — such as the Erigeron divaiHcatum, the solanum^ the Ellysia myctagenea^ and two or three others of tlie same species. The prairie dog resembles the squirrel in shape, size, and physiognomy : it has nothing in conmion with tlie real dog but its cry, which is veiy like barking. It bur- I. 2 K 1 j ; ! I i If ! ' 148 TUE DESEETS OF NOBTU AMERICA. rows for itself sometimes to a depth of nine feet, and after- wards places the earth it throws up from the galleries within in the fonn of a cone over its subterraneous abode. These galleries are generally from four to five inches in width, and frequently rattlesnakes and owls of a small species do not sci-uple to instal themselves in those spacious and commodious lodgings to the utter detriment of the lawful proprietors. In the fine season, tlie prairie dog seats itself during the greater part of the day on the siiiii- mit of its dweUing, and then chatters with its neighboimj in a most noisy maimer. At the approach of a horseman, or of any dangerous ftnimal, the first group that perceives ' the enemy barks in a particular way. Immediately the alarm is communicated from one to another, to all the citi- zens of the repubhc ; each raises his head, pricks up his ears with uneasiness, and gives an anxious glance around him : then begms a chorus of shriU barking ; an extreme agitiition is seen to prevail throughout the village ; and again, as if by enchantment, all is silent, and the entire conmiunity has disappeared under the earth with the rapidity of hghtning. Towards the end of October, when the dogs of the prairies feel the approach of winter, they fasten up with straw and stems of flowers all the passages leading to their burrows, then they faU asleep until the return of spring. Li the great northern solitudes of Texas, one rarely takes a long journey 'without meeting many re- pubUcs of prairie dogs. The borders of the Ki-clii-e-qui- ho-no, in particular, contain several very considerable ones. The land suiTounding this river is beautifully diversi- fied ; glens are more numerous and deeper than in any other part of the country. At tlie bottom of ravines, composed of beds of sand, gypsum, and red and blue clay, fl( THE LLANO-ESTACADO. 140 one re- flow meandering rivulets of limpid water. At the south- eastern extremity of the Llano-Estucado is the source of the Ki-chi-e-qui-ho-no ; its geographical situation is the 34° 42' north lat., and the lOS*" 07' 11" west long., and its height is 48G0 feet rbove the level of the Gulf of Mexico. It gushes with impetuosity from the bottom of a cavern, which it reaches in passing through a narrow corridor, formed by two natural walls that are 900 feet in height. Those cUfTs, owing to the double action of time and water, have assumed the most fantastic and extraordinaiy shapes tliat can be imagined. Buildings, castles, and steeples of the media3val ages, bassi-reUevi and humnn forms are there mingled in a capricious and even in an artistical manner ; ever}'thing is admirably combined to produce a picturesque effect of manellous beauty. The summits of the two walls appear, under the azure veil of the firmament, Uke the letters of a gigantic alphabet. You feel inclined to think that the Divine Architect had wished to preserve, for tliis little comer of the earth, almost unknown to men, the primitive tj^pe, wild, and sublimely gi'and, of the antediluvian creation. The Llano-Estaaido, which we have already named several times, and which is on the east side of the Eed Eiver, is an even and very elevated plateau. Its name, which signifies the staked plain^ has been given to it because, formerly, it was traversed by a road leading from Texas to Santa-Fe, in New Mexico, which was covered with stakes that ser\ed to indicate to travelleis the localities where water was to be foimd. The approximative length of this tableland is 250 miles, and its breadth 200. It extends from the Canadian to the liio-Pecos and Kio-Grande, in Texas, between tlie 23° and 37° north lat, and from the lOr. to die 104° i i 4 -x I t r If . 4 T1 W 1^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I Ik ■50 |Z8 |25 140 12.2 iu UA Mis 11-25 Ml 1.4 I I ■ 2.0 1.8 1.6 ^ ^> /), Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)173-4503 ^M fci % Vo .51 150 Tim DESEETS OP NORTH MIERICA. west long. Its entire surface is 30,000 square miles, and its height upwards of 3000 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. '^ The borders of the Llano-Estacado are steep and almost perpendicular ; they are white as snow, and thinly covered with briers and stunted cedars : afar off you would take it to be an immense cUff of marble, or of veiny alabaster, towering over the ocean of prairies. In the north may be admired a kind of screen, formed by a forest of cedars, but everywhere else not a tree is to be seen, save in a few ravines. It has been thought that the south-western winds in those latitudes prevent the growth of all high vegetation, but the prolonged drought, the nature of the soil, and the habit that the Indians have of aimually setting fire to the prairies, account much better for this aridity than the violence of the winds. The Llano-Estacado is very rich in fossils of yurassic, or cretaceous formation. This country is entirely uninhabited. The want of water makes both men and animals shun it. Even the savages venture there but seldom. A few ante- lopes, prairie dogs, lizards, frogs with horns and tails (Phrynosornaplaty rhinos cornitum), rattlesnakes, tarantulas, and scorpions, are almost the only inhabitants of those elevated lands, even though the chmate is mild and the air excellent. A fact worthy of note is that the trees that groT, in the ravines or on the borders of tht decHvities do not decay as they get old, but become dry and hard as iron. Generally the Llano-Estacado is only traversed in two or three places, where a few springs are to be found ; but these two or three places are also frequented by the Co- manches and other Indians, who rear horses to exchange them with Mexican merchants for tobacco, maize, flour, and other merchandise. Mexicans from New Mexico send ' EVENING IN THE DESERTS. 151 li every year numerous flocks of sheep to graze and fatten on tlie luxuriant pasturage that is situated to the north of the plateau, without fearing that the savages would carry them off or slaughter them ; for in those regions, where the primitive character of the Indians has not yet been perverted by contact with the whites, they never think of plundering their neighbours. Such is this magnificent desert which, it may be said, is without water, without vegetation, and without inhabi- tants, scorched by an overpowering sun, and scarcely re- freshed by the evening breeze. I know of nothing in the world more melancholy than those vast sohtudes seen on a fine summer's night, when the moon, shining in the midst of the stars, sends forth the reflections of its silvery hglit over this boundless plain. The view is lost in a pale twihght, without shade, without echo ; a hght transparent mist hovers, in the space. Scorpions, in crawHng along, make their scales creak ; large green and yellow hzards move slowly on the burnt grass. The melodious murmur- ing of the flowing waters is nowhere heard, nor the joyful rustUng of the leaves. The birds, having no branches whereon to rest, enhven not the air with their song ; the breeze whispers not in the foHage ; nothing disturbs the silence of night unless it be the monotonous cri-cri of the sohtary cricket. This silence oppresses, overwhelms you, hke the thought of the infinite. You fancy yourself wrapped in a shroud of crape which envelopes the whole world, for hfe is only revealed by the twinkling of the stars, move- ment is only manifested by the motion of the moon pur- suing its tranquil course through the celestial spheres. Nature seems plunged in an awftil slumber, dismal, mys- terious, full of sadness and pain, like the sleep of the dead in presence of eternity. l4 II i ;■ i ! ' i Lii^ ir I'i' •* 152 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. li'i CHAP. VIII. mi 11m DESERTS OF THE SOUTH-EAST. TOPOGRAPHY OF THE TABLELANDS. THE SIERRAS OF THE SOUTH-WEST. FORT SMITH. UNDULATING PRAIRIES. THE CHACTAS VALLEYS OF THE SANS-BOIS AND OF THE CANADIAN. MORNING IN THE SOLITUDES. NATURE OF THE SOIL. SHAWNIES' VILLAGES. EVENING ON THE ANTELOPE HILLS. SINGULAR CAVE OF THE, ROCKY DELL. THE TUCUMCARI. VILLAGES OF NEW MEXICO. PECOS LEGENDS RELATING TO MONTEZUMA. ARRIVAL AT SANTA-Pil. After having visited the most southern deserts of North America, we shall xiow penetrate into the great sohtudes of the New World, situated between 34° and 36° of K lat. and 94° 26' and 118° 16' W. long. These immense regions begin at Fort Smith, on the Arkansas, near the Mississippi, and extend as far as the Gulf of Oahfornia, or Vv.--^ilion Sea, occupying about 1893 miles of territory almost unknown to Europe. From Fort Smith to Santa Fe, capital of New Mexico, there is a distance of 825 miles at least. You reach it by an imperceptible ascent, which rises gradually to more than 6000 feet above the level of tlie sea. This country is but a vast tableland, inclining towards the east, and is furrowed with deep valleys, hollowed out by the rivers that run through it. According to th^ geological forma- tion of the soil, the extremities of this plateau are either perpendicular, and indented like those of the Llano Esta- cado and of several other points, or else they descend by an easy slope to the bed of the rivers, as on the Arkansas and the Canadian. \\ vi^- - 1 II 'M I \\< '•. t)l v .Hfl m Be Madi ward verse Rio horiz the n Tl those stret( slopi terist ¥i is foi Mou] low { most to th The deZi that that Cam Max Azte the I lines man int] Mej basi S whi TOrOGRAPIIY OP THE TABLELANDS. 153 Between the mountains of Santa Fe and the Sierra Madre, there exists another tableland, trending also to- wards the east. It has an extent of 300 miles, and is tra- versed in all its eastern part by the Eio Grande and the Rio Puerco. This district is composed of rocks, set in horizontal strata, and more or less deeply hollowed out by the action of the running waters. The Sierra Madre may be considered as the ridge of those deserts ; it is their culminating point ; from thence stretch forth towards the east and west the two great slopings of high prairies which form the peculiar charac- teristic of these countries. Five chains of mountains cross those regionr. The first is formed by ihe Sandia, the Golden, and the Santa Fe Mountains. This; range is intersected in several places by low and very wide passes. The Sandia J^lountains have a most magnificent Alpine aspect, and their summits attain to the height of 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. The second is the Sierra Madre, sometimes called Sierra de Zuiii. It forms the point of separation between the waters that direct their course towards the Mississippi and those that flow towards the Pacific Ocean. It is crossed at Campbell's Pass, which is 7950 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. The three other chains are the Sierra of the Aztecs, the Aquarius Mountains, the Sierra of Cerbat, and the Sierra of the Pai- Ute, or Pai-Utas. These five great lines follow an almost uniform direction, going in a parallel manner from north to south, and finally disappear, either in the Rocky Mountains, or in the northern provinces of Mexico, or else in the difierent and as yet unexplored basins of the south-western deserts. Such is the geKeral configuration of those solitudes which are covered with ruins and remnants of Indian i s I ! . 11 ! ! '^h I ' '' 154 THE DESERTS OF NCRTH AMERICA. populations formerly very numerous. The Indians who are yet to be found there have, for the most part, fixed dwelhngs built in quite a peculiar style ; they differ more or less from the other Indians who surround them in their religion, tlieir customs, and manner of Uving. To go from the United States to the Gulf of California vid New Mexico, the best and shortest route is the one which Nature herself has traced out in forming the valley of the Canadian, which is one of the principal tributaries of the Arkansas. It is at Fort Smith, situated on the frontiers of the State of Arkansas, that, geographically speaking, the wild soh- tudes of the south-west begin. This fort is built on the right of the Arkansas, and near the mouth of the Poteau, at 30° 22' 55'' N. lat. and 94° 29' W. long. (Greenwich meridian). Its elevation is 450 feet above the level of the sea, and the distance that separates it from Memphis, on the IVIississippi, is of about 315 miles. The hill which serves as a basis to the fort is of a micaceous and dark grey sandstone, and the utmost height it rises to is thiity feet above the river. Immediately on leaving Fort Smith you cross the Poteau, which is more than 150 yards in v.^idth, and is very deep in the wet season. You then penetrate into the shoal, formed of thickly-wooded alluvial soil, which frequently abounds in a species of rush (Arundo phrag- mites). For nearly 150 miles the country you traverse is irrigated by numerous streams, varying in breadth ; it is composed of plains and hills covered with ash-trees, elms, black walnut-trees, pacanes, willows [Salix angusti- folia), cotton-trees (Populus canodensis et S. monolifera), besides many varieties of oaks. The plains are not re- gularly undulated, many very beautiful plants are to Lo VALLEY OF THE CANADIAN RIVER. 1w W 00 found tliore. the silvery euphorbia, turnsola, Euphorbia marginata, iLupatoria purpurea^ Veronica fasiculata^ &c. The prairies are dotted with fields of Indian corn, and clothed with luxuriant pastures, which feed numerous herds of oxen and horses belonging to the Chactas, to the Sliawnies, and to the Delawares, whose farms succeed each other almost uninterruptedly at the entrance of the desert. Six miles south-west of Fort Smith is situated Soully- ville, the actual residence of the agent sent by the United States' government to the Chactas. This village consists of about thirty houses, the greatest part of which are stores, or entrepots of merchandise for the use of the Indians. Before reaching the mouth of the Canadian you leave on the right Fort Coffee, so called, probably, in honour of General Coffee, celebrated for the combats he sus- tained against the Crveks in 1812. Near to the fort may be seen hills of carbonic gritstone, laid in horizontal and even beds, which rise above the Arkansas hke an immense staircase, each step of which forms a terrace shaded by all sorts of shrubs. You then cross the Sans-w bois (river), which is little more than thirty yards wide. This river flows through a dense forest of noble trees, from the midst of which mountains rise to a height of 1950 feet ; but so denuded are their summits that the Trappers call them Sans-bois (woodless). From the other side of the river you at once enter the valley of the Canadian, which the Mexicans and Indians have also denominated Eed Eiver. This stream is often more than 150 yards in width, but it is very shallow, and when not swollen by the rains can be forded on horseback at many points. It slopes down six feet for every quarter of a mile. Its water is whitish, almost K :"H ! ! % !(' f '! A'. ■ \ In 150 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. clear, and slightly alkalinod. According to the latitude it Hows over beds of sand, gritstone, lime, or gypsum. Like the lied River of Texas, it traverses the Cross- Timber and the immense bed of coal wliich we have al- ready spoken of in the preceding chapter. The valley it fertihses is remarkably beautiful. Oaks, elms, enormous cedars, many varielies of rare plants, wild vines bearing luxuriant grapes, rocks containing fossil shells, and rivulets abounding with fish of the most curious kind, are to be found there. You foncy you are in an EngUsh park a lumdred miles long. In the morning this new Eden presents a truly pleasing and animated spectacle. Long before the first gleams of dawn the oaks and pines of the solitudes are enlivened with confused notes and mysterious warblings ; the dew drops fall on the grass and on the flow ers with a sad and liarmonious sound. Everywhere sweet voices reach the ear, soft as the murmur of a spring running in the midst of a prairie, plaintive as the rustling of the cedar's leaves, and strange as the creeping of a reptile on a tuft of green .sward. When the gilded whiteness of daybreak tinges the east, the peaks of the rocks and the summits of the hills, the trees, and the valley, assume an azure hue, the cry of the wild hen is echoed from distance to distance, the flying squirrel {Pteromys volucella) hops from branch to branch, the antelope bounds about the plain, the red fox and the panther are seen quenching their thirst on the borders of rivers and streams, in which otters and beavers bathe. Gradually you perceive between hills, over which the first rays of the sun cast a copper-coloured tint, bluish landscapes lost in the mists o) a boundless horizon, and the outhnes of this virgin nature assume softer and more lovely forms, wherein the grandeur of the ensemble strug- gle Ve clu hu( of ^^^m VALLEY OF THE CANADIAN lUVER. 157 gles for prc-cinlncnce with tlic sublimity ^^f the details'. Verily the deserts of the New World are filled with en- cluiiiting asjiects and striking seenes. The shapes, the hues, the colours, tlie sounds, are there blended with a harmony full of charm and variety, which proclaim the omnipotence of the Creator of the inii verse. More to the west, the valley of the Canadian partakes of quite a wild character. The river flows at the foot of a long range of sand-hills and of jiorous gritstone, sur- moimted by a terrace of vesicular sandstone in horizontal beds of six yards in breadth. Some of those hills are very elevated and steep. Heretofore they only formed a con- tinuous plateau, which rain and time have divided and shaped in the extraordinary manner that strikes and astonishes us now. In the shoals you sometimes meet with moving sands, which are very dangerous in the season of the great rains ; but, in general, all this country may be travelled over in carriages, although it is cut up by deep ravines, by broad creeks, that flow into the Canadian, and is dotted with liillocks of dark grey schist, which extend into the Delaware Mountains. The soil is arable and ver^- fertile, particularly in the vicinity of the watercourses. The Chactas, the Shawnees, and the Delawares cultivate there to advantage maize, corn, the sweet patate, potatoes, rice, tobacco, &c. The trees that grow in the plains are either scattered here and there or in clusters ; it is only on the borders of the rivers that they unite in sufficient quan- tities to form tolerably thick ranges of wood. Before and after Old Fort Edward, situated at 35° N. lat. and 96° 50'' W. long., you come in sight of some Shawnees' villages, which betoken a rather advanced state of civiUsation and of comfort. The houses are spacious and commodious, they are surrounded with fruit 158 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. ' I trees and kitchen gardens. The fields are well cultivated, and give proof of decided progress in agriculture. The Shawnies are robust and inteUigent Indians. The women, who are active and laborious, till the ground, the men being either too proud or too idle to give themselves up to any other pui.suit than that of the chase. Some Lidians employ black slaves or Mexicans for husbandry and other fatiguing duties. In thits case the women are solely occu- pied with the cares of their household. Those slaves are generally purchased from the white men, or are taken from amongst the prisoners and the children stolen by the Co- manches, and sold to the Indian agriculturist. The young Shawnee girls have rather more of a white than of a red complexion, and some of them are even very handsome. The tov.Tis and villages belonging to this tribe are thinly peopled, but very extensive, the houses being built at a distance of 500 to 1000 yards from each other, yet connected together by orchards, gardens, and cultivated fields. The Delawares, the Kiowais,and the Chickassas have also establishments m those regions. Excellent Indian roads lead from one village to another, wending through a forest or passing between rocks of very difficult approach. In beholding such stupendous works you feel surprised that the present Indians should have had energy, skill, and pub- lic spirit enough to undertake and achieve mem so weU. The Delawares do not appear to be as civilised as the Chactas and the Shawnees, neither are their farms kept in such good irder. These three tribes live on very good terms with each other. From time to time intermarriages bind stiU faster the ties of friendship which unite them, and \7ill eventually cause all difference of origin to disappear completely. The priests or medicine men, of the Dela- VALLEY OF THE CANADIAN RIVER. 159 wares assemble once a year to renew the ceremony of the sacred fire, which is preserved during the year with great care ; but of this hereafter. The Delaware Mountain, which is close to 97° W. long., forms the boundary l^etween the wooded plains of the south-east and the supi tior prairies of the south-west. Immediately on passing Mount Delaware, you enter an elevated and undulating prairie, of a sandy and calcareous formation, which is almost entirely stripped of trees, ex- cept in the ravines or on the borders of the streams. Formerly, buffaloes abounded in this plain, and at Fort Holmes — more frequently called Fort Chouteau, in honour of the celebrated Frenchman who fomided in the sohtudes so many houses of traffic for the Indians — quantities of buffalo skins and of other furs were annually received from the savages ; but now the name alone remains, for the very ruins have disappeared, like the bufialoes them- selves. At tliis place the plain becomes thickly wooded, and soon after you arrive in the region of the Cross-Timber. On the right bank of the Canadian, and at a short distance from the river, is to be seen a series of natural tumuH, and of columns of sandstone, varying from sixty to ninety feet in height, which resemble the gigantic jiillars of a colossal temple. Among the most curious of the tumuH we must cite the Eock Mary, which looks Hke an observa- tory, similar in form to a sugar-loaf, and is surmoimted by two tiurets of singularly gracefid efiect. These earthy masses appear to be the remnants of a geological forma- tion, superior to the actual soil and decidedly more ancient. In all probabihty they were caused by the powerful action of the great inundations of the deluvian epoch, rather than by the slow effects of rain and time. Be this as it may. '\ '■■ -'i, i r 1 f: ''■ I f ■" ■ ■ , ; I :' i , ■ 160 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA; I' ii > it is evident that an upper crust, composed principally of red sandstone, covered all this country many centuries ago ; this crust has been ploughed up and almost entirely carried off by the floods ; there now only remain a few vestiges of it scattered over the surface of the ground, but still erect, as if to invite science to penetrate the secrets of the wilderness. From Eock Mary you reach the Antelope Hills, situated at 100° W. long., by passing through a country strewed with gypsum ; this substance is to be found on the surface of the soil in every possible form, earthy, fibry, selenitic and massive : it is owing to its vicinity that the waters are of such an injurious quahty, particularly between the Canadian and the Washita. The Antelope Hills form a group of five separate hillocks : they are sometimes called Boundary Mounts; hke Eock Mary, Mount Delaware, and other localities of which we have already spoken, they are kinds of landmarks, or stations, that serve to guide travellers through the southern deserts. The An- telopes vary in height ; they are from 120 to 150 feet above the prairies. Two of those hills are conical and the others oblong ; they are composed of porous sandstone, and are crowned with white and regular terraces six yards thick. From the summit of these terraces you enjoy a most commanding^ view. On the left is to be seen the reddish bed of the Canadian, whose tortuous windings, coming from the south-west, direct their com^se for a while north- wards, and finally disappear in a distant easterly direction. The horizon is but an immense circle of verdure, of which you occupy the central point. Here and there a few white and red acchvities rise abo^^e the plain, divided by rows of trees, indicating a ravine, or more frequently an hum- y of iries rely few but ts of ated wed face oitic iters the m a died '^are, ken, 3 to An- feet the lone, six lost lish dng rth- ion. ich lite )WS im- I ii i! 'i « A VIEW FEOM THE ANTELOrE HILLS. IGi ble brook. At iiiglit a balmy wind continually sweeps over the sun-burnt grass, and bears along with it the sweet wailings of nature, reminding one of the plaintive sighs of a suffering soul ; these soft sounds are revived from minute to minute, then they gradually die away luitil they are completely lost in the immensity. The moon appears Hke a globe of alabaster drowned in azure vapours ; its translucent light sheds a snowy whiteness on tlie borders of twilight and on the summits of venerable oaks. Whilst the red and black tints fade away from the heavens, the orb of night bedecks the starry canopy with a silvery hue. The only sounds that then reach the ear are the chirp of the cricket in deep glens, and the croaking of the frogs on the surface of the desert. Man from the top of those barren hills feels himself fascinated by the powerful melan- choly of the sohtudes, by their darkness and their silence ; his heart sinks sorrowfully within him, and dwindles Uke the immortelle that grows on a tomb, and is overtaken in all its bloom by the winter snow ; his thoughts are absorbed in profound meditation, in subUme reverie, which elevates him above liimself, and transports him in imagination to luminous regions, where quite a new world is revealed to his astonished soul. Shortly after passing the Antelope Hills, you traverse the Dry Eiver, which is from 100 to 200 yards in width, but which generally contains nothing but sand. From thence unto the first prominences of the Llano-Estacado, the valley of the Canadian (which you have continually to ascend) presents only a succession of natural tumuli jnid of insignificant streams. At 157 miles westwaid of the Dry Eiver, the borders of the Llano Estacado are sloped by a narrow vale c. acd the Eocky Dell. In this spot is situated a perpendicidar VOL. I. M 1 l-\\ I. -i i ■ ,1 ! 162 THE DESERTS OF NORTH MIERICA. ;i H rock, in wliich is cut a sort of grotto that the Indians liave turned into a kind of gallery of fine arts. The natural flags that cover the floor have been most curiously sculp- tured, and the walls are adorned with hieroglyphical (lra>7- ings and paintings. Amongst the animals they i*epresent, the buffalo, the bear, the elk, the dog, and the crocodile are the most prominent. Human forms are also to be seen there, one of which is a Spanish cavaUer with his serape (blanket), and the sombrero (hat) on his head ; the whole rather well finished. The carvings and paintings that embelhsh the interior of the grotto are very numerous ; the modern emblematical inscriptions are mingled with the more ancient ones, and are often even sculptured or painted over them — so much so, that the greater number can no longer be deciphered. This savage museum is, nevertlieless, highly intei'esting ; it deserves to be thorough- ly and earnestly studied, and perhaps, by that means, some one may be able to recover a few pages of the history of the Indian tribes of those latitudes. Between the Llano-Estacado and the Canadian, facing the Eocky Dell, you perceive a beautiful plain, called by the Mexicans Plaza Larga, and which is remarkable for the beauty of its sites, the fertihty of its soil, and the mildness of its climate. To the north may be descried very lofty mountains, rising one above the other in ter- races of divers colours ; they look like the steps of a Ti- tanic staircase that vroidd join heaven to earth ; efich step is overgrown with dwarf cedars and with pines of a veiy small species. The flora of this region is very rich and of profuse variety. The valley of the Tunmicari, which immediately suc- ceeds the Plaza Larga, contains an immense selection of geological phenomena, Nature soems to have taken plea- VALLEY OP THE TUCUMCARI. 163 sure in assembling in this spot, already so picturesque, the most extraordinary objects, to which the double action of time and of water has imparted the most fantastic shapes. It abounds in fossils, as well as in cactus, }uccas, mesquites, and other very rare plants. This valley also possesses a very curious pyramid 510 feet in height ; it is formed of twelve horizontal beds of lime, of sandstone, and of white, yellow, grey, green, and red marl. Tlie superior strata of this pyramid of Jurassic formation contain nu- merous fossils, amongst wliich may be remarked the Giy- phsea Tucumcarii, wliich is a new species or a variety of the Grypha^a Pitcheri. Besides this pyramid, which is sm'mcunted by two turrets, and whose basis is ornamented with a multitude of counterforts in marl of different colours, there are also to be seen, in the same valley, rocks of grit- stone resembhng towers or fortresses of the mediaeval ages, Gothic castles, cathedrals in ruins, minarets, broken columns, or even enormous vases, that look as if they had been fabricated by giants. After the Tucumcari, you totally abandon the Canadian river, and direct your course towards the Eio Pecos, wliich you leave to the rear a little before you reach the 105° W. long. You then arrive at Anton Chico, where the road divides itself; the south-western one leads to Albuquerque, and the north-western one to Santa F^ along the banks of the Eio Pecos, to the ruins of the village of the same name. Anton Chico is the first town you meet with on entering New Mexico ; its population does not exceed 500 inhabitants, who Uve in houses con- structed with adouhes, or large sun-dried bricks. The valley of Pecos is richly cultivated, Indian corn grows there in abundance, and the road that borders the river as far as old Pecos wends its way through a series M 2 164 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. i III of meadows and vegetable gardens, wJucli betoken the great fertility of the soil. Midway you stop at San Miguel. This village in built up against mountains, which rise like an amphitheatre around it. The Pecos flows at its feet. This river is barely more than three feet in depth by twenty-one to twenty-four hi width. During the entire day women may be seen going thither, bearing on their heads great jars, which they replenish with water. The young girls of this place are in the habit of painting their faces white, or of dyeing them with the juice of wild fruits. The inhabitants of San Miguel manufacture honey, or rather moloGses, with the stems of maize, which they bruise by means of great mill-stones. Among the birds vliich people this delicious valley, the stariy jay (Garndus stelleri), whose noisy song is heard from morning to evening, desei*ves special notice. These birds generally accompany the travellers who may chance to pass near them ; they fly from bower to bower, singing all the while, as if to beguile the weariness of the journey. These soUtudes are also frequented by the remnants of the ancient tribe of the Teguas, who trade with the Comanches of the prairies and with the Santa Fo merchants. The interesting ruins of old Pecos are situated on a httle hill close to the river. The church, which is in the form of a cross, arises above dilapidated houses ; its two fi-ont towers and exterior walls are yet in a good state of preservation, but time tears away daily some of its s'ones. This village was renowned on account of a pecuhar race of Indians who lived there. Many very singular legends are toid concerning them. Formerly they kept in their temple an immense serpent, to which they rjffered human sacrifices. It is also at Pecos that the sacred fire, kindled by Montezuma, was preserved : every year a man was LEGEND ABOIT MONTEZUMA. 165 appointed to keep up this lire under penalty of deatli. It is related that one da}', Montezuma being at Pecos, took hold of a great tree and planted it ui)side down, remarking at the same time, " that when that tree should disappear, a foreign race would reign ^ver his people, and that rain would cease to fall." He then reconnnended to the priests to watch over the sacred fire until the fall of the tree, which event would occur when a multitude of white men, coming from the east, should destroy the power of their oppressors ; and that he himself would return afterwards to restore his kingdom. Then should the earth be feisdised by abundant rain, and the nation be enriched by the treasures buried in the midst of the mountains. From Pecos, Montezuma directed his steps towards Mexico, building numerous towns as he went along. " There," say the Indians, " he lived until the arrival of the Spaniards, then disappeared to return soon, for up to the present moment the prophecy has been fulfilled. The country has become dry, arid, and deserted ; the tree of Pecos fell the very day the Americans entered Santa Fe, and the last priest who guarded the sacred fire died at the same period." To this day many Indians live in anxious expectation of Montezuma's return ; and at the village of San Domingo, situated on the Eio Grande, a sentinel ascends every morning at sunrise to the roof of the highest house, and, with eyes directed towards the east, looks out for the arrival of the divine chieftain, who is to give the sign of deliverance. Pecos is barely twenty-eight miles from Santa Fe - < ho road that leads thither is a tolerably good one, althi'ff • it traverses narrow passes and deep gorges, ending at the Rio Chiquito, or the Rio of Santa Fe. Tliis little M 3 ; r J - i 160 TUB DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. creek is a tributary of the Eio Grande ; it irrigates the magnificent plain, in the back-ground of which are scat- tered tlie houses of tlie strange capital of New Mexico. Strange indeed I fc ' is neither savage, nor civilized, nor Indian, nor Americ. nor Mexican ; — silent in the day- time, it resounds in the evening and at night with the noisy merriment of the fandangos ; — a town at the same time sad and gay, full of promise for the merchant, and of melan- choly for the poet. 167 CHAP. IX. DESERTS OF THE SOUTH-WEST. NEW MEXICO. INFORMATION GIVEN BY AN INDIAN FROM TEJOS. KuFlo DE GUZMAN's ATTEMPT. — PAMrillLO NARVAEZ'S DISASTER. — CULIACAN. FATHER MARCOS DE NIJa's JOUR- NEY. DISCOVERY OF NEW MEXICO. VASQUEZ CORONADo's EXPEDITION. TAKING OF CinOLA. THE TIGUEX. CONQUEST OF NKW MEXICO INDIAN REVOLTS. V.\LLEY OF THE RIO GRANDE. QUIVIRA. GEO- GRAPHY OF NEW MEXICO. Before we penetrate farther into the deserts of the south- west, let us relate the events which pr(*ceded and followed the discovery of New Mexico ; these events, as yet little known in Europe, are well worthy of our attention. In the year 1530, Nuiio de Guzman, at that time pre- sident of New Spain, had in his service an Indian, a native of the country of Exitipar, which was called by the Spaniards Tejos or Texos, and which, in all probability, was no other than the present Texas. This Indian told his master that he was the son of a mercliant, long since dead; that during his childhood his father used to go into the interior of the country to sell the handsome feathers with which the Indians adorn their head, and that he brought back, in exchange, a great quantity of gold and silver, which metals were, according to him, well known m that country. He assured him that having on one occasion accompanied his father, he had seen seven large towns, in which entire streets were inhabited by people working the precious metals. Finally, he M 4 :]' :» >iiH ir- •'; ■i: '! ■ ■ i ^i. !^ ■ ,,! \ i| ! jr ; !.'^;' . ■ i ^% i ■■■-! ',>. 1 ^- ; \ S'l ' '1' w ..■ r ' ' 1^ }' 'y t .■■11 108 TIII5 DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I . ii; added tliat, to arrive there it waa necessary to travel for forty days tlii'DUgh a wilderness, where nothing was to l)e found save a sliort grass, and tlien get into tlic interior of tlie country, keeping due north. llelying on this information, Nuiio de Guzman as- sembled an army of 400 Spaniards and of 20,000 Indians, allies of New Spain ; lie stalled from Mexico, traversed tnc province of Tarasca, and reached tliat of Culiacan, the limit of his government. No road leading farther on, and having great obstacles to surmount in order to pass over the mountains which interce])ted his route, he now saw the greater number of his ofBcers and allies get dis- couraged and abandon him. Meanwhile, he was apprised that Hernando Cortez, his personal enemy, was retm-ning to Mexico, loaded with titles and favours ; he, therefore, resolved to stop at Culiacan, and colonise that province. Shortly afterwards the Tejos Indian died, and Nuno de Guzman was thrown into prison. Some time previously, Pamphilo Narvaez, Hernando C'^rtez's unfortunate rival, having been named governor of Florida, had left St. Domingo with 400 men and 80 horses, in five ships ; he reached Florida on the lltli of April, 1528. On the 1st of May following, he sent his vessels to seek out a good harbour, and pene- trated into the interior of the country at the head of 300 men. After long and weary marches, Narvaez returned to the coast to join his flotilla, but it was nowhere to be found ; the officer who commanded it had left for the Havannah, forsaking Narvaez and his com- panions. The latter then determined on constructing barks, in hopes of reaching Panuco by coasting towards the west. The spurs, the stirrups, and all the iron uten- sils belonging to the little band were speedily converted MlSl'OllTUNES OF rAMPIIILO NAIIVAEZ. 1G9 into nails and tools, and altlioiigh the Spanianls had hut one carptMitor ainoiigHt tlicni, tliey succeeded in con- structing five hoats in the .space of six weeks. Dui'ing this time the horses were '^r.ten, and on tlie 22nd of September in the same year Nan'aez set sail, accom- ])anied by 242 men only, the others having died from hunger and fatigue, or from the wounds they had re- ceived wiiilst figliting the Indians. On the 29th or 30th of October, after a most perilous navigation, the Spaniards discovci'ed and pointed out to Narvaez the mouth of the Mississi])pi. They almost all perished shortly after ; some from hunger, others from shipwreck, and the remainder were threatened by the natives. There only survived Cabeza de Vaca, boatmaster, Es- teva Dorantes, an Arabian negro, and Castillo Maldo- nado. At the end of eight years these three men reached Mexico, having traversed on foot the American continent from the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean. They related their adventures, declared that they had met with Indian tribes, some of whom cultivated maize, while others lived on fish and the produce of the chase ; that they had heard of large towns with lofty houses containing many stories, and situated in the same direction as those spoken of by the Tejos Indian. Don Antonio de Mendoza, at that time viceroy of New Spain, caused these tlu-ee travellers to be brought before him, and communicated the information he received from them to Francisco Vasquez Coronado, a nobleman of Salamanca and governor of the province of Culiacan. The latter at once left Meidco, and hastily returned to his province. Wlien Nuiio de Guzman had conquered the new king- dom of Galicia, the first town he built there was Culiacan. li ! i i 170 Tllii DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. It is situated G8 miles west of Mexico. According to Pedro dc Casainedu de Nagera, who had joined Coromido's exjietlitiou, there were three large and perfectly distinct populations in that country : the Tahus, the Pactisas, and the Acjvxas. The Tahus were the most intelligent and the most civilised nation, and the one that first embraced Catholicism. Previous to the conquest those Indians adored the evil jspirit inider the form of large serpents, which they rca-rcd with the greatest veneration, and to Avhich they made offerings of stuffs and of tiu'quoises. Although these men were very immoral, yet such was tlieir respect foi' all women who led a life of celibacy, that tliey celebrated grand festivals in their honour. The Pacasas were more barbarous; they ate human flesh, marned several wives, even their own sisters, and adored carved or painted stones. The Acjixas were also cannibals; tliey limited men like wild beasts, and built their villages on steep cliffs, separated one from the other by ravines over which it was impossible to pass. Coronado had taken with him the negro Esteva and three Fmnciscan monks, one of whom was father Marcos de Niya, who had already taken part m the expedition which Don Pedro d'Alvarado had conducted by land to Peni. As soon as the governor had reached Culiacan, he sent Father Marcos forward to descry the country, with wliich object the latter began his tour on the 7tli of March, 1539, m company of the two other Franciscans, the negro, and a goodly number of emancipated Indians. The Uttle band remained three dfiys at Pctatlan, chief town of a province of the same name, a short distance from Culiacan. The name of Petatlan v/as given to it because its houses were constructed of matted rushes, caHcd jH'tates. The hihabitiaits, whose customs resembled JOURNEY OF FATHER MARCOS. 171 tliosc of the Tahiis, had tlicir villages built on the borders of the rivers and on the mountains. As he journeyed along, Father Marcos met entire populations, who received him with pleasure, and gave him jirovisions, flowers, and other })resents. The first desert he afterwards saw, and of which lie speaks hi the account of his journey sent to the Em- peror Charles V., is, doubtless, the one situated between the Eio Yaqui and the Kio Soiiora. This country is cer- tainly very barren, and quite destitute of water for a dis- tance of about 110 miles. The Indians who lived beyond this desert occupied the valley of tlie Sonora, which Cabeza de Vaca had named Tieira de los Corazones (Countiy of the Hearts), because when he passed there, a great many hearts of animals had been offered to him. The inhabitants of this valley were numerous and intelligent ; the women wore petticoats of tanned deer-skin. Every morning the Caciques ascended httle eminences, and, for above an hour, would indicate aloud what each was to do during the day. At their re- ligious ceremonies they stuck arrows around their temples, resembling in this the Zunis of the present day, who some- times stick them round their altars and tombs. Father Marcos found, on the borders of this desert, otlier Indians, who were greatly sui-prised to see him, for they had not the shghtest idea of the Christians. Some of them would try to touch his garments, and would call him Soy Ota, which signifies, Man come down from heaven. Those Indians told him that, should he continue hi8 route, he would soon enter a very extensive plain, full of large towns, which were inhabited by people clad in cot- ton, wearing gold rings and earrings, and making use of little blades of the same metal to scrape the perspu-ation off their bodies. l:i i li - ;-! ■■:{ 5 Ift^ 1 m I uJ 172 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I' :,i^ Although the information given by Father Marcos is rather vague, and though it is scarcely possible to state precisely the route he followed, or to indicate the geogra- phical positions of the countries he passed through, it is probable that the plain here spoken of is that of the Eio de Las Casas Grande, situated 150 nules east of the Eio Sonora, wliich is to this day all covered with imposing ruins, reminding one of handsome and populous cities. After a few days' march, Father Marcos arrived at Vacapa, now called Magdalena, situated on the Eio San Miguel, 120 miles from the Californian Gulf. The inhabitants of this town were, no doubt, the ancestors of the Cocopas, who are now spread from the mouth of the Eio Colorado to the north-western deserts. Father Marcos remained a few days at Vacapa, to enable his fellow-travellers to rest themselves, the Indians generously giving them everything they were in need of. The monks being displeased with the negro, who was misconducting himself towards the women of the country, and who only thought of enrich- ing himself, resolved on sending him away; but, as he knew how to make himself understood by the natives of that country, — through wliich he had already tra- velled, — and that he was known to those Indians, Father Marcos determined on sending him forward, with orders to acquaint him at once of whatever discoveries he should make. Four days afterwards, Esteva despatched to his superior a messenger, who related wonderful things of a large town called Cibola, known in the present day by the name of Zuni. According to the fashion of his tribe, the messenger's face, breast, and arms, were painted. Those Indians, whom the Spaniards called Pintados, lived on the frontiers of the seven towns forming the kingdom of tf«i:iu ACCOUNTS ON CIBOLA. 173 Cibola ; their descendants, now called Papagos and Pimas, still reside in the same country, which extends from the valley of Santa Cruz to the Eio Gila. Cibola, the first of the seven towns and capital of the kingdom of that name, was situated thirty days' journey from Vacapa. The Pintados said they often went there, and were em- ployed in tiUing the ground, and received for their wages turquoises and tanned hides. An Indian of this town told Father Marcos, that " Cibola was a great city, densely peopled, with a great num- ber of streets and squares ; that in some quarters there were very large houses, wdth ten stories, where the chieftams assembled, at certain times of the year, to discuss public affairs. The doors and fronts of those houses were adorned with turquoises. The inhabitants had white skin, hke the Spaniards, and wore wide cotton tunics that reached to their feet. These garments were fastened round the neck by means of a button, and were ornamented at the waist with a belt studded with very fine turquoises. Over those tunics some wore excellent cloaks, and others very richly wrought cow-hides." The same Indian added : " that towards the south-east, there existed a kingdom called Marata, with large populations and considerable towns, the houses of which had several stories ; that these peoples were conthmally at war with the sovereign of the seven towns ; and that, in the direc- tion of the south-west, on the Eio Verde, was another kingdom, called Totonteac, which was as wealthy as it was densely peopled, and whose inhabitants were dressed in fine cloth." Although these narratives were exaggerated, it is not less a fact that all those countries were thick y peopled, intersected with roads, and studded with towns. . When Father Marcos had rested himself, he took mea- ;■!? I K.'i' :t: ■J . ■ 11 •i 'l-^i i? ;ii IP 174 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. sures to rejoin his negro, accomparied by the Pintados, who served him as guides, and he left Vacapa on Easter Monday. • He was everywhere welcomed with the same marks of kindness and the same cordiality ; every where he received presents of turquoises, tanned skins, rabbits, quail, game, maize, and vegetables. On the 9th of May he entered the last desert that separated him from Cibola. Having stopped for a few minutes to dine at a farm-house, he saw one of Esteva's companions coming hastily towards him, quite covered with perspiration, faint from fatigue, and trembUng with fear. This man told him that the in- habitants of Cibola had first imprisoned the negro and afterwards put him to death, as also several of the Indians who accompanied him. These tidings threw consternation among Father Marcos's followers. The greater number of them were relatives or friends of the victims ; they accused him of being the cause of this misfortune, and resolved upon killing him. He fortunately escaped this danger, and returned in all haste to Culiacan, where he related to the governor all that had occurred during his expedition. Captain-General Yasquez Coronado, encouraged by the accoimts given by Father Marcos, and hoping to discover new territories, at once organised in New Spain a Httle army, which assembled at Compostella, and on tlie day following Easter, 1540, he put himself at the head of his troops, composed of 150 horsemen, 200 archers, and 800 Indians. Having reached Cuhacan, the army halted to take rest. At the end of a fortnight, Coronado moved forwiird, accompanied by fifty horsemen, a few foot sol- diers, and his best friends, among whom was Father Marcos. The command of the remainder of the troops was confided to Don Tristan d' Arellano, with orders to EXPEDITION OF CORONADO. 175 leave fifteen cLays later, and to follow the same route as the Captain-General. After a month of fatigue and of privations of all kinds, Vasquez Coronado arrived at Chicliilticale. Tliis name, which signifies Eed Town, was given to this locality be- cause a large house of that colour was to be seen there, which was inhabited by an entire tribe that came from Cibola, where the last desert begins. At this place the Spaniards lost se .eral horses, and even some men, from want of food. Nevertheless, encouraged by their chief, they continued their march, and, a fortnight after they had left Chichilticale, they arrived within twenty-six miles of Cibola. They saw for the first time the natives of this singular kingdom ; but the latter immediately took to flight, spreading the alarm throughout the countiy by means of great fires which they kindled on the high moun- tains — a custom in use to this day among the tribes of New Mexico. Next day, Coronado came within sight of Cibola ; the inhabitants of the province had all assembled and awaited the Spaniards with a steady attitude. Far from accepting the proposals of peace which were offered to them, they threatened the interpreters with death. The Spaniards then, crying out, " San Jago ! San Jago ! " attacked the Indians with impetuosity, and, notwithstanding a vigorous resistance, Coronado entered the to^vn of Cibola as con- queror. In fighting, the Indians had made use of arrows and of stones, which they threw with much sldll. During the assault, the Spanish general was thrown down by an enormous stone which was hurled at him, and would liave been killed, had it not been for the strength of his armour and the devotedness of his friends, Garcia Lopez de Cardenas and Hernando d'Alvarado, who shielded him t; 'I .1 •f! ii f ■>' ir> 176 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. with their bodies while some others helped him up. Coronado found neither old men, women, nor children under fifteen years old in the town. The besieged had caused them to be taken to the mountains before the action began. The description which, in his report to the Emperor Charles V., he gives of the country, it'^ climate, its inhabitants, their customs and their usages, resembles much what we see now-a-days among the Zuiiis and in their province. In general, when one studies attentively the writings of the Missionaries, and of the other Spaniards of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies, sent by the viceroys of J^Tew Spain to discover distant coimtries, the information given by those writers is found to be exact, although often incomplete or exag- gerated. The remainder of the army, which had remained at Culia- can, took the route, at the time appointed, to join the Commander-in-Cliief. Every one was on foot, with a lance on his shoulder and cariying provisions. After unheard-of fatigues, the column reached the valley of San Miguel, amidst the Corazones ; but as the maize was not yet ripe, and the soldiers were dying from hunger, their com- mander, Don Tristan d'Arellano, changed routes and marched towards a valley which the Spaniards called Seii- ora, a name which was changed into that of Sonora. The valley of Suya, where the army at this epoch founded the town of San Hieronymo, is 120 miles farther on than the one of the Sonora. These two valleys were peopled with Indian agricidtural tribes, whose language, manners, usages, and religion were alike. The women painted their chins and all round theu' eyes ; the men were very depraved, and intoxicated themselves with wine made from the Pitahaya, which grows everywhere there in abundance ; they also TROVINCE OF TIGUEX. 177 tamed eagles, as is yet the custom among some tribes of New Mexico. On reaching the Sierra Mogoyon, the Spaniards lost several of their companions, from the severe priva- tions and difficulties of the route. During this march, the army crossed many rivers, which flow into the Ca^ifornian Gulf, and on the banks of which they found numerous Indian tribes who cultivated maize, kidney beans, pumpkins and melons of such an enormous size that a man could scarcely move them. After a march of 975 miles, the detachment directed it course towards the north-west, and soon made its junction with Vasquez Coronado, the general-in-chief, at Cibola. In conse- quence of this reinforcement, Coronado took measures to follow up his conquests, by sending Alvarado, his lieuten- ant, to take possession of the province of Tiguex, on the Eio Grande. This province was subdued after a resistance of fifty days on the part of the Indians. It contained twelve to"svns governed by a council of old men. The whole community helped to construct each house ; the women made the mortar and built up the walls, and the men brought the wood and prepared the timbers. Underneath the houses and the coiu-t-yards were subterraneous stoves, or drying-places, paved "with large poUshed flagstones. In the middle was a furnace on which they threw, from time to time, a handful of thyme, wliich Avas sufficient to keep up an intense heat there, so that one felt as if in a bath. The men spent a considerable part of their time in those places ; but the women coidd not enter there, except to carry food to their husbands or sons. The men spun, wove, and attended to the tillage of their grounds ; the women occupied themselves with the care of their children and VOL. I. N ■a I ■ i: I iii^ii i!: i' it 178 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. household affairs ; they were the mistresses of the house and kept it remarkably clean. In the large houses, each family had several rooms ; one served as a sleeping-room, another as a kitchen; and a third for the purpose of grind- ing wheat. In the latter was an oven and three large stones ; three women would scat themselves before these stones ; the first would crush the grain, the second bruise it, and the third pulverise it completely. While they were thus employed, a man, seated at the door, played on a kind of bagpipes, and the women worked to measure, all three singing together, and marking th« rhythm by striking with their tools the wheat they were grinding. The young girls were completely deprived of rai- ment, even during the most severe frosts ; it wai' ( ,ily when they married that they were allowed to cover themselves. The young people could only enter the mar- ried state with the permission of the old men who governed the town. The young man had then to spin and weave a mantle ; when completed, the girl who was destined to become his bride was brought to liim ; he wrapped the mantle round her shoulders and she thus became his wife. From Tiguex, the Spaniards went to Cicuye, — now car 1 Pecos, — which they also subdued. From thence, Coronado started for Quivira, with a few men chosen among his best soldiers, postponing, until the following spring, the conquest of the whole province. In 1542, the Spaniards found themselves masters of almost all New Mexico, whose centre was formed by the province of Tiguex, around which were grotiped seventy-one towns distributed among fourteen provinces, viz.: — Cibola, which contained seven towns ; Tucayan, seven ; Acuco, one ; END OF CORONADO'S EXPEDITION. 179 Tiguex, twelve : Cutahaco, eiglit ; Quivix, seven ; tlie Snowy Mountains, seven ; Ximena, three ; Cicuye, one ; Hemes, seven ; Aquas Calicntes, tliree ; Yuque-yunque, six ; Braba, one, and Chia, (jne. Besides these seventy- one towns, tliere were many others scattered outside this circle ; as also several tribes living in tents. In the spring that followed Coronado's visit to Quivira, the Commander-in-Chief set about preparing another expedition, with the object ^f making new discoveries; but, on the occasion of a festival, while he was " running the ring" with Don Pedro Maldonado, he fell from his horse ; his adversary's went over his body and nearly killed him. This accident caused the general to alter his resolution, and inspired him with the desire of returning to New Spain, where he possessed large estates, to die quietly near his wife and children. The officers and soldiers, finding that the country was not so rich as they had been led to beUeve, and instigated by Coronado's secret emis- saries, petitioned him to be allowed to return to Mexico ; taking advantage of this disposition of his army, the general at once gave orders for departure, and returned to CuUacan in the month of April, 1543. Juan de Padilla, of the order of Saint Francis, preferred remaining at Quivira to preach the gospel to the Indians, and became a martyr. Brother Luis, of the same order, went to Cicuye, but was never more heard of. Such was the end of this expedition, which, instead of having a favourable result for the Spaniards, only tended to arouse against them the profound antipathy of the natives, who had been very ill tiaated by the conquerors. In 1581, II band of adventurers, commanded by Fran- cisco de Leyva Bonillo, took possession of part of the province of Tiguex, and finding its productions, riches, N 2 I'i ; .t' ) •If V ■'■M 180 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. and inhabitants very like those of Mexico, they called it New Mexico. In 1594, Count de Monterey, then viceroy of Mexico, sent the famous General Don Juan de Oflate de Zacatecas to take possession of New Mexico in the name of the king of Spain, and to establish colonies, forts, and mis- sions there. In a short time the Franciscan missionaries succeeded in Christianising numerous Indian tribes who inhabited towns or villages which the Spaniards called pueblos, to distinguish those half-civilised tribes from those who, more savage or more independent, would not submit to the conqueror's authority. For a long period the country enjo3'^ed perfect tranquil- lity ; the grounds were tilled, and the mines explored throughout this large territory ; but in 1680, there oc- curred a general rising of the Indians "\vith the object of shaking off the foreign yoke, and all the Spaniards who fell into the hands of the natives were unmercifully mas- sacred. After several bloody conflicts and unexampled efforts, Don Antonio de Oternin, governor of New Mexico, was obhged to retire with his troops from Santa Fe seat, of the government. He stopped on the Eio Grande, where he fell in with some friendly tribes, who helped him to build the town wliich now bears the name of Paso Del Norte. It was only after ten years of a most obstinate warfare that Spain was able to reconquer New Mexico. Other insurrections nearly wrested again this fine province from the Spaniards ; but none proved so fatal to them as that which broke out in 1680. An inveterate hatred exists to this day in the hearts of the Indians of this country against their former masters ; the Mexicans who inhabit it are scarcely better liked; and the Americans, who now possess this state, — only very NEW MEXICO. 181 recently, it is true, — will, with difficulty, find mucli syni- piithy there. New Mexico, properly so callf Rio Arriba, Santa Cruz de la Canada, Cliinuiyo, Canada, SanUi Clara, Vegas, Cliania, Cuchillo, Abiquin, Kito Colorado, Ojo Caliente, Ranchitos, Chaniitii, San Juan, Joya, and Anibuda : in all, 15,000 souls. Tiie second is tlie one of Taos, chief town of the populations of Taos, Don Fernandez, San Francisco, Arroyo Hondo, Arroyo Seco, Desniontes, Recuries, Sineguiila, Santa Barbara, Zanipas, Chaniizal, Llano, Refiasco, Moro, Huer- fano, and Cenunaroii : in all, 14,200 souls. The soutli-eastern district, whose capital is Valencia, is also divided into two counties. The first is the one of Valencia, cliief town of the populations of Valencia, Tome, San Fernando, Socoro, Limetar,Rolvaderas,Sabinal, Elanies, Ciusa Colorada, CeboUeta, Sabina, Rarida, Belen, Luis Lopez, Lunes, Lentes, Zuni, Aconia, and Rita : in all, 20,000 souls. The second county is the one of Rernadillo, chief town of the })opulations of Bernadillo, Isleta, Radilla, Rajarito, Jian- choji de Atrisco, Atrisco, Rlaceres, Albuquerque, Sandia, Alenieda, and Corales : in all, 8,200 souls. Among these towns, twenty -one, whose origin is anterior to the period of the conquest, are exclusively inhabited by Indians. The principal Indian tiibes who live outside this circle are : the Navajos, the Yainpais, the Moquis, the A])aches, the Cosninos, the Tontos, the Coco Maricopas, and the Mo- javes. The Navajos' country occupies m\ extent of about 15,000 square miles, comprised beiween the Rio San Juan, the valley of Tumecha, and tlie canon of Chelly. Their hunting territory extends to the sources of tlie Cdla. These Indians, numbering at least 10,000, cultivate, in beautiful vales, a little wheat, maize, and vegetables ; but their greatest wealth consists priiicij)ally in herds of cattle, SOUTIIERX INDIANS. 185 i .- of sliccp, and of liorscs. Tlicy manufacture l)lankct,s calU'd j(>r()H(/().s m Texas, wliieli are nuieli prized througliout New Mexico, and cost from 150 to 500 francs eacli, — fi/. to 20/. West of the Navajos, in the delta formed by the two Colorados, are situated the seven towns belonging to the M(^quis, viz. : — O-rai-be, Show-mowth-pa, Mow-shai-i-na, Ah-le-la, Gual-pi, Slii-win-na andTe-quh, having a total of about 7,000 inliabitants. Between the Colorado Chiquito and the llio Gila dwell two bands of Apaches, called Coyoteros and Pinal Lenas, reckoning .S,000 souls. Those Indians depend more for their sustenance on the ])lunder they make in the Sonora than on the produce of agricul- ture. Tlie Ci)snin()s live near the volcanic mountains of San Francisco, and even as far as the great Colorado. The borders of the lUo Verde and the range of the Aztecs arc occupied by the Tontos. The Yampais's villages are situated to the west and north-west of the Kio Yirgen, whicli falls into the Californian Gulf. Foiu^ tribes are concentrated ill the valley of the Colorado, they are : — the Mojaves, lumibering at least 4,000 souls; the ChemeluKn'is, 2,000 ; the Yuuias or Cuchans, 3,000 ; and the Cocopas, 3,000 also. ■ These Indians, particularly those of the puel)los of New Mexico, are generally renuu'kable for their sobriety and industry, the chastity of the women, the conjugal fidelity of both sexes, their integrity of maimers, luid tlieir honesty in tlie ordinary transactions of social life. If these half- ('i\ ili'^ed [)opulations are inferior to the ancient Mexicans in the develojnnent of the intellectual faculties, they are decidedly superior to them in the exercise of the moral ones. Notwithstanding wars, maladies, privations, and tlie destructive elements of all kinds that fell u[)on these un- ' ! ■! IF '; = I '■ i iv - 186 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. happy tribes, the known Indian population, disseminated between the 34° and 36° N. lat., from Fort Smith to the Gulf of California, is calculated to be above 149,800 souls, divided in the following manner : Semi-civilised Indians on the borders of the Canadian 62,000 Savage ......... 3,000 Wandering and barbarous 39,000 Indians of the New Mexican Pueblos 16,000 Navajos ...... 10,000 Moquis ...... 7,000 Pinal Leilas and Coyoteros . 3,000 Tontos, Cosninos, and Yampais 6,000 Mojaves, Chemehuevis, Cuchans, and Cocopas 12,000 Pai-Utes near the Lake of Soda 300 Cahnillas of the mountains 500 149,800 This figure is certainly inferior to the reahty, and very small in comparison to the native population that formerly covered this immense territory. When New Mexico was discovered, all the country extending from Culiacan to the desert of Cibola, on one side, and to the Eio Colorado on the other, was but a succession of towns, villages and habi- tations joined together by cultivated fields, orchards, gar- dens and roads. But those great multitudes of human beings have almost disappeared since the conquest ; the silence of the wilderness has succeeded to the joyful songs of the extinct populations, and the aridity of the desert replaces the primitive fertility of the soil. Wormwood and arthemise now grow where fields of rose-trees and of Indian corn formerly flourished ; the cactus, the mesquite, and the dwarf cedar vegetate on the remnants of pines and fruit-trees reduced to powder by constant droughts. ACTUAL VIEW OF THE DESERTS. 187 The sun darts his perpendicular and scorching rays on the arid and bare rocks, which sparkle by day hke gigantic diamonds. All this smiling nature, so lovely in bygone days, has retained nothing of its former glory but a melan- choly beauty, not unlike the sickly hues of a flower washed by the waves of the sea. t, ■ i ! < i ■<' m 188 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAP. X. Ill m SANTA fL FANDANGO. CHURCHES. — VALLEY, TOWN, AND PUEBLO OK TAOS. THE GOLD MINES. REAL VIEJA. PLACERS. TUEUTO. — S.VNTO DOMINGO. VALLEY AND PUEBLO BELONGING TO THE JEMEZ. RUINS IN THE SOLITUDES. CANON OF CHELLY. — BERNARDILLO. ALBUQUERQUE. ACOMA. Seen from afar, the town of Santa Fe presents a most lovely aspect ; low square houses are embosomed amid fields of maize, like small Itahan villas nestled, tier above tier, on the slopes of the Apennines. A triple belt of mamelons, mountains, and variously-coloured meadows, frame in the town in a most gracefid and picturesque manner. Here and there, too, clusters of yuccas, cactus, and helianthoides arise above the grass of the plain, as also a species of nyctaginea (Nydaginea oxibaphus), which produces nu- merous deep scarlet flowers of admirable beauty, and almost unrivalled amongst tlie magnificent flora of the great deserts. But as you approach the city this dehght- ful scene gradually changes, the charm vanishes, the houses become changed into pitiful cabins, the streets are quite loathsome, and exliale mephitic odours, and the wretch- edly-clad inhabitants offer a most miserable appearance. Yet this outward display of poverty is not so much to be attributed to real indigence as to the population's own carelessness and indifference. A large pubhc square adorns the centre of the SANTA Ffi. 189 town; its northern side is formed by the governor's palace, and the three others by merchants' stores. In the middle of the square the Americans have planted a big mast, from the top of which floats the stariy baimer of the United States. All the neighbouring rancher OS assemble in this place to sell the produce of their farms and industry. All day long files of donkeys may be seen arriving there, laden with barrels of Taos whisky, bales of goods, forage, wood, earthen jars, melons, grapes, red and green pimentos, onions, pasteques, eggs, cheese, tobacco, and piiiones (f.oit of the pine), Pinus- monophylla). These piiiones are generally baked in the oven, or roasted on cinders, as a means of preserving them better. Besides those provisions, the Santa Fe market also affords a gr^^Uu variety of bread and meat. The In- dians of the pueblos, too, carry quantities of fish there, either fresh or dried in the sun. In the evening, after the Angelus, the square is filled with loungers, who chat, play, laugh, and ^ oke, until the hour for the fandango ; for be it known, the young people of Mexico could not live if they did not dance at least 365 fandangos every year. At Santa F(^, as in Texas, and in all the pro- \dnces of Mexico, the women go to the fandangos, with their rehozo (mantilla), and arrayed in a Hght cool costume appropriate to the occasion and to the chmate of the country ; seated round the garden, or hall, where the dance is to take place, they smoke cigarettes and chat very loudly whilst awaiting the cavaUers' invitation. The town also possesses two churches : one is the Parroquia (the parish), and the other La Capilla de los Soldados (the soldiers' chapel). The parochial one is a large heavy building, in the form of a cross ; it is constructed of stone, and resembles, in every respect, the churches of l'\ m :\\ i ; I w v,< w' m]m lit ill 190 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. the small towns of Mexico. The nt is ornamented with two square towers of singularly graceful effect, hav- ing three openworked stories, the last of which, imitating a crushed pyramid, supports a cross. Between the two toAvera is a kind of spire or steeple, embellished with a clock. The interior of this edifice is by no means ren^ark- able ; at each side of the high altar are two wax figures, as large as hfe, representing holy monks. Behind the altar the wall is bedecked with mirrors, old paintings, and hangings of the most gaudy colours. The soldiers' chapel has been abandoned of late years ; it is dedicated to Our Lady of Light (Nuestra Senora de la Luz). Above the principal entrance you see a basso-rehevo, in stono, representing the Blessed Virgin rescuing a suppli- cating sold from the fangs of the Evil One ; the angels surrounding Maiy form a most interesting group. Here- tofore the interior of this monument served as a kind of mausoleum, wherein dead bodies were laid ; but one day the roof fell in, and as it was never restored, those who died wealthy were obliged to find another resting-place. Behind the grand altar of this church, there also exii^ts a curious basso-relievo, composed of several figiu-es : amongst others you remark the Blessed Virgin and St. James riduig on Moor's' heads ; St. John, of Pomasan, standing on an aqueduct ; St. Francis Xavier baptizing Lidians ; and St. Joseph, and St Fi'ancis of Santa Fe, having each a fmiend inscription, dated 1761, under their feet. In New Mexico you often come across sculptures and paintings, wliich are most skilfully finished. The greater part of those works of art have been sent from Spain ; but many Spanish, and even Mexican artists, contribute to the erection and embelhshment of the churches of tlies<^ countries. PUEBLO OF TAOS. 191 To the north-east of Santa Fe, the solitary valley of Taos, which is nine miles in length, and almost equally wide, opeas to the view. This picturesque district con- tains three important estabUshments : the town, the raneho, and Pueblo of Taos. The town is situated at the junc- tion of the two arms of the river which bears its name, at about one mile and a half from the south-eastern basis of the Eocky Mountains. Taos, like aU the small cities of New Mexico, is but an assemblage of adauhe houses built round a square. Its population is about 800 souls. The raneho Ues^ one mile south-east of the town, and at the same distance, and in the same direction, may yet be seen the famous Pueblo of Taos. This village, wliich is a curious remnant of the time of the Aztecs, has acquired a new amount of interest, owing to the tragic scenes that have passed within its walls of late years. One of the tributaries of the river, as it flows from the moun- tains, surrounds this delightful corner of the earth, which the Lidians had chosen as a permanent dwelling-place. Each year new constructions were added to the preceding ones, the soil was improved, th^ population increased, and finally, Pueblo of Taos became one of the most im- portant and strongest p^ces of New Mexico. On each side of the watercourbe, the Indians built one of those immense edifices, in the form of an irregular pyramid, wliich rise by gradations, until they attain a height of seven stories, and become a kind of impregnable citadels. These two kinds of forts, the church, and a few houses, complete the village, which is enclosed by a wall, covered in several places with a palisade of rude workmanship. After the skirmishes of Canada and of Ambuda, the insurgent Mexicans withdrew, on the 7th of January, to this stronghold, and determined to offer the Americans a ' ,ii- |fi|| IJlil . II > 192 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. desperate resistance, in consequence of wliicli the siege was long and bloody. Prior to this period Pueblo of Taos was besieged in vain for weeks together by multi- tudes of Indians ; and it even withstood the attacks of the Spanish conquerors without being obhged to surrender. Those sorts of fortresses which afford protection to the people of Taos are constructed, as we have already stated, of adaubes, that are almost proof against the enemy's pro- jectiles. They have no exterior entrance save through the roof, which can only be reached by means of portable ladders. As they rise, each storey is smaller than the one beneath it, and is dexterously pierced with apertures that may be used as loop-holes, and thus render all approach to the town a very dangerous matter. From Santa Fe you can also make an excursion to the principal gold mines of New Mexico, which are about thirty or forty miles south of the town. They are called the old and the new Placers. The auriferous region around Santa Fe appears to be very considerable ; south- ward it extends upwards of one hundred miles, as far as the Gran Quivira ; and florthward it also stretches out one hundred and fifteen miles, as far as the river Sangre de Christo. On all the siu'face of this country gold-dust is gathered by the poor Mexicans, who wash it in the moun- tain torrent ; but the old and the new Placers occupy the most hands, not only on account of the gold-dust which is to be found there in far greater quantities than anjrwhere else, but also on account of the mines which are now undergoing a thorough exploration. To go to these two Placers you should descend the Eio de Santa Fe to Siene- quilla, traversing groves of cedars and pines, then you enter a very arid valley, where nothing grows save cactus, yuccas, and a miserable weed beneath which frogs (JOLD MINES. 193 with horns and tails are hid. The environs of tlie Placer Eeal Vieja are very sandy ; at every step you come upon masses of gritstone and enormous remnants of petrified trees. Real Vieja is a poor village of 200 inhabitants, who rear sheep. Formerly their flocks were very consi- derable, but the continual razzias made by the Navajos have reduced them to 5000 heads at most. Like their village, the inhabitants of Eeal Vieja have a most abject and wretched appc nee, and yet it maybe said that their streets are Uterally paved with gold. Along the borders of the torrents, and even ii? the centre of the village, turn what way you will, wherever you go holes are to be seen hollowed out by the miners, with the aid of a few bits of old iron which they use as mattocks ; af^e'-wards they wash the auriferous sand with water contained either in rams' horns or in a gourd. The miners work all day long, and in the evening they go about to different shops to sell the gold that they have gathered at the rate of sixteen piastres the ounce. Between Eeal Vieja and Tuerto, situated a few miles more to the south, you pass close to the house of a French- man, who is the owner of mines from which he draws but httle or no profit. He has three mills of simple and even rude construction, that are used to grind and pulverise the ore. Spangles of gold, visible to the naked eye, are there disseminated over quartz. Near these mills there also exist mines of native iron mingled with gold. The mountains that contain all those riches have a most wild and desolate aspect ; they are of a pyramidical form, quite stripped of vegetation, and consequently leave the sandy natiu'e of their soil unconcealed. Tuerto lies at the foot of a mountain and on the borders of a ravine ; it seems even still more misemble than Eeal VOL. I. I r ;! i i' ■ ! I - - '. \. X K 194 THE DESERTS OF NOllTII AMERICA. Vieja. Moiinds of earth, drawn from the wells which arc hollowed out for the purpose of extracting the ore, arc heaped against the houses, so that this little town has quite the form of a village of gigantic dogs of the prairies. Ivs population is about 250 inliabitants, who are constantly occupied drawing, by means of great hooks, bags of sand from the wells ; which sand is afterwards thrown into a pond or pool of water ; then men, women, and children complete the washing of the ore in wooden porringers or in rams' horns. In gazing upon all those sunburnt, emaciated, and wobegone faces, one camiot re- frain from pitying these possessors of gold mines ; and then the life of the poor shepherds of the Llano-Estacado seems far preferable to that of the miners of New Mexico. As you ascend the Eio Tuerto you come upon a lead mine, situated near the road that leads to San Antonio. Still further on, there are two copper mines, which also contain great quantities of gold and silver ; and in the new Placer, that is quite close to the Eio Grande, the gold mines, being better explored, are much more pro- ductive. During the winter not fewer than 2000 persons go thither to work the mines. This periodical augmenta- tion of diggers and miners is occasioned by the abundance of water, which is obtained by melting the snow, for otherwise the ore could not be washed. Although the government demands a certain portion of the products of the soil, nevertheless, the auriferous ter- ritoiy may be considered as belonging to the wliole corporation. Wlien a Mexican wishes to explore a piece of ground that is as yet unowned, he goes to the Alkaid and offers to buy it : this functionary, according to the purchaser's means, yields him a portion more or less con- siderable, on condition that he will work the land every GOLD MINEC. 195 year, or otherwise incur the penalty of forfeiting the con- cession. Formerly foreigners were excluded from all right of obtahiing grants of mines, but by taking a Mexican as partner they could evade the law and become purchasers. Since the annexation of New Mexico to the American Union, strangers have just the same privilege as the natives. * In 1850, the mines of Santa F^ had already produced one million of francs in gold dust or ingots. The analysis of the washed gold gives the following result : — Native gold . Silver . . . Iron or Silvex 92-5 3-5 4-0 Total 1000 The value of all those auriferous grounds can scarcely be rightly estimated on account of the improvements wliich are daily introduced in the working ol the ipines : when those improvements become more general in New Mexico, the products of the mines will be considerably mcreased. Up to the present time none of the grantees have become rich, but many have ruined themselves, although pieces of native gold valued at from 3000 to 5000 francs have sometimes been drawn from the wells. Were it not for the incursions made by the Navajos, who devastate the country, flocks of sheep would prove a much more advantageous means of acquiring weal-'h. Yet, notwithstanding the almost cer- tainty of their being carried off, herds of 4000 sheep belonging to the same ranchero may be seen on the ba^ks of the Eio Grande. Next to Santa Fe, the first important town of the soutli- o 2 i ;, IDG TIIK DKSKIITS OF NOKTII AMEIIICA. li western (lost'i'ts is Ziini, ancient Ciholu ; wIumi you luivo (Ii'scoikUhI the vjilley of tlie Rio of k^antii Fe as far as ISiene<^u ilia, you cross tliat of (uilisteo to Santa Domingo on tlie llio Grande. Two roads diver^^'e from this [)lacc and lead to Zuni ; oue ])asses north-west, traversing the Navajos territory, and tlie other skirts along the llio Grande as far as Albuquerque, and then goes directly to the west. These twt) roads deserve to bi; described. The oidy remarkable objects to be seen on the route from Santii Fe to Santti Domingo, arc a kind of clifl's of coarse sandstone, situated at the entrance of the valley of the llio Grande ; these clifls are sha|)ed in the form of colinnns with regular cai)itals, resembUng the portico of an innnense Egyptian temple in perfect jn'eservation. A little northward of Santa Domingo, the llio Galisteo Hows into the Eio Grande ; in this spot the river is nearly 300 yards wide, but it is very shallow, and nms mostly over a bed of moving sand, which is extremely dangerous for the carriages that have to cross it. Tlie total length of the Rio Grande, from its sources to the Gulf of Mexico, exceeds 1900 miles, and its height at Santa Domingo is 5100 feet above the level of the sea. Tliis pueblo is inhabited by Indians, called Keres or Queres ; the houses are constructed of adaiibes, and are two stories high, the second story recedes on eveiy side, being, according to the Indian custom, nar- rower than the fu'st; it is reached by means of mov- able ladders, which are dra^vn up at night and placed on the platform that serves at the same time as terrace and roof. A high parapet is placed all round these terraces to save the children from falling down, and also to shelter the inmates, who lurk behind it when forced to defend themselves against any outward enemy. I> VALLRY OF TIIR JRMKZ. 107 SntiUi T)()tniii'"ie?*'^?«*,?f5'f8^r3:^1]«Ei:TS OF NOHTII AMERICA. ■ ••uiicU i-.l .Vio, 'anish iu.script:. rii. L I hllbbii'^' !lp ;. >\'' t I ,,l 1 ( t . i I i , til iiiVr^t- tUJ JrLs yoti bluii.!;: , t lii£r] ■ ,>erfe("ti; '(]Ue castle, Iran whJd.i ci.' ruins uf an ando* of skill h. ■■ ])■ !imh« it: 'mTJitn'' !in*ilr 11 ;\ ri i!i| El Mo. eh . ;, . > , i 1 » . < i ' 1 "I ! • h .- ilTr •. w ' ! : ■<\ ■■ i ;i ! ! VALLEY OF THE ZUNIS. 209 Other plants, whose varieties are unknown in Europe, and even in the other parts of the American continent. The valley of the Ojo-Pescado succeeds that of the El- Moro. The Pescado is a very pretty creek, which takes its source in a bed of lava, and contains a most peculiar species of fish. Formerly this soiu-ce was enclosed by a wall, the remains of which still bestrew the soil. Near that wall are the ruins of two other pueblos, and so ancient are they, that the Indians themselves know nothing about the origin of them. These pueblos have almost a cir- cular form and equal dimensions of 300 yards in cir- cumference ; in all probability they formed part of the kingdom o^ Cibola. A little more to the south you also perceive a deserted town, but which has only been abandoned within a short time ; the Zunis, who cultivated vegetables and corn in the valley of the Ojo-Pescado, inhabit this town during the summer. This country, almost as far as Zuiii, is destitute of all high vegetation, a few dwarf cedars and stunted pines grow here and there in the fissures of the rocks. Shortly after the Eio Pescado becomes lost in stratum of lava, and then re- appears under the name of Rio-de-Zuni. The district irrigated by this river, although of a dreary and desolate aspect, is nevertheless very fertile. On the right and left of the Rio are lofty cliffs of black metamorphic rocks, shaped into columns similar to the Giant's Causeway in Ireland : some of these columns are entirely separated from the principal mass, and remain erect Hke immense hgnthouses at the entrance of the desert. In the middle of the valley the Pueblo of Zuni rises on an eminence in the form of an amphitheatre, which, viewed from a distance, produces the effect of a peninsula. A few hundred yards south of Zuii), there stretches out a plateau perpendicidar VOL. I. p ill I "t ]'] ' f 'i ■f " rji I m 210 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA on cverj' side, and in the centre of which is Zuni Vieja (Old Ziiiii). From time to time yon perceive on the lieights towers, wherein sheplierds and cultivators keep watch lest they should be surprised by the roaming Apaches. Zuni is situated between 108° and 109° W. long., and 35" N. lat. It was only ui 1G94 that it became definitively conquered by the Spaniards, under the command of Captain-General Curro Diego de Barga.s Zapata. Its present population does not exceed 2000 souls, for in 1852 the small-pox made terrible ravages there. A great many of the inhabitimts have white skin, fair hair, and blue eyes. An ancient tradition accounts for this strange fact in the folloAving way. Welsh miners having formerly gone into that region, they were all massacred by the Lidians, who only spared the women on pui-pose to marry them. From those imions issued children bearing resemblance to their mothers, and this wliite race has been thus perpeL.ated to oiu" days. What strengthens this tradition is, that we could cite numerous Zuiii words which are quite analogous to English ones, having just the sjime significa- tion ; yet the Indians deny this story, which does not do credit to their hospitality. The Zunis have retained a profoimd veneration for Montezuma, and have even re- sented a spacious yard in the middle of the town for their dances m honour of that demi-god. During those public rejoicings the dancers adopt grotesque costumes, mostly representing horned animals and ferocious or im- aginaiy beasts. The houses belonging to the Zuiiis are of the same style as those of the other Indian pueblos ; their graduated stories tu-e almost all festooned with long garlands of red ZUNI. 211 pimentos, tliat dry in the sun. The town possesses a Catholic church thirty-three yards in length, by nine in width, it is built of adaubes, and behind its sole altar is suspended a painting representing Our Lady of Guada- loupe, the patroness of Mexico ; a few statues surround the painting, but the lateral walls are completely bare. The governor lives in a house three stories high, wherein the Cazics or chiefs of the government frequently as- semble. The Cazics are four in number, and their office is hereditary ; the son succeeds the father when the latter dies, or becomes incapable of fulfilling his func- tions. They have the general direction of all public affairs, and have power to declare war or make jieace ; they name two of the cliiefe captains, and consult them in all cases of urgency. One is the general who com- mands the armed forces, and the other is a kind of police officer. The latter goes among the people and makes choice of the most active and intelligent men, whom he presents to the Cazics for them to be named governors or inferior officers. If any one of them is too exacting or acts in a tyrannical manner, the people complain to the Cazics, who judge the offender, and divest him of his rank should he be found guilty. The Zuiiis have a mania for taming eagles, which they catch whilst yet very young on the neighbouring mountains ; multitudes of these birds are to be seen on the terraces of the houses, spreading their enormous wings as they bask in the sun. To visit Zuni Vieja you direct your steps towards a narrow gorge, situated one mile south of the pueblo ; you traverse this gorge by a zigzag road that brings you to the foot of a lofty tableland ; in this spot may be seen a sacred grotto, whither the Indians come to per- r 2 I'';** tr'r: :i )10 TIIK DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. form religious iieremonies. Then you have to begin climbing almost inaccessible rocks that rise 900 feet above the plain. Some of these rocks fonn a veiy wide projection, around which the Indians had for- merly built a wall that they might lurk behind it diu"uig invasion, to throw all khids of projectiles at the Spaniards. Arrived at the culminating point of the plateau you discover a smooth surface whereon grow large cedars ; above these trees two very singidar-looking columns rise up to a height of 495 feet. The foUowuig legend is attached to them. At a very remote period ■ '^e Zunis' ancestors came to the west from afar, and built the town that is still inhabited by their descendants. They were already a considerable time estabUshed there, when, on a dark night, the whole country was suddenly inundated ; the floods rose with such rapidity that a por- tion of the population was "buried beneath the waters, the remainder took refuge on the tableland, and there constructed the town which now bears the name of Zuni Vieja. By way of appeasing the irritated spirit who had sent this calamity, they sacrificed to him a yomig man and a young girl, who were thrown into the deep. Immediately after this sacrifice was accomphshed the floods withdrew. Before redescending into the plain the Lidians erected, in honour of the two victims, those columns which have perpetuated to the present day the recollection of thi^ great catastrophe. Near these monuments, which seem to us to be the work of nature rather than that of man, you see nume- rous fragments of w^alls nine or ten feet in height and six in width, covering an extent of several acres. These walls are half concealed by tufts of immense cactus, and another shrub bearing a yellow fruit (Opimtia arborescens). ZuSi VIEJA. 213 Among tliosc niins nicay be found remnants of painted pottery and points of arrows in obsidian, similar to those contained in the old deserted pueblos of New Mexico; such is all that now remains of Zuiii Vieja. Close to the town, in a cedar forest, may be \seen many places set apart for the religious ceremonies of the Indians. They are kinds of oval altars in f^arth, between two and three yards long and very low, having at one of the extremities an arrow ornamented with feathers and a sort of network. At the other end, stuck into the ground, is a cedar stake carved in the open-work style ; and in the middle of the altar, lying horizontally, is another bit of cedar woe curved in a similar manner ; it is also surrounded with shell, md arrows of small dimen- sion. Some of those altiirs are of very remote antiquity, and the Lidians allow no strangers to touch them. All the valley watered by the Eio of Zuiii is veiy fertile and affords excellent forage, without being obliged to have recourse to artificial irrigation, as is customary among the Indians of other localities. The Zunis save annually such an abundance of maize, that not only is tliere a sufficient quantity to supply their o^vvn wants, but they can even afford to export some to the west as far as Fort Defiance beyond the Eio Puerco. Leaving this singular country behind, you traverse a mountain ridge and arrive at a plain in the middle of which is Jacob's Well, called Ouah-nok-ai-tin-r.aie by the natives. It is a hole in the form of a funnel, 300 yards in circumference in its widest part, and 126 feet in depth. You descend to the bottom of this hole by means of a spiral staircase cut into the ground ; it contains a pool of water siurounded by large brambles and briars. This well is one of the curiosities of the desert. North-west F 3 .1 i-- !!:) 1. I, ; \ ' ': 'I I • t ; - I 214 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. ■I ; of that region begins the Moquis' territory ; this proud, independent, and illustrious nation has, of late years, seen its population considerably diminished by the small-pox, and although it is impossible to calculate exactly the number of Indians composing a tribe, nevertheless — it is a positive fact, that in the present day the seven towns be- longing to the Moquis scarcely contain 6000 inhabitants. Formerly that country was densely peopled to the Rio Colorado on the west, and as far as Chichilticale on the south ; the traveller, who may visit it now-a-days, can scarcely go even a few hours' journey without coming across all sorts of ruins and remnants of painted pottery scattered over the soil. Having passed Jacob's Well, by going always towards the Pacific Ocean, you leave, north-east, the magnificent range of the Sierra Madre Mountains, and southward, that of the Sierra Mogoyon, to enter the beautiful wide valley of the Western Puerco, which flows into the Colorado Ghiquito (or little Colorado) at 110 miles more to the west. Few countries in the world can vie in beauty with the one enclosed between the Gila, the Colorado, and their tributaries, the Eio Verde and the Colorado Chiquito ; this latter takes its source in the Sierras of Mogoyon and of Zuni, and imites with the Colorado near the Great Caiion. From the Great Caiion the Colorado directs its com-se westward through a fissure that is above 1500 feet below the plain, it then descends towards the south until it makes its junction with the Gila, which forms the southern bomidary of this vast region. Not- withstanding its elevation, and the vicinity of the Ham- mook-habi (the blue range), the Cerbat, Aquarius, Aztec, and Magellon Mountains of the Black Forest, and a multi- tude of cones of volcanic origin, the winter is never PETRIFIED FORESTS. 215 severe in those latitudes, and the prairies which begin to reappear are quite humid, behig watered by different streams. In one of those uneven and diversified prairies flows a tributary of the Western Puerco called the Lithodendron, the banks of which formed of red sandy marl are be- strewed with ancient potteries. On those same banks may be seen a little forest of petrified trees, half buried in the marl and transformed into different coloured jasper. Some of these trees measure six yards in cir- cumference by thirty-five in length. The greatest part of tlie branches are red, and the trmiks are either brown or black, as if they had been burnt. Beyond the Litlio- dendron, the most important and the richest valley you come across is that of the Colorado Chiquito, which is tliirty miles in breadth, with the most luxuriant pasturage in the world ; unfortimately it is miinhabited. Porcupines, of a variety quite unknown in the other parts of the globe, have hollowed out their burrows near numerous petrified trees that are scarcely concealed by the high grass. Antelopes and black-tailed roebuck are ahuost the only livhig creatures that enjoy the riches and fertility of this uncultivated land. The river is rather narrow. At the time of Coronado's expedition the Spaniards called it llio-del-Hno, on account of the quan- tity of flax that grows on Its borders ; it runs towards the west-north-west, between two alluvial banks sliaded by clusters of cotton trees. Close to the Colorado Chiquito is the Devil's Canon, which is extremely narrow, deep, of a frightfid aspect, and almost inaccessible ; it serves as an entrance to two other valleys confined be- tween thickly wooded hills that extend as far as San Fnxnciso Mountains. r 4 i r' i lis I i ' Sil mi h}\ 210 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. To the west of tlie Colorado Cliitiiiito you traverse a very large prairie irrigated by the Ilio Verde, in the miildle of which rise cones of sandstone that appear like islets springing up from a sea of verdure. The Kio Verde takes its source at the foot of the Sun Francisco Mountains, over-runs several plains which it fuililincs, is increased by the waters of the Salinas, and falls into the Gila near th.c village of the Coco Maricopas. Then for some time you pass close by the southern side of the peak of San Francisco, by walking over a kind of volcanic waves liardened and strewed with paps * of remarkable regularity ; one of those paps had its ridge broken by a torrent of lava that formerly biu'st from it, antl of which the tortuous folds are yet visible. The volcano of San Francisco is very wide at its basis ; the sunnnit is fomied by the union of many craters that rise 12,900 feet above the level of the sea, and are covered with perpetual snow. Its geographical position is between 111° and 112° W. long., and 35° and 30° N. lat. The flanks of this volcanic group are overhung with forests of pines {Finns brochyptera)^ from sixty to ninety feet hi height, with cedars, dwarf oaks, and shrubs (Corvania sansharyania\ called Alusina by the Mexicans. The rocks are pierced with coimtless natural caves inhabited by the Cosninos. Nature has coated those caves over with a vitreous substance of a blackish-brown-like iron ; the greater number have been artificially whitened and divided by partitions. Still farther on you find towers or observatories, and hierogly- phics engraved on the rocks. In all this region of extinct volcanoes the needle of the compass is verj * Small inamol^nH. pgly- m of vei7 i 3 ■< OS 3 : u : u a H u > O I [A -1 ! ils HI 1) c CJ ai t( at (li TJ "VV( 1>« of th< pri gai eiK ral go] the ela ser Clll coi dej obs esti 1 BEAUTIFUL DESERT. 217 tremulous, and varies at eveiy instant ; at times even its direction is quite the contrary of what it ought to be. Conseouently, not to lose one's way, it is necessary to pay more attention to the sun or to the stars than to the compass. When you have left the San Francisco Mountains, you din easily descry towards the south tliose of the William, and to the north Mount Picacho, which you should leave to your rear; you next arrive at the Black Forest, situated at the foot of tlie range of the Aztecs. That country, so frequently visited by the Apaches during the winter season, contains an immense quantity of Mexican agaves, wliich tlie Indians roast and eat, but which the Mexicans distil to extract a very strong kind of brandy from them. Throughout America there is not, perhaps, a spot that would prove mere ftivom^able and tulvantageous to a com- pany of agriculturists and of herdsmen than this portion of the great deserts comprised between the Black Forest, the Eio Verde, the Eio Salinas, and the Gila. The prairies are generally humid and require no artificial irri- gation ; the forests possess pines, fir-trees, cedars, and enormous oaks ; the mountains contain considerable mine- ral riches, and tradition says that quantities of silver and gold are to be found there, and that several tributaries of the Gila roll golden spangles. But many years will yet elapse before the resources of that territoiy can be seriously exj)lored by the whites, for, besides the diffi- culties resulting from the geographical situation of the countr}% the Indians, who ar-. most zealous of their in- dependence, would be sure to put forward every possible obstacle to hinder })ioneers and fortune seekers from establishing themselves in their dominions. The chain of the Aztecs is crossed opposite the Moun- i t r m I \mi I fWl! I liliii- i 218 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. tain of Hope, on a low granitic ridge which seems to join the southern part to the northern range at 113° W. long., and 35° N. lat. Two streams gush from this height, one flows towards the east and takes the name of Eio Pueblo, the other duects its coiu*se westward and becomes a tributary of the Wilham. From thence to the Aquarius Mountains tlie land is beautifully di- vei"sified, and goes in a rapid descent towards the Pacific Ocean, in the proportion of forty-five leet to every mile. All the rivulets wind their way in the direction of the south, and the plains through which they pass are clothed with a rich mantle of verdure that puts one in mind of the Emerald Isle. Torrents of cold lava are still veiy common there, but they are cut up by large fissiu-es, or by canons, and the valleys are shaded by numerous bouquets of willows and cotton-trees, particu- larly in the vicinity of the rivers. The Yampais in- ha))it those regions, and the fires of their encampments may daily be seen : when these Lidians wish to parley they raise a firebrand in the air as a sign of friendship ; most probably it was owing to this custom that the fii-st Spaniards gave the Colorado the dcnomuiation of Eio-del- Tizon. The magnificent valley of the William's Eiver opens between the Cerbat and the Aquarius Mountauis, which inunediately follow the mnge of the Aztecs. Among the manifold curiosities of this valley we should cite the CVr- cius gi(janteus (doubtless the most colossal cactus of that family) ; generally speaking their siunmits attain from thirty to fortv feet iti lu^ight ; yuccas of an equal size grow near this enormous vegetable. The fiora of those solitudes is strange but of singular beauty, containing plants and shrubs tliat arc nowhere else to be fountl. to join 3° W. m this ; name >stward thence illy di- Pacilic -y mile, of the ass are one in iva are )y large .dcd by pai-ticu- ipais in- iipments parley ;ndship ; the first lUo-del- ^r opens 5, >v]iich long the the Cer- of that im from ^ual size t)f those utaiuing found. ^ " js'^mi " />', I I ! m k :]£%'!£» mmM.>. fl f ''I is \ n || i? K A ^^* -«-,. ^il/i0T WILLIAM'S VALLEY. 219 The form of the Cercus giganteus is that of fluted and vertebrated columns, with several arm^ rising in a pa- rallel manner with the trunk. We must also notice the mountain sheep, tlie horns of which are of a prodigious size, and their wool exceedingly fine and silky. It is stated that when this quadruped is pursued by the himters it throws itself from the top of a precipice in a peculiar way, so as to fall on its horns, and then gets up without having received the shghtest hurt. In all probability it was with the wool of this species of sheep that the Toton- teas wove tlie beautiful stuffs of which the Lidians of the Gila spoke to Father Marcos de Nica. Metamorphic rocks, either volcanic or of red sand- stone, with the most ludicrous appearance, are piled up on each side of the WiUiam as far as the Eio Santa Maria, where the valley changes its dkection from north to south, and then wintUiig, goes from east to west. Although you have only got a glimpse of the liio Santa Maria, you must nevertheless leave it behind you, and continue to skirt along the river unto its em- bouchm'e in the Colorado, situated at 114° W. long., and 34° 15' N. lat. According to an ancient tradition the constructors of the pueblos came from the north-west to the banks of the WiUiam ; there they divided into two bands, one of whicli went by tlie San Juan and the Caiiou of Chelly towards the centre of New Mexico, and the other established itself near the Eio Gila, from whence it was able to extend as far as Mexico. In this part of its course the William winds through tlie mountains by a gap that is opened through a triple bod of greenstone, granite, and white quartz, contain- ing an argentiferous galleiy. This gorge is fi-equented by the Indians of the Colorado, so that you may often 1 !i 1 .1 220 THE DESERTS OF NORTJI AMERICA. l-^ii; fall upon traces of tlieir encampments, siicli as pieces of nets wrouglit with tlie bark of tlie willow, lilij)utiau huts constructed with branches of trees and then covered over with foliage. It is to be remarked that tlie Indians of those latitudes in lighting their fires only use very small br.mches about an inch thick, (uid even when wood is to be had in abundance, they show great parsimony in the quantity they burn of it. During very warm Aveather these savages often make their beds in the sand, which has been heated by the rays of the sun ; but when the season is cold or rainy they sleep in little cabins filled with leaves or dried weeds. Eocks heaped one above another represent the steps of an immense Mexican teocalli ; tlieir sinmnits, notched by the storms, have the appearance of a Gothic indention of the thirteenth century ; the crevices and fissures of those cycle ()ean staircases arc fastened up with thick plants and extra )rdinary cactus. One of these ])erpendiciilar rocks is lui.urally hollowed out at its basis and forms a large grotto, at the commencement of which is a fine pond filled with clear running waiier ; above the fountain the grotto is adorned with red, white, and blue hieroglyphics sinvllar to those of tlie llocky Dell, of which we have already s))oken. A kind of serpent or rahibow envelopes the hieroglyphics, and seems to be the divinity of those lo- calities. The singular aspect of this spot accoimts for tlie Indians making choice of it as a sacred place wlierein to celel)rate their rv^ligious ceremonies ; willows, inesquites, bindweed, and all kinds of shrubs and plants render it a sort of savage galleiy, a sojouni of sj^irits and mysteries, which must have struck the fanciful imagination of those children of the desert. On emerging from the gorge you enter the great valley CCS of )iitiau )vcrcd [idiiins I very wood imoiiy Avariu ) sand, \ when s filled iteps of lied by itioii of f those I its and Ir rocks a large d filled ixrotto siir.ilar il ready )es the lo- lose for tl le I rem to muites, ler it a >teries, those va llev !' I- i i! I [(''•(1 1 « Tir i.Ui OVVV VVJlii of t' ini.iic. a-nuuK'. ]■ •ij- lit {»j? CV • N » uu-iu. ■ a^l- iU»li. •4 H i tin iiniii iteu hv )< >!i(; (it'll u I ii IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET {MT-3) 1.0 I.I 121 1^ u, 1^ 1 2.2 140 12.0 F' Hi 11'-^ < 6" ► VI 7 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STREtT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) •72-4S03 ■1>^ iV iV 1 i 1 ■ . ■ ■ i i " 1 j 1 TIIK PHSKRT.'^ OF XOUTII AMKRICA. \o iinnio !i roiiimnudor, nnd to disnii-s ]uin ms woll jis tlio sol(lioi>i, by iiotifvinij: it to tho viaToy. riiuilly, tho t'atluMv •Nvcro juilborisod to lu.'niiinto nil surli porsons as llicy might judjjfo {)n)j)('r i?i (lio iiowly coiKjiuMvd country. Fatlior iSjilva Tiorni, hMviiig thus ohtainod aM ho had soli'.'ilod, hastened to leavo ^Irxieo ; and, havinuf coni- nutti'il to Fathor Uixavto (ho rare of colUrtiuii; alms and laxos a.nd transmidin.'j; (hem to him rlt) Aeapuleo, sailed on t' e lOth of (Ktober 1()U7, with a few soldiers anil three Indians. Al'ler three days' naviijation they en- tend Conception Hay, and disembarlved in that of St. ] )ionysius, as it atlbrded the best ane!ioraL>'e. Fifty Catholic Indians went to help J ather Salva Tierra and his com- ])anions in elVecting tlunr installation; and the zealous mis- sionary. at'tcM' haviusj: i)rovided for the first cares of the establishment, set himst'll" eaiierly about studyinij: the Ian'j:uaLri» of the sayaues, and then deyoted himself entirely to their religions, moral, and material well-being. Father Kino assisted him greatly in diis work of ciyilisation, and not\vithstannsiderabUMlonations haying been made, they Vxcre enabled to propagat(>, througViout the gri'ater portion of the land, the light of the Gospel and of ciyilisation The Viceroy of Mexico si'ut soldiers to protect them, and ' issued in ITGT a decree by which DISCOVERY OK TUK HAY OF PAN FUANCISCO. 23i] llu' .T(>siii('^ \vor(^ i'X|)o11(h1 from (lu^ v^panish torrilorios, tlu> (cmporMl juul s|>irilu!il u'ovt'ninuMit of Cnliforniji was Avitlulrawii from lluMii ; a goviMMimoiit which thov luul ooiuliu'tcd iij) lo llia( epoch ^^ilh as much inlclhLrcncc as iK'votc(hi( Franciscans ,,iu I l).>i nnncans succcct led tlicm, and slill Wve in Lower or Old California. The first mission erected in li|)per or New California Avas created at K-m Dit'go by Father Junipen^ 8erra, of tlie order of t^t. Francis. An old chronicle attributes [o this friar the discovery of the bav of !San Francisco, destined to I )ecome so ecu ■brat<'d in after vears. Desirimx to re- turn to Monterey, Father JunipiMv) followed tho range of mountains that border the north'.M'n coasts of 8an PieL'o, wjiere he had just founded a mission, lie passed by I\b>nterey without ])erceivinnce exclaimed in u trans- ])ort of Joy : " Hchold the jiort the inspector (U\sired, and towards which l:^t. Francis has led us : blessi>d be his name !" An Indian tradition assures us that this bay wa,s at first ! i I ) n r I'l i i: t U I' I' -A III if 234 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. a lake of frnsh water, and subsequently joined to the sea by an earthquake. From the moment of its discovery, San Francisco had the reputation of being one of the best harbours in the world ; it is also renowned for the pic- turesque beauty and fertility of the surrounding countries, and for the mildness and salubrity of its cUmate. Its geographical position, opposite Asia, and at the moutli of two great rivers, which traverse a territory abounding in corn, in flocks, and in timber for building, probably the most gigantic to be found, considerably augments its im- portance, and promises it a brilUant future, already partly realised by the numberless immigrations of gold-seekers, of merchants, and of colonists. The bay of San Francisco is separated from the sea by a chain of low mountains with a gap towards the centre one or two miles in width, which is the only communication between the bay and the sea. The total length of the bay is 71 miles, and its circumference at least 220. Islands and rocks, some of which are very elevated, appci*.r gracefully above the water, and add to the magnificence of its grand scenery. Upper California extends from south to north, from the 32° to the 42° of K lat. Its length, from the Sierra Nevada to the Pacific Ocean, is about 150 miles in its southern portion, and 200 in its northern one, givmg a superficies of 108,750 square miles. Numerous little val- leys, agreeable and fertile, with a mission estabhshed in each, ascend from the sea-shore into the interior of tlie country. The mountains that separate them from eacli another are of an average height of 2100 feet. When it is remembered that this region has an extent of ten degrees, notable differences of c.imatc would naturally be expected ; nevertheless, strictly speaking, neither winter UPPER CALIFORNIA. 235 nor summer reigns there, and the months that correspond with these seasons are rainy or dry, but never veiy cold nor very warm. The rains commence about the end of November, and finish about the beginning of May; betw(!eu tliose two epochs are the finest and mildest days of the year. The drought of summer is in general modi- fied by mists and abundant dews that fertilise the earth, in consequence of which immense districts are to be seen covered with uncultivated oats, on which countless wild and tame animals feed. The finest valleys in CaUfornia are those of the San Joaquin and of the Sacramento. These two valleys, which l)roi)erly speaking only make one, are bounded on the east by the Sierra Nevada, and on the west by the mountains that extend along the ocean. In the evening, from the summit of those mountains, you may behold the grandest spectacle that the creation can ofier to tlie gaze of man. To the west, the sun, as it sets above the sleeping ocean, casts a crimson hue in the immensity, and sheds a fiery twihght over the motionless sea. No vapour covers the surface of the waters, whilst sparkUng clouds illuminate, with soft gilded beams, the poUshed sands of the shore. To the east, the snowy peaks of the Sierra Nevada become gradually tinted with all the colours of the rainbow. Long black lines indicate the course followed by the tor- rents that flow into the two rivers. The sea winds whisper gently, or blow with fury, m the forests of oaks and gigantic pines. These miglity children of the earth brave the terrible shock of the south winds without breaking, and their sfed- wart branches, bent by the northern blast, arise anew, groaning beneath their weight. Melancholy voices sigh in the heavens and in the woods. In the plains you descry the reddish fire of the Indian encampments, and you hear the :i I '1 I ■ I ■ I.- * I 23G THE DESERTS OF NOETII AilERICA. monotonous chants of tlie savages ; those chants, repeated by the echoes, resound Hke the whistle of a storm on the summits of the mountains, and are lost in space. Some tardy birds ascend from the humid herbage and flutter in tlie sha- dows of darkness, at the same time sending forth a plaintive cry. The shades, the niglit, the dew, and the balmy tepidity of the atmosphere, intoxicate the senses. All this ethereal poesy of a sublime harmony enraptures, transports the spirit into regions unknown and luminous, wherein the whole being hovers amid a sphere of delights, of joys, and of holy ecstasies. Eacl^ note of this melody of nature imparts a vivid impression, and vibrates magically in the soul, Uke the subHme sonatas of Beethoven and the touching strains of Bellini. In the midst of these divine concerts, capri- ciously modulated in the soUtudes, man recognises the majesty, the omnipotence, and the greatness of God ; and tlie soul, affected and amazed, is elevated to the Eternal by the contemplation of His most admirable works. Few comitries are endowed with so lovely a sky, such pure air, and so mild a climate as Upper California. It is the Italy of the New World. Apple, pear, plum, fig, orange, peach, and pomegranate-trees grow beside palm-trees, banana-trees, the cocoa, and the sugar cane. The olive oil of California is similar to that of Andalusia, and the wine that was formerly to be had there might have vied with the most recherche of the Canarj'- Islands ; but since tlie ancient missions have been abandoned, scarcely any of those fridt-trees which were planted by the Jesuits all over that territory are to be found : yet at St. Bonaventure, and at the mission of San Luiz Obisbo (35° N. lat.), you may still see olive-trees whose fruit sur})asses both in size and in quality all those of the basin of the Mediterranean. The productions of the south differ from those of the centre i VALLEYS OF UPPER CALIFORNIA. 237 k niul of tlie north. Grapes, olives, maize, wheat, tobacco, potatoes, cotton, and vegetables, which are of an ordinary size in the United States, assnme extraordinary proportions in CaUfornia. The San Joaquin and the Sacramento derive their sources from tlie two extremities of the long valley of which we have already spoken. Having received many tributary streams, some of which are even fine rivers, they become navigable, are united by several arms towards the 38° 15' of N. lat., and shortly after fall into the bay of San Francisco, by passing through a large gap made in the mountains of the coast. The valley of the Sun Joaquin is nearly 300 miles in length by 30 in width. The eastern side, backed by the Sierra Nevada, is the finest of all. It is watered by nu- merous rivulets which fertilise the shoals, coquettishly shaded by a multitude of white oaks (Quercus longiglanda), from fifteen to sixteen feet in circumference, by sixty to ninety in height, and by large sycamores (Platanus occi- dentalis). The San Joaquin flows from Lake Tulare, situated to the south of the valley. The principal tribu- taries of the San Joaquin are : the Eio de los Cosumnes, the Eio de los Mokelumnes, the Eio de los Calaveas, the Eio Stanislas, the Eio de los ToAvolumnes, and the Eio de los Auxumnes. These names are, for the most part, those of the savage tribes who lived on the borders of these rivers, and whose only sustenance was derived from the acorns of the white oaks, which are from two to three inches long, and from a kind of geranium (Erodkim cicu' tarium), considered a very nutritious plant, and which is still consumed by the Indians of our days. The hills situated at the foot of the Sierra Nevada remind you a little of the high prairies of Texas ; for, like them, tliey are un- .': il 4 r ] 'i!!r ;l:i: •i ! 238 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. ;■: didating and woody, and aflford the most fiivoiirablc spots of all the valley for agriculturj?. The environs of Lake Tulare possess a truly beautiful flora ; among which we dis- tinguish the Viola chrysantha, the Eschscholtzia calif omica, and the Nemophila insignis. Flocks of elks, of antelopes, of \vild horses, some grey bears, multitudes of tuikeys and other species of the gallinaceous tribe, fatten amid the rich pasturages that adjoin the shoals. The Sacramento takes its source north of Upper Cali- fornia, in the neighbourhood of Mount Sliastl or Isatkl, whose summit, whitened by eternal snows, rises into the ail' to a height of 14,400 feet above the level of the sea. It then directs its course, for a distance of 300 miles, towards the south, and after recei\ing the waters of different streams, — of the Bute River, of the Eio de las Plumas, or of the Eldoiado which descends from the auriferous regions of the Bear Iti-er, and of the Eio de los Americanos that washes a portion of I^ew Helvetia, — joins the San Joaquin, as we have akeady stated, and flows into the bay of San Francisco. The river abounds in salmon celebrated for both size and flavour. The valley of the Sacramento is also of prodigious fertiUty. Coimtless firuit-trees are there to be found ; flax and hemp cover the prairies, whilst oaks and pines attain propor- tions truly extraordinary. You also frequently meet with white cedars (Thuya gigantea) 150 feet high, and cypresses {Taxodium) which the Jjlexicans call Palo Colorado, and which are ten yards in circumference, by 270 feet in height. Near Monterey, the Palo Colorado^ which might well be named the king of the Cahfomian vegetation, becomes even still more colossal than on the western decUvity of the Sierra Nevada. This territoiy,in fiict, possesses all the neces- sary elements to make California a gre^it maritime comitry. M 1. i CALIFORNIAN INDIANS. 239 We say nothing of the auriferous regions, nor of the gold dust that is rolled along by the waters of the torrents and rivers, as many others have written on that subject. Silver, mercury, coal, iron, sulphur, and asphalt have also been fom.d in abundance over this favoiu'ed land, but they are neglected for the gold diggings, which are more productive, and prove a much easier means of acquiring riches than the working of the otiier minerals. The Indians of California consist of poor tribes, living wretchedly on the products of fishing, of himting, and on wild fruits. Under the intelligent and paternal adminis- tration of the missionaries they had become happy, docile and industrious, even though their inteUigence was much inferior to that of the other Indians of North America. They tilled the fields, cidtivated the vine, and had veiy fine orchards. Previously to the arrival of the Jesiuts, they ^vere in complete ignorance of the arts of agricultiu'e and even of the pastoral life ; stupidity seemed to be their distinctive character. They now dwell in miserable huts of the form of hives, the greater number being quite naked; and they stiU tiU the ground, but they derive their principal food from the chase, from fishings and from acorns. The Sierra Nevada, of which we have already spoken, fornis part of the great mountain chain which, under difierent names, at imequal heights, but in a uniform direction, spreads from the Sierra de San Bernardino to Eussian-America, affording no other apertures than those through which the Columbia and the Fraser flow into the Pacific Ocean. This range is remarkable for its extent, its paraUeHsm with the sea-shore, its volcanic peaks, and the elevation of its moimtains, some of which rise above the highest sunmaits of the Eocky Moimtains. I i'! 1, i I >i If 11 240 THE DESERTS OV NORTH AMERICA. The greatest part of these peaks, isolated like pyramids, are placed or immense plateaux, overgrown with magnificent forests, and stretching as far as the frozen regions of eternal snow, and rise to 12,000 and even 17,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Sierra Nevada exercises a visible influence on the soil, the climate, arid the productions of Upper Cahfornia. 150 miles distant from the coast, this gigantic wall receives the hot winds, loaded with vapoui*s, that blow from the ocean and fall in rain and snow on the western part of the range, leaving the opjwsite declivity exposed to drouglit and freezmg blasts. C'on- sequentiy you may find at the siime season, in the same latitude, and at the same height, mildness of climate, fertilit)% vegetable riches, in fact, summer, reigning on one side, whilst sterility, cold, and -whiter exist, with more or less intensity, on the opposite slope of these moimtains, whose sublime beauty is perhaps imequalled tliroughout the world. nmids, are lagiiificent regions of feet above ?s a visible luctions of coast, this h vapoui*s, I snow oil i opposite •sts. Con- in, in the lUdiiess of T, reigning exist, with J of these imequalled 1 , ! t m I it if I Amtm \l^^ ^ h. JsKy I : I f hn 211 CHAP. XIII. DESKIITS OF THE WEST. — .SINOULAU CII.MIACTEUI.STICS OK THE fillEAT UASIN. ASPECT OK THESE SOLITUDES. THE HUMBOLDT. NOTES CONCEItNINO THE CANADIAN VOYAGKVRS. lUVEIt OK THE OltEAT IIASIN. LAKK OK THE I'VUAMID. — UANOE OK THE CASCADES. FALL IIIVEU. — OliKGON. ITS CLI.MATE. — THE COH'MIIIA. KOUKSTS OK OltKOON. KoitT VANCOUVEU. MOL'NT COKKIN. SlIlMEltOED KOUESTS. KALLS AND ItAl'IDS OK THE COLI'.MIMA. — THE (JUEAT DALLES. KOUT WAHLAH. WAHLAU. CLAUK FOUK. — SCUHCES OF THE COLUMBIA. Brtwern the Sierra Nevada, on tlie west, and the llocky Monntains, on the east, and from the 25° N. lat. to the Cohnnbia, may be found a siiGcession of interior basin.s of quite a particular character, inasmuch as tlie rivers and watercourses liave no issue into the seti, but dis- appear in the sands of tlie Great Desert, or in the salt lakes. The most remtirkable of these basins are the Balsom of Mapimi, situated between the 27° and 29° of N. lat. and the Great Basin, which stretches out over a sandy plam of 202,500 square miles, bounded, on the south, by a chain of newly discovered and as yet uii- ex})lored mountiiins; on the west, by the Sierra Nevada; on the north, by a branch of the Eocky Mountains, and by the Cc^lumbia ; and on the east, by a range of the Wah-Satch, and of the Timpanogos. Its diameter from east to west is about 525 miles ; its form is almost square, and its height varies from 4050 to 5100 feet above the level of the sea. Surrounded on all sides by lofty moun- tains, its lakes and rivers have no visible conunmiication VOL. I. R Mi '■■••■i ''•r I! 4 I II TIIK PK8KUTH OK NOHTU AMF.RK'A. ss. ^vilh llio iH'OMM. rarllv mid ami sojin'olv iulinhitiMl, (lu i)hvsmi:Moniv ol this vast rounliv is tluit «>!' n wiMorm ^tiuMiHl with u\im(M'niis oasrs \vhii'h might nllord a dwoll iug lor who'io populations of agrii'ultn lists. Tt is in ono of (lu'so sitrs, so I'avoiii'iHl by i\atiiri\ that tho Mormons havr ostabhshod thoir piiiuMpal ri'sidom'o, as avo shall sou in tho ouu'so o\' our ilosiMiptions. Tlu' interior o( tho CwvM Hasin is mountainous: tlu> mountains ha\\> a unil'orm asprot. they riso aluuplly from a basis of tVoni nim* to twtMity milrs in I'iivmnloiviu'o, to a luMi^ht varyinu; i\'o\\\ UOOO to r>0()t) iW^t abovo tlu* plain : ilu> iiii'ati'st part of thom ari' I'ovorotl Avith troos ami voixhnv : thoir sununit,s aro oappoil with snow ilm'ini; tlio grcator portion of tho yrar, whioh snow supplii's coii- .siJrrabk' sourrc that gush up in tonvnts, and aro ai't«M'- wards lost, partly in tho lakos. and partly in plains of nrtiMuiso or in alluvial soil. With tlu' cxcoption o( tho valleys watiMVfl by the rivoi's. tho oountry, in gonoral. is dry and storilo : scarcrly any pasturago or wood is to hv sivn thoro. Tho warbK* i)( buds is ahnost unknosvn, vww amidst tho ooolost a>ul most lovoly grovi's. Tho hoart satldons as (mio ponotiT.io^ into this stranm' and molaiu'holv rt^gion. Tho Indians who inhabit it livo solitarily. iMtluM* in families or in litllo socJ'tios. AoiHM'dinii: to tho season thov iMnigi'ato IVoni ono p (laeo t< o anotluM" to sri'k nnsi>rablo root,s, \vhu'h loriu Ihrir only nourishment ; oven animals are seldom io be Ibund tluM'e. A painful silenee, tlismal and awfuK eon tinually I'eigns in those regions: one would say that death hovers in that atmosphere, without lite ot ""ho, ai\d thai it prepat'es a grave foi- tlu> tiaxi'ller who may venlure into them. AnotlnM" sinu;ular eharaiMeristie oi' these desertM is the TIIK HHKAT n.VyiN, 2[[\ iliMhittMl, (ho I wiUK>nioss. lord !i thvoll- t. is in (Mu^ of onnon,^ \m\v 111! XIV in tlu' osort^ Is tho )nononuMu >n thiit tlio iriviitoi- tnnnlu'i' of riviM-s allonl. by roUinii' willi m rrMsIiinu' noiso in ll\o cnornions rnviiu's which tho Moxit'Mns i'mII (vn?(i/;N ; lhosi> ravinos wlurh mx' til'ton ini|HMU'li!iblo, iuo hollowed in ihr howrls of the onrth l>y (hi> wMtiMs (o M di'nth of 1100. jnul ovon in sonie plinvs, !M)0 loot. torn\n>,u: Mt tinios pornonilionlar wmIIs so oIoso to oMoh othor that von ooiiKl onsily oross (Vom ont' hank to tlio othor by moans o\' a Inidijo o\' vory insi^nilioanl lonirth. Amongst (ho rivors tliat irrioato (ho Oroa( Hasin, (ho linost is (Iio llnn»lu>Kh. no oaUod by (ho Aniorit'ans, as a (okon of (Iio ios|)oo( and ostooni thoy proloss lor tlio Nos- (o\' of soion(ilio d'avolKu's. Tl ns nvor is soarot ly 1 \nown to any ono oxot>p( (o (ho tra|)pors and (Iio hnntors ; ni»vinid on a tow inaps mulor (ho nanio of !S(. Mary or (>ml(Mi. 1( has (wo branohos wliii'h (ako (hoir sonroos in a liionp of nionnlains si(na(od (o (ho wos( nl' (ho Oroa( l^ah Lako: al'lor a oonrst* of liriv-livo nnlos (ho two branolu>s iniito in ono bod. a>id linally luvonio lost at tho loot of tho ki^iorra Novada althonuh thoy d^^ not t«>noh it. Tlio Unniboldt has no tribntarios; as i( advanoovS (owai'ds (ho oast it gradnaily U>sos pari of its ^vohnno, ()wing to (ho absorp(ion and inapora(ion of its wators, and onds in a n\nddy lako. tho bordors i>f \vhioh aro Hat id wliitonoil by salino inoriistjitions. In (ho dry soasons ai (ho Uinnl»oitl( is soaroi^ly nioro (lian six Tool in dop(h ; tho oonnlry throiiuh whioh it pjissos is sandy, and uniti' ilosli- \\\\v {){ soil lor agrionltnral nsos ; yot its imniodiato lianks aro liM'lilisod by alluvial gri^nnds. whioh ari' ploiiohod np by tho rivor at (ho liino of tho niol(ii>u' of (ho snow, and aro shadod in a r.iosi oaprioions mannor by olns(ors of willows and ootton-troos. I'\>r upwards of *\{){) niilos iu> obslaclo whalovoi" inipodos its course; its direction IVoni u 2 il! 11 244 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. east to west now serves as a route for the emigrants going to Upper California. During a considerable length of time the valley of the Humboldt was the rendezvous of the trappers, the voyageurs*, and tiie agents belonging to * The voyageur.s formed a kind of coi-ps in Canada similar to the arrieros or waggoners of Mexico, and like the latter, they were also hired for long voyages ; still there was this difference between them : the arrieros traA-^elled by land with waggons, mules, and horses, whilst the voyageur went by water in boats and in canoes. The voyageurs were employed by the first French for merchants for their distant expeditions for the fur trade, through the interminable labyrinths of lakes and rivers in the interior of America. The voyageurs date from the same epoch as the coureurs-des-hois, and, like them, they pass the intervals of their long and perilous excursions in amusements and feasts, thus squandering in a few days the money they had earned during one or two years of unheard-of dangers and fatigues. Their costume is half European and half savage, but perfectly adapted to their kind of life. Being of French origin, the voyageurs are cheerful and very lively, ever ready to relate a witty anecdote, or to sing a merry song, and dance in the middle of the woods during the night encampment. Polite and obliging, they always try to render service to their fellow- travellers, affording them every possible care and attention. It would be difficult to find men more submissive to their chiefs, more goo^-humoured imder privations, and more capable of enduring the greatest hardships. Skilfol boatmen, they row willingly fi-om morning until night without uttering a single complaint; the pilot sings an old legend, and the rowers unite their voices to his, in the burden of the song. In this way the voyageurs beguile their long days ; at night they disembark on the borders of a lake or river, light the bivouac-fire, each in his turn recounts some extraordinary adven- ture, and then they lie down to sleep, heedless of the Indians and the ferocious beasts by which they are surrounded. At St. Louis, during a festival given in honour of M. Laclede, founder of the town, we had the opportunity of seeing a hundred of these voya- geurs and trappers dressed in the most curious manner. Many of these white savages bear names that are quite celebrated in the annals of the desert, and the accounts of their exploits would fill entire volumes with the most interesting details. The greater number of these childi'en of THE GREAT BASIN. 245 the great American fur companies, who used to spend part of the winter there ; but now-a-days these intrepid chil- dren of the desert pitch their tents in a more northerly direction. The other rivers of the Great Basin are, on the east, the Bear Kiver, which takes its source in the chain of the Timpanogos, and flows into the Great Salt Lake, after having watered a winding valley 190 miles in length and as fertile as it is picturesque ; the Utah and the Tim- panaozu (or Timpanogos) that faU into the Lake Utah and the Nicollet, which suppHes the lake of that name : to the west, the Eiver of the Salmon Trout, that flows into the Lake of the Pyramid ; the Carson, the Walker, and the Orven, which descend with a terrific noise from tlie Sierra Nevada, and then disappear in pretty lakes to which these rivers give their name. In the regions that are as yet unexplored you may also perceive numerous watercourses which have never been disturbed by white people, but which will not long escape the scientific explorations of the government of the United States. Such is the general aspect of these deserts, whose appearance is more Asiatic than American, and which are well worthy our devoting the wilds are on friendly terms witli the Red Skins, and they generally finish by marrying Indian girls, owing either to the frequent intercourse they keep up with the tribes, or on account of the security and the ad- vantage they derive from those mamages. When Canada passed to English domination, the voyageurs and the coureurs-des-bois were dejected and discouraged, but gradually tliey became reconciled to the new comers, and ended by serving them loyally. Since steam-boats have been invented, the poetic existence of the voyageurs has almost disappeared ; the echoes of the lakes and rivers no longer repeat their joyful French songs. Their glory is extinct ; they are no more the mastei-s and the great navigators of the inner seas of the new world, and in a short time hence the veiy name of the voyageurs will be no more than a pleasing legend of Ihe American solitudes. R 3 246 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. a few pages in describing them, so as to give our readers some notion of their most unportant details. To go from San Francisco, in Upper CaUfomia, to the Great Basin, and from thence to Oregon or to the United States, you should ascend the Eiver de los Americanos and cross the Sierra Nevada at the 39° 17' 12" N. lat., near the sources of the Salmon Trout. This passage is forty miles east of New Helvetia, and 7200 feet above tlie level of the sea. In winter it is very difficult to open a way for oneself through the Sierra Nevada, on account of the inextricable defiles of those fearfully steep mountains, and the great abundance v/f snow which forms the pecu- har characteristic of that range. But in summer this route is of a picturesque grandeur and beauty not to be met with in the Pyrenees, the Alps, or even in the Himalayas. The rocks of lava, which are everywhere to be found, have a granitic aspect and contain numerous fragments of obsidian. The nut pine {Pinus monophylla) grows in luxuriant abundance on the two slopes of the chain; the nut is oily, but of a most agreeable flavour; it constitutes the principal food of the Indians of those regions. At 9000 feet above the ocean the cedars often attain a height of 135 feet, and the red pine [Pinus Coro- rado), which is the principal occupant of the north- western forests of the Sierra Nevada, also frequently mea- sures ten yards in circumference at the base by 156 feet in height. The most elevated passage in the south of the Sierra Nevada is 9360 feet above the level of the sea, — that is to say, almost 2100 feet higher than that of the Eocky Mountains, and 1000 miles from the Dalles of tlie Columbia. By following the course of the Salmon Trout you arrive at the Lake of the Pyramid in the Great Basin ; Ihc river PYRAMID LAKE. 247 is vade, shaded by cotton-trees and bordered with caves, in which a few Indian famihes dwell ; on its banks you may also see several Indian villages formed of huts con- structed of straw, the inmates of which are very much afraid of the whites. The Lake of the Pyramid is a large and fine sheet of green water, placed 4890 feet above the level of the sea, and 690 above that of the Great Salt Lake. It seems to be set in a ciicle of hills and mountains, be- neath which grow tufts of Ephedra occidentalism whose sombre colour adds to the gloom of spots already so dreary owing to their aridity. The tranquil waters ripple or murmur softly on their rocky or sandy borders. To- wards the southern extremity a natiural pyramid arises to a height of 600 feet, which bears a striking resem- blance to the pyramids of Egypt. Wild sheep come to quench their thirst on the borders of the lake, the waters of which are rather saltish, and contain enormous salmon trout upwards of three feet long. Numbers of ducks sport on the tiny waves, and impart a httle life to this profoundly calm nature, which reminds one of the silence of the deepest sohtudes. From the Tjake of the Pyramid you can round the Great Basin, in order to visit the Columbia, Oregon, and the finest deserts of the north-west. For this purpose you should direct your steps towards the range of the cascades, which is the northern prolongation of the Sierra Nevada that you skirt along from Lake Tlamath to the DaUes of the Columbia. As soon as you have left the Lake of the Pyramid in the rear to reach the range of the cascades, you ascend northward, passing through an arid and sandy country, where the grass is always saltish, or covered with a slight S 4 1.^ ". 1 I .'; ■i; 248 THE DESEBTS O? XORTH AAIEKICA. efflorescence of salt. The aitemise — that cherished plant of the wilderness which grows \'igorously in the most un- grateful soil — generally attains in this place a height of nine feet, whilst the other plants vegetate and wither quickly near their mighty sister. Now and then you full in with muddy or dried up lakes ; some of them, however, contain pure limpid water, and thermal springs. The first and, perhaps, the most considerable of these springs is that situated a few miles north-east of the Lake of the Pyiamid. It gushes in a very noisy manner, and at irre- gular intervals, from the middle of a vast basin. The water is clear and impregnated ^vith common salt, but in so small a quantity that it might be perfectly used for culi- nary pui'poses. Its tempera tiu^e is 208° on the borders, but in the centre of tlie basin it must be much higher. From thence to the 43** N. lat., the reservoirs that receive the mountain waters follow each other in almost uninterrupted succession. In this latitude the mountains to the left recede and form a kind of bay, which has the appearance of a horse-shoe. They leave at their base a flat shoal covered with artcmise, saltish grass, and swampy ground. The singularities of natm'e are so frequent along all this route, that it woidd require many volumes to con- vey a complete idea of them, consequently we can only point out a few as they occur to our muid. When you have passed the horse-shoe, of which we have just spoken, you turn a little to the west to enter the valley of the Fall Kiver. This country is greatly diver- sified, most difficult traverse, and is even dangerous. All that the imagination can conceive of frightful objects are here assembled to terrify the most hardened traveller. On all sides may be seen enoiinous ravines and precipices, incalculable deptlis and hollows, gigantic peaks, steep 7 eel plant most un- lieight of i witlier you fall tiowever, rs. The e springs ie of the d at irre- in. The it, but in [ for cuh- i borders, igher. )h's that n almost lountains has the ir base a swampy int along !S to con- can only ^ ' ^' we have inter the y diver- il objects ■ \ traveller. recipices, ks, steep M > .1 } >.m I 1 i I 1 is 1; ' ! 1 !i w< I m 5l| |f 1 i , III ^4.^ ifii; Dj;.srnT.-} or \ofiTif ajsierica. •^^'^•■'' -:i grows vigorously iiTihc i.i >---'^ -•' - ■ ^ ^cM-jiulIy attiiius' iu •' ■ nine - i.n. ' fi , , fi. : . , Ml im^u' •iii^Cci ; v>6 on vMif ' ■ " • (xiiUc y.^' ilic bosiu it nui.- ' :u at Jf esen Ml. ! i .4, I kind o! .jijJLiU I > ; ■^ 'i tn'i'i, co-;- '»cx.'ui to our passod th«' iiorsj 'MHi :i iittlf :... the wt- '' '' ■ ■' •■•umtiT i< ; '-f^ttV ■ ' "( • ^ , -nrvivr. of f j-rh tf^d . >>ii<>v\- / / / jii ii i SUl wu or 111) ces wii cy( tan aiu arc of iioi ] by in the fiU( foil cas( or 1 aris iiat roc by oth on feel ren por toil I also ness Sax FALL RANGES. 249 sinnniits, overthrown rocks, unclor wliiili rusli foaming watcTH that reappear shortly after beneitth the open sky, or under a dome of dark foliage, wliich ^ows with ex- uberant vigour in the monstrous anfractuositjV- -f inac- cessible forests, horrible abysses coitinually resounding with the noise of the cascades. Whilst *he astouislied eye gazes witli deliglit on the bluish sumiivits of the dis- tant mountains — on the gazon which covers the rocks — and on the blooming flowers that hang in garlands all around — the ear is stunned with the monotonous roaring of the torrents wliich gush impetuously from amid this noisy chaos, and tlien fall into beds of granite. Before entering the valley of the Fall River, you pass by Lake Tlamath, situated at the foot of Mount Pitt, in 42° 30' N. lat., and 122° W. long. During part of the year this lake is nothing else but a beautiful savannah, filled with a. particular herbage which tlie animals are very fond of. Still farther, on the slope of the range of the cascades, you traverse forests of firs or pines, the cones or fruit of which are half a yard long. Above the forests arise peaks mantled in snow, and peopled, by the imagi- nation of the Indians, with spirits and genii. Basaltic rocks of curious forms link the plains to the mountains by a succession of steep plateaux placed one above the other, like the steps of a staircase. The volcanic action on the hills bestrewed with cedars and larch -trees 150 feet high, springs of thermal waters and gas, streams, tor- rents, and rivers flowing into deep valleys, render this portion of the great deserts as interesting as it is tru'"^ toilsome to visit. Among the basaltic strata and the volcanic rocks you also see layers of white argil for making china, the fine- ness of which might rival the pastes of Sevres and of Saxony. nm s ll I I i I I * I- ij '^ i i 250 IIIE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. The rauffQ of tlie casradc';^ is so called owing to the nimiber of falls and rai)ids formed by the rivers which take their sources in these mountains. On the west it presents n barrier to the clouds, fogs, and rains, which, coming from the Pacific Ocean, fall against its rugged flanks, situated 135 miles from the coast. These moun- tains stretch out from Mount Tsathl to the English pos- sessions. Above the chain rise seven peaks, which can be distinguished afar off. They are the Tsathl, the Pitt, the uofTerson, the Hood, the St. Helena, the Regnier (ov Eainier), and the Baker Mountains. The Fall Kiver is one of the principal tributaries of the Columbia, into which it flows a little above the Dalles. Its embouchure is divided into several arms. At this spot the two rivers seem as if to vie with one another for length, and produce a terrific noise. The Lidians go there periodically for the salmon fishing. The banks of the Fall Eiver appear to contain great quantities of fossil charcoal ; argentiferous lead is likewise to be found on the surface of the earth. The Colimibia is one of the largest rivers of North America ; its name was given to it by Captain Grey, who ascended it partly in 1702 in his ship the Columbia. It was successively visited by Messrs. Vancouver, Mackenzie, and Lewis and Clark, who made important discoveries in Oregon upwards of half a centiuy ago. The two branches of the river received the names of Lew^is and Clark, after two celebrated officers who were charged in the year 1804, by the Government of the United States, to explore that country. In 1810, Mr. Astor, of New York, sent two expeditions into Oregon, to secure the fur trade. The one that went by sea foimded the fort called Astoria eight miles from the mouth of the Colmnbia. OREGON TERRITORY 251 The territory of the Oregon, the greater ])art of wluch is washed by the Cohiinbiti, is tluit [)ortion of North Aniericii which extends from the 42" to 50° K hit., and from the Kocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Bounded on tlie north by the llussian possessions, and on the soutii by California, it forms, like tlie Great Basin, a kind of parallelogram of about 800 miles in length by 500 miles in width. The epoch of its discoveiy is not known ; but it is beyond all doubt that the Spaniards had establishments there, for a brass crucifix, similar to those worn by the missionaries, was found in the possession of a tribe ; and in the island of Vancouver may yet be seen brick ruins, evidently the remains of the dwellings of ancient colonists. Now, if we consider that the straits which separate this island from the continent are called Juan Fuca, we must conclude from these indications that the Spaniards penetrated into the country long before the Americans or the Enghsh. A remarkable feature in the climatology of this portion of the great deserts, is the mildness and uniformiuy of the temperatiu-e that constantly reigns over all the south- ern regions watered by the Columbia and its tributaries in tlie Great Basin properly so called, and as far as the Eocky Mountains. Tliis ridge of North America seems to divide the continent into two very distinct zones. The winters are most rigorous, the summers are suffocating, and all the variations of a capricious climate, which pre- vail on the side of the Atlantic, are scarcely felt on the side of the Pacific. In the plains and villages of Oregon the snow is seldom above a foot deep ; the winters are more rainy than cold. The rains commence in October and end in March ; they are often accompanied with thunder and lightning; the atmosphere is continually » \ i I ! H 252 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. overcast by tliick clouds that hide the sun for weeks together, but as soon as it can dart its beams through tlie vapours, it immediately imparts to the air a vivifying glow of heat. From the month of March until October, the air is serene and the climate quite delightful, and though rain is then very rare, nevertheless a certain luunidity is kept up by light fogs, whicli cover the ver- dant prairies during the early part of the day. Tliis uniformity of tempei*atiu*e shoidd be attributed to tlie winds of the Pacific Oci^an that extend from the twentieth to tlie fiftietli degree of nortli latitude, modifying the heat of sunnner and the severity of winter; so tliat you may wear the same clotlies througliout tlie year without feel- ing in the least inconvenienced by the heat or the cold. For a distance of from thirty to forty miles from its embouchure, the Columbia is, properly speaking, but an arm of the sea, indented with coves, and rendered very dangerous by breakers. At the entrance towards the south may be found a slip of sandy ground called Point Adam. Cape Disappointment, which is on the oppo- site bank, is a kind of peninsula terminated by a promon- tory, and crowned with a forest of pines. InnniHliately behind this cape opens u wide bay, which ends at Chinook's Point, — thus named on account of the Indians of that tribe, who live in the neighboiuhood. The breakers at the entrance of the river stretch out hke an insurmountable barrier, causing a thrill of terror to all those who behold them for the iii'st time. The frightful roaring of the waves, the dangers of the chan- nel, hiexperience of the strength and direction of the currents, the transition from the clear to the nuiddy water, all concur to throw inieasiness into the nnnd oven ff the most dauntless siulor. Once the breakers THE COLUMBIA. 253 firc cleared, you can constantly keej) tlie middle of tlvo river, for water is always to be found there in sufficient quantity to float ships of tlie largest tonnage. The Cohnnbia, from the sea to its division hito two lu'anches, offers a succession of scenery, sometimes pic- tuicsque, sometimes grand, but always magnificent. The two banks are constantly hemmed in by mountains of a most strange and romantic aspect, or by forests of truly sublime beauty. In general, all the forests of Oregon arc very remarkable for their imposing size. From the most gigantic trees to the most humble shrub, everything excites the spectator's astonislunent. Between venerable trees, wliose tufted and lordly branches become bleiRhnl, forming thick vaidts of i)rodigioUvS height, grow myi'iads of plants, and aromatic or fruit bushes ; vines and bind- weed entwine themselves all around, — hauLnno; from the branches of the white oak and the red cedar, — mingle and hannonise their bi*illiant foliage with eveiy shade of verdure, and render these forests almost impenetrable for men, and even for wild beasts. The parasitic plants and the bindweeds form one of the peculiar cliaracteristics of those woody countries. One in particida^' seems to be the queen of these sombre and poetic solitudes : its perfectly beautiful flowers are composed of six petals four inches long, and of crimson hue, specked with white in the calyx of the flower ; its leaves, of a lovely green, are oval, and disposed in groups of three. This plant climbs to the very summit of the highest trees, yet with- out toucliing any of them, then descends perpendicidarly, afterwards, intin laces itself to every branc^h and plant it comes in contact with, and thus festoons the whole forest in a ca])ricious manner with garlands of unbounded length, i)roducing the effect of an innnense drapeiy (.)f : it. ■ )i 254 THE DESEETS OP NORTH AMERICA. t 'J verdure bedecked with the choicest flowers. The Indians employ the fibres of this bindweed to make baskets, which are so finely wrought as to be able to contain water. The banks of the Columbia are frequented by multitudes of swans, pelicans, herons, ducks, eagles, vultures, crows, pigeons, pheasants, partridges, and other birds of different species. The two only dangerous reptiles that are to be found there are the rattlesnake, and another serpent of the same size, which is covered with white, red, and yel- low streaks. Large lizards of about half a yard in length, and armed with very strong claws, make their burrows amid this extraordinary nature. At times, also, the river recedes to form wide bays, in the middle of which spring up pretty little islands, set, as it were, hke a thicket of flowers and verdure on a tm-f burned by the rays of the sun. Next to Astoria, the first fort you meet with as you ascend the river, is that of Vancouver, situated on the point of that name, 45° 36' N. lat. and ninety miles from the mouth of the Columbia. Although Fort Vancouver be situated at above three degrees north of the meridian of Paris, you nevertheless enjoy there a similarity of cUmate, not only in the general temperature, but even in that of the four seasons. Southward of the fort, on the left bank of the Columbia, the valley of Walahmette or Wahla-math opens before you ; the soil is extremely fertile, and is cultivated by numerous American and Canadian colonists. Going still more to the north you pass before Mount Coffin, whicli is an isolated rock rising one hundred and fifty feet above a swampy ground, and which is greatly venerated by the Indians on accomit of its being a place of sepulture. On THE COLUMBIA. 255 its summit may be seen a considerable number of dead bodies placed in canoes, beside which trophies or offerings such as cloths, all kinds of ornaments, baskets and other utensils, are hanging from poles of different heights. The friends of the deceased, and particularly the women, go each day at dawn and at twihght to visit beloved graves, weeping and singing the praises of those who are no more. Of an evening when one ascends the river, and hears these mournful chants mingling with the whisper of the breeze and the murmurings of the waves as they break on the beach ; when one beholds these aerial tombs becoming tinged with a reddish hue by the last glim- mering of the setting sun ; and Nature, before seeking repose in the silence of night, sends up towards the Eternal her last canticle ; in this moment of indescribable solemnity the traveller feels himself pervaded with ineffa- ble sentiments, with a crowd of heavenward thoughts ; he is affected by the double spectacle of poesy and of sorrow, and despite his efforts, tears roU down his cheeks, yet they convey peace to his soul, for tears in the desert are often a prayer. Thirty miles from Fort Vancouver the mountains become compact on each side of the river, and enclose it between enormous cUffs overhung with firs and white cedars, in the vacuum of which gush forth cascades that form, as they descend, light clouds white and vapoury above the Columbia. One of those cliffs, curiously worked by the hand of time, resembles the ruins of an old fortress ; the indentations of its towers allow two cascades 150 feet high to flow from its flanks. In different places, along the borders of the Columbia, you see quantities of trunks of trees which appear above the water. They consist pruicipally of pines that are still im. I'll !;■ i^i'ui I ! 256 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. erect, although they are ahnost twenty-one feet below the surface of the river. Tourists have called this collection of trees, the " submerged forests." They are probably the result of some terrestrial convulsions or falUng in of the ground. The Indians assure us that these forests were submerged by the falling in of rocks, beneath which the river flowed gently in former days ; these rocks, in tuni- bhng, inundated the great forests of cedars and'pines by elevating the level of the waters. It is to the same cause that the Indians attribute the origin of the cascade of the mountains. At 175 miles from its embouchure, the Columbia falls from a height of twenty feet on a sloping bed of black rocks, forms a series of rapids, and falls again from a height of about eight feet, notwithstanding two enormous rocks which encumber its bed, seeming to wish to oppose its passage : the river then spreads itself over a vast basin, as if to rest after the efforts it had to make wliilst wending its way through the range of the cascades ; after which, for a distance of about fom* miles it redescends by furious bounds, confined, all the while, between walls 540 feet in height, called the Long Narrows. It would be difficult to find throughout the world a more sublime and romantic spectacle than the one pre- sented by those great solitudes seen by moonlight. One would say that nature had united aU its powers to display the greatest magnificence in this spot. Dming the transparent obscurity of a fine starry night, the per- pendicular mountains that rise with majestic boldness on each side of the Columbia, appear like a colossal gallery leading to an antediluvian world. The deafening noiso of the whirls formed by the waters as they rush into a narrow passage, or break with a crash against black rocks et below the lis collection probably the ig in of tlie forests were ,li which the )cks, in tuni- iind'pines by I same cause iscade of the )liimbia falls )ed of black rom a height rmous rocks ) oppose its ^ast basin, as t wending its which, for a by furious 540 feet in le world a le one pre- ihglit. One powers to nt. Dining it, the per- boldness on 3ssal gallery ening noise rush into a black rocks i 1 c?l fi II g C] St d Si re fo of ui tv gi of ae w] m ba fif in tr( wl Tl go Or da th( sn( DALLES OF THE COLUMBIA. 257 imparts a thrill of terror to man, who might easily ima- gine that he was assisting at the great cataclysms of the creation. The isles by wh'^h the bed of the river is ob- structed bear a resemblance to moving shadows, or to the darksome entrance of the dwelling of some marine genii. Streams and torrents may be seen in every direction rolUng down heights which are covered with sombre forests, then bounding from cascade to cascade to the foot of the rocks, forming at the same time a thousand graceful undulations; like gauze streamers, such as the water- nymphs might wave in the air by the gUmmer of twilight. Mount Helena and Mount Hood, like two giant guardians watching over a treasure, rise on opposite sides of the Columbia, above a range of mountains : the radiant hght of the moon sheds a halo around them, and their aerial summits seem to hover in space Hke clouds of white pliunes. The Dalles of the Columbia, which we have often mentioned, come after the cascades ; they are two great basaltic walls that compress the river into a canal scarcely fifty-eight yards in width. These walls are hollowed out in a circular manner at the base by the action of the waters that keep continually whirhng there. The word dalle, which is the -•Id French name for trough, is given by the Canadian travellers to all locaUties where streams or rivers are enclosed between rocky walls. The great dalles are much frequented by the Indians, who go thither to fish for salmon, and by the emigrants on their way from the United States or the English possessions to Oregon. When the waters are low you may descend the dalles in a boat without incurring much danger ; but in the season of the great rains or of the melting of the snow, you are obliged to make a portage; that is to say, VOL. I. s i < J t ; -4M ■k-- !i,; '■r 258 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. to transport the boats and merchandise by land, from one extremity of the passage to the other. From the great Dalles to Fort Wahlah-^'alilah, you pass by many tributaries of the Columbia. One of the most important is the Umatilah, which, hke the Walilali- Wahlah, rolls its torrents over a stratum of basalt. Im- mediately after the Umatilah, on the right bank of the river, by the 45° 58' 8'' north latitude, you full in with a basaltic rock placed on a shght acclivity, and representing two towers in ruins, of a most picturesque effect. This sin- gular rock commands a view over a vast extent of country, so that one may thence acquire a just idea of the gtH)- logical formation of the valley of the Columbia. A few willows afford the only shade that comes within the traveller's gaze. Fort Walilah-Wahlah is built in the delta formed by the junction of the river of that name vnth the Columbia, whose breadth is 400 yards at this spot. The fort belongs to the Hudson's Bay Fur Company. It is constructed on a sandy plain, that fills the air with clouds of ^^ust and sand, which are constantly stirred up by the regulai' west winds. At about nine miles above the fort the two branches of the Columbia imite to form one of the finest rivei's in the world. The northern branch is indifferently called Clarke Fork and Columbia; the southern one is also called Lewis Fork, river of the Shoshonies, or Snake Eiver. These two branches are the media of mi- portant communication between the interior of Oregon, the English possessions, and the United States. The companies who trade in furs make use of these two gi'eat lines to facilitate their transactions and abridge the enor- mous distances that separate their warehouses, dis|)ei"setl throughout these immense northern regions. I, from one 'alilab, you One of the 10 Walilah- asalt. Ln- •ank of the 11 in with a epresenting This sin- of country, of thegeo- da. A few within the formed by J Columbia, brt belongs structed on f f^ust and jgulai' west rt the two the finest idifferently them one hordes, or nha ofun- of Or^on, ites. The two gi'eat 3 tlie enor- disjKJi'sed I i .;.>' 'i' i .NOifJW 'MUUKA. ':>j.K>i( i;i ]>;i,- ' • many 11). r' \- ' ■■■■'-^. ■' like Ll: I < ft trMVolloi*'s frtcsH>W(l ol' onlnul, dorivo iVom llu> iHwmrroM of tlu» woil (lull, wrnll'i which ollu»r^ mow. oovoIouk» work in iho ptvciouN mt'la:.i huriovl in tho depths of iho ourlh. J Illy, wo niv r ihu ourllu . : :1 ': * i \nm ■ I'M ■ m 11 ;i' '! T t U\' ■ ': n I ■iTO: J*t ^a*uri. At ►w begins ;! .^ ji.'tj ill 1 I'M r-- I w 't ! ( ^:^i •( i^ :i^, / r m i'til >«% m- I - jujiiJtt.«r-s Tllli OllEAT SALT LAKE. 2G5 to fall iiH early as Sopteinber, and the mornings and evenings are alvvayn chilly even in the month of Auj^ust. Arrived at Fort Hall, you completely abandon the Lewis Fork to go to the Great Salt Lake, and take a southern direction, still keeping a little towards the east, which brings you to the Mormon city. But it is first nccessiiry to traverse the marshy grounds that border the Port-Neuf and the Pannack, this undertaking, however offers djlficulty ; yon then climb lofty moimtahis, beyond which opens the valley ofthelleed Eiver, which conducts you to that of the Bear River near its embouchure in the Great Salt Lake. Those two valleys are remarkably beautiful, although of a singularly wild aspect. Clusters of willows (SalU longifolia) are gracefully scattered in the neighbour! iOod of the water ; fields of flax and of mallow (Malra rotimdifolia) extend to the shoals ; hawtiiom (CraUmjm) and alder-trees (Alnun viridis) raise their bushy branches above prairies enamelled with flowers, among which, as if laid out for effect, arf3 large clumps of Eupatorium purpureum. Mountains upwards of 3000 feet high rise peipendicularly into the air, with their summits indented by the storms, and in some places crowned with cedars and firs; they complete and even heighten the glory of all those riches of nature, by adding gravity to their mai-vellous beauty. As soon as you diverge from the valley of the Bear River, you immediately find yourself before the Great Salt Lake, which, with Lake Utah, constitutes one of the most curious features of the aspect of the Great Basin. They both lie eastward ; the first is saturated with a solution of salt, the second contains only fresh water. The existence of the Great Salt Lake appears to have been known for upwards of a century and a half. In 200 TlIK DKSKHTS OF NtmTII AMKHICA. ■i «r May I(>H1), IJaroii <\it lu lloiitaii, tlu; vWioX of I he French «'i)lony at IMatu'iitia, in Ncwfoimdland, wrote an iccount ol' tlu! tliscovorit'M reccMtly math? in the; wost, ^A' Ni'W FraniT, whicli was al'U'rwardM imhlinlu'd in l']n}4;lihli w thi! year ITJjr). This acconnl, IVonj the tinic of tlic Haroirs (h'|)ar(in'(> from Missihniakiinu*, until his arris nl on the Mississippi, is very ch'ar in its th'tails; hut thi' ri'st of till' work is ohscnrt:, and apparently apocryphal. Indians whom \ai Hontan met. during his route assured him that their nation was very powerl'ul, imd that it wjis in a country situated a ^liort way oil', wher(» ther<» wi»s a reat salt lake .'{00 lea{j;iu's in circumfertMU'e. Hut this inlormation is so va.«.!;ue that it cannot Uv relied upon as having tlu^ least histtaical antliority. T\n* ceK'hraltMl Moncachtapis a Va/oo Indian, who in I7<)() made a journey to the north and west of* Ameiiea, as lar as llic shores of the PacilieOcean, does not make the sli|ihl»'Nl allusion to the Walt liake in his itlneraiy : he prohahly traversed the Rocky Mountains mor<^ to the north. Tlu' (Ireat Salt I^aki' is seventy miles in length, and its Iieight i' '1200 feet almvt! the level of the sea. Its waters, as they evaporate, leave traces of sjilt all over tla; soil. The rocks that surround it are whiten<'d by a saliiu' substance, which forms into sialactites and incrustations that are ohen two inches thick. The comp«)sition of this salt is thus analy^^ed : — O l.'rido itfNodiitiii <'lil( ••»<•<• of ntifiiiiM Cliliiritlc of iiiii^itcHiii Siil|ilial(' (if Htiilii .Siilplmlu ol' liino Total 0(11 O.l'l (i-2.'l I 12 innon No lish can live in the lake, which [» very shallow, fi ilii^ IHhANUa IN TIIK (illKAT HALT hAKK 2G7 VvvhU iiK'ul Ii'ft .st('('|)i'tl ill its waUTH during,' twclvo honvH Jill jilli'ivvan Is 1)1' I )i'i'st>rvt't I like siilt incjit, without ri'- (juiriuf^' uiiy other |)rt'|)unitioii. The isluiuls I'lu-loscul iu thf (lii'jit Salt \a\\u' uro: — 1st. this Ant(.'lo|)(', which is the laij^'ost of all. It is sixtt'cii mih's in Iciigtli i)y six in width, and is fonj|K)S(»d olu f^'i'unito ciniiu'iuM? wiiosc iu-i^dit is .'iOOO (iH't abovo thf laito. This (Muinciici' is I'mrowt'd with valh-ys und niviiu's inoro or U'ss aiu il. 2is- appointnu'nt. Towcrin}^ uhove the lol'ticst Inhh^huid of (he island is an obhai^ n»ck whit'h ri'scnibK's a casth' in rnins, and it is cvidi'iitly owin^' to this singuluiity that till' Mormons \m\v nanu'd it tlu? Island of tho ('a-sth'. It is lilVccn mill's in I'irrnmri'ri'ni'i'. 'I'his i.vland hiis nrithiT wood nor watiT, hut it cont^iins nnmiTous plant.s, and partii'ularly a prodigious ijuantity of onions [Ctilochortns bitt'us) about the si/o of a nut, anil wiiii-h arc wry ^ood to I'at. Jh'dly. Muddy Island, which abounds in shiti's, granite, pyritrs of iron> and alum. •Ithly. Till! Island of ('arrington, which is covered with llowcrs and phint.s, such as the ('alot^hortuM IhUuik^ I he CU'onic, luti'tt^ the Shhilrtui neo'mcA'U'ana^ the Mai' tut.strum (uurlin'uni, the SU'p/uinomeriii ininoi\ and a new species of Miil(uutt/iri.i\ and of the Urnyid sit'titosa. ftthly. SUmsbury Island, which is twenty-srven milei* in circumrerence. Its mountains nwembli; those of the Antelope. In the pr<'sent day it is nothing morethau a peninsula joined to the .shore by a sandbank. Thi.s island is Ireipiented by antelopes, di'er, and wolves. tSeviU'al springs are also to be found there which fertilise tlu^ mhoids of the valleys. Its most precious phmts are- the M ^\ I 268 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. Comandra umbellata, a new kind of Elymus, of Stipa juncea, besides new species of Heuchera, of the Peretyle, and of the Stenaciis. Abundance of fossils are also to be seen scattered c ver the ground. The other islands are those of Gunnison and of the DolphiQ. To the east of the lake you distinguish an extensive plain partly covered with artei \ with mire, or with salt. From the centre of tliis kind of muddy bay rise numerous mountains, which appear like island? planted in a sea of saltpetre. Beyond this point commences the desert of the Seventy Miles ; a dreary, arid, and desolate district, covered with fragments of all sorts of articles, Avhich the Califomian emigrants left there with a view of lightening their baggage, so as to be less encumbered during the route. Besides this plain, others more or less vast are also to be foimd on the borders of the lake ; they are covered with salt in a sohd state, and most admirably crystallised over the primitive sand : other crystallisations some inches thick may also be seen glittering in the sun. Porphyry, metaniorphic sandstone, gneiss, white marble, and dark calcareous hmestone, form the principal components of the rocks that border the lakes. You may also perceive in certain places on the banks twelve or thirteen steps formed by the waters of the lake as they decreased ; the last is at least 198 feet above the present level; whicli would prove that in this spot exist subterraneous conduits through which the waters flow, at indetermined periods, into the lower basins. The Great Salt Lake must have been formerly a vast inner sea which covered an immense extent of country ; as it withdrew, it left behind that dry- ness and aridity which now characterise the land. One ASPECT OP NATURE. 269 immetise of the most curious plants of this region is the one called the Silk Plant by the Americans, Vache a lait by the Canadians, and Capote de Sacarte by the Mexicans. Its root is milky and bitter, but its bark is used to make ropes which prove to be stronger than leather. The only birds that frequent these locaHties are pelicans, cormo- rants, cranes, herons, sea-gulls, plovers, ducks, geese, and a few swans. The malediction of heaven seems to weigh heavily on this solitude, which reminds one of the desolate shores of the Dead Sea, where Sodom and Gomorrah were de- stroyed. To the east there appeared inaccessible moun- tain ridges, and blood-coloured rocks dotted with green spots; on their flanks undulated dark clouds; whilst thick vapours moved above their summits, hke the smoke of a volcano upon an azure sky. Light mists, produced at twilight, hovered amidst its vague ghmmer, and danced over the waters, looking Hke crape tinged with the most lovely pink ; this crape spread over the horizon a transparent veil that shed upon nature the charm of a faint Hght, which, as it gradually rose to the summit of the mountains, assumed a more sombre hue, an indescribably dismal appearance, that filled the soul with sadness and the eyes with tears. This immense valley, of a lugubrious and funereal aspect, recalls to mind that of Jehoshaphat, the valley of graves. An imposing silence continually reigns around this deserted lake, which might well be called the " Lake of Death." On its sterile strand, on the porphyry of its banks, you never hear the patter of the rain, the whistle of the wind, the leaves falling from the trees, the chirp of the birds, nor the swallow's rapid flight through the air. All is calm and gloomy, like the vaults of a gigantic i': 270 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. :! - sepulchre. One would say that God, in a day of wrath, had cui'sed these solitudes on account of the crimes of their inhabitants, whose ashes lay mouldering for many centuries beneath the sa«ds of the desert. The Utah Lake is more elevated than the Great Salt Lake, and is situated in a more southern direction : it is said to be thirty-eight miles in length ; numerous tribu- taries descending from the mountains supply it with their pure fresh waters ; it abounds in fish, especially in trout of a prodigious size, which constitute the principal food of the Indians of the Utah. To the south-east may be seen, on it*^ banks, rocks of salt incrusted in a bed of red argil. These two lakes cover an extent of 1200 square miles, and are united by a strait or river thirty-eight miles long, called Utah by geographers and Jordan by the Mormons. South of the Utah Lake is the Lake Nicollet, designated by the Spaniards by the name of Severs ; it is the reservoir of a river. The Nicollet, which takes its source in the chain of this Wah-Satch Mountains, is upwards of 200 miles eastward. Before speaking of the establishments created by the Mormons in the American territory, we shall relate in a few words the history of the foundation of this singular colony. Joseph Smith founded Mormonism in 1830. After a tenii)orar3^ residence at Kirtland (Ohio) he went to the county Jackson (Missouri), where tlie sectarians received by revelation the order to construct a temple, which though begun was never finished. Driven from this dwelling by the populace, who rose in arms, the Mor- mons afterwards went into Illinois, where they built on the borders of the Mississip])i a fiourishing city called Nauvoo. But having rendered themselves odious to the HISTORY OF THE MORMONS. 271 neighbouring populations, tlicy were again expelled in 1844, and Joseph Smith and his brotlicr Iliraui were killed in the prison of Carthnge (Illinois). In February 184G, after having resolved in a su])rcmo council to eniigmte int(^ the great solitude^s of the west, the Monnons assembled at Moiu-ose (Torra), and com- menced their long peregrination under the connnand of Brigham Young, successor to Josej)!! Smith. Though often attacked and pursued by the whites and the Indian.s, the emigmnts bore with great couinige and stoicism the fatigues and dangers of the route, as likewise a thousand sudden changes more or less disheartening, which they had to undergo during their joi. ley. At last, in July 1847, they arrived at tlic Great Salt Lake, to the number of 143, exclusive of women and children, well provided with agricultural implements, and with seeds, mules, hoi'ses, and oxen. They established themselves close to the river that joins the Utah to the Great Salt I^ake, and shortly after constructed a c'*y on its banks, situated in 40° 46' N. lat, and 112° G' W. long., at the western foot of the range of the Wah-Satch Mountains. The grtmnd was soon surveyed, the town divided into regular portions, with long wide streets, and a fort in brickwork erected in front of the great square, as a means of defence ngninst an exterior enemy. In the month of October following, three or four thou- sand Mormons having gone thither from the United States, tiie town and tilled lands were in coiisequence greatly augmented. From that period, the continual arrival of new emigrants gave such im])ortance to this immense colony, that the want of a civil organisati(: o\ ihc stD'OUs art»- at untii »n; Tin H m clouds ilatioiif all the watere tilise t strcamf garden: Northw means bath e that fjil mons 1 C!)untry the ind have al the Gr< Lake; valley, < at sixty &c. T having tion, is cific 0( continue already all these chain of los Ang( route w fields. i I useful a the reso VOL. I, MORMON ESTABLISHMENTS. 273 clouds; the mountains descend to the plains by gra- dations, fonning beautiful verdant terraces, that command all the valley of the Utah. To the west the town is watered by the Jordan, whilst innumerable torrents fer- tilise the surrounding plains, supplying tiny brooks and streams, that run along the thoroughfares, and cause the gardens to be adorned with vertlure and abundance. Northward, there exists a thermal spring, which, by means of subterraneous conduits, is introduced into a bath establishment. Further on is another, of 128°, that falls like a cascade into a natural basin. The Mor- mons have taken advantage of all the resources of the country, either to beautify their city, or to contribute to the industry and development of their colony. They liave also laid the foundation of several other towns in the Great Basin ; viz. Paysan, to the south of the Utah Lake ; Monti, at thirty-three miles farther in the Pete valley, on the route to California ; the City of the Cedar, at sixty miles from Monti, close to the Little Salt Lake, tSrc. The object the Mormons desire to attain in thus having their towns drawn up in echelons in this direc- tion, is to establish easy communications with the Pa- cific Ocean. We therefore believe that, owing to the continual immigrations coming to reinforce their ranks already so numerous, before many years have elapsed, all these establishments will be joined by an uninterrupted chain of farms and villages, and that from the Pueblo de los Angeles or of San Diego, to the Great Salt Lake, the route will pass between rows of houses and cultivated fields. The Mormons have made rapid progress in the useful arts and in industry, according to the wants and the resources of the country ; they construct all sorts of VOL. L T 1 5! lil-t fli 1 ( !■: ! r i ! ■■ • I • J I ■ : ! i] !l 274 THE DESERTS OF XOBTH AMERICA. '1 fabrics and manufactures wherever they may be rcquiioil, and soon being able to provide for tliemselves, tliey will no longer be obliged U^ send to the United States. Although the Monnon govenniient may at first appear strictly tempoml, yet it is so closely linked with the spiritual administration, as to render it impossible to sej)arate one from the other. The civil functions are exercised b}* j)ersons who occupy a certain mnk in the church, the importiuice of which nuLst corres[)ond with the ])osition they hold as civic officers. In the state, as in the church, the two powei*s are genemlly confided to the same person. The temporal government, whicli seems to have been the result of urgent necessity, was as much as possible adapted to the religious ideas of the sect, and to the general wants of the colony. It is quite manifest that such a great agglomeration of individuals of all ages, of all sexes, and of all nations, could not liave been nded by laws purely rehgious, for, besides the " Latter day Saints of the Chiu*ch of Jesus Christ," as the Monnons caU themselves, many gentiles pass by or settle in the temtory of the Utah, and for tliem, at least, it was necessar}'' to have a regidar civil govennnent. The budget of the Stiite participates in this double character, and the treasuries of the church are freely and frequently expended as circumstances may require. Its revenue is derived from a system of tithes, almost similar to what was practised among the Hebrews. Each incii- vidual, when he makes his profession of faith, is oblige J to pay into the treasury of the chiu-ch a tenth of what he possesses ; besides, he must employ a tenth of his time on works of pubhc utility, such as bridges, roads, canals, &c. A tax is also levied on the saints and gentiles, RELiaiON OP THE MORMONS. 275 \vln(;h constitutes tlic revenues of the civil government. One per cent is paid on all ])rovi8i()n8 introduced for the support of the city, exce|)t alcohol and spirituous li- quors, which are charged with a duty of one half their value. A few words concerning their religious dogmas. These sectarians pretend that they form actually the only true church that exists on earth, and that eternal salvation is only to be obtained through the medium of the priest- hood of Melchisedec. This priesthood, consigned to heaven for the last eighteen centuries, reappeared inl82G, nt which period an angel having visited Joseph Smith, their foiuider, instructed him in the way of truth, and showed him a stone box buried in the ground, which contained scvend laws written on gold leaves, in a language called " lleformed Egyptian." The angel took up some of those laws and gave them to Joseph Smith, after which he con- ferred priestliood upon him according to the order of Molchisedo^, giving him at the same time the power of revelation, the gift of tongues, and authority to remit or to retain sins. Thereupon, Smith and his associates were constituted apostles to preach the new gospel, and to estiiblish among nations the church of Jesus Christ, and of the saints of the latter days. In 1830 this church had only six members, and in the present day it may bo said without exaggeration that it numbers upwards of 100,000. The Mormons believe in the divine origin of the Bi^ le, but they maintain that it has been corrupted, and that a new translation of it is required ; they hkewiso hi e faith in miracles by the imposition of hands. Their religious ceremonies are almost the same as those of the Protestant communities ; they also accompany their chants t2 !•' '■f 276 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. 1 s I hJ ii'iii witli musical instramcnts. Thci * system of spiritual mar- riage is uotliing more or loss than polygamy, nevertheless they deny the imputation of sensuality v/itli which they are reproached. Of late years tlie Goverinnent of the United States became uneasy about the increasing power of the Mormons, and the supreme authority that they exercised arbitrarily in the great deserts of tlic West ; but we believe them to be too powerful to fear the few soldiers that tlie United States could send into tlieir country to intimidate them, so that for a long time to come they will remain the sovereign masters of the territory of the Utah. Two roads lead from the Great Salt Ltike to tlie Ne- braska in tlie Great Prairies west of the Mississippi and the United Stfites. One descends from the Bear Eiver, traverses the range of the Timpamozu to the north, the llocky Mountains to the south of the Wind Eiver Mountiiins, and terminates at Fort Laramee situated on the northern branch of the Nebraska. I'lie other crosses the Wah-Satch to tlie north, the Wind lliver near iV of N. lat., the Rocky Mountains to the south, and comes out at Fort St. Vrain on the southern branch of the Nebraska. The fii'st of these I'outes, being the most inte- resting, is generally foUowed ; it is also that which wo shall endeavoiu' to make known. After traversing the shoals of the Bear River, cov<}re(l with llax bearing blue flowers, you enter a series of deliles which are very curious, owing to their wild yet picturesque aspect. At the entrance of one of these djfiles is a rock in the form of a column, evidently produced by the falling in of the ground, and which stands erect in the middle of a clump of s])inet of the prairies (Grimlelia Sijaan'osii). To the right the chain of the Timpamozu stretches out towiu-ds the north, with at the same time extraordinary BEAR RIVKR. 271 irregularities ; now and again you perceive groups of reddish niounUihis, whose ridges, clothed in snow and dotted with cloiids, seem to support the azure canopy of heaven ; all around appear fantastic heapiugs up of ground, of red or green liills, and of rocks cither crevassed or representing imaginary cities. The hills, which serve as steps to the still higher mountains, are mostly conical, and seem to have contained innu- merable springs, for the basins from which they flowed may yet be seen. One of those hills is concave at its summit. It was formerly a crater 300 yards in circumference, and 60 feet in depth. The interior walls, which are perfectly vertical, have a striking appear- ance of mason-work ; they are composed of brown lava, scorious and polished, evidently the modem production of a volcano. Besides lava, basalt and volcanic rocks characterise the geology of all this country. Near the curve formed by the Bear River, opens a remarkably beautiful valley, wherein is a basin from whence burst twelve springs of mineral waters, 580 feet above the level of the sea. The principal ones are the Beer Spring and the Steamboat Spring. The Beer Spring flows from an aperture two or three yards wide : its name was given to it by the trappei's, on account of the effervescent gas that escapes from the spring in columns of vapour, and also owing to the acid taste of the water. The Steamboat gushes up from the middle of a rock, like a jet of white vapoury water, about one yard in height, accompanied by a subterraneous noise which is continu- ally heard, and which is just hke the noise of a steam- engine at work. The analysis of this spring gives the following results : — fS ill I^H i J A 't HI ' 1 Vitl: 1*1 <• ■ 4 i '1 i: M ;( ! 1 ' . W i I*' I ' iiiii^j 278 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. Carbonate of lime Carbonate of uiagneaia Oxide of iron Silex, aluniiua, water, and lo8.s 92-55 0-42 105 5-98 Total . lOUUO The water is very warm, and has a most disagreeable mettillic taste. Two yards fartlicr you feel regular gusts of hot air accompanied witli a slight vapour, and hear anotlier noise, equally regular, but quite distinct fi*om that of the Steamboat. This air causes nausea and giddiness to all those who may l)e in too great proximity to it. The environ'=5 of the basin are most strange and fantastic ; the rocks, composed of carbonate of lime and oxide of iron, are tubular and resemble fossii coral ; tlio«e that are waijhed by the Bear lliver consist of layers of calcareous gravel-stone, and of deposits of moss and reeds. As you emerge from this singular valley, you pass over a lofty table-land, situated between the range of the Tini- pamozu and that of the Wind Eiver. Tliis table-land divides the waters of tiiat latitude, wliich flow towards the Pacific Ocean or towards tlie Atlantic ; it is a frightfully arid and monotonous countjy, where nothing grows save artemis. The v-^yagcurs have called it the Artemis Desert ; it is totally uninliabited ; several springs are found there, but they are all poisonous, owing to the decomposi- tion of alkaline salt, which kills every animal that drinks of those waters. Many emigrants have also lost their lives in trying to quencli the'r thirst in what they tcwk to be a piux; and sidubrious brooK. In this desert is situated Fort Bridger, above 375 miles from Forts Laramce and St. Vrain. Within a short tinu) the Mormons have traced out a road leading from the Great Salt Ljike to WIND-RIVER RANGE. 279 Fort Bridgor, and from thence to Fort Laramoe, passing by tlie Devil's Gates and the lied Butts. The Wind liiver, whicli we have ah-eady mentioned, is the northern branch of the Big Horn liiver. Tliis name was given to it ])ecause in winter its banks are continually swept by strong winds, which prevent the snow from accumulating thereon. It is said that this phenomenon is caused by a narrow breach hollowed in the mountains, Avhere the river had forced a passage through frightful precipices ; this spot is supposed to be the source of numerous streams that dash with fuiy into gorges over wliich the river seems to bound. The voyageurs and trappers have also given that name to the mountain chain where the Wind liiver takes its source. This range for)ns almost the central point of the llocky Mountains ; it is situated north-west of the Sweet- water liiver, and consists of three [)arallel hues, eighty- two mile, in length by nine in width. Its aspect is that of the Bernese Alps in their most marvellous and pictu- resque points ; many little lakes may be seen there, 10,200 feet above the level of the sea. Glaciers are also veiy numerous throughout these high regions; above them rises a forest of granite peaks quite bare anil strij)ped of all verdure ; one of those jieaks attains a height of 13,065 feet above the Gulf of Mexico.* From its summit you behold the grandest j)anorama that is proba- bly to be seen in the workl. Turning to the sitle of the setthjg sun, you see at your feet innumerable lakes and • It iH in this imrt of tlic Kocky :Mountains, W. long. 110° 8' 3" and N. lut. 42** 4t»' 49", that are situated tho Hourccs of those rivcra whicli with the MissisHippi are tho largest of the American continent, viz. the Colorado of the south, the Columbia of the Lewis Fork, the Missoiu'j, and tl>c Nebra«ka, T 4 fJi m < I (I .,.,! V- 280 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMEI^ICA. i :ir rivers; to the left the sources of tlic Colorado, which gushes from a basin of porphyry, foams, whirb, \u',inidrxPj appc c^rs and disappears beueatli marble rook;?, npd tj)en rolls on imtil it fails into the Californian Giii., fiP-.M^ hn\mg watered immense wilds, the greater part of whicli are as yet unexplored. To the right the valley of the Wind Eiver is delineated with its fantastic contortions ; rtill farther you desciy the sources of the Yellow Stone, one of die largest branches of the Missouri. Northward, as if lost in the clouds, are the perpetually iced summits of the Three Tetons, from whence flow the two greatest rivers of that part of tlie globe, — the Missouri on the east flank, and the Columbia on the opposite decUvity. To the south the range of the Medicine-bow displays its grace- ful outlines ; whilst the Nebraska, flowing from its bosom, imparts freshness and Hfe to the great praii'ies of the West. All ai'ound vapoury peaks ascend towards the heavens, tlieir steeps furrowed with ravines and covered with wliite spots, above which shines a purphsh gleam. In the air you only perceive fringes of snow gilded f)y the sun- beams, and silvery bandrols sparkhng in th(* blaze of an ocean of hght. On all sides aerial mountiuus appear in space, as if hovering above the clouds, like ilakes of foam proceeding from an invisible celestial cascade. The confused noise of r.i. torrents, as they diish their frozen waters with impetuosity over beds of rocks, the wind blowing fiercely in tlie dells, which are shaded by trees that groan in the forests beneath the violence of the s'torms ; all these clamorous or melodious voices, caused to resound by tlie echoes of a thousand vibrations, sonorous and full of charm, never reach those elevated summits, where tlie report of a musket would merely produce a vague souud which ceases iustauttuieously, iu- PANORAilA OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 281 oiead of being prolc^nged as is usual in the lower atmo- sphere. In the depths of this inmousc chaos of torrent^', rivers, porphyries, granites, basalts, and marble, which come out of the bowels of the earth, and are lost in the immensity of the ocean, of the solitudes, or of the firmament, forests of cedars, of oaks, or of pines, stretch over the wild space, and cover with their sombre foHage the steepest ravines, the most rugged glens, as hkcvise the most happily favoured valleys ; from this imposing nature where everything is subhme and solemn, God has only removed the rural beauties so common hi our hemisphere. The range of the Great Horn lliver, situated to the north of that of the Wind lliver, forms part of this grand system of granitic mountains, which extend pai'allel to the shores of the Pacific, from the Isthmus of Panama almost as far as the Arctic Ocean, and seems to continue the chain of the Andes of South America. It is owing to its rough, shattered, and craggy character, as also en account of the bareness of its sum- mits, that this long range has received the name of Rocky Mountains. Rising in tli(^ middle of vast plains, travers- ing many degrees of latitude and longitude, and parting the waters of the Atlantic from those of the Pacific, it has also been designated under the figurative name of the backbone of the New Continent. The Rocky Mountains do not present an uninternipted Une, but a succession of groups of moimtains, and even sometimes of detached peaks. Although several of those peaks attain the regions of perpetual snow^ their eleva- tion above their immediate basis is not so considerable as one would imagine ; for, from nortli to south, all tlie range of the Rocky Mountains rests on prairies as on a 1 .'r*N- ^ IFtJ in m 282 TOB DKcSRTS OF NORTH AMERICA. pedestal, vaiyiiijr from 3000 to 4500 feet in height. Between the groinw of mouiitiuns are valleys watered by tmy streams, which gradually become line rivers as tliey advance in the plains.^ and finally discharge themselves into those great arteries of the American prairies with which om* Emopeau rivers can bear no comparison. Whilst the smnmits of the Rocky Mountains are bare and strij)- ped of all vegetation, their flanks are cai)riciously wraj)ped in enoniious drajxjries of shrubs, pines, beech-trees, birch- trees, oaks, and cedare of a prodigious height. On shel- tered {>lateaus and ui places where the soil is coveied with good earth, tliere grows a flora which is as rich as it is varied. The ravines jxissess quantities of alpiiu; ])lants, of magnificent asters, amid which the Dodecatheon dentatiun expimils its beautiful scarlet petals. A species of squirrel u idmost the only inhabitant of these lofty latitudes. The Al|)s and the PjTcnees can afford nothing more varied, more picturesque, or more sublime, than tliis immense series of p'^akji, f^omc of which raise their nia- jesiic summits to 15,000 feet above the level of tlie scii. Ever and anon you i>erceive imperfectly extinct volcanos or giirantic rocks, which unite to represent an imaginary stainaso adonieil with forests ; at times also ar- gillaceods and calctireous strata apfKuir, cross each other, give way, and ihen brejik up after having traced the most fantastic lines and desigiLS. Often, one could fancy hini- seif amid the rviins of a city of the middle ages, witli its mlMited dudgeons, its graceful turrets, its cracked ami OTolU('ks. The spirits of the tnivellers who have behaved righteously during tht'ir mortid life will be allowed to go ttud {xuUike of the bliss and riches of that de- 284 TUB DESEHTS OF NOKTH AMEBICA. I lightful country. On the contrary, the souls of those who liave not been faithful to the laws of the Great Spirit, who have abandoned themselves to vice, will be obligetl to redescend, and then to roam about sterile and sandy plains, suffering thirst and hunger, after having seen their companions happy and enjoying perpetual felicity, the re- collection of which will augment their own eternal misery and endless tonnents. I :k \i\ 285 CHAP. XV. INDEPEKPENCE ROCK, OR REGISTER OP THE DESERT.— AMERICAN FORTS.— DXSERT OF THE GREAT PRAIRIES. — UIVKR.S, CONFIGURATION, AND FLORA OF THE PRAIRIES. — INSECTS. SALTY PLAINS. — ERRORS OF WRITERS WITH REGARD TO THE GREAT PRAIRIES. — DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVELLING. — THE ElflORANTS* ROAD. POPULATIONS OF THE PRAIRIES. THE NEBRASKA. GEOLOGICAL PH.£NOMENA. — ULACK MOUNTAINS. — MYSTERIOUS NOISES. — VOLCANIC PRODUCTIONS. — SMOKY HILLS. MAUVAISKS TERUE.S. — THE M.VNKISITAH-WATPA. PICTURESQUK HILLS. — INDIAN LEOEND.— THE MAGIC CIRCLE OF THE PRAIRIES. From the lofty regions whicli we have just described, you descend into the Great Prairies by the valley of the Sweet-water Eiver, which is bordered with granite rocks and overgrown with artemis as far as the Devil's Gates, a sort of narrow canal 100 yarils long, where the river has hollowed an outlet for itself through the rock. A little beyond this passage may be seen the Independence lloc'k, also called the Register of the Desert. It is a granite wall, C50 yartls in length by 120 feet in height, and quite bare except towards its summit. Its base is covered with names cut by the travellers and trappers, wlio wished to jKirpetuate in this manner the remembrance of their passage in those solitudes. It is situated at 1000 miles from the Mississippi, in 107° 50' of W. long, and 42° 29' 36" of N. lat. You then arrive on the northern branch of the Nebraska, which is crossed at the Hod liutts, a precipitous decUvity in argillaceous sandstone, i;J < I i : i I 280 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. tlint terminates the last steps of the Rocky Mountain.^. From tlie Hod Butts to Fort Laramie, you continually skirt along the romantic banks of the Nebraska. Fort Laramee, fimnerly called Fort Jolui, lies on the borders of the river Laramee, in 42° 12' 38" N. Lit and 104° 31' 20" W. long. It was constructed by the American Fur Com[)any for the jirotection of their coni- m(?rce : subsequently this company sold it to the Gov'.ni- ment of the United Stiites. The soil in that locality is ex- tremely sterile, the dew falls seldom there, and tiie flora is scanty. The fort communicates with the embouchure of the Nebraska and of the Upper Missouri, by meiuis »>f excellent roads traced out by the emigrants gouig to Utah, Oregon, and Califoniia. The numerous forts erected by the Americans on their frontier, and in the countries inhal)ited by the Indians, are destined to main* tain the laws of the United States, to favour the fur trade, and to promote peace among tlic savage popiJatioii-*. But it nmst be acknowledged this triple object is but feebly attained, for the garrisons arc generally insuflicient, and the soldiers are not able to go to the different pLice* where their presence would be required. The gi'eater jwrt of those estfiblishments arc nothing more than simple caljins, liaving merely a ground floor or one stor}', and built of adoubes, according to the Mexican fashion ; sonie- timefi also they are of wood or stone. They arc en- closed by palisades, or suiToundcd by slopes of earth ; at each angle bastions protect the entrance of the fort and complete the system of defence. The most inqiortant ones of the great deserts are, besides those we have already named. Fort Kearney on the Nebraska, in 40° 35' of N. lat. and 99° of W. long., and Fort Ix^veii- wortli on the Missomi, on the noitli of the Kansas, in 39° DESERT OF THE GREAT PR^VIRIES. 287 M 25' X lut. nnil 94** 50' W. long. In Upper Missouri there arc otliers which wc shall have occasion to speak of liereafter. This immense tenitory, which extends along the Rocky Mountains on the west, Uj^pcr Missouri on tlie north, tlic Mjssissi|)pi on the east, and Texas on the south, is called the " Desert of the Great Prairies." Writers and novelists have spoken a great deal of these solitudes without having correct ideas respecting them, and in a manner that clearly proves to us that they have never visited these extraordinary wilds. Moreover, the extent and nature of this vast territory renders a description of it a very difficult matter; nevertheh'ss, we shall begin with a sketch of its general chamcteristics, and afterwards we shall give some details concerning its most striking points, which will modify those characteristics ; and finally we shall complete our recital with divers sketches, so as to initiate our readers in the diflerent epopees of which these places are the theatre. The regions whose boundaries we have just mentioned, form the principal great centre of the Indians : the Go- venunent of the United States has penneii-up on the frontiers of Texas, as likewise on those of Arkansas and of Missouri, upwards of 120,000 Red Skins. The Dela- wares have for their portion 1,500,000 acres of land ; tiio Peorias and the Kaskaskias have about 100,000 ; the Kikapoos have nearly 770,000 ; the Shawnees 100,000 ; the Weas and the Piankashaws 100,000. The Osages, the Pawnees, the Creeks, the Cherokees, the Tuskaroras, the Quapaws, the Omahas, the v.)toes, the Kansas, the Chickas- sas, and the Chactas also occupy in these latitudes exten- sive teri'itories, which they cidtivate more or less. Game being scarce there, and the produce of the chase proving ^ "i I ., f IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) '^* C V^.% 1.0 ^ I.I 2^ |2.5 US 1^ i: 2? 144 ■' ^ »£ 12.0 lit 12.2 - 6" 1.8 L25 III 1.4 IIIIII.6 % 71 v: ^J^/ w J^ ^^. /; '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 '0 V^O flu 1 IB • H V. 1' i 1 V 1 h\i I I< B S! ' 1 ' • 1 j i 1 288 THE DESERTS OF NOllTII AMERICA. n: \(-^K insufficient to supply the wants of so large a population, agriculture has become for these tribes an important pursuit. This country is watered by the Canadian, the Arkan- sas, and the White Eiver, the Osages, the Kansas, the Nebraska or the Platte, the Ni-Obrarah, the Keha-Pahah, the river of the Yellow Stone, the Missoiu-i and its tribu- taries, which all fall into the Mississippi. The prairies are shghtly undulating, and rise considerably as they advance towards the Eocky Mountains. The forests are only to be seen on the borders of the rivers and of the water- courses ; they are not as fine as in the other parts of the American continent. The more you penetrate into the wilderness the lower you find the trees, and they gradu- ally disappear altogether, as if to make room for the willows and osiers that form a double cordon of verdure, indicating the presence of water. The absence of high trees is caused partly by the terrible winds that blow regularly at fixed periods in these regions, carrying along with them ruin and devastation ; and partly by tlie habit the savages have of annually setting fire to the prairies, to obtain new grass. The cedar, the pine, and the oak are tlie trees that best resist this double action of the wind and fire. The plains are generally covered with a meagre and hard herbage, as likewise with heath, wormwood, and artemis. Intermittent and bilious fevers constantly reign there. A few hills blackened by subterraneous fire, valleys whitened with the bones of men and of buffaloes, such are the principal incidents that interrupt the mono- tony of those soUtudes. With a few rare exceptions, the traveller always finds liimself in the middle of an im- mense circuit of which he is the centre. All around he i ,5 I ] ■ 3 i I FLORA OP THE TRAIRIES. 280 sees the same landscape, the same weeds, and the same flowers ; and every evening it seems to him that he sleeps on the verj'- same spot where he had rested the pre- vious night. The flora only changes according to the altitude of the ground ; like the gradations of a hot- house, each step has a different kind of flower which pre- dominates. Thus, 300 miles from the mouth of the Kansas the plants that characterise this zone are the Sesleria dactylo'ides, so much sought after by the buffaloes ; the Amorpha canescens, the Sida coccinea, the Psoralea Jloribunda, some Lupinus, and some dwarf Lathyrus ; as also a wild sensitive plant, the Schrankia angustata ; whilst a little towards the south vou s-jc at each step Heli- anthuses, the Asclepias tuberosa, the Carduus leucographus, the Tradescantia virginica^ and the Asclepias syriaca, the stem of which is silky, and whose flower serves to make sugar. The borders of the streams and rivers are always more or less shaded with a few clumps of willows (Salix longi- folia) and poplar-trees of the Populus monilifera and Populus angulosa. The shoals are generally peopled with myriads of gad-flies and of musquitoes, which cause horrible sufferings to both men and horses. These most disagreeable insects, as soon as they hear or see a horse^ man approaching, leave their swampy and pestilential dwellings, and fasten on him, accompanying their hos- tilities with a sonorous and continual buzzing. Then woe be to him whose horse is too fatigued to gallop away, for the winged tribe soon cause the blood to flow from all parts of his body. The starling, in this instance, becomes the avenger of man ; it places itself without ceremony on the back of the horse, and darts with amazing dexterity on the VOL. L U Mi !» c liji if!!! 290 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. gad-flics, which it devours with extraordinary rapidity. We have sometimes seen in the prairies considerable numbers of horses or of homed animals grazing quietly, owing to the protection of three or four starlings which each animal carried on its back ; without them the gad-flies would soon have dispersed the herds infuriated by their stings. Now and then you come upon lakes, or " salt plains," as the trappers call them. These lakes or ponds are produced by rivulets or saUne springs that overflow in the rainy season, and then spread themselves in the plains, covering a superficies of some miles. Wlien the smi and the drouglits have caused the water to evaporate, nothing remains of these factitious lakes save a vast white sheet, sparkling with o saline substance of Avhich tlie buflldoQs are peculiarly fond, so that you are ahvays siu'c to find nimierous droves of these ruminants in the neigh- bourhood. The mirage is also a permanent phenomenon in these plains of so sad and dreary a uniformity ; it con- tinually misleads the inexperienced traveller, who is td- recting his steps towards New Mexico, California, or Oregon. Before entering at the eastern side into the Great Prairies, also called the Great American Desert, wherein dwell the buflaloes and the w^andering Indians, you must traverse a district of fertile countiy about 300 miles wide, that extends along the States situated to the west of the Mississippi. It is this coimtry that tourists, poets, and romance-writers generally mistake for the Great Desert, and which in reahty is merely the skirts of it. It is then to this common error that we should attribute the inexact descriptions given by the majority of our winters, who, having only visited those vast regions m imagination, have described them accordhig to incomplete reports, or THE GREAT PRAIRIES. 291 have fancied that the Great Prairies resembled the plains of the western frontiers. Besides, m these plains, that are like the advance-guard of the desert, and whose limits the eye cannot compass, the tourist finds quite enough of misery to calm his admiration, and to deter him from ad- vancing farther into those soHtudcs, which are only pene- trated by the emigrants going to California, to Utah, and to Oregon, by the savages, by the missionaries, and by rare scientific or military expeditions ordered by the Govern- ment of the United States. The plains found before you come to the Great Prairies are undulating and intercepted by sloughs and rivers which it is necessary to cross ; game is so scarce here that you are constantly obliged to have recourse to whatever j)rovisions of biscuit and salt meat you may have brought with you. The vermui, the insects, and the howling of the wolves prevent the traveller from taking rest during the greater part of the night ; and the multitude of serpents which the horse's tramp causes to start up in all directions, keep him in a continual state of terror during the day. It also frequently happens that after a wearisome day, passed beneath a scorching sun, he finds nothing to quench his thirst but black muddy water which is full of toads and salamanders. Thimder-storms, that are as frequent as they are sudden, occur from time to time, as if to com- plete t 'lis series of impressions ; but they are pecidiarly disagreeable to the traveller, who is almost deafened by their terrific peals, and drowned by their deluging showers. In these countries the thunderbolt bm-sts with a fearful noise, followed by unimaginable crackings that would make one feel inclined to think it was the end of the world, and amid an ocean of forked lightning which v2 i't ,nn 292 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. illuminates the entire firmament for hours together with a blood-red fire. Wonnwood and artemis plants are the predominant productions of the Great Prairies, as likewise of all the other deserts ; the virgin forests imagined by our noveUsts are only to be met with in fertile grounds, and do not grow on arid soil. It is only towards the north of Texas that the prairies are dotted with forests, the exist- ence of which has never been explained in a satisftictory manner, for they are sometimes exposed on heights where tlie wind woidd be apt to destroy them, and nevertheless they do not appear to suffer from its influence. To tlie north of the Nebraska, these vast plains are less diversi- fied, but more even, and are constantly refreshed by the breeze. Turf, bespangled with odoriferous and bright- coloured flowers, adorns the dells and hills on which buf- faloes and deer graze peaceably. It is evident that those regions were formerly wooded, for trunks of trees, and even entire trees petrified, are often to be seen. Some savants attribute the disappearance of the ancient forests that heretofore covered the western prairies of that liemi- sphere to the action of fire ; otliers to the change that the chmate imderwent, or to the natural sterility of the soil. The fossils and shells found on the tops of the most elevated hills in alluvial grounds, and mixed with sand and pebbles worn by the action of the water, prove that diluvian revolutions must have convulsed all that country. A few geologists have even supposed that the great American Desert was washed by the waters of the ocean at the beginning of the world. In the Great Prairies, the undulations are formed by hills either of sand or of different kinds of rock, which have often a most picturesque effect ; they vary from sixty t ■ THE GREAT PRAIRIES. 293 to four hundred and fifty feet in lieiglit The ground rises gradually as it advances towards tlie west, as we have already remarked ; for instance, the height rf the Kansas at the junction of its two principal branches, the Ee- pubHcan and the Smoky Hill Eiver, is 930 feet above ^.he Gulf of Mexico; and, 150 miles more to the west, the soil is 1590 feet above the sea. The uniformity of these solitudes is only interrupted by a few belts of cal- careous or sandy mountains, united in confused masses, cut up by frightful ravines, and having the appearance of a fallen world ; at other times they are intercepted by arid and rocky heights, which are almost impassable, like the Black Mountains. In the middle of this ocean of verdure, whose enonnous waves ever follow one another in their eternal mobihty, winds perhaps the broadest road in the world, the one that tlie emigrants from Europe and Trom the United States traced out, that they might the more easily go to enrich themselves at the gold mines of California. This immense avenue is like an area continually swept by the winds ; the caravans that have passed, and that still pass on this road, are so nu- merous that grass has not time to grow there. Tlie savages, who had never seen any otlier thoroughfares but the hunting-tracks in the wilds, fancied, when they saw this road, that the entire nation of Whites had emigrated towards the setting sun, and that a vacuum was to exist iu the countries where the sun rises. The graves of the peregrinators succeed each other on the right and left of this great path of life and death, and the solitude around, like a funeral veil, overwhelms them with the image of repose and of the infinite. Numerous remnants of divers objects from exhausted caravans, — entire families dying, u3 !' iil .'{{I 294 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AAIERICA. f ■',] cut clown by disease, fatigue, and misery, — strew the ground, wherein lie, side by side and for evermore, whole popidations of e.- ^rants. Here and there funereal stakes are planted in the desert, bearing the totems of some great warriors, or of old sacliems renowned for their wis- dom. Extensive bone heaps indicate where entire droves of buffaloes were slaughtered by improvident Indian hunters. Eivers of all sizes, down to the most humble stream, roll their muddy waters over their beds of sand. Clumps of willows, or of poplar-trees, sparsely set on their banks, throw their melancholy shade over the silent waters. A few roebucks and antelopes timidly browse on the green jward of the prairies, with stretched-out ears, and ready to take to flight at the least noise that may occur ; for in these places a noise is always the signal of danger. Such is the general aspect of this region, which can only be compared to the steppes of Asia, or to the pampas of South America ; a region truly wild, that seems to set civilisation at defiance to estabhsh hercelf within its precincts, — a barren land, which is never permanently inhabited by any one, for at certain seasons of the year neither men nor liorses, nor the greater num- ber of wild animals, can find sufficient food there. The grass becomes burnt and hard, the springs and brooks dry up, the buffaloes, the deer, and the elks migrate towards more favoured localities, the Indians follow them in their migrations, and the Great Prairies become more deserted than before. On the borders of the rivers He vast grounds that might be cultivated, or turned into magnificent pas- ture lands ; but we presume that, for a long time to come, this immense territory will be tlie refuge and the prey of red or white marauders, who will domineer there as .:W";t rOPULATION OF THE rRAIRlES. 295 supreme masters, and render all agricultural undertakings impossible. The population of the Great Prairies is composed of nomadic Indians, who live in a state of perpetual move- ment, ever tracking the herds and caravans ; and of a new race of men whose physical type bewilders all ethnological classification, the heterogeneous pro- duction of civilised and savage races, remnants of a mix- ture of the ancient tribes, now almost extinct, with the wandering hunters, the Fiencli and American trap- pers, the Spanish and Mexican fugitives, the adventurers of all classes of society, and of all the countries of the world ; this singular population is increased every year by multitudes of miscreants obliged to fly from the United States to escape the pursmt of justice. To com- plete thi^^i Hst, we may add a gicat number of Indians from the east, that the American Government transported to these frontiers, and who, infuriated at having been driven from their original country wherein rest the ashes of their ancestors, not finding sutficient resources in the natural produce of their new residence, and not likmg to till the earth, roam about the prairies in immense bands, revenging themselves on the Whites for liaving caused their forced exile, and hving by miu-der, rapine, and pillage. One may easily understand by this fiiithful j^icture of the inhabitants of the desert, tiiat it is both difficult and dangerous to traverse it, and that the emi- grants going to the Eocky Mountains, and to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, only find security in their numbers, and in the material strength of their caravans. We shall now give some of the details that modify the geological and geographical characteristics of these strange soHtudes. $ M, m^ ! 1 1 i M I I i V 4 296 THK DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. The great route marked out by nature to traverse this wilderness, and at the same tune the most frequented one, is the valley of the Nebraska, in Indian Ne-Obraska, or the Platte, so called on account of the insignificant depth of its Avaters, and the extraordinary breadth of its bed. This river is the largest tributaiy of the Missouri ; its mouth is about GOO miles from the junction of the Missouri and the Mississippi. The Nebraska waters an immense valley, which it fertihses dming its entire course ; its embouchure serves as a division between Ui)per and Lower Missouri ; before steamboats were introduced, tlie travellers proceeding to the Rocky Mountains or to tlie northern regions of Upper Missouri considered this the middle point of their journey; so that the crossing of the Nebraska was equivalent, for them, to that of the equator for sailors, and was celebrated with similar ceremonies. The valley is nothing more than a praiiie from six to eight miles broad, two or three of which form the bed of the river, which is filled with woody islands of a most charming aspect. The soil is composed of clay and sand ; water may also be found there by digging httle wells from three to six feet deep ; it is generally fertile, and covered with a surprising variety of grass-plots, be- decked with magnificent flowers and plants. The un- dulations are sUghter than elsewhere ; they follow one another regularly like the waves of the sea. The hills and valleys appear intenninable ; hours, days, and weeks roll on, and yet the traveller perceives no notable change in the beautiful scenes which these deseils present ; nevertheless, the artist, the poet, and the admirer of God's works daily find enchanting spectacles, new im- pressions, and delightful reveries. Odoriferous flowera embellish these immense fields of verdure, the breeze THE NEBRASKA VALLEY. 297 softly V»ends their frail stems, whilst it cools and scents the atmosphere with the delicious fragrance of a thousand sweet perfumes. The beauty of the solitudes is here dis- played in all its sublime grandeur. Between the Nebraska and the Kansas on the south, extensive imdulating prairies unfold themselves to the gaze, but they have not the slightest vestige of trees, save, as usual, near the water-courses. The principal plants to be found there, are aloes, cactus, commelinas, saxifrages, amorphas, yellow-flowered conotheras, and artemis. This country is continually overrun by Indians, and particularly by the Pawnees, who carry off with singular skill, and a truly remarkable audacity, horses and even oxen, and that out of the best-guarded camps. Ravines are very numerous throughout this territory, displaying beds of alluvial ground, of grit-stone, and of different-coloured limestones. The greater number of those beds contain quantities of fossils, especially to- wards the Big and Little Blue Elvers. The emigrants are obhged to traverse these two rivers in going from Fort Leavenworth to Fort Kearney on the Nebraska. Between Fort Kearney and Fort Laramee the route is peculiarly fine, but very monotonous ; the flora principally consists of artemis, Amorpha canescens^ Asclepias tuberosa, and the Asclepias syriaca^ from whence evaporate sweet odours, which impregnate the air round this flower. A few poplar-trees {Populus monilifera), long-leafed willows (Salix longifolia), and Celtis crassifolia, shade the islands of the Nebraska and some graceful sites on the borders of the river. In 40° 4' 47'' of N. lat. and 100° 49' 43" of W. long., the Nebraska divides itself into two branches ; its width at this point is about 1730 yards, and its 298 TIIK DESKRTS OF NORTH AMERICA. V mi (!'* ■ -i' liciglit is 2700 feet above the level of the sea. Close to the northern branch of the Nebraska and of Fort Ljiramee, GOO miles from Fort Leavenworth on the Missouri, are situated two famous rocly one she had left on earth ; but the presence of her son made her remember him. As he grew up he wished to visit the place of liis birth. One day the star said to his daughter : ' Take thy child and retiu-n on earth, ask thy spouse to come with thee and dwell amongst us, and teU him to bring with him a sample of every animal and every bird he has killed in the chase.' Then the mother, taking her son with her, re- descended into the prairie. Algon, who was always near the magic circle, was so overcome when he saw his wife and son returning towards him, that he thought he should have died with joy ; his heart beat with impatience, and shortly afler he pressed to his breast the cherished objects of his tenderness and love. *' According to the wish of the star, he hunted with extraordinary activity, so as to collect within the shortest delay as many presents as possible, he spent his days and his nights seeking the most cmious animals, taking the wings of some, the tail of another, the paws of a third, and so forth. When he had made an ample provision he took all his treasures with him, and, in company of his little family, started for the heavens. The inhabitants of the starry regions manifested great dehght at seeing them. On their arrival the chief of the stars invited his people to a general festival, and when all the guests were assembled he told them that they could choose amongst the terrestrial curiosities brought by Algon, and take whatever pleased them the most. Some took a wing. LEGEND OP THE MAGIC CIRCLE. 809 did not the bril- ls which 3rgotteu presence w up he the star jtiim on id dwell I sample i in the L her, rc- vays near J his wife he should ence, and }d objects nted with e shortest days and ,king the a third, ►vision he py of his litants of ling them, lis people !sts were amongst land take a wing, others claws or tails, &c. Those who made choice of claws or tads were changed into quadrupeds, and othci>4 were metamorphosed into birds. Algon took a feather of a white falcon, it was his totem (heraldic sign) ; his wife and son imitated him, and also became white falcons. All three then spread their wings and flew down to the prairie, where descendants of this marvellous union arc yet to be found." ; ^.:| X 3 \r 310 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAT. XVI. OUIGTN OK ST. LOUIS- M. LACLflDE. CESSIOK OF NEW FRAKCE TO ENGLAND MY LOUIS XV. LOUISIANA. THE FOUNDATION OF ST. LOUIS. SPEECHES rUONOUNCED HY THE MISSOUHIES AND DY M. LACLEDE. CONSEQUENCES OF THE TREATY OF 17G3. THE HISTOUY OF THE COLONY. SPANISH DOMINATION. POLITICAL CONSIDEKATIONS. ANECDOTE. AMEKICAN DOMINATION. MINNESOTA. THE DISCOVERY OF MINNESOTA. UPPER MISSISSIPPI. LAKE TEPIN. LA HONTAN's RIVER. IN- DIAN LEGEND RELATIVE TO LAKE ST. CROIX. PRAIRIE DU CUIEN. — GROTTO OF NOAKANTIPI. FORT SNELLING. The events that occiiiTed prior to the foundation of European establishments m America are generally so little known, that we deem it necessary, before penetrating into the last regions that remain for us to describe, to give sonic historical details concermng the capital of Missouri. St. Louis, the Queen of the West, was French by birth ; her cradle was suspended in the forest watered by the Missis- sippi ; her childliood was tried by many privations ; and her adolescence was reached amid the terrors inspired by the Indian's cry. Her youth, though more calm, was scarcely more happy. Abandoned by her guardian, the Lion of Castile, she was again claimed by her ancient mother ; but only to be forsaken anew. She then passed imder the protecting wing of the American eagle, and became the metropolis of the Empire of the Deserts. M. d'Abadie, civil and mihtary director-general, and governor of Louisiana, conceded, in 1762, to Messrs. Pierre Ligueste, Laclede, Antoine Maxan, and Company, UHKIIN OF ST. L0U18. 311 the inoiiopoly of the fur trade witli tlie Iiuliiiiis of Missis- 8ij)|)i iind Missouri. M. Ijucleile, a niau of reniarkahle iu- teliigeiice, of an eiiterpri.siiij^ character, and tlie principal chief of the company, innnediately prepared an ex|)edition, with a view of fonnin<^ a large eMtabhslnnent in tlie north- west. On the 3rd of August 1703 he stiirted from New Orleans, and on the 3rd of November following he reached St. Genevieve, situated sixty miles south of where St. Louis is actually built. At that epoch the French colony, established sixty years before in Illinois, was in a sur})rising state of ]n'os- perity. It had considerably augmented its im})ortance since 1732, at which period France was beginning to reaUse her great conception of uniting Canada to Louisiana by an extensive hne of niiUtary posts, that were to have been supported by forts the strategic i)ositions of which were admirably chosen. But when M. Laclede arrived in the comitiy, Louis XV. had already signed the shameful treaty by which he ceded to England, in a most blamable and inconsiderate manner, one of the finest regions of the globe, the possession of wliich had cost nearly a centiuy of efforts, discoveries, and combats, besides enormous sums of money. By that treaty, which will cover with eteninl . ignominy the memory of Louis XV., France yielded up to Great Britain the two Canadas, the immense territory of the northern lakes, and the rich states of HHnois, Kentu(;ky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Western Louisiana, as far as the Gulf of Mexico. The Britannic frontiers, north, west, and sc ath, were then siuTounded by that French race, so antipathetic to the Saxon one. It enveloped them by its power and its im- mense territory, by an uninterrupted chain of fertile comitries, wliich extend from Canada into the Gulf of X 4 t I I m n 1 2 TIIK DKSKllTa iW NOHTll AMKUh'A. ? V, Mi'\i»'«», Inllowiiig tlu' iutunuiiuihli' auti rifli valli'v «»l tin* ^liMsi^s^ip|»i, wliicli wiiuls naiiul llio l*higlish |H)ssivs!sit)UH lil\(^ llu' I'niliiig scipout wlioM! imunn»'rabli» loKIs futwiiu'il (hu J^aju'ooii. Unhappily lor I'Vaiu'uthc btatiwuuMi ol' \\vv luxin'iou.s cnint wcro Hlaat sigliiiul in this lualliu' ; llu^y (hd not know the vahiii of oin- (raiisalhintir dominions, noi' loiiwiiif what ihi! I'litnn^ might do lor lIuMn. (U-cnpicd will\ misiMahU^ palart^ inlrigni's, thi^y ]>asi'ly abamlonrd tun- IIm' ,st I'olonitw, and mcii^ly wongiit, totihly to pit»long thi'ir agony. NapnU^nn iiim^'ir romn\itti'd u gifat, I'anh whi!n hit ((l Lotti.sianii lor lil'tciMi nulhon.s. \\v. thonpht liiat a Iti.d in lh«! hand wa.s hrltiU' than two in tlu' Imsh ; lait whiit a laish ho .sold lbi- fsnrlt a snni ! Lonisinuii, that of htirwcir ituilains I'ohis.sal wcaltli, did .slu* not gi\i! luiiii to nmny poworrnl Mtati'.s by di.snu^mluM'ing IumsoUP l)id nho n(»t draw towiUiLs 'l\'\a.s, Kansa.s, Miiw Mi'xico, and t'aiilbrnia Y W'lion ono lliink.s of this great and irri'- paraldt! loss which LonisX\'.and NajHilnonbtanscd b'rant'e t»>snlloi',oniu'annot lu'lp sighing at thtd>lindntissol'tha I'aliil pttjit'y, whirii, I'oi' tlu^ sako ol* passing dilhrnltit's, luan pnsil lanimons loar, «»r lron> the want ol' pi-rh'ti knowltulgiMd' llu' r( '.stand's and importani'c orihc i-okmius, jorgets tlu^ lionoiu' and inton-si (>•' the t'lnpiro il rnh's. It was thus that in thiitinmol' M. l^ai'lodi* llu^ Atississippi luH'amo the natnial bonndary ol' tlut rri'ia-li and l^nglish pos.st',ssions ; t*\t. (ilenovievu was the (Uiiy Kreiu'h settli'mtiil on the right bank of the ri\ei', all the ttthers, lading (Mitiic left, wer»' nn»de iAvv to \\\v l^'ngiish. Altera short sojonni in thiit \iliage, M. Laelede exphu'ed the etamtry, and ilis- I'overing, sixty mih's morti t>» the norlii, a tHl)le land HtivtMity live feet above the Mi.ssissippi, and eovered with forests and feilile gronnd, luHonk possession of il and liiid the fonndiilion of a town, whiih lut naine.d Ml. Lonis, in 1 >re«eni'e of the Krunch olliiera of the C'luuties andt>f twd lUUl.V UI.STOKV i)V m\ UHUH. I a u ol' \\vv v ; ll>i\Y vnl I'uull » ll»»nigl>l lu' hiisli ; .ouisiaiia, »• |»i'»Hi'U 1" , ami ir»i'- I'd Kraiu'i' ilia fatal ia»\ |»iihil j^lMll' tlu' \v lumour is8issii»|ti it'tUruaul ug on lllf aiul «lis ai»lr lan»l 'I'tU t tuu I with 1 laM y*amg (Vi'nK's, Mt%sr8. Aunu.sin aial Pioni! (laaiti'aii. Wo had llio sali>rat'Uon »>rs(iiiiig tludaiti'V in IS47, (hiring tlio l'iwli\al ci'K'hrati-'d at tSi. L»mis in hiauaii" ol" Lailido. Hi'4iri'i'ly was tht* rising tuiliuiy o^taliHshod, whiih was angnu'nti'd l»y IVi'nfh, CienUsand UHnois cmigianlH, \vlu> would not I'Miuain nndcr the I'nghsh (haniuion, when it was gii'atly ahnnaul by thi* arrival »>!' 400 Italians, who, without la'iug hostile, wi^ve lunerlheUiss very trtaiblii.some, oil aenanit (tt* their etnilinual dianaiaU tor |U'o\i>ious and the daily rohluiiies they eoininitteil. Al. Laeleilf made all il that |to,>hihlii ha^^ile to rtiseiu! hisiwtahli.shnu'nt Ironi tluiperi lutuuu'eil it,anil innmnliati^y a»ted in a inainuu' that showecl his taet and his jaolnund kn«>wle»|ge nl' the Indian eha laetia'. The ehietlains ha\ ing a|»|)eari*d in his pieseneo, e are deser\ ing ol' at Idit^ssed him in theses terms W pity, h>r we are likt! dueks and geese seeking eU^ar wattr wluM'iHui to rest, us als(t to tind an easy existmu't!. We. know of no better plaee than where we. are. We iherelori! intend to laiild tuir wigwams around ytun- vil lage. We shall he your I'hildren, and yon will lu^ tuir talluT." l,ailiH|i» put an end to tlu* eonverhatio!i by pro- r the next day, whirh lu; tlitl in — ''You told me yeMerday that uusnig to gue his auswi* tlu' lolli»wing manned' : - yen wiue liki^ (hu'ks and geese that seek a lair eoiintry wluMtnn to rest and live at east^ Von told me that you were worthy of pity ; that yt>u had not found a mi>ro favonrabli^ spot to establish y*^*ii''^*^'lves in thr.n this one; that you wiuild build y«an' \ ilhige around me, and that we coulil live together as friiaals. I shall now answiaytm asu kind fathei' ; and will tell you tliat, if ytai imitate the dui'ks aiidget^si*, y(ai follow improvident guides; for, if they had any foretluaight, they yv«»uld not establish themselves nu elear water where iht^y may be peiveivcul by the eagle that will pmiiu'e ia» thi'in. It wtuild not havebec^n so had .!. ! 314 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. IM lii they chosen a retired spot well shaded with trees. You, Mis- sourians, will not be devoured by bu'ds of prey, but by the Red men, who have fought so long against you, and who have already so seriously reduced your number. At this very moment they are not far from us, watching the English to prevent them from taking possession of their new territories. If they find you here they will slay your warriors and make your wives and children slaves. This is what will happen to you, if, as you say, you follow the example of the ducks and geese, instead of listening to the counsels of men who reflect. Chief- tains and warriors, think now, if it is not more pru- dent for you to go away quietly rather than to be crushed by your enemies, superior to you in number, in the presence of your massacred sires, of yom* wives and chil- dren torn to pieces and thrown to the dogs and vultures. Eemember that it is a good father who speaks to you ; meditate on what he has said, and return this evemiig with your answer." In the evening the entire tribe of the Missourians pre- sented itself in a body before M. Laclede, and announced to him that its intention was to follow his advice ; tlio chiefs then begged of liim to have pity on the women and children by giving them some provisions, and a little powder to the warriors. M. Laclede acceded liberally to their request, and sent them off next day well supplied and happy. On the 17th of July 1755 M. de St. Ange de Bellerive resigned the command of the frontiers to the Enghsh, and came to St. Louis witli his troops and the civic officers. His aiTival favoured the definitive organisation of tlic colony ; St. Louis became the capital of Upper Louisiana, and M. de St. Ange was appointed governor of the place. EARLY HISTORY OF ST. LOUIS. 315 But Louis XV. had made in 1763 another treaty, by which he ceded to Spain tlie rernainder of our possessions in North America. This treaty, kept secret during a year, completed the measure of humiliations and of losses that France had to endure under such a reign. The official news of it was only received at New Orleans on the 21st of April 1764, and the consternation it spread througli- out Upper and Lower Louisiana was such that the governor, M. d'Abadie, died of grief. Serious disturbances were the consequence, and the tragical events which took place under the command of General O'EeiUy, of sangui- nary memoiy, caused the administration of Upper Louisiana to remain in the hands of the French for several years. It was only on the 11th of August 1768 that tlie Spanish troops were able to take possession of St. Louis for the first time, and even then they could not hold the position above eleven months. At last, peace being restored, the Spaniards again became masters of all tlie country in 1770, five years before the death of M. de St. Ange, who expired at St. Louis in 1775, aged seventy-six years. M. Laclede died at the Post of the Arkansas on the 20 th of July 1778, leaving no children. Ii^ 1780 St. Louis was attacked by 1000 Indians and Englishmen, who had received orders to seize upon the town on account of the part the Spaniards had taken in the war of American independence. The French, who were always on the best terms possible with the neighboiu-ing Indians, were far from expecting this attack, and although they were taken unawares, and had only seventy men at the utmost tliat could carry arms, they defended themselves with all the courage that a desperate position inspires, a. ' \ put their assailants to flight, and that without the help of the sixty Spanish soldiers, who were commanded by their a lit il ■ri I t I i If= i 4 316 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AilERICA. E ^ I •?:«f i ji "i captain named Lcbas, and who, instead of assisting thcni, shut themselves up in a tower, refusing to fight. The events that succeeded one another during the thirty-two years of the Spanish domination are too trifling to be mentioned here. Spain never sought to derive any advantage from the resoiu'ces of Ui^per Louisi- ana : it woidd seem as if she merely considered that mighty region as a barrier against the encroachments of her neighbours on her Mexican possessions. This policy alone can explain her indifTerence with regard to the government of that country. When she took posses- sion of all the territory situated to the west of the Mississippi, she found there a French population already acclimated, civilised, and inured to fatigues, owing to the long wars it sustained against the English and the Indians. The prospect of a calm and peaceable existence had assembled this population on the borders of Arkansas, of the Mississippi, and of the Missouri, where it only awaited a protecting government, to enable it to give to industry and agriculture all possible development. All that Spain had to do was to open markets for its produce, and for exchanges w4th the southern colonies. This extensive empire, possessing the largest natural advantages, bounded by the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Pacific Ocean, might have, owing to the prepon- derance that it could have acquired (as we witness in our days), changed the course of events which have taken place in Europe since that epoch. France could not aspire to such power as long as she possessed Canada, but she should have thought of it when she abandoned that colony. The immense results obtained by the Hberal institu- tions of the United States show clearly, in the present day, that the loss of Canada would have turned to our ad van- g them, ing the ) trilling » derive Loiiisi- red that ,chments IS. This egard to t posses- t of the 1 already ng to the } Indians, mce had Arkansas, e it only to give elopment. for its colonies. natural • Missouri, e prepon- ess ui our ,ve taken ould not nada, but oned that al institu- sent day, ur POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 317 tage, and that by developing the produce of the possessions which we still retained to tlie west of tlie Mississippi, we should soon have been amply compensated tor the sacri- fices made in 17G3 after the taking of Quebec. Such was the opinion of the intelhgent men of France. Turgot, our celebrated statesman, in particular, foresaw the ad- vantages to be derived from such a policy, and he even submitted a plan to the king by means of which that vast region Le called Equinoctial France was to become densely populated in a short time. But, as M. Nicollet observes in his essay on the primitive history of St. Louis, he was treated as a visionary. Wliat was easy for France was still much more so for Spain ; but histead of adopting this simple policy — liberal and grand in its results — Spain contented herself with isolating the colonists and the Indians of Missouri a^d of Mississippi, imposing an arbitrary government u])on them, checking all communication between the neigh- bouring populations ; estabhshing restrictions on importa- tion, prohibiting foreign competition, restricting emigra- tion, granting exclusive privileges, and making, without any conihtions, concessions of lands, &c. It is not surprising, then, that she complains that her colonies cost her more than she reaUsed by them. Nowhere, either in her laws or in her decrees, is there to be found a plan adopted with a view of developing the natural and moral resources of these countries. As the Government appeared only to occupy itself with the exigencies of each day, in like man- ner the inhabitants did not seem to think of the morrow. The Creoles of Upper Louisiana, who were the descendants of a brave and enterprising nation, not finding in this state of things any support for their physical and moral faculties, penetrated mto the depths of tlie forests, got amid a mid- fit , ■■')§ 6f: : m < hVi 318 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. ib^; titude of savage tribes whom they had not heard of before, began to explore the regions situated between the Missis- sippi and the Eocky Mountains, and created the fur trade in that extensive portion of North America. In this way wiis formed that class of intrepid men called voyageurs or engages, of whom we have already spoken, and who were as necessary in the plains of the West as are the Canadian voyageurs in the frozen countries of the North and North- west. Meanwhile America had attained her independence, and France was commencing her revolution, when, all of a sudden, on the 9th of July 1803, at seven o'clock in the evening, the inhabitants of St. Louis learned that boaiu had re-ceded Louisiana to Napoleon, who, in turn, had sold it to the United States. We will make no remark on the profound sensation produced by this unexpected news. We wiU merely observe that the colonists could scarcely recover from their astonishment on heaiing that they had become repubHcans, and seeing a multitude of judges, lawyers, notaries, tax-gatherers, &c., arriving among them. They were even less able to understand that liberty which obliged them to leave their homes to vote at elections, or to serve as jurors. They had allowed civiHsation to ad- vance without taking any notice of it. Their existence was so isolated, so simphfied, that they lost sight of tlic advantages of social Ufe. They possessed no public schools, and the missionaries, being too few in number, were seldom able to visit or instruct them in their rehgious duties. The object of their material Ufe did not go beyond the domestic circle, the virtue and honesty of which were proverbial. They knew nothing of notaries, lawyers, or judges ; and the prison remained empty during thirty years. To give an idea of the simpUcity of the Cieoles, we cannot ANECDOTE. 319 do better than relate an incident that took place a few years after the cession of Louisiana to the United States. V Creole from Missouri was lounging about a sale of negro slaves on the borders of the Mississippi, in Lower Louisiana. The merchant, who was from Kentucky, asked hira if he wished to buy anything : " Yes," repUed the Missourian, " I want a negro." Having made his choice, he inquired the price of the one he selected. " Five hundred piastres," replied the merchant ; " but, according to custom, you have one year to pay." At this proposition the purchaser became embarrassed ; the thought of being hable to such a debt during an entire year annoyed him greatly. " No, no ! " S8,id he to the merchant ; '• I prefer paying you at once six hundred piastres, and letting the matter be ended." "Very well," said the obliging Kentuckian, " I will do anything you please to make the affair convenient to you." And the bargain was concluded. The Spanish troops departed from Louisiana on the 3rd of November 1804. The American governor, W. H. Harrison, who had the chief command of the Indian territories of Upper Louisiana, organised the civil and judicial power of that country ; and on the 2nd of July 1805 General James Wilkinson established there, by order of Congress, a territorial government, of which St. Louis was the capital. At length, in 1820, the territory of IMissouri became a State, and its constitution was sanctioned by Congress in 1821. The geographical situation of St. Louis has made it the most important town of the West, and, as it were, the door opening to the great deserts of the West and North- west. It is in this noble city that the trappers assemble to lay in provisions before penetrating into the soli- r 1 1, j' 111 ill; i\ J ■ 1^ ? •; i 320 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. :ll tudes : it is hither also they bring their furs, and expend in a few days the money they had earned at the risk of their Hves during their long excursions. It is also from St. Louis that the steamboats engaged by the great fur companies start to transport into the Indian countries merchandise, wliich is exchanged for skins of all sorts. It will also be from hence that we shall start to make our readers acquainted with the principal curiosities of the wildernesses of the North-west watered by the Mississippi and the Missouri. Next to the countries we have just described, ou^ ^f ^ho new States of the American Union which is the least known and the most interesting is certainly Minnesota ; it is also one of those that exhibited to us the greatest amount of wild poesy in its primitive nature ; it is, beeli^i^ ^, one of the richest in legendary lore and in historical souvenirs. Minnesota covers an extent of upwards of 198,000 square miles of excellent ground, composed of beautifid prairies, interspersed with magnificent forests. All kinds of corn grow there abundantly, and in the valley of the Eed Eiver, as far as 50° of N. lat., and even stiU farther, very fine Indian wheat is continually cultivated. The crops are generally regular and good : indeed, with a few ex- ceptions occasioned by inundations, they never fail. Compared with the banks of Lake Superior, the southern portion of Minnesota is the Italy of those regions. To agriculturists it is most important; for few countries of the north are as well adapted for the culture of maize. The borders of the St. Pierre or Minnesota, the St. Croix, the Eum, the St. Fran9ois, the Eiviere a Jacques, and of their tributaries, the banks of Lac Pepin, Lac qui parle, Lac des Bois, and several others, are of a truly extraordinary botanical richness and expend risk of o from eat fur )untries sorts, ike our of the isissippi known ; is also ount of one of ivenirs. square Drgiries, of corn i Eiver, r, very e crops few ex- 1. outhern is. To mntries ture of inesota, Eiviere of Lac others, ss and :^lh \mt im h'k m Mw m\mm I mi m\ i I ''! ' I: <5' TIIK MINNESOTA. 321 power of vcgotat ion. The inaxiinuiu of ihc teini)eratiiro of simuner at Miiiiiesota is 88° Fahr. and tlie niininunu is 47° below zero. Tinnider is very fre(|nent in those hititniles. Currents of air, donhtless prochiced by tlie burstin<^ forth of the liberated electricity, temper the ex- cessive heat of summer. But before speaking at greater length about the eon- figuration of the country, we shall say a few words concern- ing the origin of the name that was given to this vast territory, comprised between the Wisconsin, the Iowa, the Nebraska, and the British Possessions. The word Minnesota (pronounced Miimisotah) is bor- rowed from the Sioux language, and is derived from iniiuii, which means water, and t^otdh, which signifies whitish. Tlie sky in that part of America is more of a whitisli than of a bliush colour ; and the Indians, in calling Minni-sotah the principal river (formerly designated under the name of St. Pierre) which waters the territory, wished thereby to indicate that it had the peculiar tint which the firmament presents in these charming regions. It was a Frenchman, named Lesueur, who discovered this river towards the year 1683. He called it St. Pierre, in remembrance of a celebrated captain who was at the head of a French Eesidence on the borders of Lake Pepin. It was only in 1852 that a decree of the Legislative Assembly ofTicially changed the name of St. Pierre to that of Minne- sota. Tliis river has its source on the eastern slope of the head of the Coteau des Prairies, towards 46° of N. lat. and 97° of W. long., Greenwich meridian. It first takes its course towards the south-east, and flows into the Big Stone Lake, which it traverses to throw itself anew into the little Lac qui parle ; then it descends towards the south, receiving many tributaries, after w^iich it takes VOL. I. Y i .1 't; 322 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I I ! f an eastern direction, ascends to tlie nortli-east, and fnially lulls into tlie IMississippi a little above the St. Anthony Falls. Not being able to speak of all the curious sites, of all the natural beaudes, to be found in IVIinnesota, nor of the interesting exciu'sions that may be made there, we shall hniit oiu' task to gleaning from memory the facts that have made the deepest impression upon us. Among the latter, tlie most cherislied was a visit to the soiu'ces of the Mississippi, and to the Carriere des Pipes Eougcs (Eed Pipe-stone Quaiiy) of the Coteau des Prai- ries, a celebrated quarry, of wliich we shall speak at full length hereafter. From St. Louis it is first necessary to ascend the Mississip})i as far as the St. Anthony Falls, that is to say, for a distance of about 612 miles. Formerly this passage was effected in two months by means of flat-bot- tomed boats, which were sometimes towed, and sometimes moved on by the help of long sails or of oai-s. Now there is a more or less regular service of steam-boats, that go in a few days as far as Fort Suelling, situated near the Falls. The banks of the Upper Mississippi are remarkably beau- tiful, and render this journey most attractive. The river is hemmed in by an almost uninterrupted succession of steep hills of curious forms, intersected by glens wherein groAV shrubs of all sorts. At times the hiUs become lower, as if to make way for a cordon of rocks from tlmty-two to forty feet in height, that appear in the Mississippi, and resemble architraves, or truncated cornices, cut at equal distances ; you woidd fancy you beheld a colossal temple half-buried imder the water. The plains that are beyond the banks of the river and on the high lands are covered V H-1 '■ UlTER MISSISSIPPI. 323 with thick herbage and hixuriant pasturage, and arc studded with chistcrs of trees. It is on the borders of this river, about midway between Fort SnclHng and St. Louis, that M. Dubuque, one of the first pioneers of the west, desired to be interred, or ratlier exi)osed ; ibr, in comphance with his orders, his body, wrapped merely in a wintUng-shect, was phiccd on a very lofty hill whicli commands one of the finest views in the world. A few years since the skeleton of that singular personage was yet to be seen on the rock. Although the Mississippi is truly as fine as it is grand during its entire course, owing to the originality of its sites, nevertheless it fatigues the admiration of the tourist who only ascends it from Balise to St. Louis, that is to say, for 1312 miles ; but from St. Louis to tlie St. Anthony Falls, during a distance of about 712 miles, the magnificence of the river is such, that the most exalted imagination could not conceive anything like it. The most indifferent traveller is in a ]ier[)etu.*d stiite of ecstasy, from the embouchure of the Wisconsin to beyond Fort SncUing, where the Missi3si[)pi ceases to be navi- gable on account of the Falls. No matter what the wea- ther may be, or at what season of the year, you feel youi'self as if nailed to the deck of the steam-boat, which at eacJi moment unfolds to the gaze new scenes, strange pictures, unheard-of panoramas, that cannot be described, because they are neither picturesque nor romantic, nor of any style or genus known in our old Eiu'ope. The landscapes of the Upper Mississippi are of a wild subhmity that can bear no comparison. The height of the banks of the river, in difTerent })laces, renders this country most important in an industrial point T a P« :ii I I fi ^H: ^ I i • lntaL. 324 TIIK DKSEHTH OF NOIITII AMKUICA. of vit'vv. Till! (alls and ciiscadcs that (U'c frociiu'iUly t<» l>t' mt't with mi^'lit scrvi' as liydniulic- in()i()i>i for mimcrous iiiaiiurMctoiics. The rorcsts of lofty tii'cs mij^lit. also In- usi'd for hiiildiiif^s, in sawin^f-miils, or for fiU'l. Tlu'sc rt'i^ioiis, besides, arc alreiidy invaded by tlie Whites, who will easily enllivate them. Whether wooded or not, the soil is ever eovered with i^reensward ; the hillocks whi<'h lise like iniinense domes at each side of the Upper Mis- sissippi, and the cnoinuais ramparts that conluie its bed in sonu' particular sites, aie also clothed with thick turf, which f^fives a softer and moie pleasinj^ a|>|)earance to its outlines: it has not the solenm and awful aspect of the fi;rand s|K'ctacles which the Alps and l'yrei»ees present ; but it alfords something more tender and veiled, that speaks less to till! imaj^ination, but ^oes incue directly to the heart. Hefore arrivm;^ at Lake Tepin, by ascending the Missis sippi you pass four lai'^e livers, — the Illinois, the J)es Moines, the Uock Iviver, and the Wisconsin, which furnish tlieii' continj^ent to the Father of Waters, it is at the delta formed by the Wisconsin and the Missis- sippi that is situated the rrairie du Cliieii, one of the most beauliful landsca.|)es of that country. Fn this spot is one of the lirst and largest establishments belon^in^ to the fur companies ; but since the Indians and the {^aiiu; are disappearing so lapidly frinn these deserts, it has lost much of its former importance. In the prairie niiiy likewise be seen an Ameiican fort, and about lifty families of French orij^nn, the majority of whom are trapjicrs, merchants, or voyar Had [)roniise(l liei 1 h III nuirnai'o. Close to Lake IVpin, trnees of an ancient inti'cnched camp liave been (hscovered, tlie ori^'in of which is still a mystery to th(» Ameiican arclueolot^ists. Yon may also jH'rceive there the ruins of several foils and dwelliii;^- places of the timt* of the French sway. M. 8t. IMeirc! had in that spot a spacious depot of diHereiit sorts of merchandise, which he exchaiiffcd for fnis l)i(Hit.;lit to liim by the Dacotas. It is also at the southern I'x- ticmity of the lake, in a place called I'ointe an Sable (Sandy I'oint), that the l<'rencli, under Konteiiac, who had just driven tlu^ Foxes from the Wisconsin, established iiitreiichnientH to secure tlu'inselves bom the incursions of the savaf^os. Vroceiiding a little farther to tlie left, but still ascend- iiijjf the Mississi|)pi, you reach the mouth of a little river, which, if not discovered, was at least baptised by the celebrated La llontan, who gave it his own name: it used to bo called Uivere aux (*anots (Canoe liiver), when that country belonti;eil to France ; for it was anionj^ the rushes and willows with which the banks are covered that the liunters and merchants hid their canoes. At a later period, the Knglish and the Americans changed the word ntnot U) that of cuiuton, which is merely a corruption of the first. \\\ the last century, the Sioux calKul it Liyan Hosndata, that is to say. Standing Kock, owing to a natural obelisk that is situated in a fine ])lain live mile V 3 326 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. ■' north of the river, near the spot where it is fordable. This rock is formed of a single block of sandstone, thirty- six feet high, and resembles the pillars that workmen leave to mark the depth of the excavations they make in the ground. It is a precious rehc of the superior layers of the first formations, before this country was devastated by the elements that have altered its original level. Twelve miles north of the natural obelisk you also see other evidences of the denudation of the surface of the earth. One of them is very remarkable, owing to the sjnnmetry of its lines and odd appearance of its design ; it was called La ColHne du Chateau (Castle-Hill), on account of its perfect resemblance to the ruins of a manor- house of the feudal times. Towards the same latitude as that of the CoUine du Chateau, on the left bank of the Mississippi, begins Lake St. Croix, which the river of that name traverses in all its length, as it rolls on from the Wisconsin, and pre- vious to its falling into the Pere des Eaux (Father of Waters).* The name of St. Croix was given to this river in memory of a celebrated traveller who wps wrecked at its embouchure after a long and perilous voyage. When the waters are low, you can see, at the southern part of the lake, a dangerous sand-bank, to which is attached an Lidian legend. "Two Dacota warriors were travelling together along tlie borders of the lake : one of them had made a vow never to eat any meat that had touched water. Overcome by hunger, they began to pursue a badger that they thought they saw directing itself towards a hollow tree. On looking into the tree, he who had made the vow * Name for the Mississippi. J! i INDIAN LEGEND. 327 perceived that tlie animal to which they had just been giving chase was a fish and not a quadruped. He hesi- tated a moment to consider what he should do ; but his appetite soon surmounted his scruples, and the fish was caught, roasted, and eaten. " After the repast hunger made way for thirst. The prevaricator prayed his companion to bring him a little water to refresh his swollen throat, but the more he drank, the more parched he became ; then, to quench his thirst more easily, he jumped into the lake and drank for a long time, when all at once he called his friend, saying to him: 'Come, and look tit me.' The latter thought he should have died with fright, on beholding the spec- tacle that presented itself before him. His friend was becoming metamorphosed into a fish with fearful rapidity. At last, whtn the metamorphosis was complete, the un- happy Indian fish laid itself across the lake, and formed ever since the sand-bank called Pike." The Dacotas firmly believe in the truth of this legend, which was i- ^inated by their tribe, and they have named the lake and river Hogan-onannki-kin, " the place where the fish rests." A few miles farther, but still on the left bank of the Mississippi, you descry St. Paul, a new American city which affords but httle interest for tourists; but from St. Paul you can take a trip to the famous grotto called Ouakantipi by the Indians, and Carver by the Americans. This cave is situated about thirteen miles on this side of the Fa Us of the Mississippi ; for above thirty years the entrance was stopped up by the falling in of the calcareous stones that crown the grit rocks in which the grotto is hollowed. The opening is less than six feet in width by nine to twelve in height ; it is imme- T 4 1:1; •4 % ''-it' ' 328 TUE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. diately followcd by a spacious hnij, fifteen feet high by thirty mtlc, and of equal depth, .laving its floor covered with fine white sand. At the extremity of this hall com- mences an immense lake, the extent of wliich is as yet unknown ; the water is pure and clear. When stones are thrown into this lake, they produce a terrific noise, which the echoes of these sombre regions repeat in the distance. The Indians who visit this obscure den never fail to throw something into the water as a sacrifice to Wakan-tipi, the spirit of the grotto. The partitions of the roof are almost entirely ornamented with ancient Lidian hieroglyphics, that are half concealed by the moss. Close to the Ouakantipi is situated the cemetery of several savage tribes, who regularly convey the bones of th J dead thither before emigrating to other countries. The mouth of the St. Pierre, or the Minnesota, is just opposite the cemetery ; and, near the point of tlie delta formed by this river and the Mississippi, the Americans constructed, in the year 1819, Fort Snelhng, the last station for the steam-boats, which ascend one of the largest rivers of the world. This fort, erected ou a plateau about one hundred and twenty feet high, is as romantic as it is imposing. It is composed of large ban'acks and of numerous edifices, surrounded by thick walls, and some clusters of trees, beneath wliich Dacotiis are often to be seen promenading. Previously to the organisation of the territory of Min- nesota, in 1849, this fort was the only important estabhsli- ment to the north of the Prairie du Chien. During many years it was the rendezvous of the missionaries, of savants, and of a few mercantile adventurers, v/ho wen! there to make preparations for theii' journey to the Dacota villages. This spot is celebrated in the annuls of PORT SNELLINO. 329 the desert. It was on the island opposite the fort that Major Pike encamped while he negotiated the purchase of the land. Since the construction of this fortress, many tragedies have taken place in that httle corner of the earth, which would be too long to relate ; we shall now occupy ourselves exclusively with the charming trips that are generally made by visitors to Fort Snelling. IS m I I i i m '1 330 THE DESERTS OF NORTII AMERICA. CHAP. XVII. ST. ANTHONY FALLS. — THEIR DISCOVERY DY HENNEPIN. INDIAN LEGEND, EXCURSION TO THE SOURCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI. LAKE ITASCA. MR. w. Morrison's letter. — minn-i-ha-ha. — traverse des sioux. MANKATO. THE ONDINF REGION. COTEAU DES PRAIRIES. RED PIPE-STONE QUARRY. INDIAN TRADITIONS. GEOLOGICAL PIIiENOMENA, THE devil's lake. COTEAU OF THE MISSOURI. VALLEY OF THE UPPER MISSOURI. SHINING MOUNTAINS. REMINISCENCES, AND END OF OUR JOURNEYS. Among the numerous excursions that may be made in tliese regions, the most interesting is indisputably the one tliat leads to the St. Anthony Falls, situated eight miles beyond Fort Snelling. In this spot the Mississippi falls from a height varying from fifteen tc twenty-four feet, into a bed of rocks, amidst grand and truly picturesque scenery. Travellers in general do not agree respecting the height of these Falls, which vary according to the rising and lowering of the waters of the river. They are about three quarters of a mile in breadth. The soil round the cataract is slightly undulating, and covered with luxuriant herbage, studded with trees. Formerly there was a small island in the middle of the cascade, as also a huge rock which lay on the very edge of the fall. Of late years many changes have taken place in its details. Successive falHngs in of the table-land over which the Mississippi rolled, caused the cascade to recede from the island which ■t«r*«' N LEGEND. ITASCA. — DES SIOU.\. ES. BED liENOMENA. ;y of THE SID END OK made in r the one rht miles ippi falls feet, into scenery, le height sing and re about ound the iixm'iant middle lay on changes dlings in rolled, d which I i' T^f !•' ' !;r; VORT V :i I iM'ls' lerou- iiip i'act. J •n I ^ . —— i i'.FNOMK vu.jiY ;•! caii.' J i.-^lan*] which . 3 r\\ i :n. ' wliich ha (If ho lo^ a s tlic sev ev( ag( me aloi the lev( Her GOV por on OCCf side abo^ The trav othe Nice is or foun T Fallf the; retu] onei ST. ANTHONY PALLS. 331 had divided it into two portions, and the rock, un- dermined by the current, was engulfed in the abyss lioUowed out by the action of the waters. The geo- logical character of the bed of the river is such, that a subterraneous working, which continually wears away the banks, can easily be perceived. Within the last two years the F • lavc receded several feet, and it seems most probable that they were even at the embouchure of the Minnesota a few centuries ago. They are powerfully aided in tliis retrograde move- ment by the quantity of pines that the Mississippi drifts along. These trees, being thus violently dashed against the rocks or into the crevices, serve as battering-rams and levers to destroy the one and enlarge the other. The cascade is divided into two parts by the island of Ilennepin, which, though narrow, is yet very long, and covers a superficies of about fifteen acres. The western portion is much wider, and its level is more elevated than on the opposite side. This difierence of level is simply occasioned by the volume of water being more con- siderable in the former part than in the latter. A little above the island of Hennepin is situated that of Nicollet. These names were given in memory of two celebrated travellers, who, within less than two centuries from each other, visited and inhabited Minnesota. The island of Nicollet extends over an area of about forty acres, and is one of the most enchanting summer residences to be found throughout those latitudes. The first white man who ever beheld the St. Anthony Falls was, doubtless, Father Hennepin, of the order of the Ricollets. He visited them in the year 1680, on his return from an excursion to Mille Lac, or the Kum, one of the tributary streams of the Mississippi. Hennepin il U i M \ il ii: i: ■I 332 T!iE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. '\ gave the nfane of St. Anthony of Padua to this cascade, as a token of gratitude for the many special favours he liad received from heaven through the intercession of tliat saint. After Hennepin, Charlevoix is, perhaps, the only European vho, under the French rule, saw the St. Anthony E'tUs. Jonathan Carver was the first draughts- man that sketched this splendid view in 1786, and on h*s return to England had it engraved in London. As Hennepin was crossing the Mississippi, near the I'^land that bears his name, in company with a party of Dacota buffalo-hunters, he saw one of these savages standing on an oak at the opposite side of the grand cas- cade, and v/eeping bitterly. He wore a very handsome beaver-skin robe, lined with wliite, and covered with embroidery wrought in porcupine quills. The Indian threw his beautiful robe into the river, hoping by such a sacrifice to render the Spirit of Waters propitious to hnn. " thou," said he, " who art a spirit, grant me the favour that i;hose of my nation may always cross this cataract without incurring anj^ accident; that our warriors may kill buffaloes in abundance ; may they vanquish our ene- mies, and bring prisoners to thee, whom we will sacrifice i;i thy presence ! The Foxes have slain our kinsmen ; gra- ciously enable us to revenge ourselves upon them." Tliis sort of sacrifice is of frequent occurrence, as the savages often cross the Mississippi at this height. The Httle island above alluded to, and which was for- merly in the middle of the cataract, was called the Isle of the Spirit, on account of a legend wiiich relates that sometimes in the morning may be seen, above the Great A^'all, the ghost of an Indian woman carrying an infant in her arms, whom she presses to her breast ; meanwhile she sings, and steers a skiff made of bark, which is soon INDIAN LEGEND. 333 ascadc, )urs he of that he only the St. raughts- and on ear the party of savages •and cas- andsome red with 3 Indian y such a s to hnn. le favour cataract lors may our enc- sacriiicc |ien ; gra- This savages was for- the Isle lates that Ihe Great I infant in irhile she is soon swallowed up m the foaming waters. We here give the translation of the principal passages of this singular legend. " An-pe-tu-sa-pa-ouinn opened her eyes to the dawn of hfe long before the canoes of the white men were rowed over the waters of the Mississippi, long before their gaze had beheld the flowers that adorn those vast and beautiful plains. She passed into girlhood, and from the morning's hght until the shades of evening she partook of the fa- tigues and dangers of the other virgins of her tribe. She would swim without fear amid rapid currents, and learned to guide her fi-ail canoe, in which she gUded lightly over the waves of the torrents, or over the rippling lakes. She acquired the knowledge of tanning the deer-skin, and also dyed the bison's hide in various colours, and would then cover it with fantastic designs. She always prepared the tent for the repast, and was accustomed to cut her food with an ivory knife. She cleaved wood with a stone axe, and was in every respect inured to the rudest savage life. " In a vessel made from the bark of the birch-tree she boiled her food with hot stones. She caught fish with bone hooks. With the quills of the porcupine she em- broidered gifts for the beings she loved. Li the blooming meadows she bounded about with her young companions, and often did she carry off* the prize in the race. She was taught to fear the Ojibbeway, and would dance joy- fully round his scalp ; frequently, either by agility or cun- ning, she escaped from the lance or the arrow of that terrible enemy. " In this manner, with a heart sometimes gay, some- times sad, she went through the trials of her young exist- ence. At length the day arrived, when, uniting herself to the warrior of her choice, the nuptial joys and those of maternity caused her heart to swell with delight. But, I m 1^. m 1 1; ^' 1 ^11 m . •M:^- a ' i- ■ .|:'- r' • 4 H ft ■■ i 334 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. alas! great happiness is the prelude to great suffering; the greater the joy, the more deep and intense the grief, and deceived love can change into hatred. He whose smiles she cherished more than life itself, he for whom her heart overflowed with affection, forgot her for an impure love which he found away from her. " An-pe-tu-sa-pa-ouinn saw that ungrateful, that false one, forsake and despise her. What were, then, her thoughts ? No one knew. No Indian ever saw tears m her eyes ; her lips never betrayed her feelings ; her bosom never revealed a sigh ; long did she conceal her anguish and her sorrow. One day her tribe pitched its tent on these green and lovely banks, close to the spot where the foam- ing Mississippi precipitates itself with a crashing noise. An-pe-tu-sa-pa-ouinn was there, painting her face in bright colours ; she had her babe in her arms. " Why does she plait her flowing locks, as in the day of her nuptials ? Why does she thus put plumes on the head of her child, as for a day of festivity ? See, see ! slie enters her canoe, and placing her infant at the prow, she leaves the shore in profound silence. Her hand is steady as she phes the flexible oar ; no tear glistens in her eye ; the skiff darts through the waters as if flying towards the Falls, as if flying towards the abyss. " An-pe-tu-sa-pa-ouinn's friends call to her in vain; calmly she pursues her terrible route, without even turn- ing her head to take a last glance. All tremble witli horror ; she alone betrays neither fear nor emotion. She reanimates the courage of her timid infant with the most endearing and tender words, with her sweetest voice. The spouse, the father, is there ; despair in his heart on beholding his child so full of hfe, and yet so near to deatli. . " Still the bark gUdes on, faster and faster, di'ifted by inf INDIAN LEC ND. 335 ffering ; le grief, 3 whose [• whom for an tiat false len, her tears iii Br bosom • anguisli t on these the foam- ng noise. in bright a the day les on tlie see! she jrow, she I is steady her eye; iwards the in vain; even turn- nble with ion. She the most est voice, heart on to death, di-iftcd by the waves and urged forward by the oars ; it would not go so swiftly were death behind it and Hfe before. But they approach the gulf; henceforth no human power can save the two victims. An-pe-tu-sa-pa-ouinn begins her death chant ; her clear vibrating notes are heard above the roaring torrents ; her fine sonorous voice is wafted by the breeze. . . . " Hearken no longer, yoimg warriors ; the chants that caused you to weep have died away in the roUing waters. The mother and child are no more ; they now He in an obscure cavern, unknown to all, sleeping the sleep of death. . . . " Fragments of the skiff alone were found ; but when the sombre night wraps its thick veil round the trees of the island, when the wind howls and blows fiercely over the mighty river, a sad yet sweet voice is heard in the air, murmuring a song. It is said to be An-pe-tu-sa-pa- ouinn repeating her death chant." This legend, which we have translated almost word for word, is very ancientj and the Dacotas seldom fail to relate it, when, in their company, you visit the St. Anthony Falls. The Sioux and Chippewas inhabit this neighbourhood, and the American soldiers of Fort Snelling are specially cliarged to see that peace is not disturbed between these two tribes. When the Indians wish to ascend the Mis- sissippi beyond the Falls, they are obhged to make a portage^ that is to say, to transport their canoes and merchandise by land. From the mouth of the Minnesota to that of the Crow-wing Eiver — that is to say, for 146 miles — the valley of the Mississippi is wide ; its banks are rather low, and form, as they recede, a succession 336 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA ■> 1^ of terraces of a most imposing aspect. Numerous rapids interrupt the navigation of tlie river. The soil is sandy, and covered with lime, birch, and walnut- trees. On the eastern side of the Mississippi, between the third rapid and the Pikwabik stream, a grent mass of sienitic rocks, with flesh-coloured feldspar, may be seen stretching over a space of a mile and a half, and varying from twenty-five to thirty yards. A little above these rocks, opposite the Knife Rapids, are springs that carry along with th.m very fine sand, which is shining and blue, mixed \,lih a soft unctuous substance. The account given by Messrs. Schoolcraft and Nicollet of their journey to the source of the Mississippi is so well known that we deem it unnecessary to give any fuithcr details on the subject. V'^ shall merely remark, that from the Crow-wing Eiver to . e Leech Lake the roads are uivariably travelled with difficulty, on account of the continual portages that you are obhged to make to convey the canoes and luggage from one lake to another. The shortest route, geographically speaking, is that of the Pine River. The Leech Lake is one of the largest lakes of this region, where lakes may be counted by thousands : you leave it in the rear to arrive at Lake Kabekonang, and finally at that of Assawa. From Lake Assawa to Lake Slasca, where the source of the Mississippi is supposed to be, you are obhged to go on foot : happily the distance does not exceed six miles. It is first neces- sary to traverse a small marsh before you reach a rising ground overhung with larch-trees and white cedar, which is immediately followed by a shoal full of dead trees, that are either on the ground or crumbling to dust, owing to their great age ; above the trees, a humid and grizzly carpeting of moss and other parasites unfolds itself to the view ; it is SOURCES OF THE MlSSlSSiri'I. 337 a young f(^rest sjiriiiging up over tho remains of a forest lliat has been buiied for centuries. Tlie rest of tlie route presents a gravelly soil, which to all ap[)earance has once been washed by the waters of the ocean. Lake Itasca lies about 337 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and 1425 feet above the Atlantic. Among the plants that are to be found on a little island situated to the north of the lake, the most remarkable are Micro- stijliH ojthiiHjluf^m'ides^ Physdlw lanceolata^ and S'deiie antirrhina. Its geological situation is hi 47° 13' 35" N. lat. and 95° 2' W. long. (Greenwich meridian). The Mistassii)pi, at its going out of the lake, is live yards broad by a foot and a half deep. We corroborate M. Nicollet's statement that the source of the river is not in the lake, but in the high grounds that surround it. This plateau, which rises 90 or 100 feet above the level of the waters in its vicinity, is covered with thick forests, wherein tho coniferous trees predoniLiate, and contains innumerable soiu'ces which supj)ly the lakes. It becomes ramified towards the north, east, and south-east, and forms round Lake Itasca a semicircle, from whence gush five streams that flow into the lake. The som'ce of the Mississippi is to be found in the neighbourhood of the lake, but not in the lake itself. M. Nicollet, with much modesty, attributes the discoveiy of this source to Mi*. Schoolcn^ft ; but in the historical annals of Minnesota we find a letter written to Ml". Allan Morrison which proves that it was his brother William who made that important discovery. According to the documents we have ccmsulted on this subject, it may be certified that Mr. W. Morrison was the first who discovered the source of the Mississi])pi, Mr. School- craft the first who visited it oificially, and M. Nicollet VOL. I. i, t |')i ! 338 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. the first that examined it scientifically. We shall here quote Ml'. W. Morrison's letter, from the Annals of the Historical Society of Minnesota : we give it by way of confirmation : — " Allan Mon^on, Esq. "Dear Brother, — In answering your favour of the 10th Janu- ary, I will omit several incidents that I presume you are well informed of, and give you the time and circumstances that led me to be the first white man that discovered the source of the great Mississippi River. I left Grand Portage, on the north shore of Lake Superior, — now the boundary-line between the United Stalos and tl'C British possessions, — in the year 1802, and landed at Leech Lake in September or October the same year. I spent the winter on one of the streams of the Crow- wing River, near its source. In 1803 and 1804 I v/intered at Rice Lake. I passed Red Cedar Lake (now called Cass Lake), followed up the Mississippi ar far as Cross Lake, and then to Elk Lake (now called Itasca Lake), the source of the great River Mississippi. A short distance from this side I made a portage to get to Rice River, which is called the Portage of the Heights of Land, or the dividing ridge that separates the waters of the IMississippi and those that empty into the Red River of the north ; from thence to Hudson's Bay the portage is short. ** I discovered no traces of any white man before me when I visited Itasca Lake in 1804. And if the late General Pike did not lay it down as such when he came to Leech Lake, it is be- cause he did not happen to meet me. I was at an outpost that winter. The late General Pike laid down Cass Lake on his map as the head of the Mississippi River. In 1811-12 I went the same route, to winter on Rice River, near the plains. There I overtook a gentleman with an outfit for Mackinac, by the name of Otessee, with whom I parted only at Fond du Hac, he taking the southern route to Mackinac, and I the northern to head- quarters, which had been changed from Grand Portage to Fort William. This will explain to you that I visited Itasca Lake MR. MORRISON'S LETTER. 339 (then called Elk Lake) in 1803-4 and in 1811 12, and five small streams that empty into the lake ; they are short, and soon lose themselves in the swamps. " By way of explanation, the late General Pike, then Cap- tain Pike (in 1805), who had orders to trace the Mississippi to its source and was stopped by the ice a little below Swan River (at the place since called Pike's Rapids, or Pike's Black ILouse), had to proceed from thence to Leech Lake on foot, and learn there where the source of the Mississippi was. ]To went to Cass Lake, and could proceed no farther. He had been told that I knew the source, but could not see me, I being out at an outpost. This want of information made him com- mit the error ; some person, not knowing better, told him there was no river above Cass I^ake. Cass Lake receives the waters of Cross Lake, and Cross Lake those of Itasca .Lake and five small lakes that empty into Itasca Lake (then called Elk Lake). Those streams I have noted before; no white man can claim the discovery of the source of the Mississippi before me, for I was the first that saw and examined its shores. *• Yours, &c. " Wm. Mcrkison." ::!:: After a trip to the source of the Mississippi there only remains a visit to Pipe-stone Quarry, and then to return to St. Louis by descending the Missouri. It is necessary to start again from Fort Snelling, to commence a new excur^ sion, which is most interesting in eveiy point of view. Between Fort Snelling and the Lake of the Islands, that is quite close to the St. Anthony Falls, may be seen one of the grandest cascades, of which that beautiful country may well be proud. It is called Minn I-ha-ha (laughing waters). I-ha-ha is a Dacota word, which signifies " to laugh." That name was given to it on account of the similarity between the noise of its waters and peals of laughter. This cascade is formed by the fall of the waters of the Harriet Lalce, z 2 ! if It!' i! 310 THE DESERTS OF NORTH .VM ERICA. that empty. into Lake Calhoun. Nothing can be more gracei'iil than the enchanting banks of tliese sohtaiy spots. If the Niagara symbohses the subUme, and the St. An- thony Falls the picturesque, the I-ha-ha symbohses na- tural beauty in its most poetic simplicity. The height uf the cascade is calculated to be about si:ity feet ; the water emerges from a bed of verdure half-concealed by willows and oak, and in one bound precipitates itself from the top of a perpendicular rock into a narrow but deep basin, shaded by gigantic trees. To go to the Coteau des Prairies from Fort Snelling, you can embark on the Minnesota and ascend the river as far as the Traverse des Sioux, that is *o say, for a dis- tance of about 116 miles. The breadth of the Minnesota at its embouchure is 195 yards ; in some places its banks are upwards of one hun- dred feet above the level of the water, and form slopes, or terraces, which are covered with fine grass, and dotted with clumps of willows, birch-trees, and oaks. The entire valley is extremely fertile, and presents a smiling yet wild aspect; the ground is excellent, and thickly wooded; cotton-trees, some of which attain a prodigious height, are also to be seen there. As its name indicates, the Traverse des Sioux is greatly frequented by the Indians, who usually cross the Minnesota at that point. A mile from this kind of ford, tlie ruins of an Indian camp are observable on the borders of the river; as hkewise numerous heaps of stones and rubbish, which point out the site and form of the dwellings. The Dacotas, on wdiose territory the ruins are situated, cannot possibly state by what tribe this camp was erected. The last heights of the Coteau des Prairies terminate to the right of the Traverse des Sioux ; and to the left begins the region called Ondine by Nicollet. Tlie ONDIiVE REGION. 341 land of Ondinc is watered by iiinumcral)le navigable rivers, tiiat derive their sources from the lakes, and then empty into the Mankato, forming at the same time an immense aquatic fan. The group of lakes is surroimded by woody hills or very fertile meadows, whose appearance is as picturesque as it is graceful. There, all is modest, soft, and sad ; the sun caresses with its gilded beams the rocks, the waters, and the cedars ; its refulgence imparts life to these beautifid wilds, without causin jf them to become barren ; here, the moon sheds a paler and more mysterious gleam than in the other solitudes, when covered with the shadows of dusk ; the breeze gently bends the stems of the plants and flowers, but it is with a tender voluptuousness, like a mother's kiss on the cherry Ups of her first-born. Tlie waves sigh as they die away on the beach, but theirs is a harmonious murmur, and not a melancholy moan : the rain- drops, in falling, rij)ple the surface of the lakes, but they neither sadden nor disturb the limpidness of the waters : all the voices of nature are borne into space, and are lost without echo in the void. Truly it is in this spot that the charming fairy tribes of the Ondines, as also tlic genii of the waters, must have chosen their fantastic dwelUng ; for there is not a lake or rivulet that has not some poetic legend attached to it, ccncGiuing the mutinous spirits of this favoured region. The Mankato takes its rise at the foot of a semi- circular plateau called Mini-Akipan-Kaduza ; that is to say, " water that flows at the opposite side." It is navigable a few miles from the plateau, and its current becomes extremely rapid as it approaches the Mnnesota. Its narrow bed is enclosed between wall-Ukc banks, from ?ixty to ninety feet liigh, which are well wooded, as is 7. 3 1 1' 1= 1 : ' :i .ii'l :!i!. I 342 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AAIERICA. al.so tho valley of the Mankato. On the left bank of tlio river, and eight miles from its mouth, in an eminence composed of calcareous and sandstone rocks, you per- ceive cavities comuining the famous blue or green earth out of which M. Lcsueur extracted the 400 lbs. of brass that he sent to France in the year 1700. The Sioux use this earth as a dye-stuff; it is massive, rather plastic, and impregnates the an* Avith an argillaceous odour. Acids have no action on it ; its greenish-blue coloui' is caused by peroxide of iron. The portion of the Minnesota that is watered by the Mankato and its tributary streams surpasses in riches all the American territories situated above the 43° of N. lat., by the quantity of its woods and the fertility of its soil. The forests are composed of maples, black walnut- trees, red elm, lote-trees, red and white ash, pines, cedars, oak, and all sorts of shrubs, among which may be distin- giushed different sorts of hawthorn and wild roses. Ferns, Leguminosoe, Orcliideic, and other veiy curious plants, mingle their hues with the tiuf of the prauies. Having crossed the St. Pierre, or Minnesota, you ascend the valley of the Waraju, as far as the Shetek and Selican Lakes, beyond which is the source of the Moingonan, called La Eiviere des Moines by the French, one of the finest and most important tributai'ies of the Upper Mississippi. The name Des Moines is a corruption of Moingona, derived from the Algonquin word Mikonaiuj (the road) : at a later period it was referred to the Trappist monks, who dwelt in the northern regions of this part of America. The river is 412 feet in length, embedded between the valley of the Mississippi and that of the Missouri ; it has but few tributaries, nevertheless, in spring it may be navigated by flat-bottomed boats. i COTEAU DES PRAIRIES. 343 At a very short distance beyond the source of the Kivic;re des Moines, you perceive tlie celebmtcd Ited Pipe-stone Quarry of tlie Coteau des Prairies. The greater part of the basin of the Upper Mississi})pi is separated from tliat of tlie Missouri by a loffy table- laud, which, seen from the valley of St. Pierre on the cast, or from the llivierc k Jacques on the west, bears so striking a resemblance to a far-olT bank or ridge, that this circuUistance caused it to be denominated the Co- teau des Prairies. It extends from 43° to 4G° N. lat. Its length is 200 miles, and its width varies Irom fifteen to twenty-four miles towards the north, and forty towards the south ; its greatest height above the level of the ocean is 1920 feet. This Coteau, properly speaking, is a range of hills stretching out from north to south, and rising in the middle of an immense plain, which gradually lowers as it advances tov.'^ards the east and west. The summit of the tiible-laiid is wavy, bedecked with clusters of trees, fmTowed by ravines, and covered with pastiu-agc, granitic sand, and agates. From this Coteau spring forth the sources of the Eiviere des Moines, the Eiviere k Jacques, that of the Sioux, and a branch of the lied Eiv^er of the north. Its flora and ftxuna are almost the same as those of the Ondine region, to which may be added mimosas, willows, Virginia strawberries, and the trefoil of the buflaloes, besides the mustard plant, amaranthus, and psoraleas. The plain to the north of the Coteau is o. magnificent undidating prairie, cut up by streams and lakes ; the latter abounding in all kinds of fish. This country is probably the highest between the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay. From the different summits of the loftiest hills, you descry vast horizons of most remarkable beauty. The z 4 ISi«i«l 844 TMK DKSEHTS OF NORTH AMKUICA. wi'sliTii \mvU ill ]iiuru'vilur, uflnnlM views and |u'is|H'('livi'M 1)1' iiiconoivablo iriaiulcur, wliicli cxti'iul IVoin \\\v basin of 11k' Ui'd Ivivrr nl" llu' north, on one side, as far an tlu; Ilauti'ur divs IVnvs, on tlu; otlui', wlicro tliu source of tliu Mississippi is to hv foimd. Tlu' southern prrtiou of the Totoau des PrairieH is less divorsifu'd, wotuls and lakes heeonie niori rare ; but, wheu liiey aie uuiled in the same spot, they form akind of oasis, the ell'ect of whiel> is most pieturesijue and ^raeei'ul. These oases are always in the miildle of swampy ^Mound, !)ut whieh is, neverllieless, veiy rieh and abounding' in game. Few eountries eon tain such elements of ])rosperily as this; few can oiler more agreeable situations for agrit'ultural colonists. lAunierly the borders of all those lakes wen' inhabited by nuuierous sections of the Sioux nation. Those who are inclined to establish themselve.: in these latitudes uiight easily acquire wealth, not only by husbandry, but also by rearing large Hocks of shei'[) and herds of cattle, which could be ellected without ex- pense or risk, for these extensive meadows are ever covered with the most luxuriant ])asturage. The valley of the lied rij)e-stone Quarry is situated southward of the Coteau des PiMries, a little bek)W 44° N. lat., and between 0(i" and 07° W. long. ; this valley has the form of a cradle or of an ellipsis, tlux.'c miles in length by one in width. The western side of the quarrj" is composed of close-grained quartz, or a sort of red steatite, which rises perpendicularly to a height vaiying from thirty to forty-live feet. The rocks arc of a bright red, polished and shining. Some of them bear traces of ancient and modern hieroglyphics, which arc cut or painted on the rock. They are mementoes left by tlic Ecd Skins, each time they went on a ])i]grimage to seek the materials with which they make their pipes, ear- TIRT) PIPK-STONK QUAimV. 3ir» rin;i;M, niul other oniiinu'iitH of tliis kind. Sovcuil tomhs WW, also to bo Hocn tluTo, ns also the ruiuH of iiiommu'iits, wliich t'itlicr Hcrvcd us fortilicutions or as Hcpulclu'cs for illustriouH warriorH. The oUl IndianH asscit tliatthe dincovoiy of this quniry is owiu{^ to the aimiial migrations of th(! buniilocs, mid tliat the i)Uiiters in following' tlu* tnurk tjaccjd out by tiie passa^^^ of these auinuils, were led to the Fountain of tiie Pipes (so called by the' sava<^(!s) : whatever be the cause;, the pathway formed by the mi<^M'ation of the bufliiloes is still visible. lOveiy year the nei<^drbourin^ tribes mak(! a j)il;^n-im:i^(? to the Ued J'ipe-stonc; (iuarry. This [)la('e is [^really fre- quented by Indiajis, who ^'o thither from all parts of the Ameriean contiiunit. Therefore, it is neither safe nor easy for white men to go there, because the red people are jealous of their rights and privileg(!S, and look upon the j)ossession of that soil as their exclusive j)rop(;ity, given to them by the Great Spirit. They consecjueiitly consider the j)resence of the Pale-faceH in that locality as an intrusion, and even as a [)rofanation, which would in- evitably draw down the wrath of heaven upon tliem. Professor Jackson, of Boston, having analysed fragments of this red stone, which, according to Ameiican authors, is unique in the world, found in them the following com- [)osition : — Water .... Silc'X .... Alumina .... Mjigncsiii .... Pi'voxidc of iron . . Oxide of manganese Carbonate of lime Jjom .... Total 100 8-4 48-2 28-2 6-0 50 0-G 20 10 i ■lit' I $! ^11 \ it II:! 1? a4G THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. Among the Indian traditions concerning the origin of tliis quarry we .sliall cite that whicli is most generally re- ceived, and which M. Catlin recorded in his fifty- fourth letter on the ways and customs of the lied Skins : " Many centuries ago there occurred a deluge, which destroyed all the nations of the earth. The tribes of the lied men as- sembled on the Coteau des Prairies to escape from the inundation ; but the waters, continuing to increase, si;on covered the entire mass of Indians, and their flesh became changed into red stone." Another tradition, which seems the complement of the first, says : " Once upon a time the Great Spirit called together all the Indian tribes, and havinu; assembled them towards the south of the Coteau des Prairies, seatijjg himself in the middle of them on a perpendicular rock, which is yet to be seen, he took u]) a bit of the stone on which he was seated, and rolling it in his hands formed it into a big pii)e. He then smoked four times above the head of the lied Skins, sending one puff of smoke in the direction of the north, another to- wards the south, a third towards the west, and the last in the direction of the east. After which the Great S])irit assumed the shape of an eagle, and made the Indians ob- serve that the stone had become red ; that it was formed of their flesh ; and that they should always use it to make their ])ipes and cnlumets, for it belonged to all ; and, finally, Ihat iii whatevei' place a i)article of it was, there should Kcver occur either strife or combat. Whereupon he dis- np[)C}ired in a cloud that arose from his ])ipe. The rocks of the Coteau des Prairies gradually melted down, and spread over a surface of several miles. Meanwhile, they became ])()lished and shining. Two large holes suddenly opened in the gi'ound, and two spirits, the guardians of the quarry, entered by these apertui'cs to watch over the [)lace." RED ril'E-STONR QUARRY. 347 Only two mlli'H of tlic quarry have as yotbocn cx|)lorc(l. It iH ])ublic i)r()|)crty, thouf^li siiuuted in the teiritory he- longing to a tribe of the ^ioux nation. Neverthelesy, of late y(3ar8 tiie Sioux, instigated by the white men, keep ofi' the otlior tribes, and try to monopolise the working of the quariy, that they alone may derive profit from the i)ipes there fabrieatcid. Formeily, whenever the savages went to the Fountain of the I'ipes, tlioy became sacred and in- violable even in tlu; eyes of their greatest enemies, and were lodged and fed in every village through which they had to pass. Arrived at the quarry, they fasted juid {U)s- tained during thr(^e days, and offered sacrifices to the spirit of the Fountain of the Tipes before they began their excavations. Owing to the intervention of the Whites, these ancient customs, which were based ot; religion, will soon disappear before the sj)irit of traffic and lucre which has been instilled into the lied Skins. Another geological i)henomenon whi(,'h this ])lace of pilgrimage allbnls is the assemblage of several enormous cylindrical blocks of gneiss, fcls[)ar, mica, granite, and of blue, red, white, and black slate, of which not a single vci?tige is to be found in the vicinity, or even at a great distance. Wen; these rocks brought hither by the In- dians? It is not probabli; ; for their state of civilisation had never advanced so far as to lead one to suppose that they had machines or other mechanical means ca|)al)le of moving or trans])orting such huge masses. Should we, then, attribute the presence of these natural cylinders to the effects of some terrestrial convulsion 1 Science has n( )t yet pronounced on this subject. After having ex])lored the Cotcau des Prairies,, you go to Fort rierre Chouteau on the Missouri, by ciossing the liiviere ii Jacques at the Otuhu-Ozu or Taille des Chenes 111 ; * A US TfrK DKHKIITS OK NORTH AMKIIK'A. (onk cuttinjj^), jind tli(? C ttomi of tlie MisHoiiii in iU soiillicni part. 'VUv. ()tiiliii-()/,ii is iiii ('stahlislniicMt of ;^r(!at hmiowii, Hitualcd lliirty inilcH IVotii Uu; licad of IIk; (/outcaii (IcH ri'aiii(^M, mid 112 from Fort ClioiitcMii. Tli(> Itiviurc a .rjic(|ii('H (tlu; Tnliaii of tho Sioux) in of coii- sidcrjiblo imjJoi'lMnci; in that icj^ion. It tal«!M its ris;really froni thiist whilst IraviM'sin;^' il. The valley of the Upper Missoui'i, considered in a j^eolo- gical |)oint of view, may be divided into two |)Ialeaiis (one above the other), which were evidenlly inundaled rri'Kii MiMsnuKi. 340 (lining Ui(! diluviiiri jx'riod. JJotli of t!ieH(; |»IalciuiH mv, 210 fcc^t lii;^li, OIK! i.s SL'I above t,li(! oIJkm*, mid iIk; lirHt, is aviisIkmI hy IIk; vvsiUifH of IIk; livci'. 'iijcy hcuiiii to iiidicuU; tliul tli(! f(!tii'iiig of tli(j floods iimst, have luk(!ii j)la(U! at two very dintiiu't i'Jmh'Iih, prohaljly scparaUid IVoiri each otiici" by ^i'(;at iiit(!rvals, and that it N' gcologinii details, see Nic(/Ilet. 350 THE i>ESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. L •■u i to 300 feet in height, on some of which are placed natui'al square masses of basalt from fifteen to eighteen feet high, representing chimneys, druidical stones, and broken obelisks. Vegetation is almost impossible on these cones, owing to the natiure of the soil ; nevertheless, yon may sometimes find there one or several layers of excellent earth, whereon grow various shrubs, and even trees, whicli form a double or triple crown of verdure, presenting the grandest effect. Above these verdant diadems are enormous congeries of basaltic crystals, or other shining substances, produced by the chemical action to which we have already alluded when we endeavoured to explain the volcanic phenomena of the Smoky HiUs. As we have before stated, these crystals adorn tl^.e summits of the red mamc- lons, and gUtter in the sun Uke immense diiimonds ; whicli circumstance has caused those hills to receive the appella- tion of the " Shining Mountains." From Fort Chouteau, or Fort Pien-e, to St. Louis, that is to say, for a distance of upwards of 1300 miles, you continually enjoy the view of this subhme spectacle, as varied as it is woriderftd, and to which are frequently added extensive cordons of virgin forests, that are daily narrowed and wasted away by the ilowing of the Missouri. But we would require innumerable pages to recount all our reminiscences of a time already so long past. We have only sketched rapidly the results of our information and personal impressions, so as to abridge and faciUtate our task; besides, it was very difficult to interest the reader without fatiguing his mind by minutely detailing the pecuHarities of so vast a region as that of the deserts of the New World, and the sen- timents with which they inspired us. We must confess that it is not without fcehngs of regret POETICAL REMINISCENCES. 351 that we have thus yielded up the most cherished, if not the sweetest, portion of our remembrances, those relating to our joiu-neys in the American soUtudes, divested of the greater part of their local colours, which were so pleas- ing to us, but which we were often obhged to omit, not to become diffuse. Thought, like a young and timid virgin, cannot show itself indifferently to every glance : it fears to meet with irony, doubt, or weariness in those to whom it confides itself; it is only with trem- bUng steps that it advances on the field of the unknown ; it dares not soar boldly in the celestial sph< res of divine inspirations, because its wings are withlield by that basli- fulness of soul which admits of no pluraUty in its intimate effusions. There are recollections which produce on a soul tried by what is vulgarly called the rigours of fate an effect similar to that of the contact of man on the sensitive plant of the woods ; its tiny leaves become folded as soon as they are touched, and never develop or expand their sir 'ple beauty ; but when forgotten and alone they ai*e free, and only follow the impulse of their nature. Ee- collections, like all emanations from the heart, have also their sensitive side ; they require that liberty which isola- tion imparts ; and the assurance that their melodious voice will not be troubled by a jeering and hostile echo, or by sceptical indifference. It is then that they possess all their power and melancholy charms : it is then that, with them, the memory reverts to bygone days ; that it animates the monotonous existence of the in /alid missionary, in present- ing before him, as in a vapoury and beautiful mirage, the thatched roofs of the huts he visited to relieve a dying man ; his faithful steed, with its long flowing mane, sparkling eye, and light foot, on which he dashed over 11 «f!l« 352 THE DESERTS OP XORTH AMERICA. , the boundless plains and burning deserts : he beholds, in thougiit, those old virgin forests of the New World, with their ancient trees, whose stalwart and bushy branches are bound together and encircled by immense bindweed, which ent^\^nes them in its graceful folds. Often does he fancy he hears the fearful mewing of tlie panther, mingling with the plaintive cooing of the turtle- dove, with the hvely and animated song of tlie cardinal and blackbird, or with the wliisper of the breeze in the pal- matcd date-tree : he becomes intoxicated with the deh- cious fragrance with which the tropical flowers fill the air : his imagination carries him beyond the seas, and even beyond the present life, to make liim live again tlie life of the past, — the active, useful, and subhme life of the missionary. But, alas ! the reahty soon arrives, and witli its mocking breath dispels all these perfumes and ephe- meral illusions ; yet they never fail to retiu-n at the veiy first hoiu- of sadness and reverie. Is, in with s are veed, >f tlic irtle- I and ; pal- deU- II the , and II the ►f the witli eplie- very *« i , I i L ' , |; (1 t: ■,<; *X«IK.\T AMI'IIITIIKATHKS. )4l^' ANTIQI ( f! k I m ill- tDiid ibk} triiis^ of the 5*mir^»* vi ^ . * i ■it*rrt'"nri: <-ivi!]s'i!,iiiii -wv. Ut be ii>: . Kohl! j^xii )»i i* ' 1 f I i "i_ \\ 1 1 if 1 ,.rt« 353 PAET IV. ANTIQUITIES. • CHAP. XVllI. RUINS IN THE GREAT DESERTS. POSITION OF AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. SOUTHERN ANTIQUITIES. NORTHERN ANTIQUITIES. — FIGURE Oil TOTEMIC MOUNDS. NUMBER AND DIMENSIONS OF THE TUMULI.— ANCIENT TOMBS. FUNERAL ALTARS. SECTION OF THE TUMULI. ANCIENT URNS. — OSSUARIES. OBJECTS DISCOVERED IN THE TUMULI. ARTIFICIAL MOUNDS FOR SACRIFICING. ENCLOSURE WALLS. SACRED ENCLOSURES. — TUMUI I USED AS TEMPLES. — MOUNDS OF MIXED CHARACTER. — OBSERVATORIES. SIGNAL TOWERS. STRATEGICAL MOUNDS. The iirmense deserts we have described afford an interest beyond tliat of their natural beauties, their variety of landscape, and wild poesy; they offer a wide field for study to the antiquarian and archaeologist, whose eveiy footstep amid the grass of the prairie meets with coimtlesa niins, the origin of which disappears in the night of time. Thus, from Florida to Canada, anc' from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, the American soil is strewn with gigantic ruins of temples, tumidi, entrenched camps, forti- fications, towers, villages, circuses, towers of observations, gardens, wells, artificial meadows, and high roads of the most remote antiquity.. These monuments of extinct civilisation are to be found, singly or in groups, throughout nearly the whole siu-face M JH VOL. I. A A 'J; ! 'I \V 354 THE DESERTS OF NOKTII AMEIUfA. of North Aniericn, hut more particularly in the valleys of the Missiiisippi and the Ohio, which seem to have been the main road followed by the primrva! emigrations that i)oured people into the interior of thin vi?st couti- nent. Yet tumuli are equally found in Oregou, on the banks of the Gila, of the Colorado, and their tributaries. Genemlly speaking, Americtui antiquities are only to be seen on the banks or m the neighbourhood of rivei-s, streams, and lakes ; they are rarely found in the Ulterior of the coimtiy. The shoals and the alluvial grounds appear to have been the favourite s[)ots chosen by the Indians wliereon to raise their gigantic mounds; the principal ones are situated in the most fertile shoals, which are at the time the best adapted for cultivation. The plan and constniction of all these monuments difler accordhig to tl: e place where they were erected, and they are seenungly the work of various peoples. In the vicinity of the Great Lakes, and hi the States of Wisconsin, Iowa, Michigan, and Missouri these coi structions arc made of earth, of conic shape, or hi the fonn of animals, birds, reptiles, and even in that of men. They are Uke immense bassi-rilievi, carved on the soil by the hand of giants. In the interior of those monuments, reUcs of arts have been discovered belonging to a very ancient period, and con- sisting of personal ornaments, domestic utensils, or articles connected with religious worship, niad<^ of different meUils or of pietru'^iira. In the valley of the Ohio, these works are more nu- merous, of greater size, and more regular in their hues. They seem to differ in their destination from those of the north. Conical and pyramidal hillocks are found there in coimtless profusion, their summ-c often being truncated, and sometimes flat like a terrpce ; many bear a strikhig AMERICAN ANTIQUITIRS. 355 alleyfl have ations couti- )u the Liaries. Illy to rivew, utcrior ;roiin(la by the Is; the 1, which [itiments ,ted, and In the iaconsin, ,rc made LS, "birds, mmense ints. In ,ve been ,nd con- articles it metals [nore nu- leir lines. 3c of the id there funcated, striking resemblance to tlie Mexican Tenrallis, or even to the Nurraghe of Sardinia. The tumuli are often surrounded by earth-works or stone v/alls, and give the best indication, from their number and size, of the mightliicss, or at least of the multitude of the populations by which they were raised. As we advance southwards we iMid, among the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, hillocks still nu)re regular, and of larger size than in any otlier ])Iu('c. It is only in those States of the American Union that traces of brickwork have been detected in the construction of ancient edifices. The tumuli arc divided into four classes, viz. altars, tombs, temples, and mounds of no determinate character. These classes are in the ibllowing proportion : On ex- amining one hundred tumuU, sixty were found to belong to the order of altars or temples, twenty to that of tombs ; the rest were places of observation, or hillocks, the nature of which cannot be specified. The number of tumiUi is very considerable in North America. Some writers make it amount to 5000. This number appears to us veiy much underrated; other learned writers asserting that the State of Ohio alone contains more than 10,000. It is, however, certain that they are extremely numerous, and that many have already been destroyed by tht clear- ing of the land, by the deviation of streams, or yet rt;maui hidden in the depths of the woods. As we have already observed, the antiquities of the south are remarkable for the great regularity of their structure, and their extraordinary size ; they have ac- cordmgly been looked upon as the work of a different nation and a different epoch. These mounds are com- posed of several stories, and have some resemblance to the Mexican Teocallis, owing to their pyramidal shape, A A 2 1 III In •if i; ' li'i Hif I i I 350 TIIK MKSKHTH (»r NOKTII AMKHHA. their (limciisioiis, llicif s|Mici(>us IcniiccM, lolly imsHjif^cH, >iiiean loitilieations. !• en<('s and enel(»snres me v<'ry rarely s(M'n m ly Fioritla. Not nnlil yon reach South Carolina do they become more IVeipient, iheii' <'hara<'ter being entin'ly inilitary. We nnist here establish an impoitant (act, that of tin; to derive nnu'h inlormation from them; bnt tin* mere fact that they exist is, to a man of science, a circnmslaiu'e of interest. Added to these, there ale high roads in thisconntry, nsnally lead- ing to a pyramidal hill, or to a lake evidently dng ont lor the nse ol* the p(»pnlation, or condncting to broad tetra- mal tei'raci's. I<'rom St. John, directing one's |)rogress Ui the sonth of the Tloridan pi'ninsnla, one meets several of these lon<( and wide avemies, boidered will iSi I enonnons pyramids, and leading from the town to an artiiicial lake. Thert! pyramids, nndonbtedly raised with a view to trans- mit to posterity the glory and magnilicence of a icign or a nation, might also havtr served the pinposi* ol' pnblic edilicj's for political or ii'ligions assemblies. AnotluM" species ol" anliipii'iies to be foimd in the Honthern pioviiuM's of the U:iite(l Stales are coints <»r amphitheatres, the object of which appeals to have been that <»r public amnseinenl, as in lli«^ ampiiitheatres of ]{ome. rrisoners ol' war were t base to m I Vlor'uhi. mililJiry. ut of tlU! \' Florida. oH(? uu>nu- I'ivc unu'li tbt'Y <'xiftH several cmU'moUM jiicial lake. w to trans- a rei^'ii oi" ol' jaibla: Ld ill tlie 1' coinlH <•>• have been lillicatri'H <»1 'ill pn'Hem-e nuToiuidini^ I'ldUUK KAKTIIWOUKM. H the comt. As Tor ilu' tetia^nmal Icrniees, of wliieii we have already Hpokeii, wv bt'Iicvf (iu-y i^orve(l as a base or foimdalioii for the foiiri'sscs. The pyrainiclal hills were for the most part observatories, (»r rather AA/// /^A^v.v, siieh as urc> iiieiitioiied in Scripture, upon which victims of divers kinds were saeriliced. Tht'sc laiscd plncc?^ are always so situated as to connnand a wi(h' extent of counlry all round. It is not known to what people tlies<> anti(|uilics (Mij^dit to b(! attributi'd ; as previous to tln' ( 'hcrokci's, who have occupief the north-west are mostly in lIu* form of caymans, serpents, bulliiloes, and S(nne other animals; IVt'ipu'utly they repretient li;^ur«'s of men. These colossal elliji;ies, the particulars of which we will shortly enter upon,ar(> found on undidatiii*j^ na'aiiows, to^jietiier with lutilicial conical hillocks, an that Mr. Schoolcraft's supposition is not applicable to all tumuli of this kuid, whether single or in groups. Some authors believe tliem to be modem, and not to have existed above two hundred years ; but this is scarcely more probable, as human bones evidently of great antiquity have been found in them. To avoid entering upon minute and needless ptuticuUu's, we will confine oiu^selves to stathig these facts. The number of the tumuh that are scattered over the surface of the New World is not to be wondered at. The history of mankind shows us that all tlie first monuments that were erected consisted but of heaps of stones or eartli. It was at a much later period that they were followed by pyramids, obelisks, and arches ; yet these primeval monuments, rude as they were, more effectually resisted the action of time than tliose of a more advanced civilisation. The tumuli, sheltered by forest trees, or simply by a thick coating of gra«s, defied winds, huiricanes, and revolutions; while the granite and marble of more modern edifices cnunbled to dust, and became a heap of shapeleas ruins. America is not the only country where tumuli are found ; they are equally met with in Lidia, in Siberia, on the shores of the Black Sea, tlie Bosphc»rus and the Mediterranean, in the British Isles, and elsewhere. There are thousands in Oregon ; their general dimensions are C feet in height by 10 in breadth at the base ; they usually conUiin nothing more than a i)avement of round stonee. Whether they be elUptic, square, or ])yramulal, one point they all have in conunon is, that they are truncated at the summit. They are mostly made of earth, yet not unfrequeutly of stone, especially uncementetl. A A 4 W] I 1 1 1 I \ 1 1 Hi i :i ■M! .m: 360 THE DESERTS OP NOHTH AMERICA. i ri t H\ The prevailing material is riay, in cuiisequenco of iir being more connnon, mid better resist 0+1,^0- spherical influences. In both An'Cjicii*. t'lere are clay mounds raised upon pebbly or sniidv ^oil, tVte erection of which must have cost long and painlui labour. Some- times there are heaps of stone in the centre of several clay moimds, but tliis is not a common case. They also vary from 3 to 19 feet in height. Tiie truncated pyramid of Cahokia (IlUnoLs) is 90 fett in height by 065 in circumference at the base. The great cone of Selserstown (Mississippi) covers an extent of six acres ; but the avenige size is from fifty to sixty feet in height, anct fi-om ten to thirly-five yards in width at the base. There are often pits or wells in the neighbourhood of these mounds, from whence the eai'th of which they were erected was evidently taken. Most of these monuments are massive, some are vaulted ; in these cases the vault is made of »Ume 01 %ood, sometimes of both combined. As we have already remarkerl, the American tumuli were not exclusively tombs ; some were used as temples or idtiirs. others as extensive ossunnes, and many formed part of the system of native fortifications. Some ser^•ed all tliese pur)'^scs at once, as was customary among the ancient Gree! . d Romans, if we judge by the tomb of the father of A ^> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1/ /<^^. 4^ ^ ^ I 1.0 I.I iM |Z2 ^ 1^ 12.0 L25 in 1.4 Ufii Ii4 ^.v y Photogrdphic Sciences Corporation ^ ^^ ri>^ «v <^ as WMT MAIN STIIIT WIUTM.N.Y 14SM J 5^ o"^ 364 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. Ill are found in some ancient cemeteries of several comities of the United States, seeeming to indicate the existence of a race of dwarfs ; but an examination of the tombs has proved that this plienomenon results merely from these people's custom of doubling up the bodies before bury- ing them. The Indians themselves know nothing of the origin of these tombs, or of the men who built them ; but they hold the monuments in traditional veneration and superstitious awe ; they sometimes bury, or lay on their top, the mortal remains of their great warrioi's or celebrated chiefs. The discovery of these isolated skeletons, on hillocks peculiarly dedicated to religious ceremonies, has very likely led into error many antiquarians, who must have taken these mortal remains of the present race of Eed Indians for the personage in honour of whom the artificial hillock was raised. Besides the above-mentioned objects, these monuments also contain ornaments of silver, brass, stone, or bone ; beads of the same material, but more often made of shells, and mixed with pieces of silex, quartz, garnet, or obsidian, the points of arrows, fossil teeth of caymans or sharks, marine shells, sculptures of human heads, or of difierent an'iiials, pottery, and several other things, which indicate a certain knowledge of art. Very valuable discoveries have lately been made in the New Granada confederation near Chiriqui ; we refer to the arms, idols, and medals enclosed in tombs belong- mg to Indian tribes which have disappeared many centiuies, and whose enormous wealth is reported by tradition. These works of art are declared by the ar- chaeologists of Panama to belong to very remote antiquity, and acknowledged by them to possess the cliaracteristics SACRIFICIAL MOUNDS. 365 of both Chinese and Egyptian art. We record these facts to show that it was a prevaiHng custom among the Indians to enclose in the graves of their dead their favourite utensils and ornaments, the materials of which differed according to the state of civiUsation and the resources of the country. Sacrificial mounds are generally placed within, or in the immediate vicinity of, sacred enclosures. They are s&ati- Jied, that is to say, built in distinct and visible layers ; they contain a symmetrical altar of baked clay or stone, upon which are deposited matters that have been subjected to the action of fire, such as bones of elks, deere, wolves, &c. These altars are not all of the same form ; some are round, othei-s eUiptic, square, or parallelogrammic. Their average size is two or three yards, but some are as many as five in breadth, and seventeen in length. The strata of these mounds are not horizontal, but convex hke those of the tombs ; an external coating, fi?om sixteen to eighteen inches thick, serves to protect the form of the tumulus. When these layers are regular and intact, one may be sure that all the contents of the tumulus were deposited in it at the time of its erection ; but when they are cut or broken m certain places, it is right to conclude that any rehcs enclosed within them are of later date. It is important to establish this fact. The enclosure walls are of two classes, very distinct in their apparent destination. Some are incontestably of a military character, while others were made for some superstitious object in connexion with the rehgious bcHef of the constructors. They are square, circular, elliptic, polygonal, regular, or irregular; some are parallelogrammic, The square and round are ofi;en combined together, and connected by parallel lines or works. For the present, we III , III I'M! i^H; ! m : fr ? ri -M 366 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. shall only advert to the sacred enclosures. They differ from mihtary works, above all, in their position, which, being commanded by neighbouring heights, would be against every rule of defence ; and in their size, very in- ferior to that of walls fit to guard a town ; also in their fosses (trenches), which are interior instead of exterior, like the moats of a fortified place ; and lastly, in the nature of the tiunuh enclosed within these ramparts, or in their vicinity. The examination of these different works leads us to beUeve that the system of pubHc and private construction was in a great measiu'e influenced by the religious system of the constructors, as was the case with the Aztecs. The government of thes*^ nations appears to have been theo- cratic or sacerdotal, like that of the Jews ; and the reUgious, administrative, and mihtary power was probably vested in one and the same person. This is clearly evinced by the fact of the taboo, or sacred moniunents, being combined with those of a purely military character. By means of such ,1 arrangement, these works were imder mutual protection, without prejudice to the primitive destination of each. When enclosures were raised merely with a view to religious purposes, they were generally made of earth and situated on low flats, rarely on high or uneven places. Their form is usually circular, sometimes elHptic or quadran- gular, but in all case? regular, the circumference about 300 yards, and they have but one single entrance. Inde- pendently of these enclosures, there are a multitude of small circles, about fifty yards in circumference, near which are grouped some of the mounds, which have evi- dently served as altars. Those small circles are possibly ruins of circular huts, such as the Mandans still build at the present day. The large circles, some of which extend ley differ m, which, ^ould be 3, very hi- 30 m their • exterior, the nature or in their eads lis to instruction ous system ;tecs. The been theo- le rehgious, ly vested in Lced by the combined [y means of ler mutual destination a view to )f earth and Iven places. lor quadran- }ence about Ince. Inde- lultitude of irence, near Ih have evi- ire possibly Itill build at lich extend AMERICAN TUMULI. 367 over a surface of fifty acres, are for the greater part con- nected with rectangular enclosures by means of broad avenues. The waUs are all made of earth taken fi:om the surface of the soil, which is made even and perfectly horizontal. The rehgious feehngs which actuated the authors of these immense and numerous constructions can alone explain the reason for their erection. If religion were out of the question, it would be difficult to account for the object of works hke those of Newark, which extend with their avenues over a space of more than fom* square miles. Only the great temples of Abury and Stonehenge in England, and Carnac in Brittany, can be compared to them. When artificial hillocks served for temples, or, at least, were the base of sacred wooden edifices which have now disappeared, they are distinguishable from other monu- ments of the same kind by their symmetry and superior proportions. They are 'generally surrounded by walls, but this is not a rule without exception. Their shape is generally a truncated pyramid, ^vith steps or a spiral path leading up to th" top. Bui whether round, oval, octangular, oblong or square, still aU these earthworks have a terrace, Some that are only three or six feet high, cover a sv.T)erficies of several acres. Tumuli of this kind are not frequently met with in Ohio ; they are rare except in the neighbourhood of ChiUicothe, at Marietta, Newark, and Portsmouth. They are oftener found in Kentucky than in the north of Ohio, and more commonly in the States of Tenessee and Mississippi than anywhere else. One of the largest hitherto discovered is at Cahokia, in Illinois ; in shape it is a parallelogram, 235 yards long by 170 broad, and 90 feet high. There is an enormous terrace on one of its sides, which is reached by .ii^i;: •; I !?!i 1 ', i ! 368 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMEPM'A. «j ? I ' . ■ > ^' ' - ? III ■ ; i! means of a talus with broad steps. At tlic time when the Trappist monks occupied this phice they tm-ned this tahis into a kitchen -garden. It is 55 yards in breadth by 120 in lengtli. The siniimit of tlie artificial hillock measures 160 yards in length by 70 in breadth, and the volume of this ponderous mass of earth may be calculated at seven millions of cubic yards. Besides the artificial hillocks above mentioned there are others, the imcertain nature of which has not al- lowed them to be classed among the preceding; their character appeai-s mixed, and they seem to have a mani- ibld destination. Some have the pyramidal form of the Me:dcan Teocalhs, and a quadrangular or oblong base, with shaip corners and taluses, or gentle slopes, ascending from the ground to the summit. Were these hillocks tombs, temples, observatories, or small forts? These questions admit of vai'ious opinions. We believe they served a double pm'j^)ose. One of the most singular ever examined is situated on the eastern bank of the Scioto (state of Oliio); it is irregularly oval like an egg, 50 yards in length, 30 in breadth, nearly 21 feet in height, and surrounded by a thick wall. Two exca- vations which were made in this tumulus led to the discovery of two wooden frame-works, supported by stakes planted in the soil at the time when the tumulus was erected. Above each of the frame-works was found a skeleton paitly consumed, pieces of brass pierced with holes, and a porjihyry pipe admirably sculptured. A clay altar was also discovered, mth a heap of burnt leaves and deer's bones lymg upon it. The surface of the mound is covered over with a layer of gravel ; around the base is a wall made of flat stones, probably intended to support the earth and maintain it in its actual form. Then the his tahis by 120 ncasurcs )kime of at seven ed there i not al- ig; their e a mani- m of the ong base, ascending 3 hillocks ? These ieve they mlar ever the Scioto 11 egg, 50 feet in [wo exca- }d to the )orted by |e tumulus ras found jrced with A clay leaves and le mound the base is :o support ANCIENT WATCH-TOWERS. 3G9 At the summit of hills or table-lands, and in open spaces, are also seen a very large numb';r of artificially raised earthworks, commanding a vast extent of coirtry, and which, like the Celtic cairns^ were probably used as places of observation and signal-towers. Tlie principal Jieiglits ilong the valleys of the west are connnonly crowned with these mounds of middling size. In certain valleys one may see long chains of this kind of observa- tories, placed at short distances from each other, on the tops of hills and momitains. Fires lighted on tlicse eleva- tions can be seen at fifteen or sixteen miles all roimd. In the State of Ohio some are so placed as to permit of corresponding rapidly between two points forty or fifty miles distant Trom each other. Between Columbus and Chilicothe, on the eastern bank of the Scioto, there are more than twenty so arranged that a signal might be transmitted in a few r .inutes along the whole line. These communications were made by means of large fires, of which the smoke was visible by day and the flame by night. On all hillocks raised by the hand of man there are traces of fires that had been hghted upon a heap of stones, some of which are calcined or even vitrified. This old custom, which prevails among all mountaineers, of communicating by means of fire signals, is still in full vigour among the Indians of several tribes of the Eocky Mountains and of their western side. Colonel Fremont, in his account of his second expedition into Upper California, relates that he often saw columns of flame and smoke rising from the heights, lighted by the Ked Indians, who, alarmed or anxious at his presence, thus warned each other of his movements. There is no essential feature to distinguish the tumuli which formed part of the system of defence in entrenched J! M '^m } '■. |! 1 V ''I VOL. I. B B 870 THE DESERTR OF NORTH AMERICA. 5 1 camps and fortified towns, from thoso we have already mentioned. They were conerally placed m the interior and opposite the openings or entrances left in the thick- ness of the wall. Lockiel, in his " History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians," assures us, we Imow not upon what foundation, that these tumuli were hollow, and had an opening at the top resembling that of a well, through which the natives used to let down their wives and chil- dren at the first approach of an enemy. The men then obstinately fought for the ground. They carried a prodi- gious quantity of stones and stumps of trees to the tops of these tumuli, whence they hurled them down upon the assailants. We greatly doubt the correctness of these indi- cations, for all these cones or earthen mounds situated near the entrance of fortifications are solid and not hoUow ; nor are their dimensions sufficient to allow of a large quan- tity of projectiles being collected on their top. They were therefore placed there only as strategical obstacles, which the enemy had to encounter on trying to force an entrance into the fortifications. I already I interior tie thick- e United not upon and had , through and chil- nen then I a prodi- le tops of upon the hese indi- 1 situated t hollow ; rge quan- p. They obstacles, 3 force an Sii; Hill il m . " I I i - '^^'ib ANCIENT lOnTIKICATlONS. ■n ^ \N! ■ ■ :^'^ 'N in: \S'V WELLS (» V.J) DJ„sv:. '* a:in.';> to fhe B(k k owing its p-eijc ' water "' ii't soinetim' 'eatress. Ti- !:is likciy that t-ho Ti;iturat «r,rv M R 2 • rv ilt. if not iinpt! ).ho^^ positio ■1 k 1 ^ .iM K ■if'/ ? 371 CHAP. XIX. I M ANCIENT KORTIKtCATIONS. TIIKin POSITION. NATI'nK OP TlIF, ANCIKNT KOHTHKSSKS. ItUINS ON TIIK MC'KINd. lOKTIKlCIATION.S 01' MAUIKTTA ANr» ClltCLLVII-LK. mriNS Ol' r.NTUKNCni:i) CAMTS. IMUNS IN THK I-OIJKSTS. ANCIKNT ClltCCS. P'TKULOS OK NKW MKXICO. IMIKIU.U PINTADO, ItUIN.S ON Till; UK) VKIiDi;. POTTKltY OK TIIK PI'KltLOS IltTINS IN Tin: APACIIKS' TEItltlTOUY. AZTEC IM'INS NEAR THE fill.A WALLS AND WELLS OK TIIK OtLA. A LEOEND. — ESTUKAS OF THE PCEHLOS. TRADITION CONCERNINO THE PL'EIILOS. REMARKS ON THE ANCIENT TRIBES AND DESERTS 01' THE .SOUTH-WEST. Iff ordor to understand fully tho (iharactcr and strength of the fortifications belonging to the ancient people of North T^.merica, it is necessary to form an idea of the country in which they are to be found in greatest number. We have ah'eady, in our first descriptive chapter, exhi- bited tlie valley of the Mississip])i m a geological point of view ; it remains to be added that this valley, from the Alleghanies to the Eocky Mountains, forms an immense basin, owing its general aspect to the powerfid action of the waters. The rivers have ploughed their beds deeply across a vast plain, and left as traces of their working broad table-lands which mark the eras in their history. The borders of these table-lands are cut up by a number of ravines, between which rise lofty hills with flat tops, and sometimes so joined together as to form a kind of buttress. The sides of these heights are generally very steep ; access to them is most difficult, if not impossible. It is likely that the natural strength of these positions, so B B 2 liliH ^; IB^^B ■ft !>< m ii;* hMI i:. H'^H lii ^B ^HS m mwiTu; ml 1 *'-■.■ -I - «: nra TIIK DKSKUTH OK NOIITII AMKIUCA. CUMV <»r drlriU't', sii^'^tsUmI tlio VWw of \\h\\\^ \\\v\\\ MM citudrlM, innst. viilu;»l»l(' l«» iv |>('«»j>l<» with iMUMnirs in llu» sun»»iintlin|^ t'luinirv, mimI \\nU\v lo l»o njlrn dishn'luMl I»y liuNliK' invnsivMiM. Mililmv fnnMinn'linns In luolcct. llio (' young <'oloiiirs wnr |»I»ut(I ii|M»n |1u'M«< lififfhls, siviiling \\\v \vIu»Ip •»!' llirir oullinr. Thry w^'U* lU'iTNsiMi* Oh on«» Mid',' only, nnd niii'lullv \l'.*rriidrd by u * • « H»«."it«s of wnlls iind rniscd nnlliuoikM, serving (HMluips mm lowris lof llu' Mdilinrls. Il in lIuMt'lon^ not suvitrisinj^ lo r,nd tlicsi' pIncrM tu'cupii'd l>y slroiij^ niid coinpliculrd works, i1h< nntni'i» niul |»ro|»orlioii ol'wiiicli nv«M(« )»ron»|»lrd by iho NiinioMJlirs of lln> ground. ('onstrurliouM i>r tlu> Hinur stnl an* also nirl willi on pminsnluH loiincd by two I'ivtMX In tlii»j CfiMo, u tronch or u widl, singlr or doubl(\ («\l«Mids ii'.'ro.Ms iln< |H'ninNuln, and doltMuls its ingiTss l)y land. Till' two t>tluM" sidt's wvv nutundly proltH'tcd l»v llio banlvM ol'tho two rivoiH It is oljstMvublr, in mI! inst«nHMV(»n> buih is ti>tally unknown, but they nnist have b««eu coi'vul with the tuintdi, lor nt»t only are the laller genu- rally placed in the vicinity ov within the fort, btit. they ivl'tcn l'orn> part of the plan of di't'eiieo. It. is in the valley of the Ohio and in New Mt«xico thiil these gigantic t races «)t' hunuui industry are n»ost. IVe«juenlly met with, but with this dillerence l>etweeu Ihoui, that the (I o W ll( ANCIKNT KOUTII'U'ATIONM. l\1l\ u^s in tl\i> \yon {\\vtii' Mulnl l>y H ivprisin^ U> T nvojnptoil inns of l)»o ,* or (loii\>li\ ootinl l»y thi' all insUmors, i».n. anil IIm\I t,> tl\o inlm- nt AuuMii'nn [w Nv»»rli\y ol" iso of N«'\v Mt'xico up|K'Mi' to lu' ullrihiilnM*' lo Ihr niuH'slois of tlu^ pii'sml triln's. Wc will luirlly drMciilu' llu>s»» »nn(»nf;[ the huliim Mn'itjiiiiitvs whirh iwv \\\oM iin- poitiml iVoin lIuMi' sin^ulmi itiu) oxtiMit. In {\\v v\m\\\y of lurking (Ohio), lu'twuH'n thr Mrlln lornuHl l)y Ihr Nrwurk nnd tho lv«u oon, tluMr is n ;»ri"|>«'u- tlionlar tuhlc-linul mImmiI lhi)ty-li\o i\'v\ hij^h, npnn whith regular Inrliru'ut ions of m'lNjI r\lnt llvt* varils in witllh, viw\\ prolrrliMl l>v n linn'ihis |>lac('il in llu' inh'sior in (V<>:»| ol' iho rnn.'nu'i\ Two panillrl walls Icjul lo nnolhcr I'irrnlar l\»rl, |»I(UmhI soiith- wtvst of iho lirsl, t-oNciinf^ a spact' of |\v«Mily-two arrcs. I'OIHHH \\\\^ t< owaiusllu' sonlh.yon soi* an ohsnvalory Ihiil I'onnniinds nhnosi nil llu* rxlml upon which thos(« divi'is ronshnclions in't'crorlrd. lU^noulh (hrohscivatory a s«M'n*t pnssM},'^ hnids lo ilu' hank of ihr Karoon. ^\^nv In tlu' ri^hl IH a Ihirti I'orl, als«) t'irrnlar.or aluail. IwiMilv-six acnvs. wilh an inliMior tn«»at. oul ol' whit'h ihc oarlh was lakrn to l\)rni Iho walls ol'lhc h»rl, which aro ahiuil Iwcniy-livc or thirty IihM hif^h. Twu other parallel walls, very distant IVotn eai'h otluM* \\l thin place, inn to the north. jp:iadually diminishing; their dislanc(>. and terminally at another tort, of ipiadranjjiidar shape, twenty acres in extent. Thesj* loin' dilU»nM»t Inrts art* connected l>y rather low walls, and in the centre is a shallow pnnd, covtM'ing a snperlieies of lf>t) or UDO acr»'s, which probably alVorded walei" to the llocks colUn'tt'd within tlu* wide enclomin*. Toweis ol' obstM'vation are plai'cd from distance to distance on the rising points of the platvan. VM II II M 374 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. r? The openings in the walls, giving entrance to the en- trenched camps, have a striking analogy to those of similar constructions in Mexico. We accordingly read, in the second letter of Fernando Cortez to the Emperor Charles V., a description of mihtai-y fortifications entirely like those of the valley of the Mississippi. When he inquired at Tlas- calla concerning the object and origin of these miUtary works, the Indians told him that the people on the con- fines were the enemies of Mouteziuna, and were always at war with him, and that they built these walls to guard against his attacks. Mr. Atwater, in his " Archajologia Americana," supposes the authors of these fortifications to have been very nu- merous ; but he tliinks they sojourned but a short time m the country, from the fact that many of those works re- mained in an unfinished state. He also adds, that these natives communicated with those who dwelt on the banks of the Horthotking, thirty miles further on, by means of walled roads extending from one settlement to the other. But it is veiy remarkable that nowhere have any traces of dwelhngs ever been found. It is likely, therefore, that these people lived in tents pitched within their fortifica- tions, or else in huts made of wood or branches. There are also some veiy extraordinary ruins at Mari- etta, near the mouth of the Muskingum. They are, hkc those above described, situated on a horizontal height, and Composed principally of two square forts, the lai'gest of which covers an extent of forty acres. Their walls consist of earth, and ai-e fi^-om three to six feet high, by eight yards in width, or sometimes even twelve yards at the base. Sixteen openings are placed at regular distances on each side and at the fou. corners. Li the centre of the side facing the Muskingum is a covered way, formed by the en- f similar , in the larlesV., those of I at Tlas- mihtary . the con- re always , to guard ' supposes 1 very nu- )rt time in works re- that these the banks J means of the other. ly traces of cfore, that h fortiiica- I. Ls at Mari- jy are, hke tal height, the largest Cheir walls |et high, by TQ yards at ir distances ftntre of the [formed by ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS. 375 two parallel walls, built at a distance of seventy-five yards from each other, both about twenty-one feet high by four- teen yards in breadth at the base and 120 in length. This gigantic road runs down a gentle slope from the top of the table-land to the river. In the interior of the fort there still remain three narrow earthen buildings, about thirty- six yards in length by nine feet in height. The object of such constructions is unknown. More to the south-east, and close to the Ohio, is situated the other fort, of about twenty acres, with eight gates, each defended by a small tumulus. Still more to the south rises a large conical tumulus, thirty-eight yards in diameter by thirty feet in height. A broad and deep trench surrounds this tumulus ; it is defended by a parapet, through which a wide road leads into the tumulus. At Circleville, twenty-six miles south of Columbus, in the State of Ohio, is situated one of the most cmious and regular fortifications of this valley, where so many singular ones are to be found. It consists of two forts suppt>rting each other. The first is a perfect circle, the second a regular square of 300 yards on each side. Tlie first is formed of two waUs with a deep trench between, the second has but one wall and no trench. The iimer wall of the circular fort is simply built of earth, and is veiy high ; the outer one is made of alternate layers of gravel and alluvium taken from the trench. The square fort had eight entrances placed at equal distances and defended by tumuli, as is the case in all constructions of the kind. It was necessary to traverse this fort to enter the second circular enclosure, in the middle of which was a large tumidus, rendered very remarkable owing to a sort of mosaic pavement upon which it was partly built. B B 4 f :i ■M- i|^ il- W' I 376 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. On tlie banks of the Little Miami and its tributary streams, and also in the state of Ohio, there are some fortifications composed of six and nine parallel walls dis- posed like a gridiron ; others in the county of Perry are in the shape of a heart somewhat elongated. At Paint Creek, fifteen miles west of Chilhcothe, there are a series of fortifications containing elhptic two-storied works, Hke those in the valley of the Mississippi, and especially towards Mexico. But the most interesting of these anti- quities are situated on a hill of 130 acres in extent, and at least 300 fee in height. This hill is so steep, that its summit can only be reached on one side; and on the edges, following all the sinuosities of the soil, was built a wall, in rough stone, one yard and a half thick by thirty feet high. In the direction of the north, that is to say, at the place where the hill descends by a gentle and easy slope to the plain, inside the walls, there are a series of furnaces and traces of forges, the soil to a depth of several feet being covered with coal dross. Two natural or arti- ficial roads run from these fortifications, one to Paint Creek, the other to a small stream that flows at the bottom of a ravine. No engineer could have selected a more favourable site tor building a stronghold. Near the Eed Pipe-stone Quarry, on the Coteau des Prairies, there are two entrenched camps formed by cir- cular walls, about 700 yards in circumference, sufficiently high to afford protection to those who sought shelter behind them. The principal entrance to each of these camps is indicated by the site of ruined huts which appear to have been the dwellings of the chiefs ; for they com- monly chose the most perilous position, and the one by which the enemy must pass should he endeavour to enter the camp. These works being so simple, it is probable AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. 3T7 ibutary ce some alls dis- •erry are U Paint series of •rks, like jspecially lese anti- Ltent, and p, that its d on the ras biult a by thirty J to say, at 5 and easy I series of L of several ral or arti- to Paint the bottom ied a more ]oteau des led by cir- siifficiently Ight shelter jh of these Ihich appear they com- Ithe one by |om* to enter is probable they were only erected for the time being, during a parley with hostile tribes. Some travellers assert that they have recently discovered among the forests of the Mississippi valley ruins of brick and stone-built towns. These discoveries, however, arc denied by writers of the United States, who treat them as ftibles. Not having seen these ruins, we forbear to speak of them ; still we are inclined to think that these travellers may have been misled by the appearance of more or less considerable remains of Mandan villages, such as are scattered on the banks of the Mississippi between the mouth of the Ohio and that of the Yellow Stone Kiver. Besides, it must be remembered that, when the extensive country called New France belonged to us, the French governors of Canada often caused new forts to be raised in order to insure their conquests. At a later period these forts, being abandoned, fell to ruin, and became overgrown with gi'ass, shrubs, and briars, which imparted to them a false semblance of antiquity. Many travellers have thus been deceived, and Have wrongly imagined their origin to be anterior to the French rule. It would be too long a task to describe all the old con- structions dispersed in such abundance ^throughout the American continent, and the works of art they contained, which were nearly similar to those of the tumuli. We will, therefore, merely mention the immense parallel walls terminating circularly, which probably mark the lunits of the circuses where the Indians celebrated games and races hke those of the Greeks and Eomans ; the ruins are surrounded with too much uncertainty ; but we wiil enter into some details regarding another kind of monument, belonging probably to a less remote period 1:! i I 378 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. than the gigantic tumuli above described, but which, being unique of their kind, afford greater matter for curiosity, and show their authors to have been more inteUigent and in a more advanced state of civilisation. These monuments, called pueblos*, are dispersed through- out the country wliich extends from the banks of the Eio Grande in New Mexico to the Gila, the Colorado, and the VemiiUou Sea which divides CaHfomia from Mexico. AU these towns are so ancient that no Indian tradition of the present races makes any mention of them. It is doubtful whether their origin should be attributed to the Aztecij, as some travellers suppose, for they do not reveal so advanced a state of civilisation as that attained by the Aztecs of Anahuac. The remains of the unknoAvn past show no signs of the mechanical and architectural science which is manifest in the construction of the temple of Xocliicalco, in the palaccfii of Tezcotzinco, and in the colossal stone calendar of Mexico. Jt is more Hkely that these pueblos were built by the Toltecs. before the in- vasion of their land, or by the Pimas, oi other tribes of Nesv Mexico, about the twelfth or thirteenth century. In all these ruins fragments of pottery are found which still retain a very perfect varnish ; they are ornamented with brilliant paintings, lines, scallops, frogs, butterflies, toi*toises, and monkeys' heads. The vases discovered in the pueblos are generally shaped like an urn ; some resemble those discovered in the United States. These remains of ancient towns are extremely numerous in the countiy of the Zunis, Navajos, and Jemez. There is a pueblo at Taos composed of two edifices separated by a river, and connected by a bridge wliich reached from one edifice to the other. • The name of Indian towns in New Mexico. fl0( RUINS IN NEW MEXICO. 379 , being fiosity, jlligent Lfough- :he Eio lo, and Mexico, iition of . It is i to the »t reveal 1 by tlie >wn past [ science ;mple of [ in the tely that the in- iribes of century, id which Lamented Ltterflies, [vered in some These ius in the lere is a [ted by a Led from The most remarkable are the Pueblos Pintado and Wejegi, in the narrow pass of Chaco, situated between 35° 56' 27'' north lat. and 107° 46' west long. These con- structions resemble an immense double ladder, each step of which forms a story. They have no analogy with the edifices of Yucatan and Central America. The Pueblo Pintado is built of small flat slabs of grey fine-grained sandstone, a material never used in any of the modern monuments of New Mexico. The wall stones are only two inches and a half thick, sometimes less, and the way in which they are built is indicative of much art and in- genuity. The smaller details of these monuments are very remarkrble; at a distance they have the appearance of splendid mosaic work. The walls show no trace of cement, the intervals between each layer being neatly filled up with small coloured pebbles, mcrusted in mortar made without hme. The Pueblo Pintado has three stories, its whole eleva- tion bein^3 about thhty feet high. Each story forms a terrace and a step to the story above, which is at- tained by means of wooden ladders restmg against the wall. The thickness of the outer wall is one yard at the base, diminishing at each successive story, so that the top waU is but httle more than one foot thick. The length of the edifice is 130 yards. There are fifty-three rooms on the ground floor, some being only five feet wide on each side ; others twelve by six. All these rooms com- municate by means of very small doors, some of which are only thirty-three mches high by equal width. The floors are made of rough beams seven and a half inches in diameter, over which are transversely laid cross-beams of less size ; above these is a layer of bark and brush- wood, covered over with mortar. These beams show no n ■■ ' l! ¥ m m 380 THE DvISERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. mark of having been wrought by axe or saw ; they rather appear to have been cut or broken off witli some rough instrument moie blunt than sharp. The ground floor of this pueblo has no ^vindows ; those belonging to the other stories are of the same dimensions as the doors. The banks of the Eio Verde abound in ruins of stone dwellings and fortifications, which would appeal' to have belonged to a more civilised people than the Indians of New Mexico. They are found in the most fertile valleys, where traces of former cultivation, and of small canals for arti- ficial irrigation, are yet visible. The solidly built walls aro twenty or thirty yards long by thirty or forty- five feet high. The houses were two-storied, with sma^l openings for doors, windows, and loop-holes for defence against at- tacks from the outside. The style of these constructions recalls thai of Chichilticale, or the Maison Rouge (Eed House) of the Pimas. We agree with several American authors in presuming that this country was depopulated, in consequence of changes taking place in the configura- tion of the soil. Moist and fertile valleys have become bar- ren sohtudes, and thus forced their inhabitants to emigrate to other regions. The nature and appearance of the soil, the Indian tradition which reports that all the elevated table-lands were once covered with magnificent and fruit- ful vegetation, and finally the recent desertion of some of the pueblos, are so many indications proving that the coimtnes watered by the Gila, the Colorado, and theif tri- butary streams, v. ere once tliickly peopled. Excavations among these majestic ruins have jdelded abundant fragments of beautiful pottery, red, yellow or black, striped, scolloped, and ornamented with brilUantly coloured paintings. The ruins of the Wejegi present the same character as _, A RUINS IN NEW MEXICO. 381 J rather e rough floor of lie other of stone to have sofNew s, where for arti- lilt walls r.five feet openings .gainst at- structions uge (Bed American jopulated, configura- come bar- emigrate >£ the soil, elevated and fmit- of some that the I thei stri- ve yielded yellow or brilUantly laracter as a those of which we have already made mention. Tliey are 230 yards in length, and there are ninety-nine rooms on the ground floor. The Pacblo Una Vida, situated in the defile of Chaco, is ninety-eight yards longer than that of We'c,Ti. The Pueblo Bonito is more extensive still. The ruins of the Pueblo Chettro Kettle measure 433 yards in length, and have four stories. The doors and windows are larger than those of other monuments of the kind, and the floor beams arc of pine and cedar wood. The number of the rooms is 124 on each story. One of these rooms is in a state of perfect preservation. It is four yards twenty inches ' ong, by two yards and a half broad, and ten feet high. The walls are stone covered over with plaster. In the wall to the south there is a niche, the position and dimensions of which make it appear pro- bable that it was used as a fire-place for cooking ; three other niches of smaller size are hollowed in the wall, and were probably intended to contain household utensils. There were two large cross-beams in the ceiUng, fixed together by means of ligneous cords, and from these beams hung ropes which but little differed from ours. The Indians maintain that these edifices were erected by Montezuma and his people, at the time of their emigrat- ing from the north to the south, and shortly before their dispersion on the banks of the Eio Grande and in other parts of Mexico. On the banks of the Gila are seen ponderous ruins, called Casas Granc'^is, a description of which exists in the works of M. de Humboldt, and in the collection of M. Ternaux Compans, but many others have never beer described. Those near the canon of the Gila, towards the mountains of San Pedro, form a series of houses, the foundations of which are still quite visible, consisting of \f. HI 382 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. round stones ; as to tlie walls, built of ndouhes^ a great part of them has long since disappeared. The houses much resemble the pueblos of New Mexico. In one of them were cedar ber \ certainly very ancient; for in these regions, where \ atmosphere is so dry, the tim- ber acquires hardness f-s it becomes older, and in the end almost equals stone in solidity. These ruins abound in fragments of painted pottery and black crystal, which were probably fashioned for points of arrows. Near the Gila, on the banks of the Blue River, the Black Eiver, and the St. Charles, upon alluvial soil which reposes on basaltic rocks, the remains of ancient Indian colonies are very numerous. Eows and piles of round stones show the plan of the houses, though nearly choked up with rank grass. The rooms, larger than those in the ruins near the mountains of San Pedro, are between four and six yards in width. Some of these rooms appear to have been round. A little further on is a ruined circular stone wall, about 250 yards in circumference, with an entrance on the eastern side, and containing in its centre tbe ruins of a house, in which no traces of wood appear. Three quarters of a mile more to the west the soil is strewn with enonnous remnants of spacious edifices, which contains d rooms fifteen yards wide. Most of these houses have cedar beams crumbling to dust,and lyingonthe ground iij, the midst of fragments of painted pottery. Some houses are siurounded by a rampart 300 yards in length. Sub- terranean fires appear to have ruined all this country, and rendered it universally barren; the country might also have been deserted in consequence of volcanic convulsions spreading death and misery among the inhabitants. The whole of the road, which the Apaches have made to enable them to descend into the plain and steal flocks, is strewn with RUINS IN THE APACnES COUNTRY. 383 great houses one of for in le tim- ihe end ound in , which ^er, the il which b Indian »f round r choked se in the ^een four ippear to I circular with an its centre appear, le soil is ;es, which |se houses lg ground le houses th. Sub- mtry, and ight also ►nvulsions its. The to enable 'ewnwith beautiful pottery ; l)ut tlie houses, which were most likely built of adoubes^ have completely disappeared. Not far from the Rio Grande, on the territory belong- ing to the Apaches, and near the soiu'ces of the Gila, is the copper-mine region, which was fonncrly worked by the Indians. To the cast of the ruina rise lofty rocks of a greyish blue, looking like irregular columns ; still more to the east are white rocks traversed by veins of copper, so richly mixed with gold that the ore was transferred to Mexico to separate the gold from the copper. The ruins of this establishment consist of clay houses and heaps of coal and ashes. The fort erected for the defence of the mines had the shape of an equilateral triangle, with a tower at each corner. The walls are four feet thick, and are in tolerable preservation. The country inhabited by the Coco-mari-copas, towards the Salt River and the Gila, seems once to have been very populous, to judge from the remains of walls, houses, and pottery, which the traveller meets at every step. In this place lie the Aztec ruins called Casn de Montezuma, which possibly may be nothing else 'nan the often- mentioned Casas Grandes. We shall describe them briefly. They consist of remains of the walls of four buildings, and heaps of rubbish indicating the places of other edifices. The largest house appears to have had four stories ; the floors and ceilings have long since crumbled away, but in the walls there still subsist pieces of round cedar beams, more than a yard thick. Four entrances, answering to the four cardinal points, led into the interior of the house ; the doors are extremely small ; they are not more than forty-nine inches in height, by twenty-seven in width. The walls are foiu' feet thick at the base, and gradually diminish as they rise to the top ; they are made •>> 1 y. '. 1 .1; \ i Hv w < 1 II 384 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. ( ? of a kind of concrete, composed of pebbles and white earth, pohslied and whitened over. In some rooms, the only thing answering to a door or window was a narrow aper- ture fomteen inches square. Two hundred yards beyond this house there is a tu- mulus surrounded by an earthen wjiU 100 yards in circumference. Still further on is a terrace of 100 yards by 70, supporting a pjTamid of 30 feet in height by 25 square yards at the suuunit. The whole of the plain extending north, cast, and west of the left bank of the Gila, and foiincrly washed by its waters, is disco- verable from the top of this pyramid. The Pimas pre- tend that these constructions were erected by the son of the most beautiful woman that ever existed, and who formerly lived in the neighbouring mountains. Iler extreme beauty caused her to be wooed by a multitude of suitors, but she refused to marry. When they visited her they paid her a tribute ; and by means of this resource she provided for the people diu-ing times of famine without provisions ever falling short. At length one day she fell asleep, and from a dewdrop descending upon her bosom she became pregnant, and gave birth to a son, who built these houses and many others more to the north and south-west. Near the Salt Elver, the remains, and especially the ruins of houses, are even more considerable than those we have described, but they present notliing remarkable or worthy particular mention. Tumuli, truncated pyi-amids, and filled-up wells surrounded by enclosure walls, are fre- quently met with in those latitudes. All these monuments contain red or painted pottery, and perforated shells, which were used as coins or ornaments. All these pueblos of New Mexico contain small circular K8TUPA8. 885 c earth, he only iw apor- ia a tu- rardrt in of m) i\ hcifrht Ic of the icft bank is disco- imas pi'c- f the sou and who ns. ll^'i' multitude icy visited IS of this times of hort. At dewdrop gnant, and and many y the ruins 3e we have or worthy imids, and Is, are fre- monuments tted shells, 11 all circular Htructurcs, called Estufan, often })lacod within the build- ing itself, or else only at a few yards' distance, once used as places of meeting for [)olitical or religious assemblies. These estufas are, ])roperly speakhig, round or square store-rooms, usually situated beneath the soil like cellars ; they are sometimes of large dimensions. The ceiling is supported by enormous [)illars of nuisonry, or made of stout pine-trees. The interior is heated by means of aromatic plants, which are kept continually burning. When a question of public interest has to be discussed, the cacique, Avho governs a pueblo, calls the diflerent chiefs together in the estufa, where secret debate is held over the affair. Somethnes the warriors assemble there after an expedition, and rejoice together for a day or two before they meet theu' famihes. These edilices are generally devoid of door or window, and the only ingress to them is from an aperture at the top. The estufa of the Jemez were lectangular, and one stoiy only, being about 8 yards 12 inches wide, by 30 feet high. The interior walls of those edifices are always covered with hieroglyphic paintings and various ornaments. There are pueblos which possess no less than four, and even six, estufas of different sizes. Among tlie ruins of Hungo-Pavie, near the beautiful* plateau of the Mesa-fachada, one of these edifices is found which had at least four stories, buttresses in the interior, and walls a yard thick by 30 feet in height. But to judge from the quantity of rubbish around them, they must once have been much higher. The estufas in the Pueblo-Bonito are 60 yards in circumference, and their walls are regularly formed of layers of small stones alternating with layers of larger ones. Between the Great and Little Colorado there is a chain of arenaceous hills, upon the summit of which are immense ruins of pueblos i;:i ! VOL. I. C C K! ; ii ili 386 THE DKSERTS OF NORTH AAfERTCA. and estufas every way similar to those we have de- scribed. The Indians of New Mexico also call these edifices Montezuma's Churches. They still jissemble in spring in those which have resisted the action of time and weather, and pray to this demigod king that he will send them rain. According to a tradition still extant among ihis people, Montezuma often rested in his travels, built a house in an hour, planted maize during the night, and found it ripe and fit to be eaten the following morning. The Navajos beheve that all Indians once formed a single nation, and lived a Inmdred miles north of the ruins of Chaco, upon a silver mountain. By degrees numerous detached tribes descended from the mountain, and built towns and v?!\tges in all directions as far as the Rio Grande and its tributary streams. The Navajos alone re- mained in the country, well satisfied to live in huts made of branches. These vast monuments of New Mexico are not known to many travellers, and conseqi'ently few writers have specidated about their origin. M. de Humboldt fixes the residence of the Aztecs in these latitudes in the twelfth ceiitury. We know not from what data this savant formed his opinion, nor whctlnn* the Aztecs were indeed the con- Btmctors of those edifices. Certain it is, that all the pue- blos of this wilderness are of an incx)ntestable homogeneous character ; they are the work of a great people, of an in- telhgent nation, whose civihsation was far superior to that of the actual tribes. But tiie question is, what became of the population that once filled the land, and have left it covered with such numerous and singular constnictions P Careful investigation into all that regai'ds the Red Indians prevents oiu* admitting the idea that the predecessors of lavc de- edifices pring in weather, !nd them long this [t a house found it iig. The a single ruins of numerous and built the Rio I alone re- luts made lot known ters have oldt fixes Ihe twelfth J it formed the con- the pue- logeneous of an in- lior to that became of Lve left it Itnictions ? led Indians icessors of REMARKS ON ANCIENT TRIBES. mi the actual rnce should have vanished suddenly. We rather believe in a more or less rapid ])oliticnl and moral decUne, in a fusion of the primitive races with those that succeeded them, and we shall ]ioint out a fact which will throw some degree of light on the supposed disappearance of the authors and inhabitants of those cities that are now falling into decay, and of which we have already spoken. The fact to which we allude is a series of geological aiul natural ])henomena which frequently occur in the immense soh- tudes that commence in Texas and finish in Upper Cali- fornia, after having traversed the entire of New Mexico. It is known that all agglomerations of men or families, on settling in a new land, always build their dwellings hi wooded parts near streams, in order easily to insure this indispensable clement. Many of those ]iopulations were suddenly deprived of both wood and water. Perpetual droughts followed the clearing of the woods, compelhng the inhabitants of high plateaus to emigrate into the plains. Wlien rain failed, the wells and cistenis dried up, and the horrors of thirst drove the people from their abodes. Both rivers and their sources dried up. We know a multitude of rivers in Texas and New Mexico which have ceased to flow, some for centuries, others only within a few years ; and their banks, formerly gay with verdure, plants, flowers, and trees, now disappear imder heaps of sand, and present everywhere a scene of desolation. The springs and rivers of the plains always flow over a pebbly or sandy bed, never over a muddy one. The waters are capricious and often inter- mitting, appearing and disappearing from the soil, to appear and lose themselves again. Many alter their course or cease to flow, while others suddenly rise in the midst of -a dry and desert land. On the other hand, the ii w I'll] ill c « 2 ! . IS 388 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. 1' )H M I '1 soil of these regions is often covered with agate, jasper, chalcedony, petrified trees, and masses of arenaceous lava, which, descending from the hills, absorb the water of creeks and sources, fill up the beds of streams, and ren- der lands barren and dry which were at one time watered and fertile. "Wlien these phenomena take place, the tribes that dwell in the country are naturally com- pelled to flee from these newly made deserts, which become the abode of sickness, famine, and death, and they go to seek a more favoured land. These compulsory emigra- tions must have been frequent, to judge from the traces the populations have left behind; but, of course, the ranks of the emigrants must have been fearfully thinned by hardships and misery : this is testified by the actual emigrations of the Indians of the United States, which, although performed under more favourable condi- tions, yet are one cause of the dreadful mortahty and destruction of the race. If to all those natural causes of dissolution are added intestine war, the difficulty of forming new establishments, the decline of Montezuma's dominion, and its complete annihilation under the Spanish sway, it will not appear necessary to invent a different nation to account for the works of art and civilisation of which the remains cover the vast sohtudes of America, merely because their successors have less genius, energy, or enterprise. The Jemez, Zunis, and several other In- dian tribes still dwell in pueblos like those we have de- scribed, and it is most probably to their ancestors, and to those of nearly all the tribes of New Mexico, that the construction of those gigantic edifices ought to be at- tributed. Iri \U M f-'tr \ I A-oir^T WAU.?;. — mini THJr T'"Mt.:i,i xao STATim'Tir=;, — ■■ ANTIQUITIJ.:- NOK from liod I : ajtilKiitl meadovvs, .'Un: Ij ^i^tf of (.>l»in alono tlKMVcilb ■. - bo (-Avrjtt^? '. ..:.;. ^.tii firom eighk'.- and in v om three to five fe^M:. v^i (:x>a twined rock-cry!^.tai atYnt(»!s, aw i >. aiTOWs aadUuce^ k"f i writei's btiUcvo ttu ■•• otho^?. think th--. i- ' ' , _ -'r ?'' M ii i. ,1 This te i »piiiu.>n appi^arH are r92 THE DKSERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. abundant as to form, on the surface of the soil, a kind of compact vegetable coating, whicli rarely allows any seeds ' which may accidentally fall to penetrate the earth and germinate. It is, moreover, this carpet of verdure which enables the traveller to trace all the sinuosities of tlie site it covers. These gardens are square or semicircular, and are divided in parallel lines so as to form a series of ridges or beds two or three yards in width. Each of these beds is convex, its elevation in the centre being from ten to twenty inches. A very narrow path separates them from each other, intended no doubt for the use of tlie cultivators who attended to the garden. We are still in enth*e ignorance of the nature of the produce of these gigantic fields, laid out with such regularity. The finest and best-preserved among them are m Michigan, Indiana, near the Great Lakes, and even in Texas ; where, at the distance of about 450 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, we have seen one more than eight miles in extent. Besides these gardens, the agricidtural population which inhabited the New World previously to the tribes actually existing, wlio hve almost entirely on the pro- duce of the chase, had also artificial meadows, many of which were situated in tlie midst of forests or on the borders of the woodland. In fact, the iiature of the country, the configuration of the soil, as well as the agri- cultural implements of stone and brass found in those meadows,' plainly show that in remote tunes these regions were covered with trees, which must have been burnt or torn up to make room for excellent pasturage in the im- mediate vicinity of human habitations. But how is it that in these countries, abandoned so many centuries ago by their inhabitants, the forests have not recovered the kind of ly seeds rth and e which tlie Hite tmd are •idges or D beds is twenty oni each itovs who snorance elds, laid preserved the Great i of about seen one )opiilation 1 the tribes the pro- ws, many or on the ire of the the agri- in those ;se regions burnt or in the im- how is it Lturies ago )vered the ,i0i0" 1 1 m\ .\N(ir.Ni nri.s. 1 t q n ti tl in sp da fei at in to Th. tun St. fou: cles pet] and exp at G of t scri|: alref form feren in h covei yards 1 CONTENTS OF THE TUMULI. 393 ground they had originally occupied ? We believe that in fact this return to the primitive condition may have taken place at many points with which we are not ac- quainted, and that the greater number of those artificial meadows which are still in existence owe their preserv^a- ticn solely to the layer of green thick turf which covers tiiem. Many circumstances lead us to beUeve that the ancient . inhabitants of North America worked the salt-watei- springs to prociu*e salt. In Ilhnois there exists to this day, in a salt mine, an excavation 135 yards in circum- ference, in the middle of which a great pit had been dug, at some unknown period. Ashes, fragments of pottery in great quantity, and a conduit which served probably to drain oif the water, have been found in this place. The pottery resembles precisely that enclosed in the tumuli and fortifications at Harrisonville m the county of St. Clair. Near the salt mines of Ohio have also been found numerous fragments of pottery and vases, evidently destined for the evaporation of water ; and in the salt- petre caves of Gasconnade county, Missouri, hammers and axes similar to those of the tumuh. Tumuli, of all the different kinds have been carefully explored, in order to ascertain what they contained. That at Grave Creek attracted more particularly the attention of the learned, on account of its proportions and the in- scription in alphabetical characters, of which we have already spoken. In the centre of this tumulus, which in form is a truncated cone of about 833 yards in circum- ference at its base, 83 yards at its summit, and 23 yards in height, a vaulted sepulchral chamber has been dis- covered, forming a parallelogram of four yards by two yards and a half. The wall was near four feet in thick- Wl\ •vilJ 394 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. ness, and was composed of unhewn stone and fragments of carbonised wood. In this chamber were placed, side by side, two hiunan skeletons, one of which was that of a woman, almost reduced to dust, and wearing a great number of ornaments, such as pearl necklaces. About eighteen feet above this vault was another, placed trans- versely, rather smaller than the first, and containing a skeleton surrounded by more than 1700 beads made of marine univalve shells, five leather bracelets, and 150 plates of mica. But the most interesting discovery made in this tomb was that of the alphabetical inscription, con- cerning which we shall give details hereafter. In another tumulus situated near Marietta, in the State of Ohio, there have likewise been found very curious objects, which had been biuied with the person in whose honour the monument was raised. As in the tomb I have just described, there was the skeleton of a man in the centre of the tmnulus ; immediately above his head were three circular pieces of brass coated with silver, which had probably been the ornaments of a baldric or shoul- dei-belt ; two small pieces of leather lay beside these ornaments. Near the skeleton was found a plate of silver about six inches long by two in width, weigliing thkty grammes, which appeared to be the upper part of a scabbard, also two or three compartments of a brass tube which seemed to belong to the lower part of the same scabbard; but of the sword itself there was no trace. Various other brass and silver ornaments were also lying neai" the skeleton. The exploration of other tumuh brought forth new discoveries, among which must be mentioned first shells of the species Man- ginella Florida^ which is very common on the coasts of Florida ; rosaries, the beads of wliich are formed of igments ed, side that of a great About ,d trans- aiiiing a made of and 150 jry made ion, con- the State I curious in whose nb I have .an in the lead were er, which or shoul- dde these plate of weighing ipper part [ents of a lower part self there ornaments xploration js, among jcies Man- Ithe coasts I formed of ::'i liii' «■' \ ii' I; r w iiicii wab g a fineai •■••■-' vaa cxjuiposteO, of Uiihewii 8toi ' >i CiiriKUiised wood, la this uhaiuher were pirt' by bide, two human skelelau a wiTO-ian, almost re numbei' , , ve {eutiiei braceletc^. '• ; iiut ti'r most iJitereF.ficg Jwcovery muu.c: s toiiib was that <^i ilie alDhabeticai iii^cription., con- cerniuff wlr: ii we shal' tils he- ir: . tumniu.s situ; ., in the Suitf 'H Ohioi thtTe have likevviM d v<»iy curious objects, which had btion biuied w.u ; . :; m whose hnnoi.: lOiiiLinent was raised. Ariia the tornb I ht-v*.' ' :. there was the sketetoii of - •• turn' 111- 1 njLiuKidiiitely above his liead three (■■>v:Mla'' vv f bras^ c^jited with ;-ilv • ••. w'uvii tUiii. ol' scaK*,,- H i V* . W . ■ ' - brr US3 tube wldch seemeu . _- \>i i.'.ji to the lower part of th r ■ . ' t • 1 ■ '• -cabb tiid ; but or the sword itseli ihete w;j V" "i' ii ■Ah-- ■ ' ■•■ : •• . , ^ •^' •- ornameius' Wr. . J : ' ' 1 ^ ' i ' vploratioi) 1 1. J?*. ■:, \ ut ied, among ■it' , - • ., )t 11 10 sj:>ecies i/'i;n- .*'"' • coiiuaoji .^11 the coasts f 1 XAUi-ii.Ui, :',' V 'i ' i" ibrmed oi a gioai [•y made i.1 ti i - l.^.lj'v lb I luive \,xi m. tUt* vsriuch •thcnii- mail ■ >iorati<:>iJ anioag ■ios Man- 10 coasts ... oi' I ii 'I'!' ; 1 .,*. jt t \ "^^ ~*^-£ CONTENTS OP THE TUMUU. 395 shells, invariably accompany the human remains found in tliese tombs. A knowledge of conchology is by no means unimpor- tant in the study of the origin of the first inhabitants of North America, who are supposed by some to have been descendants of the people of Asia ; for it appears that they employed large marine shells for their personal us*^ and for their sacrifices. The tumuh and the fcrtificatioiiN contain a great number of these shells, which are mostlj- of the species known as Murex, Cassis comutus^ and Fulgur perversus. These shells have formed the subject of long discussions among the most distinguished writers on American ethnography, who are far from agreeing as to the country which produced them. According to Eum- phius, the Cassis comutus is found at Amboyna, in the peninsula of Malacca, and on the shores of the neigh- bouring island. Humphreys maintains that it is peculiar to the East Indies and China. linngeus beheved it to be indigenous to the coast of America ; but Bruguieres, a more modern author, affirms that Linnasus was mistaken on this point, and that the shell in question belongs to the Asiatic Ocean. At all events, as the Cassis comutus has never been found on the ^Lores of America, it is highly probable that it was brought to that country froni Asia. To the list of interesting curiosities discovered in the monuments left by the ancient Americans, or near thek dwellings, we must add numerous bracelets of brass, smooth and poUshed ; rings and tubes of the same metal, or of various kinds of stones ; pipes of terra-cotta, slate, or steatite ; pieces of jasper and of granite ; rude sculptures in wood and in various mineral substances ; very beautifiil specimens of pottery, copper or stone axes, arrow-heads 1 1 i; I i. >l tl d : ' ''If i 1 396 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I !l and knives in obsidian ; and lastly idols, which demand a particular description. Perhaps the most curious of these idols are those found in the State of Tennessee. One of them was enclosed in a shell of the species Cassis Jlammea, which is of tropical origin ; the others had no such accessory. All these figures are either seated on their heels or kneeling, the hands being placed on the thighs or on the abdomen ; they are quite naked, and represent sometimes one, some- times the other sex. The largest is about fourteen inches in height, and they are generally cut in a sort of stone which is very common all over the American continent. Mi\ Proost, professor in the University of Temiessee *, is of opinion that all these idols were representations of the worship of Phallus similar to those exposed in the sanctuaries of Eleusis. Father Kircher assures us, on the authority of Cortez, that an Egyptian form of worship, vecaUing the mysteries of Isis and Osiris, was established ill America. One of these idols would appear to be a liadly finished image of Priapus. Those wiiich are made of a mixture of clay and pounded marine shells are easily recognised, by the form of the face and the elon- gated eyes and chin, as representing a Tartar type. One of them has the scalp-tuft on the crown of the head, in imitation, very possibly, of the lock of hair left growing on the heads of the Chinese. The Asiatic type has been remarked also in a small stone idol found at Natchez, in the State of Mississippi, in the midst of a site where, according to tradition, an Indian temple existed long be- fore the arrival of the Europeans. * See his articles in the " Transactions of the American Ethnological Society," vol. i. p. 355. ch demand those found enclosed in of tropical AH these neehng, the I abdomen; 3 one, some- rteen inches )rt of stone continent, rennessee *, lentations of )osed in the 3S us, on the of worsliip, 3 established 2ar to be a ch are made 3 shells are ad the elon- type. One the head, in left growing pe has been t Natchez, in site where, 3ted long be- can Ethnological ^K mi^'^ ■ ■"■.■•>»-'^^' ■<' ^ ^:!w^!S(5s^^'^' A , < ' ^' I ! It 3 ii t a particular descripli '.. Peril a ps the iao8t <^n in the Stater-'"^- origiD ilOXJU- :1m' tr.' ;n,l' -v,v m - .1 . . !\T«' ti ,i' tropic: lI All these t is aboui frnirreen im-.ht«^ •. ,mu 111 1 of «t(yiie wiliOiv i;^ Vv.vy C'.iiiiiiivu aii v >]i.'rt(>, ' -. ►tcHSQr in the '•- / I""!, .-.;- Im^l;-- to liiw^ic OXpOSecl ^n ♦'hi , ' un;!' iUrclier assures U8. ... ., iez, liia^ an Egyptinr^ ^jmotutti ■ • auLJjorii . ; oalliTiii; ilit- uiybter ill Amerie^a. ' ^■'- ! . >,:uibUsho(l v.'ouiu ui/pcci:' to ^^■' ' of tlioiu hiw ' imitatiou, vor) oi) the heads ot the Chiueye. iitc A-siuLic typG^ha^ ue; reirmrkcd ai8<^ . ; -mail fitone idol found at Natch- > >f .\Li:?sis ' nldst of a site whe liidiai) U'lriplc existed long ^ 1 ,eaiis. as of tlie AD)?ncaB Kt.hm>t*^K^i Hi ihese rteen iiu-h*-^ ' of sloue tuuii. )OSC(.l 111 ih^' »9 US. on tlie of Nvoi^lnp, iU- to :■ ■ k'u ait:: luu ' < Ik' lo has oee. site wht"' .M' ''hluioV 3 < a a« 1 r i ! 1 I 1 1 i 1 ■.i f- i t ■ '• !« •-'Il s ;»r ANCIENT AMERICAX fUlUOSlTlES. 397 Near Saudu«ky, in tlie State of Ohio, ut u depth of six feet in tlie ground, u pipe lias also been found, show- ing skillful workmanship, and made of a material which is believed to be the real graphic tide of which idols are made in China ; and, as this substimee bus nowhere been found in America, it is concluded that the pir jS brought from Asia. Another object no less int^"" '.'ng* has been found near a tributaiy of the Cumberland iliver in Kentucky, namely, a bottle fonned of three heads admirably modelled, and with a neck growing narrower towards the mouth. These three heads are joined together behind, and each of them is about two inches and a half in length, from the top of the forehead to the chbi. They are in excellent preservation, tind present the Tartar type of comitenance at different ages. The face of the youngest is covered with a slight coathig of vermilion, and has a small mark of a more vivid shade of the same colour on each cheek ai^l on the chin. The second face represents a person at the age of manhood, and is painted in several colours. A line of deep red surrounds the eyes ; another line of the same tint passes from the tip of one ear, imder the chin, to the upper part of the other ear. The third is the face of an aged person ; it is painted yellow round the eyes, and a yellow line is traced from ear to ear, following nearly the same course as the red lines described in the preceding figure. The neck of the bottle is triple ; its length is less than that of the heads, and it is five inches in circumference at the mouth, and grows wider towards the base. This vase is made of fine clay of a dark colour, and hardened by the action of fire ; it would contain about a quart of liquid. In the saltpetre cave of Warren county (Tennessee), two bodies, one of a man, the other of a woman, have I' ■»; M '.!' I r i 308 TUP ItHSKP.TS OF NORTH AMERTOA. I) born found, seated in wirkcr baskets. When tliey wore discovered, their flesli, linir, teeth, and nails wrrc still in existence ; ihey were \\ra|ipc;'l in deer-skins, and in a cloth made of the fibres of tin* bark of trees, and ornamented with featliers. The ivoman earned in her hand n fnn of turkeys' fcnithers, mrde to open and shut at ])leasure. Another discovery, e({ually impoi-tant iii connexion with the I story f)f the ancient inhnbitauts of America, is that of the mtinunies, which are found in the greatest numbers h\ Kentucky, nnd above all, in the Mammoth Cave near Louisville. This cave contains an immense quantity of nitre, and the preservation of the human bodies buiied in it is attributed in a great measure to the presence of this substance, with which the earth is satu- rated to a considerable depth. One of these mummies was found nine feet beneath the surface of the soil ; it was placed between two large stones, and covered by a flat Blab. The knees were drawn up to the chest, the arms crossed, and the hands folded one over the other at the height ^i the chin. Thehaiids, nails, ears, hair, teeth, and all the features generally were in perfect preserva- tion. The skin resembled leather of a yellowish colour ; there were no traces of incision or seam indicating that the viscera had been removed. Though this mummy was that of a person six ^eet in height, it was so dried up ti»R,t it did not weigh more than twelve or fourteen pounds. The body waa not surrounded either by bandages or by any bituminous or aromatic substance, but was wrapped in four coverings. The first or interior one was composed of a RtuflT made of fine cord doubled and twisted in a peculiar rianner, and of large feathers interwoven with great art. The second wraj^ping was of the same stuff, but without feathers. The third consisted of a deer-skin i! 1 tlioy wore vcrc still in d in a cloth ornainentcHl [i\u\ a inn of casnro. coinicxion America, in tiic greatest ^ Mammoth an immense tlio human ^asm'e to the mrth is satn- se mummies ' the soil ; it covered by a 10 chest, the the other at , hair, teeth, ct preaerva- wish colour ; licating that his nmmmy so dned up teen pounds, dages or by ►vas wrapped as composed :,wisted in a woven with same stuff, a deer-skin : if 1! !!, ,1 \\ ■ i 1 o Ml 1 1 i i withe anoth Th Amei anteri powe] chtho most been 1 that ij writer have ( Indiar Dr. M vours were < islands founds in wh from t madec aspinr are a} Southe stances ceding The tumuH, spoken were d in the i that tl from t '■ I AMERICAN MUMMIES. 399 without hair, and the fourth and external covering of another deer-skin, but with the hair. These mummies have greatly occupied the attention of American antiquaries, for they seem to belong to a people anterior to the present race of Bed Indians, and furnish a powerftd argument against the supporters of the auto- chthonic theory. The American mummies are, for the most part, swathed in the Egyptian fashion, and have been found only in the neighbourhood of the great rivers, that is, near places which vessels could approach. Some writers argue from the discovery of the mummies we have described, that the people who preceded the present Indian race in America came from the East. The learned Dr. Mitchell, in a dissertation on these mummies, endea- vours to prove that the ancient inhabitants of America were of Malay origin, and resembled the natives of the islands of the Pacific Ocean and of Australasia. He founds this opinion, firstly, on the resemblance of the cloth in which these mummies are enveloped to that brought from the Sandwich and Feejee Islands which is Hkewise made of fine cord, doubled and twisted without the help of a spinning-wheel ; secondly, on the fact that feather mantles are appUed to the same use by the islanders of the Southern Ocean; and lastly, on several other circum- stances which appear to us of less weight than the pre- ceding. The great labour requisite for the construction of the tumuH, fortifications, walls, and roads of which we have spoken, their regularity and the purposes for which they were destined, and the works of art and mummies found in the artificial hillocks and tombs, would seem to indicate that they were the work of a people who had passed from the nomadic and savage state to the condition of 400 THK DKSEKTS OF NORTH AMERICA. agriculturists, and who, if they emigrated from one country to another, did so very slowly, estabhshing themselves in a solid and durable manner in the countries where they made halt. The state of art among a people capable of producing monuments so singular and imposing has naturally engaged the attention of antiquaries, and formed the subject of most curious and interesting researches, which, however, have hitherto led to no marked result. No name has yet been assigned to this race, no certain date to the monuments they have left. We can only hope that new discoveries in science and research may soon solve this mystery, which has hitherto been regarded as impenetrable. "We shall conclude this account of the Indian monu- ments by stating, in a few words, .r own opinion re- garding the age, the geography, and the authors of che antiquities scattered over the surface of the United States. In the valleys of the Ohio, and of the Mississippi, where the tumuU and ancient fortifications are found in the greatest number, trees of enormous growth have sprung up in the midst of the ruins. The size of these trees furnishes the surest data on which to form a judg- ment as to the period when these different constructions were abandoned. On the summit of the tumulus of Crave Creek, a beech was found growing, which was covered to the height of nine feet and a half with names and dates of the reign of George II., in 1754. A short distance from this beech lay an oak, fallen from old age. In 1828, the trunk of this oak was sawn and carefully examined ; it was found to contain about 500 concentric circles, which, allowing a year for each circle, proved that the tree must have begun to grow in 1328, that is, 164 years before the landing of Christopher Columbus in e country iselves in lere they apable of ising has d formed searches, 3d result. 3 certam •nly hope (lay soon jarded as n monu- inion re- rs of ihe I United ississippi, found in ?th have of these I a judg- tnictions nulus of lich was ;h names A short old age. carefully )ncentric )ved that ,t is, 164 nbus in 'n.ts'^mvi '- **^.*iseisfc*^'*" ' ■■««s* riff^ li m if i *a^ *!>• I I' . did sjo vtT) .siuwiy, c\stabl.i*^intig i a and diu'uble luaiUiiT iit tmtries wk-; iiiiuie halt. The i t?<>pU» capas • produci . mposku natii 'med • ' they hiwii left. We can only hope liscoverks !u scieiji • ' aL VV.I. .,...;. ;md carefuU). .untain about 500 canci?ntri< ■ .-.-»• Ci\: |.!u|) t'h*c]e. » ,!' x' iiirstin ':•< n-nr,.. otKiiuiinjj)!); * ' iiuide sillhoiigii (lie iUnUib ui tiu- ItvJiJUi \)t}\v • ' aiplete, t! jMOVti Uiut nil Lut»e tho- bum \m' '< ' luiifd liad m. drimmers. in AllUltlU! .iitiqwity what* 11 tr^cos oi wholw ot K'/rth Air »!xcept in Mtxico. i > re, nor a wiiii of 1 nvid can b i in prool' i , iXoihiug ji.i«4 l>een found but moumis ■ Ik wl jved as the^tomi . iuHjsuftn- cmn\ know now what to ftttach i' til! itions of M. Volney. u ai-e no more to be rciiied on than tb- ^^>luure. M,de Ifumboldtf, who visited tJit? Ameriawi ariiiquitix*. .<»u|»fK)!*(^ tjbfi mrnniroont* t< k of Hfi^i»"h ft. R»j| on thr» rr « alv ,• ■', • \M) >l|s||)lVN KMii:. vesi tur( the ligh spo] are, but, hav( unpi and wan an e and peop And remr in its ORIGIN OF AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. 405 vestiges of a power which is no more. If we might ven- ture an opinion on a question so arduous, and on which the most learned men have scarcely thrown a gleam of light, we would say, with all those writers who have spoken pertinently on the American antiquities, that they are, in truth, the work of a nmnerous and civilised people ; but, as we do not think it possible that such a people can have existed during so many centuries, and passed quite unperceived from the earth, we firmly believe in its dechnc and fusion with the actual race of Eed Indians, who wander and vegetate in the solitudes of the wilderness, as an example to the world of the vicissitudes of nations and empires. Would it be the first time that a civilised people has been merged in a barbarous population? And if, in America, the latter has not preserved any remnants of past civilisation, it may be because it has in its turn been subjected to the same laws of destruction. Ill U D 3 406 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAP. XXI. INDIAN IDEOORAPHT. HIEROGLYPHIC DOCUMENTS. THE PICTOGRAPHY OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLE. THE GRAVE CREEK INSCRIPTIONS. TOMBSTONE SECTION. CHARACTER OF INSCRIPTIONS. — THE DIGHTON ROCK HIERO- GL1TH. INSIGHT INTO THIS INSCRIPTION. THE EL MORO ROCKS. INSCRIPTTONS OF NEW MEXICO. HIEROGLYPHIC PAINTINGS OF THE ESTUFAS. THE ROCKY DELL. INDIAN PICTOGRAPHY. — RED SKINS. SYMBOLISM. PAINTED SKINS. INDIAN TOTEMO. HERALDIC SIGNS. CONCLUSION. Most European travellers who visit North America with scientific views traverse the United States, from north to south, and from east to west, without venturing to penetrate the great south-western sohtudes, which they suppose to be arid and desert. The most courageous pass through the Indian territory in company with men more or less absorbed by their own affau-s, or imbued with prejudices and hatred against the Eed Skins. To justify their very shght glance at remote and dangerous lands, these prudent travellers repeat, after the merchants of the American frontiers, that Indians are vermin of which the soil must be delivered ; that nothing good can be got out of them, that they deserve no kind of notice* or encoui*age- ment, being mere brutes. Thus do these men, learned from intuition, return home to regale their countrymen with the history of a people they have hardly perceived, and to describe places into which they have never ventured INDIAN INSCRIPTIONS. 407 APHT OF )UBSTONE C HIERO- XOCKS. OF THE SKINS. SIGNS. Ml with I north ing to h they us pass 1 more i with justify lands, of the ch the 'ot out )ui'age- eamed rymen ceived, nturcd to enter ; the consequence is, that their narratives abound in errors and exaggerations. One cannot be too guarded against writers who invent respecting matters they know nothing about, and who translate while misunderstanding the works already pubHshed on the same subject. Very few men for truth's sake, and without any preconceived opinions, travel in those regions, and sojourn there with the firm intention to collect all possible documents on the lives and history of the Eed Skins, to consult their oral traditions, to study their monuments, and to draw thence, in the meditations of silence and soHtude, materials that impart certain knowledge and exact deductions. It is the American historians who have taken the most pains to observe and describe me natives of these countries, and yet they have not known all the documents engraved by Indians on the surface of then- rocks, or on the bark of the trees of their aged forests. Even Mr. Schoolcraft, who has long disquisitions on modem savage ideo- graphy, has not mentioned the hieroglyphics that are found in Itocky Dell, on the El Moro Eock near Zuiii, nor other inscriptions to be met with in the different countries of Jemez and Navajos, and on the borders of the WiQiam, the Gila, and the Colorado. Among the archaeologists and the ethnographers of the two worlds who have noticed the Indian ideography and American antiquities, few have attempted to decipher the species of hieroglyphics by means of which the Eed Skins have at all times endeavoured to make their thoughts understood ; whether simply to recall a fact, an article of faith, or a custom, or to transmit to posterity the memory of some great event that marks with vital interest the Ufe of a man or the history of a nation. The cause of this want of exactitude is less in the difficulty of the D D 4 ^. /<' 403 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. Study and the want of materials to pursue it, than in tliat affectation of disdain generally professed for Indians, who are rather rashly denied all intellectual and artistic capacity. It is true that the variety of hieroglyphic signs and ideographic images, and their strange and ill-formed figures, may have discouraged some antiquarians, who would prefer seeing in these vagaries nothing but the productions of rude imaginations, tracing on rocks, trees, and animals' skins, fantastic figures and chai^acters without any meaning whatever. I readily allow that the Eed Skins are far from being endowed with remarkable abilities; but seven years spent among them in profound, constant, and important study of their morals, customs, and history, have convmced me that the disdain professed for their imderstanding is greatly exaggerated, and that they are, to a certain degree, callable of imitation, and even of invention. Surely, if science overlooked all but civiUsed people, theve would be an immense gap in the annals of mankind, which would throw into obscurity the origin of nations, their unity, emigrations, and the relations that exist amongst them. I cannot enter into all the details of the science of Indian idcography, but I shall endeavour to prove that materials are not wanting to facilitate profound and correct studies on the matter. Li order to represent their ideas, the Indians who in- habited South America before Cliristopher Columbus's discovery made use of those symbolical figures common to all mankind before the uivention of alphabetic cha- racters, which are like the uncouth drawings that children are in the habit of tracing on walls with chalk or cliarcoal, and are more or less rough according to the ; an in tliat ' Indians, id artistic shic signs ill-formed ans, who but the n rocks, hai'acters )m being ars spent nt study 3nvinced nding is I degree, urely, if p would which ts, their niongst Indian iterials studies lio in- ibus's imon cha- Idren or the V 4- 1 i i ■ 1 . I 1 the a pos m ANCIENT INSCRIPTIONS. 409 degree of barbarism in which the people in whose country they are to be found are pUinged. The epoch of the agglomeration of people, of their formation into colonies, tribes, or constitutional societies, has nothing to do with the ideographic system ; whereas a great analogy can be traced in the geographical position, the cUmate, and the characters of individuals, and that in nations far apart from each other, wlien in their first isolated state they began keeping records of their pubHc events, being at the time in the same degree of barbarism. One cannot but see a great resemblance in the disposing of the hieroglyphic forms of objects amongst the monuments of the various Lidian tribes of North America. The Siberian inscr ♦tions met with on the borders of the Yenisee, representing pisodes of hunt- ing, and the newly discovered ouo found on the per- pendicular rock near the Irtysh in Tartary, are illustrations of this. Learned men, who have studied the Peruvian and Mexican ideography, find in ^ese monuments a great hkeness to the signs of the ancient American inscriptions. Ten miles north of Arequipa, at Huaytara in the province of Castro-Vireyna, and near Huari in Peru, on bits of granite stone, are found multitudes of hieroglyphics re- presenting flowers, birds, and fortifications, very like those of the Eocky Dell, of El Moro, and of several other localities of New Mexico, and of a date certainly earlier than the Incas dynasty. In Sweden, Norway, and Lapland, the same analogy is to be met with. And yet it is eyident that these are the works, not of one, but of several distinct peoples, and that at the time of their mfancy in civiUsation. At a later period this method of reproducing ideas became an art, which the Chinese and Egyi)tians brought to great perfection. I 410 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. There lias been discovered in the tumulus of Grave Creek, near Wheeling in West Virginia, an inscription in alphabetical characters ; it is the only one of the kind known in America, and, though much ado has been made about this discovery, I think its importance far less than has been supposed. For, after aK, it merely attests the presence in America of a man of the old continent. Now, it has ah-eady been observed in the first three chapters that historical documents of the emi- gration of famili^ were not wanting. Nevertheless, this alphabetical inscription at Grave Creek may assist us some day in finding out the name and country of the man whose merit had obtained such a sepulchre. It is, therefore, with pleasure that I enter into details of the manner in which this tumulus was discovered, though some learned men have denied the fact of its existence. On the 19th of March 1838, Mr. Abellard, grandson of Mr. Joseph Tomlinson, proprietor of the land on which the tumulus is situated, while overlooking the workmen employed in some building operations there, caused a tunnel to be driven horizontally from the base to the centre of the monument. This tunnel was 9 feet 4 inches wide, and more than 9 feet high. He next sunk a shaft at the inner extremity, and on reaching a depth of 111 feet came on the ruins of a vault or sepulchral chamber. The earth was dry, mixed, and so compact, that for a space around there was no need of timber to prevent the sides from tumbling in. Some parts of this earth crumbled like ashes, and sent forth a strong oily odour. The sepulchral chamber was dug in a parallelogram form, in a small natural elevation on which the tumulus was built. The angles of the parallelogram corresponded \\ imrinr-iri' -iTii~ — GRAVE CREEK MOUND. 411 le old exactly with the four cardinal points. The dead-room was constructed with perpendicular posts, horizontally placed, over which were heaped rough stones. A shaft was then commenced at the summit of the tumulus, and at the depth of thirty-five feet another vault was discovered, but in a different direction. In this second chamber was found the inscription of which so much has been said ; it is composed of twenty-two cliaracters, in three lines, with a cross and a mask, engraved on a dark hard stone of an elliptic shape, about two inches and a half long and two inches wide, and about five lines thick. Learned men, who have most carefully examined this, inscription, agree neither on its origin nor on the nature of the cluv racters, of Avhich four bear a resemblance to the Eti^uscan signs, four to those of Thugga (Africa), five to the ancient Eiinic in Scandinavia, six to the Touarik, seven to the old characters found in Ireland, ten to the Phoenician, and fifteen to the Ctltiberian. M. Eafn*, one of the most erudite antiquarians of Denmark, after having ob- served that at first sight one would be tempted to pro- nounce this inscription of Celtiberic origin, adds that these characters present a great analogy to thop*' of the ancient GalUcan or Anglo-Saxon bards. M. Jomard, alluding probably to M. Rafn's works on the subject, says : " Tliese characters have been compared to those of the ancient northern languages, but this analogy is less strik- ing than is that to the ancient Libyan. There is also much Hkeness to be traced to the Celtiberian or rather Iberian alphabet, which is not wonderful, since in all probability this idiom had its origin in Africa, for * Memoii-8 of the Royal Antiquarian Society, 1840 and 1843. Ame- rican section. 412 TITB DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. it is well known that Iberia was one of tlie first and greatest conquests of Carthage." M. Rafn and M. Jomard are, nevertheless, autlioritics far too important for me to decide between them. For if many reasons seem to support the opinion of tlie Danish antiquarian, we find, on the other hand, in Mr. Walter Oudney's Touarik alphabet, characters favourable to M. Jomard's view of the question, for the second, fifth, and sixteenth characters of the American inscription have a striking analogy with the yet^ the gid^ the gin^ and the "standing tliey are anterior to the discovery of Americii by Christopher Columbus. The outlines of the liyriologic signs are pretty coirect, and display rather a good notion of the art of imitating nature. In tlie cstufas, more or less in ruins, in the countiT of the Jcmez, one sees, painted red and blue, plants, birds, and animals, such as tiu'kcys, stags, wolves, foxes, dogs, &c. The stags and hinds, above all, are remarkable [OA. e, that, in tliOi-'c mi'ltQt, are very injirics of time, ish inscriptions, ; travellers siip- , mo-re than two oglyplis date at Tl is calculation ngtn of duration lines. It seems ironado liave not the expeditions loubt tlic pueblo was one of the ionuments ca!ied V writing more 3ns. The tribes lathohcism adore emblems of this for Montezuma, )v walls of the )mi and colour, called Red-skin ,nterior to the lolumbus. The ty coiTcct, and mitating nature. in the country d blue, plants, , wolves, foxes, are remarkable INSCRirTIONS IS THE DESERTS. 419 for the exacti ess of their propcrtlona fxiid the oleai'ncjs of their outlin.■ '» .» - n, i k E^^^BP..'^2y s».' i V k» ^^ 1^ -. 1 tM iillb^^^^^^l 1 >» ,»iw' ' ', - ^' ,:f- '■■ " ■ ■ *"- r-^^^-n ■ ■ ^■'■3^'H ^^"^^;. ■;• 1 signifying some historical fact. First is a ship with sails ; then a man standing up on a horse, and an Indian with naked legs looking at him from behuid ; after which there are priests with crosses, and Spaniards. Another representation, more complicated than the pre- ceding, is composed of straight and crooked lines, of strokes, of arrows, of a smi, and of men and horses. The Indians relate that this spot was formerly a rendezvous for hunting, where their forefathers repaired to hunt the buffalo. After much rejoicing, they rested on the borders of a stream, and there traced on tlie walls of the grotto some historical episode. In these liieroglyphs they recognise Montezuma, placed here to sanctify and preserve the sources of the stream. They also see the great serpent created by Montezuma, to give rain and sfr.ve the hfe of his wor- sliippers. The men with horns on their heads represent the buffalo-dance, which Indian hvinters, even in our days, perform before they set off for the hunt. The liierogljrphic^ found in the Valley of William are very like those of El Moro and of the Rocky Dell, only that they seem less complicated ; the scenes are more simple and abridged : the genend signs are himian faces, symbo- lical amniubi, hands, suns, and different sorts of luics. On a rock of the Isle of Cunningliara in Lake Erie, of vlrich we have already spoken, are to be seen two hiero- glyphic in^criptioiLs engraved veiy deeply in the rock, and which do not appear very ancient, either from their state of perfect preservation, or from the subjects they represent, which belong to the manners and customs of Lidians at the Columbian epoch. Li the State of New York, near E^s! [»us, there exists the large figure of an Indian engraved mt tho banks of the Hudson : but this inscription is not •mciont, for the pei'sonage is armed with u gun. i. MODERN IDEOGRAPHY. 421 lip witli sails ; n Indian with ?r which there than the pre- ttes, of strokes, The Indians us for hunting, juffalo. After of a stream, ome historical e Montezuma, lources of the it created b}' ) of his wor- !ads represent a in our days, William are eU, only that more simple |faces, symbo- f luies. ake Erie, of tn two hiero- ,he rock, and their state of y represent, f Indians at York, near an engKived [ption is not u. In the environs of St. Louis, in the Missouri, has been found a perfect impression of human feet carved on a chalky stone of a bluish grey colour, of about eight or nine feet long and about five or six feet wide, wliich was ex- tracted from a quarry. These impressions are exactly like those that have been copied on the terraces of the temples of Thebes in Egypt, of Kamak, and particularly Nakaur, in South Behar ; out no one has as yet been able to dis- cover what is the meaning, or who were the authors, of this singular sculpture. Modem Bed-skin ideography does not differ from the method in use amongst the ancient colonists of the united states of Ne^v Mexico : a httle more or less address or natural talent in the formation of the Hues of drawing is all the difference to be perceived between the hiero- glyphic inscriptions of savages of our days and those of their ancestors. All past and present generations have en- graved or engrave their hi'itorical remembrances and re- ligious thoughts on granite stones, in deep and obscure glens, where the sky appears only as a slight azure riband floating over shapeless mountains whitened by the sun or burnt by volcanoes ; desert and wild regions which one likes to contemplate, far from worldly-mmded men, by whom the wonders of Providence are valued only ac^ cording to their utility. How often, when admiring the poetiy of Nature, have I been led to reflect sadly on the origin, actual state, and future prospects of the interesting populations of these countries, on liuding, while working my way in the midst t)f this tropical vegetaticm, both awful and fantiistical, on an isolated rock or aged cedar, some of tliose apparently childisli essays I Indians are still children of a savage nature, whom the Pale-faces try to render wicked and cruel, so as to fhid G K 3 i ' r 422 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. ! I pretences for stripping them of their property, and justify the brutishness in which they are left. But good or bad natures are not easily changed ; and in spite of the efforts, persecution, and contempt of white people, the Eed-skins' abasement is as yet incomplete. There are even tribes who vigorously resist this destnictive torrent, and some, more- over, who profit by their contact with Anglo-Saxon civili- sation to advance in industry and art. Thus the Iroquois have already improved their ideography in a most sur- prising manner. I have seen originals and fac-similes of their pictography that are of a pretty good artistic execu- tion. The representation of an Iroquois dance, mentioned by Mr. Schoolcraft in his great work on the Indians, which was executed by one of those savages, denotes real Imow- ledge of the human form and anatomical proportions. The faces are correct and veiy characteristic. There is much imagination in the comnosition, and suppleness in the out- line. This dai ce is, perhaps, the master-piece of Eed-skin modem ideogi iphy. Some Iroquois and even Chippeway drawings recall the figm'es on the Etruscan vases, though they are still far from the perfection of those ItaUan pro- ductions. Tlie Iroquois of every age were clever at symbolising their ideas. Wlien Count de Fontenac, at the head of a small juiny, invaded that country, he found on the borders of the Oswego a tree on which was represented the French anny At the foot of the tree the soldiers found faggots, composed of 1434 little branches, indicating the number of enemies they had to encounter.* In 1759 or 1760 a party of Americans set out to sur- prise a celebrated Lidian, named Natanis, probably of the * This fact has been confirmed by scvc: il historians of Canada. S and justify good or bad )f the efforts, le Eed-skiiis' in tribes who some, more- Siixon civili- the Iroquois a most sur- ic-similes of tistic execu- ?, mentioned Hans, which 5 real Imow- )rtions. The ire is much s in the out- 3f Eed-skin Chippeway Lses, though Itahan pro- symbolising head of a tlie borders tlie French nd faggots, he number )ut to sur- ibly of the ' Canadn. MODERN IDEOGSAPHY. 423 Abenakies tribe, and entered his house, which they found empty ; but close to it, on the border of the river, they met with a map, engraved on the bark of a reed, and sus- pended on a Httle stick. On this map were very accurately described the current of the stream, and the best strategic points for passing it towards Canada. The Americans did not fail to avail themselves of this discovery, which proved that the Indians were not so ignorant as people were lain to believe. Latterly, on the borders of a tributary of the Susquehanna, was found another map, engraved on stone. This discovery was made in the country of the Lenapca, who are much given to the art of engraving, which they call ola-walum. It may be remembered, that when the Natchez re- solved to massacre all tlie French, the Groat Sun sent bundles of little sticks to all the Suns of the neighbouring tribes, to make known to tliem liow many days were ta pass before the massacre took place : each day was indi- cated by one of those sticks, which, to avoid mistfdces, was broken to pieces every morning. It was thus that by all sorts of simple and ingenious means the Indians expressed their ideas. But it is better not to wander from a subjcict well worthy of attention. Although the Eed-skins and their ancestors have made but little progress in the art of rendering their meaning by signs and figures, nevertheless the symboUc representations of which they make use are arranged in the systematical and uniform manner which is to be found in all the tribes of the American continent. Indians have, like the Egyptians, hierarchical or sacer- dotal signs, as well as demotic or vulgar signs ; tlit^i' figures are generally kyriologic Unes, that represent an S E 4 If: 424 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. object as it really is, and symbolic or allegoric signs, re- presenting the subject with a typical, ideal, or conventional form. They have also mnemonic signs. Some writers even pretend that among the Algonquin tribes there exist songs written in phonetic characters; it is indeed a positive fact, but it is also an exception, and not a general custom. The same may be said of the pretended secret pictography, for the use of the medicine-men of the northern tribes. Indian pictography is not a determined science, with rules and fixed laws ; it is the first step made by an infant people to get out of barbarism, and to write the simple annals of ti hi'-^iory that is beginning. From this effort of a young intelligence, nature guiding alike all individuals in the same condition, it follows that having no other teacher than the natural tendency of man to push forward towards pertection, the Indians, in all the different parts of America, have represented, in a manner almost analogous, ideas, facts, tenets, precepts, and even sentiments. Nowadays the E(;d-skins do not so often trace their ideas, annals, and remembrances on rocks as on trees*, and on the skins which they make use of for their gar- ments and for their tents. Most warriors have their ex- ploits represented on their cloaks, their tunics, or their wig- wams. One seldom sees a garment on which there is no black, yellow, red, white, or blue drawing, representing gims, lances, heads of hair, arrows, shields, the sim, the moon, men, horses, roads, and sometimes mythological subjects. We possess some cloaks of Comanches made of buffalo skins, the inside of one of which was covered with kyriologio • They prefiT above all the bark of white birch, called Betiihi pnpy- 7'ace(i, wliich is to thorn what the papynis was to the Egyptians. \ ic signs, rc- conventional omo writers 8 there exist is indeed a lot a genend ended secret men of the dence, with by an infant ! the simple is effort of a idividuals in itlier teacher ard towards of America, )goiis, ideas, trace their on trees*, |r their gar- e their ex- >r their wig- there is no snting guns, the moon, |1 subjects, of buffalo kyriologKT htttia pnpy~ |)tians. ) .<,) \ .\ \ <--. ' i^.' \ ^ \ r :»> s-^-* «4*^' \ (■ '* ^B" f M X. V ^\ ii^iiiA '« Mir.nt rill. I rri.%. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1^ 1^ 12.5 Ui lit 2.2 L2 12.0 I 1 1.25 ||U 1.6 «4 6" ► Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STKHT WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 (716) •72-4503 iV H lUt.LU-^ i. H'i/ili). itura) IkIVI^ ik'[tl( -tiil! ; Ai. !r^, .!(Mietfc), precuj;j.>s, ami ■ Nowadays the Eed-^kiua do ibcre e>.i- l>;;ick,; cilow.red, v^iuti' laTice.s, heads of iittir, arrow.s, sluejds, tii. :^ . ' 'ada, and somcrtimos a-iytbui( »«- Vvc pasj'^e&s some ' . , nclK- of Ol- ■.mericM 1 ./!: m i re- ■ '^lore exi ., . n/>r':r' '•^■^nt inive thriv m- INDIAN HIEIIOGI.YPHS. MODERN riCTOGRAPHY. 425 signs, which, previously to being painted, were shghtly cut in the thickness of the leather with a sharp instrument. On the upper part of one cloak was an Indian holding in one hand a scalping-knife, in the other a head of hair ; at his feet were eight human skulls, which denoted that he had killed eight enemies. On another cloak was painted a disarmed A^arrior in front of a chief with all his insignia, arid brandishing a lance over his head ; round the two adversaries were marks of red mocciisins, denoting that some Indians had assisted at the single combat between the two chiefs ; the totems indicate their names. A third pictograph represented an immense sun, round which un- rolled the panorama of the baptism of a shield by fire, a ceremony of which more shaU be said hereafter. The priests, magicians, or medicine-men, in their writings, make use of signs like those of common people ; but their graphic art is more developed, so that the historical or prophetic annals, the mysteries of necromancy, and the written songs of medicine-men are far more difficult to de- cipher than the simple narrations of warriors and other people. Above aU, their sacred songs, almost exclusively composed of phonetic signs, are so fantastic, singular, and uncertain, that great pra *'"e and patience can alone en- able one to understand their signification. The totems (pronounced dodems), of which mention has already been made s». veral times, are symboHc names, ge- neraUy employed to designate a clan or a family, and not a person, though it is mostly only the head of the clan or fiimily who makes use of this sign, whether as private seal, signature, or mark of distinction. The word totem is derived from a generic word of the North -Indian language which means town or village, and accords with the word house, taken in a heraldic sense. In fact, the m r i 1 » f ; 42G THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. totem is a true sign of blazonry, and represents both the arms and mottoes of the great famihes of savages. People that have the same totem cannot marry together, nor change their heraldic signs for others. When in a ques- tion of marriage, from the degree of consanguinity or affi- nity that exists, it cannot be known if the imion may take place, the totem settles the difficulty. This division of tribes into clans, as in the highlands "of Scotland, exists among the Eed-skins from time immemo- rial. The emblem or totem is generally a quadruped, a bird, a fisli, or a reptile. It is seldom a plant, a tree, or an inorganic body. At the death of the head of a great family, when a funeral post or stone is placed to mark his tomb, on the post or stone is painted the totem of the deceased upside down. This kind of epitaph is very easy to read. There are some hieroglyphics which may be called to- temic (totems being their chief signs and characteristics). They generally show a sort of unity of thought and intui- tion and that in a very simple manner. It is a syste- matic mode of arrangement, common to all the northern tribes. We have seen the representation of a Chippeway emigration, passing through rivers, forests, and mountains, on their way from the borders of a lake to a more civihsed country. This scene was painted by the savages them- selves (on a bark of reed), with the most singular sim- plicity. In the lower part of the picture were several little blue lakes, near together ; a little higher, a large river of the same colour, passing through from east to west. Above the river were creeks and trees, symbols of forests. Tumuh, imitating mountains, were represented here and there ; and, finally, at the summit of the picture, were a dozen animals (totems of the Chippeway chiefs) placed behind TOXEMIC IIIEROGLYPUS. 427 lits both the ^es. People )gether, nor n in a ques- linity or affi- union may highlands 'of me immemo- [uadruped, a it, a tree, or .1 of a great ced to mark totem of the . is very easy be called to- iracteristics). ht and intui- is a syste- le northern Chippeway mountains, lore civihsed vages them- ngiilar sim- i^ere several a large river ast to west. s of forests. -d here and vere a dozen iced behind each other, each bearing on his breast a heart, painted red. From the eyes and hearts of these emblematic animals were drawn black hnes, which went to the eyes and heart of the commander of the expedition, whom they thus designated. There were also two other hnes in this pictograph. The first rose from the inferior lake to the eyes of the animal that guided the others ; the second, from the same animal's heart, penetrated into a cabin situated opposite him. It is almost unnecessary to explain this scene, the artist's intention is so clearly and simply ren- dered. The black hnes converging towards the same spot sym- bolise miity of intentions, ideas, and sentiments, among the Chippeway chiefs (represented by their totems), in the execution of the project for which they quitted the soUtary borders of the lake on which they d\v:elt, to settle in a civilised country (figured oy the cabin), under the guid- ance of the chief that headed them. There are totems that represent ideas more or less abstract ; but the symbols of these ideas are of such an arbitrary form, that they can only be approximately guessed at by induction and from notions already acquired. Thus, " The wind that blows" (the name of an Ottawa warrior) is symbohsed by a willow leaf crossed with oblique rays ; "The rising of Aurora" (the name of another chief) is repre- sented by a swan shaking its wings; "The rolling thunder," by zigzags, like the bolts placed in eagles' claws, &c. One could fill volumes with descriptions of the signs of savage blazonry and symbohsed thought, which Indians trace in profusion on the American continent. Whether on isolated rocks, or on those watered by streams or lakes ; whether on the aged trees of their immense forests, where man's hatchet has not yet penetrated, or on the if^r \ 428 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. walls of the Eed Pipe-stone Quarry, where the Indian engraves his name or emblem as an ex voto agreeable to the Great Spirit ; from th,. Atlantic to the Pacific, from Canada, the snow country, to the balmy shores of Florida, everywhere those despised Eed-skins, whom civihsed men brutalise and then murder, leave profound traces, in their passage through those solitudes, of their piety towards the Creator, of their exploits on the fields of battle, of their mysteries and poetic aspirations. But time and moss cover the rocks ; torrents of rain wear out the stones ; trees fall and rot ; and thus httle and little are blotted out those vestiges of the infancy of a people that became extinct before arriving at the age of manhood. 420 the Indian } agreeable the Pacific, Imy sliores dns, whom e profound es, of their the fields of But time jar out the d little are Deople that anhood. CHAP. XXII. INDIAN STATISTICS. — ^''AUSES OF THE DECHEASE OF THE INDIAN POPULATiON. — ^NOMENCLATUKE OF THE INDIAN THIDES, Before we begin the historical accounts, and the descrip- tions of the manners and customs of the Indians of the pre- sent day, we will finish this part of our work with a few words regarding the statistics of the Eed-skins. Two centuries ago the Indians of North America numbered about 16,000,000 or ±7,000,000 souls, without including those of Mexico ; since that period civilisation has deprived them of two thirds of their territory. Iron weapons, fire, brandy, small-pox, and cholera have also made upwrjds of 14,000,000 of victims among them. Some American authors admit that since the arrival of the Saxon race in Northern America wars and maladies have destroyed about 12,000,000 of the Eed-skins. Certain it is, that since the end of last century the Indian population has greatly dimitdshed ; nevertheless not one of the tribe?* that existed at that epoch has been completely annihi- lated. The principal agent in the destruction of that unhappy people is the " fire-water ; " such is the name they give to whisky, a kind of bad brandy distilled from maize and fermented barley. The American Government, prompted by a praisew^orthy sentiment of humanity, promulgated laws forbidding, under very severe penalties, the intro- 430 Till'} DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. 1 duction of alcoholic liquors among these people ; but the greater number of the official agents who reside with the lled-skins inteqiret those decrees according to their own ideas, and do not molest the merchants, asserting that " the Indiana- are not men in the eyes of the law." Owing to this mode of reasoning, torrents of whisky are allowed to flow in among the tribes, to whom this fatal liquor becomes a daily source of crime, drunkenness, de- basement, and murder. Intoxication renders the savages furious and ferocious ; they fight, bite, and kill one another. Should they find no one with whom they can quarrel, they tiu*n against their wives and children, and these poor creatures are obliged to tako to flight and hide in the woods. The following speech pronounced by Grangulakopak, the " great warrior," in a grand council of the Creek nation, will show us in what light the intelligent Indians consider the introduction of Avhisky into their country : — " Fathers, brothers, and fellow-countrymen, — We have assembled to deliberate ; but on what subject ? On a subject no less important than to know if we are to be a nation or not ! I do not rise to propose a plan of battle, or to direct the wise experience of this assembly concerning the arrangements taken with regard to our alliances. Your wisdom renders this task useless for me. The traitor, or rather the tyrant, that I desire to unveil before you, Creeks, has not taken birth on our soil ; it is a miscreant that tries to conceal itself, an emissary of the wicked spirit of darkness. It is that pernicious liquor, which our pretended friends, the Whites, have so artfully introduced, and poured in so abundantly amongst us. O, you Creeks ! when I thunder this de- nunciation in your ears, it is to warn you that if that cup INDIAN DESTRUCTION. 431 le ; but the do witli tlic o tlicir own serting tliat ' the law." wliisky arc n this fatal ccnness, clo- the savages id kill one m they can ildren, and lit and liide igulakopak, the Creek ent Indians !Ountry : — —We have t? On a are to be a plan of assembly rd to our ss for me. to unveil our soil ; emissary sernicious ites, have Dundantly r this de- that cup of perdition be su^«3red to prevail in our land with such fearful ])ower, you will cease to bo a nation ; you will have neither heads to direct you, nor hands to aflbrd you protection. While tliat diabolical juice undermines your bochly strength and woakeiis your intellect, the zeal of your warriors will become inofTensive, their enfeebled arms will no longer be able to send the arrows or wield their woiipons on the days of combat. In the days of council, wlion the national security will depend on the words that fall from the lips of the venerable Sachem, he will shake his head with a distracted mind, and liis chscourse will be no more than the lisp of second childhood." The small-pox was first introduced among the Indians in 1837 by the white men. In the space of one month it carried off from among the Biccarees, Assinniboins, Crows, Mandans, Minetarecs, and Black-feet, upwards of 12,000 persons. The scourge spread consternation and despair throughout these populations. Many people, arrived at the climax of agony, were seen to plunge daggers into their breasts ; others threw themselves down precipices, or rolled on the sand, uttering at the same time most piteous cries ; whilst others precipitated them- selves into the cold water of the lakes or rivers, where they met with their death instead of the alleviation they had hoped to find from the internal fire that consumed them. Intestine wars have become less frequent since fire-arms were introduced among the Ked-skins, so that henceforth we cannot rightly attribute the decrease of the population to these struggles ; for that popidation, far from diminish- ing, would on the contrary augment, if an intelligent civi- lisation, adapted to the character and mode of existence 432 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. I of tlicsc tril)eH, cainc to tlieir aid. It is a fact W(irtliy of note, tliat tlic isolated Indians who live in a condition of positive well-being, multiply in a most remarkable manner. For instance, among the Cherokees who hi- habited the State of Georgia before their forced emigra- tion to the frontiers of Arkansas, the annual number of births compared with that of the deaths was, on an average, 700 for 10,000 souk We shall also cite as a last cause of the depopulation of the Indian race, its forced emigration. The Eed-skins are only roamers through necessity ; they are passionately fond of the place of their birth, and the soil wherein rest the ashes of their ancestors. With a few slight exceptions, the tribes still live in the same countries that they have inhabited from time immemorial. The insufficient quantity of game, or any other material reason, would not induce the Indians to emigrate, if the American Government did not force them to it, by expatriating these unfortunate people from their native land and sending them into distant countries quite unknown to them. During those compulsory emigrations, the women, the children, and the sick are thrown pellmell into waggons among the bag- gage, the men walk or go on horseback, escorted by dra- goons or by volunteers, who, considering the emigrants as malefactors, often treat them with the most revolting brutahty. Many of these poor creatures die diu-ing the route from grief, fatigue, sufferings, himger, and thirst, or overpowered by the grettt heat. Hundreds of Indians have been thus carried off duiing their emigrations ; the old men and women, and the infirm, sunk under the weight of their miseries, \7hich were so much increased by the privations and fatigues of the joiuney. Multitudes also were swallowed up in the waters of the Mississippi. fact vvortliy a condition rcniarkublo es who in- ced emigra- numbcr of an average, Dpiilation of E3 Red-skins passioivately vherein rest exceptions, it they have 3nt quantity [ not induce 3rnment did unfortunate them into uring those en, and the ig the bag- ted by dra- emigrants 3t revolting diu-ing the d thirst, or of Indians itions ; the under the 1 increased Multitudes Mississippi. ■ DESTRUCTION OF TIIK INDIANS. 433 Among other Aicts of tliis kind we may cite tliat of tlie Monmouth, a steam-boat wliich was freighted on exceed- ingly moderate terms, as it had l)een condenmed on account of its great age : GOO Indians were embarked on it to be transported to the riglit bank of the Mississippi ; the steamer came in collision with another craft and was im- mediately sunk : 311 Indians perished by that accident. Along the route women may be seen in an agony of sorrow, bendhig over the lifeless bodies of their husbands, or over the graves of their children; but they are dragged by force far from the beloved remains of the objects of their affection. The wife of the celebrated chieftain Ross died of a broken heart before she reached the land whither the Government was sending her. Several others met with the same fate. The survivors arrive mournfid and dejected in the territory assigned to them by the contract of sale. They gradually abandon their old cus- toms and usages to imitate the Pale-faces ; for the buffalo and deer being rare in those countries, they are obliged to till the ground for their sustenance. They lose by degrees their original character, and only preserve their costume, which is often modified by stuffs of European manufacture. This sort of life being in direct opposition to their taste and nature, they merely plant whatever maize and vegetables they require for their food, and even in so doing they work with as much indifference as convicts condemned to the hulks. Sad and downcast, they sit on the threshold of their cabins smoking the red pi]:)e of the Sacred Fountain, and silently gaze on the silvery spirals of smoke ascending from the tobacco of the Whites, and fading away in the air, as they had looked upon the dying glory of their ancestors. Old traditions recall VOL. I. F F i r ■ 1 ' i! -'1 lllll 4:m Tlll<: DKSKUTH OK NOHTIC AMKUICA. ptiiiifiil i'('tj;i'i'ls to llu'ir miiul, which ovorvvholm thoin with sorrow, lh(> mom intensi; iis il, cjiuncm \\\vm to loci more (l(H'|)h, the weight oi' (heir position. The momoiy of the past, with its joyrul (liiiifcs, its aMiiimtcd fcstiviticH, ItH (limgJM'ouH hiiuts, and hcM-oic coiubats, only toiids to iiup;incMt lIuMi' gloomy mclniicholy. It is then that they givo way to iiiULxicatioii to drovvii grief, and foi'gi't the days of their liberty and independence. Merciuinls from all din tions oiler them that hideous poison tlu^y call jiri'-irat('f\ and i.lu Inditm diiidvs it with avidity, for hatred, fury, and des|)air ai'c in his soul ; hut liemrefordi, powerless and unable tt) call vengeance to his aid, lu; prefers to die besotted and degraded, rather than live with those noble |)assionM which were heretofore his glt)ry and his pi'di'. In this long moral and physical suicide, it nuist b(* confessed he is powerfully seconded by American civdisati«Mi and the sordid interest of the Whites, who still covet the cornel" of earth he occu- l)ies, and the rich furs he lino, in the solitudes of the New World. The Indians are so much opposed to those forced emi- grations that a chiefUdn named I licks was ])ut to deatii by the w? rriors of his tiibe, for having h.eld intercourse with the Whites regarding the change of territory. The celebrated Osci'ola d(»clari'd, in a. council of hi, nation, that who.soevei" should speak in favour of emigration would be t^^isideri'd as the enemy of his tribe. What the Indians would not do of their own free will, tlu'y were, nevertheless, compelled to submit to from others, for the Oovernmc iw, agents employed force and ti'casou against them, with all the constancy of an inllexiblo detcrnnnation ; but it was not without crinu- on the side o!' tlu' lattei", and desperalt' resistance on the part of the vvholm thoin \\\vm to fool 'riio momory ,0(1 loHtivitioH, only toiuls to ion lluit tlioy lul I'orgi't tlu! LM'oluuits iVoju sou thoy oall jivitlity, for lit luMU'oforiJi, o luH aid, lio \wv tluin live iforo his ^lory ysicnl Huioidts Noooiulod by |.oi\'Ht of the til llO (H'CU- tiidoH of tlio forcod omi- )ut to doiitli il intorcourHC riitory. 'V\h) i)f lii. nation, on)i}j;ratiou r\hv. Wliat •01' will, ti.oy from otliors, and troason nil inlloxiblo (• on tlio side 10 part of the I)H8TlllU!TlON OK TIIK INDIANH. 435 Uod-Nkins. Two tliousiind I'oiir Imndrod ( 'horokooH woro oinbiirkod en. in(hssd into oxilo, and obliged to ubnndtm for over tlio land nf tlioir forofatlions, it is not |M>sHibI lo hii|)]k)so that many did not show ropngiuinco to onibiirk. Wt^ do not know in what nunnior that roi)iigiiiiii('o was nianifostod, but it is a ])ositivo faot, that twolvo or liftoon Indians wor(> ohainod to provont thoir osoapo. Ono ol' thoni, unablo to ondiiro Hiu'h ail (Hitrago, disontanglod hiniHolf, and laying hold of a, club struck at tho lio.uls of his lonnontors, then shouting the war-cry li(> ondoavoui'od to lake lo llight, but was soon kilK*«l by a niuskot shot. One of his companions .received a thrust of a bayonet. The ,san.i' night throe Indians escaped : one of the fugitives was retaken, and ho preferred cutting his throat rather than to follow tlu! con- voy and his cruel guides. Hut let us throw a veil over tlu>so scenes of barbarism and des|)air, so revolting to the feelings, and which cause tho lieai't lo sicken with disgust when wo rellect that those atnu'itios ari^ only to bo seen in a country where liberty is said to have its greatest dovolopment and its most comi)leto application. It is didicult to give the exact number of tho actual population of the Indians of North America, for all tho data, relating to this subject art» only approximative. Tho odlcial census is incomplete with regard to tho tribes that do not inhabit the interior, or tlu^ imnuHliate vicinity of the United States, as likewise those with wlaan tho American Government has no intercoursi'. Tlu; nomadic life of the majoiity of the Hcd-skins, the distrust they entertain for the Whites, and (he dilliculty of under- standing accurately tho munoi'ous Indian dialects, cause tho information gleaned from the clTu'ls to be incorrect, I r 2 436 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. for it is either exaggerated or insufficient. After having studied all the statistics, both pubUc and private, that have been drawn up by the different compilers, we think we may affirm that the actual number of Indians nearly amounts to two millions of souls. The only general statistics that we have foimd in the Annals of the Propaganda of the Faith give the fol- lowing figures : — Indian Population. East of the Mississippi ..... To the west of the same river On the sovith, Texas and Mexico On the north, British and Russian possesssions . General total 81,236 265,567 2,600,000 1,400,000 4,340,803 We believe this total to be greatly exaggerated ; for the south, even includhig Mexico and the north, is less populous than the west, wherein are the great centres of the Eed-skins, and the Indian territory properly so called. The western decHvity of the Eocky Mountains and New Mexico contain between them upwards of 200,000 Indians, and the frontiers of Aikansas and of Missouri above 200,000. These figures equally convince us that Mr. Schoolcraft's statistics are incomplete. That eminent American writCx, in his official report to the Government at Washington, traced out a series of lists, in which the tribes and their populations are classified by groups. We have summed them up in the following manner : — .fter having dvate, that 3, we think ians nearly )und in the ve the fol- 81,236 265,567 2,600,000 1,400,000 4,310,803 Tcrated ; for ►rth, is less t centres of y so called, and New 200,000 of Missouri Qce us that lat eminent Government which the 'oups. We r : — INDIAN TRIBES. 43Y Groups. Number of Tribes. Indian Popidation. Iroquois .... 15 . . 6,000 Algonquins 14 . 17,000 Dacotas . 82 7,000 Appalachians 11 5,000 From Texas 17 30,000 From New Mexico 41 . 93,000 Of California 18 . 33,000 Of Oregon 59 23,000 From Florida . 5 500 From Utah 7 11,500 Total 219 226,000 To this nnmber Mr. Schoolcraft adds 30,000 Indians for the unexplored countries, which produces a total of 256,000 souls. At a later period, on revising his statistics, the learned author made corrections and additions which carry the definitive total to 423,229 Indians. But the enormous difierence that exists between this number and the first, as likewise the analysis of certain ^oups, amongst others that of the Dacotas which has only 7,000 for thirty-two tribes, convince us that this general total amounts to but a quarter of the real number of the Indian population. We therefore agree with some writers who put the number at 2,000,000, including the British pos- sessions. The Indians are divided into nations and tribes. The name of nation is given to those tribes that derive their origin from the same stock. For instance, the Snakes, the Comanches, and several other peoples of New Mexico, Upper California, and Texas, came from the Shoshonees nation. The tribes, in their turn, are divided into bands or villages ; they sometimes give up their primitive name for that of the country they inhabit, or of the river P F 3 438 THE DESERTS OP NORTH AMERICA. near which they dwell. Some tribes have but one village, and others have many. The bands are frequently com- posed of 100, and even 500 lodges, wigwams, or tents. A greater agglomeration of famihes would render a long sojourn in the same place impossible, as these tribes hve exclusively on the products of the chase. Each lodge contains, on an average, ten persons. As to the warriors, their number varies according to the position and con- dition of the Indians. In general, every foiurth man is one, and sometimes every fifth. Among the poorer tribes, or those surrounded by hostile nations, v^re often find but one out of eve y ten or twelve individuals ; for warfare, hunting, and other fatigues cause a great number to perish. There are also confederations formed by one great tribe and by several smaller ones, that writers sometimes confound and mix up together as if they were but. one and the same tribe ; but this error could not exist if they were examined attentively, for in these confederations, which were formed with a view to mutual protection and preservation, you often find great differences in the lan- guages, customs, usages, and traditions. The divisions of the tribes that in the beginning only formed one people were brought about by various causes. Li a war, or during a great hunt, there must have been a number, more or less considerable, of individuals separated from the principal corps, and the reunion of the parties after- wards offering too many difficulties and dangers, the fi-actions must have estabhshed themselves in the coun- tries which afforded them the best security and resources. Notwithstanding this separation, the languages and the re- Ugious and historical trachtions were perpetuated in the famihes. It is thus that the Ojibbeways are recognised •ne village, ently com- 8, or tents, der a long tribes live lach lodge B warriors, L and con- th man is he poorer , we often duals ; for lat number one great sometimes e but. one ist if they ^derations, sction and the lan- ivisions of ne people war, or number, ited from ties after- igers, the he coun- resources. d the re- jd in the Bcognised INDIAN TRIBES. 439 to be a section of the Cliippoways. The Assinniboins have a similar relationship to the Sioux, and several other tribes are in the same predicament. Another no less real cause of this division is the absolute independence of the Indians ; there is no tie whatever, even between the members of the same tribe, which obhges them to live together ; therefore, prompted by the instinct of pre- servation, they evidently must have determined on sepa- rating to seek their food elsewhere, it having soon become scarce in a densely peopled country. The tribes that have preserved up to the present day a special name, are yet very numerous. It is true that the greater part are almost extinct, and that they are now limited to a few families ; nevertheless, many still remain that have preserved their power, their prestige, their traditions, their manners and usages. We shall finish this chapter with the nomenclature of the tribes of North America that are known to us, either by history, by our personal journeys, or by the accounts of the trappers and voyageurs, on whose authority we can fully rely. We feel confident that we have succeeded in so satisfactory a manner in our researches, as to be almost sure that not one tribe has escaped our investigations, and that all are represented in our list. FF 4 440 THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. I Indian Tribes of North America. Abekas. Attikamigues. Catakas. Abenakics. Aucoaiscos. Catawbas. Absorokas. Aughquagas. Cathlacumups. Accokesawa. Auxumnea. Cathlakahikits. Acomaks. Ayanais. Cathlakamaps. Adaizes. Ayutans. Cathlamalcs. Adirondaks. Cathlanamenamens AfFagoulas. Babinas. Cathlanaqiiiahs. Agawoms. Baqiii-obas. Cathiapootles. Ahwahaways. Bayagoulaa. Cathlapooyas. Ajoues. Bedies. Cathlaskoa. Alansars. Benemes. Cathlaths. Algonqxiins. Big-devila. Cathlathlas. Aliatans. Biloxia. Cattanahaws. Aliches, Black-feet. Caughnewagas. Allakaweahs. Blanches. Cajnigaa. Allibamas. Blood-Indians. Chactar Amalistes. Blue- muds. Chactoos. Anasagnntakooks. Bonnacks, Chaonanons. Andastes. Brotherton. Cheegees. Apaches. Chemeguabas. Apalachicolas. Caddoeg. Chemeques. AppaloTisaa. Cadodaches. Chewaws. Aquachachas. Caiwas. Chepeyans. Aqiianuschionis. Cajuenches. Cherokees. Arapalioes. Calaveras. Cheakitalowas. Armoucbiquois. Callapuyas. Chickassas. Arrenamuses. Callimixes. Chikeeliahs. Assinniboins. Calasthocles, Chikahominis. Atenas. Canarsees. Chikamaugas. Athapascows. Cances. Chilcotins. Atnas. Canibaa. Cliillatea. Atsinas, or Gros-ven- Carankonas. Chillukittequaus. tres. Carees. Chiltz. Attacapas. Carriera. ChimL-ihpuma. Attapulgas. Castahanas. Chinnooka. ips. kits, fips. 3. enamens. dahs. Ics. as. I. ITS. agas. )a3. ras. lis. as. luaus. IS. INDIAN TRIBES. Chippanch ikchiks. Cuchanticas. H?^ re- foot. Chippowais. Cuneils. Ilallibces. ChiricagiUH. Cutsahnims. Hannakallals. Chitimichas. Hassanamesitfl, Chopunnibhs. Dacotas. Hihighenimmos. Cliowanoks. Delawares. Helwits. Chowans. Diegeros. Harring-pond. Clahclellahs. Dinondadies. Hietans. Clakstars. Doegs. Hinis. Claniociomicks. Dogribs. Hitchitiees. Clanimataa. Dogs. Ilohilpos. Clannarminiranns Dotames. Huecos. Clatsops. t Humas. Clarkames. Echemins. Hurons. Cneis. Edistoes. Cochimies. Emusas. Illinois. Coco-Maricopas. Eneshures. Inies. Cohakies. Eries. loways. Colapissas. Esaws. Iroquois. Comanches. Eskeloots. Isaaiishs. Comeyas. Esquimaux. Isatis. Conchattaa. Etohussewakkes. Ithkyemamits. Congarees. Connewangos. Facullies. Jacons. Conoys. Falls. Jantamais. Cookkoo-ooses. Flat-bows. Jelans. Coopspellars. Fiat-heads. Jemez. Coosadas. Fond-du-lac. Jumbuicrariris. Coppers. Fowl-towns. Corees. Foxes. Kadapaus. Coronkawas. Kahunkles. Cosninos. Ganawses. Kalapuyas. Cosumnes. Gayheads. Kalispels. Coneliskes. Genigneihs. Kaloosas. Coeurs-pointus. Giienos. Kanenavishs. Creeks. Grand-River. Kanhawas. Crees. Guallivas. Kansas. Crows. Gualtaa. Kaskaskias. Ciiabajais. Guamoas. Kaskayas. C'licapas. Guananesses. Kattekas. Cuchans. Kawitshins. 441 442 Keekat^as. Kenas. Kettle-Falla. Keyches. KiatawB. Kiawas. Kichais. Kigenes. Kikapoos. Killamiiks. Killawats. Killaxthocles. Kimoenims. Kinais. Kiskakons. Kites. Klalams. Klamaths. Knisteneaux KcEtenays. Konagens. Kullespelms. Kuskarawaoks. Kwaitlens. Lahannas. Lartielos. Leafs. Leech-River. Lenni Lenapes. Lipans. Lipiyanes. Llaneros. Loncheux. Lukawis. Lukkarsos. Luktons. Lutuanis. Machapungas. Mandans. THE DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. Mangoaga. Manhattans. Mannahc).T js. Maraehites. Mari^apcag^ues. Marsh pees. Mascontins. Massachusetts. Massawomes. Mathlanobd. Mayes. Menomonies. Mescaleros. Messassagnes. Miamis. Mikasaukies. Mikmaks. Miksiiksealtons. Mimbrenos. Minetaries. M indawarcar tons, Mingoes. Minsis. Missouries. Mitchigamies. Mohawks. Mohicans. Mojaves. Mokelumnes. Moleles. Monacans. Mongoulatches. Monquia. Montagne^. Montauks. Moquis. Moratoks. Mosquitos. Multnomahs. Munseys. Muskogees. Nabedaches. Nutajes. Nandakoes. Nantikokes. Narcotahs. Narrangansets. Nashuyas. Niiskotins. Natchez. Natchiloches. ^atcotetains. Natiks. Natliautins. Navajos. Nechacokes. Neekeetoos. Nemalquinners. Ninantiks. Nicariagas. Nikozliautins. Nipercinians. Nipissins. Nipmuks. Nisqualies. Noatches. Nootka . Norridgewokft. Notches. Nottoways. Ntshaautins. Nulaautins. Nyacks. Oakmulges. Oscameches. Oconas. Ogallallas. Ojibbeways. Okatiokinans. Okinaganes. Omahas. INDIAN TRIBES. 44 Oni ndagns. Pimas. Qucrts. Ootlashoots. Piankashawfl. Qui(!et.sos. Osages. Piankatanks. Quinilts. Otagamies. Pineshowa. Quinnecharts. Otoes. Pischoiis. Quinuipissas. Ottawas, Pisquitpaks. Oiuataiions. Ponkahs. Kcdgrounds Oumas. PotoaHhs. Kedknife. Owassiasas. Pottowatomies. Redsticks. Ozaa. Powhatans. Redwind. Ozimies. Punashlies. Ricaries. Pueblos (Indians of River. Pacanas. the), 22 tribes, re- Roundheads. Padoucas. siding '*. : Ryawas. Padowagas. Acoma. Pai'lishfl. Chilili. Sachdagughs. Palaches. Cochit^. Sacs and Foxes. Palaiks. Cuyamanque Sahaptins. Palooses. Isleta. Sankhikans. Pamlicos. Jemez. Santies. Pancas. La haguna. Sapetans. Panis. Pecos. Saponiea. Pannehs. Picuries. Satsikaas. Papagos. Pojuaquc. Saukies. Pascataways. Nampfe. Savannahs. Pascagoulas. Sandia. Scattacooks. Passamaquoddies. Saulit Ana. Selishs. Pah-Utahft, or Pah-Utes. Santa Clara. Seminoles. Pawnees. San Domingo. Senecas. Pawistuc?.enemiik8. ' San Felipe. Sepones. Pawtuckets. San Ildefonso. Seris. Pecos. San Juan. Serrannas. Peganeg.. SiUa. Sewees. Pelloatpallahs. Tav,3. Shallalahs. Penobscots. Tezuque. Shallattoos. Pennakooks. Zufii. Shanwappones. Peorias. Shastis. Pequakets. Quaboags. Shawanos or Shaw Pequots. Quapaws. nees. Pericues. Quathlapohtles. Sheastukles. Phillimees. Quatoghies. Sheyennes. 444 TH£ DESERTS OF NORTH AMERICA. Shinikooks. lalligiiiiinuiH. Tunicas. ShoHlionies. Tamujabs. Tunxia. Shotos, Tamaronea. Tupea. Sicaunies. Tamatlcs. Tuscaroraa. Sinpoils. Tapiels. Txiahepahas. Sioux. Taracones. Tutseewas. Sissatones. Tarratines. Twghtwees. Sitkas. Tatshiantina. Skaddals. . Tattowhehallys. Ucheea. Skalzis. Taukaways. UfaUaha. Skilloota. Tawakenoes. Ugaljachmutzia. Skitmisbos, Tawawa. Ulseaha. Skunnemokes. Tecuichea. Umquaa. Smokshops. Tejonea. Unalachtgo. Snakes. Tejuaa or Tiguex. Unamiea. Sogups. Telmocreases. Unchagoga. Sokokies. Tenicueches. Upsarokaa. Sokvilks. Teniaawa, Utahs. Soones. Tetona. Souriquoia. Tepocas. Waakicums. Souties. Tiburons. Wabingaa. Soyennoms. Timbachia. Wahlah-wahlaha. Spokanes. Tionontalies. Wahowpiima. Squannaroos. Tiqui-Llapaia. Wahpatonea. Staetans. Tiransgapuis. Wahpacootas. Stockbridge. Tketlcotina. Waillatpus. St. Francis's Tlamans. Wameaito. St. John's. Tlamaths. Wampais. Susquehannoc ks. Tockwoghs. "Wampanoaga. Sussees. Tonicaa. Wappatooa. Symerons. Tonkahawa. Wappinga. Tonkawas. Warananconguins. Tabiachis. Tontoa. Washawa. Tahkallies. Topofkies. Watepanetos. Taihailis. Toteros. Waterees. Tahsagroudies. Towahunnes. "Watxlalas. Tahuacanas. Towoashes. Wawenoks. Talchedvuns. Taakaitsetlins. Waxsaws. Talkotins. Taathla. Weas. Tallahasses. Tsatsnotins. W ekisas. Tallewheanas. Tukabatches. Westoes. WeiepahatoH. Wheelpos. Whirlpools. Wichitas. Wighcomogos. Willewahs, Winnebjigos. Wolfa. Workons. Wyandots. Wycomes. Wyniaws. INDIAN TRIBES. Xicai-illaa. YabipaYs. Yacones. Yamacraws. YamaHflees. Yampaw. Yampaxicos. Yamperacks. YattaHsees. Yavipaia. Yazoos. 445 Yeahtentances. Yehalis. Yeletpoog. YongletatH. Yonktons. YouicomcH. Yumas. Zaguaganas. Zingomenea. ZuSis. END OP THE FIRST VOLUME. Loirno!f rRIHTID BY BI-OTTiaWOODK AND CO. IIKW-STBKBT SgDAIO. lii ; THE ABBE' DOMENECH*S MISSIONARY TRAVELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA. By the same Author, in Ono Yolumo, 8to. with Map, prico lOt. Od. MISSIONARY ADVENTURES IN TEXAS AND MEXICO. A PKBSOITAL NARRATIVX OF BIX YBAES* SOJOURN IN TH08I RXOIONS. TRANSLATKD KROM TIIK VRBNCH UNDBR THB AUTHOR'S BUriRINTKNUKNCB. SELECT OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. ••rplIIS book is a sitnplo nnd evidently trutliful narrntivo of an oarnoiit Missionary'* X labours in the midst of every sort of privation. Its truthfuhioss is easily discerned in the outspoken na'iui'ii with which our author tells his adventures." John Bull " rpHE chequered nnd perilous existence of a Catholic missionary consecrating him- JL self to the cure of souls in the wilds of Texas nnd Western America, his phy- sical and moral struggles, are here portrayed with a vivid truthfulness well calculated to arrest the sympathy of our renders This book requires no further recommen- dation from us than the ana'ysis here given. Since the perusal of Livingstone's ^/nVa, wo have read no traveller'i journal with more instruction and pleasure. It isi emi- nently suggestive, too." Leaseu. " A S an exposition of inissionnry life, we know of scarcely another book that will .li. bear to be placed beside tlie Abb6 Domonech's. The missionary appears to ua here in a higher light than that in which most of us have been wont to consider him. He is no longer the travelling preacher going out to gain converts to a set of doc- trines ; he goes out to prove by its effects in himself, in the devotion, the long- suffering, the gentleness, the love of his own life, the power and beauty of the faith of which he is the tipostlo. He does not need to heap evidence upon evidence of tho truth and importance of his religion ; the most convincing evidence is that he is willing to suffer so much for its sake." Gentlbmam's Maoazims. " T\OMENECII'S tone throughout is ono of profound conviction ; and tho liard- U ships which he encountered, and which he relates with so much simplicity nnd modesty as to enforce belief, are proof that ho took his mission to heart. In the two journeys he performed to America — ^journeys tliat would have supplied a diffuse book- maker with matter for many volumes— the Abbe was almost every day exposed to danger of his life, sometimes from the climate, sometimes from the privations to which ho was subjected, now from tho rough character of the country ho was constantly com- pelled to traverse in his spiritual journeys, anon from the violence of colonists or Indians It will be seen that readers who expect an infinity of enjoyment from these missionary adventures will not bo disappointed." Dailt Teleobaph. " TN our notice of tliis work we have considered the missionary side of the Abbe X Domenech's adventures, as most easily worked into a narrative ; but we could not refer to any book in which the perils of the wilderness are more vividly described, perils by wild beasts and wilder Indian serpents, and all tho hazards of travelling through forest and river. Mayne Reid has nothing so good ; for we feel tliat the motive for which l/iese risks were run was not the love of sport or the zest of adven- ture ; it is evident that moral courage alone carries the missionary through, and that, like some other bravo men, he is physically timid — but for the sake of the work ap- pointed him he was willing to encounter all tho perils enumerated by one of old. These he relates most graphically ; and his descriptions of cel/e belle nature, which was among his few sources of enjoyment, are as bright as painting. There nre few books we can so heartily recommend to all classes of readers as this record of tho labours^ adventures, and sufferings of tho Abbe Domencch." Globe. Domensch's Texas and Mexico. Critical Opiuioud of the AbbS Domenecii's Missionary Adoenlures in Texas and Mes-ico — coutiuucd. " rpHE Abb^ Domenecli has transferred to the territories on the banks of the San J. Antonio and the Rio Grande, in Texas and Mexico, that interest which the AbW Hue know so well how to give to the scenery of, and life in, China. The work of the Texan missionary reads more like a romance than a serious and unvarnished narrative of adventure : the pictures of society and homo are so rougli and irregular j the miniature world there is represented so disjointed and dangerous, that we are at first inclined to imagine the author is simply testing our powers of credence, and draiwing upon his imagination, to fill up the outlines which simple truth had traced. But with an excusable reservation, we are bound to admit that his book possesses every ri^ht to our confidence ; and that while tracking the footsteps of the Abbe Domenecb, which he has enabled us to '' j in his vivid descriptions, we may implicitly rely upon the authenticity of his statements, however marvellous We have been able to give but a very faint idea of the fascinating contents of the volume ; but we refer the reader to its pages, satisfied that he will reap abundant pleasure and inform* ation from its perusal." Eciectic Review. " rpHE Abb^ Domenech's account of his Missionary Adventures in Texas and Mexico JL contains an animated narrative of hardship and suifering, undertaken in ? spirit of self-sacrifice and faith. Whatever may be our religious convictions, however we may abhor Papacy as a thing inconsistent with the full development of civil and religious liberty, we cannot but a '■. ire the apostolic fervour of its missionary sons ; nor when we read this record do we wonder to hear that Romanism makes progress. The man who leaves the country of his birth and the allurements of home, wandera far away from civilisation, plants himself in a savage land, and lives for years on the scanty offerings of the flock he teaches — is a man who extorts our admiration. What- ever his name or creed, his faith, at any rate, is a living one ; his gospel, at any rate, is a power. In his poverty, in his rags, iu his daily toil, we see a heroism pure as any earth can boast. The world will always appreciate and do justice to such men. We set down this as among the causes that mainly contribute to the success of the Roman Oatholio missionary. He goes forth as the first Apostles went forth Domenech returned, after six years' absence, broken down in health, to France, where he has drawn up this account of his travels and trials, which reads almost like a romance, and which we predict will be a great favouiite in this country." Dailt News. ' " rpHE good ana brave young Abb^ Domenech, whose personal narrative we may at X once say we have found more readable and Jiore informing than a dozen volumes of ordinary adventure, is not unworthy to be named with Hue in the annals of mis- sionary enter^ 'ise ; and we know not how to give him higher praise. We speak of personul characteristics, and in these— in the qualifications for a life of self-denying severity, not exercised under the protecting shadow of a cloister, but in hourly conflict with danger and necessity — the one looks to us like a younger brother in likeness to the other. His account of Texas, its physical geography, its earlier and later history, its populations settled and nomad, and of ') a *^^-^ ventures in Texas I banks of the San nterest which the China. The work and unvarnished ugli and irregular ; ua, that we are at 5 of credence, and truth had traced, lis book possesses steps of the Abbe we may implicitly ....We have been e volume ; but we easuro and inform- LECTic Eetiew. t Texas and Mexico lertaken in ° spirit tions, however wo iment of civil and 9 missionary sons ; n makes progress. I of home, wanders 58 for years on the dmiration. What- rospel, at any rate, I heroism pure as stice to such men. the success of the went forth 1, to France, where ads almost like a ntry." Daily News. ' irrative we may at m a dozen volumes le annals of mis- >e. We speak of fe of self-denying 5 in hourly conflict ither in likeness to ■ and later history, >f the Indian tribes lud now that the nend to particular heir past and pre- Abbe Domenech esting ot ais book. , as we read them, y to all churches foie it is a place, les, seems to us to JBDAY Review. / y J loster Eow. ^jf^m^mMiwvKMm^ • • " -r^-=5ai* . •"^T" .t;^ « » ^tif^r fi - T ^m, ~ -n fn ^fi:^T" ' I V^^i.:t^^(o >4.\ I IH ^irmmtmrnmi ..fefe:*''* ■» » l!:r Mci-idiaii ol'd -*•' ^0 L V H I ^/. f^VSy'^ ]\ Htd L. "..!•» ■'•/■" r^ to illuslralellii" travels ftfiottljw Joamwisrf - THE ABBE DOMENECH slunriiio Ihr acliiiil Hiliiiitioii IJVDIAiV TRIBES / • OF NORTH AMERICA iiiuMlifrciii .l<'s.Til>.-.l |,v I hi- .ml lull- ~~ IMMiirli-aii ^.•.t|jr,;|ili«-itl the Mt-i'idiaii oI'Ci^iMiwH'h. JUn j^ui!£- AiTarfniiJ- i& Tty* Meridian oT Vnif*!*. I //y //rt.y.'v*// A'.Ai/,it