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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un saul clich6, il est film6 A partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 4 5 6 WW- Y^>yo ix XvT ' r> HISTORY OF ROME. ^ttthori^cb Itxt-f ook ^txks. HISTORY OF ROME FOR JUNIOR CLASSES. BY LEONHARD SCHMITZ, LL.D, CLASSICAL EXAMINER IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. WITH A MAP OF ITALY AND AMPLE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Canaliiim Co^jyright Cgiition. -^ T O R X T (J : COPP, CLARK & CO., 47 FRONT STREET EA8T. 1878. Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada. In the year on. thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight. by Copp, Clark 4 Co Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture PREFACE. e year on* XK & Co., This little History of Rome has been drawn up for the purpose of giving the young student a brief but fair picture of the origin, giowth, development, and decay of the Roman state. The early or mythical period, which has been paased over entirely by at least one modem historian, could not be altogether omitted in a book of this kind, partly because legendary tales -v, always speoially aotractive to the imagination o. s young, partly because they show in what light the RomaM themselves viewed their own eariy history, and lastly because, though the mythical or legendary character may be fully admitted, they neveri;heless contain many traits revealing to ua the social, religious, and political life of the early Romans, not to mention the fact that a know- ledge of those legends is absolutely necessary to under- stand the numerous allusions to them which we meet with in the poetical productions of modem nations. The later centuries of the Roman Empire, subsequent to the reign of Commodus, appeared unsuitable for very young people, for with few exceptions it is only a history of wi-etched and contemptible despots, contairiing Uttle that can benefit or elevate young minds. Hence 6 PREFACE. that part of the history has been briefly characterised only in a f&w broad outlines, showing the rapid decline and final dissolution of the once mighty fabric of the Koman Empire. It is hoped that this little volume, like its companion, the "History of Greece for Junior Classes," may be found a suitable introduction to the study of the larger Histories of Rome which have been produced in thi" and other countries during the last fifty or sixty years. Li Si j/aaxoK, August, 1876i CONTENTS. Intbodttctjci^ • I . , CHAPTER I. From the FoundaHon of tho City of P -) to tbe Establish- ment of the Republic, B.C. 763 to. ,609, CHAPTER II. From the Establishment of the Republic to the Legislation of the Decemvirs, B.C. 509 to B.C. 451, . ; CHAPTER III. From the Dccemviral Legislation to the final Subiugation oi Latium, B.C. 451 to D.c. 338, . . CHAPTER IV. From the Subjugation of Latium to that of all Italy, b c 838 toB.a272, . . . . . ; CHAPTER V. From the Conquest of all Italy down to the Outbreak of the Second Punic War, b.c. 272 to b.c. 218, CHAPTER VI. From tbe Second Punic War down to the End of the War against Antiochus, b.c. 218 to b.c. 188, . CHAPTER Vn. From the Peace with Antiochus down to the Time of the Gracchi, B.C. 188 to B.C. 133, . VAoa 9 12 29 89 62 61 71 80 CHAPTER VI XL From the Time of the Gracchi down to the First War ajrainst Mithradates, B.C. 133 toB.G. 88, . . . 89 8 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. no* From the First War against Mithradates down to the Death of Sulla, B.C. 88 to B.C. 78, .... 99 CHAPTER X. From the Death of Sulla to the Outbreak of the War between Caesar and Pompey, B.C. 78 to B.C. 49, . . • lOo CHAPTER XI. From the Civil War between Pompey and Caesar down to the Battle of Actiurn, B.C. 49 to B.C. 31, . . 117 CHAPTER XII. The Reign of Augustus, B.C. 81 to a.d. 14, . • CHAPTER XIII, From the Beftth of Augustus to that of Nero, A.i^. 14 to . 128 A.D. 68, . . 184 CHAPTER XIV. From the Death of Nero to that of Domitian, A.D. 68 to A.D. 96, . 142 CHAPTER XV. From the Death of Domitian to that of Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 96 to A.D. 180, .... . 148 CHAPTER XVI. The Reign of Commodus, A.D. 180 to A.D. 192.— Conclusion, 154 Chronological Tablb, • • • • .168 Index, ,••••• . 166 FAOa Death . 99 106 lown to . 117 128 A MitAN oonr, HISTOBY OF EOME /. U to . 184 D. 68 to . 142 . 148 aclusion, 154 . 168 . 166 IKTRODTJCTION. more gigantic HVBttm. of Ll . <^he Empire ; and a the wo?/d ha. neltZn ^^1"!?^ ?.' ""«"'^" ^^'^' she at first also exZ. ,.l ll. ^''^.ff!^ her conquests, modified form to t? constitution, though in a mitted toherft-ancht .Tfln"^ T^P^^^ "^^ ^^'^^'^ -^■ and the conqueieT ati/m t^^^^^^^ ''7 «^^'^" "P' ultimately led Z St T T^ T''^ ^'^^S^''^' ^"^ forced in^the en I J^otJd« ir ^T^"'.^ '^' '''^ ^^'^« the who1.'> of Italy ^^^^ ^^^ "8^<« of citizenship to iaS^Ja cSr!!^ T '' ' """^^^ ^f--" towns ^iiimx, a dwtuot on the west coaat of Central Italy, fO HISTORY OF ROME. and its inhabitants of course were Latins. These Latins a'rain were only one of the many tribes inhabiting the vThole of Central Italy, all of them closely allied to the inhabitants of Greece, as is still manifest from the great resemblance subsisting between the language of the Greeks and the dialects of the nations of Central Italy, especially the Latin, which is the best known among them. This resemblance is in fact so great that it is clear there must have been a time when the Greeks and Italians were united as one nation speaking the same language. The Central Italians, therefore, as well as the Greeks, belong to the great Aryan famUy of nations, who immigi-ated into Europe from the East; and on their arrival one branch occupied the peninsula of Greece, while the other proceeded to Italy, which they appear to have entered from tlu^ north. In their new country they again separ- ated into several branches which became afterwards known by the names of Umbrians, Sabellians, Latins, Oscans, etc., and whose languages differed from one a,nother only as dialects. But besides these Central Italians, we meet m Italy with other nations, such as the Etruscans or Tuscans, at first occupying the plains of Lombardy, but afterwards settled in Tuscany or Etruria, which derives its name from them. They appear to have been pushed south - v/ards and across the Apennines by swarms of Gauls de- scending from the Alps and conquering the couivtry between those mountains and the Apennines. The south-east of I+aly, moreover, was inhabited by a race called lapyges, probably the earliest immigrants into the peninsula, who had been pushed to the southern extremity by subsequent immigrants. The most recent inquiries have shown that all these nations, including even the Etruscans, about whom so many wUd conjectures have been formed, belonged to the Aryan i-ace. But in addition to these, the southern coasts of Italy were cov^ered with Greek colonies, whence that part of the peninsula is sometimes called Great Greece (Magna Grcecia). Hence, in spite of aU appearances to the con hese Latins labiting the illied to the m the great ■ the Greeks y, especially ;hem. This there must alians were ^lage. The eeks, belong immigi'ated arrival one lie the other lave entered again separ- ) afterwards lans, Latins, d from one lect in Italy Tuscans, at it afterwards es its name ushed south - of Gauls de- the country nines. The ed by a race ants into the jrn extremity ent inquiries ing even the jectures have tasts of Italy that part of -eoce (Magna B to the con HISTORY OF BOHE. 11 tally, the whole of Italy, including Etruria md Ciaalpino Oraul, waa inhabited by mtions belonging to one and the same great i-ace, whose original home appears to have been m the north-west of India. Their arrival in Europe which must have been very gradual, and have occupied a long period of time, may be assigned in a geneml way to the year 2000 before the Christian era. PLAN or TBS OITY OF BOWE. TDK OAFIIOLmK SHB-WOU'. CHAPTER I. i FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CITY OF ROME TO THB ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBUC. B.C. 753 TO B.C. 609. In treating of the earliest history of Rome, we mxxst bear in mind that we are dealing with mere legends, as is the case with all other nations whose history pretends to go much further back than their wi-itten literature. In the case of Rome the legendary, or, as we may call it, the artificial character of its early history may be inferred all the more from the fact that in the year B.C. 390, when Rome was taken and destroyed by the Gauls, most of the ancient historical records perished, and had to be restored as far as possible from oral traditions and legends. This legendary part might therefore be passed over altogether, were it not that the legends were believed by the Romans themselves, and are so much interwoven with the subse- quent literature not only of the Romans, but of nearly all the nations of Europe, that it becomes a necessity to have some general knowledge of them. Moreover, although the events themselves recorded in the legends may have no historical, foundation, they yet enable us every now and then to catch a glimpse of the social, moral, and re- ligious condition of the people, or at least of the light in inSTOKY OF ROME. 13 •which the Romans themselves viewed their early history, which itself is a matter of no small interest. We shall therefore give a brief outline of the earliest or legendary history of Rome, adding, where necessary, a few remarks pointing out what must bo regarded as fable, and what may be sui)posed to convey some historical truth. The story about the foundation of Rome runs as follows : Jimas, one of the Trojan heroes, is said after the destruction of his native city by the Greeks, to have arrived in ItiUy with a number of followers, to have founded the town of Lavinium in Latium, and to have thus become the ancestor of a long line of kings. Ascan- ki8, his son and successor, founded che city o£ Alba Loru^a, which henceforth became the seat of government, and is said to have been the head of a confederacy of thirty Latin towns. Procua, one Ox its last kings, at his death left two sons, JVumitor and AmuUus. The former, beinf' the elder, succeeded his father, but Amulius rebelled agamst his brother, drove him from the throne, and in order tx) secure his unjust possession of it, ordered the son of Numitor to be put to death, and then compelled the daughter, Rhea Silvia, to become a vestal vii-gin, whereby she was obliged to remain unmarried. But by the god Mars she became the mother of twin sons, Romulm and Rermis. Thereupon Amulius caused her to be killed, and her infants to be thrown into the river Tiber. The river at the ti^ie happened to have over- flowed Its banks, so that after a short time, when the watera subsided, the basket containing the babes re- mamed standing on dry land. There they were suckled by a she-wolf, and fed by a woodpecker, until they were found by the shepherd, Faiistulus, who took them to his wife, Acca Laurentia. When the boys had gi-own up to manhood, they distinguished themselves by their bravery and their noble bearing • by an accident they became acquainted with their own history, and with the assist- aiiee ot their eomiTides drove Amulius from his usurped throne, which was now restored to their grandfather Numitor. 14 HISTORY OP ROME. This being accomplished, they resolved to build a town on the Palatine hill near the spot where they had been saved. When the new town was finished, a dispute arose as to which of the two brothers should give it its name ; from words it came to blows, and Romulus slew his brother. In order to increase the number of inhabitants, Komulus opened an asylum, inviting all and sundry to come and settle in the new place. Vagabonds of eveiy description came, and all were welcome. But as there were no women among them, the population would soon have died out, and in order to prevent this, Romulus applied to the neighbouring communities of Latins and Sabines to obtain wives for his subjects. This request was scornfully rejected, and Romulus then resolved to obtain by a cunning device what had been refused to his fair demand. He invited the neighbouring tribes to a festival to be celebrated in honour of the god Neptune ; and while the strangers were witnessing the games, the Romans suddenly seized their daughters and carried them by force to their homes. To avenge this outrage, the Latins and Sabines took up arms against Rome. The former were easily defeated, but during the heat of the fight with the Sabines, the Sabine women threw them- selves between the combatants, imploring them to desist from destroying one another, and declared themselves willing to remain with their new husbands. A peace was then concluded, in which it was agreed that the Romans and Sabines should thenceforth form only one state, but that each nation should retain its own king. The Sabines then under their king, Titits Tatius, built a new town for themselves on the Capitoline and Quirinal hills, near that of the Romans. The two nations for a time lived in happy peace and concord; but not long after, Titus Tatius was killed during a sacrifice at Lanuvium, after which Romulus alone reigned over both Romans and Sabines. Soon after this Rnmulus became involved in wars against Fidense and the Etruscan town of Veil, in both of which he was successful, the Veientinea being even I nisTonv OP uoMfi. 15 build a town ihey had been dispute arose it its name; ulus slew his if inhabitants, [jid sundry to londs of evoiy But as there )n would soon his, Romulus of Latins and This request n resolved to refused to his ag tribes to a god Neptune ; 3ie games, the 1 ctlrried them J outrage, the t Rome. The he heat of the ti threw them- them to desist ed themselves ids. A peace freed that the form only one its own king. Tatius, built a 3 and Quirinal o nations for a ; but not long a sacrifice at gned over both ?^olved in wars if Veii, in both uea being even years, from B.C. 753 to r r- 7ir. , "^ ^^ tliirty-ei^'ht +v,^ 4.1 • •^- '^">he was removed from the earth in as niarvelloua a manner as that in wS his tlr r"';/^ ^Z "" ^^>' ^^i^« ^^ was review his tioops, his father Mars descended in a temnost Za as a go<l under the name of Quirinus, and rec.ardc( vs ouc 1 IS the legendary account of the life and iri-rn r.f Eom^Uus; but the Romans at all times look -d „po f im aiitho" Jfle'' ^""T^-,«^their city, but l^^^'Z autJioi of the gi-oundwork of their political institution? trib^r thel?""' *°^-^^^ '^^^^^^ ^- people nt'thTe tribes the Hamnes, Titles, and LuceresUioh tribe into cW " T? '^^ r^ ^^"" ^*° °"« i^^^'-ed g nte o*? clans. The senate or council of elders, oridnallv s-iS Z have consisted of one hundred member , was incTeHs^^d to two hundi-ed, when the Sabines or Titles (from S^^^^^ Besides the sovereign people thus organised into tribr^ curi^, and gentes, there existed in the earlfest ti^e two other c asses, the clients and the slaves. The formir were retamei^ of certain families or clans, and the pXii to whom a client was attached was ca led his ation (patronus, from pater, a father), which shows tW.r relation subsisting between a dielt and trpaton re' sembled that between a father and his son The plebeians' ^ZXsZtt^: '^ '''''''' - I'^«^--^ as L After the death of Romulus, a whole year passed awav without a successor being elp^t-fl and i- f h-T J^ the government was condfctedbyCstatl'^I^^^^^^ the Ramnes or Romans chose from among the Sabifes 16 HISTORY OF ROME. Nmna Pompilins of Cures, a man rcsnowned for his piety and wisdom. The lef;end represents him as the founder of all the great religious institutions, just as Romulus w descriVMid as the author of the political organisation of the sUite. Numa's reign was a period of uninterrupted peace, during whicih the people were engaged in the peaceful ixu-Huit of agricidture and in the worship of the gods. In Mil ho dill tht! king was supported by the counsels of the iiviiil)h Euorid, with whom he had interviews in a sjicred gi-.)ve near Aricia. The tirst thing he did was to build a TeniT)le of Janus, which remained closed throughout his reign, a sign that Rome was at peace with all her neighlioura He then instituted the several orders of priests, as the Jlamines, priests devoted to the special service of the gods Jupiter, Mars, ftnd Quirinus, the vestal virgins, and the salii or dancuig priests of Mars. He next appointed the college of augurs {augure^}, consisting of four members, whose business it was to ascertain" the will and pleasure of the gods by observing the flight of birds in the air and their tnanner of feeding. The college o( pontiffs (pontijices), lastly, consisting of four members, headed by a fifth called the ponti/ex maxtmus, possessed most extensive powers in all matters connected with religion. After having thus regulated religion and all its numerous rites and ceremonies, Numa Pompilius di(;d after a reign of forty-three years, from B.C. 715 to 672. . .^. , XV ^ !• The story of this king is quite as mythical as that ot Romulus ; the religious institutions ascribed to him had no doubt' existed among the Latins and Sabines from time immemorial, as is clear even from the legends about his predecessor. The religion of the Romans, like that of the Greeka, was only an offshoot of the religion of the great Aryan race, and consisted originally in the worship of the various powers manifested in nature, such as the Bun, the moon, the heavens, and the earth, with the various forrea displayed in them. But in later times that simple worship of nature was corrupted by foreign influences, esi^ecially by the mythology of the Greeks, for the Romans HISTORY OF ROME. 17 d for his piety as the founder aa Romulus is uisatioa of the ;rnii)ted peace, n the peaceful f the gods. In counsels of the :;w8 in a sacred was to build a throughout his with all her veral orders of to the special Quirinus, the riests of Mars. lurs (augurea), ness it was to is by observing nner of feeding, insisting of four ttifex maximus, itters connected ted religion and fuma Pompilius from B.C. 715 to thical as that of ibed to him had id Sabines from ae legends about lans, like that of religion of the y in the worship bure, such as the with the various imes that simple reign influences, I, for the Romans t^mselves had scarcely anything that can be called mytho- Murjfn'rP'"^^ f ^",™^ Pompilius the Romans chose kmg. His reign, extending from d.c. 672 to 640 is de- scribed ,. the very opposite of that of Num. fS- he is sa.d to have neg ected the worshii, of the g„ Is and to Tr^sTof'tf '''"' " ^"^^^'"^' '''^^'''' Ins'-noigZnis Ihc hi.st of these wars was waged against All.a Loi.ca in consequence of certain acts of violenc'e for wlueh repan ion was ,e ,„ed by that city. The contest between Ktvo length the commanders arranged that the di.spute should be detez-imned by a combat of three Roman brothers caHed the I/oraHt, with three Alban brothers called the CuriatU who happened to be serving in their respective aTmts- and 1 was agreed that the conq.iering party should rule ovei. the vanquished When the three champions of ^ par^y met, wo of the Horatii were killed, while all Sio tl ee Cunatu were mdeed wounded but still able to fight The surviving Horatius then took to flight and the tWp P rmitTThf '^" ^\T^„-*-als\l:TheirtotS permitted. Ihis was what Horatius had foreseen and turning round he slew them one after another It was .hus decided that Rome should rule over Alba When the Romans returned home in triumph, Horatius met hTs sister, who burst into tears and lamentations, wh^n .- saw among the spoils won by her brother a gai^Lent ah: had woven with her own hands for one of the Cimatii to whom she had been betrothed. Horatius, enia^d at iier sTo'r ForT^ -occasion, i.n her through with M Sh • hufh """^'''^Sehe was tried and sentenced to death, but he availed himsalf of his right to appeal to the people who, moved by the recollection of whatTe h^ done for his country, and by the entreaties of his fatheV who by h. death would have been left childless, acqi Ltd him. This tra.gic story is unquep,tionably no more than Alba having been overpowered by the Romans and 18 HISTORY OF ROME. become subject to them need not on that ax;count be doubted, , . 1 • .• i.^ The people of Alba, however, bore their subjection to their neighbour with great rehictance, as was shown very Boon afJr, during a ^var of Kome against the town o Fi.leiiK, in which the Albans, who were bound to support Rome, formed the treacherous design of joining tuleno;, if the Romans shoidd be worsted. The treachery, how- ever, was discovered by TuUus Hostihus, who, after successfully terminating the war, ordered the commander of the Albans to be put to death, and their city to be razed to the ground. This order was immediately carried into execution, and the Albans are said to have been transferred to Rome, where they were ordeied to settle on the Cailian Hill. Some of the most distinguished Alban families obtained all the rights of Roman citizens, while the great body of the conquered people entered into a relation whkh was neither that of ful citizens nor of slaves. They were called the plehs or pkhes, to distin- jruish them from the old Roman citizens, who were called patres, patricii, or populus Romanus. The po^er of Rome was thus doubled by the fall of Alba, and the Roman king now waged a fresh war against the Sabines and Latins, over the latter of whom he claimed the same authoritv as that previously exercised by Alba. But the kin.r's victories were of little avail, for by his neglect of the worship of the gods he had incurred their anger, and he and his whole house were destroyed by Jupiter with a flash of lightning. . After his death, Aiwus Marcius, a babine fvom amon,j the Tities, and a relation of Numa ^^o -.. ■ .. was raise ' to the throne, which he is said to liuvc occupied from B c G40 to 616. He at once set about to revive the reh- gious institutions, which had been neglected by his pre- decessor, but he was unable to devote his whole time to them, for the Latins, who had concluded a peace with r.^ lius Hostiliu" +hnu<?ht that they might assert their independence under a p^eace-loving king like Ancus. He was thn obliged to resox-t to war, in whach he displayed lat account be : siibji'ction to ^as bhowu very it the town of )UIkI to su[)i)ort oiniiig Fult'ua), treachery, how- iis, who, after the coumiaiKler their city to be ediately carried X to have been ■deied to settle It distingviished Roman citizens, people entered full citizens nor pkbes, to distin- who were called The power of ' Alba, and the nst the Sabines laimed the same by Alba. But or by his neglect Ted their anger, •oyed by Jupiter )ine from amon,; Xiiic was raisi ' t, occupied from ,0 revive the reli- ected by his pre- lis whole time to led a peace with ight assert their like Ancus. He lich he displayed HISTORV OP ROME. 19 Hostdius. Many of tho J^.tiu towns wero taken ami nTn;TV rrT/'.'^"^ ^^ '-' ti.o who/e for^r^v z m!, v\ ^^''^^ ,"^ "" ^''^^^'^ »^'^"le near Medullil ^} Z ^t T, ""^ '''"'" "^''' ^^'^''-^ transferred to 110^* tion Tl '"' "^"'I' """'-"«'' ^^ t»^«n» a« their habit.a ^sLt orih'^^^'^r""^'-"^ "^^« '^^ s^xmer^a on as tnat of the conquered i)eoplo of Alba— tlmf Jc fi Xr Ctf' Vt; -"'"'- "-^- S™ «:■• - t!,J? j- l""'**''; that a great many of the conaiierrrt Smwn Mount ?r •''?'''■ -f!"™ '= "'^ -'" '» »« urawn Mount Janiculus within the citv ir, l,o,-^ « the Roman donunion was extended to the sea' ^ oS^L^ "^"""^ """' oppression of thlir patrician and Tities— fhn+ i. ■--—«. n.,.^13, Delwnguig to the Ramnes tt.«„'f"iit:Ls£:i;^t:'ti3^ ««"- w"^-- ^1 af 20 HISTORY OF UOME. The remaining three kings are said to have been Betciea in tlie town of Turquinii. in Etj-nrJa fv. • xi. kmg Serviu, TuUiu,, i, in'son^^^'l^^ZTj^^T^ «. ttnmcan, b„t com doring the JiLoral spirit in^Ue, he tranied a new constitution for T?nm« ,•*■ wmcn likely that he waa of Lathi oril^n.^""^'' '' ""i'^'''^^'' ^^^'^ It IS further remarkable that the BnmnT, c+of„ i,- i. under Ancus Marcius is said tot^7ZXd::^yl small portion of Latium, suddenly appears under his successor as a great monarchy, under wWch great arch tectural works are constructed, some of which regain down to the present day. remain The fifth king, Tarqumms Friscns, who is reported to have reigned from b.c. 616 to 578 is reprLented ^^ already remarked, as a foreigner, who by his Sth and wisdom gained the flavour of Ancus MarciuT«^?Ivr u succeeded in raising himself to the thror^s hS^^^^^^^^^^^^ to the exclusion of the sons of Ancus. One of ITs firs^' acts was to increase the number of senators by one huf S "it dl'rr'^^'" ''-'' ^'^ ^^^-*«^ ofVo^mem-' Ders. It does not seem improbable that the increase in the n,j„,ber of senators was connected with therconTora^ tion of the tribe of the Luceres with the state InZ lor further to increase his power, he undertook a war ac^ain^J the Latins, in which he was so successful aiTd brouX home such splendid spoils, that out of them he was enaWed ,td«^«^"XT" «P^^-^i^*^- those of a^^of Ms mise their number to 1800 ^ ^K- ^' ? '^^ *° wnvo'+C """•••"S^b tu uciciit; his enemies. Duriufr these wais the Etruscans are said to have supported the kin^s I* m HISTORY OF ROME. 21 to have been as having come lius Priscus, is an, Demaratus, th, and to have 'ia. The sixth IS described as spirit in which ' ajipears more ■n state, which nprised only a iars under his h great archi- which remain is reported to epresented, as lis wealth and s, and thereby i his successor,, le of his first s by one hun- of 300 mem- le increase in the incorpora- te. In oi-der a war against and brought e was enabled of any of his to have laid lariots, called ivolved in a cavalry was Iry, so as to 3ans he was )uring these id the king's enemies, for which Tarquinius chastised them in two successful battles ; after which the Etruscans are reportld to have submitted to the Romans. But what mSs ht I/l^Llf wbpirT*';' ''''^ ""^ ^^'' gr-e^t Hewer (Cloaca Maxima), whereby the Forum and other low districts of putect state of preservation. His foreign origin seems further to be attested by the innovations he introduced ZL^U .'t^'^""^ ^'^^"'« ^^ ^i« P««Pl-' for it was in ht HeCanttrt "'"/"' reprLeilted in human form" toline H^ll Af'""-^ 0/ a temple of Jupiter on the Capi- The two sons of Ancus, who had always considered earrd TatTf ^ iT'^'- '^ T^^^"™' ^^en t^y Sei" i^ Tulbn t ^"^.^T^^^d to leave the throne to Se9'mus Tullim who reigned from B.C. 578 to 534 is described, like his father^n-law, as a foreigner H s ongin however, is uncertain, and very wonderful" stories SZst Veif '' '° ^^"^^ undertaken a successful war tLXrJSY-^'' ^' '^^l^f «^^*«' ^g^i««t all Etruria. But the glorj, of his reign did not consist in militarv undert.ik mgs, but in the fact that he gave to the iSnln 1^ a new constitution, which, with some changes, was Sued afall " '■" ^'""^ ^' '^'y ^">^^d Iny constitution neo^W^."" *!'" patricians alone had formed the sovereign riff'h+ja r^f V •:;*•••• -^"^eua, witnour, enjoying the whole bodv of r- , ^:^"\'^""i"« first organised%he wuole body of the plebeians, by dividing them into thirty 3*1 22 HISTORY OP ROME. and discuss theb: own affa ■t'" TJ ''^'^ '^' ''^^^ *« ^^^^ patricians, called co^S^Ztta 1 1"^ *'««^ ^^ *^« reform was that he fram!;] 7 f./^r ^nore important man's rights and duties wet ir'''*"S^""' ^^ ^^^'^ * by birth alone, but bv Z "^^^""'T'l^^ ^^^* ^« ^i^^^erto, sessed. For his nn.L i "'•"''* "^ P^^P^^tJ be pos- . according t^it divided r^t^ ^ ^^^«"«' ^^d and Plel^ians, int^Se toperttor'^^n.^'i^ P^*^«^^^ possessed at east 100 000^ .^ ^'"f ' *^" ^""^^ °f ^^^i^b 12,500. Those who had less "A th ''' ^'*^ "* ""'^ tuted the large class of VhTt were Xt^^TT -'"'''''''- capite censi, who did r^ni^ h.T 1 ^ pi'oletarians or bad assigned to it a numbeT!.f " T '^'''- ^^'^ <^J^«« turioi). The first oln«« r 1 u^ ^""^^^ °^ centuries (cm- fourtli twtX eacMh: m't^ '""irT'' *^^^^' ^^ bad only one, makkg a^toltW^ In addition to these the eStPPv. n V ^P"*™s or votes, eighteen votes, anrcanSer^r ""' °^ *^^"^*^« ^^d two, so that the wholeTmW n? ."""''"'^^^ ^^ ^^'^^ The distribution of voteHbe J ''*'' ^"""^^^^ ^'^ ^93. tbe fir^t class and the ethtlpn f ? ^-"^ T^' *^^* ^^^^ among themselves a ifoZ'^^T^'^'T'^' '^''^ was no need for the otW nllt ^^^"led, and there power was thus vested i^i thp? u J"*"" "^^ P^^^*^^^! for the moment tie khWs reform ^''fi '^T'''' '^ *^^* any violent change,1x?ent tW K" ^H^ ^''^ "^* ''^"^^ tbe right to take mk hi 1 „ }^ P ebeians obtained tbe centuries (eor^i^ Zt^^t^^^^^T'-^ ^' represented the whole Rnms^ll L T ^^'^ ^'''^^^^'^^ much as the cla^s to which a nfa?l^,'' ^5 f "^^' ^^■ tbe duties he had to pliform a.T '^f.^^^S^l determined assembly were transfSni bp "'-■ ^"^ ^^''' ^«^ wl^icb had previou:;; Snied :X^eT'^^^^^^^ cian cotfiitia curiata. e^ciu^irei^ to the patri- ich belonged to to the country lagistrate, called le right to meet ings were called m those of the more important '"> by which a not as hitherto, ^•operty he pos- a census, and Joth patricians 3 first of which ■ fifth at levjii iiimum consti- )roletarians or s. Each class centuries (cen- nd, third, and ^e proletarians iries or votes, jf equites had ans had each unted to 193. 'h, that when quites agreed d, and there AH political isses, so that id not cause ms obtained assembly of le same time army, inas- determined 'o this new i-tant rights > the patri- HISTORY OP ROME. 23 Instead of continuing tho war against the Latins, he managed to induce thoiu to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome by peaceful mmm, He induced them, and art parently the Sabinea ,Un<., to fotmd a sanctuary to Diana on the Aventnie. Lmlly, ho carried out the design of his predecessor, to suiTound the city with a wall, in which he included two more l,ill«, the Viminal and Esquiline. By these things, and trnpnoially by his political reforms, bervius Tulhus drew u|:.m himself the hatred of the patricians, who, ]muh,l by Tarquinius, his own son-in- law, created a revolution, in which the aged king was miirdered, and TarquiniuH awcoiuled the throne. Ihe account of tluH revolution runs as follows : In order to propitiate the houh of l.iM predecessor, and to secure to them the succession, HurviuH had given his two daughters in marriage to the two ho»« of Tarquinius Priscus, Lucius and Aruns. The fovum', though capable of criminal actions was not naturally (liMposed to crime, but he was married to a gentle and UJmmbitious woman : while the wife of his gentle brothm- Aruns, called Tullia, was stiU more passionate and ambltiotis than her brother-in-law lullia, vexed at the long life of her father, and at the indilierencr of her husbiKHl, who seemed willing to leave the succession to Im uu>va ambitious brother, planned the destruction of thoH,, who seemed to stand in her husband s way to tho throne. A secret understanding was easily come to betwoon her and Lucius, who wat mduced to kill his wife, while she murdered her husband This design being acco.npliHhed, she and Lucius became umted m marriage. Imnm, goaded on by his unscrupu- lous wife formed a counpiraoy with discontented patri- cians, and It was resolved to destroy the aged king Tarquinius then summoned a meeting of the senate, and! adorned with the eusigiw uf royalty and accompanied b; a band of armed followerw, ho entered the senate, delivered a wild speech against S.n-vi„« Tullius, and tried to establish ^4? +1, ,• •••"•;'"'>IHS liio king, when mtonued ot these proceedings, hft«ti»ned to the senate, intending to put a stop to such revolutionary proceedings. But Lucius m m .'I., 2i HISTORY OP ROME. tte street, covered wi IbJoS """"^r^"^* ^^^^ *^ corpse S tad driven to the seiTate f^ ' • ^^^^^'^'^He TuJlia also tusbaud's success mj V^ ""^^^'^^ ^^^ first news of h! natural conduct w;3t^ ^, «>ngratu]ate him "tJs un -J^ich stained the g^ent of tb"' '•^^^' *^- Wood "f The street in whioh iu- i^ , *^^ unnatural danaJif^ of the means b^S he'hT'^ ^" ^ ^^^er worthv i«, te acted a^ a tTrant wh T"^'"^ *^« thronlS totirh ^"i^-strr^fc? I'^jr^^'y or Z to i)W,he neither consul? J xT ^^^*^<1 from Be 5Sd. but followed his owr^ero^^^^^ ^^^ the people Tte reforms of ServiuTSur '^^*'^"^ ^^ everythtg labours of that king seemed to h """"l '-"^olkhed, and Z The acts of cruelty and "It ^^^« ^""^ «P«nt in vail almost incredible A^^J^^l^P^'^s^on ascribed to Mm «^ be denied that ^r mu:t^t:re?it^ ''' '^^^^^ abiiitj, for he extended his S f " ^^ ^^^<^ miHtarv Ills predecessors, and adorned f ""^^ '"°^'« ^^^n any of useful architectural worir h' '"'^ '""''^ ^^^^ ancf towns to concluae a trelty wifl' 'impelled the Latin ^a^ recognised as the head ^r n ^u"^' ^^ ^^^^eh Rom^ ^ered Suessa Pom.tia, itealthv n' "^f f ' ^e ooT and strengthened the nowlr X *''^'' ^'^ *^e ^olscians went of the colonies of T • ""^ ^°^^ ^y the estabS' conquered peoplewe/ke^ f ?^^ ^^'^ ^^'^^' ^bereby thJ iril^^- .ilitl^'^^l--^^^^^^ ^"t~- - --^^y UK-reasing, both with tt^^ Vi^^^ S ■^-^3,-.-.^..-COj.;j 'ess old man, and e house. When [rmed men were Qim a corpse in ^^hile TuJlia also rst news of her ii/m. This un- cius Tarquinius, way, the chariot ;her's body was eared, and the > drive on, and ', the blood of "ral daughter, ivas ever after lanner worthy e throne, that tined the sur- ughty or the from B.C. 534 r the people, n everything, ihed, and the )ent in vain. f to -him are 'e, it cannot reat military than any of ^ great and I the Latin i^hich Rome '• He con- 3 Volscians, e establish- thereby the lit notwith- ipopularity and with HISTORY OF ROME. 25 the people ; many of the former were put to death or sent into exile, while the people were groaning under their heavy taxes and the task-work imposed upon them in the construction of public buildings. The king, it is said, was further harassed by dreams and awful prodigies. Uneasy at all these symptoms of the discontent of his subjects, and the anger of the gods, he sent two of his sons, Titus and Aruns, to consult the oracle of Delphi To amuse them on their journey, he sent with them a cousin, Lucius Junius Brutus, who had assumed the character of an idiot, in order to escape the danger of being put to death. When the princes had executed their father's orders at Delphi, they also consulted the god about themselves ; and the answer was, that he should be king of Rome who should be the first to kiss his mother. The two brothers agi-eed to kiss their mother at the same time, so that they might rule in common ; but on their landing in Italy, Brutus, as if falling by axjcident, without being observed, kissed the earth, the mother of all. During the latter part of his reign, Tarquinius was involved in a war with Ardea, a fortified town of the Eutulians, who had probably refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. The town accordingly was oesieged, but with little success; and one day, while the king's sons and their cousin, Tarquinius CoUatinus, were feast- ing in their tents and discussing the virtues of their ■wives, it was arranged that the three should go home unexpectedly by night, to see how the princesses were spending their time. The wives of the two brothers were found at Rome, revelling at a luxurious banquet ; but when they came to Collatia, they found Lucretia, the wife of Tarquinius CoUatinus, engaged in domestic occupations with her maid-servants. She accordingly was acknowledged to be the best of the three ; but in her humble occupation she appeared so lovely and beau- tiful, that a few days laber Sextus Tarquinius, one of the princes, retui-ned to Collatia, where, as a kinsman, he was hospitably received. But in the dead of night he I ".4 If I 26 HISTORY OP ROME. 't • I By intimidation r^lifecl hi« .n f'"^ to gratify his lust. ing mon^ing Lucretf^rnttX fa^th" /" d'l 'f T who came accompanied bv PnM^fir , ^ ^^ husband, Junius Brutus. To these wi 7^^'''"' ^"^ ^"«i»« crime committed upon her and L^"'''l^/'^^^^^d the to avenge the wronT n^lt^ i T^ '^"^^ "P^^ them breast. Brutus^^wVrtfn'o Vth?" '^*%'^^ °^ and drawing the da<r£rf>r AvT fu ^® ^^""^ ^^ Jdiotcy, tion to the" ro;arSsf oT th.' 7"'^^ ™^^ ^^«*-- others took the same oath «^ T^^qums. The three having been inVred of ^hat £ T^'^ °/ ^°"^*^- took up arms. The con^nirl ^ t^PP«»ed, at once unanimously decreed to Zr^T ^^^r "^^^^^ ^t was royal family. Kus If-" ^"^^^ ^^""''^ *^« ^^^ole office of com'inant^SVwS? "" ^T ^^^^ *^« set out for Ardea to gaS ov^th^ l^T %Tl)-' *'^" soon as he heard the news Ut^ned fri P ^ ^'^^' ^ hope of being able to nZu .^ • "^^ to Rome, in the the gates closed aglinstlim M^'T-f^T' ^'^^ ^^""d followed the summons of S^tuf^^^^^^^^ t^« ^-^7 also queen and two of his s^^ I'T i^® ^'''^' "^^^ ^ Etruria. His son Sext?,«T '. ^^ .""^/"^^ ^* ^J^^e in he was slain r^ctcJ^rr/^n^L?^^^^^^ preWously eommit^d agLttrhaUo^^ *""'^^^ ^^ ^^^ thei rbe'lo^XubtThft P'^y~^r^^Tlt last king of Rome and th .T^"' ^"P^^^"« ^^« the despotic,^hough"^duiX ,'^^^^^^^ '"^ ^^^ his misdeeds. Whether hn7.. .^^^ exaggerated accomplished in tlnuik^ndoS " ''^?"'^°" ^^ «ae legend, is more tS doTbtfr * "^'""^^ "^"^'^^^^ ^ thwLt!:' .'-'", '^"* ^'^^ ^«-- kings were Wd t^ -^.-hSt-t-^-^^^^^-r^^ HISTORY OF ROME. 27 J expose her name gratify his lust, ut on the follow- her and husband, erius and Lucius retia revealed the called upon them 3r into her own mask of idiotcy, ', vowed destruc- ins. The three ople of Collatia ppened, at once stened to Rome, . where it was nish the whole have held the « celerum), then . The king, as ) Rome, in the ition, but found ! the army also 3 king, with his ge at Caere in ^^here soon after eachery he had ition which for t. How much certained; but )erbus was the lad been very ih exaggerated evolution was sr described in vere raised to ider the later succeed their fathers. The time dunng which the seven kings are said to have reigned is unusually long; and the?e is good reason for believing that the whole kingly period was made up artificially, for every one of the k^^ s re^r^ tutt'of r^^ 'T^'^ °"^ ""' '-'^'^ °^ *^«^^t insti- tutions of the kingdom ; nay, it is even doubtful whether Rome had only seven kmgs. But certain it is, that the ak.ir;i elected from among the pa^icians at first alternately from the Ramnes and the Sabines ; that he 17 J ^ .1 TT''^'' «f *^e ™ies, the supreme judge, and the high priest of the nation. His power howe^Jr was not absolute, for on all important matter^ bLl +». T'^i* ^^' ''"^*^- ^^« ^"^ber of senators bemg three hundred, seems to suggest that they were chosen by the kmg to represent the three patrician tribes iC^^-f-^^^'' ""^^ ^""^^^^ ^'"^^^^ by the assembly of the old citizens or patncians (comitia curiata), untilf by sembly (comitm centurmta) stepped into its place All matters that were laid before the assembly, such as ques- ^dUn" iP'T ^^^, '^""' *^" election of magistrates, «iid proposals of new laws, were first considered by the bSnr^r ^^^^^f^^°*^"f d by that body, were brought thim ^''^"'^^y' ^^^•^^ ^gbt either adopt or refect As to the civilisation of the Romans during the regal foT '/' ' ''"'' *^.^* *^"y bad a regularly organised form of government, that they dwelt in fortified towns, ?h^ r^-" ""T"'' r^ "^"^ ^biefl^' by agriculture and the breeding of cattle. Duiing (.o later period they T?l7;*f T^t architectural works, such I the ^eat bv T?.. • "P^*"' °u *^" ^^P^^^' ^bich was completed wf.i 1 Tr"' ?^P^^bns; and the .great sewers, parts of which still exist in a perfect state of preservation. The religion of the Romans also seems to have under<.one consjderabl changes during the reign of the TarqSLs! font L. m the reign of the last of them that we hear of the gods being represented in human forms. The legend- aiy history further reveals to us the mode of life of those 28 HISTORY OF ROMK. appears to have been introduced in the time of the St purposes. Money was first coLied by Servius Tn\\h^l It consisted of brass marked with the fi^Z oY^le domestic animal, whence the Latin name formonevi^ pecunia (from pectis, cattle). ^ " Twirs BBtmn ave been very far our own ancestors. Romans became in southern Italy, time of the first loyed for literary Servius Tulliuq; le figiu-e of some ime for money is BATTER INO-BAIC CHAPTER n. raOM THE ESTABLISHMENT OP THE REPUBLIC TO THE U»ISLATION OP THE DECEMVIBa B.C. 509 TO B.C. 451. After the expiilsJon of Tarquinius, in b.c. 509, the people assembled in the comitia centuriata formally abolished the kin^y power for ever, restored the constitution of Sei-vius Tulhus, and elected two magistrates from among the patncmns, who, under the title <^i pr<Btora, afterward! called cmisids, were to conduct the government for one Bruttis and Tarqmmm Colhtinm, who had the same power and the same oiitward distinctions as the kings except that the priestly functions of the king were traS- feri-ed to a digmtory styled rex sc^rcmim or rex sacn- /iculus, and that the administration of the treasury vras assi^aed to two officers called qucestores m-arii. The senate and the comitia centuriata, of course, retained the powers assi^ed to them by the Servian constitution. Ihe power of the patricians, instead of being diminished by the establishment of a republic, waa in reality some- what increased, inasmuch as two of their body might every year be raised to the highest magistiucy The plebeians, on the other hand, were probably in a worse 8 ill rf m \ ^9 'I* 80 HISTORY OF ROME. hav« in t),or« ^""^'v lavour the plebeians in order to ™.tori„g the exiled Lnafe^th t iere f^r'l"''°K°' the sons of Bmfna wru ^ -^ „ ^^® joined even by were p„t t d^eTttand'SX' llt^L'^''^ *'^ ^"^^^' ^lycharacteristicW a Roman 'ordered mJ'"''""" P""""* be executed. But a m-pXr .! *^'^'*^'^^'' i"s oM^n sons to where TarquiniC iL^rtL ''!;^'u '^"^^ ^^"^'^ ^^^^ria, ■aid to have marched finSincf i , ^ Etruscans are their camp on MountW f^"""' ''"^ **^ '^^^^ Pi^cl^ed t^ieTibe^ZSuntloT.'^"""' ^^ ^"" ^^^^* ^"^ of and daring of the RomaL^. 1^^" "'P"^"'^* *^« ^^^^ur though a/we*lnTerhe"eatr"th ^f r*^^^?""' much embellished and P^«3tr+ JV T^"^^ ^^ '^en one occasion, it is said thfp^ ^ """^^ *"^^*^°"- ^^^ with the inten toi^^of dri^' fC^''' 'T''^ *^« Tiber ,^~ " "^"' "'°™«" '^■•"'g" "iA two commdes; ke"pt i' 4 he kings, as the Jians in order to ogant and ambi- d from all public il marriages with \red for the ruling ly they appeared patricians; but I* of their votes, that lie power minal The ad- still entirely in 1 circumstances, er or later, was '0 its existence, foreign enemies, flfect his restora- icy was formed the purjjose of joined even by out, the guilty «rnne8S peculi- is OM^n sons to 3 from Etruria, I the assistance J Etruscans are > have pitched right bank of ent the valour illiant colours, lole has been tradition. On sed the Tiber )m his strong- city; and the river, had not nan, who whj? -des, kept the HISTORY OF ROME. 31 who e hostile army at bay, while his countrymen were busily engaged m breaking down the bridge. He is even said to have dismissed his two coniradtd and alone to have resisted the whole army until the bridge was demol- ished. He then threw himself into the river, and .safdv swam across, amid showers of darts from the Ltnuscaus He was afterwards rewarded by his countrymen with a sttitue in the Comitium, the place of a .nnbly of the patricians, and with as much land as he could plou-'h round in a day. A similar story of daring is i dated .bout one iMucius Sccevola. As during the protracted Biege Rome was beginning to suffer from famine, younc Soaevola, with the consent of the senate, undertook to deliver his country from the enemy by murderin<T Por- senna. He contrived to find his way to the tent of the Etruscan chief, but by a mistake slew the king's scribe instead of the king himself He was accordingly seized at once, and as the king tried by threats to extort from hini a iull confession of his object, Scsevola thrust his right hand mto the fire which was burning upon an altar, to show that he dreaded neither torture nor death The king, full of admiration of the young man's daring, dis- missed him, but was told that 300 other Roman youths had sworn to take the king's life. The king, frightened at this, negotiated a peace with the Romans, only demand- ing that the territory taken from Veii should be restored, whereupon he withdrew with his army. However delightful such stories are which the vanity of the Romans in after-times invented to embellish the first struggles of their republic, we know upon good authority that Porsenna for a time was master of Rome and consented to depart only on receiving hostages and one-thml of the Roman territory-that is, ten out of the thirty local tribes. The unhistorical character of the stories IS further evident from the foct that the exiled larqiunius is never once mentioned during the war with orsenna, v/ao himself likewise entirely disappears after Sorae other tribes also, such as the Sabines and Auruu- m ■ H';[ ■'i if: L ml '■'Hi w 'tit m 92 HISTORY OP ROME. unsuccessfully. A mor«T Tm '^''^""^ ^"'"^' ^«* hiH Latin kinsn>e,r ll thf/nH'".'^"'""' "^^ ''^""^^ «** Pon.e, and the war watprotrni 7 *^^"" "^''^ '^^^^^^t If fc. in n.c. 498, the Romln. H. t ''' "'^'"'^ ^'"^« ^* tiie conduct of the war to "sn]"^ '' '''^'' *" «"*''"«* the two consuls, apSedlTf^^r'""'^"'^^'' ^"«*«^ f"ll power. ThisZaCfsS'L^'^'r 'I'^^'* ^^'^ jn awe, but still the war wn, * ^ ^^ ^'^* *''^' *'"*'"'i«« longer, until in ac 49l^t Z ,'""*^"f ^^ ^o»' two years famous battle on the shor!7of T 'i?"??* *^ '^^ ^"^^ ^^v the Ronmns were victorious and i^w' ^'^'^^'''- ^" ^^ ^^^^ the gods Castor and Pollux hlT' """'^^tly said that their side. The account of this LtL'" T'l "^'^'^"^ ^^^ to form the close of th« l! f ^' ^^'"'^ ^"''^^ he said history, is altogetLr uiworS^'"?7 Pfr^ "^ I^«"^-n later, the Latins concl Xl ? 7 f ? ^''"' *^^"^ ^^^^ sul 6^purius CW^Sth I*S^ "^^'^ */" Roman con- ing of perfect equality with Ro7 "^'"'J^^'^ «" a foot- -ar being mentlne7to al^J^^^rTh ?^^^^ ^"^ ^"rther Tarquinius himself is s-ridTnT u ^'' ^''''''"'' King battle, and to havevXllntH ^r.^""^^'*^^ ^" ^^f of Cum.-e, where he d ed a^ the In ^ ^^'"^"^'' ^^'' *>'^^^t A« long as Rome h«d 7 ^""T'^"^ J^ar, b.c. 495. enemies, tie patricians manatdTot' T"^* ^^^^^ ^ho formed the main sti^n"th of the 7 '^' P''^^^^^"^' good humour; but no sooner Luh^ Roman armies, in than they began to abrSi "ri.'^.tjr J^P^-'' the plebeians, whom they treated 111 ^ u-'"'' ^^^^"'^* have already seen +hn7+? ^ ^^""'^ subjects. We though free,'^id;VXss{^^^^^^ Latins who! to pay tribute to thrreZblio n^H "' ^"* ^""" °^"ge<i -ithout pay. It ofteXlZ.rar T '^^ ''''''' engaged against foreign eneE +1 «' J^.? ^^^^ ^^^^ mostly small landed ^ropSoS "f w ^^' ^^'^:.*^^^ ^«^ hy the enemy, w«J ^f^^'^'^'/^ "^t ravaged or taken hai-vsst time ^there.Z.r JllZJ^^ neglected, sc Ws^tttae there ™U£„™^X" so that at The result of HISTORY OF ROMK. 83 inst Romp, hut r hroko out in lius had stirred 'nee of some of ns rose against eral years. At safer to entrust Lnder instead of 1 dictator with Bpt the enemies for two years fin end by the ns. In it the mtlysaid that •n fighting on !h may be said xl of Roman )r, three years e Roman con- ced on a foot- t any further ivour. King unded in the LIS, the tyrant ir, B.C. 495. linst foreign le plebeians, -n armies, in disappeared, ition against bjects. We Latins who, <vere obliged the armies 1 they were )r they were e(^ or taken so that at le result of this was, tha"; in their distress they had often to borrow money of their wealthy neighbours, generally patricians, at the exorbitant rate of interest of from ten to twelve per cent. ; and the severity of the Roman law entitled the creditor, if the debtor did not repay the bon-owod money at the stipulated time, to seize his person and treat him as if ho were his slave. From such misery the patri- cians were exempted, inasmuch as their estates were cultivated by their clients, who did not serve in war. Such a state of things naturally became morn and more unbearable, and as the patricians had the law on their side, the plebeians in B.C. 495, rose in open rebellion and withdrew to a hill a few miles distant from Rome, resolved not to return until their grievances should be redressed. Several attempts were made to pacify them, but with no result, until Menenius Agrippa, a messenger of the senate, prevailed upon them, by the well-known fable of the belly and the members, to abandon their design, and promised that their grievances should be remedied. A compact was then concluded between the patricians and plebeians, that all who liad lost their freedom through debt should be set free, and that five tribunes of the plebs should be appointed, whose duty it was to be to i)rotect the plebeians against any abuse of the authority of a patrician magis- trate, and whose persons were to be sacred and inviolate. At the same time two plebeian sedi'as were a[)pointed, whose business it was to superintend the public buildings and to exercise a sort of control over merchants and usurers. When this solemn compact was concluded, the plebeians quitted the hill, which was ever after called the Sacred Mount, and returned to Rome. Such was the beginning of the long protracted struggle between the two orders, throughout which the patricians acted more or less the part of an exclusive aristocracy, while the plebeians represented what we may call the great body of the people. The tenacity and selfishness with which the fonner clung to theii" rights and privilegcii, and the indomitable perseverance of the latter to obtain the full civic franchise, constitute for some .centuries the J.v I, ■f*| 34 HISTORY OP ROME. stte " HaTSfeC^" '" *'^ ^--lopment of the Roman become ^Va oCSy\T'''n' ^^^^ ^ouMLaTe -y in„o.ta,U part in thI\:o1;So?r"l^^ ^'^^^^ laden with corn arrived from st; I ^^^ ^* ^""^^^ ^^ips ^ven to the pJebeiLs^ uu ess tL^' "^ '' '^"''^^ ^e advantages gained bv +L ^^ renounced all the At this%He ^:be?/ns teT r °' *'^ "'^^^^^ ^--^ tribunes brought an acf.V^n f f Perate . that their outlawed. H-e acTor'dtg^ f^T/^i ^ ^^'^K''' -^ an exile among the Yolsctans wJ,! ' i ' *?°^ ''^^"^^ as war against R^ome, promS'' IhTr^' '"'Vf *^^ *« ^^ge guide and leader. UndeThi, . "^^^^ ^^* "^^ *beir and^^quians advanced tTthn a f^"""?^^ *^ ^«^««i^^« nothing coiUd induce hTm io i n^'^l '^ ^""^^' '^^^ undertaking, until he waT p^e^^S''' ^"l ""Patriotic and entreaties of his wife and Tnf^ T""- ^^ *^« ^ears to have died soon X ote^;tl I'^^'^t "»« i« said shame; but the Yolsc ans T-pL i "^ ""''^^ S^ef and j-n tne year b r 4./>ir +1, '»->^". had concluded the allian ' '^""n ^r'*^'^* ^«^^^'^* -ho about another on equa C's 11^ ,i\^'''^'' ^^-"^^t i^ow the Romans, ll Ins a^5 R .^ *^" Hernicans, so that confederacy against anv .^"'V^«' "i«a»« formed a strong. same time theCt afcSnt J^^" 'T''^'' ^^out the the public or domaifir' "^"ll*« %i«late abou? haying been ^c^^ZZ^^^^^^^^ These lands and belonged not to any\S' ' ) T! ''"P' -^tensive, ^> to the populus or paSns "ho^ ^° *^' '*''^*"' *h«* on condif.inn of +^.,•/ .^'^^' '^^0 took possession nf ,> ' "*' *'"" *<i state might reclaim HISTORY OF ROME. 30 nt of the Roman ome would have iver have played • It was owing Jians that Eome ind in the end riculture had of md Rome was at length ships Solent patrician of it should be ounced all the Sacred Mount. tf i that their I which he was ;ook refuge as tigated to wage Id act as their the Volscians of Rome, and is unjiatriotic . by the tears lolanus is said ith grief and ision of some Cassius who iins, brought icans, so that med a strong About the jislate about These lands y extensive, e state, that session of it to the trea- ight reclaim such lands at any time, but they nevertheless gradaally came to regard them as theirprivate property, and had them cultivated by their clients and slaves. Spurius Cassiu^ in his third consulship, B.C. 486, was the first Roman who proposed and carried an agrarian law, enacting that a certain portion of the public land should bo assigned to those plebeians who did not possess any landed property. His noble efforts to prevent the growth of pauperism, and to transform a mimber of poor plebeians into indus^ trious husbandmen, were ill requited, for when he laid down his consulship he was accused by his fellow patricians of high treason, condemned, and beheaded. The house in which he had lived was razed to the gi'ound, and its site declared accm-sed ground. The patricians scrupled at nothing to prevent the law, though passed in due form, being carried into efiect. Many years later, B.C. 473, the tribune Genucius arraigned the consuls for not allowing the law to be carried out ; but on the morning before the day of the trial he was found murdered in his own house. Such acts of violence for a time intimidated the plebeians and their friends, but they still persevered, and, as we shall see, in the end compelled the patricians to yield. The internal feuds between the two orders had the effect of weakening the power of Rome so much, that the Etrus- cans and ^quians were enabled to make themselves mastei-s of several of the towns subject to Rome. The war against the Etruscans especially went on for a long time without any advantage to the Romans. There was at the time a Roman clan, called the Fibia gens, consisting of 306 men, who before this time had been proud and haughty champions of their order against the plebeians, but after- wards are said to have changed their minds and to have sided with the plebeians, which brou^t upon them the hatred of their fellow patricians. They now proposed to the senate to carry on the long protracted war against the Etruscan town of 'V eii at their own expense. The request was granted, and the whole clan proeeeJiiig against the enemy, ravaged the country, and were successful in many un enterprise. But in the end they were drawn into an *!>^ \'i'^-< 3« HISTORY OF ROME. Only one young ^I^er of thT^f '^ '^.' ^^^^ ^^^^«^«- behind at Rome rrvivJ^I ! A ""^^^ ^!''' ^^^ remained Fabii whomTe meet w? th in 'iT^'X'^' "^^^^*^^ ^^ ^i^^ ^ome. This storTof th^ Fa^i *. ^"^n^"'''"* history of legend, though it proLwvS^^ ^' T^^ ^ P^l^"^^ for it must be reCnbe^i^^T^\'^°"*''^ ^^^^^^^ion, Lake Begilhis may b^rpT^ ^*' ^^*^^"^^ *^« battle of or legendar; pS':::f;^f - *^^ -^*^i-I s"^fe:it;S---^=^^^ the iquirCnryotLr;!^^^^ ^r^' *^^ ^*— «> into the Bor^nte^^T tLT"^'"'^-'^'^ ^^^«^ds concluded a peace with^P. *" ?T^f' ^* ^ ^^^^^ ^ad Gracchus aXsnevetth?^^ ?"* *^'^^ commander. Mount Algidus '^ It laS r T''^'"'^ ^'''^^^'^'^ ^^^m after having been dtfeaSl' t ?^^^^ ^^^"^ MiBuciuB, Five WeLr^ho had ;rJ^^^^^^^^^ -ti«owncamp: surrounded, brouaht thT IT^ ^^^''''® *^« ^^mp was senate at oAceapri^te^^^^^^ ?''''^*" ^"^^^ ^^ tt^ B.C. 458. l^e neCof hi?!r r ^*^*'«««^*** dictator, on his farm, wS^rhe cultW^^^ He appointed Tar^titt htra^t Tthe^^ '"" ^j'^ three days he succeeded in J^? ? *^^ ^°''^^' ^^^ in Witt wU^h ie ma"r:So^oltfej™Tn '™^' having received n «i'«.r,„i +i, " ^^ -ajgmus. ihe Roxnana commenced, in which al %Z^' "• <"'="P'»-''te battle -ape, implored CincintlufrX'rr Tk T^- "' commander and the leading Iffi ^^® ^quiaa whiletherest of the L^fwTi'"'? ^^^ ^ ^^^^ and pass under the yo^I s^ of h'^ v"? *^^^^ ^^ the Romana usually ^^bLted^ /, \«^^lf txon to which of Corbio and th7caW^^t?.l '^'^^t ^^^ ^he town of the Romans nSf-A^^^y/«» ^^^o the hands t^-ph. and waa-.waS^rX! J^^^^ HIHTOHY OK HOME. "ounded and cut e river Cremera. had remained e ancestor of the ^fuent history of )e only a pojjular :-ical foundation, ;h the battle of ng the mythical -lent events are >■ Romans them- md embellished tory. the Etruscans, 1 their inroads it is said, had ir commander, hostilities from isu] Minucius, his own camp. the camp -was 3me; and the ''Utus dictator, nought to him s own hands, horse, and in nerous army. The Romans rrived, broke perate battle no means of The ^quian it in chains, 1 their arms ion to which The town o the hands to Rome in crown. H« 37 had held the dictatovHiiij) for no more than sixteen days, and laying down Im i)\\\m\ ho roturnefLkihis farm. This story also seems to bn only a popu^wHfcend embodying the simple fact that Mimtcitis was sa^^% succour being sent to him from Xionu*, The ^]quia.ns, however, con- tinued the war with viu'ying success'iintii u.c, 446, when the great battle of CuvU'ui weakened them so much (hut f03.* a time they were obliged to remain quiet. There existed as yet fit Roine no code of written lainj. The making as well im i\m administration of the laws based upon ancient uwiig(«, was altogether in the hands of the patricians, who wt*fy o(U;n guilty of acts of flagrant injustice. The ph^boiuiiH, beginning to feel their power more and more, deuuiiidcd that a code of laws should be drawn up, which njiglit give them a knowledge of the laws and of the forms of procedure. The patricians, unwilling to give up my of their privileges, violently opposed the demand; but in b.o. 471, the tribune, Fub- lilius Volero, in spite t»f the most determined opposition, canied several laws ejwtetiltg that the plebeian magistrates should be elected in tllfl eotnitia tributa, and that these comitia should have i\m [wwer to pass resolutions upon mattei-s affecting the mUmm^ of the whole state. These measui-es created tlie geotttest excitement, and the exas- peration between the patriciiinfl and plebeians produced a complete division anittiig the Roman citizens. At the same time, the city mm visited by an epidemic which carried off large numliers of all ranks. By these cu'cum- stanees Rome was so Oiuch weakened, tliat the ^uians and Volscians carriiid iXwiv predatory inroads up to the very gates of Rome, The first formal demand for a written code of laws was made in ».€. 402 by th(i tribune Terentillus Arsa. The scheme was violently onposerl by the patricians, but to no purpose, for similar (lemands continued to be repeated, as the plebeians were dntcrnmiod to gain theii- i^oint. In B.C. 457. a law «>aH yhj^-A increasing the number of tribunes fiom five to tou, for it seems to have been found diat five were not suDleJent to afford protection to the if: I 88 HISTORY OF ROME. plebeians in all casfis t« r. ^ ,- . resolved that the lawXuM hf ' -^^^ '* ^^^ ^^ ^^«t senators should be seTit to i fl T''^"^' ^^^ *^^<^ three constitution of that ;nVotW(Slvf;^>^*he laws and ^such laws and i^tituttot a^ ml^f^^^^ ""^*" ^«P«^ twMae. "^ '^^ ^^o'ht seem applicable to C0iU0L.»n,.H,8wi«^^„^«„^^ A BRONZE conr. CHAPTER ni. FROM THE DECEMVIRAL LEGISLATION TO THE FINAL SUBJUGATION OF LATIUM. B.C. 451 TO B.C. 338. When the three ambassadors returned from Greece and had made their report, it was resolved to appoint a com- niission of ten patricians {decemviri) to draw up a code of laws, that they should have full power to act in all matters according to their own discretion, and that the powers of all other magistrates should be suspended while the decemvirs were engaged on their work. The decem- virs entered upon their task in B.C. 451, and performed their duties honestly and satisfactorily; but as at the end of the first year their work was still incomplete they were permitted to continue in office for another year Ihe decemvirs now began to act in the most arbitrary and cruel manner against every one who ventured to express an opmion upon their doings; nay, an aged and brave plebeian, whose opposition they feared, and who happened to be serving in the army, was drawn into a snare and murdered at the instigation of the decemvii-s. At the end of the second year, the dfif^firnvii-« ai+hough their task was completed, and the laws were' engraved upon twelve tables, still persisted in retaining their office m •i&J 40 HISTORY OF ROME. ;i and might perhaps have succeeded in establishinij a natri cian ohgarchy, had not the haughty and inS aZI^s Claudn^ the most influential among them, by a dW act of injustice, called forth a generaf risin^ of t>?/ T against them. Claudius had cCceived a desire to Tf^ possession of the beautiful Virginirthe dauX o^Te plebeian Virginms. In order to gain his object he ner suaded one of his clients to declare the mSn to be a runaway slave of his own, and to claim her as Ms pro perty before Claudius himself. A large concour J of people assemblecl, and Claudius did not scl^pfto Tee a- that Virginia belonged to his client. But her father having obtained permission to take her aside for ff moments for the purpose of taking W, p ungeS a kn^fl into her heart to save her from dishonour "^ The infamous act of Claudius created the greatest excitement m the city. The authority of the deSmwS was at once set at defiance; and the army, whTchhT pened to be engaged against the Sabines, on hel^S^^^hS had happened, proceeded to Mount Aventine Xi-elhev iTves'LTS^"''""' ''''' *^« Plebeian^^Th S wives and children, emigrated to the Sacred Mon^f vSs and H T ^ ^^^' ^ '^^ WelewW' valenus and Horatius, the two mo-s. popular amonc. th^ patricians, were despatched by the senate to t^ea Wth the plebeians, and come to an understanding wkh them on the best terms they could. The plebeians rma^ided the deposition of the decemvirs, and for themsSves a complete amnesty, and the right of appeal tSnstanv patrician magistrate. These" demands beiir<. ^-Lted and sanctioned by the senate, the plebeians rl'tuS eT o the Cloy. Appius Claudius was tlirown into nrison where be committed suicide ; one of his collea^^^^^^^^ m _the same maimer, and the remaining eight ^ent ^to But the new laws enacted by the decemvirs and "tTS -S *"t^ *-Wes, remaLd in force Ind Trf set up m public. They mostly referred to the civil and cninmal law, and ever after fomed the basis ofthe whole v( HISTORY OF ROME. 41 of the Roman law. The only constitutional change which they seem to have introduced was that henceforth the patricians should become members of the local plebeian tribes. But no great jjower could bo exercised by the jmtrioians in the assembly of the tribes, as the tribes could not yet influence the making of new laws. The only gain for the plebeians was that the laws had become fixed, so that the conmionalty was no longer exposed to the arbitrary proceedings of the patricians. In all other respects their condition remained the same as before, for they were still excluded from the highest offices of the state, as well as from participating in the public land, nor could a plebeian contract a legal marriage with a patrician. Although the patricians, by recent experience, ought to have learned that their selfishness and avarice could lead only to most unfortunate results, they still continued to annoy and oppress the plebeians in every way ; and although the more daring among the latter sometimes felt inclined to take vengeance into their own hands, the great body of the plebeians were moderate but firm, and showed a determination, in the course of time, to gain for themselves perfect equality with the patricians. In the yea" B.C. 445, the tribune Canuleius brought forward a bill demanding for the plebeians the right of contracting legal marriages (connuMum) with patricians ; and the bill was passed in spite of the fiercest opposition. In another bill he proposed that it should be left optional to the people to elect one of the two consuls from among the plebeians. The latter of these bills gave rise to many long and violent discussions ; but in the end it was agreed that instead of consuls, niUitary tribunes with consular power should be elected and taken indiscriminately from the plebeians as well as from the patricians. The senate, however, reserved to itself the power of determining whether in any given year the highest authority should be entiiisted to consuls as before, or to military tribunes. By this means the consulship was reserved for the patri- cians, who in many cases also contrived to keep the mili- *.».. w :\i'. Si I; I' '^\ ■m 42 HISTORY OF ROME. tary tnbuneship within their own order. The patricians, however, seem to have foreseen tliat sooner or later the plebeians would gain their end ; and in order that they might never enjoy the full powers of the consulship, two censors were appointed, in B.C. 443, whose functions had previously been connected with the consulship This new office was to be open to patricians only, and wfia failed up every five years (lustrum), though the censors had to perform their duties within the space of eighteen inonths. Their chief functions were to draw up lists of all Roman citizens, in which they were classed according to their rank and property. They had further to collect the rent for the domain land, to give in contract the biulding of temples and the making of roads and bridges- they further exercised a severe control over the morals of the citizens, and were empowered to punish offences against morality by depriving the offenders of their civil rights, or of their rank and station in society. The verdict of a censor, however, was not permanent, but might be reversed by his successor. The advantages gained by the plebeians through recent legislation somewhat softened the animosity between the two orders of citizens; but still the patricians never neglected an opportunity of annoying and humbling the plebeians, 'ihus, when in B.C. 440 Rome was visited by a famme, and when all endeavours to mitigate the evil were of no avaU, a wealthy plebeian, Spurius Mcelkis, pur- chased large quantities of gi-ain and sold it at a moderate price to the famishing people, in consequence of which he acquired gi-eat influence. His popularity alarmed the patricians, and fearing treacherous plots and conspiracies, they charged him with the crime of endeavouring to make himself kmg of Rome. The aged Quinctius Cincin.iatus bemg appomted dictator, in B.C. 439 summoned Melius before his tribunal, and as Maslius refused to appear, he was slain in broad daylight by Servilius Ahala, the die- tator s master of the horse. During these iuleruai agitations the Roman armies fought many successful battles against theii- enemies; and ft. HISrOKY OF ROME. 43 patricians, r later the r that they ulship, two ictions had hip. This J, and w}i3 ;he censors jf eighteen up lists of according r to collect )ntract the id bridges; 3 morals of ih offences 3 of their iety. The anent, but ugh recent Jtween the ans never nbling the visited by e the evil celius, pur- < moderate ' which he irmed the nspiracies, g to make inciniiatus jd Mselius ippear, he a., the die- in armies uiesj and Rome, strengthened by the alliance with the Latins and Hern-cans, gained repeated victories over the Volscians and ^quians. The town of Fidensie, an ancient Roman colony, was destroyed in B.C. 426, because it had committed many outrages against Rome. During its last struggle it had been supj)ortod by the Etruscan city of Veii. In conse- quence of this, Veii became involved in a long and desperate war with Rome, which had to direct all its forces against this enemy. The war is said to have lasted ten years, and to have been ultimately, in B.C. 396, brought to an end by Camillus. The story of the siege and capture of Veil is indeed mixed up with many flibles, but it is pretty certain that most of its inhabitants were destroyed and the rest sold as slaves. During this protracted war It became evident that it was most injurious and incon- venient for the men to remain so long absent from home, and the senate of its own aecord decreed that in future the soldiers should receive pay from the public treasury, for until then they had been obliged to equip and main- tain themselves. Camillus, the conqueror of Veii, cele- brated a magnificent triumph ; but as he was believed to have appropriated to himself more than his legitimate share m the booty, and refused to consent to the territory of Veii being distributed among the plebeians, he became extremely unpopular, and in B.C. 391 he was publicly accused of having secreted a portion of the spoil taken at Veii. In order to escape condemnation he went into voluntary exile, declaring when he left Rome that the time would soon come when his help would be needed. And he was not wrong, for Rome was on the eve of coming in conflict with an enemy more formidable than any she had yet encountered. Swarms of Gauls are said to have crossed the Alps as early as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, and to have driven those Etruscans who until then had occupied the plains of Lombardy, across the Apennines into the country which ever after bore their name. For a time the .Anenrsincs formed the barrier between them and the Eti-uscans; but in B.C. 390 large bodies of Gauls crossed the mountains. fm I m 44 HISTORY OK ROME. ■?i I la and, under the command of a chief called Brenntw, laid Biege to the Etruscan town of Chisium. Its inhabitants, looking round for assistance, apj^lied to the Romans, who at first only sent ambassadors to the Gauls to remonstrate with them ; but as the barbarians paid no attention to them, the ambassadors took part in a battle which ensued, and slew one of the; Gallic chiefs. The Gauls complained of this violation of tho law of nations, and demanded the Burrender of tho offenders; and as this was haughtily refused, they at once gave up the siege of Clusium, and marched southwaixl towards Rome. They met a Roman army on the banks of the little river A Ilia, about eleven miles fi-om Ronu!, and so completely defeated it, that only a few survived the day. They then advanced to Rome, which was in a defenceless state, and easily fell into the hands of the invaders. The '^ity was set on fire, and eighty senators, resolved to devote theme -ives as a pro- pitiatory sacrifice to the gods, sat down in their curule chairs in the Forum, and were ruthlessly massacred. The Capitol alone, to which many of the most valuable treasures had been carried, was defended by a small garrison under the command of Manlius Capitolinua. The Gauls, elated with their recent victory, abandoned themselves to every kind of excess, in consequence of which nuiny perished d unng the protracted siege of the Capitol, which lasted for seven months. Tradition says that Brennus, induced by these calamities, entered into negotiation with the Romans, and accepted a thousand pounds of gold on condition that he should quit the territory of Rome, but that he insolently increased the amount of gold by throwing his sword into the scale containing the weights. At this moment Camillus, who had been recalled from his exile, arrived with a fresh army at the gates of Rome, where he utterly annihilated the enemy, and recovered all the booty which they had intended to carry off. This story of the sacking and burning of Rome by the Gauls is indeed an historical fact, but the account of the manner in which the Romans got rid of the enemy is a mere fiction invented by Roman vanity, for it is now a well-known fact that the Gauls HISTORY OF ROME. 49 who departed from Rome with their booty unmolested, because their own country beyond the Apenilines had in tlio mean- tune been invaded by other swanns of Gauls descendinij from the Alps. When the Gauls left Rome a heap of blackened ruins, the people were not inclined to restore their habitations, and proposed to emigrate and take possession of the deserted city of Veii. The patricians, however, clinging to their ancient homes, with great difficulty prevailed upon the people to abandon their design, but allowed them to demolish the houses still standing at Veii, and use the materials in rebuilding their own homes at Rome. Rome was thus hastily restored, and as little attention could be paid to beauty and order, the streets ever after were narrow, crooked, and irregular. The sufferings of the people must have been very severe in consequence of the ravages and devastations of the Gauls, and many had flillen into great poverty ; but the pati-icians applied tiie law of debt, which had not been alteretl in the Twelve Tables, with the utmost rigour, and many poor plebeians were pining away in the dungeons of the patri- cians. Their condition at last excited the sympathy of ihe brave Manlius Capitoliuus, who i)roposed a general reduction of the debts and a distribution of the public land among the impoverished people. This proposal exasperated his brother patricians to such a degree that they brought against him the futile charge of aiming at kingly power, and procured his condemnation. The man who had saved the Capitol was accordingly thrown down the Tarpeian Rock, his house was razed to the ground, and his name treated as that of an accursed pei-son. These disgraceful proceedings took place in the year B.C. 384. But these were not the only misfortunes resulting from the Gallic invasion, for during the humiliation of Rome the Hernicans and many Latin towns renounced their alliance with her, and the Volscians, ^quians, and Etrus- cans r-csumud their hostiiilies. The last three of these nations were defeated one after another by Camillus, the gi-eatest general of the period, and Sutrium and Nepete i] ' t ''■ L ' I i m Ml n 46 HISTORY OF ROME. ■'?■■ i: in Etruria were made Roman colonies to keep the country in subjection. Some of the Latin towns also wore reduced to submission, and Rome was rapidly recovering from the evils of the late invasion. In order to pacify the more clamorous among the poor, the senate in B.C. 383, had assigned the Pomptine district to the poor plebeians. But the murder of Manlius, their champion, roused the plebeians to more vigorous resistance to their oppressors. At last, in B.C. 376, Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextiu^, two bold and energetic tribunes, undertook to introduce such reforms as might still save Rome from falling into a state of anarchy. They brought forward three bills : (1.) that henceforth two consuls should be elected annually, as of old, but that one of them should always be a plebeian; (2.) that no one should be allowed to occupy more than five hundred jugera (acres) of :he public land, that the surplus should be taken from v.he former occu- pants and given to the plebeians as their full property ; and (3.) that the interest already paid upon debts should be deducted from the principal, and that the remainder should be paid off by three yearly instalments. For a period of nearly ten years the patricians did everything to prevent these bills from becoming law ; but all their contrivances to thwart tlj«mi, and even the elevation of Camillus to the dictatorship, were of no avail against the firmness and perseverance of the tribunes ; for the tribunes, who had by this time acquired much i^'reater power than was entrusted to them at their firsf appointment, con- tinued to prevent the election of magistrates and the levies for the armies by their veto, whereby they could stop any public act of a magistrate. At length, in B.C. 367, after a long period of strife and anarchy, the patricians felt themselves compelled to give way : the bills of the tribunes became law, and the year after Lucius Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul. But being obliged to give up the consulship, the patricians again contrived to Btrip it of one of its main functions, that is, the juiis- diction in civil cases, which was now assigned to a special oflker called Prxtor, who was to be chosen exclusively HISTORY OF ROME. 47 from among the patricians. But such reservations and precautions were of little use, for ten years later, b.c. 35(3, a plebeian wa« ai)poiutod dictator; in B.C. 351 a plebeian was made censor; in B.C. 337 a plebeian obtained the praitorship ; and in b.o. 300 the priestly otfices of pontifex and augur were thrown open to the plebeians. By theso successive refomis the two orders were gradually placed on a footing of equality ; and Rome, internally united and strong, was enabled to enter upon the grand career as.signed to it by Providence. The reconciliation effected between the two orders had many opportunities of showing its good results, for very soon after, Rome had to contend not only against swarms of Gauls who still overran and ravaged Italy, but against the most powerful nation in Central Italy. It was in the course of these Gallic wars that Caius Marcius was the first plebeian dictator, B.C. 35 G, and that Manlius Toi-- qmitus and Valerius Corvus are said to have distinguished themselves by deeds of valour that have rendered their names immortal. In B.C. 35,^^ it is said, the Gauls had pitched their camp on thf ' mks of the AUia, and a Gaid of gigantic sttiture, stepping on the bridge separating the two armies, challengi d any Roman to tight him. Titus Manlius, a young Roman, with the consul's permission, accepted the chall.nge, and, lightly armed, he advanced against the Gallic giant, and pressed on him so closely that the barbarian was unable to use his arms against him. Manlius pierced him with his swox-d through the side and b<<Ily, and when the enemy lay prostrate on the gi-ound, Manlius stripped him of his gold chain {torques) and put it round his o^vn neck. From this circumstance he received the surname of Torquatus. Eight years later, when another swarm of Gauls appeared in the very neighbourhood of Rome, a powerful barbarian, according to the usual custom of his nation, challenged the bravest of the Romans to a single combat. Marcus Valerius, a young tribune of the soldiers, came forward, and when the combat began, a raven (carvus) which had settled upon the helmet of Valerius, at every onset flew into the face •11 48 HISTORY OP ROME. '':ir: [.II: P I of the Gaul, who, being thus unable to see, was slain by the young Eoman. The latter, from this wonderful ally, received the surname of Corvus. The success of the Romans in these Gallic wars, as already observed, was owing to some extent to the restoration of union and harmony among themselves; much also appears to have been the result of various im- provements in their armour and tactics which had been introduced by Oamillus. They were further strength- ened by a renewal of the alliance with Latium. Rome was thus prepared for any emergency, and oppor- tunities soon occurred in which it was decided whether Rome should become the mistress of Italy or not. The Samnites, the most powerful nation in Central Italy, came into conflict with Rome in B.C. 343. They had then been in alliance and on friendly terms with Rome for ten years. They had previously spread their influence over a great part of Southern Italy by colonising Capua, the plains of Campania, and Lucania, though in the course of time these colonies had become estranged from the mother country. The manner in which they became involved in war with Rome is related as follows. The Samnites were engaged in hostilities against the Sidicines, who, being too weak, applied to Capua for assistance. Capua willingly gi-anted the request, but was defeated by the Samnites in two battles. In its distress Capua applied to Rome for help ; but as the Romans hesitated to support strangers against the Samnites, their own allies, Capua offered to recognise the supremacy of Rome, if she would ^•ant the request. Rome at once accepted the offer, and resolved to send succour to Capua. From this account we might expect hereafter to find Capua in the condition of a city subject to Rome ; but such is not the case, and the truth is that the above story is a mere invention to disguise the fact that Rome had violated her treaty with Samnium. The war which thus broke out and lasted from B.C. 343 to b.o. 341, is only the first in a series of wars which were destined to decide which of the two nations was to have the supremacy in Italy. In the s slain by jrful ally, wars, as t to the jmselves ; ,1'ious im- had been strength- id oppor- whether ot. The •al Italy, had then e for ten noe over ipua, the course of e mother '^olved in ^amnites les, who, Capua I by the applied • support !, Capua le would fler, and account ondition ase, and ntion to ity with d lasted the two In the HISTORY OP ROME. 49 first campaign the Romans, led on by Valerius Corvus gamed an important victory on Mount Gaurus. A second ai-my, destmed to invade Samnium, allowed itself to be drawn into a position among the mountains, where it would have been utterly destroyed, had it not been saved by the bol Iness and skill of the plebeian militaiy tribune Decius Mus, who contrived to gain possession of an emin- ence overhanging the enemj ,nd thus enabled the Roman army to pass safely throu£ ^he defile. In the second year ot the war, nothing of any importance was achieved, and as the Latins showed symptoms of dissatisfaction, and disturbances broke out in Rome itself in consequence of the severe law of debt, the Romans thought it prudent to stop the war and renew the old alliance with the oamnites. The inhabitants i f Capua, thus finding themselves for- saken by the Romans, now sought an alliance with the Latins. In order to meet this fresh danger, the Romans at once, in b.c. 340, commenced hostile operations against «ie Latins The latter, unwilling to take up arms against Rome, with which they had been allied so long, now de- manded that Rome and Latium should be really united into one state, for hitherto the Romans had always more or less domineered over the Latins, though they were allies on equal torms. The Latins further demanded that one of the consuls and one-half of the senators should always be taken from the Latins. These demands, though they were not unreasonable, created such exasperation at Kome that war was declared at on^e. The war was carried on in Campania, and a great battle was fought at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, in which Puhlius Decius Mus one of the consuls, caused himself to be devoted to death by a priest, and then furiously rushed among the Latins untU he himself was slain. He thus sacrificed Himself m the hope of thereby securing the victory to his countrymen. During the same campaign Manlius Tor- guutus exhibited an example of severity which was revolt- ing even to the Romans themselves. Orders had been given that no soldiei ''*>ould engage in fighting out of his il 60 HISTORY OP ROME. own line; but Manlius, a son of Torquatus, being taunted and provoked by a haughty Latin, was unable to control his anger and slew him. Rejoiced at his victory, he carried the spoils of his enemy to his father, who, to punish his disobedience, ordered him to be put to death. The fnends of young Manlius procui-ed a splendid funeral for him, and the unnatural father was ever after shunned and detested for this excess of severity. After the first defeat of the Latins, they were deserted by Capua, which made its peace with Rome on favourable terms. But the Latins continued the war with unabated vigour, until after another defeat in the second campaign the Latin confederacy broke up, in consequence of which most of the towns surrendered one after the other. Their example was followed by the Volscians, so that in b.c. 338 the subjugation of the Latins and Volscians waa completed. Rome, however, treated the conquered people with moderation, for some of the towns receivea the full Roman franchise, while others obtained the franchise without the suffrage, or became Roman municipia— that is, towns whose internal administration was independent of Rome. Some important towns, however, whose resist- ance had been most formidable, were weakened by their best families being sent into exile, and by being deprived of a portion of their territory. Every Latin town, more- over, was isolated as much as possible from the others by a regulation that no person of one town was allowed to marry into another, or possess property in another. Rome thus secured for ever her power over the whole of Latium, and further strengthened her rule by the estab- lishment of colonies in the conquered countries, which were in reality military garrisons, and generally received one-third of the landed property of the original inhabi- tants. We have already mentioned that during the fii-st 8am- mte war the internal peace of Rome had been disturbed by the severity of the law of debt. In the verv vear before the termination of the Latin war, b.c. 339,%he dictator, Puhliliua Phih, carried three important lawa^ ttMTORT OF EOME. gj parsed by the «ottii'°''''T^ ^ \" ^^^^ enactments to thedecrp«« n?^i^ centuiiata; the second law gave that one nffhT "^ "*'*'''"' ^^^^ t^^e third enacted after another ■ S Z Rni ^^"^"^ disappeared one citizens all of wh L I ""^ ''^P"^^'^ ^°^ consisted of they were subiect* Tfi """'^^^^^^^d' though in reality parLf tWr£ f S?'' ^^^*« Provide the grea<^; THII a*WfOU»E TKMPLK. CHAPTER IV. PROM THK SUBJUGATION OF LATIUM TO THAT OF ALL ITALY. B.C. 338 to B.C. 272. The great increase of power recently acquired by the Romans appears to have excited the jealousy of the Sam- nites ; and the Romans becoming aware of this, endea- voured to strengthen themselves still more, partly by alliances with other Italian nations, and partly by the establishment of colonies on or near the frontiers of Sam- mum. One of these colonies, sent out in b.c. 328, was esiiablished on the site of Fregellse, a Volscian town which had been taken and destroyed by the Samnites. As the territory thus belonged to the Samnites, they remonstrated with, and even threatened, Rome; and when two years later, the Samnites supported Neapolis (JNaples) in its war agaiaist Rome, the latter at once declared war. Neapolis soon after concluded peace with Rome, while Lucania, which had been allied with Rome, now joined the Samnites, who further received the sup- port of Tarentum. Hostilities were commenced in Apulia, where the Romans conquered some towns which were in alliance with Samnium, and afterwards gained a decisive victoiy. The Samnites were thereby induced to ask for a truce of one year, which was gi-anted ; but » I I i ( V n I^ a;! Il BV a HISTORY OF ROMK. «* ti^^'Lzif^^^y'^Z fir ^^ r^'f ^^*-- -^^^ was in imminent danlrK f °^^'^ "" "^P^^^^ I^^e remained faSt I thf 1^ ""^ """'J^ - *^" ^*^ *«^« Apulia, too the RoLan T ^"^ ^"^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^d in Simnites ofteiid to fc^«t f ™' "^""^ successful. The unable to cl^p^ Zh^ie^ll}''^ *^^ ^^^^^ --e effort to defend their Tri' - *^«^ ^o^ made eveiy Romans, b/le ctl s traTmlt o? th" ''^' f Veturius and Postliminy ?1. ^ , ,, *^®^^ consuls, they had gainS rta'teX/o"^' *^^ "'""^^^^^ ^rmy was surrounded on Ill^,?Z T'^^'S^' Their of 6^a«<;t«m, and beWdpfL. f- "" f^^ "mountain pass compelled to'surrend^^ Mltht"^ V''^^^^ ^^**H ^«^ that day had to pas:\nd1 ^t'^ole^nT^fe s"*" •? commander Pontius ^neit)uslv nSS ^^ S Samiute of peace The condiHont , ^ ^^ *^^°^ f^"' terms commanders Ind the amy Z' 1^'^?^ ^^ '^' ^'"^^ But the Roman seltXT^'.f'n^ *^ ^^*""^ ^^^e. peace, and sent h:^!^,^:^^^^^"^'^. ™*^^ *^« It. Pontius declined to i^e ve them «'/?? '^^'^"'^^^ continued by the Rom«ml ft I?^ ""^ *^® ^^ was wipe off the di™ Tp a *^^ ^"^*^^^ ^go"r, to ' Ho^anannL ar^l„tfttu":?s'^ 7^ ^^^'^^^ *»^« over the Samnites • but one ST ^""'^^* ^«<^ri«« J/«a:mt^., was deCtedTn « f ^ '°'""'^^^^^' ^«^*'"* Lantul., in consequence J? wht'h%'""*?*'^ ^"^« ^* ter allied towns. However thf ^''"?' ^"'^ ^^^^'^^ ^^ nites were daily incfeSrand th' '^r^' °/ *^^ Nam- ing. They were defeated in T ^^''^''^^ diminish- Campani/and Antlh wL'^nbTTl '^^^^ ^^iJe whici might noXSirhaveS X^T^' not f.sh dangers arise^ in othTrt^artet '"^"^^' ^ Ronie" %!lii^V^*^"«^^ ^i^o had long looked unn. against he.:"a;3 ^^'o^d'^^^l «P -^ InransMuence of this th. H,Z • "? ™'' *<"■«»■ «.«bra<l a%«.t defeat ^/i^.'il?i?„""J™™i" tie »jutl. 4 -«^nu{e, and ui bamnium their 54 HISTORY OP ROME. legions found themselves in great distress. However, Papipue Cursor, who was fti^iwintod dictator in B,c. 309, so cpinpletely routed the Samnites, that they were com- pelled, to take to flight, leaving their camp in the hands of th^ enemy. Meanwhile a great coalition of th© Mar- siaiw, Peli^nians, Umbrians, Hemicans, and ^quians, wa? |r9nned against Rome. The IJmbrians were soon red\»ced. to submission by Fabius Maximus, the war aga^npt the Etruscans was near its end, and the Hemi- „ cans we^ easily overpowered, sp that the Romans being enawed, to direct all their forces against the Samnites, ; put. th^m to flight in all directions, B.C. 306. The coaii- tion 9:«| which the Sjamnites had relied being now broken ^P»l^ap,4"*^^^ ^^- armies defeated, they concluded t* truce, in Jihe.hope of. obtaining peace ©n toleraUe terms. But %eir hppes were disappointed, for after the expira- tion, of the truce, the Romans laid waste Samnium in all directions;^ and when, in b.c. 305, they suffered a further defeat, their power was completely crushed. Samnium was noy obliged to accept the terms dictated by Rome : it had to give up the supremacy over Lucania, to renounce its alliance with other Italian nations, and, in fact, to concede to the Romans to interfere in all their foreign relations. This humiliating peace concluded the second Samjt^ite .^ar, in b.c. 304, having lasted twenty-four years.. The Hemicans, who had been easily reduced to sub- missipn in b,c. 306, experienced on the whole the same fate as the^ Latins. The ^quians rashly rose against Rome at a time when she had already concluded peace witii Samnium, and they had to pay the penalty of seeing their towns conquered or destroyed one after another. The Etruscans also Lad begun their war too late, and after it had lasted for some years, their cities, in B.C. 308, began to conclude peace with Rome each for itself for a fixed number of years. During these wars Rome had made a treaty with Tarentum, in which it was stipulated that no Roman ships should sail beyond Cape Lacinium. The short period folio wing the conclusion of the peace with th^ ^^omites was employed by the Romans in coi»t = i r Va i I MlSTOftY OF ttoMB. gj a favourable onnort,7„i,t, "''• ^""^ ""'^ ™t^g for Sumnites, that war T^ fortLSTrf^^^ -^"^^^^ *^« At the same time Z *°™*1» declared in b.c. 298. alUed themselves Stf tie TlTr-''' ^^^^ ""^^ ^ ™«' the aid of Game nTJ ^."^^^T* ^^ ^^^^ ^^^lled in yea.,the1am:^^'swe T^^^^^ ^«* *-« and their countrv I!? ?^i, "" ^^^^^^ g^-^at battles, third all I^^'J^r^^y^i CT'4 ^^ - *H a report that large bodies of P^i ^«^,ans, viz., m Etrnria but Ve Lri^^^^^ tT^^^^' T^^^ — - course of eVents. A^eat ba.L 'T'^l "^^'^'"^ *^^ i>eciL» onP^f ?^ 1 '^°"^'^ ^^^^^ ^^^ lost, had not -m^^^devot:dTtt^T''^^^^^^^^^ *^« ^-*"« fice Lve fresh snMtfnJl ^'^''^ ^'^'' ^^^ «^if-«««ri- gain^ brilliant vSto^ the^mans, and enabled them to been sent to surport^the Etnf.^'""''''" army which had and 25,000 Sritr^ T^'' "^^ ^"* ^ F^ces, battle, whHe 8000 t ^^™*««. covered the field of proceeded trnTSiroE^r^^^^^^^ ^t^"« *^^^ another victory overtheFtn^J*''^''' where he gained wu.-i- .1 •'^ :^^ '^^^ Jitruscans near Perusia. ItairrSamStel"^^' >-ere going on in the north of saM^io havrb^T^'^^'^i!"^ "^^«^g Campania, is sam to iiave been defeated with great loss by the Romans 56 HtSTORY OP ROME. returning from Sentinum. In the year B.C. 294, the Jl^trus^^n towns found it advisable to conclude peace vath Kome. But the Samnites made most desperate efforts, and having called out all their men capable of bearing arms, invaded Campania. The Romrlns coip- pelled them to return by attacking Samnium, from which they carru.d off a vast amount of booty. Upon this, the Samnites, under their brave and noble com- mander, Pontius, again invaded Cam.vania. The Romans were at first unsuccessful; but in B.C. 292, the aged ^a6m Maximus fought a fierce battle, which at once decided the contest between Rome and Samnium: 20,000 Samnites were killed, and 4000 made prisoners, one of whom was the brave Pontius. He was taken to Rome in triumph and beheaded— an act of base ingratitude towards a man who had saved the Roman army at Cau- l^' .1. ™*^^i<^ies, however, continued until B.C. 290. when the Samnites sued for peace, which was granted t<; them on condition of their acknowledging the supremacy ^L . IT ^"^ afterwards, the Umbrians, Etruscans, and two Keltic tribes, the Senones and Boians, had to submit to the same terms. Rome had now acquired the domimon of the whole of Central Italy, the submission ot which was secured as usual by the establishment of numerous colonies. If we now turn our attention from these successful wars to the internal affairs of Rome, we find that during .1!7T. ^r'C^.f^^ ^""^""^ internally more and more consolidated by the equalisation of the two orders, and that many usefii works were executed in and about the city tor the public convenience. In the year b.c 312 the censor Appius Claudius made the famous Appian road, leading from Rome to Capua (it was afterwards «n r'!fl Brundisium), and the first aqueduct which supplied Rome with water. In the same year a kind of calendar was set up in public, informing the people on what days it waa lawful to administer justice and to hold - i_ .1! e„in^.,. -^ gi-t-^ic conscitulionai change appeara to have been made about the same time, by which the HrSTORY OF ROME. .- separately as before. In b c 300 .T""!^ -l^ ^' '^^"^'^^"^d P'-opcsed and carried a l.w V ' i. • \ *"^""^' %"^^'W pontiffs and augu -s was I "^ T^''^ *^^ ""«^»^«- of respectively, and'-J^Uid, Tt w^f ^ 1^ ^^ «-e of. these priestly colleges hould^.'r?'^*^'^* ^"•^'^^^f beians. Henceforth all the rmb ie tffi''^'" ^^"^ ^^^ Poe- tical power were equally divWedh?'"' P««^essing pdi- plebeians. The agrar L law J t'-'"" P''''^'^^^^ and never repealed, but apnearrfn I ^'"'T' ^*«0« ^^^^ violated with impunity and the ^T.^'^'^ repeatedly land among the poorer .t? distribution of public though manV -1^:4 tfiS "" atP" ^ '''''''' '^' of the protracted wars at a df«f ^ ^^ '" consequence notwithstanding thes drlwbackl T ^"'"^ ^"* ^ng upon a period of he h7storv .' ?T' ""^^ ^^^^ ^^^^r- -the beginning of her ^ofd'n Ze "^ ""^ ^« ^^--^ded ofl^CiIe'^:tf-^2^^^^^^^^^ *^^ *--tion of the Gauls and E ul;a„s ^Th?'^^ ^^ ^^"^"^^ -"^cka beginning in bc o^TZT'i ^^'^'^''''' ^g^inst the former by the to'tal su^]^,o;uou : "Zf '' ' '^'^^ '- ^.c.Tsi Ktruscans contiiued in arms L ^T'' "^'^ ^""^ ^^^ "Itmiately obtained a peace on ve-^^' Jears longer, but consequence of which Vhey r^ade no f^'T'''^^' ^^rms, in recover their indenenden J ^ i ^'"'*^^'' attempts to considemble deS of ' '"^"^ *° ^^^^ enjoyed a Home. '^'' °^ prospenty under the domiiion of ^^^^^Z^^"^^^ ^f nianufacturing easiness upon the growhigpov^^^^^ "^^^ "- south. Like all comme.^.M cT 1 .*^'® Romans in the mercenaries, and eZeTo::i:'ttltt'^^y ''''''' "^^^ inducing other natmn« f,; li '^^l^ ^°"ie engaged bv they a« said ;„Tr i^ WteTr%T"'""^°- ■11"^ lastcm-if^ot TI-- "^stigated the Etruscans i,. +!,«,•- a coalition again"s7th?'i '"''"'"^ *^^ Samnites'to joi in Utility coiiS in the riV"'"^^^ ?^ «-* -* ^^ m tne Lucamans attacking Thurii, a 58 HISTORY op ROME. Ml. I Gijt'k city allied with Rome; but tho town was relieved hy Caius Fabricius, in B.C. 282, who also gained other advantages over tlie southern confederates. As the Romans were obliged to keep up communication with Thurii by sea, they could not help violating the trtaty with Tarentum, which forbinli them to sail beyond Cape Lftcinium. When, therefore, ten Roman ships were seen soiling towards the harbour of Tarentum, a Tarentine fleet immediately sailed out to attack them, and captured five of the Roman ships. The Tarentines even went so far as to compel Thurii to open its gates to them. The Roman senate, indignant at such proceedings, sent au embassy to remonstrate and demand reparation ; but the Tarentines treated the ambassadors with contempt and insult, so that war became unavoidable. The Tarentines had hoped to bring about a general coalition among the southern Italians; but failing in this, they invited Pyn-hus, king of Epirus, to come to their assistance. Pyrrhm, whose mind was full of an adventurous and chivalrous spirit, gladly accepted the invitation in the hope of acquiring a great empire by adding Italy and Sicily to his dominions. When, in B.C. 281, he arrived with his forces at Tarentum, he at once set about drilling its citizens, and compelling them to submit to severe military discii)line. It was this new danger which induced the Romans to conclude the final peace with the Etruscans on favourable terms, and they now sent out armies both against the Samnites and the Tai-entines. The hostile forces met on the banks of the little river Stria ; and PyiThtis, partly by means of his well-trained Macedonian soldiers, and partly by the terror inspired by his elephants, which the Romans had never seen em- ployed in war, gained a decisive victory over his enemies. This fii'st success induced many of the southern Italians openly to join Pyn-hus. But as he himself 'ad sustained very severe losses in the battle, he sent his friend Cineas to Rome to offer peace. The Roman senate refused to listen to any proposals so long as Pyn-hus and his army remained in Italy. Upon this the king advanced north- HISTOnV OP ROME. 59 again met their enemv Lr / '/ ^''''^ ^^^'^^^^ again won a gimt vTcSv Bnf *V T' ^^''^ ^^^^^"» that he is 4oH^^Zle saTd '^oJT' "'". ^ ^' and I shall L undone "W?.' ^"^3^'' ««ch victory, the v,i,„r of th1X.an?\rr.r' 'iK^i"^^^^ f eoldjers, the world would be minT"^ ^' had, such The Romans after these two flpf«ofo p^u • i- , oome to t<,rm3 with PyXs but Am.t ni "!f "^^^ ^ strenuously opposed sucii^H^y t^^^^^^ °^°«^ fused to quit Ital r The 1^ 7'i ^ i^^,"^ Pyn-hus re- Greeks o? ^outii^ iTaly w gle The T^"^ 'f f '^' him with admimtion j^'J^'"^^ }^^ Romans had filled accepted an Ctlt^ of'tLrslcUrnT'^r ^ \^ ^^^^"^ with his assistance ^ dive^lf ^^^S ot^'f^S^ att ao^ 2Vne^p::o:r t^ticr P^ aUies he foimd there he sc«n d,W ' ,^^fr^*»d«: and trustworthy than those of tLwT^'''^'? ^ ^ «^^^ ^^ss ^.^kings wef. thlrt^l;^fe^^^^^^^^^ all his under- disposition, in consequeLe of S ^^^^^^^ seveml acte of cruelty Findin«^Tt Iw 7h\ .,'^**' great could be effected^n the 2^ 1 i thaf h /if ^^ gained by them On hii axtiri" "^'""^ ^"^ ^^ sevemi tiwn« which had b^n St and'tr'''^ "^^!^ to^vards Beneventum, wherrtL 1^; ,T^r ^^ P^*''^^^ was encamped; but his ILvhS^ ^^'rtus Bentatua Lad ^r, u\i.:i - c:;^iS;i,[rat ^rB^'tr^* SnuS:^5dt^s^^:^:!£-^^^^^ ance, but "as his reauest wn7n^^ ^v'7'"^ ^"^'* "*«^*- 60 BIStORT or ROME: .' |! w t vrit^h^ It ^'"P^^r^' *!>« Tarentines concluded peax^e mnedthfr''\^^'\''''^''' *^« "^^^ few years, com- pelled tho Sam. ites, Lucanians, an.l Bnittiana to Hn homage to the republic of Eome, whirls now the urtual niistress of all Italy froiu the northern frontier of ^Z'l^T^i'''''V'-^'''''y- ^^« only^^L'oTthich wars btit all had to recognise the supremacy ul" Rom- which, as usual, secured its conquests l,y the estallSh- ment of numerous colonies. As* many of the southera lalTaT r' f ''"•^ ""* l--essed^fleete Rome no" ^^a\ P°''*'°'' .*° "''"•y ^" ^^^' ^ ^ith .'.ny nation be- yond the sea with which she might come in cTta^t id ^ • lf.T ^'T'' ^'^"^ °^ *^^« ^^^* «t^^tes of th^ t me «^ might have limited herself to the dominion of iSv iwe institutions. Rut circumstances soon occun-ed which A. YouNa aoMxi; is xas tosa. ' AUXS, )R E/ mtBIv ; MAM, CHAP 'ET? /. FBOM THE CONQUEST OF ALL ITALY DOWN TO THE OUT- BREAK OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAfi. B.C. 272 TO B.a 218. Iw the very first year of the republic, b.o. 509, Rome had concluded a commercial treaty with the Wealthy ofVfH^r Tf' " ^^^"^""" ^"^^"^<^" *^« north coS of Africa. The same treaty had been twice renewed and the relation between the two republics had Xaya been of an amicable kind, but during the conqu^teof ^e Romans in Southern Italy the CarthaginS eem to tave lx,a,me apprehensive of the growing ?ower of r1^ When Pyrrhus wa. in Sicily with the'avowed object of drmng the Carthaginians from the island, they concluded a defensive alliance with Rome which was directed atS theircommon enemy, although in the war against Sm they ne^^r united their forces. When Pyrrhul withdrew ^J.l /' V^r^"^^ ^^" ^^'^ ^ completelSte ofl^rchy ^vald'ttl Campaniun mercenaries, called MamerZ, ravaged the country and took forcible possession of Mes eana, where they murdered or expelled the male popula- ^'d'cSd '^"'"^"'^'^ 't''' propertVas well aTTheiJwTvt ana cnilnrflii amnnr^ 4-1, i v^i ^ ■•*»«» *!,„ ,'■■; V° --"^'"'civus. The Syracusans. under the command of their Kin^ Hiero, attacked these\wl^ \ 62 HISTORY OF ROME. 1. 1, .V: ir. i marauders, and reduced them to such straits as to oblige them to look about for foreign assistance. One party thought of calling in the aid of the Carthaginians, who Had already offered their assistance, and took possession of the citadel of Messana; but the majority solicited the assistance of Eome. Six years before this, the Romans Had most severely punished a body of Campanian mer- cenaries, who had acted at Rhegium in the same manner as the Mamertines had done at Messana. The better part of the Roman senate therefore seem to have felt that It would be scarcely decent to support such a band of robbers as the Mamertines. The matter was, however, re- ferred to the popular assembly, with whom the love of war and conquest stifled every other feeling. An alliance was a<3W)rdingly concluded with the Mamertines; and iliero, finding himself powerless against them, made hia peax5e with them. Every pretext for Roman interference was thus removed, but the opportunity of making war against Carthage was too tempting, and a message was sent to Messana to inform the Mamertines that Rome was ready to deliver them from the Carthaginians. A fleet furnished by the Greek maritime towns of Southern Italy sailed across from Rhegium, ^d on its arrival the Carthaginian commander of Messana treacherously snp- rendered the citadel to the Romans. The Carthaginians, however, demanded that the Romans should quit SicUy, and as this was refused, they, supported by King Hiero, laid siege to Messana. Meanwhile fresh legions arrived in Sicily and defeated Hiero before he could obtain assist- ance from his allies. Hereupon Hiero withdrew to Syracuse, and in b.c. 263 concluded a peace with the Itomans, to whom ever after he remained a most faithful fnend. The Carthaginians being likewise beaten, dis- persed among their subjec ' towns in the western parts of the island. ThQ Romans are bjt'l to have been enormouslv suo- cessful in Sicily, and sixty-seven towns are reported to have surrendered to them. As the Carthaginians did not make any stand against the invadera, the conquest of the ll HISTOUY OF ROJtE. ^3 I flf« nL^ . , . ^^^^age with its powerfii fleet was tested, xn B.C. 260, to Cains Duilius, and in tlelmuW sort of land fight by means of boarding brid-es thrown Erto'harn?' ''^^'' ^*^^"«"^ tSe lllT^nf h S mtnerto had no expenence in maritime warfare their victory, part y owing to their extraordinary conSvanr ZVi Tt'^i '^^' '^' Carthaginians we^re obli^^fd £ take to flight, having lost about 10 000 men in t^]«l and wounded. The Romans afterwardsTn^red Didiuf by erecting o him a column adorned with the beaks of captured ships, and with an inscription recording the details of his victory. Elated by theii- first succfsstt honoui of "thP V '''^'''^ ^'^^T ^«^«'^'""* restored the nonoui ot the Roman arms; and the town of Mvttisfro turn, which had been besieged by the Romanf ffr some towns ' '^"'^ ^"^ *^" *^«« ^'^ several other nr,S'^/^?2"?^ *^^ ^«"^^°« ^ere thus far successful Tn B c1?r LT ^'"' °"T^'^ *^^ CaXSntn : A^c!"'J'i^\!:t^;r^'--i^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^ ^« -- -to , ---, ...u. ,.„m^noc cAcxaoa> rhey prepared a fleet o.( ^. 64 HISTORY OF ROME. 330 ships, which, under the command of 3fanlius and Atilim Eegulus, were to steer towards the African coast. Near Ecnomiis, the Romans were met by a still larger fleet of the Carthaginians, and a fearful battle ensued, in which the Carthaginians were so completely defeated, that they felt induced to make offers of peace. These offers, however, were rejected, and the Roman fleet, proceeding to Africa, landed near- Clupea, Avhich, being deserted by its mhabitants, was occupied by the Romans as their head- quarters. The country was ravaged by the invaders in all directions, and when at the close of the year Manlius returned to Italy with a portion of the army, and a large number of prisoners, Regulus with his diminished forces began the campaign of B.C. 255, by besieging the town of Adis, and it is said that both this and many other towns submitted to hira. The Carthaginians were so much reduced as to be obliged to retreat within the walls of their OAvn city. In this distress, they sent to Regulus to sue for peace, but, though he might now have concluded the war m an honourable manner, he proposed such humiliating terms, that the Carthaginians resolved to die sword in hand rather than submit to the insolence of their enemy. In these circumstances, Carthage was fortunate in securing the services of one of those Greek soldiers, who at that time offered theii- services to any one who chose to employ them. This was the Spartan Xanthippus, to whom the> at once entrusted the command of their forces. He set about increasing and reorganising the army, and by improving their discipline, inspired the men with fresh confidence. In his first encounter with the Romans, he routed and dispersed the whole Roman army, and Regulus himself with 500 men was taken prisoner. About 2000 e^onped to Clupea, where they defended th. selves bravely. The Roman fleet which came to their rescue gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginians and rescued them. But the same fleet, on Its return to Sicily, was overtaken by a storm in which most of the ships were wrecked, and the south coast of { « MJ«T011Y OF ROME. Qg but the Honuu/« 1^^^/t r'^r'^^^,.^7^^ *'^-^«h courage; 254, prepared a m wfltt of 22r!-^''^''^^"^ ^^ ^ ^• sailed to Sicily ,uTfl f »\ f^'^'' "^''^^^ ^^^''^ ^i^^^J Burrendered c j^i)S ,,w," „ ''T^^*"^^"^' ^^"« ^^hers it8 coast distre '^ r ri^f ^^'t^"?:^'^^^^^^^^ hadjustcome UN Jtofr p'r ^'^ ^^^^^^^ ^^en they overtook tho, .T nd n?'] ^"^"r"^'•^ ^^^^l-^t storm wrecked. ThiH Ll'n \^\^^^ ^^'^"^ ^^^ «hil'« >vere Romans to hucI; ' L- T. ^f ''" f-scouraged the to keep no inor« UZfh *^'^ '"'°^^'"^ lienceforth Italy aLcouvT.:i,^^^^^^^^^^ — y to protect greSdSrs;:,'ai:^rt"^'"^^f ^"^^ *« -^^^ P- fining the Caithul I ? -ir'"'' ^""^ ^^-^ceeded in con- In ic. 250 t7T,^' *^ '^^« r^tern corner of Sicily. Carthaginialt ,"r;i\rtr' """f"^ '^^^^*^^ *^« was the last gr J K, tt VT ^l!^°?-^^«' ^^ich Having lost all fchrifl: that was fought in this war. tion o/the two tZZTrTl ? ^'''^^ "^*^ '^' ^^^^^pl Carthaginians v44 ^ W,' of ';.""'" *^"? ^^^P""^' *^^ exchange of prison. 1 T ^'^^^ ^"^ *^ ""^^^^ an who was stillVn c" tivifv^u'^ accordingly sent Regulus, puxTose of propoSfk™ o7? *^""' '^^"^ ^^^ *^« an exchange of W'tumT ix TT' T ^* ^"^^* *« ^^^^^ filling the duties of 1 ''i ^* ^'^'"^"'' ^^^^^^^^^ ^^ f»l- enter into no nil '" T w' ^"''""^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^e to Romans, notwiiC fa ^'^^ ^^ '''"'"' *^'' ™- ^^^ built a fleet of sK h Id Ip ^'T"' ^^>^olntion, again which lasted for „ <? tt ^''^f *^^ ''^-^ ^^ Lilyh^um, under their hang ;*^ * f" ^^^ ^-^'^ ^49, the Kcmans Appius aiandluTJZ d fatJ^^^?*^?"^ oommande; in the neighbourhood of if, ^"^ ^'"'^'^ ^.^^^^^ '-^^^1 by sea, followed up their vFjl ^^ r^; T^'^' Carthaginians same time a vaat miZZ /T^ '''^''"^- ^^o"* tbe destroyed in a t,Tt7 ^'. ^T^' *^^"«P«rts were the hands of the eimny lltrly^^T T^^''^ *^^" ^^ '»"".y. After this disaster, the Romans N u 1 * I 66 HISTORY OF ROME. ■•'l! • 1 m m again renounced the sea, of which tha Carthaginians were now again the undisputed masters. Carthage, moreover, had now the good fortune of having for its military chief the great Haviikar, the father of Hannibal, who, in B.C. 247, undertook the command of the Carthaginian forces h\ Sicily. After some ravaging descents on the coast of Italy, -le took up a strong position on Mount Hercte, whence he did incalculable damage to his enemies by frequent sallies. Afterwarus he took up a similar position on Mount Eryx, whence he continued to harass the Romans, although ne himself was surrounded by all manner of diflBculties. In this way the war was carried on without any decis- ive advantage being gained by either party. The Komans, having come to the conviction that the war could not be brought to a close without some extraordinary exertion, once more resolved, in b.c, 242, to build a new fleet. But as the treasury lacked the funds necessary for such an undertaking, the money was furnished by wealthy and patriotic citizens. An armada of 200 ships, com- manded by Lutatius Catulus, having first made an un- sucoessful attack upon Drepana, resolved to offer battle to the Carthaginian fleet. The latter, containing a large number of transports, was unable to cope with that of the Romans, and was easily and complete, defeated; sixty-three of the enemy's ships were taken, . if hundred and twenty were simk, and the number o^ killed and prisoners was immense. This decisive victory was gained in B.C. 241, off the ^gatian islands. The darthaginiana were now compelled to sue for peace, which they obtained on the following conditions : that they should evacuate Sicily and the islands between it and Carthage, that they should abstain from war against Hiero and his allies, that they should restore all Roman prisoners without I'ansom, and pay 2300 talents in ten yearly instalments. Thus terminated the First Punic Wai-, which had been carried on by both parties with incredible efforts and losses, and Sicily was the first country out of Italy con- quered by the Romans. The island was treated differ- ently from the conquests hitherto made in IW'! -' be- HISTORY OF ROME. ans were loreover, ary chief o, in B.C. forces in . of Italy, hence he lit sallies, mt Eryx, lough ne ties. .ny decis- jtiomans, Id not be exertion, lew fleet. for such wealthy Ips, com- e an un- er battle g a large I that of iefeated ; hundi*ed tiled and as gained aagriians obtained evacuate ihat they Hies, that i I'ansom, had been brts and taly con- ad diflfer* :• - be- 67 government officii" but^^rfiredT' "°Mt"^' ^^ talkta (pnMicani) o'r companTes oT^them"^ "t* ^^ ^P^" towns and cities were not all treated ^'fJ, J '"'^'^'^ and a difference was made accoS. Z ^L T' '''^' hostility they had shown Z ^f!.^'^'*'^" ^ ^^^ degree ot quest. ThusixTsicilv^ "^.^^^ ^^^P^eceding the con- otier towns remateLtllT^r"^ "^^^^^° ^"^ ««^«ral is very remrS ttj • ^ ff^, ^^*^ independent It no attem t r^^ir^.-^^^^^^ and s^^e fwLh Ctod^l^rrd^Tree^^^^^ Thr/reaTHlS:S aTl^^ ^^^^ rF^^Tei ^1^^^^ rebel! Dufi^rtts confltt in defeating the ably t«wai.s tLS va^n^tst^^^^^^^ refused to countenance the rebels W rn J .^ fu^ tx^nsports of provisions destLed for CaV. r X,.*^' changed their noliVv wii^>. +1, ^®' ^^^ *bey likewise r^^oltTd for^r 1 "^^i-cenaries in Sardinia assistance tleyLerivI^^^^^ '^'^ "PP"^^ *^ ^«^« f«r possession of^he'I^rt 23^^^^^ ^n' \^^^ remonsti-ated with them fir this !r)L "" ?'*^^^'^ Corsioa Tn? 2 V • *°°^ possession of the islands of ^cSan I nf ?"''' ^'^^^^^.^ient time, and Hamil^r aj ^nS'.. S - preparations to indemnify his country 6-a uiu meaiiB of avenging the wrong done to it I 1,1 m 11 I' 68 HISTORY OK ROME. The Romans, after taking possession of Cox?iK-a and Sardinia, found the natives less inclined to bear their yoke, than they h;; 1 borne that of the Carthafji(ii{ as, and accordingly became involved in long and tedious wars with them. About the same time thei* had to contend against the Liguriaus! and Boiarp, in the north of Italy; and while they were si ill engtK' •'! in these troublesome wars, another struggle was commenced, in d.c. 229, against the pirates of Illyricum, wJjo wt-.re tlien 2;overned by Queen Truta, and ^vere a scourge to thw maijiiirui towns of Greece. The Romans had no di :!i mlty ?:t con- <3u."rijig the semi-barbarous pirates, ano aovern] of the Giv^.' li pla-^es, such as Corcyra, Epidamnus, and Apol- lonia jtUcM^I themKvV|\es under the protection of Rome, which t'jos, tor the first time, gained a footing on the contin^i7i: jf Gr(,'ce. Even Athens and CV-rinth showed tbeir gi-atitude to the Romans by conferring certain dis- tinctiouri upon them. But huch wars as these against the Ligurians and Boians were trifling compared with that which burst upon the Romans about the same time from the no: th. The Boians, wincing under their subjection to Rome, and vexed that a portion of theii- territory which had become Roman domain land, had been given to Roman citizens by an agrarian law, invited other Gauls to join them in a fresh war against Rome. Even Gauls from beyond the Alps were induced to assist the Boians. In B.C. 226, formidable hosts of Gaids came across the Alps, and as they moved southward, the Romans were panic-stricken, for the barbarians devastated everything by fire and sword ; but when they had advanced as far as Clusium they met the Romans, whom they nearly surrounded and annihilated. However, the Romans gained a decisive victory over the invaders near Telamon on the coast of Etruria, in which 40,000 Gauls are said to have been killed and 10,000 taken prisonei-s. This was the most memorable success the Romans had ever met with against the Gauls, and in consequence of it the Be i. ". in th6 jrear after the battle, B.C. 224, were force« \uhmit, I i /\ HISTORY OP ROME. '<n?iioa and bear their in if OS, and iious wars to contend L of Italy; I'oiiblesome B.C. 229, I governed i njatiiiirio Ity hi con- Tid v{ the and Apol- of Rome, ng on the ith showed ertain dis- md Boiana upon the th. The lome, and ad become m citizens II them in m beyond n B.C. 226, Ips, and as c-stricken, '■ fire and 3 Chisium Linded and a, decisive e coast of lave been the most th against ' °-^ in the submit, 69 and the Romans for the first time crossed over to the northern banks of the Po, where, in the year B.C. 223 the consul Caius Flaminius fought a successful battle against the Insubrians. This ^v;^r against the Gauls was brought to a c ose in b.c. 222 by Clandms Marcdlus in the battle of Clastidium, where he slew the Gallic chief Viridomarus^ with his own hand. A peace was then con- cluded, in which the Gauls had to recognise the supremacy f i^ome and by which Rome acquired the extensive and tertile plains of Lombardy, which they endeavoured to secure by the establishment of the colonies of Placentia and Lremona. While the Roman arms were thus engaged in the north ot Italy, the Illyrians, instigated by Demetrius of Pharos, had renewed their piratical practices. But the consul ^milius Pau us, in b.c. 219, finally stopped their pro- ceedings by subduing the whole of Illyricum. Demetrius however escaped to the court of Philii,, king of ^lacedonia! "^J^u !? 'i'"''''^^ ^'''''' Je^^lo"«ly watching the influence wnich the Romans had gained in the atfaii-s of Greece After the loss of the islands in the Mediterranean, the Larthaginians, guided by the wise counsels of their ^reat general Hamilcar, endeavoured to indemnify themselves by inakmg conquests and forming a new empire in Spain, and by a wise moderation and kind treatment Hamilcar succeeded in winning the affection of many of the natives After some years of successful operations, he was killed m a battle b.c. 229, leaving the command of his ai>my to Hasdrubal, his son-in-law, who continued the oolicy of his predecessor, and founded the town of New Cartha-e The progress made by the Carthaginians in Spain some- what alarmed the Romans, and in a treaty which they concluded with Hasdrubal, but which was never sanc- tioned by the government at Carthage, it was stipulated tnat tlie Carthagniians should not carry their conquests beyond the river Iberus. Hasdrubal was murdered in B.c. 221, and was succeeded in the command of the arniv by the gi-eat Ifannibal, the son of Hamilcar, who, when only nine years old, had accompanied his father into •ill r k\ 70 HISTORY OF ROME. I: enmity to the RomanL ^ ^ ^^' '^^"^ '^'""^^ Immediately after unHpr+^,lr,-,.„ 4.1, armyhecontinued7hecona^«^hl*^t T^^*^"^ °^ *^« and subdued sZinTsT^T.^^'^ ^^^'^ predecessors, exception of thrrwTof^^^, ^ "T- ?^""« ^^^i^ *te been allied wUlx d/ ^^|"^*^^'T^^«h i« said to have town and its ne ghttr:' affoXS h,?'^' '^^^"^^^ ^^'^^^ commencing hostiiitirLlin f ,> ? •^'^ opportunity of ceeded to bf siege he^J^r"" ^L^ J "^ ^■^' 219 be Jrx. caUed upon hiSi to ab«^^'n /^^«^^^«man ambassadors town, he referred ^hem t .h^"" ^''*"^*^'^ ^^i^«* ^^^ there the a^nblaTr? ^er^ LSv , '* "^"^^^^^ ^"* though the aristocratic mrtvSj/r"''^^"^ ^°" ^ with Rome under al p?r!.„ T *^ maintain peace and the frienr'oT H^n^STet^id ' ^X^^ ^^^^ general to account or to recall him ^K^ .?''"■ ^^^* -He^'lt^^^' -» »£? '£-? "Ct^- please. •• Wlen L (wT, ™ ' "' ^Wotever yotl whichever you "pI^V-^'ifSeT-^l. "«r J" you war." Thw settlpri finJ^ '.• ®"' *^^"' ^ offer . clared at once In Set,w^ *1"\^*^«"' ^^^ war was de- themselves most WelT^*^^^^ the Saguntines defended eight months of a nio«fff" -^ besiegei-s, but after talen and destroyed Sie^-^^^^^^^^ *^« <-^n was under the ruins^of the^ own ^ ''""'^'^P^^^y ^""^ themselves by leajSi^rinJ' yTi ^"T\^"^ partly killed in the marked it^rrdtw^^^^ "^^^*^ they had tindled All the surviL^wei-e ,ut^^^^^^^ against Saguntum wTsonlll^ 1 *?^«^,«rd. This war Wm-, which wSlrLd on i?:!"^' ^ J^« ^^^^^ ^"nic ia Africa. J-Z ^ ^ ^"""'^ ^'"^"Sbt to a close ]h ! *te guidance, worn eternal mand of the predecessors, 'ujs with the said to have etween that 'portunity of 219 he pro- ambassadors against the thage. But ssful, for al- ntain peace pular pai-ty their great the spokes- ' toga, said, chever you "Give us len, I offer . '■ar was de- 3S defended 3, but after i town was rtly buried rtly killed ad kindled : projjerty. This war ond Punic i to a close 1 HANMIBAL. CHAPTER VI. FROM THE SECOND PUNIC WAR DOWN TO THE END OF THB WAR AGAINST ANTIOCHUS. B.C. 218 TO B.C. 188. When the Romans declared war against Carthage, they had only just brought to a close that against the Gauls, and were still engaged in Illyricum, whence they were unable to act with that decision and quickness which they usually displayed. Hannibal assembled his troops at New Carthage, and leaving the command in Spain to his brother Hasdrubal, proceeded in the spring of B.C. 218 to the river Ibeiois, which he crossed with an army of 90,000 foot, 12,000 horse, and 37 elephants. When he reached the Pyrenees, he gave leave to all those who felt disinclined to accompany him on his great expedi- tion to return home. Large numbera availed themselves of this permission, and his forces were reduced to 60,000 foot and 9000 horse, but all were men determined to follow their gi-eat chief On his march through Gaul he met with little or no opposition until ho reached t>ic river Rhone, the passage of which he had to force against hosts of Grauls dra ' >; up on the opposite bank. Wlien this 72 HISTORY OP ROME. -aded on the soutKr^ftrtS- k^r '^ '" rodncod to 20,000 foot and 6000 htse tI ''' ""^''l desl^rto tu^t^,^^-' - ^---g of Hannibal's Gaul, while his colleges '"'• '^T^' ""^' ^^^* ^"^0 with another army "^ SieHv"^' w/"' ^«""^^"'^' ^''^^^^^^^d Gaul, Hannibal Ll .1 r ^^^^'^ ^^"'l"*^ arrived in iiibal's cavalry he ^vfn iT t^/^'*"^^"^^'"* ^^ Ifan- ou M.obank7oftiePo '? V"^^/ ^^'^^^^'^ ^« '-arrived Bcondodfron? the Alps' 't" 1^'?^^^^^^ ^"^^ ''^^''^-'^^ ^- the river Tirmu, ^lu' ^ ■ '? ^'""^^'^^ ''™^es fir.st iret on afterwards onZ:^ter|":r"r;r'^;^^^^^ the Honians were defeated u. i ^1 ^^' ^^ ^^^''« l'^^^^^ who intended to d fend thp rn!J^ f t> '"'^ ^^'^^"""^^s, battle was fonght thTi^ t if ^"^ ^^"^"- ^ ^^^'^ible 15,000 R.,^^nsper'shed b ^^^^ 1!^^"^^"^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ the slain, . ,| a iLltno./hrcrtl 7'^'"^^ assistance was likewise oJV • ^^^^ ^^'^* *« ^^s i-ped by treatin J^:ritatn rk!;X%. ^l^^ ^-' to his side, out the It-di-i oil -^ - ^ ^^^"^ ^ver Roman colonies, remained fithtS'/'^; ''l'''''^^y '^^ after the battle ^f LaSas m ^ ,^^^^1 when x,. mediately he met with a deCit ed , ^ ""^^^'^^^I^*'^''"'™' that he had misllcu^ J, f^'T' '""^^ *h"« fi^^<ii«g inarched alo^ he east eo nft"?^^ ^^'^ ^^^'^^^ ^"^ in the hope nf .,^X~ ? °^ -^*^'^^ *^^^^' ^^^ Apulia their Koman ruiera * '"' ^uliieru Italians against HISTORY OF ROME. 73 up the AIpB, •i iirnid iude 'Vhen he de- s forces were h(! i^assage of id his arrival hat he would Hannibal's t the consul id fleet into s, proceeded » arrived in ^hone, and, nt of Han- he arrived already de- 3r,st iret on Hinu.j.j, and ■hese j)laces 'i of winter lunibal re- qwing B.C. fs of T.ike Flaminius, A terrible in which i^as among nit to his nibal had them over 3iallj the iiiediafely polytinm, IS finding ^hice and Is Apulia s against ^ The disaster of Lake Trasiraenus had thrown Rome into a state of the greatest consternation. Quinfus Fabiua Mnor.lmus, surnamed Cunctator (the Slack), was at once appointed dictator, it being feared that the enemy would march straightway to Ronw. Fabius finding that Han- nibal had taken a diflerent rund, followed him as closely as he could with safety, and avoiding any decisive en- gagement, contrived to gain several smaller advantages. In the neighbourhood of Casilinum, Hannibal, through some mistake of his guide, was placed in so dilficult a position that he extricated himself -mly by a stratagem : he ordered bundles of brushwood uj be fastened to the ho^ns of 2000 oxen, which were then driven in the night wita the faggots in a blaze towards the Romans, who, terrified by the sight, abandoned their favourable position, and thei-eby enabled the enemy to escape. Hannibal spent the following winter in Apulia, greatly disap- I'ointed that none of the subjects of Rome had yet joined h-jn. The Romans, dissatisfied with what they believed tc ^ cowardice or unnecessary caution of Fabius, gave the consulship of the year B.C. 21G to Terentius Varro and J'., ilius Faulus. The character of the former was the ly opjwsite of that of Fabius, and the Romans expected tha- he consuls would put au end to the war at one blo\\ They proceeded to Apulia with a large army of 80,0Ut f.ot, and 6000 hor.se, and pit<-hed their cam]) near the little town of CanntB. The terrible defeat they .sufiered there showed, though too late, how wisely Fabius had acted, for no less than 47,000 Romans covered the field of battle, and the consul ^milius Paulus and eighty senators were among the slain. Varro escaped with a few horsemen to Venusia. Four battles liad now been lost, but Rome, though humbled, did not respond, and proposals for peace or r^- soming the prisoners were indignantly rejected. Hanni- bal, proceeding to Capua, was now joined by a numb.-r of italiaiiH, who d<:Spaiied uf the fate of Rome ; and t'apua, one of the wealthiest cities of Italy, which had been treated by the Romans with great favour, openly declared 74 HISTORY or SOMR l!) i gained numerous S^^^^^^^ ^« I'nd „ow TheRouaansmadT^vervSr ™^'« ^""-t victories even enlisted a body of sfo^^!^ raise fresh troops, and manded by Claudius mS T'" .^" «-^- 215. com- Gracchus gained other «dv!^f' ^'^- Semproniua Encouraged by these sucjr.f^'' '''^' B«nevent«in. Capua, which HanShJZTu' ^^^^ "°^ ^^^^d siege to he ?o„nd that ?he"c?ty It i^^^^^^^^^^ ^^-' ^«--ei^ relief; but as the RoLnTdecltera blt^T^' ^^^ towards Rome and pitched hiL. **^®' ^® marched A portion of the amy wlTr^ """' ^^^ -ery g,t^s. against him and offered batte^hn.wP"^^? *J««Patched not mentioned, conS^td hW V^^^^^^^^ .' country, and returned to the sS of TJI^ ^"^"^^ <*« siege to Syracuse. S xtriald T ^'/'^^" ^* °"^« ^^^^ end of which the city wrSl V ^ °'' ^'^^ y^^^'«' ^^ ^^e by treachery. TheSWsan .?.^ *^^ ^°«^^^ cal skill of thegrS^fc ilZl .' • l*^^ ^^ *^« mechani- themselves mo^rXtrbrw "^^^^^^^ ^^^^^-^ severely by their cofmS ^^L T'/"^^^^«^ «^o«* was destroyed for ever and F^^^^'f^^'"'^ o£ Syracuse while engaged in his scien^Jl^^'^"' ^^^ murdered fell into fhf hands ofTtmanT^ t^" ^^^"^ ^«^ vodred to indemnify himself b?f\' ^"""^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ea- andsome other pli^esTl'^thtriX"* ^ -^U, Capua was a so retaken hv /iT ^ ^" ^ *^® ^^ar habitants were treated wtthtpt-^ *^' ^?°^^"«' ^^^ its in- senators committed suidd. rn^^'l''"f ^^" *^«nty-seven and children to^4 tTemVom tt«'" ^^"'^ their wives" querors Two ye^JlZ^'Z^l^^^^'- °' *^^-- .' a..ua Ma^U3. The tr^tment Iniii;^ ^S^^ X'- u.: HISTORY OF ROME, 75 nter quarter^ he had now ved reinforce* eat victories. 1 tTOof)s, and •c. 215, corn- ed a severe Semproniua 3eneventnm. a.id siege to 3n, however, meed to its he marched very gates, despatched for reasons ' vaging the ' of Rome, liance with ans, in B.a it once laid jai-s, at the e Romans 9 mechani- , defended hed most f Syracuse murdered cily again ^>al endea- ' rarentuni the year ■nd its in- nty-seven eir wives ' the con- s^ered hy Syracuse and Capua so much frightened the Italian Greeks that they thought it prudent to abandon their connection with Hannibal, whose only hope now rested on the succours which he expected from his brother Hasdrubal. At the very commencement of the war in B.C. 218, the two brothers Cneiiis and Puhlins Corneliun Scipio had proceeded to Sjjain to operate acjainst Hasdrubal, and for several years they harassed and checked his progress. At the same time they entered into negotiations with the African chief ISyphax to attack Carthage itself Bnt in B.C. 212 both brothers fell in battle within thii-ty days of each other, and their armies were completely routed. Has- drubal now formed the plan of joining his brother in Italy with fresh forces. The disasters suffered in Spain were 80 discouraging to the Romans that no one was willing to undertake the command of a new army there, until young Puhlius Cornelius Scipio, the son of one of the two Scipios who had faller in Spain, though only twenty- four years old, offered to undertake the perilous tesk. On his arrival in Spain, in b.c. 211, affairs at once took a dif- ferent turn, and in his second campaign he took New Car- thage, the most important town of the Carthaginians. By his kindness and gentleness he attached the Spaniards to himself, and his popularity soon eclipsed that of Hasdrubal, who was defeated in B.C. 209 in a great battle near Bse- cnla. But Hasdrubal, notwithstanding this discomfiture, at length resolved to join his brother in Italy. In B.c! 207 he crossed the Alps and marched through the eastern part of Italy to meet his brother in Apulia. But on reaching the river Metaurus he met the consul Claudius Nero, who attacked him by night, while attempting to cross the river. Hasdrubal himself was killed, and his army entirely cut to pieces. A Roman soldier cut off his head, and when the army returned to Apulia, flung it into the camp of Hannibal. This was the fii-st and only intelligence that Hannibal received of his brother's arrival and defeat. After tliis, Kamxibal confii-ed iamself to a defensive attitude in Bruttium, which still i-emained faithful to him. "•I :0 ,i t M, m \i\: 76 HISTORY OP ROME. tad to pay dear rS^iriVr^^^r'^^'^ttacked him from Spiin, the Gartha^'inifn^ Hasdrubal's departure with sSpio; -re'';:;^:?;^^^^;^ o^^^^^^^ '^ -p^ and the whole of the southern mrt of 1 ^ ''^,''''*'^' conquered by the Roman. S.- •"' P^'^^nsula was several years, and havr"'nn.tn "^f''"'"'^ ^^ ^P^^^ for he returned to Rome w^ere' w -.^ '^''7 ^^*^ ^yP^^^^ he wa. elected co:::S fir Ihe yearf/'sol'^V'^^ ''^'''' proposed to attack Carthage in AfSea but tP '' .'"^' senate, considering tr^somewLtr^^ . *^^ cautious to him Sicily as hi prnv'^e t^^^f !!r-^*"°"'' ""'"'Sned to Africa, if he thou^hiil ^7^ . Permission to proceed The means placed at his ditf'"!*^^'""' *" ^^^ ^°"«t^- but the enthusTasm a 1 ovef Civ """ '"'^ ^^^^^-ent, w^ plentifully p.. JedTth,"?!^^^^^^^^^^^^ f^^ ^« contributions needed by voluntary croS^rSfS X^' f ^^^^ ^^ -• ^«^' the Carthaginians bu tL S ^^^^^^^erously joined sated by being loinef by th^X^^'r'^ '™P^^ A^^^' WithhisassisfaLe£iniJburnfH"r ''' ^"^- Masinissa. his allies, among whoT^e^t h^^^^^^ "^"^^ °5 ^^^^^^ ^^^ hope of Carthai now^eS o^W "^f T"^""' ^he last with summoned to Return h?m?'w'^"^' ^^°^««forth- B.C. 202, and soon afte- had anf.. " ^'''"f '^''^ ^^ which both were incHned to '^*""r^^ ^i*h Scipio, at people of Carthage,"eSbrtr;estcr^^^^^^^^ ^"* *^« general, resolved once more to t^-v ft ^ 5 *^^"' ^^^-'' The battle of Z«^ in b r 9ol . , *" ?'"*^"^^ ^^ ^ar. test between the T^ naij^^s'^^f >!, ^^"'?^^ *^^« «°^- %hting most bravely S the d.v''^^'I"'''"'' *^""g^ of their army was destroved W ^ ^' u"? f^^ ^''^^^^'^ Part to Carthage with onlvTw .^f ^'"''^^ ^^"^^elf escaped people to Ln.it\oti:IS;InaZ::i tt't ''^^"i '^« by«cipio The advice .J fo]LZTl'fctH?-''^T^ w Kuneuder all Roman Hoon,>^ ---,—• '^arttyge had HISTORY OP ROMB. Y7 satest boldness ' attacked him >ars departure able to cope ' the country, peninsula was d in Spain for with Syphax, ^g bis youth, He at once the cautious lous, assigned on to proceed bis country. r insufficient, ^•eat, that he by voluntary in B.C. 204, ously joined 'ply compen- r> Masinissa. SjTihax and e. The last lo was forth- ed there in b Scipio, at 5- But the their great ne of war. ed the con- ms, though greater jJart elf escaped dvised the •nas offered ■thaga bad rs without ception of ten ships, to promi.^ to abstain from war with any foreign fn^AA '*'''''"*' ^^'"^ sanction of Rome, to pay the sum of 10 000 talents by fifty yearly instalments, and to indem- nify Masmissa for the losses be bad sustained, l^e peace was ratified at Rome the year after, and Scipio, who celebrated a splendid triumph, wag honoured with the sui-name of Aft icanus. After the conclusion of this peace, Hannibal remained at Carthage domg all he could to repair the losses which his country had sustained, by wise reforms. But the Romans, ever afraid of his influence, contrived to under- mine his authority, so that at last even his own country- men began to lose confidence in him, and the greatest general and statesman that Cartbage ever had, was Obliged, m B c. 1 96, to quit his country as an exile. He proceeded to the court of ^n^ioc/iM*, king of Syria, whom he endea- voured to inspire with his unquenchable hatred of the Romans. The g-ains which Rome bad made during the Second Punic War were very great, notwithstanding the bactles they had lost and the devastations to which Italy had been exposed, for the southern part of Spain was conquered, and Cai-tbage and Numidia were virtually in a state of dependence on Rome. •. -. We have seen that F/dlip, king of Macedonia, had be- come uneasy at the influence which Rome after the Illyrian wars had acquired in the afl^aii-s of Greece. Demei^rius of 1 hai-os did his best to increase this feeling ; and after the battle of Cannse, when Rome seemed to be finally crushed, Fhilip concluded a treaty with Hannibal, in which the countries on the east of the Adriatic were promised to i'hihp while Carthage was to rule over the countries west of the Adnatic. But the document containing the treaty fell into the hands of the Romans, who at once adopted measures to prevent the Macedonian from sendin<» assistance to Hannibal. A petty war was thus carried on from B c. 215 to 205, during which neither the Romans »ur tiic Macedoiuans gained any great advantages. A peace was then concluded, though neither party intended to keep it; and Rome esi^ecially, being imable to cany on 6 it 78 HISTORY OF ROME, i H anotJ^r war so loBg as Hannibal was in Italy, only wanted to gam time. "'' ' A second war against Ma<;edonia broke out in B c 200 because Phxhp had ravaged the territoxy of At W wS wa^anaUjau^withRome^ This war^a. at fixTcTS L f\ ^"»^^» ^th Httle energy, and Philip supported hy many .- the Greeks, S favoui^d by fortune; but in b.c. 198, when ^ru^tius FlZSinZ ^unt'S'ti.'^' '""""^^ ^^ ^'''^y ^^^^ the rrr;^ country, things assumed a different aspect Philip was obliged to sue for pea<:e, in which he had to r£ogniU the mdependence of Greece, to give up a gi^t pSTS hS *-J ^^^^^*y ^^^ ^^ future conduct. This neace war rat^^ m B.C. 197 and in the year following, pCinrs, to the intense delight of the Greeks assembleTaTSie Isthm^ games, proclaimed the freedom and in^Lnd! ence of their country. luuepena- The enthusiasm of the Greeks for their liberators how ever soon subsided, for they made the dSv^^ thli what was called their freedom, was in rTlHvTnlv « sfrsirr" The^toiWs,whow:i%:fth: 81^ of the Komans against Macedonia, not considering ^i^Ives sufficiently rewarded for their servicL^nS AnHoch^^ of Syria to wage war againr^riiran^ m^irend^yotzrsweresecondedbyHfnnibal. aSL ^^helll ^'T'^ ^r'^'^y ^^'-"^ by the de3 ste^s ofCV" ^«*«^!.,*« independence the Greek in B*c. 192 crossed over with an army into Eurone But Sf^ff P^r^^ f' "^™ *^^ Hannibal73y hTm' Sill pf r ^'P T^ ^*^^^ *^« ««™««« ^ Ita[y he offended P^ip and wasted his time in frivolous amu^ ments in Eub<ea^ while the Romans rapidly ^ZS m twT.^ ?«T*^^^ by Aoilius Glabrio, in b c effort, and An-tio^h^n^fl h^s^rfl^rk i^^to^ S n Italy, only ut in B.C. 200, A-thens, which it fii-st carried and Philip, favoured by 8 Flamimnvs d the enemy's Philip was ^ephalcBy and recognise the t part oS his give hostages is peace was , Flamininus, nbled at the od independ- •erators, how- scovery that >ality only a ought on the ' considering aces, invited he Romans, Antiochtis, the demand the Greek roposal, and urope. But to ally him- n Italy, he Ions amuse- y advanced brio, in B.a t any great I into Asia^ HlWOllY OP ROME. ^\ 79 ^e .-^tolians ttNk..l and obtained peace, as the Romans Zl."r"' ^ '""^^ '^^ ""^"^y ^^ *^«i^ rear, whUe con- tmuing the war ammi Antiochus. armv%r'2o';!on t' ^""''^ "^ Jhermopyl^, a Roman army ot 20,000 won, under the command of Cains I^hus and Mm Cornelius Scipio (who wa^ accom- panied by hw brother Africanus); proceeded to Ask. As Antiochus n^xmA to accept the terms offered by ?n wtT^'Il*' \ ^^""^ ^***^« ^"« ^°"g^* ^ear Magnesia, m which the hmi, of Asiatics were^asily overpowered by the R<)man J.^kious. Antiochus then fled to Syria tTon tW r "^'"^'^."^^r^ ^^ granted to him on condi- tion that he should give up all his possessions in Asia west of Mount Tttunw, and all his ships of war, and pay a large sum of momy ^ ^ ^^r indemnity. He wi further requestt^d to deliver up Hannibal. The peace wa^ not ratihed at Ilome until b c. 188. The couSes thus ceded by Antiochus were distributed among the wlr.lf ^r?' -^'it^' ^'""^ ^^^ ««* y^^ ««°^e when it was thought dewrable to constitute them as Roman pro- vinces. HanmJiul, finding that his life was not safe in Syria, sought the protection of Prusias, king of Bithynia- but here too the liomans pursued hik.. and as PrS ILd to'lit l-f K*''*^' ^'"^ ^""^ ^«^««r' Hanrabal put an end to his life hy mmm, b.c. 183. His conqueror, Scipio Africanus, die.! about the same time; he t^ had .pent the last years of hiH life in a kind of exile, into which he had been driven partly by the jealousy of his enemies and partly by km owa insolent and overbeai-ing conduct. fcl rLAHlMINUS, BOIPIO AFKlCANUaL |. CHAPTER YII FROM THE PEACE WITH ANTIOCHUS DOWN TO THE TIMB OF THE GRACCHI. B.C. 188 TO B.C. 133. While these things were going on in the East, the vesee o th^^'lct-^ ''•'":'.^' '^?^ in.sun-ectionofrome W-il- i ^^' '^ *^^ "'''■*^' ^^i«h continued their hostilities from b.c. 200 until b.c. 181 when the K^1f« were finally compelled to submit to Rome"' D " war the Boians seem to have been completely extirpated In Spam, where the faithlessness of the Romans oftt^i drove the people into rebellion, they had to mainS theii power sword. n hand A great wL broke out the eln B.C. 181 which continued to mge till b.c. 179 when Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus concluded a peace oiTfa'r and honourable tems, which was long and SuHv re membered by the Spaniards. gratetuiiy re- Philip of Macedonia had indeed assisted the T?nir,«nH ^.TZ ^'"" gainst Antiochus, but his hatred "agabst them was as strong as ever. Ho died in B.c. 1 79, af d his HISTORY OP ROME. ni O THE TIMB st, the peace tion of some itinued their n the Kelts During this '■ extirpated. 5mans often lintain their )ut there in 179, when leace on fair ratefnlly re- he Roman.", red against i79, andhis successor, Perseus, at once began to make preparations for a fresh conflict with Rome, for which his father had left iiim ample means. When the last war against Rome broke out, in B.C. 171, Perseus, in consequence of his unwillin<^- ness to part with his treasures, lost some of his valuabfe allies. Although, therefore, he had gained at first some small advantages, he was totally defeated in b.c. 168 in the great battle of Pijdim, by ^milius Paulus. The king with his children, friends, and treasures, fell into the hands of the Romans, and had to adorn the triumph of h s conqueror. Macedonia was now made tributary to x<ome and in order to break its strength, the country was divided into four districts independent of one another Shortly after the battle of Pydna, one thousand of the most distinguished Achgeans, accused of havin<^ secretly supported Perseus, were sent to Italy to be tried. But in- stead of having an opportunity afforded them for clearing themselves of the charge, they were kept as hostages and prisoners in various towns of Italy. After spending seventeen years in this manner, and when their numbe? was reduced to three hundred, they were permitted to return tc their country, without any trial having taken place. The island of Rhodes, against which a sum ar charge was brought, lost its Asiatic possessions, and had to recognise the supremacy of Rome. In the year B.C. 149 Andriscus, a runaway slave, pretending to be a son ot the late king Perseus, came forward claiming the throne of Macedonia. As just at that time a third war against Carthage was breaking out, the Macedonians, thinking It a favourable opportunity of recovering their mdependence, flocked round the standard of the pretender But CcecthusMetellus crushed him and his followers in a battle near Pydna, b.c. 148, and a few years later Mace- donia was constituted as a Roman province While Metellus was still engaged in settling the affairs of Macedonia, the Romans sent an embassy to Greece «*v, "^ •1'-'''"^ ~"' 7^'."^"-^= t-" u-iiiusB ctparta and some other cities from their league. When the ambassadors communicated this order to the Ach^ans assembled at C?J l! m 9B HISTORY OP ROME. r Kormtb they were treated with insult, and there remained nothing bxit to compel the light-headed Greeks before? In B.C. 147, Metellus, after having made the n^s^r^ ai^augements in Macedonia, proceeded southwaT; tT himself, havmg a great affection for the Greeks did all Jtome. Jilt his term of office was coming to a close and he was obliged to hand over the command of the army to the rude soldier LvrAus Mummins. wl,<., after dStuS the Greeks m a battle on the Isthmus, took and destTo^^^ the wealthy and splendid city of Koi'inth, b.c. iIq^ inhalaunts were either put to the sword o; sold ^slaves and the numerous treasures of art were wantonly destrovS anstociacy. But it was not only Kovinth that suffered for Mummius and his soldiery traversed Peloponnesus rule ot the Romans the prosperity of many once flourish- ing cities died away, and with it patriotism and the love of hber y gradually vanished. The Spartans continued to mdulge their warlike propensities by selling their ^rvices to any foreign state th^t needed them while tl^ Athenians were valued by their conquerors chiefly as scholars, artists, poets, actors, or dancers, though they rarely gained their esteem and respect ^ After the close of the Second Punic War, Carthage during a penod of upwards of fifty years had in .nF extent recovered its firmer prospei^t/ bTindxtt*: 7Z' meix^e, and agriculture. But 'as this pmsneritv S created, so also did the hatred and jealousy Kme ? aS' ofThXm^ ""f '.T '' ^^^*^^^^«' aLhetSr^atlon of the Romans, neglected no opportunity of harassinff and annoying the i^viving state. ' One RoLn inTSutar Cato under the influence of a blind and infatuated hatrS In 1 ^^' ""'^'^^^ "^ ^^^'y «P«««^ he made in the senate rA„ — "'^*^ -f, destroying Carthage. MasS!^ tha'ffe in ITJ "^ ""^ u'' ""^'^ inipunity act towards Car- thage in any manner he pleased, drove the unfortunate HISTORY OP ROME. B» liere remained seks by force, the necessary ithward with battles. He reeks, did all contest with ) a close, and ' the army to ter defeating nd destroyed c. 146. Its )ld IS slaves, dy destroyed ilaces of the lat suffered, aloponnesus, i oppressive nee flourish- md the love s continued elling their ti, while the chiefly as tiough they ^ Carthage id to some ustry, com- sperity in- line; and instigation •assing and particular, ited hatred the senate Masinissa, vards Car- ofortiinate city into the necessity of defending its rights by force of arms. Upon this the Romans accused Carthage of having violated the peace. The Carthaginians, feeling the inJ possibility of sttccessfully coping with Rome, assured the ambassadors that they had no hostile intentions, and not only sent three hundred of their noblest citizens as hostages to Rome, but offered to deliver up all their ships and arms. This happened in b.c. U9, and when all this was doae, the Romans further demanded, that the Carthagin- lans should i-aze theii- own city to the ground and build a new one at a great distance from the sea. This inao- lent demand drove the jjeople to madness and despair and they resolved to j>erish amid the ruins of their own hon^s rather than yield to such flagrant insolence. All were seized with a bold patriotic spirit, and persons of all ranks and ages, women as well as men, cheerftUiy sacri- ficed all they possessed upon the altar of their country. The whole city was at once changed into a military camp* and nothing was spared that might serve to deliver the country from its impending doom. Such a spirit was too much even for the R<>man legions, whose attacks upon the city were repeatedly repulsed. At last the Romans ap- pointed Comeliug Sdpio jEmiliamis, a young man who had al»eadj given evidence of great military talent, to the eonsulflhip for the year b.c. 147. But even he waa unable to overcome the desperate resistance of the Car- thaginians, for although they suffered from the most tentble fiunine, they defended every inch of ground, even after the enemy had entered the citv. The battle which raged in the streets lasted for six da^s, after which the fury of the invaders and a fearful conflagration changed ^e once proud mistress of the Mediterranean into a heap of rums. Fifty thousand of its inhabitants who escaped from the massacre were sold as slaves ; and Scipio, like his great namesake, was honoured with the surname of Africanus. The territory of Carthage was changed into — r-- '• «i»ati -jiii; nami; ui ii^rrica, ana a curse was pronounced upon the site of the ancient city, so tha* » auould never be rebuilt^ m «4 HISTORY or KOMB. iJ ■ '•,> such as Num dh E^vr^ f'^"^"' ^""^ *^^^ ^^^ «t^t^». nominaJ iXenJenff'rf ^'^T^^^^' ^nlj enjoyed a prosperity cJtCreTblio^rt^'^^^ "' ^^^ '^' ^"*^^^rd a lartre class nf P^^ "^ every icmd of foreign luxury, Itad beei fimHy sl^TtWnn? ^ ''!i ^'^^titution of Rome beians had b /Jfee 1- ^ *°^^ Patricians and ple- eoualitv W i° ^'' P^'''*'^ "P°" ^ footing of perfect based ite chL^nul '^1, ^"^?/^*r^«^««d l>y law, those whac^llM C ftlToi'Sa'crr^^^ ^'^* ^^ with the great offict^^ nf ^f^^^^^^ ^^a* had been nwestecl selves aa Sed t^ thl t "T^^'""' ^^"^^ "^^^^ '^^^- bad na such alel s to T' ^7^'' ^'^'^^ *^««« ^^« lav between f h*. ^,\ T. ^i ^^' * hencef(>rtb the struggle ^Lll7^dlu't ^""t^^^r^^r that is, between those matters of autiQiii.-.-.^n ! '^ .• ""^^^^^ were becoming the art. ui Sta^' :;? 0^^: tfaTr"'?""'' of the Ga-eeks waa so „Lj^^^ ,>t ^'■■^": !»«'«■"« "- a sort of cor™,,t Greek "atite.lXtlirSr: u^^^ Histoat OP ROM& istress of all tbe the few states, only enjoyed a IS the outward were in a very J had ac<}«ired 'oreign luxury, more and more ution of Rome cians and ple- )tmg of perfect 'es or pptimatea gnised by law, nours, that is, been invested ^ upon them- lile those who called obscnre succeeded ia I very rarely {novus homo), > the struggle •etween those powers, and ggle hard to d Oeeee, the idy shown its 1 private life, lis and Greek ii' vay into r been so far re becoming jarch. The i© gvfQ their ^ersant with he influence iit have be- ?udeucv ucA S6 been cliecked by a body of men who still clung tenaciously to the ways and manners of their ancestors. This party was headed by Forcius Cato, who in his censorship did all he could to put down the prevailing fashion. In B.C. 155, he carried a decree by which three Greek philo- sophers, who had been sent to Rome as ambassadors and had attracted crowds of young men to their lectures, were ordered to quit the city. Long before this time,' it had been found uecessaiy to forbid the celebration of the festivals of Bacchus {Bacchanalia), which had been intro- duced into Rome from Southern Italy, and at which every kind of vice and licentiousness was practised. Cato counteracted the tendency of the age, not only by lecal enactments but also by his writings on agriculture and on the early history of the Italians. But even ho, unable to swim against tlie cun-ent, commenced the study of Greek in his old age. The enormous wealth accumulated at Rome produced vast changes among the citizens of the republic. Their humble dwellings were exchanged for stately villas sur- rounded by parks, and filled with costly furniture and precious works of art, carried away from the conquered countries and cities. The Roman ladies especially in- dulged in extravagant luxury and dress, against which legal enactments were powerless. The ancient and frugal - mode of life, and the pursuit of agiiculture, wei-e more and more abandoned, young men preferring military ser- vice abroad to the peaceful employments at home. The great mass of the soldiers liked best to serve under a commander who connived at every kind of licence, for which they rewarded him by tteir votes in the as- sembly, when he offered himself as a candidate for any of the high offices. The besetting sin of these times was the hunting after popularity, which the wealthy nobles endeavoured to gain by every means, however base, and more especially by amusing the people with splendid _ .,. ,.,..,,,-, ,.., rriir-^ii Liic xvuiiia.n:; ax an uraes entertained a passionate fondness. Such games were 1104 as in Greece, a stiraulus io noble deeds, but consisted m «6 HISTORY OF ROUE. U W. frrS^ war^ ''' ?' ?^^'^"' ^"^^*^^ ^^^ «ver eager for ^v«^o .otlevi^'i ^^^y^ ^''^ ^y ^^ provinces U was ,mmed,ately overran by usurers and mom^Sra W. ?na tW • f ', t™ "«"'"'' extortion in the pro guilty of ^.alrrffen:^, o°^wt; Ss^w^^.t t" I f HISTORY Ot ROME. which fostered mWmg that of n poverty and J by vices and Romans looked th, and treated r had reducd lucrative, and 'M-W8, readers, >hfcd enormous i^'es of Corsica But although it, its outwai'd le great public as high roads, tly attest the ns. jver eager for ira of foreign ) amass enor- the provinces t were farmed I to the state ) right either set the taxes, rtion and op- nan province, loney-lenders, tax-gatherei-s. n in the pro o the Koman either been iv^ard to them led generally nees and the (vincials into nia in Spain, 87 y^hereSn/juctus GaBn treachorously caused the peonlo to a.sen.ble before him without their L„s, and t\LTt\t soldiery loose upon them and had them all massHcred WrJh ,' ^ bmve LuBitanian, who had escaped on that terr ble day x-alhed roun<l him a^ many of his countrvmen ^ he could, and waged a desperate war against' the RomanB which last..! from B.C. 148 to B.C. HO, and n which the Romans often suffered terrible ses In B.C. 141. the Romans were even obliged jucludo a peace with him in which they had to^ecognise* h m as the r fnend and ally. This, however, was felt to b. su "h a humilui ion that in the year following the war wjia renewed ; but even then they got rid of their enemy only b hiring assassins, who murdered him in his own tent J.he Lusitanians indeed continued the war a few years WrK'-,^"Ji' "^ "•^- l'*!^ ^^^y ^^^'■e comi,elled to submit .. ^.l.st the war against the Lusitanians was still going on, another broke out with the Celtiherimis, B.C. 143 . Their capital, i\«,n«;,<^ situated on a lofty eminence on the river DunuH, was besieged for a period of five years during which Its inhabitants displayed the utmost bravery in B.c 137, the consul Hostilius Mancinus was reduced to siich straits as to be obliged to conclude a peace with the Numantines, by which he had to recognise their in- dependence. But the Roman senate refu.sed to sanction tt En W^^"' ""^^^""^ ^ '•^ '^""^^^^ "P ^ The war wa^ thus renewed, and the Numantines, as before, defended themselves most heroically. Scipio, the destroyer of Carthage, then received the command of the army and the unenviable task of torturing to death a heroic people He continued the siege with increased vigour, and tJie city suffered from such a terrible ?am?ne that un- some time they fed upon the corpses of thei^ kflJ'A '''•"^*^ ^^ ^^* ^ ^-^^ 133, after having killed their wives and children, they threw open the gates ot their citv anrl anwonH^,.^ nnu ,. , V ^ vivors was very small, and the long sufieiings they had undergone had m much changed their features, that they 1 I' i-i I m 1 f IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1^ 2.5 2.2 l.i IL25 ill 1.4 u 1.6 k A /. f/u fA V v; .-> >/ %' PhotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 Jv '^ « <b V 88 HISTORY OF ROME. scarcely resembled buman beings. Scipio then destroyed the city, the rums of which still exist, a monument of the brave struggle of the Numantines for freedom and independence. Spam now became a Roman province and being completely exhausted, remained quiet for many In the year in which Numantia fell, Attains, king of Pergamus died and bequeathed his treasures and his kmgdom to he Roman people. Two years later, Aris and claimed the kingdom as his lawful inheritance As he was supported by many who hated the Roman do- minion he was enabled to place himself at the head of a general insurrection of the lonians and Lydians This led to a war with Rome, which, with varying success wa3 continued into the year B.c. 130, when it wa? brought to a close by Perperna, who took Aristonicus prisoner and carried him to Rome in triumph. In this war The Romans had been assisted by Mithradates V., kin- of rontus, who received as his reward the country called Phrygia, but the kingdom of Pergamus was coStituted m a itoman province under the name of Asia. COIN OF ANTI0CHU8. OAIUS UARWB. CHAtTER Vin. ?K)M THE TIME OP THE ORACCHI DOWN TO THE FIRST WAE AGAINST MITHRADATES. B.C. 133 TO B.C. 88. ^^S'r'' ^^"^f.^«3^' «r ^^-^ " optimates," as they called themselves consisting of both patricians and plebeians had gradually stepped into the place of the old pEians ' :lf the"f nf 't:?'^ -t -cognise them as'fdS order, they nevertheless endeavoured by all means to secxire the exclusive possession of the grelt offices and of but tTr 'T^' .?t ^r"^' "«^ coSparativeTylalf t^nn nf ^r'*''\'r ^^ ¥^ ''' *^^^^ hands the administra! ad *^%^'^P"^ t« '^^d «f tl^e provinces, and thus they alone reaped wealth nud ; lory from foreign wars. In tli,^ manner they amassed enormous riches, while multitudes who hT^ ''" P°T'^- . ^^" «^^" l^^ded proprietor. S .1 ''T "'^^^'^^^^"^^d the strength of the republic arisen a class of men who spent their life in idleness and were ready to sell their votes to the highest bdder Theu- number had latterly been much increased bvfhe iL\T/^ f^ proprietors of large estates had them cul- tivated by free peasants or clients, things had gone ou i m 90 HISTORY OF ROME. c»; ; : k f. pret y fairly, but T/hen the noblea began to employ bo(li>« of slaves m their cultivation instead of fre7 aLm-e^ thousands of Eoman citizens were reduced o the coS t^on of beggars or vagrants. Many a wise and nob «' Roman seeing before him the abyss^intrwhich the ^^ duced th? vote- b/Uot IT^S:^ o^S^ and two years later the tribvr .,e Cassia ZongSf^^,^ law^ ;^'Tu"t1her^ "^^ ^' ^^^^^ in' r^pullr bribe:;:Joduc^eS\fe%p:reTect"^l^^^^^^^ ~ by the distribution of the public land nf «,>.• i. ll . me xjatins. Ihe latter, how- ver, was dista^^f^fni +« ^i for upwards of two yea.^, and was ca4d on ^^^ ^f ^te bitterness and ferocity of slaves bui-.^- +w i • ^ brought to a close ^y Ru^mL " o^'"tW^ So slaves are said to have been killed in i. ^^'^^^ Occurrences like these showed what'tn,Vli+ i,„ Italy, if the actual system was S^ev3*>P^^ '" Romans saw the evil, but no one Ija^ f t? . ^**"^ forwai-d as a reformed, i^.tUi^B c^33tT"-^" ^ '""^" n^^«.(?W.^.,asonofCornel^aXd^^^^^ earned a law re^nacting the Licinian law which flK»K It had never been repealed, had ii thr'crurs« n^?"^^ become a dead letter ThL inL ^^^ °^ *""« Been .i,/«^f n ^ ^^^» ^ ^^ have already S^ of S? ^u,"^ f^y person to hold more than^O '^T.f.Z^'^^t""^'' *^^-^^^--- ^ be taken ... sv„,^ in>HBi««iora ana distributed among poor m to employ bodies of free labourers, iuced to the condi- a wise and noble into which the re- ledies for the ever- me Gabiniiis intro- on of magistrates, 9 Longinus carried ting in the popular tended to prevent A better remedy dent middle class of which the state he franchise upon distasteful to the aer to the avarice fears entertained greatly increased ppening in Sicily, 1 B.C. 134, broke 5rs and the whole mr, which lastttl d on with all the theii' chains, was ore than 20,000 night happen in ered in. Many courage to come Tiberius Sempro- hter of the elder me of the pleha, ^ which, though course of time e have already more than 600 as to be taken ed among poor HISTOny OK ROMR. 91 auzens m small lots as their full property. A commis- Kion of three men was to be appointed to superintend the ^rZ. .!r!J:*wu ^'«*"bution. At the same time it was proposed that the property which had just then been « bequeathed to the Koman people by King Attalus, shoulS be divided among those who received land, in order to enable them to purchase stock and agricultuml imple- Sf K-n ^\VP*f^a,t«^ beaded by Scij>io Nasica, opposed the bill with all their might, and induced the tribune Octeyius to put his veto on the proposal of his colleague. In this scheme they succeeded all the more easily, because Octavius himseK possessed more of the public find than the law aUowea. Gracchus left no means untried to persuade his colleague to give up his opposition, but wi*. out success. He waa therefore forced either to abandon Mb patriotic scheme altogether, or to get rid of Octaviua He adopted the latter course, which, tLough unconsti- tutional, yet was justifiable on moral gromids. In a anrr"-ijl*'^^'^ ?^""*'"« ^^ ^^ P««P^« ^« proposed and (^led the deposition of Octavius. This procedure Tl y.'''^^''^^^ ^^^fidle against him, and ^th some ni^^tw f ^^ "'P"^^^"' *^^ ^^^"^ «P^d the malicious E^ T? T^ ^''l^'^S ^* ""*^^^« ^i^self king of Kome. The people in thc^ ignorance being easily misled, began to suspect the motives of Gracchus, and when he offered himself as a candidate for tiie tribuneship for tiie foUowmg year, it was evident that his popularity had been undermmed, and the optimates, with th'eir followers, created a tumult, in which Gracchus with three hundred of his fnend« was kUled. This scene of bloodshed w^ followed by every kind of persecution of the friends of the tribune, m wnich the nobles revenged themselves for tibe fear they had suffered of being deprived of theii- illegal possessions. "'cg«« .«lf l*^"?V^^ optimates had gained a complete victory. 8tdl the tribunes had become aware of their nower «nd i^uence, and by their perseverance succeeded in the years which now followed to carry several popular eiCfc % "5 'I m ilk m §■ i\ 92 HISTORY OF HOME. dreaded : but all ttlv T^ *. "W'osi'ion they most agrarian law. '^''' ^^^ ^^'^^actment of his brother's witwZrVpS^^^^ ^^ - popular, that the followinc. yeaf Kri • , .^' re-elected tribune for in the second T t hfd b it 'r f 7' '^ ^'' ^ ^^^ law he carried ordained that 7hlf '* ^'^"' ^^^ fi^«* hitherto been comZed nf ! ^^'"^ ^°"'^'' ^^^^h had forth consist of eTS or welHf''' '"\^' ^^^'^^^ ^^^^e- example, senators' act s:d oftxtorZ'' "'.'^ '' *^^*' ^- were no longer tried by the^ peetw ^ '^^\P^'^^i^«^« heli< vd to be honest and ,-,5',^^''^°'^^^^"ien had reference to the dLribut n^ ^^.f '*• ^^^^^^^ ^^^ henceforth was to take plt^lifl^^^^ ^^7^".^^^' "^^^^ magistrates. Other meaJmS ^ ! *^- "^ ^^^'*^^^ "^ *lie ployment to the p^r^a resTn^^r^"?^ ^ ^^^^ «™- roads, constructing of pS b, ?]^ ""^^i^^ ^^ Public undertakings. His U rirn- i^'-^''^' • °*^'' "'"^"^ could be exnectS w Proceeded aa satisfact. -ily as conferred upon the lS f jl ?^ ^'^^"^^'^ ^^^^^^ be Livius Druius one of 7hl .' ^P^^^^tes prevailed upon popular meZ'rerand t SoS'th '"*'^', ^"^^^"'^^ greater advantag;8. By ?h7s ' 1 i'^'P^" ''^^'^ ^"^ undermining the popularLnfpT ^^^^ succeeded in his i-e-electfon tHhe iJ?hi T /' """^ ^ When his second year of l^/h? ^^' *^^ *^^^ ^^^r^ he was divested of the Lr^d ct T' ^ ^ ^'^^^ "^^^ -mies gave the reinrtoTettr^^^^l^.^r^^^^^ ^'' -braces whxch then ensued, the^c^nsul fes; ^per: B. various contrivance^ Pposition they most ^s did not prevent >^ounger and more Bering himself as a year b.c. 123. He 1 carried a number 'aken the power of ons for the poorer Qent of his brother's dm so popular, that sleeted tribune for tivity was as great •St year. The first courts, which had nly, should hence- talists, so that, for in the provinces ' by a body of men at. Another law provinces, which 'e election of the gned to give em- naking of public and other useful satisfart, -ily as on by hi. xriend anchise should be 's prevailed upon tbid Gracchus in )eople other and ley succeeded in nd in preventing the third year. to a close and of a tribune, his during the dia- Opimius, a per- HISTORY or ROMH. M and feehng sure of impunity, if he could only lavTsh into Africa soon discovered that they could bpn<^?7.T selves more by accepting the bribes ^^^^1^^^^^^ adopting vigorous measures against him WI en thl^hZ came kno.n at Rome, MemnUus again iear^X e^VO^ed the shameless conduct of those who h«.l heeui2^!!l^- with the management of the war Tn^'^rlV *'"^^"=*'^ summoned to bJ., and elt Zw iS^ve^lfpS Mi 94 HTSTORY OP IJOME. Mil ll punfehnmnt, had h„ not had the audacity to nnmfer Tom>. Masaiva, a grandson of Masini>«^ He waa^e^^ a&ainnf Turr,?,.*!, x xi ' ^"''"isted the command dZlLl H« T^^r^ ""^r" P«"«^«^ -manners he fiSn^uch^l f •f^'t'^^u *l^*^g«i«ted himself aS gamed much popularity by the vigorous maimer in which he had opposed and attacked the ^-oceedings of th^noW^ His personal valour and military talents ^o were ^en^ ally known, and the people even then sel to havTlS upon him aa Uie only man cajmble of brin^nathe w!^ against Jugurtha to a close Thp vp«. Ift T ^*T Rome to ofer himself as a candidate for the conB^fw^ The xn«olent manner in which Metellus tre^tedTk^ on ^t occasion only fired his ambition. On his arri^ at Rome he wa« received with the gi^atest enSiu^m bv oi bTi07 &^"' -^onlyjTtained thecoTiiJ loi B.C 10/, but was commissioned to undertake the war agamst Jugurtha as the successor of MetlkT £i74 m organismg his army, enlisted large numLrs^"^ »o excellent a manner, that thev bpnnmA «,«^^ *u 106.'jog„«h^^2^^j^'2rt^.!Sf:^'t^- ^ surowu mto a d»g,«^ wW he w« lii;^ tolitr' city to nrarder yormg He waa ordered to ed, but in so careless id at the growth of irusted the command t bi-ave and honest P two years manag- i er, and restored the 5k with him Caitis Marius was a man imbition and full of )li8hed manners he lished himself and is manner in which edingsofthenoblea its also were gener- eem to have looked ' bringing the war ir after his arrival ommander to go to for the consulship, as treated him on On his arrival at est enthusiasm by ned the consulship undertake the war Hetellua Marius, e numbers of the i trained them in ame more than a as driven to such i father-in-law, for ^oung noble, who quBBgtor, indu(»d uUa brought him ^ ited the war, B.a ^ itmillYiw^V* Aro'l AT tarved to dsfttb. HISTORY OF BOMB. m Italy was at this time threatened by an invasion of i r^ r^"'' '"^^^^^"^We dian any it had yet experienced, I and It was most fortunate that the Roman armies were ■ nl!rf/ "^^"^J^^ ^rica. The Gimbri, a Keltic host, ^ a^ J'''''S'* .^^ «0"^^otions among eastern nations i £P^^'f? "^ Noricum in B.c. 113, where they were joined &r-r>'* °^™***^« ^^«'^* «r Germans.^ tS I Umbn had no other object but to find new homes in I ^^n Europe, and promised to commit no act of hostility agamst the Romans or their allies. They kept ^Z^.L^^'tl ^iS* ^^^ nevertheless treacherously Sl^^!? i^ *^^ rS^""^^" ^«^^ ^''^^^' <*ey completely defeated them. They then proceeded into Gaul, which they ravaged m all directions ; and in the course of four yeara seveml Roman armies were routed by the invaders on the banks of the Rhone and on the lake of Genem Kome was alarmed as in the days of Hannibal, and Manus again was the man to whom all looked with con- fidence. Although he had not yet returned from Africa, he was elected m his absence to the consulship for B.a 1U4 and the same honour was conferred on him succes- sively m the four following years. The Cimbri, after their several victones over the Romans, instead of invad- ing Italy, proceeded to Spain, which they ravaged in the same manner as they had ravaged Gaul ; but & b.c. 102 they returned to Gaul, where in the meantime the Teu- tones also had arrived. Ever since his second consulship Marius had with great care tramed and disciplined his army for the coming atruggle and when the Cimbri returned from Spain! Manus fought a great battle near Aquse Sexti» (!^ agamst the Teutones, and their whole body was nearly Z. .t^i ^"* "^^^r^ile the Cimbri were descending from the Alps into Italy, and the army opposed to them under Zutattv^ Catnlus, had to retreat before them to the ^uthem bank of the Po. On hearing of this, Marius witn his torces hasten^^d *<i ^ic »-^K^^ — 4 «+ - -i- - n • Campi Raudu, near Vercellse, he defeated, in B.C. 101, the Cmhn a« completely as he had the year before defeated V If -f I iii u« If ft r'p i HISTORY OF ROME. the Tcutones. Manus was now universally ^-eeted m the deliverer of Italy, and the sixth consulshin^B c loS^ was the reward of his glorious victories. ^' ' Ihe popular or democratic party was now triumphant and the nobles fearing to lose Vhat they cons 32 rights, united under the leadership of Sulla who w^ peUTairthe""^ than Mai-ius, a'nd comli'ned'L h!^ T!7i ^ ^^""^ *" ^P'^^^'^^J ^^atred of Mai-ius who dated by his victories, acted in many wafs Ts' if he Sd the'SS: °' 1'\''""T ^^P^^'i' anfe'n su; ported the infamous tribune Appuleius Saturninus whn tyrannised over the assembly of the peoT and bv main force and violence carried a number 'of enac^ rSarsfn"!;- ^^^^r/l *^^^ *^^ land-l^red by Maims in Africa and Gaul should be distributed among his veterans. O^cilius Metellus, X opS exile. haturmnus succeeded in causing himself to be elected twice to the tribuneship by munler Zhis com petifcors m b.-oad daylight. In B.a 100 he went so fS." monstei. Saturnmus, with Glaucia and his followp,^ withdrew to the Capitol, where they were besieged bS uraeieci neai ly all of them to be put to death AftPr these scenes, Marius for a time withdrew from pubHc Ixfe^and the party feuds seemed to be subsiding ^ ° ^ But Sulla neglected no opportunity of wounding the close beWpTf i"- "^^* *^^ ^^" ^'S^""«<^ Jngvxvtha to a Close belonged to him, and not to Marius But far weightier matters than these personal dHv,-"^ -p^ as^ucting the public mind. Thi reform intlXed bj IE. niversally greeted as consulship, b.c. 100, fies. was now triumphant, they considered their of Sulla, who was nd combined in his )f the Roman aris- d of Mai-ius, who, lany ways as if he iblic, and even sup- ■iizs Saturninus, who ;he people, and by number of enact- he lands conquered ould be distributed ell us, who opposed bune, was sent into sing himself to be nurdering his com- 100 he went so far ninded Caius Mem- 3 consulship for his my other atrocities, clare against Satur- citizens to defend ip arms against the and his followera, fvere besieged ; but ■ender, and Marius ' to death. After idrew from public subsiding. ' of wounding the ^ to show that the inst Jugurtha to a Marius. But far lal disputes were i*m introduced by HISTORY OP ROME. or I Ow^chus regardmg the courts of law had proved a com- P^ete failure for the equites were found to be as accessible to bribes a^ the senators had been before, and in fact the one body helped and played into the hands of the other • the number of poor was increasing year by year which enabled the rich by their bribery to .^onopo^is^edi ^olS cal power; and lastly, the Latins and Italian allies had oh se""' F.7 '^^TT\ ^^ Je^^anding the Roman frau- cnZi T T^ ^"^ ^^^ '''"^^^ ^ Sr^PP^e with these questions, but in b c. 91, the eloquent tribune Livins ^rusus undertook the task. His first attempt consisted in a proposal to divide the judicial power equally between the senators and the equites; he next aimed at checkin<. themcrease of pauperism, by distributing the public land among the poor and by the establishment of colonies; his thud measure demanded the franchise for all the Italilms The exaspemtion of the nobles against him was so greatj that before he was able to bring forward his third bSl, he ZnT^w /"" ^'' °T ^°"'^- T^« ^^^^^ allies, now seeing that it was useless to try to obtain what they wanted by constitutional means, resolved to conquer by torce of arms what was so recklessly refused to their ^Zf^t M ""^^ *'^"« l^^-^ke out in B.C. 90, commonly called the Marsian or Social War, which blazed forth at once in all parts of Italy. fhJ?i!-^°«^.^f^ ''^?'' extended the franchise beyond thp ^T^f^r *"^ V^^«^ ^^^^^ber was completed about the end of the First Punic W The rights enjoyed by the Latins and Latin coloniep aj>proached nearest to th^ ST^ r'tf ^' "^'^ '^ ^""^ '-^''^^«'^* ^^^ ttey must be the fai-st to obtain equal rights with the Romans. The D™' a '^t *^!V' ^''* ^^°P" "P°^ *^e efforts of Livius i)i usus, and when they were disappointed in this, all the tW r/^^'°"''7'^^ *^" ^^^■«i^'^« ^^^^ Sam;iites at decL.r?i; -''"'^f tJ^f »«elves into a confederacy and to iri?r ^'' S^,^l^e^^^e^^«« of Rome. Their plan was to establish a^_ Itelian republic governed by two consuls, di^ "?f ' ^^.^1'^"'^^ ^^^^^ ^«« henceforth to be called Itahca, Its capital. The annies of the confederates were fi' ',t'.' ;^r m m 98 m HISTORY OP ROMB. seemed to promise success; but fortunately for RouT Umb^r SnS - '*f/ " ^;^i ^ *^« EtruscansTnd prreSeir rlo^n •^°"' *^^ confederacy, and in o«ler to prevenu their doing so, a law waa proposed and carried v^ZTt '''^, ««»f«"*d «Pon all the Latins: and two the no^^A/^-^*^^?^^^"« ^^^ XJmbrians were on piLShem'^r^''? *^' confederates, Rome wisely pr<S war h^ in S« r' ^'I.S^*^"^ t^"'^ the fmnchise/ The war Had in the meantime been carried on in several Dart« of Itely, and many a bloody battle had been fZht ^S th^ concessions made by Rome to the LatinsritruscfiS a^fes "irth'e'r^'^^^ 'T^'' ^^^ *^« hopTTthi nl„!!' • T* , ^""^ *""®' ^™e was anxious to restow SlZJj^^^' ^?r ** ^«* threatened by a wa^S W1U8 aamitted to the franchise, were, however not nnf «« !(' COIN or suuA. ►r conducting the trar rtunately for Rome, aa the Etruscans and racy, and in order to •roposed and carried >.0. 90, whereby the le Latins; and two I Umbrians were on !8, Rome wisely pro- the franchise, llie i on in several parts I been fought. But 5 Latins, Etruscans, d the hopes of the anxiouB to restore ened by a war with I by this danger, the ans who shcmld lay This measure pro- »d the Social War, 00,000 men. All es, who afterwards . The new citizens owever, not put on e old ones, and, as t gave liae^toijresh A aoMAir ALTAB, OHArTER IX FBOM THE FIRST WAR AGAINST MITHRADATES, DOWIT TO THE DEATH OF SULLA. B.O. 88 TO B.C. 78. At the time when the Romans were at w- fth Arim Wof P^^ V"^ T- ^T^ '"""' ^y Mithradates Y\ W iddiSlJif' ^^?' which they afterwards rewanled him' Mi,r A? ^^g^a to hia kingdom. But m soon aa Mithradates was dead, they took it away, and hT su^ ZTe^sfZ"t: ^^-'beiig still very yo^gand\L\Te by evel^l^^r *.* *^\*^°^«» strengthened himself MitwZfJT^ ^' especially by enlarging his kingdom. addS telll +^ T'^!** ^ ^""'^ ^^^<^^on, and in Soid L^ the advantages which Greek culture could attord, he ^sessed great courage and enterprise When he was sufficiently prepared tTmeet the Z^ he no Sffw^h r1' *° ^A^^^« ,?..*^« affai^rTountri:: jtxiita witn Kome ; and hm wpll^iic/.;T>i,v^j 4. . mateh for the »„„«„, wCneTef w 'l^f TZ •verp^hete welcomed by ike Greeks, who SeJ „^t 100 U K HISTORY OF ROME. him as their dehverer from the Romans. In b.o 88 he w said in one day to have ordered the massacre of 80 000 Komans residmg in the different towns of Asia. When he had obtamed possession of all Asia Minor, he sent his Greek genera , Archelaus, with a large army into Greece where his arrival was hailed by the chief dties, such as Athens and Thebes, as that of a deliverer These proceedings of the Pontian king called for im- mediate and energetic measures. The Roman senate accordmgly, entrusted the supreme command against him ^o^ulla who was elected consul for B.C. 88. Sulla, who f^-l« ?!r"'?'^ ^''""'f ^^ *^" ^^''^^ War, was at the Manus ^It greatly hurt at being thus passed over, as the war against Mithradates was one in which glory and wealth would be the sure reward of the conqueror. Under the influence of this feeling, Marius allied himself with the tribune Pi,bhus Sulpicius, who, partly bv violence and partly by a cunning distribution of the new citizens among the old thirty-five tribes, carried a proposal depriving Sulla of the command against Mithradates and confemng it upon Marius. When Sulla was informed ol this, he straigl tway marched with his army to Rome which bemg unprepared, was forced to admit him and h,s soldiei-s. The_ popular party offered a most deter- mmed resistance m the streets of the city, but Sulla succeeded in putting his enemies to flight. He used th's victory with gi-eat moderation, outlawing only Marius . I-'S'' ?x *^^ "^""^^ conspicuous leaders. Marius with great difficulty escaped to Minturn^, and thence crossed over into Africa, where he is said to have sj^ent his time among the rums of Carthage, carefully watching the course of events in Italy. o "» Sulla spent some time at Rome, making such arrange- ments as might insure peace and tranquillity in the cfty during his absence in the East. He went so far in his moderation as to allow Lucius Cornelius Cimm a leader oi the democrats, to be elected consul for b.c. 87, to<^ether With his aristocratic friend, C^ievus Octavius. Leaving HISTORY OF ROME. 101 B.O. 88, he B of 80,000 ia. When he sent his ito Greece, es, such as ed for ira- lan senate gainst him Sulla, who was at the Samnites. ver, as the glory and conqueror. ed himself partly by f the new a proposal dates, and informed to Jlome, him and ost detez'- but Sulla used this y Marius irius with e ci'ossed his time hing the an'ange- L the city ir in his a leader together Leaving «ie command against tlie Samriites to Pompeius Rufus Sulla went with his array to Greece, where Thebes sub- mitted to him without striking n blow. Archelaus, after two blooay battks, was put to flight. Sulhi then maa-ched against At/iem, which, after a long siege, diiring which Its inhabit^nte suffered from the most t<:mble famine, was token and plundered, b.c. 86. His ecnducfc toward. Athens was marked by the greatest barlxuity : the forti- tications and even ancient temples were destroyed w pillaged, and a vast number of works of art waa carried ^l ,y^^l«*l^se things were goiaig on in Greece, Mithi-adates, being himself haii'4 pressed in Asia bv another Roman army under Fimf^'^a, ordered Archelaus to negoti^ for peace. The negc .ions were protracted tor a long time until b.c. 84, when Sulla himself went to Asia and bad a pei-sonal interview with the king. Peace was then concluded on condition that Mithradates should pay all the expenses of the war, surrender his whole fleet and give up aJl his conquests, so that his empire waf' limited to the original kingdom of Pont^is. Sulla theL' proceetkd to chastise the provinces and towns of Asia which had joined Mithrad^ite^, and exacted enormous Unes trom them, so that those countries for a long time alter were in a state of complete exhaustion. F&ibria- though he had been very successful against the Pontian king, wa^ treated by Sulla as an enemy, because ho belonged to the party of Marius ; and as he was deserted by his own soldiers, he put an end to his existence. • ■^""''^, , i^'^.*^^''"^' ^^'^« ^a« again the scene of c^yil bloodshed, for Cinna attempted to alwlish the regu- .a^ions made by Sulla before his departure, and to recall the outlaws. But the party of the nobility in a fierce struggle droy« him out of the city, and deprived him of the consulship. He then proceeded to the army engac^ed agamst the Samnites in Campania, where he Assembled around him the malcontents from all parts of Italy, and in.,.^41 .,ianu= cu return from Alrica. Marius at once accepted the invitation, and after landing in Etruria collected an army; in conjunction witii Cinna. he 6 §': I t 'i ;il 102 Ji ••!'! • 't f 1 3 ■ k HISTORY QF ROMt OQ<»viu^ the orator M^cm,^.?^^' ^^% ^^'^^ ^"«i«« ▼e^^ ^tein, their Wn,t?T*' ^^ ^^^ ^^^n,, «iew bodie; left U^Se/i thH? *f^ t**^^^ '^^ and five nights Se stieTed ^.^^t ^^ ^^' ^^^ if^m by the sword ^ *^^ ^°"'0« of a city 8^; bmi he did not wln^v tht ? "' ^.' ^^ ^^• abomi the middle of Jmu^l^ ^^ ^**^°^/ f«^ ^»« died niteg had in the meimtZT^L u "^^^ ^'*^ *te Sarn- ie fta^chise hid beTn ^L-^;, brought to an end, and -as .ow eon.pIete,rr :S^^^^^^^^^^ Ali It.,y h^ded by Cinna anr] *i,^ uf *^® popular party Sulla to^retu^rCe and"^v:\"'^"*^^ P^'^^^Po^ thought i, right ^ZVtiriXlTL W"' 'F *akettj]p4sia, and did not land in T^f ?n^ ""*^^'- »»iag oi; B.C. 83. He prLS i ^^^ *'" *^ ^««i«- «yd :?, anna had bSn Setd bv I^« n *° ^P^^«' Marwj party was deprived of t).. 7 * ^ ^^^'^ *he then*, f<,r those who^now c^2 f ^^ ?^^ °^^ ^"^^^g BucM as Carbo, young Mariuf and T't ^ ^*^ ^^^^^^ neithe. the teient nor the eneZ r^""'^"'.' ^^'^^^^^ oumstances of the time SulS f l""^^ ^^ *^« ^i'" »>at<^e^, and their solSe« ^m.^^^V^^ ^ ««^^ral dos^ly besieged and driven Jn^'*^' ""^^^^ ^^^ -«« tben entered^me At th^ «« T""* ^""^^^ Sulla commanded by Pontius Tele^r *"^"' ^ ®^"^i*« *"^y gates, hoping to take the ^tllT'' "?P^^ »>«^ore ite t^^eeneipyattheCo^^eGl wh"'"P™'^ but Sulla met fcattle wa« fought,Twhieh i^ « *, "^"'* «^«^^rou8 wmpJetelv, def^f.:i .w S-A ;^ PlP'^^r Party wa* so oomini<,ted suicide""' ""'" ""'"^"^ ieteainus in despaii- ed bj famine aow gave the )oIitical oppo- ^ tte 8tr»je6a ipunity; and consul Cneius many others, ^troyed, and ^OT five days ars of a city used himself tie year ac. for he died tt the Sam- an end» and AU Italy pular party r'^ssed upon But Siilla tad undev- the begin- Canipania ; oldiers, the nan among ^ts leadeis, > possessed )y the cir- in seveml fn B.C. 82, ce he was fft Sulla nite army before its Sulla met lui-derous y was so 1 despaii' HISTORY OP ROME. 103 Ita?J ?iwt u* ^"' *^^ undisputed master of ♦ fl^\. ^^'.^'^^^ ^^ ^ d^««d his vengeance took to flight, and a few days after the battle 8000 prisoners wei-e butchered xn the Circus, while the senate, aLmbled in the adjoining temple of Bellona, heard the cries and s^nS ""^J^^ "^""T: ^^^"^^^ by «"«^ ««eneB the aenate readily complied with all the commands of the conquei-or. Although more than 100,000 lives had already been sacrificed during the civil war, Sulla, not yet satisfied devised a new and unprecedented means for punishmg those whom he suspected to have favoured his lf^2^' u '1 ''''/°*'* ^ proscription, that is, a list of all those whom he chose to regard as his enemie^ was set fW^,r -'^i;. K^^nT J*''''* '^^^^ ^«« contained in that list might be killed, his estates were confiscated, and his descendants were for ever deprived of the franchise Ihis measure though it was adopted under great provoca- tion, IS one of the most fearful recorded in histoid, for it tore asunder every tie of blood and friendship; sons be- trayed their fathers, friends their friends, and slaves their masters, for it was a part of the proscription that those who protected or concealed a proscribed person, should be punished in the sa^^e way as the proscribed themselves No less than 1600 equites were thus murdered, and among the monsters who distinguished themselves in those terrible days we find Catiline, of whom we shall hear more hereafter. Having thus got rid of all his enemies, Sulla, in B c 82 caused himself to be appointed dictator for an indefinit^ penod of time. And having by this means obtained unlimited power, he fii-st of all rewarded those soldiers thi-ough whom he had risen to his present position a proceeding quite new in Roman bistoiy. Twenty-three legions had colonies assigned to them, mainly in those towns which had supported his enemies. In these coxomes, caiiea mihiari/ coiouies, the soldiei-s constituted fl^®5 fl^^' ^"** ^""S scattered all over Italy, they aflorded the dictator a ready means of keeping the country m subjection. Moreover, 10,000 slaves were emancipated I k 101 HISTORY OP ROME. I i i j:: body^Lz^^^^a'TJt^^^ °' *^5 ^°-^^^i forced hi« perso«Lead;tl"JbfddLr '" ' "'"'^^' ^' constitution in a reZZysJS''"Hl% *°. "I"""^ *^« powers of tlie tribunes ZJhTlt ?^ ^S^^ ""^^"^^^ ^^e that is, the powerZZwnZ • /^ ^^ ^"^^^ originally, trary proceeXgs of a XSte" V^^^' ''^^ ^^'- comitiatributa4redeDrTvednf^ • i^,*^"' "'^^"^ *1^« His second measure restored ^^^V^^^^^^'^^^ve functions. power which (^^chrblV'^s^^^^^^^^^^^ Lastly, he increased +Ji« « assigned to the equites. tta of the qr^sZ'to'temytdlhrr;?. *° ^«'"' and augura to flftwr, Tl ■'^' »""*"'" of the pont ffs latioM Lpecti„gTe''-adm?„^Uro„ Tt. "'"^^ "«"" were his chief Mliti™lT>f , ."' ""^ provinces imagined (he andentTnirif fTu ""'' "'^J' "''»^ "■«' ke restored b^rCiroCflr'tn'r T'" "l course could not lasf W^ ^"°" reforms of he did for the crimtal fZ2T^ '"^'^^^^"^ ^ ^^^^ place on a solid and pett^li^ "^^ ^^^ ^^^ *^ the1u%^it7?v:;tn:^^^^^^^^^ «""a, to ship and withdrew to PuCh whe J i« V^a ^'' ^^^^^«^- person, and died the followtj vear '^^'"^1 -^^ ^ P^^^^^^ had probably been hvn^.X7 \^T- ?.^ "" '^'''^^^ ^^^ich life/Duni^brdictShin%Y^'' '"^'^''"^ ^^«^« of the Hanan V4 S^^^^^^ TS Z^^ 1 in the Social^ Wkr was desStf^. distinguished hiu.self where he annihilTJrhe :;'pte:ts ^o'f l^^^ T ^'"^^ Carbo in Sicilv i^ h^ W'onents ot bulla by causing Domitins ^:no'b^b„''s''irAT™"X'St "^1 "^-'""™« Pompey on his ■■»*,.,.„ o^ut:!^' l """ ^hievement, although he was^ then<^iX,;-foury:L:'„M ™'"'''''' Dunng the san. period Eo^eUl^^^il?. second HISTORY OF ROME. 103 i formed his iber of seait- mimber of Jct of which reform the reduced the originally, t the arbi- means the 3 functions, he judicial le equites. to eight, ^e pontiffs ther regu- provinces w that he could be Peforms of il in what e first to Sulla, to 3 dictator- a private ise which mode of anants of ■rica, and " malcon- himself i Africa, ' causing lefeating Jvoment, iriumph, wur against Mithradates, which lasted from b.o. 83 to B.C. 81. The cause of it was that the Pontian king, after Sulla's departure, had repented of the peace, and as it had never been sancf >ned by the Roman senate, he re- fused to give up Cappadocia, which he had promised to do. But he was betrayed by his general ArcheJaus, who persuaded Murena, the commander of the Roman forces in Asia, to attack the king at once, and not to wait until the king should take the offensive. Murena, acting on tms advice, proceeded to Cappadocia, where he plundered the rich temple of Com ana ; but being attacked by Mithradates in the neighbourhood of Sinope, he was completely defeated. Peace, however, was then again concluded, b.c. 81, which left Mithradates in possession of at least a part of Cappadocia. ■4. KtUAl. IHl'UMWJnNO MM HBXTINa OF BULLA AXn HITHRAWAtWk l4/ a second 1 W'' •4 i BnhT 0» POUPET, CHAPTER X FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO Tr «» WAR BKTWEEX c'^si: A^D rouZ^"" "' "^" B.C. 78 TO B.C. 49. who failed because thp r.nnf^ To „ ^ ^mi^i?^ Zepidus, year, until, in B c 70 PoZr ' ^T- ""^^^ ^'^"^ ^^^r the xriDunes were restored to wW H . *?® P^^^"* ^f the rexorm of 8uJk ^S in . J * *^'^ ^^^ *^^^ ^^et^re carried a bill by whirth.V. J^'T/'^^^^^^^^'^* ^'otta restored to t.t ittoS,' :r Vel ^orTh'^^^ senators, equites, and triUi ^raSr Pn^ '*'"'-P°''^ °^ mg and supporting these meiiTi/;^ ^^^ "" *'^^^^- vie«r but to gain^pop^aritv and fi? "*" ""A"' °^J""* ^ most completely thou Jh ^?^' I *^'f ^""^ ^« attained any extraLd]naVab^^Lr k\^^^^^^ '??""! *^- ^7 i ".'I HISTORY OF ROMa 107 wten Sulla entered Rome, S^rtorma, the best and ablest of the democratic leaders, having become disgusted with the reckloas proceedings of his own party, xv«ut with a considerable force into Spain, in the hope of beimr till f^.i?? "^r^^^ ^ VOV^^ cause. He was so^ joined by the exiled and pei-secuted follower of Marius. and by his prudence and aulitary skill, he not only suo^ ceeded in Atta^ag the soldiere to his pereon, but by hia kindness he won iJie confidence of the Spaniards Hia plan was to found an independent republic in Spain, in which Spaiuards and Romans were to have equalrighta. Ihe new nepublu; was to be governed by two consuls and a senate of three hundred memliers. A great publio WJhool also was established at Oaca, in which the sons of bpwuards were to receive a Roman education. The pka at first succeeded admirably, and Sertorius enjoyed thB «)nfidence aiid affection of the Spaniards as well as of the KouMm War^ae commenoed against him as early as B.C 79, biit neither Metelbis nor Pompey was able to make any impresgtoa upon his excellently trained army, in ac. i4., Sertorius entered into an alliance with Mithra- date^ whereby he hoiked to place Rome between two fires. IJut disunion among the Spaniai^ds saved Rome from this double danger. Perj^errm, one of the officers in Serterius's ai-my, whose ambiUon had been tixwarted, in b.c. 72 formed a compi^y against him, and caused him to be murdered at Osea diuring a banquet. Perperna then assumed thft comn^nd of the a«ny, but in his very fiwt encounter with Pompey his whole army was routed, and he himseie hav,^ fiiUen into the hands of Pompey, was put todeatk 113« fel>anish republic thus came to an untimely end. aad the Marian party was now utterly annihilated. l^ver siDiae th^ Romans liad become mastere of the countries round the basin of the Mediterranean, the number of slaves both in Italy and in Sicily had beeh enormously increased. In the island a second servile war hnH Vtaan ^A ^, „, . . ^, , ,"^ »*^«i «-c. 102 to B.C. 99, in which thousands were killed on both sides. A similat Dttt more dangerous insuiTection broke out in b.c. 73 At I 'S I I i ■ i 108 HISTORY OF ROMB. number sooi. increased Z teVw^d Jr^,^T ^^'^ provided ^ith arms. The obiect Tfh' i '''" ""^"^ have been only ta r^^ SS-v^ "^^ ''^^'^^^ "^^^^s to their homes but iSrhi ^^^^^y and to return to consular armies S^J^tl'^rff^"! '''"^^"^* «^-^» and destroyi^ Bomf ^e^""'4i^7'^" ^ ^***^^^-^ Southern iLyhadTeenv!.;^^..?^^ population of Social War, .Ut. "SZlZZ^ theTol^^'^^^^^^ mg and destroying everrthinJTw ^'^^"'^try mnrder- kr. military organisation, and Tormed 7^^rt '''"^'^- *n irrefedlar bodi^q T« ^/vT **^™^^ ^^^^ the country tory over them ami !rq,?l ^«,?«™ng a complete vic- the^siavestrairL"'rs::Lt:"T^^^^^^ M-ere captured and slain ^1,^^- , ^^"^"^8 of them along tL highrol^ t;:?4f ^r^tlXir^ slaves; birt a bodv «f ahr.,.+ « '^^^^r into their fellow this time Pomnpv «.+n^- ^ ™^ *?Jto Gaul. Jtrst at them and co^^Sy^X^if llTie^r' '^" ^ ^^ ^ rx^eT^ ^iS".i::i^"-'j" ^- ^^ popularity assisted in aboSin7ft 5°/ *^" '*^^^ «^ After the exniration -.f l ^ ^?"'^'*"*^^ »f S««a. time in m/vate ret^empn^'' co"snlship, he lived for a ^•raitin*. untn a fr^? !!!' ^njoj^ng his popularity and The S-mr^uLs^hil^tdTf^ ^*«^' number of s^kves had «l.r^n V- f ^^^^ ^i^creased the of pu^tes, ini:^^f:^'l^^^^^ that maritime com^nerci ^t txpoLf tl .T"^'"^: '^ dangers, and had aJmost become ImCife '^l^^^^f ^ even plundered several coast towns ltd J,f./T f destroy or capture shins «*■ Oo.; "T"^' ^"^ ▼entMred to HISTORY OF ROMit 10« e rniJer train- r the Thracian s in Sonthem edom. Their >f whom were aves seems to to return to ain&t several of attacking opniatron of \ during the fitry nim-der- i their way. nt any i-egn- the country is, Lieimus amplete vic- n the battle, ds of them Jre impaled heir fellow- aped to the' 1- Jnst at ill in. witb in B.C. 70, le sake of >n of Sulla, ived for a rlarity and >red itself, "eased the a number "anean, sO' > greatest he pirates itared to of Home-, shiefly ia Cilicia, on the south coast of Asia Minor. War had been waged against them ever since the year b.c 78 but with- out any result, and Rome was in constant 'danger of tamme. In these cuxjumstances, the tribune Aulus Ga- bimiis m B.C. 67, proposed that Pompey should be invested for three years with the command in the Medi- terran^n and all it« coasts, to a considerable distance from the sea; and that he should be amply provided with the means n^eaeary to bring the war against the pirates to a ctose. buch a proposal might turn out dangerous to the very existence of the republic, and as such it waa viewed by many; but the people did not hesitate to confer upon their favourite all that was demanded for him; and their conlidence was fully justified, for the war which he now commenced and successfully terminated in about three months, was the most brUliant feat he ever accomplishijd. He completely swept with his fleet the Meditermnean, proceeding from west to east, and drove the pirates into the CiUcian Sea, where he routed them in a great battle. The survivors wei-e taken prisoners or surrendered; and Pompey, after destroying their strong- tolds assigned to them settlements in which they might be able to gaan their means of living without again resort- ing to piracy ; for moat of them caa scarcely be called crimmals ; they chiefly consisted of people who had been impoverished and had become homeless by the Roman conquests in the East. After having terminated this war in so brief a period, Pompey remained in Asia, probably in the hope of receiv- ing tL« coinmand in the thiid war against Mithradates, m which Rome had already been engf^jed for some years. nxe king of Pontus, as wo have already noticed, had been tempted in b.c. 74, by Sertorius to renew his hos- tilities against Rome. It so happened that Nieomedes, king of Bithyiua, had just died and bequeathed his king- dom to the Romans. Mithradates at once refused to recognise this bequest, and inva-ded Eithynia, while his fleet, after a naval victory over the Romans, laid sieife i^ fchfi Brealthy town of Cy?icu.s which was in alliance with |: £ K H K . :■ l^i ii.i :!: no ttlSTORy OP ROMB. wgulatinff the affaivf TIT ^"««i^»»s then aet about mutmy i but Mithradates, avTilC h^^e^ Ttt^ ^^ tHmty, retiu-ned to his Idnedom ..^^ t ii ^® ^^P""^ aotinir with «!.«««, ^ngaom, and Lucullus, thoueh irf^ ^7 3' j/^rr'i,''' *?" ™'^»™ »p^' »r fi7 T.,:; - om gaining his end. Just at tJUs tim« intmluoed into Italv thl '? . ^'^ ^^ *^ ^*^« tiTfriends of Pnl. ?*" commander, afforded to nl " J -Pompey a welcome opixM-timitv of ««*Hr.» the command asminat Mifi»«^ot.„ V-... *? *^* getting Accordingly, in^BC 66~'the fr,^r "^"7^««. "l^m him. b.y, «i u,c. Ob, the tribune Maniliua bixmght HISTORY OP ROMIi. in some of the loadn.g mer.., conferred upon him all the king to a close. Havu.g received largo reinforcements Pon.pey attacked Mithradates on the banks or the to !iiI^Tw"'''\'';;;^""^ utterly defeated and pu to Hight. Tigranes at the same time received back the sovereignty of Armenia at the hands of Fompey Mith mdates who had rted into Colchis, was purs.Lfby Pom: pey, who a^ conqueror traversed Albania and Iberia countries about Mount Caucasus; but owing to the diAculties he encountered in those remote regions ho ^ve up the pursuit. While Mithmdates was^fonnin" the bold plan of invading Italy from the north, in cmP- junction with Scythian tribes, an insum-ction b-oke o^^ among his own soldiers at Panticap«,um, in the CW ^e insurrection wa« headed by the king's own son Pltam^es; and Mithradates, finding that his life was not safe, destroyed himself by poison, b.c. 63. When the body was sent to Pompoy, he ordered it to be buried with regal magnificence; but nevertheless rewarded the r ?!irmSnXVotr '^^'"^^ ^^ ^^« --^^ ^^-^ Pompey then proceeded to Syria, and began to dispose of kingdoms as if he had been the sovereign of the worid Thus Antiochus, king of Syi-ia, was deposed, and his Wdom, together with Phoenicia, was changid into a Roman province. Sevexul countries in Asia Minor were ^ven to kings ready to recognise the supremacy of Rome while Bithynia, with a portion of Pontus, was mad^ a Roman province. In Jud«a, he displa;ed thrsame arbxtmry proceedings, for having takeA tiie Temple of Jerusalem, he appointed Hyrcanus tetrarch, whilV his b-other Anstobulus, with his children, was' can-ie,l to Kcme as a prisoner. » A^r,,^]! T^ arrangements were made, Pompev, in ^•^ t>.., xext A«ia, uMc did not arrive in Rome til/ the ^TJ^T^ f *^' ^r ^f."^'^^'- H« <^^^^hv^iea a mos? aagnilicent triumph, and imiiicuse sums of money ama^ssed I' i: <y.\ 112 HISTORY ot' ROMK. I If!: u If '•f m Asia wer^ handed <.ver to the treasury of the renublic opfmates and j„i„„,l o,e ,,„p„|„. , " «"'"" "' *• the Z.hir.-,''"''''" .^""'.'f^'" '■'"""'.' ««™ had saved he » l'? ^rl '"r'"«t""' hi^Belff that all'gt a statesman he was oftpn l^ri ,-,;+^ • "'""""> "^^n. as contradictions, par«/X t ht SSn "^ h^^ih STv^of'^T"^-, "^ ''- often brSXlXt o hope of saving them..lves except by , r.^2nilZ Catiline had attempted similar thii urc iL '-^^^Uuot^ been defeated by ih! .e^ML:^fVi:£;^^, a\1 b^his own impatience. He now determined to murder ?^^nln\%' -^^^ "y '' ^«"-' *« overthrow the i.« rent, of government; but the vigUance of CicerS W- IP republic, liavo clone t humility, )e no more 8t anxious ui'bitraiy extremely npect were e was, in ise of the lad saved id by the m in B.C. able con- aLhough iined the on as he ed to the greatest 3dge, and osophical len. As cies and for both I for his , though isulship, ;ter, and lich was icos, like iioy .^ vw Mt Had ties and murder 'ow the J usurp Cicero HISTORY OF ROME. 113 prevented the infamous scheme. Catiline's secret pro- ceedmgs were brought to light by the consul, and he himselt quitted the city and joined an urmy of conspint- toi-H already assembled at Fa^sulte. The senate, on the propoRiil of Cicero and Cato, condenmed him and some of h.s issociates who had remained at Rome to death. Ihe latter were strangled in prison, but Catiline himself and the army of Ftesuhe were defeated in a furious battle near Fistona, in the north of Etruria. Cicero was over- joyed at havmg saved his country ; but his happiness did not last long, for many of the friends and secret sup- porters of Catilme still remained at Rome, eagei-ly watch- "^«^o^ *"' oi)portunity of taking vengeance upon him. We have already seen that, ever since the time of Marius and Sulla, the leading olyect of the men in power was to giiin popularity at any cost, and that not with a view to benefit their country, but to gratify their own ambition and avarice. Hence the history of this period, down to the establishment of the monarchy, is little more than the personal history of men who endeavoured to outdo one another. By far the most eminent and most talented among them was Cuius Julius Ccesar, bom in B.C. 100, and belonging to one of the most ancient patri- ' cian families. He was fast rising in popular favour at the time when Pompey was quietly enjoying the fruits of his victories. Caesar was a man of the highest culture, and indefatigable in all he undertook, but unscrupulous m regard to the means he employed to gain his end He was equally great as an orator, an author, a general and a statesman. An aunt of his had been married to Marius, for whom he always entertained great affection • and in b.c. 65 he openly came forward as the leader of the popular party. His liberality was unbounded, whence he became overAvhelmed with debts; but a campaign against the revolted Lusitanians, b.c. 61, enabled him to acquire sufHcient wealth to satisfy his creditors, as well K^ uiH o,,.. ,.,.rar: -.ixt Willi t8. m B.C. o9 iie obtamed the consulship ; he strengthened himself by a close alli- iwce with Pompey, and by' effecting a reconciliation r i 114 HiSTORy OF ROMB. between Pompey and Crass.io Ti, ., an agz-eemenC that no ^ J ? '^"^ ""'^ «^« *<> aJlowed to be passed, unless tW J"^"^''^ should be three. They thus he d the fatt of T" "^T""^^' *« ^» hands, and a number of poput^^ Ll "^^''^^'' '"^ *h«ir *mong them an agrarian fawV^'^f^^^^^''^ adopted, received a^signmente of ^ufelaL f ^^'^^^ citizens prevai ed upon the senate to sanction 5"'"" ^f ^"«* ^^«« jnents in Asia, and caused olZr ^T^'J'^^ « ^^^ge- together with Iliyricmrtn T^ "^ ^^"^ Transalpine Gaul provinces, which he Cs t^ IT"'^'"^ *" ^^"^^^^ «« h^ tion of his consiUship *^ ^^'"""^ter after the expir^! Cassar, however did + vinces, but remained in th. r,* • IT^ ?''^^«^ ^ ^is pro- the end of April bc 58 "^gtbourhood of Borne untU iave been to s VrtUrf J who f'' ^ *'^^ «^-« to Cicero, and by the aid of C^skr obt^^'L^f "^^'" ^^^i"^^* for B c. 58. After having £^,t??f^ *^' tribuneship popular measures, he caS a^t wh ^T'^^ ^^ ««^«^-^ i declared an outlaw who had ir /'""^^ "r«"^ «"« ^as citizen without a formai ^^T C ^"^^^ ^ ^«^an who on the mere authoritTof t W T.^"'"^ ^* ^^^^^ <>. of the associates of CatXe toM . ^^ ^'^^^ «o"^o Cicero, knowing this went^nfn , ' '"'^^^^ed in prison condemnation. He Wl the^ / "''' ""^"^ ^ ^««^P« law, his house in the X ^^bSilJ'^^^/f ^^^^^ ^« «"t!' wei^e dest^'oyed. But J ZZevh^' nf^-"^? ^^ ^« ^"^^ expired, than a reaction roHii^ P*^'?,? tribuneship consequence of which no!..^\^- "^ P"^^^^« feeling in B.C. 57, retunied te Boraix;"^,^ '"^^^'^ ^^^"^ -^^ ^ the people. ""^ ^""'^ *he greatest rejoicings S in Rome did not go ?cry ™o„Sl ?™ ^'«''*' ""'ngs ^o»Wand CVa,«S wer^cls^l^'r-, ^" "•"• «• when UISTOJIV OF ROME. Be men came to I'es should be ari-eeaWe to all >ublic in their were adopted, •0,000 citizens tr at last also pey's arrange- nsalpine Gaul, limself as his r the ex])ii-a. ^ to his pro- 'fKome until iiis seems to 'idge against tribuneship If by several v^ery one was ^ a Roman ed at Cicero, oftused some 1 in prison, r to escape, 'ed an out- of hisvillaa tribuneship feeling, in >m exUe in doicings of inistration ii's, things 55, when arried by onged for find Cras- •icisiiig a iving the 115 administration of Spain to his lieutenants ; but Cru^sus tempted by the rich province of Syria, proceeded thither with his army, robbing and plundering wherever ho jppeared; and in b.c. 54 nndei-took an expedition against iheFarthmm, who had formed a powerful empire yn the east of the Euphrates ; but after having crossed the river he was utterly defeated in a battle neai- Carrhaj, taken piisoner, and kUled, together with his son. The Roman army was neai'ly annihilated, and the camp and all the standards fell into the hands of the conquerors When Caesar arrived in Transalpine Gaul, only its southern part, the country about the mouths of the Rhone had been conquered and constituted as a proviiice : bi.t CKsar was determined to conquer the whole country, for which Its mvasion by the Germans and a migration of tHe Helyetu afforded a welcome pretext. In this he succeeded completely. He was even tempted to invade Germany, though probably for no other object than to strike terror into the natives. In the summer of b c 55 he undertook an expedition into Britain, because its jnhabitants had supported the Gauls against him, and because he was invited by a British prince who had been (teprived of 1^8 throne by a usurper. The Britons offered a vigorous resistance, and although he gained a victory over them, he was compelled by the late season of the year to retm-n to Gaul. In the following year he invaded tne wland a second time, and advanced to the north of tte Ihames, conquering the gi-enter part of Essex and Middlesex. After having defeated the natives several tunes he concluded peace with them, on condition tluit they should pay an annual tribute and give hostages. C»sai« then returned to Gaul; but as he was unable to leave behind any troops to keep the oonquei-ed part in subjec- tion, the promises of the Bntons were soon forgotten or neglected. The war in Gaul was then continue<l with great vigour, and not without great difficulties and losses. -in B.C. 00 Ceesar returned to nicnli^Mo rto,.! ia.,,.,-„^ the greater part of his ai-my in Tran.salpine Gaul. The men who had served imder him for so many years were :!V 1 ■ 116 •U' HiSTOKY OK HOME. attached to hiiji ; ordinary exD]o,>« K ^ K^^iest detrree anr^ I,- Pompey XV "^^^ ^^'•<^»al]y governed h n''"'' *^« tie principal noblpn ' ' ^^^^^ius Marcellv, % recalled and 1 ' Proposed tlmt ol!! T """^ °f time seemed at last f^ t^"^*^«g or insulting hxm T? ' fesar to dkband his ami fc 'ITi'""'^ demandiig „? Pretendinc. fS ! "!^<^s ^ but not bein<r j-'P j^ P*'^©'" ,^-vr :?;:3S„S': r "°' «* '"^- «edt VJEaiAj, VIHojj,^ and his extrd- ed the greatest Jted nothing to of Crassus, the oy Caesar and G^aul, had kept 'nds at lioxne; thevH, received "igs had some- ^t kind. The sing influence eyas the man lations of the •cellus, one of tr should be ^rtunitj was, ? iiim. The ie optimates 'asiires; and Jmanding of and declar- e to do so. ■ee, and de- hi« power led to, and ^ey fled to % a email proceed to I*ompey ^. in their ions wwe BOBT OP JULIUS C^ESAB. CHAPTER XI. FROM THE CIVIL WAR BETWEEX POMPEY AND C^SAR, DOTTW TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. B.C. 49 TO B.C. 31. The fugitive tribunes found Caesar at Eavenna. Havin^ heard the report of what was going on at Rome, he Jiesi^ied for a moment, as to whether he shouhi cross t|ie Rubicon, a little stream which separated his province from Italy. When he had made up his mind, he called out, " The die is cast , " and having sent orders for the legions in Gaul to follow him, he crossed the river with his small foVce. Accompanied by his veterans, who were devoted to him, he hastened southward, hoping to surprise his enemies before they had com- pleted their preparations; and all the towns on his route readily opened their gates to him. Pompey, who was roused too late from his feeling of security, had not the courage to await the arriv.il of his opponent nt Rome- but with only a few trustworthy soldiers, an army of hastily-levied and untrained recruits, and accompanied by a large number of the optimates. he fled to Brundi- f 118 »rSTOIiY OP ROME. '^^tll^'ljllZ°-'^''S^^ "f C«sar crowd tte A,)ri.,- publicans too mnp}, i, "^ ^"it the fee iu^g of ih^ consul for the year 30%?"'^^ ^i'^^-lf ^ be ele^; <^aii], and took some otC^ ^ihabitants of CisaJnini Ccesar besieged Pom^^l^f bTT\^ ^^« -^v^a^ ifcfcle success tliat he hS f ^3^^i»a«tium, but with ?^ instead of deRn«,-;S 1 ^ ""^^^^ t^e sieffe uT ^^ «n_-„.«^ u,^^ ,^,^ across the /, ana i-ompey, imagining that ha >ssed the Adriatic ' seen the foljy of the ground with ,^j^ Italy joined ndness and affa- the sovereign of le trea,surjr, and ceeded to Spain ants of Pompej y skill, he com- iiirrender. The i the army was JW^assilia, which though taken, while, CjBsar's r, took posses- Qto Africa for ompey, he was a, Caesar was e returned to igs of the re- o be elected the dictator- ' secure order ^ies and the y SulJa, con- of Cisalpine gent nature. 3 completed, ompey, who i-nd supplies lat in point adversary, ut with so However, across the ^g that he HISTORY OP ROMB. 110 had ta^en to flight, followed him in all haste, in the hope ot putting an end to the war by a single blow. Csesar had pitched his camp near Fkarsalus, and Pompey urged on by his inexperienced and presumptuous followera! tought the famous battle in which his army was com- pletely defeased. His camp, filled with every kind of luxury fell into the hands of the conquerors. Pompev himself, seized with despair, fled to Egypt, where he had some reason to expect a kindly reception ; but the king ot Ji-gypt, hoping to secure the favour of C«sar, ordered him to be murdered, even before he reached the shore, and his body was left unburied on the beach. A few da)^ later, Caesar, with a small force, arrived in -b-gypt, and the sad end of his rival is said to have broucrht tears into his eyes. The Egyptian king, however, did not receive the expected reward ; for Caesar, being called upon to aa as mediator between him and his sister. Cleopatra, decided in favour of the beautiful and fascinat- ing Cleopatra. This decision involved him in a war with the people of Alexandria, during which he, with his small torce, was exposed to the greatest danger. But he de- tended himself m the royal palace with wonderful skill against the infuriated populace, and when the palace waa set on fire, he only escaped by swimming to a ship anchored near the coast. Reinforcements, however, havmg arrived, Alexandria was compelled to surrender and a^ the king had been drowned in the Nile during the disturbances, Cleopatra was now the recognised queen ot iiigypt, and Caesar remained at her court for nine months, during which he appears to haveforgotten everything in the luxunes of her court. But when at last he was informed that Phamaxjes, the son of Mithradates, in his attempt to extend his kingdom, had defeated a Roman legate, Caesar, m the spring of b.c. 47, marched into Pontus, and de- teated Phamaces in a decisive battle near Zela. This victory IS famous for the laconic despatch which Csesar sent TO Rome about it — " I came, saw, conquered." In the autumn of B.C. 47, Caesar hastened back to itome, where he was received with the greatest enthu- 120 ''J- fit 1 t:. 'If !•■ I' 1;: 'i ': I f; HISTORY OP ROME. powers ier:ZZ:fZ"''l'-' ^"^ «« -^"7 hononrs and ^'as made the soZ^n^T.^^"^ ^^^t in point of fl't ?f feat measure the Z„lfnf .' '""P"^^^^' ^'^J^ict was in . towards his forme: o.plnt'" ?l"'^"^- -^ ^Wncy' Peys party had in the L'l'l- ^^^ ^'emnants of Pom forces in Africa, whLrttr:^ t^^ their sl^^d «^"ba. Caesar, anxious to hJ A ^"PPorted by Kin^ M^ t^'^' -^^ -^-t' i^? t^^- ^«--t t'hem'f ^-^^. "4t Po^iyrfatK^^^^^^^^^^^^ ;f^^-«m.,and6'a^,,^tf{/,^f.J^«r-in-law; King J^^ because he could L+ ? , ^™self to death «t tt*- ' which h.A il '.^ "°* bear the idea nf i^X"*^. ^* ^'ica. which hnTl 7 """t bear the idea nfv-.''^ '^'ica, sons of Pompey, escaped into S w '^"'' ^^^^«^', the two they renewed the war. "^ ^1'^"^' ^^^«re afterward^ Cf sar was now virtuallv ih , empire, and nn u- ^^^^^^7 the soie ruJer nf +i,« r. "uid by assiuin. his feZi *• "g^gweralamnestj omanj honours and I in point of fact he lie, which was in a ness and cJemencv i-emnants of Pom- red their scattered ported by King ar against them to >me, to reward his praetors, qiu-estors, priestly colleges >^ measures were the bloody battle of the Pompeian are said to have tiie survivors put nese latter were ^; King Juba^ .death at Utica, '^^^"g in a state *!>ea;^w*, the two here afterwards of the Roman he silenced all sneral amnesty, his sole object elebrated four i citizens with ig his stay at ited reform of ' or caprice of )rder. Cjesar le regulations , as reformed when Pope ed calendar, '■^ engaged in s of Pompey MISTOKY OF ROME. 121 had collected an army in Spain, and that the south of that country was in a state of insurrection. Accordingly, towards the end of B.C. 46, he set out for Spain, where he had to contend with almost insurmountable difficulties; but his undaunted courage and perseverance overcame them all, and the terrible battle of Munda, early in B.C. 45, decided the fate of the Pompeian party for ever. Cneiua Pompeius was killed, but Sextus escaped, and for some years led the life of chief of robbers and pirates. On his return to Rome, Caesar celebrated another triumph, and was received by the senate with abject flattery and servility. Honours of every kind were showered^ upon him : he was called " the father of his country ; " the month of Quintilis, in which he was born, * was called after him Julius (July); the powers which he had received in the course of time were now granted to him for life ; he received the permanent title of im- perator, the consulship for the next ten years, and the dictatorship for life. These and other powers made him in point of fact the sovereign of the Roman empire, and nothing was wanting but the outward signs of sovereignty. He did indeed observe the ancient republican forms, to allay the fears of the republicans ; he allayed the fears of the nobles by increasing the number of senators; he satisfied the soldiers by the distribution of land; he improved the laws and their administration ; raised com- merce and agriculture ; embellished the city with temples and theatres ; and benefited all Italy by making roads, canals, and harbours. But with all this he could not overcome the fears of the people, who perceived that he was not satisfied with the sub; nee of sovereign power, but was aiming also at the outward marks and distinc- tions of a sovereign. The increasing pride of the dic- tator, and his obvious desire to assume the title of king, at length induced the republicans to make common cause with his personal enemie.s. k conspiracy accord- ingly was formed against his life, early in B.C. 44. It was headed by Junius Brutus, a genuine republican, and by Cassius, who bore a personal grudge against 111 -J W: I t I i- i' \Vi: i' 122 HISTORY OP ROME. and been tll^t'rk X '^ 'J" *'' *^« P^-*or«hio ttey had been partisans of pZ ^"^ ^^^"^^^^ItJ^on.T secrecy. He had suiZlIJ ^^'^ ?^*^^*esfc caution and the 1 5th of Maz.h B c T/ ,t rhi'b\ ^' *^^ «-^*«"' the title of iCing out of Italy fo^ti ^' ^^ **^ ^^^^^^e on a war against the PartWg ^^^ P"rpose of carrying arrived in the senate +t? ^'. ^h«n on that dav ht ^vith theii. dagl^' 't ^;";Pl^to.3 rushed upon him himself, but peSlg bJ."* J^ n^^Pted to^defe S "You too, Brutus ?'^;^^*"e^^^^^^ . and sank at the base of^onW«^f ^ ^P ^^ ^« toga only man that was then both {m'*^^''."- ^^"« ^^11 the Rome from civil war and whose rl' ^"^"^ *° «^-« t^^^-^ of a t^n^uiltrp-- -^^t^^^^^ wiKttpora:^^^^^^^^^^ belief that their deed whole population; buftC ht£ ^^l^PP^^^^ed by the created waa soon fallowed Zw/'^^^^^^^ ^^ich it CWs friend Antony tSdtW ^^*«?*«tion when which he set forth in fflowW^I *^® {""^^ oration, in the dictator, and tTel S^tf^'^A ^^** ^-^t S had bestowed upon the p^^£ ^'rpT^^^^ ^ i>« will he fore, to save thei- owTliv^t J^" .furdere^, there and Cassius went to the ^t wh^ ^'"* ^^"^^- ^^utua SLf ^ been assigned to tl^V^id 1?''"^^^,^^^ P^ Cmlpme Gaul, where he took unT ^^."?"« Brutus to Antony, who caused QsSinl^ ,Pr'*i°^ *t Mutina. himself aa his provint-P «f ^ ^^"^ to be assigned in ^ army to e.^^'^XlTrZTP "^ ^^^ -^th time delivered sevei^l sneeoh^ • ^'''^''° ^^""^ng that sequence of which the^etS irL^".^^^' ^^ con! Octatnant^, the adopted son a^^ Jer^n *^^^^ ^^'^ powers of pr^tor. OctaZi " ^ \f ^*^^' ^^th the a.^V^l,-^' -twittrdljr^-;^^ -eteen i^-h^nT^d^^. \nX\t5\V^^^-^- " nj fiad m the meantime been ' *o the pra&torahio o;nfidence, altlionffh -The plan for mur- eatest caution and ? of the senate for he waa to receive »urpose of carrying 'n on that day he rushed upon him 3mpted to defend lem, he exclaimed, f up in his toffa, f- Thus fell the i willing to save might have been 'US era in Roman Bf that their deed Pplauded by the Jsiasm which it detestation when leral oration, in great merits of in his will he urderers, there- Rome. Brutua winces had pre- mus Brutus to ;ion at Mutina. be assigned to <o Mutina with 'o during that n*ony, in con- ^ulncs CoRsa/r esar, with the only nineteen ^ings of his lia, where he eantime been HISTORY OP ROME. jog armies to Decimu« Rr,^ff,. ™. A *^® command of the wards murdered at Aquileia • \Z tI • i , ." ^^*^ arair^ of the state, and totribuSTw '^''"»g tt= themselves. Antinv «™? o!h ■ ° P-^^oe' atoong took to earn, on the wS^ » J?- ^T"? »"'"«»'«■■. "nder! the East, me triumv^T -5™"? ^'"' ^»»^'" ^ of Sulla, imiteteS^ Z e^mrie ^^°"' ■'"™S ""' ''^"■»« tion list^ in which ionh™l^*'*r?,? "P " P"»"»P- pe«„ns\hon. t ^Lt\T^T TZV' ^^^ P«.seribed,S;Tr„\™ftht".",L™ ?S ^ ments and thlr. i ?i P?P.^® *° sanction their arrange- Ss ThtmostiS:^^^^^^^^^ soldie.. upon the unarmed the strokefof Te vlnn^^°"' t?*^ P**^°*^^ ^«« fe» under order of the day ^""T '^^^r^' ^^^ "^"^^^ ^^ ^^ dred .n^tors :j^ere ii^^rnVCUl.^^^^^^^^^^^^ '^ tX™L:ilw " V .*^ '^^*"« Pom-pei"us: wf; Cicero, who h^dmt^LT^; ^'"^'^^^ master of Sicily. , wno Had praiBed Octavianus as the champion of •t: 124 HISTORY OF ROME. i. hi i : J.'i i n '■; n '■': ^^ L ■. - ' ■ nfthi' ^ • '^ «"PPorted him on all occasions, was one of the niany yictuns ; for in order to please Antony OcT Tt on ^^ '"'"'^^ '^'' ""'"^ «^ ^^« fe-«-t orator' tote put on the proscription list, and he wat murdered on the 7th of December b.c. 43. His head was taken to FiUvia the wife of Antony, who feasted her eyes on the dlld feattues of the man who had so unmercifully attacked herhusband's reckless and lawless proceedinL^s When the triumvirs had wreaked their veir.^eance UDon unhappy Italy by murders and coniiscation^orviXs S:'utt1:7catt^^ ''' ^-^ ^ -^^-^ ^^-^- ^^ waTro^iSTs tTwIrgotfnrar^^^^^^^ t" enemies. Caasius had been very active in Asia Minor and Syria; and the two republican chiefs who wpv« masters of nearly all the countries east of the idrilt" met at Sardes, where they agreed upon theLXns of operatiom But while they wez. making preparaTon/ Octavianus and Antony had already subdued oLle and taken up their quarters at Amphipolis. The remibH a^iSthel *^"' '^"P ^" *^^ nei^hb'ourhood ofVS^t and ui the first engagement Cassius was forced to retS before Antony, while Brutus repelled the legions of Octavianus, who himself took no nart in +>,« k f f i the ground of ill health. Soon'a'ftrCa^si^^s S' bv false information and despaii-ing of success thew himself upon his own sword. Twenty days after the first bS the triumvirs renewed the contest, in ^,mch Brutus beW defeated likewise, put an end to his life. His examS? was followed by many other republicans, and the reTt of their soldiers paitly surrendered and par ly fled to Sextus Pompeius m Sicily. The battles of Phil'ppi in th« autiunn of b.c. 42, finally annihilated SiXSlict pire, m ,.hicn Lci)iaus obtained Africa, and Antonv the eastern provinces, while Octavianus received Cy'where a HISTORY OF ROME. >ccasion8, was one use Antony, Octa- reat orator to be murdered on the 8 taken to Fulvia, 3yes on the dead jrcifully attacked edings, f vengeance upon tions, Ootavianiis t the vxr against donia, where ho and had amply sary to meet his in Asia Minor hiefa, who were of the Adriatic, 1 their plans of tig prepai-ations, lued Greece, and The republi- ood of Philippic breed to retreat the legions of L the battle, on isius, misled by ?, threw himself the first battle, h Brutus, being His example md the rest of ' fled to Sextus iilippi, in the the republican on of the em- id Antony the d Italy, where \n he satisBeil his soldiers by the disiribution of land, and the estabhshinent of military colonies on the model of th^e founded by Sulla. Antony, intoxicated by the flatteries of the Greeks and tii^ luxuries of Asia, entered upon a voluptuous career, bordering upon insaiuty j and thesums he extorted in Asia were laVished upon 'Clet^ patiu, queen of Egypt His wife FuMa, who loved him most passionately, did everything she could to iiiduoe him to return to her. ITie establishment of Uie mUitarv colonies had thix>wn thousands of Iteli s into pov^ and this afforded to Fulvia and her brotLor-in-law i^aW A'ni^mv^^ a fair pretext to come forward as the prolJtora of die poor *nd distressed. Lucius Antonius waTcon- sul in B.C. 41, and, together with Fulvia and others, took himself the fnend and protector of the poor, and where large numbers flocked to his standarda Towards the end of the year, Octavianus, with three armies, com- menced opera^jons against tJiem as rebels, and Ssieged them at Perusia When th« plac« began to sufer from tamme, Lucius Antonius capitulated, and Fulvia was set tree on condition that she should quit Italy All the eenatora of Perusia, however, were put to death : and TTi^t Aff "^ ^""^ ""^ '^^ '^^^^^^ ^^^ sacrificed, on the 15th of March B.C. 40, to Julius Gsesar. The town of Perusia waa reduced to ashes, and Fulvia went to Greece, where she died soon after. During the war of Peinisia, hostilities were on the pomt of breaking out between Antony and Octavianus, aiid the former axitually sailed with his fleet to Brundi Slum, and prevailed on Sextus Pompeius to join him • but a reconciliation was brought about, and Sextus Pom- ^lus was declared the common enemy of the triumvirs Pompeiufl now returned to his piratical practices, and prevented supplies from abroad being conveyed to Rome m consequence of which the citizens began to suffer from' i.in,.. ^^^ |,cupic wuuly complained, and demanded of the tnumvii-s to come to some arrangement with him A peace was therefore concluded with him in ac 39 iu ii' 120 I'! ■ Ji' *■ I- J Ml I HISTORY OP ROME. AntonAowlST:^-^..*^^ «°^«''"«'- of Sicily. he lived as a pS nen.^ %^''' ^^'^'^ ^°^ * ^imo considered himselTtronS bv ^7^^"^' -^o justly abstaining from pimcv «l!l 7 r^^""^"^' "«* altogether for underiking a^^^St K^'^'lf "^ " fairpfetext in B.C. 38, but wilh^^lrl'"^- ^* ^^ commenced Octavianus entrusted th/?^ '"'T'' "'^*^^' ^^ B-^- 36, friend Affrippa ^tt ^ ^'^'^"^^"d of the fleet to his Antony an/£:pid"t° But ZT"^^ '^. *^° «-^ °f »n*de on Pompe us until L ''^'^.^^ impression waa battle of MvlffiW'f^i^^ "^^ "^^^^^^^^ in the great querors, bThe him^If'Se/^^^^ *° *^«^"- he ^^as murdered Lepidus. wh° ^''"' '^^'"^ «°°^ ^*«r man of no great taS orM ^^^'""'^ ^ ^^^« ^^^ a wh.e he^Hvfd as ^:iS^^ ^ -* /o Rome, anrsctru^i-ryr^^ fo?-^<>^-^^ lieutenants, but Tb c ^r'S^'r^^^V. ^^ ^^ W's Syria to undertaS Sie comi^n^''^ '""''^^ hastened to he had a large armv and w "" ^^"^^^ Although Armenia, thf pSkn w pr^^."'^^ ^^ *^« ^"« «f Media, nearly anSilted^lT .'^*^'' ^**^"^^S ^^^ i^ Bionofallhis^aiWnrtfonand r""'-^^ ^^^"^ P°««««- «elf escaped and r^turnS ^A ^''''T''': Antony him- he forgo? himself ^nd'e^ez^thlinSf S SeV' "'^^^ the court. He not only Sve to nJ I P^^^^es of vinces of the emnire h^ff ^I . ^^^Patra seveiul pro- teiumph at AleZdria and '^ H° ^'' f ^ ^^'^^^^ * Octevianus felt wSf^L^J'"^""':.^^ ^'^' ^^^^i^' •iBter, and the RomanrJn.riTi k^ *^^ P^^°^ ^^ his of AnWs conducr KXrBc' 3^ ^^^^'"^^ i^ippaf aU^^i^-4:^^^^^^^^^^^ by wxuu ms army, landed in Epirus. " ' -^«»vianug, HISTORY OP ROME. 127 5vernor of Sicily, le-minded sister of where for a timo peius, who justly ly, not altogether anus a fair pretext t was commenced nntil, in b.c. 36, f the fleet to his by the fleets of lo impression waa ited in the greafc lered to the con- ivhere soon after •s to have been a i sent to Rome, il B.C. 12. ands of Antony war had broken led Syria. The lily by Antony's self hastened to son. Although by the king of tacking him in gained posses- Antony him- Q Egypt, where he pleasures of ra several pro- to celebrate a I wife Octavia. person of his feel ashamed 32, war was 1 early in the ^mmanded by 5 ■wrCuivianus, Antony, accompanied by Cleopatra, assembled his forces at Corey ra; and on the 2d of September B.C. 31, the memorable sea fight off the promontory of Actium, m Acarnania, commenced. Its ifisue was at first doubt- ful ; but Cleopatra, losing hope, took to flight; and Antony, following hor, proceeded to Alexandria, leaving his fleet and army to their fate. The fleet was soon destroyed by Agrippa ; and the land army, finding itself abandoned by its commander, surrendered to Octavianua, The moderation displayed by Oetavianus towards his vanquished enemies excited general admiration. Soon after his victory, in commemoration of which the town of Nicopolis was founded opposite Actium, he followed the fugitives to Alexandria. Cleopatra, on his arrival, tried to charm him as she had charmed Ciesar and Antony. But she did not succeed; and Antony being prematurely informed of her death, killed himself, B.a 30 ; and Cleopatra soon after put an end to her existence, it is said, by putting a viper to her breast. By her death the race of the Ptolemys became extinct, and Egypt was made a Ex)man province. In the spring of b.c. 39, Oeta- vianus returned to Rome, where the Temple of Janus was closed, a sign that peace was restored throughout the Roman empire, of which Oetavianus was now the undis- puted master. % . » VAilCUg BRUTUS. J If I'll i4 ''■' I :'. J CHAPTER XIL THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS. B.C. 31 TO A,D. 14. the time of the Gracchi, it w^ aVi^fH^*^ P^/^ «^^r since now to be governed b^ a X ^H^T"?^ ^"^ *^« «"^Pi^^ peace, oi-der, and prosperitTto h^ ^ T°"' *^ ^^^^^o"^ jng part of the Roman nZ^^^ '°^*F- The tiink- the conviction that a LSti ^ """'* ^^''^ ^^"^^d at an impossibility. But ff v^ ^°''*'""'^^* ^^^ ^^^come eax-eful to pres^erve t^e ^J;, E^ nevertheless very meetings of the popidar IXm ^ ^^"5'' «"«^ «« the also avoided givin. oflSLh! ^ ^"^^ °^ *^« senate; he or dictator, s^o tltt^noZti^^V^' '^^' ^^ ^ing Po^e«, he was appaVent ^0^1 v f "'^ ^v «^*^o»dinary Tbe gi-e^t mass of untTinK iL''^^"^^^^^" magistrate rejniblic nor monarchv «mi ^ ^^"^ '^^^'^^ neither for with bread and am^X"^^'^ ^'^^^^ ^ -ell proviie'd the i^:^r ^I^^^g^^-ed W the Eas, sei-vilitv and ^A..uJ^^ J^^ ^^*h each other in their title of Augu;;;^;^t:^ is'The-'T"' ^'*!^' ^^ ^-^^^-'^ «•« was af^rw.^ ^_^ ^^> aS^thlrol^^e^p^/^^^^ HISTORY OP ROMR 129 B. J ; and after tlje lassed ever since ngfortheempii-e lirous to restore ly- The think- have arrived at enthad become Jvertheless very s, such as the the senate; he lie title of king extraordinary !an magistrate, •ed neither for f well provided i'om the East, other in their le received the a title which Jniperoi-s. To the title of Augustus was added that of Imperator (em- peror) for ten years, which, however, was afterwards renewed from time to time ; and by it he obtained ihe supreme command of all the forces of the empire. In B.C. 23 he received the powers of a tribune for life, whereby his pereon beciune sacred and inviolate, and obtamed the right to convene the senate whenever he pleased, and to put his veto upon any of its decrees. In this manner he acquired in a few years all the powers which had hitherto belonged to the several republican Boagistrates, though the consulship and the other hi^h offices were as usual nominally conferred upon others and continued to be looked upon as high distinctions coveted by the first men of the state. In his capacity of censor, Augustus directed his attention first to the clear^ ing of the senate of imworthy members, and limited their number to 600. In the course of time, however, the senate became a sort of state council and supreme court of justice, which had to try all offences against the majesty of the emperor. He was supported in his ad- ministration of the eminie by a number of able men such as Agiippa, Majcenas, Valerius Messulla, and Asi- mus PoUio. Augustus bestowed especial care uiwn the better ad- mimsti-ation of the city, where hitherto life and property had been anything but safe. In order to have complete control over the city as well as Italy, he distributed the former into fourteen regions, and the latter into a number of districts or provinces. For his own safety he estab- lished a body-guard of ten cohoi-ts, three of which were stationed in the city, and the i-enaining seven in different parts of Italy ; but in the reign of his successor Tiberius, they were all collected in a fortified camp close to the city. In regard to the provinces, the adniinistmtion of which he greatly improved, he made an arrangement, in B.C. 27, by which some were assigned to the senate, and some to himself, reservinee for bimo/jlf *hnaa wi.i/^K o+iii required the presence of a military force. The governors of the senatorial provinces were appointed by the senate '!'; A 130 HISTORY OP ROME. vinces went into ih..t f'^f"''^^ ^^ ^^^ senatorial pro- imperial proWs belotlVr^^^^^^ ^"' *^°«« «f ^te treasury. ^ ^"^'^''^"^ *° *^« emperor's separate and^'LdllXr'l^^^^^^^ "P- the moral by encouraginrmaSe wilVr?'',"'' ^"' ^''^"^P^^' disuse; and noZZh^'Z^ ** f'"'^'* ^^"«" ^^^^ i>«^^St'ZlSTZ:L''T' =="T"S 'he frontier of « the war agaiSst them trCl y:^';;;;.!,?: ^'I not fln„n/ntS tmTc-'irX:™!,'^''- """ "»™ pletely defeated by Agnnpa^' tLa» '^^^ ™« com- the f™«er of th^e el^^^iJtt ttt l^Z "^T fi-ontici-s of Esmt were ««..,-!5 i, •'. " ^^"'^ the Ethiopians anlTtte^wC^ Brro*°?h: v"J'' kinff, fearino- a war wiih t? ^i , ^' *^® Parthian -i'back theTndaXwtrA!^: ilt^'l'^ ^ during the camnai<rn<, nf n , ^^*° ^'^ ^'^nds existence of ^tZS^ ndlS:r^^^^^^^^ ^''T' ^^^ parts of the Alps was tluZhlf? V '1' *^^ ^'"^^^^n the empire. A^coTdinllv f l ''''^^"^"'" *^" ^^''^^ti^^'^ ^^ them in bo tg wSF' ^ "^^'^ T^" commenced against untn "n B c 1 's 7""' continued for many years TheU\;ainJ?L T-b*l^..--^ --P^ely sL^IueJ inhabitants of So^l..^-t——;-^^^ HISTORY OF aOMB, of the provinces he senatorial pro- but those of the mperor's separate I upon the moral as, for example, Imost fallen into 3cted that might ' subjects. Not- ugustus exercised s anxiety to con- ite ruler of the 3re formed from ts always on his especially during the frontiers of them, he pro- in, for the pur- ri. He carried until in the end ' to submit, B.c >Ited, and were ;hey were com- ic thus became in Africa the 3ories over the ', the Parthian it advisable to ^nto his hands (Antony. The n the eastern 'he frontiers of lenced against p many yeaiu, tely subdut^d. ^auls and the bands of tho 131 latter nation invaded Gaul, the alarm created at Rome was so great that, in B.C. 16, Augustus himself, at the head of an army, entered Gaul ; but after an absence of three years, he returned to Rome, leaving the command of the army on the Rhine to his step-son Drusus, who, until then, had been conducting the war against the Alpine tribes, in conjunction with his brother Tiberius. There now began a series of dangerous and disastroTis wars with the Germans on the east of the Rhine. The object wa« not so much to make -conquests in Germany as to humble and weaken that nation, because it waa regarded as a dangerous neighbour of GauL When Drusus undertook the command, in B.a 12, he resolved to conquer the part of Germany between the Rhine and the Elba He made several expeditions against that part of Gei-many, and endeavoured to secure his conquests by building the fortress of Aliso near the sources of the river Lippe. In b.c. 9 he advanced as fai- as the Elbe, but want of provisions compelled him to return ; and on his journey aouthward he fell from his horse, injuring himself so seA'^erely, that a month later he died. Drusus was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who, intending to complete what 'lis brother had commenced, crossed the Rhine in B.C. 8 ; but he was unable to sub^ due tlie west of Germany, although he displayed great skill and bravery. After various undertakings by hia successor, none of which secured any permanent results, Tiberius, in a.d. 4, resumed the command of the legions on the Rhine; and, partly by successful battles, and pai-tly by prudent negotiations, subdued the country l>etween the Rhine and the Weser, which was then con- stituted as a Roman province. Peace being thus restored in that part of Germany, Tiberius was called away by a great insurrection of the tribes inhabiting the country between the Danube and the Adriatic. The war against them lasted for two years, until in a.d. 9, the fall of their •sf.mnrr ■f'nr-'-nQaa AaniA^A -J-T,- i?«i.- _i» xV _ i i.Q ..,?„!,.,-„ t.v'ou.itu fiiu xaipc ui wit; ixuiurgcni/S. In the meantime the work of Romanising Western Germany waa going on satisfactorily; but the avarice aad i ' • /32 lb ^.1 HISTORY OF ROMB. -as foj^ed against hLt/'r^L™^ S' ' ^^"^^^^ His tnbe was soon ioined hJ^T ' Chernscan chief, warned of the dangi a^^J ^thers a^^ Yarns, thongh to be drawi. into a^^^S ^f ^^ J^^ - ^^e force ft>rest Of Tentobm^,^S f'r^".^^"^^"*'^^^*^^ ended in so complet? a dtSt of V« .'^'^ ^^^«' ^^ was covei^d witi the d^Td bo& J^S ^' *^^ ^^"^^^ sumvors wre sold as sLes S.^!^^ ?f '^"'' ^he aj-d Varus in despair thi^w SmSlf ^"^^/^^ -ere lost, ^e Oennans locJked, W^^wf ^'^^^ ^'«,o^ sword, the great deliverer of tS ^l^l' "P?? ^^^mins a« Romans Ai^stas^T^^efv^^TT^ ^ ^"^^ *>^ *^« disaster, is sSl to h^^^'^t .:i^^?T^ «^ *hi« despair. The fortrorif A^ h"^ V^^ ^«^ ^^^ dunng the war, the Somans ^tlT ^^« ^^^^^^ed Jdves on the eastern baTof XiV'' T^*"*^'" *^^^»- fined themselves to piX^if th^ i-^^T' Weforth con- The most import^Tefe^whlJ^ ? ^*^* ^^^^• Augustus, is the birth tf eu/^^ T^" ^^ ^«%» of mgn of At^stus, or moreTri!?i i^"^ ^^«*- ^he death of SuHa to thai S A„o^,T ^ *^^ P^"**^ fr««» *I^e f f Roman literatu^ 4t StTt '*'"^* ^"'^^ ^«^*^^ ag^ Its highest developmentXdIS t'^TT **^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^d historians belong to'tSt plSl^'^f P«^*«' o^ato^,, Augustus was greatly disturL/^r"- ^ -^ P^*'=« ^^^^ of domestic misfortTxne^ m^tt""''^ ^'' ^''''' ^^^s by end Lucius C^sar, Sie sons^r^ '''5 grandsons, Cai»8 Agrippa,died in earij IS .i ^'.'J^'^Shter JuK^ w tW had been poisS^K Vel T^'^'H '"^^^^^^ ^^at war anxious to secure^^ L J! -^P"""*^^^' ^''K who Jous woman, caus^ herfSr^ ' ^mghteT Julia, a licen- Jon tiat he foundit n^s^ry ^ dT'"'' ^^^ ^«^a- <lied on the l&th of ASrs7A^^r\^t^- ^"g^^stua Paxiia, whither he had ^ont t^ ± "* ^?^' ^^*«»- Jiealth; and immM;o;"iJ-T*. ** .'««^r» his enfeebled *e iaat son of i^i^hyT^^^ ^^W*» Postnmus. * oy Agnppa. was aaaaabinated ^ Qnfntflmj? Tama and ft conspiracy Chernscan chief, id Yarns, thongh t'lfch a lai^e force tfcle ensued in the three days, and *hat the ground * Komans. The ianis were ]ost, > tis own sword! on Arminius aB the yoke of the Iligence of thia "^th rag© and been destroyed maintain them- henceforth eon- t of the river. ^8 the reign of s Christ The »eriod from the the golden age ^ then reached poets, orators, private life of later years by indsons, Caiua bter Julia by suspicion that iTy livia, who erius, her son Julia, a licen- fow and rexa- f. Aiignstua ^ola, in Cam- lis enfeebled "* Postumus^ ^^'I'^iuated tQ BISTORy OF BOMiB. 133 prevent his putting forth any claims against Tiberius. The latter, therefoi-e, now succeeded his step-father with- out any difficulty, and the imperial dignity remained in the same family until Nero, who was the lust of the line, for after his death the imperial throne was generally filled by the choice of the soldiera. oouM »» •Fux mnnrnM, m. unvvivt Avn urooB. f- .' '' > ■ /'' \i III « «B>Al C<.,,,«„,„,„, ,„ CO»,„^ „,\„^' CHAPTER XIIZ r FROM THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS TO THAf •it' A.D. U TO A.D. 68. OPNERa that period of his lirto st^l^^^f/"*^"^^^ ^""«S cn.el ty,^t he turned out7£ Du^/thf fi'^ *'' years of his reign, things we^' on pr^tVtll *t 111 events, he succeeded in conceali, . iL •• ' ** ^^^ character. But aftex thr/ear a d 20 T^'T ^^ ^^"^ under the influence of his fSd JnL.% ^^^"^ t^ *^^"^« n^enced a series of tXTatf [LTs. T""' ^' 'T advice of Seianus that, in aj> Tslhlr..!^ ^^^ ""l *^^^ were diuwn together in/n « > ft'S^ pr»tonan cohorts a step whfch af on.^ I^ ^^'^^'^^^^ "^^P «^^«^« *<> Rome, miiit£/3:ttL Tort^;t^^^ ^?*« ^ hadalargebodvoftroonVTii ^'^P®''^'' ^^^^y^ his biddiatg. HittrtHL Lo lT;f f ^' ""^*^y *« ^'<^ assexnWe iS their ^m 1 and to^lv ? ^ •" ^^^^^^ *« form ; but Tiberiiis TboH«h^ *>, ^ ^^"^^ '" *^* ^n«^«»* ring theXSnsfn f t ^those assemblies, tnvnsfeiv mi^Ut picvse the despo. One ofi;' chJX^l^tl^^^^ ^W»'' if OP NERO, V distingtiished scorded during would be the ? the first six 7 well, at all jusness of his i^hen he came %nu», he com- t was on tho jorian cohorts lose to Rome, iBient into a peror always , ready to ilo n allowed to a the ancient lies, transfeiv is servile sub- iiythjiig tjiat functions of HISTOUV OK HOME. 135 the senate henceforth was to frv nil noc«o <• i.- i. x against the person of tho .n ^ I ""^ ^'^^ *^^^^«^ host of spies and inSera who ifl J^ 'T"^ " ireedom, while they inoreased the tyrant's fearq nml restraint, withdrew in a n 9fi T .^ • "" ^''°™ ^^^ up his abode t'lL^rd'yS'ref if L^l,^^^^^ Naples. The period of his absenceS So^e w^fthe wSho,^'? P"'.* f H' ^^^S^' f^^- Seianus noHu ed planned the exterminatfon of ^^e^L fl^^^^^^^^^ son of Tiberius; and he now sent Agrippina and 1 er three sons into exile, and afterwards got^riTof them bv tahgula), the yo.mgest of the sons of Agrippina bv Gpt manicns, was the only one that escaped.^^At lenth when he thought that all obstacles were^-emovfd he sfed for the hand of the widow of Drusus TT^ W f f- this matte, with the greate:t caution anfsecrecy tft t nevertheless reached the ears of Tiberius, who now wrote a letter to the senate accusing Seianus of high treL™nd TJ tX ^^' ' ^ V^^ ^^^* ^^^'S^^ <^f ti^e Roman people and Tiberius wreaked his vengeance on all th7 friends and relativ-es of Seianus. The experience which ?he emperor hrd made wi^h Seianus filled his soulTSfmore with suspicions, and he became still more cruel S lif "and'llnlff ifb'^^^^^^^^^ ^^ his XwhS c^ef^tcttled SL'ondulT^rtl^^t^^^ '^ Macro, the successor of Seianus, in conjunction with < i I : 136 HISTORY OF ROME. lit'^ i-: I i ^^tZr^tl&T^^^ ^ ^^* -^ of the num, Tiberius felint^a^deatM TJ ^"^^ ^^«^ persons of his suite believfnc/h? . \^ '.^*^' ^"^ ^O"^^ Caius emperor But S^ *^ ^^ ^'^' proclaiiued Macro and Caius fea«d h^« '"' ""«°^«^d' ^^d as both to be sufTo^jterbetre'n t:::rpxT7:Tf' '^ As regards the affairs of the empire a .J °V-' tion broke out, in the very year ^f t\ ^ . * ^nsurrec among the legions on the RhCand ii p" "^^Tt"^ soldiers on the Rhine den'-iXr th , n ^*^?^^«^ The assume the imperial t^y^i^^la^'^^T''' ^'^ ' Germanicus wa^ geaero^ enoil^W • T'\«""8; but and decline the offi^^e 3?.;^'!^ *^" ?°^^^«" nonia was quelled by urudpT. -^^ *"^P« ^ ^^'^- now penetmtedlnS^trt part orr^"^- ^^^^^^^^^ been lost through the t^scScf o?'CuY "?'' '"^ again roused his countrymen t^ . ■ ' ^"^^^^ against the common Zmy Lf n^' ^^T"l "^^^^^^^^ tactics of the Romans Td"^ ke ludl^f ^, ^« -Perior the Germans were defeated in f f u ?x? °^ Germanicus, meanwhile become jSoi^ of fh? ^**^''- ^^^^^^"« ^^^^ of Germanicus,Tho in AD Ifi «^«'««« and popularity to the East, whli 'he dtJ' at \T? T""^^' ^"*^ ««^* Germans on the right bank of fl^S?-^' ^■''- ^^- ^he for a t.me witS fnrfW t ^^'^^ ^«^ ^^^ ^eft memon^ble evenW^ii^^trreT^TS ' "^'^ ^^^ crucifixion of Jesus Christ, Sil ^oZ' ^"" "^^ chronoloffy. ad 3<t ^xr^ »^w™ing to the common earthquake hy^Moh ZlnTl ^^.^^'^^^^ a fearfiS at Fiden», where a Smrii ' ^^ *^*' ^®** catastrophe jn during^ 'grdi:&sjr„^s'fr? '^" together vast multihifi«o «f T' ^"^<'^ "ad dmwji 20!600ps«o„,w*S Ao"^?'"' '^^'' °° ^ «■»" C.S;S:; rreS>T?£"'l/tr;„°<'"»o?l7 caned resembled hi, nobWmVZ\"-. ?7. .'» "•.»■ <?• A. he ^ get rid of the near Cape Mise- state, and somo ' dead, proclaimed red, and as both theycau^d him ra, A.D. 37. a great insurrec- •erius's accession, Pannonia. The armanicus should >f Tiberius; but uiet the soldiers e troops in Pan- M. Gennanicus aany which had irus. Arminiua srous resistance to the superior of Germanicus, I. Tiberius had and popularity called, and sent . A.D. 19. The e were now left n. The most berius was the 5 the common ition a fearful cities in Asia eat catastrophe phitheatre fell ;h had drawn no less than amonly called D. 41. As he cus in appear- • inherited his HI8TOUV OF ROME. 137 fathers virtues ; and during the first eight months of his rejga such hopes seemed to be j ustified. But he was then seized by a sudden illness, from which ho indeed recovered out his conduct was so much altered that henceforth he cannot be regarded in any other light than that of a madman We need not here enter into the disgusting details of his reign ; sulUce it to say that he acted as a bloodthirsty tyrant, who took a delight in signing death warrants, and witne^ing the agonies of his victims • he squandered the public treasures upon the ftTatification of bis lusts and the erection of absurd buildings ; he cele- bmted ridiculous triumphs over Germans and Britons, whom he had never encountered in battle, and Ordered himself to be worshipped as a god. By his excesses he impoverished the provinces, as well as the state treasury he was a low and vulgar sensualist, whose favourite com- panions were actors, gladiatoi-s, and other i e isoiis of the most despised classes. A conspii-acy was formed against hini aa eariy as a.d. 39, but it Was discovered, and its authoi-8 Were put to death. Another plot was concocted by some officers of the prcetorian guards, and in a D 41 he was murdered in his own pakce, while attendin<r a rehearsal of some actors. His wife and daughters were likewise put to death, and during the tumult, the mur- derers dragged forth Claudius, a son of Drusus and Antonia, who from fear had concealed himself, but was now proclaimed emperor. The life of Claudius had been spared during the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, merely because he was despised and looked ui)on as an idiot. The treatment which he had received from his own family had intimidated him and made him a coward. His favourite pm-suits were the study of history and antiquities, and he himself wrote several historical works; but while he occupied himself with such things, his freedmen and favourites governed the empire, exercising unlimited influence over him, and his wife Messaluui scoi-ned every law of decency and morality. It was at the instigation of such advisei-s, that tlaudms ordei-ed tlie execution of some of the best b« r I i 138 ill h I: Fr II i [| ."•f" § HISTORY OF ROMK, some young lS>ffia„ Bnf .T P"?^'"^^ *° "^^^^:^ ^ J'^"d- -cely leHCnrur'S^^it^t^td^ h^^"^^^'^^ great ambition wa^ to xret rid of n ^- ^ ^^''''- H®^* MessaHna, and to secure the sle^sTofto\''"'"" '^ Nero, by a former husb«n7] ^i^^'f ^^°^ ^ her own son covered her scheme si e SiL. ? l ""r? ^^^"^^^^ ^i«- be poisoned, a.d 5I. ' *' <^f ^erUfe, caused him to foud of buildinr^m J^t^Cted n^ """^ ^'T'^""'' ^' ^^« useful works ■ fl . IT ',*''''"**'^, o^ oompletod some verv drained Lake Fu nus t^Z' ''' '"''"•^' ^^ ^«*-' - ^ through which r^ers of Z';"f^^^i'^^«^«««e tunnel river Liris. Notwitltten^l \\' ""^^ ^^ ^^^ ^"*° *^« the age, the Romanljmr^idet' S^^ corruption of - cessors gained many a victory aW^^^ ^^^ ^'' ^"«' a successful war was l»«m,«^^ abroad Thus in a.d. 50, had invaded ArmS In n ^^'^ '^" Parthians, who bulo, oneof ClaSs's .e/eir """'^"^ ^^^'"^W Cor- the Germans, and mil^C^r^ ^^ «"-«-ful against province, had he not^een oXefu^^^^^^ fine his operations to the ZTv 7 ^J^^mperor to con^ reign of Saudius is further L^"'^ l^ '\' ^^^^«- The then that the Romans mad«'^^^^'' ^^^^«« ^^ ^^ Britain ; for in ad 43 .T^ P^?™anent conquests Si Claudius, af^^^pa^int Csera^h"'^^'^.*^^ ^^^«^' ^^^ command of hi/tJooJs LT the I ?"* ^'"/* *^ ^*' ^^^^ *he who continued theTa^r ^'':>"^^^^^^^ ^^^"^"-H this war that r..^a.m,. and h s son 1?^, bor'f'^T"^ afterwards became emnernr« « 1 J-' °"*h of whom "elves. The soXa^r^rt ff 't'^'^'''^'^ '^'^■ conquered by the R<>.::j':l/.^^tr^ ^^-^lly province m A. p. 44. : —^'^Uvuieu n riomaa 'teiwUMii] iteenjiea HrjJTOHY OF ROMB. 139 Soon afteoi^pimurder of Claudi-..s, Nero, who was then only seventeen^ars old, was proclaimed emperor. He Lad been eductited by the philosopher Seneca, and Burrus, an officer of the praetorian guards, and was a young man not withotit talent ; but the corrupt and licentious court, the adulation of the senate, and the servility of the people exercised their baneful influence. During the first five J^ears of his reign, probably owing to the controlling influence of his teachers, things went on very fairly • but when Nero began to quarrel with his ambitious mo'ther who not only wanted to interfere in the government, but jven threatened to i-aise Britannicus, a son of Claudius to the throne, the vicious propensities of Nero burst forth at once. He now first caused the murder of Britannicus and attempted to diown his mother by means of a boat' constructed in such a manner that it should go to pieces when on tie water; but as she saved herself by swim- ming, he ordered her to be assassinated, and this hoirid deed was not censured by either Seneca or Burrus Under the influence of contemptible women, Nero now hurried from one crime to anotho-r; and after the removal of Burrus from the court in a,d. 62, he threw off all restraint- he banished his wife Octavia to a lonely island, where she was murdered and then married Poppm Sahina, the adulterous wife of Salvius Otho, who was afterguards raised to the throne. A few years later, a fearful fire broke out at Rome, which lasted for six days, and reduced the greater part of the city to ashes. It was reporf^ed that this conflagration was the work of Nero himself who wished to see a vivid picture of the burning of Troy * But he charged the Christians, who then formed only an obscure sect, with having caused the conflagi-ation. and cruelly persecuted them. It is commonly said that the apostles Peter and Paul sufiered mai-tyrdom on that occasion. Nero then ordered the city to be rebuUt with greater magnificence than ever, and for himself he built what was called the "golden house." nn th« Poia+Jn- hiJI. Although these things could be done only bv'^ whitrary and despotic nUer, yet the vast Roman populace 1 (■ I I f- % 140 HISTOttY OF nOME. M ■ m f I: M^ m attempt with their JivM S^n. ' u *" '"J' '<"• "» being an aoooinnlL ,3 . f^ T^" "»» »nsp<«ted of Pop,«a Sabina, whom ho wSTnaCtal ^t 7" "^''• and Antonia, a daui.l,t,r „e ru j- , *' "f Paasion, to be murdeSd S,» ,1, ?'*"<'"«. whom he ordered honest a„dT;„„r,Si^ ',!^"'l^ "^"^ "■"• ^'^T and hatred to^Z ^ZVL^'^L^l,'"'^^-"'"^ Gi-eece, and there tock n«H^ o. f " ^ ■^*^^*' ^^nt to great .^.tional 7Xa^^^:i.^'SZ^t:{^ ^^ *^^ est follies and cruelties. Sw)n X? S ^ 1 ^ *^® ^'^ rection broke out in O^ I i . '^^'''^ ^^ ^^^f- tl^e go;em;r ^Xin'^^"Trrtll""^^ ,^?^ emperor by the soldiere tL ZT . ■ ^"^ proclaimed lowing thi exam;rriLw^^^ pCwd hl"^"^' '^^^ Nero, now abandoned by all, took to S? ™, ^""P^*?^' discovered, inflicted r Cm, i ^,^^Sbt; and on being died, A.r68 He wiZ W^"" ^'™''^^' °^ ^^i^^^ t^ ^^the province a.umed the W.^o^l^^tiil^i^^^^^^ During the reign of Kero ih^ Po»^i,' gaining l-^ion'^of Wnia bu^^^^ T"''^.? genei-al. m a long protracted warrec^vei^d'tL"'".'S^^^'. that country; under his anrrZU^ • "^^^^^ ^f again. Ger^ny was tolem^ . ' • r'T' ^* ^«* Io«* in Brit^ a g^tllr^^SVX^ oTt'l^; ?r«^ '^* ^nsequence of «ie fearful mpaciry and oppr^s.ron nf Vf Konian governor The Ti«;L •',"", "ppresKjon of the BoadiceiCanStedrwh^li r"' '"T''^ ''y *<''■■ ?"««". «ver.rLnrcol!;?ir ''t^ "" °^°"' 'ii'' ''^*'°y«' '■^ «t,a.n f„m the i^wirroiT^h^^-'rv^ afad amused with against Nero, in and Piso himself, I to |)ay for the waa suspected of xiatenco by open- B his own wife, tal fit of passion, hom he ordered try him. Every an object of fear Nero went to 1 the lyre in the elf by the gross- etum an insur- been fearfully aded by Julius Servius Galba. nee i)rocIaimed 3 at Rome, fol*- ■ him emjxjror. ; and on being ^, of which h6 )f the family of or the legion* ecting the em- 3 Succeeded in 0, a most able 1 the whole of 2r, it was lost ter Nero; but in B.C. 61, in ression of the 7 their queen, and destroyed I'auJinus, on here he waa HISTORY OF ROMlt 14| tTfnS "* *^'*' beginning of the insurrection, defi^t^ WM X„ *r^' "!'' """■ "■» """irnand against them STiTCI OF C.<UaDU. N >; ♦ J w If^ M U COIN or OLAODIUS AND AQEIPpina, CHAPTER XIV. A.D. 68 TO A,D, 96. o^Z'::!^^!:^:^^^^ that .e had been p.. the senate/ has4ted to ^oi^ '^ ""^^ sanctioned by soldiers to whom he owed th« ll ^'^'""^ ^^^"^^- ^^^^ richly rewarded by h^ bnf • ?,?' ^fP""*«^ *« be appointed; and as LS'«1''* ? *?^ <^W ^'^re dis- among thern, Saiwl;: ofho ^Zd^^^^^^^^^ tim, and he was murdered wb^^!^ .conspiracy against the beginning of A d 69 aft-^'^" crossmg the Forum, at months; and\is son," who hS^ beenX^ V^'"^^^ ^^^^* successor, was likewise kHled ^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^ their VcJ'Xt'a.dr ^'^-^'^f ^^^™ ^^^o, and began his rei^ bv^Zi«r*'°''''^ ^^ *^« '^^^- He tad ma^e the'^efe Zt J '°^' °I *^^ P«^«n« ^^o W But be trscre Vi'TutnT^^ ^^^^ °^ when he was informed thaf fl!I i • ^"^ ^ functions, Khine had confer^eTthf^'^^ f r/*'*^^"^'. '^ *^« commander rM*W 4^?^ n ^ ^ "P^"" ^^^^'^ «^« ' HISTORY OP ROME. 143 NA. 5F DOMITIAW. 3 had been pro- s sanctioned by nied by Saldua 3a Sabina. The expected to be they were dis- ?8tore discipline ispiracy against the Forum, at f scarcely eight 3d upon aa hia iu8 Otho, and 3 senate. He e persons who ig the reign of his functions, tioned on the pon their own < a army across •iacum, gained BO decisive a victory over Otho as to drive him to despair and suicide, in April a.d. 69. Otho's arniv surrendered to Vitelhus, who was now the undisputed master of the empire. Vitellius was a man of low tastos, and given to coarse sensual pleasures; he did not trouble himself much about the duties of his office, but allowed the prjetorians to act ao they pleased with impunity. Such conduct excited general mdignatior against him ; and the legions in several provinces renoi - -ed their allegiance. Vesjia- ^nan, who was carrying on 3 war against the Jews with gi-eat success, was proclaimed emperor by the legions that were discontented with the reign of Vitellius. He there- fore left the continuation of the siege of Jerusalem to his son Ttt-us, and at once prepared for war against Vitellius. Antonius Primus, a staunch suppoii^r of Vespasian' advanced with his army across the Alps, and met that of Vitelhus near Eodriacum, where the latter was com- pletely defeated. The victorious army then proceeded to Rome, where a frightful massacre took place in the streets, for Vitellius was forsaken by all parties except the prtetorians and the Roman populace, who murdered Sabinus, a brother of Vespasian, in his flight to the Capitol. The splendid Capitoline Temple was destroyed on that occasion by fire. The praetorian camp, in which Vitelhus had taken refuge, soon fell into the hands of the partisans of Vespasian; and Vitellius was cruelly murdered in December a.d. 69, after a reign of scarcely eight months. "^ While these things were going on in Italy, Vespasian was still in the East, and the affairs at Rome were managed by his son Domitian, who succeeded in taming the praetorians. The new emperor, who did not arrive at Rome until a.d. 70, was just the man whom Rome required at the time. He immediately set about restor- ing the discipline among the troops, excluded unworthy men from the senate, watched over the administration of justice, stopped the trials for high treason, and thereby suppressed the detestable class of informers. He was economical in the 'i^nagement of the finances, though he 144 HISTORY op ROME. i? k pi J^d"^f::treT.bXh^J^;nr^ ^- the public n^ous sums were ^entn^Z^u ""^ f^ "?*^- Thus enor- toline Temple and „n 2Tl ^J^^'^^''''' <>^ ^^e Capi- theatre, kno'^t;Ve\fm?om ''^ ^'T ^^P^^" m its present iniined stateTs yf%^^^'''^^> which, even in Europe. His own etint r5*^^ ^?'''^^'^ structures to the licentiousneslof thTfeh "^ T'^ ^ P"* ^^ end senate what it ha?Lver been^fe "^^"'''' ^^^ "^^« *t« the most illustrious men f « T "^^f «-»» assemblage of from any of the proWnc^s h« '"^^^'°^ ^*"^^ »^^* great culture and hlS' "^^ '^^^ * ™an of any A.D. 74 he expelled In ^1^1 i^""""^' ^"^ ^^ *^^«- ^^ the city. Kted L nl^^^^^^ ^^^ astrologers from with the Jews and retaSS """"r ^' ^^^o^^ded msolence of their Roman gov4mor ^rt t'"'^*/ "^^ with the courage of desnair K.\ ?. 7^^ '^^^^ bought losses, were confined toXdefen^el/T^""^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ they were besieged by Vespt^^^^^ 1?^^^'?' ^ ^^^^^ the imperial dignity thp«1! „^fter his elevation to tinned ty his sof &« tK,:^ '^''"^^^^ was con- famine and epidemic. di««o ^ '"^'^^^^ ^'^bly from of the countrf beSg crowdS' ^"^ f ^^^fr°« -" ParS It was in vain thS m?« nff A^f^^^ ""'^^ '^ walls. they would % doV^^Lfi*^ jrn*'^ ^r^' ^ the city was taken th^ t1 ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^ at length Temple, u^tif thai venfrl' '^'^'?^"^ thems^ves in S became a prey t theTr^ »nd ma^ificent building stroyed, an^pwar^^frmil Jn%"?^ "" ^«" ^- have perished. The^urvivnr? T^i."^ "^-^V ^^ ^^^ *« ever;^nd as thev w^rflTSi?? S«^ ^<??P««dence for -y diapered over theVhoiriS- T^^^ "^^J^ d for the public city. Thus enor- tion of the Capi- the great ainphi- eum, which, even andest structures 1 to put an end s, and made the n assemblage of ' from Italy, but t a man of any slike to philoso- ■ his time. In astrologers from 1 he confounded rs as audacious luence of such d noble-minded eath. in A.D. 67, waa the Jews, who le cruelty and e Jews fought ■ful defeats and lalem, in which lis elevation to item was con- terribly from from all parts hin its walls, the people, ii aen at length 'Selves in the Jent building vas then de- 3 are said to >pendence for d their oity, ■e. The tri- H18T0RY OF ROME. 145 tMttphal arch of Titus at Rome still bears witness to that terrible catastrophe. A great insurrection of the Batavi, headed by Civilis, had broken out even before Vespasian's an-ival in Rome Their example was followed by other neighbouring tribes, but they were overj^wered one after another by the vigour and energy of Cerealis ; and in a.d. 70 they had to sue for peace. The year after this, Oerealis was appointed governor of Britain, and was accompanied thither by A^rtoola, the son-in-law of the great historian Taciius Six years later, Agricola himself obtained the governor- ship of Britain, a post which he filled, untU a.d. 85, with great benefit to the natives and honour to himself Dur- ing this period, all England and the south ©f Scotland were cnnn^^e. d; and Agricola was the first who, by circumi. .rvting Britain, established the fact that it wm an islr < Towards the end of Vespasian's life a conspiracy waa formed against him, for, notwithstanding his general good character, he was occasionally gi 'ty of acts of gi-eat cruelty. But the conspiracy was discovered, and its authors were put to death. Soon after this he was taken ill, and died in June a.d. 79. Vespasian was succeeded by his son, Tittis, who had latterly governed the empire in conjunction with Ms father. During his short reign, which lasted only till the month of September a.d. 81, the people at first enter- tamed considerable apprehensions, as he had been guilty of several acts of cruelty ; but after his accession he dis- played such an amount of kindness and benevolence that he was called by the title of " the love and delight of man- kind, and he had plenty of opportunities of showing his benevolence in action. A few months after his accession a feartul eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroyed and buned under burning lava and ashes the towns of Heixsu- laneum, Pompeii, and Stabise, and Titus is said to have r™- _ J v"^^ TTXiuiu ui ilia propcrcy m relieving tiie siifienngs of those who escaped from the catastropha The year after, a fire broke out at Rome, which raged for H m I I i ik; mi ill I'"' h-f. ^.' 146 HISTORY OP ROJIE, three days, destroying the finest parts of the citv ' nnrf ^Ty;:ff off'ih "^'"> ? fearful VstneVcebro^e outf carrying ott thousands of Deonle in nil t.o,^c, * t^ i ' ^ther and bv T"^ "i^^-^^ ^^ ^^«" oomnienced bfh^ latner, and by the building of the Therm* or Tin+Ko txon aad many a<5ts of cruelty/ At fo^Towevt^C" conduct was better tiian his reputation, but aT^ sorn^ t^e he sh(«.ed himself in his true light as one of the mos detesteble tyrants that ever difgrac^d a throne Hosts of informers again arose, as in the worst dn ^ 5- his predecessor In order to iiigmtkte Wms^S ^ththf tor tins and h^ other extravagances, he had recourse^ v?cZ«^K \ ? *" ""^ gladiators and in torturing hi! undertook an expedition into Gennmy, a^d built i« ^t r fl S^^^^^ ^"^y' ^l^ereupon Domitian Wmself Sd withl'^'f *^"^ '"* ^ *^« German tribes allied with Home refused to support him, he was obli Jd to purchase peace of the Dacian kin^.^.n. 90 S Witflstanamg this, he did not sci-uple^'on his"rph,r^ +!^ celebi^te a triumph over the Dacianran'J eveVlSTm^ of the city; and lence broke out, I parts of Italy, by the inaugura- )mmenced by his ennsB, or Baths, h, in September ieath of a father, mpire were not 8 Agricola was ritain. Domitian^ who •annical disposi- it, however, his but after some i as one of the ■aced a throne. e worst days of imself with the )tain the means iad recourse to ns were treated ^ain possession lire in anything I torturing his me talent, and In A.D. 83 he and built the ind those who » pursuing his >by excited the D. 85. In the Danube, and litian himself jrerman tribes le was obliged his return to Bven assumed HISTORY OP ROME, 147 the surname of Dax^icus, The humiliation to which he was tliiis obliged to submit rendered him still more ferocious, and he went so far in his madness as to order himself to be worahipped as "lord and god." The most illustrious men were executed for expressing their honest opinions : the philosophers, one of whoiu.ras the celebrated Emctetus, were expelled; and the Christians, whose numbers were steadily increasing, were persecuted and murdered with- out mercy. He intended to put his own wife, Domitia, to death ; but she, on being informed of it, headed a con- spiracy agamst him, and he wtw stabbed in his own bed- room by one of her freedmen, in September a.d. 96. AKCH or TITU8, REHTOaBS f \ \4 ^' ■t| i J \ 061N Of BADQiAir. CHAPTER XV. FROM THE DEATH OF DOMITIAN TO THAT OF MABGUS , AURELIU8. A.D. 96 TO A,D. 180. The five emperors who succeeded one another after UomitiAn form such a strong contrast to some of the ^tched tyrants who had preceded them, that the period Of their reign is regarded as the happiest in the Mstoiy c* the Koman empire. Immediately after the mui-der of Domitian, both the people and the soldiers pi-oclaimed iV;en;a a venerable senator. But aa he was not popular with the prsetorians, he was obliged to be cautious in punishmg offenders and in recalling the men who had been banished by Domitian; and in order to strengthen himself he adopted Trajan, a man of unblemished char- wter, who was then commanding the legions in Gennanv However he survived this step no more than three months, for he died of a fever in ihe beginning of a.d. 98. Trajan, having been adopted by Nerva, succeeded him as a matter of course, and an-ived at Rome in a d 99 He was anative of Spain, and a man of great m-Htary talent. His administration of the affaire of the empire met with the approval of the best of his contempomriea HISTORY OF ROME. la lt of mabcus another after bo some of the that the period ' in the histoiy ' the muixier of iers pi-oclaimed as not popular be cautious in men who had p to strengthen >Iemished char- as in Germany, re than three inning of a.d. succeeded him ne in a.d. 99. great m-Utary of the empire jntemporaries. He fii-st of all suppressed the class of informers, rfnd purished tue most turbulent among the pr^toriana He then gave back to the senate its ancient powers, promoted commerce by making new roads, canals, and bridges, and by enlarging the port of Centumcellse. He was the fii-st emperor who promoted the education of children of both sexes, and adorned not only Rome and Italy, but even the provinces, with temples, triumphal arches, and other ornamental buildings. In Eome he instituted -x public library, and laid out a new Forum, in the centre of which rose the famous column which stiH exists, representing in its bas-relief his own exploits against the Dacians. He was fond of intellectual society, and honoured such men as TacitUs the historian, and the younger Pliny. His excellent wife Plotma, and his sister, Marciana, greatly contributed by their example towards the improvement in the con- duct of the higher classes. Trajai»deeply felt the humiliation of being obliged to pay to the Da^.-ians the tribute by which Domitian had purchased their peace, and accordingly, in a.d. 100, he proceeded with a large army to Dacia, defeated its kin<' m several battles, took his capital, arid at last granted to the king a peace, on condition that a portion of his terri- toiy should be ceded to the empire, a.d. 103. But in ^e year following, the Dacians again rose in arms, and J>ajan, having caused a stone bridge to be built over the Danube, marched into Dacia, and pressed the king so hard that, m a.d. 106, he put an end to his own life. Dacia now becajne a Roman province, and numerous Roman colonies were established in the countiy, which Boon spread Roman civilisation among the Dacians On his return to Rome, Trajan erected the above-mentioned column. In A.D. 114, when the Parthians again threatened the trontiers of the empire, Trajan immediately marched against them. In Aimenia he was received by the people with open aims, and their country was made a Roman province. He then oonqueied MeBopotamia, < ' ' 11 I ^ ' 1/50 HrSTORY OF ROME, teien ill tl 1'f .'' i' ^T"'',^^^^^ ^"^ ^^-'^bia, but being tokeu ilJ, he left his legate, Hatlriau, in the command of woic mm in Cihcia, in August a.d. 117. His remai-na .m^^'^'^'S^.^ ^ '■^P*''^ ^"^ «P^^^ »* Rome, through the adopted Iladrian, who happened to be at Antioch where accordingly, he waa proclaimed. He was a native JpS mim, and connected by marriage with the family of Tra^ST He was of a less warlike disposition thaii his predeceTor and beheying that the conquests made in theS wS mvolve the empire in troublesome and dangerousws he gave up Mesopotamia and Assyria to the pZuZl' and restored Armenia to tiie i-ank of an J^endTnt kingdom. After settling those affairs in trS he mIr b ^ ^°°!\.^'^- 118, and tiien marc£d\t Mcesia, ^^^ J^otjn,hmg to make conquests, he concluded peace with the barbarians who had invaded'that p^ W While he was thus engaged abroad, a conspiLy^^ formed agamst hmi by his personal 'enemies.^ But Z plot wa.s discovered, and its authors severely punish^ As his severity created an iU feeling, both i^ l^Tlvmy ^d at Rome he returned to Italy, and did eveiySg to conciliate the senate and the people «^jrMung When the frontiers of the empire 'were thus secured coj all sides, he undertook, in a.d. ^20, a joume^ tWh all the provinces of the empire, during which he visS Gaul, Germany, Britain (the lu (hern part of whTch he ^ured agamst the Scots by a wall from the TyTe to i^e Solway), Greece, Asia, and Eg^^pt, where his favomSe Antinous wa^ accidentally drowned in the S Durmg those journeys he left everywhere memorials of his visits which were intended to defend and .trentthen or embehsh cities and provinces; for hewasa man of high intollec^.ua.1 ciilture and noble feelings, though va^ty and conceit rendered him eaaily accessible to flattery HISTORY OP ROMIS. m Towards the end of his life, mistrust and a certain weari- ness of life sometimes led him to acts of harshness and cruelty. Athens, of which he was particularly fond, was adorned by him with extraordinary splendour ; but no- where did he display his taste for jhe arts more than in his villa near Tibur, and in his magnificent mausoleum at Rome. A certain kind of literature enjoyed his fos- tering care, but it was a body without a soul, as it chiefly consisted in grand but hollow phraseology. In A.D. 133, shortly before Hadrian's return from his travels, a terrible insurrection broke out amongst the Jews, who were exasperated at the establishment of the pagan woi-ship in their country. A desperate war was earned on by them for several years, but in the end they were crushed, and Jerusalem was made a Roman colony under the name of ^lia Capitolinaj the Jews were for- bidden to live in the city or its vicinity, and thousands ot them were sold as slaves. During the latter year of his reign, Hadrian lived in retirement; his health had been impaii-ed, and he was so tired of life that he made several attempts at suicide, but at last, in July ad 138 he died at Baiee. As Hadrian had no children he adopted during his illness Arrius Antoninus, who in his turn had to adopt Annius Verus. Durmg the last three years of his life, Hadrian had committed many acts which excited great discontent, and his adopted son did every- thing he could to prevent a popular outbreak, whence he obtained the surname of PtW— that is, the aflfectionate or dutiful. Antoninus Pirn, a native of Nemausus in Gaul, owed his adoption by Hadrian solely to his virtues. His rei^n from A.D. 138 to A.D. 161, forms the happiest period" of the Roman empire. He scrupulously adhered to the principles of his predecessor, and used to say that he would i-ather save the life of a single citizen than slay a thousand enemies; he was beloved throughout the eminro more than any sovereign has evei- been beloved eitiiei- betore or since. His whole care wiis bestowed upon the promotion of the i^eace and happiness of his people, which m \i I i I il '' ■f fr IH S' 162 MISTOUV OF ROMK. Justice, and by educational and charitable institutions ^he peace winch remained undisturbed during hrXn a 1 '.'^r '^'•^^^"iPi^ty, procured for him the namc^'of a econd Numa The Christians, who were .hen aWly very numerous, both at Rome and in the provii.ces we ^ Mtrfn l6r';""'T."^ observance^. He 7^1 March A.D. 161, at one of Ms country villas. Through- had ios^T -^^^ *'°T' ^""^"^ ^'-^ ^i*^l^«"t occupation, had lost their martial spirit, hence when fresh dangers tre n^tTn'r ''^v^"■^ ""^^^ ^^« «"— -, the aS were not in a condition to meet them Antoninus had had two sons, but as they had died before their father, he was succeeded by his adopted son Anmn. Verus, better known under the^ame o/l^,S Aurehus, sur^amed the Philosopher, a native of Rome! His education had been conducted with the greatest Zve and from his earliest youth he had been distinguished S his love of truth and thirst for knowledge. Iffwas more especially devoted to the doctrines of the Stoic philosophy which continued to be hi. favourite study even after he had ascended the imperial throne, thoufd- he d^ not neglect the duties of his high sl^tio'n. But as he was "f a delicate constitution, he allowed his adopted brother Zunns Verus, an active young man, te share the sove: reign power with him. But Marci4 Aurelius did not U^'V^^^'T'l ^"^^^^^«« *^^ ^i« brother, who when abroad at the head of his armies, indulged ii ever'y S of debauchery and voluptuousness. Ludus Verus set out, in A.D 162, against the Parthians, who now again be-an to make inroads inte the Roman provinces On hi^ arrival in the East, he gave himself up te his viciou^ propensities, leaving the management of the warTo Ms o tST?' "^' '"^^T''^ ^™^^^^ ^^d Mesopoten^ wh ?h tV '°"^1,v' concluded with the Parthians, ix^ Romans ^ ^^'^ ^ ^^^'^ *° ''^^ Mesopotamia to the The northern frontiers of the empire were likewise threatened by a number of German and Sarmatiau tXs' mipiptration at le inatitutioiiH. ring his reign, ni the name of 'e uhen already irt'vinces, were . He died, in as. Through- ut occupation, fresh dangers jrs, the armies hey had died i adopted son, lie of Marcus ive of Rome, greatest care, Anguished for He was more ic philosophy, even after he lie did not as he was of pted brother, ire the sove- lius did not who, when a every kind "erus set out, again began 5S. On his I his vicious 3 war to his [esopotamia, *arthians, in imia to the 5re likewise atiau tribes, lIISTOItV OK UOMK. 153 who intended to inva.le Italy itself, and Lad already advanced as far as Aquileia. . S„on after Yerus's return rom the Last, he and his brother took the field against the barbarians with such overwhelming forces, ^is to compel the enemies to retreat before them. Lucius Verus died, a.d. 169, of a fit of apoi)lexy, and Marcus Aurehus now continued the war with great ener-^ Several great battles were fought, one on the frozen river Danube; and m another, a.d. 174, the Roman army, being surrounded by the barbarians, was saved only by the burstang forth of a violent storm. This unexpected escape of the Romans filled the enemies with such awe that they sought for peac3, which they obtained on condition that they should withdraw beyond tli^. Danube, A d 175 Soon after tliis, Marcus Aurelius had to quell an inl surrection in the East, headed by Avidius Cassii.s, who had been instigated by the emi,eror's own wife, Faustina. a daughter of Antoninus Pius. The emperor succeeded m subduing the insurrection, and treated the ringleaders with unparalleled mercy. While he was engaged in this manner m the East, the Germans and Sarmatkns renewed their hostilities ; Marcus Aurelius marched against them, and was successful in several battles, but before the war could be brought to a close, he died at Sirmium, in March A.D 180. His son Commodus, who had accompanied him m the war, hastened to purchase peace of the barbarians. Marcus Aurelius, notwithstanding the almost uninter- rupted wars which disturbed his reign, foun.l leisure to compose a work called " .Meditations," in whicli we still see him with all his amiable, a^ectionate, and devout COIN or AirTOMINUB PIUS. h COIN OF JtAECUS AUIlEUUa. CHAPTER XVL THE UEIQN OF COMMODUS. CONCLUSION. A,D. 180 TO A.D. 192. After having purchased peace of the Germans, Com- modus hastened to Rome to give himself up to the pleasures and licentiousness of the capital. He was not yet twenty years old, and had received a careful educa- tion ; but this, as well as the noble example of his father was lost apon him. During the first two years, his real character did not appear, and it was hoped that after all he inight be better than his reputation. But a conspiracy which his own sister formed against him, in a.d. 183, suddenly produced the most extraordinary change, for the remaining period of his reign was an uninterrupted suc- cession of sanguinary.and disgusting excesses. The best fnonds and advisers of his fotlier were put to death, and Commodus abandoned himself without the slightest sense of shame to the coarsest vices and brutal debaucheries, while the business of the state was left to the lowest and most contemptible creatures. He was a young man of an athletic stature , his great ambition was to distinguish hi snself as a gladiator, and to be looked ui^on as a second Hercules. In a.d. 185 he appointed Oleander, one of his fdvourite freedmen, prefect of the prietorian guards, but IIISTOUY OK v.rtyrR. 1j.-| :.usiON. Jermans, Com- elf up to the . He was not careful educa- 6 of his father, years, his real d that after all ut a conspiracy , in A.D. 183, change, for the iterrupted suc- ises. The best J to death, and slightest sense debaucheries, the lowest and ung man of an to distinguish on as a second ier, one of his n guards, but this act was so diatnstefnl to the people, that the uuwortliv tavourite was literally torn to pieces by the Roman populace. At the time when Commodua was changinir the city into a slaughter-house of the best men of the time, l^ly was sutlering from plague and famine. In A.D. ia2 he formed the design of entenng the senato house with a band of gladiators, and murdering the con- suls and many other person^ ... ]v^ nmk. The list he haxl drawn up uf his inteu. ed vio.,; la fell into the haiul.s ot Ins mistress Marcia, am us she ,. uud her own name among them, she anticipu. ^ d <}ie pi, t, and, assisted hy «eveml others, she caused th. vn-u-r to be strangled iii his bed, on th« last day of tht , ear a.d. 192. Hib death tilled llome with joy, and the senate cursed hU nunnory the praetorians alone did not join in the general reioicinVr' for uix)n them the treasui-es of the empire had been most lavishly squandered by Gommodus. Oommodns, throughout his reign, had never troubled himself about the mterests of the empire, but its integrity Iiad nevertheless been preserved by the valour and activitv ot hia generals, who successfully warded off or repelled the tuvaaions of the bai-bariuiia. The reign of Commodus forms the real beginning of the decline of the Roman empi.v, and from this time down to Its final overthrow, in a.d. 47<J, we have, with only very tew exceptions, a succession of rulers distinguished for tyranny, baseness, and M-eakness. The praetorian guards henceforth decided the fato of the empiz-e, and exercised a perfect military despotism. As, however, the legions stationed in the provinces did not always approve of or •acquiesce m the sovereign chosen by the praetorians, it rcpoateaiy iiappeiied that two or more emperors were proclaimed at the same time in different parts of the empu-e, which of course led to ware among the rival 156 HISTORY OF ROME. fCr^ ? S"" °"'' °''^'^*^"' "«* ^^"^ ^^^^ tie death of Commoclus, the pnetoriuns went so far as to ofier the imperial dignity to the higbcst bidder, a^he Christens notmthstondiug the feadul r^rsecutions to which tiey Ill-f P"""",^ ^"t'' T " ^ '^^« successors of Commodus, steadily continued to become more numerous, until in the mgn of Constantme (a.d. 306 to a.b. 337), their num- o^u^A^lt ! "^fl"«^«« ^^re so great, that Christianity could no longer be suppressed, and became the recognised religion of the empire. *= v.li ^!? ?ong been felt that it was diffici.lt to govern the vast empire from Rome a^ its centr,^! point f at len^nb ^tr?P- 1'^ Th««dosius, shortly before his delth in Z^ if' ^7^^*^^ tie ^"^Pire into two paits, the western and the eastern, the Adriatic forming the boundary between them. Rome remained the capital of the West, while Byzantium which had been much enlarged and embel- lished by Constantme, became the capital of tlie East under the name of Constantinople. In less th^ a hundred years after this division, the Germans and o^iier barbarians, mvadmg not only the provinces of the westei-n iZr^l Ttl' ^''^f ' ^"''''''^' ^P^^^ ^^^ AfricTrat Italy Itself, reduced the Roman sovereigns to such a state of weakness, that at last, in a.d. ^Tef Odoacer, a chiS of the German tribe of the HeruH, after making him- self master of Rome, wrote to the emperor of the East, that Rome no longer required an emperor, and demanded ^l.^'T f' ^^-^-^ig^^ty of Italy! Romulus Au^s «n!rf\^ ?n^Peroi^ readily resigned his dignity, ^d spent the remainder of his life in private retirement in Campania The Ea.stem or Greek empire continued its existence for nearly a thousand years longer,, until, in A d. ni' 1^^^ conqueretl and overthrown by the Turks Ihe change which had come over the west of Europe during the last century of the empire was immense. The ancient civilistition and the ancient religion had died away, paganism had given >;ay to Chri&tianitv. md i-h- X? -man provinces and Italy had been overrun and co»^ quered by Teutonic tribo^ which oatablLshed themselves ler the death of as to ofler the I'Le ChrLstiiins, to which they ! of Commodus, )us, until in the 7), their num- lat Christianity the recognised History of bomb. 157 in the conquered countries, formed independent kin^ stT'oT v"' '"' ^^ foundations of aHSy ne?." state of things out of which our modem states and nxoc ern civilmtion have arisen. The conquerors settlh^ the S the ^:z'"^'^r'T^ *^"^ ^''' «f *^« I^«^-ns, ^1 making him- ri <i>»Tifjr or TUAiA,2. \> i: CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C.753 753-716 715672 672-640 mi I, pf 640-616 616-S78 078-534 634-610 509 505 601 498 496 495 494 493 491 486 485 477 473 471 462 458 457 454 461 460 449 FotiniTatioii of Rome Romulus. Political institutions. Kf. S?» ^'''•,,r^''^"«'°"'* institutions. f ",^c?tTri^iuf r i^r ^ ^^"-^^^^^^^^^^ sSSS^Ti^uS" "o ''"'•'"?^'' ""'^°™«' ^"* i« thwarted. Tarqulnius Superbus. Establishment Of the republic. First consuls. Consuimc* atllome. War with Porsenna. v.onsi«racy War against the Sabines. War with tho Latins. T. Larcius, first diotator. ApiKontnKnt of tho tribunes of the pTebs. The ^U/p. League ot Sp. Cassius with the Latins ^*"''' ^^^rfriaw"'*'""^^™'"^^ Flrrt attempt at iSffi'^llit^lle^Srr^- ^^^ ^^'^-^^^ JJe tribune Gennrins murdered. The tn^une Publilius Volero curriee several laws to protect tT« lie Sto'r? T?''"*i""';^'''^*.^^"^*"'^-^«'«^«io'>of thela^.-^ Se &'derom^^e^"^ '^ ^* ^'''"°*'^ «--^ I?« _"f °°°* decemvlrate. Laws of the Twelve Tabl«, decemviri. Law. of Vulfrius aiul HorativL *^* uls. Conspiracy WT3 to protect t?M B.C. 445 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 159 443 440 439 438 426 396 3t)l 390 384 383 876 I 367 366 I 358 306 301 350 343-341 340-338 339 338 837 328 326-304 322 321 815 314 312 811 809 808 806 805 300 298-290 295 292 290 3d(-282i FMen^l^y^ *^''^«» "^^^^ 0^ consuls. Battle of the AIliL komn %^?"^' ^'"''^«'' Clusium. Gauls. ^°'°® **^«° and destroyed by the The*Pn"nlnr ^'^Ijit?^!""^ condemned to death The Llcin"'r°oSns'^^rpaa'3^^^ nearly ten ylars "'^ P*^^®^ after a struggle of I ''' ^rpSoi' «^^* P^«^^ CO^^UL First appointment of Foundation of the colony of Frecellffi. Second war against the Sa^itel* Sat^of Af«""i/* '^^"'l-'^redin.e Romans. ^' ™,?iL^r5^« "* ^'^'^'"-'^ ^«™ds they gain War declared against Rome by the Etruscans War with the Etruscans breaks ouf. ■supremacy nf Rome "^™* ^'^'^ Umbria, recoKniso tjio War^agonst the Oaul^ Subjugation of the Senone. and a^ 160 chuonoloqical, table. .'I m '. ^H r ■ * k Wt^' i fl B. 0.282 281 280 279 278 276 278 27?. 2;-2 271 268 264 264-241 202 260 258 256 255 254 252 250 249 247 242 241 238 229 228 226 225 224 223 222 221 219 218-202 218 217 216 216 The Romans relieve Thurii, which is besieged by the Lucanians. Pyrrhus, king of Eiiirus, lands in Italy. The Romans dufeated by Pyrrhus near Heracleia. The Romans again defeated by Pvrrhus at Asculum. Truce between the Romans and Pyrrhus, who goes to Sicily. Pyrrhus returns to Italy. ' PjTTlius, defeated at Beneventum, abandons Italy. Embassy of Ptolemy Philadelphus to Rome. All southern Italy submits to Rome. Rhegium also is recovered by the Romans. Fourth and last war against tbe Samnltes, lasts only one year. "' The Romans ally themselves with the Mamertines of Messana. Peace with Hiero. The first Punic war. Agrigeutinn besieged and taken by the Romans. C. Duihus defeats the Carthaginians off Mylae. Atilius Calatinus carries on the war in Sicily. The Carthaginians defeated off Ecnonms by M. Atilius Regulus who sails with his fleet to Africa. Success of Regulus in Africa, but he is afterwards defeated by Xanthippus and taken prisoner. Wreck of the Roman fleet on the coast of Sicily. A new fleet is equij)ped, and Panormus taken. The Roman fleet sails to Africa, but is wrecked on its return, ihe Carthagmi-;ns defeated near Panormus. Regulus sent as ambassador to Rome. Siege of Lilyba^um. Defeat of Appius Claudius by land aud sea. Hamilpar undertakes the command of th" Carthaginians The Romans build a new fleet. C. Lutatius Catulus defeats the Carthagin. 'is off the ^Jt^ates insuliB. Peace with Cartilage. Sicll' t,he first Roman proviuce. Sardinia and Corsica are taken from Carthage, War against the Illyrian pirates. Agrarian law of C. '^laminius. Death of Hamilcar in Spain : he is succeeded by Hasdnibal. Peace with the Illyrians. The Gauls iu^•ade Etruria. The Gauls defeated in the oattle of Telamon. Reduction of the Boii. 0. Flaminius conquers the Insubrians. M. Claudius Marcellus, in the battle of Clastidium, brings the Gallic war to a close. Cremona and Placentia founded. Assassination of Hasdnibal, who is succeeded by HannibaL Second war against the Illyrians, who are conquered by L ^i-milius Paulus. Capture of Saguiitum. The second Punic or the Hannlbalian war. The Romans defeated on the Tlclnus and the Trebla. Cn. Cornelius Seipio goes to Spain. Defeat of the Romans on Lake 'frasimenus. The Romans defoated at Cannss. Losses of Hannibal at Nolii and Beneventum. S- . vcm < revolts fron» Rome. Treaty of Hannibal with Plr lip -j ,laujdouia. by the Lucanians. . Atilius Regulus, B.C. 215-206 ! 214-212 212 211 210 2C£' 207 205 204 203 202 201 200-197 200-181 198 197 196 192 191 190 188 183 181-179 171-168 168 155 151 149 149-146 148 148-140 147-146 146 143-133 141 140 139 137 134-132 133 131-130 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 161 Rrst war against Macedonia. Th^u^i capture of Syracuse by M. Claudius Marcellus The two Scipios slain in battle in Spain. ^larcenus. ^^T' °°''*^'''' ^"P"^- ^- ^«^"^li"« Scipio goes to Scipio takes Carthago Nova in Spain. ''SSla?'"'''''^ ^^ *^' ^°"'"^«- Hasdrubal defeated at °*'SauruT'' *' "''^' ^"* '' '^'^'^^''^ ^'^'^ '^^^^ °" the P. Cornelius Scipio goes to Sicily, bcipio crosses over into Africa, oyphax taken prisoner. Pe'ace'wfth r^S^ *° ^^^^ ''" ^^^'''^"■^ '" ^he battle Of Zama. reace witu Carthage ratihed at Rome Second war against Macedonia. War against the Lignrians, Insubrians, and Boiana. 1. QuinctiusFlamininus undertakes the war against Macedonia Flamininus proclaims the independence of Greece in lod "s'a^Zt %''!' ^V'^".^' r^^'^ ---^"'^to Europe. T rnrn'r,- u .^^ ^tolians deleated at '.rhurmopykc L. Cornelius Scipio crosses over into Asia, and defeats Anti ochiis m the battle of Magnesia. Peace concluded Peace with Antiochus ratified at Ron^. *^^^'''' ^^^^'^^'^ded. JJeath of Hannibal Greek philosophers expelled from Ro,i 1 he surviving Achnsans return to Greec. Wartljiin'^^tatS.'^"^'" '' ^- ^"'^^^"'^ ""^'^''^ War against the Achicans. SceTiih^VitilSuf """ ^" 'P^'^" ^'^'^ '' ^'""^^"^ Viriathus niurdered by hired assassins. Ihe Gabinian law, -daining vote by ballot at the elections nn."5"P*^°^°"^i^'?«'*^"''^"'- C. Hostilius Mandnus concludes peace with the Numantines. The Cassian aw 8erv5lt^Xtic'i&:^^"°* ^^ ^^^ ^^"^ °^ ^-- Numantia taken and destroyed. Attains of Pergamu^ v.. s bequeathing his kingdom to the Roman p^nnl^^ TriUu^l' amp or TlD. Sempronius Graccbus : is murderTd" gSs ^''*"^"^'="'' ^^^0 claimed the kingdom of Per 'I :(*. ■', 162 ao.l26 123 122 121 113 iii-iae 109 CHBOK JLOGICAL TABLE. 107 106 104 102 102-99 mi 100 11 90-88 90 88 88-S4 87 86 84 83 83-81 82 79 79-72 78 74-64 74 73-71 73 72 71 70 69 67 66 I P^st conquests of the Romans in Gaul. , I Trlbmiv ship of C. Sempronius aracchu?, I becond tiibuneship of C. Seraproaius Grac Mia. Murder of C. Gracchus, aivd civil !,1.oodshc.' "., jtU^m^ Rxst consul!^ nil of C. Mari-i: , who succeeds Met oHus in Africa. Jugurtha taken pnsoue; hy L. Cornelius SuHi.. Bivth of uici'ro. ^^^"Teutonei"*^'^ *° conduce 'he war a-jaii^st the Cimbri and TLu Cimbri return from Spain, and ar. joined in Gaul l>v the iriSed "' ''''^^'" ^'^'^' ■'' ^^'^^ ' '- T«-a^ne8 Second servile war in Sicily. Ti(o Cimlul defeated in the Campi RaudlL ^:.■ Manu. consul for the sixth time. The seditious tribune, o\ i?^ 1 Saturninus, and his party besieged in the L;;jitol, and afterwards put to deatir S on °tL*^TV ^'""^ .P'^^'f attempts t ., confer the franchise iipon the Italian allies, but is murd^nod. The Social or Marsic war. I?® ^!^ '^"^''^ confers the franchise on the Latins. thSodrfwS ^""^"^"^ °^**^^ *« i'-anchise. End of ^"«^^„^*^.V^*^'***«»- Ci^" ^ai- between Marlua and Sulla. Marius flees to Africa. ««»»»iub Marius returns to Rome. Scenes of horror at Rome. '"'L^enth'cashfp.^*'^"^ '^ '""" ""^'^^ <"- - "^^ Peace concluded with Mithridates. Se1!,Vd*C^iiS^'ffi'^S1^'^^ Capture of Praeueste. Young Marius kills himself. Battle at Ronfp Fff*"- Q;S?^toriusgoestoSpain. Sullaenters S Reforms ^'°'-"^°''- S'^* <"ctator. Politicaland wi'KBTse'i^Su8*"'^'^P' '""^ ""^'^'•^"^ *° ^t-«- ?^l^d°w'ra|-aiS^rKS4°s"'^"^''^^'°^"^^P^^^^ Lucullus defeats Mithridates. Murder of Sertorius at Osca. The slaves defeated by M. Licinius Crassus. Cn. Pompey conauL The political reforms of Sulla abolished orln^il^^**' ^^^T^' ^"'^ Mithridates at Tigranocerta * On. Pompey undertakes the war agal ^st tha oiratea. ijucuuua rccaliea. On. Pompey obtains the command aga. athridatei. CHKOxXOLOGICAL TABLE. 163 IS. c)ll38. i.t ".fc jAorna, ation westwaid. d against Jugurtha, Melollus in Africa. 8 SulUi. Bivth ;>f ust the Cimbri and ned io (iau! I>y the irMchiJiuTeutonea seditions tribune, ;y besieged in the onfer the franchise L jatint, ■anchise. End of r between Marlua it Rome. larius dies in his isthisopponenls, imself. Battle at ain. Sulla enters ior. Political and aws to Puteoli. jainst the pirates. 'ontua. f Sulla abolished. Tigranocerta. St tli3 plrataH, >s liiZltiuidatei. B.C. W 63 62 61 69 68 67 60 64 63 62 61 60 49 48 47 46 Cn. 46 44 43 42 41 40 39 S8-36 36 84 32 31 30 29 27 25-13 24 23 20 19 16-13 ?°iffil?'"™^', ^i*"dates into Albania and Iberia. fhe'^o^l^; TX "^^^«' '^'^^ P"*« ^™-^f ^^ the hea^f Mithndates, being conspired against l>y his own son tal«.<. poison. Consulship Of Cicero. CatUld^consplScy Cn. Pompey returns to Italy. "*i«^xiui cgnapuucy. Caesar as proprietor in Spain. P. Clodlus. J. Csesar consul ^' *^to gTui!"''""'- Cicero goes into exile. Casar proceeds Cicero recalled. Caesar receives the administration of Gaul for five years more He crosses the Rhine, and invades Britain. dVuSr! ^^"-^ ^ ''"°°^ *™"- ^'^*^ °f J'l"^, Cesar's Caesar again crosses the Rhine. Crassus defeated In Svrla. Caesar is called upon to disband his army Tn^nT" *-^* Rubicon. Pompey' and his party flee dictator! ^- C^^"- '° Spain. 0^ 4 return hrSnade Caesar consui. Battle of Pharsalus. £«« ni'^T,;' P''^™'^pe« °{ Fontus : crosses over into Africa ^J^J^^'^n''^' '° ^^'^^ t^« Pompeians in Afric"?^ defeated Cssar reforms the calendar, and goes to Snain against the sons of Pompey. ' ^ ^^^ Battle of Munda: the Pompeians defeated. CsBsar murdered. ^'"'a^L^''""''',- t ^i triumvirate between Octavianns. BattfefofPhmppf'^"- ^--P«o"- Death of CW"* War of Perusia. Capture and destruction of Perusia. War with the Parthians. Peace of Misenum with Sext. Pompeius ^axinians. War against Sext. Pompeius. Sext Pompeius defeated in the battle of Myl«. Lepidus de- posed. Antony sustains great loss against the Parti fa 1 Antony conquers, Armenia, and gives it to Cleopator War declared against the queen of Egypt. Battle of Actium. ^ Death of Antony and Cleopatra. Octavianus returns to Rome Octavianus receives the title of Augustus and Imperator Division of the provinces. Augustus goes to S. War against the Alpine tribes. "I'am. Augustus returns from Spain. Augiistus^ obtains the tribunician power for life. 1 ,ie 1 artiiiaus acnd back the Roman standards. Ihe Cantabri finally subdued by Agrippa. Augustus in Gaul, to protect its eastern frontier!. ■i I 164 CHKONOLOOICAL TABLfi. 1 /'•' ' '['' '"* SI- ; ' f ■ ''''"*»; H if ' . ' '. ' i f i I ff< ■■'■ PI ac. 12 12-9 8-6 6 6 or 4 A.D. 4 5 6-9 9 14 14-37 14 16 19 20 23 . 26 31 33 37 37-41 39 41 41-54 43 50 51 S4-68 54 61 62 €4 65 66 67 68-69 69 69 69-79 70 71 74 77-85 79-81 79 80 81-96 &ii I Death of Lepidus and Apn^ippn. * I Drusus has the conniiaiKl against the Germans, liberius succeeds Drusus against the Germans. Domitius AhenoLarbus takes thecomniaiid against the Germans. anth of Jesus Christ;. Tiberius resumes the war against the Germans. Western Germany a Roman province. War against the revolted Dalmatians and Pannonlang, JX'leat of Varus. Death of AugTistus. Reign of Tiberius. Revolt of the legions in Germany and Pannonia. Germanicus recalled from Germany. Germanicus dies in Syria. .iElius Seianus guides the counsels of Tiberius. The castra prcelorui established near Rome. ' Drusus. son of Tiberius poisoned. Tiberius withdraws to Capreaa. Execution of ^Elius Seianus. Crucifijxion of Jesus Christ. Tiberius murdered by suffocation. Reign of Caligula. A conspiracy formed against Caligula. Caligula murdered Reign of Claudius. Commencement of permanent conquests in BritaiB- Successful war against the Parthians. The south-eastern part of Britain a Roman Wovinca. Reign of Nero. Corbulo drives the Parthians from Armenia. Insurrection in Britain under Boadicea. Nero banishes Octavia. Burrus put to death. Great fire at Rome. Seneca the philosopher and L'lcan the poet put tr death, liridates recognised as king of Armenia. Nero goes to Greece. Insurrection of the Jews. Vespasian conducts the war against them. Servlus Galba, is murdered. Salvlus Otho, defeated at Bedriacum, kills himself. VitellluB, is murdered in the prajtorian camp Vespasian. The siege of Jerusalem is left to Titus. Vespasian arrives at Rome. Capture and destruction of Jeru- T. ^-f'^^- Insurrection of Claudius Civilis and the Batavi. PetiliusCerealis.governorofBritain.isaccompaniedbyAinicola. Philosophers expelled from Rome, j^^iiwxa. Agricola governor of Britain. Reign of Titus. First recorded eruption of Vesuvius, and destruction of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabije. Great fire at Rome. Completion of the Colosseimi, Kejgii of Domitian. DojjiitJini undertakes an expedition against the Chatti. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 165 a. Drusus, son of A.D. 84 86 90 96-98 98117 100 103 104-106 114 115 U7-138 118 120 131-136 138-161 161-180 162 166 167 169 176 178 180-192 180 183 184 185 806-337 476 AgTicoIa defeats the Caledonians under Galgacns. " DomSfrr" T""" '"''• "'^"''''^ the Romans: lieiga of Trajan. Trajan sets out against the Dacians. Peace with the Dacians '"Tin^antr^oS.^* '''' '""^ °^ "^^'^'^ ^-- ^— . War against the Parthians. Armenia a Roman province ^''^"he L?;^"'' ^'' '""'^'^ ^^' ^"P^™t^« th« ^onndary in ^pr^I^ '1 J^iXS^^Itn ^,S^^ the Siln" of'S^^^Sus"'^'^ ^^^^° ^^^'^^^-^ ^^-^ -P^ L Verus goes totlic East against the Parthians. Peace oonclnded with tlie Partliians War against the Marcomanni and Quadi. Death of L. Verus. '''"caS lulhfE^r""^ '""''"'"*• ^^^°" '' ^^<««- SSrol Co]^Zr^'' *^« Marcomanm. Commodns purchases peace of the Marcomanni. Deposiiion of the last Roman emperor. jil If f ■ ■ '.■' ;?<' .; ■ I •V' ' ' " .*i::'t 'P *'6'. ..> K, '-'•>. ' V ' ' A' « ^J !/•#• .S«, /? yi<u(B _^' -".„ '•/• . "«<ir-< J~^''-L. 'v!?'*S"""i <*lC"^^ .. H:» / / , o.--'""- ari,;,.„i..»' .ic:-w *«/ ? (; rjf ,v^ .^ yx ;'x^> V J^ I ,a\ "v, y /, ,.r"^ na<iii /■A *0l "Iff 7 "C^ •^"sihn . .TAW J* I A, 11 "1- '"'/""'Y ^Ht^ ^■-./^'^^iz V/V,. '^: 3 k i^o >r Ej! >/ /; I'mMtti I) . . ^ JJp^ ,.v<P«' ^^ r^^^ t..f*,j J^i "V *•"« / ,>" /«•>« '"'Irulu ^ ■■a"! ^ ROMA M^f T,^, I V*''^ -.^s. Pi-«»iorii 4^ < # ■V''*. ir,-. -4! ■~^- M 1 **' K I .,^ ^« ,-^' .^'",. V Av, ^rical SAICA -J i b y ae J) e 10 Ion?<tu.U Fa^l 20 ,>.„„, Cr,«,H,,/, vj >ll ~ -^T KOMAH -Emyjji:^ ~^y """ Vi«' 4(>ll "'» Km »'• ' / \"'"" \'» ,, r s *°* '■ .V / y ^ , '■\' -^'xSrs*r \, ^y^ ^ Vf ■^^. )) ,■ .■' ' .. I't'l si> u A \> Tiop . ,„■ '■'■"'•"■ V""''' ^o<" 20 (>-o,„ r,r,,„H,<:/, :;.> +o 4.'. ?»I -il I.U.Ji.v. '■ 4,i 11 tt> m 11 1; '*; ■"**:, INDEX. Acta Laarentia, 13. Achaeans, 81, Actium, Battle of, 127. Adis, 6i. iBs;atiaii Isles, Battle of, 66. .£iiiiliua Paulus, 69-73. ,£milius Paulus (sou of last), 81. .£iieas, 13. ^^qiiiana, .'•4, ,£toliaii8, 78. AfiTnius, 118, Africa, 63. Agricula, 145. Agrigentum, 63. Agrippa, 126130. Agrippa Postumus, 133. Agrippina, 135. Agrippiiia (Mother of Nero), 183. Ahala Serviliua, 42. Alba Loiiga, 13-17. Algidus Mouut, 36. Allia, Battle of the, 44. Allifaa, 53. AmuliuB, 13. Ancus Marcius, 18. Andrijcus, 81. Antinous, 150. Antinchus (King of Syria), 77, 78. Antiochua, HI. Antonia (daughter of Claudius), 140. Antoninus Pins, 151. Antonius Lucius, 125. Antonius Marcus (Orator). 102. Antony, 122, 125, 127. Appian Road, the, 56. Appius Claudius, 40. Appius Claudius, 56, 59, 66. Apulia, 52. Aqute Sextise, Battle of, 95. Archelaua, 100, 105. Archimedes, 74. Ardea, 25. Aricia, 16 Aristobulus, 111. Aristodemus, 32. Aristonious, 88, 99. ArininiuB, 132, 136. Artaxatn, Battle of, 110. AruuH, 23, 25. Aryan Family, 10. Ascanius, IS. Asculum, Battle of, 69. Athenians, 83. ▲tbeas, 101. Attains (King of Pergamus), 88. Augurs, 16. Augustulus Romulus, 156. Aug-'stus (Octaviaiius), 128, 132. Aurelius Marcus (Verus), 152. Auiuncana, 31. Aventiue Mount, 19. Bacchus, 85. Bfecula, Battle of, 75. Batavi, Insurrection of the, 145. Bedriacuni, Battle near, 142. Beneventum, 74. Boadicea, Queen of the Britons, 140L Bocchus, 94. Boiana, 56. Brenuua, 44. Britaunicua (Son of Claudius), 139. Brutus Decimus, 122, 123. Brntua Junius, 121, 124. Brutua, Lucius Junius, 25, 29. Burrus, 139. CeciLius, 65. Ciclian Hill, 18. Caesar, C. Julius, 113-122. Csesar Caius, 132. Caeaar Lucius, 132. Ciesar Lucius Julius, 93. Caius (Caligula), 135, Caius Duiliua, 63. Calatinus Atilius, 63. Caligula (Caiua), 136. Camillua, 43, 44. Campi Raudii, 95. CaniiiB, Battle of, 73. Cantabri (the), 130. Canuleius, 41. Capitolina M\i& (Jerusalem), 15L Capitoliiie Hill, 14. Capua, 49, 73. Carbo, 102, 104. Carilia, Battle of, 116. Carthage, 61, 63, 76, 81, 82, 83, Carthage, New, 69, 76. Carthaginians, 61. Casilinum, 73. CassiuB, 121, 124. Casaius Avidius, 153. Cassius Longiuus, 90. Cassius Spurius, 32, 34. Castor, 32. Catiline, lOf, 112. Cato Poroiiu (Censor), 82, 85. 168 INDEX. (^.?^ m Cato Porclus, lieutenant of Pompey, 113. Catnliis LutatiuB, 66. Catulus Liitalius, 95, 102, Caiiiliiitn, 53. Celtiberiatis, 87. Cere.ilis, 145. Christ, Birth of Jesns, l.'?2. Christ, Crudfixioii of Je^ns, 136. Cicero (orator), 112, 114, 122, 123. Cilician Pirates crushed by Pompey, 109. Cincinwatus Quinctius, 36, 42. Ciiieas, 68. Ciiina h. Cornelius (Consul), 100, 102. Circeii, 24. Circus Maximus, 20. Civil=3, 145. Clastidium, Battle of, 69. Claudius, 137. Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, 119, 125, 127. Cloaca Maxima, 21. Clodius Publius, 110. Clupea, 64. Clusium, 44. Cueius, 75. Collatia, 25. Colliue Gate, Battle of, 102. Colosseum (tlie), 144. Conimodus, 153, 154. Ci)ii.staiitine, 156. Corbio, Battle of, 86. Corbulo, 133, 140. Corey ra, 68. Coriolatius Maroius, 34. Cornelia (Mother of the Gracchi), 90. Cornelii, name given to slaves enfran- chised by Sulla, 104. Coreica, 63, 67. Cotta Aurelius, 106. Craasus Licinius, 108, 114. Creniei-a (river), 86, Cremona, 69. Curiatii (the), 17, Curio, 118. Curius Dentatus, 59. Cynoscephaloe, Battle of, 78, Cyzicus, Siege of, 109. Dacians, 146. Danube, Battle of the, 153. Decius, 55. Deoius MuB, P., 49. Decius Mus, P., 49. Demetrius (of Pharos), 69, 77. Domitia, 147. Domitian (Son of Vospasi.tn), 143, 146. Domitius AhenobarbuB, 104. Drusus, 131. Drnsus Livius, 92. Drusua Livius (son of last), 07. Dyrrhaohium, struggle between Csesar and Pompey at, 118. ECN'OMUS, Battle of, 64. Eseria, 16. Egypt, 84; made a Roman proviDce^ 127. Epictetus, 147. EpiilaiDiuis, 63. Eryx Mount, 66. E.squiline Hill, 23. Etruscans, 10, 53. Eunus, 90. Fabii, 36. Fabius, 70. Fabius Maximus, 53, 56. Fabius Maximus, Q., 73, 74. Fabricius Caius, 68, Fauistina, 153. Fnustulus, 13. Fidciire, 14, 18, 43, Fimbria, 101. Flamininus Quinctius, 78. Flauiinius, Caiua, 69, 72. Fregella;, 62, Fulvia, 124. Gabiniu.s, 90. Gabinius Anlus, 109. Galba Servnis, 140, 142. Galba Sulpioius, 87. Gauls, 43. Gaurus Moitnt, 49. Genuoius, 35. Germauicus, 136. Glabrio Acilius, 78, 110. Glaucia Servilius, 96. Gracchus Clcelius, 36. Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius, 74, 80. Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius, 90, 91. Gracchus, C. Semprooiaa, 92, 93. Greece, 10. Hadrian, 150. Hamilcar (Father of Hannibal), 66, 67. 69. Hannibal goes to Spain at the age of years, 69; oath, 70; wins Battle of Trebia, 72 ; wins Battle of Trasi- menus, 72 ; cruelty, 74 ; meets Scipio at Zama, 78; flight after Battle of Magnesia, and death, 79. Hasdrulml, 69, 7.5. Herote Mount, 66. Herculaneum, 145. Hernioana, 34, 54. Jlieio King, CI, 74, Hirtius, 123. Horatii (the), 17. Horatius, 17. Hoiatius, 40. [le between Ceesar 118. 64. Roman province^ 56. 73,74. 8,78. 72. 43. to. ronius, 74, 80. ronius, 90, 91. aiiu, 92, 93. Cannibal), 66, 67, in at the age of & '0; wins Battle of Battle of Tiasi- elty, 74 ; meets 76; flight after ia, and death, 78. INDEX. 169 Horatius Codes, 801. Hyicaims, 111. Iapyoes, 10. Iberus (river), 69. lonians, 88. Isthmus, Battle on the, 82, Italica, 97. Janiculus Mount, 19. Janus, Temple of, 16. Jerusalem, Siege of, 144. Jews, Rebellion among the. 141. Juba, 118, 120. Julia (Daughter of Augustus), 132. Jugurtha, 93, 94. KORINTH, 62. L.ELin8 Caius, 79. Latins, 10. Latium, 9. LautulsB, Battle of, 63. Lavjnium, 13. Lepidus, 123. Lepidus .Emilius (Consul), 106. Licinian (Law), 90. Licinius Stolo, 46, 67. Livia, 132. Lucan (Poet), 140. tiucania, 52, 54. Luceres, 15, 19. Lucius, 23, 24. Lucius Sextius, 46. Lucretia, 25. Lucullus, 110. Lydians, 88. Macro, 135. Meeoenas, 129. Maelius Spnrius, 42. Magnesia, Battle of, 79. Mamertines, 61. Maiicinus Hostilius, 87. Manilius (Tribune), 110. Manilas, 64. Maulius Capitoliuus, 44, 45. Manlius Torquatus, 47, 49 Manlius (Son of Torqu.atus), 60t Marcellus Claudius, 69, 74. MarcelluB Claudius, 116. Marcia, 155. Marciana, 149. Maroius Caius, 47. Maroius Coriolanus, 34. Marins Caius, 94, 96, 102. Marius Caius (Son of last). 102. Marsians, 54. Masitiisaa, 76. MeduUia, Battle of, 19. Memuiius Caius (Tribune) 98, Menenlua Agrippa, 8S. Messalina, 137 Messalla, 129. Messana, 62. Metaurus, Battle of, 75. Metellus Cecuilius, 81. Metellus Cfecilius (Numidious), 94, 00. Metellus Scipio, 120. Minucius, 36. Mithiadates V., 88, 98. Mithradates VI., 99, 105, 109, IIL Mona (Island), 140. Mummius Lucius, 82. Munda, Battle of, 121. Murena, 105. Mutina, War of, 123. MylB8,Battleof,63;secondBattl9of,12«. MytwstratuiB, 63. Neapolis (Naples), 62. Nero, 133, 139, 140. Nero Claudius, 76. Nerva, 148. Nicomedes, 109. Nola, 74. Norbanus, 102. Numa PompiliuB (of Cores). It Numantia, 87. Numidia, 77. Numitor, 13. OcTAViA (Sister of Ootaviamis), 125. Octavia (Wife of Nero), 139. Octavianus, Julius Caesar, 122. Octavius, 91. Octavius Cneius, 100, 102. Odoacer, 156. Ogulnius, 57. Opimius (consul), 92, Optimates, 89. Ostia, 19. Otho Salvius, 142. Palatine Hill, 14. Panormus, Battle of, 65. Pansa, 123. Papirius Cursor, 64. Paul, Martyrdom of the Apostle. ISOi Paulinus, 140. Pelignians, £4, Peloponnesus, 82. Pergamus, 84. Perperna, 88, 107. Perseus, 81. Perusia, 55; War of, 125. Peter, Martyrdom of the Apoitle, 188. Petreius, 118. rhan.aooa, ill, 119. Pharsalus, Battle of, 119. Philip (King of MiioHdoniii), 69, 77, 80. Philippi, Battle of, 1^4. Phraates, 126. 170 INDfiX, Mi-. If 'J 5 • ■':| Phrygia. 88, PiBo, 140. FiBtoria, Battle ot, 118» Placentla, 69. Pliny, 149. Plotina, 149. FoUio Aainiua, 129. Pollux, 32. Pompeii, 145. Pompeius Cneliu (eldest Son of Fom- psy), 121. Pompeius Refus, 101. Pompeius Sextua (younger Son of Pompey), 121, 123. Pompey, 104, 106, 108, 119. Pontius, 53, 66. Pontius Telesinns, 102. Ponenna (King of Clusiam), SOL Fostumius, 53. Primus Antonias, 143. Frocaa, 13. Publilius Phllo, 60. Publilius Volero, 87. Fublitts Valerius, 26. Fydna, Battle of, 81 ; second 6attleof,81. Fyrrhus (King of Epirus), 68, 61. QUIRINAL Hill, 14. Quirinus, 15. Bamkes, 15. Begillus Lake, Battle of, 8X Begulus Atilius, 64. Remus, 13. Rhea, Silvia, 13. Borne, Foundation, 14; Power nnder Tarquins, 27; rebuilt irregularly after burning by Gauls, 45; Fire at, 139. Bomulus, 13. Rupiliufl, 90. Butulians, 25. 8ABEI.T.IAM8, 10. Sabina Poppsea, 139, 140. Sabines, 14. Sabinus (Brother of Vespasian), 113. Sacred Mount (the), 88. Saguntines, 70. Samnite War, end of Second, 64. Samnitee, 48. Samnium, 54. Sardinia, 63, 67. Saturninns Appuleius, 98, SR»9vola Mucins, 31. Soipio, Cn. Cornelius. 76. Boipio, P. Cornelius, 72, 75. Bcipic, F. Cornciiua (Airicanns), Bdn of last, 75, 76, 79. Bcipio, li. Cornelius (Asiatious), 79. Soipio, P. Cornelius Africanus (iEraili- ianus),Sonofi3;miliu«Faulu.B,S3,87. Scipio Nasica (Serapio), 9L Seianus .£lius, 184, 136. Seneca, 139, 140. Senones, 56. S'tntinum, Battle of, 6&, Sertorius, 107. Servins Tullius, 20, 21. Sidicines, 48. Signia, 24. Siris (river), 58. Social War, 97, 98. Spartacus, Insurrection of, 1081 Spartans, 82. Siwletiura, 72. Spnrius Cassius, 32, 8i> SUbiae, 145. Suessa Fometia, 24. Sulla Cornelius, 94, 100, 104 Sulpicius, P. (Tribune), 100, Syphai, 75, 76. Syracuse, 62 ; Siege of, 74. TAomrs (Historian), 145. Tanaquil, 21. Tarentuni, 57, 74. Tarpeian Rock (the), 46. Tarquinius, 23. Tarquinius CoUatinns, 26, 89, Tarquinius Friseus, 20. Tarquinius Sextus, 26. Tarquitius, 36. Tatius, Titua, 14. Telamon, Battle of, 68. Terentillus Arsa, 37. Teuta Queen, 68. Teutones, 95. Thapsus, Battle of, 120. Thebes, 100. Theodosins, 156. Thermopyloe, Battle of, 78. Theasaly, 78. Thurii, 67. Tiberius, 131, 134, 136. Ticiniis, Battle of, 72. Tigranes, 110. Titles, 15. Titus, 25. Titus (Son of Vespasian) 138, 143, 140. Titus Larcius, 33. Titus, Tatius, 14. Trajan, 148, 150. TrasimonuB Lake, Battle of, 72. Trebia, Battle there, 72. Triumviri Rei Constituendsc, title of Antony, Octavianns, aad Lepidos, 123. Tnllia, 23. TulluB UostUius, 17, 19, Tuscans, 10. UUBBIANS, 10, 64. Vai Val Val Vai Vai Vei Vei Ver Ver Ver Ves Ves Vet no), 9L 136. ',65. 21. tion of, 108k 8i. 100, 104 ine), 100. of, 74. ). 1«. iQB, 25, 2% , 20. 26. 6S. r. 120. e of, 78. 136. r2. Ulan) 138, 143, 14d. Battle of, 72. e, 72. stituondffi, title of ianua, aad Lepidos, r. 1«. INDEX. 171 Valebius, 40. Valerias, 129. Valerias Cor»u«, 47. Varro Terentiiig, 73. Varus Quintiliiu, 132. Valentines, 14. Veil, 14, 43. Veniisia, 73. Verus Annius, 151. Varus Lucius, 152. Vespasian, 138, 141, 143, 145. Vesuvius, Battle of, 49; Eiuption of Mount, 146. Vaturiua, 63. Vious Scelei-atns, 24. Viminal Hill, 23. Vindax Julius, 140. Virginia, 40. Virginins, 40. Viriathus, 87. Viridomarus, 6!>. Vitellius, 142. Vokcians, 34, 50. Xanthippas, 64. Zama, Battle of, 76. Zela, Battle Mar, lift COPP, CLARK * CO., PRINTEftS, COUBORKE BTHRBf.