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Un dee symboiaa suivanta apparaitra sur la damiire image do cheque microfiche, selon le caa: le symbole — *• signifie "A SUIVRE". le symboie ▼ signifie "FIN". Mapa, platae, charta. etc.. may be filmed at different reduction ratioa. Thoae too large to be entirely Included In one expoaure are filmed beginning in the uppe/ left hand comer, left to right and top to bottom, aa many framee aa required. The following diagrama illuatrata the method: Lee cartaa. pianchea. tableaux, etc.. peuvent dtre filmia i dee taux de rMuction diffirents. Loraque le document eat trop grand pour itre raproduit an un seul clich*. il eat film* * partir da I'angle sup4rieur gauche, de gauche * droite. et de haut 1% bee. an prenent le nombre d'Imegea nicassaira. Las diagrammes suivants illuatrent la mithoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 9 6 4^ 1 1 1 1 1 [), NOT T( ' . . ' ■ 5 superlatii ositive to t >rd3 used i Hves of the irds used ii }rvc9 of ihe PA •A .1 |\ Participle partakes of adjecting 5 present pa [lued, or no! i perfect pal Jted or finis i compound < )mpletcd b( Adverb id of a verb,] sr adverb. | PRE Prepositioi; bt -words, i PI 'ronoun is ! enerally to r the same SONAL Pro rsons of thij BCTivE Pro Ipoint out 3 • distributit denote thi amber, eac demonstra )ui the sub' indefinite c t in an indt ATivB Proj tl to some is called t»| EI FA if U NEW g P A S^ anap: FOR t ■•/nbmntMrmsk^i ■v. ^. -.%» i; ■ "t y " w" » t ^ ''■■• A COMPENDIUM, ^g EUBRACINO .\A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OP PARSING, A NEW SYSTEM OF 5 . PUNCTUATION, EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, ' AND A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, IN NOTES, TO V^HICH ARE ADDED, * AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES, i| ' , DESIONED I FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM. NEW EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS. lonlwal : PUBLISHED BY R. & A. MILLER, 60, St. Francois Xavier Street^ 1858. >♦ DESIGNED, NOT ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. A NoLx is the name of any per-?on, place, or tiling. A common noun is the name of a sort or spe- cies of things. A proper noun is the name of an individual. A noun signifying many, is called a collective noun, or noun of multitude. The masculine gender denotes the male sex. The feminine gender denotes the female sex. The neuter gender denotes things which have no sex. The first person denotes the speaker. The second person denotes the person or thing which is spoken to. The third person denotes the person or thing which is spoken of. The singular number implies but one. The plural number implies more than one. The nominative case denotes tlie actor or sub- ject of the verb. The possessive case denotes the possessor of something. The objective case expresses the object of nn .1 ft Ion or of a relation. VERBS. A Veub is a Avord which signifies to be, to do, or to SUFFER. An active verb expresses action or energy. An active verb is transitive when the action passes over from the subject or nominative to an object. An active verb is intransitive when the action does not terminate on an object. A passive verb denotes action received or en- dured by the person or thing which is its nom- inative. A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being. Verbs are called regular when they form their imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the present tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e. Verbs are irregular when their imperfect tense and perfect participle do not end in ed. The indicative mood simply indicates or de- clares a thing, or asks a question. The subjunctive mood expresses action, pas- sion, or being, in a doubtful or conditional man- ner. The imperative mood is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obligation. The infinitive mood expresses action, passion, or being, in an unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently neither person nor number. The present tense denotes an action or event in present time. The imperfect tense denotes a past action or event, however distant. The perfect tense denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the present. The pluperfect tense represents a past action or event that transpired before some other past time specified. Hha first future tense denotes a future action or event. The second future tense represents a future action that will be fully accomplished at or before the time of another future action or event. ARTICLES. to An AiiTiCLB is a word prefixed to nouui limit their signification. The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no particular one. The definite article generally limits the noun to a particular object, or collection of ob- jects. ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind. The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification. The supcrlai the positive to Words used adjectives of th Words used adjectives of th A Pauticipl and partakes ( of an adjectiw The present / continued, or i The perfect j. perfected or fin The compoun ing completed An Advehb sense of a ver another adverb PR A Prepositi connect words, them. I A Pronoun ii and generally i tion of the sam Personal Pi the persons of i Adjective Pi which point oul cation. The distribui which denote t up a number, et The demonstt point oui the SI The indefiniti subject in an in Relative Pr general to som which is called ilal lite A COMPENDIUM OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, B DESIGNED, NOT TO BE STUDIED, BUT TO BE SPREAD BEFORE THE [.EARNER IN PARSING, PREVIOUS TO HI sent tense imperfect d in ed. tes or tle- tion, pas- ( anal man- , i manding:,. y, liberty, j m. ;, passion, laving no jrson nor or event action or and also LSt action )therpast i ire action \ a future j ed at or | iction or 1 nouns to lu io one the noun n of ob- , noun to uality of inution. r lessens The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree. Words used in counting are called numeral adjectives of the cardinal kind. Words used in numbering arc railed nvmernl adjectives of the ordinal kind. « PARTICIPLES. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjectiwi The present participle denotes action or being continued, or not perfected. The perfect participle denotes action or being perfected or finished. The compound participle implies action or be- ing completed before the time referred to. ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word used to modify tlie sense of a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb. PREPOSITIONS. A Prepositiov is a w^ord which serves to connect words, .and show the relation between them. PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to aroid the too frequent repeti- tion of the same word. Personal Pronouns are those which denote the persons of the nouns for which they stand. Adjective Pronouns are a kind of adjectives which point out aouns by some distinct specifi- cation. The distributive adjective pronouns are those which denote the persons or things that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. The demonstrative are those which precisely point out the subject to which they relate. The indefinite are those which point out their subject in an indefinite or general manner. Relative Pronouns are such as relate in general to some word or phrase going before, which is called the antecedent. CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a part of a speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence : it sometimes connects only words. A copulative conjunction serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a cause. A conjunction disjunctive serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a mem- ber which expresses opposition of meaninjr. INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is a word used to express some passion or emotion of the speaker. UTILES Oi<^ SYNTAX. RULE 1. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only. RULE 2. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number. RULES. The nominative case governs the verb. RULE 4. The verb must agree with its nomi- native in number and person. NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a nominative, expressed or implied. 2. When a verb comes between two nouns either of which may be considered as the subject of tlio aflirma- tion, it must agree with that M'hicli is the more natu- rally its subject. RULE 5. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed is put in tlic nominative case independent. NOTE 1. A noun is indcpoiic'ont whou it has no verb to agree with it. 2. Interjections require the objpctivt! case of a pro- noun of thc^rs^ person after thorn, Ir.it tho nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or (hird person. RULE 6. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absolute. NOTE. Every nominative lute and independent, shoul pressed or understood. RULE 1. Two or mor pronouns, signifying th l3y apposition, in the san RULE 8. Two or mor pronouns, in the singulai copulative conjunctions nouns, and pronouns, the plural. NOTE. "When cacJi> or eva nominatives in the singular, copulative, the verb must ag the singular. • RULE a. Two or more pronouns, in the singulj by disjunctive conjunctu nouns, and pronouns, a< the singular. NOTE 1. AVlien singular i pronoun, of different persoi nected, tlie verb must agree i is placed nearest to it. 2. When a disjunctive occur or pronoun and a plural one, the plural noun or pronoun, v placed next to the verb. RULE 10. A collective titude, conveying unity verb or pronoun agreeing lar. RULE 11. A noun of plurality of idea, may ha agreeing with it in the pi RULE 12. A noun or p sive case is governed by 1 NOTE 4. Participles frcqui pronouns in the possessive ca RULE 13. Personal p in gender and number wit they stand. NOTE. Tom, though frequor a singular noun, is always jii the verb connected with it sh RULE 14. Relative ] their antecedents in gend ber. NOTE. When the relative i dents of different person.^, tl must agree in person with th sense requires. MONTEKAI.: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BT JOHN LOVELL, SI. NICHOLAS STEBBX ; AND TOB SALE A AR, BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM; R BY SAMUEL Kvious to his having the definitioxs and rules committed to memory TO HIS having the DEFIXITI jminativo case except the case nbso- ent, should belong to some verb, ox- ;ooti. or more nouns, or nouns and fying the same thing, are put, a the same case. 5 or more nouns, or nouns and ( singular number, connected by junctions, must have verbs, nouns, agreeing with tliem in jc7t or ever;/ relates to two or more ! singular, although connected by a •b must aj^rco with each of them in or more nouns, or nouns and e singular number, connected jonjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, agreeing with thorn in singular pronouns, or a noun and cut persons, aro disjunctively con- ust airrce in person with that which ) it. ctivo occurs between a singular noun ilural one, the verb must agree with pronoun, which slionld «?enerally he. crb. , ioUective nonn or noun of mul- g unity of idea, may have a agreeing \rith it in the sins^u- noun of multitude conveying may have a verb or pronoun in the plural. loun or pronoun in the posses- rned by the noun it possesses. pies frequently govern nouns and )ssessivc case. rsonal pronouns must agree mber with the nouns for ■which gh frequontly employed to represent always plurcil in form ; therefore with it should be plural. slativc pronouns agree with 3 in s^pjulcr, person, and imm- ) relative is preceded by two antece- )ersouH, the nslative and the verb )n with that antecedent which the R\ easel bet^\^ Rl tweel gove| othei NOl their H) th(j 2. 1- it relii RIJ ihc i( phra^ for in cal Rlj noun I NOl 2. must the CO ;]. Al itive il 4. A| other I the q whici r,. \\1 and 1 sidereij Rul nouni must : 2. T| ncitlui gular RU] the ol RUl case I 1 NOT I follow i| I aro /;'- 1 llUl ' verbs J verbs J them,! the sr Every nominative case except the case ahso- |ndependent. should belong to some verb, ex- understood. 7. Two or more nouns, or nouns and signifying the same thing, ate put, ition, in the same case. |8. Two or more nouns, or nouns and in the singular number, connected by le conjunctions, must have verbs, lid pronouns, agreeing with them in 'hen each or cvcrji relates to two or more ^s in the singular, although connected by a the verb must ngree with each of them in ir. • |9. Two or more nouns, or nouns and in the singular number, connected Ictivc conjunctions, must have verbs, )d pronouns, agreeing with them in lar. [when singular pronouns, or a noun and different i)ersons, aro disjunctively con- |vorb must agree in person with that which ircst to it. . disjunctive occurs between a singular noun land a plural one, the verb must agnso with loun or pronoun, which should }?enerally be |to the verb. A collective noun or noun of raul- ivcying unity of idea, may iiavc a |onoun agreeing with it in the singu- |1. A noun of multitude conveying idea, may have a verb or pronoun I'ith it in the plural. A noun or pronoun in the posses- governed by the noun it possesses. participles frequently govern nouns and [the possessive case. [3. Personal pronouns must agree Ind number with the nouns for which t, though frequently employed to represent |)un, is always plural in form ; therefore ^ectcd with it should be plural. Relative pronouns agree with idents in gmdcr, person, and 7ium- the relative is preceded by tW'Oantecc- rent persons, the relative and the verb person with that antecedent which the RULE 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb. RULE 16. When a nominative comer be- tween the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sentence. y^OTE I. Who, v'liich, what, the relative that, and their compounds, whomever ,whomsoever, &c., though in the objective case, aro always placed before the verb. 2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied. RULE 17. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for lis subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. RULE 18. Adjectives belong to and qualify nouns, expressed or understood. NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns. 2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouiis, which noims must agi'eo in liumber with their adjectives, when of the cardinal kind. 3. Adjectives sometimes belong to a verb in the infin- itive mood, or to a part of a sentence. 4. Ad^jeotives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express tho quality of things in connexion with the action by which that quality is produced. C. When an adjective* is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is understood, the two words may be con- sidered an adverbial phrase. RULE 19. Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood. NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns. 2. Tho pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, a^iotlicr, nnd one, agree with nouns in the sin- gular number only. RULE 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. RULE 21. The verb to he may have the same case after it as before it. NOTE. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb to be, signify the same thinrf, they are in opposition, and, therefore, in tho same case. RULE 22. Active-intransitive and passive verbs, tho verb to become, and other neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to, and signify, the same thing. iD F0£ SALE AT THR J)00KSTOB£3 THBOVOHOUT CANADA. B SALE AT TnB BOOKSTORES THEOUOnOUTi MMitMi OMMITTED TO MEMORY'. 2 is the nominative ) nominative comes ninativo comCi oe« verb, tlie relative is g verb, or by some bcr of the sentence. the relative that, and homsoever, &c., though placed before the verb, in antecedent to M-hich iplied. ativc pronoun is of jfers to the word or wer to the question )sequent must agree vc. ong to and qualify iood. y belong to nronouns. to nouns, which nouns ir adjectives, when of f to a verb in the infln- ;ence. modil^V the sense of f verbs, and to express on with the action by ded by a proposition, 1 wo words may be cou- onouns belong to oocl. B adjective pronouns nouns. , each, every, either, mih uouns in the sin- ivo verbs govern may have the same ns next preceding and the same thhtff, they in tho same case. sitivo and passive and other neuter 'ter them as before 3r to, and signify, NOTE 1. Active-transitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and govern the objective case. 2. According to a usage too common in colloquial stylo, an agent not literally the correct one is employ- ed as 1 lie nominative to a passive verb, which causes tho verb to be followed by an objective case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition. RULE 23. A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, partici- ple, or pronoun. RULE KXTRA. A verb in the infinitive mood refers to some noun or pronoun as its subject or actor. XOTK 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands inde- pendent of the rest of the sentence. 2. Tho infinitive mood is souictirecs governed by con- junctions or adverbs. RULE 24. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transi- tive verb. NOTE. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is some- times properly omitted. Rule 25. The verbs which follow bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, lulp, let, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed. RULE 26. Participles have the same gov^ern" mentas the verbs have from which they aredc- rived. NOTE. The present participle with the definite arti- cle the before it, becomes a noun, and must have tho preposition of after it. Tfio a)Kl of must both be usiid or both be omitted. RULE 21. The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun, denoting the subject or actor. RULE 28. The perfect participle belongs!, like an adjective, to some noun or pronoun, ex- pressed or understood. NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them. 2. A participle with its adjuncts may sometimes bo considered as a substantive or a participial plirase,which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition. 3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tenso of regular verbs are sometimes different in their form, caro must bo taken that they be not indiscriminately used. RULE 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adicetivcs thASl"'*' ^ ' "^'* ^'^^'^'''■^^ the auxiliary and 2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb. expresses qualiti/, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses manner, an adverb should bo used. If the verb fn 6 } i- " ■"■ ^ ^ » 'J ^ in-- I. ■ Alt] of Kirk from til m unity the sub in a tre The] teratioti but in tl no reasc In th( " Correc 208incli troducec memory (liflhsion and the i persedecj epy in a The a1 ) valuable introduce i It is hoix sublimity subject to is invited New PUBLISHEES' ADVERTISEMENT. I i Although many years have now elapsed since iho first publication of Kirkhann's Gram mar, and very many rival treatises have been issued from the press, this work still continues to be a favorite with the com- munity. In the simplicity oftho stylo, and the clearmanner in which the subject is explained to the pupil, points of the greatest importance in a treatise of this nature, this work has not been surpassed. The publishers have endeavored from time to time to make such al- terations as the advance in philological learning hasbrought to light; but in the general scope and treatment of the subject they have found no reason to deviate from the original plan of the work. In the present edition they have thought it advisable to omit the " Corrections" and " Provincialisms" heretofore printed on pp. 200 to 208 inclusive, and which, however valuable at the time they were in- troduced into the work, at the present seemed rather to perpetuate the memory of obsolete eriors than to serve a useful purpose. The general diffusion of knowledge has led to the disuse of these "provincialisms," and the almost universal study of the Dictionary in our schools has su- perseded the necessity of these Corrections in Orthography and Ortho- epy in a won? on Grammar. The attention of both teacher and pupil is earnestly desired to the valuable addition to the article on Rhetoric in this volume, now first introduced, from the pen of the distinguished author, Prof. A. Mills. It is hoped that the perusal of this elegant essay " On beauty and sublimity in writing " will incite an interest in the study of Rhetoric,a subject too much neglected in our educational institutions. The reader is invited to the advertisement on the following page. New York, July, 1857. TO TEACHERS, Many teachers, after nccompanyino: tholr pupils through a courso of English Rrjunniar, have felt the want of some further treatise upon lauRuape, of a text- book which shall give instruction upon the important sulijcct of Rhetoric and U(>lles-lottres in greater detail tiian it is possible to do within the limits of a purely grammatical work. To such wo would offer tho work of Prof. Mills, " The Outlines of Rhetorio and Uelles-lettrcs," an elegant and comprohcnsivo summary of this important and interesting subject. Prof. Mills has carefully adhered to the i)nnciples of Aristotle, Longinus, and Quintilian, so far as they are applicable to the English language ; and has adopted these principka, as they are developed in the largo work of Dr. Blair. Commencing, after a brief view of tho principles of taste, with tho origin of language, ho has endeavored to conduct tho htudcnt through tho various do- partmcnts of this study, in the order which nature herself indicates, until he reaches tho most elevated and sublime strains of tho epic and dramatic muse. Wo give below tho table of contents. Chapter I. LAxauAGE.— § I. Origin and Progress of Language.— § II. Origin and Progress of Writing.— § III. Structure of Language.— § IV. Structure of Language. Chapter II. Style.— § I. '.'orspv-'cuity and Precision.— § II. Structure of Seutences. — § III. Structure of Sentences.— § IV. Stnu;ture of Sentences. Chapter III. FiauiiATiVELANarAaK.—§ I.Originand Nature of Figurative Lan- guage— § II. Metaphor — Allegory.— § III. Hyperbole— Personification— Apostrophe. — § IV. Comparison— Antithesis— Interrogation — Exclamation— Vision— Climax — Irony. — § V. General Character of Style. Chapter IV. The Compoxexts of a Regct.ar, Discour.SE.— § I. Introduction— Division— Narration.— § II. Argument— Pathos— Peroration.— § III. Pronunciation and Delivery.— § iV. Moans of improving in Speaking. Chapter V. Beauty and Sublimity.— § I. Reanty.— § II. Grandeur, or Sublimity in External Objects.— § 111. Sublimity in AVriting. Chapter VI. Eloquence.— § I. Nature and History of Eloquence.— § II. Grecian Eloquence.— § III. Komau Eloquence.— § I^^ Modern Eloquence. Chapter VII. Difeeuext Kixds of Puhlic Speakixo.- § I. Eloquence of Popular Assemblies.— § II. Eloquence of the l>ar.— § III. Eloquence of tho Pulpit.— § IV. Historical, Epistolary, and Eictitious Writing. Chapter A'lII. Poetry.— § I. Origin and Nature of Poetry.— § II. Pastoral and Lyric I'oetrj'.— § III. Didactic and Descriptive Poetry.— § IV. Epic Poetry.— § V. Dramatic Poetry. The volume is a neat 12rao. of 213 pages. Price 03 cents. Teachers supplied with copies for examination at half ])rioc. COLLINS & BROTHER, PUBLISHERS, No, 82 Warren-3treet, New York. I i It liavl reslj no (I of :\ cal(| rioil lowi tciul audi autll ! f RECOMITIENDATIONS. It Is well known that thn rocomniondntinns which pcnornlly accompany now books hav() very little writrht with thn piildlc This is iis it slioiild he, for tlmt work which reHts n»or« on its written testiinoiiijiis. than on its intrinsic! merits I'or supyjort, asserts no claims to permanent patronafre. l{nt reeonnnendiitions whicli analyze the merits of a work, and which, l)y exhibiting its nroiiiinent features in astrikinpr liKht, are calculated to carry conviction to the reader that thesysttmi recommended is merito- rious, tho author is jtroud to have; it in his jiower to nresent in this volume. 'I'he fol- lowing nvpisonic of the niuuenms testimonials which lie has received, and for whidi ho tenders his fj;ratefidacknowledKmentstothos(' literary gentlemen to whoso liberality and politeness he is indei)ted f(ir them. More than . not able to see how he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the most important parts of speech, are flrsb explained.and afterwards those which are considered in a scseondary and subordinate character. Jiy following this order, he has avoi(led t he al)surdity so eonnnon ami 'Ug authors of delining the minor i)arts before their i)rineipals, of which they were de- signed to be the ap{)endages, and has rationally prepared the way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of tlu^ science. In his illustrations of tlie various sul)jects contained in his work, our author ap- pears to have aimed, not at a llowery style, nor at the appearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness and perspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar oljjects, are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understanding of tlie pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. The principles of the science are sintplijied, and rendered so perfect/ >/ easi/ of com- prehension, we should think no ordinary mind, having such help, coidd liud them difficult. It is in this particular that the work appears to i)ossess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot fail of being ])referred to many others. It gives us ijleasuro to remark, in reference to the success of the amiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from the tifth edition. The following is from the pen of a gcntlciTian of tho Ear, formerly a distinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the " National Crisis."] As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine mcnit, it is with peculiar plea- sure I allude to a notice in a late jjnpcr oVthis city, in which Mr. S. Kii'kham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on English Oraminur. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general ami practical knowledge of this useful science, an opportunity is now presented which ought not to bo neglected. Having myself witn(>ssed, in several instances, within the last ten months, the practical result of Mr. Kirkham's plan, 1 am enabled to give a decisive o])iiiiou of its merits. The extensive knowletlge ae- 6 RECOMMENDATIONS. quired in one course by his class in Pittsburgh, and the great prollciency evinced by his classes elsewhere, a^-e a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of teaching, and a high(!r encomium on him than I am able to bestow. The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's " New System of Grammar " is predicated are juuiciousl^v compiled, and happily and briefly expressed ; but tlie great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which it conducts the learner alonir from step to step througli the successive stages of the science. The explanations blended with th« theory, are addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar, that they cannot fail to excite in hira a deep interest ; and whatever system is calculated 10 bring into requisition the mental powers, must, I conceive, be producitive of good results. In my humble opinion, the sys^^em of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligent pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of grammer, in less than one-fourth part of the ♦^^ime usually devoted. My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, with the greater plea- sure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been so extensively practised in many parts of the Western country. Cincinnati, NV From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa. Mr. Kirkham, — It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of youth, and, during this period. I have not only consnltcd all, but have used many of the dift'erent systems of English grammar that have fallen in my way ; and, sir, I do as- sure you,without tb ■> least wish to flatt(;r, that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen. _ Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent ; and expe- rience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last tv/elve or thirteen months,) that a scholar will learn more of the nature and principles of our language in one quarter, from your system, than in a tvhole year from any other I have previously used. I do, therefore, most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, and especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language, are destitute of the advantages of an instructor. Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD. Chambersburgh Academy. From Mr. N. R. Smith, editor of a vahiable literary journal, styled " The Hesperus." Mr. Kirkham, Sir, 1 have examined your Lectures onEnglish Grammar with that degree of minute- ness which enables me to yield my unqualided approbation of the work as a gram- matical system. The engaging manner in which you have explained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to the capacities of youth, is an ample "lustration of the utility of your plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an analf/tical development of grammatical principles, whilo it is calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the inarch of improvement, is suf- ficient, also, to employ the reseirches of the lit ;rary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will be speedily introduced into schools and academies. With respect, yours, N. R. SMITH, A. M. Pittsburgh. From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran Academy :— Extract. Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of" English Grammar in Familiar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided superiority over all other systems, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he can easily comprehend theuature and the application of every principle that comes before him. In short, all the intricacies of the science are elucidated so clearly, I am confident that even a private learner, of common docility, can, by perusing the system atten- tively, acquire a better practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in tJiree montlis, than is ordinarily obtained iu one year, Frederick, Md. JOHN E. JUNGMANN. fi^ li ? ADVERTISEMSiNT TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION. ses over feeble ecided to the ng it to iuature nfident atten- ,ture ia LNN. ^P r .> t The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first ventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which have wafted it along, have been far moro favorable than he had reason to anticipate. Had any one, on its first ap- pearance, predicted, that the demand for it wculd call forth itoenty'tioo thousand tiopies during the past year, the author would have considered the prediction ex- travagant and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled 80 propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning, he has endea- vored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his work, to render it as useful and unexceptional as histitrjo and talents would permit. It is believed that the tenth and eleventh editions have been greatly im- proved ; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, {active as for as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his credit. This personal allusion ia hazarded with the additional hope, that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism vrhich may be aimed at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics au.d re- viewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be willing to avow. It would, morevover, be prejudicial to his interest ; for he is determined, if his life be pre- served, to avail himself of the advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production, that may appear, and, two or three years hence, revise his work, and present to the public another and a better edition. The improvements in the tenth edition, consisted mainly in the addition of many important principles ; in rendering the illustrations more critical, extensive, accu- rate, and lucid ; in connecting more closely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the general principles adopted ; and iu adding a brief view of philosophical grammar interspersed in notes. The introduction into the eleventh SDiTloir, of many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections iu orthography and orthoepy, of the leading principles of rhef-^oric, and of general additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render this edition, it is believed, /ar preferable to any of the former editions of the work. Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of the community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the Influence of a kind of philosophical mania ; and to such these notes are respectfully submitted for just what they may deem their real value. The author's own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no material advantages to common learners ; but that they profitably engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of interest to the literary connoisseur. New-York, August 22, 1829. ' , :- COIVTENTS. u PAGB. PAQS. Address to the learner 13 Nouns 30 A, an, one 65, 124 Gender of 34 And 124 Person of 37 Adjectires 'vj. r 31, 69 Number of 39 Adverbs ' 83 Case of 41,54,123 Agreement of words 62 Orthography 19 Anomalies ' 162 Rules of ' 28 Articles ., 64 Parsing 49 Because if> 126 Participles 78 Bat, than, as 116, 124, 166 Poetry transposed 166 Case 41 Prepositions 91 Nominative 43, 167 Pronouns 96 Possessive 48 Personal 97 Objective 64, 93 Compound personal 100 Nominative case indepen- Adjective 105 dent 38, 129, 164, 177 Relative 108 Nominative case absolute 130, 177 Personification v 216 Apposition of cases 130,178 Prosody Ur 208 Nominative and objective Punctuation ^ 201 after the verb to be 186 Punctuation, Key to 227 Active, passive, and neuter Rhetoric „ |u 219 nominatives 157 Rules of syntax 175 Conjunctions 118 Sentences, definitions of sim- Conjugation of regular verbs 142 ple and compound 119 Derivation (all the philosoph- Transposition of 124, 166 ical notes treat of de- Standard of grammatical ac- rivation) 27,37,171 curacy 17,75 Etymology 26 Syntax 26 Exercises in false syntax 177 To 61 In punctuation 202 Tenses 148, 193 Figures of speech 214 Signs of the 141 Gender 34 The 64, 66 Goverument 52 That 66, 110 Grammar, general division of 17 Terminations 20, 37, 49, 78, 136 Philosophical 18 Verbs 42,47 Have 143, 155 Active-transitive 54,56 Idioms 162 Active-intransitive 55 Interjections 126 Passive : 157 It 104 Neuter 43 If 122 Defective 169 Key to the exercises 225 Auxiliary 140, 163 Letters, sounds of 21 Regular 143 Like 75 Irregular 148 Manner of meaning of words 28, 73 Compound 95, 187 Moods 134 Versification 210 Signs of 141 Worth 75, 163 Subjunctive 135, 145, 155 What, which, who 109 ,111,114 You 99 V ■^^ 1 fi i) PAGE. 30 31 37 39 , 54, 123 19 23 49 -i-i 18 166 91 95 97 100 > 105 108 216 u. 208 201 227 .. 219 175 17,75 26 51 48, 193 141 64, 65 65, 110 78, 136 42,47 54,66 55 167 43 169 40, 153 143 148 )5, 187 210 r5, 163 11,114 99 ■r:y 1^- n PREFACE. There appears to be something assumitii? in the act of writing, and thrustingf Into public notice, a new ■\vorl< on a subject which has ah'oady employed many able pens ; tot who would presume to do this, unless he believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to evevj' one of the kind which had preceded it ? Hence, in presenting to the ])ublic this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apologj' is grounded, must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no explanatory effort, on his part, M-ould shield him fi'om the im- putation of arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are wedded to the doctrines and opinions of his predecessors, with them he will not attempt a compromise, being in a great measure, indifferent either to their i)raise or their censure. But with the candid, he is willling to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement, tJiat will be its best apology. When we bring into consideration the numerous proiluctions of those learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so successfidly, in establishing the principles of our language ; and, more especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange tho-e principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy medium of mental conference ; it does, indeed, appear a little like jiresumption for a young man to enter upon a subject whi; h has so frequently enga^/ed the attention and talents of ni"n distinguished for their erudi- tion. The author ventures forward, however, under the conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least, in viiimtc^', if not inwaifcr; and this conviction, he believes, will be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in the community. It is admitted that many vahiable improvements have been made by some of our late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this sub- ject intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the author considers a very important object, namely, a sj;sfematic order of parsing; and nearly all have neglected to develop and explain the principles in such a manner as to enabl(f the learner, without great difficulty, to comprehend their i,ature and use. By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its simpUcifi) ; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal reconnnendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great advantages to the recondite grammarian ; it professes not to instruct the literary connoisseur ; it presents no attractive graces of style to (jharm, no daring lli;^hts to astonish, no deep rosrarches to gratify him ; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and removing those obstacles that generaliy retard its progress. In this way it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study w hich has hitherto been considered tedious, dry, aud irksrime. Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy nethod, in winch i)leasure is blended with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vipiorous and useful exercise, cv(;ry latent energy of his mind ; and thus enabh; hiui soon to become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with their practical utility and appHcation, 1'^ 10 PREFACE. Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the Mrriter of these pages has en- deavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in the public mind, a strong predilection for. the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of policy, but from choice, to select his principles chiefly from that work ; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless ho conceived that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another. The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to originality ; for, although his principles are chielly selected, (and who would presume to make new ones P) the manner of arranging, illustrating, and applying them, is principally hia own. Let no one, therefore, if he happen to And in other works, ideas and illustra- tions similar to so7ne contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit corresponding ideas in diilcrent minds : and hence it is not uncommon for the same thought to be strictly original with many writers. The author is not here at- tempting to manufacture a garment to shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of another ; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critic, even though he ;should not be willing to reject a good idea of his own, merely because some one else has, at some time or other, been blosscd with the same thought. As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was desirable. Its design is to embrace not only all the most important principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, and x)unctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical pur- poses, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of illustrations so full and intelligible, as completely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners. Whether this design has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the publiQ to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it has become known, and the ready sale of forty thousand copies, (though without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,) are favorable omens. In the selection and airangement of principles for his work, the author has en- deavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking blindly on trust what- ever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, which sets at deliance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own invention. Not- withstanding the a\itlior is aware that public prt^iudice is powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect ; yet he has taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he B b( Hnrra to TSACHERli. It deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others^ consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the method adopted qf communicating « knowledge of them to the mind of the learner. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible*, and he is free to acknowledge, thatitu defects arise, in pari tram his own want of Judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious ' cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and, moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indisputably settled. But princi- ples ought not to be rejected because they admit ofe xoeptions.— He who is thoroughly acquainted with the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth of these remarks. *«* Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not have occasion to use it one- tenth part as much as he will the book which it accompanies : and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the definitions and rules which it contains recapitulated in the series of Lectures. \ HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues ko arrangement essen* tially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the order of parsing, will not consider it new^ but blend it with those long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat similar ; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author considers a regular systematic order. The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to interrO' gate the pupil as lie proceeds ; or else he is permitted to parse without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner ought to apply definitions iu a general way, but they lay down no systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. Q'he systematic order laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses,without having a question put to him by the teacher ; and, in so doing, he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the learner to proceed independently ; and proves, at the same time, a great relief to the instructor. The convenience and ad- vantage of this method, are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice^ wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commitand recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of them to practical examples, im- mediately abolished. This system obviates the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery ; for the young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying them in parsing. If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every teachw who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years, devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system, ho can with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical krtowledge of this abstruse science, in two months, than he could in one year when he taught in 12 HINTS TO TEACHERS. the " old way." It is preBuraed that no instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the truth of this assertion. Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will find that, although the author has not followed the common " artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one. namely, " the order of the undorstauding." The learner should commoner, not by committiny and rehearsing, but by reading attentively the first ttuo lectures several times over. He ought then to parse, ac- cording to the systematic order, the examples given for that purpose ; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the parts of speech included in the examples. ^ The Compendium, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but com- prehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an "Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem rather tedious ; but it must appear obvious to every person of discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing five words critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing Jifty words superficially, and without understanding their various properties. The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing his pupils recite a single lesson ot definitions committed to memory, for he has a fair opportunity of discover- ing their knowledge of these as they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the learner in school,aswell a'sfor the jath of science, yon will discover the truth of these remarks, and feel its forc:e ; for you will find, that, as grammar opens the door to every department of learning, a knowl- edge of it is indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinc- tion in the republic of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even if you are destined to ])ass through the humblest walks of life. I think it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge [)o?sesses a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. I'enmanship, arithmetic, Licogia- phy, astronomv, botany, chemistr}'-, and so on, are highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so univer- sally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every situa- tion, under all circumstances, on all occasions ; — when you speak, 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility. Doubtl( heard )uDtiGss you nave heard some persons assert, that they could detect and correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing good au- thors, and conversing with the learned, acquire tliat knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring errors that oflend the ear ; but there are other errors equally gross, which have not a harsh sound, and consequently, which cannot be de- tected without a knowleilge of the rules that are violated. Be- lieve me, therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of Grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express tlieir ideas in a manner so im- proper and obscure as to render it impossible for any one to un- demtand them : their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but woftsense. In other instances several ditibrent meanings may be affixed to the words they employ ; and what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they intended. Nothing of a secular n.-.ture can bo more worthy of your atUjntion, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowl- edge. * The path whi(di leads to grammati(;al excellence, is not all the way smooth and tlowery, but in it you will find some thorns inter- spersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted ; or in l^imple lan- guage, you will find, in the pursuit of this science, many intri- cacies which it is rather diflicult for tlie juveni'e mind completely to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to illustrate every principle in a man- ner so clear and simple, that you will be able, if you exercise your mind, to understand its nature, and apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rdther give you one useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of whii'h you would pro- bably be unable to comprehend. Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either by siudying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to inform you, till you obtain a clear con- ception of it, and till all doubts are removed. By carefully ex- amining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the orammatieal construction of our # ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 sential could speak Now ''crtion >od au- jdge of 'j )rs that which be de- Be- rrQ and ) think, f such so i in- to un- only to itibrent ^ d what , are so t which worthy knowl- 1 1 all the ^ IS inter- )le lan- y intri- ipletely ^ I plain j. I man- 5 exercise \ tice as | 1, than id pro- ling of iraged, asking i ar con- ,j lly ex- 1 5, you 1 of our 1 language, and fix in your mind the principles by which it is gov- erned. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing ; and, on tlio other hand, I know tliey are apt to be discouraged with any branch of loarning which roquires much time and attention to be understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to meet ; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your studios, is to cultivate the habit of think- ing irtethodically at)d mvndly on all subjects of importance whi(;h may encrage your attention. Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according to the method of pursuing it as proscribed in the following pages. The system ia designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar com- municated in an interesting and familiar manner. You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and knowledge ; — an age in which science and the arts are marching onward with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty ; — a land on wliich the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warrior and^he clang- or of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or in our valleys ; " the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the mighty strug- gle for independence is over ; and you live to enjoy the rich boon of freedom tmd prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeding generations, as to be content to grovel in Ignorance, iiemember that " knowledge is power ;" that an enlightened and virtuous people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our be- loved country. Go on, then, with a laudable ambition, and an un- yielding perseverance, in the path which leads to honor and re- nown. Press forward. Go, and gatliev laurels on the hill of sci- ence; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her crystal fountain ; and then join in " the march of fame." Be- come learned and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God, and serve him, and you will be happy. 10 LANOUAOE. Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those si^-ns by "^ which men nnd brutes communicute to each other their thoughts, ' affections, and desires. Laniriiag-G may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken and written. Natural Language consists in the use of those natural sijrns which different animals employ in communicatinof their feelini^s one to another. The meanino- of these &\if\\s, all p<^rfectly under- stand by the principles of their nature. This lanL»na2;e is com- mon both to man and brute. The elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds ; modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. 15y means of these, two savages who have no common, artificial language, can commuiiiato their thoughts in a manner quite intellinible: they can ask and refuse, affirm and deny, threaten and suivplicate ; they can trafficlc, enter into contracts, and pli'^ht their faith. The langu.-ige of brutes consists in the use of those inarticuhite sounds bv which thev ex- ))ress their thoughts and ailections. Thus, the ( hirping of a bird, "^ V the bleating of a lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively. Artificial Language consists in the use of words, by means of which mankind are enjibled to communicate their thoughts to one another. — In order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term word^ I will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the teim. Idia. The notices which wo gain by sensation and percep- ^, lion, and which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and knowledge, are denominated idea**. For exam- ple, when you place your hand upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited whicli we call coldness. That faculty which notices this Ecn^ation or change pioduced in the mind, is called jo^rcc/) Hon; and the ahstract notice itself, or notion you form of this sensation, is denominated an idea. This being premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words. Words are articulate t^ounds, used by common consent, not as natural, but as nrtilicial, signs of our iilcas. Words have no inean- iiig in themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of tiiose ideas alKxod to them by compact or agreement among those who use ihem. In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the name f/old ; not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness which suggests the idea we wish GRAMMAR. 17 • ns by oughts, ial; 2. il signs •eelirii^s iinder- s ci^m- ngnage a voice, es who a tlieir 1 refuse, k, enter • brutes liey ex- f a bird, I'owling, iniraals, means fights to wliat is leaning [pereep- laterials exam- ensation Tiotices I percep of this I we will I, not as liieaii- htatives ainono* irticuhir [•c is, ill ,'e wish to convey, but the application of that sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there any natur,..! connex- ion between the sound and the word signified, the word ^o/c? would convey the same idea to the people of other countries as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, aurum de- notes the same idea in Latin, and or in French, Hence it follows, that it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds. Spoken Language or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice. The voice is formed by air, which, after it passes through the glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils. Written Language. The elements of written language con- sist of letters or characters, which, by common consent and gen- eral usage, are combined into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate sounds u^ered by the voice. ORAHniAR. <$ • GRAMMAR is the science of language. Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and par- ticular. Universal Grammar explains the principles which are com- mon to all languages. Particular Grammar applies those general principles to a particular language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence, The established practice of the best speakers and writers of any language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that language. By the phrase, established practice, is implied reputable, nation- al, and present usage. A usage becomes good and legal, when it has been long and generally adopted. The best speakers and writers, or such as may be considered good authority in the use of language, are those who are deserv- edly in high estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elo- 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. cution and other literary attftiiiinonts, and writers, eminent for correct t.aftte, solid nmtter, and rolliied rnimnor. In the grammar of a 7)(?r/(>c< liingimgo, no rules alionld bo admitted, but such as are fuundud un fixed principles, arising out of the genius of that language and the nature of tilings ; but our language being im-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a practical trciitise, like tliis, toado{)t some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated by custom. If we had a per- manent and surer standard tiiau capricious cu^stom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great inconvenience would bo avoided They, however, who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that language and have power to control it. Langiuige is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progros- Bivo advancement, varied for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it assumes any and every form whicli those who make use of it choose to give it. We are, therefore, as ralional and practical grammarians, compelled to submit to the necessity of tl»e case ; to take the language as it is, and not as it should be, and bow to custom. PiiiLosoriiicAL Grammar invistii^atos and developes tlie princi- ples of language, as founded in the nature of things and the origi- nal laws ot thouii'ht. It also di.scusses the iirounds of the classiti- cation of words, and explains ihos.i procedures whicli practical grammar lays down for our observance. Practical Grammar adopts the most convenient classification of the words of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on scientific principles and good usage, illus- trates their nature and design, and enforces their application. l?RiNCiPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construci tion of the language, sanctioned by good usage. Definition. A defiiution in grammar is a principle of lan- guage expressed in a delinite form. Rule. A rule describes the peculiar construction of circum- stantial relation of words, which custom has established for our observance. English Grammar is the art of speaking and wri- ting the English language with propriety. Grammar teaches us how to use words in a proper manner. The most important use of that faculty called sp3ech, is, to con- vey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and make ORTHOGRAPHY. 10 inent for iitted, but 13 of that [jerfect, it iO rules to ad a per- U3 ia the I They, lof(y and of those progrcs- Ilenco it choose imarians, Language priuci- lie origi- classiti- practical lification iinitioiis je, illus- ion, onstrucs of lan- circura- for our i wri- nanner, to con- tore of no real make (liern answor the purposes for wh;.;li thoy wcro invented. Gmm- mar^ well understoocl, ou;il)lc:s us to express our thoughts fully and chfjirly ; miuI, (M)ns('(juonily, in a mMiiii '• which will defy the iiig.muily of ni.in to give -nr wcirils nuy othi-r meaning than that which we ourselves intend li<'m to exprcf^s. To be able to speak and write our vernacular tonj^ne with accuracy »nd ele- gance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest moment. Grammar is divided into four parts ; 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. Orthography teaches the nature and powers of let- ters, and the just method of spelling words. Ortfioghapfiy means word-mnklnr/^ or spelling. It teaches us the ditferent kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into syllables, and syllables into words. As this is one of the first^ steps in the path of literature, I pre- sume you already undcistand the nature and use of letters, and the just method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather dry aiid uninteresting, for it has noth- ing to do with parsing and analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can spell correctly, you may omit Orthography, and com- mence with Ktymolugy and Syntax. Orthography treats, 1st, of Letters^ 2ndly, of Syllables f and 3rdly, of Words. I. Letters. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. They are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels are a, e, i, o, 21, and sometimes w and y, W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in every other situation they are vowels. A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sound- ed without the help of a vowel ; as, b, 5,/, I, All let- ters except the vowels are consonants. 20 ORTIIOGRAPHV. Coiisoimnta aro dividod into mutes mid aemi-vowols. The mutes cannot bo sounded at all without the aid of a vowel. They are />, j;, ^ //, /i-, and c and^*- hard. The semi-vowels have an iniperl'ect sound of them- selves. They are J\ /, /n, 7a, r, v, s, r, .r, «nd c and g soft. Pour of the scini-vowels, nnmely, /, wi, w, r, aro called liquids, because they readily unito with other consonants, and How, as it were, into their sounds. A diphthong is the unionof/iro vowels, pronounced by u single impulse of the voice ; as oi in voice, ow in sound. Atriphthonu: is the union of Mrrc vowels pronounced in like manner ; as, cau in beau, itiv in view. A j)>'oper diptlionj:^ has hoth tho vowels sounded ; ns, ou in ounce. An improper diphthong has only one ot tho vowels sounded j as, oa in bout. II. Syllahlks. a Syllable iffa distinct sound, uttered by a single impulse of th(; voice ; as, «, anj ant. A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable ; a word of two syUables, a Dissylhible ; a word of tliree syllables, a Trisyllabk; ; a word of four or more sylla- bles, a Polysyllable. III. Words. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. A primitive word is that whicli cannot be reduced to a simpler word in the language ; as, mauy good. A ikrivatirc word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word ; as manfuly goodness. There is little or no ditrerence between derivative and compound words. Tho terminations or added syllables, such as ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, cnce, ent, dom, hood, hi,ous,ful, ;iess, and the like, were, originally, dis- tinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to coalesce with other words. ) I ROUNDB OF THE LETTRIlfl. 21 3W0ls, lie aid of 3. )f tliom- c und g 1$, because I iutu tlivir inced by II souiui. iinced in unco. An a in bout. , uttered ble ; a Df three e sylla- sed by c. id to a }d to a d words. , ant, en, Uy, dis- ;tcd, and OF TIIK SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. A,— A 1ms Tour Hoimdsj tlinloiiK i n,n Iti name, fmsin ; tlio broad ; a« In call, wall ; thu short i as in ff, (flass; aiidMic Hut. Italian Hoiii\d j oh in hafffufthv)'. Tlu) IniproiuT di|>lillnniK, xerescen(M) of anti(inity, and writo, cnii/uia, Cesar. The diphthonfr, ai, haw ilie lonK Honnd of a ; an in ])all, sail; exeopt In plaid, mid. liri/aiii, and soni(> oMiers. again, railfrrj/./ouiifiini, isnfaii An Is soinuleii Hlu^ l)road a in fani/lif, like Hat a In rtHH^likd by tho accent; as in educate, verdure. It also sounds likoi in grandeur, .soldier. Tho termination, ed, in adjeolives and participial ailjectivea, retains its distincfj sound; nmitcie/c-ed UM\n,nlearn-edumn, bless-ednro the meek ; b)ifc in verbs the e is gonorally dropi»ed ; as, passed, wnllced, flushed, aimed, rolled, &c., which aro pronoiuiccd, 7J«.v^, wallet, flnsht, aimd, rold. E. — £7 has a long sound; as in .scheme, .severe ; a short sound; as In men, tent; and somotimoa the somid of lint a ; as in sert/eant; and of short i ; as in yes, pretty, Enuland, and genc^rnlly in tlu! utiacrcented teririinations, es, et, en. F. — Z'Mias one unvariiid sound; as infancy, mujllu; except in r»/, which, when un- couipounded.is pronouneed ov. A wive's portion, a (ialve's head, aro iinprop(!r. Tliey should bo, wife's portion, caWs \wmI. G.—O has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, I, and r, and at tho end of a word ; RS in gay, go, gun, glory ; bag. snug. It is soft before c, i, and y ; as in genius, gin- gcr, Egypt. Exceptions ; get, gewgaw, gimlet, and souio others. G is silent before ft ; as in gnash. H.— i/ ho.s an articulate sound ; as in hat, horse, hull. It is silent after r ; as In rhetoric, rhtibarb, 22 SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. I.— 7 has a long sound ; as in fine ; and a short one ; as infln. Before r it is often sounded like M short ; as in first, third; and in other words, like short c ; asinbirth, virtue. In some words it has the sound of long c; as in machine, profile. J.— ^ has the sound of soft g ; except in hallelujah, in which it is pronounced like y. Ti..—K has the sound of c hard, and is used before c, i, and y, whore c would be soft ; as kept, skirt, murky. It is silent before n ; as in knife, knell, knocker. It'—L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow. It is often silent ; as in half, talk, almond. ^^•—M has always the same sound ; as in murmur, monumental ; except in comp- trailer, which is pronounced controller. N. — N has two sounds ; the one pure ; as in man, net,noble ; the other a compound sound ; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &.C., pronounced angkl, bangkwct, N final is silent when preceded by m ; as in hymn, autumn. O.—O has a long sound ; as in note, over ; and a short one ; as in not, got. It has the sound of u short ; as in son, attorney, doth, does; and generally in the termina- tions, op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od, &c. P. — P has but one uniform sound ; as in pin, slipper ; except in cupboard, clap- board, where it has the sound of b. It is muto in p)salm, Ptolemy, teinpt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt. Ph has the sound of/in philosophy, Philip ; and of « in nephew, Stephen. Q.— Q is sounded like k, and is always followed by u pronounced like w; as in quadrant, queen, conquest. R.— JB has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage ; and a smooth one ; as in bard, card, regard. In the iiuaccented termination re, the r is sounded after the e ; as in fibre, centre. S. — iS^ has a flat sound like z ; as in besom, nasac ; and, at the beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound ; as in saint, sister, sample. It has the sound of sh when pre- ceded by the accent and another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long u , as in expidsion, censure. S sounds like zh when preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long «; as in brasier, usual. It is mute in isle, corps, demesne, viscount. T.— r is sounded in take, tempei\ T before u, when the accent precedes, and generally before eou. sounds like tsh ; as, nature, virtue, righteous, are pronounced natshure, virtshtce, richeus. Ti before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of s/i; as in salvation, negociation; except in such words as tierce, tiara, &c., and unless an s goos before ; as, question ; and excepting also derivatives from words ending in ty; as in mighty, mightier. Th, at the beginning, middle, and end of words, is sharp ; as in thick, panther, breath. Exceptions ; then, booth, icorthy, &c. TJ. — ?7has three sounds ; a long ; as in m7de, ctibic; a short ; as in dtdl, custard; and an obtuse sound ; as in full, bushel. It is pronounced like short e in b,ury ; and like short i in bxtsy, business. v. — Fhas uniformly the sound of flat/; as in vanity, love. W. — W, when a consonant, has its sound, wliich is heard in ««o, beware. Wis silent before r ; as in wry, tvrap, wrinkle ; and also in answer, sword, &c. Before h it is pronounced us if written after the h; as in lohy, when, wJiat; — htvy, hivcn,Jnvat. "When heard as a vowel, it takes the sound of u; as in drato, crew, now. X.— A' has a sharp sound, like ks, when it ends a syllable with the accent on it; as, exit, exercise ; or when it precedes an accented syllable which begins with any consonant except h ; as, excuse, extent ; but when the following accented syllable RULES FOR SPELLING. 23 re r it is often e; asin birth, die. is pronounced re c would be looker. silent ; as in icept in comp' ir a compound ct, N final is t, got. It has L the tormina- pboard, clap- tempt, empty, ephcn. ike w; as in e; a&mhard, r the e ; as in ing of words, sh when pra- ng or long u , accent and a It is mute in )recedes, and pronounced ent, has the icrce, tiara, vatives from ck, panther', II, custard ; bury ; and re. sword, &c. liat; — hv)y, raw, crew, ent on it; I with any ed syllable i begins with a vowel or h, it has, generally, a flat sound, like gz; aa in exert, exliort. X has the sound of Z at the b(*ginning of proper names of Greek original ; as in Xan- thus, Xenophon, Xerxes. Y.—Y, when a consonant, has its proper sound ; as in youth, York, ycs,new-ycar. When y is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the sound that i would have in tho same situation ; as in rhyme, system, party, pyramid. Z.—Z has the sound of flat s ; as vcv freeze, brazen. RULES FOR SPELLING. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters. The following rules are deemed important in practice, al- though they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading. Rule i. Monosyllables ending in/, /, or 5, double the final or ending consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel ; as, staf. mill., pass. Exceptions ; of, if., is, as, has, ivas, yes, his, this, us, and thus. False Orthography for the learner to correct. — Be thou like the gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid. — The aged hero comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam. — Shal mortal man be more just than God ? — Few know the value of health til they lose it. Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat The vaulty heaven so high above our heads : I have more care to stay, than wil to go. Rule ii. Monosyllables ending in any consonant hutf, I, or 8, never double the rinal consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel ; as. man, hat. Exceptions ; add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. False Orthography. — None ever went sadd from Fingal. — He rejoiced over his sonn, — Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death. — Many a trapp is set to insnare the foot of youth. The weary sunn has made a golden sett, And, by the bright track of his golden carr, Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. Rule hi. Words ending in y, foira the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, participal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y, into i, when the y is preceded by, a consonant ; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest, he carries ; carrier, carried ; happy., happier, happiest. The present participle in ing, retains the y that i may not be doubled ; as, carry, carrying. 24 ORTHOGRAPHY. But when y is preceded by a vowel^ in such instances as the above, it is not chanired into i ; as 6oy, hoys ; I cloy^ he cloys ; except in the words lay^ pay^ and say ; from which are formed laid ^ paid ^ and said ; and their compounds, unpaid^ unsaidy &c. False Orthography. — Our fancys should be governed by reason. — Thou wearyest thyself in v^ain. — He denyed himself all sinful pleasures. Win straiing souls with modesty and love ; Cast none away. The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder allies green. Rule iv. When words ending in y, assume an additional syl- lable, beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is preceded by a con- sonant, is commonly changed to i ; as, coy^ coyless ; boy, boyish ; boyhood ; joy, joyless, joyful. -»*■ '•. False Orthography. — His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful humors.— The vessel was heavyly laden. — When we act against conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace. Christiana, mayden of heroic mien ! Star of the north I of northern stars the queen ! Rule v. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last sylla- ble, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins with a vowel ; as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish : to abet^ an abetter. But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, an offering ; maid, maiden. False Orthography. — The business of to-day, should not be deferred till to-morrow. — That law is annuled. — When we have outstriped our errors we have won the race. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows. — The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things which the heathen philosophers allowed. At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below. — Thus mourned the hapless man ; a thunderring sound Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground. Rule vi. Words ending in double I, in taking ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one I ; as, fulness, skilless, fully, skilful. But words ending in any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, ly, ovful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harmless- nesSy carelessness, carelesslyj stiffly, successful. to I 18 hail sil( ful v., -.. RUL&S FOR SPELLING. 25 stances as the 'loy^ he cloys ; h are formed unsaidf &c. reason. — Thou Icasures. reform yonder idditional syl- ded by a con- voy, boyish ; '^ful humors.— jonscience, we ihe last sylla- i by a single ther syllable '.ish : to ahety on the last ig ; to offer, deferred till |ed our errors mmulate our things which bund. I less J ly, OP less, fully, Iking nesSy \harmless- 4 False Orihogtaphy.-^k chillness generally precedes a ferer.— He is wed to dullness. , The silent stranger stood amazed to see Contempt of wealth and willful poverty. Restlesness of mind impairs our peace. — The road to the blisful regions, is as open to tne peasant as to the king. — The arrows of calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue. Rule vii. JVess, less, ly, or ful, added to words ending in silent c, does not cut it off ; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peace- ful : except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awfuU False Orthography. — Sedatness is becoming. ^ All these with ceasless praise his works behold. Stars rush : and final ruin fiercly drives Her ploughshare o'er creation ! Nature made a pause, An aweful pause 1 prophetic of her end ! Rule viii. When words ending in silent e, assume the termi- nation, ment, the e, should not be cut off; as, abatement, chastise- ment. Ment, like other terminations, changes y into i when the y is preceded by a consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. False Orthography. — A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates im* provement. — Encouragment is greatest when we least need it. To shun allurments is not hard, To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepar'd. Rule ix. When words ending in silent e, assume the termi- nation, able or ible, the e should generally be cut off; as, blame, blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible. But if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is preserved in words com- pounded with able ; as, peace, 2^eaceable ; change, changeable. False Orthography, — Knowledge is desireable. — Misconduct is inexcuse- able. — Our natural defects are not chargable upon us. — We are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves. Rule x. When ing or ish is added to words ending in silent e, the e is almost always omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. False Orthography. — Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. —An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile and cringeing humor. Conscience anticipateing time, ' Already rues th' unacted crime. One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. Rule xi. Compound words are generally spelled in the same 2 20 ETYMOLOaY AND SYNTAX. h \]i ' ! HiaDDer as the simple words of wliich they are compounded ; as, glasshouse^ skylight^ tkerebg^ hereafter. Many words endinpf in double /, are exceptions to this rule ; as, already, welfare^ wilful^ fulfil ; and also the words, wherever, Christmas, lammas, dbc. False Orthography. — The Jew's pasover was instituted in A. M, 2513. — ^They salute one another by touching their forheads. — That which la sometimes expedient, is not allways so. j , Then in the scale of reas'ning life 'tis plain, There must be, som where, such a rank as man. Till Hymen brought his lov-delighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. » The head reclined, the loosened hair. The limbs relaxed, the mournful air :— See, he looks up ; a wofuU smile Lightens his wo-worn check awhile. You may now answer the following QUESTIONS. "What is language ? — How is language divided ? — What is natu- ral language? — What are the elements of natural language in raau? — Wherein consists the language of brutes ? — What is arti- ficial language ? — What is an idea ? — What are words ? — What is grammar ? — What does Universal grammar explain ? — Where- in does Particular grammar differ from universal ? — What is the standard of grammatical accuracy ? — What is Philosophical gram- mar ? — What is Practical grammar ? — What is a principle of grammar ? — A definition ? — A rule ? — What is English grammar ? Into how many parts is grammar divided 2 — What docs Orthog- rai)hy teach ? CTYJUOLOOY AI¥D 8Yn TAX, LECTURE II. OF NOUNS AND VERBS. Etymology treats of the diflferent sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation. Syntax treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. The word Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words. Syn, a prefix from the Greek, signifies together, Syn-tax^ means placing together ; or, as applied in grammar, sentence making. *»l ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 97 3d; as, [m^ in wilfuly be. M. 2513. rhich is L is natu- ruage in it is arti- »— What -Where- lat is the al gram- iciple of ammar ? Orthog- is, their rnment ntence. of words. IX, means king. ^U h The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to correct and avoid errors in speech, are chietiy based on principles unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymologi- cal knowledge, then, is a prerequisite to the study of Syntax ; but, in parsing, under the head of Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes necessary, therefore, in a prac- tical work of this sort, to treat these two parts of grammar in connexion. Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would com- prehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their whole history, including their application to things in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply them ; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those lan- guages to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of re- search would become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views of this part of grammar. 1. Etymology treats of the classification of words. 2. Etymology explains the accidents or pro2:>erties peculiar to each class or sort of words, and their present modifications. By modifications, I mean the changes produced on their endings, in consequence of tbeir assuming different relations in respect to one another. These changes, such as fruit, fruits, fruit's ; he, his, him ; write, writes/, write/A, writes, \wvote, writim, writwif/, writer ; a, aw ; ample, amply, and the like, will be explained in their appropriate places. 3. Etymology treats of the derivation of words ; that is, it teaches you how one word comes from, or grows out of another. For example ; from the word speak, come the words speakes/, speakel I I 1 CLASSIFICATION. fia )nne('ted re XIV. irgely of s to for- r, rather 1 writes a xon, nor the Per- il Latin, it is his inexions, in which itain, nor .dah and lis words d to his ; he finds istruction he legiti- practical ns to be, ve mean- ;he man- and rude owl edge, imber of It. This entences, ansition, nement, legance. ery lan- refiaed, iertained present \ms in a a which lus. The I '4 I painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage. Hero, the word joam^ is first employed to describe tlie brush wliich the painter uses ; in this situation it is, therefore, an adjective ; sec- condly, to name the mixture employed ; iov which reason it is a noun ; and, lastly, to express the action performed ; it therefore, becomes a verb ; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these applications. This meaning, however, is applied in diff"erent ways ; and thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took ^vater from the water pot, to water the plants. ETYMOLOGY. Etymology treats, first, of the clossification of words. The English Language is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, and Gothic ; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages. The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at about /oriy thousand. There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, namely, the noun or substantive, verb, article, ad- jective, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and interjection. Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are included in these ten classes : and what you have to do in acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to bectome acquainted with these ten ])arts of speech, and the rules of Syn- tax that apply to them. The Noun and Vei'b are the most im- portant and leading parts of speech ; therefore they are first pre- sented : all the rest (except the interjection) are either appenda- ges or conneclives of th( se two. As you proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech. The principal use of words is, to name things, compare them with each other, and express their actions. Nouns, which are the names of entities or things, adjectives, which denote the comparisons and relations of things by d' scrib- ing them, and expressing their quaUties, and verbs, which express the actions and being of things, are the only classes of words n I iV ET\*MOLOOY AKD SYNTAX. necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults, mainly, the practical advantages of the learner, it is believed, that no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words are re- spectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared to appreciate my arguments. OF NOUNS. A NOUN is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, maUi Charleston^ Jcnowledgc. Nouns are often improperly called substantives. A substan- tive is the name of a substance only ; but a noun is the name either of a substance or a quality. Noun^ derived from the Latin word nomen, signifies name. The name of any thing* that exists, whether animate or iuani- * The word thing, from the Saxon verb thingian, to think, is almost UBlimitod in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal and creature in the u i" ^erse. By the term creature, I mean that Avhich has been created ; as, dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to actions ; as, " To get drunk is a beastly thing." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature : but it denotes merely an action ; therefore this action is the thing. NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research, and critical investigation of original, constituent principles, formations, and combinations, than the English language. The legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive, has, in some instances, been made to yield to that of philosophy, so far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language which refinement has introduced, to radical elements and associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the essential use for which language was intended. "Were this re- trogressive mode of investigating and applying principles, to obtain, among philolo- gists, the ascendency over that which accommodates the use of language to progres- sive refinement, it is easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would in a short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the philosophy of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of philology as it applies to the present, progressive and refined state of English literature, the great object contemplated by the learned, in all ages, namely, the approximation of language, in common with every thing else, to that point of perfection at which it is the object of correct philo- logy to arrive, would be frustrated. The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and vision- aries who absurdly endeavor to teach modern English, by rejecting the authority •> NOUNS. — COMMON AND PROPER. 31 nar. But intages of )und more des words it nothing !r niimbor ibject. I gement in da are re- r prepared r thing ; L aubstan- the name Eies name, or iuani- lunllmitod in i;,.erse. By dirt. Thin astly thing." es merely an and critical lations, than as I humbly ly, 80 far as nement has the progress Vere thisre- long philolo- Q to progres- )ciety would of language, the present, 3mplated by mmon with )rrect philo- and vision- le authority y mate, or which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, ot think of, is a noun. Animal^ hird^ creature^ paper, pen, apple, Jietd, house, modesty, virtue, dawjer, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinjjuish this part of speech from others, I will give you a sign, which will be useful to you when you cannot tell it by the sense. Any word that will make sense with the before it, is a noun. Try the following words by this sign, and see if they are nouns : tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, understand- ing. The tree, the mountain, the soul, and so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with the prefixed ; tberefore you know they are nouns. There arc, however, exceptions to this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with the prefixed. These you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their making sense of themselves; as, goodness, sobriety, hope, immortality. ITouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as its reality ; as, nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, invisibility. Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, ac- cording to their manner of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained ia the concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to comprehend it. and sanction of custom, and by conducting the learner back to the^riginal combinatious, and the detached, disjointed, and barbarous constructioiX of our progenitors, both prudence and reason, as well as a due regard for correct philology, impel me to shun. Those modest writers, who, by bringing to their aid a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic in the swelling phrases, " phiioso- phy, reason, and common sense," attempt to overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of jUI the labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously occupied the Held of grammatical science, is nothing but error and folly, will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited by such consummate vanity and blushing pedantry. Fortunately for those who employ our langxiage as their vehicle of mental conference, custom will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary. If it would, improvement in English literature would soon be at an end, and we should be tamely conducted back to the Vandalic age. As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of grammatical certainty, it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a view to expose the fallacy of so vague a critei'ion. All rea.soning and investigation which depend on the philosophy'of language for att ultimate result, must bo conducted a posteriori. Its office, according to the ordi- nary mode of treating the subject, is to trace language to its origin, not for the pur- pose of terminating and fixing grammatical associations and dependancies, such as the agreement, government, and mutual relations of words, but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the first principles of the language, and arrive at the primitive meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original import of single 32 ^TYUOLOQY AND SYNTAX. Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. A Common noun is the name of a sort or species of things ; as, man, ^re«, river. -i- A Proper noun is the name of an individual ; as Charles, Ithacttt Ganges. A noun signifying many, is called a collective noun, or noun of multitude ; as, the people^ the army, • ' - The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For example : hoy is a common nnm, because it is a name applied to all boys ; but Charles is a proper noun, because it is the name of an individual boy. Althougli many boys may have the same name, yet you know it is not a common noun, for the name Cliarles is not given to all boys. Mississippi is a prop- er noun, because it is the name of an individual river ; but river is a common noun, because it is the name of a species of things, and the name river is common to all rivCrs. Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common ; as, tree^ the genus ; oak^ ash^ chestnut^ poplar, different species; and red oak, white oak, black oak, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quan- tity of dirt, is a common noun ; but when it denotes the planet •we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The words person, place, river, i ni( na FOI 1 1 words, has any relation to the syntactical depondancies and connexions of words in general ;— to gain a knowledge of which, is the leading object of the student in grammar. And, furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such useless vagaries, to show by what process, with their own systems, they can communicate » practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict, that, if they make the at- tempt, they will find their systems more splendid in theory, than useful in practice. Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning has any effl> oiencyin controlling the signification which, by the power of association, custom has assigned to many words ;— a signif.cation essentially different from the original im- I)ort. "Were this the case, and were the language now to be taught and understood in compliance with the original import of words, it would have to undergo a thorough change ; to be analyzed, divided, and subdivided, almost ad infinitum. Indeed, there is the same propriety in asserting that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our language ought to'be pronounced separately, to enable us to under- stand our venacular tongue, that there is in contending, that their primitive meaning has an ascendency over the influence of the principle of association in changing, and the i>ower of custom in determining, the import of words. Many of our words are derived ttoxo. the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages ; aud the only use we can make of their originals, is to render them subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general usage has not varied ft-ora the primitive lignification. Moreover, let the advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language, extend their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them, and* with Home Tooke. not only consider adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter* NOUK8. — COMMON AND fMlOTKn. 88 r-st icies of Charles^ touut or - -'f • '::■ 1, 18 very >e it is A because oys may loun, for J a prop- but river f things, ►f beings )ak, ashf ik, blaok jr quan- ie planet ie, river, words in itudent in 1 useless imunicate (6 the at- practice. any efiB- istom has iginal im- derstood ihorough Indeed, :lo-Saxon under- meaning jing, and ords are iiguages ; nt to the rimitive Bition of em, and* id inter- mountain, lake, &c. nro common noitn.t^ beoanso tlu-y are tho names of wliolo species, or classes of tilings contninincj miuiy Forts ; but tho mimes of persons, places, riv» rs, moiinfains, lakes, itc. arc proper noium, liccausc tlioy tlcnoto i ml i vidua Li ; as, Au- gustus, IJaltinifu*', Alp Huron. PhijHician^ laioi/er^ uti reliant, nxulxhoemaker, am conimon nouns, be(*use these nanus are connnon to classes of men. God and Xo/-c/, when applied to Jehovah or .lesns Clirisf, arc proper ; but when employed to tlenoto heathen or falsu (/ods, or temporal /o/c?.v, they are common. The Notes and remarks thvoui^jhout the work, IhouLjh of minor importance, demand your attentive and careful perusal. NOTES. 1. When proper nouns liavc nn article annexed to them, they nre used after the manner o( common nouns ; as, "Bolivar is styled the Washing- ton of South America." 2. Common nouns are sometimes used to signify individuals, when ar- ticles or pronouns are prefixed to them, as, " 'Tfie boy is studious; That girl is discreet." In such instances, they are nearly equivalent to proper nouns. 3. CoOTWJon nouns arc sometimes subdivided into Die following classes : Nouns of Multitude ; as, The people, the parliament : Vcrb(d or participi(d 7iouns ; as, The beginning, reading, writing ; and Abstract nouns, or tho names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, vir- tue, goodness. Lest the student be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives, both of which denote qualities, a fiiftlier illustration appears to be necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two i)art3 of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered apart (that is, abstracted) from the substance or being to which it belongs ; but an adjective denotes a quality Joi»cfZ (adjected) to the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, whiteness and white jections. as abbreviations of nouns and verbs, but on their own roHr)onsibility, apply them, in teaching the lauKua^e, in coinpUnnce with their rndirnl import, and what would such a course avail them against tlio power of custom, and tlic influence of association and rcrnicmont ? Let tlicm show mo one graminarian, produced by such a course of instruction, and tlicy will oxliibit a " pliilosopiiieal " niiraclo. '1 hoy might as well undertake to teach architecture, by having recourse to its origin, as repre- sented by booths and tents. In addition to this, when we consider the great num- ber of obsolete words, from which many now in use arc derived, the original meaning of which cannot bo ascertained, and, also the nudtitude whone sir^nification has been changed l)y tho princii)lo of association, it is proposterou:. id lliink, that ., mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching tho language, is the one liy which its significancy can be enforced, its correctness determined, its use compre- hended, and its improvement extended. Before what commonly passes fdr a pliilo- sopiiieal manner of developing tho la.ignage can successfully be made tho medium through which it can be comprehended in all its present combinations, relations, and dcpendancies it must undergo a thorough retrogrnsiivo change, in all those com- binations, relations, and dependencies, even to the la.st lettar of the alnbabet. ^'' ' 2* 111 ; ( 34 KTYMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. both denote the same quality ; but wo speak of whiteness as a distinct object of thoufflil, wliilo wo use the word while always in reforence to ichltc pu]n;r, wkiti'. house. the noun to which it bciongd ; as, 4. 80UIC aiitliors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and sub-divisions of nouns ; such, for example, as the following, which aj)- pear to be more complex than useful : Natuntl nouiin, or names of things formed by nature ; as, nmti, beast, water, air : 2. Jlrlifickd nonm, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house : 3. Pcrsmial nouun, or those which stand for human beings; as, man, woman, Ed\nn; 4. Ncuternouns, or those which denote thiuf^ inanimate ; as, book, Held, mountain, Cincinnati. The following, however, is quite a rational divi- sion : Material nouns are the names of things formed of matter ; as, stone, book : Immaterial nouns are the names of things having no sub- stance ; as, hope, immortality. To nouns belong gondor, person, lunnbcr, untl case. GP:NT)KR. Gendku is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. The mascuHmc gender denotes males ; as, a ?n(m, a boi/. The feminine gender denotes females ; as, a womaUi a girl. The neuter gender denotes things without sex ; as, a hat^ a stick, Neuti-r monns neither : therefore neuter gender signilies nei- t!ier gender; tliiit is, neither masculine nor Icuiinine. Hence, b(>fore M'o can consent to tins radicivl niodilicntion and retrograde ratio of the Eng- lish liiuKuage, we nniat ix^wm to rt'vivo the customs, the habits, and the i)vecise langiiap;o of our progenitors, tlie Gotlis and Vauilals. Were all tin* advocates for the introdiKilion of such ithilosophical grannuars into couunon schools, at oncolto enter on their i)ilu;riniafcc, and recede into llie native obscurity and the barbarity of tlio ancient Britons, V'icts, and Vandals, it is b1to ontor rbarity of the ariiiiiK and ro- of the present investigating find reihicing ui uf thought^ nc a dead let- low can it bo common con- iciplos of onr thod, I tliink mecit the ne- isi.stcnt, tlmt must unfold id academics, there dive to e required of I S ncntcr gendor inoaiis no riendcr. Strictly spralvii\(?, then, as tlicro aro but two sexes, ikmiiis luivo but two ^-ciuicih; but for the shUo of practical conveiiieiico, wo api)ly to thcni three genders, by calling that a i^cndcr which is no gender. The English and the pure Persian, aj>])(ar to be (lie only Innguanes wliich observe, in iho distinction of sex, ihe natural division of nouns. — The gcn- (\«r8 of nouns are so easily known, that a farther exphiTiation of them is unnecessary, except w hat is given in the following NOTES. 1. Tlic stirao noun is sfnnotimcs masculine and feminine, and some- times masculine or feminine. The noun jiareiils is of the masculine and feminine gender. The nouns jHtrciU, (tssociale, ncii^hhor, scriumt, friend, child, bird, fis/t,S(C. if doul)lfulj arc of the inasculine or feminine gender. 2. yomc nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or per- sonified, converted into tho masculine or feminine gender. Those uouns are generally rendered masculine, which arc conspciuous for the attri- butes of imparting or communicating, and which are by nature strong and cflicacioiis ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, winter, Sfc. Those, again, are generally feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of con- taining or bringing forth, or which aro very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the earth, maun, church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, virtue, hope, sprini^, peace, Sfc. This principle for designating the sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally ad- hered to in the English language ; but, in some instances, tho poet ap- plies the sex according to his fancy. Tho masculine and feminine genders arc distinguished in three ways 1. Jii/ dijierent tvords ; aa, Mascnihie. Fcwinlnc. Masculine, Feminine. IJaeliclor maid IJoy girl ]?oar HOW Urotlier sister Hack doe Lord lady him. His object is to become, not a pliilosophical antiquarian, but a practical gram- marian. If I compreliend tlie design (if they have any) of our modern philosophical writers on tliis subj(!C't, it is to make grammarians by inculcating a few general prin- ciples, arising out of the genius of tlu; lauguiige, and the nature of things, which th« learner, by tbo exercise of liis reasoning powers, must reduce to practice. His own ju Iginent, independent of yrannnar rules, is to bo his guido in speaking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them exclude from their systems, all exorcises in wliat is called false Suntax. But tlicse profound philological dictators appear to have overlooked the important consideration, that the great mass of mankind, and especially of lioys and girls in common schools, can never become philosophers ; and, consequently, can m^vcr comprehend and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of grammar. I wish to see ciiildren treated as reasoning beings. But there should be a iiKidium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to instruct chil- dren as if they were already profoinid philosophers and logicians. To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising the learner in correctiug/a/.s. Heir heiress Benefactor benefactress Hero heroine Bridegroom bride Host hostess Canon canoness Hunter huntress Caterer cateress Inheritor inheritress or Chanter chantress inheritrix Conductor conductress Instructor instructress Count countess Jew Jewess Czar czarina Lion lioness Deacon doacouess Marquis, marchioness Detractor detractress Mayor mayoress Director directress Patron patroness that the best writers of this day, are not guilty of one grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before Mr. Murray flourished, are guilty of five? And what has produced this important change for the better ? Ask the hundreds of thousands who have studied " Mr. Murray's exercises in False Syntax." If, then, this view of the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater portion of our philosophical grammars, are far more worthy the attention of literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of learners. Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought proper, for the gratiflcation of such, to intersperse through the phages of this work, imder the head of " Philosophicai, Notes," an entire system of grammatical principles as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhibited in the body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it. Jn general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be fouiul to accord with the practical theory embraced in the body qf this work. Wherever such agreement ejBists, the system contained in these Notjbs vnll be defi 'lent, and this defi^siency may be supi. lied by adopting the principlet eoniained in t' '-■ other parts of the work. or ;ive and grant," etc. But it is cvidiMit, that the speaker or writer, in introducing liis own n:ime, speaks q/' himself; conserpiently the noun is of the third jiernon. If you wisii to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought is requisite ; and, by exercising it, all dilficulties will be removed. If I say, my son, have you seen the young man? you perceive thnt the noun son is of the second person, because I ad- dress uiyself to him ; that is, he is spoken to ; but the noun man is of tlie third person, because he is spoken of. Again, If I say, young innn^ have you seen my son ? man, is of the second person, and son is the third. " Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavcJis, golden-haired sun of the sky ?" *' Father.^ may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friend- ship between us, tluit a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his wig-warn behind the western wafers." '' Lo, earth receives him from tiie bending skies ! Siidv down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise!" " Eternal Hope, thy glittering wings explore Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore." In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope, are of the .seco?t(/ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the nominative ca^e inde])endent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the third person. notice that wc intoad to (I'lve, add, or join, the names of some other substances in wliich are found the properties or qnaUties of wool, wood, iviulih, or grans. I'rononiis are a class of nouns, used instead of others to jjrevent tlieir disagreeable repetition. I'articiples mt certain forms of the verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, arc contractions of abbreviations of nouns and verbs. An (a, anc, or one) comes from ananad, %o add, to heap. Tlie and that from the Anglo-Staxon verb thean, to get, assume. Lo is tlie imperative of look; fy or Jian, to hato; and welcome means, it is icell that you are co)iic In comes from the Gothic uoun hma, tlic interior of the ody ; and a/>o?/#,from boda, the flrst outward boundary. Throngh or tlwronyU is tlic eutonio iu)un thuruh, meaning passapre, gate, door. l\'om is the Anglo-Saxon wonw f rum, beginning, source, author. Ho came /row (bfiginninyj liatavia. 7/Yformeily written *■/'/, give, gin) is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb gif>iH, to give. I will remaiu if (give or grant that fact) he will (remain.) But comes ffom the Saxon verb hcon-ntan, to boout. I informedno one but (be-out, Icnvc-out) my brother. This brief view of the subject, is sunici(nit to elucidate the manner in which, ac. cording to Home Tookc's iirincipies, the ten parts of speech are reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed to concede, that this is the true principle of classiflcatioE; nor that it is any more philosophical or rational tlian one which allows a us^ff"! KOUNS. — NUMBER. 39 I'son : — I grant," cxlucing 18 of the le Rol)cr will bo 111 ? you ISC I ad- )un man If I siiy, I person, !ii-li aired jf friend- is asleep c." , valleys, 'ter li'arn, y, Spirit, s, wings, n. )statices ill Lisagreeal)lo |ns,a(I\'cvV)s, and verbs. ',t from the or Jian, to the Gothic boundary, gate, door, came /row btive of tiie \ct) lie will led no one \ which, ac. I one, But sslflcatioK; :>ws a m6?-'>. ■" NUMBER. NuMDER is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular and the plural. The singular number implies but one ; as, a book. The idiiral number implies more tlian one ; as, booJcs. NOTES. 1. Some nouns arc \iscd only in the singular form ; as, hemp, flax, barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, compassion, &c. ; others only in the plural form; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, snutfers, tongs, thanlcs, wages, embers, ides, pains, vespers, &c.* 2. Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine ; and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 3. Tlic plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the singular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; but sometimes we add cs in the plural ; as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; cargo, cargoes. 4. Nouns ending in/ or fe, are rendered plural by a change of that termination into ves ; as, half, h:ilves; wife, wives ; except, grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plural by the addition of s. Those ending in^, have the regular plural ; as, ruif, ruffs ; except, staff, staves. 5. Nouns ending in ?/ in the singular, with no other vowel in the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural ; as, beauty, beauties; fly, flies. But the y is not changed, where there is another vowel in the syllable ; 43, key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys ; valley, valleys ; chim- ey, chimneys. 6. Mathematics, methaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics, hydrau- lics, 8fc. are construed either as singular or plural nouns. 7. The word neu^s is always singular. The nouns means, alms, and amends, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in signi- practical division and arrangement of words. What lias Vk.'ou generally received as " philosophical grammar," appears to possess no stronger claims to that imposing ap- pellation than our common, practical grammars. Query, Is not Mr. Murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a " Pliilosophical Grammar," than Home Tooke's " Diversions of Parley," or V/illiam S. Cardell's treatises on language ? What constitutes a philosophical treatise, on this, or on any other subject P Wherein is there a display of pliilosoi)hy in a speculative etymological performance, which attempts to develop and explain the cleuKiits and primitive meaning of words by tracing them to their ov\fi;\n, siiper/ur to the philosophy employed in the develop- ment and illustration of the principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient medium by means of which we can communieate our thoughts ? Does philosophy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in order to guess at the ancient • construction and signification of single words ? or have such investigations, in reality, any thing to do \\ 1th grammar / Admitting that all the words of our language include, in their ork/inal signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it docs not follow, that tl'.ey now possess no other powers, and, in their combinations and connexions in sentences, are emjiloyod for no other purpose, tlian harchi to name ohjicts. The fact of the case is, that words are variously combined and applunl, to answer the distinct and diversified purposes of naming objects, asserting trutin, puinlivg out and liinitiug objects, i/ % 40 ETYMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. fication. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutia, are always plural. Bandit is now used as the singular of Banditti. 8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any gen- eral rule ; thus, man, men ; w^omnn, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice ; brother brothers or brethren ; cow, cows or kine ; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin is meant ; die, dice for play, dies for coining ; pea and fish, pease and fish when the species is meant, but peas and fishes when we refer to the number : as, six pcan, ten fishes. 9. The following compounds form their plurals thus : handful, hand- fuls ; cupful, cupfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls : — brother-in-law, brothers-in- law ; coMTt-martial, courts-martial. The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the languages from which they are adopted. Singular. Phiral. Shigular. Plural. Antithesis antitiicses Genius genii* Appox apices Genus genera Appendix ( appendixes or X appendices Hypothesis Ignis fatuus hypotlieses ignes fatul Arcanum arcana Index f indices or X iudexest Automatom automata Axia axes , ^ Lamina Ian USB Basis based Magus magi Beau (■ beaux or X beaus Memorandum f memoranda or (. memorandums Calx ("calces or X calxes Jletamorphosis metamorphoses V/CblA Parenthesis parentheses Cherub ( cherubim or X cherubs Phenomenon phenomena Crisis crises Kadius 5" radii or (. radiuses Criterion criteria Stamen stamina Datum Direresis data dieercses Seraph f seraphim or X seraphs Desideratum desiderata Stimuhis stimuli Effluvium effluvia Stratum strata Ellipsis ellipses Thesis theses Emphasis emphases Vertex vertices Encomium ■ encomia or ' . encomiums Vortex ("vortices or X vortexes EiTatum errata * Genii, imaginary spirits : geniuses, persons of great mental abilities, t Indexes, when pointc.s or tables of contents are meant : indices, when referring to algebraic qualities. attributing qualities to objects, connecting objects, and so on ; and on this fact is founded the true 'philosophical principle of the classification of words. Hence, an arrangement of words ?nto classes according to this principle, followed by a development and 'llu'-tration of tlie principles and rules that regulate us in the proper nse and application of woi'ds in oral and written discourse, appears to approximate as near to a true detinition ot philosophical grammar, as any I am capable of giving. Nouns, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless constituted the original class of words ; (if I may be allowed to assume such a hypothesis as an original class of words ;) but the ever-active principle of association soon ti ansformed i t NOUNS. — CASE. 41 fact in Hence, by a proper innate iving. ed the as an brmod il CASE. Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. I deem the e«8enf,ial qualities of c«sc, in English, to consist, not in the changes or ivjlexions produced on nouns and pronouns, but in the various offices whicli they perform in a sentence, by as- suming diffc^rent positions in regard to other words. In accord- ance with this definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning principles founded in the nature of things. Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to com- prehend what is meant by case. Its real chnracter is extremely simple; but in the different gnimraars it assumes as many mean- ings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant hy cane? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say ho is in a good case^ when he is fiit, and in a bad case, when he is lean, and needs more oats ; and in this sense we apply the term case to denote the state or condition of the horse. So, when we place a noun before a ilfe>rb as actor or subject, we say it is in the nominative case ; but when it follows p transitive verb or preposition, we say it has another case ; that is, it assumes a new position or situation in the sentence : and this we call the objective ,!ase. Thus, the boi/ gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as acting. He is, therefore, in the nominative case. But when I say, Jane struck the 6oy, I do not represent the boy as the actor^ but as the object of the action. He is, therefore, in a new case or condition. And when I say. This is the 5oy*s hat, I do not speak of the boy either as acting or as acted upon ; but as possessing something : for which reason he is in the possessive case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns have three cases or positions. As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are insepa- nouns into verbs, by making them, when employed in a particular manner, expres* sive of affirmation. This same principle also operated in appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qualities to other names of objects ; and in this was consti- tuted the class of words called adjectives or attributes. By the same principle were formed all the other classes. In the following expositionof English grammar on scientific principles, I shall divide words into seven classes ; Nouns or Names, Verbs, Adjectives, Adnouns, or Attributes, Adverbs, Prepositions, Pronouns, and Conjunctions or Connectives. For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work. m ETYMOLOOV AND SYNTAX. rably connocted with tljo verb, it ia impopsiblo for you to under- stand tliom until you sliall liavc acquired some knowlcdi^o of this part of speech. T will, therefore, now give you a partial descrip- tion of the verb in connexion with the noun ; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature. In the forination of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with each other, found it necessary, in the lirst place, to give names to the various objects by which they were suriounded. Hence the origin of the first part of speech, which we denominate the noun. But merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers iiow. Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose offi(;e it should be to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we call 1 1 VERBS. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to SUFFER ; as, I am ; I rule ; I am ruled. Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are aljo divided into regular, irregular, and defective. The terra verb is derived from the Latin word verhiuUf which signifies a word. This part of speech is called a verb or ioord^ because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence : and without a verb and nominative, cither expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leadinj; part of sj^eech ; the verb comes next in order, and is fjir more complex than the noun. These two are the most usefid in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two and, as yon will hereafter learn, of minor importance. For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as convenient as any other. I adopt them, ti>erefore, to be consistent with the principle, tha*, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some practical advantage to the learnc r is tl'creby gained. The following, some consider a good definition. A VERB is a word which expresses affirmation. to undcr- {[fd of this il clescrip- ill enable you m;iy I converso ive names [lence tho the noun. lought of, bat these be done, he lived, iived that necessity )re8s these iall >o, or to 1 ^ neuter. efective. W-, "which or ivord^ sentence : implied, leadinix fill' more 111 in the ar. The o and, as division , will be >re, to be tcnals of efinition, idgment, id. The VERBS. — ACTIVE AND NEUTER. 43 i ■ All active verh expresses action ; and ' The iiominative case is th'3 actor, or subject of the verb ; as, John writes. In tills example, which is the verb ? You know it is tlie word writes, because this word ai<:;;nifies to do ; that is, it expresses ac' Hon, therefore, according to tho definition, it is an active verh. And you know, too, that the noun John is tho actor, therefore John is in the nominative case to the verb writes. In the expres- sions, The man walks — The boy plays— Thunders roll — War- riors fight — you perceive that the words walks, plays, roll, and Jiffht, are active verbs ; and you cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns man, boy, thunders, and ivarriors, are in the nominative case. As no action can bo produced without some agent or moving cause, it follows, tl.at every active verb must have some actor or agent. This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nomina- tive. Nominative, from the Latin nomino, literally signifies to name ; but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the noun or pronoun which is the subject of affirmation. This subject or nominative may be active, passive^ or neuter, as hereafter exemplified. A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or state of being ; as John sits. Now, in this example, John is not represented as an actor, but, as the subject of the verb sits, therefore John is in the nominative case to the verb. And you know that the word sits does not ex- PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. Plausible arguments may bo advanced for rejecting neuter and passive verbs ; but they have been found to be so convenient in practice, that tho theory which recog- nises them.has stood the tost of ages. If you tell the young learner, that.in the following expreasions.The church rests on its foundation; Tho book Meson the desk; Theboys re- main (are) idle, the nouns church, book, and hoys, are represented as acting, and therefore the verbs rests, lies, remain, and are, are active, he will not believe you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And should you proceed farther, and, by alabored and metaphysical investigation and development of the laws of motion, attempt to prove to him that "every portion of matter is influenced by diffci'ent, active i>rinci pies, tending to produce change," and. therefore, every thing in universal nature is alivays acting, it is not at all propable, that you could con- vince his understanding, in opposition to the clearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend ? Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical grammar, the ingenious Homo Tooke stands pre-eminent ; but unfortunately, his prinicpal speculations on the verb, have never met the public eye. William S. Cardell has 44 ETYMOLOGY AND HVMAX. press apparent action^ but a condition of being ; tliat is, it repre- sents John in a particular state of existence ; therefore sits is a neuter verb. In speakinif of the neuter gender of nouns, I in- fonned you, tliat neuter means neither ; from which follows, that neuter tfender implies neithei* gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. llonte, by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that neuter^ when ai)plied to verbs, means neither of the other two classes ; that is, a n?uter verb is one which is neither activ ', nor passive. In these exampK'S, The man stands — The lady lives — The child sleeps — The world exisis — the words »/an i OF THE VERB. A VERB is a word which expresses action ; as, Man exists ; Trees grow ; Waters flow ; Mountains stand ; I am.. All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one, expressed or implied. The pillar stands; that is, it keeps itself vn. an erect or standing posture ; it upholds Gt sustains itself in that position. They a'r; i. e. they air themselves, or breathe air ; they inspirit, vivify, or uphold themselves by inhaling air. Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a personal or verbal one implied. The clouds jwoi-e ; i. e. move themselves along. The troops marched twenty mile: a day ; i. e. marched themselves. The moon shines:— 1\\& moon shines or sheds a shining, sheen, lustre, or brightness. The sparrow ^itf« :— flies or takes a flight. Talkers talk or speak words or talk ; Walkers walk walkings or walks ; The rain rains ram ; Sitters sit or hold si^^rnps or 5£mon«. VERBS. — NUMBER AND PERSON. 45 , it repre- sits is a ins, I in- ows, that na«ciiline ghi, you er of the 3 neither ids— The Is stand 8y ins, man^ iiise each 1 a noun tor: and , but the man h ; ir state ; I to dis- 1 cannot nse with to sing, ny word le runs ; e words, )refixed ley con. der stand Qusly sup- exists ; implied. upholds r breathe or verbal marched 3n shines )r takes a Iks; The jugate — I lady, thou ladiest, &c., is worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are not verbs.. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as nouns. This will be exphiincd by and by. To verbs belong number, person , mood, and tense. At present I shall spejik only of the number and person of verbs; but hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties. And permit tne to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the intricacies of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles in- volved in them. Only such princi|)les will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get along rapidly ; but en- deavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle, be- fore you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for the next. Number and person of verbs. You recollect, that the nom- inative is the ac/or or subject^ and the active verb is the action per- formed by the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connex'on or relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, only one action, at the same instant, «an be done ; as, The girl writes. The nominative girl is here < i the singular number, because it signifies but one person ; and the verb writes denotes but one ac- tion, which the girl performs ; iherefore the verb writes is of the To prove that there is no such thing as a neuter verb, the following appear to be the strongest arguments adduced. 1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence; but the component parts of every thing are at all times " influenced by difTerent, active principles, tend* ing to produce change." Hence, it follows, that no being or thing can be represented in a neuter or non-acting state. This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be identified with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the principles of physical science. The correctness of this position may be doubted ; but if it can be clearly demonstrated that every particle of matter is always in motion it does not, by any means, follow, that we cannot speak of things in a state of quiescence. What is false in fact may bo correct in grammar. The point contested, is not whether things always act, hut whether, when we assert or affirm something respecting them, we always represent them as acting, 1. " 'erbs were originally used to express the motions or changes of thuigs which reduced ot ' ous actions, and, by an easy transition, were afterward applied, in the 6ame way, to things whose actions were not apparent. This assumption is untenable, and altogether gratuitous. 3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood ; and, as this mood com- mands some one to do something, any verb which adopts it, must be active. Thus, in the common-place phrases, "Be there quickly; Stand out of my way, Sit or K* farther." 40 £TYMOLOar AND SYNTAX. >i i singular number, npfreeing with its iioini native girl. When the noniiiiutivo case is jUural^ the verb tniist be })Iiiral ; as, 'nrlft write. Take notice, iha singular verbs ends in .s, but the noun is gejierally ])lural wiien it ends in .v; thus, The nirl writes — the girls write. Pcrmn, strictly sixvikinif, is a quality that l)elon<;s not to verhs^ but to nouns anronouns. /is of the Jirst person and singular number ; Thou is second person, sing.; lie, /S7a', or It, is third per. sing.; We \^ first ^qv. plural ; Ye or You is second per. plural; 7'hey is third ])cr. plural. These pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office tiiat the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before tlie verb, they are, therefore, tiie nominatives to tiie verb. Notice, particularly, the ditlerent variations or endings of the verb, as it is thus conjugated in the Indicative Mood, Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. Per. I walk, 1. Per. We Walk, 2. Per. Thou yfaWiest, 2. Per. Ye or you walk, 3. Per. He walks, or ) 3. Per. They walk, or i the boy walks, >• the boys walk, j" or wixYketh. ) It is adiinttud that these verbs are here employed in an oc^tDC sense ; but it is cer- tain, that they arc not used according to their proper, literal meaning. When I toll a man, Utcrally, to stand, sit, or He, by moving, he would disobey me ; but when I say, " Stand out of my way," I employ the neuter verb stand, instead of the active verb move or go, and in correspondent sense. My moaning is, Move yourself out of my way; or take your stand somewhere else. This, however, does not prove that stand is properly used. If wo choose to overstep the bounds of custom, wo can em- ploy any word in the language as an active-transitive verb. He, sit, and lie, may be explained in the same manner. 4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the manner of action. They must, therefore, be considered active verbs. The child sleeps sound- ly; He sits genteelly; They live contentedly and happily together. The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By using adverbs in connexion with verbs, wo can fairly prove that some verbs are not active. It is in- correct to say, I ara happily ; They were peacefully ; She remains quietly ; The lields appear greenly. These verbs in their common acceptation, do not express ac. Hon : for which reason we say, I am happy : They are peaceful, &e. IJut in the expressions, The cluld sleeps soundly. She sits gracefully; They live happily \ It rt VERBS. — NCMirEU AND PRR80N. 47 ^licn tlie r/.v write. jrcncnilly rls write. ! to verhs^ tho verb number ; ^ manner tho uuuii to agree lie, She, ift of tho* ion, sing.; %l ; Ye or I. These the same I en placed lie verb. gs of the alk, >?• ik. a 3ut it is ccr- Whcn I tell I but when I |>f the active irsclf out of prova that I we can em- lie, may be I manner of beps sound- Ing adverbs lo. It is in> \iotly; Tho express ac. JlJut in the Ive happily This Uisphiy of tho verb shows you, that wlienever it ends in €!it^ it is of tho Hccond person singular ; but when ihe verb ends in », or eth, it is of tho third person sinj^ular. Walkest^ ridcsty stande.stj arc of the second person singular; and wulks or wnlkcth rides or rideth, stands or sVindcth^ are of the third persun KJuguhir. I have told you, that when tiio nominative is singuhvr number, tlio V(!rb must be; when tho nominative is plural, the vcnb must be; and when the nominative is first, second, or third person, tho verb must be- of tho same person. If you look again at the fore- going conjugation o\' vmI/c, you will notice that tho verb varies its endings in tho singular, in order to agrco mforfn with tho first, second, and third person of its nominative; but in tho ;>/«- ral it docs not vary its endings from tho first person singidar. Tho verb, however, agrees in sense with its nominative in the plural, as well as in tho singular. Exorcise a little mind, and you will perceive that agreement and government in language do not consist merely in Xhaform of words. Now, is it not clear, that when I say, I ^oalk, tho verb walk is singular, because it ex- presses but one action ? And when I say, two men walk, is it not equally apparent, that walk h plural, because it expresses two actions ? In the sentence. Ten men walk, tho verb walk denotes ten actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there must be as many actions as there arc actors ; and that tho verb, when it has 710 form or ending to show it, is as strictly plural, as when it has. 80, in the phrase, We walk, the verb walk is first person, because it expresses the actions penormed by tho speakers : Ye or you walk, tho verb is second person, denoting and contentedly ; we employ the verbs sleeps, sits, and live, in an active sense. When no action is intended, we say, They live happy and contcn ' '. If, on scientific principles, it can bo proved that those verbs generally denomi- nated neuter, originally expressed action, their present accepted meaning will still oppose the theory, for the generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of action. Thus I have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of the modern theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to estimate it according to its value. To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as shall be found scien- tifically correct and unexceptionable, has hitherto baffled the skill, and transcemied the learning of our philosophical writers. If its essential quality, as is generally sup- posed, is^made to consist in expressing afflrmation, it remains still to bo defined wlien a verb expresses afiirmation. In E nglish and in other languages, words appropriated to express afiirmation, are often used without any such force ; our idea of afiirmation, in such instances, beiiig the mere inference of custom. In the sentence, — " Think, love, and hate, denote moral actions," the words think, love, and hate, are nouns, because they are mere names of actions. So, when I say, " John, write is an irregular verb," tho word write is a noun ; but when I 48 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. the actions of the persons spoken to ; tliird person, They walk. The verb, then, when correctly written, always agrees in 8ense\\\i\\ its nominative in number and person. At present yuii are loarniiij^ two parts of speech, neither of which can be understood without a know!cdi2;e of the other. It thcrtforo becomes necessary to explain tlieni both in the same lecture. You have been already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and tlio objective. Possessive Case. Thc^ possessive case denotes the pos- sessor of something ; as, This is John^s horse. This expression implies, (hat John is the owner or possessor of the horse ; and, th;it Jiorse is the property which he possesses. When I say, These are the men's, and those, the boys^ hats, the two words, " boys' hats," plainly convey the idon, if they have any meaninia; at all, that the boys 02vn or jMssess the hats. "Samuel Badger sells ^;oys' hats." Who owns the hats? Mr. Badger. IIow is that fact ascertained ? Not by the words, "boys' liats," which, taken by themselves, imply, not that they are Mr. Badyer'^s hats, nor that they arc /or boys, but that they are hats o/*, or belonying to, or possessed by boys. ]3ut we infer from the words connected with the phrase, "boys' hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated. In the phrases, /y/.t' hats, coarse hat-*, hiyh-croivned Jiats, broad- brhnmed hats, woollen, neiv, ten, some, these, many hats, the words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or define the term hats ; but the term boys' does not describe or limit the meaning of hats. Boys\ therefore, is not, as some suppose, au adjective. "The slave's master." Does the slave possess the master? iTes. The slave has a master. If he has him, then \\q possesses him ; — he sustains ihat relation to him which we call possession. say, " 3o\m, write- your copy," write is called a verb. Why is this word con- ridered a noun in ono construction, and a verb in the other, when both cotistruciions, until you pass beyond the word write, are exactly alike P If write does not express action in the fornler sentence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it is intro- duced in the same manner. On scientific principles, lorite must bo considered a noun in the latter sentence, for it docs not express action, or make an atflrmation; but it merely names the action which 1 wish John to perform, and atflrmation is the infc rential meaning. The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is divested of its afflr- mative or verbal force. In both these moods, it is always presented in its noun-state. If, after dinner, I say to a servant, " Wine," he infers that I wish him to bring me ■' I NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 40 'hey walk. sense with neither of other. It the same liavc tluee the pos- tossessor of ssesaes. j' hats, the they liavo tlie hats, lats? Mr. ;ho words, , that they , that they it wo infer ," that the the actual at 8, hroaJ- the words I, or define r limit the appose, an ie master? le possesses jpossession. Ihis word con- potistruotions, |s not express th, it is intro- iderodanoun lation; but it Ml is tho infe- led of its afflr- |ts noun'State. to bring m« V I. I A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an apostrophe, and geru*rally an s after it ; thus, John^s hat; the hotfs coat. \Vlion a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in «, the apostrophe is added, but no additional s ; as, Boys' hats; Eagles' wini^s." When a sinpfular noun enecn adopted, and, in many instances, is still practised, in our language. An, originally affixed to our verbs, in tlie progress of reflncmcnt, was changed to en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plural number of our verbs was de- noted by the termination en ; thus, they iveren, they loven : but, as these terminations do not supercede the necessity of expressing the subject of affirmation, as is the case in the Latin and Greek verbs, they have been laid aside, as unnecessary excrescences. For the same reason, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular. In support of the position, that these terminations were once separate words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote the feminine gender of some nouns we affix ess ; as, heiress, instructress. Ess is a contraction of the Hebrew noun, essa, a female. Of our verbs, the termination est is a contraction of doeat, eth, of NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 61 s so as to 58 SO as to .alf/fiis, on •t of sGjm- li thereby its of the rate from it is com- lerate and I relations liroiigh all it first, ap- ?, you will I to detect, why? — ider, and '■ ? — case, why? — ransitive formed ? ood, and ind why ? it. md, in so knswcr all \ctii/ com- iir language. Unged to en, prbs was de- Fermiuations is the case Ixcrescences. kge, dispense te words, we I some nouns Jbrew noun, aeat, eth, of mitted the order of parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me ; but, recolle the nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb " < W \es," and governs it agreeably to IluLE 3. '..be nominative case governs the verb : — that is, the nominative determines the number and person of the verb. Declined — Sing. nom. hand, pcss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands, poss. hands', obj. hands. Trembles is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, it ex- presses action — third person, singular number, because the nom- inative " hand," with which it agrees, is according to Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominate in number and person. You must not say that the verb is of the third person because it is spoken of. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person, and singular or plural number, because its nominative is Conjugated — First ])ers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou tremblest, 3 pers. he trembles or the hantl trembles. Pluial, 1 pers. we trem- bles, 2 pers. ye or y u tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble. doeth, s, of does. "Wo say thou dost or doesi love ; or thou lovest ; i. e. love-dos^, or \oye-doest. Some believe these terminations to be contractions of havest, haveth, has. We affix ed, a contraction of dede, to the present tense of verbs to denote that the action named, is, dede, did, doed, or done. To and do, from the Gothic noun taui signifying act or effect, are, according to Home Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and force ; and when the custom of aflixing some more ancient verbalizing adjunct, began to be dropped, its place and moaning were generally supplied by prefixing one of these. When I say, " I am going to ivalk," the verbal or affirmative force is conveyed by the use of to, meaning the same as do ; 62 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. m a ' '> Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has over another, in causing that other word to be in some particular casej number, jjerson, mood, or tense, ILLUSTRATION. * Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb. If you employ the pronoun /, which Is of the first person, sin- gular number, fis the nominntive to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers. sing., thus, I smile ; and when your nominative is second pers. sing., your verb mnst be, thou smiles^ Why, in the latter instance, does the ending of the verb change to est ? Because the nominative changes. And if your nominative is third person, the verb will vary again ; thus, lie smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is then, that the nominative governs the verb; that is, the nominative has power to change the /orwi and meaning of the verb, in respect to num. and person. Govern- menf, thus far, is evinced in i\\Qform of the words, as well as in the sense. Rule 4. The verb must agree loith its nominative in number and person. It is improper to say, thou Amr, the men hears. "Why im- proper ? Because hear is first pers. and the nominative thou is second pers,, hears is singular, and the nom. men is plural. Rule 4th says, The verb must agree with its nominative. The expres- sions should, therefore, be, thou hcares^, the men hear ; and then the verb would agree wnth its nominatives. But ivhy must the verb agree with its nominative? Why must we say, thou talk- est the man talks, men Udk? Because the genius of our lan- guage, and the common consent of those who speak it require such a construction : i\\\(\.i\n?, requisition amounts to a law or rule. This rule, then, is founded in the nature of things, and sanctioned bg good usage. Rule 12. A noun or prono^in in the j^ossessive case, is governed by the noun which it possesses. It is correct to say, The man eats, he eats ; but we cannot say, the man dog eat??, he dog eats. Why not? Because the man is and walk is employed merely as a verbal name ; that is, I assert that I shall do the act which I name by the word tvalk, or the act of loalking. Perhaps such sijeculations as these will prove to be more curious than profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by a verbalizing adjunct, it is in the noun-state, tvadi does not express adirmation, still this theory would be vory inconvenient in practice. I shall resume this siibject in Lecture XI. NOUNS AND VERBS. — PARSING. 58 er which ^er word If or tense. erson, sin- Qust be of ninative is Why, in ge to e,st ? I i native is , the man werns the form and Govern- well as in 'n number Why iin- e thou is il. Rule e expres- and then must the lou talk- cur Ian- it require V or rule, motioned governed imot say, e man is hall do the profitable, the verbal !, .and does actice. here represented as Ihe possessor^ and dog the property^ or thing possessed ; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to the possessor, the thing which he is represented as pos- sessing, the i^ossessor shall take a particular form to show its case^ or relation to the property ; thus, The man's dog eats, his dog eats. You perceive, then, that the added noun, denoting the thing pos- sessed, has power to change the form of •the noun or pronoun de- noting the pos! ^ssor, according to Rule 12. thus, by adding dog, in the jireceding examples, man is changed to man\'ff and he to his. Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite familiar to you ; and then you will be prepared to ana- lyze correctly and systematically^ the following exercises. When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you ; and, if you have rot alrendy committed the definition and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. This mode of pro- cedure will enable you to learn all the definitions and rules by applying them to practice. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Rain descends — Rains descend — Snow falls — Snows fall — Thunder rolls — Thunders roll — Man's works decay — Men's la- bors cease — John's dog barks — Eliza's voice trembles — Julia's sister's child improves — Peter's cousin's horse limps. In the next place, I will parse a noun and a neuter verb, which verb^you will notice, difiers from an active only in one respect. *' Birds repose on tlie branches of trees." Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature — common, the name of a genus or class — masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males and females — third person, spoken of — plural number, it implies moie than one — and in tJie nominative case, it is the subject of the verb " repose," and governs it according to Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb. Declined — Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. [)ird. Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds. Bepose is a verb, a word that signifies to be — neuter, it express- es neither action nor passion, but a state of being — third j)eison, plural number, because the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nomi- native in number and jicrson. Declined — 1. peis. sing. I rcj^ose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. pers. he repo-es, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or you repose, 3. per, . they repose, or birds repose. 54 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. t r and neuter verb8 that are distinsruisbed Now parse those nouns by italics in tlie following EXERCISES IN PARSING. The hook lies on the desk — The cloak hangs on the wall— Man's days are few — Oathmor's warriors sleep in death — Caltho reposes in the nanow Itouse — Jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. Tlie sunbeams rest on tlie grave where her beauty sleeps. You may parse the!*e and the preceding exercises, and all that follow, five or six times over, if you please. OBJECTIVE CzVSE.— ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS. The objective case expresses the object of an action or of a relation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or a preposition. A noun is in the objective case when it is the object of some- thing. At present I shall explain this case only as the object of an action; but when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also illustrate it as the object of a relation. An active verb is transitive when the action passes over from the subject or nomiaative to an object ; as, Richard strikes John. Transitive means passing. In this sentence the action of the verb strikes is transitive, because it passes over from the n(^nina- tive Richard to the object John : and you know that the noun John is in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For example : Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some ol>je(«t in view. In order to a-*certain that object, put the question, Gallileo invented what? The telescope. Telescope, then, is the real object of the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented ; and, therefore, telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse kicks the servant — Carpenters build houses — Ossian wrote poems — Columbus discovered America — you readily perceive, that the verbs kicks, build, lorote, and discovered, express transitive actions ; and you cannot be at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case : — they are servant, houses, poems, and America. The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the following rule: the nominative docs something ; the ob- jective has something done to it. The nominative generally comes VERBS. — TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. n tinguished the wall — h — Caltho toe on tlje where her nd all that ERBS. action or B verb, a t of some- e object of as to the lation. isses over Richard ion of the e n(^Tiina- the noun the action matter is pe. Now invention, )l)ject, put Telescope, transitive jve case. Id houses ca — you iscovered, ss to tell it, houses, ly known the ob- Uy comes before the verb ; and the objective, after it. When I say, Georffe struck the servant, George is in the nominative, and servant is in the objective case; but, when I say, The servant struck George, servant is in the nominative case, and George is in the objective. Thus you perceive, that Case means the different state or situa- tion of nouns with regard to other words. It is sometimes very ditHcult to tell the '-ase of a noun. I shall, therefore, take up this subject again, wlien I come to give you an explanation of the participle and prejwsition. Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in the nominative case independent, sometimes in the nominative case absolute, sometimes in apposition in tlie same case, and sometim s in the nominative or objective case after the neuter to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb. Tiiese cases are illustrated in Lecture X. and in the 2 1 and 22 rules of Syntax. ACTIVE-INTKANSITIVE VERBS. An active verb is transitive^ when the action terminates on an object : but An active verb is intransitive^ when the action does not terminate on an object ; as, John walks. You perceive that the verb ivolks, in this examble, is intransi- tive, because the action doci^ not pass over to an object; that is, the action is confined to the agent John. The following sign will generally enable you to distinguish a transitive verb fiom an in- transitive. Any verb that will make sense with the words a thing, or a person, after it, is transitive. Tiy these verbs by the sign, love, help, conquer, reach, subdve, overcome. Thus you can say, 1 love a pirson or thing — I can help a person or thing — and so on. Hence you know that these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following examples : smile, go, come,play^ bark, tvalk,flu. "vVe cannot say, if we mean to speak English, I smile a. person or thing — I go a person or thing : — hence you per- ceive that these verbs are not tran«*itive, but intransitive. If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have a clear (conception of tlie nature of transitive and intransi- tive verbs. Before I close this subject, howevt-r, it is necessary farther to remark, that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is calKid a mental or moral action ; and other?, a corporeal or physical action. Verbs expressing tlie different atfections or operations of the mind, denote moral actions ; as, Brutus loved 66 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. his country ; James hates vice ; We believe the tale : — to repent^ to relent^ to thinks to rejlect^ to mourn,, to muse. Tliose oxpre.^siDg the actions produced by nialter, denote physical actions ; as, The d()(f hears the bell ; Virgil lorote the JSiiead ; Columbus discover- ed America ; — to see^ io feel,, to taste,, to smell, to run,, to talk, to Jlf/, to strike. In the sentence, Charles resembles his father, the V(!rb resembles does not appear to express any action at all ; yet the construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb per- forms, are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an active-trari' sitive verb, governed by the noun father in the objective case. This you may easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a direct reference to its object. The foilwing verbs are of this character ; Have,, own,, retain ; as, I have a book. Active intransitive verbs are frequently made transitive. When I say, The birds///, the verb/y is m'ransitive ; but when I say. The hoy Jlies the kite, the verb fit/ is transitive and governs the noun kite in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse walks rapidly : The boy rtms swiftly ; My friend lives well ; The man died of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are intransitive ; in the following they are transitive : The man walks his horse ; the boy ran a race ; My friend lives a holy life ; Let me die the death of the righteous. The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deem- ed sufficiently critical for practical purposes ; but if we dip a little deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost every verb has either r personal or verbal ob- ject, expressed or implied. Verbal objects, which are the efects or productions resulting from the actions, being necessarily im- plied, are seldom expressed. The fire burns. If the fire burns, it must burn wood, coal, tal- low, or some other combustible substance. The man laughs. Laughs what? Laughs laughter or laugh. They walk ; that is, They walk or take walks. Rivers flow (move or roll themselves or their waters) into the ocean. '* I sing the shady regions of the west." " And smile the wrinkles from the brow of age." The child wept itself sick ; and then, by taking (or sleeping') a short nap, it slept itself quiet and well ajrain. " He will soon sleep his everlasting sleep ;" that is, " He will sleep the sleep of death." Thinkers think thoughts ; Talkers talk or employ words, talk. 1 NOUN'S AND VERD6. — PAltSlNO. 6Y or speeches ; The rain raina rain. " Upon Sodom and Oomorrali the Lord rained jire and brimstone T " I must (jo the whole lewithP " I shall soon fjo the way of Jill the oartli." ^ iVovv pUasc to turn back again, and peruse this lecture atten- tively ; after which you may l)ar.se, systemaLieally, the following exercises containing nouns in the throe cases, and active tran- sitive verbs. The printer 2^rints books. ■ • Prints is a verb, a word that signifies lo do — active, it express- es action — transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer" to tlic object "books" — third pers. sing, numb., becauj-o the nominative "printer," with which it agrees, is aecoiding to Rule 4. The verb must acjrcc with its nominative case in mim- ber and person. Declined — 1, pers. sing. T print, 2. pers. thou printcst, 3. pers. he prints, or the ])rinter prints, and so on. Books is a noun, the name of a thing — commo.\ the name of a sort of things, — neut. gend. it denotes a thing without ^^ox — third pers. spoken of — i>hir. num. it implies more than one — ana in ihe objective case, it is the object of the action, ex[)ressed by tlje ac- tive-transitive verb " prints," and is governed by it according to lluLE 20. Active-transitire verbs govern ihe objective case. The noun books is llius di'clined — Sing. nom. book, poss. book's, obj. book — riur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books. Rule 20. Transitive verbs //ow/'« the objective case ; that is, they require the noun or prtmoun following them to be in that case; and this requisition is government. J^ronouns Iiavc a ))ar- ticuiar/orwi to syit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say. She struck he ; I gave the bo k to they. Wliy not ? Be- cause the genius uf our language requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or ])reposition (to is a preposition) to assume that form which we call the objective form or case. Accoidinoly, the construction should be, She strurk him. ; I gave the book to thenin — Read, again, the illustration of "government" on page 52. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Trans, verb. Poss. case. prints children's makes ladies' beats the man's kicks the servant's struck that man's lost those boys' sunk Nom. case. Julius Harriet The servant The horse The boy The child Tl'.e tempest Obj. case. ] 'rimers, bonnets, horse, ma-ter. chikl. ball, those metc.hants' vessels. a"^ 68 F.TYMOLO(JY AND SYNTAX. Nom. CISC. The gale Pope CiciM'o Alexander Perry WaHliiniri"n Trans, verb. sweeps tiaiiHiatcd procured conquered met obtained Poss. case, Ohj. case. the mountain's hrow. Homer's Illiad. Mil*)'s re case. Darius' army, the enemy's fleet ills country's freedom. Note I. The words the, that, those, and his, you need not parse. 2. A noun in the i)osscssive case, is somotinios governed by a noun understood ; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson]. As you have been analyzing; nouns in their three cases, it be- comes nc/essary to [uwent, in the next place, ihe declension of nouns, for you must decline every noun you parse. Declension means puttini;^ a noun throui>'h the ditferent c;isos; and you will notice, that the possessive case varies from the nominative iti its termination, or ending, but the objective case ends like the nomi- native. Tile nominative and objective eases of nouns, must, there- fore, be ascertained by their situation in the sentence, or by con- sidering the otHce they peiform. DECLENSION OF NOUN'S. SINO. PLUR. Nom. m;in men Pofs. man's men's Obj. man men. Now, if you have }>;irsed every word in the preceding exfun- ples, (exce|)t the, (hat, those, and /t.v,) you may proceed with rao and parse the examples in the following oxercists, in which are presented nouns and active-intransitive verbs. " My flock increases yeaily." Flock is a noun, a name denoting animals — a noun of multi- tude, it signities many in one collective body — masculine and feminine gender, denoting both sexes — third person, spoken of — singular number, it denotes but one flock — and in the nominative case, it is the active agent of the verb "increases," and governs it, according to Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb, (Decline it.) Increases is a verb, a verb that signifies to do — active, it ex- presses action — intiansiti\e, the action does not pass over to an object — of the thiid person, singular number, because its nomina- tive "flock" conveys unity of idea; and it agrees with "flock" agreeaidy to Rule 10. A voan of multitude conveying unity a/idea^ must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in ihe singular. SING. PLUR. Nom. king kings Poss. king's kings' Obj. king kings i NOUNS AND VERBS. — PAR8IK0. 59 case. V. A. y. ilom. parse. hy a noun iscs, it be- -.Icnsion of declension \ you will itivo in its the nomi- ust, there- 3r by con- )g ex'im- with mo which are of raiilti- iline and )ken of — 1 mi native governs the verb. ive, it ex- ver to an nomina- "Hoc'k" ?ea, mu8t •' The (lividoj multitude hustily disperKe.''* Midtitwle is a noun, a nami tliat denotes persons — a collective noun, or noun of mnititu^l', it sjnnifios many — masculine and feminine <;ender, it im|)lio8 both sexes — third person, spoken of — siniifular number, it represents but one multitude, or collective body ; (but in another scnso, it is plural, as it convoys plurality of idea, and, aleo, implies more iudividnals than one;) — and in the nominative case, it is the aV()ViMnoiit in ijjrnrnniar dopcutis, not on the number of words which you parse, but on tlie (iitrntion whic-h yon jjjivc the subjoct. You nidi/ parse ffic saiiio, exercises sevenil times oeer. For the gratilie-ation of ihoso who prcfor it, [ here present an- other DIVISION OF VKiins. Verbs are of two kinds, tratisitivo and intransitive. A verb is transitive wlu-n the action jiflects an object; a'', *' Earthquakes rock kinLjdonis; thrones and pahices are shaken down ; and potentates, princes, and subjects, are buried in one common grave." The nominative to a passive verb, is the object^ but not the agent, of the action. A verb is iustransitive wlien it has no object ; as, " The waters came upon me ;" " I am he who was, and is, and is to come" As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now put to you a few cpieslions, all of wliich you ought to be able to answer before you proceed any farther. QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED TN rARSINCr. V7ith what two general divisions of oramniar does the second lecture bejjin ? — Of what aoes Et.vinoU)i>:y treat? — Of what does Syntax treat? — On what is based the true })rinciple of (classifica- tion ? — How do you ascertain the part of speech to wliich a word belongs ? — What is meant by its manner of meaning ? — Name the ten parts of speech. — Which of these are consilered the most important? — By what sign may a noun be distijiguished ? — ILtw many kinds of nouns are there ? — What belong to nouns ? — What is gender? — How many genders have nouns? — What is per- son? — How many persons have noims? — What is number? — How many nuu»bers have nouns? — ^What is case? — how many cases have nouns? — Does case consist in the inflections of a noun? — How many kinds of verbs are there?— By what sign may a verb be known ? — Wiiat belong to verbs ? — What is syn- thi'sis ? —What i> an ly -lis ? — Wh;it is parsing ?— Rej>eat iho onlcr verb. s. iiimlx'i* of n jjjivc the !* over. Yd^QWi an- il tjcct ; as re shaken led in one 10 agent, of Id waters U>mey will now JO ablo to r. le second kvhat does ;lassilica- h a word Vame tlio the most ? — ILtw -What is per- iniber ? — )W naany ons of a viiat sign it is syn- ihc ord^r 'h NorMS Avn vi:iiHH. — par.'ino. w of parsin!v tho nonn. — llcpo.it the order of parsinix the vcob, — Wliat rule do you apply in luirsin}^' a nuiin in the posseftsivo eiise ? — Wliat ruh', in parsinir a noun in dm nominative case ?— What rultwipplies in parsiiij^ a verb' — What is meant by gov- ernment ? — Explain ruU's J], 4, and 1*2. — \\y what rule are the nominative an.i objeclive eases of nouns known? — l»y wiiat sign can vou distinguish a transitive from an intransitive verb? — l)o transitive verbs over express miiond action ? — Are intransitive and neuter verbs over used as transitive ? — Give some examph'S of transitive veibs with pcrsouaL and Virhal objects. — What rule do you ap|>ly in parsing a noun in the objt'ctive case? — Explain rule liU. — In parsing a veib agn!<;ing with a noun, of iiultitudo con- voy ing^j/a/'w/^/y of idea, what rule do you api)ly ? QUESTIONS OxV THE NOTES. Whether the leiirncr l)0 reciuired to answer the following qiio.i'don , or not, is of course, left discretiondry with the teacher. Tli authoi ukes tlio liberty to sugjjest tlie expediency oi not, generally, ciilbrcii'g such a requisition, until the jiupil .ocs Ikrom^/t the book a second time. Name some piirticipial nouns. — What are abstnict nouns? — What is the distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives ? — What n na- tural nouns? — Artilicial nouns? — What is the distinction betwe"n m 'te- riai and imniatcriitl nouns? — Are nouns ever of the masculine and femi- nine gender? — Give examples. — When arc nouns, naturally neuter, con- verted into the masculine or feminine gender? — Give examples. — Speak some nouns that are always in the singular number. — vSome thatarc alv/ays plural. — Speak some that arc in the same form in both numbers. — Name «// the various ways of forming the i)lural number of nouns. — tf what number are the nouns news, means, alms, amends? — Name the plurals to the following compound nouns, handful, cupful, spoonful, brother-in-law, court-martial. QUESTIONS ON THE PIIILOSOPIIICAL NOTES. What has usually been the abject of philosophical investigations of language ? (page 32.) — Do the syntactical dei)endan . ';: .xnd connexions of words depend on their original import ? — Is the p^v or of association and custom elficient in changing the radical meaning of some words ?— Have words intrinsically a signification of their own ; or is their meaning inferential ; i. e. such as custom 1;..,^ assigned to them? (page 38.) — On whut fact is based the triM3, ^ iiiloscphical principle of classification ? — Define philosophical grammar. — Which is supposed to be the original part of speech ? — How were the oth>.rs formed from that ? — How many parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific deve- lopment and arrangement of the principles of our language? — Name them. — What testimony h.avc "vve that many things do not act? (page 43.) — Repeat some of the arguments in favor of, and against, the prin- ciple which regards all verbs as active. — lu Avhat moods are verbs used in their nowu-s/(/^e .'' (page 48.) — Give examples. — What is said of the terminations est, eth, s, and en, and of the words to and do. REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS. You hrxvo already been informed, that verbs are the most important 69 ETVMOI.OtlY AND HYNTAX. im. n i'l r imrt of Hpoccli in onr lanpuajfo; ami to convince you of t'loir importance, I now Icli yon, Hint yon (•.•inuol, express a tlioui^/il or coinninnicatt! an tiil\ //*<• stittv or iiKniiin- of hriiii:;, l»ii(, likcwiso, all tlu« dif- fcrtMit (irtions ami mori'ninits ot' all rroaturi'S and tliin)^.-«, wIh'IIum' nni- mafo or inaniinato. Ah yet I have n'von yon only a partial description of this sort of words ; hut when yon are better prepareil to comprehend the snbjeel, 1 will explain all their properties, and show yon the proper manner of nsin^ them. A word that is ):fein>rally a «()»/», sometimes becomes a rc;7> ; and a verb is fretpu'nily used as a noun. These chanfjes depend on the senso •which the word conveys; or, rather, on the ollice it perfoms in tlio sen- tence ; that is the manner in which it is applied to thinjifs. For instance ; ^'/ori/ is jjenerally a noun ; as, " The ^1'"'!/ . He i'vr/A'.< swiftly ; iScavenjjers siccc/* the streets; thi> ship .vrwV.s well. In these j)hrasos, the words uufll:rbs ; in the following thoy are lunms ; Those are pleasant <(?(»//»•.< ; He takes a broad sjccf/; ; Tho ship lowered her sails. Tims yon soo, it is itnpi>ssil)l«» for you to biM'omo jv jrrjuniiiariaii without exorcisiiio- vour juliiiincnt. If you Iimvo sujlicii'iit, rtso- hiliou to do tins, yon will, in ji sliort liuio, pcrft'ctly uinUvsfand tho imtufo nml olllo of iho dillortuit, j>arts of sja-ei!!), their vari- ous |>ro]>erlio^ !ind rolatioiis, and the rnh>s ol' syntax that N;>]>ly to thrui ; and, in a fow m^'oUs, ho alilo to spoak and writo accu- r.Urlv. But von uuist hot inko things for liranicd, without ex- nndninjj their proprioty :ind corrct'tnc^s. No. You aro not a in(M'o autonxitofi, or ho>/-inachii/c ; but a rationnl l>oini>'. You ono^ht, IhcnMoiv, to t'.ink niothoiliivdly, to rrason soundly, and to invc.tti- aafc ovcry principlo oriiitally. I>on't ho afiaid to !hi)ik for i/ours('//. Vo!i know not th«' hio-h d«'>tiny lliat awaits you. \ ou know not tho hiiirht lo whi« Ii von niav so.ir in the soah' of into lootu;>l o\istonoi>. (Jo on, tlion, boldly, and witii uiiyioIdin<>' per- soveranoo ; aiid if viv,i do not gain adniittauio into ihu temple of fanio, strivo, at all hazards, to drink oii tho fountain which gur- glos from its balicii(l llio jji'opor •b ; nnd a lllO SIMISO II (ho HOIl- innlanco ; 1 1 if I siiy, i^lorif 1)0- 0, love is a •.V Mwil'lly ; irasof, tlio (hoy are The bhip iininariaii ii'iit I'tso- uUvsland heir ViU'i- 'lut s;>i>ly I'ito jiccu- tlioiit ox- >t H nuMo o invc.sd- hi nix: for II. ^'ou of inte' ni>' per- omple of ich giir- sliould elision ; c posseg- ly should iig Note. NOUNH AMI) VHIinH. — PALSK SYNTAX. cn TIio men lji1)0is in tlio field. Tlioii slimis the lifrlit. JIo dure Tliy miccstoiH virfuo is nol thine. If (ho wrilor of (his sontonco meant one ancestor, he should have in- serted th(^ apuslropho nflor r, thus " anccxtor^'i ;" if more than one, after s, thus " (tiirfs/or.s' virluo ; " hut, hy iienhHiliiifij (o place the apostro- ]»ho, ho has left his nioatiiiiji; anihigiioiis, and wo cannot ascertain it. Tills, and a thoiinnnd other mistakes you will often meet with, donionslrale the (ruth of my d(!claration, namely, (hat " without the knowledge and application of (j^ramniar rules, you will often Hi)cak and write in such a manner as not (o bo nndcrsfooiiy Yon may now turn hack and re-exiiiiiine the "illustration" erson with its nominative. Thou is of the seeoiid j)ersoii, and shuns is of the thinl. It should be, " thou shunnest," (fee. You may correct the other sentences, and, like- wise the foUov'ng exercises in FALSE SYNTAX. A variety of pleasiiiut, as there is a marked disiinction in liieir i>anicnhir meaning and application, each class rccpiires a separate explanation, llenco, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting their established classifi- cation, as articles, numerals, and demonstratives, and by giving them new names. The clinracter and application of a and the can be learned as soon when they are styled articles^ as when they are di'iiomiiiated specif y'uuj or defi)iiu(j adjectives. The history of this part of sju'cch is very brief. As there are bnt two ariicles, a or an, ;uid t/u\ yon will know them wherever they occur. A noun nscd without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in its //^;/i'le yon pleaso. A or ch, then is indefinite, be- cause it leaves the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far ;is re^Mrds the persni spoken to, vague, or ind( terminate ', that is, not definite. But when lefereiice is made to a particaLir ohjcct, we en)i>!oy ilie, a^^, ''Clive me the pen;" "Ih'ing nie He I ^ OF ARTICLES. 05 nit their ?. A or I the de- a kind, to a par- ouse, the a distinct classitica- ikI /owr/A, Icliiie tho ley niigiit, I head of there is a )plication, practical d chissifi- by giving a and the as when there arc wherever riclive, is " Gold is f I'll it and •0 ol)je('t. (xivenie , etoii any hiite, bo- ap[tlicil, ri/iinate ; articiilir '• nu.» t' e apple, or the apples." When such a requisition is made, yon are not al liberty t<> biincj any pen or ai'ple yon ph'ase, but you must fetch the partindar pen or ap|)le *o wnich you know me to refer. The is, therefoie, called the doJimU: article. " .4 star appears." ILere, tlu- star referred to, may be known as a. particitfu)' star, dcjlnitc, and distinguished from all others, in the mind of the speaker ; but to the hearer, it is left, among the thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, unduthujuuhed and indejinite. But when the star has previously been made tlie sub- ject of discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer, a definite object, and lie says, " The star appears;" that is, ihixt particular star about which we were discoursing. " Solomon built a temj)le." Did he build ant/ temple, unde- termined which? No; it was ajmrlicular temple, pre-eminently distinguished from all others. ]>ut how does it become a definite object in the mind of the hearer? Certainly, not by the phrase, " a temple," which indicates any temi»le, leaving it altogether undetermined which ; but supposing the person addres.'^ed was totally^unaccjuainted witli the fact asserted, and it becomes to him, m one respect only, a definite and particular temple, by means of the a«!SOciated words, " Solomon built"; that is, by the use of these words in connection with the others, the hearer gets the idea ot" a temple distinguished as the one erected hy Solomon. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be unac- quainted witli the fact related, he nn'glitmake the temple referred to a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a far- ther explanation of it; thus, " Solomon built a temple on mount Zion ; and that was the temple to which the Jews resorted to ivorship." " The lunatic, the j^oct, and the lover, " Arc of imagination all compact." " The horse is a noble animal ;" " The dog is a faithful crea- ture ;" '^ The wind Mows;" '■^ The wolves were howling in the riULOSOPIIlCAL NOTES. A, AN, THK. Ill a scientific arvangcnieut of grammatical principles, a and the belong to that clasa of adjectives denominated definitives or restriclives. A, an, anc, or one, is the past participle of ananad, to add, to join. It denotes that the thiiig to which it is prefixed, is added, united, aned, an-d, oncd, (tvoncd,) or ■ ado one. ■. HO and that, Accordir.K to Home Tooke, tJte is the imperative, and that tho pu" participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb tlienn, to get, take, assume, 'llie and that had, originally, the same meauiug. The dill'erence in their present application, is a modern relinement. Hence, ///«^, as well as ihe,\\iHH foi niti 1 y used, iudiHereutly before either a singular or a plural noun. CO ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. ) m woods." Til flie^e examples, wo do not refer to any particular lunutii's, piiolH, lovers, liorses, doirs, winds, wolves, and woods, but wo refer lo ihvfm particular rA/.s-.vr.s of thinij;s, in eontradistiiictioii to other objeets or clas'^cs. The phrase, "Neither the one nor the otiier." is nn idiom of tlu^ l;massions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, ^^ Modesty is becoming ; F(ilse/wolicd to adverbs in the com- parative or superlative degree ; as, " The more I examine it, the better I like it ; I like this the least of any." You may ]>roeeed aixl parse the following- articles, when you shall have eommitted this SYSTRMATK^. ORDER OF TARSING. The order of parsing cm Article, is — an article, and why? — Definite or indefinite, and why? — with what noun does it au;ree ? — Rule. ill: AUTICLKS. — PAK8IKO. C7 pari i ('111 ar woord thing^ otive ; as n finished a long-de- snt. Are a?, douhle- hev are. es sonie- valent to a ion, or of a Id cup, or a gold," may signifies an id a cask of in its both oin, denote cd to other nght to be ADJECTIVES. n times become adverbs. This matter will be explained in Lec- ture VI. In parsinc^, you may generally know an adjective by qualifyivg a noun or pronoun. Most words ending in ing are present partic?2)les. Th^^^e are frequently used as adjectives; tlierefore, most participles will make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after them ; as, a. pleasing thing, a moving spectacle, moul- dering ruins. In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have gender, number, and case ; but in the English langnago, they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These proj)erties belong to creatures and things, and not to their quali- ties ; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the pro- perties of nounSf and not of adjectives. Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any inc. ease or diminution ; as, goodt wise, great. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification ; as, bettert wiser, greater, less wise. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, best, wisest, greatest, least wise. that which is ordered or directed. The rigid hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when yovi employ that in preferance, the other is the leaved, leav'd, or left hand, i, e. the one leaved or left. "The one shall be taken, and the other {leaved) left." Own. Formerly a man's oton was what he xvorkedfor, otvti being a past participl of a verb signifying to wo7-k, Bestrictivcs. Some rostrictivcs, in modern times, are applied only to singular nouns ; such as a or an, anotlier, one, this, that, each, every, either. Others, only to plural nouns ; as, these, those, two, three, fetv, several, all. But most restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns : first, second, last, ihe,former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what Numerals. All numeiation was, doubtless, originally porfoniied by the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signification. Ten is the past participle of tynan, to close, to shut in. The hands tyned, tened, closed or shut in, signified ten; for there numeration closed. To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again, ten and one, ten and two, &c 12 i ETYMOLOGY AND 8TNTAX. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. More and moat form the comparative and superlative degrees by in- creasing the positive ; and ksa and least^ by diminishing it. Comparison by increasing the positive. Pos. great, wise, holy, frui^.il, Comp, greater, wiser, more holv, more frugal, Sup, greatest, wisest, most holy, most frugal. Pos. wise, holy, frugal, Comparison by diminishing the positive Comp. Sup, less wise, least wise, less holy, least holy, less frugal, least frugal. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. Words used in counting, are called numeral adjectives of the cardinal kind ; as, one, two, three, four ^ twenty, fftiji &c. Words used in numbering, are called numeral adjectives of the ordinal kind ; as, first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth, &c. Note. The words 7nani/,/t'iiJ, and sereraZ, as they always refer to an indefinite number, nay be properly called numeral adjectives of the in- finite kind. NOTES. 1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding r, or er, and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding st, or est, to the end of it: as, Pos. wise. Com. wiser, Sup. wisest; rich, richer, richest; bold, bolder, boldest. The adverbs, more and wosf, /ess and least^ when placed before the adjective, have the same effect ; as, Pos. wise. Com. more wise, Sup. most wise ; Pos. wise. Com. less wise. Sup. least wise. 2. Monosyllables are generally compared by adding er and est ; dissyl- Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane, is a compound of two {ttva, twae, twee, ttoi, ttvo or dioo or duo) atid one {ane, ain, an). It signifies two nwiti joined, united, aned, or oned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten) signifies tioo tens aned, oned or united. Tilings separated into parcels of twenty each, are called scores. Score is the past participle of shear, to separate. The Ordinals are formed like abstract nouns in cth. Fifth, sixth, or tenth, is the numhcr winch flv-eth, six-eth, ten-th, or vaak-eth up the imiTiber Jive, six, or ten. Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to tliat in which they were originallii employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet often definable, asso- ciations which the jrradual progress of laiijinage and intellect has coimectcd with words, are to be reduced to the standard of our forefathers, ai>iniar not to have ! ADJECTIVES. PARSING. 73 i lableg, trisyllables, &c. by more and most ; as, mild, milder, mildest ; fru- gal, more frugal, most frugal ; virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in y ; as, happy, lovely ; and in le after a mute ; as, able ; and dissyllables accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, polite ; easily admit of er and at; as, happier, happiest ; politer, politcs^ Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations. 3. When the positive ends in il, or t, preceded by a sinsrle vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees ; as, red, redder, reddest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding most to the end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost. 5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of comparison ; as, " Good, better, best ; bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much or many, more, most ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest;" and a few others. 6. The following adject! \ OS, and many others, are always in the «m- perlative degree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative signification : chief, extreme, per- fect, right, wrong, honmt, just, true, conect, sincere, vast, immense, cease- less, infinite, endless, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omni- potent, all-wise, eternal. 7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison ; such as, well-form- ed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular, quadrangular, conical, ifc. 8. The termination ish added to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of quality below the comparative ; as, black, blackish ; salt, saltish. Very, l)refixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a superlative degree. Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the Notes ; after which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, • and, likewise, the examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before yon proceed, please to commit the SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Adjective, is — an adjective, and why? — compare it — degree of comparison, and why? — to what noun does it belong ? — Rule. ^ That great nation was once powerful ; but now it h feeble. sufficiently attended to the changes which this principle of association actually pro- duces. As language is transmitted ft-om generation to generation, many words be- come the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally associated • and thus they undergo a change, not only in the mode of their application, but also in their meaning. Words being the signs of thinj^s, their meaning must necessarily change as much, at least, as things themselves change ; but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas connected with a word, that which was once of primary, becomes only of secondary 4 74 \ I ITTMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. Great is an arljpctivc, a word added to a noun to exprrss it« quftlifv — po8. threat, com. grealcr, sup. jofrentcst — it is in the pns itive degree, it expresses tlie quality of an olgeet Avitliout aii) inercase or diminution, and bolon^is to tlio noun " nation " any '' accord- ing to Rule 18. Adjectives hclnnc/ to, and fpialifi/, vovns expressed or understood. Was is a verb, a word tliat signifies to be — neuter, it expresses neither action nor passion, but, being or a state of being — third pei son singular, because its nominativo "nation" is a noun of multitude conveying unity of idea — it agrees with "nation," ag:ecibly to Rule 10. A novn of mvltititde ronveyinff unity of idea, may have a verb or pronoun ufirceing loith it in the singular. Powerful is an adjective beionoing to ''nation," according to Rule 18. Feeble belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Hule 18. Is is a neuter verb agreeing witli " it," aureeably to Rule 4. " Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men." Four-hundred-thousand is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun " men," according to Note 2, under Rule 18, Numeral adjec- tives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives. If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to procet-d without any diflBculty. More is an adverb. Of and to are prepositions, governing the nouns that follow them in the objective case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens ; the lighter ships carry less burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify tri- fling errors. No composition is perfect. The rabble was tumul- importance; and sometimes, by degrees it loses altogettier its connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated. Two or three instances will Illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the following language : " I, Paul, a rascal of Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," kc. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call " the great apostle of the Gentiles " a rascal 1 Rascal formerly meant a servant : one devoted to the interest of another ; but now it is nearly synonymous with villain. Villain once had none of the odium which is now Msodartod with the term ; but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented P' ci ADJECTIVES. — PARSING. n tiiouH. The late-wa'^hed grass loolcs groen. Shady froes form a dt'iijL;htful arlMif. The RcMing nun makers a hefuitirul nppear- anw ; th<^ varitvixated rainbow appears more K-autifid. Kparni- noiidjis was the gnafest of llio Thehaii generals ; rehjjiidas was next to Kpaininoiida"^. The fust tleet contained three hundred men ; tlie second con- tained four thousand. Tlie earth contains one thousand niiHion inhabitants. Many a cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway. Note. LUcp, Worth. The adjective Wee is a contraction of the parti- ciple likened, and generally has the preposition unto understood after it. " She is nice [unto] her brother ; " " They are unlike [to] him." " The kingdom of heaven is like [liktned or made like] unto a householder." The noun loorth has altogether dropped its associated words. '* The cloth is uortfi ten dollars a yard ; " that is, The cloth is of the worth of ten dollars by the yard, or fur ; of the words which you are about to employ. See that they convey pre- cisely the ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable errors. In speaking of a iiuin, we nniy say, with p"opriely, he is very wicked, or vxcei'dinghj lavisli, because the terms wicked i\,\v\ Idi'ish are atljt'Clives that admit of comparison; but, if wo take words in tiicir literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man very hotu^st, or exrpedivi:;ly just, for the words honest and just lite- rally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is honesty ov dis- honest, just or unjust : tliere can be no medium or excess in this respect. Very correct, very incorrect, very right, very wrong, are common ex[)ros- sions ; but they are not literally proper. What is not correct, must be incorrect ; and that which is not incorrect, must be correct ; what is not rii^ht, must be wrouii; ; and (hat which is not vrone;, must be right. To avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently comi>are adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: " 'f he ./^lo.s-/ established practice;" " The most uncertain mf'.Wunl ;" *' Irving, as a writer, is/(/r more accurate than Addison ;" " The metaphysical investigations of our ]>hilosophical grammars, are .s7/// more incomprehensible to tlie learner." Comparisons like these, should generally be avoided ; but sometimes they are so con- venient in ])ractice, as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with the priucii)les ot" grannuer, only by considering them as tigurative. Comparative members of sentences, should be set in direct opposition to each other ; as, " Pope was rich, but (u)ldsmith was poor." The following sentences are inaccurate ; " Solomon was H'i.scr than Cicero was eloquent." " The principles of the Reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily eradicated." Tiiis latter sentence contains no compariso ■, at i\\\ ; neither does it literally convey any meaning. Again, if the Psalmist had said, " I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his \eachers. Hut in saying, " I am wiser than my teachers," he does not consider himself in contradistinction to them. Be '»re you proceed any farther, you may answer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.- What is tlie distinction between a noun and an adjective ? — By wliat sign may ati adjective be known? — Are partici|)les ever used as adjectives? — Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to adjectives ? — IIow are they varied ? — Name the three degrees of comparison. — What etfect have less and least in comparing adjectives? — Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. — What rule apj>lies in parsing an adjective? — What rule in parsing a verb agieeing with a noun of multitude couveymg it nit 1/ of idea? — What Note should be applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun ? — What Note in parsing numsral adj»?ctive8 ? ADJECTIVES. — FALSK SYNTAX. 77 : words, care absurdity or Iter tlmn a sentence, or " mraiiintf of convey p re- us yon will f say, with 3 the terms but, if wo in calling a id just lite- uu'st, or dis- Jiis respect, non exjiros- 'cf, must be what is not right. To c, our best !S which do practice ;" ire accurnte lilosophical loniparisons are so con- expressions considering t opposition >oor." The lan Cicero cpcr in the ce contains Again, he would le was one ^," he does following »«• G.- 5V ^etive ? — ( pies ever e, belong ) degrees 111 paring What 1 ig a verb idea ?— e which 1 t^ctiveR ? n QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat all the various ways of forming the degrees of comparison, men- tioned in the first live Notks. — Compare these adjectives ; ripe, frugal, mischievous, happij, able, good, little, much or many, near, late, old.— Name some adjectives that are always in the superlative, and never compared. — Are conipouiid ad to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal derles crosuwj and lahoririfj express the actioiis of the boatman and the m in, and standing the state of being of Charles. In these re-pects, then, they jiartake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they describe the several nouns associated with them, like describing adjectives ; and that, in this respect, they participate the ])roperties of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which are still going on ; that is, incomplete or 'itnjiaished actions ; for which reason we i-all them imperfect participles. Perhaps I can illustrate their character mcro cleaily. When the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, they become defining or describinj^ adjectives, and are denominated participial adjectives ; as, A loving companion ; The rippling stream ; Roaring winds ; A wilUd leaf; An accomplished scholar. Here the words loving^ rippling^ roaring^ wilted^ and accomplished^ describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this descrij)tive quality. If I say, I see the moon rising ; The horse is running a i ace ; The dog is beaten ; guided more by their manner of mcauiiig, and their inferential meaning, than by their primitive, essential signification. " I iiave a broken plate ;" i. c. I have a \i\dX(i— broken ; "I have broken a plate." If there is no ditlei-once in the essential mc^aning of tiie word broken, in these two constrnctions, it cannot be denied that there is a wide difference in the meaning inferred by custom ; whicli dillerence depends on the manner -n which the term is applied. Tiie former construction denotes, that I possess a plate which was broken, (whether with or without my agency, is not intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago ; whereas, the meaning of the latter is, tliat I performed the act of reducing tlio plate fro.n a whole ion broken state; and it is not intimated whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, tiiat, in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with dilferent parts of speech. Tliis illustration likewise esta- blishes the property of retaining what we call the perfect tense of the verb. ; 1 80 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. ill! ji! I (le8cri!)o llie several objects, as a risintj moon, a running horse, and a beaten dog, hs well as when I place these participles before the nouns. T\w, same worKDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing ii Participle, is — a participle, and wh^ ? — from what verb is it derived ? — speak the three — present, perfect, or compound, and why ? — to what does it refer or belong ? — Rule IP I'ARTICIPLKH. 81 ning horse, iplcs before lipial adjec- eding illus- l on a very , The fol- 3 from the es. 1. )reads ending in irived from ending in eling^ sap- you parse vhetlier it rest^ hence there is no I not be a ing storj'. sipie from d a more am, walk, ver, over- /, com p. i, having liplc, and rticiple, jak the ly ?— to " I saw a vessel sailing P Sailing is a ])articiplf, a woid derived from a verb, and par- takes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective — it comes from the verb to sail — ]>res. sailino-, perf. sailed, conip. having sailed — it is a pivsent or imperfect participle, because it denotes the conlimiance <>f an unlinishcd action — and refers to the noun " vessel " for its subject, according to KuLE 27. lli.e prcaeht participle refers to some noun or pro- noun denoting the suhjvct or actor. " Not a biealli disturbs the sleeping billow." Sleeping is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express its quality — it cannot, with propriety, be compared — it belongs to the noun "billow," agreeably to lluLK 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or understood. You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 2Yth Rule. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination. to agree with a noun or pronoun, for, as it has no nominative, it has no aiireement; but it simply nfers to an actor. Examples: I see a vessel sailing ; or, I see three vessels sailing. You perceive that the participle sailing refers to a singular noun in the first exau)ple, and to a plural noun in the second ; and yet the parti- ci[>le is in the same form in both examples. The noun vessel is in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb see. Vnn. when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nominative.; as, the vessel sails ; tlie vessels sail. In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates to the partici;)lc. In the sentence, " The man is heat- ing his horse," the noun hor">e is in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the a(5tive-transitive par- ticiple " beating," and is governed by the participle '' beating," according to Rule 26. Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived. The principle upon whicli this rule is founded, is quite appa- rent. As a ])articiple derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must gv ern the same case as the verb from which it is derived. When yon shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed and })arse the following exercises, containing Kve parts of speech. If, in aiuilyzing these exaniples, you find any words 4* 88 KTYM01.OOY AND HYNTAX. > t wliich you cannot p.'irso conoctly atid systematically by referring to your (\)in|'eiitl for (Icliiii'ioiis fiuil rules, you will please to turn back antl road over apiin the \s\ni\e fioe lectures. You must ex- ercise a little patience; and, for your encouragement, pennil me to remind you, that when you shall have ac(juire(l a thoroujyli knowledcje of these five part>^ of spi^ech, only y?<'e more will remain for you to learn, lie ambitious to excel. He thorouo'h in your invest ii:;ations. (Jive your reasoniiicr powers free sc,()pe. By sludvinuf these hntures with attention, you will atuiuire more e;raminaiical knowiedge in /A/w months, than is commonly ob- tained in two years. In the foilowiiiir examples, the wonh j)i(r/uif/, cr/tsted, slauiber- iny, aad tij;hh-lluy, are participial adjectives. Inhere and it, you may om< EXKIICISES IN rAUSlNG n lando loft the h?n\ ujrazinLT. 'J'lie hunters heard the vountr iiflr. log l>!irk» !^ tiie horizon. j\[an beholds the twiiddinjr stars atlorninix iii*i;ht's blue arch. 'Tlie s(rauii:er saw the desert- thistle bending there its luwiy head. ^ K1<:MAKKS ox IWUTKni'LES. Participles frequently becouie nouns ; as, " A good understanding ; Excellent writing ; lie made a. >::ood licj^infiins:, but a bad I'lidi/i^." Constructions like the following have long been sanctioned by the best authorities : ** The goods are sflliinx:'' " The house is tmildingf " The work is now inihlisliimx.'^ A modern innm'ation, however, is likely to supersede this nunle of expression : thus, "The goods are 6i'tHj^ so/d ;" " The house is bcitiix built ;" " The work is now being published." You may lu \v answei' llie^e (.UESTIONS NOT ANSWE^^El) IN PAUSING. How many kinds of parlicip.e- are there ^ — What is the end- ing of a lU'eseut participle? — What does a perfeit participle d.enote ? — With what does a peit'eet participle of a reuular verb correspond ? — What is a compound paitit-ipKi ?--From what word is the term participle deuvicl .' — Why is this p:u't of speeidi thus named ? — Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature of a verb? — Do all jtarliciples participate tlie ]>rop..rties of ad- jeciives? — In what respect? — When are partii-iples called par' ticfitl aifjcrtires ^ — le uUir vc^rb hat word c'lii thus 10 nature I's of ad- K'd jmr- 'nt ])arti- iciple. — hat rule in p'lrsinnr a p;irti(i|)ial adjeetive ? — Do participles vary in their termination in order to agree with their subject or actor? — What Rule applies in parsing a noun in the objective case, governed by a participle? — Do participk-s ever become nouns? — Give ex- amples. QUESTIONS OX TIIK rillLOSOrrilCAL NOTES. How are participles formed ? — Wliat does the imperfect part, express ? —What do perfect purliciplcd denote ? LECTURE VI. OF ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, a ijarticiple, an at/jec(ivc, or another adverb. Ki'collect, an adverb never qualities a noun. It (pialifies any of the lV)ir.' parts of speci-h above n;'.nied, and none others. To modify or quali/t/, you know, means to producs s x piirts of speech are presented, namely, Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, rarli«'ipu-s, and Ad- verbs; and I believe yon are now |)r('parcd to parse them all agreeably to the systematic ovder, fo/w times over. Those words in iUdics are adverbs. SYSTEMATIC OlIDEU OF PAPtSlNG. The order of parsing an Adverb, is — an adverb, and why ? — what sort? — what does it qualify ? — Rule. " My friend has returned again; but his health is not very g<)od." Aijain, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb — of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not pre- cisely defined — it qualifies the verb " has returned," according to To-tvit, the infuiitive of wUan, to know. It means, to be knotvn. Ay or yea signifies have it, enjoi/ it. Yes is aij-es, have, possess, enjoy that. Our corrupt o-yes of the crier, is the French im|ierativ(>, oyez, hear, bsten. Straighttvay—hy a straiglit way. While— ivheel ; period iu which somethiug whiles or wheels itself round. Till — to while. Per, Latin, — the English by. Perhaps— per haps, per chance. These examples of derivation are given with the view to invite the atteution of the intelligent pupil to the " Diversions of Purley," by John Home Tooke. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 IttlM ■5.0 l"^™ 2.5 1^ mil 2.2 Its lit L£ 12.0 1.8 U ill 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation \ N? :\ \ V 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 88 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Rule 29. Adverbs qualify verbs^ participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. Not is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an ad- verb — of negation, it makes the assertion negative ; that is, it changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative — and it qualifies the adverb " very," agreeably to Rule 29, Adverbs qualify verbs, &c. Very is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an ad- jective — of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and qualifies it according to Rule 29, Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c. EXERCISES IN PARSING. The traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually. Very few literary men ever become distinguished poets. The great Milton excels not Horner. The Roman women once vol- untarily contributed their most precious ^wels to save the city. Many small streams uniting, form very large rivers. The river Funza ialhug perpendicularly, forms a vast cataract. Atten- tive servants always drive horses very carefully ; negligent ser- vants o/ten drive horses veiy carelessly. Assiduous scholars improve very fast ; idle scholars learn none at all. Friendship often ends in love; but love in friendship, never. Note. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked ? Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far, and enough, qualify "have walked" understood; perhaps qualifies not; and quite qualifies far. The adverbs always and carefully both qualify the verb " drive : " the former expresses time, and the latter manner. Once and voluntarily qualifj"^ the verb " contributed " : the former expresses number, and the latter manner. The word their you need not parse. The active verb to save has no nominative. The nouns love and friendship, foUow- »ing in, are in the objective case, and governed by that preposition. REMARKS ON ADVERBS. When the words therefore, consequently, accordingly, and the like, are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are adverbs; but when they appear single, they are commonly considered conjunctions. The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, such as whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while, wherefore, Sfc, may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions ; of ad- verbs, as they denote the attributes eitheir of time or place ; of conjunc- tions, as they conjoin sentences. There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs ; as, "ilforc men than women were there; lam more diligent than he." In the former sentence more is evidently an adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it ; in the latter it is an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs ; as, " to-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's.''^ In this example, to-day and yesterday are nouns in the possessive case ; but in phrases like the following, they are generally considered adverbs of time. *'He came \to his'] home yeitter- ADVERBS. 89 ectiveSf anct e of an ad- ; ill at is, it ^ative — and 19, Adverbs se of an ad- ■ good," and ectives, dtc. gradually. oets. The sn once vol- e the city. ivers. The act. Atten- gligent ser- us scliolars Friendship Have yow and enough y I; and quite ify the verb Once and ssses number, The active ship, foUow- tosition. the like, are f ; but when ms. ure such as rwise, while, ms, because ons ; of ad- of conjunc- jctives, and there ; I am vidently an ter it is an rs that are ■day^s lesson sterday are ig, they are loine yexter- day, and will set out again to-day y Here they are nouns, if we supply on before them. " Where wmcA [wealth, talent, or something else] is given, mwcA [in- crease, improvement] will be required ; Much money has been expended, It is much better to write than starve." In the first two of these ezam> pies, much is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun ; in the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective better. In short, you must de- termine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its sense, or by con- sidering the manner in which it is associated with other words. An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an adverb by this rule : when a word qualifies a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective ; but when it qualifies a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb. Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns are understood. " He rides about ;" that is, about the tovm, coun- try, or some-thing else. " She was near [the act or misfortune oj] falling ;" " But do not after [that time or event] lay the blame on me." " He came dovm [the ascent] from the hill ;" '' They lifted him up [the ascent] out of the pit." " The angels above ;" — above us — " Above these loyver heavens, to us invisible, or dimly seen." Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax, you may answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. • .... Does an adverb ever qualify a noun ? — What parts of speech does it qualify ? — When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it express ? — When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it generally express ? — Conapare some ad- verbs. — By what signs may an adverb be known ? — Give exam- ples. — Repeat some adverbial phrases. — Name the difi'erent classes of adverbs. — Repeat some of each class. — Repeat the order of parsing an adverb. — What rule do you apply in parsing an adverb ? . , QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs of place. — Repeat some that are composed of the article a and nouns. — ^What part of speech are the words therefore, consequently, Ac. ? — What words are styled adverbial conjunctions ?-Why are they so called ? —Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb? — Give examples. — What is said of much? — By what rule can you distinguish an adjective from an adverb? — Do prepositions ever be- come adverbs ? QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language? — Illustrate the fact. — What is said of ly, like and quick ?~How are the following words composed : always, alone, only, also ? — What is the mean- ing of ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry ? — Give the signification of needs, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till, andj9er. .Note. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes, in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient. do EXyMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. : EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. * Note 3, to Rulk 29. Adjectives are sometime!^ improperly applied as adverbs ; as, indifferent Fionest ; excellent well ; mis- erable poor : — She writes elegant; He is walking slow. \ The adjectives iniifferent, excellent, and miserable, are here improper- ly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or ad- verbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, therefore, be, " in iifferentlyhoneat, fixceUentlyweU,miiferably poor." Etea^ant and slow are also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjec- tive to express the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and Sarticiples, but it is the office of the adverb. The construction should e, " She writes elegantly ; He is walking slowly." You m:iy correct the following examples several times over, and explain the principles that are violated. , MVfy^ m m ■'"''• ■- ■ '• FALSE SYNTAX. ^ ,, . ; ,' .; ' He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent. She reads proper, and writes very neat. They once lived tolerable well, and now they are miserable poor. ;,^^^ The lowering clouds are moving slow. He behaved himself submisi>ive, and was exceeding careful not to give offence. Note 4, to Rule 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in term^ tcUher warm, but suitably to his offence." ' - - The adverb suitably is incorrect. It does not express the manner of the action of the verb " addressed," but it denotes the quality of the noun terms understood ; for which reason it should be an adjective, suitable. FALSE SYNTAX. ~ The man was slowly wandering about, solitarily and distressed. He lived in a m-mner agreeably to his condition. The study of Syntax should be previously to that of punctua- tion. He introduced himself in a manner very abruptly. Conformably to their vehemence of thought, was their vehe- ment e of gesture. . /* I saw him ^rmoMS^/ to his arrival. - PRBPOSITIOKS. 91 LECTURE VII. 6F PREPOSITIONS. A Preposition is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them. The term preposition is derived from the two Litin words, pre, whic-h signifies before, and poao, to place. Piepos'tiona, are so called, because they are raostlv placed before the uouns and pro- nouns which tl»ey govern in the objective case. The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be en- abled to disiinguish tiiem from otlier parts of speech whenever you see them in composition. A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. ^^ at near down before behind off on, upon among This list contains many words that are sometimes used as con- junctions, and sometimes as adverbs ; but vvlien you shall have become acquainted with the nature of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too, you will find no difiioulty in ascerr taininej to which of these classes any word belongs. *^ By looking at the definition of a pn^position, you will notice, that it performs a double office in a sentence, namely, it connects words, and also sliows a relation between them. I will first show you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connec- tive. When corn is ripe — October, it is gathered — the field — of over to under Ibr through %. above below in between into beneath within from without beyond after betwixt about ' beside afrainst , athwart unto towards across notwitlistanding around out of amidst Instead of throughout over against accordiug to underneath PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. From, accordiug to H. Tooke. is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun frum, begin- ning, source, author. " He came from (beginning) Rochester." Of he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and Saxon noun afora, consequence, offspring, follower* " Solomon, the son qf f offspring J David." 0/or off, in its modern acceptation, sig- nifies disjoined, sundered : A piece of (off) the loaf, is a piece disjoined or separated from the loaf. The fragrance of or off the rose. For signifies cause. " I write /or your satisfaction ;" i. e. your satisfaction being the cause. By or be is the imperative byth, of the Saxon beon, to be. With, the imperative of withan, to join ; or, when equivalent to by, of vryrthan, to be. " I will 92 KTYMOLOY AND SYNTAX. I ' men— who go — hill — hill — baskets, — which they put the oars. You preceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of con- nexion and niejining; but let us fill up ea<;h vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will bo clear. " When corn is ripe, in October, it is jjathered in the field 6y men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears." From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect; the various words of what it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but nonsense, There is, however, another part of speech that performs this oflice, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX. ; in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a eonnective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I will show you how prepositions express a relation between words. . • ,. * ii/ The boy's hat is under his arm. In this expression, what relation does the preposition under show ? You know that hat and arm are words used as signs of two objects, or ideas ; but under is not the sign of a thing you can think of : it is merely the sign of the relation existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the word under is the sign of the relation existing between particular ideaSj it also expresses a rela- tion existing between the words hat and armj which words are the representatives of those ideas. The boy holds his hat in his hand. In this sentence the prepo- sition in shows the relation existing between hat and hand, or the situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, if I say, The boy's hat is on his head, you perceive that on shows the relation between hat and head. Again, in the expressions. The boy threw his hat up stairs — under the bed — behind the ta- ble — through the window — over the house — across the street — into the water — and so on, you perceive that the several prepositions ex- go with him." " I, join him, will go." In comes from the Gothic, noun inna, the in- tenor of the body ; a cave or cell. About, from boda, the first outward boundary. Among is the past part, of gamaengan, to mingle. Through or thorough is the Gothic substantive dauro, or the Teutonic thuruh. It means passage, gate, door. Before—be-fore, be-hind, be-low, besides, be-neath, are formed by combining the imperative be, with the nouns fore, hind, low, side, ncath. Neath— Saxon neothan, neothe, has the same signification as nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt—be and twain, A dual preposition. Be-yond — bc'passed. Be-yond a place means, be passed that place. Notwithstanding— not-siand-ing-tvith, not-toith standing. "Any order to the con- trary not-withstanding" (this order) ; i. e. not effectually witstanding or opposing It. \ PREPOSITIONS. — PARSING. 93 Jt the oars, vant of con- moy with a rn is ripe, in from hill to bt, that our 3 to connect lid, in fact, another part conjunction, ure you will ve particle, lext place I m between ssion, what >w that hat ideas; but it is merely its. Hence sign of the isses a rela- >rds are the he prepo- andy or the ler. And, on shows pressions, nd the ta- reet — into sitions ex- inna, the in- d boundary. 8 the Gothic >r. abining the 9n neothan, I twain. A I that place. 'tothecon< apposing it. press the different relations existing between the hat and the other nouns, stairs, bed, table, ivindow, house, street,, and water. A preposition tells where a thing is : thus, "The pear is on the ground, under the tree." Prepositions govern the objeotivc case, but they do not express an action done fo somo object, as an active-transitive verb or par- ticiple does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is iu the objective ca^e, beciuiso it is tlie obje(;t of tno relation expressed by the prei>o- The order of parsing a Preposition, is — a prepo- sition, and why ? — what does it connect ? — what rela- tion does it show ? .- ; 04 ITTUOLOOr AND SYNTAX. " He saw an antelope in the wildemest.^^ In is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show tl>e relation biftwcen them — it connects the words " jtnte- lopc" and "wilderness" — and shows the relation between them. Wilderness is a noun, the name of a place — com , the name of a sort or species — neiit. gend., it denotes a thing without sex — third pers., spoken of — sing, num., it implies but one — and in the objt'Ctive case, it is the olject of a relation expressed by the pre- position "in," and governed by it, according to Rule 3 1 . Prepositions govern the objective case. The genius of our hinguage will not allow us to say, Stand before he ; Hand the paper to they. Prepositions require the pro- noun following them to be in theohjective form, position, or case; and this requisition amounts to yovernment. Hence we say, "Stand before him ;^^ "Hand the paper to thcm.^^ Every pre- pOvsition expresses a relation, and every relation must have an object: consequently, every preposition must be followed by a nonn or pronoun in the objective case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause, in a flow of most jiowerful eloquent^e. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Life's vary- ing schemes no more distract the laboring mind o/ man. Septi- mius stabbed Pomi>ey clanding on the shore of Egypt. A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly {)ious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, ike swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast ; and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards. Love still pursues an ever-devious race, " *' True to the winding lineaments of grace. Note. — The words my an .i ill en. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the too-frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence. The word pronoun comes from the two Latin words, pro^ which means for, or instead of, and nomm, a name or 7U)un, Heiue I I f .» • »' I- y= - 06 ETYMOLOOV AND SYNTAX. you perceive, that prononn means for a noun, or instead of a noun. In the sentence, " The man is happy; Ae is benevolent; he is useful ;" you perceive, that the word he is used instead of the noun man ; consequ(3ntIy he must be a pronoun. You observe, too, that, by making use of the pronoun he in this sentence, we avoid the repetition of the noun man ; for without the pronoun, the sentence would be rendered thus, "The man is happy; the man is benevolent ; the man is useful." By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pro- nouns always stand for nouns, but they do not always avoid the repetition of nouns. Repetition means repeating or mentioning the same thing again. In the sentence, " I come to die for my country," the pronouns, / and my stand for the name of the per- soh who speaks ; but th(ty do not avoid the repetition of that name, because the name or noun for which the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the third person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which tlioy stand ; but pro- nouns of the first and second person, sometimes avoid the repeti- tion of nouns, and sometimes they do not. A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. If we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to express ourselves in this manner : " A woman went to a man, and* told the man that the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers ; as a gang of robbers had made prepara- tions for attacking the man. The man thanked the woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend the man's self, the man left the man's house and went to a neighbor's." This would be a laborious style indeed ; but, by the help of pronouns, we /jan expi'ess the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness : *' A woman went to a man, and told him, that he was in great danger of being nmrdered by a gang of robbers, who had made preparations for attacking him. He thanked her for her kindness, and, as he was unable to defend himself, he left his house and went to a neighbor's." If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss to tell which words are pronouns ; and you will observe, too, that they all stand foi nouns. , • * Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the Personal^ the Adjective, and the Relative pronouns. They are all known by the /i^jfs. % >}^ i - ■ ^'^ ^■. ?--' k * PIRBOVAL PRONOUiri. 91 in 1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNa Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the rela-' tive, by their denoting the person of the nouns for which they stand. There are five of them : J, th(m, he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or yo«, they. To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case. :l'f ..! .^vt Gender. When we speak of a man, we say he, his^ him ; when we speak of a woman, we say she, hers, her ; and when we apeak of a thintj, we say it. Hence you perceive, that ajender belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns. Bxaraple ; ** The ge- neral, in gratitude to the lady, offered her his hand ; but she, not knowing him, declined accepting «7." The pronouns his and . him, in this sentence, personfvte or represent the noun general ; they are, therefore, ot the masculine gender : her and she per- sonate the lady ; therefore they are feminine : and it represents hand ; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This illus- tration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gen- der as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the variation of the pronouns to express the sex, ■ • j - • >.". Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns he, she, it* He is masculine ; she is fe- minine ; i« is neuten • '^ '' You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, «8 well as of the third. The reason is obvious. The first per- son, that is, th^ person speaking, and the second person or the person spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of the dis* course, are supposed to be present; from which, and other oir^ cumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked by 9 distinction of gender ; but the third person, that is, the person or thing spoken of, being absent, and m many respects unknown^ neccessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by distinction of gender. In parsing, we sometimes aipply gender to pronouns of the first and second person, and also to the plural number of the third p^|^|J>ul these have no peculiar form to denote their gender, thlHwthey have no agreement, in this respect, with tlie noaM whic^Hmy represent./ 6 . m b :4 i r I 1 I . 1 •• KTTMOLOOT AVD SYNTAX. Person. Pronouns have three persons in each number. fit is the first person . TAou, is the second person Hct she, or it, is the third person I We, is the first person Ye or you, is the second person They, is the third person 'i • > Singular. > Plural. This account of persons will be very intelligible, when yoa reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse : first, the person who speaks, may spe^ik of him- self; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addiesse* himself; thirdly, he may speak of eome other person ; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a plural number. Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree in per- son with the nouns they represent ; but pronouns of the first per- son, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun ; but nouns are never of the first person, there- fore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their nouns. Number. Pronouns, like nouns, have two num- bers, the singular and the plural ; as, I, thou, he ; we, ye ox you, they. Case. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. . - In the next place I will present to you the declension of the personal pronouns, which declension you must commit to me- mory before you proceed any farther. The advantages resulting from the committing of the follow- ing declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a diflference in termination ; but this diflBculty is re- moved in regard to the personal pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By studying the declension you will learn, not only the. cases of the pronouns, but also their gepders, persons, and numbers. ,; aH.i .-.r PKRBOMAL PRONOUNS. 99 vr DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ;wo num- FIRST PERSON. Stnp. Nom, I, Po88. my or mine, Obi, me. SECOND PERSON. Sinff, Nom. thou, Po8%. thy or thine, Ohj. thee. THIRD PERSON. Mas. Sing. Nom. he, Poss. his, Ohj. him. THIRD PERSON. Fern. Sing, i\rom. she, PosB. her or hers, . Ohj. her. THIRD PERSON. Neut. Sing, Nom. it, Poss. its, 06;. it. < NOTES. Plur, we, our or ours, us. P/Mr. ye or you, your or yours, you. Plur, the^, their or theirs, them. Plur. they, their or theirs, them. Plur. they, their or theirs, them. '.'*, 1. When «c//i8 added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, themselves, Ac, they are called compound personal pronouns^ and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not in the possessive. 2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the frequent recurrence of the terminations est, edst, in the adaptation of our verbs to the nominative thou, a modern innovation which substi- tutes you for thou, in familiar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style. You was formerly restricted to the plural number ; but now it is employ- ed to represent either a singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recol- , lected, however, that when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word retains its original p/uraZ/orT/i; and, therefore, the verb con- nected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this peculiarity has betrayed some writers into the erroneous conclusion, that, because you implies unity when it represents a singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a singular verb ; as, " When was you there?" "How far was you from the parties?" Such a construction, howeyer, is not supported by good usage, nor by analogy. It is as mani- fest a solecism as to say, We am, or we is. Were it, in any case, adrois-^^ ^ible to eonneot a singular verb with you, the use of was wouM still be * 1^ 100 KTYMOLOUY AND SYNTAX. , 1 «i \ !: fl iingrninmnticnl ; tor tliU tonn of tlio vorb in contiiitMl to tlio ilrNt, hihI third ptM'HdiiM, Miul t/nu irt hiu'.oikI porsoii. Wast l»t>iim HtM'oiid |i(M'hoii, it would iipproxiinatt^ nniror to coitccIiu'hh to say, you witst. Wc novcr UHO (lio Hiii^iilai' of llio prosiMit ti'iisr witli you ; — y«>u nrl, you is ; you vutlkvs/, you u'tillt's. Why, (lu'U, Hliouhl any attciupt bo tnado to forco a usago HO utniatural aud gratuitous an \\w ('.oiinccting of tbo Ringubii' viM'b ill tl»o past ItMiHO witli tliis pronoun? in every point of view, tho ronstruotiou, " Wiicn »•('/«• you llicro?" " Mow I'ar n'jtc you from tliu parties ?" is protVrabU^ to tho other. 3. Tl\e \v(»rds iny^ tin/, fiis, /icr, our, your, their, are liy many (UMU)in- inated intssrssivv ohjci'tiri' fironouiis; but lliey always sttiittlfor nouna ill tho possessive ease. They ought, therefore, to be elassed with jwrHonal pronouns. That prineiple of elassilieMtiiui which rankn them with tho adjeetive pronouns, would also throw all nouns in the posseSHivo caso iiuu)ng tln> adjeetiv»>s. I'lxaniple : " Th<^ lady gave the gentleman her watch for his horse." In this scntenetW/er personates, or stands for, tho noun "lady," and his repr«"senls " gentlenum." This fact is dearly shown by rendering the senlenee thus, " The lady gave the gnntlomun the lady's wateh ft)r the ir<'H//«'/;i(f/i'.s horse." W Imh/s iiin\ gentleman's aro nouns, Acrand ///.smust be persoiuil pronouns. The same romarksapply to my, thy, our, your, their, and its. This view of these words may bo objected to by those who Hj)eculate and refme upon tho ]M'inciplos of granunar until they prove their nou-existe>»ee ; but isbeliovod, novortho- less, to be bused on soulul reason and common sense. 4. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, have, by many rotipcctablo grammarians, been considered merely th(> possessive caaoa of porHonal pronouns, whilst, by others, they have been denonnnated pronoiniH or nouns in the nominative or objective case. Tt is believed, ho'vcver, tlmt a little attention to the meaning and olVice of these words, will clearly show the impropriety of both these clnssilications. Those who pursue the former arrangement, allege, that, iti the examples, " Yoii may imagine what kind of faith theirs was: my pleasures are past; Acrs and yours are to con>e : they applauded his conduct, but condemned hersaixd yours,'' the words theirs, hers, jiml yours, are persomil pronouns in tho possessive case, and governed by their respective nouns understood. To prove this, they construct the sentence thus : " You may inuigino what kind of faith their faith was; — her pleasures und your pleasures aro to come ; — bat ct>ndemned //*';• conduct and your conduct ;" or thus, " You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them was; — the pleasuros of her and the pleasures of you, are to come ; — but condemned tho conduct of her and tho conduct of you. Hut these constructions (both of which nrc correct) prove too much for their ])urpose ; for, as soon as wo supply tho nouns after these words, they are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the nouns which we supply: thus, theirs booomos their faith : hers, her pleasures ; and yours, your pleasuros. This evidently gives us two words instead of, and altogether distinct from, the first; so that in parsiuf^ their faith, we are not, in reality, analyzing theirs, but two other words of which theirs is tho proper representative. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the impropriety of calling these Avords merely simple pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. Without attempting to develop tho original or intrinsic moaning of these pluralizing adjuncts, ne, auds, which were, no doubt, formerly detached from tho pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all prac- tical purpoies it is sufficient fnr ua to know, that, in th« prewnt appli- in tlio llrNl Hint (M'onii porHon, it \uisl. Wii ii«v«r 1 1, yow is ; you I' iniulo to forco of the flingiiliir iut of vl«w, tlio •■«' }'ou from tlio >y many donom- f III! for noiiiiH itt imI with petMrnal I Munn with thu pOHfJCSHlVO CHBO H(M»t Ionian her ii' HlHU(iH for, tlio fact is cloarly « t)i« gontloman \ gcntlemnrCH uro v> rouiarlis apply wordH may bo li« jirinciplos of lovod, novortho- aiiy roflpoctablo ^H08 of perHonal fo(i pronoiMiH or , lio rover, tliat , wiil cloarly )so who piirauo " Von may past; hers and mnod Afrxand •rononns in tho derHtood. To imagine what 'msure.s aro to or thus, " You 10 ploaaurca of d tho conduct (both of which n as wo supply al pronoiins of theirs booomos This evidently rom, the first ; lyzing theirsy tativo. Those calling these or objective insic meaning ubt, formerly , for all prac- eMnt appli- ■iH. I'WIIHONAL I'RONOrNR. — PARHIN(». 101 B cation uf tlieae pronouns, they invariably Rtand for, not only tlio])orion poHHousing, but alHo the lliitig posHoHHod, wiiirli givoH thom a rompound charaotor. Tlioy may, tlu'irforc, bo propi-rly (IciMtiiiinalcil OoMi-oriNO Pkkhonai. i'KONoiiNH ; iiiid, UH llioy iilwiiyH pcrfdnii a dti;ihlo ollioo in a soiitonoo by roprcHoiiliiig I wo r words, ami, <'<»iiH('(|ii(!tilly, including two caHOH, tlioy hIm)u1nr, your, and their, are personal pronouns. Wliat (.'an more oli^arly (IciiiionHtnito tho (!orro(!tni'H8 of that auHertiun, than this latter eoustruetion of the word llieirs I All admit, that, in the construction " Tins faith ofttumi," i\w word ttwrn is a personal pronoun : and for this conclusive reason,— it representH a noun understood. "What, then, Is their. 102 KTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. t: ' I 1 noun, and why? — personal, and why? — person, and why? — gender and number, and why? — Rule : case, and why ? — Rule. — Decline it. ^ There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing per- sonal pronouns in their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse them correctly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the following are analyzed. Now notice particularly, and you will perceive that we apply only one rule in parsing / and my, and ttvo in parsing thou, him, and they, " / saw r/iy friend." / is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it represents the person speaking, understood — first person, it de- notes the speaker — singular number, it implies but one — and in the nominative case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb " saw," and governs it, agreeably to Rule 3, The nom. case gov. the verb. Declined — first pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. My is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it personates the person speaking, understood — first pers., it denotes the speaker — sing, num., it implies but one — and in the possessive case, it denotes possession ; it is governed by the noun " friend," agreeably to Rule 12, A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses. Declined — first pers. sing, nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. num. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. " Young man, thou hast deserted my companion and left him in distress." Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it personates *' man" — second person, it represents the person spokeu to — mas. gen. sing, num., because the noun " man " is, for which it stands, according to Rule 18. Personal pronouns must agree in gender and num- ber with the nouns for which they stand. Thou is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb " hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to Ruls 3, The nom. case governs the verb. Declined — sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj. you. Him is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun— personal, it personates " companion" — third person, it represents the person in the phrase, " their fiiith" P Is it not obvious, that if them is a personal pronoun, their must be also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former. \ PERSONAL PRONOUNS. PARSING. 103 ad left him spoken of — mas. {^eiid. sin^. num., because the noun " companion " is, for which it stJinds: Rule 13, Per. pro. &c, (R'peat tlie Rule.) — Him. is in tho objective case, the object of the action expreasel by the act,ive-tr;ui8itive verb ** ha4 left," and gov. by it; Rule 20, Active-trans, verbn ffoo. the ohj.case. Dechned — third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nora. he, poss. iiis, obj. him; plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj, them. "Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat; but they dreaded the force of my arm." They is a pronoim, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it represents *' chiefs" — third pers. it denotes the person spoken of — mm. gend. plur. num., because the noun "chiefs" is, for which it stands: Rule Vi, Perx. proa. &:. (Ripeat thi Ru'e.) It is in the nom. case, it represents the actors and subject of the verb " dreaded," and governs it : Rule 3, The nom. case gov. the verb. Declined — third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nora. he, poss. his, obj. him ; plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. ihem. Note. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, (ex- cepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are under- stood ; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and two rules. EXERCISES IN PARSING. I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the now bridge. My friends visit me very often at my father's office. We im- prove ourselves by close application. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young ladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove his horses too far into the water, and in so doing he drowned them. Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us: its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmar stood on its banks with their glittering spears. We fought along the vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk bL'neath my sword. Day was descending in the west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. Ti»e aged hero felt them with his hands : joy brightened his thoughts. NoTB. Horace, Charles^ and ladies, are of the second person, and nom. ea?e independent : se3 Rule 5, and Note. The first you is used in the nom. and obj. case. — It represents Charles, therefore it is singular in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, you personifies laiies, therefore it is plural. Gioen is a perfect participle. You follow- ing given is governed by to understood, according to Note 1, under Rule 32. Run over is a compound verb, jind is a conjunction. The first »i« personates vale ; the second its represents stream. >I04 STTMOLOeV AND SYNTAX. Yon Diay now parse the following examples tliree times orer. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. " Juliet, retain her paper, and present yours.''^ Yours is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to yowrjjo/jer. Tour is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it personates "Juliet" — second person, it represents the person spo- ken to — fem. gender, sing, number, [singular in sense, \)\ii plural in form,) because the noun Juliet is, for which it stands : Rule 13, Pers, pron, &c. — Yonr is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is governed by " paper," according to Rule 12, A noun or pr&n. £e, (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pro- noun.) Paper is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name of a sort of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thing with- out sex — third person, spoken o^sing. number, it implies but one — and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb " present," and governed by it : Rule 20, Active-transitive verbs ffovern the ohj. case. NoTB. Should it be objected, that yours does not mean your paper , any more than it means your book, your house, your any thing, let it be borne in mind, that pronouns have nodefiniie meaning, like other words ; but then particular signification is always determined by the nouns they represent. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Julia injured her book, and soiled mine : hers is better than mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours : his deeds deserve reward; yours merit disgrace. Henry^s labors are past ; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts, for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin. NoTs. She understood, nominatiTC to soiled, in the first example ; and the substantive part of wine, after than, is nom. to is, understood : Rule 35. The verbs to secure and to come have no nominative. The pronouns witTic, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my, and yours, personate nouns understood. REMARKS ON IT. For thewantofa proper knowledge of this little pronoun i7, many gram- marians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to ac- count for its multiform, and seemingly contradictory characters. It is in great demand by writers of every description. They use it without ceremony, either in the nominative or objective case ; either to represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns in the masculine, feminine or neuter gender, and very frequently it represents » member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of sentences taken in a mass. A little attention to its true character, Will at once strip it of all its mystery. It, formerly written hit, according to H. Tooke, is the past participle of the Mooso-Gothic verb haitan. It means the said, and, there- fore, like its near relative that, meaning the assumed, originally. had no '-' ' ' ■- ■ i^^ : ■ times orer. S. ng both the J your paper. -personal, it 3 person spo- j, hul plural tands : Rule B, it denotes to Rule 12, ae the pro- tmmon, the thing with- implies but >n expressed t: Rule 20» nr paper, any it be borne io rds ; but then ley represent. better than yours : his iry*8 labors 8 of beasts. ample ; and )d : Rule 35. nouns mine, understood. nany gram- how to ac- acters. It e it without represent nns in the represents sentences of all its { the past iud, there* ^ly had no ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 106 respect, in its application, to number, person, or gender. " It is a who'if'some law"; i.e. the said (law) is a wholesome law; or, that (law) is a v/holesome law — the assumed (law) is a wholesome law. " It is the man ; I believe it to be them " : — the said (mau) is the man ; that (man) is the man : I believe the said (persons) to be them : I believe that persons (according to the ancient application of that) to be them. ^^ It happened on a summer's day, that many people were assembled," &c. Many people were assembled : it, that, or the said (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day. It, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. " How is it with you?" that is. How is your state or condition?" "It rains; It freezes ; /Ms a hard winter ;" — The rain rains ; the frost frosts or freezes ; The said (winter) is a hard winter. " It is delightful to see brothers and sisters living to the end of their days in uninterrupted love." What is delightful ? To see brothers and sisters living to the end of their days in uninterrupted love. It, this thing, is delightful. It, then, stands for all that part of the sentence expressed in italics ; and the sentence will admit of the following construction : " To see brothers living in unin- terrupted love to the end of their days, is delightful." OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Adjective Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, or, more properly. Specifying Adjectives, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification. Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. The former stand for nouns, and never belong to them ; the latter belong to nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an adjective-pronoun cannot exist. Each, every, either, this, that, other, and the residue, are pure aljectives. Those specifying adjectives commonly called Ad- jective Pronouns, may be divided into three sorts ; the distributive^ the demonstrative ^ and the ind(finite. They are all known by the lists. I. The distributive adjectives are those that denote the persons or things that mnke up a number, each taken separately and singly. List : each, every, cither, and sometimes neither ; as, " Each of his brothers is in a favoi'able situation ;" " Every man must account for himself ;"" iVci//ter of them is industrious." These distributives are words which are introduced into lan- guaj^e in its reftned state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors of thought. " Man must account for himself;" *>*■ Mankiwi must account for themselves;" '" All men must account for themselves ; " All men, woman, and children must ac- ;* ' 106 KTYMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. count for themselves ;" '•^ Edctij man must account for himself." Each of these assi^rtioiis conveys the same fact or truth. Hut the last, instead of jnesentiui; the whole human family for the mind to contemplate in a mass, distributes tiiem, by the pecu- liar force of cvcri/y and presents eMch separately and singly ; and wliatever is afRiined of one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human race. Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of the two, or every one of any number taken separately. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them all taken separately. Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signifies the one or the other. " Either of the three " is an improper e^^pression. It should be, " any of the three." Neither imports tiot cither ; that is, not one nor the other ; as, " Neither of my friends was there," When an allusion is made to more than two, none should be used instead of ?iei//icr as, " iVone of my friends was there." II. The demomtrative are those which precisely point out the subject to which they relate. List: this and thati and tlieir plurals, these and those, and former and latter ; as, '* This is true charity" ; " that is only its image." There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application of the and that. When reference is made to a par- ticular book, we say, " Take the book ;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise, we say, "Take that book;" or, if it be near by, "Take this book." You perceive, then, that these , demonstratives have all the force of the definite article, and a little more. This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, that and those to the most distant ; " These goods are superior to those." This and these indicate the latter, or last mentioned ; that and those, the former, or first mentioned ; as, " Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this, discontent." . " Some placed the bliss in action, some in ease ; . . Those call it pleasure, and contentment, these." They, those. As it is the office of the personal they to represent a noun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight depart- ure from analogy in the following application of it : " They who seek after wisdom, are sure to find her : They that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." This usage, however, is well established, and they, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to those. III. The indefinite are those which express their subjects in an indefinite or general manner. List: somey other, amj, one, all, such, both, same, another, none. Of for himself.'.' truth. But mily for the by the pecu- singly; and itantaneously aifies either of !3 each one of ) and signifies er e^^pression. ; as, " Neither lore than two, Is was there." sely point > : this and former and s only its eaning and e to a par- we wish to ;" or, if it that these icle, and a and those to lis and these [•mer, or first that tends sent a noun ight depart- y who seek sometimes hey, in such ess their List : one. Of ADJRCTIVE PRONOUNS. PARSING. 107 these, one and other are declined like nouns. Another U declined, but wants the plural. / ; The indefinite adjectivos, like the indefinite artic'e, leave the meaning unfixed, or in hoiuc degree vague. With a slight shade of difference in meaning, we say, Give me a paper, one paper, any paper, some paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaning of the noun, they do not fix it to a particular object. We tiierefore call thoni indefinite. These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns understood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly ; as, "You may take either; He is pleased with this book, but dislikes that (book) ', Ml (men) have simed, but some (men) have repented." The words one, other, and none are used in both numbers ; and, when thoy stand for nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite pronouns.; as, "The great ones of the world have their failings ;" *' Some men increase in wealth, while others decrease ;" " None escape." ■ ■ • ,i- The word " ones," m the proceeding example, does not belong to a noun understood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The meaning is not " ttie gre »t o le men, nor ones men," therefore one is Jiot an adjective pronoun; but the meaning is, "The great men of the world," thcrefores ones is a pronoun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun men understood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pioiioun. The word others^ in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to other men ; and should be parsed like mine, thine, <&c. See Note 4th, page 100. 1 will now parse two pronouns, and then present some exam- ples for you to analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should be at a loss fur definitions and rules, please to refer to the Compendium. But before you proceed, you may commit the following SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Adjective Pronoun, is — an adjective pronoun, and why? — distributive, demonstra- tive, or indefinitive, and why? — to what noun does it belong, or with what does it agree ? — Rule. " One man instruct many other s.^^ One is an adjective pronoun, or specifying adjective, it speci- 1 I y 108 ETYMOLOGY AND nYMTAX. Icallv pointH out a noun — iiulcfiiiito, it oxpre9i»R its Hubjeot in iin indefinite or gonerul nmnnrr, himI b«lonj;H to the noun "man," accoi'iling to RuLK 10. Adjective pronouiiH hvlong to nouns^ exjrrcsscd or understood. Otherm is n compoinul pronoun, including both an adjoctivo pronoun and a noun, and iRocjuivulontto other men. Other \% an adjective pronoun, it is tiKcd Hpcitilicnlly to dowcribe its noun — indefinite, it cxprt'««c'H itH subject in nn indefinite nnuiiier, and belongs to men: Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) Mm is a noun, a name denoting perHouH — common, hv.. (uarKC it in full) ; and in the objective case, it is the object of tlio n(^tion expressed by the transitive verb ♦'instructs," and gov. by it: Rule 20, Active- transitive verhs^ ronoun, it specifies what noun is refer- red to — dempnstrativo, it proeisejy points out the subject to which it relates — and agrees with the noim "books" in the plural num- ber, according to Notk 1, under Rule 19, Adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns. Aline is a compound personal pronoun, including both the pos- sessor and the thing possessed, and is e(]uivalent tt) wy hooks. My is a pron., a word used instead of a noun — personal, it stands for the name of tlie person speaking — first person, it denotes the speaker — sing, number, it implies but one — and in the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is gov. by "books,'' according to Rule 12. (Repeat the rule, and decline the pronoun.) Books is a noun, the name of a thing — eomnuui, &c. (parse it in full;) — and in the nominative case after "are," according to Rule 21, The verb to be admits the same case after it as before it. i EXERCISES IN PARSING. Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little. These men rank among the great ones of the world. Th&t book belongs to the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men labor, others labor not ; the former increase in wealth, the latter decrease. The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of those poor wretches complain of their miserable lot. -, NoTB. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, Notb 2, Under Rule 19, should be applied. III. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, i RKI.ATtVE i'RONOUNH. 109 )un "mnn. \ i to somo word or phrawi going iMifore, which \h called tho antfcpdent. Thry nro wfio, whichf and fJiaf.. Tlio wokI n7iU'i>'g l»olon' ; tliun, '* 'VUv jtmn is iiiiiijty who Iivuh virtuotmly. Th'm in i\\i)l(uh/ who relieved my waiitH; Thou, who loveM win- dom, «fec. We who Hjienk from <'X|)(',ri(iiiec'," * there any other doctrine whoae followers are punished ;" that is, the follow- ers of which are jnmisiied, The us(3 of this lii-ense has obtained among our best writers ; but the construction is not to be recom- mended, for it is a departure from a plain ))rinciple of gianimar, H namely, who, whose, whom, in their applications, should be con- , fined to rational beiniTs. That may be ust'd as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunc- tion, depending on tiie oilice which it performs in tlie sentence. That is a relative only when it can he change i to who or which without destroying the sense ; as, '' They that (who) reprove us, may be our bi'st friends ; P^om every thing that (which) you see derive instruction." That is a demonstrative adjective when it belongs to, or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as, ''Retnrn that book; That belongs to me; Give me thaty When that is neither a relative nor an adjective pro- noun, it is a conjunction ; as, " Take care thut every day be well emi)loyed." The wonl that, in this last sentence, cannot be changed to who or ivhich without destroying the sense^ therefore you know it is not a relative j)ronoun ; neither does it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an ad- jective prononn ; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is conjunction. L i^ u'l le child that tine iiish one I' others ; as, irsons when ', or by the en, was one 10 same man like the fol- fiicd thus ?" I relative prnnoun ; whatever ITNS. om. omever. omsoever. se is some- tliero any he Ibl low- obtained he ivcoin- giaiiiraar, I be con- conjunc- enterice. / or which prove us, ) you see e when it expressed rie; Give tive pro- y be Well in not be therefore 3oint out >t an ad- •e it is m HRLATIVK PROVOUNS. If yon pay particular attention to thin ehicidation of the word that, you will find no lo of alVrontod that, which may serve as a caution. Tlic tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that thai titat that lady ));irK(Ml, was not the that that that gentleman requested luir to analyze This sentence, though renr said, in speaking of tiie woni that, that tluit thwi ivhich that lady parsitd, wa'* not the that which tliat gentleman requested htsi" to an;dy/e. WHAT. What is generally a compoinid relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which ; as, " This is w!i• is equiv- H tliut UUtI), sstions, are terrogative iat are you )y relate to n, for their )r. What cquent are Jans prece- or coining [jompound. specifying iy have no lonstrative elvo tribes '^hat liavoc questions, IS, ♦* What nd which- 3und pio- icter But- u choose ; deiijn to whichever i ; " That ed, is un- choose ; kc. ; Let onipound relative, .ecedents, adjective :>minated uexed to Ej analyze % the word to which it is subjoined, ever is entirely excluded from the sentence. What\H sonietinics used as an intoijcctioii ; ns, '^ But what/ is tiiy ^oivant a (U% that ho should do this ? What ! rob us of our right ol" sutl'rage, and then shut ns up in dungeons ! " You liave now come to the nioft formidable obstacle, or, if I may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of gram- matical science ; but be not disheartent'd, for, if you can get safely over this, your future course will be interrupted with only hero and there a gtntle elevation. It will require clos© application, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear concej)tion of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five times over before you proceed to commit the following order. Whenever you parse, you may spread the Corai>cndium before you, if you please. SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order ofparsivg a Relative Pronoun, is — a pro- noun, and why ? — relative, and why V — gender, person, and number, and why ? — Rule :— case, and why ? — Rule. — Decline it. " This is the man whom we saw." Whom is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — relative, it relates to "man" for its antecedent — mas. gend. third pers. sing, num., because the antecedent " man" is, with which it agrees, according to Rule 14. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gen- der, person^ and number. Whom is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by it, agreeably to Rule 16. When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb^ the relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its oivn member of the sentence. Whom, in the objective case, is placed bof^^^e the verb that governs it, according to Note 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline who,) " From what is recorded, he appears," &c. What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which — Thing^ the antecedeut part of what, is a noun, the name of a 114 KTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. ! I ^ i ! W 1 thing — com., the name of a species — neuter gender, it has no sex — third person, spoken of — sinjj. number, it implies but one — and in the obj. ca8(^, it is the object of the rebition expressed by tlie prep. " from," and gov. by it : Rule 31. (Kepeat the Rule, aikl every other Rule to which I refer.) Which, the relative part of what, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a n:>un — rela- tive, it relates to " thin;? " for its antecedent — neut. gender, third person, sing, numb^ir, because the antecedent "thing" is, with which it agrees, accoiding to Rule 14, Rel.pron. (fee. Which is in the nom. case to the verb " is recorded," agreeably to Rule 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb, " What have you learned ? Nothing." What is a proii., a word used, &c. — relative of the interrog- ative kind, because it is used in asking a question — it refers to the word "nothing" for its subsequent, ac<'.ording to Rule 17. When the rel. pron. is f the interrorf, kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interroga- tive. What is of the neut. gen<3. third pers. sing., because the subsequent "nothing" is, with which it agrees: Rule 14, Rel. pron. agree, at distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns ? — How many personal pronouns are there ? — Repeat them. — What belong to pronouns ? — Is gender applied to all the personal pronouns ? — To which of them is it applied ? — Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote their gender ? — How many persons have pronouns ? — Speak them in their ditterent persons. — How many numbers have pronouns? — How many cases? — What are they? — Decline all the personal pronouns. — AVhen scffh added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are they used ? — When is yoii singular in sense ? — Is it ever singular in form ? — Why are the words my, thi/, his, her, our, your, their, called personal pronouns 1 — Why are the words mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, denominated compound pers. pron. ? — How do you })arse these compounds ? — What is said of others ? — Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun. — What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, and in the noni. case ? — What rule when the pro- noun is in the possessive case ? — What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns in the second and third person ? — What rules in parsing the compounds yours, ours, mine, &c. ? — What is said of the pronoun it '^ What are adjective pronouns ? — Name the three kinds ? — What does each relate to ? — To what does every relate ? — To what does either relate? — What does neither import?— To what do this and PRONOUNS. — FALSE SYNTAX. 117 Take agrees after " see :" a whole sen- od and keep t is the whole :" therefore, is frequently tch as have a . " Let such ct;" that is, ordained to re ordained, Jduced on a dduced, &c. :h a critical ction; thus, ive a refined k .;• N'G. ) pronouns !e kinds of le relative ? — Kepeat to all the Which of to denote )eak them mouns ? — personal jns, what i singular '^ords my, —Why ominated )uiids ? — personal n of the the pro- parsing hat rules it is said , -What lat does Uhis and these refer ? — Give examples. — To what do that and those refer ? — Give examples. — Repeat all the adjecLive pronouns. — When adj. pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed ? — When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called ? — Give examples. — Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun. — What Rule do you apply in parsing the infinitive adjective pro- nouns? — What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demon- stratives ? What are relative pronouns ? — Repeat them. — From what words is the term antecedent derived ? — What does antecedent mean ? — Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or number ? — To what are who and which applied ? — ^To what is that applied ? — Shon\d who ever be applied to irrational beings or children ? — In what instances may which be applied to persons ? — Decline the rel. pronouns. — Can which and that be declined ? — Is that ever used as three parts of speech ? — Give examples. — What part of speech is the word what ? — Is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun ? — Give examples. — What is said of whoever ? — What words are used as interrogative pronouns ? — Give examples. — When are the words what, which, and that^ called adj. pron. ? — When are they called interrogative pronom- inal adjectives ? — What is said of whatever and whichever ? — Is what ever used as an interjection ? — Give examples. — Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron. — What rules do you apply in pars- ing a relative ? — What rules in parsing a compound relative ? — What rules in parsing an interrogative ? — Does the relative which ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent ? — When does the con- junction as become a relative ? — Give examples. EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. Note 1, to Rule 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case. Who will go ? Him and I. How does thee do ? Is thee well ? " Him and I ;" not proper, because the pronoun him is the subject of the verb will go understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, he, according to the above Note, (Repeat the Note.) Him and / are connected by the conjunction aiid, and him is in the objective case, and I in the nom., therefore Rule 33d is violated. (Repeat the Role.) In the second and third examples, thee should be thou, according to the Note. The verbs does and is are of the third person, and the nom. thou is second, for which reason the verbs should be second person, dost, do and art, agreeably to Rule 4. You may correct the other examples /oMr times over. FALSE SYNTAX. Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well I .1! 118 BTYMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her and I de- serve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was there ? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of honor bestowed upon him. Note 2, to Rule 18. Pergonal pronoims being used to supply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with the noun which they represent. FALSE SYNTAX. The men tlicv are- there. I saw him the kingf. Our cause it is just. Many words they darken speech. The noble general who had gained so many victories, he died, at lavst, in prison. "Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually doing evil. In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronouns should be omitted, according to Note 2. Note 3, to Rule 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not be used instead of these and those. FALSE SYNTAX. Remove them papers from the desk, (aive me them books- Give tliem men their discharge. Observe them three there* Which of them twc persons deserves most credit? In all these examples, those should be used instead of them The use of the personal them in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective-pronoun in its stead. wh is can itii a si chi( LECTURE IX. OF CONJUNCTIONS. I A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sen- tences into one compound sentence : it sometimes con- nects only words ; as, thou and he are happy, because you are good." Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in ditFereiit wavs, mark the coimexions and various dependencies of liutnau thought. They belong to language only in its refined estate. CONJUNCT'ONS. 119 The term conjunction comes from the two Latin words, corij which signifies together^ Rmljuvr/o, to join. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you sliould know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences. A Sentence is an assemblage of words fonning com- plete sense. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, or nom- inative, and one verb vv^hich agrees with that nominative ; as, Wheat grows m the field." You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sen- tence containing many parts of f^peech ; but if it has only one nominative and one Jinite verb (that is a verb not in the infini- tive mood), it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences. A Compound Sentence is compsed of two or more simple sentences connected together ; as, " Wheat grows in the field, and me7i reap it." This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word and ; whirh word, on ac- count of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences : thus, "Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it." The nature and importance of the conjunction are easily illus- trated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish to add another, or several others, which are 'closely connected with it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, " The Georgians cultivate rice and cotton;" that is, "They cultivate rice add cotton." This sentence is compound, and, without the use of the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The con- junction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connects only words : in which capacity it is nearly allied to the preposition ; as, '' The sun and {add) the planets constitute the solar system." In this, which is a simple sentence, and connects two words. 'i i 1 120 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. ? V A few more examples will illustrate the nature and exhibit the use of tin's part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members of scnttjnces, have no relation to each other until they are con- nected by conjunctions. He labors harder — more successfully — I do. That man is healthy — he is temperate, by filling up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words : thus, He labors harder and more successfully than I do. That man is healthy because he is temperate. Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copula- tive and Disjunctive. I. The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which ex- presses an addition, a supposition, or a cause ; as, "Two and three are five ; I will go ?/he will accompany me ; You are happy became you are good. In the first of these examples, and joins on a word that ex- presses an addition ; in the second, if connects a member that implies a supposition or condition ; and in the tliird, because con- nects a member that expresses a cause. II. The Conjunction Disjunctive serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that ex- Eresses opposition of meaning ; as, " They came with er, hut they went away without her." But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only something added, but also opposition of meaning. The principal conjunctions may be known by the following lists^ which you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and some- times as prepositions; but if you study well the nature of all the different sorts of wonis, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language. PFlLOSOPHICAL NOTES. On scientific principles, our connectives, commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between them being merely- technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and some prepositions connect sen- tences. They are derived from nouns and verbs ; and the time has been, when, per- haps, in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives. " I wish you to believe, tliat I would not wilfully hurt a fly." Here, in the opinion of H. Took©, our modem ronjmiction that is merely a demonstrative adjectiir*, In a CONJUNCTIONS. 121 i exhibit you fully members are con- ssfiilly — ig up the [ see the irder and ise he is Oopula- lect and lich ex- (i Two ,ny me ; I that ex- iber that luse coll- ect and hat ex- e with sses, not jllowing arords in id some- all the part of litions and ing merely anect sen- «rheu,per- le opinion ctlvA, In ft ' f LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. ' ^ Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. Disjunctive, But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. ^ Some conjunctions are followed by cor rcspondinc: conjunctions, 80 that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former ; as, 1. Thour/h—yet or nevertheless ; as, " Thour/h he was rich,ye< for our sakes he became poor." 2. Whether — or ; as " Whether he will go, or not, I cannot tell." It is improper to say " Whether he will go or vx>r 3. Either — or ; as " I will either send it, or bring it myself." 4. Neither — nor ; as, " Neither thou nor I can comprehend it." 5. As — as ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister." 6. As — so ; as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 7. So—as; as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 8. So— that ; as, " IIo became so vain, that every one disliked him." NOTES. 1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences only, and form them into compound sentences ; such as, farther, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compound members; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect" either whole sentences, or simple members. 2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- tences ; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments." disguised form ; and lie attempts to prove it by the followini? resolution : " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe that ^assertion"']. Now, if we admit, that that is an adjective in the latter construction, it does not necessarily follow- that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both the mode of employing that, and its inferential meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall find that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I assert, positively, that " T would not wilfully hurt a fly ;" whereas, by the former, I merely wish you to believe that " I would not wilfully hurt a fly ;" but I do not aSlrm that as a fact. That being the past part, of than, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as a parti' in ETTMOLOOT AND SYNTAX. You will now please to tum back and read this lecture four or five times over ; and then after committing the following order, you may parse the subsequent exercises, SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing a Conjunction, is — a conjunction, and why ? — copulative or disjunctive, and why ? — ^what does it connect ? "Wisdom anrf virtue /orm the gjood man^s character." And is a conjunction^ a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but iu this example it connects only words — copula- tive, it serves to connoct and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition — it connects the words ** wisdom and virtue." Wisdom is a noun, the name of a thing — (You may parse it in full.) — Wisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb "form." Virtue is a noun, the namtj, &c. — (Parse it in full :) — and in the nom.^ case to the verb " form," and connected to the noun " wisdom" by andj according to Rule 33. Covj-aneiions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case. Form is a verb, a word which signifies to do, ■ cposition ; and in the third, an adverb ; " Since we must part, let us do it peaceably ; I have not seen him since that time ; Our friendship commenced long sincc.'^ " Ho will repent before he dies ; stand before me ; why did you not return before" [that or this time ;] in the first of these three examples before is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects ; and in the second and third, it is a preposition. As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its mem- bers. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may some- times be at a loss to perceive the connecting power of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sen- tence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are trans- posed : as, " In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha ;" "7/" thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee ; but 7/ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever." If, by an ellipsis, thoy mean s\ich a one as is noccssary to tlie grammatical con- struction, I cannot accede to tlu-ir assmnption. In teadiiup grammar, as well as in X-^ otlicr things, we ought to avoid oxtrcnips :— we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of resolving sentences that would entirely change the chara(!ter of our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age. \ Jiut comes front the Saxon verb, bcon-utan, to be out. " All were well but {be-out, \Ieave-OHt) the stranger." "Man is hut a reed, floating on the current of time." Resolution : " Man is a reed, floating on tho nuTPnt of timp ; btif, {he-ouf this fart) pre i- not a st.ibie bcinc.' t 1, moon, f Power. Henry llonry Noitlier Wisdom, and inte- n i^rospe- ed States, ^titutiona. 3 singular, The verb to support am. to are d, accord- DNS. inction, an to resist ;" 5 two mera- sition, and jtory only." on ; in the ice we must time ; Our id you not examples connects ; 30 its mem- may some- )osition or nects either lever a sen- are trans- the prophet but t/thou imatical con- as well as in superficially nglish to the y change the ■age. 11 but (be-out, ent of time." ■out this fact) C0N.n7NCTI( '«. 125 t, " Whe7i coldness wraps ll suffering .lay, All, whither strays the i. mortal nj.udV" -^ .-» That the words ///, if, and when, in tli'^o exauiplea, connect the mem- bers of the respective aentencea to wliich they arc altnciicd, will obviously appear if we restore these seiiteuces to their natural order, and bring these particles bctwcrn tlm nu'tnbers wliifh they connect: thus, *' Elisha the prophet flourished in the daysof Joram, king of Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee (/'thou seek him ; but he will cast thee off for ever if thou forsake him :" "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind. When coldness wraps this suH'eriug clay ?" As an exercise on tliis lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. From what words is the term conjunction derived ? — What is a sentence? — Wiint is a siniplo sentence? — What is a compound sentence? — Give examples. — In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature ? — Ilow many sorts of con- junctions are tliere? — Repeat the hsts of conjunctions. — Repeat some conjunctions witli their corresponding conjunctions. — Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences? — Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction. — Do you apply any Rule in parsing a con- junction ? — What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another? — What Rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copu- lative conjunction ? — What Rule wlien the nouns are connected by a disjunctive ? — In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply? — Is a conjunction , ever used as other parts of speech ? — Give examples. — What is said of the words ybr, since, and before? — What is said of the trans- position of sentences ? And—aned, au'il, and, is the past part, of ananad, to add, join. A, an, ane, or one, from the same verb, points out whatever is aned, oned, or made one. And also refers to the thing that U joined to, added to, or made one with some other person or thing mentioned. " Julius and Harriet will make a happy pair." Itesolution : " Julius, Harriet join e(/, united, or amd, will make a hai)py pair ;" i. o. Harriet wacie o«e with Julius, will make a happy pair. For means cause. Because — be-cause, is a compound of the verb he and the noun cause. It retains the meaning of both ; as, " I believe the maxim, /or I know it to be true ;"— " I believe the maxim, be-cause 1 know it to be true j" i. e. the cattse of my belief be, or is, I know it to be true. Nor is a contraction of ne or. Ne is a contraction of not, and or of other. Nor is not o^7ier-wise : not in the other way or manner. Else is the imperatixe of alesan, unless of onlesan, and lest the part part, of lesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. He will be punished, unless he repent ;" — " Unless, release, give up, (the fact) he repents, he will be punished. Though is the imperative of the Saxon verb thafigan, to allow, and yet of getan, to get. Tct is simply get ; ancient g is our modern y. " Though he slay me, yet will >• I2rt ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. '.\i- QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions deriv- ed? — What is Horno Tooke's opinion of that? — From what is each of the following words derived : that, if, but, and, because, not, else, unlest, lat, though, aud yet f LECTURE X. OF INTEUJECTIONS.— CASES OF NOUNS. Interjections are words which express the sudden emotions of the speaker ; as, " Alas ! I fear for life "; ** O death ! where is thy sting V" Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feel- ing. Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it is not the representative of a distinct idea. A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or lather, to make noises, when they have no use- ful information to communicate, are ai)t to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions, la, la me, my, my, dear, dear me, surprising, astonishincf, and the like. Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by their taking an exclamation-point after them. A LIST OP THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS. • 1. Of eartnestness or grief ; as, ! oh ! ah ! alas ! 2. Contempt ; as, Pish ! tush ! 3. Wonder ; as, Ileigh ! really ! strange ! 4. Calling ; as, Ilem ! ho ! halloo ! 6. Disgust or aversion ; as. Foil ! fy ! fudge ! away ! i.^ I trust in nim : Grant or allow (the fact) ho slay me, get or retain (tho opposite fact) I will trust in him. PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. The terra Inteejection is applied to those inarticulate sounds employed both by men aud brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by tho sheep in bleating, by tho cat in mewing, by the dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words ; but as written words are the ocular representatives of arti- culate sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct noises. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural language ; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, real interjections are not a part of written language. '\ t I > IKTTKRJECTIONfl. — FARSINO. 127 JUS derir- ach of the nlesSf lest, s. sudden e "; " O IS of feel- tion; but inct idea, ind, must who wish fG no use- ery freely le, my, ke. generally '^^ho opposite )yed both by or feelings. screaming, by the horse by the dove mes attempt iives of arti- iinct noises. ■ the bounds language. fl. Attention; as, Lo ! behold ! hark 1 T. Requesting silvnce ; as, Hush! hist! f^ 8. Salutation; as, Welcome! hail ! all hail ! NoTB. Wo frequently meet with what some call an inter jedivt phrase ; such a3, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hop«! folly in the eztremel what ingratitude I away with him I As the interjection is the loast important part of speech in the English hniguagc, it will require but little attention. You majr, however, make yourself well acquainted with what ha« been said respecting it, and then commit the SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an INTERJECTION, is — an inteijec- tion, and why ? " O virtue 1 how amiable thou artT' is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion of the s[)eaker. The ten parts of speci'h have now been unfolded and eluci- dated, although some of them have not been fully explained. Be- fore you proceed any larther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every exami)le in the exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully six hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not • critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in six weeks ; but if you study only three hours in a day, it will take you nearly three months to acquire the same knowleflge. EXERCISES IN PARSING. True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and pro- motes the happiness of all around him. Modesty always appears graceful in youth ; it doubles thie lus- tre of every virtue which it seems to hide. The meaning of those words eommouly called interjections, is easily Hhown bf tracing them to their roots. Pish &v<\ TpsUaio yLve> tbi Anglo-Saxon pace, paeca; and are equivalent to trum- pery, \.c. trontpcrie, from tromper. Fv or fie is the imperative,/oe the past tense, and feh or faugh the past part, of the Saxon verb^aw, to hate. Lo is the imperative of look. Halt is the imperative otUealden, to hold. Farewell — fare-well, is a compound Qtfaran, to go, and the adverb well. It i-ieans, to go well. Welcome — well-cc me, signifies it U well that you are come. Adieu comes from the French a JHeti, to God ; meaning, I commend you to Ood, ^4 «. SF I I i. I'' 128 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. He who, every mornini);, plniis the transactions of the day, and follows out Ihat plan, carries on a tliread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life. The king gave me a generous reward for committing that bar- barous act ; but alas ! 1 fear the coiistMiuence. E'en now, where Al])ine solitudes ascend, I set me down a pensive hour to spend ; And, })laced on high, above the storm's career, Look downward where a hundred realii;s appear. Alas ! the joys that fortune brings. Are trifling, and decay ; And those who mind the paltry things, More trifling still than they. Note. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, which is gOT- erned by the verb to hide, according to Rule 16. He is nom. to carries; who is nom. to plans. Folloivs agrees with who understood, and is con- nected to plans by and ; Rule 34. What did the king give ? A reward to me. Then reward is in the obj. case, gov. by gave ; Rule 20. Me is gov. by to understood ; Note 1, Rulk 32. The phrase, committing that barbarous act, is gov. hy for ; Note 2, under Rule 28. Hour is in the obj. case, gov. by to spend ; Rule 20. Look is connected to set by and; RuLK 34. Joys is nom. to are. That is gov. by brings ; Role 16. Those is nom. to are understood. They is nom. to are understood ; Rule 35. CASES OF NOUNS. In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation of the cases of nouns ; and as they are in many situa- tions a little difllcult to be ascertained, I will now otFer some remarks on this subjgct. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples in the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to the lemnrks in the subjoined Note. Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing. A noun is sometimes nominative to a veib placed many lines after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this mat- ter. Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning ■with " He who, every morning," &c., and see if you can find the verb to which he is nominative. What does he do ? He carries on a thread, kc. He, then, is nominative to the verb carries. What does ivho do ? Who plans, and who follows, &c. Then ivho is nom. to plans, and who understood is nominative to follows. " A soul without reflection, like a pile Without inhabitant, to ruin runs." In order to find the verb to which the noun soul, in this sen- tence, is the nominative, put the question, What does a soul 1 NOM. CASK INDEPENDENT, — ABSOLUTE. 129 day, and lide him that bar- Ich is goY- to carries; iid is con- A reward 20. Me is itting that T is in the it by and ; 16. Those Rule 35. extensive mysitua* ■er some h you to observing ed Note. my h'nes his mat- ?ginning can find o? He he verb OWSy &c. 1 a live to :hi8 sen- a sQtU without reflection do ? Such a soul I'lms to ruin, like a pile with- out inhabitant. Thus you discover, that soul is nomiuativo to runs. ' When tlio words of a sentence are arranocd accordinij to tlieir natural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, and the objective after it ; but when the words of a sentence arc transposed, that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it frequently happens, that the nominative comes afUr^ and the objective, before the verb ; especially \\\ poetry, or when a question is asked : as, "AVhcnce arises the misery of the present world ? " " AVhat good thinrf shall I do to inherit eternal life ? " Put these expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will pre«'(?^, and the objective yo//oiy its verb: thus, " The misery of the present world arises whence ? I shall do what good thiiiy to inlierit eternal life ?" " Now came still evenivy on, and twilight gray Had, in her sober livery, all tlilnys clad." " Stern, rugged nurse, thy rigid lore With patience many a year she bore." What did the eveniny do ? The evening came on. Gray twi- liyht had clad what ? Twilight liad clad all thinys in ber sober livery. Eveniny^ then, is noni. to came^ and the noun thinys 18 in the objective case, and gov. by hud clad : JIule 20. What did she bear ? She bore thy iigin with a est thee." ticiple, nomi- en, we and has ive case ndent, is lerally of Qtence i3 g," Ac. ; ig the in the ysrypher, added, rate the merely DC addi- hevy and that is, . ' by giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot bo at a loss to know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all names given to the same person ; therefore, if Cicero wan murdered, the orator was murdered, and the philosopher was murdered, and the statesman was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person. Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in apposition ; as. He struck Charles the student. Now it is obvi- ous, that, when he struck Charles, he struck the student^ because Charles was the student^ and the student was Charles ; therefore the noun student is in the objective case, governed by " struck," ana put by apposition with Charles, according to Rule 7. Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and syste- matically. PARSING, *' Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Instore." Maid is a noun, the name of a person — com., the name of a sort — fem. gender, it denotes a female — second pers., spoken to — sing, num., it implies but one — and in the nominative case inde- pendent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to Rule 5. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun ad- dressed^ is put in the nominative case independent. " Tlie general being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to dejmrt." General is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full :) — and in the nominative case absolnte, because it is placed before the participle " being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to Rule 6. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absolute, " Thou man of God, flee to the land of Judah.'* Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it pt'rsonates " man " — second pers., spoken to — mas. gender, sing, num., because the noun " man " is, for which it stands : Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.) — Thou is in the nominative case independent, aud put by apposition with man, because it signifies the same t,hing, according to Rule 7, Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signify- ing the sarne thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case^ If 132 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Man is in tlie nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. Flee agrees with thou understood. " Lo ! Newton^ priest of Nature, shines afar. Scans thy wide world, and nunibers every star." Newton is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to *' shines :" Rule 3. Priest is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the actor and subject of the verb " shines," and put by apposition with " Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 1. (Repeat the Rule.) r EXERCISES IN PARSING. Turn from your evil ways, O house of Israel ! Ye fields of light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair ! proclaim your Maker's wondrous power. king ! live for ever. The murmur of thy streams, Lora, brings back the memoiy of the past. The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath ? Three aged pines bend from its face ; green is the plain at its feet ; there the flower of the mountain grows, and shakes its white head in the breeze. The general being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. The son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the frailties and incon- veniences of human nature, sin excepted ; (that is, sin being excepted.) In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha. Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. Come, peace of mind, delightful guest ! and dwell with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, le7id me your ears. Soul of the just, companion of the dead ! Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled ? Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour. There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower : — The world was sad, the garden was a wild, And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled. NoTB. Those verbs in italics, in the preceding examples, are all in the imperative mood, and second person, agreeing w' ith thou, ye, or you, un- derstood. House of Israel is a noun of multitude. Was routed andmust be done are passive vei'bs. Art jied is a neuter verb in a passive form. Clothed is a perfect participle. Till is an adverbial conjunction. 1^ ai MOODS OF VKBBS. 133 to Rule itive case ase, it is pposition igrecably fields of im your murmur -he past, r. Dost ? Three >t ; there head in )mmerce be done >eing in ho rain of God, incon- n being prophet leace of lomans, ill in the you, un- ind must re form. ' . When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in the foregoing exercises, you may answer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. « .. Repeat the list of interjections. — Repeat some interjecu've phrases. — Repeat the order of parsing an interjection. — In order to find the verb to which a noun is nom., what question do you put ? — Give examples. — Is the nominative case ever placed after the verb ? — When ? — Give examples. — Does the objective case ever come before the verb? — Give examples. — Is a noun ever nom. to a verb understood ? — Give examples. — When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent ? — Give examples. — Arc nouns of the second person always in the nom. case independent ? — When a pronoun is put by apposition with a noun independent, in what case is it ? — When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case absolute? — Give examples. — When are nouns or nouns and pro- nouns put by a))position, in the same case ? — Give examples. — In parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should be applied? — In paising the nom. case absolute, what Rule? — AVhat Rule in paising nouns or pronouns in appo- sition? — Do real interjections bc^long to written language? — (Phil. litotes.) — From what are the following words ihvived, 2nsh, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu/ LECTURE XI. OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. ^ You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an exten- sive, knowledge of nine parts of speech ; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the most important one of all ; I mean the Verb. I will, therefore commence this lecture by giving you j an explanation of t'.ie Moods and Tenses of verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lecture II., and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the verb : after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and tenses, and the cotijngation of verbs, that, instead of finding your- self involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress. 134 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. < I. OF THE MOODS. The Mood or Mode of a verb means the manner in whkh its action, passion, or being, is represented. When I wish to assert a thing positively, I use the declarative or indicative mode ; as, the man walks ; but sometimes the action or occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must not declare it positively, but I must adopt another mode of expression ; thus, If the man walk, he will refresh himself with the bland breezes. This second mode or manner of representing the action, is called the subjunctive or conditional mode. Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to declare a thing, nor to represent the action in a doubtful or con- ditional manner ; but we v\ ish to command some one to act. We then use the imperative or commanding mode, and say. Walk, sir. And when we do not wish to command a man to act, we some- times allude to his power or ability to act. This fourth mode of represe ting action, is called the potential mode ; as. He can walk; He could walk. The fifth and last mode, called the infinitive or unlimited mode, we employ in expressing action in an unlimited manner ; that is, without confining it, in respect to num- ber and person, to any particular agent ; as, To walk, to ride. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of represent- ing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary according to the different intentions of the mind. Were we to assign a particular name to every change in the mode or manner of representing action or being, the number of moods in our language would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of division and arrangement, if followed out in de- tail, would lead to great perplexity, without producing any bene- ficial result. The division of Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He has fourteen moods; h\B interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, precautive^ requisi- tive, enunciative, &c. But as far as philosophical accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned, it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I am not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it; but what arrangement cannot be objected to? There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, the Potential, and the Infinitive. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or de- inner in d. ?clarative he action d then I mode of self with resenting t wish to I or con- ict. We 'Valk, sir. ve some- mode of He can ailed the Lion in an t to num- i to ride, iDresent- ccording e in tlie mber of [Js. But it in de- ny bene- rmes, is moods ; requisi- acy and )rned, it ►llowing. against ire, the id the >r de- MOODS OF VERBS. 135 clares a thing ; as, " He writes :" or it asks a ques- tion ; as, ^^Does he write ? Who wrote that ? " The term indicative comes from the Latin indico^ to declare. Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood is to declare things, whether positively or negatively; thus, positively^ He came with me ; negatively. He came not with me. But in order to avoid a multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicative mood in asking a question ; as. Who came with you? The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order. This mood, however, ditfers materially from the indica- tive in sense; therefore you ought to make yourself well ac- quainted with the nature of the indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive. The Subjunctive Mood expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubtful or conditional manner : or. When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the Subjunctive Mood ; as, *^ If he study, he will im- prove ; I will respect him, though he chide me ; He will not be pardoned, unless he repent ; Had he heen there, he would have conquered ;'* (that is, ?/he had heen there.) The conjunctions if^ though, unless, in the preceding examples,- express condition, doubt, &c. ; therefore, the verbs study^ chidcy repent, and had heen, are in the subjunctive mood. Note I. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the preceding examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the fourth, a verb in the potential. 2. Whenever the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, lest, or any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that follow them are in the subjnnctive mood ; as, " If he ride out e'Mry day, his health will probably improve ;" that is, if he shall or should ride out hereafter. But when these conjunctions do not imply, doubt &c. the verbs that fol- low are in the indicative, or some other mood ; as, " Though he rides out daily, his health is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, are explained in the conjugation of the verb to love. See page 145. The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, ex- horting, entreating, or permitting ; as, '* Depart thou ; I ,1 13G ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Remember my admonitions ; Tarry awhile longer ; Go in peace." Tlie verb depart expresses a comniMnJ ; remember exhorts ; tarry expresses entreaty ; and go^ permission ; therefore tliey are all in tl>e imperative mood. The imperative, from impero, to command, is literally that mood of the verb used in commanding ; but its technical meaning in grammar is extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, entreat- ing and permitting. A verb in the imperative mood is always of the second person, though never varied in its terminations, agreeing with thou, yc, or you, either expressed or impliiid. You may know a verb in this mood by the sense ; recollect, however, that the nominative is always second person, and frequently understood; as, George, give me my hat ; that is, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it is generally placed after the verb; as. Go thou ; Depart ye ; or between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, Do thou go ; Do ye depart. {Do is the auxiliary.) The Potential Mood implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obligation; as, li may rain; He may go or stay ; We mvst cat and drinlc ; I can ride ; He woidd ivallc ; They shotdd leanu''^ In the first of these examples the auxiliary may implies possi- bility ; in the second it im})lies liberty ; that is, he is at liberty to go or stay ; in tlie third, must denotes necessity ; can denotes power or ability ; would implies will or inclination ; that is, he had a mimlio walk; and should implies obligation. Hence you PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. The changes in tho lormhiation of words, in all languages, have been formed by the coalescence cf words of appropi'latc meaning. This subject was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the purpose of showing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number and person, of English verbs do not solely depend on inflec- tion. % The coalescing syllables which form tho number and person of the Hebrew verb, are still considered pronouns ; and, by those who have investigated the subject, it is conceded, tnat tho same plan has been adopted in the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in the Hebrew. Some languages have carried this process to a very great extent. Ours is remarkable for the small number of its inflections. But they who reject the passive verb, and those moods and tenses which are formed by em- ploying what are called " auxiliary verbs," because Ihey are formed of two or more verbs, do not appear to reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit that walk-e^7< and walk-erf are tenses, because each is but one word; and to reject Aai'e walked, and iyi7/ walk, as tenses ]i(oav,so each is composed of two words, ^///, as jreviousjy t Cl a MOODS. 137 3nger; Go >er exhorts ; >i'e tliey are y that mood meaning in ing, entreat- ond person, tiiou^ ye^ or i^eib in this minative is as, Georjnfe, When the the verb; 1 the verb ; ) iberty, or nay rain; can lide ; ph'es possi- 5 at liberty m denotes that is, lie lence you en formed by )proached on Is and tenses, nd on infleo ebrew verb, subject, it is 16 Latin and ess to a very I. But they med by em- wo or more r&Wi-eth and ivalked, and ijreviousJy perceive, that the verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, nuist drink, can ride, would walk, and should learn, are \x\i\ni potential mood. Note 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the sub- junctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, contingen- cy, supposition &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as, ^^ If I could deceive him, I should abhor it ; Though he should increase in wealth, he would not be charitable." ' I could deceive, is in the potential ; If I could deceive, is in the subjunc- i live mood. 2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking a question : as, " May I go ? Could you understand him ? Must we die ?" The Infinitive Mood expresses action, passion, or being, in a general and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither person nor number ; as, " To sjJcaJcj to walk" Infinitive means uncovfincd^ ox unlimited. This mood is called the infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nom- inative. A verb in any other mood is limited ; that is, it must agree in number and person with its nominative ; but a verb in this mood has no nominative, therefore, it never changes its termi- nation, except to form the perfect tense. Now you understand why all verbs are called finite or limited, excepting those in the infinitive mood. Note. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood before the verb ; as, " Let me proceed ;" that is, Let me to proceed. See Rule 25. To is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood ; thus, to ride, to rule ; but it should be parsed with the verb, and as a part of it. If you study this lectuie attentively, you will perceive, that when I say, I write, the verb is in the indicative mood ; but when I say, ifl write, or, unless I write, &c. the verb is in the sub- junctive mood ; write thou, or ivrite ye or you, the imperative ; I may write, I must write, I could ivriie, (fcc. the potential ; and shown, is a contraction of doeih or Jiaveth, and ed, of dede, dodo, doed or did; and, therefore, \valk-e^/t ; i, e. y/a\k~doeth, or doeth-v,a\k, and waXk-ed ; i. e. walk-rfed, or doed or did-wsXk, are, when analyzed, as strictly compound, as will walk, shall walk, and have walked. The only dillcrence in the formation of these tenses, is, that in the two former, the associated verbs have been contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in the two latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words. If it be said that will walk is composed of two words, eaith of which conveys a dis- tinct idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by itself, the s^ame argument, with all its force, may be applied to walk-e^ft, walk-ecZ, walk-cZicZ, or did walk. The result of all the investigations of this subject, appears to settle down into the hackneyed truism, that the passive verbs, and the moods and tenses, of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations either prefixed or postfixed, and of other lan- guages, by the association of auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been contracted and 138 KTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. ;1 to write, the infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may .bo employed in the same manner. II. OF THE TENSES. Tense means time. Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses. The Present Tense represents an action or event as taking place at the time in which it is men- tioned ; as, ** I smile ; I see ; I amseen.^ »» NoTB 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions con- tinued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time ; as, " He rides out every morning." 2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persona long since dead ; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well ; An honest man is the noblest work of God." 3. When the present tense is preceded by the words when, he/ore, after, as soon as, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action ; as, " When he arrives we shall hear the news." , The Imperfect Tense denotes a past action or event, however distant ; or, The Imperfect Tense represents an action or event as past and finished, but without defining the precise time of its completion ; as, *' I loved her for her modesty and virtue ; They were travelling post when he met them." In these examples, the verbs loved and met express past and finished actions, and therefore constitute ^.perfect tense as strictly as any form of the verb in our language; but, as they do not made to coalesce as terminations. The auxiliary, when contracted into a terminat- ing syllable, retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning, as much as when associated with a verb by juxtaposition : consequently, an " auxiliary verb" may form apart of a mood or tense, or passive verb, with as mucli propriety as a terminating syllable. They who contend for tlie ancient custom of keeping the auxiliaries distinct, and pprsing them as primary verbs, are, by the same principle, bound to extend their dissecting-knife to every compound word in the language. Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophicr' accuracy of the theory which recognises the tenses, moods, ai id passive verbs, formed by the aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to show that this theory, and this only, will subserve the purposes of the practical grammarian. As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the exact meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the student to combine and employ them properly In framing sentences, and as those combinations which go by the name of tc fil ai h oj defective) [iperfect, I Second tion or is men- !tion9 con- " He ride$ of persona \n honest fore, after, i time of a ition or i. fcion or ng the her for ig post past and s strictly Y do not terminat- associated orm a part '-g syllable. Jtinct, and tend their ihe theory ruxiliaries, 1 subserve leaning of ploy them e name of TRXBEB. 139 define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tense may proi)erly bo denominated an indefinite past. 13y de- fining the present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an imperfect tense in tlie expression were travelliny. This course, however, would not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the participle. Hence it follows, that the terms «m- perfect and perfect, as applied to this and ^lic next succeeding tense, are not altogether significant of their true character; but if you learn to apply these tenses correctly^ the propriety or im- propriety of their names is not a consideration of very great moment. The Perfect Tense denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the piesent ; as, "I have fin- ished my letter." The verb have finished, in this example, signifies that the action* though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the pres- ent. Under this view of the subject, the term perfect may be properly applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the com- pletion of the action, but also alludes to the particular period of its accomplishment. The Pluperfect Tense represents a past action or event that transpired before some other past time specified ; as, "I had finished my letter before my brother ariived." You observe that the verb had finished, in this example, repre- sents one past action, and the arrival of my brother, another past action ; therefore had finished is in the pluperfect tense, because compound tenses and passive verbs, are necessary in writing and discourse, it follows, inclusively, that that theory which does not explain these verbs in their combined state, cannot teach the student the correct use and application of the verbs of our language. By such an arrangement, he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases, shall have walked, might have gone, have seen, instead of, shall walk, miyht go, and saw ; because this theory has nothing to do with the combining of verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or writer's own good sense must guide him in combin- ing these verbs, and, therefore, that the directions of the grammarian are unneces- sary, it must be recollected, that such an argument would bear, equally, against every principle of grammar whatever. In short, the theory of the compound tenses, and of the passive verb, appears to be so firmly based in the genius of our language, anii 80 practically important to the student, as to defy all the engines of theparalogistic speculator, and the philosophical quibbler, to batter it down. But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, that it is encumbered with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity, which are avoided by the simple process of exploding the passive verb, and reducing the number of the moods to three, 140 ETYMOLOQY AND 8YNTAX. ! i I : f. the action took place prior to the taking placo of the other past action specihed in the same sentence. The First Future Tense denotes a future action or event ; as, " I will finish ; I shall finish my letter." The Second Future Tense represents a future action that will be fully accomplished at or before the time of another future action or event ; as, " I shall have finished my letter when my brother arrives." This example clearly shows yon the meaninir and the proper use of the second future tense. The verb " shall have finished " implies a future action that will be completely finished, at or before the time of the other future event denoted by the phrase, " when my brother arrives. Note. What is sometimes called the Inceptive future, is expressed thus, " I am going to write ;" " I am about to write." Future time is also in- dicated by placing the infiuitive present immediately after the indicative present of the verb to be ; thus, *' I am to write ;" " Harrison is to be, or ought to be, commander in chief;" " Harrison is to command the army. You may now read several times over what is said respecting the moods and tenses, and then you may learn to conjugate a verb. But, before you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, you will please to commit ihe following paragraph on the Auxiliary verbs, and also the signs of the moods and tenses ; and, in con- jugating, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. Auxiliary or Helping Verbs are those by the help of which the English verbs are principally con- , and of the tenses to two. It is certain, liowevcr, that if we reject the names of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the names of the potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing and discourse wo must still employ those verbal combinations which form them ; and it is equally certain that tlie proper mode of employing such combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the old theory, which names them, aa by the new, which gives them no name. Ou philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the future tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately ; but, as illustrated on page 79, the com- bined words which form our perfect and i)luperfect tenses have an associated mean- ing, which is destroyed by analyzing each word separately. That arrangement, therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears to be, not only unphilosopJiical, but inconsistent and inaccurate. For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their adoption U B1GN8 OF THK MOOOS AND TENSES. 141 other past L future all finish a future r before ; as, " I brother he proper finished " cd, at or le phrase, essed thus, ) is also in- indicative is to bcj or the army. especting ijugate a erbs, you \uxiliary ], in con- anner in by the ly coll- ides of the ubjunctive iploy those ;he proper old theory, e tenses of I, the com- ted meau- mgement. Meal, but adoption gugated. Maij^ can^ mvsf, inlglu, con/df wouldy should, an(i shall, arc always auxiliarios ; do, hr, hare, and will, are sometimes auxiliaries ; and sometimes principal verbs. The use of the auxiliiU'ios is shown in the t'ollowiiig conju- gation. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. The Indicative Mood is known by the sense, or by its having no sign, except in asking a question ; as, '* Who loves you V" The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest, are generally signs of the Subjunctive ; as. If I love ; unless I /ore," &c. A verb is generally known to be in the Imperative Mood by its agreeing with thou, or yeov ?/ow, understood ; as, " Love virtue, and follow her steps;" that is love thou, or love ye or you ; follow thou, &c. May, can, and must, might, could, would, and should, are signs of the Potential Mood ; as, I may love ; I must love ; I should love, &c. To is the sign of the Lifinitive ; as. To love, to smile, to hate, to walk. SIGNS OF THE TENSES. The first form of the verb is the sign of the present tense ; as, love, smile, hate, walk. too.amodi'; lized p/iiZosop/ttcffli! theory oftlie moods and tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has the advantage of being new^; and, moreover, it sounds large, 9Xi6. will make the commonalty stare. Let it be distinctly understood, that you teach "phil- osopJiical grammar, founded on reason and common sense," and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast improvements of the age. MOOD. Verbs have three moods, the indicative (embracing what is commonly included under the indicative, the subjunctive, and the potential), the imperative, and the infinitive. — For definitions refer to the body of the work. TiJNSE OR TIME. Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. A verb expressing action commenced and not completed, is in the present tense ; as, " Relififion soars ; it has gained many victories : it will [to] carry its votaries to the blissful regions." 142 ETYMOLOGY AND SXNTAX. Ed — the imperfect tense of regular verbs ; as, lovedt smiledi hated, walked. Have — the perfect ; as, have loved. Had — the pluperfect ; as, had loved. Shall or will — the first future ; as, shall love, or will love ; shall smile, will smile. Shall or will have — the second future ; as, shall have loved, or will have loved. Note. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advan- tage, as to commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceed farther than to the subjunctive mood. If you do, the supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a few hours of pleasant pastime. The Indicative Mood has six tenses. ; The Subjunctive has also six tenses. The Imperative has only one tense. The Potential has ybwr tenses. The Infinitive has two tenses. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. • The Conjugation of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the active voice ; and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense ; as, " This page (the Bible) God hung out of heaven and retired." A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods is always in the -present tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. The command must necessarily be given in time present, although its fulfilment must be future. John, what are you doing? Learning my task. Why do you learn it? Because my precepto* com- manded me to do so. When did he command you ? Yesterday— woi now, of course. Thut it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to be given in fuiufti t^me, and that the fulfilment of the command, though future, has nothing to do with the tense or time of the command itself, are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross absurdity of those who identify the time of the fulfilment with that of the command. ■^ u ii r a f( t t v'*. CONJUNOTON OF VERBS. 143 le active Verbs are called Regular when they form their imper- fect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect par- ticiple, by adding to the present tense ed or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, Pres. Tense. I fa>ror. I love. Imp. Tense. I favorec?. I lovec?. Perf. Participle. isivoved, lovec?. A Regular verb is conjugated in the following manner. To Love. — Indicative mood. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. Pers. I love, 1. We love, 2. Pers. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love, 3. Pers. He, she, or it, loveth ) or loves. 3. They love. Singular, 1. 1 loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 3. He loved. When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary do should precede the verb in the present tense ; thus, Singular. Plural. 1. 1 do love, 1. We do lore, 2. Thou dost love, 2. Ye or you do love, 3. He doth or does love. 3. They do love. Imperfect Tense. Plural. 1. We loved, 2. Ye or you loved, • , 3. They loved. Or by prefixing did to the present ; ;thug, Singular. Plural. r^y tm 1. 1 did love, 1. We did love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. Ye or you did love, 3. He did love. 3. They did love. EXBECISES IN PAESINa. You may read the book which I have printed. . < / May, an irregular active verb, signifying " to have and to exercise might or strength," indio. mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur., agreeing with its nom. you. Bead, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. tense, with the sign to understood, refer- ring to you as its agent. Have, an active verb, signifying to possess, indie, present, and having for its object book understood after which. Printed, a perf. participle, re- ferring to book understood. Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth would have been laughed at, had they essayed to thrvat any thing like oiu* modernized philogophical grammar down the throats of their cotemporaries. 144 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Perfect Tense. ' Singular. ' : 1. I have loved, 2. Tlioii hast loved, 3. He hath or has loved. Plural. 1. We have loved, 2. Ye or you have loved, 3. Tliev have loved. Singular. 1. 1 had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 3. He had loved. Pluperfect Tense. Plural. 1. We had loved, 2. Ye or vou had loVcd, 3. They had loved. Singuh First Future Tense. ar, 1. I shall or will love, 2. Tliou shalt or wilt love. Plural. 1. We shall or will love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love, 3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. Second Future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. 1 shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye or you v., ' have loved, 3. He will have loved. 3. They will i i ved. NoTK. Tenses formed without auxiliaries are called simple tenses ; as, I love ; I loved ; but those formed by the help of auxiliaries, are de- nominated co7npou7id tenses ; as, I have loved; I had loved, &c. This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the application of the signs of the tenses, which signs ought to be perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. By looking again at the conjugation, you will notice that have^ placed before the perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect tense ; had, the pluperl'ect ; shall or will, the first future ; and so on. Now speak each of the verbs love, hate, walk, smile, rule, and conquer, in the first person in each tense of this mood, with the pronoun / before it ; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I love ; imperf. I loved ; perf. I have loved ; and so on, through all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation J Would, an active verb, signifying " to exercise volition," in the past tense of the indicative. Have, a verb, in tlie infinitive, to understood. Been, a perfect part, of be, referring to .Tohnson, Blair, and Lowtli. Laughed at, perf. part, of to laugh at, referring to the same as teen. Had, active verb, in tlio past tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. they. Essayed, perf, part, referring to they. Call this "philosophical parsing, on reasoning principles, according to the ori- ginal laws of nature and thought," and the pill will be swallowed, by i^edants and their dupes, with the greatest ea.se imaginable. Jk CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 145 II love, e. ioved, le tenses ; s, are de- ight, the ht to be farther. at have^ le perfect ire and 'rule, and Ivith the [rst pers. SO on, liuiTation Inse of the pt part, of laugh at. Indicative, lo the ori- IdantB and of the verb in the indurative mood, you will fisd no difficulty in coniugatinjr it through those that follow ; for in the conjugation throush aU the moods, thai-e is a great similarity. Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense, or elliptical future. — Conjunctive form. Singular. Plural. r r 1. If I love, ^- If wo love, - ' • ^ 2. If thou love, 2. If ye or.you love. 3. If he love. 3. If they love. . Look a<'ain at the conjugation in the indicative present, and you will observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form in the subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, does not vary its termination on account of number or person. This is called the conjunctive form of the verb ; bilt sometimes the verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the same manner as it is in the indicative, with this exception, if though, unless, or some other conjunction, is prefixed; as. Indicative form. Plural. 1. If we love, 2. If ye or you love, 3. If they love. Singular, 1. If I love, 2. If thou lovest, 3. If he loves. The following general rule will direct you when to use the conjunctive form of the verb, and when the indicative. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a future signifi- cation, or a reference to future time, the conjunctive form should ^ be used ; as, " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be thankful ; " " He will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate ; " \ that is, if thou shalt or shouldst prosper ; though he shall or should lose, &c. But when a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has no reference to future time, the indicative form ought to be used ; as», " Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless." By this you perceive, that when a verb in the pre- sent tense of the subjunctive mood has a future signification, an auxiliary is always understood before it ; for which reason, in this construction, the termination of the principal verb never varies ; as, " He will not become eminent, unless he exert himself; " that is, unless he shall exert, or should exert himself. This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called the elliptical future. The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the same tenses of the indicative, with this exception ; in the sub- 1 14» XTmoLoer Ainr srirrAX. jnnctiTe mOod^ a oonjuaQtioB implying doubt, &c. is prefixed ft> the verb. In the second future tenw of this mood, the verh is eoniucated thus : •'^ Second Future Tense. Singular, Plural. 1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 2. If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall hi -e loved, 3. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will readily perceive thtj distinction between the two conjugations. i , Ihpebattve Mood. Singular. Plural. 2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or yon, or ; , . thou love. do ye or you love. ■'' Nora. We cannot command, exhort, ftc. either in past or futwe lime ; therefore a verb in this mood is always in the present tense. Potential Mood. Present Tense. • Singular, Plural, 1. I may, can, or must love, 1. We may, can, or mu«t love, 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or love, must love, 3. He may, can, or must love. 3. They may, can, or must love. Imperfect Tense, Singular, Plural. 1, I might, could, would, or 1. Wa might, could, would, or should love, should love. 2. Thou mightet, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, woulds*, or sliouldst love, would, or should love, 8. He might, could, would or 3. They migrht, could, would, should love. or should love. Perfect Tense. \\ Singular, Plural. 1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have loved, Joved, n, or must nou mayst, c have loved, e or you may, have loved. Z, He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must have have loved loved. CONJtJOAtlOK Of VEUBS. U1 refixed to onjugated ved, oved, loved. 1 you will atious. or yon, or love. tt or fuitrre t tense. rno^t lovOy ', can, or or must would, or tht, could, love, lid, would, I must have in, or must must have ' * 5^ Pluperfect Tense. ; ^^! -^ H'<; Singular. Plural. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We miu;ht, could, would, or should have loved, should have loved, 2. Thou mightst, eouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have have loved, loved, 8. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or should have loved. or should have loved. By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood, you will find it vei'y easy. Thus, you will notice, that whenever any of the auxMiaries may, can^ or must is placed before a verb, that verb is in the potential mood, preaent tense; mighty could, would, or should^ renders it in the potential mood, imperfect tense ; may, can^ or must have, the perfect tense ; and might, could, would, or should have, the pluperfect tense. Infinitive Mood. ' * Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved. Participles. Present or imperfect, Loving. Perfect or passive, Loved. Compound, Having loved. Note. The perfect participle of a regular verb corresponds exactly with the imperfect tense ; yet the former may, at all times, be distinguish- ed from the latter, by the following rule : In composition, the imperfect tense of a verb always has a nominative, either expressed or implied : the perfect participle never has. For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to love, you will be . able to conjugate all the regular verbs in the English language/^v for they are all conjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the following direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb. Conjigate the verb love through all the moods and tenses, in the fiist person singular, with the pronoun / before it, and speak the Participles : thus. Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I love, imperf. tense, I loved ; perf. tense, I have loved: and so on, through every mood and tease. Then conjugate it in the second pers. sing, with the pro- noun thou before it, through all the moods and tenses; thus, In- -, die. mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou lovest ; imperf. tense, thou ovedst: and soon, through the whole. After that ' conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with he before it ; and then in the first pers. plural, with we helore it, in like manner through all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may i I I 148 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your persever- ance, induces mo to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate your progress. ' . When you shall have complied with ray requisition, you may conjugate the following verbs in the same manner ; which will enable you, hereafter, to tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesitation : walk^ hatCf smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate, meltj shun, fail. LECTURE XII. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Irregular verbs are those that do not form their im- perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or c.':" Am was been v" ' •- \ '" ' -'*,'■ Arise arose arisen Awake awoke, R. awaked ;/ ^: ^. I Bear, to bring forth bare bom 5 V' Bear, to carry bore borne • , ' # , Beat ■ . i beat beaten, beat . \ "- Begin began bei^un Bend bent bent . < Bereave bereft, R. bereft, R. ' J V ■ '^ "'" i Beseech besought besought Bid bade, bid bidden, bid \ :w" -^V'**^'"' Bind bound bound -;-- Bite bit bitten, bit Bleed bled bled • < ' .' - 1 Blow blew blown . ' \ ■.* ' Break broke broken '■ .u; :^ Breed bred bred : . ■ '. .-^'h Bring brought brought :■ iO. .:iri'Yj Build built built ■ ' . Burst burst, R. burst, R. •') ' . -■ Buy '^;r r - ' bought 1 I :■' ' ' bought ; .d . ■.•■-., Cast ■ ^^*' ^ -^ ^ •'• cast ■'J - cast ti».K:«>£ji, wii^: A.u Calch c -Wight, R. caught, R. trust you persever- know will you may rhich will any verb ice^ relate J Ml-'! . . -1 '. '-Vr.),. heir im- iion of d . Part. R are some- PaH. ■'; .■L^.y-iV J '• » -m; ; . 1 , i'.-tr 1 ■ ; .-Hi: ■•^•Yj, '("' .# i ^^ tii Prea. Tense. Chide Ohoose Cleave, to adhere Cleave, to split Cling Clothe Come Cobt Grow Creep Cut Dare, to venture Dare, to challenge Deal Dig Do Draw Drive Driuk Dwell Eat Fall Feed Feel Fight Find Flee Fling Fly Forget Forsake Freeze Get Gild Gird Give Go Grave Grind Grow Have Hang Hear Mew Hide Hit Hold Hurt Keep Knit IRREGULAR VERBS. Imperf. Tense. chid chose ' clave, B. cleft or clove clung clothed came cost crew, E. crept cut durst BEaULAB. dealt, R. dug, B. did drew drove drank dwelt, B. eat, ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forgot forsook ft'oze got gilt, B. girt, B. gave went graved ground grew had hung, B. heard hewed hid hit held hurt kept knit, B. -:^v Perf. or Pass. Part, chidden, chid chosen cleaved cleft, cloven clung clad, B. come cost crowed crept cut dared dealt, B. dug, B. done drawn driven drunk, drank.* dwelt, B. eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forgotten forsaken frozen gott gilt, B. girt, B. given gone graven, B. ground grown had hung, E. heard hewn, B. hidden, hid hit held , .hUrt kept knit, B. 149 • The men were drunk, i. e. inebriated. The toasts were drank. t Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its com pound /org'o^^en is still in good use. A 150 ETYMOLOOT AND aVNTAX, Prea. 7mm. ^ Tmper/. Tente. Per/, or Pau. Part Know know known , '''. Lade laded ^ laden ,". rt ! Lay laid laid Lead 1 . H lei led ►■•».■ '■» Leave left . left •r«n'' Lend lent lent •rt't :* .' Let let let M »-<;."> Lie, to lie down lay lain W. t Load loaded laden, B. ■•'.« Lose lost lost (, --if* Make made made ?;:'♦■ Meet met met .i^'.-^T Mow mowed mowen.R. ..'•'?»f Pay paid paid -tt-H- Put put put ;:r Bead read read .• .! Bend rent rent ' • ■ .' Bil rid rid Bide rode rode, ridden* ■i...'.,ij Bing rung, rang rung }r ..'.. -r. Bis: rose risen Bive rived riven Bun ran run Saw sawed sawn, B. > 0-' ' Say said said "/i-'l i See •aw seen !.m'-l Seek sought sought '. ::% Sell sold - sold • .. ,'?. Send sent sent ' '( I '.• Set set set A:rft''I Shake shook 'V' shaken :: I Shape shaped" shaped, shapen ■ -a Shave shaved shaven, B. .•-"*- .-* Shear sheared shorn '. stolen 1 t,» stuck t -^ stung ■ ■ '^ l •tunk ■ ■ : li; stridden .•i i struck or etifi6u^ *■. >'.:: strung .>; ^'f'- !■ striven 'strown. strowed, or strewed swet, B. 1 J nworn /•J i- iwoUen, B. swi^m .- '.\mi swung M ' 1 > r ! taken . I . I;« > -taught .'.Mia torn if told '.-*■<■■ thought . , ■■ thriven thrown thrust ■ 1 'jj trodden : ..-'iji waxen, B. worn •woven wet, B. I ' r wept won ' .......J ' . . IT. •■-., wound ' j-lh,,^: wrought, worked wrung written J In familiar writing and discourse, the following, »nd sonve other 'erbs, «re often improperly terminated by t instead of ed; as, "learnt, spelt, spilt, stopt, latcht." They should be, " learned, spelled, spilled, stopped, latched." * Spitten is nearly obsolete. . ii t »!« V'f.-, ! I i 102 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. You may now conjugate tho followinjr irregular verbs, in a manner similar to the conjugation of regular verbs : arise, hefiiriy hindydo, go, grow^ run, lend, teach, write. Thus, to ort^e— In\j^ht, could, would, or should have had. InHn[tiv<: prtsent, to li.ve; perf. to have had. Participlets, pres. liavir)g; perf. had : compound, havinyf had. Be. In the Tiex pla(;e I will present to you the conjugation of the irregular, ne. ttjr ver!. Be^ vhich is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before the \)( "xt |»articii»le of another verb, but in y far the most important verb in our language, for it is more fre- quently used than any otiicr ; many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated with it, and without its aid no pa?sirve verb can be conjugated. You ought, therefore, to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes, before you proceed any farther. II. PASSIVE VERBS. The cases of -nouns are a fruitful theme for investigation and discussion. In the ptogress of these lectures, this subject has frequently engaged our attention ; and now, in introducing to your notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both inte- resting and profitable to present one more view of the nominative case. J jforence to Bcl nor pre- tive form of he did not t, is a mat- ^ the con- See also ictive mood, enses of the he shall, Ac. if they, Ac- must be, he or must be, ghtst, &c. light, &c. ;anst, &c. or must,&c. thou, &c. sn, you, &c. n. tion, is by more fi*e- depend on no pa?si'Vo e yourself )ceed any ation and ibject has ducing to both inte- DUiinative PASSIVE VERBS. 157 Every sentence, you recollect, must have one Jinite verb, or more t!ian one, and one nominative^ cither expressed or implied, for without them no sentence can exist. Tiie nominative is the actor or subject concerning which the verb makes an nfHrniation. There are three kinds of nomina- tives, active^ passive^ and neuter. The nominative to an active verb is active^ because it produces an action, and the nominative to a 2;amvc verb is passive^ be- cause it receives or endures the action expre.-sed by tlic verb; for, A Passive Verb denotes action received or endured by the person or thing which is the nominative ; as, ** The hoy is beaten by his father." You perceive, that the nominative 6oy, in this example, is not represented as the actor^ but as the object of the action expressed by the verb is beaten; that is, iha hoy receives or endures the action performed by his father ; theiefore bo^j is a passive nom- inative. And you observe, too, that the verb is beaten denotes ^Q action received or endured by the nominative; therefore is beaten is a passive verb. If I say, John kicked the horse, John is an active nominative, because he peribnncd or j (reduced the action ; but if I say, John was kicked by the horse, John is a passive nominative, because he received or endured the action. The nominative to a neater verb is neuter^ because it does not y)roduce an action nor receive one ; as, John sits in the chair, .lohn is here connected with the neuter verb sits^ which expresses sim|)ly the state of being of its nominative, therefore John is a neuter nominative. I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by a lew examples. I. Of Active Nominatives; as, ''The boy beals the dog; The lady sings; The ball rolls; The man walks." II. Of Passive Nominatives ; as, ''The boy is beaten ; The lady is loved ; The ball is rolled ; The man was killed." III. Of Neuter Nominatives ; as. " The boy remains idle ; The lady is beautiful ; The ball lies on the ground ; The man lives in town." You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs. Passive verbs are called regular when they end in ed ; as, was loved ; was conquered. All Passive Verbs are formed by adding the perfect par- ticiple of an active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb to he, 158 ETVMOLOQY AND SYNTAX. ■ ! i I If you place a perfect ])aiticiple of an active-transitive verb after tiiis neuter verb be, in any mood or tense, you will liave a passive verb in the same niool and tense tb^it the verb he would be in if the partieiple wv.-e nut u^ed ; fis, I sm d'ujhted ; I was alighted ; He will ha sW/hkd ; It' I ha dl(/hted ; I may, can, or must be slighted, &<;. Ilenee yon perceive, that when you shall have learned the cnnjugat.oa of the verb be, you will be able to conjugate any passive verh in tiie English language. The regular passive verb to be loved, which is formed by add- ing the perfect )>articiple loved to ilie neuter verb to be, is conju- gated in the following manner : To DE Loved. — Tndicativk Mood. Pres. i Sing. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. Tense. ( Plur. We are loved, ye or you are loved, they are loved. Imperf. i Sing. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved. Tense. ( Plur. We were loved, ye or you were loved, they were loved. Perfect ( Sing. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved. Tense. ( Plur. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c. Pluper. i Sing. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c. Tense. \ Plur. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had be^n, &c. First i Sing. I shall or will be loved, thou shalt or wilt be loved, he, &c. Future. ( Plur. We shall orwillbeloved,you shall orwill be loved, they,&c. Second i Sing. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c. Future. ( Plur. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c. SUIUUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. ( Sing. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved. Tense. ( Plur. If we be loved, if ye or you be loved if they be loved. Iraperf. i Si g. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. Tense. ( Plur. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved. This mood has six tenses : — See conjugation of the verb to be. iMTEliATIVE Moon. Sing. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. Plur. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be loved. PoTEN'TiAL Mood. Sing. I raay, can, or must be loved, thou mayst canst, or must, &c Plur. We may, can, or must be loved, you may, can, or must, &c Sing. 1 might, could, would, or should be loved, thou mightst, &c Plur. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye or you, &c Sing. I may, can, or must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c 1 Plur. We may, can, or must have been loved, you may, can, &;c. fSing. I might, could, would, o» should have been loved, thou mightst, couldst, wouldst ^rshouldst have been loved, &c. I Plur. We might, could, woulu, r should have been loved, you [^ might, could, would, or siiould have been loved, they, &c. Infinitive Mood. Pres. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tense. To have been loved. *i Pres. Tense. Prea. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perfect Tense. Plup. Tense. DSPECnVE VERBS. 159 tive verb II have a he would I; 1 was -', can, or you shall ! able to by «dd- is conju- ■e loved. en loved, have, Ac. been, &c. be.,n, &c. d, be, &c. ,they,&c. d, he, &c. oved, Ac. oved. )ved. :e loved. to be. nust, &c QUSt, kc :htst, &c you, &c anst, &c can, &c. id, thou ved,&c. '^ed, you hey, &c. red. i t . r Participles. Present, Being loved. Perfect or Passive, Loved. Compound, Having been loved. NoTB. This conjugation of the passive verb tobe loved, is called the passive voice of the regular active-transitive verb to love. Now coiijnij;ate t!io Ibllowing passive verbs; that is, speak them in tlie fir:*t pcrs. siriir. and plur. of each tense, through all the moods, and speak the participles : " to be loved, to be rejocted, to be slighted, to be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to bo sought, to be taken." NoTB 1. When the perfect participle o( &n intransitive verb is joined to the neuter verb to be, the combination is not a passive verb, but a neuter verb in a passive form ; as, " He is gone ; The birds are flown; The boy is grown; My friend is arrived." The following mode of construction is in general, to be preferred: "He has gone; The hvc^s have flown ; The boy has grown ; My friend has arrived." 2. Active and neuter verbs maybe conjugated by adding their present participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all its variations ; as, in- stead of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c., we may say, I am teach- ing, thou art teaching, he is teachinri^, &c. ; and instead of, I taught, &c., I was teaching, &c. This mode of conjugation expresses the con- tinuation of an action or state of being ; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and contributes to the harmony and precision of lan- guage. When the present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb to be, the two words united, are, by some grammarians, de- nominated an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, as the case may be ; as, " I am writing a letter ; He is walking :" and when the present participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, they term the com- bination a neuter verb ; as, "I am sitting; He is standing." Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately. Either mode may be adopted. III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses. The principal of them are these. Pres. Ihnse. Imperf. Tense. May, mij?hfc. Can, could. Will, would. Shall. should. Must, must. Ought, OUfi,llt. quoth, ♦ Note. Must and ought are not varied. >rfect or Passive Participle is W'lnting. Ought arid quoth are never used as auxiliaries. Ought is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which verb determines its tense. Ought is in the present tense when the infinitive following it is in the present ; as, " He ought to do it ;" and ought is in the imperfect tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive ; as, " Be ought to have done it." ICO ETVMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. ' 'W Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, you may read over the last three lectures carefully and atten- tively ; and as soon as you become acquainted with all that has been presented, you will understand nearly all Ihe principles and regular constructions of our language. In parsing a verb, or any other part of speech, be careful to pursue the systematic orJeVy and to conjugate every verb until you become familiar with all ihe moods and tt^i.sts. " He should have been punished before he committed that atrocious deed." Should have been punished is a verb, a word that signifies to do — passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom. — it is formed by aMw/.s7ieo? to the neuter verb to be — regular, the^perf. part, ends in cd — potential mood, it implies obligation, &c. — pluperfect tense, it denotes a past act which was prior to the other past time sj>ecified by " committed" — third pers. sing, num., because the nom. "he" is, with which it agrees : Rule 4, 77ie verb must agrees d'a. — Conjugated, Tndic. mood, pres. tense, he is punished ; iiiiperf. tense, he was punished ; perf. tense, he has been punished ; and so on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak the participles. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Columbus discovered America. America was discovered by Columbus. Tim preceptor is writing a letter. The letter is writ- ten by the preceptor. The work can be done. The !K)Use would have been built ere this, had he fulfilled his promise. If I be beaten by that man, he will be piniished. Ye(X)me inore ingenuous. My worthy fiieiid ought to be honored for his bene- volent deeds. This ought ye to have done. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. AH the most important principles of the science, together with many of the rules, liave now been presented and illustrated. But before you proceed to analyze tlie following exeicises, you may turn over a few pages, and you will find all the rules pre- sented in a body. Please to examine them critically, and parse the examples under each rule and note. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate the respective rules and notes under which they are pjaced ; hence, by paying particular attention to them, you will be ena*bl«d fully and clearly to comprehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes. As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the defi- nitions^ so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit them in parsing ; but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. ccl gv nc VERU8. — PAUSING. 161 examples, nd atten- that lias iples and verb, or ystematic I familiar ous deed." ^nifiea to e notn. — le neuter ■il mooii, pMst act litted"— vvjiich it id, Indie, imished ; oiiiiioaio iples. ^ered I>y i" is writ- he Would If I be , if yon ng ridi- Homer. le more is bene- er with istrated. ies, veil es pre- i parse ou will 3 under ition to nd the le deji- y omit 5ivntax. When you pnrae witliout applying the definitions, yon may pro- ceed in the following mniiner : ..i , '.„ *• Mercy is the true badge of nobility." Mercy is a noun common, of ilie neuter gender, third person, singular number, and in the nominative case to "is": Rule 3, The nominative cose governs the verb. Is is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with " mercy," according to Rule 4, The verb must ayree, (fee. The is a definite article, belonging to " badge," in the sin- gular number : Rule 2, The definite article the, &c. True is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the noun " badge : " Rule 18, Adjectives belong, e analy- lay be an 3 not an ainativo after U^ according to Rule 21, because they are not in apposition irith the respective nouns that precede the verb ; but the constructions are anomalous; and, therefore, no rule can be applied to anal,\ze them. The same ideas, however, can be conveyed by a legitimate construction which can be analyzed ; thus, " ThQ height of the wall is three/ee^ ; " The age of my son is eight years." An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; but gome times it is very difficult to decide whether a construction is ano- malous or not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally considered anomalies ; but if we supply, as we are perhaps warranted in doing, the associated words which modern refinement has dropped, they will cease to be anomalies ; thus, " My knife is of the worth o/a shilling ;" "—-of the worth of him," &c. " He has been there for three times :" as we say, " I was unwell for three days after I arrived ;" or, " I was un- well three days." Thus it appears, that by tracing back, /or a few cen- turies, what the merely modern English scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be discovered, which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly. On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living language, the most able philologists can never be agreed ; because many usages will alw^,"'> be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently, be disposed of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a sentence may be treated as an anomaly ; by others who contend for, and supply, an ellipsis, the same sentence may be analyzed according to the ellipsis supplied ; whilst others, who deny both the elliptical and ano- malous character of the sentence, construct a rule by which to analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the principle contained in that sen- tence only. This last mode of procedure, inasmuch as it requires us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the language, appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It appears to be multi- plying}: rules beyond the bounds of utility. Th<) verbs cost, weighs, and measures, in the 6th, 7th, and 8 th examples, may be considered as transitive. See remarks on resemble, have, own, Ac, page 56. EXAMPLES. 1. " And God said, ^ Let there be light,' and there was light." ** Let 118 make man." " Let us bow before the Lord." '• Let high-born seraphs tune the lyre." 2. " Be it enacted." " Be it remembered." " Blessed be he that blesseth thee : and curbed be he that curseth thee." " My soul, turn from them : — turn we to survey," &c. 8. Methinks I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him." " Methought I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep.'* *' I was there just thirty years ago!''' 4. " Their laws and their manners, generally speaking, were ex- tremely rude." " Co//^'/ examples ," and the cording to ependent ; ! principle person is u, in such '> logically is no form pronoun, '^hatever," le 21, and good, or ich [ever name in d. but the stranger.'''' **A11 had returned but he." "None but the brave deserve the fair." "The thing they can't hut purpose, they post- pone." "This life, at best, is hut a dream." "It affords 6m< a scanty measure of enjoyment." **If he hut touch the hills, they will smoke." " Man is hut a reed, floating on the current of time." 2. "Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content." 3. "Open your hand wlde.^^ "The apples boil «o/f." *'The purest clay is that which burns lohite." "Drink deep^ or taste not the Pierian spring." 4. " What though the swelling surge thou see?" &c. " What if the foot, ordain'd the dust to tread ?" &c. Remarks.— According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of our most critical philologists, but is always a disjunctive conjuction ; and agreeably to the same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as a preposition, would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule 35. They maintain, that its legitimate and undeviating office is, to join on a mem- ber of a sentence which expresses opppsition of meaning, and thereby forms an exception to, or takes from the universality of, the proposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence. That it sustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples under number 1, will be shown by the following resolution of them. All were well but the stranger [was not weW]. "I sawnobody but [/sato] the sfrangrer." "None deserve the fair but the brave [deserve the fair.*''] " They postpone the thing which [they ought to do, and do not,] but which [thing] they cannot avoid purposing to do." " This life, at best, [is not a reality] but it is a dream. It [affords not unbounded fruition] but it affords a scanty mea- sure of enjoyment." " If he touch the hills, but exert no greater power upon them, they will smoke ;" — " If he exert no greater power upon the hills, but [be-out this fact] if he touch them, they will smoke." " Man is not a stable being, but he is a reed, floating on the current of time." This method of analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, is too much on the plan of our pretended philosophical writers, who in their rage for ancient constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern asso- ciated meaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be more consistent with the modern use of the word, to consider it an adverb in constructions like the following : If he but {only, merely) touch the hills they will smoke." Except and near, in examples like the following, are generally cons- trued as prepositions : " All went except him ;" " She stands near them." But many contend, that when we employ but instead of except, in such constructions, a nominative should follow: "All went but he [did not go.'-] On this point and many others, custom is variable ; but the period will doubtless arrive, when but, worth, and like, will be considered pre- positions, and, in constructions like the foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. This will not be the case, however, until the pratice of supplying an ellipsis after these words is entirely dropped. Poverty, under number 2, is governed by the iu:eposition notwithstand- ing, Rule 31. The adjectives wide, soft, white, and deep, under number 3, not only express the quality of nouns, but also qualify verbs : Note 4, under Rule 18. — Whnt,m. the phrases "what though" and "what if," is an interrogative in the objective case, and governed by the verb matters understood, or by some other verb ; thus, "What mattelrs it — what dost 166 ETTMOLOOT AND 8YWTAX. thou ftar, thonnfh thou see the swelling snrge ?" '« What would yon think, if the foot, which is ordained to tread the dust, aspired to be the head ?" In tiie folIowiiDJC cxHiiipIfH, the s.tino word is used as several parts of speech. But by exeici^ini; judgmont sufficient to com- prehend the moaning, and by supplying what is understood, you will be able to analyze them corrcclly. EXERCISES IN PARSING. I like what you dislike. Every creature loves its like. AngtT, envy, and like ]>as8ions, are sinful. Cliarity, like the sun, brightens every object around it. Thought flies swifter than li{j;ht. He thought as a sngc, though he felt as a man. Hail often proves destructive to veiyetation. ] was happy to hail him as ray friend. Hail ! beauteous stranger of the wood. The more I exaujine the work, the better I like it. Johnson is a better writer than Sterne. Calm was the day, and the S(!ene delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a dimp over our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. Much money has been expended. Of him to whom much is given, much will be required. It is much better to give than to receive. Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult. Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong. They wrong themselves as well as their friends. I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing in poetry, as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental exertion than parsing in prose, will be found a more delightful and profitable exercise. In this kind of analysis, in order to come at the meaning of the author, you will find it necessary to transpose his language, and supply what is understood ; and then you will have the literal meaning in prose. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Apostrophe to Hope. — Campbell. Eternal Hope! when yonder spheres sublime Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time, Thy joyous youth began : — but not to fade. — When all the sister planets have deeayed ; When wrapt in flames the reahns of ether glow, And HeareQ% last thunder shakes the %oild beiow ; spt bu tin tin fla shi POETRY TRANPOfiBD. — PARSING. 167 Id yon think, e the bead ?" as several nt to com- rstood, you it. les. id. Parsing 3f mental delightfiil order to essary to and th«n Thou, undismayM, ulialt o'er tho ruins smile, And light thy torch at Nutun-'s funeral pile ! . : -■ • • ' Tbansposed. Eternal Hope! thy joyous youth began when yonder aublirao spluTca j)MleU their first noil's to s 'unU i he march of time: — but it bej^an not to fade. — Thou, undismayed, hhalt smile over tho ruins, wlu-n all the sister planets shall have decayed ; and thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile, when wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, and Heaven's last thunder shakes the world helow. Adduess to Adversity. — Oray. Daui^hter of heaven, relentless power. Thou tamer of the huinan breast, Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour, The bad affright, afflict the best ! The gen'rouo spark extinct revive ; Teach me to love and to forgive; Exal»U^ (3nds hy nohhi nmans obtains, Or, tailinLT, smih;s in (5xih! or in (diaiiia, , Liin is man mfiriner. — he strength ruin : ami the victor's ist as they ts are built who build ell I heaps. Is the worm its broken )lote cham- ambition*s f the soul, the gny bich never brooked control. Can all the worlcs which saints, or snges, or sophists have ever writlen, repeople this lonely tower, or can they rent this tenement ? For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the English Header, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted, that ])a)sing in poetry, as it brings more immedintt-'ly into requisition the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisabhi that your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis of i)oetry. Previous to your attempting to pars.^ a piece of poetry, you ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples justpresent(jd : and thou it can be as easily anaylzed as prose. Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax, you may turn back anentance. Adams and Jetlerson, them wiio died on the onrth of July 1826, w('re I otli signers and the firm supporters of the Declara- tion of TndepiMulence. Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius CVar, is variously dc-ciibed by historians. RUI.E VIII. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the s'lngufar number, connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronoims, agreeing with them in the idiiral; as, " Socrates amd Plato were wise; theij were emiaent phihfiophers.^^ Note 1. AVhen each or even/ relates to two or more nominatives in the 6ini,'"ular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each of them in the singular ; as, " Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of water, i?ee?/is with life." , . ,. RULES OF STNTAX. 170 2. Wh«n the sinprular nominative of a complex sentence, has another noun joined to it with a prei)08itiou, it is customary to put tho verb and pronoun agreeing with it, in the singular ; as, " Prosperity with humility, renders its possessor truly amiable ;" " The General, also, in conjunction with tho officers, has applied for redress." FALSE SYNTAX. Coffee and sugar grows in tlie West Indies : it is exported in large quantities. Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb grows is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, " coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copu- lative conjunction, and; therefore the verb should be plural, grow; and then it would agree with coffee and sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun it, as it represents both the nouns, " coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, they, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus, " Coffee and sugar grow in the West Indies : they are exported in large quantities." Time and tide waits for no man. Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. Life and health is both uncertain. V\ isdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with tho golden mediocrity. The planetary system, boundless s])ace, and the immense ocean, affects the miiid with sensations of astonisJiment. What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think you hjive no need of assistance ? Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. Why is whiteness and coldness in snow ? Obey the commandnjcnt of thy father, jind the law of thy mother ; bind it continually upon thy heart. Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes of the judicious. There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoe- pists, wiiich shows the impossibility of carrying them into eflfect. EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. Every man, woman, and child, were numbered. Not proper ; for, although and couples things together so as to present the whole at one view, yet every has a contrary effect : it distributes them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. Were numbered is therefore improper. It should be, " was numbered," in the singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.) When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and every occurrence are beheld in the-most favorable light. RUIiE IX. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the singular number, connected by disjunctive conjunctioni, I I h 111 ■II: 180 RULES OK ftYMTAX. must have verba, nouns, and pronouns, ai^reeing with them in the sinou/ar ; us, •' Neither J^)liu nvr Jumes has learned his lesson. Note 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun nnd pronoun, of differ- ent pers'-ns, rire disjunctively coniu( M'd, the verb must aKro*', in person, with thill Vvliich is phic»'(l nearest to it; us, " Thou or 1 am in fault ; I or thon art toblanu! ; I cr thou, or he, is the aiifhorof it." Hut it would be better to say, "Eitlu-f 1 am to blame or thou art, kc. 2. When a dLsjuncliv(.' oocurs between a sinjyulur noun or pronoun and a plural one, the v«rb must agree with the plural noun or j)ronoun, which should generally be placed next to the verb ; as, ' Neither poverty nor riches were injuriuuH to him; '• 1 or they were oUVnded by it." Constructions like llicae ought giiierallv to ha avoided. FALSE SYNTAX. Ignorance or noo!itj(Mice liavc; catisoU this mistake. The verb, have caused, in this si'nteuce, is im])roperly used in the plural, because it expresses the action, not ot'boffi, but of either the one or the other of its nominatives ; therefore it should be in the singular, has caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance or negligence," agreeably to Rule 9. (Repeat the Rule.) A. circle or a square are the s;ime in idea. Neither wliitencss nor rediK .ssi arc in (he porpliyry. Neither of thorn are rcniarka:)Ic for pn-cisioii. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a w;itch, which inovo merely as they are iiiovod. When sickness, iiitiniiity, or reverse of fortune, affect ns, the sincerity of friendsliip is provi (h Man's hnppinoss or misery are, in a crcat nieasiiro, put into his own hands. Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for they may be thy own loi. The prince, as well as the pi oplc, were blameworthy. A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying unity of idea, generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the shigidar ; as, " The incctwg was large, and it held three hours." Note. Rules 10 and 11 are limited in their application. See page 59. FALSE SYNTAX. The nation a«9 powerful. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. The church hiive no ]>owcr to infli(;t corporal punishment. The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's care. Hfl-KH OF BYNTAX. 181 ^eing with Jiums has t)un, of (liffcr- <•«', in i)orflon, n in fault ; I Hut it would ti or pronoun 1 or pronoun, tither poverty by it." used in the ler the one or singular, ha» negligence," vliich move cct lis, tlie e, put into !i<)ii of life. onveying agreeing irge, and 5ee page 59. nent. le objects Tho nation wmh once powpiTiil ; btil now llioy aio fcoble. Ill; Lie XI. A noun of inulliludisconvi'yiim /;////y///V//of idcii, must have a verb or pronoun ngrceing with it in Ww p/urul ; as, ** Tlie council were divided in thdr sentiuients." FALSI-: SYNTAX. ^ly people doth not considiT. The niultitiuh! «'Mo-(!rly purHues ploasnrcsHs its cliicf {Ljood. The cotnniittoe was ilivi(U'(l in its wcntiniontH, tnid it lias refer- red the busiiK ss 1<> the liciu'inl nicetinii'. Tlie })eople rejuici-s in that whiith should i;'ive it sorrow. UUL1C XII. A noun or pronoun in the possessive cases is governed by the; noun it possesses; ns, " MatCs luippiness j" *' Its vahie is great." Wore 1. \\ hen tho possessor is described by a circumlocution, the possessive sign slu)uld generally be applied to the last term ouly ; as, "Tlie Duke of lirvli^cwtter^s canal ; The Bishop of La/nldjrs excellent book; Tha cuplain o/' //n; ifwyn/'.s house." This usaf^e, however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally convey tho ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is/Ac Coverner of Ohio's house !" 2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, aiii follow each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally annexed to the last only ; as, " For David, my srrvdiil's sake ; Jolia the fidjdist'n head ; Tho canal was built in consetiueuce of yjc Wilt C/i/i/on the /fouer- nor'.s advice." Hut when a ]»ause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, the si^n should bo applieil to the tirst possessive only, and understood to tho rest ; as, I reside at Lord SformonVs, my old pal ron and benefactor " 3. Its, the possessive case of it, is often iinproi)erly used for 'tis, or it is ;• as, " Its my book ; Its his," kc. ; instead of" It is my })ook ; or, '2'w my book ; It is his ; or ''I'is his." 4. Particii»les frequently govern nouns and i)ronouns in the possessive case ; as, " In case of his inajesly's dyini^ without issue, &c. ; Upon God's huv'ng ended all his works, &c. ; I remember its heinu; reckoned, a great exploit ; At my romiii'j; in he said," &c. But in such instances, the par- ticiple with its adjuncts nuiy be considered a substantive phrase, accord- ing to Note 2, Rule 28. 5. Phrases like these, " A work of Washins;ton Irvine's; A brother of Josep/i's; A friend of v/ime ; A neighbor ofyoiirs" do not, as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but they may be thus construed ; " A work of (out of or amor,(r the number of) Washington Irvine's works; that is. Que of tiie works oi'W(ishin'.'-to7i Irving; One of the brothers of Jose/)^ ; One friend of 7/jj/ /riewrZ's ; One neighbor of your neighbor's, FALSE SYNTAX. ' Homers works are much admired. Neve theletjs, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lor.]. i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A<^ "^^j.^^ <• ^° *^ :/. 1.0 I.I 2.8 ^m^ 2.5 2.2 1^ 124 ir IIIIIM •UWU. 18 1.25 III ,.4 1.6 -^ 6" - ► v2 / '4*V^ ^ 7 6. HiotDgraphic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 '^■' V^J^ ''b .«?■ ■ m m?.. u. 182 RULES OF SYNTAX. i James Hart, his book, bought Aupfu^^t the 19, 1829. Note \. It was the men's, women's and children's lot to suffer great calamities. This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. > Note 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haber- dasher's. Note 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. Much depends on the rule being observed. The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay it before the council. RUIiE XIII. Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number ; as, **Jo/m writes, and he will soon write well." Note. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, is always plural in form ; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural ; as, my friend, you were mistaken." See pages 99 and 100. FALSE SYNTAX. Every man will be rewarded according to their works. Incorrect, because the pronoun their does not agree in gender or number with the noun " man," for which it stands ; consequently Rule 13 is violated. Their should be his ; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with man^ according to Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.) An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience. Rebecca took goodly raiment and put them on Jacob. Take handl'uls of ashes, and let Mos(;s sprinkle it towards hea- \en, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. No one should incur censure for being tender of their repu- tation. Note. Horace, you was blamed ; and I think you was worthy of censure. Witness, where was you standing during the transaction ? How far was you from ihe defendant ? RUIiE XIV. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in gender, person^ and number ; as, '* Thou who lovest wisdom ;" " I who speak from'experience." Note. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of dif- ferent persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but not without regard to the sense ; as," I am the man who commandyovif or. ■fc RULES OF SYNTAX. 183 to suffer . \ d haber- equently. eglecting uns for ', writes, alar noun, it should and 100. i^ender or ntly Rule ould be of according • of their irds hea- lust. eir repu- s worthy isaction ? ents, in sdom ;" nts of dif- ith either, land you;" or, " I am the man who command$ you." The meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear, if we render it thus : " I who com- mand you, am the man," When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as, " I am the Lord, that rngketh all things ; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone, that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," &c. FALSE SYNTAX. Thou who has been a witness of the fiict, canst state it. The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost their lives by this means. Thou great First Cause, least understood ! "Who all my sense confined. Note, 2d part. Thou art the Lord who didst choose Abra- ham, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees. RU1.E XV. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb : as, " The master who taught us, was eminent.'* FALSE SYNTAX. If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to ad- monish him ? This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor. BVIiE XVI. When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sen- tence ; as, " He whom I serve, is eternal.'* NoTB 1. Who, which, what, the relative that, and their compouds, whomever, whomsoever, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed before the verb ; as, "He whom ye seek, has gone hence." 2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied ; as, " Who steals my purse, steals trash ;" that is, he who. 3. The pronouns whichsoever, whatsoever, and the like, are sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns ; as, " On which side soever the king cast his eyes," &c. 4. The pronoun v^hat is sometimes improperly used instead of the con- junction that ; as, " He would not believe but what I was in fault." It should be, " but that," &c. FALSE SYNTAX. ' ' That is the friend who I sincerely esteem. Not proper, because who, which is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb " esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to 184 RULES OF SYNTAX. be k6hom, in the objectire ; and then it woald be governed by esteem, ao- cording to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule :) — and, also, according to Rule 20. " That is the friend whom I sincerely esteem." They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be estimated. He ia a man who I greatly respect. Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and who we ought to be grateful to. They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune. , v Who did you walk with ? -^ - ^ - ''■■- Who did you see there? ■ ■" *''' /^ V/ho did you give the book to ? • '• •'>'■ • - V-.'/i RUIiE XVII. •■Jiii* ,*• jlvilii ■ ■ t When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative ; as, " Whose book is that? Joseph's;'^ ** Who gave you this? John,^^ Note. Whether the interrogative really refers to a subsequent or not, is doubtful ; but it is certain that the subseqoent should agree in case with the interrogative. ,, \ . r fi. FALSE SYNTAX. Who gave John those books ? Us. Of whom did you buy them ? Of a bookst-Uer, he who lives in Pearl-street. Who walked with you ? My brother and him. Who will accompany me to tlie country? Her and me. RUIiB XVIII. Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood ; as, "He is a good^ as well as a wise man.'* Note 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "Jam mise- rable ; He is industrious." 2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives, when of the cardinal kind ; as, " Tenfeet ; Eighty /aMoms." But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception to this rule ; as, "A fleet oi forty sail ;" " Two hundred head of cattle." • 3. Adjectives sometimes'belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence ; as, " To see is pleasant; To be blind is unfortunate ; To die for our country is glorious." 4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with RULES OF SYNTAX. 185 by esteem, ao- trding to Rule wer for. h, your own we ought to imile at the «v; ative kind answer to uent must ose book is >» quent or not, agree in case id you buy me. .»! pressed or 3 man.'* " I am mwfi- ist agree in " Ten feet ; ssions form 'wo hundred mood, or to nfortunate ; djectives, or nexion with the action by which that quality is produced ; as, " Rtd hot iron ; Pale blue lining ; Deep sea-green sash ; The apples boil soft ; Open your hand wide; The clay burns white; The fire burns blue ; The eggs boil hard." 5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase ; as, "In general ; in particular;" that is, generally, particularly. 6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify ; as, "A tract of good land." Y. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison ; such as, more impossible, most impossible ; more unconquerable, more perfect, Sfc. See Remarks on adjectives, page 76. 8. When-an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it should be in the comparative degree ; but when more than two are compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is thetaller of the two ; Her specimen is the best of the three." FALSE SYNTAX. fj. Kote 2. The boat carries thirty ton. The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth. Note 6. He bought a new pair gf shoes, and an elegant piece of furniture. My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land. Note 7. The contradictions of impiely are still more incom- prehensible. It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before. Note 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest ? I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three, RVIiE XIX. Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or un- derstood ; as, ** Any man, alt men." Note 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in num- ber with their nouns ; as, " This book, these books ; that sort, those sorts." 2. The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, another, and one, agree with nouns in the singular number only, as, " Each man, every person, another lesson ;" unless the plural nouns convey a collec- tive idea ; as, " Every six months." 3. £i7Aer is often improperly employed instead of cacA; as, "The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne." Each signifies both taken separately ; either implies only the one or the other taken disjunctively : — "sat each on his throne." FALSE SYNTAX. Note 1. Those sort of favors do real injury, have been playing this two hours. They Tliese kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. H the jrarden. saw one or more persons enter Note 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. I I i \ i I 188 RULKS OF SYNTAX. 'tliero are bodi(?R, eacli of which aro so nniall rb to bo invisible. Kvory i)er8on whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws of morality and relij^ion. Note 3. On either aide of the river was the tree of life. Nadab and Abihu took cither of them his cenaer. RVLB XX. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as, •* Cesar cou(jnered Pompcij ;" •* Colutnbus discovered America /" ** Truth ennobles Ac/-." FALSE SYNTAX. Ye who were dead, hath ho (juickene*!. Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb '* hath qiiiclcened ;" and there- fore it should be you, iu the ol)jective case. You would then be governed by '' hath quickened," agreeably to Rule 20. ^ctive'tramitive verbi govern the objective case. Who did tlidy entertain so freely ? They who opulence has mudo proud, aiul who luxury has cor- rupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. He and they we know, but who are ye ? She that is nogliijcnt, reprove sha^pl^^ • ^ He invited my brother and I to jiay him a visit. - • ^^ ^ Who dill they send on that mission? - • ' -^ '■ '^-'^ ' They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love. RULIS XXI. The verb to be may have the same case after it as be- fore it ; as, " I am the man ;'* " I believe it to have been them;'* He is the thief.'' NoTB 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb to be signify the same thing, they are in apposition, and therefore, in the same case. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7. 2. The verb to be is often understood ; as, " The Lord made merman; He made him what he was ;" that is, " The Lord made me to be man ; He made him to be that which he was." *' They desired me to call them brethren ;" i. e. by the name of brethren. " They named him John ;" i. e, by the name o/ John ; or, by the name John : putting these two nouns in apposition. FALSE SYNTAX. I know it to be thoy. ^ Improper, because it is in the objective case before the verb " to be," and they is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is violated. They is in apposition with it, therefore they should be them, in the objec- tive after to be, according to Rule 21 (Repeat the Rule.) bo invisible. Dund by the life. It case ; as, discovered 5 object of the ;" and there- 1 be governed imitive verb* my has cor- st reason to ;r it as be- have been bllowing the therefore, in ned in Rule 7. lade me, man ; le me to be red me to call ad him John ;" ise two nouns verb " to be," is violated. , in the objec- RULB8 OF SYNTAX. 187 Be oomposod, it is me. I would not act thus, if T were him. Well may you be afraid ; it is him, indeed. Who do you fancsy him to be ? Wlium do men say that I am ? Whom say yo that I am ? - If it was not him, who do you imat^ino it to have been ? Ho 8up[>08(id it was me ; but you know that it was him. HVIiB XXII. Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb to become^ and other neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to, and signify the same thing; as, '* Tw/w struts a soldier ;^^ *• ^Fi// sneaks a scrivener f'^ ** He was called Cesar f^ '* The general was saluted emperor ;" *• T/tcy have become ^oo/^.** NoTB 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and govern the objective case ; as, " To dream a dream ; To run a race ; Tbwalk the horse; To dance the child; Tojly the fctVc." 2. According to a usage too common in colloquial stylo, an agent not literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, which causes the verb to bo followed by an objectiue case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition ; thus, " Pitticus was was offered a large sum by the king ;" " She was promised them (the jewelt) by her mother ;" " / was asked a question.^* It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the idiom of our language, to say, " A large turn was offered to Pitticus;" " They were promised (to) her;" "A que$tion was put to me." 3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound active verbs. To smHe^ to wonder, to dream, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they he ^e no passive voice ; but, to smile on, to wonder at, to dream of, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice ; as, " He was smiled on by fortune ; The accident is not to be wondered at ;" "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." RIILK XXIII. A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noUn, adjective, participle, or pronoun ; as, ♦* Cease to do evil ;" *' We all have our talent to be improved ;" "She is ea^er to learn ;" *' They are preparing to go ;" **Let him do it.'* Illustration. The supposed principle of government referred to in this rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, " Cease to do evil," the peculiar manner in which cease is introduced; re^Mtre.* or compels us to put the verb do in the infinitive mood ; and, according to the genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus con- nected with cease, in any other mood, unless we change the construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that cease governs the mood of the verb tl,, . . ■—.■... 188 RULBS OF SYNTAX. ! i i! f L do. Similar remarks may be applied to the words talent, Mg$r, ftrtpar- ingf and him, in the respective examples under the rule. Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood in- variably to the preposition to prefixed, which word they do not, of course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the follow- ing rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes. A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor. Illustration of the examples under Rule XXIII. " To do " refers to thou understood for its agent ; " to be improved " refers to talent j " to learn," to she ; " to go," to they ; and " tc do," refers to Am. Note 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, " To confess the truih, I was in fault." 2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or ad- verbs ; as, " An object so high as to he invisible;" " He is wise enough to deceive ;" " TJie army is about to march." RVIiE XXIV. . :-, ^;W}-.;1 The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequent- ly put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb ; as, *' To play is pleasant ;'* " Boys love to play ;" ** That warm climates shorten life, is reasonable to suppose ;" " He does not consider how near he approaches to his end^"* NoTB. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly oqaitted ; as, " I heard him ^oy it ;" instead " to say it." ■v'X ■n^^vi RUIiE XXV. The verbs which follow hiA.^ dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, help, let, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed; as, *' He bids vr,'^ come;'*^ "I d&re engage ;^* "Let me ^o ;" " Help me do it ;" i. e. to come, to go, to do it, &c. '* He is hearing me recite" FALSE SYNTAX. Bid him to come. lie durst not to do it without permission, '*' ' Hear him to read his lesson. ^^- '""^ '"* ': It is the difference in iheir conduct, which makes us to approve the one, and to reject the other. It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal. I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. RULK8 OF SYNTAX* 119 eager, prepar- [ne noun or imes properly BVLB XXVI. Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived ; as, "I saw the tutor instructing his pupils, ^* NoTi. The present participle with the definite article the before it, be- comes a noun, and must have the preposition of after it. The and of must both be used, or both be omitted ; as, " By the observing of truth, you will command respect ;" or, " By observing truth," Ac. FALSE SYNTAX. •o.r; Noie» We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it. The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kinjiB, belong to Providence alone. These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you \ may avoid mistakes. BUIiB XXVII. - -vj .1 ■vfy'?. .' The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun^ denoting the subject or actor; as, "I see a boy run- ning,^^ ,, . , . . , RIJinB XXVIII. -' ' d The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to ^ some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood; as, **I,^ B&w the boy abused " . : -•.: Aw' NoTB 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as ' before them ; as, " Pontius Pilate being Governor of Judea, and Herod . being Tetrarch," &c. I 2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered b!^ d,'^ substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of 4 .^ verb, or the object of a verb or preposition ; as, " Taking from another without his knowledge or assent, is called stealing; He studied to avoid .- expressing himself too severely ; I cannot fail of having money, &c. ; By t promising much and performing but little, we become despicable." 3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular Terbfl,.^ are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be .,. not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, ' He begun,' for ' he I began ;' ' He run,' for ' he ran ;' * He come,' for ' he came ;' the participles ^ being here used instead of the imperfect tense ; and much more frequent- ly is the imperfect tense employed instead of the participle ; as, ' I had wrote,' for * I had written ;' ' I was chose,' for ' I was chosen ;' ' I have eat,' for * I have eaten.' * He would have spoke ;' — spoken. ' He over- run his guide ;' — overran. ' The sun had rose ;' — risen. FALSE SYNTAX. ' I seen him. I have saw many a one. Seen is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the imper- fect tense df the verb. It ought to be " I saw him," according to Notb 3. Have sfttp is alf o e|rron«o]^, the imperfect teas^ b^og emplpTied in- -f' JJ '»« 100 RULES or SYNTAX. I ^i I Stead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a rerb is formed by combining the auxiliary have with its perfect participle : therefore the sentence should be written thus, " I have seen many a one :" NoTi 3. ^ote 3. lie clone me no harm, for 1 had wrote my letter before he come homo. Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to Europe lonjj; ago. The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the same subject. RVLE XXIX. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " A very good pen writes extremely well ;'* " By living temperately t*^ &c. NoTB 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, aft^ verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, << He made a V9ry sensible discourse, and was attentively heard." 2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses quality, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses manner, an adverb should be used ; as, " She looks cold ; She look^coldly on him ; He feels warm ; He feels warmly the insult offered to him." If the verb to be can be sub- stituted for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an ad verb; as, " . . — - _ look [are] fresh." 3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs here, there, and where, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs, hither, thither, whither : thus, " He came here [hither'] hastily ;" " They rode there [thither] in two hours ;" " Where [whither] will he go ?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible. 4. The use of where instead of in which, in constructions like the fol- lowing, is hardly admissible : " The ittamortal sages of '76, formed a char- ter, vihere [in which] their rights are boldly asserted." 5. As the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, literally sujpply the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them : " From whence it follows ;" " He came from thence since morning." Better, " whence it follows ;" " He came thence." The following phrases are also exceptionable : " The then ministry ;" " The above argument ;" " Ask me never so much dow- ry ;" " Charm he never so wisely." Better, " The ministry o/ Ma* time or period;" " The preceding argument ;" " Ever so much dowry ;" " Ever so wiselv " ' -^ --^ FALSE SYNTAX. ^ .^..^: ....... JVb/e 1. It cannot' be- impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate. He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. These things should be never separated. * We may happily live, though our possessions are small. " She looks [is] cold ; The hay smells [is] sweet ; The fields green; The apples taste [are] sour; The wind blows [is] I ) is formed by therefore the :" NoTi 3. letter belore I have went iey. rope. ad they writ I, and other )ell r " By adverbs, aft€^ a made a v»ry resses quality, adverb should [e feels warm ; be can be sub- md not an ad- >t] The fields ttd blows [i»] re, and toAcre, Ither, whither : Ihither] in two ,r style, these aissible. 3 like the fol- formed a char- )ply the place n employing a )llows ;" " He lows ;" " He nable : " The 30 much dow- of that time or -y ;" " Ever so therefore to ^mall. RULRS OF SYNTAX. 191 BIJIiB XXX. Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative; as, "Such things are not t^ncommon ;" i. e. they are common. Note. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression ; as, " His language, though inelegant, is not ungramroatical ;" that is, it is gram* matical. But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a negative meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : " I cannot by no means allow him wliat his argument must prove." It should be, " I cannot by any means," Sec, or, " I can by no means." FALSE SYNTAX. ! m^ote, 2d part. I don't know nothing about it. ^.^ , I did not see nobody tliere. Nothing never affects her. Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. There catinot be notliing more insignificant than vanity. Precept nor discipMne is not so forcible as example. RfJiiC: XXXI. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, ** He went from Utica to Rome, and then passed through Redfield." FALSE SYNTAX. ; /' Each is accountable for hisself. il They settled it among theiraelves. - i.'V • It is not I who he is displeased with. > ■ i'^' Who did you go with? Who did you receive instruction from ? RULE XXXII. Home, and nouns signifying distance^ time when, hm long, &c. are generally governed by a preposition under^ itood; as, " The horse ran a mile :" *'He came home last June ;" ** My friend lived four years at college ;" that is, ran through the space of a mile ; or, ran over a space called a mile ; to his home in last June ; during four years, &c. NoTB 1. The prepositions to and /or are often understood, chiefly be- fore the pronouns ; as, " Give [toj me a book ; Get [for] him some paper." 2. To or unto is, by some, supposed to be understood after like and unlike; as, "He is like [unto] his brother; She is unlike [to] him." Otliers consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and maintain that like governs the objective following it. 192 RULBB OF SYNTAX. li; 'hi 3. Noam signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or ralue, are uged without a governiug word; a.s, "Ttie Ohio is one thousand milea long ; Hhe is ten years old ; My hat is worth ten dollaraj' Thes* are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163. RUIiB XXXIII. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the somne case ; as, *' The master taught her and mc to write ;'* •* He and she are associates." FALSE SYNTAX. My brother and him are grammarians. You and me enjoy great privileges. Him and I went to the city in company ; but John and him returned without me. Between you and I there is a great disparity of years. RIJIiE XXXIV. Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses ; as, " If thou sincerely desire, and earnestly pursue virtue^ she will assuredly be found by thee, and prove a rich reward." Note 1. Whea different moods and tenses are connected by conjunc- tions, the nominative must be repeated ; as, " He may return, but he will not tarry." 2. Oonjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunc- tive mood after them ; as, " If he study, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, and 155. 3. The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and less, gene- rally require the subjunctive mood after them. 4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying bo doubt, require the indicative mood ; as, " jIs virtue advances, to vice recedes," FALSE SYNTAX. Did lie not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. iVbfe 1. He h.is gone home, but may return. The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more. JVote 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains. If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. * RUIiB XXXV. 'A noun or pronoun following the conjunction than, as, or hut, is nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or understood; as, "Thou art wiser than I [am]." ** I saw nobody but [I saw\ him." NoTB 1. The conjunction cw, when it is connected with such, many, or same, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a relative pronoun : as, " Let su^h as presume to advice others," &c., that is, Let them who, Sbc. See page 116. 2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which ity, or TAla«, )no thousand lata." Tbes* n the samne ite ;" " He hn and him ars. like moods I earnestly thee, aiid i by conjunc- rriy but he will i the subjunc- " See pages nd less, gene- ing BO doubt, ice recedes" orgive him ? a base mind. more. )n thaitt as, y a verb or Thou art ] him." h such, many, pronoun: as, them who, Ac. mitted, which RYNTAX OF THE TBNSU8. 193 must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically ; as, " Wo is me ;" that ia to me ; " To sleep all night ;" i. e. through all the night ; " He has gone a journey ;" i. e. o/t a journey ; " They wallied a league ;" i, e. over a space called u league. 3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken itg force, they must bo exprensed. 4. In the use of propositions, and words that relate to each other, we should pay particular regard to tlio meaning cf tlio words or sentences which they connect; all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and ;i regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved. FALSE SYNTAX. * • They are much giciitcr gainers than mo. They know liow to write us well aH him; but he is a better grammarian tluin them. > They were all well but him. ' None were rewarded but him and mo. , s ; * Jesus sought none but ihey who liad gone astray. REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 1. In the use of verbs, and oilier words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed. • ' ; - Instead of saying, "The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away ;" we should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken aw&y." Instead of, " I remember the family more than twenty years ;" it should be, " I have remembered the family more than twenty years." • 2. The best rule that can be given for the manaofement of the tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is this very general one ; Observe what the sense necessarily requires. To say, " I have visited Washington last summer ; I have seen the work more than a month ago," is not good sense. The constructions should be, " I visited Washington, &c. ; I saw the work, &c." " This mode of expres- sion has been fornverly much admired :" — " was formerly much admired." " If I had have been there ;" If I had have seen him ;" " Had you have known him," are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can say, I have been, I had been ; but what sort of a tense is had have been? TO place had before the defective verb ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate : — "Aad ought, hadn't ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of theirn, hern, and hizzen, tother,furder, baynt, this ere, I seed it, I teWd him. 3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in whicli it took place remains, the imperfect tense should be used ; but if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, the perfect tense should be employed. Thus, we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century ;" « He was much afflicted last year ;" but when we refer to the 9 104 BYNTAX OF THE TENSJCS. present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the perfect tense ; ai, " Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present century ;" " He has been much afflicted this year ;" I have read, the president's mes- sage this week ;" Wc have heard important news this morning ;" hecause these events oocniTed in this ccnttiry, this year, this week, and to-day, and still there remains u part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak. • In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author of the work, though it may hpvo been performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have, in all ages, claimed great i)owers ;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists ; but we cannot properly say, " The Druid priests have claimed great powers ;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, " The Druid priests claimed great powers." The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and a[)])lication of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to Philadelphia." It should be, " was recently at i'hiladclphia ;" because the adverb rect"7t//r/. refers to a time completely past, wif^hout any allusion to the present time. " Charles has grown considerably since I have seen him the last time." Corrected, " Charles has grown, since I saw him," &c. " Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed." Corrected, " for its having been so long postponed." " They were arrived an hour before we reached the city :" — " They had arrived." " The workmen will complete the building at the time I take posses- sion of it." It should be, "will have completed the building," kc. " This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past :" — " has been preserved, and been shown to strangers," &c. " I had rather write than beg :" — " I would rather write than beg." " On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty where- of Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, " because he would know ; or, being willing to know, &c. - - - - - " '" "If by In both these examples, may would bo preferable to might. " I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I arrived ;" — " that I should lose." "It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, " if I co'ild have performed it ;" or, " It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." " This dedication may ierve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published :" — " that has been, or will be published.'^ 4. In order to employ the two tenf^es of the infinitive mood with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we express. Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, ought to be followed by the presi^nt tense of the Infinitive mood. " Last week I intended to have written," is improper. The intention of writing was then present with me ; and, therefore, the construction should be, " I intended to writc.'^ The following examples are also in- " The blind man said, Lord, that I might receive my sight , any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." FALSE SYNTAX. 195 perfect tense ; ;nt century -," esident's mes- ing ;" because id to-diiy, and day, of which the action is either of the I any centuries IS, the perfect n general, we ;" because the , properly say, I that order is )riests claimed rate the proper ently been to I ;" because the my allusion to ce I have seen [ saw him," &c. or its being so ig postponed." :" — » They had I take posses- g,"&c. "This .0 strangers for been shown to id rather write rtainty where- as bands." It to know, &c. ight;'" "If by ead." In both I feared that I I should lose." )erforni it." It 'd afford me no may ocrve for I" that Acs beeji, ifinitive mood ) the meaning imand, ought ve mood. The intention le construction les are also in- accurate ; " I found him better than I expected to have found him ;" My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, to have with- drawn my wealth to another country. They should be, " expected tojind him ;" "/o withdraw my wealth." " This is a book which proves itself to bo written by the porson whose name it bears." It ought to bo " which proves itself /o have been written^ &c. " To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Cor- rected, " To have seen him ;" or, " To sec him would affordmc pleasure," &c. " The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them :" — " were sufficient to satisfy." " History ])aintcr8 would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings :" — " to invent such a species." 5. General and immiitablo truths ought to be expressed in the present tense. Instead of saying, " lie did not know that eight and twenty were equal to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever was useful, was good ;" " My opponent would not believe, that virtue was always advantageous." The constructions should be, "are equal to twenty ; whatever is useful, is good ; virtue is always advantageous." EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity. On these causes depend all the happiness or misery whicli exist among men. The enemies who wc have most to fear, are tiiose of our own hearts. Is it me or him who you requested to go ? Though great has been liis disobedience and liis folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them. By exercising of our memories, they arc improved. The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wholly consumed. Affluence might give ur* respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recommend us to thf wise and good. The cares of this world, th*ey often choke the growth of virlue. They that honor me, I will honor; rnd them that despise me, shall be lightly esteemed. I intended to have called last week, but could not. The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove papev. I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew Jackson, he who is now president. Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. I have saw him who you wrote to ; and he would have came back with me, if he could. 196 FALSB SYNTAX. ||| Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand tlie nHture of tlio religion which thev reject. If tlioii studiest diligently, thou will become learned. , ^ Education is not attended to properly in Spain. tie know'd it was his duty ; and lie oui>ht, therefore, to do it. He has little more of the great man bosi.les the title. Kichard acted very iudepriulent on the occasion. ,; We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw'. \ Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they will go out of themselves. Those two authors have each of them their merit. Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense. Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature, with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if they wca'c adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry. A Limj)oon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. The side A, with the sides 1^ and 0, compose the triangle. If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent to improve. It is reported that the governor will come liere to-morrow. Beauty and innocence should be never separated. Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hopp. Not one in lifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures. Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are wantina:, diso-ust or hatred often follow little diflferences. An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a christian. The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happiet than him. There are principles in man, Avhich ever have, and ever will, incline him to oftend. This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection. They that honor me, them will I honor. Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athe- nians, that he might be said to attain a monarchial power in Athens. Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time. FALSE SYNTAX. 197 norrow. Every churcli Jind sect have opinions peculiar to themselves. That writer has given ua an account of tlie manner \u wliich christi.'inily lias t'ornierly been propaj»;aleil auioncf tlie lieathens. Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unwortliy of your attention. In his conduct w.'is treachery, and in his words faithless professions. ' After I visited Europe, I returned to America. i I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again disappointed. Five and eight makes thirteen ; five from eight leaves three. If he goes to Sai'atoga next week, it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering-pUice. I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man. The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. He would not believe that honesty was the best policy. The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been. Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow mo all the days of my life ; and 1 will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them bo gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c. ? He might have completed his task sooner, but ho could not do it better. The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men,, when they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. CRITICAL. ^OTEIS Ai^l» OB^ISRTATIOIVS. Observation 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who re- gard common sense : — "Sing the (wo first and three last verses." Just as if their could be more than one (ir>t and one last. There may be a. first ttvo, a second two, &c. ; <' a first three, a second three, a last three " " Within the two last centuries ;" *' The pecond syllable of the three first words ;" *' The three first of these orthoepists have no rule by which their pronunciation is regulated; the last two centu- ries ; Ihe first three words ; the first three of these orthoepists." 2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "The hii^her the river the sivifter it flows ;" "James learns easier than Juliet ; he sees deeper inio the millstone than she :"-*< the wore swiftly it flows ;" *< learns more easily ; farther into the millHlone-" •' He conducted the boldest of any :" — tiie most boldly. 198 CRITICAL REMARKS. 3. More requires than after it. The following sentences are there- fore improper: " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cintfiio ;" *' Richard is more active, but not so studious, aa his companion," The legitimate mode of supplying the elipscs in these constructions, will show their gross impropriety : thus," He was more beloved as Cinthio ;" " Richard is more active as his companion," &o. 4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally substitutes for two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. ** Will you accompany me to Europe next summer?" ** Fes." Do you believe that the voyage will restore your heahh ?" ^* No.'*' In these exam- ples, the adverbs yes and no, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do not qualify any words understood. YeSy in this instance, literally means, ** I mil accompany you to Europe next summer ;'' and no, '' I do not believe that the voyage will restore my health.^' Many other adverbs are often employed in a similar manner. *^ Firstly,^' is often improperly used instead of the adverb ^rs^ / ** a good deal,'' instead of, much, or, a great deal. 5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of such and so. The former may be employed in expressing quality ; the latter, iu expressing a degree of the quality ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found ;" " So bad a temper is seldom found." In the following ex- amples, so should be used instead of such : " He is such an extrava- gant young man, that I cannot associate fore saw such large trees." The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers ought not to be imitated. *' On page forty-five ;" " Look at page nineteen;" —forty-fifth, nineteenth. 6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard should be paid to their meaning as establistied by the idiom of our language and the best usage. *' In my proceedings, I have been ac- tuated from the conviction, that T was supporting a righteous cause ;" ** He should have profited from those golden precepts ;" " It is con- nected to John with the conjunction and;" ** Aware that there is, in the minds of many, a strong predilection in favor of established usages ;" <* He was made much on at Argos ;'' " They are resolved of with him ;" " I never be- going ;'* <* The rain has been falling of a long time ;" " It is a work deserving of encouragement;" These examples may be corrected .35 thus, ''actuated 6(/ the conviction ;" "6y those golden precepts ** by the conjunction and ;" " predilection/or ;"" much of at Argos ;" *'on going ;" " falling a long time ;" *' deserving encouragement." 7. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, where they fol- low verbs or participles of motion; as, "I went to Washington." But at is employed after the verb to be ; as, *' I have been at Wash- ington." " He has been to New York, at home," &c. are improper. The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; "He lives in France, z?i London, in Philadelphia, in Rochester." But before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant .53 countries, at is commonly used ; as, " He lives at Paik-place ; <* She resides at Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, ** They live in New Orleans, or, at New Orleans." 8 are there- h admired, iou8, as his ^efi'in these le was more anion," &o. bstitutes for *« Will you you believe hese exam- en ces, and, lis instance, summer /" mj/ health." nner. iverh first ; luch and so, le latter, in iv is seldom Mowing ex- an extrava- I never be- rs ought not nineteen ;" jular regard Jiora of our ve been ac- )us cause ;" "It is con- t there is, in established 5 resolved of It is a work »e corrected .5? I CRITICAL REMARKS. 109 precepts , 'at Argos ;' ragement." 3re theyfol- ashington." fn at Wash- e improper, rge towns ; ester." But 3 in distant irk-place ;" states may 8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be em- ployed as active agents. The following are solei:'' ms : '* This house to let ;" ** Horses and carriages to lot ;" ** Congress has much busi- ness to perform thU session ;" bicanse the agents, housey horses and carriages, and business, which are really passiue, are, accor«ling to these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be, <* This house to he let ;" ** Horses and carriages to be let ;" " much business to be performed." 9. Ambiguitv.-'' Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not literally correct, for wisdom is certainly more to be desired than noth- ing ; but as a figurative expression, it is well established and unex- ceptionable. <' A crow is a lar^e black bird :" — a large, black — bird. ** I saw a horse — fly throuiih a window :" — I saw a horsefly. ** I saw a ship gliding under full f-ail through a spy glass." I saw, throuah a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail. *' One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see with half an eye, how the world goes. '* A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the nriem- bers and circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's search to the sea shore ; whereas, he meant, " A large stone, which, after a long search, 1 happened to find by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." " I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall no- tice only those called personal pronouns. 10. Tautology. — Avoid words which add nothing to the sense ; such as, ** Now extant, /ree gratis, slow mope, cold snow, a hot sun, a fiowing stream, a dull blockhead, wise sages." <* I am just going to go there ;" I am about to go. 11. Absurdities and Improprietiks. — '* I can learn hinri many things." It ought to be, " I can teach him." To learn, is to acquire ot receive information; \o teach, means to communicate it. '* I don't think it is so." You do think, that it is not so. Ever, always '* I have ever been of this mind." I have always been. Ever and always are not synonymous. Ever refers to one in- definite period of time ; as, " If he ever become ricli :" always means at all times. Excuse, pardon. The former signifies to release from an obligation which refers to tlie future ; -the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime that is past. " Excuse me fomegleclinij to call yesterday i" pardon me. Remember, recollect. We remember a thing which we retain in our mind; we reco//ec< it, when, though h£ w^e have power to call it back. Defect, deficiency. A thing which is incomplete in any of its part"<, is defective ; a total absence of the thing, is deficiency. TJus subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. 'o to' 200 A PltOSODl". PR080DT. Prosody treats of the modulations of the voice accord- ing to the usages of the language we speak, and the sen- timents we wish to express : hence, in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution. Prosody is commonly divided into two parts : the first teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising ac- centf quantity i emphasis, pauses andfowe; and the second, the laws of versification. Accent. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may he better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and the second syllable sume, which syllable takes the accent. Every word yf more sylables than one, has one accented syl- lable. For the sake of euphony or distinctness in a lon^ word, we frequently give a secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the principal accent; as, Vfs ^i ??io' wi V7, a ban' don Siig. Quantity. Tbe quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or shoit. A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel ; which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the fol- lowing letters ; as, " Fall, bale, mood, hou-^e, feature." A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; " as, 3,nt, bSnnet, hiinger." A tong syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it ; thus, " mate " and " note " should be pro- nounced as slowly again as " mat" and not." JEmphasis. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which wedesign to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution. Pauses, Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. Tones. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses ; con- PUNCTUATION. 201 ce accorcl- d the sen- extensive : the first •rising ac- e second, f the voice y be better n the word u, and the oented sj'l- oni^ •vvoid, ible besides I mo' ni V/, 3 wliieh is >i' shoit. I he vowel ; ith the fol- iiTit ; which iig letter ; of a short lid bo pru- iller sound words on they affect dsmust be ' a greater Elocution. re a total ly cases, a uses; con- sisting in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound whicli we employ in the expression of our scntinjents. Ein|>hasis affects particular words and phrases ; but tones affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse. PUACTUATIOiV. Punctuation is the art of dividing v^^ritten composi- tion into sentences or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the dilfercnt pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a. pause double that of a comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the colon. Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquaint- ed with the use of points ; and wrote, not only without any distinction of members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This custom continued till the year 3G0 before Christ. How the ancients read their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice of joining Avords together had ceased, notes of distinc- tion were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a considerable time. As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were tlie only known methods of conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual : all the points did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admi- ration, were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now used, became established, when learning and reiinement had made considerable progress. As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the gram- matical construction of sentences, their application pre-snpposcs, on the part of the student, a kuowJedge of Syntax. Although they admit of exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgement and literary taste in applying thcin properly, they are of great utility, and justly merit our |)ariicul!ir attention. The great importance of acquiring a tliorongli knowledge of punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is established by the single fact, that the meanimf of a sentence is often totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points. To illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerons examples might be selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared llnrton having gone to sea his wife, desires the; jU'ayers of this church ;" " Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short ■"9* 202 PUNCTUATION. nose turned up about six feet high, &c." Corrected ; " Mr. Jnred Hurton having gone to sea, his wife desires the prayers of this cliurch ;" " ttiiu visage, with a short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c." ^ ^ \ \ r Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him to understand what is meant by an adjunct^ a simple sen- tence^ and a compound sentence. An adjunct or Imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence : as, "Therefore ;" '' stu- dious of praise ;" " in the pursuit of commerce." — For the defi- nition of a sentence, and^a compound sentence, turn to page 119. When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are adjuncts ; as, " They have sacrificed their health and fortune^ at the shrine of vanity, pride, and extravagance.''^ But when the adjuncts are connected with a veib in a difi'erent manner, the sentence is simple ; as, " Grass of an excellent qua- lity, is produced in great abundance in the northern regions of our country." COMMA, RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be separated by a comma ; as, " Every part of matter swarms with living creatures." Exercises in Punctuation. — Idlenesg is the great fomenter of all corrup- tions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to Tirtue. All finery is a sign of littleness. RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language;" ''Too many of the pretended friendships of youth, arc mere combinations in pleasure." Exercises The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction to future misery. To be totally indifferent, to praise or censure is a real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good. RULE 3. When the connexion of the diflferent parts of a sim- ple sentence, is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the ad- junct mu-^t be distingiiisliel by a comma before and after it; as ' His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, therefore, not much approved." But when thepc interruptions are slight and unimpoitant, it is better to omit the comma; as, "flattery is certainly pernicious ;" " there is surely a pleasure in beneficence." " Mr. Jared yers of this )out six feet is necessary simple sen- lon, or does PUNCTUATION. 203 ore .'» it stu- ar the defi- o page 119. verb in the motion, the lany simple their health '/ravagance." a different ;ellent qua- gionsof our )nld not, in n of matter of all corrup- If his way to I nominative Eince,it may cgood taste iiltivation of friendships introduction sure is a real iety serves to •ts of a sini- lee, the ad- after it ; as s, therefore, 1 are sliijlit " flattery is eneficence." Exercises. — Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience disappoint- ments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed beha- vior can always hide the real character. RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nonns in ap- position when accompanied with adjuncts, must bo disiingnislied by commas ; as, " My son, give me tliy heart ;" " Dt^ar Sir, I write to express my gratitude fur your many kindnesses ;" *• 1 am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors ;" " Paul, the aj)ostle, of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge ;'* "The hutterjly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." But if two nouns ir apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated ; as, "Paw/ tlie apostle., suffered raaityrdom ;" "The statesman Jefferson., wrote the declaration of Independence." Exercises. — Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prince minister. Hope the balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety. RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, ^'' His father di/inr/y be succeeded to the estate ;" " To confess the truth, I was in fault ;" " The king, ap- proving the plan, put it in execution ;" " He, having finished his academical course^ has returned home, to prosecute his professional studies." Exercises. — Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To enjoy present pleasure he sacrified his future ease and reputation. His talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and con- stant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family assembled under the eye of one common Father. RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing commas between its members ; as, " The decay, tne waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections." Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be se- 204 ITNrTUATIOK. r paratod by commas; as, "The liusband, vvif(.\* and cliildren,f suf- fisretl extremely;" ''In a letter, we may advise, exliort, conifurt, request, and discuss ;" " David was a hiavc, wise, and pious ina!> ;" ** A man, fearinij^, serving, and lovinuf liisCroator, lives for a noble purpose ;" " Success generally depends on acting prudently, stead- ily, and vigorously, in what we undertaki'." Two or more nouns, verbs, a Ijcetivt-s, participles, or adverbs, occurring in the same consiruction, with their conjunctions undcr- stooil, must bo separated by commas ; as, *' luason, virtue, an- swer one gveat aim ;" " Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" *' I'lain, honest trui it, needs no arliticial covering;" " We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." Exerciser. — We have no reason to comyilain of the lot of man nor of the mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depress- es the understanding deadens the mural feelings of the heart and degrades man from his rank in creation. Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast Ihe prospects of many a youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and esteemed. Conscious gtiilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking are the indisi)ensable qualifications of a good student. The great business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and walking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the whole of our duty. In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain. * The eorrectupss and importance of this rulo appear to be so obvious, as to render it not a little surprisiiiR, that any ■ui'''f'i' possossins the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I am l)olil lo nllirm, tliat it is observed by every correct rea- der and speaker; and yet-, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated by those printers who panel uato ]\v tlie ear, and all others who are infhienced by their perni- cious example ; tlnis, " The head, tlie lifivt and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doins? •r^ond." ^^ hy do tliey not omit the comma where the con- junction is understood? It would be doing no creator violence to the principles of elocution ; thus, " The head the heart antltlie hamls, should be, &c." Or thus, " The head the heart, and tlic hands, should InMnnployed," ko. Whodoes not perceive that the latter pause, where the coiijunctiivii is exjjressed, is as necessary as the former, where the conjunction is under.itooil? and since this is the case, what fair objection can he made to the following raethoil of punctuation ? " The head, tlie heart, and the hands, should bo constantly and actively emploj'cd in dcing good ;" " She is a woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious." /^ t As a considerable pause in proinuieiation is necessary between the last noun and , the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it ; but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such instances, is properly omitted ; thus, " David was a brave, wisei lid pioiit; man." il(Ircn,f suf- t, coiiifort, lous inai» ." tor a nublo !iitly, fetead- or adverb.', ions uiider- virtuo, an- lod orates in covering ;" fman nor of ody depress- iind degrades eta of many iicle and liis d relied upon timorous and wliat is just ding writing ood student. [loving mercy fhteously and are causes of ■omptly. An riiis unhappy I vain. us, as to renrlor 36 of rhetoricnl ery correct rea- )lated by those by thoir perni- coHstantly ami where the con- he principles of Or thus, " Tho ot perceive that r as the former, i.t fair objection e heart, and the She is a woman, e last noun and M ise is allowable > and the verb, s a brave, wisei I'UNrxUATtON. 2or> '■ RULE 7. Comparative peutencoa whose Tiicmbers are short, and 8cnt(Mires connocted with relative prononna the meaninc^ of whose antecedents is rcf-trioted or limited to a particular Bense, should not be separated by a coinina; as, "Wisdom is bettor than riches;" "No preachor is so successful as time ;'' "He accepted what I had rojoctoil ;'' " Selt'-deiiial is \\m sacrijice which virtue must make ;" " Substract from many modern poets all that may be found in Shakspoare, and trash will remain ;" "Give it to the man ^vhorn you most esteem." In this Inst exan)ple, the assertion is not of "man in general," but of "tiie man whom you most esteem." But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly inserted before ihe relative-, as "ilA/v, v^ho is born of a wonian, is of few days and fidl of trouble;" "There is no charm in the female sex, mhirh can siipply the place *lHi(!, ns envy." 3 a friend 1 summer be trifled 1 old age ect of a nfinitive he is at nfinitive tive case litivo by from alt reinedv ^viih bad bat I was o be con- eudure is from the to require efore the wever, is the Lord, t thee off I may be ood, and ["o relieve o reward at in the ' It hurts e vice of ith some t only in other." Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is sinfi^Ie, the comma may be omitted; a-*, "Many statos wore in alliance with^ and under the protection of Ilouie.' Tlie same rule and restrictions upi)iy^ when fwo or more nouns refer to the same preposition ; as, " fie was composed bo(h under the threat- eninf^, and at the approach of a >.;' '>1 and liuj^ering death," "He was not only the Icings but i\\(^ father o/ius people. " 5. The words, " as, thus, nay, so, hencr^, again, first, secondly, for- merly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short," and all other words and phrases of a similar kind, must generally bo separated from the context by a comma ; as, " Remember thy best friend ; formerbj, the supporter of thy infancy ; now, ijio guardian of thy youth ;" " He feared want; hence, he overvalued riches ;" " 5o, if youth be trifled away," kc. " Again, we must have food and clothing ;" " Finally, let us conclude." The Ibrcgoinnf rules {uid exainples arc aufllcicnt, it is presumed, to biiggest to llic lo.iriier, in all ordiiiary instances, the proper place for inserting a comn»a ; but in applying these rules, great regard must be paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one another. SEiniOOLON. The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little de|>endent on eJich other, as those which are distinguished by a colon. RULE 1. When the preceiling member of the sentence does not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes when tl»e sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used ; as in the tV'llowing examples : "As the de-*ire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our spe- cies ; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly ;'' *' The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he gains tiie applause of those around him ;" "Siraws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom." Exercises. — The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a perplesing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery as there are worldly honors which in his estimation aro reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness. But all subsists by elemental strife And passions are the elements of life. RULE 2. When an example is inirodiiced to illustrate a rule or proposition, the semicolon may be uf^ed before the conjunction as; as in the following instance : Prepositions govern the object- ive case ; an, " She nave the book to him." 208 PUNCTITATION. NoTH. In inBtances like the foregoing, many respectfible punctuista employ the colon, instead of the semicolon. COLOIV. Tlio Colon is Used to divide a soiitoncc into two or more parts, less connectod tlian those \vhich are so])araled by a seniicoioii ; but not so indcynMident as soparntc, distinet sentences. RULE 1, WIkmi a nieniher of a sentmee is complete in itself, Imt followed by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the sid'jeet, the colon may ho proj>erIy employed ; as, "Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the consecjuences of guilt: the j^ospel revealed the ])lan of divine interposition and jiiti " Great works are performed, not by strencjth, but by per- severance : yonder palace was- raised by sinn;le stones; yet you see its height and spaciousness." Exercises. The three ^.i-eat enemies to trnnqiiillity nre vice superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturhs the mind with bud passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with tediousness and disgnst. When we look f(^rwar(l into the year which is beginning what do we behold there ? All my brelhern is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents itself. lUJLE 2. AVhon a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the con- necting or conelndiug seutiinent, th'> colon should be applied; as, " A divine legislator, utterinu; his voice from heaven ; an ahnio^hty governor, stretehino- forth his arm to itunish or reward ; informing us of a perpetual rest prepared foi' the rii>"]iteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wirkv'd : these are the consid- erations which overawe the wurld, which sujipoit integrity, and check guilt/' AVhen a sonteiu'e 's com]>leie. and so independent fis not, to bo connected with the one which t'oUows it, a jiei'iod should be inserted at its close; as, "Fear God." "Honor the patriot." Respect »j vntue In the u?e of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of prac- tice among our be>t writers and graunnarians. Gompotfiid sen- tences connectt d by conjunctions, aie sometimes divided by the jieriod ; as, " Recieations, though thev may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to ki'cp them within a due and limited jiro^iuee. /hit such a^ are of an irregular and vi<'.ious nature, are not to be governed, but to be hanislietl from everv well-regu!at( d mind." The peiiod should follow every abbreviated worl ; as, " A.D. N.B. U.S. ^'a. Md. Viz. Col. Mr."' PUNCTUATION. 20ft piinctuists ;)re parts, inicoiou ; in itself, luPtration "Nature .icncea of ition and t by per- ; y^t you npcrstition III passions ch loads it hat do we : unknown than ono, the con- plied ; as, almighty inforniiiig or, and of le consid- er! ty, and nof, to ho )o inserted Respect 7 of prac- otfiid sen- .'(1 hy the itinoccut I due and id vicinus •oni every as, " A.D. :^ DASH. The dash, tlionoli oflen used improperly hy hasty and incolie- reni writers, nniy be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks oil abrnj)tly; Avherc a si-jjuificant panse is required; or where there is an unex|)ectod turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art lie, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degra- ded !" "Ifactino^ conformably to the will of our Creator; — if promoting the welfare of mankind around us; — if securing our own happiness; — are objects of the highest moment: then wo are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." A dash following a stop, denotes that the ])ause is to be greater than if the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such length as the sense only can nine. " Here lies the great — False tnarble, where ? Nothinir but sordid dust lies here." IIVTKRROCiATORY POINT. The note of interroo-ation is used at the end of an interrosfative sentence ; as, *• Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ?" Note. The interrogative point sliould not bo employed in cases where it is only said, that a question has been asked ; as, " the Cypriens asked me, why I wept." EXCLAMATORY POINT. The note of exclaui.".tii)n is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, Arc. and sometimes to invocations and addresses; as, " ITow much vanity in the pursuits of men !" " AVhat is more amiable than virtue !" " My fiiend ! this condu(!t amazes me !" " Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !" PARENTHESIS. A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction ; as, "To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) Virtue alone is happiness below." Note. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not sup])ly the place of a point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the sense would require, if the i)arenthetical characters were not used. It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it ; as, " He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealous when he has jmrtners of love." " Or why so long (in life if long can be) Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?" i n\ Ml I: 210 VERSIFICATION. Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, from an exception to tliis rule ; as, " If I grant his request, (and who could re- fuse it?) I shall secure hia esteem and attachment." APOSTllOPIIIi: AND QUOTATION. ^ ^ Tlio apostrophe is used (o abbieviuto !i word, and also to mark the possessive c ise of a noun ; as, " V/s, for it is ; tho^ for though ; o'e/', for over ;" " A inan^s poverty.' A Quotation marks a scnteiiee taken in the author's own lan- gUMoje; as, "Tlie juoper study of mankind is man." When an author represents a person as speakiiifj, the lanj^uago of that person rIjouKI be designated by a quotation ; as, At my coraiurj in, he said, " You and tlie physician arc come too hile." A quotation contained witliin another, should be distiuij^uished by two sinf/le cOMimas; as, "Always remember this ancient maxim: ' Know' thyself.' " DIUECTIONS FOR USIIVG CAPITAL LETTKHS. It is proper to beiiin wiih a capital, — 1. The lirst ^vord of every sentence. 2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, Szc. ; as, " James, Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron ;" " God, Jehovali, the Almighty, tlie Supreme ])eini>-, Providence, the Holy S[)ii'it." 1. Adjectives derived from proper mimes, the titles of books, nouns which are used as the subjiict of discourse, the pronoun / and the interjection 0, and every line in poetry; as, '' Araeri- <'an, Grecian, Enolish, French ; Trving's Sketch-]3nching all inner as to : the ideas importance )0 strict or hort or long one member paragraph, are Unity y ntence. A ly one pro- parts ; but to make on )f only one. y be useful. d as little as ^ning word, nning to the end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this rule ; " After wo came to anchor, they put mc on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, wlio received me with the greatest kindness." In tliis sentence, though the objectvS are sufliciently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently tlie place and the jKn'son, the vessel, the shore, wc, they, 1, and who, they appear in so disunited a view, that tlie mind is left to wander for the sejjse. The sentence is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus : "Having come to anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, wlio received me with the greatest kindness." 2. Never crowd into one sentence thins;s which have so little connexion^ that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences. The violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an ellcct, that it is safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused. 3. Avoid all unnecessary parenlhesis. Clearness. Amhujaity, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a bad choice, or a biul arraim'cment of words. A leading rule in the arrangement of sentetices, is, that ihof^e wo7'di or members most nearly related^ should he placed in the sen- tence as near to each other ax jyossiblc, so as thereby to make their mutual relation clearly appear. This rule ought to be observed, 1. In the position of adverbs. " By greatness," says Mr. Addison, " I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." The improper situation of the adverb only, in this sen- tence, renders it a limitation of the verb mean, wliereas the author in- tended to have it qualify tlie phrase, a sinu^le object ; thus : " By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view." 2. In the position of phrases and members. " Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are- these designs which any man who is born a Britain, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstances, in any situation, to avow?" 3. In the position of pronouns. The reference of a pronoun to its noun, should always be so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it : otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, in this sentence, grammatically refers to treasures ; and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus constructed, " It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, against which nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Strength. By the strength of a sentence is meant such an arrauQ-ement of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best advantage, and gives every word and member its due weio'ht and force. 1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to take from it all redundant words and members. Whatever can be easily 8up- 214 RHETORIC. 11 plied in the mind, should generally be omitted ; thus, " Content with de- serving a triumph, he refused the honor of it^" is better than to say, " Being content with deserving a triumph," &c. " They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from this short sentence Jii^e words which are mere expletives, it will be much more neat and forcible, thus, " They returned to the city whence they came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit. 2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles' employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compo- sitions of an elevated character, the relative should generally be inserted. An injudicious repetition of and enfeebles style ; but when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage ; thus, " Such a man may fall a victim to power ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." 3. Dispose '^fthe capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which thry iviil make the most striJcinf impression. 4. Cause the membera of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one above another. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally be the Concluding one. 5. Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any in- considerable word, unless it be emphatieal. 6. Where two things are compared or contrasted loith each other, a resem- blance in the language and construction should be observed. fi«ure:is of sPFECifi. Figures of Speech may be described as that language which u prompted either by the imagination, or by tlie passions. They generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression ; and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures have been commonly divided into two great classes ; Figures of Words, and Figures of Thouffht. Figures of Words are called Tropes, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its ori- ginal meaning ; so that by alteiing the word, we destroy the figure. When we say of a person that he has a fine ta&te in wines, the w:>: 1 taste is used in its common, literal sense ; but when we say he has alliio taste for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word figuratively. " A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is simple language ; but when it is said, " To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style, light is put in the place of comfort, and darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity. The following are the most important figures : 1. A Metaphor is founded on the resemblance which one ob- ject bears to another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form. 5nt with de- han to say, urned back ve expunge 3, it will be ;ity whence y as to give sft to shelter and all the In compo- be inserted, numerating ch other as IS, " Such a and liberty, sentence in importance nger should n, or any in- ker j aresem- lage wliich ons. They expression ; jssive, than I commonly I Figures of in a word's Tom its ofi- y the figure. es, the w.>: I he has a il;io itively. " A le language ; larkness" the t in the place rsity. ich one ob- 'idged form. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 215 When I say of some great minister, " That he upholds the state like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison ; but when I say of such a minister, " That he is the pillar of state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter construction, the comparison between a minister and a pillar, is made in the mind , but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c., and men, according to their diflferent dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c. Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American Aborogines who linger on the borders of the " white settlements," em- ploys the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud pillar of their independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral fabric lies in )» ruins. 2. An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued ; or, it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as fre- quently to form a kind of parable or ftible It differs from a sin- gle metaphor, in the same manner that a cluster on the vine differs tiora a single giape. The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th Psalm ; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the laud. The hills were covered with the shadow of it; and the boughs thereof were like th.e goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river." 3. A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form. Thus, we use a simile, when we say, " The actions of princes «.re like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." " The music of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." " Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun." " The Asyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold. And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold ; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee." 4. A Metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause ; the container for the thing contained ; or the sio^n for the thing signified. When we say, " They read Milton," the cause is put for the effect, meaning " Milton's works." " Gray hairs should be respected ;" here the effect is put for the cause ; meaning by " gray hairs," old age, which produces gray hairs. In the phrase, " The kettle boils," the container is substituted for the thing contained. " He addressed the chair;" that is, the person in the chair. 216 RHETORIC. »' 5. A Synecdoche or Comi-rehenhion. When the wliole is put for a part, or a ]>art for tho wliolo. ; a genus for a 8po(;ios, or n spec-ioa for a ii;cinis ; in jveiieral, wlicii any tliintj^ less, or any thiiiuf more, is put fur the precise object meant, tho liguro is called a Syneccioclu'. Thus, " A fleet of twenty anil," instead ofs/iips. " The ho, se is a noble animal ;" " The dog is a faithful creature :" hero an individual id i)Ut for the species. We soraetimes use the "head" for the />firso/j, and tho "waves" for the sea. In like manner, an attribute may be put for a subject ; as, " Youth " for tho young, the " deep " for the sea. G. risusoMFicATioN or pRosoi'oiHKiA IS tlwit figiiTo by wliich wo attribute life ancl action to inanimate objects. Wium we say, " The pfrouiul thlrnts for rain," or, "tlie earth smiles with plenty," when we speak of "ambition's beini>- restless,''^ or, "a disetu^e's beinu; deceitful f'"^^ sutdi expressions show the facility, wilh which the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to thinpfs that arc inanimate. The following are fine examples of this figure : " Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles." " The wilderness and the solitary jdace shall be glad for them : and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 7. An Apostkoimie is an address lo some person, either absent or dead, as if he wi-ro present and listening to us. The address is frequently made to a personified object; as, "Death is swal- lowed up in victory. O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory ?" " Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, .0 maid of Inistore; bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sunbeam at noon over the silence of Morven." 8. x\ntitiiksis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects. Example. " If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." 9. Hypkrbole or Kxaooeration consists in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds. " As swift as the wind ; as white as the snow; as slow as a snail"; and the like, are ex- travagant hyperboles. " I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hills." 10. Vision is produced, when, in relatinj^ something that is past, wo use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing before our eyes. ~ 11. Interrosation. The liberal use of an interrogation, is to ask a question ; but when men are strongly moved, whatever »' DBAUTY AND BUnLlMITV. 217 whole 18 )ocii's, or •I, or any 3 is culled is a noble ia put for n, and tho put for a by which 11 \vc say, b plenty," I, disease's ilh which matures to m : and the her ahsent le address h is swal- ffrave ! ; bend thy lis, when it semblance, increase his nifying an wind ; as ke, are ex- isted fir ; his mist on the ng thai is lly passing ation, is to whatever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a (jueation. Thus Baliiam oxprcsacd liimself to Ralak : " Th« Lord is not raim, that bo should lie, nor the son of man, that he sJiould repent. Math hu said it? and shall he not do it? Jlath ho spoken it? and shall he not nuike it good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him?" 12. Exclamations are the elToct of strong emotions, such as surprise, admiration, joy, gi'lcf, and the likt3. " that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" " that I had wings like a dove ! for then would I lly away, and be at rest!" 13. Ikony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; not with a view to dec-eive, but to add force to our remarks. We can reprove one for his neg'igence, by saying, '* You have taken crreat care, indeed." The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged tho priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. " He mocked them, and said, Cry aloud, for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must bo waked." 14 Amplification or Climax consists in heightening all the circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a strong light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, " It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds : it is the height of guilt to scourge him : little less than parricide to put him to death : what name, them, Bhall I give to the act of crucifying him ?" BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY.* Beauty, in its native signification, is properly appropriated to objects of sight only ; for though objects of the other senses, such as the sounds of musical instruments, or the smoothness and softness of surfaces, may be agreeable yet they cannot be called beautiful. The beauty of visible objects is of two kinds; first, wtrinsic beauty, or that which is discovered in a single object, without re- lation to any other; and secondly, relative beauty, or that which is founded on the different relations of objects. Instrinsic beauty is purely an object of sense ; for it is evident that to perceive the beauty of a spreading oak, or of a flowing river, nothing more is required than a simple act of vision. Tiie perception of relative beauty is, however, accompanied with an act of the understanding and reflection ; for of a fine instrument, or an elegant machine, * Trom Prof. A. Mills' "Outlines of Bhetorio and BeUes>Lettre9t" by penuissum of fhe author. 10 218 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITV. we do not jcrooivo tliore1utivol)en»ily nn!il wo hoconic ncquainted willi its use and destination. Intrinsic beauty, it will tlins ai)|)oar, is nitiniat''; wliilci rulativo i>c:»nty rnnst depend upon the adapta- tion of some means to an important end or )>nr|»»s«>. Inti'inaic and relative Ueiinty iij^ree in tlie important einniinstanee, that ihoy are hoth equally pereeived t > belong to the object, '\\i\s 18 evident with re>pci:t to the Cornier; but wiiii re^jx^ct to (he lat- ter it will not be so readily admitted. For ins'anci', the u ility of the plough, may nnike it an object of admiration; but then it ■would not seem to follow that utility should m.dve that instrument appear beautiful. The beauty of effect is, however, by an easy transition of ideas, (ransfern-d (o the cause, an|)oar, lio ii(liii>t;i- cnmslniu'e, jt;ct. Tliis , to tlio lat- 10 u ility (»f but I lien it in«triimont by an easy !eivL'l use ; but iVature, who is, doubtless, the most graceful aitisi, has, in all her ornamental works, pursued variety with an ai)pare!it neglect of regularity. As an illustration of these remarks we observe that cabinets, doors, and windows, aie made after a regidar form, in cubes and parallelograms, with exact ])roportion of parts ; and they please the eye, because, being works of utility, they are by such fignre8 the belter suited to the ends for which tliey wero designed. But plants, flowei's, and leaves, are full of variety and diversity. A straight canal is an insipid Hgnre, in comparison with a meander- ing river. Cones and i)yramids are beautiful ; but trees growitig in their natural wildness are much more beautiful than when triiymed into pyramids and cones. The apaitmcnis of a house must be regular in their disposition, for the convenience of its in- habitants; but a garden, wliich is, designed merely for beauty, would be simply rs, trees, in d aiiinmls, wo oWgu pcrcoivi* iIk^ dt>li<':i('y of color, Iho i>racefiihi('SH of motion, iitid sometimes o;is«« of m(»lioii. TIk' most < oniploto aHS(.>iiil>laLjti ol" bcantit'iil ohjccts thai cmii any wliiiM l»o found, ia jin'sciitod l>y a rich natural laiKlstrnpc, divcrsi- fic»l with liidds in verdure, scatlcrod trees and llowern, runnini^ water, and ^razinijf animals. It' to tlieso lie joined soniu of tlic productions of art, sudi as an arched hridije over a river, smoko risiui:; from eotta^'cs in the midst of trees, and ili(> distant view of iv fine huildin^jf, we I lien enjoy, in tlu' hi^liest perfect uui, tliat li^.iy, cheerful, and placid sensation, which always accompanies tiiu seii- ation of the beautifuh The hcauty of tho hiniian countenance is more complox than any that we liavo yet noticed. It includes tho beaut v of e(d"r, arising- (Voiu tlie delicate^ shades of the complexion, and tiu^ heauty of liijure, aii-"nitied nature, it may without impropriety, bo classed under tho same head. ])eauty, as aj>plied to writinjy and discoure, still remains to bo noUced. In its proper and appropriate sense, beauty of writing chavaiterizes a particular manner, and sio-nities a certain grai-o and ameniiv in the turn either of the stylo or sentiment, for which some authors have been ])eculiarlv distiuii'uishcd. This manner of writiufj: raises in tho mind an emotion of the gontlo, ])lacid kind, similar to that which is raised by tho contenqilation of beau- tiful objects in nature. It neither lifts tho mind very hiodi, nor agitates it very deeply ; but it diffuses over the imagination an agreeable and pleasing serenity. Addison and Irving are writers J t UKAUTV AND Sl'lll.IMITY. 221 >t' luotioii. I cull imy », (livcrsi- nmiiini; mo of tlio or, siiioko ut view of tliiu ijiiy, s tliu sm- ij)lcx tlian v of col"r, li(> hcaiity ci fiiitun'B 'c (loj^eiula >y8 of I ho novolotioo, •ens tint a ■ idcji with ut tho fiict ; most ili>- ch it oxhi- itios of tho r hy words of ho.-iuty. iioh as are iritiidshij), )lo;isuro so jcc's, tlla^ oprioty, be iialns to bo of writing g'lai'O and lor which lis manner iitlc, ])hicid )n of bcau- r hio'li, nor ;i nation an are writers tliat peculiarly bcloiit eonspicuoUH examples that our liti-ialure proMonts. Tiio beaiillfiil, and tlie i^rand or sublime, in <'xfenial objects are not al\vayssep:i \t<'d by very diHtiiict bnundaricn, but lrow into <>acii oilier .1 lij^li! mimI shad(!. 'riins, a smooth running Rtrt'am is otie of tile lost b«';mtiful olijecis in nature; but as it grag and magnificent spec- tacles that can be either presented to the eye, or exhibited to the imagination. 10* y^Tif^fmm Wf 222 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. m k' . It nifiy fartlicr be observed, tbat all iMeas of tlio solemn and awful kind, and even bordcrino- on tho (eirible, tend greatly to assist the sublime; sucdi as darkness, solitude, and silence. The fiini-iment, when tilled with stars scattered in sueh vast numbers, and with such )nai;-niricent j)rofusion, strikes tiie imau;iiiation with a more awful grandeur, than when wo view it enli^httiiicd by all the sjilenflor of tho sun. The deep sound of n great bell, or the striking of a great clock, U, at any time, grand ; hut heard amid the sihince and stillness of the night, tliey become doubly so. Darkness is very commonly applied for adding sublimity to all our ideas of the Deity. " He maketh darkness his pavilion ; he dwellcth in the thick clouds;" Milton has very hHp[)ily expressed the same idea in the following passage : — " How oft amidst Thick clouds and dark, docs Heaven's all-ruling Sire Choose to reside ; his glory unobscurcd, And with the majesty of darkness round Circles his throne." Obscurity, we may farther rcm\rk, is also favorable to the sub- lime. Though it renders the object indistinct, yet the impression may be grand ; for as Burke h.is ingenious'y observed, it is one thing to mako an idea clear, and another to make it affecting to the imagination. Thus, almost all the descriptions given to us of the appearances of suj>ernatural beings, carry some sublimiiy in them, though tho conceptions whic h tliey afford us be confused and indistinct. Their sublimity arises from the ideas which they aUvays convey, of superior force and might, joined with an awful obscurity. No ideas, it is evident, are so sublime as those connect- ed with the Supreme Being — the most unknown, but the greatest of all objects — the infinity of whose nature, and the eternity of whose duration, joined with the omnipotence of his power, though they surpass our conceptions, yet exalt then to the highest degree. Disorder, also, is not only very fiivorable to the sublime, but it often heightens it. Things that are strictly regular and methodi- cal, are rarely sublime, because we see the limits on every side, and feel ourselves confined, there being no room for the raind to exert any great effort. On this principle a great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confu- sion, strikes the mind with more sublimity than if they were ad- justed to one another by the most accurate symmetry. It is pos- sible, however, to reach the grand in works of art; especially where the materials of which the structure is reared are of vast dimensions, and the time when they were brought together carries us back to remote antiquity. Such a structure as Stone-henge on Salisbury plain, in England, exemplifies this remark. BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 223 cnin and really to oe. 'The numbers, tion with cd i>y i\\\ ill, (u- the sard amid loul>ly so. to all our lion ; he expressed the sub- impression 1, it is one ffccling to in to us of iblimiiy in B confused irhich they an awful je connect- le greatest eternity of rer, though est degree, ime, but it d methodi- every side, he mind to ss of rocks and confu- ly were ad- It is pos- especially are of vast ther carries le-henge on The moral or sentimental sublime arises from certain exertions of tho human mind, or certain atlcc'tions, or actions of our felK»w- creatmes. Tht-sc will be found chieflv of that class, which comes under the name of magnanimity or heroism, and, filling the mind with admiration, and elevating it above itself, produce an cft'ect extnuucly f'imilar to the effect which is produced by the view of grand objects in nature. Where >er in some critical and danger- ous situation, we behold a man uncommonly intrepid, and resting upon himself, superior (o passion and fear, animated by some great principle to the contempt of popular opinion, of seltish interest, of dangers, or of death ; we are struck with a sense of the sublime. Thus Porus, a gallant king of India, when taken prisoner by Alex- ander, and brought into the presence of the conqueror, being asked how he wished to be treated, replied, "Like a king;" and Cajsar, chiding the pilot who was afraid to set out with him in a storm to cross the Adriatic sea, "Why do you fear? You bear the fortunes of Oicsar ;" are good examples of the moral or senti- mental sublime. Various theories have been formed to ascertain whether we arc able to discover some one distinct quality, in which all the differ- ent objects that produce the sublime coincide. Some have sup- posed that amplitude, or great 'extent, joined with simplicity, is either immediately, or remotely, the fundamental quality of what- ever is sublime; but we have seen that amplitude is confined to one species of sublime objects only, and cannot, with any pro- priety, be applied to them all. Burke considered terror the great source of the sublime ; and argues, very ingeniously, that no objects have this character, but such as produce impressions of pain and danger. If wo regard sublimity in the abstract, this may be strictly true ; for it is evi- dent that many terrible objects arc highly sublime, and that sub- limity does not, therefore, refuse an alliance with the idea of dan- ger. Grandeur, however, bears a very different relation to terror from sublimity ; and here, perhaps, the distinction bel,ween the attributes of sublimity and grandeur becomes more manifest than in any other case. While terror seems to pervade the sublime, in many grand objects there is not the smallest degree of it ; as in the magnificent prospect of wide extended plains, and the starry firmament ; and also in many of those moral dispositions and sen- timents which we contemplate with the highest admiration. Alison, on the contrary, in direct opposition to the theory of Burke, discards, altogether, the idea of innate sublimity ; and argues that wherever this quality is found, its existence is to be attributed to association : while Lord Kame, in his investigation pp ( 224 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. of the subject, seems to cover the whole ground when he dislvl- bules it into intrinsic and relative sublimity. Perhaps, however, mighty force or power, whether attended with terror or iu»t, whetiier employed in j)rotccting or alarming us, Iims a belter title than anything else that has fallen under our observation, to be considered the fundamental quality of the sublime ; as there is no sublime object into which the idea of strength and force do not. either directly or indirectly, enter. Sublimity in composition signifies such a description of objects, or exhibition of sentiments which are sublime in themselves, as shall give us a strong impression of tliem. Its foundation must always be laid in the nature of the object described; for unless it be such an object that, if exhibited to us in reality, would raise in us ideas of an elevating, awful, or magnificent kind, the descrip- tion, however well drawn, is not entitled to be called sublime. This necessarily excludes all objects that are merely beautiful, gay, or elegiant. We nmy also remark that the object must not only be in itself sublime, but it must be set before us in such a light as shall give us a full and clear impression of it; it must be described with strength, with conciseness, and siinpli(;ity. Such description must depend, chiefly, upon the lively impression that the poet or orator has of the subject which he exhibits ; and upon his being deeply affected and warmed by the sublime idea which he would convey. If his own feelings are languid, he cannot inspire us with any strong emotion. It IS, generally speaking, among the most ancient authors that we are to look for the most striking instances of the sublime. The early ages of the world and the rude uncultivated state of society, appear to have been peculiarly favorable to the strong emotions of sublimity. The genius of mankind was then very prone to ad- miration and astonishment. Meeting continually with new and strange objects, their imagination was kept glowing, and their passions were raised to the utmost. They thought and expiessed themselves boldly, and without restraint. In the progress of so- ciety, the genius and manners of men have undergone a change more favorable to accuracy than to strength or sublimity. The sacred Scriptures, of all writings, either ancient or modern, afford the highest instances of the sublime. The descriptions of the Deity in them, are wonderfully noble, both from the greatness of the object, and fiom the manner of representing it. Nothing could surpass the assemblage of awful and sublime ideas presented to us in that passage in the eighteenth Psalm, in which the ap- pearence of the Almighty is thus described : " In my distress I KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 225 e dislrl- lowever, or not, Iter title n, to be ere is no } do not. f objects, elves, as on must unless it 1 raise in desciip- sublime. iful, gay, 6 in itself shall give bed with tion must or orator ig deeply d convey. with any ;hors that we. The )f society, flotions of tie to ad- new and and their expi'essed ess of 80- a change r modetn, iptions of greatness Nothinff presented ih the ap- distr^s I called upon the Lord : He heard my voice out of His temple, and my cry came before llim. Then, the earth shook and trembled ; the foundation?! also of the hills were moved ; because he was wrath. lie bowed the Heavens and came down, and darkness was undi'r His feet; and Ho did ride upon a cherub, and did fly; yea, He did fly upon the wings of the wind. He make darkness His secret place ; ]Iis pavillion round about Him were dark waters, and thick clouds of the sky." Conciseness and siinplicity are essential to sublime writing. Conciseness is properly opposed to superfluous expressions, and simplicity, to studied and profuse ornament. The reasons wliy a defect in cither is peculiarly hurtful to the sublime, is, that the emotion excited in the mind by some great or noble object, raises it altogether above its common tone. A sort of enthusiasm is produced which is extremely agreeable while it las s ; but from which the mind is tending every moment to fall into its ordinary state. When a writer, therefore, is attemj>ting to bring us into this state, if' he muIti[)lios words unnecessarily ; if he decks the sublime objects on all sides with glittering ornaments; or if he throws in any one decoration which falls, in the lea-^t, below the principal image, he at once alters the key ; he relaxes the tension of the mind ; emaciates the strength of the feeling ; and though the beautiful may remain, the sublime is gone. KEY. Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Mules and Notes. Rule t. Frequent commission of siu hardens men in it. Great pains have boon taken, &c.— «s seldom found. — The sincere arc, &c.—is Jiappy. — What avail, &e. — Dis- appoints tiink— the renowalofliope gives, &c.—is without linut.— /(a.s been conferred upon us. — Thou canst not heal — out thou niai/st do, &c. — consists the happiness, &c. — Who touchedst, or didst touch Isaiali's hallowed lips with lire. Note 1. And tvilt thou never be to Heaven resigned?— And '^«7^o bad great abilities. Note 2. Are peace and honor. — ivas controversy. Ruiii-:; 7. Them that you visited. — him that was mentioned.— /t. Zftho same in idea. — is\\\ the'porphyry. — is remarkable, &c.— which inot'c* merely as it is moved.— njf'ects us, &c. — Man s happiness or misery is in a great mea- sure, &c.— for it may be, &c. — tvas blameworthy. Rule 10. The nation is poweiful.— The fleet was seen, .Stc.— Thj church has, &c. — is, or ought to be, the object, &c. — it is feeble. Rule 11. My people do, Ac— The nniititudo eagerly pursue pleasure as their, Ac. —were divided in their sentiments, and they have referred, &c.— The people rejoice —give them sorrow. 226 KEY OF THE EXERCISES. RuiE li. Ilonior's works are, &.c.— Asa's hanvi.— James Hart's book. Note], It was tho.men, women, and diildrcn's M, &c. or, It was the lot of the men, women, and children.— Pt^er, John, and Andrew's, &c. Not(! 2. This is CamphrU tho poet's jji-oduction ; or, The production of Campbell, &c.— Tlie silk was inircliascd at Brown's Die vici'n'r and haberdasher. Note 4. The piiniVs composini?, ka.— rules heiiig observed.— of tho president's ne- glecting to lay it before the council. RT'I.e V.\. Of his andiencc— put it on Jacob.— sprinkle if/iem— and they shall, &c. —of his reputation. Note. You tvere blamed ; you were worthy.— where n^evc you P— how far were you P Rule \i. Who hast hwn, &c. — who is the sixtli that has lost his life by this means. Who ail my sense eoiifnedst ; or, didst confine. Note. And toho hronghtest him forth out of Ur. Rule 15. Who shall be sent, &c.— This is the man who, &c. Rule Ifi. They to whom much is piv(m, &c. — witli whom, you associate, &o. — wnom I p;r(!;itly rcsi)eet, &c,.— whom, wo ouglit to love, and to whom, &c.— They ii'hom con- science, &o.— With whom did you walk ?— JF/rpotliesis.— I have«w» liini to whom you wrote, ho would have come bacl<-, or returned.— understands the nature,- he rejects.— \i imn study,— thou tvilt bi'conu!.— is not properly attended to.— lie /i-^cii'.— therefore, to /law'j done it.— than the title.— very independently.— i\\\t}! to do.—my friend's antcr- inj?.— is the tiest sneciintMi, or it comes «f?arc'r perfection than any, &c. -below them, will (^0, &(!. — Each of those two authors has his nuirit—lleason's whole.— /«> in. — strikes tiio mind,— than it the pa7'ts had been adjusted,— with j)erfcct syniraetry. Satire does not carry in it. — composes the triangle.— /)erso»s' opportunities were ever, — It has been re|iorted.— should never be.— situation in which. — is thoroughly versed in his.— are the aonl,— follows little.— An army presents.— are the duties otVk Christian, -happier than he.— always have inclined, and which always will incline him to oireiid.— which require great.— !Z7t pr" 228 KEY OP THE EXERCISES. In our hoalth, lifo, possossions, connexions, pleasures, there are causes of deo»y< impo.'CC'pfcibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. An idle, trilliii« so- cioty, is ni'ar akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy person had been serious- ly, affectionately admonished, but in vain. JBULK 7. How much better it is to pet wisdom than gold. The friendships of the world eari exist no longer than interest c (*. * S*' >♦' 1 r»v» (■*■ I > ■ -4